The Memoirs of Alton Augustus Adams, Sr.: First Black Bandmaster of the United States Navy (Music of the African Diaspora)

the george gund foundation imprint in african american studies The George Gund Foundation has endowed this imprint to advance understanding of the history, culture, and current issues of African Americans.

The publisher gratefully acknow ledges the generous contributions to thisbook provided by the Center for Black M usicResearch and by the A frican A m erican Studies Endow m entFund ofthe U niversity ofCalifornia Press Foundation,w hich issupported by a m ajor giftfrom the G eorge G und Foundation.

m usic of the african diaspora Edited by Sam uelA .Floyd,Jr.,and Rae Linda Brow n

1. California Soul:M usicofA frican A m ericans in the W est,edited by Jacqueline CogdellD jeD jeand EddieS.M eadow s 2. W illiam G rantStill:A Study in Contradictions,by Catherine Parsons Sm ith 3. Jazz on the Road:D on A lbert’sM usicalLife,by ChristopherW ilkinson 4. H arlem in M ontm artre:A ParisJazz Story betw een the G reatW ars,by W illiam A .Shack 5. D ead M an Blues:Jelly RollM orton W ay O utW est,by PhilPastras 6. W hatIsThisThing Called Jazz?A frican A m erican M usicians asA rtists, Critics,and A ctivists,by EricPorter 7. Race M usic:Black Cultures from Bebop to H ip-H op,by G uthrieP. Ram sey,Jr. 8. Lining O utthe W ord:D r.W attsH ym n Singing in the M usicofBlack A m ericans,by W illiam T.D argan 9. M usicand Revolution:CulturalChange in SocialistCuba,by Robin D. M oore 10. From A fro-Cuban Rhythm s to Latin Jazz,by RaulA .Fernandez 11. “M ek Som e N oise”:G ospelM usicand the EthicsofStylein Trinidad,by Tim othy Rom m en 12. The M em oirsofA lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr.:FirstBlack Bandm aster of the U nited States N avy,edited by M ark Clague,w ith aforew ord by Sam uelFloyd,Jr.

The M em oirsof A lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr.

[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]

A lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr.,in 1961.Courtesy A lton A ugustusA dam s Collection, Center for Black M usicResearch,and A lton A dam s Fam ily Trust.

The M em oirs of A lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr. FirstBlack Bandm aster ofthe U nited States N avy

Edited by

m ark clague Forew ord by Sam uelFloyd,Jr.

U niversity ofCalifornia Press berkeley

los angeles

london

Center for Black M usicResearch colum bia college chicago

U niversity ofCalifornia Press,one ofthe m ostdistinguished university presses in the U nited States,enriches lives around the w orld by advancing scholarship in the hum anities,socialsciences,and naturalsciences. Itsactivities are supported by the U C Press Foundation and by philanthropiccontributions from individualsand institutions.For m ore inform ation,visitw w w.ucpress.edu. U nless otherw ise noted,allphotographs are courtesy ofthe A lton A dam s Fam ily Trust. U niversity ofCalifornia Press Berkeley and LosA ngeles,California U niversity ofCalifornia Press,Ltd. London,England Center for Black M usicResearch Colum bia College Chicago © 2008 by The Regentsofthe U niversity ofCalifornia

Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication D ata A dam s,A lton A . The m em oirs ofA lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr.:firstblack bandm aster ofthe U nited States N avy /edited by M ark Clague ;forew ord by Sam uelFloyd,Jr. p. cm .— (M usicofthe A frican diaspora ;12) Includes bibliographicalreferences (p.)and index. ISBN 978-0-520-25131-1 (cloth :alk.paper) 1.A dam s,A lton A . 2.Bandm asters— Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States— Biography. 3.Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States— Social conditions— 20th century. I.Clague,M ark,[date]. II.Title. M L422.A 245A 3 2008 784.092— dc22 2007012025 M anufactured in the U nited States ofA m erica 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Thisbook isprinted on N atures Book,w hich contains 50% postconsum er w aste and m eetsthe m inim um requirem entsofA N SI/N ISO Z39.48–1992 (R 1997)(Perm anence ofPaper).

To m y w ife,Ella;sister,Edna;brother,Julien; and m y fellow bandsm en and to the people ofthe Virgin Islands A lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr.

Contents

Forew ord

xi

Sam uelA .Floyd,Jr.

A cknow ledgm ents

xv

M ark Clague

introduction:the soul of alton adam s

1

M ark Clague

the m em oirsof alton augustus adam s,sr.,1889–1987 1. a historical m em oir

21

2. the st.thom as craftsm en of the nineteenth century

30

3. the value of education

47

4. m usic in the virgin islands and the founding of the adam s juvenile band (1910)

61

5. the united states navy band of the virgin islands (1917–1923)

86

6. the navy band’s 1924 united states tour

123

7. the close of the naval years (1925–1931)

141

8. the naval adm inistration (1917–1931): an evaluation

175

9. civilian governm ent and politics (the 1930s)

187

10. the pow er of the press (the 1940s)

233

11. tourism and the hotel association (the 1950s)

263

EditorialM ethods

287

M ark Clague

EditorialN otes

293

M ark Clague

Selected Bibliography

335

Index

341

Forew ord Sam uelA .Floyd,Jr.

In the early 1970sIran acrosstw o orthree item sindicating thatin 1917 an A lton A ugustus A dam s becam e “the firstblack bandm aster in the U nited States N avy.” These item s surprised and puzzled m e,since it w as w ell know n thatbeforeW orldW arIIblackscould serve in the navy only asm ess attendantsand stew ards,and since Ipersonally knew individualsw ho had been m em bersofw hatw ere supposed to have been the firstblack m usical unitsin the navy— the bands thatw ere trained in 1941 atthe G reatLakes N avalTraining Station nearChicago.Those bandsincluded such notablesas saxophonistand bandleader H ayes Pillars ofthe A lphonso Trentand Jeter Pillars bands; trum peters Clark Terry, Jim m ie N ottingham , and Ernie Royal;saxophonists Ernie W ilkins and M arshall Royal;trom bonists A l G ray and BootieW ood;bassistM ajorH olly;arrangerand trum peterG erald W ilson;arranger and pianistLuther H enderson;violinistBrenton Banks; cellistD onald W hite;com poserU lyssesKay;and m any others. Curious,in 1976 I called the Enid Baa Library on St.Thom as and requested inform ation aboutthisA lton A ugustus A dam s,w ho,ifhe had been a navy bandm aster in 1917,had surely long since passed aw ay.Surprisingly,how ever,I w as given M r.A dam s’s telephone num ber and w as encouraged to callhim .Im m ediately Idid so and had a pleasant,stim ulating,and provocative conversation w ith thisaugustform erbandm asterand civicleader,during w hich he invited m e to hishom e for a visit.Ieagerly accepted,going forinterview sto St.Thom asnotjustonce buttw ice w ithin afew years.W hen Iarrived athiseighteenth-century D anish hom e on m y firstvisit,M r.A dam s w as standing on hisupstairs veranda.W hen he saw m e approaching,he cam e to attention and gave m e am ilitary salute,w hich Itook as asign ofw elcom e and appreciation for m y visit.

xi

xii / Forew ord Eventually I w rote an article about him ,played a role in having him aw arded an honorary doctorate at Fisk U niversity, and m aintained a friendship w ith him untilhisdeath in 1987.A tsom e pointduring ourrelationship,Iasked M r.A dam s aboutthe possibility ofhisdonating hispersonal and professional papers to Fisk and, later, to Colum bia College Chicago’sCenter for Black M usicResearch.U nfortunately,he had already prom ised hism aterialsto another institution located in the U nited States. Several years later,in 1992,during one of w hat had becom e for m e annualand som etim es sem iannualw riting trips to the island ofSt.John,I w entto nearby St.Thom as to shop and decided to stop by and say hello to the form er bandm aster’sson,A lton A ugustusA dam s,Jr.,w hom Ihad m et in 1979 w hen he accom panied his father to receive the honorary degree. D uring the course ofthe conversation he asked,“W hatare w e going to do aboutm y father’spapers?” Stunned,Ilearned thathisfather had decided before his death that he w anted the collection to rem ain in the Virgin Islands.W e quickly arranged for hispapers to be transferred to Colum bia College for processing and conservation in a clim ate-controlled environm ent.They w ere to be returned to the Virgin Islands w hen a facility had been established to receive and properly care forthem .A duplicatecopy of the reproducibleportionsofthe collection w ould be held in the archives of the Center for Black M usicResearch in Chicago. Itseem s to be in the nature ofthings thatm any ofthe m ostprofound contributions ofblack A m ericans to socialand culturalhistory and to race relations have been subtle,unheralded,and relegated to footnotes and incidentalacknow ledgm ent.Even such m ajorm ovem entsastheH arlem Renaissance ofthe 1920sfind little or no place in A m erican m usichistory books. The recording ofsuch contributionsisleftto specialstudiesand to m em oirs such asthe presentvolum e,afactthatonly underscoresitsim portance. Thisbook isno m ere recounting ofpersonalrecollections.Itstands as a hum anisticdocum ent,representing abroad range ofconcernsabout,and a historicalview of,the U nited States Virgin Islands from the sym pathetic butno lesscriticalperspective ofone oftheirnative sons.Thism em oirw as w ritten by a St.Thom ian w ho during hislong life w as greatly concerned aboutthe future ofhis culture and society and w ho saw changing racial attitudes as potentially destructive ofthe Virgin Islands’m ostvalued culturalpossessions.In fact,the racialtensionsofthe 1960sgave added im petus to the developm entofthisvolum e. N aturally,such a docum entrevealsitsauthor’spreferences,predispositions,and prejudices.Clearly a productofhistim e,A dam s here reveals,in hisdesire to“m easure up”to externalstandardsforthe good ofthe “race,”

Forew ord / xiii his sensitivity to the perceptions ofthe Caucasian observers and participantsin hisnative culture.G ratefulfor hissuccess and achievem entsand for the accolades bestow ed upon him ,A dam s pays tribute to his parents and other relatives and to the other islanders w ho encouraged,taught,and assisted him during hisform ative years.H e ascribes the positive traitsof the islands’ cultural environm ent to the m usical culture of St.Thom as, com m enting on the native m usic and,especially,the m usic continuously im ported from the U nited States and Europe during the nineteenth and early tw entieth centuries,revealing those influences to be instrum entalin hisow n artisticdevelopm ent. A s a resultofhism usicalachievem ents,A dam s form ed lasting friendships and acquaintances w ith such w ell-know n personalities as W .E.B. D uBois;G eorge Schulyer and hispianist-com poser daughter,Philippa;the violinist Joseph D ouglass; bibliophile A rthur Schom burg; bandm astercom posersJohn Philip Sousa,Edw in Franko G oldm an,H .A .Vandercook, W alter Jacobs,and Frank Seltzer;pianistand author M aude Cuney-H are; new spaper colum nistD rew Pearson;and the com posers W illiam D aw son, W .C.H andy,and H arry T.Burleigh. N otuntil1976 did m usicalA m erica officially recognizeA dam s’stalents. In thatyear one ofhism arches,“The G overnor’sO w n,” w as recorded and included in a record album entitled The Pride of A m erica.The album , w hich appeared in the N ew W orld Recordsseriescelebrating the A m erican bicentennial,also includes m arches by tw o ofA dam s’s principal m usical supporterson the m ainland— Sousa and G oldm an.The inclusion ofA dam s in a nationalcom m em orative series w as a significanttribute— a recognition ofhissubstantive contributions to A m erican culture.The honor w as enhanced by the placem entofthe w ork as the firstcuton the album . The acclaim and attention thatA dam s received during his years as a navy bandm aster w ere w ellearned.Reportsofthose w ho heard hisband during its peak years (particularly during its 1924 tour of the U nited States) reveal its perform ances to have been rem arkably m usical;som e observersbelieved itto be the bestin the U nited StatesN avy.ThatA dam s, w ho had little form alm usicaltraining,created a m usicalorganization of such high caliber from the youthful raw talents of his charges in the A dam s Juvenile Band and developed it— in a relatively isolated location (notw ithstanding the islands’cosm opolitan character)— into such apow erfulaggregation w asaphenom enalfeat.Itstandsasam ilestone notonly of black butalso ofhum an achievem ent. Thism em oirm akes clear the need for continuing research aboutm usic of all kinds in the W estern H em isphere,about the societies in w hich it

xiv / Forew ord flourished,and aboutthe culturalinfluencesand interactionsthatproduced it.The relationship betw een art and society and the trem endous im pact thatsocialforces can have on culturaldevelopm entare only som e ofthe issues raised in this book.If this publication does no m ore than inspire additionalstudies,itscontribution to the elucidation ofA m erican m usical and culturalhistory w illhave been far-reaching.

A cknow ledgm ents M ark Clague

Thisprojectw ouldhavebeen im possiblew ithoutthegenerousassistanceand expertsupportofa num ber ofindividualsand institutions.The partnership betw een Sam uel Floyd,founder of the Center for Black M usic Research (CBM R),and A lton A ugustus A dam s,Jr.,a business leader in the Virgin Islands and son of the m em oirs’author,established its foundation.It w as during m y w ork in 1995 as an editorialassistantfor the CBM R’sInternationalD ictionary ofBlack Com posersprojectthatbox upon box ofarchival m aterialarrived in Chicago from theVirgin Islands.D r.Floyd encouraged m e toexplore these m aterialsand tow riteA dam s’sentry forthe dictionary;later he asked ifIw ould editthese m em oirsforpublication.D r.Floyd hascontinued to advise the developm entofthism anuscriptand,during hisow n w riting tripsto St.John,hasserved asliaison w ith A dam s’sdescendantsand local scholars.W ithouthisguidance and generosity thisvolum e w ould notexist. A lton A ugustus A dam s,Jr.,provided additionalcom m entary as w ellas vitalarchivalm aterialfrom hisprivate collection and adm inistered travel supportfrom theA lton A ugustusA dam sFam ily Trust.H e read and offered detailed suggestions and clarifications atevery stage ofthe book’sgrow th. Band scholarsincluding RaoulCam usand Patrick W arfield have graciously w elcom ed m e to the field and shared their expertise.Professor Kevin G aines at the U niversity of M ichigan’s Center for A fro-A m erican and A frican Studies,along w ith Professor Ronald Radano atthe U niversity of W isconsin–M adison,provided encouragem entand essentialcom m entson the editor’s introductory essay,as did participants in the U niversity of M ichigan’sA m erican Culture Program m anuscriptw orkshop.ChiefM usician Kevin D ines of the U nited States N avy Band offered insights into navy life today and in the past,w hile m usic educator and Virgin Islands researcher Kirsten Kienberger offered suggestions and provided guidance xv

xvi / A cknow ledgm ents regarding the archive at Frederick Evangelical Lutheran Church.M yron Jackson,a historicalpreservation experton the islands,and U V IProfessor Em eritusA im ery Caron offered further insightsinto Virgin Island life. The Rackham G raduate Schoolatthe U niversity ofM ichigan funded a sum m er research assistantship for Katherine Brucher,w ho scanned and proofed the initialw ord-processing docum entsfor the m ain m em oirs text; later,asaprofessorand band scholarherself,D r.Brucheroffered com m ents on the m anuscript.Thankstoo go to D ean Karen W olffatthe U niversity of M ichigan School of M usic, w ho provided travel funding for archival research, and to Rosita Sands, director of the Center for Black M usic Research,w ho provided use ofthe CBM R fellow ’sapartm entin St.Thom as for one ofm y research visits.M usiceditor M ary Francisatthe U niversity ofCaliforniaPress,w ho hasbeen invariably encouraging through thism anuscript’slong genesis,shepherded the book over itsfinalhurdles.Iam sim ilarly gratefulto projecteditor Laura H arger and copyeditor Steven Baker, both ofw hom offered insightfulcom m entsand corrections. CBM R archivistSuzanne Flandreau notonly traveled to St.Thom as to sortand shipA dam s’sm aterialsto Chicago forpreservation butalso proved an invaluableresource and guide to the collection.Since m y initialw ork on these m aterialsbegan,funding from Colum bia College Chicago has facilitated creation ofa com plete digitalarchive ofthe A lton A ugustus A dam s Collection.This processing has been extraordinarily helpful in gaining a fuller understanding of A dam s’s correspondence.Shirley Lincoln at the A dam s M usic Research Institute (A M RI) in St.Thom as has helped w ith factchecking and located copiesofIsidorPaiew onsky’sH istory Cornerarticles;and Patricia M atthew atthe U niversity ofthe Virgin Islands Library w ent beyond the call of duty in this regard as w ell.Beverly Sm ith,w ho m anages the Von Scholten Collection atthe Enid Baa Library in Charlotte A m alie,w as ever gracious and suggested new veins of research m aterial. The library staff at the U niversity of M ichigan,particularly interlibrary loan,provided essentialsupport.Videographer N icole Franklin generously provided copiesofvideo interview sshe conducted w ith A lton A dam s,Jr. Finally,Iw antto thank m y children,M ichaela,H annah,and Ronan,for their sm iles ofsupport,as w ellas m y w ife,Laura Jackson,for her confidence and cheers,w hich keptm e going,especially w hen itseem ed as ifI could notpossibly find the source m aterialsnecessary to m ake thisbook as rich and com prehensive asitneeded to be.Ialso thank the extended A dam s fam ily,both in St.Thom as and the U.S.m ainland,for their assistance, patience,and support.

Introduction The SoulofA lton A dam s M ark Clague The peopleofthe Virgin Islands w ere w ithoutafeeling ofselfand had no sense ofbelonging.A lton A dam s and hism usicinspired us to becom e Virgin Islanders. Ruth M oolenaar,Virgin Islands author and educator

A lton A ugustusA dam s and W .E.B.D uBoism ade for a rem arkable pairof friends.The first w as anything but a revolutionary,w hile the other w as labeled aradical.They w ere born tw enty-one yearsand seventeen hundred m ilesapart— one in aD anish colony in the W estIndies,the other in M assachusetts.Yetthe goalsofA dam sand D uBoisw ere the sam e:“to be both an A m erican and a N egro”— thatis,to participate in a society ofequalsw hile retaining theirow n seam less identity.1 They w ere united by a tireless passion forequality,politicalstrength,and afirm beliefin scholarship and education.Both found A frican A m erican spiritualsto be asource ofaffirm ation and believed in the transform ative pow er ofm usic;both used the pen as a political tool,and both sought to change the w orld.D espite their shared beliefs,m ethods,and goals,how ever,theirtacticsquickly diverged:A dam s em braced,w hile D uBois challenged.U pon alm ost any point of strategy, they disagreed— because theirindividualexperiences in tw o very different placeshad led them todifferentconclusionsaboutthe stateofrace relations. D uBois had com e ofage in an A m erica ofbroken prom ises,the hopes of post–CivilW ar reconstruction dashed by lynchings and Jim Crow law s— a life separate and increasingly unequal.A dam s had grow n up in a D anish colony during a tim e ofeconom ic disappointm ents,butw ith w hathe felt w asaracially “tolerant”and “benign”adm inistration— a life,in contrastto D uBois’s,of decreasing racial distinction.2 W hile D uBois turned to black nationalism ,Pan-A fricanism ,and eventually com m unism ,A dam s’sactivities focused on the local:the econom ic base ofpoliticalpow er and educationalinstitutionsand the vitality ofacosm opolitan Virgin Islandsidentity. In A dam s’slifetim e astoday,blacksm ade up the vastm ajority oftheVirgin Islands’population,w hileeconom icstatusand education tem pered skin pigm entas the m arker ofsocialdifference.3 For A dam s,a strong econom y 1

2 / Introduction w as prerequisite for socialand politicaljustice.4 In the islands,liberty had long depended on financialstrength,asslaveshad purchased theirfreedom only afterbeing allow ed to ow n property,sellcrops,and w ork skilled crafts to earn their ow n future.In contrast to their U.S.counterparts,A frican slaves in the W est Indies had secured lim ited educational and econom ic advantages.Beginning in 1773 (three years before the A m erican Revolution),slave children in the Virgin Islandshad accessto form aleducation in Lutheran and later M oravian m issionary schools.5 In 1802 D enm ark abolished slave trading.By 1834 a royaldecree had granted free blacks legal equality w ith w hites,6 w hile acute labor shortages contributed to further social openness.Free im m igrants— any im m igrants— w ere w elcom ed as both custom ers and com m unity m em bers,leading to further ethnic and religious diversity.In 1847 a com prom ise betw een abolitionistsand slave ow nersestablished aprocessto liberateallslavesin tw elve years.H ow ever, as the slaves them selves w ere notconsulted,one year later a revoltboth forced the situation and gave G overnorPetervon Scholten the opportunity to declare allslavesfree.Thus,slavery in theVirgin Islandsended som e fifteen years before A braham Lincoln’sEm ancipation Proclam ation.D espite certain politicaladvantages,how ever,slavery here aselsew here stillm eant w ork by force and being ow ned by another.To call the Virgin Islands a racialparadise w ould be egregious. Racism had long existed in the Virgin Islands,w hich had been ruled by w hiteslaveholding Europeanssince 1672.7 Even though the Jim Crow law s typical of post-Reconstruction A m erica w ere relatively unknow n in the islands during A dam s’s childhood, slavery’s legacy persisted. Slavery required racism to justify itselfand to controlthe bodies,m inds,and hearts ofhum an labor in a plantation econom y.Yetby the tim e ofhisencounter w ith D uBois,m em ories ofslavery’s pastw ere less pernicious for A dam s than the threatofthe racistpresentin the U nited States.Itw as notuntil U.S.tourism increased,for exam ple,thatJim Crow exclusions arrived in the islands.By 1940 the governm ent-ow ned hotelrented only to w hites, and w hile sim ilar policies atsm aller hotelsw ere disabled after publicoutcry,room sm arked “touristsonly”served m uch the sam e purpose.8 Yetthe falling econom icfortunes ofthe late-nineteenth-century portofA dam s’s youth tended to level class and thus reduce racial distinctions.Further, A dam s had grow n up in the Savan district,a diverse interracialneighborhood on St.Thom as that had been the traditional hom e of the islands’ Catholics,Jew s,and free blacks.A dam s and D uBois,w hile sharing a com m on black philosophical heritage,grew up in w orlds apart.Their lived experiences suggested very differenttrajectories in race relations.

Introduction / 3 Theirfirstm eeting in 1922 leftthe youngerm an “disappointed”thatthe authorofThe SoulsofBlack Folk could be so “cold and inform al...bordering the rude.”Theirsecond m eeting tw o years later w as w arm er as D uBois belatedly butvociferously supported theA m erican tourofA dam s’sensem ble— the U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands.Yetnearly thirty years had passed w hen in 1952 the pair’sfriendship deepened and D uBois visited theVirgin Islandsand stayed in A dam s’shom e.9 Chapter11 ofthese m em oirsoffersA dam s’srecollectionsoftheirconversations: The m oststim ulating m om entsw e spenttogether during hisall-tooshortstay took place in the evenings atm y hom e,w hen the tw o ofus discussed w orld affairs,particularly as they touched on racialm atters.I spoke aboutm y native islands and w hy Ithoughtthatbecause ofour unique background and environm entw e held adifferentracialattitude than A m erican N egroes.Indeed,as Iexplained,race had littlem eaning for m ostVirgin Islanders because w e judged aperson by hisdeeds and nothiscolor.A nd w e expected the sam e in return.D uBoistended to see everything and everyone in purely racialterm s,buthe adm itted that he envied m e for m y indifference to racialconsiderations.H e had adry sense ofhum or,and hisconversation revealed the deep love he had for hisrace.H ow ever,Ifound hisbroad genius and greatintelligence som ew hatdisturbing and self-dam aging because ofhisoverriding preoccupation w ith race.A nd Ioften pondered,and stillponder,w hether thisgreatm an w as m entally stillaslave— a slave to em bittered passion and hatred for the w hitem an.Thisconcern so affected m e,thateach nightupon leaving hisroom after our discussion,Iw as possessed by an intensely sym patheticfeeling for him .A nd Ifeltsorry for m ankind because hisgreatm ind,w hich could be so usefulto the w orld atlarge, had to be dedicated solely to the N egro problem .10

A dam s had com e to know D uBois through the pages of his 1903 book, w hich proposed the existence oftw o black souls— a double consciousness inform ed by the sim ultaneous view ofselffrom inside the black com m unity and from outside through the veilofw hite perspective.For D uBois, such adualidentity w asforced upon A frican A m ericansby the incongruity oftheirblack difference in aland ofpervasive w hiteness.Thisdoubleconsciousness w as both a curse and a w ay out,a w ay to understand and to grapplew ith the dehum anizing experience ofbeing black in A m erica. In contrast,A dam s’s understanding of race reflected his Caribbean experience.W hereas in the U nited States the notion of race has only recently expanded beyond aw hite/black dialectic,in the Caribbean,lifehad long suggested thatrace w as both broader (including Latins,Indians,and A sians,am ong others)and m ore fluid (in thatindividualscan often claim

4 / Introduction severalracialaffiliationsand these can shiftw ithin fam iliesoverthe course ofjustafew generations).A tthe crow ded nucleusofidentity in the U nited States,how ever,the legacy ofslavery,civilw ar,em ancipation,Reconstruction,Jim Crow,the Ku Klux Klan,and the fightfor civilrights produced w hatforA dam sw asalim ited racialpolarity— a black and w hiteconsciousness.In A dam s’s experience,race w as not the central issue;social class trum ped race as an arbiter ofidentity,w hileeducation offered the prom ise ofsocialtransform ation.H e resisted the influence ofw hathe saw as the divisive race politicsofthe U.S.m ainland,affirm ing atradition oftolerance thathe credited to the cosm opolitan heritage ofthe islands.11 Such contrasting assum ptionsaboutthe dynam icsofrace and classhelp explain the differentopinions ofA dam s and D uBois.Rather than a m ultiple sense of self,A dam s advocated a single self-concept of cosm opolitan em brace.A s these m em oirs dem onstrate,A lton A ugustus A dam s,Sr.,insisted on but one soul,one guiding principle thatshaped hislife and inform ed hisdecisions:an undying passion for the prom ise ofthe individuallinked to the w elfare ofhisisland hom e.12 A ttim es the reader sensesA dam s’sovertactofw illto hold thissingular soultogether.W hen confronted by actsofdiscrim ination,he strove to deny the pow erofracism avictory overhisow n m ind.In a1977 interview for the student-produced m agazine A ll-A h-W ee,A dam s articulated his philosophy: It’sthe quality ofthe individual,notthe color....H um an nature isall the sam e and color has nothing to do w ith it.Itisdivided notby the question ofcolor,butthe quality ofreason.Thatisw hatyou should teach children.D on’tallow hatred and bitterness to enter theirm inds, especially the things thathappened centuries ago.You stillhave people today w ho are notem ancipated,w hiteand black,because the body you see,you can em ancipate,butnotthe m ind.13

A dam s’s m em oirs contain an im plicitargum entfor his“one soul” social strategy.A s explained in his ow n introduction,he hoped to convince the youth ofthe Virgin Islands to follow thispath— to develop a sense ofself and history that w ould serve as a spiritual and social guide,com bining com m unity tolerance w ith personalam bition.W hile D uBoisused aw areness ofdouble consciousness as a source ofresistance,A dam s did everything w ithin hispow er to deny such patterns ofracialized thinking aplace in hisVirgin Islands. A dam s ispartofa larger socialphenom enon w ithin the black diaspora, w hatJam aican A m erican historian Ifeom a Kiddoe N w anko callsBlack Cosm opolitanism .14 A ssociated w ith diaspora— in w hich traditional identity

Introduction / 5 has been forcibly disrupted,even intentionally erased (by the “conditioning” ofslaves,forexam ple)— cosm opolitanism allow ed eliteblack intellectuals to rebuild a notion of self and soul that relocated the individual w ithin param eters ofcom m unity,nation,race,and globe,especially those ofthe black diaspora.A dam s’sm em oirs are atoolofsuch identity restoration and reconfiguration.A s such,A dam s can be seen as am ong a larger group ofblack w riters and m usicians,including D uBoisand also BookerT. W ashington,PaulLaw rence D unbar,M arcus G arvey,W .C.H andy,Claude M cKay,D uke Ellington,G eorge Schuyler,Langston H ughes,Zora N eale H urston,W illiam G rantStill,and others,w ho broughttheir unique perspectives to bear on the question oftheircom m unity’srelationship to the w orld around them .The variety oftheiropinions and tacticsstrengthened cosm opolitanism as astrategy ofresistance. A dam s w as intensely proud to representhisrace and proud ofhisblack cultural heritage.H e drew inspiration from the biographies of accom plished black intellectualsand artists:politicaland religiousleaderssuch as Edw ard Blyden,Reverend D anielE.W isem an,Frederick D ouglass,Booker T.W ashington, and D uBois; artists such as violinist Brindis de Salas and soprano Sissieretta Jones; scholars and scientists such as A rthur Schom burg and G eorge W ashington Carver;and such local island role m odelsasA dolph “D ing” Sixto,Elphege Sebastien,and D.H am ilton Jackson.Yet A dam s also held w hite role m odels in high esteem :presidents A braham Lincoln,Jam es G arfield,and Theodore Roosevelt;U nited States founding father A lexander H am ilton; explorer Robert Edw in Peary; Chicago capitalist M arshallField;G erm an navy captain Count Felix von Luckner;15 inventor Benjam in Franklin;scientistSirIsaac N ew ton;author M ark Tw ain;m usic educator Thom as Tapper;and m usicians Ludw ig van Beethoven and John Philip Sousa.16 A dam sw askeenly aw are ofrace,ofhis racialidentity and the disease ofracism .Yethisstrategy to overcom e discrim ination w as to appealto a heritage oftolerance rooted in the islands’ cosm opolitan past,to actively bridge the racialdivide. A dam s could be described as essentially an integrationistw ho saw econom icprosperity (through education and opportunity)as the key to low ering class and in turn racialbarriers.H e had no interestin the revolutionary im pulses often associated w ith the Caribbean:the Back to A frica m ovem ent of M arcus G arvey,the Com m unism that appealed to m any British W est Indians,and the w orkers’socialism ofsom e fellow D anish Virgin Islanders held no prom ise forA dam s.For som e,A dam s rem ains a controversial,conservative,and paternalisticfigure.H e opposed the replacem entofthe naval governm entw ith acivilian adm inistration because the departure ofthe navy

6 / Introduction w ould rem ove a vitalprop to the islands’econom y.H e opposed an increase in thelocalm inim um w ageforfearitw ouldinjurethenascenttouristindustry.H erepeatedly argued forputting offincreased self-determ ination forthe islands,fearing it m ight distance and thus reduce the U.S.governm ent’s com m itm entto the islands’w elfare.CriticsofA dam s w ere im patientw ith such strategies,w hich nurtured business interestsw hile delaying econom ic and socialbenefitsto labor.W hile any critique ofA dam s’spoliticsm ustbe tem pered by acknow ledging his advocacy of D.H am ilton Jackson’s field laborers union in 1916,A dam s generally placed econom ic developm ent before political developm ent and social reform .W hile local activists such as Rothschild Francis and Lionel Roberts w on battles for citizenship and politicalrights,A dam s w ondered aboutthe benefitsofsuch rightsw ithout econom icprosperity.A tsuch points,A dam s’sideasappeared elitistand conservative to m any.Yet allof these Virgin Islands leaders shared the sam e goals.They differed in the answ er they gave to questions ofhow to accom plish reform :through cooperation orprotest,by w orking w ithin the system to change itor pressuring itfrom w ithout.In The Crisisofthe N egro Intellectual (1967),H arold Cruse articulated the post–W orld W ar I tensions am ong black leaderssearching forthe bestpath to equality— black nationalism ,segregation,revolution,education,culturalchange,socialism ,Com m unism ,or integration.17 Such strategic questions w ould arise again in the 1960s w ith the struggle for civil rights in the U nited States.The Virgin Islandsparticipated in thesesam edebates.In fact,A dam s’sdecision toinscribe hislifestory in m em oirsw asaresponse to thisconfusion.A gainstthe din of ideasthattended to discard pastvaluesin favoroffuture hopes,A dam stells the story ofw hatbroughtthe islandstothispointofopportunity and argues thatculturaltraditionsare vitalto future success. In chapter1A dam stellsofhisbirth on N ovem ber4,1889,on the island of St.Thom as,in w hathad been since the late seventeenth century the D anish W estIndies.The son ofaspiring artisan parents,A dam s attended elem entary school and later apprenticed to becom e a carpenter and then a shoem aker.Chapter 2 discusses the values ofhard w ork,skill,and education espoused by the free black artisans ofthe islands and instilled by the islands’apprenticeship system .H ow ever,A dam sdream tofbeing aprofessional m usician like “m arch king” John Philip Sousa,even though no precedentfor such a career existed in the Virgin Islands.W hile studying other trades,the young A dam s nurtured tw o passions— m usicand literature.H e learned m usicin church,from recordings,from visiting shipboard bands,and by im itating m ore accom plished players in localdance bands.

Introduction / 7 H e devoured books in the fam ily library and explored a w orld ofideas in conversationsw ith an assortm entoflocalintellectuals.A sdetailed in chapter 4,A dam s learned the piccolo (chosen prim arily because the m iniature w as less expensive than afull-sizeflute)and joined the N ative Brass Band in 1907.H e learned the cornet,trom bone,and clarinet,and continued m astering flute and piccolo— his prim ary solo instrum ents.H e soon becam e assistantdirector ofthe native band.Late into the night,he studied m usic theory and com position through correspondence coursesw ith D r.H ugh A . Clark atthe U niversity ofPennsylvania.In June 1910,A dam s form ed his ow n ensem ble,the A dam s Juvenile Band,w ith the financial backing of Elphege Sebastien,a localblack pharm acist.A dam s’sband developed rapidly,giving itsfirstconcertin February 1911,and soon becam e partofthe socialfabricofthe islands’capital,the portofCharlotteA m alie,by playing a variety ofcharitable eventsas w ellas regular concertsin the bandstand atEm ancipation G arden.18 Lacking local m usic schools or regular teachers,A dam s had com e to depend on m usic m agazines from the U.S.m ainland as a source ofideas and learning.A s early as 1910 he contributed hisow n article aboutm usic to alocalpaper.19 In 1915 A dam sbecam e the m usiceditorforthe St.Croix new spaper the H erald,and afew m onths later he becam e the band colum nistforBoston’sJacobs’Band M onthly.H isgrandiloquentprose am plified a philosophy ofsocialidealism aboutm usic’s role in the com m unity and garnered the attention ofleading m usiciansin the States.W hen on the eve ofits entrance into W orld W ar Ithe U nited States purchased the Virgin Islands from D enm ark,A dam s w as ideally placed to capitalize on any opportunity to m ake hisdream ofaprofessionalm usiccareer areality.H e possessed strong adm inistrative,teaching,w riting,and com positionalskills, a record of com m unity service,and professional credibility on the U.S. m ainland and w as largely free ofproblem aticpoliticalentanglem ents. O n June 2,1917,A dam sand hisentire JuvenileBand w ere inducted into the U nited StatesN avy asaunit,thusbecom ing the firstA frican A m ericans toreceive navalappointm entsasm usicianssince asearly astheW arof1812. A dam sw asm ade the navy’sfirstblack bandm aster.20 A schapter5 reveals,it w as an exceptionalsituation inspired by exceptionalcircum stance:the need to bridge an all-w hitenavaladm inistration and apredom inantly black population.A dam s and hisbandsm en w ere exem pted from atraining period of sea duty,and w hile the w hite personnelaround them rotated in and out, they rem ained stationed attheVirgin Islandsbase.21 ForA dam sthese naval appointm entsrepresented an incredibleartisticand socialopportunity— the chance to m ake m usic at a higher artistic level and to participate in the

8 / Introduction islands’adm inistration.For critics ofnavalrule,how ever,thatthese black native m usicians donned the w hite uniform s ofthe navy m ade them little m ore than gullible collaborators.For them the band w as no m ore than a m anipulative stuntto garnerpositive publicity fornavalleadersand distract attention from w hatthey feltw asthe navy’sracisttreatm entofthe islands’ populace.A dam s vehem ently disagreed on both counts,fully appreciating the sym biotic relationship betw een band and adm inistration and distinguishing racistactions by a few enlisted navalpersonnelfrom the genuine com m itm entto the islands’w elfare oflocalnavalleadership,especially its governors.Further,A dam s used his position of authority as a source of pow er,w ealth,and influence.22 N otonly didhisband’sinduction helpdefuse the racialtension thatplagued the navy’searly presence on the islands,but also the band and A dam s in particular helped educate navaladm inistrators aboutthe needsand attitudesofVirgin Islanders. A dam s and his bandsm en leveraged their new position to advantage. Their stable jobs m ade them relatively w ealthy,helping to revitalize the island’s flagging m iddle class.They operated a unique independent local new spaper,the St.Thom as Tim es (1921–23),thatfocused on culturaland com m unity affairs.23 A dam s him self continued to grow into his role as a socialleader,serving asan officerofthe localchapterofthe Red Cross,helping to found the public library in Charlotte A m alie,and developing the islands’publicschoolm usicprogram .H e traveled offisland forthe firsttim e in 1922 to research m usic education on the U.S.m ainland,play inform al recitals,and m eethisidol,m usiceducatorThom asTapper.H iscontactsw ith black intellectuals and m usicians in W ashington,D.C.,and N ew York laid the groundw ork for the high pointofthe band’s activities:its trium phant 1924 tour ofthe eastern seaboard,described in chapter 6.A dam s w ith his band in top form w on accoladesfrom concertand radio audiencesin H am pton Roads, Virginia; W ashington, D.C.; Philadelphia; N ew York; and Boston.24 A dam s even conducted the G oldm an Band in CentralPark (playing his“Virgin IslandsM arch”),becom ing possibly the firstblack A m erican to conduct a leading w hite ensem ble.25 Thus the U.S.purchase had given A dam sopportunitiesim possibleunderD anish rule.G enuinely gratefuland patriotic,he enthusiastically em braced the potentialofan A m erican future. A dam s’s best-know n com positions, “Virgin Islands M arch” (1919), “The G overnor’sO w n” (1921),and “Spiritofthe U.S.N .” (1924),are com posed in the idiom of A dam s’s inspiration,Sousa,and w ere perform ed throughoutthe U nited Statesand Europe by leading ensem blesdirected by such m usicians as Sousa,G oldm an,H erbertClarke,Patrick Conw ay,and W illiam H .Santelm ann.Sources new ly discovered for this publication

Introduction / 9 offer the firstview s into A dam s’slife in the later 1920s(chapter 7),1930s (chapter9),and 1940s(chapter10).Tragically,a 1932 fire,detailed in chapter 9,destroyed A dam s’sSt.Thom as hom e,killing hisdaughter H azeland burning acache ofm anuscriptsthatcontained both scholarly w ritings and unpublished com positions.O nly abouta dozen ofA dam s’sm usicalw orks are know n to have survived thisfire.Besides thistragedy,the low pointof A dam s’s career w as undoubtedly his unit’s transfer to G uantánam o Bay, Cuba,in 1931.This m ove separated A dam s from his children,pregnant w ife,fam ily,friends,and source ofsocialinfluence.Itdetached the U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands from its hom e and thus from its purpose.A dding insultto injury,A dam sw asstung deeply by the dism issal under a cloud of controversy of the naval governors,m en w ith w hom A dam shad w orked and com e to respectand even adm ire.The m usiciansof theVirgin Islandsband w ere in turn sentinto obscurity.Ratherthan being disbanded, w ith individuals transferred to other bands to fill needs, A dam s’s unit of black m usicians w as sequestered and effectively segregated in Cuba.In 1933,after fulfilling hisservice com m itm entand qualifying forapension,A dam sretired to the N avalFleetReserve and returned to St.Thom as,notlong thereafterresum ing hisdutiesforthe publicschool m usicprogram . A schronicled in chapter10,abriefreturn to localnew spapereditorship for the Bulletin w as cutshortby the Japanese attack on PearlH arbor.The rapid navalbuildup in response to thatcatastrophe created an acuteshortage ofm anpow er,and A dam s w as recalled to active duty and sentback to G uantánam o.D espite som e objections,he took over an all-w hite unitand soon received perm ission to reinstate eightofhisform er bandsm en,thus creating the firstracially integrated band sanctioned by the U.S.N avy.26 The nextyear,A dam s and the eightother islandersw ere transferred back to St.Thom as to reconstitute their original unit,again as an all-black ensem ble.Thissecond (resegregated)U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands w ould be transferred once m ore in 1944,this tim e to Puerto Rico.Soon after the end ofthe w ar in 1945,A dam s retired from the navy perm anently.27 Back in St.Thom as,A dam s fused hisinterestsin business and the com m unity w hen he accepted an appointm entto the governing com m ittee of the St.Thom as Pow er A uthority.Still searching for a new career and renew ed purpose,A dam s entered the islands’burgeoning touristindustry, ascovered in chapter11.In 1947 he answ ered acallto increase the num ber of hotel room s in St.Thom as by opening his hom e as the A dam s 1799 G uest H ouse.In 1952 A dam s becam e a charter m em ber of the Virgin

10 / Introduction IslandsH otelA ssociation and w assoon elected president,a position he held until1971.D uring thispostw ar period,A dam s served as a reporter,w orking as a stringer for the A ssociated Press as w ellas the A ssociated N egro Press and contributing regular articles to G eorge Schuyler’s influential black new spaper,the Pittsburgh Courier.A lthough A dam s never ran for publicoffice,he w asclosely affiliated w ith island politicsasagubernatorial adviser and editorial com m entator in print and on radio.In 1963 the islands’legislature accepted the rededication ofhis“Virgin IslandsM arch” to the peopleoftheVirgin Islands,and in 1982 the com position becam e the official territorial anthem .In about 1972 A dam s began these m em oirs, w orking on them in tw o batches:firstchapters 1 through 6,8,and 11,and in the early 1980s the rem aining chapters.A dam s closed his guesthouse around 1983 and,after a gentle decline,died on N ovem ber 23,1987,a few w eeks pasthisninety-eighth birthday. The life story ofA lton A ugustus A dam s,Sr.,and hism usicfor the Virgin Islands speaks to the relationship ofthe m argins to the center,to the w ays the periphery critiques the so-called core and thereby brings the very notion ofa center itselfinto question.A dam s’snam e w as notto be found in m usicencyclopediasuntilthe CenterforBlack M usicResearch published the InternationalD ictionary ofBlack Com posersin 1999.28 Presum ably at the suggestion ofbandleaderRichard Franko G oldm an,A dam s’sm ostpopular m arch,“The G overnor’sO w n,” appears as the firstcuton the bicentennialLP release The Pride ofA m erica:The G olden A ge ofthe A m erican M arch,but com prehensive inform ation about A dam s w as not available untilSam uelFloyd’s1977 article“A lton A ugustusA dam s:The FirstBlack Bandm asterin the U nited StatesN avy.”A saresult,RaoulCam usincluded “The G overnor’sO w n”in his1992 collection A m erican W ind and Percussion M usic.29 Yetotherthan in these few publications,A dam sism entioned only rarely and often inaccurately.30 Such an uneven historical legacy poses the question ofneglector m arginality.D oes the relative absence of A dam sfrom relevanthistories(in studiesofA m erican band m usic,chronicles ofthe U.S.N avy,w ritings on the H arlem Renaissance,inquiries into the use ofearly radio and the press,or analyses oftourism )m ark him as sim ply a m arginalfigure,or does hisabsence revealm ore aboutthe blind spotsin the storiesw e tellaboutourselves— a centripetaldistortion in history? The lack ofcoverage results from m ultiple factors:his residence in theVirgin Islands,farfrom the pow ercentersofacadem icresearch and historicalm em ory;historicalaccident such as the destruction of his m anuscriptsby fire;and the likely racialbias thatpushed aw areness ofhis1924

Introduction / 11 tour into know ledge’sshadow s.The story ofA lton A dam s tem pers historicalhubris;itrem indsushow littlew e often know outside the centralnarratives w e tellaboutour past. A dam s w ell understood the pow er of history and can legitim ately be placed alongside native historians,such as J.A ntonio Jarvis,w ho tell the story ofthe Virgin Islandsin theirow n w ords.A dam sisafaithfulreporter, dedicated to telling anative version ofthe pastthrough unabashed personal experience.H isstories are unusually precise as hism em oirs are based not only on distantm em oriesbutalso on contem porary new spaperclippingshe preserved in a series of large,generally chronological scrapbooks.31 Cut from m ainland and island new spapers,m any ofthe articles preserved w ere w ritten by A dam s him self.Thus the events,ideas,and even personalattitudes reported in the m em oirs are draw n from contem porary sources.O ne exception seem sto be the dialogue thatA dam squotes.The w ords“spoken” by such figuresasIrving Berlin appearatleastpartially reinvented.A lthough as anew spaperm an A dam s w as know n to have taken notes during hisconversationsw ith notablefigures,the ideasin the quotationsare m ore reliable than the precise w ording. From the inception ofhisw ork on the m em oirs,tw o them esinspired his story:a revisionist critique of totalitarian and racist depictions of the islands’U.S.N avy governors,and the assertion ofa unique Virgin Islands identity,one distinctfrom both itscolonialpastand U.S.presentand characterized by m iddle-classam bition and racialtolerance.Readersshould see A dam s’s w riting not as biased but as acknow ledging history’s pow er to inventanew w orld and asaffirm ing the inevitableand necessary aspectsof personalperspective thatm otivate and shape the historian’sstory.A dam s m ay be criticized form inim izing certain racialand especially classtensions and forespousing hisow n politicalview s,butthe storieshe relatesare generally accurate,as false statem ents offactw ould undercuthis credibility and thus hisgoals. A dam salso w rotethese m em oirsto redressthe racialand ethnicsilences in availablehistories.A dam s explains: Ibelieve such abroad,interpretive,and factualaccountby anative Virgin Islander isdesperately needed atthistim e.The study ofthe history and culture ofblack peoplein the Virgin Islands— as in the W estIndies generally— has suffered from alack ofpersonalized historicaldata,such as diaries,m em oirs,narratives,etc.There are,for exam ple,no slave narratives,as in the U nited States,from w hich w e m ightreconstructthe pastfrom the perspective ofthe [Virgin Island]N egro....A ccordingly, studentsgenuinely interested in learning aboutthe thoughts,feelings,

12 / Introduction and lifestyleoftheirforefathers have been forced to rely upon the w ritings ofw hitem en— som e sym pathetic,others not— w ho,atbest, had only asurface understanding ofthe peopleaboutw hom they w ere w riting.The pointIw ish to m ake isthatthe hum an dim ension ofthe black experience in the Virgin Islands isconspicuously m issing from existing accounts.M y m em oirw ill,Ihope,help fillaserious gap in our self-know ledge and perhaps encourage others to recounttheirexperiences and observations for our posterity.32

A dam s’s critique ofw hite authors w riting on the black experience ofthe Virgin Islands likely refers to books such as John Knox’s A H istorical A ccountofSt.Thom as,W .I.(1852)and A lbertA .Cam pbell’sSt.Thom as N egroes:A Study in Personality and Culture (1943).A dam s criticizes Cam pbell’sconclusions in particular,dism issing him as an outsider prone to exaggerating racial issues.A dam s’s initial purpose of recovering the black voice in history isnotm ade explicitin the m em oirs’finaldraft.This m ay be because hisoverallm essage ofracialtolerance and culturalm ixture inspired A dam s to drop this argum ent to avoid reifying the black/w hite dialectic.Yetthe im portantgoalofrecovering black experience is clearly dem onstrated in the m em oir’s rich stream of biographical inform ation aboutthe contributions oflocalblack leaders to island life. A dam s w as also inspired by the desire to w rite a history ofthe Virgin Islands— w hathe called a“historicalm em oir.”H isengagem entw ith other histories,extensive quotations of prim ary sources,and use of footnotes reflect this scholarly im pulse.(To preserve A dam s’s authorial voice,the com m entsoffered in footnotes in the follow ing chapters presentA dam s’s ow n originalnotes.M y editorialcom m entary ispresented in notes atthe back ofthe book.)A key personalexperience thatshaped A dam s’shistoricalconsciousness w as the assistance he provided the islands’governm ent in 1954 in the transfer of old adm inistrative records to the N ational A rchives in W ashington,D.C.Thisw ork notonly nurtured hispassion for the pastbutalso offered vitalinform ation to fuelhisthinking: Besides m y lifelong personalexperience and contacts,Iw as fortunateto be em ployed by the island’sgovernm entas an assistantarchivistto D r. H arold Law son,...to sortand rem ove particular objectsfrom the archives here to be placed in the archives in W ashington,D.C.Itw as notadifficulttask,as the D anes w ere know n to be very m eticulous in w hatever they undertook to do.Thiscontactopened to m e aw orld of inform ation,and provided such m atters thattouched on the cultural outputofthe 19th and into the 20th century in St.Thom as,particularly in respectto these islands.Itsubstantiated and im proved the belief Iheld aboutthe high culturaldevelopm entofthe peopleofthe islands,

Introduction / 13 resulting from its[sic]unique location and favorableenvironm ent,as w ellas the paternalisticattitude ofthe D anish adm inistration.33

Inspired by this experience,A dam s stated in a 1979 grant proposal that “the m em oirs w illnotonly be a spiritualdocum ent,butalso an historical one that w ill recreate the atm osphere,central events,personalities,and attitudes of a largely unrecorded past, as w ell as indicating w hat the trem endous transform ations in Virgin Islands life during the tw entieth century have m eantin hum an term s.”34 Early drafts of the m em oirs contain lengthy passages of historical analysis,particularly concerning the D anish period.W hile m uch of this inform ation rem ains in the final version,it has been softened as A dam s retreatssom ew hatfrom hisidea ofw riting an objective history and asubjective m em oirsim ultaneously.Ratherthan ahistoricalm em oir,the result m ightbe term ed an analyticalm em oir.ThislabelgetsatA dam s’sgoalof presenting hispersonalexperience w ithin itshistoricalcontextin order to exam ine the larger socialforces atw ork.N otjusta literary conceit,this approach suggestshow A dam s view ed hisactivities as socially m otivated. The storiesA dam stellsin hism em oirsleave outcertain eventsand details, especially incidents of overt racism .A t least part of the m otivation for these gaps seem s strategic— to depict a life consistent w ith the author’s idealsoftolerance,hispractice ofletting go ofpersonalanger and frustration in race issues,and the m essage ofhope he w ished to send to Virgin Islands youth.O ne fam ily anecdote notm entioned in the text,for exam ple,concerns the identification cards originally given to A dam s and his bandsm en w hen they w ere inducted into the navy.Identification photos w ere taken in St.Thom as,and the undeveloped film w as sentto the m ainland for processing.W hen the cards arrived back in the islands,the prints had been drastically underexposed,m aking the bandsm en and theirleader appear w hite.A pparently,the idea thatm em bers ofthe navy’s new band w ere of A frican descent w as so inconceivable to the technicians in the navy’s photo lab that they m anipulated the film to m ake the resulting im ages m eet their expectations.35 A dam s m ay have sim ply neglected to include thishum orous butbittersw eetanecdote in histext.M ore intriguing isthe possibility thathe “forgot” thisstory intentionally,as the attitudes itrevealsrun counter to hisgoalofrehabilitating the im age ofthe navy’stenure on the islands. The notion thatA dam s had no directexperience w ith racism isfalse.In chapter 6,he tellsofa confrontation in Philadelphia during the 1924 tour

14 / Introduction concerning the seating provided for his band.A dam s w as also presentat the dedication ofthe Lincoln M em orialin W ashington,D.C.,on M em orial D ay in 1922.In chapter 5 he describes the “privilege” of w atching the unveiling of“the nineteen-footstatue ofone ofthe greatestm en in history,” butneglectsto m ention thathe could have observed the eventonly from asegregated gallery atthe back ofthe crow d. The m ostglaring racistincidenttem pered in the m em oirsisthe rejection ofA dam s’s1932 application to join the A m erican Bandm astersA ssociation (A BA ).A dam s discusses thisdebacle in chapter 6 butm inim izes the racial com ponent.H e reports his rejection m ore fully in eulogistic essays not included in the m em oirs thatpraise the w ide racialem brace ofSousa and Edw in Franko G oldm an.36 D ocum ents from the A BA archives offer additionalclarity.A pparently,A dam s had suggested the form ation ofan association ofA m erican bandleaders in hisJacobs’M onthly colum ns,butw hen Sousa and G oldm an founded such an organization in 1928–29,A dam s did not im m ediately apply for m em bership.In preparation for leaving active duty in 1932,A dam ssoughtadm ission butw asturned dow n w ithoutexplanation.A letter from G oldm an five years later adm itting thatA dam s w as “black-balled” by “southern m em bers” and inviting reapplication isquoted in both essays as w ellas chapter 6 and survives am ong A dam s’s papers.37 A dam s did subm itanother application a few days later (dated February 6), butthisw asalso tabled by the A BA ,according to anotherletterfrom G oldm an,dated M arch 9ofthe sam e year,w hich explained thatno new m em bers w ere taken on because there w as “such a long listofapplicants.”38 A dam s apparently neverreceived anothercom m unication from the association. Recordsin the A BA archives revealthatG oldm an leavened the story of A dam s’s rejection.The 1937 m inutes show thatthe A BA accepted m em bers in allcategories thatyear,buttabled the applications ofA dam s and four others.A dam s’snom ination appears again on the candidate roster in 1939,but is not listed again.A m azingly,the association’s 1932 m inutes detailing the originaldiscussion ofA dam s’scandidacy revealthe treacherous arena of1932 race relations in the U nited States.In an open m eeting w ith the entire m em bership,G oldm an answ ers the secretary’s introduction ofA dam s’snam e supportively,saying thatthe applicantis“a very fine m usician” and “an U nited States Bandm aster,” “has com posed m arches,” and is“a very cultured gentlem an.”H ow ever,G oldm an also confesses,“he has one defect,he iscolored.” The discussion continues idealistically,w ith A BA presidentFrank Sim on expressing supportforA dam s’sapplication by stating that“m usicknow s no creeds or colors” and thatas“m usicisG od’s language,and G od m ade usall,”Sim on caresnothing about“w hatcolorhis

Introduction / 15 skin is.” G oldm an builds on thisaffirm ation by stating thatbefore Sousa had died (earlier thatsam e year on M arch 6,1932),the pairhad discussed A dam s’scase and Sousa had said,“W e are living in A m erica,and the D eclaration ofIndependence says,‘w ithoutregard to race,creed orcolor.’”This rhetoric is,of course,not precisely correct.The D eclaration of Independence says nothing aboutrace,creed,or color.Rather,the passage Sousa m ay have referred to reads:“W e hold these truths to be self-evident,that allm en are created equal,thatthey are endow ed by theirCreatorw ith certain unalienableRights,thatam ong these are Life,Liberty and the pursuit ofH appiness.”O fcourse,w hatthe founding fathersm eantby “m en”here w as precisely lim ited in term s of race,gender,and class.Yet G oldm an evokes Sousa’s w ell-know n racial view s in support ofA dam s,his recent death likely adding gravity and w eightto the evocation. Itisatthispointthatthe discussion turnsalong north-south geographicallinesand againstA dam s’scandidacy.G oldm an pointsoutthatalthough he ishim selfa“Southerner,”he does“nothave theirfeeling.”A notherdelegate,how ever,states“Iw ould hateto take picturesback toTexasw ith M r. M cCracken and m yselfshaking hands w ith thisgentlem an.Ifw e w ere to have thisconvention in the South,itw ouldbe em barrassing....Everybody in the South realizesthe condition asIdo ...itisnottolerated dow n there. W ecould nothave him com e into ahotelorsitatthe tablew ith us.”A sthe discussion continues, concerns are expressed about the resignation of southern m em bers if A dam s w ere adm itted.O ne delegate w orries that A dam s m ightnotbehave “properly,” since he does notlive in an area that w ould indoctrinate him in the socialpractices ofsegregation.The discussion endsw hen aM r.G lover,though supportive ofSim on’sview son racial inclusion,suggeststhatA dam s’sacceptance “w ould place the N egro gentlem an in asem barrassing aposition by bringing him into ourA ssociation as itw ould be forus.” G oldm an and Sim on voice no further objection,and unlike other candidacies,A dam s’s application gets no vote.The m atter is sim ply dropped.39 Thatsuch a discussion w as recorded verbatim in the association’sm inutes suggests its m atter-of-fact reality.Inclusion of a “N egro” in an allw hite professional association in 1932 could be considered but w as obviously unacceptable;thus no vote w as needed.The leaders ofthe A BA did notseize the opportunity to overturn the socialnorm ;the price offurther action w as too high,and thus a lack of action w as rationalized as a beneficent gesture tow ard avoiding em barrassm ent for all.O ne can only w onder,given such asituation,how A dam sreacted.D id he,ifonly m om entarily,see him selfthrough the veilofw hiteness ofw hich D uBoisw arned?

16 / Introduction D id such an experience reinforce hisbeliefthatthe U.S.m ainland w as no place for a Virgin Islander and thus strengthen his resolve to protect his hom eland from the m alignantinfluence ofU.S.racism ? A dam s’sm em oiris silent,m aybe profoundly so,on thism atter.40 Identity continues to be contested in the Virgin Islands today.A s cultural criticStuartH allhas noted,identity is“alw ays ...a problem to Caribbean people” due to com plex interactions am ong m any factors:traum as ofconquest,colonization,and slavery;the extinction ofindigenous populations; and the m ixture of a great variety of peoples, religions, and cultures (alm ostalw aysfrom som ew here else).Identity isnotan absolutebutarepresentation.Itisinvented,notdiscovered.Itiscreated by choices.Identity is unfinished,characteristically open to revision,a changing sam e.Yet “w hatconstitutes a Caribbean culturalidentity is,” according to H all,“of extraordinary im portance.” H is analysis w ould place A dam s’s m em oirs project at the forefront of the region’s concerns in the tw enty-first century:as belonging w ith that“passionate research by Caribbean w riters, artists,and politicalleaders,thatquestfor identity” thatH alldescribes as having been “the very form in w hich m uch ofour artisticendeavor in all the Caribbean languages has been conducted.”41 A dam s w ould have agreed;hism em oirsare aguidebook foryoung Virgin Islandersofthe late tw entieth century trying to resolve w hattheirauthor sensed w as another “identity crisis.”A dam sm akesthispurpose explicitin an early draftofhis introduction:“A lthough Ihave draw n from m y ow n life and experience, the purpose ofthese m em oirs isnotself-aggrandizem ent,butthe presentation of a hum anistic m essage to a generation of m y fellow Virgin Islanders,restlessly searching for am ore m eaningfuland purposefulidentity during an era ofchange and self-doubt.”42 A s a genre,m em oirresponds to the crisisofidentity by locating ideas and observations about the Caribbean experience in a rich first-person account.In hercollection Caribbean A utobiography:CulturalIdentity and Self-Representation,Sandra PouchetPaquetanalyzes autobiography as a vital site for understanding the intercultural process that is the A ngloCaribbean.43 The notion ofW estIndian culture com prises such a rem arkably diverse region that little can be understood,she argues,w ithout locating individualand com m unity in a specific place and tim e.A utobiography provides for thisspecificity,and Virgin Islanders have responded to thisim pulse w ith a vibranttradition ofm em oirs,contributing m ore than tw o-dozen w orks thatdescribe individualidentity solutions in chronicles of personal experience.Ruth M oolenaar,know n w ell for her Profiles of

Introduction / 17 O utstanding Virgin Islanders, has published her ow n observations in Legacies of U pstreet:The Transform ation of a Virgin Islands N eighborhood (2005).44 Christopher Brathw aite,w ho m oved to St.Thom as from Barbados,offers his advice for success in There A re N o M istakes,O nly Lessons:A M odern Caribbean Success Story (1998).Richard A .Schrader, Sr.,w as nam ed Virgin Islands H um anistofthe Year in 1994 for hispoetry and prose thatpreserve localhistory in a com bination ofpersonalstories, interview s, and archival research. Beginning w ith A Sharing of M y Thoughts(1984),Islands’“Pride” (1985),and H om e Sw eetH om e (1986), Schrader has w ritten a dozen books,including N otes of a Crucian Son (1989),St.Croix in A nother Tim e (1990),Kallaloo (1991),Fungi(1993), M aufe,Q uelbe and T’ing (1994),U nder de Tam an Tree (1996),and H urricane Blow s A llSkin O ne Color(1997).The genealogy projectofElton E. V rede,Jr.,com bined w ith fam ily tales,produced A ncestors and D escendants (2002).Even tw o of A dam s’s St.Croix bandsm en have published m em oirs:tuba player O gese T.M cKay w rote N ow ItCan Be Told (1991), and PeterThurland’sstory w asprinted by hisdaughterin 1994 asPeterG. Thurland,Sr.:M asterCabinetm akerand Bandleader.45 A dam s’sow n w ritings as a journalistblazed an earlier trailin thistradition,to w hich these m em oirsoffer am ore com prehensive conclusion. Like m aking m usic,w riting for A dam s w as a social tool,offering the chance to shape the peopleand eventsofhisislands.W riting had fascinated A dam sfrom childhood.H isgrandm other’selegantpenm anship,the books on hisU ncleD inzey’sshelves,and the stim ulating discussionsofliterature w ith local intellectual A dolph Sixto taught A dam s that to read w as an essentialactivity to the cultivated lifeand thatto w ritew as to have pow er. W riting w as transform ative in his ow n life:itw as in the pages ofm usic m agazines and through correspondence courses thathe honed hism usical enthusiasm sinto skills.46 Thus,w hatisatstake in A dam s’sw ritingsisprofound— nothing shortofthe rightto lifeitself. A dam s’s identity projectspans eightdecades,beginning w ith the purchase ofthe islands by the U nited States in 1917.Thism ilitary realestate transaction included not just land and a prim e natural harbor— one the U nited States feared w ould be seized for G erm an U -boats— butthe people ofthe islands as w ell.Thus the salethreatened again to reduce the islands’ inhabitantsto com m odities boughtand sold,a status uncom fortably close to the legacy of chattel slavery.W hile the language of the sales treaty allow ed individualsto choose D anish or A m erican citizenship,in fact,the U.S.Constitution did not readily follow the flag.D anish law rem ained in effect;islanders w ere leftin a legallim bo,notofficially becom ing U.S.

18 / Introduction citizens until1927.47 A s of2007,the U.S.Virgin Islands rem ain an unincorporated and organized U nited States territory.Virgin Islanders cannot vote in U.S.presidential elections,and their single delegate to Congress cannotparticipate in floor votes.D espite federalinitiatives,such as allow ing islanders to electtheirow n governor since 1970,and failed referenda seeking statehood, the Virgin Islands rem ain (controversially) on the U nited N ations list of N on-Self-G overning Territories.The passion of A dam s’s search for identity is rooted in this am biguity— the lim bo betw een colony and country.The strategies ofasserting a history for the Virgin Islands,validating the experience ofthe native islander,and celebrating a unique Virgin Islands culture actively resistthe collapse ofthe native soul into a colonial persona;they assert A dam s’s right and,by extension,the rightofallVirgin Islanders to rem ain,in D uBois’s term s, conscious atall.These m em oirs thus are the author’slabor oflove,for his fam ily and for hispeople— a giftofthe pastas hope for the future.

The M em oirs of A lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr., 1889–1987

1 A H istoricalM em oir

Editor’sN ote:In thisopening chapter,A dam s revealsthe m em oirsto be a response to aVirgin Islands“identity crisis”leftin the w ake ofracialpressures from the U .S.m ainland as w ellas the islands’ow n continuing econom ic struggles.W ith the Virgin Islands facing a “criticalcrossroad” in theirhistory,A dam s’sprescription isa return to three localand traditional values he credits in partto the D anish past:discipline,a vibrantcosm opolitan culture, and tolerance. Instilled by the apprenticeship system and by com m unity and fam ily cohesion,and enforced by law,discipline w as fostered in the islands by the structures of daily life.A ccording to A dam s, cosm opolitanism resulted from trade that nurtured the free exchange of people and ideas as w ell as goods,producing local thinkers and leadersw ith a broad perspective.Thiscosm opolitism produced a tolerance ofotherw aysofliving thatencouraged racialcooperation.Certainly, racism w as presentin the islands,butA dam s experienced a tolerant,open society w ithoutinstitutionalized racialbarriers.M ore than the seas and glorious flora,A dam s credits these values w ith giving the Virgin Islands theirdistinctive beauty.A sone ofthe few rem aining culture bearersofthe nineteenth-century D anish W est Indian experience,A dam s w ishes to instillthese fading values in the contem porary youth ofthe com m unity through his historical rem iniscences.Thus,his book is a social tool for shaping the self-conceptofVirgin Islanders and preserving the strengths A dam s feelsare centralto hisislands’future. Ihave undertaken to w ritethishistoricalm em oiratthe insistence ofm any friendsand relativesand because ofadeeply rooted sense ofresponsibility to youngergenerationsofVirgin Islandersseeking know ledge abouttheirpast and a m ore m eaningful understanding of their distinct cultural heritage. 21

22 / A H istoricalM em oir Thisbook m akes no claim to being a com prehensive history ofthe Virgin Islands,an endeavor for w hich Ireadily adm itIlack both the training and tim e to w rite.Instead,itseeksto provide glim psesand insightsinto ourhistory and culture through arecording ofm y ow n experiencesand reflections. Ibelieve such abooktobe both tim ely and necessary.G uided by alifelong dedication tothe culturalenrichm entofm y people,Iam convinced thatthey have reached a critical crossroad in their historical and personal developm ent.People,especially theyouth oftheseislands,seem confused and uncertain about them selves— about their past,their present,and their future. They have begun to ask im portant,fundam entalquestions.W hatisaVirgin Islander? W hat,ifanything,m akes us unique? W hatisthe m eaning ofour history and itsrelevance to the present?D o w e possessadistinctive culture? Ifso,w hatpartofitisw orthy ofpreservation?A nd how can ourculture help us im prove the presentand serve as aguide to the future? These are indeed profound and difficultquestionsthatallofuscollectively m ustconfrontand answ erifw e w antto continue on the pathw ay ofprogress. Through thism em oirIw antto record and docum entm y personalconviction that the w ay out of this m odern dilem m a,this “identity crisis,” does not lead through a rem ote A frican past,nor through the uncritical em ulation ofD anish rule,nor the hum anistic influence ofthe M oravian and CatholicChurches,nor the historicalposition ofthe Virgin Islands as an entrepôtofw orld trade.M y ow n experience isthatunder D anish sovereignty considerable racial m obility existed,racial discrim ination and prejudice w ere held w ithin tolerable lim its,and blacks notonly had easy access to an international culture but also played a significant role in enriching its content.In 1917 A m erica inherited this tradition of racial dem ocracy on the islands,recognized itsvalue,and took stepsto furtherits developm ent. O nly in the past few years has this pattern of racial harm ony and understanding been disrupted under the im pactofchange and m odernization.This new racism is inim icalto the character and heritage ofVirgin Islanders,as w ellas to the institutionalnetw ork ofour society.Yet,unfortunately,its influence is spreading.If w e are to retain that tolerant and hum anisticspiritbequeathed to usby ourancestorsand ourculturaltraditions,then w e m usttake im m ediatestepsto check the furtherdevelopm ent ofthis racistcancer by elaborating and instituting a com prehensive program ofcontrolled developm entand culturalrevitalization thatw illm esh traditionalvirtues,values,and attitudes w ith new er dem ands for m aterial prosperity and greater controlover localconditions.To m y m ind,far too m uch attention is paid today to purely m aterialistic dem ands.There is a

A H istoricalM em oir / 23 corresponding need for spiritualupliftand rejuvenation.Ihope to redress the currentim balance tow ard m aterialism by rem inding m y people ofthe intrinsicw orth ofoldervaluesand custom s,by pointing outtheirrelevance for present concerns,and by stressing the urgent need for their future preservation. M uch ofw hatisbestaboutour culture and ourselves derives from the period of D anish rule,1672 to 1917.D anish rule had its good and bad points.It is not m y intention to m ake a com prehensive assessm ent of either in thism em oir.Suffice itto say,how ever,thatthose w ho condem n the D anes outofhand show apoor appreciation oftheirpositive contributions to the unique culturalheritage and value system ofVirgin Islanders. To m y m ind three attributes are particularly w orthy ofbeing singled out as constituting beneficiallegacies ofD anish rule:a strong sense ofdiscipline,a cosm opolitan culture ofhigh refinem ent,and a socialatm osphere and castofm ind free ofinvidious racialdistinctions and prejudices. The discipline of w hich I speak carried no connotations of severity, unreasonable curtailm entoffreedom ,or arbitrary or unjustdem ands of authority.It m eant a voluntary adherence by the individual to a tim etested setofrules judged bestsuited to govern relations betw een individualm em bersofthe socialbody so asto protectand prom otethe interestof the w hole.Em bedded in thisconceptofdiscipline are the old-tim e virtues of respect,thrift,cleanliness,dependability,honesty,integrity,com m on decency,and a generalrespectfor the rightsand persons ofothers.These virtues,rigidly upheld by D anish adm inistrators as beacon lightsto com m unity aspiration and behavior,w ere inculcated into the individualby w ay ofthe hom e,the church,the school,and the apprenticeship system . Thistype ofdiscipline w asthe orderofthe day yearsago.The outstanding dem eanorand generalhospitality ofSt.Thom iansw asasource ofpersonaland civicpride.D runkenness and row diness w ere uncom m on,even am ong the so-called low er orders. Charles Edw in Taylor, a prescient observer of St.Thom as in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, recorded that“the very coalw om en,w hose lives are the m ostlaborious, are asorderly and decentapeopleforthe classto w hich they belong asyou w ould m eetanyw here in the w orld.”* Cleanliness,w hether in the person orcom m unity,w asan ingrained characteristic.The daily bath w asarigidly enforced im perative in fam ily life.The hom es ofeven the m ostindigent, * Charles

Edw in Taylor, St. Thom as, as a N aval and Coaling Station (St. Thom as,D.W .I.:J.N .Lightbourne,1891).[These footnotesw ere w ritten by A dam s him self;editorialnotes are presented atthe back ofthe book.— Editor]

24 / A H istoricalM em oir though sparsely decorated,w ere keptim m aculately clean inside and out. N o litter law existed,for inner pride prevented even the hum blestpersons from discarding refuse aboutthe streetor in theiryards. “The D anes,” one localhas observed,“taughtone to know hisplace,to respecthis superiors,and to behave w ith good m anners.”* Indeed,itpaid offto be decentand w ellbehaved under D anish rule.The D anes frow ned on loafers and beggars and enacted strictvagrancy law s to dealw ith them . The law stipulated thatsom e kind ofw ork be found for those unw illing to find jobs on their ow n.The few crim inals w ere quickly apprehended and severely dealtw ith.Strictm easuresw ere adopted to insure respectableand law fulbehavioron the partofthe youth.A nightly curfew w asim posed to keep young people offthe streetsand outoftrouble,w hile a com plaintby a respectable citizen against boisterous behavior m ight lead to a public w hipping by the D anish authorities.The w hipping w as,in fact,seldom em ployed.Itsm ere threatw assufficientdeterrentto com pelrespectfuland orderly behavior. A thorough and effective apprenticeship system helped instilldiscipline. Boyshad to apprentice them selvesto am astercraftsm an in the hoursafter school,w hile girlsreceived theirtraining athom e,learning such fem inine pursuits as sew ing,cooking,painting,or how to w ork in the lace and hardangerindustry,w hich w asprom inentatthattim e.1 The boss,orm aster craftsm an,w ielded as m uch influence over his apprentices as did a child’s parents,w ho them selveskeptaclose w atch overthe activitiesand behavior oftheirchildren.W hether apprentices intended to follow the trade in later lifew as notas im portantaconsideration as the factthatthe apprenticeship system keptyoung peopleoffthe streetsand outoftrouble,teaching them the values ofthe craftsystem .This com pulsory placem entofchildren in som e sortofregularized w ork situation paid offhandsom ely.N otonly did it provide skills w ith w hich to earn a decent living,but it also instilled a sense ofpersonalpride,for in those days skillfulw ork w ith the hands w as notconsidered m enialordegrading,butdignified and useful.In fact,tradespeople w ere am ong the leading representatives ofthatvibrantculturallife ofw hich w e boasttoday. The noted French w riter Rom ain Rolland said thatthe politicallife ofa nation isonly the m ostsuperficialaspectofitsbeing,and thatin order to know itsinterior life,itisnecessary to penetrate to itssoulthrough literature,philosophy,and the arts— for in these are reflected the ideas,the pas* Q uoted in A lbertA .Cam pbell,“St.Thom as N egroes:A Study ofPersonality and Culture,” PsychologicalM onographs 55:5 (1943):49.

A H istoricalM em oir / 25 sions,and the dream sofaw holepeople.Cultureisthe w ord generally used to describe thatinteriorlifeofanation m entioned by Rolland.A sthe w ord culture conveys several m eanings and is thereby subjected to different interpretations,itisnecessary to clarify itsm eaning asused in thism em oir. The Random H ouse D ictionary ofthe English Languagedefinesculture as follow s: The quality in aperson or society thatarises in an acquaintance w ith w hatisgenerally regarded as excellentin arts,letters,m anners,scholarly pursuits...thatw hich isexcellentin arts,letters,m anners ...a particular form or stage ofcivilization as thatofcertain nations or periods;the sum totalofliving builtup by agroup ofhum an beings and transm itted from one generation to another ...

W ebster’sEncyclopedicD ictionary defines itas: Tillage,cultivation,training,or discipline by w hich m an’sm oraland intellectualnature iselevated,the resultofsuch training,enlightenm ent,civilization,refinem ent.

M atthew A rnold,the fam ous w riter,defines the w ord as“to know the best thathas been said and thought.”2 The archbishop ofthe W estIndies,D r. A lan John Knight,in referring to Prem ier Forbes Burnham ’splan to m ake obeah apartofG uyana’sculture,said: The w ord culture isfashionablenow,butitisasilly w ord to use in this contextbecause no one know s exactly w hatitsignifies.By derivation the w ord m ustm ean som ething thatgrow s,and seem ingly itcould hardly be applied to am oribund relicofabygone age ofilliteracy and ignorance.3

The definition ofthe w ord culture,as used in this w ork,m ustnotbe construed as som ething staticor im m obile or thatw hich can be taughtor attained m erely by pursuing courses in schools.Rather,it is that w hich m ustbe developed from w ithin and com es m ostforcibly by contactw ith and receptiveness to people (the cultured and the refined) w hose high intellectualattainm entsare then absorbed into the spiritualsubstance and bloodstream ,as itw ere,ofone’sbeing.In the Virgin Islands ofm y youth, the evidence ofthis civilized stage ofdevelopm entw as discernible in the higher-ups as w ellas those in the ordinary,hum blew alks oflife. In the early days ofour islands’history,w hen there w as no m ad rush after politicalpow er and bureaucratic sinecures,there lived a num ber of m en and w om en w ho could w ellbe regarded as the em bodim entofculture and refinem ent.W ithoutthe advantages ofhigher education,these people industriously w orked out their ow n enlightenm ent by private reading,

26 / A H istoricalM em oir study,association w ith others,and ajudicioususe oftheirspare tim e.In consequence,they attained avery high levelofculturalunderstanding and discourse.M osthom es contained bookcases filled w ith the w orks ofthe great w ritersofW estern literature— CharlesD ickens,Leo Tolstoy,W illiam Shakespeare,Jean-JacquesRousseau,Ralph W aldo Em erson,M iguelde Cervantes, and so m any others.4 N otonly did the Bibleoccupy the m ostrespected position on the shelves,butitsw ords w ere constantly read and understood.The daily conversations ofthose ancestors proved thatthey notonly read these w orksbutalso digested theircontents.Equally,in theirm usic,ourforebears show ed adistinctappreciation ofavariety ofm usicalform sand idiom s,from Johann Sebastian Bach’sm assesand Ludw ig van Beethoven’ssym phoniesto the lyricalhabañera rhythm sofourCuban neighborsand socialdanceslike the w altzorschottische,asw ellaslocalbam boulas. The native Virgin Islander encom passes in hisperson acom m on blending ofm any culturesand influences,aptly described by one w riterasSpanish upon English upon D utch upon D anish,like a layer cake w ith an A m erican icing on top as an em bellishm ent.Itisthe Virgin Islander’sparticular genius to absorb the best of other cultures and then adapt these influences to hisor her ow n environm entand situation. The key to understanding the cultural history of St.Thom as can be found in the island’s unique position as a com m ercial center of internationalsignificance.O nly during the firstsixty years ofD anish rulew as St. Thom asanything like an agriculturalcolony.U nlike St.Croix,w here sugar cultivation prospered into the tw entieth century,the rugged terrain and lim ited land area ofSt.Thom as m ade crop production a costly enterprise. A fterthe acquisition ofSt.Croix in 1733,the D anish gradually allow ed St. Thom asto develop into afree port.D uring the nextcentury and ahalf,St. Thom asserved asavitaltrade em porium and com m unicationscenter.Few ships from Europe or N orth A m erica sailed Caribbean w aters w ithout entering the bustling portofCharlotteA m alie. A long w ith the free circulation of goods w ent the free circulation of ideas. Businessm en of the m ore progressive European and A m erican nationsw ho flocked to the island to take advantage ofopportunitiesoffered by itscentralgeographicallocation and tax-free portfacilitiesbroughtw ith them aculture and refinem entthatsoon perm eated the entire com m unity. N ot only businessm en but also m usicians,artists,scientists,w riters,and actorsofdistinction regularly visited us,graced ourconcerthalls,lived,and m arried am ong us.Each group broughtto an increasingly receptive com m unity its distinctive aspect of civilization— indeed a priceless treasure and heritage.

A H istoricalM em oir / 27 Itshould never be forgotten thatSt.Thom as,though atiny spoton the m ap,once served as a socialforge in w hich m any heterogeneous groups w ere w elded into a vibrant,functionalentity w hose underlying standard w as unity in diversity.The central geographical location of the islands, theirm aritim e im portance under the benign adm inistration ofthe D anes, and theircosm opolitan spiritgenerated abroad hum anisticoutlook am ong the inhabitantsthathad itshighestexpression in atolerantapproach to the question ofrace. Som e nonresidentw riters,m ostnotably A lbertA ngus Cam pbell,w ho spentonly afew shortm onths in St.Thom as,have exaggerated the extent ofracism and racialprejudice in the D anish W estIndies.Thatsom e sortof prejudice and discrim ination existed cannot be denied. But w hat w as unique aboutD anish colonialrulew asthe relative absence ofracialdisharm ony and discrim inatory legislation.Social and political considerations, not racism , underlay the few discrim inatory law s governing the free people ofcolor during the firstcentury and a halfofD anish rule.In the nineteenth century,m anum ission [the freeing ofslaves by their ow ners] w as encouraged,the free colored w ere granted full rights of citizenship, and careeropportunitiesgradually w ere opened to m en oftalentregardless ofrace. The D anes setthe exam ple by m ingling w ith the N egro upper classes, taking N egro m istresses,and som etim es even m arrying N egroes.A fter 1848,the D aneseven appointed qualified N egroesto the ColonialCouncils. The absence of prejudice in both law and social behavior never failed to im press discerning foreign visitors.In 1877,for exam ple,the A m erican consulinform ed the secretary ofstatethat no distinction ism ade by the governm enton accountofrace or color. The races interm arry and m ingletogether in allpublicplaces and are associated in business.*

Subsequentvisitorshave m arveled atthe prevailing atm osphere ofracial harm ony.Perm itm e to quoteatlength from tw o such personsofdifferent races,from differentcountriesw ith differentbackgrounds,w ho visited the islands in 1962 for tw o differentpurposes. The late Evalyn M arvel,a veteran Paris correspondent for U niversal Service,N ew ark Evening N ew s,and the Parisedition ofthe N ew York H erald Tribune,as w ellas the author ofanum ber ofbooks,w rites: * U. S.Consular D ispatches,St.Thom as 1804–1906,V.V.Sm ith to F.W .Sew ard, N ov.1,1877 (D ept.ofStatem icrofilm ).

28 / A H istoricalM em oir Since the capitalofSt.Thom as w as the m ostim portantslave m arketin the w holeCaribbean area,and the localm erchantand plantation ow ner naturally had firstchoice ofthe auction block,the Virgin Islander can claim w ith som e reason thathisforefathers w ere the m ostdistinguished ofthe captured— tribalchieftains and those ofoutstanding intelligence,as w ellas the bestphysicalspecim ens. The Virgin Islander isaquietly proud m an,and being in the m ajority and notsubjectto the indignities ofthe continentalN egro,he lacks racialbias.Indeed,one charm ing elderly gentlem an confided to m e that colored visitors from the states frequently distressed them w ith talk of racialproblem s.H ere,he said,“w e have none.”5 Thiscom m endable stateofaffairs has notbeen m entioned in anything Ihave read on the Virgin Islands,butitisquiteas significantas theirnaturalbeauty and D anish architecture.So im portantdoes itseem to m e thatIbelieve itis bestexplained in term s ofpersonalexperience. Ithappens thatIhad m etonly afew N egroes on asocialbasis,and although Ilike to think m yselfdevoid ofracialprejudice,Ifound little com m on ground w ith those Ihad encountered.Secretly Ihad feltselfconscious,as ifIm ustprove m y sym pathy for them .In the Virgin Islands thissubconscious reaction w as nonexistent. Prior to m y visitIhad been told thatthe population w as“m ainly colored.” ButIw as stillnotprepared for the im pactofasociety com posed ofan entirely differentrace.Ithad notoccurred to m e thatthis referred to allsocialstrata,and thatthe m ostcultivated group Iw ould m eetw ould be m en and w om en ofcolor.Iw entopen m inded,but know ing no one.By the tim e Ileft,Ihad form ed severalcherished friendships.Im etanum ber ofw hiteresidents,butfor the highlightsof m y stay Iam indebted to the true Virgin Islander,w ith hiskindness and courtesy.W hatIm ostappreciated w as thatthey m ade no distinction aboutm e,or the shade ofm y skin.W e m eton the com m on ground ofm utualinterests.They assisted m e in the garnering offacts,lentm e rare and precious books for historicalresearch— greatestofall,they opened theirhom es to m e and accepted m e into theirm idst. Theirsisalifecom pletely lacking in racialhostility....Itw as an atm osphere thatIhad never before breathed,one w hich gave m e confidence in the brotherhood ofm an.*

A ta press conference held atSt.Thom as’sG overnm entH ouse for SylvanusO lym pio,laterpresidentofthe A frican RepublicofTogo,during his visit in 1952,w hich he described as pleasant,profitable,gratifying,and instructive,he said:

* Evalyn M arvel,G uide to Puerto Rico and theVirgin Islands(N ew York:Crow n Publishers,1960;rev.,1963),161–62.

A H istoricalM em oir / 29 Ihave been very im pressed w ith the friendliness ofthe peoplehere. Everyone seem s to be very cheerfuland,w hatism ore,there isaracial harm ony w hich you don’tsee very m uch in thispartofthe w orld and thathas greatly im pressed m e,and Ihave been trying to find outhow they have been ableto do that,because itshould be an exam pleto m any other partsofthe w orld. A s you are no doubtaw are,the racialproblem isavery acuteone in som e partsofthe w orld,and ifin any particular corner thiscan be solved in such afriendly atm osphere and thatevery one isso happy about,itisathing w e should alllearn from thatparticular place.6

Ibelieve the attributes ofdiscipline,culture,and racialharm ony to be am ong ourfinestqualitiesasapeople.Yettoday these qualitiesare in danger oferadication by m indless barbarians w hose violentactions and alien beliefs threaten the fabric of our com m unity.A lthough their rhetoric is one ofculturalpride,they are in factbetrayers ofour m ostfundam ental values and beliefs.Ican only hope thatthism em oirw illstim ulateVirgin Islanders,particularly the younger people,to undertake a w ider study and deeper reflection into theirhistoricaland culturalbackground.Itisabackground ofw hich they can be justifiably proud and thatisw orth passing on to theirchildren.Yetonly to the extentthatthey can appreciate and perpetuate the underlying hum anistic values of their rich cultural heritage can they truly claim to be w orthy upholdersofour ancestors’enlightened traditions. Itism y deep conviction thatthe true charm ofthese islands lies less in theirphysicalbeauty,greatas itm ay be,than in the w arm th,hospitality, dignity,generosity,and com m on decency oftheirpeople.If,acting together as one people,w e can convince ourselves,as w ellas the outside w orld,of thatfundam entaltruth,then w e can look to our pastw ith veneration,to our presentw ith pride,and to our future w ith hopefulanticipation.

2 The St.Thom as Craftsm en ofthe N ineteenth Century

Editor’s N ote:H ere A dam s review s his childhood and fam ily history to highlighttw o ofthe traditionalvalues he holds are essentialto the Virgin Islands:discipline and culture.A dam s grew up w ithin the artisan com m unity in the portand adm inistrative capitalofSt.Thom as,CharlotteA m alie, surrounded by peoplew ho w ere highly skilled,am bitious,thrifty,and hardw orking.Each of these characteristics is included in the value of discipline that A dam s highlights.H istorical circum stance allow ed this black m iddle class to thrive,particularly during the econom icboom ofthe m idnineteenth century,w hen the islandsw ere a vitalCaribbean trading port.A vibrantintellectuallifecentered on discussionsofcurrenteventsand literature,w hileam ateurm usicm aking filled the leisure tim e ofA dam s’sfam ily and friends,offering supportfor hisargum entthatthe com m ercialactivity ofitsthriving portparalleled the cosm opolitan exchange ofideas and provided forthe spiritualdim ensionsofa healthy,tolerantsociety.Trading vesselsstim ulated thisculturallifeasw ell,often bringing touring m usiciansto the islands.A dam s’s efforts as a w riter,m usician,and civic leader can be seen asa questto regain the bestaspectsofthishalcyon period.Itsexam ple fueled his social thinking,as A dam s believed econom ic strength w as the foundation ofa harm onious society.A dam s further articulates hisstrategy ofidentity form ation in hisportrayalofthe islands’craftsm en,w ho derived a deep sense ofselfand purpose from theircreations “as m irroring them selves.”A dam s hopes thatretelling thisstory ofthe Virgin Islands’D anish pastw illhelppreserve these sam e core valuesasasource from w hich young Virgin Islandersm ay draw inspiration and strength. The backbone ofthe St.Thom ascom m unity in the nineteenth century w as the native artisan class.The rootsofthisclass extended back into the days 30

St.Thom as Craftsm en / 31 ofslavery.Chronic shortages ofw hite settlers forced m any early plantation ow ners striving to attain the m axim um in self-sufficiency to assign a sm allnum berofbondsm en to skilled occupations.A sthe St.Thom aseconom y shifted from agriculture to com m erce during the eighteenth century, m any ofthese skilled w orkers m ade theirw ay (often clandestinely)to the bustling portofCharlotteA m alie,w here they found ready em ploym entas tradesm en.The ranks ofthese urban craftsm en w ere further augm ented by new ly im ported A fricans,selected eitherbecause they had been artisans in their native country or because they show ed superior intelligence, appearance,and dem eanor. Slave artisans w ere desirable not only because they w ere cheaper to hire than theirw hitecounterpartsbutalso because they generally proved m ore dependable than transitory Europeans.Slave artisans either w orked directly under their ow ner or hired them selves outw ith his perm ission. In the latter arrangem ent,they paid their m asters a fixed percentage of theirw ages,keeping the restfor them selves.They usually had to provide for their ow n m aintenance, but in com pensation escaped from direct supervision after w orking hours.In this w ay,m any artisans achieved a degree of freedom and self-reliance,a sense of dignity and self-respect denied plantation field slaves.Independency replaced dependency as they learned the techniques ofsurvivalin an open,com petitive,capitalistsociety.W ithin tim e not a few of the m ost enterprising and resourceful am ong them m anaged to purchase their freedom outoftheir savings,a factclearly reflected in the grow ing free colored population ofCharlotte A m alie.Som e grew so prosperous that they could afford to purchase slaves oftheirow n. O nce they had becom e freedm en,black craftsm en continued to practice theirtrades unhindered by locallaw or prejudice.Indeed,theiraspirations w ere nurtured by the liberalpolicies ofthe D anes,w ho recognized the significantcontribution ofthe craftsm en to the stability,prosperity,and general culture of the local com m unity.* A s part of their post-1792 reform program ofprom oting the upw ard m obility ofthe free coloreds,the D anish governm ent ensured these craftsm en recognition and pay com m ensurate w ith theirskills.Law s w ere enacted regulating the various trades in accordance w ith the interests of the tradesm en and defining the relationship

* Com pare thisto the A m erican South,w here racistlaw s effectively elim inated N egro freem en from skilled occupationsduring the firsthalfofthe nineteenth century.See Richard C.W ade,Slavery in the Cities:The South,1820–1860 (N ew York: O xford U niversity Press,1964).

32 / St.Thom as Craftsm en betw een m asters,journeym en,and apprentices.* A lthough the D anes did not establish local trade schools,they did m ake provisions for sending prom ising apprentices and journeym en to D enm ark to com pletetheireducation and training.† O ther aspiring artisans received instruction at the M oravian m issions.But the vast m ajority of new com ers acquired their skillsby apprenticing them selvesto m astercraftsm en in the islands.“Every w orkm an,” noted one localhistorian,“isfollow ed through the day by his juvenile apprentice,w hose early years indicate thatfor som e tim e to com e he can only be expected to do hism aster’sbidding,in handing histoolsas they m ay be required and such like services.”‡ The quality ofw orkm anship ofthese native craftsm en w ashigh.Exacting standards w ere prescribed for those w ishing to becom e m aster craftsm en oreven journeym en.N issen recorded in the 1830sthatthe reputeand num bers of St.Thom ian artisans had grow n so high that their services w ere soughtby em ployersfrom Puerto Rico to British G uiana.§ Even Pastor John P.Knox,the islands’firsthistorian and a staunch advocate ofthe m yth ofN egro laziness,had to concede that“m any in allthese trades are excellentw orkm en and can alw ays com m and em ploym ent.”** The m any ancientbuildingsthatstillgrace the tow nsofthe Virgin Islands(including the m ajesticG overnm entH ouse,erected in 1865–67 for the D anish ColonialCouncil,and the CathedralofA llSaints Church,constructed by the freed slaves in 1848),as w ellas the fine m ahogany furniture found in the hom es ofnatives,stand today as eloquenttestim ony to the accuracy ofhis observation. From the outsetthe developm entofthe artisan class w as closely linked to thatofCharlotteA m alie.A sthattow n grew into acom m ercialcenterof size and im portance,the artisans likew ise increased in num bers,w ealth, and influence.W hen em ancipation occurred near the peak ofSt.Thom as’s *See,forexam ple,the O rdinance ofSeptem ber30,1902.A ccording to itsprovisions,only those m en w ho obtained “m asterbriefs”could legally em ploy journeym en or apprentices.Craftsm en receiving m ere “certificates” possessed no such rightbutcould w ork on theirow n asjourneym en.Journeym en w ithoutcertificates could notw ork for them selves buthad to find a“boss.” †See St.Thom asTidende(M ay 16,1906,and O ctober 3,1908). ‡John P.Knox,A H istoricalA ccountofSt.Thom as,W . I.(N ew York:C.Scribner, 1852),128–29. §Johan Peter N issen (1767?–1837),Rem iniscences ofa 46 Years’Residence in the Island of St.Thom as in the W est Indies (n.p.:printed by Sensem an & Co., 1838),entry for 1837. **Knox,126.

St.Thom as Craftsm en / 33 com m ercial prosperity in 1848, a sizeable percentage of natives w ere already engaged in w ell-paying skilled occupations.W riting aboutnative w orkers in 1849,Knox notes: Laborers in certain trades abound am ong the m en.Carpenters,m asons, tailors,shoem akers,shipw rights,joiners,cigar m akers and porters are the m ostnum erous....The w ages ofallthese are com paratively high, averaging from $6 to $25 per m onth.*

The nextfew decades w ere the halcyon days ofthe island’sartisan class.Its num bers increased substantially as freem en from the countryside flooded into CharlotteA m alie,and w ages rose as St.Thom as enjoyed her finaleconom icboom under D anish rule.Itw as during thisperiod ofprosperity that the craftsm en established them selves as the exem plars and leaders of the nativecom m unity,com m anding respectand adm iration from allw alksoflife. Encouraged and rew arded by liberalD anish policy and an econom icsituation thatm ade itpossibleforam an ofskill,intelligence,and industry to elevatehim self,the craftsm en setthe tone ofthe native com m unity’sattitude tow ard w ork. They considered w ork— hard, disciplined w ork— a virtue,notsom ething to be shunned or avoided.They gained a deep sense of personal pride and dignity from practicing their professions.I have never forgotten the sense ofaccom plishm entthatthe average m ason,tailor,or shoem aker took in hisjob.H e w ould lay outhisw ork w ith care and precision and then step back w ith satisfaction,know ing thatthe finished product represented tangible evidence of his ow n w orth and creativity. M oney w as im portant,to be sure,but so w as the inner satisfaction that cam e w ith ajob w elldone. Believing thattalentand intelligence constituted the prim ary criteriaof character,status,and respectability and highly conscious oftheirow n significantcontributionsto the building and direction oftheircom m unity,the island’scraftsm en view ed w ith contem pt,and som etim es am usem ent,the pretensions of lesser m en,black and w hite,w ho professed superiority because of color or nationality.This egalitarian attitude filtered dow n am ong m em bers of the low er classes w ho looked to the artisans w ith respect and adm iration,know ing that som eday they or their children m ightachieve acom parablestatus through hard w ork and education. A lthough the artisans valued individualism ,they also recognized the virtues of m utualism in a society in w hich social services w ere lim ited.

*Ibid.

34 / St.Thom as Craftsm en They form ed guilds to protect their socioeconom ic interests,as w ell as m utualaid societies— like the St.Joseph Society,the Free M asons,and the O dd Fellow s— in order to assist one another in tim es of em ergency and death.These societies,w hich sim ultaneously reflected and reinforced the spiritofcooperation w ithin the native com m unity,also provided a m uchneeded focalpointfor socialinteraction and recreationalactivities. A m ong them any outstanding craftsm en ofm y youth,Ican recollectw ith pridethefollow ing:G ifft,M aupé,and W right— blacksm iths;A dam s,Burnet, Esannason,H all,Joseph,O ttley,Pierre,Sim m onds,and Steele— joiners/cabinetm akers;A udain,Benjam in,D esplant,D inzey,Elois,Flem ing,Industrious,Lopez,and Rodw ell— tailors;D aniel,M aduro,M cKetney,M oolenaar, Sprauve,and Steele— m asons;Corneiro,D onastorg,Steele,Toledano,and Vialet— jew elers;Barzey,Francis,M cLean,M ichael,Sasso,and Thraen— shoem akers.A s Iw rite,descendantsofthese m en are stillam ong our m ost prom inentbusinessand com m unity leaders. U nfortunately,the golden era ofthe artisan classproved short-lived.By the close ofthe nineteenth century the artisansfound them selvesengulfed in the generaleconom icdepression affecting the island.The resultantdrop in trade,shipping,and construction threw m any ofthem outofw ork.A nd, like St.Thom asitself,they too becam e the victim sofindustrialcivilization and technological progress,as cheap,m ass-produced goods from G reat Britain and the U nited States flooded the m arketplace. In consequence,m any distressed craftsm en em igrated,seeking w ork on the Panam a Canalor in the U nited States.O thers sold theirtools,sw allow ed theirpride,and joined the ranks ofthe chronically underem ployed, unskilled m asses.The decline ofthe artisan classaround the turn ofthe century istold dram atically,albeitim personally,by statistics.The 1880 census listed 7,409 Virgin Islandersas being engaged in “industry,” w hileby 1911 thisfigure had fallen to 4,571.* U sing som ew hatdifferentcriteria,the m ore com prehensiveA m erican censusof1917 found only 2,802 personsengaged in craftoccupations.† Seventy years later,as Iw rite these w ords,the craft tradition survivesonly am ong asm allhandfulofdedicated artisans,and the im portantm aterialand spiritualcontribution ofthiscreative group to the developm entofthe St.Thom ian com m unity isallbutforgotten.D ifferent typesofleadershave em erged w ith differentsetsofvalues. *Luther K.Zabriskie,The Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States ofA m erica:H istoricaland D escriptive,Com m ercial,and IndustrialFacts,Figures,and Resources (N ew York and London:G .P.Putnam ’sSons,1918),28,186. †U. S.Bureau ofthe Census,Census ofthe Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States, N ovem ber 1,1917 (W ashington,D.C.,1918),77.

St.Thom as Craftsm en / 35

fam ily life Itw as into this proud,enterprising class oftradesm en thatIw as born on N ovem ber 4,1889.1 D espite the fact that the M achine A ge had already begun to render the artisans and theirw ay oflife anachronistic,during m y youth they stilldom inated com m unity life,and their values and attitudes perm eated thew orldofm y childhood,infusing itw ith m eaning and purpose. M y father,Jacob H enry A dam s,w as a carpenter.H e w as born on the neighboring island ofSt.John in 1862.A tthattim e the agriculturaleconom y ofSt.John w asin an acutestateofstagnation,due largely to the debilitating effectofthe iniquitousLaborLaw of1851.Thislaw setpitifully low w ages for agricultural w orkers and regulated their lives in other unjust w ays so as to ensure theircontinued subordination to the plantations after em ancipation.A lthough m y father’sfam ily ow ned som e property,they,like so m any St.Johniansofthe period,m oved to St.Thom asin questofgreater personalfreedom ,educationaladvantage,and econom icopportunity. W ithin tim e m y father w as apprenticed to the trade ofcarpentry and cabinetm aking.A fterhe acquired the necessary training,he w asem ployed by the RoyalM ailSteam PacketCom pany,the largestsuch enterprise then operating on the island.The com pany,located on w hatisnow called H assel Island,consisted ofa floating dock capable ofreceiving steam ers and large vessels over tw o thousand tons.Italso possessed a spacious dockyard for repairing sm allboats,as w ellas a large w orkshop— called the RoyalM ail Factory— forrepairsand the casting ofbrassand iron partsforvesselsofall sizes.The factory w asalso used fortraining purposes,and itw asthere that hundreds of skilled w orkers received their training as boilerm akers,carpenters,locksm iths,caulkers,and so forth.M y father spent thirty-eight yearsin the em ploy ofthe com pany,advancing to the position offorem an ship carpenterw ith the generous(forthose days)w age of$48 am onth.H is firstjob w as to design and supervise the construction ofthe Lazaretto,a building ofim m ense im portance to the island’seconom y for itw as there thatvisitorsw ith contagiousdiseasesw ere housed,thusprotecting the city ofCharlotteA m alie from the periodicepidem icsthathad hitherto devastated her population and reputation. Jacob A dam s took considerable pride in his craft.H e left our hom e in Savan atsix o’clock each m orning,2 returned foran hour’slunch (taking this opportunity to dry his dam p boots at the heat of a coalpot w henever he w orked on the floating dock),and finished his day’s labor at six in the evening.H e w asadedicated w orkerw ho,untilthe tragicday in 1916 he collapsed on the jobfrom astroke,boasted ofneverm issing asingleday’sw ork.

36 / St.Thom as Craftsm en This stroke,how ever,perm anently paralyzed him ,and he never w orked again.D uring the firstw eeksofhisdisability,he received one-halfpay from thecom pany.But,despitehisyearsofloyalservice,even thisstipend w asdiscontinued,and he w as replaced by another w orker.M y siblings and I,along w ith m y w ife,Ella,took care ofhim untilhisdeath on February 17,1919, considering itaprivilege todoso.3 W hen the dockm asteroffered topurchase m y father’svaluablesetoftools,Irefused to sellthem ,know ing how m uch they m eantto him even w hen he could no longeruse them . A lthough m y father’sfam ily w as a rem arkably long-lived one (histw o sisters,H enrietta Krigger of H ackensack,N ew Jersey,and W ilhelm ina M artin ofJam aica,Long Island,died in theirlatenineties,w hilehiscousin M ary H arvey ofSt.John lived to the age of104),the strenuous w ork he perform ed w ithoutrespite,Ibelieve,cuthislifeto fifty-seven years,w hich, nevertheless,w as considered quiteold in those days.H e died am oderately w ealthy m an,leaving abank accountof$180.00 and,perhapsm ore im portantfrom hispointofview,no debts. Irem em ber m y father in m y early youth as stern and inflexible w ith a gruffexterior.Itw asin lateryearsthatIlearned histrue characterofbeing kind and loving,w ith a dry sense of hum or.H e w as a quiet m an w ho enjoyed few affiliations outside of the O ld U nity Lodge of St.Thom as, w hich he helped found.4 Typicalofthe fathersofthatera,he w asastrictdisciplinarian,holding a conservative and dem anding attitude w ith regard to the cardinalvirtues ofdiscipline,obedience,and respectfulbehavior.Ican recallatno tim e hearing acrossw ord passbetw een him and m y m other. In these days,parentsexerted agreatinfluence overtheirchildren,especially in the line ofdiscipline.N otonly yourparentsbutallolderpeople,if they saw you m isbehaving in the streets,w ould nothesitateto correctyou, som etim es physically.A nd you accepted thiscorrection because you ow ed respectto an older adm onisher and also because ifw ord ever reached your parentsthatyou had been defiant,you w ould be duly punished.The sam e w as true ofyour teachers.To com plain to your parentsaboutyour teacher w as to invitetrouble.The firstthing your parentsw ould say w as:“Tellm e som ething,do you think your teacher iscrazy? You m usthave been doing som ething w rong.” Parents,indeed the com m unity in general,assum ed a guardian-like responsibility forthe properupbringing ofthe youngergeneration,and they did nothesitateto resortto strictpunishm entsto achieve thisend. A lthough strict,m y father alw ays treated the m em bers ofhisfam ily,as w ellasotherpeople,w ith consideration,sym pathy,and understanding.H is authority w asnotm indlessorarbitrary butdesigned to inculcatem oralles-

St.Thom as Craftsm en / 37 sons and qualities thathe believed im portant.O ur hom e,w hich attim es m ay have lacked in m aterialpossessions,w asalw aysrich in spiritualvalues, w hich he em bodied and transm itted tom y brother,sister,and m yselftohelp guide us through life’sjourney.Jacob H enry A dam s w as agood husband,a good father,a good friend;in sum ,he w asan authentically good m an. Inever m etm y father’sm other,A nne A ugustaA dam s.5 A pparently she had received a good education,for w hile on St.Thom as she w as often em ployed by D anish fam iliesasagovernessto instructtheirchildren in the English language,w hich even then w as the language ofbusiness and com m erce throughoutthe D anish W estIndies.6 She w as w idow ed before m oving to St.Thom as,and before m y birth she leftSt.Thom as for D enm ark, neverto return.ItappearsthataD anish fam ily,the Brøndsteds,cam e to St. Thom astotake up residence,butforsom e reason orothertheirstay w ascut shortto six m onths.Thisshortresidency did notperm itsufficienttim e for theirchildren to learn as m uch English as they had w ished.Consequently, they induced m y grandm otherto accom pany them to Copenhagen fornine m onths.She agreed,and herstay stretched outto thirty-nine years. M y grandm other m aintained a regular correspondence w ith her three children untilthe tim e ofherdeath,keeping them up to datew ith hervaried activities.H erlettersended w ith high praise forthe kindnessofthe Brondsteds,w ho treated her as a m em ber oftheirfam ily.U nfortunately,Iw as too young to appreciate the m any things that filled her letters, but I w as im pressed w ith herexcellenthandw riting,w hich furtherconvinced m e that she m ustsom ehow have received an outstanding education.M ainly Iw as interested in those letters that m entioned she had sent us D anish ham , cheese,sausage,and other foodstuffs.Iparticularly recallm y ecstasy w hen she w rotethatalong w ith aguitarform y fathershe w assending m e aflageolet.Itw asthisvery instrum entthatbecam e the pivotofm y early m usical interestand career.M y grandm otherdied aw ell-to-do w om an,bequeathing a considerable sum in cash and jew elsto her three children.The firsttim e I ever saw tears running dow n m y father’scheeks occurred w hen he received the new sofhism other’sdeath.H e cried like achild,and itim pressed m e that despite his im passive exterior,he had a soft spot deep in his heart.A nne A dam s m usthave been an extraordinary w om an,and Iregretnothaving know n her. M y m other,Petrina Evangeline (D inzey),w as born on St.Thom as in 1860 and died there in 1906.7 H erparentsw ere from the island ofSt.M artin and had astrong artisan background.H erfatherw asagifted tailor,and she herselfw asadressm aker— one ofthe finestin the com m unity.A quiet, soft-spoken w om an w ho w as deeply religious,she em pathized w ith less

38 / St.Thom as Craftsm en fortunate people and actively participated in charitable w ork.She had a w ay w ith people,a sense ofindividualhum an w orth,thatm ade aprofound im pression upon m e.Let m e try to illustrate this quality by relating an incidentthathad agreatim pactupon m e in m y youth. Iw as a pupilatthe M oravian Tow n School,ofw hich M issM ary M eyers w as principal.Classes w ere arranged by num ber,and your class standing depended on the quality ofyour w ork as show n by your m arks.There w asalw aysintense com petition am ong studentsforthe honorofbeing top ofthe class.ForseveralyearsIheaded m y class.In the eleventh grade,how ever,I m et m y W aterloo.I w as topped by A lthea Peterson,a girl pupil (w hich w as especially hum iliating to m e because m y better w as fem ale).8 M y friends taunted m e:“M an,you leta girltop you? H ow could you let som ething like thathappen?” Icould notw ithstand m y pride,and therefore soughtrevenge asan outlet.Som ehow Im anaged to createasituation in orderto heap upon thisgirlthe bitternessIfelt.In an exchange ofw ords during our confrontation,I used one w hich at that tim e w as considered obscene.The nextday Ilearned in quiteadram aticm annerthatthe young girlhad related the incidentto her m other.A lthough there w ere no telephones,new s traveled fast.A s Iw as speaking to a friend atthe gate ofm y hom e,Isuddenly received asharp slap on m y face.Itcam e from m y father, angry beyond w ords.Later thatevening,Im ulled over the blow (the only one Iever received from him )and the w ords ofreprim and thateventually follow ed.W hile Iw as plotting further revenge on the girlIbelieved to be the sole cause ofm y disgrace,m y m other,w ho had justreturned from a church m eeting,entered m y room .She advanced slow ly tow ard m e,looked atm e sorrow fully,and w ith ahym nbook in her hand and tears in her eyes she said softly,“I’m surprised by w hatIheard.I’m disappointed in you and asham ed ofyour conducttow ard a young girlw hose only offense lay in show ing a superiority over you in her schoolw ork.H ow w ould you like som eone to treat your sister in the m anner that you treated that poor girl?” Then abruptly turning her back on m e,she leftthe room .H er sim ple w ords and quietm anner had revealed to m e m y true selfas a cow ard w ho could notstand defeatand therefore acted ignom iniously.The next day,on m y ow n initiative,Isheepishly m ade m y w ay to the girl’shouse to offerm y apology,w hich to m y am azem entw asgraciously accepted by her and her m other.Thereafter,w e becam e the bestoffriends.(Ilater nam ed one ofm y ow n daughtersafterher.)Ihad learned m y lesson,thanksto the gentle hum anity of m y m other,w ho throughout her life continued to exercise aw onderfulinfluence overm e.She taughtm e notonly to be hon-

St.Thom as Craftsm en / 39 estw ith m yselfand others butalso to love,respect,and treatw ith charity m y fellow m an. Iw asthe eldestchild in ourfam ily.M y sisterEdna A ugustaA dam sw as born on January 18,1894,and m y brotherJulien Zeitzem arA dam sarrived on D ecem ber30,1895.9 Tw o othersistersdied in childhood,notan unusual occurrence in those days ofpoor sanitation,inadequate m edicalfacilities, and prim itive m edicalscience.10 W e three surviving children w ere alw ays quite close to one another,playing together as youngsters and sticking together in later life.Julien,w ho died in 1961,joined the U.S.N avy Band w ith m e.11 Itw ashe,a fine tailor,w ho m ade the band’suniform s.Edna isan excellent dressm aker w ho to this day lives in m y household,a constant friend and com panion to m e and the m em bersofm y fam ily.12 Like m ost artisan fam ilies,w e lived m odestly but w ell.W e rented our tw o-bedroom hom e for around eightdollars a m onth.Few natives ow ned theirow n hom esin those days.M ostofthe housesbelonged tow ealthy people w ho leased them out.The poorer folk sim ply could notam ass sufficient capitalto buy orbuild theirow n hom es.M any had ahard enough tim e just paying the rent,w hich m eantacertain insecurity oftenure astheirlandlord w as legally free to evictthem atany tim e.W e alw ays had sufficientfood, clothing,and other necessities oflife,butm y father w as alw ays carefulnot to stretch his budgetto indulge in w hathe considered superfluous w ants. The artisansasaw holem ade asharp distinction betw een essentialand artificialneeds.They strove alw aysto live w ithin theirm eans,everm indfulthat debtw oulddeprivethem oftheirpreciousindependence.“You m ustcutyour cloth to suityour clothes” w as a favorite saying am ong thisthrifty class of people.W e did,how ever,enjoy afew luxuries.O ne necessity thatm ostartisan households,including m ine,feltthey could notdo w ithoutw asam aid to cook and help w ith generalhousekeeping chores.U sually these household helperscam e from Tortola,butthey w ere treated aspartofthe fam ily. M y father w as a staunch m em ber of the M oravian Church and m y m other a devoted m em ber ofthe D utch Reform ed Church (later,the St. Thom as Reform ed Church).Significantly,how ever,their offspring w ere m em bers ofthe EvangelicalLutheran Church.To further com plicate this seem ingly religiousdisarray,m y w ife,Ella,and allourchildren are Rom an Catholics.13 Butthism ultireligious potpourridid notin any w ay or m anner alter or affectthe love,respect,and harm ony thatexisted am ong us, and isin itselfcharacteristicofthe islands. M y m other’sfam ily,the D inzeys,form ed an integralpartofour hom e life.The D inzeys w ere a highly cultured group.O ne branch ofthe fam ily

40 / St.Thom as Craftsm en resided in Santo D om ingo,w hat is now the D om inican Republic,w here they rose to greatprom inence aspoliticians,law yers,and businessm en.O f the localD inzeys,the person w ith w hom Ienjoyed the greatestcontactw as m y uncle,A rchibald D inzey.H e w as a m an ofm edium height,straightas an arrow,w ho gracefully carried histw o-hundred-pound w eight.A stocky, robustm an,U ncle D inzey w as a m aster tailor,one ofthe m ostrespected and influentialartisans on the island.H e took pride in the epithetascribed to him by m any that“w hen D inzey fitsyou,itislike afashion plate.”D uring m y early years,D inzey,hisw ife,Isabella,three sons,and one daughter lived togetherw ith ourfam ily.14 The com bination w asahappy and harm oniousone,w hich enriched ourhom e lifeand led to the form ation ofaloyal and loving fam ily unitdedicated to each other. Tradesm en in those days took greatpride in the quality oftheirw ork, w hich they accepted as m irroring them selves both as people and as craftsm en.They believed them selves to be the saltofthe com m unity as w ellas its realaristocracy— an aristocracy notby birth butoftalentand accom plishm ent.M any ofthem had risen to an educationallevelcom m ensurate w ith their skill and craftsm anship and,as builders,they believed them selves to be of vast im portance in com m unity life.The w ork they left behind issalientproofoftheirbelief. A literateand highly cultivated m an,U ncleD inzey exercised aprofound influence over m e.H e had traveled w idely throughoutthe Caribbean and South A m erica and spoke often to m e ofSanto D om ingo and H aiti.H e possessed an excellentlibrary thatcontained the w orks ofthe leading poets, w riters,and historians.H is learning w as broad and he spoke severallanguages.H e taughtm e m uch aboutlife,w ork,art,and the achievem entsof greatm en.Irem em berone nighthearing him declare in hisdeep,stentorian voice w hich brooked no contradiction:“There are tw o W ashingtons— G eorge W ashington and Booker T.W ashington.” That w as w hen I first heard ofthe greatN egro statesm an. D inzey w as notunique.Rather he typified the broad cultivation ofthe artisan class.M y father,for exam ple,spoke French,Spanish,and English, along w ith a sm attering ofD anish and D utch Papiam ento.M y father also ow ned a fine library from w hich I read voraciously.H e and his friends could frequently be overheard discussing the w orks ofthe greatw riters— Lord Byron,John Ruskin,W illiam M akepeace Thackeray,and so forth. Sim ilarly,m ostartisans w ere fam iliar w ith w orld eventsand personalities beyond our shores.Ihave alw ays m arveled atthe breadth oflearning displayed by the people of those days and have tried to understand from w hence itcam e.Today Ibelieve thatitderived from St.Thom as’sunrivaled

St.Thom as Craftsm en / 41 situation asacosm opolitan com m ercialcenterand asaportofcallforships ofallnations plying the Caribbean w aterw ays. A lm osteveryone knew how to read and w rite.They learned to do so partially from the com pulsory schooling required by the D anes,partially from everyday experience and contact.People from all over the w orld m illed through the city streets:“Every day St.Thom as shakes hands w ith the universe,” noted one visitor.A num ber ofm agazines and new spapers w ere alw aysavailable.Lecturesby localcitizensorvisiting professorsw ere frequently given and w ell attended.A nd then there w as the telegraph. Because ofits centrallocation,St.Thom as had one ofthe firsttelegraph com panies in the W est Indies— the W est India and Panam a Telegraph Com pany— founded in 1869,but not operating until 1873.The people w ere alw ays keptup to date on currentevents,for the D anes posted the telegram s in selectpublic places around the island.People ofallw alks of life,going to and from theirjobs,w ould invariably stop to read w hatw as happening and w ould discussitw ith theirfellow citizens.Irecalloverhearing anim ated conversations over the events of the Spanish-A m erican (1898)and Boer (1899–1902)w ars.M en and w om en argued know ledgeably over m ilitary tactics,im perialism (A m erican activities in Puerto Rico and Cuba w ere particularly reprobated),and great-pow er diplom acy.In other w ords,the m inds ofVirgin Islanders w ere not insular;they w ere alertand alive to w orld horizons and universalisticideas. Proud oftheircultivation,the craftsm en w ere determ ined to pass on to theirchildren theirknow ledge and curiosity.Sundaysw ere dreary daysfor m e as a youth,for follow ing the drills ofSunday schooland church,the ruling heads ofthe allied A dam s-D inzey fam ily assem bled allthe children in the afternoon to recite poem s from the w orks ofthe m asters thathad been given to us during the w eek to m em orize.Icould never erase from m y m ind the conviction that because of m y age— just ripe for literary onslaught— Iw as selected as the specialvictim ofpoetic m em orization.I can stillrem em ber quite vividly Lord Byron’s“The Prisoner ofChillon” (1816),for that poem gave m e the m ost trouble.H ow can I ever forget reciting those m em orablelines: M y hairisgray,butnotw ith years, N or grew itw hite In asinglenight, A s m en’shave grow n from sudden fears.

W hileIw asfearfulofm issing aw ord ortw o,m y earsrang w ith the joyful shoutsofm y neighborhood friendsoutside— playing atm arbles,leap frog,

42 / St.Thom as Craftsm en cricket,flying bat,and cashew nuts.* H ow Ienvied m y friends.A nd how I hated the poem and itsauthor,w ho Ibelieved had w ritten itespecially to torm entm e.Before long,how ever,thatgreathealer and innovator Tim e cam e to m y rescue by revealing to m e atleastsom e ofthe beauty and hidden m eaning,not only of Byron’s poem but also of the w orks by other w riters w hose contribution to m ankind w illstand for ages to com e as vital forces ofcivilization.Soon Itoo began to build m y ow n little library and from itm anufactured m y ow n w orld ofdream s. A long w ith theirkeen interestin literature and w orld affairs,the craftsm en,like allother ranks ofisland society,had a com pelling love ofm usic. Indeed,m usicw as the leading com ponentofour culturallives.H ere again the factthatSt.Thom asw asaportofcallforshipsofallnationsw asofcardinalim portance,since the peoplebenefited from the m any m usicaltalents and traditions thatentered the harbor.Today ithas been largely forgotten how m uch these visiting virtuosos enriched the culture of the Virgin Islands.A random sam pling ofthe localnew spapers show s thatan astonishing num ber of prom inent m usicians from throughout the w orld perform ed in St.Thom as during the D anish period. A s far back as 1843 the Italian O pera Com pany visited St.Thom as, bringing w ith itthe renow ned tenorFelipe G alli,one ofthe greatestItalian singers.The com pany returned tw elve years later,thistim e featuring the w orld-fam ous vocalists Fiorentina and Salvi.A m ong the accom panying group on thisoccasion w ere Bellite,the m ostcelebrated clarinetvirtuoso of histim e,and G iovanniBottesini,the greatestcontrabass player the w orld has yetproduced.N extcam e A delina Pattiand LouisM oreau G ottschalk, w ho gave several concerts together at the Com m ercial H otel (later,the G rand H otel) in June 1857.G ottschalk,a creole from Louisiana,w as a highly regarded com poserand pianistw hose salon com positionsw ere popular am ong allpianistsand w hose artistry rivaled thatofthe greatSigism und Thalberg.Patti,then justin her thirteenth year,rose to be arguably the greatestoperaticcoloratura soprano ofalltim es. The St.Thom as Tim es new spaper dated July 1,1857,carried the program ofone ofthese concertsas follow s: *For those w ho m ay have forgotten the lasttw o gam es,flying batw as played w ith tw o sticksofunequallength.The shorterw asplaced in aholeand then struck w ith the larger in order to liftitinto the air.The person hitting the flying batthe m osttim esbefore ithitthe ground w on.Cashew nutsw asplayed by “chouking” a handfulofcashew nutstow ard a hole in the ground aboutfive feetaw ay,the w inner being the one w ho gotthe m ostnutsin the hole.

St.Thom as Craftsm en / 43 C ELEBR A TED G R A N D C O N C ER T

M r.L.M .G ottschalk,the celebrated pianistand com poser,accom panied by M issA delina Patti,the juvenileand im m inentPrim a-D onna w ill give aThird G rand Concerton W ednesday,1 July 1857 atThe Com m ercialH otel. PR O G R A M

Jerusalem — A Fantasia— D avid Babura by G ottschalk follow ed by the Cavatina from the opera Barber ofSevillew ith the variations introduced in itby the im m ortalM alibran.15

The Tim es of W ednesday,June 24,1857,offered a review of an earlier program : The Concert:M issA delina Pattiand M r.LouisG ottschalk need no Tedesco to trum pettheirpraises or herald theirpow ers.In them selves, they rise by illustration superior to either ofthese.N or isitnecessary to analyze w ith operaticperspicuity w hether itisin the execution ofa soprano or contralto or w hether itisin the bass,tenor,or treblethe m ostexcellence isto be found,for in allofthem w e m ay w ith truth say,thatin the youthfullady and gifted gentlem an there isharm ony, m elody,perfection! G entlem en,the sense ofgratification and pleasure depicted on every countenance thatcom posed the audience oflastevening isthe true criticthattellslargestin favor ofthe distinguished artistsofw hom this articlespeaks.N ever have w e before beheld in the salon ofThe Com m ercialH otel,crow ded as itw as,so m uch unbounded satisfaction,so m uch applauding,and,“possibly notthe m ostpleasing to the perform ers,” so m uch encoring.N evertheless,be itsaid w ith thanks thatM iss Pattion every occasion after being encored returned to her task w ith the evidentintention to surpass,ifsuch w ere possible,her lasteffort and to receive w ith unlim ited enthusiasm stillgreater applause!W here everything isgood,there can be very littleto choose,yetw e believe thatthe birdsong executed on the piano by M r.G ottschalk m ay be taken as one ofthose m aster effortsto be classed in the superlative degree ofhisattainm ents. To M issPatti,ifw e m ay presum e to m ake choice,her rondo in a finaleofSom nam bula w as the bew itching strain thatdrew dow n the house and w as vociferously encored.The perform ance oflastevening cannotfailto enlistin the behalfofthese professionalsw ho w e believe w illbe ifnotnow co-equalw ith aThalbertor aJenny Lind the m ost liberalpatronage during theirstay in thisisland and w e can scarcely doubtthatw ith such m usicalperfection in the city itm ustexciteageneraldesire w ith everyone to participatein an evening’sentertainm ent

44 / St.Thom as Craftsm en ofthe kind.Itm ay therefore be reasonably expected thatthere w illbe a series ofsuccessfulconcertsgiven by M issA delina Pattiand M r.Louis G ottschalk.

A m ong other m usicians to visit St.Thom as in the 1850s w ere the eighteen-year-old Italian violin virtuoso Lavinia Bandini,hailed throughoutEurope asthe fem alePaganini,and Tibesini,the celebrated French tenor, assisted by the distinguished basso G asparoni and pianist N icolai.Both groupsgave concertsatthe Com m ercialH otel.The dem ise ofSt.Thom asas a port of call in the latter part of the nineteenth century only slightly dim inished this galaxy of stars entering her harbor.In Septem ber and N ovem ber1866,Lablanche,one ofthe finestsingersofhistim e,concertized at the Com m ercial H otel.In 1890 D aisy H ope and Ernesto del Castillo entertained at the sam e location. In the follow ing year the fantastic SissierettaJones,called the Black Patti,appeared w ith the Tennessee Jubilee Singersatthe new ly opened A pollo Theater,w hilethe w orld-fam ouspiano soloist Señora Luisa Terzicaptivated audiences at the Com m ercialH otel. A ngelCelestino M orales,lead soloistatthe M adrid Conservatory ofM usic, appeared in 1906,follow ed the next year by the distinguished violinist D avid Saavedra ofthe Berlin Conservatory ofM usic. The list,ofcourse,could easily be extended.Suffice itto note thatthis continuous im press oftalentand creativity,no m atter how fleeting each visithad been,m usthave lefta deep im printupon localculture.Skeptics m ightrecallthe follow ing anecdote.A noted scholar w as once questioned as to w hether or nota certain successfulindividualw ho had lived during the age of Socrates possessed the qualifications of the fam ous A thenian A cadem y.The scholarrem inded hisquestionerthatalthough the person in question did notattend the A cadem y,he m ightnevertheless have w alked and talked w ith Socrates him self.The fact w as that the perform ances of these artistsw ere received w ith enthusiasm and the people w ere quick to appreciateand inculcatethe skillsand repertoiresthey had seen and heard. Irecollectm y fatherfrequently m entioning the vocalartistry ofSissieretta Jones,especially hernum ber“A Ship on Fire,”w hich carried the house.H e related,in a tense voice,how angered the audience becam e w hen a young m an started to w hisper during her perform ance and how quickly they w hisked him outinto the street. Besides these touring m usicians,there w ere several artists of quality w ho took up residence in St.Thom as.A m ong them w ere A rturo G iglioli and Santi H estres.16 G iglioli of Florence,Italy,com posed several fam ous m asses and played the organ in the island’s Rom an Catholic Church.A superb teacher,he instructed m any Virgin Islanders in m usic.17 H estres,a

St.Thom as Craftsm en / 45 native ofFrance w ho had graduated asabasssingerfrom the Conservatory of Paris,cam e to St.Thom as as the general m anager of Barthelom eo Lange’sshipping firm .H e notonly contributed to localm usicasasingerin the Rom an Catholic Church choir but also served for m any years as a m em ber of the Colonial Council and actively participated in other civic endeavors w ith m en like Avictoria,Elcotti,and A .H .Riise.A nother celebrated m usician,a native of St.Thom as,w as A lfred N em ours (form erly Levy),w ho studied m usicin G erm any.* A com poserand pianistofnote,he created com positions that w ere published in Europe and played in the RoyalO pera H ouse ofBerlin.H e w asafellow studentin the classw ith the fam ous conductor Bruno W alter atthe Berlin Conservatory.N otonly did each of these distinguished m usicians m ake significant contributions to our localm usicalheritage,butthe factthatthey choose to live here isan indication thatSt.Thom as w as far from being aculturalbackw ater. The extentofthe com m unity’sappreciation offine m usicaltalentisw ell illustrated by the story ofBrindisde Salas,the w orld-fam ousviolinist.O ne day A uguste Victorio,a leading citizen of Charlotte A m alie,in com pany w ith Barthelom eo Lange,overheard som eone playing the violin in one of the less reputable saloons.U pon inquiring of the saloonkeeper w ho w as doing the playing,he w as told thatitw as a little black boy from a Cuban sugarvesselin the harbor.Victorio w asso im pressed thathe invited the lad tovisithim atthe M asonicLodge toperform forsom e ofhisfellow M asons, including SantiH estres,Fontano,and D esora.The w ealthy civicleadersw ho attended w ere so pleased w ith the boy’sskillsthatthey im m ediately raised sufficientm oney am ong them to send Brindisto study atthe ParisConservatory.A fter graduating w ith honors,Claudio José D om ingo Brindis de Salasreturned to St.Thom asto give one ofhisfirstconcertsand laterw ent on to becom e one ofthe m ostacclaim ed violinists in the w orld.Itspeaks w ellindeed for the high levelofculturalattainm entofSt.Thom as thatits citizensw ere capableofappreciating,and w ere w illing tosubsidize,the budding geniusofaBrindisde Salas. M en ofeducation and w ealth w ere notthe only onesto contributeto the Virgin Island’svibrantm usicalheritage.M ostcraftsm en played som e kind ofinstrum entorsang in localchoirs.A nd they m ade m usican integralpart oftheirhom e life.M y fatherw asan excellentguitarplayerw ho possessed a razor-sharp ear for m usic,although he never studied itform ally.Like m ost *Because ofthe anti-Sem itism he encountered in G erm any,he changed hislast nam e from Levy to N em ours.Ironically,he w asoutspokenly pro-G erm an in sentim entduring the heated debates aboutthe Transfer after the turn ofthe century.

46 / St.Thom as Craftsm en localm usiciansofhisday,he played notby notebutby ear— “parrotine,”as itw as then called because he im itated the m usiche heard m uch the w ay a parrotw ould.Iw ould sitatm y father’sfeetenjoying every lovely m elody, m usic filling m y heart and soul.18 Together w ith Joseph M onsanto,our dow nstairsneighborw ho played violin,and severalotherfriends,he form ed a m usicalgroup ofvocalistsand instrum entaliststhatfrequently played at ourhom e on VesterG ade on Sundays.19 U ncleD inzey,w ho sang bassin the choirofthe EvangelicalLutheran Church,ofw hich he w asastaunch m em ber(Isuspecthisaffiliation w asthe cause ofm y fam ily’sm ultireligiouspersuasions),hisson Eldred,also a bass in the choir,and hisdaughter Evelyn, w ho w as the choir’s leading soprano,w ould join in these Sunday m usical jam borees.20 A fter the m usichad finished,the m en w ould often engage in discussionsofthe relative m eritsofthe greatcom posers,asw ellasthe literary classics.These w arm fam ily sessions,fullofgood hum or and revolving around the tw in pillarsofm usicand literature,w ere to be the overtures,the beginnings,ofw hatw asto be m y careerasm usician and w riter.

3 The Value ofEducation

Editor’s N ote:The aspirations of the artisan class fueled an “insatiable hunger for know ledge” thatsupported a broad system ofprivatereligious and publicschoolsin the Virgin Islands.The availability ofeducation for blacks supports A dam s’s argum ent of a beneficent D anish governm ent. A dam s argues thatm any black fam ilies,even ofthe low er classes,did all w ithin their pow er to take advantage of educational opportunities.H e describesthe system ofpublicand privateschoolson the islandsand gives a sense of the day-to-day lives of the islands’ children.H is experience show sthatdedicated teachers,such asM ary M eyers,builta solid foundation of language and m ath skills w hile inspiring a love of know ledge. Learning in the islands continued in the hom e,w ith discussions ofliterature and m usic,as w ell as in the artisan apprenticeship system ,w hich instilled discipline w hile providing skill in a trade.A dam s w as also a strong advocateofcorrespondence study by w hich islandersm ightexpand their education beyond the lim its of local expertise.(The College of the Virgin Islands w as not founded until 1962.) H e profiles A dolph Sixto,a localintellectualand gadfly w ho served as an inspiration to A dam s and others in thisregard.Sixto’scharism a and confidentvision for the islands m ay w ell have inspired A dam s’s deep and sincere dedication to their future.A dam s’spersonalstory ofsuccessin securing the skillsand know ledge needed for a successful m usic career in an environm ent w ith few instructors and no m usic schools or curriculum propels his advocacy of self-study and hard w ork as a m eans ofcreating opportunity. Like alm ostallofm y contem poraries,Ibegan schoolatthe age ofsix.M y siblings and Ifirstattended M rs.Vialet’s school.The D anes w ere strong

47

48 / The Value ofEducation believers in public education and w ere am ong the earliest Europeans to adoptfree com pulsory education in the eighteenth century.Their public schoolsw ere considered the finestin Europe.D anish educationalenthusiasm extended into the W est Indies in the 1780s.M andatory elem entary education for allw hite children in the islands w as decreed in 1788.* M ore significantly,official efforts to expand educational benefits to N egroes com m enced asearly as1787,w hen the governm entauthorized the Lutheran Church to establish governm entschools,staffed by free people ofcolor in the three islands.Suffering from shortages offunds and qualified teachers— tw o problem s that w ould continuously plague D anish educational efforts— the Lutherans m anaged to set up only four schools (one in St. Thom as),w hich catered prim arily to upper-class w hite and free colored children.† M eanw hile,M oravian m issionaries,w ho had established them selves in the islands in the 1730s,and Rom an Catholicm issionaries,w ho had arrived in the 1750s,w ere busy setting up church schools for slaves and free coloreds w ho belonged to theircongregations.Thus early educational efforts in the D anish W est Indies ow ed m uch to the pioneering effortsofdedicated church m issionaries,rather than secular authorities. The Virgin Islands public school m ovem ent began on June 4,1839, w hen the D anish governm ent,anxious to educate blacks for freedom , decreed that country schools be established.The law stipulated that all estatechildren betw een the agesofsix and thirteen had to attend schoolor their parents w ould be fined for each day they m issed.‡ This tim e the M oravian m issionariesw ere selected by the D anish authoritiesto superintend and staffthe schools,because they had abundantm issionaries on the scene and over acentury ofexperience in educating the slaves.D uring the 1840snearly fifteen ruralschoolsw ere established throughoutthe islands. Reflecting the generalpoliticalobjectivesofthe D anish adm inistratorsand the generalorientation ofM oravian m issionary practice in the Caribbean, the country schoolsconcentrated m ore on m olding the m oralcharacter of the students than on providing them w ith a basic education that w ould *The D utch Reform ed Church opened the first recorded (church) school in 1747.See K.Fjeldsøe,“The D evelopm entofthe EducationalSystem in the D anish W estIndian Islands,” an English translation by Eva Law aetz ofsix articles from Folkeskolen 33 (1916)held by the St.Thom as PublicLibrary. †The trialand tribulationsofthe early Lutheran educatorsare recounted in Jens Larsen,Virgin Islands Story (Philadelphia:Fortress Press,1950),chs.7–8. ‡The law w as revised slightly in 1847 and again in 1853.The 1843 “Regulation ofCountry Schools”can be found in Collection ofthe M ostIm portantLaw s,O rdinances,Publications etc.,Valid in or Referring to the D anish W estIndia Islands (Copenhagen,D enm ark:J.H .Schultz,1884).

The Value ofEducation / 49 help them to im prove their socioeconom ic status.* O rder and discipline w ere stressed in the classroom ,w hilereligioussubjectsdom inated the curriculum and the Bibleserved as the basictextbook. Thattype ofdiscipline w as the order ofthe day in the long ago.Itw as one established and observed in the hom e and,by w ay ofthe schools,w as carried into the com m unity.M any parents,because ofthe lack ofeducationaladvantages,could notgo far into subjects ofreading,w riting,and arithm etic,butthey w ere ableto lay the foundation on w hich alltrue education isbuilt,the developm entofthe w ill,the spirit— in short,the developm ent of the w hole m an by m eans of guidance in points of respect, decency,cleanliness,truthfulness,honesty,and due regard for the feelings ofothers. There w as established a kind ofcurfew law,one w hich w as strictand exacting and w hich brooked no excuses w hatever.It w as a law not laid dow n by the governm ent,but by parents and those responsible for the young in theircharge.A bugle w as sounded five m inutes before a gun— a canon,to be exact— w as to be fired ateighto’clock every nightfrom Fort Christian.Itm eantthatallchildren below a certain age w ho happened to be on the streets had to be athom e ateighto’clock pronto,for on guard there w as certain to be the w atchdog ofthe fam ily,stationed atthe door to see thatthere w as no escape.Itw as a sightfor us boys to see one another traveling atjetspeed from alldirections to m ake the hom e-portlanding before the gun fired.Invariably w e m ade it— for w e had to.1 The follow ing accountw ritten in 1841 by Reverend J.G ardin,superintendentofschoolson St.Croix,provides an excellentdescription ofa typicalday in the governm entschools:† Iw as delighted w ith the beautifulappearance ofthe schoolhouses;they are sixty feetlong and thirty feetdeep.... The schoolsare conducted in the follow ing m anner....The children ...are sentto the schoolhouse under the guidance ofatrustw orthy fem ale,w ho receives theirhats,turbans,etc.atthe door.They are alw ays required to be neatand decentin theirapparel....U pon the ringing ofthe bell,the boys and girlsplace them selves separately before theirrespective doors and then m arch in m easured tim e into the schoolroom s holding theirhands on theirbacks;each division being preceded by itsteacher.The children then place them selves in row s before theirrespective teachers.U pon agiven signalthey allstretch out *See O liverW .Furley,“M oravian M issionaries and Slaves in the W estIndies,” Caribbean Studies5:1 (A pril1965). †A s reprinted in The Bulletin (St.Thom as),M arch 14 and 15,1941.

50 / The Value ofEducation theirhands to show thatthey are clean;then each class isindividually sum m oned,and m arches to itsplace. There are eightclasses on each side and each class has itsparticular seat;the ninth isoccupied by the m onitors as those children are called w ho are m ore advanced and w ho assistthe younger ones to read and spell.Then they are seated,the w ord isgiven,“H ands on knees! H ands up! Fold arm s!”Thisisdone quickly and sim ultaneously by everyone. The teachers then com m ence singing am orning hym n,w hich the scholars have previously learned by heart.Then they allkneeldow n, and the teachers offer up aprayer;the children folding theirhands and closing theireyes.Then follow s the Biblelesson.The teacher stands behind hisdesk and reads:a verse or longer portion ofachapter;he then steps forw ard,and converses w ith the children upon w hathas been read....H e asks them leading questions and then they often arrive atim portanttruths,acquire ahabitofthinking,and w hatthey read becom es im pressed on theirm em ories.Ifonly one ofthe children gives acorrectansw er,as very frequently happens,itm ustbe repeated by allthe rest.A tthe conclusion ofevery lesson the doctrine and the m oralapplication ofthe subjectunder consideration are especially dw eltupon by the teacher.... W hen the lesson isended,the children rise,and then the w ord is given:“H ands behind!Turn m onitors out!”The m onitors then place them selves atthe head oftheirclasses,and they allm arch to their respective reading posts,w here they arrange them selves in asem icircle thatism arked on the floor.A tthe firststroke ofthe bellthe m onitors take up theirpointers;atthe second they pointto the firstw ord on the board;and atthe third,allthe children begin to read and spell....A fter aquarter ofan hour the teacher gives ashrill-toned w histle,and as soon as thisisheard every other sound ishushed.The teacher then com m ences singing alively tune,in w hich the children join,and again m arch in m easured tim e to theirseats.The teacher nextw rites aw ord upon the blackboard and allthe children spellit;they are then required to explain itsm eaning....H ereupon,they are desired to m ention a w ord com posed ofthe sam e lettersas the w ord on the slate,and this they continue as long as they can find such w ords.A fter this,they read three-quarters ofan hour in classes,and close w ith m entalarithm etic, naturalhistory,spelling or vocalm usic.... The schoolis...closed w ith aprayer.

Itisafactthatalarge num beroflessprivileged children did attend both the expensive and the lessexpensive privateschoolsbecause m any parents w ere prepared even to go into debt in order to give their children the opportunity of a better education.A t the M oravian Tow n School,for exam ple,a good m any ofthe studentscam e from the low er strata ofsociety.The sam e w as true ofother M oravian and Rom an Catholicschools.

The Value ofEducation / 51 The public (com m unal) schools w ere som ew hat secularized by new educationalordinancesofN ovem ber1875 and February 1876 w hich transferred theirsupervision from the M oraviansto districtschoolboardsand a superintendent appointed by the D anish Crow n.School districts w ere redraw n to allow for the establishm entofcom m unalschoolsin the tow ns. Catechism and Bible history rem ained required subjects,butthe curriculum w as broadened to include reading and w riting (in English),m ental arithm etic,geography,naturalhistory,and,for the firsttim e,the D anish language.* A lthough initially som e M oravianscontinued to serve asteachers,increasingly the teaching staffin the com m unalschoolsw ascom prised ofnative islanders w ho had been trained atthe Teachers Training College in A ntigua.A s a consequence of this trend,the influence of the English educational system w as very strong in our public schools,despite the effortsby som e D anish superintendentsto im plem entthe D anish system .† Considerable controversy surrounds the quality of the public educationalsystem in the D anish W estIndies.Som e have praised the system , pointing outthatthe percentage ofschool-age children actually receiving an elem entary education (around 90 percent)w asone ofthe highestin the w orld atthattim e.Such w riters also notethatthe efficiency ofthe system w as so w idely recognized thateducationalexpertsfrom otherW estIndian islands visited St.Thom as and St.Croix to study its operation.‡ O n the otherside,num erouscriticshave argued that,despitethe im pressive attendance figures,the quality ofpublic education w as poor under the D anes. They have m aintained thatthe teachersw ere ofinferiorquality because of im proper training and low salaries,that the curriculum w as too narrow, and thatthere w asno opportunity foradvanced training because there w as no vocational program and no public high school.Citing the m iniscule budgetary appropriation for education (6 percentofthe annualoperating budget),criticshave charged,w ith som e justification,thatthe D anish governm entw as rem iss in honoring its 1838 resolve to educate N egroes.A s one “Son ofA frica” noted in 1907,the D anish educationalsystem w as not preparing low er-class natives to rise above their inferior socioeconom ic status.Instead ofbeing avehicleofself-im provem ent,education tended to *The 1876 ordinance w hich relates to St.Thom as and St.John can be found in Collection ofthe M ostIm portantLaw s. †Larsen,206–34;A m inta C.N athalia Burnet,Education in the Virgin Islands under D enm ark and the U nited States(M aster’sthesis,City College ofN ew York, 1940). ‡See,forexam ple,the letterofJ.P.Jorgensen,m em berofthe St.Thom asSchool Board,in The Bulletin (St.Thom as),M arch 4,1907;and Larsen,206–34.

52 / The Value ofEducation perpetuate a rigidly hierarchicalsystem in w hich black people as a group had littlehope for upw ard m obility.* Such dam ning indictm entsby liberal natives w ere confirm ed by the first A m erican naval governor,Jam es H . O liver,w ho reported in 1917 that the existing system ofpublicinstruction in these islands leaves everything in the w ay ofan adequatesystem to be desired.A large proportion ofthe children have grow n up w ithoutthe hope ofim proving their lotin life....W here there isno am bition and hope ofbetterm entthere isbound to be an indifferentattitude tow ard the fam ily....Im proved conditions ofcivilization largely flow from the hope thatm an generally has ofgiving hischildren better opportunities than he has him selfpossessed.Butin these islands few ofthe natives can see any better opportunities for theirchildren than they them selves have had,...in general,am ounting to barely m ore than an opportunity to exist.†

Because of the m any serious deficiencies in the public schools,those parents w ho could afford it sent their children to private and parochial schoolsw here they w ould be exposed to better teachers and abroader academ iccurriculum .A tthe end ofthe nineteenth century,there w ere m any such schools and their enrollm ent exceeded that of the public schools.‡ A m ong the private and parochial schools there w as a definite hierarchy, ranging from the schoolrun by M cConney and Speed,tw o British teachersw ho charged around eightdollarsperm onth,to the sem iprivateM oravian Tow n School,w hich Iattended atacostofonly five centsaw eek.The M oravian Tow n Schoolw as located in the building on Back Streetw here The D aily N ew sistoday.M r.Burnet,the cabinetm aker,had hisshop dow nstairs.There w as justone entrance offthe streetto the flightofstairs that led to the schoolroom .Children w ho attended publicschoolsw enteitherin the m orning or afternoon.Studentsin private schools,like the M oravian Tow n School,attended allday.2 There w as no system ofracialsegregation.Class,notrace,determ ined w ho attended w hich school.W hites and blacks alike attended allthese privateand parochialschools,theirchoice depending on theirparents’incom e. *See the lettersby the “Son ofA frica,” “The Com m ittee,” and “A Liberal” in The Bulletin (St.Thom as)ofM arch 1,4,and 5,1907,and Burnet,Education in the Virgin Islands. †Q uoted in Valdem ar A .H ill,Sr. ,Rise to Recognition:A n A ccount ofVirgin Islanders from Slavery to Self-G overnm ent(St.Thom as,V I:n.p.,1971),55. ‡In 1872,according to Larsen (206),the tow n ofCharlotte A m alie alone could boastoftw enty-fourprivateand parochialschools.The schoolreportof1890 listed 655 students in private and parochialschools com pared w ith 556 students in the publicschools;see Cam pbell,26.

The Value ofEducation / 53 A lm ostallofthe teachersw ere colored natives.Jam esChesterfield Roberts, for exam ple,a prom inentm em ber ofanative fam ily w ho had attended the M ico Training College ofA ntigua and H ow ard U niversity,w ashead teacher ata private schoolestablished and partly supported by Bartholom eiBornn and severalothercivic-m inded citizens.PsychologistA lbertCam pbellexaggerated w hen he w rotethatasarule the privateschoolstended to be m ade up ofthe w hiteand light-skinned children.The dark-skinned parentsw ere for the m ostpartam ong the econom ically underprivileged,and theirchildren necessarily w entto the com m unalschool.*

A considerable num ber of darker children did in fact attend the private schools,because m any parentsw ere prepared to go into debtto give their offspring the opportunity ofabetter education. There isno doubtthatthe teachers atthe private and parochialschools w ere ofhigh caliber.M any ofthem had studied atthe Teacher’sTraining College in A ntigua,w hile a few others had received their education and training in D enm ark.A m ong the form er w as m y teacher,M ary M eyers,a native w ho had been trained in A ntigua. M issM eyers w as an exceptionalteacher as w ellas an inspiration and spiritualguide.3 H ers w as the day ofpersonalpedagogy.The profession had notyetbeen m echanized and,ifthe presum ption w illbe pardoned, not overburdened w ith rigid schedules, experim ental techniques, and standardized teaching procedures.The pupilw as treated as an individual w ith speciallearning problem s and proclivities rather than a m ere num ber to be processed through the system ,signed,sealed,and delivered into society w ith a m eaningless,perhaps even unearned,degree.Q uality,not quantity,counted in M issM eyers’sschool.M oreover,there w as m ore to the educational experience than program m ed know ledge. She taught m ainly by exam ple,by personalinfluence,and im pressive pow er.The profession w as view ed notonly as a science and an artbutalso as a sacred trust,itbeing w idely recognized,to quote from CardinalH enry Edw ard M anning,that itisnotthe Latin and M athem aticsw e teach the boy thatm akes him a true and capablem an.Itisby the lifew e ourselves live before hiseyes. O ur ow n lives and the every m ovem entand gesture and expression w hich revealour lives are probably the m ostpotentinfluences in the education ofthe young.4 *Cam pbell,26.

54 / The Value ofEducation Iloved and drew inspiration from M issM eyers because ofher patientdedication,her gentle sim plicity,her loving disposition,and her ability to rise above m om entary disappointm entsorm isunderstandingsand,unshaken in her endeavor,to bring joy and know ledge to those in her charge.H er noble character,com m itted to alifetim e ofservice to the youth ofthe com m unity, hasrem ained to m e and countlessothersasaconstantexam plethroughout therugged road oflife.“Iam glad,”shew rote,“tohavethe gratefulacknow ledgm entofm any young m en and w om en w hom itw asm y duty to teach.I say thism ore w ith feeling ofpleasure than pride,because Ifeelthatthe gift w as given m e to be used for the benefitofothers and Ihave been thankful to G od thathe could use m e in thisw ay.”M issM ary M eyers,like the other teachersw hom she personified,helped to m ake the teaching profession fine in having sanctified itby alifetim e ofdevotion to an idealofunselfish service.5 A nd M ary M eyersw asnotthe exception. There w ere other such exem plary teachers in our school system in those days w ho m ade lasting contributions to the w ell-being ofour com m unity.To cite only a few :A t the Convent School,know n as the N un School,head teacher M adam e Rose established a w ide reputation for her excellent w ork; M isses Sem edair and Victoria Shalders at St. M ary’s; M adam Canéz and JuliaJam esand M essrs.A nderson and Jam esW attatSt. A lphonsusG ram m arSchool.Earlierteachersincluded M issElvina G om ez, M issEllen H ay,M issH ope,M issStephens,and M rs.O ctavieVialet.In the publicschoolsw ere M issA nna Callw ood and M issStephens,M rs.M artha Kearney and M issLuisaVival,M issH ow ard and M r.D unlop.A tthe M oravian Tow n School w as M iss M ary M eyers,M r.Benjam in O liver w as at Lincoln School,and M r.Jam esChesterfield Robertstaughtatthe Bethesda School.O ther teachers included Lew isA udain,G ertrude Benjam in,M iss A delaide D unbavin, Elizabeth Jones, Sebastian Leffe, M r. M cConney, EstherM alone,Lucinda Sew erM illin,VictoriaRene,M r.Speed,M rs.M ary Vessup,and Edith W illiam s.The St.Thom as College w as also established around 1877 by Father D eBuggenom s ofthe Redem ptoristFathers,w hich on accountoffinancialproblem s w as short-lived,butsignificantly am ong itsstudentsw asA rthur Schom burg,the noted N egro bibliophile.6 From the beginning Ienjoyed schooland eagerly applied m yselfto the rigorousstudy ofallsubjects,although literature and poetry w ere m y particularfavorites.W e read m ostly British w riters,butitw asthe greatA m erican transcendentalist Ralph W aldo Em erson w ho w as m y personal favorite,and Iw as deeply influenced by his philosophy ofindividualism . A m ong the other w riters w ho particularly inspired m y youth w ere John Ruskin,W illiam M akepeace Thackeray,and Victor H ugo.

The Value ofEducation / 55 U nfortunately w e had no m usicaleducation in the schools.M y early stim ulus and training in this field,as in so m any others,cam e from m y total sociocultural environm ent.For m y generation,education did not begin and end in the classroom .A nd w hilew e valued educationaldegrees, m uch ofour m ostim portantknow ledge and training derived from daily life experiences in the cosm opolitan atm osphere of our bustling port city.Itw as in the streets(and for som e on the seas)thatw e learned foreign languages and an understanding ofw orld affairs.O ur instruction in the hum anities, especially literature and m usic, cam e largely from our fam ilies and their larger socialcircle.Philosophy and currentaffairs w ere acquired not only from hom e reading but also from listening to inspired discussions,led by m en like A dolph Sixto,on the streetcorners and in the cafes.

self-study Itisnotso easy for today’syouth to appreciate the obstacles and discouragem ent the youth of m y day had to face in acquiring an education. Know ledge w as a privileged com m odity.M any w ho had know ledge and learning guarded it,refusing to share itw ith those less fortunate.A m bitious individuals had to acquire know ledge w herever and how ever they could through their ow n creative endeavors.Like m y contem poraries,I possessed an insatiable hunger for know ledge and eagerly devoured every m orselIcould find.Even afterIleftschool,Inevercam e to believe thatm y education w as atan end or thatthe w orld ow ed m e a living.Today,after a lifetim e oflearning,Ifreely acknow ledge thatIam stillm ore im pressed by w hatIdo notknow than by w hatIdo. In m y youth w e had not the educational opportunities enjoyed by young people today.There w as no high school,letalone a college,no publiclibrary,no m ass m edia.Yet,perhaps because ofthese very deficiencies, w e w ere consum ed w ith adesire to im prove ourknow ledge,ourskills,ourselves,through the m edium of self-help and self-instruction activities. Education in those days w as notlooked upon as aright,butas agoalto be earned through perseverance and self-discipline.W e prized know ledge and sought it w herever and w henever w e could.In m usic,as w ell as other fields,one could obtain som e expertise by studying w ith localpractitioners and,on occasion,attending lectures and lessons given by tem porary visitors.Butfor those ofus,and there w ere m ore than a handful,w ho aspired to w ider know ledge,the m axim um use oflim ited localresources w as not enough. H ence, m any people took correspondence courses offered by

56 / The Value ofEducation expertsin the U nited States and abroad.In thisw ay w e w ere able to considerably broaden our horizons as individualsand as apeople. The leading exponent of self-study w as A dolph Sixto,affectionately know n as“D ing.”Sixto w asan im posing and influentialfigure in the com m unity as w ellas the region atthe turn ofthe century.Born February 17, 1858,in Vieques,but raised by his St.Thom ian m other on St.Thom as, Sixto received no form aleducation.N everthelesshe w asblessed w ith com m on sense,a splendid im agination,and a rough native w it that enabled him to educate him self.H e spoke fluently several languages,including French,Spanish,Italian,G erm an,even Russian,and w as an exponenthere ofPapiam ento and D utch Creole.H e read extensively and traveled w idely, thusacquiring im pressive intellectualqualitiesw hich earned him areputation as an “unforgettable character” throughoutthe Caribbean.H e lived rightoppositew hatisnow Crow n M otors,an uptow n gasoline station;the alley leading from hishom e to the w aterfrontw as called D ing’sA lley,so popular afigure w as he.7 A charm ing, fascinating conversationalist and outstanding public speaker,Sixto had a rich,m elodious,w ell-m odulated voice,w ith a pow er and pitch and range thatneeded no m icrophone even in a good-sized hall. H e discoursed eloquently on the beauties of H om er,D ante,M ilton,and Shakespeare as w ellas on localhappenings and possessed an inexhaustible supply of hum or and w it.H e stood a little above m edium height and w alked w ith akind ofshuffle.H e failed in alm ostevery com m ercialundertaking he attem pted,* for he w as essentially a dream er,a visionary,a scholar,w ho believed sincerely in the unlim ited potential of St.Thom as and itspeople.Too often w e are prone to estim ateam an’svalue and im portance from the standpointofm aterialpossessions,dollarsand cents,forgetting entirely hisspiritualvalues. Iknew him w ell.Taking an interestin m e,Sixto often allow ed m e the privilege oflistening in on his discussions atM iss Elsa’s Ice Cream Parlor (located atthesiteofthepresentChaseM anhattan Bank building on thecornerofKom m andantG ade and D ronningensG ade [M ain Street]).A gracious elderly lady,M issElsa sold ice cream and softdrinks,cigars and cigarettes. The clean polished m arblefloorsw ith boothson both sidesgave the place an aristocraticappearance and an inviting feeling ofw elcom e.The entrance w as covered w ith a huge canvas aw ning projecting over the sidew alk,under w hich w ould sit the island’s solons,facing the street,from about 8:00 to 10:00 P.M .every night,gathered to discuss local and international events *In the 1890 census,Sixto islisted as abutcher.

The Value ofEducation / 57 gleaned from the island’s chief source of inform ation— the British Cable O ffice.Sixto usually dom inated thisgroup,w hich included H ans Behagen, secretary to the Colonial Council; Justin Burnet, m aster cabinetm aker; A ugusteVance,m erchant;G eorge Ridgw ay,chiefclerk ofthe British Cable O ffice;and Leroy N olte,new spapereditorofthe St.Thom asTidendeand the Bulletin. Irecallone typicalevening w hen Sixto,taking exception to som eone’s rem ark that St.Thom as w as never going to im prove,pontificated for nearly an hour on the vast future possibilities in store for the island,a them e w hich he m ore fully developed in hisbook Tim e and I;or,Looking Forw ard.8 H e pointed to the Long Bay and Sugar Estate areas,then a w ilderness,and prophesized beautifulbuildings and stores erected,industries sprouting forth allover the island,enraptured touristsfrom allover the w orld,and apoliticalsystem and econom y second to none in the W est Indies.9 The eloquence and logicofSixto’srem arks,how ever,failed to convince hisadversary,w ho,afterapuffon hishuge cigar,declared w ith an air offinality that“St.Thom as nevergotto rise.” Thispessim isticstatem ent outraged Sixto,w ho beckoned m e to w alk dow n the streetw ith him .Iknew he w anted to talk aboutthe fellow,so w ith a feeling for m elee Iaccom panied him .W hen w e gotoutofearshot,Sixto stopped,threw hishandsover hishead,chuckled,and said,“M y good G od,how do you expectSt.Thom as to rise as long as you’ve gotsuch ignorance anchored on it.Itneeds atidal w ave to w ash fellow slike thataw ay ifthisisland isto m ake any progress.” Everyw here he w ent,Sixto preached the virtues ofself-help,exhorting the youth to study w hereverand w heneverthey could.Itw ashe w ho introduced the internationalcorrespondence schoolsto our islanders and urged young m en like m e to take advantage oftheirofferings.M y ow n experience has taught m e the w isdom of his advice,for w ithout self-study I could hardly have hoped to achieve success in m y chosen field ofendeavor.Sixto w as greatly m isunderstood and often m aligned unjustly by hism any critics,w ho w ere unable to appreciate and evaluate the contributions of the m an to the com m unity.10 A tatim e w hen the youth ofthe islandshankered forahighereducation than w asafforded them here,Sixto introduced correspondence schools.H e lectured throughouttheW estIndies,w here hisnam e w asahousehold w ord,exhorting young peopleto look forw ard,to study in orderto take theirjustplace in achanging w orld.Iw asam ong those during thatperiod in w hom he inspired hope and to w hom he gave encouragem ent and urged to carry aloftthe bannerinscribed EXCELSIO R . M y ow n thoughts on the value of self-study are best sum m ed up in an editorial I w rote in the Bulletin of Septem ber 28,1940,w hich I feel

58 / The Value ofEducation com pelled to reprinthere in itsentirety since Ibelieve ithas relevance for our com m unity.11 There are in thiscom m unity,m any studentsw ho,having com pleted theirhigh schoolcourse,find them selves unableto attend institutions ofhigher learning.Such studentsoften,in consequence,take agloom y outlook on life.Perhaps studentsso ham pered m ay find som e encouragem entin thisquotation: O ur resources and activities ofm ind and body are developed only w hen w e are in difficulties.A llthe w orld over,necessity isthe m other ofinvention.W hen there isnothing to conquer and all things are done for him ,m an becom es only w eak and useless. O ur seem ingly discouraged studentsm ay gain ausefulperspective by looking into the lives ofthe w orld’sgreatestm en.Such studentsw ould notfailto find outthatthey,w hen com pared w ith such celebrities in the early stages ofacareer,are blessed w ith teem ing opportunities for self-developm ent.There are no im passableroads to the attainm entof an education in acom m unity w hich offers such opportunities as are found here.A m bitious studentshave attheirdisposalsuch conveniences as:(1)the publiclibrary,(2)the radio w hen judiciously and intelligently utilized,(3)occasionally,an aw akening and inspiring lecture,and (4)the opportunity offered through correspondence study. Besides,youngsters now adays m ay enjoy the advantage ofearning m oney w hileplodding theirw ay through the course ofstudy. To getan idea ofthe advantages w hich m ay be derived from the pursuitofknow ledge w hileengaged in som e bread-w inning activity, our young peopleshould read the biographies ofsuch m en asA braham Lincoln,Benjam in Franklin,BookerT.W ashington,Jam esA .G arfield, A ndrew Carnegie,and others.Youngsters w ould find thatthe tw o things w hich countm ostin the w inning ofaplace in lifeare:(1)adaptation for aparticular line ofendeavor and (2)the desire to engage persistently in thatline. Butthe m ostdiscouraging factor isfound notso m uch in the youngsters them selves as in the cold-w ater-pourings ofm any ofthose w ho profess to be leadersofthe young.Thisincludes asm allnum ber of half-baked college graduates and so-called professionalexperts,w ho strutaboutthe streetsw ith an offensive airofcom petence notjustified by theirachievem ents.These latter can be seen w ith sm iling m ien, patronizingly looking dow n on those w ho have industriously w orked outtheirow n salvation by privatereading,study,association w ith others,and aw ise use oftheirspare tim e. Then there are the localKnow -It-A lls— those self-constituted leaders w ho too often actlike “Foxes w ithoutTails” in one ofA esop’s Fables.12 H aving them selves attained only m ediocrity in theirlife-

The Value ofEducation / 59 activities,these “sages” do nothesitateto tellayouth thathe or she cannotachieve anything savoring ofgreatness.A youth isbesetby such phrases as:“M y son,rem em ber you’re black”;“You m ustrem em ber thatthisisasm allfield”;“M an,our brains are notthe brains of those greatm en in other places”;“See m e,in spiteofthe chances Ihad in life,see w hatIam now.”Yetour w ould-be leaders never adm ittheir ow n failures and thus failagain— failto w arn the young aw ay from the pitfallsthatled to theirow n disappointm ents. The w ay,then,isnotatallbarred to those (young orold)w ho are filled w ith an ardentdesire forsom ething higherin life.A saw ise one said,“G eniusisone-tenth inspiration plusnine-tenthsperspiration.”13 In otherw ords,w here there isjustan adaptation foraline ofactivity,persistentapplication can,w ith thatadaptation,achieve rem arkableresults. A gain,som eone has w isely rem arked,“Intelligence,industry,persistence,and determ ination are acom bination w hich rivalsm ere genius.” H ence,to allseem ingly discouraged students,Ienjoin:find out the field ofactivity to w hich you are bestadapted;choose your goalin thatfield;then cultivateaburning desire for the attainm entofproficiency in your field;and finally,applying the com bination w hich rivals m ere genius,push your w ay to the front.

the apprenticeship system A n inform alsystem ofvocationaltraining rounded offthe educationalcurriculum under the D anes.This w as the apprenticeship system .M ost children,w hether they attended private or public school,had to apprentice them selvesto a“baas”[boss]— a m astercraftsm an w ho w ould teach them a trade and for w hom they w ould w ork every afternoon im m ediately after school.G irlsgenerally w orked ascooksorseam stresses,w hileboystookjobs as blacksm iths,tailors,carpenters,shoem akers,and the like.A lthough the apprenticeship system w as notrequired by law,itw as assiduously fostered by the D anish adm inistrators.Itevolved asacustom ary practice in response to localconditions and needs,because,in the firstplace,parentsrecognized that only lim ited opportunities existed for natives w ith lim ited m eans to enter w hattoday w e callw hite-collar occupations.They w anted theirchildren to acquire a practical skill so that,w hatever their aspirations,they w ould have som ething to sustain them throughoutlife.In the second place, because m ostparentsw orked allday,they needed som eone to controltheir children and to keep them offthe streetsand outofm ischief.The craftsm en w illingly cooperated because they w ere alw ays eager to have additional helpersatlittleorno cost.A saconsequence,the craftsm en becam e surrogate parentsand educators,w ith the responsibility ofinculcating the com m unity

60 / The Value ofEducation through itsyouth w ith those virtues ofdiscipline and enterprise thatthey em bodied. Like m ost m orally and practically beneficial activities,apprenticeship w asnoteasy.Initially,apprenticesreceived no pay,and in m any cases,such as those w ho w orked atthe RoyalM ailPacket,theirparentsactually paid m oney forthe privilege.14 O nly afteryou had w orked foracertain num ber ofyearsand had achieved acertain levelofskillcould you expectto receive a sm allw age.In the firstyears you w ere chiefly required to run errands and perform shop-cleaning chores— tasks ofdrudgery thatm ade you feel m ore aservantthan astudent.O nly gradually,afteryou dem onstrated the ability to acceptand carry outorders,w ere you taughtthe rudim entsofthe craft.D iscipline w as strict,and unflinching obedience dem anded.In the cornerofevery w orkshop hung the dreaded tarrope,constantly rem inding you of the w hipping you w ould certainly receive if you m isbehaved or failed to do w hatyou w ere told— quickly and effectively.The tar rope w as m ore a sym bolofauthority than an instrum entofpunishm ent.U sually, the fear ofitw as sufficientas abehavior m odifier. Ihad an unusualm otive in selecting those m en to w hom Iapprenticed m yself during m y youth— learning m usic.M y first “baas,” Jean Pierre, w as a joiner.ButIchose him because he knew m usicand once played the flute,and not because I had any particular desire to pursue m y father’s trade of carpentry.A fter Pierre died,I apprenticed m yself to m y U ncle D inzey,the m astertailor.Istayed w ith him forseveralyears,m ostly doing errands rather than learning m uch abouttailoring.A tthe age offifteen I becam e an apprentice to A lbertFrancis(the father ofRothschild Francis), an outstanding local shoem aker and flute player of dance m usic,w ho counted am ong his custom ers the D anish soldiers and m any ofthe m ost prom inentlocalm erchants.From FrancisIlearned m uch aboutthe artof shoem aking and even m ade shoes for m yselfand m y fam ily.A lthough I eventually devoted m yself to a m usical rather than an artisan career,I nevertheless look back to m y years as an apprentice as being m orally and abstractly beneficialto both m y chosen profession and m y privatelife.

4 M usicin the Virgin Islands and the Founding ofthe A dam s JuvenileBand (1910)

Editor’sN ote:The founding ofthe A dam s Juvenile Band retold here illustrates pointsm ade in the tw o previous chapters— thatlocalculture should be valued and thatdedicated hard w ork,especially in both education and self-study,producesopportunity.A dam sbeginsby describing the pervasive im portance ofm usicalactivitiesin the artisan environm entofhisupbringing and argues againsta sim plistic,essentialized understanding ofm usic and race by claim ing thatEuropean and Latin m usicshad am ore pervasive influence on the m usic ofthe Virgin Islands than purely A frican sources. M usicforA dam sisan idealized space offree exchange ofideasw ithoutthe lim its of racial politics. H e shares his fascination w ith the flute and recountshisstruggles to learn the instrum entw ithoutbenefitofa regular teacher.In particular,he overcom es tw o traum aticincidentsthatonly fuel his feisty determ ination and forge his com m itm ent to educating youth. O ne resultofthisservice ethicalloyed w ith m usicalam bition isthe form ation ofthe Juvenile Band.A com pelling portraitofthe band’sunheralded patron,Elphege Sebastien,show show the island’scom m unity supportnetw ork functioned to provide not only financial assistance but instruction and m entorship as w ell.A dam s’sactivities as a bandleader,com poser,and m usicjournalistopened doorsto unlikely opportunitiesthatbreak through any supposed lim itations ofan isolated island life.H isexam pleoffers further clarification,though notm ade explicithere,ofthe path thatA dam s hopes youth in the Virgin Islands w ill follow today.This chapter also touches on the islands’ first carnival and the hurricane of 1916, but A dam s’sinterestshere,forreasonsofpersonaltasteand chronology,do not include popular m usicon the islands,such as quelbe or the later influences ofjazz,calypso,steelpan,rhythm and blues,reggae,orpop.

61

62 / M usicin the Virgin Islands In m y youth St.Thom as w as alive w ith the sound ofm usic.N otonly w as m usican integralpartofm y fam ily life,butitperm eated the entire com m unity,constituting the core of our cultural life.O ur rich m usical heritage derives from m any sources.Contrary to those w ho w ould trace allour culturaltraditions back to A frica,or atleastto the slave plantations,our m usic is m ore European and Latin A m erican in contentthan anything else.O ur m ostpopulardances,theschottisches,m azurkas,quadrilles,and lancers,w ere all adaptations from European originals.The sam e is true of m ost of our “folk songs,” a factthatIdiscovered during m y ow n extensive researches into theirorigins.1 O ur favorite and m ostcom m only used instrum ents,the violin,guitar,flute,and otherw oodw inds,are also European in origin. O nly the bam boula,w ith its distinctive polyrhythm s and pulsating drum beats,can legitim ately be attributed to A frica.Yetitshould be noted thatitw as notdanced by sophisticated people ofm y era or even before. Thisfactisclearly recorded by N issen,w ho w rotein 1832: The dances ofthe N egroes are ofone sort,m oving and tw isting about. They have no regular dances.The principalinstrum entiscalled the G om bee.Thisisasm allbarrel,the bottom ofw hich being taken out,a goatskin isdraw n over the rim .They m usthave abeat,and on thispurpose are continually knocking thisG om bee,w hich sounds very hard and m akes agreatdealofnoise. Butthism usicand sortofdancing ism ore acustom am ong the low er class ofN egroes and slaves,for am ongstthe w elleducated persons,they have learned dancing,have very good m usic,and often give ballslike the w hiteinhabitants.2

Indeed,so vulgar and barbaricw as the bam boula considered in m y youth thatthe D anish authoritiesoutlaw ed itand w ould arrestanyone w ho dared dance itpublicly.Thispolicy w asenthusiastically endorsed by the Colonial Counciland the m ostrefined citizens ofthe com m unity. The disappearance ofA frican m usical idiom s by the early part of the nineteenth century is not surprising considering the open system of slavery thatprevailed on St.Thom as.U nlike in South A m erica and other agriculturalcountries,the open slave system on St.Thom as provided no isolation from the m ainstream ofgeneralcom m erciallifeto encourage the developm entofan independentfolk expression.The black population here w asdirectly and constantly in close contactw ith European peoplesand culturesand w asquick to adoptand then adaptthe latestm usicaldances.Even on St.Croix,w here agriculture w ascentralto the localeconom y and plantation slaves w ere m ore herm etically sealed off from outside influences, European influencesdom inated by the nineteenth century.The Latin influ-

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 63 ence,w hich cam e from Puerto Rico,one ofour principaltrading partners, w as particularly strong atthe turn ofthe century and beyond.From this source w e learned and inculcated the basichabañera rhythm ,w hich w as a distinctive blending ofA frican rhythm s w ith Spanish m elodies.

the flute O fallthe m any instrum entsIencountered asachild,the fluteexercised the greatestfascination form e.To thisday Ican vividly recallthe m any m orningsw hen Iw ashappily aw akened atan early hourby the soft,sw eetnotes w hich drifted intom y bedroom from the flutesofsom e serenading group of local troubadours.The early-m orning serenade,adopted from our Latin neighbors,w as quite a feature ofthe long ago.Itcom m em orated as w ellas celebrated ahappy event,such asabirthday orw edding anniversary,by the playing of appropriate sw eet m usic under the w indow of its unexpecting audience.Iw asdraw n to the soft,lyricalsoundsofthe fluteand soon developed a great desire to learn how to play the instrum ent.A s I could not afford to buy aflute,and as m y parentshad m uch to do to m ake ends m eet already,m y only recourse w asto m ake m y ow n instrum ent.Iw ould cutthe protruding stem softhe papaya tree tosize,coverone open end w ith fine tissue paper,and m ake six holes to accom m odatethe fingers.3 Iw ould im itate the flute playing Ihad heard.The difficulty w as,how ever,thatthe papaya stem sdried up quickly,thusnecessitating innum erablecuttings. Itw as notlong after Ibegan these instrum ent-building attem pts that m y grandm other w ho lived in Copenhagen sent a large package to m y father w hich,am ong other things,contained aguitar for him and aflageoletfor m e.The flageoletw as an instrum entm ade ofw ood w ith a m outhpiece and a tube in w hich finger holes and keys w ere placed.Types ofthe flageolet,a m em ber of the flute fam ily,w ere also called recorders,flute douches,ocarinas,and w histles.4 M y joy on receiving thisinstrum entw as unbounded.Butas for the m usic,there w as no one to help m e.Ihad to learn to play m yselfand thusbecam e m y ow n teacher.O n squaresofcardboard thatIobtained from m erchantsin the com m unity,Isketched aflute on one side and on the other w rote the w ords,as I recollect,of tw o hym ns— “N earerM y G od toThee”and “Safein theA rm sofJesus.”Ithen m atched,as bestIcould,the fingerings Iknew w ith the w ords and their appropriate pitches in the m elody.Through thisprocess Icreated m y ow n sheetm usic.Itm ightseem a clum sy w ay ofstudying,butitw as allIhad as a guide,and Iconfess to being proud ofm y ingenuity and took delight in displaying itto m y friends— w ho considered m e agenius.

64 / M usicin the Virgin Islands A m ong the outstanding artisansofm y youthfuldaysw asJean Pierre,a m aster cabinetm aker ofFrench extractw ho m ade beautifulw ood carvings on bedsteads,bookcases,tables,chairs,and the like— m any ofthem stillin evidence today.H is w orkshop w as located on the street in speaking distance from m y hom e.O ften Iw ould look from m y w indow,adm iring and m arveling atthe dexterity and skillw ith w hich he m anipulated hisvarious tools w hile carving.From m ahogany,teak,and lignum vitae,he pulled form s and designs such as rope cable and pineapple w ood.N o less m arvelous to m e w as the carefree m anner in w hich he rem oved from hiseyes, w hile stillcarving,the dustfrom the shavings m ade by the lathe.Ioften w onderhow he did it.In those daysthere w asno electricity to setthe large revolving w heelin m otion.Ithad to be done by hand.The spinning ofthe lathe w as often accom panied w ith the singing and often the gruntsofthis m arvelous craftsm an. U p to thisday,in m y m ind’seye Ican see Jean Pierre— tall,handsom e, som ew hatstooped from the m any years he lived,w ellgroom ed,w ith gray hairon hishead and face,and alittlegoateeand pointed m oustache.Irecall his w ell-shaped m outh m inus severalfrontteeth,tender and w elcom ing bluish-gray eyes,a com plexion the shade ofthe lightm ahogany on w hich he so assiduously w orked allhis life.Ican stillhear his soft,low -pitched voice— stillvibrantdespite hisage.Like m ostofthe artisans ofhisday,he w as a lover ofgood m usic.O ne day w hen Iw as aboutnine or ten years of age he called to m e from hisw orkshop and said,“Iheard you playing the flute.”“Yes,Iplay the flute,” Ireplied.“D o you play by m usic?” he asked. To w hich Ireplied in the affirm ative.Continuing,he said,“Ionce played the flutem yselfbutthatw asso long ago.Bring yourm usicalong w ith the fluteto m e.Iw ould like to see your m usicand to hear you play.” Ineeded no furtherinvitation.H astily Itook m y flageoletand m y m usic to his hom e,located opposite his w orkshop.A s he saw m e com ing,he opened the door.Ientered holding the instrum entin m y lefthand and tw o bundles ofcardboard tied together and tucked neatly under m y rightarm . H e looked on w ith am azem ent.“W hat’s that?” he asked,pointing to the bundles.“That’s m y m usic,” I told him .“The one bundle is ‘Safe in the A rm s ofJesus’and the other is‘N earer M y G od to Thee.’” Jean Pierre w as astonished.“W hatdo you m ean?” he asked and started to laugh.Slightly irritated,Isaid inw ardly,“Laugh,I’llshow you.”Eagerly Ispread the one bundle outon his floor and began playing.W hen Iw as through,Ilooked athim w ith aproud laugh now expressed on m y face.H e looked atm e seriously,buttenderly,and said “That’snotm usic.” To w hich Ireplied,“That’sm y m usic.”

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 65 “Thatm ay be your m usic,butitis notm usic,” he explained.Looking m e squarely in the face,he instructed m e to ask m y fatherw hen Igothom e to buy acoupleofsheetsofblank m usicpaper and also to buy apiccolo or flute w ith an instruction book from the U nited States.Butin the m eantim e,Iw as to com e to him and he w ould help m e. Igotthe m usicpaper and w entevery day after hisw ork hours for lessons.H e taught m e about the lines and spaces of the m usical staff,the nam esofthe notesand how to sing them ,asw ellasthe diatonicscale.“You m ust know your theory;you m ust learn to sing the notes before you attem pt to play an instrum ent;you m ust know solfeggio,” he strongly advised.U nfortunately,the lessons w ere notto lastlong,for six m onths afterthey began,Jean Pierre died.Butw hathe taughtm e during thattim e, including the m any conversations w e had on m usicand m usicians,did not diebutlivesw ith m e.H isexam pleservesasabeacon lightahead ofm e and exem plifiesthe innerlifeofthisgreatm an,devoted to service,dedicated to m ankind.H isw ords,“Bring your m usicand flute to m e,” stillring in m y ears.Thatw ooden piccolo thathe inspired m y father to buy from Butler Brothers costonly $1.60 (plus fifty centsfor the instruction book),butit m eantm ore to m e than even the costly genuine sterling silverBoehm system flute later aw arded to m e by the firm of Cundy-Bettoney Co.in Boston for m y m any articles on the flutethatappeared in m y colum ns for the Jacobs’Band M onthly. The piccoloand instruction bookarrived by m ailjustafew daysafterJean Pierre’s death.W ithout a teacher,I again had to becom e m y ow n tutor. Buoyed up by the injunction (the soundness ofw hich Iw as too young to question)thatw here there isa w ill,there isa w ay,and broughtto a higher levelofknow ledge by six m onthsofm usicinstruction in the basics,Ieagerly accepted the challenge and applied m yselfdiligently to the further study of m usic.For m any nightsafter the piccolo’sarrival,Iw as unable to sleep.A t intervalsIgotup,litm y kerosene lam p,and opened the black velvet-lined case to view m y instrum entand adm ire itsshining G erm an silver keys and to inhalethe scentofthe alm ond oilused to preventcracks in the grenadilla w ood outofw hich itw asm ade.N otlong afterw ards,in conform ity w ith local dem ands and custom s as w ell as the desire of m y parents,I apprenticed m yselfto ashoem aker’sshop ow ned by A lbertFrancis.Ichose thisshop for tw o reasons:Francis w as a m aster craftsm an,but he also played the flute w onderfully.O neday m y bossheard m estruggling w ith m y tw o hym nsand, in jest,clapped hishandsto hisearsand laughed.“Com e in,m y lad,”he said. “Ifyou really w antto play the flute,letm e show you how.”U nderhisguidance,Ilearned the properw ay to handlethe instrum ent.Iw asan avid pupil.

66 / M usicin the Virgin Islands M usicw as Francis’sfirstlove;shoem aking w as an econom icnecessity. Every spare m om ent,he w orked in the back ofhisshop w ith hism usical ensem ble.Know n as“Butty” in the com m unity,Francisled a w ell-know n group com prised of flutes,clarinets,violins,guitars,guiro,and in later years a bom bardon.H e w as a good-looking m an of dark com plexion, m edium height,and beardless but sporting a heavy m oustache w hich enhanced hisfine appearance.Itw asapleasure and adelightto dance to the m usic of Francis’s group,w hich played rem arkably w ell and w as sought after by m ost everybody for dance purposes.A m ong the m em bers w ere Francishim selfon the flute or clarinet,W ilford Bazey on the violin,Isaac Lindo on the flute,FreddieH oheb on guitar,W illy Sinclairw ith guiro,and Enrique N athaniel on the bom bardon, a m ilitary-styled, valved tuba. N athaniel,a native ofSanto D om ingo,m ade hishom e in St.Thom as and had introduced the instrum entto the localdancing public.Iw atched how Francis coordinated the flute players and the violins,the guitars,drum s, and guiros(dried gourdsplayed by scraping apiece ofw ire along theirserrated surfaces.) By observing these rehearsals,I gained valuable insight into the intricacies ofband leadership thatw as to serve m e w elllater.5 M usicbeing a pow erfulfactor in com m unity life,itseem ed only natural thatw hilew orking in Francis’sshop,w e allw ould sing the popular tunes of theday led by ourm asterand w ouldaccom pany ourselvesw ith therhythm ic pounding ofleathersoleson laps.W e w ere indeed ahappy group oflads,but w e w entour separate w ays after the death ofFrancisin hisearly thirties.6 Thereafter I apprenticed m yself to another m aster craftsm an shoem aker, John M cLean,w ho also served on the localpolice force.A tall,m assively built m an,M cLean tookconsiderablepride in histw o-hundred-pound avoirdupois physique and his trem endous m uscles w hich,w hen contracted,resem bled heavy chunksofiron.The factthathe w asinvariably kind and courteousdid notlessen the dread ofincorrigibleyouth and w rongdoersw heneverhe w as on patrol.U nlike m y previous boss,M cLean w as not a m usician.H e w as, how ever,extrem ely w ellread and show ed greatinterestin m e because ofour com m on interestin booksand literature.Frankly,Ineverrelished thetradeof shoem aking as am eans offuture livelihood.Iw entthrough the apprenticeship because itw asm andatory forboysm y age,and forno otherreason.M y real,all-consum ing interestw asm usic,and Iw asm ore and m ore inclined to m ake acareerform yselfin thatfield. Through incessantpractice and m any new contactsw ith localm usicians, m y m usicalhorizons w ere steadily expanding and m y am bitions grow ing. A key episode in thisdevelopm entoccurred the eventfulday thatM cLean broughtw ith him from Puerto Rico alarge box w hich contained an assort-

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 67 m entoftoolsfor hisshop.A m ong the paper w rappings w as am usicm agazine,the Etude,published in Philadelphia,w hich M cLean gave m e.O ne of the m ostvaluable gifts thatIhave ever received,this journalbecam e the open sesam e to m y dream s and aspirations.Itm ade m e fully aw are,for the firsttim e,ofthe w ondrous w orld ofm usicoutside our sm allcom m unity.I w asoverjoyed w ith itsvaluablesuggestionsand lessons,notto m ention the am ount of m usic contained w ithin its pages— and all at so little cost.I quickly becam e asubscriber,notonly to The Etudebutalso to severalother m usicalpublications,such as the M etronom e ofCarlFischer,the M usical O bserver,and the M usicalCourier,in order to further m y m usicaleducation.In the pagesofthese journals,Icam e to understand the higherpurpose and m ission of m usic as a civilizing agency,as w ellas a precise art form requiring m any years of study and practice,struggle and sacrifice.A nd I realized thatifIaspired to be atrue m usician,a m an w hose lifew asdevoted to m usicin both itsspiritualand practicalm anifestations,Ihad to dedicate m yselfto broadening m y m usicalknow ledge and education.7 Im bued w ith thissense ofm ission,Iterm inated m y apprenticeship w ith M cLean and found em ploym entas a collector for a localbakery so as to acquire m oney to purchase the books, m usic, instrum ents, and other requirem entsessentialto m y m usicaleducation.M eanw hile,in the advertising pages ofthe Etude,Icam e across the nam e ofD r.H ugh A .Clarke, professorofm usicatthe U niversity ofPennsylvania,w ho offered instruction by m ailin the science ofharm ony,counterpoint,and com position— subjectsin w hich Ibadly needed instruction.8 Recalling afascinating article Ihad read by thissam e D r.Clarke entitled “Enquiry into the Law s ofthe Beautifulin M usic,” Idecided to enrollas hispupilin 1906.A nd he,after review ing som e of m y com positions,agreed to becom e m y teacher.This w asthe beginning ofm y form alm usicaleducation.A Canadian,D r.Clarke w as am ong the firstm usicians to hold a chair as professor ofm usic in a leading university of the U nited States.H e w as a renow ned organist,a com poser ofnote,and the author ofm any influentialtextbooks on m usic and literature.Through correspondence courses,I studied w ith him for over three years,after w hich Ireceived a diplom a along w ith a specialletterofcom m endation in 1910.In subsequentyearsIundertook otherstudies through correspondence from such places as the School of M usical Theory ofCarnegie H allin N ew York City (certificate in harm ony,counterpoint,and com position;studies w ith CarlM .Vett[trained atthe A cadem y ofFine A rts,Paris],1914);the RoyalA cadem y ofM usic in London; and the U niversity Extension Conservatory of M usic in Chicago,from w hich Iw as aw arded the degree ofBachelor ofM usicin 1931.9

68 / M usicin the Virgin Islands N otallofm y experiencesatthe outsetofm y m usicalcareerw ere pleasurable.A s m y range ofm usicalacquaintances and experiences expanded,I applied m yselfeven m ore diligently to practice and study.Itw as a tim e of hard w ork and personalsacrifice.Ihave alw ays been a taskm aster,striving for the bestin m yselfas w ellas others.M any w ere the occasions thatm y father w ould aw aken m e in the m orning atm y study table,w here Ihad fallen asleep from sheer exhaustion am ong m y m usic sheets after hours and hoursofintense w ork.Itw asthusIspentthe betterpartofm y adolescence.Butitw asclearto m e then,asitisnow,thatthose seriously aspiring to am usicalcareerm ustdevotethem selvesentirely to m astering theirart, and thatm eanstheory asw ellasvoice orinstrum entalperform ance.Practice m akes perfect,and I have alw ays,like the m aster craftsm en of old, striven for perfection.Even adversity,discouraging as itm ay be,teaches valuablelessonsand setsone in directionsthatcan alterone’slifeand outlook forthe better.O ne such incidentw hich particularly affected m e about thistim e in m y lifehad to do w ith the D onastorg fam ily. D uring m y early years,the m usicallifeofthe CharlotteA m aliecom m unity w as dom inated,nay controlled,by the D onastorg fam ily.Thism usical fam ily consisted offour brothers w ho specialized as perform ers on violin, viola,cello,and flute.O ne ofthe brothers m ade m usichisprofession as an instructoron the violin.The otherbrothersm ade theirlivelihood asatailor, agoldsm ith,and the m anagerofagrocery store.The goldsm ith–fluteplayer w as a friend ofm ine.O ne day he caughtm e playing som e trivialpieces of m usicon the guitar and,influenced no doubtby m y youthfulness,thought the playing to be w onderful and thereby m istakenly referred m e to his brother as a greatperform er.The factw as thatIw as m erely a tyro on the instrum ent. Surprisingly,one day Ireceived an invitation to attend one ofthe fam ily’susualSunday afternoon recitals.N eedless to say,Iw as im pressed and happy and felthonored to attend w hatIbelieved w as a sanctuary ofm usicalbrotherhood and achievem ent.Iw as,how ever,to receive m y firstlesson in coxcom bery and discouragem ent.The audience com prised m em bers of the fam ily and a selectgroup from the com m unity.Isateagerly aw aiting the beginning ofthe recitalw hich soon afterbegan w ith the playing ofafew dance num bers of the habañera type,w hich w ere greeted w ith expected applause.A t the conclusion of these num bers,the m aestro,pointing to a guitar nearby,abruptly told m e to accom pany him .Seizing his violin,he sw iftly ran overseveraldifficultpassagestaken from am usicbook w hich,I learned afterw ards,contained studies for the violin by A lard,the greatviolin instructor.H aving barely an elem entary know ledge ofthe guitar,Iw as

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 69 unable even to attem ptto accom pany him in hism usicalgym nastics.N oting m y em barrassm entand apparently w anting to display hisgreatnessand im portance in frontofhis invited guests atm y expense,he turned to his flutistbrother and rem arked adm onishingly,“You told m e thisfellow can play the guitar.H e doesn’teven know how to hold the instrum entproperly,” and w ith a proud attitude and satisfied feeling thathe had erased m e com pletely from hislistofw orthy aspirantsto m usicalfam e,continued the recital.10 W ith an indescribable feeling ofhum iliation and discouragem entIleft the room unobserved.Com ing outinto the m arketsquare,Istood dejectedly,tears running dow n m y cheeks,notonly because ofthe insultIhad justreceived butalso because ofthe discouragem entIfelt.Iw asthoroughly convinced thatm usicw as notfor m e and Im ightas w ellacceptthe fact.I w alked hom e hopeless,discouraged,and in ahaze.M y father w as seated in a rocking chairon m y arrivaland after som e m om entsofsilence inquired aboutthe resultofm y visitin am annerthatsuggested he expected itto go in a m inor key,butnotas dissonantas itactually turned out.W hen Itold him ofthe ordealIw entthrough and m y decision to quitas a result,his m anner changed com pletely.A ngered beyond w ords and w ith eyes seem ingly darting fire,he blurted outin astern voice,“D on’tm ind thatm an.H e isadam ned jackass.Itishe w ho doesn’tknow how to tune hisviolin.G o on w ith yourstudies,ifjustto show him w hataconceited and stupid asshe is.” Ialw ays believed in m y father.H e w as m y idolw hose judgm entItrusted and w hose advice I alw ays heeded.H is tense m anner,coupled w ith his adm onition,crude as the w ords m ighthave been,had the desired effect.I em erged from m y haze a new lad— a different person not only w ith the courage,eagerness,and determ ination to pursue m y m usical studies but also w ith astrong desire to geteven w ith the coxcom b som eday. H ow ever,as tim e w ore on and I grew to understand m ore of hum an nature w ith itsdifferentm otivations and m annersofbehavior,Ilearned a valuablelesson thatw asto guide m e through life.Instead ofbitternessand the idea of getting even,out of the experience at the D onastorgs there em erged aburning desire and afirm determ ination neverto turn adeafear or refuse help to anyone w ho,like m e,lacking the w herew ithalto sustain histrek through life,or w ithouta father like m ine to sethim on the true course w ith proper guidance and inspiration,m ightfallalong the w ayside hopeless,helpless,lost.Throughoutm y youth and everafter,Ihave keptin m ind the w ords ofa w riter,w hose nam e Ido notnow rem em ber:thatthe divine creatorofenergy did notm ake usallofone m old,butgave usallone pow er,nam ely,to aid the other m an in his quest to find the pow er and

70 / M usicin the Virgin Islands beauty ofhislife.The D onastorg incidentengendered in m e acom m itm ent to do everything in m y pow er to assist and educate the youth in their m usicaland otherstudies,w hich even to thisday hasbeen one ofthe driving forces ofm y life.W ith the advice ofm y father and the encouragem ent ofagrow ing circleoffriends,Im anaged to overcom e the traum aticim pact ofthe D onastorg incidentand to apply m yselfw ith renew ed vigor to m y m usicalstudies.Fortunately aboutthistim e Icam e into contactw ith one of the sem inal influences in m y early m usical and cultural career,Elphege Sebastien.

elphege sebastien Follow ing the death of m y m other in her forty-sixth year,m y father, brother,and m yselfm oved to a new house in the Savan area ofCharlotte A m alie.O ur new hom e stood abreast a large tw o-story building nam ed D illy H allow ned by Elphege Sebastien,w ho lived in partofthe building and leased the other partas a dance hall.A close friendship quickly developed betw een the olderm an and m yselfafterSebastien com m ented favorably on m y flute playing.A m an of considerable m usical and literary ability,Sebastien w asthen em ployed aschiefpharm acistatthe St.Thom as A pothecary H all,aw ell-know n localestablishm entow ned and operated by A .H .Riise.Sebastien,a true Renaissance m an,w as know ledgeable in botany,literature,localshells,sports,and m edicine asw ellasm usic.H e w as an outstanding clarinetplayerand perform ed w ith severalm usicalgroups, including one underthe direction ofthe D anish bandm asterLarsSorensen and alocalorchestra led by the D om inican com poser Julio A costa. Sebastien,born A ugust2,1873,in St,Thom as,received hiselem entary education under private tutelage.O n M ay 1,1893,he joined Riise’s as a clerk,but his intelligence and interest in the pharm aceutical arts led his em ployer to sponsor hisstudies in the field ofchem istry,and in Septem ber 1902 he passed the required D anish exam ination in pharm aceuticalchem istry under the D anish doctor ofm edicine Kalm ar ofSt.Croix,assisted by apothecary Paludan M uller and pharm acist Cram er Petersen.Sebastien soon becam e chiefchem istatRiise’sand w aslargely responsibleforthe fine reputation ofthatorganization in the firsthalfofthe tw entieth century.In these days ofm y youth,drugs had to be com pounded from localbushes, plants,and herbs,as w ell as the m ost recently discovered chem ical com pounds.Itw as the age ofasafetida,children’spow der,and,for externaluse, m ustard plasters,cupping,Spanish fly,and even leeches for bloodletting. A lthough thoroughly conversantw ith the m ostrecentdrugs,Sebastien also

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 71 appreciated the m edicinalqualitiesoflocalfolk rem ediesand w asnotaverse to using them w heneverrequired.Itshould be m entioned thattoday physiciansdo notso easily frow n upon those early folk rem edies,butnow seek to learn as m uch as possibleabouttheirproperties and uses.The father ofthe m edicalprofession,H ippocrates him self,stated thatone should notabhor asking the sim ple folk,even the alleged quacks,w hether som ething isusefulasarem edy.D espitehisgreatservice to the com m unity asapharm acist, w hatparticularly drew m e to thisgentle,highly decentm an w as hisenorm ouspersonallibrary ofbooksand journalsand,m ore im portant,hism usicaltalent.Iloved brow sing through hislibrary,listening to hism elodious clarinet playing,and participating in m any stim ulating conversations on m usic,literature,history,and currentaffairs. Sebastien w as a deep studentnotonly ofhisprofession butalso ofscience in general.H e w as a lifelong subscriber to Scientific A m erican.H e chose botany as an avocation.H e w as an ardentlover ofsports,especially boxing,and sponsored m any boxing m atches in the com m unity.A ccording to m any continentalsofhisday,ifyou w anted to know everything about the good old St.Croix rum ,you m ustconsultElphege Sebastien,the m an w ho knew m ore aboutrum than any otherperson in theVirgin Islands.The old St.Croix rum ,itw illbe rem em bered,hasalw aysbeen m anufactured by the firm ofA .H .Riise atSt.Thom as.Sebastien w ashonesty personified.H e w asone ofthe trusteesofthe now defunctSt.Thom asSavingsBank and for m any years filled the offices ofsecretary and treasurer ofthatinstitution. H e w as also the lastrem aining link ofthe “Les Cœ urs Sincères” A ncient Free and A ccepted M asons (A FA M )Lodge in St.Thom as.H e died in 1940 after succum bing to a briefillness offour days on N ovem ber 19.H is life stands outto allour young m en and w om en as an exam ple ofintelligence, thrift,persistence,and unflinching determ ination.11 Sebastien notonly encouraged m e in the pursuitofm y m usicalcareer butalso introduced m e to m any other fine m usicians in the com m unity. A m ong these new acquaintances w ere H ubert Lanclos,an accountant at Riise’sw hose skillon the flutew as renow ned throughoutthe com m unity; D anieldeW indt,an excellentpianist;A lberto de Lagarde,a pianist,clarinet player,and com poser;and Leonardo Lafranque,a superb guitar and m andolin player w hose sparkling conversation and vivacious good hum or alw ays enlivened our m usicalgatherings.12 O fthese excellentm usicians, each ofthem m any years m y elder,H ubertLanclos particularly attracted and influenced m e.H is expertise on the flute stim ulated m y know ledge and love of the instrum ent.M any fine evenings and Sunday afternoons w ere spentathis hom e,w hich w as graced by his angelic w ife and lovely

72 / M usicin the Virgin Islands children,playing duetsfrom the w orksofTulou,D rouet,and otherm asters of the flute.These sessions w ould periodically be graced w ith voice and piano accom panim entby histw o daughters.H ubertLanclos w as a gentlem an in the fullestsense ofthe w ord,and the tim e Ispentin hishom e w as m em orablebecause ofthe togetherness,hospitality,and inspiring setting. O ther m usicians w ith w hom I cam e into contact through Sebastien w ere A .Cherubin,a cornetplayerw ho w asone ofthe m any H aitian politicalrefugeesw ho soughtasylum in St.Thom as;the Jam aican G eorge Reed, w ho once played clarinet w ith the fam ous W est India Regim ent Band; Enrique N athanielfrom Santo D om ingo,w ho played the baritone orbom bardon;and one sim ply know n as G eorge,also a native of Jam aica,w ho played the tuba.Each ofthese m en introduced m e to the m usicalheritage ofhisnative land,and hispresence,like those ofso m any others,did m uch to enrich the m usicalculture ofSt.Thom as.Then there w as old W ilford Bazey,one of the pivotal m usical influences in our com m unity.A finelooking m an w ith asm allgoatee,Bazey w asasuperiorviolinist.H e taught violin to m any ofour m usicians,and itw as he w ho introduced the local population to European dances and m usic. Sebastien, Cherubin, Bazey, Lafranque, and a few others, including m yself,form ed asm allm ixed orchestralgroup,w ith clarinet,cornet,guitar, violin,flute,and otherinstrum ents,toplay atprivatehom esand gatherings. A dditionally,people w ould often invite our cosm opolitan group to their hom es in order to have the opportunity to play along w ith it.In thisw ay I cam e into even greatercontactw ith m any superb m usiciansw hose encouragem ent and techniques exercised a considerable influence on m y ow n developm ent.O ne such influence w as Enrique “Coco” D elerm e,one ofthe m ostbrilliantflutistsofPuerto Rico.Coco and hisbrother A ntoine,a guitarist,lived on Vieques Island and frequently vacationed on St.Thom as, w here they stayed atthe hom e ofM rs.Edith Schon.M rs.Schon,w ho knew Sebastien,w ould often requestour group to participatein m usicalconcerts ather house,and itw as through these experiences thatIgained a foundation in A fro-Spanish m usical traditions.Coco,for w hom m y adm iration knew no bounds,gave m e considerableencouragem entand advice on m any, m any occasions. A s our m usical group grew in size and experience,Sebastien decided thatitshould be form ally organized into aband in 1907.13 Thisw asthe origin ofthe firstlocal“N ative Brass Band,” later the M unicipalBand,w hich has for so long been associated w ith the nam e of Lionel Roberts.14 Sebastien’sassociation w ith Riise’sprecluded hisdirectinvolvem entw ith the new band,since M r.Riise,like so m any otherm erchantsand shopkeep-

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 73 ersofthe period,held thatitw asbeneath the dignity ofany ofhisem ployees to publicly associate w ith a localband thatw ould play professionally, thatis,form oney.Thus,although Sebastien helped organizeand equip the Brass Band from behind the scenes,he asked Lionel Roberts— a w ellknow n localsportsfigure— to assum e the roleofbandm aster. Robertsw asapopularfigure,and like m ostofthe otherm usicians,Iw elcom ed hisleadership,lessbecause ofhism usicalabilitiesthan because ofhis prow ess as a sportsm an and cricketer.15 A forceful m an,Roberts quickly established hispersonalim printon the em bryonicband.H e broughtin severalnew m usicians and becam e so dom ineering thathe alienated m any of the originalplayers,w ho had seen the new organization as an opportunity to play m usic.Eventually Sebastien and Roberts quarreled violently over the m anagem ent of the band’s m oney,and as a consequence Sebastien, joined by m ostofthe originalbandsm en w ho w ere hisfriends,leftthe band. Ifound m yselfin a difficultposition.O n the one hand,Ifeltbound by ties offriendship and loyalty to Sebastien.O n the other hand,Iw as too young to fully appreciatethe nature ofthe disputebetw een Robertsand Sebastien, and Idesperately w anted to be partofthe only native band on the island. H ence,Ielected to stay on.A tfirstitseem ed a good decision,for although Robertsneverfully accepted m e,he neverthelessrespected m y m usicalabilities and cam e to rely upon m e for assistance in training the band.Eventually,how ever,Itoo becam e disenchanted w ith Roberts’sm ethods and style ofleadership.16 M y rupture w ith Robertscam e aboutin the follow ing m anner.M y studies w ith D r.Clarke had led m e to try m y hand in w riting m usicalcom positions,severalofw hich m etw ith D r.Clarke’senthusiasticapproval.N aturally Icherished a keen desire to hear one of m y pieces played by the band of w hich Iw as am em ber.So itw as thatIarrived atone rehearsalw ith aband com position upon w hich Ihad lavished a considerable am ountoftim e and effort.W ith m y hearteagerly thum ping,Iasked Robertsifhe w ould have the band run over the piece so thatIcould hear how itsounded.M aking no effort to concealhis displeasure w ith m y request,the leader snatched the m usic from m e and tossed it on a nearby seat w here it rem ained unused throughoutthe rehearsal.A scan w ellbe im agined,Iw asdeeply stung by the bandm aster’scallous indifference to m y m usicalendeavors,and soon after I quithisband.17 Thisdiscouraging episode,like the D onastorg incident,did notdam pen m y spirit,buthad the reverse effectofstim ulating m y aspirationsand determ ination;foratonce Iresolved to organizeaband in w hich I could hearm y ow n com positionsplayed and in w hich every encouragem ent w ouldbegiven toyouthfultalentand creativity.M y break w ith Robertsthus

74 / M usicin the Virgin Islands led directly to the birth ofthe A dam sJuvenileBand,w hich laterbecam e the U.S.N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands.18 A nother im portantconsideration lay behind m y decision and had to do w ith m y ow n evolving notion aboutw hatthe precise roleofthe bandm aster should be.For som e tim e Ihad been thoroughly dissatisfied w ith the nonprofessional quality of the leadership of the M unicipal Band.The leaderand Ilooked atm usicin generaland the band in particularfrom differentangles.Iview ed itfrom astrictly professionalangle,w hileto him it w as justone partofhisdaily activities.The qualifications Iheld to be necessary for effective band leadership w ere: 1. an innatem usicalability, 2. along period ofbroad and intelligentm usicstudy, 3. an attractive and forcefulpersonality w ith asense ofhum or, 4. a creative im agination, 5. am agneticleadership and organizing ability,and 6. an ability to be an understanding taskm aster. A bandm aster m ust have confidence in his general ability and in his know ledge ofthe m usiche handles.H e notonly m ustknow,butalso m ust know thathe know s.In other w ords,a leader notonly m ustknow m usic, butm ustalso have confidence in hisear,in hisrhythm icprecision,in his tastes,in hisjudgm entoftem po,and,m ostofall,in hism usicalscholarship.M oreover,the bandm asterneedsto be m ore than aleader;he m ustbe a teacher as w ell.H e has to be personally conversant w ith each of the band’sinstrum ents,so thathe can help hisplayersim prove asw ellastrain aspiring m usiciansto becom e band m em bers.A bandm asterm ust,in short, be adedicated,know ledgeable,skillful,professionalm usician— notadilettante.These are the qualifications Istrove to attain in m y years ofstudy and w hich I carried to the A dam s Juvenile Band.W hat had been done before by others,though com m endable,did notaspire to thislevelofprofessionalism .There is a G erm an proverb suggesting that w hen one has clim bed the highest m ountain peak,heaven is not so m uch nearer,but one’s vision is broader.This notion strengthened m y conviction to live beyond m y lim ited horizon. Itw as tow ard thisbroader vision ofm usicianship thatIelected to carry w ith m e the youth Iselected from the schools,churches,and hom es ofthe Virgin Islands com m unity.19 A nd although Ipossessed the w illand determ ination to m ake thisdream areality,Idid nothave the m oney to m ake it

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 75 possible.A start,how ever,w as necessary.From m y m eager earnings,Iput aside the sum ofninety dollars,rented aroom adjacentto m y hom e attw o dollars a m onth,boughtsom e kerosene lam ps,and nailed up som e w ood for seats.The lads,like m yself,w ere poor and therefore had no m oney to pay for instruction,and Iw as too proud to beg.M y band w ould be independent and m ake its ow n w ay.Rem em bering the lessons of m y first teacher,Jean Pierre,I began teaching as he had taught m e w ith singing scales— in short,w ith solfeggio— follow ed by rhythm instruction.20 Idevised these drills m yself,follow ing the Tonic Sol-Fa system ofEngland’s John Curw en,butsubstituting letters w ith figures.Instead of“tra fa tifi,” w e recited “one it is ah.”21 Together w ith m y brother,Julien,w hom I had taughtforseveralyearsand w ho w asto becom e one ofthe besteuphonium players to be found anyw here,Ibegan to lay the foundations ofa disciplined,quality band. Itw asatthiscrucialm om ent,w hen allIcould contributew asthe w illto do and the am bition to achieve,thatElphege Sebastien cam e ofhisow n w ill to our rescue.Iw illrepeathisw ords,as they m eantm uch to m e:“Icannot see you struggle so earnestly in such com m endable w ork w ithoutoffering you w hatever assistance thatlies in m y pow er.Ifyou w illallow m e,Iw ant toofferyou the free use ofm y house foryourrehearsals.Ispoke today w ith a m erchant of this city concerning the possibility of supplying you w ith m usicalinstrum entsforw hich Ihave prom ised tostand responsible.”Looking atm e squarely in the face,he continued:“Ido thisbecause Iknow you w illsucceed,as Ihave for som e tim e been w atching you studying into the w ee hours of the m orning,unaided,alone,in order to be efficient.” A nd reading m y thoughts,he w enton,“D o notthink ofthe m oney.Pay m e how you like,w hen you like,and ifyou like,butcountm e as your friend and believe thatIw illdo anything thatliesin m y pow erto help you.”22 O nly those ofus w ho have experienced such friendship and such affection ofthe hum an heartasdepicted above can readily,in these daysofhard, cold com m ercialism in w hich gold,selfishness,and ingratitude are com m on ingredients,sym pathizew ith the opening linesin Em erson’sessay on friendship,w hich reads: W e have adealm ore kindness than isever spoken.M augre allthe selfishness thatchillslike eastw inds the w orld,the w holehum an fam ily is bathed w ith an elem entoflove like afine ether.H ow m any persons w e m eetin houses,w hom w e scarcely speak to,w hom yetw e honor,and w ho honor us! H ow m any w e see in the street,or sitw ith in the church,w hom ,though silently,w e w arm ly rejoice to be w ith! Read the language ofthese w ondering eye-beam s.The heartknow eth.23

76 / M usicin the Virgin Islands The inspirationaladvice,actsofsym pathy,and kind w ords ofencouragem entw hich Ireceived from Sebastien in m any m om entsofdark discouragem enthave been ofincalculablebenefit,and Iappreciatethem the m ore w hen Iconsider the unselfishness ofspiritw hich characterized them . Through the local firm of E. D elerm e, Sebastien ordered eighteen instrum entsfrom the KesselsM usicalInstrum entFactory in H olland,the costofw hich w as around $500.00.In those days the price ofa cornetor trum petw as about$5.00 and a bass horn about$20.00.The silvering cost m ore than the instrum entitself.To us the instrum ents w ere like m anna from on high.W e started to w ork w ith enthusiasm .Sebastien and som e m em bers ofhisband frequently cam e to hear us practice and gave us professionaladvice.A doctoroffthe D anish ship Ingolftaughtushow to w alk and m arch.24 A fter eightm onths ofhard,steady practice,w e gave our first concerton February 27,1911.25 A localreview er gave us encouragem ent: A dam s JuvenileBand m ade itsfirstpublicappearance lastevening in A llSaintsParish H allw hich w as crow ded w ith listeners.The band, num bering 18,iscom prised m ostly ofboys and lads w ith brass instrum ents,and acquitted itselfin am anner thatw on the adm iration and deserving praise ofall.Before beginning the program the Bandm aster M r.A lton A dam s asked the audience to overlook the defectsand notto expecttoo m uch from the boys w ho had only been training for 8 m onths.W ell,w e can only say,from the execution ofthe pieces that follow ed— especially the ouverture— thatthe audience gotfar m ore than they expected,and ifthe resultofafew m onths has been so satisfactory and show ed such progress and prom ise,as tim e goes on the im provem entshould develop the youths into very proficientplayers. W ecom plim entboth the director and hispupilson the fine entertainm ent,and hope they w illrem ain united and continue theirleisure hours in apleasantand profitablestudy. A lthough the bandm aster isw ellknow n to all,the publicm ay not be aw are ofhiscom petency in m usicfor w hich he received in June a Certificatein H arm ony,Counterpointand Com position from H .A . Clarke,D octor ofM usicatthe U niversity ofPennsylvania,w ith w hich Institutehe took lessons by correspondence.A m ong hiscom positions is the “IngolfM arch,” the score ofw hich he subm itted to the Professor w ho returned itw ith the rem arks“G ood— no corrections” and com plim enting him upon hiscapacity for arranging band m usic.26

Im ade itquite clear from the beginning to allm y aspiring bandsm en w hatIexpected from them and the band:thatthe band room w as to serve also as am usicschoolin w hich strictdiscipline and proper behavior w ould

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 77 be upheld and enforced.W ith discipline,w onders can be accom plished; w ithoutit,nothing.H ence the success ofthe band w ould be in directproportion to the discipline m aintained.The band room w as to be keptclean and the generalatm osphere free offoullanguage.In short,itw ould be a place in w hich proper behavior w as m aintained to such a degree thatone m ight enter at anytim e w ithout being em barrassed.Pupils w ere to be instructed notonly in proper playing oftheirinstrum entsbutalso in the m eaning of the m usic they perform ed and,if possible,in know ledge of the lives ofthe com posers.The aim w as to stim ulatethe pupils’interestin the m usic they perform ed. Instrum ental instruction included correct breathing habits com ing from the diaphragm (com m only called belly breathing),correctarticulation,and proper body poise.Instruction books on the differentinstrum entsw ere supplied,and the blackboard served as an im portant tool for lessons.The progress of each pupil,as w ell as the band itself,w as to be appraised atthe end ofeach m onth from acalculated tim etableofeightm onths,atthe end ofw hich the band w ould be expected, everything else being w ell,to m ake itsfirstpublicappearance. “A stream rises no higher than its source”;so runs the old principle ofphysics.Thus,the band can becom e justas fine as its leader’s idealof w hatispossible.In hisroleas taskm aster,the leader from the very beginning should be extrem ely carefulnotto destroy by unduly harsh m easures and unnecessary criticism s the essential qualities of respect and confidence he seeks to instillin hispupils.O n the other hand,experience teaches that pupils w ill com plain little w hen they are m ade to toe the m ark,but secretly adm ire the teacher w ho gets som ething done w hen properly inspired.Pupils w illtake advantage ofany teacher w ho allow s them to do as they please.The m ain objective therefore ofthe teacher or leader isto inspire in hispupilsthe feeling thatthe thing being done isa vitalone,a big thing,crucialto the lifeofthe com m unity and done w ith a reallove in their heartfor the w ork.This aim ,w hich includes a proper m ethod tow ard the desired achievem ent,w as w hat inspired the young juveniles in the band to reach their initialgoal.Their concertproved to be so successful in securing com m unity interest and involvem ent that lads ofdifferentages soughtm em bership in the group.The rapid m usical progress and high deportm entofthe band during the nextfew years w on itthe adm iration ofthe generalpublic,and the band quickly grew to be a factor in the life ofthe com m unity— notonly ofSt.Thom as butalso of oursisterisland St.Croix.O urinfluence extended even to the British V irgin Islands.

78 / M usicin the Virgin Islands The Juvenile Band attained thatposition m ainly by virtue ofthe eager interestittook in the life and generalw elfare ofthe com m unity.Itgave freely ofitsservices to program s for the children’shom e and the elders of the com m unity— in fact,to every w orthy cause in w hich it could be of help.N aturally,w e encountered the slingsand arrow sofdisappointed ones and peew ee politicalfigures.Butthese com plaintsw ere insignificantw hen com pared w ith the overw helm ing support of the com m unity.G ifts of instrum ents,m usic,and even offers to pay tuition for any pupilIselected w ere soon forthcom ing.M y service w as given freely to m y young student m usicians,and Ifeltbetterhaving itthatw ay.M any m en and w om en cam e forw ard voluntarily w ith offers ofassistance.A m ong them w ere Christopher Payne,U.S.consulto the Virgin Islands;bank director A xelH olstof the D anish N ational Bank,w ho w as also a literary m an and a splendid player on the violin;the m erchants A ntonio deLugo,Thom as G raham , H enry H assell,M ardenborough,Valdem ar M iller,Eduardo M oron,J.H . Souffront,EliotThom as,and J.P.Thorsen;jew elersConrad Corneiro,FreddieSteele,and TheodoreVialet;D r.Knud-H ansen and A dolph Sixto;editors John N .Lightbourn and Leroy N olteofthe new spapersM ailN otesand the Bulletin;tonsorialistsTheodore Estorneland Charles Perkins;com posers and organists H ans Behagen,A rturo G iglioli,A uguste I.Leon,and Felix Padilla;W aldem ar Riise,ow ner of A pothecary H all;and the Reverend Fathervan den Bem den ofthe Rom an CatholicChurch.Itw asencouraging to receive m oralsupportnotonly from those ofaffluence am ong the leaders and m erchants butalso from the poorer elem ents ofthe com m unity. W e seldom played for m oney.The volunteer services given by the band included perform ancesforschoolsand churches,holiday parades,and publicconcertsin the Em ancipation G arden and atthe hospital.A ccom panying silent m otion pictures, w hich w ere first introduced here by Elphege Sebastien,and for w hich w e played regularly,provided the m eans ofthe band’ssustenance.Som etim esw hen w e played concertsatthe G rand H otel, w e also received m oney.W e needed incom e to buy and repairinstrum ents and to pay the debtw e ow ed our benefactor. D uring thistim e,Carnivalcam e to lifein theVirgin Islandsatam eeting held in the G rand H otel on the night of January 10,1912.The idea w as proposed by local businessm an L.P.A ggerholm ,a native of D enm ark. A com m ittee consisting ofA ggerholm ,G eorge Levi,G ustave Ffrench,and Valdem arM illerw asappointed.The firstCarnivalqueen w asM rs.Cassilda D uurloo and the king w as Valdem ar M iller.The pages for that Carnival w ere LouisBarentzen and afuture governoroftheVirgin Islands,Ralph M . Paiew onsky.A fteralapse ofm any years,Carnivalw asrevived asan annual

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 79 eventin 1952 by Ron de Lugo,then an announcer atradio station W STA . The revived celebration becam e m ore elaborateand colorfuland,instead of being an occasion for a particular group of people on a particular day,it becam e a celebration ofthe entire com m unity.Itextended to practically a w eek offun and m errim ent,w ith persons also taking partin St.John,St. Croix,and the British W estIndies.The spiritofCarnivalistoday em bodied in the Virgin Islands M ocko Jum bie stilt dancers,to w hich is added the calypso singersand steelbands,originally from the British W estIndies.27 Severalprom inentCrucians firstheard the band play w hile visiting St. Thom as,am ong them D r.D.C.Canegata,Kenneth H enderson,D.H am ilton Jackson,and G ustave Lange.These m en form ed a com m ittee for the purpose ofinviting the band to St.Croix to play aseriesofconcerts,including perform ances in itstw o largesttow ns,Christiansted and Frederiksted. Previous to the band’s visit,I w as invited by the N ielsen brothers (Eric, w ho played violin,and H arry,piano,both ofw hom had studied abroad)to appear atthe St.John Schoolin Frederiksted in a recitalgiven for charity. M y reputation as a flute player had preceded m e there.W hen I told Sebastien ofthe invitation,he w aselated and especially so w hen Itold him thatIw as also to give a briefhistory on the life ofFranz Schubert.There and then,he insisted thatIm ustappear in coattails.Iw as astounded atthe idea and,to getoutofit,told him thatIdid notpossess such apparel.N ot to be outm aneuvered,he insisted thatIuse hispair.The question ofapparel settled,Iconsented.The recitalw as atthe requestofM rs.Rosa H agem an, form erly Benjam in,w ho headed the elite sociallife ofFrederiksted.M rs. H agem an w as a strikingly beautiful w om an— rich,w ell educated, and hum ane,by w hich Im ean thatshe took leadership in the w elfare ofthe com m unity,especially the poor.The program proved asuccess,and m y talk on the life ofSchubertreceived a stunning ovation.Butno one knew the suffering I w as undergoing the entire evening in Sebastien’s coat:how, despite m y calm dem eanor,perspiration w as running dow n m y entire body.Ifeltm iserable.Itw as hotand the crow ded room did nothelp m atters.D uring m y talk on Schubert,especially on hissufferings,no one suspected m y ow n distress.Butforthis,itw asadelightfulevening,capped by agalareception given atthe spaciousm ansion ofthe H agem ans.Itw asone of those evenings of the long ago w hen people m et happily for social enjoym entregardless ofrace,color,nationality,or religious persuasion. The appearance later of the band in St.Croix added greatly to the m orale ofthe Juveniles.The band w as m etatthe landing w harfin Christiansted by D.H am ilton Jackson,Kenneth H endersen,G ustave Lange,and an enthusiasticcrow d,w hich seem ed to com prise allthe inhabitantsofthe

80 / M usicin the Virgin Islands island.W e serenaded H is Excellency G overnor Lars Christian H elw egLarsen atthe G overnm entH ouse,follow ed thisw ith another serenade at D r.D.C.Canegata’sresidence,and thereafterparaded through streetslined w ith an im m ense crow d ofonlookers w ho w aved,clapped theirhands,and shouted w ords ofw elcom e as the band m arched by.O ur audiences w ere estim ated at1,000 to 1,200 people.The Juvenileshad w on the heartsofthe good peopleofSt.Croix and guaranteed afeeling ofgood w illw hich lasted throughoutthe lifeofthe band. ThereafterIvisited St.Croix on severalotheroccasions.Iw aspleased to learn thatCrucians w ere as appreciative ofgood m usicas St.Thom ians.I rem em ber,for exam ple,visiting severalbands on St.Croix to offer advice and encouragem ent.N otlong after one such engagem entw ith the Christiansted IndustrialBrass Band,a “Card ofA ppreciation” appeared in the Cruzan new spaper,the St.Croix A vis: In the nam e ofthe Christiansted IndustrialBrass Band w e take this m edium ofexpressing our heartfeltgratitude to Bandm asterA lton A . A dam s ofSt.Thom as for hisvaluableassistance,instructions,and advice given us during his(unfortunately too short)stay on thisisland. H isw ords ofadvice and encouragem ent,have acted on us like atonic, putting new lifeand vigor,and hisinstructions w e are fully assured, have putus further on the rightroad to success.W hether in the band room or on the streets,thism odestand unassum ing Bandm aster w as alw ays found to be appreciableby allofus,and ever ready w ith som e w ords ofencouragem entalong w ith hisinstructions. W eagain tender our thanks,and w ish for Bandm asterA dam s and the JuvenileBand every success;and can assure him that,hispersonality,ability,and kindness,have w on for him as true and loving friends of those ofhisow n island hom e. Com m ittee Christiansted IndustrialBrass Band 1914

O n anotheroccasion,the JuvenileBand gave aconcertin Frederiksted,during w hich Iplayed tw o flutesolosby Fred Lax.A fterw ardsaw ell-groom ed young m an,ow nerofavisiting yachtin the harbor,approached m e to offer his congratulations for w hat he called m y “w onderful rendition” of the tw o solos by Lax,w hom he said he knew quite w ell.O n his return,he planned to inform the com poseraboutthe playing ofhistw o com positions in w hathe referred to asa“faraw ay D anish W estIndian island.”Frankly,I had quite forgotten the incidentw hen,after a lapse ofseveralm onths,I received the follow ing letter:

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 81 1903 Edm ondson Avenue Baltim ore,M aryland A ugust11,1915 D ear M r.A dam s: H ave m ailed under thiscover,FluteSolo,“Fantasia,”“Satanella” (O pera-Balfe)for FluteSolo.You w illfind itavery “thankful” solo to play.“Pretty” and “m oderately easy” and “brilliant.” Ihave w ritten thispiece for you,and hope you w illlike it. A scholar ofm ine,ProfessorA .Soho ofBaltim ore City College and Peabody Institute,heard you play “Ben Bolt” and the “M ocking Bird” and gave you splendid encom ium s.W ritem e atonce,of acceptance ofdedication,and your opinion ofSolo,and oblige yours, Fred Lax

M y visitto St.Croix and the visitofProfessor Soho atthe sam e tim e w as a happy coincidence.Ithappened thatm ostofm y studies for the instrum ent w erethrough thepopularFluteM ethod w ritten by Lax,w ho atthattim e w as one ofthe leading flute players in the w orld,flute soloistw ith the fam ous Patrick S.G ilm ore Band,and one ofthe soloists w ith the traveling Boston Sym phony O rchestra Ensem ble.28 W ith the aid ofthe Juvenile Band and a galaxy ofleading m usicians on the island,a specialconcertw as arranged at the G rand H otelon the nightofJune 7,1916,particularly to prem iere the num ber dedicated to m e.The solo w as accom panied on the piano by Teddy Jensen,an outstanding localartist.The audience filled the hall.W hatadded to the occasion w as the receipt of a postcard next day from H ubert Lanclos, w hosefluteplaying had enraptured m eand inspired m y early effortsasastudenton the instrum ent.O n the postcard w asw ritten these w ords: Thisisto congratulateyou on the successfulrendering lastnightat the “G rand” ofthe charm ing FluteM erceau,“Satanella” by Lax.O n the firsthearing Iw as charm ed w ith hisbrilliantpassages so sm oothly and pleasingly executed by you on your system Boehm . W ishing you continued success in your m usicalcareer. Yours sincerely, H .Lanclos St.Thom as,June 8,1916

St.Croix has alw ays been like a second hom e to m e.D uring the course ofm y career,Ispentm any happy m om ents on this largestofthe Virgin

82 / M usicin the Virgin Islands Islands and m ade m any lasting friends.A m ong these I m ight m ention D.H am ilton Jackson,D r.D.C.Canegata,and G ustave Lange;the A lexanders,A rm strongs,Beattys,Boughs,Brow ns,Brow s,Chaberts,Christensens, Clendinens,Fabios,Flem ings,Forbes,Frorups,G oldens,G reenaw ays,H iggins, H ills, Leaders, M arkoes, M erw ins, M ottas, O vesons, Penthenys, Petersens,Rosses,Schjangs,Schneiders,Skeochs;and Postm asterRene Larson.St.Croix’sm ostcolorfulcharacters included “Bengie,” w ho paused at nearly every corner to speak to no one in particular,paper m oney bills pinned on hisshirt,m ostofw hich Iunderstoodw enttofeed the crabsfound around his house;also “M r.Jackass,” w ho stopped every now and then, spinning around before and after each stop he m ade;and,notto be forgotten,“Lil’M an,”the self-appointed bearerand carrierofluggage and parcels on hishand truck.These characterscom pleted the m otley crow d ofthe good happy peopleofthe St.Croix oflong ago. The hurricane ofO ctober6,1916,proved in greatm easure disastrousto the band and particularly to M r.Sebastien.The storm blew his house— w hich w as also our band room — to the ground.M r.Sebastien losthisall: his hom e,his excellent library,and m any things that he held m ost dear w hich could neverbe replaced.D uring alullin the hurricane,a littlebefore the second terrificonslaughtcam e,he and Iw ere am ong the ruins in the pitch darkness w ith a hurricane lam p,trying to see w hatcould be saved. Before us lay the ruins.Scattered all around us and under us w ere the leaves of his priceless volum es;large collections of scattered leaves of plantsofthe island,the resultofhisbotanicalresearches;hisfurniture and pictures;and our band instrum entstw isted forever outofshape.U nm indfulofallthese things,he w as eagerly searching for som ething w hich he considered him selfm ostfortunateto find— a gold ring ofhisdead m other. The Juvenile Band losteighteen instrum ents,itsentire m usiclibrary,and itsrehearsalroom .Even in hisdistressthisfriend show ed deep love forthe organization ashe w ould notbe argued outofhisbeliefthathe should contributehalfofthe house rentw hich w e w ere now forced to pay.A nd allthis w as done unbeknow nst to the com m unity at large.29 Few knew the real extentofthe supportSebastien gave to the band. D espite thistraum aticsetback,form ing the Juvenile Band had had the effect of stim ulating m y ow n personalm usicalendeavors and creativity. W ith enthusiasm Iapplied m yselfto learning how to play each ofthe various instrum ents so that I could better instruct m y bandsm en.A nd I devoted long hoursto com posing m usicalscores,som e ofthem specifically designed for the band.M y firstserious com position,“IngolfM arch,” w as w ritten in 1910.Previously I had w ritten a few pieces,but they did not

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 83 quitesatisfy m e.The“IngolfM arch”w asw ritten forBandm asterKoefford of the D anish training ship the Ingolf,w hich w as visiting St.Thom as.30 Koefford cam e to hearthe JuvenileBand practice atD illy’sH alland stayed to offerusprofessionaladvice and encouragem ent.In gratitude,Iw rotethe m arch,w hich w e played forhim on asubsequentvisit.Interestingly,Prince A xelofD enm ark,w ho w asserving asacadeton the Ingolf,heard aboutthe com position and invited m e aboard for lunch.O ver our m ealw e chatted am iably aboutm usicand later played severalduetstogether.A tthe end of thism em orableday,the prince gave m e hiscard and asked m e to visithim w henever Icam e to Copenhagen.31 Encouraged by thisexperience and the supportofm any m usic-m inded individuals in the com m unity,Iw rote severalother com positions,am ong them “Sw eet D ream of Love,” a suite of w altzes for piano.Cyril D aniel com m issioned itfor his then sw eetheart,32 and the com position w as later published in 1912 by the firm ofBurtM .Cutler in Colum bus,O hio,under aFrench title,“D oux rêve d’am our:Valse pourpiano.”A boutthistim e also, Ibecam e interested in m usicalacoustics,especially in respectto the band and band m usic.O ne day w hile sitting w ith som e friends,Icam e across an advertisem ent in the w ell-know n m usical periodical the Jacobs’ Band M onthly soliciting theoreticalarticles on the role ofthe band as a m usical entity.N ow,ithad been m y grow ing conviction thatthe band as a m usical group had achieved adegree ofm aturity thatenabled itto be considered as distinctfrom the orchestra.The tim e had com e,Ibelieved,for the m ilitary band to be treated by com posersand arrangersassuch,and notasthe stepbrother of the orchestra.For exam ple,the clarinet section of the band should notbe treated like an orchestralviolin section,for the sim ple and obvious reason that tw o different instrum ents are involved.A ccordingly, the m odern m ilitary band required itsow n m usicalcom positions suited to its unique dem ands,w ith arrangem ents w ritten specifically for its instrum entsand itspurpose.M usicshould be w ritten specifically forband,rather than lim iting itto arepertory oforchestraladaptations. Inspired by these theories,w hich w ere rather novel in their day,I subm itted an article to the Jacobs’ M onthly,although I never seriously expected to hear anything m ore aboutit.Im agine m y surprise w hen afew m onthslater,Ireceived areply from the editornotonly inform ing m e that m y articlehad been accepted for publication butalso asking m e to serve as editor for the m agazine’s band colum n.33 This,indeed,w as an honor,for the Jacobs’M onthly w as the leading journalin itsfield on thisside ofthe A tlantic.Ieagerly accepted the offer,or Ishould say,the challenge,for I recognized w ith som e trepidation thatm y m onthly contribution notonly

84 / M usicin the Virgin Islands w ould afford m e an unparalleled opportunity to develop m y theories before ahighly sophisticated audience butalso w ould m ostlikely bring m e into contactw ith m any ofthe leading m usiciansofm y tim e.Iw asnotm istaken in either of these assum ptions.A nd although m y articles tended som etim esto provoke criticism and controversy,Ifound to m y delightthat they w ere w arm ly endorsed by m any of the greatest bandsm en of the period,including H aleA .Vandercook,H erbertL.Clarke,Frank R.Seltzer, and the inim itable M arch King him self,John Philip Sousa,all of w hom w rotem e encouraging letters ofpraise.34 I especially treasured Sousa’s endorsem ent,since he,above all others, w asm y particularidoland inspiration.Thism an,w ho form ore than thirty yearshad dom inated the w orld ofband and m artialm usic,appeared to m e the epitom e ofallthatw as w orthw hile in m usicalendeavor and achievem ent.The rousing Sousa m arches,vibrantw ith theircom pelling rhythm s, seem ed the popular expression and em bodim ent in m usical form of the spiritofA m erica itself.They also reflected the strong rhythm ic influence and syncopation ofA fro-A m erican m usicaltraditions— a quality thatSousa him selfadm itted w asacharacteristicfeature ofhiscom positions— and this quality,asm uch asanything else,drew m e personally to Sousa’sm usic.35 H ow w ellIstillrecallthe m any hoursw hich m y friend Felix Padillaand Ispentin rhapsodic ecstasy listening outside the residence ofM r.A lfred M ew ton,a kindred spiritw ho w as playing Sousa m arches on his phonograph player.36 A tthattim e,those sporadicphonograph concertsw ere not m ere m usicaltreatsto m e.They w ere like m anna from on high,feeding a hungry,searching m usical soul.So indelibly stam ped are those im pressionsthateven today Ican easily bring to m ind the journey hom ew ard,m y feeton the ground,head in the stars,lifted asitw ere on w ingsofecstasy— the beautifulm usic,the w onderfulim peccablerendition,and the interpretation having so com pletely filled m y m ind and souland body.A fter each ofthese m usicalexperiences,stretched on m y bed,Iw ould im aginatively conductSousa’sband in one ofm y ow n com positions.Iw ashappily building castlesin m y littledream w orld.Later,how ever,these dream sand aspirations lefttheirw inged etherealabode and developed into definiteaction. A ssiduously Iw ould putinto fullband and orchestralscore the im m ortal “Stars and Stripes Forever,” “El Capitán,” “King Cotton,” “M anhattan Beach,” “RightForw ard,” “Sem per Fidelis,” and others ofSousa’scom positions so w ellknow n throughoutthe m usicalw orld.In thisw ay,Iw ould clearly analyze and study their content, harm onic progressions, and instrum entalarrangem entsand those originalpatternsofbassm ovem ents so characteristicoftheirunique style.Thatishow m y ow n com positional

M usicin the Virgin Islands / 85 endeavors began.For m any m onths,each nightuntilthe w ee hours ofthe m orning,that w as m y m usical m enu.This experience w as im peratively necessary because ofm y never having experienced the benefitsofm usical tutorship and guidance.H ad anyone told m e atthattim e thatin the years to com e Iw ould have been privileged to com e directly into contactw ith thisfam ousm an,Iw ould have considered such aforecastextravagant,presum ptuous,and highly im probable,ifnotutterly im possible. Thus,on the eve of the U.S.entrance into W orld W ar I,m y fondest dream s and aspirations seem ed to have been realized. A s far as w as hum anly possible in the D anish W estIndies,Ihad established m yselfas a professionalm usician.Itaughtm usictom yself,m y bandsm en,and toother pupils.M y m usicalcom positionshad begun to gain recognition and acceptance notonly in our sm allcom m unity butalso in the U nited States and elsew here.I contributed m onthly articles to a highly respected m usical m agazine,and thisin turn had broughtm e into contactw ith m any ofthe greatestfigures in m y field ofendeavor.M y band w as steadily im proving and gaining alocalasw ellasaregionalreputation.M y w orld,m y horizons, had w idened enorm ously.D espitem y geographicallocation on asm allrock in the m iddleofthe Caribbean Sea,IfeltthatIw as partofthe m ainstream ofinternationalm usicaldevelopm ents.A tthe sam e tim e,Iw as em erging from m y island hom e and opening m y arm s and m ind to em brace the w orld.Yetthatw orld,thatW estern civilization w hich Iloved and revered, w as careening tow ard adreadfulholocaust.W orld W ar Iw ould profoundly transform the lives and destinies ofeveryone on our planet,notleastofall those ofusw ho lived in the D anish W estIndies.

5 The U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands (1917–1923)

Editor’sN ote:A dam soffersa firsthand accountofthe desperateeconom ic and socialsituation on theVirgin Islandspriorto theirtransferfrom D enm ark to the U nited States,setting the stage for his argum entaboutthe navy’spositive contributions.Follow ing the disruption ofshipping caused by W orld W ar Iand 1916’sdevastating category 2 hurricane,the islands’ econom y w as in a sham bles.Labor strikes on St.Croix and St.Thom as fanned class tensions as w ell.So the U nited States and itsnavaladm inistrators inherited a territory w ith few prospects and m any problem s, including an underdeveloped infrastructure (roads,sanitation),poorhealth care,and a failing and underfunded educationalsystem .A dam sdetailshis friendship w ith D.H am ilton Jackson,a pioneering union leader in St. Croix w ho published the islands’ first pro-labor new spaper, in w hich A dam s began hisjournalisticcareer.The story ofthe U nited States N avy Band oftheVirgin Islandsfollow s— itsinception,expanding activities,and socialinitiatives.Thisband served asa bridge betw een the navy and native Virgin Islanders,betw een w hiteand black.The band’spublicconcerts,educational outreach,unique local new spaper,and tours contributed to the developm ent of both the islands’ com m unity identity and their tourist industry.A dam s’s ow n success underscores the values of education and am bition setforth in earlier chapters.H e is an exem plar ofa self-m ade m an w ho took full advantage of shifting circum stance to realize w hat m any thought im possible— a vibrant m usical career in a location once considered lacking in opportunity.By w orking w ith the navy,A dam s reached new heights of artistic perform ance and creativity.H e helped found the publiclibrary,started the islands’m usiceducation program ,and traveled to the States,m eeting rem arkable leaders in a num ber offields.

86

The U nited States N avy Band / 87 The chapter ends w ith an essay on the im portance ofm usicin education and com m unity life. The w obbly econom y oftheVirgin Islandstook asharp plunge in 1914 w ith the adventofW orld W ar I.N orm alchannels oftrade and com m erce w ere perm anently disrupted.People w ere throw n out of w ork,prices rose,and there w ere scarcitiesoffoodstuffsand otheressentials.Particularly devastating to St.Thom as w as the loss ofthe G erm an-ow ned H am burg-A m erican steam ship line,w hich had been the econom ic m ainstay of our m ercantile econom y.O ther shipping com panies leftas w ell,never to com e back to the trade w ithin the islands.D enm ark,w ith itsW estIndian Islands in the viselike grip ofacutedepression,once again turned to thoughtsofdivesting herselfofthesecolonialliabilities.Previously— in 1867,1892,and 1902— efforts had been m ade to sell the islands to the U nited States, but they had foundered atcriticalm om ents.The Treaty of1867 failed w hen the U.S.Senatedeclined to ratify it.The 1902 treaty w asaborted w hen the D anish Landsting (the upperhouse ofthe Rigsdag)refused itsapproval. By 1916,how ever,both nationsw ere eagertocom e toterm s.1 TheA m ericans w anted the islands notso m uch for theirow n sake,butbecause their acquisition w ould deny G erm any am ilitary and com m ercialbase ofoperationsin the region;the D anescould no longerafford the luxury ofcolonies thatdid notpay for them selves.A nother consideration behind D enm ark’s decision to sellw asthe problem ofpreserving publicorderin the islands.St. Croix, in particular, seethed w ith discontent as the native population dem anded long-overdue socialand econom icreform s.The w age paidtofield laborersatthe tim e w as a m ere tw enty centsa day— a day thatcom prised tw elve hours of arduous w ork under the hot tropical sun.Field w orkers, m any ofw hom had com e from the British W estIndies,lived desperatelives on the razoredge ofsubsistence.Theirliving conditions,asIcan attestfrom personalobservation,w ere deplorable,and theirchildren died like fliesfrom m alnutrition and lack of proper m edical care.N o w elfare or charitable establishm entssuch asthe Red Crossexisted to help them w ith basicneeds. A nd the plantersw ere generally indifferentto theirplight. In 1915 D avid H am ilton Jackson and agroup ofothersocially conscious nativesorganized the firstlaborunion on St.Croix to fightforthe rightsof oppressed w orkers.2 W ith the help ofM istress H jørtLorentzen,a liberalm inded D anish w om an in Copenhagen,and localfinancialassistance,Jackson w entto D enm ark to plead the cause ofthe people.H is appealfellon sym patheticearsam ong leadersofthe then ruling SocialistParty,and he

88 / The U nited States N avy Band returned to the islands w ith the rightnotonly to unionize the field laborers butalso to establish a new spaper,thus ending governm entpress censorship.Jackson’sSt.Croix H erald becam e the firstindependentnew spaper in the history of the islands.Serving as the m outhpiece of the union,it soon carried stridentattackson the plantocracy and cham pioned the rights ofthe laboring poor.Jackson used the H erald notonly to advance the interestofthe disadvantaged butalso to educatehisreaders. In January 1916 Jackson and the union called a general strike on St. Croix.Thousandsofw orkerslaiddow n theirtoolsand refused tow ork until they received aw age increase asw ellasim provem entsin theirw orking and living conditions.Jackson and hisfollow ersheld anim ated m eetingsand ralliesthroughoutSt.Croix.The plantersalso organized them selvesand,fearing for their lives and properties,prevailed upon the D anish authorities (w ho w ere striving to m aintain a neutralposition)to send m ilitary reinforcem entsfrom St.Thom as.To the reliefofeveryone,Jackson m aintained effective controloverthe w orkersand there w asno violence. A fter nearly tw o m onths,the determ ination ofthe w orkers forced the planters to agree to a settlem ent.W ages for first-class w orkers w ere increased to thirty to thirty-five cents for a nine-hour w orking day,and overtim e of an additional four cents an hour w as to be paid thereafter.3 A lthough afew previousprivilegeslike free m edicalcare (w hich w asvirtually nonexistentanyw ay)w ere lost;other concessions w ere also m ade by the planters.4 The strike w as a greatvictory,notonly because ofthe w age increasesbutalso because the nonviolentcollective-bargaining processhad proven effective and the colonialgovernm enthad notovertly sided w ith the plantocracy.The victory ofthe Crucian w orkers inspired som e 2,700 harborw orkersand coalcarriersin St.Thom asto unionize.Led by G eorge A .M oorehead,the union carried outa series ofstrikes in late 1916 that culm inated in a settlem ent w ith the D anish W est India Com pany that increased w ages and im proved w orking conditions. Before these strikesstarted,Ihad form ed aclose personalfriendshipw ith Jackson,one thatw asto lastuntilhisdeath on M ay 30,1946.Ifirstm ethim on St.Croix in early 1914 on m y w ay from Christiansted to Frederiksted w hen Istopped by the Peter’sRestSchool,w here he w asprincipal.Jackson, w ho w asadevoteeoffine m usic,had w ritten to m e praising an articleIhad published in an A m erican m usicjournaland inviting m e to visithim .Iw as eagerto m eethim ,forIhad already heard he w asafine and honorablem an and a sage teacher.Like m any other teachers of the tim e,Jackson had received his professional education at the Teacher Training School in A ntigua.H e once confided in m e that he had really w anted to becom e a

The U nited States N avy Band / 89 m inister,butw as persuaded by hisfather,w ho w asan educator,to pursue a careerin education.O urfirstm eeting w entw ell,and w e quickly found that w e had m uch in com m on.A s Jackson escorted m e to m y buggy follow ing our conversation,he suddenly pointed to the laborers w orking in a nearby field and told m e,in avoice trem bling w ith em otion,thathe had decided to resign hisposition as principalin order to devotehislifeto the w elfare and betterm entofhispeople,especially the deprived sugar plantation laborers. H isw asadecision thatw ould alterthe course ofVirgin Islandshistory.5 D uring the next few m onths,Jackson and I becam e better acquainted. D uring m y visitsto St.Croix,he introduced m e to the m em bersofhisliterary club,w ith w hom I spent m any enjoyable hours discussing the great authors and m usicians.To know Jackson is to know the tw o poem s that affected him and w hich he often recited— Thom asG ray’s“Elegy W ritten in aCountry Churchyard”and Thom asH ood’s“Song ofthe Shirt.”LaterJackson w roteavery flattering new spaperarticledescribing m e asabeacon light toyoung W estIndiansand evidenceagainstEuropean claim sthatnativeVirgin Islanders w ere notintelligentor creative.I,in turn,cam e to adm ire the breadth ofhis know ledge,as w ellas his determ ination,w hich Ishared,to educatethe peopleand m ake them aw are ofthe greatartisticw orksofW estern Civilization.A lthough it w as m usic and literature that had initially draw n us together,m y socialconscience w as aroused through our contact.I too becam e involved in hiscrusade forthe m aterialand spiritualupliftofthe disadvantaged.Jackson took m e around St.Croix to show m e the m iserable situation ofthe field w orkers.Iw asgenuinely shocked and appalled,forlike m ostSt.Thom ians,Ihad littledirectexperience w ith conditionson the plantations.Because ofm y aversion topolitics,Ididnotbecom e directly involved in the labor struggles ofthe period.ButIdid invite Jackson to com e to St. Thom asforthe firsttim e and arranged forhim togive alecture attheA pollo Theateron hiscrusade and hisneed forsupport.Ialso agreed to becom e the St.Thom as subscription and distribution agentfor the H erald,to w hich I also contributed articles on localconditionsand m usicalculture w ritten in a popularvein.Iam proud thatm y startin the field ofjournalism cam e about in association w ith Jackson and the islands’firstgenuinely free press.6 In m y estim ation,D avid H am ilton Jackson w as one ofour m ostoutstanding native sons.A dark,handsom e,self-confidentm an w ith piercing eyesand asonorous,alm ostm usicalvoice,he w asthe very em bodim entof the charism aticleader.A lthough endow ed w ith unique intellectualgifts,he did notconsiderhim selfsuperiorto the peoplehe led.N ordid he abuse his position ofauthority and trust,as did m any ofhis successors.H e led by w isdom and exam ple,notby patronage and fear.

90 / The U nited States N avy Band H istask aslaborleaderin the firstdecadesofthiscentury w asnotan easy one.Itrequired tact,vision,good sense,discretion,caution,patience,and a finely attuned understanding of social dynam ics and hum an psychology. Few otherm en couldhave effectively controlled such avolatilesituation and achieved,againstincredible odds,such a singular trium ph.Jackson had the ability to arouse the am bition,hope,and enthusiasm thatslum ber in even the m ost dow ntrodden.H e m anaged to breathe his ow n hopeful,heroic spiritinto the heartsand m inds ofhispeople,instilling in them the conviction thatthey toopossessed the ability toclim b the m ountofhum an dignity and achievem ent.The estatew orkersregarded him asasavior,a M osesleading them tow ard a prom ised land of dignity and plenitude.To them ,his every w ord w assacrosanctand w asobeyed to the letter.Such w ashispow er overthe com m on peoplethatunderhisurging,petty crim e virtually disappeared and,for the firsttim e in m any years,itbecam e possibleto m ake the journey betw een Christiansted and Frederiksted w ithoutprotection. A fter the islands passed to A m erican sovereignty in M ay 1917,a purse of$5,000 w as collected from w ell-w ishers,including m yself,to help Jackson attend law school at H ow ard U niversity.H aving successfully com pleted his studies, Jackson returned hom e to resum e fighting for the m asses— this tim e in the courts.H is m any legalsuccesses convinced the navaladm inistratorsto nam e him judge ofthe St.Croix M unicipalCourt, the first m em ber of his race to be so honored.The naval governor w ho m ade the appointm ent told Jackson that he did so reluctantly,because thereafter the people w ould have no one w ith foresightto defend them . Jackson’sperform ance as judge w as a disappointm entto m any ofhisfollow ers.H islegaltraining,coupled w ith hisexperience in the laborstruggle and hiscontactw ith m en and w om en ofintellectualattainm entin W ashington,had im pressed forcibly upon hism ind the preem inence ofthe principle ofequality before the law.Consequently,he refused to interpretthe law to the exclusive benefitofone group and so broughtupon him selfthe unjustified stigm a ofbetraying the people.The St.Croix labor union leaders bitterly attacked Jackson in their new spaper,and he lostm uch ofhis prestige am ong the w orkers.D espiteintense publicpressure and ostracism from hisform erfollow ers,Jackson refused to barterhisprinciplesforpopularity.Through hisdeterm ined integrity and honesty,Jackson eventually regained the confidence ofhispeople and earned the respectofthe ruling classes as w ell.H e isnow accorded recognition as one ofthe greatleaders in our struggle for politicalautonom y and socialjustice.In m y estim ation he stands as the greatest,and I urge the youth to study and follow his exam pleofdedication,rectitude,and com passion.7

The U nited States N avy Band / 91 Socialunrest,econom icstagnation,and diplom aticpressure from A m erica led D enm ark to sign the treaty w hereby the D anish W estIndies w ere sold to the U nited Statesfor$25 m illion in 1917.There can be no doubtthat the transfer ofsovereignty w as popular on St.Thom as.The U nited States w asno strangerto us.W e knew aboutthe nation and w hatitstood forfrom books,new spapers,m agazines,and the telegraph.A good m any nativeshad gone to the Statesto take advantage ofthe econom icand educationalopportunities offered there.From these im m igrants,those rem aining on the islands received not only m onthly rem ittances but also stories about the advantages of life under the A m erican flag.A bove all,our contact w ith A m ericacam ethrough hershipsand sailorsw ho visited ourharbor.M ariners from allnations cam e to St.Thom as,butduring m y youth the A m ericans w ere farand aw ay the bestliked and m ostim itated.Peopletried to w alk and speak likeA m ericans,and w hen you m oved through the streetsofoldCharlotteA m alie,itw asasifyou w ere in atow n on the EastCoast.W e adm ired the A m erican character,w hich w as individualistic,easygoing,and freedom loving— not unlike our ow n.O ne indication of our strong pro-A m erican sentim entisthatw hen w e w ere boys,the w ooden boatsw e builtto play in w ere alw ays nam ed after A m erican vesselsthatcam e to St.Thom as.Even the “bum boats”— the sm all row boats used to ferry ship’s passengers to land— w ere conspicuously nam ed after A m erican states and cities.N o one w ould have thoughtofgiving these boatsa Scandinavian or French nam e, oreven nam ing them afterBritish places. St.Thom ians w elcom ed A m erican sovereignty not because they had been ill used by the D anes (few people harbored any hostility tow ard them ),butbecause A m erica offered us astrongly rooted dem ocratictradition,as w ellas w ealth,pow er,and socialopportunity.D enm ark,a com paratively poor country,could do little to im prove our econom ic w ellbeing. W e appreciated that our longstanding colonial governm ent did w hat it could,but w e knew that it w as not enough.D enm ark’s colonialism w as benign,and she had bequeathed to us m any gifts— a treasured culture, freedom from apernicious racialbigotry,the advantage ofstern discipline, and m any otherintangibleassetsoflifeforw hich w e w illalw aysbe grateful.If D enm ark could have offered us social and econom ic advantages equivalent to those of the U nited States,then w e w ould have probably been contentto rem ain w ith her forever. The only groups to oppose the com ing of A m erican rule w ere the islands’D anes and som e m erchantsw ho feared thatthey w ould lose their businesses to enterprising Yankees. A sm all clique w as also anxious because of A m erica’s racial policies,w hich w ere considered far harsher

92 / The U nited States N avy Band than anything w e had experienced under the D anes.Buteven these critics did notobjecttoo loudly to the sale,because the alternative w asm ostlikely G erm any,and few w anted to becom e G erm an.W e had com e to know the G erm answ ellthrough theircom m ercialestablishm entsin St.Thom as,and m any did notlike them .They appeared a cold,stiff,undem ocratic,standoffish sortofpeoplew ho did notm ix w ellw ith othernationalitiesorraces. A nd they had the reputation ofnotoriousm isers.The hurricane ofO ctober 1916 silenced any rem aining critics of the sale.This devastating storm com pleted our econom icruin.Businesses and hom es w ere destroyed.The harbor facilities w ere totally w recked.There w as w idespread sickness and near-starvation.A nd there w as no m oney availablefrom D enm ark to help us recover.Localm erchantshad no resources oftheirow n.Everyone w as in despair.W e did notknow w hatto do or w here to turn.U nder these circum stancesthe prospectofbecom ing partofthe w ealthy U nited Statesw as needed em ergency relief. Ishould note thatm any older people w ere less than enthusiasticabout the changeover.Peoplelike m y fatherhad grow n up underthe D anes,and, w hile they w ere notentirely contentw ith D anish rule,they preferred its continued certainties to the uncertainty ofthe A m ericans.They feltthat change w ould deprive them of traditional rights and cultural patterns bestow ed by the D anes.To them the changeover represented a loss ofvalued socialand culturalbearings.O n the other hand,younger people like m yselffeltthe stirring breath ofprom ise and progressthathad com e from years ofcontactw ith A m erica.In m y particular case,m usic w as a m ajor reason w hy Iw as attracted to the U nited States.Iadm ired A m erican band m usic,especially thatofSousa.Itw as from A m erican teachers like H ugh A .Clarke and Thom as Tapper thatIhad received a form alm usicaleducation.Iw rote articles forA m erican m usicaljournalsand w as in correspondence w ith m any outstanding A m erican m usicians.I knew I had little opportunity to expand m y m usicalcareer under D anish sovereignty.Ihad hopes and am bitions,and Irecognized thatthere w ere unparalleled opportunities w ith A m erica.I appreciated m any of the things that D enm ark offered,butIknew thatitdid notoffer m e enough.Iw anted to grow,to m ove forw ard,to realizem y dream s and aspirations. A llofthe conflicting em otions w hich the St.Thom as com m unity experienced because ofthe sale sw eptover the vastthrong w hich gathered to w itness the official transfer cerem onies,held on M arch 31,1917,at the parade ground in frontofthe old m ilitary barracks (now the hom e ofthe Virgin Islands legislature).M any eyes dim m ed w ith tearsw hen the D anish anthem w as played and old D annebrog slow ly descended.The flag

The U nited States N avy Band / 93 seem ed now and then to be clutching reluctantly to the pole.Itoo felta tinge ofregret.Butw hen the Stars and Stripes w as sw iftly run up in its place,Ifeltasurge ofhope and confidence.Like otheryoung people,Ifully appreciated thata new age— an age ofopportunity,ofeducation,ofprosperity— had finally daw ned.8 PresidentW oodrow W ilson designated officersofthe U.S.N avy D epartm entto adm inister the new territorialpossessions,w hich w ere renam ed the U nited States Virgin Islands.A lthough the selection of the navy for thisassignm entreflected the defense priorities thathad led to the acquisition ofthe islands in the firstplace,the purely m ilitary side ofnavalstew ardship w as never ofgreatconsequence.N o w arships w ere stationed in St. Thom asharbor,and the m ilitary garrison,w hich included adetachm entof m arines,w as never sizeable— even during w artim e.The prim ary purpose ofthe so-called “navaladm inistration” w as to provide good,effective civil governm entthatw asresponsive to the needsofthe localpopulace.Itm ust be stressed thatthe navaladm inistration w asnotreally am ilitary governm ent,buta civiladm inistration run,atthe direction ofCongress and by presidentialappointm ent,by navalofficers. O ne of the leading objectives of the new adm inistrators w as to seek am ong the native population the needed skillsand talentsfor com m unity grow th and betterm ent,so thatw ith theireventualdeparture they w ould leave behind asound and healthy Virgin Islands ship ofstatew ith an able, w ell-trained Virgin Islands crew.Thisw as the m otivation,the philosophy, and the politicalcreed ofthe m en and w om en w ho held the reins ofgovernm ent from the transfer in 1917 to their eventual departure in 1931. A m ong the first of their undertakings in this direction,and perhaps the m ostnotable,w as the establishm entofa U nited States N avy Band com posed entirely ofnative Virgin Islanders. Priorto 1917,a good num berofthe youthsofthe com m unity had taken up m usicas an educational,recreational,and culturalpastim e.They saw in m usican expression ofthem selves.A s so often happens (as in the case for m e ofSebastien),aperson ofappreciation,ofposition,ofplain hum an com pulsion arrivesupon the scene w ho recognizesthe talentand burning am bition ofyouth and brings itto the attention ofthe rightperson,atthe right tim e,in the rightplace.The idea ofform ing a native navy band originated w ith M rs.W hite,the w ifeofCaptain W illiam RussellW hite,chiefaide and chiefofstafftoA dm iralJam esH .O liver,the firstA m erican governorofthe Virgin Islands.W hile staying atthe G rand H otelin dow ntow n Charlotte A m alie,the new ly arrived M rs.W hiteheard aconcertgiven by m y Juvenile Band in nearby Em ancipation G arden.9 The quality ofthe perform ance so

94 / The U nited States N avy Band im pressed her thatshe resolved to propose to the adm inistration to have the Juveniles enlisted into the U.S.N avy.M rs.W hite,herselfan accom plished pianistw ho had once studied under Italian opera com poser Pietro M ascagni,conveyed her idea to m e the nextday,explaining thatthrough such a band ofyoungsters,she believed,a close,cooperative relationship could be m utually established betw een the peopleoftheVirgin Islandsand the new adm inistration.She believed thatthe band could play a valuable roleasaliaison— a bridge ofcom m unication— betw een the new navalofficialsand the com m unity.A s a m usician,she w as w ellaw are ofthe beneficialrole thatm usiccan play in com m unity developm entas a facilitator of cross-culturaldialogue and understanding,as w ellas a m eans ofdem onstrating the need and value ofcooperation,unity,and harm ony.Iw illbe eternally gratefulto thisgraciousand kind lady,w hose keen interestin the band,asw ellasthe social,cultural,and m oraladvancem entofourcom m unity w as unflagging during the severalyears she spentin our islands.She and her noble husband can truly be said to have given their souls to the peopleofthe Virgin Islands.The w ork ofbringing the band to aposition of cultural leadership in the islands w as accom plished largely through the influence ofthese tw o liberal-m inded hum anitarians.10 A fter obtaining enthusiasticconsentfrom m yselfand the boys for her plan,M rs.W hitebroughtheridea to bearstrongly upon G overnorO liver,a m an personally com m itted to involving capable natives in hisadm inistration.A fter satisfying him selfthatw e w ere indeed the best-qualified local band,11 O liver requested and received perm ission from W ashington,less than three m onthsafterthe transfer,to establish aN avy Band ofthe U nited StatesVirgin Islands.The signerofthisdirective,w hich established the first colored band in the U.S.N avy,w as W oodrow W ilson.By the president’s order I w as aw arded the rank of chief petty officer and the title of naval bandm aster,the firstofm y race to be so honored.12 Iw asfurtherauthorized to select tw enty-one of the best m usicians from m y Juvenile Band for induction w ith m yselfinto the navy for a term offour years.The m en I chose w ere H enry G aliber,Conrad G om ez,Paludan O .N icholson,and Louis Taylor,clarinets;A rthur Ram sey,alto saxophone;Raphael Francis,tenor saxophone;Raphael Bonelli,H erbert Brow n,H alvor D elem os,and Earle W illiam s,cornets;Philip Lopez,A rnold M artin,and O liverre Sebastien,alto horns;Raphael Chapm an and Cyril M ichael,trom bones;Julien A dam s, baritone;Bernardo H eyligar,E-flat bass;A lphonse D om ingo and M orris Francis,BB-flatbass;RonaldH ennessey,bassdrum ;and Jam esBrow n,snare drum — allofthem capable,enterprising young m en.13 The form ation ofthe navy band notonly presented m e w ith a golden opportunity to propelm y

The U nited States N avy Band / 95 am bitions forw ard as am usician and abandm aster butalso w as an expression ofpersonalsatisfaction form yselfand the fine youthsw ho served w ith m e in the Juvenile Band.For m any ofus itm eantthe beginning ofa purposefuland productive careerin the U nited StatesN avy. W e w ere officially inducted into the navy on June 2,1917,by our com m anding officer,Captain W illiam RussellW hite.O urterm sofservice w ere exceptional.W e w ere given standard pay offifty dollarsam onth,provided w ith allourinstrum entsand aband room ,perm itted to live athom e rather than in barracks,aw arded a subsistence allow ance,and subjected to only a few m ilitary regulations,such as nightcurfew.14 The bandsm en w ere thus able to live secure,independent lives in their com m unity,and m any of them m aintained their ow n businesses or held part-tim e jobs.O ur sole m ilitary responsibility w as to practice and play m usic.A llin all,itw as an idealsituation w hich proved aturning pointin each ofour lives. The editor ofthe Jacobs’Band M onthly,the renow ned m usicaljournal w ith w hich Iw as stillassociated,introduced and hailed the form ation of the navy band as follow s: There has com e to the Jacobs’Band M onthly asem i-officialaccountof the birth ofanew A m erican Band,anew Boy’sBand,a new N aval Boy’sBand thatissponsored by “O ne ofus.” “Pshaw !” says som ebody, “bands are born as com m on as babies.W hatofit?”Thisis“w hatofit.” In thisgrand country,w hich isold enough to be the greatgrand paternalprogenitor ofseveralgenerations ofbands,thisorganization not only isanew -born band,butitisthe firstbirth ofitskind in thiscountry,and to everyone isaccorded the rightto “holler,” over the first born— particularly ifitisahusky boy born under the protecting folds ofthe A m erican flag. To com e dow n to “brass boys”— technically and not— generally speaking— the “sem i-official” accountcom es through the colum ns of Lightbourn’sM ailN otes,anew spaper published atCharlotteA m alie, St.Thom as,V.I.,U.S.A .,once the D.W .I.,and atthispointthe interest begins to accum ulate.These new ly taken over islands are by no m eans the firstterritorialacquisitions ofthe U.S.A .butto the bestofour know ledge thisisthe firsttim e in history thatthe U.S.G overnm ent has alm ostim m ediately upon possession organized and fathered a N avalBoys’Band from itsnew ly adopted A m erican citizens. A s the readersofthism agazine allknow,M r.A lton A .A dam s,ofTH E BA N D ,isthe enthusiasticband generator atSt.Thom as,Virgin Islands, U.S.A .— the band m otif,to putitm usically— and hisspecialty and m usicalhobby isto organize,educateand train band-boys to becom e capablebandsm en.Thatisw hy M r.A dam s has been officially com m issioned by the governm entto train the new organization and because he

96 / The U nited States N avy Band has been so com m issioned isthe reason for stating above thatthe new born youngster issponsored by “one ofus.” A ccording to the M ailN otes:“Itisseldom thatone sees realm erit better rew arded than in the case ofM r.A lton A dam s and hisband.The governm ent,finding thatm any ofour boys possessed m usicaltalent, and being desirous ofhaving anavalband,after being satisfied as to his superior claim ,com m issioned M r.A dam s to organizeaband oftw entytw o.M r.A dam s being ableto m ake aselection from those w hom he has him selftrained,presented them to Captain W hite,and on Saturday (June 2)they w ere sw orn into the service ofthe U nited States N avy for four years.” U niform s,instrum entsand generalequipm entsw illbe speedily provided by the governm ent,and then these boys w illsoon find them selves to be full-fledged U nited States N avalm usicians playing for U ncleSam .The band w illplay daily atthe hoisting and low ering ofthe colors and afterw ards w illgive ashortconcertatthe barracks.O n Sunday evenings,atthe close ofchurch services,the band w illplay sacred concertsin the Em ancipation G arden. To Bandm asterA dam s,w ho now holds the rank as aChiefPetty O fficer and w ho has w holeheartedly devoted tim e,attention and m uch ofprivatefunds to bettering band conditions in St.Thom as,there now com es justaccruem entofintereston invested capitalofearned effort. The A m erican officialsin the islands are deeply interested in the m an, hiseducationalendeavors and hisw ork in the Jacobs’Band M onthly. W eare sure thatevery reader ofthe m agazine w illm ostheartily congratulateM r.A dam s upon the honor ofbecom ing the G overnm ent Bandm aster ofthe firstnavalband ofthe Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States ofA m erica,and also m ostcordially w elcom e him as an A m erican citizen,w hilew arm ly rejoicing in thisnew “Band’sBirthday.”15

I,ofcourse,w as ecstaticover the turn ofevents.For nightson end Ilay aw ake contem plating the future thathad suddenly opened up to m e and dream ing aboutthe kind ofband thatw e w ould create.Iknew thatIhad been presented w ith a unique opportunity to fulfill m y am bitions as a m usician and bandm aster,and Iw as determ ined notto letthischance ofa lifetim e slip from m y grasp.Iknew thatitw asnotgoing to be easy.W e had to justify the navy’s faith in us.W e had to prove our w orth by doing an exem plary job,because w e represented notonly theVirgin Islandsbutalso the entire colored race.Thissense ofobligation guided m y entire career in the navy and accounts for m y diligentefforts to bring outthe very best from m y m en atalltim es.From the outsetIbelieved strongly in the capabilitiesofm y boysand w asconvinced thatthey had itin them to be one of the bestbandsin the w orld.Thatisw hatIaim ed for.O nce w e had enlisted,

The U nited States N avy Band / 97 Idem anded thatthe band practice four to six hours every day and thatits appearance be im m aculate, its conduct irreproachable. The band w as already good,butIstrove to develop itto ahigherplane.Ithasalw aysbeen a cardinaltenet of m ine that to enjoy true success,our lives m ust be of incessant,constructive toileach day— alw ays trying to im prove ourselves, for atbestw e are im perfectcreatures.Iview ed m ilitary service notas the culm ination ofm y career butas a new plateau,w hich w idened m y horizons and m y am bitions. A tthattim e,Iw as considered by som e ofthe bandsm en as w ellas by m any in the com m unity to be tough— a hard and exacting taskm aster.16 Perhaps in certain cases I w as,if being tough m eant rigid discipline in punctuality,cleanliness,neat appearance,good m usic,and strict ethical observance in dem anding thatthe band room and band quartersbe so kept as w ould unblushingly w elcom e w ithoutw arning am an’sw ife,m other,or friends.I w as,how ever,never in doubt as to the high quality,excellent hom e training,loyalty,and burning am bition ofthe young m en Iw asprivileged to guide and teach and represent.Letm e take thisopportunity to say thisto our youthfulw ould-be leaders ofm usicaloutfits.The discipline of the captain ofa m ilitary com pany ism ild com pared to thatexacted by the successfulband and orchestra leader.The success ofthe m usicisin direct proportion to the perfection ofthe discipline.17 I had already w orked out m y ow n philosophy about the band,and it guided m e asIendeavored tobring m y unittoahigherdegree ofexcellence. Som e ofm y beliefs and tenets respecting the band are expressed in these excerptsfrom m y w ritingsofthe period in the Jacobs’Band M onthly: The band isan im portantfactor in the present-day lifeofour m odern civilization.Itperform s m any functions,the leastofw hich isto am use. Thisfacthas been lostsightofby m any.Itsprincipalm ission isto civilize,hum anize,m ake good,and help to cem entthe brotherly feeling thathas been the m ission ofreligion and artto prom ote. W hilethe m ilitary band lacks the finesseofthe orchestra,thatdeficiency has been com pensated for by itsgreater usefulness as an outdoor instrum ent,thereby getting m ore in contactw ith those w ho m ost need itsinfluence as ahum anizing m edium . The usefulness ofaband to acom m unity cannotbe overestim ated. O ne ofour m odern w riters com pares it,and rightly so,w ith the sam e relation to acom m unity as the choiristo the church— a highly im portantfactor. A lthough up to now the band has m ade w onderfulprogress,Ithink thatifw e as bandsm en consider tw o things w hich w e seem entirely to lose sightof,the progress and influence w ould stillbe m ore w onderful.

98 / The U nited States N avy Band First,the relation ofthe band to the com m unity ofw hich itform s a partand,secondly,the requisites ofourselves as m en and m usicians, and our obligations to the band ofw hich w eform apart. Itisattim es both healthfuland delightfulto take aretrospective view ofour organization— m ore so ourselves.A n institution can be nothing m ore or less than w hatitsm em bers m ake it— the leader included.A n old adage says “know thyself.” The band should firstofallcontain decent,m oral,and am bitious m em bersw ho possess enough intelligence to be disciplined,and w ho feeland know thatthey are respected and thoughtm ore ofby thinking peoplew hen they im plicitly obey theirleader and give him theirm oral help,encouragem ent,and gratitude;w ho m ake punctuality aprinciple, am bition avirtue,and Excelsior!anecessity;w ho aim atan ideal,and are determ ined,costw hatitm ay,to fighttow ards the realization of thatideal;w ho are conscious ofthe factthatto push upw ard isto rise, and to rem ain dorm antisto descend in the scaleofhum an intelligence and w orth;and w ho w illonly tasteofthe true success w hen their effortsresultnotonly in m aking them good m usicians,but,w hatisof m ore im portance and far m ore exem plary,intellectually and m orally better m en.18 W hatisthe difference betw een agood and abad band? ...Letus look atthe requisitequalities thatm ake up agood reed or brass band. W em ustfirstexam ine our instrum entation and see ifthe grouping of instrum entsgives us thatcorrectbalance oftonalcolor necessary to a perfectrendition....N o section should be m ade to dom inate,but rather [each should]assistto enrich the m elody and give strength,volum e and tonalcoloring to the harm ony.Ifany section isto be prom inent,by allm eans letitbe the w oodw ind section,w hich should com prise abouthalfthe num ber ofthe band,and w ith itsbeauty,uniform ity and greatpliancy oftonalcharacter,distinguishes the purely brass from the reed band.... In m y experience,Ihave found thatm ostbands suffer from poorness oftone and faulty intonation,due to the disregard ofindividual and collective practice ofsustained tones throughoutthe entire register oftheirinstrum ents.The question oflong sustained tones isan invaluablenecessity to the requisition ofpure intonation,and those soft, sw eet,volum inous tones so pleasantto intelligenthearers.A good tone and perfectintonation are notgifts,as m any believe,butsim ply afaithfulobservance and practice oflong-sustained tones daily.Thisfactcannotbe too m uch em phasized. A few w ords as to the conductor or leader.The leader should have a perfectknow ledge ofharm ony and com position,should be agood arranger,agood soloist,and have atechnicalknow ledge ofallthe instrum entsofthe band.H e should be athorough disciplinarian,and should have,ifpossible,the love,butcertainly the respectofthe entire

The U nited States N avy Band / 99 organization.A singleplayer m ay only spoilhispart,butapoor conductor ruins the w holecom position.The leader should never be a figure-head,a m ere stick-w aver.H e isthe interm ediateagentbetw een the perform ers and the audience;he isresponsiblefor perfecttim e and the various m ovem entsindicated in hisscores;hisindividuality and personality m uststand outin hisinterpretation,and the question of precision,attack,and steadiness ofm ovem entrestentirely w ith him . H e isthe player on thatbig instrum ent— TH E BA N D . The individualisnotonly an im portantfactor in the lifeofanation or com m unity,butalso in the lifeofaband.W hataband isto be is w hatitsm em bers m ake it.The success ofthe band depends to agreat extentupon the cooperation ofthe m em bers in perfectharm ony.The blending ofthe various tones ofthe individualelem entinfluences the generalensem bleor com positew hole.The personality ofeach m em ber reflectsitselfinto the m usicand either spoilsor enhances the harm onic effect.A s achain isnotstronger than itsw eakestlink,so aband cannot rise above itsw eakestm em ber.A s asum -totalfor agood effectand the success ofthe band,w e arrive atthese requirem ents:am bitious m em bersw ho are w illing to putforth theirvery bestenergy for their advancem entand the generalw elfare ofthe band;good instrum entsas nearly perfectin tune and tone as can be had;and last,butby no m eans least,the band’sgood appearance,w hich has quiteagreatinfluence upon any audience.

Idid m ore than m ake the m en learn the m usic;Itaughtthem to understand itand to appreciatethe intention and the m ethodsofthe com poser,for only then could they enterinto the m usicthatthey played.Irem em berone tim e w hen I had the boys practice for several hours a band arrangem ent w hich Ihad w ritten ofA ustrian com poserFranzSchubert’sU nfinished Sym phony.A tthe end,w hen the exhausted bandsm en w ere leaving the room , one ofthem sighed,“Lucky thing thatfellow didn’tlive to finish that.” H is rem ark gave m e an idea.The nexttim e the band m et,Idissected the U nfinished Sym phony section by section w ith them ,and w e played each partso that they understood Schubert’s ideas and technique.Then w e played m y band arrangem ent,and they didan excellentjob.Shortly thereafter,w hen w e had to go w ith the governor to St.Croix,Iasked them w hatw e should play overthere.W ith one voice they shouted:“The U nfinished Sym phony.” Ihad troublew ith the bandsm en only on one occasion,w hen som e local agitators tried to stirup trouble by telling som e ofthem thatIw as unjustifiably harsh and thatthey w ere being discrim inated againstin term s of ratings and pay.These charges w ere patently false.Still,a few ofthe m en gotupset.U pon being satisfied on the m atter,they rallied around m e and w roteapublicletter in m y support,w hich read in part:

100 / The U nited States N avy Band W e the m em bers ofthe U.S.N avalBand beg to say thatthere w as no serious disagreem entam ong us or any spiritofdistrusttow ard our honestand ableleader,butsim ply am isunderstanding w hich w as satisfactorily cleared to us by our Captain and w hich proved our leader to be perfectly rightin allthathe dem anded ofus.W e thank no one for endeavoring to espouse our cause,especially in such am alicious m anner as thatadopted.... “Letenvy and m alice alone,they w illpunish them selves.”

This unfortunate m isunderstanding w as soon forgotten as our collective exertions began to bear fruit. To judge from the capacity crow ds thatw ere now filling the Em ancipation G arden and itsenvirons,itw asevidentthatourSunday nightconcerts w ere becom ing m ore and m ore popular w ith the island inhabitants.O ne particular Sunday evening,as w e had taken our places in the bandstand, w ord spread am ong us that G overnor O liver,his w ife,staff officers,and theirw ives had taken over asection ofthe G rand H otelterrace to listen to our concert.Their presence m ay have been an inspiration.W hatever the reason,every phrase ofthe concertw as rendered m agnificently.N o bandm aster could have expected m ore ofhism en.The applause follow ing each rendition w asspontaneousand continuous.W hen the concertended,G overnor O liver and his group w ere w aiting for us atthe footofthe bandstand.The governorreached form y hand:“M r.A dam s,congratulations!In fact,congratulations alone cannot convey m y feelings.The concert w as superb.Ifthiskeeps up,Iw illno longer m issw hatused to be m y favorite m usicalgroup,the M arine Band ofW ashington,D.C.”19 From the outsetthe navaladm inistratorshad been m ore than satisfied w ith our perform ance.The band had no sooner started its w ork w hen another navy band reported for duty at St.Thom as.W hen G overnor O liver w as inform ed of it,he ordered that the m en be sent aboard ship im m ediately,and thereupon dispatched am essage to the navy departm ent stating thathe w as fully satisfied w ith the navy band ofm usicians under his com m and,w hich he believed w ould soon be m olded into one of the finest bands in the w orld,and adding that he did not m iss the w orldfam ous M arine Band in W ashington.Captain W hite w as so pleased w ith the developm entofthe band thathe obtained perm ission to have m e sent to St.Croix [in 1918]to organize sim ilar unitsin Christiansted and Frederiksted,w hich I accom plished in six m onths,using som e of m y form er bandsm en in St.Thom asasstarters.20 A fterthese bandsw ere established,I w as appointed bandm aster-in-charge ofallthree localnavalbands.M usi-

The U nited States N avy Band / 101 cians w ho heard these youngsters play conceded that their efforts w ere rem arkable.Im ustsay here and now thatIcould neverhave accom plished w hatIdid w ithoutthe help and solid supportofm y brother,Julien.In m y absence he conducted the bands in professionalstyle.Because ofhisgenial disposition and ability to get along w ith people,m em bers of the band accepted histough rehearsalschedulesand gave him theircom pleteloyalty and support.21 D uring the alm ostfourteen years ofitsexistence (1917–31)the U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands achieved one ofthe highestrecords in the navy for discipline,appearance,behavior,and m usicalperform ance. O urm usicand deportm entw on high acclaim from m ilitary m en the like of G eneral“Black Jack” Pershing;A dm iralsCoontz,W ells,and Eberle;Secretaries of the N avy D enby and W ilbur;and A ssistant Secretary Theodore Roosevelt— each of w hom review ed us.G eneral Pershing personally told m e thathe had neverheard afinerband.Encom ium salso cam e from m any m usicalconnoisseurs w ho heard the band play in the islands or during our tourofthe eastern U nited Statesin 1924.The Congressofthe U nited States even joined in the praise,approving a1920 report[#734]thatdeclared: O ne ofthe bestpieces ofw ork done by the N avy has been the developm entofasplendid band— one atSt.Thom as and one atSt.Croix.These young m en in the bands are m oral,enterprising,and setagood exam pleto the other young m en ofthe islands.There isagreatam bition am ong them to becom e m em bers ofthe bands.G reatcreditisdue to Com m anderW hitefor hisw ork along these lines.

Ihave been reliably inform ed thatthe excellentrecord and abilities ofour band w ere extrem ely influentialin having othercolored bandsand orchestras organized under the N avy D epartm entduring W orld W ar II. The Virgin Islands com m unity received us w ith enthusiasm and pointed to usw ith pride.O ften follow ing ourconcerts,the band form ed up and led ajubilanttram p through tow n.A pplause w asshow ered upon usby localculture buffs,as w ellas the popular classes.O ne ofour best-know n native intellectuals,J.A ntonio Jarvis,w roteofus: Lifew ould be inexpressively drab and drear in St.Thom as w ere itnot for the inspiring com fortofgood m usicsuch as the N avy Band gave us lastevening;and w hich w e enjoy periodically through itsconcerts. Thisisnotthe stage w here one needs to praise the renditions,for its achievem entsare records ofitshigh quality:butitisespecially w orthw hileto offer som e appreciation for unexpected treatsthatthey m ay be repeated.

102 / The U nited States N avy Band A specialfeature,thatw as m ostsatisfying,w as the solo by Bandm asterA dam s;w ords cannotdo justice in description;w e hope to hear him frequently: “Sure,the larks and m ocking birds, W ailing outtheirm inor thirds, Stop theirthrilling, Cease theirshrilling— By itsm agicsounds struck m ute— W hen an A dam s plays the flute.”

The band’srepertoire w as w ide-ranging.W e played m arches,classics,local folk m elodies,w altzes,sacred m usic,popular tunes,songs,overtures,even jazz.22 Som etim es,Iw ould give abriefpresentation on am usicalsubjector som e prom inentm usician. The band w as notconfined to St.Thom as.W e played often in St.Croix, since the governors usually took us w ith them w henever they visited our sister island.The Crucians thronged to see us,even though they had their ow n bands,and our visitsoften took on the airofa holiday.W ord ofour band’sability and perform ance had spread off-island.Early in July 1921 I received an invitation for our band to give severalconcertsin neighboring Puerto Rico.The invitation cam e from Luis M iranda,the outstanding Puerto Rican com poser and director ofthatisland’sm ilitary band,the Fifteenth Infantry Regim entBand.Iproceeded to clear the m atter w ith the governor’s office.A change of governors had taken place.O n A pril 26, 1921,our good friend G overnor O m an w as replaced by Rear A dm iral Sum ner E.W .Kittelle. From the beginning G overnorKittelle(1921–22)w asasardentabackerof our band as hispredecessor.N otonly did he give hisconsentand blessing to our trip,buthe also ordered thatnavaltransportation be m ade available to take us to Puerto Rico and back.There m usthave been w idespread publicity ofour com ing,because the nightofour firstconcertin San Juan found us in an open-airstadium looking outon acapacity crow d.Itw asabeautifulm oonlitnight,clear and cool.Ifeltproud ofm y bandsm en in thatspacious bandstand.H ow neat and poised they looked in their spotless w hite uniform s, ready to perform .W e opened our concertw ith the “Virgin Islands M arch,” w hich m ore and m ore w as becom ing our opening tradem ark.W e continued w ith selectionsofCuban habañera m usicasw ellasseveralofourow n native bam boulas.Theseexciting dancerhythm sdelighted theaudience.W ereceived hearty applause and callsforencores.The classicalsection ofourprogram featured overturesfrom the Italian m astersw ith Rossiniand Verdidom inating. A lso included w ere m elodious selections from M exican com poser Juventino

The U nited States N avy Band / 103 Rosas’s“Im passioned D ream s” and from “Robin H ood” by A m erican com poser Reginald D e Koven.W e concluded our concertw ith severalbeautiful Puerto Rican dances com posed by our host,LuisM iranda.The crow d w ent w ild.W e gave tw o m ore concerts in Puerto Rico to large,enthusiastic,and happy audiences.From the praise w e received on allsides,itw asevidentthat our firstoff-island concertshad been very successful.O n A ugust8,1921,I received aletterfrom M iranda expressing hishappinessw ith ourvisit. Ihope you are enjoying good health as usual.Iam very sorry thatI could notsee you before you leftSan Juan.Iw entto Cataño,but,from there,Iw as hearing [about]your excellentband.Iw ish to tellyou that the peopleofSan Juan received avery good im pression ofyour fine organization and particularly ofyou as itsM aster.Icongratulateyou for your success in San Juan,and expectthatyou w illcontinue receiving constantly the rew ard ofyour greateffortsin having the bestBand ofthe U.S.N avy.W ith kindestregards and very bestw ishes for everybody ofyour Band.23

The band becam e an effective m ediator betw een the idealsofthe naval adm inistrators and those ofthe people.Beginning w ith the leadership of the first naval adm inistrator,G overnor O liver,m usic found its rightful place in com m unity life.In the schools,the churches,and the hospitals,as w ellas in other com m unity activities,the influence ofm usicas an uplifting force w as broughtto the forefrontthrough the m edium ofthe band and carried far and w ide.24 G overnor O liver,a m an ofbroad culture and fine artistic qualities,spared no pains in using the band as a tool in his endeavors tow ard public refinem ent and enlightenm ent.O liver insisted thatthe m em bersofthe band live so asto have them selveslooked upon as shining exam plesofthe objectivessetforth in the plansofthe adm inistration,and that,therefore,the hom e lifeofthe bandsm en in allitsaspects— cultural,religious,educational,and social— oughtto be so regulated as to serve asam odelforcom m unity lifein general.A ccordingly,he urged allof usto getm arried,settledow n,raise fam ilies,live m odelhom e lives,and be good law -abiding citizens in our com m unity.25 To m eet the governor’s expectations,Iposted the follow ing setofrules for our organization: notice to bandsm en our policy W ith the aim ofhaving the band developed into an organization w hich fitssatisfactorily into the schem e ofnavalestablishm ents,the follow ing injunctions are issued for the guidance ofthe bandsm en under m y leadership:

104 / The U nited States N avy Band 1. D ue allow ances have already been m ade for those m em bers w ho,through lack ofbasicm ilitary training,find them selves,as itw ere,in astrange environm ent. 2. In keeping w ith navy regulations,allbandsm en are expected to so carry them selves as to do creditto the service. 3. The factthatothers occasionally violateregulations offers no excuse for the violation ofthose regulations by any individual. Each individualhas incum benton him the bounden duty to m ake hisdem eanor stand outas an exam pleofsound discipline and true patrioticcom m on sense. 4. A sprofessionalsin the service,allbandsm en have,resting on them ,the responsibility form aintaining ahigh standard ofprofessionalskilland dignity.Each one is,in duty,bound to utilize every opportunity offered him forselfim provem ent,thuscontributing substantially to the efficiency ofthe entire organization. 5. Character and ability (professionaland general)should be the goaltow ard w hich allbandsm en reach out. 6. Itm ustbe clearly borne in m ind thatthe band isan institution the purpose ofw hich isto give service to the entire establishm ent.Each m em ber should therefore show an ever readiness and w illingness to cooperatew holeheartedly in any undertaking aim ing atthe betterm entofthe w hole.Prudentand respectful treatm entofevery shipm ateisexpected ofallbandsm en. 7. Bandsm en should notclose theireyesto the factthatthey are,in duty,bound to look on theirsuperiorofficersw ith respect,and give to them allconsiderationsindicative ofm ilitary courtesy.

A sleader,naturally Ihad to m ake astart,w hich Iw illingly did by m arrying Ella Eugenia Joseph on O ctober 6,1917.26 W e broughtforth seven daughters and a son and rem ained happily m arried untilher death February 9, 1978.27 M ostofthe bandsm en follow ed m y exam ple,and severalofthem , such asCyrilM ichael,w ho isnow adistrictcourtjudge,w enton to becom e socialpillarsofthe com m unity.28 The inspirationalim pactw hich the bandsm en had on the tone and tenoroflocallifecan neverbe overestim ated. The navaladm inistratorsencouraged usto influence othersnotonly by exam ple but also by becom ing actively and constructively involved in com m unity affairs.Tow ard this latter goal I joined the new ly form ed A m erican Red Cross,for w hich Iserved as secretary.A tthe tim e the local chapter of the Red Cross,w hich had been set up by the navy,w as the prim ary agency ofsocialw elfare in the islands,and Iw aspleased to becom e involved in its m inistrations to the poor and needy.W ithin the Red

The U nited States N avy Band / 105 Cross,I,along w ith O .S.Kean,w as instrum entalin establishing the first publiclibrary on St.Thom as,in D ecem ber 1920.There w as a greatsocial need for a library because up to that tim e the public had no place to go w here itcould be exposed to books or know ledge.The only such organization then existing,the A thenaeum ,w as run by persons ofm eans and w as closed to those w ho could notafford either the entrance fee or m onthly paym ents.The establishm entofthe St.Thom as Public Library m arked a m ajor advance tow ard the dem ocratization ofknow ledge in our com m unity,and Iam proud to have been so closely associated w ith this w orthw hileendeavor. The firstpracticalstep tow ard the realization ofapubliclibrary for this island w asm ade on June 5,1920,w hen am eeting w asheldin BethaniaH all by apubliclibrary com m ission.A m ong those presentw ere M r.Kean,representing the ColonialCouncil;M r.M alling-H olm ,representing the local chapterofthe Red Cross;and directorofeducation M r.D anielR.N ase,representing the governm ent.O n thatevening plansw ere m ade forthe establishm entofapubliclibrary.A com m itteew as appointed to getfunds from localpeople,and a requestfor a donation ofbooks w as sentto the A m erican Library A ssociation and the A m erican Red Cross,both ofw hich sent liberalgifts.The Red Cross through M issJoanna Colcord donated $3,000, w hile the A m erican Library A ssociation through the lively interest, energy,and progressiveness ofG overnor O m an,m ade valuable contributions ofbooks ofallsorts.The latter institution also contributed the services of tw o reliable experts in library w ork,M isses A delina Zachart and Eleanor G leason,w ho proved their w orth in having the library puton a satisfactory w orking basis. The form alopening ofthe St.Thom as PublicLibrary,w hich m arked an epoch in ourlittleisland,w asheld on the evening ofD ecem ber10,1920,at the G rand H otel.A sthe firstchairm an ofthe library com m ission,M r.Kean w as m aster ofcerem onies.The program opened w ith an invocation by the Reverend Father G uillo,C.SS.R.This w as follow ed by a w elcom e by M r. Kean.The staraddressofthe evening w asdelivered by the Reverend A .H . Leslie,then ofthe D utch Reform ed Church.The speaker explained fully the place ofthe library in the building up ofacom m unity,stressing particularly how and w hat to read.M iss Zachart w as then introduced to the audience and gave asuccinctaccountofthe w ork she and M issG leason had done.Taken up w ith hersubject,she carried the audience along w ith her,as phase after phase in the prelim inary w ork ofthe library w as unfolded.A t the close ofher address,she received aw ell-deserved ovation.O ther item s on the program w ere selections by the U.S.N avy Band,vocalnum bers by

106 / The U nited States N avy Band M r.J.Philip G om ez accom panied by M r.H ugo Bornn on the piano,and the closing address by the RightReverend Bishop E.C.G reider,presidentof the A m erican Red Cross and m em ber ofthe library com m ission.29 A fter the cerem onies at the G rand H otel w ere concluded,G overnor and M rs. O m an and m em bers ofthe ColonialCouncil,the teachers ofthe various schools,m em bers ofthe clergy,and m any ofthe m erchants and citizens follow ed the tw o tirelessw orkersM issesZachary and G leason to the upper story ofthe building eastofthe Lutheran Church,the firsthom e ofthe library. Everybody including G overnor O m an expressed highest appreciation and deep gratitude to the tw o indefatigable w orkers,the A m erican Red Cross,and theA m erican Library A ssociation forthe preciousgift.The total num berofbookscom prising the library w asfive thousand.D uring the first six m onths,from January 1 to June 3,1921,17,407 persons visited and 10,800 books w ere lentto the people for use in theirhom es;and from the tim e ofitsopening untilJune 30 ofthe follow ing year,613 persons w ere registered as m em bers.The average num ber of visitors the second year afterthe opening w as3,000 am onth.In Septem berofthatyear3,124 persons visited and 1,864 books w ere draw n.M iss N ellie Richardson w as selected as the firstlibrarian.30 A nother com m unity activity Ibecam e involved in w as the publication ofaw eekly new spapercalled the St.Thom asTim es.The new spaperw asm y idea.Itgrew outofm y interestin spreading culture to m y people.A tthe tim e,none ofthe new spapersin St.Thom asconcerned them selvesw ith the arts or w ith educating the citizenry.Few even took cognizance of local com m unity affairs,and w hen they did,itw asusually in the form ofgossip. M ostly our paperscarried politicalstories and advertisem ents.Itw as m y beliefthatthere w as a need for a paper thataddressed itselfto the task of uplifting its readers,rather than titillating them .The St.Thom as Tim es w as ow ned,operated,and printed by the navy band,w ith the approvaland encouragem entofG overnor Kittelle.W e raised $3,000 ofour ow n to purchase aprinting press,w hich w e located in the band room .Collectively the band m em berspossessed the requisitetechnicalskillsto produce the paper. I served as editor and w as ably assisted by Cyril M ichael as secretary, H .Kean as treasurer,and Paluden N icholson as business m anager. From the first,the paper,w hich appeared once a w eek,seta high tone, eschew ing politics and providing its readers w ith inform ation about the w orld of art,literature,m usic,and dram a,as w ell as local com m unity affairs.The credo ofthe paperw assetforth in m y editorialforthe firstedition,ofO ctober 8,1921:

The U nited States N avy Band / 107 W ith thisinitialissue,The St.Thom asTim essounds itsgreeting to you,and sincerely truststhatitw illaw aken aresponsive tone in the heartsofthose w ho truly stand for the cause ofintellectualfreedom and m oraluplift. Itisnotnecessary to m ake an apology for the adventofthispublication;itsm otive justifies itsexistence.Ithas no platform ,to speak in politicalparlance;ithas am ission founded upon an idealofservice.In the politicalarena itshallnotenter,butitshall,nevertheless,interest you ifyou are interested in the m anhood and w om anhood ofour island hom e,in the new s ofthe day,in the cause ofm usicas ahum an necessity,in the schools,and in w hatour G overnm entisdoing for these islands w hich so vividly portrays itselfallaround,as hardly to need being pointed out. The St.Thom asTim esisthe advocateofno specialclass nor creed. Save politics,religious controversies,and abusive personalities,its colum ns are open to anyone w ho has som ething educationally interesting to say thatw ould constructopinion or build character. There are m any speculations w ith aview to discouragem entrelative to the success or failure ofthisventure. There isno w alk in lifebuthas itsdiscouragem ents;none thatis exclusively apath ofroses.W e are allcreatures ofour environm entand therefore have our lim itations to agreater or lesser degree.The w ords ofG oethe that“the tiniesthairthrow s itsshadow ” should com pensate us som ew hat,w hatever our lim itations,and show us thatw e exerta w ider influence than w e attim es im agine.Because w e cannotreach the A lpine heights,isno valid reason for notm aking the bestuse ofw hatever talentw e m ay be blessed w ith.Ifitisnotgiven us to do great things w e can atleastradiatesom e personalinfluence for good w hich m ay cause som eone to rem em ber thatw e have lived and to apurpose. Success isnotafinalresult,butan attendantcircum stance;likew ise thatseed offailure to w hich w e so often yield,though,generally aspur urging us on to greater heights,slum bersin the m an and notin the noblethem es he has around him for inspiration and guidance;therefore do notappreciateour success or failure from acom m ercialpointof view,butrather by our contribution to the generalfund ofgood. W hilem aintaining the foregoing,w e,how ever,do notw antitto be understood as resenting healthfuland constructive criticism .Criticism s ofsuch anature are necessary for appreciableresultsin any line ofusefulendeavor.A littlebattling w ith obstacles isgood;itishelpful.It brings outm any astern and slum bering force,besides adding to the strength and discipline ofm ind. Itisw ith thisidea ofSERV ICE in view thatw e now enter the field, w ith the intention ofcovering thatfield to the bestofour ability.W e therefore expectthatthe m otive w hich prom ptsus w illm ake som e am endm entfor our m any shortcom ings.

108 / The U nited States N avy Band O n thataccountw e appealto you,fellow citizens and those w ho are w orking for our w elfare,for help and sym pathy so thatw e m ay m ake The St.Thom asTim esapublication w orthy ofyour good selves,w orthy ofour purposes and ideals,and w orthy ofthe PRESS.

The Tim esalso prom oted the idealsofA m erican dem ocracy,good citizenship,and true patriotism ,asisreflected in the follow ing editorial,w hich appeared in the February 4,1922,edition: Captain W hite,w hose nam e isahousehold w ord in these islands, beloved and trusted by one and alland w hose fatherly care to us bandsm en has helped to im plantin us thatgreatyearning forA m erican ideals,believed thatw e as m usicians could help in agreatm easure to further im plantthe seed ofA m ericanism in these islands.... The firstrequisitew e found necessary to the success ofour task w as the reform ation ofourselves,a process in w hich w e are stillengaged; the im planting ofthe true seed ofA m ericanism in our ow n lives,for very often w ho w rites gives allthe im portance to w hatisw ritten.The realm an m ustbe backed by character. W e found thatto be atrue A m erican,w as to be apatriotand w e are ever m indfulofthatsortofpatriotism w hich Tolstoy claim s,and rightly so,isapositive evil.Thatis,“the reckless braggadocio kind that does notthink,thatdoes notcare,thatm akes no difference ifathing be rightor w rong,so our side isfor it.Itbecom es athing ofm aterialforce, am atter ofclubs,fists,knives,and pistols.Itisthatboastful,brandishing,brutalsortofpatriotism w hose love ofcountry isabase passion,to be linked w ith any sortofhurrah,w here the old flag m ay be lugged in. Thisisadecrepitand w icked patriotism .Patriotism isalife.Itisbeing honest,candid,just,brave.Itisfounding and conducting abeautiful hom e.Itisbeing in the com m unity an exponentofthe plain and sim ple truth.Itisbeing loyalto G od atallcosts,in everything thatw e do,and there isnothing w orth doing thatdoes notconcern H im .” Captain W hitein substance em phasized the foregoing,and im pressed on us the factthatw e w ere m issionaries in the sense thatall m en oftruth and courage are,w hether w ith pen,ham m er,plough,law book,ballot,or Bible. The year 1922 finds us stillaw are ofthe personalresponsibility that restsupon us as m em bers and com ponentpartsofthe glory ofA m erican m anhood and w om anhood;fully aw are ofthe factthatto harm ourselves as individualsisto harm the publicas aw hole.Turn or tw ist ithow w e m ay,there can be no separation ofconsequences;the duality w ecannotescape.O ur duty isplainly to carry upw ard and onw ard that spiritofpatriotism ,as has already been explained,for on thatour standard ofA m ericanism w illbe defined.Itisillogicalto believe thatpatriotism can be taughtby bulldozing,preaching w hatw e do notpractice

The U nited States N avy Band / 109 and by asortofsham A m ericanism w hich borders on the ludicrous if noton the fanatic.Butitcan be taughtby exem plifying our ow n lives as being truthful,sincere,honest,courageous,and,above all,m oral. Patriotism being aplantofslow grow th in soilsuch as ours,m ustnecessarily bloom forth delicately,lovingly and truthfully.... A s partofthe greatA m erican navalm achinery,w e have fortunately gotinto closer contactw ith the officialsofthese islands than m any of our other countrym en,and are living exam ples ofand can bear testim ony to the earnestness ofthe deep founded intention ofthe officials for the econom ic,intellectual,and m oralbetterm entofthese islands, the further evidences ofw hich are so strikingly m anifested allaround. W e being natives ofthisisland can also authoritatively assert,w ithout the leastfear ofsuccessfulcontradiction,thatatleast95 percentofthe natives are w illing to co-operatew ith the governm entin the w ork of reconstruction.... W e believe im plicitly in the earnestness and honesty ofthe A dm inistration ofthese islands. W e believe thatthe schoolisan indispensableassetfor the absorbing oftrue A m erican life;thatm oraland m aterialprogress m ustbe parallelw ith each other,or hum anity isdebased;thatthe educated m an ishe “w ho absorbs the m eaning and spiritualenergy ofG od’sexpression in the universe,and like an honestm an,paying H im back in sincere and dutifulservice to hum anity;”“thatthe distinctive idea ofan education isnotto increase w hatam an know s,butto augm entw hata m an is;” thatthe days ofslavery w illbe as long as w e are victim s to our ow n negation;and thatonly those w ho have show n them selves w ise in the hum bletask offam ily governm entand faithfulto the trustoffam ily life,should be entrusted w ith the responsibilities and confidences of m unicipalhousekeeping.W e do notbelieve in the N apoleonicliethat G od ison the side ofthe largestarm y;the Pilgrim Fathers have disproved thatby show ing thatG od ison the side oftruth and justice. W ebelieve that“earnestness,like realgrief,isnever clam orous.” A nd w e believe in the unlim ited possibilities ofour peopleunder the parentalcare ofthe benign folds ofthe beautifulStars and Stripes.

U nfortunately the St.Thom asTim eslasted only tw o years (1921–23),but during thattim e itbecam e the bestand m ostpopular paper on the island. W e allregretted having to give itup,butw e had to because ofthe pressing dem ands ofour other duties. W hile m y m ilitary and com m unity responsibilities keptm e w elloccupied during these years,Idid m anage to find tim e to continue m y m usical w riting and com position.A rticles of m ine on various m usical subjects appeared in several stateside m usical journals,including the A rm y and N avy M usician,the D om inant,Jacobs’ Band M onthly,M etronom e,the

110 / The U nited States N avy Band M usic Bulletin, M usical Enterprise, and M usical M essenger. Through these w ritings and the responses they elicited,I cam e into contact w ith m any excellentA m erican m usicians,such as Edw in Franko G oldm an and Frank Seltzer. D uring this tim e,too,I w rote several m arches,som e of w hich w ere acclaim ed asbeing am ong the bestofthe period.The“Virgin IslandsM arch,” w hich I com posed in 1919,31 w as dedicated to Captain W illiam Russell W hite in appreciation of all he had done on behalf of the band,and w as intended for M rs.W hite as w ell.Itw as m y w ay ofexpressing deep feeling fortw o w onderfulindividualsfrom w hom Ihad received greathelpand sincere friendship.O n the occasion ofthe m arch’spublication by the Jacobs’ Band M onthly,32 IsentCaptain W hitethe follow ing letter: U nder separatecover Iam sending you copies ofJacobs’Band and O rchestra M onthlies ofBoston,M assachusettsin w hich you w illfind arranged for band and orchestra,a m arch com position entitled,“Virgin Islands,” w ritten by m e and respectfully dedicated to you,and w hich I ask you to acceptin the nam e ofthe U.S.N avy Bands ofthe Virgin Islands. Sir,thisisbutafeebleeffortofm ine to express to you the heartfelt gratitude w e ow e to you,notonly for your untiring efforts— on behalf ofour m usicaladvancem ent,butespecially for your kind interestand teachings in the developm entofour m oraland intellectualstatus.Your kindness and teaching have m ade us to feelthatw e have in you m ore ofafather and friend than aCaptain;and w e trust,w ith G od’shelp,to carry on the noblew ork here in these islands,the foundation ofw hich you have so carefully laid and entrusted to us,thatis:thatour lives should be as shining exam ples to our fellow natives. Icannothelp saying thatthe high esteem in w hich you and M rs. W hiteare held by the peopleofthese islands,particularly the very poor and littleschoolchildren to w hom your hom e,helpfuladvice,and charity are alw ays ready,has in agreatm easure stim ulated m e to putforth thiseffort,w hich iflacking in intrinsicw orth,nevertheless issteeped w ith the sincere love and gratitude ofthe bandm aster and by the m en ofthe Bands ofthe Virgin Islands.

The “Virgin Islands M arch” received instant acclaim by m usicians throughoutthe w orld.Itw as w idely played by the w orld’sbestbands and brought m e recognition as a com poser of note,particularly in perform ancesby the G oldm an Band in N ew York.33 O n M arch 13,1963,the Legislature of the Virgin Islands officially accepted m y rededication of the m arch to the People of the Virgin Islands;it w as adopted as the official anthem ofthe Virgin Islands by virtue ofalegislative actin June 1982.34

The U nited States N avy Band / 111 M y other best-know n m arches of this period w ere “The G overnor’s O w n”(1921)and the“The Spiritofthe U.S.N .”(1924).Icom posed the latter m arch w hile staying at the Long Island,N ew York,residence of m y good friend Rom eo D ougherty,justprior to the band’stour ofthe Eastern Seaboard.Itw asdedicated to PresidentCalvin Coolidge asan expression of the loyalty and patriotism ofthe peopleofthe Virgin Islandsto the U nited States.The origin of“The G overnor’s O w n” is interesting.O n one occasion the governorofPuerto Rico paid an officialvisitto St.Thom as,during w hich the band struck up the “Virgin IslandsM arch”forhim .The visiting governor effusively congratulated Captain W hite on having such an outstanding com position dedicated to him .A llthistook place in the hearing of our ow n governor,A dm iralJoseph W allace O m an. O m an w as apeach ofam an,liked by allw ho m ethim .H e overpow ered you w ith friendliness and good w ill.N ow,O m an had recently done m e a singularservice by persuading the N avy D epartm entto w aive m y sea duty requirem ent and grant m e perm anent appointm ent as bandm aster.I left G overnm entH ouse w ith a w onderfulfeeling ofgratitude,and as Iw alked dow n the hill,fragm ents ofa m arch cam e to m y m ind and persisted.The ideasrem ained w ith m e allafternoon,taking on shape and m elody.35 O m an w as a short,jaunty,snappy sortoffellow,and thatprovided m e w ith m y m otif.So,outofa com bination ofgratitude,respect,and sym pathy,Iw ent hom e and thatnightw rotehim am arch.N aturally,O m an w asjubilant.The officialpresentation w as m ade during a specialconcertgiven by the navy band atEm ancipation G arden in honor ofthe governor and hisw ife,and it becam e through custom the m arch of all the islands’ governors.36 The m arch w as soon accepted by the firm ofCarlFisher and w as published in 1921.Itw on considerable praise in the U nited States from bandsm en like H erbertClarke and John Philip Sousa,and for severalyearsitw as used as the officialm arch forcom m encem entexercisesatH ow ard U niversity. For m e personally,the m ostrew arding ofm y com m unity activities w as setting up the m usicprogram in the Virgin Islands publicschools.A tm y requestthe navy appointed m e supervisor ofm usicin the publicschools,a volunteer position Ifirstheld betw een 1918 and 1931.37 H aving m usicin the schoolshad been adream ofm ine form any years.Realizing thatm usicaleducation should begin in early childhood,Ihad approached the D anish adm inistrators w ith a project to this effect.Lack of funds precluded the D anes from acting on the m atter.The navaladm inistrators,how ever,possessed both the inclination and the funds to follow through w ith the plan. Through the Red Cross,Iarranged for m usicalinstrum entsand books for the schools.Betw een 1918 and 1922 Ispentaconsiderableam ountoftim e

112 / The U nited States N avy Band w orking w ith both teachers and students.O ften Iw ould give a talk w hich Iillustrated w ith m usic played by the band,stationed justoutside ofthe classroom .Iw as frequently assisted in m y classroom w ork by M rs.W hite and also by M ary Kittelle,the daughter ofthe governor. In 1922 G overnor Kittelle arranged m y first trip to the m ainland in order to study m ethodsofm usicalinstruction there asm odelsfor the Virgin Islands.Ihad already w ritten acourse ofstudy for grades 1 through 6, w hich needed to be augm ented w ith coursesforthe new ly established junior and senior high schools.38 IleftSt.Thom as the evening ofM arch 5 on the U SS Kittery and,after a m ost pleasant voyage,arrived at the N aval Station atH am pton Roads on the 11th.M y firstdestination in the States w asW ashington,D.C.,w here,on the recom m endation ofKittelle,Istayed atthe hom e ofM rs.Estelle Coffee Carr,a young w idow,and her younger sister,a sophom ore atH ow ard U niversity.O n arriving there,Ibelieved I had com e tothe w rong address,foron the porch w ere apparently tw o w hite w om en.O ne ofthem signaled and holloed,“Bandm asterA dam s,thisisthe rightplace,com e rightin.”M rs.Carrread to m e the lettershe had received from the governor in w hich he referred to m e as a special person and requested thateverything possible be done to m ake m y stay pleasantand w orthw hile.A t that tim e the race question w as quite acute,even in the D istrictofColum bia.Buton her m antelpiece w ere photos ofblack m usicians H arry T.Burleigh,Clarence Cam eron W hite,Joseph H .D ouglass— grandson of the form er slave and abolitionist Frederick D ouglass— and R.N athanielD ett,am ong others.M rs.Carrproved to be am ostcharm ing, intellectual,and hum an person.She w as also a good m usician and a onetim e m em ber ofthe Treble ClefClub,w hich w as instrum entalin getting the fam ousA fro-British com poserSam uelColeridge-Taylorto visitW ashington,D.C.,to conduct several of his w orks in conjunction w ith the orchestra ofthe U.S.M arine Band. H aving settled m yselfatM rs.Carr’s residence,m y firstvisitthe next day w as the m arine barracks to m eetthe legendary leader ofthe M arine Band (also know n as the President’s Band),Captain W illiam H .Santelm ann,to w hom Ihad aletterofintroduction from G overnorKittelle.Captain Santelm ann greeted m e w ith a tightgrasp ofthe hand and a pleasant sm ile.Perusing Kittelle’sletter,he seem ed som ew hatconfused and queried m e aboutthe location ofthe Virgin Islands.Itw asthe firstindication Ihad abouthow littleknow n m y hom eland w asbeyond itshorizon.“W here are the Virgin Islands?” he repeated severaltim es to him self,as iftrying to connectsom ething.Finally he blurted out:“Iknow ofthe ‘Virgin Islands M arch,’w hich Ibelieve the band isplaying thism orning atG uard M ount.”

The U nited States N avy Band / 113 The w ords w ere hardly outofhism outh w hen itsstrains greeted m y ears, played w ith such precision and m asterly interpretation as to m ake even m e,itscom poser,delighted. A fterw ards, Santelm ann and I discussed m usic at great length and becam e fastfriends.H e told m e thathe w as am azed to discover thatIhad no form al m usical training.Later,he introduced m e to the m en of the M arine Band,m any of w hom praised the “Virgin Islands M arch” and asked m e aboutthe islands.N extday,the Leatherneck,the officialnew s organ ofthe U nited States M arine Corps,gave a flattering accountofm y visit.39 Thism eeting proved to be an open sesam e for m e,because through Santelm ann I cam e to m eet several fine m ilitary m usicians and officers w ho w entoutoftheirw ay to m ake m y trip enjoyable.Taking note ofthe recognition given m e by the w hite establishm ent,one colored new spaper w rote:“Thathe is a m usician goes w ithoutsaying,for the leading w hite m usicianshere forgothiscolorand m ade hisstay one ofthe m ostpleasant ever experienced by am an ofcolor.” The follow ing day Icalled atthe hom e ofReverend FrancisJ.G rim ké, pastor ofthe Fifteenth StreetPresbyterian Church,for w hom Ihad a letter of introduction from a form er classm ate of his at Princeton,Judge T.M cCants Stew art,w ho had established law offices in St.Thom as.Reverend G rim ké w as the uncle of the w ell-know n poet A ngelina W eld G rim ké and brotherofthe distinguished law yerA rchibald G rim ké,w ho at one tim e w as the U nited States am bassador to the D om inican Republic.40 To give atrue evaluation ofthe reverend,Irefer to the accountofhim and hisfam ous church by D r.W illiam Ferrisin hisbook The A frican A broad: Reverend G rim ké isaclergym an w hose profound scholarship,reasoning,com m on sense,dignity and m anliness ofcharacter,purity oflife and kindness ofheart,have given him such prestige and standing in the country thatitisrespected by the leadersofalldenom inations....The Fifteenth StreetPresbyterian Church representsthe w ealth,culture and socialprestige ofthe com m unity.The old and w ealthy fam ilies, professors in H ow ard U niversity,principalsofthe publicschools,governm entclerks,law yers,doctors and businessm en,and m en living com fortably,attend it.

This outstanding gentlem an greeted m e w arm ly.H e spoke highly ofour m utual friend T.M cCants Stew art,recounting his brilliant career as a law yer and hisyears in Liberia and London.G rim ké w as glad to know of the fine friendship betw een M cCantsand m e in the Virgin Islands.H e w as also quite interested in m y career and the purpose ofm y visit.H isstately, quietdem eanor and hisclear intellectdeeply im pressed m e.

114 / The U nited States N avy Band True to the genteel m anner of the cultivated m en and w om en of the period,Reverend G rim ké returned m y visit the follow ing day and also invited m e to speak athis church the com ing Sunday.I,ofcourse,gladly accepted.D uring m y talk Iexplained the location ofthe Virgin Islands,its internationalculture,and the keen interestam ong our people in the racial question ofthe U nited States and elsew here in the w orld.M y presentation w asapparently successfulforafterthe service alarge percentage ofthe congregation surrounded m e asking questions aboutthe islands and m y m ission.M any invited m e to their hom es,w hich offers,because ofthe short duration ofm y visit,Ihad to decline.Idid,how ever,have the pleasure of visiting Reverend G rim ké several tim es at his hom e,w here I m et m any other outstanding m en and w om en ofcolor.O ur friendship proved to be a lasting one.W e corresponded for m any years thereafter,and he presented m e w ith an autographed photo ofhim selfand quite a num ber ofhisvaluableprinted serm ons. LestIforget,letm e m ention thatm y visitto W ashington also gave m e the unique privilege to attend the cerem onies atthe unveiling ofthe Lincoln M em orialand to look atthe nineteen-footstatue ofone ofthe greatest m en in history sitting in an arm chair m editating.41 The prim ary purpose ofm y visitto W ashington,how ever,w as to learn aboutthe techniques ofm usicaleducation in the public schools.To this end Ispoke to several people involved in the field,including M rs.Lulu Vere Childers, head ofthe M usicD epartm entatH ow ard U niversity,and the teachers at D unbar H igh School.I w as not,how ever,greatly im pressed w ith their m ethods,w hich seem ed too form alized,too academ ic.Ibelieved the course ofstudy Ihad already developed for the elem entary schoolsin the Virgin Islands to be far superior. W hilem y visittoW ashington did notgive m e m uch ofw hatIexpected to find w ith respectto m usicin the schools,itdid give m e a rare opportunity to m eetand talk w ith m any prom inentm en and w om en ofm y race.I w as m ystified and extrem ely delighted w ith the high degree ofcultivation and education I found am ong them .It w as indeed a privilege to m eet m en and w om en ofthe caliber ofD r.Kelly M iller,dean ofthe College of A rts and Sciences atH ow ard U niversity;D r.Em m ettJ.Scott,secretarytreasurerofH ow ard U niversity;D r.G arnetW ilkerson,head ofthe colored publicschoolsin the city;Jam es W eldon Johnson,noted poetand author; D r.CarterG odw in W oodson,founderofthe JournalofN egro H istory,w ho asked m e to w rite an article on N egro folk m usic for him ;42 and M r.and M rs.Joseph H .D ouglass(Fanniew asoutstanding asam usician in herow n right).M ostofthese illustriouspeopleIm etthrough m y distinguished fel-

The U nited States N avy Band / 115 low Virgin Islander Reverend D aniel E.W isem an,w ho should be m ore w idely know n and given due creditin the islands’history books. Born on January 11,1858,in St.Thom as,D anielW isem an,like another fam ousnativeson,Edw ard W ilm otBlyden,leftw ith hisfam ily fortheU nited Statesw hileateenager.In 1881he entered H ow ard U niversity and graduated M ay 9,1884,from the Theological D epartm ent.H e joined the M aryland Synod in 1884 and w aslicensed to preach in the M em orialLutheran Church ofW ashington.H e sim ultaneously served aschaplain ofFreedm an’sH ospital and the N ationalO rphan H ospitalfor severalyears,and w as pastor ofthe Church ofthe Redeem erbeginning in 1885.H e ison record asthe organizer oftheTheologicalA lum niofH ow ard U niversity and w asone ofthe founders of the A ssociation for the Prevention of Tuberculosis.H ow ard U niversity conferred on him the degree ofm asterofartsin 1895 and the degree ofdoctor of divinity in 1898.H e had the pleasure of laying the cornerstone of H ow ard’spresentTheology D epartm entbuilding on A ugust12,1893. A pillar of the W ashington colored com m unity,W isem an w as also appreciated and respected by the w hite establishm ent.H e w as one ofthe few N egroesofhisera to serve asam em beron federalboardsand com m ittees,including the Liberty Board O rganization Com m ission during W orld W arI,43 the U.S.Em ploym entBureau Board,the specialcom m itteeto w elcom e PresidentW ilson hom e from abroad in 1919,the com m ittee for the presentation ofM edalsofH onor to soldiers returning from W orld W ar I, and the Inauguration Com m ittee for President H arding.A dded to these contributions,he w as one of the founders of the A lpha Life Insurance Com pany and A lpha Bank,organized around 1892 to prom ote black business.A photograph ofthe com pany Iobtained show sW isem an literally at the righthand ofFrederick D ouglass.44 For W est Indians,Reverend W isem an w as an institution.The W est Indian arriving atW ashington,D.C.,or even N ew York City w as usually queried,“H ave you m et Reverend W isem an?” H e and his w ife,A lm ira (affectionately called “M a” by allofus),offered guidance,assistance,and inspiration to the steady stream ofW est Indians w ho cam e to study or w ork in the nation’s capital in the first part of the tw entieth century. Know n as “G od’s G ood M an,” D anielW isem an w as accorded reverence, adm iration,and respectby allw ho had the privilege to know him .Before his death Ipersuaded him to return to his native island,w here he often stayed atm y hom e.H e delivered an unforgettableserm on atthe Lutheran church w here he w as baptized. A fter W ashington m y search for sound m usical pedagogy led m e to Philadelphia,w here another Virgin Islander of local prom inence,the

116 / The U nited States N avy Band Reverend Richard Bright,putm e in touch w ith severaleducators.A gain,I w as dissatisfied w ith w hatIfound,and so w enton to N ew York City w ith the specific intention of discussing the problem w ith one of m y m usical m entors— Thom asTapper.Throughoutm y early m usicalcareer the books w ritten by thisgifted educatoron m usicappreciation and the roleofm usic in com m unity lifehad inspired and guided m e.M y particularbiblew ashis The M usicLife and H ow to Succeed in It(1891),butIdevoured each and every one ofhisw orksasthough m y lifedepended on it.M y initialcontact w ith Tappercam e through an articleIw roteabouthim in the Jacobs’Band M onthly in 1916.45 In response to m y piece,he w rote m e a letter and sent m e an autographed copy ofhism ostrecentbook,Youth and O pportunity (1912).46 Itw as classicTapper:brim fulofvitality,inspiration,m oraluplift, and positive thinking.In his letter Tapper asked ifVirgin Islanders w ere “interested in m usicascom m unity activity?”Itw asthisquestion thathad led m e to approach the D anish governm entaboutestablishing m usicin the schools,and his w ritings later guided m e in the developm entofa m usic course for the elem entary schools under the navy.So Ilooked to him to provide m e w ith the insightand advice Ineeded to m ake m y trip asuccess. Tapper’sresponse to m y requestfor an interview w as quick and to the point.H e w elcom ed m e enthusiastically and w e scheduled an appointm ent. I w ent to see him w ith m y friend H arry W att,w ho com m ented on m y m entalabstraction during our ride.Ifeltasham ed to tellhim the reason. Being fully aw are ofthe factthatthe color question exists,and being also sensitive,a little too m uch so,Ihad certain fears,for up to thattim e D r. Tapper did notknow thatIw as am an ofcolor.O n the other hand,Ifeltin a greatm easure assured from hisw ritings,for they possessed such a true ring ofoptim ism ,high thinking,and broad hum anity thatitw as im possible,Iargued w ithin m yself,fortheirauthorto be obsessed w ith such avile, silly,and cow ardly thing as race hatred. The few m om ents’w aitin hisoffice seem ed like hours.Variouscontrary em otions and thoughtssw irled like fugalcounterpointthrough m y brain. Suddenly,before m e appeared a m an slightly below the ordinary height, broad of stature,w ith a noble,inspiring forehead,w ell-shaped,stronglooking jaw s,a large head covered w ith fine auburn hair,and eyes flashing w ith sincere tenderness,intellectuality,and inspiration.By m y uniform ,he sized m e up as the one.I looked for that surprise w hich,to be frank,I expected.But I w as agreeably disappointed.The w elcom e w as genuine. W ith a strong grasp ofthe hand and eyes piercing into m ine,he seem ed in a flash to have read every em otion that w as playing through m e at the m om ent.Ifeltrelieved,athom e,happy.“A tlastIhave the pleasure ofm eet-

The U nited States N avy Band / 117 ing you m y dear,young friend.Yourcareerhasbeen very interesting to m e and Ihave follow ed itthrough w ith m uch satisfaction.” So he greeted m e. In the hours thatfollow ed,w e discussed m usicand the com m unity.For the firstthirty m inutes he questioned m e notonly on the m usicsituation in the Virgin Islands schoolsbutalso on m y ow n career and personallife. A fterallhisquestionshad been answ ered,he said,“Icongratulateyou.You have fully forty years ofusefulactivity before you,w hich Ihope you w ill continue to use for the betterm entofthe hum an race.” Then,turning to M r.W att,he said,“The m ostappreciative and glow ing tributeIhave had in m y career as a m usician cam e from M r.A dam s severalyears ago w hen he w rotem e saying thatIw asinstrum entalin putting alifeon itstrue course. N ow,know ing ofhisactivitiesin the interestofhiscountrym en,Ifeelthat Ihave contributed som ething m iles aw ay from m y ow n hom e tow ard the advancem entofm y fellow m en.”Follow ing thishe advised m e aboutw hat sortofm usicalprogram w ould be bestforthe Virgin Islands.Igotin afew m inutes allthatIw as looking for in the publicschoolsin W ashington and Philadelphia.Tapper w as indeed the fountainhead from w hich I drank freely.A she spoke,Irem em bered clearly severalconversationsatthe conference ofm usicteachers atW ashington’sD unbar H igh SchoolthatG arnet W ilkerson had so kindly arranged for m e.The teachers there had referred to Tapper’sw ork as the finalauthority.47 Icam e aw ay from ourinterview refreshed and brim m ing w ith ideasand energy.Tapper had concluded our interview by giving m e a present of fourteen volum es ofhispiano w orks,extending an open invitation to call upon him freely forassistance,and asking m e to considerhim afriend and adm irer.O n getting to the streetsafterthatinterview,the greathustleand bustleofthe w orld’sgreatestcity could notdrow n these w ords ofThom as Carlylekindled by thatm agneticlifeIhad justleft:“Castforth thy act,thy w ord,into the ever-living,ever-w orking universe;unnoticed today,itw ill be found flourishing as a banyan grove,perhaps,alas! as a hem lock forest— castforth thy act,thy w ord,into the ever-living.”48 A rm ed w ith Tapper’sw ordsofw isdom ,Ireturned to the islands.Iconsidered m y trip to the Statesan enorm oussuccess.N otonly had Iaccom plished m y m ission w ith respecttothem usicalcurriculum ,butalso Ihad m adem any new and lasting acquaintancesam ong theA m erican colored com m unity.O ne pleasantbuttotally unexpected resultofm y tripw asthe im pression Iseem ed to have m ade on som e ofthe leading m em bersofthatcom m unity,w ho took pride in m y achievem entsand regaled m e atevery opportunity.Theirsentim entsw ere sum m ed up by H enry L.G rant,presidentofthe N ationalA ssociation ofN egro M usicians,w ho w rote to m e:“W e N egroes in A m erica are

118 / The U nited States N avy Band proud ofyou and feelthatyourw ork w illlaterpave the w ay forrecognition and higherplacem entofotherm en ofcolorin the U nited StatesN avy.” M y friend and fellow Virgin Islander,Rom eo L.D ougherty,sportsand dram a editor for the N ew York A m sterdam N ew s,sum m arized m y trip as follow s: Som e m onths ago cam e to our land astranger.N otonly did he com e to inhaleabreath ofthe inspiring w ind w hich has m ade A m erica w hatshe istoday,butto bring am essage to our colored m usicians,w ho received him in am anner w orthy ofthose m en ofthe old schoolin distantlands w hose contributions to the w orld ofm usicw illfor ages to com e inspire am bitious youth and be the lighton the distanthorizon ofartistic endeavor to w hich youth w illever turn ahopefuleye. In hislittlehom e he had surm ounted obstacles thatw ould have tested the gritofeven som e ofour ow n m en w ho have risen to prom inence from obscure surroundings,and to add to hisstruggles he had to face anarrow environm entand patiently bide the tim e w hen the Stars and Stripes w ould open w ide the doors even to m en ofcolor in thisdistantland ofw hich w e speak. A ssiduously he studied.[There w ere][n]o universities to confer degrees upon him buthe w as unto him selfateacher,a genius recognized by the governors sentto rulehispeopleby A m erica,and soon he w ore the chevrons ofthe only N egro bandm aster in the U nited States N avy.In the w hirlpoolofA m erican politicsrepresentatives from the H ouse ofCongress and the U nited States Senatew entto hisisland hom e and they too,joined in the praise w hich w as his.H isband under hisleadership broughttears ofjoy to M iranda and the entire Puerto Rican people,and w hen on histrip here to broaden hism ind and study our m ethods in hischosen field,Santelm ann,leader ofthe U nited States M arine Band,w entoutofhisw ay to pay tributeto hisgenius. A nd notonly this.The universities,both w hiteand colored,w elcom ed him ,and here he found scores ofm en,w hiteand colored,w ho had read w ith m uch appreciation hiscontributions to A m erican m usicalpublications,the colum ns ofw hich w ere never before graced by the w ritings of those ofus here ofcolor.

D ougherty w enton to chastise W .E.B.D uBoisfor failing to acknow ledge m y visitand accom plishm ents: M etand w elcom ed by the leading m usicians,legislatorsand peoplein every w alk oflife,the w arm reception tendered [A dam s]senthim back to hisisland hom e w ith aheartbounding w ith gratitude and deeper love for hisbrothers in black here in the U nited States and one w ould im agine thatfor am inuteA m erican’sso-called cultured leader ofthe near w hites w ould atleastm ake m ention in hisCrisisM agazineofthe visitofA lton A .A dam s,Bandm aster,U nited States N avy Virgin

The U nited States N avy Band / 119 Islands,U.S.A .,even though pictures and other m atter bearing on the stranger’svisitw ere placed into hishands by one as cultured and learned even as he,the H onorableD r.W .E.B.D uBois,butvain and futilehas been our search for even one line ofw elcom e to one m ore deserving than H A LF TH E N U M BER ofthose w e see m onthly spoken ofin w ords to lead us to acceptand believe them greatw hen they are but skim m ing the surface over ground w here A dam s,superior from every standpoint,long ago covered w ith glory.W here does he [D uBois]really lend encouragem ent?N otsitting in hisoffice on Fifth Avenue,unlike the latelam ented BookerT.W ashington,refusing to enter thatsection w here w e are “casting dow n our buckets.”

O nce back in the islands I com pleted the m usic program and threw m yselfinto its im plem entation.M y firsttask w as to identify som e local m usicians and train them in m y m ethod,so thatthey could teach itin the schools.A m ong those w hom I selected w ere M rs.G aliber,M rs.A im ee Estornel,and M rs.Lockhartin St.Thom as and M s.M arkoe in St.Croix. W e concentrated on teaching choral m usic because w e had insufficient instrum ents and because through singing students could learn aboutthe values and techniques ofm usic.W e w anted to teach them notto be m usicians butto love m usic and to appreciate its culturalrole.For those studentsw ho w anted to pursue theirstudy in depth,w e form ed gleeclubsand choruses atthe elem entary schoolsand an orchestra atthe high school.49 Follow ing Tapper,Iendeavored to create a course ofstudy thatem phasized m usic appreciation,because to m y m ind a know ledge of m usic,its history,its greatpersonalities,and its inner structure,had a vitalrole to play in both individualand com m unity developm ent.To give som e idea of the value Iattached to m usic,letm e quote som e excerptsfrom an article I w roteon m usicappreciation: M U SIC — A N A PPR EC IA TIO N

“They w ho think m usicranks am ong the trifles ofexistence are in gross error,because from the beginning ofthe w orld dow n to the recent tim e ithas been one ofthe m ostforcibleinstrum entsfor governing the spiritofm an.” There are m any w ho believe am usicalcom position isthe m ere throw ing together ofaseries ofnotes or tones,conglom erated as it w ere into som ething tuneful.Truly,there are m any such so-called com positions,butfortunately they are notclassed as m usic. M usicisindependentthoughtofthe highestorder,and justas it required thoughtto m aster the know ledge contained in the theory of atom s,so the construction ofacom position dem ands the exercise ofthe m usician’sdeepestbrain energy.

120 / The U nited States N avy Band M usicisagreatm oraland intellectualstim ulus.Itquickensthe im agination and developsthe creative faculty ofthought.U nderitssoothing influence the m ind islifted from the ordinary furrow ofitsthoughtsand only then realizesthatitpossessesw ingsto bearitup and soarinto m ysteriousand etherealrealm sofbeauty otherw ise inaccessible.M usicportrayscertain phasesofthe em otionsthatbaffle w ord description m ore than any otherartscan.Itaddressesthe im agination and aw akensthe feeling forthe beautifuland sublim e,lifting usabove the ordinary environm entofeveryday life,and by itsrefining qualitiesrem ovesthe dress ofcom m onplace thingsand even ofvice from ournatures,replacing them w ith higherideals,loftieraim s,and granderand noblerconceptions ofw hatlifeshould be.A rchitecture takesthe m eansofdoing thisby its m agnificentproportions,noblelinesand beautifulgroupings;sculpture by itsfinely im agined form s;poetry by itsbeautifulcharactersand philosophicalideas;and m usic,the artw hich w e are now considering,by beautifultonalrelationsand nobleorlively rhythm s. M usicisthe philosophy oflove.Love— thatgrandestand loftiestof m otives w hich has inspired aRaphael’sbrush or aShakespeare’spen. Love— the ruling pow er ofthe w orld. The factthatm usiccan describe and isdescriptive has been answ ered long ago by those m elodies w hich are the productofthe inspiration ofthe greatm asters w ho gave voice to the joys,sorrow s, and aspirations ofthe vastpeoplefrom w hose loins they sprang.Listen to the sentim entsw oven like athread through itsstory,telling us som ething ofthe pathos oflife,ofthe experiences com m on to all,and aw akening w ithin ourselves an echo ofthe beautifuland noblefeeling itcontains.The realm ission ofm usicisnotto describe scenes in nature (w hich can better be described by the painter)or to afford m ere sensual enjoym ent.To claim for m usicthe above alone isto try to deprive or rob itofthe highestreason for itsexistence. M usicisam edium ,a language,a com plex voice w hose highestand realm ission isto say som ething to the hum an soul,thatsom ething w hich w e feelw hen under the influence ofthe effectw roughtby its m ysticaltones and w hich the greatphilosophersand thinkers have tried hard to define,butlam entably failed.Itisnotso m uch aquestion ofhearing w hatthe com poser m eantto say,butw hatthe com position seem s to say to us.For in itsindefiniteness and versatility lies itsgreatestcharm .ColonelParker says:“W ithoutem otion m an isnothing.The history ofm usicisthe history ofthe developm entofthe em otion of the hum an race from the beginning.M usichas then for itsfunction the cultivation ofthe spiritor the higher developm entofthe soulofm an. The faculty ofthe m ind w hich has the dom inantinfluence in deciding the m otive and directing the w illisthe em otion. M usic,then,being the language ofthe em otions,covers aw ider range ofusefulness and aestheticenjoym entthan the other arts,and it

The U nited States N avy Band / 121 isalso the m ostversatileand universally loved;loved notonly for its sw eettones or the m ore sensualgratification itgives som e,butloved for itself.Loved because itform s adeep influence in the form ation of character,because itisafactor for influencing the m otives and actions oflife,because itbreathes allthatisattractive in nature— allthatis grand and noblein life;loved because itisan idealecho ofallhum an heartsand events,because itgoes deep in the heartand aw akens there the desire for ahigher m oraland ethicalplane ofexistence,and because itisam edium ofpreparing the soulofm an to com m une w ith hisG od. “Letm e w ritethe songs ofanation and Icare notw ho m ake its law s.” By thisism eantthatthe bard has m ore influence over the m inds ofthe peopleand ism ore pow erfulin directing theiractions than the legislator. King Edw ard V IIofEngland in an addressatthe opening ofthe RoyalSchoolofM usicofLondon said:“The tim e hascom e w hen class can no longerstand alooffrom classand thatm an doeshisduty best w ho w orksm ostearnestly in bridging overthe gulfbetw een different classes,w hich itisthe tendency ofincreased w ealth and increased civilization to w iden.Iclaim form usicthe m eritthatithasavoice w hich speaksin differenttonesperhaps,butw ith equalforce,to the cultivated and to the ignorant,to the peerand to the peasant.Iclaim form usica variety ofexpression w hich belongsto no otherart,and therefore adapts itselfm ore than any otherartto produce the union offeeling in w hich I m uch desire to prom ote.Lastly Iclaim form usicthe distinction w hich is aw arded to itby A ddison:‘Thatitisthe only pleasure in w hich excess cannotbe injurious.’W hatm ore,gentlem en,can Isay on behalfofthe artforthe prom otion ofw hich w e are today opening thisinstitution w hich Itrustw illgive to m usicanew im pulse,a gloriousfuture and a nationallife.” Consider how w ide arange ofusefulness m usiccovers! See the savage and the sem i-savages around theirw igw am s and rude huts,chanting theirw ild songs in theirhalfchaoticsystem oftones,though incoherentto civilized ears yetstim ulating courage,ardor,and enthusiasm am ong them ;to the m other singing her sw eetlullabies so fullof tender longing,aspiration,hope,and enthusiasticyearnings ofm aternallove to her young child— to the nationaland folk songs feeding us w ith the fire ofpatriotism ,and inspiring our soulw ith love for hom e and country— to the grand solem n deep-toned m inor strains ofthe organ reverberating in the stillness ofthe church,and arousing the religious em otions ofthose under itsm ysticalspellby super-inducing a holy stateofm ind,and inspiring sentim entsofpraise to the greatIA M . The technicalities or m echanicalm anipulations ofthe player,though indispensableto the rendition and interpretation ofacom position,are butam eans to an end.Show ing us how fastand how w ellhe can play, or how high she can sing,sim ply excites our curiosity;hisrealm ission

122 / The U nited States N avy Band isto m ake us forgethe isplaying,to go deep dow n in our heartsand aw aken there aresponse to the m essage ofdivine inspiration he should deliver— to m ake us think by transporting us into thatw onderfulElysium ofLove w here the m ysteries ofthe soulw illbe revealed. Considering itsusefulness from acom m ercialpointofview,w e find itone ofgreatm agnitude.W e need butthink ofthe large sum s spentin opera houses,sym phony orchestras,m ilitary bands,in m usicaleducation,in the m anufacture ofm usicalinstrum ents,the fabulous am ount paid to greatsingers and artists,ofthe m any w hose lives are conditioned upon m usicalw ork,to noteitscom m ercialvalue,w hich m ore strikingly proves the factofitsindispensability and itsclaim to uplift m orally and intellectually allpeople.In conclusion,Ihope the tim e w ill soon com e w hen allw illcultivatethe love ofthe beautifulin m usicto the greatestextentoftheirability,recognizeitsgreatinfluence in the hom e,the school,the church,and in allsocial,politicaland other functions;and last,butby no m eans least,w hen the m usician w illbe m ore respected and be considered notonly as adream er,butas one w ho pours fourth hisw holesoulin m elting pathos and by itsoutpouring stirsup in us acontinualstream ofhappiness and pleasure— and he w ill be thoughtofas the im portantbearer ofthe divine m essage ofPeace and G ood W illTow ards M en.50

6 The N avy Band’s1924 U nited StatesTour

Editor’sN ote:ThatA dam s devotes an entire chapter to the 1924 U .S.tour ofhisU .S.N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands suggestsitsdeep personalsignificance for him .The tour represents not just the “apogee of the navy band’ssuccess” butalso the trium ph ofhissocialproject.By serving w ith the navy (rather than protesting its presence),A dam s as a com m unity leader gained access to opportunities that he felt w ere essential to the future of the islands.Param ount in his m ind w as the islands’ econom ic foundation,on w hich,he believed,any socialprogressw ould be based.D isrupted by w ar,trade regulations,and technological changes in seagoing vessels,the Virgin Islands’ role as an entrepôt of Caribbean trade w as uncertain atbest.Instead the islands’future seem ed to lie in tourism .The navy band’s tour thus offered a huge m arketing opportunity, placing A dam sand hisband in the roleofculturalam bassadorsintroducing A m erican m ainlanders to the islands and inviting these future visitors to the w inter oasis.Thatthe idea for the tour w as firstvoiced by the black com m issionerssentto investigatethe navaladm inistration illustratesA dam s’s argum entthatthe navy genuinely supported the band’sefforts,using them for positive publicity certainly,but not exploiting them solely as propaganda.The tour’ssuccessisalso testam entto the tirelesseffortsofexpatriate Virgin Islanders living in the States w ho helped secure additional publicity and concertsfor the band.A dam s also sees the tour as a significanteventin race relations.Itoffered a positive exam ple ofblack accom plishm entand racialcooperation ata tim e w hen lynchings rem ained all too com m on,the insultofJim Crow ism w aspervasive even in governm ent, and the racist,KKK-inspired m ovieThe Birth ofaN ation w asstillshow ing nine yearsafteritsrelease.The band’stouralso helped furtherunderstanding w ithin the black com m unity itself— notably betw een W estIndiansand 123

124 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour A frican A m ericans,bringing these groups into conversation and inspiring a shared pride. The apogee ofthe navy band’ssuccesscam e in 1924 w ith itscelebrated tour ofthe eastern U nited States.1 Through this tour the band and the Virgin Islands w ere brought to the attention of m illions of A m ericans w ho attended our concerts,heard us on the radio,or read aboutus in new spapers.Everyw here w e w ent,w e received honors and acclaim ,a fact that redounded to the creditofnotonly the Virgin Islands butalso the colored race generally,for itw as w idely publicized thatw e w ere the only colored unitin the A m erican N avy and thatIw as the firstand only colored bandm aster.These factsw ere notlostupon the A m erican colored com m unity, w hich notonly hailed our accom plishm ents butalso drew upon them to intensify its claim s for increased racialequality.The tour,then,notonly w as apersonaltrium ph for the bandsm en and m e and am ajor propaganda victory for the navy butalso can be looked upon as a m inor,albeitsignificanteventin the history ofA m erican race relations. The idea ofsending the band to tour the U nited States w as firstraised by the m em bersofafederalcom m ission com posed ofprom inentA m erican colored leaders that had been sent by the U.S.Congress to the Virgin Islands in January 1924 to investigate conditions there.2 W hile the com m ission m em bersw ere in St.Thom as,the band rendered aconcertin their honor in Em ancipation G arden.The nextday,the com m ission,through its secretary,Charles E.M itchell,sentm e the follow ing letter: January 28,1924 D ear M r.A dam s: Iam directed to extend to you,to the m em bers ofyour excellent band,and to allparties concerned,our m osthearty thanks for the suprem e pleasure afforded each and every m em ber ofthe Virgin Islands Com m ission as w e listened (lastnight,Sunday,January 27th)to the splendid program rendered atthe G rand Prom enade Concert— given in w elcom e to the Com m ission.... W e satspellbound throughoutthe entire program ,richly enjoying every num ber— from the stirring m arch com posed by yourself,entitled “V irgin Islands,” dow n to the exceptionally fine and im pressive rendition ofour N ation’ssong— “TH E STA R SPA N G LED BA N N ER . ” Itw ould be gratifying beyond m easure ifsom e w ay could be found thatw ould perm ityour band to m ake atour ofthe U nited States and thus enablethousands ofm usiclovers there,and citizens

The N avy Band’s1924 Tour / 125 generally,to have visibleand audibledem onstration ofw hatthe Virgin Islands have produced.... W e desire notonly to congratulateyou and your m en upon your unquestioned ability,butlikew ise w e heartily congratulatethe U nited States N avy upon itssplendid policy ofthus encouraging and em ploying m usicaltalentam ong thatgroup ofpatrioticA m ericans to w hich w e proudly belong.3

N aval officials responded prom ptly and enthusiastically to the com m ission’s recom m endation,for som e ofthem ,particularly LieutenantCom m ander Ellis Stone,w ho w as directly in charge of the band,had been thinking along sim ilarlines.Recognizing thatatourw ould be an excellent m ethod ofbringing the Virgin Islands and theirpeople to the attention of the A m erican public,and thus to potentialtourists,the U.S.N avy D epartm entgave the projectitsfullestcooperation and support. W ithin a rem arkably short tim e I w as sent to W ashington,D.C.,in orderto m ake the necessary arrangem entsforthe tour.In carrying outthis assignm ent,Iw orked notonly w ith navalofficialsbutalso w ith com m itteesofleading colored citizens.TheW ashington Com m itteew asheaded by m y old friends Reverend W isem an and Professor M iller,w hile the N ew York Com m ittee w as led by the redoubtable Rom eo D ougherty and Fred R.M oore,w ho w as the editor ofthe N ew York A ge.4 O ne ofthe problem s w e encountered during thisorganizationalperiod w asafederallaw forbidding the com petition ofservice bands w ith like civilian organizations.O ur friend and founding sponsor,Captain W hite,gotus around this seem ing im passe w hen he succeeded in having the band placed under the Keith’s Circuit,so that any m oney generated by our appearances w ould benefit hospitalsin the Virgin Islands. D uring thishectictim e,Iexperienced one ofthe proudestoccasions in m y life w hen D r.Edw in Franko G oldm an,the w orld fam ous bandm aster, invited m e to conducthis band before an audience ofthousands in N ew York’sCentralPark.M y initialcontactw ith G oldm an,one ofm y m usical idols,had com e afew yearsearlierw hen he had sentm e ahighly flattering letter com m ending the series ofarticles thatIhad w ritten for the Jacobs’ Band M onthly.5 Ieagerly responded,and thereafterw e m aintained aregular correspondence on m usical subjects.W hen D r.G oldm an heard that I w ascom ing to N ew York to m ake arrangem entsforthe tour,he sentm e an invitation to attend one ofhisconcertson the M allin CentralPark.A s it turned out,he invited m e to the podium to be guestconductor— the first tim e a m em ber ofm y race had been so honored.6 The follow ing account

126 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour from aN ew York new spapergivessom e idea ofw hathappened thatsplendid evening under the stars: O n lastW ednesday nightBandm asterA lton A dam s w as the guestconductor ofEdw in G oldm an,leader ofthe G oldm an’sBand,w hich isgiving aseries ofconcertson the M allin CentralPark,and he conducted hisow n com position entitled the Virgin Islands M arch before agathering ofpeopleestim ated atover 20,000. Before presenting the colored bandm aster to the audience,M r.G oldm an said:“W e are alw ays glad to have am ong us distinguished m usicians,especially as guestconductors.Thisevening Iam presenting to you adistinguished m usician in the person ofM r.A lton A dam s,Bandm aster,U nited States N avy,born,educated,and trained in the Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States,our possession.M r.A dam s and m yself have been in correspondence for severalyears,and thisisthe firsttim e Ihave had the privilege ofm eeting him personally,as itishisfirstvisit here.H isw ork am ong bands in the islands has w on for him the highest praise ofallthe G overnor G eneralsthere.H e isindeed aw onderful m usician,and Iam asking him to conductone ofhisow n com positions entitled the ‘Virgin Islands M arch.’Itake pleasure in presenting to you Bandm asterA lton A dam s ofthe Virgin Islands.” The applause w as long and intense before and after the appearance ofthe bandm aster on the bandstand.H e w as forced to give several encores.Even the bandsm en atthe conclusion laid dow n theirinstrum entsand applauded vociferously the young m usician.M r.G oldm an introduced him to every m em ber ofthe band,w hich num bersabout75 m usicians.The m ilitary salutes from A dam s in response to the applause w ere unique to the gathering and seem ed to please the vastaudience.7

O ne ofthe things thathad broughtG oldm an and m e together w as our com m on concern thatabandm aster’sorganization should be form ed in the U nited States.In m y seriesofarticleson the band,Ihad strongly advocated the establishm ent of a bandm aster’s guild,having in m ind the excellent w ork done atKneller H allin England,w hich w as instrum entalin m aking the m ilitary bands in England second to none in the w orld.In thatinstitution,bandsm en had to undergo four years ofintensive training and bandm asters seven years,com pletion of w hich not only gave the m en the qualification needed butalso raised the dignity and statusofthe profession in thatcountry. Eventually,under the leadership of G oldm an,Sousa,and others,the A m erican Bandm astersA ssociation w as duly organized in 1928,and Iw as invited to becom e a charter m em ber for the firstm eeting in 1929.H ow ever,Idid notsee fitatthe tim e to join.Later,on being transferred to the Fleet N aval Reserve after W orld W ar I,I realized the advantages to be

The N avy Band’s1924 Tour / 127 gained by aligning m yselfw ith the body,and so sentin m y application.I received no reply and,in tim e,forgotthe w hole affairuntilseveralyears later,in 1937,w hen G oldm an sentm e the follow ing letter: You w illprobably be surprised to hear from m e,butthe factthatyou w ere black-balled by the A .B.A .atitsannualm eeting som e years ago is stillin m y m ind.PresidentFrank Sim on and Ihave justdiscussed this m atter again and w e feelthatyou should be am em ber ofthisorganization. Iw ould suggestthatyou m ake form alapplication for m em bership again atonce,because w e are having our nextconvention on the 5th, 6th and 7th ofM arch.... M r.Sousa and Iw ere both for you the lasttim e,butitseem s there w ere afew southern m em bersw ho caused the black-balling.The vote w as by secretballot.M r.Sim on and Iw ould like the thing outin the open thisyear,and ifyou care to m ake application w e w illfightfor you,and Ifeelthatw e can bring aboutbetter resultsthistim e. IfIw ere you Iw ould justw ritealetter saying thatyou w ould like to m ake application again.You can say thatIknow you and w illvouch for you.Ifyou care to do this,Iw ould do itatonce.8

To please G oldm an,Idid reapply for m em bership.Ireceived a notification thatIw as eligible for m em bership,butIdid notelectto follow up on the m atter any further.9 G oldm an and Irem ained good friends and keptup our correspondence and personalcontactsuntilhisdeath in 1956.Iw illalw ays cherish hisfriendship,fornotonly w ashe an adm irablem usician and com poserbuthe w asalso atrue and staunch believerin the brotherhood ofm an. The navy band’stourbegan on July 1,1924,w hen the bandsm en arrived atH am pton Roads,Virginia.Rather than startour schedule im m ediately, w e spentfifteen dayson the navalstation there,developing and im proving our skills.Thispractice period w as necessary because the m usicalskillsof the St.Croix contingenthad deteriorated ratherdrastically during itsyears aw ay from St.Thom as.M y brother,Julien,and I w orked hard to bring them up to the required standard,and the m en responded nicely to the long,m onotonous hours ofpractice.W e played severaltim es for the personnelofthe station and w on the com m endation ofboth officers and m en for our m usicand discipline.O ur firstofficialappearance before the public cam e on July 6 at the bandstand in the beautifulN orfolk city park.The bandstand there w as so enorm ous that our group of thirty-nine m en looked like am ere handful.10 Butthe acousticsw ere excellentand the surroundings inspirational.A s w as to be the pattern throughout the tour, before beginning the program ,w e told the audience the reasons for our

128 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour visitand gave them asm uch background inform ation aspossibleaboutthe islands,stressing theirattractiveness for w inter holidays. Severalotherconcertsfollow ed,each ofw hich broughtushigh accolades and increasing recognition am ong the localcitizenry.W e discovered,how ever,thatbecause ofdiscrim inatory racialpractices,the colored population ofN orfolk could notattend ourconcertsin the publicparks.Severalcolored organizations w rote to the com m anding officer of the N orfolk station requesting an opportunity fortheirpeopleto hearthe band.Itw asarranged for us to play for a gathering ofaboutfive hundred ofthe leading colored people ata law n party held atthe hom e ofM r.and M rs.Clarence Russell. W e w ere w arm ly received and lavishly entertained ascham pionsofthe race. Thataffairw as a realeye-opener for us,since itprovided our firstexperiences w ith the professionalcaliber,the cultivation,the achievem ents,and the dignified character ofthe colored m iddleclass in the U nited States.Like m any islanders,Ihad ahighly stereotyped view oftheA m erican N egro asa dow ntrodden,indolentm enialunable to rise above hisform er slave status. A s w e m ingled and conversed w ith the urbane,intelligent attendees and learned oftheirappreciation offine m usic,m y m en and Iw ere com pelled to revise our unw arranted feelings ofsuperiority.Thislesson w as repeatedly reinforced by sim ilar contactsm ade throughoutour tour,so thatfor us as w ell,the tourhelped break dow n unfortunateprejudices. O n July 15 IleftforW ashington,D.C.,in advance ofthe band in order to rearrange our schedule in thatcity.W e hoped to play a specialconcert forPresidentCalvin Coolidge atw hich w e w ere to prem iere am arch thatI had w ritten especially for him — “The Spiritofthe U.S.N .” U nfortunately, due to the recentdeath ofthe president’sson,itw as decided thatthe situation w as too delicate for such a perform ance.11 D isappointed but not daunted,Iw orked w ith assistantsecretary ofthe navy ColonelTheodore Roosevelt and a com m ittee of colored citizens (consisting of Reverend W isem an,D r.M iller,D r.Em m ettJ.Scott,ProfessorW illiam H .D avisofthe Federal Com m ission to the Virgin Islands,and M r.Richard G rant) to schedule a series of appearances that placed us in the m ost conspicuous partsofthe nation’scapital. O ur first program w as rendered on July 17 at the W ashington N avy Yard.O n the follow ing m orning,w e serenaded Secretary ofLabor Jam es J. D avisathisoffice.Secretary D avisw asw arm in hispraisesofthe band and posed for a picture w ith m e w hile directing.H ere,as in m ostother places, the cam eram en had us covered from every angle,and our m usic brought forth good-sized audiences.From the Labor D epartm ent,w e w entto serenade the districtcom m issioners— the three m en w ho adm inistered the city

The N avy Band’s1924 Tour / 129 atthattim e— in frontofCity H all.The com m issioners shook hands w ith the entire band,w hileexpressing theirappreciation and w elcom e.Previous to thiseventw e had visited the StateD epartm ent,w here w e m etA ssistant Secretary Lane,w ho also shook ourhandsand w elcom ed ustoW ashington. Thatevening w e played atM eridian H illPark,w hich w assituated in the w ealthiestand m ostaristocraticsection ofthe city.O uraudience,estim ated atnearly ten thousand,contained the bestthatW ashington could produce ofboth races,w hite and colored.O n thisoccasion,as on m any others,w e opened ourconcertw ith Claudio S.G rafulla’s“W ashington G raysM arch,” one ofthe bestand m ostdifficultm arches ever w ritten.Thisw as follow ed by selections from G iuseppe Verdi’s opera A ïda;the Virgin Island com poserA lfred N em ours’sbew itching grand w altz“Soiree de Berlin”;Ernest Seitzand Eugene Lockhart’sbeautifulsong “The W orld IsW aiting for the Sunrise,” a popular num ber w hich gained us steady encores everyw here; the overture to G ioacchino Rossini’s opera Sem iram ide; the Fred Lax– A lton A dam s “M ocking-Bird” piccolo solo;Frédéric Chopin’s “Polonaise M ilitaire”;LuisM iranda’sdanza “U golina”;and the popular native Virgin Islands dance “Sam Polo.” W e w ere told by m any in the audience thatseveralofour w ealthy listenersw ere under the im pression thatw e cam e to am use them w ith jazz m usic,butthisim pression,to theirhearty delight,w as soon dispelled by the rendition ofthe program outlined above.The num erousexpressionsof appreciation that follow ed our perform ance w ere m ost gratifying to us, particularly since so m any peopleinquired aboutthe location ofthe Virgin Islands and expressed their desire to visit.Later thatnightw e m ade our debutbefore the m icrophone atradio station W CA P.To play live for the radio or phonograph isalw ays achallenge,for the perform ance m ustbe as faultless as possible.O ur session w entoffw elland the radio critics w ere clearly pleased w ith the results.In the w eeks thatfollow ed,hundreds of letters and applause cards conveying the delight of the unseen audience w ere forw arded to us by radio staff.Itw as an exhilarating butexhausting day,w ith five perform ances from sunrise to w ellafter sunset. The days that follow ed w ere less strenuous but no less rew arding. W e played throughoutthe city,and our reception proved so greatthatw e extended our stay from three to seven days.O f the m any exhilarating events,one thatstandsoutm ostclearly in m y m ind w asan im prom ptu concertforSecretary oftheN avy CurtisD.W ilbur,w ho,upon encountering tw o ofm y bandsm en in the N avy Yard,had requested a perform ance.W e serenaded him and other dignitaries atthe N avy D epartm ent,and although the eventhad gone unadvertised,itdrew an audience ofseveralthousand people.

130 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour Secretary W ilbur w as a m an ofstriking personality,tow ering over six feetin heightand displaying to fulladvantage aw ell-setathleticfigure.H is handshake,though tender,w as viselike in grip.H e addressed the band, thanking us for the opportunity given him to hear,as he called it,“our fam ous m usic,” com plim enting us on our perform ance and appearance, and em phasizing the factthatw e gave creditnotonly to the Virgin Islands butto the navy as w ell.H e conveyed satisfaction thatour race had been given the opportunity to express itselfso w ellin the navy.H e asked us to convey hisgreetings to the people ofthe islands,to assure them thatthe federalgovernm entw asinterested in theirw ellbeing and w ould do everything in itspow erforthem .H e rem inded usthatapolicy ofpatience isnecessary in allhum an endeavorsand thatevery nation,big or sm all,had its difficulties to contend w ith.H e concluded by saying thathe regretted that the band w asnottouring the entire country,especially theW estCoast,and hoped thatsuch atourcould be arranged in the future.A ssistantSecretary ofthe N avy Theodore Rooseveltw as also present.H e too gave m e a tight grasp ofthe hand,rem arking thathe had yetto hearabetterband.A nother friend,form er islands governor H enry H ughes H ough (1922–23),then addressed us,expressing his satisfaction w ith our m usic and asking us to convey kind rem em brances to the peopleofthe Virgin Islands. O ur success am ong the colored com m unity ofthe city w as as greatas thatw ith officialW ashington.Iw illalw aysrecallw ith satisfaction the glow ing tributepaid to usby D r.ScottafterourconcertatH ow ard U niversity on July 21.Thisem inentgentlem an notonly praised ourm usicalperform ance butalso exhorted his fellow colored A m ericans to take exam ple from our w ork and achievem ents.To show their appreciation,the colored people of W ashington held a grand reception for the band thatsam e evening atthe colonnade ofthe new ly constructed Lincoln Theatre.The reception com m itteeincluded the leading colored residentsofthe city,am ong them D r.M iller, D r.Scott,M r.and M rs.G abrielPelham ,Professor D orcy Thodes ofH ow ard U niversity,M r.H olland (one of the leading businessm en and bankers of W ashington),M r.and M rs.Joseph D ouglass,H enry Lincoln Johnson,and D r.W .H .D avisofthe federalcom m ission thathad visited the islands.The evening atthe Lincoln Theaterw asm em orablenotonly forthe tributesw e received butalso for the vocalperform ance ofm y good friend tenor Philip G om ez,w ho delighted the gathering w ith selections from Tosca and other operas.From W ashington w e w entto Philadelphia. Through the Reverend Richard Bright, another illustrious Virgin Islanderw ho had achieved considerableprom inence in Philadelphia,several engagem entsw ere scheduled for us in thatcity.H ow ever,because w e had

The N avy Band’s1924 Tour / 131 overextended our tim e in W ashington,the Philadelphia schedule w as disrupted.To be candid,Im ustsay thatw ith the exception ofourconcertatthe W anam aker Store,the tim e spentin Philadelphia w as w asted.In the other cities,the hearty cooperation ofnavalofficers w ith prom inentcivilians w as largely responsible for the considerable interest accorded the band. In Philadelphia,how ever,such cooperation w as notin evidence,and w e w ere notgiven the opportunity to play in the bestorm ostvisiblelocations. Because ofthese problem s,charges ofdiscrim ination arose from som e. It is im portant to observe that no serious racial incidents perm anently m arred the band’stour,afactthatunderscoresm y conviction thatm usicis auniversalizing hum an experience.Everyw here w e w ent,w e w ere treated w ith respectand regard by both colored peopleand w hitepeople.O uraudiences,black,w hite,and m ixed,w ere united in theirappreciation ofourperform ance and dem eanor.The N avy D epartm ent,w hich m any have accused ofbeing racist,certainly show ed us no overtdiscrim ination.A llthe officialsand officersw ith w hom w e cam e into contacttook greatpainsto m ake our tour both pleasantand rew arding and to provide us w ith m axim um publicexposure. O ne unpleasantincidentdid occur during our firsttrip to Philadelphia, butitw assatisfactorily resolved.Priorto one ofourpark concerts,Ileftthe band for a few hoursto take care ofsom e personalbusiness.U pon rejoining itim m ediately before the concertw as to begin,Ifound itunready to play.W hen Iasked m y brother,Julien,w ho served asassistantbandm aster, about the trouble, he pointed to som e old boxes scattered about and inform ed m e thatthe park peoplew anted usto play seated upon them .Just as I w as asking w ho w as responsible,the fellow in charge of the park approached m e and said,“W hatdo you w antus to do,furnish you w ith m orrischairs?” Ireplied:“N ow listen to m e.W e don’texpectyou to furnish usw ith specialchairs.Butw e do w antyou to provide usw ith the sam e seating arrangem entsthatyou w ould give to John Philip Sousa.O therw ise you w on’t get any m usic from us here today.I w ant you to understand that.”H e stared atm e hard,so Iadded:“Iw illgive you justhalfan hourto straighten things out,or Iw illcom plain to the navy,and there w illbe no m usic.” So he sentsom eone to getthe appropriatechairs.12 M eanw hile,the concerthad been delayed,and one colored m an in the audience shouted:“Iw onderifw hileyou’re w aiting you’d play usapiece?” Reverend Brightim m ediately turned on him ,adm onishing:“W hat’s the m atter w ith you? This m an is fighting for principle,and you can only shoutfor m usic.That’sw hy you are in your presentcondition.” O nce the band w as finally seated,w e had only tw enty m inutes leftofthe hour w e

132 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour w ere scheduled to play,and thatisallthatIallow ed the band to play.A sw e left,the park superintendentcam e up to m e,saying:“Bandm aster,Ihope thatyou w on’tm ake afussaboutthisthing.You know,Iserved in the Virgin Islands as a m arine.” Iansw ered,“Then you should have know n better,” and w alked aw ay. O ur concertatthe W anam aker Store w as partialcom pensation for our other disappointm ents in Philadelphia.O ne of the largest departm ent stores in the w orld at that tim e,W anam aker’s had under its roof m any activitiesand organizations,one ofw hich w asitsow n broadcasting station, W O O ,on w hich only the finest bands and orchestras played.The store, w hich atthattim e em ployed m ore colored handsproportionately than any otherstore in the w orld,also had tw o fine m ilitary bands,one ofw hich w as com posed ofcolored personnel.The colored band w asunderthe abledirectorship ofBandm aster G rinell,a w hite m an,w ho w as very fraternalto us. A fter our concert,w hich w as broadcastoverW O O to m illions oflisteners in addition to the very large audience inside,the m anagerofthe store prolifically com plim ented the playing of the band. H is w hole dem eanor bespoke an agreeablesurprise,w hich he openly adm itted.H isrequestthat I send him a large picture of m yself to be placed in the store alongside those ofSousa,G oldm an,Santelm ann,and others notonly filled m e w ith agood dealofpride butalso sentReverend Brighthom e in rapturesofbliss and satisfaction that“Country,” as he term ed us,had acquitted itselfw ith such ahigh degree ofsuccess. From Philadelphiathe band w entto N ew York City,w here w e spenttw o glorious w eeks concertizing,arriving July 20 and departing on A ugust18. Space doesnotperm itafullaccountofourm any w onderfulconcertsin the Big A pple.Suffice itto say thatw e played atthe m ajor parks throughout M anhattan,the Bronx,Brooklyn,Staten Island,Jam aica,and even H ackensack,N ew Jersey.The audiencesw ere alw ayslarge,enthusiastic,and appreciative.Som e eventsstillstand outvividly in m y m em ory,such asourfirst concertatH arlem ’sSt.N icholasPark on 137th Streeton A ugust1.Priorto thisconcertthe band w as entertained by Im perialLodge 127 ofthe Elks at their m agnificent auditorium on 129th Street.A fter a light lunch,w e form ed up to m arch to the park through the streetsofH arlem ,w ith asizeable delegation from the lodge serving as our escorts.From the day w e landed in Virginia,the people of H arlem ,in particular the large Virgin Islandscom m unity there,had aw aited ourappearance w ith an interestthat cannotbe described.So,w hen w e started ourm arch up Seventh Avenue to St.N icholas Park,w e found a m assive audience lining the sidew alks for

The N avy Band’s1924 Tour / 133 blocks,aw aiting us w ith bated breath and sm iling faces.W e w ere cheered and applauded w ildly asw e m arched proudly by.A fterw e passed,m em bers of the crow d joined the happy procession to the bandstand.If delirious, spontaneous joy w as ever evidenced in any people,it w as in those w ho filled to overflow ing St.N icholas Park on the day ofour concert.The Virgin Islanders w ho did notattend w ere very few.The aged,the decrepit,the invalid w ere there,cheering along w ith everyone else every num beron the program .13 A fterthe concertitw asourintention to m arch back to the lodge,w here a supper had been prepared for us,butthatproved im possible.The band w as engulfed— consum ed— by acrow d so m ad w ith joy and excitem entas to cause grave uneasiness atthe nearby 16th Police Precinct.N otknow ing w hathad provoked the crow d and notbeing ableto divine w hy the flow of traffic in thatsection ofthe city had been broughtto a standstill,several squads of bluecoats w ere sent out to ease the situation.There w as not enough ofthe force to be ofany practicalhelp,so the good captain sim ply w aited until the crow d had spent its ecstasy.A s the A m sterdam N ew s observed ofthis“happening”:“The band hasw on itsw ay into the heartsof colored A m ericans,and nothing is being left undone to show the high appreciation ofthe peoplefortheirability.”The concert,and those thatfollow ed,m eantm uch to the peopleofH arlem ,for,besidesthe m usicand the relationship,they realized thatw hatw e w ere doing w asjustvindication of their true status in the cultured partofthe hum an fam ily.Iw illalw ays rem em ber one m an scream ing during the explosion of joy that erupted after the concert:“Yes.Yes.Letthem find outfrom this thatw e are not m onkey chasers.”14 In addition to the fervid response it gave to our m usic,the colored com m unity ofN ew York outdid itselfto entertain us in order to dem onstrate itsappreciation.Every nightw e w ere hosted atone or m ore affairs attended by the cream ofthe colored com m unity,w ho toasted us in eloquentspeeches.A m ong the prom inentm usicians,artists,w riters,and journalists attending these functions w ere D r. H arry T. Burleigh, D eacon Johnson,Frank W illiam s,E.H .M argetson,Rom eo D ougherty,CasperH olstein,Bob Slater,H enry Cream er,Lucien H .W hite,H enry M .Cornelius, Sr.,Tim Brym n,D r.M elville W .Charlton,W .N .Spiller,and Leonard LaBeet.O n these convivialoccasions,Iw as able to renew old friendships and establish m any lasting new ones.Som e idea ofw hattranspired during these receptions and banquets is conveyed by the follow ing new spaper clippings:

134 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour BEN EV O LEN T SO C IETY EN TER TA IN S V .I.BA N D

A fter itsconcertin Staten Island Sunday evening ...the U nited States N avalBand ofthe Virgin Islands w as entertained by the A m erican W estIndian BenevolentSociety,Inc.,atabanquetgiven atthe organization’shom e [at]149 W est136th Street. The bandsm en w ere w elcom ed by H ugo Jackson,Chairm an ofthe reception com m ittee.The culinary artists,under the direction ofSisters A lbertaThom as and A da Bastian,seem ed notto have om itted anything on theirm enu w hich w ould have added to the perfection ofthe entertainm ent.G eorge Jam es greeted the m usicians and acquainted them w ith the purpose ofthe organization and outlined itsprogress for the 25 years ofitsexistence....M issBlanche Prince ...sang and presented the bandm aster w ith acostly basketofchoice roses.G .J.Flem ing greeted the bandsm en on behalfofthe juvenilebranch ofthe society and em phasized the good im pression the achievem entofthe band w ould have on the youths. C A R LTO N A V EN U E Y M C A EN TER TA IN S N A V Y BA N D

The U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands,led by Bandm aster A lton A .A dam s,the only N egro bandm aster in the N avy,filled its engagem entto play atFortG reene Park Saturday evening....O n accountofthe rain,how ever,the concertw as cutshort.The entire band m ade itsw ay to the Carlton Avenue Branch Y.M .C.A .,w here areception had been prepared.A very fine collation w as prepared by acom m itteeofladies,...speeches ofw elcom e w ere m ade by M r.Louis Yeppa,representing the fraternalorganizations ofBrooklyn;Reverend P.D ew ittPerrym an,w ho isvisiting the city;and the Branch Secretary, A .L.Com ither. M r.Yeppa,a native ofthe Virgin Islands,review ed m any pointsof interestrelative to the lifeand needs ofthe peopleofthe Virgin Islands and the w holesom e im pression thatthisband ism aking upon both colored and w hitepeopleofA m erica.Reverend Perrym an paid aglow ing tributeto the m en for theirability in playing the classics....Follow ing these ...speeches,Bandm asterA dam s responded w ith [a]briefhistoricaloutline ofthe ...Virgin Islands and theirhope under the A m erican flag.15

For the enorm ous success ofthe N ew York portion ofthe tour,greatcredit w asdue to LieutenantJ.Sinnott,U SN ,aide toA dm iralPlunkettand friend ofCaptain W hite.LieutenantSinnottm anaged to secure the assistance of notonly A dm iralPlunkettbutalso the city cham berlain— the H onorable Philip Berolzheim er.M r.Berolzheim er’s interestin the band extended to providing us w ith tw o tourist buses for our local transportation and,by

The N avy Band’s1924 Tour / 135 paying outofhisow n pocket,our roundtrip steam boatpassages betw een N ew York and Boston. A s for A dm iral Plunkett,w ho gave orders that nothing m ust be left undone thatw ould contribute to our com fortand happiness,m any people w ho knew thisgray-haired veteran rem arked thatthey had neverseen him in such a happy fram e ofm ind as w hen interesting him selfin the band’s w ork and activities. The nam e Virgin Islands seem ed to have been im printed on hisbrow,and Irecallhow pleased he feltw hen the band gave its concert for the officers at the Brooklyn N avy Yard.The adm iral w as especially interested in the piccolo solosplayed by m e and in the “tangos,” as he term ed the Spanish dances and our localbam boulas.(Im ightnote here that the habañera type of m usic,w hich includes our native bam boulas,everyw here caughtthe ear ofthe public and elicited the greatest applause and dem and for encores.) From N ew York w e w entto Boston for an all-too-briefvisit.W e arrived on A ugust13 and played tw o concerts,one atthe N avy Yard and another aboard the historic ship U SS Constitution.The next day at noon w e perform ed atthe fam ousBoston Com m ons,w here before an audience ofthousands ofraptlisteners w e played our bestconcertofthe entire tour.Every num ber,w hich w as a selectgem from the m asters,w as received w ith w ild applause.A fter w e finished,a steady stream ofpeople flow ed to the bandstand to express theirenjoym entofthe concert,som e going so far as to say thatitw asam ong the bestheard there during the pastfifteen years.A m ong thoseoffering theircongratulationsw erem em bersoftheBoston Sym phony O rchestra and also severalm em bers ofthe N ew England Conservatory of M usic.O ur friend,H ans Bishop ofSt.Croix,w as also there,and he happily inform ed m e thatthisw asared-letterday in the calendarofhisBoston life. Ihad thatsam e day,A ugust14,the pleasure ofm eeting the em inent scholar,author,and editor of the Boston G uardian M r.W illiam M onroe Trotter,w ho cam e to offer his services in any w ay thatcould be ofassistance to us.Butto m y thinking,the crow ning achievem entofm y w hole Boston trip w asthe privilege,the honor,ofm eeting one ofthe w orld’sm ost charm ing w om en,a brilliantm usician,lecturer,and author,one ofm y ow n race,and acreditto any race— M rs.M aud Cuney-H are.M rs.H are notonly cam e to the bandstand to express her adm iration ofour efforts butlater sentm e aw arm personalletter,w hich contained the follow ing excerpt: Itisrem arkablew hatyou have accom plished in spiteofthe factthat you have lived far from the large m usic-centers,and in factitw ould have been praisew orthy and notableeven in the m ostm usicalsurroundings.Your achievem entcauses those w ho have done so littlehere,

136 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour and those ofus all,w ho oughtto have accom plished m uch m ore,to think seriously and to m ake new resolves for the future.

O n the evening ofthe nextday,w e gave a concertin EastW eym outh, M assachusetts,thatw as heard by som e fifteen to tw enty thousand people. W e received a grand ovation,as w ellas a signalhonor paid us by the celebrated w om an cornetistM rs.FannieYoung.M rs.Young told m e thatatthe requestofher husband (a celebrated sym phony orchestra leader w ho had heard the band atBoston Com m ons),she had journeyed over forty m iles to hearusplay.Thislady w asso enraptured overoureffortsthatshe could not resist com ing to the bandstand to tell the “boys” how highly she regarded theirperform ance.A ttention to nuances,attack,and an even technique,she felt,w ere the strong pointsofthe band.Thatevening w e w ere entertained by Boston’sbest,w ho listened w ith attention to w hatIhad to tellthem concerning the true conditions existing in the Virgin Islands. O ne ofthe m ostm em orable experiences ofthe entire tour w as a cerem ony thattook placeA ugust13 on the Boston docksin frontofthe receiving ship M SS Southery w hen the ladies belonging to the G rand A rm y of the Republic,w hich w as holding itsconvention in Boston atthe tim e,presented the band w ith tw o A m erican flags:a sm allsilk one on a staffand a very large one m ade ofbunting (w hich Istillhave in m y hom e).The presentation w as m ade by theirpresident,M ary L.Rollins,a beautifulw om an w ith a silver voice.H er inspiring oration on thisoccasion concluded w ith the follow ing rem arks,w hich w illforever ring in m y ears: Fellow m en ofm y race from the Virgin Islands,itism y honor on behalf ofthisdelegation to greetyou and to bid you w elcom e to dear old Boston and notfar from the spotw here CrispusA ttucks,one ofour people,w as one ofthe firstto shed hisblood on behalfofthe liberty of thisgreatnation.W efeelproud to see for the firsttim e in our nation’s glorious history,m en ofour race w earing the chevrons ofm usicians in our proud and gallantnavy.W e feelconfidentthatas aresultofyour beautifulm usicand exem plary conduct,sim ilar placem entsw illsoon be m ade for other m em bers ofour race.O n behalfofthisdelegation and ofthe city ofBoston,w e ask thatyou acceptthese flags sym bolicofthe greatestnation on earth.Even though our nation does notas yetgive you allfor w hich thisem blem stands,w e urge you,w e beseech you,w e entrustyou,one and all,to cherish it,love it,fightfor it,and ifnecessary diefor it.Itrepresentsto us here the epitom e ofallthatisgrand, good,and glorious in our nation’shistory.

To thisday Ican see the tearsslow ly trickling dow n the cheeksofthatgrand lady,tears thatspoke m ore eloquently than even her beautifulw ords.Ican

The N avy Band’s1924 Tour / 137 still feel the grip of that brief silence w hich preceded the outburst of applause and bravosfrom the officersand m en w ho lined the shiptow itness the touching cerem ony.16 Leaving Boston,w e returned to N ew York,w here w e gave tw o concerts: one atthe city park in Brooklyn,the other a farew ellone atthe Renaissance Casino.The latter gathering,w hich w as reported to be one of the largestassem blages ofitskind held in H arlem ,w as arranged by thatdedicated Virgin Islander Casper H olstein,under the auspices of the Virgin Islands Congressional Council.I had m et H olstein several years earlier through our m utualfriend D.H am ilton Jackson,w ho w as m arried to H olstein’ssister.Since thattim e,w e had alw ays been quite friendly w ith one another,although w e differed fundam entally overpolitics.W e both desired the sam e good things for the Virgin Islands,butour m ethods ofdealing w ith localproblem s w ere notthe sam e,and w e held diam etrically opposed view s regarding conditions there.Ithas alw ays been m y beliefthatH olstein w asnottruthfully inform ed aboutconditionsin the islandsunderthe navaladm inistration,and thathe w as taken advantage ofby dem agogues and idlersw ho refused toacknow ledge the w orthw hileachievem entsofthe navalgovernors. Because Ihave neverbecom e too involved in politicsand neverbelieved it of sufficient truth and sincerity to select or lose friends over,I never allow ed politicaldifferences to cloud m y friendship and respectfor H olstein the m an.Thisattitude Ibelieve H olstein reciprocated,because he recognized that w hat the band had accom plished w ent beyond politics,or rather,m oved politics to a higher levelw herein the bestinterests ofthe Virgin Islandshad been significantly advanced.Certainly,he reflected such sentim entsin hisenergeticorganization ofthe farew ellget-togetheratthe Renaissance Casino.A ll of our friends in H arlem w ere there,and they entertained us royally.G low ing speeches w ere given by A rm erA lderm an, G eorge W .H arris,and LouisYeppa.O ur old friend Charles E.M itchellof the federalcom m ission also attended and com plim ented uson ourachievem ents.A fter the gala affair,H olstein had a reception for the bandsm en at hishom e and spoke w arm ly ofoureffortsto bring theVirgin Islandsto the attention ofA m erica. From N ew York w e m ade an unexpected detour to Philadelphia.There had been m uch consternation am ong the colored com m unity ofthatfine city because the band had been provided w ith no realopportunity to play forthem ,and because they,in turn,had notbeen ableto entertain us.They dispatched num erous telegram s to A ssistant Secretary of the N avy Theodore Roosevelt,w ho w as a great favorite am ong A fro-A m ericans,

138 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour requesting a specialappearance ofthe band for charitable purposes.Rooseveltgave hisauthorization forthe band to appearatthe D unbarTheater, w ith the proceeds going to the Frederick D ouglass H ospital.The resulting benefiton the evening ofA ugust18 w as enjoyed by one and all,and w e at lasthad a chance to m eetthe leading colored people in the City ofBrotherly Love. W e ended our tour w ith tw o concertsatthe fam ous H am pton Institute in Virginia.The tim e spentthere w asam ostenjoyableand fitting term ination of our peregrinations.The pleasure w as ours to play several tim es before the sum m er students and faculty,and the pleasure w as m ine of addressing thatfine body,telling them asbestIcould aboutthe islands.Six studentsfrom the Virgin Islands w ere beside them selves w ith joy to have us am ong them ,and took no little pains to show us so and to take us around the grounds ofthe lovely cam pus.17 The next m orning,w ith our m usical tour at an end,the U SS Kittery w as atthe dock w aiting for us.She w as a fam iliar sight.Prior to and during W orld W ar I,this vessel,as the SS Praesident,had been a frequent visitorto St.Thom as.She w asow ned by aG erm an com pany,the H am burgA m erican line,and had plied the Caribbean carrying passengers and cargo. W ith A m erican entry into the w ar,the Praesidenthad been seized asaprize ofw ar and converted into the U SS Kittery.18 N ow a supply transport,the Kittery visited St.Thom asonce am onth,carrying suppliesand personnelto the sm allnavalbase located there.W e w ere given com fortableaccom m odationsaboard and received first-classtreatm entallthe w ay.There w asplenty oftim e in transitto rem inisce on the w onderfultim es w e had experienced on tourand the w arm and friendly peoplew e m et. In the finalstages ofour tour,how ever,notes ofsadness tem pered our enthusiasm .En route to Philadelphia,w e received new s from St.Thom as ofthe death ofM rs.P.O .N icholson,w ifeofourpopularclarinetand saxophone player.“Paluden,” as w e called him ,had lefther in the island hale, hearty,and pregnant.Com plicationshad setin.She had been rushed to the localhospitaland given every possible aid,butshe died in childbirth.The baby girlalso died.Paluden w as beside him selfw ith grief.Shortly before that,w ord had com e to us of the death in St.Thom as of the father of G eorge Seeley,another ofour first-class m usicians.A s could be expected, G eorge w as m ostanxious to getback hom e to hisfam ily. Saddestofall,w e w ere leaving behind in aBrooklyn hospitalone ofour excellentm usicians,a fantasticdrum m er and a perfectgentlem an,Ronald H ennessey.H e had com e dow n w ith a term inalillness for w hich the doctors gave us little optim ism .Few ofus had hopes ofseeing him again.I

The N avy Band’s1924 Tour / 139 rem em ber m y farew ellvisitw ith him .There w ere tears in hiseyes and an expression too deep for utterance.W hen w e said goodbye,he knew and I knew thathis tim e w as lim ited and thathis end w ould com e aw ay from fam ily and friendsand hisbeloved island hom e.Eventually,and w ith som e regret,w e boarded the Kittery for the return journey hom e. O riginally,the band w as scheduled to stop and play concerts in Cuba, H aiti,Santo D om ingo,and Puerto Rico on itsw ay back,butthese engagem ents w ere canceled,prim arily because w e had extended our tour in the States.N aturally,w e w ere thrilled to return to the shores of our native land and to the proud em braces ofour loved ones. There can be no doubt that the band’s trium phant tour m ore than accom plished the objectives of advertising the Virgin Islands,its people, and the beneficentrule ofthe navaladm inistration.This w as clearly evidenced notonly by the m any glow ing tributes and speeches m ade in our honorbutalso by thousandsofcongratulatory com m unicationsw e received from those w ho had heard us play in concertor over the radio.For exam ple,one H enry C.Larcom be ofLatham ,M aryland,sentm e the follow ing letter on July 19,1924: D ear M r.A dam s: Your program ,given through station W CA P lastnight,did m ore to putthe Virgin Islands on the m ap than anything since they passed under the governm entofthe U nited States....There w ere not m any,Idare say,w ho knew the Islands could appreciatean organization as good as the band has developed into under your leadership, m uch less furnish the m aterialsfrom w hich to m ake it.You have therefore raised our estim ateofthe peoplethere,by show ing us theirtastein m usic.19

N ew spaper editorials and articles also bore w itness to the success ofour m ission.A typicalexam ple isthiseditorial,w hich appeared in the Boston Chronicle: The N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands ison atour ofthiscountry.Those w ho have been privileged to hear them render theirinim itablem usic gain anew appreciation ofthe aim s and aspirations ofthislittlegroup ofpeoples w ho are follow ing the lure ofthe A m erican ideal.Itisto be hoped thatthe m inistry ofthisband as itcarries the benediction ofits m usicto differentpartsofthe country shallnothave been in vain.In the finaladjustm entoftheirpoliticaland civilrelations to the parent country m ay justice be done tem pered w ith m ercy.The U nited States has notyetlearned how to dealw ith darker and w eaker peoples either athom e or abroad.W ehave justboughtthe Virgin Islands and paid for

140 / The N avy Band’s1924 Tour them w ith aprice.Itw as essentially arealestatetransaction for reasons ofm ilitary strategy.The peoplew ere m erely attachm entto the land. A nd yetw here the A m erican flag floatsw e expectto see liberty prevail. Itw as apathetic[m oving]spectacleto see thislittleisland band rising to play “The Star Spangled Banner.” H ere indeed w as aunion ofpatriotism and pathos.M ay these islanders indeed be m ade to feelthe spirit and thrillof“the land ofthe free and the hom e ofthe brave”!20

A bove all,the tour had a profound and lasting im pactupon the m inds and attitudesofA fro-A m ericans,w ho saw ouraccom plishm entsnotonly as avindication ofthe race butalso asan opportunity to pressforbettertreatm ent and greater equality.These points w ere repeatedly stressed by the prom inentA m erican colored leaders w ho addressed the band in every city w e played,and also by the leading N egro new spapers.The W ashington Sentinelexpressed these sentim entsw ellin itseditorialofJuly 26,1924: The trium phanttour ofthe Virgin Islands N avalBand isem phasizing tw o very im portantfacts,nam ely thatin the dom ain ofthe artand science ofthe rhythm iccom binations oftones,theirapprehension,com position,rendition and interpretation and [in]the organization of persons and the selection ofinstrum entsto thatend,the Colored race is entitled and receives recognition upon absoluteequality w ith other racialgroups;and that,w henever the U nited States G overnm entisjust, fair,logicalor condescending enough to offer opportunities and adequateencouragem entsand facilities to m em bersofthe Colored race w hich they unstintingly and insistently offer,or enforce upon,other groups ofA m ericans[,]itm attersnotin w hatfield ofhonorableor usefulactivity,the form er group never failsto score honorably[,]fully and satisfactorily.W ith respectto the Virgin Islands N avalBand,w e are gratefulto say thatitbears the titleand significance ofafull-fledged navalunitand in pointofrecognition isclassed and treated upon equal term s w ith allother navalbands.The leader,Prof.A .A .A dam s stands high as agentlem an,m usicalscholar,com poser and disciplinarian and is highly respected by the leading bandm astersofthisand other countries;and hisband isjustly esteem ed one ofthe finestin the A m erican navy.Thanks to the navalestablishm entfor the m eed [sic]ofthis opportunity,and acknow ledgem entsand m yrtles for the distinguished Virgin Islands bandm aster and hisefficientm usicians.21

The w ords of an old refrain cam e to m e as I left H am pton Roads and headed south:“’M id pleasures and palaces/Though w e m ay roam /Be it ever so hum ble/There’sno place like hom e.”22

7 The Close ofthe N avalYears (1925–1931)

Editor’sN ote:Returning to the islandsfrom theirtrium phant1924 tourof the EastCoast,A dam s and hisband reinvigorated theirconcertschedule foradm iring audiences.In thischapter,A dam srecountsa few rem arkable m om entsin the islands’history to offer view s on daily life,including the appearance of a G erm an daredevil w ith his one-m an oceangoing canoe and the early developm entofairtravelto the islands,firstin the visitof the Zeppelin airship LosA ngelesand three yearslaterw ith the building of an airstrip and the arrivalofthe firstplane.Thistestflightw as preparation for a 1928 visitby ColonelCharles A .Lindbergh,flying his recordsetting SpiritofSt.Louis.A dam s profiles tw o island com posers,organist A rturo G iglioliand pianistA lfred N em ours,and tellsofthe visitofpianist and scholar M aud Cuney-H are,w ho along w ith baritone W illiam H . Richardson presented severalrecitals in St.Thom as and St.Croix under the auspices ofVirgin Islands governor M artin E.Trench.A dam s w as an ally of Trench and w orked to secure support for the governor’s w ork am ong form er islanders and officials on the m ainland.A discussion of Trench’s progressive initiatives,cutshortby his untim ely death,offers a prelude to A dam s’s discussion ofisland politics.In his view,tum ultand treachery often hitthe islands w ithoutw arning.Seem ingly sm allfederal decisions m ade in W ashington,D.C.,could have profound effects on the livesofVirgin Islanders.The arrivalofH erbertD.Brow n,chiefofthe U .S. Bureau ofEfficiency,to investigatethe islands’budgetdeficit,forexam ple, w ould devastate A dam s’s m usicalcareer and his band by prom oting the rem ovalofthe navaladm inistration.A dam sdepictsthe sad farew ellofhe U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands,w hich w as ordered offthe islands in 1931 and sentto G uantánam o Bay,Cuba.

141

142 / The Close ofthe N avalYears The U SS Kittery,w ith ourreturning bandsm en and luggage on deck,pulled alongside the navy yard dock on H asselIsland at8:00 P.M .Septem ber 13, 1924.O urm en disem barked quickly and w ere transferred to alaunch w aiting to take them across the harbor to King’sW harf.W aiting there w as a crow d offam ily,friends,and w ell-w ishers.Itw as a hearty and tearfulw elcom e.The nextday,Iw asbom barded w ith requestsforahom ecom ing concert.A fter I talked w ith m y bandsm en,a decision w as m ade to hold this perform ance the follow ing night,Septem ber15.Itw asabeautifulevening, and Em ancipation G arden and allareas adjacentto itw ere jam m ed.From the opening num ber,“The Spiritofthe U.S.N .,”tothe finalpiece,“The StarSpangled Banner,”the response and enthusiasm ofthe crow d w ere trem endous.Instead ofabating,excitem entcontinued to grow,and in response to requests from allsections ofthe com m unity,w e agreed to hold a w eekly Sunday evening concertin Em ancipation G arden follow ing church services. These perform ancesand the happy streetprom enadesthatfollow ed continued throughoutthe year.Iw asdelighted w ith the everincreasing appreciation forgood m usicbeing show n by the peopleofourisland. Early the follow ing year,I w as approached by a group of youngsters w ith an unusualrequest— in listing the navy band’sconcertprogram s in localnew spapers,w ould Igive som e background inform ation on the selections? In other w ords,they w ere seeking m usicaleducation and they w ere asking m e to be theirteacher.Isaid thatIw ould try.H ere isone exam ple from the localpress aboutanum ber to be perform ed M arch 5,1925. “Bandanna Sketches” by Clarence Cam eron W hite:Thiscom poser enjoys the distinction ofbeing the leading black violinistin the w orld. The “Sketches” are hisdevelopm entsofw ellknow n N egro spirituals. In the hands ofacreative com poser like Clarence Cam eron W hite, these num bers are skillfully and pow erfully developed into larger m usicalform s,rhythm s,m elodies,and cadences deeply expressing the inner feelings ofslaves and descendantsofslaves.1

Early in A pril1925,Iw as asked by G overnor Philip W illiam s to organize program s in the islands’ com m unities for the observance of M usic W eek from M ay 3 to 9.2 A t3:00 P.M .on Sunday,M ay 3,the bellsofallthe churchesw ould pealforth to herald the event.The variousm inistersw ould deliver instructive serm ons on m usicand com m unity life and during the w eek w ere to hostorgan recitalsand sacred concerts.M ilitary bandsw ould give open-airconcertsand parades in w hich thousands w ere to join.Com m unity sings w ould be given,and over seven thousand school children w ould parade and hold outdoor m usicalexercises addressed by the governor.M usicalessay contestsand exercisesw ould be held in each school,and

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 143 the press w ould supportthe venture by reprinting speeches and running announcem ents. W ell-balanced program s had already gone out to be printed.The w eek’shighlightw asto be the m aypoledance celebration perform ed by all the schoolchildren at w hat is today know n as the Lionel RobertsStadium .The children gleefully danced around severalm aypoles accom panied by the navalband,and thousandsofpeopleturned outto w itness the festivities.Im ightnote thatthisw as the firsttim e thatthe m aypoledance w asperform ed in St.Thom as,so thatitcan hardly be considered one ofour“traditional”dances.The celebration w asnotonly aw eek ofgaiety and enjoym entfor the generalpublicbutalso am eans ofbringing the Virgin Islandsto the attention ofm ainland audiencesviathe new sm edia.3 A nother m usicalfestivity Ihelped organize w as the annualconcertgiven by the navy in m arket square on Christm as Eve.Thousands of people attended thiseventto listen to Christm asm usicand sing along w ith carols played by the navalband. The governor w as pleased w ith m y plans.Rising from his desk,he asked m e to com e w ith him to his inner office.The governor closed the door.“A dam s,”he said,“Ihave som e exciting new sforyou.Ifallgoesw ell, on W ednesday,M ay 6,w e w ill have a historic visitor.” Reaching for a draw er in his desk,he opened it and handed m e a picture— “Isn’t she a beauty?”Isaw before m e agreatairship.The caption read:“ZR3,Zeppelin A irship Com pany,Friedrichshafen,G erm any.” “Ignore the caption,” the governor said,“she has been rechristened the Los A ngeles.She is ours, built for us as part of G erm any’s reparation paym ents to the U nited States.The pointis,the airship isnow on her w ay south and w illbe in the Caribbean in a few days.I have used all the pull that I have w ith m y friendsin the N avy D epartm entto getherto fly overus.They have prom ised m e that after Puerto Rico,w e can expect her.” Reaching into his desk draw er again,the governor handed m e a batch ofprinted m aterials. “H ere,” he said,“take these hom e and fam iliarize yourself.” Fam iliarize m yselfIdid.Ilearned thatthe greatairship w as 658 feetlong,92 feet w ide,and 100 feet high.W hen inflated,she carried 2,470,000 cubic feet ofhelium gas.H er cruising speed w as sixty m iles per hour.H er cruising radius,w ithoutstopping,w as over six thousand m iles.The ZR3 leftFriedrichshafen on O ctober 12,1924,in the charge of a G erm an crew.She arrived atLakehurst,N ew Jersey,N avalA ir Station three days later and w as turned over to the A m ericans.4 A tthree o’clock W ednesday afternoon,M ay 6,1925,the signalstation on H asselIsland announced the sighting ofthe navy dirigibleby hoisting a ball to its signal m ast w ith an A m erican flag below it.Every eye turned

144 / The Close ofthe N avalYears w estw ard,eagerly aw aiting the approach ofthe greatairship.From the vantage pointw here Istoodw ith friendsand fam ily,w e w atched w ith w onderas thehugeaircraftapproached.Shesailed overFrenchtow n and VillaO lga.She m oved across the harbor,flew over Bluebeard Castle,and continued as far eastasTutu,w here she turned and headed back w est.The dirigibleseem ed to m ove w ithouteffort.W e couldbarely hearthe sound ofherengines.She w as a glorious sightglistening in the sun,beautifulto behold,and resem bled a gracefulw hale.W hen the airship passed alm ostdirectly over us,her nam e, LosA ngeles,and the w ords U .S.N avy w ere plainly visible.O ver the center ofthe tow n,the airship slow ed her speed,circled,and dropped severalpackagesaddressed to G overnorW illiam s. The tow n w as bedecked w ith flags ofallnations.A holiday spiritprevailed.Ships in the harbor flew flags and bunting.A llcraft,big and sm all, blew theirstacks and sirens in w elcom e.Schoolsw ere closed for the occasion and children and teachers w ere outen m asse.H ere,from m y scrapbook are tw o articles from local new spapers describing the excitem ent, especially ofthe children: The afternoon sun w as hotand the anxiety ofthe w aiting children w as rising.They fixed theireyes on the w estern sky and w atched.Suddenly, som eone cried out:“The airship iscom ing!The airship iscom ing! There she is!” M ajestically the dirigiblecam e untilshe w as in fullview ofthe m any and eager young people.The children cheered and cheered. “Itlooks like agreatbig fish,” one youngster said.A schoolprincipal raised her voice over the noise ofthe children.“H ip,hip,hurrah,” she said,“H ip,hip,hurrah!”A nd the children w aved theirflags and raised theirvoices in excited chorus.5 Itism ore than one m onth since the giantdirigibleLosA ngeles of the U.S.N avy flew over our island,butthe excitem entcreated by her visitisstillw ith us.For one thing,the popularity ofour governor, Philip W illiam s,has never been higher.Letters to our new spapers and editorialcom m entshave allstruck asim ilar note:heartfeltcom m unity thanks for the G overnor’sgood offices in getting the airship to com e here thereby affording one and allarare opportunity to w itness this m arvelofaeronauticalscience.

The prom inentM ain Streetfirm ofA .H .Lockhard & Co.w rotealetter to a localnew spaper thatisofparticular interestto m e,dealing as itdoes w ith m usicon airships.Ikeptacopy ofthe letter from w hich Inow quote: A question appeared in your new spaper,June 6,1925,in w hich the questioner asked:“W hatkind ofG raphophone does the dirigibleLos A ngeles carry?” O ur firm ishappy to give you the answ er.First,letus pointoutthatthe nam e G raphophone isatradem ark for aphonograph

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 145 thatuses w ax records.Thistradem ark isheld by the VictorTalking M achine Co.ofCam den,N .J. W hen the dirigibleLosA ngeles slipped from her m ooring atLakehurst,N .J.,and headed south,she took w ith her aspecially engineered Victrola,presented to officers and crew ofthe airship by the Victor Talking M achine Co.Itisthe firstm usic-producing instrum entto be designed for use in dirigibles.Since each and every item taken aboard thisship iscarefully regarded as to design and w eight,itisatributeto the Victor Co.thatthe instrum entw as accepted readily and gratefully by the com m ander and staffofthe dirigible.ThisparticularVictrolais ingeniously m ade ofaircraftcloth,plyw ood,and durolium ,fabricreinforced exactly as the fabricin the hullofadirigible. A s thisgreatairship sailsam ong the stars and through the im m ensity ofspace,the m usicofVictor artistsw illaw aken the silentspaces thousands offeetabove the earth.The gallantm en w ho com m and and operatethisgiantofthe airw illhave the com fortofgreatm usicby greatartistsin aw ay hitherto inaccessibleto them .O ne m ore trium ph for the VictorTalking M achine Co.6

O n M ay 24,1925,a longtim e localfriend and a fine m usician,Signor A rturo G iglioli,passed aw ay quietly athis hom e on St.Thom as.H e w as eighty-six years old.Because of m y long association w ith him ,the local press asked m e to contribute a statem enttelling som ething abouthislife and background. SignorA rturo G iglioliw as born in Leghorn,Italy.H e w as broughtup in Florence w here he acquired the typicalam iability and gracefulm anners ofthe Florentine.H e studied chem istry and m usic,butm usicw as hispassion.H e applied him selfsteadfastly in thisfield and later becam e director ofan orchestra in M ilan.Severalyearslater,he leftItaly and cam e to St.Thom as viaN ew York.H e w as aresidentofSt.Thom as for along tim e,probably forty-five years,during w hich tim e he dedicated him selfto m usicand the business ofphotography. Iknew Signor G igliolifor m ore than thirty years.Irecallw ith pleasure the agreeableand profitabletim es spentw ith him athishom e atthe footofG overnm entH illand in the nearby A pollo Theatre, w here he tried outsom e ofhism usicalcom positions and invited m y criticism .G iglioliw as an ardentadm irer ofthe Italian com poser G aetano D onizetti.Probably,thataccounted for D onizetti’sinfluence so clearly noticeablein G iglioli’sbeautifulM asses and Litanies.G iglioli w as bestknow n in St.Thom as as organistand choirdirector for the localRom an CatholicChurch,Sts.Peter and Paul.H e served in this capacity for m ore than thirty years.H isefficientand dedicated training ofthe church choirw on him the adm iration ofclergy,congregation, and,in fact,alllovers ofgood m usichere.

146 / The Close ofthe N avalYears Iw as afrequentvisitor to Signor G iglioli,up to ashorttim e before hisdeath.A favoriteplace for our m usicaldiscussions w as under the heavily laden grape arbor in hisgarden.The good Signor had im ported from Tuscany specialvines thatbore w hitegrapes.O ften there w ould be alarge silver bow lon anearby tablefilled w ith these delicious grapes im m ersed in ice w ater.“The soilhere isexcellentfor thisvariety ofgrape,” Signor G igliolisaid.“Itisasham e thatno one cultivates them com m ercially.” Itw as in these quietsurroundings thatw e spent m any an afternoon w orking together to arrange som e ofhisbeautiful com positions for use in our band concerts.7

H ere isacom m unication aboutanotherlocalm usicalcolleague,w hich I directed to the St.Thom asBulletin forA ugust27,1925: Itw as w ith pleasure thatIread the articleofM r.A lfred N em ours in your new spaper ofA ugust25,1925,com plim enting m e and m y bandsm en for our rendition ofhisbew itching com position Com tesse etM arquis.Thisw as the centerpiece ofour recentconcertatthe Em ancipation G arden. A sw e allknow,M r.N em ours isanative-born St.Thom ian w ho is presently living here.H e received hism usicaleducation in Berlin.H e is aw orthy productofthe teachings in harm ony and counterpointby one ofthe w orld’sgreatesttheorists,Ludw ig Bussler.In piano playing,he w as directed by the renow ned Felix D ryschock.8 N o greater acknow ledgm entand appreciation ofN em ours’sm usicianship can be given than the factthatseveralofhisbeautifulcom positions have been played atthe Berlin O pera H ouse before large and approving audiences.H isdelightfulCom tesse etM arquis,in particular, has been afavoriteofm usicalcircles in the G erm an capitalw here m usicisan im portantpartofdaily living.The French nam e Com tesse etM arquisissom ew hatm isleading in thatthe m usicfrom atechnical and aestheticpointofview isessentially and thoroughly G erm an.It show s clearly thatstrong instinctfor organization so typicalofthe G erm anicrace. N em oursm akes no bones ofthe factthathe isthoroughly indoctrinated in things G erm anic.Littlew onder thatthispatriotism show s so clearly in hiscom positions.Sim ple,dignified,and w ellorganized rhythm s and striking harm oniceffectsappear throughouthisw ork. Sim pleas the Com tesse etM arquism ay look,itisdifficultto render and requires intense concentration,practice,and m ore practice.To hear from N em ours,am usician ofhigh standards,thathe w as pleased w ith our rendering ofhisw ork isacom plim entindeed.N em ours w as particularly com plim entary aboutour surprising skillin handling the dance and pantom im e sections.Thisisacrucialtestin the proper presentation ofthe com position.In speaking w ith m e after the concert,N em ours declared:“You and your bandsm en passed thattestw ith flying colors.”

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 147 Italw ays gives m e greatpleasure to presentthe w ork ofanative com poser,especially one so technically accom plished as N em ours.H is m elodious Soirée de Berlin,apiece fullofm em ories ofhappy tim es in thatG erm an city,isoften featured by us.Because ofitsdelightfulharm ony and nostalgicflavor,itisafavoriteofm usiclovers here.9

W ith G overnor W illiam s’s term expiring in 1925,President Calvin Coolidge appointed M artin Edw ard Trench,Captain,U.S.N avy,to succeed him .Trench w as sw orn in on Septem ber 11,1925.From the beginning,it w as apparentthatthe new governor w as no run-of-the-m illofficial.H is career in the U.S.N avy (1889–1927),had been a rem arkable one.Born in D ennison,M innesota,in N ovem ber 1869,he w as adm itted tw enty years later to the N avalA cadem y in A nnapolis.O n accountofhisgreatstrength and athleticability,he captained the footballteam .Tw o years after graduating,Trench w asappointed in 1895 to the engineering division,N ew York N avy Yard,w here he established an excellentrecord.From there,he w as assigned to the U SS M aine.H is sea duty com pleted,he leftthatw arship shortly before itw asblow n up in H avana H arbor,February 15,1898,an act thatprecipitated the Spanish A m erican W ar.D uring thatconflict,Trench served w ith distinction on the U SS Resolute. A s detail officer in the Bureau of N avigation in 1912,Trench becam e know n as a m an w ho listened attentively to allsuggestions,inform ation, and com plaints.H e carefully w eighed all points of view and invariably based his decisions on w hathe believed to be justand right.O nce m ade, these decisions stood.H e developed areputation for fairness.Later,Trench served as com m anding officer ofthe U SS D enver,Colorado and U SS St. Louisbefore going to the W ashington N avy Yard asassistantsuperintendentofthe navalgun factory.ThroughoutW orld W ar I,he com m anded the N aval Torpedo Station,w here his services w on him a N aval Cross “for exceptional m eritorious service in a duty of great responsibility.” There follow ed a series oftop assignm entsatnavalinstallations in W ashington, Philadelphia,and Charleston.It w as w hile serving as com m ander of the Charleston N avy Yard thatTrench w as ordered to the Virgin Islands.10 D uring our band’svisitto Boston in A ugust1924,itw as m y privilege to m eetM rs.M aud Cuney-H are (1874–1936).W hile conversing w ith her, she m entioned the possibility ofher com ing to the W estIndies in the latterpartof1925 to perform aseriesofconcerts.Iassured herthatifshe did com e to the Virgin Islands,Iw ould do everything possible to help w ith scheduling,details,accom m odations,and sponsorship by the top authority, the governor ofthe Virgin Islands.A boutayear and three m onths later— N ovem ber 1925— Ireceived w ord from M rs.H are thatshe w as definitely

148 / The Close ofthe N avalYears com ing and thatshe planned concertsin Puerto Rico,St.Thom as,and St. Croix.She w ould be accom panied by W illiam H .Richardson,one ofA m erica’sforem ostbaritone singers.Iinvited the tw o artiststo stay asguestsin m y hom e and then proceeded to G overnm ent H ouse to try to secure gubernatorialsponsorship.G overnor Trench w as m ostgracious and helpful.“Bandm asterA dam s,”he said,“ifyou recom m end them ,Iw illsponsor them .Iw ould appreciate,how ever,ifyou w ould give m e som e background inform ation for our files.” M onths before,at the request of the m anaging editor of a G renada new spaper,the W estIndian,Ihad w ritten a series ofarticles dealing w ith outstanding N egro m usicians in A m erica.Richardson and M rs.H are w ere am ong them .Itw as a sim ple m atter to take excerptsand subm itthem to G overnorTrench: M rs.M aude C.H are isrenow ned pianist,author,and recitalist.She received her m usicaleducation atthe N ew England Conservatory of M usic,Boston,M assachusetts.H er excellence as apianistcom bined w ith her ability as alecturer has w on prom inence and success.M rs. H are isacollector ofN egro folk m elodies.Like Sam uelColeridgeTaylor,she has taken on the w orthy task ofpreserving for posterity the rich m usicalutterances ofher race. W illiam H .Richardson isone ofA m erica’sforem ostN egro baritones.H e w as born in Liverpool,N ova Scotia.H e studied in Boston underT.Schroeder,noted Boston voice instructor.Robinson w as a soloistatSt.Peter’sEpiscopalChurch,Cam bridge,M assachusettsfor years.In recenttim es,he has been active in concertw ork and has w on considerablecriticalacclaim .11

Cuney-H are and Richardson gave their first concert on February 10, 1926,atthe A pollo Theatre in St.Thom as under the auspices ofG overnor and M rs.Trench.The theater w as packed.Representatives from the local pressw ere there,and Iw illletthem tellthe story ofitallin review s,saved in m y scrapbook: O n the arrivaland seating ofG overnor and M rs.Trench and party,the concertopened w ith the playing ofalively num ber by the U.S.N avy Band.Bandm asterA dam s,U.S.N .,then introduced the artistsw hose colorfulcostum es elicited rounds ofapplause. There follow ed aprogram ranging from folk songsofthe O rient,the deep South,and W estIndiesto classicaland m odern m usic.The richness and depth ofRichardson’svoice,velvety in finish and clearin diction w ith abreath controlthatisrem arkable,held the audience enthralled. H are’sattractive personality,her delightful,fluentspeaking voice, the brilliantand scholarly m anner in w hich she interpreted the songs,

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 149 pleased the audience.H are w as m osteffective w hen she played aseries ofCreolefolk songs from her collection recently published by the Carl Fisher m usichouse ofN ew York. Tw o num bers w hich ...elicited heavy applause w ere the D anish song “G ylland” and “Sw eetVirgin Isles” com posed by bandm aster A dam s w ith w ords by H erbertG rigg ofSt.Croix.The com poser w as called on stage to acknow ledge the appreciation ofthe audience. The entire program w asadelightw ith the tw o artistscoordinating perfectly.Richardson’sbeautifulsinging in G erm an,Italian,French,and English,w ith the sym patheticand m asterfulaccom panim entofH are, w ith herinterpretive talks,created arecitalthatw asoutofthe ordinary. The audience w as com prised ofnearly the entire A m erican and D anish colonistshere,plus asplendid representative gathering oflocalpeople.A tthe close ofthe program ,the audience rose to itsfeetin an expression ofadm iration for the artists.A young lady w enton stage carrying abeautifulbouquetofroses w hich she presented to H are,w ho received them in am ostgracious m anner.12

M y scrapbook also contains clippings covering Cuney-H are and Richardson’s second concert.This event took place as scheduled at the A pollo Theatre on Thursday night,February 12,1926.To quote from the clipping in the St.Thom as Bulletin from the nextday: Justas the firstm usicalrecitalofthe H are-Richardson team w as agreat success,so w as the second.Thistim e the program w as m ostly classical w ith choice selections from w ell-know n operas.M r.Richardson w as in top form .In rendering severalnum bersfrom IPagliacci,he sang even better than on the nightofFeb.10.H isItalian w as flaw less.Each w ord had roundness and tonalfinish,sparkling clear. A nd so itw as allevening as the artistsm oved from one opera to another,from one m elodious them e to another.A gain,M rs.H are delighted the audience w ith her skillas asuperb accom panist. D uring abriefinterm ission,Bandm asterA dam sappeared on stage and thanked G overnorand M rs.M artin E.Trench,w ho w ere present,and all those w ho had contributed tow ard the successofthe tour.A ccording to schedule,saidA dam s,he had m ade arrangem entsforthe artiststo leave forSt.CroixTuesday,Feb.17,1926,so thatourfriendsacrossthe channel m ay also have an opportunity to enjoy theirfine m usicalrenderings. A tthe close ofthe beautifulconcert,M rs.H are,in appropriate w ords and speaking on behalfofM r.Richardson as w ell,expressed highestappreciation and gratitude for the distinguished patronage of G overnor and M rs.M artin E.Trench and for the reception and dinner given in the artists’honor atG overnm entH ouse,Feb.11,1926.This, said M rs.H are,w as ahigh pointin the w arm and w onderfulw elcom e accorded to them since theirarrivalin St.Thom as.

150 / The Close ofthe N avalYears To the delightofthe packed house,G overnorTrench w enton stage, shook hands w ith the artists,then turned and addressed the audience. The governor w as am an offine bearing w ith aclear friendly voice and avery relaxed m anner. H e knew thathe spoke for m any ofthose before him w hen he expressed M rs.Trench’sand hisdelightin m eeting and listening to these fine artistsw ho w ere also highly educated and cultured people w ith very im pressive backgrounds. The governor thanked the artistsfor com ing to the islands,w ished them asafejourney hom e and hoped thatthey w ould return soon. There w as thunderous applause.The curtain fellon aw onderful evening ofculture and entertainm ent.13

D uring the second w eek ofSeptem ber 1926,Ireceived tw o letters from abroad thatgave m e a big lift.The firstw as from C.J.Russell,librarian at the John Philip Sousa A rchives,W illow G rove,Pennsylvania.Itread: J.Philip Sousa has asked m e to ...tellyou thathe played your m arch, “Spiritofthe U.S.N avy,” as an encore atone ofhisconcertslastw eek and thatthe audience received itw ith enthusiasm .A lso,M r.Sousa sends to you hishearty congratulations.W hilegoing through the latest m usiccatalog ofpublisher CarlFisher,N ew York,he noticed thatyour m arch,“The G overnor’sO w n,” has w on aprom inentplace as one of the standard m arches ofthe day.

Iw asthrilled to receive these com plim entsfrom thism ostpopularm usical figure,the King ofM arches him self. The second letter w as from Los A ngeles,California,and it w as from H err M eier,bandm aster ofthe G erm an cruiser H am burg,w hich had visited St.Thom asfive m onthsearlier— in M arch and A pril1926— foratw ow eek stay.In hisletter,Bandm aster M eier said: G reetings from the city ofLosA ngeles w here w e arrived recently via the Panam a Canalroute.W e stillthink and talk ofthe fine tim e spent in St.Thom as and the good friends thatw e m ade there. Yesterday,w ith afew m em bers ofm y band,w e attended an opening for am otion picture featuring D ouglas Fairbanks,the greatm oviestar. Im agine m y delightduring an interlude w hen the band struck up your m arch,“The G overnor’sO w n.”They played itstirringly and w ell.I could hardly w aitto getback to m y ship to w riteto you aboutit.14

N aturally,Iw as thrilled by thisletter also.W hile in St.Thom as,the H am burg’s band,conducted by H err M eier,gave tw o concerts in Em ancipation G arden,M arch 31 and A pril4.H err M eier and Ibecam e good friends and exchanged m usicalinform ation.H e w asfam iliarw ith m y m arch “The G ov-

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 151 ernor’sO w n”and asked m eforcopies,w hich hisband practiced and rendered enthusiastically on the nightofthe second concert.H errM eieralso knew of A lfred N em ours’sm usic,specifically tw o num bers,Soirée de Berlin and A ir de Ballet.W hen toldthatN em ourslived in St.Thom as,he w aseagertom eet him .Iarranged aluncheon atthe G rand H otel’sterrace overlooking Em ancipation G arden.The tw o m en had a w onderfultim e speaking in G erm an aboutm usicand rem iniscing aboutthe good old Berlin days.15 O fallthe navalgovernorsIhad served under,none w on the confidence, respect,and heartsofVirgin Islanders as quickly as M artin Trench.From the day he took office in 1925,the new governor show ed adeep interestin the problem s ofthe people and theirneeds.G overnorTrench’scom m anding figure,histact,fairness,and innatew isdom ,characteristicsforw hich he had been know n on the m ainland,m ade them selvesfeltin the islandsfrom the beginning.The governor m ade it know n early that the door of his office w as open to all,rich and poor,and the island peopleresponded.They cam e aw ay from hisoffice fullofadm iration and hope.H ere w as a governor they could talk to and one w ho really listened and cared.G overnor Trench m etisland problem s head-on.H isappointm enthad com e atatim e w hen islands politics,fanned by agitators in H arlem ,had caused and w as continuing to cause,unfavorable and inflam m atory articles in the U.S. N egro press againstcontinuing the navaladm inistration ofthe islands. O ne m orning Iw as called to the governor’soffice.W hen Igotthere,he greeted m e in hisusualgracious m anner:“Bandm aster A dam s,Isentfor you because Ineed your advice and help.” H e handed m e abatch ofnew spaperclippings:“Ireceived these from the N avy D epartm entyesterday.A s you w illnote,they are taken from the m ainland N egro press,and they are very bitteraboutthe continuing navaladm inistration ofthese islands.O ne ofthe articles,the m ildestone,holds m ore than adegree oftruth.The rest are outright falsehoods.” The m ildest article to w hich the governor referred w as from the N ew York A m sterdam N ew s.Itw as extrem ely criticalofthe shorttenure in office ofnavalgovernors— atm osttw o years. Since 1917,no governorhad been in the islandslong enough to develop or carry out a constructive program .This w as a real obstacle to the proper developm entofthe islands.“Icouldn’tagree w ith thatm ore,” said G overnorTrench.“W hen Iaccepted thisoffice,Im ade m y acceptance contingent on a w aiver ofthe tw o-year rule.IfIstarta project,and Ihave severalin m ind,Iw ish to rem ain here long enough to see itcom pleted.N eedless to say,the navy agreed,or I w ould not be here now.A s for the other clippings,” said the governor,“look atthose headlines:‘N avalTyranny in the Islands,’‘Battleship RuleD estroying Civilian Rights.’W e w ho are here,on

152 / The Close ofthe N avalYears the spot,know thatnone ofthisistrue.H ow do w e stop thism isinform ation from spreading?”16 Iprom ised the governorthatIw ould do everything in m y pow erto try to setthe record straight.Ihad influentialfriends in key positions in the U.S.N egro press and in the black com m unities there.Im ade alistofthese friends and I w rote to them .The list included Caspar H olstein,Rom eo D ougherty,Reverend Richard Bright,D r.Em m ettScott,and otherpersons w ho knew m e and respected m e.In m y letters to them ,Im ade itclear that Iw as very pro-navy and w ith good reason.The band w hich Iled,m ade up entirely of black m usicians,w as pure and sim ple a creation of the U.S. N avy,m aintained by the U.S.N avy.M uch thatI,ablack m an,had becom e, Icould attribute directly or indirectly to navalhelp,friendship,and good w ill.Ihad been w itnesstoVirgin Island happeningsfrom the tim e ofnaval takeover in 1917 untilthe present.D uring thatperiod ofnine years,Ihad w itnessed but one set of events that could have justified an unfavorable w ord in the U.S.N egro press. In the hecticw ar years of1917–18,our islands,particularly St.Thom as, had been overcrow ded w ith m ilitary personnel,including som e unitsfrom the D eep South.Possibly officialsatthe tim e w ere toooverburdened tothink ofthe socialconsequences ofsuch overcrow ding or the m entalattitudes of som e soldiers,butasaresult,there had been unfortunateincidents,drunken rioting by m ilitary personnel,and harassm entofthe native population.The situation had been broughtunder controlquickly by the rapid reduction of m ilitary personneland firm action by the authorities.W ith the w ar over, relationsbetw een the navaladm inistration and the peopleofthe islandshad been good and continued to be good.N ever had they been better than now underTrench,one ofthe finestnavalgovernors ever sentto these islands.17 G overnorTrench began an in-depth study ofthe islandsand theirneeds.H e m etw ith across section ofislanders and heard theirview s.A n attentive listener,he carefully w eighed w hathe heard.H e based decisions on w hathe believed to be the bestinterestsofall.H e strove to m aintain good relations w ith the ColonialCouncils,setting an exam pleforhisofficersand staff.In a shorttim e he w on the confidence and respectofm ostislanders. M eanw hile,harsh criticism in the U.S.N egro pressregarding navalrule in the islands quieted.W hether m y letters to influential friends on the m ainland had any effectIcannotsay.W hatm ay have turned the tide w as the visit to the islands by U.S.Senator H iram Bingham III (1875–1956) and the w idely publicized report that he sent to Congress and the press regarding the state ofaffairsas he found them in the U.S.Virgin Islands. Bingham and hisstaffhad been in Puerto Rico doing investigative w ork.

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 153 W hilethere,he decided to visitthe nearby Virgin Islandsto see forhim self ifchargesregarding navaloppression w ere true orgroundless.The senator arrived in the latter partof1926 and im m ediately setup a series ofhearings for any and allcitizens w ho w ished to testify. H isreputation had preceded him .Before entering U.S.politics(he had served as lieutenantgovernor,governor,and w as now U.S.senator for the stateofConnecticut),H iram Bingham w asw idely know n and acclaim ed as a distinguished archeologist,historian,and statesm an.In the years 1911, 1912,and 1914–15,he headed expeditionssentby YaleU niversity to South A m erica to study ruinsofthe ancientInca civilizations.Bingham rediscovered the Inca cities ofVitcos (1911)and M achu Picchu (1912)in Peru.H is w ritings on these explorations and discoveries attracted international attention.Senator Bingham found no evidence ofnavaloppression in the islands.O n the contrary,he found arem arkably good relationship betw een the navy and the people.W itness after w itness declared thatno governor beforeTrench had handled m attersw ith such tact,patience,and good w ill.18 In his report,Bingham sum m ed up w ith this statem ent:“I w as present w hen G overnorTrench departed from the islands on a shortvacation.The departure w as a signalfor an unprecedented dem onstration ofconfidence and goodw illfor him on the partofthe civilian population ofthe islands.” Before leaving,G overnorTrench had sentfor m e: Bandm asterA dam s,Icalled you because Iconsideryou one ofm y trusted friends.A syou know,Iw illbe gone forthree orpossibly four w eeks.Should any m atterarise thatyou considerim portant,contactm e. H ere ism y addresson the m ainland.M y w ifeand Iw illbe staying at the hom e offriends,Captain and M rs.Ralph Earlein W orcester,M assachusetts.H e ispresidentofthe PolytechnicInstitutethere.W hilelisted asavacation,m y trip w illbe anything butthat.Iam scheduled to appearbefore severalCongressionalcom m itteeson behalfofthe islands. Iexpectthese appearancesto resultin im portantbenefitsforthe islands. Bandm aster,the navy w illnotbe here forever.In fact,a change to civilian adm inistration could com e overnightand w e m ustbe prepared forit. W em ustupgrade oureducationalsystem and w e m ustintensify the training ofVirgin Islandersto take overw hen thattim e com es.Ithas been apolicy ofsom e ofm y predecessorsto fitintelligentyoung islandersinto the adm inistrative fram ew ork here.But,in m y opinion, thatpolicy hasbeen sketchy and notenough.Iplan to im plem entthat policy to the fullestextent,and Ihope thatby the tim e Ileave office,a trained cadre ofVirgin Islandersw illbe ready to take overatshort notice.W e m ustdevelop and diversify the econom y.A tthe m om ent, navalspending isthe m ain prop.The navy m aintainsthe schools,hospitals,and publicw orks.H ospitalsare staffed by navaldoctors and nurses;

154 / The Close ofthe N avalYears publicw orks,by engineers allpaid for outofnavalfunds.Ifthe navy pulled outtom orrow,the system w ould collapse.Iintend to stress these econom icrealities before the appropriatecom m ittees ofCongress,and I w illbe asking for considerablesum s ofm oney to im plem entsound econom icdevelopm entin the territory.

January 6,1927,opened bright and sunny,a holiday— Three Kings D ay— and m asqueraders in colorful costum es w ere frolicking along the streetsw hen the terrible new s cam e like a boltoutofthe blue.G overnor Trench had contracted pneum oniaand died atthe hom e ofCaptain Earlein W orcester,M assachusetts.The new sputan im m ediatedam peron the m errym aking.Iw as in a state ofshock.19 W ith w ildfire rapidity,the new s of Trench’sdeath spread throughoutthe islandsthatevening.There w asconsternation atthe unexpected passing ofa m an ofseem ingly robustconstitution.People w ho had seen the governor leave the islands a shorttim e before,hale and hearty,had difficulty believing the report.O ne and all sensed thatthey had losta good friend,talented and dedicated to helping the peopleofthe Virgin Islands. A solem n m em orialservice forG overnorTrench w asheld atthe Em ancipation G arden on Saturday,January 8.H igh and low,rich and poor,m en and w om en of all w alks of life gathered there to pay tribute.A s one reporter said,there w ere no spectators;all w ere m ourners.Prom ptly at noon,the prelude to the cerem ony began w ith the firing ofseventeen guns from the m arine battery,w ith aone-m inuteintervalbetw een each shot.It w asan im posing sightto see the m inistersofthe variousreligiousdenom inations as w ellas top islands officialsassem bled on the bandstand,standing atattention w hilethe cannon boom ed the salute.Speakerafterspeaker extolled the nobletraitsofthe lategovernor,hisgreatand lovablepersonality,hisim portantcontactsin W ashington thatw ere being used on behalf ofthe islands,the prom ise ofm ore years ofvigorous and creative leadership.Each speaker em phasized the im m ensity of the loss for the Virgin Islands.A fter the eulogies,our band rendered Chopin’s“FuneralM arch,” the sad strains seem ing to transportthe assem blage in spiritto A rlington Cem etery in Virginia,w here the m ortalrem ains ofG overnorTrench w ere being laid to rest.G .J.A nderson,a m em ber ofthe sixth elected Colonial CouncilofSt.Thom as–St.John,sentaletteraddressed to the peopleofthe Virgin Islands dated thatday,January 8,1927: Ihave justreturned to m y hotelfrom the funeralofG overnorTrench. Itw as am ostim pressive cerem ony.M ilitary bands,sailors,soldiers,the Secretary ofthe N avy,hischiefofstaff,adm irals,colonels,captains,and alarge gathering ofpersons w ho had know n and w orked w ith G over-

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 155 norTrench and w ho held him in greatesteem ,allw ere there to pay a finaltribute.Beautifulfloralw reaths conveying the affection and sincere esteem ofVirgin Islanders for G overnorTrench w ere prom inently displayed.20

O n January 25,1927,w ord w as received over the radio that President Coolidge had appointed retired navy captain W aldo Evans to fillthe vacant governorship ofthe Virgin Islands.Evans w as alongtim e career m an in the U.S.N avy and had filled m any executive positionson navalshipsand bases. A lso,foratim e,he had served asnavalgovernorofA m erican Sam oa.O n the m orning ofM arch 3,1927,Em ancipation G arden w as packed and overflow ing w ith people.Captain Evans,escorted by acting governorVan Patten cam e to the bandstand.From m y vantage pointIhad agood look athim ,and m y firstim pression w asafavorableone.Fifty-eightyearsold,aboutsix feettall, and robust,Captain Evanslooked the partofanavalcom m ander.H e w ore a w hitesuit,Panam a hat,w hiteshoes,and ablack bow tie.A tten o’clock precisely,the cerem ony started.The H onorableG eorgeW ashington W illiam s,a districtcourtjudge clothed in the robes ofoffice,stepped onto the rostrum , called upon Captain Evans to raise his righthand,and proceeded to sw ear him in as the seventh navalgovernor ofthe U.S.Virgin Islands.A s Judge W illiam sconcluded,the battery fired asaluteofseventeen guns. G overnor Evans, facing the crow d, delivered his inaugural address, w hich w as w ellstated and very w ellreceived.A titsconclusion,our band played “The Star-Spangled Banner.”H ere are som e excerptsfrom the governor’saddress,w hich Isaved in m y scrapbook: Thisisasolem n and significantm om entofm y life.In doing w hatI have justdone (taking the oath ofoffice),Ihave dedicated m yself,m y tim e,m y energies and ability to you,the peopleofthe U.S.Virgin Islands.Thisactofm ine has w elded together am an and apeople,w ho butashorttim e ago w ere strangers to each other.From thism om ent on,your interestsand m ine are one. You m ustbe genuinely happy thatrecently the U.S.Congress passed legislation to provide you w ith U.S.citizenship.You w illbe even happier w hen Itellyou thatyesterday,M arch 2,1927,President Coolidge signed thatlegislation (Bill2270),officially conferring that citizenship upon you.Letm e,as the President’srepresentative and your new governor,be the firstto congratulateyou and w elcom e you into the fam ily as an integralpartofagreatnation.21 Through the requestofthe lategovernor,M artin E.Trench,Senator H iram Bingham ofConnecticutintroduced abillin Congress asking for an initialgrantof$100,000 to begin im provem entson the roads and highw ays ofthe Virgin Islands.Iam happy to tellyou thatBillH R N o.

156 / The Close ofthe N avalYears 4933 has passed the U.S.Congress and has been signed by the President.Ifthese islands,so blessed w ith clim ate,beaches,crystal-clear w aters,and scenicbeauty,are to draw asizeableshare ofthe tourist trade,then agood road system isvery im portant. You are concerned,too,Iam told,w ith aprom ptdecision by the U.S. Congress on som e form ofperm anentgovernm entfor the Virgin Islands.Ican tellyou thatbefore hissudden and untim ely death,G overnorTrench appeared before the Com m itteeon InsularA ffairs ofthe H ouse ofRepresentatives and,through hiseffortsand contacts,w as successfulin having BillH R 10865 introduced to provide aperm anent governm entfor the U.S.Virgin Islands.Ihave justcom e from W ashington and Ican tellyou thatBillH R 10865 isgetting the attention of both bodies ofCongress.Ihad hoped thatitm ightbe satisfactorily settled in tim e for m y arrivalhere,butother m atters ofinternational im portance took priority and have delayed action. M y predecessor,acting through Senator Bingham ,w as preparing to introduce abillin Congress to im prove the educationalsystem ofthe islands and to establish here,atfederalexpense,vocationalschoolsto perm itthe youth ofthe islands to acquire technicalskillsin addition to agood generaleducation.W hatever Ican do during m y stay here to assistin providing the youth ofthe islands w ith the besteducational equipm entand opportunity,Iw illdo.You can counton m e. Iw ish to congratulateyou on the beauty ofyour islands.That beauty isG od given.M ake every effortto preserve it.A nd you know the saying:Cleanliness isnextto G odliness.Cleanliness isan outw ard m anifestation ofculture and your culture w illbe judged by your w illingness to keep your surroundings clean.Ifthe A m erican peopleare to com e here to your shores for shortor long stays,itisim portantthat you im press them notonly w ith your G od-given beauty,butw ith the clean and orderly appearance ofyour com m unities.22

The untim ely death ofG overnorTrench leftm e sad and depressed.Personally,Ihad losta w onderfulfriend.In a broader sense,the islands had lostm uch m ore.N o othergovernorin recenttim eshad so quickly w on the confidence,love,and respect of the people.N o other governor had so quickly gotten to the heartoflocalproblem s and m oved so fastin W ashington to com e up w ith solutions.W ith the adventofG overnorTrench,it seem ed that the problem of short tenure by naval governors had been overcom e.The incum benthad expressed hisw illingnessto rem ain here for an indefinite period;W ashington had agreed.Little w onder thatislanders looked forw ard w ith confidence and hope to years of G overnor Trench’s vigorous and creative leadership— then,itw as allover. W ith G overnor Trench in place,Ihad paid little or no heed to BillH R 10865,introduced into the U.S.Congress to provide a perm anentform of

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 157 governm entfor the U.S.Virgin Islands.Localopinion,as w ellas m y ow n, took itforgranted thatno m atterw hatcam e outofthe U.S.Congress,G overnor Trench w ould play a centralrole.The governor’s death changed all that.Suddenly,Ifelta strong sense ofanxiety.W hatifnavalgovernm ent w as rem oved overnight? W hat w ould happen to m y bandsm en— thirtynine local m usicians and their fam ilies? N aval friends assured m e that, w ithoutadoubt,the band w ould be transferred to som e othernavalstation. A sform yself,Ihad excellentjoboffersin thecivilian m usicalw orld.D uring our m ainland tour of1924 and after a very successfulappearance and concertin O gden H all,H am pton Institute,there w as a standing invitation form e to com e and take overthe college band and the m usicdepartm ent.In 1926 Iturned dow n an invitation to take overthe leadership ofJam esReese Europe’sband afterthe latter’sdeath.23 In 1927 agroup offriendsheaded by John PhilipSousa recom m ended thatItakechargeoftheW anam akerStore’s band program in Philadelphia.The greatdepartm entstore had,aspartofits w idespread culturalactivities,tw o excellentbands,one ofw hich w as com posed entirely of black m usicians.This band had as its bandm aster a M r. G rinell,w hose retirem ent w as im m inent pending a suitable replacem ent. Because ofSousa’sstrong recom m endation,Ireceived aboutadozen letters from W anam akerofficialseagerto secure m y services.24 Early in 1928,Iw asinvited to Philadelphiaatthe com pany’sexpense to discussm y taking overtheirexcellentN egro band.W hen Igotto Philadelphia,Ifound m yselfam ong friends.M em bers ofthe store’sm anagem ent rem em bered the concertthe navy band had given there during our 1924 tour.W e had broadcastoverW anam aker’sradio station,W O O ,to m illions of people.Listener reaction at that tim e had been so favorable that the store’stop m anager requested thatIsend him a picture to be placed in the store.In a friendly and jocular m anner,he scolded m e for nothaving kept m y prom ise to do so. The W anam aker offer w as a tem pting one.N ot only w as the salary excellent,butalso the store offered to provide suitablehousing and schooling privileges for m y fam ily as partofthe job offer.There w as one draw back to m y accepting the offer— an em otionalone.M y roots,m y fam ily’s roots,w ere in the islands.Regardless offinancialor other gains,itw as not easy to pullup those rootsand m ove elsew here.O urhom e,ourheartsw ere in the islands.There itw as thatIw anted to m ake a m eaningfulcontribution to the m usicalculture ofm y people.M eanw hile,eventsin W ashington m ade it easier for m e to turn dow n the W anam aker offer.Bill H R 10865,to provide aperm anentgovernm entforthe islands,had been puton hold.Indications w ere thatitw ould stay thatw ay for som e tim e.

158 / The Close ofthe N avalYears G overnor Trench had been the driving force behind H R 10865.H is friend Senator Bingham had been its sponsor.W ith Trench gone,the bill languished.G overnorTrench had draw n up plansforacarefuland gradual transition from navalto civilian governm ent.Itw astaken forgranted that he w ould play akey rolein guiding the transition.There w ould be em phasison educationaltraining,econom icdevelopm ent,replacem entsofnaval personnelby civilians,and expansion ofthe suffrage.W ith Trench gone, SenatorBingham m ade itknow n thathe w ould leave m attersatastandstill until som e group or individual assum ed responsibility for carrying out provisions for asm ooth transition.25 A ttw o o’clock the afternoon ofJanuary 10,1928,Ireceived an urgent call from G overnm ent H ouse to report to G overnor Evans.W hen I got there,Iw as directed notto the governor’soffice butto the reception room upstairs.Severalw ell-know n citizenshad gotten there before m e and m ore w ere com ing.There w ere about thirty people present w hen G overnor Evans entered the room .A fter w arm greetings to the gathering,he called for everyone to be seated.The governor then addressed us: G entlem en,as you know,on M ay 20 and 21 oflastyear,CharlesA . Lindbergh distinguished him selfas an aviator by hisepoch-m aking solo flightfrom N ew York to Parisin hism onoplane,SpiritofSt.Louis. The courage,ability,and quietdeterm ination ofthisintrepid flyer w on him the adm iration ofthe w orld and the adulation ofallA m ericans.A ll eyes are upon him now as he m akes agoodw illflightthrough Central and northern South A m erica.Severaldays ago on January 6,Isentthe follow ing radiogram through the Com m andantofthe 15th N avalD istrict,Balboa,CanalZone:“ColonelLindbergh,the governor and people ofthe Virgin Islands extend to you acordialinvitation to visitSt. Thom as on your w ay north.W e w ould be honored to have you as our guest.”Yesterday,Ireceived the follow ing radiogram from Colonel Lindbergh from San José,CostaRica:“Iacceptw ith pleasure your kind invitation to visitthe Virgin Islands.Because m y tim e isso lim ited,I w illbe ableto rem ain in St.Thom as tw o days only,the day ofm y arrivaland the nextday,departing on the third day.W illinform you of m y dateofarrivalm ore accurately later.” G entlem an,Ihave asked you to com e here thisafternoon,notonly to help m e prepare arousing w elcom e for thisheroicfigure,butalso to give m e your thoughtsand advice on som e ofthe m ajor problem s that w e face.A s you know,w e do nothave an airfield here or anything resem bling alanding strip.To date,no plane has landed here.Ihave asked m y engineers to com e up w ith suggestions for alanding strip bearing in m ind thatsafety isthe m ajor factor.Ifsafety isnotassured,I

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 159 w ould nothesitateto contactColonelLindbergh and callthe w hole thing off.M y engineers have com e up w ith tw o suggestions: 1. A closely cropped pasture betw een the Sugar Estateroad on the north and Long Bay Road on the south.Thisland has been m ade availableto us for thisspecialoccasion through the courtesy ofM r.A .H .Lockhart.A lready w e have m en w orking,night and day,to extend thisarea to the m axim um . 2. The N o.2 landing strip suggested ison the golfcourse to the w est.26 Thism orning,Ireceived aradiogram from officialsofthe Aviation Com pany ofSan Juan,Puerto Rico.They requested perm ission to fly a tri-m otor biplane to St.Thom as on January 14 to testthe landing strips thatw e are preparing for ColonelLindbergh.Ifallgoes w elland the landing strips prove safeand usable,they requestperm ission to take up passengers on January 15.A lso m entioned in the telegram isthatthe Aviation Com pany plans,ifm y perm ission isgiven,to send tw o planes to escortColonelLindbergh to San Juan.Ireplied to the Aviation Com pany thatIw elcom ed itstesting ofthe airstrips;thatthe Sugar Estate strip w ould be ready by noon January 14 and the golfcourse strip afew days later.G entlem en,as m atters develop,Iw illkeep you posted.

O n January 16,1928,the office ofG overnor W aldo Evans issued the follow ing press release: Saturday afternoon,January 14,1928,atri-m otored biplane,the SA N TA pany ofSan Juan, Puerto Rico,arrived here,circled both landing strips,butdid notland. The pilotdropped anotesaying the strips are inadequate.Im m ediately after the departure ofthe SA N TA M A RIA and upon receiptofthe dropped note,Isentthe follow ing radiogram to Lt.Baker,U.S.N avy,San Juan, P.R.:“Please interview w ithoutdelay m anager and pilotoftri-m otored bi-plane,SA N TA M A RIA ,and have them advise m e w hy,in theiropinion, the landing strips are inadequate.” Ireceived the follow ing dispatch from the pilot:“Ihave had 10 years experience in flying aeroplanes.Your Sugar Estatestrip,designated N o. 1,isalm ostim possibleto use ow ing to high hillssurrounding sam e on three sides.Prevailing w inds are very rough ow ing to northeastcurrentstum bling over the hillsand dow n in the valley necessitating excessive speed for controlofm achine.W ith asm all,easily m aneuvered airplane the field could be used,butitisvery dangerous.Your N o.2 field (golfcourse to the w est),though sm aller,isbetter as south side isclear,butitw illbe necessary to land and take offin the sam e direction.Landing could be m ade here,butthe strip w ould have to M A RIA ,ow ned and operated by the Aviation Com

160 / The Close ofthe N avalYears be m ade sm oother as there are som e ditches and obstructions in the field.”27 G overnorW aldo Evans accepted the pilot’srecom m endation and is rushing the im provem entofstrip N o.2 to prepare an adequateand safe landing for ColonelCharlesA .Lindbergh.

O n January 20,G overnor Evans announced:“Ihave been advised that the A erialExpress Com pany ofSan Juan,P.R.,is sending a sm allm onoplane to St.Thom ason January 22,1928.Thisplane w illland atstrip N o.2 (the golfcourse),and w illbe the firstofficialtestofthatstrip.”O n January 23,the St.Thom as M ailN otesrecounted the eventofthe firstlanding on the island: Yesterday,am id happy shoutsand gestures ofapplause,the LA N IN A ,a m onoplane ofthe A erialExpress Com pany ofSan Juan,P.R.,guided by W .S.W ade,pilot,and carrying four passengers,circled over landing strip N o.2,descended,and landed easily in the m iddleofthe golf course.Thisw as the firstairplane and airpassengers to land on the soil ofSt.Thom as.The passengers w ere:A ustin Brew er,m anager,San Juan office,A erialExpress Co.;W illiam S.Sm allw ood,partner ofSm allw ood Brothers,Ford A gency,San Juan;John C.N ash,chiefengineer,San Juan Ice Com pany;and Roscoe D unten,generalm anager,A erialExpress Com pany. O n alighting,pilotand passengersw ere greeted by G overnorW aldo Evans:“G entlem en,thisisam osthistoricoccasion.You w illbe rem em bered in our history as the firstplane,pilot,and passengers to land on our soil.”A fter som e form alities and introductions to G overnm entSecretary Van Patten and other high officials,pilotand passengers w ere taken to G overnm entH ouse,w here areception and dinner aw aited them .D uring dinner,G overnorW aldo Evans announced thatearlier thatday he had received aradiogram from ColonelCharlesA .Lindbergh giving hisitinerary w hich w as as follow s: The colonelplanned to leave Colon,Panam a,January 27,1928.H e expected to arrive in Bogota,Colom bia,thatsam e day.H isnextstop w illbe Caracas,Venezuela,on January 29,1928,then on to St.Thom as, w here he isexpected to arrive January 31,1928.28

O n January 30,1928,the island w as in astateofexcitem ent.The unbelievable w as aboutto happen.W ithin tw enty-four hours,ColonelCharles Lindbergh and hisSpiritofSt.Louisw ere due to arrive in St.Thom as.The populace w as prepared to give Lindbergh a hero’sw elcom e.Various com m ittees had done theirw ork w ell.Publicplaces w ere decorated w ith plants and flow ers.Paintersw ere putting finishing toucheson storefronts.Streets w ere spotlessly clean.Flagsand bunting w ere everyw here.A holiday spirit

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 161 prevailed, encouraged by the proclam ation from G overnm ent H ouse declaring the day after Lindbergh landed,February 1,1928,an official island holiday.O ne and all,young and old,w ere encouraged to turn outto participate in a greatw elcom e.The passenger-carrying m onoplane Santa M aria,exploiting the public’s excitem ent,had arrived in St.Thom as as early as January 27 and had been allotted an off-area at the golf course landing strip.Full-page advertisem entsappeared in the localpress:“H ere is your chance to fly.G etthe feelofit.W itness the m agnificentscenery from the sky.Bargain price!”A dventurous islanders lined up for a chance to fly and cam e back from the shortflightsflushed w ith excitem ent. A t1:30 P.M .,new sw asflashed by radio and telegraph thatColonelLindbergh had leftCaracas,Venezuela,and w as on hisw ay to St.Thom as.The road to the landing strip becam e crow ded w ith autom obiles,carriages,and conveyances ofallkinds as w ellas crow ds ofpedestrians,allheading w est. A tabout4:00 P.M .,the Santa M aria gracefully lifted into the airand w inged itsw ay tow ard St.Croix to actasan escort.Ithad been officially announced thatatthe firstsighting ofLindbergh’splane,signalgunsw ould be fired.A t approxim ately 4:20 P.M .,the guns w ere heard.This brought loud cheers from the w aiting crow d.The SpiritofSt.Louisw as firstsighted approaching from an easterly direction.29 Evidently,Lindbergh had follow ed acourse over and parallel to the chain of W est Indian islands on his w ay from Venezuela.The w ould-be escortplane did notm eethim ,as ithad headed south,in the direction of St.Croix.Colonel Lindbergh flew in at a low height,circled the airstrip,w entoutseaw ard and southw ard,then turned and m ade for the golfcourse,w here he landed easily and gracefully.M any enthusiasticspectators rushed for the plane.Itw as w ith difficulty thatthe contingentsofpolice,m arine,and navy guardsheld them back. There w ere m om entsofsilence,then the plane door opened and Lindbergh stepped out.H e stood there in the sunlight— tall,trim ,and boyish looking.The crow d cheered and he w aved his hand in acknow ledgm ent. The colonelw as escorted to atem porary reception stand w here abeautiful w reath offlow ersw as placed around hisshouldersby alovely young lady, M issD.Lam b.Lindbergh bentover and kissed her on the cheek w hile the crow d cheered.The colonelw asthen form ally received by G overnorEvans, w ho presented him to m em bersofhisstaffasw ellasto citizen m em bersof the reception com m ittee.W hen the briefcerem ony w as over,Lindbergh, w ith the governor athisside,w as driven to G overnm entH ouse,w here he w as interview ed by new spaper correspondents. Iw asam em berofthe group ofquestioners,notasBandm asterA lton A . A dam s,butin m y capacity as part-tim e correspondentfor the N ew York

162 / The Close ofthe N avalYears A m sterdam N ew s.W hen m y tim e cam e,I asked the follow ing question: “ColonelLindbergh,needlesstosay w e are highly honored by yourhistoric visit.W ould itbe possible for you to spend another day w ith us and have oursisterisland ofSt.Croix share thishonorw ith us?”The colonelreplied: “A sIflew overthe chain ofislandsyesterday on m y w ay here,Iw ished that Icould have arranged to spend asm any w eeksw ith you asIcan spend days. Ihave never m ade am ore interesting and beautifulflightthan thatofyesterday,and Iregretthatitisnecessary for m e to leave your city tom orrow m orning in orderto keep m y schedule,w hich requiresarrivalatH avana on February 8.Tellyourfriendsin St.Croix thatw hen Ileave here en routeto Puerto Rico,I w illfly over Christiansted and Frederiksted,and that they should w ave up to m e asIw illbe w aving dow n to them .”30 A t10:00 A .M .February 1,1928,ColonelCharles Lindbergh,accom panied by G overnor Evans and G overnm entSecretary Van Patten,w ith an escortofm arinesand ournavalband,headed forEm ancipation G arden for apublicreception.A sthe party arrived,there w ere photographersw aiting. M em bersofthe reception com m ittee,the locallegislature,and representativesofthe pressalso w aited to greetthe colonel.A cannon salutew asfired from the nearby battery w hileenthusiasticpeoplecheered. Bishop W eiss of the M oravian Church delivered the invocation.The hym n,“O G od,O urH elp in A gesPast,”w assung.Then cam e addressesof w elcom e by the governor and chairm an of the Colonial Council.N ext cam e the presentation ofan illum ined address and a beautifulm ahogany table inlaid w ith sandalw ood,a m asterw ork ofone ofour localcraftsm en. ColonelLindbergh then stepped on the speaker’s platform and,in a calm and clear voice,thanked all concerned for the fine w elcom e that he had received.A fterahym n,“PrayerforColonelLindbergh,”specially prepared for the occasion by Bishop W eiss,the crow d stood atattention w hile our band played “The Star-Spangled Banner.”A tthe conclusion ofthe anthem , ColonelLindbergh cam e over to m e,shook m y hand,and said:“Bandm aster,Iw antto thank you foryourfine m usic.Iw ish to com plim entyou also on yourw ell-disciplined band.They show the resultofexcellenttraining.” ColonelLindbergh w asdriven tothe tw o hospitals,then tothe H arm onic Lodge.H ere he w as received w ith full ritual and presented w ith a silver trow elsuitably inscribed.N ext,he attended aspecialsession ofthe Colonial Council,w here he w as received w ith acclam ation and presented w ith the freedom of the city.H orse races and other sport events w ere held in his honor.Everyw here Lindbergh appeared he w asm etw ith cheersand sm iling faces.The day’s program culm inated in a torchlightprocession.31 Colonel Lindbergh took offfrom the St.Thom asgolfcourse strip at11:50 A .M .Feb-

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 163 ruary 2,1928,and headed for Puerto Rico,an im age ofthe Virgin Islands flag painted on the side ofhisplane tom em orializehisvisit.The takeoffw as accom plished as easily and as gracefully as hislanding had been tw o days earlier.En route to Puerto Rico,and in keeping w ith hisprom ise,Colonel Lindbergh flew low over the tow ns ofChristiansted and Frederiksted,St. Croix,signaling hisgreetingsw ith gyrationsofhisplane.32 A few m onths later,on July 31,1928,w hile I w as visiting a friend, G eorge Levi,in hisM ain Streetoffice,w ord cam e thata strange crafthad entered St.Thom as H arbor and had tied up at the harbor m aster’s dock. Levi,w ho represented the localCham ber ofCom m erce,w as asked to com e rightaw ay.H e asked m e to accom pany him .The dock w as buta shortdistance aw ay.W hen w e gotthere,a sm allcrow d already had gathered,including photographers and new s reporters.The objectoftheirattention w as a dim inutive rubber canoe w ith a strange-looking m an tightly fitted into it. H e looked like som eone from another w orld.H is face w as like that of Robinson Crusoe— bearded w ith unkem pthaircaked in salt. W ith som e difficulty,he w as helped outofthe tiny craft.In a low and tired voice,he told hisstory,w hich appeared in the localpressthe nextday, alm ostverbatim : M y nam e isCaptain Franz Rom er.Iam 29 years old and aG erm an by birth.From the tim e IleftG erm any in thistiny boat,Ihave sailed 2,944 nauticalm iles.O n M arch 3,1928,Ileftthe portofLisbon,Portugal,w ith N ew York as m y destination.Icarried w ith m e 600 tins of provisions ofw hich 50 contained w ater,each tin holding one and ahalf gallons.A fter four m onths and 25 days,Iarrived here,St.Thom as. A bout100 m iles from the coastofPortugal,Im ethigh w inds and very rough seas.Iw as com pelled to take dow n m y sailsand juststeer the boat.A ttim es,itseem ed thatIw ould be overw helm ed.By G od’s m ercy,Ireached the portofLas Palm as,Canary Islands.Istayed there for one m onth,regaining m y strength and confidence and then took off again.W hilesleeping and steering one day,a m ountainous w ave dashed over the deck and carried aw ay m y head gear and garm entsofclothing thathad already been torn by the w ind and sea. W hileon thisperilous journey,constantly gam bling w ith death,I m etaYugoslavian steam er w hich offered m e help.Ideclined.They left m e w ith an old chartw hich show ed the routeto the Virgin Islands.I m etother ships.A lloffered help w hich Irefused.Iw as determ ined to reach porton m y ow n.Idid ask for specific inform ation on how to get to St.Thom as,w hich they gave m e.Ireached the coastofSt.Thom as aboutm idnightand dropped anchor.Isleptuntildaw n,aw oke,pulled anchor,and started for the harbor.O nce inside,Iw as tow ed to the harbor m aster’sdock by arow boatand here Iam .33

164 / The Close ofthe N avalYears Shortly after he landed on St.Thom as,Rom er cam e under the care of LouisM endez M onsanto ofKrum Bay.M onsanto,w ho spoke G erm an fluently,took the captain to hishom e,gothim into atub,gave him ahotm eal, and refitted him in a w hite suit.A ccording to M onsanto,the cleanup process w as a painfulone.Long days and nights ofconstantexposure to sun,rain,and saltspray had taken theirtollon the captain’sbody.Itw as covered w ith scars and blisters,sore to the touch.The nexttim e Captain Rom er faced the press,he w as clean-shaven,w elldressed,and rested.H e took up hisstory w here he had leftoff.H e spoke in good English. Iw as born near Lake Constance in Southern G erm any.Igrew up to be aseam an.The lastship on w hich Iserved asThird O fficer w as the SS Rhodopic.Iam also an experienced aviator.Shortly after ColonelLindbergh m ade hisflightfrom N ew York to Paris,Itried to persuade a G erm an aviation com pany to give m e aplane to cross the A tlanticfrom H am burg to N ew York,butthe dealdid notgo through,so Idecided to attem ptthe crossing in acanoe.” M y rubber craft,the D eutscher Sport,is21 feetlong and 3 feet w ide.Itsdepth is1 & 1/2 feet.Itism ade ofaspecialheavy rubber com pound.Ithas tw o paddles ofeschen w ood,a durabletim ber grow n in G erm any.The shortlightm astIconstructed ofthe sam e w ood,and the sailsare ofspecially treated canvas.The deck ism ade ofthe sam e rubber com pound overlaid w ith canvas.Itisconstructed so thatitcloses tightly atm y w aistw hen Iam sitting so thatno w ater can enter. The canoe w as builtin Bavaria,G erm any,by the Klepper Com pany, w hich sellsaconsiderablenum ber for use in European rivers and lakes. Itisvalued at$2,000.The N ew York representative ofthe Klepper Com pany,as apublicity stunt,has com e up w ith an offer of$25,000 for the firstperson to cross the A tlanticin the tiny craft— from G erm any to N ew York.Idecided to try it.Evidently,Ihave no com petition.I expectto rem ain in St.Thom as for aboutam onth,during w hich tim e I w illaw aittw o m otorsw hich Iordered by cablefrom G erm any.W hen I leave here,Iw illhug the shores ofthe various islands,using m otor and sailuntilIcom e to the A m erican m ainland.Then Iw illgo up the coast to Battery N o.3 M anhattan,N .Y.W hen Igetthere,Iw illw alk in and collectm y $25,000 prize.34

A t2:00 P.M .Friday,A ugust24,1928,ourband arrived atthe Cham berof Com m erce headquarterstoparticipatein agrand reception in honorofCaptain Rom er.The parade started at3:00 P.M .H undredsofpeoplefollow ed the open touring carscontaining Cham berofCom m erce officialsand the guest ofhonor.By the tim e w e gotto Em ancipation G arden,the crow d had grow n to severalthousand people.W ith alldignitariesseated in the bandstand,our band opened the program w ith a w ell-know n G erm an m elody,“O ld Com -

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 165 rades.” Then the principalspeaker took over.Em ile Berne,presidentofthe St.Thom asCham berofCom m erce: Captain Rom er,w e are here today to honor you for the m arvelous feat ofnavigation thatyou have accom plished.You have sailed 2,944 m iles from G erm any to St.Thom as in atiny rubber canoe,...probably the m ostdim inutive craftever to attem ptsuch along and hazardous journey.In recognition ofthe extraordinary skill,courage,and endurance w hich you have show n,our organization,in the nam e ofthe peopleof St.Thom as,V.I.,hereby presentsyou w ith agold m edalsym bolicof your brilliantachievem ent. Thisgold m edalw ascrafted by the localfirm ofF.M .Corneiro,the sam e gifted artisansw ho m ade the gold and silvertrow elw hich w aspresented to ColonelCharlesLindbergh by the H arm onicLodge afew m onthsago.O n the face ofthe m edalisavery m iniature reproduction of yourvery m iniature craft,the D eutscherSport.You w illnoteyourinitialsF.R.W ithin the space oftw o circlesare raised the w ords:“G erm anyLisbon-St.Thom as.”O n the back ofthe m edalisengraved the w ords: “From the peopleofSt.Thom as,V.I.,to Capt.Franz Rom erforhism iraculouscrossing ofthe A tlanticin acanoe,D eutscherSport,1928.”

G overnorEvansw ascalled upon to pin the m edalon the recipient.Captain Rom er,in response,expressed his thanks.The cerem ony cam e to a close w ith our band rendering the G erm an nationalanthem ,follow ed by “The Star-Spangled Banner.” Captain Rom er stayed in St.Thom as until Septem ber8,1928,the heightofthe hurricane season.Then he took hiscanoe, w hich w as on display atthe Cham ber ofCom m erce,and stocked itw ith w ater and provisions.A gainstthe advice ofexperienced w eatherm en,w ho did notlike the looksofthe w eather,he decided to m ake the sixty-m ilerun to Puerto Rico.H e did notm ake it.Evidently,he ran into a bad storm .H e w as notheard from again.35 The years1929 and 1930 w ere quietonesin the islands despitethe econom icupheavalsin the U nited Statesbroughton by the stock m arketcrash ofO ctober 1929.These upheavalsdid notaffectus directly.Congressional appropriations to run the islands continued as before.N aval m oney and personnelran ourhospitals,publicw orks,and services.N avalpayrollsgave jobs and a degree of stability to our sm all econom y.For m e this w as a period ofpersonalsatisfaction and m usicalgrow th.O urband had achieved m aturity.Each and every bandsm an played and coordinated w ith the others m agnificently.O ur band had becom e very serviceable to the public, available atallcom m unity functions on shortnotice.Sunday nightconcerts in Em ancipation G arden had becom e regular events,keenly anticipated and enjoyed by large crow ds.

166 / The Close ofthe N avalYears This w as a period,too,in w hich w e had frequent visits from foreign w arships.M any ofthese ships carried excellentbands w hich,once asked, w ere happy to give concerts.O fallthese visiting m usicians,the G erm an bands excelled.H ere,taken from m y scrapbook,is an item from the St. Thom as Bulletin,February 15,1930: The publicw as treated to tw o excellentconcertsin Em ancipation G arden thisw eek.The firstw as by our N avy band,A lton A .A dam s,conducting.The second w as by the band ofthe G erm an cruiser,Em den, m usicm aster PaulZim m er.These concertsw ere attended by large audiences w hose applause testified to the appreciation ofthe m eritsof both bands.A significantfeature oflastnight’sprogram w as the honor paid Bandm asterA dam s by the splendid playing ofhiscom position, “The G overnor’sO w n,” by the Em den’sband.W e understand thatthis popular M arch isone ofthe favorites ofallthe regim entsand naval bands in G erm any,a factofw hich w e are justly proud.

O n M arch 11, 1930, G overnor Evans took the sixteen-m em ber St. Thom asband w ith him on adow n-island cruise aboard the SS N erissa.W e w ent ashore and played at St.Kitts,A ntigua,St.Lucia,Barbados,and Trinidad,w here w e w ere delighted to discoverthatourreputation had preceded us.Large crow ds turned out to hear us play,and responded w ith dem onstrations ofjoy and approval.O ne localnew spaper reported that there w as m usic...as perhaps never heard before anyw here in the British W estIndies,w ith the possibleexception ofJam aica,w ith its experience ofthe W estIndiaRegim entBand.

To be m entioned alongside the incom parable W estIndia Regim entBand w as the highestpossiblepraise.The A ntigua M agnetfurther declared: W hatever be the m otive thatprom pted G overnor Evans to offer the island stateofA ntigua am usicaltreat,there isno doubtthatthe concertw as enjoyed by allclasses.Bandm asterA lton A dam s has the confidence and respectofhism en.Folks here had achance to see how alert and responsive the bandsm en w ere to theirduties.Theirconductto the bandstand w as the subjectofm uch favourablecom m ent.The new s that there w as to be am usicalrecitalseem s to have been w idely circulated judging from the thousands thatturned outto listen....H arm ony, m odulation,rhythm blended in every piece played.The audience w ent into ecstasies w hen ConductorA dam s played apiccolo solo w ith afull band accom panim ent.W ith lightning-like rapidity M r.A dam s’fingers m anipulated the keys ofthe instrum entand as the notes im itated the song ofabird one w as lostin adm iration atthe skilldisplayed by the perform er.Thunderous applause greeted the finish and in response to a determ ined encore the Bandm aster rendered another item .The visit

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 167 m ustactas an inspiration to the m usically inclined and the nonm usically inclined.N o particular race or peoplehave the m onopoly or prerogative ofbrains or talent.W ere thatnottrue the natives ofSt. Thom as and St.Croix w ould nothave been ableto entertain us as they did W ednesday night.M oral:You w ho have the ability persistin developing itand assistothers to m ake use ofthe latenttalentthey possess.36

Yetallw as notlightand m usic during this period.For tw o m onths of 1929 and for a longer period in 1930,w e had a visitor from W ashington,a fellow Q uakerand apersonalfriend ofPresidentH erbertH oover.The local presscarried asm allitem :“M r.H erbertD.Brow n,chiefofthe U.S.Bureau ofEfficiency,ishere to look overoureconom y and m ake recom m endations to the President.”Later,rum orhad itthatin 1929,Brow n and hisw ifehad planned avacation.H aw aiiw as afirstchoice,the U.S.Virgin Islands asecond.D iscovering that the U.S.Virgin Islands had a budget problem ,a $300,000 shortfall,Brow n decided on the Virgin Islands,w here a tw om onth vacation could be w ritten off as a governm ent expense.W hether because offate or econom ics,the factisthatBrow n and hisrecom m endationsw ere to have adrasticeffecton ourislands’econom y and culture and on m y ow n personallife.37 Evidently, Brow n and his w ife enjoyed their tw o-m onth vacation, because he w as back again in 1930 for a longer stay.Thistim e,he w as on assignm entfrom W ashington to m ake an in-depth study ofeconom icconditionsin the territory and reportback to the president.U nderordersfrom G overnor Evans,local officials cooperated w ith him .Com fortable office space w as setup for him on St.Thom as and St.Croix.A steady stream of people w ere called in for interview s.Islanders found Brow n to be dom ineering and all-know ing,the kind of m an w ho stuck to his ow n ideas regardless.D uring the talks,Brow n m ade frequent reference to his intim aterelationship w ith PresidentH oover,w ho w ould pay close heed to any recom m endations thathe m ade. O ne day,Ireceived acallto go to Brow n’soffice.W hen Ientered,Brow n gotup from hischairand cam e over w ith outstretched hand:“Bandm aster A dam s,Ihave been w aiting for this opportunity to greetyou.You have been recom m ended to m e as a m an of integrity and long experience in these islands.Ihave been looking forw ard to exchanging ideas w ith you. Please be seated.”M y quick im pression ofBrow n w asthathe w asam an in his late sixties,tall,w ith gray hair,thin face,and piercing eyes— forceful and determ ined,the kind ofm an one w ould ratherhave asafriend than an enem y.H e cam e to the point quickly:“Bandm aster A dam s,I head the Bureau ofEfficiency in W ashington.M y job isto cutw astein governm ent

168 / The Close ofthe N avalYears and to m ake things balance,incom e and expenditure.The presidentasked m e to com e dow n here to look things over.For one thing,there isa shortfallin the localbudgetof$300,000.Com pared to budgetary deficitselsew here,that is m inor.Still,it is a shortfall that has to be balanced.H ow w ould you handlethatproblem ,M r.A dam s?” “You are asking a quick question,” I replied,“and I suppose you are expecting aquick reply.You m ustrem em ber,M r.Brow n,thatIam am usician,notan econom ist.Still,from m y observation,Iam aw are thatnaval spending here isthe m ain prop ofour econom y.W ith alittlebeefing up of personnel and activity,I believe that sufficient revenues w ould result to balance the shortfall.”38 “Bandm aster A dam s,as you know,” said Brow n,“the U nited States took over the Virgin Islands from D enm ark,M arch 31,1917,and placed them under the adm inistration of the U.S.N avy.This w as a unique situation— navalofficers governing a civilian population.A few m onths later,you and your bandsm en entered the navy as a unit.W hatisequally unique in your situation isthattherew asaw aiverofseaduty requirem entsforyou and your m en.In otherw ords,regardlessofthe rapid turnoverofnavalpersonnel,you and yourband rem ained here asaperm anentfixture.W ould you agree that, considering navalrulesand regulations,thissituation isunusual?” “Yes,M r.Brow n,Iagree thatthe situation isunusual.For m e and m y m en,it has been a G odsend.W e are able to live here w ith fam ily and friendsand to perform ourfunctionsin the m oststim ulating environm ent. O ver m ore than a dozen years,people tellus w e have becom e a show piece for the navaladm inistration and aculturalentity for our islands.W e bless the U.S.N avy every day.W hat other departm ent of governm ent could have created us and m aintained us?” “W hatw ould happen,Bandm aster A dam s,ifthe navaladm inistration of these islands w as replaced tom orrow and the islands turned over to another departm entofgovernm ent,the U.S.D epartm entofthe Interior, for instance?” “W ell,M r.Brow n,Ican only hope thatsuch a change w illnotoccur.It w ould be acrushing blow to m e and m y m en,personally,and adevastating blow to the econom y and infrastructure ofthe island.Itism y understanding that the navy spends a m inim um of $1.5 m illion annually,just for salaries and services.Ifthe navy leaves,thatsam e m oney w ould be spent elsew here.W hatw ould take itsplace?” “Perhapsyou are jum ping the gun,Bandm aster,”saidBrow n.“The naval base atCulebra w as in fullsw ing w hile there w as civilian governm entin Puerto Rico.Iam sure thatsom e sim ilar arrangem entscan be w orked out

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 169 here.The problem asIsee it,Bandm asterA dam s,isthatthe shorttenure of navalgovernors here does notperm itthem to cope w ith island problem s. Look atw hatishappening in St.Croix.From M arch to Septem berlastyear [1930],a terrible drought devastated the sugarcane crop there.This has resulted in the shutting dow n of the last three sugar factories.There are severe unem ploym entand bad tim es there.W hilenavy spending stabilizes the econom y ofSt.Thom as,itisdoing little or nothing for St.Croix.Furtherm ore,a navalgovernor on shorttenure does notsense an obligation to do som ething aboutthe problem .”39 Icam e aw ay from the interview w ith a strong feeling ofapprehension. Beyond a doubt,Brow n w as a stubborn m an ready to overturn the status quo ifnecessary in order to have hisow n w ay.Evidently he had developed a m aster plan ofhisow n to rehabilitate the islands based on diversification ofagriculture and hom esteading.The firstphase called for an arrangem ent w hereby the governm entw ould buy land,subdivide itinto plots,and sellit to natives on an installm entplan to encourage them to go back to farm ing. Seed m oney to initiate the projectw as to com e from navalfunds on hand and earm arked for other purposes.Brow n assured the governor thatw ith hisland projectonce started,he w ould use hisinfluence w ith the A ppropriations Com m ittee ofthe Congress to have additionalm oney added to the annualfunds for the islands to be used to expand hisland plan.G overnor Evans disagreed w ith Brow n’splans.W hile they looked good on paper,the governor considered them unw orkable due to the droughtsthatcontinued to plague the islands.H e refused to turn over funds earm arked for other purposes.The m en locked horns.Brow n threatened to take the m atterto his friend H erbert H oover.A s if to m ake good on his threat,Brow n left the islandsforW ashington. Things w ere quietfor aw hile,then w ord leaked from the nation’scapitalthatBrow n had succeeded in getting through hisfriend H orton French, of the H ouse Subcom m ittee on N avalA ppropriations,a special grant of $141,000 to be used for projectsin the islands,and thatexpenditures from this appropriation w ere subjectto the approvalofH erbertD.Brow n and Brow n alone.The circum stancesunderw hich Congressm ade the appropriation leftno alternative butto go w ith adualresponsibility in the running ofisland affairs.G overnor Evans refused to be responsible as governor of the Virgin Islandsso long ashe w ascircum scribed by hisinability to m ake expenditures from the new fund w ithout Brow n’s approval.G overnor Evanscontended that,asthe fund w ascharged to the navy’sVirgin Islands appropriations, he should control them .Vehem ently opposed to there being tw o governors ofthe islands,he subm itted hisresignation.40

170 / The Close ofthe N avalYears W ord that G overnor Evans had resigned spread rapidly through the islands.There w ere expressions of dism ay on all sides.The St.Thom as Cham berofCom m erce m etin an em ergency session and petitioned the governor to reconsider.The localpress w as unanim ous in voicing sim ilar sentim ents.W aldo Evans,a captain in the U.S.N avy,had been a popular and highly respected governor.U nlike othernavalgovernors,w ho had been lim ited to tw o years in office,Evans w as just com pleting a four-year term (M arch 1927–M arch 1931).W ith the good w illofisland inhabitantsand the navy’sblessings,there w asevery indication thathe w ould continue to serve foralongerperiod. A s one ofthe islanders expressed it:“G overnor Evans isone ofthe best governorsw e ever had.H e isa level-headed m an w ho has been guiding us w ell.H erbertD.Brow n isajoke.H ecam ehereasaso-called efficiency expert toim prove oureconom icconditionsand from the looksofthings,he isgoing to m ess us up.” Friction betw een Evans and Brow n descended to a personal leveland spread to theirw ives.A ta dinner in G overnm entH ouse,the tw o w om en exchanged sharp w ordsoverseating arrangem ents.M rs.Brow n had w ritten a book,G randm other Brow n’sO ne H undred Years.41 The book had w on literary honors. M rs. Brow n thought very highly of herself and expected to be given the seatofhonor atthe table.M rs.Evans thoughtotherw ise.The sharp verbalexchange betw een the w om en putadam peron the evening’s affair.N ext day Brow n and Evans m et in the governor’s office. There w as a heated exchange.The m en could be heard shouting at each other.Evidently,thatdidit!Leaving the governor’soffice in an agitated state, Brow n headed for the nearest telegraph office and sent a m essage to his friend PresidentH oover,urgently requesting the transferofthe adm inistration ofthe U.S.Virgin Islands from the N avy D epartm entto the Interior D epartm ent. The clippingsin m y scrapbook help tellthe story.From the localpressof February 3,1931: G overnorW aldo Evanshasbeen inform ed by radiogram from the N avy D epartm entthatthe Secretary ofN avy yesterday issued the follow ing order:“Itisproposed to transferin the nearfuture,the adm inistration ofthe U.S.Virgin Islandsfrom the N avy D epartm entto the Interior D epartm ent.A saresult,the policy ofthe N avy D epartm entw ith regard to the N avalestablishm entin the U.S.Virgin Islandsw illbe to reduce allnavalactivitiesto am inim um ,retaining in an active stateonly the radio station and personnelnecessary to care forN avy property.”42 A s fastas navalpersonnelcan be dispensed w ith,they w illbe w ithdraw n,and in no case w illthey rem ain in the Virgin Islands longer

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 171 than six m onths from thisdate.Thisadvance inform ation isgiven in order to avoid unnecessary expenditures ofnavalfunds and to avoid transportation to the Virgin Islands ofreliefsfor navaland m arine personnelnow there.Beginning w ith the trip ofthe U.S.S.Kittery,leaving the U nited States on February 11,1931,such personnelw illbe w ithdraw n as the presentgovernor deem s best.

A nnouncem entby PresidentH erbertH oover,January 31,1931: Iam proposing to forw ard to Congress the nam e ofPaulM .Pearson of Pennsylvaniafor governor.O ther civilian officialsw illbe appointed in replacem entofnavalofficers.M r.H erbertD.Brow n,chiefofBureau of Efficiency,and ColonelRoop,director ofthe budget,have drafted plans for the new civilian adm inistration w hich are being carried into action.

D ispatch from the N ew York H erald Tribune,January 31,1931: Cabled reportsthatPresidentH oover had signed abillcreating acivilian governm entfor the Virgin Islands w ere unfavorably received by a m ajority ofthe inhabitantsofSt.Thom as.

From aW ashington dispatch,February 9,1931: The navalw ithdraw alaccording to high officers w as notofits[the navy’s]initiative butfollow ed adisputeover dividing adm inistrative responsibility w ith H erbertD.Brow n,chiefofthe Bureau ofEfficiency. Before the postofcivilian governor w as offered to D r.PaulM .Pearson ofSw arthm ore,Pennsylvania,itw as refused by RearA dm iralS.S. Robinson,superintendentofthe N avalA cadem y,w ith the observation thatno self-respecting person w ould take the governorship under the conditions im posed.

From the St.Thom asBulletin,February 2,1931: The change ofgovernm entisthe allabsorbing topicofthe day.O ne thing stands outprom inently,thatis,the peopleto be affected by the change have neither been consulted nor considered.W e cannotforget the good the N avy has done here,and the m ore w e think ofit,the m ore w e regretthe w ay in w hich navalrelations w ith us are ending.W hen H erbertD.Brow n cam e here to investigateeconom icconditions,w e w elcom ed him .W e did notexpecthisrecom m endations w ould cause such undesirableupheaval.43

Cablegram sentto PresidentH oover from the business com m unity ofSt. Thom as,February 3,1931: The Cham ber ofCom m erce has learned,w ith greatregret,thatthe adm inistration ofthe Virgin Islands isto be transferred from the N avy D epartm entto the Interior D epartm ent.In view ofthe serious

172 / The Close ofthe N avalYears w orldw ide econom icdepression,the presenttim e ism ostinopportune for thischange.W e urgently request,M r.President,thatdespitethe change to civilian rule,thatnavalactivities,so beneficialto our econom y,be continued.

From St.Thom as M ailN otes,February 14,1931: Form ation ofacitizens com m itteeto requestthe N avy to continue activities here w as started Tuesday evening,Feb.10,1931.The m eeting held atthe hom e ofH erbertE.Lockhartw as attended by m ore than 50 ofSt.Thom as’sleading businessm en.

From St.Thom as M ailN otes,February 1931: N avy Secretary A dam s has been notified by residentsofSt.Thom as thatthey are forw arding to Congress,through him ,a m em orial requesting thatnavalactivities be continued in thisarea.The m em orial carries the signature ofthousands ofpeoplein St.Thom as and St.John. A m ong these are peoplein every w alk oflifein the islands— bankers, legislators,m erchants,m anufacturers,m echanics,artisans,professional m en,house and land ow ners,clerks,laborers,etc.

From the localpress,February 1931: D espiteallthe hecticactivity locally,w ord from W ashington does not offer m uch hope for retention ofnavalactivities here.W e understand thatallnavy m en w illbe replaced by civilians untilsom e 300 navy m en have been w ithdraw n.N avalphysicians w illbe replaced by doctors from the U.S.PublicH ealth Services.Even the m ine-sw eeping tug, U.S.S.G rebe,stationed here w illbe sentelsew here.

From the localpress,February 16,1931: A W ashington dispatch tellsus thatthe new civilian governor for the Virgin Islands,PaulM .Pearson,isdue to arrive here in abouttw o w eeks.The N avy has agreed to letthe U.S.S.G rebe m inesw eeper stay for notlater than July 1931 for the use ofthe new governor.

From the localpress,February 18,1931: The G reek steam er,Captain Rokos,3,437 tons register,bound for Brazil w ith generalcargo,w entashore on H orse Shoe Reef,A negada,last nightand radioed for help.The U.S.S.G rebe leftour portthism orning about9 o’clock to render assistance.H ow necessary itisto have the U.S.S.G rebe here.44

O n February 12,1931,the blow that w e w ere expecting fell! O fficial w ord w as received from the N avy D epartm ent that m y bandsm en and I w ere to prepare to leave St.Thom ason February 17,1931,forthe navalsta-

The Close ofthe N avalYears / 173 tion in G uantánam o Bay,Cuba.A rrangem entshad also been m ade to transportfam ilies ofany m em bers ofthe band w ho w anted to go.Icalled m y m en together,thirty-tw o total,and told them thatthey had approxim ately four days to getready to leave.The m en w ere visibly unhappy.They felt thatthey w ere victim s,caughtin a squeeze betw een pow erfulfactions.A s one bandsm an expressed it:“So w e are being sentinto exile.”The m en w ere againstany m ovem entoffam ily,considering such action prem ature. W e gave our farew ellconcertthree days later as described in the local press: Lastevening the N avy Band gave itsfarew ellconcertatthe Em ancipation G arden.Itw as aw onderfulconcert.Each item w as heartily applauded by the record crow d ofseveralthousand people.The concert opened w ith the popular“Virgin Islands M arch” com posed by Bandm asterA dam s.Thisw as follow ed by acornetsolo,Schaefer’s“D iePost im W alde,” played by FirstM usician H .Brow n.A fter the “Interm ezzo,”“BridalSong,” and various interpretations ofsouthern m elodies,cam e the big treatofthe night,a piccolo solo played by Bandm asterA dam s w hich w as encored. H eads bow ed in sadness and m any persons in the crow d began to sob as the band sounded the parting note,“Farew ellto Thee.” Silence prevailed for ashorttim e after thiscom position w as rendered. The N avy band isnear and dear to us.Itsdeparture ...w illbe keenly felt.For nearly 14 years,since itsinduction as aunitin the U.S. N avy,June 2,1917,and through the courtesy ofthe various com m andants,the band has rendered efficientpublicservice.Ithas assisted all localeffortsw here the publicw as concerned.D iversified in itsactivities, hospitals,churches,schools,institutions,and organizations,both here and on St.Croix,have received the benefitsofitshigh training and ability,fruitsofperseverance and study under the com petentdirection ofBandm asterA dam s. A large and tearfulcrow d isexpected to see the m en offto G uantanam o,Cuba.W e hope thatas aunitthey w illcontinue to distinguish them selves through m usicalability and discipline and thatthishasty transfer w illbe no m ore than an opportunity to add fresh laurelsto the U.S.N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands.45

O ur departure tw o days later w as covered in the localpapers: Severalhundred peoplegathered lastnightatKingsW harfto bid a sorrow fulfarew ellto the N avy band,departing on shortnotice for G uantanam o,Cuba.A s the m usicians arrived on the w harf,singly or in groups,eager crow ds pressed forw ard to shake hands w ith friends or to em brace relatives.W ives,children,m others,and grandm others m ingled w ith the crow d,som e openly sobbing.W ith alaunch w aiting

174 / The Close ofthe N avalYears in readiness to take them to the navaltransportanchored in m idharbor, the bandsm en tried to be cheerful.Taking outtheirinstrum ents,they played afew last-m inuteselections,including “A uld Lang Syne” and the ever popular com position ofBandm asterA dam s,the “Virgin Islands M arch,” butthere w as no clapping ofhands or cheering.A heavy cloud ofsorrow hung overhead,enveloping every thought,every consideration.The m usicseem ed like an anestheticthatstifled the em otions ofthe crow d. The bandsm en putaw ay theirinstrum ents,said theirfinaltearful good-byes,and stepped one by one into the w aiting launch.A s the rope lines w ere castoffand as the launch w ith itscargo ofm usicians faded from sight,the follow ing lines from the verse,“The BurialofJohn M oore,” crossed our m inds,w ith afew changes in the third line to suit our presentcircum stance: “Few and shortw ere the prayers w e said A nd w e spoke notaw ord ofsorrow Butw e steadfastly gazed atthe bandsm en Thatw ere leaving and bitterly thought O ftom orrow ...”

Yes,w e gazed atthe bandsm en thatw ere leaving,these young m en abruptly taken aw ay from theirhom es and theirfam ilies to be landed on aforeign shore,innocentvictim s on the altar ofpoliticalrevenge. H ow differentthisdeparture w as from another w e had w itnessed.H ow w ellw e rem em ber the large crow d thathad gathered on the sam e spot w hen the band had departed for atour ofthe eastern states ofthe U nited States ofA m erica.H ow w ellw e rem em ber the even greater and exuberantcrow d thatw aited to greetthe band on itsreturn from that trium phanttour laden w ith high praise from m usicians ofinternational reputeand from top officialsofm any ofthe cities visited.46

8 The N avalA dm inistration (1917–1931) A n Evaluation

Editor’sN ote:A key section in achieving the author’sgoalsforthe m em oirs, thischapterdirectly challengescriticism softhe navaladm inistration and its governors and further assertstheirpositive accom plishm ents.Confronting totalizing argum entsthatrepresentthe navy as an “arm y ofoccupation,” A dam s w rites ofboth the personaldevotion and practicalachievem entsof the naval governors w ith w hom he w orked.These achievem ents include extending and repairing roads,vastly im proving health care,and com prehensively rebuilding the educationalsystem ,including opening the islands’ firsthigh school.H ecritiquestheanalysisofhistoriansG ordon K.Lew isand Lew is H arris Evans as one-sided,w hile endorsing Virgin Island historian J.A ntonio Jarvis,w ho although criticalofthe navy offersa balanced assessm ent based on firsthand know ledge.A dam s denies that naval governors w ere racistand findsnavalpersonnelasaw hole,despiteisolated early racist incidents,tobededicated tothew elfareoftheislandsand theirpeople.W hile A dam s does notexplicitly criticize the D anish governm ent’slong period of colonialneglect,he quoteshistorian LutherEvansand reportsby G overnor Jam es O liver to point out the dire situation that confronted U .S.naval adm inistrators upon arrivalin 1917.A dam s also counters claim s thatthe rem ovalofthe navy in 1931 w as due to incom petence;rather,he blam es politicalintrigue (described in chapter7)forthe lossofconfidence evidenced by PresidentH oover.Certainly A dam s benefited,both professionally and personally,from the navy’s presence and w as deeply affected by its dism issal.In an attem ptto be m ore objective here,he avoids personalanecdotes,arguing instead from close readingsofpublished histories. A w ork ofhistory isone thatseeksby m eansofappraisal,assessm ent,characterization,or evaluation,to chronicle and interpret events,happenings, 175

176 / The N avalA dm inistration and,especially,the people oflong ago.The m ethod used for presentation therefore should necessarily be rationaland scientificand notpolitical,ideological,sentim ental,or prejudicial.H istory is a task that requires seasoned thought,reflection,and reason,particularly w hen w e consider the w ordsofadm onition ofthe young A frican w riterCam ara Laye in hisbook A D ream ofA frica that“one never know s another person com pletely,and arace even less.A nd none ofus know s him selfcom pletely.”1 Ihave selected tw o books from am ong the recentw orks published on the history oftheVirgin Islands.The firstisD r.G ordon K.Lew is’sTheVirgin Islands— A Caribbean Lilliput,published in 1972 by the N orthw estern U niversity Press ofEvanston,Illinois.The other is Lew is H arris Evans’s The Virgin Islands from N avalBase to N ew D eal,published three years later by G reenw ood Press Publishers ofW estport,Connecticut.2 Iselected D r.Lew is’sbook because ofthe author’soutstanding reputation asascholarly w riterand because he hasbeen afrequentvisitor,offand on,form any years to the Virgin Islands.H e also m entions m e in hisbook w ith respect and understanding,though Inever had the pleasure ofm eeting him personally.The book by D r.Evans has been selected for the reason that,in m y opinion,the author presents an objective,factual account based on research in nonpolitical files and records of both the D epartm ent of the N avy and the Congressofthe U nited States.M y hope isto presentafactual account— using these books as points of departure— based upon m y personalinvolvem entand experience ofthe roleand contribution ofthe naval officersw ho governed the Virgin Islandsduring the years1917 to 1931. Itseem s to m e thatD r.Lew ishas m ade a num ber offactualand interpretative errors,based on his m isuse or distortion ofthe source m aterial upon w hich he relies so heavily.Factually,he has ignored or disregarded the very evidence that com es from this m aterial.A lthough such biased w riting occurs throughoutthe book,Ihave chosen to com m entupon the author’streatm entofthe period of“N avalRule,”because Iw asintim ately involved w ith the m ajorpersonalitiesand eventsatthattim e and therefore feelqualified to com m enton D r.Lew is’ssw eeping characterizations. In his interpretation of the “N avalA dm inistration,” D r.Lew is relied heavily on the w ritings ofJ.A ntonio Jarvis.There can be no objection to the use ofthisauthorofthe BriefH istory ofthe Virgin Islands.3 Jarvisisa recognized localauthority on Virgin Islands history and culture w ho possesses firsthand know ledge ofthe quality ofthisnavalrule.W hatdisturbs m e,how ever,isthatD r.Lew ishaspresented justone side ofJarvis’sevaluation of the adm inistration— thereby doing a disservice not only to the navy butto Jarvishim self.

The N avalA dm inistration / 177 Chapter2,“TheA m erican Beginnings,”containsD r.Lew is’sassessm ent ofthe role ofthe navaladm inistration.Letus consider the m ain pointsof hisrather dam ning indictm ent: 1. “Thatthe period w as characterized by an undeclared w ar betw een the N avalA dm inistration and the popular interests” 2. “Thatthe U nited States N avy w as the w rong agency w ith w hich to entrustthe governm entofadependentcivilian population” 3. “That,by training and disposition,the A nnapolism entality w as notsuited to the dem ands ofpopular governm ent” 4. “Thatadm inistratively,the navy possessed no training program to fititscandidates for w hatisin effectacolonialcivilservice” 5. “Thatappointm entto the office ofG overnor in the new dependent territories— thisw as to be haphazard” 6. “Thatthe navy w as acom pletely segregated service,having adopted thispolicy oftotalracialexclusion in 1920” 7. “Thatthe navy’ssystem ofgovernm entin shortconsisted ofthe privateruleofnavy governors holding them selves alooffrom local society and generally delegating theirauthority to subordinates” Since he usesJarvisasan authority,letussee how the assessm entofD r. Lew issquares w ith Jarvis’sBriefH istory ofthe Virgin Islands: W hen the U nited States took possession ofthe Virgin Islands,the officialssentto govern had no idea w hatsortofatask lay before them .The abrupttransition from D anish to A m erican ow nership w as likew ise difficultfor the people,and itspeaks w ellfor both sides thatno serious incidentsm arred the firstcontacts.The few transgressions ofgood taste thatoccurred m ay be putdow n to the difficulty ofgetting acquainted in alarge w ay ...bearded,dignified and retiring,G overnor O liver w as stillapleasant,dem ocraticperson w ho loved to ram blethrough the countryside w henever the cares ofoffice w ould perm it.H e carried the huge responsibility ofw artim e precautions and inducting the islands into the A m erican system w ith the highestsense ofduty thatofficers ofhisrank generally feelin positions ofthatsort.But,there w as m ore punctilio [form ality]in him .G overnor O liver’sstaffsetahigh standard for adm inistrative and professionalability,and the m em bers took every new job w ith an enthusiasm w hich,noteven w ar,could beat. The problem ofhealth w asone ofthe firsttackled,and the doctors w ere looked upon assaviorsbecause they gave heroictreatm entw hereverpossible.D octorsM ortensen,Knud-H ansen,and Christiansen had done very w ellbefore butthe new program called foradditionalhospital

178 / The N avalA dm inistration facilities and extended m edicalservice.These D anes gave splendid cooperation and did m uch to effectthe changes needed. W ith the country engaged in w ar,there w as littletim e to think of civilian w ants,yetthe U nited States began to im prove the schools,the roads,and the harbor.The old quarantine station w as taken over and m ade into EastPointM arine Station;W estPointw as atLindbergh Bay, w here the airbase isnow located.St.Croix w as notneglected because w ith St.Thom as thatisland received anew governm entalset-up.The big houses ofthe spacious countryside w ere alw ays throw n open to w elcom e A m erican officers and theirfam ilies and the m oney they spentim proved econom icsituations there.

Jarvis,evaluating the socialsituation ofG overnor O m an,w rites: G overnor O m an,another RearA dm iral,w as asocial,w ell-m eaning person w ho m ade the m istake ofhaving the generalpublicto alevy and ruined the dignity ofthe w holeaffairby accepting as guestsalong w ith pom pous burgers,barefooted beggars,Cha-chas and peoplew ithoutany status in localsociety.4 G overnorO m an’ssm ilesand bow sbelied histrue ability.H e w as active and had rare diplom aticskillw hich isproved by the prodigious am ountofw ork done by the colonialcouncilsduring hisadm inistration. The new code oflaw sw asfinished and approved on M arch 17,1921, shortly afterG overnorO m an left.Judge C.G .Thieleand the lateJohn D eJongh w ere am ong the chiefexponentsoflegalposition and socialfitnessofthisim portantcode.N orm ally the law shad been based on D anish statutes,English Com m on Law,Precedentsand RulingsU nique,and liberalinterpretationsofconditions.The legalaidesto the governoras w ellasthe courtpersonnelrendered valuableassistance,butitw asthe tactfulnessofG overnorO m an thatheld alltogetherforthe com m on good.JuniorH igh Schoolw asreached,prohibition felt,and the labor problem becam e acutew ith m anipulation from corruptpolice officials.

The follow ing sum s up Jarvis’sassessm ent: Fourteen years ofN avalgovernm entleftthe Virgin Islands w ith m uch im proved health conditions,paved streets,better schools,and the econom icsituation alittlebetter than the islands had reason to expect.For exam ple,w hen the U nited States N avaldoctors tried to im prove health conditions by proper sanitation,they m etvery stubborn resistance but aphysicalexam ination ofschoolchildren raised ahornet’snest.H undreds ofparentsprotested,som e even through the press,thatthe doctors w ere justfondling and searching girlsfor pleasure.Itw as atestof the perseverance and tactfulness ofthe m edicalm en butthey broke dow n the inhibitions ofthe peopleuntilconsiderableim provem entw as m ade.Captain W aldo Evans,the best-loved ofthe N avalG overnors, ableand just,served adoubleterm ,had highly culturalassistance,rec-

The N avalA dm inistration / 179 ognized native ability,im proved the schoolsand decided thatthe Virgin Islands could notbe run by tw o governors sim ultaneously.

Itisobvious,therefore,thatJarvissaw the period of“N avalA dm inistration” in a m uch m ore positive,m ore objective light than D r.Lew is.Yet Lew is chose to ignore com pletely Jarvis’s balanced assessm ent.H istorical scholarship deservesbetterfrom som eone trained in the techniquesofhistorical research and evaluation.M oreover,in those instances in w hich Lew isdoesaccurately follow Jarvis,he,like Jarvis,often distortsthe historicalrecord.Take,for exam ple,hisharsh condem nation ofthe personalities of the naval governors.H ere he relies upon unsubstantiated character assassinations to supporthisgeneralargum entthatnavalofficers w ere ill equipped for theiradm inistrative roles. Jarvis’sevaluation ofG overnorKittelleas“a m artinetassm allasO m an, ...m ade up of hair-triggers and Paul Revere patriotism ,” is,in fact,the reverse ofthe m an him self.Know ing JarvisasIdid— to be adecent,intelligent,fair-m inded,and highly talented citizen— Iw illascribe hisevaluation to being m isinform ed.Jarvisdid notknow Kittellethe m an and in hischaracterization unfortunately trusted to the loudm outh rantingsand irresponsiblew ritingsofsom e corruptpoliticiansofthe period.From m y experience and perspective,Kittelle’sadm inistration m ade asubstantialcontribution to the educational,cultural,and econom icphases ofcom m unity life.Kittelle’s personalendeavors centered,to the pointofdedication,on the educational system .H e w asatheartand by training an educatorand,unlike m ostm ilitary m en,an im pressive speaker.H e w as a greatlover ofnature,especially oftrees,and established an annualA rborD ay observance in the islands. Itisnottrue thatG overnor Kittelle designed and forced the flag ofthe Virgin Islandson the people.H e believed thatthe islands,the sam e aselsew here,should have a flag oftheirow n and therefore organized a com m itteeofVirgin Islandersforthe purpose ofdesigning one.A recentvisitfrom a retired officer w ho atthe tim e w as in the supply corps and had m uch to do w ith the com m itteerem inded m e thatIw asthe one w ho recom m ended the nam e ofA lphonse W ilhelm sen,then a clerk in the store ofI.Levin,to design it,w hich he did.Itw as G overnor Kittelle w ho m ade possible m y firstvisitto the U nited Statesin 1922,notasaspectacleasD r.Lew isw ould have hisreadersbelieve,butto observe the m ethods and w orkings used in the publicschoolsofthe U nited States to inform the course ofm usicIw as preparing for the D epartm entofEducation. A nother grave m istake ofJarvis w as his reference to G overnor Philip W illiam s as “deaf,am iable,ruled by hisexecutive secretary,passing w ith

180 / The N avalA dm inistration nothing startling exceptfor an extra giftfrom Congress w hich took a long tim e to reach [the islands]and w aslateron spenton reservoirs.”The tourof the navy band to the U nited Statesin 1924 w asm ade possibleby G overnor W illiam s,w ho w asam athem atician and abusinessm an ofhigh adm inistrative ability,and notone w ho w ould passhisdutieson to subordinates. In hisbroad generalized statem ents,D r.Lew ishasprovided no firm evidence to prove thatthere is such a thing as a strongly rooted A nnapolis m entality;orthat,ifitdid exist,itunderlay the attitudesand policiesofthe navalofficials here.The sam e can be said ofa racism thatsprang from a southern background introduced into the islands.D r.Lew isassum ed that the navy personnelstationed here w ere w holly com prised ofsoutherners; thisistotally erroneous.They w ere com prised ofm en and w om en from all the states ofthe union,and the dentists,supply corps officers,chaplains, and legaladvisersw ho helped to adm inisterthese islandsw ere notm ilitary m en per se.Therefore,in the absence offirm quantitative evidence to supportthese generalizations,D r.Lew isisw rong to m ake a blanketcondem nation ofthe tem per ofnavalrule as authoritarian,racist,and insensitive. In the firstplace,m any ofthe officers w ere notfrom the South,and m any of them had excellent adm inistrative and technical backgrounds.M any, regardlessoftheirplace oforigin ortraining,w ere generally com m itted to the needsofthe people,and no effortsw ere m ade to underm ine the society thatw as the legacy ofthe D anish period.5 Strictauthoritarian rule,w hich D r.Lew isem phasizes in hiscriticism as the basisofthe navalregim e,isnotalw aysareprehensiblem ethod ofprocedure.M any Third W orld leaders and spokesm en today recognize thata strong executive acting through aw ell-defined chain ofcom m and and fostering the need for discipline and duty is often essentialto developm ent and m odernization,for only thus can the encrusted pow er structures and popular indifference inherited from the pastbe effectively overcom e. M y personalrecollection ofthe navalofficialsisnotone ofindifferent, insensitive,reclusive,petty tyrants,but as w arm ,sensitive,active,and hum ane individuals genuinely concerned w ith the people of the Virgin Islands and their future developm ent.The contributions of the navy adm inistrators w ere substantial,as even Jarvis— surely no friend of the navy— w asforced to adm it.Itm ustbe rem em bered thatpioneerw ork w as extrem ely difficult,especially for the first tw o governors,Rear A dm iral Jam esH .O liverand RearA dm iralJoseph W .O m an.They could notgetthe attention ofthe federalgovernm entasthey w ished,overburdened asitw as w ith w eightierproblem sjustafterthe w orld w ar.Thissituation w asaggravated by the loss of the “free port” that had existed under D anish law,

The N avalA dm inistration / 181 thereby reducing trade on the island considerably.6 Then cam e Prohibition, w hich destroyed the beverage m arket for sugar products.D espite these handicaps,the exem plary spiritofthe navy w asstrikingly m anifested.Follow ing are a few irrefutable facts aboutw hatw as accom plished in these islands during the navaladm inistration. The schoolsystem w asextended and the firsthigh schoolopened.A code of law s m ore in conform ity w ith A m erican aim s w as established.Roads w ere built.A ttem ptsw ere m ade to conserve the w ater supply.M arketgardening and tree planting w ere encouraged.The bay rum industry w as saved,and an effortw asm ade to extend the m arketforSt.Croix cattle.The judiciary w asplaced on afirm erbasis.U nrestam ong the alien laborelem ent in St.Croix w as quieted and law and order enforced;the leper colony w as saved w ith a large supply of Chalm ugra oil.7 The care of the sick w as im proved and native nursesw ere trained.Sanitation w asim proved and the death rate reduced.Carefulattention w as given to m others in the care of infants.A branch ofthe A m erican Red Cross w as organized,and the first public library w as opened.A m usic program w as introduced to the public schools.A branch ofthe Boy Scoutsw as organized.Patriotism w as encouraged by preceptand exam ple,and,ofcourse,the U nited States N avy Band of the Virgin Islands w as organized under native leadership.This represented one of the finest contributions m ade to our people— particularly because ofthe confidence show n in the ability ofnativesin both outputand leadership in adelicateand difficulttask. W hen the navy governorsw ere relieved ofthe adm inistration oftheVirgin Islands,they leftbehind an enviablerecord ofachievem entand fairplay. Itw as,in short,an honestand w ell-run adm inistration.The nam es ofRear A dm irals Jam es H .O liver,Joseph W .O m an,and Sum ner E.W .Kittelle; Captains H enry H .H ough,Phillip W illiam s,M artin E.Trench,and W aldo Evansand theirassistants;M ajorJessieD eyerofthe m arine corps;Captains W illiam RussellW hiteand EllisStone;Com m andantsC.C.Tim m ons,J.R. G affney,W .Zane;and otherstoo num erousto m ention representthe highest type of territorial adm inistrative ability to be found anyw here.Their unselfish service to the Virgin Islandsshould everbe rem em bered. governors of the virgin islands during the navy period (1917–1931) Jam es H arrison O liver, RearA dm iral,U.S.N . Joseph W allace O m an, RearA dm iral,U.S.N .

A pril9,1917–A pril8,1919 A pril8,1919–A pril26,1921

182 / The N avalA dm inistration Sum m er Ely W etm ore Kittelle, RearA dm iral,U.S.N . H enry H ughes H ough,Captain, U.S.N . Phillip W illiam s,Captain,U.S.N . M artin Edw ard Trench, Captain,U.S.N . W aldo Evans,Captain,U.S.N .

A pril26,1921–Sept.16,1922 Sept.16,1922–D ec.3,1923 D ec.3,1923–Sept.11,1925 Sept.11,1925–Jan.6,1927 M arch 1,1927–M arch 18,1931

A far m ore accurate appraisalofthe legacy ofthe navaladm inistration to these islands than thatofLew is,or even thatofJarvis,isthe study by Luther Evans— From N avalBase to N ew D eal.Evans correctly pointsout thatthe navy inherited m any serious socialand econom icproblem s w hen itassum ed responsibility for the Virgin Islands in 1917.A s the follow ing quote from G overnor O liver’sletter ofA ugust1,1917,to the secretary of the navy m akesevident,the navalgovernorsclearly perceived the extentof the problem s confronting them : The death rateisvery high,infantm ortality being particularly disgracefulto acivilized com m unity....Three hospitalshave been run w ith varying degrees ofefficiency— none ofthem really efficient.There isalack ofproper buildings,proper equipm ent,trained personnel.... Sanitation isin im perative need ofim provem ent....A dequatew ater supply and aproper system ofsew erage isahealth necessity.The roads in St.Croix are very fairbutrepairs have notbeen properly m aintained.There are only about4 m iles ofroads in St.Thom as.Fire protection isinadequate....Im proved harbor facilities are notan im m ediate necessity....There are practically no food crops exceptasm allquantity ofyam s and sw eetpotatoes.These islands are incapableofself-support and m ustcontinue to be aided by Federalappropriations.The existing system ofpublicinstruction in these islands leaves abouteverything in the w ay ofan adequatesystem to be desired.The natives should be given instruction,above allelse,in the use oftheirhands.Socialconditions are extrem ely bad;there isno proper fam ily life....Infantile m ortality reaches shocking proportions ...the costofthe m aintenance ofthe islands,and ofthe recom m ended im provem ents(totaling $1,952,000)isgreat,butthe need isrealand vital,and aside from all other considerations,the situation isone thatm ustbe faced and corrected.Thisunfortunatesituation isthe naturalinevitableresultof centuries ofneglect.

A nd asEvansclearly docum ents,navaladm inistratorstook quick and decisive steps to deal w ith the pressing needs of the local com m unity.A fter

The N avalA dm inistration / 183 surveying the m any accom plishm entsofthe navaladm inistratorsbetw een 1917 and 1930,Evans concedes: Itisim possibleto close thischapter w ithoutattem pting to answ er the question w hether the N avy should have been w ithdraw n from the governm entofthe Virgin Islands.There can be no doubtin the m inds of anyone w ho clearly exam ines the dataupon w hich thischapter isbased thatthe N avy need notbe asham ed ofw hatitdid for the peopleofthe Virgin Islands.Itsrecord w as agood one.A certain lack ofregard for som e ofthe besttraditions ofciviladm inistration serve to place the N avalregim e in am uch w orse lightthan itdeserved.The stereotype of prejudice againstam ilitary system w orked to the disadvantage ofm en w ho w ere really ableadm inistrators ofagovernm entclearly civilin character.N either the record oftheiraccom plishm entsnor the basic philosophies to w hich they w ere attached m ade them unfitto carry on w ith the new rehabilitation program .G overnor Evans w as personally hostileto certain ofitsfeatures,butfairness dem ands thathe be regarded as aspecialcase,largely because ofhispersonalanim osity tow ard H erbertD.Brow n.

Evans further clarifies the circum stances surrounding the transition from navalto civilian rulein 1930.H e w rites: The N avy probably w ould nothave been relieved ofitsresponsibilities in the Virgin Islands had there notbeen astrong desire in high places to preventapublicairing ofcertain personalfrictions w hich developed betw een the sum m er of1929 and the autum n of1930.Ifthe allegations ofpoker-playing and drinking in G overnm entH ouse,broughtto W ashington by ajudge w hom the governor had refused to reappoint,had not been taken seriously,there w ould have been m uch less cause for the Presidentto show such alack ofconfidence in the N avy.The W hite H ouse statem entofJanuary 30,1931,inform ed an inquisitive w orld thatthe transfer to the Interior D epartm entw as occasioned by the necessity for providing for the execution ofthe rehabilitation program ; aqueer statem ent,w hen as long as eightm onths previously Congress had authorized the undertaking ofthe rehabilitation program under N avy auspices and the Presidenthad upheld the position thatthe N avy D epartm entshould have adm inistrative controlover the expenditure of the funds involved! Itisclear,therefore,thatthe N avy w as w ithdraw n w ithoutreference to itsgeneralrecord ofadm inistrative com petence or to either itsw illingness or itscapacity to handlethe rehabilitation program .Itw as w ithdraw n to preventthe airing ofan unw holesom e situation w hich really had littlerelation to the w elfare ofthe peopleofthe Virgin Islands.The aspersions castupon the N avy’sstew ardship by itssuccessorsare notdeserved.The N avy governorstried diligently to provide

184 / The N avalA dm inistration A m erican standards for the Virgin Islands w ithin the lim itsofthe m oney w hich they could w heedlefrom Congress and the councils. A nyone w ho exam ines the record w ith care and im partiality can have no reluctance in stating thatthey did asurprisingly good job.

A pparently the judge did notgive the realreason to his congressm an father-in-law as to w hy the governor decided not to reappoint him .The reason w asbelieved to be aracialone w hich involved the judge and acom m itteem an from Tuskegee Institute.The first offense w as given by the judge on the arrival of the com m ittee that checked in as guests of the G rand H otel.A s w as reported,he im m ediately checked outand m oved to another hotel.Thisillw ill,itissaid,w as further aggravated by a personal insultthattook place in the publicstreetw hen ablack com m itteem an from Tuskegee w as introduced to the sam e w hite judge and the latter,itissaid, refused to accept the extended hand of the educator.This m atter w as broughtto the attention ofG overnorW aldo Evans,w ho im m ediately sum m oned the judge to hisoffice,w ith the resultthathe w as told by the governor thathe w ould notbe reappointed atthe end ofhisterm .The m atter becam e a publicissue.Butittook the inim itable A dolph Sixto to sum up the event hum orously;w ith his usual chuckle he said:“That’s nothing, ladies and gentlem en,to w ailabout.For itissaid thatthism an hates black people so m uch thathe refused to eatan egg laid by a black fow l.” This, according to the foregoing statem entm ade by the author Evans,w as the reason for the transfer ofthe adm inistration and notw hatm any people w ere led to believe. The U nited States N avy,itshould be realized,isa branch ofthe U nited States m ilitary establishm ent m ade up of m en and w om en from all the states,territories,and possessionsofthe U nion.Itis,in fact,a m icrocosm of the entire nation.Itspurpose isto protectas w ellas to defend the country in tim es ofw ar or any disaster w hich requires itspresence.U nfortunately, only in tim es of national em ergency is its usefulness appreciated.If in tim esofpeace,itisconsidered to be an evilinfluence,itrepresentsanecessary evil,since m ankind after centuries ofso-called civilization has unfortunately notup to the presenttim e arrived atastage w hen brotherly love isareality.A sthe w riterJ.B.Priestley putitgraphically in the early 1920s, “A fter years ofsaying M ass w e have arrived atpoisoned gas.”8 Itisastonishing thatso m any people,including w riterson the islands’history,do not understand one criticalaspectaboutthe governm entofthe Virgin Islands as provided by law :thatthere has been no change in the law as far as the O rganicA ctis concerned;thatthe governm entofthe islands has alw ays

The N avalA dm inistration / 185 been acivilian governm ent;and thatthe factthatpreviousgovernorsw ere navalofficers by profession did notcreate a navalgovernm entany m ore than W ashington,Jackson,and G rantbeing soldiersthereby m ade the governm entofthe U nited States am ilitary one. The talk about a m ilitary governm ent has alw ays been nonsense and w asbroughtaboutand furthered by agitatorsin the islandsand elsew here. A dm iralJam es H .O liver [the firstU.S.governor,1917–19]w as as m uch a civilian governorasG overnorPaulM .Pearson [the firstgovernorafterthe navy’s departure,1931–35].The governor w as suprem e in the islands under the law and had no superior except the president,w ho being too busy to handlethe correspondence,directed thatitbe handled through and notby the D epartm entofthe N avy.A llthathappened in the case ofPresidentW ilson w as thathe directed thatthisadm inistrative w ork be turned over to the D epartm entofthe N avy and itw as thereby subjected to navy rules.Butthe governm entofthe Virgin Islands and the peoplew ere never placed in thissituation.Read PublicLaw N o.389 ofthe 64th U nited States Congress(H R 20755),w hich created the governm entfortheVirgin Islands in 1917: A n A ctto Provide aTem porary G overnm entfor the W estIndian Islands acquired by the U nited States from D enm ark by the convention entered into betw een said countries on the fourth day ofA ugustnineteen hundred and sixteen and ratified by the Senateofthe U nited States on the seventh day ofSeptem ber,nineteen hundred and sixteen and for other purposes. Beitenacted by the Senateand H ouse ofRepresentatives ofthe U nited States ofA m erica in Congress assem bled,That,exceptas hereinafter provided,allm ilitary,civiland judicialpow ers necessary to govern the W estIndian Islands acquired from D enm ark shallbe vested in a governor and in such person or persons as the Presidentm ay appoint, and shallbe exercised in such m anner as the Presidentshalldirectuntil Congress shallprovide for the governm entofsaid islands:Provided, thatthe Presidentm ay assign an officer ofthe A rm y or N avy to serve as such governor and perform the duties appertaining to said office.

The D anish flag,the D annenbrog,w hich w aved over these islands for over 200 years,w as officially low ered from the flagpoleatthe m arine barracksin St.Thom ason Saturday,M arch 31,1917,at4:00 P.M .,to give sw ift ascent im m ediately after to the Stars and Stripes,the em blem of the U nited StatesofA m erica.Foralm osttw o fulldecadesafterthatm om entin ourhistory,the U nited StatesofA m erica through agovernorsupported by the N avy D epartm ent adm inistered these islands.To those of us w ho

186 / The N avalA dm inistration shared itsbeginning or w ho,in the years thatfollow ed,lived partoftheir m ature yearsin these islands,the significance and contribution ofthe naval adm inistration isone ofthe greatestexam ples ofthe enlightened m anner in w hich A m erica has dealtw ith itsterritorialand insular possessions. Itshallbe to the everlasting creditofthe navaladm inistration thatfrom the very outset,the task ofhandling the affairs ofthe peopleofthe Virgin Islandsw asundertaken w ith the sincere conviction ofand faith in the ability ofourpeopleto do forthem selvesthe thingsthatliving in adem ocratic society dem ands.A nd thus,from the enlightened perspective oftoday,w e can truly appraise w hat the U nited States N avy achieved,not only in upholding A m erica’stradition butalso in laying a solid foundation w hile pointing atthe sam e tim e tow ard the firm direction ofour political,econom ic,and spiritual grow th and the intelligent know -how of good and sound governm ent. The navy’s period ofservice here taughtus allthatgood governm ent and efficientm anagem entare the naturalproductsofaw holesom e,vigorous,and continued citizen interestand participation in publicaffairs.A lso, itoffered the m orallesson thatlooking dow n on othersdeprivesthe eye of true focus.The lesson has show n also thathandling other people successfully m ustbe done on the basisofhelping them ,and to really help them , one m ustunderstand them and theirneeds;and thatthe forcibledirection, w hich they ofnecessity m ustreceive,should be tem pered w ith sym pathy. W e often hear the navaladm inistration ofthese islands referred to as “an arm y of occupation.” Perhaps a just reflection on the w ork of those early adm inistratorsw ould justify use ofthe term “an arm y oftransition” instead.By thislatter term Irefer to the early adm inistrators as the ones w ho did m uch to establish a bridge betw een the cultured and paternal regim e ofthe D anes and the cultured butm ore self-dependentsystem of the A m ericans.From the adm inistration ofG overnor Jam es H .O liver to that of G overnor W aldo Evans,w e find a series of cultured,refined,and self-respecting A m ericans (w om en as w ellas m en)w ho labored unstintingly to develop in the Virgin Islands all the good things w hich com e w ithin the range ofthe A m erican ideal.Their activities and results have already becom e history.9

9 Civilian G overnm entand Politics (the 1930s)

Editor’sN ote:Three tragediesassailed A dam sin the early 1930s:the transfer ofhisband to Cuba,the death ofhisdaughter M erle,and a house fire thatnotonly destroyed hislibrary ofbooks,publications,and m usicm anuscriptsbutalso killed anotherdaughter,H azel.A ssoon ashe could,A dam s leftCuba,retiring (along w ith severalofhisbandsm en)and thereby signaling the end ofthe U .S.N avy Band oftheVirgin Islands.A dam sm oved back to St.Thom as,taking up residence in a historic hom e a few blocks from G overnm entH ouse,and tried to pick up the pieces ofa life disrupted and liveslost.Econom icstagnation gripped the islandsin the w ake ofthe navy’s departure,proving one positive contribution ofthe navaladm inistration. W hile an ardent navy supporter, A dam s w orked effectively w ith the islands’new civilian governor,PaulM .Pearson,and cam e to adm ire Pearson’sleadership and econom icinitiatives.A dam s w rites extensively about tw o Pearson projects:Bluebeard Castle H otel(opened in D ecem ber 1934) and the draining of“M osquito Bay.”Pearson appointed A dam shead ofthe St.Thom as CulturalCom m itteeand recruited him to head the high school m usicprogram and again serve as m usicsupervisor for the publicschools. A fterhelping to prepare forthe visitofEleanorRooseveltand com posing a song of w elcom e,A dam s regularly coordinated the governor’s reception com m ittee to hostvisiting dignitaries.A dam s w ould w elcom e notable figures including President Roosevelt, the poet Edna St.Vincent M illay, playw right Thornton W ilder,and film star D ouglas Fairbanks.Pearson’s adm inistration,how ever,w as plagued by pow er struggles thatoften drew congressional and presidential concern.Conflicts w ith Paul C.Yates,the appointed assistant to the governor,resulted in a series of investigations that produced no evidence of w rongdoing but did considerable political dam age to Pearson.Interior Secretary H arold Ickes rem ained loyalto the 187

188 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics governorand helped fosterhiscourageousvision.W hen the islands’legislature proclaim ed the Virgin Islands a refuge for those,especially Jew s, fleeing deteriorating conditions in Europe as W orld W ar II approached, Ickes cham pioned the hum anitarian idea in W ashington.H ere the tradition oftolerance and openness thatA dam s claim s for the Virgin Islands seem s atw ork,leading the U nited States as a w hole in a m ore com passionateand hum anitarian direction. O ur band arrived in G uantánam o,Cuba,the latter partofFebruary 1931, and in ashorttim e the bandsm en w ere settled in barracks.The navalreservation ofw hich w e w ere now partw asalarge one located on the southeast coast.A djustm entto ournew surroundingsw asdifficult.To am an,w e had afeeling thatthe navy had needed to find aplace forusin ahurry and this w as it.O ur w orkload w as light,and Isensed thatboredom and hom esickness w ould be forces to contend w ith ifIhoped to keep m y m en in good m usical shape.O ur bandsm en had brought to Cuba a feeling of intense angerand bitternessagainstthe m an w ho had caused thisupheavalin their lives,H erbertD.Brow n,so-called Chiefofthe Efficiency.Prevailing opinion w as thatBrow n had acted from stubbornness and spite,notfrom good judgm ent.“W hatkind ofeconom icefficiency w asit,”one bandsm an asked, “to m ove navalspending from A m erican possessions to foreign areas? If econom y of adm inistration w as one of Brow n’s purposes, under civil regim e the adm inistration ofthe islandsw illcertainly costm ore because of the costofduplication and the need to em ploy doctors,nurses,technicians, to say nothing ofofficialsto replace navalpersonnel.” For m y part,Ihad plenty oftim e to m editate on the w orkings offate. M ore and m ore,Irealized how untim ely w asthe death fouryearsearlierof one of our finest of naval governors,M artin E.Trench.H ad G overnor Trench lived,none ofthisupheavalw ould have com e to pass.H igh on that governor’slistw as a plan to train islandersto take over governm entm anagem entfrom navalofficials.W hen thattim e cam e,a trusted and respected naval governor,like Trench,w ould recom m end this m ove.Trench’s plan called for the navalstation to rem ain under civilgovernm entas one ofthe econom ic m ainstays ofthe islands.There is no question in m y m ind that underTrench the transition w ould have been sm ooth and effected w ith the know ledge and supportofthe N avy D epartm ent.W ithoutadoubtBrow n’s stubborn and dom ineering tacticshad caused the navy to reactangrily and to shutdow n the station.1 O ne brightspotforusin G uantánam o w asthe receiptofm ailand new spapers from St.Thom as.H ow starved w e w ere for new s ofhom e! Ihad

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 189 m ade arrangem ents for local new spapers to be m ailed to m e,and I had urged fam ily and friends to w rite often and to send new s oflocalhappenings.Iread these letters and new spapers again and again and saved every im portantclipping.Ishared thisinform ation w ith m y m en.They did likew ise w ith inform ation they received.In thisw ay w e keptup to date w ith happenings in the islands. For exam ple,a letter from Ella G ift,a native ofSt.Thom as,w as published in the Bulletin on M arch 13,1931: Iw antto thank the navaladm inistration for allthe good w ork ithas done for the island ofSt.Thom as.First,Iw antto thank the naval doctors.N ow w e have an im proved hospital.W e have agood am bulance.Cotshave been replaced by spring beds.The w ards have been renovated to please the eye.The yards are concreted and there are beds planted w ith flow ersThe doctors in charge w ere kind.So w ere the nurses,allconcerned and devoted to the w elfare oftheirpatients. N avy em ployees contributed to the island’seconom y.They rented houses,hired dom estics,and putconsiderablem oney in circulation as they spenttheirsalaries here.A llthism oney placed St.Thom as above the bread line as com pared w ith neighboring islands.In A ntigua,for instance,they have to attach kitchens to schoolsto feed needy children.H ere as aresultofthe navy,w e have am ovieline instead ofabread line.O ur theatres are so packed,one ofthem had to be enlarged recently.W e should never bitethe hand thatfed us and helped us,and w e should alw ays be gratefulto the navaladm inistration for allthatitdid for us. The navy did good w ork in our educationaldepartm ent.The classroom s w ere keptclean and w ellventilated.Fresh coatsofpaint w ere applied regularly.A tthe startofeach schoolyear,textbooks w ere availablein quantity.Schoolnurses w ere alw ays on the job w atching after the health and happiness ofthe children.Ihave seen the U.S.S.G rebe,on her regular visitsto St.Croix,taking our children over on vacation and bringing those from St.Croix over here, allfor free,to participatein gam es and contests. The navy w as very strictaboutsanitation.They had an efficient staffofinspectors visiting and oiling sw am ps and checking for stagnantw ater in privateyards regularly in aconstantw ar on m osquitoes.W e never heard aboutcases ofm alariain navy tim e,and dengue fever w as rare as com pared w ith such fever in neighboring islands.The navy w as very strictaboutlitter and the regular collection ofgarbage.Trucks m ade the rounds regularly and St.Thom as w as aclean island as aresult.O ur roads w ere w ellm aintained and m ore ofthem w ere paved as navalm oney cam e through for the purpose.

190 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics In closing,Ican only say to G overnor Evans,hisstaff,and navy personnel: W e thank you for your kindness W e thank you for your love A nd m ay you allbe rew arded By our greatLord above ...

Signed,EllaG ift2

In the press for M arch 18 and 19,1931,w e read ofthe arrivalofthe new governor: O n Tuesday afternoon,M arch 17,G overnor PaulM .Pearson arrived in St.Thom as aboard the U.S.S.G rebe.H e w as accom panied by hisstaff; hisniece,D orothy Pearson;the H onorableH erbertBrow n,chiefofthe Bureau ofEfficiency,W ashington,D.C.;and M rs.H erbertBrow n.A lso in the group w ere the H onorableJudge Edw ards,A ssistantSecretary of Interior;Boyd J.Brow n,LieutenantG overnor for St.Thom as;and D r. Law rence Cram er,LieutenantG overnor for St.Croix. G overnor Pearson and hisentourage w ere accorded aw arm w elcom e by G overnor and M rs.W aldo Evans and the reception com m itteew hich aw aited them on King’sW harf.Follow ing aw elcom ing address by the H onorableConrad Corneiro,bouquetsw ere presented to D orothy Pearson by Eldra M onsanto and to M rs.H erbertD.Brow n by Enid Baa. A fter being introduced to m any ofthe leading citizens and after greeting the colorfularray ofpeoplew ho lined both sides ofthe thoroughfare,the new governor and party entered autom obiles and w ere driven through the city before being taken to G overnm entH ouse.G overnor and M rs.W aldo Evans had m oved from the executive m ansion several w eeks before and for the tim e being had take up residence on Synagogue H ill. The inauguration ofD r.PaulM .Pearson,firstcivilian governor of the U.S.Virgin Islands,took place on M arch 18,1931.Itdrew the greatestcrow d thathad assem bled since the Transfer.The oath ofoffice w as adm inistered by Judge Edrington ofthe D istrictCourt.3

N ot long after G overnor Pearson’s arrival,President H erbert H oover him selfvisited Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islandsaspartofavacation,but also to look at the econom ic conditions there.A letter from a friend described the President’sarrival: From an early hour on W ednesday m orning,M arch 25 [1931],alarge crow d gathered on King’sW harfto w itness the landing ofPresident H oover and hisstaff.Thisw as avery historicoccasion,the firstvisitto our shores ofaU.S.Presidentand Idid notw antto m issany partofit.I

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 191 had aspotvery close to the landing and Ican tellyou,Iw as taken aback by w hatIsaw.The Presidentofthe U nited States,stepping ashore, w ore dirty w hiteshoes and hisclothes looked crum pled as ifhe had sleptin them the nightbefore.Icould hear peoplearound m e com m enting unfavorably on hisappearance.Itw as quitealetdow n from our expectations. The President,accom panied by Secretary ofthe InteriorW ilbur and Secretary ofW ar H urley w ere greeted by G overnor Pearson and other localofficialsand taken to Em ancipation G arden to review aparade in theirhonor.The Com m unity Band w as in attendance.The young m usicians did theirbest,butIcan tellyou,A lton,the pom p and sparkle,the spotless w hiteuniform s,the discipline,the flaw less m usicofyou and your band w ere badly m issed. A s you know,our island peopleform im pressions fast.The feeling spread thatPresidentH oover w as“a cold fish” and thathe did notlike us.Itdidn’ttake us long to realizethatw e didn’tlike him either.A fter the w elcom ing cerem ony in Em ancipation G arden,noticeablefor its lack ofw arm th,the visiting dignitaries,accom panied by localofficials, gotinto w aiting carsand headed for the W estSide TennisClub w here a tree planting cerem ony w as to take place. The Presidentand hisparty w ere received w ith true St.Thom ian dignity by D r.Rudy Lanclos,club president.H oles had been dug and tw o silk oak trees w ere on hand to be planted.A fter the cerem ony w as over,PresidentH oover w as presented w ith abeautifulpaper knifem ade ofnative turtleshell,the handleofw hich represented atennisracquet. N ext,D.Victor Bornn,chairm an ofthe reception com m ittee,gave him abeautifulm ahogany tablem ade ofnative w ood.Secretary ofInterior W ilbur and Secretary ofW ar H urley each w as presented w ith abeautifulbox m ade ofthe sam e w ood. Com m entsand responses w ere briefand after som e handshaking, the Presidentand hisparty w entinto tow n.A t3 PM the Presidentw ent aboard the U.S.S.A rizona am id the boom ing ofacannon from old Fort Christian.

Back on ship,the presidentinvited nationalnew sm en into hissuiteand issued the follow ing statem ent,here quoted from the N ew York H eraldTribuneofM arch 28,1931: W hen w e paid $25 m illion for the Virgin Islands,w e acquired an effective poorhouse com prising ninety percentofthe population.The purpose ofthe transfer ofadm inistration from N avy to Interior isto see if w e can develop som e form ofindustry or agriculture w hich w illrelieve us ofthe presentcostsand liabilities in supportofthe population. View ed from every point,exceptrem otenavalcontingencies,itw as unfortunatethatw e ever acquired the islands.

192 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics Virgin Islandersw ere stung to the quick by the president’srem arks.Editor G eorge E.A udain w rote for m any in hiseditorialfor the St.Thom as M ail N oteson A pril7: Regardless ofhow m uch our feelings have been hurtby the unkind and undignified rem arks ofPresidentH oover,...w e m ustnotforgetour dignity or our loyalty to the U nited States.A m erica w anted these islands for m ore than halfacentury and w hen she obtained her desire she did notfind them a“poorhouse,” butactually proceeded to m ake them so by application ofstupid law s unsuited to our w ell-being. A n A m erican alluding to the Virgin Islands today as a“poorhouse” can only appear to be devoid ofdecency,even though thatindividual m ay be the Presidentofthe U nited States.St.Thom ians w ere notaw ed by thisbig dignitary w ho appeared before us.In our historicpastw e have been accustom ed to receiving bigger m en than PresidentH oover. W e have chatted and dined w ith these m en w ho constituted the cream ofEuropean royalty.These dignitaries notonly did notrespond to our hospitality w ith abuse butthey landed atKing’sW harfnicely dressed and notin agarb as though prepared for abuck dance in the slum s as M r.H oover did. A s the head ofthe greatestnation on G od’searth,the Presidentof the U nited States should have know n better than to w ound the sensibilities ofaloyalpeoplew ho w arm ly w elcom ed him to our shores. Instead ofcausing peopleto bitterly resenthim ,he should have m ade us revere hisnam e.4

N otlong after,Ireceived another letter from m y friend describing the terribledam age done to the islands’econom y by the loss ofthe navy: O ne good feature ofyou and your bandsm en being in G uantanam o, Cuba,isthatyou are nothere to see your hom etow n falling apart.The econom icsituation here isterrible.D aily itisgoing from bad to w orse. W ith the abruptw ithdraw alofthe navy,the flow ofm oney has virtually stopped.You justcannotpullout238 navy personnel,m any of them w ith fam ilies,and notexpecteconom ictrouble.M erchantscom plain thattheirdaily sales have dropped m ore than sixty percentand they are being forced to lay offem ployees thereby m aking abad situation w orse.Everyone seem s to be com plaining rightdow n to the w ashers,w ho earned agood living laundering for navy and m arine personnel. You cannotblam e thissudden econom icdow ntrend on G overnor Pearson.H e isavictim caughtin the m iddleofan econom icm ess. Everyone w ho has had contactw ith him says he isakind,hum ane,and w ell-intentioned person.H ow ever,he does notseem to have any kind ofbusiness background.H e spentseveralyears in the Chautauqua Circuit.Thisisan adulteducation set-up,thatpresentssum m er program s

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 193 in religion,education,m usic,art,and dram a.Pearson spentm ostofhis tim e there as alecturer.Recently,he joined the staffofH erbertBrow n, as aresearcher.Rum or has itthatBrow n w anted the V.I.governorship him selfbutitw ould have looked bad after hisfightw ith the navy,so he handpicked Pearson,w ho he figured he could control. Lastw eek,under orders from W ashington,G overnor Pearson w as forced to lay offaconsiderablenum ber ofgovernm entem ployees.Cut, cut,cutseem s to be the order ofthe day.W hen acom m unity suddenly finds itselfin the throes ofeconom icdepression,dism issing longtim e em ployees from theirjobs creates an atm osphere verging on panic. W ord has itthatsom e ofthese em ployees are from the m unicipalhospital.A s you know,A lton,ifthere isone good thing thatthe navy created for us,itw as the hospital.O ne cannotbutw onder ifthis institution,asource ofpride in thiscom m unity,isgoing back to that form er statew hen peoplepreferred to dieor go abroad (ifthey could afford it)than to w alk through itsdoors.5

Yetanotherofhislettersdescribed the w ell-intentioned,butcontroversial,culturalprogram thatfilled the gap leftby the navy band’sdeparture: The tow n isbroke butM usicW eek w ascelebrated w ith avengeance.O n Saturday night[M ay 30],Ralph D unbar,G overnorPearson’scom m unity director,and hisassistantsputon am ostsuccessfuland artisticproduction of“H .M .S.Pinafore.”Instead ofyourbeing stuck in thatdrab place,G uantanam o,Cuba,you should have been here participating in thisrealm usicaltreat.The evening w asbeautiful.The m oon rose early, shining dow n on the harborfrom overBluebeard’sCastle.The navy barge,m oored atKing’sW harf,decorated and converted into aBritish m an-of-w ar,m ade aspectacularstage setting.U nderthe spellofthe evening,nobody w asthinking ofthe costofthe barge’sconversion or w here the m oney w ascom ing from to pay forthisexpensive production. Crow ds ofspectatorscam e rightdow n to the w ater’sedge,fascinated by thisunique presentation ofG ilbertand Sullivan.A tthe end ofevery act,the crow d roared itsapproval.A llthe participantsin the operetta, w ith the exception ofM rs.D unbar,w ere natives.They gave am ple proofofrealm usicaland acting ability,broughtto am axim um by the skillfuland efficientm anagem entofD unbar. Even those w ho have been questioning the tim eliness ofthe show in abankruptcom m unity adm itthatitw as agreatsuccess.The voices,the orchestra,and notto forgetM r.CyrilCreque atthe piano,w ere great. Itisnotrightto m ention asingleperform er w hen allw ere so excellent. PhilG om ez’stenor voice w as atitsbest.A s Captain Corcoran he looked the partand played itw ell.Luther Robles,uniform ed and burdened w ith brass,strutted the stage like the gam ecock,A dm iralSirJoseph Porter him self.LionelRoberts,w ellcastas D ick D eadeye,leered and

194 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics scow led and pranced around trying to scare the w itsoutofLittleButtercup w ho,undaunted,w as skillfully portrayed by A lice Vance Carruth.The anticsofthe Boatsw ain,played by Bingley Richardson, broughtm uch laughter from the audience. A specialcom plim entshould be paid to M r.Ralph D unbar for his part,w hich stam ps him as an A -1 stage m anager.A llalong Ikeptthinking how you,A lton,w ould have enjoyed w orking w ith D unbar and w hatagreatteam these islands w ould have had w ith M artin E.Trench as governor and PaulM .Pearson as tourism director.6

G overnor Pearson knew the socialvalue ofm usic,especially the m usic festival.H e realized that it w as the m eans of gathering people from all partsofthe island and from allw alksand conditionsoflife.Considered also w ere its com m ercial advantages in bringing added business,particularly during concerts.Taxidrivers,restaurantow ners,and m any others w ould profit thereby.The audience w ould have its enjoym ent,and the island w ould profit from the splendid publicity the enterprise w ould give.The public perform ance of G ilbert and Sullivan’s popular operetta proved an instantaneous success from the standpointofcom m unity enrichm entand spiritualization.It w as a sane and w orthw hile effort to aw aken,enliven, and vitalize.Buthard-boiled businessm en w ithoutvision,practicalpoliticians interested in votes,and others attem pted to w eigh culture in a scale and pronounced the enterprise as nonutilitarian,uneconom ic,and unw ise. The show w as a w aste ofpublicm oney,they contended.The large returns in term s ofculturaland hum an value w as beyond their lim ited com prehension.G overnorPearson had akeenervision and asounderidea ofcom m unity rehabilitation than m any realized.H is soul w as lofty,his m ind broad in spiritand conception.7 The firstyears ofthe 1930s continued to be unfortunate ones for m e. O n M ay 11,1932,Ireceived the sad new s ofthe death ofone ofm y children,M erle.8 Severalm onths afterw ard,a dreadfulhurricane visited the island of Cuba,leaving in its w ake the death of 3,500 persons m ostly through a tidal w ave in Santa Cruz del Sur.This hurricane w as headed directly for G uantánam o Bay,butluckily changed course.9 Taking w arning,I packed all of m y im portant personal possessions (scores and the research on folklore thatIhad justfinished)and sentthem toSt.Thom as— the place Ibelieved to be safe. Ihad delved into the m ysteries ofA frican folk m usicatthe encouragem ent of M rs.Ellis Stone.10 I understood the task,know ing w ell w hat it entailed,thatis,a scientificm ethod ofapproach,notonly to the m usic’sorigin butalso to itsintervallicand rhythm iccontent— the ingredientsofits

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 195 creation.You m ustbe able to answ er the question “H ow do you know ?” if the credibility ofyour research is questioned.The task is one thatentails deep study of this m usic’s ethnological and anthropological background. H elped by a greatnum ber ofbooks w ritten on the subject,particularly the excellentstudy A fro-A m erican Folksongsby H enry Krehbiel,11 and by personalcontactw ith leading m usicians and w riters,Ispentnine years w orking on tw enty-five m elodies w hich Ibelieved atthattim e to be indigenous creationsofthe peopleofthe Virgin Islands.Frankly,Iw aspleased w ith m y w ork,w hich justneeded a few touches here and there before itw as ready forpublication. O n the 27th of D ecem ber of the sam e year,a cablegram brought the new s of the total destruction by fire of m y hom e— a large fifteen-room stone building— w ith everything in it lost,m ost tragically including the life ofm y tw elve-year-old child,H azel,a sufferer for m any years from an attack ofspinalm eningitis.She w as caughtby the blazein the upper story ofthe building before rescue w aspossible.12 A boutthree o’clock thatafternoon,m y brother and fellow bandsm an,Julien,had approached m e w ith a paper in hishand and a solem n look in hisface.“A lton,” he said,“prepare yourselfforbad new s,”and he handed m e the cablegram .The navy authorized aleave ofabsence for us both.A rrangem entshad been m ade for us to rejoin our fam ilies in St.Thom as atfirstavailable opportunity.W e lefton January 4,1933,exactly one w eek later. Thanks to a St. Thom ian friend and am ateur ham -radio operator, Richard Spencely,w ith w hom w e had daily contact,w e received the agonizing details.The fire w as caused by an exploding oilstove in the upper story ofour residence,N o.9 Kom m andantG ade,King’s Q uarter (atthe footofBunker H ill).M rs.Julien A dam s,w ho lived in the upper partofthe tw o-story dw elling,had directed a m aid to lightthe stove and bake a pudding w hile she w entinto the kitchen to supervise the m idday m eals.M rs. Julien A dam s heard nothing am issuntil,answ ering the m aid’sfranticcall for help,she saw a w all of flam es cutting off her entrance to the room w here the stove w as.Panic-stricken,she rushed to the low erfloorand gave the alarm to her sister-in-law,M rs.A lton A dam s.The latter m ade frantic effortsto reach H azel,her tw elve-year-old daughter,w ho w as confined to a bed in a room upstairs.The raging fire drove M rs.A lton A dam s back.In her desperateeffortshe w as aided by ateam ofvolunteers,butto no avail. A llm em bers ofthe house exceptlittle H azelw ere broughtoutsafely.By the tim e the firefighters gotunder w ay,the A dam ses’residence and allof its contents w ere burntout.By carefulhandling ofthe only hose,w hich w as coupled to a nearby hydrant,the adjacenttiled-roofbuildings— those

196 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics ofthe A nduze fam ily,M rs.Thraen,and I.Levin— w ere saved.O ther hose and w ater sources w ere finally em ployed in the later stages ofthe fire,and the blazew asfinally gotten undercontrol.D ying cindersand charred w alls w ere allthatm arked the place w here the substantialtw o-story building once stood.13 Julien and Iarrived in St.Thom asthe nightofJanuary 9 on ourhurried trip from Cuba via Puerto Rico.The reunion w ith our fam ilies w as a tearful,em otionalone.Everyone w as stillin a state ofshock.M em bers ofthe fam ily,in the house w hen the fire occurred,w anted us to know fulldetails oftheir individualexperiences w ith the tragedy and poured their hearts out to us.Edith,the house servant w ith w hom the calam ity originated, took m e aside and tearfully confessed to an overw helm ing sense ofguilt. W hen ordered to lightthe stove,she found thatthere w as little or no fuel in it.Securing abottleofkerosene,she attem pted to pourthe contentsinto the stove.In the sem idarkness of the corner w here the stove w as,she m issed the tank’sopening and som e ofthe kerosene spilled on the floor.G etting arag,she quickly w iped up the fuelon the floor.Evidently,unknow n to her,som e ofthe fuelhad spilled on the stove.W hen she applied am atch,the stove caughtfire and exploded. N extday,Julien and Ivisited the burnt-outhouse.N othing w asleftthere butfourbadly burntw allsopen to the sky,blackened w ood,tw isted sheetsof galvanize,and m oundsofash.M y preciouslibrary w asgone:eighthundred to athousand volum esofchoice literary and otherbooks,representing years ofsacrificialsavings,carefulselection,and acquisition.M any ofthe books w ere autographed firsteditions sentby friends in the m usicaland literary w orlds,books that could not easily be replaced.H undreds of autographed photos and paintings w ere lost,along w ith bound volum es ofm y w ork for Jacobs’Band M onthly.G one too w ere hundreds ofm y ow n m usicalm anuscripts,unpublished com positions and arrangem ents,products of years of creative effort.M arches,w altzes,spirituals,calypsos— com positionsthathad been w orked and rew orked to getthem ready.Then there had been aprized collection ofw hatIbelieved then to be the indigenous folksongs ofthe Virgin Islands.Iconsidered thisto be one ofm y finestefforts.Inspired m elodies had m atched the stories,and Ifeltthatw hen this w as m arketed,itw ould m eetw ith w idespread regionalapproval.This collection w as ready for the printer.Publication had been delayed becauseoftheband’ssudden shiftfrom St.Thom as to G uantánam o.H ow ever,these w ere m aterialpossessions and life could go on w ithout them .Loss of these possessions did not tear the heartand w ound the m ind like the lossofabeloved child.14

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 197 Im m ediately after the disastrous fire and in m y absence,friends had helped m y fam ily to find tem porary residence in an old house on a corner ofupperM ain Street,directly acrossfrom the M oravian parsonage.W hen I saw the place,Ifound ittobe totally inadequate.Iradioed the U.S.N avy and asked for an extension ofm y leave to perm itm e to settle m y fam ily properly.M y requestw as granted.A fter a considerable search,Ifound a house thatseem ed to answ er our needs.Itw as a solidly builtnineteenth-century place,facing w est,on the leew ard side ofBluebeard’sH ill.O ver the years, its sheltered location had protected it from hurricanes.Typical of good nineteenth-century construction,the first floor w as solid,m assive stone m asonry.Inviting brick stairw ays led to the upper floor,w hich w as builtof strong tim ber.Room sw ere spaciousand cool.Large w indow sand doorsperm itted a steady flow ofair.A full-length w rought-iron balcony offered an im pressive view of tow n and harbor,east to w est.There w as a cistern of good size and adequate plum bing,essential for a grow ing fam ily.A lso a large yard w ith coconut,m ango,and genip trees,offering safeplay areasfor children.Iliked w hatIsaw ofN o.1B Kongens G ade,King’s Q uarter,and decided to try to acquire it. The property w asow ned by an acquaintance ofours,a lady from agood localfam ily,M aria Charlotte Brew er.From the records,Idiscovered that she had boughtthe property atpublicauction,Septem ber 8,1899,for the sum of$1,475.08.Those w ere the days ofvery tightm oney and depressed values.Ioffered M rs.Brew erw hatw asconsidered atthattim e agood price: $4,060.A lso Iagreed to pay the 1932 taxes againstthe property as w ellas allotherincidentalcostsconnected w ith the transfer.M rs.Brew eraccepted m y offer,agreed to the sale,and on February 15,1932,the deed ofproperty w as turned over to m e.Ifound outfrom the records,also,thatin 1827,its firstprivateow ner,Peter von Scholten,had sold the property to M r.D avid Padro.Prior to his becom ing governor,Peter von Scholten had been a skilled,successfularchitectw ith m any fine residences in CharlotteA m alie to hiscredit.H e w as noted for the layoutofhiscourtyards,hisfine brick stairw ays,and hishigh-ceilinged,spacious room s.Evidently,N o.1B Kongens G ade w as one ofhiscreations.15 Ihad to startlife anew,w hich Idid.Buttry as Im ay,Icould noterase from m y m ind avision ofthe crueldeath ofm y daughterH azel.Before she w as afflicted,H azel w as a good-looking,intelligent,sprightly,capricious chunk ofa kid.Ioften w ould recallthe occasion w hich broughtaboutone of m y com positions— “Childhood M errim ent:Valse Caprice.” O ne day w hile she w as alone atplay,Iheard her hum m ing to herselfthe strains of

198 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics a m elody— a phrase so to speak— accom panied w ith a lithe sw inging, capricious,graceful m ovem ent of her body w hich so fascinated m e that, there and then,Ijotted dow n both m elody and rhythm .Iused these contrapuntally as the structuralm otiffor the com position.The piece isdedicated to allm y children,butw ritten specifically for her.16 W ith m y fam ily com fortably settled,Ireturned to G uantánam o w ith the intentto retire from active duty in the U.S.N avy and rejoin m y fam ily in St.Thom as as soon as possible.Iw entthrough the necessary form alities w ithout difficulty,retired after sixteen years of service in due order,and becam e a full-fledged m em ber ofthe U.S.N avy FleetReserve on July 23, 1933.Three ofm y bandsm en,Jam es Brow n,A rnold M artin,and Bernardo H eyligar,follow ed m y exam ple.M y brother,Julien,also expressed hisintention to follow us into retirem ent.Thisw as the beginning ofthe breakup of an organization w hich over the years had received w idespread recognition and critical acclaim .G uantánam o regretted our leaving and before our departure honored us w ith a touching farew ellcerem ony.W e w ere scheduled to leave for St.Thom as on a navaltransport,the U SS W oodcock,but because ofa delay in arrivalofthatship,Isecured perm ission to take passage on a French cargo and passenger vessel,the SS Carim are,leaving G uantánam o w ith St.Thom as as one of its ports of call.I arrived in St. Thom as,M onday,July 31,1933. Shortly after m y return,I received a call from G overnm ent H ouse requesting m y presence.G overnor Pearson had heard of m y retirem ent and w ished to discuss certain m atters w ith m e.A datew as m ade.The governor w as w aiting for m e in hisoffice.H e rose to hisfeetand greeted m e w arm ly.H e w as a m an ofm edium height,evidently in hislate sixties;his w hitehairtopped apleasantface: Bandm asterA dam s,firstletm e express to you m y sincerestsym pathy and thatofm y fam ily over your recenttragicloss.You w ould have heard m ore from m e but,as you m ighthave heard,Iw as undergoing m ajor surgery on the m ainland.A nyw ay,Iam back atm y desk now, trying to catch up w ith things.Bandm aster,Ihave asked you to com e here for severalreasons.Iam aboutto form aSt.Thom as M usicCom m itteeto stim ulateand develop m usicas an integralpartofisland culture.Iam asking you to acceptan appointm entto thiscom m ittee and to serve as itschairm an.A sim ilar com m itteew as form ed in St. Croix severalm onths ago,and itisalready proving effective.Thatis notall.O nce w e getgoing,Ihave hopes thatyou w illhead the new m usicdepartm entin our high schooland acceptthe job to supervise all m usicalactivities in the publicschools.17

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 199 In m y dealings w ith G overnor Pearson,Ifound him to be a kind,softspoken,and cultured m an.H isyears ofassociation w ith the Chautauqua Circuit on the m ainland,a popular m ovem ent to bring culture to the m asses of people,had given him a considerable background w ith m usic and m usicians.W e found com m on ground form any an interesting discussion.Because ofm y close w ork w ith the governor,Iw asprivileged to m eet and know severalm em bers ofhis talented fam ily.Leon Pearson and his w ife,on avisitto see hisparents,gave an im prom ptu perform ance atG overnm ent H ouse to w hich a sm all group of friends w ere invited.I w as pleased to be one of them .M rs.Leon Pearson possessed a w ell-trained, m agnificent soprano voice.She accom panied herself on the piano.H er selection ofsongs covered a w ide range and w as professionally executed. A lternately,Leon Pearson,a frailand sensitive person,gave poetry readings.Both perform ers delighted the sm allaudience,and the coupleagreed to perform in publicw ith proceeds going to a localcharity.Iw as asked to m ake the necessary arrangem ents.W ord had gotten around,and the perform ance at Parish H all w as a sellout and m any persons w ere turned aw ay.This led to another appearance at the A pollo Theatre to a packed house. N extto appear w as Barbara,Leon’ssister,fresh from a success as leading lady in an off-Broadw ay show.A handsom e and friendly young lady, she w asalso hell-benton m aking itasan actress.A notherofthe governor’s sons,D rew Pearson,w as different.A s frail and sensitive as Leon,D rew gave one the im pression oftoughness.W hen the governor called m e into hisoffice to introduce m e,D rew said,“Bandm asterA dam sisno strangerto m e.W hen hisband toured the m ainland,Iattended severalofhisconcerts. In fact,one ofm y earlieststoriesasacub reporterdealtw ith hisband.”W e becam e good friends.D rew had traveled around the w orld as a young reporter before joining the Baltim ore Sun in 1926.In 1932 he started his syndicated colum n “W ashington M erry-G o-Round,” w hich featured sensationalexposés ofgovernm entfigures.“Ihave them squirm ing on their seats,” he said to m e,“and they hatem e!”18 W ord w as w idespread on the islands that Paul Pearson w ould not be reappointed to the governorship.The new s saddened m e.D espite the fact thatIhad alw aysbeen astrong navy m an hoping forthe navy’sreturn,m y close w orking relationship w ith the governor caused m e to develop a high regard and respectforhim .H ispersistence in looking afterthe interestsof the islands and hiscalm tolerance in the face ofunjustcriticism im pressed m e.O ne day he said to m e,“Bandm aster A dam s,Ido notseem to be able

200 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics to gain the confidence ofthe people.W hatam Idoing w rong?” “Itisnot you,” Ireplied;“itis sim ply a m atter ofeconom ics.The people m iss the security,the jobs,the m any benefitsthey gotfrom the navy.They feelthat the navy isbettersuited to theirneeds.Thatisw hy they are clam oring for itsreturn.Thatshould notbe interpreted as a rejection ofyou personally. They frankly do not feel that you or the Interior D epartm ent have the m eans for theireconom icsurvivalor stability.” Itw asshocking to m e to learn thatH erbertD.Brow n could be spoken of asournextgovernor.Iunderstood thatBrow n w asapproached in W ashington by a sm all but influential delegation from St.Croix offering him its unqualified support.Brow n isalleged to have said thathe w ould be w illing to com e to the islands and take the job ifthe peoplew anted him — butonly attheirrequest.Evidently thisreportw asm ore than rum orbecause shortly afterw ard Ireceived a letter from D rew Pearson.H e trusted m e,he said,to give him honestansw ers.W asthere realsubstantialsupportin St.Croix for Brow n? O rw asitm erely supportfrom asm allgroup oflandow ners? Could Igive him m y frank appraisal? Iw asbluntin m y reply.Itold D rew thatIw asnotapoliticalperson,but thatifIsaw any supportgrow ing for H erbertD.Brow n in the islands,I w ould do everything in m y lim ited pow er to counteractit.Yes,Brow n’s supportin St.Croix w as lim ited to a sm allgroup oflandow ners.Ioffered D rew m y fullestsupportand w hateverinfluence Ihad in the islandstohelp block Brow n’s appointm ent.D rew hardly needed m y support.H e had gained nationalprom inence and pow erw ith hissyndicated colum n,and he knew how to use that pow er.O n January 16,1933,the islands’ press received a cable from Senator W illiam King,ranking D em ocratofU tah, w hich stated:“Iunderstand thatH erbertD.Brow n isseeking appointm ent as governor ofthe Virgin Islands.In m y opinion,he isnotthe proper person forthe position.Ifappointed,Ican assure you thatthere w illbe vigorous Senateopposition to hisconfirm ation.”19 In 1933 the latestw ord from W ashington w as thatthe new secretary of the navy,Claude A .Sw anson,w as reacting favorably to the idea of the navy once again taking over the adm inistration of the Virgin Islands. W ashington friends told us thatnow w as the tim e for navy supporters in the islandsto expressthem selvesstrongly.O n February 10,1933,a resolution attached to a petition w as introduced in the Virgin Islands Colonial Councilasking the presidentand the U.S.Congress for the return ofnaval adm inistration.This resolution w as sponsored by Councilm an Valdem ar M iller,aprom inentm erchantand astrong pro-navy advocate.Councilm an M iller stated:

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 201 Ihave the honor to presentthispetition signed by over 2,000 citizens, residents,and taxpayers ofthiscom m unity,soliciting the Colonial CouncilofSt.Thom as and St.John to forw ard said petition to the Presidentand Congress ofthe U nited States,praying and beseeching that thisM unicipality be returned to the N avy D epartm entto be adm inistered by thatdepartm ent.Iw antto m ake itclear thatthispetition and resolution isin no m anner or form to be construed as unkind criticism or lack ofappreciation on the partofthe signers ofthe petition or resolution tow ards the D epartm entofInterior or to the unceasing and untiring effortsofG overnor PaulM .Pearson in our behalf.H ow ever, w e are convinced thatthe w ay to im prove our terribleeconom iccondition lies in our being returned to the navy.W e seek areturn to that departm entthattook good care ofus from the tim e ofthe transfer, M arch 31,1917,to abouttw o yearsago,w hen overnightthrough the unsoughtconnivance ofone individual,H erbertD.Brow n,w e w ere transferred w ithoutrhym e or reason or w ithoutbeing consulted. D uring the navaladm inistration ofthese islands,there w ere on the payrollofthe navy,hundreds oflocalem ployees consisting ofclerical w orkers,artisans,laborers,skilled and unskilled,receiving substantial am ountsofm oney on aregular basis.To thisadd the officers and enlisted m en stationed here w hose w ages w ere spenthere.Incom e taxes collected from them w entinto our localtreasury.Every availablehouse w as tenanted by navalfam ilies bringing substantialrentalsto the ow ners.D om estics,m aids,cooks,gardeners w ere hired.A llofthism oney circulated in the com m unity.W hatother departm entofgovernm ent could provide overnightexcellenthospitalcare,top-notch doctors and nurses w ho gave freely oftheirskillsto the peopleofthiscom m unity? N avalengineers helped us w ith our roads,our publicw orks, our sanitation.20

The Valdem ar M iller resolution passed the council by an overw helm ing m ajority.The lone dissenting votew ascastby Councilm an LionelRoberts. In voting no,Councilm an Robertsdeclared:“Iam againstanavaladm inistration com ing here to govern civilians.Ifon the other hand,the petition and resolution w ere courteously seeking the establishm entofa navalstation to bolster our econom y,thatrequestw ould receive m y heartiestsupportand approval.” M eanw hile,D rew Pearson leftno stone unturned in W ashington in trying to prom ote hisfather’scontinuation in office.D rew w as aruthless fighter. O n Septem ber 19,1933,Secretary ofthe Interior H arold Ickes letitbe know n thatG overnor Pearson w ould continue in office as governor ofthe Virgin Islands.Criticsofthe Pearson adm inistration and pro-navy activists charged that a deal had been m ade betw een D rew and the secretary.In

202 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics exchange forkeeping hisfatherin office,H arold Ickesw ould receive nothing butfavorablem ention in “W ashington M erry-G o-Round.”21 O n M arch 2,1934,Iw as called to G overnm entH ouse;G overnor Pearson w as w aiting.“Bandm aster A dam s,” he said,“M rs.Eleanor Roosevelt, w ife ofthe president,is due here on W ednesday afternoon,M arch 7,by specialPan A m erican seaplane.Ineed yourhelpw ith the reception arrangem ents.A lso,Iw ould like you to be one ofthe officialgreeters.Schoolsw ill be closed forthe occasion and schoolchildren w illbe outen m asse to greet M rs.Roosevelt.D o you think thatin the shorttim e you could com pose a song ofw elcom e?” Itold the governor thatIw ould try. The Pan A m erican plane carrying the FirstLady and herparty m otored up to the seaplane ram p atexactly 3:10 on W ednesday afternoon,M arch 7. W aiting atthe floatw asaw elcom ing group w hich escorted M rs.Roosevelt and her party to the King’sW harf.O n landing there to the cheers ofa big crow d,M rs.Rooseveltand party w ere greeted by the governor and M rs. Pearson.The visitors w ere ushered to the porch ofthe districtcourtbuilding.Rain show ershad drenched the schoolchildren.U ndaunted,they stood there on the w etconcreteand sang the song ofw elcom e Ihad com posed for M rs.Roosevelt. W ith voices strong,thisw elcom e song,to thee thisday w e sing, A nd m ay itsnotes from loyalthroats,o’er hillsand valleys ring. W elcom e,w elcom e,benefactor ofthe poor, W elcom e,w elcom e to our islands’hum bleshore, W elcom e,w elcom e to our land w here nature sm iles, W elcom e,w elcom e to our sunlitVirgin Isle.22

I w as delighted w ith the w ay they sang it,w ith feeling and expression, rem arkable considering the lack of rehearsal.W ith thousands of people around King’sW harfw aving and shouting,the Com m unity Band played m y com position “The G overnor’sO w n.” Im m ediately after,the cerem ony began.O ne ofthe speakersapologized to M rs.Rooseveltforthe rain show ers.In graciousreply she said,“The rain doesnotm ean asm uch to m e asit does to you.Iam accustom ed notonly to rain butto a greatdealofsnow and ice.Iw antyou toknow thatrain orshine,Iam happy tobe here on your beautifulisland and Ibring you the w arm greetingsofthe president.” M rs. Rooseveltw aved to the crow d,w hich responded w ith greatenthusiasm . The official party then m oved from the district court building to the M unicipalH ospital,w here chiefphysician D r.Knud-H ansen w as w aiting. Earlier he had called m e:“Bandm asterA dam s,Iunderstand thatyou have a lotto do w ith the reception arrangem ents.Please use your influence to

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 203 have M rs.Rooseveltcom e here early.W e w antto nam e the children’sw ard afterher.”The cerem ony started rightafterw e gotthere.D r.Knud-H ansen said,“W illyou,M rs.Roosevelt,allow usto nam e thischildren’sw ard after you? W e w ould like to do so in m em ory ofyourvisitand asatoken ofour gratitude for w hatyou are doing for the w elfare ofchildren throughout the U nited States.”“Iw ould be delighted,” answ ered M rs.Roosevelt.23 The largestgathering ever assem bled atG overnm entH ouse since the A m erican arrivalw aspresentatthe reception forM rs.Roosevelt.A fterthe usual prelim inaries,the first lady w as form ally introduced by G overnor Pearson to the packed audience: Itgivesm e greatpleasure to introduce M rs.A nna EleanorRoosevelt, w ifeofourillustriousPresident,Franklin D elano Roosevelt,and m other ofhisfive children.M rs.Rooseveltisno strangerto the realm sofpow er in W ashington.She isaniece ofaform ergreatPresident,Teddy Roosevelt.She w alked in the hallsofCongressasachild,and itissafeto say thatshe grew up in the shadow ofthe W hiteH ouse.M rs.Roosevelt,as w eallknow,isdedicated to the cause ofhum an w elfare.W hereverthere isabattleto advance the w ellbeing ofourcitizens,you w illfind M rs. Rooseveltatthe forefront.She travelsalloverthe country lecturing and observing firsthand conditionsofthe people,especially the plightofthe underprivileged.M rs.Roosevelthasrelentlessly w orked forthe civil rightsofm inoritiesin the face ofbarrierserected by prejudiced and unyielding people.In m ore than one instance,she hasrequired police protection from surly and threatening crow ds.She hasneverbeen afraid to face up to them and to statehercase.M rs.Roosevelthasw orked hard to com batpoverty and itsside effects;w retched housing,undernourishm ent,unem ploym ent,and crim e.M rs.Rooseveltw ritesasyndicated colum n,“M y D ay,” and through thism edium tellsam ore affluentcitizenry w hatisgoing on in the depressed and seam y sectionsofourcountry and w hatshould be done aboutit.In concluding,Iw ish to expressto M rs.Rooseveltthe greathonorand pleasure thatshe hasgiven usby hervisit.Iknow thatIspeak foreveryone here w hen Iask herto convey to the President,ourw arm estgood w ishesand ourappreciation forhis w arm good w ishesto us.

M rs.Roosevelt,tall and stately,in a voice that rang through the room , expressed appreciation forthe w onderfulw elcom e.Later,she m oved am ong the large crow d,conversing w ith people.H er poise and easy grace distinguished her.She leftthe islands the nextday.24 So pleased w asG overnorPearson w ith the sm ooth and efficienthandling ofthe Eleanor Rooseveltvisitthathe asked hisreception team for a repeat perform ance.W ord had been received thatthe presidenthim self,aboard the

204 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics U SS H ouston,planned ashortvisitto the islandson July 7,1934.A m id the boom ing ofgunsand the shouting ofhurrahsfrom the large crow d ashore, Franklin D elano Roosevelt,presidentofthe U nited StatesofA m erica,cam e dow n the gangw ay ofthe cruiser H ouston and landed atthe W estIndian Com pany dock at4:20 P.M .on Saturday,July 7,1934.U sing aw alking stick and assisted by W hite H ouse physician Com m ander Ross T.M cIntire and the president’sson Franklin,Jr.,M r.Rooseveltm anaged the descentw ithout difficulty.H e w asm etatthe footofthe gangw ay by G overnorPearson;D r. Viggo Christensen,chairm an ofthe ColonialCouncil;and aselectgroup of island dignitaries.A fteran exchange ofgreeting,the party proceeded pasta large group ofchildren w aving flagsand singing the song ofw elcom e w hich Ihad com posed forthe earliervisitofthe president’sw ife.The party entered severallarge open touring carsand drove through an arch ofw elcom e atthe entrance ofthe road leading from the W estIndian Com pany. The m otorcade proceeded directly to G overnm entH ouse.The president w as asked to sign hisnam e in the guestbook.Seating him self,he took out hisglasses,putthem on,lighted acigarette,and then w rotehisnam e.W hile refreshm entsw ere being served,acting com m issioner offinance M orrisde Castro presented the presidentw ith acollection ofD anish W estIndian banknotesand coins.M r.de Castro said thathe had heard thatthe presidentw as an avidcollector.The presidentsaidthathe w ashappy togetthese rare item s to add to hiscollection.Taking the gift,w hich w asencased in aspecially prepared leathercase,the presidentturned the package overtohisson Franklin, Jr.,forsafekeeping.“You m ay notknow it,M r.de Castro,”the presidentsaid, “but fifty years ago,shortly after I graduated from H arvard,I visited St. Thom as and Irem em ber using the D anish W estIndian currency.” O n his w ay to G overnm entH ouse,PresidentRoosevelthad expressed the desire to visitBluebeard Castle,w here,he had been told,the federalgovernm entw as building a touristhotelas partofa com prehensive plan to help the islands’ econom y.A tthe requestofG overnor Pearson,Ihad D onald Boreham and som e ofthe PublicW orksstaffstanding by atBluebeard.From G overnm ent H ouse w e proceeded directly to the construction site.25 W hy w as Paul M .Pearson, our first civilian governor, so abruptly rem oved from hispostin July 1935?By the tim e Pearson gothiseconom ic and social program going,battle lines w ere closely draw n betw een pronavy groups on one side and Pearson backers on the other.Thissituation m ighthave stayed so for aw hile,or itm ighthave quieted.A ctually itw as show ing signs of quieting.Slow ly it w as daw ning on som e of the m ost ardentofpro-navy advocatesthatthere w aslittleorno chance forareturn to navaladm inistration.O n the other hand,Interior Secretary Ickes letno

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 205 opportunity passbutto give hissolid endorsem entand backing to Pearson. Ickes took the position that dissension in the islands w as m ere political claptrap ofthe “outs” againstthe “ins.” Suddenly outofaclearblue sky cam e aW ashington announcem entthat, w ith pow erfulcongressionalbacking,aTexasdem ocratand form ereditorof the H ouston Post,PaulC.Yates,had been nam ed adm inistrative assistantto the governor ofthe Virgin Islands.There w as littleor no need for the position.Itw as strictly political.PaulC.Yates arrived in the Virgin Islands on June 8,1934,on the SS Catherineand started w ork.Broughtinto close contactby the very nature ofthe job,the personalities ofthe tw o m en clashed from the beginning.H ere w as Pearson,the academ ic,the m an of culture and refinem ent,soft-spoken,disciplined.In contrast,Yates w as a chainsm oking,egotistical sw ashbuckler w ith an offensive southern draw l and abrasive m anner,w anting from the beginning to be partofdecision m aking. Pearson could notw ork w ith Yates.H e recoiled from him .H e avoided him . Yet he underestim ated the m an’s potential for m aking trouble.H e also underestim ated Yates’sstrong and varied W ashington connections.26 In Septem ber 1933 tw o other W ashington appointees arrived in the islands w ho,like Yates,w ere to play an im portantpartin the dram a surrounding the ousting of G overnor Pearson.O ne of these appointees, T. W ebber W ilson, a form er D em ocratic congressm an and prom inent law yer from Laurel,M ississippi,cam e to fillthe position offederaljudge. The vacancy had been created by the retirem ent of Judge Edrington (a Republican)from the islands’districtcourt.The other appointee,attorney EliBaer,ofBaltim ore (also aD em ocrat)cam e to fillthe vacancy created by the rem oval of governm ent attorney Charles H .G ibson (a Republican). Both ofthese m en,W ilson and Baer,m etin N ew York City and w ith W ilson’sw ife,Lucy,boarded the SS Silvia and landed in St.Thom as on Septem ber 22.Baer w as unm arried. W ilson had strong politicalbacking.The H onorableH om erCum m ings, U.S.attorney generaland an old friend,had appointed him .Solidly supporting him too w as the senior senator from M ississippi,Pat H arrison, w ho had recom m ended W ilson forthe job.W ilson,a handsom e and distinguished m an,six feettalland soft-spoken,m ade an im pressive figure.D uring hisyears as districtattorney in M ississippiand later as acongressm an from the state,W ilson had w orked am ong black peoplew ho had learned to love him and respecthim .W ilson had show n kind and sym patheticunderstanding ofthe problem softhe unfortunateand the underprivileged,black and w hite alike.W ith his record ofsym pathy tow ard the N egro and his problem s,W ilson appeared to be an idealchoice for the V.I.judgeship.

206 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics W ilson had earned a reputation for courage,fairness,and integrity.It did nottake long forthese qualitiesto m anifestthem selvesin the V.I.D istrictCourt.In m y scrapbook,Isaved an article from the N ew York Tim es w ith aSt.Thom as dateline,January 29,1934: FederalJudge T.W ebberW ilson,form er congressm an from M ississippi, created asensation atSt.Croix during am anslaughter case w hen he ordered the arrestofD r.Jam es Knott(w hite),chiefm unicipalphysician and Interior D epartm entappointee,w ho had ignored asubpoena.D r. Knott,broughtinto courtfor questioning,defied the Judge and w as fined.Judge W ilson declared thatthe country’slaw s applied to all, w hiteand black alike,and from G overnor Pearson dow n,w hereupon the spectators cheered.W hen the governm entlater questioned the court’saction,Judge W ilson said:“Iam answ erableonly to H om er Cum m ings (U.S.attorney general)and G od alm ighty,and Irefuse to be intim idated by any governm enthead.”27

PaulC.Yatesproved an angry and vengefulm an.H e did notrelish being shunted aside and ignored by Pearson and hisstaff.Yates vow ed to underm ine them .A veteran of the rough-and-tum ble w orld ofTexas politics, Yates w as skilled in the artofpoliticalsabotage.A fter carefulappraisalof the opposition to Pearson thathad quieted dow n,Yates began to stir the pot.Carefully planted rum ors spread ofirregularities in the adm inistration,of federal funds involving public w orks projects in the islands,of fraud and corruption on alarge scale.G ossip fanned the rum ors.Shrew dly and secretly,Yates enlisted the aid of a Crucian labor agitator,M orris D avis,w ho professed to be aleader ofthe m asses butw as m ore accurately aprofessionalagitator looking for acause.Yates gave him one. Street dem onstrations,led by D avis,broke out in St.Croix.D avis pounded on one them e— thatafter years ofm isgovernm entand m ism anagem entunder Pearson,fraud and corruption on a large scale w ere com ing to the surface;thatfederalm oney being sentto the islandsto help the peoplew as being stolen.N extYates w entto w ork on the new ly appointed governm entattorney,EliBaer,a protégé ofM illard Tydings,the pow erful D em ocratic senator from M aryland.A n affable young m an and an able young law yerw ith littleorno politicalexperience,Baerw asconvinced by Yates thatthe tim e w as rightfor the “RooseveltD em ocrats” to take over the adm inistration ofthe islands from “thatgang ofH oover appointees, Pearson and Co.”Yates suggested to Baer thatitw ould be a feather in his cap for a young and am bitious D em ocrat to uncover corruption in an adm inistration run by decrepitleftover H oover Republicans.Baer sw allow ed the bait!

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 207 O n July 13,1934,G overnor Pearson issued astatem ent: O n aboutJuly 3,1934,the governm entattorney,EliBaer,advised m e thathe w as proceeding to take depositions in connection w ith reported irregularities in the PublicW orks D epartm ent.Iadvised the governm entattorney thatm y adm inistration w ould cooperatew ith him in every w ay....Irequested the Secretary ofInterior to send to St. Thom as im m ediately an investigator from the D epartm entofInterior to assistin the investigation.The secretary replied thathe w as sending tw o expertinvestigators dow n.H e requested thatG overnm entA ttorney Baer forw ard to hisoffice in W ashington com pleteinform ation regarding the entire m atter;and thatG overnm entA ttorney Baer suspend allinvestigation untilfurther notice.28

O n A ugust2,1934,Secretary Ickes announced thathe had dispatched tw o investigators,Lee Barton and Leslie H unttofInterior’sSpecialInvestigating U nit,to the Virgin Islands to look into alleged irregularities.Barton and H untt arrived in the islands and w ent right to w ork.Suspense during the period thatfollow ed released aflood ofrum or,m uch ofitbased on m alice,hearsay,and ignorance.D em onstrations broke outin St.Croix and St.Thom as,led by D avis w ith behind-the-scenes prodding by Yates. Thiscontinuous agitation had one them e— underm ining and discrediting the Pearson adm inistration. Theirw ork finished,Barton and H unttreturned to W ashington,taking theirfindingsw ith them .Suspense heightened w hen governm entattorney EliBaer w as called to W ashington to m eetw ith the tw o investigatorsand Ickes.O n Septem ber 22,1934,Ickes released the follow ing statem ent: Today Ihave rem oved from service EliBaer ofBaltim ore,governm ent attorney for the Virgin Islands.Itook thisdism issalaction after giving ahearing to M r.Baer and receiving an unsatisfactory answ er to form al charges m ade againsthim .Com plaintsagainstG overnm entA ttorney Baer involved hisone-m an inquisition into publicw orks projectsin the Virgin Islands during w hich tim e he took possession ofallrecords and files and effectively held up apublic-w orks program involving $774,000 including w ork reliefon roads,schools,and hospitals.Itdeveloped that outofabout100 allegations m ade by governm entattorney Baer in his capacity as aone-m an grand jury,only one show ed acrim inalviolation. M r.Baer’sbehavior reflected on the good nam e ofthe officers ofgovernm ent.M ostofM r.Baer’sinvestigations w ere founded on frenzied rum or and gossip.M r.Baer failed to consultw ith the governor or the secretary ofinterior before initiating the probe. The investigation by M essrs.Barton and H unttshow ed no reason w hy allofthe records ofthe PublicW orks adm inistration in the islands

208 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics should have been subpoenaed.M r.Baer adm itted thathe w as notcom petentto exam ine them and no one else in the islands w as so qualified. Baer adm itted thathe w as guilty ofofficialm isconductin discussing pending cases w ith the districtjudge prior to trial.29

There w as w idespread rum or in the islands thatduring the questioning ofBaer,and undersevere pressure,Baernam ed Yatesasthe m an w ho urged him to open the investigation.There m usthave been truth to the rum or,for shortly after the questioning of Baer,Ickes turned his official w rath on Yates.A new s clipping from the A ssociated Press dated O ctober 6,1934, w hich Isaved in m y scrapbook tellsthe story:“InteriorSecretary H arold L. Ickes announced today thathe had suspended PaulC.Yates,adm inistrative assistanttoVirgin IslandsG overnorPaulM .Pearson,and hasordered Yates to com e to W ashington to answ er charges ofgross disloyalty,insubordination,and inefficiency.” Ickes added:“Icould no longer ignore grave charges againstM r.Yatesthatcam e tom e from reliablesourcesin the islands.W hen Yates firstentered into the Virgin Islands picture as a politicalappointee, G overnorPearson had asked thathe be designated hisadm inistrative assistant.In return,Yates has been spending a good dealof his tim e running around the islandsstirring up troubleforthe governor.” In acableto the A ssociated Pressfrom St.Thom as,Yatesdeclared:“Earlier in the day,Ihad advised Secretary Ickes thathisradiogram seeking to sum m on m e before hisdrum headed court-m artialarrived too late.M y letter,w ith resignation enclosed,w as on itsw ay.” Yates said he had notified Ickes on A ugust15,1934,thatunless prom ptaction w ere taken to rem edy “the intolerable m isgovernm ent prevailing under G overnor Pearson,a leftover H oover-appointed reactionary Republican,thatIw ould under no circum stances continue as an official under the Interior D epartm ent.” Yates continued: Ipointed outto Ickes thatG overnor Pearson and hiscrow d ofPennsylvaniareactionaries w ere playing fastand loose w ith the m illions in publicw orks funds thatIckes had allocated to the Virgin Islands;that M essrs.Pearson and cronies have been using these funds to perpetuate them selves in office.Investigators sentdow n from Interior,ostensibly to assistthe then–governm entattorney EliBaer in uncovering fraud and corruption in the Pearson adm inistration,enjoyed m agnificenthospitality as the governor’sguestsand returned to W ashington w ith a reportthatSecretary Ickes apparently interpreted as acom pletew hitew ash.O n the basisofthisreport,Ickes discharged Baer w ith prejudice.I have afeeling thatthe U.S.Congress w illw antto investigatethoroughly thisentire disgracefulsituation.30

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 209 D espitethese distractions,G overnor Pearson persevered. O n N ovem ber 1,1934,bids w ere opened to lease the governm entfinanced Bluebeard Castle H otelto private operators.The highestbidders and w inners ofthe lease w ere M r.and M rs.Peffer from the U.S.m ainland, am anagerialteam w ith yearsofexperience in hoteloperation.Shortly after the lease agreem entw as signed,M r.and M rs.Peffer arrived in St.Thom as and reported to G overnm ent H ouse.G overnor Pearson had requested an early appearance so thatthe new m anagem entcould w ork closely w ith his team in developing aspecialdécorforthe hotel.G overnorPearson feltthat, w herever possible,Virgin Islands handicraft,products from the fledgling localindustries started during hisadm inistration,should be used.H e indicated adesire for specially designed rugs from the hook rug division ofthe Virgin Islands Cooperatives,linen tow els w ith local designs,straw w ork, furniture,pictures,ash trays,pottery— in fact,any suitableproductoflocal m anufacture thatcould fitinto the furnishing ofthe hotel.The governor asked m e to head acom m itteeto w ork closely w ith the Peffers in thisarea. The Peffersw ere cordialand friendly people.They w ere eagerto cooperate. M rs.Peffer had excellent taste and a flair for design.She prom ised that w ithin one w eek she w ould com e up w ith aseriesofsketchesform e to take to the governor.The governor w as pleased w ith w hathe saw.“Bandm aster A dam s,thisisexactly w hatIw ant.”Forthe hook rugsand w allhangingshe selected colorfuldesigns ofpirate ships w ith Bluebeard Castle in the background.Forotherproducts,from linen tow elstoashtrays,he choose designs highlighting the castle and itssurroundings.The governor gave the order forproduction to startassoon aspossible. G overnorPearson had setthe opening dateofthe hotelatD ecem ber25, 1934,and on thatChristm as day,doorsw ere opened to the public.Eighty persons,skilled and unskilled,w orking underthe direction ofprojectarchitect H .Tallm an,had done a fine job.Landscaping around the hotel w as beautifully done,a tribute to M r.N ichols of the A gricultural Extension Service and M r.A lphonse N elthropp,a localexperton tropicalplantsand flow ers.O n that Christm as m orning,the D utch cruise liner Statendam w as in portw ith m ore than six hundred tourists.Bluebeard Castlew as the key exhibit on sightseeing tours. Scores of autom obiles loaded w ith touristsand theircam eras headed for the hotel.O nce there,everyone w as enthusiasticover the place and itsfabulous view s and layouts.31 M ore than a thousand persons,tourists as w ellas Virgin Islands residents,visited the new Bluebeard Castle H otelon opening day.O ne and all w ere highly pleased w ith w hatthey saw.In the evening a capacity crow d overflow ed the beautifully decorated dining room ,w here a sum ptuous

210 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics banquetw as served.The m enu as w ellas the service drew favorable com m ent from the brilliant assem bly of officials and citizens.The opening speech ofthe evening w as given by G overnor Pearson.H e sum m arized the various stages and obstacles overcom e in the creation ofthe hotel.H e paid gratefultributeto the presidentofthe U nited States,Franklin D elano Roosevelt,Secretary of the Interior H arold L.Ickes,and the U.S.Congress, w ithoutw hose supportthe Bluebeard CastleH oteldream could neverhave m aterialized.G overnor Pearson then introduced M r.and M rs.Peffer and theirtw o daughters.The governorcom m ented on hisfavorablereaction and the favorable reaction ofeveryone w ho had m etand w orked w ith the Peffers.N otonly w ere they efficienthoteloperators,butthey w ere also charm ing and talented individualsw ho w ere arealassetto theirnew com m unity. In response,the Peffers thanked one and allfor theirm any actsofkindness and cooperation.They pledged a totaleffortto m ake the hotela real successand the kind oflandm ark forw hich the islandscould be proud.M iss Joanna Colcord ofW ashington,D.C.,a m em ber of President Roosevelt’s A dvisory Councilfor the Virgin Islands and aclose friend ofPresidentand M rs.Roosevelt,w as the nextspeaker.She expressed her happiness atbeing present.The presidenthad called her athom e and asked her to be hispersonalrepresentative atthe opening.H e w anted her to convey to the people oftheVirgin Islandshisbestw ishesand hiscongratulationsforthe opening ofthe hotel.G overnor Pearson then introduced M r.Tallm an,architectfor the Bluebeard project,and asked him to say a few w ords.M r.Tallm an said thathe considered him selffortunateto have been chosen to do the job.The firststage ofthe hotelcalled fortw enty-six self-contained unitsw hich w ere scheduled to be com pleted on February 15,1935.32 Bluebeard’sTow er w as then and rem ains today a landm ark ofbeauty and legend.In 1666 Erik Sm idt,aD anish sea captain,took possession ofthe island ofSt.Thom as in the nam e ofthe kingdom ofD enm ark.From the beginning he w as struck by an ideallocation on the eastern hilloverlooking the harbor [see figure 4].H e considered creating a fortthere.Sm idt’s plansw ere cutshortby hisdeath buteventually w ere carried outby asuccessor,G overnor Christopher H eins (1688–90).The tow er on Sm idt’sH ill w as com pleted in 1689 and used as a lookoutpostw ith a sm allgarrison quartered nearby.For m ore than acentury and ahalfthistow er,know n as Frederik’s Fort,stood guard over the harbor and the approaches to it.By 1852 the tow er,practically abandoned and in abad stateofrepair,w as sold to an Italian from French Corsica,VictorPiccioni,w ho restored itand built a dw elling house nearby.From M r.Piccioni the ow nership passed to his

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 211 nephew,M r.Sosthènes Luchetti,French Consul,officer of St.Thom as Bank,and ColonialCouncilm em ber,w ho resided in the m ain building. The tow er,the dw elling house,and grounds rose to prom inence w hen they w ere acquired in the 1880sby Eduardo H .M oron.Besides occupying a very im portantposition as head ofthe ship supply firm ofBrønsted & Com pany,M r.M oron also represented the Italian and Brazilian governm ents in St.Thom as.In his com m ercial and consular capacities,M oron entertained m any notablepersonagesathisfam ily residence.A m ong those m ay be m entioned the G rand D uke A lexisofRussia,w ho arrived here in St.Thom ason the cruiserD im itriD onskay,undercom m and ofViceA dm iralRasnakof,and Luigide Savoia,duke ofA bruzzi,during histour on the Italian cruiser Liguria.A fter the death of M r.M oron in 1909 and the departure ofhisfam ily from St.Thom as cam e alullofseveralyears w hen the property w as acquired by the Reverend A .N ies,w ho renovated the dw elling house as aresidence for hisinvalid brother,w ho lived there until his death.In the econom ic rehabilitation plan for St.Thom as,a m odern hotelw as urged and Bluebeard Castleselected as the site.33 The m agnificentdinner given atthe opening ofBluebeard Castle H otel w asfollow ed by astage play representing an episode in the rom anticlifeof the pirate Bluebeard and one ofhis w ives.The play,Bluebeard’s Casket, w astaken from abook oflocalstoriesby D r.CharlesEdw in Taylorentitled A n Island ofthe Sea.34 The production w as arranged by A lfred Baruch,a playw righton G overnor Pearson’s staff,and w as delightfully carried out by localtalent.The direction w as underThursdaon Childs,a teacher atthe high school;the costum es w ere designed by D oris Robinson,the scenery w asdone by N orrisB.N ichols,and the m usicw asw ritten by m yself.35 The action sw irled around rom ance,jealousy,intrigue,w itchcraft,and m urder. The play concluded w ith a scene depicting the rescue ofBluebeard’s w ife from the stake by the daring Bluebeard him self.Thisw as considered by a localcritic as sym bolic ofthe rescue ofthe island from the stake ofeconom icdepression by the daring project— Bluebeard CastleH otel. A s for the story itself:A beautifulyoung w om an,M ercedita,a Creole, lived in St.Thom as.Bluebeard fellm adly in love w ith heratfirstsight.H e pursued her,m arried her,and installed her in a house adjacent to Bluebeard’s tow er.A fter a shorthoneym oon,he lefther to go on a seafaring expedition,prom ising to return soon.Before leaving,Bluebeard placed in M ercedita’ssafekeeping alocked casketalong w ith the key and the injunction notto open itunless he w as present.For tw o m onths M ercedita kept her prom ise.Finally curiosity gotthe better ofher.Inserting the key into

212 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics the casket,she gave ita turn.The casketflew open,revealing nothing but a bundle of letters tied w ith a ribbon.M ercedita read the seven letters addressed to herhusband one by one.The passionatelove lettersw ere from seven differentladies w hom M erceditahad alw ays looked upon as friends. Furious w ith jealousy,she determ ined to revenge herselfon the w hole lot ofthem .She soughtoutthe services ofM adam e LaFourche,a notorious O beah w om an from M artinique.From the w itch,she obtained a concoction w hich,the O beah w om an assured her,w hen given to the seven lady friends,w ould cure them once and for alloftheir passion for Bluebeard. M erceditainvited herseven lady friendsto take teaw ith herthe follow ing afternoon.The ladies cam e and had severalcups ofteain w hich M ercedita had putsom e ofthe potion.O n returning to theirhom es,each ofthe seven ladies w entto bed and died.There w as a publicoutcry.A llfingers pointed to M ercedita. W hen the new sreached M erceditathatherseven guestshad alldied,she w as stupefied w ith grief.In desperation,M ercedita hurried to the police m asterand unburdened herselfofthe details.She w asarrested and putinto prison.A police search w as m ade for M adam e LaFourche,but now here could the O beah w om an be found.Either she had gone into hiding or she had leftthe island in ahurry.M erceditaw asbroughttotrialbefore the tow n courton the charge ofkilling seven ofhertow nsw om en by sundry artsand practices ofO beah.She w as found guilty,and the sentence passed by the judge w as as follow s:thatshe be conducted to the sands ofthe sea near a place know n as King’sW harfand there,w ith a pile ofsticks around her,be burned to death asan exam pleto those w ho dared dabblein w itchcraft. O n the m orning slated for the execution,M ercedita,as she did daily, m oved a stoolclose to the grating ofthe prison w indow and stepped up on it to look out on the harbor.There,com ing into port,w as Bluebeard’s schooner.N ever had the vessel’slines seem ed so beautiful,w ith the sharp prow and the sailsset.Ifhereyesdid notdeceive her,there on the poop deck w asthe gallantform ofBluebeard.“Thank G od,Ihave seen him !”she said. “The m an Ilove beston earth.N ow Iam ready to die.” A tthe appointed tim e,the fortbellbegan to toll.A dozen soldiers w ith m usketsheaded the procession follow ed by the judge,police m aster,and officersofthe law.M ercedita,clad in agow n ofw hite,carried alighted candlein herhand,herhair falling disheveled around her.The procession stopped before the stake.M erceditaw asturned overto the executioner,w ho w ithoutfurtherado tied her tothe stake.The w oodpilew asabouttobe litw hen ablow from one ofBluebeard’sm en knocked the executioner senseless.Bluebeard and tw enty-five ofhism en burstinto the crow d,scattered peoplerightand left,untied M er-

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 213 cedita from the stake,rushed her to a w aiting boat,and m ade for the schoonerin the harbor,ready w ith allsailsset.36 M y friend D rew Pearson,W ashington colum nistand son ofG overnor Pearson,w asjubilantaboutthe hotel’sopening.In one ofhislettersto m e, he w rote: Bandm asterA dam s,Ican’ttellyou how happy Iam to hear ofthe successfulopening ofBluebeard CastleH otel.Ibelieve itw illbe one ofthe m ajor accom plishm entsofm y father’sadm inistration and one for w hich he w illbe rem em bered.A few days ago,Ivisited Secretary Ickes in hisW ashington office and w ould you believe it,Bandm aster,the old codger w as in high spirits.Som e ofthe island new spapers w ere spread outon hisdesk telling ofthe galaopening ofthe hotel.H olding up one w ith acenter spread,he beam ed and told m e:“D rew,m y departm ent and Ihave backed your father solidly on thisone.Itisabreakthrough for the islands and Iam excited aboutit.Ihave been having fun w riting som e press releases and sending them outto the press.W hatdo you think ofthem ?” Iliked them ,and am sending atypicalone for your scrapbook.Itisfrom the D etroitN ew s,dated Friday,O ctober 12,1934: A sojourn on atropicalisland on m oderateincom e;a vacation under cloudless skies for the average m an.The U.S.governm ent through H arold L.Ickes,Secretary ofthe Interior,guarantees againstpiraticalcharges prom ising regulations covering rates and grades ofservice.Thisisno ordinary advertisem ent.Thisisa statem entfrom one ofthe m ostpracticaland hard-headed m em bers ofPresidentRoosevelt’scabinet,Secretary ofthe Interior H arold L.Ickes.W hen asked aboutgovernm entcom petition w ith privatebusiness,Ickes gave creditfor the governm entgoing into the hotelbusiness to form er Republican PresidentH erbert H oover.“W hen w e took over,” said Ickes,“there w as an appropriation on the books for $6,000 to rem odelBluebeard Castle.A t first,notknow ing m uch aboutit,Iheld itup,butafter G overnor PaulM .Pearson gotthrough w ith m e and gotm e hepped up,I raised the appropriation to $90,000 as astarter.” So now the governm entisin the hotelbusiness.A n old and legendary piratefortification has been reconditioned to provide abath w ith every room ,adining terrace above St.Thom as harbor,and equipm ent for every outdoor sport.The clim ateisidealallyear round.W inter tem peratures hover betw een 70 and 80 degrees;in sum m er, betw een 80 and 90— never above 91.37

O n O ctober 27,1934,Ireceived w ord thattw o m em bers ofthe fam ous Figueroa m usicalfam ily ofPuerto Rico w ere due in St.Thom asO ctober31 on the French steam er M acoris.O n theirw ay to Paris,they had expressed

214 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics a w ish to see m e.I w as w aiting for them w hen the ship docked on the appointed m orning.Itw as notlong before Jaim e Figueroa and hisbrother José descended the gangw ay.W e greeted each other like old friends.The father ofthe boys,D on Jesús Figueroa Iriarte,and Ihad know n each other for years as a resultofour respective m usicalactivities.D on Jesús w as a celebrated Puerto Rican com poser and director ofbands and orchestras. The Figueroas w ere am ostunusualfam ily:father,m other,five sons,and three daughters— allm usically inclined.José,born in 1905 and the oldestof the boys,had begun hism usicalstudiesunderhisfather’sdirection.O bserving the boy’srem arkable aptitude for the violin,D on Jesús senthim to the M adrid Conservatory ofM usic,w here hisbrilliance attracted specialattention from his teachers.U pon graduation,José w as granted the Sarasate Aw ard,the highesthonor conferred by the conservatory.Shortly after,José played in the RoyalTheatre of M adrid.H is perform ance w as spectacular. W ord ofhisbrilliancespread throughoutm usicalcirclesin Europe.Jaim efollow ed in hisolderbrother’sfootsteps,also w inning the SarasateAw ard.H aving studied atthe École N orm ale de M usique in Paris,Jaim e w as chosen to representFrance in theW orldM usicFestivaltobe heldin A ustria.H e w asto com pete on the violin againstthe w orld’sbest.Thisw as the reason for his tripon the SS M arcoris.A fterhe lefthishom e and fam ily in PuertoRico,St. Thom asw asthe firststopon hisw ay toParis.Thatevening,Iinvited agroup offriendsand m usicloverstocom e tom y hom e tohearJaim e.Itw asam usicalfeast.H e played for over an hour and held hisaudience spellbound.O ne ofa group ofm usicalfriends also traveling on the M arcorisw as an accom plished pianist.H e accom panied Jaim e.The resultw asperfection.38 A s a m em ber of G overnor Pearson’s cultural com m ittee,I had been asked to head a sm allgroup assigned to w elcom e Edna St.VincentM illay, one ofA m erica’sbest-loved poets.The lady w asdue to arrive in St.Thom as from N ew York in a few days,aboard the SS Scanpenn ofthe A m erican Caribbean Line.W e w ere w aiting atthe footofthe gangw ay on January 2, 1935,w hen M issM illay and herhusband,Eugen Boissevain,descended the stairw ay.39 M r.Boissevain w as a large m an,and nextto him M issM illay seem ed particularly sm all.She w as dressed in w hite,and w hen presented w ith a bouquetofyellow roses,her green eyes tw inkled and a sm ile litup her delicate face.Ijudged her to be in her early forties.The governm ent had provided transportation,and w e took the Boissevainsto the house they w ere to occupy during theirstay,a house located atthe top ofthe 99 Steps and ow ned by M rs.Rosa M allingholm . Itraveled in the carw ith the Boissevainsand w hileen routechatted w ith them .M r.Boissevain w as a friendly,outgoing m an w ho spoke w ith a for-

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 215 eign accent. H e told m e that he w as a D utchm an and in the coffeeim porting businessin N ew York.“M y businessrightnow,how ever,”he said w ith asm ile,“isto take care ofm y talented and delicatew ife.” M issM illay w asanative ofRockland,M aine.She had been educated atVassarand from her college days had attracted attention as a poetofgreatprom ise.In 1922 she w on a Pulitzer prize.D uring the early 1920s,she lived a bohem ian life in G reenw ich Village,N ew York,and m ingled w ith artistsand w riters.She m arried Eugen Boissevain in 1923 and m oved to Steepletop,a farm aw ay from the city.H ere she w orked on her poetry and developed a m astery of the sonnetform w hich earned hernationalrecognition and acclaim . Frailin health and suffering from arespiratory disorder,M illay had been advised by herphysician to spend the w interin aw arm clim ate.Friendssuggested the beautifuland unspoiled island ofSt.Thom as.H er firstim pressionsw ere very favorable.W hen w e gottothe house,the place w asopen and ready.M issM illay ran inside like ayoung girland outonto the porch overlooking the harbor.W e m etherstanding there like one entranced:“It’sbeautiful,” she said.“Ilove it.Iam going to be happy here.”A few days later,on January 8,M rs.M illay cam e to the St.Thom as PublicLibrary atthe invitation ofG overnorPearson,w ho w asthere to dedicateabeautifulnew library desk,am asterpiece ofcabinetry builtby alocalcraftsm an,E.D.Sim m onds. A fter the cerem onies,librarian M issN ellie Richardson satbehind the desk and served herfirstcustom er— Edna St.VincentM illay.40 A sofficialgreeter,Ifound m yselfactually enjoying the opportunitiesto have close contactw ith som e ofthe illustrious visitors to the island.Igot into the habitofcalling afriend in G overnm entH ouse to find outw ho w as com ing next.“Letm e see,” he w ould say,“thisisthe beginning ofFebruary 1935;w ell,the duke and duchess ofKentare due here on W ednesday, February 13,on aPan A m erican flightheaded south.They w illbe here for a m atter ofhours w hile their plane refuels.H ow ever,Igota big one for you.O n February 26,D ouglas Fairbanks,Sr.,the screen star,w ith party of fourpersons,w illbe arriving on the m otorship Europa from London.They w illbe staying here forafew daysand then leave aboard achartered yacht, the Caroline,w hich w illtake them to M artinique,Curaçao,and through the Panam a CanaltoTahitiand otherislandsin the South Pacific.M r.Fairbanks has had a rough tim e in London w ith new sm en and cam eram en. A ctually he gotinto fistfightsw ith som e ofthem .H e has asked the governor to assist him w ith a few trusted people to protect his privacy w hile he ishere.Itisan assignm entm ade to order for you,Bandm aster.” Iw as excited.O fallpeople,D ouglasFairbanks,Sr.,w asone ofm y favoritem ovie stars.H e w as an island favoriteas w ell.Islanders loved hissw ashbuckling,

216 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics daredevilstuntson the screen.Every picture featuring him packed the local m oviehouse.H isThe M ark ofZorro (1920)w as broughtback three tim es by popular dem and. W hilein Europe,Fairbanks’sactivities m ade headlines.H e m ingled w ith celebrities w ho included the prince ofW ales.H isw ide-open rom ance w ith Lady SylviaA shley created w aves.Lord A shley sued hisw ifefordivorce and nam ed Fairbanksasthe cause.From far-offH ollyw ood,M ary Pickford sued Fairbanks for a divorce,nam ing Lady A shley.D ouglas Fairbanks w ith his golden-haired com panion and three others arrived here at approxim ately 6:00 P.M .the afternoon ofFebruary 26.O urcom m itteem etthem atthe foot ofthe gangw ay and took charge astheirescort.Fairbanksw asm ostfriendly and very relaxed.H e spoke freely w ith tw o localnew sm en and accepted w ith hisfam ous grin the hurrahs and cheers ofthe large crow d w hich had gathered at the w harf.Lady A shley clung tightly to his arm .There w as little need for the requested privacy,so atease w as Fairbanks and hisparty.They w alked along the w aterfrontfollow ed by throngsofcheering people.Before getting into the launch to take them to the Caroline,Fairbankscam e overto ourcom m ittee,shook handsw ith m e and m y tw o colleagues,and thanked us form eeting them and escorting them to the launch.41 A seriesofeventsin early 1935 broughttheW ashington–Virgin Islands politicalpotto a boilyetagain and led to the ouster ofG overnor Pearson. M y friend D rew Pearson started itw ith a serious politicalblunder.U nder the title“A M ississippiJudge,” D rew launched a savage attack on T.W ebberW ilson,judge ofthe federaldistrictcourtofthe Virgin Islands.Som eone had convinced D rew thatW ilson w as the m an behind the scenes,the leaderofthe opposition to hisfatherin the islands.D rew ’sarticleappeared in the N ation,a m agazine w ith a large,im portantfollow ing,especially in the W ashington area.The article castW ilson in the role of a prejudiced southern opportunistunfitto hold courtin a black com m unity.Indirectly, the articlereflected on the m en responsiblefor the appointm entofW ilson to the post.The article supported G overnor Pearson and severely condem ned Judge W ilson. To m ake m attersw orse,the presssection ofthe InteriorD epartm entcirculated copiesofthe articlew idely.Then hellbroke loose!The m en responsible for W ilson’s appointm ent— Senator Pat H arrison of M ississippi, Postm aster G eneralJam es A .Farley,and A ttorney G eneralH om er Cum m ings— dem anded a publicapology from Interior Secretary Ickes for the vicious propaganda com ing from his departm ent.Ickes apologized and lam ented the “slip-up.” H arrison conferred w ith PresidentRoosevelt,and both H arrison and Farley w ere reported to have urged the resignation of

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 217 G overnorPearson.O n January 26,1935,itw asreported thatH arrison w as m oving for a congressional investigation into the affairs of the governm ent of the Virgin Islands.For several years,D rew Pearson had corresponded w ith m e regularly.O n m ore than one occasion,he had soughtm y advice.H ad he once m entioned hisintentto attack Judge W ilson,Iw ould have urged him notto do so and told him thatW ilson w asno enem y ofhis father— that som eone w as feeding D rew absolutely erroneous inform ation.The factw asthatJudge W ilson had skillfully kepthim selfaw ay from the political turm oil and had refused to becom e a part of the conflict, despitethe effortsofthe Pearson opposition to involve him .42 In the firstw eek ofM ay 1935,the tow n w as besieged by an influx of unw elcom e visitors.Sw arm sofm osquitoesw ere alloverus,big ones,biting and stinging ones— thatspecialkind thatbreedsin crab holesnearsw am ps. They w ere being evicted from their usualhaunts at Lindbergh Bay (form erly M osquito Bay),as a result of the draining and filling w ork taking place.A n unseasonalw esterly w ind blew clouds ofthe insectstow ard and over the tow n.The reclam ation project at Lindbergh Bay w as a result of G overnorPearson’seffortstom ake ourisland abetterplace in w hich tolive. The sw am ps posed a potentialhealth m enace.They w ere know n to harbor the A nopheles m osquito,responsible for m alaria.G overnor Pearson succeeded in having the project done w ith national W PA [W orks Progress A dm inistration] funds under the supervision of the U.S.A rm y Corps of Engineers.A side from elim inating a health m enace,the large area of flat land,w hen reclaim ed,w as a valuable and desirable piece ofrealestate.In 1935 people w ere already talking aboutitspotentialas a field on w hich to land airplanes. Captain Peckham ,ofthe dredge boatCaptain H uston,recently com m issioned in Philadelphiaand sentto Puerto Rico and then tem porarily to the Virgin Islandsby the W arD epartm ent,invited m e to com e outto view the project.43 The boat,anchored offshore,pum ped sand from the bay to fillthe sw am ps ata costof$1,000 per day,and itw as estim ated thatthe project w ould require ninety days.Captain Peckham ,Lieutenant Truss,M essrs. Thigpin and A uld— allU.S.N avy m en— w ere in charge.W hen Igotthere, I noticed that groups of curious tow nspeople w ere already on the spot, w atching.A bout a dozen others,m en and w om en w earing high rubber boots,w ere w ading in the proxim ity ofthe pipe outlets w here shells and other objectsbesides sand and clay w ere pouring out.From tim e to tim e I could hear the excited voices ofcollectorsas uncom m on shellsofexquisite patterns cam e w ithin their reach.Captain Peckham took m e aboard the dredge and show ed m e around.Fourlarge steam boilers,lathes,and drilling

218 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics and saw ing m achines w ere housed on the firstdeck.The second deck w as reserved for quarters ofthe crew m en and officers totaling thirty-five.44 O ne m orning,June 25,1935,to be exact,I w as w alking up the steps of the m idtow n post office w hen I heard m y nam e called:“Bandm aster A dam s.” Ilooked around.The caller w as no other than PaulYates.There he w as,cigarette in hand,slouched against a w ire fence.“D id you call m e?”Iasked.“Yes,”he said,“Iw antto talk w ith you.”Ineverhad liked the m an.H isw idely know n treacherous activities againstthe Pearson adm inistration (ofw hich he had been a part)had m ade m e like him less.Ihad been happy w hen Interior Secretary Ickes fired him for disloyalty and insubordination. Yates cam e up to m e in a slow -m otion m anner and,w ith a cynicallook on hisface,said,“Iw antyou to tellyourfriend Pearson thathe hascooked hisgoose.H ere,” he said,“read these,” and he handed m e tw o cablegram s, one from M illard E.Tydings,senatorfrom M aryland,addressed to PaulM . Pearson,governor ofthe Virgin Islands.Itread:“Ifyou w illtake back m y appointee,EliBaer,as your governm entattorney,Iw illvouch for his100 percentloyalty.You w on’tregretit.”The othercablegram w asareply from G overnor Pearson to Tydings.Itsaid:“Iw antno deals.Isolidly endorse Secretary Ickes’rem ovalofBaer.”45 “W here did you get these cablegram s?” I asked.Yates pointed to a house halfw ay up the hill:“Iam ahouseguestofEliBaer,”he said.Birdsof afeather stick together,Ithought. “For your inform ation,our friend M illard Tydings is chairm an ofthe SenateTerritoriesCom m ittee,”saidYates,“and he hasprom ised to authorizeacongressionalinquiry into the Pearson A dm inistration.You have seen so m uch,A dam s;let m e show you som e m ore.H ere are a few of m y rem arks to the SenateTerritories Com m ittee”: I,PaulC.Yates,statethatin m y opinion,Interior Secretary Ickes is drunk w ith politicalpow er and isusing any m edium ofpublicity to m align and castinto disreputeevery publicofficialand every influential citizen w ho opposes hisarbitrary and ill-advised protection ofthe Pearson adm inistration.Thisadm inistration ishatefuland odious to the residentsofthe territory.Interior Secretary Ickes has ignored m yriad com plaints,prayers,petitions,and specific charges againstPearson by the peopleofthese islands.

Yates looked at m e.“W hat do you think,A dam s?” I replied quickly,“I think you’re crazy!”46 O n July 10,1935,Ireceived aletter dated July 4 from D rew Pearson:

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 219 D ear Bandm asterA dam s:Thatcongenitaltroublem aking fellow,Paul Yates,w ho has been giving m y father such ahard tim e in the islands, has been here in W ashington since lastw eek,continuing hisactivities. H e has been strutting the corridors ofCongress like agam ecock,buttonholing anybody w ho w illlisten to him .H e takes fullcreditfor the congressionalinquiry into the affairs ofthe Virgin Islands and the Pearson A dm inistration,w hich began yesterday.By the tim e itisover, Yates chortles,the nation w illbe shocked by the revelations and Interior Secretary Ickes w illbe outofoffice,taking m y father w ith him . Bandm aster,Ithink the m an issick in the head.H e isobsessed w ith the idea thatin aN ew D ealD em ocraticadm inistration,there isno place for aRepublican,especially aleftover H oover Republican.Yates isfanatical aboutit.H e says itishism ission to getPearson,even ifhe has to pull him outby his“entrails.” M y partner,Bob A llen,co-author ofour colum n— “W ashington M erry-G o-Round,” hatesYates’sguts.“W aituntilIgethold ofthat S.O .B.,” he tellseveryone w ithin earshot,“Iw illconsider itapatriotic duty to sock itinto him !” Itturns outthatBob A llen knew Yates w hen they w ere new sm en in W ashington,and he helped Yates getthe job as adm inistrative assistantto m y father.N ow the thoughtcom es back to haunthim .Bob’ssquat,pow erfulfram e shakes w hen he talks about “socking itinto Yates.”W ell,ithappened yesterday m orning,outside the senatecaucus room .The tw o m en ran into each other.“H ello,you doublecrossing S.O .B.,” snarled A llen.Yates m uttered som ething back. Both m en sw ung fistsand m issed.Bystandersstepped in to partthem . Both m en w renched loose and tore into each other.Yates gotthe w orst ofit.H e w as no m atch for the burly A llen.Bob m ade afew fastsw ings and landed som e blow s on Yates’sface,opening som e cutsand bruising hisnose and m outh.Yates’sface w as bleeding w hen he w as assisted to a first-aid station.Capitolpolice escorted A llen,uninjured,to adetention area from w hich he w as later released.N aturally,thisskirm ish in the hallsofCongress m ade headlines.47

The Tydings com m ittee investigating conditions in the U.S.Virgin Islandsopened itshearingson July 2,1935,in the U.S.Senatecaucusroom . Yates’schargesw ere contained in aforty-eight-page com m unication to the com m ittee.Itw asincredibleto usthatan insignificant,disgruntled nonentity such as Yates could have aroused top political interest and anger in W ashington,culm inating in afull-fledged congressionalinvestigation.W e w ho lived here in the islands knew thatYates’scharges w ere aconglom eration ofem pty sensationalism and hearsay w ith no substance.Evidently firing offthese salvosw asan im portantpartofYates’stroublem aking technique,w hich from allappearances w as proving itselfeffective.

220 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics A close friend and longtim e observer ofthe V.I.-W ashington political scene said to m e:“A dam s,itishard to believe thatthism an Yatescam e out of now here and has played such havoc.In his short tim e here,he has turned these islands into snarling,spitting,tum ultuous cages ofpolitical tom cats.” This localtum ultseem ed to spread to W ashington,too,for the investigation w as hardly days old w hen an angry M illard Tydings w arned Interior Secretary Ickes to stop interfering w ith the w orkings ofhiscom m ittee— to keep hishandsoff.Ickeshad been clam oring foran opportunity to cross-exam ine w itnesses in the probe.A s the investigation proceeded, em barrassm ent m ounted.O ne by one,Yates’s charges proved to be a hodgepodge ofem pty gossip.Editorialsappeared in the W ashington press com m enting on the triviaand the apparentw asteoftaxpayer m oney.Severalsenators resigned from the investigating com m ittee. A fter a luncheon w ith President Roosevelt,Secretary Ickes,w ho w as joined by Senator Tydings,discussed the V.I.probe w ith the president.A ll parties decided to drop the investigation.O ne day latter,the W ashington H erald carried a story thatretired navy adm iralW illiam Veazie Pratt,form er U.S.navalchiefofstaff,had been offered the Virgin Islands governorship.48 The large pro-navy group in St.Thom as w as delighted w ith the new s.Sourcesclose to PresidentRooseveltindicated thatin the eventofthe adm iral’sacceptance,the presidentw ould seriously consider returning the islandsto the politicalpeace and econom icstability ofnavaladm inistration. H opes ofpro-navy advocates soared,only to be dashed w hen Prattturned dow n the offer.Speculation continued concerning the status ofG overnor Pearson.Som e saidthathe planned toresign;otherssaidthathe already had done so.O n July 24,1935,a radiogram from G overnorPearson in W ashington,D.C.,to his w ife in St.Thom as cleared the air.The radiogram said: “President Roosevelt and Interior Secretary Ickes today invited m e to becom e assistant director of the Federal H ousing A dm inistration.It is a prestigious,im portantposition.Ihave accepted.Iassum e dutiesnextw eek.” O n July 26,1935,the director ofthe D ivision ofTerritories and Island Possessions advised the acting governor in St.Thom as by radiogram that upon the recom m endation ofSecretary Ickes,the presidenthad nom inated Law rence W .Cram er,lieutenantgovernor ofthe Virgin Islands,to becom e governor,succeeding Paul Pearson.49 O n this sam e day another,equally im portantannouncem entw as m ade.Thistim e,PresidentRoosevelt,upon the recom m endation ofA ttorney G eneralH om er Cum m ings,announced the prom otion and transfer ofthe H onorable T.W ebber W ilson from the judgeship of the U.S.D istrict Court of the Virgin Islands to the Federal Board ofParole.Thatday,the U.S.Virgin Islands losttw o very specialand

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 221 highly qualified individuals.Both w ere victim s ofvicious politicsand venom ous propaganda.O ur territory w as the big loser.Yates,the “congenital troublem aker,” w as the big w inner.H e had accom plished hispurpose.By using the technique ofthe“big lie”and m anipulating othersto use it,Yates had persuaded im portant persons in high places to take him seriously. W hen the farce w as exposed,irreparabledam age already had been done. In the case ofW ilson,false charges w ere m ade that he w as bringing A m erican justice into disrepute in the Virgin Islands and thathe w as the behind-the-scenes leader ofthe opposition to G overnor Pearson.N othing could have been further from the truth.Tim e and again,W ilson spoke out in protestagainstany faction or group using hisnam e in politicalcontroversy.Tim e and again, the island press spoke in favor of the judge’s integrity,ofhisreadiness atalltim es to dispense justice,and ofhisim partiality in dealing w ith allw ho cam e before him .In the shorttim e thathe had been w ith us,JudgeW ilson had w on the love and respectofthe people. A fter the announcem entsofJuly 26,1935,and w hen the dusthad settled,a few thoughtfuland courageous people paid tribute to PaulPearson. H ere isone striking exam ple: PaulM .Pearson cam e to our shores four years ago to be our firstcivilian governor after fourteen years ofnavalrule.A s governor,Pearson,a visionary,dream ed and lived to see m any ofhisdream s com e true.H e labored under handicaps and disadvantages thatw ould have subm erged am an less gifted w ith patience,love for hum anity,and understanding ofthe ignorance and w eakness ofhisfellow m en.Calum ny and avarice, linked w ith ingratitude,attacked hisadm inistration on every side.Subordinates plotted w ith rabble-rousing politicians to attack every creative thoughtand effortcom ing from him .Ignorantpeoplew ere w orked into afrenzy ofdisrespect.A good m an,sincerely interested in the people’sw elfare,w as m aligned m ercilessly from publicplatform s. A gitated crow ds w ere m anipulated and encouraged to riotous behavior. Itw as adisgracefulepisode in V.I.politicalhistory.50

Just as Pearson left the governorship,his project to drain and till the sw am ps atLindbergh Bay suddenly took on new significance.The governor’s originalintenthad been to elim inate a health m enace posed by the presence of m alaria-carrying m osquitoes.The new significance of the stretch offlatland reclaim ed from the sw am ps cam e w ith a totally unexpected announcem entfrom W ashington.Early in A ugust1935,President Rooseveltordered the U.S.N avy to resum e activitiesin the Virgin Islands. A sislandersunderstood it,the civilian adm inistration ofthe islandsw ould stay in place.N avalactivity w as to take the form ofa sm allU.S.M arine

222 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics Corps airsquadron to be based on St.Thom as.Islanders w ere jubilant.For years m any of them had been advocating civilian governm ent for the islands w ith som e form ofnavalbase to bolster the econom y.A nd here it w as,allofasudden.Itw as alm osttoo good to be true. The transportU SS A ntaresw assoon on itsw ay,bringing the firstbatch ofm arines and equipm ent.A cting governor RobertH errick served notice upon localschoolauthorities to evacuate im m ediately the building occupied by the CharlotteA m alieH igh School(form erly the m arine barracks). LieutenantColonelM oore,U.S.M arine Corps,com m anderofthe sm allair squadron assigned to St.Thom as,flew in from Q uantico,Virginia,to look around and to determ ine the m ostsuitablesitesforthe airportand m arine headquarters.W hen interview ed by the press,m yself included,M oore inform ed us thatthe m arines and equipm enten route to St.Thom as w ere partofaunitfrom Q uantico.Seventy m arines,ten officersw ith seven cars and trucks,a portablem achine shop,and six airplanesw ould be the nucleus for the base.H e stated thatthe m arine barracks w ould have to be repaired and rem odeled and num erous im provem ents m ade before the m en could com fortably settledow n to routine duty.“Itw ould probably take aboutsix m onthsto getset,”he said.The affablecolonelbelieved thatthe golfcourse together w ith nearby Lindbergh Bay and the filled sw am pland, w hen w orked on,w ould m ake ausableflying field.N otm any airportsare so close to a seashore,he said,offering seaplane access as w ell as a place to land planes.H e w asagreeably surprised to find alevelstretch ofground so w ell located in the trade and prevailing w inds.51 TheVirgin Islandspoliticalupheavalof1933–35,w hich sw eptG overnor Pearson,Judge W ilson,G overnm ent A ttorney Baer,and A dm inistrative A ssistantYatesfrom office,had hardly quieted w hen itbecam e know n that Secretary Ickes w as planning hisfirstvisit.The officialreception com m ittee w as alerted thatSecretary Ickes and party w ere scheduled to arrive in St.Thom as by plane on the afternoon ofJanuary 9,1936,via Puerto Rico. O ur com m ittee w as asked by G overnor Cram er to prepare a program for the tw o-day visitand to m eetand take charge ofthe visitors. W hen Secretary Ickes stepped offthe plane,he w as accom panied by D r. Ernest G ruening,director of territories and island possessions;Raym ond Ickes,the secretary’sson;and tw o high-levelassistantsfrom the D epartm ent ofthe Interior.Secretary Ickesw asaheavy-set,bespectacled m an.H e w ore a w hite suitand w hite shoes and a broad-brim m ed straw hat.In response to m y w ordsofw elcom e,he shook m y hand w arm ly and said thathe had been looking forw ard to the visit.W hilew aiting for the secretary’splane,G overnor Cram er had com e over to m e and said:“Bandm aster A dam s,there isa

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 223 change in the program .I have just received a note from Chairm an Viggo Christensen that because of Secretary Ickes’s tight schedule,the Colonial Councilism eeting in extraordinary session rightnow and w ould like us to bring the secretary directly to their m eeting hall.” Chairm an Christensen officially w elcom ed the secretary and party on behalf of the people of St. Thom as–St.John.A clipping in m y scrapbook quotesM r.Ickes’sresponse: G entlem en,Ithink itw ould have been akind acton G overnor Cram er’spartifhe had given m e w arning thatIw as to com e straight from the plane to m eetyou and to m ake afew rem arks.The G overnor did notgive m e tim e to w ash up and Ifeelunkem pt.H ow ever,Iw ould notletanything like thatinterfere w ith the pleasure thisopportunity affords m e ofgreeting aColonialCouncilofw hich Ihave heard so m uch during the lasttw o-and-a-halfyears.W hen Iw entto W ashington in the spring of1933,Iplanned to visitallthe N ationalParks and Reclam ation projectsin the w estern partofthe country.Iplanned also to visitH aw aii,A laska,Puerto Rico,and the Virgin Islands.Before Ihad w arm ed m y chairin Interior,the Presidentm ade m e adm inistrator of the huge billion-dollar PublicW orks program ,an aw esom e and tim e consum ing job. The RooseveltA dm inistration,as you know,cam e into pow er w hen the U nited States w as going through the m ostdesperateand the m ost criticaldepression in itshistory.U pon m y shoulders w as placed,and I repeatthe w ord,“aw esom e” responsibility ofallotting billions ofdollarsfor PublicW orks projects“to prim e the econom icpum p” and to help the nation getback on itseconom icfeet.D o Ihave to tellyou of the need for intense scrutiny to preventw asteand corruption in aprogram ofthism agnitude? Ithink your G overnor,notonly your present one,buthispredecessor,w illattestto the factthatatalltim es,in spite ofm y overw helm ing duties,Ilentasym patheticear to any pleafrom the Virgin Islands.A tno tim e did Ilose sightofthe w ell-being and w elfare ofthe peopleofthe Virgin Islands.52 Ithas been and continues to be the desire ofthe Franklin D.RooseveltA dm inistration to do everything in itspow er to bring aboutthe socialand econom icrehabilitation ofthese islands.W e w antto clear your slum s.W e w antto see to itthatevery m an,w om an,and child has enough to eat,sufficientclothing and shelter,an opportunity for schooling.W e w ould like the Virgin Islands atthe end ofour N ew D eal adm inistration to be happier,to be m ore firm ly grounded on asocial and econom icbasisthan before.W e are very hopefulofour econom ic approaches:ofbuying land and ofhom esteading it,ofgrow ing sugarcane and ofm aking sugar and rum .W e are doing everything in W ashington to bring aboutthe desirability ofthe Virgin Islands as aresort for tourists.W e w antto bring hom e to the peopleofthe U nited States

224 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics the advantages ofthese islands,clim ate,scenery,beautifulbeaches;all the naturalm agnificence thatyou have here. A lready our experim entw ith the Bluebeard CastleH otelisproving itselfto be asuccess.W e are going to add to it,m ore room s,m ore public facilities.W e can foresee atim e w hen,iftourism isproperly handled here,thatthe m axim um developm entw e build on thatBluebeard site w illnotbe adequate.There are agreatm any m ore sites here,beautiful places thatcan be developed for hotelpurposes.You have m agnificent beaches,beautifulscenery,and exceptionalplaces to drive.W hen w e add som e m ore scenicroads the islands w illbe even m ore attractive. H ow ever,rem em ber this:governm entcannotcontinue to develop the resortfacilities here indefinitely.W hatw e can do,w hatw e are doing,is to m ake astartin the hope thatprivateinterestsw illtake over once the greatpossibilities in the touristtrade have been dem onstrated. O n another vitalsubject,w e w antyou to have allthe hom e rulethat ispossible.Itw illbe ahappy day for us in the U nited States w hen you can have as m uch hom e ruleas any com parableconstituency on the m ainland.In closing,Iw antto assure you ofm y greatinterestin these islands.W hatw e are doing here through the PublicW orks program w illgo along w ay in achieving the goalsthatIhave m entioned.A s long as Irem ain adm inistrator ofthe FederalPublicW orks program ,I w illgive you every bitofhelp possible.Letm e leave you w ith this com m ent.In proportion to your size,these islands have been receiving m ore attention and alarger per capitaallotm entoffederalfunds than any other section ofthe U nited States.Iknow because m ostofthisfederalfunding passes through m y hands.53

The originalschedule called for Secretary Ickes to stay on St.Thom as thatnightand allofthe nextday (January 10),visitSt.Croix the m orning ofJanuary 11,and return in tim e to departfor the U.S.m ainland thatsam e afternoon— tw o daysand tw o nights.G overnorCram ersaid to m e:“A dam s, Iknow this is a tightschedule,butsee w hatyour people can do w ith it.” Brightand early nextm orning w e took the secretary and party on a sightseeing tour.M r.Ickes w as interested particularly in seeing projectsstarted under the auspices ofthe N ew D eal:Bluebeard CastleH otel,the V.I.Cooperatives,the agriculturalexperim ents,the beginning ofslum clearance,and low -cost housing.O ne of the highlights of the tour w as a visit to hilltop Louisenhoj— the show place castle,dw elling house,and gardens ofA rthur Fairchild.54 Looking dow n on Charlotte A m alie,w ith m agnificentvistas in alldirections,M r.Ickes w as visibly im pressed.H e said to m e w ith a w ry sm ile:“In such beautifulsurroundings,how couldthe inhabitantsbecom e so politically violent?”Then as ifto answ er hisow n question,he said:“Irealize thatin one ofhisearly speeches,G overnor Pearson urged the people to

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 225 develop ‘divine discontent.’They developed ‘discontent’allright,butthere w asnothing ‘divine’aboutit,”the secretary chuckled. Thatnight,January 10,1936,there w as adinner atG overnm entH ouse in St.Thom as follow ed by areception.The reception w as w ellattended by governm entofficials and tow nspeople.Plans called for an early-m orning departure forSt.Croix and aquick inspection ofN ew D ealprojectsthere.55 W e m ade our plans not expecting catastrophic events to change them ; how ever,change them they did.The nightofM r.Ickes’sarrival,the beautiful St.Croix G overnm ent H ouse w as destroyed by fire.O ur St.Croix planshad centered on the graciousbuilding and itsantique m ahogany furniture,itsm irrored publicroom s,itscrystalchandeliersand candelabras— relics of a historic past.The secretary and party w ere to be entertained there.N ow they w ould see the dism al rem nants of a disaster:stark and blackened w alls,charred w ood. W earrived in Christiansted,St.Croix,early on the 11th.Led by G overnor Cram er,w e headed for King’s Street and the burnt-out rem ains of G overnm entH ouse.Itw asasolem n group thatlooked upon w hatw asleft ofone ofthe m ostim posing structureson St.Croix.Itdid nottake uslong to getthe details.A tabout7:00 P.M .the evening ofJanuary 9,a siren in Christiansted had advised the people thatG overnm entH ouse w as on fire. Started in the pantry by an exploding kerosene Frigidaire,flam esspread in m any directions.Successful efforts w ere m ade to rem ove governm ent records from the frontsection ofthe building used by federaland m unicipaloffices.Firem en and volunteers w orked into the w ee hours before getting the blazeunder control. Iw as standing nextto M r.Ickes w hen G overnor Cram er said to him : “W hatdo w e do now ? W illw e have to take m oney earm arked for rehabilitation projects to repair this building or erect another?” “Forget about erecting another one,” M r.Ickes replied.“Idoubtifyou have the skilled w orkersto putup am assive stone fram e like thisone.The problem asIsee itisto restore thisplace to w hatitw asand to m ake the interiorfireproof.I do notknow how m uch itw illcost,nor do Iknow w here the m oney w ill com e from .H ow ever,as soon as Igetback to W ashington,Iw illfind the funds som ew here.”56 Close contact w ith Secretary of the Interior Ickes revealed to usthe quality ofthe m an.D irect,sincere,and forceful,he dealt w ith problem shead-on,w hetherin theVirgin Islandsoron the U.S.m ainland.In hisearly sixties,a graduate ofthe U niversity ofChicago,H arold Ickesleftasuccessfulpractice in the M idw estto take on the job atInterior. In a short tim e he becam e one of President Roosevelt’s m ost energetic, dependable,and trusted cabinetm em bers.

226 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics Justoverayearlater,Ireceived atelephone callfrom aguestatBluebeard Castle H otel.H e said that his nam e w as Thornton W ilder.57 H e w as an author,a professor ofcom parative literature atthe U niversity ofChicago, and aclose friend ofEdna St.VincentM illay.She had been m ostenthusiastic about a vacation and rest-cure spent on St.Thom as in 1935 and had urged W ilderto visit.“Ifyou go,”W ilderreported she had said,“be sure to contactourfriend Bandm asterA dam s.H e ison the governor’sstaffand w ill be m osthelpfulto you.Besides,you should getto know him .” “So,Bandm aster A dam s,” W ilder said,“now thatIhave contacted you, w ould you care to have lunch w ith m e here atBluebeard’s?” Iaccepted and w e fixed adate.The nam e Thornton W ilder rang abell.Iw entto m y bookshelfand there itw as,a book by W ilder,The Bridge ofSan LuisRey.This literary w ork had attracted considerable attention in the late 1920sand in 1928 had been aw arded the Pulitzer Prize.I rem em bered the story w ell. Som ew here in Peru,a crude bridge strung across a deep ravine had collapsed,sending totheirdeathsanum berofpeoplecrossing the bridge atthat precise m om ent.W ilderhad researched the livesofthose personsrightup to the m om entofthe disaster.Skillfully and starkly,he had told the story. W e m etfor lunch on O ctober 23,1936.W ilder w as w aiting for m e on the terrace overlooking the tow n.M y im pression ofhim w asthathe w asa m an ofaboutforty,w ellbuiltand ofbetter than average height,slightly bald.H e w ore heavy turtle-shellglasses.A fter afew prelim inary rem arks, Icam e to the pointquickly.“M r.W ilder,”Isaid,“Iam happy to m eetam an ofyourliterary stature.Im usttellyou thatbesidesbeing am usician,Iam areporterforam ainland new spaperasw ellasthe localpress.D o you m ind ifIconsider thism eeting notonly a socialone butan interview as w ell?” M r.W ildersm iled,“G o rightahead,Bandm aster.From m y shortstay here, you can reportm e as being enthusiasticaboutthe island,itsscenery,and w hatIhave seen ofitspeople.Furtherm ore,one ofm y hobbies ism ountain clim bing and I plan to do som e hiking am ong your hills.” A nd he pointed to the m ountain range easily visiblefrom Bluebeard’sterrace.58 W ilder w as in a talkative m ood and told m e a good dealabouthim self. H e had spent his early boyhood years in China and spoke the language fairly w ell.H isfather,a m em berofthe U.S.consularservice,had taken him there.O n hisreturn to the U nited States,he had specialized in education and taughtin severalA m erican colleges.Then he turned to w riting.D uring the luncheon,W ilder confided that tw o days before,he had started w ork on aplay and thathe found the environm entatBluebeard’svery conducive to creative effort.The play thatresulted,O urTow n,w on a Pulitzer Prizein 1938 and isconsidered aclassicofthe A m erican theater.

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 227 Isaw a good deal ofThornton W ilder during his stay.H e visited m y hom e,w entthrough m y library,listened to m y records,and autographed m y copy ofThe Bridge ofSan LuisRey.H e prom ised thaton hisreturn to the states,he w ould send m e his latest novel,H eaven’s M y D estination (1935).H e had broughta copy w ith him ,buton a visitto the locallibrary he had been so w ellreceived by librarian Enid Baa and herstaffthathe had given itto the library,autographed.Icould hardly w aitto read it.Iw entto the library and returned hom e w ith the book.O nce started,itcould notbe put dow n.It w as a hilarious satire on the tim es.Its central character, tw enty-three-year-old G eorge Brush,a naïve,innocentyoung m an,w ason his w ay to heaven and en route tried to save and take along w ith him as m any soulsaspossible.G ood and evilw ere starkly established in hism ind, and hisdogged pursuitofgood created m any ludicrous situations. In one such situation in Kansas City,Brush w as taken by friends to a Sunday dinner atan establishm entrun by a m atronly person called M a Crofurt.This lady had a sizeable num ber ofdaughters and nieces.Brush liked the atm osphere and becam e a frequent visitor to the place. H e enjoyed the lively young w om en atthe dining table.H e also enjoyed the ritualoftaking som e ofthem to the m oviesatregularintervals.Eventually after m any unique and hum orous situations,the truth daw ned on a very shocked and disillusioned young m an— he w as in the center ofa house of prostitution.In discussing the book w ith W ilder,Im entioned thisparticular episode.H e chuckled,“Bandm aster,thatw as taken from reallife.A s a naïve young m an,ithappened to m e!”59 O n M arch 27,1938,Ireceived a telegram from D rew Pearson relaying the sad new s ofhisfather’sdeath.H ours later,radio reportsinform ed the local public of the dem ise of the form er governor.H e had been ill for m any w eeks due to a paralyticstroke.The end had com e suddenly in his sixty-seventh year. I w as saddened by the new s. Paul Pearson had been differentfrom allother governors w ith w hom Ihad served.There w as nothing m ilitary abouthim .H e w as ahum blem an w ith intense feeling for his fellow m en and an urgent desire to serve them .D r.Pearson broughtto the V irgin Islandsjob asolid background in education.A graduate of Baker College in the M idw est,he had done graduate w ork at N orthw estern U niversity and H arvard.For a tim e,he w as professor of public speaking at Sw arthm ore College,Pennsylvania.W hile there,he edited a literary m agazine.H e w as founder and presidentofthe Sw arthm ore Chautauqua A ssociation,w hose purpose w asto bring culture,m usical and literary,to the m asses.H e delivered lectures and recitals before m any Chautauqua clubs and colleges.

228 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics N one ofthisextensive educationalbackground prepared D r.Pearson for w hat aw aited him in the Virgin Islands.W hile later calling the islands a “veritable poorhouse,” PresidentH oover had helped m ake them justthat by taking im pulsive step to rem ove the navalpresence,the m ajoreconom ic prop tothe islands.D r.Pearson cam e intoaterritory thathad gone bankrupt overnight.M any peoplehad losttheirjobs.Cash registershad stopped ringing.M any residents,as a result,w ere bitterly opposed to civilgovernm ent and turned that hostility against the new governor as its representative. They clam ored for the return ofthe navy.Though som ew hatbew ildered, D r.Pearson kepthiscalm .There w as a quality in hischaracter oftolerance forthose w ho piled unnecessary obstaclesagainsthim .H e saw abrightlining in every dark cloud,and his sheer optim ism helped to keep high the m oraleofthose around him .“Justw ait,”he w ould say,“assoon asIgetm y socialand econom icrehabilitation program sin place,w e w illturn thisthing around.”60 M em orial services for the late governor w ere held in the islands’ churchesand schools.Flagsw ere flow n athalf-m astforthree days.O fficials w ho had served w ith the deceased eulogized him .Ikeptnew spaperaccounts ofsom e ofthose eulogies,particularly those ofM orrisde Castro,w ho had served on G overnor Pearson’sstaff,and D.Victor Bornn,w ho continued to serve as m anager ofthe V.I.Cooperatives— an outletfor localcraftsstarted by G overnorPearson.In hisrem arks,D.VictorBornn rem em bered: PaulM .Pearson fellin love w ith these islandsalm ostfrom the m om ent ofhisarrival.H isinfatuation forthem grew deeper,day by day,in the face ofallm annerofdiscouragem ent.The factthathe requested ofhis fam ily thathisrem ainsbe crem ated and thathisashesbe strew n in the Caribbean nearthese Virgin Islands,iseloquentproofofhisabiding love forthem .H islove w asnotm ere infatuation w ith beautifulscenery, delightfulclim ateorotherphysicalattractions.H e w asvitally interested in the betterm entofthe peopleand to thisend he labored m ightily. Itisnotdifficultto find around us lasting m onum entsto hisefforts. H e im proved our roads and created new ones.H e drained our sw am ps and created land on w hich our airporthas been built.H e im proved our hospitals.H e created ahom estead program .H e created aV.I.Cooperative.H e personally broughtaBluebeard CastleH otelinto being. W e m ustacknow ledge adeep debtofgratitude to thissocially m inded m an and to histenacious leadership.61

O n N ovem ber21,1938,FredericD.D orsch,second m em berforFrederiksted tow n,m unicipalcouncilofSt.Croix,proposed aresolution to the LegislativeA ssem bly,m eeting in St.Thom as,offering the U.S.Virgin Islandsas

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 229 a place ofsafety for refugee peoples.The resolution,though general,w as prom pted by the furious persecution of the Jew s in N azi G erm any.That condition,having grow n for severalyears,suddenly had reached unprecedented heights. In revenge for the deportation from G erm any and m erciless beating of hisfather,an elderly Polish tailor nam ed G rynszpan,hisseventeen-yearold son,H erschel,acting im pulsively and notthinking ofthe consequences, w alked into the G erm an Em bassy in the rue de Lille,Paris,on N ovem ber7, 1938,and pum ped five bulletsinto the G erm an third secretary,Ernstvom Rath.The undersecretary’sdeath w asthe signalforan unparalleled orgy of N azi anti-Sem itism .In every city and tow n of greater G erm any,synagogues w ere burned,Jew ish shops sm ashed and plundered,and thousands ofJew s beaten and som e even m urdered.The destruction w as w roughtby groups ofyoung m en and boys w ho w ore N azi-party uniform s,arrived in N azi-party autom obiles,acted w ith m ilitary precision,and w ere nothindered by the police. In response,the D orsch Resolution read as follow s: Beitresolved by the Legislative A ssem bly ofthe Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States in session assem bled:W H EREA S the w orld conditions have created large refugee groups and W H EREA S such groups w illeventually m igrateto places ofsafety and W H EREA S the Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States being aplace ofsafety can offer surcease from m isfortune. N ow therefore be itresolved by the Legislative A ssem bly ofthe Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States in session assem bled,thatitbe m ade know n to refugee peoples ofthe w orld thatw hen and ifexisting barriers are rem oved thatthey shallfind surcease from m isfortune in the Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States,and be itfurther resolved that copies ofthisResolution be forw arded to the Presidentofthe U nited States,the Secretary ofState,the Secretary ofInterior,the Secretary of Labor,and m em bers ofthe press.

W hen the D orsch Resolution w as broughtto the floor ofthe Legislative A ssem bly,the H onorable Joseph A lexander,veteran legislator from the Christiansted district,m ade an im passioned speech: M em bers ofthislegislative body,w e,representing butasm allpartof the civilized w orld,stand revolted by w hatw e are seeing happening in N aziG erm any:a bloody program againstadefenseless people.Ithink I speak for thisbody w hen Isay thatevery instinctin us cries outin protestagainstthese outrages.Ithink Ispeak for thisbody w hen Isay thatifw e saw agroup ofruthless ruffians setupon ahelpless m an or w om an in apublicstreetand proceed to beatthatperson or persons,w e

230 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics w ould notw antto be silent.Ifw e saw afanaticalm ob burn and pillage property and possessions ofinnocentpeople,w e w ould notw antto stay silent.Ifw e saw abrutalband ofdesperadoes drive helpless fam ilies from theirhom es and businesses,w e w ould notw antto stay silent.If the civilized w orld w antsto pretend thatthese things are nothappening;ifthey,particularly the nations ofthe W estern w orld,w antto stay aloof,then w e,a very sm allpartofthatcivilized w orld,m ustexpress our vehem entprotestagainstsuch barbarism .Itistrue thatour puny effortsm ightgetus now here,nevertheless the spiritthatgoes w ith our protestiscom m endable.W hatishappening in N aziG erm any isnota Jew ish question,a Catholicquestion,or aProtestantquestion,butone thatgoes to the very roots,the foundation on w hich am oraland civilized w orld isbuilt.

The resolution w as passed unanim ously.62 Copies ofthe D orsch Resolution w ere sentto top officialsin W ashington,D.C.Responsesfrom the U.S.presidentand the secretary ofstatew ere brief,m ere acknow ledgm ents.The secretary oflaborexpressed interestand sought m ore inform ation.Interior Secretary Ickes w as enthusiastic.“A greatidea,”he responded.“W hy notofferthe U.S.Virgin Islandsasatem porary refuge,a breathing space for those w aiting theirturn to enter the U nited States legally;or to enter other W estern countries,w hich,ifgiven sufficienttim e and encouragem ent,m ightw arm up to the idea ofaccepting som e of the displaced people,particularly skilled craftsm en and technicians.” Ickes suggested that“considering the lim ited Virgin Islands space, inadequatehousing and generallack ofaccom m odating facilities,alim itof notm ore than 2,000 refugees m ightbe accom m odated in the U.S.Virgin Islands in any one given year;and ...federalassistance w ould have to be given to provide adequate facilities.” “A s num bers of refugees from the Virgin Islandssanctuary w ere perm itted legalentry elsew here,”continued the secretary,“their places w ould be filled by others,never to exceed the 2,000 ceiling in any one given year.” D espitehisreputation forbeing tough,quarrelsom e,and stubborn,Secretary Ickesw asacom passionatem an.H um an suffering in any form ,large or sm all,affected him and offered him a challenge to do som ething about it.A s he looked out on the w orld of 1938,w hat Ickes saw sickened his spirit.In G erm any the N azigovernm entofH itler had raised to an organized frenzy itsbrutaland bloody program againsta defenseless people.In Spain the victorious forces ofG eneralissim o Francisco Franco had allbut overw helm ed the leftists.Young m en trying to hold outagainstthe fascists w ere being slaughtered by the thousands.A flood ofrefugees w as em erging w ith no place to go,w ith no country show ing any w illingnessto accept

Civilian G overnm entand Politics / 231 them .Ickes tried to arouse the Rooseveltadm inistration to protestagainst the outrages;to pay heed to the desperate plightofthese hopeless people; to develop a program ofasylum ,ofopen borders to perm itm any to enter the U nited States.H e pleaded also for the U nited States to urge other W estern countries to do the sam e. Ickes’s pleadings w ere not heeded.Isolationists and biased officials in the State D epartm enturged Rooseveltto stay aloof,and he follow ed their advice.O ther W estern countries also stayed aloof as if pretending that w hatw as happening w as notreal.The w holesaleindifference ofthe W estern w orld to thism assslaughterw asappalling and astigm a againstw orldw ide m orality in thatnightm arish period ofthe tw entieth century.A slight ray oflighthad appeared atthattim e,the D orsch Resolution,im probably placed in the Virgin Islands ofthe U nited States. H elping hum an beings in distress w as nothing new for Ickes.N or w as he averse to ignoring and bypassing bureaucraticred tape to accom plish his ends.In A pril 1938 an executive order fashioned at his desk at Interior paved the w ay for Virgin Islands governm ent secretary Robert M orss Lovettto allow agroup ofEuropean refugeesto entertheVirgin Islandsvia Tortolaw ithoutvisas.Ickesasked hisstaffto prepare hisplan forpresentation to the presidentand to hisfellow cabinetm em bers.H isstaffdid so,but pointed outto the secretary thatone m ain obstacle rem ained thatcould preventim plem entation ofhisVirgin Islandsplan.There w asastipulation in U.S.law preventing those w ho had already entered the country (how everthatentry occurred)from qualifying forregularentry into the U nited States under its quota system .This proviso,if enforced,w ould void the Virgin Islands plan.Ickes’s response w as typical:“Law s are m ade to be changed,and,ifnecessary,w e w illchange or m odify thisone.”63 Ickes and hislegalstaffentered into discussions in O ctober 1939 w ith representatives of the U.S.Labor,State,and Justice departm ents in an effortto exem ptthe U.S.Virgin Islandsfrom the objectionablestipulation. The Labor D epartm entpeoplew entalong 100 percent.H ow ever,the State D epartm entrepresentatives,acting underdirectordersfrom A ssistantSecretary of State Breckinridge Long,adam antly opposed granting exem ptions from the im m igration stipulation to anybody,including potential refugees in the U.S.Virgin Islands.Representatives ofthe Justice D epartm entrem ained uncom m itted.Ickesw asnotthe kind ofm an to acceptw hat he considered unreasonableopposition easily.H e arranged for an appointm entand w entto see Long. H e told the assistantsecretary:“Icam e here in person to stress to you the greathum an em ergency thatexistsin H itler’sEurope.A m erica cannot

232 / Civilian G overnm entand Politics stand by w ith itseyesclosed and itshandsfolded.Since G erm any annexed A ustria,scoresand scoresofm en ofgreatability and culture have com m itted and are continuing to com m it suicide from sheer desperation.These people,and others like them ,could m ake agreatcontribution to our country and our culture.Itseem s terrible thatour doors are closed to them .I cam e here in person to ask you w hy you are so adam antagainstopening even sm allareas ofhope?” “Ickes,” Long responded w ith w hatam ounted to a sneer,“the trouble w ith you bleeding-heartliberalsisthatyou think w ith yourheartsand not w ith your heads.A ny so-called refugee havens that you open now w ill becom e zones from w hich undesirables w illpour into thiscountry.Letm e m ake m y position clear.Iand m y departm entw illnotbe a party to this plan.Iw antyou to know,Ickes,thatIhave and w illcontinue to do allin m y pow er to keep A m erican doors closed to refugees.” Ickes recognized w hat he w as dealing w ith. Long w as one w hose ingrained prejudices left little room for com passion for fellow hum an beingsin distress.Itw entfurtherthan that.Keeping “undesirables” outof the U nited States becam e a passion w ith Long.H isw as one ofthe loudest and m osteffective voices raised againsta plan to create “free portzones” for refugees.Various areas scattered throughoutthe U nited States w ould provide tem porary shelter for European refugees untilthe w ar w as over. Thisidea w asfoughtand blocked effectively by the U.S.StateD epartm ent. Itw as a tragedy thata so-called liberallike Franklin D.Rooseveltlistened to peoplelike Long and hisassociates in the StateD epartm entinstead ofa com passionatevisionary like Ickes.Thisdecision costcountless lives.64

10 The Pow er ofthe Press (the 1940s)

Editor’sN ote:In February 1940 A dam stook overasow ner,publisher,editor,and roving reporter for one ofSt.Thom as’s historic new spapers,the Bulletin.This venture,especially in its culturalcoverage,recalled his St. Thom as Tim es (1921–23);how ever,unlike A dam s’s first paper,the new publication w as notattached to the U .S.N avy and thus could be a m ore independentasw ellaspoliticalvoice.The paperhad one im portantadvantage overitsrivals:A dam s’strusted position asw elcom ing coordinatorfor the islands’governor gave him valuable access to visiting politicians and celebrities as he w as frequently able to com bine his hosting duties w ith interview s.Thus the Bulletin could scoop itscom petitors and offer unique perspectiveson localhappenings.In thisw ay,A dam sinterview ed such figuresasthe D om inican G eneralissim o Trujillo and com poserIrving Berlin. H isinterview s reveala fascination w ith childhood background— a line of questioning consistentw ith hisnotionsaboutthe culturaland socialenvironm ent’sinfluence on the individual.Trujillo’sgrandm other,forexam ple, dutifully instilled in him virtues ofdiscipline,learning,and hard w ork;as a child,Berlin escaped a violentRussia to realizehisdream s.Berlin’ssuccess further affirm s notonly the pow er ofblack m usic through his borrow ings from ragtim e and jazz butalso the virtue ofself-im provem ent. Both com posers w ere largely self-taughttalents,and A dam s revelsin the affirm ation ofBerlin’ssuccess. A dam s’s new spaper proprietorship cam e to a sudden end w ith the bom bing ofPearlH arborand hisrecallto active duty from the N avalFleet Reserve.Sentback to Cuba,A dam s created w hatappears to be the navy’s firstdocum ented and officialracially integrated band by com bining eight ofhis form er band m em bers w ith an all-w hite unitalready stationed at G uantánam o.D raw ing on his connections in the Virgin Islands,A dam s 233

234 / The Pow er ofthe Press engineered his return to St.Thom as a year later along w ith his native bandsm en in order to form the second U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands,an all-black unitthatserved the islands’new ly com m issioned subm arine base.A dam sw riteslittleofhisW orldW arIIexperience; rather,the m em oirs focus on federalhigh jinks in W ashington,D.C.The popular governm ent secretary,Robert M orss Lovett,for exam ple,w as called to testify before the H ouse U n-A m erican A ctivities Com m ittee, then nam ed after its chairm an,M artin D ies.Lovettenjoyed strong supportin the islands,and eventually hissupporterscircum navigated the crisis,butnotw ithoutbringing Congress and the presidentinto conflictover the separation ofpow ers.A dam s’scharacterization ofgovernm entas full ofintrigue and interference disrupting sincere effortnotonly underscores the islands’precarious situation as a territorialdependentbutalso helps explain his ow n decision to supportlocalofficials w hile refraining from running for office him self. O n January 26,1940,Ifound m yselfone ofacapacity crow d thatattended asession ofthe Virgin Islands districtcourtto w itness anew federaljudge in action.O fparticular interestto m any ofus w as the factthatthe new com er,H erm an E.M oore,forty-seven years old,ofChicago,Illinois,w as the second N egro to be appointed districtjudge ofthe Virgin Islands by Franklin D elano Roosevelt.The first,JudgeW illiam H .H astie,appointed in 1937,had resigned the position severalm onths before to becom e dean of the H ow ard U niversity Law School.Itw as obvious to m e,w atching Judge M oore in court,thathe w as am an ofdignity,poise,and considerablelegal experience.Severalcasescam e before him thatm orning.In one instance,a defendant pleaded guilty to the charge of carrying a deadly w eapon;in another,a confessed burglar pleaded guilty on tw o counts.Before pronouncing sentence,Judge M oore spoke kindly to the defendants.H e urged them to do better and to w alk the straightroad after they had served their sentences.The judge show ed firm ness and com passion,and onlookers in the courtroom w ere im pressed. The appointm entofM r.M oore cam e asasurprise.N o one in the islands had ever heard of him .For that m atter,N egro congressm en and new s haw ks in W ashington had never heard of him .Secretary Ickes,it w as reported,w as the one w ho sw ung the appointm ent.Itdid nottake us long to get som e background inform ation on the new judge.H e w as born in Jackson,M ississippi.The son ofa physician,the young m an received his early education in Jackson schools.From there he w entto H ow ard U niversity,w here he graduated m agna cum laude.H is nam e appeared often on

The Pow er ofthe Press / 235 the university’shonor rolls.H e w as presidentofthe A lpha PhiA lpha fraternity and associate editor ofthe H ow ard U niversity journal,and firm ly sethiscourse tow ard becom ing alaw yer.A ccordingly,he studied law atthe Boston U niversity Law School,w here he w as aw arded a bachelor’sdegree in 1918 and hism aster’sin 1919.D uring hispostgraduate days,he established a reputation as a w riter oflegalbriefsfor various Boston law firm s. This helped him in becom ing assistant attorney for the Boston elevated railw ay,the firstN egro in thatpost.In 1921 M oore cam e to Chicago and practiced law there.For eighteen years he w as a m em ber of the Cook County BarA ssociation.Illinoisgovernor H orner appointed him assistant com m issionerofthe IllinoisCom m erce Com m ission in 1934.H e rem ained there until his appointm ent to the federal judgeship in the U.S.Virgin Islands w ith the solid and enthusiasticesteem ofhisform er associates.1 O n February 29,1940,the follow ing new s item appeared in the local press: Itisreported thatas oftw o days ago,Bandm asterA lton A .A dam s,U.S. N avalFleetReserve,took over the editorship and m anagem entofThe St.Thom as Bulletin,the oldestdaily new spaper in St.Thom as.Bandm asterA dam s isno stranger to the new spaper field.D uring the days w hen the navy adm inistered the U.S.Virgin Islands,Bandm aster A dam s took tim e outfrom hism usicalw ork to editThe St.Thom as Tim es,aw eekly paper offine appearance and excellentsubjectm atter. Itisno secretthatin recentyears the historicnew spaper,The Bulletin,has fallen far from itsform er stature and usefulness and has barely m anaged to survive.W ebelieve thatunder the firm and creative m anagem entofBandm asterA dam s,The Bulletin w illonce again com e alive and regain the public’sconfidence and respect.W e w elcom e editor A dam s into the field.

The press reportw as correct.Ihad been approached by a group ofprom inentpersonsw ho urged m e to take overthe m anagem entand editorship of the Bulletin.They selected m e,they said,as the one person,in theiropinion,w ho could take over the new spaper and build itback to the position of respectfor w hich ithad been know n.They prom ised financialbacking and afree hand.Iaccepted and assum ed the poston February 27,1940. In asim plestatem ent,Isaid: Today the task ofcarrying on the m anagem entand editorship ofThe Bulletin hasfallen on m e.ItrustIm ay prove capable.U nderm y direction The Bulletin w illbe an independentnew spaperin the sense thatit w illnotbe used form otivesotherthan the publicgood.Itsprim ary function w illbe to printthe new s.W hen the editor’sview sare deem ed necessary,they w illbe given honestly and in clearunm istakablelanguage.

236 / The Pow er ofthe Press The Bulletin isindeed historic.Itw as the firstdaily new spaper to com e into existence in St.Thom as.It w as started in the year 1874,as an allEnglish-language offshootofthe bilingualSt.Thom asTidende,abiw eekly governm ent-controlled new spaper.In those days the governm entsupervised allaspectsofjournalisticexpression.To geta specialgrantas editor and to operate a printing office,itw as necessary to pass an exam ination before the police authorities.In every case a sw orn statem entw as necessary thatatno tim e w ould the editor perm itthe use ofhis colum ns for anti-governm ent agitation.Controversial m atters w ere referred to the governm ent for approval and clearance.This press and censorship law,a relic ofthe m id-nineteenth century,w as only abolished in 1917 w ith the transfer ofthe islands to U.S.sovereignty.2 M y firstm ove after taking over the m anagem entofthe Bulletin w as to plan for the transfer ofthe new spaper from itscram ped and very unsatisfactory quarters dow ntow n.W e arranged to relocate atN o.6B W im m elskaftG ade (Back Street),Q ueens Q uarter,in the entire ground floor ofa building know n as the Eureka H otel(later,The G ate).The room s,four or five in num ber,w ere large and airy,w ith high ceilings.For m y office,I selected the room s at the southeastern corner,one block aw ay from the centerofM ain Street(D ronningensG ade).W ith m y desk in place and w ith som e quick painting and carpeting contem plated,Iknew that I could be com fortablethere. O n that first day of m y assum ing m anagem ent of the new spaper, February 27,1940,Ireceived m y firstcom m unication from the localgovernm entaddressed to m e aseditor.The com m unication w asfrom the H onorableD r.RobertM orssLovett,governm entsecretary,w ho had taken over as acting governor for G overnor Cram er,w ho w as in W ashington.D r. Lovettinform ed m e,ashe did otherinterested parties,thathe had received w ord that m orning that G eneralissim o Rafael Leónidas Trujillo M olina, ex-presidentofthe D om inican Republic,w as on hisw ay to St.Thom asfor a visit.The generalissim o w as due to arrive the follow ing m orning and planned to dock atthe W estIndian Com pany aboard hisyacht,Ram fis.It w as Trujillo’sstated intention to exchange callsw ith the acting governor. In keeping w ith protocol,D r.Lovettand staffplanned to m eetthe Ram fis w hen itdocked.Editorsand key new sm en ofthe localpressw ere invited to join the reception group.Iw asdelighted to acceptthe invitation.W hatbetter w ay to startm y editorship than w ith afront-page interview w ith G eneralissim o Trujillo,the “strongm an” ofthe Caribbean? H e w as atthe peak ofhisachievem entsin hisisland dom ain and w as enjoying greatpopularity w ith hispeople.

The Pow er ofthe Press / 237 A t 10:15 the next m orning,acting governor Lovett,accom panied by staffand m em bersofthe press,D om inican consulEm ileA .Berne,and Vice ConsulJ.Percy Souffront,as w ellas LieutenantColonelFrancisP.M ulcahy (com m anding officer ofthe m arine air base in St.Thom as),boarded the Ram fisand paid theirrespectsto the generalissim o,w ho stood w ith his staffon the foredeck.A s ifatagiven signalfrom ColonelM ulcahy,planes ofthe localairbase roared overhead,circled,and dipped theirw ingsin m ilitary saluteto the generalissim o.Trujillo w asobviously pleased.H e sm iled continuously and w aved hisarm s aloftin happy response.3 A t the tim e of his visit to St.Thom as, G eneralissim o Trujillo w as acclaim ed athom e and abroad forthe excellentjob he had done in restoring order and prosperity to his country.Taking over the presidency of the D om inican Republic from the faltering leadership of H oracio Vasquez in 1930,w ith the country in a condition bordering on chaos,Trujillo’s firm hand and sound econom icpolicieshad broughtthe country from confusion and nearanarchy to ahigh standard ofliving.Ten yearsofstrong leadership and skilled m anagem entearned forTrujillo the respectofoutsidersand the idolatry ofhisow n people.In lightofthispopular endorsem ent,itw as not difficultforacting governorLovett,an outstanding A m erican liberal,to feel com fortable in greeting and entertaining Trujillo.A t7:30 P.M .on February 29,1940,the second nightofTrujillo’svisit,acting governorand M rs.Lovett entertained the generalissim o and hisparty atadinner atBluebeard Castle H otel.Besides the acting governor and hisw ife,hisstaff,and m em bers of the press,the generalissim o’sdaughter Flor de O ro and a lady com panion w ere honored guests.The ladies had arrived at Bluebeard Castle several days before by steam er.Toastsand com plim entary rem arks w ere the order ofthe evening.The localpress,too,w as favorably inclined tow ard the generalissim o.H ere isone pressreaction ofM arch 1,1940: The courtesies being paid to hisExcellency,RafaelLeonidasTrujillo M olina,are deserved and are our tributeto one ofthe outstanding adm inistrators ofpresenttim es.Itisnotoften thatw e are privileged to m eetaconstructive statesm an and patriotw hose deeds are ofsocialand econom icsignificance to hiscountry,and ofconsiderableinterestto the w orld in general.ItisnotablethatPresidentTrujillo,w hen he considered the tim e right,gave over the pow er he had builtto the representative body ofhiscountry;thatthe N ationalD em ocraticCongress had to be persuaded to accepthisretirem ent.D r.Juancito B.Reynardo,Trujillo’ssuccessor,w as inaugurated tw o years ago on A ug.16,1938.4

A s a m em ber ofthe localpress,Iattended the dinner honoring Trujillo and hisdaughter.W earing m y navaluniform ,Ifound m yselfseated nextto

238 / The Pow er ofthe Press the generalissim o’s m ilitary aide G eneralM cLaughlin,an ex-m arine and trusted confidant.Before the evening w as over,w e had sw apped backgrounds and becom e good friends.A tm y request,M cLaughlin prom ised thathe w ould try to arrange a press interview for m e w ith the generalissim o.M cLaughlin w as as good as his w ord.H e called m e nextm orning, early.The interview had been arranged.G eneralissim o Trujillo had agreed to see m e ateleven o’clock,M arch 1,1940,aboard the Ram fis. W e m et in the beautiful and spacious lounge of his yacht.Trujillo greeted m e w arm ly.H e w as an im pressive figure ofm edium height,slender and handsom e in his adm iral’s uniform ,an array ofm edals covering hischest.Iw asinform ed thatw hilethe generalissim o w asconversantw ith the English language,he felt m ore at ease w ith his native Spanish.H is daughterFlorde O ro,fluentin both languages,graciously offered to translate.Through her,Istressed thatthe readersofm y new spaperw ere particularly interested in know ing som ething ofthe fam ily’s background.In a relaxed m ood,the generalissim o com plied.H e w as forty-nine years old, born O ctober 24,1891,in San Cristóbal,a sm alltow n in the province of Santo D om ingo.H e w as the fourth child ofD on José Trujillo Valdez and D oña Julia M olina Chevalier.O n hisfather’sside,he w as ofpure Spanish stock.The Trujillos had com e to the N ew W orld during the early days of A m erica’s discovery and colonization.O ne of his forebears had been a prom inentgeneralin Cuba w ho had w on im portantvictories over insurgents seeking to break aw ay from Spanish rule.This particular forebear had been decorated,tim e and again,by the Spanish Crow n. O n hism other’sside,the Chevaliers cam e from the France ofEm peror N apoleon I.O ne ofhisforebears,the M arquisJoseph Chevalier,had com e to H ispaniola in the early days ofthe nineteenth century as a m em ber ofthe entourage ofG eneralLe Clerc,sentby N apoleon to putdow n w idespread rebellion,to pacify H ispaniola,and to reestablish French rule.Le Clerc w as m arried toPauline Bonaparte,sisterofthe em peror.Trujillow asproud ofhis heritage.Thisw asthe background thatbroughthim to the leadership ofthe m ilitary.H e graduated from the D om inican m ilitary academ y w ith the rank ofsecond lieutenant.H e gained prom otion from one rank to another w ith rem arkable speed untilhe attained the position ofbrigadier general,com m ander-in-chiefofthe D om inican A rm y.U nderhiscom m and,the country’s m ilitary installation gained prestige beyond the island’sfrontiers.5 Trujillo seem ed to enjoy talking about his boyhood and his early upbringing in sm all-tow n San Cristóbal.W ith hisbrothers and sisters,he had attended the village school,butitw as hisgrandm other,D oña Louisa Ercine Chevalier,w ho exerted influence on the children.H isgrandm other

The Pow er ofthe Press / 239 w as a lady ofquality w ho had absorbed the traditionalculture ofher aristocraticFrench fam ily background and w ho feltitherduty to passthisculture on to her grandchildren.She devoted every m om ent of tim e aw ay from household duties to w ork on their m inds.She taughtthem to read and w rite.She stressed the im portance of discipline and hard w ork.She detested idleness.She urged self-sufficiency.She held strongly to the belief thatG od helps those w ho help them selves. Trujillo’sfirstjob,under the guidance ofhisuncle,D on Pina Chevalier, w asasatelegraph operator.H e w asgiven an assistantposition in the tow n’s telegraph office.From there he w as sentto the m ain office in the nation’s capital.Trujillow astw enty-five yearsoldw hen hiscountry w asoccupied by U.S.m arinesin 1916.Itw asnotthe firstU.S.intervention in the D om inican Republic.In 1905,w hen Trujillo w as fourteen,U.S.president Theodore Roosevelt,brandishing abig stick and the M onroe D octrine,had taken over the D om inican custom houses and arranged a receivership to pay offEuropean creditors.The island republic,as aresultofaseries ofinternalrevolutions,w as hopelessly bankrupt.Foreign w arships w ere poised to enter D om inican portsto take over the custom s to try to collectm oney ow ed to theirnationals. The U nited States stayed in the D om inican Republic in a supervisory role backed up by itsm ilitary form 1916 to 1924,w hen the m arines w ere w ithdraw n.The fiscal condition of the island show ed m arked im provem ent.M eanw hile,the U.S.m ilitary took over the training ofthe D om inican arm y.Trujillo’srelationship w ith the U.S.m arines w as a good one.A s asergeantin the D om inican arm y he struck up friendshipsw ith theA m ericans.O ne ofthese friendships w hich endured w as w ith M cLaughlin,w ho also w as a sergeantand an up-and-com er in the m arines.W ith Trujillo on hisw ay to the top,M cLaughlin retired from the m arines and becam e Trujillo’sconfidantand m ilitary adviser.D uring asocialand econom iccrisisin 1930,the then presidentofthe republic,H oracio Vasquez,m eekly turned over the governm entto the revolutionists.N otbeing able to fathom this w eakness on the partofthe executive,Trujillo resigned as com m ander-inchiefofthe D om inican arm ed forces and retired to his hom e.Insurgents united under the banner ofthe revolution soughthim there and gothis perm ission to proclaim him acandidateforoffice ofpresidentofthe republic.Trujillo w on unopposed.6 W hen Itook over as editor,roving reporter,and publisher ofthe Bulletin,Idid notrealizehow m uch Iw ould enjoy interview s.H ardly am onth passed butsom e rem arkableindividualor situation presented itselfcalling for press attention.O ften friends alerted m e to these opportunities.O n

240 / The Pow er ofthe Press June 15,1940,Iinterview ed D anielH enley,a native ofSt.Thom asw ho had leftthe island on N ovem ber 16,1939,as a sailor on the G reek ship Eleni Stathatos.The steam freighterarrived in England on D ecem ber12,leaking badly.The Stathatosw enton drydock,w asrepaired,and leftforVera Cruz, M exico.LetD anielH enley tellthe story: W e had hardly leftthe British coaston January 28,1940,w hen w e w ere torpedoed by aG erm an subm arine.Tw o lifeboatsw ere launched just before our ship sank.O ne ofthe lifeboats,badly dam aged,capsized. Thirty-three ofthe ship’scom plem ent,officers and m en,som e ofthem pulled outofthe w ater,crow ded the one rem aining lifeboat.There had been no tim e to secure food and w ater. W hatfollow ed w as anightm are in afurious N orth A tlanticgale w ith the m en in the tossing lifeboatholding on for dear lifew hilethe w ind how led around us and icy tem peratures w entw ellbelow zero.W e had no protection from the intense cold.Things had happened too fast for us to secure w arm clothing,blankets,or covering for our bodies.O n the afternoon ofthe second day,the second m atew entm ad and started eating the flesh from hishand.The restofus w ere too im m obilized by the cold to try to stop him .By eighto’clock in the evening,six ofthe occupantsofthe boat,including the crazed second m ate,had frozen to death.W ith greatdifficulty,w e threw them overboard.By m orning, four m ore had suffered the sam e fate.By the tim e the strong tides carried us to the Irish coast,tw enty-three m en had frozen to death. H aving to help,w ith partly frozen lim bs,to throw m y fellow seam en into the icy sea rem ains to m e like aconstantnightm are.O ffthe Irish coast,w e encountered am otor launch thattow ed us into anearby port.Ten ofus thatw ere leftofthe originalthirty-three w ere rushed to ahospitalw here four m ore died.The rem aining six ofus,in various stages offrostbite,recovered slow ly. W hen Icould m anage it,IleftIreland.Itook passage on the SS O rbataofthe PacificSteam ship N avigating Com pany and w entto Cristobal,Panam a,w here Ispenttw o m onths and tw enty-seven days regaining m y health w ith the kind help ofD r.J.D.O don ofthe quarantine service there.From Cristobal,Iw entto Curaçao,then to St.Kitts,w here Iboarded asm allfruitboatw hich broughtm e back to St.Thom as.The w arm th ofthe tropicalsun,w hich Ihad alw ays taken for granted,took on new m eaning for m e.Ihope never to leave this island again.7

The m orning ofO ctober10,1940,Iw asalerted to the factthatthe night before,three convictsfrom D evil’sIsland,the French penalcolony offthe coastofFrench G uiana,had arrived in St.Thom as in an open tw enty-oneby-six-footcanoe.A s editor–publisher–roving reporter for the St.Thom as Bulletin,Ifound thisnew s ofspecialinterest.A few m onths before,Ihad

The Pow er ofthe Press / 241 been com m issioned by a nationalpress service to go to St.Croix to interview fourteen escaped convicts from the sam e notorious penal colony. M uch had happened in those few m onths.The French governm enton the European continent had surrendered to H itler.The Vichy governm ent, headed by M arshalPhilippe Pétain,had been setup.Thisgovernm entcollaborated w ith the N azis.Iw as m ostcurious to find outw hateffectthese drasticpoliticalchanges in Europe had on the French penalsystem in the Caribbean.Perhaps the three escaped convictsin the canoe m ightgive m e the answ er. Im etand talked w ith the ragged,w eary,and hungry-looking m en.Leaving D evil’sIsland on July 28,the convictshad gone to Tobago,St.Vincent, and St.Kitts,from w hich latter island they had com e to St.Thom as.H enri Roulet,the thirty-eight-year-old spokesm an for the group,told m e thathe had been sentfrom France to D evil’s Island for stabbing an arm y officer. Charles G rouzet,the second m an in the canoe,fifty-seven years old,had been im prisoned for burglary.G eorges G irod,the third m an,thirty-tw o years old,w as sent to D evil’s Island for being an accom plice to m urder. Explaining the terrible hardships in the penal colony,the m en said that since allprison discipline had ended w ith the N azitakeover ofcontinental France,hunger-m addened convictsw ere roam ing alloverthe colony.D ue to the collapse ofFrance,m ostofthe D evil’sIsland guards,w ho had received no pay in m onths,had abandoned the island.“M ostofthe convicts,” said H enri Roulet,“w ere loyal to G eneral de G aulle’s governm ent in exile.” Captain Chandon,de G aulle’s representative in G eorgetow n,D em arara, had leftthe area,taking w ith him 110 colonialinfantry from the island and 200 convictsw ho expressed the desire to join and fightfor the de G aullists. The three convictsin the canoe adm ired de G aulleso m uch thatthey nam ed their canoe G eneral de G aulle.H enri Roulet estim ated that there w ere m ore than tw o thousand prisoners lefton the island.M ostofthem w ere desperate for food and w ithout m edical care or supervision of any kind. They could notgetoutthrough regularchannels.They did nothave m oney to buy passage on a boat no m atter how cheap.The broken-dow n island governm entw as run by A dm iralRobert,head ofthe French colonialgovernm ent in the Caribbean.A dm iral Robert w as a Pétain m an and w as intensely hated by the people.A handfulofconvicts,like H enriand histw o com panions,had stolen canoesand escaped.8 M y job as editor ofthe St.Thom as Bulletin and as its“top” reporter (due to lack offunds and staff)fitted neatly into m y volunteer efforts as chairm an of the governor’s reception com m ittee.From the beginning,I enjoyed the reception com m ittee w ork and the close contactw ith unusual

242 / The Pow er ofthe Press and renow ned peoplew ho visited St.Thom as.N ow Iw as in aunique position to scoop interview s w ith these celebrated people for m y new spaper. O n N ovem ber 11,1940,Ireceived a phone callfrom G overnm entH ouse. A cting governor Lovettw as on the line:“Bandm aster A dam s,once again w e are calling on you for help.W ord has justbeen received thatthe brand new passenger liner SS A m erica ofthe U nited States Lines has run into bad w eather on her w ay to Puerto Rico.Because ofvery high seas in San Juan H arbor,the ship is skipping San Juan and is com ing here ahead of schedule.The A m erica is due here tom orrow w ith four hundred passengers.A ccording to m y w ife,w ho is a passenger aboard,there are m any celebrities w ho require specialhandling. “A syou m ay know,Bandm aster,M rs.Lovettand Iw ere on avacation on the U.S.m ainland and w ere both scheduled to return on the A m erica to St. Thom as.M y planschanged abruptly w hen Ireceived ordersto return to St. Thom as by plane im m ediately to greetTreasury Secretary H enry M orgenthau,w ho ispresently m y guestatG overnm entH ouse and isrequiring m y fullattention.Thatisw hy Iam calling on you and your com m ittee to m eetthe ship and to take over the w elcom ing duties in your usualskilled, efficientm anner. “A sam usician,itshould exciteyou to know thatthe fam oussongw riter Irving Berlin and his w ife are being entrusted to your care.A lso in the group thatm y w ifehasselected to be taken to G overnm entH ouse are G loriaSw anson,the screen star;M rs.A lice D uer,novelistand noted w riterfor the Saturday Evening Post;G eorge W .A rm itage,head ofthe touristboard in the H aw aiian Islands;and Congressm an Sol Bloom ,chairm an of the H ouse Foreign A ffairs Com m ittee,w ith hisw ifeand daughter.” The thoughtoftaking care ofIrving Berlin truly excited m e.H ere w as a m usical genius w ho had produced hits such as “A lexander’s Ragtim e Band,”“ThisIstheA rm y,”“A sThousandsCheer,”“W hat’llID o,”“Reaching forthe M oon,”and ahostofothernum bersforthe Ziegfeld Follies,the M usicBox Revue,and other show s.The m an w as atthe heightofhiscreative pow ers,and the m usical w orld and the public w ere expectant of greater w orks to com e.Icould hardly w aitto m eethim .”9 A t 8:00 A .M . the m orning of N ovem ber 12, 1940, the SS A m erica anchored atthe entrance toSt.Thom asH arbor.Launchesw ere low ered,and by 9:30 A .M .the firstpassengersbegan arriving atKing’sW harf.A crow d of localsw aited atthe landing.W ord had gotten around thatthe H ollyw ood screen star G loria Sw anson,a passenger aboard,w as planning to spend the day ashore.Sw anson had been an idoloflocalm oviegoersfrom the daysof the silentfilm s,and here w as a chance to see the celebrated lady in person.

The Pow er ofthe Press / 243 N orw ere they disappointed.A sshe stepped ashore,looking asglam orousas w as expected, islanders sw arm ed around her, taking photographs and requesting autographs.The lady w as friendly and accom m odating.M eanw hile our reception com m ittee w as on hand w ith lists of those persons entrusted to itscare.Plans called for a scenictour highlighted by a visitto hilltop Louisenhojand itsm agnificentvistas,then aluncheon atBluebeard CastleH otelTerrace,to be follow ed by areception atG overnm entH ouse.I had arranged w ith m y colleagues thatIrving Berlin and hisw ife w ould be m y specialcharges.Itw asaunique opportunity form e tointerview thiscelebrated m usicalgenius. Irecognized the Berlins as they stepped ashore from the ship’slaunch. Both looked exactly like the picture Ihad seen ofthem .H e w as a slender m an ofm edium height,alm ostfragile looking nextto hissturdy w ife.H e seem ed to be in hisearly fifties,hisw ife som ew hatyounger.Iled them to m y w aiting car.Ihad arranged forachauffeurso thatIcould give them m y undivided tim e and attention.W hen I introduced m yself,Berlin’s brow n eyesflashed from behind horned-rim m ed glasses:“Bandm asterA dam s,”he said,“Ihave heard ofyou.D idn’tyou and yourband tourthe U nited States during the 1920s? IrecallIw as in Philadelphia atthe tim e w orking w ith a group of talented N egro m usicians.W e w ere pioneering in new fields of ragtim e and jazz m usic,creating strongly syncopated m elodies into a new dance craze thatw assw eeping the country.Itw asan exciting tim e.Som e of these friends m entioned to m e the uniqueness ofan allN egro navalband thathad com e up from the W estIndies and w as on agoodw illtour.Several w ho attended yourconcertw ere im pressed w ith the discipline ofthe group, the quality ofthe m usic,and the dignity and ability ofitsleader.”10 A tabout11:00 A .M .w e leftKing’sW harfand the ever increasing num berofpassengerslanding from the A m erica.O urfour-carconvoy,carrying m ore than a dozen guestsofacting governor and M rs.Lovett,headed for the hills and a scenic tour.Iw as in the N o.4 car w ith the Irving Berlins. D irectly ahead of m e w ere M rs.Lovett,G loria Sw anson,and tw o other guests.In cars N o.1 and N o.2 w ere M rs.A lice D uer,G eorge A rm itage, Congressm an SolBloom ,his w ife and daughter,and severalm em bers of our reception com m itteew ho served as drivers. Finding m yselfin such close contactw ith a m usicalgenius like Irving Berlin w as like a dream com e true.W e talked m usic from the beginning and w e enjoyed it.Itold him thataquarter ofacentury before as ayoung bandm aster w ith a fledgling band,Ihad tram ped the streets ofCharlotte A m alie to the m usic of“A lexander’s Ragtim e Band,” w hich popularized ragtim e m usicin the Virgin Islands the w ay ragtim e had been popularized

244 / The Pow er ofthe Press on the U.S.m ainland.“A syou know,A dam s,”Berlin replied,“ragtim e isof A m erican N egro origin and from m y beginning as a com poser,itssyncopated m elodiesattracted m e.M oreover,Ihave asentim entalattachm entto ragtim e.‘A lexander’s Ragtim e Band’w as m y firstbig hit.Itcam e outin 1911,and in those daysitw asarecord breakerw ith m ore than one m illion copies of sheet m usic sold.It all began as a piano ragtim e piece called ‘A lexander and H is Clarinet.’ Its strong pulsating beats and rhythm s attracted attention am ong som e ofm y friends and they encouraged m e to develop it.‘A lexander’sRagtim e Band’w as the result.” From tim e to tim e,M rs.Berlin urged her husband to look outofthe car’s w indow at the m agnificent view s that w ere unfolding,but Berlin seem ed m ore interested in continuing his m usical discussion. “D on’t w orry,M rs.Berlin,” Isaid.“W here w e are going you w illsee allthisand m ore too.” “You know,A dam s,” continued Berlin,“m ostofm y big hitscam e from scores Iw rote for m usicalshow s.Take ‘G od BlessA m erica,’for instance.I w rote thatsong in 1918 for aW orld W ar Iarm y m usicalshow.Itw as set aside and forgotten.Tw enty yearslater,on A rm istice D ay 1938,KateSm ith introduced it to the A m erican public and it becam e a sm ash hit,one of A m erica’sfavorite songs.Royalties are stillrolling in to the tune ofhundreds ofthousands ofdollars.M y friends tellm e thatitthreatens to dislodge the A m erican anthem .11 “A dam s,luck plays a partin songw riting.You try and you try,and then one tim e you strike itright;a sim pleand appealing m elody,the opportunity to presentitin the rightplace,and you have a hit.Back in 1919 Iw rote a song forthe ZiegfeldFolliesofthatyear,‘A Pretty G irlIsLike aM elody.’The tim ing,the place,and the sentim entw ere justrightand itw entover big.It becam e a them e song for Ziegfeld extravaganzas thatfollow ed.In 1935,I w rote the score for the m usicalfilm Top H at,in w hich G inger Rogers and Fred A staire introduced tw o of m y songs,‘Isn’t This a Lovely D ay’ and ‘Cheek to Cheek.’ Both w ent over big.These songs and songs such as ‘A lw ays,’‘A llA lone,’and m any others w ere sim pleand appealing m elodies w ritten for show s and film s.D o you rem em ber‘O h,H ow IH ateto G etU p in the M orning’? Iw rote thatfor thatsam e arm y show w ay back in 1918. W here did itcom e from ? M y ow n experience.In those arm y days,Iloved to sleep untilnoon,buglesorno bugles.A nyw ay,A dam s,Iseem to be doing allthe talking.Let’shearfrom you.H ow did you getstarted in m usic?” “M r.Berlin,” I said,“I grew up in a hom e in w hich m usic played an im portantpart.M y father w as a guitar player.H e had no form alm usical education.H e played by ear,notby note.H e form ed alocalgroup ofsim i-

The Pow er ofthe Press / 245 lar m usically attuned friends,vocalists and instrum ent players w ho m et regularly in ourhom e.So from the tim e Iw asachild,Iw assurrounded by thism usicalatm osphere.A tage nine,Ireceived a sm allflute as a gift,and Ibegan to teach m yselfto play.From thattim e on,m usicbegan to becom e apartofm y lifeand thoughts,and Icould notgetenough ofit.A tage fourteen Ijoined asm allband asaflutist.The band grew in sizeand laterdeveloped into the island’sfirstnative brass band.In 1909,atthe age tw enty,I organized the St.Thom as JuvenileBand.By 1917 thisband had developed into afirst-class organization. “That year,our band w as taken over by the U.S.N avy.I becam e the navy’s first black bandm aster,and m y m usicians becam e the navy’s first all-black band.Im ustadm it,M r.Berlin,the only form alm usicaltraining I everreceived w asacorrespondence course thatItook in harm ony,counterpoint,and com position.” Berlin sm iled.“A dam s,” he said,“to this day Iam unable to read harm ony.Iarrange notes w ith one finger on a piano,and an arranger takes dow n w hatIplay by ear.O n occasions Ihave asked friends w ho are m usically know ledgeableifIshould take tim e offto study com position.Invariably,I have gotten the sam e answ er:studying com position and theory m ighthelp you a little,butitcould cram p your style,your freshness and originality.”12 O ur four-car convoy soon arrived atthe entrance to LouisenhojCastle. A s the passengers disem barked, M rs. Lovett approached m e and said, “Bandm aster,m y com panion,G loria Sw anson,has been asking m e about the history ofthisplace.Iam sure the restofour guestsare curious too. W ould you oblige?” Isaid Iw ould try. “D uring the early partofthe nineteenth century,” Isaid to the group gathered around m e,“a prom inent D anish fam ily,the M agens,lived at EstateLouisenhojand controlled m ostofthe land adjacentto the beautiful bay on the northern side and the harbor on the southern side.U pon the sum m itofthe hill,com m anding m agnificentview s on allsides,a m odest villa,Louisenhoj,w as built. “EstateLouisenhojrem ained in the handsofthe M agensfam ily forthe duration ofthe nineteenth century.In the early tw entieth century,m em bers ofthe M agens fam ily,before leaving the islands,sold theirinterestin Louisenhojto CarlLa Beetfor$850.In 1918 La Beetsold the property and land around it,com prising thirty-six acres,to aw ealthy A m erican,A rthur Fairchild,for the sum of$3,500.M r.Fairchild w as a w orld traveler w ith a particular interestin Italy,G reece,and the restofthe M editerranean.H e w as so struck by the beauty and uniqueness ofthe Louisenhojsitethathe

246 / The Pow er ofthe Press decided to build a dream house and castle on the stone foundations ofthe old house.A m an ofm oney and fine taste,he spentyears directing local artisans to create a m asterpiece in stone,em bodying architectural ideas thathe had gathered in histravels.So m uch for avery briefhistory.Folks, go in and see w ith your ow n eyes w hathe has created.” W e w ere m etatthe Louisenhojgate by M r.A lphonse N elthropp.“M r. Fairchild,” he said,“is now on the northern patio,entertaining Treasury Secretary H enry M orgenthau and friends.H e hasasked m e to take you on a tour ofthe castle and grounds,and after thathe w ould like you to join him .” M r.N elthropp,a m ostgracious m an,took us through the colum ned Rom an gardens,13 the outerand innerpatios,and up and dow n stone stairw aysto the m ain room sw ith theirfine furnishings.Finally,w e w ere taken to the base ofthe tow er,w here tw o persons ata tim e clim bed the narrow w ooden stairw ay to the top to w itnessam ostspectacular 360-degree view. Itw as an unusualday.The ocean stretched in alldirections like a flatblue carpet.The visibility w asrem arkable.W e looked outon theA tlanticand its islands to the north and east— H ans Lollik,JostVan D yke,St.John,Tortola,Virgin G orda,and severalislets.W e saw St.Croix to the south,standing clear on the horizon;Culebra,Vieques,and Puerto Rico to the w est. Looking dow n from the tow er’ssouthern retaining w all,the entire city of CharlotteA m alieand itsharborunfolded.O n descending the stairw ay,Irving Berlin said to m e,“A dam s,afterallthisspectacularnaturalbeauty,Iam ready to graduatefrom songw riting and try m y hand atasym phony.” W e joined M r.Fairchild and his guests on the north patio.Secretary M orgenthau and Congressm an Bloom w ere old friends.The secretary seem ed intrigued w ith the idea ofm eeting G loria Sw anson and the Irving Berlins.Secretary M orgenthau recognized m e.The evening before,as a m em ber ofthe localpress corps,Ihad attended an interview w ith him at G overnm entH ouse,w here the secretary explained the reason for hisvisit and answ ered questions.H e had com e partly for pleasure as w ell.A s the m an responsible for raising the m oney for the huge defense buildup,the treasury secretary had been touring areason the m ainland and the territoriesto see w hatw ashappening.“In thatw ay,”he said,“Iw illbe betterable to explain to the various authorities w hatisbeing done w ith the m oney.” H e found the islandsvery beautiful,restfulto the eye and soul.N exttim e, w hich he hoped w ould be soon,he w ould bring hisfam ily w ith him for a longer stay.W hen asked w hy the islands w ere being leftoutofthe Selective Service System ,M orgenthau said he did notknow butw ould be glad to bring the m atter to the attention ofthe presidentand the secretary of w ar on hisreturn to the m ainland.

The Pow er ofthe Press / 247 W e stayed on the northern patio for m ore than an hour.The visitors could notgetover the overallbeauty and com m ented on how w ellagifted and talented aestheticlikeA rthurFairchild had planned hisdream house to achieve m axim um effect.O ur guestsw ere reluctantto leave.In the saying ofgoodbyes,Iw as w ithin earshotand heard Secretary M orgenthau say to Irving Berlin,“Iam honored to m eetyou.Your m orale-building contribution to A m erican patriotism through your songs and plays have m ade the w orkload easier for peoplelike m e.”14 A tm idday N ovem ber 12,1940,our group ofpassengers from the SS A m erica leftLouisenhojdelighted w ith w hatthey had seen and the hospitality they had received.The nextscheduled stop w as a visitto the terrace atBluebeard Castle H otel,w here a specialluncheon aw aited.A s w e w ere getting into the cars,M rs.Lovettcam e over to m e and said,“Bandm aster A dam s,there isa slightchange in schedule.G loria Sw anson has prom ised to appear atthe RobertH errick School,w hich isnotfar from here.Ifthe restofyou w antto go ahead,w e w illm eetyou atBluebeard.H ow ever,if you w antto com e along,Iprom ise you thatitw illbe a shortstop.” W e agreed to go along.W ith Sw anson’scar leading and our three cars follow ing,w e stopped atthe RobertH errick School.Itw asasm allstone building setin surroundingsofbeautifultropicalfoliage.A graciousteacher,Lucille Roberts,and neatly dressed children w ere w aiting in astateofexcitem ent. G loria Sw anson w entin,greeted one and all,m ade a shortspeech,asked questions ofthe children,then cam e outside and had a photograph taken. To achorus offarew ells,she leftas suddenly as she had com e.15 A t2:30 P.M .w e arrived atBluebeard Castle H otel,w here preparations had been m ade by the m anagem entto receive us.Spacioustables,each w ith acentraldisplay ofisland flow ers,w ere arranged along the edgesofthe terrace so thatthe guestscould enjoy the m axim um view ofthe harbor,the city,and the hillsbehind it.A nd enjoy itthey did— they m oved from one vantage pointto the other,excitedly pointing outto each other som e particular area thatcaughttheirfancy.Finally,allparties w ere seated attheir tables ready to enjoy.Irving Berlin,seated nextto m e,expressed hisfeelings:“A dam s,thishas been am ostm em orableday.Ithas been one beautifulexperience afteranother.So m uch naturalbeauty everyw here.M y w ife and Iare already planning to com e back for a longer stay.” M idw ay in the m eal,Berlin pushed back his chair and said to m e,“A dam s,allalong the w ay you have been taking notes.Thatisthe new spaperm an in you.Butlet m e getback to speaking to you asam usician.You have told m e aboutyour hum ble beginnings and how you w ere draw n to m usic.So letm e tellyou som ething aboutm y hum blestart.

248 / The Pow er ofthe Press “Iw as born in the old country,a sm allvillage in Russia.The date w as M ay 11,1888.M y fam ily nam e w as Baline.W e w ere very poor.M y father w as aTalm udicscholar and a cantor in the synagogue.Pogrom s and their aim lesskillingsw ere prevalentin those days,recreationaloutingsforCossacks.Even asavery young child Irem em berhiding in adark cornerofthe house,listening to the passing hoofbeatsofthe horses and the scream s of victim s.W e fled from the pogrom and cam e to A m erica in 1893.Iw as five years old.W e settled in the heartofN ew York’s Low er EastSide,abject poverty and pushcarts all around us.M y father died w hen I w as eight. Young as Iw as,Iw entouton the streets and tried to earn som e m oney. W hen Igotolder,seventeen years to be exact,Ibecam e asinging w aiter at bars.Thatisw hen Ibegan to com pose songsand sing them .The custom ers seem ed to like them and thatencouraged m e.So thatishow itallstarted. The restishistory.” W hen w e finished our delicious luncheon,som e m em bers ofour party w enton a guided tour ofthe hoteland clim bed to the top ofBluebeard’s Tow er.Berlin and Sw anson did not join the group.They w ere too busy signing autographsforlocaland hotelgroupsalike.A t4:00 P.M .ourconvoy of cars took our guests back to King’s W harf,w here after m any fond farew ellsthey boarded launches to return to the SS A m erica.16 O n January 7,1941,CharlesH arw ood,aform erU.S.districtcourtjudge in the Panam a CanalZone,w as appointed governor ofthe Virgin Islands by President Roosevelt.H arw ood succeeded Law rence Cram er,w ho had resigned.A N ew Yorker by birth,H arw ood w as a graduate of H am ilton College and of N ew York U niversity Law School.A dm itted to the N ew York Barin 1904,he practiced law in thatstateand w asvery active in N ew York D em ocraticpoliticsuntil1937,w hen Rooseveltappointed him to the districtcourtjudgeship in the CanalZone.M y relationship w ith G overnor Cram erhad been excellent,and Iw assorry to see him leave.Idid notm eet the new governoruntilM arch 6,1941,w hen Iw ascalled into hisoffice.H e w as an im pressive-looking m an in hisearly sixties.H e shook hands w ith m e w arm ly.“A dam s,” he said,“Iam happy to m eetyou personally.You have been highly recom m ended to m e by acting G overnor Lovettfor the fine w ork you are doing as chairm an ofthe governor’sCulturalCom m ittee.H ere ism y firstassignm entfor you.The artistSteven D ohanos ofthe FederalW orks A gency’s fine arts section is due to arrive here shortly on the cruise liner SS W ashington to installm uralsin our postoffice.Iw ant you to m eethim ,inspecthisw ork,and reportyour im pressions to m e.” Justa few w eeks later,on M arch 17,Im etD ohanos atthe postoffice. W orkm en w ere busy installing hism uralsin the lobby.The artist,w ith his

The Pow er ofthe Press / 249 sleeves rolled up,w as supervising the installation.I introduced m yself. D ohanosw asresponsive in agracious,friendly w ay.In ashorttim e,Iknew som ething abouthisbackground.H e w as thirty-four years old,a native of Lorain,O hio.A lready hisw atercolors,prints,and m uralshad gained perm anentstatus in im portantm useum collections in the U nited States.That year,1941,he had w on the com petition to design the N ationalTuberculosisChristm assealoverm any com petitors.H e w asam em berofthe Society of Illustrators,and his present hom e w as in W estport,Connecticut.The tw o m uralsfor the Virgin Islands PostO ffice lobby w ere executed under the auspices of the Treasury D epartm ent’s Section of Fine A rts and the FederalW orks A gency’sPublicBuilding A dm inistration,w hich decorated federalbuildings w ith m urals and sculptures.D ohanos received his com m ission to do the St.Thom as w ork as a resultofdesigns subm itted in an open com petition.17 A fter hearing the purpose ofm y visit,the young m an said w ith asm ile,“Iw illbe happy to review the w ork w ith you. “Isuppose you w antto know the reasonsform y choice ofsubjects.First and basicisthe desire to relate m y m uralsubjectto various aspectsofthe lifeofSt.Thom as:to the island’shistory,pastand present. “Letusstartw ith the m uralon the w estern w all.H ere isw hatIm ean by relating subject m atter loudly to the everyday life of the island.There before you are tw o heavy-setnative w om en looking seaw ard.W ith their type of dress,calico predom inating,and their w ide-brim m ed straw hats placed firm ly on theirheads,these w om en and others like them are com m on sightsthatw e see around usand take forgranted.In apow erfulm ural, you cannottake charactersforgranted.They projecttoo strongly.N ow look atw hatsurroundsthe tw o w om en.D irectly behind them isalarge coalpot w ith a heavy iron receptacle resting on it.A longside isa large bag ofcharcoal.Ido nothave to tellyou w hatan im portantpartthistype ofcooking and cooking m aterialplayed in the past— colorful,prim itive,buteffective. H eaped around these objects are large bundles of bright-green plantains, im ports from neighboring islands,brought here by sm all trading sloops. A nd projecting into thiscollective picture are m ore than strong hintsofthe sailing craftthem selves,a heavy suggestion ofropes and sailspartly low ered.In m idstream there is a less obstructed exam ple of an island sloop aboutto take in sail.O n aplatform offto the rightare tw o large fish,apparently tuna,w aiting to be w eighed,gutted,and cut.In allcases Ihave tried forastrong sunliteffect,em phasizing the objectsportrayed. “N ow letus take alook atthe m uralon the eastern w allthatthe w orkm en are now fitting into place.H ere isan exam ple ofw hatIm ean w hen Italk about com bining past and present.W hat do w e see? A n oversized

250 / The Pow er ofthe Press sixteenth-century cannon occupying a large section ofthe m ural.N earby isapyram id ofcannon ballson agrassm ound w hose base isdecorated w ith conch shells.Tow ering in one corner ofthatm uralas sym bolsofthe presentare tw o radio tow ers.In the background w ith allofitsred-w alled antiquity isFortChristian,the oldestfortification on the island.To balance that, Ihave placed am odern cruise ship on the horizon:the old and the new,the pastand the present.”18 W ord had gotten around tow n that tw o fam ous m ovie actors,Robert Taylor and his w ife,Barbara Stanw yck,w ere due to arrive in St.Thom as aboard the SS A m erica the m orning ofA pril 30,1941.In a search for a refuge from m oviem aking and allthe tum ultthatgoesw ith it,they w ere to m eetJohannes Rasm ussen to preview the CaneelBay Plantation resorton St.John.Know ing m y experience w ith the governor’sw elcom ing com m ittee,Rasm ussen had asked m e to help take care of his guests.W hen the cruise liner docked,a crow d ofm oviegoers w ere on hand,eager to see tw o screen favoritesin the flesh and possibly togetautographs.A sourreception com m ittee oftw o had planned,Rasm ussen w as to go aboard to fetch the couple w hile Iw aited on the dock below in the large car w hich w as to take us to Red H ook,w here w e planned to transfer to a launch thatw ould take us to St.John and CaneelBay.W hen Rasm ussen escorted the couple dow n the gangw ay,cheers broke outfrom the crow d,and there w as a surge of people eager to getas close to theiridolsas possible.The couple responded to the crow d’s friendliness.Taylor w aved his arm s enthusiastically and Stanw yck blew kisses,butthere w asno tim e forautographs.The couplew as rushed into the w aiting carand offw e w ent! O n the w ay to Red H ook,Ihad a chance for a quick im pression.Taylor w as a trim ,w ell-built m an,a little over six feet tall,about 175 to 180 pounds in w eight.H is eyes w ere blue and setin a startlingly handsom e face.Iw ould have guessed hisage to be in the early thirties.Stanw yck w as as I had expected,a w ell-figured w om an expressing strength and good looks and radiating confidence and self-reliance.Ihad been told thatshe w as four yearsolder than her husband.Stanw yck said to m e,“M r.A dam s, Iam surprised thatw e seem to be so w ellknow n here.” “W ellknow n?” I replied.“H ad you picked anyone atrandom form thatcrow d,you really w ould have been surprised atw hathe knew aboutyou,your film s,w ho you played w ith,and w hen.O nly yesterday,som eone asked m e if I had seen you and M r.Taylor in the film H isBrother’sW ife[1936].Isaid Ihad not,and he proceeded to give m e the details.” “Funny you m entioned thatone,”said Stanw yck.“Thatw asthe picture thatbroughtus together.Itled to an ‘on and off’courtship and in one of

The Pow er ofthe Press / 251 the ‘on’m om ents,he proposed.W e w ere m arried on M ay 14,1939.N ow w e ow e itto ourselves to take agood restand adelayed honeym oon.” “W hatare you people doing? Talking shop?” said Taylor.“Iheard part ofit.Since you peopleknow so m uch aboutm y w ife,w hatdo you islanders know aboutm e?” Ilaughed,“Iam an islander,and Iw illtellyou w hatIknow.Ihave seen m any of your pictures. M agnificent O bsession [1935], in w hich you starred w ith Irene D unne,is one of m y favorite pictures of all tim e. A notherone,yourlatestBilly the Kid [1941],Iam looking forw ard to seeing.Ihear thatitisgreat.” “Thanksforsaying that,A dam s,”saidTaylor.“O fallthe picturesIhave m ade,thatisthe one Ihave enjoyed doing m ost.”19 From Red H ook w e transferred to a launch and headed for St.John.It w asone ofthose rare daysw hen Pillsbury Sound w asascalm asalake.Visibility in all directions w as at its best.The string of islets— Thatch Cay, G rass,M ingo,and Congo— stood outabove theirw aterline.There w asJost Van D yke to the north and Tortolaloom ing large and blue to the northeast. St.John lay directly ahead.“Thisism agnificent,”Taylor said,“like atropicalSw itzerland.” “Breathtaking,” Stanw yck said.Before tying up atthe CaneelBay pier,w e instructed the captain to take uson atourofthe northside beaches,starting w ith those on the CaneelBay side.W e passed D urloo and W histling caysand w entintoTrunk and Francisbays.A tthe requestof ourguestsw e gotasclose to the shore aspossiblein Trunk Bay.Taylorand Stanw yck insisted on stepping ashore.Taking theirshoesoffand w ith Taylor rolling up histrousers alm ostto hisknees,the coupleproceeded to disem bark and to w alk on the incredibly w hite sand.A fter pacing back and forth,they w entinto the w ater up to theirknees. Taylor exclaim ed:“A llthis is incredible.Ihave never seen such w hite sand and such crystal-clear w ater.Thisisheaven itself!” A tM ary’sPoint the launch turned back and headed for CaneelBay.W e tied up atthe pier and w entto the com m issary.The Taylors w anted to inspectone ofthe cottageson anearby hill.O n the w ay there,w e took them on aside trailto get a glim pse ofH aw ksnestBay and the beaches on thatside.Startling w hite stretchesofsand carved into the dense green vegetation cam e dow n alm ost to the w ater.“Icannotbelieve w hatIam seeing,”Taylor said,as Stanw yck nodded in agreem ent.The cottage thatw e visited w as one offive on the plantation setup to receive guests. “A s you can observe,” Isaid,“this cottage and the other four,allbuilt alike,are constructed to w ithstand heavy w inds and tropicalconditions.” Taylor and Stanw yck stood on the balcony and gazed in alldirections.

252 / The Pow er ofthe Press “W ho conceived ofutilizing thism agnificentplace for visitors?”Taylor asked. “H ere isthe m an righthere,Johannes Rasm ussen,” Isaid.“H e saw the potentialfor developing touristfacilities here and urged the W estIndian Com pany to acquire the acreage.H e pointed out that the com pany w as already in the building supply business and had architects and engineers on itspayrolland asuperb m astercarpenter,N ielsen,know n forhisability to constructstrong tropical-stylebuildings.” “G od bless you,M r.Rasm ussen,” Stanw yck said.“You have discovered heaven,and as a result,others w illdiscover it.Putus on your reserve list for the entire m onth ofA ugust.”20 Early in M ay 1941,the localpressassociation,ofw hich Iw aspresident, received an invitation from the Rebild BakkerN ationalPark Com m itteein Jutland,D enm ark.W e w ere urged,as form er D anish W estIndian possessions,to send representativesto the annualFourth ofJuly celebration to be held in the hillsoutside the city ofA lborg,Jutland.Thisyear’scelebration, stated the invitation,w as ofgreatsignificance,and the Rebild com m ittee w as hoping for a greatingathering ofD anes.W e contacted the localD anish consulhere for m ore inform ation,and he supplied it: You should consider thisinvitation strictly sym bolic.Ihardly think the Rebild com m itteein Jutland expectspersons from the Virgin Islands to cross asubm arine-infested A tlanticto com e to D enm ark w ith w ar raging allaround.In D enm ark,itself,the story isdifferent.A tthe Lincoln birthday celebration atRebild thisyear,February 12,1941,thousands ofD anes gathered to dem onstratetheirlove ofdem ocracy and their spiritualaffinity w ith allthings dem ocratic.A s you know,D enm ark w as invaded and occupied by the N azislastyear,A pril1940,and though the G erm ans declared thatthey w ould respectD anish neutrality and politicalindependence,the D anish peopledo nottrustthem and are anxious to dem onstrateD anish solidarity and determ ination to preserve notonly theirfreedom and nationalindependence,buttheirform ofgovernm ent. The Rebild Park in Jutland w as agiftfrom A m ericans ofD anish birth.Itw as dedicated in the year 1912.D anish Jutland w as picked because itcontains aboutone halfthe population ofD enm ark.In 1934, som eone cam e up w ith the idea to build aLincoln-type log cabin on a com m anding Rebild site.The idea had trem endous appeal.Logs w ere m arked and shipped from each ofthe forty-eightstates ofA m erica,all contributing to the building ofthe cabin.Thislog cabin served as the core ofam useum telling the story ofD anish em igration to A m erica from pioneering days.Early A m ericana occupy aprom inentplace.

The Pow er ofthe Press / 253 D uring years of peace,quite a num ber of Virgin Islanders had visited Rebild Bakker and participated in the activities.21 The year 1942 opened to the sound ofguns w orldw ide.The catastrophe of w ar seem ed to be spreading everyw here:Europe,A frica,and the Far East.H ere in the Virgin Islands,w e satrestless and w orried,reading startling new spaperheadlinesorlistening to vivid radio reports,hoping allthe w hilethatthe U nited Statesw ould notbecom e involved.O n June 22,1941, H itler’sG erm any,w ith easy victorieson the continentand w ith overconfidence in its m ilitary prow ess,attacked the Soviet U nion.By D ecem ber 1941 m illions ofG erm ans and Russians w ere locked in fierce battles.The nature ofeventstold usthatthe U nited Statesw asgetting closerand closer to being draw n in.In M arch 1941 the U.S.Congress voted Lend-Lease aid to help a desperate Britain. President Roosevelt and Prim e M inister Churchillm etin the A tlantic to form ulate a jointpolicy againstruthless G erm an subm arine w arfare.To protectU.S.shipping from the increasing subm arine attacks,the U nited States occupied G reenland and Iceland in A priland July of1941 and setup antisubm arine bases there.Thisseem ed to m ake the G erm ans bolder.A ttacks on U.S.A tlanticshipping continued w ith increased intensity.Subm arine attacks in the Caribbean broughtthe w ar closer to us.Severaltim es in 1941,the Red Cross called m e (often at night)to help w ith boatloads ofvictim s w hose ships had been torpedoed nearby.Itw as a m atter offeeding the hungry and finding dry clothes and shelter.In m ore severe casesofbadly burned and injured people,w e helped as stretcher bearers,m oving victim s to w aiting am bulances. W hen Japan,w ithout w arning,attacked Pearl H arbor on D ecem ber 7, 1941,w e knew thatthe diew ascast.The U nited Statesw asin the conflicton both the A tlanticand Pacificfronts.A s a reservistin the U.S.N avy,Iknew w hatto expect.O n A pril3,1942,Ireceived an officialnotice from W ashington,D.C.,calling m e back to active duty.Iw as ordered to reportto G uantánam o,Cuba,as quickly as possible.Igotm y affairs in order:Isuspended operations as publisher and editor of the Bulletin as ofA pril 9.To quote from the Virgin Islands D aily N ew s edition ofA pril10:“The St.Thom as Bulletin,published here for68years,suspended publication yesterday.A fter lying dorm antforseveralyears,The Bulletin w asrevived alittlem ore than ayearago by A lton A .A dam s,Sr.,w ho hasbeen called to active duty in the U.S.N avy.D uring his period as publisher-editor,M r.A dam s,intelligently and objectively,didm uch torevive com m unity respectforthe new spaper.”22 Ihad been atthe G uantánam o navalstation no m ore than four m onths w hen Ireceived a letter from G overnor Charles H arw ood.Itw as a w arm

254 / The Pow er ofthe Press and friendly letter.The governor stressed how m uch Iw as m issed in St. Thom as,particularly atG overnm entH ouse.H e w anted to know w hatand how Iw as doing.In reply,Ipoured outm y frustrations,m y hom esickness, and m y unhappiness.The governor’squick reply broughtm e hope.H e had gotten together w ith Captain A .H .Balsey,com m andant of the N aval O perations Base atSt.Thom as,and G .K.G .Reilly,com m anding officer of the new ly com m issioned subm arine facility there.Jointly they had petitioned the N avy D epartm entin W ashington,asking for the recallofA lton A .A dam sto reorganizethe N avy Band ofthe U nited StatesVirgin Islands. A strong case had been presented.A reactivated navalband in the U.S.Virgin Islands,as ithad done before,w ould prom ote closer relations betw een the arm ed forces and the civilian population.N ext,Ireceived a cablegram from G overnor H arw ood telling m e thatthe petition w as w ellreceived in W ashington and to getready fortransferback to St.Thom as.In early 1943 the transfer order cam e through.23 W ordscould hardly describe m y joy in returning to St.Thom as.N orcan w ords express m y appreciation to G overnor H arw ood,Captain Balsey,and Com m ander Reilly.These gentlem en,led by G overnor H arw ood,had cut through m ounds ofred tape to effectthe transfer.A lso they had secured U.S.N avy perm ission form e to bring back to St.Thom aseightform erVirgin Island bandsm en w ho had returned to active duty at G uantánam o. These m en,Ihoped,w ould serve as the core for the reactivation ofthe form er U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands.W hen the navy transportarrived atthe W estIndian Com pany dock early in February 1943,and w e w alked dow n the gangw ay,Iunderstood the greaturge thatcertain peoplereturning from exilefelt— the desire tokissthe hom e ground— forIw as overw helm ed w ith such an urge.There w as a crow d w aiting atthe dock to greetus,fam ily,friends,and form erbandsm en w ho had retired from active service.I passed the w ord to them to stand by because they w ould be,I hoped,essentialpartsofthe new ly reorganized band. Icould hardly w aitto getto G overnm entH ouse to expressto G overnor H arw ood m y deep appreciation for his efforts on m y behalf.G overnor H arw ood w as very cordial.“Bandm asterA dam s,” he said w ith asm ile,“as the saying goes,there w as a m ethod to m y m adness.W hen you left St. Thom as I realized w hat a trem endous job of public relations you w ere doing for allofus,particularly here in G overnm entH ouse.You lefta gap thatIcould notfill.To putitm ildly,yourreturn isofgreatbenefitto allof us.Callon m e for w hatever you need in reorganizing the Virgin Islands navalband.”The reorganizing ofthe band w as easier than Ihad expected. W ithin tw o m onths,tw enty-one bandsm en w ere in training,m any of

The Pow er ofthe Press / 255 them w ith yearsofexperience.W e gave ourfirstconcerton A pril30,1943, atthe officialopening ofthe subm arine base.Thisinitialconcertw as dedicated to Com m ander Reilly.24 Ihad hardly returned from Cuba and settled back into m y routine in St. Thom as w hen a crisis arose.This tim e it affected our popular and m ost beloved governm ent secretary,D r.Robert M orss Lovett.D r.Lovett w as ordered to com e to W ashington,D.C.,to appear before a congressional appropriations subcom m ittee,one dealing w ith un-A m erican activities. Lovettw ascalled to answ erchargesthathe w asam em beroforganizations ofw hich com m unistsw ere also m em bers.Lovettw as one ofthirty-seven persons on the federalgovernm entpayrollw hom the un-A m erican com m ittee,headed by Representative M artin D ies,had recom m ended for dism issal.D r.Lovettw asacourageousm an w ith an outstanding record in the field ofliberaleducation atthe U niversity ofChicago and the N ew School ofSocialResearch in N ew York.O n the recom m endation ofSecretary of the InteriorH arold Ickes,he had been appointed governm entsecretary for the Virgin Islands.A m an in hisseventies,very liberalin hisoutlook,kind, considerate,and helpfulto allw ho cam e in contactw ith him ,D r.Lovetthad soon w on over the heartsofthe people ofthe Virgin Islands.A n editorial in alocalpaper ofA pril29,1943,expressed the m ood: The charges againstD r.RobertM orss Lovettappear to be flim sy and unjustified.Because he has been asteadfastcham pion ofthe principles ofdem ocracy,liberty,and fairplay,because he isaliberal,because he hates to see hisfellow m en live in m isery and hunger,because he lives above politicalhypocrisy,he isbranded acom m unist.RobertM orss Lovettisdoing asplendid job here in the Virgin Islands and no one realizes itbetter than peoplew ho w ork w ith him .

D r.Lovettw as a good friend ofm ine.W e had w orked closely together on com m unity m atters.I w ent to his office and expressed m y distress. “W hat are they trying to do to you?” I asked.D r.Lovett w as in good hum or.H iseyestw inkled.“Bandm aster,”he said,“there isabig w argoing on and som e people w ho callthem selves ‘patriots’are getting overly protective and anxious.They are w orried about organizations I belong to, aboutthe com pany Ikeep.W hatam Igoing to do aboutit?IguessIw illgo outand join afew m ore ofthose organizations.”25 Like all other supporters of D r.Lovett,I follow ed the new spaper and radio accountsofhisordealw ith keen interest.Representative D ies,chairm an of the com m ittee,opened the proceedings:“D r.Lovett,w e call you here because your are an em ployee ofthe federalgovernm ent.These are trying tim es.A globalw ar israging.A ccordingly,Iam notgoing to m ince

256 / The Pow er ofthe Press w ords.Ithink Ispeak for am ajority ofthe com m itteew hen Itellyou that w e do notlike the organizations ofw hich you are am em ber,nor the com pany thatyou keep.H ow do you justify accepting federalfunds and hanging around w ith abunch ofsubversives— outand outcom m unistsbenton overthrow ing thisgovernm ent? Before you reply to m y question,letm e say this— our com m ittee does not have the pow er to hire you or to fire you.H ow ever,ifw e are notsatisfied w ith yourreply,w e do have the pow er to deletefrom the territorialbudgetfunds to pay your salary!” D r.Lovettw ascalm and dignified in hisreply:“Chairm an D ies,com m ittee m em bers,Iam notaw are ofbeing partofany subversive activity.N or am Iaw are ofassociating w ith any person orpersonsbenton overthrow ing this governm ent.Iagree there is a w ar going on and hum an em otions in m any areas are at high pitch,so m uch so that m any persons are overreaching to rum or and propaganda.M y associates in those so-called ‘subversive organizations’ are longtim e friends from the field of education.I know them to be intellectuals,decentpersons,and loyalA m ericans,asloyal asanyone sitting in thisroom .A sform y answ er,Isee no reason to rem ove m yselffrom these organizationsorthese friends.N ordo Iw ish to do so.” John H .Kerr,a m em ber ofthe subcom m ittee,w as nextto question the governm entsecretary.“D r.Lovett,w ould you continue to serve in your present capacity if your salary w as cut in half?” D r.Lovett answ ered, “Yes!” M r.Kerr then asked,“W ould you continue to serve ifyour salary w as entirely elim inated?” D r.Lovettreplied,“A s long as m y services are not rejected by the people ofthe Virgin Islands,as long as the presidentofthe U nited States and the D epartm ent of Interior retain m e as governm ent secretary,Iw illcontinue in office!” A tthispoint,Chairm an M artin D ies said angrily,“Isuppose you realize,D r.Lovett,thatyour attitude w illm ake itextrem ely difficultfor us to keep in the budget,funds to cover your salary.”26 O n M ay 5,1943,w ord spread throughoutthe com m unity thatpolitical firew orks could be expected thatevening in the Virgin Islands legislature. A fiery m eeting w asin the offing,w ith the fulllegislature from St.Thom as and St.John planning a heated protestto the congressionalCom m ittee on U n-A m erican A ctivities in W ashington D.C.,objecting to any attem ptto rem ove the governm entsecretary ofthe Virgin Islands.Itw as circulated that the legislature w ould dem and that all ridiculous charges against D r.Lovettbe dropped.Publicfeeling againstthe D ies com m ittee w as running high.A letter in a local new spaper the day before had caught the m ood perfectly:

The Pow er ofthe Press / 257 Som eone should tellthe D ies com m itteethatw e do notcare ifD r. Lovettisacom m unistor aTurk.W e are satisfied w ith him .W ashington should be coaxed into sending us afew m ore registered or unregistered com m unists,or w hatnot,so long as they possess D r.Lovett’scharacter, com passion,and capacity for hum an understanding.W ho am ong us can forgetthatincidentrecently,w hen agroup ofEuropean refugees,fleeing from H itler’sG erm an and denied entry into Cuba and other havens,found refuge here.A nd w hy? Strictly because ofD r.Lovett. H e opened hisheartto them .H e cutthrough allkinds ofred tape.H e m ade adealw ith the governm entofTortolato give them tem porary refuge there untilhe could clear the w ay to getthem into St.Thom as. H e saved them .

The publichad been invited to the m eeting,and by 8:00 P.M .the legislative hallw as packed.Ihad gotten there early and secured a front-row seat, reporter’spad and pencilin hand:“Ratherthan rem ove D r.Lovett,w e should getoutapetition tom ake him governoroftheVirgin Islands,”O m arBrow n, chairm an of the legislature,declared that evening.“From m y experience w ith him ,D r.Lovettrepresentsthe very essence oftrue A m ericanism .Itis those persons w ho are branding our governm ent secretary a com m unist w ho should be investigated forun-A m erican activities,”he added. The H onorable Roy G ordon asserted,“If D r.Lovett is a com m unist, then Iw illline up w ith him tom orrow.I’llsacrifice m y lifeto see thatjustice is done in this case.” G ordon w arned that“ifM r.Lovettis rem oved, trouble w ould be stirred up in the Virgin Islands and Ithink thatin these trying tim es,A m erica has enough trouble on itshands to look to stirup a hornet’s nest here.” “In voting for this resolution tonight,” Senator O sw ald H arrisdeclared,“Iam doing w hatninety-nine percentofthe peopleofthe Virgin Islands w antm e to do.”27 Lovetthad been tirelessin hiseffortsto save agroup ofrefugeesfleeing H itler’sG erm any.H e contacted and diplom atically pressured every W ashington official he knew to overcom e the bureaucratic red tape that surrounded the entry of European refugees into the U nited States at that tim e.H is greatesthelp cam e from Interior Secretary Ickes.A s a Chicago new spaper reporter and later as a prom inent Chicago law yer,Ickes had becom e very active in trying to reform Chicago politics.Itw as during this period thatIckes m etLovett,w ho as a prom inentand very liberalprofessor at the U niversity of Chicago w as also active in the political reform m ovem ent.Both m en had reputations for honesty,integrity,and outspoken bluntness,and w orking together,they becam e very close friends.Itw as w ith Ickes’s support that Lovett w as authorized to approach the Tortola

258 / The Pow er ofthe Press governm entand requestthatitprovide a tem porary stay for the refugees untilthey could gain entry to St.Thom as.A ssoon asan established fam ily in St.Thom asoffered to provide board and shelterand aguaranteethatthe refugees w ould not becom e public charges,the num ber guaranteed for w ould be adm itted.28 By a voice vote on Tuesday,M ay 18,1943,the U.S.H ouse ofRepresentatives,acting on the recom m endation ofthe H ouse A ppropriations Com m ittee, adopted a $134,000,000 deficiency appropriations bill.This bill included a rider stopping the pay ofRobertM orss Lovettas governm ent secretary ofthe Virgin Islands,along w ith thatoftw o staffm em bers ofthe FederalCom m unicationsCom m ission on groundsthatthese three individualsw ere unfitto continue in federalgovernm entem ploy.Itw as expected thatstrong opposition to the rider w ould develop in the Senate in view of the know n opposition tothe H ouse action by both Secretary Ickesand PresidentRoosevelt.O n M ay 20,1943,Ickesappeared before aclosed session of the SenateA ppropriations Com m ittee to testify in opposition to the rider. Ickes said he had know n Lovettfor forty-five years and there w as no question ofLovett’s loyalty to the U nited States.“IfRobertM orss Lovettis a Com m unist,then Iam aH ottentot,” Ickestold the closed session. The peopleofthe Virgin Islandshave know n D r.M orssLovettcontinuously and intim ately forthe lastfouryears.Theirtributeto him istruly rem arkablein itsstrength and unanim ity.The tw o m unicipalcouncilsof the islands,m eeting in jointsession,unanim ously approved lettersfrom theirtw o chairm en to the U.S.Congress.The letterssaid the peopleof the Virgin Islandshave found D r.Lovettto be agentlem an,ascholar,a patrioticcitizen,and ahum ane adm inistrator.A sprofessorofEnglish literature atthe U niversity ofChicago forforty-five years,D r.Lovett hasbeen w idely acclaim ed forhisteachingsand hissocialconcepts.H e hasw ritten eleven booksin hisfield and he w asan associateeditorof the N ew Republicfortw enty years.H isonly son w askilled in action in Belleau W ood,France,in the lastw ar.Throughouthislife,D r.Lovetthas been profoundly interested in civilliberties,the m aintenance ofpeace, the rightsoflaborand an orderly and constitutionalim provem entof oureconom icand governm entalprocedures.Thisrecord obviously does notm ake D r.Lovettunfitforgovernm entservice. A s governm entsecretary for the Virgin Islands,D r.Lovettischairm an ofthe boards ofpolice,tax review,liquor control,harbor pollution, labor policies,lottery,and juvenileschools.H isoffice actsas liaison betw een the m unicipalcouncilsand executive departm ents.H isw ork includes inspection ofthe three islands and giving advice on unem ploym ent,relief,dom estic,alien,and truancy problem s.To say,as the D ies com m itteedoes,thatthe Virgin Islands can do w ithoutagovernm ent

The Pow er ofthe Press / 259 secretary isabsurd,especially w ith the presentgovernor,Charles H arw ood,spending so m uch tim e in W ashington,D.C.D r.Lovett’sonly offense in the eyes ofRepresentative M artin D ies and the H ouse U nA m erican Com m itteeseem s to be thatD r.Lovetthas far too readily joined or lenthisnam e to alm ostany organization or cause thatw as directed tow ard those ends thathe has cherished.

In letters to President Roosevelt and Secretary Ickes dated M ay 21, 1943,A shley L.Totten,presidentofthe Virgin Islands CivicA ssociation, representing ten thousand or m ore native Virgin Islanders residing on the U.S.m ainland,branded asunfounded and utterly ridiculouschargesofunA m erican activitieshurled againstLovett.“The native peopleoftheVirgin Islands,”saidTotten,“hailRobertM orssLovettasthe greatesthum anitarian sent to the Virgin Islands since their transfer from D enm ark to the U nited States in 1917.A s a m atter offact,” continued Totten,“RobertM . Lovettisw ithoutdoubt,the one top officialsentdow n from the U.S.m ainland w ho earnsthe salary he receives.The D iesCom m itteehasm ade m any glaring blunders in judgm ent.This is another glaring one.It w ill be a financialand m oralburden rem oved from the nation w hen thisD iesCom m itteeisdisbanded.”29 In an interview w ith the localpress on the m orning ofJune 26,1943, Lovettexpressed deep gratitude and satisfaction overthe m any kind w ords said abouthim by m any friends and supporters in the Virgin Islands and on the U.S.m ainland.Com m enting on the effortsofthe D iescom m itteeto blacken hisnam e,Lovettsaid itw asunfortunatethatthe com m itteew ould be pursuing a personalvendetta againsthim ata tim e w hen the country w as at w ar and w hen there w ere so m any m ore im portant things to be done.“The D ies Com m ittee in itsreport,” said Lovett,“has stated thatifI am to continue in office here in the Virgin Islands,Iw illbe in aposition to propagate m y subversive philosophies to you through controlofgovernm entm oney spentin the Virgin Islands and thatIcould otherw ise influence the native m ind through m y governm entposition.You and Iknow how ridiculous these charges are,but the D ies Com m ittee continues to m aintain its stand in the face ofoverw helm ing evidence againstits position.” Lovett hinted that he m ight file a case w ith the court of appeals, w hich could eventually go to the Suprem e Court,to clarify w hetheracom m ittee ofthe Congress had the rightto attach riders to bills thatclearly invaded the executive pow ersofthe president.“The InteriorD epartm ent,” said Lovett,“isanxious for m e to m ake atestcase.Iam considering it.”30 The U.S.Senateby avoice voteon M ay 28,1943,approved the $143 m illion deficiency appropriations bill and rejected the rider declaring Lovett

260 / The Pow er ofthe Press unfitto hold governm entoffice.Rejection ofthe H ouse rider w as partly in response to heavy pressure from the D epartm entofInterior and the W hite H ouse and partly from senators them selves w ho considered the D ies com m ittee’saction,particularly againstD r.Lovett,nothing butavindictive w itch hunt.A ccording tocongressionalrules,the billthen had togotoaH ouse and Senateconference com m itteefordiscussion,stalem ate,orcom prom ise.Liberalnew spapersin W ashington and N ew York celebrated the Senate’saction: A n encouraging item in the flood ofnew s from the nation’scapitalis the refusalofthe U.S.Senateto go along w ith the H ouse in arider rem oving federalfunds from the deficiency appropriations billto pay the salaries ofVirgin Islands G overnm entSecretary Lovettand tw o other federalem ployees on grounds thatthey are subversive. The D ies Com m itteehas been adam ant,stubborn,and vindictive, particularly againstD r.Lovett,w ho they claim isthe m ostdangerous and subversive ofthe lot.Thisin spiteofaloud chorus ofinfluential voices declaring Lovettas subversive asA braham Lincoln;Lovett’s patrioticservices to hiscountry far exceed thatofallhiscongressional opponentscom bined. Ifthe tim e has com e w hen am an isto be repudiated by agroup in Congress because he stands on hisow n feetand supportsm inority groups,then G od help A m erica!Thisbitter cam paign againstD r.Lovett isby no m eans over,butso long as w e have honestm en in the U.S. Senate,w e have nothing to fear.

This optim ism of the liberal press proved unfounded.In a surprise and unexpected m ove,the sm allgroup ofsenators in the conference com m ittee,evidently influenced by politicalfavors offered them by their H ouse colleagues,agreed to acceptthe H ouse rider to the bill.This self-serving action of a few senators w as a sudden reversal of the Senate’s position. W ith only a few m ore days rem aining before the fiscalyear closed,this unexpected m aneuvercreated adelicateand em barrassing situation forthe U.S.Senate.31 W hen told ofthe conference com m ittee’sw ork ata hastily called local press conference on June 24,1943,D r.Lovett shrugged his shoulders. “U nexpected,” he said,“butnotsurprising.W ashington isfullofpolitical deals.” In response to a question from a reporter,D r.Lovettexpressed the beliefthatthe lim ited tim e leftbefore the congressionaladjournm ent,just a few days,w ould force an unw illing Senate to go along w ith the H ouse and acceptthe conference com m ittee report.A sked ifhe believed thatthe U.S.president,angry atthe H ouse for encroaching on the pow ers ofthe executive,w ould veto a bill rem oving from the federal payroll specific em ployees,Lovettsaid he feltthathis m atter w as notim portantenough

The Pow er ofthe Press / 261 forthe presidentto“lock horns”w ith the Congress.“A lready,”said Lovett, “because of delay in the passage of the D eficiency A ppropriations Bill, hundredsoffederalem ployeeshave notreceived theirsalary checksforthe m onth ofJune.A factor thattroubled m e and continues to trouble m e is thatrighthere in theVirgin Islands,St.Thom asand St.Croix,sixty-five to seventy federalem ployees have fallen into this category ofthe unpaid.I w illacceptw hatever happens.” Lovettadded,“Ihave m ade itclear on severaloccasions thatifthe D epartm entofInterior and the peopleofthe Virgin Islands w ish m e to rem ain in office here,Iw illdo so.The shutting off offederalfundsw illnotdisturb m e,asIam prepared to w ork w ithoutpay.” Lovettw as w rong in his assessm entofthe Senate and the president’s reaction.The Senatecontinued to back Lovettand,angry atbeing betrayed by a handfulofits m em bers,sentthem back to conference w ith a strong m essage:“Ifthe H ouse refused to budge from itsdem ands,the Senatew as prepared to stay in session indefinitely and to stop the legislative clock if necessary.” A lso,w ord had leaked from the W hite H ouse that an angry president w as prepared to veto a bill clearly encroaching on executive pow er.Radio reportsheard in St.Thom ason July 2 said thatthe U.S.H ouse and Senatehad finally reached acom prom ise w hereby Lovettand tw o FCC em ployees under dispute,w ould rem ain in federalservice untilN ovem ber 1943,w hen theirappointm entsw ere due to com e up for review.32 O n July 12,1943,PresidentRooseveltreluctantly signed the controversialdeficiency appropriationsbillinto law.The nextday,he addressed Congress on the issue.H e accused the law m akers,particularly the H ouse of Representatives,ofblatantly encroaching on the pow ers ofthe executive. “W hatstarted asatem pestin ateapotinvolving three federalem ployees,” he said,“has grow n into a m ajor constitutionalquestion thatm ustbe settled,in the courtsifnecessary.”H e said he approved virtually allofthe bill exceptthe H ouse rider.“Thatrider,” the presidentsaid,“isnothing m ore than abillofattainderthatprovidespunishm entw ithouttrialand violates the separation of pow ers im plicit in the U.S Constitution.This congressionalaction isnotpalatable,perm issible,or acceptable under our A m erican system ,and the executive branch ofthisgovernm entw illnotbe bound by it.The D eficiency A ppropriations Bill,w hich Isigned reluctantly,” he added,“in so-called com prom ise form ,providesthatthree federalem ployees w ould rem ain on the federal payroll until N ovem ber 15,1943,and w ould continue in office thereafter only iftheirappointm entsare subm itted by the presidentand confirm ed by the U.S.Senate.In signing thiscom prom ise bill,Ihave been placed in the sam e position as the U.S.Senate, having to accept it at the last m inute as part of legislation to provide

262 / The Pow er ofthe Press urgently needed fundsforcarrying on essentialgovernm entalfunctions.If Ihad been able to veto the objectionable rider,Iw ould have done so,but that w ould have vetoed the bill in its entirety and w ould have severely delayed vital,indeed essentialservices.”33 N otto be outdone,Secretary Ickes found a hole in the appropriations billthatskirted the w hole m ess.N ew s dispatches from W ashington,D.C., dated O ctober 13,1943,described histactic: In apoliticalm aneuver thatm usthave caughtCongressm an D ies and his“w itch-hunting” colleagues w ith “theirpantsdow n,” the Interior D epartm entand itstough,crafty secretary,H arold L.Ickes,have com e up w ith an astutedecision thatretains D r.RobertM orss Lovetton the adm inistrative staffofthe Virgin Islands.Technically,D r.Lovettno longer carries the title“governm entsecretary” ofthe Virgin Islands. The D ies com m itteeand itsfollow ers in Congress saw to thatw hen they successfully and m aliciously putthrough arider to the 1943 D eficiency A ppropriations Billlopping offfederalfunds to pay for agovernm entsecretary in the Virgin Islands. U nder hisnew appointm entby the Interior D epartm ent,and his new title“specialadm inistrative assistantto the governor,” Lovettw ill occupy the sam e office in the adm inistration building.A lso,the scope of hisactivities w illrem ain substantially the sam e.W hatw illthe D ies com m itteeand itscongressionalfollow ersdo aboutm aneuverson the partofInterior? Ifthe D ies com m itteew antsto go alloutin afightto oustLovettfrom federalgovernm entservices,there isnothing to preventthem from striving to elim inatefederalfunds in the nextD eficiency A ppropriations Billto pay the salary for“specialadm inistrative assistantto the governor,” w hich isalso afederalposition. ItisdoubtfulthatM artin D ies or hisfollow ersw ould w antto carry politicalvindictiveness and irresponsibility so far.PresidentRoosevelt’s rebuke to the H ouse and indirectly to M artin D ies,seem ed to have sobered m any.The im portantthing for the Virgin Islands isthatLovett isback w ith us in the sam e position,regardless oftitle,and in w hich he did such valuablew ork. In an interview w ith the localpress shortly after hisreturn from a m onth and ahalfvacation on the m ainland,Lovettcom m ented upon hisnew duties.“They rem ain essentially the sam e exceptfor the title,” and Lovettadded jokingly,“Iam no longer entitled to be called ‘H onorable.’”“IfIhad m y w ay,” Lovettadded,“Iw ould have continued to test the constitutionality ofthe rider elim inating funds from the D eficiency A ppropriations Billto cutm y salary.H ow ever,Iam happy to be back in w hatsoever position in w hich Ican continue to serve the peopleofthe Virgin Islands.”34

11 Tourism and the H otelA ssociation (the 1950s)

Editor’s N ote:A dam s considered tourism the islands’ econom ic lifeline, and history has certainly proven this basically true.(A ccording to the W orld FactBook of2002,tourism accounted for 80 percentofthe Virgin Islands’G D P.)G iven A dam s’seconom icdeterm inistsocialphilosophy,in w hich socialprogress is predicated on econom ic success,itis no surprise that he turned his social service efforts to the tourist industry after his final discharge from the U .S.N avy in 1945.A s chairm an of the Virgin IslandsPow erA uthority from 1947 to 1953,A dam sw orked to secure reliable electric and telephone service.A fter converting the top floor of his large colonial-era hom e into a guesthouse in 1947,A dam sbegan w elcom ing visitors w ith hom e cooking and tales ofisland history.A dam s claim s to have justbroken even financially from his hotelventure,butto have gained enorm ously as a person.H e tellsoffriendships form ed w ith visitors such as cellistBogum ilSykora,piano prodigy and activistPhilippa Schuyler,A frican A m erican intellectualW .E.B.D uBois,and W estIndian statesm an T.A lbertM arryshow.In 1952 he again accepted a leadership post,thistim e aspresidentofthe Virgin IslandsH otelA ssociation,a position he held for nineteen years.A s had the navy band,the association bridged com peting socialinterests:in thiscase,businessand labor,islanders and continentals,large hotelsand sm allguesthouses.A dam ssaw hispresidency as educational.O n one hand,he w orked to help islanders understand the business dynam icsoftourism ,often taking unpopular positions againstlaw s taxing visitors or raising the m inim um w age.O n the other, he taughtthe usually nonnative m anagers oflarger corporatehotelsthat traditions in the Virgin Islands m usttem per business decisions.O ne vehicle for such com m unity m entorship w as his w eekly addresses on W STA radio.A dam s’s values rem ained consistentthroughouthis adultlife.H is 263

264 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation w ork in the touristindustry follow ed the sam e philosophies ofeconom ic developm entand culturalpreservation thathe had broughtto hism usical career. The Virgin Islands’ tourist affluence is no overnight m iracle,no chance occurrence.A s far back as the m id-1890s,St.Thom as w as already gearing itsdevelopm entand the attitudes ofitspeople to accom m odate visitors.I recallthatin m y youth,atthe W estIndiaCom pany landing dock,the first encountersw ith seaborne visitorsw ere in sm allboatscalled bateaus.These boats,w hich could hold no m ore than tw o persons,w ere propelled w ith one oar by boys and som etim es young m en w ho sw arm ed the railsofvisiting ships to dive for coins throw n by passengers w ho w ould m arvel w ith delightatthe dexterity displayed by the sw im m ers to capture each prize. Sim ilar feats w ere also perform ed w henever the ships anchored in the stream .The only unfortunate incidentreported to have resulted occurred one day w hen an unruly shark deprived Jim m ieBo,the island’sbestdiver, ofone ofhisbig toes.H e lim ped the rem ainderofhisdays,butthisdid not in any w ay preventhim from carrying on hisprofession.Visitors on landing days w ould also throw coins am ong groups ofboys w ho w ould chase them in the streetsw hileevading the police. Long before the sw anky ocean liner and the jet,tourists sought the beauty ofthistropicalspotby m eans ofthe com paratively sm allpassenger and cargo boats ofyesteryear.Itis notso very long ago thatthe Q uebec Line’sM adiana,Fontabelle,and G uiana w ere the only vehicles thatlinked St.Thom as w ith the w orld beyond its sister Virgins.In those days there w ere no travelagencies or travelers’guides to tellthe touristw here to go and w hatto see,so tipspassed by w ord ofm outh.Touristscom ing here used to flock to the w estern and eastern cem eteries,and m any w ould am use them selves reading epitaphs on tom bstones ofpersonalities from the past. A nd,of course,Bluebeard’s Castle and Blackbeard’s Castle w ould also be m ain pointsofattraction because ofthe gruesom e stories— parthistorical truth and part entertaining legend— told about these tw o fam ous pirate landm arks.1 W hen there w ere no travelagentsor packettours and no gonow -pay-after visitors,the chief Virgin Island attraction w as the m uchpublicized pirate Bluebeard,w ho had m urdered his w ives in the tow er, according to the version m ostfrequently told.Visitors considered itam ust to clim b the spiralstairw ay leading to the top ofBluebeard’stow er to view a panoram a ofunbelievable beauty and to etch their nam es on the inner surface ofitsthick,m assive rounded w all.

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 265 Tourism w as far from an organized industry then.Instead ofthe m any souvenirand giftshopsfound today along the m ain avenuesofSt.Thom as, localw aresw ere peddled by asm allarm y ofstreetvendors,m ainly w om en and children.O n such occasions as the arrival of the Colum bia,a tenthousand-ton vesselofthe H am burg-A m erican line,the w holetow n w ould flock to King’sW harfon M ain Streetto w elcom e (and gaze at)the visitors. The touriststhem selves w ere m en and w om en ofw ealth and leisure w ho spentlavishly on such native articlesasthe dried pod ofthe flam boyanttree (royalpoinciana),know n locally as shack-shack,or the straw hatsm ade by residentsofFrenchtow n.Cabs,the only m eans ofvehicular transportation then,w ere decorated w ith the flam ing-red blossom softhe flam boyant. W ith the change ofsovereignty,thistourism consciousness continued to grow.Realizing the econom icim portance oftourism to the islands,the Virgin Islandsnavy band w assentto the U nited Statesin 1924 to advertise the islands’touristassets.The band also w as lentto the m unicipality to play at the Em ancipation G arden on touristdays and atevening balls held atthe G rand H otel.Places of interest around St.Thom as— John Brew er’s Bay, Lindbergh Bay,M agensBay,and K.C.(Kroth Canal)Bay,now CaneelBay— began to be prom oted.The ow ners ofthese pleasure spotsw ere induced to developthem asattractionstovisitors.ThepurchaseoftheSachem Estatefor a luxury hotelatthe costof$40,000 w as urged,butthe M unicipalCouncil turned itdow n because itw asconsidered an enorm ousam ountofm oney for such a project.Itw as atthistim e (1931)thatPearson becam e the firstnonnavalA m erican governoroftheVirgin Islands.Pearson picked up the tourist trend and based the w holeeconom icpolicy ofhisadm inistration on it. A fterW orldW arII,the governm entorganized atourism com m ittee,and itbecam e obvioustoitsm em bersthatnotenough w asbeing done toaccom m odatethe greatinflux ofvisitors.In response,ow nersoflarge hom esw ere encouraged torenovatethem and take in guests.Iw asone ofthe firsttotake advantage ofthisprogram ,converting m y hom e,a lovely old m ansion,into the A dam s 1799 G uestH ouse in 1947.Im aintained itas such until1983, averaging about120 room requests each year.2 The building has nineteen room son three levels,and Iused seven room satthe top levelto accom m odate guests,w hich included three double bedroom s,one single bedroom , tw o baths,a dining room ,and agrand parlor.Located at1-B Kongens G ade (King Street),itw asbuiltin 1799and w asused by m anagersofthe EastA siatic Steam ship Com pany of Copenhagen,and governm ent records show thatthe firstprivate ow ner w as the future governor Peter von Scholten.3 Itis a stone,brick,and m arble structure on a rock foundation w ith w alls

266 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation four-feetthick thattaper inw ards.Itscontrasting arches interestconstruction engineers,and the tray-shaped parlor ceiling trim m ed w ith intertw ining rings,all handm ade,interested a team of architects from the Royal D anish A cadem y ofFine A rts.They spenta couple ofdays in the building and considered itagood exam pleofD anish architecture.4 Frankly,Ihave never m ade m oney,nor lostany,in the hotelbusiness. W hatIhave acquired is considerable experience and know ledge through m y contacts w ith the greatvariety ofguests w ho have stayed under m y roof.5 M y sm allguesthouse has broughtm e Cinderella-like benefits,for instead ofgoing to auniversity forknow ledge,Ihad the advantage ofhaving professors,in m any guises,com e to m e and actually pay m e in both m oney and learning.Iprofited greatly from the quality ofm y guestsover the years.A m ong those w ho m ade the profoundestim pression on m e w ere the greatRussian cellistBogum ilSykora,the lovely and talented Philippa D uke Schuyler,and the brilliantD r.W .E.B.D ubois. Bogum il Sykora, together w ith his w ife, Julieta, and young child, Tanya,spentnineteen daysw ith m e,during w hich tim e Ienjoyed hisdaily rehearsalsand spentm y eveningseagerly listening to him discourse on his w orld travels and relate his experiences w ith w orld-fam ous figures and m usicians,m any of w hom ,like Sergey Prokofiev,had sent him glow ing testim onials.M y m ostcherished m om entcam e,how ever,w hen thisinternationally acclaim ed virtuoso,the m usicalrivalofPablo Casals,honored m e by asking m e to orchestrateone ofhiscom positions.The reason Sykora gave for hisseveralvisitsto the Caribbean w as the influence ofthe great Cuban violinist Brindis de Salas,w hose brilliant playing in Russia had inspired Sykora to pursue hism usicalstudies seriously.Sykora explained thathe cam e to the Caribbean now and again to breathe the air thathad produced such am aster.Sykora w asoversix feetin height,m assively built, butw ith apleasing countenance and aw arm ,inviting sm ile.H e had losthis entire fam ily in the Second W orld W ar and then cam e to reside in N ew York City,teaching m usicatone ofthe universities,w here he m ethisnew w ife,one ofhispupils.She too w as an accom plished cellist. Iw as instrum entalin arranging for Sykora to give a 1958 recitalin the CharlotteA m alie auditorium — a concertthatw illever live in the m em oriesofthose w ho w ere fortunateto be in the audience.H e played the w orks ofthe greatm astersw onderfully;butthe num berthatelicited the greatest applause w as“TearsofIsrael,”a traditionalklezm erm elody w hich he rendered w ith such em otion thattearstrickled dow n hischeeks to the fingerboard ofhisinstrum ent,the rhythm icsw aying ofhisbody unconsciously inspiring sim ilarm ovem entsby hisenraptured audience.Forseveralyears

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 267 thereafterw e keptup acorrespondence,untilthe arrivalofaletterfrom his w ife inform ing m e ofhisdeath.Ihave recently received a letter from that talented lady,stating her w ish to return to St.Thom as and perform the sam e concert num bers that her illustrious husband gave so m any years ago.Ihave agreed to help herarrange thisvisitand am eagerly looking forw ard to the occasion.6 Philippa D uke Schuyler— m usician,author,com poser,lecturer,prodigy — w as the kind ofperson thatany race,com m unity,or nation w ould have gladly sentforth as an am bassador ofgood w ill.She w as the daughter of Josephine and G eorge Schuyler,the distinguished w riter and new spaperm an.The firsttim e Icam e acrossthe nam e ofG eorge S.Schuylerw asin an articlehe w rotein the A m erican M onthly,am agazine published and edited by H enry L.M encken.The article intrigued m e,creating a desire to m eet the author and to read m ore ofhisw ritings.Thisw as in the late 1940s.It w as notlong after thatIreceived a letter from Schuyler him self,then editorofthe N ew York edition ofthe Pittsburgh Courier,asking m e to w ritea w eekly colum n on the Virgin Islands as w ellas a colum n on generaltopics and to review booksforthe new spaper— allofw hich Idid forseveralyears. Thiscontactdeveloped into alifelong friendship w ith hisfam ily thatlasted untiltheir deaths.In m y hum ble opinion,G eorge Schuyler ranks am ong the greatestw ritersand journalistsofm y tim e. Icam e to know Philippa w hen she w as atatender age,and grew to love her as one of m y ow n daughters.It w as from m y hom e that she left, unchaperoned,in 1952 to enter the w orld ofprofessionalm usic w ith her greatand dazzling genius.7 Throughouthercareerw e keptup asteady correspondence,she keeping m e inform ed ofhertravels,experiences,and successes.H er lastletter to m e w as w ritten in 1967,justbefore she m ether tragicdeath in Vietnam ,w here she w as serving as acorrespondent.Thisis how Philippa described our firstencounter in St.Thom as in 1950: W hen Ilanded in St.Thom as,Virgin Islands,in M arch 1950,the strong w inds w hipped m e vengefully,as they once lashed buccaneers’sailing vesselslong ago.... A fter m y recital,Istayed atthe A lton A dam s G uestH ouse,an enorm ous old m ansion thathad seen pirates and slavers.M r.A dam s,the patriarch ofthe island,lived w ith hisw ife,and nineteen ofhischildren and grandchildren in the proud,battered w hitehouse. Though nearly sixty,he w ould run up and dow n the steep,cruel, dizzying,overhanging steps thatrose on the perpendicular hillthatled to hishistorichom e like an antelope— w hileIlim ped lam ely behind. H e istall,dark,w ith keen blue eyes thatm issnothing.O nce aN avy band conductor,he isnow aPatron ofthe A rt.

268 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation O ne day,a lobster w as prepared in m y honor....Som e Virgin Islanders cam e to visitm e after supper.A s Ihad been covered w ith a painfulm ass ofm osquito bites the nightbefore,Iw as glad to be distracted by theirtales ofSt.Thom as in the violentbuccaneer era.This history w as bloody,fantastic,and colorful.8

Itw asin the sum m erof1922,on m y firsttrip to the U nited States,thatI m et D r.W .E.B.D uBois,then editor of The Crisis and the acknow ledged spokesm an ofthe N egro intelligentsiain the U nited States.The introduction w as m ade by H arry W att,a native Virgin Islander living in N ew York City. O urinterview w as,how ever,quitedifferentfrom those ofotheroutstanding N egroesIhad m etpreviously.H e w ascold and inform al,hism anneralm ost bordering the rude.I did not,how ever,feel hurt,but disappointm ent.I im m ediately sensed that this behavior resulted from the fact that I had brought w ith m e,and presented publicly,a different attitude tow ard race relations— one w hich existed in the Virgin Islands under both D anish and A m erican sovereignty. O ursecond m eeting,during theA m erican tourofthe N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands tw o years later,w itnessed quite a change in both the m anner and attitude of D uBois.H is reception w as very w arm and cordial.I believe thatthe band— itsm usicand itspositive reception— accounted for this change. O ur m usic and bearing had spoken both eloquently and forcibly aboutour native sense ofpride and self-esteem .N o w ords w ere needed.The learned doctor w as now m ostvociferous in hisw elcom e,and hedid m uch to m ake the band’stourasuccess.Iw ascertainly happy about the change,for D r.D uBoishad been an early inspiration to m e as w ellas otherVirgin Islandersand W estIndians.W e had eagerly read and appreciated hisw ritings,especially The SoulsofBlack Folk (1903). N early thirty yearslater,in the sum m erof1952,Iw ashonored to have D uBois and his second w ife,Shirley,as guests in m y house.H is visit strengthened and deepened our relationship.Idid allIcould to m ake m y visitors com fortable and happy.Itook pictures ofthem in theirsw im suits w hile they sw am atthe beautifulbeach atSm ith’sBay,Iintroduced them to G overnor M orris de Castro and other localdignitaries,and Iarranged for him to give a lecture (in conjunction w ith D rew Pearson,another visitor)under the auspices ofthe Cham ber ofCom m erce atthe G rand H allof the H otelItalia(abuilding on Curaçao G ade,now extinct). But the m ost stim ulating m om ents w e spent together during his alltoo-shortstay took place in the evenings atm y hom e w hen the tw o ofus discussed w orld affairs,particularly as they touched on racial m atters.I spoke about m y native islands and w hy I thought that because of our

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 269 unique background and environm ent w e held a different racial attitude than A m erican N egroes.Indeed,as Iexplained,race had littlem eaning for m ostVirgin Islanders because w e judged aperson by hisdeeds and nothis color,and w e expected the sam e in return.D uBoistended to see everything and everyone in purely racialterm s,buthe adm itted thathe envied m e for m y indifference to racialconsiderations.H e had adry sense ofhum or,and his conversation revealed the deep love he had for his race.H ow ever,I found his broad genius and great intelligence som ew hat disturbing and self-dam aging because of his overriding preoccupation w ith race.A nd I often pondered,and stillponder,w hetherthisgreatm an w asm entally still a slave— a slave to em bittered passion and hatred for the w hite m an.This concern so affected m e thateach nightupon leaving hisroom afterourdiscussion,Iw as possessed by an intensely sym patheticfeeling for him .A nd Ifeltsorry form ankind because hisgreatm ind,w hich could be so usefulto the w orld atlarge,had to be dedicated solely to the N egro problem . W hatadded m uch to the already lofty stature ofD uBoisin m y eyesw as hisadm ission tom e,during severalofourtalks,ofthe w isdom ofD r.Booker T.W ashington’sleadership over the recently em ancipated N egroes,as that quiescentpolicy w as essentialfor theirsurvivalin a stillhostile society.A s aconsequence ofthisvisit,astrong relationship developed betw een D uBois and m e.W ecorresponded interm ittently,and he sentm e m any autographed copies ofhis books.This lasted untilhis death in G hana in 1963.9 (Ithas alw ays seem ironicto m e thatthisgreatm an,w ho joined others in persecuting the Jam aican M arcus G arvey for preaching hisback-to-A frica idea, should have eventually m ade A frica hishom e and been buried there.) There w ere others besides guests w ho cam e to the A dam s 1799 G uest H ouse,singly and in groups,to discussm attersofvarying interests.A m ong them w as T.A lbert M arryshow,the w ell-know n journalist,orator,and statesm an ofG renada,British W estIndies.10 Ifirstlearned ofM arryshow through a series ofarticles he w rote in hisnew s journal,the W estIndian, entitled “Fergueson M ustG o.” Fergueson w as aleading British officialstationed in the colony,and the articlesw ere so forcibleand forthrightthatthe officialin question did go— he w asrecalled by the British governm ent.A sa resultofthose articlesIbecam e asubscriberto the W estIndian. M y first contact w ith M arryshow him self w as through direct correspondence.Iw rotean articlefor hisnew spaper supporting hispleato local authorities for the retention ofthe G renada m ilitary band thatw as about to be disbanded.From hiseditorialreply Irealized thathe w as acquainted w ith m y activitiesin m usicand m y leadership ofthe N avy Band oftheVirgin Islands.The upshot w as a steady correspondence betw een us lasting

270 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation tw enty-five years.W e finally m etin person during the Caribbean Com m ission m eeting held in St.Thom as.O ur encounter w as dram atically covered by P.L.Prattisofthe Pittsburgh Courier,w ho in hiscolum n reported on the conference: Folks,there’sjustso m uch to tell,Ihardly know w here to start.M aybe itw as the firstnightIw as here and Iw entout.T.A lbertM arryshow of G renada says to m e “com e on,kid” and Iw ent.W e allpiled into an autom obile.A long w ith us cam e G arnetG ordon ofSt.Vincent,H .Sim m onds ofJam aica,O w en Brisbane ofthe W indw ard Islands,and Betty Phillips.Itw as justafter dinner.A five m iledrive broughtus to our destination— the hom e ofA lton A .A dam s,firstand only N egro bandm aster in the U nited States N avy.Itw as,ofcourse atreatto m eet Bandm asterA dam s.You w illdoubtless recallthathe visited the U nited States w ith hisband som e years ago and created asensation.H e and M arryshow had been steady correspondentsfor the pasttw enty five years,buthad never seen each other.Thisw as agreatevening for the tw o m en,atim e w hen they w ere to m eetin person after m entaland spiritualcom m union for aquarter ofthe century.Throughoutthe evening M arryshow continued to m utter:“Justto think,after tw entyfive years.”Thism an M arryshow isw ellknow n in som e circles ofthe U nited States.A n excellentconversationalist,he held you entranced as he recited challenging passages from the w orks ofthe lateCountee Cullen and from Claude M ackay.N ever had Iheard M ackay’s“IfW e M ustD ie” spoken w ith greater stirring em otion. O fcourse w e are m eeting an unusually high type ofW estIndian at thisconference,butitoughtnotto do any harm to som e ofthe folksback hom e w ho think sortofbig ofthem selvesto letthem know thatthese W estIndiansthem selvesare firstratem en,w elleducated,cultured,experienced w ith broad outlook.M en like G ordon and M arryshow ofthe W indw ard Islands,[G rantley]A dam sofBarbados,A nderson and Courtenay ofBritish H onduras,W oolford ofBritish G uyana,Sim m ondsof Jam aica,W ainsootaofG uadaloupe,W inford ofM artinique and Christian ofthe Leew ard Islands,hold theirow n anyw here and in any group.It w ould do yourheartgood to see them in action.11

The above-m entioned rem arks in respectto the intellectualand educationalstature ofthose W estIndian leaders are no exaggeration.Thisw as dem onstrated in theirconference deliberationsand in apubliclecture they gave one evening in Em ancipation G arden before alarge audience ofcheering listeners.M arryshow,the principalspeaker,w asslender,w ellbuilt,and personally attractive.H is voice w as so w ellpoised as to reach the entire audience.H e spoke fornearly an hour,interrupted often by lusty shoutsof bravos.H e explained the reason for the organization of the Caribbean

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 271 Com m ission and its broad objectives,concluding w ith w arm w ords of appreciation and gratitude from the com m ission to the people of St. Thom as for their courteous hospitality w hich m ade it very difficult for them to leave our beautifulparadise. I stood w ith O w en Brisbane in the vast m otley crow d cheering this m an’s silver-tongued oratory and listening to w hat m y forebears term ed the king’s English.I w as,how ever,am used by the several elbow nudges from Brisbane,w ho during M arryshow ’sspeech w ould rem ind m e thatallI w as hearing w as done on Seven-U p.H e explained thatbesides reciting and com posing verses for the severalbeautifuldam selsw ho m ade up the visitors,allM arryshow drank w as Seven-U p.12 M arryshow spentthe nextday athom e w ith m e and m y fam ily.Ithen took asnapshotofhim w hich Ihave in one ofm y scrapbooks as am em ento.The lasttim e Isaw him w as on his return from England,w hen he stopped here to see m e forafew hours. The gallery ofstim ulating or learned persons w ho have atone tim e or another stayed atm y guesthouse is m uch too extensive to bear detailing here.A m ong the notables Iw ould justlike to m ention the follow ing:M r. and M rs.Philip H em ingw ay (brother of Ernest);E.Franklin Frazier,the noted [A frican A m erican]sociologist;A llen W einstein,a fine young historian;and U shigm ia,editor of the Federal Bulldozer.Three guests w ho m ade a profound im pression upon m e w ere M issN adia M adan,a nuclear physicist from India;D r.W illiam Kearney,a professor of journalism at H am pton Institute;and D r.A m on N ekoi,a professor atthe U niversity of G hana.They w ere allbroughtto St.Thom as by D r.A lonzo M oron,then president of H am pton Institute,to give special courses at the local high school.D uring theirresidencies,w e spentm any enlightening eveningsdiscussing a w ide variety ofsubjects:M issM adan on the underdevelopm ent, vastness,and richness ofher country and the deplorable poverty and desperation of its people;D r.Kearney on the race question in the U nited States;and D r.N ekoion G hana’s struggle for independence and present battlefor econom icsurvival. O ther interesting guests w ere Cornell Franklin and Stephen Kuzm a, professionalpainters from the U nited States w ho cam e to capture on canvas the beautifulisland thatthey had heard so m uch about.Like so m any guests,they taughtm e m uch abouttheirartand aboutm y ow n island as seen through the eyes ofothers.A nd like m any other guests,they w ere truly appreciative of the am enities offered by the sm all guesthouse as opposed to a large hotel.In a letter ofappreciation they w rote:“Itm eant very m uch to us to have been allow ed to see St.Thom as through the vantage pointofyour house [rather]than from som e large,im personalhotel.

272 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation A s a result,w e have the fondestm em ories ofour stay there,and feelthat w e have abetter understanding ofthe islands than m any visitors do.” Itisnotam issto m ake an observation concerning the role w hich sm all hotels played and are still playing w ithin the general context of island tourism .W hile they cannotand do notattem ptto im itate the activities of larger establishm ents,they nonetheless have the opportunity as w ell as the responsibility ofoffering a specialsortofintim acy— personalcontact betw een guest and proprietor— that larger establishm ents by the very nature oftheirsizecannotprovide.A snew facilitiesdeveloped— such asthe conversion oftw o m ilitary buildingsinto the Trade W indsand Carib Beach hotels— the tourism m ovem ent grew and m anaged to keep ahead of the dem and foraccom m odations. Im pressive and useful as w ere these efforts,they proved to be m ere drops ofw ater in the stream bed ofa m eaningfultouristtrade.Large and im proved hostelries w ith know -how m anagem entw ere needed to house, entertain,and feed the steadily increasing num ber ofvisitors.The M unicipalCouncilthen follow ed the exam pleofPuerto Rico in establishing atax exem ption law w hich encouraged the building ofthe firstm odern tourist facility in 1950— the Virgin Isle H otel.Irecallas a young m an reading a story by the fam ous w riter Frank H arris of how great and able m en in tim es ofnationalcrises w ould com e to the fore and take the reins ofleadership.H arrisrelates thatone day he follow ed a cartdraw n by oxen rum bling through the streetsw ith a heavy load ofpotatoes.H e observed that w hen the carttraveled on sm ooth roads,the littlepotatoesw ere allhappily perched on the top,butw hen the cartreached the rough and rugged cobblestones,the large potatoes w ould forcibly com e to the top and the little potatoes w ould settle atthe bottom .Itw as atsuch a m om ent,w hen the econom icprospectsofthe island seem ed dark,dreary,and foreboding and localefforts w ere paralyzed,thattw o m en,Sidney Kessler and Benjam in Baynes,arrived on the scene.W ith incredible,abiding faith in the future of the island,they invested over$3 m illion to build the Virgin IsleH oteland, by so doing,gave to the Virgin Islands a m uch-needed econom icentrée to the elite tourist m arket.Tw o other essential ingredients for a thriving touristindustry w ere electricalpow er and am odern telephone system . A sthe tw o factorsw hich plagued com m unity life,there stillexisttoday those ofelectricpow er and com m unication.Itisnecessary,ifonly for historic interest, to relate som ething concerning the creation of the St. Thom as Pow er A uthority.The purpose ofthe authority w as to sanction a m unicipalelectricplantand distribution system forthe m unicipality ofSt. Thom as and St.John.By executive order of the governor the telephone

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 273 system w asplaced underthe m anagem entofthe Pow erA uthority in 1947. The Pow er A uthority Board consisted of three persons— a chairm an,a secretary,and a m em ber w hose term w as approved by the Secretary of the Interior.In 1948 Iw as appointed to the board and elected by m y colleagues as its chairm an.The other m em bers w ere R.C.Spenceley,secretary-treasurer,and A lbertM aduro,m em ber.G erald Berne filled the place ofM aduro afterthe latter’sdeath.Iserved on the board forsix years,and I take pride in the factthatw e broughtaboutm any necessary reform s. The telephone system w as initiated in St.Thom as in 1906 as a private venture under concession from the D anish governm ent.Itw as purchased severalyears after the acquisition ofthe islands by the U nited States and placed under the supervision of a naval public w orks officer assigned to localgovernm ent.Itoperated in thisw ay untilthe change ofadm inistration in 1931,w hen itbecam e abudgeted activity ofthe m unicipalgovernm ent under the superintendent of public w orks.M anagem ent w as later placed under the supervision ofa telephone board.Thisrem oved the system from budgetary controland perm itted surplusesaccrued to be used for im provem entand extension.In 1947 G overnorW illiam H astietransferred the system to the St.Thom as Pow erA uthority.Thissystem w as ofa local battery (m agneto)type.The planthad anegligiblevalue. The telephone system ,as w ellas its em ployees,seem ed to have been neglected form any yearsbefore the Pow erA uthority took over.Itw asnot, how ever,untilthe im pactofincreased business and tourism w as feltthat the inadequacy ofthe long-outm oded system could no longer be tolerated in asteadily increasing and grow ing com m unity.The blam e forthisapparentlack offoresightw as laid alm ostentirely on the overw orked operators atthe sw itchboard.N o one took the tim e to getto the bottom ofthe real trouble.The operatorstook both blam e and abuse and accepted them w ith a com m endable m agnificence of spirit and patience.It w as this situation thatbroughtoutm y firstbroadcastoverstation W STA to the generalpublic.Fortunately,exceptfor the low w ages paid the em ployees,no problem s ofsuch a nature existed in the electricalsystem .Those w hich w ere found w ere caused by the change ofthe system from D C to A C.A nother challenge w as determ ining rate structures for com m ercial,industrial,and privateusers ofelectricity. The firsttask ofthe Pow erA uthority Board w hen Ijoined w as to effect the required reorganization ofthe system .Thisw as found im perative not only for the efficientw orking ofthe establishm entbutalso for engendering adesirablespiritofgood relationship betw een the publicand the functionariesofthe pow ersystem .Thisw asdone by the enactm entofrulesand

274 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation regulationscovering the rights,duties,and obligationsofthe generalm anager and hisoffice staff,and by having the generalm anager in histechnicalcapacity directand controlthe activities ofthe system ’sfield w orkers, such as electricians and linem an.The task of reorganization also carried w ith itrecom m endations ofim provem ent,covering notonly the duties of telephone operatorsbutalso the rightsofthese functionariesto decentand courteoustreatm entfrom seem ingly irateusersofthe telephone,adequate salaries,adjustm ent of w orking hours,and arrangem ents for im proved w orking and rest conditions for telephone operators and other w orkers. The governor w as also requested to granttim e and ahalfin cash paym ent to electricians and linem en for overtim e w ork,instead ofthe form er practice ofgranting tim e off.The im portantinnovation in the new system w as the com pleteow nership and controlby the authority ofallpoles and lines including extensions.A lso alltelephonesand m etersin privatehom esw ere ow ned by the authority.13 Com m on interests banded the individual hotels into one group,and follow ing a prelim inary m eeting on June 9 the H otelA ssociation of the Virgin Islands w as officially form ed on July 7,1952.The firstm eeting is described in the association’sow n m inutes: O n June 9th,five hotelsm etto form an A ssociation.Presentw ere: Bluebeard CastleH otel,G rand H otel,Flam boyantH otel,Trade W inds H oteland the Virgin IsleH otel.CaneelBay Plantation,St.John,w as unableto attend because oftransportation difficulties,and W ater Isle H otelfound itim possibleto attend thatday,although both establishm entsexpressed regretand extended bestw ishes for the firstorganizationalm eeting.W hen the election ofofficerstook place,itw as proposed thatM r.A lton A .A dam s,w ho w as notpresent,should becom e the President;consequently atelephone callw as m ade to him and he w as offered the appointm ent.A tthe tim e M r.A dam s feltunableto serve as President,although he agreed to acceptthe FirstVice Presidency. The officerselected w ere M r.ErnestG ordon ofthe Flam boyant H otelas President,M r.A lton A dam s,FirstVice President,M r.Reuben Barnetand M r.H enry Kim m elm an as Second Vice Presidents,M r.H ein Christensen and M r.Thom as D ellas Secretaries.14

Included in the am algam ation w as a keen desire to preserve the beauty of the islands,to m aintain their culture and local m anner of living,and to protect their history. To destroy these qualities and attributes w ould destroy the attraction w hich broughtvisitors to the islands and to association establishm ents.In itsbylaw sthe association dedicated itselfto respect the people ofthe islands and theirestablished com m unity life.The principles and aim s ofthe association w ere as follow s:

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 275 1. To unitethe hotelsand guesthouses ofthese islands as an organized and harm onious body for the protection and prom otion ofthe m utualinterestsofitsm em bers 2. To lend m utualassistance to one another to the bestofeach m em ber’sability 3. To adhere to the basicprinciples ofgood and proper ethicsin the hotelbusiness am ong the m em ber hotelsofthe association and w ith other hotelsofother associations 4. To m aintain ethicalstandards and principles com m on to allassociations and hotelsin theirrelations w ith travelagencies,transportation agencies,and agencies engaged in fostering tourism 5. To inspire confidence and respectfor the com m unities and their peoplein these Virgin Islands 6. To stim ulateand encourage tourism to the Virgin Islands in every ethicalm anner possibleand to cooperatew ith allindividualsand bodies likew ise engaged in thisobjective 7. To offer atalltim es the services ofitshighly experienced and technicalpersonnelin prom oting tourism and the econom icdevelopm entofthese islands 8. To cooperatew ith localand federalgovernm entinsofar as possible and practicablein allm atters in w hich hotelshave concern and can be ofassistance 9. To cooperatein the preservation ofthe tradition and culture ofthe locallifeofthe Virgin Islands.15 It m ay be of interest to know w hy and how the A dam s 1799 G uest H ouse becam e am em berofthe H otelA ssociation,and how Icam e to serve as presidentfor nineteen consecutive years.16 O ne day in June 1952 a telephone callfrom H ein Christensen inform ed m e thatagroup ofhotelpeople w ere atthatm om entm eeting in the Flam boyantH otelto organizean association ofhotelsand had requested the m em bership ofm y guesthouse and thatIbe the president.To say thatIw as flabbergasted w ould be to putit m ildly,and w ere itnotforthe seriousnessofH ein,Iw ould have considered the m atter a huge joke.Iasked m yselfw hatgood m y guesthouse ofseven room scouldbe tothe association,and w hathelpIcouldgive toitasitspresident— since I had no experience w hatever in large hotel operation.The only thing to do,therefore,w asto graciously refuse.ButH ein w asinsistent thatIacceptthe offer.In the end,m y guesthouse becam e a m em ber,and I

276 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation agreed to serve asfirstvice president.Ichanged m y reply w hen Irecalled the help Ihad received from H ein years before w hen Iw as chairm an ofthe St. Thom as Pow er A uthority.O ne good turn,Iconcluded,deserved another.It w asadecision Ineverregretted.O n Septem ber15,1952,Ireplaced M r.G ordon,w ho had returned to the U nited States,aspresidentofthe association. To celebrateitsfirstanniversary in the sum m erof1953,the H otelA ssociation sponsored acharity ballto benefitthe new ly opened Knud-H ansen M em orialH ospital.Idelivered the follow ing address over the invaluable radio station W STA for the occasion: O n Sunday afternoon,A ugust2,a vastconcourse ofpeople,com prising allw alks oflifein the com m unity,attended the opening cerem onies of the new ly-builtKnud-H ansen M em orialH ospital.The eventto m e w as one ofthe m osttouching and inspiring scenes Ihave w itnessed for quitealong tim e in thisisland or for thatm atter any other place.The scene w as indeed touching and especially so as the institution w as nam ed by agratefuland appreciative peoplefor aw orthy m an— a m an the m em ory ofw hose w orth,hum anity,and altruisticw ork m ay perhaps outlive the m assive structure w e now dedicateto him for the exem plary service he so unselfishly rendered during alifetim e ofsacrificialdevotion to suffering hum anity. The editor ofthe St.Thom as D aily N ew s,in com m enting on the econom icfactor involved in the m aintenance ofthisinstitution,callsit a“Challenge.” H e isright.Itistruly achallenge to thism unicipality w ith itseconom icassetsreduced to zero.The factis,the institution is here.Itisours.Ithas to be m aintained.Ithas to m ove along w ith the rapid strides daily m ade in m edicine and surgery. The H otelA ssociation ofthe Virgin Islands,ofw hich Ihave the privilege and honor ofbeing president,has,along w ith other organizations,accepted the challenge m entioned by Editor M elchior ofthe D aily N ew s,and isendeavoring to contributeitsbittow ard the m aintenance and grow th ofthism agnificentinstitution.Itsprim ary contribution takes the form ofacolorfuldinner-dance atthe luxuriousVirgin IsleH otelon the nightofA ugust19.The proceeds ofthisundertaking w illbe donated to the hospital.For thisdinner-dance no com plim entary ticketsw illbe issued.Every m em ber ofthe A ssociation ispurchasing histicket.Besides,the m anagem entofthe Virgin IsleH otelisgiving the free use ofitsestablishm ent.The $7.50 per ticketcovers $2.50 to the purchase ofthe dinner.Thisfigure representsthe actualcostofthe m aterialfor the dinner.A llother things,m usic,w aiting service,etc., have been gratuitously donated.Every centofthe rem aining $5.00 per person goes to the hospitalfund.The expenses involved in the distribution ofprizes w illbe covered by donations from various business establishm entsin the island.A m ong these prizes isincluded a3-day trip to

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 277 San Juan,Puerto Rico,w ith accom m odation atthe luxurious Caribe H ilton.17 The H otelA ssociation iskeenly aw are ofitscivicduties and responsibilities.Itcannotbe denied thateach m em ber hotelisan integralpart ofthe very fibre ofour com m unity lifeand interest.Itsim ply asks for m utualunderstanding,cooperation,and good fellow ship.In this instance the A ssociation requestsyour attendance on the nightofits w orthw hileendeavor.Your acceptance w illgo along w ay tow ard proving your deep concern for the successfulm aintenance ofthe KnudH ansen M em orialH ospital. Letm e say thishere and now.Itism y deep conviction thatin the heartofnearly every native ofthisisland isthe desire to do the right thing and to feelthe rightw ay.A nd Isincerely believe thisto be also true ofthose citizensfrom the m ainland w ho com e here to be am ong us and ofus.A sIw atched m any ofthe eagerand happy facesfrom am ong the trem endousgathering atthe opening ofthe hospitalon Sunday, A ugust2,there w asto m e som ething profoundly im pressive and stirring,due no doubtto the vitalizing m agneticcurrentw hich em anated from the beautifulm em ory ofthe lifeand w ork ofD r.Knud-H ansen. Letm e citean incidentby no m eans rare,w hich m ightpaintastriking picture characteristicofthe m an him selfin the m inds ofthose w ho w ere notprivileged to know him .Itw as during an epidem icoffever in the com m unity severaldecades ago.The physicians w ere allkeptbusy day and night,w ith hardly any restor sleep,adm inistering to the m any patients. D r.Knud-H ansen had justreached hom e,tired after m any sleepless days and nights,hoping now to catch atleastafew w inks undisturbed, w hen hisdoorbellrang and an anxious m other,insisting on seeing him , protruded herselfin the hallw ay.“M y child isvery ill,D octor.H e is delirious and I’m w orried over him .Please com e and have alook at him ,” she anxiously pleaded.“Ifyou do so,Iknow m y child w illget better.” “N ah!” gruffly replied the doctor.“Ican’tcom e.I’m tired and hungry.G o and getanother doctor.I’m sorry.” N otto be so easily dism issed,the w om an countered thus:“ButI don’tw antany other doctor.Iw antyou because Iknow m y child w ould live ifyou com e.” “D o you understand vatIsay,vom an? I’m tired,getanother doctor. So now please go avay,” he blurted outas he turned slow ly aw ay from the w om an. Crestfallen,the w om an departed.She,how ever,did notgetvery far w hen acar stopped by her and adeep voice from w ithin said to her, “G etin,m y good vom an.H ow do you know your child isgoing to die? A re you aphysician?”Too happy to hold any argum entw ith the doctor,she justturned on him gratefuleyes and sm iled through her tears.

278 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation In relating thisincident,the m other rem arked thatfrom the m om ent D r.Knud-H ansen entered her hom e,she feltthatthe lifeofher child w as saved.The lifeofthe child w as saved,and he w as seen am ong the throng atthe opening cerem onies ofthe hospitalon A ugust2. Itissaid by aw ell-know n w riter that“to appreciateanything isto be deeply or keenly sensitive ofor sensitive to itsqualities or influence, to see itsfullim port,be alive to itsvalues,im portance and w orth.”The tributepaid to the qualities ofD r.Knud-H ansen,and the value and im portance ofthe hospitalitself,isam ostprofound and beautiful expression ofapeople’sappreciation and gratitude.The spontaneous activities ofthe tw o groups ofsoftballplayers in the ballgam e played for the benefitofthe hospitalare evidence ofthe spiritofhelpfulness and civicpride w hich perm eates throughoutthe length and breadth of thiscom m unity. Every hum an being m ustacceptthe responsibility ofbeing afellow citizen— a contributing m em ber ofthe socialgroup w hich vouchsafes him safety and protection.The hospital— any hospital— brings vividly to m ind the thoughtthatw e are allvictim s or beneficiaries ofaccident. W hatever our station,be itrich or poor,w e find ourselves involved w hen the econom icstructure collapses.Thatsecurity for w hich w e all strive isadelusion,for the resultdepends upon an infinitevariety of incalculablecircum stances. Fellow citizens,m y appealto you thisevening over thisinvaluable radio station W STA isto urge your cooperation to the fullestw ith us and othersin an endeavor to help m aintain our hospital.Join us in our efforton the nightofA ugust19.By so doing,you w illbe contributing som ething substantial— som ething w orthw hilefinancially to this w orthy institution.Iffor som e reason or other you cannotattend the dinner-dance,send in acontribution anyhow,how ever hum ble,to our secretary,M r.Thom as D ell,atthe Virgin IsleH otel.Rem em ber that,to use the w ords ofthe poetG oethe,“the tiniesthairthrow s itsshadow.” The m em bersofthe H otelA ssociation have gone alloutin their effortsto help thiscause.These effortsw illbe successfulonly to the extentto w hich you m ake it— by yourcooperation,by yourattendance, by thinking in term sofhum an service ratherthan in term sofm ere dollarsand cents.Letuskeep in m ind the factthatthe realand enduring valuesoflifecom e notfrom m aterialpossessions.Letuskeep in m ind the factthatthe vicissitudesoflifeare variousand the w ay oflifefortuitous.18

By the 1950s the hotel industry in the Virgin Islands w as a vast and highly developed one,offering opportunities to m en and w om en com parable to any other great industry.It therefore required the necessary em ployer and em ployee qualifications.From the hum ble task ofw aiter or busboy,opportunity spirals upw ard in advancem entfor the am bitious to thatofm anagem ent.The required skillsare a m atter oftraining and edu-

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 279 cation.The severalattem ptsthe H otelA ssociation m ade to have atraining school for hotel w orkers established on the island are evidence of the know ledge and understanding ofthe vitalrole skilled em ployees play in the industry’ssuccess.M uch stress isoften placed on w ages,and justly so, to protectthe laborer,butm ention isseldom m ade ofthe im portantfactor of increased production to enable the em ployer to m eet the constantly increasing dem ands oflabor.The association believed thatone w ay to correctthisdisadvantage w as to train future em ployees,w hich isthe obligation notsim ply ofthe hotelsbutalso ofthe entire com m unity. Beginning during the adm inistration ofG overnorA rchieA .A lexander (1954–55),a program ofsuch a kind w as carried on for severalyears w ith a great m easure of success.19 Let m e tell you about the H otel Training School,itssponsors,and the nam esofthose w ho attended classesand w ere graduated,thus disproving the assertion that Virgin Islanders consider hotel w ork beneath them .The school’s letterhead gives the structural detailsofitsadm inistration: H O TEL A N D R ESTA U R A N T TR A IN IN G SPO N SO R ED BY TH E D EPA R TM EN T O F ED U C A TIO N IN SU LA R BO A R D FO R V O C A TIO N A L ED U C A TIO N A N D TH E H O TEL A SSO C IA TIO N O F ST.TH O M A S

[Personnel:]A dm inistrative Staff:M r.C.F.D ixon,M rs.Lenora P. W illiam s,and M r.E.Leonard Brew er,Coordinator.A dvisory Board:M r. H arry G oeggel,M rs.Louise Scott,and M r.Thom as D ell.Instructors: M r.J.A ntonio Jarvis,M rs.Louise Scott,M r.H arry G oeggel,M r. Thom as D ell,M r.H enry W azney,M r.Russ Eddy,M rs.Kram ser,M r. Rudolph G aliber,and M r.E.Leonard Brew er.

The graduation exercise ofthe hoteltraining program atthe high school auditorium on M onday,February 28,1955,offered the follow ing program : Introductory Rem arks A ddress

D iscussion:The H otel Training Program Presentation ofCertificates Rem arks

M r.E.Leonard Brew er,Coordinator D r.G .RobertCotton,Com m issioner ofEducation and Executive D irector— Voc.Ed. M r.Thom as D ell,Secretary ofthe H otelA ssociation and G raduates H on.A rchieA .A lexander,G overnor ofthe Virgin Islands M r.A lton A .A dam s,President, H otelA ssociation

280 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation G raduates RitaBastian LealeBattiste Florence Charles M avisChinnery G loster D ublin O live Esannason Elaine Faulkner Franklin Ferdinand Clarzissa G abriel G loriaG ibbs Eleanor H arrigan Elroy H arrigan Inger Parke H arrigan Clothilda H odge

G erald Jam es Evelyn Jones A rchibald Larcheveaux D onald M arcelli Lem a M cBean Eleanor M cFarlane H elario M elchior M argaritaM elchior M arion N icholson A ubrey O ttley SoniaO ttley Rudolph Penn W arren Petersen Roy Raym o

In all there w ere over one hundred registered trainees from the high school,allofthem Virgin Islanders.20 A bookletpublished by the A m erican H otelA ssociation w as the result ofasurvey ofm ore than one hundred new spaperm en and an alm ostequal num ber ofhotelexecutives.21 N ew sm en w ere asked for suggestions as to how cooperation w ith hotelsm ightbe im proved and for frank statem ents as to the faultsand virtues ofhotelexecutives in dealing w ith new spapers. A saresultofthissurvey itw asfound thathotelsgetm any m illionsofdollarsw orth ofpublicity,butthey bootaw ay opportunities for m uch m ore. The association also learned thathotelsare especially vulnerable to som e types ofbad new s over w hich they have no control,and thatresponsible new sm en know thatand w antto protectthem .Itw as broughtoutin the open thatthe greatestdifficulty w hich besetnew sm en isthe obtaining of bad new s— forthe sim plereason thatto attem ptto hide bad new sisanorm alreaction,ifan unw ise one.Experienced hotelm en or other businessm en know thatbad new s cannotbe hidden.H otelm en w ere advised notto obstructnew sm en in getting the new s,forin doing so,they lay them selves open to m uch m ore dam aging publicity than if they helped.H ence the value ofa good press relationship.The resultofthe discussion m ightw ell be extended,w ith profit to the general public,to include w hat m ight rightly be term ed the com m unity-press relationship.

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 281 Itisnecessary to have aclear definition or understanding ofw hatjournalism im pliesin influence,in responsibility,and in objective.Itsinfluence m ay be truly gauged by w hatThom as Jefferson once said ofit— thathe w ould ratherlive in acountry w ith new spapersand no law sthan in acountry w ith law s and no new spapers.Journalism is a profession w hich deals prim arily w ith new sofpublicinterest— events,conditions,processesin the developm entofpublic opinion or ofpublic action.In short,itdeals w ith anything that m ight have touched or m ay likely touch the public consciousness.In so doing,in itsnew s and itsview s,itassum es a sacred definite responsibility in these tw o im portantfunctions ofpublic service;or since these tw in brothers,new s and view s,brook no conceivable boundaries or lim itations in their infinite variety,they encom pass us all.The functions ofpublicservice they em body carry a definite responsibility for the truth ofthatw hich they present. W hether w e choose to ignore itor not,the factrem ains thatthe editorialpage ofanew spaper exercises aconstantinfluence upon the opinion of itsreaders and in consequence entailsupon itseditor a serious obligation and a delicate care,to be fulfilled only w hen itsresponsibility isfully realized in every effortto use itforthe publicgood.Itisbecause ofthe seriousness of this obligation,w hich the free press of today assum es,that the A ssociated Press dem ands ofitsreportersand correspondentsstrictadherence to the creed ofa factual,nonpartisan,nonpoliticalnew s report.The byw ord ofthisleading w ire service is“im partiality,”and itsguiding principle is“accuracy and responsibility.”“Straightforw ard new s,” itpointsout, “is the only new s acceptable to a press representing every conceivable political,econom ic,and socialpointofview in afree society.” N otonly the A ssociated Press butany responsible,fair-m inded press,journal,or new spaperforthatm atterdoes,orshould do,itsbestto supply thiskind ofnew s in fulfillm entofthe im plied constitutionalguaranteeofthe public’srightto know.A notherA ssociated Press staffer states that,w hile itw ould be a disservice to em phasize bad new s outofproportion,itw ould be unthinkable to attem ptto suppress new s ofany kind.“N othing,” he claim s,“could be better calculated to destroy public confidence,quickly and com pletely.” A totalitarian governm ent,he furtherpointed out,m ay release only the good new s and hide its failures.In a free country itis the duty ofthe governm ent,press,radio,and television to reportthe facts,good or bad,for the strength of dem ocracy lies in an inform ed people.In the exercise of its pow er,there are three w ays by w hich w e m ay judge the quality ofanew spaper:itsconception ofright,the characterofitsservice,and the realization

282 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation ofitsresponsibilities and obligations in a profound devotion to the public interest.Itsperform ance in acom m unity isofgeneralconcern. It seem s to m e that the general com m unity,especially governm ental agencies,federaland m unicipal— like the hotels— need an aw akening to a clearerand betterunderstanding ofthe rolethatthe free pressplaysin the daily lives of each and every m em ber of the com m unity through its pow er— itsinfluence for good or bad in every aspectofcom m unity activity.TheseVirgin Islandsare steadily grow ing econom ically,politically,and, Im ay say,in term s of press service.The m ajor press services are represented here,as w ellas leading new spapers and m agazines.Itism y belief, how ever,thatour press services,localand foreign,especially the latter,are often derelictin theirbounden duty in giving the new s,good or bad.Too often w e either ignore or soft-pedal certain types of new s im portant enough to affectadversely the com m unity.Perhapsthisattitude isbecause ofafearofpossiblereprisalsofan econom icnature againstus.A san exam ple,the press is often voiceless on m any an injustice perpetrated on our people w hen m en are senthere from W ashington to fillhigh adm inistrative positions in our local governm ent in paym ent for som e part they m ighthave played in party w arfare,a partin w hich these islands w ere in no w ay involved. Itw as A lexander H am ilton w ho said thatthe liberty ofthe press consists in publishing the truth from good m otives and for justifiable ends, though it reflects upon the governm ent,on m agistrates,on individuals. The freedom of the press has the guarantee of the Constitution of the U nited States.Itisafreedom to be exercised for the protection ofthe people in order to preserve that hard-w on liberty and for the security and progress ofour publicas w ellas private institutions.The press isthe m ost pow erfulagency in m aintaining thatliberty w hich isconsidered the m ost precious possession of hum anity.The press is to no little extent the guardian ofpublic m orals through its constantrevelation ofw rong.Itis said thatw ith m ostpeople the fear ofpublicity isa m ore potentinfluence in behalfofuprightnessthan fearofthe law.Letthose ofusthen w ho representthe Fourth Estate— the press,the new spaper,the radio— give serious thoughtto the ethicalresponsibility w e have assum ed and use our every effortaspurveyorsofnew sand interpretersofeventsto fulfillthatresponsibility w isely and sincerely forthe publicw elfare.Striking evidence ofthe grow ing nature oftheseVirgin Islandsisthatleading pressagencies,new spapers,and m agazines are today alert to our happenings and often seek new s concerning people and events connected w ith them .W e should be thankfulthatthrough our press and new spapers w e have avoice pow erful

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 283 and influentialenough to reach the m ind and heartofthe greatA m erican publicin respectto m atters ofcom m unalconcern. A fter m y resignation as presidentofthe Virgin Islands H otelA ssociation,M r.Thom as D ell,our form er secretary and then m anager of the IsabellaH om e H ousing Com pany,sentm e aletter w hich reads: M y D earA lton, Ihave justread in the TravelW eekly ofyour resignation as Presidentofthe H otelA ssociation after 19 years in office.Ican only say thatM r.Bressler has ajob ahead ofhim in trying to fillyour shoes. A lton,Idoubtifany in St.Thom as realizem ore than Iallthat you did for the hotelsofthe A ssociation and ofthe roleyou played so very adm irably in fostering tourism to the Islands.Iw onder just w hattourism w ould have been like in the Virgin Islands w ithoutthe guidance w hich you gave.Ipresum e m any w ould never recognize nor creditthe progress to you,butthen there are so m any w ho never can even see the noses on theirfaces. Iam sure neither ofus really knew the extentthattourism w ould flourish in the Islands— atleastthe m anner in w hich itdid.I am sure you also know thatour effortsgreatly assisted in taking out the bum ps and straightening the path ofthe tourism course in the long road traveled to the presenttim e.W e m ustnotdism issthe w ork thatH enry Kim m elm an did nor thatofm any others,likely no longer in St.Thom as,in the laying ofthe touristfoundation there. Ido hope,A lton,thatyou are very w ell,thatlifenow isbeing kind to you and thatyou are enjoying the days rem aining in your lifeoflong service to the peopleand islands w here you live.The islands should rem em ber you for along tim e after you have gone. A s for m yself,Irem em ber you as w arm ly now as Idid w hen I enjoyed the friendship ofour years ofA ssociation as w ellas the inspiration ofyour leadership and personality.Itw as agreatpleasure to m e to w ork w ith you,and Ihope thatevery succeeding day w illbe m ostkind to you.

The letter brings to m ind the m any m idnights for years spent over telephones discussing and planning association activities:presenting Christm as D ay radio program s each year from the Virgin Isle H otel,w ith script and songsrendered by the w orkersthere,and tim esspenttogetherin bringing to an often indifferentcom m unity,one som etim eshostiletotourism ,the indisputable factthattourism w as the answ er— the panacea to the islands’econom icw oes,ifnotguarantorofitssurvival— and the richnessofthe peoples’ background and environm entw as a vitalfactor in the process and progress. A ll of these efforts and contributions w ere m ade possible by the help of

284 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation Thom asD ell.W hatH ein Christensen w astom ein thecaseoftheSt.Thom as Pow erA uthority,D ellw asto m e in the case ofthe H otelA ssociation. The H otelA ssociation accom plished m uch over the years,acting w ith sincere faith in concerted effortsforacom m on purpose.Ibelieve thiseffort has been m ade w ith the satisfying conviction thatitsw ork isnotonly for a special group interest but also,of m ore im portance,for a com m unity interest.The m em bers ofthe association com m itted to theirjob w ith the vigor,enthusiasm ,and determ ination of enlightened A m erican citizens w illing to live up to the tradition ofthe bestservice for the fairestprice. A m ong m y list of the H otel A ssociation’s accom plishm ents, I w ould include the follow ing: 1. W inning the repealofthe 2 percenttax levied by the local adm inistration on touristsand other visiting guestsin 1952.It w as an uphillstrugglethatw as successfully broughtto aclose in the U.S.D istrictCourtofthe Virgin Islands22 2. O perating atraining program for hotelem ployees,described above 3. Establishing aspecialfund for the pharm aceuticalbranch ofthe Knud-H ansen M em orialH ospitalw ith acontribution ofover $30,000,and contributing to the D am on Runyan Cancer Fund23 4. Contributing expenses connected in the review by the Suprem e Courtofthe U nited States ofthe divorce testcase A lton v. A lton24 5. Aw akening the peopleofthe islands to the significance ofthe hotelas afactor in the lifeofthe com m unity by m eans ofspecial w eekly broadcastsand new spaper articles (beginning in 1953), featuring notonly the hotelindustry butalso the historicallife ofthe Virgin Islands and theirpeople;and,notthe leastim portant,the entertaining ofvisiting travelagentsto the island 6. Becom ing am em ber ofthe A m erican H otel& M otelA ssociation 7. Extending the runw ay ofthe H arry Trum an A irport,through the influence ofLaw rence Rockefeller 8. Bringing to the attention ofthe federalgovernm entthrough Congressm an Chudoffthe pressing problem ofw ater shortages 9. Calling vigorous attention ofthe federalgovernm entto the need for am odern telephone system in the islands

Tourism and the H otelA ssociation / 285 10. Sponsoring appearances ofm usicalartistson the concertstage of the islands and helping to restore Carnival25 11. O rganizing,sponsoring,and paying the expenses connected w ith aM issVirgin Islands in the person ofM issEdna G olden ofSt. Croix to com petein aU nited States pageantin N ew York City on June 7,1956 12. O rganizing,sponsoring,and paying the expenses ofafullfouryear undergraduatescholarship given to astudentpursuing a degree in hoteladm inistration.Thisscholarship began w ith a fund-raising ballin 1975 and w as nam ed the A lton A .A dam s Scholarship.The firstaw ard w as given in 1976 to Ray Fonseca, w ho attended Florida StateU niversity. These achievem ents have com e from a com bination ofthatbasic faith in the purpose ofagroup and the vigorous prom otion ofthatfaith.26 A quick glance at the m aterial side of the islands’ rapid grow th after tourism entered into the picture indicates how w ellthese principles w ere carried out.In 1952 the totalrevenues atthe end ofthe fiscalyear w ere $1,533,000.In 1959 the figures presented w ere $5,224,159.95,w ith a possible increase at the end of the year to $7,000,000.In 1952 there w as a budgetof$2,250,000.In 1959 thistotaled $8,000,000.The am ountspentin 1952 for publiceducation w as $458,000,com pared w ith $1,853,000 seven years later.The H ealth D epartm entin 1952 w as allotted $550,000 as com pared to $1,000,000 in 1960.In socialw elfare spending,w e find in 1952 the sum of$63,000 and in 1959 the revealing sum of$5,000,000.In tourism and trade 1952’s totalof$52,000 grew by 1959 to $221,000,an increase m ade possible by G overnor John M erw in.These statistical figures w ere reflected in change of dress and m anners,in the character of purchases m ade in the stores,in increased com fort and refinem ent of the physical surroundings.A llreveala rapid econom icadvancem ent.A nd ifm otorcars are an index ofprosperity,w e find further significance in the factthatthe island ofSt.Thom as alone has acar for every three inhabitants. These figuresshow the m aterialside ofthe islands’prosperity,w hich in no w ay reflects its interior life— the reallife— thatis,the ideas,the passions,and the dream s ofthe people in the com m unity.W hen taking into consideration the hum an factor in the econom ic scale of the islands’ progress,w e also find heartw arm ing im provem ents.N ote the positions held by natives in governm entand private business today as com pared to those held before.Look atthe personnelin our Senate,courts(m unicipal

286 / Tourism and the H otelA ssociation and federal),hospitals,and schools,asw ellasthe m any m odern housesbuilt and ow ned by natives.This is evidence of the intellectual and econom ic advancem ent of the w hole and dem onstrates a sound,healthy,steadily grow ing progresstow ard those politicalrightsand pow ersw e desire,including the rightsgiven usby the U nited Statespresidentto electourow n governor(since 1969)and to m ake ourow n constitution.A dm ittedly,notallof these advances can be directly attributable to the astonishing grow th of tourism after the Second W orld W ar.N evertheless,itisclear thatw ithout the m otor ofeconom ic progress pow ered by the touristindustry,political and social progress w ould not have been as rapid as it has been in these islands. W ithin the fram ew ork oftourism ,the hotelindustry playsaspecialand distinctive role in contributing to the econom y.Thus the thousands of cruise ship touristsw ho spend afew hoursin portactually spend butalim ited am ountin our shops,since they are going to other portsw here they w illalso be looking for bargains.A hotelguest,on the other hand,spends m ore than a day or tw o here,and practically allhistouristdollars rem ain here.Tourism as an industry isaccepted and iseagerly soughtafter by the entire w orld.To us,in these Virgin Islands,it is basic to our econom y. Because ofthis,itm ustbe zealously guarded and intelligently guided by m eansofan overallcom m unity planning superboard so thatitw ould actually be of real benefit to the people w hom it w as originally intended to serve— a benefit,Irepeat,notonly in term s ofdollars and centsbutalso, and m ore so,in m aintaining values ofcharacter,integrity,and hum an dignity in the Virgin Islands.27

EditorialM ethods M ark Clague

The firstnotice ofA dam s’sm em oirsprojectisfound in the W eekly Journal ofSt.Thom as in June 1973.1 A lton A ugustus A dam s,Sr.,w orked on these m em oirsoverapproxim ately fourteen years.The com pleteresultantm anuscript,w hich ispublished here for the firsttim e,seem s to be the productof tw o periodsofw ork:chapters1 through 6,8,and 11 w ere w ritten throughoutthe 1970sand intended forpublication asaw hole,and chapters7,9,and 10 w ere added in the early 1980s.O ver tim e,pages from the m anuscript w ere separated and som e lost,w hile unique copies ofthe three later chapters,along w ith ascrapbook and other m anuscriptm aterials,w ere given by A dam s to Virgin Islands historian Isidor Paiew onsky and thus separated from the w hole.D espiteover adecade oflabors,m ultiplerevisions,and the assistance oftw o collaborating scholars,G eorge Tyson and Sam uelFloyd, the m anuscriptrem ained unfinished atthe author’sdeath in 1987. The process ofreconstructing the fulltextfrom am ong A dam s’sm any m anuscriptsrevealed the m em oirsto be acollage ofpreviousw ritingscom bined w ith new text,draw ing upon a lifetim e ofw riting and observation. The goalofm y editing w astoproduce acoherent,clear,and accurateversion ofA dam s’sbook w hile preserving hisliterary voice.Ihave chosen to produce notacriticaledition butascholarly realization inform ed by historical sourcesand archivalresearch.Itishoped thatthism ethod presentsA dam s’s thoughtin ascom pelling,accurate,and com pleteaform aspossibleand thus serves both general readers and scholars.Structurally,the body text and footnotes ofthe m em oirs are A dam s’s ow n,and m y editor’s introduction and the notesatthe back offerm y ow n editorialand scholarly com m entary. A ll know n m anuscript sources for the m em oirs are held in the A lton A ugustus A dam s Collection (A A C)atthe Center for Black M usic Research (CBM R), Colum bia College Chicago, and the A dam s M usic 287

288 / EditorialM ethods Research Institute in Charlotte A m alie,St.Thom as,U.S.Virgin Islands (A M RI).The sourcesused are detailed below.A lthough the m aterialsgiven to Paiew onsky have yetto be located,they w ere published serially in his “H istory Corner” colum n for the St.Thom as D aily N ew s betw een 1987 and 1992.O vertw o hundred articlescontaining A dam s’sw ritingsappeared on an alm ostw eekly basisover thisperiod. catalog of m ain sources for m em oirs held in the adam s collection N ote:The prim ary source thatserved as the starting pointand authority for each section ism arked by an asterisk.

Chapter 1

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Chapter 2

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Chapter 3

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Chapter 4 Chapter 5

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Sources (held atCBM R in Chicago unless otherw ise noted) Firstpage ofdocum entw ith corrections,titled “The M em oirs ofA lton A dam s,Sr.,1889–1973” Com pleteseven-page clean typescript,titled “Preface” Com pletethirteen-page typescript,titled “IIntroduction”* Seven-page typescriptw ith lightcorrections and som e insectdam age Tw elve-page,hand-num bered typescriptw ith light editing Incom pletetw enty-three-page typescriptw ith light corrections and m inor insectdam age,titled “Chapter I”* Com pletenine-page typescriptw ith lightediting, titled “II” Com pleteseventeen-page typescriptw ith corrections, titled “Chapter II” Clean eighteen-page typescript,titled “Chapter II”* Five-page,heavily edited typescriptaboutA dolph Sixto Clean thirty-five-page typescript,titled “Chapter III”* Com pleteeight-page typescriptw ith heavy corrections,titled “The N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands 1917–1931”

EditorialM ethods / 289 •

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Chapter 6

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Chapter 7

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Chapter 8

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Chapter 9

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Chapter 10

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Chapter 11

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Eightsurviving pages ofvarious revisions and expansions ofprevious draft Incom pleteforty-seven-page typescriptw ith lightcorrections,titled “IV ”* Three-page clean typescript,titled “PublicLibrary” Incom pletetw enty-six-page typescriptw ith lightcorrections,titled “Chapter” Incom pletetw enty-five-page typescriptw ith lightcorrections,titled “V ” (the label“IV ” also appears)* “H istory Corner” excerpts;see end-of-book notes; m icrofilm held atthe Enid Baa Library (St.Thom as)* Incom pletefourteen-page typescriptw ith lightcorrections,titled “The N avalA dm inistration:A n Evaluation”* “H istory Corner” excerpts;see end-of-book notes; m icrofilm held atthe Enid Baa Library* “H istory Corner” excerpts;see end-of-book notes; m icrofilm held atthe Enid Baa Library* Com pletetw elve-page typescriptw ith lightcorrections,titled “Tourism and the H otelA ssociation” and “ChapterV III” Incom pletetw elve-page typescriptw ith no corrections,titled “Tourism and the H otelA ssociation” and “ChapterV III,” w ith the “V III” crossed outand “V II” inserted* Com pletetw elve-page edited typescript,titled “A dam s 1799 G uesthouse,ItsCom pensation” Com pletetw elve-page typescript,titled “A dam s 1799 G uesthouse— ItsCom pensation” and “IX”*

A n appreciation ofA dam s’s w orking m ethod clarifies the nature ofthe m em oirs.The deepestrootsofthe textare found in approxim ately tw enty hoursofaudiotapes— recorded oral-history interview sdone w ith the author on St.Thom asby St.Croix historian G eorgeTyson in the early 1970s.These tapes w ere transcribed for A dam s by paid assistants,so thatchapter drafts seem to have been available by 1973.Com m entsfrom A dam s attached to a grant proposalto the Virgin Islands Councilon the A rts dated June 1979 state thatA dam s,a longtim e professionalw riter,w as disappointed w ith the

290 / EditorialM ethods recording and transcription process:“Personally,Ido notconsider taping to be an adequatesubstituteforthe w ritten,considered w ord.”2 Exam ination ofthe m anuscriptdraftssuggeststhatas hisw ork continued,A dam s becam e increasingly focused on the text,revising and adding m aterialfrom his earlier essays,speeches,radio scripts,letters,new spaper articles,and other archival docum ents held in his extensive scrapbooks. W hilehe identifieslongerexcerptsfrom hisow n previousw ritingsthatare w oven into the m em oirs,he adapts sm aller selections freely and w ithout com m ent.M any extended passages parallelearlier w ritings or seem based on such sources and contain verbatim quotations.W hen source docum ents for these quotes survive in the A AC or atA M RI,they are identified in m y notesatthe back.Thusthe m em oirscan be described asacollage— an artisticassem bly ofusually journalisticsourcesbroughttogetherin an aesthetic w hole w ith new contributions to crystallize and express the thoughtsand ideasofthe author. W hen possible,Ihave extended A dam s’scollage approach to fillgaps in the narrative w ith otherw ritingsby the author.M y editorialinsertionsare detailed in the editorialbacknotesto each chapter.G ood exam plesare found in chapter 11,w here the discussion ofjournalism isfrom a separate article unassociated w ith the m em oirsbutconcerning tourism and the press,w hile the section on “ElectricalPow er and Telephone Com m unication” and the conclusion concerning the“A dam s1799G uesthouse”appeartobelong w ith the m em oirsm aterialbutare notexplicitly attached to any extantchapter. W henever possible,I checked dates and nam es in the original m anuscriptand corrected them tacitly ifneeded.Such a fact-checking process is typicalofany nonfiction editing,butseem s especially im portanthere,as A dam s’sspoken interview and transcription processinvited variantsin the spelling ofproper nouns.W hen a consensus arose from the sources,that com m on approach w as used,butvariants stillexiston the islands today. A M RI librarian Shirley Lincoln on St.Thom as helped m e check proper nam es and conferred w ith island elders on typicalspellings.Standard editorialpractice has been follow ed,and in m ostcases,m inor editorialinterventions,w hen notthoughtto change the m eaning ofthe text,have been m ade w ithout com m ent— for exam ple,gram m atical,typographical,and punctuation errors have been corrected or regularized silently.W hen Ifelt changes w ere significantor there w as danger ofm isrepresenting A dam s’s m eaning,m y editorialadjustm entsto the texthave been described in the backnotes.H ow ever,detailing each and every change,no m atter how tiny, w ould have unnecessarily cluttered the text and detracted from the reader’sexperience.Further,m anuscripterrors w ere ofuncertain genesis.

EditorialM ethods / 291 They could be attributed to A dam s,to the typists he em ployed,or to his scholarly collaborators,including m yself (how ever unintentionally).In sum m ary,the creation of a perfect text that captured the exact result A dam s w ould have produced had he been able to see hisbook through to publication w asim possible,and to have docum ented every editorialchange w ith unrealistic precision w ould only have m isrepresented the result. A lthough this book cannotbe identical,Ihope itis close to w hatA dam s w ould have published.G iven the som etim es unfinished and incom plete state ofthe surviving source text,Ihave done m y bestas editor to respect A dam s’sw ork w hile using m y historicaltraining and research insightsto offer an inform ed and usefulversion.The interested reader isreferred to the archivaldocum entsthatserved as the basisfor thisvolum e forfurther clarification.A ny errors rem aining are entirely m y responsibility. Ithas been both m y pleasure and honor to help bring these m em oirs to publication.

EditorialN otes M ark Clague

A seditor,Ihave w ritten the com m entsgiven here asbacknotes.N otesw ritten by the author,A lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr.,are presented asfootnoteson the pagesofthe m em oiritself.M y notesare oftw o types.Som e describe the contentofA dam s’s originaltypescriptw henever Ias editor have deem ed changes Im ade to be significantenough to w arrantfuller description and explanation.In contrast,m inor adjustm ents to gram m ar,typography,or punctuation are often m ade w ithoutcom m entto avoid unnecessarily disrupting the text.(See Editorial M ethods for further explanation.) These notes m ay also identify source docum ents,usually w ritten by A dam s him self,used as the basis for the m em oir,if such docum ents survive in the A lton A dam s Collection (A AC) of the Center for Black M usic Research (Chicago)and theA dam sM usicResearch Institute(St.Thom as).Item scataloged in the A AC are identified by series,box,and item num ber using the follow ing abbreviation to save space:A AC§Series.Box.Item .Thus the code “A AC§V.2.10” indicates thata docum entlabeled item 10 isstored in box 2 ofseries 5 and held in the A lton A dam s Collection.A second type ofeditorial backnote offers scholarly com m entary,additional historical inform ation,or source inform ation used for fact-checking,further reading,and research.These editorialcom m entshelp m inim izechanges to A dam s’stext w hile enhancing the historical breadth and precision of the project as a w hole.For exam ple,A dam s’sm em oirs contain littledetailabouthissecond assignm entto G uantánam o Bay,Cuba,in 1942,w hereas Ifound inform ation in Virgin Islands new spapers that affirm s and expands the narrative presented in the m em oirs.Backnotes 23 and 26 for chapter 10 contain this additionalinform ation.

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294 / EditorialN otes to Pages 1–4

introduction Epigraph from rem arks given atthe A dam s M usicResearch Institute/Center forBlack M usicResearch (A M RI/CBM R)“M ore Than aBandm aster”sym posium ,M ay 10,2006,Bertha C.BeschulteM iddleSchool,St.Thom as. 1. W .E.B.D uBois,The SoulsofBlack Folk (Chicago:A .C.M cClurg,1903; repr.,N ew York:D over,1994),3. 2. Q uotations from chs.1 and 5 ofthe presentvolum e. 3. A ccording to the 2002 U.S.Census report for the Virgin Islands,76.2 percent of the population self-identified as black or A frican A m erican (see w w w.census.gov).In 1917,census data putthe black population at87 percent (A lbertA .Cam pbell,“St.Thom as N egroes— A Study ofPersonality and Culture,” PsychologicalM onographs 55:5 [1943],5). 4. A dam s,“Electing O urG overnor,”undated pressclipping likely from the early to m id-1960s,w hen the Virgin Islands ConstitutionalConvention w as occurring (1964–65),A M RI. 5. Isaac D ookhan,A H istory of the Virgin Islands of the U nited States (Kingston,Jam aica:Canoe Press,1974,repr.,1994),194–95. 6. Ibid.,144–47;socialequality and respect,how ever,could notbe created by royaldecree;von Scholten w entso far as to invite w hites and blacks to the sam e governm entsocialevents,butw ith lim ited effect. 7. See N eville A .T.H all,Slave Society in the D anish W est Indies:St. Thom as,St.John,and St.Croix (M ona,Jam aica:U niversity ofthe W estIndies Press,1994),especially “A ttitudes to the Future:Race and Class,” 220–24. Eddie D onoghue’s Black W om en:W hite M en:The Sexual Exploitation of Fem ale Slaves in the D anish W est Indies (Trenton,N J:A frica W orld Press, 2002)offers harrow ing accountsofslavery’sm oraldisorientation. 8. Cam pbell,82. 9. A n envelope from D uBoistoA dam spostm arked February 15,1952,survives in the A M RIcollection. 10. The shiftin A dam s’srelationship w ith D uBoisw as likely facilitated by pianistand authorM aud Cuney-H are,w ho asan im portantcontactand friend ofD uBoisfirstm etA dam s in 1924. 11. W hile inform ation isscanty,A dam s reportsm eeting w ith m em bers of the m ilitantcivilrightsorganization the Black Panthers in the late 1960s,prim arily to discourage theiractivities in the Virgin Islands on the grounds that aggressive tacticsw ould createaproblem thatdid notexist. 12. See Sylvia Stipe,“A lton A dam s,Sr.,Plans M em oirs to H elp,” W eekly Journal(June 7,1973),14,w hich quotes A dam s as saying his“w hole aim has been to give service in m y life.” 13. Tanya Schlesing,“A lton A dam s:A Point of View,” A ll-A h-W ee (St. Thom as)1:3 (1977),30. 14. Ifeom a Kiddoe N w anko,Black Cosm opolitanism :RacialConsciousness and Transnational Identity in the N ineteenth-Century A m ericas (Philadelphia:U niversity ofPennsylvaniaPress,2005),5–21.

EditorialN otes to Pages 5–7 / 295 15. Von Luckner w as know n during W orld W ar Ias the honorable raider “Sea D evil.” H e later established a training schoolfor w ealthy European and A m erican boys aboard a four-m astship thatsailed annually betw een Europe and the A m ericas.A ccording to A dam s’sson,thisship spentseveraldays in St. Thom aseach yearduring the 1920sand ’30s,w hen the navy band w ould entertain on board.A saresult,a friendshipdeveloped betw een A dam sand Von Luckner.Severalautographed portraitsofLucknerare held in the A M RIcollection. 16. The listofw hite role m odelshere isfrom A dam s’sarticle“Passing the D ead Line,”w hich draw sheavily on the ideasofThom asTapper(A A C§V I.1.4). 17. H arold Cruse,The Crisisofthe N egro Intellectual(N ew York:M orrow, 1967),especially section II,“1920’s–1930’s— W estIndian Influence,” 115–46. 18. In a N ov.30,2000,article,“Em ancipation G arden H as Changed Constantly through the Years,” Edith deJongh W oods states thatthe originalVictorian bandstand w as erected in 1879;D aily N ew s (D N ),28 and 29.Repairs m ade in 1907 m ay w ellhave been inspired by the founding ofthe N ative Brass Band.The currentbandstand,builtin the late1960sto replace the original,w as renovated in 1997. 19. A dam sm entionsthisdatein these m em oirs,and hisson,A lton A dam s, Jr.,states thatthe article appeared in a localpaper (personalcom m unication, M arch 2006);the articlehas yetto be located. 20. A dam s’snavy service (service num ber 100 11 96)isconfirm ed by the N ational Personnel Records Center in St.Louis,M issouri,a division of the U nited StatesN ationalA rchivesand RecordsA dm inistration.Priorto 1825 all navy m usiciansw ere classified firstas“seam en”and served in m usicrolesonly as secondary duty (Patrick Jones,“A H istory ofthe A rm ed Forces Schoolof M usic”[Ph.D.dissertation,PennsylvaniaStateU niversity,2002],68).Pioneering black m usic historian Eileen Southern identifies N im rod Perkins,a navy drum m er aboard the D iligence,as the only black navy m usician w hose nam e has been preserved from the A m erican Revolution.She identifies three black navy m usicians as serving during the W ar of1812:G eorge Brow n,bugler on the Chesapeake;Cyrus Tiffany,fifer on the A lliance;and Jessie W all,fifer on the N iagara (The M usic ofBlack A m ericans:A H istory,3rd ed.[N ew York: W .W .N orton,1997],65–66).In the nineteenth century,assegregation and discrim ination increasingly becam e the rulein the U.S.N avy,a m usician’sservice classification w as no longer readily available to blacks.In 1942 the N A A CP petitioned the governm ent for greater opportunity,and soon all-black navy bands w ere form ed from the graduates of the navy’s black m usic school at G reat Lakes N TS.(See Sam uel A .Floyd,Jr.,The G reat Lakes Experience, 1942–1945 [Carbondale:Black A m erican Studies Program ,Southern Illinois U niversity,1974];arevised version ofthe sam e titleisfound in The Black Perspective in M usic3:5 [Spring 1975],17–24,and an additionalarticle by Floyd, “A n O ralH istory:The G reatLakesExperience,”isfound in The Black Perspective in M usic(BPIM )11:1 [Spring 1983],41–61.)Itiscertain thatm ore early black navy m usicianshave yetto be identified.Sam uelFloyd hascopiesofphotographs ofblack m usicians playing aboard navy ships prior to W orld W ar I,

296 / EditorialN otes to Pages 7–8 usually in racially integrated groupings,but these m usicians’ talents w ere not recognized as such.They w orked officially as shipboard regulars in the kitchens or as officers’servants.A dam s and hisbandsm en,on the other hand, w ere classified asm usiciansand paid atregularnavy ratesform usicians.Jones has identified apparently black m usicians am ong the students in navy m usic schoolphotos prior to and justafter W orld W ar I(106–9).Further,A dam s’s band w asnotthe firstband ofcolorin the U.S.N avy.O n tourin the Philippines in 1908,the flagship G eorgia enlisted the services of tw enty-five Filipino m usicians w ho becam e the “Filipino Band of the U.S.S.G eorgia.” The band w as active untilatleast1911,butw as directed by a series ofnoncolored navy bandm asters,including Frank Zangari (an Italian).The players w ere m ultiinstrum entalists w ho perform ed in three guises— as band, orchestra, or m andolin club.(See G ustav Saenger,“A Representative Filipino Band,” The M etronom e 27:6 [June 1911],15.)Itisnotcertain how these m usicians w ere classified in navy records or paid.A frican A m erican new spapers such as the N ew York A ge did cover Filipino new s in 1924 and treated Filipinos as am ong the “colored” races (see “Filipinos at A nnapolis,” N ew York A ge [M ay 20, 1922],4).Thisensem ble isdistinguished from A dam s’sunitin thatitdid not have adirectorofcolorand w asattached to an A m erican ship.Rather,itsm usicians w ere cultural am bassadors.It seem s likely that the training of these m usicians m ighthave been affiliated,ifonly indirectly,w ith the activities of the A frican A m erican band director Col.W alter H .Loving,w ho directed the U.S.A rm y’sPhilippine Constabulary Band (and orchestra)from 1902 to 1916 (see Claiborne T.Richardson,“The Filipino-A m erican Phenom enon:The Loving Touch,” The Black Perspective in M usic10:1 [Spring 1982],2–28). 21. A typical period of service w ith any one navy band rem ains tw o to three years;other than A dam s’sband,the only m usicalexception to thispractice isthe U nited States N avy Band in W ashington,D.C.,w hich w as founded later than A dam s’sunit,in 1925.The ability ofthese bands to keep personnel togetherforlongerperiodsoftim e no doubtcontributed to theirsuperiorquality.The excellence ofA dam s’sow n band w asfurtherm otivated by the political im port of its position;know ing they represented their race,A dam s and his band w orked hard to honor thisresponsibility. 22. The rank ofchiefpetty officer topped the enlisted (noncom m issioned officer)hierarchy during W orld W ar Iand carried w ith itconsiderable honor and responsibility for leadership.Itw as typicalup through W orld W ar IIfor noncom m issioned officersto lead navy bands.In fact,ittookthe popularity and prestige ofJohn Philip Sousa to firstplace abandleaderin the ranksofcom m issioned officers.Sousa received the rank oflieutenantw hen he enlisted atage sixty-tw o in 1917 (PaulE.Bierly,John Philip Sousa:A m erican Phenom enon [Englew ood Cliffs,N J:Prentice-H all,1973],77–78).Furtherprestige w asgiven to navy bandsin 1925 w ith the founding ofthe U nited StatesN avy Band (previously the W ashington N avy Yard Band) and the subsequent elevation of leaderCharlesBenterto the rank oflieutenant.Through W orldW arIIthe only bands to have com m issioned officers as leaders w ere the U.S.N avy Band in

EditorialN otes to Pages 8–11 / 297 W ashington and the N avalA cadem y Band.A llunitbands had enlisted bandleaders(Jones,72–73).A sof2006,bandleadersare typically com m issioned officers ranging from O 1-Ensign through O 6-Captain. 23. Thispublication m ay be aunique effortin the history ofthe U.S.N avy, in particular because itsw eekly issues w ere notgiven aw ay,butsold for eight centseach (see A pril22,1922,issue— A A C§V II.1.4). 24. A briefitem in the N ew York A m sterdam N ew sofO ctober 24,1928, statesthatA dam sw asin N ew York,staying w ith Rom eo L.D ougherty,theater and dram a w riter for the sam e new spaper.A dam s returned to the islands on the steam ship Lorenzo ofthe N ew York and Porto Rico Line (A M RI). 25. Sam uel Coleridge-Taylor (1875–1912),a black British com poser and conductor,directed the U.S.M arine Band in W ashington,D.C.,in 1901 and conducted w hite orchestras in N ew York during a 1910 U.S.visit.Born in the D anish W est Indies,A dam s possessed the sam e European pedigree as Coleridge-Taylor,w hich m ay have helped him ascend the podium as w ell— w ith the critical difference that the Virgin Islands w ere by then part of the U nited States. 26. Racially integrated bands w ere not otherw ise sanctioned in the navy untilafter 1948.M usician 1stClass Jam es B.Parsons w as the firstblack navy bandm aster ofW orld W ar II;he led the all-black N avy Band B-1,w hich began training in M ay 1942 and w as stationed in Chapel H ill that July (Jones, 112–14). 27. A dam s’sletter ofrelease from the U.S.FleetReserve isdated M ay 11, 1945 (A M RI). 28. See M ark Clague,“A lton A ugustus A dam s,Sr.,” in InternationalD ictionary ofBlack Com posers,vol.1,edited by Sam uelFloyd (Chicago:Fitzroy D earborn,1999).W hile m any histories prom inentin band scholarship failto m ention A dam s,thisisnotindicative ofracism perse.The nineteenth-century black bandm aster Frank Johnson lived in Philadelphia,and m uch ofhism usic w as published in piano arrangem ents during his lifetim e.H is nam e appears regularly in these sam e historiesbecause inform ation on him hasbeen readily available. 29. N ew W orld RecordsLP 266,1976;released asCD 80266;Sam uelFloyd, “A lton A ugustus A dam s:The First Black Bandm aster in the U nited States N avy,”The Black Perspective in M usic5:2 (Fall1977),173–87;RaoulF.Cam us, ed.,A m erican W ind and Percussion M usic,Three Centuries of A m erican M usic,vol.12 ([Boston]:G .K.H all,1992);briefbiography on page xlbased on Floyd 1977;fullscore on 323–36. 30. Exceptions here are the various editions of W ho’s W ho in Colored A m erica that m ention A dam s (see,for exam ple,1st ed.[1927],1;3rd ed. [1932],1–2;and 7th ed.[1950],58),as w ell as D.A ntoinette H andy’s Black Conductors (M etuchen,N J:Scarecrow Press,1995),483,w hich is based on Floyd 1977. 31. Three ofthese scrapbooks are held in the CBM R A rchives.A tleastone w asgiven to St.Thom ashistorian IsidorPaiew onsky and hasyetto be located.

298 / EditorialN otes to Pages 12–17 32. D raftofintroduction held in A A C;one black narrative thatA dam sfails to m ention is The H istory ofM ary Prince:A W estIndian Slave,Related by H erself...,firstpublished in 1831 by F.W estley and A .H .D avisin London (repr.,N ew York:D over,2004). 33. A AC:from early typescripttoch.2.A ccording tothe“Introduction”tothe finding aid forRecord G roup 55 atthe N ationalA rchives,m aterialsw ere shipped from the islands to the FederalRecords Center in A lexandria,Virginia,in tw o accessions,the firstin A priland the second in June 1954.The firstshipm entw as from St.Thom asand ispresum ably the projectw ith w hich A dam sw asinvolved. 34. G rant proposal to Virgin Islands Council on the A rts, June 1979 (A A C§V.1.10). 35. Personalcom m unication w ith G w endolyn A dam s,June 23,1998. 36. See A dam s,“D edicated to the M em ory ofJPS,Leading Bandm aster of H isTim e,” Focus(A pril4,1971),6 and 14 (A A C§V I.1.19–20). 37. Letter from G oldm an to A dam s,Feb.2,1937 (A A C§II.2.22). 38. A dam s’sbriefletter ofapplication isfound in the A A C (§II.2.24),as is G oldm an’sletter ofM arch 9 (§II.2.26).In hisessays on both Sousa and G oldm an held in theA A C,A dam snotesthathe neverreceived aletterofacceptance from the A BA . A subsequent letter from G oldm an dated Feb. 22, 1938 (A A C§II.2.28),m akes no m ention ofthe A BA situation. 39. “Candidates Proposed and Elected,” M inutes of1937,p.3;“Secretary’s Report” in O fficial Convention M inutes,1939,p.1,series II.5.1,A m erican Bandm astersA ssociation A rchives,U niversity ofM aryland. 40. O n M arch 3,2006,the A BA granted A dam sitsfirstposthum ousm em bership;he w as form ally inducted on M ay 10 and 12,2006,in the Virgin Islands attw o eventsheld in hishonor:a scholarly sym posium and a concert by the N avy Cerem onial Band (see “Bandm aster A lton A dam s H onored Posthum ously,” St.Thom as Source [M arch 25,2006];and A nanta Pachem , “A m erican Bandm astersM em bership Finally Extended toA lton A dam satColloquium Celebrating H isLife,” St.Thom as Source[M ay 10,2006]). 41. Stuart H all,“N egotiating Caribbean Identities,” in N ew Caribbean Thought:A Reader,ed.Brian M eeks and Folke Lindahl(M ona,Jam aica:U niversity ofW estIndies Press,2001),24–39 (quoteon 26). 42. From an early draft of his opening chapter (untitled six-page edited typescriptin A A C,ca.1972).Sim ilarverbiage isalso used in am em oirs-related grantproposal(see A A C§V.1.10). 43. Sandra Pouchet Paquet,Caribbean A utobiography:Cultural Identity and Self-Representation (M adison:U niversity ofW isconsin Press,2002). 44. Ruth M oolenaar,Profiles ofO utstanding Virgin Islanders,3rd ed.(St. Thom as,V I:D epartm entofEducation,1992);Ruth M .M oolenaar,Legacies of U pstreet:The Transform ation ofa Virgin Islands N eighborhood (St.Thom as, V I:W e From U pstreet,Inc.,2005). 45. O gese T.M cKay,N ow ItCan Be Told:A n Autobiography (St.Croix,U S V I:Caribbean Printing,1991);Karen C.Thurland,PeterG.Thurland,Sr.:M aster Cabinetm akerand Bandleader(St.Croix,U S V I:A ntillesG raphicA rts,1994).

EditorialN otes to Pages 17–36 / 299 46. U sing financialsupportfrom the G IBill,A dam salso studied w riting via correspondence from 1952 to 1954 w ith the Palm er Institute ofA uthorship in H ollyw ood,California,taking courses in both article and fiction w riting.H is assignm entsand correspondence are preserved in A A C§V I.2.1–67. 47. D ookhan,274–77.

chapter 1.a historical m em oir 1. H ardangerisaform ofgeom etricw hite-w ork lace w ith rootsin N orw ay. 2. A dam scitesA rnold’sdefinition ofculture,“a know ledge ofthe bestthat has been said and done in the w orld.” The textquoted here com es from the preface to A rnold’s1873 book,Literature and D ogm a. 3. Burnham w as prem ier (prim e m inister)ofG uyana from 1964 to 1980 and presidentfrom 1980 to 1985.British G uiana becam e independentG uyana in 1966. 4. In an earlier version ofthissection,A dam s liststhe follow ing authors: Em ily and Charlotte Brontë,RobertBrow ning,Edw ard Bulw er-Lytton,John Bunyan,Lord Byron,A nton Chekhov,A lexander D um as,G ustave Flaubert, O liver G oldsm ith,W illiam H azlitt,Victor H ugo,Blasco Ibanez,John Keats, H enry W adsw orth Longfellow,Pierre Lotti,Thom asBabington M acaulay,G uy de M aupassant,Edgar A llan Poe,François Rabelais,Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Ruskin,Percy Bysshe Shelley,A lfred Lord Tennyson,Ivan Turgenev,and W altW hitm an (A A C§V I.1.5). 5. O ne m ightsurm ise thatthe “charm ingly elderly gentlem an” as w ellas one ofthe islandersw ho opened theirhom es to the author w as likely A dam s him self.Know n as the dean ofthe Virgin Islands press corps,A dam s had long been valued by journalistsfor hisknow ledge oflocalhistory. 6. A dam sindicatesno source;probably alocalpressclipping.O lym pio w as born in 1902 and died in a1963 coup.H e served asprim e m inisterofTogo from 1958 to 1961 and presidentfrom 1961 to 1963.

chapter 2.the st.thom as craftsm en of the nineteenth century 1. The record ofA dam s’sbaptism atFrederick Lutheran Church confirm s thisdate.H e w as baptized on M arch 23,1890 (p.221). 2. Savan is a neighborhood eastofBluebeard’s H illand north ofM arket Square in CharlotteA m alie,St.Thom as. 3. The 1916 dateforthe stroke isprovided by Jacob A dam s’sdeath notice in D N (Feb.17,1919)and St.Croix A vis(Feb.21,1919,1),w hich states thathis stroke occurred three yearsbefore hisdeath.These articles also place him as a m em ber ofO ld U nity Lodge N o.356 and listhisem ployer as the St.Thom as D ock,Coaling,and Engineering Com pany. 4. A dam s’sm anuscriptreads “O dd Fellow s Lodge” atthispoint;corrected to m atch obituary (see previous note).

300 / EditorialN otes to Pages 37–39 5. M iddle nam e provided by Enid A dam s Q uestel,personal com m unication,M ay 30,2005. 6. The term governess im plies superior m anners and education;a m ore usualterm w ould have been house m aid,although an alm ostfam ilialrelationship am ong dom esticsand theirem ployers w as expected in St.Thom as. 7. Birth records for A dam s’sparentshave yetto be located.A dam s’sm anuscriptgivesabirth dateof1872,yetthecensusof1900statesthatA dam s’sm other w as older than hisfather.A dam s gives hisfather’sbirth date as 1860 butstates thathe died in 1919 atthe age offifty-seven— an erroroftw o years.A lthough it isan educated guess,itseem spossiblethatA dam sw ouldbe m ore likely tom ixup birth years than he w ould ages.Thus,the editor has chosen to assign the 2 from the date given to hism other to hisfather,thus changing 1860 to 1862,w hich is consistentw ith hisdeath atthe age offifty-seven in 1919.Then the birth year originally assigned toA dam s’sfatherisgiven tohism other.Theonly possibleflag ofaproblem isthatshe w ould have then been tw enty-nine w hen she gave birth toA lton in 1889— ratherold atthe tim e forafirstchild.Yetherage isconfirm ed by the baptism al records at the Frederick Evangelical Lutheran Church on St. Thom as.The age ofhism other islisted as tw enty-nine years and hisfather’sas tw enty-eight(p.221).H isgodparentsare listed asA rchibald D inzey,John Sebastian,R.Iteines,Susanne Cooper,and Caroline D elhon.The m em oirs m anuscript reportshism other’sm iddle nam e as “Evangeline”;itappears as “Elizabeth” in A lton’s baptism al record,“Evangeline” in his sister Edna’s record,and “Evangelina”in hisbrotherJulien’s.(Spelling variantsare com m on in these docum ents, probably because ofdiffering spelling practices am ong the D anish and English speakersw ho filled them out.)Consistentw ith localcustom atthe tim e,A dam s’s parentsw ere notofficially m arried atthe tim e ofhisbirth.H erreligion islisted as “D.R.” orD utch Reform ed;hisfather’sas“M ” orM oravian.Jacob A dam s’sprofession islisted as“tom rer,”w hich isD anish forcarpenter. 8. The nam e A lthea Peterson is notincluded in the m em oirs draftbutis identified in Linda Benjam in’sbiography for young readers,A lton A .A dam s (St.Croix,U S V I:CRIC Productions,1987).This source also indicates that A dam s’s m other died w hen he w as thirteen years old,that is,circa 1902–3, although in chapter 4 A dam s states thatshe w as forty-six w hen she died,circa 1906,w hich isthe dateused here.A n obituary has yetto be located. 9. Baptism al records at Frederick Evangelical Lutheran Church confirm Edna’sbirth dateasJan.18,1894,and reportthatherparentshad been m arried in the church since A lton’s birth.She w as baptized on M ay 6 (p.252).Julien Zeitzem ar A dam s’sbirthday isgiven as D ec.30,1895,and date ofbaptism as M arch 1,1896 (p.262). 10. Baptism alrecords atFrederick Lutheran identify one ofthese sisters as A nita H enrietteW ilhelm ine A dam s,born N ov.19,1899,and baptized D ec.24 ofthe sam e year(p.280).The othersisterseem snotto have lived long enough to have been baptized. 11. A ccording to an unidentified clipping held atthe A A C,Julien A dam s w as sixty-five w hen he died,and lefta w ife,Clare,and three children,Elm o,

EditorialN otes to Pages 39–52 / 301 H erbert,and M rs.RitaA dam s Benjam in.H e had fourteen grandchildren.H is firstw ife w as nam ed Eudocia (Enid A dam s Q uestel,personalcom m unication, M ay 30,2005). 12. Edna A ugusta“A untie”A dam sw asA dam s’slastsurviving sibling.The editor interview ed her in the com pany ofG w endolyn A dam s (one ofA lton, Sr.’schildren)in 1997,w hen she w as 103 years old.She died on February 25, 1999,at the age of 105 and is buried in W estern Cem etery on St.Thom as (funeralprogram held atthe U niversity ofthe Virgin Islands). 13. Com plicating the religious m ixture further, Ella A dam s w as raised Catholicw ithin alargely Jew ish environm ent.H erpaternalgrandfather,Joseph Robles,w asaprom inentJew ish m erchant,and hersisterw asm arried to the St. Thom asrabbi(A lton A dam s,Jr.,personalcom m unication,January 2006). 14. A dam s’s uncle’s children included A rchibald A .D inzey,Jr.(b.1888, d.M arch 31,1910),w ho played baritone horn in the St.Thom as N ative Brass Band,and Eldred E.D inzey (also b.1888),w ho played alto and baritone horn. 15. The program reproduced here com esfrom an early draftofthe chapter. A dam s likely cut this exam ple because,as originally printed in the Tim es, errorsundercuthisoverallargum entthatthe islandsw ere unusually sophisticated.In the original,the titleofRossini’sopera isgiven as“Barbara ofCivile” and M alibran is uncapitalized and spelled “m alobran.” Such typographical errorsare typicalofpressnoticesin the nineteenth century fortouring ensem bles throughoutthe U nited States. 16. A dam salso listsabasssingernam ed Bosley w ho took up residence after a tour stop w ith the Fisk Jubilee Singers and sang w ith the Lutheran choir. U nableto confirm either astop by the JubileeSingersatSt.Thom as or asinger nam ed Bosley in the group oron the islands,the editorhasrem oved thissection. 17. G iglioli w rote the first biography ofA dam s,published in the Jacobs’ Band M onthly (hereafter JBM )1916 (see p.339). 18. The definition ofparrotine asw ellasthe story ofA dam slistening athis father’sfeetw as added from the firstdraftofthe m em oirs (A M RI). 19. M onsanto w orked forSantiH estresashisvalet(A AC,early ch.2 draft). G ade isthe D anish w ord for“street”;“VesterG ade”m eans“W estStreet.” 20. A n early draftm entionsthatEvelyn’svoice ranked “in range and beauty ...w ith the m ezzo soprano M aude G lanvil,now M aude Essannason,w ho isstill alive and in her nineties and attending w orship in the Lutheran Church.” A dam s also notes that“the organistofthe church w as M issA nna Callw ood,a rem arkablepianistand organist.She w as the sister ofClifford Callw ood,M anagerofthe H am burg A m erican Line shipping and coaling station.”

chapter 3.the value of education 1. This section on discipline and the curfew has been added from a fragm entoftypescript,possibly intended for aspeech (A M RI). 2. D etails of the school day and location of the M oravian Tow n School adapted from Benjam in.

302 / EditorialN otes to Pages 53–57 3. A dam s adopts this text from an article,“M iss M ary M eyers:Schoolteacher and Friend ofH um anity,” w ritten on the occasion ofM eyers’s retirem entand preserved in theA dam sScrapbooks,D N ,N ov.9,1933 (A AC§II.4.134). Thesearticlesreportherbirth dateasJuneorJuly 10,1869,thedateofherretirem entfrom teaching due to poorhealth asJune 30,1933,and herdeath asoccurring on February 7,1939. 4. O riginally an A nglican,M anning (b.July 15,1808;d.January 14,1892) w asthe English cardinalpriestofSts.A ndrew and G regory on the Coelian H ill and the second archbishop ofW estm inster.H e w as influentialin socialjustice teaching (CatholicEncyclopediaO nline). 5. Q uotation restored from earlier chapter draft(A A C§V I.1.43). 6. Schom burg w as born in Puerto Rico butcam e to the islands as a boy— probably to St. Croix.A dam s and Schom burg corresponded in 1927. See Schom burg to A dam s,Jan.27,1927 (A A C§II.1.61),and A dam s to Schom burg, Feb.1,1927 (Schom burg Papers,N ew York PublicLibrary).The letters discuss black m usiciansand com posersincluding Brindisde Salasand the Chevalierde SaintG eorges,as w ellas lifeon St.Thom as. 7. D ing’sA lley (orD ing A lley)isaside streetnearthe M em orialM oravian Church thatdivides the FederalCourtBuilding from the police station,m ore typically know n as KanalG ade (M oolenaar 2005,11). 8. A dolph Sixto,Tim e and I;or,Looking Forw ard (San Juan N ew s,1899; repr.,St.Thom as:Enez Ione H arvey Trust,2006);see w w w.tim eandibook.com . 9. A n enorm ous m ultipart article titled “The Virgin Islands,U.S.A .” by Sixto runs in atleasttw enty-one separate issues ofthe Bulletin from June 28 through A ugust20,1925.The articleprotestsagainst“negativism s”in anum ber ofnew s reportsthatdisparage the potentialofthe islands— in aw ay sim ilar to the argum entdescribed here.Sixto also argues thatrace relations on the islands are of a distinctly different character than in the U.S.m ainland— an argum entthatA dam s m akes in these m em oirs— although Sixto adm its only that“colorprejudice w assom ew hatunknow n in these islands”before the U.S. purchase.Class— w hatSixto labelsthe “m asses versus the classes”— isclearly the prim ary socialm arker and division in Sixto’sessay.H e addresses a broad range ofsocialand politicalissues.Sim ilar to A dam s’sargum ent,hisbalanced assessm ent of the naval adm inistration both criticizes the initial “fear and hatred” the navy created and rem arks on the new opportunities and courtesy extended to islandersw orking forthe governm ent.Sixto identifiesprohibition and taxation astw o policiesinjuring the islands’trade and econom y and advocates the return ofagriculture to St.Thom as in hopes ofeconom ic im provem ent.Copies of the Bulletin containing this series can be found in Record G roup 55,Recordsofthe G overnm entoftheVirgin Islands,N ationalA rchives, W ashington,D.C. 10. Som e ofthispersonalenm ity tow ard Sixto can be found in a letter of response from “H .L.” in the Bulletin of July 31,1925,headlined “Sixto Ridicules the D ead,” w hich addresses Sixto’s critique ofthe islands’Colonial Council,the island governm ent that operated in cooperation w ith the naval

EditorialN otes to Pages 58–66 / 303 governor.Sixto accusesthe councilofinactivity,particularly concerning urgent social needs,because its m em bers supposedly are concerned w ith only their upper-class interests.A lthough Sixto nam es no one explicitly,his correspondenttakes bitter personalaffrontand accuses him ofspeaking “irreverently of dead heroes because they are nothere to defend them selves.” This response adds som e background to A dam s’s defense of Sixto,particularly in term s of Sixto’sclass concerns.Clearly,Sixto’slack ofbusiness success w as m ocked by som e to dism isshisideas altogether. 11. A dam shim selfcom pleted atleastfourcoursesofcorrespondence study in both m usicand w riting.See ch.4. 12. Thistalew arns againstadvice from advisers personally invested in the outcom e.Itis the story ofa fox thatloses its tailin a trap and,rather than adm ititsem barrassm ent,proposes thatallfoxes should give up theirtails. 13. Thisquoteistypically credited to Thom asA lva Edison. 14. Thisw astrue ofA dam s’sfather,w ho apprenticed atRoyalM ailto learn carpentry.Tradesm en w ho learned their skills atRoyalM ailgained unusual expertise and earned higher w ages.

chapter 4.m usic in the virgin islands and the founding of the adam s juvenile band (1910) 1. A dam s’sfolk m usicm anuscriptw as destroyed in a1932 fire (see ch.9). 2. Johan PeterN issen,Rem iniscencesofa 46Years’Residence in the Island ofSt.Thom as in the W estIndies(n.p.:Sensem an & Co.,1838).Bam boulaperform ances survived for touristsin the later nineteenth century. 3. The stem sA dam s refers to are likely the one- to tw o-foot-long stem s of an individualpapaya leaf,w hich have ahollow bore like aflute’s. 4. A dam s’saffection forthisobsoleteinstrum entisclearin hisarticle“The Flageolet— H istory and Technic,” JBM 3:5 (M ay 1918),80–83.In an aside A dam s w rites:“In the beginning of m y career w hile studying the flute,m y parentssentto m y grandm other ...for a flute for m e,butw hether itw as her fault or the fault of the translation,instead of sending a flute proper to m y regret,she sentaflageoletw ith w hich Ijustfooled forsom e tim e untilitfinally disappeared.Then Ibegan to play around w ith another ofitsfam ily,the ocarina,and developed into an expertperform er” (82).The m em oirsm anuscript atthispointstates thatthe flageolet“w as said to be invented in 1881,” w hich isfalse,atleastin term s ofthe instrum entgenerally.A dam s m ay be referring to akeyed m odel,butthe phrase has been rem oved here to avoid confusion. 5. Inform ation added from A dam s interview w ith Sam Floyd reported in “Islands’Rich M usicalH eritage N urtures Protege,” D N ,Jan.25,1988. 6. A n earlier draft of the m em oirs suggests that A dam s’s conflicts w ith Francis’sson Rothschild m ay date from thisperiod.Rather than leaving Francis’sshop im m ediately afterthe m aster’sdeath,A dam sappearsto have w orked there underhisseveralsonsand otherstudents,now m astershoem akersthem selves.Centrose,a friend of Francis,oversaw the business,and A dam s m ade

304 / EditorialN otes to Pages 67–71 shoes for sale.A ccording to the originaldraft:“H e [A dam s?]quitone day in disgust.H e w as annoyed by som e of Rothschild’s dealings w ithin the business” (A M RI). 7. The thinkers on the relationship ofm usic to society thatseem to have influenced A dam s include John Ruskin,W alter Jacobs,Em ilM edicus,Thom as Tapper,and,later,CyrilScott. 8. A dvertisem ents for “Lessons by M ail in H arm ony,Counterpoint,and Com position” from a “H ugh A .Clarke,M us.D oc.223 South 38th Street, Philadelphia” ran regularly in the Etude atthistim e.See,for exam ple,22:10 (O ctober 1904),428.D iplom a held atA M RI. 9. A dam scom pleted the RegularCourse ofStudy in theA dvanced Com position D epartm entofthe U niversity Extension Conservatory ofChicago,Illinois,on Septem ber 3,1930,and received a bachelor ofm usicdegree from the sam e institution on July 21,1931. 10. A dam s seem s to intentionally avoid m entioning the nam e ofthe violinist,U lderique D onastorg.Jean D elphin A lard (1815–88) w as professor of violin atthe Parisconservatoire from 1843 to 1875. 11. Inform ation in thisparagraph istaken from Sebastien’sobituary in the N ovem ber 20,1940,issue ofthe Bulletin,w ritten by A dam s. 12. A n undated rem iniscence ofLafranque w ritten by A dam s ispreserved atA M RI.A dam s praises the guitar as a “m iniature orchestra in itself” and describes Lafranque’s self-taught virtuosity as “a gift from above.” In the m usician’s repertory w ere operatic arias including “the dream y m elodies of Freischütz,O beron,Euryanthe,and others.”A dam scelebratesLafranque’sear, especially his ability to im itate com plex harm onies despite a “very scant know ledge ofm usic from the standpointofm usicalsym bols [notation].” H e describesLafranque asa“fine conversationalist,neatly and spotlessly attired,” w hose“jolly presence w asalw aysaw elcom e one am ong hisfriends.”A closing anecdote,apparently frequently retold by Lafranque,sheds lighton the m usicalculture ofthe islands: A friend ofhisw ho played the flute(not[A dam s])w as enam ored of ayoung lady and desired to give ventto hispentup em otions of contem plated blissin the form ofaserenade during an early m oonlightm orning under the w indow ofhisheart’sideal.The com bination consisted offlute,violin,and guitar,a m ostrom anticone indeed.The father ofhislady love seem ed notto have cherished the choice ofhisdaughter’saffection,and obviously did notlook w ith favor on the littlefluteas am eans ofgiving hisdaughter the econom icsecurity he desired nor the blissshe anticipated.Cautiously and apprehensively the trio approached and took position under the w indow.In afew m inutes beautifuldream y harm onies filled the air. Instead ofthe young lady appearing atthe w indow as w as the custom ,the father appeared and enquired the num ber ofperform ers. The young m an feltm ore atease,rem arking thatthe query w as

EditorialN otes to Pages 72–73 / 305 m eantto m ake preparations for them .H e w as quiteright,butitw as notin the w ay he conjectured.“Take thatand divide am ong you, you idleloafers!” he bellow ed from on high and did notrem ain even long enough to see the hasty departure ofthe trio w hilebrushing offthe show er ofw hatw as evidently notpure,unadulterated w ater,nor rain,from theirinstrum entsand persons. 13. In his m anuscript,A dam s gives the date of1906 for the form ation of the N ative BrassBand,butLightbourn’sM ailN otesofJuly 16,1909,indicates thatthe band paraded in celebration ofits“second anniversary.”D ocum entary evidence has been preferred to m em ory and thus the 1907 founding date has been used.The 1906 date m ay reflectthe form ation ofSebastien’sow n am ateur group,w hich preceded the band’s. 14. A dam s’squalificationsofthisband asthe first“local”and only “native” band are significant.Regular band concertshad been held in the Em ancipation G arden bandstand since 1888,w hen aD r.CharlesTaylorm entionsthat“a m ilitary band playsin Em ancipation G arden tw ice aw eek”(Thursday and Sunday afternoons).Presum ably the only m ilitary band on the islands at that tim e w ould have been aD anish contingent,and thusthatband w asneitherlocalnor native.W hile itis clear thatSt.Thom as had enjoyed regular band perform ances prior to the founding ofthe N ative Brass Band,itisuncertain for how long the m ilitary band had perform ed in the bandstand or w hether ithad perform ed in other locations.In a heavily corrected typescriptintended for a talk (A A C§V I.1.45),A dam s offers additional details on the developm ent of the Em ancipation G arden bandstand and the activities ofthe D anish band.A pparently a D anish band of five or six m usicians perform ed at a m uch sm aller gazebo in A dam s’syouth.W hen a forty-piece Brazilian Band en route to the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition (W orld’sFair)in St.Louisstopped in St. Thom asand offered aconcert,itneeded an appropriateplace to perform .Finding the bandstand too sm all,the group setup againstthe north w allofFort Frederick.This incident raised aw areness of the need for an enlarged bandstand,yet the island’s treasury could not support a new m usical building. A dam s reportsthata “sum m er house” on the site (located w here the bustof the king of D enm ark w as later installed) from w hich soft drinks and candy w ere sold during the D anish band perform ancesw asbeing torn dow n.Itsoversizecone-shaped roof,w hich provided shade,w as adapted as the roofofanew, largerbandstand— com pleted in tim e forthe return visitofthe Brazilian band. A dam s’s father oversaw construction (see figure 5).W hatprom pted A dam s’s talk w as the rebuilding of the bandstand.H e argued for m ore than sim ple rebuilding,for the originalhad been assem bled w ithoutacousticalconsiderations.H e preferred a flat ceiling w ithin the cone-shaped roof to help propel sound outto the audience.See also Edith deJongh W oods,“Em ancipation G arden H as Changed Constantly through the Years,” D N (N ov.30,2000),28–29. 15. LionelValdem arRoberts,Sr.,w asborn in St.Thom asJanuary 13,1879, and died February 11,1946.H e isrem em bered asapolitician through hisw ork

306 / EditorialN otes to Pages 73–74 reconciling com peting drafts ofw hatw ould becom e the 1936 O rganicA ctto provide for greater self-governance by the peopleofthe Virgin Islands.Know n in hisyouth asastarcricketplayer(the largestballpark on St.Thom asisnam ed in hishonor),Robertshad acareerthatin m any areasoverlapped w ith A dam s’s. Both w ere bandm asters and com posers,both w ere passionate aboutlocalpolitics,and both published in new spapers.Robertsw rotethe satiricalcolum n “H ait Boobie” for the Em ancipator.(See M oolenaar 1992,191.) M uch like A dam s, Robertsundertook correspondence study in m usicand claim ed to have received adiplom a from the W ilcox SchoolofM usicin N ew York (1910)and the Seigle M eyersConservatory ofM usicin Chicago (D N [O ctober6,1934],3). 16. A dam s and Robertslater becam e rivals,and thus the representation of eventshere reflectsA dam s’sbias.In m any w aysthe pair’sleadership stylesand am bitions w ere very sim ilar.A dam s w ould later be accused of dom ineering leadership as w ell(see ch.5). 17. Program softhe N ative BrassBand printed in Lightbourn’sM ailN otes show thatRoberts w as notalw ays unsupportive ofhis assistantdirector.O n June 2,1909,Roberts’sband perform ed a program including the “Polka (Concert)Piccolo Solo ‘Thro’the A ir’” by D am m as arranged by A dam s and presum ably perform ed by him asw ell.O n A pril30,1909,the band perform ed one m arch by Roberts titled “St.Thom as M ilitia M arch” and closed the concert w ith one ofA dam s’scom positions— “M oving D ay.”A s the finalsloton aprogram isconsidered a location ofhonor for one ofthe strongestcom positions, the program order here offered A dam s an im plicit com plim ent.G iven that A dam s broke w ith Robertsby June 1910,itispossiblethatRobertssim ply did notw ish to play another ofhis assistant’s w orks again so soon.H e also m ay have preferred to balance each A dam s w ork w ith one ofhis ow n.Thatthere w as a rivalry betw een the tw o m en even from w ithin the N ative Brass Band seem s im plicitin A dam s’saccount. 18. A rapid-fire series of articles and responses in the D N of O ct.2–12, 1934,testifies to the continuing feud betw een A dam s and Roberts.In the “U nw ritten M usic H istory,” appearing in the paper on O ct.2 and 5,Roberts claim sA dam s as hispupiland blam esA dam s’sbreakaw ay on class tension: The progressofThe M unicipalBand w asnotaltogetheraccepted by those in the upperstrata,the perform ersapparently having com e from too low dow n,so an attem ptw asm ade in 1909 to splitthe harm ony w hen young Rothschild Francisw asencouraged to leave and help in the form ation ofanotherband in com petition.A fteritsfailure M r.Francisw ashonestenough to m ake thisconfession.Thisgave rise to anotherattem ptthatshould be considered partially successful w hen M r.A lton A dam sin 1910–11 w ascalled forthe sam e purpose asM r.Rothschild Francisand aband w asorganized underthe nam e ofA dam sJuvenileBand.Thisband w asrecom m ended through apetition sentto PresidentW oodrow W ilson atthe transferofthe islands in 1917 clandestinely signed by the enem iesofthe M unicipalBand

EditorialN otes to Pages 74–75 / 307 com prised in the upperstrata.Thatsucceeded in giving A dam sJuvenileBand preference asaN avy band upon the arrivalofCapt. W illiam W allace [sic]W hiteofthe U.S.S.Vixen w ho traded w ith M r.A dam sindividually.Thusw asthe firstnative institution ofm erit sacrificed atthe altarofhate,envy and m alice— an irretrievableloss. A dam srespondsin the O ct.9 and 10 issues,denying thathe w asastudentof Roberts,claim ing tohave helped instructthe bandsm en afteritsreform ation follow ing the departure ofSebastien,and denying any plotby leading peoplein the com m unity to killthe M unicipalBand.H e also deniesthatany petition w assent to PresidentW ilson on behalfofthe band,saying,“The [A dam s Juvenile]band w asselected [to becom e the U.S.N avy Band oftheVirgin Islands]forthe sim ple reason thatitw assuperior.”Furtherarticlesinclude ad hom inem attacksby both m en and theirsupporters.Thisspatm ustbe understood in the contextoflarger politicaldevelopm entson the islands;itrepresentsabattlebetw een tw o political strategies.Robertsw as am ong those w ho foughtfor the navy adm inistration’s rem oval,and thus hissuccess w as A dam s’sloss.In 1934,w hen thisnew spaper exchange occurred,Robertsand A dam srem ained politicalrivals,and theirm usicaldisagreem ents serve in proxy for politicaldifferences.Likew ise the pair of opposed personalities are em blem atic of broader trends.N either A dam s nor Robertsstoodalone in hisposition.The publicdisplay ofthisprivatecontroversy m ustalso have been agood w ay forthe D aily N ew sto sellpapers. 19. The age range ofthe Juvenile Band m em bers is given variously from eightyearsto thirteen or eighteen years. 20. This traditional nineteenth-century m ethod of instruction by beginning aw ay from an instrum entw ith solfege is stillin use in the tw enty-first century.See Katherine Brucher’sPh.D.dissertation,“A Banda D a Terra:Bandas Filarm ónicas and the Perform ance of Place in Portugal,” U niversity of M ichigan,A nn A rbor,2005. 21. Congregational m inister John Curw en (1816–80) codified the Tonic Sol-Fa m ethod ofteaching vocalm usic,draw ing on a num ber ofEnglish and European m ethodsofm usicalinstruction.H ism ethod consisted ofasim plified m usicnotation m eantasafirststep tow ard reading staffnotation.Pitchesw ere indicated w ithin akey by using the firstletterofthe corresponding solfege syllable (do,ray,m i,fa,sol,la,ti).Rhythm w as indicated by separating the syllables w ith barlines,half barlines,and colons to indicate strong,m edium ,and w eak subdivisions ofthe m eter.Later Curw en added hand signs,stillfam iliar to m usiceducatorsin m odified form through the Kodály m ethod.Curw en first published hism ethod in 1858 in abook titled The Standard Course ofLessons on the TonicSol-fa M ethod ofTeaching to Sing.H ere,A dam sappearsto adopt the solfege com ponent w hile m odifying the rhythm ic syllables.A dam s also shares Curw en’sbeliefin the m oralizing influence ofm usic. 22. In gratitude for Sebastien’s assistance in founding the band, and beginning during O liver’sinitialgovernorship (1917–19),A dam s’snavy band played aserenade concertfor Sebastien each N ew Year’sD ay (A A C§V II.1.4).

308 / EditorialN otes to Pages 75–83 23. Thisisthe opening ofRalph W aldo Em erson’s“Friendship,” Essay V I in Essays(1841),retitled Essays:FirstSeries in 1847. 24. A postcard in the A M RIcollection dated January 5,1914,offers thanks to A dam s for an evening ofshared m usicm aking and issentfrom H ror H ystrom ,a Sw edish sailor from aw arship thatvisited St.Thom as. 25. The firstdraftofthe m em oirstellsastory ofA dam s’sfather’sreaction: O ne evening w hileBandm asterA dam s w as getting ready for the JuvenileBand’sfirstconcertin the Em ancipation G arden,he asked hisfather,“A re you com ing to hear the concert?”“W ho m e?” he responded.“Ihave m y w ork to do.H ard w ork! Ihave no tim e for such nonsense!”W hen Bandm asterA dam s returned hom e from the concertthatnight,hisfather w as in bed,and appeared fastasleep. H ow ever,a friend later told him [A lton]thathe’d never seen am an so proud.H isfather w as rightthere atthe concerttelling everyone near him ,“That’sm y boy!That’sm y boy!” Jacob A dam s sm iled w ith pride during hisson’sentire concert. 26. A dam s’s M S credits Lightbourn’s M ail N otes w ith this review and gives the concertdateas June 9,1910.H ow ever,the originalarticleisfound in the St.Thom as Tidende of M arch 1,1911, and provides the correct date. Sebastien w aspresidentofthe Revived M utualIm provem entSociety (am en’s group ofthe localA nglican Church),w hich sponsored the band and provided the perform ance venue.Early accounts ofthe band’s activities are rare,buta fourth-anniversary concertw as scheduled for June 9,1914,and delayed one day by w eather (“N ew s ofthe D ay,” Lightbourn’sM ailN otes [June 11,1914, 2).June 9,1910,m ay be the dateofthe band’sfirstm eeting or rehearsal. 27. This paragraph on Carnivalw as added from a corrected typescriptin A A C,notoriginally partofthe m em oirs draft(§V I.1.42). 28. A dam s offered a “Biography of M r.Fred Lax” in JBM 1:8 (A ugust 1916),83–84.H e reportsthatLax w as born in H ull,England,in 1856,butthat he cam e to the U nited States in 1881 follow ing a prom ising European career that included ensem bles in D urham ,Scarborough,Leeds,and M anchester under conductors such as Ed de John,Charles H alle,Sir A rthur Sullivan, Richard Strauss,H ans von Bülow,Cam ille Saint-Saens,and Charles G ounod. In the U nited StatesLax began playing w ith Patrick S.G ilm ore’sband and then joined the Boston Sym phony in 1889.H e claim s that Lax com posed and arranged over six hundred pieces for instrum ents and voice.A dam s praises him asthe“prem ierflutist”in the U nited States.ThatLax w asself-taughtm ay be another reason w hy A dam s feltaconnection. 29. The Em erson quotation above and the hurricane anecdote are taken from an article by A dam s titled “M r.Elphege Sebastien:A n A ppreciation,” St.Thom asTim es (hereafter STT)1:29 (A pril22,1922),1 (A A C§V II.1.4). 30. A ccording to the w ebsite of the Royal D anish N aval M useum ,the Ingolfw as an arm ored schooner builtin Copenhagen and com m issioned for

EditorialN otes to Pages 83–84 / 309 the RoyalD anish N avy in 1878.From A ugust1896 itw as used as a training schooner untilitsdecom m issioning in 1926. 31. A dam s w rites in an earlier draft:“Inever w entto D enm ark,butsom e forty yearslaterPrince A xelreturned to the Virgin IslandsasChairm an ofthe EastA siatic Com pany.I m et him at a reception,show ed him his w orn,but cherished card,and introduced m yself.H e looked atthe card and then atm e, and said,‘Irem em ber the occasion quite w ell,butthathas to be your father.’ ‘N o,itw asm e,’Ireplied,and w e both laughed and fellto sharing our recollections” (A A C). 32. D anielbecam e the French consul.H iscom m ission ofA dam s,likely in 1911,fallsw ithin the socialrhetoricofthe serenade tradition. 33. The sheetm usicpublishing house operated by W alterJacobsbegan distributing a m agazine from Boston called the Cadenza in 1894 for players of banjo, m andolin, and guitar. In 1910 Jacobs began the Jacobs’ O rchestra M onthly and six years later the Band M onthly A dam s refers to here.A dam s’s belief that it w as tim e to recognize the band as distinct from the orchestra seem s to parallel Jacobs’s decision to offer the new band-specific m agazine. Rather than the leading publication,in 1916 Jacobs’Band M onthly w as brand new.A dam s’sposition as band colum nistisrem arkable.The choice affirm s the excellence ofA dam s’s w riting,the com pelling nature ofhis m usicalphilosophies,and the com m onalities his philosophy had w ith Jacobs’s ow n.It also speaks to A dam s’sam bition. Itislikely thatthe editorsofthe m agazine w ere unaw are ofA dam s’srace, or atleastallow ed hisrace to rem ain am biguous.A llofthe m agazine’scolum nistshad photos thataccom panied theirbylines exceptforA dam s.A profileof A dam sappearing in 1916 did notm ention hisrace,and itw asnoteven im plied in the pages ofthe m agazine untilFrank Seltzer’s profile article on A dam s’s navy band appeared in July 1920.Thispiece includesphotosofA dam sconducting (albeitfrom adistance)butstilldoesnotm ention hisracialidentity.By this tim e,A dam shad notw ritten hisregularm onthly colum n foralm osttw o years. H e continued to contribute sporadically after hisrace becam e public,confirm ing thatthe m agazine stillsupported him .N one ofthisnecessarily im pliesthat A dam s w ithheld his racialidentity intentionally,although he did do so w ith Thom asTapper(see ch.5).H israce m ay also have been obscured by the editors ofthe m agazine.Itseem s likely thatreaders w ould have assum ed thatan educated,soon-to-be navalbandleader w riting “The Band” colum n for a prom inentnationalm agazine w ould have been w hite.Thus,reader prejudice m ight w ell have kept hints ofA dam s’s black identity unappreciated by m ost.O ne article by A dam s thatm ighthave revealed hisrace to som e readers w as a Feb. 1918 profile ofthe black W estIndian singer Philip G om ez thatw as accom panied by a prom inentphoto thatm ade a clear correlation betw een black racial identity and the native Virgin Islander. 34. Sousa also perform ed A dam s’s m usic.A dam s’s navy band scrapbooks held in the A A C contain program s from Sousa’s 1921 W illow Park Season

310 / EditorialN otes to Pages 84–89 outside Philadelphia (§V II.3.2).O n A ugust 15,1921,Sousa ended the final concertofthe day (beginning 9:45 P.M .)w ith A dam s’s“Virgin IslandsM arch.” O n the 7:45 P.M .perform ance forA ugust8,1922,Sousa program m ed A dam s’s “The G overnor’sO w n”betw een ascene from Puccini’sLa Bohèm eand Johann Strauss’sw altzA rtist’sLife(Kunstlerleben). 35. In a published essay and accom panying typescript held in the A A C titled “John Philip Sousa as M an and M usician 1854–1932,” A dam s describes Sousa’saccepting attitude concerning race,citing firsthisem brace ofA dam s’s m usic and A dam s’s candidacy for the A m erican Bandm aster’s A ssociation. Then A dam sdiscussesthe pointon aestheticsm ade here,quoting an interview w ith Sousa by M arie D avenport-Euberg apparently published in the Bellingham Register.H e quotes Sousa telling ofw atching “N egro boys and girls— yes,and m en and w om en too” dancing alongside regim entalbands during the U.S.CivilW ar“w ith thatabandon w hich characterized the N egro and hissense ofrhythm .” Sousa continues:“H ypnotized by the m usicand w ild excitem ent, they w ould execute their steps along the line of m arch,gesticulating,and prancing,butalw ays in rhythm to w hich they gave the soulofanim ation and lightheartednessand enthusiasm .”Sousa concludesthat“w hen Icam e to w rite m y m archesthese thingsw ere in m y subconsciousm ind though Iw asn’taw are of it until later.” This explanation leads to A dam s’s claim here that Sousa’s m archesw ere influenced by A fro-A m erican m usicaltraditions.See publication from Focus(Sunday,A pril4,1971),6 & 14 (incom pletecopy in A A C§V I.1.19); com pletetypescriptA A C§V I.1.20. 36. N am es added from A dam s’s “A ddress on Edw in Franko G oldm an” (A A C).

chapter 5.the united states navy band of the virgin islands (1917–1923) 1. For a full account of the transfer, see “The Sale and Purchase,” in D ookhan,243–64. 2. In an earlier draft,A dam s identifies the organizersofthe union as Jackson w ith “G ustave Lange,Ralph de Chabert,Elskoe,Ralph Bough,Joseph A lexander,A m phlettLeader,C.T.Brow and others.”H e also statesthatJackson spoke (atleastsom e)D anish (A A C§V I.1.11). 3. Figures used here are confirm ed by D ookhan,240. 4. These lostbenefitsincluded living quarters,aplotofground forgrow ing vegetables and grass,and in som e instances,the keeping of a cow or horse (A A C§V I.1.11). 5. Localhistorian H arold W illocks states thatJackson w as dism issed from his teaching position in the D anish public schools because of his pro-labor view s (H arold W .L.W illocks,The U m bilicalCord:The H istory ofthe U nited States Virgin Islands from Pre-Colum bian Era to the Present[Christiansted, St.Croix:H arold W illocks,1995],227).

EditorialN otes to Pages 89–94 / 311 6. W illocks notes thatthe firstissue ofthe H erald,distributed on N ovem ber 1,1915,listed Jackson as founder,president,and editor (228).A free preview issue w asavailableon O ctober29.Readersw ere sentto the plantationsto recite the new s to those w ho w ere illiterate or could not afford to buy the papers.The H erald w as published until1922,butonly the 1915 issues survive in the collection ofthe Enid Baa Library in St.Thom as. 7. A lton A dam s,Jr.,had a rem em brance ofJudge D avid H am ilton Jackson w ritten by hisfatherpublished in O ctober2002 and distributed to the D epartm entofEducation,St.Croix,and localbroadcastm edia.Itrepresentsaslightly earlier version ofthe texthere. 8. See A dam s,“The Virgin Islands:The D anish W estIndies N ow Included in the U nited States ofA m erica,” JBM 2:5 (M ay 1917),65–69,for m ore inform ation on the transfer cerem ony and A dam s’s hopes for A m erican sovereignty.A n analysis of this essay is found in M ark Clague,“Instrum ents of Identity:A lton A ugustus A dam s Sr.,the N avy Band of the Virgin Islands, and the Sounds of Social Change,” Black M usic Research Journal 18:1–2 (Spring–Fall1988):21–65. 9. W hatisnow know n as Em ancipation G arden isin the shadow ofD enm ark’s colonial Fort Christian (built in 1672) and adjacent to the Charlotte A m alie tow n square,w hich served as one of the eighteenth century’s m ost active slave m arkets.It is so nam ed to com m em orate G overnor Peter von Scholten’sem ancipation ofthe slaves on July 3,1848.See “Slave Protestand Em ancipation,” in D ookhan,160–80. 10. O gese M cKay,a navy bandsm an from St.Croix and asom etim e criticof A dam s,claim s thatthe idea for the localnavy bands originated w ith Captain W hite,w ho “noticed thatthe young boysin the streetw ould w histleatune as perfectas ifthey w ere m usicians” (see M cKay,10). 11. The prim ary com petitor w ould have been the M unicipalBand under the direction ofLionelRoberts.M uch w asatstake asajob asanavy bandsm an w asam ong the bestavailableon the islandsatthe tim e.See ch.4 foran account ofthe feud betw een Robertsand A dam s.W hileA dam sclaim ed thathisensem ble w as the only professionalband on the island,Roberts felthis band’s loss resulted from intrigue.W hateverthe reason,itistrue thatthe M unicipalBand had been associated w ith the D anish governm ent and had received financial subsidies through the ColonialCouncilsofSt.Thom as and St.Croix in return for publicconcerts.A s late as 1916,the D anish governor L.C.H elw eg-Larsen reportedly had plans to take the M unicipalBand to Europe to perform (D N [O ctober 6,1934],3).A dam s w as a published w riter on m usicand a com poser w ith areputation thatreached to the U.S.m ainland;he had long experience as a m usicteacher.The younger Juvenile Band m ay also have had an easier tim e passing the navy’s fitness requirem ents.In his Brief H istory of the Virgin Islands (St.Thom as,V I:The A rtShop,c.1938),José A ntonio Jarvism entions the conflict:“For the few days w hen the choice betw een the M unicipalBand under Leader Roberts,and the Juvenile Band under A dam s w as undecided,

312 / EditorialN otes to Pages 94–97 speculation w as constant.The advantage w ent to the Juvenile Band,w hich thereafter becam e an im portanteconom icunitin the com m unity.The m em bers w ere perm itted a specialuniform ,and they lived athom e under quasim ilitary rules”(132).A dam s’sclaim sthathisband w asartistically superiorare supported by an article in Lightbourn’sM ailN otesofJune 5,1913 (2),w hich states that the activities of Roberts’s band w ent beyond m usic:the group organized a cham pion cricketteam and a footballteam as w ell.In addition to their apprenticeship duties,then,the young m em bers ofthe M unicipalBand practiced athleticsin the afternoons,thuslim iting tim e form usicrehearsaland individual m usic practice.A dam s’s band, in contrast, seem s to have been focused entirely on m usicm aking. 12. A dam sw asreportedly the navy’syoungestbandm asteratthe tim e (age tw enty-seven).See Julio Francis Edw ards,“Bandm aster A dam s W ins Fam e,” H om e Journal(St.Thom as)(D ec.14,1960),2. 13. A dam s’s original list did not contain instrum ent designations and included A lton H allinstead ofLouisTaylor.The listhere istaken from an articlethatseem sm ore reliablebecause,am ong otherclues,the instrum entdesignations suggest it is taken from a program .The article also claim s that all tw enty-tw o m em bersofthe originalnavy band had been m em bersofthe Juvenile Band and thattw o m em bers ofthe Juveniles,A rnold Potter and Lam bert G eorge,rem ained too young in 1917 to enlist.A ccording to the article,A dam s “kept[them ]in the unit...untilthey w ere ofage.”See Julio FrancesEdw ards, “They G ave Prestige to the Virgin Islands,” H om e Journal(St.Thom as)(N ov. 30,1960).A dditionalsupportforthe preference ofTaylorto H allisthatTaylor served on the staffofthe band’spaper,the St.Thom as Tim es (STT)and thus can be confirm ed a m em ber ofthe St.Thom as contingent,atleastin 1921–23. Contem porary confirm ation isoffered by an accountofthe band’sform ation carried in Lightbourne’sM ailN otes(tw o ofitsem ployees,A lphonse D om ingo and ErleW illiam s becam e band m em bers).Thisstory w as subsequently recast in JBM in July 1917 (quoted below ),and thisversion in turn w as reprinted in D N (A A C§V II.1.3). 14. A dam s listed the pay as “approxim ately sixty” dollarsa m onth.H ow ever,the Bulletin ofJune,4,1917 (1),states that“each m usician [is]receiving $50 m onthly,the Conductor $75,besides instrum ents,m usic and uniform free.” The band’sschedule w as for “m usicdaily atthe barracks,m orning and afternoon,from 8 to 9 and 5 to 6,and w henever otherw ise required.” Their debutconcertas the navy band on Saturday,June 2,1917,included an afternoon concertatEm ancipation G arden follow ed by am arch through tow n. 15. JBM ,July 1917. 16. A sense ofA dam s’sdisciplinary focus com es from a JBM article titled “A Talk to A m ateur Bandsm en on Preparedness,” published in O ctober 1917, justa few m onths after the induction ofthe navy band:“The only injustice thatIever did to m y bandsm en (thatIknow of)w as to give them everything free.Yes,free m usiclessons,free bandroom — free everything.The resultw as thatthey gotto a certain degree in m usic,yetm inus thatstrength and disci-

EditorialN otes to Pages 97–104 / 313 pline of m ind that com es from battling w ith those forces w hich m ake the strong fam ous and the w eak infam ous” (59). 17. This paragraph restored from a m anuscriptfragm entheld in the privatecollection ofA lton A dam s,Jr. 18. Excerptabove taken from a single article (only A dam s’ssecond for the JBM )titled “The Band” (A pril1916),67–68.Sources for the follow ing excerpt have yetto be identified. 19. The anecdote about the Em ancipation G arden perform ance is taken from “A dam s Sr.SharesTalentw ith Schools,” D N (Feb.8,1988). 20. In the D aily N ew s article cited in note 19,A dam s credits O liver w ith the idea for the tw o additionalbands.The identification ofone ofthese bands as being for St.John isincorrect.Both bands w ere on St.Croix. 21. Finalthree sentences in thisparagraph taken from D N ,ibid. 22. Itis notclear w hatA dam s m eans by “jazz” here.Typicalw ould have been som ething closer to ragtim e dance num bers,notthe m usicaltraditions developed in N ew O rleans by Louis A rm strong and others.A dam s’s W orld W ar IIVirgin Islands band did have a jazz com bo,m ade up of a contingent trained atG reatLakes. 23. A A C§II.1.19;also reprinted in D N (Feb.22,1988),16. 24. The band influenced the com m unity as w ell.Follow ing A dam s’sexam ple,Paluden N icholson founded the St.Thom asCom m unity Band.Itsfirstperform ance w asJune 5,1925,atthe A polloTheatre.Itw asinspired by the lack of m usic on the islands w hile the navy band w as on tour in 1924.The Tortolo Band,a youth organization run by Pickering,w asalso an offshootofthe naval organization (“U.S.N avy Band in Review,” D N [February 14,1934],3;“Com m unity Band W illBe 18 Yrs.O ld Tom orrow,” D N [June 4,1943],1). 25. O n A ugust1,1917 (justover three m onths after he had taken office), G overnor O liver subm itted an extrem ely negative reportto PresidentW ilson on conditions in the islands.H e found the Virgin Islands’“com m unity to be backw ard,even disgraceful,and the death rateto be very high w ith infantm ortality being particularly disgracefulin acivilized com m unity.”O liverprotested thatthere w asno fam ily life,as60 percentofthe birthsw ere illegitim ate.Thus, the governor’sadm onitionsthatthe bandsm en serve ascom m unity m odelsby, forexam ple,getting m arried,directly addressed the problem sidentified in this report(W illocks,261). 26. A lthough A dam sdoesnotm ention itin hism em oirs,he w asLutheran, according to W ho’sW ho in Colored A m erica,1927.Thissam e publication lists the A dam ses’w edding date as June 6,butthisisincorrect.The O ct.6 date is confirm ed by the m arriage records of the Frederick Evangelical Lutheran Church in St.Thom as (p.170).These records indicate thata m arriage license w assecured on M ay 10,1917— beforeA dam sentered the navy,butpotentially in response to the opportunity.H isbride,Ella,a devoutCatholic,w as divorced from A .H ansen in A ug.1915,and thus her second m arriage could nottake place in the CatholicChurch.The couplew as m arried atthe Lutheran parsonage by Rev.P.Kastrup;w itnesses included Elphege Sebastian and H .G om ez.

314 / EditorialN otes to Pages 104–106 Ella w as born on Jan.11,1892,according to the baptism al accounts in the Rom an Catholic Church Register ofSt.Thom as and the m arriage certificate held by A lton A dam s,Jr.H er parents w ere Ernestine (neé D aniel)and Julius Joseph.Catholicrecords indicate thatafter the death ofElla’sfirsthusband in 1955,herm arriage toA dam sw asofficially recognized by the church on M arch 4,1965. 27. The eightchildren are G w endolen (later“G w endolyn”)M arie(b.A pril 12,1918;d.July 3,2003),M erleA ugustina (b.M ay 5,1919;d.M ay 11,1932), H azelA ugusta(b.June 11,1920;d.D ec.27,1932),EnidA ugustaA dam sQ uestel(b.Jan.19,1922;m arried Bernard Q uestel),O lyve (“O live” in baptism al records)Valentine A dam s Finch (b.Feb.14,1925;m arried EarlFinch;d.2001), A lthea A ugusta (b.A ug.20,1926),Eleanor Evangeline A dam s M artin (b. M arch 20,1931;died age tw enty-eight),and A lton A ugustus,Jr.(b.N ov.8, 1928).N am esofchildren taken from W ho’sW ho in Colored A m erica,3rd edition,1933,and adjusted w ith baptism al records w here helpful.The m iddle nam esA ugustusand A ugust(in)a are fam ily nam esthatrefernotonly to their father butalso to the m iddle nam e oftheirpaternalgreatgrandm other.Likew ise,Evangeline isthe m iddle nam e oftheirpaternalgrandm other.Valentine seem s to refer to the coincidence ofO live’sbirth w ith the holiday.The funeral program for EllaA dam s isheld atU niversity ofthe Virgin Islands library. 28. M arriage recordsheld atthe Enid Baa Library,St.Thom as,indicatethat bandsm en w ho follow ed their director’s lead included Paluden N icholson (m arried to Clara Evelyn M onsanto A pril3,1918,atA llSaints),A lton H all (m arried to Verona Baady June 13,1918,atthe M oravian Church [D N (June 14,1918),2]),RaphaelBonelli(m arried D ec.19,1918,atFrederick Lutheran), A lbertPickering (m arried in 1921 atA llSaints),and A rnold M artin (m arried A ug.9,1922,atA llSaints).For each entry,the groom ’sprofession as “M usician [or Bandsm an] U.S.N .” is listed prom inently,confirm ing the elevated socialstanding thatajob in the band provided.CyrilM ichael(1898–1978)w as adm itted to the Virgin Islands Bar as an attorney in 1947 and becam e judge of the Police Court in 1954.In 1957 M ichael becam e a judge in the M unicipal CourtofSt.Thom asand w asappointed presiding judge in 1965.H e earned his law degree from La Salle Extension U niversity ofChicago.M ichaeljoined the A dam sJuvenileBand atfourteen asatrom bonistand w asafeatured soloiston the N avy Band’s1924 tour.H e w as prom oted to firstm usician and served as acting bandm aster.H e took correspondence coursesin m usicw hilein the navy (M oolenaar 1992,157).In hisow n m em oirs,bandsm an O gese M cKay representsthe injunction to m arry asarequirem entw hen abandsm an had gotten a w om an pregnant(M cKay,10–11). 29. M ore on G om ez can be found in A dam s,“A N oted W estIndian Singer,” JBM 3:2 (Feb.1918),50–51. 30. The description ofthe library dedication and initialstatisticsw ere taken from atypescriptarticleforthe Bulletin dated A ugust6,1940 (A A C§V I.1.37). See also http://w w w.library.gov.vi/baa/baahistory.htm .Three grantsfrom the Carnegie Foundation,beginning w ith $10,000 in 1929,helped expand the

EditorialN otes to Page 110 / 315 library.Itm oved to itscurrenthom e in 1940 and w asrenam ed in 1978 forEnid M .Baa,w ho served as director oflibraries,m useum s,and archives beginning in 1933,w hen she becam e the firstw om an to hold a cabinet-levelposition in the Virgin Islands.A dditionalinform ation aboutRed Cross activities on the islands m ay be found in a1940 editorialby A dam s (A A C§V I.1.55). 31. A dam sgivesacom position dateof1919 here,butgave Floyd (1977)the date of1917.A s no evidence has been found placing the com position prior to 1919,the later dateisaccepted here. 32. Thus,A dam s’ssecond-everm usicpublication w asdistributed throughoutthe U nited States in O ctober 1919,exposing a w ide range ofbandm asters to hism usicand in turn introducing audiencesto the Virgin Islands.A royalty receipt show s that a second edition of the “Virgin Islands M arch,” w ith the new choraltext,sold 467 copies betw een January 1,1965,and June 30,1968. A dam s received 25 centsper copy or $116.75 (A A C§V II.1.27). 33. A dam s’sm usicw asoften featured during the G oldm an Band Free Concerts,under the direction ofEdw in Franko G oldm an (1878–1956),the band’s founder, and the G uggenheim M em orial Concerts, free sum m er concerts offered by the G oldm an Band,later under the direction ofthe founder’s son Richard Franko G oldm an (1910–80).Program s preserved in the A A C docum entperform ances ofboth the “Virgin Islands M arch” and the “The G overnor’sO w n”in the years1922–24,1963–68,1970,and 1974–76 (§V II.1.28–37). A dam s’sw orksw ere usually perform ed atthe end ofaconcertaspartofaclosing setoftw o or three m arches.Typically,A dam s’spiece w as the penultim ate num berand the concertended w ith am arch by Sousa.N o record existshere of the G oldm an Band playing “The Spiritofthe U.S.N .” A dam s’s“The G overnor’sO w n”w asalso played atR.F.G oldm an’sm em orialfollow ing hisdeath in 1980 (see A A C§V II.1.29). 34. Bill1890 ofthe Fifth Legislature ofthe Virgin Islands (regular session) accepts the new dedication and states thatit“m ay be played on allsignificant state occasions throughout the Virgin Islands” (A AC§V II.1.23–24).The bill recognizes thatthe m arch “has com e to be regarded over the years as the unofficialanthem ofthe Virgin Islands.” Follow ing the rededication,then-governor Paiew onsky appointed A dam saschairm an ofacom m itteeofseven governm ent and com m unity leaders to create w ords for this now official song.Enacting A dam s’s vision of a tolerant and dem ocratic society,the com m ittee solicited verses from the islands’inhabitantsregardless ofrace,religion,gender,or class. A rranged from the contributions oftw enty-four residents,the finalversion of the textincludesfourversessetto the tune ofthe trio strain.W hilepraising the naturalbeauty ofthe islands and noting the loyalty ofVirgin Islanders to the U nited States,the textw asprim arily a“song in praise ofbrotherhood.”Itspatriotic sentim ents reflect idealized notions of freedom ,dem ocracy,liberty,truth, love,and peace.W ith thisnew textand legalm andate,the m arch also critiqued attitudesofracialintolerance stem m ing from the U.S.m ainland in the 1960sand actively distanced itselffrom thisinfluence.A san anthem ,the m arch confronted and displaced “The Star-Spangled Banner”and thusrem inded anew generation

316 / EditorialN otes to Pages 111–17 ofislandersthattheirheritage ofracialtolerance w asunique and historically distinctfrom thatoftheU nited Statesasaw hole.Pressreleasesand lyricsarefound in A AC§V II.1.25–26. 35. A dditional details here taken from “A dam s’ M ost Fam ous M arches Inspired by Locals,” D N (Feb.15,1989),15. 36. The dedication concert is described m ore fully in A A C§V II.1.12.Bill 1890 of 1963 also accepts the rededication of“The G overnor’s O w n” to the peopleofthe Virgin Islandsand statesthat“overthe years”ithad “com e to be regarded as the particular m arch of the G overnors of the Virgin Islands” (A A C§V II.1.23).“The G overnor’sO w n” refers both to the m arch and also to the band,w hich w as know n by thatsam e epithet. 37. A dam s reassum ed thisleadership position notlong after hisreturn to St.Thom as from Cuba in 1933. 38. “M usic[Curriculum ],” in Course ofStudy for the Elem entary Schools ofthe Virgin Islandsofthe U .S.A .(G radesIto VI,inclusive),EducationalBulletin N o.2 (U S V I:D epartm entofEducation,1922). 39. “Bandm aster from Virgin Islands Visits M arine Band,” Leatherneck 5:29 (M ay 20,1922),1.The article clearly identifiesA dam s as black and notes thatthe M arine Band had played “The G overnor’sM arch”(sic)atits“lastpublicconcert” prior to A dam s’svisit. 40. Biographicalcorrections m ade in thisparagraph are based on A fricanA m erican O dyssey:The Stew arts,1853–1963 by A lbert S.Broussard (Laurence: U niversity Press of Kansas, 1998), as w ell as A m erican N ational Biography (w w w.anb.org).A ngelinaW eld G rim ké shouldnotbe confused w ith her greatauntA ngelina Em ily G rim ké. 41. The Lincoln M em orialdedication took place on M em orialD ay (M ay 30), 1922; speakers included President W arren H arding, form er President W illiam H ow ard Taft,and D r.RobertM oton,principalofthe Tuskegee Institute,w ho gave the keynoteaddress. 42. N o articleby A dam s isfound in the JournalofN egro H istory. 43. A dam s m ay m ean Liberty Bond Com m ission here. 44. A n earlierdraftstatesthatthisphoto had been “sent[to]m e by another Virgin Islander living stillin W ashington— PaulChristopher.” 45. A dam s refers here to “M odern H elps to M usic Students,” JBM (D ec. 1916). 46. The fulltitleofthe book isYouth and O pportunity:Being Chapters on the Factors ofSuccess.Itw as published by tw o N ew York houses in 1912.The M usicLife(1891)w as published in Philadelphiaby Theodore Presser. 47. M uch of A dam s’s text concerning Tapper is self-quoted verbatim or paraphrased from aSeptem ber 29,1923,articlein STT,1,6. 48. Q uotation restored from ibid.Carlyle’s precise w ords are “Castforth thy A ct,thy W ord,into the ever-living,ever-w orking U niverse:itis a seedgrain thatcannotdie;unnoticed to-day (says one),itw illbe found flourishing as a Banyan-grove (perhaps,alas,as a H em lock-forest!) after a thousand years” (Carlyle,Sartor ResartusV,1833–34).

EditorialN otes to Pages 119–26 / 317 49. In 1933 a high schoolband w as founded by M issA licia G eib,butw as soon directed by A lton and Julien A dam s.A im ee Estornell conducted the orchestra in 1934,having been its director “for m any years” (“H igh School Band G ives Concert,” D N [D ec.7,1934],1). 50. Q uoted in fullfrom A dam s,“M usic— A n A ppreciation,”JBM 1:9 (Sept. 1916),68–71.

chapter 6.the navy band’s 1924 united states tour 1. The entire story ofthe 1924 trip istold by A dam sin along seriesofnew spaperarticlespublished in theVirgin Islands(tourscrapbooks,A AC).Forfurther analysisofthistour,see M ark Clague,“Instrum entsofIdentity:A lton A ugustus A dam s,Sr.,the N avy Band of the Virgin Islands,and the Sounds of Social Change,”Black M usicResearch Journal18:1–2 (Spring–Fall1988),21–65. 2. The V.I.Com m ission included G eorge H .W oodson (Iow a),Cornelius R. Richardson (Indiana),Charles E.M itchell(W estVirginia),Jefferson S.Coage (D elaw are),and W .H .C.Brow n (Virginia).The com m ission’svisitw asaresult ofagrow ing riftbetw een localgovernm entand the navy.In 1922 the Colonial CouncilofSt.Thom as(w hich w asstillactive,since the navy had chosen tocontinue the islands’ operation under D anish law ) sent Rothschild Francis— a bandleader,journalist,and union organizer— to W ashington,D.C.,to solicit relieffor econom icand politicalstagnation on the islands (W illocks,262).(A good exam ple ofthe stagnation feltby the islandersconcerns U.S.citizenship; although m ostnatives expected citizenship in 1918,thisrightw as notgranted to m ostislanders until1927.)In response,the 1924 com m ission w as sentto investigate.The native navy band w as one ofthe few brightspotsin the com m ission’sensuing report. 3. O riginalletter found in A A C§II.1.39. 4. The N ew York A ge w as a nationalA frican A m erican w eekly new spaper published from 1905 to 1959. 5. G oldm an w rotesim ilar articles for publications such as the D om inant. 6. A dam s had w ritten G oldm an a letter in preparation for the tour,to w hich G oldm an responded on June 13,1924,after som e delay.A dam s had clearly identified him selfas“colored,” for G oldm an w rites:“Iw as glad to hear from you,and you m ay restassured thatthe factthatyou are a colored m an doesnotchange m y regard foryou.Prejudice ofrace orcreed do [sic]notexist in m y m ake-up.” In thissam e letter,G oldm an asks A dam s to bring the score and partsto his“Virgin Islands M arch” (A A C§II.1.44). 7. Thisaccount,included in the 1924 tour scrapbook held in the A A C,w as likely w ritten by D ougherty for the A m sterdam N ew s,butthe source has yet to be identified.The articlesuggeststhatA dam s conducted the G oldm an Band on W ednesday,July 2,1924;thisdateisconfirm ed in an unidentified St.Croix clipping (A A C§V II.3.11 & 19).G oldm an’s claim that this w as A dam s’s first visitto N ew York isincorrect.

318 / EditorialN otes to Pages 127–38 8. Letter from G oldm an to A dam s,Feb.2,1937 (A A C§II.2.22). 9. A dam s’s language here m inim izes the racialdiscrim ination behind the rejection ofhistw o applicationsto join the A BA (see editor’sintroduction).H e did notreceive aletter granting him eligibility for m em bership. 10. O nly thirty-eightare pictured in the tourphotograph (see photographs in this volum e).A llrecords located so far indicate thatthe touring ensem ble included all active bandsm en from both St.Thom as and St.Croix.O ther reportsthatsixty-six m usicianstook partin the tourare incorrect.A dam sm ay have had sixty-six m usicians under hisdirection atthe heightofthe islands’ ensem bles (three tw enty-tw o-piece ensem bles), but also m ay never have reached thism axim um .Forty-six m usicians are show n in a pretour publicity photo taken in the Virgin Islands (see “Virgin Islands N aval Band to Tour U.S.,” Chicago D efender [M ay 31,1924],3). 11. Calvin Coolidge,Jr.,died on July 7,1924,from blood poisoning.H is death transfixed the nation and profoundly depressed the president.See The A utobiography ofCalvin Coolidge (N ew York:Cosm opolitan Book Corporation,1929),190. 12. The “m orris chair” m entioned here seem s to refer to a style first devised by the firm ofthe English designerW illiam M orris.The m ore com m on types are w ooden w ith a reclining back and high arm rests thatw ould notbe appropriate for m usicalperform ance.A dam s’sm anuscriptstates that“m orris chairs” w ere provided,butthisseem s unlikely and has been corrected here. 13. O ne w ho w as there w as the “father ofthe blues,” W .C.H andy,w hose hom e at442 St.N icholasAvenue w asnearthe park.H andy w roteA dam saletter on Sept.18,1924,to congratulate him for his “splendid organization” (A A C§II.1.51). 14. M onkey chasers is a derogatory phrase once used by som e A frican A m ericans to refer to W estIndian blacks.Itencapsulates the tension betw een these tw o A frican diasporicgroups.M arcus G arvey,in particular,w as labeled such publicly by A frican A m erican leaders.See “1920’s–1930’s— W estIndian Influence,”in Cruse,115–46;and Lloyd W .Brow n,“TheW estIndian asan Ethnic Stereotype in Black A m erican Literature,” N egro A m erican Literature Forum 5:1 (Spring 1971):8–14. 15. U nidentified clippings in A dam s scrapbooks (A A C) likely from the A m sterdam N ew s,w hich through D ougherty offered unusually rich coverage ofthe band’svisit. 16. A dam s uses this patriotic anecdote in a num ber of speech and radio address draftsheld in the A A C. 17. O ther last-m inute requests for perform ances could not be fulfilled, including an invitation from the black com m unity of Chicago (1924 tour scrapbooks,A A C§V II.3.18). 18. A ccording to w w w.theshiplist.com , the Praesident, at 1,849 tons, entered service in 1905 for the line’sW estIndies Service.Itw as seized by the U nited States in 1917.The H am burg-A m erican PacketCom pany w as form ed in 1847 to service a H am burg–to–N ew York route.The journey took forty

EditorialN otes to Pages 139–49 / 319 days.G radually grow ing in sizeand coverage,service to the W estIndiesbegan in 1870 and continued through 1939.Passenger service ceased during both w orld w ars. 19. O riginalletter ispreserved in A A C§II.1.48. 20. Clipping from Boston Chroniclepreserved in A A C§V II.3.27. 21. A llbutthe firstnineteen w ords ofthisquotation are m issing from all extantversionsofthischapter.The fullarticleisfound in book 3 ofthe A dam s Scrapbooks (A A C). 22. From the song “H om e,Sw eet H om e,” by the “English M ozart,” Sir H enry Row ley Bishop (1786–1855),w ith w ords by John H ow ard Payne,com posed for the English opera Clari,or the M aid ofM ilan (1823).See N icholas Tem perley,“Bishop,Sir H enry R.,” in N ew G rove D ictionary of M usic and M usicians(N ew York:M acm illan,2000).

chapter 7.the close of the naval years (1925–1931) 1. The D aily N ew s (D N ),M ay 3,1988.Paul E.Joseph,a St.Croix naval bandsm en,w rotesim ilarm usicappreciation articlesforthe St.CroixA vis(see “M usic N otes” [Feb.12,1919],2).For m ore on W hite,see Victoria von A rx, “Clarence Cam eron W hite,” International D ictionary of Black Com posers, vol.2 (Chicago:Fitzroy D earborn,1999),1199–1206. 2. Follow ing sporadiccelebrations and a 1923 nationalobservance,a coordinated N ational M usic W eek w as first celebrated throughout the U nited States in M ay 1924.See Charles M .Trem aine,H istory of N ational M usic W eek (N ew York:N ationalBureau for the A dvancem entofM usic,ca.1925). 3. D ue to the short lead tim e,A dam s planned m ost M usic W eek events him self.D etailsofprogram added from lastsection ofA A C§V II.1.16.A dam s’s M usicW eek activities are confirm ed in “U.S.N avy Band in Review,” D N (Feb. 14,1931),3,and contem porary accountssuch as“M usicW eek Program ,” Bulletin (M ay 8,1925),3,and “M usicW eek Events,” Bulletin (M ay 9,1925),3. 4. D N (M ay 9,1988).The U.S.CentennialofFlightCom m ission w ebsite, w w w.centennialofflight.gov,confirm s the outlines ofA dam s’s description,as does“A irship atVirgin Islands,” N ew York Tim es (M ay 7,1925),20. 5. D N (M ay 16,1988),15. 6. D N (M ay 23,1988). 7. D N (M ay 30,1988). 8. Itispossible thatA dam s m eans Felix D reyschock here,yetD reyschock taughtprim arily in Leipzig,so the original“D ryschock” isretained. 9. D N (June 6,1988),19. 10. D N (July 11,1988),22. 11. D N (June 20,1988). 12. D N (June 17,1988).G rigg w as of D anish and English ancestry and w orked in the H ealth D epartm enton St.Croix beginning in 1921 (see M oolenaar 1992,88).

320 / EditorialN otes to Pages 150–63 13. D N (July 5,1988),20.For m ore on Cuney-H are,see D ouglas H ales,A Southern Fam ily in W hite and Black (College Station:Texas A & M U niversity Press,2003).Cuney-H are’s1936 book,N egro M usicians and TheirM usic (W ashington,D C:A ssociated Publishers),includes a chapter on m usic in the Virgin Islands based in parton inform ation she received from A dam s. 14. The film ofw hich M eier w rites islikely The Black Pirate,w hich isthe only feature film released in 1926 in w hich Fairbanks had astarring role. 15. D N (June 13,1988),18. 16. D N (July 18,1988),20. 17. D N (July 25,1988). 18. D N (A ug.2,1988),15. 19. D N (A ug.8,1988),17.See also “G overnorTrench D iesSuddenly,”N ew York Tim es (Jan.7,1927),19. 20. D N (A ug.15,1988),20. 21. D N (A ug.22,1988),20;“Evans M ade G overnor of Virgin Islands,” N ew York Tim es (Jan.19,1927),17.See also letter to the editor by A dolph G ereau describing cerem ony and excitem ent at new s of citizenship:“Virgin Islanders’Joy atCitizenship,” N ew York Tim es (M arch 20,1927),XX16. 22. D N (A ug.29,1988),24. 23. Jam es Reese Europe w as killed on M ay 9,1919.Possibly A dam s w as considered to replace him in 1919,although thisisunlikely asthe ragtim e and jazz dance m usic Europe’s band m ade fam ous w as notin A dam s’s repertory. M ore likely,in 1926 A dam sw asoffered the job ofconducting Europe’sform er unit— the 369th black infantry arm y band.A ccording to Reid Badger’sA Life in Ragtim e:A Biography ofJam es Reese Europe (N ew York:O xford U niversity Press,1995),Europe and hisband w ere m ustered outofthe arm y in February 1919 to perform as the civilian ensem ble the H ellfighters Band, capitalizing on their w artim e fam e. Playing only sporadically after their leader’s death,this band ceased to existnotlong after a m em orialconcertin M ay 1920 (223). 24. D N (Sept.5,1988),16. 25. D N (Sept.12,1988),22. 26. D N (Sept.19,1988),18. 27. D N (Sept.26,1988),20. 28. D N (O ct.3,1988),16. 29. D N (O ct.10,1988),16. 30. D N (O ct.19,1988),17. 31. D N (O ct.24,1988),21. 32. D N (O ct.31,1988),28.This colum n and the one thatfollow s reprint lettersby readersrecounting theirpersonalm em oriesofLindbergh’svisit.The event is covered by the N ew York Tim es in three articles:“Lindbergh 1,051 m iles over Sea to Virgin Islands” (Feb.1,1928),1;“St.Thom as M akes Lindbergh Freem an;San Juan H op Today”(Feb.2,1928),1;and “CirclesSt.Thom as and H O P” (Feb.3,1928),5.

EditorialN otes to Pages 163–80 / 321 33. D N (N ov.21,1988),36.Rom erand hiscanoe are pictured in “The Lone O arsm an ofthe A tlantic:Franz Rom er,” N ew York Tim es (A ug.19,1928),91. 34. D N (N ov.28,1988),20. 35. D N (D ec.5,1988),21.Rom er’sdeparture isdescribed in “St.Thom asto N ew York in Canoe,” N ew York Tim es (Sept.9,1928),2. 36. Text recovered from an early m anuscript draft (A A C§V II.1.16) and detailsadded from contem porary new spaperaccountsin the N avy Band Scrapbooks (A A C§V II.3.18).D ate provided by “Virgin Islands G overnor on Tour,” N ew York Tim es(M arch 12,1930),60. 37. D N (D ec.12,1988),27. 38. D N (D ec.19,1988),21.Brow n’sassignm entto the islandsiscovered in “ExpertG oes to A id ofVirgin Islands,” N ew York Tim es (June 22,1930),N 1. 39. D N (D ec.27,1988),20. 40. D N (Jan.3,1989),14. 41. H arriet Connor Brow n, G randm other Brow n’s H undred Years, 1827–1927 (Toronto:M cClelland and Stew art,1929). 42. D N (Jan.9,1989),16. 43. D N (Jan.17,1989). 44. D N (Jan.23,1989),17. 45. D N (Jan.30,1989),15. 46. D N (Feb.6,1989),18.

chapter 8.the naval adm inistration (1917–1931) 1. Laye originally published thisnovelasD ram oussin Paris.Itappeared in an English translation ofthe originalFrench tw o years later under the title A D ream ofA frica (London:Collins,1968). 2. Evans’sbook w as originally published in 1945 by J.W .Edw ards ofA nn A rbor,M ichigan. 3. Jarvis,BriefH istory ofthe Virgin Islands.The follow ing quotations are taken from ch.15,“Fourteen Years ofthe N avy,” 131–42. 4. Jarvis discusses “Cha-chas” on pages 201–3 ofhis BriefH istory.They are Rom an Catholic im m igrants ofFrench descentfrom St.Bartholom ew or St.Barths.Jarvis describes them as “clannish” and “intensely em otionaland patriotic.”The term Cha-cha isderogatory. 5. A n additionaloutspoken criticofthe navaladm inistration w asRothschild Francis,another of A dam s’s rivals.Francis edited a biw eekly new spaper,the Em ancipator,thatserved prim arily the low erclassesoftheVirgin Islands.In an article ofJanuary 4,1922,titled “Then and N ow,” Francis notes a shiftin the behaviorofnavalpersonnelfrom racistto“strong advocates”(1).D uring W orld W ar I,w hen the navaladm inistration firstcam e to the islands,a large contingentofservicem en w ere assigned to the islands in com batroles.Thisseem s to have put increased pressure on race relations.W ith the w ar over,com bat soldiers w ere transferred offisland and m uch ofthis tension receded.Francis

322 / EditorialN otes to Pages 181–92 further accuses the islands’“propertied class” ofsupporting the navy in order to further itsow n interests.Laborers preferred a“civilform ” ofgovernm ent, according to hisarticle.YetFrancisclosesw ith asurprisingly positive endorsem ent of the navy adm inistration thatA dam s w ould have appreciated:“The presentofficials [in 1922]loaned to us by the N avy serve gratuitously.They are selectm en possessing m uch tactand reliability,dem ocraticin m ake-up and strong advocatesofahigherciviclifeforthe plain people.”O fthe yearsim m ediately after1917,he w rites,in contrast:“Severalofthe officialsthatcam e here afterthe transferw ere exceedingly autocraticand firstrateN egro haters.They w anted to govern the people in the sam e m anner as they did battleships and regim ents.” 6. By “free,” A dam s refers to the absence of taxes on goods m oving through the port. 7. The oilextracted from Chalm ugra (also Chaulm oogra)seedsw asused to treatleprosy. 8. John Boynton Priestley (1894–1984)w as a British journalist,novelist, playw right,and essayist. 9. The m anuscriptversion ofthis chapter in the A A C is incom plete,as if the finalpages are lost.Since the draftitselfdraw s heavily on portions ofan essay A dam s w rote titled “The N avy’s Contribution to the Virgin Islands,” dating from afterW orld W ar II(A A C,unnum bered),closing m aterialto com plete the presentchapter has been adapted from thisw ork.O ther sources are found in a1960“A ddress”published in the H om e Journal(A pril12,1960)and preserved in A A C§V I.1.1.

chapter 9.civilian governm ent and politics (the 1930s) 1. D N (Feb.20,1989),18. 2. D N (Feb.13,1989).G iftw as an ardentnavy supporter and criticofthe Pearson adm inistration.The N ew York Tim esdescribed heras“presidentofthe Suffragist League.” She presented a m ahogany w alking stick to President Franklin D.Rooseveltduring his 1934 visit,as w ellas “a letter setting forth com plaintsagainstthe Pearson adm inistration.”The letterw asnecessary since a protestparade planned by the league againstPearson w as banned by police. See “St.Thom as Crow ds H ailRoosevelt,” N ew York Tim es(July 8,1934),1. 3. D N (Feb.27,1989). 4. A ccording to Richard V.O ulahan’s article for the N ew York Tim es, H oover w as on St.Thom as for only five hours and heard pleas for the econom ichealth ofthe islands,including the benefitsofthe navalpresence and the dam age done by Prohibition to the m arketfor sugar and thus to the agriculturaland m anufacturing health ofSt.Croix.H ooverparticipated in a“colorful parade w hich broughtforcibly to hism ind the factthatthe population ofthe islands isoverw helm ingly N egro.” Both H erbertD.Brow n and Captain Evans w ere presentforH oover’svisit,the latterstilloverseeing the navalw ithdraw al.

EditorialN otes to Pages 193–98 / 323 The population ofthe islands isgiven as 22,000.See “Virgin Island W etsPut Pleato H oover during 5-H our Call,” N ew York Tim es (M arch 26,1931),1. 5. D N (A pril3,1989),20. 6. D N (A pril24,1989),22. 7. Sum m ary ofPearson’sculturalprogram ,taken from A dam s’stypescript “G overnor PaulM .Pearson— FirstCivilian G overnor” (A A C§V I.1.14). 8. D ate confirm ed by telegram from A dam s to his w ife (A A C§II.1.108); M erledied on the evening ofM ay 9 from an unexpected,sudden illness,possibly m eningitis(“Local,” Bulletin [M ay 10,1932],2).A dam s’sbitterness about the navy’sdeparture m ay have been exacerbated by thisdeath and the question ofw hetherthe navy’ssuperiorm edicalresourcescould have m ade adifference. 9. A dam s reports a figure of1,500 deaths,but3,500 is the officialCuban count.See w w w.tierram erica.net/2001/1111/iacentos.shtm l. 10. W ifeofEllisStone,the lieutenantcom m anderofthe St.Thom asN aval Base in 1924,w ho w as directly in charge ofthe band during itstour. 11. H enry Edw ard Krehbiel,A fro-A m erican Folksongs:A Study in Racial and N ational M usic (N ew York:G .Schirm er,1914).Som e indications of A dam s’sow n research can be found in hisinfluence on M aude Cuney-H are’s w ritings and A dam s’sow n article“W hence Cam e the Calypso” (A A C). 12. Text crossed out in the m anuscript reads,“after w hich all that rem ained for burialw as her spine thatw as found am ong the ashes ofthe rubble.” The details told here are poignantly confirm ed by a set of telegram s (A A C§II.1.112–14). 13. The ineffectiveness ofthe localfirefighting arrangem entand itsinability to save hisdaughter m ay provide an additionalreason thatA dam s w as so angry aboutthe dism issalofthe navy.W hen the navy left,so did itsfirefighting equipm entand expertise.See letter from Proctor to A dam s,Septem ber 6, 1932,in A dam s scrapbook (reprinted D N [M ay 29,1989]). 14. The story of the 1932 fire is based on an untitled m anuscript in the A A C,along w ith tw o D N articles w ith m em oir excerpts,June 19,1989,and June 16,1989 (18). 15. D N (July 3,1989),17;m ore inform ation on the house can be found in Edith deJongh W oods,“H ouse on Kongens G ade W as H om e to A lton A dam s,” D N (July 25,2003),26–27.D uring the navalyears,the building served as the adm inistrative headquartersofthe navalhospitallocated nextdoor.The hospitalw as later destroyed in ahurricane. 16. This section is taken from an unfinished draftin the A dam s m em oirs m aterials;band,orchestral,and solo piano versionsof“Childhood M errim ent” survive (A A C§V III.1.5–13). 17. D N (July 10,1989),18.W hilecorrespondence in theA A C confirm sthis characterization of A dam s’s relationship w ith G overnor Pearson,A dam s’s accounthere seem s to com press tim e a bit.A m em o affirm ing A dam s’sverbal appointm entas chair ofthe St.Thom as M usic Com m ittee is dated M arch 8, 1934— eightm onths after hisreturn to St.Thom as (§I.2.2)— butno m ention is m ade ofa position in the schools.H ow ever,in a letter to Pearson six days

324 / EditorialN otes to Pages 199–207 later,A dam s m akes itclear thathe isseeking ajob to supporthisfam ily.Pearson w as clearly devoted to im proving the culturaleducation ofthe islands,but A dam s found his initial proposal (engaging a harm onica instructor) disappointing (§I.2.5).Thisletteralso suggestsA dam sw asagain associated w ith the islands’M usicW eek celebrations. 18. D N (July 17,1989),18.D rew Pearson,w ith RobertS.A llen (W ashington bureau chieffor the Christian Science M onitor),firstpublished W ashington M erry-G o-Round anonym ously asabook (N ew York:H .Liveright,1931).Follow ing the sequeland the subsequentrevelation oftheirauthorship,the tw o journalistsresigned theirpositions and began publishing the w eekly colum n. A titsheight,the colum n w asread by sixty m illion readersin oversix hundred papers.See Jim H eintze,“Biography ofD rew Pearson,” A m erican U niversity A rchives,2006,w w w.library.am erican.edu/pearson/biography.htm l. 19. D N (July 24,1989),18. 20. D N (July 31,1989),17. 21. D N (A ug.7,1989),18. 22. The holograph score in A dam s’shand has survived (A A C§V III.1.30). 23. D N (A ug.15,1989),15. 24. D N (A ug.21,1989),16.D etails of Eleanor Roosevelt’s visit are preserved in “Studies Virgin Islands,” N ew York Tim es(M arch 9,1934),24.She spent the m orning of M arch 8 sw im m ing and visiting the Bluebeard H otel project,and “inspected farm projectsaround Lindbergh Bay and w atched the building ofroads,draining ofsw am psand repairing ofschools.”She visited St. Croix and returned to St.Thom as in the afternoon,departing im m ediately for San Juan,Puerto Rico. 25. D N (A ug.28,1989).The N ew York Tim es,in covering the president’s visit, noted the perform ance of A dam s’s song:“The President stopped in Em ancipation G arden ...to listen to a song ofw elcom e com posed by A lton A dam s,N egro bandm aster ofthe N avalReserve,and sung by athousand high school pupils,clad in bright gingham s and w hite starched suits w hich contrasted w ith their black faces and sparkling eyes.” See “St.Thom as Crow ds H ailRoosevelt,” N ew York Tim es(July 8,1934),1. 26. D N (Feb.19,1990),16. 27. D N (Feb.28,1990). 28. D N (M arch 5,1990).The author’sm ention oflaborleaderM orrisD avis hints ata prevailing conflictunderlying Virgin Islands politics ofthe period, one thatA dam sdoesnotaddressdirectly in these m em oirs— nam ely,the com peting needsofthe islandsofSt.Thom asand St.John versusthe largestVirgin Island,St.Croix.W hile navalbases and tourism benefited St.Thom as and its close neighbor St.John,the econom y ofSt.Croix w as distinctand prim arily agricultural.St.Thom as had long dom inated the Virgin Islands politically,and A dam s’sview s revealhisdeeply St.Thom ian perspective.G enerally speaking, the politiciansofSt.Croix had pushed foracivilian rulethatw ould betterrecognize the needs oftheir ow n island.A tleastsom e opinions concerning the

EditorialN otes to Pages 208–17 / 325 Virgin Islands thatA dam s dism isses as m isinform ation or intrigue reflectthe genuine needs ofSt.Croix and the preferences ofcertain politicians there. 29. D N (M arch 12,1990). 30. D N (M arch 19,1990),15. 31. D N (O ct.2,1989),18. 32. D N (O ct.9,1989),25. 33. D N (O ct.16,1989),16,19. 34. CharlesEdw in Taylor,A n Island ofthe Sea:D escriptive ofthe Pastand Present of St.Thom as,D anish W est Indies,w ith a Few Short Stories about Bluebeard’sCastles(St.Thom as,D W I:the author,1896). 35. The section aboutthe Bluebeard pageantcom es from an A M RItypescript,w ith details added and confirm ed by tw o D N articles,“G overnor Paul Pearson’s D ream Com e True!” (D ec.24,1934),1;and “Christm as D ay W as G ala”(D ec.27,1934),1.Bluebeard’sCastlein St.Thom asisconsidered by local legend as the setting ofthe tale used by such com posers as Jacques O ffenbach for the 1866 operetta Barbe-bleue (Bluebeard) and Béla Bartók for his 1911 one-actopera Bluebeard’s Castle.A lthough the tale,w hich w arns w om en of disobedience and curiosity,w as codified by Charles Perraultin his1697 H istories ou contes du tem ps passé (Stories or tales ofpasttim es),the legend travelsin m any differentversions,including the varianttold here. 36. The version of the Bluebeard legend told here is taken from tw o of A dam s’spieces republished in D N ,O ct.23,1989 (19),and O ct.30,1989 (16). 37. D N (N ov.20,1989),18. 38. D N (N ov.27,1989),16.D etailsin A dam s’saccountdo notm atch recent scholarship,notably Frank M .Figueroa’s“The Figueroas:Puerto Rico’s First Fam ily ofM usic,”Latin BeatM agazine(M ay 2004).A dam s’saccounthere has been corrected,butitis notprecisely clear w hether itw as Jaim e or José w ho perform ed for A dam s.José appears to have been the m ore experienced and accom plished m usician (he played firstviolin in the Figueroa Brothers Q uintet),butitw asJaim e w ho had studied in Parism ore recently,so he isidentified here as the likely perform er and com petitor. 39. The detailsofM illay’sarrivalare confirm ed by “N ew s ofthe D ay,” St. Thom asM ailN otes(Jan.3,1935),4.M illay and herhusband leftN ew York on D ec.28,1934. 40. D N (D ec.4,1989),24. 41. D N (D ec.11,1989),21. 42. D N (A pril9,1990),20.O nly one letterfrom D rew Pearson toA dam sis to be found in the A A C (§II.2.39)and isdated A pril3,1941.Itsuggestsam ore form aland distantprofessionalrelationship than the close friendship described in the m em oirs.A letter ofM arch 31 from A dam s to D rew Pearson does state thatclippings from A dam s’sBulletin editorialsw ere included (§II.2.38). 43. The dredge boatH uston w as builtby the Bethlehem SteelCorporation, Barrow sPoint,M aryland,and delivered in 1910.See hullno.113 atw w w.colton com pany.com /shipbldg/ussbldrs/prew w ii/shipyards/bethsparrow spoint.htm .

326 / EditorialN otes to Pages 218–30 44. D N (D ec.18,1989),25. 45. The Tydings investigation of the adm inistration of the Virgin Islands received extensive nationalpress coverage thatconfirm s the detailsofA dam s’s account.A rticles in the N ew York Tim es,how ever,offer a broader view.Judge W ilson,for exam ple,isseen by the Tim esas the prim ary opposition to G overnorPearson.The Tim esalso describesthe Tydingsinvestigation as“adjourned” but not abandoned,and represents the resignation and reassignm ent of both Pearson and W ilson as aface-saving gesture in w hich “PresidentRooseveltput an end to the Virgin Islands fight...by ousting both fighters.” See “A N ew G overnor,” N ew York Tim es (July 28,1935),E1.The political ordeal can be traced in the N ew York Tim esduring 1935 in often front-page articles such as “Island Inquiry Expected” (Jan.26),11;“PresidentConfers on Virgin Islands” (Feb.17),20;“SenateG roup A sksInquiry on Islands”(M arch 1),1;“IckesA sks to Be H eard” (A pril 5),6;“Rule of Pearson Series of Storm s” (A pril 7),33; “M ajority O pposesPearson’sRegim e”(A pril9),22;“Virgin IslesForm Pivotin Struggle” (A pril5),6;“Pearson D efends Record in O ffice” (A pril10),18;“D iscord IsShow n in Virgin IsleRule” (July 9),9;“O usting ofJudge D em anded by Ickes” (July 10),1;“Shake-up Im m inentin Virgin Islands” (July 12),1;“N avy M ay Receive Virgin Isles’ Rule” (July 16),7;“Pearson Resigns Virgin Isles Post” (July 24),1;and “Tydingsto PressVirgin IslesStudy” (July 25),1. 46. D N (M arch 26,1990),19. 47. D N (A pril2,1990),19.The fightdescribed here isdetailed in “FistFight M arksVirgin IsleInquiry,” N ew York Tim es (July 3,1935),8. 48. D N (A pril17,1990),19. 49. D N (A pril23,1990). 50. D N (A pril30,1990),23;PaulPearson’spersonalpapers are held by the Friends H istoricalLibrary atSw arthm ore College (RG 5/121). 51. D N (D ec.28,1989).In addition to the M arine Corps planes,the navy m aintained the U SS A ntares,a training ship,in St.Thom as harbor.See “St. Thom as H ailsA dventofCram er,” N ew York Tim es (Sept.15,1935),E12. 52. D N (M ay 22,1990),17. 53. D N (M ay 28,1990). 54. “Louisenhoj” ispronounced locally as“Lou-eez-un-hoy.” 55. D N (M ay 7,1990). 56. D N (M ay 14,1990). 57. W ilder’svisitand hisstay atBluebeard’sare confirm ed by “Thornton N .W ilderH ere,”D N (O ct.16,1935),1,and “N ovelistVisitsLibrary,”D N (O ct. 16,1936).O urTow n w as w ritten in m ultiplelocations. 58. D N (Jan.22,1990),18. 59. D N (Jan.29,1990),21. 60. D N (Feb.5,1990),15. 61. D N (Feb 12,1990),19. 62. D N ,July 15,1991 (20),and July 22,1991 (22).See also Ron Roizen, “H erschelG rynszpan:The FateofaForgotten A ssassin,”H olocaustand G enocide Studies1:2 (1986):217–28.The pogrom ssubsequentto G rynszpan’sactof

EditorialN otes to Pages 231–47 / 327 resistance include die Kristallnacht(the N ightofBroken G lass)ofN ovem ber 9,1938,w hich isconsidered by m any to m ark the beginning ofthe H olocaust. 63. D N (July 29,1991),16. 64. D N (A ug.7,1991),24.The article “D elays W ar H aven on Virgin Islands,” N ew York Tim es (D ec.13,1940),11,corroborates A dam s’s account here.Ickes argued thata refugee program w ould be an “econom icbenefit” to the islands and thatonly “a few hundred refugees could be received.”

chapter 10.the pow er of the press (the 1940s) 1. D N (A ug.13,1990),22.A ccording to the Justthe Beginning Foundation w ebsite (w w w.jtbf.org),w hich tracks the history ofblack judges in the U nited States,H astie and M oore w ere notjustthe firstblack judges appointed to the D istrictCourtofthe Virgin Islands butalso the firstatthatlevelofthe judiciary in the U nited States as a w hole.A dam s here describes M oore as “president” ofthe Cook County BarA ssociation,butno evidence has been found to supportthisclaim ,and “m em ber”hasbeen substituted.M oore’snom ination is covered in “M oore Aw aits Confirm ation;Lauds Friends,” Chicago D efender (A ug.5,1939),3.The articleconfirm s Secretary Ickes’srolebutcreditsIllinois senator Jam es M .Slattery w ith the initial nom ination.M oore’s w ife,M arie Johnson M oore,m oved a few m onths after her husband,w ho leftChicago for the islands via W ashington,D.C.,in A ugust 1939 (“M rs.H erm an E.M oore View s Life in Virgin Islands,” Chicago D efender[A ug.26,1935],18).See also G ilbertW are,W illiam H astie:G race under Pressure (N ew York:O xford U niversity Press,1984);and H erm an E.M oore,“TheVirgin Islandsand ItsJudicial System ,” N ationalBar Journal(D ec.1945). 2. D N (A ug.20,1990),16. 3. D N (A ug.27,1990),25. 4. D N (Sept.4,1990),17. 5. D N (Sept.10,1990),24. 6. D N (Sept.17,1990),19.H istorianstoday generally view Trujillo asadictator.See Richard Lee Turits,Foundations ofD espotism :Peasants,the Trujillo Regim e,and M odernity (Stanford,CA :Stanford U niversity Press,2003). 7. D N (A ug.23,1991),18.The w ebsite http://ubootw affe.netconfirm s the sinking ofthe EleniStathatostw o hundred m iles w estofScilly Island (offthe coastofEngland)by U -boat34 at4:21 A .M .on Jan.28,1940. 8. D N (Sept.5,1991),25. 9. D N (O ct.22,1990),19. 10. D N (O ct.29,1990). 11. D N (N ov.5,1990),29. 12. D N (N ov.12,1990),19. 13. D N (N ov.19,1990),16. 14. D N (N ov.26,1990),16. 15. D N (D ec.3,1990),w hich also contains rem iniscences by Victor Bryan, astudentatthe H errick Schoolw ho m etSw anson.

328 / EditorialN otes to Pages 248–54 16. D N (D ec.10,1990),21. 17. D N (D ec.17,1990),25.A dam s’sdiscussion avoids the com m on m istake ofcrediting theW orksProgressA dm inistration w ith postoffice m urals,and thus testifies to the strength ofhisreporting m ethods.W hen the firstN ew D ealart project,the PublicW orks ofA rtProject(1933–34),ended,the Section ofPainting and Sculpture w ascreated in 1934undertheTreasury D epartm ent.Itcontinued to be responsible for post office projects after the creation of the W PA FederalA rtProjectin 1935.The FederalW orksA gency w as a banner organization thatencom passed allfederalartprogram s.In 1979,responsibility for FW A projects w as transferred to the G eneralServices A dm inistration.See M arlene Park and G erald E.M arkow itz,D em ocraticVistas:PostO fficesand PublicA rtin the N ew D eal (Philadelphia: Tem ple U niversity Press, 1984); and Patricia Raynor,“O ffthe W all:N ew D ealPostO ffice M urals,” EnRoute 6:4 (O ct.–D ec. 1997).Biographicaldetailshere confirm ed by A irForce A rtCollection datafiles (see w w w.afapo.hq.af.m il).In addition to his m urals throughout the U nited States,the socialrealistartistSteven D ohanos(1907–94)isbestrem em bered for hundreds ofcover illustrations he created for the Saturday Evening Post.Curiously,A dam sdoesnotreportthe titlesofthe m urals,w hich Park and M arkow itz give as The Virgin Islands,U .S.— The Leisurely N ative Tem po and The Virgin Islands,U .S.— The O uterW orld Significance.Thism ay be asim pleoversightor m ay castdoubton the titles;they m ay referto designsotherthan the finalones executed orm ay have been assigned by som eone otherthan D ohanos. 18. D N (D ec.24,1990),27. 19. D N ,D ec.4,1991 (26),and D ec.9,1991 (22). 20. D N (D ec.16,1991),24. 21. D N (N ov.25,1991),24. 22. D N (M arch 18,1991),20. 23. “A lton A dam s Tries to Reorganize ‘Rag Tag’ Band” D N (M arch 25, 1991),19.A dam srejoined the service officially on June 5,1942,presum ably in Cuba.The appointm entofablack bandm asterto head the tw enty-six-m em ber all-w hiteG uantánam o contingentm adeA dam sthe firstknow n black person to directw hite navy m usicians.A dam s’s race w as notreceived w ell,and several w hite m usicians reportedly w rote to their congressm en requesting transfer (personalcom m unication,A lton A dam s,Jr.,M ay 2006).Such transferrequests w ere reportedly denied,although the sim ple fact that the photo ofA dam s’s second band hasonly eighteen players,including the eightrecalled black m usicians,suggests that sixteen of the original tw enty-six w hite m em bers had either m issed the photo or som ehow leftthe band.A dam s found “distraught, dem oralized,‘rum -drinking’”m usiciansw ho had deteriorated m usically w ithout a director and w ho w ere required to do “m enial enlisted m en’s jobs” in addition to playing.H e requested thathism usicians be relieved ofthese other duties to focus on m usic (Floyd 1977,179).A dam s established the sam e sixhourdaily rehearsaland regularperform ance routine he had used to createhis firstnavy band.W ithin a year,the band im proved dram atically,butw as then splitup w hen A dam s returned to St.Thom as.

EditorialN otes to Pages 255–56 / 329 24. D N (A pril5,1991),17. 25. D N (A pril9,1991),16. 26. D N (A pril 15,1991),21.Even before leaving St.Thom as for Cuba, A dam s had begun advocating for the renaissance of the Virgin Islands band, w hich w ould allow him to stay near fam ily and provide m usicfor hiscom m unity.W hile initialrequests w ere denied,a letter ofSept.1942 from H arw ood announces the approvalofsuch a plan by the navy (A AC§II.2.45).A dam s and the eightVirgin Islanders in the Cuba band w ere to be transferred as the seeds ofa tw enty-three-piece all-black unitatthe St.Thom as Subm arine Base.By M arch 25,1943,instrum entshad arrived in St.Thom as,and A dam s w as setto recruit additional players to fill out the band (“Instrum ents for N avy Band Received,” D N [M arch 25,1943],2).Four new native m usicians,including tw o w ho had been serving ascooksforthe navy,played successfulauditions:Lincoln Pow elland O liver BestofSt.Thom as,plus J.O .Breedy and A .A .LibertofSt. Croix (“FourVirgin Islands M usicians Join U.S.N avy,” D N [A pril8,1943],1). A dam shad hoped toreinstatem ostofhisoriginalbandsm en,butm any (including hisbrother,Julien)w ere unabletopassarequired physical.O therbandsm en w ere recruited from offisland tofilloutthe ensem ble.A tleastfourofthese new bandsm en w ere black m usicians from the G reatLakes N avalTraining Center sentas a com bo to provide jazz and dance m usicas a secondary ensem ble that w ould also play w ith A dam s’sband.The fourm usiciansw ere A rnold“Scrippy” Bolling (drum s),H enry “Little Red” H unt(trum pet),Benny Freem an (tenor saxophone),and H enry B.Richardson (clarinet).The quartethelped train som e ofA dam s’s m usicians in their style,subsequently expanding the dance unit. They reportedly returned tothe G reatLakesin late1944(Floyd 1977,179,182). The renew ed Virgin Islandsband played itsfirstconcerton A pril30,1943,as aserenade to Com m anderG .K.G .Reilly,w ho had helped form the band (“U.S. N avy Band in Prem iere ConcertatSubm arine Base,”D N [A pril30,1943],1,4). The band’s stated function recalls the m otivation behind the founding ofthe originalensem blein 1917.Balsey isreported ashaving been “interested in prom oting closer relations betw een the arm ed forces and the civilian population, and he believes thatthe band can do m uch tow ard thisend.” The band played for sporting events and “IA m an A m erican D ay” and gave Sunday-evening concertsin Em ancipation G arden.These w eekly concertscontinued untilM ay 28,1944.Shortly thereafterthe band w astransferred again,thistim e to Puerto Rico.A gain Brow n and A dam s played solos for a farew ell concert crow d reported to num ber m ore than a thousand people (“N avy Band Thrills Large A udience in Closing Concert,”D N [M ay 31,1944],1,4).In hisopening rem arks atthe concert,A dam s nam ed severalm em bers ofthe band w ho had been w ith him for thirty-four years,since the firstconcertofhisJuvenile Band in 1911: O liverre Sebastien,H erbertBrow n,Conrad G om ez,A rnold M artin,and Lam bertG eorge (“A cting G overnor G ives PublicRecognition ofN avy’sService to Com m unity;A dam sM akesSpeech,” D N [June 1,1944]). The San Juan Breeze ofJune 11,1944,w elcom ed A dam s’sband to Puerto Rico w ith a photo and a caption:“W elcom e A board— to ChiefM usician A lton

330 / EditorialN otes to Pages 257–64 A .A dam s and histw enty-tw o m en form ing the new Band.M any ofthe boys w ere in there pitching w hen ‘jive’and ‘sw ing’w ere infants.From thism ilitary outfitislifted agroup often w ho break outthe brassunderthe baton ofM us1c Joseph M aduro forthe D ance O rchestra— and brother,they’re solid”(San Juan Breeze 5:33 [Puerto Rico:U.S.N avalA irStation,June 11,1944],3).A fter the end ofthe w ar,A dam ssoon leftactive duty (M ay 11,1945)and returned to St. Thom as.A dam sstayed on in the FleetReserve until1947,retiring w ith letters of com m endation for his thirty-year tenure.O n February 22,1987,he w as aw arded an honorary appointm ent in the Virgin Islands N ational G uard as “Com m and SergeantM ajor” (certificateheld atA M RI). 27. D N (A pril23,1991),20 (paperisdated incorrectly on thispage,reading “A pril20”). 28. D N (M ay 1,1991),28.The Paiw onsky fam ily took in seven refugees, three m en and afam ily offour.A dditionaleditorialsconcerning the Lovettsituation are reprinted in D N (M ay 22,1991),27. 29. D N ,M ay 28,1991 (19),and June 5,1991 (27). 30. D N (June 12,1991),28. 31. D N (June 17,1991),26. 32. D N (June 25,1991),20. 33. D N (July 3,1991),24. 34. D N (July 8,1991),23.A ll O ur Years:The A utobiography of Robert M orss Lovett,w ritten by Lovettand published by Viking Press in 1948,contains an accountofhisservice for the Virgin Islands as w ellas a transcriptof histestim ony before the D ies com m ittee.The Lovettsaga istold in a series of 1943 articles by the N ew York Tim es, including “Ickes D enounces Lovett Rem oval” (M ay 16),8;“Bill of A ttainder” (M ay 20),20;“Ban on Salaries U pheld” (June 24),23;“Senate RejectsBillEnding Salaries of3” (June 25),5; “Com prom ise on FCC M en” (June 27),12;“Congress SnarlsPutO ffRecess” (July 4),1;and “RooseveltSigns Six Big Fund Billsand Criticizes O ne” (July 13),1.Lovett eventually resigned in M arch 1944 at the request of Ickes to avoid a continuing budgetw ar in the nextround ofappropriations (“Lovett Q uitsasVirgin Island O fficial;W asTargetin CongressoverSubversion,”N ew York Tim es [M arch 14,1944],36).Lovett challenged Congress through the courts,arguing thatitsactions created an unconstitutionalbillofattainder.H e w on a1946 decision from the U.S.Suprem e Court(U nited Statesv.Lovett,328 U.S.303)and received back pay (“CourtInvalidates LovettD ischarge,” N ew York Tim es[June 4,1946],6).H e died in Chicago in 1956 (“RobertM .Lovett, Educator,IsD ead,” N ew York Tim es,Feb.9,1956).

chapter 11.tourism and the hotel association (the 1950s) 1. A top w hatisknow n as“Bluebeard’sH ill” and,coincidentally,justabove the A dam s hom estead,the Bluebeard Castle survives as of2007 as partofan active touristresortw ith 170 room s called Bluebeard’sCastleH otel.

EditorialN otes to Pages 265–75 / 331 2. The A dam s G uestH ouse w as profiled in the travelsection ofthe Boston G lobe,Sunday,January 11,1970,in afirst-page feature titled “St.Thom as,H alf Price,” by A nne W ym an:“Personality can m ake the place and one place that deserves specialm ention isthe A dam s G uestH ouse w ith only six room s and rates of$12 double,w ith breakfast.A lton A .A dam s,an octogenarian now,w as the leader ofthe U.S.N avy’s firstand only all-N egro band,form ed in 1917. (A dam s stresses the factthatthe black band w as later integrated.)”A ccording to the article,prevailing rateson the island atthe tim e forstandard hotelsw ere $50 to $70 aday. 3. See ch.9. 4. D etailson the hom e added from an unidentified five-page typescriptdating from 1970 titled “A nsw ers”(A M RI).The datahere are taken from answ ers 4–7.The yellow bricks in the structure w ere broughtto St.Thom as as ballast on D anish ships,w hile coral can be found am ong the rocks in the m asonry w alls(A lton A dam s,Jr.,personalcom m unication,A ug.2005). 5. O ne guestw ho stayed atthe house on Feb.8,1951,butrefused to give a nam e,prow led the m anager’squarters atnight.W hen confronted by A dam s, he leaped outaw indow.H aving stolen $80,he w aslatercaptured and identified (see “G uestTurns Prow ler Escapes w ith $80,” D N [Feb.9,1951],1). 6. Correspondence in the A A C suggeststhatthisconcertw as to take place in the spring of1979 (A A C§I.4.61). 7. A dam s organized concerts for Schuyler on M arch 14,1950,and A pril 15, 1952, at the Center Theatre (see “W onder Pianist-Com poser at Center Tonight,” D N [M arch 14,1950],1,and “Philippa Schuyler in Concert Tonight,” D N [A pril15,1952],1).Schuyler’sm other accom panied her on the firsttrip. 8. Philippa Schuyler,A dventures in Black and W hite (N ew York:Robert Spellerand Sons,1960),20–21.See also Kathryn Talalay,Com position in Black and W hite:The LifeofPhilippa Schuyler(N ew York:O xford U niversity Press, 1995). 9. D uBoisdied on A ugust27,1963,in G hana on the eve ofthe M arch on W ashington, w hen M artin Luther King delivered his fam ous “I H ave a D ream ” oration. 10. Theophilus “Teddy” A lbertM arryshow (1887–1958)is know n as the “Father ofW estIndies Federation.” 11. This description indicates continuing ethnic tension betw een W est Indian blacks and certain other blacks on the U.S.m ainland. 12. Seven-U p,or 7U P,is a clear lem on-lim e soft drink produced in the U nited States from 1920. 13. Pow er A uthority section added to the m em oirs from a w orking draft (A A C§V I.1.13). 14. A A C§IV contains records ofthe H otelA ssociation. 15. The principles outlined here parallel those listed in the Revised ByLaw s of the H otel A ssociation of the Virgin Islands of M ay 27, 1957 (A A C§IV.1.1).The association m etannually,rotating the place ofthe m eeting

332 / EditorialN otes to Pages 275–80 am ong itsm em bers and convening m ore often in the firstyears or w hen legal business w as pending.A ssociation m inutes preserved in the A A C m ake clear thatparticipation in the association w as unreliable.W hen criticalissues faced the industry,participation increased;atother tim es,interestw aned.The association spentconsiderable energy collecting late dues from m em bers and raising funds to pay for itsadvertising initiatives. 16. The A dam s 1799 G uest H ouse w as a sm all player in the local hotel econom y,and relationsw ere often strained betw een large corporatehotelsand sm aller guesthouses.A dam s’s selection as president of the association w as a w ise tacticalm ove,as itnotonly broughtaknow ledgeableand w ell-connected individualsto the service ofthe association butalso bridged the gap betw een hotels and guesthouses and betw een so-called continentals,native islanders, and labor unions.D ues and voting strength in the association w ere proportional to the num ber of room s m aintained by each establishm ent. In an undated setofm inutes,detailsofthese figures are given.A dam s G uestH ouse had 4 votes,for exam ple,and the Virgin Isles H otel had 125 (A A C§IV.1.9). A dam s had four guestroom s atthistim e. 17. The first dance raised $3,500 for the hospitalfund (A A C§IV.2.18).A raffleofgoods,including dinners and stays atm em ber hotels,raised m oney in addition to the saleofentrance tickets(raffle ticketsheld by A M RI).The association’sdonations w ere targeted to purchase m edicines for indigentpatients. In a radio address prom oting the ballin itsfourth or so year,A dam s claim ed thatthism oney reduced the length ofhospitalstays,thus saving the governm ent m oney, and im proved physician m orale and quality of care w hile addressing the grow ing costofhealth care for the islands (A A C§IV.3.23). 18. A dam s’sW STA radio scriptisheld in A A C (§IV.3.16).The sam e anecdoteaboutm otherand child and additionaldetailsofKnud-H ansen’sservice to the island are contained in an article by A dam s,“Knud Knud-H ansen,M .D., F.A .C.S.— A Friend to H um anity,” Bulletin (Sept.23,1940),2. 19. The training program w as firstproposed by the VocationalD ivision of the D epartm entofEducation and seem sto have been based on asim ilarinitiative in Puerto Rico.The program isfirstm entioned in the m inutesofthe association in 1953 (A A C§IV.1.9). Correspondence in the A A C confirm s the program ’s operation in collaboration w ith the public school vocational program ,the governor’soffice,and the H otelA ssociation.Itappears thatthe program w asunderfunded and thatm aterialsand instructionaltim e w ere donated by the association.W ith the resignation ofthe program ’scoordinatorE.Leonard Brew erin February 1956,the program appearsto have evaporated.Thirty-tw o students graduated on February 27,1956,representing a slightincrease over the tw enty-eightw ho graduated in 1955 (A A C§IV.2.53–54). 20. A n undated flyer(A A C§V.1.11)advertisesalaterassociate-degree program atthe College ofthe Virgin Islands in “H oteland ResortM anagem ent and O peration.” A dam s isdepicted on the cover w ith the college in the background.A n accom panying endorsem ent of the enterprise reads:“A D EG REE PRO G RA M in hoteland resortm anagem entoughtto upgrade the quality ofpub-

EditorialN otes to Pages 280–84 / 333 lic hospitality services throughoutthe Caribbean,as w ellas open doors to a profitable future for m any an am bitions young m an and w om an— A lton A . A dam s,Presidentofthe H otelA ssociation ofthe Virgin Islands.” The flyer is undated,butlikely from the 1960s. 21. Thissection on the presshasbeen inserted from an undated addressby A dam s,likely aradio scriptor atalk given to journalists(A A C§IV.3.31). 22. The tax ism entioned in the m inutes ofthe association’sfirstm eeting. In fact,fighting the tax seem sto be one ofthe inspirationsforitscreation.The “O rdinance to Provide A dditionalRevenues by Levying Certain Trade Taxes and Fees” w as signed by G overnor de Castro on July 5,1952,and the association’sfirstofficialm eeting took place tw o days later.A tthatm eeting the association drafted the follow ing press release: BillN o.136 ofthe Eighth M unicipalCouncilofSt.Thom as and St. John,w hich becam e law by the governor’ssignature on July 5,1952, im poses atax on allvisitors to St.Thom as and St.John w ho stop in licensed hotels;[resolved:]thatthislaw isvague,indefiniteand im possiblefor hotelsto conform to;thatitisim possibleto determ ine w hatistaxableand w ho shallpay the tax,as w ellas w hatright the hotelhas to enforce the paym entofthe tax upon itsguests. M ore im portant,the A ssociation believes thatthisisaserious blow to the grow ing touristindustry ofthe islands and thatthe am ount thatcould possibly be collected by the Councilw ould be $10,000 and thatm uch greater loss and danger to the w ell-being ofthe peopleof the Virgin Islands w illresultthan the loss resulting from the w orst hurricane disaster thatever hitor m ighthitthe W estIndies.Furtherm ore,thatthe law isdiscrim inatory and thatthe yield ofthe tax isso sm allthatitw ould be m ore econom icaland practicalfor hotels to pay the tax than for the A ssociation to engage Counselto com bat thislaw w ere itnotfor the factthatthisissue isso vitaland so param ountto every aspectofthe econom y and w ell-being ofthe people ofthe islands thatitisthe duty ofthe A ssociation,and as citizens,to fightthislaw to the bitter end so thatthe hum blepeopleofthese islands m ay notbe cheated by w hatlooks like an easy tax to collect from visitors and tourists.[A A C§IV.1.2] A copy ofthe tax billand correspondence betw een the association and itslaw yer are preserved in A AC§IV.1.44.The association w as involved in severalother legalissuesconcerning theW age H ourA ctand the m inim um w age (arguing for relief in cases of em ployees w ho received tips),as w ell as the creation of an InnkeepersLaw thatw ould lim itliability in casesin w hich aguestdied. 23. Beginning in 1953,the association held an annualbenefitcostum e ball to celebrate the anniversary ofitsfounding.The firstballw as held A ugust19 atthe Virgin IsleH otel.The idea forthe benefitappearsto have been A dam s’s, and he served as chairm an ofthe firstorganizing com m ittee (“M inutes,” July 13,1953,A A C§IV.1.3).

334 / EditorialN otes to Pages 284–90 24. D ivorce provided significant business to the hoteliers on the Virgin Islands,as the Virgin Islands (along w ith Indiana,N evada,and South D akota) offered so-called divorce havens,w here couples living in m ost areas of the U nited States in w hich divorce w as illegal or difficult to obtain,could visit, qualify for residency,and legally divorce.Typically the w om an ofthe couple took up residency.In the Virgin Islands the residency requirem ent w as six w eeks, and valid grounds for divorce included sim ple “incom patibility” (“U nvexed Caribbean,” N ew York Tim es [A pril6,1947],X14).W hile A lton v. A lton w asdism issed in 1954 asm oot,Virgin Islandsdivorce law w asvoided by the Suprem e Courtin 1955.See “CourtVoids‘Q uickie’Law on Virgin Islands D ivorces,” N ew York Tim es (A pril12,1955),1;and H endrik H artog,M an and W ife in A m erica:A H istory (Cam bridge, M A : H arvard U niversity Press, 2000). 25. A program forthe 1953 Carnivalthatisheld atA M RIsuggeststhatthe revivalbegan in 1952 and w as indeed sponsored by the touristindustry. 26. A n earlier version ofthislistappears in a1970 speech given by A dam s upon hisretirem entaspresidentofthe H otelA ssociation.A yetearlierversion presented to the Rotary Club ofSt.Thom as on June 4,1970,included am ong the contributions the revivalofthe Virgin Islands Carnival,the creation ofa M issVirgin Islands pageantto selecta contestantfor M issA m erica,and the association’sradio program s.These have been inserted into the com prehensive listpresented here (A A C§IV.3.22). 27. Thisconcluding paragraph w as adapted from a speech given by A dam s overW BN B-TV on A pril1,1970 (A M RI).

editorial m ethods 1. Sylvia Stipe,“A lton A dam s,Sr.,Plans M em oirs to H elp,” (St.Thom as) W eekly Journal(June 7,1973),14. 2. Thisgrantapplication survives only in part(A A C§V.1.10).

Selected Bibliography

The editor offers these citations of w orks by and aboutA lton A ugustus A dam s,Sr.,as guidance for further reading and research.The listreflects the state of know ledge aboutA dam s’s activities as of the publication of these m em oirs and should notbe considered definitive.

w ritings by alton augustus adam s,sr. N ovem ber 1,1915.“M endelssohn’s O ratorio ‘St.Paul’ and the Rev.J.E. W eiss.” The H erald (St.Croix)1:1,p.1. N ovem ber 8,1915.“Is M usic Strong beyond Its Pow er to Please? W hat Is There ofA bsoluteU se in M usic? I.M usicaH um an N ecessity,oraN eedless A ccom plishm ent?” The H erald (St.Croix)1:7,p.3. N ovem ber 13,1915.“O rigin ofthe Banjo.” M usic in The H erald (St.Croix) 1:12,p.3. N ovem ber 20,1915.“The N egro and M usic:H arry T.Burleigh,Renow ned N egro Baritonist.” The H erald (St.Croix)1:18,p.3. N ovem ber 24,1915.“N egro Folk-Songs.” The H erald (St.Croix)1:20,p.3. D ecem ber 4,1915.“The Value ofM usicTheory to the M usic Student.” The H erald (St.Croix)1:30,p.3. D ecem ber 23,1915.“Sam uelColeridge-Taylor— A n A ppreciation.” The H erald (St.Croix)1:6,pp.2–3 (reprintofarticlefrom The D om inant). M arch 1916.“The Band.” Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:3,pp.68–69. M arch 1916.“The Flute.” M etronom e,p.47. A pril1916.“The Band.” Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:4,pp.67–68,70–71. M ay 1916. [U ntitled colum nist’s introduction.] The Band, Jacobs’ Band M onthly 1:5,pp.56,58–60. June 1916.“O n O rganizing a Band/Studies in Rhythm .” The Band,Jacobs’ Band M onthly 1:6,pp.70–77. July 1916.“Tune and Tone Practice/Studies in Rhythm .” The Band,Jacobs’ Band M onthly 1:7,pp.79–82.

335

336 / Selected Bibliography A ugust1916.“The Selection/Biography ofM r.Fred Lax.” The Band,Jacobs’ Band M onthly 1:8,pp.78–84. Septem ber 1916.“M usic— A n A ppreciation.” Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:10,pp. 68–71. Septem ber1916.“A Talk on the H istory and TechnicofBand Instrum ents,The Clarinet/H arm onics/The Crescendo.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:9, pp.78–84. O ctober1916.“A Rem ark/Band Instrum ents— H istory and Technic,N o.2:The Flute or Piccolo/Flute Rom ances.” The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:10, pp.79–84. N ovem ber 1916.“Band Instrum ents— H istory and Technic,N o.3:The O boe Fam ily/The Value of M usic Theory to the M usic Student.” The Band, Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:11,pp.75–80. N ovem ber 1916.“Behind the Scenes in M usic Life.” Jacobs’ Band M onthly 1:11,pp.82–83. D ecem ber1916.“H istoricalM usicG leanings.”Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:12,pp. 28–30. D ecem ber 1916.“M odern H elps to M usicStudents:The M usicM agazine,the Correspondence System ofM usicalInstruction,the Talking M achine and Pianola or Piano Player/Band Instrum ents— H istory and Technic,N o.4: The Sax Fam ily and the Saxophone.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:12, pp.70–73,84–87. January 1917.“A N ew Year’s Talk to Band Leaders and Bandsm en/Band Instrum ents— H istory and Technic,N o.5:The BassetH orn,the Tenor and the PedalClarinet.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:1,pp.69–73,80. February 1917.“Band Instrum ents— H istory and Technic,N o.6:TheTrum pet, the Cornet/A s Regards the M etronom e.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:2,pp.70–73. February 1917.“The EducationalValue ofM usic.” Jacobs’Band M onthly 1:2, pp.84–86. M arch 1917.“Band Instrum ents— H istory and Technic N o.7— The French H orn/The Band on Parade.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:3,pp.70–75. M arch 1917.“H istoricalM usicG leanings:The M usicofthe G reeks(continued from D ecem ber issue).” Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:3,pp.25–26,86–87. A pril 1917.“Band Instrum ents— H istory and Technic:N o.8— The Saxhorn Fam ily.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:4,pp.68–72. A pril 1917.“H istorical G leanings of M usic:G reek M usic (continued from M arch issue).” Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:4,pp.29–31. M ay 1917.“Som ething aboutthe Flute:The W ood versusSilverand the O pen versus Closed G Sharp/Teaching by M ail/M r.G ustave Langenus and the Langenus Clarinet School/Band Instrum ents— H istory and Technic N o. 9— The Trom bone.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:5,pp.78–86. M ay 1917.“The Virgin Islands:The D anish W estIndies N ow Included in the U nited States ofA m erica.” Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:5,pp.65–69. July 1917.“A W ord about Conducting/Teaching by M ail:M r.H .A .Vander Cook and H isSystem ofBand and O rchestra D irecting by M ail.”The Band, Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:7,pp.58–62.

Selected Bibliography / 337 A ugust1917.“Teaching by M ail:M r.Eby and the Virtuoso CornetSchool.” The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:8,pp.58–62. Septem ber 1917.“H istoricalM usic G leanings:G reek M usic (continued from the A prilissue).” Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:9,pp.10–11,66–68. Septem ber 1917.“Q ueries.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:9,pp.58–60. O ctober 1917.“A Talk to A m ateur Bandsm en on Preparedness.” The Band, Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:10,pp.58–62. N ovem ber 1917. “H istorical M usic G leanings.” The Band, Jacobs’ Band M onthly 2:11,p.66. D ecem ber 1917.“A W ord aboutJacobs’M onthlies.” The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:12,pp.60–62. January 1918.“H istoricalM usicG leanings.” Jacobs’Band M onthly 3:1,pp.4, 6,8. January 1918.“A Talk to A m ateur Bandsm en on D uty and D iscipline.” The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 3:1,pp.64–66. February 1918.“A n A ppeal for H igher M usicianship am ongst Bandsm en/A N oted W est Indian Singer [Philip G om ez].” The Band, Jacobs’ Band M onthly 3:2,pp.50–51. M arch 1918.“In the Class Room :Lesson N o.1— Intervals.” Jacobs’ Band M onthly 3:3,pp.50–53. A pril1918.“In the ClassRoom :Lesson II— The Scale.”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 3:4,pp.74–77. June 1918.“In the Class Room :Lesson N o.3 (continued from A prilissue).” The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 3:6,pp.80–81. July 1918.“A re You Thorough?” Jacobs’Band M onthly 3:7,pp.54–56. Septem ber 1918.“In the Class Room :Lesson N o.4 (continued from June issue).”The Band,Jacobs’Band M onthly 3:9,pp.8,10,12. N ovem ber1919.“A M usicalM eandering.”Jacobs’Band M onthly 4:11,pp.16, 24,30. February 1920.“W hitherA reW e D rifting?”Jacobs’Band M onthly 5:2,pp.16, 20,22,24,26. A pril1921.“Concerning M usicLiterature.”Jacobs’Band M onthly 6:4,pp.86–87. M ay 1921.“Band ofthe Palace:Port-au-Prince,H ayti.” Jacobs’Band M onthly 6:4,pp.73–74. 1922.“M usic[Curriculum ].” In Course ofStudy for the Elem entary Schools ofthe Virgin Islands ofthe U .S.A .(G rades Ito VI,Inclusive).Educational Bulletin N o.2.U S V I:D epartm entofEducation. A pril1924.“SelfH elp in Playing the Flute.” M etronom e,p.77. Septem ber 18,1924.“En Route w ith the N avy Band of the Virgin Islands.” Clipping from The Bulletin (St.Thom as).A A C Scrapbooks. Septem ber 1925.“Playing and Caring forYour Flute.” M etronom e,p.22. Septem ber 1926.“A Talk on the Sociologicand A esthetic.” M etronom e,p.45. M arch 1927.“The M aking ofaConductor.” M etronom e,p.26. O ctober 1929.“M usic A ppreciation— A n A ppeal for Its Study.” M usic Bulletin,pp.8–15,17. 1934.“Corrections and O m ission in M r.Roberts[sic]‘U nw ritten M usicH istory.’” D aily N ew s(St.Thom as),O ctober 9,p.3,and O ctober 10,p.3.

338 / Selected Bibliography 1934.“Letter to the Editor.” D aily N ew s(St.Thom as),O ctober 12,p.5. 1953.“W hence Cam e Calypso.” Virgin Islands M agazine 8,pp.35,52,57,63, and 72. A pril 12,1960.“A ddress D elivered in the Em ancipation G arden by A lton A dam son the O ccasion ofthe O bservance ofthe 43rdYearsince the Transfer ofthe Virgin Islands.” H om e Journal,pp.2,4–5. A pril4,1971.“D edicated to the M em ory ofJPS,Leading Bandm aster ofH is Tim e.” Focus [Sunday new spaper m agazine from unidentified paper],pp.6, 14. n.d.“The Contribution ofthe N egro to M usic.” Pittsburgh Courier (undated copy held in A A C). n.d.“N oted Bandm aster A sked W hy Should W e Segregate O urselves M usically.” Pittsburgh Courier (undated copy held in A A C).

m usical com positions by adam s 1909 orearlier.“M oving D ay.”Location unknow n;m ay have been destroyed in 1932 fire. 1910.“H .M .S.IngolfM arch.” Location unknow n;m ay have been destroyed in 1932 fire. 1912.“D oux rêve d’am our valse pour piano” (Sw eetdream oflove w altz for piano).Colum bus,O H :BurtM .Cutler. 1914 or earlier.“A .J.B.M arch.” Location unknow n;m ay have been destroyed in 1932 fire. 1919.“Virgin IslandsM arch.”Jacobs’Band M onthly 3:10 and Jacobs’O rchestralM onthly,O ctober. 1921.“The G overnor’sO w n” (m arch).N ew York:CarlFischer;reprint,1964. 1924.“The Spiritofthe U.S.N .” (m arch).Boston:Cundy-Bettoney,1925. 1925–26?“Sw eetVirgin Isles” (for voice and piano). n.d.“BullPassin’” (band arrangem entofaW estIndian bam boula). n.d.“Caribbean Echoes” (w altzserenade for band). n.d.“Childhood M errim ent.” (w altzfor band). n.d.“W arbling in the M oonlight” (for solo piccolo and band).

recordings of adam s’s com positions “The G overnor’s O w n.” Recorded by Colum bia Band for the Colum bia G raphophone Co.1923.(A series #7579),M x.90627. “The G overnor’s O w n Cerem onialM arch” (side A )and “The O fficialVirgin Islands M arch” (side B).Recorded by the G oldm an Band under the direction of Richard Franko G oldm an and distributed as a noncom m ercial “Sem icentennialSouvenir.” 1967.45 RPM ,#V I82567. “The G overnor’sO w n.” The Pride ofA m erica:The G olden A ge ofthe A m erican M arch.N ew York:N ew W orld Records,1976.LP N W 266;CD 80266. “Spiritofthe U.S.N .” Recorded by the Black M usic Repertory Ensem ble.In Black M usic:The W ritten Tradition. Chicago: Center for Black M usic

Selected Bibliography / 339 Research,Colum bia College,1990.D istributed by College M usic Society. LP CBM R001.

w ritings about adam s “Bandm asterA dam s from Virgin Islands.” M etronom e (July 1922)57. “Bandm aster A lton A dam s H onored Posthum ously.” St. Thom as Source, M arch 25,2006. “A Band’sBirthday.” Jacobs’Band M onthly 2:7 (July 1917). Benjam in,Linda W hite.A lton A .A dam s.St.Croix,U S V I:CRIC Productions, 1987.Children’sbook based on interview s w ith A dam s. Clague,M ark.“A lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr.” InternationalD ictionary ofBlack Com posers,vol.1.Chicago:Fitzroy D earborn,1999.Pp.9–16. — — — .“Instrum entsofIdentity:A lton A ugustusA dam s,Sr.,the N avy Band of the Virgin Islands,and the Sounds of Social Change.” Black M usic Research Journal18:1–2 (Spring–Fall1998):21–65. Cuthbertson,Clarence R.“The FirstBlack U.S.Bandm aster.” Virgin Islander (D ecem ber 1979):43–45. Floyd,Sam uel.“A lton A ugustus A dam s:The First Black Bandm aster in the U nited States N avy.” Black Perspective in M usic5:2 (Fall1977):173–87. G iglioli,A rturo.“A lton A .A dam s.” Jacobs’ Band M onthly 1:6 (June 1916): 29–30. Jones,Patrick M .“A H istory oftheA rm ed ForcesSchoolofM usic.”Ph.D.diss., M usicEducation D epartm ent,PennsylvaniaStateU niversity,2002. Lew in,A ldeth.“A m erican Bandm astersA ssociation Recognizes V ICom poser Posthum ously.” The A vis(St.Croix),M ay 11,2006.P.5. M cKay,O gese T.N ow ItCan Be Told:A n A utobiography.St.Croix:O gese T. M cKay,1991.Contains criticalcom m entson A dam s and unique reportsof lifein the navy’sSt.Croix bands. M oolenaar,Ruth M .“A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr.:M usician,Com poser,Educator,Entrepreneur,St.Thom as,1889–1987.” In Profiles ofO utstanding Virgin Islanders, 2nd edition. St. Thom as, V I: D epartm ent of Education, G overnm entofthe U.S.Virgin Islands,1992.Pp.1–2. M orris,Ayesha.“Legacy ofV.I.Bandm aster Thrives despite Facing Racism .” D aily N ew s,M ay 11,2006.P.4. Schlesing,Tanyaa.“A lton A dam s:A PointofView ” A ll-A h-W ee 1:3 (1977): 28–32.A rticlebased on interview s w ith A dam s. Seltzer,Frank R.“Fam ous Bandm asters in Brief:A lton A .A dam s.” Jacobs’ Band M onthly 5:7 (July 1920):18,20–22. “Success ofA lton A dam s,U SN .” M etronom e (O ctober 1921):63. Thom as,D ale.“A lton A ugustusA dam s:O ne ofthe Best-Know n M usicians of the U.S.Virgin Islands.” JournalofBand Research 41:1 (Fall2005):30–41. “U S N avy Band of Virgin Islands Is on Tour.” M etronom e (Septem ber 1924):75. “Virgin Islands Band Visits U S and H as Success.” M etronom e (O ctober 1924):67.

340 / Selected Bibliography “Virgin Islands N avy Band— Program .” M etronom e (January 1926):37. W hite,Lucien H .“In the Realm ofM usic:A lton A dam s Is O nly Race Bandm aster in U.S.N avy.” N ew York A ge35:36 (M ay 27,1922):5. W oods,Edith deJongh.“H ouse on KongensG ade W asH om e toA lton A dam s.” D aily N ew s,July 25,2003.Pp.26–27.

film s Title unknow n.Credited to governm entofthe Virgin Islands by ESC (Educational Service Corporation),w ith Robert Pierce Film s,Inc.(W ashington, D C),n.d.Copy held in A A C.Thisbrieffilm contains footage ofA dam s discussing the history ofhisband.

Index

Illustrations are in italic. A BA .SeeA m erican Bandm asters A ssociation A costa,Julio (com poser),70 A dam s,A lthea A ugusta(daughter), 38,314n27,figure 8 A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Jr.(son),xii, 295n15,314n27,figure 8 A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr.:apprenticeships of,6,65–67,303–4n6; birth of,6,35,299n1 (ch.2);black m usicians’portraitssentto,figure 12;childhood of,2,30,35–46;children of,314n27;as civicleader,8, 104–9,123 (see also publicschool m usicprogram ;H erbertD.Brow n’s discussion w ith,167–69;Red Cross; St.Thom as Pow erA uthority;St. Thom as PublicLibrary;Virgin Islands H otelA ssociation);death of, 10;D uBoiscom pared to,1,2–5;as econom icdeterm inist,1–2,263, 286;education of,6–7,38–39,47, 53–59,299n46,304n9;fam ily history of,30,35–42,300n7;fam ily of, figure 8;ashistorian,11,175–86; hom e of,destroyed in fire,195–96; honorary doctoratereceived by,figure 15;influences on,5,6,84–85, 304n7,figure 1;Lindbergh visitand, 158–59,161–62;localfocus of,1;

m arriage of,104,313–14n26;paternalism ,6;pro-A m erican sentim ents of,92,175;race relations as view ed by,3–5,268–69,294n11;radio addresses of,276–78,332n18;religious background of,39,300n7, 313n26;scholarship lacking on, 10–11;w riting as socialtoolfor,17 A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr.— com positions:Bluebeard’sCasketscore, 211;“Childhood M errim ent:Valse Caprice,” 197–98,323n16;“D oux rêve d’am our:Valse pour piano,” 83;“IngolfM arch,” 76,82–83;m anuscriptsdestroyed in house fire (1932),9,196;“M oving D ay,” 306n17;“Sam Polo,” 129;“Spiritof the U.S.N .,” 8,111,128,150; “Sw eetVirgin Isles,” 149;w elcom e song for Eleanor Roosevelt,202; “W elcom e to the President,” 204, 324n25;w orldw ide perform ances of,8.See also “G overnor’sO w n, The”;“Virgin Islands M arch” A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr.— governor’sw elcom ing coordinator, figure 14;A dam s Bulletin interview s and,233,241–42;M illay visit,187,214–15;Roosevelt (Eleanor)visit,187,202–3,324n24;

341

342 / Index A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr. (continued) Roosevelt(Franklin)visit,187, 203–4,322n2,324n25;SS A m erica visitors,242–48;V.I.N avalBand reorganization and,254;W ilder visit,187,226–27 A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr.— journalist:A dam s’sw elcom ing responsibilities and,233,241–42;beginning of career,86,89;on com m unity-press relations,280–83;influence on m em oirs,17;Lindbergh visitand, 161–62;m usicarticles w ritten by, 109–10,119–22,145–47,303n4; opportunities opened by,61;Trujillo visitand,233,236–39.See also Bulletin,The;Jacobs’Band M onthly; St.Thom asTim es A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr.— m em oirs,10;A dam s’sw ork m ethods, 286,289–90;as analyticalm em oir, 13;editorialm ethods,287–91;gaps in,13,61;as historicalm em oir, 12–13;m ain sources for,288–89; m ain them es of,11;racial/ethnic tensions m inim ized in,11;racism as depicted in,13–16,318n9;reasons for w riting,11–13,21–22;V.I.identity crisisin,16,21 A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr.— U .S. N avy bandm aster,7–8;appointm entof,94–95;as disciplinarian, 97;objectives of,96;philosophy of, 97–99;position as view ed by,74,77, 98–99;posthum ousA BA m em bership granted to,298n40;post-tour (1924)job offers,157,320n23;practice routine established by,97, 312–13n16,328n23;press coverage of,95–96,118–19,140;retirem ent of,9,187,198;sea duty requirem entw aived,111,168;St.Croix bands organized by,100,313n20;as youngest,312n12.See also U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands entries

A dam s,A nitaH enrietteW ilhelm ine (sister),300n10 A dam s,A nne A ugusta(grandm other), 37 A dam s,Clare (sister-in-law ),195, 300–301n11 A dam s,Edna A ugusta(sister),39, 300n9,301n12,figure 8 A dam s,Eleanor Evangeline (daughter),314n27 A dam s,Ella(née Joseph)(w ife),figure 8;A dam s’sfather cared for by,36; birth of,314n26;fam ily history of, 314n26;house fire and,195;m arries A dam s,104,313–14n26;religious background of,39,301n13,313n26 A dam s,Elm o (nephew ),300–301n11 A dam s,Enid A ugusta(daughter), 314n27,figure 8 A dam s,G w endolyn M arie(daughter), 314n27,figure 8 A dam s,H azelA ugusta(daughter),9, 187,195,197–98,314n27,323n12 A dam s,H erbert(nephew ),301n11 A dam s,Jacob H enry (father),65;birth records for,300n7;as carpenter,figure 1;culturalrefinem entof,40;as disciplinarian,35,36–37,38;on D onastorg incident,69;em ployer of,299n3 (ch.2);atJuvenileBand’s firstconcert,308n25;m usicalabilities of,45–46,244–45;stroke suffered by,35–36,299n3 (ch.2) A dam s,Julien Zeitzem ar (brother), figure 2;in A dam s JuvenileBand, 75,94;birth of,39,300n9;death of, 300–301n11;house fire and,195, 196;m usicalabilities of,75;retirem entof,198;asV.I.N avalBand assistantbandm aster,127,figure 7 A dam s JuvenileBand,figure 2;age range in,307n19;com m unity influence of,77–78;firstpublicappearance,76,308nn25–26;founding of (1910),7,61,74–76,245,306–7n18; hurricane (1916)im pacton,82; m em bersof,314n28;m usicinstruc-

Index / 343 tion in,75,76–77;significance of, 61;sponsorship of,75–76,82;St. Croix appearances of,79–80;U.S. N avy induction of,7,8,93–96,245, 312n13;U.S.N avy induction of, com petition for,311–12n11 A dam s,M erleA ugustina (daughter), 187,194,314n27,323n8,figure 8 A dam s M usicResearch Institute (CharlotteA m alie,V.I.),287–88 A dam s,O lyve Valentine (daughter), 314n27,figure 8 A dam s,Petrina Evangeline (née D inzey)(m other),37–39,70, 300nn7–8 A dam s,Rita(niece),301n11 A dam s 1799 G uestH ouse,265–72; A dam s hom e converted into,9,263, 265;architecture of,265–66,331n4; closing of,10;fam ous guestsand visitors at,263,266–72;press coverage of,331n2;profitability of,263; significance of,in localhoteleconom y,332n16;asV.I.H otelA ssociation m em ber,275–76 A ddison,Joseph,121 A dvisory Councilfor the Virgin Islands,210 A erialExpress Com pany (San Juan, Puerto Rico),160 A frican A broad,The(Ferris),113 A frican A m ericans:dualidentity of,3; navalappointm entsas m usicians,7; V.I.N avalBand tour (1924)and, 123–24,318n17;W estIndian blacks as view ed by,318n14,331n10 A frican m usicalidiom s,62,194–95 A fro-A m erican Folksongs(Krehbiel), 195 A fro-Spanish m usicaltraditions,72 A ggerholm ,L.P.,78 agriculture,26,224 A griculturalExtension Service,209 A .H .Lockhard & Co.,144 A irde ballet(N em ours),151 airport,222,284 A lard,Jean D elphin,304n10

A lderm an,A rm er,137 A lexander,A rchieA .,279 A lexander,Joseph,229–30,310n2 “A lexander’sRagtim e Band” (Berlin), 243–44 A lexis(grand duke ofRussia),211 A ll-A h-W ee(studentm agazine),4 “A llA lone” (Berlin),244 A llen,Bob,219,324n18 A lton A .A dam s Scholarship,285 A lton v.A lton,284,334n24 A m brose,D aniel,figure 13 A m erican Bandm astersA ssociation (A BA ):A dam s denied m em bership in,14–16,126–27,310n35,318n9; A dam s granted posthum ous m em bership by,298n40;founding of, 14,126 A m erican H otel& M otelA ssociation, 284 A m ericanism ,108–9 A m erican Library A ssociation,105, 106 A m erican M onthly,267 A m erican W estIndian Benevolent Society,134 A m erican W ind and Percussion M usic,10 A m erica,SS,242–43,248,250 A nderson (teacher),54 A nderson,G .J.,154–55 A nderson,M arion,figure 15 A nglo-Caribbean,16 A ntares,U SS,222 A ntigua,166–67,189 A ntigua M agnet,166–67 A pollo Theater (St.Thom as),44, 148–50,199,313n24 apprenticeship system :A dam s’sexperience in,6,65–67,303–4n6;discipline in,24,60;education through, 59–60;native artisan class and,32, 32n A rbor D ay,179 A rizona,U SS,191 A rm itage,G eorge W .,242,243 A rm y and N avy M usician,109

344 / Index A rnold,M atthew,25,299n2 (ch.1) artisans.Seenative artisan class arts,the,culturalrevitalization and, 24–25 A shley,Sylvia,216 A sians,3 A ssociated N egro Press,10 A ssociated Press,10,208,281 A udain,G eorge E.,192 A udain,Lew is,54 A uld (N avy dredger),217 autobiography,16 Aviation Com pany (San Juan,Puerto Rico),159–60 A xel(prince ofD enm ark),83, 309n31 Baa,Enid M .,190,227,315n30 Bach,Johann Sebastian,26 Back to A frica m ovem ent,5,269 Baer,Eli,205,206–8,218 Baker (U.S.N avy lieutenant),159 Balsey,A .H .,254,329n26 Baltim ore Sun,199 bam boula,62,135,303n2 Bandini,Lavinia,44 bandm asters:rank of,in navy bands, 296–97n22;roleof,74,77,98–99 bands,as m usicalentities,83 Barbados,166 Barentzen,Louis,78 Barnet,Reuben,274 Bartók,Béla,325n35 Barton,Lee,206–7 Baruch,A lfred,211 Bastian,A da,134 Baynes,Benjam in,272 Bazey,W ilford,66,72 Beethoven,Ludw ig van,5,26 Behagen,H ans,57,78 Bellite(clarinetvirtuoso),42 “Bengie” (St.Croix streetcharacter), 82 Benjam in,G ertrude,54 Benjam in,RitaA dam s (niece),301n11 Benter,Charles,296n22 Berlin,Ellin M ackay,243,244,246

Berlin,Irving (songw riter),11,233, 242,243–45,246,247–48 Berne,Em ileA .,237 Berne,G erald,273 Berolzheim er,Philip,134–35 Best,O liver (navy m usician),329n26 Bethesda School,54 Bible,26 BillH R 2270,155 BillH R 4933,155–56 BillH R 10865,156–58 Billy the Kid (film ;1941),251 Bingham ,H iram ,III,152–53,158 Birth ofa N ation,The(film ;1915), 123 Bishop,H ans,135 Blackbeard’sCastle,264 Black Cosm opolitanism ,4–5 black diaspora,4–5,318n14 black m iddleclass,30,128.See also native artisan class black nationalism ,6 Black Panthers,294n11 Black Pirate,The(film ;1926),320n14 Bloom ,Sol,242,243 Bluebeard CastleH otel:construction of,204;fam ous guests/visitorsat, 226,237,243,247–48;lease bidding on,209;opening of(1934),187, 209–10,213;as Pearson project, 187,213;Rooseveltvisitsto,204, 324n24;success of,224;as tourist resort,330n1;asV.I.H otelA ssociation m em ber,274 Bluebeard’sCasket(stage play), 211–13 Bluebeard’sTow er,210–11,248,264, 325n35 Blyden,Edw ard,5 Bo,Jim m ie,264 BoerW ar (1899–1902),41 Boissevain,Eugen,214–15 Bolling,A rnold (“Scrippy”)(navy m usician),329n26,figure 9 Bonelli,Raphael,94,314n28 Boreham ,D onald,204 Bornn,D.Victor,191,228

Index / 345 Bornn,H ugo,106 Boston (M ass.),8,135–37 Boston Chronicle,139–40 Boston Com m ons,135 Boston G lobe,331n2 Boston G uardian,135 Boston N avy Yard,135 Boston Sym phony O rchestra,135; Ensem ble,81 Boston U niversity Law School,235 Bottesini,G iovanni(bass virtuoso),42 Bough,Ralph,310n2 Boy Scouts,181 Braithw aite,Christopher,17 Brazilian Band,305n14 Breedy,J.O .(navy m usician),329n26, figure 9 Brew er,E.Leonard,332n19 Brew er,M ariaCharlotte,197 Bridge ofSan LuisRey,The(W ilder), 226,227 BriefH istory ofthe Virgin Islands (Jarvis),176,177–79,311–12n11 Bright,Richard,116,130,131,132, 152 Brindisde Salas,Claudio José,5,45, 266 Brisbane,O w en,270,271 British Virgin Islands,77,79 Brønsted,37 Brooklyn (N .Y.),137 Brow,C.T.,310n2 Brow n,Boyd J.,190 Brow n,G eorge,295n20 Brow n,H arrietConnor (M rs.H erbert D.),170 Brow n,H erbert(band m em ber),94, 173,329n26,figures 7,9 Brow n,H erbertD.:A dam s’sm eeting w ith,167–69;Evans and,183; H oover’sV.I.visitand,322n4; im pacton A dam s’scareer,141,188, 201;localpublicopinion of,170, 200;navalw ithdraw aland,171, 188;Pearson and,193;atPearson’s inauguration,190;V.I.budget deficitsinvestigated by,141,167–69

Brow n,Jam es,94,198,figure 7 Brow n,O m ar,257,figure 13 Brow n,W .H .C.,317n2 Brym n,Tim ,133 Bulletin,The:A dam s assum es proprietorship of,233,235–36;A dam s editorialsin,57–59;A dam s interview s for,233,239–40;as firstSt. Thom as new spaper,236;headquarters ofm oved,236;on localconcerts/recitals,146–47,149–50,166; on navaladm inistration achievem ents,189–90;on navalw ithdraw al,171;operations suspended, during W W II,253;on self-study, 57–59;Sixto articles in, 302–3nn9–10;on V.I.N avalBand concerts,166 Burleigh,H arry T.,112,133 Burnet,Justin,57 Burnette(cabinetm aker),52 Burnham ,Forbes,25,299n3 (ch.1) Bussler,Ludw ig,146 Byron,G eorge G ordon,Baron (Lord Byron),40,41–42 Callw ood,A nna,54,301n20 calypso,61 Cam pbell,A lbertA ngus,12,27,53 Cam us,Raoul(historian),10 CaneelBay (St.John),265 CaneelBay Plantation (St.John),250, 251–52,274 Canegata,D.C.,79,80,82 Canéz,M adam (teacher),54 capitalism ,native artisan class and,31 Captain H uston (dredge boat), 217–18,325n43 Captain Rokos(G reek steam er),172 Carib Beach H otel,272 Caribbean A utobiography (ed. Paquet),16 Caribbean Com m ission,270–71 Caribbean region:G erm an subm arine attacks in,253;race relations in, 3–4;V.I.N avalBand toursin, 102–3,166–67

346 / Index Carim are,U SS,198 Carlton Ave.YM CA (N ew York,N .Y.), 134 Carlyle,Thom as (w riter),117,316n48 Carnegie,A ndrew,58 CarnegieFoundation,314–15n30 CarnegieH all(N ew York,N .Y.),67 Carnival,61,78–79,285,334n25 Caroline(chartered yacht),215 Carr,EstelleCoffee,112 Carruth,A lice Vance,194 Carver,G eorge W ashington,5 Castillo,Ernesto del,44 CathedralofA llSaintsChurch,32 Catherine,SS,205 CatholicChurch,22,39,44–45,48, 50,78 Center for Black M usicResearch,xii, 10,287 CentralPark (N ew York,N .Y.), 125–26,figure 10 Cervantes,M iguelde,26 Chabert,Ralph de,310n2 Chalm ugra oil,181,322n7 Chandon,Captain,241 Chapm an,Raphael,94 Charleston N avy Yard,147 CharlotteA m alie(V.I.):A dam s hom e destroyed in fire,195–96;A dam s JuvenileBand in,7;D anish vs.U.S. N avy periods,figure 4;epidem icsin, 35;native artisan class in,30,31,33; pro-A m erican sentim entin,91; publiclibrary in,8.See also Em ancipation G arden CharlotteA m alieA uditorium ,266 CharlotteA m alieH igh School,222 Charlton,M elvilleW .(organist),133 Chautauqua Circuit,192–93,199,227 Cherubin,A .,72 Chevalier,Joseph,238 Chevalier,Louisa Ercine,238–39 Chevalier,Pina,239 Chicago (Ill.),318n17 Childers,Lulu Vere,114 “Childhood M errim ent:Valse Caprice” (A dam s),197–98,323n16

children:apprenticeship system and, 24,59–60;curfew law and,49 Childs,Thursdaon,211 Chopin,Frédéric,129,154 Christensen,H ein,274,275–76,284 Christensen,Viggo,204,223 Christiansen (doctor),177–78 Christiansted (St.Croix,V.I,),100, 162,163,225 Christiansted IndustrialBrass Band,80 Churchill,W inston,253 clarinet,A dam s learns to play,7 Clarke,H erbertL.,8,84,111 Clarke,H ugh A .,67,73,76,92 class,social,27;identity and,4;in Virgin Islands histories,11–12.See also native artisan class cleanliness,23–24,49,156 Coage,Jefferson S.,317n2 Colcord,Joanna,105,210 Coleridge-Taylor,Sam uel,112,148, 297n25 College ofthe Virgin Islands,47, 332–33n20 ColonialCouncilofSt.Thom as-St. John,154–55,162,201,223,317n2 ColonialCouncils,152,302–3n10, 311n11 colonialism ,V.I.identity and,16 Colorado,U SS,147 Colum bia (cruise liner),265 Colum biaCollege Chicago,287 Com m ercialH otel(St.Thom as), 42–44.See also G rand H otel Com m unism ,5,6 Com m unity Band,191,202 com m unity-press relationship,280–83 Com tesse etM arquis(N em ours),146 conquest,V.I.identity and,16 Constitution,U SS,135 ConventSchool,54 Conw ay,Patrick,8 Cook County (Ill.)BarA ssociation, 235,327n1 Coolidge,Calvin,111,128,147,155 Coolidge,Calvin,Jr.,318n11

Index / 347 Cooper,Susanne,300n7 Corneiro,Conrad,78,190 Cornelius,H enry M .,133 cornet,A dam s learns to play,7 correspondence study,47,55–56, 57–59,299n46,304n9,314n28 cosm opolitanism ,1,4–5;as D anish legacy,23,26–27;as prescription for V.I.“identity crisis,” 21;trade and, 21,40–41 Cossacks,248 Cram er,Law rence W .,190,220, 222–23,224,248 Cream er,H enry,133 Creque,Cyril,193 CrisisM agazine,118–19,268 Crisisofthe N egro Intellectual,The (Cruse),6 Cruse,H arold,6 Cuba,41,139,194.See also G uantánam o Bay Culebra (Puerto Rico),168 Cullen,Countee,270 culturalrevitalization,22–23,24–27, 29;St.Thom asTim esfoundation and,106 culture,defined,25,299n2 (ch.1) Cum m ings,H om er,205,206,216,220 Cundy-Bettoney Com pany,65 Cuney-H are,M aud,135–36,141, 147–50,294n10 Curaçao,240 curfew s,24,49 Curw en,John,75,307n21 D aily N ew s,The,52,276,288, 306–7n18,313n20 dance m usic,329n26 dances,ofVirgin Islands,62,129,135 D aniel,Cyril,83 D anish ColonialCouncil,27,32,45, 62,106 D anish Landsting,87 D anish W estIndiaCom pany,88 D anish W estIndies,1,6;adm inistrative records of,12–13;artisan population in,34;beneficiallegacies of,

23–24,33,91;com pulsory education in,48–52;cosm opolitanism of, 26–27;culturalrefinem entof, 25–27,42–46;curfew in,24,49; D anish claim ing of,210;econom ic im pactofW W I,86,87;education, 47;English as business language of, 37;as paternalistic,13;racialtolerance in,22,27,294n6;slavery abolished in,2,27;trade regulations in, 31–32;transition to U.S.navalgovernance,177–78,182,185–86;U.S. purchase of,7,17,91–93,168; vagrancy law s in,24.See also apprenticeship system ;education,in D anish W estIndies;native artisan class;Virgin Islands D avenport-Euberg,M arie,310n35 D avis,Jam es J.,128 D avis,M orris,206,324n28 D avis,W illiam H .,128,130 D eBuggenom s,Father,54 de Castro,M orris,204,228,268, 333n22,figure 13 D eficiency A ppropriations Bill,258–62 de G aulle,Charles,241 D eJongh,John,178 D e Koven,Reginald,103 D elem os,H alvor,94 D elerm e,Enrique (“Coco”),72 D elhon,Caroline,300n7 D ell,Thom as,274,278,283–84 deLugo,A ntonio,78 de Lugo,Ron,79 dem onstrations,206 dengue fever,189 D enm ark:G erm an occupation of (1940),252;native artisans schooled in,32;publiceducation in,47–48; slavery abolished by,2,27;St. Thom as claim ed by (1666),210; U.S.purchase ofVirgin Islands from ,7,87,91–93,168;V.I.Press A ssociation invited to,252;V.I.visitors to,253.See also D anish W est Indies D enver,U SS,147

348 / Index dependability,23,31 D etroitN ew s,213 D ett,R.N athaniel,112 D eutscher Sport(rubber canoe),164 developm ent,controlof,22 D evil’sIsland,escapees from ,240–41 D eyer,Jessie,181 D ickens,Charles,26 D ies,M artin/D ies Com m ittee,234, 255–57,259,262 D illy’sH all,83 D im itriD onskay (Russian cruiser), 211 D ing’sA lley,56,302n7 D inzey,A rchibald (uncle):A dam s as apprentice to,60;asA dam s’sgodfather,300n7;children of,301n14; culturalrefinem entof,17,40;influence on A dam s,17,40;m usical abilities of,46;religious background of,46 D inzey,A rchibald,Jr.(cousin),301n14 D inzey,Eldred (cousin),46,301n14 D inzey,Evelyn (cousin),46,301n20 D inzey,Isabella(aunt),40 D inzey,Petrina Evangeline.See A dam s,Petrina D inzey (m other) D inzey fam ily,37,39–40 discipline:in A dam s fam ily,36;in A dam s JuvenileBand,76–77;in apprenticeship system ,60;as D anish legacy,21,23–24;ofnative artisan class,30,33;parental,need for, 36;in schools,49;threatto,from “m indless barbarians,” 29;in U.S. N avy Band,97,312–13n16 divorce,hotelindustry and,334n24 D ohanos,Steven,248–50,328n17 D om inant(m usicjournal),109,317n5 D om ingo,A lphonse,94 D om inican Republic,40,236,239.See also Santo D om ingo D onastorg,U lderique,304n10 D onastorg fam ily,68–70 D orsch,FredericD.,228–29 D orsch Resolution,228–32 doubleconsciousness (D uBois),3,4

D ougherty,Rom eo L.,111,118–19, 125,133,152 D ouglass,Fannie,114 D ouglass,Frederick,5,115 D ouglass,Joseph H .,112,114 “D oux rêve d’am our:Valse pour piano” (A dam s),83 D ream ofA frica,A (Laye),176,321n1 droughts,169 D ryshock,Felix,146 D uBois,Shirley,268 D uBois,W .E.B.:A dam s com pared to, 1,2–5;A dam s friendship w ith,263, 269,294n10;A dam s m eetings w ith, 3;death of,269,331n9;as guestat A dam s guesthouse,266,268–69; influence on A dam s,5;press coverage of,118–19;race relations as view ed by,3,4,268–69 D uer,A lice,242,243 D unbar,PaulLaw rence,5 D unbar,Ralph,193,194 D unbar H igh School(W ashington, D.C.),114,117 D unbarTheater (Philadelphia,Pa.), 138 D unbavin,A delaide,54 D unlop (teacher),54 D unne,Irene,251 D utch Reform ed Church,39,48n D uurloo,Cassilda,78 Earle,Ralph,153,154 EastA siaticSteam ship Com pany,265, 309n31 EastPointM arine Station,178 EastW eym outh (M ass.),136 ÉcoleN orm alede M usique (Paris, France),214 econom icdeterm inism ,1–2,263,286 E.D elerm e (im porter),76 Edrington (D istrictCourtjudge),190, 205 education,1;discipline and,49;of native artisan class,41,47;as path to equality,6;self-study,55–59;of slaves,2;transform ative pow er of,

Index / 349 4;in Virgin Islands,153,178,182, 189 (seealso publicschoolm usic program ) education,in D anish W estIndies: apprenticeship system ,59–60; budgetary appropriation for,51;as com pulsory,47–48;correspondence study,55–56,57;m usiceducation and,111;privatereligious schools, 47,48,48n,50,52–55;public schools,47,48–52;quality of, 51–52,86,182;racialintegration in, 52–53;secularization of,51 Edw ards,Judge,190 Edw ard V II(king ofEngland),121 egalitarianism ,33 electricity,272–74 EleniStathatos(G reek ship),240, 327n7 Ellington,D uke,5 Elsa,M iss(ice cream parlor ow ner), 56–57 Elskoe (union m em ber),310n2 Em ancipation G arden (Charlotte A m alie,V.I.):A dam s JuvenileBand concertsat,7,78,93–94,308n25; band perform ances at,305n14; bandstand at,295n18;Caribbean Com m ission lecture at,270–71; guestband concertsat,150–51; location of,311n9;nam ing of, 311n9;officialreceptions at, 164–65,191,324n25;Trench m em orialservice at,154–55;V.I.N aval Band concertsat,96,100,111,124, 142,165,265,329n26,figure 5;V.I. N avalBand farew ellconcertat,173 Em ancipator(new spaper),321n5 Em den (G erm an cruiser),166 Em erson,Ralph W aldo,26,54,75 Enid Baa Library (St.Thom as), 314n28.See also St.Thom as Public Library epidem ics,35 Estornel,Theodore,78 Estornell,A im ee,317n49 Etude(m usicm agazine),67

Europa (m otor ship),215 Europe,Jam es Reese (bandleader), 157,320n23 European culturalinfluence,61,62 EvangelicalLutheran Church,39,46. See also Frederick Evangelical Lutheran Church Evans,Lew isH arris,175,176 Evans,Luther,175,182–84 Evans,M rs.W aldo,170,190 Evans,W aldo,184;appointed V.I. governor,155;com petence of,as governor,178–79,181,183,186; H erbertD.Brow n opposed by,169; H oover’sV.I.visitand,322n4; inauguralspeech,155–56,320n21; Lindbergh visitand,158–60;local popularity of,170,178,189–90; resignation of,169–70;atsuccessor’sinauguration,190;V.I.N aval Band tour (1930)and,166;visiting bands and,166 Fairbanks,D ouglas,187,215–16, 320n14 Fairchild,A rthur,224,245–46,247 Farley,Jam esA .,216–17 FederalA rtProject,328n17 FederalBoard ofParole,220 FederalCom m unications Com m ission (FCC),258,261 FederalH ousing A dm inistration (FH A ),220 FederalW orksA gency,248–49, 328n17 Fergueson (British official),269 Ferris,W illiam ,113 Ffrench,G ustave,78 Field,M arshall(Chicago businessm an),5 Fifteenth Infantry Regim entBand, 102 Figueroa,Jaim e (violinist),213–14, 325n38 Figueroa,José (violinist),213–14, 325n38 Figueroa Iriarte,D on Jesús,214

350 / Index Filipino Band ofthe U.S.S.G eorgia, 296n20 Finch,Earl(son-in-law ),314n27 Finch,Valentine A dam s (daughter), 314n27 firefighting facilities,195,323n12 Fisher,Carl,111,150 Fisk U niversity,A dam s honorary doctorateat,figure 15 flageolet,63,64,303n4 Flam boyantH otel,274,275 FleetN avalReserve,126 Flem ing,G .J.,134 Floyd,Sam uel,xi–xiv,10,287, 295–96n20 flute:A dam s as soloiston,102;A dam s learns to play,7,61,65–66,245; A dam s’sinterestin,63;A dam s’s reputation for,79,80–81;as European influence,62 FluteM ethod,81 folk songs,62 Fonseca,Ray,285 FortChristian,311n9 FortG reene Park (N ew York,N .Y.), 134 Francis,A lbert,60,65–66,303–4n6 Francis,M orris,94 Francis,Raphael,94 Francis,Rothschild,6,303n6,306n18, 317n2,321–22n5 Franco,Francisco,230 Franklin,Benjam in,5,58 Franklin,Cornell,271–72 Frazier,E.Franklin,271 Frederick D ouglass H ospital(Philadelphia,Pa.),138 Frederick EvangelicalLutheran Church,299n1 (ch.2),313–14n26 Frederik’sFort,210 Frederiksted (St.Croix,V.I.),100,162, 163 Freem an,Benny,329n26 Free M asons,34,45,71 French,H orton,169 Fungi(Schrader),17

G affney,J.R.,181 G aliber,H enry,94 G alli,Felipe,42 G ardin,J.,49 G arfield,Jam esA .,5,58 G arvey,M arcus,5,269,318n14 G asparoni(bass singer),44 G eib,A licia,317n49 G eorge,Lam bert,312n13,329n26 G eorge (tuba player),72 G eorgia,U SS,296n20 G ereau,A dolph,320n21 G erm any,92.See also N aziG erm any G IBill,299n46 G ibson,Charles H .,205 G ift,Ella,189–90,322n2 G iglioli,A rturo,44,78,141,145–46 G ilbertand Sullivan.See H .M .S. Pinafore G ilm ore,Patrick S.(bandm aster),81 G irod,G eorges,240–41 G leason,Eleanor,105 G lover (southern A BA m em ber),15 G olden,Edna,285 G oldm an,Edw in Franko (bandm aster),315n33,figure 11;A BA founded by,14,126;A dam s’sA BA m em bership application and,14–15, 127;death of,127;m usicarticles w ritten by,317n5;racialtolerance of,14,317n6;V.I.N avalBand tour (1924)and,125–26,317n6 G oldm an,Richard Franko (bandm aster,son ofEdw in Franko G oldm an), 10,315n33,figure 11 G oldm an Band,8,110,315n33,317n7, figure 10 G om ez,Conrad,94,329n26,figure 9 G om ez,Elvina,54 G om ez,J.Philip,106,130,193, 309n33 G ordon,Ernest,274,276 G ordon,G arnet,270 G ordon,Roy,257 G ordon,W alterA .,figure 14 G ottschalk,LouisM oreau,42–44

Index / 351 G overnm entH ouse,32,148,149, 161–62,170,203,204,225,243 “G overnor’sO w n,The” (A dam s),figure 6;Com m unity Band perform ances of,202;com position of,111; G oldm an Band perform ances of, 315n33;guestband perform ances of,150–51,166;LP recordings of, 10;rededication of,316n36,figure 14;Sousa influence on,8;Sousa perform ances of,310n34;w orldw ide perform ances of,8,166 G rafulla,Claudio S.,129 G raham ,Thom as,78 G rand A rm y ofthe Republic,136 G rand H otel(St.Thom as),78–79,100, 105–6,274.See also Com m ercial H otel G randm other Brow n’sO ne H undred Years(H arrietConnor Brow n),170, 321n41 G rant,H enry L.,117–18 G rant,Richard,128 G raphophone,144–45 G ray,Thom as,89 G reatBritain,34,253 G reatD epression,223 G reatLakes N avalTraining Station, 295n20,329n26,figure 9 G rebe,U SS,172,189 G reider,E.C.,106 G renada,269 G rim ké,A ngelina W eld,113 G rim ké,FrancisJ.,113–14 G rinnell(bandm aster),132,157 G rouzet,Charles,240–41 G ruening,Ernest,222 G rynszpan,H erschel,229,326–27n62 G uantánam o Bay (Cuba):A dam s leaves from ,after daughter’sdeath, 196–98;A dam s ordered to reportto, during W W II,253–54;farew ellcerem ony at,198;N avy’sfirstintegrated band at,233;V.I.N avalBand transferred to,9,141,172–74,187, 188;V.I.new spaperssentto,188–90

G uggenheim M em orialConcerts, 315n33 guilds,34 G uillo,Father,105 guitar:A dam s and,68–69,304n12; A dam s (Jacob)as guitarist,37, 45–46,63,244;as European influence,62 G uyana,25 habañera,68,135 H agem an,Rosa,79 H aiti,139 H all,A lton,312n13,314n28 H all,Stuart,16 H am burg (G erm an cruiser),150 H am burg-A m erican steam ship line, 87,138,265,318–19n18 H am ilton,A lexander,5,282 H am pton Institute,138,271 H am pton Roads (Va.),8,127–28 handicrafts,209 H andy,W .C.,5,figure 12 H ansen,A .,313–14n26 harbor,88,182 H arding,W arren,316n41 H arris,Frank,272 H arris,G eorge W .,137 H arris,O sw ald,257 H arrison,Pat,205,216–17 H arry Trum an A irport,284 H arvey,M ary,36 H arw ood,Charles,248,253–54,259, 329n26 H asselIsland (V.I.),142,143 H assell,H enry,78 H astie,W illiam H .,234,273,327n1 H aw ksnestBay,251 H ay,Ellen,54 H eaven’sM y D estination (W ilder), 227 H eins,Christopher,210 H ellfighters Band,320n23 H elw eg-Larsen,Lars Christian,80, 311n11 H em ingw ay,M r.and M rs.Philip,271

352 / Index H enderson,Kenneth,79 H enley,D aniel,240 H ennessey,Ronald (navy m usician), 94,138–39,figure 7 H errick,Robert,222 H estres,Santi,44–45,301n19 H eyligar,Bernardo,94,198 H isBrother’sW ife(film ;1936), 250–51 H istoricalA ccountofSt.Thom as, W .I.,A (Knox),12 H itler,A dolph,230,231–32 H .M .S.Pinafore(G ilbertand Sullivan),193–94 H oheb,Freddie(guitarist),66 H olland (W ashington businessm an), 130 H olocaust,327n62 H olst,A xel(banker),78 H olstein,Casper (H arlem business operator),133,137,152 hom e rule,224 honesty,23,49 H ood,Thom as,89 H oover,H erbert:Brow n’srelationship w ith,167,169;V.I.disparaged by, 190–91,228;V.I.navalw ithdraw al and,170–72,175,228;V.I.visitof, 190–91,322n4 H ope,D aisy,44 H ope,M iss(teacher),54 H orner,H enry,235 hospitals,177–78,182,189.See also Knud-H ansen M em orialH ospital hotelindustry,im portance of,286 H otelItalia,268 H otelTraining School,278–80,284, 332n19 H ough,H enry H ughes,130,181 housing,224 H ouston,U SS,204 H ouston Post,205 H ow ard,M iss(teacher),54 H ow ard U niversity,53,90,114,130, 234–35 H ughes,Langston,5 H ugo,Victor,54

hum anism ,27 H unt,H enry (“LittleRed”),329n26 H untt,Leslie,206–7 H urley,Patrick J.,191 hurricane (1916),61,82,86,92 hurricane (1932),194 H urston,Zora N eale,5 Ickes,H arold:Baer rem oved by,206–7, 218;Bluebeard CastleH otelopening and,213;D eficiency A ppropriations Billskirted by,262;D orsch Resolution prom oted by,230–32; Lovettand,255,257,258–59,262; M oore judiciary appointm entand, 234,327n1;Pearson and,187–88, 201–2,204–5,213,216,218,219; refugee plan cham pioned by,188; Tydings com m itteeand,220;V.I. visitof,222–25;Yates suspended by,208 Ickes,Raym ond,222 identity:black diaspora and,4–5; m em oirand,16–17;race vs.class,4. See also Virgin Islands“identity crisis” IllinoisCom m erce Com m ission,235 Inca ruins,research expeditions to,153 Indians,3 indigenous populations,extinction of,16 individualism ,33,54 industrialization,34,35 infantm ortality,182 Ingolf(ship),76,83,308–9n30 “IngolfM arch” (A dam s),76,82–83 InnkeepersLaw,333n22 integration,6 integrity,23 InternationalD ictionary ofBlack Com posers,10 Island ofthe Sea,A n (Taylor),211 Italian O pera Com pany,42–44 Iteines,R.,300n7 Jackson,D.H am ilton:A dam s friendship w ith,82,86,88–89;A dam s

Index / 353 JuvenileBand and,79;death of,88; H olstein and,137;influence on A dam s,5,89,90;judicialcareer of, 90;as labor leader,6,87–88,90, 310nn2,5;m arriage of,137;new spaper established by,86,88,311n6 Jackson,H ugo,134 Jacobs,W alter,304n7,309n33 Jacobs’Band M onthly:A dam s as band colum nistfor,7,14,65,83–84,109, 116,125,309n33;bound volum es of,destroyed in fire,196;establishm entof,309n33;on U.S.N avy Band form ation,95–96 Jacobs’O rchestra M onthly,309n33 Jam es,G eorge,134 Jam es,Julia,54 Japan,PearlH arbor attacked by (1941),253 Jarvis,J.A ntonio (historian),11, 101–2,175,176–80,311–12n11 jazz,61,233,243,313n22,320n23, 329n26 Jean Pierre (craftsm an),60,64–65,75, figure 1 Jefferson,Thom as,281 Jensen,Teddy,81 Jessye,Eva,figure 12 Jim Crow law s,1,2,123 John,W alter,figure 13 John Brew er’sBay,265 John Philip Sousa A rchives (W illow G rove,Pa.),150 Johnson (deacon),133 Johnson,Frank (bandm aster),297n28 Johnson,H enry Lincoln,130 Johnson,Jam esW eldon,114 Jones,Elizabeth,54 Jones,Sissieretta(soprano),5,44 Joseph,EllaEugenia.SeeA dam s,Ella Joseph,Ernestine D aniel(m other-inlaw ),314n26 Joseph,Julius (father-in-law ), 314n26 Joseph,PaulE.,319n1 JournalofN egro H istory,114 Justthe Beginning Foundation,327n1

K.C.Bay,265 Kean,H .,106 Kean,O .S.,105 Kearney,M artha,54 Kearney,W illiam ,271 Kerr,John H .,256 KesselsM usicalInstrum entFactory (H olland),76 Kessler,Sidney,272 Kim m elm an,H enry,274,283 King,M artin Luther,Jr.,331n9 King,W illiam ,200 King’sW harf,142,173–74 Kittelle,M ary,112 Kittelle,Sum ner E.W .,102,106,179 Kittery,U SS,138,139,142,171 Klepper Com pany,164 Knight,A lan John,25 Knott,Jam es,206 Know -It-A lls,58–59 Knox,John P.,12,32,33 Knud-H ansen,Knud,78,177–78, 202–3,277–78,332n18 Knud-H ansen M em orialH ospital, 276–78,284,332n17,figure 14 Kodály teaching m ethod,307n21 Koefferd (D anish bandm aster),83 Krigger,H enrietta(aunt),36 Kristallnacht,327n62 Kuzm a,Stephen,271–72 La Beet,Carl,245 LaBeet,Leonard,133 Lablanche (singer),44 Labor Law (1851),35 labor unrest,86 Lafranque,Leonardo,71,304–5n12 Lagarde,A lberto de,71 Lam b,D.,161 lancer (dance),62 Lanclos,H ubert,71–72,81 Lanclos,Rudy,191 Lane (assistantsecretary ofstate),129 Lange,Barthelom eo,45 Lange,G ustave,79,82,310n2 language skills,47 La N ina (biplane),160

354 / Index Larcom be,H enry C.,139 Larson,Rene (postm aster),82 La SalleExtension U niversity of Chicago,314n28 Latin culturalinfluence,61,62–63 Latins,3 Law son,H arold (archivist),12 Lax,Fred (flutist),80–81,129,308n28 Laye,Cam ara,176,321n1 Lazaretto building (quarantine),35 Leader,A m phlett,310n2 Leatherneck (M arines new spaper), 113 Le Clerc,G eneral,238 lectures,58 Leffe,Sebastian,54 Legacies ofU pstreet(M oolenar), 16–17 legalcode,178,181 Legislative A ssem bly,228–30,256–57 Legislature ofthe Virgin Islands,110, 315n34 Leon,A ugusteI.,78 leper colony,181 “Les Coeurs Sincères”A ncientFree and A ccepted M asons Lodge (St. Thom as),71 Leslie,A .H .,105 Levi,G eorge,78,163 Lew is,G ordon K.,175,176–77,179, 180 Libert,A .A .,329n26 Lightbourn,John N .(new spaper editor),78 Lightbourn’sM ailN otes,95,96, 308n26,312n11 Liguria (Italian cruiser),211 “Lil’M an” (St.Croix streetcharacter),82 Lincoln,A braham ,5,58 Lincoln,Shirley (archivist),290 Lincoln M em orial(W ashington, D.C.),dedication of(1922),14,114, 316n41 Lincoln School,54 Lincoln Theatre (W ashington,D.C.), 130

Lindbergh,CharlesA .(aviator),141, 158–63 Lindbergh Bay:draining of,187, 217–18,221,222,324n24;Roosevelt (Eleanor)visits,324n24;tourism prom otion of,265 Lindo,Isaac,66 LionelRobertsStadium ,143,figure 10 literature:A dam s’sinterestin,7,54; culturalrevitalization and,24–25, 26;native artisan class and,40,47 Lockhart,Eugene,129 Lockhart,H erbertE.,172 Long,Breckenridge,231–32 Lopez,Philip,94 Lorentzen,H jørt,87 LosA ngeles(Zeppelin),141,143–45 Louisenhoj(CharlotteA m alie,V.I.), 224,243,245–47 Lovett,M rs.RobertM orss,237,245 Lovett,RobertM orss:congressional attem ptsto cutsalary of,256, 258–62;G erm an refugees assisted by,231,257–58;H UA C investigation of,234,255–57;localsupport for,234,256–57,259;as special adm inistrative assistant,262;SS A m erica visitand,242;Trujillo visit and,236–37;asV.I.governm ent secretary,258–59 Loving,W alter H .(bandm aster), 296n20 Luchetti,Sosthenes,211 Luckner,Felix von,5,295n15 Lutheran Church,48 Lutheran m issionary schools,2 lynchings,1,123 M M M M M M M M

acoris(French steam er),213,214 adan,N adia,271 adrid Conservatory ofM usic,214 aduro,A lbert,273 aduro,Joseph,330n26 agen fam ily,245 agens Bay,265 agnificentO bsession (film ;1935), 251

Index / 355 M aine,U SS,147 m alaria,189,217,221 M alling-H olm (Red Cross representative),105 M allingholm ,Rosa,214 M alone,Esther,54 M anning,H enry Edw ard,53,302n4 m anum ission,27,311n9 M ardenborough (m erchant),78 M argetson,E.H .,133 M ark ofZorro,The(film ;1920),216 M arryshow,T.A lbert,263,269–71, 331n10 M artin,A rnold,94,198,314n28, 329n26 M artin,EleanorA dam s (daughter), 314n27 M artin,W ilhelm ina (aunt),36 M arvel,Evalyn,28 M ary’sPoint,251 m aterialism ,22–23 m aypoledances,143 m azurka,62 M cConney (schooladm inistrator), 52,54 M cIntire,RossT.,204 M cKay,Claude (w riter),5,270 M cKay,O gese T.,17,311n10,314n28 M cLaughlin,Charles,238,239 M cLean,John,66–67 m edicalservices,177–78,182,189 M edicus,Em il,304n7 M eier (G erm an bandm aster),150–51, 320n14 M elchior (D aily N ew seditor),276 m em oirs,identity and,16–17.See also A dam s,A lton A ugustus,Sr.— m em oirs M encken,H enry L.,267 M eridian H illPark (W ashington, D.C.),129 M erw in,John,285 M etronom e(m usicm agazine),67,109 M ew ton,A lfred,84 M eyers,M ary (teacher),38,47,53–54, 302n3 M ichael,Cyril,94,104,106,314n28

M ico Training College (A ntigua),53 M illay,Edna St.Vincent(poet),187, 214–15,226 M iller,Kelly,114,125,128,130 M iller,Valdem ar,78,200–201 M illin,Lucinda Sew er,54 m inim um w age,6,333n22 M iranda,Luis,102,118,129 M issElsa’sIce Cream Parlor,56–57 M issVirgin Islands contest,285 M itchell,Charles E.,124–25,137, 317n2 M olina Chevalier,Julia,238 “m onkey chasers,” 133,318n14 M onsanto,Eldra,190 M onsanto,Joseph,46,301n19 M onsanto,LouisM endez,164 M oolenaar,Ruth,1,16–17 M oore,Colonel,222 M oore,Fred R.,125 M oore,H erm an E.,234–35,327n1 M oore,M arieJohnson,327n1 M oorehead,G eorge A .,88 M orales,A ngelCelestino,44 M oravian Church,22,39,48,51 M oravian m issionary schools,2 M oravian Tow n School,38,50, 52,54 M orgenthau,H enry,242,246–47 M oron,A lonzo,271 M oron,Eduardo H .,78,211 M orris,W illiam ,318n11 m orrischairs,131,318n11 M ortensen (doctor),177–78 M osquito Bay.SeeLindbergh Bay m osquitoes,217,221 M oton,Robert,316n41 “M oving D ay” (A dam s),306n17 “M r.Jackass” (St.Croix street character),82 M ulcahy,FrancisP.,237 M unicipalBand,72–74,306–7n18, 311–12n11 M unicipalCouncil,265,272,333n22 M unicipalCourtofSt.Thom as, 314n28 M unicipalH ospital,202–3

356 / Index m usic:A dam s’sinterestin,6–7,61;as com m unity activity,116,194, 304n7;native artisan love of,42–46, 47;transform ative pow er of,1, 119–22 m usic,ofVirgin Islands,304–5n12; influences on,61,62–63 M usicalCourier,67 M usicalEnterprise,110 M usicalM essenger,110 M usicalO bserver,67 “M usic— A n A ppreciation” (A dam s), 119–22 M usicBox Revue,242 M usicBulletin,110 m usiceducation,86–87,142.See also publicschoolm usicprogram M usicLifeand H ow to Succeed in It, The(Tapper),116 m utualaid societies,34 m utualism ,33–34 N A A CP,295n20 N apoleon,238 N ase,D anielR.,105 N athaniel,Enrique,66,72 N ationalA rchives (W ashington, D.C.),12 N ationalA ssociation ofN egro M usicians,117–18 N ationalM usicW eek,142–43, 193–94,319n2 N ationalPersonnelRecords Center (St.Louis,M o.),295n18 native artisan class,6;A dam s childhood am ong,30,35–42,figure 1; apprenticeship system and,32,32n; cosm opolitanism of,40–41;cultural refinem entof,40,42–46;D anish regulation of,31–32;decline of,34; discipline of,30,33;education of, 41;egalitarianism of,33;em ancipation of,31,32–33;m odestlifestyle of,39;as m utualistic,33–34;outstanding m em bers of,34;prosperity of,32–33;slave rootsof,30–31;

upw ard m obility of,31–32;w orkm anship of,32,40 N ative Brass Band,72,295n18, 301n14,305nn13–14,306n17.See also M unicipalBand N avalA cadem y Band,297n22 N avalFleetReserve,9,198,233, 297n27,330n26 N avalTorpedo Station,147 N avy Band B-1,297n26 N avy Cerem onialBand,298n40 N avy D ay Parade,figure 5 N aziG erm any:Kristallnachtin, 327n62;refugees from ,228–32,257; SovietU nion attacked by,253;subm arine attacks by,253,327n7 N egroes,on D anish Colonial Councils,27 N ekoi,A m on,271 N elthropp,A lphonse,246 N em ours,A lfred (com poser),45,45n, 129,141,146–47,151 N erissa,SS,166 N ew ark Evening N ew s,28 N ew D eal,223–25,328n17 N ew England Conservatory ofM usic, 135 N ew Republic,258 N ew ton,Isaac,5 N ew York (N .Y.):black leaders in,8, 116–17;V.I.N avalBand tour (1924) in,8,125–26,132–35,137,317n7 N ew York A ge,125,296n20,317n4 N ew York A m sterdam N ew s,118,133, 151,161–62 N ew York H erald Tribune,28,171,191 N ew York N avy Yard,147 N ew York Tim es,206,322n2, 322–23n4,324n25,326n45 N ichols(landscaper),209 N ichols,N orrisB.,211 N icholson,M rs.P.O .,138 N icholson,Paludan O .,94,106,138, 314n28 N icolai(pianist),44 N ielsen (carpenter),252

Index / 357 N ies,A .,211 N issen,Johan Peter,32,62 N olte,Leroy,57,78 N on-Self-G overning Territories,18 N orfolk (Va.),127–28 N ow ItCan Be Told (M cKay),17 N w anko,Ifeom a Kiddoe,4 obeah,25 obedience,36 O dd Fellow s,34 O don,J.D.,240 O ffenbach,Jacques,325n35 O ld U nity Lodge ofSt.Thom as,36, 299n3 (ch.2) O liver,Benjam in,54 O liver,Jam es H .,93;as civilian governor,185;com petence of,as governor,177,180,181,186;atfirstV.I. N avalBand concert,100;localnavy bands and,313n20;on publiceducation system ,52;reporton V.I.conditions (1917),313n25;and V.I. N avalBand as rolem odel,103, 313n25;V.I.N avalBand establishm entand,94 O lym pio,Sylvanus,28–29,299n6 O m an,Joseph W allace,105,106,111, 178,180–81 “one soul” socialstrategy,4 O rbata,SS,240 O rdinance ofSeptem ber 30,1902,32n O rganicA ct(1936),184,305–6n15 O ulahan,Richard V.,322–23n4 O urTow n (W ilder),226,326n57 Padilla,Felix,78,84 Padro,D avid,197 Paiew onsky,Bert,figure 14 Paiew onsky,Isidor,287,288 Paiew onsky,Ralph M .,78,figure 14 Palm er InstituteofA uthorship (H ollyw ood,Calif.),299n46 Panam a Canal,34 Papiam ento,56 Paquet,Sandra Pouchet,16

Parker,Colonel,120 Parsons,Jam es B.,297n26 paternalism ,13 Patrick S.G ilm ore Band,81 patriotism ,108–9,181 Patti,A delina,42–44 Payne,Christopher,78 PearlH arbor,Japanese attack on (1941),253 Pearson,Barbara,199 Pearson,D orothy,190,202 Pearson,D rew,227;A dam s’srelations w ith,325n42;on Bluebeard Castle H otelopening,213;father’spoliticalproblem s and,200,201–2, 216–17;as guestatA dam s guesthouse,268;Ickes and,201–2;syndicated colum n of,199,202,219, 324n18;W ilson (T.W ebber) attacked by,216–17 Pearson,M r.and M rs.Leon,199 Pearson,PaulM .:A dam s’srelations w ith,199,323–24n17;appointed territorialgovernor,171,172;Bluebeard CastleH otelopening and, 209,210;as civilian governor,185, 227;congressionalinquiry into adm inistration of,218–20,326n45; criticsof,322n2;death of,227;on “divine discontent,” 224–25;educationalbackground of,227–28;inauguration of,as territorialgovernor, 190;M illay visitand,215;m usicas view ed by,194;politicalconflictsof, 187–88,200–202,204–9,216–17; projectsinitiated by,187,198,217, 221–22,228;replacem entof,as territorialgovernor,204,216,220–21; Rooseveltvisitsand,202,203; social/econom icproblem s inherited by,228;son’ssupportof,201–2; tourism prom oted by,265;tributes to,221,228;V.I.econom y and, 192–93,199–200 Peary,RobertEdw in,5 Peckham ,Captain,217–18

358 / Index Peffer,M r.and M rs.,209,210 Pelham ,M r.and M rs.G abriel,130 Perkins,Charles,78 Perkins,N im rod,295n20 Perrault,Charles,325n35 Perrym an,P.D ew itt,134 Peru,research expeditions to,153 Pétain,Philippe,241 Peter G.Thurland,Sr.(Thurland),17 Peterson,A lthea,38 Peter’sRestSchool(St.Croix),88 Philadelphia(Pa.):A dam s job offer in, 157;A dam s’sm usiceducation research in,115–16;racism in, 13–14;V.I.N avalBand tour (1924) in,8,13–14,130–32,137–38,243 Philippine Constabulary Band,296n20 Phillips,Betty,270 philosophy,culturalrevitalization and, 24–25 Piccioni,Victor,210–11 piccolo:A dam s as soloiston,166,173, figure 2;A dam s learns to play,7, 65–66 Pickering,A lbert,313n24,314n28 Pickford,M ary,216 Pillsbury Sound,251 Pittsburgh Courier,10,267,270 plantation econom y,native artisan class and,31 Plaskett,Raym ond,figure 13 Plunkett,A dm iral,134–35 pogrom s,248,326–27n62 pop m usic,61 postoffice m urals,248–50,328n17 Potter,A rnold,312n13 Pow ell,Lincoln,329n26 Praesident,SS,138,318–19n18.See also Kittery,U SS Pratt,W illiam Veazie,220 Prattis,P.L.,270 press freedom ,280–83 Pride ofA m erica,The:The G olden A ge ofthe A m erican M arch (LP),10 Priestly,J.B.,184,322n8 Prince,Blanche,134

privatereligious schools,47,48,48n, 50,52–55 Profiles ofO utstanding Virgin Islanders(M oolenar),16–17 Prohibition,181,322n4 Prokofiev,Sergey (com poser),266 PublicLaw N o.389 (U.S.V.I. governm ent),185 publiclibrary.SeeEnid Baa Library (St.Thom as);St.Thom as Public Library publicschoolm usicprogram :A dam s as supervisor of,9,111–12,187, 198;curriculum research for, 112–19,179;im plem entation of, 119,317n49;m usicappreciation em phasized in,119–22;M usic W eek and,142–43,193–94,319n2; navaladm inistration supportof, 181;press coverage of,118–19 publicschools,in D anish W estIndies, 47,48–52 PublicW orksA dm inistration,206–7, 223,224 PublicW orks ofA rtProject,328n17 Puerto Rico:civilian adm inistration of,168;congressionalinquiry into conditions in,152–53;cruise ships diverted from ,242;debateover A m erican activities in,41;hotel training program in,332n19; tourism in,272;V.I.N avalBand toursin,102–3,139;V.I.N aval Band transferred to,9,329–30n26 quadrille,62 quarantine station,178 Q uebec Line,264 quelbe,61 Q uestel,Bernard (son-in-law ), 314n27 Q uestel,Enid A dam s (daughter), 314n27 race/race relations:A dam s vs.D uBois view s of,3–5,268–69;m usicand, 61;in U.S.,3–4,14–16,123;in Vir-

Index / 359 gin Islands histories,11–12;V.I.vs. U.S.,302n9 racialtolerance:as D anish legacy,23, 27;as prescription forV.I.“identity crisis,” 21,27–29;in “Virgin Islands M arch,” 315–16n34 racism :A dam s’sA BA m em bership denialas,14–16,126–27,310n35, 318n9;as portrayed in A dam s m em oirs,13–16,318n9;during V.I. N avalBand tour (1924),13–14,128, 131–32;V.I.N avalBand tour (1924) coverage and,11;in Virgin Islands, 2,22,27–29,180,315n34 radio,58,129,132,263,276–78,281 ragtim e,233,243–44,313n22, 320n23 Ram fis(Trujillo’syacht),236,238 Ram sey,A rthur,94 Random H ouse D ictionary ofthe English Language,25 Rasm ussen,Johannes,250,252 Rath,Ernstvom ,229 Rebild Bakker N ationalPark (Jutland, D enm ark),252–53 Red Cross,8,104–5,106,111,181,253 Redem ptoristFathers,54 Red H ook,250,251 Reed,G eorge,72 refugees,228–32,257 reggae,61 Reilly,G .K.G .,254,255,329n26 Renaissance Casino (N ew York,N .Y.), 137 Rene,Victoria,54 Resolute,U SS,147 respect,23,36,49 revolution,6 Reynardo,Juancito B.,237 rhythm and blues,61 Richardson,Cornelius R.,317n2 Richardson,H enry B.,329n26 Richardson,N ellie,106,215 Richardson,W illiam H .(baritone), 141,148–50 Ridgw ay,G eorge,57 rights,respectfor,23,49

Riise,A .H .,70,71,72–73 Riise,W aldem ar,78 roads,178,181,182,189 Robert,A dm iral,241 RobertH errick School,247 Roberts,Jam es Chesterfield,53,54 Roberts,Lionel:as activist,6;A dam s rivalry w ith,73–74,306–7nn16–18, 311–12n11;biographicalsketch of, 305–6n15;M usicW eek activities of, 193–94;as N ative Brass Band bandm aster,72.See also M unicipal Band;N ative Brass Band Roberts,Lucille,247 Robinson,D oris,211 Robinsson,S.S.,171 Robles,Joseph,301n13 Robles,Luther,193 Rockefeller,Law rence,284 Rolland,Rom ain,24–25 Rollins,M ary L.,136–37 Rom er,Franz (G erm an adventurer), 163–65 Roop,Colonel,171 Roosevelt,Eleanor,187,202–3, 324n24 Roosevelt,Franklin D.:black judges appointed by,234;D eficiency A ppropriations Billand,260–61; G erm an refugee problem and,231, 232;H arw ood appointed V.I.governor by,248;Pearson investigation and,220;V.I.N ew D ealprojectsof, 223–24;V.I.visitof,187,203–4, 322n2,324n25;W W IIand,253 Roosevelt,Franklin D.,Jr.,204 Roosevelt,Theodore,203;D om inican custom s houses taken over by,239; influence on A dam s,5;V.I.N aval Band tour (1924)and,128,130, 137–38 Rosas,Juventino,102–3 Rose,M adam e (schoolhead teacher), 54 Rossini,G ioacchino,129 Roulet,H enri,240–41 Rousseau,Jean-Jacques,26

360 / Index RoyalA cadem y ofM usic(London, England),67 RoyalD anish N avy,308–9n30 RoyalM ailSteam PacketCom pany, 35,60 RoyalTheatre (M adrid),214 rum ,71,181,223 ruralschools,48–49 Ruskin,John,40,54,304n7 Russell,C.J.,150 Russell,M r.and M rs.Clarence,128 Russia,248 Saavedra,D avid,44 Sachem Estate,purchase of,265 “Sam Polo” (A dam s),129 San Cristóbal(Santo D om ingo), 238–39 sanitation,181,182,189 San Juan (Puerto Rico),102–3,242 San Juan Breeze,329–30n26 SantaCruz delM ar (Cuba),194 Santa M aria (biplane),159–60,161 Santelm ann,W illiam H .(bandm aster),8,112–13,118 Santo D om ingo,39–40,139 Saturday Evening Post,242,328n17 Scholten,Peter von (D anish governor),2,197,265,294n6,311n9 Schom burg,A rthur (historian),5,54, 302n6 Schon,Edith,72 SchoolofM usicalTheory (Carnegie H all,N ew York,N .Y.),67 schottische (dance),62 Schrader,Richard A .,Sr.(author),17 Schubert,Franz (com poser),99 Schuyler,G eorge (journalist),5,10, 267 Schuyler,Josephine,267 Schuyler,Philippa D uke (pianist),263, 266,267–68,figure 12 Scott,Cyril,304n7 Scott,Em m ettJ.,114,128,130,152 Sebastian,John,300n7 Sebastian,O liverre (navy m usician), 94,329n26

Sebastien,Elphege:band form ed by, 305n13;biographicalsketch of, 70–71;culturalrefinem entof,70, 71–72;house ofdestroyed in hurricane (1916),82;influence on A dam s,5,71–72,76;JuvenileBand serenades to,307–8n22;as Juvenile Band sponsor,7,61,75–76,308n26; N ative Brass Band organized by, 72–73;silentfilm s introduced by,78 Seeley,G eorge (navy m usician),138 segregation,6,9,14,15 Seitz,Ernest,129 Selective Service System ,246 self-study,55–59 Seltzer,Frank R.(bandm aster),84, 309n33 Sem edair,M iss(teacher),54 Shakespeare,W illiam ,26 Shalders,Victoria,54 sharks,264 shipping,27.See also harbor shipw recks,172 Silvia,SS,205 Sim m onds,E.D.,215 Sim on,Frank (bandm aster),14–15, 127 Sinclair,W illy,66 Sinnott,J.,134 Sixto,A dolph (“D ing”)(V.I.intellectual):A dam s self-study w ith,55, 56–57;culturalrefinem entof,56; influence on A dam s,5,17,47;JuvenileBand assisted by,78;localcriticism of,57,302–3n10;race relations as view ed by,184,302n9 Slater,Bob,133 Slattery,Jam es M .,327n1 slavery:D anish abolishing of,27;education and,2,48;native artisan class and,30–31;open system of,on St. Thom as,62;U.S.vs.Virgin Islands, 2;V.I.identity and,16 slum clearance,224 Sm idt,Erik (sea captain),210 Sm idt’sH ill,210 Sm ith,Kate(singer),244

Index / 361 socialism ,5,6 SocialistParty,87 Soirée de Berlin (N em ours),147,151 solfeggio,65,75,307n21 Sorensen,Lars (bandm aster),70 Souffront,J.H .(m erchant),78 Souffront,J.Percy,237 SoulsofBlack Folk,The(D uBois),268 Sousa,John Philip (bandm aster),111; A BA founded by,14,126;A dam s articles praised by,84;A dam s com positions perform ed by,8, 309–10n34;A dam s m usicpraised by,150;A dam s’sA BA m em bership application and,15,127,310n35; archives of,150;as com m issioned officer,296n22;influence on A dam s, 5,6,8,84–85,92,figure 1;racial em brace of,14,310n35;W anam aker Store (Philadelphia,Pa.)job offer and,157 Southern,Eileen,295n20 Southery,M SS,136 SovietU nion,253 Spanish A m erican W ar (1898),41 Speed (schooladm inistrator),52,54 Spenceley,R.C.,273 Spiller,W .N .,133 SpiritofSt.Louis(airplane),141,158, 160–61 “Spiritofthe U.S.N .” (A dam s),8,111, 128,150 spirituals,A frican A m erican,1 St.A dolphus G ram m ar School,54 Stanw yck,Barbara,250–52 Statendam (D utch cruise liner),209 St.Croix:A dam s JuvenileBand in,77; A dam s visitsto,81–82;agricultural econom y of,62,169,181,322n4, 324n28;Brow n supported in,200; Carnivalon,79;D anish acquisition of(1733),26;D evil’sIsland escapees sailto,241;droughtson,169;econom icneeds of,324–25n28;labor unreston,86,87,88;Lindbergh flyover of,162–63;navalbands organized on,100;Roosevelt(Eleanor)

visits,324n24;rum ,71,181;street dem onstrations in,206;as sugar colony,26;transition to U.S.naval governance,178;unionization on, 87–88 St.Croix A vis(new spaper),80,319n1 St.Croix G overnm entH ouse,225 St.Croix H erald:A dam s as m usic editor at,7,89;establishm entof, 88,311n6 St.Croix in A notherTim e(Schrader), 17 St.Croix M unicipalCourt,90 Steele,Freddie,78 steelpan,61 Stephens,M iss(teacher),54 Stew art,T.M cCants,113 Still,W illiam G rant,5 St.John:A dam s (Jacob)born on,35; agriculturaleconom y of,35;Caneel Bay Plantation,250,251–52; Carnivalon,79;econom icneeds of, 324n28 St.John School(Frederiksted,St. Croix),79 St.Joseph Society,34 St.Kitts,166,240 St.Louis,U SS,147 St.Lucia,166 St.M artin,37 St.M ary’sSchool,54 St.N icholas Park (N ew York,N .Y.), 132–33 Stone,Ellis,125,181,323n10 Stone,M rs.Ellis,194,323n10 strikes,86,88 St.Thom as:A dam s (Jacob)m oves to, 36;A dam s born on,6;A dam s JuvenileBand in,77–78;A dam s’spostretirem entlifein,9–10;band perform ances on,305n14;budget shortfallin,167–69;com m unity supportnetw ork on,61;cultural refinem entof,26–27,42–46;decline of,44;D evil’sIsland escapees sailto, 240–41;discipline on,23–24;diversity on,2;econom icim pactof

362 / Index St.Thom as (continued) W W I,86,87;econom icneeds of, 324n28;econom icprosperity of, 32–33,169;econom icrehabilitation plan for,211;firstnew spaper on, 236;G erm an adventurer’slanding on,163–65;history of,210–11;hospitality on,23;labor unreston,88; Lindbergh visitto,158–62;M arine airsquadron stationed on,221–22; m usicin,62–63;native artisan class on,30–31,34;pro-A m erican sentim entin,91;slavery on,62;street dem onstrations in,206;as sugar colony,26;tourism prom otion in, 265;as trade center,26,34,40–41, 86,87,91,180–81;transition to U.S. navalgovernance,178;transportation to,264;unionization on,88 St.Thom asA pothecary H all,70 St.Thom as Bulletin.SeeBulletin,The St.Thom as Cham ber ofCom m erce, 164,170,171–72,268 St.Thom as College,54 St.Thom as Com m unity Band, 313n24 St.Thom as CulturalCom m ittee,187, 214,248–50 St.Thom as D ock,Coaling,and Engineering Com pany,299n3 (ch.2) St.Thom as M ailN otes,160,172,192 “St.Thom as M ilitiaM arch” (Roberts),306n17 St.Thom as M usicCom m ittee,198, 323n17 St.Thom as N egroes(Cam pbell),12 St.Thom as Pow erA uthority,272–74, 276,284;A dam s as officer in,9,273, figure 13 St.Thom as PublicLibrary:expansion/renam ing of,314–15n30; fam ous visitorsto,215,227;founding of,8,86,105,181;opening of, 105–6;self-study in,58;U.S.naval adm inistration and,181.See also Enid Baa Library (St.Thom as) St.Thom as Reform ed Church,39

St.Thom as Subm arine Base,329n26, figure 9 St.Thom asTidende,236 St.Thom asTim es,8,42–44,106–9, 233,312n13 sugar plantations,26,223,322n4 Sw anson,Claude A .,200 Sw anson,G loria,242–43,245,246, 247 “Sw eetD ream ofLove” (A dam s),83 “Sw eetVirgin Isles” (A dam s),149 Sykora,Bogum il(cellist),263,266–67 Sykora,Julieta,266 Taft,W illiam H ow ard,316n41 Tallm an,H .,209,210 Tapper,Thom as (m usiceducator),5,8, 92,116–17,304n7,309n33 Taylor,Charles Edw in,23,211, 305n14 Taylor,Louis,94,312n13 Taylor,Robert,250–52 Teacher’sTraining College (A ntigua), 53,88 “Tears ofIsrael” (klezm er song),266 telegraph,41 telephone system ,272–74,284 television,281 Tennessee JubileeSingers,44 Terzi,Luisa,44 Thackeray,W illiam M akepeace, 40,54 Thiele,C.G .,178 Thigpin (N avy dredger),217 Thodes,D orcy,130 Thom as,A lberta,134 Thom as,Eliot,78 Thorsen,J.P.,78 369th black infantry arm y band, 320n23 thrift,23 Thurland,Peter (navy m usician),17 Tibesini(French tenor),44 Tiffany,Cyrus,295n20 Tim e and I;or,Looking Forw ard (Sixto),57 Tim m ons,C.C.,181

Index / 363 Tolstoy,Leo,26,108 TonicSol-Fa teaching m ethod,75, 307n21 Top H at(m usical;1935),244 Tortola,231,257–58 Tortolo Band,313n24 Totten,A shley L.,259 tourism ,in Virgin Islands:A dam s 1799 G uestH ouse and,265–72; A dam s w ork in,263–64;divorce and,334n24;econom icim portance of,263,283–84,285–86;facilities developed for,252,272;history of, 264–65;im pactof,2;infrastructure im provem entsfor,272–74,284; m inim um w age as threatto,6;role ofsm allhotelsin,272;taxes on, 272,284,333n22.See also Virgin Islands H otelA ssociation tourism ,U.S.,223–24 trade,86,123,180–81 Trade W inds H otel,272 TravelW eekly,283 Treaty of1867,87 TrebleClefClub,112 Trench,M artin E.:A dam s’srelations w ith,141;appointed V.I.governor, 147;career background of,147; com petence of,as governor,181; concertssponsored by,141,148–50; death/funeralof,154–55,188;governm enttransition prom oted by, 153–54,155–57,158;localpopularity of,151,156 Trinidad,166 trom bone,A dam s learns to play,7 Trotter,W illiam M onroe,135 Trujillo,Flor de O ro,237,238 Trujillo M olina,RafaelLeónidas,233, 236–39 Trujillo Valdez,José,238 Truss,Lieutenant,217 Tuskegee Institute,184 Tw ain,M ark,5 Tydings,M illard E.,206,218–20, 326n45 Tyson,G eorge,287,289

U nfinished Sym phony (Schubert), 99 unionization,6,87–88,310n2 U nited N ations,N on-Self-G overning Territories list,18 U nited States:artisan em igration to, 34;civilrightsm ovem entin,6; D uBoisand,1;entersW W II,253; N ationalM usicW eek in,319n2; N egro press in,151–52;Prohibition in,181;race relations in,3–4, 14–16;racialpolarity in,4;racism in,31n;stock m arketcrash in (1929),165;trade w ith,34;Virgin Islands purchased by,7,17,87, 91–93 U nited StatesA rm y,296n20 U nited StatesA rm y Field Band, figure 10 U nited States Bureau ofEfficiency, 141,167–69,171 U nited States Bureau ofN avigation, 147 U nited States Census,34,294n3, 300n7 U nited States Congress:Colonial Councilpetition for return ofnaval adm inistration,200–201;com m ission sentto investigateV.I.conditions (1924),124,317n2;D eficiency A ppropriations Billand,258–62; Lend-Lease aid to Britain,253; navaladm inistration and appropriations from ,184;Pearson adm inistration investigated by,218–20; tem porary governm entcreated by (PublicLaw N o.389;1917),185; V.I.citizenship passed by (H R 2270),155;reporton V.I.N aval Band (1920),101;V.I.N avalBand tour (1924)and,118,124–25;V.I. perm anentgovernm entbillpassed by (H R 10865),156–58;V.I.road im provem entsbillpassed by (H R 4933),155–56.See also specific branch U nited States Constitution,17

364 / Index U nited States H ouse ofRepresentatives:A ppropriations Com m ittee, 258;Com m itteeon InsularA ffairs, 156;D eficiency A ppropriations Bill and,260–61;Foreign A ffairs Com m ittee,242;Subcom m itteeon N avalA ppropriations,169;U nA m erican A ctivities Com m ittee, 234,255–57,259,262 U nited States Interior D epartm ent, 168,170–72.See also Ickes,H arold U nited States Justice D epartm ent,231 U nited States Labor D epartm ent,231 U nited States M arine Corps,221–22, 239;Band,100,112,118,297n25 U nited States navaladm inistration: achievem entsof,181–83,186,187, 189;“A nnapolism entality” of,180; as“arm y oftransition,” 186;as authoritarian,180;as civilian governm ent,184–86;civilian replacem entof,5–6,141,153–54,170–72; governors of,181–82;governors’ term s ofoffice,169;localpetition for return of,200–201;localrelations w ith,152,189–90,199–200; objectives of,93;as racist,11,175, 180,321–22n5;scholarship on, 175–76;social/econom icproblem s follow ing departure of,190–93, 323n12;social/econom icproblem s inherited by,182;St.Thom asTim es supportof,109;tourism and,265; U.S.black press criticism of,151–52. See also Evans,W aldo;H ough, H enry H ughes;Kittelle,Sum ner E.W .;O liver,Jam es H .;Trench, M artin E.;W illiam s,Philip U nited States N avy:A dam s discharged from ,263;black m usicians in,295–96n20;firstband ofcolor in, 296n20;firstintegrated band sanctioned by,9,297n26 U nited States N avy Band (W ashington,D.C.),296–97nn21–22 U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands,figure 3;A dam s (Julien)

joins,39;A dam s as soloistin,102; A dam s JuvenileBand inducted into, 7,8,93–96,245,312n13;A dam s leaves from ,196–98;break-up of, 187,198,328n23;Caribbean tours of,102–3,166–67;com m unity involvem entof,8,104–9,314n28; D uBoissupportfor,3;farew ellconcertof,173;ID cards for,13;induction com petition,311–12n11; integration of,233,figure 9;atlocal celebrations,162,164–65;localconcertscheduleof,100,141,142–43, 265,figure 5;m arriages in,314n28; m em bersof,94,312n13,329n26; m isunderstandings in,99–100; navaladm inistration supportof, 181;in N avy D ay Parade,figure 5; offshootbands,313n24;period of service in,296n21;philosophy of, 97–99;practice routine of,97, 312–13n16,328n23;press coverage of,142,166–67,173–74;propaganda value of,168;publicreception of, 101–2;reorganization of(1943), 254–55,313n22,328n23, 329–30n26,figure 9;repertoire of, 102,103,313n22,320n23,329n26; reputation of,101;resegregation of, 9,233–34;as rolem odel,313n25; rules of,103–4;salary,312n13;sea duty requirem entw aived,111,168; significance of,86,94;transferred to Cuba,9,141,172–74,187;transferred to Puerto Rico,9,329–30n26 U nited States N avy Band ofthe Virgin Islands,U.S.tour of(1924),8; Berlin’srecollection of,243;in Boston,135–37;D uBoissupportof, 268;in H am pton Roads,127–28;illnesses/deaths during,138–39;naval adm inistration supportof,124–25, 180;in N ew York,132–35,137, 317n7;officialtour photo,figure 7; in Philadelphia,130–32,137–38, 243;press coverage of,133–34, 139–40;racialbias and coverage of,

Index / 365 10–11;racistincidentsduring, 13–14,128,131–32;radio debut, 129;repertoire of,129;significance of,123–24,139–40;as tourism prom otion,265;in W ashington (D.C.), 128–30 U nited States N avy D epartm ent,111, 125,129–30,170–72,175 U nited States PublicH ealth Services, 172 U nited States Senate:A ppropriations Com m ittee,258–59;D eficiency A ppropriations Billand,259–60, 261–62;Territories Com m ittee,218 U nited States StateD epartm ent, 231–32 U nited States Suprem e Court,284, 334n24 U nited StatesTreasury D epartm ent, Section ofFine A rts,249,328n17 U niversalService,28 U niversity Extension Conservatory of M usic(Chicago,Ill.),67,304n9 U niversity ofChicago,257 U niversity ofPennsylvania,A dam s correspondence courses w ith,7, 67,76 U shigm ia(FederalBulldozereditor), 271 vagrancy law s,24 Vailet,Fred,figure 13 values,traditional,23–24,49,263 Vance,A uguste,57 Van den Bem den,Father,78 Vandercook,H aleA .,84 Van Patten (acting V.I.governor),155 Vasquez,H oracio,237,239 Verdi,G iuseppe,129 Vessup,M ary,54 Vett,CarlM .,67 Vialet,O ctavie,47,54 Vialet,Theodore,78 Vichy governm ent,241 Victoria,A uguste,45 VictorTalking M achine Com pany,145 Vietnam W ar,267

Virgin Islands:apprenticeship system in,6;artisan population in,34; beauty of,21,29;black population of,1,294n3;budgetshortfallin, 167–69;as Caribbean trade center, 123;Carnivalin,78–79;com peting econom icneeds in,324–25n28;culturalrefinem entof,147–51;as divorce haven,334n24;econom y of, 6,153–54,165,190–93,199–200, 263,317n2;education in,153,178, 182,189 (see also publicschool m usicprogram );electricalsystem in,272–74;firstairtravelto,141, 143–45,158–63;flag of,179;G erm an adventurer’slanding in, 163–65;governm entcreated for (1917),185;hom e rulein,224; H oover visitto,190–92,322n4; Ickes visitto,222–25;identity concerns in,16–18;im pactofU.S. tourism on,2;indigenous folksongs of,196;land planning for,169;legal code in,178,181;legallim bo of, 17–18;leper colony in,181;Lindbergh visitto,158–63;location of, 27;m edicalservices in,177–78,182, 189;m em oirgenre in,16–17;m usic in,243–44;population of(1930), 323n4;press services in,282–83; racialtolerance in,27–29;racism in, 2,22,180,315n34;as refugee haven,228–32;road system in, 155–56,178,181,182,189;Selective Service System and,246;socialjustice and econom icstrength in,2; statehood referenda defeated,18; telephone system in,272–74,284; territorialanthem of,10,110, 315–16n34;transition to civilian rule,153–54,155–57,158,170–72, 175,183–84,187;transportation to, 264;as U.S.territory,17–18,91–93, 155–56,168,320n21;w ater supply in,182,284;w hitehistories of,12. See also D anish W estIndies;native artisan class

366 / Index Virgin Islands CivicA ssociation,259 Virgin Islands ColonialCouncil,200 Virgin Islands Com m ission,124 Virgin Islands CongressionalCouncil, 137 Virgin Islands Cooperatives,209,224, 228 Virgin Islands Councilon the A rts, 289 Virgin Islands D aily N ew s,253.See D aily N ew s,The Virgin Islands D istrictCourt,205–6, 220–21,234–35,284,327n1 Virgin Islands from N avalBase to N ew D eal,The(Evans),176,182–84 Virgin Islands histories:racial/ethnic silences in,11–12;on U.S.naval adm inistration,176 Virgin Islands H otelA ssociation,263; achievem entsof,284–85,333n22; A dam s as charter m em ber of,9–10, 274,275–76,figure 14;A dam s’s retirem entfrom ,334n25;college hotel/resortm anagem entprogram endorsed by,332–33n20;costum e ballheld by,333n22;form ation of, 274;hoteltraining program of, 278–80,284,332n19;Knud-H ansen H ospitalbenefitof,276–78,284, 332n17,figure 14;m eetings of, 331–32n15;objectives of,274–75; officers of,274;participation in, 332n15;press relations and,280–83; scholarship offered by,285;tourism and,283–84 Virgin Islands“identity crisis”: A dam s m em oirsas response to, 16–17,21;native artisan class and, 30;prescription for,21;reasons for, 17–18 “Virgin Islands M arch” (A dam s): A dam s conducting,126,figure 10; G oldm an Band perform ances of, 126,315n33;rededication of,110, figure 14;second edition of,315n32; Sousa influence on,8;Sousa perform ances of,310n34;as territorial

anthem ,10,110,315–16n34;U.S. distribution of,315n32;U.S.M arine Band perform ance of,112–13;V.I. N avalBand perform ances of,102, 111,173,174;w orldw ide perform ances of,8,110 Virgin Islands M ocko Jum biestilt dancers,79 Virgin Islands PostO ffice,248–50, 328n17 Virgin Islands Pow erA uthority,263 Virgin Islands PressA ssociation, 252–53 Virgin Islands,The— A Caribbean Lilliput(Lew is),176 Virgin IsleH otel,272,274,276,278, 283,333n22 Vival,Luisa,54 V rede,Elton E.,Jr.,17 W W W W

age H ourA ct,333n22 all,Jessie,295n20 alter,Bruno,45 anam aker Store (Philadelphia,Pa.), 131,132,157 W ar of1812,295n20 W ashington,BookerT.,5,40,58,269 W ashington (D.C.):A dam s’sm usic education research in,112–15,117, 179;black leaders in,8;racism in, 14;V.I.N avalBand tour (1924)in, 8,14,128–30 W ashington,SS,248 W ashington H erald,220 “W ashington M erry-G o-Round” (syndicated colum n;D.Pearson and A llen),202,219,324n18 W ashington N avy Yard,147 W ashington Sentinel,140 W ater IsleH otel,274 w ater supply,182,284 W att,H arry,116,117,268 W att,Jam es,54 W CA P (radio station),129 W ebster’sEncyclopedicD ictionary,25 W einstein,A llen,271 W eiss(M oravian bishop),162

Index / 367 “W elcom e to the President” (A dam s), 204,324n25 W estIndiaand Panam a Telegraph Com pany,41 W estIndiaCom pany,264 W estIndian (G renada new spaper), 148,269 W estIndian Com pany,236 W estIndiaRegim entBand,72 W estSide TennisClub,191 W hite,Clarence Cam eron,112,142, figure 12 W hite,Lucien H .,133 W hite,M rs.W illiam Russell,93–94, 110,112 W hite,W illiam Russell,94;A dam s’s relations w ith,110;adm inistrative com petence of,181;A m ericanism instilled by,108;JuvenileBand inducted into N avy by,95,307n18; localnavy bands and,311n10;as O liver’saide,93;V.I.N avalBand tour (1924)and,125 W ho’sW ho in Colored A m erica (1927),313n26 W ilbur,CurtisD.,129–30 W ilbur,Ray L.,191 W ilder,Thornton (author),187, 226–27 W ilhelm sen,A lphonse,179 W ilkerson,G arnet,114,117 W illiam s,Earle,94 W illiam s,Edith,54 W illiam s,Frank,133

W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W

illiam s,G eorge W ashington,155 illiam s,Philip,142,144,179–80,181 illocks,H arold,310n5,311n6 ilson,Lucy,205 ilson,T.W ebber,205–6,216–17, 220–21 ilson,W oodrow,93,94,185 indt,D anielde,71 isem an,A lm ira,115 isem an,D anielE.,5,115,125,128 O O (radio station),157 oodcock,U SS,198 oodson,Carter G odw in,114 oodson,G eorge H .,317n2 orks ProgressA dm inistration (W PA ),217,328n17 orld M usicFestival(A ustria),214 orld W ar I,7,85,86,138,147, 321n5 orld W ar II,9,233,240,253,266 STA (radio station),263,276–78, 332n18 ym an,A nne,331n2

Yates,PaulC.,205,206,208,218–21 Yeppa,Louis,134,137 YM CA ,134 Young,Fannie,136 Youth and O pportunity (Tapper),116 Zachart,A delina,105 Zane,W .,181 Ziegfeld Follies,242,244 Zim m er,Paul,166

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