The Informal City

Also by Michel

S.

Laguerre

AFRO-CARIBBEAN FOLK MEDICINE:

The Informal City

T h e R e p r o d u c t i o n and Practice of Healing A M E R I C A N O D Y S S E Y : Haitians in N e w York C i t y THE COMPLETE HAITIANA: A Bibliographic G u i d e to the Scholarly Literature, 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 8 0 (2 vols) ETUDES S U R LE V O D O U HAITIEN

Michel S. Laguerre Professor of Social Anthropology University of California at Berkeley

T H E MILITARY A N D SOCIETY IN HAITI U R B A N LIFE IN THE CARIBBEAN: A S t u d y of a Haitian U r b a n C o m m u n i t y * U R B A N P O V E R T Y IN T H E C A R I B B E A N : F r e n c h M a r t i n i q u e as a Social L a b o r a t o r y * V O O D O O A N D POLITICS IN HAITI VOODOO HERITAGE * Also published

by St.

Martin's

St. Martin's Press

New York

© Michel S. Laguerre 1994 All rights reserved. For information, write: Scholarly and Reference Division, St. Martin's Press, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 First published in the United States of America in 1994 Printed in Great Britain ISBN 0-312-12209^8 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Laguerre, Michel S. The informal city / Michel S. Laguerre. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-312-12209-8 1. Sociology, Urban—California—San Francisco Metropolitan Area. 2. Sociology, Urban—California—Oakland Metropolitan Area. 3. City and town life—California—San Francisco Metropolitan Area. 4. City and town life—California—Oakland Metropolitan Area. 5. Informal sector (Economics)—California—San Francisco Metropolitan Area. 6. Informal sector (Economics)—California—Oakland Metropolitan Area. I. Title. HN80.S4L34 1994 307.76 ' 09794 ' 6—dc20 94-16010 CIP

For m y n e p h e w s Michael and Steve

Contents xi

iHttotltution

T h e Informal C i t y A p p r o a c h Informality as a w a y of life, as a sector a n d as a system T h e limits o f f o r m a l i t y T h e social c o n s t r u c t i o n of i n f o r m a l i t y Structural o r i g i n s of i n f o r m a l i t y T h e g e n e a l o g i c a l o r d e r of i n f o r m a l i t y ' R a w ' versus 'cooked' informality T h e p e r i p h e r a l i t y of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m Informality a n d u r b a n p r a c t i c e s T h e m e a n i n g s of i n f o r m a l u r b a n practices T h e logic of t h e i n f o r m a l city a p p r o a c h

1 8 9 11 12 15 18 19 22 23 24

Informal Space T h e social p r o d u c t i o n of i n f o r m a l s p a c e

27 28

Time, space a n d informality G e o g r a p h y of t h e i n f o r m a l s p a c e Informal s p a c e a n d the e t h n i c m i n o r i t y

31 32

neighborhood T h e m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l g e o m e t r y of the u r b a n

36

space T h e 'blurring o f g e n r e s ' Informational space and informality Informality in t h e f o r m a l p l a n n i n g process Informal s p a c e as a socio-political p h e n o m e n o n M a k i n g social s p a c e for i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e 1 n formal s p a c e a s s u b j u g a t e d s p a c e

36 38 39 40 42 42 43

The Informal E c o n o m y An i n f o r m a l g a r d e n e r Informal m e c h a n i c s Informal c a r p e n t e r s

47 52 57 60 vii

viii

Street v e n d o r s Visible f i r m s a n d invisible l a b o r e r s Visible l a b o r e r s a n d i n v i s i b l e firms Formal business and informal merchandise T h e r e g u l a t o r y c a p a c i t y of t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r T h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y of t h e i n f o r m a l city 4

I n f o r m a l i t y a n d U r b a n Politics Informal parapolitical organizations T h e ethnic f a c t o r Informal parapolitical organizations and the formal system Informal parapolitical and formal voluntary associations Informal leaders M o d e s of r e l a t i o n s with t h e f o r m a l

5

6

Contents

Contents 63 66 67 68 69 71 75 77 81 84 87 88 91

T h e m a y o r ' s office a n d i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s T h e i n f o r m a l i t y of u r b a n p o l i t i c s T h e politics of i n f o r m a l i t y Formal leadership and informality T h e p r o c e s s u a l i t y of i n f o r m a l political p r a c t i c e s

92 95 96 97 100

I n f o r m a l i t y Interstitiality a n d t h e M o d e r n F i r m I n f o r m a l i t y a n d hiring p r o c e d u r e s I n f o r m a l l e a r n i n g and t r a i n i n g Informal communication I n f o r m a l l e a d e r s a n d the c l i q u e s y s t e m Informality and gender and ethnic discrimination

103 106 108 109 116 118

T h e g r a m m a r o f the interstitiality of i n f o r m a l i t y

119

I n f o r m a l i t y a n d U r b a n M e d i c a l Practices I n f o r m a l m e d i c a l practices T h e i n f o r m a l referral s y s t e m Illnesses, self-care a n d h o u s e h o l d - h e a l e r s W o m e n as i n f o r m a l health c a r e p r o v i d e r s Support system T h e e x p a n s i o n of the i n f o r m a l system T h e s t r u c t u r i n g of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m as s u p p o r t system

123 125 127 128 130 131 134 135

Core and periphery Crisis a n d c h a n g e Code switching T h e Informal A r e n a of I n t e r - E t h n i c R e l a t i o n s Power and informality Dissecting t h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m a n d m i n o r i t y subsystems L a w s of ' s i m i l a r i t y ' a n d ' a v o i d a n c e ' L a w s of ' s p o n s o r s h i p ' a n d ' c r e d i t t r a n s f e r ' Formal facade and informal practice F o r m a l rule a n d i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e Informal r u l e a n d f o r m a l p r a c t i c e M i n o r i t y v e r s u s majority Territorial s e g r e g a t i o n or e t h n i c e n c l a v e s Informal p r a c t i c e s as a w a y o f e m p o w e r i n g minority people U n c o n s c i o u s a n d c o n s c i o u s identity T h e t h e o r y of f o r m a l / i n f o r m a l inter-ethnic relations Conclusion T h e m u l t i v o c a l i t y of i n f o r m a l i t y Informal / f o r m a l relations T h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of h e g e m o n y irinrs

ix 136 137 137 139 139 140 142 144 145 147 148 148 150 150 151 152 157 157 159 161 163 171

Introduction In o b s e r v i n g e v e r y d a y life in the A m e r i c a n city, o n e s o o n realizes the c o m p l e x i t y of h u m a n b e h a v i o r a n d the ease w i t h w h i c h p e o ple m o v e f r o m f o r m a l t o i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s . T h e f o r m a l w o r l d of facade, l a n g u a g e g a m e s a n d the p u b l i c s p h e r e h i d e s a s e c o n d w o r l d of subtleties, n u a n c e s a n d r u s e . T h a t this h i d d e n d i m e n sion is p e r v a s i v e t h r o u g h o u t the institutions of u r b a n A m e r i c a is both p r o b l e m a t i c a n d i n s p i r a t i o n a l . It i m p l i e s t h a t the city d w e l l e r is c o n s t a n t l y c r o s s i n g o v e r fields and d o m a i n s of action as a w a y of b e t t e r p o s i t i o n i n g the self i n society. It i n d i c a t e s also that f o r m a l activities h a v e i n f o r m a l aspects t h a t m u s t b e d e c o d e d , d e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d a n a l y z e d in order that w e c a n c o m e to g r i p s w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e u r b a n p r o c e s s . T h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a p r o v i d e s a h i d d e n s p a c e w h e r e one c a n s t a n d t o r e a d the city a s a social l a b o r a t o r y of e v e r y d a y practice. T h e i n t e n t of this b o o k is to identify, d e s c r i b e a n d explain the g r a m m a t i c a l , s y n t a c t i c a l a n d m o r p h o l o g i c a l rules a n d structures of t h a t i n f o r m a l r e a l i t y as they a r e i n s c r i b e d , b u t h i d d e n , in the textual m a p of the A m e r i c a n city. It is the city of b e h i n d - t h e s c e n e s m a n e u v e r s , a n i n f o r m a l e t h o s that e v e r y o n e s e e m s to p a r ticipate in, a l t h o u g h it is u s u a l l y u n s p o k e n b e c a u s e o f the h i g h l y sensitive n a t u r e ( p e r s o n a l , s o m e t i m e s u n e t h i c a l o r p e r h a p s illegal) o f t h e activities c a r r i e d out t h e r e that s h a p e the f o r m a l outcome. T h e originality o f t h i s b o o k a n d t h e t h e o r y it p r o p o s e s does n o t lie in t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e existence o f t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r - s i n c e there are already n u m e r o u s e s s a y s o n the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y but r a t h e r in c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g a r a n g e of i n f o r m a l practices b e y o n d the e c o n o m i c r e a l m , a n d in s h o w i n g the s t r u c t u r a l a n d relational links a m o n g t h e m a n d w i t h t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . It forces us to t h e o r i z e a b o u t t h e ' g r a y a r e a ' of social life, a n d in the p r o cess t o s h o w its i m p o r t a n c e a n d r e l e v a n c e to t h e f a b r i c of the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d t h e m u l t i p l e w a y s it i n s i n u a t e s itself in t h e d e m o c r a t i c project of t h e West. T h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e s e i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s is p a r a d o x i c a l in the s e n s e that they m a k e possible the

xii

Introduction

Introduction

xiii

s m o o t h f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e f o r m a l u r b a n s y s t e m yet at t i m e s s e r v e a s a h i n d r a n c e to t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f e t h n i c and g e n d e r e q u a l i t y in t h e pluralist e n v i r o n m e n t of t h e A m e r i c a n city.

I | in< isco, and O a k l a n d residents c o m m u t e d a i l y t o w o r k or i n , i H I school in Berkeley. This c o n s t a n t p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t nlotlml the Bay A r e a f o r w o r k , s c h o o l , c h u r c h , h o s p i t a l or enter-

V a r i o u s s e g m e n t s o f the p o p u l a t i o n r e a d the text o f i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s differently. T h e k i n d of r e a d i n g o n e i n d u l g e s in s e e m s t o b e r e l a t e d to the p o s i t i o n of t h e o b s e r v e r in society. O n e m a y s p e a k t h e n of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a s f o r m i n g a s y s t e m of sign i f i c a t i o n . For the p e r s o n in s e a r c h o f e m p l o y m e n t , t h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a (rather t h a n l a c k of e x p e r i e n c e o r c o m p e t e n c e ) is m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t the villain that p r e v e n t s h i m from b e i n g h i r e d . F o r e m p l o y e e s at the w o r k p l a c e , it is t h r o u g h the i n f o r m a l a r e n a that s o m e a c h i e v e u p w a r d m o b i l i t y f a s t e r than o t h e r s . F o r t h e b u s i n e s s m a n , the i n f o r m a l a r e n a is h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the o l d b o y n e t w o r k that is t h e s p r i n g b o a r d t o s u c c e s s in h i s v e n t u r e . F o r t h e h o m e o w n e r , it i s the h i r i n g o f i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s that l o w e r s h i s o v e r h e a d c o s t s . F o r t h e secretary, it is p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a n i n f o r m a l g r o u p t h a t l o w e r s t h e l e v e l o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l stress at t h e w o r k p l a c e . F o r t h o s e i n v o l v e d f u l l t i m e in the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y , it c a n b e their p r i m a r y or s o l e s o u r c e of i n c o m e . A n d for t h e m a y o r o f t h e city, it i s t h e q u i c k e s t w a y to get t h i n g s d o n e w i t h out g o i n g t h r o u g h t h e u s u a l b u r e a u c r a t i c red tape.

in n i , along w i t h t h e use of t h e t e l e p h o n e , fax a n d c o m p u t e r ilormal c o m m u n i c a t i o n a c r o s s t h e t o w n b o u n d a r i e s , h a s . 1 . 1 . 1 . -.1 . i n informal m e t r o p o l i t a n i d e n t i t y to the l o c a l n e i g h b o r 11 1 oi (own identity. T h u s w e c a n c o n c e n t r a t e o u r attention on i l » l.i i )',«T Bay A r e a r a t h e r than o n a n y of its specific entities. • I i.i| >icr 1 p r e s e n t s a n u m b e r of m o d e l s of informality, d i s c u s s ni)., I In.' strengths a n d positive f e a t u r e s of s o m e a n d the w e a k iii •-•.<(if others, in t h e p r o c e s s f o r m u l a t i n g a f r a m e w o r k for the t>l'<•i.Mionalization a n d analysis of t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e i n f o r m a l

I n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a r e tied to f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s in m a n y different w a y s . S o m e t i m e s t h e y are c e n t r a l a n d o t h e r times interstitial o r p e r i p h e r a l to the f o r m a l s y s t e m . C h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s in t h e f o r m a l d o m a i n m a y affect t h e i n f o r m a l d o m a i n , f o r e x a m p l e i n t e r m s o f e x p a n s i o n o r constriction. I n o r d e r to c o n s t r u c t the c a s e o f t h e i n f o r m a l city, I h a v e i d e n t i f i e d a n u m b e r of topics f o r analysis. T h e S a n F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d M e t r o p o l i t a n Area w a s selected as the site of the study. T h e area c o n s t i t u t e s a n i n f o r m a l m e t r o p o l i s , a l t h o u g h f o r m a l l y it i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f l a r g e r and s m a l l e r t o w n s . It is a n i d e a l i n f o r m a l m e t r o p o l i s f o r o u r s t u d y n o t s i m p l y b e c a u s e of t h e h i g h level o f i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s carried on ( s o m e of t h e s e can b e found elsewhere), but b e c a u s e the physical boundaries w i t h i n t h e region a r e t h e m s e l v e s i n f o r m a l a n d b e c a u s e the p o p u l a t i o n m o v e s f r e e l y a c r o s s the t o w n b o r d e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , S a n F r a n c i s c o r e s i d e n t s c r o s s the B a y B r i d g e every d a y t o w o r k i n O a k l a n d or B e r k e l e y a n d t h e r e f o r e p a r t i c i p a t e in i n f o r m a l p r a c tices o n b o t h s i d e s o f the B a y B e r k e l e y residents w o r k in S a n

i. I

• H\ A c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the i n f o r m a l s p h e r e t h a t will g u i d e Hi. H - I of our d i s c u s s i o n is p r o v i d e d as w e l o o k at it a s ' a p o l e of . i 11111111111 u m ' r a t h e r t h a n as part o f a dualist s t r u c t u r e . S o m e c o n i . |'i i I.I I distinctions b e t w e e n ' r a w ' a n d ' c o o k e d ' i n f o r m a l i t y n o t i>nl\ .how the i n f l u e n c e of h e g e m o n i c practices o n t h e i n f o r m a l ••I'll-•!<•, but also p o i n t to the n e e d t o redress t h e b i a s in u r b a n i n loi i o j ; r a p h y b y f a c t o r i n g in the g e n e a l o g y of i n f o r m a l u r b a n I .i .i< 11> i-s as part of t h e f o r m a l u r b a n p r o c e s s . T h e t h e o r y p r o v i d e s • i In i m c n e u t i c a l a n d structural w a y of e x p l a i n i n g t h e i n f o r m a l pi i . i i . c s as b e i n g i n c l u d e d in t h e f o r m a l o u t c o m e of f o r m a l |.ii. lues. li.ipter 2 p r e s e n t s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d g e o c.i . i | ' l n of i n f o r m a l s p a c e in the S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y Area. It is . 1 1 r u e d that f o r m a l s p a c e is s o m e t i m e s i n f o r m a l i z e d f o r the p u r I" • . H I c a r r y i n g o u t i n f o r m a l activities. T h e s a f e t y - v a l v e f u n c t i o n • IInI subjugated s t a t u s of i n f o r m a l space is d i s c u s s e d . T h e Informal city n e e d s a s p a t i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n " i Informal p r a c t i c e s a n d i n f o r m a l s p a c e p r o v i d e s j u s t this k i n d " I mpport. 1

I In- informal e c o n o m y in the B a y A r e a is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r I 1111 •. e c o n o m y is f o u n d n o t o n l y a m o n g the l o w e r class a n d t h e nigrants, b u t also a c r o s s the b o a r d , a n d takes v a r i o u s s h a p e s I I " i 1 1 lhe informal c a r p e n t e r , g a r d e n e r or m e c h a n i c w h o gets p a i d uiulor the table to t h e freelance e d i t o r u s i n g a c o m p u t e r at h o m e . I . I w o r k station f o r u n r e g u l a t e d w o r k to b e E - m a i l e d to a f o r m a l Inin l'his r e g u l a t o r y function of the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is highlighted here.

xiv

Introduction

C h a p t e r 4 stresses the role of i n f o r m a l i t y in t h e c o n d u c t of city politics. F o c u s i n g o n m u n i c i p a l p o l i t i c s , i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a r e s t u d i e d at the n e i g h b o r h o o d level, in the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e of a B a y Area city in t e r m s of the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m a y o r ' s office a n d state a n d federal a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e c h a p t e r u n v e i l s t h e m e c h a n i s m s that s u s t a i n the p r o c e s s u a l i t y of i n f o r m a l political p r a c t i c e s a n d s u g g e s t s that to u n d e r s t a n d u r b a n politics o n e m u s t p a y attention t o b o t h its f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l a s p e c t s . In C h a p t e r 5, the w a y in w h i c h i n f o r m a l i t y i n s i n u a t e s itself in the a p p a r a t u s of the f o r m a l firm is s t u d i e d . I n f o r m a l i t y is f o u n d in h i r i n g a n d t r a i n i n g practices, in c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m s , a n d in t h e e v e r y d a y m a n a g e r i a l o p e r a t i o n of all f i r m s . It is located in the interstitiality o f t h e m o d e r n f i r m , a n d so, to u n d e r s t a n d its b e h a v i o r , the g r a m m a r of the interstitiality of i n f o r m a l i t y is discussed. I n f o r m a l i t y as a s u p p o r t s y s t e m is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 6. H e a l t h care p r a c t i c e s a m o n g the B a y A r e a p o p u l a t i o n are f o u n d t o c o m p r i s e a f o r m a l a n d a n i n f o r m a l d i m e n s i o n . S o m e illnesses are c u r e d at h o m e w i t h o u t the h e l p o f a doctor o r h o s p i t a l . H e r e the r e l a t i o n s of i n f o r m a l health c a r e w i t h f o r m a l m e d i c a l p r a c tices o r t h e f o r m a l h e a l t h s y s t e m a r e a n a l y z e d . S u c h care p l a y s a m a j o r role in the s e n s e that it p r e v e n t s the f o r m a l s y s t e m f r o m b e i n g c l o g g e d w i t h m i n o r or u n n e c e s s a r y t r e a t m e n t p r o c e d u r e s a n d p r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y a v e n u e to t h e patient. In C h a p t e r 7, t h e role of i n f o r m a l i t y in s h a p i n g inter-ethnic r e l a t i o n s is d i s c u s s e d . T h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a is a b a c k alley w h e r e the d i s c o u r s e a b o u t t h e ' o t h e r ' is h e l d . It is w h e r e p e o p l e test, c o n t e s t o r reinforce their v i e w s o f t h e ' o t h e r ' . I n t e r - e t h n i c relations a r e p l a y e d o u t at t w o levels, f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l , a n d t h e i n f o r m a l arena y i e l d s c l u e s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of f a c e - t o - f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n in the f o r m a l arena. T h e c o n c l u s i o n t a k e s u p the i m p o r t a n t i s s u e of the m u l t i v o c a l i t y of i n f o r m a l i t y as it fulfills d i v e r s e roles a n d c o n s t i t u t e s a s y s t e m o f signification. Various s t r u c t u r a l p o s i t i o n s o f the relations b e t w e e n f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y are p r e s e n t e d . T h e b o o k e n d s w i t h a n o p e n question: in a d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e w h a t , ultimately, is the role o f informality? It p r o v i d e s s o m e w i t h a n a r e n a w h e r e t h e y c a n r e h e a r s e their d i r t y tricks w h i l e t h e y present a

Introduction

X V

d e a n face in the f o r m a l f a ç a d e of society. P e r h a p s m o r e f u n d a mentally, w h i l e i n f o r m a l i t y is a n o p e n a v e n u e w h e r e i n d i v i d N . i l s c a n t a k e care of their p e r s o n a l a n d g r o u p n e e d s a n d s p e e d up s u c h p r o c e s s e s w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g e n t a n g l e d i n b u r e a u c r a t i c red t a p e , it n e v e r t h e l e s s u n d e r m i n e s the principle o f fairness a n d equality as it h e l p s p o s i t i o n s o m e i n d i v i d u a l s c o m p e t i t i v e l y in the f o r m a l s y s t e m w h i l e at the s a m e t i m e d e n y i n g o t h e r s access to the s a m e s o u r c e s of privilege ( i n f o r m a l g r o u p , i n f o r m a l mmunication, old-boy network). T h e b o o k is n o t a n e t h n o g r a p h y of u r b a n p r a c t i c e s in the S a n r.incisco B a y A r e a b u t rather a n a t t e m p t at t h e o r i z i n g s o m e nspects of e v e r y d a y life in this m u l t i - e t h n i c m e t r o p o l i s . To this id, w e c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e issue of t h e i n f o r m a l s p h e r e o r arena as k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n of v a r i o u s s e g m e n t s of the rmal system. A n u m b e r of p e o p l e h a v e h e l p e d m e in the p r e p a r a t i o n of this ook. A m o n g t h e m , i n f o r m a n t s ( s o m e of t h e m are i n f o r m a l p r o s s i o n a l s a n d o t h e r s a r e not) in the S a n Francisco B a y A r e a p r o ided m e with b o t h i n f o r m a t i o n a n d their interpretation of the f o r m a l arena in the e v e r y d a y life of their n e i g h b o r h o o d s a n d r m a l offices. I w a n t t o a c k n o w l e d g e their c o n t r i b u t i o n to this ollective endeavor. F o r o b v i o u s r e a s o n s , n a m e s o f i n f o r m a n t s nd t h e institutions to w h i c h s o m e of t h e m b e l o n g a r e w i t h h e l d . I w e a d e b t of g r a t i t u d e to E d B l a k e l y a n d t h e U n i v e r s i t y O a k l a n d M e t r o p o l i t a n F o r u m . T w o g r a n t s a w a r d e d m e b y the C o m m i t t e e o n R e s e a r c h of t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a at B e r k e l e y a n d a s a b b a t i c a l leave m a d e the c o m p l e t i o n of this research possible. C h a p t e r s of the b o o k w e r e p r e v i o u s l y read at f a c u l t y s e m i n a r s t the U n i v e r s i t y of M a n i t o b a ( A n t h r o p o l o g y D e p a r t m e n t a n d h o o l of A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d U r b a n P l a n n i n g ) , U n i v e r s i t é d u u é b e c (Institut N a t i o n a l d e la R e c h e r c h e S c i e n t i f i q u e et épartement des Etudes Urbaines), Université de Montréal Anthropology Department), Boston University (Anthropology e p a r t m e n t ) , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at B e r k e l e y ( G e o g r a p h y e p a r t m e n t a n d Institute of G o v e r n m e n t a l Studies) a n d H a r v a r d n i v e r s i t y ( A n t h r o p o l o g y D e p a r t m e n t ) . O n e c h a p t e r w a s pren t e d at the a n n u a l m e e t i n g s of t h e A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s o c i a t i o n h e l d in D e c e m b e r 1992 in S a n F r a n c i s c o .

xvi

Introduction

T h r e e c h a p t e r s o f the b o o k w e r e p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y : C h a p t e r 1 a s "The S t r u c t u r i n g of I n f o r m a l U r b a n P r a c tices', Working Papers No. 3 - 9 2 , Série 'Recherche', Montréal, C a n a d a : Institut N a t i o n a l d e la R e c h e r c h e S c i e n t i f i q u e , Institut d'Urbanisme de l'Université de Montréal, Département d'Etudes U r b a i n e s et T o u r i s t i q u e s de l ' U n i v e r s i t é d u Q u é b e c à M o n t r é a l a n d S c h o o l of U r b a n P l a n n i n g of M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 9 2 ; C h a p ter 3 a p p e a r e d as "The I n f o r m a l E c o n o m y in t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a ' , W o r k i n g P a p e r 5 9 4 , B e r k e l e y : Institute o f U r b a n a n d R e g i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , U n i v e r s i t y o f California, 1 9 9 3 ; C h a p t e r 4 w a s p u b l i s h e d as ' I n f o r m a l i t y a n d U r b a n Politics in O a k l a n d ' , W o r k i n g P a p e r 9 3 - 7 , B e r k e l e y : I n s t i t u t e of G o v e r n m e n t a l S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , 1993. A n a b r i d g e d v e r s i o n o f C h a p t e r 4 a l s o a p p e a r e d u n d e r the title ' I n f o r m a l Politics h a s a n E t h n i c F l a v o r in the B a y A r e a ' , in P u b l i c Affairs R e p o r t v o l . 3 4 , n o . 3 , 1993. W h i l e p r e p a r i n g t h i s b o o k I s p e n t a m o n t h in r e s i d e n c e at t h e I n s t i t u t e of U r b a n S t u d i e s of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of W i n n i p e g , a s u m m e r in r e s i d e n c e at t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f U r b a n P l a n n i n g at M c G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , a n d a y e a r in t h e A n t h r o p o l o g y D e p a r t m e n t at H a r v a r d University. I w a n t to t h a n k p a r t i c u l a r l y M a r i o C a r v a l h o , J e a n n e Wolfe, H y m i e R u b e n s t e i n , D i c k Walker, D e i r d r e M e i n t e l , Friedner Wittman, J a m e s Watson, Sally Falk M o o r e and Michael H e r z f e l d f o r their c o m m e n t s . T h e final o u t c o m e o f the b o o k w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n the s a m e w i t h o u t the h e l p f u l s c r u t i n y o f t h e s e s c h o l a r s a n d t h e a u d i e n c e s - i n c l u d i n g t h e s t u d e n t s at B e r keley (most notably Theresa Webster and Francisco Santamarina) w h o t o o k m y s e m i n a r on I n f o r m a l S y s t e m s - b e f o r e w h i c h t h e drafts were presented.

1 The Informal City Approach In r e a d i n g the s o c i o l o g i c a l literature on the c o n s t i t u t i o n of society, o n e m u s t n o t i c e t h a t the m a j o r i t y of social s c i e n t i s t s h a v e c o n Btantly e m p h a s i z e d u n v e i l i n g a n d e x p l a i n i n g t h e structure of l o r m a l society. T h i s v i e w of t h i n g s is p a r t of the l e g a c y of m o d e r nity, w h i c h e n v i s i o n e d e m a n c i p a t i o n t h r o u g h r e a s o n d u r i n g the E n l i g h t e n m e n t p e r i o d . T h i s W e s t e r n v i e w stresses t h a t p r o g r e s s can b e a c h i e v e d m a i n l y through a r a t i o n a l o r d e r i n g o f society. A l t h o u g h o n e c a n learn a great d e a l from s t u d i e s o f the f o r m a l institutions of society, failure to f o c u s o n i n f o r m a l practices h a s b e e n a m a j o r h i n d r a n c e to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e o p e r a t i o n , ramifications a n d elastic c o n t o u r s of e v e r y d a y life. A s H e n r y ( 1 9 8 1 : 1 ) notes: W h a t is m i s s i n g f r o m p r e v i o u s a c c o u n t s is the i m p l i c i t a n d h i d d e n c o n t r i b u t i o n o f i n f o r m a l institutions . . . w e n e e d to k n o w h o w these i n f o r m a l institutions o p e r a t e , a n d a l s o h o w t h e y r e l a t e t o their f o r m a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . . . A l t h o u g h i n f o r m a l instit u t i o n s and p r a c t i c e s are, a n d h a v e a l w a y s b e e n , s h a r e d a n d e x p e c t e d b y p e o p l e w h o are i n v o l v e d in f o r m a l institutions, t h e y rarely f e a t u r e in s o c i o l o g i c a l , e c o n o m i c or political accounts and theorising. I a m p r o p o s i n g a n alternative a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y a p p r o a c h , that o f s t u d y i n g s o c i e t y - a n d for t h a t m a t t e r t h e A m e r i c a n city f r o m the angle of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s . T h e s t r a t e g y that I p u r s u e h e r e is ' t o d e m a r c a t e the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r as a d i s t i n c t analytical a n d e m p i r i c a l c a t e g o r y ' (Papola, 1 9 8 1 : 13). In this rationale, I d o not s t u d y i n f o r m a l i t y f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , b u t i n s t e a d u n d e r s t a n d the f o r m a l s y s t e m f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f informality. In d o i n g so, I r e c o g n i z e both the centrality a n d

2

The Informal

City

p e r i p h e r a l i t y of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a n d institutions in ±ie m a k e u p , s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d s m o o t h f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e A m e r i c a n c i t y at t h e e n d o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . It is m y v i e w t h a t i n f o r m a l i t y p e r m e a t e s e v e r y a s p e c t of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of s o c i e t y . It is a v a s t r e a l m - a m u l t i p l i c i t y of n i c h e s - w h e r e h u m a n b e i n g s p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s , e i t h e r prior to t h e a d v e n t o f a n i m p o s e d f o r m a l s y s t e m or w i t h i n t h e n o o k s a n d c r a n n i e s of the f o r m a l societal s y s t e m . T h e y d o s o i n order to d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e r o u t i n e issues of e v e r y d a y life. I n f o r m a l i t y is u n d e r s t o o d h e r e as a reality n o t t o t a l l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m the f o r m a l s y s t e m , b u t r a t h e r l i n k e d to a n d s h a p e d b y it. I n f o r m a l i t y is a s t r u c t u r e of a c t i o n t h a t c o n t a i n s b o t h h a r m o n i o u s ( a d a p t a t i o n ) a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y (resistance) r e l a t i o n s h i p s . It is a site of p o w e r i n r e l a t i o n to e x t e r n a l d i s c i p l i n a r y a n d control p o w e r . 1

In t h i s v e i n o n e m a y a r g u e that i n f o r m a l i t y 'is a p o i n t of resista n c e n o t s o m u c h a g a i n s t a c e r t a i n class or g r o u p b u t a g a i n s t f o r m s of p o w e r w h i c h d e n y the i n d i v i d u a l i t y of t h e subject. It is a site o f s t r u g g l e o v e r c o m p e t e n c i e s , k n o w l e d g e s a n d p r i v i l e g e s ' ( M a t t h e w s , 1 9 8 8 : 1 9 ) . Its m e a n i n g s c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d in t e r m s o f b o t h its g e n e a l o g y a n d its relations t o the c o n t e x t u a l c o n d i t i o n o f the f o r m a l s y s t e m . I n f o r m a l i t y h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y c o n c e p t u a l i z e d b y social s c i e n tists, d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r it is c o n c e i v e d of a s a s e p a r a t e reality o r a s p a r t of formality. It is w o r t h p r e s e n t i n g a n d a n a l y z i n g b r i e f l y m o d e l s of i n f o r m a l i t y that h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e e x t a n t s o c i o l o g i c a l a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l literature. S o m e of t h e s e c a n b e s e e n as c o m p l e m e n t a r y in a u n i f i e d t h e o r y of informality. Let u s n o w start d e c o n s t r u c t i n g i n a succinct m a n n e r their b a s i c content. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is s o m e t i m e s c o n c e i v e d o f a s an altern a t i v e s y s t e m . T h i s i m p l i e s that it is a s e p a r a t e reality. A s F i t z p a t r i c k ( 1 9 8 8 : 1 7 9 ) p u t s it, it is s e e n a s 'essentially a l t e r n a t i v e a n d r e s i s t a n t to f o r m a l s y s t e m s a n d , u s u a l l y , as o p e r a t i n g in d i m i n u tion of t h e m ' . C r i t i c i z i n g the l i t e r a t u r e o n i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , C a r l s o n (1958: 3 6 7 ) n o t e s that 'it c r e a t e s a m e n t a l i m a g e of t w o s e p a r a t e a n d distinct o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n p u r p o s i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . It sets u p m e n t a l c a t e g o r i e s of f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i m p l i e s that all o b s e r v a t i o n s m u s t b e sifted i n t o o n e or t h e o t h e r category.' T h i s m o d e l p r o p o s e s the idea t h a t t h e i n f o r m a l

The Informal

City

Approach

3

l y s t e m is in a state o f c o m p e t i t i o n , thereby a t t r a c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l actors f r o m t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m t o its c a m p with t h e possibility o f i ii it r a n k i n g t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m altogether. This s t r u c t u r e of c o m petition leads to t h e b e l i e f that t h e s u c c e s s of o n e m e a n s n e c e s s arily the failure of t h e other. T h i s v i e w of i n f o r m a l i t y as f o r m i n g a p.irallel s y s t e m f u r t h e r leads to t h e n o t i o n of v e r t i c a l i n f o r m a l i t y ( w h e r e b y the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m c a n potentially h o l d t h e s a m e k i n d Oi strength as t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m ) a n d h o r i z o n t a l i n f o r m a l i t y ( w h e r e b y the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is w e a k e r than the f o r m a l s y s t e m ) . As a s e p a r a t e reality it c a n b e e i t h e r visible o r h i d d e n - as a n example, consider the underground economy. T h o s e w h o e x t o l the dualist n a t u r e of t h e u r b a n e c o n o m y d i v i d e it into t w o s y s t e m s : u p p e r a n d l o w e r circuits, traditional a n d m o d e r n , f a c t o r y a n d n o n - f a c t o r y , capitalist a n d s u b s i s t e n c e . T h e y u s e the o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n as a m a j o r criterion for this distinction (Mittar, 1988: 1 2 - 1 3 ) . In his s t u d y o f the i n f o r m a l sector, H a r t (1973) w a s a m o n g t h e first social s c i e n t i s t s to o b s e r v e I hat m a n y i n c o m e - g e n e r a t i n g activities take p l a c e in t h e i n f o r m a l sector. H e p r o p o s e d that to u n d e r s t a n d the m e c h a n i s m s of u n e m p l o y m e n t in u r b a n A f r i c a , a f o c u s o n i n f o r m a l i n c o m e o p p o r t u n i ties w o u l d b e in o r d e r . F o r H a r d i n g a n d J e n k i n s (1989: 5 1 ) , ' i n f o r m a l i t y a n d f o r m a l i t y ... s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g the p o l e s o f a c o n t i n u u m ' . C l e a r l y i n f o r m a l i t y is p o s t u l a t e d h e r e as b e i n g p a r t o f the w h o l e ; therefore it is b e l i e v e d to b e l i n k e d to the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h i s linkage is effected n o t t h r o u g h t h e c o r e of b o t h p o l e s , b u t r a t h e r t h r o u g h their p e r i p h e r i e s . T h e p e r i p h e r i e s b e c o m e t h e n the p o i n t of m e e t i n g a n d d e p a r t u r e of b o t h p o l e s . It h a s b e e n e m p i r i c a l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e d a n d a r g u e d b y P a p o l a (1981: 112) that 'the c o n tinuity of v a r i a b l e s a n d s u b m e r g i n g of o n e s e c t o r i n t o a n o t h e r at the m a r g i n c a n n o t b e ruled o u t ' . T h i s c o r r o b o r a t e s an earlier o b s e r v a t i o n m a d e b y D a l t o n ( 1 9 5 9 : 2 2 2 ) in h i s s t u d y of f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . H e n o t e d that ' e x c l u s i v e reliance o n this c o u p l e t ignores the w h o l e c o n f u s e d m i d d l e g r o u n d w h e r e t h e r e are " m i x tures" and where n e w formal a n d informal actions are obscurely initiated .. . w h e n u s e d as the c o u n t e r p o l e of a c o u p l e t there is difficulty in s a y i n g w h e r e the i n f o r m a l e n d s and the f o r m a l b e g i n s . ' O n e stresses h e r e t h e i d e a that w h a t e v e r d i f f e r e n c e s the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l m a y h a v e in their c o r e , these d i f f e r e n c e s are likely

6

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O n e o f the p r o b l e m s I c o n f r o n t e d in e x p l a i n i n g the n a t u r e o f i n f o r m a l i t y a n d t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s is d e f i n i n g this reality. W h a t is the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m ? H o w s h o u l d it b e d e f i n e d , s o that w e c a n s t u d y its i n n e r w o r k i n g a n d relations t o the formal system?

Hi H I - (1990: 4 0 5 ) j u d i c i o u s l y n o t e s that ' s o m e activities a r e n o r m a l b e c a u s e t h e r e d o n o t exist rules that w o u l d f o r m a l i z e i n ; other activities are i n f o r m a l , precisely b e c a u s e there are M i l . s that either m a k e c o n d i t i o n s o r e v e n p r o h i b i t t h e activities involved.'

A f o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n of i n f o r m a l i t y m u s t t a k e i n t o c o n sideration a large n u m b e r of variables. T h e s e include: its o r i g i n , e i t h e r as p r e c e d i n g t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m o r as g r o w i n g f r o m it; its r e l a t i o n t o t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m ; t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f i t s a c t o r s in the f o r m a l system; t i m e and s p a c e factors; t h e m e a n i n g s o f e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s ; a n d the s t r u c t u r a l l o c a t i o n o f i n f o r m a l practices in relation to other practices. Does the informal share characteristics w i t h the formal system? These are criteria that m a y provide c l u e s for a definition of the informal system.

I d e f i n e i n f o r m a l i t y as a s t r u c t u r e of a c t i o n . T h i s m i n i m u m d e f i n i t i o n i m p l i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of: a p l a c e ( h o m e , s t r e e t , b u s i n e s s ) w h e r e t h e a c t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t ; a c t o r s , w h o s e a c t i o n Can b e e i t h e r f o r m a l o r i n f o r m a l ; a f o r m a l s y s t e m t h a t i n l o r m a l i z e s t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m ; a n d a n i m p l i c i t or e x p l i c i t ih-ntionality that h a s a specific goal (relaxing, e v a d i n g tax, olitical ends).

What is informal? I n f o r m a l i t y r e f e r s to the b e h a v i o u r of a c t o r s . It r e f e r s t o p r o c e d u r e s , o r the o u t c o m e s of p r o c e s s e s , w h e t h e r t h e a c t o r s a r e f o r m a l o r i n f o r m a l . O f t e n f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n s are l i n k e d to e a c h o t h e r t h r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l s w h o s e b e h a v i o u r s c o n s t i t u t e a n i n f o r m a l c o o r d i n a t i n g m e c h a n i s m . A n e x a m p l e is the l i n k a g e of v a r i o u s t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s i n t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . G r o s s (1964: 5 9 ) d e n i e s the i n f o r m a l actor a n y c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f h i s o r h e r a c t i o n . H e notes that ' t h e difference b e t w e e n f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s is t h a t w h i l e t h e f o r m e r is a s y s t e m o f c o n s c i o u s l y c o o r d i n a t e d a c t i v i t i e s , the latter is u n c o n s c i o u s , i n d e f i n i t e , a n d r a t h e r s t r u c t u r e l e s s . ' D a l t o n t a k e s a n o p p o s i t e view, w h i c h is in m y j u d g m e n t m o r e accurate. H e n o t e s that 'for o u r a i m of s t r e s s i n g t h e ties b e t w e e n f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l w e n e e d to c o n s i d e r m o r e t h a n w h a t s u p p l i e s a p o t e n t i a l f o r j o i n t a c t i v i t y ; w e m u s t talk o f t h e a c t i v i t y itself. T h i s largely c o n s c i o u s action is w h a t w e p r i m a r i l y m e a n b y " i n f o r m a l " ' (Dalton, 1959: 223). T h e i n f o r m a l i t y o f a n y given b e h a v i o r can b e i m p u t e d in t w o w a y s , either t h r o u g h the i n t e n t i o n a l i t y of the actor, or t h r o u g h the e x t e r n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of ' i n f o r m a l i t y ' b y t h e a u d i e n c e . In o t h e r w o r d s , o n e m a y d e c i d e to d i s p l a y an i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r o r o n e ' s b e h a v i o r c a n b e d e f i n e d as i n f o r m a l b y o t h e r s . T h e f o r m a l l e g a l s y s t e m is, ironically, w h a t a l l o w s us in s o m e i n s t a n c e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the f o r m a l a n d the i n f o r m a l . In that v e i n ,

O n e m u s t also r e c o g n i z e that t h e r e are d e g r e e s of informality. I h e s e r a n g e f r o m v e r y i n f o r m a l to a l m o s t f o r m a l . In a m u l t i h n i c u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t , o n e identifies levels of i n f o r m a l i t y in lation to the f o r m a l i t y of the m a i n s t r e a m a n d o f the m i n o r i t y i m m u n i t i e s . I a m referring h e r e t o practices that a r e c o n s i d e r e d i l o r m a l b y m i n o r i t y s t a n d a r d s . H e r e again, t h e degree of informality c a n b e d e f i n e d b y i n t e r n a l or e x t e r n a l criteria. T h e d e g r e e of an a c t i o n ' s i n f o r m a l i t y c a n b e m e a s u r e d in t e r m s of its closeness or d i s t a n c e from the f o r m a l s y s t e m , a s i n t e r p r e t e d b y Ilu- k n o w i n g s u b j e c t . T h e closer it is to the f o r m a l s y s t e m the more f o r m a l it is; t h e m o r e distant, the m o r e i n f o r m a l it is. C l o s e n e s s a n d d i s t a n c e a r e n o t to b e u n d e r s t o o d in g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s , but r a t h e r in a s t r u c t u r a l a n d h e r m e n e u t i c a l s e n s e . T h e d e g r e e of ' c l o s e n e s s ' m a y b e o n e w a y to c o m p a r e the b e h a v i o r a n d p o s i t i o n ol i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s vis-a-vis t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . A s H e n r y (1981: 6) p u t s it ' r a t h e r than differentiate b e t w e e n i n f o r m a l institutions o n the b a s i s o f the k i n d s o f rules w h i c h g o v e r n the t r a n s actions and relationships within them, w e c a n distinguish b e t w e e n t h e m a c c o r d i n g to the d e g r e e to w h i c h t h e y are i n t e g r a l to, o r a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o , official institutions, a n d a l s o a c c o r d i n g to their s t a t u s . ' I n f o r m a l i t y s h o w s itself in d i f f e r e n t d o m a i n s . W h e r e v e r there is a d e n s i t y of formality, there is a l s o a p o t e n t i a l f o r informality. To b e i n f o r m a l is h u m a n . O n e m a y g o a bit f u r t h e r a n d s a y that b e h i n d e v e r y f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e r e is an i n f o r m a l institution. T h e m u l t i p l e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e f o r m a l a n d t h e i n f o r m a l are, h o w e v e r , yet t o b e s p e l l e d out.

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I N F O R M A L I T Y A S A WAY O F LIFE, A S A S E C T O R A N D A S A SYSTEM A n a n a l y s i s of i n f o r m a l u r b a n p r a c t i c e s c o n f r o n t s u s w i t h t h e n e e d t o s t u d y t h e e v e r y d a y life o f t h o s e u r b a n i t e s to c o n t r i b u t e to a g e n e r a l t h e o r y of practice. H u m a n life is r e c o g n i z e d as h a v i n g b o t h a f o r m a l a n d an i n f o r m a l side. A t t h e i n d i v i d u a l level, i n f o r m a l i t y is u n d e r s t o o d h e r e a s a w a y of life. A t the p e r s o n a l l e v e l , it is a reflection of h u m a n f r e e d o m , a n i m p l i c i t or e x p l i c i t c h o i c e that an i n d i v i d u a l actor m a k e s to locate h i m s e l f or h e r s e l f in a retreat p o s i t i o n vis-á-vis the f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s of society. T h e c a u s e s for s u c h a retreat are m u l t i p l e . T h e y i n c l u d e t h e n e c e s s i t y t o m e e t a p e r s o n a l n e e d , to e x p e r i e n c e a different reality, to c h a l l e n g e t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m or s i m p l y to express o n e ' s socialization a n d o n e ' s routine of e v e r y d a y life. A t the g r o u p l e v e l , i n f o r m a l i t y r e s p o n d s to t h e d e s i r e of i n d i v i d u a l s to b a n d t o g e t h e r to a c c o m p l i s h stated g o a l s w i t h o u t form a l restrictions. It s u s t a i n s the g r o u p spirit of solidarity. It p l a y s a c a t a l y t i c role in m e e t i n g the e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p . It a l l o w s m u c h flexibility f o r t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , d e c o m p o s i tion a n d r e c o m p o s i t i o n of the g r o u p . A t the institutional level, i n f o r m a l i t y f o r m s t h e l i f e b l o o d of f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . It protects i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r e s t s , p r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e to m a n a g e m e n t a n d staff, restricts t h e c o n t r o l of p o w e r - h o l d e r s , u p g r a d e s the i n f l u e n c e of s u b a l t e r n staff ( i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s ) a n d g l u e s the c o r p o r a t i o n together. I n o t h e r w o r d s , i n f o r m a l i t y helps s h a p e e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s a n d t h e c o n t o u r s of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . I n f o r m a l i t y is a l s o s e e n b y s o m e researchers as a sector: e c o n o m i s t s a n d h e a l t h care p r o f e s s i o n a l s use the p h r a s e ' i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ' of the e c o n o m y or of h e a l t h care. A s a sector, it is u n d e r s t o o d as s h a r i n g c o m m o n a l i t i e s w i t h , and s h a p i n g the o r g a n i z a t i o n of a specific field, activity o r d o m a i n in society. It is s e e n as a n e x t e n s i o n o p p o s i t e or c o m p l e m e n t a r y to a ' f o r m a l ' sector. T h e n o t i o n of i n f o r m a l i t y as a s y s t e m i m p l i e s the idea that i n f o r m a l practices are linked - in their i n d i v i d u a l , g r o u p a n d institutional d i m e n s i o n s - to v a r i o u s d o m a i n s in society a n d s h a r e a s u b j u g a t e d s t a t u s in t e r m s o f their r e l a t i o n s t o the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e u s e of t h e c o n c e p t ' s y s t e m ' r e c o g n i z e s t h e h i e r a r c h y

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positions a n d differences of p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n the i n f o r m a l i r e n a , b u t also s t r e s s e s the s t r u c t u r a l links b e t w e e n the i n f o r m a l •nd f o r m a l s y s t e m s . W h i l e the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is l i n k e d to t h e I. »rmal, it is n o t e v i d e n t that all t h e sectors of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m •re directly l i n k e d t o e a c h other. S o m e t i m e s t h e y a r e s o l i n k e d indirectly, t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a t i o n of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . A l l t h e in f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a n d institutions a r e seen a s f o r m i n g a s y s t e m because they display the common identity of subjugated practices. T h e y o c c u p y a different s t r u c t u r a l position vis-a-vis the f o r m a l I iractices of the f o r m a l s y s t e m .

T H E LIMITS O F FORMALITY We h a v e l e a r n e d f r o m the s o c i o l o g y of e v e r y d a y life that s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e is n o t m a d e u p of o n l y f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n these are i n f l u e n c e d b y i n f o r m a l practices. T h e rational s o c i ety that the m o d e r n i s t s h a v e a t t e m p t e d to c o n s t r u c t h a s n o t b e e n ,ible t o f o r m a l i z e all of its institutions ( C o o k et al., 1 9 9 0 ) . E v e n t h e legal s y s t e m h a s limits on its ability to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l practices. T h i s is s o for at l e a s t t w o r e a s o n s . First, the legal s y s t e m does n o t c o v e r e v e r y h u m a n activity. S e c o n d , legal n o r m s d o not n e c e s s a r i l y c o i n c i d e w i t h social o n e s ( R o s e , 1983: 1 2 ) . M a n y social p r a c t i c e s are c o v e r e d u n d e r s o c i a l n o r m s a n d n o t l e g a l o n e s . T h e y c o n s t i t u t e p a r t s of the r e a l m o r niches where informality flourishes. T h e m a i n p r o b l e m w e c o n f r o n t in o u r a n a l y s i s is to explain the m i n u t i a e of the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o n the o n e h a n d the d o m a i n of p r a c t i c e w h i c h h a s historically differentiated t h r o u g h l e g i s lation a n d o t h e r m e a n s a f o r m a l s y s t e m that is s u p p o s e d to b e t h e b e d r o c k on w h i c h society f u n c t i o n s and t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m w h i c h is v i e w e d a s o c c u p y i n g a s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n , a n d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d the ' d o m a i n of o b j e c t i v e reality' w h i c h is m a d e u p o f m u l t i p l e sectors t h a t are i n t e r t w i n e d a n d f e e d e a c h other. F r o m this p o i n t of view, all sectors c o n t r i b u t e in their o w n w a y to the o v e r a l l m a k e - u p o f society. Interestingly, i n f o r m a l i t y is c r u c i a l to the f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of m o d e r n society. F o r e x a m p l e , o n e sees limits t o f o r m a l i t y i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l firm. I n f o r m a l i t y p o p s u p

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e v e n i n t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d r e c r u i t m e n t p r o c e s s of n e w e m p l o y e e s . P e o p l e a r e n o t r e c r u i t e d on the b a s i s of f o r m a l tests a n d criteria a l o n e - these are o n l y p a r t of the p r o c e s s . I n f o r m a l m e a n s are a l s o u s e d to c o m p l e t e it. T h e s e i n f o r m a l m e a n s s p r i n g out of t h e e x p e c t a t i o n of the recruiter w h o is a w a r e of t h e e x i s t e n c e o f i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s in the c o r p o r a t i o n a n d m u s t a s s e s s t h e ability of the n e w c o m e r to m e e t t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f b o t h t h e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s e c t o r s in the f i r m . In o t h e r w o r d s , recruiters u s e n o t o n l y f o r m a l selection p r o c e d u r e s , b u t a l s o w h a t D a l t o n ( 1 9 5 9 : 1 9 8 ) o n c e c a l l e d ' i n f o r m a l s t a n d a r d s of f i t n e s s ' .

E x a m i n a t i o n o f certain f o r m s of social a c t i o n reveals w i t h i n tliem m a n y i n f o r m a l aspects. T h e fact that t h e s e a r e s u b s u m e d u n d e r the f o r m a l aspects d o e s n o t i m p l y that they are u n i m p o r t a n t or n o n - e x i s t e n t . It is s i m p l y a fact t h a t w e see s o c i a l a c t i o n as b e i n g d r i v e n b y its f o r m a l aspects.

T h i s u s e of i n f o r m a l s t a n d a r d s i n d i c a t e s that f o r m a l s t a n d a r d s are l i m i t e d in w h a t t h e y c a n d o to h e l p a c h i e v e t h e s t a t e d g o a l s o f the firm. Formal standards must b e backed up by informal standa r d s . O n e c a n p u s h t h e a r g u m e n t f u r t h e r b y s t a t i n g that f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s are n o t r u n e x c l u s i v e l y o n the b a s i s o f formality. S i n c e t h e y f u n c t i o n o n the basis o f b o t h f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y o n e w o u l d n a t u r a l l y e x p e c t r e c r u i t m e n t to b e r e g u l a t e d t h r o u g h f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l m e a n s as w e l l . T h e f o r m a l test o r i n t e r v i e w relies o n objective criteria s u c h a s p r o f e s s i o n a l c o m p e t e n c e , i n c l u d i n g w o r k e x p e r i e n c e . It refers to the t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t of t h e w o r k . T h e i n f o r m a l test is s u b j e c t i v e a n d refers t o h u m a n q u a l i t y a n d t o the ability o f the i n d i v i d u a l to m e r g e w i t h e x i s t i n g i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , to s e r v e a s a buffer o r a c o u n t e r f o r c e t o i n f o r m a l cliques, a n d to b e able t o f u n c t i o n as a p r o d u c t i v e e l e m e n t in the firm. T h e n e e d for s u c h skills m a y v a r y f r o m o n e s i t u a t i o n to a n o t h e r a n d these i n f o r m a l skills c a n n o t b e m e a s u r e d e x c l u s i v e l y t h r o u g h f o r m a l tests.

A central p r o b l e m that n e e d s to b e solved is h o w w e a c c o u n t for t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of i n f o r m a l i t y in o u r f o r m a l d i s c o u r s e a b o u t the city. P e r h a p s w e s h o u l d b e g i n t o p a y m o r e attention t o t h e m u l t i p l e w a y s i n f o r m a l i t y i n s i n u a t e s itself i n t o f o r m a l s y s t e m s . T h i s will n o t s o l v e o u r p r o b l e m completely, b u t it w i l l c o n t r i b u t e to a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the city. We m u s t u s e not o n l y t h e f o r m a l angle t o u n d e r s t a n d informality, b u t a l s o the i n f o r m a l a n g l e to u n d e r s t a n d formality.

T h e limits of f o r m a l i t y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t w h e n w e t r y t o e x p l a i n t h e g e n e a l o g y of social a c t i o n , w h i c h is o f t e n a m i x o f b o t h f o r m a l i t y a n d informality. T h e i n f o r m a l a s p e c t s of s o c i a l a c t i o n a r e s e l d o m t a k e n into c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n w e s t u d y t h e h i s t o r y of u r b a n i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e y a r e the ' g r a y a r e a s ' a n d a r e c o n s i d e r e d r a t h e r i m p a l p a b l e . T h i s h a s created a m a j o r p r o b l e m in u r b a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , b e c a u s e (1) it is n o t a l w a y s p o s s i b l e t o trace the i n f o r m a l a s p e c t s of s o c i a l action, (2) t h e result of s o c i a l a c t i o n is a g l o b a l p r o d u c t c o n s i s t i n g of the e l e m e n t s of b o t h f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y , a n d (3) s o c i a l action is u n d e r s t o o d as if informality did not matter much.

T h i s issue o f f o r m a l i t y s u b s u m i n g i n f o r m a l i t y in its o w n e x p r e s s i o n p o i n t s t o the h i d d e n n a t u r e of i n f o r m a l i t y in t h e o v e r all p a c k a g i n g of formality. T h i s p a c k a g i n g l e a d s o n l y to a p a r t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o c i a l action t o t h e extent that it b l u r s the influe n c e of the i n f o r m a l aspects in t h e o u t c o m e .

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF INFORMALITY I n f o r m a l i t y is s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , as is formality. I n f o r m a l i t y is a p a t t e r n of b e h a v i o r that the f o r m a l s y s t e m d e f i n e s a s b e i n g s o m e w h a t different f r o m its o w n w a y s . T h e f o r m a l s y s t e m h a s t h e p o w e r to define t h e a r e n a of i n f o r m a l i t y b e c a u s e it c a n d e l i m i t its own b o u n d a r i e s . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m also m a y s e e m to p r o d u c e its o w n definition of itself as b e i n g different f r o m the f o r m a l sector. In fact, t h o u g h , the i n f o r m a l system d o e s n o t p r o d u c e a definition of informality. It e i t h e r a c c e p t s or resists t h e rules o f t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . It a d a p t s itself t o t h e m . I n f o r m a l i t y is n o t a p r o p e r t y i n h e r e n t in t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m b e c a u s e the s a m e institution c a n b e d e c l a r e d l e g a l or illegal, f o r m a l or i n f o r m a l . I n f o r m a l i t y is a social c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s is w h y the c h a n g i n g l e g a l definition of f o r m a l i t y l e a d s n e c e s s a r i l y to t h e shifting b o u n d a r i e s of informality. I n f o r m a l i t y is a m a t t e r of c o n v e n t i o n (see also H e r z f e l d , 1 9 8 8 ) . S o m e t i m e s its b o u n d a r i e s are fixed b y law, w h i c h can c h a n g e o v e r time.

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I n f o r m a l i t y , b e c a u s e of its r e l a t i o n s to formality, d o e s n o t h a v e a n y fixed structure - its structure shifts a n d m a y v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e size of t h e i n f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n ( n u m b e r of p e o p l e i n v o l v e d ) , its d u r a t i o n (period d u r i n g w h i c h it f u n c t i o n s ) , its l o c a t i o n (the s p a c e it o c c u p i e s ) a n d its s t r u c t u r a l p o s i t i o n (in a s p e c i f i c f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o r in s o c i e t y at l a r g e ) . T h e social c o n s t r u c t i o n of i n f o r m a l i t y does n o t rest s i m p l y o n t h e n o t i o n of legality. A n i n f o r m a l institution o r p r a c t i c e c a n b e l e g a l , n o t legal, i l l e g a l or c r i m i n a l . A n i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n c a n b e p e r f e c t l y legal, like the clique i n a f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . S e l l i n g a f e w fruits f r o m o n e ' s g a r d e n m a y n o t b e l e g a l , b u t it is n o t i l l e g a l in the s e n s e that there is n o l e g a l p r o v i s i o n t h a t p r e v e n t s u s f r o m s o d o i n g , t h o u g h that b e h a v i o r m a y b e c o m e c r i m i n a l if w e d o n o t p a y tax o n this specific e a r n i n g . T h e r e is n o e m p i r i c a l b a s i s f o r a n essentialist definition of informality. I n f o r m a l i t y c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d o n l y in relation t o formality. Within the informal system there are degrees of informality. A s y s t e m can be informal not only in relation to the f o r m a l system b u t also in relation to a n o t h e r informal system. A distinction m u s t b e m a d e b e t w e e n the informal s y s t e m within the m a i n s t r e a m culture a n d that within a subculture. A b e h a v i o r can b e considered informal b y b o t h the f o r m a l a n d the informal systems, falling then into the d o m a i n of sub-informality. This p h e n o m e n o n of sub-informality is also a social construction of reality as it o w e s its existence to its relation t o the accepted practices of the formal system.

STRUCTURAL ORIGINS OF INFORMALITY T h e r e m u s t b e a p o i n t at w h i c h b o t h f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y e m e r g e . This w e r e f e r to as the structural r o o t s o r origins o f informality. It c o n s i s t s of three p r o c e s s e s : a b e g i n n i n g , a s e p a r a t i o n a n d a r e l a t i o n . T h e b e g i n n i n g refers m o r e p r e c i s e l y to t h e b i r t h of the s y s t e m , the s e p a r a t i o n t o different d o m a i n s in t h e s a m e total s y s t e m a n d the r e l a t i o n implies that f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y f e e d e a c h other a n d s h a p e each o t h e r ' s b o u n d a r i e s . S t r u c t u r a l l y s p e a k i n g i n f o r m a l i t y c o m e s a b o u t i n three diff e r e n t w a y s : as a h i s t o r i c a l p r e c e d e n t , as a legal s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n a n d a s a f u n c t i o n a l a d a p t a t i o n . F r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of history,

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the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m o r i g i n a t e d b e f o r e the f o r m a l s y s t e m . B e f o r e the a d v e n t of w r i t i n g a n d the f o r m a l state, t h e r e existed i n s t i t u tions w h i c h t o d a y w e refer to as i n f o r m a l . W i t h t h e creation of t h e nation-state, s o m e aspects of t h e s e existing i n f o r m a l o r g a n izations w e r e c o - o p t e d a n d f o r m a l i z e d . In this l i n e of a r g u m e n t , the i n f o r m a l e x i s t e d w h e n t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m b e g a n to b e s t r u c tured, a n d so t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m c o n t a i n s an i n f o r m a l c o n t e n t that has been formalized. In t h e s a m e w a y that i n f o r m a l i t y h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y p r e c e d e d f o r mality, in e v e r y d a y life i n f o r m a l i t y frequently p r e c e d e s formality. We t e n d n a t u r a l l y t o b e i n f o r m a l a n d w e u s e o u r f o r m a l c l o a k t o interact w i t h o t h e r s a n d to t r a n s a c t f o r m a l b u s i n e s s m a t t e r s . To p u t it in a n o t h e r w a y , o n e m a y s a y that ' i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n g i v e s rise to f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ' (Barnard, 1 9 5 8 : 1 2 3 ) . B e c a u s e i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s often p r e c e d e f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s , they give u s c l u e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e f o r m s f o r m a l practices w o u l d take a s a result of the f o r m a l i z a t i o n of i n f o r m a l practices. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m also e m e r g e s b e c a u s e of the s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . D u r i n g the c o l o n i a l era, the c o l o n i s t s i m p o s e d o n the n a t i v e s a n e w l e g a l s y s t e m , t h e r e b y m a k i n g the n a t i v e s ' legal s y s t e m ' i n f o r m a l ' . A c c o r d i n g to W a l l e r s t e i n ( 1 9 7 6 : 5 8 ) t h e s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n of the capitalist m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n h a s c a u s e d t h e traditional m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n - b e c a u s e of its n e w l y c r e a t e d link w i t h t h e f o r m a l c o l o n i a l s y s t e m - t o f u n c t i o n as a n i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m c a n also b e s e e n as a n a d a p t a t i o n to the f o r m a l i s m that is s u p e r i m p o s e d . H a r d i n g a n d J e n k i n s (1989: 15) o b s e r v e that ' h i s t o r y m a y b e v i e w e d as the p r o g r e s s i v e e n c r o a c h m e n t of f o r m a l i t y u p o n w i d e n i n g areas of s o c i a l life, as a c o n s e q u e n c e of l i t e r a c y a n d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of e v e r m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , on the o n e h a n d , a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g p o w e r a n d b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o n of the s t a t e , o n the other.' T h e colonial e x p e r i m e n t c o n v e r t e d n a t i v e institutions i n t o informal ones, subjugated institutions w h o s e existence w a s n o w t i e d to t h e f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e c o l o n y , a n d l a t e r t h e s t a t e . H e r e w e s e e t h e i d e a t h a t a n i n f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n is d e f i n e d as s u c h , n o t b y the n a t i v e s , b u t b y the c o n q u e r i n g p o w e r . I n f o r m a l i t y e m e r g e s here t h r o u g h an act o f a g g r e s s i o n a n d marginalization.

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F r o m a l e g a l s t a n d p o i n t , i n f o r m a l i t y is d e f i n e d b y law. T h e state apparatus provides a legal framework within which indiv i d u a l s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s c a n o p e r a t e . Since t h e state c a n n o t p r o v i d e a legal f r a m e w o r k for e v e r y aspect of h u m a n b e h a v i o r , it b e c o m e s o b v i o u s that there is m u c h r o o m f o r t h e f l o u r i s h i n g of informal practices. F u n c t i o n a l i s t s s e e the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m as a n o u t g r o w t h o r p r o d u c t i o n of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . F o r D a v i e s ( 1 9 7 8 : 2 0 ) , ' d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d p o l i c i e s related t o t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r d e f i n e t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e i n f o r m a l sector. Official a t t i t u d e s a n d l e g i s l a t i o n are c r u c i a l i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e of i n f o r m a l a c t i v i t i e s . ' T h e state's p o l i c i e s of e x c l u s i o n c a n b e a s u r e w a y f o r t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m t o e m e r g e . D r u g trafficking is a g o o d e x a m p l e . S i n c e it is n o t a l l o w e d on the o p e n m a r k e t , it g o e s u n d e r g r o u n d . F o r F r e n c h e c o n o m i s t A l f r e d S a u v y ( 1 9 8 4 : 2 1 3 ) , it w a s t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o g r e s s of i n d u s t r y a n d social legislation that l e d t o m a r g i n a l a n d i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c practices. T h e r e are n o w available s e v e r a l studies a r g u i n g a n d s h o w i n g t h a t t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m g i v e s b i r t h to the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . A s B o e r ( 1 9 9 0 : 4 0 6 ) p u t s it, ' f o r m a l i z a t i o n e n g e n d e r s i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n ' . B a r n a r d ( 1 9 5 8 : 1 2 3 ) , in his i n f l u e n t i a l s t u d y o n o r g a n i z a t i o n theory, c o n c l u d e s i n the s a m e v e i n in n o t i n g t h a t ' f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , o n c e e s t a b l i s h e d , i n t h e i r turn a l s o create i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . ' F o r a n u m b e r o f r e s e a r c h e r s , t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d o u t s i d e that of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e e x i s t e n c e of the f o r m a l s y s t e m is a n e c e s s a r y r e q u i r e m e n t f o r the e x i s t e n c e of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m .

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l y s t e m . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m p r o v i d e s s o l u tions to u n m e t n e e d s , it p a r a d o x i c a l l y a l l o w s p a r t i c i p a n t s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to c o n t i n u e to f u n c t i o n in the f o r m a l s y s t e m . O n e m u s t m a k e a distinction h e r e b e t w e e n p e r m a n e n t a n d s p o r a d i c failures of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . In h i s s t u d y of the S a n Francisco B a y A r e a t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , C h i s h o l m (1989: 3 2 ) h a s o b s e r v e d that ' i n f o r m a l i t i e s m a y also b e d e v e l o p e d b e c a u s e o f " e p i s o d i c " failures o f f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s that interfere w i t h t h e I u-rformance of i m p o r t a n t e n d s . . . i n f o r m a l c h a n n e l s , w h i c h t e n d to c u t t h r o u g h l a y e r s of a u t h o r i t y a n d p r o v i d e direct c o n t a c t b e t w e e n r e l e v a n t p a r t i e s , are o f t e n effective r e m e d i e s . ' Since the f o r m a l s y s t e m c a n h e l p g e n e r a t e i n f o r m a l i t y t h r o u g h Ms failure to s a t i s f y all the n e e d s of the u r b a n citizenry, it is l i k e l y I hat the birth of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s in the A m e r i c a n city s c e n e c a n not b e r e l e g a t e d s o l e l y to the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . T h r o u g h the h i s t o r y of the A m e r i c a n city, n e w t y p e s of i n f o r m a l practices h a v e e m e r g e d in r e s p o n s e to p r o c e s s e s that o c c u r r e d in the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h u s , S a u v y (1984: 2 1 3 ) h a s identified o n e aspect o f t h e birth of the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c s y s t e m w i t h t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s progress of b o t h social l e g i s l a t i o n a n d i n d u s t r y c o u p l e d w i t h p r e s s u r e c o m i n g f r o m o r g a n i z e d labor. A l s o , C a s t e l l s a n d P o r t e s ( 1 9 8 9 : 2 7 ) h a v e l i n k e d its e x p a n s i o n with the p r o c e s s of e c o n o m i c restructuring of t h e 1970s.

THE GENEALOGICAL ORDER OF INFORMALITY

F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m e m e r g e s f r o m t h e inflexibility of t h e formal s y s t e m . To the e x t e n t t h a t o n e is u n a b l e to o p e r a t e a n institution a c c o r d i n g to the r u l e s of the f o r m a l s y s t e m , o n e f i n d s o n e s e l f l o c a t e d in the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . In o t h e r w o r d s , a n y t h i n g t h a t c a n n o t b e d o n e w i t h i n t h e r i g i d s t r u c t u r e of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m is likely to f a l l i n t o the r e a l m of the i n f o r m a l system.

T h e analysis of t h e g e n e a l o g y o f i n f o r m a l u r b a n practices t a k e s u s f r o m the q u e s t i o n of their origins to t h a t of their h i s t o r y t h r o u g h t i m e . W e tend to t h i n k o f the origins as b e f o r e the a d v e n t of w e s t e r n formality, or as p r o d u c e d b y it. T h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f n a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s a c c o u n t s f o r t h e former, w h i l e t h e inability of the f o r m a l s y s t e m to r e g u l a t e e v e r y aspect of life e x p l a i n s t h e latter.

T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m e m e r g e s t o fill a n e e d b e c a u s e of a f a i l u r e of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . It h e l p s s m o o t h the f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . Its e x i s t e n c e r e s t s o n the i n a b i l i t y of the f o r m a l s y s t e m to m e e t e v e r y o n e ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h e n e e d is c r e a t e d in t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , its f u l f i l l m e n t is a c h i e v e d in the i n f o r m a l

W e s t e r n f o r m a l i t y w a s the i d e o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s that s u s t a i n e d c o l o n i z a t i o n a n d is o n e f o r m o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n in the o r d e r i n g of society f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n v i e w p o i n t . It is b a s i c a l l y a w a y of u n i f y i n g the w o r l d t h r o u g h a s y s t e m of logic t h a t w e s t e r n r a t i o n ality can u n d e r s t a n d a n d of c o u r s e m a n i p u l a t e . In the U n i t e d

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S t a t e s , the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m h a s led to t h e p r o d u c t i o n of m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n of m i n o r ity institutions h a s a different political m e a n i n g t h a n that f o u n d a m o n g the m a i n s t r e a m e r s . In the m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t i e s , i n f o r m a l i t y w a s p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h an act of aggression a n d the f o r c e d s u b j u g a t i o n of the p e o p l e . In the m a i n s t r e a m c o m m u n i t y , f o r m a l i t y c a m e a b o u t as t h e r e s u l t of the victory of reason over traditions. T h u s , the i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s c o n s i s t e d in t h e i m p o s i t i o n a n d u p g r a d i n g of t h e rational w e s t e r n f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d t h e d o w n g r a d i n g of folk a n d m i n o r i t y w a y s .

l l H h e d , a n d (3) t h e g e n e a l o g y o f t h e relations b e t w e e n the f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . O n e m a y r e f e r t o t h e first a s formative o i constitutive g e n e a l o g y , t o t h e s e c o n d as developmental or evolutionary g e n e a l o g y , a n d to t h e third as associative or relational pnealogy.

T h e r e are t w o t y p e s of h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y i n v o l v e d h e r e in o u r a n a l y s i s o f t h e g e n e a l o g y o f informality. T h e e v o l u t i o n o f i n f o r m a l i t y that p r e c e d e s f o r m a l i t y takes v a r i o u s s h a p e s . T h e informal system remains a site of counterpower and functions w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d is s h a p e d b y it. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y b e c o - o p t e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d b e u n d e r its c o n t r o l . It m a y e i t h e r coalesce o r m a i n t a i n its i d e n tity. H o w e v e r , t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m can a d o p t a retreat p o s i t i o n u n t i l the t i m e c o m e s w h e n its practices c a n b e r e v i t a l i z e d a n d resurface u n d e r better circumstances.

Developmental genealogy c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n of the informal s y s t e m . T h i s i n c l u d e s the h i s t o r y of h i d d e n s t r u c tures that r e a p p e a r in the m a k e - u p of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . It analyses the b e h a v i o r of b o t h i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s c o - o p t e d b y t h e formal s y s t e m , a n d folk i n s t i t u t i o n s like e t h n o - m e d i c i n e t h a t c o n tinue t o s u r v i v e side b y s i d e w i t h the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e informal m a y b e f o r m e d t o r e s p o n d to a specific p r o b l e m . O n c e the p r o b l e m is s o l v e d or d i m i n i s h e d , the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y m o v e to a l a t e n t state t o b e a c t i v a t e d later f o r the s a m e or a similar p u r p o s e . A s C h i s h o l m (1989: 67) o b s e r v e s , w h e n ' t h e f o r m a l c h a n n e l w o r k s w e l l e n o u g h ... the i n f o r m a l c h a n n e l stays m o s t l y d o r m a n t . It is n o t u s u a l l y n e e d e d b u t r e m a i n s a v a i l a b l e . '

T h e g e n e a l o g y of s u b j u g a t e d p r a c t i c e s h a s a different d y n a m i c b e c a u s e of the i n f l u e n c e f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t s e c t o r that it m u s t a d j u s t to. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m u s t adjust its w a y s to c o n s t r a i n t s g e n e r a t e d b y t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m f o r its s u r v i v a l , a d a p t a t i o n a n d e x p a n s i o n . I a g r e e with D a v i e s (1978: 2 0 - 1 ) w h e n h e n o t e s t h a t ' t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r is b o t h d e p e n d e n t o n a n d p e r i p h e r a l t o t h e f o r m a l sector. It d e v e l o p s in s p i t e of restrictions b u t t h e e x t e n t a n d n a t u r e of t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t a r e i n v a r i a b l y subject to t h o s e restrictions.' T h e g e n e a l o g y of i n f o r m a l i t y w h e n it is p r o d u c e d b y f o r m a l i t y t e n d s to e v o l v e a c c o r d i n g to p e o p l e ' s n e e d s a n d the f o r m a l circ u m s t a n c e that g i v e it birth. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e i n f o r m a l p r a c tices that are i n s t a n t a n e o u s o r h a v e a o n e - p u r p o s e o r i e n t a t i o n . W h e n the g o a l is m e t , the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y c e a s e to s u r v i v e . T h e s e are i n f o r m a l practices t h a t either c o a l e s c e w i t h the f o r m a l s y s t e m or g i v e b i r t h to other f o r m s . T h e g e n e a l o g y of i n f o r m a l i t y m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d in t h r e e diff e r e n t w a y s : (1) t h e g e n e a l o g y o f the f o r m a t i o n of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , (2) t h e g e n e a l o g y of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m o n c e it is e s t a b -

Constitutive genealogy c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e v a r i o u s u n i t s , the relations b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e b e h a v i o r a l , s y m b o l i c a n d i d e o logical c o n t e n t of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . It d e c o n s t r u c t s the m formal s y s t e m as a w a y of u n v e i l i n g the m u l t i p l e p a t t e r n s that may lead t o its r e c o n s t i t u t i o n .

S o m e i n f o r m a l practices r e m a i n d o r m a n t a f t e r a f o r m a l s y s t e m h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d - d o r m a n t , not e l i m i n a t e d , b e c a u s e t h e y r e a p p e a r c y c l i c a l l y in the interstices of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i r e x p r e s s i o n s c o n t i n u e to t a k e t h e s a m e s h a p e a n d h a v e the s a m e m e a n i n g s . W h e n t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m goes t h r o u g h a crisis, it m a y be u n a b l e to c o n t a i n them in their h i d d e n n i c h e s . H e n c e i n f o r m a l practices s o m e t i m e s r e a p p e a r at the m o m e n t w h e n the f o r m a l s y s t e m is in a s t a t e of crisis. F o u c a u l t (1980: 6 ) s p e a k s of i n f o r m a l practices ' w h i c h p r e d a t e t h e s e t t i n g u p of a j u d i c i a l s y s t e m a n d w h i c h are r e g u l a r l y revived in p o p u l a r u p r i s i n g s ' . T h e g e n e a l o g y of these p r a c t i c e s h a s four m a i n features: (1) their a p p e a r a n c e is cyclical; (2) t h e y d e p e n d o n t h e b r e a k d o w n o f the f o r m a l s y s t e m ; (3) they r e m a i n in a state o f d o r m a n c y in b e t w e e n crises in t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m ; a n d (4) their g e n e a l o g y is p r e t t y m u c h tied u p w i t h that of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e g e n e a l o g y of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d o u t s i d e the f r a m e w o r k of t h e g e n e a l o g y of the f o r m a l s y s t e m

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b e c a u s e t h e latter c o n s t a n t l y p r o d u c e s , i n f l u e n c e s or a l l o w s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e existence of n e w i n f o r m a l i t i e s . B e c a u s e t h e i r g e n e a l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t is l i n k e d to that of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , w e r e f e r to this a s associative genealogy. It is t h e g e n e a l o g y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m serves as a r e s e r v o i r attracti n g f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s that h a v e b e e n m a r g i n a l i z e d a n d i n f o r m a l i z e d . T h e y r e m a i n i n this n i c h e u n t i l better c i r c u m s t a n c e s a l l o w t h o s e informalized formal practices to de-informalize themselves a n d r e g a i n their p o s i t i o n in the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e g e n e a l o g y of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s m a y v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r status in a g i v e n system. T h e y m a y b e r e j e c t e d , p e r s e c u t e d , m a d e illegal or n e u t r a l i z e d b y t h e f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s of society. T h e v a r i a t i o n w i l l b e the result o f the d i f f e r e n c e s in the w a y i n w h i c h they are t i e d to the f o r m a l s y s t e m . A s s o c i a t i v e g e n e a l o g y a d d r e s s e s the i s s u e of t h e r e l a t i o n a l i m p e r a t i v e n o t o n l y as related t o t h e i n f l u e n c e t h a t o n e e x e r t s o n t h e other, b u t also t h e trajectory f r o m i n f o r m a l t o f o r m a l a n d v i c e v e r s a . C o n c r e t e situations a n d t h e i r d e c o n s t r u c t i o n s p r o v i d e t h e f i e l d of s t u d y w h e r e o n e c a n a n a l y z e the r e l a t i o n s of o n e t o t h e o t h e r , the i m p l i c a t i o n s of o n e i n the other, the p r o d u c t i o n o f o n e b y t h e other, a n d t h e failure or t h e success of o n e t o r e p r o d u c e t h e other.

' R A W VERSUS 'COOKED' INFORMALITY M u c h of w h a t h a s b e e n said s o f a r c o n c e r n s t h e b e h a v i o r of ' r a w ' i n f o r m a l i t y , a f o r m of i n f o r m a l i t y that is n o t p u r p o s e f u l l y c r e a t e d b y t h e f o r m a l institutional s y s t e m . W i t h i n the f i r m , r a w i n f o r m a l i t y i m p l i e s b o t h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a n d secrecy. In t h e f o r m a l firm, it is a n arena in w h i c h a small g r o u p or a clique c a n p a r t i c i p a t e a n d in a sense discriminate against other people w h o are not invited t o j o i n in. B e c a u s e o t h e r s a r e b a r r e d from b e c o m i n g part o f t h e g r o u p , it t e n d s to b e secretive, i n the sense t h a t o n l y the m e m b e r s a r e p r i v y t o the c o n t e n t of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e d a m o n g them. I n contrast, ' c o o k e d ' i n f o r m a l i t y is p u r p o s e f u l , p l a n n e d a n d o p e n to a l a r g e r g r o u p . It is c o o k e d in the s e n s e that it is c r e a t e d

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by a n d for a s m o o t h f u n c t i o n i n g of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . In the m o d e r n firm, it refers to i n f o r m a l g a t h e r i n g w h e r e the d r e s s c o d e Is d o w n ' a n d p e o p l e are c a l l e d t o b e h a v e i n f o r m a l l y . T h i s c o o k e d informality is m e a n t to b r e a k d o w n class, e t h n i c a n d g e n d e r barriers a n d t o t r a n s f o r m t h e m e m b e r s of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o the m e m b e r s of a n i n f o r m a l family. I n f o r m a l i t y is c o o k e d to b e t t e r serve the interests of t h e c o r poration, to a l l o w the m e m b e r s to k n o w e a c h o t h e r better, t o r o o t the g r o u p i n f o r m a l l y in the c o r p o r a t i o n , t o i r o n out difficulties created in t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d to express t h e h u m a n s i d e of the c o r p o r a t i o n . B e c a u s e it is c o o k e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m , o n e m a y s a y it c o n s t i t u t e s a f o r m a l i z e d f o r m of informality.

THE PERIPHERALITY OF THE INFORMAL SYSTEM A s y s t e m c a n n o t b e p e r i p h e r a l in itself. P e r i p h e r a l i t y is n o t a m a t t e r o f e s s e n c e , b u t r a t h e r o f e x i s t e n c e , t h a t is of r e l a t i o n s h i p . S o m e t h i n g c a n b e p e r i p h e r a l o n l y i n r e l a t i o n to a c o r e o r c e n t r a l s y s t e m . T h e fact that a s y s t e m is f o r m a l d o e s n o t m e a n that it is a c e n t r a l s y s t e m . T h e r e are f o r m a l s y s t e m s that a r e p e r i p h e r a l in relation to o t h e r f o r m a l s y s t e m s . T h e fact that a s y s t e m is i n f o r m a l m e a n s n e c e s s a r i l y that it is p e r i p h e r a l . Yet, it c a n b e c e n t r a l i n relation to o t h e r satellite o r p e r i p h e r a l s y s t e m s . O n e m a y w o n d e r w h y the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is a p e r i p h e r a l o n e . It is so o n l y w h e n w e l o o k at its relationship w i t h f o r m a l i n s t i t u tions t h r o u g h w h i c h it c a n b e further p e r i p h e r a l i z e d o r c o m e c l o s e r to the f o r m a l s y s t e m . O n e m a y c o n c l u d e that the f o r m a l s y s t e m p e r i p h e r a l i z e s the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s o that it m a y a c c o m plish the f o l l o w i n g three t h i n g s : (1) it m a y e x p a n d its b a s i s o f o p e r a t i o n as a w a y of r e d u c i n g the s p h e r e of activity o f t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m ; (2) it m a y d o m i n a t e the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s o as to b e able to c o n t r o l its arena w i t h a v i e w to m a k i n g it d e p e n d e n t o n the f o r m a l s y s t e m ; a n d (3) it m a y trivialize a n d n e u t r a l i z e t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m in order to e l i m i n a t e it. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is p e r i p h e r a l b e c a u s e o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a c e n t e r in the f o r m a l system. T h e i n f o r m a l is j u d g e d a c c o r d i n g to the m a i n s t r e a m v a l u e s a n d b e h a v i o r s of t h o s e a t t a c h e d t o t h e center. T h e c e n t e r sets the s t a n d a r d s . T h e f a r t h e r a w a y a s y s t e m is

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f r o m the s t a n d a r d s of the c e n t e r the m o r e p e r i p h e r a l it is. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is e v a l u a t e d , a p p r e c i a t e d or s t i g m a t i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o the logic o f t h e m a i n s t r e a m f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is p e r i p h e r a l b y r e a s o n o f its s t r u c t u r a l l o c a t i o n in r e l a t i o n t o the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e p e o p l e w h o p a r t i c i p a t e in the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m b e h a v e a c c o r d i n g t o the rule of t h e s y s t e m . P e r i p h e r a l i t y m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d in s t r u c t u r a l t e r m s a n d n o t s i m p l y in t e r m s of g e o g r a p h i c s p a c e . S t r u c t u r a l l y s p e a k i n g , it is n o t l o c a t e d at the core of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is p e r i p h e r a l b e c a u s e t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m a s s i g n s it s u c h a s t a t u s . T h e p e r i p h e r a l i t y of its i n f o r m a l i t y c o m e s a b o u t b e c a u s e it is r e c o g n i z e d a n d labeled as s u c h b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m o r s i m p l y b e c a u s e it is rejected b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m . It is p e r i p h e r a l n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e c a u s e there is s o m e t h i n g i n h e r e n t in it that is false, i m m o r a l or c r i m i n a l , b u t s i m p l y b e c a u s e it fails t o get a formal recognition from the formal system. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is p e r i p h e r a l b e c a u s e o f t h e k i n d s of a c t i v ities in w h i c h p e o p l e are i n v o l v e d . All h u m a n activities a r e b y definition h u m a n s o they c a n n o t b e i n f o r m a l b e c a u s e they a r e n o t h u m a n . T h e s e a r e h u m a n activities that are n o t c o n s i d e r e d f o r m a l b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d this factor t e n d s t o reinforce t h e i r i n f o r m a l character. T h e y m a y b e c o m e illegal w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t o s u r v i v e the a c t o r s m u s t go u n d e r g r o u n d or u s e illegal m e a n s . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is p e r i p h e r a l b e c a u s e o f t h e r a t i o n a l e u s e d that m a y b e d i f f e r e n t from that u s e d in the m a i n s t r e a m f o r m a l s y s t e m . It c a n b e b o t h the r e a s o n for the rejection of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d the r e a s o n for its stability - b e c a u s e it f o l l o w s its o w n logic. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is p e r i p h e r a l b e c a u s e o f the i n t e n t i o n a l i t y of the actors. A l t h o u g h they m a y participate full t i m e i n t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , t h e y m a y also p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e y , t h e m s e l v e s , m a k e a d i s t i n c t i o n a n d a d j u s t their b e h a v i o r s as t h e y m o v e f r o m the f o r m a l t o the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h i s is a s u b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n they u s e t o i d e n t i f y the p e r i p h e r a l c h a r a c t e r of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e a c t o r s r e c o g n i z e that their a c t i o n b e l o n g s to a d o m a i n different f r o m that of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is p e r i p h e r a l b e c a u s e its actors m a y b e p o w e r l e s s a n d in n o position t o force the f o r m a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . This l a c k o f p o w e r is w h a t d e f i n e s the s t a t u s

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of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . It is a l s o w h a t m a k e s p o s s i b l e its c o n t r o l b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m . W h a t is t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e p e r i p h e r a l i t y of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m ? B e c a u s e the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is p e r i p h e r a l , it c o m p r i s e s b o t h a c o r e a n d a periphery. W e m u s t then s t u d y the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m b o t h in its internal m a k e - u p a n d its e x t e r n a l linkage. T h e core of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is able to e x p a n d itself b y c o n stricting the p e r i p h e r y . T h e c o r e m a i n t a i n s itself b e c a u s e it is t h e i n c a r n a t i o n of p o w e r a n d t h e m a i n s t r e a m s t a n d a r d s . T h e p e r i p h e r y c a n also e x p a n d itself at t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e core. B o t h c a n e x p a n d their b o u n d a r i e s t h r o u g h c o - o p t a t i o n a n d invasion. P e r i p h e r y m a y b e d i s c u s s e d in relation to b o t h the c e n t r a l m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m a n d t h e c o r e of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e p e r i p h e r y of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is c l o s e r t o the c o r e o f t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m t h a n to t h e c o r e of t h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m . T h e core in t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m h a s a s t a t u s similar t o t h e p e r i p h e r y in t h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m vis-a-vis the c e n t e r i n the m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m . Both are p e r i p h e r a l to t h e m a i n s t r e a m c o r e . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e center a n d t h e p e r i p h e r y in the f o r m a l s y s t e m d o e s not o p e r a t e necessarily in the s a m e w a y as that b e t w e e n t h e c e n t e r a n d t h e p e r i p h e r y i n t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . In a m u l t i - e t h n i c u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t , o n e w o u l d e x p e c t t h e c e n t e r a n d p e r i p h e r y in a m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t y to b e i n f l u e n c e d a n d s h a p e d b y a s u b - c u l t u r a l orientation t h a t m a y b e different f r o m the d o m i n a n t m a i n s t r e a m culture. B y d e c o n s t r u c t i n g the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the core a n d t h e periphery, o n e u n m a s k s a set of relationships. T h e s e i n c l u d e : t h e relation of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m t o the i n f o r m a l i n the m a i n s t r e a m ; the relation o f t h e c o r e of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m t o the p e r i p h e r y in the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m ; a n d t h e relations o f t h e f o r m a l t o the informal system. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m in its relation to t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y a c h i e v e a c e r t a i n level of stability or routinization. In this k i n d of e n v i r o n m e n t , total c o - o p t a t i o n of the i n f o r m a l b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m c o u l d l e a d to total integration. Total co-optation of the f o r m a l b y t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m c o u l d lead t o a c o m p l e t e r e v e r s a l of societal w a y s b e c a u s e t h e i n f o r m a l w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y b e c o m e the f o r m a l . P a r t i a l c o - o p t a t i o n b y the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is likely to l e a d to p o l a r i z a t i o n b e c a u s e of the s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the i n f o r m a l

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s y s t e m . Partial c o - o p t a t i o n b y t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d s to m o r e integration.

INFORMALITY A N D URBAN PRACTICES A s p a r a d o x i c a l it m a y s o u n d , t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is also c e n t r a l . T h e centrality o f i n f o r m a l i t y b e c o m e s m a n i f e s t w h e n the s o c i e t a l s y s t e m is s t u d i e d f r o m the a n g l e of informality. T h e e m p h a s i s a n d f o c u s on the i n f o r m a l a n g l e is p r i v i l e g e d h e r e s o as t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d s o c i a l action in its e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s ( s e e a l s o B o u r d i e u , 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e s o c i o l o g y o f e v e r y d a y life p r o v i d e s t h e t w o n e c e s s a r y tools n e e d e d to a c h i e v e this e n d . T h e f o c u s o n e v e r y d a y life a l l o w s u s a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e than that of private sphere v e r s u s public life one finds so v i g o r o u s l y d e b a t e d in the f e m i n i s t literature ( N i c h o l s o n , 1 9 9 0 ; R o s a l d o , 1974; a n d M o o r e , 1 9 8 8 ) . It is n o t e m p i r i c a l l y s o u n d to l o c a t e the i n f o r m a l e x c l u s i v e l y in the d o m a i n of p r i v a t e life. W h i l e o n e d o e s n o t d e n y its e x i s t e n c e there, or t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p r i v a t e life a s t h e a r e n a w h e r e t h e i n f o r m a l is c o n s o l i d a t e d a n d w h e r e t h e s t r a t e g i e s for i n f o r m a l action a r e o f t e n p l o t t e d o u t b e f o r e a n i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r c a n b e i m p l e m e n t e d in the p u b l i c life, the i n f o r m a l h a s a l w a y s b e e n w e l l alive in t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . I n t h e p r e v i o u s section, w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d h o w f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of the f o r m a l s y s t e m t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is s e e n a s p e r i p h e r a l a n d s e c o n d a r y . In this s e c t i o n w e will d i s c u s s h o w , i n a b o t t o m - u p a p p r o a c h to the city, t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m u s t a l s o b e v i e w e d as p l a y i n g a central r o l e . It is s o b e c a u s e the f o r m a l s y s t e m o p e r a t e s o n t h e basis of b o t h f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l r u l e s . T h e centrality of i n f o r m a l i t y s t e m s f r o m t h e e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n that it is l o c a t e d f o r e m o s t in the i n d i v i d u a l actor, w h o is t h e h u m a n a g e n t in w h o m w e find a m i x t u r e of i n f o r m a l a n d f o r m a l b e h a v i o r a n d p r a c t i c e s . E v e n w h e n w e are s t u d y i n g the b e h a v i o r o f a specific s t r u c t u r e or o r g a n i z a t i o n , w e c a n n o t afford t o d i s m i s s the c o n t r o l o f t h e h u m a n a g e n t . T h e i n f o r m a l is central b e c a u s e it is the l o c u s of p r i v a t e life. H e r e the i n d i v i d u a l r e c o u p s his o r h e r s t r e n g t h s , p l o t s o u t s t r a t e g i e s a n d r e g a i n s h i s or her f r e e d o m a w a y f r o m t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f p u b l i c life, w h e t h e r g e n e r a t e d b y g o v e r n m e n t o r b u s i n e s s . O n e

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c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t s u s t a i n s public life o r public b u r e a u cracies if t h e i n f o r m a l life of its a g e n t s is left u n t o u c h e d . T h e c e n t r a l i t y o f i n f o r m a l i t y r e m a i n s in t h e f a c t that s o m e o f its a s p e c t s p r e d a t e f o r m a l i t y a n d s o m e o t h e r s a r e p r o d u c e d b y formality. I n a n y case, t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m d e p e n d s o n it, is s h a p e d b y it, a n d attempts to transform it and possibly to colonize it. D e C e r t e a u ( 1 9 8 4 ) sees i n f o r m a l i t y in e v e r y d a y life as it i n s i n u a t e s itself t h r o u g h ruse a n d tactics into the f o r m a l system. T h e i n f o r m a l life, to the e x t e n t that it p r o v i d e s a layout f o r the e x p r e s s i o n of f r e e d o m a n d p r o d u c e s a s u b t e r r a n e a n f o r m o f socialite t h r o u g h a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f h u m a n solidarity, is c e n t r a l to t h e p r o d u c t i o n of the f o r m a l s y s t e m (Maffesoli, 1989). It is t h e l o c u s w h e r e e v e r y d a y life m a n i f e s t s itself, w h e r e s o l u t i o n s are s o u g h t to r e m e d y failures i n the f o r m a l s y s t e m , a n d w h e r e resistance is g a l v a n i z e d . It is a f o r m of p o w e r to t h e extent that k n o w l e d g e is s h a r e d , a n d b a c k - a l l e y strategies are d e v e l o p e d . It p r o v i d e s an a l t e r n a t i v e p e r c e p t i o n o f society. W i t h i n the o v e r a r c h i n g arm of f o r m a l society, the i n d i v i d u a l pulls b a c k to regain h i s o r h e r f r e e d o m , to c r e a t e a free s p a c e , to s t r e n g t h e n his or h e r position, t o u n d e r m i n e rivals, t o c o n s o l i d a t e h i s o r h e r basis, to a c q u i r e k n o w l e d g e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e , h e n c e the centrality, of i n f o r m a l i t y s t e m s f r o m t h e fact that p u b l i c life is s h a p e d b y it, it g r o w s in the n o o k s a n d c r a n n i e s of p u b l i c b u r e a u c r a c y , a n d it s t a n d s a s a n arena that is u s e d a n d e x p l o i t e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m b u t c a n n o t b e totally c o l o n i z e d b y it.

THE MEANINGS OF INFORMAL U R B A N PRACTICES A n e x e g e s i s of i n f o r m a l u r b a n practices r e c o g n i z e s the d i v e r s i t y a n d h e t e r o g e n e i t y of s u c h a c t s . T h e i r c o m m o n a l i t y resides i n the fact they o c c u p y , if not a s u b j u g a t e d position, at least o n e that is n o t u n d e r t h e direct s u r v e i l l a n c e of the f o r m a l system. T h e r e a r e t w o basic l o c a t i o n s for the p e r f o r m a n c e of i n f o r m a l u r b a n p r a c tices: the i n d i v i d u a l , a n d the g r o u p or the institution. P o s t m o d e r n t h i n k i n g c e l e b r a t e s the r e t u r n o f the subject. T h e subject is h e r e at the v e r y h e a r t of o u r distinction, in the s e n s e that he or s h e d e c i d e s or n o t to e n g a g e i n i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s .

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U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y is the e x p r e s s i o n of the f r e e d o m of the s u b j e c t . T h i s m e a n s f r e e d o m from t h e constraints of f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l life, b u t also f r e e d o m as a k i n d o f m a n i f e s t d e s t i n y w h e r e t h e self a f f i r m s itself. T h e y e a r n i n g f o r h u m a n f r e e d o m c a n n o t b e c o n trolled or c o n t a i n e d b y the r e g u l a t i o n s or c o n v e n t i o n s of f o r m a l society. I n f o r m a l practices p r o v i d e a corridor f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e self a g a i n s t r e g u l a t o r y s t r u c t u r e s . I n f o r m a l u r b a n practices a l s o m e a n that t h e h i d d e n s t r u c t u r e t h e y p r o v i d e is a resilient b u t f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t of the m a k e - u p of society. T h e s e practices are m a d e possible w i t h i n a w e b o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h r o u g h this w e c a n identify t h e relational a s the s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i n f o r m a l u r b a n p r a c t i c e s . This a s p e c t is e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h h u m a n s o l i d a r i t y in t e r m s , f o r e x a m p l e , o f gift a n d e x c h a n g e i n g e n e r a l . T h i s characteristic is p r o b a b l y t h e m o r e visible a n d b e t t e r k n o w n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e of t h e w o r k s of M a r c e l M a u s s on the n o t i o n of gift, b u t also b e c a u s e i n e v e r y d a y life w e c a n p i n p o i n t i n s t a n c e s w h e r e p e o p l e help e a c h o t h e r in i n f o r m a l ways. I n f o r m a l u r b a n practices finally m e a n that t h e h i d d e n s t r u c t u r e t h e y p r o v i d e is also o n e of resistance, b o t h p a s s i v e a n d a c t i v e . W h i c h e v e r w a y , s u c h a s t r u c t u r e of resistance m u s t b e s e e n as b e i n g either a n t i - f o r m a l s y s t e m o r c o m p l e m e n t a r y to t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i d e a of r e s i s t a n c e implies the r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e resiliency o f c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s that c a n n o t easily b e b r u s h e d a s i d e b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m .

THE LOGIC OF THE 'INFORMAL CITY' APPROACH O u r a r g u m e n t is that there e x i s t s an i n f o r m a l city l o c a t e d j u s t b e n e a t h a n d in t h e interstices o f the f o r m a l city. T h e m e t a p h o r is n o t g e o g r a p h i c a l , b u t rather structural a n d h e r m e n e u t i c a l . T h i s is t h e city w h e r e m a n e u v e r s that c a n n o t b e d o n e publicly, legally, ethically o r o t h e r w i s e are p e r f o r m e d . This is t h e resilient c u l t u r a l a r e n a that s u p p o r t s , or s o m e t i m e s o b s t r u c t s , b u t is a l w a y s in interaction w i t h t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . W h y is it i m p o r t a n t to s t u d y or p a y a t t e n t i o n t o the i n f o r m a l s i d e of the city, s i n c e in m a n y cases these s t r u c t u r e s are h i d d e n ? T h e r e are s e v e r a l reasons. A t t h e outset, o n e m a y a d v a n c e t h a t

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the o c c u r r e n c e of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s h a s a l w a y s b e e n k n o w n .imply b e c a u s e w e p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e m , e v e n t h o u g h w e t e n d to i (insider t h e m u n i m p o r t a n t . A f t e r all, positivist thinkers s u c h as Karl M a r x , M a x W e b e r a n d E m i l e D u r k h e i m h a v e n o t m a d e informality t h e c e n t e r of t h e i r intellectual p r e o c c u p a t i o n . O u r a p p r o a c h is to q u e s t i o n the positivist t h i n k i n g a b o u t h i e r archy. In this tradition, the h i e r a r c h i c a l a n d f o r m a l is c o n s i d e r e d more i m p o r t a n t t h a n the i n f o r m a l . T h e y a r e n o t s e e n as interd e p e n d e n t s y s t e m s w h i c h s h a r e a c o m m o n reality a n d f e e d e a c h other's existence. O u r a p p r o a c h r e c o g n i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s as p r o v i d i n g a b a l a n c e to f o r m a l practices. It is a ' b o t t o m - u p ' a p p r o a c h in t h e s e n s e that it m a g n i f i e s o r m a k e s visible i n f o r m a l reality so as to s h o w its dialectical r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . It s t r e s s e s that its e x i s t e n c e m u s t b e a c k n o w l e d g e d if w e are to c o m p r e h e n d the s o c i e t a l system a n d m a k e u s e f u l u r b a n policies. B e c a u s e i n f o r m a l i t y is t h e o t h e r side of formality, it is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e o n e i n s t a n c e o f a m e c h a n i s m o f p o w e r . It is u s e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m to s t r e n g t h e n its p o w e r . It is u s e d b y t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m in the s a m e w a y as w e l l to infiltrate or c h a l l e n g e formal power. T h e i n f o r m a l city is s e e n a s o m n i p r e s e n t i n t h e n o o k s a n d c r a n nies of the city. It is f o u n d in i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n of u r b a n s p a c e , t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y , i n f o r m a l p o l i c y in j u d i c i a l s y s t e m s , t h e c l i q u e s y s t e m in t h e m o d e r n f i r m a n d i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n in p u b l i c b u r e a u c r a c i e s . A n d , it is f o u n d , of c o u r s e , in n e i g h b o r h o o d s a n d f a m i l y practices. In a sense, it is a vibrant city. A n analysis of its p a r a m e t e r s , its o p e r a t i o n a n d relation to the f o r m a l s y s t e m is a n e c e s s a r y step t o w a r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g u r b a n p r o c e s s . M y interest i n a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e the s t r u c t u r e of i n f o r m a l i t y c o m e s f r o m a g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n of the A m e r i c a n city s c e n e . P u t v e r y simply, it is m y v i e w t h a t i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s w h i c h are b y n o m e a n s trivial - constitute a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in t h e s h a p i n g o f e v e r y d a y life at the p e r s o n a l , g r o u p a n d i n s t i t u tional levels. In fact, these i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s s h a p e , s u s t a i n , s u p p o r t , u n d e r m i n e a n d i n f l u e n c e in m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s t h e f l o w of p r o c e s s e s a n d activities of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m of society. W i t h o u t t h e m , t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m w o u l d n o t b e able to f u n c t i o n

26

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City

s m o o t h l y . T h e y constitute a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of its o p e r a t i o n . T h e i n f o r m a l city is s e e n then as t h e hidden dimension of t h e f o r m a l c i t y . In this l i g h t , I a m p r o p o s i n g t h a t t h e s t u d y o f i n f o r m a l i t y b e u s e d as a n alternative a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y route f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s of t h e A m e r i c a n city.

Notes 1. 2. 3.

The informal aspect of societal life remains constant. There is, however, a variability in the manifestation of the phenomenon. It can be household, workplace or social-function based. For a critical review of the literature on the sociology of everyday life, see Comeau (1987). This phenomenon has also its political and social ramifications. If the informals do not pay taxes, it is argued that the city and the state may not have the necessary resources to provide basic services to the local urban community. Furthermore, informals are seen as individualists who do not contribute to the common good, but rather work for their personal gain.

2 Informal Space O n the A m e r i c a n u r b a n s c e n e - i n c l u d i n g t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a - e v e r y d a y life c o n t a i n s b o t h a f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l d i m e n sion. S u c h i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s are n o t trivial, b u t rather c o n s t i t u t e an essential f a c t o r that h e l p s s h a p e the s t r u c t u r e of t h e f o r m a l societal s y s t e m . To f u r t h e r g r o u n d e m p i r i c a l l y o u r t h e o r y of the centrality o f t h e relations b e t w e e n i n f o r m a l i t y a n d f o r m a l i t y in the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the m o d e r n A m e r i c a n city, let us a t t e m p t to analyze t h e a n c h o r i n g of i n f o r m a l practices in the o r g a n i z a t i o n of urban s p a c e . T h e i n f o r m a l c i t y n e e d s a n i n f o r m a l territorial infrastructure t o a n c h o r its i n f o r m a l practices i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the u r b a n s p a c e . S u c h i n f o r m a l s p a c e e x i s t s , a n d p r o v i d e s a b a s i s for the c a r r y i n g o u t of t h e s e k i n d s of a c t i o n . I n f o r m a l i t y d o e s n o t o c c u r in a v a c u u m . T h e s p a c e w h e r e the i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s take p l a c e is often a f o r m a l s p a c e that h a s b e e n i n f o r m a l i z e d . T h e m u l t i p l i c i t y a n d v a r i e t y of i n f o r m a l s p a c e s c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d if w e w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d t h e role of i n f o r m a l ity in the A m e r i c a n city. It b e c o m e s a c e n t r a l issue h e r e , a n d therefore t h e object of o u r study, b e c a u s e o f its relations t o b o t h the f o r m a l s p a c e a n d i n f o r m a l practices. It is n o t s i m p l y w h a t w e d o that g i v e s a n i n f o r m a l c o n t e n t to t h e f o r m a l s p a c e , b u t also structural b o u n d a r i e s a n d constraints g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n the formal system. Previously, t h e c o n c e p t o f i n f o r m a l s p a c e h a s b e e n u s e d m a i n l y in the field of p r o x e m i c s t u d i e s a n d refers t o t h e spatial d i s t a n c e s i n d i v i d u a l s m a i n t a i n in e n c o u n t e r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s . H a l l (1966: 1 0 5 ) , w h o i n t r o d u c e d t h e c o n c e p t o f i n f o r m a l s p a c e in the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l literature, d i d s o to i d e n t i f y this specific c a t e g o r y of spatial e x p e r i e n c e . In h i s view, s p a c e b e c o m e s i n f o r m a l o r is created as s u c h ' b e c a u s e it is u n s t a t e d , n o t b e c a u s e it l a c k s f o r m or h a s n o i m p o r t a n c e . . . I n f o r m a l spatial p a t t e r n s h a v e distinct b o u n d s , a n d s u c h d e e p , if u n v o i c e d , s i g n i f i c a n c e that t h e y f o r m an essential p a r t of the c u l t u r e ' (Hall, 1 9 6 6 : 1 0 5 ) . This l o o s e defini27

28

The Informal

Informal

City

tion of i n f o r m a l s p a c e i m p l i e s t h a t it is a s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e p r e s e n c e of at least t w o i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h e distances m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e m in i n t e r a c t i n g with e a c h o t h e r are a sine qua non. In this c o n t e x t , the n o t i o n of i n f o r m a l s p a c e is i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e w i t h that o f p e r s o n a l s p a c e . O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e e x t e n d e d t h e n o t i o n o f i n f o r m a l s p a c e t o i n c l u d e or c o v e r the i n t e r a c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h the p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f b u i l d i n g s . S i t t o n ( 1 9 8 0 : 6 5 - 8 2 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s a r g u e d that there is a h i d d e n d i m e n s i o n i n t h e interaction of t h e A m e r i c a n s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n w i t h p u b l i c s c h o o l structures a n d d i s c u s s e s t h e n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o f these s t r u c t u r e s on s t u d e n t behavior. H e c o n c l u d e s t h a t , b e c a u s e of its i m p e r s o n a l character, the p u b l i c s c h o o l ' s s p a t i a l a r r a n g e m e n t n e g a t i v e l y i n f l u e n c e s the level of interaction a m o n g t e a c h e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d s t u d e n t s . In a s e n s e , h e is c h a l l e n g i n g architects t o b u i l d p u b l i c s t r u c t u r e s that m e e t b o t h the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l n e e d s of the u s e r s (see also S o m m e r , 1 9 8 3 ; Ellis et a t , 1985). A l t h o u g h t h e e n c o u n t e r is i m p o r t a n t in t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i n f o r m a l or p e r s o n a l s p a c e , o u r a i m will n o t b e to d i s c u s s s p a t i a l d i s t a n c e s a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s l o c a l l y or c r o s s - c u l t u r a l l y t h e w a y H a l l did, o r s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t styles, p r o c e d u r e s a n d tactics f o l l o w i n g the p a t h o f the d r a m a t u r g i c a l a n a l y s e s o f E r v i n g G o f f m a n ( 1 9 5 9 , 1 9 6 1 ) . R a t h e r , in this chapter, w e a n a l y z e the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s p a c e , the p r o d u c t i o n of i n f o r m a l s p a c e , the c h a n g i n g spatial i d e n t i t y of t h e w o r k p l a c e a n d t h e g e o g r a p h y o f u r b a n informality. S p a c e is a flexible e n t i t y - a socio-political p r o d u c t i o n - t h a t c a n b e i n f o r m a l i z e d , a n d , in t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y Area, it c l e a r l y serves as a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l b a s i s for the p e r f o r m a n c e of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s .

Space

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m u s t s e e k p e r m i s s i o n in o r d e r legally to t r a n s f o r m u n o c c u p i e d into o c c u p i e d l a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o l a w s set b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l s p a c e is m o r e elusive. S o m e t i m e s , as u n r e g u l a t e d space, it m a y n o t b e u n d e r the direct c o n t r o l of city g o v e r n m e n t . It c a n either p r e c e d e the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of f o r m a l space or b e p r o d u c e d b y f o r m a l s p a c e o r t h e f o r m a l use of s p a c e . Prior to t h e f o r m a l use of t h e u r b a n s p a c e , there is a n i n f o r m a l use of that s p a c e . T h r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of city c o d e s , the f o r m a l s y s t e m s l o w l y i n v a d e s the i n f o r m a l s p a c e a n d b r i n g s it into the o r b i t o f the f o r m a l b y t r a n s f o r m i n g it into f o r m a l s p a c e , with the p u r p o s e of c o n t r o l l i n g it. T h e city g o v e r n m e n t is a l w a y s d e v i s i n g f o r m a l rules s o as t o r e d u c e the e x t e n t of i n f o r m a l s p a c e . I n f o r m a l s p a c e is also a p r o d u c t of the f o r m a l use of the u r b a n space. B e c a u s e the f o r m a l s y s t e m is u n a b l e t o m e e t the e x p e c t a tions of e v e r y m e m b e r of t h e c i t y c o m m u n i t y , i n d i v i d u a l s feel it n e c e s s a r y to t r a n s f o r m f o r m a l s p a c e into i n f o r m a l s p a c e to cond u c t their i n f o r m a l activities. I n f o r m a l s p a c e d e v e l o p s in this i n s t a n c e w i t h i n the f o r m a l spatial s y s t e m . It is an o u t g r o w t h of that s y s t e m .

THE S O C I A L P R O D U C T I O N OF I N F O R M A L SPACE

T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of w a y s that specific spatial u n i t s h a v e b e e n i n f o r m a l i z e d in t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d M e t r o p o l i t a n area. H o w e v e r , the p r o c e s s of i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f this u r b a n l a n d s c a p e is v e r y different f r o m that of the t y p i c a l t h i r d - w o r l d city. In b o t h sites, o n e w i t n e s s e s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the u r b a n l a n d s c a p e into i n f o r m a l spatial u n i t s , m a n i f e s t e d m o s t s t r i k i n g l y in t h e i n f o r m a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n of parcels of u r b a n l a n d for settlem e n t . T h i s is the m o s t v i s i b l e a n d s p e c t a c u l a r f o r m of s p a t i a l i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n in the t h i r d w o r l d . T h e l a n d is a p p r o p r i a t e d s l o w l y b y s q u a t t e r s w h o o c c u p y u n u s e d or v a c a n t lots. T h e squatters i n v a d e the l a n d , b u i l d their s h a c k s , a n d t r a n s f o r m the area into a n i n f o r m a l s e t t l e m e n t until s u c h t i m e as it is e i t h e r bulld o z e d o r i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e f o r m a l city s y s t e m .

T h e u r b a n l a n d s c a p e in the S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a (as i n m a n y o t h e r r e g i o n s ) is d i v i d e d i n t o f o r m a l s p a c e a n d i n f o r m a l s p a c e w h e r e daily activities a n d p r a c t i c e s are c a r r i e d out. T h e f o r m a l s p a c e is r e g u l a t e d a n d falls i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r the j u r i s d i c t i o n of v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s of the state o r the local g o v e r n m e n t . It c o n f o r m s to c i t y l a w s . This is w h y d e v e l o p e r s a n d o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s

In the c a s e of the t h i r d - w o r l d s q u a t t e r s e t t l e m e n t s , t h e l a n d that w a s v a c a n t is n o w o c c u p i e d a n d h a s b e c o m e i n f o r m a l i z e d as a spatial e n t i t y o r h a s g o n e t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s of i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n . T h e p r o c e s s o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n is itself i n f o r m a l in the s e n s e t h a t n o officially r e c o g n i z e d o w n e r s h i p of p a p e r is s i g n e d . T h e p r o p e r t y is s i m p l y t a k e n or b o u g h t f r o m a n o t h e r squatter. E v e n w h e n the area h a s a l r e a d y b e e n o c c u p i e d , i n f o r m a l i t y c o n t i n u e s to c r e e p in,

1

30

The Informal

City

in the c r e a t i o n of alleys, f o r e x a m p l e , a n d in the s u r v i v a l of i n f o r m a l a r c h i t e c t u r e e x p r e s s e d in the s q u a t t e r s ' h o u s e s . W h a t m a k e s the a r e a a n i n f o r m a l e n t i t y is the s o c i a l u s e of the l a n d that d o e s n o t fall u n d e r the r e g u l a t o r y m e c h a n i s m s of t h e city government. T h i s f o r m o f i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n of t h e u r b a n s p a c e d o e s n o t g o o n to s u c h a d e g r e e o f m a g n i t u d e a n d v i s i b i l i t y i n t h e A m e r i c a n city. T h e i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n of t h e u r b a n s p a c e is m o r e subtle and m a y not have a permanent character. Nevertheless, in t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a , p u b l i c s p a c e is still i n f o r m a l i z e d in several different ways for different p u r p o s e s . P e o p l e i n f o r m a l i z e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e p l a c e s to c o n d u c t i n f o r m a l b u s i n e s s or social t r a n s a c t i o n s , o r s i m p l y to m e e t b a s i c h u m a n n e e d s . T h i s is the c a s e of the i n d i v i d u a l m e r c h a n t i n O a k l a n d w h o t r a n s f o r m s his p o r t i c o into a m a r k e t p l a c e , d i s p l a y i n g h i s m e r c h a n d i s e , attracting a clientele, a n d e n g a g i n g in i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c t r a n s a c t i o n s . It is a n i n f o r m a l m a r k e t b e c a u s e t h e o w n e r b y p a s s e s z o n i n g l a w s a n d u s e s h i s o w n p r o p e r t y as a n i n f o r m a l m a r k e t site. T h e c o n v e r s i o n of t h e f o r m a l s p a c e i n t o a n i n f o r m a l e n t i t y c a n occur n o t o n l y o u t s i d e t h e h o u s e , b u t i n s i d e the h o u s e a s w e l l . In this latter case, a p o r t i o n of the h o u s e m a y b e u s e d as a n i n f o r m a l s h o p . T h e street v e n d o r c o n v e r t s t h e area w h e r e h e o p e r a t e s h i s b u s i n e s s into a n i n f o r m a l s p a c e . W h e t h e r it is t h e d r u g d e a l e r w h o s t a n d s in a c o r n e r of a n O a k l a n d street, t h e seller of s t o l e n g o o d s w h o s t a n d s in front of a s t o r e o n M a r k e t S t r e e t in S a n F r a n c i s c o , o r an u n l i c e n s e d street v e n d o r w h o o p e r a t e s in front of a p u b l i c s c h o o l in B e r k e l e y , they all s h a r e the s a m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in regard to t h e u s e of p u b l i c s p a c e . T h e y c o n v e r t it into s o m e t h i n g i n f o r m a l - t h a t is, an i n f o r m a l site w h e r e i n f o r m a l m a r k e t t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e carried out. P u b l i c s p a c e is i n f o r m a l i z e d a l s o w h e n it i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a s l e e p i n g s i t e b y i n f o r m a l a c t o r s . H o m e l e s s p e o p l e a r e s e e n to c o n g r e g a t e a n d s l e e p in p u b l i c p a r k s , o r i n f r o n t of p u b l i c buildings or privately o w n e d stores. T h e y transform or conv e r t t h e s e s p a c e s i n t o i n f o r m a l o n e s . T h e s i t e s are u s e d f o r p u r p o s e s different from that assigned to t h e m by the f o r m a l societal system.

Informal

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I n f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f u r b a n s p a c e c a n a l s o b e s e e n in t e r m s of b o t h s u p p l y a n d d e m a n d . S o f a r w e h a v e l o o k e d at t h e p r o c e s s f r o m t h e s u p p l y s i d e , a s i n t h e c a s e of t h o s e w h o t r a n s f o r m a f o r m a l s p a c e i n t o a n i n f o r m a l o n e as a w a y o f d i s p l a y i n g t h e i r merchandise or conducting their businesses. W h e n seen from the d e m a n d s i d e , t h e s p a c e c a n b e i n f o r m a l i z e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a r e l o o k i n g f o r s u p p l i e r s . T h i s is t h e c a s e of t h e p e r s o n w h o a s k s a n i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c to w o r k o r r e p a i r h i s c a r in front o f h i s h o u s e , t h e r e b y t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e s p a c e i n t o a n informal garage.

TIME, SPACE A N D INFORMALITY T h e t i m e f a c t o r is an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w i n f o r m a l s p a c e is p r o d u c e d a n d o r g a n i z e d in relation t o f o r m a l space. I n f o r m a l s p a c e is the result of f o r m a l s p a c e b e i n g u s e d for i n f o r m a l p u r p o s e s . I n f o r m a l s p a c e can h a v e a p e r m a n e n t , transitional or r e c u r r e n t character. A locale c a n b e f o r m a l i z e d q u a s i p e r m a n e n t l y u n t i l s u c h a t i m e as it is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the f o r m a l s p a c e . T h e s q u a t t e r s e t t l e m e n t in t h e t h i r d - w o r l d city is a g o o d e x a m p l e of this t y p e . I n the U n i t e d S t a t e s , the j u n k y a r d fulfills a s i m i l a r role. It is a n i n f o r m a l m a r k e t p l a c e w h e r e o n e acquires s e c o n d h a n d p a r t s f o r o n e ' s o w n c a r or to repair s o m e o n e e l s e ' s car. I n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c s s o m e t i m e s use it in this w a y instead of g o i n g to a n a u t o p a r t s a n d a c c e s s o r i e s store in the formal economy. I n f o r m a l s p a c e c a n b e a t r a n s i t i o n a l s p a c e . A r o o m in a h o u s e m a y b e u s e d as a s h o p u n t i l the o w n e r is a b l e t o m o v e t h e o p e r a t i o n t o t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r . It b e c o m e s a r e c u r r e n t s p a c e w h e n a p u b l i c s p a c e s u c h a s p a r t of a n o f f i c e is u s e d o n a n d off as a n i n f o r m a l s p a c e . T h e w a t e r - c o o l e r is a t r a d i t i o n a l l o c u s of g o s s i p i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; the p l a c e is s p o r a d i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n i n f o r m a l l o c a t i o n to a l l o w i n f o r m a t i o n t o f l o w through the grapevine. S u c h use m a y b e cyclical w h e n the s p a c e is i n f o r m a l i z e d at a g i v e n t i m e o n a w e e k l y , m o n t h l y or y e a r l y b a s i s . It m a y b e i n c i d e n t a l w h e n t h e s p a c e is u s e d f o r a one-off informal event.

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G E O G R A P H Y OF T H E INFORMAL SPACE T h e g e o g r a p h y of t h e i n f o r m a l s p a c e c a n b e d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s o f t h e n i c h e s w h e r e i n f o r m a l activities take p l a c e ( W h y t e , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e i n f o r m a l l o c a t i o n s is r e l a t e d to the k i n d s o f i n f o r m a l a c t i v i t y that the p e o p l e are e n g a g e d in. P u b l i c p l a c e s l i k e g a r a g e s t a t i o n s ( i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c s ) , p u b l i c street, (street v e n d o r s ) a n d s t r e e t corners ( d r u g dealers) a r e i n f o r m a l i z e d , a s a r e p r i v a t e h o m e s w h e n p o l i t i c i a n s h o l d i n f o r m a l political m e e t i n g s in c o n s t i t u e n t s ' h o u s e s o r w h e n a n i n f o r m a l e n t r e p r e n e u r t r a n s f o r m s a r o o m in the h o m e i n t o a s w e a t s h o p . G o s s i p e r s a n d c l i q u e s create i n f o r m a l spatial n i c h e s in f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . O t h e r s i n f o r m a l i z e the p u b l i c s p a c e , n o t f o r the p u r p o s e o f e n g a g i n g i n t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e , b u t to take c a r e of t h e i r o w n n e e d s , a s is the c a s e o f the h o m e l e s s w h o use the p a r k f o r s l e e p i n g at n i g h t . In e v e r y city, there a r e n i c h e s of c o n v e r t e d s p a c e that b e c o m e i n f o r m a l . S p a t i a l i n f o r m a l i t y c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y w a y o f t h e i n t e n t i o n a l i t y o r p e r s o n a l n e e d s of t h e actor, w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l often a w a r e of his or h e r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l a c t i o n . S p a t i a l i n f o r m a l i t y o c c u r s also b y w a y of a t r a n s a c t i o n w h e r e b y a c t o r s f r o m b o t h s i d e s e x p e c t to g a i n s o m e t h i n g f r o m t h e interaction. S p a t i a l i n f o r m a l i t y is also p r o d u c e d b y w a y o f politicization w h e r e b y h i g h e r g o a l s are a n t i c i p a t e d for t h e b e n e f i t of the c o m m u n i t y . In a s t u d y o f t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y in N e w Y o r k City, i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n of s p a c e h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s o f t h e spatial l o c a tion of i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c activities. T h e s e i n f o r m a l l o c a t i o n s c a m e a b o u t b e c a u s e of the ' c o n c e n t r a t i o n of i n f o r m a l activities in i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s . . . in a r e a s u n d e r g o i n g residential a n d c o m m e r c i a l gentrification . . . [ a n d ] the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d i n d u s t r i a l services in certain a r e a s that e m e r g e a s a n e w type of m a n u f a c t u r i n g district or s e r v i c e m a r k e t ' ( S a s s e n K o o b , 1989: 7 0 - 2 ) . T h e g e o g r a p h y of the i n f o r m a l s p a c e in t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o O a k l a n d M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a h a s its l o w a n d h i g h d e n s i t i e s o f o p e r a t i o n . T h e r e a r e three m a j o r areas w h e r e i n f o r m a l s p a c e c a n e a s i l y be i d e n t i f i e d in the city. O n e is entire i m m i g r a n t e n c l a v e s , l i k e the C h i n a t o w n s a n d the S a n F r a n c i s c o M i s s i o n District w i t h its H i s p a n i c p o p u l a t i o n . In t h e s e p l a c e s , p e o p l e f r e e l y c o n t i n u e t o

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e n g a g e in p r a c t i c e s c o n s i d e r e d i n f o r m a l b y f o r m a l s t a n d a r d s . T h e informal e c o n o m y is v e r y s t r o n g here, a s t h e residents t r a n s a c t b u s i n e s s o u t s i d e the r e g u l a t o r y n o r m s a n d r u l e s of t h e f o r m a l city g o v e r n m e n t . T h e s e districts also p r o v i d e a spatial n i c h e for those w h o r u n a n d w o r k i n s w e a t s h o p s w h i c h are e x t e n s i o n s or b r a n c h e s of o p e n m a n u f a c t u r i n g b u s i n e s s e s l o c a t e d i n t h e f o r m a l s p a c e of the city. A p o r t i o n of t h e w o r k o s t e n s i b l y p r o d u c e d i n the o p e n s h o p is actually d o n e i n the s w e a t s h o p . T h i s k i n d of i n f o r m a l s p a c e sustains the f a c a d e of the f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n . H e r e w e see a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the o p e n s h o p a n d the c l o s e d s h o p . In the latter, all the activities, f o r m a l or i n f o r m a l , are c a r r i e d o u t in the s h o p a n d n o t in its i n v i s i b l e b r a n c h e s . T h e s e c o n d , m o r e d i s p e r s e d m a j o r a r e a w h e r e s p a c e is i n f o r m a l i z e d is p u b l i c p l a c e s a n d streets, a n d the third is t h e residential h o m e , w h i c h s e r v e s s o m e t i m e s as a w o r k p l a c e f o r h o u s e keepers, gardeners and other workers. These various niches s e r v e in t h e i r o w n w a y as p l a c e s w h e r e i n f o r m a l practices a r e carr i e d out. T h i s is why, w h e n w e l o o k at the city, w e find t h a t the s a m e p l a c e s a r e u s e d for d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s a n d the e x p r e s s i o n of i n f o r m a l i t y a s a w a y of life h a s i n d e e d a territorial b a s i s of s u p p o r t . T h e d e a t o m i z a t i o n of the u r b a n s p a c e l e a d s n e c e s s a r i l y to the division b e t w e e n f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s p a c e . W h e n w e s t u d y the city f r o m the a n g l e s of f o r m a l i t y arid informality, w e u n d e r s t a n d that the u r b a n l a n d s c a p e is also d i v i d e d i n t o a front region a n d a b a c k r e g i o n ( G o f f m a n , 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 7 2 ; G i d d e n s , 1984: 1 2 2 - 6 ) . T h e front r e g i o n is the l o c u s o f t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r a n d is the c e n t e r of f o r m a l i t y o r the m a i n s t r e a m culture. T h e b a c k region is identified w i t h t h e p e r i p h e r y a n d is the locus of t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r or the c e n t e r of informality. T h e front region o c c u p i e s t h e c e n t e r space a n d the b a c k r e g i o n the p e r i p h e r a l s p a c e . T h e front region uses t h e c e n t e r of p o w e r to control, c o e r c e , c o n t a i n a n d discipline t h e b a c k region. T h e b a c k region in t u r n u s e s or d e v e l o p s a n i n f o r m a l s y s t e m of p r a c t i c e s to c i r c u m v e n t c o n t r o l b y the front region. B e t w e e n t h e front region a n d the b a c k r e g i o n s t a n d s the m i d d l e region w h e r e b r o k e r s , m i d d l e m e n a n d i n t e r m e d i a r i e s t r a n s l a t e front r e g i o n p o l i c i e s for t h e b a c k region a n d relate b a c k - r e g i o n d e m a n d s to front-region d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s . T h i s m i d d l e r e g i o n , a c c o r d i n g to M e y r o w i t z ( 1 9 8 5 : 2 7 1 ) , p r o d u c e s ' b e h a v i o r that lacks

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t h e e x t r e m e f o r m a l i t y of the f o r m e r front r e g i o n b e h a v i o r a n d a l s o lacks t h e e x t r e m e i n f o r m a l i t y of t r a d i t i o n a l b a c k r e g i o n b e h a v i o r . ' T h e n o t i o n of s p a c e is l i n k e d to t h a t o f the i d e n t i t y of t h e social s y s t e m . T h e front r e g i o n is the d o m a i n of the c e n t e r , t h e b a c k region the d o m a i n of t h e p e r i p h e r y a n d t h e m i d d l e r e g i o n is t h e d o m a i n of t h e b r o k e r s o r t h e political l e a d e r s . T h e city c a n b e d e c o n s t r u c t e d in t e r m s of t h e s e three l o c a l i t i e s o f informality. T h e front r e g i o n h a s its i n f o r m a l n i c h e s in its m i d s t , i n f o r m a l i t y w i t h i n t h e f o r m a l sector. I n f o r m a l i t y a l s o a r i s e s in its p e r i p h e r y , that is t h e b a c k r e g i o n . T o l i n k the f r o n t t o t h e b a c k r e g i o n , a third s t r u c t u r e , o n e of m e d i a t i o n , is d e v e l o p e d i n the m i d d l e r e g i o n , w h i c h i n t u r n p r o d u c e s its o w n informality. F r o n t r e g i o n a n d b a c k region c o r r e s p o n d t o specific d o m a i n s o f p o w e r . T h e f r o n t region u s e s its n e t w o r k of offices a n d a g e n c i e s t o r e g u l a t e the b a c k - r e g i o n p e o p l e a n d the l a n d t h e y occupy. D i s tricts a n d l o c a l n e i g h b o r h o o d s m a y elect i n d i v i d u a l s to r e p r e s e n t t h e m in the f r o n t region, b u t t h e policies of t h e c i t y are n o t b a c k r e g i o n p o l i c i e s ( e v e n t h o u g h t h e y m a y h a v e t h e s a m e i n p u t in t h e i r f o r m a t i o n ) , b u t t h e y a r e i n d e e d f r o n t - r e g i o n policies t h a t b a c k - r e g i o n p e o p l e m u s t c o n f o r m to in their u s e of t h e l a n d . T h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s m a y h a v e o n e leg in t h e front r e g i o n a n d t h e o t h e r in the b a c k region in o r d e r to sell front-region p o l i c i e s to back-region residents. One sees here h o w the informalization of t h e u r b a n s p a c e p r o v i d e s a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l b a s i s of s u p p o r t f o r t h e f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l structure i n its i n f o r m a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n . E v e n w i t h i n t h e p e r i p h e r y itself, or b a c k r e g i o n , w e f i n d that t h e s p a c e is f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o front a n d b a c k regions. F o r m a l e n t e r p r i s e s t h e r e m a y h a v e a front a n d a b a c k region. T h e f r o n t r e g i o n is u s e d f o r f o r m a l b u s i n e s s a n d t h e b a c k r e g i o n f o r informal activities like, for e x a m p l e , the n u m b e r s g a m e . T h e front region p r o v i d e s a c o v e r for the o p e r a t i o n of activities in t h e b a c k r e g i o n . T h e b a c k r e g i o n in a r e s t a u r a n t , w h e r e o n e m a y p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e n u m b e r s g a m e , attracts i n d i v i d u a l s w h o m a y b e p r o s p e c t i v e clients for t h e front region w h e r e the l e g i t i m a t e b u s i n e s s - s e r v i n g f o o d - is in full s w i n g . In o u r a n a l y s i s of the i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n of u r b a n s p a c e , w e m u s t t u r n to the role o f the h o m e in that p r o c e s s . W e said earlier t h a t s p a c e is a flexible entity that c a n b e f o r m a l i z e d or i n f o r m a l i z e d . S p a c e that is d e l i m i t e d a l o n g f o r m a l lines, s u c h as a h o u s e ,

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b e c o m e s o b j e c t i v e l y f o r m a l i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e official p u r p o s e for w h i c h it is a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d used. T h e h o u s e ' s f o r m a l e n t i t y is as a h o m e . T h e h o m e is itself s u b d i v i d e d into a f r o n t a n d a b a c k region. T h e front r e g i o n is the m o s t f o r m a l area of t h e h o u s e w h e r e visitors are w e l c o m e d . T h e b a c k region (back r o o m , b a s e m e n t , y a r d s ) is the m o s t i n f o r m a l p a r t o f t h e h o u s e . A s a p p l i e d to t h e h o m e , the n o t i o n o f f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s p a c e m a y n o t b e c u t a n d dried. T h e h o m e is a fluid d o m a i n w h e r e f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l ity coexist s i d e b y side. U r b a n s p a c e c a n b e l o n g t o s o m e o n e , a c o r p o r a t i o n or t h e state. It b e c o m e s i n f o r m a l i z e d w h e n it is u s e d f o r i n f o r m a l activities. O n e u s u a l l y d o e s n o t t h i n k of a h o m e as b e i n g s o m e t h i n g f o r m a l e x c e p t i n m a t t e r s relating t o p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . H o w e v e r , in e v e r y d a y life, t h e c o n d u c t of o u r life is often i n f o r m a l , r e l a x e d a n d p r i v a t e . It is t h e d i s p l a y of o u r natural a n d u n m a s k e d self. A l t h o u g h t h e h o m e is a w o r k p l a c e f o r all of u s , w e t e n d n o t to l o o k at it t h a t w a y f o r t h e s i m p l e r e a s o n t h a t w e s e l d o m g e t p a i d for things d o n e for the family. T h e m o n e y return for h o m e activities is n o t i m m e d i a t e o r e v e n e x p e c t e d . W e a r e m o r e a w a r e that it is a f o r m a l w o r k p l a c e w h e n w e u s e t h e h o m e t o c o n d u c t f o r m a l b u s i n e s s e s , t h e k i n d of w o r k w e m i g h t d o in a n office, f o r e x a m p l e . W e f o r m a l i z e a n d i n f o r m a l i z e o u r r e s i d e n c e in terms of zoning. Workplace and living r o o m (formal), versus t h e rest o f t h e h o u s e ( i n f o r m a l ) . O n e r o o m b e c o m e s o u r office, t h a t is o u r factory. T h i s is w h e r e w e p r o d u c e w o r k to b e s o l d to o t h e r s , w h i l e in the o t h e r r o o m s w e m a y d o w o r k f o r t h e rest of t h e family. W h a t is f o r u s a h o m e c a n a l s o b e a w o r k p l a c e f o r o t h e r s . O n e m a y s p e a k o f t h e d u a l v o c a t i o n of the h o m e as b o t h a f o r m a l place - a h o m e - and an informal place - a workplace. T h e poor f r o m t h e i n n e r city see t h e u p p e r - c l a s s h o m e as a w o r k p l a c e , t h a t is a f a c t o r y . T h i s is a p l a c e w h e r e t h e y c a n w o r k a n d e a r n a n i n c o m e . It is n o t a p l a c e w h e r e t h e y l i v e , r e s t o r eat. T h e y c o m e t h e r e to w o r k as g a r d e n e r s , m a i d s or i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s . In their o w n w a y , t h e y i n f o r m a l i z e t h e s e f o r m a l u n i t s of t h e u r b a n landscape. O n e m a y say that the h o m e , street, public building o r p l a c e e a c h h a s p o t e n t i a l l y a d o u b l e identity, f o r m a l a n d informal.

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I N F O R M A L SPACE A N D THE ETHNIC M I N O R I T Y NEIGHBORHOOD It s e e m s at first t h a t o n e of t h e characteristic f e a t u r e s of the e t h n i c m i n o r i t y n e i g h b o r h o o d is t h e w i d e s p r e a d e x i s t e n c e of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s . To a c e r t a i n extent, i n f o r m a l i t y g i v e s a distinct p e r s o n ality to the e t h n i c n e i g h b o r h o o d in c o n t r a s t t o t h e f o r m a l i t y o f t h e mainstream urban community. T h e e t h n i c m i n o r i t y n e i g h b o r h o o d m a y b e d e f i n e d as a l o c u s w h e r e a c o m m u n i t y m a n u f a c t u r e s its o w n i n f o r m a l s y s t e m t o s e r v e as the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r u l e s of its a d a p t a t i o n . T h i s s y s t e m l i n k s the p e o p l e together, c r e a t e s a s u b c u l t u r e of i n f o r m a l i t y i n i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h the f o r m a l s y s t e m of m a i n s t r e a m society, p a r ticipates in i n f o r m a l w a y s in t h e f o r m a l s o c i a l s y s t e m , i n f o r m a l i z e s certain a s p e c t s of f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d strides t h r o u g h r o u t i n i z a t i o n t o w a r d s the l e g i t i m i z a t i o n of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . I d e f i n e t h e e t h n i c m i n o r i t y e n c l a v e as a l o c u s w h e r e p r a c t i c e s l a b e l l e d b y t h e f o r m a l sector as ' i n f o r m a l ' a r e p r o d u c e d to h a n d l e t h e r e s i d e n t s ' relations w i t h t h e m a i n s t r e a m social a n d f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the identity o f the e t h n i c n e i g h b o r h o o d as a s p a t i a l entity e v o l v e s a n d a r t i c u l a t e s itself w i t h t h e mainstream system. It is n o t s i m p l y b y f o r m a l m e a n s that u r b a n l a n d is a p p r o p r i a t e d . R e a l e s t a t e a g e n t s p l a y a k e y role in t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n p r o c e s s o f u r b a n l a n d . T h e y h a v e their o w n f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l w a y s o f d o i n g b u s i n e s s . I n f o r m a l s t r a t e g i e s often i n f l u e n c e f o r m a l o u t c o m e . W h e n a real estate a g e n t c h o o s e s to s h o w a h o u s e in a b l a c k n e i g h b o r h o o d to a b l a c k client, h e or s h e is often m a k i n g a n i n f o r m a l a s s e s s m e n t of the f o r m a l n e e d s of t h e client. T h e p r o c e s s of a c q u i s i t i o n o f u r b a n l a n d is itself partly i n f o r m a l i z e d .

THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY OF THE URBAN SPACE W e c a n n o t s t u d y u r b a n spatial u n i t s as if t h e y w e r e either f o r m a l o r informal. F o r S a c k (1980: 7 ) , ' s p a c e m e a n s the s p a c e of the p h y s ical w o r l d , a n d g e o m e t r y is the l a n g u a g e in w h i c h it is d e s c r i b e d . ' W h e n v i e w e d f r o m the perspective of time, w e t e n d to see spatial

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units as h a v i n g a m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l g e o m e t r y - in contrast to the usual t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l Euclidian g e o m e t r y - w h i c h c a n b e understood in terms of their c h a n g i n g identity, the e x p a n s i o n of production a n d the internationalization of i n f o r m a l practices. T i m e - s p a c e c o m p r e s s i o n a l l o w s u s t o i d e n t i f y the t e m p o r a l distribution o f i n f o r m a l i t y i n a n y given s p a c e . A single s p a c e c a n b e f o r m a l at 8 : 0 0 a.m., b e c o m e i n f o r m a l at 9 : 0 0 , to b e f o r m a l i z e d again at 1 0 : 0 0 a.m. T h e c h a n g i n g identity of the f o r m a l s p a c e a n d its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n into a n i n f o r m a l s p a c e is largely d e p e n d e n t o n i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s carried o u t in s u c h a p l a c e . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is t h a t o f linking t h e f o r m a l i d e n t i t y of the s p a c e to official practices that p r o d u c e informality. F o r m a l office s p a c e is i n f o r m a l i z e d o n d a y s w h e n the office h o l d e r d o e s n o t e x p e c t t o i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e p u b l i c : the d r e s s c o d e is d o w n , the office is u s e d a s if it w e r e a h o m e space to d i m i n i s h stress a n d to allow a r e c o v e r y of the self. O n e d a y t h e office s p a c e is f o r m a l , a n d the n e x t it is i n f o r m a l . S u c h use r e v e a l s the limits of f o r m a l architecture a n d its inability to m o d e l p l a c e in t e r m s of b o t h the f o r m a l a n d t h e i n f o r m a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l subject. In a s e n s e , f o r m a l a r c h i t e c t u r e is c o e r c i v e , d i s c i p l i n a r y a n d restrictive. It f o r c e s the i n d i v i d u a l to a d a p t t o the f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e a n d , if t h e n e e d arises, t o i n f o r m a l i z e it. It is n o n - d u a l i s t in the s e n s e that it d o e s n o t p r o v i d e t w o s t r u c t u r e s , f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l , that a n i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d u s e at w i l l . It is p a r t of the project of r a t i o n a l society t h a t architecture s h o u l d d i s c i p l i n e the b o d y to b e h a v e f o r m a l l y in a f o r m a l s p a c e . T h e m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l i t y o f the u r b a n s p a c e is also m a n i f e s t in the e x p a n s i o n of p r o d u c t i o n . W e find in S a n F r a n c i s c o a C h i n e s e r e p a i r m a n w h o u s e s an office s p a c e that is o p e n to the p u b l i c a n d legal. It is w h e r e h e t r a n s a c t s b u s i n e s s w i t h his clients. H e receives t h e r e i t e m s to b e fixed and r e t u r n s t h e m t o t h e o w n e r o n c e r e p a i r e d . T h e repair w o r k is n o t d o n e in this office, b u t r a t h e r in a b a c k - r e g i o n w o r k s h o p located in a n o t h e r h o u s e in the city. T h i s w o r k s h o p is illegal: it o p e r a t e s w i t h o u t a p e r m i t , is c l o s e d t o t h e p u b l i c a n d is located in a p r i v a t e h o m e . It is a n i n f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n that f e e d s the f o r m a l practices of the front office. W e s e e h e r e a clear u s e of the f o r m a l s e c t o r to i n f o r m a l i z e the b a c k r e g i o n , w h i c h i n r e t u r n s u p p o r t s the o p e r a t i o n of the f o r m a l sector.

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T h e third f a c t o r that c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e l a n d s c a p e is t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s . T h i s is d o n e t h r o u g h w h a t I call i n f o r m a l d i p l o m a c y a n d o t h e r s r e f e r to a s p a r a d i p l o m a c y or m i c r o d i p l o m a c y ( D u c h a c e k , 1984; S o l d a t o s , 1 9 9 0 ) . B y i n f o r m a l d i p l o m a c y I m e a n to i n d i c a t e the ability o f t h e c i t y or g r o u p s in the city to d e v e l o p a n d e s t a b l i s h their o w n fore i g n policies a n d d i p l o m a t i c relations w i t h a foreign c o u n t r y . T h e s e r e l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d out in t h e p a s t o n l y o n a n a t i o n a l l e v e l , b y a p p o i n t e d d i p l o m a t s a n d t h r o u g h official c h a n n e l s . T h i s is t h e role of the a m b a s s a d o r , t h e s p e c i a l e n v o y o f the p r e s i d e n t or a d e l e g a t i o n f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t . S u c h d i p l o m a c y h a n d l e s official b u s i n e s s b e t w e e n t w o g o v e r n m e n t s . I n f o r m a l d i p l o m a c y is n o w carried o u t b y cities, a n d c a n u n d e r m i n e or s t r e n g t h e n t h e n a t i o n a l effort. T h e city of B e r k e l e y , for e x a m p l e , h a d a d o p t e d a c i t y in N i c a r a g u a a n d h e l p e d t h e S a n d i n i s t a s in m a n y different w a y s while the United States government w a s h e l p i n g t h e C o n t r a s . C h u r c h e s in Berkeley, O a k l a n d a n d S a n F r a n c i s c o p r o v i d e s a n c t u a r i e s to N i c a r a g u a n , G u a t e m a l a n a n d S a l v a d o r e a n r e f u g e e s a g a i n s t official p o l i c y that c o n s i d e r s t h e m illegal aliens a n d w a n t s to e x p e l t h e m f r o m t h e country. T h r o u g h u s i n g the c h u r c h as a h o m e , t h e r e f u g e e s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n of the u r b a n s p a c e in a w a y a n a l o g o u s t o t h e p r a c t i c e of t h i r d - w o r l d r e f u g e e s f r o m r u r a l areas w h o b u i l d s q u a t t e r s e t t l e m e n t s on the p h y s i c a l m a r g i n s of t h e p r i m a t e cities.

THE 'BLURRING OF GENRES' T h e advent of information technology m a k e s possible the informa l i z a t i o n o f t h e w o r k p l a c e a n d t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n of the h o m e . It is n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y for s o m e t y p e s of w o r k t o b e d o n e b y fullt i m e e m p l o y e e s a n d in a w o r k p l a c e . S u c h c l a s s e s of w o r k e r s are n o w able to s t a y at h o m e p r o d u c i n g w o r k o n their c o m p u t e r s for f o r m a l f i r m s in the S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a . T h e y are a b l e to r e c e i v e at h o m e t h e w o r k to b e d o n e , c o m p l e t e the j o b a n d r e t u r n t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t - all w i t h o u t h a v i n g to l e a v e h o m e . 2

T h e shift f r o m the h o m e f r o n t to a c e n t r a l office or m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t is o f r e c e n t origin a n d d a t e s b a c k t o the b e g i n n i n g of the industrial revolution. Information technology provides us the

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m e a n s a n d a l l o w s u s a n o p p o r t u n i t y to r e t u r n to t h e h o m e as a f o r m a l w o r k station. C o n c u r r e n t l y , the f o r m a l central w o r k p l a c e m a y b e c o m e p a r t l y i n f o r m a l i z e d in that it is n o w u s e d b y t h e s e h o m e w o r k e r s as a place to g e t i n v o l v e d i n i n f o r m a l activities. To e x p l a i n this r e v o l u t i o n a r y trend i n t h e w o r k p l a c e , Schiff (1983: 2 3 ) h a s c o i n e d t h e w o r d 'flexiplace'. F o r h i m , 'flexiplace involves g i v i n g p e o p l e g r e a t e r o p t i o n s o n w h e r e t h e y w o r k , i n c l u d i n g possibilities t o w o r k at h o m e p a r t or all of t h e t i m e ' . T h a t flexibility of m o v i n g o n e ' s w o r k p l a c e f r o m the f o r m a l office to the h o m e h a s c a u s e d t h e b l u r r i n g of g e n r e s a n d t h e partial m e s h i n g of i n f o r m a l w i t h f o r m a l space. T h e r e are n o w m a n y f i r m s w h o u s e d t h e flexiplace s t r a t e g y in the S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y area t o l o w e r their o v e r h e a d c o s t s , to take a d v a n t a g e s o f a n available p o o l of specialist laborers, a n d t h u s to get a h e a d of their c o m p e t i t o r s . M a n y w o r k e r s p r e f e r this t y p e of a r r a n g e m e n t b e c a u s e of t h e i r dislike of office w o r k a n d as a w a y of m e e t i n g t h e i r o w n p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e e d s (see also L o z a n o , 1 9 8 5 ) .

INFORMATIONAL SPACE A N D INFORMALITY With the a d v e n t of h i g h technology, w e f i n d a different f o r m of i n s i n u a t i o n o f i n f o r m a l i t y i n t o the s p a t i a l d o m a i n . I n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y h a s led to a c r u m b l i n g of s p a t i a l b o u n d a r i e s a n d spatial c o n s t r u c t i o n s as it i n s i n u a t e s itself into t h e f o r m a l s p a c e , b u t it also c r o s s e s t h e b o u n d a r i e s of the f o r m a l c i t y a n d for t h a t m a t ter of t h e state itself. T h e s e i n f o r m a t i o n a l or c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s p a c e s , w h i c h c a n n o t b e d i r e c t l y r e g u l a t e d b y the state b e c a u s e of their m u l t i p l e s h a p e s a n d f o r m s (the s t a t e m a y , h o w e v e r , t r y to i n t e r v e n e if t h e r e is a n y i n d i c a t i o n of p o t e n t i a l c r i m i n a l b e h a v ior), a r e in fact i n f o r m a l i z e d s p a c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , the t e l e p h o n e a n d c o m p u t e r are u s e d t o m a i n t a i n a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n f o r m a l contacts i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e city. T h e face-to-face i n t e r a c t i o n n e e d e d f o r u r b a n relational i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s b e f o r e t h e a d v e n t of i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y is n o longer s o essential. S u c h i n t e r a c tions n o w g o o n t h r o u g h t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f w h a t C a s t e l l s calls the ' s p a c e of f l o w s ' . T h e s e n e w i n f o r m a l s p a t i a l f o r m s a r e t h e locus of a h i d d e n power. T h e y are r e p r o d u c e d a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l

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m e a n s , a n d b e c a u s e they a r e fluid a n d c a n n o t b e c o n t r o l l e d totally b y f o r m a l p o w e r , t h e y h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l e i t h e r to s t r e n g t h e n o r u n d e r m i n e t h e r e g u l a t o r y m e c h a n i s m s of f o r m a l p o w e r . B e h i n d the c o m p u t e r s , g r o u p s related t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n h o l d p o w e r a n d i n f l u e n c e the f o r m a l flow of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . I n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s e r t s the ' s p a c e of flows' i n t o t h e ' s p a c e of p l a c e s ' . C a s t e l l s ( 1 9 8 9 : 6) n o t e s t h a t ' t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a s p a c e o f flows w h i c h d o m i n a t e s the h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d s p a c e of p l a c e s , as the logic of d o m i n a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e t a c h e s itself f r o m t h e social c o n s t r a i n t s of c u l t u r a l identities a n d l o c a l societies t h r o u g h the p o w e r f u l m e d i u m of i n f o r m a t i o n techn o l o g y . ' T h i s s p a c e of flows integrates the i n f o r m a l city i n t o t h e f o r m a l i t y of t h e g l o b a l p r o c e s s a n d c o n t e x t .

I N F O R M A L I T Y IN T H E F O R M A L P L A N N I N G P R O C E S S T h e f o r m a l c i t y - p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s in the t r a d i t i o n of p o s i t i v i s t t h i n k i n g h a s b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as a t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h p r o d u c i n g a spatial o r d e r as o n e m o r e f o r m of s o c i a l c o n t r o l of t h e s t a t e . U r b a n p l a n n e r s m a n d a t e d b y t h e state or t h e local g o v e r n m e n t are called to d e v e l o p b l u e p r i n t s from their f o r m a l b u r e a u c r a t i c s t a n d p o i n t s for later i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . T h e o u t c o m e , w h e t h e r streets o r b u i l d i n g s or a n y o t h e r t y p e of b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n t , is s u p p o s e d to reflect the v i s i o n of the u r b a n p l a n n e r s . This f o r m of r e g u l a t o r y p l a n n i n g is b a s e d o n p o w e r a n d p r o d u c e s the f o r m a l urban s p a c e for the e x p r e s s i o n of f o r m a l b e h a v iors. T h e r e is t h e n an a d e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e a n d f o r m a l b e h a v i o r . T h i s e m p h a s i s on f o r m a l i t y h a s o b s c u r e d t h e role of i n f o r m a l i t y in t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s , a l t h o u g h t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n f o r m a l i t y h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d w i t h i n the s t r u c t u r e o r c o n t e x t of the b u i l t - u p e n v i r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , i n f o r m a l i t y h a s really a l w a y s b e e n part of t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s i n its triple m a n i f e s t a t i o n : the d e s i g n of b l u e p r i n t s , t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of policies a n d the l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e o f the u r b a n r e s i d e n t s . It is U z z e l l ' s ( 1 9 9 0 : 114) v i e w that there a r e t w o k i n d s of p l a n n i n g : g e n e r a t i v e a n d r e g u l a t i v e . R e g u l a t i v e p l a n n i n g is b a s e d o n p o w e r , is c o e r c i v e a n d b e l o n g s to the d o m a i n of

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the f o r m a l sector. G e n e r a t i v e p l a n n i n g , i n contrast, is i n f o r m a t i o n - b a s e d w i t h local k n o w l e d g e a n d f e e d b a c k a n d b e l o n g s to the d o m a i n of t h e i n f o r m a l sector. S e e i n g f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y as p a r t o f a c o n t i n u u m rather than t w o s e p a r a t e entities o r t w o different sectors, I p r o p o s e that in the U S c i t y s y s t e m t h e r e a r e t w o faces o f the s a m e c o i n o f city p l a n n i n g . In this p e r s p e c t i v e , r e g u l a t o r y p l a n n i n g is a l s o b a s e d partly o n i n f o r m a l i t y a s t h e p r o c e s s a n d the o u t c o m e m a y depend on informal negotiations between policy-makers and local r e s i d e n t s . T h e p u b l i c f a c a d e m a y b e f o r m a l b u t t h e p r o c e s s that l e a d s t o it m a y b e f r a u g h t with informality. G e n e r a t i v e p l a n n i n g is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n f o r m a l . I n d i v i d u a l local r e s i d e n t s o r g r o u p s s o m e t i m e s m a n a g e to i m p o s e t h e i r o w n a g e n d a i n specific areas o f city d e v e l o p m e n t over the a g e n d a of the city g o v e r n m e n t . T h e activists of P e o p l e ' s P a r k in B e r k e l e y h a v e f o u g h t to m a i n t a i n t h e p a r k o v e r t h e city a n d U n i v e r s i t y o b j e c t i o n s . T h e y h a v e u s e d a n i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k i n g to s e t a status q u o a g e n d a for the p a r k . In S a n F r a n c i s c o , r e s i d e n t s h a v e directed t h e city to redirect b u s routes in t h e i r n e i g h b o r h o o d s . U r b a n p l a n n i n g h a s b e c o m e part of a political p r o c e s s w h e r e b o t h f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y interface t o p r o d u c e a n e g o t i a t e d , desirable o u t c o m e . I n f o r m a l i t y is at w o r k in t h e t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h f r o m c o n c e p t i o n t o i m p l e m e n t a t i o n e v e n if it t a k e s a b a c k seat. I n f o r m a l i t y is m o r e visible in t h e g e n e r a t i v e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s o r b o t t o m - u p a p p r o a c h , w h e r e f o r m a l i t y m a y n o t b e the driving f o r c e for its s u c c e s s . T h e o u t c o m e of u r b a n p l a n n i n g reflects the i n f o r m a l i t y a n d f o r m a l i t y o f the p r o c e s s a n d p r o v i d e s a site or m u l t i p l e sites w h e r e i n d i v i d u a l s c a n e x p r e s s their i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r s . T h e f o r m a l p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s c a n n o t e s c a p e i n f o r m a l i t y e i t h e r i n the design a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of b l u e p r i n t s o r in its o u t c o m e . O n e m a y s a y t h a t the f o r m a l o u t c o m e is a p r o d u c e r of informality. Bureaucratic planning is regulatory planning: it is external and state-imposed with related application in the city. In contrast, informal p l a n n i n g is individual a n d c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d in that the thinking and the application e v o l v e d are controlled b y the locals. In cities where residents live in areas that are u n d e r zoning regulations, the people h a v e less room to e n g a g e in massive informal p l a n n i n g than in areas i n v a d e d b y squatters. In the S a n Francisco metropolitan

42

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Informal

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community, informal planning tends to concentrate in the h o m e a n d the office (remodeling, for e x a m p l e ) w h e r e individuals m a y b y p a s s city regulations. It is informal p l a n n i n g b e c a u s e it is not regulated b y the state a p p r o v e d bureaucratic system.

INFORMAL SPACE AS A SOCIO-POLITICAL P H E N O M E N O N Because it is s o m u c h linked to formal space, informal space is n o t o n l y a social c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u t also a p o l i t i c a l p h e n o m e n o n . Foucault ( 1 9 8 0 : 1 5 0 ) speaks in this regard of the 'politics of s p a c e ' to suggest that 'anchorage in a s p a c e is an economico-political f o r m ' . Informal space h a s a political m e a n i n g precisely because it occupies a subjugated structural position vis-a-vis f o r m a l s p a c e . 3

T h e i n f o r m a l s p a c e p r o v i d e s a n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e for the l e a r n i n g , u s e a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of i n f o r m a l k n o w l e d g e . It p r o v i d e s a f r a m e w o r k , a t e r r a i n f o r the e x p r e s s i o n of s u c h k n o w l e d g e . It is the l o c u s w h e r e o n e learns the m e c h a n i s m s f o r o n e ' s s o c i a l i z a t i o n in t h e w o r l d of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s , of b e h i n d - t h e - s c e n e s t r a t e g i e s a n d of d i f f e r e n c e s in s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t style b e t w e e n f o r m a l a n d informal behaviors. I n f o r m a l s p a c e allows o n e to defy, a d j u s t t o or r e i n f o r c e t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m of p o w e r . I n d i v i d u a l s w h o resist the e n t r e n c h m e n t of the f o r m a l s y s t e m take o v e r i n f o r m a l s p a c e f o r the e x p r e s s i o n o f a ' d i s s i d e n t s u b c u l t u r e ' (Scott, 1990: 1 0 8 ) . T h i s f o r m of s u b j u g a t e d i n f o r m a l s p a c e a l l o w s for a b o t t o m - u p a p p r o a c h to l o c a t e o n e s e l f vis-a-vis state p o w e r . I n f o r m a l s p a c e can also w o r k t o w a r d a n a d j u s t m e n t of p e o p l e to the p o w e r structure of society. It b e c o m e s t h e n a s a f e t y v a l v e f o r the s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . To the e x t e n t that i n d i v i d u a l s c a n create i n f o r m a l s p a c e t o s o l v e their p r o b l e m s , t h e y can return to the formal s y s t e m , w h i c h r e m a i n s u n c h a l l e n g e d , t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r journey.

M A K I N G SOCIAL SPACE FOR I N F O R M A L PRACTICE People routinely m a k e social space for informal practices. I n f o r m a l s p a c e is often c r e a t e d inside f o r m a l s p a c e for this v e n -

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ture. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n f o r m a l n i c h e s s u s t a i n s the e x p r e s s i o n of i n f o r m a l practices. T h e multiplicity of these f o r m a l n i c h e s is m a d e p o s s i b l e b y a c t o r s w h o a p p r o p r i a t e the s p a c e a n d transf o r m it f o r that p u r p o s e . I n f o r m a l social s p a c e c a n b e c r e a t e d i n h o m e s , p u b l i c places a n d p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s . B e i n g i n f o r m a l at h o m e is a n a c c e p t a b l e practice b y w h i c h o n e c a n reaffirm t h e self from a n y e n t r e n c h ment b y the formal system. T a v e r n s a n d cafes, w h i l e f o r m a l p l a c e s , tend to b e p l a c e s that are i n f o r m a l i z e d b y t h o s e w h o f r e q u e n t t h e m . H e r e is a f o r m a l place t h a t calls for or i n v i t e s i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r . F o r m a l s p a c e does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d to f o r m a l b e h a v i o r ; it c a n a l s o foster i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r that in turn t r a n s f o r m s it into a n i n f o r m a l space. P u b l i c s p a c e c a n also b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o i n f o r m a l s p a c e without state interference. I n S a n F r a n c i s c o , H i s p a n i c residents d o u b l e - p a r k o n D o l o r e s Street a n d a r o u n d s o m e c h u r c h e s as an i n f o r m a l w a y to r e a p p r o p r i a t e the f o r m a l street. P o l i c e d o n o t interfere w i t h this p r a c t i c e a n d d o n o t g i v e out tickets w h e n this is d o n e o n S u n d a y m o r n i n g s or W e d n e s d a y e v e n i n g s . T h e f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s tolerates the i n f o r m a l way, a n d city r u l e s a r e thus b y p a s s e d b y the i n f o r m a l sector. T h e i n f o r m a l h e r e is a m e a n s to a c h i e v e a f o r m a l g o a l : a t t e n d i n g c h u r c h . W h e n the f o r m a l is too rigid, the i n f o r m a l m a k e s s p a c e for itself. T h e i n f o r m a l p r o v i d e s a solution t o the f o r m a l . O n e sees h e r e that a lack of articulation b e t w e e n city r e g u l a t i o n s a n d the r e q u i r e m e n t s of o t h e r institutions i n a n y society c a n b e o v e r c o m e b y the m e d i a t i n g role of spatial informality.

INFORMAL SPACE AS SUBJUGATED SPACE Just a s w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r as a p o l e of a cont i n u u m , w e h a v e p r o p o s e d t h r o u g h o u t this c h a p t e r that i n f o r m a l space r e q u i r e s the e x i s t e n c e of f o r m a l s p a c e . In this s e n s e , w e m a y s a y t h a t i n f o r m a l s p a c e is also ' p o l a r i z e d s p a c e ' (Santos, 1979), i m p l y i n g its s u b j u g a t e d status vis-a-vis f o r m a l s p a c e . T h e p u r p o s e of the c r e a t i o n of i n f o r m a l space b y s u b o r d i n a t e g r o u p s is to d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t g r o u p , to

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c o m m u n i c a t e a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s a n d to resist t h e i n f r i n g e m e n t of t h e d o m i n a n t s e c t o r on their lives. I n f o r m a l s p a c e b e c o m e s t h a n oppositional space in that it p r o v i d e s a n i c h e t o c a r r y o u t o p p o s i t i o n a l politics a n d a b a s e f o r resistance. S c o t t (1990: 118) n o t e s that: T h e s u b o r d i n a t e g r o u p m u s t c a r v e o u t f o r itself social s p a c e s i n s u l a t e d f r o m control a n d s u r v e i l l a n c e f r o m a b o v e . If w e a r e to u n d e r s t a n d the p r o c e s s b y w h i c h r e s i s t a n c e is d e v e l o p e d a n d c o d i f i e d , t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e creation o f t h e s e offstage s o c i a l s p a c e s b e c o m e s a vital t a s k . O n l y b y s p e c i f y i n g h o w s u c h social s p a c e s a r e m a d e a n d d e f e n d e d is it p o s s i b l e to m o v e f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l resisting subject ... to t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n of resistant p r a c t i c e s a n d d i s c o u r s e s . A n i n d i v i d u a l ' s m o v e m e n t f r o m f o r m a l t o i n f o r m a l s p a c e is n o t a l w a y s w i l l e d : there m a y b e a level o f u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n v o l v e d , or s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s f r o m society. S e p a r a t i n g t h o s e w h o r e m a i n in t h e f o r m a l s p a c e f r o m t h o s e w h o o c c u p y a n i n f o r m a l s p a c e m a y n o t a l w a y s b e t h e b e s t w a y of a n a l y z i n g the p r o c e s s s i n c e t h e s a m e i n d i v i d u a l c a n d o b o t h . W h a t is n e w in this p e r s p e c t i v e is the r e c o g n i t i o n that t h o s e restricted t o a n i n f o r m a l s p a c e a r e able to c o m m u n i c a t e , o r i e n t a n d p o l i c e t h e m s e l v e s . I t e n d t o agree w i t h S c o t t (1990: 118) w h e n h e s t a t e s that ' a s d o m a i n s o f p o w e r r e l a t i o n s in their o w n right, [ i n f o r m a l s p a c e s ] s e r v e t o discipline a s w e l l as to f o r m u l a t e p a t t e r n s of resistance.' It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e e x i s t e n c e of 'a c o n t i n u u m of s o c i a l sites r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o h o w h e a v i l y o r lightly t h e y are p a t r o l l e d b y d o m i n a n t e l i t e s ' (Scott, 1 9 9 0 : 1 2 0 ) . It is true t h a t t h e r e a r e sites w h e r e t h e i n f o r m a l s a r e h a r a s s e d a n d o t h e r s n o t . W h i l e t h e f o r m e r m a y b e forced t o f o r m a l i z e their v e n t u r e s , t h e latter a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e t o s u r v i v e as i n f o r m a l s . T h i s is the c a s e w i t h street v e n d o r s . Geographical distance m a y not be necessary to separate formal f r o m i n f o r m a l s p a c e . I n f o r m a l s p a c e m a y b e l o c a t e d interstitially in f o r m a l s p a c e a s long as t h e i n f o r m a l s a r e a b l e t o c o m m u n i c a t e a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s a n d t o h i d e the c o n t e n t o f their c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m t h e v i e w s of their c o u n t e r p a r t s . F o r Scott ( 1 9 9 0 : 1 2 0 ) ,

Informal

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45

'the c r e a t i o n o f a secure site f o r the h i d d e n transcript m i g h t , h o w ever, n o t r e q u i r e a n y p h y s i c a l distance f r o m the d o m i n a n t s o long as linguistic c o d e s , d i a l e c t s , a n d gestures ... [are] d e p l o y e d . ' I n f o r m a l s p a c e h a s its o w n characteristics a n d its m u l t i p l e role c a n b e d e b u n k e d . It is a site w h e r e s o c i e t y c a n b e c r i t i c i z e d , an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l site for r e s i s t a n c e , a site f o r the r e c r u i t m e n t and socialization of others, a site that p r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o the f o r m a l site, a site for t h e ' t r a n s m i s s i o n o f p o p u l a r c u l t u r e ... a n d a site of a n t i h e g e m o n i c d i s c o u r s e ' (Scott, 1 9 9 0 : 1 2 1 - 2 ) . If t h e f o r m a l space is the realm o f h e g e m o n i c p r a c t i c e s , i n f o r m a l s p a c e is the r e a l m o f s u b j u g a t e d practices. In this sense, o n e m a y s p e a k of a d i a l e c t i c of t e n s i o n b e t w e e n b o t h e n d s . S u b j u g a t e d s p a c e h a s t h e d o u b l e characteristic of b o t h s u b v e r s i o n w h e r e o n e g a t h e r s to resist f o r m a l p o w e r a n d safety valve as it a l l o w s dissidents a niche to e s c a p e from the overcontrol of f o r m a l p o w e r .

Notes 1. 2. 3.

For analyses on the reproduction of formal space, see Lefebvre (1974), Gottdiener (1988). On the relations of 'telecommuting' and the 'electronic cottage' to the workplace, see Nilles (1976) and Toffler (1980). To understand the way gender is a significant variable in the decoding and deconstruction of formal and informal space, see, for example, Spain (1992), McDowell (1983), Masson (1984), Wekerle et al. (1980), Zelinsky et al. (1982) and Mackenzie (1987).

3 The Informal Economy T h e e c o n o m i c life of the i n f o r m a l city is s u s t a i n e d b y t h e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l aspects of t h e u r b a n e c o n o m y . It is s o b e c a u s e the t w o sides o f the u r b a n e c o n o m y are i n t e r t w i n e d . To u n d e r s t a n d the b e h a v i o r of the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y , it is less i m p o r t a n t to look at the o u t c o m e as H a r t ( 1 9 7 3 ) did w h e n h e s p o k e o f it as a n ' i n c o m e g e n e r a t i n g o p p o r t u n i t y ' , or as a s o u n d basis f o r e n g i n eering d e v e l o p m e n t p o l i c i e s as D e S o t o ( 1 9 9 0 ) does. It is i m p o r t ant to f o c u s o n the p r o c e s s o f its c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d its r e l a t i o n s to the f o r m a l a s p e c t of the u r b a n e c o n o m y T h e i n f o r m a l u r b a n e c o n o m y covers a w i d e r a n g e of e c o n o m i c activities. S o m e are l a b e l e d b y the state a s illegal e c o n o m i c transactions, s u c h as the ' n u m b e r s g a m e ' a n d d r u g trafficking. O t h e r s are i n f o r m a l , n o t b e c a u s e t h e activities per se are illegal b u t b e c a u s e t h o s e w h o are c a r r y i n g t h e m out, s u c h as u n d o c u m e n t e d aliens, c h i l d l a b o r a n d u n l i c e n s e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s , are n o t a b l e to d o s o legally, o r b e c a u s e e a r n i n g s are n o t r e p o r t e d to t h e s t a t e f o r tax p u r p o s e s ( A r c h a m b a u l t a n d G r e f f e , 1 9 8 4 : 6 ) . O n e m u s t also a d d w h a t S m i t h a n d W i e d - N e b b e l i n g ( 1 9 8 6 : 2) refer t o a s 'the n o n - m a r k e t p r o d u c t i v e activities of h o u s e h o l d s a n d v o l u n t a r y organizations'. S o m e a r e e n g a g e d in t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y as their p e r m a n e n t or e x c l u s i v e s o u r c e of e a r n i n g h a r d c u r r e n c i e s , o t h e r s a s a m o o n lighting p r a c t i c e . Still o t h e r s are s q u a r e l y located i n s i d e the f o r m a l s y s t e m b u t o p e n u p interstices i n it s o as to c a r r y o u t their i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s , s u c h as insider t r a d i n g (Smith, 1 9 9 0 ; C l a r k , 1988). F r o m a p r o c e s s u a l s t a n d p o i n t the i n t e r m i n g l i n g of b o t h sides of the u r b a n e c o n o m y b e c o m e s m o r e o b v i o u s . T h e i n f o r m a l a n d f o r m a l e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s s e l d o m c o n t a i n s e x c l u s i v e l y o n e o r the other, b u t r a t h e r it is a flexible m i x of b o t h . P r o d u c t i o n m a y b e initiated in the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r a n d the final p r o d u c t s o l d in the f o r m a l , o r v i c e versa. S u c h is the s i t u a t i o n in the i n f o r m a l s w e a t 1

47

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City

The Informal

Economy

49

s h o p industry. It c a n b e initiated in the f o r m a l , as a front b u s i n e s s , c a r r i e d o u t in the b a c k - s t a g e area ( i n f o r m a l p r o d u c t i o n ) a n d r e t u r n e d b a c k to the f o r m a l f o r the e x c h a n g e to t a k e p l a c e .

This p e r s p e c t i v e h a d l e d s o m e to the e r r o n e o u s c o n c l u s i o n that the i n f o r m a l sector is t h e result of r u r a l - u r b a n m i g r a t i o n (Van Dijk, 1 9 8 6 ) .

S o m e w h e r e in the p r o d u c t i o n , distribution, m a r k e t i n g o r t r a n s action p r o c e s s e s , it is l i k e l y t h a t s o m e f o r m s o f i n f o r m a l i t y will c r e e p in. T h e i s s u e m a y b e j u s t to i d e n t i f y w h e r e it exists a n d h o w it relates t o the f o r m a l s i d e . A n e x c l u s i v e f o c u s o n e i t h e r the f o r m a l o r t h e i n f o r m a l c a n n o t e x p l a i n f u l l y the p r o c e s s . T h e k e y t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m e s h i n g of b o t h still r e m a i n s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m s i n c e t h e y b e l o n g to the s a m e u r b a n e c o n o m y . It is the r e l a t i o n s h i p that f e e d s , c o n s t r a i n s a n d r e g u lates. It p r o v i d e s a g r o u n d f o r the e x p a n s i o n o r the c o n s t r i c t i o n of o n e o r t h e other.

T h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is often p r o p o s e d as a v i a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e to the f o r m a l sector, w h i c h is s e e n as b e i n g crucified b y a m o r i b u n d , c o m p l i c a t e d a n d elitist b u r e a u c r a c y . In contrast, t h e i n f o r m a l is v i e w e d as a d y n a m i c , e v e r g r o w i n g sector that c o u l d b e c o m e e v e r m o r e p r o g r e s s i v e in a d e r e g u l a t e d enviro n m e n t . D e S o t o ' s El Otro Sendero ( T h e O t h e r P a t h ) s u m m a r i z e s well t h e p o s i t i v e v i e w o f this g r o u p of researchers a n d p r o p o s e s the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y r o u t e as a w a y o u t of u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t in P e r u in particular, a n d i n the third w o r l d in g e n e r a l .

In the p a s t t w o d e c a d e s , w e h a v e w i t n e s s e d a p r o l i f e r a t i o n of classifications or t y p o l o g i e s in the s t u d y o f the i n f o r m a l u r b a n economy. T h e s e typologies are constructed to show the wides p r e a d n a t u r e of these p r a c t i c e s (Henry, 1 9 8 1 ) , to s h o w t h a t t h e y a r e n o t c o n f i n e d to the p o o r a n d i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s ( P o r t e s et al., 1 9 8 9 ) a n d to s h o w t h a t t h e y are f o u n d b o t h in t h e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y ( F e r m a n et al., 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e c a t a l o g u i n g of these p r a c t i c e s , w h e n t h e y a r e a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h e t h n o g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n s , s h e d s m u c h l i g h t o n the p r o c e s s of their c o n s t i tution. A s f a r as t y p o l o g y g o e s , it c o u l d b e h e l p f u l also t o a c c o u n t f o r e c o n o m i c activities that a r e n o t i m p r e g n a t e d b y a n y i n f o r m a l p r o c e s s , if s u c h exist. T h o s e w h o s t u d y the i n f o r m a l s i d e of t h e u r b a n e c o n o m y f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of the f o r m a l s y s t e m t e n d t o b e interested i n p o l icy issues ( S e t h u r a m a n , 1 9 8 1 ) . It is b y n o a c c i d e n t that t h e b u l k o f studies o n t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is d o n e o n u n d e r d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s . T h e y are a t t e m p t s to r e s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f u r b a n p o v e r t y a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t b y f o c u s i n g o n the s u r v i v a l strat e g i e s of t h e p o o r a n d t h e i r s e l f - e m p l o y m e n t t a c t i c s ( T u r n h a m et a l , 1990). T h e l o c a t i o n a n d identification of t h e i n f o r m a l sector h a s b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t g o a l of p o l i c y d e v e l o p e r s . I n the o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y o f s t u d i e s , it is t h i s p o l i c y a s p e c t that c o n s t i t u t e s the a n g l e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is d e f i n e d a n d a n a lyzed. T h e discussion has been connected with development b e c a u s e of t h e visibility of t h e p h e n o m e n o n in t h i r d - w o r l d cities. 2

A n o t h e r t r e n d of r e s e a r c h carried o u t in the u n d e r g r o u n d econo m y in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , G r e a t Britain a n d G e r m a n y is a conc e n t r a t i o n n o t on its c o n t r i b u t i o n to society, b u t o n its n e g a t i v e side. H e r e t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is s e e n a s the villain that u n d e r m i n e s t h e g r o w t h of t h e f o r m a l e c o n o m y a n d p r o s p e r i t y of society (Tanzi, 1 9 8 2 ) . It is s e e n in this l i g h t at least f o r three reasons: (1) b e c a u s e it c o m p e t e s with the f o r m a l e c o n o m y in terms of c l i e n t e l e a n d p r o d u c t i o n of g o o d s ; (2) b e c a u s e the a c t o r s d o n o t p a y t a x e s o n these t r a n s a c t i o n s ; a n d (3) b e c a u s e it is t h e d o m a i n w h e r e c r i m i n a l e l e m e n t s excel ( H a r d i n g a n d J e n k i n s , 1989; S h a n k l a n d , 1980). F o r t h o s e w h o h o l d this view, the u l t i m a t e solution w o u l d b e to e l i m i n a t e this s e c t o r altogether b y w a y of regulation. 3

In b e t w e e n these t w o o p p o s i t e t r e n d s , there is a l a r g e a r r a y of research p e r s p e c t i v e s . M o s t n o t a b l e is t h e w o r k o f t h o s e w h o focus o n t h e reciprocity a n d self-help a s p e c t s of t h e s e i n f o r m a l economies. Even before the term informal economy w a s coined, there w e r e a l r e a d y n u m e r o u s studies o n m u t u a l a i d , b a r t e r a n d the s o c i a l e x c h a n g e a s p e c t s of n e i g h b o r h o o d e c o n o m i e s ( M a u s s , 1954; D a v i s , 1 9 7 3 ) . T h e s e s t u d i e s are d i r e c t l y interested in u n d e r standing a n d explaining economic solidarity a m o n g individuals in the s a m e n e i g h b o r h o o d or a m o n g t h o s e w h o b e l o n g to the same ethnic group. S o m e s o c i a l scientists a t t e m p t to differentiate the v a r i o u s f o r m s the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y t a k e s , a n d to s e p a r a t e it f r o m t h e f o r m a l e c o n o m y . R o s e (1983: 5 ) d i s t i n g u i s h e s the 'official' f r o m the ' u n o f f i c i a l ' a n d ' d o m e s t i c ' e c o n o m i e s . H e c o n s i d e r s t h e s e to b e

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'three a n a l y t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t i v e e c o n o m i e s ' . O t h e r s a r g u e t h a t the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is far f r o m b e i n g m o n o l i t h i c a n d p r e f e r to i d e n t i f y t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g features o f its v a r i o u s t y p e s . T h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is c h a r a c t e r i z e d as c o m p r i s i n g the f o l l o w i n g : p r e - or n o n - i n d u s t r i a l e c o n o m i e s . T h e h o u s e h o l d e c o n o m y , the n e i g h b o r h o o d o r m u t u a l - a i d e c o n o m y , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e or c o u n t e r c u l t u r e e c o n o m y , s m a l l e n t e r p r i s e a n d t h e b l a c k , u n d e r g r o u n d or h i d d e n e c o n o m y (Ross a n d U s h e r , 1986: 3 1 - 3 ) .

g e n e r a t i v e c a p a c i t y t o r e g u l a t e t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . I t is i n f o r mal regulation that o n e m a y distinguish from f o r m a l regulation. O n e p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t i n f o r m a l a n d f o r m a l a c t o r s a r e e n g a g e d i n t h e s a m e f i e l d of a c t i v i t y , a n d t h a t e a c h h a s t h e c a p a c i t y o f e x p a n d i n g i t s a r e n a at t h e e x p e n s e of t h e o t h e r . T h e i n f o r m a l a p p e a r s t o b e a n a r e n a f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n of r e p r e s s e d h u m a n freedom and a reaction against the overreaching arm of f o r m a l i z a t i o n .

Still o t h e r s s h o w that t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y d o e s n o t b e l o n g e x c l u s i v e l y o r is to b e f o u n d o n l y in t h e s o - c a l l e d ' i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ' , b u t is l o c a t e d a s w e l l in t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r . T h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s p r o v i d e d e s c r i p t i o n s of e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s i n l a r g e f o r m a l o r s m a l l s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s e n t e r p r i s e s s u c h as c o n s t r u c tion, public transportation, g a r m e n t manufacturing, electronics, a u t o r e p a i r a n d f u r n i t u r e - m a k i n g . T h e i r w o r k i n d i c a t e s that i n f o r m a l a c t i v i t i e s a r e p a r t o f t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of the o p e r a t i o n of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , w h e t h e r in N e w Y o r k City, M a d r i d o r Bogotá, C o l u m b i a (Benton, 1986, 1990; Sassen-Koob, 1989; Lánzetta de Pardo, 1989).

T h e r e g u l a t o r y c h a r a c t e r of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h it e x p a n d s itself b y creating n e w f o r m s a n d e n c r o a c h i n g on the f o r m a l s y s t e m ' s a r e n a . It r e g u l a t e s t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m in the s e n s e that it h a s the c a p a c i t y to e x p a n d a n d shift its b o u n d a r i e s at the e x p e n s e of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . C o n s t a n t l y the i n f o r m a l econo m y is e n c r o a c h i n g o n t h e p r e s e r v e d d o m a i n of the f o r m a l econo m i c sector, forcing the f o r m a l e c o n o m y to c o n c e n t r a t e o n l a w f u l activities a n d m o r e e x p e n s i v e p r o d u c t s a n d l a b o r s e r v i c e s . It thereby r e d u c e s the d o m a i n of p r a c t i c e of the f o r m a l e c o n o m i c sector. T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a m u l t i t u d e of p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o p r o v i d e c h e a p p r o d u c t s a n d services, a n d a l s o b y l e g i t i m a t e a n d f o r m a l b u s i n e s s e s w h i c h p a r t l y follow t h e i n f o r m a l r o u t e t o save m o n e y t h r o u g h h i r i n g i n f o r m a l or e x t e n d i n g o p e r a t i o n s into h o m e s h o p s or s w e a t s h o p s .

W i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e A m e r i c a n city, there a r e c o u n t l e s s n u m b e r s o f t r a n s a c t i o n s that t a k e place in t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y ( J o n e s , 1 9 8 8 ) . Already, in t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , w e h a v e s e e n the i m p a c t of t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y on u r b a n s p a c e . It is o n e f a c t o r that l e a d s to t h e i n f o r m a t i z a t i o n of t h e u r b a n s p a c e . In this c h a p ter, the f o c u s is on the d e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s w a y s in w h i c h the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the f o r m a l a n d the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y are a r t i c u l a t e d . T h e g e n e r a t i v e m e c h a n i s m s b y w h i c h the i n f o r m a l s i d e of the u r b a n e c o n o m y r e g u l a t e s the f o r m a l a s p e c t will be expounded. Both boundaries and b o u n d a r y maintenance can be enforced b y b o t h the f o r m a l a n d t h e i n f o r m a l sector. O n e is c o n s t a n t l y i n f r i n g i n g o n the d o m a i n of the other. E x a m p l e s f r o m t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y are d r a w n to e x p l a i n t h e p r o c e s s . It is o b v i o u s that the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is r e g u l a t e d b y t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m s i n c e f o r m a l l a w s are d e v e l o p e d a n d i m p l e m e n t e d b y t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . B u t w h a t is n o t o b v i o u s is t h e fact that the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m r e g u l a t e s the f o r m a l s y s t e m as w e l l . W h e n o n e s p e a k s o f t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m as a r e g u l a t o r y s y s t e m , w h a t d o e s o n e m e a n ? It m e a n s t h a t t h e i n f o r m a l h a s a

A l s o r e g u l a t o r y is t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m p r e s s u r i z e s t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m to a d j u s t itself to a fait accompli. This is d o n e either b y i n c l u s i o n or e x c l u s i o n . A d j u s t m e n t is said to b e i n c l u s i v e w h e n t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m o p e n s its b o r d e r to c o - o p t or g i v e f o r m a l status to the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . It b e c o m e s e x c l u s ive w h e n t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is seen a s u n d e s i r a b l e a n d rejected as illegal o r is s i m p l y tolerated b y t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is t h e r e b y forcing t h e f o r m a l to q u e s t i o n a n d adjust t h e e d g e of its b o u n d a r y . 4

T h e r e g u l a t o r y p h e n o m e n o n is e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e p h e n o m e n a of b o u n d a r y expansion, constriction or m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e p r e s e n c e of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m p r e s s u r i z e s t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m t o r e d e f i n e i t s e l f i n t e r m s o f a f f i r m i n g its p r e s e n t , p r e v i o u s o r n e w b o u n d a r i e s . C a s e s of i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c a c t i v ities in t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a a r e selected a n d analyzed to s h o w the regulatory function of the informal sector.

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AN INFORMAL GARDENER T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e i n f o r m a l a n d the f o r m a l s e c t o r s are h e r e s t u d i e d t h r o u g h the p r i s m of a g a r d e n e r , a n i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l w h o sells his l a b o r a n d services to t h e f o r m a l sector. T h i s is t h e story o f a M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n m a n w h o starts w o r k i n g i n the f o r m a l s e c t o r f o r a s a l a r y a n d then d e c i d e s to m o v e to the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r s o that h e c a n b e on h i s o w n , a n d also b e c a u s e h e d i d n o t like h i s f o r m e r c o o k i n g j o b in S a n F r a n c i s c o . H i s f o r m a l j o b c o n s i s t e d o f c o o k i n g at a r e s t a u r a n t in t h e b u s i n e s s district. T h i s w a s a f u l l - t i m e j o b , w i t h n o p o s s i b i l i t y for a d v a n c e m e n t , a n d h e h e l d it for a b o u t ten y e a r s . W h i l e at t h e j o b , h e m a i n t a i n e d an i n f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n of g a r d e n i n g f o r a f e w clients. S i n c e h e w a s at w o r k for m o s t of t h e w e e k , h e e n d e d u p d o i n g h i s g a r d e n i n g j o b s at w e e k e n d s . B e c a u s e of h e a l t h p r o b l e m s , h e r e d u c e d his t i m e at t h e r e s t a u r a n t w h i l e a u g m e n t i n g his h o u r s o n i n f o r m a l j o b s . F r o m a full-time j o b at the r e s t a u r a n t , h e m o v e d to p a r t - t i m e . T h i s g a v e h i m e n o u g h time to p e r f e c t his g a r d e n i n g skills, build u p a clientele t h r o u g h his c o n t a c t s at the r e s t a u r a n t , a n d p u r c h a s e a truck. Finally, h e d e c i d e d to l e a v e the r e s t a u r a n t j o b a l t o g e t h e r a n d d e d i c a t e h i m s e l f to g a r d e n i n g as a n i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l . H e h a d l e a r n e d of t h e possibility o f d e v e l o p i n g h i s o w n i n f o r m a l b u s i n e s s f r o m a w h i t e g a r d e n e r in the neighborhood, and from informáis w h o h a d been hired on occas i o n to w a s h d i s h e s in the r e s t a u r a n t w h o d i d g a r d e n i n g o n their o w n . In this specific i n s t a n c e , the f o r m a l j o b w a s u s e d as a s t e p p i n g s t o n e to land a j o b in the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . W e h a v e h e r e t w o p a t t e r n s of informality. O n the o n e h a n d , there is a n i n d i v i d u a l w h o p a r t i c i p a t e s in b o t h the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s e c t o r s to a u g m e n t his salary. H e is a c o o k in the f o r m a l sector, a n d a g a r d e n e r in t h e i n f o r m a l . T h i s m e a n s also t h a t h e h a s d i v i d e d h i s time into t h a t s p e n t i n the f o r m a l s e c t o r a n d that s p e n t in t h e i n f o r m a l . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e see that f o r m a l b u s i n e s s e s like r e s t a u r a n t s d i v i d e their activities into t h o s e perf o r m e d b y f o r m á i s a n d t h o s e p e r f o r m e d b y i n f o r m á i s . T h i s latter strategy is u s e d , of c o u r s e , t o l o w e r c o s t s . In the r e s t a u r a n t , the f o r m a l activity o f d i s h w a s h i n g is h a n d l e d b y i n f o r m á i s . A f o r m a l b u s i n e s s m a y n o t o p e r a t e totally w i t h t h e u s e o f f o r m a l l a b o r . T h e i n f o r m a l a p p e a r s here as a n enclave in t h e f o r m a l sector.

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T h e i n f o r m a l g a r d e n e r w a s a g e n e r a l i s e n o t a specialist. After b u y i n g t h e s e c o n d h a n d truck, h e later r e p l a c e d it w i t h a b i g g e r truck that h a d an a u t o m a t i c device to m a k e it e a s i e r t o d u m p g a r b a g e . H e also o w n e d a l a w n m o v e r a n d a n edger, p l u s other o r d i n a r y tools. H e d i d m a i n l y l a w n j o b s for regular c l i e n t s and c h a r g e d a m o n t h l y fee o f a b o u t $ 5 0 for a n a v e r a g e y a r d . F o r occasional c l i e n t s , he c h a r g e d a c c o r d i n g to the size a n d t h e l e n g t h of time it m i g h t take to finish t h e j o b . T h e m o n e y h e m a d e f r o m w o r k i n g at the r e s t a u r a n t in the f o r m a l s e c t o r w a s i n v e s t e d in a truck t o w o r k in the i n f o r m a l sector. A n d the m o n e y h e m a d e in the i n f o r m a l sector h e u s e d to feed t h e f o r m a l sector, b y p a y i n g his m o n t h l y rent. A s a n i n f o r m a l g a r d e n e r , his clientele c a m e f r o m t h e f o r m a l sector. H e started b y w o r k i n g his w a y t h r o u g h the n e i g h b o r h o o d with o l d e r folks. T h e r e w a s n o t a lot of m o n e y i n v o l v e d , but it w a s p r a c t i c a l b e c a u s e t h e y lived nearby. H e d i d this k i n d of job at w e e k e n d s w h i l e h e w a s still w o r k i n g f o r t h e restaurant. W h e n h e b e c a m e a full-time g a r d e n e r , h e w a s less a n d less interested in d o i n g n e i g h b o r h o o d j o b s . H e c o u l d get m o r e m o n e y w o r k i n g o u t s i d e the c o m m u n i t y . In a d d i t i o n to the c o n t a c t s he m a d e w h i l e at the r e s t a u r a n t , h e s t a r t e d a d v e r t i s i n g t h r o u g h w o r d of m o u t h . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e d his informal and main form of publicity. H o w e v e r , h e is n o w a b l e to get clients f r o m a w h i t e gardener, w h o w o r k s for a firm in the f o r m a l sector. S h e is a l i c e n s e d gardener, w h o w o r k s a n d f u n c t i o n s m o s t l y in the f o r m a l sector t h r o u g h h e r j o b at a n institution of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . S h e also has a n u m b e r o f s t e a d y c l i e n t s in the hills of S a n L e a n d r o a n d S a n F r a n c i s c o , b u t since s h e o n l y d o e s p r u n i n g , p l a n t i n g a n d w a t e r ing s h e r e f e r s clients to h i m for l a w n m o w i n g or d e b r i s - h a u l i n g . O n e m a y s a y that t h r o u g h an informal network, h e h a s b e e n able to get j o b s a n d enlarge his clientele in the i n f o r m a l sector. H e b u i l d s u p his c l i e n t e l e b y w a y of w o r d of m o u t h . H e goes a b o u t d o i n g w o r k f o r a family, a n d the n e i g h b o r s m a y h i r e h i m to do the s a m e . A j o b w e l l d o n e is in itself a f o r m of publicity. S o m e times t h e y d o not see h i m on the j o b , b u t o n c e the j o b is c o m pleted, n e i g h b o r s m a y a s k the f a m i l y f o r his t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r . This i m p l i e s that h e is a professional w o r k e r a n d his rates a r e fair a n d a c c e p t a b l e . S o m e t i m e s the n e i g h b o r s inquire; at o t h e r times,

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it is the c l i e n t w h o i n f o r m s t h e n e i g h b o r s a b o u t his availability. In this s e n s e , t h e client f r o m the f o r m a l s e c t o r c a n b e c o m e an informal advertising agent. C l i e n t s a l s o c o m e to h i m b y w a y of referrals. A n o t h e r g a r d e n e r w h o s p e c i a l i z e s in specific j o b s calls o n h i m w h e n e v e r h e d o e s n o t w a n t to d o a j o b , like h a u l i n g g a r b a g e to the d u m p site. S o m e t i m e s a g a r d e n e r friend t u r n s a j o b d o w n a n d asks the client to call h i m , e i t h e r b e c a u s e the desired rate is t o o low, or b e c a u s e h e is too b u s y a n d this is n o t t h e k i n d o f j o b h e u s u a l l y t a k e s . H e u s e s o t h e r m e a n s to a d v e r t i s e informally. S o m e t i m e s h e just l e a v e s a leaflet in front of p e o p l e ' s d o o r i n a given n e i g h b o r h o o d . H e h a s p a i n t e d on his t r u c k the w o r d s ' g a r d e n i n g a n d h a u l i n g ' , p l u s his t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r . O n still o t h e r o c c a s i o n s , h e p r e p a r e s posters w h i c h he staples to telephone poles hoping potential clients w i l l l o c a t e h i m that way. O v e r t h e y e a r s , the g a r d e n e r h a s d e v e l o p e d m o r e clients t h r o u g h v a r i o u s m e a n s of publicity, all l o c a t e d s q u a r e l y in the i n f o r m a l sector. T h u s , to t h e f o r m a l p u b l i c i t y o f the f o r m a l s e c t o r c o r r e s p o n d s the i n f o r m a l publicity of t h e i n f o r m a l sector. O f c o u r s e , t h e f o r m a l sector a l s o uses i n f o r m a l publicity f o r its o w n ends. S o m e c l i e n t s are regular. T h e g a r d e n e r w o r k s for t h e m o n c e or t w i c e a m o n t h , or they call o n h i m t w o t o three t i m e s a year. O t h e r s a r e o n a one-off b a s i s ; f o r e x a m p l e , w h e n there is g r a s s to c u t or h a u l t o the d u m p , h e is g i v e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y to d o t h e j o b . To s a v e g a s , the g a r d e n e r o p e r a t e s o n t h e b a s i s of h i s o w n s u b j e c t i v e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i v i s i o n s of the city. T h i s is n o t f o r m a l g e o graphy, b u t r a t h e r a n informal geography that h e m a p s in h i s m i n d t o c o r r e s p o n d t o his n e e d s a n d w o r k s c h e d u l e . O n t h e f o r m a l objective g e o g r a p h y , h e i m p o s e s his o w n . H i s g e o g r a p h i c a l divis i o n s or n e i g h b o r h o o d s c o r r e s p o n d to w o r k p l a c e s f o r h i m . All B e r k e l e y j o b s a r e d o n e in o n e day, t h e S a n L e a n d r o j o b s in a n o t h e r d a y a n d the O a k l a n d Hills j o b s o n y e t a n o t h e r day. T h e w o r k p l a c e is also a t r a i n i n g g r o u n d f o r informal apprentices. S o m e t i m e s t h e gardener b r i n g s a son or a h e l p e r to the j o b . H e gets training this w a y a n d in t h e p r o c e s s b u i l d s u p a c l i e n t e l e of his o w n . A f t e r a f e w m o n t h s , t h e a p p r e n t i c e m a y g o on his o w n . H e may, h o w e v e r , return to his informal teacher w h e n e v e r h e is u n a b l e to find w o r k . T h i s informal training l e a d s to the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r of

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the e c o n o m y . T h r o u g h t h e i n f o r m a l t r a i n i n g there is a n informal transmission of knowledge and skills f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n to the next. T h i s i n f o r m a l training is f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e social r e p r o d u c t i o n of informality. In t h e d o m a i n o f p u r c h a s i n g , o n e s e e s h o w t h e i n f o r m a l is i n t e r t w i n e d with t h e f o r m a l . T h e g a r d e n e r b u y s p l a n t s , tools, s e e d s a n d b o o k s f r o m t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r f o r h i m s e l f o r the clients. S o m e t i m e s a client a s k s h i m to plant s o m e t h i n g . H e e i t h e r b u y s it from the store or takes it f r o m his o w n informal nursery that h e h a s d e v e l o p e d at h o m e . F o r e x a m p l e , h e h a s s o l d to clients trees that he h a s p l a n t e d in h i s o w n b a c k yard. A s a n informal producer, h e earns e x t r a m o n e y b y e n g a g i n g in t h e s e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c transactions. A l l the m o n e y h e m a k e s , h e s p e n d s o n r e n t o r t o b u y w h a t e v e r h e n e e d s f r o m t h e f o r m a l sector. T h e i n f o r m a l g a r d e n e r also s u b c o n t r a c t s to t a k e c a r e of overflow of w o r k . O n c e h e fills his w o r k s c h e d u l e for t h e w e e k , h e m a y t a k e o n a d d i t i o n a l clients. H e b e c o m e s then t h e m a n a g e r of an itinerant or informal firm in the s e n s e that h e hires o n e or m o r e p e o p l e to d o extra j o b s . W h i l e h e c h a r g e s $40 p e r m o n t h for a small yard, he pays only $ 8 per hour to his employee and expects h i m to d o the j o b in n o m o r e than t w o h o u r s , a s s u m i n g that h e spends one hour every other week o n the job. As an informal manager, h e m a y s u p e r v i s e if h e is d o i n g a n o t h e r n e a r b y yard. A t the v e r y least, h e w i l l c h e c k out the result b e f o r e h e p a y s his i n f o r m a l w o r k e r . In this w a y h e m a i n t a i n s control o v e r t h e output, m a k e s extra m o n e y , enlarges b o t h h i s clientele a n d profit a n d p o s s i b l y h i s list of e m p l o y e e s . S o m e t i m e s t h e y are n o t e m p l o y e d to w o r k i n d e p e n d e n t l y , b u t o n l y as h e l p e r s . This d e c i s i o n is m a d e on the k i n d of w o r k t o b e d o n e , t h e availability o f t h e informal entrepreneur a n d h i s l e v e l of trust in t h e e m p l o y e e . T h e transactions b e t w e e n the e n t r e p r e n e u r a n d t h e w o r k e r a r e p a i d in cash b a s e d o n a n informal verbal contract. W h i l e t h e i n f o r m a l e n t r e p r e n e u r m a y give an i n f l a t e d e s t i m a t e in t e r m s of the n u m b e r s of h o u r s n e e d e d to c o m p l e t e the j o b , the e m p l o y e e c a n n o t d o t h e s a m e to the e n t r e p r e n e u r s i n c e the latter h a s m u c h e x p e r i e n c e b e h i n d h i m . T h e e n t r e p r e n e u r c h a r g e s a flat fee w h i l e h e p a y s h i s e m p l o y e e on a n h o u r l y b a s i s . T h e i n f o r m a l e n t r e p r e n e u r is n o w m a k i n g m o n e y i n t w o distinct w a y s : in the w o r k h e d o e s a n d the w o r k he hires o t h e r p e o p l e t o d o . This

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e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l p r a c t i c e is s o m e t i m e s cyclical. S o m e t i m e s the i n f o r m a l d o e s n o t h a v e e n o u g h w o r k t o u n l o a d p a r t of it o n to someone else's shoulders. The w o r k e r hired by the informal entrepreneur m a y b e simply a p e r s o n in training, a s o n o r an a c q u a i n t a n c e . W e f i n d illegal aliens h i r i n g o t h e r aliens o f t h e s a m e e t h n i c g r o u p to w o r k that way. H o w e v e r , it is also c o m m o n to find a p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t or citizen e x p l o i t i n g alien l a b o r this way. W h i l e the p e r s o n is in training h e m a y not get m u c h in t e r m s o f c a s h from the e n t r e p r e neur, b u t h e is getting a s m a l l w a g e a n d s o m e t i m e s f r e e shelter. T h e s e a p p r e n t i c e s m a y d e v e l o p their o w n clientele a n d m o v e out o n their o w n . O t h e r i n f o r m a l s m a y b e h i r e d j u s t to h e l p w i t h certain k i n d s o f w o r k b u t d o n o t w i s h to b e c o m e e n g a g e d in g a r d e n i n g as a p e r m a n e n t w a y of m a k i n g a living. O t h e r s a r e g a r d e n e r s w h o s p e c i a l i z e in a specific f o r m of w o r k a n d d o n o t h a v e e n o u g h clients to k e e p t h e m busy. W h e n e v e r t h e y h a v e s o m e f r e e t i m e , they m a y a g r e e to w o r k f o r a n o t h e r g a r d e n e r for less m o n e y than t h e y w o u l d m a k e if it w a s their o w n client. T h e informal itinerant firm f u n c t i o n s like a n y f o r m a l f i r m . T h e e n t r e p r e n e u r is e x p e c t e d to h a v e skills that will a l l o w t h e o p e r a tion to b e s u c c e s s f u l . H e is a m a n a g e r , a n a c c o u n t a n t , a w o r k e r a n d a d e c i s i o n - m a k e r . S o m e t i m e s a w i f e p l a y s the role o f secretary, g e t t i n g m e s s a g e s , w o r k i n g out s c h e d u l e s a n d f i x i n g p r i c e s . A t t i m e s s h e d o e s the w o r k of m a n a g e r a n d a c c o u n t a n t a s w e l l . T h e h o m e b e c o m e s then the h e a d q u a r t e r s of the firm, t h e site w h e r e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e activities take p l a c e . T h i s c o r r o b o r a t e s an earlier f i n d i n g b y Silver ( 1 9 8 9 : 118) w h o n o t e s that ' m a n y h a v e j o b s that t a k e t h e m to a v a r i e t y of w o r k p l a c e s , l e a v i n g a d m i n i s trative activities to b e p e r f o r m e d in t h e h o m e . ' O n e m u s t s e e i n f o r m a l g a r d e n e r s as f i r m s c o m p e t i n g a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s for clients a n d f o r their h e g e m o n i c p r a c t i c e s in c o n t r o l l i n g n e i g h borhood yards. T h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f o r m a l a n d the i n f o r m a l is c a r r i e d out at v a r i o u s levels. T w o e x a m p l e s w i l l suffice h e r e . T h e gard e n e r h u r t s h i m s e l f t h r o u g h a n a c c i d e n t w h i l e w o r k i n g in s o m e o n e ' s y a r d . T h e h o m e o w n e r calls his i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n y , w h i c h p a y s $ 9 0 to a p h y s i c i a n f o r h i s t r e a t m e n t a s this k i n d o f a c c i d e n t is c o v e r e d b y the h o m e o w n e r ' s i n s u r a n c e policy. H e r e the i n f o r m a l , w h i l e d o i n g a n i n f o r m a l j o b , h a s h a d his a c c i d e n t

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e x p e n s e s p a i d for b y the f o r m a l s e c t o r b e c a u s e the h o m e o w n e r was i n s u r e d . H e r e is a c a s e of the i n f o r m a l taking a d v a n t a g e of the f o r m a l sector, or the f o r m a l sector r e s c u i n g s o m e o n e f r o m the informal. In the p r o c e s s of d o i n g t h e i n f o r m a l j o b in the i n f o r m a l economic sector, the g a r d e n e r / h a u l i e r also e n t e r s the f o r m a l m a r k e t . He c h a r g e s $ 2 0 for a d u m p , a n d p a r t of this m o n e y is u s e d to p a y the d u m p site w h i c h is r e g u l a t e d b y t h e f o r m a l sector. T h e r e is an i n t e r m i n g l i n g here b e t w e e n the i n f o r m a l status of h i s practice and h i s t r a n s a c t i o n s in t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . This is a n i n f o r m a l practice that o p e r a t e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in t h e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l sectors.

INFORMAL MECHANICS The e n t r y o f i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c into t h e p r o f e s s i o n is a c h i e v e d in t w o m a j o r w a y s . M e c h a n i c a l r e p a i r i s l e a r n e d e i t h e r in the i n f o r m a l sector or in the formal sector. W h e n the skills are acquired informally, often the p e r s o n learns b y himself through playing with cars or from a family m e m b e r , friend or acquaintance. In o n e i n s t a n c e , w e f o u n d an i n d i v i d u a l w h o h a d l e a r n e d these skills f r o m h i s father a n d t h e n f o u n d w o r k in the f o r m a l sector. In fact, the t h r e e A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n m e c h a n i c s w e i n t e r v i e w e d all w o r k in t h e f o r m a l sector. F o r t h e m their w o r k as a m e c h a n i c is not the b a s i c source of t h e i r i n c o m e . It is s u p p l e m e n t a r y , e x c e p t w h e n t h e y d o not h a v e a j o b in the f o r m a l sector. T w o o f t h e s e three l e a r n e d their skills in the i n f o r m a l sector a n d w e r e able to get j o b s in the f o r m a l sector as m e c h a n i c s in a g a r a g e . T h e i r father w a s a k i n d of j a c k o f all trades a n d t h e y w e n t with h i m w h e n e v e r h e w a s a s k e d to r e p a i r s o m e o n e ' s car. T h e p e o p l e in t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d k n e w that t h e y fixed c a r s a n d they did the j o b either in their o w n d r i v e w a y , t h e client's d r i v e w a y or w h e r e v e r t h e y c o u l d f i n d a spot. In o n e c a s e , a client r e p o r t s that s h e d r o v e h e r c a r m e c h a n i c ' s h o u s e , b r o u g h t the parts a n d h e p r o v i d e d t h e He did not charge anything because her boyfriend w o r k e d ' j u n k y a r d ' a n d c o u l d g e t parts c h e a p e r f o r h i m . T h e j u n k

t o the labour. for the yard is

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for the i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c w h a t G r a n d A u t o , an a u t o p a r t s store, is for the f o r m a l m e c h a n i c , that is a p l a c e t o a c q u i r e p a r t s . Working for a garage, another i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c will also d o w o r k o n t h e s i d e . A s a f o r m a l e m p l o y e e in the g a r a g e h e d e p e n d s o n c o n d i t i o n s i m p o s e d b y t h e b o s s . W h e n h e is at h o m e , h o w e v e r , h e w o r k s for h i m s e l f . H e fixes n e i g h b o r s ' c a r s with m i n o r troubles, although owners with cars that require access t o s p e c i a l t o o l s are r e f e r r e d to g a r a g e s i n t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r . S o m e t i m e s h e rents s p e c i a l tools f r o m the f o r m a l s e c t o r o r b o r r o w s t h e m from a n o t h e r i n f o r m a l . T h e j u n k y a r d a l s o p l a y s a significant role in the a c q u i s i t i o n of p a r t s . It is b a s i c a l l y a n informal market w h e r e a m e c h a n i c c a n c o m e a n d b u y c h e a p l y parts that a r e still u s a b l e f r o m j u n k e d cars. T h i s is a r e c y c l i n g p r o cess w h e r e b y these p a r t s a r e u s e d to revitalize o t h e r c a r s . In this e x a m p l e , w e are able to i d e n t i f y n o t o n l y t h e informal professional a n d the informal garage (i.e. the place w h e r e h e fixes c a r s ) b u t also the informal store or the j u n k y a r d . T h e i n f o r m a l store f u n c t i o n s on u r b a n l a n d r u n b y a n informal shopkeeper. C a r s that c a n n o t b e fixed easily a r e d u m p e d there. P a r t s from t h e s e cars a r e s o l d b y the s h o p k e e p e r for a n o m i n a l f e e . A n o t h e r i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c , w h o l e a r n e d his skills f r o m h i s father, t o o k o v e r his f a t h e r ' s clients w h e n the old m a n d i e d a n d d e v e l o p e d h i s o w n clientele. A l t h o u g h h e n o w w o r k s a s a n i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c , h e p r e f e r s to w o r k in the f o r m a l s e c t o r as a m a t t e r of taste a n d reliability of i n c o m e . W o r k i n g p a r t t i m e for a w a r e h o u s e in S a n L e a n d r o three d a y s a w e e k , for the r e m a i n i n g part of the w e e k he w o r k s i n the i n f o r m a l sector. A s an i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c , h e w o r k s b a s i c a l l y at t h e client's h o u s e . S o m e t i m e s h e b r i n g s the car to h i s o w n h o u s e . H i s front yard, or t h e y a r d or d r i v e w a y of his client, is u s e d as a n informal garage to fix t h e car. S o m e t i m e s h e e v e n d r i v e s the car to t h e j u n k y a r d w h e r e h e c a n try different p a r t s u n t i l h e finds s o m e t h i n g that fits. T h e r e are t w o j u n k yards that h e g o e s to - o n e i n West O a k l a n d a n d the other in H a y w a r d - a n d b u y s p a r t s t h e r e t o save money. H e c h a r g e s his clients o n t h e basis of h i s e s t i m a t e of l a b o r time a n d the c o s t of w h a t e v e r h e m a y b u y c h e a p l y f r o m t h e j u n k y a r d is p a s s e d o n . H o w e v e r , t h e client m a y d e c i d e to p u r c h a s e the parts h i m s e l f , w h i l e p a y i n g the m e c h a n i c o n l y f o r labor. To

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replace a n e n g i n e c o s t s b e t w e e n $ 1 7 5 a n d $ 2 2 5 , to t u n e it u p costs $20. T h i s is e v i d e n t l y p o c k e t m o n e y , a n d n o tax is p a i d o n this transaction as it is n o t r e p o r t e d to t h e I n t e r n a l R e v e n u e Service. The m o n e y is also s o m e t i m e s u s e d to p a y rent a n d utilities. This man e s t i m a t e s that w h e n h e is n o t e m p l o y e d in the f o r m a l sector he m a k e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 2 0 0 p e r w e e k . C l i e n t e l e c o m e m a i n l y b y w o r d of m o u t h . S o m e t i m e s p e o p l e for w h o m h e h a s w o r k e d s e n d clients t o h i m c o m i n g b a s i c a l l y from the n e i g h b o r h o o d a n d o u t l y i n g a r e a s . H e recalls t h a t f o r m e r clients w h o h a d m o v e d t o R i c h m o n d c o n t i n u e to p r o v i d e h i m with w o r k a n d n e w clients. T h e o u t m i g r a t i o n of clients h a s led to an e x t e n s i o n of his w o r k t o o t h e r n e i g h b o r h o o d s in O a k l a n d and n e a r b y cities. H e is a l s o part of a n e t w o r k of i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c s . H e s a y s h e interacts w i t h four o t h e r m e c h a n i c s , w h o refer p e o p l e to h i m , help h i m w i t h advice o r l e n d h i m tools. H e also b u y s p a r t s f r o m them. W h e n they h a v e t o o m u c h w o r k f o r a w e e k , t h e y ask h i m to d o s o m e of it. W h a t e v e r m o n e y h e m a k e s , h e k e e p s , a l t h o u g h he d o e s n o t a l w a y s r e c e i v e cash for h i s labor. S o m e t i m e s it is s i m p l y p a r t of a n e x c h a n g e of s e r v i c e s . H e fixes t h e c a r of a s t u d e n t n e i g h b o r a n d t h e s t u d e n t cuts t h e grass in his y a r d . T h e m e c h a n i c a l skills h e l e a r n e d in the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r w e r e very u s e f u l in his search f o r e m p l o y m e n t in the f o r m a l sector. H e l a n d e d a j o b as a c a r - s t e r e o installer in a place that s p e c i a l i z e s in this k i n d of w o r k , t h o u g h he c o n t i n u e s to fix the c a r s of his n e i g h b o r s . W h e n h e w o r k s full t i m e in t h e f o r m a l sector, h e w o r k s a s a m e c h a n i c at t h e w e e k e n d . H e is k n o w n i n t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d a n d p e o p l e c o n s t a n t l y call o n h i m . T h e c o n t r a c t is m a d e o r a l l y a n d h e o n l y takes c a s h . If t h e r e is a d i s a g r e e m e n t , h e tries to get the c l i e n t ' s f a m i l y m e m b e r s i n v o l v e d . If the p r o b l e m c a n n o t b e s o l v e d at this l e v e l , h e m a y leave w i t h the u n d e r s t a n d i n g that h e will not w o r k for this p a r t i c u l a r client again. S o m e t i m e s he t a k e s a client's car to a f o r m a l g a r a g e s o h e can use the s p e c i a l tools t h e r e . T h e g a r a g e c h a r g e s h i m $ 1 5 , s o e v e n the g a r a g e o w n e r in t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r is getting s o m e m o n e y from t h e w o r k the i n f o r m a l d o e s in the i n f o r m a l sector. A portion of t h e f o r m a l g a r a g e s p a c e is i n f o r m a l i z e d at t i m e s as the i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c e s t a b l i s h e s an e n c l a v e to c a r r y out his

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i n f o r m a l m e c h a n i c ' s w o r k . T h i s s h o w s t h e elasticity a n d t h e b i f u n c t i o n a l i t y of f o r m a l u r b a n s p a c e . H e r e a g a i n w e find the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r is tied to the f o r m a l s e c tor at v a r i o u s levels. T h e client f r o m t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r r e q u e s t s l a b o r f r o m t h e i n f o r m a l . M o n e y is t a k e n f r o m c i r c u l a t i o n in the f o r m a l s e c t o r in e x c h a n g e for s e r v i c e s i n the i n f o r m a l , a n d m o n e y t h a t is m a d e in t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r is i n v e s t e d in t h e b a n k i n g s y s t e m of the f o r m a l . T r a n s a c t i o n s m a d e in the i n f o r m a l sector f o r l a b o r are c a r r i e d o u t in the g a r a g e s q u a r e l y l o c a t e d in the f o r m a l s e c t o r w h i l e p a r t s are a c q u i r e d in the f o r m a l s e c t o r to c o m p l e t e w o r k d o n e in the i n f o r m a l . Skills l e a r n e d in the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r are u s e d i n t h e f o r m a l , a n d skills l e a r n e d in the f o r m a l s e c t o r are u s e d in the i n f o r m a l to e a r n e x t r a d o l l a r s . P e o p l e w h o h a v e w o r k e d full time in t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r fall b a c k on i n f o r m a l j o b s w h e n t h e y b e c o m e u n e m p l o y e d .

INFORMAL CARPENTERS I n f o r m a l c a r p e n t e r s t e n d t o w o r k in m o s t a r e a s of c o n s t r u c t i o n . W i t h i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n industry, s o m e a r e j a c k s of all t r a d e s . O n e Anglo-American informal carpenter w h o also worked as a carpet layer told m e that h e h a d l e a r n e d h i s s k i l l s f r o m h i s b r o t h e r - i n l a w in E n g l a n d w h e n h e w a s 14 years o l d , t h o u g h h e h a d c o m e o v e r to A m e r i c a as a m u s i c i a n . W h e n h e r e a c h e d the S a n F r a n cisco B a y A r e a , h e s t a r t e d b y d o i n g p a i n t i n g j o b s , f o r e x a m p l e the interior of a b u i l d i n g that h o u s e d a v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n . O n e of the r e a s o n s that h e w a s offered the j o b , a n d o n e o f t h e c o n ditions o f t h e contract, w a s that h e e m p l o y e d l o c a l A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n p e o p l e . H e c o m p l a i n e d : 'It w a s n o t v e r y s u c c e s s f u l for m e b e c a u s e I d i d n o t k n o w a n y b l a c k p e o p l e . T h e r e a r e a lot of b l a c k folks w h o c o m e a r o u n d here. T h e y c o n s t a n t l y p a s s b y a n d let it b e k n o w n that t h e y a r e l o o k i n g for w o r k . F o r t h e t e n b l a c k s I hired, the w o r k done w a s not very encouraging. That's a s y m p t o m of the a r e a . ' H o w d i d h e get h i s c l i e n t s ? H e w a s first h i r e d b y a f o r m a l contractor w h o h a d m e t h i m at a n informal dinner party. It w a s at that d i n n e r t h a t t h e informal contract w a s s t r u c k a n d c o n c l u d e d d u r i n g the f o l l o w i n g w e e k .

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W h e n h e started, h e h a d not at that p o i n t in t i m e a d v e r t i s e d h i m s e l f a s a p a i n t e r in t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d , t h o u g h h e felt h e c o u l d h a n d l e t h e j o b successfully. T h e j o b l a s t e d a b o u t t h r e e m o n t h s a n d p e o p l e in the n e i g h b o r h o o d got t o k n o w h i m a s a painter, a s k i n g a s t h e y p a s s e d b y if they c o u l d b o r r o w a b r u s h f r o m h i m , a ladder, o r spare c a n o f paint. T h e y a l r e a d y r e c o g n i z e d his d o g a n d c a r b e c a u s e h e h a d m o v e d to the n e i g h b o r h o o d f o u r m o n t h s earlier. H e b e c a m e a p a r t of the c o m m u n i t y , r e c o g n i z e d n o t only as a r e s i d e n t in the n e i g h b o r h o o d b u t a l s o as a w o r k e r j u s t b y his p r e s e n c e a n d w a s e v e n a s k e d if h e c o u l d d o different k i n d s of j o b s . H e n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , that t h e r e w a s n o t a lot of m o n e y a r o u n d a n d p e o p l e w e r e surprised at t h e a m o u n t h e e x p e c t e d p e r hour. H e h a d w o r k e d p r e v i o u s l y for u p p e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s h o m e o w n e r s in M a r i n c o u n t y a n d B e r k e l e y b u t to e x p e c t t h o s e rates n o w w o u l d h a v e b e e n p r o f e s s i o n a l s u i c i d e . H e n o t e s that: O n c e I w a s in the a r e a w o r k i n g a n d visible, then p e o p l e w o u l d c o m e t o m e . T h e r e a r e certain q u e s t i o n s w h e n y o u are intere s t e d in e m p l o y i n g s o m e b o d y y o u a s k . T h e n y o u c o m e from d i f f e r e n t angles. C a n y o u d o this w o r k ? D o y o u h a v e t i m e to d o the w o r k ? H o w m u c h d o y o u c h a r g e if I w e r e t o e m p l o y y o u ? M o s t o f t h e p e o p l e in t h e area a s k h o w m u c h d o y o u c h a r g e . A t first, I d i d n o t get w o r k f r o m the l o c a l s e x c e p t r a i s e d e y e b r o w s . H a v i n g lived a n d m a d e friends a r o u n d , I started d r o p p i n g m y p r i c e s n o t s i m p l y in order to g e t w o r k , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e I b a s i c a l l y w a n t to w o r k w i t h i n this c o m m u n i t y . I n e v e r a d v e r t i s e d in the n e w s p a p e r , on electric p o s t s , c h u r c h b u l l e t i n b o a r d s . I get t h e clients b e c a u s e the p e o p l e k n o w m e . Word of mouth travels. I subcontract and work with various people w h o have extra work (construction companies and both f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s ) . T h e y call m e u p . I d o n ' t h a v e a licence. T h e f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l h a s a l i c e n c e a n d hires m e a s a n u n l i c e n s e d p e r s o n . H e s u p e r v i s e s m y w o r k if I a m w i t h h i m or I d o it a l o n e . C o n t r a c t o r s d o n o t tell y o u h o w m u c h t h e y a r e getting f o r t h e j o b . T h e y s i m p l y offer y o u a fixed p e r h o u r f e e a n d t h e y tell y o u h o w l u c k y y o u are. T h e c o n t r a c t is s t r u c k b y w o r d of m o u t h . A g o o d c l i e n t will tell f r i e n d s a b o u t the i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d this k i n d o f informal

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publicity h e l p s e n l a r g e the clientele of t h e i n f o r m a l . T h e p r o d u c t itself is a f o r m of a d v e r t i s e m e n t . T h e n e i g h b o r or f r i e n d w h o sees g o o d w o r k m a y w a n t t o h i r e the i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l w h o did it. L a n d l o r d s m a y let t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t of a b u i l d i n g d o routine m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k . If the s u p e r i n t e n d e n t c a n n o t d o it personally, h e m a y h i r e an i n f o r m a l t h r o u g h his n e t w o r k . R e n t a l p r o p e r t y w i t h a resident s u p e r i n t e n d e n t is o n e area w h e r e p l u m b i n g , m a s o n r y , c a r p e n t r y a n d electric w o r k is often d o n e b y i n f o r m a l s . F o r m a l i t y is also i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h i n f o r m a l i t y in t h e p u r c h a s e of m a t e r i a l s . T h e f o r m it m a y take d e p e n d s o n w h a t t h e o w n e r k n o w s a b o u t the j o b a n d o n the c r e d e n t i a l s of the i n f o r m a l . S o m e clients p r e f e r to give m o n e y to the i n f o r m a l so h e c a n b u y the m a t e r i a l , s o m e m a y d e c i d e to a c c o m p a n y the i n f o r m a l to the store, o r m a y later r e v i e w the receipts. L e f t o v e r m a t e r i a l from a n o t h e r j o b c a n also b e u s e d . In this c a s e , the w o r k e r m a y m a k e the client p a y for the m a t e r i a l h e b r i n g s t o the site. S o m e t i m e s the i n f o r m a l g o e s to a w a r e h o u s e in E m e r y v i l l e or B e r k e l e y to s c a v e n g e f o r g o o d pieces o f w o o d , in this w a y l o w e r i n g t h e cost of o v e r h e a d t h a t the w a r e h o u s e o w n e r w o u l d h a v e to p a y f o r w a s t e r e m o v a l . T h e i n f o r m a l m a y find that c o m p a n i e s t r a n s p o r t i n g glass are a l s o g o o d f o r s c a v e n g i n g . T h e s e c o m p a n i e s t h r o w out the w o o d in their d u m p s t e r s a n d are g l a d to see p e o p l e t a k i n g it away. S u c h l e f t o v e r m a t e r i a l is also a s o u r c e of i n c o m e f o r t h e inform a l as h e c a n sell it to t h e client for w h o m h e is w o r k i n g . H o w ever, t h e w o o d is s e l d o m r e a d y to b e t r a n s p o r t e d t o the w o r k site a n d n a i l s o f t e n h a v e t o b e r e m o v e d . M o r e o v e r , the i n f o r m a l m u s t i n v e s t t i m e in transport. T h e a m b i g u i t y of the social s t a t u s of the i n f o r m a l is clear to b o t h t h e f o r m a l client a n d the i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l . T h e f o r m e r h a s little p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s p e c t for the latter, a n d for the latter, there is a g r e a t r i s k of n o t g e t t i n g p a i d . W h e n this h a p p e n s , f o r m a l w a y s o f r e d r e s s c a n n o t b e u s e d b e c a u s e the activity m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d illegal b y t h e f o r m a l sector. T h e i n f o r m a l f i n d s h i m s e l f in a s i m i l a r d i l e m m a w h e n he hires a n o t h e r i n f o r m a l f o r h e l p . If this i n f o r m a l d o e s n o t d o a g o o d j o b o r steals tools, t h e r e is n o w a y this p r o b l e m c a n b e s o l v e d t h r o u g h the c o u r t s . In this s i t u a t i o n t h e c h a n n e l s o f the informal judicial system h a v e to b e used.

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S o m e t i m e s an i n f o r m a l is u s e d t o r e s c u e a f o r m a l operation, for e x a m p l e a j o b for w h i c h a c o n t r a c t o r h a s b e e n p a i d b u t h a s left u n f i n i s h e d a n d n o t w e l l d o n e . A n i n f o r m a l m a y b e h i r e d to c o m plete t h e j o b , c o s t i n g the o w n e r less t h a n if it w e r e to b e c o m p l e t e d b y the f o r m a l contractor. T h e i n f o r m a l m a y h a v e m o r e skills a n d b e m o r e reliable than t h e c a r p e n t e r f r o m the f o r m a l sector b u t has to w o r k in this w a y b e c a u s e he h a p p e n s to b e a n undocumented immigrant. T h e informal network is the k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the recruitm e n t p r o c e s s , the f i n d i n g of o c c a s i o n a l j o b s a n d t h e sharing of k n o w l e d g e a m o n g p e e r s . R e c r u i t m e n t is often p r o m o t e d b y w a y of f r i e n d s h i p a n d a p p r e n t i c e s h i p . I n f o r m a l s p r o v i d e j o b s to other i n f o r m a l s w h e n t h e y h a v e too m u c h w o r k to c o m p l e t e in a given w e e k , p a s s i n g j o b s t o s o m e o n e else in their n e t w o r k . A t other t i m e s , a generalist informal m a y call o n a specialist informal, like a n electrician. T h e i n f o r m a l also g i v e s j o b s to f o r m a l s . H e m a y call o n a specialist in t h e f o r m a l sector t o d o a j o b , t o o v e r s e e the e x e c u t i o n of a j o b or t o inspect the j o b o n c e it is d o n e . T h e r e are also p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o are a w a r e of t h e existence of the informal network a n d w h o m a y call on i n f o r m a l s for s m a l l j o b s , hire t h e m for specific j o b s in o r d e r to lower o v e r h e a d costs, o r s i m p l y direct t h e m t o clients. T h e w o r k of the i n f o r m a l c a r p e n t e r is n o t c a r r i e d out exclusively in a n y specific n e i g h b o r h o o d . R a t h e r this t y p e o f i n f o r m a l is h i r e d b o t h inside a n d o u t s i d e the n e i g h b o r h o o d . M o r e o v e r , there are lower-class informals one must distinguish from middle-class i n f o r m a l s . M a n y d o n o t o w n a truck, a car or e v e n t h e tools they n e e d , b u t are hired b y m i d d l e - c l a s s i n f o r m a l s as h e l p e r s . H e n c e a stratification system is b u i l t into the i n f o r m a l sector itself.

STREET VENDORS T h r o u g h o u t the S a n F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a w e find m a n y street v e n d o r s selling o n e f o r m of p r o d u c t o r another. S o m e t i m e s they s t a n d in a specific p l a c e like a street corner. O t h e r s a r e itinerant, c h a n g i n g l o c a t i o n s d e p e n d i n g o n the time of d a y o r the d a y of t h e w e e k , or s i m p l y c a n v a s s i n g f r o m d o o r to door. In the p r e v i o u s sections, w e e m p h a s i z e d i n f o r m a l

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p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o sell their s e r v i c e s a n d i n f o r m a l activities c l o s e l y l i n k e d to the f o r m a l sector. It is a l s o i m p o r t a n t to a n a l y z e the i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y a m o n g street and open-air vendors. U n l i c e n s e d street v e n d o r s are less v i s i b l e in the A m e r i c a n city t h a n t h e y a r e in the third w o r l d b e c a u s e t h e y a r e m o r e l i k e l y to b e p e n a l i z e d b y the state (Tinker, 1 9 8 7 ) . In t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a , s t r e e t v e n d o r s sell a variety of i t e m s f r o m h a n d m a d e gift m a t e r i a l s to c o o k e d f o o d . T h e i r i n f o r m a l a n d itinerant b u s i n e s s e s attract c l i e n t s f r o m e v e r y s p e c t r u m o f the local p o p u l a t i o n , as w e l l a s f u r t h e r afield. T h e s e gift materials are m a d e in h o m e s h o p s a n d s w e a t s h o p s for the s t r e e t o p e r a t i o n . N o t all h o m e s h o p s are b a c k w a r d - o r f o r w a r d - l i n k e d to a f o r m a l firm. S o m e f o l l o w the i n f o r m a l route a n d sell in informal street markets. It is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e that n o e t h n i c g r o u p h a s a n y m o n o p o l y o v e r this f o r m of t r a d e . A n g l o s , A s i a n s , A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s a n d L a t i n o s e q u a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e in it b o t h as b u y e r s a n d v e n d o r s . L a t i n o street v e n d o r s c a n be s e e n selling T - s h i r t s a n d s w e a t s h i r t s t o t o u r i s t s at U n i o n S q u a r e a n d F i s h e r m a n ' s W h a r f in S a n F r a n c i s c o . I n a s t u d y o f t h e M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n c o m m u n i t y in E a s t L o s A n g e l e s , it h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t s t r e e t v e n d i n g is a w i d e s p r e a d i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c activity. A m o n g t h e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e s are los moscos (flies), day l a b o r e r s w h o stand in a specific area waiting to sell their l a b o r t o a n i n f o r m a l e m p l o y e r , a n d t h e mariachis (Mexican musicians) w h o s h o w u p with their musical instruments and w a i t o n a s p e c i f i c s t r e e t c o r n e r to b e h i r e d f o r a p a r t y o r b y a bar, as w e l l a s t h e ' c a r r i e r s ' , the ' a s p h a l t v e n d o r s ' , t h e ' p u s h c a r t v e n d o r s ' , the ' t e n t v e n d o r s ' , t h e ' w e e k e n d v e n d o r s ' , the 'auto v e n d o r s ' a n d the ' R o a c h C o a c h e s ' (large f o o d trucks) (Rojas, 1 9 9 1 : 5 2 - 4 ) . This elaborate classification w a s developed to s h o w t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n s t r e e t v e n d o r s in E a s t L o s A n g e l e s . R o j a s ( 1 9 9 1 : 5 2 - 4 ) furt h e r a r g u e s that t h e s e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s , w h i c h m a y n o t b e noticed b y the larger public, constitute a circuit of informal c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the vendors a n d prospective Latino b u y e r s . T o t h e i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n in t h e m a i n s t r e a m c u l -

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ture corresponds an informal communication system within this e t h n i c minority culture. F o o d v e n d i n g a l s o s h o w s h o w t h e i n f o r m a l r e g u l a t e s the f o r m a l . M a n y p e o p l e b u y their l u n c h e s from v e n d o r s . This p u t s p r e s s u r e s o n local r e s t a u r a n t s to l o w e r prices. In s o m e instances, the v e n d o r o c c u p i e s a specific n i c h e selling a n e x o t i c or ethnic m i n o r i t y f o o d . A t o t h e r times, h e c o m p e t e s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e f o r m a l r e s t a u r a n t b y s e l l i n g the s a m e i t e m s cheaper. In t h e m a i n s t r e a m c o m m u n i t y d o o r - t o - d o o r c a n v a s s i n g is carried out by school-age youngsters selling candies, for e x a m p l e . I n the O a k l a n d C a m b o d i a n c o m m u n i t y , it is c a r r i e d o u t b y w o m e n w h o sell m o s t l y j e w e l r y . I t i n e r a n t r e t a i l e r s d e v e l o p a n e t w o r k o f c l i e n t s , a n d in the e v e n i n g s a n d o n w e e k e n d s they visit the h o m e s of compatriots to sell their p r o d u c e to prospective buyers. S o m e t i m e s these p r o d u c t s are h a n d m a d e , sometimes not. F l e a m a r k e t s a n d g a r a g e sales a r e o t h e r types of i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c activities city r e s i d e n t s e n g a g e in. Both s e r v e a s a place for the r e c y c l i n g of still u s a b l e b u t u n n e e d e d i t e m s . In the flea m a r k e t , w e find b o t h l i c e n s e d a n d u n l i c e n s e d v e n d o r s , h o m e a n d factory-made items, and new and secondhand merchandise. H o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g t o L o z a n o ( 1 9 8 3 : 351), ' b e c a u s e they are m o r e l i k e l y to start o u t selling their o w n p o s s e s s i o n s a n d o t h e r u s e d g o o d s , they m o r e often b e c o m e s p e c i a l i z e d a s j u n k d e a l e r s ' . S h e h a s further f o u n d that ' p e r s o n a l b e l o n g i n g s m a y b e p u t u p for s a l e a n d an i t e m that is d i s p l a y e d for sale m a y b e u s e d at h o m e d u r i n g the w e e k ' ( L o z a n o , 1 9 8 3 : 3 5 2 ) . F l e a m a r k e t s a n d street v e n d i n g are s e c o n d a r y m a r k e t s that attract p e o p l e in search of b a r g a i n s . T h e y s e r v e as an e x t e n s i o n to f o r m a l s t o r e s or f o r m a l s e c t o r f i r m s . T h e l a t t e r f e e d t h e m w i t h their u n s o l d m e r c h a n d i s e a n d t h e y p r o v i d e i n return a n o u t l e t for t h e s e h a r d - t o - s e l l products. W h i l e the flea m a r k e t is a w e e k e n d event, the g a r a g e sale is m o r e l i k e l y to b e a s e a s o n a l or a n n u a l affair. B o t h a l l o w the v e n d o r a n o p p o r t u n i t y to m a k e e x t r a dollars. T h e s e activities take i t e m s p u r c h a s e d in the f o r m a l s e c t o r a n d resell t h e m in the i n f o r m a l sector. T h i s m o n e y is a g a i n u s e d for t r a n s a c t i o n s in the f o r m a l sector.

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VISIBLE FIRMS A N D INVISIBLE LABORERS In the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s , t h e e m p h a s i s h a s b e e n p l a c e d on i n f o r m a l i t y i n the i n f o r m a l sector. W e n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n to i n f o r m a l i t y w i t h i n the f o r m a l sector. It is o u r v i e w that t h e f o r m a l sector f u n c t i o n s also o n t h e b a s i s of informality, e i t h e r b y a l l o w i n g t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y to flourish in its i n t e r s t i c e s or b y e x t e n d i n g its f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s within o r w i t h o u t t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o f the firm. In S a n F r a n c i s c o , w e f i n d several A s i a n - A m e r i c a n s h o p s that specialize in the repair o f televisions a n d o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c p r o d u c t s . T h e s e function as front b u s i n e s s e s so that b o t h f o r m a l a n d legal p r o c e d u r e s are c a r r i e d out in t h e o p e n a n d in t h e s h o p . H o w e v e r , t h e w o r k is a c t u a l l y d o n e b y i n f o r m a l s in t h e i r residences i n s i d e or outside the city, and o n c e the w o r k is c o m p l e t e d , the p r o d u c t is r e t u r n e d t o t h e front b u s i n e s s . T h i s is w h y w e call these l a b o r e r s ' i n v i s i b l e ' b e c a u s e t h e y c a r r y out t h e i r s u b c o n t r a c t e d w o r k in the s h a d o w of the f o r m a l s e c t o r of t h e e c o n omy. T h e front b u s i n e s s c o u l d p r o b a b l y n o t s u r v i v e w i t h o u t them. We a l s o f i n d f r o n t - d o o r b u s i n e s s e s t h a t s e r v e t o c o v e r u p b a c k d o o r b u s i n e s s e s . A d i n i n g p l a c e will s o m e t i m e s s e r v e b o t h as a f o r m a l l y a p p r o v e d r e s t a u r a n t a n d as a v e n u e f o r t h e n u m b e r s game where players c o m e to purchase their n u m b e r s and receive their w i n n i n g s . T h e e x i s t e n c e of the lottery attracts c l i e n t s to the r e s t a u r a n t , a n d the m o n e y m a d e in t h e r a c k e t b u s i n e s s is u s e d to help p a y for the restaurant operation. We also f i n d firms in w h i c h s o m e p r o d u c t i o n is c a r r i e d o n in s w e a t s h o p s . T h e s e are h o m e industries m a k i n g g a r m e n t s or fixing c l o t h i n g . S u c h s w e a t s h o p firms are h i r e d b y f o r m a l f i r m s s p e cifically t o p r o v i d e these k i n d s of s e r v i c e s w h i c h are p r o v i d e d b y p e o p l e f r o m d i v e r s e e t h n i c a n d class b a c k g r o u n d s . S i l v e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) , w h o h a s a n a l y z e d the U S c e n s u s , finds a l i n k b e t w e e n s u b c o n t r a c t i n g c h a i n s a n d t h e g r o w t h i n illegal h o m e w o r k . S h e f u r t h e r n o t e s that: T h o u s a n d s of H i s p a n i c a n d A s i a n h o m e w o r k e r s s t u f f circuit b o a r d s in Silicon Valley a n d are p a i d off t h e b o o k s . S u b c o n t r a c t o r s in S a n F r a n c i s c o ' s C h i n a t o w n h a v e set u p h u n -

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d r e d s o f g a r m e n t i n d u s t r y s w e a t s h o p s from w h i c h , it h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d , a l m o s t h a l f t h e e m p l o y e e s take w o r k h o m e to e v a d e u n i o n rules. (Silver, 1 9 8 9 : 111) In h e r research o n t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y in the S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a , L o z a n o ( 1 9 8 9 : 5 ) has f o u n d that 'these i n d i v i d u a l s are n o t d r i v e n b y p o v e r t y a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t , b u t r a t h e r b y tensions o n t h e s h o p a n d office floor.' T h i s is a k i n d of r e b u t t a l of t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n that o n e f i n d s in m o s t of t h e literature o n t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y a m o n g t h e p o o r in the third w o r l d . F o r e x a m p l e : B a n k m a n a g e r s w h o s e technical d o c u m e n t a t i o n requires cons t a n t m a i n t e n a n c e a r r a n g e f o r m a n u a l s to b e u p d a t e d b y f o r m e r e m p l o y e e s , n o w ' f r e e l a n c i n g ' as t e c h n i c a l writers in t h e i r l i v i n g r o o m s . T h e j o b that p r o v e s too d e m a n d i n g to c o m p l e t e w i t h o u t h i r i n g e x t r a e m p l o y e e s is c h e e r f u l l y a c c e p t e d b y the o w n e r of the secretarial agency, a n d then s e n t o u t to o n e of h e r f r i e n d s w h o h a s a w o r d p r o c e s s o r at h o m e . E v e n c o m p a n i e s that p r o v i d e s o p h i s t i c a t e d s e r v i c e s s u c h as c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g a n d s o f t w a r e d e v e l o p m e n t k e e p at h a n d in the R o l o d e x a l i s t i n g of ' c o n s u l t a n t s ' , clever h a c k e r s w h o c a n b e d e p e n d e d u p o n to get the p r o g r a m written, e v e n if it m e a n s s t a y i n g u p f o r d a y s at their h o m e terminal ( L o z a n o 1989: 5 ) . S o m e t i m e s , these o p e r a t i o n s a r e o n e - o f f affairs, s o m e t i m e s t h e y a r e m o r e p e r m a n e n t . C o m p u t e r w o r k or television repairs c a r r i e d o u t in a s w e a t s h o p fashion m a k e u p a f l o u r i s h i n g i n d u s try in t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a . T h e h i g h - t e c h i n d u s t r y h a s h e l p e d i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c practices m u s h r o o m in the f o r m a l economy.

VISIBLE L A B O R E R S A N D INVISIBLE FIRMS T h e f o r m a l firm is a l s o a place w h e r e i n f o r m a l w o r k is carried o u t that is not for the b e n e f i t of the firm. T h e f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n is e x p l o i t e d b y w o r k e r s for their o w n benefit to a u g m e n t their i n c o m e s . T h i s k i n d of w o r k u s e s t w o different a s s e t s f r o m the f o r m a l firm.

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T h e first f o r m this p r a c t i c e takes is d o i n g w o r k in t h e i n f o r m a l sector at t h e p l a c e of e m p l o y m e n t . T h e p a i d t i m e that is s u p p o s e d t o b e for c a r r y i n g out t h e f i r m ' s w o r k is u s e d t o d o w o r k o n the side. W e f i n d i n d i v i d u a l s w h o are e m p l o y e d i n a f o r m a l firm b r i n g i n g t o the office t h e i r o w n e d i t i n g a n d t r a n s l a t i o n w o r k . T h e s e i n f o r m a l j o b s are c a r r i e d out o n p a i d t i m e . A s e c o n d w a y w o r k e r s u s e the f i r m ' s assets is b y u s i n g its tools. This is clearly the situation of a secretary w h o u s e s c o m p a n y paper, typewriter, d e s k a n d s p a c e to type a client's dissertation. In this e x a m p l e , s h e functions in b o t h the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l sector at the w o r k site. T h e office provides h e r a c h a n c e to e n g a g e in the informal e c o n o m y . W h i l e the laborers a r e visible, the i n f o r m a l firms for w h i c h this w o r k is carried out o n the s i d e are n o t . Cuff, w h o h a s carried o u t field research in S a n F r a n c i s c o a n d e l s e w h e r e in the nation, h a s f o u n d i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c practices to b e r a m p a n t in architectural firms. O n e area that h a s particularly c a u g h t h e r interest is that of m o o n l i g h t i n g . H e r e w e find that architects w h o a r e hired to d o w o r k for t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r are also e n g a g e d in i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c practices, u s i n g their affiliation with the f o r m a l f i r m to establish legitimacy a n d the f o r m a l w o r k site to c o m p l e t e w o r k contracted in the i n f o r m a l arena. S h e n o t e s that: Young, recently graduated architect-employees search for and accept moonlighting jobs - independent design projects completed o u t s i d e the office - n o t o n l y t o m a k e e x t r a m o n e y b u t also t o b e able to m a k e their o w n d e c i s i o n s . M o o n l i g h t i n g k e e p s ' b u s i n e s s ' at t h e office a n d p r o v i d e s an o u t l e t f o r d e s i g n . S o m e t i m e s it is a f o r m of e c o n o m i c s a b o t a g e , a s w h e n architecte m p l o y e e s accept j o b s f r o m the s a m e m a r k e t that t h e i r office g o e s after. T h e y are t h e n in e s s e n c e c o m p e t i n g f o r w o r k w i t h their o w n e m p l o y e r s . F i r m s c a n a l s o b e h e l d liable f o r p r o b l e m s t h a t o c c u r in their e m p l o y e e s ' o u t s i d e p r o j e c t s . F o r these r e a s o n s m o o n l i g h t i n g is d o n e clandestinely. (Cuff, 1 9 9 1 : 5 1 ) .

F O R M A L BUSINESS A N D INFORMAL M E R C H A N D I S E In the p r o d u c t s that are s o l d , w e find y e t a n o t h e r f o r m o f t h e m i x ture of f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y in t h e f o r m a l firm. S o m e p r o d -

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ucts c o m e f r o m the f o r m a l sector a n d o t h e r s f r o m the i n f o r m a l . B o t h o f t h e m c a n b e s o l d s i d e b y side in the f o r m a l s h o p . T h e client w h o b u y s p r o d u c t s f r o m a store is n o t likely to b e able to d i s t i n g u i s h their origins so w e f i n d that informals w h o are u n a b l e to h a v e their o w n shops for v a r i o u s reasons place their i n f o r m a l m e r c h a n d i s e in formal s h o p s . W e h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d this practice i n S a n F r a n c i s c o ' s C h i n a t o w n . T h e informal p r o d u c e r lets the s h o p o w n e r sell the i t e m s , and s h a r e s w i t h h i m or h e r the profit, an a r r a n g e m e n t often m a d e b e t w e e n f a m i l y m e m b e r s a n d friends. T h e f o r m a l s h o p t h u s provides a n i c h e s o that products f r o m the i n f o r m a l sector c a n b e s o l d in the o p e n formal-sector m a r k e t .

THE REGULATORY CAPACITY OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR T h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r points to a series of r e g u l a t o r y c o n s e q u e n c e s vis-d-vis the f o r m a l sector. B e c a u s e it is easy t o e n t e r the i n f o r m a l sector, it c a n e x p a n d , r e c r u i t i n g p e o p l e f r o m b o t h the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l s e c t o r s . F o r e x a m p l e , p r o ducers m a y come from the informal sector while buyers come f r o m t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r o r vice versa. A n o v e r f l o w o f activities in the i n f o r m a l sector c a n l e a d to a n e x p a n s i o n of the f o r m a l sector since 'informalists' w h o have accumulated enough m o n e y and skills c a n o p t to f u n c t i o n in both t h e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l sectors. T h e y c a n also s w i t c h a l t o g e t h e r to the f o r m a l s e c t o r . O n e reason w h y p e o p l e d o n o t e n t e r the f o r m a l e c o n o m i c s e c t o r as entrepren e u r s is b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t h a v e e n o u g h capital. In this m i x e d a r r a n g e m e n t , the i n f o r m a l sector e x p a n d s the d o m a i n of the f o r m a l s e c t o r b y p r o v i d i n g sufficient c a p i t a l to a l l o w i n f o r m a l s t o enter a n d enlarge the formal sector population, helping to m a i n t a i n f o r m a l s e c t o r activities b y d e c r e a s i n g o v e r h e a d costs. 5

T h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r m a y also h e l p increase h o u s e h o l d c o n s u m p t i o n in the f o r m a l sector. A l l t h e n e w p r o d u c t s created find a m a r k e t o r b u y e r s in t h e f o r m a l sector. I n c r e a s e d h o u s e h o l d i n c o m e is u s e d n o t o n l y to b u y p r o d u c t s from the f o r m a l sector, b u t a l s o f r o m the i n f o r m a l sector. H o w e v e r , the i n f o r m a l sector s o m e t i m e s r e d u c e s t h e availability o f certain p r o d u c t s to t h e f o r m a l sector. It t h u s h a s the c a p a c i t y o f either r e d u c i n g or enlarging t h e c o n t e n t of h o u s e h o l d c o n s u m p t i o n in the f o r m a l sector.

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S i n c e t h e g o o d s p r o d u c e d in the i n f o r m a l sector are n o t f o r the e x c l u s i v e u s e of the i n f o r m a l sector b u t a r e also f o r t h e f o r m a l sector, this b r i n g s a n e w r e g u l a t o r y e l e m e n t into the p i c t u r e , that of c o m p e t i t i o n . T h i s c o m p e t i t i o n affects the f o r m a l s y s t e m in different w a y s a n d at d i f f e r e n t levels. O n e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n a r i s e s in t e r m s of t h e g o o d s b e i n g c i r c u l a t e d in the m a r k e t w h i c h m a y b e different f r o m those a v a i l a b l e in the f o r m a l s e c t o r o r the s a m e t y p e s of g o o d s b u t cheaper. In either case, it d i s s u a d e s b u y e r s f r o m the f o r m a l sector a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y d e c r e a s e s the level o f profit t h a t c o u l d b e e a r n e d b y t h e f o r m a l sector. To the e x t e n t that the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r c a n m a k e the s a m e k i n d s of g o o d s a v a i l a b l e to b u y e r s , the f o r m a l sector is p u t u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o adjust its p r i c e s . If the f o r m a l sector d e c i d e s t o ignore the i n f o r m a l sector, the latter will c o n t i n u e to attract b u y e r s w h o o t h e r w i s e w o u l d h a v e s t a y e d within t h e f o r m a l sector. M o r e o v e r , w i t h the e x i s t e n c e of a n i n f o r m a l sector, t h e f o r m a l sector m u s t c o m p e t e f o r clients, a n d c o u l d lose t h e m t o the i n f o r m a l sector. O n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r m a y p r o d u c e inferior g o o d s f o r l o w - b u d g e t clients that c o m p e t e w i t h t h o s e i n the i n f o r m a l sector. In this c a s e , c o m p e t i t i o n o c c u r s in a t a r g e t e d portion o f a n already s e g m e n t e d m a r k e t . T h e i n f o r m a l sector c a n s o m e t i m e s e v e n force a s p e c i f i c firm to m o v e o u t of a n e i g h b o r h o o d , if n e w e t h n i c residents m o v e in a n d p r e f e r to b u y f r o m their o w n i n f o r m a l m a r k e t s . O n e a r e a w h e r e the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r is in s h a r p c o m p e t i t i o n with the f o r m a l s e c t o r is in u n s k i l l e d labor. S o m e u n s k i l l e d laborers in the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r a r e there p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e i m m i g r a t i o n l a w s p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g l e g a l l y in the f o r m a l e c o n omy. T h e y a r e h i r e d t o d o o d d j o b s like g a r d e n i n g in p r i v a t e h o m e s o r d i s h w a s h i n g or m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k in f o r m a l b u s i n e s s settings. A s L o z a n o (1983: 3 5 9 ) n o t e s , ' t h i s c o m p e t i t i o n r e s u l t s in i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e o n t h e state to e n f o r c e b u s i n e s s o r d i n a n c e s a n d to d r a f t a d d i t i o n a l r e g u l a t o r y l e g i s l a t i o n . ' T h e f o r m a l sector forces t h e s t a t e to r e g u l a t e t h e b o u n d a r i e s of these e n c l a v e activities, b e c a u s e t h e y e x p a n d a n d o v e r f l o w into f o r m a l sector activities.

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T h e i n f o r m a l sector m a y b e the first t o p r o v i d e a s o l u t i o n to a need felt in the c o m m u n i t y . Street f o o d v e n d i n g is a c a s e i n point. The f o r m a l sector t h e n c o m e s along a n d either rejects or accepts the s o l u t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t e s it into the f o r m a l sector. T h e i n f o r m a l sector t h u s forces the f o r m a l sector to s e t guidelines a n d policies c o n c e r n i n g street v e n d i n g , a n d to e x p a n d its control o f t h e u r b a n economy. The ethnic in that ethnic sector.

i n f o r m a l s e c t o r a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s to the m a i n t e n a n c e of e n c l a v e s b e c a u s e it p r o d u c e s the e t h n i c g o o d s c o n s u m e d e n c l a v e . If it w e r e n o t for these e t h n i c g o o d s , t h o s e in the e n c l a v e w o u l d b e c o m e full-time c o n s u m e r s in t h e f o r m a l

THE INFORMAL E C O N O M Y OF THE INFORMAL CITY T h r o u g h o u t o u r a n a l y s i s , the a i m h a s b e e n to c o n c e i v e , u n d e r stand a n d explain the e c o n o m i c basis of t h e i n f o r m a l city. I n f o r m ality is f o u n d n o t o n l y in t h e so-called i n f o r m a l sector, b u t in the f o r m a l s e c t o r as w e l l . T h i s led us o n t o d i s t i n g u i s h a n d s h o w the e x i s t e n c e of i n f o r m a l i t y in the u r b a n e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s , a n d its g e n e r a t i v e i m p a c t o n t h e f o r m a l side o f t h e e c o n o m y . F r o m a structural s t a n d p o i n t , i n f o r m a l i t y is s e e n i n t h e interstices of the f o r m a l e c o n o m y , either a s a n e n c l a v e or a s a n extension of t h e f o r m a l e c o n o m y . Evidently, the w a y i n w h i c h the i n f o r m a l is linked to t h e f o r m a l is finely n u a n c e d . T h e interstitial niche o c c u p i e d b y t h e i n f o r m a l w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of the f o r m a l e c o n o m y h e l p s s m o o t h the f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e f o r m a l e c o n o m y . T h a t i n f o r m a l function is p r o d u c e d b y the f o r m a l for formal ends. T h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is seen as a n e x t e n s i o n of the f o r m a l e c o n o m y w h e n parts of t h e p r o d u c t i o n are carried o u t i n s w e a t s h o p s , f o r e x a m p l e . A s a n e x t e n s i o n , it c a n b e r e l a t e d to the formal e c o n o m y through a backward or forward linkage process. This l i n k a g e c a n b e direct, that is w i t h o u t m e d i a t i o n , o r indirect t h r o u g h a third agency. T h e informal e c o n o m y exists also as an enclave. In the formal firm, t h e r e m a y b e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o u s e the f a c i l i t i e s t o c a r r y out i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s . U s i n g the o f f i c e w o r d -

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p r o c e s s o r t o t y p e t e x t s f o r an o u t s i d e c l i e n t is a c a s e i n p o i n t . W e f i n d s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s in h o s p i t a l s a n d a m o n g c o o k s in t h e hotel industry. T h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y is also s e e n a s p e r i p h e r a l i n t h e s e n s e that it a l l o w s the p o o r to get b y in difficult t i m e s a n d o t h e r city r e s i d e n t s to get c h e a p e r services. T h e s e activities a l l o w the i n d i v i d u a l s to s u r v i v e a n d to f u n c t i o n i n t h e f o r m a l e c o n o m y . H o w e v e r , it is p r o p e r t o c o r r e c t o n e c u r r e n t f a l l a c y . T h e g e n e r a l v i e w t h a t g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s p r o d u c e d in t h e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y a r e c h e a p e r t h a n s i m i l a r o n e s in t h e f o r m a l e c o n o m y is n o t a l w a y s t r u e . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s , o n e m u s t l o o k at f i v e d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e s : ( 1 ) t h e c o s t f a c t o r - t h a t i s , t h e c o s t of t h e item c o m p a r e d to that of a similar i t e m sold in t h e f o r m a l sector; (2) the accessibility factor - c a n the s a m e item b e found n e a r b y in t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r ? If n o t , t o t h e c o s t o n e m u s t a d d d i s t a n c e a n d t i m e e x p e n s e s ; (3) t h e i m m e d i a c y f a c t o r - t h a t i s , t h e i t e m m a y b e n e e d e d n o w a n d it m a y n o t b e p o s s i b l e t o w a i t f o r t o m o r r o w w h e n the s t o r e s a r e o p e n ; ( 4 ) t h e b e l i e f f a c t o r - t h e p u r c h a s e r m a y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i t e m is l e s s e x p e n s i v e e v e n if t h a t is not t h e c a s e ; a n d (5) t h e q u a l i t y f a c t o r w h e t h e r t h e i t e m is h a n d m a d e o r f a c t o r y m a d e . O n t h e b a s i s o f the variables m e n t i o n e d above, w e m a y c o n c l u d e that the price m a y not necessarily be comparable. T h e s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s t s w a n t to m a i n t a i n t h e distinction b e t w e e n f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l . T h e interpretive o r h e r m e n e u t i c a n a l y s t s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , see t h e a g e n t as m o v i n g f r o m o n e side to t h e other. F o r t h e latter, it is difficult to f i g u r e o u t w h e r e the f o r m a l a s p e c t e n d s a n d the i n f o r m a l b e g i n s b e c a u s e there is a h u m a n a g e n t at the c e n t e r linking b o t h . W h e n w e b r i n g in the n o t i o n o f intentionality, this c o m p l i c a t e s m a t t e r s f u r t h e r . T h e a g e n t m a y u s e the i n f o r m a l m o d e for e x p e d i e n c y in o r d e r to take a d v a n t a g e of a n o p p o r t u n i t y to s t r e n g t h e n his formal business. T h e h u m a n subject c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d in t h e p r o c e s s . H e or she is the s o u r c e o r a g e n t in t h e m a k i n g of t h e u r b a n e c o n o m y . 6

S o m e s e e the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l a s p e c t s as a s i n g l e e c o n o m y a n d reject the n o t i o n of t w o e c o n o m i e s . T h e y c o n t i n u e to u s e the d i s t i n c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e y think it to b e , a l t h o u g h unsatisfactory, n e v e r t h e l e s s necessary. C o u c h e d in s t r u c t u r a l t e r m s , this p r o b l e m c a n n o t b e s o l v e d for t h r e e reasons: (1) these a n a l y s t s f o c u s on the 7

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( m o n e y is m a d e t h r o u g h this activity); (2) t h e y identify activities a s if t h e y w e r e s e p a r a t e f r o m the f o r m a l ; a n d c o m p a r e t h e m w i t h m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l o n e s a n d find b e u n d e r g r o u n d , illegal a n d s m a l l in s i z e . W h e n the is p r e s e n t e d like this, n o s o l u t i o n c a n b e f o r t h c o m i n g . led s o far t o a g r e a t deal of c o n f u s i o n .

To u n d e r s t a n d t h e u n i f i e d n a t u r e of the u r b a n e c o n o m y , o n e m u s t s e e that the s e c t o r a l e c o n o m i c activities are p a r t o f a w h o l e , a n d a r e tied to o t h e r s e c t o r s a n d t h e m a i n s t r e a m e c o n o m y . This l i n k a g e w i t h the f o r m a l e c o n o m y b e c o m e s m o r e o b v i o u s w h e n w e l o o k at it from t h e a n g l e of the i n d i v i d u a l actor. H i s i n f o r m a l e c o n o m i c activities a r e tied to t h e f o r m a l sector a s g o o d s a n d clients m a y b e f r o m that sector, a n d m o n e y m a d e t h r o u g h these activities is u s e d to p a y rent or to b u y services a n d g o o d s in t h e f o r m a l sector, or s i m p l y to invest in t h e f o r m a l b a n k i n g s y s t e m . In c o n s e q u e n c e , the i n f o r m a l s i d e of the u r b a n e c o n o m y is n o t a s e p a r a t e sector. It is a n i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a n d s u b j u g a t e d sector, from which, through a bottom-up approach, we m a y understand the i n n e r w o r k i n g of t h e u r b a n e c o n o m y . T h e s a m e i n d i v i d u a l m a y c o n t r i b u t e to, o r u s e , b o t h a s p e c t s of the e c o n o m y , a n d s o m e t i m e s use o n e to e n h a n c e his c h a n c e s in the other. E v e r y d a y life u s u a l l y displays b o t h a f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l c o m p o n e n t . W h e n w e d i s l o d g e the i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a n d l o o k at t h e m a s a s y s t e m , w e s e e clearly that they are p a r t of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . W e s i m p l y l o o k at the total s y s t e m f r o m t h e a n g l e of the i n f o r m a l in the s a m e w a y w e c o u l d s t u d y a f a m i l y f r o m the a n g l e of t h e c h i l d r e n or t h e d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s , rather t h a n that of the h u s b a n d or the w i f e . T h e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l sides of t h e u r b a n e c o n o m y join e a c h o t h e r i n different w a y s . S o m e t i m e s t h e i r relations a r e d o m i n a n t , interstitial, central o r p e r i p h e r a l d e p e n d i n g on t h e a n g l e of study. T h e f a i l u r e to see t h e s e different k i n d s of i n t e r m i n g l i n g h a s led s o m e t o posit the i n f o r m a l sector a s a separate p h e n o m e n o n in a dual social system. This cannot b e proven b y empirical data. Analytically, it s t a n d s as an i n t e r d e p e n d e n t s e c t o r or an interstitial p r o c e s s in a p l u r a l i s t e c o n o m i c structure. It o w e s its existe n c e a n d s u r v i v a l to its linkage t o t h e f o r m a l sector. T h u s the i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y p r o v i d e s a b a s i s o r field of a c t i o n f o r the actors of the i n f o r m a l city.

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Notes 1.

2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

7.

The network of contacts established for the nurturing of a market relationship or business may survive even after the loss of one's business. The informal economy then is in the business of producing informal relations which maintain their own autonomy. These informal relations, because they produce and share knowledge, may be the locus that facilitates a re-entry into the formal economy. The informal economy is seen in the policy realm as either a problem or an opportunity. As an opportunity, it can be expanded and co-opted. It can also be recognized legally as a parallel structure. As a problem to be eliminated, the solution proposed rests with correcting the failure in the formal system that produces the informal sector and in the resocialization or the raising of the level of consciousness of the informais so that they can acquire the ways of the formal system. Sauvy (1984: 276) discusses the three alternatives the state has in confronting the informal sector of the economy: '(1) réprimer, en renforçant les contrôles et en augmentant les peines, (2) tolérer, en estimant que l'optimum n'est pas dépassé, du moins pour certaines activités, (3) céder, en réduisant la charge fiscale'. For Archambault and Greffe (1984: 25) three types of explanation concerning the cause of the growth of the unofficial economy have been provided. They refer to 'ajustement individuel', 'blocage du fonctionnement des marchés' and 'rapports de production'. Van Dijk (1986: 26) sees the informal sector as 'transitional' in the sense that it serves as a stepping stone to capture a job in the formal sector. Mittar (1988: 20-1) prefers to identify the informal sector 'in terms of the household to which the individual belongs'. He went on to identify the types of household he has found in his study: '(a) those belonging to the formal sector, (b) those belonging to the informal sector, and (c) those belonging to the mixed category'. Harding and Jenkins (1989: 51) reject 'the notion of different economies [while] retaining a distinction between formality and informality with reference to particular economic activities in specific social situations'.

4 Informality and Urban Politics T h e d a i l y political r o u t i n e of the c i t y p r o v i d e s u s w i t h several n i c h e s w h e r e w e c a n p r o d u c t i v e l y u n d e r s t a n d a n d explain the i n f o r m a l side o f u r b a n politics. T h e i n f o r m a l city, i n fact, is also s u s t a i n e d b y the i n f o r m a l political s y s t e m a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s . U r b a n p o l i t i c s h a s a visible a n d f o r m a l a r e n a r e g u l a t e d b y t h e f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . It h a s also a n i n f o r m a l side w h i c h s u r v i v e s in the i n t e r s t i c e s of, o r s e r v e s as a n e x t e n s i o n to, the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h i s is w h y w e n e e d to explain the m e c h a n i s m s of its p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . P o l i t i c a l i n f o r m a l i t y refers a n a l y t i c a l l y to t w o d i s t i n c t realities. O n t h e o n e h a n d , o n e c a n think of a n i n f o r m a l g r o u p that a s s e m b l e s o n the b a s i s of c o m m o n g o a l s w i t h a v i e w t o b e t t e r i n g their p l a n s a n d p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c i n g t h e c o u r s e of the f o r m a l political s y s t e m o r city g o v e r n m e n t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it r e f e r s to a p r o c e d u r e , a w a y of d o i n g things, w h i c h m a y n o t f o l l o w a f o r m a l b l u e p r i n t or set of f o r m a l rules. I n m a p p i n g the g e o g r a p h y of i n f o r m a l u r b a n political p r a c tices, w e identify t h r e e n i c h e s that a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r o u r analysis: the i n f o r m a l political p r o c e s s as a n c h o r e d t h r o u g h t h e actions of i n f o r m a l leaders at t h e grassroots c o m m u n i t y l e v e l , t h e i n f o r m a l p r o c e s s as p l a y e d o u t w i t h i n the c o n f i n e s of the f o r m a l s y s t e m at C i t y H a l l , a n d the u p w a r d a n d t h e d o w n w a r d r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the g r a s s r o o t s a n d t h e m a y o r ' s office or b e t w e e n the m a y o r ' s office a n d state a n d f e d e r a l leaders. W h a t strikes a n y p e r c e p t i v e o b s e r v e r of the u r b a n A m e r i c a n s o c i a l l a n d s c a p e is t h e vast d e n s i t y of p o l i t i c k i n g that g o e s on b e h i n d the s c e n e . T h i s is n o t d o n e r a n d o m l y , b u t r a t h e r c o n s i s t e n t l y b o t h in t h e f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m a n d in the p a r a p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m - e v e n in the latter o n e finds e v e n m o r e b e h i n d t h e - s c e n e political m a n e u v e r s a n d activities. W h e n it is w e l l 75

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e x p l a i n e d , this i n f o r m a l process c a n o p e n the g a t e to a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e total s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l political s y s t e m is n o t a distinct e n t i t y totally s e p a r a t e d f r o m the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h i s d u a l v i e w of the political reality is n o t valid. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is s e e n h e r e ' n o t just a s i n s t r u m e n t a l in t h e c a u s e of a n e x t e n s i v e f o r m a l p o w e r b u t as c o n s t i t u t e d b y a n d w i t h i n s u c h p o w e r ' (Fitzpatrick, 1 9 8 8 : 1 8 0 ) . T h e d i f f e r e n c e in this f o r m u l a t i o n o f the issue is t h a t w e see the u r b a n p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m as i n c l u d i n g a d i v e r s i t y of political s p a c e s ' o p e r a t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on different scales a n d f r o m different i n t e r p r e t i v e s t a n d p o i n t s ' (Santos, 1 9 8 7 : 2 8 8 ) . D u r k h e i m (1960) w a s a m o n g t h e first social s c i e n t i s t s w h o s a w the n e e d to explain t h e role of v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s in society, e s p e c i a l l y in their r e l a t i o n s to the f o r m a l state. H e s e e s t h e m fulfilling t h r e e m a j o r r o l e s : (1) r e s t r a i n i n g the o v e r a r c h i n g a r m of t h e f o r m a l s t a t e , (2) c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g t h e p o w e r o f t h e s t a t e , a n d (3) c o n s t i t u t i n g a n e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n for the liberation, f r e e d o m a n d e m a n c i p a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l . V o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e n o t m e c h a n i s m s c r e a t e d b y the state b u t b y g r o u p s o f i n d i v i d u a l s to p r o t e c t their interests, c h a n n e l t h e i r v i e w s a n d v a l u e s , a n d t o i n f l u e n c e state p o l i c i e s . D u r k h e i m g o e s s o far a s t o i m p l y the e x i s t e n c e of these s e c o n d a r y g r o u p s as a sine qua non in t h e p r a c t i c e of d e m o c r a c y . F o l l o w i n g the lead of Durkheim, G r e e r and O r l e a n s (1962) see f o r m a l voluntary organizations as 'mediating organizations' (see also M e r t o n , 1 9 6 1 : 1 1 2 ) . T h e y interpret their effectiveness in terms of their ability 'to mobilize the population in such a w a y as to limit the administrative state' (Greer and Orleans, 1962: 635). T h e y refer to t h e m as 'parapolitical' because s u c h institutions are not derived from state institutions, but rather are produced b y the local neighb o r h o o d s . These m e d i a t i n g formal voluntary associations are s e e n precisely as being parapolitical in the sense that they allow 'the translation of n o r m s , c o m m i t m e n t s , a n d interests, into political behavior. For the individual citizen, political information, influence, a n d identification require such a sub-set of organizations in w h i c h h e m a y participate' (Greer and Orleans, 1962: 6 3 5 ) . W h a t they say a b o u t formal voluntary organizations can also b e said a b o u t i n f o r m a l voluntary organizations. This leads us to refer to informal voluntary organizations as informal parapolitical organizations.

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H o w e v e r , o u r d e f i n i t i o n of the parapolitical s t r u c t u r e is m o r e i n c l u s i v e than t h o s e p r o p o s e d b y D u r k h e i m a n d G r e e r a n d O r l e a n s ; it m u s t a l s o include the i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k a n d m e a n s u s e d b y the city g o v e r n m e n t , i n f o r m a l political d i s c o u r s e a n d i d e o l o g y , a n d the i n f o r m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e structure. T h e i n f o r m a l p a r a p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e is n o t s i m p l y a m e d i a t i n g m e c h a n i s m , b u t is a l s o the b a c k b o n e that is e v e r - p r e s e n t in the e v e r y d a y o p e r a tion o f the f o r m a l political s y s t e m . It is central to t h e p r o d u c t i o n of the u r b a n p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s . H e r e the i n f o r m a l parapolitical s y s t e m is s e e n a s a p r o c e s s u a l s y s t e m , a s y s t e m in w h i c h m o t i o n a n d c h a n g e constitute a n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t f o r its s u r v i v a l . T w o types o f c h a n g e are e n v i s i o n e d here. O n e is internal in t h e sense, for e x a m p l e , that the r e p o s i t i o n i n g of o n e e l e m e n t c h a n g e s the relations of that unit to o t h e r s . T h e o t h e r is external a n d d e p e n d s on r e l a t i o n s with the f o r m a l political s y s t e m . B o u n d a r i e s o f the i n f o r m a l parapolitical s y s t e m m a y shift b e c a u s e of c h a n g e s in the b o u n d a r i e s of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h r o u g h this p r o c e s s u a l analytical s t a n d p o i n t , I w i l l s h o w that b o t h the f o r m a l a n d informal a s p e c t s constitute the totality of t h e u r b a n political reality. T h e s e p a r a t i o n of the w h o l e into the i n f o r m a l a n d f o r m a l c o m p o n e n t s is a heuristic d e v i c e to better a n a l y z e the m a k i n g a n d s h a p i n g of t h e processual outcome.

INFORMAL PARAPOLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS T h e reality of p a r a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a s l e d researchers to s e e k t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r origins. S o m e h a v e b e c o m e m o r e visible b e c a u s e the n e i g h b o r h o o d s in w h i c h they e m e r g e d h a v e b e e n a n n e x e d , c h a n g i n g f r o m an i n d e p e n d e n t t o w n i n t o o n e of the u r b a n n e i g h b o r h o o d s of a m e g a l o p o l i s . In s u c h a situation, ' o n c e the official i n s t i t u t i o n s of local g o v e r n m e n t h a v e b e e n m o v e d d o w n t o w n , w h a t r e m a i n s of n e i g h b o r h o o d g o v e r n a n c e is chiefly the i n f o r m a l , d i s p e r s e d , a n d i n t e r m i t t e n t activity of political n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l s ' ( C r e n s o n , 1983: 11). W h a t a n n e x a t i o n d o e s is t o r e m o v e the f o r m a l political s y s t e m to a different site, not the p a r a p o l i t i c a l p l a y e r s , even t h o u g h the p a r a p o l i t i c a l structure m u s t a d a p t to t h e n e w political reality.

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T h e p a r a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h o s e internal s t r u c t u r e w e are a b o u t t o a n a l y z e h a v e a different p o l i t i c a l origin. T h e y a r e p r o d u c e d b y o r as a r e a c t i o n to the f o r m a l s y s t e m , c o m i n g i n t o b e i n g b e c a u s e p e o p l e w a n t t o p r e s e r v e or i m p r o v e the q u a l i t y of life in their n e i g h b o r h o o d s . In this s e n s e , t h e y c a n b e s e e n as institutions t h a t foster c o m m u n i t y v a l u e s , t h a t socialize p e o p l e in t h e c u l t u r e o f d e m o c r a c y a n d that s e r v e as m e d i a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s visa-vis t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , a n d they p r o v i d e b o t h a f o r u m t h r o u g h which formal leaders can challenge or b e challenged by neighborhood residents and a platform for informal leaders w h o s e e k e l e c t i v e offices. T h e n e i g h b o r h o o d p r o v i d e s a n e x c e l l e n t n i c h e f o r t h e rise of i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . It is t h e r e that o n e c a n f o l l o w w i t h s o m e precision t h e a p p e a r a n c e a n d d i s a p p e a r a n c e , as w e l l as the v a r i o u s f o r m s a n d s h a p e s of, informal organizations. G r a s s r o o t o r g a n i z a t i o n s b e g i n as i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . E v e n a f t e r t h e y h a v e f o r m a l i z e d their r u l e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s , t h e p e o p l e m a y c o n t i n u e to u s e i n f o r m a l m e a n s t o a c h i e v e their s t a t e d goals. T h e e x i s t e n c e of i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e c i t y is a coro l l a r y t o a n d vital to u r b a n d e m o c r a c y . T h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y of the A m e r i c a n city, t h e r e h a s a l w a y s b e e n a felt n e e d - w h e t h e r in a h o m o g e n e o u s white population or one with multiple ethnic g r o u p s - f o r r e s i d e n t s t o b a n d t o g e t h e r i n f o r m a l l y to i n f l u e n c e the c o u r s e o f city p o l i c i e s a n d politics a n d to p r e v e n t t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f their n e i g h b o r h o o d s (de T o c q u e v i l l e , 1 9 4 5 : 1 1 4 - 3 2 ; Tomeh, 1964). T h e r e s i d e n t s o f W e s t O a k l a n d h a v e a l o n g h i s t o r y of p a r ticipating in i n f o r m a l a n d grassroot organizations. Starting in the late 1930s, the city began to a d o p t a progressive policy of city i m p r o v e m e n t , the outcome of which w a s the changing face of the old West O a k l a n d n e i g h b o r h o o d . This w a s w h e n r e s i d e n t s b a n d e d t o g e t h e r in w h a t t h e y c a l l e d t h e W e s t O a k l a n d P l a n n i n g C o u n c i l t o try to i n f l u e n c e c i t y p o l i c i e s ( H a y e s , 1972: 110). T h i s t r e n d t o w a r d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in n e i g h b o r h o o d i n f o r m a l political organizations became m u c h stronger after World War II a s m o r e A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n s c a m e t o settle in O a k l a n d . T h e w h i t e c i t y c o u n c i l w a s little i n c l i n e d o r w i l l i n g to l i s t e n to their

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concerns and needs. However, the informal political structure b e c a m e more heterogeneous and well established as a product of t h e c h a n g i n g p o l i c i e s of the city, w h i c h e v o l v e d f r o m its ' R e d e v e l o p m e n t ' , ' M o d e l Cities', a n d 'Economic D e v e l o p m e n t ' p l a n n i n g s t r a t e g i e s . I n f o r m a l l e a d e r s still l i v i n g p a r t i c i p a t e d in all t h e s e v a r i o u s p h a s e s of the e v o l u t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the i n f o r m a l p a r a p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e in this p a r t o f t h e city. T h e y h a v e w o r k e d v e r y s t r o n g l y in t h e i n f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e to i n f l u e n c e , l o b b y a n d h e l p redirect t h e d e c i s i o n s t h a t affect W e s t Oakland. T h e p a t t e r n of m i g r a t i o n a n d r e s e t t l e m e n t h a s i n f l u e n c e d the c o m p o s i t i o n a n d d y n a m i c of the i n f o r m a l g r o u p s in West O a k l a n d ( D a n i e l s , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e m i g r a n t s from T e x a s , L o u i s i a n a , A l a b a m a and Mississippi continue to maintain their informal g r o u p ties within t h e i n f o r m a l n e i g h b o r h o o d g r o u p b e c a u s e of f r i e n d s h i p or f a m i l y c o n n e c t i o n s . T h i s c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d h a s b e e n a force to b r i n g p e o p l e t o g e t h e r a n d also to b u i l d c o n s e n s u s t h r o u g h the leaders o f e a c h s u b - g r o u p . Within t h e i n f o r m a l p a r a p o l i t i c a l structure, t h e r e is a g r o u p i n g b y states. T h i s c h a r a c teristic is, h o w e v e r , s l o w l y d e c l i n i n g w i t h t h e y o u n g e r generation. P l a c e of origin t h e n is a m a r k e r in the c o m p o s i t i o n of the i n f o r m a l g r o u p , h e l p i n g in n e t w o r k i n g . P e o p l e w h o share the s a m e e x p e r i e n c e b a n d together. S u c h g r o u p s are e a s y to g a l v a n i z e b e c a u s e the p e o p l e share a h o m o g e n e i t y of m e a n i n g s a n d views. T h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n for t h e A d v a n c e m e n t of C o l o r e d P e o p l e ( N A A C P ) , a l t h o u g h a f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , also h a s its m e m b e r s that s e r v e d o r j o i n e d t h e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e y m a y h a v e joint activities, or s o m e m e m b e r s m a y participate e i t h e r o n their o w n o r a s representatives of the o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k s s o m e t i m e s give rise t o l o n g - t e r m a c q u a i n t a n c e s . E v e n w h e n p e o p l e m o v e to the f o r m a l , t h o s e i n f o r m a l ties can b e r e a c t i v a t e d at a n y time. N o t all the m e m b e r s m a y c o n t i n u e to live in the s a m e n e i g h b o r h o o d . T h o s e w h o m o v e o u t still h a v e i n f l u e n c e there. T h e ' i n f o r m a l m a c h i n e ' s u r v i v e s e v e n a f t e r the e m i g r a t i o n of m e m b e r s to o t h e r n e i g h b o r h o o d s . W i t h gentrification c o m e s a r e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e i n f o r m a l d e m o g r a p h i c c o n t e n t o f the i n f o r m a l sector.

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In t h e m e t r o p o l i s , m o r e than o n e i n f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n exists. In fact, t h e r e are s e v e r a l . S o m e t i m e s t h e y are in c o m p e t i t i o n a n d at o t h e r times w o r k in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h e a c h other. S o m e i n d i v i d u a l s b e l o n g to m o r e than o n e i n f o r m a l political o r g a n i z a t i o n . I n f o r m a l p a r a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s are b y d e f i n i t i o n interest g r o u p s . T h e r e is a certain e l e m e n t of e l a s t i c i t y a m o n g t h e m e m b e r s h i p of i n f o r m a l g r o u p s . A t a certain t i m e o f t h e year, w h e n there is a n e v e n t , m e m b e r s h i p m a y b e large. A t o t h e r t i m e s , a r o u n d a n i s s u e , it m a y b e s m a l l . E a c h l e a d e r b r i n g s h i s o r her o w n c o n s t i t u e n c y w h e n the informal group organizes a meeting around a c o m m o n c a u s e . If a leader l e a v e s the i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , h e m a y t a k e the c o n s t i t u e n c y o u t o f t h e coalition a s w e l l . T h e i n f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e is not a b s o l u t e l y i n f o r m a l b u t i n c l u d e s entities w i t h f o r m a l structures as w e l l . S u c h s t r u c t u r e s as the West O a k l a n d Development Council, Model City organizations a n d t h e W e s t O a k l a n d M e n t a l H e a l t h B o a r d h a v e f o r m a l structures b u t c a m e i n t o b e i n g b e c a u s e o f p r e s s u r e s f r o m i n f o r m a l p a r a p o l i t i c a l g r o u p s . T h e s e f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e s are l i n k e d to e a c h o t h e r t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k s of r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h a g e n e r a l i s t p u r p o s e t e n d to g i v e b i r t h t o i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h specialist p u r p o s e s , f o r which they serve as an informal coordinating mechanism. A m o n g t h e latter, w e f i n d the S e n i o r C i t i z e n s C o u n c i l , P r o g r e s s ive S e n i o r C i t i z e n s , t h e St Patrick's C o u n c i l , the A c o r n R e v i t a l i z a tion C o u n c i l , the M c C l y m o n d s A l u m n i A s s o c i a t i o n , t h e M c C l y m o n d s C o m m u n i t y Board, the O a k Center N e i g h b o r h o o d A s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e C i t i z e n E m e r g e n c y Relief T e a m w h i c h w a s f o r m e d to d e a l w i t h t h e fallout f r o m t h e L o m a Prieta E a r t h q u a k e . A l l of t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s h a v e as t h e i r goal the i m p r o v e m e n t of life in W e s t O a k l a n d . To a c h i e v e t h a t goal, t h e y h o l d r e g u l a r m e e t i n g s o r m a i n t a i n o n g o i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h f o r m a l structures such as the Oakland Redevelopment Agency, the O a k l a n d City C o u n c i l , t h e O a k l a n d P l a n n i n g A s s o c i a t i o n , the O a k l a n d S c h o o l B o a r d a n d the P e r a l t a C o m m u n i t y C o l l e g e B o a r d . T h e s e c o m m u n i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n s m a y h a v e s o m e f o r m a l structures, b u t t h e y a r e r u n o n a n ad hoc i n f o r m a l b a s i s . T h e y are l i n k e d to e a c h o t h e r - a n d s o m e t i m e s to the f o r m a l sector t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l m e a n s , a n d t h r o u g h their i n t e r a c t i o n s with t h e

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f o r m a l sector t h e y h a v e l e a r n e d a n u m b e r o f lessons. T h e i n f o r m a n t s h a v e r e i t e r a t e d three p r i n c i p l e s for a s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e t o their i n t e r a c t i o n s with t h e f o r m a l sector. T h e first is that t h e y m u s t b e as w e l l v e r s e d w i t h t h e subject m a t t e r a s the f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e , a n d i n m a n y cases b e t t e r v e r s e d . T h e s e c o n d is that t h e y m u s t b e c o n s i s t e n t l y assertive a n d a g g r e s s i v e . ( H o w e v e r , it is n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y to b e d i s r u p t i v e to attract the f o r m a l s e c t o r ' s attention a s w a s the c a s e d u r i n g the d e c a d e of the civil r i g h t s m o v e m e n t . ) T h e third p r i n c i p l e is that i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s m u s t h a v e a n a g e n d a a n d a clear idea of w h a t they w a n t to a c c o m p l i s h . I n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s are b y definition soft o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n that t h e y are r u n i n f o r m a l l y b u t a r e forced to f o r m a l i z e their s t r u c t u r e s t e m p o r a r i l y a n d c y c l i c a l l y s o as to d i s c u s s their a g e n d a s . The cyclical meetings allow them to formalize temporarily their structures so that they can express and reinforce the informality of their character. T h i s is w h y the i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e r e g u lar m e e t i n g s w i t h r e g u l a r a g e n d a s a n d regular i t e m s to take i n t o account.

THE ETHNIC FACTOR It is important to n o t e that there are cultural differences in the w a y ethnic groups a n d c o m m u n i t i e s e m p l o y informality in their relations w i t h the f o r m a l political system. Cultural practices within ethnic c o m m u n i t i e s tend to carry over into the relationship b e t w e e n grassroots and parapolitical organizations and the f o r m a l system of m u n i c i p a l g o v e r n m e n t . Focusing o n this aspect of political informality helps clarify h o w informal ethnic leadership differs. I n t h e A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n c o m m u n i t y the c h u r c h is the c e n t r a l i n s t i t u t i o n that s u s t a i n s i n f o r m a l political o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( H a m i l ton, 1 9 7 2 ) . Historically, the c h u r c h h a s b e e n c o n t r o l l e d b y A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n s . It p r o v i d e s a setting to d i s c u s s ideas, a g r o u n d to o r g a n i z e p r o t e s t , t r a i n i n g f o r l e a d e r s h i p a n d a p o i n t o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d , a n d it c a n t r a d e t h e v o t e s of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n f o r services to t h e c o m m u n i t y . T h e c h u r c h is p a r t of a n d c e n t r a l to the A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n parapolitical system.

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A s i a n - A m e r i c a n p a r a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e a different d y n a m i c b e c a u s e of t h e h i s t o r y of i m m i g r a t i o n to t h e B a y A r e a . A s i a n - A m e r i c a n s b e l o n g to n a t i o n a l g r o u p s w i t h d i s t i n c t cultural practices, including distinct languages, and they maintain an interest i n local politics a n d the political situation in t h e i r h o m e countries. A m o n g t h e politically a c t i v e B a y A r e a A s i a n - A m e r i c a n g r o u p s are t h e C h i n e s e , F i l i p i n o s , L a o t i a n s , C a m b o d i a n s , V i e t n a m e s e , J a p a n e s e a n d K o r e a n s . T h e C h i n e s e a r e b y far the m o s t n u m e r o u s a n d a r e t h e m o s t v o c a l a n d articulate a m o n g the A s i a n - A m e r i c a n groups in Oakland. T h e y have their o w n Chinatown, even t h o u g h it h a s b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e a n ' A s i a t o w n ' , i n c l u d i n g m a n y other groups. C a m b o d i a n s , for e x a m p l e , started t o arrive in L o n g B e a c h , C a l i f o r n i a , in the e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s , b e f o r e t h e K h m e r R o u g e b e g a n their k i l l i n g spree. T h e s e i m m i g r a n t s w e r e m o s t l y f o r m e r officials. A f t e r V i e t n a m i n v a d e d C a m b o d i a in 1979 m a n y m o r e p e a s a n t s c a m e . T h e O a k l a n d s e g m e n t is p o o r e r a n d less sophisticated than the L o n g Beach C a m b o d i a n population. In 1 9 8 3 , C a m b o d i a n s e s t a b l i s h e d i n O a k l a n d t h e Cambodian New Generation Inc. ( C N G ) . C N G is l e s s active in l o c a l O a k l a n d politics a n d m o r e a c t i v e in C a m b o d i a n politics. T h i s reflects the reality t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e m a r e n o t A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s . F r o m p e a s a n t b a c k g r o u n d s , t h e y w o r r y that if t h e y b e c o m e citizens, t h e y m i g h t lose the p u b l i c a i d t h e y r e c e i v e as r e f u g e e s . Y o u n g e r C a m b o d i a n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h C N G are m o r e active politically. T h e i n f o r m a l C a m b o d i a n political s y s t e m is p a r t o f a n e t w o r k of i n f o r m a l A s i a n - A m e r i c a n political l e a d e r s . T h e D i r e c t o r of C N G w a s at the c e n t e r o f the p r o c e s s f o r three r e a s o n s : h i s office w a s h i g h l y visible a n d p e o p l e d e p e n d e d o n h i m for l e a d e r s h i p ; h e r e p r e s e n t e d the C a m b o d i a n s at t h e East B a y A s i a n L o c a l D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n , a voluntary, n o n - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n p u s h i n g t h e interests of all A s i a n s ; a n d h e h a d c o n t a c t s w i t h satellite i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s , i n d i v i d u a l s s u c h as c h u r c h l e a d e r s w h o p r o v i d e l e a d e r s h i p to s e g m e n t s of the p o p u l a t i o n . 1

S i n c e t h e C a m b o d i a n g r o u p is s m a l l , the strategy h a s b e e n to f o r m a l l i a n c e s w i t h o t h e r A s i a n g r o u p s f o r f u n d i n g a n d to influe n c e t h e c o u r s e of local a n d m u n i c i p a l politics. T h e f r o n t leader, in this c a s e t h e director j u s t m e n t i o n e d , r e c o g n i z e s t h a t there are

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other, b a c k l e a d e r s i n the c o m m u n i t y w h o d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y interact with the rest of the city. T h e front l e a d e r joins ranks w i t h t h e b a c k l e a d e r s to get a c c e s s to or v o t e s from their constituencies. 2

T h e r e are s o m e i s s u e s that e n g a g e the interests of o n e s e g m e n t of t h e A s i a n - A m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n m o r e than o t h e r s . T h i s is w h y v a r i o u s A s i a n g r o u p s h a v e d e v e l o p e d three s t r a t e g i e s to d e a l w i t h i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g their r e s p e c t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s . S o m e t i m e s t h e y g o it alone. F o r e x a m p l e , the d i r e c t o r of t h e C N G takes h i s case d i r e c t l y to the E a s t B a y F o r u m o n R e f u g e e A f f a i r s w h e r e h e c a n air t h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e C a m b o d i a n r e f u g e e c o m m u n i t y . S o m e t i m e s a partial a l l i a n c e is f o r m e d w i t h other e t h n i c g r o u p s . T h i s w a s t h e case w h e n L a o t i a n s a n d V i e t n a m e s e in t h e E a s t B a y Vietn a m e s e A s s o c i a t i o n a n d C a m b o d i a n s f o r m e d a n a l l i a n c e to s u p p o r t a l o s i n g s u p e r v i s o r i a l c a n d i d a t e i n S a n L e a n d r o in 1988. A t o t h e r t i m e s , they f o r m a m u c h l a r g e r coalition. T h i s w a s the c a s e w h e n t h e leaders f r o m all the A s i a n g r o u p s f o r m e d a coalition t o h e l p E l i h u H a r r i s w i n election a s M a y o r of O a k l a n d . T h e L a t i n o c o m m u n i t y presents still a n o t h e r t y p e of i n f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . S a n F r a n c i s c o ' s Latino M i s s i o n District, like t h e A s i a n c o m m u n i t y , is m a d e u p of s e v e r a l cultural segm e n t s , o r i g i n a l C a l i f o r n i o s as w e l l as old a n d n e w i m m i g r a n t s . Unlike Asians w h o m a y have difficulty c o m m u n i c a t i n g a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s if they d o n o t s p e a k E n g l i s h , lack of E n g l i s h is n o t a h a n d i c a p to L a t i n o c o o p e r a t i o n . T h e A s i a n m o d e l , w h e r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of e a c h g r o u p tend t o r e p r e s e n t the m e m b e r s h i p , is n o t f o u n d in the L a t i n o c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e is m o r e f u s i o n . T h e l e a d e r s h i p structure of t h e i n f o r m a l p a r a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n in the L a t i n o c o m m u n i t y i n S a n F r a n cisco is m a d e u p of h e a d s of f o r m a l a n d v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e l e a d e r s of the M i s s i o n E c o n o m i c a n d C u l t u r a l A s s o c i a t i o n ( M E C A ) w h o o r g a n i z e the a n n u a l c a r n i v a l , t h e f e s t i v a l of t h e A m e r i c a s a n d the C i n c o de M a y o festivities, the M i s s i o n N e i g h b o r h o o d Center, W o m e n Initiatives f o r S e l f - E m p l o y m e n t , m e m b e r s of the C h a m b e r of C o m m e r c e , p r o m i n e n t b u s i n e s s m e n , c h u r c h l e a d e r s - all a r e p a r t of a n e t w o r k that c a n b e activated to a d v a n c e the interests of t h e c o m m u n i t y . W h i l e m o d e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s h i p - e s p e cially i n t e r m s of its c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t h e position o f t h e l e a d e r s

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in t h e c o m m u n i t y - d i f f e r a m o n g t h e A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n s , L a t i n o s a n d A s i a n s , the w a y t h e y c o n n e c t w i t h m u n i c i p a l a u t h o r i t i e s v a r i e s less. T h e f o r m a l p o w e r s t r u c t u r e sees t h e m a s c o m p e t i n g interest g r o u p s . 3

INFORMAL PARAPOLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND FORMAL SYSTEM I n a t y p i c a l O a k l a n d S c h o o l B o a r d r a c e , o n e of t h e i n c u m b e n t candidates was defeated and replaced by a n e w c o m e r . The reason for that defeat w a s the inability, failure or unwillingness of the i n c u m b e n t to deal w i t h the Progressive Senior C i t i z e n s o n t h e i s s u e o f a site f o r a S e n i o r C i t i z e n C e n t e r , o n e of t h e o l d s c h o o l d o r m i t o r i e s . T h e i n c u m b e n t is r e p o r t e d t o h a v e said that h e tried a n d failed to obtain the site. T h e Prog r e s s i v e S e n i o r C i t i z e n s f o u n d t h a t r e s p o n s e to b e i n a d e q u a t e and organized a negative c a m p a i g n which led to his defeat. T h i s is a c l e a r e x a m p l e w h e r e a n i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t a r g e t s a specific candidate for elective office and influences directly the election o u t c o m e . T h i s e x a m p l e a l s o s h o w s h o w t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m is s h a p e d b y the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . Electoral c a m p a i g n s o r g a n i z e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m , w h o s e o u t c o m e is i n t e n d e d for the m a n a g e m e n t of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , a r e h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d b y i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s t a n d s in b e t w e e n t w o f o r m a l p r o c e s s e s . It h e l p s p r o d u c e the f o r m a l o u t c o m e . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m h a s b e e n a w a y either to i n t e g r a t e or to s e g r e g a t e t h e c o m m u n i t y . W h i l e o n e g r o u p m a y u s e it to p r o p e l f o r w a r d its o w n e t h n i c o r racial d e m a n d s or p r e s e r v e its o w n trad i t i o n s , in W e s t O a k l a n d it h a s r a t h e r s e r v e d f o r t h e i m p r o v e m e n t of w h o l e n e i g h b o r h o o d s . T h i s is w h y i n f o r m a l p a r a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e b e e n able to a c c o m p l i s h s o m u c h . M a n y of the p e o p l e in the i n f o r m a l structure a r e s p r e a d across the p o l i t i c a l s p e c t r u m f r o m v e r y c o n s e r v a t i v e to v e r y liberal. T h e t h i n g t h a t b r i n g s t h e m t o g e t h e r is t h e c o n c e r n for W e s t O a k l a n d . R e c e n t l y , t h e y h a v e b e c o m e e x t r e m e l y liberal i n t e r m s o f d e m a n d s f o r s e r v i c e s , b u t not a l w a y s a g r e e i n g o n t h e s e r v i c e s that are n e e d e d .

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T h e m a j o r figure in t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m in W e s t O a k l a n d h a s b e e n a s e p t u a g e n a r i a n w h o h a s b e e n an active m e m b e r a n d l e a d e r o f grassroots o r g a n i z a t i o n s e v e r since h e m i g r a t e d to O a k l a n d i n the 1940s. H e h a s b e e n o n t h e A d v i s o r y B o a r d of C o m m u n i t y D e v e l o p m e n t , the M a y o r ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o n the S e n i o r C i t i z e n s C o u n c i l a n d C h a i r m a n of t h e B u d g e t C o m m i t t e e for the O a k l a n d S c h o o l B o a r d . H e has b e e n p e r c e i v e d b y t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d o u t s i d e r s as t h e unofficial o r i n f o r m a l m a y o r of W e s t O a k l a n d . In the e a r l y 1990s, h e w a s also the c h a i r m a n of C E R T (Citizen Emergency Relief Team), the newest and probably most d y n a m i c of the i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s in West O a k l a n d . T h e 1 9 8 9 Lorna P r i e t a E a r t h q u a k e w a s a c a t a s t r o p h e of m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e t h r o u g h o u t the entire B a y A r e a . In W e s t O a k l a n d , the c o l l a p s e of the N i m i t z f r e e w a y p r o v i d e d the i m a g e with the g r e a t e s t visual i m p a c t a n d the p o i n t w h e r e m o s t p e o p l e d i e d . D a m a g e w a s e x t e n s i v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d . O u t of that e v o l v e d a g r o u p w h o s e m e m b e r s h i p n u m b e r s f r o m 2 0 0 to 7 0 0 , w i t h a h a r d c o r e o f p r o b a b l y 150, a g r o u p that h a s b e e n e x t r e m e l y s u c c e s s f u l within t h e official political s y s t e m a n d h a s d e v e l o p e d its o w n s u b - g o v e r n m e n t structure. T h i s s u c c e s s w a s h e l p e d b y M a y o r L i o n e l W i l s o n w h o early o n w a s s u p p o r t i v e of their c o n c e r n s . T h e city m a n a g e r s h o w e d u p at o n e of C E R T ' s m e e t i n g s a n d t h e district s u p e r v i s o r c a m e o n a r e g u l a r b a s i s . C E R T d e v e l o p e d its o w n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n C o m m i t t e e w h i c h , after s e v e r a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h C a l T r a n s (the C a l i f o r n i a D e p a r t m e n t of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ) , h a s n o w b e e n i n v o l v e d in the r o u t i n g of t h e n e w N i m i t z freeway. It h e l p e d d r a w t h e outlines of t h e t w o altern a t i v e r o u t e s p r o p o s e d . It h a s b e e n influential, f o r c i n g the f o r m a l s y s t e m to b e n d its v i e w s a n d d e m a n d i n g the p r o d u c t i o n of a n e g o t i a t e d order. T h e c h a i r m a n of that c o m m i t t e e h a s b e e n i n v i t e d to i n t e r n a l CalTrans m e e t i n g s a n d in m e e t i n g s w i t h C a l T r a n s a n d the S o u t h e r n Pacific R a i l w a y . A s e c o n d c o m m i t t e e h a s b e c o m e i n v o l v e d in t h e r e d e v e l o p m e n t effort, m a k i n g itself the v o i c e of the c i t i z e n i n the r e d e v e l o p m e n t of W e s t O a k l a n d . A third c o m m i t t e e is i n v o l v e d in e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e political d i m e n s i o n of the o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d their a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s are r a t h e r i m p r e s s i v e . E v e r y c o m m u n i t y f r o m Vallejo to S a n J o s é has, in fact, p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n s u p p o r t i n g the c o m m u n i t y ' s d e m a n d that the f r e e w a y n o t b e

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r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n C y p r e s s Street, a r o u t e that e f f e c t i v e l y b i s e c t e d the c o m m u n i t y . T h e c i t y of O a k l a n d h a s p u t o n r e c o r d three m a j o r r e s o l u t i o n s t h a t s u p p o r t this e f f o r t . T h e c o n g r e s s m a n a n d the a s s e m b l y p e r s o n r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e area b o t h i n d i c a t e d strong s u p p o r t f o r the c o n c e r n s of the r e s i d e n t s . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , d e s p i t e its v o l u n t e e r staff, h a s m a d e itself a s t r o n g v o i c e for the neighborhood. T h e A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n c h u r c h h a s h a d an e n o r m o u s i m p a c t in s e v e r a l w a y s on the d a y - t o - d a y o p e r a t i o n of this i n f o r m a l p a r a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e office o f C E R T is i n t h e B e t h l e h e m L u t h e r a n C h u r c h , a n i n t e g r a t e d b u t p r e d o m i n a n t l y AfricanA m e r i c a n c h u r c h . T h e b o a r d of d i r e c t o r s of C E R T h a s in its m e m bership a n u m b e r of prominent black preachers, strong church m e m b e r s . A c c o r d i n g t o a k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n f o r m a n t , if t h e s e p t u a g e n a r i a n m e n t i o n e d a b o v e is t h e i n f o r m a l m a y o r , a n o t h e r lay m e m b e r o f C E R T m u s t b e s i n g l e d o u t as the i n f o r m a l political t h e o r e t i c i a n a n d s t r a t e g i s t for t h e A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n c h u r c h i n West Oakland. T h e c h u r c h h a s p r o v i d e d the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m w i t h t w o i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s of s u p p o r t . O n e is their m e m b e r s h i p : m e m b e r s of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m are r e c r u i t e d f r o m a m o n g the m e m b e r s h i p of the c h u r c h , t h o u g h n o t exclusively. A n o t h e r is the s u p p o r t of their m i n i s t e r s , b o t h of w h o m h a v e s e r v e d t o give t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n e v e n g r e a t e r l e g i t i m a c y in the e y e s o f t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . F r o m their p u l p i t , t h e y h a v e a l s o s u p p o r t e d t h e efforts of C E R T . S o m e of t h e P r o t e s t a n t M i n i s t e r s a n d C a t h o l i c priests h a v e also p r o v i d e d i n v a l u a b l e l e a d e r s h i p . O n e of t h e m w a s , in f a c t , a m e m b e r of t h e M a y o r ' s E a r t h q u a k e R e l i e f C o m m i t t e e a n d w a s able to h e l p C E R T in g e t t i n g g r a n t s f r o m t h e M a y o r ' s E a r t h q u a k e Relief Fund. P a r t i a l f o r m a l i z a t i o n of the i n f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e h a s c o m e a b o u t as a r e s u l t of f o r m a l f u n d i n g . I n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s o m e t i m e s f o r m a l i z e their a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e for m o r e e f f i c i e n c y a n d to b e a c c o u n t a b l e to t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . A s u p e r v i s o r ' s w i f e w h o h a p p e n e d to be the president of the group Neighborhood H o u s i n g w a s i n f l u e n t i a l in g e t t i n g C E R T a g r a n t f r o m the S a n Francisco Foundation. Other churches have provided small a m o u n t s of m o n e y a n d h a v e let C E R T u s e their n a m e s f o r w h a t e v e r g o o d w i l l this m i g h t b r i n g t h e m i n t e r m s of f i n a n c e s . W i t h i n

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the i n f o r m a l p o w e r structure, h o w e v e r , liability is the lack o f p a i d staff.

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T h e r e h a s b e e n a p a r t i a l f o r m a l i z a t i o n of C E R T in that the g r a n t s h a v e a l l o w e d t h e m to hire a n e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r a n d secretarial staff. T h e p h y s i c a l office w a s g i v e n b y the c h u r c h , a n d the l e a d e r s are all v o l u n t e e r s . T h e g r a n t w a s o b v i o u s l y given t o C E R T b e c a u s e W e s t O a k l a n d w a s s o h e a v i l y a f f e c t e d b y the e a r t h q u a k e a n d t h e m a g n i t u d e of that effect is still visible. T h e d e g r e e o f citizen i n v o l v e m e n t s h o w s the official structure that this w o r k of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t o b e carried out.

INFORMAL PARAPOLITICAL A N D FORMAL VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS T h r e e t y p e s of r e l a t i o n s can b e e n v i s i o n e d f r o m a n institutional standpoint. These relations can b e

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interdependent. T h e relation is d o m i n a n t w h e n t h e i n f o r m a l c o - o p t s the f o r m a l to j o i n its activities w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g its vision, p r o c e d u r e s a n d goals. T h e formal voluntary association joins forces with the i n f o r m a l g r o u p in a n action that it h a s n o t d e v e l o p e d b u t is willing to support. T h e U r b a n L e a g u e h a s s o m e t i m e s b e e n c o n n e c t e d to a n i n f o r m a l g r o u p p u t t o g e t h e r to s o l v e a specific i s s u e , f o r e x a m p l e the installation of a s t o p light at a p a r t i c u l a r c o r n e r . A g r o u p of p e o p l e m i g h t c o m e t o g e t h e r for s u c h a p u r p o s e , a i d e d b y i n f o r m a l leaders. A s t h e y d i s c u s s t h e m a t t e r a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y m a y seek a n d e n l i s t the h e l p o f t h e U r b a n L e a g u e in i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p e o p l e t o talk to at C i t y H a l l or, if the p o w e r structure is n o t r e s p o n s i v e to t h e i r request, t h e y m a y u s e the U r b a n L e a g u e m o t t o o r b a n n e r to d o their p i c k e t i n g . This is a n e x a m p l e of t h e i n f o r m a l getting s u p p o r t f r o m a f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n to fight a g a i n s t a n o t h e r f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t o solve a p r o b l e m identified by an informal group. T h e relationship o f t h e i n f o r m a l t o t h e f o r m a l v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n b e c o m e s d e p e n d e n t w h e n t h e latter s e e k s a n d enlists t h e h e l p of the former. A v o l u n t a r y a s s o c i a t i o n m a y n o t h a v e t h e r e s o u r c e s to s h o w t h a t t h e y actually h a v e m a s s s u p p o r t on b e h a l f

88 of a s p e c i f i c c o n t a c t e d to p o r t . I n this they endorse

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d e m a n d o r g r i e v a n c e s o i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s are often b r i n g t h e g r a s s r o o t s o u t f o r a p u b l i c s h o w of s u p case the c a u s e is n o t d e v i s e d b y t h e i n f o r m a l , b u t it b e c a u s e t h e y see m u c h g o o d in it.

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the i n f o r m a l s a n d the f o r m a l v o l u n tary a s s o c i a t i o n s b e c o m e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t w h e n b o t h i d e n t i f y the s a m e p r o b l e m a n d w o r k j o i n t l y o r s e p a r a t e l y w i t h d i f f e r e n t strate g i e s , a n d i n f o r m e a c h o t h e r a b o u t t h e i r progress, w i t h the g o a l of a c h i e v i n g the s a m e e n d .

INFORMAL LEADERS B e i n g a n i n f o r m a l l e a d e r is a w a y of a p p r o p r i a t i n g p o w e r a n d of b e i n g influential in o n e ' s c o m m u n i t y . It g i v e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l a c c e s s t o authority. T h e i n t e r m e d i a r y role of t h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r is p l a y e d o u t in three different w a y s : a s a politician, a s a b r o k e r o r m i d d l e m a n , or as a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r . T h e p o l i t i c i a n p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s h i p to t h e c o m m u n i t y . T h e b r o k e r h e l p s C i t y H a l l u n d e r s t a n d the n e e d s o f the c o m m u n i t y . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s e e k s f u n d s a n d d e v e l o p s p r o g r a m s t h a t h e or s h e m a y then administer. I n f o r m a l leaders m u s t b e seen as liaisons b e t w e e n t h e c o m m u n ity a n d C i t y Hall, as p r o v i d e r s of i n s i g h t s w h e n t h e y a r e called o n b y C i t y H a l l , a n d a s s h a p e r s of p o l i c y w h e n their o p i n i o n s are sought before policies are developed and implemented. The m a y o r r e c o g n i z e s the p o w e r of t h e s e l e a d e r s a n d s e e k s their h e l p to p r o p a g a n d i z e p r o j e c t s o r get v o t e s in a c a m p a i g n . T h e m a y o r s e e s t h e m as e a c h fulfilling different f u n c t i o n s in t h e c o m m u n i t y , a n d in c a l l i n g on t h e m r e c o g n i z e s t h e p o w e r of e a c h o n e of t h e m . T h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the m a y o r a n d the i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s is a t w o - w a y m o v e m e n t : t h e y call on e a c h other t o a c h i e v e stated goals. T h e c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h e m a y o r ' s o f f i c e w i t h i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s at the n e i g h b o r h o o d level are m u l t i p l e x . These relationships of i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s to t h e m a y o r ' s office l e a d u s t o p o n d e r a n u m b e r of q u e s t i o n s . To w h o m a r e t h e y c o n n e c t e d b o t h in t h e m a y o r ' s office a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y ? A r e t h e y a c t i n g t o p r o m o t e their s e l f - i n t e r e s t s , p l a c i n g t h e m s e l v e s a h e a d o f t h e i r c o m 4

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p e t i t o r s a n d in a s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n t o g r a b a j o b i n the f o r m a l s e c t o r ? D o t h e y s o l v e p r o b l e m s t h a t t h e city c o u l d n o t s o l v e ? D o t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a l a y e r l i n k i n g t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d p e o p l e to t h e m a y o r ' s office - t h a t i s , i n s t e a d of g o i n g to see t h e m a y o r w o u l d a c i t i z e n elect t o s e e t h e m , b e l i e v i n g that t h e y h a v e b e t t e r a c c e s s to the m a y o r ' s office? It is o b v i o u s t h a t t h e n a t u r a l l e a d e r m a y n o t h a v e the s a m e i n f l u e n c e o v e r p e o p l e outside his o r h e r n e i g h b o r h o o d . His c o n tacts a r e limited to t h e p e o p l e of h i s n e i g h b o r h o o d a n d to o t h e r local l e a d e r s w i t h w h o m h e m a y c o l l a b o r a t e or b e i n c o m p e t i t i o n . H i s c o n t a c t at C i t y H a l l m a y b e directly with the m a y o r or with a n i n f l u e n t i a l p e r s o n i n that office. T h e n e t w o r k of c o n t a c t s b o t h h o r i z o n t a l l y a n d v e r t i c a l l y is l i m i t e d . T h e position o f i n f o r m a l l e a d e r m a y lead to a j o b in the f o r m a l or p u b l i c sector. B e i n g a n i n f o r m a l l e a d e r m a k e s t h e p e r s o n m o r e v i s i b l e , leads to c o n t a c t s with city officials, a n d r e v e a l s h o w m u c h that i n d i v i d u a l m a y b e n e e d e d b y the u r b a n p o l i t i c a l establishm e n t . I n f o r m a l l e a d e r s h i p is e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r t i m e a n d is b a s e d on a relationship o f trust a n d the k n o w l e d g e that t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d a n d City H a l l g a t h e r a b o u t t h e leader. T h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r is k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t the c o m m u n i t y a n d c o m m a n d s t h e s u p p o r t a n d r e s p e c t of his f o l l o w e r s . S o m e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s m a y d e c i d e n o t to take a f o r m a l g o v e r n m e n t j o b b e c a u s e t h e y realize h o w m u c h i n f l u e n c e a n d p o w e r t h e y h a v e as i n f o r m a l leaders. T h e y h o l d their i n f l u e n c e b y v i r t u e of k n o w i n g a lot of p e o p l e , y o u n g a n d old. T h e f a c t that they a r e n o t p a i d h e l p s p r o j e c t their i m a g e as p e o p l e c a r i n g for the g o o d of t h e c o m m u n i t y . W h a t kinds of influence c a n i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s e x e r t o n City H a l l , s i n c e t h e y p e r f o r m a s e l f - a p p o i n t e d l e a d e r s h i p role? C a n c o - o p t a t i o n lead to t h e i n c o h e r e n c e of the i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ? I n f o r m a l leaders w h o h a v e b e e n c o - o p t e d c a n n o t d r o p their i n f o r m a l r o l e o v e r n i g h t . T h i s is n o t a d e c i s i o n they c a n m a k e b y t h e m s e l v e s - the p e o p l e a r e also a factor i n c a r r y i n g o u t that decision. T h e y w i l l c o n t i n u e to call on t h e m on i n f o r m a l g r o u p m a t t e r s a n d p r o b l e m s . T h e o t h e r factor is t h a t the p o s i t i o n s t h e y a r e given m a y b e tied to their i n f o r m a l role in the c o m m u n i t y as a c o n s t i t u e n t basis of s u p p o r t . In t h a t c a s e , i n f o r m a l accessibility r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t in the p e r f o r m a n c e of the n e w , formal job.

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In t h e i n f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l arena, p o w e r is b o t h d i s p e r s e d a n d h i e r a r c h i z e d . In the n e i g h b o r h o o d , o n e m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h the c e n t e r - s t a t e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s a n d t h e satellite i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s . W h i l e t h e c e n t e r - s t a g e r s p r o v i d e l e a d e r s h i p to the w h o l e area, the satellites m a y d o s o o n l y t o their i n d i v i d u a l b l o c k s . W e see h e r e the h i e r a r c h i z a t i o n of t h e l e a d e r s h i p a m o n g i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s . T h e satellites refer i n d i v i d u a l s or i n f o r m t h e c e n t e r - s t a g e r s a b o u t n e i g h b o r h o o d p r o b l e m s t o b e a d d r e s s e d , or seek t h e a d v i c e of the c e n t e r - s t a g e r s , or l o b b y t h e c e n t e r - s t a g e r s to b r i n g t h e p r o b l e m to the a t t e n t i o n of the o t h e r s u b - g r o u p s or the g e n e r a l assembly. T h i s c a n a l s o b e d o n e b y c o n t a c t i n g d i r e c t l y the o t h e r i n f o r m a l leaders representing various micro-neighborhoods. T h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r c a n also b e f o u n d in the p e r s o n of a f o r m a l official w h o h a s left a f o r m a l j o b . T h e r e are cases of m e m b e r s of city c o u n c i l s w h o lose elections a n d r e t u r n to the n e i g h b o r h o o d . W h a t d o e s it take f o r s u c h a p e r s o n to b e c o m e a n i n f o r m a l l e a d e r ? If h e or s h e w a s a n i n f o r m a l l e a d e r prior to l a n d i n g the f o r m a l j o b a n d c o n t i n u e d to m a i n t a i n c o n t a c t s thereafter, the reentry will not cause any problem. People w h o were n o t formerly i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s c a n b e c o m e leaders b e c a u s e of t h e e x p e r t i s e they are a b l e t o offer. To the e x t e n t that s u c h f o r m a l l e a d e r s a c c e p t the role of i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s , t h e y will b e r e c o g n i z e d as s u c h b y t h e group. T h e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is s o m e t i m e s rife w i t h division b e c a u s e o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s o r different p e r c e p t i o n s of the i n f o r m a l leaders. T h e issues that tie t h e g r o u p t o g e t h e r d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n c l u d e the w i l l i n g n e s s t o s u p p o r t a n y o n e i n d i v i d u a l i n f o r m a l l e a d e r for p u b l i c office. O n e i n f o r m a n t s t a t e d t h a t m a n y p e o p l e like h i m as c h a i r m a n of the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o m m i t t e e , b u t s h o u l d h e b e c o m e a c a n d i d a t e for an elective office i n t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m t h e y w o u l d p r o b a b l y o p p o s e h i m b e c a u s e of f e e l i n g s a n d p e r s o n a l i t y c l a s h e s . H e b e l i e v e s that p e o p l e are a f r a i d o f h i m for the s a m e r e a s o n s t h e y like to h a v e h i m available t o fight the 'outsiders'. T h e s a m e qualities that m a k e p e o p l e into l e a d e r s in the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r m a y m a k e it v e r y d i f f i c u l t to g e t t h e m a c c e p t e d as p a r t o f t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r in a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n a d v i s o r y capacity. T h e n e i g h b o r h o o d did run P a u l C o b b o n c e for city c o u n c i l , b u t h e lost t o a n o t h e r c a n d i d a t e in a h o t l y c o n t e s t e d

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election because the m a y o r t h r e w his weight b e h i n d the other c a n d i d a t e . T h e i n f o r m a l sector did not h a v e access to the m a j o r financial resources of the larger formal structure a n d c o u l d n o t m u s t e r its p e o p l e p o w e r in a unified w a y against t h e incumbent. I n t h e m a y o r a l c a m p a i g n of 1 9 9 0 , the i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s of C E R T w e r e n o t able o r w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o c o n s o l i d a t e their v o i c e s b e h i n d o n e c a n d i d a t e . In fact, t h e m e m b e r s of t h e b o a r d of d i r e c t o r s s u p p o r t e d the i n c u m b e n t M a y o r Lionel W i l s o n . T h e c h a i r m a n s u p p o r t e d E l i h u Harris, a n d t w o others s u p p o r t e d W i l s o n R i l e s . H a r r i s w o n . S o m e see this l a c k of u n a n i m i t y as a lack o f u n i t y o f p u r p o s e , b u t others s e e it as a s t r a t e g y t o a v o i d h a v i n g all t h e i r e g g s in o n e b a s k e t .

MODES O F RELATIONS WITH THE F O R M A L F r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f the i n f o r m a l , relations m a y s o m e t i m e s b e established with the formal system by means of co-optation. C o o p t a t i o n c a n b e s e e n as total or partial. It is t o t a l w h e n a n i n f o r m a l is g i v e n a j o b in the f o r m a l sector o n a f u l l - t i m e b a s i s s o that h i s p r i m a r y a l l e g i a n c e is s e e n t o b e shifting to t h e f o r m a l . It is p a r t i a l w h e n t h e i n f o r m a l is b r o u g h t to t h e f o r m a l in a n e m e r g e n c y or a d v i s o r y capacity. T h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of p e o p l e in the f o r m a l s e c t o r t e n d s to act a s a b a r o m e t e r of the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f their i m p a c t o n the i n f o r m a l sector. T h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h a p e r s o n is c o m p e t e n t in the f o r m a l s e c t o r reflects h i s o r h e r p e r f o r m a n c e in the i n f o r m a l . S o m e o n e w h o l a c k s c o m p e t e n c e in the f o r m a l sector m a y l a c k credibility in the i n f o r m a l . T h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r relies greatly o n verbal intera c t i o n a n d the d e g r e e to w h i c h a p e r s o n is a b l e to articulate a n d to e x p r e s s h i m s e l f w i t h a certain vigor. T h e f o r m a l s e c t o r selects a d v i s o r s f r o m t h e i n f o r m a l . T h e f o r m a l sector calls o n t h e m to h e l p w i t h m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n f o r m a l a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e t h e i n f o r m a l a d v i s o r s e n h a n c e t h e i r s t a t u s in the i n f o r m a l setting. In this capacity, t h e y help t h e i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i t y g e t grants a n d c o m m u n i t y s e r v i c e s a n d e a s e the t e n s i o n that t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r m a y e x p e r i e n c e i n d e a l i n g w i t h the i n f o r m a l s .

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T h e a d v i s o r serves as a p a r a d i p l o m a t r e p r e s e n t i n g the interests of the i n f o r m a i s . T h e p e r s o n f r o m m e f o r m a l sector calls o n s u c h e x p e r t i s e to h e l p solve p r o b l e m s . T h e ties m a d e h e r e t h r o u g h the m i d d l e m a n - a d v i s o r s t r e n g t h e n the p o s i t i o n of the i n f o r m a i s .

in i n d u s t r y c a n b e a p p l i e d here as w e l l : "The m o s t p o w e r f u l actors a r e t h e i n c u m b e n t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y h o l d i n g k e y positions w i t h i n b o t h w e b s o f f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l relations t o o t h e r organization participants.'

T h e i d e a that the i n f o r m a i s are a p o l e o r the o t h e r s i d e of the f o r m a l c a n b e s e e n in t w o w a y s . S i n c e m e m b e r s of the i n f o r m a l g r o u p m a y n o t b e the s a m e as those of t h e f o r m a l , t h e y a r e l i n k e d to e a c h o t h e r t h r o u g h t h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s , o r the m e m b e r s of the f o r m a l g r o u p m a y b e t h e s a m e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p a r t i c i p a t e in the i n f o r m a l . T h e y m a y b e f u l l - t i m e p a r t i c i p a n t s in the f o r m a l a n d p a r t - t i m e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e i n f o r m a l .

F r o m t h e City H a l l s i d e , the e l e c t e d officials s e e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s as s e p a r a t e g r o u p s w a g i n g turf w a r s , c h a l l e n g i n g or s u p p o r t i n g their c a n d i d a t e s , b u t l a c k i n g in m a n a g e m e n t , plans a n d a n a w a r e n e s s of l a r g e r issues. T h e y a r e s e e n as f o r m i n g m a n y factions t h r o u g h o u t t h e city.

T h e n e i g h b o r h o o d i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s its o w n w a y of p e n e t r a t i n g the f o r m a l political s y s t e m . It d o e s s o t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l - t o - f o r m a l c o n t a c t b y s u b m i t t i n g a n d p r e s e n t i n g issues; t h r o u g h i n f o n n a l - t o - i n f o r m a l political p r o c e s s e s at C i t y Hall (kitchen c a b i n e t ) ; t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l - t o - i n f o r m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s ; a n d t h r o u g h s i m u l t a n e o u s m u l t i p l e attacks i n all three branches.

THE MAYOR'S OFFICE A N D INFORMAL ORGANIZATIONS T h e f o r m a l s y s t e m is a w a r e of the e x i s t e n c e of the i n f o r m a l p r o cess: t h e a c t o r s are e n g a g e d in it for t h e i r political s u r v i v a l a n d m a i n t a i n c o l l a b o r a t i v e c o n t a c t s with i n f o r m a l political l e a d e r s as part of c i t y g o v e r n a n c e . A s t u t e p o l i t i c i a n s s o m e t i m e s c o m e from the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d h a v e b e e n e l e c t e d to office b e c a u s e of their g r a s s r o o t s c o n n e c t i o n s . O n c e i n office t h e y c o n t i n u e to m a i n t a i n t h e s e links. In fact, election d o e s not m e a n that they give u p t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p in those g r o u p s . T h e y c o n t i n u e t o p l a y m a j o r r o l e s , at t i m e s c o n v i n c i n g the m e m b e r s h i p to s u p p o r t their policies. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y m a y n e e d t h e g r a s s r o o t s t o s h o w u p for a s p e c i a l m e e t i n g at C i t y H a l l to s u p p o r t a p i e c e o f legislation or to p u t p r e s s u r e o n t h e m a y o r a n d c i t y council to f a v o r a s p e cific policy. S o m e t i m e s t h e y s i m p l y f e e d the g r a s s r o o t s with inside i n f o r m a t i o n n o t a v a i l a b l e to o t h e r residents. O t h e r politicians w h o m i g h t h a v e b e e n active in o n e g r a s s r o o t s area m a y d e v e l o p c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h other g r a s s r o o t s areas o n c e they are e l e c t e d . W h a t K n o k e ( 1 9 9 0 : 93) s a i d a b o u t the l e a d e r s h i p role

T h e s t r a t e g y u s e d b y C i t y Hall to r e d u c e their i n f l u e n c e or to c o n t r o l t h e m is to c r e a t e special c i t i z e n g r o u p s a s a w a y of infiltrating a n d c r e a t i n g a balance to t h e s e o p p o s i t i o n g r o u p s . I n d i v i d u a l s m a y b e c o - o p t e d to s e r v e as i n t e r l o c u t o r s a l o n g with o t h e r s f r o m o t h e r c o m p e t i n g g r o u p s . T h i s w a y t h e y d o n o t represent a t h r e a t to u n i t y a n d c a n b r i n g f o r t h issues that d e s e r v e the a t t e n t i o n o f the city a s a w h o l e . C i t y H a l l r e c o g n i z e s t h a t the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is v e r y hard to m a n a g e . T h e city n e u t r a l i z e s t r o u b l e m a k e r s a m o n g t h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s in three m a j o r w a y s : (1) b y h a r a s s m e n t - that is underm i n i n g t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p ; (2) b y i g n o r i n g t h e m , or (3) b y creating a l t e r n a t i v e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s . T h e s t r a t e g y h a s also b e e n to create a l t e r n a t i v e i n f o r m a l g r o u p s that o n e c a n control, o r t o infiltrate a n d e n c a d r e i n f o r m a l g r o u p s w i t h o n e ' s o w n p e o p l e . A s other i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s are c r e a t e d , they a r e m a d e to p l a y a g a i n s t each other. T r o u b l e m a k e r s a r e i g n o r e d : their t e l e p h o n e c a l l s are either n o t r e t u r n e d o r are o n l y r e t u r n e d o n e o r t w o d a y s later, a n d they are n o t i n v i t e d to p u b l i c social affairs. F r o m t h e city a n g l e , t h e rulers l o o k at the i n f o r m a l at t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d l e v e l w i t h a n e y e to c o - o p t a t i o n a n d c o l l a b o r a t i o n , to e n h a n c i n g the p o s i t i o n s of allies a n d d o w n g r a d i n g t h e positions of h o s t i l e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d to a c o m b i n e d strategy b a s e d o n the i m p o r t a n c e of i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s linked to u n i o n s , their size, a g e , fragility a n d their overall i m p o r t a n c e in the n e i g h b o r h o o d . F r o m t h e city side, t w o kinds of i n f o r m a l g r o u p s c a n b e dist i n g u i s h e d : the n e i g h b o r h o o d g r o u p s a n d the c o r p o r a t e w o r l d . T h e c o r p o r a t e w o r l d is m a d e u p o f t h e o l d - g u a r d b u s i n e s s m e n , l a w y e r s , p r o f e s s i o n a l p e o p l e a n d old f a m i l i e s w h o a r e e n t r e n c h e d in city politics. B e h i n d the s c e n e s , t h e y m a k e

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d e c i s i o n s a n d i n f l u e n c e the p o l i c y - m a k i n g p r o c e s s a n d p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . T h e y call c o u n c i l m e m b e r s , s o m e t i m e s m e e t w i t h t h e m , a n d b e c a u s e of their a b i l i t y to p r o v i d e s e r v i c e s t o e l e c t e d officials ( s u c h a s raising m o n e y for an e l e c t i o n o r g i v i n g f i n a n c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o a c a m p a i g n ) their v o i c e s a r e h e a r d . T h e f o r m a l s e c t o r establishes its o w n i n f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s for e f f i c i e n c y in h a n d l i n g issues, t o s e r v e as links, o r t o listen to i n f o r m a l g r o u p s a n d b r i n g their d e m a n d s to t h e a t t e n t i o n of the m a y o r . T e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n s p r i o r to a m e e t i n g p r o v i d e a n i n f o r m a l w a y to get v o t e s a n d s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f split v o t e s . T h i s i n f o r m a l p r o c e d u r e is n e c e s s a r y f o r efficiency b e c a u s e m e e t ings c a n n o t last l o n g e n o u g h to w o r k o u t all t h e d e t a i l s in a p a r ticular m a t t e r . T h e i s s u e m a y b e w e l l d i s c u s s e d i n f o r m a l l y a h e a d of t i m e b e c a u s e this c a n n o t b e a c h i e v e d in a t w o - h o u r m e e t i n g . T h e i n f o r m a l p l a y e r s at City H a l l a r e the f o r m a l e m p l o y e e s . T h e s e a r e t h e l o y a l i s t s w h o c o m p r i s e t h e k i t c h e n c a b i n e t of t h e m a y o r , p r o t e c t h i m o r h e r a n d p r e p a r e policies. T h e c e n t e r of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s is identified a s the g a n g ( a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s are m a d e b y the g a n g ) ; p o l i t i c a l policies a n d p l a n n i n g rest w i t h t h e political c l i q u e , b u t p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s a r e m a d e b y the g a n g . T h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r in the m a y o r ' s office c o n s i s t s o f h i s staff. If o n e c a n n o t see the m a y o r , o n e m a y b e able to s e e m e m b e r s of h i s or h e r staff. T h e m a y o r m a y listen m o r e to o n e staff m e m b e r t h a n to a n o t h e r . T h e r e is a h i e r a r c h y b o t h i n the w a y t h e m a y o r p e r ceives the neighborhood-based informal groups and the way he p e r c e i v e s the i n f o r m a l s in his office. I n the n e i g h b o r h o o d , o n e ' s p o s i t i o n d e p e n d s o n o n e ' s i m p o r t a n c e a n d loyalty t o t h e m a y o r ' s office. I n the office, it is b a s e d on f r i e n d s h i p , w h e t h e r o n e k n o w s the players, and whether one can provide reliable advice and loyalty. T h e i n f o r m a l g r o u p , w h i c h is i n f o r m a l b y d e f i n i t i o n , is a s k e d to p r e s e n t f o r m a l d e m a n d s to be d i s c u s s e d formally. B o t h e n t r y a n d i n f l u e n c e c a n b e i n f o r m a l , u s i n g a n i n f o r m a l a p p r o a c h to d e a l w i t h t h e f o r m a l p o l i t i c i a n , their i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d the f o r m a l b u r e a u c r a c y w i t h its i n f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s . T h i s is why, for a n a l y t i c a l r e a s o n s , it is p r o d u c t i v e t o s e p a r a t e t h e f o r m a l political s y s t e m f r o m the f o r m a l b u r e a u c r a t i c s y s t e m , a l t h o u g h in p r a c t i c e they are intertwined and interdependent.

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T h e f o r m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s creates its o w n i n f o r m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e . T h e b u r e a u c r a t i c p r o c e s s w i t h its o w n r i g i d i t y is a n o b s t a c l e to efficiency. It o p e r a t e s b o t h f o r m a l l y w i t h o u t s i d e r s a n d i n f o r m a l l y w i t h i n s i d e r s . To c u t t h r o u g h the b u r e a u c r a t i c p r o c e s s , i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s w h o h a v e c o n t a c t s in the office c a n p e n e t r a t e t h e i n f o r m a l b u r e a u c r a t i c s y s t e m to achieve a f o r m a l o u t c o m e . S o m e t i m e s the i n f o r m a l g r o u p at t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d l e v e l is able t o adjust to the i n f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s at City H a l l a n d not t o its attendant i n f o r m a l administrative process.

THE INFORMALITY O F U R B A N POLITICS T h e i n f o r m a l d i m e n s i o n is e v e r m o r e present in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of u r b a n politics at b o t h the n e i g h b o r h o o d a n d city g o v e r n m e n t l e v e l s ( G u e s t a n d O r o p e s a , 1 9 8 6 ) . T h a t i n f o r m a l i t y is part a n d p a r c e l of the f o r m a l political s y s t e m i n the r u n n i n g o f the e v e r y d a y affairs of the city, in the electoral process, in t h e p o l i c y enviro n m e n t a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , a n d in the o v e r a l l relation of e l e c t e d officials w i t h t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n c i e s . U r b a n politics is p l a y e d out o n t w o registers: t h e f o r m a l that is legal, visible a n d official, a n d t h e i n f o r m a l that is h i d d e n a n d s o m e t i m e s illegal. B e c a u s e of t h e t o p - d o w n n a t u r e of a d m i n istration, a vast a r r a y of h u m a n activities is n o t a c c o u n t e d f o r a l t h o u g h t h e y p l a y k e y roles in t h e c o n d u c t of t h e political life of the city. T h e i n f o r m a l register g i v e s s u s t a i n e d life t o the f o r m a l system. U r b a n politics h a s a n i n f o r m a l d i m e n s i o n b e c a u s e of the w e b of i n f o r m a l relations t h e elected officials carry w i t h t h e m . T h e n e t w o r k of i n f o r m a l relations that t h e y h a v e p r i o r t o c o m i n g to the c i t y office a n d t h e i n f o r m a l w a y s t h e y h a v e b e e n socialized to d o t h i n g s c a n n o t b e d i s m i s s e d o v e r n i g h t . In fact, t h e y m u s t rely o n s o m e of t h e m t o s u r v i v e in office. T h e n o t i o n of ' k i t c h e n c a b i n e t ' certainly i m p l i e s that e v e n w i t h i n a f o r m a l c a b i n e t there m a y b e a clique c l o s e r to the b o s s w h o influence t h e direction o f u r b a n politics. T h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a is the place w h e r e political m a n e u v e r s that c a n n o t b e carried o u t in the o p e n a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d . I n f o r m a l i t y provides a back-up to speed up cumbersome procedures, to

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r e d u c e t h e time that c a n n o t be s a v e d a n d to d o t h i n g s that c a n n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e d o n e in t h e open b e c a u s e d o i n g t h e m o p e n l y e i t h e r d e f e a t s t h e p u r p o s e o r is illegal.

t e n n i s court. O n c e t h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d in the i n f o r m a l d o m a i n , t h e y c a n c o m e b a c k t o the C h a m b e r a n d take t h e v o t e s . This is a c l e a r c a s e of the i n f o r m a l r e s c u i n g t h e f o r m a l .

I n f o r m a l i t y a n d f o r m a l i t y are t w o sides of t h e s a m e political p r o c e s s a n d reflect t h e sociological reality of e v e r y d a y life. In t h e c o n d u c t of u r b a n affairs, i n f o r m a l i t y c o m e s t o t h e r e s c u e of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , w h i l e t h e f o r m a l is u s e d to g i v e l e g i t i m a c y t o t h e i n f o r m a l . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d p r o c e s s o f u r b a n politics c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d fully w i t h o u t p a y i n g attention t o t h e i n f o r m a l i t y that it c o n t a i n s a n d that s h a p e s its content.

T h e i n f o r m a l c a n also b e s e e n a s a safety v a l v e . W h e n e v e r y t h i n g e l s e h a s b e e n t r i e d , the i n f o r m a l m a y b e s o u g h t as an ultim a t e a r e n a . It a l l o w s a d e c o n t r a c t i o n o f the f o r m a l s y s t e m b y w a y of its e x p a n s i o n .

THE POLITICS OF INFORMALITY

T h e i n f o r m a l a l s o p r o v i d e s a s y s t e m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n to t h e f o r m a l . S u c h i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n gives a c c e s s to i n f o r m a t i o n n o t o t h e r w i s e a v a i l a b l e a n d is a n i n f o r m a l s y s t e m b e c a u s e o f t h e i n f o r m a l a c q u i s i t i o n , analysis a n d c o n t e n t o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n . F e w local a n d c i t y politicians c o u l d s u r v i v e w i t h o u t b e i n g f e d r o u t i n e l y with this k i n d of i n f o r m a l i n f o r m a t i o n .

T h e i n f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l process e x i s t s in e v e r y A m e r i c a n city f o r the s i m p l e reason t h a t d e m o c r a c y a l l o w s it, the i m p e r f e c t i o n of t h e f o r m a l g o v e r n m e n t a l s y s t e m i n v i t e s it, n e i g h b o r h o o d resid e n t s w e l c o m e the o p p o r t u n i t y to m a k e their v o i c e s h e a r d in a n effort t o i m p r o v e l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , a n d city officials r o u t i n e l y u s e it to a c h i e v e a s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e t o their activities. T h e politics of i n f o r m a l i t y c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s p r o v i d i n g the f o r m a l s y s t e m w i t h an arena o f activities that it u s e s a n d is f o r c e d t o react to. I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d six d o m a i n s w o r t h e x a m i n i n g : f o r f a c e - s a v i n g , f o r p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , as a s a f e t y valve, as a b a c k - s t a g e r e h e a r s a l , as a n i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m a n d a s a p l a t e a u of r e s i s t a n c e . T h e i n f o r m a l is u s e d b y the f o r m a l in m a t t e r s o f face-saving. A n i n d i v i d u a l in a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n c a n shift f r o m f o r m a l t o i n f o r m a l as a w a y of diffusing t e n s i o n a n d g e t t i n g s m o o t h l y o u t of a s i t u a t i o n that c o u l d b e e m b a r r a s s i n g . It is b a s i c a l l y a s u r v i v a l device. T h e i n f o r m a l is a l s o a n arena w h e r e p r o b l e m s i n i t i a t e d in t h e f o r m a l d o m a i n m a y f i n d their r e s o l u t i o n . T h e i n f o r m a l d o m a i n is a b l e t o r e s o l v e p r o b l e m s efficiently b e c a u s e illegal, u n e t h i c a l a n d o t h e r w i s e secret d e a l s c a n b e d o n e there. O f t e n t h e U S C o n g r e s s is d i v i d e d on a n i s s u e , w h i c h m e a n s that the f o r m a l s y s t e m c a n n o t s o l v e the i s s u e o r c o u l d d o s o o n l y w i t h m o r e time. A f t e r a d j o u r n i n g the s e s s i o n , the legislators are able to m a k e i n f o r m a l d e a l s w i t h o n e a n o t h e r in the c o r r i d o r s , in the c a f e t e r i a or o n t h e

T h e informal system provides t h a t c o m p r o m i s e s a r e m a d e , the t e m p l a t e d a n d s t r a t e g i e s for r e h e a r s a l predicts t h e possibility on-stage performance.

a b a c k - s t a g e r e h e a r s a l . It is h e r e p r o b l e m s of t h e f o r m a l are c o n c h a n g e are d e v e l o p e d . T h a t f o r s u c c e s s in t h e f o r m a l , v i s i b l e

I n f o r m a l i t y a l s o a l l o w s a r o u t e to o p p o s i n g a l e a d e r o r t h e o p e r a t i o n of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . It is in this a r e n a that m u c h c o n s c i o u s n e s s r a i s i n g a n d strategies o f protest a r e d e v e l o p e d . It p r o v i d e s a f o r u m w h e r e t r u e feelings c a n b e u n v e i l e d , secrecy c a n b e k e p t a n d an a l t e r n a t i v e political m o r a l i t y c a n p r e v a i l . T h e politics of i n f o r m a l i t y h a s its o w n i n t e n t i o n a l i t y a n d g o a l : to e n h a n c e o n e ' s o w n status, to p r e v e n t an o p p o n e n t ' s a s c e n s i o n or t o d e f e a t an e n e m y , to s p e e d u p a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e action, t o e x p l o i t all p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n , t o k e e p a l i v e i m p o r t a n t c o n n e c t i o n s o r to a d v a n c e a c o m m o n c a u s e .

FORMAL LEADERSHIP A N D INFORMALITY To s t r e n g t h e n o u r a r g u m e n t for t h e role of i n f o r m a l practices i n f o r m a l political life, w e c a n n o t r e l y e x c l u s i v e l y o n the relations b e t w e e n the g r a s s r o o t s a n d the m a y o r ' s office i n t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n t h r o u g h the i n f o r m a l political a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s . A n o t h e r crucial test is to s h o w t h a t e v e n t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n city officials a n d state or f e d e r a l officials a r e m e d i a t e d b y i n f o r m a l practices. O n e w o u l d e x p e c t that t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n

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these e n t i t i e s o u g h t t o b e f o r m a l . T h i s is n o t a l w a y s t h e c a s e . T h e f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s c o m e s i n m e r e l y to r u b b e r s t a m p w h a t w a s a l r e a d y g a i n e d or s o l v e d in the i n f o r m a l d o m a i n . T h e m a y o r ' s w e b of i n f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s c o n n e c t s n o t o n l y w i t h the local u r b a n e l e c t o r a t e b u t also w i t h officials at t h e state a n d f e d e r a l l e v e l s . T h e latter a r e t h e o n e s w h o h e l p the c i t y secure state a n d federal m o n i e s for t h e m a y o r ' s c o n s t i t u e n c i e s . B e c q u a r t - L e c l e r c q ( 1 9 7 8 : 2 6 1 ) n o t e s that ' t o activate s u c h p o w e r r e s o u r c e s m a y o r s m u s t d e v e l o p a p e r s o n a l relationship n e t w o r k that o p e n s routes for g r o p i n g their w a y t h r o u g h the t a n g l e d w e b of state a g e n c i e s a n d for facilitating r e q u e s t s that m a y b e b l o c k e d in a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l a b y r i n t h s . ' T h e e l e c t e d m a y o r m a y h a v e n o a l t e r n a t i v e o t h e r t h a n to use these c o v e r t p r o c e s s e s . T h e y a r e so m u c h e n t r e n c h e d i n t h e w a y that f o r m a l politics f u n c t i o n that it w o u l d b e d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s to a city if t h e elected officials w e r e n o t t o get i n v o l v e d in t h e m . B e c q u a r t - L e c l e r c q ( 1 9 7 8 : 2 5 4 ) p u t s it r i g h t l y w h e n s h e n o t e s that ' m u n i c i p a l leaders a r e t h e r e f o r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h this d i l e m m a : p l a y a g a m e of c o v e r t r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r h a n d i c a p y o u r c o m m u n i t y ' S h e further n o t e s that, u n l i k e t h e F r e n c h s i t u a t i o n w h e r e i n f o r m a l c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e h i g h e r e c h e l o n s are the p r i m a r y locus of i n f o r m a l activities, in t h e A m e r i c a n c a s e the i n f o r m a l relations tend to b e m o r e intense b e t w e e n t h e m a y o r ' s office a n d t h e local c o m m u n i t y (Becquart-Leclercq, 1 9 8 8 : 1 3 1 ) . T h e i n f o r m a l relations h a v e their o w n rituals o p e r a t i n g u n d e r the s t a m p of secrecy. B e c q u a r t - L e c l e r c q (1978: 2 6 2 ) , w h o s t u d i e d the F r e n c h s y s t e m of n e t w o r k s l i n k i n g m a y o r s to p r e f e c t s , h a s identified s o m e of its c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . It t e n d s to b e ' f a c e to face, a n d p e r s o n a l ... a c t i v a t e d b y t e l e p h o n e calls, p e r s o n a l visits, l u n c h e o n invitation - n e v e r b y l e t t e r s ' . T h e s e are all m o d e s of c o n t a c t t h a t n u r t u r e a n d reinforce t h e i n f o r m a l i t y of t h e relationships. T h e s e p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o r t r a n s f o r m the f o r m a l i n t o the informal. They have b e e n a transformative characteristic. Once the r i t u a l is a c c o m p l i s h e d , the r e l a t i o n s c a n b e c o m e i n f o r m a l . T h e y s e r v e as a m e d i u m for t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n f o r m a l relationships. T h e s e i n f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s m u s t b e s e e n as an e x c h a n g e m e c h a n i s m , o n e t h a t m a i n t a i n s a b a l a n c e f a v o r a b l e to b o t h parties. It gives the m a y o r access to p o w e r resources, speeds u p the bureau-

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cratic p r o c e s s a n d t h e delivery o f g o o d s ( m o n e y ) , a n d s t r e n g t h e n s h i s o r h e r p o s i t i o n in the city, p r o v i d i n g a n a d v a n t a g e o u s b r o k e r position vis-a-vis other cities. A t the s a m e t i m e , it p r o v i d e s a c o n s t i t u e n c y f o r t h e state or f e d e r a l elected official o r s u p p o r t f o r s t a t e o r f e d e r a l policies. To t h e e x t e n t that e a c h o n e receives s o m e t h i n g in return, t h e relations m a y b e stable o v e r t i m e (see a l s o B e c q u a r t - L e c l e r c q , 1978: 2 6 2 ) . I n a f o r m a l s y s t e m t h a t is s u p p o s e d to b e r u n b y f o r m a l r u l e s and procedures, the informal network 'perverts relationships b e t w e e n rulers a n d r u l e d , t h w a r t s collective e x p r e s s i o n of d e m a n d s , handicaps participation and leads to favoritism' ( B e c q u a r t - L e c l e r c q , 1 9 7 8 : 2 8 0 ) . T h r o u g h its p e r v e r s i o n , this p r a c t i c e l e a d s n e c e s s a r i l y to n e p o t i s m b e c a u s e it p o s i t i o n s s o m e i n d i v i d u a l s in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t h a n o t h e r s , it d i s c o u r a g e s s o m e from using the formal process, and discriminates against those w h o d o . These practices help build a h i d d e n stratification s y s t e m and can blur the policy of fairness, leading to an apport i o n m e n t o f state s e r v i c e s o n a b a s i s o t h e r t h a n e q u a l i t y a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g to t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of i n e q u a l i t y in t h e p r o c e s s of s t a t e a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s . T h e m a y o r is t h e n to t h e s t a t e o f f i c i a l w h a t t h e g r a s s r o o t s l e a d e r is t o the m a y o r - t h a t is, p a r t o f a c i r c l e of p r o t e g e e s w o r k i n g f o r t h e i r o w n b e n e f i t s a n d t h o s e o f t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n c i e s . T h o s e m a y o r s w h o a r e a b l e to e s t a b l i s h a n d m a i n t a i n s u s t a i n e d i n f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h state a n d f e d e r a l l e a d e r s a r e l i k e l y to g a i n m o r e for t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s than those who do not. T h e s e i n f o r m a l relations s h o w t h e subtle w a y s i n f o r m a l i t y i n t e r f a c e s a n d i n t e r f e r e s with f o r m a l practices, a n d s o influences t h e m . T h e success o f the m a y o r in getting t h e m o n e y f r o m the state c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d e x c l u s i v e l y in f o r m a l t e r m s . O n e s e e s h e r e t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of b o t h i n f o r m a l a n d f o r m a l in the p r o d u c t i o n of the f o r m a l o u t c o m e . I n f o r m a l i t y p r o v i d e s a political s p a c e in w h i c h at the s a m e t i m e t o deroute a n d to reroute the f o r m a l p r o c e s s . ( D e r o u t i n g m e a n s g o i n g o v e r a threshold to a n a l y z e a n d d i s a r t i c u l a t e a n a s p e c t of t h e f o r m a l p r o c e s s . R e r o u t i n g m e a n s g o i n g b a c k o v e r the threshold a n d returning to t h e f o r m a l w i t h a f o r m a l i z a t i o n of the i n f o r m a l content.) T h e f o r m a l political p r o c e s s is thus f r a u g h t with informality. B e h i n d t h e f o r m a l f a c a d e , t h e r e is a b e n i g n discourse a n d practice of

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i n e q u a l i t y and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n n u r t u r e d b y t h e w e b of i n f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l relationships.

THE P R O C E S S U A L I T Y OF INFORMAL POLITICAL PRACTICES T h r o u g h the d e c o d i n g of i n f o r m a l political p r a c t i c e s , w e c a n s e e p o l i t i c a l informality a s b e i n g p r o c e s s u a l a n d a l s o m u l t i v o c a l . P r o c e s s u a l i t y refers to its content, its b a c k w a r d a n d f o r w a r d l i n k a g e w i t h the formal s e c t o r a n d its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e informal s y s t e m is p r o c e s s u a l b e c a u s e it is c o n s t a n t l y i n the m a k i n g a n d r e m a k i n g . T h i s p r o c e s s c a n b e a c t i v a t e d f o r v a r i o u s reasons, a m o n g t h e m b e i n g c h a n g e s in g o a l - o r i e n t a t i o n , in t h e actors t h e m s e l v e s , in the c o n t e n t of the n e t w o r k of relations h i p s , in internal forces (internal t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ) o r in e x t e r n a l f o r c e s (generated b y a v a r y i n g a m o u n t of e x t e r n a l c o n s t r a i n t s ) . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is also p r o c e s s u a l in a m o r e lineal f a s h i o n in t e r m s of its historicity. It h a s its b e g i n n i n g i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a hidden agenda or in a period of formation. This corresponds to t h e s l i p p a g e f r o m f o r m a l t o i n f o r m a l . It h a s a p e a k w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e periods of a n a l y s i s , m a n e u v e r s , deals a n d i n f o r m a l d e c i s i o n s . T h e third p h a s e is that of r e - e n t e r i n g o r t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n of t h e i n f o r m a l o u t c o m e . E a c h o n e o f these p h a s e s c o r r e s p o n d s to m o m e n t s of i n v e r t e d i n f o r m a l to f o r m a l relationships. T h e informal is a l s o p r o c e s s u a l b e c a u s e it s h a p e s the f o r m a l s y s t e m . P r o c e s s u a l i t y here m e a n s t w o t h i n g s : t h e i n f o r m a l is a d j u s t e d to the w a y s of the f o r m a l , or m a y b e o n its w a y t o b e c o m i n g f o r m a l i z e d . Its i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e w i t h the f o r m a l s y s t e m is the c o r n e r s t o n e of its processuality.

Notes 1.

There are various sites of power where the informal raw politics is cooked, practised and channelled into the arena where the formal political system can interface with it and sometimes recoup it. We have found that the Chinese, Filipinos, Laotians, Cambodians and

2.

3.

4.

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Vietnamese have their own separate organizations where local issues that affect their ethnic groups are discussed. They form an Asian alliance for the purpose of funding and politicking, especially in their interface with state and city agencies. However, the ethnic politicians identify themselves not as representing their specific ethnic groups, but rather the larger Asian community. The East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation provides them with a front region for the expression of their public discourse. The informal leadership is subdivided into front region and back region leaders. The back region leaders join ranks with the front leaders for the purpose of making their voices heard and achieving their goals. For a historical analysis of the participation of ethnic minorities in the formal political system in San Francisco, see Wirt (1974: 240-71). On African-Americans' and Hispanics' attempts to shape the formal political system in Oakland, see Hayes (1972) and Browning et al. (1984). The relations between grassroots leaders and the mayor's office are understood here in terms of exchange theory (Lomnitz, 1988; Blau, 1964) and patron-client relationships (Knoke, 1990).

5 Informality, Interstitiality and the Modern Firm T h e f o r m a l firm is o n e arena w h e r e f o r m a l i t y is s u p p o s e d to r e i g n s u p r e m e b e c a u s e it is o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o a r a t i o n a l b l u e p r i n t to e n h a n c e its e f f e c t i v e n e s s . T h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t identifies the p o s i t i o n s to b e filled b y e m p l o y e e s a n d establishes the f o r m a l r u l e s f o r d i s p u t e r e s o l u t i o n a n d for c o n d u c t i n g d a i l y a n d routine b u s i n e s s w i t h i n t h e firm. Yet it w o u l d b e w r o n g t o b e l i e v e that a n y o f t h e f o r m a l f i r m s in the S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a o p e r a t e s on the b a s i s of f o r m a l i t y alone. A s w e will see later, i n f o r m a l i t y is a l s o p a r t of the f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n o f the m o d e r n firm. T h e r e is a t r a d i t i o n in the s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e that e x p l a i n s the e x i s t e n c e of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s in the firm i n t w o w a y s : e i t h e r as p r e c e d i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e f o r m a l f i r m o r as b e i n g p r o d u c e d b y the f o r m a l firm. In reality, these t w o e x p l a n a t i o n s c o m p l e m e n t each other. T h e a r g u m e n t for the p r e c e d e n c e of i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s is e x p l a i n e d b y w a y of locating t h e issue in t w o s t r u c t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t positions. F o r Etzioni ( 1 9 7 0 : 2 1 6 ) the p r e p a r a t i o n of a b l u e p r i n t to set the g o a l s a n d o p e r a t i o n of the o r g a n i z a t i o n is c e r t a i n l y d r a w n u p b y a s m a l l g r o u p of p e o p l e t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n s a n d it is t h r o u g h those i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t staff a n d t h e i r positions i n t h e firm are d i s c u s s e d a n d o t h e r p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r s a r e d e c i d e d . S i m o n ( 1 9 6 6 : 1 4 8 ) p u s h e s the a r g u m e n t e v e n f u r t h e r b y locating t h e i s s u e n o t o n l y p r i o r to the p r e p a r a t i o n of the b l u e p r i n t a n d a f t e r it is a g r e e d u p o n , b u t a l s o b e f o r e the firm s t a r t s to r u n s m o o t h l y . H e refers t o the role of t h e 'initial s h a k e - d o w n c r u i s e ' to g i v e the first o p e r a t i o n a l b o o s t t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . H e sees the fulfillment of t h e relational a s p e c t as a n e c e s s a r y s t e p for each e m p l o y e e w h o j o i n s the firm. T h e n e w c o m e r m u s t d e v e l o p i n f o r m a l relations w i t h the p e o p l e b e f o r e b e i n g a c c e p t e d fully b y t h e g r o u p . I n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n 103

104

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Informality,

is s e e n a s the e n g i n e f o r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f the f o r m a l firm. B a r n a r d ( 1 9 5 8 : 1 2 0 ) , u s i n g a s i m i l a r l i n e of a r g u m e n t , r e m a r k s that ' f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s arise o u t of i n f o r m a l organizations.' I n f o r m a l i t y in t h e f i r m is also s e e n as a c o n s e q u e n c e or a p r o d u c t i o n o f formality. It is s o b e c a u s e f o r m a l i t y h a s its o w n l i m i t s a n d d o e s n o t c o v e r all aspects o f t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e firm a n d a l s o b e c a u s e h u m a n b e i n g s a l w a y s find w a y s t o c i r c u m v e n t i m p o s e d structures t h a t restrict t h e i r f r e e d o m of a c t i o n . I n f o r m a l ity is p r o d u c e d b y f o r m a l i t y to p r e v e n t a n y s t a l e m a t e i n the o p e r a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l f i r m . In this light, B a r n a r d ( 1 9 5 8 : 120) n o t e s that ' w h e n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o m e i n t o o p e r a t i o n , t h e y c r e a t e and require informal organizations'. J o h n s t o n (1956: 2 5 ) a r g u e s that it is t h e inability o f the firm t o m e e t t h e n e e d s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s that l e a d s t h e m to c r e a t e informal organizations. He notes that 'informal organization will arise i n m a n y c a s e s in o r d e r to c o m p e n s a t e for t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s in t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . ' T h e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , far f r o m i m p e d i n g the firm, actually h e l p s it a c h i e v e its g o a l s a n d e v i d e n t l y h e l p s t h e i n d i v i d u a l s to s a t i s f y their n e e d s . 1

E v e r since the 1920s there h a s b e e n an interest in s t u d y i n g v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s in f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . E a r l y o n it w a s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e a r e a n e n o r m o u s n u m b e r o f i n f o r m a l a c t i v i t i e s g o i n g o n w i t h i n the m o d e r n f i r m . T h e s e s t u d i e s w e r e u n d e r t a k e n to s h o w t h e e x i s t e n c e o f i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s in f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of specific informal entities like the grapevine ( D a v i s , 1953; S u t t o n a n d Porter, 1968) and the clique system (Sayles, 1966), the relations b e t w e e n formal a n d informal organizations (Barnard, 1958), a n d the importance of informal organizations in t h e r u n n i n g of f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( R o e t h l i s b e r g e r a n d Dickson, 1947). The various studies on informal organizations have been c o u c h e d in the f u n c t i o n a l m o d e o f a n a l y s i s . B l a u (1964: 2 7 1 ) t e n d s t o reinforce t h a t trend b y c a l l i n g for 'a f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s of t h e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h e x p l o r e s the d i s t i n c t i v e f u n c tions o f the i n f o r m a l g r o u p s t r u c t u r e in a b u r e a u c r a c y ' . W h a t is s o u g h t h e r e is a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n to f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . 2

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105

T h e functions of informal organizations in formal organi z a t i o n s are s p e l l e d o u t in the r e s e a r c h literature in t e r m s of m e e t i n g the n e e d s of t h r e e different entities: to m e e t t h e n e e d s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a n t , of the c l i q u e or t h e g r o u p , a n d of t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . B a r n a r d ( 1 9 5 8 : 122) u n d e r l i n e s the r a t i o n a l e of t h e f u n c t i o n a l a r g u m e n t b y m a k i n g a case f o r t h e i m p o r t a n c e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e role o r i m p a c t of i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . H e sees their function as b e i n g ' t h a t of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . . . that of t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f c o h e s i v e n e s s in f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . . . [and] t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f the f e e l i n g of p e r s o n a l integrity, o f self-respect, of i n d e p e n d e n t c h o i c e . ' S u m m a r i z i n g the e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e on i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , I a n n a c c o n e ( 1 9 6 4 : 2 2 3 ) stipulates that they are e i t h e r seen ' a s p r i m a r i l y s u b v e r s i v e . . . as a h e a l t h y s u p p l e m e n t to the f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . . . o r as p r o v i d i n g f o r the p s y c h o l o g i c a l w e l f a r e o f organization members'. O t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s p i n p o i n t r a t h e r the limits t h a t f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s put o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . In this t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h , D a l t o n ( 1 9 5 9 : 2 3 7 ) tends t o stress the restrict i o n s of the f o r m a l s y s t e m o n i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . H e n o t e s t h a t 'first, the f o r m a l largely o r d e r s the d i r e c t i o n the i n f o r m a l t a k e s . S e c o n d , it c o n s e q u e n t l y s h a p e s the c h a r a c t e r of d e f e n s e s c r e a t e d b y the i n f o r m a l . A n d t h i r d , . . . it r e q u i r e s overt c o n f o r m i t y to its p r e c e p t s . ' A l t h o u g h o n e r e c o g n i z e s t h e n e e d f o r t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m t o r e g u l a t e the s p r e a d of i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s o t h a t t h e y d o n o t b e c o m e too c u m b e r s o m e for t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , it is an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o b e l i e v e that ' t h e f o r m a l structure p e r f o r m s n o f u n c t i o n u n l e s s it actually sets l i m i t s to the i n f o r m a l relations that are p e r m i t t e d to d e v e l o p w i t h i n it' ( S i m o n , 1 9 6 6 : 1 4 9 ) . T h a t i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x i s t in f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s is b e y o n d a n y d o u b t a n d t h e r e f o r e is not a p o i n t of c o n t r o v e r s y ( S e l z n i c k , 1 9 6 4 ; B r i t a n a n d C o h e n , 1980). W h a t is n o t s o c l e a r is t h e m u l t i p l e w a y s i n w h i c h the i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is related to t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d the n a t u r e of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e goal of t h i s c h a p t e r is t o s h o w the w a y i n w h i c h i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s e r v e as a f o u n d a t i o n a l b a s i s t o f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . B y s t r e s s i n g the interstitial a s p e c t s o f the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . W e will s e e w h y

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a n d h o w ' b e n e a t h t h e f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d o b s c u r e d in p a r t b y it, there lies a " r e a l " w o r l d c o n s i s t i n g of t h e w a y things g e t d o n e a n d h o w p e o p l e truly b e h a v e in o r g a n i z a t i o n ' ( I a n n a c c o n e , 1 9 6 4 : 2 2 3 ) . To a c c o m p l i s h that g o a l , w e will s t u d y t h e interstitial p o s i t i o n of i n f o r m a l i t y in the m o d e r n firm. A s t h e u n d e r s i d e o f the f o r m a l firm, t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f i n f o r m a l i t y w i l l b e s e e n a s a p r o c e s s a n d also as a n enclave. A s a n e n c l a v e it d e v e l o p s a n i c h e w i t h i n t h e f o r m a l firm, a n d , a s w e will see, t h e w a y it is c o n n e c t e d to the firm h a s r a m i f i c a t i o n s that c a n h a v e a n i m p a c t o n t h e firm. A s a p r o c e s s , it fills the interstices of t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e formal finn.

INFORMALITY AND HIRING PROCEDURES ' L a s t year, w e w e r e hiring s o m e o n e in the f i r m . T h e r e w e r e q u i t e a f e w g o o d c a n d i d a t e s a r o u n d h e r e a n d f r o m o u t of s t a t e . W e r e a d their a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g their v i t a e s a n d s t a t e m e n t s of interest. A n d w e d e c i d e d to invite s o m e of t h e m f o r a n i n t e r v i e w s o that w e c o u l d get to k n o w t h e m a n d t h e y w o u l d h a v e a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o v i s i t the p l a c e a n d m e e t w i t h s o m e of us. T h e selection p r o c e s s w a s c o m p l e x b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e for the m o s t p a r t c o m p e t e n t p e o p l e w i t h a lot of e x p e r i e n c e s a n d s t r o n g letters of r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . I w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y d r a w n to t w o o f t h e applicants b e c a u s e I k n o w t h e p e o p l e w h o w r o t e their letters of r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . T h e s e a r e i n d i v i d u a l s f o r w h o m I h a v e a lot of r e s p e c t . ' N o t all t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a p p l i e d for t h e j o b h a d d o n e s o b e c a u s e t h e y h a d h e a r d that t h e r e w a s a j o b o p e n i n g in o u r f i r m . A c t u a l l y w e d i d contact s o m e p e o p l e a n d i n v i t e d t h e m to a p p l y either b e c a u s e w e k n e w o f their w o r k o r b e c a u s e f r i e n d s h a d s u g g e s t e d t h a t w e got in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e m . "There w e r e a c o u p l e of i n c i d e n t s before w e m a d e the final d e c i s i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , three p e o p l e called to p r o v i d e u s w i t h b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n on s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a n t s . M u c h of it w a s g o s s i p a n d c o u l d n o t b e v e r i f i e d easily. T h e r e w a s a specific i n d i v i d u a l w e w e r e interested i n hiring. H o w e v e r , s o m e o n e i n f o r m e d u s t h a t s h e h a d h e a r d that the a p p l i c a n t h a d h a d a p r o b l e m w i t h a w o m a n in the f i r m w h e r e h e w a s w o r k i n g . W e

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contacted one manager w h o knew our applicant and he did c o r r o b o r a t e this piece of g o s s i p . D e s p i t e h i s f o r m a l a n d o u t standing credentials, w e e n d e d up hiring another person on the b a s i s of that c o n f i d e n t i a l piece of i n f o r m a t i o n given to u s o v e r the p h o n e . ' I n t h e h i r i n g p r o c e s s the interstices of the f o r m a l p r o c e d u r e c a n b e s e e n to b e filled with informality. H i r i n g m e a n s three t h i n g s : search, r e j e c t i o n a n d selection. A l t h o u g h f o r m a l notices are p u b l i s h e d listing t h e qualifications o f the p e r s o n to b e hired or g i v i n g a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e j o b , t h e r e a r e i n f o r m a l w a y s to invite specific p r o s p e c t i v e e m p l o y e e s to a p p l y . T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s are identified o n the b a s i s o f their c o n t a c t s o r friendships w i t h certain p e r s o n s . T h e s e b e h i n d - t h e - s c e n e m a n e u v e r s are discriminatory, a n d s o m e t i m e s illegal if d o n e openly, b u t are a l l o w e d t o survive b e c a u s e t h e y are d o n e covertly. T h e y a l r e a d y i n f l u e n c e the n a t u r e a n d t h e c o n t e n t of t h e n e x t step, the rejection of u n w a n t e d c a n d i d a t e s . I n f o r m a l i t y r u l e s c o m p l e t e l y in the rejection p r o c e s s , p a r t l y b e c a u s e of t h e i n f o r m a l b i a s i n the search itself. S o m e w i l l b e rejected b e c a u s e of a l a c k of contacts. O t h e r s will b e rejected b e c a u s e it is p r e s u m e d t h a t t h e y will n o t fit well w i t h the i n f o r m a l life o f the firm, i n c l u d i n g its c o n f l i c t i n g cliques. O t h e r s w i l l b e rejected b e c a u s e of i n f o r m a l criteria - o f t e n u n s p o k e n b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s real - such as ethnicity, g e n d e r o r s e x u a l orientation. T h e s e l e c t i o n itself is f r a u g h t w i t h informality. T h e c a n d i d a t e is s e l d o m s e l e c t e d o n the b a s i s o f c o m p e t e n c e a n d e x p e r i e n c e a l o n e . I n f o r m a l i n q u i r i e s are m a d e a b o u t h i s life in g e n e r a l a n d r e s p o n s e s a r e n o t c o n t a i n e d in the letters of reference, b u t r a t h e r a r e c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h t e l e p h o n e calls a n d i n f o r m a l talks w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e w h o m a y k n o w t h e c a n d i d a t e . B u t often, t h e r e is a godfather w h o is p u s h i n g t h e c a s e b e c a u s e t h e c a n d i d a t e is a f r i e n d of a f r i e n d , b e c a u s e it is p r e s u m e d t h a t the c a n d i d a t e will j o i n my little c l i q u e or is l i k e l y t o s u p p o r t my v i e w s , or the c a n d i d a t e g r a d u a t e d f r o m my a l m a m a t e r or b e l o n g s to the s a m e c h u r c h or c l u b that I a m a m e m b e r of. T h e s e i n f o r m a l criteria f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n f l u e n c e the f o r m a l c h a r a c t e r a n d the o u t c o m e of t h e hiring p r o c e s s i n the m o d e r n firm. T h e i n f o r m a l criteria c a n e i t h e r help to s t r e n g t h e n o r w e a k e n t h e f o r m a l criteria, a n d t h e r e b y e n h a n c e or u n d e r m i n e t h e ability

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of a n i n d i v i d u a l t o l a n d the j o b . T h e y a r e part of t h e h i r i n g p r o c e s s a n d c a n n o t b e d i s m i s s e d a s b e i n g n o n - e x i s t e n t . In fact, b e c a u s e t h e y p r o v i d e a c o n t e x t in w h i c h to u n d e r s t a n d the f o r m a l criteria, t h e y c a n i n f l u e n c e the p r o c e s s s o m u c h t h a t t h e y can shift t h e d e c i s i o n o n e w a y o r another.

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tice m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m specialized k n o w l e d g e . F o r A k i n n a s o (1992: 8 2 ) notes: ' p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e is n o t a secret f o r m of k n o w l e d g e but, rather, o n e that m e m b e r s of a g i v e n society normally share equally ... Specialized knowledge, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , is n o r m a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d in institutions t h r o u g h formal learning.'

INFORMAL LEARNING AND TRAINING INFORMAL COMMUNICATION F o r m a l training is n o t sufficient f o r s u r v i v a l in a f i r m . It p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n o n the t e c h n i c a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l a s p e c t s of the j o b , b u t i n t h e e v e r y d a y o p e r a t i o n of t h e firm, e v e n s o m e of t h e s e t e c h n i c a l aspects a r e l e a r n e d t h r o u g h the i n f o r m a l r o u t i n e . T h i s is s o b e c a u s e f o r m a l t r a i n i n g c o v e r s o n l y the e x p e c t e d , n o t t h e unexpected. I n f o r m a l t r a i n i n g is routinely d o n e o n the j o b . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n a clerk or secretary needs m a y n o t be available through the formal channels. For example, the n e w employee w h o comes in w a n t s t o k n o w or f i n d o u t w h o is i m p o r t a n t a n d w h o is not, t h e p o w e r b e h i n d the s c e n e , as a w a y o f p l a y i n g a fair g a m e b o t h i n the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l sectors. T h e r e is i n f o r m a l traditional k n o w l e d g e or a t r a d i t i o n of i n f o r m a l practices i n e v e r y firm t h a t h e o r s h e m a y w a n t to get a c q u a i n t e d w i t h : w h i c h p e o p l e d o n o t get a l o n g , w h a t c o n v e r s a t i o n is a n a t h e m a b e c a u s e o f p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , t h e w a y of d o i n g things that reflects the g r o u p culture. T h i s is p a r t o f t h e i n f o r m a l training that e n h a n c e s a n e w e m p l o y e e ' s ability t o relate to b o t h the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l a s p e c t s of t h e corporation. I n f o r m a l t r a i n i n g is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e a p p a r a t u s o f i n f o r m a l learning. I n f o r m a l l e a r n i n g is p a r t of o n e ' s daily life i n the f i r m a n d d o e s n o t entail a n y specific r e q u i r e m e n t s . In this light, o n e m a y j u s t l y a r g u e that ' I n f o r m a l l e a r n i n g is e m b e d d e d in e v e r y d a y life, t a k i n g place c o n s c i o u s l y or u n c o n s c i o u s l y . F o r s u c h l e a r n i n g t o t a k e p l a c e , n o p r e s c r i b e d setting, s c h e d u l e , t o p i c , c e n t r a l i z e d focus a n d institutional structures a r e n e c e s s a r y ' ( A k i n n a s o , 1992: 7 8 ) . I n f o r m a l l e a r n i n g is essential f o r survival a n d a s u c c e s s f u l c a r e e r i n a f i r m a n d it is the w a y in w h i c h p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e is a c q u i r e d . Practical k n o w l e d g e w h i c h e n l i g h t e n s e v e r y d a y p r a c -

T n this firm, m a n a g e m e n t did not want to g i v e him a perm a n e n t p o s i t i o n a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e d i d n o t w a n t t o fire h i m for m o n e t a r y and legal reasons. A secretary w h o h a d t y p e d a c o n f i d e n t i a l m e m o s t a r t e d s p r e a d i n g the n e w s a r o u n d . M a n a g e m e n t h a d m a d e a final d e c i s i o n a b o u t h i m , b u t d i d n o t w a n t t o m a k e it official. A g o s s i p e r i n f o r m e d h i m about this b a d news. K n o w i n g that there was n o s u p p o r t from the top and to prevent m o r e d a m a g e to his reputation f r o m the negative gossip that w a s going around, h e l e f t the f i r m . ' ' A s e c r e t a r y t y p e d a n e v a l u a t i o n that w a s s u p p o s e d to b e confidential about a white w o m a n who w a s dating a black m a n . T h e s e c r e t a r y w a s all o v e r t h e p l a c e t e l l i n g p e o p l e t h a t t h i s w o m a n w a s n o t g o i n g t o b e p r o m o t e d t o p a r t n e r s h i p in t h e firm. S i n c e s h e h a d l e a r n e d t h e b a d n e w s f r o m t h e g r a p e v i n e b e f o r e s h e l e a r n e d it f r o m t h e b o s s , s h e g o t h e r s e l f r e a d y for a c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h him. T h e m a n a g e r w a s caught unprepared when she confronted him. She was able to s a v e h e r j o b . ' ' A m a n a g e r w a s d a t i n g o n e of t h e female e m p l o y e e s . S h e told a f r i e n d of m i n e t h a t I w a s g o i n g to b e t r a n s f e r r e d to a n o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t . W h e n that h a p p e n e d , I w a s n o t e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t u r b e d b e c a u s e I h a d l e a r n e d f r o m the g r a p e v i n e the r e a s o n s f o r m y transfer. A c t u a l l y t h e f o r m a l letter o f transfer d i d n o t s p e l l out the r e a s o n s for t h e transfer. If it w e r e n o t f o r t h e information I learned from the grapevine, I would have p r o b a b l y left t h e f i r m . '

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T w a s w o r k i n g a s a teller in a b a n k . A t that t i m e t h e p o l i c y o f t h e b a n k w a s t h a t e m p l o y e e s c o u l d n o t d a t e e a c h other. O n e c o u l d g o to l u n c h w i t h a f r i e n d , b u t n o d a t i n g w a s a l l o w e d o n t h e p r e m i s e s . Y o u k n o w , there w a s this y o u n g a n d c h a r m i n g m a n w h o w a s i n t e r e s t e d in m e . W e did n o t s h o w a n y sign o f a f f e c t i o n for e a c h o t h e r in p u b l i c . H o w e v e r , g o s s i p a b o u t o u r d i s c r e e t affair t o o k o v e r a n d f i n a l l y r e a c h e d t h e m a n a g e r of t h e b a n k . M a n a g e m e n t s t e p p e d i n a n d t r a n s f e r r e d o n e of u s t o a n o t h e r b r a n c h of t h e b a n k . ' I n t h e e v e r y d a y o p e r a t i o n of t h e f i r m , t h e r e a r e t w o o v e r l a p p i n g s y s t e m s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . O n e is f o r m a l a n d u s e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d b y e v e r y o n e in t h e f i r m . It is s u p p o s e d t o b e t h e m a i n c h a n n e l of c o m m u n i c a t i o n for the t r a n s m i s s i o n of information both vertically and horizontally a m o n g the e m p l o y e e s of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , it is n o t t h e o n l y f o r m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n available to e m p l o y e e s . To the formal one m a y a d d the informal system that feeds the formal, c o m p l e m e n t s it, e x p l a i n s it, a n d c o m e s t o its r e s c u e w h e n it fails i n its t r a n s m i s s i o n p r o c e s s . T h e informal system conveys b o t h important a n d casual inform a t i o n . A n y i n f o r m a t i o n that c a n affect the w e l l - b e i n g or the j o b of a n e m p l o y e e is a c c e p t e d as i m p o r t a n t . C a s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n refers t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n on the r o u t i n e o p e r a t i o n of t h e firm t h a t k e e p s o n e abreast o f w h a t is g o i n g o n . T h e i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m in the f i r m is itself s u b d i v i d e d into t w o c a t e g o r i e s , or h a s t w o aspects that a r e also o v e r l a p p i n g : i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d the g r a p e v i n e . A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e different f r o m the f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e y a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s n o t identical e v e n t h o u g h t h e y b e l o n g to t h e s a m e universe. W e f i n d these c a t e g o r i e s in t h e interstices a n d t h e y are c e n t r a l t o t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e firm. In d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e t w o aspects o f t h e i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m , A l e x a n d e r ( 1 9 7 4 : 89) n o t e s that t h e first is r e l a t e d t o the p h y s i c a l p r o x i m i t y of w o r k e r s in t h e s a m e firm a n d 'is directed t o w a r d filling their w o r k - o r i e n t e d i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d s ' . T h i s is different f r o m the g r a p e v i n e or r u m o r w h i c h 'arises f r o m t h e d e e p - s e a t e d n e e d of e a c h e m p l o y e e t o k n o w w h a t is h a p p e n i n g in his e n v i r o n m e n t ' .

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For Simon (1966) such informal communication c o m e s about b e c a u s e i n d i v i d u a l goals m a y b e different f r o m t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s goals. T h e i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n is u s e d a s a w a y o f r e a f f i r m i n g t h e s e l f vis-à-vis the s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s of f o r m a l organization. Informal communication provides a corridor where the a c t o r s c a n p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y d e t a c h t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e o r g a n ization, e x c h a n g e i n f o r m a t i o n a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , a n d reflect o n their behavior and goals. To u n d e r s t a n d t h e role of i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t h e f i r m s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m , it is i m p o r t a n t to k e e p i n m i n d three t h i n g s : the d i r e c t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( B l o c k e r a n d S c h a u e r , 1 9 6 5 ) , the c o n t e n t o f that c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d its n e g a t i v e o r p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e o n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e firm. C o m m u n i c a t i o n is a k e y factor in the r u n n i n g of t h e f i r m b e c a u s e it l i n k s p e o p l e t o e a c h o t h e r a n d m e s s a g e s are g i v e n for the c o o r d i n a t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l o n e is i n s u f f i c i e n t t o d o t h e j o b . T h e r e is a h i d d e n d i m e n s i o n t h a t c o m p l e r f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n - this is i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . S o m e t i m e s it reinforces, c o n t r a d i c t s , c o m p l e m e n t s o r s i m p l y s h a p e s t h e c o n t e n t of f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e total c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e firm c o m p r i s e s b o t h the f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l a s p e c t s . j i e n t s

T h e f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n p a t t e r n does n o t c a p t u r e t h e t o t a l ity o f m e s s a g e s d i f f u s e d w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n p a t t e r n is also i m p o r t a n t in t h a t it p r o v i d e s a p a r a l l e l s y s t e m of diffusion: it t a k e s the i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e f o r m a l sector a n d distributes it t o t h e i n f o r m a l g r o u p , a n d it t a k e s i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e i n f o r m a l a n d distributes it to t h e f o r m a l . I n its r o l e , it r e p r o d u c e s the m a i n t e n a n c e of the g r o u p . G o s s i p is t h e m e c h a n i s m that m a i n t a i n s the g r o u p , that p r o t e c t s i n d i v i d u a l s i n the group, and that provides information the individual n e e d s f o r h i s a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e firm. T h e r e are m a n y t h i n g s that c a n n o t b e said f o r m a l l y b e c a u s e they would be inappropriate, or cannot be said to e v e r y o n e b e c a u s e they w o u l d b e seen as u n e t h i c a l . I n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a tion p r o v i d e s a n alternative r o u t e f o r f a c e - t o - f a c e , p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . In this s e n s e , it c a n n o t b e s u p e r s e d e d b y t h e f o r m a l communication system. Z e y - F e r r e l l ( 1 9 7 9 : 2 2 4 ) d i s t i n g u i s h e s t w o d i r e c t i o n s in b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h r o u g h the ' h o r i z o n t a l ' a n d ' v e r t i c a l n e t w o r k s ' .

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T h e h o r i z o n t a l n e t w o r k is ' b e t w e e n p e r s o n s o n t h e s a m e level in a g i v e n d e p a r t m e n t o r b e t w e e n different d e p a r t m e n t s ' . T h e v e r tical n e t w o r k w h i c h c o m p r i s e s b o t h u p w a r d a n d d o w n w a r d c o m m u n i c a t i o n is f o u n d ' b e t w e e n p e r s o n s at d i f f e r e n t r a n k s in t h e s a m e h i e r a r c h i c a l level a n d b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t h i e r a r c h i c a l levels'. T h e g r a p e v i n e is p a c k e d d i f f e r e n t l y d e p e n d i n g o n the l i s t e n ing audience. T h e c o m m u n i c a t o r passes on information to p r o t e c t a n d e n h a n c e h i s or h e r i n t e r e s t s . T h e m u l t i v o c a l i t y o r d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c o n t e n t of t h e g r a p e v i n e m a y b e d u e to t h e s e d i f f e r e n t p a c k a g i n g s u n d e r t a k e n b y the initiator. T h e g o s s i p e r p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n t a i l o r e d t o the n e e d s o f h i s o r h e r a u d i e n c e . T h e l i s t e n e r m a y c h a n g e t h e c o n t e n t a l s o , b u t this is a different issue. In a firm, g o s s i p m a y n o t b e e x c l u s i v e l y a f a c e - t o - f a c e e n t e r p r i s e . T h e t e l e p h o n e is often u s e d f o r that p u r p o s e b e c a u s e it t r a n s c e n d s spatial b o u n d a r i e s a n d e v e n a l l o w s m o r e o p p o r t u n i ties. A s e c r e t a r y w h o is b u s y m a y n o t h a v e t i m e t o visit a f r i e n d o n a n o t h e r floor, b u t through t h e t e l e p h o n e s h e c a n reach t h a t p e r s o n w i t h o u t l e a v i n g h e r office. A t t h e p o r t of O a k l a n d , a g o o d d e a l of i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n g o e s on. B y t e l e p h o n e , g o s s i p travels f r o m t h e p o r t to t h e m a i n office in d o w n t o w n O a k l a n d . S o m e t i m e s s o m e o n e f r o m t h e p o r t g o e s to the m a i n office a n d p a s s e s on n e w s , b e l i e v i n g that it is n e w i n f o r m a t i o n . H o w e v e r , a t e l e p h o n e call h a d p r e c e d e d h i m a n d t u r n e d it i n t o o l d i n f o r m a t i o n . Gossipers feed the group with information supposedly limited t o m a n a g e m e n t , a n d alert p e o p l e to issues u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , d e c i s i o n s taken, o r i n d i v i d u a l s t o b e fired or h i r e d . W h a t w a s t o b e secret is r e v e a l e d a n d m a y c a u s e e m b a r r a s s m e n t t o m a n a g e m e n t and the people concerned. M a n a g e r s a r e n o t i m m u n e t o g o s s i p . T h e y e n t e r it h o r i z o n t a l l y t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h their p e e r s for v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , w h e t h e r t o b e i n f o r m e d o f w h a t o t h e r s t h i n k or s i m p l y a s a n efficient p r o c e d u r e to a c c o m p l i s h t h i n g s in a s p e e d y m a n n e r . It is a l s o u s e d to c h a n n e l i n f o r m a t i o n d o w n to a n d r e c e i v e f e e d b a c k f r o m s u b o r d i n a t e s . S o m e e v e n u s e the n e t w o r k to c a r v e a p o w e r n i c h e for t h e m s e l v e s . G o u l d n e r ( 1 9 5 4 : 92) n o t e s that:

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Strategic r e p l a c e m e n t e n a b l e s t h e n e w m a n a g e r to f o r m a n e w i n f o r m a l s o c i a l circle, w h i c h r e v o l v e s a b o u t h i m s e l f a n d s t r e n g t h e n s h i s status. It p r o v i d e s h i m w i t h a n e w t w o - w a y communication network; on the one hand, carrying up n e w s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n that the f o r m a l c h a n n e l s e x c l u d e ; on the o t h e r h a n d , c a r r y i n g d o w n the m e a n i n g o r ' s p i r i t ' of t h e s u c c e s s o r ' s policies a n d o r d e r s . G o s s i p e r s a l s o r e p o r t to a n d f e e d m a n a g e m e n t . A s a s o u r c e of information, gossip m a y influence and help management to s h a p e its f o r m a l policies or d e c i s i o n s . F o r S i m o n ( 1 9 6 6 ) , ' T h e g r a p e v i n e is v a l u a b l e as a b a r o m e t e r of " p u b l i c o p i n i o n " in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . If t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r listens to it, it a p p r i s e s h i m o f the topics that a r e subjects of interest to o r g a n i z a t i o n m e m b e r s , a n d their a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e s e t o p i c s . ' M a n a g e m e n t u s e s i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a s a trial b a l l o o n t o p r e p a r e p e o p l e a h e a d of t i m e , t o test p e o p l e ' s reactions, a n d t o g e t f e e d b a c k b e f o r e a f o r m a l d e c i s i o n is taken. M a n a g e m e n t a l s o u s e s it a m o n g p e e r s to s p e e d u p p r o c e s s e s . I s s u e s are d i s c u s s e d i n f o r m a l l y o v e r t h e t e l e p h o n e , at the t e n n i s c o u r t or in t h e cafeteria to r e a c h c o n s e n s u s p r i o r to f o r m a l m e e t i n g s . G o s s i p is also u s e d b y m a n a g e m e n t a s a w a y of testing t h e g r o u n d before firing someone. S u c h gossip emanates from higher u p . S o m e t i m e s t h e c o n t e n t of g o s s i p g o e s a r o u n d a n d the p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d is the last to k n o w . In a n y case, it o f t e n p r e p a r e s t h e p e r s o n for t h e f o r t h c o m i n g b a d n e w s . A t the s a m e t i m e , it g i v e s m a n a g e m e n t e n o u g h t i m e to e v a l u a t e the r e a c t i o n s of the g r o u p a n d to p r e p a r e t h e final order. If t h e reactions a r e t o o strong, m a n a g e m e n t m a y b a c k off or p r e p a r e w a y s to c i r c u m v e n t f o r e s e e a b l e p r o b l e m s . If t h e r e is n o n e g a t i v e reaction, t h e n m a n a g e m e n t c a n p r o c e e d with t h e final decision. It is also u s e d b y e m p l o y e e s a s a w e a p o n to retrieve i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m m a n a g e m e n t . A false r u m o r is s p r e a d a n d m a n a g e m e n t c o m e s in to c l a r i f y w r o n g r u m o r s . T h u s m a n a g e m e n t is f o r c e d to p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n that it w o u l d n o t o t h e r w i s e h a v e p r o v i d e d . G o s s i p m a y s e r v e as a c o r o l l a r y t o f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n o r a n e x e g e s i s of the r a t i o n a l e o r e v e n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of w h a t w a s s a i d . I n a n y c a s e , it p r o v i d e s e x p l a n a t i o n that a l l o w s o n e t o m a k e b e t t e r s e n s e of t h e

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f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Z e y - F e r r e l l (1979: 2 3 4 ) n o t e s t h a t ' i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s . . . m a y clarify, e l a b o r a t e , a n d a d d n e w m e a n i n g s to o t h e r w i s e c o n f u s i n g o r u n i n f o r m a t i v e m e s s a g e s f r o m t h e s u p e r o r d i n a t e s . T h e y m a y p r o v i d e the n e c e s s a r y r a t i o n a l e for i m m i n e n t c h a n g e s in the policies a n d p r o c e d u r e s of a n o r g a n i z a t i o n . ' T h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y role p l a y e d b y the g r a p e v i n e vis-á-vis formal communication has also been stressed. I n d e e d , D a v i s ( 1 9 5 3 : 4 4 ) notes t h a t 'often f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n is s i m p l y u s e d to c o n f i r m or t o e x p a n d w h a t h a s already b e e n communicated by grapevine.' In a n y firm, t h e r e are i n d i v i d u a l s w h o are c e n t r a l in the diff u s i o n a n d c r e a t i o n o f i n f o r m a l k n o w l e d g e . T h e y a r e the m o s t k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t the daily r o u t i n e s of the f i r m . T h e y g o o u t of t h e i r w a y to s e e k n e w i n f o r m a t i o n , p r o v i d e t h e i r o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this i n f o r m a l i n f o r m a t i o n , c o o k it, a n d s e e k out p e o p l e w i t h w h o m t o share this i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e i r clients a r e s u p e r o r d i n a t e s w h o are i n t e r e s t e d in k n o w i n g w h a t g o e s o n a m o n g e m p l o y e e s , p e e r s w h o w a n t to b e i n f o r m e d a b o u t m a n a g e m e n t v i e w s , a n d s u b o r d i n a t e s w h o regard s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n as a f o r m of p r o t e c t i o n . S u c h i n d i v i d u a l s b e c o m e specialists i n informal k n o w l e d g e communication and diffusion, and people t u r n to t h e m for i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e s e specialists link t o g e t h e r all the facets o f t h e o p e r a t i o n . S o m e p e o p l e d e r i v e a feeling o f p o w e r f r o m g a t h e r i n g a n d diff u s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , s o m a k i n g o t h e r s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t h e c a s e of those w h o h a v e a c c e s s t o c o n f i d e n t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d w h o initiate t h e g o s s i p . F o r s o m e it is f e e d b a c k i n f o r m a t i o n that is p r o v i d e d w h i l e for others it is n e w i n f o r m a t i o n or a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s o m e t h i n g that is a l r e a d y k n o w n . In b o t h c a s e s , the r u m o r diffuser u s e s his p o s i t i o n as a s o u r c e o f p o w e r that c a n b e m a n i p u l a t e d t o e n h a n c e h i s s t a t u s . It is h i s a b i l i t y t o control this k n o w l e d g e , t o diffuse it o n h i s o w n t e r m s t o t h o s e h e selects, that constitutes h i s p o w e r a n d m a k e s h i m s t a n d apart from others. I n t h e logic of this analysis, o n e c a n see the s e c r e t a r y in a f i r m as an informal intelligence agent. Having access to confidential k n o w l e d g e , she c a n p a s s on i n f o r m a t i o n to u p g r a d e the s t a t u s o f o n e c o l l e a g u e a n d refuse to s h a r e the s a m e w i t h a n o t h e r t o u n d e r m i n e his p o s i t i o n . H a v i n g a c c e s s to k n o w l e d g e f r o m dif-

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f e r e n t s o u r c e s , s h e is in a p o s i t i o n to a s s e s s o r e v a l u a t e that k n o w l e d g e to p r o t e c t a f r i e n d l y b o s s or t o d o w n g r a d e t h e s t a t u s o f an o p p o n e n t . S h e h a s s o m e control o v e r t h e flow, c o n t e n t a n d direction of this i n f o r m a l i n f o r m a t i o n . M a n a g e r s d e v i s e v a r i o u s w a y s to create n i c h e s for the e x p r e s s i o n of c o o k e d informality. M y c l a i m is that i n f o r m a l i t y is s o u g h t i n s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s b y t h e m a n a g i n g staff f o r the p u r p o s e s of b e t t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n . To t h e f o r m a l l u n c h m e e t i n g o n e m a y c o n trast the i n f o r m a l ones. I n f o r m a l lunch m e e t i n g s are s o u g h t o r o r g a n i z e d for t h e p u r p o s e o f p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , e x p l a n a t i o n a b o u t f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , or to r e t r i e v e i n f o r m a t i o n that could not be secured otherwise. T h e s e i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g s p r o v i d e m a n a g e m e n t with a f e e d b a c k s y s t e m a n d a w a y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o n s t i t u e n c y a n d r e p r e s e n t a tion a n d of e v a l u a t i n g the u n s e e n or the h i d d e n d i m e n s i o n o f people's behavior. They allow management to hear new ideas or t o b e r e - e d u c a t e d in w a y s of d o i n g things m o r e efficiently. T h e s e i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g s d e c r e a s e frustration in that t h e y p r o m o t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d d i a l o g u e . W h a t is i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e c a n b e c o m e u n d e r s t o o d . P e o p l e m a y influence t h e e x e c u t i v e , c a u s i n g m a n a g e m e n t t o c h a n g e their m i n d s if the i n f o r m a t i o n is g i v e n in a n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g way. T h e s e i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e e t i n g s t e n d also to s o c i a l i z e p e o p l e in t h e c u l t u r e of the c o r p o r a t i o n . O n e p e r s o n m a y l e a d t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n i n a n area w h e r e o t h e r p e o p l e a r e n o t k n o w l e d g e a b l e a n d s o m e t i m e s n o t i n t e r e s t e d . T h e y f o s t e r n o t only u p w a r d / d o w n w a r d i n f o r m a l d i a l o g u e b u t also h o r i z o n t a l d i a l o g u e a m o n g peers. O n e m a n a g e r in San F r a n c i s c o i n f o r m e d m e h o w i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g e m p l o y e e s led to a c h a n g e in policy. V a r i o u s e m p l o y e e s h a d d i s c u s s e d a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s the n e e d for a r e t i r e m e n t p l a n , a n d this i n f o r m a t i o n w a s b r o u g h t b y s o m e o n e t o m a n a g e m e n t . A t a s h a r e h o l d e r s m e e t i n g , t h e issue w a s d i s c u s s e d f o r m a l l y a n d a r e s o l u t i o n to establish a p l a n w a s p a s s e d . T h i s is a c l e a r e x a m p l e of i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n f l u e n c i n g the formal corporation. A m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n is that it is v e r b a l , travels f a s t from m o u t h t o m o u t h , a n d also has its pitfalls. D a v i s (1953: 4 4 ) finds it to b e 'highly s e l e c t i v e a n d d i s c r i m -

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i n a t i n g ' . It s p r e a d s r u m o r , h a l f - t r u t h s a n d is p r o n e t o d e f o r m a t i o n as it m a k e s its w a y f r o m the c o m m u n i c a t o r t h r o u g h the v a r i o u s l i s t e n e r s in the c h a i n . T h e s e r u m o r s , d e p e n d i n g o n their c o n t e n t , the n e t w o r k c o v e r e d a n d the i n t e n t i o n of t h o s e w h o p r o p a g a t e t h e m , c a n d o a g o o d d e a l of h a r m a n d l o w e r t h e m o r a l e of c o w o r k e r s . T h e y c a n t h u s h a v e a n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o n t h e firm. T h e r e is also a t i m e factor t h a t h e l p s u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n t e n s i t y a n d d e n s i t y of i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . At s o m e p e r i o d s g o s s i p a c t i v i t i e s are m o r e i n t e n s e t h a n at o t h e r s : w h e n a c o m p a n y is n o t d o i n g well, w h e n t h e possibility f o r a m e r g e r is b e i n g d i s c u s s e d , w h e n the c o m p a n y hires n e w e m p l o y e e s or is a b o u t t o fire o t h e r s . T h e s e are c i r c u m s t a n c e s that t e n d to f e e d t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of g o s s i p .

INFORMAL LEADERS A N D THE CLIQUE SYSTEM

' P e o p l e w e r e w h i s p e r i n g a r o u n d s a y i n g that J o h n [not his real n a m e ] h a s t o o m a n y colds. F r o m the w o r d p r o c e s s i n g d e p a r t m e n t w h e r e I w o r k e d I w e n t to the c o p y m a c h i n e area a n d e v e r y o n e w a s a s k i n g the s a m e q u e s t i o n . D o y o u think t h a t J o h n h a s A I D S ? It w a s in t h e e a r l y 1980s a n d e v e r y o n e w a s a f r a i d of b e i n g i n the s a m e r o o m w i t h s o m e o n e w i t h A I D S . A g r o u p of u s t a l k e d to J o e [not h i s real n a m e ] a n d a s k e d h i m t o i n f o r m m a n a g e m e n t that w e a r e u p s e t a b o u t J o h n ' s p r e s e n c e i n t h e firm. O n c e m a n a g e m e n t l e a r n e d that J o h n h a d A I D S , a p u b l i c h e a l t h p e r s o n w a s i n v i t e d to m e e t w i t h u s a n d J o h n w a s p l a c e d o n d i s a b i l i t y leave. H e d i e d shortly thereafter.'

T h e m o d e r n f i r m relies on b o t h f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s f o r its o p e r a t i o n . I n f o r m a l l e a d e r s h i p is f o u n d at v a r i o u s l e v e l s a m o n g the e x e c u t i v e s , m i d d l e r a n g e m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e e m p l o y e e s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e s i z e of the c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e i n f o r m a l leader is t h e p e r s o n p e o p l e t u r n to for h e l p a n d to a s s e s s e v e r y d a y l i f e i n t h e f i r m . J u s t a s t h e r e is u s u a l l y m o r e t h a n o n e clique w i t h i n a n o r g a n i z a t i o n , there m a y b e m o r e t h a n o n e i n f o r m a l leader. 3

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F o r S a y l e s ( 1 9 6 6 : 9 1 ) , the l e a d e r fulfills i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s in h i s relations w i t h h i s f o l l o w e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , ' h e initiates action, h e facilitates a c o n s e n s u s a n d h e provides a l i n k or liaison w i t h the outside w o r l d . ' W h e n there a r e v a r i o u s c l i q u e s v y i n g for m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o w e r w i t h i n a n o r g a n i z a t i o n , the role of t h e l e a d e r m a y w e l l i n c l u d e the p r o t e c t i o n of the g r o u p . R o e t h l i s b e r g e r a n d D i c k s o n (1947: 380) refer to informal leaders 'who took upon themselves t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of seeing that the m e m b e r s o f a g r o u p c l u n g t o g e t h e r a n d p r o t e c t e d t h e m s e l v e s from r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f o t h e r g r o u p s within t h e c o m p a n y w h o c o u l d i n t e r f e r e w i t h their affairs.' B e c a u s e of t h e level of e d u c a t i o n a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s m of the A m e r i c a n w o r k e r , the i n f o r m a l clique s y s t e m p r o v i d e s a safety v a l v e for i m p r o v i n g the firm, f o r criticizing t h e firm, for s t a n d i n g u p f o r o n e ' s r i g h t s , for l e a r n i n g a b o u t the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the f i r m , f o r i n q u i r i n g a b o u t o t h e r s (intelligence g a t h e r i n g ) , f o r p r o t e c t i n g the f i r m f r o m b a n k r u p t c y , for the m a i n t e n a n c e of m o r a l e in t h e firm a n d f o r i m p r o v i n g the e m p l o y e e ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l satisfaction. T h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r is a f o c u s for conflict r e s o l u t i o n w i t h m a n a g e m e n t . S o m e t i m e s the i n f o r m a l leader b r i n g s u p the i s s u e a n d t h e e m p l o y e e s c o m e to s u p p o r t h i m . S o m e t i m e s the g r o u p h a s a conflict w i t h m a n a g e m e n t a n d elect a n i n f o r m a l l e a d e r to represent them. A l t h o u g h t h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r is s u p p o s e d to represent the interests of all t h e w o r k e r s in h i s clique, s o m e t i m e s there is s e g m e n t a t i o n b a s e d o n g e n d e r a n d ethnicity. W i t h i n the firm, t h e r e m a y b e s u b g r o u p s with their o w n i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s b a s e d o n p e o p l e s h a r i n g t h e s a m e i d e o l o g i c a l , b u s i n e s s o r political o r i e n tation, g e n d e r o r ethnicity. T h e i n f o r m a l clique s y s t e m is i m p o r t a n t in the d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s in the firm. A t t h e level of m a n a g e m e n t , o n e c a n j u d g e their i m p o r t a n c e in t w o w a y s . T h e i n f o r m a l clique is o f t e n a b l e to reach a c o n s e n s u s o n i s s u e s before a t t e n d i n g a m e e t i n g . T h e y p r e s e n t t h e i r points m o r e clearly, are b e t t e r p r e p a r e d t h a n o t h e r s , p r o v i d e t h e best a r g u m e n t , a n d get decisions p a s s e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r will. In this case, the c l i q u e is a b l e to m a n i p u l a t e the r e s t of the g r o u p .

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S o m e t i m e s a n i s s u e is b r o u g h t i n a d v e r t e n t l y to a m e e t i n g . T h e c l i q u e h a s n o t d i s c u s s e d it b e f o r e h a n d a n d , as e x p e c t e d , n o c o n s e n s u s a n d n o d e c i s i o n is r e a c h e d . O n c e c o n s e n s u s is later s o u g h t a n d a c h i e v e d in t h e i n f o r m a l sector, the clique is a b l e to r e t u r n t o t h e f o r m a l m e e t i n g r o o m for a f o r m a l decision.

INFORMALITY AND GENDER AND ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION T h e m o d e r n firm provides us with a n arena w h e r e w e c a n study a n d analyze h o w informality produces gender a n d ethnic discrimination. F o r m a l practices are the r e a l m where all the m e m b e r s a r e invited to participate. These are o p e n practices that allow the f l o w o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , socialization a n d the daily operation of the firm to proceed. If these f o r m a l practices are not discriminatory b y design, o n e m a y conclude that ethnic a n d g e n d e r discrimination does n o t exist in the firm. In fact it m a y w e l l d o so, and the s t u d y of informality provides a route b y which w e m a y understand h o w its existence in the informal practices colors or sexualizes f o r m a l practices. 4

T h e h i r i n g of m i n o r i t i e s a n d w o m e n h e l p s a l l e v i a t e the p h y s ical a n d visible characteristics o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b u t d o e s n o t e l i m i n a t e t h e m . T h i s policy m a y b r i n g a b o u t f o r m a l h a r m o n y in t h a t a modus vivendi m a y b e r e a c h e d in the f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s , b u t it a l s o m a y create i n f o r m a l d i s h a r m o n y . In the firm, t h e f o r m a l visible s y s t e m is the p u b l i c arena w h e r e a d r a m a is u n f o l d e d . T h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the self i n p u b l i c m a y o r m a y n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h the p r i v a t e self. If the m o t i v a t i o n of t h e f i r m lies w i t h i n t h e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , w e f i n d that p e o p l e a r e o f t e n e x c l u d e d f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g in these i n f l u e n t i a l i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o n t h e b a s i s of e t h n i c i t y or gender. D e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the o r i e n t a t i o n of the f i r m m a y b e m a d e t h r o u g h the i n f o r m a l c h a n n e l b y i n d i v i d u a l m a n a g e r s w h o p l a y t e n n i s together, w h o m e e t i n f o r m a l l y for l u n c h o r w h o call e a c h o t h e r o n the t e l e p h o n e to d i s c u s s i n f o r m a l l y f o r t h c o m i n g f o r m a l b u s i n e s s m a t t e r s . T h i s is the w a y intelligence is s h a r e d , p o l i c i e s a r e d i s c u s s e d a n d d e c i s i o n s are m a d e . T h e f o r m a l m e e t i n g s a r e h e l d s i m p l y to r u b b e r s t a m p w h a t w a s already d e c i d e d b y a f e w t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l m e a n s . A m e m b e r of a m i n o r i t y o r a w o m a n

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w h o is not i n v i t e d to play t e n n i s c a n n o t p r o v e that there is d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , b u t i n fact there is a n d the s c r i p t is h i d d e n . T h i s e x p l a i n s the f r e q u e n t frustration of w o m e n a n d m i n o r i t y m e m b e r s w h o are p a r t of an e x e c u t i v e c o m m i t t e e a n d w h o find t h e m s e l v e s a l o n e w h e n voicing a n i s s u e . D e c i s i o n s a r e m a d e t h r o u g h t h e i n f o r m a l c l i q u e on S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g o n t h e tennis c o u r t or in t h e m e n ' s l o c k e r r o o m , a n d t h e y w e r e n o t i n v i t e d to a t t e n d - in fact, they w e r e e x c l u d e d . T h i s type of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n c o o k e d out of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s w o u l d b e less d a m a g i n g if it d i d n o t h a v e a n y effects on i n d i v i d u a l careers. J u s t a s i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s e n h a n c e c a r e e r p r o m o t i o n s f o r those i n c l u d e d in the r i g h t circles, t h e y a r e a h a n d i c a p o r o b s t a c l e to c a r e e r a d v a n c e m e n t for those w h o are e x c l u d e d . K n o k e (1990: 1 0 3 ) , c o r r o b o r a t i n g a point m a d e earlier b y K a n t e r (1977: 2 0 6 - 4 2 ) , notes: . . . h o w s t r u c t u r e s of i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n limit w o m e n ' s a n d m i n o r i t i e s ' access to critical i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e x p e r i e n c e s essential f o r c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t . O l d - b o y n e t w o r k s still flouri s h in b u s i n e s s , g o v e r n m e n t , a n d a c a d e m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s , g i v i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l a d v a n t a g e s to the p r o t e g e s of e s t a b l i s h e d e x e c u t i v e s , b u r e a u c r a t s , a n d professors in the s c r a m b l e for preferred p o s i t i o n s . S u c h p r a c t i c e s also s h o w t h e limits of f o r m a l r e g u l a t i o n a n d legislation. T h e y a d d r e s s o n l y t h e f o r m a l a s p e c t s of society, n o t t h e i n f o r m a l o n e s . Legislation c a n force a firm t o h i r e w o m e n a n d e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s at the m a n a g e r i a l level, b u t c a n n o t force m a l e m a n a g e r s to i n v i t e t h e m to their i n f o r m a l g a t h e r i n g w h e r e t h e y m a y talk i n f o r m a l l y a b o u t f o r m a l b u s i n e s s m a t t e r s or w h e r e t h e y m a y e n g i n e e r i m p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n s to b e ratified later in f o r m a l business meetings.

THE G R A M M A R OF T H E INTERSTITIALITY OF INFORMALITY T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is interstitial in that it is p a r t of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . A n interstitial s y s t e m m a y not h a v e a life of its o w n . Its

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life d e p e n d s on its i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e w i t h the f o r m a l s y s t e m , o n its i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , o n a c t o r s w h o b e l o n g to the f o r m a l s y s t e m , a n d on a n o u t c o m e that m a y facilitate o r h i n d e r a n y action u n d e r t a k e n in t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . A s a n interstitial s y s t e m , it sprits a f o r m a l p r o c e s s into t w o u n i t s , s t a n d s in b e t w e e n a n d links o n e to the other. It is a b l e t o a c c o m p l i s h this b e c a u s e it receives its i m p e t u s f r o m the former. It decomposes, deconstructs unblocks and provides the means to r e c o m p o s e the f o r m a l s y s t e m . A s a transitional p r o c e s s d e f i n e d b y its interstitial characteristics, it i n f l u e n c e s the t r a j e c t o r y of t h e formal system. A s a n interstitial s y s t e m , the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m i n f o r m a l i z e s a s p e c t s of the f o r m a l s y s t e m b y i n d u c i n g f o r m a l actors to b e i n f o r m a l in their b e h a v i o r , to e n g a g e i n i n f o r m a l activities, to u s e t e m p o r a r i l y the f o r m a l space informally, o r to t r a n s f o r m the f o r m a l s p a c e into a n i n f o r m a l s p a c e . A s a n interstitial s y s t e m it is a b s o r b e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h u s a c t i o n s t a k e n b y the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m are a b s o r b e d into t h e f o r m a l to allow the f o r m a l to p r o c e e d a n d m o v e f o r w a r d . T h e s e interstitial practices b e c o m e p a r t o f the w o r k i n g o f the f o r m a l system. A s a n interstitial s y s t e m , it d o e s n o t i n t e r v e n e in e a c h s t e p t a k e n b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m . H o w e v e r , the p o s s i b i l i t y is there t o r e c o n s t i t u t e itself f o r o n e or m o r e e v e n t s a n d to d i s i n t e g r a t e t e m p o r a r i l y until a n e e d is felt for it t o reappear. T h e s y s t e m is c o n s i d e r e d to b e interstitial w h e n the a c t o r s b e c o m e interstitial t o c o n d u c t a n activity, w h e n t h e activity o r e v e n t is interstitial, w h e n the o u t c o m e is interstitial, o r w h e n t h e n e t w o r k is either interstitial o r m i x e d . T h e i n t e r s t i t i a l i t y o f the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h r o u g h its m a i n f e a t u r e s a s b e i n g e s s e n t i a l , n e c e s s a r y o r t r a n s i t i o n a l . T h e i n t e r s t i t i a l s y s t e m is transitional w h e n it a l l o w s t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m to p a s s f r o m o n e s t a t e t o a n o t h e r o r f r o m o n e s i t u a t i o n t o a n o t h e r . I t b e c o m e s essential when this i n t e r s t i t i a l i t y b e c o m e s a sine qua non in t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . It is necessary w h e n it b e c o m e s t h e b e s t a v e n u e to s p e e d u p a p r o c e s s that a l l o w s t h e s m o o t h o p e r a t i o n of t h e formal system.

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Notes 1.

2.

3.

4.

Johnston (1956; 6) has found that there exist three basic types of informal organization. He characterizes them as 'informal social organization', 'informal subversive organization' and 'informal supporting organization'. Merton (1961:112), following the same Durkheimian predicament, finds 'informal social structures as mediating between the individual and large organizations'. In the formal firm, we find a proliferation of microsites of informal power (raw and cooked) along vertical and horizontal lines that at times undermine, rearrange, influence or reinforce the formal site of power. Knoke (1990: 93) notes that 'the informal communication relations continually generate and modify the distribution of legitimate authority among persons and groups inside organizations'. To understand how informal communication among the majority group affects the position of the minority group in the firm, see Fairhurst and Snavely (1983).

6 Informality and Urban Medical Practices I n the S a n F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a , i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s e x i s t side b y s i d e w i t h the f o r m a l m e d i c a l s y s t e m . In fact, it is p o s s i b l e to m i s u n d e r s t a n d the r e l a t i o n s of the r e s i d e n t s t o the f o r m a l s y s t e m of m e d i c a l care if o n e d o e s n o t take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e reality of i n f o r m a l health a n d m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s . I n f o r m a l m e d i c a l practices s h o w u p at the l e v e l of u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c a u s e s o f illness (lay l o g i c ) , d i a g n o s t i c s (the folk m e d i c a l r e a l m to w h i c h t h e illness b e l o n g s ) , the s e a r c h f o r an a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m of h e a l i n g (self-care, s p i r i t u a l or folk h e a l i n g , the h o s p i t a l or p r i v a t e c l i n i c ) , a n d the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e r e g i m e n (the e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e p a t i e n t f o l l o w s t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n of the m e d i c a l d o c t o r to t h e letter, a c c e p t s t h e spirit of t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , or else rejects it a l t o g e t h e r ) . T h e r e is a n o t h e r a r e n a w h e r e i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s c o u l d b e s t u d i e d here - t h a t of the h o s p i t a l a s a b u r e a u c r a c y i n t e r m s of i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k i n g a m o n g staff, the s p r e a d of g o s s i p , the reality o f i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e c l i q u e s y s t e m . S i n c e s o m e o f these issues w e r e d i s c u s s e d i n the c o n t e x t of t h e m o d e m firm, w e will n o t p u r s u e t h e m v i g o r o u s l y h e r e . Let u s c o n c e n t r a t e r a t h e r on o t h e r a s p e c t s of the f o r m a l i n f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s in m e d i c i n e s o as to s h o w h o w i n f o r m a l h e a l t h a n d m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s s e r v e a s a s u p p o r t to t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . W i t h o u t f o c u s i n g o n the literature p e r t a i n i n g to the w o r k i n g of t h e m o d e r n h o s p i t a l s y s t e m , it is fitting t o r e v i e w b r i e f l y that a s p e c t of it t h a t serves as b a c k g r o u n d to t h e issue at h a n d . I n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s are l o c a t e d in v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s in t h e h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m . T h e y are f o u n d a m o n g p a t i e n t s , at the staff l e v e l a n d i n the w o r k i n g o f the i n s u r a n c e policy d e l i v e r y s y s t e m . It h a s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e is a k e y e l e m e n t in t h e s u c c e s s o f m e d i c a l d o c t o r s b e c a u s e it a f f e c t s a s s i g n m e n t , r e f e r r a l s a n d i n d i r e c t l y t h e s i z e of o n e ' s c l i e n t e l e . H a l l ( 1 9 4 6 :

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3 1 ) , w h o h a d earlier i n t e r v i e w e d a n u m b e r of p h y s i c i a n s in N e w Y o r k , n o t e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t ' t h e a l l o c a t i o n of p o s i t i o n s i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e p a c e at w h i c h o n e r e c e i v e s p r o m o t i o n s , t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h o n e h a s p a t i e n t s r e f e r r e d t o h i m , all h i n g e o n the w o r k i n g s of the i n f o r m a l organization'. There are n o clear rules that govern these transactions. M u c h depends on patronage and sponsorship. The young doctor who becomes t h e p r o t e g e o f a n o l d e r p h y s i c i a n o r a c l i q u e is in a m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s position for a d v a n c e m e n t a n d u p w a r d m o b i l i t y than those w h o do not have such a back-up. To c o m p l e m e n t H a l l ' s a n a l y s i s , w h i c h i m p l i e s the e x i s t e n c e o f a fraternity w h o m a y h o l d d o w n those its m e m b e r s fail to s u p p o r t , F r e i d s o n a r g u e s - w i t h o u t p r e s e n t i n g d a t a to s u p p o r t h i s c l a i m - that ' t h e r e can b e n u m e r o u s " f r a t e r n i t i e s " in a s i n g l e c o m m u n i t y , a n d t h e r e are c e r t a i n l y n u m e r o u s " f r a t e r n i t i e s " i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n as a w h o l e . . . T h e s e c o l l e a g u e g r o u p s are b u i l t u p b y t h e m e c h a n i s m s of p a t r o n a g e a n d b o y c o t t ; a n d , b y the v e r y c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e m e c h a n i s m s t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y m u s t be fairly w e l l s e g r e g a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r ' ( F r e i d s o n , 1 9 8 8 : 1 9 4 ) . In his s p e c u l a tive a r g u m e n t , F r e i d s o n s e e s i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e a s the b a s i s f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d split of f r a t e r n i t i e s or the i n f o r m a l clique ('the o l d b o y n e t w o r k ' ) , t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h p e o p l e a r e recruited i n t o t h e s e g r o u p s , a n d the b a s i s f o r their s u r v i v a l a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n o v e r t i m e . A l t h o u g h h i d d e n , t h e s e m e c h a n i s m s p r o v i d e c l u e s to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m a k e - u p , c o m p e t i t i o n a n d conflict a m o n g t h e s e i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l c l i q u e s o r fraternities. T w o B a y A r e a p h y sicians w h o w e r e interviewed confirm Freidson's observations through their o w n experiences. T h e e x i s t e n c e o f i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s is a l s o a c k n o w l e d g e d a n d t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n in t h e delivery o f i n s u r a n c e p o l i c i e s . G r a h a m ( 1 9 8 5 : 4 7 ) n o t e s t h a t 'private i n s u r a n c e is e x p r e s s l y d e s i g n e d f o r m e d i c a l care, n o t h e a l t h c a r e : it m e e t s the c o s t s o f s u r g i c a l a n d p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l repair but n o t t h e costs of full c o n v a l e s c e n c e . ' I n f o r m a l h e a l t h c a r e p r o v i d e d at h o m e b y m e m b e r s o f the family, w h i c h is i m p o r t a n t for the t o t a l r e c o v e r y o f t h e patient, is n o t c o v e r e d b y i n s u r a n c e . O n e s e e s h e r e the r e l a t i o n s o f the f o r m a l m e d i c a l s y s t e m to the i n s u r a n c e i n d u s t r y a n d indirectly t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r as a s u p p o r t s y s t e m t o t h e f o r m a l sector.

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In o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of society, social scientists h a v e d e v e l o p e d theoretical m o d e l s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e structure of f o r m a l s y s t e m s . E v e n w h e n i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s c o m e i n t o the p i c t u r e , they t e n d to b e s t u d i e d f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e f o r m a l social s y s t e m s . In o t h e r w o r d s , the l o g i c of the f o r m a l s y s t e m s is u s e d to m a k e s e n s e o f t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s . I i n t e n d to c o n t i n u e to r e v e r s e t h e strategy. T h e f o c u s is n o t o n h o w f o r m a l s y s t e m s h e l p u s to u n d e r s t a n d i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s , b u t r a t h e r o n h o w i n f o r m a l practices h e l p u s to u n d e r s t a n d the f o r m a l h e a l t h a n d m e d i c a l s y s t e m . I n f o r m a l s y s t e m s h a v e their o w n rationale, a n d c o n stantly a d j u s t t o a n d h e l p s h a p e the structure o f f o r m a l s y s t e m s . Often formal systems function smoothly and become prod u c t i v e b e c a u s e of their i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s . F o r m a l s y s t e m s c a n n o t e v e n b e fully u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t s e e i n g their links w i t h i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s , a n d i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s t h e m s e l v e s c a n n o t b e s t u d i e d as i s o l a t e d e n c l a v e s . T h e y are culturally, s y m b o l i c a l l y a n d structurally c o n n e c t e d t o f o r m a l s y s t e m s . In this c h a p t e r , w e will e x a m i n e o n e a s p e c t of the theoretical p r o b l e m c o n c e r n i n g the l i n k s o f the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m w i t h the f o r m a l s y s t e m . A l t h o u g h t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m m i g h t be s t u d i e d as a s u p p o r t s y s t e m t o the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , w e p r e f e r to r e v e r s e the s t r a t e g y o n c e m o r e b y l o o k i n g at h o w the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m c a n b e a s u p p o r t s y s t e m . In s o d o i n g , w e are n o t d e n y i n g the 'relative a u t o n o m y ' of the formal system; rather the informal system s e r v e s as a b a c k - u p or s u p p o r t s y s t e m to t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m .

INFORMAL MEDICAL PRACTICES 'I a l w a y s h a v e s o m e b a s i c m e d i c i n e s in t h e h o u s e . L a s t m o n t h , m y daughter w a s coughing: I gave her s o m e cough medicine, aspirin, h o t t e a s with h o n e y a n d a lot o f o r a n g e juice. S i n c e s h e did r e c o v e r a f t e r a f e w d a y s , I did n o t h a v e t o take h e r t o the clinic' It is a g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n that there are m a n y f o l k m e d i c a l p r a c tices w i t h i n t h e m i n o r i t y e t h n i c c o m m u n i t i e s . It is often s a i d that t h e m a i n r e a s o n w h y p e o p l e d o not a t t e n d h o s p i t a l s w h e n t h e y are sick is p o v e r t y . In fact, this is only o n e a m o n g o t h e r r e a s o n s . 1

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A c r o s s t h e b o a r d , rich a n d p o o r alike in t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a a r e i n v o l v e d in i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s . G e n e r a l o p i n i o n a s s o c i a t e s t h e f o r m a l w i t h the m a i n s t r e a m A n g l o p o p u l a t i o n and the i n f o r m a l w i t h t h e m i n o r i t i e s . T h i s is n o t true: t h e A n g l o s h a v e t h e i r o w n i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a n d the i n f o r m a l c a t e g o r y e m b r a c e s all s e g m e n t s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . S o m e illnesses b e l o n g e x c l u s i v e l y to the d o m a i n of f o l k p r a c tices. I l l n e s s e s like susto (fright) a m o n g M e x i c a n - A m e r i c a n s in t h e M i s s i o n District are t r e a t e d only b y f o l k r e m e d i e s . Interaction of the patient with m o d e r n medicine through a m e d i c a l d o c t o r in p r i v a t e practice o r t h r o u g h the g e n e r a l h o s p i t a l c o m e s a b o u t o n l y as a n u l t i m a t e r e c o u r s e . 2

In the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , p e o p l e d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y see a p h y sician e v e r y t i m e t h e y feel p a i n . H e r e a g a i n t h e y tend to t a k e care of t h e m s e l v e s a n d if the p a i n c o n t i n u e s t h e y m a y d e c i d e t o s e e a p h y s i c i a n . F o r c o m m o n i l l n e s s e s like c o l d s , p e o p l e d o n o t r o u tinely see t h e i r d o c t o r s , b u t s i m p l y take c a r e o f t h e m s e l v e s . W h a t this a m o u n t s t o is that f o l k m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s are w i d e s p r e a d across t h e v a r i o u s social c l a s s e s . To s h o w t h e m a g n i t u d e o f i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s a s p e r f o r m e d in p r i v a t e h o m e s , L e v i n a n d Idler ( 1 9 8 1 : 64) i d e n t i f y : . . . t h e t w o m o s t f r e q u e n t s o u r c e s of s i c k n e s s a n d d e a t h i n this society, t h e u b i q u i t o u s m i n o r illnesses a n d injuries of d a i l y life: c o m m o n c o l d s a n d flu, i n d i g e s t i o n , skin c o n d i t i o n s , h o u s e h o l d a c c i d e n t s . T h e other m a j o r s o u r c e of m o r b i d i t y is c h r o n i c dise a s e , w h i c h c a n v a r y in s e v e r i t y from h a y f e v e r to d i a b e t e s to cancer. T h e s e t w o t y p e s c o n s t i t u t e b y f a r t h e greatest p r o p o r tion of d i s e a s e in m o s t p e o p l e ' s lives, a n d t h e y are p r e c i s e l y t h e d i s e a s e s w h i c h are c a r e d for, b e s t a n d m o s t often, b y the family. O n the o n e h a n d w e h a v e a f o r m a l s y s t e m of m e d i c a l c a r e that d o e s n o t c o v e r all the h e a l t h p r o b l e m s o f t h e city. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e h a v e a n u m b e r of h e a l t h p r o b l e m s that n e v e r r e a c h the f o r m a l m e d i c a l care s y s t e m . T h e s e p r o b l e m s are s o l v e d t h r o u g h the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . In a s e n s e o n e m a y s a y t h a t the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is an e x t e n s i o n of the f o r m a l s y s t e m b e c a u s e it solves h e a l t h p r o b l e m s that m i g h t o t h e r w i s e r e a c h the f o r m a l s y s t e m , b u t in a d d i t i o n the p r o b l e m s

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it c a n n o t s o l v e are referred t o the f o r m a l s y s t e m for their resolution. F r o m t h e p a t i e n t ' s s t a n d p o i n t , f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l s y s t e m s a r e t w o poles that c o m p l e m e n t e a c h other.

THE INFORMAL REFERRAL SYSTEM ' W h e n I c a m e here f r o m N e w York, I d i d n o t k n o w a lot of p e o ple. I h a d a health p r o b l e m a n d I n e e d e d to see a doctor. I talked to t w o e m p l o y e e s at the w o r k p l a c e . O n e d i d n o t like a n y of the d o c t o r s she w a s s e e i n g at the H M O . T h e o t h e r told m e a b o u t a n o l d e r d o c t o r w h o h a s a v e r y g o o d r e p u t a t i o n in t o w n . S h e s a i d t o m e if y o u w a n t m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h i m y o u c a n call m y girlfriend. I d i d talk to h e r girlfriend w h o also r e c o m m e n d e d h i m to m e . I w e n t to s e e h i m a n d h e h a s b e e n m y d o c t o r f o r the p a s t t e n y e a r s . ' F r e i d s o n ( 1 9 6 1 ) f o u n d t h a t p r i o r to s e e i n g a p h y s i c i a n o r t o visiting a h o s p i t a l , the client m a y d e p e n d o n a n e l a b o r a t e i n f o r m a l referral s y s t e m . This p r e l i m i n a r y p e r i o d c o v e r s the p r a c t i c e s of i n f o r m a l h e a l t h care e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n a n d i n f o r m a l a c q u i s i t i o n of k n o w l e d g e . M a n y h e a l t h p r o b l e m s a r e s o l v e d at this level b e c a u s e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n h a s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l or the i n f o r m a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h the i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k h a s h e l p e d c u r e the illness. F r e i d s o n ( 1 9 6 1 ) s p e a k s o f the lay referral s y s t e m in c o n t r a s t to the p r o f e s s i o n a l referral s y s t e m . In m y j u d g m e n t , it is m o r e accurate to s p e a k of the i n f o r m a l referral s y s t e m in the s e n s e that it m a y i n c l u d e aspects or a c t o r s f r o m the p r o f e s s i o n a l s y s t e m . F o r F r e i d s o n ( 1 9 6 1 : 18) the l a y referral s y s t e m c a n be v e r y e l a b o r a t e in that: T h e p r o c e s s of seeking health began w i t h purely personal, tentative self-diagnosis that implied their self-administered treatments. U p o n failure of these first prescriptions, m e m b e r s of the h o u s e h o l d w e r e consulted. Aid in self-diagnosis w a s s o m e t i m e s sought f r o m laymen outside the h o u s e h o l d - friends, neighbors, relatives, fellow-workers, a former n u r s e , or s o m e o n e with the s a m e trouble. Indeed, w h e n exploration of diagnosis w a s drawn

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out a n d not s t o p p e d early b y cessation of s y m p t o m s or i m m e d i a t e recourse to a physician, the prospective patient referred himself, or w a s referred, through a hierarchy of consultant positions. T h e hierarchy ran f r o m the intimate and informal confines of t h e family through successively less intimate lay consultants until t h e professional w a s finally reached. In deconstructing the lay referral system, Freidson ( 1 9 6 1 : 1 4 6 ) identifies 'the lay referral structure [which] is a n e t w o r k of referrals in that consultants n o t o n l y diagnose a n d prescribe but also m a k e referrals'. T h e focus on the informal referral system is i m p o r t a n t as it h e l p s to s h o w h o w the informal system is a support s y s t e m provided i n three w a y s . First, it keeps individuals from using the formal s y s t e m w h e n they can solve their health p r o b l e m s b y t h e m s e l v e s and in this s e n s e prevents the formal s y s t e m from being o v e r b u r d e n e d b y u n n e c e s s a r y treatment procedures. Second, it p r o v i d e s a filter for the transition to the formal system. W h e n the p r o b l e m reaches t h e f o r m a l system, it is likely that s o m e informal m e d i c a l practices h a v e b e e n used. Third, it allows the patient to b e m o r e receptive t o m o d e m medicine because informal practices w e r e helpful n o t in c u r i n g an illness, b u t in leading the patient to m o d e r n medicine. In c o n s e q u e n c e , m o d e m medicine concentrates on those illnesses that folk practices c a n n o t cure. Because there is a b o d y of illness that never reaches the hospital, the study of health care cannot concentrate exclusively on the f o r m a l s y s t e m w h i c h m a y n o t account f o r informal practices. T h e focus o n the informal referral system allows u s an opportunity to see w h a t is h i d d e n behind the formal system of medical care. A l t h o u g h the focus on the lay referral system h a s helped clarify aspects of m e d i c a l practice, 'this concept [was n o t introduced] to u n d e r s t a n d the structure and organization of the informal health service' (Graham, 1985: 31). We m u s t pay attention as well to t h e internal d y n a m i c s of informal m e d i c a l practices.

ILLNESSES, SELF-CARE A N D HOUSEHOLD-HEALERS ' M y m o t h e r is t h e o n e w h o c a r e s for u s w h e n w e are sick. S h e lives n o t far f r o m here. E v e n t h o u g h I a m n o w m a r r i e d , w h e n -

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e v e r m y m o t h e r c o m e s to t h e h o u s e if o n e o f m y c h i l d r e n is sick, s h e a l w a y s p r e p a r e s s o m e t h i n g for t h e c h i l d : tea, v a s o l i n e if it is a c u t a n d so on. S h e u s e d to m a k e m y father, y o u n g e r b r o t h e r a n d t w o sisters d r i n k all k i n d s o f t e a s w h e n w e w e r e l i v i n g in L o u i s i a n a . I a m n o t i n t o that k i n d of stuff. F r o m t i m e t o time, I d o s i m p l e things f o r m y children w h e n they h a v e , for example, bad colds.' It is a t r u i s m t o s a y that there a r e folk a n d n o n - f o l k illnesses that a r e c u r e d o u t s i d e of m a i n s t r e a m m e d i c i n e . E a c h i n d i v i d u a l h a s h i s o w n list o f illnesses a n d s y m p t o m s t h a t c a n b e t r e a t e d t h r o u g h s e l f - c a r e o r with the h e l p of lay p e o p l e . S o m e t i m e s t h e s e lists are s h a p e d b y o n e ' s socialization in a n e t h n i c g r o u p . 3

E a c h e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y h a s its h e a l e r s , t h e m o s t c o m m o n a m o n g t h e m b e i n g f a m i l y m e m b e r s like t h e m o t h e r w h o h a s l e a r n e d the m e d i c a l k n o w l e d g e f r o m a n o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n a n d w h o is able to u s e it to c u r e m e m b e r s of the family. Self-care is a n i n f o r m a l w a y o f t a k i n g care o f o n e ' s self a n d h a s n o c u l t u r a l or c l a s s b o u n d a r y in that it is d o n e b y e v e r y o n e i n society. W h a t these s c a t t e r e d m e d i c a l practices d o is t o relieve t h e form a l s y s t e m f o r m t h e b u r d e n o f a t r e m e n d o u s n u m b e r of h e a l t h p r o b l e m s that n e v e r s h o w u p at the hospital. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s u p p o r t s t h e f o r m a l b y s p a r i n g it a n u m b e r of cases. T h e s e c a s e s will n o t a p p e a r in t h e statistics of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . B e c a u s e of t h e s e i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s , the h o s p i t a l s a n d p h y s i c i a n s c a n c o n c e n t r a t e o n m o r e s e v e r e c a s e s a n d s i c k e r patients. I n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s are r e p r o d u c e d over t i m e t h r o u g h the s o c i a l i z a t i o n of p e o p l e i n t o t h e m , s o m e t i m e s e x t e n d i n g the size of the p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h u s e s t h e s e practices a s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n is shared with others. B e c a u s e t h e s e i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s often a c t u a l l y c u r e p e o p l e , t h e y return h e a l t h y p e o p l e t o w o r k in t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m of society. In a s e n s e , t h e y a p p r o p r i a t e the role o f t h e hospital. A t the s a m e time, these informal practices help produce a segmented m a r k e t for h e a l t h care. C o m p e t i t i o n o c c u r s in o n e area o f that market. T h e i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l s y s t e m also p r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e a v e n u e for i l l n e s s e s that c a n n o t b e treated b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m o f m e d i c a l care. T h e n , the latter serves o n l y as a last resort. T h e

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i n f o r m a l t r e a t m e n t a l l o w s f o r m a l p a t i e n t s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l relief in t h e k n o w l e d g e that they h a v e tried e v e r y t h i n g to s e c u r e health. S u c h t r e a t m e n t p r o v i d e s a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r less o r t h o d o x m e d i c i n e to b e p r a c t i s e d . It s u p p o r t s the f o r m a l s y s t e m in t w o w a y s . O n the o n e h a n d , at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e illness, f o l k r e m e d i e s are tried a n d if not s u c c e s s f u l , the n e x t s t e p is taken: t h e u s e o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e . O n the o t h e r h a n d , if m o d e r n m e d i c i n e c a n n o t s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m , then f o l k r e m e d y is t h e last resort. T h i s last resort s t r a t e g y s h o w s t h e limits o f f o r m a l m e d i c i n e . I n this light, o n e m a y s a y that f o l k m e d i c i n e r e s c u e s the f o r m a l m e d i c a l s y s t e m w h e n there are m o r e t h a n j u s t p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s t o h e a l t h care.

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In p r o v i d i n g h o m e care, w o m e n also s e r v e as m e d i a t o r s a n d n e g o t i a t o r s l i n k i n g the d o m e s t i c to the p u b l i c sphere. G r a h a m ( 1 9 8 5 : 2 6 ) w r i t e s that 'their c a r i n g role p l a c e s t h e m at the i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n the f a m i l y a n d t h e state, as the g o - b e t w e e n s l i n k i n g the i n f o r m a l h e a l t h care s y s t e m w i t h the f o r m a l a p p a r a t u s of the welfare states.' In this s a m e light, S h a r m a (1992: 63) s p e a k s of 'the c u l t u r a l " m i c r o - c l i m a t e " of the h o u s e h o l d ' in m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g to i n f o r m a l h e a l t h care p r a c t i c e s . T h u s it is i m p o r t a n t to e x p l a i n h o w the h o u s e h o l d p r o v i d e s a n i c h e for t h e s e i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a n d the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e c h a n i s m s that s u s t a i n their s u r v i v a l and reproduction.

SUPPORT SYSTEM W O M E N AS INFORMAL HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS W h e n w e i n t r o d u c e the n o t i o n of g e n d e r a n d f o c u s on the h o m e f r o n t , it b e c o m e s e v i d e n t a n d e v e n central t h a t w o m e n p l a y a m a j o r role in this i n f o r m a l a r e n a . H e a l t h care is n o t o n l y p r o v i d e d at t h e h o s p i t a l o r the p r i v a t e clinic, but a l s o at h o m e . T h i s i n f o r m a l a s p e c t c a n b e best s t u d i e d at the h o m e level. T h e d e c i s i o n t o s e e k p r o f e s s i o n a l h e l p is o f t e n taken a f t e r t h e h o m e trial a n d e x p e r i m e n t s h a d failed. T h e h o m e is a n i n f o r m a l l a b o r a t o r y w h e r e folk r e m e d i e s are tried, w h e r e i n f o r m a l k n o w l e d g e is s h a r e d a n d i n f o r m a l therapies a r e e x p e r i m e n t e d . A s S h a r m a ( 1 9 9 2 : 5 9 ) n o t e s , ' s t u d i e s of lay h e a l t h p r a c t i c e s i n Britain h a v e s h o w n that w o m e n take m a j o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e health c a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d i n f o r m a l l y t h r o u g h t h e h o u s e h o l d . ' In the v a r i o u s e t h n i c c o m m u n i t i e s in the S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a , w e h a v e f o u n d that the m o t h e r p l a y s a c e n t r a l role in t h e e a r l y d i a g n o s i s a n d t r e a t m e n t of s i c k n e s s in the o t h e r m e m b e r s of t h e h o u s e h o l d . T h e focus o n h o m e health c a r e forces u s t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of w o m e n in c a r r y i n g o u t m u c h o f this service. It is t h e w o m a n as w i f e a n d m o t h e r w h o m o r e o f t e n t h a n not cares f o r t h e rest of the family. T h u s , it is r i g h t to say that ' i n f o r m a l h e a l t h c a r e h a s r e m a i n e d p a r t of the d o m e s t i c e c o n o m y ' ( G r a h a m , 1 9 8 5 : 25).

W h e n w e s p e a k of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m as a s u p p o r t s y s t e m , w e i m p l y a c e r t a i n d e g r e e of d o m i n a n c e a n d hierarchy, a n d o f c o u r s e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a f o r m a l s y s t e m . We i m p l y a n o r m a t i v e s t a n c e in that the f o r m a l is central a n d t h e i n f o r m a l is p e r i p h e r a l . W e i m p l y that b y f o c u s i n g , on the i n f o r m a l w e will u n d e r s t a n d w h a t k i n d of c o n t r i b u t i o n it offers to t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . W e finally i m p l y that the e x i s t e n c e of the i n f o r m a l m a y d e p e n d in p a r t o n the e x i s t e n c e of a n d relationship w i t h the f o r m a l . In s t u d y i n g a n i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s u c h a s f o l k m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e a n d its r e l a t i o n t o a f o r m a l s y s t e m s u c h as m o d e r n m e d i c i n e , o n e m a y b e a b l e t o illustrate e m p i r i c a l l y the p r o c e s s that I h a v e in m i n d . F o l k m e d i c i n e f u n c t i o n s as a b a c k - u p s y s t e m in r e g a r d to m o d e r n m e d i c i n e , a n d b y b a c k - u p s y s t e m , w e m e a n three different t h i n g s h e r e . First, it is a complementary system in t h a t it is a s p e c i a l i z e d s y s t e m t h a t i n t e r v e n e s f o r s p e c i f i c h e a l t h p r o b l e m s t h a t f a l l in its d o m a i n . T h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y r o l e of f o l k m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s w h i c h s e r v e a s a s u p p o r t s y s t e m to t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m i s m a n i fest at v a r i o u s l e v e l s . A t t h e t r e a t m e n t l e v e l , s i c k p e o p l e u s e folk r e m e d i e s to cure their ailment. T h o s e remedies v a r y from o n e e t h n i c g r o u p to a n o t h e r b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l backgrounds.

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S e c o n d , it is a sustainable system in that it h e l p s u n c l o g t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m s o that it c a n o p e r a t e s m o o t h l y , so that t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s e r v e s as a d u m p i n g g r o u n d f o r the f o r m a l s y s t e m . B y s e r v i n g a s a s a f e t y v a l v e to t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e , it alleviates t h e b u r d e n of f o r m a l m e d i c i n e a n d i n d i r e c t l y s u s t a i n s it. T h i r d , it is a feeding system i n that it p r o v i d e s r e m e d i e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s that a r e g a t h e r e d a n d u s e d b y t h e m o d e r n s y s t e m , t h a t is it t r a n s m i t s t o the f o r m a l s y s t e m c u r e s t h a t a r e f o r m a l i z e d i n t o p h a r m a c e u t i c a l d r u g s , a n d p a t i e n t s for w h o m it h a s n o c u r e . T h e r e is a c o n s t a n t m o v e m e n t o f p e o p l e f r o m f o l k p r a c t i c e s t o formal practices. W h i l e m o d e r n m e d i c i n e concentrates on its o w n rational d o m a i n , f o l k m e d i c i n e fills t h e c r a c k s f o r c o m m o n a n d f o l k illnesses for w h i c h m o d e r n medicine h a s n o t yet f o u n d remedies. W e a c k n o w l e d g e that the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m h a s a m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t role in t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of society t h a n h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d b y social scientists. It a l l o w s the f o r m a l s y s t e m to o p e r a t e i n its o w n d o m a i n . It also a l l o w s the f o r m a l s y s t e m to r e t u r n t o t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m things that t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m c a n n o t r e s o l v e o r a c c o m m o d a t e . T h e r e are t w o p r o c e s s e s h e r e : o n e is the s o l u t i o n that the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m p r o v i d e s w h i c h c o u l d n o t be p r o v i d e d b y t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e s e c o n d is t h e r e m o v a l of t h e a c t i o n f r o m the f o r m a l to the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , t h e r e b y freeing t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m to c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h i n g s that it c a n d o or deliver. T h i s safety v a l v e f u n c t i o n a l l o w s u s e r s of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m a n a l t e r n a t i v e m e a n s : that of u s i n g t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m for specific endeavors. A s a s u p p o r t s y s t e m , the i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l s y s t e m p e r f o r m s a s e r i e s of f u n c t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o the w e l l - b e i n g of the f o r m a l s y s t e m , the u s e r s o f the f o r m a l s y s t e m , the u s e r s of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , a n d t h e w e l l - b e i n g of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . It is a s u p p o r t s y s t e m in t h a t it spares t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m certain t a s k s , a l l o w i n g it t o c o n t i n u e to s e e k s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e p r o b l e m s f o r w h i c h it c u r r e n t l y h a s n o s o l u t i o n to offer. It also a l l o w s t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m t h e possibility of e i t h e r i g n o r i n g o r p u s h i n g to t h e c u l t u r a l m a r g i n s of society c e r t a i n i t e m s w h i c h m i g h t fall u n d e r its d o m a i n .

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T h e s m o o t h f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m d e p e n d s o n t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e f o r m a l s y s t e m m u s t b e d e f i n e d in t e r m s of its d i f f e r e n c e s from the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , that is t h e p a r a m e t e r s of its o b j e c t i v e b o u n d a r i e s . I n its intentionality, the f o r m a l s y s t e m d o e s n o t o p e r a t e w i t h o u t its r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , for s o m e of the r e a s o n s previously mentioned. T h e u s e r s of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m also t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e y f u n c t i o n in the f o r m a l s y s t e m to the e x t e n t that this s y s t e m c a n h e l p t h e m t a k e care of all their n e e d s . H o w e v e r , a n y d e f i c i e n c y either p e r c e i v e d or real i n t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y lead t h e m t o s e e k solace in the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e u s e r s of t h e i n f o r m a l m e d i c a l s y s t e m a l s o r e c o g n i z e t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d use it w h e n it is to their o w n a d v a n t a g e . T h e y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m also h a s its o w n b o u n d a r i e s . P r o b l e m s that t h e y c a n n o t s o l v e from their p a r ticipation in t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m are b r o u g h t t o the f o r m a l s y s t e m to b e s o l v e d there. T h e y d e v e l o p classificatory t h e m e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h w h a t b e l o n g s to t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m f r o m w h a t b e l o n g s t o t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , a n d it is f r o m that f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e t h e y d e c i d e w h e n a n d h o w to m o v e f r o m o n e s y s t e m to the other. T h e u s e r s o f m o d e m m e d i c i n e h a v e a c c e s s to a n d utilize the f o l k system of h e a l t h care. T h e y are socialized in their o w n c u l t u r e s to d i s t i n g u i s h illnesses t h a t b e l o n g to t h e d o m a i n of m o d e r n m e d i c i n e f r o m t h o s e that b e l o n g to the d o m a i n of folk m e d i c i n e . T h e y m a y f u r t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h illnesses in t e r m s of their n a t u r a l , spiritual a n d m a g i c a l origins a n d select the m o d e s of t r e a t m e n t a n d the h e a l e r as a function o f t h o s e c a t e g o r i e s . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m f u n c t i o n s s m o o t h l y d e p e n d i n g o n the s t a t e of the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d t h e capacity of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m t o m e e t its o w n n e e d s . T h i s m a y explain w h y the b o u n d a r i e s of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y e x p a n d or c o n t r a c t . W h e n the f o r m a l s y s t e m is u n a b l e t o a c c o m m o d a t e its u s e r s , the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m t e n d s to e x p a n d ; w h e n the f o r m a l s y s t e m e x p a n d s its b o u n d a r i e s , t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m ' s s p h e r e o f activity t e n d s t o b e r e d u c e d . T h e e x p a n s i o n of the u s e of f o l k m e d i c i n e b y users of m o d e r n m e d i c i n e is r e l a t e d to the inability of the latter t o reach o u t to o r a c c o m m o d a t e e v e r y o n e in a g i v e n c o m m u n i t y . W h e n m o d e r n m e d i c i n e is u n a b l e to cure illnesses a m o n g its c o n s u m e r s , t h e s e

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i n d i v i d u a l s e n d u p e n l a r g i n g the g r o u p o f folk m e d i c a l u s e r s . T h e y reach o u t o r resort to f o l k m e d i c i n e in search of efficient remedies.

STRUCTURING OF THE INFORMAL SYSTEM AS SUPPORT SYSTEM

In contrast, w h e n p r a c t i t i o n e r s of m o d e r n m e d i c i n e m a k e a n a g g r e s s i v e effort to m a k e t h e m s e l v e s a n d m o d e r n m e d i c i n e a v a i l able to the c o m m u n i t y , as h a s h a p p e n e d i n socialist C u b a , t h e s p h e r e of a c t i v i t y of folk m e d i c i n e is c u r t a i l e d . In other C a r i b b e a n i s l a n d s , w h e r e b u d g e t cuts h a v e forced h o s p i t a l s to c l o s e t h e i r d o o r s , folk m e d i c i n e c o n t i n u e s to flourish a n d h a s e n l a r g e d its d o m a i n o f a c t i o n . In the B a y A r e a , folk m e d i c a l practices a r e u s e d extensively a m o n g undocumented immigrants who, because of their legal s t a t u s , are afraid t o u s e the facilities of the m o d e r n hospital.

Because of its s t a t u s as a s u p p o r t system, t h e s t r u c t u r i n g of the informal s y s t e m p l a c e s s o m e limitations o n its d e v e l o p m e n t a n d internal o r g a n i z a t i o n . It f u n c t i o n s m o s t l y as a r e s p o n s e to e v e n t s o v e r w h i c h it h a s n o control. T h e d e p e n d e n c e of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m on t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m b e c o m e s a reality that it c a n n o t overcome.

THE EXPANSION OF THE INFORMAL SYSTEM O n e of the f u n c t i o n s of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m a s a s u p p o r t s y s t e m is its ability t o e x p a n d itself, t a k i n g over t a s k s that n o r m a l l y fall u n d e r the a e g i s of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h a t e x p a n s i o n is c a u s e d a n d c a n b e e x p l a i n e d in a n u m b e r of w a y s . It is n o t the r e s u l t o f internal f o r c e s , b u t rather of e x t e r n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e sphere of activity of the informal s y s t e m m a y be r e d u c e d because of decisions taken b y the formal sector to reduce consciously the size of the informal sector or its s p h e r e of activity. T h e reasons for s u c h a m o v e m a y c o m e from a perception that the informal s y s t e m plays a negative role that m u s t b e curtailed, that it impinges on the formal s e c t o r ' s sphere of activity, or simply as a result of the e x p a n s i o n of the s p h e r e of activity of the formal s y s t e m . In c o n t r a s t , a n e x p a n s i o n o f the s p h e r e o f activity o f t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y c o m e a b o u t as the r e s u l t o f the r e d u c t i o n of t h e s p h e r e o f activity of the f o r m a l s y s t e m , u s e r s ' d e m a n d s , its ability to attract participants o r t h e l e g i t i m a c y factor. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s u s t a i n s the f o r m a l s y s t e m t h r o u g h its trajectory, its g r o w t h a n d c o n t r a c t i o n a n d its ability to p r o v i d e a b a c k - u p to t h e u s e r s of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . Its structure v a r i e s i n relation t o t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . This l e a d s u s t o l o o k at t h e i m p a c t of the s t a t u s of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m as s u p p o r t system on the formal system.

For that r e a s o n , it h a s n o h o l d over t h e a c t o r - p a r t i c i p a n t s . M a n y are n o t full-time p a r t i c i p a n t s in the i n f o r m a l s e c t o r ; t h e y s i m p l y fall f r o m the f o r m a l sector. T h e u s e r s m a y e v e n m o v e t o the f o r m a l s e c t o r d e p e n d i n g o n w h a t this s e c t o r c a n offer, its availability a n d t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of the a c t o r s . T h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r i n g a n d articulation of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m h a s its o w n d y n a m i c w h i c h is itself i n f l u e n c e d b y the ability of t h e s y s t e m to e x p a n d or reduce itself. E x p a n s i o n m a y increase t h e m u l t i v o c a l i t y of t h e s y s t e m w h i l e c o n t r a c t i o n m a y decrease its l e v e l of complexity. A s a s u p p o r t s y s t e m , the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m resolves its i n t e r n a l crisis or c o n f l i c t in t w o w a y s . O n e is s i m p l y to a c h i e v e s o m e f o r m of modus vivendi w i t h i n its s p h e r e of i n f l u e n c e . T h e o t h e r is t o s e r v e as an e x i t m e c h a n i s m to a l l o w the sufferer to s e e k a s o l u t i o n in the f o r m a l sector. In s u c h a c a s e , instead of s e r v i n g as a s u p p o r t s y s t e m , it b e c o m e s a b u r d e n to the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h i s c o n s t i tutes the n e g a t i v e aspect o f that f u n c t i o n a l characteristic of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . O n e m a y s a y that it p r o v i d e s b o t h a n 'exit c h a n n e l ' to s o l v e p r o b l e m s e m e r g i n g w i t h i n its d o m a i n of a c t i o n a n d an ' e n t r a n c e c h a n n e l ' to s o l v e p r o b l e m s arising f r o m w i t h i n the d o m a i n of t h e f o r m a l sector. It is f u n c t i o n a l l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e to the f o r m a l s y s t e m . A s l o n g a s f o l k m e d i c i n e p r o v i d e s an a l t e r n a t i v e to m a i n s t r e a m m e d i c i n e u s e r s , it p l a y s a p o s i t i v e role. H o w e v e r , it also m a y b e s e e n as a b u r d e n w h e n h e a l t h p r o b l e m s r e m a i n too l o n g w i t h i n the folk m e d i c i n e d o m a i n b e f o r e they are b r o u g h t to the a t t e n t i o n of m a i n s t r e a m p r a c t i t i o n e r s . A s i m p l e h e a l t h p r o b l e m t h a t c o u l d b e treated e a s i l y b y m o d e r n m e d i c i n e c a n , u n d e r s u c h circ u m s t a n c e s , b e c o m e a c o m p l e x medical problem that c a n b e life-threatening.

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T h e internal s t m c t u r i n g of the informal s y s t e m m u s t also b e seen in terms of processual flow. It constantly a d a p t s itself to external realities while mamtaining its internal rationale. It continues to evolve and to re-adjust itself. T h e positive aspect of its support m a y derive from its structural linkages with the f o r m a l system.

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m o n o l i t h i c , b u t rather p r o v i d e s an a r r a y o f alternatives to the users of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m , f o r m e d into a h i e r a r c h y a c c o r d i n g to the i n t e r n a l l o g i c of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . It reveals that the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is m a d e u p o f a series of p o l e s that act as c e n t e r s out of w h i c h radiate p e r i p h e r a l entities e n m e s h e d in c o m p l e x networks of relationships.

CORE AND PERIPHERY CRISIS A N D C H A N G E L i k e the f o r m a l s y s t e m , the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is d i v i d e d i n t o a c o r e a n d a p e r i p h e r y . T h a t s e g m e n t a t i o n affects t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m in t w o m a j o r w a y s . O n e c o n c e r n s the relations b e t w e e n t h e c e n t e r a n d p e r i p h e r y i n the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d t h e c e n t e r a n d p e r i p h e r y i n the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e o t h e r c o n c e r n s c e n t e r - p e r i p h e r y relations w i t h i n the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . It s e e m s a p a r a d o x to s a y t h a t the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m t e n d s t o d i s p l a y a h i g h e r l e v e l of f o r m a l i z a t i o n at its c o r e than at its p e r i phery, b u t t h a t is i n d e e d the c a s e . T h e c o r e t e n d s to r e p r e s e n t w h a t is c e n t r a l , i d e a s to w h i c h the majority o f p r a c t i t i o n e r s s u b s c r i b e , a s t r u c t u r e of action to w h i c h m o s t a d h e r e . T h e p e r i p h e r y refers to t h e m a r g i n a l , m i n o r i t y practices a n d practices t h a t are s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e in the core. H o w e v e r , the p r o c e s s b y w h i c h the p e r i p h e r y m a y c o a l e s c e into t h e c e n t e r is s i m i l a r to w h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d in the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the c e n t e r of the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d t h e c e n t e r of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t h a r m o n y of interest. T h e y r e p r e s e n t different practices at t w o e x t r e m e p o l e s , b u t are s e e n b y u s e r s as c o m p l e m e n t a r y . P e r i p h e r i e s in b o t h s y s t e m s m a y p r e s e n t a less a n t a g o n i s t i c o u t l o o k . W h i l e the c e n t e r in the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m u s e s e i t h e r the p e r i p h e r y o r the c e n t e r o f t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m in the s a m e w a y as the c e n t e r a n d the p e r i p h e r y of the f o r m a l s y s t e m u s e s the c e n t e r o f t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m , it is often t h e case that t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m w i l l first u s e t h e center of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m b e f o r e m o v i n g t o the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e c o r e - p e r i p h e r y distinction is an i m p o r t a n t o n e in t h e s t u d y of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m as a s u p p o r t s y s t e m . It s h o w s t h a t t h e s u p p o r t s y s t e m is n o t an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d o n e , b u t r a t h e r h a s its o w n p o l e s of action. It also r e v e a l s that t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is n o t

A l l social s y s t e m s are s u s c e p t i b l e to crisis a n d c h a n g e ; n o n e c a n b e c o n c e i v e d of as static. T h i s is w h y t h e relations b e t w e e n the f o r m a l a n d t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m u s t b e s e e n in t e r m s o f p r o cessual f l o w s . H o w , t h e n , d o e s the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m h a n d l e internally o r e x t e r n a l l y p r o p e l l e d crises? T h e f o r m a l status of t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p e r m a n e n t . O v e r t i m e , a c t o r s m a y m o v e t o t h e strict r e a l m of the f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e y are n o t c o n f i n e d to t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is c o n s t a n t l y d e c o m p o s i n g a n d r e c o m p o s i n g itself, l o s i n g o l d users a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g n e w o n e s . T h i s is o n e of the b a s i c t e n e t s of c h a n g e a n d e v o l u t i o n i n t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . In a d d i t i o n , p a r t of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y b e taken o v e r in toto b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m . O n t h e other h a n d , t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y also a t t a i n t h e s t a t u s of a f o r m a l s y s t e m , w h i c h o c c u r s w h e n t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m is p u s h e d to the m a r g i n s a n d is r e p l a c e d b y the former informal system.

CODE SWITCHING T h e s u p p o r t s y s t e m n o t i o n d o e s n o t i m p l y that the t w o s y s t e m s a r e similar o r f o l l o w the s a m e logic - this is n o t the case. F o r that matter, it is n e c e s s a r y to p o i n t out that t h e m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e s y s t e m to a n o t h e r implies a p r o c e s s of c o d e s w i t c h i n g , b y w h i c h w e m e a n h e r e the ability of a n i n d i v i d u a l t o m o v e f r o m a s y s t e m that o p e r a t e s o n a given s e t o f rules to a n o t h e r that o p e r a t e s on a different set o f rules. W e a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h the o u t c o m e that is s u p p o s e d t o b e the s a m e in b o t h s i t u a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r w i t h questions of procedure a n d rationale.

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T h e c o d e s w i t c h i n g m e c h a n i s m infers n o t t h e u n i q u e n e s s of e a c h s y s t e m , b u t rather t h e flexibility of i n d i v i d u a l a c t o r s t o a d a p t t o t h e m . T h i s is o n e f o r m a l structural l i n k b e t w e e n b o t h s y s t e m s a n d a c t u a l i z e s the reality of the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m a s a s u p p o r t s y s t e m t o the f o r m a l s y s t e m .

7 The Informal Arena of Inter-Ethnic Relations

Notes 1. 2. 3.

For an elaborate presentation of this argument, see Bullough and Bullough (1972). For an analysis of folk concepts of illness and disease among Mexican-Americans, see Schreiber and Homiak (1981). Home treatment in the Chinese community in San Francisco is widely practised. On Chinese-Americans' use of the informal health care system, see, for example, Gould-Martin and Ngin (1981).

M u c h of t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l literature o n interethnic r e l a t i o n s t e n d s to f o c u s o n the f o r m a l aspects of t h e interaction b e c a u s e of the p r e v a l e n t a s s u m p t i o n i n the w e s t e r n w o r l d that society is r u n f o r m a l l y . I n f o r m a l i t y is u n d e r s t o o d m o s t l y in terms of p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e a n d i n d i v i d u a l m o t i v a t i o n , b u t n o t as a c o n s e q u e n c e of s t r u c t u r a l i m b a l a n c e resulting f r o m the a s y m m e t r y o f structural r e l a t i o n s a n d h e g e m o n i c p r a c t i c e s . 1

To r e d r e s s t h i s b i a s i n t h e f o c u s of r e s e a r c h , this c h a p t e r m a k e s a n a t t e m p t at d e l i n e a t i n g the m e c h a n i s m s in t h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a t h a t m a y foster o r h i n d e r h a r m o n i o u s f o r m a l e t h n i c relations. W e p r e s e n t the i n f o r m a l a r e n a as a s o u r c e of h a r m o n y or t e n s i o n f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s o as to s h o w t h a t its s t u d y is c e n t r a l to a n y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r k i n g o f intere t h n i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e A m e r i c a n city. It is a h i d d e n r e s e r v o i r or l a b o r a t o r y w h e r e i d e a s are t e s t e d , c o n t e s t e d , r e i n v i g o r a t e d or a b a n d o n e d - i d e a s that d i r e c t l y affect b e h a v i o r i n a n y i n t e r - e t h n i c i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e m a i n q u e s t i o n that is b e f o r e u s a n d that w e w i l l try t o a n s w e r is h o w i n f o r m a l e t h n i c p r a c t i c e s effect, p o s i t i v e l y or n e g a t i v e l y , i n t e r - e t h n i c relations in the formal arena.

POWER A N D INFORMALITY T h e n o t i o n of i n f o r m a l i t y is at the v e r y c e n t e r of the l o c u s of the e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n the m a i n s t r e a m c u l t u r e a n d the m i n o r i t y subculture i n t h e i r f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . A t t h e c e n t e r of this i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n f o r m a l i t y a n d i n f o r m a l i t y is a site of p o w e r t h a t p r o v i d e s the r u l e s for the a r t i c u l a t i o n of the d o m i n a n t s y s t e m w i t h t h e s u b j u g a t e d s u b s y s t e m . It is then a c c u r a t e to say 139

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The Informal

t h a t i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s are c e n t e r e d a r o u n d a n d s h a p e d b y t h e technology of power. It is m y c o n t e n t i o n that t h e d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n the m a i n s t r e a m - m a j o r i t y c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s a n d the m i n o r i t y s u b c u l t u r e is r e p r o d u c e d in t h e m o d e m city b e c a u s e of a p o w e r conflict, t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of w h i c h w e s h a l l see later. P o w e r is the s i n g l e m o s t i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e that d e f i n e s the l o c u s of formality, n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d e m o g r a p h i c size: t h e r e are c o u n t r i e s w h e r e a s m a l l elite d o m i n a t e a l a r g e m a s s , as in S o u t h Africa. 2

P o w e r is the criterion that d e f i n e s w h a t is f o r m a l a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e s it f r o m w h a t is i n f o r m a l . P o w e r is e x e r t e d to d e t e r m i n e w h o is in a n d w h o is o u t a n d is also u s e d to b l o c k s o m e p e o p l e ' s a c c e s s to m a i n s t r e a m r e s o u r c e s . T h i s is a c h i e v e d b y v a r i o u s p r e c a r i o u s a n d d i s c r i m i n a t o r y rules a n d m e a n s that t h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m d e v e l o p s a n d controls. T h i s u s e of p o w e r a l s o u n d e r m i n e s the ability of m i n o r i t i e s to c o m p e t e fairly in s o c i e t y a n d h e l p s to c o n t r o l ethnic m i n o r i t i e s t h r o u g h a n u m b e r of p r a c tices a n d m e c h a n i s m s r a n g i n g f r o m s y m b o l i c c o e r c i o n ( i d e o l o g y ) t h r o u g h the b u r e a u c r a t i c a p p a r a t u s (legal f r a m e w o r k ) to p h y s i c a l f o r c e (overt o r h i d d e n security f o r c e s ) . F o r this r e a s o n , the p h e n o m e n o n of e t h n o g e n e s i s c a n n o t b e s e e n s i m p l y a n d e x c l u s i v e l y as l o c a t e d in the c o l o n i a l era, a p r o d u c t i o n of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n c o l o n i z e r s a n d t h e c o l o n i z e d . It m u s t b e s e e n also a s a p r o d u c t i o n of p o s t c o l o n i a l , i n d u s t r i a l a n d p o s t i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s . To s t u d y its p r o d u c t i o n is n o t e n o u g h ; o n e m u s t also p a y a t t e n t i o n to the t e c h n o l o g y o f its reproduction.

DISSECTING THE MAINSTREAM SYSTEM A N D MINORITY SUBSYSTEMS T h e A m e r i c a n city is m a d e u p of a m a i n s t r e a m f o r m a l s y s t e m f e d b y s u b c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s , s o m e of t h e m ethnicity b a s e d . T h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m is m a d e u p of a f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d an i n f o r m a l s u b s y s t e m that e i t h e r p r e c e d e s or is p r o d u c e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m . E t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s p a r t i c i p a t e in the m a i n s t r e a m f o r m a l s y s t e m b u t a l s o h a v e their i n f o r m a l s u b s y s t e m s , w h i c h a r e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e d o m i n a n t s y s t e m . A c t u a l l y s o m e of t h e s e a r e

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(tometimes f o r m a l m i n o r i t y s y s t e m s c o l o n i z e d or d u b b e d mlormal b y the mainstream system. The mainstream system imictions o n t h e b a s i s of f o r m a l practices that a r e s h a p e d b y t w o divergent sets of i n f o r m a l r u l e s : those of t h e m a i n s t r e a m a n d lliose of the e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s . W h a t w e call i n f o r m a l rules in the majority s y s t e m a r e often f o r m a l rules internal t o the s y s t e m , b u t w h i c h h a v e b e e n p e r i p h e r a l i z e d b y the m a j o r i t y s y s t e m on r a t i o n.il g r o u n d s . W h a t w e call i n f o r m a l rules in t h e m i n o r i t y s y s t e m are external t o t h e m a j o r i t y s y s t e m a n d o c c u p y a site that is e x p l o i t e d b y o r s o m e t i m e s u s e d against the f o r m a l s y s t e m . In their p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m , m e m b e r s o f ethnic m i n o r i t i e s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s at a d i s a d v a n t a g e on d i f f e r e n t fronts a n d at different l e v e l s . It is w o r t h w h i l e identifying the locations of their d i s a d v a n t a g e . T h e focus o n i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s a l l o w s u s to see s u c h disparities. M i n o r i t i e s a r e at a d i s a d v a n t a g e w h i l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the formal system of the mainstream because they must obey rules that they m a y n o t h a v e h e l p e d to create. T h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s d o e s n o t w o r k t o the a d v a n t a g e of m a n y m i n o r i t i e s b e c a u s e t h e y m a y o p e r a t e o n different c u l t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d are e n g a g e d in different c u l t u r a l practices. C o n v e r s e l y , d e m o c r a c y f a v o r s the m a i n s t r e a m a c t o r s m o r e t h a n t h e m i n o r i t i e s b e c a u s e of their familiarity w i t h a n d socialization in s u c h a s y s t e m . T h e m i n o r i t i e s a r e at a d i s a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e they lack p o w e r a n d access to r e s o u r c e s t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y c o u l d effect c h a n g e s . In fact c h a n g e , i n m a n y c a s e s , c a n o c c u r o n l y if the m a j o r i t y s y s t e m a l l o w s it to h a p p e n . T h u s it will b e c h a n g e t a i l o r e d or c o a c h e d b y t h e majority. T h i s is s o b e c a u s e a n y p r o s p e c t f o r c h a n g e initiated b y the m i n o r i t i e s is likely to b e t a k e n o v e r b y the m a j o r i t y s y s t e m o r m u s t b e f o r m u l a t e d in s u c h a w a y as to m e e t the d e m o c r a t i c criteria a n d r a t i o n a l e a c c e p t a b l e to t h e m a i n s t r e a m . (Of c o u r s e , w e are n o t referring h e r e to r e v o l u t i o n a r y change or to collective protest undertaken by m e m b e r s of e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s to e n h a n c e g r o u p s t a t u s o r to a c h i e v e selfdetermination.) M a n y m e m b e r s of m i n o r i t i e s are h a n d i c a p p e d b y their o w n p r e v i o u s s o c i a l i z a t i o n in m i n o r i t y families a n d c o m m u n i t i e s a n d the b a c k g r o u n d t h e y carry w i t h t h e m in their interaction w i t h t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h u s t h e y m a y find t h e m s e l v e s alien t o t h e

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m a i n s t r e a m b o t h b e c a u s e t h e f o r m a l r u l e s o f o p e r a t i o n a r e constantly u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s of the m a i n s t r e a m in w h i c h t h e y m a y n o t b e i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e a n d b y t h e i r o w n i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s that m a y h e i g h t e n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f their differences w i t h the f o r m a l cultural p r a c t i c e s of the m a i n s t r e a m . W h e n t h e m i n o r i t i e s j o i n t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m of the m a i n s t r e a m , they e x p o s e t h e m s e l v e s to further b r a i n w a s h i n g a n d r e s o c i a l i z a tion, b u t at t h e s a m e t i m e c o n t i n u e to c a r r y the m i n o r i t y s t i g m a w i t h t h e m , a s s y m b o l i z e d b y their p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e w h i c h c a n n o t b e h i d d e n . M i n o r i t i e s are at a d i s a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e , a l t h o u g h f o r m a l l y w e l c o m e in the m a i n s t r e a m , they a r e n o t in fact a c c e p t e d a s e q u a l a n d therefore n o t a l w a y s w e l c o m e in the i n f o r m a l r e a l m of the m a i n s t r e a m , the r e a l m of p o w e r b e h i n d the official s c e n e . T h e y m a y o r m a y n o t b e m e m b e r s of t h e m a i n s t r e a m i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k w h e r e real p o w e r is e x e r t e d . T h e m a i n s t r e a m i n f o r m a l arena c o n s t i t u t e s one t a n g i b l e locus - o n e w h e r e p o w e r p l a y is r e h e a r s e d - that c o n t r i b u t e s to the m i n o r i t i z a t i o n p r o c e s s of e t h n i c g r o u p s a n d that m a k e s p o s s i b l e the r e p e t i t i v e p r o c e s s o f t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of e t h n o g e n e s i s . S o m e a s p e c t s of the b e h a v i o r a l e x p r e s s i o n o f this p r o c e s s a r e d e l i n e a t e d b e l o w t h r o u g h t h e l a w s of ' s i m i l a r i t y ' a n d ' a v o i d a n c e ' on the o n e h a n d , a n d t h e l a w s o f ' s p o n s o r s h i p ' a n d 'credit t r a n s f e r ' on t h e other.

LAWS OF 'SIMILARITY' A N D 'AVOIDANCE' T h e s y m b o l i c interactionist a p p r o a c h d e v e l o p e d b y G o f f m a n a n d others h a s b e e n a s o u r c e o f inspiration to m e a n d h a s l e d t o m y f o r m u l a t i n g a set of l a w s that attempt to s h e d s o m e l i g h t o n the m e c h a n i s m s o f the f o r m a l i t y - i n f o r m a l i t y articulation. B y law of similarity w e m e a n that the m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m finds it m o r e c o n v e n i e n t to d e a l with p e o p l e f r o m the m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m t h a n with p e o p l e f r o m a different cultural s y s t e m or s u b s y s t e m : the rules - b o t h f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l - are u n d e r s t o o d b y all conc e r n e d as a result of their socialization in t h e s a m e c u l t u r e . T h e closer t h e m i n o r i t y s u b c u l t u r e is to the m a i n s t r e a m , the m o r e h a r m o n i o u s t h e interaction is likely to b e . T h e farther a w a y , the less likely, b e c a u s e of a c u l t u r a l disjuncture i n t h e h i d d e n , i n f o r m a l arena. T h i s is the p r i m a r y r u l e that a l l o w s u s to u n d e r s t a n d the

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p t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n a c t o r s b e l o n g i n g to different ethnic g r o u p s . I lowever, t h e r e are m i t i g a t i n g factors a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s that in.iv facilitate or i n d u c e a s m o o t h interaction. Case 1. A n A n g l o i m m i g r a n t couple living i n S a n F r a n c i s c o told m e w h y t h e y hired a w h i t e w o m a n t o care for their t w o - y e a r old b o y : ' W h e n w e w e r e l o o k i n g for a babysitter, w e e v a l u a t e d all the e t h n i c possibilities a n d concluded that it was b e s t f o r us and the c h i l d to h i r e a w h i t e nanny. We w a n t e d the b o y t o b e raised a s a n A m e r i c a n c h i l d a n d w e felt that w e w o u l d b e m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h a w h i t e n a n n y than w i t h s o m e o n e w i t h a different e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d . We more or less a s s u m e d t h a t s h e k n e w w h a t w e w a n t e d a n d w e had a general sense of w h a t she c o u l d deliver. We c o u l d n o t assume these u n s p o k e n t h i n g s if w e h a d h i r e d a C h i n e s e or Chicano p e r s o n . ' T h e law of similarity t e n d s t o c o m e into p l a y b o t h at the i n f o r m a l and at t h e f o r m a l levels: o u r formal b e h a v i o r s are s h a p e d b y institutional rules a n d f o r m a l conventions. In a formal setting, i n d i v i d u a l s t e n d to m a k e a n effort to b e c o n g e n i a l and c o n v i v i a l , w h e t h e r b y their o w n inclination or b e c a u s e of institutional needs. A t t h e i n f o r m a l level, there is less institutional b u t m o r e g r o u p p r e s s u r e to get a l o n g because of p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e or m o t i v a t i o n . Ethnicity t h e n b e c o m e s a m a r k e r that s h a p e s i n f o r m a l g r o u p i n g a n d t h e grammatical rules of inter-ethnic interaction. T h e law of avoidance s t a t e s that w h e n e v e r there is a c h o i c e an i n d i v i d u a l w i l l b e m o r e likely or naturally to interact i n f o r m a l l y with a p e r s o n of similar b a c k g r o u n d a n d ethnicity a n d indirectly a v o i d an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a different ethnicity and culture. Case 2. A t a f u n d - r a i s i n g social function in the b a s e m e n t of a c h u r c h in t h e B a y A r e a , I observed t h e b e h a v i o r s of s o m e of the m e m b e r s of the g r o u p . W h i l e standing w i t h a d r i n k in their h a n d s a n d socializing, p e o p l e were e n g a g e d in c o n v e r s a t i o n with w h o e v e r h a p p e n e d to be n e x t to t h e m . A s t h e y w e r e i n v i t e d to sit a n d eat d i n n e r , ethnic clusters b e c a m e m o r e v i s ible in t h e r o o m . I j o k i n g l y asked a Mexican-American acquainta n c e w h y d o all of y o u sit around t h e s a m e table. S h e replied:

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' W e w a n t t o e n j o y o u r d i n n e r . W e c a n s p e a k S p a n i s h if w e w a n t t o a n d talk a b o u t things that a r e of c o n c e r n to u s . We j u s t w a n t to relax. If w e w e r e to g o t h e r e [pointing t o a table w i t h w h i t e guests] w e w i l l h a v e to b e m o r e f o r m a l in o u r c o n v e r s a t i o n . ' A v o i d a n c e is m o r e m a r k e d i n i n f o r m a l t h a n in f o r m a l s e t t i n g s b e c a u s e there is less p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m a n d m o r e p r e s s u r e to c o n f o r m at t h e f o r m a l level. A v o i d a n c e c a n b e ' b e n i g n ' , as o n e foll o w s a p e r s o n a l preference b a s e d on c o m p a t i b i l i t y , or c a n b e ' a g g r e s s i v e ' a s w h e n a v o i d a n c e is b a s e d o n r a c i s m - that i s , a n i n d i v i d u a l d e l i b e r a t e l y i g n o r e s the p r e s e n c e of a n o t h e r p e r s o n b e c a u s e h e or s h e b e l o n g s t o a different e t h n i c g r o u p . A v o i d a n c e b a s e d on e t h n i c p r e f e r e n c e is d i s c r i m i n a t o r y : it s e p a r a t e s p e o p l e w h o b e l o n g to different e t h n i c g r o u p s f r o m e a c h o t h e r a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e a l l o w s the o r g a n i z a t i o n of i n f o r m a l g r o u p i n g o n t h e b a s i s of ethnicity.

LAWS OF 'SPONSORSHIP' AND 'CREDIT TRANSFER' T h e l a w of s p o n s o r s h i p s h e d s light o n the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of m i n o r ities b y m a i n s t r e a m institutions w h i l e that o f c r e d i t transfer s h e d s l i g h t o n the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of m a i n s t r e a m e r s b y m i n o r i t y i n s t i t u tions. B y ' l a w o f s p o n s o r s h i p ' w e m e a n t h a t a m e m b e r o f a m i n o r i t y g r o u p is m o r e l i k e l y to b e a c c e p t e d b y a m a i n s t r e a m institution if s p o n s o r e d b y a m e m b e r of t h e m a i n s t r e a m g r o u p t h a n if h e or s h e is not. S p o n s o r s h i p p r o v i d e s a route f o r e n t r y i n t o the m a i n s t r e a m w i t h o u t b r e a k i n g d o w n the m a j o r i t y / minority dichotomy. Case 3. A n A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n p r o f e s s i o n a l t o l d m e that h e w a s able to l a n d h i s j o b b e c a u s e of the o l d - b o y n e t w o r k . A w h i t e m a n a g e r for w h o m h e w o r k e d w h e n h e w a s a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t n o t o n l y s e n t a s t r o n g letter of r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o n h i s b e h a l f b u t a l s o , u p o n h e a r i n g that h e w a s o n the shortlist, p l a c e d a s t r a t e g i c call to s o m e o n e h e k n e w in the firm. A c c o r d ing t o h i s interpretation, t h a t call m a d e t h e difference in t h e s e n s e that a f r i e n d (his p r o s p e c t i v e w h i t e b o s s ) w a s d o i n g a f a v o r to a f r i e n d (his f o r m e r w h i t e b o s s ) .

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S o m e m e m b e r s of m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t i e s a r e able to f i n d a j o b in the f o r m a l s e c t o r of the e c o n o m y b e c a u s e t h e r e is s o m e o n e in the institution w h o s p o n s o r s h i m o r her, e i t h e r b e c a u s e of d i r e c t c o n tact (they k n o w each o t h e r ) or indirect c o n t a c t ( t h r o u g h the b r o k e r a g e o f a friend) o r s i m p l y b e c a u s e of shared c o m m o n alities. A f o r m a l letter of r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o m e t i m e s c a r r i e s this i n f o r m a l c o n n o t a t i o n o r p r o v i d e s the i n f o r m a l c h a n n e l t h r o u g h w h i c h a m i n o r i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c a n p e n e t r a t e the m a i n s t r e a m formal system. T h e l a w o f 'credit t r a n s f e r ' m e a n s that a m a i n s t r e a m e r w i l l b e a c c e p t e d b y a m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t y o r i n s t i t u t i o n to t h e extent that h e o r s h e is able t o t r a n s f e r credit e a r n e d f r o m p r e v i o u s a s s o ciation w i t h a m i n o r i t y p e r s o n or m i n o r i t y institution. H i s p a s t e n g a g e m e n t is the t a l i s m a n t h a t leads to f u r t h e r a c c e p t a n c e elsewhere. Here the informal recommendation sometimes carries a f o r m a l c o n n o t a t i o n . T h i s c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d informally, for e x a m p l e , b y m e n t i o n i n g t h e n a m e of t h e p e r s o n or o r g a n i z a t i o n for w h i c h w o r k w a s p r e v i o u s l y d o n e . T h e s a m e rule t h a t the friend of a f r i e n d is a p o t e n t i a l friend a p p l i e s h e r e as w e l l . 3

Case 4. A w h i t e w o m a n activist in S a n F r a n c i s c o a t t r i b u t e s h e r a c c e p t a n c e b y a C h i c a n o o r g a n i z a t i o n t o t h e fact that s h e h a d volunteered her time while working for a Latino organization on the E a s t C o a s t . W h e n s h e c a m e to S a n F r a n c i s c o , s h e s i m p l y m e n t i o n e d t h e n a m e s of a f e w p e o p l e s h e w o r k e d f o r a n d s h e w a s i m m e d i a t e l y w e l c o m e d b y the g r o u p as a ' s i s t e r ' . I n o t h e r w o r d s , s h e h a d a l r e a d y p r o v e d herself a s s o m e o n e w h o h a s at h e a r t t h e w e l l - b e i n g of t h e C h i c a n o c o m m u n i t y . T h e s e l a w s , t a k e n together, p r o v i d e u s w i t h a b a c k g r o u n d f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e t o f u r t h e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e of i n f o r m a l practices o n inter-ethnic r e l a t i o n s .

FORMAL FACADE A N D INFORMAL PRACTICE T h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m d e f i n e s the m i n o r i t y s y s t e m as e x i s t i n g in the interstices o r on t h e m a r g i n s of t h e m a i n s t r e a m , b u t in a n y case as o c c u p y i n g a s u b j u g a t e d p o s i t i o n . T h e w a y s of the

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m i n o r i t y s y s t e m m u s t b e d i s t o r t e d to a d a p t t o t h e n o r m s o f t h e m a j o r i t y s y s t e m . T h e f o r m a l s y s t e m is the d o m i n a n t s y s t e m , a n d t h e m i n o r i t y - f o r m a l a n d t w o i n f o r m a l s y s t e m s e m e r g e f r o m it: the mainstream-informal and the minority-informal. T h e f o r m a l f a c a d e is c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g s h a p e d b y the i n f o r m a l r e a l i t y of p r a c t i c e . T h e f o r m a l f a c a d e is the l o c u s f o r f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n , b u t f o r m a l actors also h a v e i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r s . In w h a t w a y s d o e s the i n f o r m a l influence the formal s y s t e m of inter-ethnic relations? Case 5. A C h i n e s e - A m e r i c a n w h o is n o w w o r k i n g in S a n F r a n c i s c o s a i d that h e u s e d to d a t e a w h i t e g i r l f r i e n d w h e n h e w a s a t t e n d i n g c o l l e g e . T h e i r r e l a t i o n s w e r e b a s e d on p e r s o n a l attraction a n d c o m m o n i n t e r e s t s a n d e t h n i c i t y w a s n o t a m a j o r i s s u e for h i m . A l l of that c h a n g e d in his s e n i o r y e a r after h e h a d h a d an i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h t w o f r i e n d r o o m - m a t e s . H e m a d e u p h i s m i n d n o t to p u r s u e the r e l a t i o n s h i p , b a s e d o n i n f o r m a t i o n h e h a d g a i n e d in t h e i n f o r m a l e n c o u n t e r s w i t h h i s friends. T h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a is the l o c u s w h e r e i n g r e d i e n t s for f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n are w o r k e d o u t , w h e r e s o c i a l i z a t i o n takes p l a c e , w h e r e s t r a t e g i e s to h a n d l e the f o r m a l are d e v e l o p e d , a n d w h e r e s o l u t i o n s are f o u n d for p r o b l e m s created in t h e f o r m a l a r e n a . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s t u d y of t h e f o r m a l a r e n a o f inter-ethnic r e l a t i o n s c a n n o t p r o v i d e all the c l u e s to u n d e r s t a n d the e v e r y d a y o p e r a t i o n of f o r m a l interactional practices a n d p a t t e r n s . A f o c u s o n the i n f o r m a l a r e n a , as w e s t a t e d earlier, is i m p o r t a n t as w e l l b e c a u s e the i n f o r m a l arena c a n either h i n d e r o r facilitate t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n . W e learn m a n y things that i n f l u e n c e o u r b e h a v i o r t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n s with f r i e n d s . S o m e of o u r n a k e d t h o u g h t s , t h o s e w e c a n n o t d i s c u s s in p u b l i c o r in front of s t r a n g e r s , m a y b e v o i c e d a m o n g f r i e n d s . T h u s t h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a is the site w h e r e o u r v i e w of t h e ' o t h e r ' ( p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e ) is d i s c u s s e d a n d n u r t u r e d . S u b s e q u e n t l y , v i e w s l e a r n e d in the i n f o r m a l a r e n a a r e c a r r i e d w i t h u s a n d influence o u r f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r s . T h e f o r m a l a r e n a m a y t h e n s e r v e as a l a b o r a t o r y to d i s c r e d i t t h e s e v i e w s , to test t h e m , or to c h a n g e t h e m if b e t t e r i n f o r m a t i o n

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e m e r g e s o r in r e s p o n s e t o better a c q u a i n t a n c e s h i p w i t h the 'other'. T h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a is a l s o the locus w h e r e stereotypes c a n b e reinforced o r c h a l l e n g e d a n d rejected. N e g a t i v e e n c o u n t e r s in the formal a r e n a are s o m e t i m e s carried o v e r t o the i n f o r m a l , w h e r e they are a m p l i f i e d t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d g o s s i p . I'ositive e n c o u n t e r s c a n b e reinforced i n t h e s a m e w a y in the informal a r e n a . T h u s , t h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a c a n reinforce o r n e g a t e v i e w s l e a r n e d a n d h e l d i n t h e f o r m a l a r e n a . This is w h y w e p r o p o s e the i n f o r m a l a r e n a as a k e y v a r i a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e f o r m a l arena. It is w h e r e w e s t r e n g t h e n or w e a k e n v i e w s h e l d in the f o r m a l a r e n a . T h e i n f o r m a l a n d f o r m a l a r e n a s are r e v e a l e d as t w o poles of t h e s a m e c o n t i n u u m .

F O R M A L RULE A N D INFORMAL PRACTICE Society h a s its f o r m a l r u l e s f o r social i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e s e r u l e s m a y b e r e m e m b e r e d , b u t are n o t a l w a y s f o l l o w e d in the c o n d u c t of o u r daily life. H o w e v e r , t h e y place b o u n d a r i e s on the c o n t e n t of o u r i n f o r m a l practices as t h e s e i n f o r m a l practices m a y b e the outcome of a negotiated process. In s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n m e m b e r s o f d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c groups, w h e n an individual practices the rules put forward by the f o r m a l s y s t e m and the interacting p e r s o n e x p r e s s e s an informal b e h a v i o r , there are three types of interaction that m a y e m e r g e . A t o n e e x t r e m e a c o m p l e t e l a c k of c o m m u n i c a t i o n m a y result b e c a u s e the t w o parties are n o t on the s a m e w a v e length, a n d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g arises. Expectations f r o m both s i d e s a r e n o t m e t . C h a r g e s o f s e x i s m , r a c i s m or a n y o t h e r f o r m of b i g o t r y m a y b e l e v e l l e d at o n e p a r t y o r t h e o t h e r i n this i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e s e c o n d p o s s i b l e o u t c o m e is a n i n t e r a c t i o n with a m i x e d result. T h e t w o people d o interact, b u t the distance or the disjuncture b e t w e e n t h e m m a y remain. The m i n o r i t y p a r t y m a y s e e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n a s p a t e r n a l i s t i c o r feel d o m i n a t e d . I n t h e b e s t o f c a s e s , a b r e a k d o w n of s o c i a l b a r r i e r s m a y r e s u l t a s t h e y m e e t h a l f w a y t o m a k e e a c h o t h e r f e e l at h o m e a n d at e a s e .

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INFORMAL RULE A N D FORMAL PRACTICE R u l e s f o r f o r m a l b e h a v i o r a r e o f t e n l e a r n e d i n the i n f o r m a l a r e n a . O n c e l e a r n e d t h e r e they r e i n f o r c e o u r f o r m a l practice. O n e c a n t h i n k of t h e i n - c o m i n g s e c r e t a r y w h o i n q u i r e s a b o u t the w a y s o f the b o s s s o as t o better s e r v e h i s or h e r n e e d s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is learned not through formal training, but rather through informal means. E v e n in a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r is c a l l e d for, a n i n d i v i d u a l m a y c o n t i n u e t o b e h a v e f o r m a l l y o r to f o l l o w f o r m a l rules. In s u c h a n i n f o r m a l s e t t i n g the f o r m a l p r a c t i c e w i l l b e ' n a t u r a l i z e d ' in a s e a of i n f o r m a l i t y to m e e t i n f o r m a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . B e c a u s e of t h e strength o f i n f o r m a l r u l e i n this c a s e , f o r m a l b e h a v i o r m a y n o t b e an o b s t a c l e t o i n f o r m a l interaction. I n t e r a c t i o n o c c u r s at b o t h t h e f o r m a l l e v e l a n d at the i n f o r m a l level, a n d p r o g r e s s m a d e i n f o r m a l l y c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d to o r h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the f o r m a l s p h e r e . I n f o r m a l practices d o n o t s i m p l y reject o r reinforce e t h n i c i d e a s h e l d i n t h e f o r m a l a r e n a , b u t there a r e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e r e m a i n s t r e a m m e m b e r s i n t e r a c t directly w i t h t h e m i n o r i t y i n f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d vice v e r s a . T h e side that initiates the p r o c e s s t e n d s to h a v e t h e u p p e r h a n d in the i n t e r a c t i o n a s it m a y n e g o t i a t e f r o m a p o s i t i o n of strength. T h u s , informal practices may not simply influence but m a y also have the p o w e r to t r a n s f o r m f o r m a l b e h a v i o r s in the f o r m a l s e c t o r as i n f o r m a l p o w e r m a y b e e x p r e s s e d in v e r y s u b t l e w a y s .

MINORITY VERSUS MAJORITY T h e f o r m a l - i n f o r m a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e c o m e s c r u c i a l to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of m i n o r i t y s t a t u s a n d the e n s u i n g inter-ethnic relations. T h e m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t y is a s u b o r d i n a t e d site of p o w e r a n d a site o f s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e total a s s i m i l a t i o n of the e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y b y t h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m . T h i s p o w e r s t r u g g l e is m a n i f e s t e d t h r o u g h g r a s s r o o t s p o l i t i c s a n d t h e rise of i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s , as w e l l a s t h r o u g h the d e v e l o p m e n t of a n e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l niche c a t e r i n g to the n e e d s of the l o c a l c o m m u n i t y . A s y m m e t r i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h the m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m a l l o w t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of this s u b s y s t e m .

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T h e m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t y is a l w a y s a d j u s t i n g to the f o r m a l s y s tem p e r c e i v e d as b e i n g d r i v e n b y E u r o - A m e r i c a n s , e v e n if the municipal leaders come from both majority and minority communities a n d regardless o f the belief that w e live in a s y s t e m of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e democracy. Policies c r e a t e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m directly a f f e c t the m i n o r i t y s y s t e m in a n u m b e r of w a y s . H o w over, this is n o t a o n e - w a y a d j u s t m e n t . Pressures e x e r t e d b y the m i n o r i t y s u b s y s t e m h a v e a l s o forced t h e majority s y s t e m to adjust to t h e d e m a n d s of t h e m i n o r i t i e s . T h e m a j o r constraint that defines, c o n s t r u c t s a n d r e p r o d u c e s the m i n o r i t y is the p o w e r v e s t e d in the m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m . This is n o t r a w p o w e r , b u t p o w e r that is c u l t u r a l l y based a n d t e n d i n g to b e m o r e e x c l u s i v e t h a n inclusive. It is exclusive in t h e sense that t h e m a i n s t r e a m f o r m u l a t e s its rules. A l t h o u g h the r u l e s l o o k at the g o o d of the total s y s t e m , they are, h o w e v e r , c u l t u r a l l y p r o d u c e d a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y b i a s e d . T h e m a i n s t r e a m p r o v i d e s its o w n v i s i o n a n d cultural definition of society - the s y s t e m is therefore o p e n to those w h o agree to p l a y b y the f o r m a l r u l e s . C o a l i t i o n b u i l d i n g b y w h i c h the m a j o r i t y m a i n t a i n s control o v e r t h e p r o c e s s a n d the m i n o r i t i e s s e e k to redress the o r d e r of things is a l s o i m b u e d w i t h informality. T h e process of recruitm e n t as w e l l as of i n t e r a c t i o n is a c h i e v e d a n d n u r t u r e d in an informal way. A t i m e f a c t o r also h e l p s o n e to u n d e r s t a n d the variability in the m a j o r i t y - m i n o r i t y interface. In this light, o n e m a y d i s t i n g u i s h the s o f t / w i l d structure f r o m t h e h a r d / s e t t l e d structure. T h e soft/ w i l d s t r u c t u r e is an u n s e t t l e d structure w h e r e the m i n o r i t y c a n get in as t h e structure is b e i n g settled. In contrast, a h a r d / s e t t l e d s t r u c t u r e is m o r e difficult to get into. H e r e a s p o n s o r o r m e n t o r m a y b e n e e d e d , as d i s c u s s e d earlier. A c q u i r i n g o n e is n o t easy, b e c a u s e i n f o r m a l i t y c o m e s in here as w e l l . S u c h a relationship i m p l i e s s i m i l a r i t y of p u r p o s e , b a c k g r o u n d a n d practice: a friend of a f r i e n d , s o m e o n e b e l o n g i n g to the s a m e club o r t h e s a m e c h u r c h , o r a n a l u m n u s f r o m the s a m e s c h o o l . T h e m o v e m e n t of the m i n o r i t y from t h e ethnic c o m m u n i t y to t h e m a i n s t r e a m is a m o v e m e n t from g r o u p identity to i n d i v i d u a l identity a s far as the m i n o r i t y p e r s o n is c o n c e r n e d . H e is b e i n g i n d i v i d u a l i z e d b y e n t e r i n g the institutions of the m a i n s t r e a m . B u t it d o e s n o t w o r k like that f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of the majority.

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T h e i n d i v i d u a l is still s e e n b y the m a i n s t r e a m a s p a r t of the m i n o r i t y g r o u p a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t e s c a p e that s t a t u s . A s a cons e q u e n c e , t h e inability o f t h e m i n o r i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o b e p a r t of the i n f o r m a l n e t w o r k of t h e d o m i n a n t g r o u p (inner circle) k e e p s h i m an o u t s i d e r , r e i n f o r c i n g h i s m i n o r i t y s t a t u s . T h a t h e c a n continue t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s of his e t h n i c g r o u p also r e i n f o r c e s his o u t s i d e r status vis-a-vis t h e m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m a n d h e l p s r e p r o d u c e h i s m i n o r i t y s t a t u s as w e l l . T h e m i n o r i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e reasons t h a t f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e m a j o r i t y there is n o e s c a p e p o s s i b l e (short of a c o l l e c t i v e protest o r r e v o l u tion) f r o m h i s s u b j u g a t e d s t a t u s a n d t h e s t i g m a a t t a c h e d t o it.

TERRITORIAL SEGREGATION O R ETHNIC ENCLAVES T h e e t h n i c e n c l a v e p r o v i d e s a territorial b a s i s w h e r e i n f o r m a l practices g r o w u p . A l t h o u g h the m i n o r i t y m e m b e r m a y interact w i t h the m a j o r i t y at t h e f o r m a l level, h e r e t u r n s to his c o m m u n i t y to interact i n f o r m a l l y there.

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l heir p r e f e r e n c e s , a n d t o p r e s e n t an e n l i g h t e n e d front vis-a-vis the m a i n s t r e a m s y s t e m . T h i s s t r a t e g y is f o l l o w e d as a w a y to return lo the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d t o b e in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n to i n t e r a c t with iI. It is a retreat s t r a t e g y i m p l y i n g a s e p a r a t i o n f r o m t h e f o r m a l system, a r e c r u i t m e n t of p e o p l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in the i n f o r m a l network, a n i n f o r m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o a s to share i d e a s , a n d the will to r e t u r n to the f o r m a l t o a c c o m p l i s h o n e ' s stated g o a l . T h e o p e r a t i o n is n o t l i m i t e d to m i n o r i t y ethnic g r o u p s : the s a m e s t r a t e g y c a n b e u s e d b y p e o p l e o f a n y ethnic b a c k g r o u n d . It b e c o m e s e t h n i c w h e n t h e s e strategies are d e v e l o p e d b y a n y ethnic g r o u p for the p u r p o s e of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e m f r o m other i n d i v i d u a l s . If the p e o p l e w h o are d o i n g it are f r o m t h e m a j o r i t y g r o u p , t h e o p e r a t i o n is s e e n as a w a y o f c o n s o l i d a t i n g p o w e r or restricting a c c e s s to t h e m i n o r i t i e s . W h e n it is d o n e b y m e m b e r s of a m i n o r i t y ethnic g r o u p , it is i n t e r p r e t e d as a w a y of e m p o w e r i n g the e t h n i c p a r t i c i p a n t s .

4

A l t h o u g h t h e e n c l a v e m a y p r o v i d e a s e n s e of c o m m u n i t y a n d a place w h e r e t h e ethnic h e r i t a g e is n u r t u r e d , it can, h o w e v e r , also be a n o b s t a c l e to inter-ethnic i n t e r a c t i o n (1) b e c a u s e t h e r e is a cultural t r a d i t i o n in the m i n o r i t y ethnic c o m m u n i t y b a s e d o n folk p e r c e p t i o n t h a t m a y o u t l i v e a n y e f f o r t at p e r c e p t u a l c h a n g e , (2) p e e r s a r e n e a r b y a n d r e i n f o r c e o n e ' s s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g to a n ethnic c o m m u n i t y , a n d (3) the e t h n i c e n c l a v e as a n a r e n a for i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s m a y b e less p a l a t a b l e t o o u t s i d e r s b e c a u s e of the o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of ethnic p e o p l e to b e f o u n d there. E n c l a v e s l e a d to the n u r t u r i n g of d i f f e r e n t i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s in b o t h the m a j o r i t y a n d m i n o r i t y c o m m u n i t i e s . A n d indirectly since t h e s e practices i n f o r m f o r m a l b e h a v i o r s , they a r e b o u n d to h a v e a n i m p a c t on the f o r m a l s y s t e m .

I N F O R M A L PRACTICES AS A WAY O F E M P O W E R I N G MINORITY PEOPLE It is often u n d e r s t o o d t h a t m i n o r i t y p e o p l e follow i n f o r m a l c h a n nels to b e t t e r e m p o w e r t h e m s e l v e s , t o c o n s o l i d a t e a n d d i s c u s s

UNCONSCIOUS AND CONSCIOUS IDENTITY T h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a a l s o h a s its i n f l u e n c e s o n the s h a p i n g of ethnic i d e n t i t i e s . It a l l o w s a n i n d i v i d u a l t o w e a r a d i f f e r e n t m a s k d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r h e is interacting w i t h p e o p l e o f his o w n g r o u p o r o u t s i d e r s . W h i l e the i n f o r m a l a r e n a a l l o w s o n e to b e m o r e r e l a x e d a n d t r u t h f u l a m o n g f r i e n d s , the f o r m a l arena p r o v i d e s a m o r e rigid s e t t i n g for i n t e r - e t h n i c relations. T h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a p r o v i d e s a n i c h e f o r the rise a n d split of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d c o n s c i o u s identity. A n i n d i v i d u a l c a n h a v e a d i s c o u r s e o r a b e h a v i o r that h e d i s p l a y s in f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n s with m e m b e r s of o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s . T h e s a m e i n d i v i d u a l m a y d i s p l a y a different b e h a v i o r o n c e h e is a m o n g m e m b e r s of his o w n g r o u p a n d is a b l e t o interact i n f o r m a l l y w i t h t h e m . S o m e times w h a t o n e l e a r n s i n t h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a tells u s m o r e a b o u t a s i t u a t i o n or a n i n d i v i d u a l t h a n w h a t w e l e a r n in the f o r m a l arena. T h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a p r o v i d e s a g r o u n d w h e r e the i n f o r m a l a n d u n c o n s c i o u s identity of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o m e s to the f o r e . In this p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t , o n e m a y s a y that i n f o r m a l i t y is to f o r m a l i t y w h a t the u n c o n s c i o u s is to t h e c o n s c i o u s i n F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory.

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THE THEORY OF FORMAL/INFORMAL INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS T h e t h e o r y i d e n t i f i e s f o u r p o i n t s of j u n c t u r e : t h e m a i n s t r e a m formal, the minority-formal, the mainstream-informal a n d the m i n o r i t y - i n f o r m a l . T h e f o r m a l is t h e l o c u s w h e r e f o r m a l encounters occur. The mainstream-formal a n d the m a i n s t r e a m informal are usually m o r e in h a r m o n i o u s relation t h a n the mainstream-formal and the minority-informal. The minorityf o r m a l is m o r e i n h a r m o n y w i t h the m i n o r i t y - i n f o r m a l t h a n w i t h t h e m a i n s t r e a m - i n f o r m a l w h i l e the m a i n s t r e a m - i n f o r m a l is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n direct r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e m i n o r i t y - i n f o r m a l . Since these t w o are not in relational h a r m o n y and since they i n f l u e n c e t h e f o r m a l , it is l i k e l y t h e a c t o r s f r o m b o t h i n f o r m a l s (mainstream a n d minority) m a y not be in h a r m o n i o u s relation either. T h e t h e o r y a r g u e s that w h a t g o e s on i n t h e f o r m a l a r e n a c a n o f t e n b e e x p l a i n e d b y w h a t g o e s o n in t h e i n f o r m a l a r e n a . T h e f o r m a l a r e n a p r o v i d e s a site w h e r e these i n t e r a c t i o n s occur. H o w ever, these i n t e r a c t i o n s c a n b e s t r e n g t h e n e d o r u n d e r m i n e d b y i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s that the m a i n s t r e a m a n d t h e e t h n i c c o m m u n i t y a r e e n g a g e d in. B e c a u s e of t h e s h e e r i m p o r t a n c e of these i n f o r m a l practices, b e c a u s e of the w a y t h e y influence f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s , a n d b e c a u s e t h e y p r o v i d e a site w h e r e the m a i n s t r e a m d i f f e r e n t i a t e s itself f r o m t h e m i n o r i t y a n d v i c e v e r s a , the i n f o r m a l a r e n a is a k e y factor that m u s t b e taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n in order to u n d e r s t a n d the m e c h a n i s m s a n d s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of i n t e r - e t h n i c relations. In the f o l l o w i n g m o d e l (as illustrated in F i g u r e 7.1) w e s p e l l o u t the s t r u c t u r a l features of t h e t h e o r y : (1) T h e i n f o r m a l arena c a n e i t h e r c o n s o l i d a t e o r u n d e r m i n e ethnic i n t e r a c t i o n s in t h e f o r m a l a r e n a . I n either s i t u a t i o n , it d o e s h a v e a n i m p a c t o n t h e f o r m a l s e c t o r a n d this c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d if w e w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d the f o r m a l d o m a i n . (2) T h e i n f o r m a l arena p r o v i d e s a locus t h a t feeds the f o r m a l practices o f inter-ethnic r e l a t i o n s a n d interaction. T h e r e is a n o n g o i n g f e e d b a c k b e t w e e n the f o r m a l a n d the i n f o r m a l spheres.

The Informal

Arena

Minority-formal (Native Americans) Minority-formal (Mexican-Americans)

of Inter-Ethnic

Relations

153

Formal Arena Minority-formal (Chinese-Americans) Mainstream-formal (Anglos) Minority-formal (African-Americans)

Minority-informal , " "V (Native Americans) ^^jr" Minority-informal (Mexican-Americans)

Informal Arena i Minority-informal - '(Chinese-Americans) Mainstream-informal (Anglos) Minority-informal (African-Americans)

Fig. 7.1 Inter-ethnic r e l a t i o n s

(3) F o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n c a n n o t b e d e c o d e d in toto w i t h o u t p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o the i n f o r m a l r e a l m . (4) I n e q u a l i t y is m a n u f a c t u r e d t h r o u g h t h e a s y m m e t r y o f social r e l a t i o n s n u r t u r e d b y t h e f o r m a l / i n f o r m a l interface. I n f o r m ality is s e e n h e r e b o t h a s a site for s o c i a l control (for t h e m a j o r ity), f o r r e s i s t a n c e (for t h e m i n o r i t i e s ) a n d for a d a p t a t i o n (for both). (5) G e n d e r i n e q u a l i t y as m a n i f e s t e d in t h e f o r m a l a r e n a is also m a n u f a c t u r e d daily as a result of t h e f o r m a l / i n f o r m a l interface. I n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a r e u s e d b y m a i n s t r e a m m a l e s n o t only to control minorities but w o m e n as well. Both w o m e n a n d m i n o r i t i e s e m p l o y e d in f o r m a l f i r m s a r e o f t e n b a r r e d f r o m i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g s w h e r e d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e m are nurtured, discussed, contemplated and adopted. (6) T h e m i n o r i t y - f o r m a l a r e n a m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the m a i n s t r e a m - f o r m a l a r e n a . T h e f o r m e r i s a social site t h a t legiti m a t e s itself for social i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e latter. It is f e d b y

154

The Informal

The Informal

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w h a t e v e r g o e s on in the m i n o r i t y - i n f o r m a l a r e n a a n d s e r v e s as a p l a t f o r m w h e r e f o r m a l c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e status q u o c a n take s h a p e . It is t h r o u g h t h e m i n o r i t y - f o r m a l a r e n a that s t a t u s e n h a n c e m e n t of the m i n o r i t y g r o u p a n d d e m a n d s for e q u a l i t y are n e g o t i a t e d . T h e t h e o r y p r o p o s e s that c r e a t i o n of t r u e h a r m o n y in f o r m a l s p h e r e d e p e n d s on s e v e r a l factors:

the

(1) T h e m a i n s t r e a m - i n f o r m a l s h o u l d c e a s e t o b e the h i d d e n s i d e of the f o r m a l , s o that all a c t o r s m a y b e o n t h e s a m e f o o t i n g at the f o r m a l l e v e l a n d e v e r y o n e m a y b e p r i v y to all p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y to b e a n insider. U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s is not possible. (2) M i n o r i t i e s s h o u l d b e e q u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d at the f o r m a l l e v e l as a w a y o f p r o v i d i n g s o m e b a l a n c e in the f o r m a l i n t e r a c t i o n and in the production of national and h e g e m o n i c ideologies. This m a y b e possible t h r o u g h s o c i a l e n g i n e e r i n g , a n d therefore c a n b e p r o p o s e d as a realistic s o l u t i o n . (3) T h e m a i n s t r e a m - i n f o r m a l s h o u l d b e c o m e a m i n o r i t y - i n f o r m a l as w e l l s o that the m a i n s t r e a m - f o r m a l m a y b e e q u a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of b o t h . T h i s is n o t practical b e c a u s e of c u l t u r a l differences a n d the ethnic stratification i n t h e p o w e r s y s t e m . (4) G i v e n t h e a c t u a l structure a n d the difficulty of m i n o r i t i z i n g the i n f o r m a l - m a i n s t r e a m , m o r e h a r m o n i o u s r e l a t i o n s a n d interaction s h o u l d o c c u r b e t w e e n the t w o i n f o r m a l s . T h i s is d o n e at t h e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , b u t n o t r o u t i n e l y at t h e g r o u p level. (5) T h e o p t i m u m solution s h o u l d b e total i n t e g r a t i o n , w h i c h m e a n s h e r e t h e division of society into a n i n t e g r a t e d f o r m a l a n d i n t e g r a t e d i n f o r m a l . T h i s idealistic ' m e l t i n g p o t ' s o l u t i o n is n o t p r a c t i c a l either b e c a u s e of the desire of m o s t p e o p l e to cling to t h e i r e t h n i c g r o u p s . (6) A m o r e w o r k a b l e solution s h o u l d take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e reality of e t h n i c diversity a n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of r e p r e s e n t a tive d e m o c r a c y as the b e s t w a y to get out o f the d i l e m m a . Inter-ethnic r e l a t i o n s in t h e p r e s e n t social s t r u c t u r e of t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a tend to r e p r o d u c e inequality. T h e p r o b l e m is

Arena

of Inter-Ethnic

Relations

155

located in t h e a s y m m e t r y of relations w h i c h a r e u s e d b y the f o r m a l (site o f p o w e r ) t o d o m i n a t e (politics), c o n t r o l (legal a p p a r a t u s ) , c o e r c e ( p o l i c e ) , m a k e i n f e r i o r (identity), s u b j u g a t e ( e c o n o m y ) a n d m a r g i n a l i z e (space) e t h n i c m i n o r i t y p r a c t i c e s . T h e g r o u p that d e c i d e s w h i c h s y s t e m is f o r m a l a n d w h i c h o n e is n o t h a s t h e u p p e r h a n d i n the e q u a t i o n . It m a k e s t h e rules w h i l e o t h e r p e o p l e m u s t f o l l o w t h e m , o f t e n to their d i s a d v a n t a g e s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y m u s t a d a p t to s o m e o n e e l s e ' s a g e n d a . In this way, t h e m i n o r i t i e s p a r t i c i p a t e or take p a r t in the o p e r a t i o n that r e p r o d u c e s o v e r time t h e i r m i n o r i t y s t a t u s . T h u s , t h e p h e n o m e n o n of e t h n o g e n e s i s is a n o n g o i n g p r o c e s s w h e r e b y s u b j u g a t e d ethnic m i n o r i t i e s a t t e m p t t h r o u g h v a r i o u s f o r m s of s t r u g g l e a n d resistance t o o v e r c o m e i n f o r m a t i z a t i o n of t h e i r cultural w a y s a n d institutions a s w e l l a s u n d e r m i n e t h e a s y m m e t r y o f their relations w i t h the d o m i n a n t s e c t o r of society.

Notes 1.

2.

3. 4.

There is a vast literature on inter-ethnic relations dealing with the manifestation of the phenomenon on the urban American scene. For a glimpse at the various theoretical shades and methodological orientations of this literature, see Takaki (1987). Michel Foucault's (1980) seminal work on the technology of power serves as a source of inspiration for my interpretation of the interface between formality and informality. I am indebted to Professor Leonard Duhl of the Public Health Department at Berkeley for sharing this observation with me. For descriptions of the historical evolution of ethnic enclaves in San Francisco, see Godfrey (1988) and Wirt (1974). Monographs on specific ethnic groups in San Francisco are also available; see Daniels (1980) on African-Americans, Narell (1981) on Jews, Nee and Nee (1972), Chow (1977) and Loo (1991) on Chinese, Gumina (1978) and Cinel (1982) on Italians, Decroos (1983) on Basques, Burchell (1979) on the Irish, Tripp (1980) on Russians and Leyland (1980) on Puerto Ricans.

8 Conclusion A s w e a r r i v e at the e n d o f o u r reflections o n t h e n a t u r e a n d the p o l i v o c a l i t y of the i n f o r m a l c i t y as c a n v a s s e d t h r o u g h o u r e x a m ination of t h e e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s in the S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a , w e b e l i e v e that the a p p r o a c h a l l o w s u s to s t u d y a h i d d e n d i m e n s i o n that s h e d s m u c h light o n o u r c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the f o r m a l city. T h i s a p p r o a c h is n o t o n l y i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n f o r m a l f a c t o r s that s h a p e t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e f o r m a l city, b u t also i n f o r m s u s o n the n a t u r e of the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p o l e s of t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m , a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y on the w a y the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m b e h a v e s . P r o b a b l y o n e o f the m o s t r e v e a l i n g aspects of t h e e n t e r p r i s e is t h a t it s h o w s u s h o w i m p o r t a n t it is t o factor in human agency in o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f u r b a n p r o c e s s e s .

THE MULTIVOCALITY OF INFORMALITY O n e of the m a j o r issues in the s t u d y of the i n f o r m a l city is t h e difficulty in i d e n t i f y i n g a n d l o c a t i n g the object o f study. T h a t w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n the case if it w e r e a s e p a r a t e reality in a d u a l s y s t e m . In fact, it is a c o n t i n g e n t reality in a unified s y s t e m . Its s t u d y c a n n o t b e d i v o r c e d f r o m that of t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m s i n c e it is the o t h e r s i d e a n d in s o m e c a s e s the l i f e b l o o d of that s y s t e m . A n o t h e r difficulty s t e m s f r o m the flexibility a n d fluidity o f the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . It d o e s n o t h a v e a rigid structure, or e v e n a perm a n e n t o n e , a n d is a c t i v a t e d b y the a c t o r s o f t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h i s fluidity a l l o w s it t o m o v e b a c k a n d forth in t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d t o d i s i n t e g r a t e o r o c c u p y a m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n at t i m e s as it a l l o w s t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m t o p u r s u e its c o u r s e o f action. I h a v e c o m e t o realize that u r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y is n o t m o n o l i t h i c a n d that it p r e s e n t s itself i n different s h a p e s a n d f o r m s . In its internal b e h a v i o r , u r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y c a n b e identified a s h a v i n g singular characteristics, s o m e of which I delineate below because

157

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of their i m p o r t a n c e in r e l a t i o n with o t h e r i n f o r m a l u n i t s o f the i n f o r m a l c i t y a n d w i t h t h e f o r m a l city as w e l l . U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y is f o u n d to b e competitive. B y that is m e a n t that ' i n f o r m a l i t y m a y c o m e a b o u t t h r o u g h t h e efforts o f f i r m s a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e interests in a r e g u l a t e d e c o n o m y to g a i n m a r k e t a d v a n t a g e b y a v o i d i n g s o m e state c o n t r o l s ' (Portes et ah, 1989: 2 9 9 ) . It is a m e a n s u s e d to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of or m o v e to a c o m p e t itive e d g e a g a i n s t c o m p e t i t o r s in v a r i o u s d o m a i n s of s o c i a l life. It is a m e c h a n i s m u s e d to o u t d o a c o m p e t i t o r . W e see it at w o r k in the r e a l m of the f o r m a l i n d u s t r y w h e r e i n f o r m a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s are h i r e d in o r d e r t o l o w e r c o s t s , a n d i n t h e m o d e r a t e l y r e g u l a t e d S t o c k E x c h a n g e in the c a s e o f insider t r a d i n g w h e r e t h o s e w h o are p r i v y to s u c h k n o w l e d g e reposition t h e m s e l v e s f a v o r a b l y in the f o r m a l m a r k e t s y s t e m at the e x p e n s e of c o m p e t i t o r s . U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y c a n b e altruistic. It is u s e d as a w a y o f m a x imizing the well-being of others. O n e uses an informal comm u n i c a t i o n line to h e l p a n o t h e r person. A n i n d i v i d u a l s o m e t i m e s gets a j o b n o t s i m p l y o n t h e b a s i s of f o r m a l p r o c e d u r e , b u t a l s o of i n f o r m a l t h i n g s that g o o n , for e x a m p l e a t e l e p h o n e c a l l b y a f r i e n d l y t h i r d p a r t y to t h e e m p l o y e r . U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y c a n b e reciprocal. It is u s e d as a w a y to m a i n tain a n e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s . Reciprocity is t h e k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the i n t e n t i o n of the act. A n i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r is m a t e r i a l i z e d to h e l p s o m e o n e w h o m a y b e able to return t h e favor. U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y is e i t h e r latent or active. It is l a t e n t w h e n a l e a r n e d b e h a v i o r or a p r a c t i c e r e m a i n s in a d o r m a n t s t a t e a n d therefore c a n b e a c t i v a t e d at a n y m o m e n t f o r a specific p u r p o s e . It is a c t i v e w h e n the i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r is u s e d to a c c o m p l i s h stated e n d s . U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y is routinized w h e n it is p a r t of o n e ' s daily life. T h i s r o u t i n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s consists o f m e s h i n g t o g e t h e r b o t h f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l activities in s u c h a w a y that t h e i n f o r m a l is p e r c e i v e d a s s o m e t h i n g i n t e g r a l to the p r o c e s s of e v e r y d a y life. U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y c a n a l s o b e transformative. Transformative i n f o r m a l i t y is u n d e r s t o o d to b e i n f o r m a l b e h a v i o r e x p r e s s e d w i t h a v i e w to c h a n g i n g a n y a s p e c t of the f o r m a l social reality. U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y is f o u n d to h a v e a symbolic d i m e n s i o n . S y m bolic i n f o r m a l i t y is b e h a v i o r e x p r e s s e d f o r the clear p u r p o s e of p r o j e c t i n g a s y m b o l i c i m a g e o f oneself. It c a n b e u s e d a s a n indi-

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Cator of c l a s s s t a t u s t h r o u g h participation in an i n f o r m a l g r o u p in order to e n h a n c e o n e ' s i m a g e in society. U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y is at t i m e s discriminatory. Discriminatory informality is a n i n f o r m a l practice that e x c l u d e s certain p e o p l e f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i o n in an i n f o r m a l g r o u p m e e t i n g . S e g r e g a t i o n is a i haracteristic o f r a w i n f o r m a l i t y w h i l e i n t e g r a t i o n is a c h a r a c t e r istic of c o o k e d informality. If i n f o r m a l i t y c a n b e discriminatory, there are a l s o instances w h e r e it b e c o m e s integrative. T h e role o f the i n f o r m a l a r e n a as the l o c u s w h e r e f o r m a l activ11 it's are d i s c u s s e d i n f o r m a l l y before f o r m a l action is t a k e n o r as a way to g u i d e f o r m a l a c t i o n p o i n t s to the i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e f o r m a l city in its f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l aspects. U r b a n i n f o r m a l i t y t e n d s t o s t r e n g t h e n c l a s s divisions as it is used t o c o n s o l i d a t e g r o u p interests a n d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t outsiders. O n the o t h e r h a n d , it also s e r v e s as a m e c h a n i s m for u p w a r d m o b i l i t y as it a l l o w s p e o p l e of different c l a s s e s to partake in c o m m u n a l i n f o r m a l activities. Urban informality can also b e subversive because it provides a structure of resistance. A c c o r d i n g to H a r d i n g a n d Jenkins ( 1 9 8 9 : 1 3 6 ) 'the p o w e r of formal regulations creates the possibility of its subversion'. T h e formal system creates substitutive informality s o that it can continue to function smoothly. Substitutive informality is a pillar of the f o r m a l system b e c a u s e of its safety-valve function. This f u n c t i o n as a s a f e t y v a l v e c a n b e s e e n in its role as a n e x t e n s i o n o f formality, b u t it also p r o v i d e s a n arena w h e r e f o r m a l problems can be discussed informally and informal solutions can be found. T h e s a f e t y - v a l v e f u n c t i o n also p r o v i d e s an a r e n a w h e r e d i s s i d e n t s p l o t o u t t h e i r s t r a t e g i e s to u n d e r m i n e o r s u b v e r t t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h i s s u b v e r s i v e function is latent a n d c o m e s into p l a y in t i m e s of crisis o r revolution, h e r e d e f i n e d in t e r m s of a vast d e n s i t y o f subversive i n f o r m a l i t y that u n d e r m i n e s t h e ability of the f o r m a l s y s t e m to m a i n t a i n its c o h e s i o n .

INFORMAL/FORMAL RELATIONS T h e idea a n d reality of informality implies b o t h an active a n d passive relation vis-a-vis the f o r m a l domain. In the active sense, it is a

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reality that is repressed b y the formal system thus preventing it from being 'formal'. In the passive sense, it is a n activity that is ' o u t there' and o n e w h i c h the formal s y s t e m does not pretend to or c a n n o t control. In b o t h its active a n d passive m e a n i n g s , informality is s e e n as being c a p a b l e of having a n i m p a c t on the f o r m a l system. This s t u d y of i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s h a s b e e n carried o u t at three different l e v e l s . T h e first l e v e l is that of d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n , a s the s a m e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o e n g a g e in f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s a r e also e n g a g e d i n i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s . T h e s e c o n d level is t h a t o f t h e transformation (migration or co-optation) of informal practices into f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s , as w h e n folk r e m e d i e s are a d o p t e d b y the m o d e r n m e d i c a l h o s p i t a l a n d t r a n s f o r m e d into p h a r m a c e u t i c a l d r u g s . A n d t h e third l e v e l is that of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of s o m e f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s into i n f o r m a l practices b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e lost their f o r m a l identity, as in t h e case of t h e street v e n d o r w h o s e licence h a s b e e n r e v o k e d b y t h e state. W e c o n c e i v e of the f o r m a l s y s t e m as c o m p r i s i n g s e v e r a l s p a c e s w h e r e f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l activities o c c u r e i t h e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y or s u c c e s s i v e l y . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is i n c l u d e d in t h e l a r g e r formal space. T h e reality of informality is seen as related to the t o p o g r a p h y of the f o r m a l societal system a n d constitutes a province of that system. W h e n the informal system is recouped b y the formal, it b e c o m e s a layer of that system and m a y b e located in a hierarchy of s u b s y s t e m . A s such it constitutes a h i d d e n force within the formal s y s t e m . T h e relations of informality t o formality are spelled out in t e r m s of the structural organization of the overall system. T h e i n f o r m a l system is s e e n as an adaptation to the f o r m a l s y s t e m b e c a u s e it m a y b e p r o d u c e d b y the f o r m a l s y s t e m a n d its survival d e p e n d s o n the existence of the formal s y s t e m . C o n s e q u e n t l y c h a n g e s in the f o r m a l s y s t e m m a y i n d u c e c h a n g e s in the i n f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e informal system is also seen as a reaction to the f o r m a l system, especially w h e n this is superimposed. S u c h w a s the case in the formation of slave religion. To the action of the formal s y s t e m corresponds the reaction of the informal system, or t o a formal structure of domination m a y correspond a n informal structure of resistance. T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m a p p e a r s also as a challenge t o t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . F o r e x a m p l e , the traffic of d r u g s in t h e streets o f t h e city c h a l l e n g e s f o r m a l a u t h o r i t i e s to d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t it.

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T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m a p p e a r s as a substitution for w h a t is m i s s nig in the f o r m a l s y s t e m . F o r e x a m p l e , street v e n d o r s satisfy the c o n s u m e r n e e d s of a n u m b e r of p e o p l e . T h e y sell c h e a p , fast a n d h a n d y g o o d s that are n o t p r o v i d e d b y t h e f o r m a l s y s t e m . T h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m is complementary t o f o r m a l institutions. This is the c a s e in the w i d e s p r e a d use o f f o l k m e d i c i n e a m o n g the A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n , C h i n e s e a n d H i s p a n i c c o m m u n i t i e s in the S a n Francisco B a y Area t h a t fulfills n e e d s n o t m e t b y m o d e r n medicine or the modern hospital.

THE REPRODUCTION OF HEGEMONY Although all the social classes participate in informal practices, it is true to s a y that they help reproduce inequality a n d hierarchy in society. T h o s e of the u p p e r class sometimes use informality t o maintain their position and to e x c l u d e outsiders from their i n n e r circles. Being at the top, they h a v e access to m o r e influential p e o p l e than the other classes. A t the s a m e time, urban informality is u s e d b y some lower-and middle-class individuals as a m e a n s to u p w a r d mobility as it provides a n avenue for penetrating influential circles. T h e n o t i o n of informality is at the v e r y center of the Western project of the construction a n d the strengthening of the democratic state. C a n the democratic s y s t e m be totally o p e n a n d transparent in any society w h e r e u r b a n informality reigns supreme? It s e e m s at first that b e c a u s e informal practices tend to discriminate against those w h o are n o t invited to join in they are an i m p e d i m e n t to the achievement of equality, fairness and p e r h a p s democracy. B e c a u s e i n f o r m a l i t y a l l o w s i n d i v i d u a l s t o take a s h o r t c u t a n d gives a d v a n t a g e s to s o m e o v e r o t h e r s b a s e d o n c l a s s , gender, ethnicity, religion or p o l i t i c a l affiliation, it t e n d s to r e p r o d u c e inequality in society. It is a w e l l l u b r i c a t e d e n g i n e in t h e social r e p r o d u c t i o n of h e g e m o n i c practices a n d at the s a m e t i m e it is an arena e x p l o i t e d to p r e v e n t direct g r o u p c o n f r o n t a t i o n s . P e r h a p s o n e m a y c o n c l u d e that i n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s are b o t h a p r o d u c t i v e d e v i c e a n d a n e n l i g h t e n i n g p a r a d o x in the t e x t u r e of the A m e r i c a n city.

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Index accountant, 56 Acorn Revitalization Council, 80 activities, formal and informal, xiii, 9, 32,47,70, 72, 73, 74,75 actors, 3, 7, 30,49, 51,73,93,100, 111, 120,135,138,157 adaptation, 153,160 administration, xiv, 56, 75, 77, 86,88, 92,95,97,98 advertisement, 62 Advisory Board of Community Development, 85 African-American, 57,60,64,78,81,82, 83,84,86,101,144,153,161 agency, 71, 72; human, 157 agenda, 81,100 aggression, 13,16 AIDS, 116 Akinnaso, F.N., 109 Alabama, 79 Alexander, M.J., 110 allegiance, 91 alliance, 82 Alumni Association, 80 American Anthropological Association, xv American cities, xi, xii Anglos, 64 apprentice, 54, 56,63 approach, 1 Archambault, E., 74 architects, 68 architecture, 30, 37,68 arena, xv, 68,75,90,96,103,123,130, 139,146,147,148,151,152,153,159, 161; formal, xiv; informal, xi, xii, xiv, 9 Asian-American, 64, 66,82 Asian Local Development Corporation, 82 Asians, 84 Asiatown, 82 aspects, formal, xiv, informal, xiv assimilation, 148 association, 76 asymmetry, 139,153,155 authority, federal, xiv; state, xiv autonomy, 74,125

auto-repair, 50 avoidance, 142,143,144 bank, 73,110 Barnard, C.I., 104,105 barter, 49 Basques, 155 Bay area, xiii, xiv, xvi, 82, 85,124,134, 143 Bay Bridge, xii Becquart-Leclercq, J., 98 behaviour, xi, 6, 7,11,14,17,18,19,20, 22,28, 33, 34,40,41,42,47,76,98, 115,143,146,148,150,151,157,158 belief, 3,72 Berkeley, xii, xiii, xvi, 30,38,41,54,61, 62 Bethlehem Lutheran Church, 86 Blakely, Ed, xv blueprint, 75,103 body, 37 Boer, L., 6,14 Bogota, 50 borders, xii boundaries, xii, 11,12,14,21,27,39,50, 51,66, 70,71,77,129,133,147; town, xiii Britain, 130 brokers, 34,99 Browning, R.P., 101 Bullough, B., 138 Burchell, R.A., 155 bureaucracy, xv, 13, 23, 25,41,42,49, 94,95,98,104,119,123 business, 7,13,22,30,31,33,34, 35, 36, 37,38,48,52,64,66,68,70,72,74,83, 93,103, 111, 117,118,119; shop, 33; home, 33 built environment, 40 businessman, xii bus routes, 41 cabinet, 95 CalTrans, 85 Cambodian-Americans, 65 Cambodians, 82,83 campaign, 84,88,91 candidate, 90,91,93,106,107

171

172 capital, 69 career, 119 Caribbean islands, 134 Carlson, R.O., 2 carpenter, xiii, 60, 63 carpentry, 62 Castells, M, 15, 39,40 category, analytical, 1 Catholic priest, 86 census, 66 center, 1,20,21,23,34,72,90,137,139 CERT, 86,87,91 challenge, 160 Chamber of Commerce, 83 change, 77,137 Chicanos, 143,145 child labor, 47 children, 73 Chinatown, 32, 66, 69, 82 Chinese, 37,82,138,143,161; ChineseAmericans, 146,153 Chisholm, D., 5 church, xiii, 61, 81,86,87,143,149 Cinco de Mayo, 83 Cinel, D., 155 city, xi, see Urban America; xiv, 11,15, 22,24,25,26,27,28,34,38,39,41,43, 47,50,59,64,66,68,71,72,73,75,77, 78,79,83,89,93,98,99,127,139,140, 157,158,160,161; informal, xii, xiii; politics, xiv; American, 2,96; codes, 29; government, 30, 33 City Hall, 75,87, 88,89,92,93,94,95 city-planning, 40-2 Civil Rights Movement, 81 citizen, 76, 85,93; Emergency Relief Team, 80,85; Voluntary Association, 87-8 citizenry, 15 citizenship, 82 clandestinity, 4 class, 19,159,161 clientele, 53, 56,58,62,123 clients, 56, 60,62,64, 65,69, 70, 72, 73 clinic, 123 clique, 10,12,18, 32,94,104,105,107, 116,117,118,119,123,124 club, 107 code switching, 137-8 Columbia, 50 coalition, 80, 83,149 Cobb, Paul, 90

Index Comeau, Y., 26 Committee on Research, xv communication, 39,44,65,97,105,109, 110, 111, 112,113,114,115,116,119, 121,123,147,151,158; informal, xiii; xiv, XV Communities, 20, 36,41,42,53, 65, 71, 75,78,81,83,84,85,88,91,99,125, 129,130,133,134,141,145,148,148, 149,150,152,161; ethnic, 4; minority, 21; urban, 26,32 commuting, xiii company, 116,117 compatibility, 144 competence, xii, 2,10,91,107 competition, xv, 3, 70,80, 89,93,124, 129,158 compromises, 97 computer, xiii, 38,39,40, 67 conflict, 124,135,140 congregation, 81 congressman, 86 conscious, 6 consciousness, 74,97,142 consensus, 79,117,118 constituency, 80 construction, 4,48,50,51; social, 28 consultants, 67 consumption, 69 contract, 55, 59, 60,61, 68 contractor, 60, 63 contraction, 4,135 contribution, hidden, 1 convention, 73 co-optation, 21, 22, 74, 89,91, 93,160 corporation, 8,10,19,101,108,115,116 core, 19, 21,136 cost, 72 council, 94 countries, Third World, 4 court, informal, 5 credit transfer, 142,144,145 criminality, 12, 39,49 crisis, 17,135,137,159 Cuba, 134 Cuff, D., 68 culture, 12, 21, 27,45, 65, 78,108,139, 143 Dalton M., 6,10,105 Daniels, D.H., 155 Davies, R., 16

Index Davis, J., 114,115 deatomization, 33 deconstruction, xi, 2,17,18,21,34, 50, 97,120,128 Decroos, J.R, 155 democracy, 76, 78,96,141,149,154, 161 democratic project, xi; state, xiv demography, 79 design, 68,118 De Soto, H., 47,49 development, 79 developers, 28 diagnosis, 123,130 Dickson, W.J., 117 differences, 9 diffusion, 111, 114 dimension, hidden, xi, 25,28,115,157; formal, xiv, informal, xiv diplomacy, 38 dirty tricks, xiv disability, 116 disease, 138 discourse, xiv, 11,45,77 discrimination, 18,100,107,116,118, 119,141,144,159 dispute, 103 distance, 72 distribution, 48 diversity, 23 division, 90 doctor, xiv Dolores Street, 43 domain, formal, xii; informal, xii drug, 132,160; trafficking, 14,47; dealer, 30, 32 Duhl, L., 155 Durkheim, E., 25, 76,77,121 dwellers, xi, see Urban America earthquake, 87 East Bay, 82 East Bay Forum on Refugee Affairs, 83 East Bay Vietnamese Association, 83 East Bay Asian Local Development, 101 East Coast, 145 Economy, 31,32, 33,47,48,49,50,55, 57,66,67, 68, 69,70,71,72,73,74, 130,145,155,158; formal, xi; informal, xi, xii, xiii, xvi, 15, 25; underground, 3, 5, see informal

173

economy; traditional, 3; modern, 3; capitalist, 3; subsistence, 3 economic development, 79 economists, 5 editing, 68 editor, xiii education, 53, 85,117 election, 84,91,98 electricity, 61 electronics, 50 E-mail, xiii emancipation, 1,76 emergency, 91 Emeryville, 62 employment, xii, 59,68 enclave, 4,32,52,70,71,106,125,150 encounters, 147 England, 60 enterprises, 50 entertainment, xiii entity, 76 entrepreneur, 55,56, 69 environment, xii, 21,49,110 equality, 161 ethnicity, xvi, 19,66, 81,107,117,118, 129,131,140,142,143,144,146,147, 150,151,154,161 ethnogenesis, 140,142 ethnomedicine, 17 ethos, informal, xi Etzioni, A., 103 equality, xv; ethnic, xii; gender, xii evolution, 79,137 exchange, 98,101, 111 exegesis, 23, see also hermeneutics expansion, xii, 4,48,51,97,134,135 expenses, 57 expertise, 90,92 facade, xi, xv factory, 72 faculty seminars, xv failure, 3 Fairhurst, G.T., 121 fairness, xv, 99,161 family, 5,59,69,73, 79,93,128,129, 130,131,141; informal, 19 favoritism, 99 feedback, 112,115,152 feminism, 22 Filipinos, 82 finances, 86,91,94

174 firm, 9,10,18,19, 25,38,39,53,55,56, 64,66,67,68, 70,103,104,106,107, 108,109,110, 111, 112,114,116,117, 118,119,121,123,144,158; formal, xiii, xiv; modern, xiv Fitzpatrick, P., 2 flea market, 65 flexiplace, 39 folk concepts, 138 formal, 10,11,13,15 formality, 3,9,10,11,12; models of, 2, 7 Foucault, M., 17,42,155 fraternity, 124 freedom, 24, 51, 76,144 freelance, 67 Friedson, E., 124,127,128 friendship, 79 function, regulatory, xiii; safety-valve, xiii funding, 86 gang, 94 garage, 58, 59, 65; sale, 65 gardeners, 33, 35, 52-7,55,56,57 gardening, 70 garment, 66,67 gender, 19,107,117,118,130,153,161 genealogy, 2,10,15-18 generality, 53 generalist, 63, 80 generation, 79 gentrification, 32, 79 geography, xiii, 7,20,24,28,32,44,54, 66,75 geometry, 36 Germany, 49 godfather, 107 Godfrey, B.J., 155 Goffman, E., 28 goods, ethnic, 71,109 Gottdiener, M., 45 Gould-Martin, K., 138 Gouldner, A.W., 112 gossip, 31, 32,106,107,110, 111, 112, 113,114,116,123,147 government, 22,29,38,41,75, 77,89, 95; officials, 5 Graham, H., 124,131 grapevine, 31,104,109,110,112,113, 114 grassroots, 75, 78, 81,85,92,97,99 gray area, xi, 10

Index Great Britain, 49 Greer, S., 76,77 Greffe, X., 74 grievance, 88 Gross, B.M., 6 group, 8,18,23,25,40,43,75,76,79,92, 93,103,104,105,108, 111, 117,121, 124,131,142,144,147,153,155,159, 161; informal, xii, xv; ethnic, 49,56, 64,70,78 Guatemala, 38 Gumina, D.P., 155 hackers, 67 Hart, K., 3, 47 Hall, E., 27,28,124 handmade, 72 harassment, 93 Harding, P., 3, 74,159 Harris, Elihu, 83,91 Hayes, EG., 101 Hayward, 58 headquarters, 56 healing, 123 health, 52,123,124,125,126,127,128, 130,135,138 health care, xiv, 130,131,133 hegemony, xiii, 139,154,161 Henry, S., 1, 7 hermeneutics, 7,24 Herzfeld, M., xvi heterogeneity, 23, 79 hierarchy, 8, 25,90,94,112,131,137, 160,161 hidden transcript, 45 high-tech, 67 historiography, xiii, 10 history, 12,13,15,16, 82 home, 34,56,57, 65,70; terminal, 67; care, 131; treatment, 138 homeless, 32 homework, 66 Homiak, J.P., 138 hospital, xiii, xiv, 72,123,125,126,129, 130,134,160,161 hotel, 72 house, 30,32,35, 38 household, 26,47, 69, 74,131; leaders, 128 housekeeper, 33 housing, 86 husband, 73

Index lannaccone, L., 105 identity, xiii, 9, 34, 35,37,40,151,155, 160 ideology, 77,90,140,154 Idler, E.D., 126 illegal aliens, 38,47,63, see undocumented immigrants illegality, 73 illnesses, xiv, 123,126,128,130,133, 138; folk, 129,132 image, mental, 2 immigration, 70, 79,82,83 immigrants, xiii, 32, 48 income, xii, 35,57,58,62,67 industry, 14,15,32,38,60,66,67,72,93, 124,158 inequality, 99,100,153,161 informal, 11,13,15,127 informality, xiv, 1, 2,4, 5,6,7, 8,10,11, 12,13,14,22; models of, xiii; raw, xiii, 18-19; cooked, xiii, 18-19; vertical, 3; horizontal, 3 information, xv, 39,40,41, 76,96,97, 106,107,109,110,112,113,114,115, 119,129,146; terminology, 13; technology, 38 informalization, 16 informants, xv, 81, 86 inner-city, 35 Irish, 155 insider trading, 47,158 Institute, of Governmental Studies, xvi; of Urban Studies, University of Winnipeg, xvi institutions, 9,10,11,12,13,14,16, 23, 24,76, 77, 78,81,109,116,124,145, 149,155; formal, 1,6; informal, 1,2, 4, 6, 7, 8; folk, 17 insurance, 56,57,123,124 integration, 21,159 intentionality, 7,20, 32, 72,97,133 interaction, xiv, 27,36, 81,91,120,125, 126,139,141,143,148,152,154 interdependence, 100,120 interest group, 80,84 inter-ethnic relations, 139,150,151 interface, 153 Internal Revenue Service, 59 internationalization, 38 interpretation, xv, 72,113,114 interstices, xii, xiv, 5,17,24,47,66, 71, 73, 75,106,107,110,119,120

175

interstitiality, 103 interview, 10,106 Italians, 155 Japanese, 82 Jenkins R., 3,74,159 Jews, 155 Johnston, J.C, 104,121 junk dealer, 65 junkyard, 31,57,58 Kanter, R.M., 119 kitchen, 95; cabinet, 94 Knoke, D., 92 knowledge, 2,23,41,42,55,63, 74, 89, 108,109,114,115,130,158 labor, 15, 39,51,52,56,57,58, 59, 70 laboratory, 130,146 laborer, 66,67, 68 landlord, 62 landscape, 75 language, 82 Laotians, 82, 83 Latinos, 64,66, 83,84,145,161 Latino Mission District, 83 law, 50 lawyers, 93 leaders, 34,75, 78,79,82, 83, 85, 88,91, 92,93,97,117,148,149; informal, 8, 116 leadership, 81, 86,89,90,101 learning, 108,109 legal, 12,13,14,20,28, 29,66, 70 legal studies, see law, 5 legality, 12 legislation, 15,119 legislators, 96 legitimacy, 96 Levin, L.S., 126 Leyland, R.C., 155 liberation, 76 life, everyday, xi, xv, 1,2,4,9,22,23,24, 25,26,96,116,158; public, 22; private, 22; public, 23 lobbying, 79,90 location, 6, 32,34 Loma Prieta earthquake, 80,85 Long Beach, 82 Loo, CM., 155 Louisiana, 79,129 lower class, xiii

176

Index

Index

loyalty, 94 Lozano, B.A., 67, 70 machine, informal, 79 MacKenzie, S., 46 Madrid, 50 majority, 121,140,141,144,146,149, 151,152,153 mainstream, 151,152 management, 84,109,110,112,113,115, 116,117 manager, 55, 56; bank, 67 managerial operation, xiv maneuvers, xi, 75,95,100,107 manufacturing, 50 mapping, xi, 75 marginalization, 4,13,14,18 Marin County, 61 market, 14,32,57,58,65, 68, 69,70,74, 158 marketing, 48 marketplace, 30,31 Marx, K., 25 Mason, L., 46 masonry, 62 Mauss, M., 24 mayor, xiv, 75, 83,85, 86, 88, 89,91,92, 94,97,98,99,101; city, xii McClymonds Community Board, 80 McDowell, L., 46 McGill University, xvi meanings, 79 mechanic, 31,57-60 Meintel, Deirdre, xvi mediation, 9,71,131 medicine, 123,124,125,126,129,130, 131,132,135,161; folk, 123,125,131, 133,134,135,161 megalopolis, 77 membership, 80,83,86,92,117 merchandise, 65,68,69 merger, 116 Merton, R.K., 121 metropolis, 80; informal, xii Mexican-Americans, 52,126,138,143, 153 Meyrowitz, J., 33 micro-climate, 131 microdiplomacy, 38 microsite, 121 middleman, 33, 88,92 migration, 49,59,160

minister, 86 minority, 4,7,36,118,119,121,125,126, 136,139,140,141,142,144,145,146, 148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155; standards, 7; community, 7,16,22, ethnic, 65,101 Mission District, 126 Mission Economic and Cultural Association, 83 Mission Neighbourhood Center, 83 Mississippi, 79 Mittar, V., 74 model, 4,125,152; cities, 79 modernists, 9 modernity, 1 money, 66,68, 69, 73,86, 99 moonlighting, 47,68 Moore, Sally Falk, xvi morality, 97 motion, 77 motivation, 139,143 multi-ethnic, 21; metropolis, xv; environment, 7,21 multidimensionality, 37 municipal government, 81 municipal politics, xiv NAACP, 79 Narell, J., 155 nation, 68 native Americans, 64,153 Nee, V.G., 155 needs, personal, xv; group, xv neighbourhood, xiv, xv, 4,5, 36,41,49, 53,57,59,61,63,70,76,77,78,79,84, 85,86,89,90,92,93, 95 neighbors, 54,62 nepotism, 99 network, 53,59,63,74,77,79,80,82,83, 89,95,98,99,100, 111, 112,113,114, 116,119,123,127,128,138,142,144, 150,151 newspaper, 61 New York, 32, 50,124,127 Ngin, C , 138 Nicaragua, 38 niches, 2,9,17,18, 32, 33,75,78,131, 148 Nilles, J., 45 Nimitz freeway, 85 numbers game, 34,47, 66 nursery, 55

Oak Center Neighbourhood Association, 80 Oakland, xii, xiii, xvi, 6,29,30,38, 51, 54,58,59,63,65,78,79,83,85,87, 101,112,123; street, 30,32; Redevelopment Agency, 80; School Board, 80,84,85 Oakland City Council, 80 old boy network, xii, xv office, 35, 68; formal, xv opposition, 93 organization, 12,13,14,31, 40, 76, 77, 78, 79,80,81,82,84,85,86,89,93, 103,104,105, 111, 113,114,117,121, 124,128,135,144,160; formal, 3, 5,8, 9; informal, 2,4,7,10; voluntary, 47, 60 origin, 12,15, 69, 77, 78, 79 Orleans, P., 76, 77 'Other', xiv outcome, 73, 81,84,95,99,107 overhead cost, xii, 62, 63, 69 painter, 61 paradiplomacy, 38,92 parks, 30, 32,41 participation, 99 patient, xiv patronage, 124 People's Park, 41 performance, xiv periphery, 2,4,16,19-22, 34, 72, 73, 136,137, 141; center, xii, 3 personality, 90 Peru, 49 physician, 124,126,127,128,129 place, 7,30,35,37,40,59,63,65, public, 32 planning, 41, 78, 79, 94 plumbing, 62 polarization, 21 pole, 137; of a continuum, xiii, 3,43 police, 155 policy, 38, 40,47, 71, 74, 76, 78, 79, 88, 92,94,99,110,113,114,115,118,149; of inclusion, 14 policy-makers, 41 political informality, 81 political parties, informal, xiv politics, 75-101,155; urban, xvi; informal, xvi

177

population, xii, xiii, xiv, 32, 64, 69, 76, 78, 82,126 Portes, A., 15 portion, 9 position, 9,12,16,18,23,42 positivism, 25,40 post-modernity, 23 poverty, 67,125 power, 11,21,25,40,42,45, 76, 84,87, 88,89,90,98,117,121,139,140,142, 148, 149,151,155,159; site of, 2; disciplinary, 2; control, 2; hidden, 39 practices, 6, 7, 8,9,13,14,15,16,22,23, 24,25,27,36,39,57,66,67,73, 75,81, 82,100,103,118,140,142,146,147; everyday, xi; formal, xi, xiii, 18; hiring, xiv; informal, xi, xii, XIV, 1, 2,18; medical, xiv; training, xiv; urban, xv, 25; folk, 5; neighborhood, 34 preachers, 86 price, 72 privilege, xv, 2 procedure, 75, 78, 95,99,106,107,114 processuality, xiv producer, 55 production, xiii, 3,32,37,47,48,49,71, 75,77,99,104,140 products, 66 professionals, informal, xii profession, 124 profit, 70 progress, 1 progressive senior citizens, 80,84 project, 88 promotion, 124 property, 62 property rights, 35 protest, 81 psychoanalysis, 151 publicity, 53, 54,62 public opinion, 113 Puerto Ricans, 155 quality, 72 racism, 144,147 real estate, 36 reality, informal, xi; hidden, 3; separate, 3; visible, 3 reciprocity, 49,158 recruitment, 10,45,63,69,149,151

178 red tape, xii, xv referrals, 123,127 reflection, 107 refugees, 38 region, front, 33,34, 35, 37,48,101; back, 33, 34, 35,37, 48,101; middle, 34 regulation, 24,49,50,51, 65, 70,119 relation, 7,21,24,25,27,38,50, 75, 77, 146; asymmetric, 4; inter-ethnic, xiv relational links, xi religion, 160,161 remedies, 131,132,134; folk, 126,130, 160 reproduction, 4,18,55,124,131,140, 142,148,149,150,161 resettlement, 79 resistance, 2, 23,44,45,153,155,159, 160 resolution, 103 resources, 98, 99 restaurant, 34, 52,53,65,66 retirement, 115 revolution, definition of, 159 Richmond, 59 Riles, W., 91 ritual, 98 Rolodex, 67 routine, 8,21 routinization, 21,158 Rubenstein, Hymie, xvi rules, 78 rumor, 110,116 Russians, 155 sabbatical leave, xv safety valve, 97,117,132,159 Salvadorean, 38 Sandinistas, 38 San Francisco, xii, xiii, xv, xvi, 6,15,27, 29,30,32, 37,38,39,41,43,51,52,53, 60, 63, 64, 66,67, 68,69,83,101,103, 115,123,126,130,138,143,145,146, 155,157,161 San Francisco Foundation, 86 San Jose, 85 San Leandro, 53,54,58,83 Santamarina, Francisco, xvi satellite, 19, 90 Sauvy, A., 4,14,15, 74

Index Sayles, L.R., 117 school, xiii; public, 30 Schreiber, J.M., 138 search, 107 secrecy, 18,97 secretary, 68 sector, 8,9,10,11,16,20, 31, 34,36,37, 41,43,44,49,50,52,55,57,59,60,65, 66,69,71,73,81, 89,90,91,92,94, 100,108,135,145,148,152,155; informal, xi, 3 sects, 14 security forces, 140 segregation, 124,150,159 selection, 10,107 self, 35, 37 self-care, 129 self-diagnosis, 127 self-management, 42 self organization, 118 Senior Citizens Council, 80, 85 servants, 73 services, 67,72,73,84,94 sexism, 147 Shankland, Graeme, 5 Sharma, U., 130,131 shops, 51, 64,66,67, 69 shopowner, 69 shopkeepers, 58 sickness, 130 Silicon Valley, 66 Silver, H., 56 similarity, 142,139 Simon, H.A., 103, 111, 113 site, 16, 30,41,44,45,54, 56,57,62,68, 77,139,141,155 situation, 74 slave, 160 Smith, M.E., 47 Snavely, B.K., 121 social scientists, 1,3; acquaintance, 2; construction, 11,12,42; action, 22; production, 28 socialization, 8,42,45,118,129,141, 142,146 society, xii, 12,24,25,49, 76,125,132, 139,149,154,155,159,161; formal, 1, 2; urban, 5,8,9 software, 67 solidarity, 8, 24,49 South America, 140 Southern Pacific Railway, 85

Index space, 6,12,20,23,25,27-45,50,59,60, 68,76,120,155,160; informal, xiii; oppositional, 44; personal, 28 Spain, D., 46 specialist, 53,63,80,114 sphere, 131, public, xi; informal, xiii, xv; private, 22 sponsorship, 124,142,144 squatters, 29,30,41; settlement, 31,38 state, 5,13,14,26,39,40,47,64, 70, 74, 75, 76,79,98,99,106,131,158,160, 161; government, 28 status, 7,18, 20,91,113,114,115,148, 150,154; segregated, 8 stereotypes, 147 stock exchange, 158 store, 62, 65, 69, 72 St Patrick's Council, 80 strategy, 93 stratification, 63,99,154 street, 7,35,161; vendor, 30,32, 44,635,71,160,161; building, 40; markets, 64; foods, 71 structure, xi, xiv, 1,3,6, 7,9,12,13,14, 20,21,24,27,28,40,42,74,77,78,79, 80,83, 84, 87,91,104,108,125,129, 135,152,157,161; hidden, 17,24 structuralism, 72 struggle, 155 students, 23,59 subcontract, 66 subculture, 12,42,140 subject, 23, 24,37 subjugated status, xiii; see also status sub-informality, 12 subordinates, 112,114 substitution, 161 subversion, 45,159 success, 3 supply and demand, 31 support, 88, 89,92,131,135,136,137 surgery, 124 survival, 77,92,124 Susto, 126 sweatshops, 32,33,48,51, 66,67,71 symbolism, 158 symptoms, 129 system, 8,11,12,13,14,15,18,20,21, 22,23,25,27,40,50,73,75,76,77,78, 110,118,120,123,125,126,127,130, 131,132,133,135,136,137,138,140, 141,146,149,150,155,157,161;

179 formal, xi, xii, xiv, xv, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, 9,16; of signification, xii, xiv; support, xiv; informal, xvi, 4,6, 7; alternative, 2; parallel, 3; parasitic, 5; transport, 6,15; legal, 6,9; judicial, 17,62; social, 34; international, 37

tax, xiii, 5,12,26,47,49, 59 teacher, 54 technology, 39,40,140 telephone, xiii, 39,53,54,93,94,98, 107,112,113,118,158 television, 66,67 tests, 10 Texas, 79 theory, 8,151,152 Third World, 29, 31, 38,49, 67 Toffler, A., 45 tools, 53,58,59,68 towns, xii trade, 64 traditions, 84,108,150 training, 54,55,56,108,148 trajectory, 18 transaction, 5,124 transformation, 79 transition, 5,30,59,60, 65,68 transmission, 42,110 transport, 62 transportation, 50; Committee, 85 treatment, 128,130; procedures, xiv Tripp, M.W., 155 troublemakers, 93 typology, 48 typewriter, 68 unconscious, 6,151 underdevelopment, 49 underground, 14,20,49, 73 undocumented immigrants, 134 unemployment, 3,67 unions, 93 United States, 15; Congress, 96 University, 41; Oakland, xv; of California, xv, xvi; du Quebec, xv, xvi; de Montreal, xv, xvi; Boston, xv; Harvard, xv; of Manitoba, xv University-Oakland Metropolitan Forum, xv upward mobility, xii urban America, 75 urbanités, 87

180 Urban League, 8 urban practices, informal, xiii, xvi urban process, xi; formal, xiii urban system, formal xii Uzzel, D., 40 Vallejo, 85 values, 76, 78 Van Dijk, MR, 74 Vietnamese, 83 villain, xii volunteer, 86 votes, 81, 83, 94,97 Walker, Dick, xvi warehouse, 62 Watson, James, xvi Wekerle, G., 46 Weber, Max, 25 Webster, Theresa, xvi weekend, 59

Index welfare, 131 West Oakland Development Council, 80 West Oakland Mental Health Board, 80 wife, 73 Wilson, Lionel, 85,91 Wittman, Friedner, xvi Wolf, Jeanne, xvi women, 65, 83,106,109,118,119,130, 131 wordprocessor, 72,116 workplace, xii, 26,35, 38,39, 54, 56 World War II, 78 yard, 55, 56,58 youngsters, 65 Zelinsky, W, 46 Zey-Ferrel, M., Ill, 114 zoning, 35