The Natural History of the Long Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1819-1820)

The Natural History of the Long Expedition to the Rocky Mountains 1819–1820 HOWARD ENSIGN EVANS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRES...

Author: Howard Ensign Evans

49 downloads 810 Views 13MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!

Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

The Natural History of the Long Expedition to the Rocky Mountains 1819–1820

HOWARD ENSIGN EVANS

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

The natural

History

of

THE LON G E X P E D I T I O N T O TH E ROCKY MOUNTAIN S

1819-1820

The natural Historu of THE LON G E X P E D I T I O N T O TH E ROCKY MOUNTAIN S f 1819-1820

HOWARD ENSIGN EVANS

New York Oxford O X F O R D U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

1997

Oxford Universit y Pres s Oxford Ne w Yor k Athens Aucklan d Bangko k Bogot a Bomba y Buenos Aire s Calcutt a Cap e Town Da r e s Salaa m Delhi Florenc e Hon g Kon g Istanbu l Karach i Kuala Lumpu r Madra s Madri d Melbourn e Mexico Cit y Nairob i Pari s Singapor e Taipei Toky o Toront o and associate d companies i n Berlin Ibada n

Copyright © 199 7 by Oxford Universit y Press , Inc. Published b y Oxford Universit y Press , Inc. 198 Madison Avenue , Ne w York , Ne w Yor k 10016 Oxford i s a registere d trademar k of Oxford Universit y Pres s All right s reserved . No par t o f this publicatio n ma y be reproduced, stored i n a retrieva l system, or transmitted , i n any for m o r means , electronic, mechanical , photocopying , recording , o r otherwise , without th e prio r permission of Oxford Universit y Press. Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Evans, Howar d Ensign . The natura l histor y o f the Lon g Expeditio n t o th e Rock y Mountain s (1819-1820) / by Howard Ensig n Evans, p. cm . Include s bibliographical references an d index . ISBN 0-19-511184-2—ISB N 0-19-511185-0 (pbk. } 1. Natura l history- Wes t (U.S. ) 2. West—Descriptio n an d travel . 3. Stephe n H. Lon g Expeditio n to the Rock y Mountain s (1819-1820 ) I . Title . QH104.5.W4E93 199 7 96-2665. 5 508.78—dc2 0 13 5 7 9 8 64 2

Printed i n th e Unite d State s o f Americ a on acid-fre e pape r

Contents

PREFACE v i

/ SETTIN 2 CAS 3 DOW 4U

G TH E STAG E 3 T O F CHARACTER S 1 N TH E OHI O 2 P THE MISSOURI 4

5 OVERWINTERIN G AT ENGINEE R CANTONMENT 6 6 NE 7T 8 EXPLORIN 9 DOW

i

W PLAN S AN D A NEW CAS T OF CHARACTER S 8 O TH E ROCKIES 9 G TH E FRONT RANG E 12 N TH E ARKANSA S 15

7 5 3 8 3 4 2 7

VI

CONTENTS

10 TH

E SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R 18

/ / EPIILOGU

(Appendix I

E 21

4 3

ANIMAL S (OTHE R THA N INSECTS ) DESCRIBED B Y THOMAS SA Y I N TH E ACCOUNT O f TH E LON G EXPEDITION, 1819—1820 2 3

4

Appendix I I INSECT S DESCRIBE D BY THOMAS SAY FRO M SPECIMEN S COLLECTE D ON TH E LON G EXPEDITION , I8I9—I820 23

8

(Appendix II I PLANT S NEWL Y DISCOVERE D AN D DESCRIBED FRO M TH E LON G EXPEDITION, 182 0 24

4

BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 5

1

INDEX 2 5

5

PREFACE

DRIVING ALON G INTERSTAT E 2 5 FROM LONGMON T t o Pueblo , Col orado, one scarcel y notices th e landscap e fo r the innumerabl e signs, advertising motels , restaurants , airlines , an d automobiles . Traffi c floods th e highway , especiall y i n Denver , Colorad o Springs , an d Pueblo: peopl e rushin g t o an d fro m work ; trucks carrying furniture, beer, foodstuffs , o r whatever ; recreationa l vehicles maneuvering t o an exi t tha t ha s a gasolin e station . Alway s the mountain s o f th e Front Rang e t o th e west , suggestin g place s les s nois y an d smog ridden, wher e dee r ru n an d trou t splash . Bu t eve n the y ar e criss crossed with roads and splotched wit h houses. The radi o tells of new industry, ne w jobs , ne w shoppin g malls , an d i n th e nex t breath , unabashedly, o f more pollution, mor e wate r problems. I t i s a world addicted t o th e growt h o f the huma n enterprise . Ye t a littl e mor e than 17 0 years ago—hardl y a moment i n th e cloc k o f history—th e land wa s empty of all but Indian s and th e plants an d game on whic h they subsisted . In 1820 , twenty-tw o men—militar y personne l an d "scientifi c gentlemen"—struggled alon g th e Fron t Range , livin g of f the land , recording river s and landforms , shooting birds , plucking plants, an d

V III

PREFACE

catching lizard s an d insect s t o preserv e fo r study . The y wer e ofte n thirsty an d hungry , sometime s ill , and alway s tired. Bu t their s was an experience awarde d to a chosen few, that of seeing and recordin g for th e firs t tim e a lan d neve r befor e visite d b y person s traine d i n European scientific traditions. This was the Lon g Expedition, a small party with a tight tim e schedule, launched wit h unrealistic goals and inadequate financial support by a government onl y reluctantl y com ing t o term s wit h th e vas t ne w land s tha t Thoma s Jefferso n ha d acquired i n 1803 . Their stor y has been tol d before , but withou t du e recognitio n of the contribution s o f the expedition' s naturalists , particularly botanist Edwi n James and zoologis t Thomas Say . They were the first to provide scientificall y acceptabl e name s an d description s o f plant s and animal s o f the Hig h Plain s an d th e Fron t Rang e o f the Rock y Mountains. I n a sens e the y ar e stil l there , wheneve r a waxflower (Jamesia) bloom s fro m a rock y crevic e o r a Say' s phoeb e (Sayomi s saya) snag s a fly from it s perch o n a fence post . To bes t appreciat e th e contribution s t o natura l histor y mad e by the expedition , i t is necessary to strip away (as I have done) man y details o f logistics , o f topograph y an d geology , an d o f experience s with th e Nativ e American s tha t make up so much o f the tex t of the original Accoun t of a n Expedition from Pittsburgh t o the Rocky Mountains, as prepared by Edwin James in 1823 . Those wishing to consul t the origina l repor t wil l fin d i t i n fou r volume s o f Reube n Gol d Thwaites's Early Western Travels, 1748—1846, and i n tw o volume s of Reade x Microprint . The y ar e availabl e i n man y libraries . Mor e recently, Maxin e Benso n edite d James' s Accoun t i n on e volume , From Pittsburg h t o th e Rocky Mountains, briefl y summarizin g some sections o f th e narrativ e an d leavin g ou t th e footnote s (man y o f which contai n natura l histor y observations) . Benson' s volum e in cludes many o f the sketche s an d paintings by Titian Peale (assistan t naturalist) and Samuel Seymour (landscap e artist); some are in color, and most wer e not include d i n the origina l report of the expedition . James's Account was "compiled fro m th e note s o f Major Long,

IX

PREFACE

Mr. T. Say , and othe r gentlemen o f the party, " as acknowledged on the titl e pag e (Jame s himself joine d th e expeditio n onl y durin g its second year) . Jame s mad e muc h us e o f his ow n unpublishe d diar y and o f Titian Peale' s diary , onl y par t o f which survived , eventually to be published b y A. O . Weese a s "Journal o f Titian Ramse y Peale, Pioneer Naturalist. " Thomas Sa y contributed i n importan t way s to the Accoun t and mad e man y reference s in hi s late r publication s t o sites where specimens had been collected. The Account also includes extracts from Stephe n H. Long' s report to Secretary o f War John C . Calhoun a s wel l a s appendixe s o f astronomica l an d meteorologi c records an d vocabularie s of Indian languages. Actually, Captai n Thoma s Biddl e wa s th e expedition' s offi cial journalis t during th e firs t year , bu t h e faile d t o kee p th e nec essary informatio n and lef t th e expeditio n afte r a fe w months. H e was replace d b y Captai n Joh n R . Bell , whos e informativ e journal was no t use d b y Jame s i n compilin g th e Account . Bel l wa s t o have submitte d hi s repor t t o Secretar y o f Wa r Calhoun , bu t i t evidently neve r reache d Calhoun' s office . Bel l die d i n upstat e New Yor k onl y fiv e year s afte r th e expedition' s return , an d hi s handwritten manuscrip t cam e int o th e possessio n o f a famil y tha t later move d t o California . Ther e i t wa s discovere d i n 193 2 b y Harlin M L Fuller, who, wit h co-edito r LeRo y R . Hafen , publishe d The Journal o f Captain John R . Bell. An excellen t revie w of this an d othe r expedition s le d by Ste phen Lon g i s presented i n Roge r L . Nichols an d Patric k L. Halley's book Stephen Long and American Frontier Exploration. Mos t recently , in Retracin g Major Stephen H . Long's 1820 Expedition, Georg e J . Goodman an d Cheryl A . Lawson retrace Long's route from th e Missouri to Fort Smith, Arkansas , during 1820. They precisely identified many of the expedition' s campsite s and visite d many of them them selves. A majo r par t o f their boo k contain s a species-by-species listing o f th e severa l hundre d plant s collecte d b y th e expedition' s botanist, Edwi n James, noting th e localit y in which eac h was probably collected. Their book does much to fill in details of an importan t

X

PREFACE

chapter i n wester n histor y an d i s a tribut e t o th e botanica l accom plishments o f Edwin James. I hav e ofte n le t th e expedition' s participant s spea k fo r them selves, eve n thoug h thei r languag e i s sometime s quain t an d thei r spelling an d gramma r are no t alway s "by the book. " (Bell' s journal was never planne d fo r publication, an d i t is less literate than James's Account.) Rathe r tha n usin g footnotes , I hav e indicate d wh o i s speaking by the us e of their initials : JB, John Bell ; EJ, Edwin James; SL, Stephe n Long ; TP , Titia n Peale ; TS , Thoma s Say . Quotation s from Jame s are from th e Account rathe r tha n fro m hi s diary, except as noted. It must be borne i n mind tha t since James did not joi n th e expedition until the secon d year , all quotes fro m hi m durin g the first year are based o n informatio n h e receive d fro m Say , Peale, Augustus Jessup, an d Willia m Baldwin . During th e first summer, traveling on a recalcitrant steamboa t through countr y already thinly settled , the expeditio n go t only as far as the vicinit y of present-day Omaha, Nebraska. Thi s part o f the tri p I shall cove r mor e briefl y tha n the muc h mor e adventurou s an d pro ductive secon d summer , whic h too k th e explorator y part y b y foo t and horsebac k t o th e Rockie s and back . By interweavin g the impression s of the expeditio n members , I have trie d t o provid e a n opportunit y fo r moderns wh o admir e th e out-of-doors t o visi t vicariousl y lands tha t hav e bee n vastl y trans formed. Lon g fel t tha t th e semiari d countr y t o th e wes t o f th e hundredth meridia n woul d prove t o be a barrier to settlement o f the West. Moder n technolog y ha s prove d hi m wrong . Lon g ha s bee n condemned fo r his misjudgment of the land' s possibilities and fo r his failure t o fulfil l severa l unrealisti c goal s that ha d bee n se t fo r him . But ther e wer e majo r accomplishments : fo r the first time th e broa d area betwee n th e norther n rout e o f Lewis an d Clar k an d th e mor e southerly rout e o f Pike wa s mapped wit h reasonabl e accuracy ; an d for th e first time, naturalists were able to report o n the rich and ofte n surprising fauna and flora of the centra l wester n plains and the Fron t Range o f th e Rockies . Mor e coul d hardl y be aske d o f a smal l ban d

xi PREFACE

Route o f the Lon g Expedition , with major landmark s indicated: (1 ) Pittsburgh , May 3 , 1819 ; (2) Cincinnati , Ma y 9-18, 1819 ; (3) St . Louis , June 9-12, 1819; (4) Enginee r Cantonment, Septembe r 17 , 1819 -June 6, 1820; (5) crossin g th e Platte, June 22 , 1820 ; (6) Long' s Peak, sighted June 30, 1820 ; (7) crossin g th e Arkansas and separation of the tw o parties, July 22-24, 1820 ; (8) arriva l at Fort Smith, Septembe r 9-13 , 1820.

of inexperience d an d ill-equippe d explorers as they plodde d acros s landscapes tha t ha d rarel y bee n visite d b y American s o f European origin. History books have consistently ignore d th e Long Expedition or denigrate d it s accomplishments . I t i s an episod e i n histor y tha t deserves to be remembered an d re-evaluated.

I a m particularl y indebted t o tw o wester n histor y enthusiast s wh o read earlie r versions of the manuscrip t and mad e man y helpful suggestions: Richard G . Beidleman , formerly o f Colorado College , Col-

XII

PREFACE

orado Springs ; and Rober t E. Heapes, of Parker, Colorado. Kennet h Haltman, o f Michigan State University, has also been mos t helpful. Mary Alic e Evan s has borne wit h m e through th e book' s long gestation, alway s a t han d whe n hel p wa s needed an d a companio n a s we visited many sites along th e rout e of the expedition . For assistanc e i n obtainin g print s o f sketche s an d painting s made b y the expedition' s artists , I am indebte d t o Richar d S . Field and Bernar d Noveloso , Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery ; Larr y K . Mensching, Joslyn Art Museum , Omaha; Carol M. Spawn, Academy of Natural Sciences o f Philadelphia; Beth Carroll-Horrocks and Miriam B . Spectre, American Philosophica l Society; Thomas V. Lange, The Huntingto n Library , San Marino, California; and Karen L. Otis, Museum o f Fine Arts, Boston . Fort Collins , Colo . H September 1996

. E . E.

The natural

History

of

THE LON G E X P E D I T I O N T O TH E ROCKY MOUNTAIN S

1819-1820

This page intentionally left blank

One

SETTING TH E STAG E

THE LOUISIAN A PURCHAS E O F 180 3 APPROXIMATEL Y double d th e size of the United States , adding 800,000 square miles of ignorance— land tha t had neve r bee n wel l explored or adequately mapped. Even the norther n an d souther n boundaries , wit h Britis h Canad a an d Spanish Mexico , ha d no t bee n explored . T o th e west , Louisian a ended i n range s o f mountain s o f unknow n dimensions . Tha t suc h mountains wer e there had bee n show n b y Father Silvestr e Vele z de Escalante, wh o i n 177 6 had crosse d fro m Sant a F e t o wha t i s now northeastern Utah , seekin g i n vai n fo r a convenient rout e t o Cali fornia, an d by Alexander Mackenzie , who had crosse d the Canadian Rockies t o th e Pacifi c i n 1793 . Fu r trapper s an d traders—mos t of them Frenc h o r Spanis h an d ofte n illiterate—ha d als o penetrate d parts o f the mountains , bringin g back tale s o f white bear s and wil d Indians. By 1803 , eve n befor e the treat y wit h Franc e ha d bee n formal ized, Thomas Jefferso n ha d persuaded Congress to appropriate $2,50 0 to outfi t a n expeditio n tha t h e hope d woul d cros s th e mountain s "even t o th e Wester n Ocean," an d Meriwethe r Lewi s and William Clark wer e assemblin g supplie s an d equipmen t fo r thei r Corp s o f Discovery. Followin g thei r return , afte r tw o year s and fou r month s in th e wilderness , Americans wer e finally t o lear n o f the vastnes s of

4

The natural History

of

the

Long

Expedition

their western lands and muc h abou t its geographic features, it s soils, and it s inhabitants . The Lewi s an d Clar k Expeditio n include d a cor e o f twenty nine men , alon g wit h severa l others wh o helpe d mov e thei r boat s up the Missouri to Fort Mandan, in present-day North Dakota. There they spen t th e firs t winte r an d engage d th e service s of Touissan t Charbonneau an d his wife, Sacagawea, who soon captured the imagination o f th e nation . Fro m For t Mandan , thei r rout e too k the m across what i s now Montana an d Idaho, and then down the Colum bia t o it s mouth . There , buildin g a pos t the y calle d For t Clatsop , they spen t th e secon d winter , and the n returne d ove r roughl y th e same route . Th e stor y o f Lewi s an d Clark' s exploit s has bee n tol d many times and needs no retelling here. The expeditio n opene d th e Northwest fo r America n fu r trapper s an d traders ; already by 1807 , Manuel Lisa had buil t a trading post a t th e junctio n o f the Yellowstone an d Bighor n Rivers, deep in what i s now Montana . Quite differen t wa s the expeditio n o f Zebulon Pike , initiate d in July 1806, even before the Corp s of Discovery had returned. Pike's instructions cam e no t fro m Washington , bu t fro m Genera l o f th e Army James Wilkinson, governo r of Louisiana Territory, a man wh o had dream s o f establishing a separat e empire i n th e wester n plains and th e Southwest . Hi s order s to Pik e were t o pacif y th e Pawnee s and th e Comanches , an d the n t o explor e th e source s o f the Re d River, the supposed boundary between American an d Spanish lands. Having accomplishe d th e firs t mission , afte r a fashion , Pik e found himself o n th e uppe r Arkansas River a t th e threshol d o f the Rock ies—and i t wa s already mid-November. Despite the bitte r weather, Pike an d hi s smal l band o f sixteen penetrate d th e mountain s a s far as South Par k (nea r modern-da y Fairplay, Colorado) an d nearl y t o Leadville. H e wa s clos e t o th e source s of bot h th e Arkansa s an d South Platt e Rivers . Another, north-flowin g stream he believe d t o be th e sourc e o f the Yellowstone , a majo r branc h o f the Missouri , and his map showed his trail meeting the source of that river: "I have

5

SETTING TH E STAGE

no hesitation [h e wrote] in asserting that I can tak e a position i n th e mountains, whenc e I can visi t th e sourc e o f an y o f thos e river s i n one day." Th e river s he cite d wer e the Yellowstone , the Platte , th e Colorado, th e Arkansas , an d the Ri o Grande! (Willia m Clark, too , had mappe d th e origi n o f the Yellowston e not fa r from tha t o f th e Rio Grande an d the Colorado. ) After endurin g man y hardships , Pik e an d his men retreate d t o the easter n foothill s o f the Rockies , wher e the y buil t a blockhous e for shelter . Bu t there was little game to be found, and Pik e lef t wit h a smalle r group to cros s th e Sangr e d e Cristos. Ther e he foun d an other river , which migh t hav e bee n th e rive r he ha d been commissioned t o find: the Red . (I t was , of course, th e Ri o Grande. ) Afte r building another stockade, he was captured by the Spanish an d taken to Sant a F e and late r t o Chihuahua , wher e he wa s released severa l months later . I t i s probable tha t Wilkinso n ha d planne d fo r this t o happen, a s he wante d Pik e t o repor t o n Spanis h settlement s an d military forces . Pike' s report , published i n 1810 , ha s bee n describe d by on e biographe r a s "poorly organized , unreliable . . . scientifically and geographicall y incorrect, an d i n man y places dishonest." B y his own admission , Pik e ha d n o qualification s as a naturalist , an d h e lacked th e "tim e an d placidity of mind" required to study the plant s and animals he encountered . Nevertheles s Pike' s account o f the ric h villages of the Southwes t helpe d t o set the stage for the developmen t of th e Sant a Fe Trail . While i n South Park, Pike was impressed by the siz e of a recent encampment, an d i n Sant a F e he me t a trader , Jame s Purcel l (o r Pursley, as he calle d him), who explained tha t he had campe d ther e in 180 5 wit h a large group of Kiowa Indians. Thi s was a year and a half befor e Pik e reache d th e area , s o it seem s fai r t o credi t Purcel l with bein g th e first American o f European descen t t o discove r th e Front Range s of Colorado. Purcell told Pik e that he "had foun d gold in the hea d o f La Platte, an d had carrie d some of the virgi n mineral in his shot-pouc h fo r months; bu t that , bein g i n doubt whethe r h e

6

The natural Historys t o r yof the Long Expedition should ever again behold th e civilized world . . . he threw the sample away." Pik e spok e o f Purcell a s "a ma n o f strong natura l sens e an d dauntless intrepidity. " Purcell was a Kentuckian wh o had hunte d an d trapped i n Louisiana Territor y sinc e 1799 . I n 180 5 h e ha d bee n hire d by a trade r to make contact with th e Kiow a Indians . But the Kiowas were being driven sout h an d wes t b y th e Sioux , an d alon g wit h the m wen t Purcell an d severa l companions . Th e cam p i n Sout h Par k was said to hav e containe d a s many a s 2,000 Indian s an d mor e than 10,00 0 horses. Th e Indian s sen t Purcel l to Sant a F e to establis h trade relations wit h th e Spanish , bu t h e remaine d there , late r becomin g a Mexican citize n and settlin g i n Sonora . The suppositio n o f both Clar k an d Pik e tha t th e Yellowston e River arose in central Colorad o demonstrate s th e contemporary lac k of appreciatio n o f the vas t are a between th e watershe d o f the Mis souri and that of the Arkansas . I t was not unti l 181 1 tha t a group of traders mad e th e tre k fro m th e Missour i to th e Arkansa s (i t too k them "fort y o r fifty " days ) an d no t unti l 181 6 tha t thei r tri p was made known , an d unde r od d circumstances, i n a letter to the edito r of a newspaper, th e Missour i Gazette. The lette r wa s written by Ezekiel Williams an d wa s in response t o a n articl e concerning th e dis covery o f a grav e i n centra l Missour i believe d t o b e tha t o f Jea n Baptiste Champlain , who , alon g wit h William s an d severa l others , had bee n sent b y Manuel Lisa from hi s trading post o n th e Missouri toward Santa Fe, in the hop e o f establishing trad e with the Spanish . Several i n the party perished, but Williams and Champlain survive d to procur e a valuable loa d o f furs. But , said the report , when nearly back to Boone's Lick , Missouri, Williams "coolly and premeditatedly committed on e o f the mos t inhuma n an d outrageou s acts of cruelty that the annal s o f history can produce, by putting to death th e frien d of his bosom fo r the sak e of lucre!" Th e sourc e of this story was no t stated, excep t tha t i t was "from a gentleman o f respectability." All o f thi s William s emphaticall y denied , explainin g that h e had lef t Champlai n wit h th e Arapaho s whe n h e returne d vi a th e

7

SETTING TH E STAG E Arkansas River , an d o n a late r tri p foun d tha t th e Arapaho s ha d killed him. This story was confirmed by Robert Stuart, leader of John Jacob Astor' s America n Fu r Company, wh o learne d fro m th e Sho shones tha t Champlai n ha d bee n kille d b y the Arapaho s i n 1812 . Members o f th e Lon g Expeditio n wer e t o hea r o f th e discover y of the bod y a s they crosse d Missour i i n 1819 . I f the bod y was that of Champlain (a s seems doubtful) , i t remain s t o b e explaine d ho w i t got fro m Colorad o t o Missouri. During the lat e 1820s , Williams served as a guide on th e Sant a Fe Trail . Late r "Ol d Zeke " settle d o n a far m i n Bento n County , Missouri, wher e fo r a tim e h e serve d a s judge an d postmaster . Al though his name has nearly been forgotten, it was Williams who first pointed ou t tha t ther e wa s a vast , barel y explore d regio n betwee n the Missour i and Arkansas Rivers. Whether his letter to the Missouri Gazette describin g his experience s wa s known t o th e easter n estab lishment o f the tim e i s a moot point . Once Manuel Lis a and other s of his Missouri Fur Company ha d learned ho w to run th e gauntle t o f the Siou x an d othe r tribe s along the Missouri , that river became the scen e o f much activity . Between 1807 an d 1820 , Lisa and his companions wen t up and down the river several times. They traveled i n keelboats poled or rowed through th e turbulent water s or pulle d upstrea m fro m th e bank s b y ropes ; onl y now an d the n coul d the y us e wind power t o replac e muscl e power. Trappers an d traders were dispatched fro m posts along the river, John Colter traveling even as far as the Win d Rive r Ranges, Jackson Hole , and Yellowstone . Colter , lik e severa l other s i n Lisa' s employment, was a veteran o f the Lewi s and Clar k Expedition . In 1811 , Astor' s Pacifi c Fu r Company dispatche d Wilso n Pric e Hunt an d hi s party of "Astorians" up the Missour i in four keelboats . Later they would trek, with much difficulty , al l the wa y to the Pacific , and the followin g year Robert Stuar t woul d lead the retur n tri p east. With Hun t a s h e ascende d th e rive r wer e tw o notabl e botanists , Thomas Nuttal l an d Joh n Bradbury . Bradbur y woul d writ e o f his adventure s i n hi s boo k Travels i n th e Interior o f America i n the

8

The natural History of the Long Expedition Years 1809, 1810, an d 1811 (1817) . Wit h Lisa , tha t sam e year , was geographe r Henr y Mari e Brackenridge , wh o wrot e o f hi s travels in View s of Lousiana: The Journal of a Voyage up the Missouri River, i n 1811 (1814) . S o th e Missour i River, a t leas t a s far a s th e Dakotas, wa s reasonably well know n compare d wit h mos t part s of the West . One would have though t tha t the next government-sponsore d expedition migh t have had a s its major goa l the exploratio n o f some of th e vas t areas to th e sout h o f the Missour i that were still little, if at all , visited, but tha t i s not th e case . Followin g the Wa r o f 1812 , John C . Calhoun, Secretary of War unde r Presiden t James Monroe, was concerned wit h Britis h influence in th e norther n par t o f Louisiana Territor y and th e dange r fro m Indian s wh o ha d allie d them selves with the British. Calhoun wa s then thirty-seven, and had been in th e cabine t fo r tw o years . This wa s lon g befor e h e becam e a n advocate o f states ' rights ; h e wa s the n a n arden t nationalis t an d expansionist. "Distance an d difficulties ar e less to us than any people on earth, " h e ha d remarke d i n a speec h t o Congress . Ther e was genuine fea r o f a third wa r with England , working through th e In dians to block expansio n to the west. Calhoun propose d sending troops u p the Missour i to establish a for t a t th e mout h o f th e Yellowston e Rive r (nea r th e presen t boundary between North Dakot a an d Montana). Ther e they would impress th e Indian s wit h th e powe r o f th e American s an d a t th e same tim e serv e notice t o Canadia n trapper s and trader s that some of their favorit e beaver country wa s now par t o f the Unite d States . President Monro e supporte d the pla n fully , a s he wrot e t o hi s Sec retary o f War.

The people . . . . look upo n i t a s a measur e bette r calcu lated t o preserve the peac e of the frontier , t o secure to us the fu r trade and to break up the intercours e between th e British traders and the Indians , than any other which ha s

9

SETTING TH E STAG E

been take n b y th e government . I tak e mysel f ver y great interest i n th e succes s of the expedition , an d a m willing to tak e grea t responsibility to ensur e it .

The pres s was no less enthusiastic about the Yellowstone Expedition, as it came to be called. The Missour i Gazette reported that "the pla n has attracte d th e attentio n o f th e whol e nation , an d ther e i s n o measure which ha s been adopte d b y the presen t administration that has receive d suc h universa l commendation. " Tha t th e expeditio n was t o mak e us e o f th e recentl y invente d stea m engin e especiall y fired the imagination s of many. In a letter t o a newspaper, one cor respondent surmise d that i t would lead to "saf e and eas y communication t o China [and ] ten year s shall no t pas s away before w e shall have the ric h production s of that countr y transporte d fro m Canto n to the Columbia, up that river to the mountains, over the mountain s and dow n th e Missour i and Mississippi , all the wa y (mountains an d all) b y the poten t powe r of steam." Both steamboat s an d stea m railway s wer e nove l i n th e earl y nineteenth century, and the public was as much excited abou t the m as w e ar e abou t spac e probes . Althoug h Colone l Henr y Atkinson , who had been placed in charge of the militar y arm of the expedition , was wel l awar e that human - an d wind-powere d keelboats ha d suc cessfully plie d th e Missouri , they woul d not d o fo r so grand a n ex pedition. A contrac t wa s made with Colonel James Johnson t o build the five steamboats, to be named th e Jefferson, th e Calhoun, Joh nson, the Exchange, and th e Expedition. Th e steamboat s were hastily con structed an d proved to be more expensive than had bee n calculate d and much les s effective tha n had been hope d i n traversing the Ohio and th e Missouri . The pla n wa s to transpor t nearl y 1,00 0 soldier s and thei r equipmen t t o th e mout h o f th e Yellowstone . I t wa s assumed tha t th e Wa r Departmen t woul d save money i n the process , since th e troop s coul d liv e mainl y o n th e abundan t game . A s w e shall see , non e o f th e ship s cam e anywher e nea r reachin g thei r

I0

The natural History of the Long Expedition planned destination , an d man y o f the troop s succumbe d t o scurvy during the winte r o f 1819/1820 . From th e beginning , i t was planned t o add an explorator y arm to th e expedition , t o b e commande d b y Majo r Stephe n H . Long . That th e enterpris e eventuall y cam e t o be calle d th e Lon g Expedition rather tha n the Yellowstone Expedition reflects the relative success o f the tw o arms . Long had onl y jus t returne d fro m expedition s on the upper Mississippi River and in Arkansas. He was given a more or les s free han d t o desig n his ow n steamboa t an d t o selec t hi s personnel. Hi s steamboat , th e Western Engineer, had a shallower draf t than an y of the five ships of the militar y contingent, and ma y hav e been th e first stern-wheeler eve r built. It proved far better suite d for river trave l tha n did Colonel Johnson's boats , but it s operation was not withou t problems . As a schoo l principa l i n Germantown , Pennsylvania , befor e joining the military , Long ha d becom e acquainte d wit h member s of the America n Philosophica l Societ y i n nearb y Philadelphia , the n the intellectua l hub o f the country . The ide a of asking several members of the societ y t o accompan y hi m o n thi s ne w ventur e wa s his, but Calhoun was easily persuaded. Several were eager to do so despite the fac t tha t they wer e offered littl e salary and would have t o supply some of their ow n equipment . The expeditio n lef t Pittsburg h in Ma y 1819 . Calhoun' s orders to Lon g wer e (i n part ) a s follows:

You wil l firs t explor e th e Missour i an d it s principa l branches, an d then, in succession, Red River, Arkansa [sic] and Mississippi , above th e mout h of the Missouri. The objec t of the Expedition , is to acquir e as thorough an d accurat e knowledg e a s may b e practicable , o f a portion o f our country , whic h i s daily becoming mor e in teresting, but which i s as yet imperfectly known. With this view, you will permit nothing worthy of notice, t o escap e

11 SETTING TH E STAGE

your attention. You will ascertai n th e latitud e and longi tude o f remarkable points wit h al l possible precision. You will i f practicable, ascertai n som e poin t i n th e 49t h parallel o f latitude , whic h separate s ou r possession s fro m those o f Great Britain . A knowledg e o f the exten t o f our limits wil l ten d t o preven t collisio n betwee n ou r traders and theirs . You will enter i n your journal, everything interesting in relatio n t o soil , fac e o f the country , water course s and productions, whethe r animal , vegetable, or mineral . You will conciliate th e Indian s by kindness an d presents, an d wil l ascertain, a s far as practicable, the numbe r and characte r o f th e variou s tribes , wit h th e exten t o f country claime d b y each. Great confidenc e i s reposed in the acquirement s an d zeal o f th e citizen s who wil l accompan y th e Expeditio n for scientific purposes, and a confident hope i s entertained, that thei r dutie s will be performe d in suc h a manner , a s to add both to their ow n reputation an d that of our country.

To hi s orders , Calhou n appende d a cop y o f Jefferson's instruction s to Meriwethe r Lewis , hoping tha t the y migh t provid e "man y valuable suggestions. " That Long was asked to explore the boundary with Canada and that wit h Mexic o (th e Re d River ) i n on e expedition—alon g wit h the Mississippi , th e Missour i and it s tributaries, and the Arkansas — reveals the prevailin g ignorance o f the vastnes s of the wester n lands. Calhoun an d Lon g place d muc h emphasi s o n th e importanc e of the scientifi c personnel wh o would accompany th e expedition . I t is sometimes sai d that thi s was the first expedition t o th e Wes t tha t included traine d naturalists . Thi s statemen t require s qualification . Lewis and Clar k mad e ver y substantial observations on natura l his -

12

The natural History story of the Long Expedition tory alon g thei r rout e t o th e Pacifi c an d back . Jefferson ha d see n t o it that Lewis had a "crash course" in natural history under Benjamin Smith Barton and other Philadelphia intellectuals, and Clark proved to be a superb observer and geographer despite his limited education . Their journal s contai n a wealt h o f novel information . In hi s boo k Lewis and Clark: Pioneer Naturalists, Paul Russell Cutright include s a list o f the biologica l discoveries of the expedition . I t require s fortyseven pages! Here w e need t o distinguis h between th e ac t o f discovery and the documentatio n o f a plant or an animal in the scientifi c literature. To b e formall y established , a plan t o r a n anima l mus t b e give n a Latinized doubl e nam e (genu s an d species) , following rule s established b y Swedis h naturalis t Car l Linnaeu s i n th e mid-eighteent h century. The nam e mus t be followe d b y a detailed descriptio n an d a statemen t o f the localit y i n whic h th e plan t o r anima l wa s collected. The specime n should the n be deposited i n a reputable institution wher e it wil l be preserve d and ca n b e studie d by others . Lewis and Clar k di d collect bot h plants an d animal s an d trie d to see to i t that they reached authoritie s in the East . Lewis's descriptions were often so precise that many of the specie s he discusse d ca n now b e identified . However , these explorer s shied awa y fro m using Linnaean nomenclatur e an d lef t tha t tas k t o others . Thu s Clark' s nutcracker and Lewis's woodpecker were described and illustrate d by pioneer ornithologis t Alexande r Wilso n i n 1811 , an d tw o o f th e more spectacula r plant s the y discovere d wer e name d Lewisia an d Clarkia b y botanist Frederic k Pursh i n 1814 . Philadelphi a zoologist George Or d describe d the grizzl y bear , th e pronghorn , an d severa l other mammals sent back by Lewis and Clark . The journal s of these explorers wer e printed i n 1814 , afte r th e untimel y death o f Lewis , but onl y afte r th e editor , Philadelphi a lawye r Nicholas Biddle , had improved thei r spellin g an d greatl y condense d thei r narrative . A second volume , t o hav e covere d th e scientifi c accomplishments o f the expedition , was never published because of the illnes s of its editor, Benjamin Smith Barton. In 1893 , Elliot t Coues resurrected the

13

SETTING TH E STAG E Biddle edition , edite d i t extensively , an d adde d copiou s note s de rived from a careful readin g of the eightee n volume s of original manuscript. The firs t printing in full o f the origina l journals of Lewis and Clark, wit h muc h additiona l material , was edited b y Reuben Gol d Thwaites an d publishe d i n eigh t volume s i n 190 4 an d 190 5 (re printed i n 196 9 b y Arno Press, New York). Still mor e recently, from 1986 t o 1990 , th e Universit y of Nebraska Press published the jour nals i n seve n volumes , edited b y Gary Moulton, makin g use of still additional material and the technique s of modern historical research. So i t ha s take n nearl y tw o centuries t o appreciat e full y th e accom plishments of the Lewi s and Clar k Expedition . The naturalist s of the Lon g Expeditio n wer e bette r traine d as systematists an d di d no t hesitat e t o provid e forma l name s an d de scriptions o f man y o f th e plants , animals , an d geologi c formations they encountered . Onl y i n thi s sens e wer e thei r observation s mor e "scientific" tha n thos e o f Lewis and Clark . Sinc e th e repor t o f th e Long Expedition was published in ful l i n 1823 , th e discoverie s of its naturalists became well known long before those of Lewis and Clark . The repor t wa s an importan t contributio n t o scienc e o f th e day , particularly the accoun t o f the secon d year , when Lon g and his men left th e Missour i to explore the wester n plains and th e Fron t Rang e of th e Rockies . The firs t yea r of Long's expedition, spent o n th e Ohi o and th e Missouri, was by no means in territory virgin to naturalists. Botanists Bradbury an d Nuttall had precede d th e expeditio n u p the Missouri , and Nuttal l ha d explore d th e lowe r Arkansa s basi n i n 1819 ; bot h published accounts o f their trips. A bowdlerize d edition of Lewis and Clark's journal s had bee n publishe d i n 1814 . I n 1808 , Alexande r Wilson published th e first part of his American Ornithology, in which he formally described some of the bird s collected by Lewis and Clark, illustrating them with colored plates . In 1814 , Frederic k Pursh published his Flora Americae Septentrionalis, i n which h e name d an d de scribed man y o f th e plant s collecte d b y Lewi s an d Clark , an d (without authority) some of those collected b y Bradbury and by Nut-

14

The natural History of the Long Expedition tall. Pursh , once calle d "on e o f the mos t activ e an d apparentl y unscrupulous earl y Philadelphi a botanists, " ha d neve r bee n west , bu t his Flora proved valuable as a preliminary guide to som e of the western plants . In 1818 , Nuttall published The Genera of North American Plants an d Catalogue o f th e Species t o the Year 1817, based in par t o n his experience s on th e Missour i i n 1811 . It i s not clea r how muc h o f the availabl e literature was carried by th e Lon g Expedition . I t i s known tha t th e explorer s carried th e maps mad e b y Clar k an d b y Pike , a s well a s th e Lewi s an d Clar k journals an d Alexande r vo n Humboldt' s Persona l Narrative of Travels to th e Equinoctial Regions o f America. Whethe r the y carrie d Ord' s descriptions of some o f the mammal s collected by Lewis and Clark , Wilson's American Ornithology, Pursh' s Flora, o r Nuttall's Genera is uncertain, bu t i n an y case these wer e available to th e naturalist s as they prepare d the repor t o f the expeditio n fo r publication. To understand the contribution s of the expedition's naturalists, it i s necessary to appreciat e the rathe r primitive state o f natural history i n thei r time . Linnaeus had bee n dea d fo r only fort y years , and Darwin's On th e Origin of Species wa s forty years in the future . Knowledge of the natura l history of the easter n states was still sketchy, an d the wester n land s wer e a vast unknown. Tha t th e expedition' s nat uralists mad e mistake s and provide d descriptions of natural objects that ar e inadequat e b y moder n standard s i s understandable, particularly when we consider the difficultie s unde r which they were working. The naturalist s used the Linnaea n syste m of nomenclature, bu t in thei r tim e som e procedure s were les s wel l established tha n the y are today. Nowadays generic names are capitalized and species names uncapitalized, and both ar e placed i n italic s to se t them off from th e text; bu t i n th e 1820 s thes e rule s were no t alway s followed . Th e name o f the perso n wh o describe d the specie s i s often place d afte r the name, sometimes abbreviated. The naturalist s did this irregularly ("N" followin g a plant name , for example, refers t o Nuttall). When a genu s name i s repeated, i t ma y b e abbreviate d b y usin g only th e

15

SETTING TH E STAG E first initial (fo r example, C. latrans, when th e genu s Cards ha s been spelled ou t jus t previously) . The naturalist s sometimes described a s new species ones that had actually been described earlier by someone else. I n thi s cas e th e "la w o f priority" prevails : the earlie r nam e i s accepted. Fo r example, Thomas Say described the mule deer, naming it Cervus macrotis. He was unaware that Constantine Rafinesque had described i t just a few years earlier, calling it C. hemionus, the specie s name tha t i s now accepted . Pioneer naturalist s tended t o us e broad, all-embracin g genera. As scienc e advanced , mor e specie s becam e know n an d thei r rela tionships bette r understood. This has led biologists to divide the old , inclusive gener a int o severa l genera o f more precis e definition . I t is no discredi t t o th e expedition' s naturalist s tha t thei r specie s hav e now often bee n place d i n different gener a tha n those i n which the y placed them . Scienc e progresse s by improvin g the superstructur e as knowledge i s added . The specie s of plants and animal s newly described fro m speci mens collecte d b y th e expeditio n I hav e liste d i n th e appendixes . The lists , although no t complete , includ e slightl y over 30 0 species , a considerabl e accomplishmen t fo r a small, ill-equipped grou p that moved rapidl y through roug h and mostly unexplored country . I t was not alway s eas y for the naturalist s to collec t an d prepar e specimen s and writ e up accompanying note s whe n the y wer e traveling by foot and horsebac k twent y o r mor e mile s a day , ofte n throug h heat , storms, an d bitin g insects . O f course , th e discover y of new species was no t th e be-al l an d end-al l o f th e expedition . Th e naturalist s learned much abou t the distributio n of plants and animals and abou t their livin g conditions. The y als o recorded dat a about the rock s and landforms an d mad e an effor t t o lear n a s much a s possible about th e Native American s the y met—thoug h muc h o f tha t informatio n is omitted fro m thi s book . Lon g an d hi s lieutenant s regularl y deter mined thei r longitud e an d latitude , an d fro m thes e dat a the y pre pared map s that wer e a great improvemen t ove r an y then available. The expeditio n als o serve d notice t o th e Nativ e American s an d t o

16

The natural History of the Long Expedition the Spanis h an d Britis h that thi s lan d wa s now part o f the Unite d States, somethin g that was clearly on the minds of President Monroe and Secretar y of War Calhou n when th e tri p was authorized. The final report o f the expedition , published i n both Philadel phia an d Londo n i n 1823 , had a wide readership, but i t is safe t o say that mos t reader s were more intereste d i n th e description s o f landscapes an d Indian s tha n i n thos e o f newl y discovere d plant s an d animals. Withi n a few years, th e finding s o f Long and hi s me n ha d become incorporate d int o Easterners' perception s o f the West , provoking thought s o f escape t o virgi n lands an d th e backgroun d fo r many a novel abou t th e mythi c West. Unlike th e journals of Pike and of Lewis and Clark, the Account of the Lon g Expedition wa s illustrated. The America n editio n contained eigh t engraving s made fro m painting s don e b y th e expedi tion's artists , whil e th e Englis h editio n include d fou r additiona l plates, two of them hand-colored landscapes . For the first time, views of th e wester n plains an d o f the slope s o f the Rockies , alon g wit h their native inhabitants, were available to the public. Long's was the first of severa l expeditions t o th e Wes t tha t documente d it s travels by the work of artists. Not unti l the 1860 s was photography available and widel y used by travelers through th e West . The tw o artist s o f th e expeditio n actuall y mad e man y mor e sketches tha n appeared in the Account. According to Kenneth Haltman, who has made a special study o f the expedition' s artisti c heritage, Samue l Seymou r produce d abou t 15 0 sketche s o r paintings ; Titian Peale , a s many a s 235. Many o f Peale' s have survived , an d some hav e appeare d i n subsequen t publication s b y diverse authors . Sketches mad e i n th e fiel d ofte n wer e late r use d t o make mor e finished paintings afte r th e me n had returned t o Philadelphia. Thu s an extensiv e visua l recor d o f th e expeditio n becam e availabl e t o scholars.

Two CAST O F CHARACTER S

IN TH E SPRING O F 1819 , TWENTY-FOUR me n gathere d i n Pittsburg h with thei r persona l effects , read y t o depar t o n Majo r Stephe n H . Long's steamboat, th e Western Engineer. The militar y contingent had preceded the m i n fiv e steamboats . Long' s part y include d a smal l group o f army personnel a s well as five "scientific gentlemen " an d a crew o f six:

MILITARY Major Stephe n H. Long Commande Major Thoma s Biddle , Jr. Journalis Lieutenant James D. Graham Assistan Cadet William H . Swif t Secon Sergeant Samue l Roa n Eight privates

r t t topographe r d assistan t topographe r

SCIENTIFIC Dr. William Baldwi n Botanis Thomas Say Zoologis Titian R. Peal e Assistan

t an d surgeo n t t naturalis t

18

The

natural

History of the Long Expedition

Augustus Jessup Geologis Samuel Seymour Artis

CREW

Benjamin Edward s Steamboa Thomas Bogg s Pilo Isaac Kimball Carpente L. R. Kinney Cler Two "boys "

t t

t enginee r t r k

Major Benjami n O'Fallon, India n agent for the tribe s along the Missouri River, became attache d t o th e expeditio n informall y a t a later date, a s did his assistan t and interpreter , John Dougherty . The cre w and th e soldier s are rarely mentioned i n th e narrativ e o f the expe dition, thoug h doubtles s all were important in bringing the Western Engineer to it s destination i n th e fal l o f 1819 . A s t o th e officer s an d scientists, a bit mor e needs to b e said. Stephen Harriman Long came from a New Hampshir e farming family. A t Dartmout h College , h e wa s a leader among the student s and was elected t o Phi Beta Kappa, the nationa l honorary fraternity. After a yea r of teaching schoo l i n Ne w Hampshire , h e accepte d a position a s a school principal i n Germantown, Pennsylvania . There he became acquainted with members of the American Philosophica l Society i n nearb y Philadelphia. I n hi s spar e time, he di d som e surveying an d acquire d a reputation as an invento r o f machinery. This brought him t o th e attentio n o f officers o f the army' s Corps o f Topographical Engineers, and i n 181 4 h e wa s commissioned as a second lieutenant. Afte r a year o f teaching mathematic s a t Wes t Point , h e was sent wes t to inspect fort s an d gather information on the streams and soils of Illinois and th e uppe r Mississippi basin. He enjoyed traveling in the wilderness and was enthusiastic about the landscap e and the potentia l o f the prairie s for agriculture. In 181 7 Lon g was sent t o Arkansas , where th e Cheroke e an d

<9

CAST O F CHARACTER S Osage Indian s ha d bee n wagin g periodic wars . There h e explore d parts of the lowe r Arkansas and Re d Rivers and was instrumental in establishing For t Smith , clos e t o th e presen t Arkansas-Oklahom a border. As before, h e travele d primarily by water, using human- and wind-powered skiffs, thoug h as an engineer he was weighing the feas ibility of using the recently invented steamboat on western rivers and had eve n writte n t o Presiden t Monro e concernin g thi s possibility. Long's report s were well received i n Washington , an d man y of his recommendations concerning fort s and lines of communication were implemented over the nex t few years. One o f Long's chief characteristics as an explorer became evident during these expeditions: he was forever eage r to pus h forward , ofte n leaving insufficient tim e to ob serve the countr y in much detail . Nevertheless, with his experienc e in the wilderness and his contacts in the army and among eastern intellectuals, he wa s ideally suited for his new assignment . In 181 9 h e was thirty-five year s old and had attaine d th e ran k of major. Although steamboat s had bee n i n us e fo r several years , non e had eve r attempte d th e ascen t o f the turbulen t an d unpredictabl e Missouri. Suc h wa s Long's reputation a s an enginee r that Secretar y of War Calhou n gave him permissio n to desig n a steamboat fo r his forthcoming expeditio n an d t o overse e it s construction . Th e craf t he buil t was seventy-five fee t lon g and onl y thirteen feet wide , with a paddl e wheel i n th e rear , features designe d t o tak e advantag e of narrow rive r channels withou t bein g delayed b y logs and debri s in the stream . Althoug h th e ship' s performance fell shor t o f expecta tions, i t was able to ascen d th e Missour i farther than any of the five that Johnson ha d buil t for the militar y contingent. Thomas Biddle , Jr., came fro m a prominent Philadelphi a family. He fough t i n the Wa r o f 1812 with distinction an d ha d aske d to join the expedition . Long assigned him the dut y "to record all transactions of the party that concern the objects of the expedition, to describe the manner s and customs, etc., o f the countr y through whic h we ma y pass; to trac e i n a compendiou s manne r th e histor y of th e towns, villages, and tribe s of Indians" and s o forth. There is no evi-

2O

The natural History of the Long Expedition dence tha t he di d any of these things . H e an d Lon g quarreled fro m the start , and he lef t th e expeditio n after onl y three months , joinin g the staf f o f Colonel Henr y Atkinson . Accordin g t o Roge r Nichol s and Patrick Halley, he remained in the arm y and "died i n 183 1 dur ing a duel with Congressman Spence r Peti s on Bloody Island near St . Louis." James Dunca n Graha m wa s a Virginia n wh o ha d graduate d from Wes t Poin t i n 1817 ; in 181 9 h e was twenty years old and a first lieutenant i n th e artillery . William Henr y Swif t wa s brought u p i n Massachusetts; h e wa s onl y ninetee n whe n h e embarke d o n th e Western Engineer. H e di d no t officiall y graduat e fro m Wes t Poin t until Jul y 1819 ; he was commissioned as a second lieutenan t whil e well on his way west. Graham an d Swif t wer e Long's chief assistant s in a "prim e objectiv e of the expedition, " makin g " a topographica l description of the countr y to be explored." They were also expecte d to "attend to drilling the boat' s crew, in the exercis e of the musket , the field-piece, and the sabre. " To be botanist o f the expedition , Long chose Dr. William Baldwin, a physicia n wit h a stron g interes t i n botany . A Philadelphi a Quaker, Baldwi n had bee n traine d i n medicine a t the Universit y of Pennsylvania. As a young man, he showed symptoms of tuberculosis, and i n th e effor t t o improv e his health he enliste d a s a surgeon o n a merchant shi p bound fo r China. On hi s return, he settled in Geor gia, wher e h e travele d abou t o n foo t collectin g plant s whe n no t occupied as a physician. In 181 7 he sailed for South America o n th e frigate Congress , giving him the opportunit y to explore another con tinent. Afte r h e returne d hi s health remaine d poor , an d h e hope d to recover by joining an expedition to the West. After reviewing his application, Lon g felt tha t Baldwin "stands alone " among botanists . In fact , Thoma s Nuttall—younge r tha n Baldwin , in bette r health , and alread y the autho r o f a significant botanical treatise—wa s eager to join the expedition . But Long required a botanist wh o could double a s a physician, an d Nuttal l ha d n o medica l training . Long' s expectations o f his botanist wer e high.

21

CAST O F CHARACTER S A descriptio n o f all th e product s of vegetation, commo n or peculia r t o th e countrie s w e ma y traverse , wil l b e re quired o f him, als o the disease s prevailing among th e in habitants, whethe r civilize d o r savage, and thei r probabl e causes, wil l b e subject s fo r his investigations ; an y variety in th e anatom y o f th e huma n frame , o r an y othe r phe nomena observabl e i n ou r species , wil l b e particularl y noted b y him. Dr . Baldwi n will als o officiate a s physician and surgeo n for the expedition .

When h e joine d th e expedition , Baldwi n wa s forty-one. After h e had mad e th e appointment , Lon g learne d tha t a younger man , Dr. John Torrey , had expressed an interest i n the expedition . He offere d Torrey th e positio n o f geologist , bu t Torre y decline d whe n Lon g could no t promis e him "whethe r a pecuniary consideration shal l be allowed." (I t wa s later decide d t o pay the scientifi c personne l $2.2 0 a day. ) As luc k woul d hav e it , Baldwi n died a fe w weeks into th e expedition, whil e Torre y wen t o n t o becom e th e majo r America n botanist o f his time. Torrey eventuall y described many of the plant s collected i n th e Wes t b y Edwi n James, who replace d Baldwi n i n 1820. Long's choice as zoologist was another Philadelphian an d member of the America n Philosophica l Society , Thomas Say. Althoug h sometimes referre d to a s "Dr. Say, " h e ha d littl e forma l education . A great-grandso n of pioneer naturalis t John Bartram, Say failed a s a pharmacist but a t an early age began collecting natural history specimens. He came to haunt Peale's Museum in Philadelphia, wher e he often worke d lat e int o th e nigh t an d sometime s slep t beneat h th e mastodon skeleton—th e onl y spac e clea r enoug h t o accommodat e him. Sa y wa s a charte r membe r o f th e Philadelphi a Academ y o f Natural Sciences, establishe d i n 1812 , and i n 181 7 h e wa s asked t o edit the academy' s newly founded Journal. In the sam e year, he published a prospectus for his projected American Entomology, which was

22

The natural History story of the Long Expedition to cover al l known America n insects , many of them illustrate d with colored plates . The projec t was resumed i n 1824 , bu t neve r brough t to completion . Say's acquaintance s include d botanis t Thoma s Nuttall , orni thologist Alexander Wilson , an d zoologist George Ord . I n 181 7 an d 1818, Sa y an d Titia n Peale , so n o f artis t Charle s Willso n Peale , founder o f Peale's Museum , with Georg e Or d an d th e wealth y William Maclure, undertook a collecting tri p to Florida that terminate d suddenly when ther e wa s a threat o f Indian attack . Sa y was a modest person; in George Ord's words : "His dispositio n was so truly amiable, his manners were so bland and conciliating, tha t no one, after havin g once formed hi s acquaintance, coul d ceas e t o estee m him." I n 181 9 Say was thirty-two. Long instructe d tha t "Mr . Sa y will examine an d describ e an y objects i n zoology , and it s several branches, tha t ma y com e unde r our observation . A classificatio n of all lan d an d wate r animals , in sects, etc., an d a particular description of the unusua l remains found in a concrete [fossilized ] stat e will be required of him." I n fact, study of th e custom s o f the Indians , originall y assigned to Biddle , fel l t o Say, who earned a considerable reputatio n a s an ethnologist. Bu t his first lov e wa s insects , an d h e i s now remembere d bes t a s th e firs t American systemati c entomologist . Say's goo d frien d Titia n Ramsa y Peale, wh o joine d th e expe dition a s assistant naturalist, was only nineteen a t th e time , bu t h e was experience d i n taxiderm y and cam e from a family o f artists. His father, Charles Willso n Peale , not onl y was an artist of note, but ha d founded th e first natural history museum in the country . He married three time s an d ha d sixtee n son s an d daughters , no t al l o f who m survived beyon d childhood . Severa l o f his son s were named fo r artists: Raphaelle , Rembrandt , Rubens , an d Titian . Peale' s Museu m contained, b y 1802 , mor e than 1,80 0 specimen s o f birds, 250 mam mals, hundreds o f fishes and reptiles , and thousand s o f insects. Zebulon Pik e supplie d tw o youn g grizzl y bears—on e o f the fe w natura l history legacies of his expedition. Soon the bear s became too difficul t

23

CAST O F CHARACTER S to handle an d had to be killed and stuffed , bu t not befor e Titian had painted the m i n watercolors , on e o f hi s firs t anima l paintings . Charles Willso n Peal e ha d visite d Secretar y o f Wa r Calhou n i n 1818, successfull y urgin g him t o includ e Titian a s a member o f th e expedition an d t o us e his museu m a s a majo r depositor y fo r speci mens collecte d i n the West . Titian Peale had been a rebellious youth, at least in the opinio n of his overbearing father. In 181 6 Charle s Willso n Peal e had writte n to his son Rubens: "I am really fearful tha t he will become dissipated and a disgrace to th e family. " His effort s t o trai n hi s son t o a trad e were i n vain ; Titia n wa s a bor n naturalist , alread y collecting an d painting insects . In November 1817 , when he was only eighteen, h e was electe d th e younges t membe r o f the Academ y o f Natural Sci ences o f Philadelphia, partly on th e basi s of the illustration s he was doing fo r Say. A mont h later, he wa s off to Florid a with Say , where he showe d himsel f t o b e a n energeti c collecto r o f birds, mammals, insects, an d India n artifacts . On th e Lon g Expedition, Peal e wa s to prove himself a n excellen t wildlif e artis t and a good shot with a rifle as well as a dependabl e preparato r o f specimens. Augustus Jessu p wa s a prosperou s Philadelphi a businessma n with a n interes t i n natural science , bu t wit h n o soli d qualifications as a geologist. He wa s expected t o study "earth, minerals, and fossils , distinguishing th e primitive , transition, secondary , an d alluvia l formations an d deposits. " Jessu p lef t th e expeditio n afte r si x months . His duties as geologist were assumed by Edwin James during the tri p to the Rockie s in 1820 . "In thi s scienc e [geology] , as also in botany and zoology, " Long added, "fact s wil l be require d without regar d t o th e theorie s o r hypotheses tha t hav e bee n advance d o n numerou s occasion s b y me n of science. " This seems a curious directive. Wa s h e askin g his "sci entific gentlemen " t o avoi d reflectio n o n th e significanc e o f thei r findings? Perhaps he looked with disfavor on Linnaeus's classification of plant s accordin g t o thei r sexua l organs, o r o n Lamarck' s recen t heresies concerning th e evolutio n o f higher form s o f life fro m lower .

24ThenaturalHistoryofLongExpediton

the nnatural historu of the liong expedition More probably , he wa s simpl y reflectin g the philosoph y o f Franci s Bacon, stil l influentia l nearly tw o centurie s afte r hi s death . I n hi s Novum Organum (New Instrument), Bacon extolled th e importanc e of inductive—building theories from facts—as opposed to deductiv e reasoning. Thoma s Jefferso n wa s a stron g Baconian , protestin g against "visionar y theories," an d doubtles s Long' s trainin g an d hi s contacts with member s of the America n Philosophica l Societ y ha d colored his thinking . Long als o wanted a n experience d artis t to "furnis h sketches of landscapes, wheneve r w e mee t wit h an y distinguishe d fo r thei r beauty and grandeur. He wil l also paint miniatur e likenesses, or portraits, i f required , of distinguishe d Indians , an d exhibi t group s of savages engage d i n celebratin g thei r festivals , o r sittin g in council , and in general illustrate any subject, that may be deemed appropriate to hi s art. " I n Marc h 1819 , Lon g requisitioned from a Philadelphi a emporium a variety of artist's supplies, including drawing paper, pencils, brushes, and divers e watercolors. Samuel Seymou r had emigrate d from Englan d an d becom e associated wit h Thoma s Sull y and othe r Philadelphi a artists . He was a membe r o f th e Columbia n Societ y o f Artists , an d ha d entere d several of the society' s exhibitions. I n 181 9 h e wa s about thirty-fiv e years of age. Evidently his work appealed to Long. To portra y for th e first time th e vas t wester n landscapes would have bee n a challeng e to an y artist. Seymour's painting Distant View of the Rocky Mountains, which forme d the frontispiec e of the expedition' s 182 3 report, provided th e publi c with it s first glimpse of that almost mythical range. His (an d Peale's ) rendition s o f western Native American s als o an tedated by more than a decade the better known paintings by George Catlin and Kar l Bodmer. A fe w months befor e thei r departure , Charles Willso n Peal e painted portrait s of the explorers , remarking that "i f they los t thei r scalps, thei r friend s woul d be glad to have thei r portraits. "

Three DOWN TH E OHIO

STEPHEN LON G SUPERVISE D TH E CONSTRUCTION O F the steamboa t Western Engineer i n Pittsburg h durin g 181 8 an d earl y 1819 . I t wa s originally planne d a s a smalle r craft , drawin g only fourtee n inche s of water , bu t a s finall y completed , i t dre w mor e tha n tw o fee t o f water and was unlike any vessel that had plied the Ohio before. The ship lef t th e arsena l o n th e Alleghen y Rive r with muc h fanfar e o n the afternoo n o f May 3, a Monday, but did not begi n to descend th e Ohio until Wednesday. I will let Titian Peale describ e the departur e and th e shi p itself . Allowance mus t b e mad e her e a s elsewhere for the fac t that i n the earl y 1800s people wer e not alway s fastidious i n their spellin g and punctuation . MAY 3 , 1819. TP: Left th e garriso n 2 miles from Pittsbur g on the Alleghany River at 4 o'clock i n the afternoon after firing a salut e o f 2 2 gun s which wer e answere d wit h a s man y fro m the arsenal . A s w e steere d fo r Pittsburg h ou r appearanc e at tracted grea t number s o f spectators t o th e bank s o f the River . We fired a few guns and were cheered i n return from th e shore . Our boat appear s to answer very well, but bein g quite new, th e machinery i s rather stiff . . . . She draw s about tw o fee t an d a half water , th e wheel s place d i n th e ster n i n orde r t o avoi d

26

The natura l Histor y o f th e Lon g E xpedition

Titian Peale , ink-and-was h sketch of th e steamboa t Western Engineer. (American Philosophica l Society)

trees, snag s an d sawyers , etc. O n th e quarte r dec k ther e i s a bullet proo f hous e for the steersmen . O n th e righ t hand wheel is James Monroe i n capitals, an d o n th e left , J. C . Calhoun, they being th e tw o propellin g power s o f the expedition . Sh e ha s a mast t o shi p an d unshi p a t pleasure , whic h carries a square an d topsail, o n th e bo w i s the figur e o f a large serpent , throug h th e gapping mout h of which the wast e stea m issues . It will give, n o doubt, t o th e Indian s a n ide a tha t th e boa t i s pulled alon g by this monster . Ou r arm s consis t o f on e bras s fou r pounde r mounted o n th e bow , fou r bras s 2 % inc h howitzers , tw o o n swivels, and tw o on field carriages, tw o wolf pieces carrying four ounce balls ; twelv e muskets , si x rifles , an d severa l fowlin g pieces, beside s a n ai r gun, twelve sabers , pistols, an d a quantity

2?

DOWN TH E OHI O of privat e arm s of variou s sorts an d a grea t sufficienc y o f am munition o f all kinds for our purpose. This evening, we sent u p a fe w rockets. MAY 4 . TP: We trie d the strea m an d too k a few turns o n the river , and were visited by ... gentleme n wh o advised many alterations. . . . We were visited today by a commissioner of the Bible Society who lef t u s two bibles and on e or two other books for th e goo d o f our souls . . . . Days spen t waitin g fo r th e departur e o f th e expeditio n wer e no t wholly wasted . Using a hook an d line , th e naturalist s dredged fro m the Alleghen y Rive r a curiou s salamander , te n inche s long , wit h external gills : a mu d puppy . Edwin James' s Account includes , a s a footnote, a descriptio n o f this anima l b y Thomas Say , wh o name d it Triton lateralis in th e belie f that i t differe d significantl y from othe r known salamanders . In fact, Constantin e Rafinesque had discovere d and name d i t a yea r earlier , s o i t i s Rafinesque' s name, Necturu s maculosus, that i s now used . Rafinesque, the mos t colorfu l an d ec centric o f the frontie r naturalists , had bee n describin g animals an d plants o f the Ohi o Valley at a prodigious rate, an d mor e tha n once "scooped" Thomas Say. While waiting , Sa y also took occasio n t o writ e to friend s con cerning hi s accommodations o n th e Western Engineer. His cabin, h e reported, wa s smal l but adequate , wit h spac e fo r a tabl e an d fo r a shelf o f natura l histor y books . Hi s bookshel f house d th e work s of Linnaeus and o f the Danis h entomologis t J. C. Fabricius, along with twelve volumes of William Nicholson's Britis h Encyclopedia an d othe r publications. Say, Peale, and William Baldwin had traveled before, but neve r as par t o f a militar y operatio n an d neve r wit h th e fanfar e o f thi s departure fro m Pittsburgh . The y ca n hav e ha d littl e perceptio n o f what la y ahead—indeed , th e expedition' s secon d yea r was at tha t

28

The natural History of the Long Expedition time wholly unplanned. Peale' s journal remains dry and factual , yet the youn g man—onl y nineteen—mus t hav e bee n a t leas t slightly apprehensive, as indeed mus t all the me n hav e been . MAY 5 . TP: Having complete d al l alteration s an d take n all store s aboard a t 1/2 past 4 i n th e afternoo n we bid adie u t o Pittsburgh an d descende d rapidl y dow n th e Ohio . A t abou t fourteen mile s below the tow n w e saw a steam boat grounded. We receive d an d returne d he r salut e as we passed by. I n th e evening we heard th e firs t cr y of the Whipoorwil l (Caprimulgus vociferus). Vegetatio n i s progressing very rapidly. Mos t o f th e forests ar e alread y clothed . I n comin g dow n th e rive r sa w a Cormorant. . . and tw o Turke y Vultures . We sa w some bir d that I took t o be the Tell-tai l Sandpipe r [a n early name for the greater yellowlegs] . Ou r boa t seem s to attrac t universa l atten tion, th e peopl e stopping all along the shor e to gaze at us as we pass by. James's description o f the departur e in th e officia l repor t o f the ex pedition follows tha t o f Peale almost word for word, indicating that here a s elsewhere he ha d acces s to Peak' s journal. Before dawn , on May 6, the Western Engineer reached Steubenvilk , Ohio . While the crew loaded wood to fue l th e engines , Peale toured the town , whic h he sai d "contain s man y house s tha t woul d no t discredi t Philadel phia." There were fox squirrels in th e trees . A fe w hours later, they passed Wheeling . MAY 6. TP: Soon after [passin g Wheeling] w e experienced a very violent storm from th e S.W . accompanie d with thunde r and the heaviest I have ever experienced this season. The coun try we are passing through is grand and beautiful in the extreme . Vegetation appear s farther advanced tha n higher u p the river , saw the firs t Hummin g Bird (Trochilus colubris) tha t I have see n this seaso n blown over the boa t i n th e stor m [this was a ruby -

29

DOWN TH E OHI O throated hummingbird, now Archilochus colubris]. Saw, also, the small gree n hero n (Ardea virescens) fo r th e firs t tim e o n thi s river [thi s was presumably a green-backed heron, no w Butorides striatus]. Peale tell s us that the y "passed Charleston," firing a gun as a salute. However, James states that the y mad e "an excursio n on shore , near the littl e village of Charleston, i n Virginia." Reuben Gold Thwaites, in hi s 190 5 reprintin g o f James's Account, identifie s th e villag e as Charleston, th e presen t capita l o f West Virginia , which i s on th e Kanawha Rive r man y mile s from th e Ohio . Surel y this canno t b e correct (Jame s states that the y passed the mouth of the Kanawh a on May 7) . Wherever thi s Charleston may have been—presumably on the Ohi o onl y a short distanc e belo w Steubenville (the y lef t Steu benville a t te n i n th e mornin g an d reache d Charlesto n aroun d noon)—James ha s somethin g t o sa y concerning th e "excursio n o n shore," extracte d fro m Baldwin' s notes. MAY 6 . EJ : [W] e me t wit h man y plant s commo n t o the easter n sid e o f th e Alleghanies ; besid e the delicat e siso n bulbosum, whose fruit wa s now nearl y ripened [thi s is an early flowering membe r o f th e carro t family , calle d harbinger-of spring, now know n t o scienc e a s Erigenia bulbosa]. I n shad y situations w e foun d th e rocks , an d eve n th e trunk s o f tree s t o some littl e distance fro m th e ground , closely covered with th e sedum ternatu m [ a stonecrop] , wit h whit e flower s full y un folded. Th e cerci s canadensis [redbud] , an d th e cornu s florid a [flowering dogwood] , were now expanding their flowers, and i n some place s occurre d s o frequently , a s t o impar t thei r livel y colouring to the landscape . In their walks on shore, the gentle men o f the part y collected great numbers of the early-flowerin g herbaceous plants , commo n t o variou s part s o f th e Unite d States.

30

The natural History of the Long Expedition James her e include s a lon g footnot e listin g man y o f the plant s ob served, along with thei r date s of blooming. Th e naturalist s were still in relativel y well explored country , an d ther e seem s littl e point i n repeating this list. Redbud and flowering dogwood, for example, had been supplie d wit h scientifi c names b y Swedish naturalis t Carl Linnaeus, o n th e basi s of samples sent t o hi m fro m America . Sison bulbosum an d Sedum ternatum had bee n describe d b y Andre Michaux . Michaux, a well-traine d an d widel y traveled botanist , wa s sen t t o the Unite d State s i n 178 5 t o find plant s usefu l fo r French gardens. He ha d bee n a s fa r wes t a s Illinoi s an d wa s th e firs t naturalis t t o collect plant s o n th e prairies . Michaux returne d t o Franc e i n 179 6 after discoverin g and describing innumerable plants from the easter n half o f the countr y i n his Flora Boreali-Americana. The naturalist s of the Lon g Expeditio n woul d find few botanical noveltie s unti l the y reached th e Grea t Plains . EJ: The scener y of the bank s of the Ohio , for two or thre e hundred mile s belo w Pittsburgh , i s eminentl y beautiful . . . . Broad an d gentl e swell s of two o r thre e hundre d feet , covere d with th e verdur e o f almos t unbroke n forest , emboso m a cal m and majesti c river; from whos e unruffle d surface , th e broa d outline o f th e hill s i s reflected . . . . These forest s ar e no w disap pearing befor e th e industr y of man; an d th e rapi d increas e of population an d wealth, which a few years have produced, speak loudly i n favou r o f the healthfulnes s o f the climate , and o f th e internal resource s of the country . . . . On Ma y 7, the Western Engineer stopped at Marietta, Ohio, for wood, and the nex t da y a wood stop was made near Gallipolis, where Peal e found "th e fines t beec h wood s I eve r saw. " Earl y o n Ma y 9 , th e expedition stoppe d fo r wood at Maysville . Each o f these dail y wood stops too k severa l hours, sometime s as many a s eight, affordin g th e naturalists an opportunit y to explor e th e shor e bu t delayin g the expedition t o a n exten t tha t ca n hardl y b e imagine d today . At Cin -

31

DOWN TH E OHIO cinnati, whic h the y reache d lat e o n Ma y 9, there was to b e a delay of mor e tha n a week. MAY 9 . TP: Cincinnati , lik e som e othe r town s i n th e western country , ha d rise n lik e a mushroo m fro m th e wilder ness. . . . The presen t populatio n i s said to exceed 25,000 . Im migrants are every day arriving from al l parts of the world . Th e inhabitants hav e alread y founded a college and subscribed eight or ten thousan d dollar s for a museum. They have a few articles collected fo r tha t purpose , mostl y fossil s an d anima l remains . Wishing to make some alterations in the machinery of the boat, and Dr . Baldwin being very sick, it was determined t o stay here several days. The docto r ha s accordingl y been move d o n shor e to the hous e o f Mr. Glenn and Dr. Drake summoned t o attend him. The "Dr . Drake " t o whom Peal e refer s was Daniel Drake, one of the leading citizens of Cincinnati. He had been brough t up on the fron tier and had a somewhat makeshif t education, but when he was only fifteen h e wa s apprenticed t o th e eccentri c Dr . Willia m Gofor d of Cincinnati, whos e medica l practic e h e late r too k over . B y 1819 , Drake had founde d a hospital, a library , a college, an d th e museu m to which Peale refers. He was a prolific writer and ever ready to boost Cincinnati a s the "Philadelphi a o f the West. " Drake's Wester n Museu m wa s small , bu t nevertheles s on e o f the majo r attraction s o f the city . As his preparator, Drake had hire d a thirty-three-year-ol d painter and bir d enthusiast o f French extrac tion. Peal e does no t mentio n him—oddly , sinc e h e himsel f cam e from a famil y o f artist s and wa s n o mea n artis t himself . Bu t Joh n James Audubon di d remembe r how "Messrs . T . Peale , Thomas Say and other s stare d at m y drawings." Were the y no t impressed? EJ: Vegetatio n i s her e luxuriant ; an d man y plant s un known eastwar d of the Alleghan y mountains , wer e constantl y

32

The

natural

History

of

the

Long

Expedition

presenting themselve s t o ou r notice . Tw o specie s o f aesculus are common. On e o f these ha s a nut a s large as that of the . . . common horse-chestnu t o f the gardens . These nuts ar e round, an d afte r a littl e exposur e becom e black, excep t tha t par t whic h originall y formed th e poin t o f attachment t o th e receptacle , whic h i s an oblon g spo t three fourths o f an inc h i n diameter; the whol e bearin g some resemblance t o th e eyebal l o f a deer , o r othe r animal . Henc e th e name buck-eye, which i s applie d t o th e tre e [Ohi o buckeye , Aesculus glabra]. Th e severa l specie s o f aesculu s are confine d principally t o th e wester n states an d territories . In allusio n t o this circumstance, th e indigenou s backwoodsman is sometimes called buck-eye , in distinctio n fro m th e numerou s emigrant s who ar e introducin g themselve s fro m th e easter n states . Th e opprobrious name o f Yankee is applied to these . . . . MAY 18 . EJ: [T]he weathe r becomin g clea r and pleasant , Dr. Baldwi n thought himsel f sufficiently recovere d to procee d on th e voyage ; accordingly, having assiste d him o n boar d th e boat, w e left Cincinnat i a t ten o'clock . . . . Below Cincinnati the scener y of the Ohi o becomes more monotonous tha n above. . . . This is, however, somewhat compensated b y the magnificenc e of the forest s themselves . Her e the majesti c platanus [sycamore] attains its greatest dimensions, and th e snow y whiteness of its branches i s advantageously contrasted wit h th e dee p verdur e o f the cotton-wood , an d othe r trees which occu r on the lo w grounds. . . . The frui t o f the sycamor e i s the favorit e foo d o f the par oquet, an d larg e flock s o f thes e gaily-plume d birds constantl y enliven th e gloom y forests o f the Ohio . From thi s date , ther e wer e severa l sightings o f Carolina parakeet s (or paroquets) . These , th e onl y member s o f th e parro t cla n oc curring i n th e Unite d State s asid e fro m th e dee p Southwest , were

33

DOWN TH E OHIO

about a foo t lon g (mor e tha n hal f o f tha t tail ) an d wer e brigh t green wit h a yello w an d orang e head . The y move d abou t i n flocks an d were a n eas y mar k fo r plumag e hunter s an d fo r frui t growers wh o resente d thei r foray s int o thei r orchards . Whe n John Kirk Townsen d passe d throug h Missour i in 1834 , parakeet s were still abundant :

They seem entirely unsuspicious of danger, and after being fired at, onl y huddl e close r together , a s if to obtai n pro tection fro m eac h other , an d a s their companions ar e falling abou t them , the y curv e down thei r necks , an d loo k at the m flutterin g upo n th e ground , a s though perfectl y at a los s t o accoun t fo r s o unusual an occurrence . I t i s a most inglorious sort of shooting; down right, cold-blooded murder.

The las t living parakeet was seen i n 1904 , but a s late as 1934 Roger Tory Peterso n wrot e that "naturalists still hope tha t a stray individual o r floc k migh t tur n up. " Th e expeditio n members , o f course , could no t drea m tha t thes e spectacula r bird s woul d som e da y n o longer b e part of the America n scene . After leavin g Cincinnati, Long attempted t o mak e up fo r lost time b y travelin g al l night , an d Louisville , 120 miles downstream, was reache d th e nex t day . During the night , th e Western Engineer passed the ships of the militar y contingent, whic h had lef t Pittsburgh before it . At Louisville , the expeditio n remained for four day s while further repair s were made on the engines . When the boat left, a pilot was take n o n boar d to conduct i t through th e "fall s o f the Ohio," a drop of twenty-two feet i n less than two miles. "The wate r boils and splashes about i n a most violent manner, " wrot e Peale, "and i n one place resemble s exactly th e sur f o f the sea. " Th e shi p nevertheles s passed throug h th e rapid s without problems.

34

The natura l H istory o f th e Lon g Expeditio n At th e foo t of the fall s was the tow n of Shippingport, Kentuck y (not t o b e confused wit h Shippingport , Pennsylvania , which i s not far fro m Pittsburgh) . There, large r boats ascendin g th e Ohi o ofte n waited for high wate r before challenging th e rapids , or portaged thei r cargo to Louisville. "A few days ago," wrote Peale,"there wa s no less than twent y steamboat s unloadin g here , mos t o f them i n th e Ne w Orleans trade. " I t wa s in Shippingpor t tha t Audubo n ha d live d for a time with his wife's relatives after his business had faile d an d before he move d t o Cincinnat i to serv e as Drake's preparator. James listed some of the plant s commo n i n the Louisvill e area, doubtless extracted fro m Baldwin' s journals (Baldwin rarely left hi s sickbed, relyin g on other s t o brin g hi m specimens) . Include d wer e species o f Saint-John's-wort , nightshade , milkwort , an d severa l grasses. The pastures , he noted , wer e "much overrun with luxurian t weeds," particularl y jimsonwee d (Datura strammonium) an d may weed (Anthemis Cotula). After takin g o n wood , th e shi p proceede d downstrea m fro m the rapid s o n Ma y 23 . Near th e mout h o f the Wabas h River , th e engine failed , an d th e shi p wa s allowed t o drif t unti l i t arrive d a t a place wher e repair s coul d b e made . Thi s allowe d th e naturalist s time t o g o on shore . Peal e sa w wood ducks , a gull , an d " a numbe r of littl e Mars h Tern s (Sterna minuta)" (probabl y least terns , S . an tillarum). Leas t terns , whic h ar e hardl y large r tha n swallows , ar e now liste d a s endangere d throughou t th e centra l states , a s th e sandy beache s o n whic h the y nes t hav e largel y bee n floode d o r trampled. On th e followin g day, Peale wen t huntin g an d kille d a turkey and sa w a deer, many gra y squirrels, and severa l pileated woodpeck ers. O n a lake h e foun d a turtle depositin g it s eggs in the sand . H e called i t th e "Lak e Eri e Tortois e (Testudo geographica) ." Toda y w e would cal l i t th e ma p turtl e (Graptemys geographica), name d fo r th e intricate patternin g o f lines on th e shell . MAY 28 . TP: Killed several specimens o f the Littl e Tern . . . and five Semipalmated Sandpipers. . . . The Tern appears to

35

DOWN TH E OHIO

Titian Peale , watercolor of a least tern, May 28, 1819. (American Philosophical Society)

be attracte d her e b y great number s o f a species of Phryganea [ a caddisfly] wit h whic h I foun d th e stomac h o f on e I opene d filled. The Semipalmate d Sandpiper s wer e in pretty large flocks and di d not appea r stationar y [resident ] here. . . . Proceeded a t 2. At 4 went agroun d o n a sandbar. . . . By dint o f anchor, setting poles , steam , an d al l of the me n i n th e wate r pryin g her , we got off just at dark, and ra n dow n hill until we were opposite a cave i n the roc k where we laid up for the night. Next mornin g we visite d the cave . There follows a description o f the cave , which extende d fo r 16 0 feet into th e limeston e cliffs . O n th e clif f top , a pai r o f raptor s wa s sighted, believe d t o b e red-shouldere d hawks. Shortly afte r leaving , the shi p onc e agai n "ra n agroun d o n a sandba r an d di d no t ge t off until afte r eleve n o'clock . . . . Lay to soo n afte r i n a thunderstorm . There was the mos t vivi d lightning I ever saw, being awfull y grand, "

36

The natural History of the Long Expedition wrote Peale. James's Account here include s a long footnote describing the mineralog y o f th e area , take n fro m Jessup' s report . Muc h o f i t concerns th e availabilit y of sal t a t site s alon g th e Ohi o an d else where. Sal t wa s essential t o settler s fo r th e preservatio n o f meats , fish, an d othe r foodstuffs . MAY 29 . EJ: On [thi s day ] we passe d th e mouth s o f th e Cumberland an d Tennessee, th e tw o largest rivers, tributary to the Ohio . At th e mout h o f the Cumberlan d i s a littl e villag e called Smithland . . . . [We'll hea r o f Smithlan d again ; Jame s was to spend the winte r of 1820/1821 there , ill and without th e money t o return t o Philadelphia. ] Abou t hal f wa y between th e mouth o f the Cumberlan d an d Tennessee . . . are several larg e catalpa trees . The y d o not , however , appea r t o b e native. . . . [The name ] ma y b e a corruptio n fro m Catawba , th e nam e o f the trib e by whom, accordin g t o th e suggestio n of Mr. Nuttall , the tre e ma y have bee n introduced . The catalp a tree s tha t th e naturalist s observe d wer e ver y probabl y native, a s the y wer e no w withi n th e rang e o f th e wester n catalp a (Catalpa speciosa). Mos t authorities believe that the nam e "catalpa" is base d o n Cree k India n word s meaning "hea d wit h wings, " wit h reference t o the shap e o f the show y flowers. The flowers are followed by long , pendan t seedpods , hence th e nam e "ciga r tree " sometime s applied to these trees . Note tha t James continually reports what "we " did, eve n thoug h h e di d not joi n the expeditio n until th e following spring. H e was , of course, speakin g fo r th e presen t member s o f th e expedition, t o whos e note s an d diaries he ha d access . MAY 30 . EJ: In th e afternoo n o f th e 30t h w e arrive d a t the mout h o f the Ohio. This beautiful rive r has a course of one thousand an d thirty-thre e miles , throug h a countr y surpasse d in fertility o f soil by none in the Unite d States . Excep t i n hig h floods, it s water is transparent, it s current gentle. . . . The land s

37

DOWN TH E OHIO

about th e junctio n o f these tw o great rivers are low, consisting of recent alluvion , and covered with dense forests. At th e tim e of ou r journey, the sprin g floods having subside d in th e Ohio , this quie t and gentl e rive r seemed t o be at once swallowed up, and los t i n the rapi d and turbulen t curren t o f the Mississippi. MAY 30 . TP: Saw on the Ohi o just above its mouth a Fish Hawk (Falc o Haliaetus) [no w Pandion haliaetus, osprey ] and a bird a t a distanc e tha t I suppose d t o b e th e Whit e Pelican . Came t o about two miles above the mout h o f the Ohio on th e eastern ban k o f th e Miss . Went ashor e bu t foun d i t almos t impossible t o hunt, th e mosquito s being so numerous an d immense quantitie s o f nettle s makin g i t painfu l t o wal k i n th e woods. It ha d take n th e expeditio n nearl y a ful l mont h t o complet e th e descent o f the Ohio . Aside from frequen t stops for wood, there were several occasions when th e Western Engineer became stuck on sandbars or had t o stop because of engine problems. Baldwin's illness had kept th e explorer s in Cincinnat i fo r ten days . Baldwin, Say, Peale , and Jessu p mus t have fel t frustrate d tha t wha t wa s no mor e tha n a preamble t o thei r expeditio n ha d take n s o long. Now the y were at last on the Mississippi , but would have t o travel another te n day s to reach St . Loui s and th e mout h o f the Missour i River. MAY 31 . EJ: Finding i t necessary to rene w the packin g of the pisto n i n the stea m engine, which operatio n woul d require some time , mos t o f the gentleme n o f the part y were dispersed on shor e i n pursui t of thei r respectiv e objects , o r engage d i n hunting. . . . We wer e gratifie d t o observ e man y interestin g plants, an d amon g the m severa l of the beautifu l famil y o f th e orchidae, particularl y the orchi s spectabil e [show y orchid], so common i n the mountainou s part s of New England .

38

The natural History of the Long Expedition Peale an d Jessu p found camp s o f Pawne e Indians , a t on e o f whic h they purchase d a deer. Ther e were many track s of wild turkeys ; yellow-breated chat s an d parakeet s wer e common. Ban k swallow s and kingfishers neste d i n holes alon g th e riverbank . In the evening , th e explorers were serenaded by chuck-will's-widows. On June 5, the sai l was hoisted an d th e shi p moved upstream rapidly, passing Kaskaskia, Illinois, a tow n tha t ha d bee n founde d full y a centur y earlie r b y Jesuits, wh o name d i t afte r th e loca l India n tribe . Andr e Michau x had use d the villag e as a center for botanizing in 1795 . Just beyond , the Western Engineer passe d Ste . Genevieve , o n th e Missour i side, and the n suddenl y hit a snag that caused a major leak. JUNE 5. TP: Set all hands t o pumping and came to at dusk, on th e wester n side , the hand s a t th e pum p al l night . JUNE 6 . TP: Discovered th e lea k t o b e i n th e ster n jus t below th e wate r mark ; having lightene d he r w e erected a pair of shears and raise d her ster n sufficientl y t o get at th e lea k an d caulk it . Opposit e th e plac e wher e w e la y on a sandbar wa s a large flock o f White Pelicans which remained i n the sam e place all th e morning . Starte d a t 1 1 o'clock an d passe d some o f th e most sublim e bluffs o f limestone rock s that I ever beheld . . . . On Jun e 7 , th e boa t too k o n woo d bu t soo n coul d no t advanc e against the curren t because of an accumulation of mud in the boilers . To remov e th e mud , i t wa s necessary to coo l th e boiler s an d craw l inside t o clea n them ; the n th e boiler s ha d t o b e refille d an d th e furnace restarted— a matte r of several hours i n all. During the delay , the naturalist s explored th e shor e an d collected a rat tha t Peal e described a s "very ferocious. " Examination o f the stomac h showe d i t to be filled with green bark and plant shoots. The nes t was composed of grea t quantitie s o f brush an d detritus . This was a pack rat , mor e precisely an easter n wood rat, now called Neotoma floridana. Amon g the plant s collected fo r Baldwin's study were samples of two trees —

39

DOWN TH E OHI O

smooth sumac and common persimmon—and wildflowers , includin g species o f phlox, aster , bedstraw, and others . On Jun e 9 , th e Western Engineer arrive d i n St . Louis , where Peale reported that i t was received "with a salute from a 6 pounder on the bank and from severa l steam boats along the town." The nex t day, th e officer s an d scientist s wer e treate d t o a banque t t o whic h the officer s o f the militar y contingent an d "al l th e captain s o f th e steamboats in port" were invited. The unusua l design of Long's ship attracted muc h attentio n an d elicite d thes e remark s fro m th e St . Louis Enquirer:

The bo w of the vesse l exhibits the for m o f a huge serpent, black an d scaly , rising out o f th e wate r fro m unde r th e boat, hi s hea d a s hig h a s th e deck , darte d forward , hi s mouth open, vomitin g smoke, and apparently carrying the boat o n hi s back. Fro m under th e boat , a t it s stern issue s a strea m o f foamin g water , dashin g violentl y along . . . . Neither win d nor human hand s ar e seen t o help her; and to th e ey e o f ignoranc e th e illusio n i s complete, tha t a monster of the deep carries he r on his back smoking wit h fatigue, an d lashin g the wave s with violen t exertion .

St. Loui s had bee n founde d b y th e Frenc h i n 176 4 an d name d i n honor o f Louis XV , but th e cit y ha d n o soone r bee n platte d tha n Louisiana was ceded t o Spain, onl y to be returned to France in 180 1 and finall y sol d t o th e Unite d State s i n 1803 . I n 1819 , on e wa s as likely t o hea r French , Spanish , o r India n dialect s o n th e stree t a s English. Willia m Clar k wa s superintendent o f India n affairs , whil e Manuel Lisa (of Spanish descent ) an d Auguste and Pierr e Chouteau (of Frenc h descent ) dominate d th e fu r trade. Th e cit y had becom e the gatewa y to th e West , wher e fu r traders, military personnel, an d settlers completed their preparations for journeys into lands occupied

40

cJ he ^-llalural t/tislory of Ike oLong &xpedition primarily by Native Americans. Fur s were shipped eas t and ofte n o n to Europ e via the Ohi o River or New Orleans. Th e cit y had a population o f about 4,000 . Say and Peale spent severa l days studying Indian mound s i n the St. Loui s area . James' s repor t include s detaile d measurement s o f twenty-seven o f these mounds , take n fro m note s mad e b y Say, wh o found bones , pottery , an d othe r object s i n som e o f th e grave s h e opened. Jame s was once agai n move d t o flori d language . EJ: A survey of these productions o f human industry , these monuments withou t inscription , commemorating th e existenc e of a people once numerous and powerful , bu t n o longe r know n or remembered, neve r fails , thoug h ofte n repeated , t o produc e an impressio n of sadness. A s w e stand upo n thes e moulderin g piles, many of them no w nearly obliterated, we cannot but com pare thei r aspec t o f decay wit h th e freshnes s of the wid e field of nature, which w e see reviving around us; their insignificance, with th e majesti c and imperishabl e feature s of the landscape . We feel the insignificanc e and the want of permanence i n every thing human ; w e ar e reminde d o f th e pyramid s of Egypt, an d may wit h equa l propriet y be applie d t o al l th e work s of men , "these monument s mus t perish , bu t th e gras s that grow s between thei r disjointe d fragments shall b e renewed from yea r to year." "The grass y plains to the west of St. Louis are ornamented wit h many beautifully flowering herbaceous plants," says James at another point. Among thos e studied by Baldwin were yellow lady's slipper, southern red lily, Dutchman's pipe , scarlet Indian paintbrush, spiderwort, rock rose, an d clematis . EJ: The border s o f thi s plai n begi n t o b e overru n wit h a humble growt h o f blac k jac k [oak ] an d th e witc h hazel , i t abounds i n rivulets , and som e excellen t spring s of water, nea r

41

DOWN TH E OHI O

one o f which wa s foun d a new an d beautifu l specie s of viburnum. On th e wester n borders of this prairie are some fine farms. It i s here that Mr . John Bradbury , s o long an d advantageously known a s a botanist , an d b y hi s travels int o th e interio r of America, is preparing to erect his habitation. Thi s amiable gentleman los t no opportunity during our stay at St. Louis to make our residenc e ther e agreeabl e to us . Near th e sit e selecte d fo r his hous e i s a minera l spring , whose water s ar e strongl y im pregnated wit h sulphurette d hydroge n gas . Cattle an d horses , which rang e her e throughou t th e season , prefe r th e water s of this spring to thos e o f the cree k i n whose bed i t rises, and may be see n dail y coming i n grea t numbers , fro m distan t part s of the prairie , to drink o f it.

John Bradbury' s Travels i n th e Interior o f America, describing his ex periences on the Missour i in 181 0 an d 1811 , had been published just two years earlier. Bradbury had bee n commissioned b y the Botanica l Society o f Liverpool t o collec t plants suitable for cultivation i n England, bu t h e soo n becam e engrosse d i n th e unstudie d flor a o f th e West. He and fellow botanist Thomas Nuttall traveled with the Astorians a s far as Fort Mandan (Nort h Dakota) . Bradbur y returned t o England hopin g t o describe the plants he had sent back , only to find that hi s "desig n wa s frustrated, b y my collection havin g bee n submitted t o th e inspectio n o f a perso n b y th e nam e o f Pursh, " wh o included the description s in his Flora. Bradbury returned to settle i n Missouri in 1818 . Despite th e opportunit y t o visi t with Bradbury , th e naturalists must hav e grow n impatien t wit h Long' s twelve-da y dela y i n St . Louis. He apparentl y waited until Colonel Henry Atkinson' s troop laden steamboat s were ready to procee d u p the Missouri , and ther e were problem s obtainin g sufficien t supplie s t o sustai n th e troop s through th e winter. Neither Atkinso n no r Long had appreciated the many problem s i n navigatin g th e river s i n steamboats—an d ther e

42

Cy lie ^l/lalural &*tistory oj the c-bong (Oxpedilion were mor e problem s t o come . Atkinso n decide d t o overwinte r hi s troops at Council Bluff , som e 600 miles upstream, rather than trying to go on to the mout h of the Yellowstone as originally planned. Long changed hi s plan s t o follo w suit . Finally , on Jun e 21 , th e Western Engineer left St . Louis and on the followin g day entered th e Missouri.

ct four k::~l

UP TH E MISSOUR I

JUNE 22. TP: The meetin g of the water s of the Mississippi and Missour i have a very singular appearance . The Mississippi is clea r an d o f a transparen t green , th e Missour i thic k wit h yellow mu d an d bein g heavier tha n th e Mississippi , the wate r takes the botto m o f the rive r until it strikes the opposit e shore . It i s ther e throw n t o th e surfac e an d present s larg e spot s of muddy wate r intermingle d wit h th e clear . Th e Minut e Tern s were very numerous near th e confluenc e of the tw o rivers. This morning hear d th e crie s o f a floc k o f Parrakeets . Arrived op posite Bellefontain e [fou r mile s up th e Missouri ] at 2 o'cloc k and ran o n a sand bar which kep t [us ] until 4 before we landed. The 6t h regimen t are encamped o n th e bank s of the rive r opposite the garriso n of Bellefontaine. Col. Atkinso n i s contriving his boat s t o g o by wheels turne d b y the soldiers . Each boa t i s to have tw o pairs of wheels and 8 men a t eac h pair. Only onc e before had steamboat s plied th e turbulen t Missouri , and then fo r only a shor t distance . Eve n wit h th e us e of manpower a t the sid e wheels, Colonel Atkinson' s troo p ship s were not succesfu l in ascendin g th e Missour i ver y far . Two , th e Calhoun an d th e

44

Cv/te ^tialurai CsLislory of Ine c^ong Oxpeailion Exchange, turned aroun d almos t immediately ; another, the Jefferson, a fe w days later. Th e Johnson' s machinery gav e out te n mile s belo w the mout h o f th e Kansa s River , an d onl y th e Expedition reache d Camp Martin , o n Co w Island , nea r th e mout h o f the Kansas . Wil liam D . Hubbell , a cler k o n th e Johnson , recollecte d tha t o n man y nights thos e o n th e boa t "coul d loo k bac k an d se e th e plac e w e started fro m i n th e morning . . . . [T]he whol e matte r o f the steam boats was as complete a failure as could have been possible, the boat s being totally unfi t fo r the trip. " The troop s wh o finally reached their winter quarter s severa l mile s abov e Counci l Bluf f di d s o primarily on keelboats . S o muc h fo r th e hop e o f reaching th e Yellowstone , many hundreds o f miles beyond! The Western Engineer, with it s narro w bea m an d rea r paddl e wheel, wa s better adapte d t o th e Missouri . Nevertheless th e "thic k yellow mud " o f the rive r accumulate d rapidl y in th e boilers . Rathe r than cleanin g the m ou t manually , Stephen Lon g an d hi s cre w devised a metho d o f blowin g ou t th e mu d throug h a tub e b y stea m pressure. Progress was, however, extremel y slow. JUNE 24 . TP: Left Bellefontain e a t 1 0 o'clock. Proceede d up ver y slowly at first owing to th e rapidit y of the current . I n one plac e th e boa t coul d scarcel y mak e on e mil e pe r hour . Calculating tha t sh e woul d g o 6 i n stil l water , i t woul d mak e the curren t ru n a t th e rat e o f 5 miles per hour. . . . Grounde d twice i n th e afternoo n bu t cleare d ourselve s without muc h difficulty. The Missour i during today' s ru n wa s much obstructe d by sandbar s an d islands.. . . The Yello w Breasted Cha t (pipra polyglotta) [no w Icteria virens] i s extremely common, bot h in th e prairies [and ] wher e ther e are bushes an d woods . Yellow-breasted chat s wer e doubtles s more commo n tha n the y ar e now, a s many o f the thicket s i n whic h thes e idiosyncrati c warblers breed have been remove d for agriculture. In late June, the chats were probably still in song—if the curiou s hoots and whistles of these birds

45

UP TH E MISSOUR I can b e calle d a song . Th e naturalist s were surprised to se e "black headed terns " s o fa r fro m th e ocean . Thes e ma y wel l hav e bee n Forster's terns , whic h bree d i n marshe s i n th e interio r o f the West . Basswood tree s (Tili a americana) gre w larg e an d wer e in ful l flower . There wer e wil d rose s an d a specie s o f milkvetc h tha t Baldwi n thought migh t belon g t o a ne w genus . Jame s noted tha t sandbar s formed a t th e bend s i n th e rive r wer e quickl y colonize d b y small willows and cottonwoods . Now tha t the y wer e i n countr y wher e th e insec t faun a wa s poorly known , Sa y was collecting insect s tha t h e late r name d an d described. Severa l time s h e note d migration s o f a small , brightly colored lea f beetle , whic h h e name d Altica 5-vittata (now Disonycha 5-vittata). A planthoppe r (Delphax tricarinata, no w Stobaera tricarinata), "cam e o n boar d ... i n considerable numbers." A smal l shore bug was "not uncommo n o n the shore of the Missouri River, skipping nimbly about. " Sa y named i t Acanthia interstitialis, unaware that th e species als o occurre d i n Europ e an d ha d bee n name d i n 179 4 b y Danish entomologis t J. C. Fabricius . It i s now calle d Saldula pallipes. As i s often th e case , al l thre e specie s ar e no w place d i n gener a of more restricte d scope than those in which Sa y placed them . At St . Charles , Majo r Benjami n O'Fallon , th e India n agent , and his deputy and interpreter , John Dougherty , joined th e expedi tion. Fro m now on ther e woul d be many contacts wit h Indians , and it was hoped tha t thes e tw o experienced me n woul d help i n dealing more effectivel y wit h them . Meanwhile , tensio n wa s growing between Biddl e and Long. The tw o refused t o speak to each other, an d Biddle challenge d Lon g to a duel, which fortunatel y never cam e t o pass. Long now decided t o sen d a group headed b y Say overland, to rejoin th e shi p farthe r upstream . They wer e t o b e awa y for a week while the Western Engineer labore d u p the river . One evenin g Baldwin felt wel l enough t o walk on shore , "bu t returne d much fatigue d by his exertions." Baldwin listed some of the "vegetabl e production s at this place." Dominan t tree s included cottonwood, sycamore , hick-

46

C7 n e ^tialurai cJuislory of Ine obong CO xpeailion ory, re d oak , American hornbeam , sassafras , an d juniper . Climbing bittersweet wa s i n fruit , an d orang e coneflower s (Rudbeckia fulgida) were i n bloom . JUNE 27 . EJ: The shor e here wa s lined wit h th e commo n elder, (sambucu s canadensis ) i n ful l bloom , an d th e cleare d fields were yellow with the flower s of the commo n mullein. This plant, suppose d t o hav e bee n originall y introduced fro m Eu rope, follows closely on th e footstep s o f the whites . [Great mullein (Verbascum thapsus) ha d indee d come from Europe , where it ha d a variety of uses in fol k medicine , includin g the allevi ation o f asthma, earache , an d eve n bed-wetting. ] Th e liatri s pycnostachia, her e calle d "pin e o f the prairies " [prairie snakeroot or blazing star], which was now i n full bloom , has a roundish tuberou s root, o f a war m somewha t balsami c taste, an d i s used b y the Indian s and other s for the cur e of gonorrhoea . The India n interpreter , Mr . Dougherty , als o showe d u s some branches o f a shrub, which he sai d was much use d among the native s in th e cur e o f lues venerea [syphilis] . They mak e a decoction o f the root , whic h the y continu e t o drin k fo r some time. I t i s called "blu e wood " b y th e French , an d i s the sym phoria recemos a [ a specie s of snowberry , Symphoricarpos racemosus] . . . Syphilis was evidently prevalent amon g Native Americans. The first major outbreak in Europe occurred soon after Columbus's return, and it i s often maintained tha t som e of his sailor s brought back th e spirochetes fro m th e Wes t Indies . The diseas e may have been endemi c among tribe s of the America n West , o r the y ma y have becom e in fected throug h contact s wit h early trappers and trader s of European descent. Gonorrhe a likel y had it s origins in the Ol d World, as it was known i n ancient times . It was probably delivered to Native Amer icans alon g with smallpo x and a variety of other diseases.

47

UP TH E MISSOUR I EJ: Withou t meetin g an y remarkabl e occurrences , w e moved o n fro m da y t o day , encountering numerou s obstacles in th e navigatio n o f the river , an d bein g occasionally delayed by th e failur e o f some part o f the steam-engine , till on th e 2 d of July, we arrived at Loutre [Otter] Island , where we found Mr. Say and hi s companions . The grou p that ha d travele d overlan d seem s to hav e encountere d many difficultie s withou t accomplishin g very much. Say , Peale, Jessup, and Seymour left th e shi p at St. Charles o n the mornin g of June 26, buying a horse and loading it with their tent, blankets, canteens, and " a fe w biscuits." A ma n name d Kenn a cam e alon g t o lea d th e horse. Th e firs t da y the y travele d eightee n mile s ove r a shadeles s prairie, wit h wate r i n shor t supply . Their hors e thre w it s pack an d ran off , but wit h som e effor t wa s recovered . I n th e evening , the y camped no t fa r from a house, but th e owne r woul d not giv e o r sell them anythin g t o eat and gave them wate r "with a bad grace." They made suppe r o f a hawk that Jessup had shot . Fortunately the next day's travel brought them to a house where they wer e abl e t o obtai n water , milk , an d cornbread , an d i n th e evening the y arrive d a t "Kenedy' s fort, " wher e the y campe d an d "made a supper on some squirrels, and larks, to which we added some corn brea d an d butte r mil k tha t w e ha d purchase d fro m Kenedy. " Kenedy als o sol d the m a ham, whic h the y consumed th e nex t day. The prairi e was filled with "partridge s and larks " an d "som e fe w of Bartram's Sandpiper (Tringa Bartramia)" (no w Bartramia longicauda, upland sandpiper) . These relatively long-necked sandpiper s nest o n the groun d i n tall-gras s prairies , migratin g i n th e fal l t o souther n South America . Wa s Say aware at th e tim e that the y wer e seeing a bird tha t had bee n name d fo r his great-grandfather ? JUNE 29. TP: Kenna returned at sunrise without the hors e or having seen anything of her. On th e prairies there is a species of green headed fl y [horse fly , Tabanus] whic h torment s horse s

48

CV ne ^ftalural &*lislory oj Ine cJj ong (Oxpedilion and cattl e s o much tha t crossing the prairie s in the da y is next of impossible . This, I believe, was the caus e o f our hors e run ning away . It i s said that these flies wil l sometimes kill a horse, therefore i n crossin g prairie s traveler s mostl y tur n nigh t int o day an d day into night . No alternativ e wa s left t o u s but t o divid e th e pac k an d turn pac k horse s ourselves , then t o mak e t o th e neares t poin t on the river . .. . Arrived at Loutre Island jus t at dark. Her e we found water in plenty, and it seemed as though it was impossible for u s t o satisf y ou r thirst . . . . Distance 2 1 miles , bu t roug h roads, a hot sun , and heavy loads, made it the longes t 2 1 miles ever I traveled . After breakfasting , struc k ou r tent , an d marche d u p th e river 2 miles . Cam e t o anothe r hous e o n th e islan d an d en camped o n th e bank s o f the river . In th e marc h I killed 4 turkeys, tw o of them a t on e shot . They ar e mor e numerou s her e than eve r I saw them. Procure d a kettle a t th e house , cooked , and feaste d on ou r turkey. JULY I . TP: Went ou t t o hunt , kille d a turkey , a rabbit , and som e squirrel s which ar e extremel y numerous . A perso n walking through th e wood s is scarcely ever out of sight of them. Parakeets abound ; dee r ar e numerous . Th e lan d i s very rich , and covered wit h remarkabl y fine timber. .. . JULY 2 . TP: Went ou t t o hunt , kille d 2 rabbits , a pole cat, an d wounde d a fin e buck . Mr . Jessu p killed a turkey . I n the evenin g w e wer e gratifie d b y th e approac h o f ou r boat . She passe d us and cam e t o a mile abov e where w e all went o n board., , . Loutre Islan d was large enough t o hav e severa l farms, an d Lon g was able t o obtai n a supply of fresh vegetables , eggs, and poultry . Afte r describing th e far m building s an d cor n mills , th e naturalist s com mented o n some of the lightnin g beetle s they had observed: "A large

49

UP TH E MISSOUR I species of lampyris is common o n th e lowe r part of the Missouri . . . . It emits from thre e t o seven or eight flashes , i n rapid succession, then ceases; but shortl y after renew s its brilliancy." At Loutr e Island this species was absent, bu t ha d bee n replace d by "great number s of th e lampyris pyralis, whose coruscations are inferior in quantity of light, and appea r singly." In recent years there has been much research on the flashin g o f the male s of these beetles , demonstrating tha t eac h species has it s own pattern o f flashes to which females of that species respond. I t i s interesting tha t member s of the expeditio n were alert to th e difference s betwee n thes e tw o species. EJ: The blac k walnu t attains, i n the Missour i bottoms, its greatest magnitude . O f one , whic h gre w nea r Loutr e Island , there ha d bee n mad e tw o hundre d fence-rails , eleve n fee t i n length, an d fro m fou r t o six inches i n thickness. A cotton-tre e [cottonwood], i n the same neighborhood, produced thirty thousand shingles , as we were informe d by a credible witness. On Jul y 3, the Western Engineer passed the mout h o f the Gasconad e River. Independence Da y passed with little celebration. An opossum shot by Biddle, with a few glasses of wine, provided them with a meal slightly mor e festiv e tha n usual . "Game i s plenty," reporte d Peale , "but i t requires some knowledge of the country to shoot them. There are many salt licks that are much resorte d to. Wild cat s (Felis Lynx) are numerous. [Presumabl y these wer e bobcats (F . rufus), no t lynx. ] Also th e commo n Groun d Squirre l (Sciurus Striatus) [doubtles s th e eastern chipmunk , Tamias .stratus]." JULY 5. TP: Took wood on board and starte d at 9 o'clock. At th e plantatio n w e were at, w e procured som e honey . Th e man ha d a numbe r o f bee hives , an d ha s jus t caugh t anothe r swarm. All that he has he had caugh t i n the woods, where bees are becomin g numerous . Th e inhabitant s sa y that befor e th e country cam e int o the possessio n of Americans, ther e wa s not

50

fflie (Ylalural Gffislory ryof ike J^ong (OxpeJilion a be e t o b e seen , an d the y wer e unknown . ... A t 1 0 o'clock anchored at Cote Des Sans Dessei n to clean our boiler. Mr. Say and mysel f went u p the bank s of the river , chased a ground ho g (Arctamys Monax). I t ra n int o a hol e an d wa s soon dislodge d by a stick and a s it came out, I stuck it with my knife and killed it. Encamped o n shor e wit h Mr . Seymour i n a tent. The groundho g was , of course, the commo n woodchuck , no w calle d Marmota monax. I t is noteworthy tha t honeybees wer e already abundant i n th e wild . They were introduce d fro m Europ e a t a very early date an d ha d obviousl y become wel l establishe d i n th e lowe r Mis souri Valley by 1819 . Eve n today , honeybees ar e commonly referre d to simpl y as bees, though ther e are thousand s o f species of wild bees native t o America . Cote San s Dessei n ha d bee n founde d b y severa l familie s o f French descen t i n 1808 . Th e citizen s ha d defende d th e villag e against a n India n attac k durin g the Wa r o f 1812, thoug h with som e loss o f life . Ther e wa s now " a tavern , a store , a blacksmith' s shop , and a billiard table." Near th e town , Sa y collected a robber fly that he late r describe d a s Laphria fulvicauda (no w Andrenosoma fulvicauda). This was later illustrated in color in his American Entomology, drawn by Titian Peale . There wa s an abundanc e o f scouring rushes , or horsetail s (Equisetum), alon g th e river , affordin g "a n indifferen t pasturage" an d sometime s provin g fata l t o horses . Consumption o f milk i n th e summe r along th e Missour i ofte n produced "mil k sickness, " sometime s causin g death. It was often ascribed t o cattl e feedin g on poisonou s plants. Baldwi n believed tha t a form of typhus, "produced b y putrid exhalations," wa s a more likely explanation. Quit e probably , these wer e case s o f typhoid, resultin g from contaminatio n b y milk handlers wh o carried the diseas e organisms. On July 6, the expeditio n passe d the mout h o f the Osage River, not fa r from th e sit e of present-day Jefferson City . On th e following day th e Western Engineer ran agroun d o n a sandbar and , soo n afte r

51

UP TH E MISSOUR I being freed , ra n int o a snag. As i f that wer e not enough , on e o f th e valves on the boiler s became displaced, and the engin e failed. These problems wer e eventuall y overcome , bu t progres s continue d t o b e slow becaus e o f th e stron g curren t an d th e difficult y o f obtainin g wood o f good quality . Peale noted th e abundanc e o f chimney swift s and suppose d that the y neste d i n hollow trees , since ther e were few chimneys to be found. In severa l places there wer e Indian painting s on the rock s along the river , and Peal e sketched som e of them. Th e paintings include d animals , humans, bow s and arrows , and abstrac t figures. On Jul y 13 , the Western Engineer reache d Franklin , 20 0 miles above the mout h o f the Missour i and the mos t important tow n west of St. Louis. The tow n boaste d mor e than a hundred lo g houses an d a fe w built o f brick , a courthouse , a jail , an d eve n a weekl y newspaper. Although Frankli n had becom e a major settlement, th e river was alread y eroding th e bank s i n fron t o f the tow n an d woul d on e day spel l its doom. Boonville , acros s th e river , seeme d t o th e natu ralists to occupy "a more advantageous situation" an d was "probably destined t o rival, if not surpass , its neighbor." Thi s proved to be true. Within a few years, in any case, Independence woul d replace Franklin a s a point o f departure for the West . When Long' s shi p arrived , there "mus t hav e bee n upward s of a hundred " spectator s o n th e bank , wrot e Peale . Onl y onc e befor e had a steamboat ascende d th e Missour i thi s far . The shi p remaine d in Frankli n for nearly a week. This gave the passenger s time to visit the brin e springs known a s Boone's Lick, not fa r away. Daniel Boon e had discovere d th e spring s on on e o f his wanderings, and wit h tw o of hi s son s ha d establishe d a smal l industr y tha t supplie d sal t b y keelboat t o St . Loui s and othe r communitie s i n th e lowe r Missour i and Mississipp i Valleys. Salt was an essentia l commodity, needed t o cure hides and t o preserve meat i n days long before refrigeration was available. Fo r Danie l Boone , centra l Missour i had alread y becom e overpopulated. He was quoted b y the St . Louis Enquirer as complaining that "I had not been two years at the lick before a d d Yankee

52

C/L (flalural tsffislory yof lie J^ong (Oxpejition came, an d settle d dow n withi n on e hundre d mile s o f me." H e was now a n ol d man , livin g wit h hi s so n Nathan nea r St . Charles ; h e died th e followin g year. But the spring s were still in production . EJ: We visite d on e establishmen t fo r th e manufactur e o f salt. The brin e i s taken from a spring at the surfac e of the earth , and i s not remarkabl y concentrated, yieldin g only on e bushe l of salt to each four hundred an d fifty gallons. Eighty bushels are manufactured daily , an d requir e thre e cord s o f woo d fo r th e evaporation o f the water . . . . The bank s of the ravin e in whic h this sprin g rises, stil l retain th e trace s of those numerou s herd s of bisons , elk , an d othe r herbivorou s animals , whic h formerl y resorted her e fo r their favorit e condiment . At Franklin , a local citize n reported tha t in 181 6 h e had discovered the grav e of a white man , cla d i n a n officer' s unifor m and lef t i n a sitting positio n surrounde d b y a crud e lo g enclosure. H e ha d bee n scalped, and th e mat s beneath him wer e of Indian origin , suggesting that the office r ha d bee n kille d by Indians but fo r some reason hon ored wit h a n elaborate burial . A walkin g stick found beside him was engraved wit h th e initial s "J.M.C., " an d a butto n ha d th e wor d "Philadelphia" o n it . This ma y or may not hav e bee n th e grav e of Jean Baptist e Champlain , a n envo y o f Manuel Lis a who ha d disap peared o n a tradin g missio n t o th e Arkansa s River . Locall y i t was considered probabl e tha t the bod y was that of a Spanish officer wh o had been kille d in a skirmish with Indians in that area in 1815 . Thi s seems a more likely explanation, thoug h ther e wer e those wh o maintained tha t i t wa s Champlain an d tha t Ezekie l Williams wa s guilty of his murde r (a s discussed i n Chapte r 1) . Peale noted that the bird s he was seeing were still mainly those of eastern distribution . Carolina wrens and parakeets were common . At Franklin , th e compan y of naturalists was reduced by one. Baldwin had hope d tha t his health would improv e a s the expeditio n move d westward, but i t was not t o be.

53

UP TH E MISSOUR I EJ: Dr. Baldwin' s health ha d s o muc h decline d that , o n our arrival in Franklin, he was induced to relinquish th e inten tion o f ascending farthe r wit h th e party . He wa s removed o n shore to the house of Dr. Lowry, intending t o remain there until he shoul d recove r s o muc h strengt h a s migh t enabl e hi m t o return t o hi s family . Bu t th e hope s o f his friends , eve n fo r his partial recovery , wer e no t t o b e realized . H e lingere d a few weeks after ou r departure, and expired on the thirty-firs t of August. His diary, in which th e lates t date i s the eight h of August, only a fe w day s previous t o hi s death , show s wit h wha t ear nestness, eve n i n th e las t stage s of weakness an d disease , hi s mind wa s devoted t o th e pursuit , i n whic h h e ha d s o nobl y spent th e mos t importan t par t o f his life . There follows, i n James's Account, a series of extracts fro m Baldwin's diary. I t i s primarily a lis t o f plant s observe d aroun d Frankli n an d will not b e include d here , a s it report s a flora o f the lowe r Missouri basin tha t wa s already reasonably wel l known. Som e o f the wood y plants mentioned wer e basswood, honey locust , papaw, and smoot h sumac; herbaceous plants included pokeweed, black nightshade, wild bergamot, bellflower , white avens, and diverse composites, includin g Canada fleabane, Indian plantain , an d yarrow. While a t Franklin, the decision was made to send another group overland, t o rejoi n the shi p a t For t Osag e (som e forty mile s east of where Kansa s City no w stands) . The part y consisted o f Say, Jessup, Seymour, Dougherty , Biddle , and tw o others. Peal e had bee n suffer ing from a foot infectio n and stayed on board. The Western Engineer left Frankli n on July 19 , but that day gained only thre e mile s against the swif t current . Th e engin e valve s had becom e s o worn fro m th e silt i n th e rive r that the y wer e leaking , and anothe r da y was spent making repairs . Peale, O'Fallon, an d Willia m Swif t too k advantag e of the dela y to do some hunting, bu t game was scarce. They did take a raccoo n an d a partridge. Peale foun d a nes t o f a woo d ra t tha t containe d "nea r a car t

54

C/ n e ^ttalural CsLislory oj Ine cb ong (^xpealliotl load" o f plant material ; th e nes t was lined with "dow n o f the butto n wood bal l [sycamore]. " H e als o foun d a nes t o f "th e Cappe d Fly catcher (Muscicapa pusilla)." Ther e were two whit e eggs , thei r end s with fleck s o f brownish-purple . I n identifyin g thi s bird , Peal e wa s following Alexande r Wilson' s American Ornithology. Wilson ha d called i t th e "gree n black-cappe d flycatcher, " thoug h i n fac t i t was not a flycatcher but a warbler, now called Wilson's warble r (Wihonia pusilla). I t i s puzzling that Peale found a nest in central Missouri , well south of its normal breeding range. Had he confuse d it with a species of simila r coloration? The recor d o f the tri p from Frankli n t o For t Osage tell s mostly of navigatio n problems . Unfortunatel y Peale' s diary , following th e arrival at Fort Osage o n Augus t 1, has been lost, though it may hav e been availabl e to James when h e compile d hi s report o n th e expe dition. Sinc e Peal e wa s not par t of the overlan d tri p to For t Osage , we must rely on James, who doubtless received his information fro m Say, wh o wa s i n charg e o f th e group . Th e tri p wa s less plagued by problems than the previou s one. Perhap s th e naturalist s were learning more abou t surviva l in little known an d sparsel y settled country . Say and hi s party traveled throug h forested bottomlands alon g the Missour i and ou t ont o prairies "where th e hig h grass and weed s rendered thei r progress difficult an d laborious." There they saw sandhill cranes an d prairi e hens (presumably , greater prairie-chickens) . They als o saw four "Mississipp i kites": "Th e fork s o f the tai l o f this bird are so much elongated a s to resemble some fortuitous appendage, for which , a t firs t sight , they ar e often mistaken. " Thes e were surely swallow-tailed kites, which onc e ranged north into Missouri but now are uncommon an d restricte d to th e Gul f states . At a hunter' s cabin , Sa y "ha d a n opportunit y t o examin e a young blac k wolf, whic h wa s confined b y a chain a t th e doo r o f th e hut. . . . When fed on meat th e ferocity of his disposition manifeste d itself i n attempt s t o bit e th e children . I t was ordinarily fed on brea d and milk. " Th e hunte r entertaine d th e me n with huntin g tales . He claimed t o hav e kille d fifty bears an d sevent y dee r th e precedin g

55

UP TH E MISSOUR I autumn. Thes e wer e white-tailed deer , an d i n a lon g footnot e Sa y provided measurement s o f an individua l deer sho t late r b y th e ex pedition, alon g wit h lif e histor y data . Say's grou p reache d For t Osag e wel l befor e th e Western Engineer, an d Sa y too k occasio n t o stud y some o f th e fossil s foun d i n local limestone . On e o f the officer s statione d ther e brough t hi m a metallic wood-borin g beetle , whic h h e late r name d Buprestis confiuenta. Thi s i s perhaps th e mos t beautifu l o f North American bee tles—glossy green , it s win g cover s speckle d wit h yellow . I t wa s illustrated i n colo r i n Say' s American Entomology. Fort Osage ha d been establishe d in 180 8 o n a bluff overlookin g the Missouri , about fort y mile s east o f its junction wit h th e Kansa s River, guarding the western frontier of permanent settlements . There was a pentagonal stockad e that enclosed buildings for living quarters, at that time housin g a rifle regiment . Here a t th e extremit y of western expansion , James was led to speculat e on th e "charms " of living in suc h remot e places , fre e fro m th e "uneas y restraint s inseparable from a crowded population" an d "dependen t immediately and solely on th e bount y o f nature. " Offsettin g difficulties ther e surel y were, but settler s th e me n me t alon g th e Missour i often spok e o f moving still farthe r wes t wheneve r i t becam e possible . Jame s wrot e o f th e "charms" o f frontier lif e a s h e prepare d th e fina l repor t o f th e ex pedition, afte r hi s retur n east , an d t o a degre e h e ma y hav e bee n expressing hi s ow n visio n o f th e frontier , for i n late r lif e h e ofte n spoke o f returning west , and h e eventuall y settled i n Iowa . The shi p was delayed at For t Osage for several days while Long waited for a break in the weathe r so that he could mak e astronomica l measurements t o determin e th e fort' s exac t latitude . I n th e mean time, he organize d still anothe r overlan d expedition , thi s on e mor e ambitious than th e previou s two. AUGUST 6 . EJ: Wishing t o exten d ou r examination s be tween For t Osag e an d th e Konza s [Kansas] river, also betwee n that river and th e Platte , a party was detached fro m th e steam -

56

ffLe (natural sffislory of ike J^ong GxpeJilion boat, with instructions to cross the Konzas at the Konza village, thence t o travers e th e countr y b y th e neares t rout e t o th e Platte, an d t o descen d tha t rive r t o th e Missouri . Th e part y consisted o f Mr . Say , t o who m th e comman d wa s entrusted , Messrs. Jessup, Peale, and Seymour, Cadet Swift, Mr . J. Dougherty, an d fiv e soldiers . The y wer e furnishe d wit h thre e pack horses, an d a supply of provisions for ten days . Thus organize d and equipped , they commence d thei r marc h o n the afternoo n of August 6th, accompanie d b y Major Biddle and hi s servant . We wil l pick up the stor y of Say's group later. The Western Engineer proceeded upstrea m o n Augus t 10 , it s progres s "much impede d b y shoals an d rapids. " Beyon d For t Osage , th e explorer s passe d th e mouth o f th e Kansa s River, "s o filled with mu d ... a s scarcel y t o admit th e passag e of our boat." Three days later, they wen t onwar d to Co w Islan d (Isl e au Vache) (abou t halfway betwee n presen t At chison an d Leavenworth , Kansas) , the sit e o f Camp Martin , a military post that had bee n establishe d i n 181 8 b y a company o f troops that ha d precede d th e mai n bod y o f th e expeditio n b y keelboat . Since th e explorin g party was now well ahead of Colonel Atkinson' s troops and "migh t b e exposed t o insult s and depredations" fro m th e Indians, Lon g requeste d tha t a smal l group of rifleme n accompan y him, b y keelboat, unti l a winter camp wa s established . At Co w Island, the men awaited the arriva l of a group of Kansas Indians for a council arrange d b y O'Fallon. The Indian s arrive d on August 24 ; after speech-making , they examine d th e shi p and "man ifested som e surpris e at th e operatio n o f the steam-boat. " O n th e following day, the augmente d expeditio n proceede d up the Missouri. SEPTEMBER I . EJ : [W]e wer e unde r th e necessit y o f re maining encampe d nea r th e mout h o f Wolf river , that som e repairs migh t b e mad e t o th e stea m engine . Her e w e sent ou t some persons to hunt, wh o afte r a short tim e returned , havin g taken a deer, a turkey, and three swarm s of bees, which afforde d

57

UP TH E MISSOUR I us about half a barrel of honey. O n th e tree s which margi n th e river, w e frequentl y observed a fin e specie s o f squirrel , whic h possesses al l th e gracefu l activit y of the commo n gra y squirrel, as i t leap s from bough t o bough . Examples o f thes e squirrel s were collected , an d a descriptio n wa s included i n the Account b y Thomas Say. He named th e specie s Sciurus macrurus (Greek fo r "big tail"), noting tha t it "seems to approac h the Sc . rufiventer," whic h Geoffre y St . Hilaire had describe d i n 1803 . When John Jame s Audubon an d John Bachma n publishe d thei r Viviparous Quadrupeds o f North America in 1851 , the y realize d that th e name macrurus had bee n used earlier for another kind o f squirrel, so they rename d i t i n honor of Thomas Say, S. sayii. However, neither name i s now use d for these squirrels , since the y are considered iden tical t o St . Hilaire's , whos e nam e i s used, following the la w of priority. Thi s i s th e midwester n rac e o f th e fo x squirrel , now calle d S. niger rufiventre. Near th e Wol f River , th e shi p wa s hailed fro m th e shor e b y Dougherty, wh o had bee n wit h Say' s party . H e reporte d tha t mos t of th e grou p was a shor t distanc e downstream , bu t Sa y an d Jessup had taken sic k and had stayed behind wit h the troop s at Cow Island. Since the overlan d part y had planne d t o mee t th e res t of the expe dition a t the mout h o f the Platte , thi s came a s a surprise, but at least all were safe. Afte r Doughert y an d his companions wer e aboard, th e ship proceede d upstream . The overlan d expeditio n ha d bee n ou t fo r nearl y fou r week s and ha d gon e a s far a s the junctio n o f the Bi g Blue River wit h th e Kansas River , where th e villag e of the Kansa s Indians wa s located . This is near th e sit e of present-day Manhattan , Kansas . From there , they ha d travele d northeas t t o Co w Island , withou t comin g any where nea r th e Platte , a s originally planned. After crossin g the plain s for some distance, Say' s party saw ravens fo r the firs t tim e an d kille d severa l rattlesnakes. Blowflie s wer e abundant, "attackin g no t onl y th e provision s o f the party , but de -

58

cJLe (-natural of lie J^ong tS?€islor COxpedilion V

positing thei r egg s upo n th e blankets , clothing , an d eve n o n th e furniture o f th e horses. " Followin g the cours e o f the Kansa s River, they suffere d fro m hea t an d th e roughnes s o f the terrain . Several i n the part y had dysentery . By August 16 , they wer e approximately a t the sit e o f Topeka. Fou r day s later , the y sa w the India n villag e i n the distance , an d the y stoppe d "t o arrang e thei r dress , and inspec t their firearms. " In th e villag e the y wer e receive d "wit h th e utmos t cordiality." Say describe d th e villag e o f th e Kansa s Indian s a s consistin g of abou t 12 0 lodge s clustere d irregularl y o n a plai n a shor t dis tance fro m th e river . Eac h lodg e wa s buil t i n a shallow , circula r depression an d ha d a roo f supporte d b y vertical post s an d covere d with smalle r branche s ove r whic h wer e lai d mat s o f gras s o r bark ; the whol e wa s the n covere d wit h earth , leavin g a hol e i n th e middle fo r th e escap e o f smoke . Th e interio r o f each lodg e ha d a central fireplac e an d wall s line d wit h mat s an d wit h simpl e bed steads covere d wit h biso n robes . Som e conceptio n o f th e interio r may b e obtaine d fro m Seymour' s paintin g o f a Kansa s wa r dance ; the outside , fro m a sketc h b y Peale . Thes e fixe d lodge s were ver y different fro m th e movabl e ski n tipi s o f plains Indian s the y woul d later observ e an d sketch . AUG. 20 . TS: After th e ceremon y o f smoking . . . the ob ject whic h th e part y had i n view in passin g through thei r ter ritories wa s explaine d t o them , an d seeme d t o b e perfectl y satisfactory. A t th e lodg e o f the principa l chie f the y wer e regaled wit h jerke d bison mea t an d boile d corn , an d wer e after ward invite d t o si x feasts i n immediat e succession. They commonly place d befor e us a sort of soup, composed of maize of the present season . . . boiled i n water, and enriche d with a few slices of bison meat , grease, and som e beans, an d t o suit our palates, it was generally seasoned wit h rock salt, which is procured nea r th e Arkans a river . This mixture constituted a n agreeabl e food; i t was served up t o u s i n larg e wooden bowls , whic h wer e place d o n biso n

59 UP TH E MISSOUR I

Titian Peale , sketc h o f lodges o f the Kansa s Indians , mid-August , 1819 . (From the sketchbook s o f Titian Ramsa y Peale , Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery , gif t o f Ramsay MacMullen , M.A.H. 1967 )

robes o r mats , o n th e ground ; a s many o f u s as could conven iently eat fro m on e bow l sat round it , each in as easy a position as he could contrive , and in common we partook of its contents by mean s o f large spoons mad e o f bison horn . W e wer e some' times supplie d with uncooke d drie d mea t o f th e bison , als o a very agreeable food, an d t o our taste and reminiscence, fa r preferable t o th e fles h o f the domesti c ox . Other food s consiste d o f beans , pumpkins , melons , an d cor n pre pared i n severa l differen t ways—al l of these grow n b y th e women . After "si x feast s i n immediat e succession, " i t i s little wonde r tha t Say an d Jessu p became il l afte r a few days! Say describe d th e dres s an d custom s o f th e Kansa s Indians i n some detail , but mos t o f that informatio n wil l b e omitte d here . H e found th e wome n t o b e "smal l an d homely , wit h broa d faces. " Th e men scrupulousl y removed al l thei r hai r excep t fo r a patch o n th e back o f their hea d "t o suppl y thei r enem y wit h a scalp, i n case the y

6o

cJkn ^Ylalura! FTCistary oj ike cjLung (OxpeJilion

Titian Peale, portrait s of Kansas Indians. (From the sketchbook s o f Titian Ramsay Peale , Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery , gif t o f Ramsa y MacMullen , M.A.H . 1967)

should b e vanquished." Thi s strip of hair was decorated wit h an eagle feather o r a dee r tail . Th e bodie s o f bot h me n an d wome n wer e usually tattooed. While the data gathered by Say proved valuable to ethnologists , he ha d b y no mean s abandone d entomology . Nea r th e village , h e collected tw o ne w specie s o f cicadas, on e a handsom e specie s that produced a particularly harsh call. He name d i t Cicada dorsata (no w Tibicen dorsata). I n th e cours e of the expedition , Say was to discover and nam e fiv e specie s o f cicadas. Thes e larg e insect s (ofte n incor rectly calle d locusts ) dron e fro m tree s an d bushe s o n summe r day s in man y part s of the country , eac h specie s producing its own char acteristic "song." At th e Kansa s village, Say also collected a darkling beetle tha t he name d Blaps suturalh (no w Eleodes suturalis). His comment s fol lowing th e descriptio n o f this specie s (i n American Entomology] ar e worth quoting .

61

UP TH E MISSOURI Titian Peale , watercolor of cicadas. (America n Philosophica l Society)

T5: Whils t sittin g i n th e larg e earth-covere d dwelling of the principa l chief, in presence of several hundred o f his people , assemble d to vie w the arms , equipments, an d appearanc e o f the party , I enjoyed the additiona l gratification to see an individual of the fine specie s of Blaps runnin g towards us from th e fee t of th e crowd . The ac t o f empaling this unluck y fugitive at onc e conferre d upo n m e the respectfu l an d mystic titl e o f "medicin e man, " fro m th e supersti tious faith of that simpl e people. On Augus t 23 , Say' s part y purchase d biso n meat , pounde d corn , moccasins, an d othe r supplies , and heade d nort h towar d th e Platt e with thre e Indian s a s guides. At thei r firs t camp , seve n mile s fro m the village , Dougherty an d on e o f th e Indian s wen t ou t hunting . While the y wer e away, a wa r part y of over a hundred Pawnee s ap proached the camp . The Pawnee s were then at war with the Kansas, and th e tw o Kansa s Indians i n cam p quickl y disappeare d into th e bushes, leavin g Say and his small band a t the merc y of the Pawnees . Although full y arme d an d painte d fo r war, the Indian s entere d th e camp peacefully . Bu t the y soo n bega n t o stea l food , blankets , fire arms, an d horses . Th e warrior s drew their arrow s and cocke d thei r guns, bu t the y retreate d withou t doin g injur y jus t a s Dougherty returned. The me n coul d scarcel y proceed withou t horses or supplies, so they sent an envoy to the Kansa s village and then returned there for a day. In the evening, they were treated to a war dance, accompanie d by shouts , drums , an d rattles . Th e rattle s consiste d o f "string s o f deer's hoofs , som e par t o f th e intestine s o f an anima l inflated , an d enclosing a few small stones."

62

fjle ^Ylatv.ra.1 C7tfi,v2or y o j lie Ji^ong COxpeJillon

Engraving i n th e Account, afte r Samue l Seymour, watcrcolor of a war dance in the interio r o f a lodge of the Kansa s Indians.

Since thei r supplie s had bee n lost , th e me n ha d n o mean s of bartering fo r horses . However , a Frenchma n wh o ha d bee n livin g with th e Indian s agree d t o accompan y the m an d t o suppl y tw o packhorses an d a saddl e hors e fo r Say , wh o wa s ill . There wa s n o hope o f completin g thei r tri p a s planned , s o the y se t of f directly for Co w Island , wher e the y migh t intercep t th e ship . The y camped fo r on e nigh t o n Grasshoppe r Creek , wher e the y sa w several "orbicula r lizards " (horned lizards , Phrynosoma douglassii). Ar riving a t Co w Islan d to o lat e t o mee t th e ship , mos t o f th e part y "by grea t exertion " boarde d th e shi p upstrea m a t Wol f River , leaving Sa y an d Jessu p t o recove r a t Co w Islan d wit h th e troop s who wer e statione d there . James's Account include s several remarks on the countr y in th e vicinity of the villag e of the Kansa s Indians, doubtless based on Say's impressions. A s on e approache s "th e border s o f tha t grea t Sand y Desert, which stretche s eastwar d from th e bas e of the Rock y Moun -

6,3

UP TH E MISSOUR I

tains," on e find s cact i an d othe r plant s tha t "deligh t i n a thirst y tnuriatiferous [alkaline ] soil." Although woodland s are now confined to strea m valleys , say s James , forests ma y som e da y b e plante d o n the plains , and "well s may be mad e to suppl y the deficienc y of running water. " Thu s t o a degree he foresa w th e tim e whe n th e Grea t Plains woul d b e watere d from aquifers , thoug h no t fo r the growin g of forests. Among th e tree s listed as occurring along the stream s were honey locust , ash , walnut , an d Kentuck y coffe e tre e (Gymnodadus dioica). Th e seed s containe d i n th e large , wood y pod s o f thi s tre e were ofte n use d a s a substitute for coffee o n th e frontier . Proceeding nort h alon g th e Missouri , th e passenger s on th e Western Engineer sa w severa l dee r swimmin g across th e river , an d shot severa l from th e ship . They als o found a hive o f bees, "and th e honey they afforded mad e a valuable addition t o our provisions, consisting no w i n grea t measur e of hunters' fare. " They caugh t severa l catfish, "som e o f them weighin g more than fifty pounds." EJ: We hav e see n .. . a pretty species of sparrow, which is altogether ne w t o us ; and severa l specimen s of a serpent hav e occurred, whic h ha s considerabl e affinit y wit h th e pine-snak e of th e souther n states , or bull-snake o f Bartram. It wa s Say' s practic e t o includ e description s o f birds , reptiles , an d mammals i n th e expedition' s Account, whil e savin g th e insect s for inclusion i n his American Entomology o r other publications. Thus he provided description s o f both th e sparro w and th e snak e i n length y footnotes. Th e sparro w he calle d Fringilla grammaca (now Chondestes grammacus). Thi s i s the lar k sparrow , one o f the handsomes t o f th e sparrow clan. "The y run upo n the groun d like a lark, seldom fly into a tree, and sing sweetly," reported Say . Say named th e snak e Coluber obsoletus. This i s the pilo t blac k snake , no w calle d Elaphe obsoleta. This large , nonpoisonou s snak e kill s it s pre y b y constriction . Th e name "pilot " apparentl y aros e throug h a superstitio n tha t thes e

64

O/ n
Titian Peale , pencil-and-watercolo r sketc h o f a lar k sparrow . Jun e 23 , 1819 . (American Philosophical Society )

snakes lea d othe r snake s to safet y whe n dange r threatens . Th e nat uralists took thes e snake s near th e wester n extremity of their range . Somewhere o n th e Missouri , n o on e i s quite sur e where, Say found an d describe d a beetl e tha t h e name d Doryphora 10-lineata. This i s the famou s Colorad o potat o beetle , no w calle d Leptinotarsa decemlineata. The origina l host plant i s believed to have bee n a wild member o f the potat o family . Onc e th e settler s began t o plan t po tatos in the West, th e beetles found themselves with an endless new food supply , and they swept across the countr y and even into Europe, leaving behind devastate d potato field s an d a t times near-starvation in th e populace . Of al l the hundred s o f insects Say described, this is without doub t th e mos t notorious . Say's name 10-lineata (ten-striped ) describes these beetles well, but ther e seem s no justificatio n fo r associating the stat e of Colorad o with the vernacular name, which was applied much later. Say stated, in a n articl e published i n 1824 , tha t th e specie s "inhabits Missouri

65

UP TH E MISSOURI

and Arkansa " an d wa s "not uncommo n o n th e Uppe r Missouri. " Specimens collecte d "o n th e Arkansa[s] " were assigned to a variety of slightly different color . While the latte r ma y have bee n take n i n what is now the stat e of Colorado, ther e i s no doub t tha t Say associated th e nam e primarily with specimens from th e Missour i Valley. On Septembe r 15 , the expeditio n arrive d at th e mout h o f the Platte, appropriatel y named th e "flat " river, since it s mouth "exhib ited a great extent o f naked sand-bars , the wate r ... flowin g almos t unseen throug h a number of small channels." They were to see much of the Platt e th e followin g year. SEPTEMBER 15 . EJ: Above th e Platte , th e scener y of th e Missouri become s muc h mor e interesting . Th e bluff s o n eac h side are more elevated an d abrupt , and being absolutely naked, rising into conic points, split by innumerable ravines, they have an imposin g resemblance t o groups of high graniti c mountains, seen a t a distance . Th e forest s withi n th e valle y are o f small extent, intersperse d with wide meadows covered wit h [various sedges an d grasses] , sometimes sinkin g int o marshe s occupied by sagittarias [arrowhead], alismas [water plantain], an d others . ... Th e woodlands here , as on the whole of the Missouri below, are fille d wit h grea t numbers o f pea vines , which affor d a n ex cellent pasturag e for horses an d cattle . The root s o f the apio s tuberosa [no w Apio s americana, groundnut o r wil d bean] were much sought after, an d eaten by the soldiers, who accompanie d us i n ou r ascent . The y ar e littl e tuber s about hal f a n inc h i n diameter, an d when boile d are very agreeabl e to th e taste . On Septembe r 17 , the expeditio n reache d th e tradin g pos t o f th e Missouri Fur Company, For t Lisa. On th e wes t bank of the Missouri, about half a mile above Fort Lisa and five miles below Council Bluff , where Colonel Henry Atkinson's troop s were to spend the winte r in "Camp Missouri," Long decided t o establish his winter camp. Coun cil Bluf f ha d bee n name d b y Lewi s an d Clark , wh o ha d hel d a n

66

Cy ke ^lialural ^ytislory of Ike cj^ ong (Oxpeailion

Titian Peak , watercolo r o f the cam p at Enginee r Cantonment, Februar y 1820. The Wester n Engineer is in the lef t foreground; keelboats are on the right. (American Philosophical Society)

important meetin g with the Oto an d Missouri Indians there in 1804 ; it was several miles above the locatio n o f the moder n city of Counci l Bluffs. Withi n a fe w days, Long an d hi s me n "ha d mad e grea t pro gress i n cuttin g timber , quarryin g stone, an d othe r preparation s fo r the constructio n o f quarters. " EJ: [A t th e sit e selected ] a ver y narro w plai n o r beach , closely covere d wit h trees , intervene s betwee n th e immediat e bank o f the rive r and th e bluffs , whic h ris e near tw o hundre d feet, bu t ar e so gradually sloped as to be ascended withou t great difficulty, an d ar e als o covered wit h trees . This spot presente d numerous advantage s fo r th e cantonmen t o f a small party like ours. Her e wer e abundan t supplie s of wood an d stone , imme diately o n th e spo t wher e w e wished t o erec t ou r cabins , an d the situatio n wa s sheltered b y th e hig h bluff s fro m th e north west winds . The plac e wa s called Enginee r Cantonment.

67

UP TH E MISSOUR I On Septembe r 20 , Sa y an d Jessup—bot h "nearl y recovered " i n health—arrived wit h a group of military personnel fro m Co w Island. A fe w weeks later, Long departed for Washington t o be married and to await further orders , and Jessup, deciding that he had had enoug h privation, left permanentl y with him. Majo r Biddl e had now left th e exploring part y to joi n Colone l Atkinson' s militar y contingent; h e had neve r see n ey e to ey e with Long . With the earlie r los s of Baldwin, th e scientifi c staff wa s reduced t o thre e (Say , Peale, an d Sey mour), and the officer s t o two (Graham and Swift). Fortunately John Dougherty remained wit h the grou p and was of inestimable value i n gathering dat a o n th e loca l Nativ e Americans . Despit e th e dimin ished siz e of the party , and thei r problem s in keeping warm and well fed throug h a lon g winter , muc h wa s accomplished. Fo r once, the y did no t hav e t o pus h o n da y by day, and thei r notebook s becam e crammed wit h information . The Western Engineer remaine d a t Enginee r Cantonmen t through th e winter, serving as a storehouse for the expedition's books and instruments . Peal e sketche d th e shi p and th e cliff s behin d fro m the camp , and afte r returnin g to Philadelphia prepare d a watercolor that Kenneth Haltma n ha s termed "perhaps the most literal, visually persuasive assertion of white cultura l control ove r the wester n landscape i n Peale's expedition artwork." Haltma n feel s that by portraying th e shi p puffin g smoke , displayin g it s flag , an d bearin g U S conspicuously o n it s wheel , th e youn g Titian Peal e attempte d t o symbolize hi s country' s conques t o f the West : "Th e steamboa t was an easter n dynam o sen t west , burning it s way into th e wilderness, devouring tree s a s fue l an d convertin g natur e int o European American cultur e ... a n intellectua l machin e determine d t o overcome an y resistanc e i n ingestin g an d processin g Nature (which , of course, i n th e las t centur y included Indians). " Bu t i n a few months , the Western Engineer would be left behind a s the me n penetrated th e wilderness much mor e deeply.

Cx'i PC OVERWINTERING A T ENGINEE R CANTONMENT

ON OCTOBE R II , LON G AN D JESSUP began thei r tri p east b y startin g downstream in a canoe. Lieutenant Jame s Graham wa s left i n charg e of th e Western Engineer, with instruction s t o d o certai n repair s and to run th e engine s fro m tim e to time. He was also to make "celestia l and barometri c observations, " kee p weathe r records , an d measur e the heigh t o f surrounding highlands. Willia m Swift was to assist him. In fact , th e Western Engineer had reache d th e en d o f its trip u p th e Missouri, thoug h tha t ma y not hav e bee n obviou s t o Lon g a t th e time. Nor woul d Colonel Henr y Atkinson' s troop s ascen d th e rive r farther at this time, in steamboats or otherwise. The Western Engineer was th e onl y steamboa t t o reac h Counci l Bluff , bu t i t ha d take n i t nearly three months t o cover the 60 0 miles from St. Louis, averaging only abou t 6 miles a day. Long was to receiv e considerable criticis m on hi s arriva l i n Washington , fro m bot h Congres s an d th e press . Indeed, the entir e Yellowston e Expedition had proved a disappoint ment. Before leaving , Lon g lef t instruction s fo r th e smal l grou p o f naturalists remaining.

69

OVERWINTERING A T ENGINEE R CANTONMENT SL: Mr. Sa y will have every facility afforde d hi m tha t circumstances wil l admit to examine th e country , visit the neigh bouring Indians , procur e animals , &.c . fo r th e attainmen t o f which he wil l cal l on Lt . Graham, who i s authorized t o mak e the expenditure s i n behal f o f th e expeditio n tha t ma y b e deemed reasonabl e an d necessary , an d affor d al l ai d i n hi s power, consisten t wit h th e performanc e o f othe r duties . Mr . Seymour o r Mr . Peal e wil l accompan y him , wheneve r thei r services are deemed requisite . Major O'Fallo n has given permissio n to Mr. Dougherty t o aid th e gentleme n o f the party , in acquirin g informatio n con cerning th e Indians , &.C. ; this gentleman will , therefore, be consulted i n relation t o visits, and all kinds of intercourse wit h th e Indians, that may be necessary i n the prosecutio n o f the dutie s of th e expedition . It i s believed, that th e field for observation an d inquir y is here so extensive, tha t all the gentleme n o f the expeditio n will find ampl e rang e fo r th e exercis e o f thei r talent s i n thei r re spective pursuits; and i t is hoped, tha t through thei r unremitted exertions an d perseverance, a rich harvest o f useful intelligenc e will be acquired. TS: The leisur e we enjoye d afte r ou r arriva l at Enginee r Can tonment, afforde d th e opportunit y of making numerous excursions t o collec t animals , an d t o explor e th e neighbourin g country. Say was soon ou t collecting insects . O n a sandbar near the camp , he found grea t number s o f a smal l beetl e flyin g i n th e evening . The y belonged t o a group now calle d variegate d mud-lovin g beetles . H e later describe d th e specie s a s Heterocerus pallidus. I n a quarr y fro m which buildin g ston e ha d bee n taken , Sa y foun d a ne w specie s of bombardier beetle , whic h h e name d Brachinus cyanipennis. Thes e beetles ar e noteworthy fo r their ability , when disturbed , to discharge

70

cJLe ^Halural feffislory oj lie J^ong COxpeJilion Colorado potato beetles. Thomas Say collected specimen s o f this notoriou s pest o n th e Missour i i n 1819.

Boxelder bug . This commo n insect was described by Say from specimen s collected a t Enginee r Cantonment.

hot, causti c fluid s wit h a n audibl e "pop. " Perusa l o f Say' s publications reveal s that he describe d a t leas t twelv e new specie s of beetles an d a t leas t six ne w specie s of tru e bugs (Hemiptera ) fro m Engineer Cantonment . On e o f these, th e bo x elde r bu g (Leptocoris trivittatus) i s all to o wel l known t o homeowner s wh o liv e anywher e near bo x elde r trees , sinc e th e bug s swar m into house s durin g th e fall an d winter . They are , however , harmles s t o peopl e an d quit e beautifully adorne d wit h re d stripes . The ston e quarry contained "man y larg e fissures, i n which were found a numbe r of serpents that ha d entere d ther e fo r th e purpos e of hybernating . O f these , thre e specie s appea r t o b e new. " On e o f these was the blu e racer, a slender, elegant snak e whose tendency t o climb ove r th e top s o f bushe s ma y hav e give n ris e t o th e "hoo p snake" myth. The othe r two were the red-side d garter snake and th e western ribbo n snake. It i s not unusua l for snakes of more tha n on e

71

OVERWINTERING A T ENGINEE R CANTONMENT species to hibernate together . Say' s scientific names ar e now used for subspecies of relatively widely distributed snakes. Cliffs behin d th e cam p wer e o f sandstone an d limeston e an d were rich i n fossils. There were sharks' teeth, crinoids, and a n abundance o f shells o f mollusks. In a long footnote , Sa y described many of these . In a pi t tra p du g b y Peal e fo r catchin g a wolf , Sa y foun d an d described a new shrew, which h e name d Sorex parvus (now Cryptotis parva, least shrew [ a mere 23/8 inches fro m ti p of nose t o root of tail]). A secon d specie s he calle d Sorex brevicauda (no w Blarina brevicauda, short-tailed shrew) . Both , w e now know , ar e species widely distributed in the easter n states, but at Council Bluff were near th e western extremities o f their ranges . Ha d the y no t falle n int o th e trap , Say may neve r hav e foun d them , a s shrews liv e i n shallo w runway s in the soi l or litte r an d ar e rarel y observed. They ar e voraciou s predators, ofte n consumin g twic e thei r ow n weight i n insect s an d worms every day . Bot h o f Say's specie s names fo r the shrew s remain valid, but he was less fortunate in the tw o kinds of bats he described. These were th e hoar y ba t an d th e bi g brown bat . Bot h ha d bee n name d and describe d two decades earlie r by French biologis t Ambroise Pal isot de Beauvois. Prairie wolve s (coyotes ) barke d an d howle d aroun d th e cam p at night , an d Sa y cam e t o admir e thei r "wonderfu l intelligence. " Peale trie d t o catch one aliv e with a baited, inverted bo x supporte d by stakes . Th e coyot e escape d wit h th e bait . Several othe r kind s of traps were equally unsuccessful. Finally, a log supported by two sticks, one o f them baited , succeeded i n takin g one , bu t i t was killed. Say wrote that "thi s animal , whic h doe s no t see m t o b e known t o nat uralists ... i s most probabl y the origi n of the domesti c dog , so common i n the village s of the Indian s of this region, som e of the varieties of which stil l retain muc h o f the habi t an d manner s o f this species." The coyot e wa s unknown t o naturalists in the sense that it had never been formally describe d an d given a scientific name, but i t was familiar t o many who had travele d or settled i n the West. Lewis and

72

C//ie -llaliiral CyLislory of Ine cd^ony dDxpeailion Clark sa w an d hear d coyote s man y time s an d eve n sen t a coyot e skeleton t o Thoma s Jefferson. Bu t i t remained fo r Say to describ e i t in detai l an d provid e a name , Cards latrans (latrans bein g th e Lati n word for "howling") . Lewis and Clark wer e also all too familia r with gra y wolves, an d often ha d t o hang thei r mea t ou t o f reach o f them. Like Lewi s an d Clark an d others , Sa y recognized the wol f as different from th e coy ote: "Th e aspec t o f this animal is far more fierce an d formidable than . . . the prairi e wolf, and is of more robust form. .. . I t diffuses a strong and disagreeabl e odour, which scente d th e clothin g of Messrs. Peal e and Dougherty, who transported th e animal several miles from where they killed it on the cantonment. " Say provided a formal descriptio n of the gra y wolf, callin g it Canis nubilus. His name i s retained fo r th e extinct midwester n race of the wolf , C. lupus nubilus. The wol f ranges (or used to range) throughout Eurasi a as well as North America, an d has lon g playe d a rol e i n fictio n an d folklore . I t wa s th e Swedis h naturalist Linnaeus who formally described C. lupus (lupus bein g th e Latin wor d for "wolf") . Wolves an d coyote s wer e to haun t th e expedition' s campsite s throughout it s trek through th e West. Nowadays, we may read abou t wolves i n book s o r liste n t o thei r howl s o n records , thoug h a few packs live a precarious life i n the northern Rockies. The mor e adaptable an d les s threatenin g coyotes , meanwhile , hav e expande d thei r range int o th e easter n state s an d eve n int o th e suburb s o f majo r cities. To moderns , the nocturna l choru s o f a pack o f coyotes serve s to remin d u s tha t a bi t o f natur e remain s unconquered . Bu t Lon g and hi s me n soo n tire d o f wild canines . The foo d o f the me n a t Enginee r Cantonmen t was constantly augmented b y hunting. Peal e o n on e occasio n "kille d tw o deer a t a single sho t an d wit h on e ball. " Anothe r tim e Peal e an d Doughert y returned fro m a hunt "havin g kille d twelv e bison s out o f a herd of several hundred s the y me t wit h nea r Siou x river , and brough t u s a seasonable suppl y of meat." Elk were also sometimes o n th e menu , and eve n a skun k provide d " a remarkabl y rich an d delicat e food. "

73 OVERWINTERING A T ENGINEE R CANTONMENT

Members of the part y also fished through the ic e of a pond, obtainin g "one otte r and a number of small fishes, amongs t which three species appeared t o b e new. " Ther e was a good suppl y o f flour, from whic h the coo k prepare d "brea d full y equal , in poin t o f excellence, t o an y we have eve r eaten." There was no coffee , bu t th e frui t o f the Ken tucky coffe e tre e wa s found t o provid e "a palatabl e an d wholesom e beverage." On Decembe r 5 , the "gentleme n of the party " were invited t o dine with Manuel Lisa. Present a t the banque t wa s Lisa's wife, Mary, the first whit e woma n t o hav e ascende d th e Missour i this far . She was a handsome woma n and mus t have charmed th e explorers , now so fa r fro m settlements . Sh e surel y intrigue d the Indians , wh o fol lowed he r abou t everywhere . The Indian s provided a feas t fo r her, serving thei r mos t elegan t repast : dog . Somehow , Mar y (wh o ha d been brought u p in Connecticut) manage d to preten d t o eat, while depositing th e mea t i n a handbag sh e held o n he r lap . It i s said that Mar y Lisa di d no t spea k Spanis h o r French , an d Manuel Lisa barely spoke English. According t o one story , "this was why the y wer e able t o liv e so happily together." But their marriage was short , fro m 181 8 t o Lisa' s untimely death i n 1820 . Manue l also had a n India n wife , o f the Omah a tribe , by whom h e ha d tw o chil dren. I t wa s common fo r trader s t o secur e thei r relationship s wit h the Indian s by taking a wife fro m amon g them. I t i s likely that Mary Lisa kne w o r a t leas t learned o f this India n wife , sinc e Manue l provided for his part-Indian children i n his will. Mary lived to be eightyseven, dyin g in 1869 . In midwinter , ther e wer e fewe r opportunitie s fo r natura l his tory, bu t th e grou p at Enginee r Cantonment too k advantag e of th e time to study the custom s of the loca l Indians. A committee of members o f th e America n Philosophica l Societ y ha d provide d instructions t o th e expeditio n a s to the kind s of information desired. Since several member s o f th e committe e wer e physicians, they especially wanted t o kno w wha t disease s wer e prevalen t amon g th e Indian s and wha t remedie s they used . Say, through Dougherty , obtained in -

74

Cy lie. v / ial u r a I Cy L I ,s I o r y o J ik e o-C i o n y t_ ) xp e ailion

Engraving afte r Samue l Seymour, watercolor of a n Ot o council . (Academ y of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia)

formation o n thes e matter s fro m member s o f several tribes, and h e had lon g conversation s wit h Doughert y himself : "Thi s gentlema n with grea t patience, an d i n th e mos t obligin g manner, answere d all the question s whic h I propose d t o him , relatin g t o suc h point s i n their manners , habits , opinions, an d history , as we had n o opportu nity o f observing ourselves." Well over a hundred page s of James's Account consist s o f Say's somewhat ramblin g report o n th e Indians . Seymour an d Peal e ofte n sketched th e Indians ' huntin g forays , tipis , dances , an d ceremonies . Some o f their illustration s appeared i n th e fina l repor t o f the expe dition, publishe d i n 1823 . S o their drawing s anticipated b y a decad e George Catlin' s an d Kar l Bodmer's more celebrate d paintings o f Indian life . Major Benjami n O'Fallo n frequentl y summone d tribe s fo r a council a t Cam p Missouri . The first to arrive , in earl y October, was a grou p o f Otos , wh o honore d th e me n o f th e expeditio n wit h a dance accompanie d b y "rude instrumenta l an d voca l music." One of the chie f warriors, letan (o r Chon-Mon-I-Case) narrate d his exploits at length . leta n ha d stole n horse s fro m severa l tribes , struc k th e

75

OVERWINTERING A T E N G I N E E R CANTONMENT bodies o f Pawne e an d Siou x warriors , an d eve n participate d i n a n attack o n a Spanish camp . In 1821 , leta n wa s to b e part o f a group of Indian s take n t o Washingto n b y O'Fallon . I n Washington , hi s portrait wa s painte d b y Charle s Bir d Kin g a s h e wor e a headres s crowned b y bison horn s an d a necklace o f grizzly-bear claws. When the Pawnee s arrived, O'Fallon "addressed them i n a very austere ton e an d manner, " whereupo n the y returne d muc h o f th e property the y ha d stole n nea r th e Kansa s village . In November , a band o f Sioux arrived and wer e invited to visit the Western Engineer. They wer e hesitant , bu t onc e aboar d the y "appeare d muc h de lighted." The y wer e show n som e o f th e working s of th e shi p an d were astonishe d a t th e operatio n o f the howitzers. There wer e opportunities to visi t villages of the Omaha , Oto , Missouri, an d Iow a Indians . Lik e othe r plain s Indians , thes e tribe s depended heavil y on biso n both fo r food an d fo r robes and skin s for clothing an d shelter. They also grew corn an d pumpkins, which the y prepared i n variou s ways. Th e squaw s collected root s o f groundnu t (Apios americana) an d th e seed s and root s of lotus, or pond nu t (Nelumbo lutea). Say noted tha t th e wome n searche d fo r and at e th e lic e foun d in on e anothers ' hair : "On e o f them, wh o wa s engaged i n combin g the hea d o f a white man, was asked why she did not ea t th e vermin ; she replied, that 'whit e men' s lic e ar e not good. ' " Say also tells of a custom amon g th e Snak e Indian s o f collectin g ant s fro m thei r mounds an d placin g them i n a bag that i s taken t o a stream to wash out th e dir t and sticks . "The ant s ar e then placed upo n a flat stone , and by the pressur e of a rolling-pin, are crushed together int o a dense mass, and rolle d out lik e pastry. Of this substance a soup is prepared, which i s relished by the Indians , but i s not a t all to the tast e of white men." It woul d b e besid e th e poin t o f this narrativ e t o revie w Say's observations i n detail , s o I shal l selec t a fe w points bearin g on th e Indians' use of native plants and animals. They made spoons of bison horns, ofte n ornamented, an d a digging instrument from th e scapula

76

Cy n e -tlaluvat Cstsislory of Ike cJj ong (Oxpeailion of a bison when the y could not obtai n tool s from traders . The strings of thei r bow s wer e mad e o f twiste d biso n sinews . Th e bow s wer e made o f osage orange (Madura pomifera) o r ho p hornbea m (Ostry a virginica). Arrow s wer e mad e o f arrowwoo d (Viburnum) an d wer e fitted wit h turkey feathers to stabilize their flight. Feathers of turkeys, eagles, an d othe r larg e birds were used i n ceremonia l clothing . Fo r smoking, the y ofte n mixe d tobacc o (whe n availabl e fro m traders ) with drie d leave s o f smoot h suma c (Rhu s glabra) o r silk y dogwoo d (Cornws Amomum) . When non e o f these wer e available , the inne r bark o f Viburnum coul d be substituted. After th e hunter s ha d kille d a biso n (usuall y a cow) , the y wasted very little, only the fee t an d most of the head. Afte r the hid e was removed, the carcas s was cut i n pieces and carried back to cam p by the squaws , who prepare d the mea t for storage and for immediate consumption. TS: The vertebra e are comminuted b y means of stone-axes . . . ; the fragment s are then boiled, and th e ric h fa t or medulla which rises , i s carefull y skimme d of f an d pu t i n bladder s fo r future use . The muscula r coating o f th e stomac h i s dried; th e smaller intestines are cleaned an d inverted , so as to includ e th e fat tha t had covere d thei r exterio r surface , an d then dried; th e larger intestines, afte r bein g cleaned, are stuffed wit h meat, an d cooked fo r present eating . The meat , with th e exceptio n o f the shoulders , or hump , as i t i s called, i s then dissecte d wit h muc h skil l into large thin slices, an d drie d in th e sun , or jerked over a slow fire on a low scaffold. The bone s o f the thighs , t o which a small quantity of flesh is lef t adhering , ar e place d befor e th e fir e unti l th e mea t i s sufficiently roasted , whe n the y ar e broken , an d th e mea t an d marrow affor d a most delicious repast. These, together wit h th e tongue an d hump , ar e esteemed th e bes t parts of the animals . The meat , i n it s dried state, i s closely condensed togethe r

77

O V E R W I N T E R I N G A T E N G I N E E R CANTONMEN T

Titian Pealc , watcrcolo r of Otoes. (America n Philosophical Society)

into quadrangula r packages , eac h o f a suitabl e size , t o attac h conveniently t o one sid e of the packsaddl e of a horse. The drie d intestines ar e interwove n togethe r int o th e for m o f mats, an d tied u p i n package s of the sam e for m an d size . The brain s an d liver s of the biso n wer e used i n preparin g th e hide s after the y had bee n stretched, dried , an d cleaned . The skin s of elk, deer, an d pronghor n antelop e wer e dresse d in a similar manner be fore bein g mad e int o clothing , moccasins , o r covering s fo r lodges . Bison robes , moccasins, an d beave r skin s were traded t o th e white s for guns , powder, vermilion, knives, kettles , mirrors, and a variety of other items . Say reporte d tha t ther e wer e a goo d man y "illici t amours " among th e Indians , an d th e wome n sometime s practice d abortion . Considering th e curren t controvers y on thi s subjec t i n ou r society, it ma y be wort h quotin g Say' s remarks.

78

CJ lie ^tlalural cJ"Cisiory of the eJjong (Oxpedilion T5: Abortion i s effected, agreeabl y to the assertion s o f the squaws, b y blow s with th e clenche d hand , applie d upo n th e abdomen, o r by repeate d an d violen t pressur e upon tha t part, or by rolling o n th e stum p of a tree, o r other hard body . Say noted tha t th e squaw s sometimes experienced difficultie s a t th e birth o f their first child, i n which cas e "the young wife call s in som e friendly matro n t o assist. " TS: The ai d which thes e temporar y mid wives afford, seem s to b e limite d t o th e practic e o f tyin g a bel t firml y abou t th e waist o f th e patient , an d shakin g her, generally i n a vertica l direction, wit h considerabl e violence. I n order to facilitate the birth, a vegetable decoction i s sometimes administered; and th e rattle o f th e rattle-snak e i s also give n with , i t i s said, consid erable effect. Th e singula r appendages of this animal are bruised by pounding , o r comminute d b y frictio n betwee n th e hand , mixed wit h war m water ; an d abou t th e quantit y o f tw o seg ments constitute s a dose. As Roger Nichols an d Patrick Halle y point ou t in their book Stephen Long an d American Frontier Exploration, som e o f th e informatio n gathered b y the explorin g party was well known t o persons who ha d traveled o r live d i n th e West , bu t ther e ha d bee n fe w attempts t o describe India n customs i n such detail and t o make the informatio n available t o reader s in th e East . They remar k that muc h o f the dis cussion o f the Kansa s and Omah a tribes, in particular, "provided a n authoritative sourc e of ethnological finding s unrivale d for decades. " The winte r wa s long an d cold . O n Decembe r 10 , the temper ature wa s below zero for most o f the day , and o n Februar y 9, 1820, the ic e on th e Missour i River was sixteen inche s thick . Bu t the ic e began to break up in March, an d "great flights of geese, swans, ducks, brant, an d cranes " were seen flyin g north . The breaku p of the ic e made it possible to remove the sic k from

79 OVERWINTERING A T ENGINEE R CANTONMEN T

Camp Missouri and send the m downriver to Fort Osage for recovery. More tha n 30 0 soldier s had becom e il l with scurvy , an d nearl y 100 had died . TS: Individuals who are seized rarely recover . . . they have no vegetables , fresh meat , no r antiscorbutics , s o that patient s grow dail y worse , an d enterin g th e hospita l i s considere d b y them a s a certain passpor t to th e grave . . . . The cause s which have bee n productiv e o f al l thi s disease , ar e no t distinctl y known. . . . But it was generally remarked that the hunters, who were much employe d i n their avocation , an d almost constantl y absent fro m Cam p Missouri , escaped th e malady . Evidently, th e me n a t Enginee r Cantonmen t ha d a sufficientl y di versified die t tha t the y wer e little troubled b y scurvy. APRIL 13 . TS: [This ] mornin g w e wer e awakene d b y th e loud crie s o f the sandhil l crane , performin g evolutions i n th e air, hig h ove r their feedin g grounds. This stately bird is known . . . [as] gru s canadensis . I t . . . i s ver y distinc t fro m th e gru s Americanus o f authors, o r hooping crane , althoug h man y persons hav e suppose d i t t o b e n o othe r tha n th e youn g o f that gigantic species . The sandhil l crane , i n th e sprin g of the year , removes th e surfac e o f th e soi l b y scratchin g wit h it s feet , i n search of the radical tubers of the pea vine, which seem to affor d them a ver y palatabl e food. This crane i s a social bird, sometimes assembling togethe r in considerable flocks. They were now in great numbers, soaring aloft i n the air , flying with a n irregula r kind of gyratory motion, each individua l describin g a larg e circl e i n th e ai r indepen dently o f hi s associates , an d utterin g loud , dissonant , an d re peated cries . They sometimes continue thu s to wing their flight upwards, graduall y receding fro m th e earth , unti l they becom e

80

C!y n e '• t Lai urai CSLislorif of Ine oL o n g Oxpeailion

Titian Peale, watercolor of sandhill cranes, Engineer Cantonment, Marc h 1820. (American Philosophica l Society )

mere speck s upo n th e sight , an d finall y altogethe r disappear , leaving only the discordan t musi c of their concer t to fall faintly upon th e ear . On Apri l 20 , O'Fallo n le d a part y westwar d fro m th e Missour i t o visit th e Pawne e village s alon g th e shallow , sprawlin g rive r tha t French trader s had calle d th e Platte , an d th e Ot o Indians , th e Ne braska ("fla t water")- With him wer e Dougherty , Graham , Say, an d officers an d troop s fro m Cam p Missouri. The troop s entere d th e village t o th e accompanimen t o f bugles, fifes, and drums , much t o th e delight o f the children . They were approache d b y a great numbe r o f mounted Indians , fro m whom ther e emerged a smaller group, slowly at firs t an d the n a t a ful l gallop . Sa y marveled , "I t i s impossible b y description t o d o justic e t o th e scen e o f savag e magnificenc e tha t was no w displayed . Betwee n thre e an d fou r hundre d mounte d In dians, dresse d i n thei r riches t habiliment s o f war , wer e rushin g

81

OVERWINTERING A T E N G I N E E R CANTONMEN T

around u s in ever y direction, wit h streamin g feathers, war weapons, and wit h lou d shout s an d yells. " The Pawnee s were led by their chief, Latelesha, who had visited William Clar k i n St. Louis, and by his son, Petalesharoo , a strikingly handsome warrio r who th e nex t yea r was to visi t Philadelphi a an d Washington, wher e his portrait wa s painted a s he wor e his headres s of eagle feathers an d ermin e tails . The portrai t cam e t o be accepte d as that of a typical Indian chie f for years to come , an d Petalesharo o became th e model of many an Indian chief in tales about the frontier, including that of Hard-Heart i n James Fenimore Cooper's The Prairie (1827). Much o f th e backgroun d fo r Th e Prairie wa s i n fac t base d o n Cooper's readin g o f the narrativ e o f the Lon g Expedition , particularly thos e part s dealin g wit h th e Pawnees . I n som e cases , Cooper adopted hi s figure s o f speech directl y from th e Account —for exam ple, the prairi e as an ocean with it s waters heaving restlessly . Cooper had neve r bee n west , bu t h e me t Petalesharo o i n Washingto n i n 1821. Hard-Heart , h e wrot e i n Th e Prairie, "was in ever y particular a warrio r of fine stature an d admirabl e proportions. . . . [H]is countenance appeared i n all the gravity , the dignit y and i t may be adde d in th e terror , o f his profession. " Dr . Obe d Battius , Cooper's wildeyed naturalis t wh o applie d Latin name s t o everythin g h e saw , may well hav e bee n suggeste d by his readin g o f the exploit s o f Thomas Say or Thomas Nuttall. At th e Pawne e villages , O'Fallon an d his men wer e treated t o a feast and dances, th e latte r accompanied b y drums and other simple instruments. Petalesharo o suggeste d that hi s visitors play their ow n music t o accompan y th e dances ; bu t whe n th e bugle s sounded, th e dancers wer e thrown into confusion, to the amusemen t o f all. After discussions an d a n exchang e o f gifts, th e visitor s returned t o thei r camps alon g th e Missouri. At Enginee r Cantonment, Say and Peale faithfully recorde d th e arrival date o f each migratin g bird, and thes e data wer e included i n the repor t o f the expedition . The y als o kept a list of all the animal s

82

9lie (flaiural SrCislory of lie jL ong (OxpeJilion seen or taken. Thei r list included 1 0 kinds of reptiles, 11 amphibians, 34 mammals , an d 14 4 bird s (thi s wa s lon g befor e ther e wer e an y handy "fiel d guides"!) . Many o f the specie s on thei r lis t now g o by different scientifi c or common names, but most are recognizable. The "hooping crane " i s listed, as well as the bal d eagle—the forme r now emerging (on e hopes ) fro m th e brin k o f extinction, th e latte r no w recovering fro m nea r extinctio n i n majo r part s o f it s range . Th e passenger pigeo n i s listed, thoug h no t mentione d elsewher e i n th e expedition's reports ; o f course , ther e wa s n o wa y o f knowin g tha t these commo n bird s would, in a few decades, disappea r completely from th e fauna. When John Bradbur y had passe d through thi s coun try nine years earlier, he had been much impresse d by the abundanc e of the pigeons : "This species of pigeon associates in prodigious flocks; one of these flocks, when o n the ground , will cover an area of several acres i n extent , an d th e bird s ar e s o close t o eac h othe r tha t th e ground can scarcely be seen." Bradbury shot 271 in a few hours before he finally "desisted." Among th e migratin g birds , Say recognized severa l that were new t o science , an d h e dul y provide d names an d descriptions . On e was a warbler that he calle d Sylvia celatus (no w Vermivora cektus, orange-crowned warbler) . Another h e name d Limosa scolopacea (no w Limnodromus scolopaceus, long-billed dowitcher [ a handsome sandpi per tha t breed s nort h o f the Arcti c Circle]) . H e als o described th e pectoral sandpiper , bu t tha t specie s had bee n describe d a few years earlier b y Loui s Vieillot fro m Paraguay , where th e bird s spend th e winter. Say also described another warbler as new, calling it Sylvia bzfasdata, bu t tha t specie s had bee n described a few years earlier by Alexander Wilso n a s S . cerulea (no w Dendroica cerulea, cerulea n warbler). Following the rule s of priority, the earlie r names ar e thos e now used. Major Long , accompanied by two ne w member s of the expedi tion, had left for the West in March, arriving at Engineer Cantonment on May 27. On June 1, he issue d some new and quite different order s that woul d tak e th e expeditio n into unexplore d regions that migh t provide unlimited opportunities for the naturalists.

of G?J ix NEW PLAN S AN D A NE W CAST OF CHARACTER S

WHILE IN WASHINGTON, MAJO R LON G HA D reported t o Secretar y o f War Calhou n and attempted t o obtain financia l support for another year of exploration. H e foun d tha t Congress, irke d by the slo w progress and modest accomplishments o f both the militar y and scientific contingents, ha d launche d a n investigatio n o f the expedition . Fur thermore, th e Pani c o f 181 9 ha d cause d dee p cut s i n th e militar y budget, an d Calhoun' s resource s wer e limited . Afte r muc h discus sion, i t was decided tha t Long would lead a low-budget, four-month trip west by land, sending th e Western Engineer down th e Mississippi to pick u p the explorer s o n thei r return. The grandios e plan s o f the Yellowstone Expeditio n ha d bee n scuttled . Accordin g t o Hira m Chittenden, a hars h late r criti c o f th e expedition , "[A] s a half hearted apolog y t o th e publi c fo r it s failure , a smal l sid e sho w wa s organized for the seaso n o f 182 0 i n th e for m o f an expeditio n t o th e Rocky Mountains. " Th e "sid e show " woul d als o have its critics, including Chittenden, but i t was to yield results far greater than might have bee n expecte d fro m th e meage r suppor t provide d b y the gov ernment. Long was permitted to recruit tw o persons t o replace th e thre e

84

C/ne e^fialurai ^fLislory oj ike cL± ong (Oxpeailion who had lef t th e expedition . Th e ma n he chos e t o replace Thomas Biddle a s journalis t wa s Captai n Joh n R . Bell , a graduat e o f th e United State s Militar y Academy a t Wes t Poin t wh o ha d serve d i n the Wa r o f 1812. After th e war , he had bee n statione d fo r a time i n Boston, and then became a n instructor a t West Point . H e evidently did no t enjo y teachin g an d applie d fo r an appointmen t t o th e ex pedition. A s a journalist, he wa s to prov e muc h mor e faithfu l tha n Biddle. However, as noted earlier, his journals were not mad e public until 1957 , 134 years after th e publicatio n o f Edwin James's Account. James mad e n o us e of Bell's journals in preparin g his forma l report on the expedition . Edwin James joined the expeditio n t o replace William Baldwin and Augustu s Jessup. He cam e fro m a Vermon t famil y an d wa s a graduate of Middlebury College. H e studie d medicine for three years under hi s two brothers, wh o were physicians i n Albany, Ne w York. He als o studied botany informall y under Amos Eaton an d John Tor rey, bot h distinguishe d botanists . H e wa s interested i n geology and had joine d th e America n Geologica l Society , whic h ha d bee n founded i n 1819 . B y 1820, he had alread y published article s on bot any and geology. Although he was only twenty-three years old, James was uniquel y qualifie d t o fil l th e role s o f physician , botanist , an d geologist. Long, Bell , an d Jame s lef t Pittsburg h b y steamboa t o n Marc h 31, arriving in St . Loui s three week s later. Bel l was appalled b y th e lack o f cleanlines s i n th e street s an d b y th e home s i n St . Louis : "Unless mor e attention i s paid t o i t by the inhabitant s an d author ities of the town , it is doomed t o be a very sickly place . . . and man y a ne w inhabitan t an d strange r wil l hav e arrive d here , t o clos e th e scene o f his earthly career. " Bell , James, and Lon g visited Governo r William Clark, who showed them the rifl e and other equipment that he had carrie d on his trip to the Pacifi c an d back. Bel l studied them with "veneration, " sinc e h e wa s soon t o undertak e a simila r expedition an d "migh t no t liv e t o retur n an d enjo y th e pleasur e of exhibiting t o m y friends m y equipments. " Long expected tha t funds t o finance the summer' s explorations

8s NEW PLAN S AN D A NE W CAS T O F CHARACTER S

Titian Peale , pencil-and-watercolo r sketc h o f a pocket gopher , wit h detail s of the jaws , July 21 . 1819 . (American Philosophica l Society)

would preced e him t o St . Louis , bu t Congres s ha d no t ye t acted o n the annua l appropriations . O n Ma y 4 , afte r havin g waite d fo r tw o weeks i n St . Louis , Lon g an d hi s companion s se t ou t fo r Counci l Bluff o n horseback . EJ: As w e followe d th e littl e pathwa y [t o th e west] , w e passed large tracts to which the labour s of the sand rat had given the aspec t of a ploughed field. From the grea t quantities of fresh earth recentl y brought up , we perceived the littl e animals were engaged i n enlargin g thei r subterranea n excavations ; an d w e watched long , thoug h i n vain , expectin g t o se e them emerg e from thei r burrows. From these remarks, it i s unclear whethe r James collected specimen s at thi s locality , bu t a lon g footnot e i n th e Account, doubtles s pre pared by Thomas Say , suggests that specimens were taken somewhere

86

C/Ae ^-flatural CJ°Cislory oj Ike c^L ong (Oxpeailion on th e Missouri . Sa y identifie d th e anima l a s Mu s bursarius, th e plains pocke t gopher . H e describe d th e uniqu e fur-line d chee k pouches a s well a s other anatomica l details , and propose d tha t th e animal be placed in a previously undescribed genus, which he name d Pseudostoma (Gree k fo r "fals e mouth") . Here , a s elsewhere , h e seemed unfamilia r with th e publication s o f the eccentri c naturalis t Constantine Rafinesque, who had described the genu s in 1817 , call ing i t Geomys (Gree k fo r "eart h mouse") . Althoug h bot h generi c names are reasonably descriptive, Rafmesque's, of course, has priority and i s the nam e no w used . EJ: The whol e anima l has a clumsy aspect, having a large head an d body , wit h shor t legs , large for e feet , an d smal l hind feet; an d althoug h i t walks awkwardly, yet i t burrow s with th e greatest rapidity , so that th e difficult y o f obtainin g specimen s may be, i n a great degree, attribute d t o the facilit y wit h whic h the anima l passe s through th e soil , in removing fro m th e vicin ity o f danger . The next day the three men passed a pond i n which "th e nelumbiu m was growin g i n grea t perfection, " it s blossom s large r tha n thos e of any othe r Nort h America n plan t excep t th e magnolia . Thi s was American lotus , als o called pon d nut , wate r chinquapin , o r wonka pin (Nelumb o lutea). Th e nuts , Jame s reported, "have , whe n ripe , the siz e an d th e genera l appearanc e o f small acorns , bu t ar e muc h more palatable . Th e larg e farinaceous root i s sometimes used by th e Indians as an articl e of diet, as are als o the nuts. " Farther on , Jame s note d severa l othe r interestin g plants , in cluding spiderwor t (Tradescantia), alumroo t (Heuchera), ninebar k (Physocarpus), an d fals e mermai d (Floerkea). Th e forest s wer e com posed o f maple , beech , ash , basswood , an d ho p hornbea m (Ostrya virginiana), al l attaining "a n uncommo n magnitude. " On Ma y 8, the me n arrive d at Franklin , wher e the y waite d i n vain fo r anothe r fiv e day s fo r fund s an d furthe r instruction s fro m

87

NEW PLAN S AN D A NE W CAS T O F CHARACTER S Washington. These delays would mean tha t th e tri p west could no t begin before early June, rather tha n early May, as originally planned. The plain s would be scorchingly hot, an d th e wor k planned fo r four months woul d have t o b e squeezed into three . Having decide d tha t h e coul d wai t n o longer , Lon g an d hi s companions se t ou t fro m Frankli n cross-country , b y horseback . I t was a n uncomfortabl e trip . The y frequentl y campe d i n th e rain , without shelter s othe r than those the y could improvis e on the spot . Deer and el k were plentiful, bu t th e me n had littl e success in takin g any. The y ofte n ha d t o mak e d o wit h wil d onions , lamb's-quarte r pigweed, an d roas t squirrel . At nigh t thei r slee p was interrupted b y "the hootin g o f owls, together wit h th e howlin g o f wolves, and th e cries o f other nocturna l animals. " A collectio n o f plants tha t James had mad e wa s destroyed i n a storm . Mosquitoe s an d tick s wer e relentless in their attacks. But there were moments of pleasure, as when they encountere d "tw o plant s o f singula r beauty": grea t flowerin g penstemon (Penstemon grandiflara) an d Colorado locoweed (Orytr o pis lambertii). Ther e wer e bar n swallows , turkeys , prairie-chickens, and sandhil l cranes ; Bel l foun d tha t th e crane s mad e " a ver y disagreeable noise." Eventually they arrived at Engineer Cantonment, to be greeted by Say , Graham , an d Seymour , "dresse d i n leathe r huntin g shirt s and leggen s ... a s if they ha d assume d the dres s and appearanc e o f the hunte r fro m choic e o r singularity, " wrote Bell . Th e nex t da y Long and Bell rode to Camp Missouri to arrange for men and supplies for thei r tri p west, though scurv y and privation ha d take n thei r tol l at th e camp , an d the y receive d fewe r me n an d provisions than the y had hoped . O n Jun e 1 , Long issue d orders fo r the followin g several months. SL: Agreeably t o th e instruction s o f the Honorabl e Sec retary of War, th e furthe r progres s of the Explorin g Expedition up th e Missour i is arrested durin g th e presen t season . B y th e same authority , a n excursion , b y land , t o th e source s o f th e

88

C/ne ^l/talurai csiislory oj ike c^Long COxpeailion Titian Peale , penci l sketc h o f a prairie-chicken. (America n Philosophical Society)

river Platte, and thence by way of th e Arkans a an d Re d rivers to th e Mississippi , i s ordered . The expeditio n wil l accord ingly procee d o n thi s dut y as soon a s practicable . . . . The duties [formerly ] assigne d t o Major Biddl e wil l b e performed b y Captai n J . R . Bel l . . . with th e exceptio n o f those part s whic h relat e t o the manners , customs , an d traditions of the variou s savage tribes which w e may pass. Th e duties thu s excepte d wil l b e performedby Mr . Say . The dutie s assigned t o Dr . Baldwi n and Mr . Jessu p . . . will b e performed by Dr . E . James. ... I n thes e dutie s ar e excepte d thos e part s which relat e t o comparativ e anatomy, an d th e diseases , remedies, etc. know n amongs t th e Indians ; which wil l also be performed b y Mr. Say . Lieutenant Graha m wil l take charge of the Unite d States ' steam-boat, Western Engineer , and proceed dow n the Missouri to th e Mississippi , with the remainin g part o f the crew . . . . The detachmen t fro m th e rifl e regiment . . . will accom pany th e expeditio n . . . under th e immediat e comman d o f Lieutenant Swift . . . . The dutie s of the expeditio n bein g arduous , and th e ob jects i n vie w difficult o f attainment, th e hardship s an d expo sures t o b e encountere d requirin g zealou s an d obstinat e perseverance, i t i s confidently expected, tha t al l embarke d i n

89

NEW PLAN S AN D A NE W CAS T O F CHARACTER S

the enterpris e wil l contribute ever y aid in their power , tendin g to a successfu l an d speed y terminatio n o f th e contemplate d tour. The part y was now quite different fro m th e on e that had set out fro m Pittsburgh thirteen month s earlier . Of the twenty-two men, only five were holdovers fro m th e previou s year.

MILITARY Major Stephe n H. Lon g Commande Captain John R. Bell Journalis Lieutenant Willia m H . Swif t Assistan Corporal Willia m Paris h Private John Swene y Private Joseph Verplan k Private Robert Foste r Private Mordecai Nowlan d Private Peter Barnar d Private Charles Myer s SCIENTIFIC Dr. Edwin James Botanist Thomas Sa y Zoologis Titian R . Peal e Assistan Samuel Seymou r Artis

r t t topographe r

, geologist, and physicia n t and ethnologis t t naturalist t

SUPPORT STAF F H. Doughert y (brothe r o f John Dougherty ) Hunte r Zachariah Wilso n Baggag e master Stephen Julien Frenc h an d India n interprete r D. Adams Spanis h interprete r James Oakley Engage e James Duncan Engage e

go

The Natural History of the Long Expedition Two other s joine d th e expeditio n a t th e Pawne e villages , i n Ne braska, where the y lived .

Abraham Ledou x Hunte Joseph Bijea u Guid

r and interprete r e an d interprete r

Bell's journa l include s Long' s muste r roll , i n whic h th e salarie s of the expeditio n member s wer e listed . Jame s an d Sa y receive d th e highest pay , $2.2 0 a day ; Peal e an d Seymou r go t $1.7 0 a day ; Long, Bell , an d Swif t earne d $1.5 0 a day . Th e private s receive d 15 cent s a day . Lon g wa s to hav e receive d $2,00 0 fro m th e Wa r Department t o purchas e supplies , bu t thi s mone y stil l ha d no t ar rived whe n th e tim e cam e t o leave . Consequently , th e expeditio n was remarkabl y poorl y equipped , an d th e naturalist s ha d i n som e cases t o acquir e thei r ow n horse s an d necessities . Th e supplie s they too k fo r tradin g wit h th e Indian s fel l especiall y shor t o f what wa s needed. EJ: Our outfi t comprise d th e followin g article s o f provi sions, India n goods , &c. viz . 150 Ib. of pork, 500 Ib . of biscuit, 3 bushel s o f parched cor n meal , 5 gallons o f whiskey, 2 5 1b. of coffee, 3 0 1b . o f sugar , an d a smal l quantit y o f salt , 5 1b . o f vermilion, 2 1b. of beads, 2 gross of knives, 1 gross of combs, 1 dozen of fire steels , 300 flints , 1 dozen of gun worms , 2 gross of hawk's bells , 2 doze n o f mockasi n awls , 1 dozen o f scissors , 6 dozen o f looking glasses , 30 1b. of tobacco, an d a few trinkets , 2 axes , severa l hatchets, forage-bags, canteens , bullet-pouches , powder-horns, ti n cannisters , ski n canoes , packing-skins , pac k cords, an d som e smal l packing-boxes for insects, &c . In addition , ther e were compasses , sextants , an d other "instrument s for topographica l purposes. " Soldier s an d hunter s carrie d rifles . Am -

91

NEW PLAN S AND A NE W CAS T O F CHARACTER S munition include d "abou t 3 0 pounds o f powder, 20 pounds o f balls, and 4 0 pound s o f lead , wit h a plentifu l suppl y of flints , an d som e small shot." There wer e twenty-eight horse s an d mules , one fo r each ma n to rid e an d severa l for carryin g packs. Crud e saddle s were mad e by the me n o r purchased from Indians . Two dogs accompanied th e ex pedition: Caesa r an d Buck . Bot h becam e favorite s o f th e men , a s dogs will do . Before thei r departure , members of the expeditio n wer e treate d to a banquet a t Cam p Missouri . JUNE 2 . JB: [A]t 2 p.m. w e set dow n t o a n excellen t din ner—consisting o f almos t al l th e varietie s o f tam e an d wil d meats and fowls—and garden vegetables except potatoes—pas try pies , o f drie d appl e an d gooseberries—o f liquor s w e ha d Madeira wine, brandy, rum & whisky—no person could hardly suppose a tabl e coul d b e furnishe d wit h suc h a variet y i n th e wilderness 60 0 mile s by land wes t o f the Mississipp i river. . . . [T]he greates t orde r an d harmon y prevailed—afte r the clot h was remove d w e had som e goo d songs , patriotic tost s & senti ments fro m th e officers , accompanie d b y the musi c of the ex cellent ban d belongin g t o th e 6t h Regiment . W e returne d i n the evenin g highl y gratifie d wit h business of the day . The explorer s had goo d reaso n to wonder what la y ahead o f them as they wen t abou t preparin g themselves t o travers e country that ha d never been adequatel y mapped and was inhabited onl y by Indians. EJ: Several o f the Indian s abou t Counci l Bluff , t o who m our proposed route had been explained , and who had witnessed our preparations, affected t o laug h at ou r temerity, in attempt ing what they said we should never be able to accomplish. They represented som e par t o f th e country , throug h whic h w e in tended t o travel, as so entirely destitute of water and grass , that

92

The Natural History of the Long Expedition

neither ourselve s nor ou r horses could b e subsisted while passing it . Baro n Vasquez , who accompanie d Captai n Pike , i n hi s expedition t o th e source s of the Arkansa , assure d us there was no probabilit y we coul d avoi d th e attack s o f hostile Indians , who infeste d every part of the country . The assaul t which ha d been recentl y made by a party of the Sauk s and Foxes , upon a trading post . . . above Counci l Bluff , i n whic h on e ma n wa s killed, an d severa l wounded, had a t thi s tim e spread considerable terror among those in any degree exposed to the hostilities of th e Indians . With these prospects , and with the ver y inadequate outfi t above described , which wa s the utmos t ou r unite d mean s en abled u s t o furnish , w e departe d fro m Enginee r Cantonment , at 1 1 o'clock, o n th e 6t h o f June. They woul d be gon e unti l earl y September—onl y thre e month s t o cover mor e tha n 1,50 0 mile s b y foo t an d horseback . Clearl y th e naturalists would be hard put to gather data and specimens at a pace averaging abou t 1 5 mile s a day , but requirin g days o f 2 0 mile s o r more to compensate for Sundays (when Long preferred not t o travel) and fo r unforeseen delays. James's Account i s now base d i n par t o n hi s persona l observations, rathe r tha n bein g onl y a compilatio n fro m journal s of othe r expedition members. Bell's somewhat les s literate Journal provides a good day-to-da y accoun t o f th e party' s movements; h e clearl y appreciated the effort s o f the naturalists , and was occasionally eloquent on beautie s and possibilitie s of the landscape s through whic h the y passed. Engineer Cantonmen t woul d become a thin g o f the past , bu t Camp Missour i continued t o be garrisoned for several years, thoug h its nam e wa s changed t o For t Atkinson. I n 1825 , Henry Atkinso n (now a general) mad e a second attemp t t o reac h th e mout h o f th e Yellowstone. This time he succeeded, using eight keelboats powered by poles , sails, rope s hauled fro m th e shore , an d paddl e wheel s op-

93 NEW PLAN S AND A NE W CAS T O F CHARACTER S

erated b y muscl e power . Majo r Benjami n O'Fallo n accompanie d him, an d treatie s wer e signed wit h severa l Indian tribes . The expe dition returne d fro m th e Yellowston e i n th e fal l o f the sam e year, without having establishe d a post there. Atkinson was able to repor t that "no t a boa t o r ma n wa s lost"—in contras t t o th e 1819/182 0 expedition, whe n s o muc h tim e wa s consumed i n goin g hal f th e distance, leavin g hi s steamboat s behin d an d watchin g man y o f his men succum b t o scurvy . Fort Unio n wa s finally established a t th e mouth o f the Yellowston e i n 1828 , bu t b y the America n Fu r Com pany rather tha n the military. But we must follow Stephe n Long and his men a s they heade d west acros s th e prairies . I t i s especially regrettabl e tha t the y wer e unable t o leav e unti l Jun e 6 , when th e flus h o f spring wa s already past. The y woul d hav e t o mov e quickl y t o b e bac k befor e th e first snows began t o fall , givin g the naturalist s muc h les s time than the y would have preferred to collect and prepare specimen s an d t o write up their notes. Fortunately Say and his colleagues were able to send many specimens, a s well a s their fiel d note s fro m 181 9 an d th e earl y spring of 1820, dow n th e Missour i wit h th e Western Engineer, an d mos t o f them reache d Philadelphi a safely . The y wer e t o b e les s fortunat e after thei r tre k t o the Rockie s i n 1820 .

Seven TO TH E ROCKIE S

ON TH E FIRST DA Y OUT FRO M Enginee r Cantonment , th e expedi tion move d onl y a fe w miles, campin g fo r th e nigh t o n Papillio n Creek. Ther e wer e delay s occasioned b y "th e derangemen t o f th e packs, th e obstinac y o f th e mules , an d th e wan t o f dexterit y an d experience i n ou r engagees." I t raine d i n th e night , bu t thre e tent s adequately protecte d th e men . O n th e followin g mornin g the y reached th e Elkhorn , a river about thirt y yard s wide.

JUNE 7 . EJ: At thi s tim e ou r horse s wer e barel y able t o keep their feet , i n crossing the deepes t part of the channel. Our heavy baggage was ferried acros s in a portable canoe, consistin g of a single bison hide, whic h w e carried constantly wit h us . Its construction i s extremely simple; the margi n of the hid e being pierced wit h severa l small holes, admit s a cord, b y which i t is drawn into the for m o f a shallow basin. This is placed upon th e water, an d i s kept sufficientl y distende d b y th e baggag e i t re ceives; i t i s then towe d o r pushed across . A cano e o f this kin d will carry from fou r t o five hundred pounds . . . . A specie s of onion, wit h a root abou t as large as an ounc e ball, and bearin g a conspicuous umbel of purple flowers, i s very

95

TO TH E ROCKIE S abundant abou t the streams , and furnished a valuable addition to ou r bil l o f fare . Soon afte r crossin g the Elk-hor n we entered th e valle y of the Platte , which presented the vie w of an unvaried plain, fro m three t o eigh t mile s i n width , an d extendin g mor e tha n on e hundred mile s along the river , being a vast expanse o f prairie, or natural meadow, without a hill or other inequalit y of surface, and with scarce a tree or a shrub to be seen upon it . The wood lands, occupying the island s in the Platte, bound it on one side; the river-hills, low and gently sloped, terminate it on the other. During travel, Bell and on e o f the guide s rode first, followed by th e soldiers an d suppor t staff i n a single file, with the packhorses . Lon g brought u p th e rear . Th e "scientifi c gentlemen " wer e allowe d t o occupy "any par t of the lin e that suited their convenience." On th e evening o f June 7 , one o f th e me n caugh t a youn g pronghorn an telope, whic h Peal e sketched an d the n released. Bell recorded tha t they ha d covere d sixtee n mile s that day. On th e followin g day , there wa s a violent storm , during which lightning struc k the groun d a short distanc e away , throwin g "wate r and mu d . . . several feet int o th e ai r by the shock. " Afte r covering twenty-four miles , the explorer s camped o n Coquill e Creek , wher e mosquitoes swarmed "in inconceivabl e multitudes. " The nex t da y brought the m t o th e "Lou p for k o f the Platte " (Loup River), where James noted severa l plants that he had not see n previously. On e wa s a mallow "with a larg e tuberous root whic h i s soft an d edible , being by no mean s ungratefu l t o th e taste. " Others included a plantai n (Plantago), a puccoon (Lithospermum), a milkvetch (Astragalus) , a true vetc h (Vicia) , an d "th e super b sweet pea " (hoary vetchling , Lathyrus polymorphus). Als o note d wer e prairie false dandelion , roug h pennyroyal, scarlet gaura, and severa l grasses. The naturalist s also saw curlews, marbled godwits, and upland sandpipers. On Jun e 10 , both Sa y an d Seymou r were throw n fro m thei r

96

The Natural History of the Long Expedition horses whil e crossin g streams , and Sa y los t som e o f his equipment . The next day brought them to the first of three villages of the Pawne e Indians, which the y visite d in succession. Long and his men campe d nearby, wher e a t nigh t th e dog s of the Indian s "howle d i n concert , in the sam e voice, and nearly the sam e tune, a s the wolves, to whos e nightly serenad e w e wer e no w accustomed. " Th e Pawnee s offere d them drie d corn, pumpkins , and jerke d bison mea t i n exchang e fo r tobacco, vermilion , beads , and mirrors . Once again , th e part y was warned that thei r tri p "was attended wit h great difficulties an d dan ger" becaus e o f the lac k o f water and gam e a s well as the presenc e of "band s o f powerful an d ferociou s Indians." Th e Pawnees ' design, wrote James , was "t o dete r u s fro m passin g throug h thei r huntin g grounds, an d perhap s hopin g b y these mean s t o posses s themselve s of a larger share of the article s we had provide d for Indian presents. " EJ: The thre e Pawne e villages, with thei r pasture grounds and insignifican t enclosures, occup y abou t te n mile s in lengt h of th e fertil e valle y o f th e Wol f [Loup ] river . Th e surfac e i s wholly naked o f timber, rising gradually to the rive r hills, whic h are broad an d low , and fro m a mile to a mile and a half distant . The soi l of this valley is deep and o f inexhaustible fertility. Th e surface, t o th e dept h o f tw o o r thre e feet , i s a dar k coloure d vegetable moul d intermixe d wit h argillaceou s loam , an d stil l deeper, wit h a fine siliceous sand. The agricultur e of the Paw nees i s extremely rude . The y ar e supplie d wit h a fe w hoes b y the traders , bu t man y o f their labour s are accomplishe d wit h the rud e instrument s o f wood an d bon e whic h thei r ow n in genuity supplies . The y plan t cor n an d pumpkin s i n littl e patches alon g th e side s of deep ravines , and whereve r b y an y accident th e grass y turf ha s been eradicated . In 1806 , Pik e ha d estimate d tha t th e thre e village s together ha d a population o f 6,223; Bell estimated tha t there were now about 8,00 0 inhabitants. Th e tribe s had 6,00 0 t o 8,00 0 horses . I n winter , th e

97

TO TH E ROCKIE S

Pawnees lef t thei r village s and move d t o woode d valleys , not onl y to fin d fue l bu t als o to feed their horses , which survive d well on th e small branches an d inne r bark o f cottonwoods . James note d tha t th e Indian s mad e muc h us e of th e root s of Psoralea esculenta, a legum e ofte n calle d scurfpe a o r breadroot , an d known t o Canadia n trapper s a s pomme blanche. "I t i s eaten eithe r boiled or roasted," wrot e James, "and somewha t resemble s the swee t potatoe." This was a popular food amon g the Indian s of the Missouri and Platt e Valleys . John Colte r i s said to hav e subsiste d on pomme blanche, for seven day s during his fligh t fro m th e Blackfee t Indians i n 1810, befor e reaching safet y i n on e o f Manuel Lisa' s posts. Like many tribes, the Pawnee s had suffere d fro m smallpox , and Long ha d bee n aske d t o introduc e th e concep t o f vaccinatio n t o them. Vaccine ha d bee n sen t t o St . Louis by mail, and then carried up th e Missour i by keelboat an d o n t o th e Pawne e village s by messenger. Th e Pawnee s wer e understandabl y reluctan t t o b e vacci nated, eve n thoug h Lon g an d other s allowe d themselve s t o b e vaccinated i n the presence o f the Indians . The whol e incident seem s ludicrous, sinc e th e vaccin e ha d bee n soake d i n wate r whe n th e keelboat carryin g it was wrecked, and th e vaccin e wa s known t o be "unfit fo r use. " The explorer s once agai n me t wit h th e chief , Latelesha , an d his son Petalesharoo. Bel l described Latelesha as "a fine looking man, large & fat—with a good deal of goodness & friendship expressed in his countenance." At th e chief' s lodge , the me n wer e fed "bowls of corn & buffal o gut s boiled. " "[T]hi s dis h relishe d wel l & w e ea t heartily o f it," reporte d Bell . The nex t day , Latelesha attempte d t o obtain whiske y from Long, but was refused, whereupon he lef t "with out takin g leav e o r shaking hands." The me n wer e visite d by a medicine ma n wh o wa s curious t o know ho w th e white s "mad e medicine. " H e wa s shown a cas e of surgeon's instruments , whose uses were explained, but he "a t lengt h turned abruptl y away, with a n ai r of dissatisfaction and contempt. " At th e Pawne e villages , Say collecte d " a larg e an d beautifu l

98 tHE nATURAL; hISTORY OF THE lONG eXPEDITON

Titian Peale , drawing of a bison-skin robe depicting a battle between the Pawnees (right ) an d th e Kansa s Indians (left). Th e rob e was presented to th e expe dition by the Pawnees , and th e illustratio n appeared in the Account.

insect" tha t h e late r describe d a s Melolontha (no w Polyphylla) 10 lineata. This striking scarab beetle, abou t an inch long and with hug e antennae and a pattern o f white stripe s down it s back, i s now known to b e widel y distribute d i n th e West . It s larva e ar e "whit e grubs " that fee d o n th e root s o f shrubs and trees . By prior arrangement , tw o men wer e t o joi n th e expeditio n a t the Pawne e villages, to serve as guides, interpreters, and hunters. Bu t the me n wer e reluctan t t o leav e thei r home s an d families . When Long threatene d that the India n agen t migh t den y them the oppor tunity t o liv e an d trad e wit h th e Pawnee s i n th e future , th e Cana dians Josep h Bijea u an d Abraha m Ledou x consente d t o join . Bot h were t o prov e indispensable . On Jun e 13 , Lon g an d hi s me n crosse d th e Lou p River , bu t with som e difficulty , a s the curren t wa s strong an d th e botto m "par -

TO TH E ROCKIE S

Striped Jun e beetle, first taken b y Thomas Sa y at th e Pawne e villages.

took somethin g o f the natur e o f quick-sands." Long, Say, and other s were throw n fro m thei r horses ; muc h o f thei r equipmen t fel l int o the water , an d som e wa s lost. This was Say's second immersion , and he wa s now "in grea t measure, unencumbered wit h baggage." Along the bank , Jame s note d " a larg e flowerin g ros e . . . diffusing a mos t grateful fragrance. " Anothe r attractiv e shru b Jame s suspecte d t o b e Symphoria glomerata (it wa s later described a s Symphoricarpos octidentails, wolfberry o r western snowberry) . On th e hill s grew prickly pear cacti (Cactus fragilis , no w Opuntia fragilis). As th e me n lef t th e Pawne e villages , the y passe d colonie s o f prairie dogs, or "Louisiana marmots. " "Thi s interesting an d sprightly little animal, " wrot e James , "ha s receive d th e absur d an d inappro priate nam e o f Prairie dog, from a fancied resemblance of its warning cry t o th e hurrie d barkin g o f a smal l dog. " I t wa s apparently Meri wether Lewi s who firs t likene d thei r call s to those o f "little to y dogs," and hi s companio n Sergean t Joh n Ordwa y wh o firs t consistentl y called the m "prairi e dogs," though Lewi s preferred "barking squirrel" and Clar k "burrowin g squirrel, " bot h mor e appropriat e names .

100 0

tHE nATURAL hISTORY OF THE lONG eXPEDITION Titian Peale, sketch o f a flower, evidently a beardtongue , nea r th e Pawne e villages, June 12 , 1820 . (Fro m th e sketchbook s o f Titian Ramsay Peale, Yale University Ar t Gallery, gif t o f Ramsa y MacMullen , M.A.H. 1967 )

Titian Peale , sketc h o f a flower, perhap s a puccoon , near th e Pawne e villages , June 12 , 1820 . (Fro m th e sketchbooks o f Titian Ram say Peale , Yal e Universit y Art Gallery , gif t o f Ramsay MacMullen, M.A.H . 1967 )

101 TO TH E ROCKIE S

James's Account include s a description o f the "dogs ' " anatomy an d behavior, doubtles s provided b y Say. EJ (PROBABL Y AFTER TS): They deligh t t o spor t abou t the entranc e o f their burrow s in pleasan t weather ; a t th e ap proach o f danger the y retrea t t o thei r dens ; o r whe n it s proximity i s no t to o immediate , the y remain , barking , an d flourishing their tails , on the edg e of their holes , o r sitting erect to reconnoitre . Whe n fire d upo n i n thi s situation , the y neve r fail t o escape , o r i f killed, instantl y t o fal l int o thei r burrows, where the y ar e beyond th e reac h o f the hunter . The burrow s are not alway s equidistan t fro m eac h other , though the y occu r usuall y at interval s of about twent y feet. A da y or two later , tw o prairie dogs were taken, roasted , an d found to b e "wel l flavoured," rather lik e woodchuck. Lewi s and Clar k de serve credi t fo r th e discover y of the black-taile d prairi e dog . The y sent a live individual, accompanied b y four liv e magpies and a sharptailed grouse , from For t Manda n (i n present-da y North Dakota ) t o Thomas Jefferson i n 1805 , alon g wit h th e skin s and skull s of other animals. Th e shipmen t lef t o n a keelboa t t o St . Louis , an d the n traveled b y barge t o Ne w Orleans . Th e liv e animal s ha d bee n fed along th e way , but eve n s o the grous e had die d an d th e prairi e dog was in poor conditio n o n arriva l in New Orleans afte r a trip of 2,500 miles fro m For t Mandan . Wit h care , th e prairi e dog improve d an d with th e magpie s wa s sen t t o Baltimor e o n th e schoone r Comet. Three o f the fou r magpie s died a t sea , bu t th e prairi e do g an d th e remaining magpi e reache d Jefferson , wh o studie d the m an d sen t them on to the Philadelphia Museu m (formerly Peak's Museum, and now house d i n Independenc e Hall) . A s Pau l Russel l Cutrigh t ha s remarked, neve r befor e o r sinc e hav e live , wil d animal s reside d i n both th e president' s mansio n an d Independenc e Hall . Th e prairi e dog survive d fo r a fe w mor e months , bu t Georg e Ord' s forma l description o f the animal , in 1815 , was drawn from skins and skeletons .

102 2

tHE nATURAL The N atura l HhISTORY istor y oOFf THE t h e lONG L o n g eXPEDITION Oxpeditio n Titian Peale , sketche s o f horned lizard s ("orbicula r liz ards") an d prairie dogs a t their "village." Bot h animal s wer e encountered severa l time s a t diverse localities . (Fro m th e sketchbooks o f Titian Ramsa y Peale, Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery, gif t o f Ramsa y MacMullen, M.A.H . 1967 )

Ord chos e th e nam e Cy nomys ludovicianus (liter ally, dog-mous e o f Louisi ana Territory) for these animals, s o characteristic o f major parts o f the West . James noted tha t th e soi l aroun d prairi e dogs' burrow s was the particular habita t o f a species o f Solatium (buffal o bur) . He als o de scribed a composit e fro m thi s site , callin g i t Hieracium runcinatum (now Crepis rundnata, hawksbeard) . JUNE 14 . EJ: On arrivin g nea r th e Platt e w e observe d a species o f prickl y pea r (Cactu s ferox. N. ) [no w Opuntia polyacantha] t o becom e ver y numerous . . . . Our India n horse s were s o wel l acquainte d wit h thi s plant , an d it s properties , that the y use d th e utmos t car e t o avoi d steppin g o n it . Th e flowers ar e o f a sulphu r yellow , an d whe n full y expande d ar e nearly a s larg e a s thos e o f th e garde n paeony . .. . A secon d species, th e C . mamillaris, N. [no w Coryphantha missouriensis] occurs o n th e dr y sand y ridge s betwee n th e Pawne e village s and th e Platte . [Here , a s i n man y places , Jame s followe d th e names i n Thoma s Nuttall' s Catalogue, henc e th e "N " afte r the specie s names. ] Th e beautifu l cristari a coccinea [now Callirhoe involucrata, purpl e popp y mallow ] i s ver y frequen t i n

103

TO TH E ROCKIE S

the lo w plain s alon g th e Platte . It s flowers have nearl y th e aspect o f thos e o f th e commo n wil d rose , excep t tha t the y are mor e deepl y coloured. The expeditio n soo n arrive d a t Gran d Island , the n uninhabite d country, thoug h no w th e sit e o f Nebraska's third larges t city . Th e hunters wer e unsuccessfu l i n takin g biso n o r pronghor n antelope . On Jun e 16 , according t o Bell , the part y was "put o n a n allowanc e of on e biscuit " pe r day , t o whic h wa s adde d a smal l quantit y o f bologna, brough t b y th e Western Engineer fro m Pittsburg h the pre vious yea r an d "to o highl y seasone d t o ea t of f hand." Bu t i n th e evening, the hunters took a pronghorn antelope, which was welcome though no t generou s when divide d twenty-two ways. EJ: The antelop e possesse s an unconquerabl e inquisitiveness, o f which th e hunter s ofte n tak e advantage , t o compas s the destructio n o f the animal . Th e attemp t t o approac h im mediately toward s them i n th e ope n plain , where the y ar e always found, rarely proves successful. Instea d of this, the hunter , getting a s near th e anima l a s i s practicable, without excitin g alarm, conceal s himself by lying down, then fixin g a handkerchief o r cap upon th e en d o f his ramrod, continues t o wave it, still remaining concealed. Th e animal , after a long contest be tween curiosit y an d fear , a t lengt h approache s nea r enough t o become a sacrifice t o th e former . The pronghor n seem s fated t o be called an antelope, eve n thoug h i t bears n o clos e relationship s t o th e antelope s o f the Ol d World . I n fact, i t i s the uniqu e representative of a group of ungulates that, i n prehistoric times , wa s represente d b y severa l species tha t roame d North America . I n th e earl y nineteenth century , ther e ma y hav e been mor e than 40 million of these gracefu l animal s throughout th e West. By 1900, there were few remaining, but thanks to conservatio n efforts the y ma y now b e see n alon g man y western highways. It was

1 O4

tHE nATURAL hISTORY OF THE lONG eXPEDITION Say's friend George Or d wh o named th e specie s Antelope (no w An tilocapra) americana, on th e basi s of specimens collected by Lewis and Clark. James meanwhil e wa s botanizin g further . Cherianthus asper (now Erysimum asperum, western wallflower), he found, "is intensely bitter i n ever y part, particularly the root , whic h i s used a s medicin e by the Indians. " Other plants noted were frostwort, stickseed, slender beardtongue, an d sideoat s gram a grass . In pond s alon g th e Platte , James found pondweed (Potamogeton), bladderwor t (Utricularia) , and water milfoi l (Myriophillum), Almost ever y day there wa s a storm, an d sometime s th e win d was s o stron g tha t onl y b y standin g outsid e th e tent s an d holdin g them t o th e groun d coul d th e me n preven t th e tent s from blowin g over. Anyon e wh o ha s campe d o n th e plain s o f Nebraska ca n ap preciate thei r problems ! Sunday, Jun e 18 , was devoted t o washin g clothes , organizin g packs, an d cuttin g u p an d dryin g antelope meat . Th e horse s wer e permitted t o graze . James studied his specimens, but foun d tha t th e papers he ha d carrie d for pressing plants had bee n insufficiently pro tected fro m th e weather , "som e o f our collections bein g in part wet , and other s havin g bee n mad e during heavy rains. " Th e are a aroun d the cam p was strewn with the bone s of bison an d other animals, an d there were a few human skulls , suggesting that a massacre had take n place there . On e o f the skull s "w e thought i t n o sacrileg e to com pliment wit h a place upo n on e o f our packhorses. " The explorer s were about 200 miles up the Platte River. "It was still from on e to three miles in breadth, containin g numerous islands , covered wit h a scant y growt h o f cotto n woo d [and ] willows , th e amorpha fruticos a [fals e indigo] , an d othe r shrubs. " Anothe r com mon plan t wa s wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota); th e roo t o f whic h in taste "bear s a very slight resemblance t o the liquoric e of the shops , but i s bitter an d nauseous. " On th e nex t day , th e expeditio n move d anothe r thirt y mile s along th e nort h shore o f the Platte , an d James reported prickl y pop-

105 TO TH E ROCKIE S Titian Peak , sketc h o f a plant, evidentl y a heliotrop e (perhaps Heliotropium curassavicum), Jun e 21 , 1820 . I t was foun d b y Edwi n James i n saline soil , nea r th e conflu ence o f the Nort h an d Sout h Forks of the Platte . (From th e sketchbooks of Titian Ramsay Peale, Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery, gif t o f Ramsa y MacMullen, M.A.H . 1967) .

pies (Argemone), wit h broad whit e flower s an d stems tha t whe n broke n exuded a bitter , yello w fluid. There were yuccas, "thriving with a n appearance o f luxuriance and verdure , i n a soi l whic h bid s defianc e t o almos t ever y othe r species of vegetation." Other plants noted were several kinds of milkweeds (Asclepias), sunflowers (Helianthus), an d specie s of daisies (Er igeron), doc k (Rumex), speedwel l (Veronica), an d skullca p (Scute Maria). In dryin g pool s o f wate r ther e wer e tadpol e shrimps , "grea t numbers of which were dying upon th e surroundin g mud." Th e nat uralists note d tha t th e shrimps ' dorsa l shield s mad e the m resemble miniature horseshoe crabs. There were "about sixty pairs of feet, and [they] swi m upo n thei r back, " note d Say . Thes e crustacean s ar e known t o produc e drought-resistan t egg s that hatch whe n th e tem porary pools ar e once agai n fille d wit h water . They ar e very ancient animals, apparentl y differin g hardl y a t al l from fossil s o f 17 0 million years ago. Long's naturalists may have been th e firs t t o have reported them from North America. Say named th e shrimp s Apus obtusus, but his description wa s too brie f to properly characterize th e specie s and

1066

tHE nATURAL hISTORY OF THE lONG eXPEDITION he brough t bac k n o specimens . I t i s now calle d Triops longicaudus (literally, three eyes with a long tail). These crustaceans do not really have three eyes , but they do have a "dorsal organ" resembling a third eye, anothe r featur e (alon g wit h th e man y legs and th e horseshoe shaped shield ) suggestin g that indee d thes e ar e animal s surviving from th e distan t past . JUNE 20 . JB: Allowance t o tw o third s o f a biscui t pe r day—supper last night, & breakfast this morning without meat. This determined th e commandin g office r t o remain encampe d during th e da y [althoug h i t was Tuesday]—and that ever y exertion should be made by the hunters & marksmen of the party to tak e som e kind o f game—accordingly every man, tha t ha d any pretension s t o bein g a good shot wen t out—an d returne d by the middl e of the afternoon , having killed one buffalo, thre e antelopes, an d on e hare—afte r that al l hands wa s engaged i n jerking an d dryin g the meat , t o tak e i t with us. To jer k meat, is to cu t i t i n thi n flakes ; t o dr y it, i s to plac e o n a frame con sisting o f small poles under which i s kept a moderat e fire—i n this way the mea t i s cured without salt. The me n were now in country where firewood was not alway s readily available, an d the y ofte n used dried bison dung as fuel. O n Jun e 22, they arrive d at th e confluenc e o f the nort h an d sout h fork s o f th e Platte. There they watched two elk crossing the north fork , and they made thei r ow n crossin g safely a t th e sam e point . It wa s Long' s intentio n t o follo w th e Sout h Platt e t o th e mountains. Bijeau , th e guide , ha d followe d bot h fork s o f th e Platte, an d h e reporte d tha t th e source s of the Nort h Platt e wer e small stream s arisin g in " a circumscribe d valley withi n th e moun tains, calle d th e Bull-pen . Thi s basi n i s surrounde d b y hig h an d rugged mountains , excep t a t th e plac e wher e th e nort h for k passes int o th e plains. " Th e widt h o f th e valle y wa s sai d t o b e about twent y miles . Thi s i s th e firs t descriptio n i n prin t o f wha t

107

TO TH E ROCKIE S is no w calle d Nort h Park , a broa d an d gloriou s valle y rimme d b y the Par k an d Medicin e Bo w ranges. I t no w make s u p th e bette r part o f Jackson County , Colorado . EJ: Three beavers were see n cuttin g dow n a large cottonwood tree ; whe n the y ha d mad e considerabl e progress , one of them retire d t o a shor t distance , an d too k hi s statio n i n th e water, lookin g steadfastl y a t th e to p o f the tree . A s soon a s he perceived the to p begin to move towards its fall, he gave notice of the dange r t o his companions, wh o were still at work, gnawing at its base, by slapping his tail upon th e surfac e of the water, and the y immediatel y ran fro m th e tre e ou t o f harm's way. The naturalist s speculate d a s to whethe r th e America n beave r be longed t o th e sam e specie s a s it s Europea n counterpar t (i t i s no w considered distinct) . Thi s i s one o f th e fe w discussion s i n James' s Account o f the beaver , a n anima l tha t ha d played , and wa s still t o play, a major rol e i n the openin g o f the Wes t to people o f European descent. Thus far, the me n ha d see n onl y a n occasiona l bison , bu t thi s was about t o change. JUNE 23. EJ: Our view of the opposit e margi n of the Platte , during thi s day' s march , ha d bee n intercepte d b y a n elevate d swell of the surface , whic h extende d along , parallel to the river, that we were now approaching. Immediatel y upon surmountin g this undulation we saw before us, upon the broa d expanse of the left margin of the river , immense herds of bison, grazing in undisturbed possession, and obscuring, with the density of their num bers, the verdan t plain; to the righ t and left , as far as the ey e was permitted t o rove, the crow d seemed hardl y to diminish, an d it would be no exaggeration to say, that at least ten thousand her e burst on our sight in the instant . Smal l columns of dust were occasionally wafted b y the win d from th e bull s that were pawing

108

The Expedition T h e N aNatural t u r a l H iHistory s t o r y o of f t hthee LLong on g O xpeditio n the earth , and rolling; the interes t of action wa s also communicated to the scene , by the unwield y playfulness of some individuals, tha t th e ey e woul d occasionall y rest upon , thei r rea l o r affected combats , or by the slow or rapid progress of others to and from thei r waterin g places. O n th e distan t bluffs , individual s were constantl y disappearing , whil e other s wer e presentin g themselves t o ou r view , until , as the dus k of the evenin g in creased, thei r massiv e forms, thu s elevate d abov e th e lin e of other objects, were but dimly defined o n the skies . We retired to our evening fare, highly gratified with the novel spectacle we had witnessed, an d wit h th e mos t sanguin e expectations o f the fu ture. In th e mornin g w e agai n sough t th e livin g picture , bu t upon all the plain which last evening was so teeming with noble animals, not on e remained. We forde d th e [South ] Platt e with less dela y an d difficult y tha n w e ha d encountere d i n crossin g the north fork . . . . We had no soone r crosse d the Platte , than our attention was arreste d b y th e beautifu l whit e primros e (oenothera pin natifida, N. ) wit h it s long an d slende r coroll a reclinin g upo n the grass . Th e flower , whic h i s near t o tw o inche s long , con stitutes about one-half of the entir e lengt h o f the plant . This evenin g primros e is now calle d Oenothera coronopifolia. Othe r plants collecte d nea r th e sit e included whit e and purple prairie clover (Dalea Candida an d D . purpurea); specie s of spider flower , o r be e plant (Cleome); beardtongu e (Penstemon) ; an d milkvetc h (Astragalus). Seymour and Peal e sketched bison , now so plentiful. Th e me n preferred biso n meat to that of elk or deer, "which wa s thrown awa y when it could be substituted by the bison meat." They also saw hares, badgers, coyotes , eagles , vultures , ravens, an d owls . These , wrot e James, "i n som e measur e relieved th e uniformit y o f [th e plain's ] cheerless scenery."

1099

TO TH E ROCKIE S

Titian Peale, watercolor of a bison. This is believed to be the earlies t illustration of a bison grazin g on th e plains . (America n Philosophica l Society )

EJ: Some extensiv e tract s of land alon g th e Platt e . . . are almost exclusivel y occupie d b y a scattere d growt h o f severa l species of wormwood. . . . The peculia r aromatic scent, an d the flavour of this well known plant , i s recognized in all the species . . . . Several o f them are eaten by the bisons, and our horses were sometimes reduce d t o th e necessit y o f feeding upon them . Wormwood wa s undoubtedly wel l known t o James from hi s medical training, sinc e variou s kinds hav e lon g bee n use d t o remov e worm s from th e intestina l tract . Mor e ofte n calle d sagebrush , these plant s cover vas t acreage s o f th e West . Th e dominan t specie s alon g th e South Platte wa s very likely silvery wormwood, or sandhill sag e (Artemisia filifolia) , a specie s describe d b y Joh n Torre y i n 182 8 fro m specimens collecte d b y James.

110 0

The Natural History. ooff th thee Long The Natura l History Lon gExpedition Oxpeditio n Over th e nex t fe w days, th e weather became cool and pleasant, and th e expeditio n member s began t o anticipat e thei r first view of the mountains . Earl y o n th e mornin g o f June 26 , a gu n wa s discharged, a signa l tha t Indian s wer e approaching . Bu t Lon g wa s merely testin g hi s men' s readiness . James confesse d tha t althoug h the me n were now used to rising well before sunrise, they "still found we lef t tha t smal l spot o f earth, o n whic h w e had reste d ou r limbs, and which had become warm and dry by the hea t of our bodies, with as much reluctanc e a s we have fel t a t quittin g softer beds. " They were moving rapidly up the south side of the South Platte , covering, according to Bell, twenty-four miles on June 26, forty miles on Jun e 27 , an d twenty-seve n mile s o n Jun e 28 . The y ha d no w crossed into what is now Colorado, near the presen t city of Julesburg. Bison continued t o be abundant, and James was led to muse on thei r ultimate fate . EJ: It would be highly desirable that some law for the pres ervation o f game might be extended to. an d rigidl y enforced in the countr y where the biso n is still met with; that the wanto n destruction o f thes e valuabl e animals, b y th e whit e hunters , might b e checke d o r prevented . I t i s common fo r hunter s t o attack larg e herds o f these animals , and havin g slaughtere d as many a s they ar e able , from mer e wantonness an d lov e o f this barbarous sport , t o leav e th e carcasse s to b e devoure d by th e wolves an d bird s o f prey ; thousand s ar e slaughtere d yearly, of which no par t i s saved except th e tongues . This inconsiderat e and crue l practice is undoubtedly the principa l reason why th e bison flie s s o fa r an d s o soo n fro m th e neighbourhoo d o f ou r frontier settlements . The naturalist s of the Lon g Expedition were among the first to decry the slaughter of the bison. Twenty years later, Audubon hunted bison on the upper Missouri. He noted that the herds were already declining, and remarked that the specie s might disappear "like the Great Auk " unless something was done to prevent it. But a few years later, "Buffalo

111

TO TH E ROCKIE S

Bill" Cody bragged that he had killed 4,280 bison in one year, while he worked fo r th e Unio n Pacifi c Railroad . Th e railroa d crosse d lan d owned b y the Sioux , and i t was easier to destroy their way of life than to defeat warriors such a s Sitting Bul l and Craz y Horse. "N o sigh t is more commo n o n th e plains, " wrot e Theodore Roosevel t i n 1888 , "than that of a bleached buffal o skull. " Now even the skull s are gone, and the few remaining herds are semidomesticated. Meanwhile, a s th e expeditio n trekke d throug h wha t i s no w northeastern Colorado , zoologis t Thomas Say was turning his atten tion t o smal l game: beetles. One o f these wa s a blister beetle, whic h he name d Lytta albida (no w Macrobasis albida); another , a darkling beetle (Blaps obscura, now Eleodes obscura). Bot h wer e illustrated in color i n the firs t volum e o f his American Entomology, based on drawings by Titian Peale . Th e bliste r beetle tha t Sa y described as a "re markably fin e species " was taken a s the expeditio n passed over "that vast desert. " "I t appeare d t o b e feeding upon th e scant y grass , i n a situation fro m whic h th e ey e could no t res t upo n a tree , o r eve n a humble shrub, throughout th e entir e range of vision, to interrupt the uniformity o f a far outspreading, gently undulated surface , that , lik e the ocean , presente d a n equa l horizon i n ever y direction. " JUNE 27 . EJ (DOUBTLES S FROM TS): W e observed , i n repeated instances , severa l individual s of a singula r genus o f reptiles . . . which i n form resemble short serpents , but are more closely allie d t o th e lizards , b y bein g furnishe d wit h tw o feet . They wer e s o active , tha t i t wa s no t withou t som e difficult y that we succeeded i n obtaining a specimen. Of thi s (as was our uniform custom , whe n an y apparentl y ne w anima l wa s pre sented) w e immediately drew out a description. Bu t as the spec imen wa s unfortunately lost, an d th e descriptio n forme d par t of the zoologica l notes an d observations , which were carried off by ou r deserters , we are reduce d t o th e necessit y of merely indicating the probabilit y of the existenc e o f the [two-legge d lizard] within th e territor y of the Unite d States .

)1 2

The Natural History of the Long Expedition These observation s hav e bee n th e caus e o f discussion among her petologists eve r since. Two-legge d lizard s (no w Bipes, i n th e famil y Amphisbaenidae) hav e neve r bee n foun d i n Colorad o again , an d only doubtfull y recorde d fro m nort h o f Mexico . The y ar e slow moving, wormlike , mostly subterranean animals . Bu t th e member s of the expeditio n foun d them s o active that they had troubl e catch ing them . Perhap s wha t the y actuall y sa w were many-lined skink s (Eumeces multivirgatus), slender, fast-running lizards tha t hav e fou r unusually short legs . In hi s boo k Amphibians and Reptiles o f Colorado, Geoffrey Hammerso n states , "I cannot seriousl y consider Bipes t o be an inhabitant o f Colorado until firm documentation o f its occurrence is obtained. " The comment s concernin g th e discover y o f th e two-legge d lizard ar e doubl y interestin g becaus e the y explai n th e naturalists ' practice o f drawin g up a preliminar y description i n th e field . I n this case , th e specime n wa s los t an d th e descriptio n disappeare d when man y o f Say' s note s an d collection s wer e carrie d of f by de serters o n th e retur n trip alon g th e Arkansa s River . Under th e cir cumstances, Sa y wa s unabl e t o includ e a descriptio n i n th e Account o f the expedition . On Jun e 28 , th e part y sa w and admire d a herd o f wild horses . "Their playfulness," wrot e James, "rather tha n their fears , seemed to be excite d b y our appearance, an d w e often sa w them, mor e tha n a mile distant , leapin g an d curvetting , involve d b y a clou d o f dust , which the y seeme d to deligh t i n raising." They als o saw several small foxes an d sho t som e for specimens. Say described them in detail and provided a name, Canis velox (now Vulpes velox). Velox i s the Lati n word for "swift, " an d thi s beautiful animal i s now calle d th e swif t fox . This fox , wrote Say, "runs wit h extraordinary swiftness, s o much so, that when at full spee d its course has bee n b y the hunter s compare d t o th e fligh t o f a bird skimming the surfac e o f the earth . . . . [I]t burrows i n th e earth , i n a countr y totally destitut e o f tree s o r bushes , an d i s no t know n t o dwel l i n

113

TO TH E ROCKIE S forest districts. " Onc e again , the descriptio n tha t Sa y drew u p was stolen b y the deserters . It was later reconstructed i n part from a head that th e naturalist s had manage d t o preserve. The swif t fo x i s now gon e fro m muc h o f it s former range, a s it is easil y trappe d an d i s often th e victi m o f contro l effort s directe d toward coyotes. The foxe s feed primaril y on insects and small rodents and ar e therefore beneficia l to humans. Bu t since the y ar e classed as predators, the y ar e no t tolerate d b y ranchers, whos e cattl e hav e i n any cas e degrade d muc h o f the swif t fox' s habitat . The expeditio n no w passe d "Cherr y Creek, " whic h "head s in the Rock y Mountains. " Thi s was , o f course , no t moder n Cherr y Creek, whic h flows through Denver . I t may have bee n moder n Pawnee Creek o r more likely (according to George Goodman and Chery l Lawson) Cedar Creek. Bot h aris e on the Hig h Plain s well east of the Rockies. Magpie s were see n o n island s in th e river . These birds , so characteristic o f th e West , actuall y range throug h Alask a an d o n through muc h o f Eurasia . Lewis an d Clar k ha d see n the m o n th e upper Missouri, calling th e bir d " a butiful l thing, " as indeed i t is. JUNE 29. EJ: The countr y .. . i s as uniformly plai n a s that on an y part of the Platte . I t differ s fro m tha t further to the eas t only i n being of a coarser sand , an d i n aspect of more unvaried sterility. Th e cactu s fero x [Opuntia polyacantha] reign s sol e monarch, th e sol e possessor, of thousands o f acres of this dreary plain. I t form s patche s whic h neithe r hors e no r an y other an imal wil l attempt t o pas s over . .. . I n depresse d an d mois t situations, wher e th e soi l i s no t s o entirel y unproductive , th e variegated spurg e (euphorbi a variegata ) [Euphorbia marginata, snow-on-the-mountain], wit h its painted involucru m and particoloured leaves , i s a conspicuous an d beautifu l ornament . Th e lepidium virginicu m [pepper-grass ] ... i s here o f such diminu tive siz e tha t w e were induced t o search , thoug h w e sought i n vain, fo r some characte r t o distinguis h it a s a separate species.

114

The Natural History of the Long Expedition JUNE 30 . JB: [A]t 8 o'clock, bein g o n a n elevate d par t of the prairie , in orde r t o cros s near th e head s o f som e dee p ra vines—we discovere d a blue stripe , clos e i n wit h th e horizo n to th e west—whic h wa s by som e pronounce d t o b e n o mor e than a cloud—b y others , t o b e th e Rock y Mountains . Th e hazey atmospher e soo n rendere d i t obscure—an d w e wer e al l expectation an d doubt unti l i n the afternoon , when th e atmo sphere cleared , an d w e ha d a distinc t vie w o f th e sumi t o f a range o f mountains—which t o ou r great satisfaction and heart felt joy, was declared by the commandin g office r t o be the rang e of th e Rock y Mountains—a hig h Peak e was plainly t o b e distinguished towerin g above al l the other s a s far as the sigh t ex tended—which Majo r Lon g . . . supposed distan t abou t 6 0 miles. The whol e range had a beautiful an d sublime appearance to us , after havin g bee n s o lon g confine d t o th e dul l uninter esting monotony o f prairie country. . . . The "hig h Peake" was assumed to be the "Highes t Peake " of Zebulon Pike. In fact, i t was then nameless, though doubtless the Indian s had a name for it, and Frenc h trapper s had dubbe d it "Les deux Oreilles" (two ears ) because of its double crest. Later travelers came t o cal l i t Long's Peak , a nam e tha t wa s given forma l recognitio n i n 182 3 i n Henry S . Tanner's New American Atlas. Jame s recorded i n his diar y that th e mountain s "appea r t o ris e abruptl y from th e plai n an d t o shoot u p t o a n astonishin g altitude. " The expedition' s firs t vie w of the mountain s wa s from a poin t a fe w miles eas t o f th e sit e o f th e modern city of Brush, Colorado . On th e followin g day th e me n move d anothe r twenty-seve n miles, Bel l complainin g o f th e "innumerabl e swarm s of sand-fl y o r knat—the one inflame s ou r eyes and the bit e of the othe r causes our faces an d hand s t o swel l attende d wit h a constan t irritatio n an d itching." Presumabl y thes e wer e ey e gnat s (Hippelates) an d eithe r black flies or dee r flies . O n thi s da y the expeditio n crosse d a smal l tributary of the Sout h Platte tha t arose in higher plains to the south .

115

TO TH E ROCKIE S Long plotted th e cree k o n th e ma p he wa s preparing, callin g i t "Bijeaus Cr." afte r his guide, Joseph Bijeau , wh o had bee n throug h thi s country before . Neithe r Jame s no r Bel l mention s th e cree k i n hi s report. I t appear s as Bijou Cree k o n moder n maps . James (doubtles s afte r Say ) commente d o n th e man y an t hills, astutely noting thei r uniform distribution—about twenty feet apart— and thei r east-facin g entrances: "I t seem s highl y probable , tha t th e active little architects thu s place the entranc e o f their edific e on th e eastward side , i n orde r t o escap e th e direc t influenc e o f th e col d mountain winds. " These were colonies o f the prairie mound-building ant (Pogonomyrmex occidentals), a specie s tha t wa s no t actuall y named an d describe d until 1865 . Th e eve n distributio n of the nest s is now know n t o b e th e resul t o f the worker s of each colon y aggressively maintainin g a feeding territory around thei r nest . July 2 wa s a Sunday , an d th e expeditio n remaine d i n camp , though ther e wa s littl e gras s for th e horses . Despit e th e explorers ' rapid pace—fifty-three miles in two days—the mountain s seeme d as far awa y as ever. James made not e o f prairie coneflowers (Rudbeckia columnaris) comin g int o bloom . Commo n purslan e (Portulaca oleracea) wa s abundant, "particularl y in place s muc h frequente d a s licks by th e bison s and othe r animals. " Thi s i s not usuall y regarded a s a native plant , an d it s occurrenc e i n 182 0 s o fa r fro m settlement s i s puzzling; Goodma n an d Lawso n believ e tha t Jame s ma y have col lected a differen t species . It i s interesting t o reflec t on som e o f the plant s that James did not see as the part y approached th e Rockies—plants tha t have over run the countryside since their unmindful introduction b y humans— for example , Russian thistle, Canada and mus k thistles, leafy spurge, knapweed, an d cheatgrass . O f course, there were no starlings , house sparrows, Norway rats, house mice , o r feral hous e cats . I t was a pristine landscape , devoi d o f th e innumerabl e irrigatio n ditche s tha t now criss-cros s the fields and o f any road s aside from th e vagu e trails made b y bison, elk, deer, an d Indians , It wa s probably o n thi s da y tha t Seymou r painte d hi s water -

11 6

The Natural History of the Long Expedition color, Distant View o f th e Rocky Mountains . As a hand-colore d aq uatint, i t appeared a s the frontispiec e to the Account. Snow y Long's Peak i s at the center , wit h lower ranges on each side. Bison graze on the plai n befor e the mountains , an d a few Indians stan d i n th e lef t foreground (thoug h th e expeditio n ha d no t encountere d Indian s i n some days) . Willia m H . Goetzman n an d Willia m N . Goetzman n speak o f i t a s "a n epi c picture, " capturin g th e sens e o f "awesom e space" despit e it s somewhat conventiona l style . From the profil e of the mountain s i n Seymour' s painting, i t appear s tha t i t wa s mad e somewhere nea r th e sit e o f the present-da y town o f Orchard, Col orado. On July 3, the men mounted thei r horses at five in the morning, hoping t o reac h th e mountain s b y Independenc e Day . Ha d the y headed straigh t towar d the mountains , the y migh t hav e succeeded , but th e Platt e turne d southward , an d the y wer e committed t o following it s course . That da y the y passe d th e mouth s o f thre e larg e creeks, no w calle d th e Cach e l a Poudre , Bi g Thompson, an d St . Vrain. Th e creek s wer e dul y mappe d b y Long, bu t the y remaine d unnamed except for the third, which was called Potero's (or Potera's) Creek, afte r a Frenchman wh o "is said to have been bewildered upon it." Th e part y camped that night nea r th e mout h o f the thir d creek . They wer e near the plac e where Ceran St. Vrain would build a trading post i n th e 1830s , an d no t fa r from th e sit e of the presen t tow n of Platteville. They wer e approximately due east of Long's Peak, bu t there wa s no tal k o f climbing that precipitous landmark. I t was not until 186 8 tha t Joh n Wesle y Powell , Willia m N . Byers , an d fiv e others reached th e top . It s altitude is now known t o b e 14,25 5 fee t above se a level , roughl y 9,00 0 fee t abov e th e campsit e o f Long' s party. JULY 4. EJ: We ha d hope d t o celebrat e ou r great national festival o n th e Rock y Mountains; but th e da y had arrived , and they wer e still at a distance. Being extremely impatient o f any unnecessary delay, which prevented u s from enterin g upo n th e

117

TO TH E ROCKIE S

Etching i n th e Account, afte r Samue l Seymour , (Reproduce d b y permission of the Huntingto n Library , Sa n Marino , California ) Distant View o f th e Rocky Mountains.

examination o f th e mountains , w e did no t devot e th e da y t o rest, a s had bee n ou r intention. We di d not, however , forget t o celebrate th e anniversar y o f ou r nationa l independence , ac cording to the circumstances . An extr a pint o f maize was issued to eac h mess , and a small portion o f whiskey distributed. They did sto p earl y and spen t th e res t of the day , according t o Bell , "feasting o n boile d cor n soup , roaste d veniso n an d buffal o . . . Not having dran k spirit s for some time , th e whisk y tasted disagreeable. " It wa s probably a t thi s sit e tha t Seymou r sketched hi s View of the Rocky Mountains o n th e Platte 5 0 Miles from their Base, whic h appeared a s an engravin g i n th e Account. Several biso n graz e i n th e foreground, an d i n th e backgroun d i s th e ful l rang e o f th e snow capped mountain s no w called th e India n Peaks , with Long's Peak at the fa r right. Man y year s later, i n th e 1870s , Titian Peal e use d Sey-

1 18

The Natural History of the Long Expedition

Titian Peale , Western Landscape, 1870s . Peale based this oil painting on a sketch by Samue l Seymour , bu t adde d pronghor n antelop e fro m on e o f hi s ow n sketches. (Josly n Art Museum , Omaha , Nebraska ; gif t o f M. Knoedle r & Co. , Inc., Ne w York , N.Y.)

mour's sketc h a s th e basi s fo r a n oi l painting , addin g t o th e fore ground tw o pronghor n antelop e fro m hi s ow n sketches . Peak' s painting, no w i n th e Josly n Ar t Museum , Omaha , ha s lon g bee n attributed t o Seymour . The naturalist s used the afternoo n profitably . Nest s an d young of mockingbirds were seen i n bushes by the river . Say watched prairie dogs an d wondere d wh y the y selecte d suc h barre n place s fo r thei r villages; perhap s i t wa s t o hav e "a n unobstructe d vie w o f th e sur rounding country, " wher e predator s migh t lurk . H e collecte d "rattlesnakes o f a particula r species " tha t inhabitate d th e villages . He prepare d a descriptio n o f them, callin g th e specie s Crotalus tergeminus (no w Sistrurus catenatus tergeminm, wester n massasauga) . This i s a relativel y small , mild-tempere d rattlesnak e tha t feed s

119

TO TH E R O C K I E S Titian Peale , sketch o f scarlet gilia , probabl y a t th e campsite nea r present-da y Brighton , Colorado , Jul y 4, 1820 . James discussed this species i n hi s diary entry o f July 3 . (Fro m th e sketchbook s o f Titian Ram say Peale , Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery , gif t o f Ramsay MacMullen , M.A.H . 1967) .

mainly on small rodents. At the present time, the wester n massasaug a is restricted to south eastern Colorad o an d point s farthe r south . One wonder s (her e a s elsewhere) i f Say los t his note s concernin g collectio n site s whe n his possession s were stolen b y deserters. Pos sibly h e collecte d th e snak e i n th e Arkansa s River Valle y and late r reconstructed th e sit e fro m memory . James foun d tha t som e o f th e cottonwood s i n th e are a wer e "the long-leafe d cotton-wood " of Lewis and Clark . Th e specie s had never bee n formall y described , s o James di d so , namin g i t Populus angustifolia, narrowlea f cottonwood . H e als o collecte d " a larg e suffruticose specie s of lupine," probabl y Lupinus argenteus. He observe d "the splendi d an d interestin g Bartonia , an d B . nuda i n ful l flower. " This genu s ha d bee n name d fo r Benjami n Smith Barton , wh o ha d tutored Meriwethe r Lewi s i n botan y befor e hi s tri p t o th e Pacific . Unfortunately th e genu s ha d a n earlie r name , Mentzdia, afte r a n early Germa n botanist . Thu s thes e plant s ar e now calle d Mentzdia nuda, o r small white evenin g star . A s James noted, th e flower s ope n only i n the evenin g o r on cloud y days. These an d othe r members of the genu s ar e amon g th e mos t strikin g flower s o f th e Hig h Plain s and foothills . Othe r plant s note d ther e include d a buttercu p (Ranunculus), a beardtongue (Penstemon), an d a figwor t (Scrophularia). On Jul y 5 , the explorer s traveled onl y abou t te n miles , having on thei r right, i n Bell' s words, "th e rang e o f snow cap' d mountains , on th e lef t a n extensiv e barren prairie , almost as sterile as the desert s

12 0

The Natural History of the Long Expedition of Arabia." (Present-da y residents of Adams County , Colorado , ma y well wonder at thi s las t comment!) The y campe d near wha t Frenc h trappers calle d Cannon-bal l Creek , "fro m th e siz e an d for m o f th e stones i n its bed" (moder n Clear Creek) . Jame s and Peale , with tw o others, se t out t o follo w th e creek , trampin g throug h fields of troublesome porcupin e grass , o r needl e gras s (Stipa), it s "quills " pene trating "int o ever y par t o f th e dres s wit h whic h the y com e i n contact." They sa w robins for the firs t tim e sinc e leavin g th e Mis souri. The y forgo t t o tak e a lunch , bu t "Mr . Peal e wa s fortunate enough t o kil l a coupl e o f curlews , which wer e roaste d an d eate n without loss of time." They gave up without reaching the mountains , and returne d a t sunse t with a freshly kille d antelope . On th e excursion , James noted curran t bushe s (Ribes), virgin' s bower (Clematis), blazin g sta r (Liatrz's) , wate r parsni p (Slum), wil d flax (Linum lewisii [named by Frederick Pursh for Meriwether Lewis]), and wil d buckwheat , which Jame s called Eriogonum sericeum. (it was later described and named E. jamesii by English botanist George Bentham on th e basi s of specimens James collected). JULY 6. JB: At 1/2 past 4 o'clock i n the morning , our party was on th e march , delighte d a t th e flatterin g prospect of arriving a t th e bas e of the mountains , the exten t of our tour i n thi s direction. . . . [A]s we advance th e variet y [of] objects along the mountain, change [of ] scenery and of views, interest our feelings so muc h tha t w e forge t ou r fatigues . . . . [Qrossed a strea m called Vermillion creek [probabl y present Cherr y Creek , whic h flows through Denver] . . . . [A]bout 1 1 oclock w e arrived within ] /4 of mile of the ga p between th e mountains , wher e issue d th e South wes t branch o f the rive r Platte, beyond which ther e was no possibilit y o f advancin g wit h horses . Ou r part y encampe d on a small plain o f the rive r bottom whic h afforde d goo d feed for ou r horses— a numbe r o f large cotton woo d tree s t o shad e us from th e ray s of the sun—& good cool water from the river — the gravel l hills o f the prairie , in the rea r of our camp exclude d

121 1

TO TH E ROCKIE S

the breeze s from u s & mad e th e sit e extremel y warm, set th e flag o n th e hil l & a sentinel t o loo k out . They had a t last reached th e Rock y Mountains. Bel l calculated tha t they ha d travele d 56 8 mile s sinc e leavin g Enginee r Cantonment : "The Commandin g office r doe s not inten d tha t the part y shall pro ceed t o th e sourc e of the Platte. " Presumably Long judged, from th e size of the rive r as it lef t th e mountains—twenty-fiv e yards wide and averaging thre e fee t deep—tha t i t woul d have take n man y day s of difficult trave l t o reac h th e source , as, of course, i t would have . Secretary o f War Calhou n ha d specificall y include d i n hi s or ders "a n excursio n .. . t o th e sourc e o f the rive r Platte. " Long was therefore takin g matter s int o hi s ow n hands i n declinin g t o pursue the South Platt e through th e mountains t o its sources in South Park, a vast , grass y basi n surrounde d b y towerin g peaks. Sout h Par k was well know n t o th e Indian s an d t o Canadia n trappers , an d James Purcell ha d visite d th e are a i n 1805 , a s mentione d i n Chapte r 1 . Pike ha d entere d Sout h Par k fro m th e south , bu t n o on e ha d de scribed th e rive r betwee n it s sources an d it s entry ont o th e plains . Long might have mad e a major contributio n b y following the Sout h Platte throug h it s canyons, bu t hi s expedition ha d no w been i n th e field for a full month , and ther e were many miles to go if they wished to retur n befor e autumn .

Enght EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANGE

THE EXPEDITIO N REMAINE D CAMPE D A T THE mouth o f th e canyo n of th e Sout h Platt e fo r two days . Seymour too k occasio n t o mak e a watercolor painting , View o f the Chasm Through which the Platte Issues from th e Rocky Mountains. I t wa s reproduced, i n blac k an d white , i n the final report of the expedition . Th e mout h of the canyo n i s today included i n Waterto n Canyo n Recreatio n Area , a mecc a fo r pic nickers, hikers , an d fishermen . Althoug h th e are a i s much trans formed, i t i s possible t o loo k u p th e canyo n an d enjo y a vie w ver y much lik e tha t show n i n Seymour' s painting . Th e cottonwood s noted b y Bel l stil l provid e abundan t shade , an d som e o f th e tree s and bushe s note d b y James ar e stil l muc h i n evidence : bo x elders , oaks, junipers , an d poiso n ivy. At th e camp , Jame s assumed his geologist's cap an d describe d the formation s a t th e ri m o f the mountain s wit h considerabl e ac curacy. JULY 6 . EJ: The woodles s plai n i s terminated b y a rang e of nake d an d almos t perpendicula r rocks , visibl e at a distance of several miles, and resemblin g a vast wall, parallel to th e bas e of th e mountain . Thes e rock s ar e sandstone . . . . They emerg e at a great angl e o f inclination fro m beneat h th e alluvia l of th e

/ 23

E X P L O R I N G TH E FRON T R A N GE

Engraving i n th e Account, afte r Samue l Seymour , View o f th e Chas m T hrough which the Platte Issues from the Rocky Mountains.

plain, an d ris e abruptl y t o a n elevatio n o f on e hundre d an d fifty, o r tw o hundre d feet . Passin g withi n th e firs t range , w e found a narrow valley separating it from a second ridg e of sandstone, o f nearly equal elevatio n an d apparentl y resting agains t the bas e of a high primitiv e hill beyond . James believe d tha t th e sandstone s o f what w e would no w cal l th e hogbacks wer e "originall y o f unifor m elevatio n an d uninterrupte d continuity," bu t ha d bee n "broke n of f and throw n int o a n incline d or vertical position " b y the upliftin g o f more ancient , graniti c rocks : "It i s d i f f i c u l t . .. t o preven t th e imaginatio n fro m wanderin g back to tha t remot e unascertaine d period , when th e billow s of th e pri meval ocean lashed th e bas e of the Rocky Mountains, and deposited, during a successio n of ages, tha t vas t accumulatio n [o f sedimentary rock]." For its time, this was a perceptive description o f the formation of th e Rockie s and o f the hogbacks . Nowadays w e ca n provid e a roug h tim e scal e fo r these event s and ca n suppl y name s fo r th e formations , but mos t o f James's com -

Route o f the Lon g Expedition throug h Colorad o an d New Mexico , with majo r landmarks indicated: (1 ) first view of Long's Peak, near present Brush, Colorado , June 30; (2) camp opposit e Potera' s (St. Vrain) Creek , nea r present Platteville , Colorado, wit h Long' s Pea k t o th e west , Jul y 3; (3 ) cam p o n th e Sout h Platt e where i t leave s th e mountains , presen t Waterto n Canyon , jus t southwes t of Denver, Jul y 6 ; (4 ) Edwi n James an d tw o other s clim b Pike's Peak, July 13—15 ; (5) cam p on the Arkansa s near th e mountains, Jul y 16—19 ; (6 ) expedition splits , near presen t Rock y Ford , Colorado, Jul y 22—24 ; (7 ) arriva l at Ut e Creek , nea r Gladstone, Ne w Mexico, July 30; (8) arrival at the Canadian River , near Logan, New Mexico , August 5.

12 5

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E ments are still applicable. Modern geologist s agree that the sedimen tary rock s wer e lai d dow n horizontally , beneath shallo w seas , an d were tilte d upwar d by th e slo w elevatio n o f more ancien t graniti c and metamorphi c rocks ; most of the sedimentar y rocks that overlaid the muc h olde r rocks have bee n erode d away , leaving parallel ridges of sandstone an d limestone . Th e firs t volum e of Charles Lyell' s revolutionary Principles o f Geology wa s no t publishe d unti l 1830 , an d prior t o tha t tim e ther e was little appreciation o f the massiv e forces and the vast amount o f time required to form the landscapes of today. James was clearly a forward-looking geologist. The me n o f the expeditio n were camped between James's "first range" (Dakot a Sandstone , i n modern terminology ) and his "secon d ridge" (Lyon s and Fountai n Formations) , the latte r restin g against the "hig h primitiv e hill beyond. " Th e ridges , he noted , ha d bee n "cut throug h b y the be d o f the Platte , an d al l th e large r streams i n their descen t t o th e plains. " "Fro m ou r camp , w e had expecte d t o be able to ascend th e mos t distant summit s then i n sight, and return the sam e evening." A s is always the case , the mountain s were found to hav e greate r depth tha n the y appeare d from thei r base . On th e hogbacks , Jame s collecte d a wil d geraniu m an d "th e beautiful calochortus. " Thi s wa s a seg o lily , o r maripos a lil y (Calo chortus gunnisoni), a plant stil l abundant i n th e area . James misidentified th e plan t a s C. elegons, an d i t wa s not unti l 187 1 tha t i t was recognized a s a differen t specie s an d name d fo r Captai n Joh n W . Gunnison, a notabl e wester n explore r wh o fel l t o th e Paiute s i n 1853. Th e bulb s of sego lilies were often harvested a s food by Native Americans, an d in 184 8 the Mormo n settler s of Utah relied on them after thei r crop s had bee n devastate d by crickets. C. nuttallii is now the stat e flowe r o f Utah. James note d "a n uncommonl y larg e an d beautifu l buc k dee r [that sprang ] out fro m th e bushes , an d stoo d gazin g a t us , until h e received i n hi s sid e th e ball , whic h brough t hi m instantl y t o th e earth." So muc h fo r beauty! Say discovere d an d describe d tw o specimen s belongin g t o a

1 26

The Natural History of the Long Expedition group o f rather grotesqu e arachnid s usuall y called su n spiders , wind scorpions, o r solpugids . One h e name d Galeodes pallipes; th e other , G. subulata. It. was later discovere d tha t on e wa s a femal e an d th e other a male of the sam e species, now called Eremobates pallipes. This was the first record of these unusual arthropods from North America . We now know that there ar e numerous species in the wester n states . Sun spider s ar e agile , pale-colore d predators , a n inc h o r tw o i n length, tha t seiz e thei r pre y in pincers tha t see m to o larg e for thei r slender bodies. They are most active at night, an d despite their fierc e appearance the y ar e not poisonous . Say als o described a previously unknown wre n that was "ofte n seen hoppin g abou t o n th e branches . . . and trunk s [o f juniper]" at the campsite . H e name d i t Troglodytes obsoleta (no w Salpinctes ob solete, rock wren) . Say said nothin g abou t th e son g o f these birds, which i s among th e mos t exuberan t and varie d of any Rocky Moun tain bird . Th e specie s deserves a bette r nam e tha n obsoleta, which means "worn out " i n Latin. Sa y described the plumag e as "of a muc h more sombr e hue " tha n tha t o f the Carolin a wren , whic h ma y explain wh y he chos e that name . On th e mornin g o f July 7 , tw o group s set of f into th e nearb y mountains on foot. James and Peale, with tw o riflemen, explore d th e hills on th e nort h sid e of the river . Since the y wer e camped o n th e south side , thi s require d that the y cros s the river , som e twenty-five yards wid e an d wit h a curren t s o strong "a s t o rende r i t impossible for a ma n t o kee p o n hi s feet. " S o on e o f th e rifleme n swa m th e stream wit h th e en d o f a rope i n his teeth, an d the n made th e rop e fast o n th e othe r sid e s o that other s coul d wad e th e strea m whil e holding o n t o th e rope . They found the south-facin g slopes covered with prickl y pear cacti an d yuccas , "with her e an d ther e a stinte d oak or juniper, and s o steep that great exertion a s well as the utmos t caution, ar e necessary in ascending. " A fe w "interesting insect s an d plants" wer e found, but th e slope s were otherwise "th e abod e o f few living things , cithe r anima l o r vegetable. " Afte r a n arduou s climb, they wer e abl e t o loo k dow n o n th e rive r an d se e th e fork s o f th e

127

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E South Platte—"Tw o Forks, " wher e th e Denve r Wate r Boar d has in recent year s yearne d t o buil d a dam. Th e descen t i n th e afternoo n was as laborious as the ascent , but th e me n did find ripe currants and "a few large and deliciou s raspberries." These were Boulder raspberries (Rubus deliciosus), describe d an d name d b y John Torre y o n th e basis o f specimens collecte d b y James. When the y wer e severa l mile s int o th e mountains , on e o f th e riflemen becam e to o il l t o proceed , an d Peal e se t ou t fo r cam p t o find help . Soo n afte r h e left , a larg e bear approache d th e other s i n the group , bu t i t was frightened of f with som e shots . Th e sic k ma n soon recovered , an d th e part y arrived back a t cam p i n th e evenin g only t o find that other s ha d becom e ill . Bell an d Say , wh o ha d ascende d th e hill s o n th e sout h sid e of the river , also experienced man y difficulties. The y were rewarded by a clos e vie w o f elk , a feas t o f currants , an d a broa d vie w o f th e mountains ahea d a s well a s the prairi e they ha d lef t behind . They attempted t o cros s the rive r to find an easie r way back; but th e cur rent wa s too strong , th e wate r cold , an d th e botto m covere d wit h sharp rocks , s o the y wer e force d t o scrambl e throug h rock s an d bushes along th e mountainside . The y were als o ill upon return . EJ: The sicknes s experience d b y almos t al l th e part y was probably occasione d b y eatin g o f currants, whic h wer e abun dant abou t th e camp . I t i s not t o b e suppose d thi s illnes s was caused b y an y ver y activ e deleteriou s qualit y of th e fruit , bu t that th e stomach , b y long disuse , had i n great measure los t th e power of digesting vegetable matter . Severa l continue d unwel l during th e night . Bell wa s more graphic , describin g th e "violen t pain s i n th e head , breast & limbs , i n som e case s attended wit h vomitin g & surging. " But, h e added , " a dos e of calomel & jallu p administered , soon gave relief—we ea t n o mor e currants. " Perhap s thei r illnes s was caused,

1 28

The Natural History of the Long Expedition or aggravated , by the rigor s o f their first climb int o th e mountains : they ma y have bee n experiencin g a touch o f altitude sickness. Despite hi s descriptio n o f the bleaknes s an d hazard s of his tri p into th e mountains , James made note of several plants h e had found there. The y include d ninebar k (Spirae a opulifolia, no w Physocarpus monogynus); commo n hop s (Humulus lupulus); bearberry , or kinnikinnik (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi); shootin g sta r (Dodecatheon pulchellum); an d commo n sarsaparill a (Aralia nudicaulis). A n "undescribed acer " wa s Rocky Mountain mapl e (Ace r glabrum), described severa l years late r b y Torrey o n th e basi s of specimens collected b y James. The nex t da y the expeditio n proceede d south. They wer e late in starting , as they waited for James to retriev e a collection o f plants he ha d los t durin g hi s climb . Th e me n followe d a smal l strea m through a valle y t o th e eas t o f th e hogbacks . Occasionally , wrot e Bell, the y "passe d a n openin g mad e by the outle t o f a rivulet fro m the mountains , wher e w e ha d ne w an d ver y interestin g view s of insolated masse s of roc k .. . o f singula r colou r an d formation , th e whole scener y trul y picturesqu e & romantic. " Man y o f th e sam e formations tha t excited th e explorer s may be seen today in Roxborough Stat e Park , just a fe w miles southwest o f Denver. Visitor s t o the par k pas s through a brea k i n a hogbac k o f Dakot a Sandston e (doubtless on e o f th e opening s note d b y Bell ) an d ente r a narrow north—south valle y filled with hillock s o f whitish Lyon s Sandston e and massive tilted slabs of the Fountai n Formation , colored deep red by iro n compounds . T o James , some o f thes e roc k masse s bore " a striking resemblance to colossa l ruins." Bearing southeast , th e me n crosse d "a n inconsiderabl e ridge " and entere d th e valle y o f a north-flowin g tributar y of th e Sout h Platte, whic h the y calle d Defil e Cree k (no w Plu m Creek) . Th e mountains were to their right, rolling hills to their left. They covered fourteen an d a half mile s that day , camping abou t te n mile s sout h of th e sit e o f th e present-da y town o f Sedali a o n th e wes t for k o f Plum Creek . The y remaine d ther e fo r tw o nights , Jul y 9 bein g a

129 1 2 9 E X P L O R I N G TH E FRON T RANGE

Titian Peale , sketc h of tilted rock s paralleling the foot of the Rockies , near the campsite o f July 6-7 , 1820 . These dee p reddish-brown rock s date from th e Pa leozoic. (Fro m th e sketchbook s of Titian Peale , Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery , gift o f Ramsay MacMullen , M.A.H. 1967)

Sunday. Her e Jame s assumed his role o f physician and ble d many of the explorers . JULY 9. JB: [C]an i t be, our great altitude above tide water, that bloo d lettin g ha s o f late becom e s o necessary? Until tha t operation i s performed on severa l of the me n the bloo d i n their faces seem s almost read y t o brea k thro' the skin , their eye s in flamed & violen t pain s i n th e head . In th e earl y nineteenth century, blood-lettin g was considered desirable t o counteract th e effect s o f high altitude , though i t would have weakened me n wh o wer e exhausted fro m trave l and onl y just recovering fro m a n illnes s the y attribute d t o eatin g currants . Bel l com mented o n thei r die t (a s he ofte n did) ; i t consiste d o f "wild meat s & abou t 3 oz of hard brea d pr. day. "

130

The Natural History of the Long Expedition EJ: In that part o f Defile creek , near whic h we encamped , are numerous dams, thrown acros s by the beaver , causin g i t t o appear rathe r lik e a successio n o f pond s tha n a continue d stream. A s w e ascende d farthe r toward s th e mountains , w e found th e work s of these animals still more frequent. The smal l willows and cotton-woo d trees , which are here in considerabl e numbers, affor d the m thei r mos t favorite food. Although Sunda y wa s supposedly a da y o f rest, th e me n wer e particularly busy . In th e morning , Lon g an d on e o f his me n climbe d a hill (Dawso n Butte) t o th e eas t of the valley. EJ: The ascen t o f the hil l i s steep an d rugged ; horizontal strata of sandstone an d coars e conglomerate ar e exposed o n it s sides, an d th e summi t i s capped b y a thi n stratu m o f compact sandstone surmounte d b y a be d o f greenstone [volcani c rock] . The loos e an d splinter y fragments of this rock sometimes cover the surfac e an d mak e a clinking nois e unde r th e fee t like frag ments o f pottery. The presenc e of volcanic deposits is unexpected; evidently, they represent as h fro m a n are a o f pas t vulcanis m t o th e southwest , nea r present Cano n City. From the to p o f the butte , Long got his first glimps e of the pea k that Pike had found , and determination s o f latitude mad e i t certai n that the pea k the explorer s had passed a few days earlier (now Long's Peak) was in fact previously unknown (o r at least unreported). Surely they had alread y suspected this, sinc e Pik e had reporte d his peak as being i n the drainag e of the Arkansa s rather tha n that of the Platte . On th e sam e day, James, Peale, an d Seymour followed a stream for a distanc e towar d th e mountains , an d Jame s recorded th e roc k formations "beautifull y exposed " b y th e strea m cut . Startin g i n a n area o f horizontal sandstone , the y traverse d a hogback o f gray rocks (Dakota Sandstone), tilte d toward the mountains. This was followed

131 E X P L O R I N G TH E FRON T R A N G E

by "loft y an d detache d column s o f sandston e o f a reddis h o r dee p brown colour. " Som e o f them wer e too tal l and stee p t o climb , but they di d clim b one o f them. Finally , they entered a region of "coarse white pudding-stone , o r conglomerat e an d sandston e o f a dee p re d colour, alternatin g with each other." They were now in rocks of the Lyons an d Fountai n Formations , whic h provid e th e mos t colorfu l and spectacula r formation s along th e Fron t Range . Havin g postu lated th e origi n o f these band s o f rocks upo n hi s firs t arriva l at th e mountains, Jame s was surely awar e that h e wa s crossing a transec t involving vas t stretches o f time. Indee d h e was : we now kno w tha t Dakota Sandstone date s from th e lat e Mesozoic, perhaps 10 0 million years ago, and tha t rocks of the Fountai n Formatio n were laid down in the lat e Paleozoic , roughly 300 million years ago. Beyond th e las t of the sedimentar y rocks rose granite "i n immens e mountain masses" undoubtedly extendin g "fa r t o th e west. " Th e cree k th e me n wer e following, continue d James , poured "dow n th e sid e o f this granitic mountain throug h a deep, inaccessibl e chasm, formin g a continue d cascade o f several hundred feet. " The me n wer e at a place now calle d Perry Park, where visitors may vicariousl y experience som e o f the excitemen t tha t James an d his companion s mus t have fel t a s they examine d thes e colorfu l formations s o many year s ago. Her e tal l an d ofte n vertica l and jagged rock formation s seem throw n abou t a s i f b y a ma d creator . Toda y Perry Park is filled wit h houses, a golf course, and a small lake formed by dammin g th e creek . At th e bas e o f th e mountains , th e me n discovere d a brin e spring, abou t whic h wer e skull s o f bighorn shee p an d bone s o f elk, bison, an d othe r animals . " A beautifu l specie s o f pigeon" wa s sho t near the mountains ; it was purple and green, wit h a pale band alon g the tail . Sa y provided a descriptio n o f thi s elegan t bird , the band tailed pigeon. H e named i t Columba fasciata, a name that stil l stands. These ar e bird s of coniferous woodlands and oa k scrublands , where they gorg e on acorns , junipe r berries, and pin e seeds . The bird s can still b e seen frequentl y in th e are a wher e the y wer e first discovered.

132 2

The Natural History of the Long Expedition We now know that they rang e throughout th e southern Rockie s and along th e Pacifi c coast . Say als o describe d anothe r larg e bir d fro m thi s site , callin g i t the dusk y grous e an d namin g i t Tetrao obscurus. This i s th e blu e grouse, no w calle d Dendragapus obscurus. "When thi s bir d flew," he wrote, "i t uttere d a cackling nois e a little lik e tha t o f the domesti c fowl." I n fact , th e blu e grous e was the firs t bir d eve r reporte d fro m what i s now Colorado , havin g bee n discovere d i n 177 6 by Father s Francisco Domingue s an d Silvestr e Velez de Escalant e a s they tra versed th e wester n par t o f th e stat e o n th e wa y (the y hoped ) t o California. They spoke of it as "a kind o f chicken" an d "exceedingl y palatable." Bu t it remained fo r Say to provide a formal name for the grouse, no w a favorite game bird in the West . I n the matin g season , the mal e establishe s a territoria l perch o n a horizontal branc h o f a pine, raise s his tail , an d inflate s ai r sac s o n th e side s o f hi s neck , producing a series of owl-like hoots. The mornin g o f Jul y 1 0 was s o coo l tha t th e explorer s stoo d around th e campfir e warmin g themselve s befor e mountin g thei r horses a fe w minute s befor e five . Th e hunter s wer e sen t ou t an d returned i n a few hours with a bison an d a n antelope . The y also saw a "whit e bear, " a s the grizzl y was then ofte n called . Th e expeditio n had no w ascende d th e valle y o f West Plu m Cree k t o a n elevatio n of about 7,00 0 feet. Muc h o f the countr y was wooded with pines an d oaks. Th e oaks , Jame s noted, resemble d Quercus banisteri o f Andr e Michaux; the y wer e i n realit y Q. gambelii, a specie s no t describe d until 184 8 b y Thomas Nuttall. The pine s were identified a s red pines (Pinus resinosa); the y were in fact ponderosas (P . ponderosa), a species yet withou t a name. I t wa s David Douglas who, i n 1836 , sen t spec imens t o Englan d an d suggeste d the nam e ponderosa. Today, th e landscape throug h whic h th e expeditio n wa s now passin g remain s thinly settled , still dominated b y Gambel oak s and ponderosa pines . By eigh t o'clock , th e expeditio n passe d ove r a lo w divide an d "bid adie u t o th e water s o f th e Platte. " Befor e the m la y a pon d (Palmer Lake ) beyon d whic h a strea m flowe d southward . Jus t past

133 E X P L O R I N G TH E FRON T RANG E

Engraving i n th e Account , afte r Samue l Seymour , View o f th e Insulated Table Lands a t the Foot o f the Rocky Mountains. I n the foreground , th e expeditio n passes in singl e file.

the pon d wa s a spectacular rock formation , with a rooflike caprock , columns, porticos, and eve n a n arc h suggestin g a spacious entryway, the whol e resembling "an extensive edific e i n ruins." While the men made a lunch stop , Seymour prepared a sketch. Today thi s formatio n can easil y be seen fro m th e roa d between the village s of Palmer Lake and Monument . Lon g calle d i t Castl e Rock , an d th e south-flowin g stream the y wer e about to follo w h e name d Castle Roc k Creek . I t is now called Elephant Roc k (th e nam e Castle Roc k i s now applied to a butt e som e miles to th e north , an d t o th e cit y at it s base). Long's Castle Roc k Cree k i s now calle d Monument Creek . A s Richard Beidleman ha s pointe d out , th e countrysid e immediately around Ele phant Roc k has changed littl e since 1820 , aside from encroachment s of suburbi a and a dense r growt h o f trees . Som e o f th e Douglas-fir s that Seymou r sketched adjacen t to th e roc k are still thriving. Som e of the m ar e known t o b e a s much a s 350 year s old .

1 34

The Natural History of the Long Expedition During the pause near Elephant Rock, James made a short hike into th e mountain s an d collecte d " a larg e species of columbine . . . heretofore unknow n t o th e flor a o f the Unite d States , t o whic h i t forms a splendid acquisition . . . . [I]t may receive th e nam e o f aquilegia caerulea. " Thi s i s blue columbine , on e o f the mos t cherishe d of Rock y Mountai n flowers . Jame s provide d a forma l description , remarking tha t "i t inhabit s shad y wood s of pine an d spruc e within the mountains , risin g sometimes to the height o f three feet." In 1891 , Colorado schoolchildre n vote d blu e columbin e th e stat e flowe r o f Colorado, an d a few years later a bill to tha t effect wa s passed by th e legislature an d signe d int o law by the governor . Other plants seen or collected tha t day included quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), northern green orchid (Orchi s dilatata, probably Habenaria hyperborea), an d one-side d wintergree n (Pyrola secunda). James reporte d bot h "blac k an d hemlock-spruce , (Abie s nigr a an d A. canadensis) ." These are tree s of more easter n an d norther n part s of the continent , and do not occu r in Colorado. Doubtles s he found not thos e species but Douglas-firs , first recognized as a distinct species by David Douglas on the Pacifi c coas t in 1825 . Or he ma y have see n white firs or Colorado blu e spruce , neither o f which wa s recognized as distinct specie s until th e 1860s . As th e me n lunche d nea r Elephan t Rock , James noted amon g the grasse s "a small campanula" that he recognize d as similar to th e common bluebel l o f Europe. This wa s a harebel l (Campanula); ac cording t o George Goodma n an d Cheryl Lawso n probably C. parryi, described by Asa Gray many years later. No biso n had bee n see n for several days , but severa l were spotte d i n th e distance , an d hunter s were sen t ou t t o tak e them . Th e naturalist s were treate d t o "th e animated spectacl e o f a bison hunt," and the hunter s returne d wit h "their horses loade d wit h th e meat. " JULY 10 . JB: We ar e delighte d wit h ou r firs t entranc e of what w e may now call Arkansas country—cool wate r from th e mountains, numberles s beaver dams & lodges . Naturalists fin d

135 EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E

new inhabitants , th e botanis t i s at [a ] loss which ne w plan t h e will first take i n hand—th e geologis t grand subject s for speculation—the geographer & topographer al l have subject s for observation. . . . [I]n the ravine s i s to be seen fin e growt h o f pine timber, a great relie f t o th e eye , afte r havin g bee n s o long ac customed t o se e none bu t cotton-wood—abou t 6 p.m. halte d and encampe d fo r th e night , a t a plac e wher e w e wa s almost surrounded b y grove s o f pin e trees , soi l sandy—th e hunter s came u p a t 1 2 oclock havin g kille d a buffal o & see n a whit e bear—they [went ] ou t agai n afte r w e encamped, kille d a n an telope. JULY II. JB: Marched before 5 oclock a.m. continuing our course dow n th e margi n of the creek—th e numbe r o f rivulets from th e mountain s & on e fro m th e prairi e has increase d th e size o f the cree k 8 t o 1 0 yards i n width , a s many inche s deep , and be d gravel—halte d t o refres h a t 1 0 oclock—a hig h sno w caped mountai n i n sight [Pike's Peak] which seem s to be within the range , alon g th e bas e o f whic h w e ar e travelling—th e weather coo l & pleasant , becaus e of the su n being obscured by the cloud s restin g a s i t were , upo n th e mountains . W e pro ceeded a t 1 p.m. leavin g th e cree k t o ou r left , takin g a course more alon g th e bas e o f the mountain , whic h appeare d t o tur n off considerabl y t o th e right . Th e travellin g wa s very fatiguin g for th e horses , bein g obliged t o cros s a number of deep ravines, where we were obliged to dismoun t i n descending an d ascend ing their bank s or sides which ar e very abrupt—passed a valley which appeare d t o exten d a great distance betwee n th e range s of th e mountains , int o whic h le d a numbe r o f wel l beatte n Indian traces. . . . The expeditio n ha d passe d throug h th e sit e o f th e campu s o f th e United State s Ai r Forc e Academ y an d throug h th e wester n part of modern metropolita n Colorad o Springs . Th e valle y the y ha d see n

136

The Natural History of the Long Expedition to the wes t was that of Fountain Creek, its Indian trails now replaced by U.S . Highwa y 24 . Robin s wer e common , an d th e me n sa w a "jerboa" (doubtles s a kangaroo rat). Once again , "many fine plants were collected. " On e o f these wa s prince's plume, a showy member of the mustar d family, whic h Jame s described in a footnote, callin g it Stanleya integrifolia. Thoma s Nuttal l had described the genus , naming i t fo r Lord Edward Stanley, presiden t of the Linnea n Societ y of London. James's name is now applie d to a subspecies of S. pinnata, which Frederic k Pursh had describe d in 1814 . In the evening the explorers realized that they had passed Pike's Peak, which had been shielde d from thei r view by Cheyenne Mountain (th e bowel s of which toda y contai n NORA D [Nort h America n Air Defens e Command]) . S o the y stoppe d an d camped . Nea r th e camp, James noted th e presenc e of "the grea t shrubby cactus," with large purpl e blossoms and a "terrifi c armatur e of thorns." This was cholla, o r candelabr a cactu s (Opuntia imbricata), whic h the y would see mor e o f later whe n the y proceede d south . Anothe r interestin g plant wa s buffalo gourd , which James called Cucumeris perennis (now Cucurbita foetidissima). Peal e sketched a gourd plant, which provided "by it s deep green , a strikin g contrast t o th e genera l aspec t o f th e regions i t inhabits , whic h ar e exceedingly naked an d barren." Lon g collected th e gourd' s seeds, which wer e later planted i n th e garde n of th e Universit y o f Pennsylvania , wher e the y gre w successfully . Other plants collected wer e death cama s (Zigadenus elegans) an d butterfly weed , an orange-blossomed milkweed (Aschpias tuberosa). Th e latter stil l enlivens th e edge s of the green s at th e gol f course of th e Broadmoor Hotel. Since Lon g an d hi s me n ha d hope d t o explor e th e "Hig h Peake" i n more detail, on the followin g da y they retraced their steps northward an d found a place to camp on Fountain Creek , jus t sout h of present Colorado Springs . They had a fine view of the mountain ; "all bu t th e uppe r part wa s visible, with patche s o f snow extendin g down t o th e commencemen t o f th e wood y region." Hunter s wer e

137 E X P L O R I N G TH E FRON T R A N G E

Titian Peale, sketch of buffalo gourd , just south of present-day Colorado Springs, July 12 , 1820 . (Fro m th e sketchbook s o f Titian Ramsa y Peale, Yale University Art Gallery , gift o f Ramsay MacMullen, M.A.H. 1967 )

dispatched an d soo n brough t i n plent y o f game . Bel l onc e agai n became th e expedition' s gastronomi c observer . JULY 12 . JB: W e [are ] agai n feastin g o n abundanc e o f choice meat , aroun d u s i s exhibited a curiou s an d interestin g sight—on on e sid e is arranged a sparerib of a buffalo, th e hea d of a deer , 8 o r 1 0 piece s o f buffal o mea t o f differen t sizes , al l supported t o th e hea t o f the fire on smal l sticks—the opposit e side of the fire is decorated i n the sam e manner, except i n place of th e ri b an d head , i s two saddle s of venison, suspende d fro m the end s of short stakes , drove oblikely into the ground—wha t a sight ! what a feas t fo r a n epicure ! But Bel l was upset later when a stor m i n th e mountain s cause d th e stream t o ris e and becom e fille d wit h biso n dung , creatin g " a mos t

138

The Natural History of the Long Expedition intolerable stench. " The me n drew water in kettles, le t it settle, an d then skimme d off the dung . "Thi s clarified , w e used i t t o drin k an d boil ou r meat in , bu t th e disagreeabl e smell remained i n ou r soup. " James wa s equally distressed: "[W]hen th e sou p was brought t o ou r tent, th e flavou r o f th e cow-yar d wa s found s o prevalent , an d th e meat s o filled wit h sand , tha t very little coul d b e eaten." It was at or near thi s campsite tha t Seymour painted on e o f his most effectiv e watercolors : View o f James [Pike's ) Peak i n th e Rain. This painting wa s not reproduce d in the Account, an d for many years was incorrectl y attribute d t o Willia m McMurtrie , an artis t who visited Colorad o i n 1854 . Recen t researc h ha s establishe d tha t i t i s Seymour's work, the first rendition o f what became a major landmar k for overlanders . Th e paintin g i s now i n Boston' s Museu m o f Fin e Arts an d i s reproduced i n colo r i n Patrici a Trenton and P . H. Hass rick's book Th e Rocky Mountains: A Vision for Artists in the Nineteenth Century. At th e campground , Sa y meanwhile note d " a very pretty littl e bird . . . hopping abou t i n th e lo w trees o r bushes , singing sweetly, somewhat i n the manne r o f the America n goldfinch." He recognized it a s previousl y unknown an d supplie d a descriptio n an d a name , Fringilla psaltria. The specie s i s now know n a s th e lesse r goldfinch (Carduelis psaltria). Another attractiv e membe r o f th e finc h famil y he calle d th e crimson-necke d finch , providin g th e scientifi c nam e F. frontalis. Thi s specie s i s now calle d th e hous e finch ; it s curren t name i s Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis. Toda y thi s i s one o f the com mon bird s o f settled area s throughout th e West . I t wa s introduce d into the easter n state s i n th e 1940 s an d i s well established i n man y places there . Say was also busy collecting insects , and sinc e no on e had eve r collected the m i n thi s par t o f the country , the majorit y o f his spec imens represente d previousl y unknown species . As wa s his custom , he di d not includ e description s i n the repor t o f the expedition , bu t did s o in severa l late r publications . A perusa l of these reveal s som e thirty species collected "nea r th e Rocky Mountains," withou t furthe r

1 39

E X P L O R I N G TH E FRON T R A N G E

Samuel Seymour , View o f James Peak in the Rain, 1825 . Don e i n in k an d water color, thi s is believed to be the first illustration o f Pike's Peak . (M . & M. Karolik Collection, courtes y o f Museum o f Fine Arts , Boston )

information. I t woul d no t d o t o lis t all of them here, but severa l are worthy o f note. I t ma y hav e bee n a t thi s cam p tha t Sa y collecte d Mutilla (no w Dasymutilla) quadriguttata, an elegan t wingles s parasitic wasp, o r "velve t ant, " o f mostl y reddis h coloratio n an d wit h fou r pale spots on it s abdomen. An d perhap s i t was here tha t he collecte d an ornat e parasitic bee (Epeolus [no w Triepeolus] quadrifasciatus), an d a smal l black an d re d digge r was p (Astata bicolor). Beetles wer e favorites of Say and wer e doubtles s easier t o catch and preserv e tha n wer e butterflie s and som e othe r insects . Som e of the loca l bushes "wer e loaded " with bliste r beetles, whic h h e named for hi s friend Thomas Nuttall, callin g th e specie s Lytta nuttalli. This is a beautiful green an d purpl e species, illustrate d i n color i n the first volume o f American Entomology. Als o illustrate d wa s a brilliantl y colored, soft-bodie d beetl e h e calle d Lycus (no w Lysostomnus ) sanguinipennis (th e specie s nam e i s Lati n fo r "blood-colore d wings") .

140

The natural History of the Long Expedition Beetles of this grou p are known to b e extremel y distasteful to birds, a fact the y advertis e with thei r vivid colors. They ar e mimicked by quite a variety of more palatable insects , includin g moths , flies , an d several kinds of beetles. The expeditio n remaine d campe d on Fountain Cree k for thre e days, allowin g time fo r some of the grou p to attemp t a climb o f th e "High Peake. " Befor e dawn on July 13 , James and four others heade d for th e mountain . Fo r the first day, they wer e accompanied b y William Swif t an d th e guide , Joseph Bijeau . I t wa s Swift's jo b t o deter mine th e heigh t o f the mountain . H e calculate d a height o f 8,50 0 feet abov e the base , which h e though t to be about 3,000 fee t abov e sea level. Thus had he known that the bas e was actually about 6,00 0 feet in elevation, he would have estimated a total elevation of 14,500 feet—not far from the presentl y known elevation of 14,110 feet. Pike had estimate d th e elevatio n a s 18,541 fee t an d ha d considere d th e mountain unclimbable . Near the bas e of the mountain , at about eleven in the morning , a plac e wa s found t o leav e th e horses , and th e grou p proceeded u p the valle y on foot . Around noon , the y arrive d at a bubbling spring, "a larg e and beautifu l fountai n of water, cool an d transparent , an d aerated with carbonic acid." The water s left a basin of "snowy whiteness, and larg e enough t o contai n thre e o r four hundre d gallon s . . . constantly overflowing. " The sprin g produced a rumbling noise an d was foun d t o b e o f "gratefu l tast e [with ] th e exhilaratin g effec t o f the mos t highly aerate d artificia l minera l waters." A secon d sprin g nearby contained a smaller bubbling pool, bu t discharged n o flow. James found the wate r temperature to b e sixtythree degree s Fahrenheit i n the large r pool, an d sixty-seve n degrees in the smalle r one. (Thes e ar e now called Manito u Springs , the sit e of a town o f several thousand people. ) Th e sprin g contained beads , shells, an d othe r object s thrown i n by Indians as an offering . Bijea u reported tha t Frenc h trader s sometimes took object s from th e spring and trade d the m bac k t o th e Indian s for furs . At th e springs , Swift an d Bijea u wer e lef t behind , an d Jame s

141 1

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E and tw o others, Zacharia h Wilson an d Joseph Verplank, headed u p the mountain . Eac h ha d " a smal l blanket, te n o r twelv e pounds of bison meat, three gill s of parched corn meal, and small kettle." Som e food wa s left i n a tree nea r th e springs , for use upon returning . Since th e firs t ascen t o f Pike' s Pea k i s one o f th e classic s of western history, I shall, for the mos t part, let James describe it in his own words . He an d his two companions wer e not onl y the first persons to clim b Pike's Peak, but th e first to clim b any of the fifty or so 14,000-foot peak s in Colorado. Tha t a young and energetic botanis t made the first climb is especially fitting, for here wa s a new world— an alpin e flor a almos t wholl y unknow n t o science . I t wa s a clim b not withou t adventure . EJ: The ascendin g party found th e surfac e i n many places covered with such quantities of this loose and crumbled granite, rolling fro m unde r thei r feet , a s rendered th e ascen t extremel y difficult. W e no w bega n t o credi t th e assertion s of the guide , who had conducte d u s to the foo t o f the peak , and ther e lef t us, with th e assuranc e that th e whol e o f the mountai n t o it s summit wa s covered wit h loos e san d an d gravel ; so that, thoug h many attempts had been made by the Indian s and by hunters t o ascend it, none had ever proved successful. We passed several of these tracts , no t withou t som e apprehensio n fo r ou r lives , as there wa s danger, whe n th e foothol d wa s once lost , o f sliding down, an d bein g thrown ove r precipices . After labourin g with extreme fatigue ove r about two miles, in which severa l of these dangerous places occurred, we halted a t sunset in a small cluster of fir trees. We coul d not , however, find a place of even groun d large enough t o li e down upon, and were under th e necessit y of securing ourselve s from rollin g int o th e broo k nea r whic h w e encamped b y means of a pole place d agains t tw o trees . I n thi s situation, w e passed an uneas y night; an d thoug h th e mercur y fell only to 54°, we felt some inconvenience from cold . On th e mornin g of the 14th , a s soon a s daylight appeared,

142

The natural Histopry of the Long Espedition having suspende d i n a tree our blankets, all our provisions, except abou t thre e pounds o f bison's flesh , an d whateve r article s of clothing coul d b e dispense d with , w e continued ou r ascent , hoping t o be able t o reach th e summi t of the peak , and retur n to th e sam e cam p i n th e evening . Afte r passin g abou t hal f a mile of rugged and difficul t travelling , like that of the precedin g day, w e crossed a deep chasm , openin g toward s th e be d o f th e small stream we had hithert o ascended ; and following the summit o f the ridg e between these , foun d the wa y less difficult an d dangerous. Having passe d a leve l trac t o f several acre s covered wit h [trees], we arrived at a small stream running toward s the south , nearly paralle l t o th e bas e o f th e coni c par t o f th e mountai n which form s th e summi t of the peak . Fro m thi s spo t w e coul d distinctly see almost the whol e of the peak ; its lower half thinl y clad with pines , junipers , and othe r evergree n trees; the upper, a nake d coni c pil e o f yellowis h rocks , surmounte d her e an d there wit h broa d patches o f snow. But the summi t appeared so distant, an d th e ascen t s o steep , tha t w e bega n t o despai r of accomplishing th e ascen t an d returnin g the sam e day. About th e smal l stream before mentioned, w e saw an un described white-flowere d species o f caltha, som e pediculariae , the shrubb y cinque-foi l (potentill a fruticosa , Ph. ) an d man y alpine plants . The Caltha was undoubtedly leptosepala, whit e mars h marigold ; th e species ha d bee n describe d jus t tw o year s earlier , by Swis s botanis t Augustin d e Candolle. Thi s i s an abundan t plan t i n wet , subalpine meadows and wa s used as a potherb by the Indians . Pedicularia e are louseworts, of which there are several species in the Colorad o moun tains. They were once supposed to cause sheep to become lousy when they fed on th e plants , hence the nam e (pedicularis i s the Lati n word for "louse") - As they ascended, James noted many stonecrops (Sedum lanceolatum). Th e tree s graduall y became smaller , and a t noon the y

143

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E arrived a t timberline ; still, " a greate r part of the whol e elevatio n o f the mountai n seeme d befor e us." EJ: A littl e abov e th e poin t wher e th e timbe r disappear s entirely, commence s a regio n o f astonishin g beauty , an d o f great interes t o n accoun t o f it s productions . Th e interval s of soil are sometime s extensive, and covere d wit h a carpet o f low but brilliantly-flowerin g alpine plants. Most of these have eithe r matted procumben t stems , o r suc h as , includin g th e flower , rarely ris e more tha n a n inc h i n height . I n man y o f them th e flower i s the mos t conspicuous and th e larges t part of the plant , and i n al l th e colourin g i s astonishingly brilliant . A dee p blue i s the prevailin g colour among these flowers; and th e pentstemo n erianther a [ a beard-tongue], the mountai n columbine (aquilegi a coerulea) , and othe r plant s commo n t o less elevated districts , were much more intensel y coloured than in ordinar y situations. . . . By tw o o'clock , James and Verplan k wer e exhausted an d pause d t o rest. Wilson ha d bee n lef t behin d an d coul d no t b e seen anywhere . Shouts an d a rifle sho t faile d t o bring a response, s o the tw o lunche d and truste d that Wilso n woul d catch u p with them . EJ: Here , a s w e wer e sittin g a t ou r dinner , w e observe d several small animals, nearly the siz e of the commo n gra y squirrel, bu t shorter , an d mor e clumsil y built . They wer e o f a dar k gray colour , inclinin g t o brown , wit h a shor t thic k head , an d erect rounded ears. In habits and appearance, they resemble the prairie dog , and ar e believed to b e a species of the sam e genus. The mout h o f their burro w is usually place d unde r th e projec tion o f a rock; and nea r ther e th e part y afterwards sa w several of th e littl e animal s watching thei r approach , an d utterin g all the tim e a shrill note, somewhat like that of the ground squirrel. Several attempt s wer e made t o procur e a specimen o f this an -

144

The natural History of the Long Expedition imal, bu t alway s without success , as we had n o gun s but suc h as carried a heavy ball. These animals were, of course, pikas. Had James and his companion s taken a specimen, the y migh t have brought it to Say to describe and thereby gai n credi t fo r making th e specie s know n t o science . A s i t was, i t wa s not unti l 182 8 tha t th e pik a wa s formally describe d by John Richardson , wh o had foun d i t i n Alberta . Jame s was incorrect in suggesting a similarity to prairie dogs; pikas are much mor e closely related t o rabbits. EJ: After sittin g abou t hal f a n hour , w e foun d ourselve s somewhat refreshed , but muc h benumbe d wit h cold . W e no w found i t would be impossible to reach th e summi t of the moun tain, an d return to our camp of the preceding night, durin g that part o f the da y which remained ; but a s we could no t persuad e ourselves to tur n back, afte r havin g so nearly accomplished th e ascent, w e resolved t o tak e ou r chanc e o f spending th e nigh t on whatever part of the mountai n i t might overtake us. Wilson had not ye t been seen ; bu t as no time could be lost, we resolved to g o as soon a s possible to th e to p o f the peak , and t o loo k for him o n ou r return. We met , a s we proceeded, suc h numbers of unknown an d interestin g plants , a s to occasio n muc h dela y in collecting; an d wer e under th e mortifyin g necessit y o f passing by number s we sa w in situation s difficult o f access . One ca n bu t imagin e th e frustratio n that Jame s must hav e experi enced, knowin g h e ha d bu t a fe w hours t o sampl e s o man y nove l plants. I n thei r book Land Above th e Trees, Ann Zwinge r and Beat rice Willard poin t ou t that th e Rockie s hav e mor e tha n 300 alpin e plant species , three time s a s many a s the mountain s o f the easter n states. James had tim e t o collec t onl y a few. These he succeede d i n preserving until h e returned east , and most were turned ove r to Joh n

145

E X P L O R I N G TH E FRON T R A N G E

Blue columbine, no w Colorado' s state flower . I t was discovered b y Edwin James near Palme r Lake, Colorado .

Torrey fo r description . Torrey' s articl e wa s title d "Description s o f Some Ne w o r Rar e Plant s fro m th e Rock y Mountain s Collecte d i n July 182 0 b y Dr . Edwin James. " Among th e ne w plant s collecte d b y Jame s an d describe d b y Torrey wer e dwar f alpin e clove r (Trifolium nanum), alpin e primrose (Primula angustifolia), roc k jasmine (Androsace carinata), alpine bluebells (Mertensia alpina), wester n yellow paintbrush (Castillej a occidentalis), alumroot (Heuchera bracteata), and James's saxifrage (Telesonix jamesii). Englis h botanis t Georg e Bentha m late r adde d snowlove r (Chionophila jamesii). I t was by no mean s a bad hau l for a few frantic hours o n th e tundra . , A t fou r o'clock , Jame s an d Verplan k reache d th e summit , where Wilso n manage d t o catc h u p wit h them . There wa s a pano rama o f snow-capped mountain s fro m th e northwes t t o th e south west, an d directl y to th e wes t th e watershe d o f the Arkansa s River

14 6

The natural

History

of the Long Expedition

Western yellow paintbrush, one of many plants discovered by James on his climb of Pike' s Peak .

could b e seen . T o th e nort h la y wha t ma y hav e bee n par t o f th e watershed o f th e Sout h Platte , an d t o th e eas t a broa d expans e o f the plains. EJ: The weathe r was calm and clear while the detachment remained o n th e peak ; but we were surprised to observe the air in ever y directio n fille d wit h suc h cloud s o f grasshoppers , a s partially t o obscur e the day . They had bee n see n i n vas t num bers abou t al l the highe r part s of the mountain , an d man y ha d fallen upo n th e sno w an d perished . I t is , perhaps, difficul t t o assign th e caus e which induce s these insect s t o ascend t o thos e highly elevate d region s o f th e atmosphere . Possibl y the y ma y have undertake n migration s to som e remot e district ; but ther e appears not th e leas t uniformity i n the directio n o f their move ments. The y extende d upward s from th e summi t of the moun tain to the utmos t limit of vision; and as the sun shown brightly,

147

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E they coul d b e see n b y th e glitterin g o f thei r wings , a t a ver y considerable distance . Beyond doubt , thes e wer e migratin g swarm s o f th e no w extinc t Rocky Mountai n locus t (Melanoplus mexicanus). Remain s o f thes e grasshoppers ca n stil l be found froze n i n glaciers on severa l peaks in the Rockies, though th e las t living specimen was seen in 1902 . These insects onc e arrive d i n grea t cloud s ove r farm s i n th e Grea t Plains , feeding o n almos t everythin g i n thei r path , eve n th e bar k o f tree s and clothing on th e line . Havin g consume d everythin g edible , the y flew of f in search o f greener pastures; those that fle w ove r the moun tains wer e presumabl y lookin g fo r a bette r foo d supply . Why th e species abruptly became extinc t remain s a puzzle. EJ: About al l the woodles s parts of the mountain , an d particularly on the summit , numerous tracks were seen, resembling those of the commo n deer , but mos t probabl y have been those of the anima l calle d th e bi g horn. The skull s and horns of these animals we had repeatedly seen near the lick s and saline springs at the foo t of the mountain , bu t the y ar e known t o resor t principally about the mos t elevate d an d inaccessibl e places . The part y remaine d o n th e summi t onl y abou t hal f a n hour; i n thi s tim e th e mercur y fel l t o 42° , th e thermomete r hanging agains t th e sid e of a rock, whic h i n al l th e earl y part of th e da y had bee n expose d t o th e direc t ray s o f the sun . A t the encampmen t o f the mai n bod y in the plains , a corresponding thermometer stoo d i n the middl e of the da y at 96°, an d did not fal l belo w 80 ° until a late hou r i n the evening . . . . At abou t fiv e i n the afternoo n th e party began to descend , and a little befor e sunset arrive d at th e commencemen t o f th e timber; but befor e w e reached th e smal l strea m a t th e botto m of the first descent, w e perceived w e had misse d our way. It was now becom e s o dar k a s t o rende r a n attemp t t o procee d ex tremely hazardous ; an d a s th e onl y alternative , w e kindle d a

1488

The natural History of the Long Expedition fire, and lai d ourselves down upon the first spot of level ground we could find. We had neither provisions nor blankets; and our clothing wa s by no mean s suitable for passing the nigh t i n s o bleak an d inhospitabl e a situation . W e coul d not , however , proceed without imminen t dange r from precipices ; and b y th e aid o f a goo d fire , an d n o ordinar y degre e o f fatigue , foun d ourselves able to slee p during a greater part of the night . 15th. A t da y break o n th e followin g morning , th e ther mometer stoo d a t 38° . A s w e ha d fe w comfort s t o leave , we quitted ou r cam p a s soon a s the ligh t wa s sufficient t o enabl e us t o proceed . W e ha d travelle d abou t thre e hour s whe n w e discovered a dense colum n of smoke rising fro m a deep ravine on the lef t hand . As we concluded thi s could be no other than the smok e of the encampmen t wher e we had lef t ou r blanket s and provisions , we descended directl y toward it . Th e fir e ha d spread an d burn t extensivel y among th e leaves , dry grass, and small timber , an d wa s no w ragin g ove r a n exten t o f severa l acres. Thi s create d som e apprehension , les t th e smok e migh t attract th e notic e of any Indians who should be at that time in the neighbourhood , an d wh o migh t b e tempte d b y the weakness of the part y to offe r som e molestation . The me n discovered that most of their provisions had been destroyed by th e fire , bu t the y manage d " a beggarl y breakfast" from th e re mains. They descende d b y a differen t rout e from th e on e the y ha d ascended; there was less crumbly granite, but an abundance o f yuccas and cacti. They arrived in the earl y afternoon a t the springs , where they "indulged freely i n the us e of its highly aerated and exhilarating waters." The me n who had bee n lef t a t the hors e camp about a mile below the spring s had kille d several deer, so there was plenty t o eat. After feasting , th e me n mounte d thei r horse s an d wen t o n t o th e main camp, where they arrived a little afte r dark . The tri p had bee n completed i n th e thre e day s allotted. James misidentifie d man y o f th e coniferou s tree s h e encoun -

149 9

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E tered i n the mountains , listing balsam fir and several species of spruce that do not i n fact occur there . It was not unti l some years later that the firs and spruce s of the Rockie s were properly classified. James did recognize as undescribed a conifer of the whit e pin e group, with five needles i n a cluster. H e provide d a description an d name d i t Pinus flexilis; w e now cal l i t limbe r pine. H e note d a n abundanc e o f scouring rushes , o r horsetail s (Equisetum), growin g along Boilin g Spring (now Fountain ) Creek , "eate n avidl y by horses." Alon g th e stream , the naturalist s sa w man y birds , includin g robins , towhees , Lewis' s woodpeckers, red-heade d woodpeckers , yellow-breaste d chats, kes trels, wrens , an d mockingbirds . "Orbicula r lizards " (horned lizards , Phrynosoma) wer e also seen . Besides hi s collection s an d natura l history observations, James was abl e t o provid e Lon g wit h description s o f th e mountain s an d valleys a s seen fro m th e summit . This enable d hi m t o roug h the m in o n hi s ma p wit h respec t t o th e range s as well as the drainage s of the uppe r Arkansas an d South Platt e Rivers. Nowadays, when bot h a roa d an d a co g railwa y mak e th e ascen t o f Pike' s Pea k a simple matter, i t is difficult t o appreciate th e difficultie s an d the excitemen t experienced b y James and hi s companions . The y ha d mad e a n epi c climb, an d Lon g decide d t o name th e mountai n Jame s Peak. How ever, th e nam e di d not stick , an d late r generation s hav e calle d th e peak b y th e nam e o f it s discoverer rathe r tha n tha t o f th e firs t t o climb it . A differen t pea k wa s late r name d fo r James . I t i s west o f Denver, no t quit e a s high a s Pike's Peak but stil l a substantial landmark a t 13,29 4 feet . No t fa r away i s Parry Peak, name d fo r another notable botanist . (Charle s Parr y roamed th e Rockie s for plants fro m 1861 t o abou t 1875 , an d whe n o n Pike' s Pea k i n 186 2 collecte d what late r woul d becom e Colorado' s stat e tree , blu e spruce. ) Onl y about te n mile s fro m Jame s an d Parr y Peak s i s a pea k name d fo r George Engelmann , an d anothe r te n miles , more or less, twin peaks named fo r John Torre y an d As a Gray . They ar e fittin g monument s to five botanists who did much t o mak e the plan t life o f the Rockie s known t o science .

150

The History T h e n a t u rnatural a l Histor y o f t h e Long Eof x p e d ithe tio n

tl« m I %

Jamesia, o r waxflower . I t wa s describe d b y John Torre y an d As a Gray o n th e basis o f specimen s collected b y James and wa s named fo r him .

But perhap s th e greates t tribut e t o James' s accomplishment s was th e namin g o f Jamesia b y Torre y an d Gra y i n 1840 . Thi s i s a unique genu s of plants, confine d t o rock y slopes and crevice s in th e West. It i s a member of the hydrange a family an d i s often called wild hydrangea, cliffbush , o r waxflower . I t i s a handsom e shrub , bearing in June clusters of waxy-white, slightly fragrant blossom s at th e tip s of it s branches . Ther e ar e onl y tw o livin g species : on e i n Nevad a and wester n Utah, an d th e othe r i n a broa d bu t spott y distributio n in th e Rockie s an d Southwest . A relate d specie s has bee n foun d i n fossil bed s near Creede, Colorado . Thes e date fro m abou t 35 million years ago, so Jamesia comes from a n ancient lineage . Torrey and Gra y based their descriptio n on material collected by James, but the exac t locality i n whic h h e collecte d i t i s uncertain. I n thei r description , Torrey an d Gra y stat e tha t the y "hav e applie d the presen t nam e i n commemoration o f th e scientifi c service s o f it s worth y discoverer , the botanis t an d historia n o f 'Major Long' s Expedition to the Rock y

151

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E Mountains, i n the yea r 1820, ' an d who, durin g the journe y made a n excellent collectio n o f plants unde r th e mos t unfavorabl e circum stances." Before leavin g the bas e camp o n Fountai n Creek , th e natural ists mad e note s o n th e burrowin g owls so often see n i n prairi e dog colonies. The y capture d on e an d identifie d it a s Strix (no w Athene) cunicularia, described some years earlier from Chile by Giovanni Mo lina. I t seemed possible that th e bird s seen at the bas e of the Rockie s were different, s o Say wrote a description, though withou t providing a name fo r that population . Burrowin g owls occurring in the United States ar e no w considere d t o belon g t o th e sam e specie s a s tha t described fro m Chile , bu t t o a different subspecies . These ar e long legged, mostl y diurna l owl s tha t tak e advantag e o f prairie dog burrows i n which t o place thei r nests . The y are not restricte d t o prairie dog villages, but thei r number s hav e declined i n recent year s as the "dogs" hav e bee n eliminate d i n man y areas . JULY 16 . JB : At 5 oclock a.m . resume d ou r march , takin g a southardly course, to pass a spur of the mountai n on our right, and t o arriv e on th e Arkansa s rive r a t th e neares t practicabl e point fro m ou r camp , i n this , w e wer e oblige d t o cros s dee p ravines, ove r sand hill s & ridges , thro thicket s o f cedar bushes, follow th e winding s o f vallie s alon g th e base s o f rocky emin ences throug h a dry barron countr y destitut e o f water, herbage & game . . . . We experience d mor e fatigu e than at an y day we have travelled. James wa s eve n mor e distressed : "Ou r suffering s fro m thirst , heat , and fatigue , were excessive , an d wer e aggravated by the almos t un limited exten t o f th e prospec t befor e us , whic h promise d nothin g but a continuatio n o f th e sam e drear y and disgustin g scenery." I n the afternoo n th e me n reached th e Arkansa s River , probably about ten mile s west o f the presen t cit y o f Pueblo. Her e the y stoppe d fo r two day s "to giv e some o f the gentleme n a n opportunit y o f visiting

I5 2

The natual History of the Long Expedition the mountain s a t the poin t wher e th e Arkansa s rive r leaves them." Near camp, the hunters killed a doe, "which, thoug h extremely lean, proved a n importan t additio n t o ou r suppl y o f provisions. " Th e campsite wa s an attractiv e one , shade d b y willows and cottonwood s and providin g ampl e pasture for the horses . The me n believe d tha t they wer e near th e sit e o f Pike' s stockad e o f 1806 , bu t the y wer e unable t o find any evidenc e o f it. On th e mornin g of July 17 , Bell, James, Parish, and Ledoux lef t camp b y horseback, plannin g t o follo w th e Arkansa s t o th e moun tains. Bel l reported th e goin g "extremely disagreeable , from th e in tense hea t o f the su n [and ] th e barre n broke n & knobb y surface of the country. " S o the y followe d a n India n trai l ove r flatte r countr y to the north , but i t led them som e eight miles from th e river . Heading south t o the river , they were rewarded by finding several mineral springs, wit h unpalatabl e wate r an d apparentl y no t frequente d b y herbivorous animals, as saline springs usually are. James called them Bell's Springs. They wer e located nea r th e sit e of Canon City , evi dently o n the ground s of the stat e penitentiary, but the y have sinc e disappeared. "I t wa s nea r sunse t whe n [th e men ] arrive d a t th e springs," wrote James, "and bein g much exhauste d b y their laboriou s march, the y immediatel y lai d themselve s dow n t o res t unde r th e open canopy , deferrin g thei r examination s fo r the followin g morning." JULY 18 . EJ: In ascendin g th e Arkans a o n th e ensuin g morning, w e found the roc k t o becom e mor e inclined , an d of a redde r colour , a s we approached th e primitiv e [rocks], until, at abou t hal f a mil e fro m th e springs , i t i s succeede d b y th e almost perpendicula r gneis s rock , whic h appear s her e a t th e base o f the firs t rang e o f mountains. . . . The rive r pour s wit h great impetuosit y and violenc e throug h a deep an d narro w fissure in the gneis s rock, which rise s so abruptly on both sides to such a height, a s to oppos e a n impassabl e barrier to al l furthe r progress.

153

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E They ha d arrive d at th e foo t o f Roya l Gorge, no w a majo r touris t attraction. Althoug h Pik e ha d explore d th e uppe r reache s o f th e Arkansas much farther (and i n winter!), Long had allowe d only two days t o examin e th e rive r as it lef t th e mountains . Onc e agai n h e had electe d no t t o penetrat e th e mountain s t o follo w a majo r river to it s sources. Bell expressed disappointment, describing the canyo n of th e Arkansa s a s "th e grandes t & mos t romanti c scener y I eve r beheld—what a fiel d i s her e fo r th e naturalist , th e mineralogist , chemist, geologis t and landscap e painter . I a m confiden t ou r party has omitted t o visit the mos t interesting spot, where subjects for each department o f science i s to b e found , that wil l be me t wit h o n ou r whole tour. " But the me n were forced t o return to the mai n camp, this time along th e river , which i n places was bounded b y precipices on eac h side. Seve n mile s fro m th e mountains , the y passe d " a remarkabl e mass of sandstone rocks , resembling a huge pile of architectural ruins [evidently a butt e nea r th e presen t tow n o f Florence]. " Fro m thi s point, th e pea k tha t James had climbe d was due north. When the y reached th e mai n camp, they were tired and hungry. They had traveled sixty-si x miles in tw o days. James ha d nothin g t o sa y concerning an y plants h e ma y have encountered o n his trip to th e mountains ; doubtles s there wa s little time for botanizing. Say was, however, busy at camp. He studied and described two of the mos t characteristic rodents of the Rock y Mountains. Neither i s likely to have bee n take n a t the expedition' s campsite; mor e likely , Bell' s part y ha d brough t specimen s fro m th e foothills. Th e firs t o f these, a "ver y handsome species, " Sa y name d Sciurus quadrivittatus (no w Tamias quadrivittatus, Colorado chip munk): "Its nes t i s composed o f a most extraordinary quantity of the burrs o f th e xanthiu m [cocklebur ] branches , an d othe r portion s of the larg e upright cactus, small branches o f pine-trees and othe r vegetable productions, sufficien t i n some instances t o fill the bod y of an ordinary cart. " Sa y was surely mistaken abou t th e nest . The nes t h e described i s clearly that o f a wood rat , or "pac k rat " (Neotoma).

154

The natural History storyof the Long GxpeJilion

Titian Peale , watercolo r of Colorado chipmunks. (America n Philosophical Society)

The secon d specie s had reddis h coloration o n th e hea d an d a pair o f broad, lateral, pal e stripe s on th e body . Say named i t Sciurus (now Spermophilus) lateralis. This i s the golden-mantle d ground squirrel, which Lewis and Clar k had describe d informall y some year s ear lier. I t i s one o f the mos t abundan t an d attractiv e rodents i n rocky areas throughou t muc h o f th e mountainou s West . I n parks , nowadays, thes e squirre l ofte n becom e quit e tame , an d wil l sometime s take food fro m one' s fingers . Lik e other groun d squirrels, they spen d the winte r months sleepin g deep within thei r burrows. It is interesting that the naturalist s failed t o find the Rockies' most characteristic tree squirrel , th e Abert's , o r tassel-eared , squirrel . Thes e elegan t squirrels escape d detectio n unti l 1851 , whe n Samue l Woodhous e brought bac k specimen s from Ne w Mexico . Say also described from thi s locality "a very beautiful specie s of emberiza," similar to th e indig o bunting bu t havin g a white an d red breast. H e name d i t Emberiz a (no w Passerina) amoena. Thi s i s th e lazuli bunting, so called fo r the brillian t blue colors of the hea d an d

155

EXPLORING TH E FRON T RANG E back. There were many cliff swallows near the camp , their mud nests plastered to rocky ledges. The nests , Say noted, somewha t resembled "a chymist' s retort," wit h a n entranc e nea r th e to p tha t "project s a little an d turn s downward. " Peal e sketche d th e birds , and Sa y described th e species , calling i t H irundo lunifrons. H e ha d n o wa y of knowing that three year s earlier the clif f swallo w had bee n described in it s winter hom e i n Paragua y by a Frenc h ornithologist , who ha d called i t H. pyrrhonota, Just as James had a notable genus of plants named for him, Say's contributions t o ornitholog y wer e recognize d b y th e namin g o f a phoebe take n o n the Arkansas Rive r near the bas e of the mountains . This i s Say's phoebe (Sayornis saya), on e o f the West' s most attrac tive flycatchers. The genu s Sayornis als o includes th e easter n phoeb e and th e blac k phoebe . I t wa s Charles Lucie n Bonaparte , a nephe w of Napoleon, wh o honore d Sa y i n thi s wa y in 1825 . Bonapart e ha d moved t o th e Unite d State s an d settle d i n Philadelphia , wher e h e compiled th e first checklist o f American bird s and expande d Alex ander Wilson' s American Ornithology, with hel p fro m Thoma s Say . There ar e als o wel l ove r 10 0 insec t specie s name d sayi b y various entomologists, jus t a s there ar e man y western plant s named jamesii. "A fin e specie s of serpent wa s brought int o th e cam p by one of the men, " Sa y reported. "It moves with great rapidity, and in general form an d siz e i t resemble s C . constricto r [th e racer]. " Sa y name d i t Coluber testaceus (now Masticophus flagellum testaceus, western coachwhip). Thi s i s a slender , fast-movin g snake tha t sometime s climbs into shrub s in it s search for prey. A rattlesnak e that was captured in a colon y o f prairi e dogs Sa y describe d a s Crotalus confluentus. This was th e prairi e rattlesnake , whic h Constantin e Rafinesqu e ha d named C . viridis onl y tw o year s earlier. Of course , Sa y wa s als o collectin g insects . Perusa l of his late r publications reveal s at least ten ne w species "taken o n th e Arkansa s near th e mountains. " Tw o o f thes e wer e large , blac k beetle s tha t have sinc e becom e "collectors ' items. " One wa s a rather formidable, inch-long tige r beetle tha t h e calle d Amblycheila cylindriformis. Th e

156

The natural Historystory of the Long Expedition second wa s a peculiar , stout-bodied longhor n beetl e tha t i s usually found associate d wit h cacti : Moneilem a annulata. JULY 19 . EJ: This morning we turned ou r backs upon th e mountains, an d bega n to mov e dow n the Arkansas . I t was not without a feelin g o f somethin g lik e regret , tha t w e found ou r long contemplate d visi t to these gran d and interestin g objects, was no w a t a n end . On e thousan d mile s of dreary and monot onous plai n la y betwee n us , an d th e enjoyment s an d indul gences o f civilized countries . Thi s w e were t o travers e i n th e heat o f summer, but th e scarcit y of game about the mountain s rendered ou r immediat e departure necessary.

nine DOWN TH E ARKANSAS

AS THE EXPEDITION DRE W AWA Y FRO M th e mountains , th e countr y became increasingl y arid, with, accordin g t o James, "scarce a green or a livin g thing excep t her e an d ther e a tuf t o f grass, an orbicular lizard, basking in the scorchin g san d . . . a blaps [darkling beetle], or a galeodes [sun spider]. . . . Near the river, and in spots of uncommon fertility, th e unicor n plant . . . was growing in considerabl e perfec tion." This remarkable plant, th e onl y member of its family in Nort h America, bear s large , tubula r blossoms that ar e replace d b y woody pods that terminat e i n a long, curve d appendag e suggestin g an ele phant's trun k (henc e th e scientifi c name, Proboscidea louisianica [literally, plant wit h a trunk tha t inhabit s Louisiana Territory]). When the po d dries, the "trunk " splits lengthwise and forms a pair of sharp, upcurved prong s tha t hoo k ont o th e fee t o f mammals, which carr y them of f for a distanc e an d i n th e proces s disseminat e th e seeds . Other names for the plant ar e proboscis-flower, elephant-tusk , ram'shorn, cuckold' s horns , double-claw , and devil's claw. "A larg e and beautiful anima l of the lizar d kind . . . was noticed in thi s day' s ride," wrot e James. "Its movement s were so extremely rapid tha t i t was with much difficult y w e were able t o captur e a few of them. " Sa y describe d th e specie s a s Ameiva tesselata. This i s th e checkered rac e runne r (Cnemidophorus tesselatus). I t i s an unusually

158

The natural History stotryof the Long Expedition

Titian Peale , sketch of a checkered rac e runner, July 10 , 1820. (Fro m the sketch books o f Titia n Ramsa y Peale , Yal e Universit y Ar t Gallery , gif t o f Ramsa y MacMullen, M.A.H . 1967 )

handsome lizar d wit h a complex, checkerboar d patter n o n it s back . It i s no w know n tha t almos t al l individual s ar e female s an d tha t females kep t i n isolatio n la y egg s tha t produc e fertil e femal e offspring. I t i s believed tha t th e specie s ma y hav e originall y resulted from hybridizatio n between tw o othe r species , but i t i s maintaine d in natur e b y havin g largel y dispense d wit h th e mal e se x an d thu s the possibilit y of cross-breeding with othe r species . At eleve n i n th e mornin g o f July 19 , the me n stoppe d a t th e mouth o f Fountain Creek , enterin g fro m th e north , "t o refresh" and to sen d ou t hunters . I n th e afternoon , the y passe d the mout h o f the St. Charle s River , flowin g i n fro m th e south . Th e campsit e tha t evening was on a "grassy point o n th e north side of the river, " where they dine d o n veniso n an d turke y whil e th e mosquitoe s dine d o n them. The y ha d travele d twenty-fiv e miles that day , "over a dusty plain of sand an d gravel , barren a s the desert s of Arabia," wrote Bell (this was his second evocatio n o f the Arabia n deserts , the first being on th e Sout h Platt e no t fa r from th e mountains) . But Bell was consoled b y the though t tha t the y wer e travelin g towar d home : "Th e anticipation o f agai n enjoyin g th e benefit s & pleasur e o f civilized society an d th e fon d welcom e o f ou r friends , cheer s ou r heart s &

159

DOWN TH E ARKANSA S gives ful l scop e C o fancie d imaginatio n i n anticipate d pleasure s perhaps neve r t o b e realized." August Choutea u an d Jule s d e Mun n ha d rendezvouse d o n a tributary o f th e St . Charle s Rive r i n 1817 , an d Zebulo n Pik e ha d passed th e rive r stil l earlier, in 1806 . Al l three , an d thei r me n an d provisions, ha d ende d u p i n th e hand s of the Spanish . Ezekie l Williams ha d trappe d th e uppe r Arkansa s i n 1811 , an d the n travele d down th e river , leavin g hi s partner, Jea n Baptist e Champlain , to be killed b y th e Arapahos . S o Lon g an d hi s me n wer e retracin g th e steps of several other groups of Americans, bu t knowledg e o f the fat e of thes e earlie r trek s i n th e Arkansa s Valle y canno t hav e bee n reassuring. One o f th e hunter s ha d encountere d a grizzl y bear , whic h ap proached him ; "withou t stayin g to make inquir y into the intention s of th e animal , [he ] mounte d hi s hors e an d fled. " Thes e bear s wer e well know n t o trapper s an d traders , an d Lewi s and Clar k a s well as Pike kne w the m well , bu t the y ha d bee n formall y describe d onl y a few year s earlier b y Philadelphia zoologis t George Ord , wh o name d the specie s Ursus horribilis, James's Account include s a description of the bea r drawn up from a museum specimen afte r th e expedition ha d returned, alon g wit h a serie s o f anecdote s gathere d fro m variou s sources concernin g th e siz e an d ferocit y o f thes e animals . N o nar rative o f th e Wes t o f thos e day s woul d b e complet e withou t a few bear stories ! On Jul y 20 , the me n move d anothe r twenty-si x miles , passing the mout h o f a tributar y fro m th e sout h tha t Jame s calle d "Whar f creek, probabl y fro m th e circumstance s o f it s washin g th e bas e o f numerous perpendicula r precipices. " H e ha d misunderstoo d th e Spanish word huerfano (orphan) , whic h the cree k wa s called becaus e farther sout h th e strea m passe s nea r a n isolate d butt e o f volcani c rock. Mosquitoes continue d t o plagu e th e campsite s a t night , an d game wa s scarce asid e fro m a fe w turkeys , tw o deer , an d a wildcat . The naturalist s too k a flycatche r wit h a yello w breas t an d a smal l

16o

The natural History of the Long Expedition orange spo t o n to p o f the head . Sa y provided a description, naming the bir d Tyrannus verticalis, a name tha t stil l stands fo r the wester n kingbird. I t seem s od d tha t the y ha d no t encountere d thi s specie s sooner, a s it i s a common an d widel y distribute d western bird. JULY 21 . EJ: We lef t ou r encampmen t a t fiv e A.M. , and having descende d si x o r eigh t mile s alon g th e river , me t a n Indian an d squaw , who were , as they informe d us , of the trib e called Kaskaia ; by th e Frenc h Bad-hearts . [Kaskaia s ar e sometimes called Prairie Apaches.] They were on horseback; and th e squaw le d a thir d hors e o f uncommon beauty . They wer e o n their wa y from th e Arkans a belo w t o th e mountain s nea r th e sources o f th e Platte , wher e thei r natio n sometime s resides . They informed us that the greate r part of six nations o f Indians were encampe d abou t nineteen days ' journey below us, on th e Arkansa. . . . These nation s . . . had been for some time . . . engaged i n a warlike expedition against the Spaniards . They had recently me t a part y o f Spaniard s o n th e Re d river , whe n a battle wa s fought, i n whic h th e Spaniard s wer e defeated wit h considerable loss . We no w understoo d th e reaso n o f a fac t whic h ha d ap peared a littl e remarkable ; namely, that w e should hav e trav eled s o great an exten t of Indian countr y a s we had don e since leaving th e Pawnees , withou t meetin g a singl e savage . Th e bands . . . had all been absen t from their usual haunts on a predatory excursion . . . . The tw o Indian s remaine d wit h th e expeditio n fo r a few miles and were aske d abou t a good place t o for d th e rive r an d t o fin d a route to th e Re d River . There wa s an exchang e o f gifts, th e Indian s supplying som e jerked bison mea t i n retur n fo r tobacco , a mirror, an d other trinkets . Bel l also trade d a mule , a n ol d dragoo n jacket , and other objects for the hors e being le d by the squaw.

161

DOWN TH E ARKANSAS EJ: The India n informe d us he wa s called "Th e Calf. " H e appeared excessivel y fon d o f his squaw ; and thei r caresse s an d endearments the y wer e a t n o pain s t o conceal . I t wa s conjectured b y ou r guide , an d afterward s ascertained b y thos e wh o descended th e Arkansa , tha t the y ha d marrie d contrar y t o th e laws and usages of their tribe, the woman being already the wif e of anothe r man , an d ru n awa y for concealment. After coverin g onl y fourtee n miles , th e part y campe d o n th e rive r among cottonwood s an d willows . The understor y consiste d o f fals e indigo (Amorpha fruticosa), thre e specie s o f milkweed s (Asclepias), two specie s o f sunflower s (Helianthus), "th e grea t bartonica " (pre sumably giant evenin g star , Mentzelia decapetala), prickl y poppy (Ar gemone), and the usua l cacti. There were also sedges and grasses (wild rye an d bluestem). The hunter s brough t i n "two deer , one antelope , and seve n turkeys. " The expeditio n wa s now about 10 0 miles from th e mountains , near th e sit e o f the present-da y tow n o f Rocky Ford . Lon g electe d to remain there fo r two days, making preparations to divide the party, with on e grou p t o continu e dow n th e Arkansas , an d th e othe r t o search towar d th e sout h fo r the Re d River . Two kind s o f bat s wer e foun d a t th e campsite , on e o f the m previously unknown. Sa y described it , naming it Vespertilio subulatus; this i s now calle d Myotis subulatus, or the small-foote d myotis. This is a widel y distributed , yellowish-brow n ba t tha t roost s i n smal l groups i n caves , trees , and buildings. It wa s probably at thi s cam p tha t Sa y took thre e rathe r formi dable wasps, all three illustrate d in color i n his American Entomology. The larges t of them had a blue-green bod y about a n inc h and a half long an d brigh t orang e wing s spannin g nearl y thre e inches . Sa y named i t Pompilus formosus (no w Pepsis formosa): "Thi s larg e an d splendid specie s occurre d withi n a hundre d mile s o f th e Rock y Mountains, o n th e bank s o f the Arkansa s river . It wa s not uncom mon, an d i n consequenc e o f the strikin g color o f the wings , as well

162

The natural History of the Long Expedition

Titian Peale , drawin g of a tarantul a hawk. Describe d b y Thomas Sa y fro m th e upper Arkansa s Valley , this was p wa s drawn fo r Say' s American Entomology.

as o f it s slo w an d stead y flight , i t wa s readily observe d an d taken. " Species of this genus are known t o prey on tarantulas and place them in shallo w burrow s i n th e soil , wher e th e wasps ' egg s ar e lai d an d their larva e develop a t th e expens e o f the paralyze d tarantula. The y are ofte n calle d "tarantul a hawks. " Sa y evidently di d no t hav e th e experience o f bein g stun g b y on e o f thes e monsters , o r h e surel y would hav e mad e a note o f it. Another wasp , nearl y a s larg e bu t bande d wit h yello w an d having transparen t wings , h e name d Stizus (no w Sphecius) grandis. Say surmised that because of its resemblance t o the cicad a killer wasp of th e East , thi s specie s probabl y als o provisione d it s nest wit h ci cadas. I n thi s h e wa s later prove d correct . Alon g wit h thes e wasp s he too k a smalle r species , blac k wit h a singl e orang e ban d o n th e

163 DOWN TH E ARKANSA S

abdomen, tha t he calle d Stizus (no w Stizoides) renicinctus. This wasp, we now know , i s a brood parasit e of other ground-nestin g wasps. All three o f thes e wasp s remai n locall y commo n alon g th e Arkansa s Valley. On Jul y 24 , Long , James , Peale , an d seve n other s forde d th e river an d heade d sout h i n a n effor t t o fin d th e Re d Rive r an d s o accomplish on e o f th e goal s of th e expedition . Thi s for d wa s well known t o th e Indian s an d wa s later used by traders on thei r wa y to Santa Fe . Today Rock y Ford i s best known fo r it s cantaloupes . The remainde r o f the part y would follow th e Arkansa s down stream t o For t Smith , whic h Lon g had helpe d t o establis h i n 1817 . The grou p include d Bel l (wh o wa s appointe d leader) , Swift , Say , Seymour, an d si x others (Julien , Parish , Nowland, Barnard , Foster, and Myers) . Bijeau an d Ledou x would accompany th e grou p part of the way , and the n leav e t o retur n t o thei r home s i n th e Pawne e villages on th e Lou p River of Nebraska. The tw o dog s tha t ha d ac companied th e expeditio n al l th e wa y from Enginee r Cantonmen t would joi n Bell' s contingent . Th e tw o group s woul d mee t a t For t Smith (o n th e wester n borde r of present-day Arkansas). After Lon g an d hi s companion s ha d crosse d th e river , the y "gave three cheers & took off in a southardly course over the prairie," as Bel l pu t it . I shal l tak e u p th e stor y o f Long' s detachmen t i n Chapter 10 . JB: The Commandin g office r selecte d th e ables t an d bes t horses an d mule s for the part y destined t o th e Re d River , believing tha t part y would have a greater distanc e t o trave l and over mor e broke n country ; otherwise , a n impartia l division of stock o n han d wa s made, her e follow s a n Invoic e o f what was furnished [Bell's ] detachment—viz : 1 4 horses , 2 mule s . . . many o f them wor n ou t wit h fatigu e & sor e back , tha t coul d not b e used . India n goods , fo r presents t o th e Indian s an d t o purchase fro m the m necessar y articles, viz:—6 doz. knives, 3 1 looking glasses , 1 tin case , 2 6 small twists tobacco, 1 1/2 1b ver-

164

The natura l Histor y o f th e Lon g E xpedition million, 51/2 doz. combs, 11 5 smal l bells, 1 5 fir e steels , 6 pai r scissors, 3 bunche s beads , 9 moccoso n awls , 4 gu n worm s an d 86 flints—! ! wha t a pitifu l stoc k fo r a n explorin g part y fitte d out b y the governmen t of the Unite d States , wha t a contempt able opinion mus t the savage s form o f our nation, i t is too bad . Of provision s w e have 9 pint s o f corn, 3 peck s parche d cor n meal, 1 2 1b biscuit, 3 /4 1b coffee, 1/2 1b sugar, 1 oz tea , 5 pint s whiskey, 4 bottles Lemn Acid—and o f ammunition—2 1b powder & 3 1 smal l cans o f lead!! ! Hors e equipment s an d miscel laneous articles—10 saddles , 2 bridles, 3 bear skins, 5 provision bags, 1 ax & sling , 2 common tents , 1 flag o r colour, 1 melting ladle, packing lines, fishing lines & hooks, a number of packages containing collection s mad e by the party , a small tin cas e con taining assorted medicine, 3 camp kettles,—Our powde r horns, recently fille d wit h powder , an d w e hav e a smal l quantit y o f jirked mea t cure d by the part y yesterday. Thus have I stated, as correctly a s possible the outfi t o f our detachment , destine d t o find our wa y through band s o f wandering Savages , war parties, and ove r a wilderness country, 800 miles to whit e settlements .

At te n o'cloc k o n Jul y 24 , th e muc h diminishe d explorin g part y proceeded dow n th e nort h side of the Arkansa s River, camping tha t night no t fa r from th e sit e where, in 1833 , Willia m Bent would build a for t tha t becam e a majo r stopove r o n th e Sant a F e Trail. Ther e was now no botanist, s o there ar e few remarks on the vegetatio n the y found alon g thei r way . This sectio n o f th e expedition' s report , a s stated i n th e Account, i s "from th e pe n o f Mr. Say. " Bell , of course, continued hi s journal, an additiona l sourc e of information . On Jul y 25, the part y passed the mout h o f a large tributary from the south , the Purgatoire . This river had been named b y the Spanis h "Rio d e la s Animas Perdida s en Purgatorio " (Rive r of Lost Souls i n Purgatory) because of several deaths that had occurre d ther e without redemption fro m a priest. French trader s had shortene d th e name to

165

DOWN TH E ARKANSA S Purgatoire, and to early American settlers , it was the Picketwire. The city o f Las Animas no w stand s near th e confluence . JULY 26 . TS: Lat e i n th e afternoo n w e saw , a t a grea t distance befor e us, evident indication s o f th e proximit y of In dians, consistin g o f [tipis] , o n th e edg e o f th e skirtin g timber, partially conceale d b y th e foliag e o f th e trees . O n ou r neare r approach w e observe d thei r horse s grazin g peacefully, bu t be coming suddenl y frightened , probabl y b y ou r scent , the y al l bounded of f toward s th e camp , whic h wa s no w i n ful l view . Our attentio n was called off from th e horse s b y the appearanc e of thei r masters , who wer e now see n runnin g toward s us with all their swiftness . A minut e afterward s w e were surrounded by them, an d wer e happy t o observ e in thei r feature s an d gestures a manifestatio n o f the mos t pacifi c disposition ; the y shoo k u s by th e hand , assure d us by sign s that the y rejoice d t o se e us, and invite d us to partak e o f their hospitality . We howeve r re plied, tha t w e had brough t ou r own lodge s with us , and would encamp nea r them . We selecte d fo r this purpose a clear spot of ground o n th e ban k o f the river , intending t o remai n a day or two with this little known people, to observe their manners and way o f life . The India n cam p containe d member s of four nations : Kiowas , Kaskaias, Cheyennes , an d Arapahos . O n th e followin g day , chief s of each of the tribe s met wit h th e explorers , who attempted t o impress on the m that the y wer e not trader s but were studying the landscap e and th e plant s an d animals . Indeed , the y had littl e to trade, but did their best to satisfy th e Indians , while obtaining food an d even horses in exchange . Seymou r painte d th e cam p o f the explorers , showing their tent s surrounded by Kiowas. He als o made portraits of some of the chiefs . They wer e abl e t o communicat e wit h th e Indian s i n a roundabout way . Bell spoke to Julien in English, and Julien translated into

1 66

The natural Historystory of the Long Expedition

Engraving i n th e Account , after Samue l Seymour , watercolo r o f Kaskaia, Cheyenne, an d Arapah o chiefs .

French fo r Ledoux. Ledoux kne w Pawne e an d transmitte d th e mes sages t o a n India n wh o kne w tha t language , an d thi s perso n trans lated the m int o th e tongue s o f th e loca l chiefs . I n spit e o f thes e problems, Bell apparently made a fairly lon g speech, explainin g wha t the explorer s wer e doin g i n India n land s an d promisin g tha t th e Great Whit e Fathe r woul d "rende r ever y assistance " t o hi s "Re d children" i f the y woul d b e peacefu l an d "liv e lik e brothers. " Th e chiefs replie d tha t the y wer e happ y t o se e the American s an d tha t their "wa r partie s shoul d b e instructe d t o shak e hand s & mak e [friends] wit h th e American s wher e eve r the y me t them. " JB: The first evening o f our arrival among them , th e Chief s politely offere d m e th e us e o f on e o f thei r wives , durin g th e time w e shoul d remai n amon g them—whic h I a s politely de -

167

DOWN TH E ARKANSAS

clined, the y said we had no squaw s with us and must necessarily want the m & i t was with some difficult y I could object to thei r solicitations withou t offendin g them—durin g eac h nigh t w e remained with them severa l of the Indian s brought their wives into camp & remaine d al l night, th e husban d goin g aroun d t o the member s of our party soliciting as a favour, connection with his wife , fo r a smal l piec e o f tobacc o o r a littl e vermillion — during th e time , th e wif e woul d b e layin g o n a buffal o rob e covered wit h another , the y wer e no t generall y their youngest or handsomest wives . . . . TS: Soon afte r ou r arrival, an Indian well stricken i n years inquired i f we had see n a ma n an d squa w within a day o r tw o on ou r route : w e described t o hi m th e appearanc e o f the cal f and hi s squaw . "Tha t i s m y wife, " h e said , "wh o ha s elope d from me , an d I wil l instantl y g o i n pursui t of them. " H e ac cordingly procure d a companion, an d both wer e soon o n thei r way, wel l armed an d mounted . Say describe d th e appearanc e an d clothin g o f the Indian s i n som e detail. He wa s particularly anxious to recor d thei r languages, whic h "abound wit h sound s strange t o ou r ears. " H e di d no t fai l t o mak e note of their intimac y with certai n insects . TS: I n th e rea r o f ou r tent , a squaw , wh o ha d becom e possessed o f a woode n small-toothe d comb , wa s occupie d i n removing fro m he r hea d a populatio n a s numerous, a s the in dividuals composing it were robust and well fed. She had placed a ski n upo n he r la p t o receiv e th e victim s a s they fell ; an d a female companio n wh o sa t a t he r fee t alternatel y craunche d the oil y vermi n betwee n he r teeth , an d converse d wit h th e most rapi d and pleasan t loquacity, as she picked the m up fro m the ski n befor e her .

1 68

The natural History of the Long Expedition W. W . Wood , drawin g o f crested keel grasshoppers . Sa y discovere d this strikin g species i n th e Arkansa s Valley an d illustrate d i t i n his American Entomology .

On Jul y 28 , th e Indian s de parted upstream , whil e th e exploring part y move d down stream throug h a violent thun derstorm. " A fin e specie s o f toad (bufo ) inhabit s thi s re gion," reporte d Say . H e de scribed i t a s Bufo cognatus, now know n a s th e Grea t Plain s toad . These toads , w e no w know , rang e throughou t muc h o f th e Grea t Plains an d Southwest , breedin g in pond s an d i n areas that ar e temporarily floode d afte r rains . Accordin g t o Geoffre y Hammerson , i n Amphibians an d Reptiles i n Colorado, in th e breedin g seaso n th e mal e produces "a n ear-splittin g trill which sound s almos t lik e a jackhammer." It may have been on thi s date tha t Say collected tw o unusually large an d ornat e grasshoppers , bot h o f which wer e illustrate d o n a color plat e i n hi s American Entomology. These wer e Gryllus (no w Tropidolophus) formosus an d G. (no w Acrolophitus) hirtipes. Both have a high cres t on th e thora x an d are elaborately patterned wit h green , with conspicuousl y banded wings . Like man y a n entomologist , Sa y admire d tige r beetle s an d doubtless enjoyed collecting them . These attractively patterned bee tles run rapidl y over th e groun d i n pursui t of smaller insects , whic h they gras p in their larg e jaws. They take fligh t readil y when pursued by an entomologist . Alon g the Arkansas , Sa y found and describe d a relatively large , "remarkabl y splendid " specie s wit h a reddish coppery shee n t o th e win g covers . H e calle d i t Cicindela pulchra. A

1 69

DOWN TH E ARKANSAS still larger but mainly black species that was "not uncommo n o n th e banks of the Arkans a river " he calle d C. obsoleta. Individuals of this species provid e a specia l challeng e t o collectors ; whe n disturbed , they fly for many feet, an d then drop quickly to the groun d and blen d with th e soil . As the part y proceeded alon g the river, they had several further meetings with Indians, all of them mor e or less friendly. Som e o f th e Indians carrie d cakes o f pemmican mad e o f chok e cherries , stone s and all , mixed wit h biso n fat . Bell declared the m "quit e delicious. " Say was compiling a vocabulary of Indian word s and recordin g wha t he coul d of their customs. On on e occasion, h e induce d a n Arapah o medicine ma n t o ope n th e content s of his bag. JULY 30. TS: At ou r solicitation he readil y opened hi s sacred depository , and displaye d it s contents on a skin before us, whilst h e politel y proceeded t o expatiat e o n thei r power s and virtues in the occul t art , as well as their physica l efficacy. The y consisted o f various roots, seeds , pappus, and powders , both active an d inert , a s respects thei r actio n o n th e huma n system, carefully envelope d i n skins, leaves, &c., som e of which, t o hi s credulous faith, were invested with supernatural powers. Similar qualities wer e als o attribute d t o som e anima l product s wit h which thes e wer e accompanied , suc h a s claws of birds , beaks , feathers, an d hair . Bu t th e objec t tha t mor e particularl y at tracted ou r attention wa s the intoxicatin g bean , a s it has bee n called, o f which h e possesse d upward s of a pint . Julien recognized i t immediately . He informe d us, that i t i s in such high re quest amongs t th e Ot o Indians , tha t a hors e ha s bee n exchanged fo r eight or ten of them. . . . With som e few trinkets of little value, we purchased the principa l portion o f our medicine man' s stor e o f beans; the y ar e o f a n ovat e form , an d o f a light red , sometimes yellowish colour, with a rather deepl y impressed oval cicatrix, and larger than a common bean. . . .

1 70

The natural History of the Long Expedition The bean s wer e presumabl y thos e o f mesquit e (Prosopis), whic h when groun d up and allowe d t o ferment in water produce a beerlike beverage. A s th e part y move d dow n th e river , Bel l remarked tha t the plant s h e sa w "diffe r almos t ever y day. I t i s a matte r o f regret that no t on e o f our detachmen t i s sufficientl y skille d i n botan y t o note and describe th e vegetabl e productions. " On abou t Augus t 1 , th e expeditio n crosse d wha t i s now th e Colorado-Kansas state line . Ther e wa s a scare when a war party of Cheyennes, painte d an d i n ful l battl e dress , galloped towar d them , shouting an d brandishin g thei r bow s and arrows . Bell ordered thei r flag unfurle d an d thei r horse s stake d an d guarde d b y soldier s with loaded rifles . Bu t the Cheyenne s had com e fro m a skirmish with th e Pawnees an d wer e afrai d o f being pursue d by them, s o they move d on afte r th e usua l pipe-smokin g an d exchang e o f gifts , th e chie f leaving Bel l with a hug . Horseflies wer e abundan t alon g th e rive r bottoms , ofte n cov ering th e neck s o f the horse s an d "dyein g the m wit h blood. " Th e horses wer e already "sufficientl y miserable, " and ther e i s no doub t that los s o f bloo d wa s on e reaso n fo r thei r increasingl y weakene d condition. Rattlesnake s wer e also abundant, bu t th e horse s seemed to avoid the m successfully , an d neither horses nor men were bitten. Burrowing owl s wer e seen , an d i t wa s clear tha t th e burrow s they occupied wer e in poor condition, obviousl y those of prairie dogs that had bee n abandone d b y their owners .

AUGUST 5 . TS: [T]he lowin g o f th e thousand s o f bisons that surrounde d u s in ever y direction, reache d u s in on e con tinual roar . Thi s hars h an d guttura l noise , intermediat e be tween th e bellowin g of the domesti c bul l and th e gruntin g of the hog , was varied by the shril l bark and scream of the jackals [coyotes], an d th e howlin g o f th e . . . wolves. . . . These wil d and dissonan t sound s were associated with the ide a of the bar ren an d inhospitabl e wastes , i n th e mids t o f whic h w e were

171 1

DOWN TH E ARKANSA S then reposing, and vividl y reminded u s of our remoteness fro m the comfort s of civilized society. "Not havin g ha d a supply of fresh buffal o mea t for nearly a month," Bell commented , "w e thi s da y feasted on it , o f the choices t pieces , boiled an d roaste d & mad e int o wha t th e interpreter s cal l hunter s pudding." Sa y noted amon g th e herd s o f bison flock s o f "cow bunt ings," which h e calle d Emberiza pecora. This is a name formerl y used for th e brown-heade d cowbir d (Molothrus ater). Cowbirds once may have bee n restricte d t o followin g grazin g mammal s o f th e West , where the y acte d a s nes t parasite s of bird s o f ope n country . Ove r time, as forests were cleared for the grazin g of cattle an d th e growing of grains , cowbirds spread ove r muc h o f the continent , wher e the y came t o parasitiz e man y songbirds . Nowadays , they ar e blamed , i n part, fo r th e declin e o f man y songbir d specie s throughou t Nort h America. On Augus t 6 , th e explorer s found th e rive r turning north. As they realized , they had reache d th e beginnin g o f the "grea t bend" of the Arkansa s (the y wer e a fe w miles east o f th e sit e o f the presen t city o f Dodge City , Kansas) . Bijea u an d Ledou x no w lef t th e part y and heade d fo r their home s o n th e Platte . TS: We canno t take leav e of them, withou t expressin g our entire approbatio n of their conduct an d deportment during our arduous journey ; Bijeau, particularly , wa s faithful , active , in dustrious, an d communicative . Beside s the dutie s of guide and interpreter, h e occasionall y an d frequentl y volunteere d hi s services a s hunter , butcher , cook , veterinarian , &c. , an d pointed ou t variou s little services , tendin g t o ou r comfort an d security, whic h h e performe d wit h pleasur e an d alacrity , an d which n o othe r tha n one habituated t o this mod e o f life would have devised . Durin g leisur e intervals, he ha d communicate d an historica l narrativ e o f his lif e an d adventures , mor e partic -

17 2

The natural History of the Long Expedition ularly i n a s far a s the y wer e relativ e t o th e countr y whic h w e have bee n exploring . . . . A copiou s vocabular y o f word s of th e Pawne e languag e was obtaine d fro m Ledoux , togethe r wit h a n accoun t o f th e manners an d habits o f that nation . . . . As th e party , diminishe d b y two , proceede d alon g th e river , Sa y spoke o f th e "debilitatin g influence " o f th e extrem e heat—ove r ninety degree s virtuall y ever y day . Thei r horse s wer e no w becom ing ver y weak ; ther e wa s littl e fee d fo r them , a s th e biso n ha d eaten mos t o f th e grass . O n Augus t 8 , th e me n passe d th e mout h of "Vultur e creek , fro m th e numbe r o f tha t bir d see n abou t it. " This wa s probably th e Pawne e River , whic h reache s th e Arkansa s near th e modern-da y tow n o f Larned , Kansas . Sunflower s wer e everywhere, an d alon g th e rive r there wer e no t onl y cottonwoods , but als o elms , walnuts , mulberries , an d ashes , "whic h w e hai l with a heart y welcome , a s th e harbinger s o f a mor e productiv e territory," wrot e Say . On Augus t 10 , they reache d th e ape x o f the bend , no t fa r fro m the present-da y cit y of Great Bend . Fro m tha t point, th e rive r flows in a generally southeasterly direction . Th e hunter s brough t i n a "fine fat deer " an d th e mea t o f a co w bison . "W e hav e trul y feaste d t o day," wrot e Bell , "ou r desser t afte r dinne r consistin g o f sour grapes and blac k walnuts. " Sa y reporte d a bal d eagl e "sailin g hig h i n th e air," an d th e "ric e bir d (emberiz a oryzivoru s L. ) . . . feeding o n th e seeds o f sunflower. " This wa s th e bobolink , no w calle d Dolichonyx oryzivorus. Two day s later, Sa y was "gratified with th e appearanc e o f th e prairie fowl [lesse r prairie-chicken] running nimbl y before us through the grass , the first we have see n sinc e leavin g the Platte. " Later that day, there was an episode with a party of Comanches, but once agai n the expeditio n passe d throug h withou t seriou s trouble . O n th e fol lowing day , Swif t sho t a larg e elk , whic h wa s cut u p an d adde d t o the party' s dwindling foo d supply . I t wa s Sunday, bu t the y di d no t

173

DOWN TH E ARKANSA S stop t o rest , as they feare d meetin g with othe r wa r parties and, sai d Bell, "thei r friendship i s only to b e purchase d by tobacco, o f which we are out. " AUGUST 14 . T5: [O]ur morning's journey was arduous, in consequence o f th e grea t hea t o f th e atmosphere . Ou r dogs , these tw o o r thre e day s past , ha d evidentl y followe d u s wit h difficulty. Caesar , a fine mastiff , an d th e large r of the two , this morning trotte d heavil y forwards an d thre w himself down di rectly before the first horse in the line; the rider turned his horse aside, t o avoi d doin g injur y t o th e dog . . . . The dog , finding this attemp t t o dra w attentio n t o hi s suffering s unavailing , threw himself successively before two or three other horses , but still failed t o excite th e attentio n h e solicited, until a soldier in the rea r observed that his respiration was excessively laborious, and hi s tongu e t o a great length depende d fro m hi s widely extended mouth . H e therefore took the dog upon his horse befor e him, intendin g t o bath e hi m i n th e river , [but ] the poo r ex hausted anima l expire d i n hi s arm s befor e h e reache d it . T o travellers in such a country, any domesticated animal, however abject, become s a n acceptabl e companion ; an d ou r dogs , be sides their real usefulnes s a s guards at night, dre w our attentio n in variou s ways durin g th e day , and becam e graduall y s o en deared t o us , that th e los s of Caesar wa s felt a s a real evil. That da y the part y passed the mout h o f the Littl e Arkansas, a t th e site of the cit y of Wichita. Ther e were honey locust s and sycamores as well a s cottonwoods, elms , and ashes . Quail an d prairi e chickens were common . O n th e followin g day , the me n cam e o n a deserted Indian village , where they too k som e corn an d melons . On Augus t 14, Say had recorde d a prairi e do g village, which prove d t o b e th e last the y sa w as they plodded southeastward . Two day s later, i t was noted tha t th e antelop e ha d disappeared , and biso n an d thei r ac companying wolve s were rarel y seen . Oaks , walnuts , willows , an d

174

The natural History of the Long Expedition mulberries fille d a ravine . Sa y foun d puffbal l mushroom s (Lycoperdon) "nearl y equa l i n siz e t o a man's head. " These puffball s ar e edible—indeed, quit e delicious when properl y prepared—but Say and his me n ma y have bee n unaware or uncertain o f this. The me n als o found a "plan t familiarl y know n i n th e settlement s b y the nam e of Poke, (Phytolacc a decandra.) [no w P . americana, often calle d poke weed]." This i s a lush green plan t wit h deep purpl e berries, the sol e North American representativ e of a family o f mostly tropical distribution. The expeditio n had now crossed the ninety-eighth meridian , often considere d th e approximate dividing line between th e semiarid West an d th e mor e humi d East. The day' s march o n August 16 brought th e expeditio n past the mouth o f the Ninnesca h River , where ther e wer e great number s of turtles. Gam e wa s now scarce , bu t th e nex t da y th e hunter s wer e able to take three turkeys and two fawns. Common elder s (Sambucus) were seen . Th e followin g da y they passe d Walnut Cree k an d wer e approximately a t th e presen t stat e lin e betwee n Kansa s an d Oklahoma. Hickorie s wer e seen fo r th e firs t tim e since th e expedi tion ha d lef t th e Missour i River. On Augus t 19 , the secon d dog , Buck , died, eve n thoug h on e of th e me n ha d carrie d him o n horsebac k becaus e o f his weakene d condition. Th e me n wer e tire d o f the meandering s of the rive r and the numerou s gulleys tha t the y ha d t o cross . "I f we had bu t a ma p of the river, " Bell remarked, "how man y bends & hills & hollows & ravines we could hav e avoided!! " Th e nex t da y the part y dined o n "a fe w mould y biscuit crumbs , boile d i n a larg e quantit y o f water, with the nutritiou s addition o f some grease." Lat e i n th e day , Julien killed a skunk, which wa s added to their soup of crumbs the following day (i t "taste d skunkis h enough," Bel l commented). O n Augus t 22, the hunter s too k nothin g an d wer e force d t o rescu e th e bod y o f a small faw n fro m th e wolve s that ha d kille d an d partiall y devoured it. The scientifi c expedition ha d turne d int o a race for survival. But Say took occasio n t o not e the presenc e o f a spectacular bird.

175

DOWN TH E ARKANSA S AUGUST 22 . TS: A not e lik e that o f the prairi e dog for a moment induce d th e belie f tha t a villag e o f the marmo t wa s near; bu t w e wer e soo n undeceive d b y th e appearanc e o f th e beautiful tyrannu s forficatu s [scissor-taile d flycatcher ] i n ful l pursuit o f a crow . No t a t firs t recognizin g th e bird , th e fin e elongated tai l plumes, occasionally diverging in a furcate manner, an d agai n closin g together , t o giv e direction t o th e aeria l evolutions o f the bird , seeme d lik e the extraneou s processe s of dried grass , o r twig s of a tree , adventitiousl y attache d t o th e tail, an d influence d b y currents of wind. The feathere d warrior flew towar d a tree , fro m whence , a t ou r to o nea r approach , h e descended t o the eart h a t a little distance, continuing a t inter vals his chirping note. Say reported o n Augus t 23 , that th e explorer s were "once agai n saluted b y the not e of the blu e jay." A floc k o f Carolina parakeet s flew by, an d kingfisher s an d warbler s were sighted. " A larg e white cran e (ardea egrett a o f Wilson) stalke d wit h slow and measure d stride s i n the shallow s of the creek, " Sa y reported. This was presumably a great egret (Casmerodius albus). Say also captured a glass snake, whic h h e called "ophisauru s ventralis " (no w Ophisaurus attenuatus, easter n glass snake). Glass snakes are not tru e snakes, hut legles s lizards. AUGUST 25 . TS: Remained encampe d i n order to give the hunters an opportunity to procure some game. We had nothing for breakfas t o r dinner , an d a s ou r meal s a fe w days pas t ha d been fe w and slight, we have becom e impatien t unde r the pressure o f hunger; a fe w fresh-water muscles (unio) , two o r thre e small fishes , an d a tortois e whic h ha d bee n foun d i n th e mu d of th e ravine , wer e roaste d an d eaten , withou t essentia l con diment salt, of which we had bee n fo r some time destitute. Th e hunters s o anxiously looked for at length returned, bringing but three ducks . . . .

176

The

natural

History

of the Long Expedition

As w e hav e n o ide a o f ou r distanc e fro m Bell e Poin t [where For t Smit h wa s located], an d kno w no t wha t exten t of country w e are doomed t o travers e in th e stat e of privation t o which w e have o f late bee n subjected , we have selected , fro m our miserabl e horses, a n individua l to b e slaughtere d fo r food , in cas e o f extremity of abstinence; an d upo n which , althoug h very lean , w e canno t forbea r t o cas t a n occasiona l wishfu l glance. The followin g day the me n found some green plums and ate as many as the y "though t safe. " Bel l note d tha t a littl e "Milnor' s Lemo n acid," which the y wer e carrying, made the wate r more palatable an d helped reliev e thei r hunge r a bit. Th e hunter s n o longe r ha d shoe s or moccasins . "Poo r fellows, " wrot e Bell , "they hav e t o hun t thro ' briers bar e foot. " Bu t Swif t manage d t o kil l a larg e buc k deer , whereupon, sai d Bell , " a smil e o f joy lighte d ever y countenac e & every ja w wagged in anticipation. " The Arkansa s Valley was becoming s o thick with brus h that a few day s late r the y electe d t o follo w a n India n trai l awa y from th e river. Bu t i t too k the m throug h hill y countr y wher e th e goin g was slow an d gam e still scarce . There were small flocks of "the commo n wild pigeon," presumabl y mourning doves . Say' s horse, " a sprightly, handsome, and serviceable animal" that had accompanied him sinc e Nebraska, was now completely exhauste d an d had t o be abandoned . Parish's horse wa s also unable t o ris e and wa s left behind . Th e part y returned to the rive r late on August 31, but only afte r a n experienc e that cause d their moral e to plummet stil l further. AUGUST 31 . T5: We aros e early, an d o n lookin g a t th e horses that were staked around the camp , three o f the best were missing. Supposing that they ha d straye d to a distance, inquiry was mad e o f the corpora l respectin g them ; wh o answere d that three o f the me n wer e absent, probably in pursuit of them, and added, tha t on e of those me n wh o chanced t o be last on guar d

' 77

DOWN TH E ARKANSAS

had neglected t o awaken him t o perform his duty on the morn ing watch . Forste r [Foster] , a faithful , industriou s soldie r . . . now exclaimed, that his knapsack ha d bee n robbed ; and upo n examining ou r baggage , we wer e mortifie d t o perceiv e tha t i t also had bee n overhaule d an d plundered during the night . But we wer e utterl y astounded t o fin d tha t ou r saddl e bags , whic h contained ou r clothing, India n presents , an d manuscripts , had also been carrie d off. This greates t o f al l privation s tha t coul d hav e occurre d within th e rang e o f possibility, suspende d fo r a tim e ever y exertion, an d seeme d t o fill the measur e of our trials , difficulties , and dangers . It wa s to o obviou s tha t th e infamou s absentees , Nola n [Nowland], Myers , and Bernar d [Barnard] , had deserte d durin g the night , robbin g u s o f our bes t horses , an d o f ou r mos t im portant treasures . We endeavoure d i n vain t o trac e them , as a heavy de w ha d falle n sinc e thei r departure , an d reste d upo n every spea r o f gras s alike , an d w e returne d fro m th e fruitles s search t o number ove r our losse s with a feeling of disconsolateness vergin g on despair . Our entir e wardrobe , wit h th e sol e exceptio n o f the rud e clothing o n ou r persons, and ou r entire privat e stock o f Indian presents, wer e include d i n th e saddl e bags. Bu t thei r mos t im portant contents were all the manuscript s of Mr. Say and Lieut. Swift, complete d durin g th e extensiv e journe y from Enginee r Cantonment to this place. Those of the forme r consisted o f five books, viz. one book o f observations on the manner s an d habit s of the Mountai n Indians , an d thei r history , so far as it could b e obtained fro m th e interpreters ; one book o f notes o n th e man ners and habits of animals, and descriptions of species; one boo k containing a journal; two books containin g vocabularie s of the languages of the Mountai n Indians ; and those of the latte r con sisted o f a topographica l journa l o f th e sam e portio n o f ou r expedition. Al l these, bein g utterly useless to the wretches wh o

178

The natural History of the Long Expedition now possesse d them , wer e probabl y throw n awa y upo n th e ocean o f prairie , an d consequentl y th e labou r o f month s wa s consigned t o oblivio n b y these uneducate d vandals . The thre e deserters , Say added, had proved "worthless, indolent, an d pusillanimous fro m th e beginning, " an d Nowlan d wa s know n t o have deserte d on tw o previous occasions. T o a degree, the desertio n of the me n fro m th e flounderin g and half-starved expedition ca n be excused. The y ha d n o wa y of knowing tha t ver y soo n condition s would improve and that within nine days the party would reach their destination a t For t Smith . JB: With heav y heart s & sa d countenances w e arrange d what was left int o packs as light as possible, disposing of all that was deemed unnecessar y or superfluous , i n order to reliev e our wearied horses. . . . Halted a t mid-day to refresh, not being abl e to trave l i n ope n prairi e countr y mor e tha n a t th e rat e o f 21/2 miles an hour , altitud e of the mercur y 94 degrees. SEPTEMBER I . JB : All ou r part y was ou t a t da y ligh t i n quest of game, returned to Camp about 8 oclock withou t havin g killed anything, brought in a few sour grapes which satisfie d ou r hunger a little . W e d o no t suffe r muc h th e pang s o f hunger , but kee p constantl y growin g weaker & losin g flesh, whe n of f our horses , feel n o dispositio n to walk , but t o si t or la y down, exercise produce s a tremblin g an d pai n i n th e knee s & legs . Before 9 oclock we proceeded along the bottom where the travelling for some time wa s easy & pleasant , whe n i t becam e in terupted b y ravines & low scrubby bushes. In these, Lieut. Swif t killed a young deer, 6 k Julian collected a quantity o f plums o n the margin of the river—when we arrived at a convenient plac e we halted, o n the margi n of the bank , turne d ou t our horses t o pasture, an d ourselve s to cookin g som e o f the deer , o n whic h and th e plums , w e feaste d mos t sumptuously , being th e firs t

179 DOWN TH E ARKANSAS

meal we had eate n i n fou r days . It i s impossible to describe th e immediate restorative effects, thi s meal produced upon our feelings and strength . Thu s revived we resumed our way at 3 p.m . weather extremel y warm . . . . Soon a n Osag e India n approached , th e firs t o f a hunting part y that arrived o n th e followin g day . "Thi s nobl e generou s Indian, " wrot e Bell, "findin g w e ha d bee n nearl y starved , gav e u s fro m hi s rob e a quantity o f plums he ha d collecte d an d wha t tobacc o he ha d fo r us to che w & smok e which was the greates t luxury of all. . . . [H]e took one o f our rifle s an d wen t ou t t o kil l a deer fo r us. " When th e mai n ban d arrived , the y prepare d a feas t fo r th e explorers. The Osage s had had considerable contact with whites, and many o f thei r implement s ha d bee n acquire d b y trad e wit h settle ments i n Missouri . Their chief , Iro n Bird—o r Clermont , a s he was known t o th e whites—ha d bee n visite d by Lieutenant Jame s Wil kinson, unde r order s from Zebulo n Pike, in 1807 , an d Thoma s Nuttall ha d me t wit h hi m o n hi s tre k u p th e Arkansa s Rive r i n 1819 . He ha d eve n bee n t o Washington. I n 1834 , hi s portrait was painted by George Catlin . Clermont received Bel l hospitably, but was unable to suppl y him wit h th e horse s an d guide s that Bel l had hoped for. The Indian s reporte d tha t thre e whit e me n ha d bee n see n i n their village . Swift , Julien , an d som e o f th e Indian s se t fort h afte r them, sinc e the y evidentl y wer e th e deserters . However , the y re turned i n th e evenin g afte r discoverin g tha t th e thre e ha d alread y left th e village . Ther e see m t o b e n o record s o f wha t becam e o f Nowland, Myers , and Barnard . Sinc e the y wer e arm y privates, the y would hav e bee n punishe d severel y i f i n fac t the y reache d settle ments an d were recognized and reported . The valuabl e notebooks of Say and Swif t wer e doubtless "thrown awa y upon th e ocea n o f prairie," a s Say surmised . It i s remarkable that Sa y did a s well a s he di d in reconstructin g hi s itinerar y and hi s notes and description s o f animals. The meetin g wit h the Osage s mus t have occurre d near th e sit e

180

The

natural

History

of the Long Expedition

of the thrivin g city of Tulsa, Oklahoma . On the afternoo n of Sep tember 3, Bell and his men lef t the Indian s and crossed a prairie with "pleasing grove s of oak" a s well as pecans (Cary a illinoensh), which were see n for the firs t time . Hunting wa s improving, an d alon g wit h gifts fro m th e Indian s they were fairly wel l off. SEPTEMBER 4 . JB: We ar e no w makin g u p fo r ou r lon g spell of starvation, we have abundance o f venison, corn , pump kin & squash , we eat ou r three meal s a day in suc h quantitie s at a time a s would astonish an y person wh o had no t witnesse d the recover y o f person s afte r havin g [been ] i n a state o f star vation . . . distance travelle d to da y 1 7 3/4 miles . The expeditio n ha d no w passe d th e mout h o f the Verdigri s River, flowing fro m th e north . Thi s part o f the Arkansa s Valle y had bee n followed b y Say's frien d Thoma s Nuttal l jus t a yea r earlier . B y this time Nuttal l wa s so weakened b y starvation an d feve r tha t h e wa s often deliriou s an d a t time s ha d t o b e helpe d b y a companio n t o mount hi s horse. Nevertheless he brought back a notable collection of plants an d insects . Jame s and Sa y must surely have rea d Nuttall' s journal, which was published in 1821 , when the y prepared their ow n Account i n 1823 . However , they mak e no mentio n o f the fac t tha t they were now traversing country already explored by a well-qualified naturalist. On Septembe r 5 , th e me n reache d a tradin g pos t wher e the y were "hospitably received" and served a meal at a table supplied with stools and benches, luxurie s they had not experience d i n some time . "Our pleasur e at first meeting civilized white me n wa s of no ordinary kind," wrot e Say. At th e tradin g post, Say took " a beautiful species of lizar d . . . [that] runs with grea t swiftness." He provided a description, namin g i t Agam a collarh. Thi s i s th e easter n collare d lizard , now calle d Crotaphytus collaris. I t i s indeed a beautifu l species , yellowish with dar k bands, blue spots, and a black "collar. " On leavin g the tradin g post, the part y crossed through a dense

181

DOWN TH E ARKANSAS

canebrake an d sa w sassafra s tree s an d flowerin g dogwoods , furthe r evidence tha t they were now in a region of higher rainfall . The nex t day brough t the m t o "Mr . Bean' s sal t works, " wher e the y wer e treated t o a drink o f buttermilk tha t Bel l found "mor e gratifyin g t o our palates, tha n the sparklin g champain. " SEPTEMBER 6. TS: Whilst waiting with a moderate shar e of patienc e fo r ou r evenin g mea l o f boile d pumpkins , on e o f the childre n brough t u s a huge hair y spider , which he carrie d upon a twig , that h e ha d induce d th e anima l t o gras p with it s feet. It s magnitude and formidable appearance surprise d us. The boy informe d u s that h e ha d capture d i t near th e entranc e of its burrow, and tha t the specie s i s by no mean s rar e in this par t of the country . No t havin g an y box suitable t o contain it, nor any pin sufficientl y larg e to impal e it , we substituted a woode n peg, by which it was attached to the insid e of a hat. This species so closely resembles, both i n form , colour , an d magnitude , th e gigantic bird-catchin g spide r o f Sout h America , tha t fro m a minute surve y of this specimen, whic h i s a female , we cannot discover th e slightes t characteristi c distinction . This was, of course, a tarantula (mor e properly, a theraphosid spider), similar t o bu t no t identica l t o th e gian t tropica l spide r mentione d by Say. Smaller but mor e insidious relatives of spiders were also making themselve s evident : ticks . Sa y found the m crawlin g "b y dozens up our leggings" and causing "an intolerabl e itching. " Evenings were spent pickin g "th e pestiferou s arachnides" fro m thei r bodies . Ther e were two kinds: the large r was the siz e of a head o f a pin; the smaller, barely visible . Say included a description o f the large r kind, namin g it Ixodes molestus . Probabl y th e "tw o kinds " represented youn g an d adults of the lon e sta r tic k (Amblyomma americanum), whic h i s still a seriou s pest i n tha t area . Linnaeu s ha d describe d th e specie s mor e than half a century earlier .

182

The natural History of the Long Expedition SEPTEMBER 8. TS: On a naked part of the soil , gullied out by th e actio n o f torrents o f water, we beheld a hymenopterous or wasp-lik e insect. . . triumphantly, bu t laboriously , dragging the bod y o f the giganti c spider , it s prey, t o furnis h foo d t o it s future progeny . We canno t but admire the prowess of this comparatively pigm y victor, an d th e wonderfu l influence of a ma ternal emotion , whic h thu s impel s it to a hazardous encounter , for th e sak e of a posterity which i t ca n neve r know . The was p was clearly a spider wasp (Pompilidae), and i f by the words "the giganti c spider" Say was referring t o th e kin d h e ha d reporte d two days earlier, then the was p was a tarantula hawk (Pepsis), simila r to th e specie s h e ha d describe d fro m th e Arkansa s Valle y no t fa r from th e Rockies . On Septembe r 9 , th e exhauste d ban d finall y reache d For t Smith, wher e the y wer e greeted by Captain Jame s Ballard, who was in charge i n the temporar y absence of Major William Bradford. "Hi s politeness an d attention, " wrot e Say , "soo n rendere d ou r situatio n comfortable, afte r a houseless exposur e in th e wildernes s of ninetythree days. " Bell calculate d tha t the y ha d travele d 873 1/4 mile s sinc e th e first camp o n th e Arkansas . He fel t tha t "th e satisfactio n of our saf e arrival wa s almos t destroye d b y th e absenc e o f th e deserter s wit h important manuscripts . . . . And i n addition , wher e wa s the com manding office r & hi s party ? the y shoul d hav e arrive d befor e thi s time, i f there has been n o caus e of detention; s o that altogether, ou r feelings o n ou r arriva l was mad e o f a combinatio n o f indescribea bles." While Bell' s contingent waite d for the arriva l o f Long an d hi s group, they wer e well fed and reclothed, an d worked on their reports and maps . On e furthe r effor t wa s made t o trac e th e deserters , with the hel p of the Osag e Indians , and a reward of $200 wa s offered fo r their capture . Bu t these effort s wer e in vain . Fort Smit h was situated o n a hill overlookin g th e junctio n of

183 3

DOWN TH E ARKANSAS

the Arkansa s and Potea u Rivers . It was surrounded by forests of oaks, tulip trees , an d sassafras , wit h a n understor y o f grapes, smilax, an d other vine s tha t rendere d i t almos t impassabl e except b y trails that had been cut. Settler s in the are a suffered variou s illnesses, includin g "bilious fevers, " sometime s aggravate d b y "the destructiv e habit s of intemperance." Bu t there wer e gardens in which corn , melons , sweet potatoes, "an d othe r esculen t vegetables " wer e grown . T o th e ex ploring party , Fort Smit h mus t have seemed lik e paradise.

Ten THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

MAJOR LONG , WIT H JAMES , PEALE , AN D seve n other s (Adams , Dougherty, Wilson, Duncan , Oakley , Verplank, and Sweney), set off from th e Arkansa s Rive r no t fa r fro m th e sit e o f Rocky Ford , Col orado, o n Jul y 24 . They ha d si x horses an d eigh t mules , mostl y i n reasonably good condition. Headin g south , i n 100-degre e heat, they traveled twenty-seven miles that first day, finding barely enough wa ter t o suppl y their need s an d nothin g but biso n dun g for fuel. James found a new an d attractiv e coneflower , which h e describe d a s Rudbeckia (no w Ratibida) tagetes. He als o noted yello w flax (Linum rigidum) an d a species o f globe mallow . The latte r wa s later describe d by John Torre y as Sida stellata (now Sphaeralcea angustifolia cuspidata), The nex t day they crosse d severa l ravines, some of which con tained bo x elders (Ace r negundo). Near midday , they struc k the Pur gatoire River, i n a valley flanked by sandstone cliff s nearl y 20 0 feet high. They followe d the Purgatoir e for only a few miles before en tering "th e valle y of a smal l creek , tributar y from th e south-east. " This was undoubtedly Chacuac o Creek, whic h they followed for two days. (Th e expedition' s rout e is by no mean s eas y to follow over th e next te n days . I n "Majo r Long' s Rout e fro m th e Arkansa s t o th e Canadian River, 1820," John M. Tucker has worked out the itinerar y in convincin g detail , an d I shall follo w his interpretation. )

1855 THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

Titian Peale, watercolo r of a line-tailed squirrel (rock squirrel). (American Phil osophical Society) .

It was rough going, with masses of fallen rocks, thickets o f alders and willows , and mudd y places i n th e streambed . Jame s noted "th e yellow-bellied fly catcher [likel y a western kingbird] and th e obscur e wren [roc k wren]. " A differen t species of ground squirre l was taken on th e sandston e cliffs , an d late r describe d b y Sa y a s Sciurus grammurus (no w Spermophilus variegatus gmmmurus, roc k squirrel) . Ex amination o f the mout h pouche s showe d the m t o b e fille d wit h th e buds and leaves of plants growin g among th e rocks . The roc k squirrel has a bushy but somewhat flattene d tail, edged with white. Say called it the "line-taile d squirrel. " Nearly two centuries later, little is known about the lif e style of these squirrels , though the y ar e known t o range sparingly throughou t muc h o f the West . JULY 26. EJ: A beautifu l dalea [prairi e clover], two or three euphorbias [spurges] , with severa l specie s o f eriogonu m [wil d buckwheats], wer e amon g th e plant s collecte d abou t thi s en campment. Notwithstandin g th e barrennes s o f the soi l and th e

186

The

natural

History

of

the

Long

Expedition

aspect o f desolation whic h s o widely prevails, we are often surprised b y th e occurrenc e o f splendi d an d interestin g produc tions springin g u p unde r ou r feet, in situation s that seeme d t o promise nothing bu t th e mos t cheerles s an d unvarie d sterility . Operating wit h unbounded energ y in every situation, adaptin g itself wit h wonderfu l versatility to al l combinations o f circumstances; th e principl e o f lif e extend s it s dominio n ove r thes e portions o f nature whic h see m a s i f designed fo r th e perpetua l abode o f inorganic desolation , distributin g some o f its choicest gifts t o th e mos t ungenia l regions ; fittin g the m b y peculiarity of structure, for the maintenanc e o f life and vigour, in situations apparently th e mos t unfavoured . At nin e o'cloc k i n the evenin g o f the 25th , a fall o f rain commenced; w e were no w te n i n company , wit h a single tent , large enoug h t o cove r hal f th e number . I n order , however, t o make the mos t equa l distribution o f our several comforts, it was so arranged that about the half of each man was sheltered unde r the tent, while the remainde r was exposed to the weather. This was effected b y placing all our heads near togethe r i n the centr e of th e tent , an d allowin g ou r fee t t o projec t i n al l directions , like th e radi i of a circle . On th e followin g day, the part y left th e canyo n the y wer e following, "without th e leas t regret," and emerge d o n " a boundles s and varie d landscape." Georg e Goodma n an d Chery l Lawso n mak e th e cas e that they had no w lef t th e Chacuac o and had bee n followin g a tributary, Bachich a Canyon . On th e plains , "herds of bison, antelopes , and wil d horse s gav e lif e an d cheerfulnes s t o th e scene. " A specie s of purple-flowere d Gaum wa s common ; Jame s describe d i t an d named i t G . mollis. Gauras ar e member s o f th e evenin g primros e family an d ar e sometime s calle d butterfl y weeds , be e blossoms , o r wild honeysuckles . Th e flower s ar e born e o n tal l spike s and bloo m from th e lowe r portion towar d th e top . Th e unusua l blossoms hav e four petal s a t th e to p an d a grou p of stamens below . Linnaeu s ha d

187 THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

perhaps name d th e genu s Gaura, base d o n th e Gree k wor d fo r "proud," becaus e of the curious , uplifted petals . James collected sev eral specie s of the genu s on th e expedition . The hunter s wounded a bison, which ran of f pursued by wolves. Fortunately, they were able to catch up with i t and kil l it . Althoug h it was dark by that time, the mea t wa s prepared, and th e me n "spen t the greate r part o f the nigh t regalin g on th e choic e pieces. " Before reachin g thei r campsite , th e me n ha d note d a "nake d pile o f rock s towerin g t o a grea t elevation " t o th e east . Thi s wa s probably th e wester n promontor y o f Mes a d e Maya . "Jame s Peak " was sighted , bu t (accordin g t o Tucker ) i t wa s probably Greenhorn Mountain, north of the presen t cit y of Walsenburg. The campsit e of July 2 7 wa s evidentl y a fe w mile s eas t o f th e present-da y town o f Branson, Colorado . On Jul y 28 , th e me n passe d a hil l o f "gree n stone " (volcani c rock), possibl y Negr o Mesa , whic h lie s o n th e presen t Colorado New Mexic o border . Soo n the y bega n a descen t betwee n wall s of sandstone. Thi s (accordin g t o Tucker ) wa s probabl y Tollgat e Canyon, whic h acquire d its name som e years later when, fo r a time, travelers on th e Sant a Fe Trail were required to pay a fee for passage. A canyo n a fe w mile s t o th e eas t ha s com e t o b e calle d Long' s Canyon, bu t i t i s probable tha t Lon g di d no t actuall y follo w thi s canyon. Bot h lea d t o the Cimarron , whic h Long' s group reached o n the evenin g o f July 28 . The y ha d n o nam e fo r th e stream , but be lieved i t t o b e a tributar y of the Canadian ; i n fact , i t join s the Ar kansas separately from th e Canadian . It was a relief t o com e upo n a stream o f clear water, free o f alkali. During th e da y Jame s had note d magpies , horne d larks , an d cowbirds. Choll a cact i an d wil d gourd s wer e common . A t thei r campsite alon g th e stream , th e me n wer e serenade d b y robins an d mockingbirds from th e oak s and cottonwoods. James wrote that "th e stern feature s o f nature , whic h w e ha d lon g contemplate d wit h a feeling almos t o f terror, seemed t o rela x into a momentary smile to cheer u s on ou r toilsom e journey."

T 88

Th

e natural uralHistory ory of the Long Expedition

On th e followin g day, the y proceede d sout h throug h tw o violent storms accompanied b y wind and hail. The rai n continued until dark, with th e temperatur e falling t o forty-seven degrees. There was no fue l an d little food , s o all ten me n pile d int o th e ten t to "restore the warmth " o f thei r "benumbe d bodies " b y placin g thei r bodie s together "i n th e leas t possible compass." Peal e becam e ill , but wa s "somewhat relieve d by the fre e us e of opium and whiskey. " JULY 30. EJ: We lef t ou r comfortless camp at an early hour on th e ensuin g morning , an d traversin g a wid e plai n . . . we arrived i n th e middl e of the da y in th e sigh t of a creek, which , like all the watercourse s of this region, is situated at the bottom of a dee p an d almos t inaccessibl e valley. With th e customar y difficulty an d danger , we at lengt h found ou r way down t o th e stream, an d encamped . We wer e much concerned , bu t b y no mean s surprised , to discover tha t ou r horse s were rapidl y failin g unde r th e sever e services the y wer e now mad e t o perform . W e ha d bee n ofte n compelled t o encam p withou t a sufficienc y o f grass , an d th e rocky travelling , to whic h w e ha d fo r som e tim e accustome d them, wa s wearing out and destroying their hoofs. Several were becoming lame , an d all much exhauste d an d weakened. . . . The strea m which ma y be supposed to exist in [the valley] for a par t o f th e yea r a t least , bu t whic h wa s no w dry , run s towards the south-east . Having arrived at that part of the coun try which has by common consen t bee n represente d to contain the source s of the Re d rive r of Louisiana, we were induced, by the genera l inclinatio n o f the surfac e o f the countr y an d th e direction o f this creek , t o conside r i t a s one o f thos e sources ; and accordingl y resolved to descen d alon g it s course, hoping it might soo n conduc t u s to a countr y aboundin g i n game , an d presenting fewe r obstacle s to ou r progres s that tha t i n whic h we no w were . Our suffering s fro m th e wan t o f provisions, and from th e lat e storm, had give n us a little distaste for prolonging

189

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R farther tha n wa s necessary our journey towards the southwest . And ou r horses failin g s o rapidly, that we did not no w believe they woul d hold ou t to bring us to the settlement s by the near est route . Various opinion s hav e bee n expresse d abou t whic h strea m Long' s group ha d reache d an d wa s to follo w fo r the nex t five days. Long's map identifie s it a s the Ri o Mora , a river that arise s on th e easter n slopes of the Sangr e de Cristo Mountain s an d flows mostly south an d then east . However , ther e i s every reason t o believ e tha t th e expe dition wa s many miles to th e eas t of the Ri o Mora. Tucker ha s presented convincin g evidenc e tha t th e strea m was Ute Creek , whic h the part y first met nea r th e sit e o f the moder n tow n o f Gladston e (Union County) , an d followe d t o nea r th e sit e o f Loga n (Qua y County), bot h i n New Mexico . Between th e Purgatoir e and entry into th e valley of Ute Creek , James ha d collecte d "man y ne w an d interestin g plants. " They in cluded evenin g sta r (Mentzelia), raspberr y (Rubus), milkvetc h (Astragalus), beard-tongu e (Penstemon) , scorpion-grass (Myosotis), an d sunflower (Helianthus). The Penstemon is believed to be the on e that George Bentha m late r described as P. jamesii. James also noted purslane an d " a ver y small cuscuta" (dodder ) that wa s parasitic on th e purslane. Mule dee r ha d bee n see n man y time s since th e expeditio n ar rived near th e Rockies , and had often provided venison fo r the men . The naturalist s were under the impressio n that the species had neve r been formall y described , thoug h Lewi s an d Clar k an d other s wh o had travele d in the Wes t ha d seen mul e deer many times. So on July 31, the hunter s wer e sent ou t an d a reward was offered i f they would bring i n a n intact , matur e male. Verplank too k one , bu t i t wa s not brought i n unti l dark . Sinc e th e me n neede d th e mea t fo r supper, Peale quickl y too k appropriat e measurement s an d mad e a sketch . The hea d an d hid e wer e kep t a s specimens , an d th e res t wa s devoured. Sa y later describe d th e species , usin g this materia l and th e

1 909

C/Le e'--natural f^istoru of lie J^onn GxpaJilion

Titian Peale , watercolor of a mul e deer. (America n Philosophical Society)

measurements mad e i n th e field . H e name d i t Cervus macrotis (macrotis bein g Gree k fo r "long-ears")- All o f this proved t o be in vain, as th e mul e deer ha d bee n describe d i n 181 7 b y Constantin e Rafinesque o n th e basi s of a specime n collecte d b y Lewis an d Clar k i n the Dakotas . H e name d i t C . hemionus (hemionus bein g Gree k fo r "mule"). No w th e mul e deer i s called Odocoileus hemionus. Peale's sketc h o f th e dee r i s extant an d include s some o f th e landscape i n th e background , including a mesa of distinctive shape. When tracin g the rout e o f the expeditio n alon g Ute Creek , Tucke r found an d photographe d a mes a o f identica l appearance , furthe r demonstrating tha t h e ha d correctl y identifie d th e route . Another stream farther east (Tramperos Creek) wa s often called Major Long' s Creek o n earl y maps , o n th e incorrec t assumptio n tha t i t wa s th e stream that Lon g an d hi s men ha d descended . At thei r cam p alon g what th e explorer s believed to b e a trib-

191

1

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

utary o f the Re d River , James collected a sensitive briar (Schrankia) and tw o specie s o f butterfl y wee d (Gaura). Rattlesnake s wer e seen , as wel l as two kind s o f horned lizard s that differe d i n th e lengt h of their spine s an d th e positio n o f their nostrils . Probabl y these were Phrynosoma cornutum and P . douglassii. There were old lava flows an d other evidence s o f past volcani c activity . As they continued dow n the valley in a southeasterly direction, the explorer s endured severa l storms . A t thei r cam p o n Augus t 2 , they coul d fin d neithe r firewoo d no r biso n dun g fo r fuel , s o the y could no t coo k a badge r the y ha d sho t an d ha d t o substitut e "th e eighth par t o f a se a biscuit each," whic h wa s to suppl y the m wit h both suppe r an d breakfast . Th e occasiona l stagnan t pool s i n th e streambed di d littl e t o satisf y thei r thirs t o r tha t o f thei r horses . Strains wer e developing amon g the travelers . "The weathe r contin ues warm, " James wrote i n hi s diary , "and w e ar e growin g tire d of each other , an d o f our comfortles s and wear y pilgrimage." James discovere d a smal l tree tha t puzzle d him . I t produce d a "leguminous fruit " i n th e for m o f seedpo d fro m si x t o te n inche s long, i n whic h th e seed s were enclose d i n separat e cell s "immersed in a saccharine pulp " that was "very grateful t o the tast e when ripe. " The leave s wer e pinnate , an d th e trun k wa s covered wit h simpl e spines. He had discovered honey mesquite, a tree of wide distribution in th e Southwes t tha t Joh n Torre y late r name d Prosopis glandulosa on th e basi s o f sample s collecte d b y James. Mesquit e wa s a stapl e food amon g many southwestern Indians , who made a nutritious meal from th e pod s an d fermente d th e fruit s t o mak e a n intoxicatin g drink. AUGUST 3 . EJ: [A]s th e prospec t of the countr y befor e us promised n o change , i t i s not surprisin g we should hav e fel t a degree of anxiety and alarm, which, added to our sufferings fro m hunger an d thirst , mad e ou r situatio n extremel y unpleasant . We ha d travelle d great part o f the da y enveloped i n a burning atmosphere, sometime s lettin g fal l upo n u s the scorchin g par -

192

Cy ne ^fialural &*Cislory oj ike c^Gong (Dxpedilion tides o f sand, whic h ha d bee n raise d by the wind , sometime s almost suffocatin g . . . when w e had th e goo d fortun e t o mee t with a pool of stagnant water , which, though mudd y and brackish, was not entirel y impotable, and afforde d u s a more welcome treat tha n i t i s in th e powe r of abundance t o supply . Here was also a little wood, and our badger, with the additio n of a young owl, was very hastily cooked an d eaten . Numbers of cow buntings [cowbirds] had been seen a little before w e arrived at this encampment, flyin g so familiarly abou t the horse s that th e me n killed several with thei r whips . As the expeditio n move d dow n the valley , the wate r that appeared in the streambe d containe d " a quantity o f red earth a s to give it th e colour o f flori d blood." The y too k thi s a s a confirmatio n o f thei r belief tha t thi s mus t b e a tributar y of th e Re d River . There were several kind s o f cacti , som e o f the m wit h edibl e fruits . Jame s col lected partridg e pea (Cassia) ; false indig o (Amorpha); bul l nettle o r stinging bush (Jatropha, no w Cnidoscolus); an d othe r plants . Wild horse s wer e seen , an d on e o f the m approache d closel y enough t o b e shot . "W e ha d al l suffere d s o severel y from hunger , and ou r present want of provisions was so great," wrote James, "that instead o f questionin g whethe r w e shoul d ea t th e fles h o f a horse , we congratulated ourselves on the acquisitio n of so seasonable a supply. W e fel t a littl e regre t a t killin g s o beautiful an animal . . . but our scruple s all yielded to th e lou d admonition s o f hunger. " Although th e Accoun t i s vague o n thi s point , th e part y ha d evidently begu n t o follo w a n India n trai l tha t departe d fro m th e stream the y ha d bee n following . On th e evenin g o f August 5 , they camped o n a river "sixty yards in width, twenty of which wer e naked sand-bar, the remainin g forty covered with water, having a n average depth o f abou t te n inches. " Th e wate r wa s "intensely red , havin g nearly th e temperatur e an d th e saltines s o f ne w milk. " T o thes e remarks fro m th e Accoun t ca n b e adde d a commen t fro m James' s

193 THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

diary tha t the y no w believe d themselve s t o b e "o n th e mai n Re d River an d no t o n on e o f its branches." Accordin g t o Tucker , Ut e Creek flow s i n a dee p canyo n befor e enterin g th e river , an d th e expedition ha d apparentl y misse d the actua l junctio n b y following the India n trail . Lon g an d hi s me n wer e to follo w th e "mai n Re d River" fo r many days. James continue d t o botanize , findin g a gentian , a Croton, a broomrape, a parasiti c plant lackin g chlorophyl l (Orobonche), and others: "Th e commo n partridg e (perdi x virginianus) was seen nea r this encampment , als o th e dove , whic h ha d neve r disappeare d entirely i n al l th e countr y we had passed. " Th e partridg e was presumably th e bobwhit e (no w Colinus virginianus) ; th e dove s wer e doubtless mourning doves . In hi s diary, James remarked on prairi e dogs standing erect be side thei r burrows : "A scen e o f thi s sor t comprise s most o f what i s beautiful o r interestin g i n th e plai n an d woodles s countr y whic h constitutes s o great a part o f the territor y of Louisiana." Peale kille d a burrowing owl and examine d th e content s of its crop, findin g i t filled with grasshoppe r wings and part s of other in sects. This removed suspicions that the owl s might prey on the prairie dog s whos e village s the y inhabited . Sandbur s (Cenchrus) ha d become ver y common, thei r spin y fruits "fallin g into our mockasins, adhering t o ou r blanket s an d clothing , an d annoyin g u s a t ever y point." Cocklebur s (Xanthium strumarium) wer e ripe , "addin g on e more t o th e source s of constant molestation. " AUGUST 7. EJ: A formidable centipede (scolopendra ) was caught nea r th e camp , and brough t i n aliv e by one o f the en gagees. I t wa s about eigh t inche s i n length , an d nearl y thre e fourths o f an inc h i n breadth , bein g of a flattene d form , an d of a dark brown colour. While kept alive , it showed great viciousness of disposition, bitin g at ever y thing which cam e within its reach. It s bite i s said to b e venomous .

1 94

Cy he ^tlalural (^fiislory o] Ine c^U> ong (Dxpedrlion

Titian Pcale , in k sketc h o f a burrowin g owl, August 7 , 1820 . (America n Phil osophical Society )

There wer e track s o f bison, givin g hope tha t th e me n migh t soo n see "the retur n of the day s of plenty." Th e expeditio n crossed several tributaries o f the rive r i t wa s following. Most wer e dry , but th e siz e of their valley s suggested that they must drain a wide expanse o f arid country subjec t onl y t o occasiona l summe r cloudburst s an d sprin g snowmelt. The y ha d no w crosse d th e presen t borde r betwee n Ne w Mexico an d th e panhandl e o f Texas. These were lean day s indeed. The hunter s spen t muc h tim e "i n an unavailing search afte r game. " On Augus t 9, the me n at e the last of the hors e the y had sho t four day s earlier; "the weathe r sinc e [hav ing been ] unusuall y warm, [it ] ha d suffere d fro m lon g keeping. " Again th e hunter s ha d n o success . James expressed the party' s con cern: "Ou r sufferin g fro m wan t o f provisions, an d fro m th e appre hension o f still more distressing extremities, were now s o great, that we gave little attention to any thing except hunting." Although they had n o wa y o f knowing it , Bell' s contingen t o n th e Arkansa s wa s having ver y similar experiences !

195 THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

Major Lon g expresse d hi s opinio n o f th e countr y the y wer e traversing in his report to Secretary of War John Calhoun, submitte d soon afte r hi s retur n to th e Eas t i n January 1821, SL: In regar d t o thi s extensiv e sectio n o f the country , I do not hesitat e i n giving the opinion , tha t it is almost wholly unfit for cultivation , an d o f cours e uninhabitabl e b y a peopl e de pending upon agricultur e for their subsistence . Although tract s of fertile lan d considerabl y extensive ar e occasionally to be met with, yet the scarcity of wood and water, almost uniformly prevalent, wil l prove a n insuperabl e obstacle i n th e wa y of settling the country . This objection rest s not onl y with th e sectio n im mediately under consideration, bu t applies with equal propriety to a much large r portion o f the country . . . . This region, how ever, viewe d a s a frontier, may prove o f infinite importance t o the Unite d States , inasmuc h a s i t i s calculate d t o serv e a s a barrier t o preven t to o grea t a n extensio n o f ou r populatio n westward. . . . For these remark s and th e ma p he prepared , i n whic h th e souther n High Plain s are labeled "Great Desert," Long has often been severely criticized. But he wa s not alon e i n these feelings . Spanis h noblema n Francisco Vasque z de Coronado, i n 1541 , remarke d tha t "i t was the Lord's pleasur e that , afte r havin g journeye d acros s th e desert s seventy-seven days , I arrived at ... Quivira. " (Quivir a proved t o b e in central Kansas. ) Zebulon Pike , after crossin g th e souther n plain s i n 1806, opine d tha t "these vast plains. . . ma y become i n time equally celebrated a s the sand y deserts of Africa." Thomas Nuttall, exploring the lowe r Arkansa s Valle y fo r plants i n 1819 , spok e o f the "inhos pitality of this pathless desert." Edwin James wrote that any "traveller who shal l a t an y tim e hav e traverse d it s desolat e sands , will , w e think, joi n u s in th e wis h tha t thi s regio n ma y for ever remai n th e unmolested haun t o f the nativ e hunter , th e biso n an d th e jackall. " John Bel l twic e spok e o f part s o f th e countr y the y ha d crosse d a s

196

(y he ^llalural (ylislory of the e^Long (Oxpedilion "barren a s the desert s of Arabia," an d Thomas Say wrote to a friend that th e regio n withi n 50 0 mile s of the Rockie s wa s "totally unfi t for th e tillag e of civilized man. " Two decades later , Josiah Gregg, who knew the Sant a Fe Trail from persona l experienc e an d wrot e abou t i t i n Commerce o f the Prairies, spoke o f crossing "thi s dreade d desert. " Crossin g Nebraska on the Orego n Trai l i n 1846 , Franci s Parkman spoke of the "barren , trackless waste, extending fo r hundreds o f miles to th e Arkansa s o n the on e side , an d th e Missour i on th e other . . . . Sometimes [the plain] glare d in th e sun , an expans e of hot, bar e sand; sometime s it was veiled b y long, coars e grass. " In 1873 , John Hanso n Beadle , i n his boo k Th e Undeveloped West, assure d his reader s that "the Great American Deser t [is ] not a myth. " These me n (asid e fro m Coronado ) wer e accustome d t o th e well-watered an d foreste d East; they ca n hav e ha d littl e conceptio n of th e profoun d effect s o f limite d rainfal l o n th e landscape . Eve n today, Easterner s who cros s the wester n plains are impresse d (if not appalled) b y the apparen t bleaknes s of the countryside—especiall y in those part s through whic h th e Lon g Expedition was now passing. These impression s must also be evaluated in the context of their times. I n th e earl y nineteent h century , th e countr y wa s indee d "pathless," an d woo d an d wate r were in shor t suppl y nearly everywhere. That the landscap e would someday be criss-crossed by paved highways, th e surfac e water s dammed and ditched, an d th e ground water tappe d coul d no t hav e bee n foresee n by explorers to o inten t on mer e surviva l to drea m of technologies ye t to b e invented. The wor d "desert " wa s and i s appropriate. I n a coo l climate , any regio n tha t receive s an averag e of under te n inche s o f precipitation annuall y i s defined a s a desert; in a hot climate , wit h greate r evaporation, twent y inches i s the usual figure given. The Hig h Plain s have fiercel y ho t summer s (a s Long' s part y wa s findin g out) , bu t winters ca n b e bitterl y cold . S o i f we assum e that fiftee n inche s is the maximu m precipitation fo r such a climate to provide desert con ditions, the regio n i s a desert or, at best, a semidesert. Studies of tree

197

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R rings have show n tha t 182 0 wa s a year of severe drought throughou t the Southwest , s o Long was experiencing landscapes even mor e arid than usual . Throughout history , th e Wes t ha s been subject to alternating period s of drought an d mor e ampl e rainfall. Even today, some of the countr y the Lon g Expedition traversed during August 182 0 i s sparsely settled an d marginall y suitable eve n for cattle . Bu t som e o f th e countr y th e explorer s passe d through , particularly the rive r valleys and th e lan d alon g th e Fron t Range , is now lus h wit h foo d crops , and citie s have sprung up i n places where Long an d hi s me n onc e campe d i n th e wild s wit h littl e food , fuel , or water. Clearl y the "desert " did not prov e t o b e a barrier to westward migration . An d yet—no w tha t al l th e river s hav e multipl e dams an d th e grea t aquifer s ar e bein g seriousl y depleted—a barrie r to furthe r settlemen t ma y soon reappear . Rain doe s no t follo w th e plow, a s man y wh o move d wes t believed , an d ther e ar e ultimat e limits to th e amoun t o f water that can b e squeezed from th e lan d by even th e mos t sophisticate d technologies . But t o retur n t o ou r story . On Augus t 10 , there wa s prospect of a chang e i n th e fortune s o f Long's half-starve d group, for bette r or worse, when a party of about 25 0 Indians approache d them . Th e chief, Re d Mouse , shoo k hand s al l aroun d an d tol d th e explorer s that he an d his people wer e Kaskaias on thei r wa y to trad e with th e Spanish. Jame s describe d Re d Mous e a s "o f larg e statur e . . . somewhat pas t th e middl e age of life, an d n o wa y deficient in his person , and countenanc e o f those indication s o f strength, cunning , an d ferocity, which for m s o important a part of greatness in the estimatio n of th e Indians. " Re d Mous e assure d Long that , indeed , th e expedi tion ha d bee n travelin g alon g th e Re d River . Th e explorer s wer e invited t o cam p wit h th e Indians , an d the y di d so , not wishin g t o antagonize th e Indians , fro m who m the y hope d t o obtai n foo d an d horses. They watched th e Indian s put up their tipis, using poles thei r horses ha d dragge d fro m a grea t distance , a s ther e wa s no suitabl e wood fo r many mile s around. Peal e se t about t o sketc h thei r tipis . This trib e o f Indian s occupie d th e souther n Hig h Plains , bu t

198 8

fflie (}lalural &C,.slory oj lie jSong 6x>e
Engraving i n th e Account, afte r Titia n Peale , watcrcolo r o f ski n tipi s o f th e Kaskaias.

often hunte d alon g th e Re d River and th e Brazos . "The great numbers o f images of the alligator , which the y wea r either as ornament s or a s amulets for th e cur e o r preventio n o f disease and misfortune , afford sufficien t proo f o f thei r extendin g thei r ramble s t o districts inhabited b y that reptile," wrote James. "These images are of carved wood covere d wit h leather , an d profusel y ornamente d wit h beads. " Red Mous e ha d bee n wounde d i n th e ar m b y a n arro w som e tim e previously, and he use d an ornamente d imag e of an alligator , pressed repeatedly i n hi s hand , a s a "cure " fo r his wound . James reported tha t "the men are expert horsemen, an d evince great dexterity in throwin g th e rope , taking in this way many of the wild horse s whic h inhabi t som e part s o f their country . They hun t the biso n o n horsebac k wit h th e bo w an d arrow , bein g littl e ac quainted wit h th e us e o f fire arms." Ther e wa s evidence tha t th e

199

9

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

Titian Peak , penci l sketc h of an India n bison hunt. (America n Philosophica l Society).

Indians had ha d som e contact wit h th e Spanish , bu t thi s may have been thei r firs t contac t wit h white s o f English descent . The y too k pleasure i n admirin g the whit e ski n o f the arm s of the explorers . Although th e youn g women wer e "fa r from disgustin g in thei r appearance," a s the y mature d the y becam e "squabbish. " Jame s added, "Their breasts become s o flaccid an d pendulous that we have seen them give suc k t o thei r children , the mothe r and child at th e same time standing erect upo n the ground." Their usual garment was a loos e frock , bu t i t wa s often discarde d i n favo r o f a smal l leathe r apron. A s wit h othe r tribes , thei r bodie s wer e home t o man y lice , which th e wome n at e "with avidity." The Indian s wer e disappointe d wit h th e fe w items tha t Lon g and his men had to trade, and at one point trie d to open thei r packs looking for more, resulting in a scuffle. Long's men were better arme d than th e Indians , who soo n backe d off . But ther e wa s little hope of obtaining muc h from th e Kaskaias , whose hospitalit y extended only to serving the me n "a little half-boiled bison meat, " fro m whic h th e

2OO

O* lie ^tlalural (E/Lislory of the csls ong dDxpeaiiion squaws had take n th e bes t pieces for their children. The y offere d th e men water from th e "paunc h of a bison" tha t still retained it s original smell. Th e nex t morning , th e Indian s prepare d t o move , afte r ab sconding wit h severa l o f th e explorers ' horses , kettles , an d othe r equipment. Lon g ordered hi s men t o seiz e some of the Indians ' possessions, an d afte r a sho w o f force persuade d the Indian s t o retur n most o f wha t the y ha d taken . "W e parte d ... a s friends, " wrot e James. But it had been a stressful meeting , and left the explorers with a lo w opinion o f the Kaskaias. EJ: Though w e sa w much t o admir e amon g thi s people , we cannot but think the y are among some of the most degraded and miserabl e of th e uncivilize d Indians o n thi s sid e o f th e Rocky Mountains . Thei r wanderin g and precariou s manner of life, a s well a s the inhospitabl e characte r o f the countr y the y inhabit, precludes the possibilit y of advancement fro m th e profoundest barbarism . As i s common amon g other o f the wester n tribes, the y wer e perseverin g in offerin g u s thei r women , bu t this appeare d t o b e don e fro m mer e beastlines s an d th e hop e of reward, rather than from an y motive of hospitality or a desire to sho w u s respect . W e sa w amon g the m n o articl e o f foo d except th e fles h o f the bison ; thei r horses , thei r arms , lodges, and dogs , are their onl y wealth . On Augus t 12 , Long an d hi s me n "move d o n rathe r briskly, " no t wishing t o tak e a chanc e tha t som e o f th e Indian s migh t mak e a further effor t t o steal their horses . At thei r cam p along the river that evening, the y sa w avocets, terns, an d othe r wate r birds. There were incrustations of salt resulting from th e evaporatio n of seepages along the bank . James noted th e presenc e o f various plants "delightin g i n a salin e soil," including saltbush , winged pigweed, and goosefoot. The temperatur e remained well over 10 0 degrees as the part y moved o n downstream . On on e occasion , Peal e becam e separate d from th e other s an d spen t th e nigh t alone , harasse d by mosquitoes

2O I

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R as he slept under some trees where bison had recently been; the place offered "littl e refreshment, " h e reported . O n Augus t 14 , James saw blue jays , purpl e martins , an d turkeys . Plants characteristi c o f mor e humid area s were appearing: elms, pokewee d (Phytoiacca), an d but tonbush (Cephalanthus), AUGUST 15 . EJ: Several specie s o f locus t [cicada ] wer e extremely frequent here , filling the ai r by day with thei r shril l and deafenin g cries , an d feedin g with thei r bodie s grea t num bers o f that beautifu l specie s of hawk, th e falc o Mississipiensis of Wilso n [no w Ictinia mississippiensis, Mississipp i kite]. I t af forded u s a constan t amusemen t t o watc h th e motion s o f this greedy devoure r i n th e pursui t of his favourite prey, the locus t [cicada]. Th e insec t bein g large , and no t uncommonl y active , is easily taken; th e haw k the n pause s on th e wing , suspendin g himself i n th e air , while, wit h hi s talons an d beak , h e tear s i n pieces an d devour s his prey. We wer e fortunate i n capturing a tortoise. . . . The uppe r part o f it s shel l wa s larg e enoug h t o contai n nea r a quar t o f water, an d wa s taken t o suppl y the plac e o f one o f our tin cup s recently lost , while the anima l itself was committed t o the mess kettle. Wolves , jackal s [coyotes], and vultures , occurred i n un usual numbers, and carcasses of several bison recently killed had been seen . . . . Near ou r camp wa s a scattering grov e of smallleaved elms . This tre e (th e U . alata , N. ) i s not know n i n th e Eastern states . According t o Goodman and Lawson , the tree s note d by James were probably smal l American elm s (Ulmus americana). Two week s later , James again noted U . alata (winge d elm or wahoo), bu t b y that time the traveler s were well within th e know n rang e o f that species . The rive r was paralleled b y sand dunes , and blowin g sand wa s a majo r annoyanc e t o bot h me n an d horses . O n Augus t 16 , there was a violen t thunderstorm , wit h hailstone s measurin g nearl y a n

2O2

C>Le ^llalural cffisioryry o f llie <= Long © xpectilion inch i n diameter . Biso n wer e converging i n great numbers to drin k from stagnan t pool s in the riverbed. The me n found i t better t o make shallow well s in th e san d t o obtai n drinkin g water . AUGUST 17 . EJ: The smal l elm s alon g thi s valle y were bending unde r th e weigh t o f innumerabl e grap e vines , no w loaded wit h rip e fruit, th e purpl e clusters crowded i n such pro fusion a s almost t o giv e a colouring t o th e landscape . O n th e opposite sid e of the rive r was a range o f low sand hills , fringe d with vines, rising not mor e than a foot or eighteen inches fro m the surface . On examination , w e found these hillocks had been produced exclusivel y by the agenc y of the grap e vines, arresting the san d as it was borne alon g by the wind , until such quantitie s had bee n accumulate d a s to bury every part of the plant, excep t the en d o f th e branches . Man y o f these wer e s o loade d wit h fruit, a s to presen t nothin g to th e ey e but a series of clusters, so closely arrange d a s to concea l ever y part o f the stem . The frui t of thes e vine s i s incomparably fine r than that of any other na tive o r exoti c whic h w e have me t wit h i n th e Unite d States . The buryin g o f th e greate r par t o f th e trunk , wit h it s large r branches, produce s th e effec t o f pruning , inasmuc h a s i t pre vents th e unfoldin g of the leave s and flowers on the parts below the surface , whil e th e protrude d end s o f the branche s enjo y an increased degre e o f ligh t an d hea t fro m th e reflectio n o f th e sand. . . . We indulge d ourselve s t o excess , i f exces s coul d b e committed i n th e us e of such deliciou s an d salutar y fruit , an d invited b y the cleannes s o f the sand , and a refreshing shade, we threw ourselve s down, an d slep t away , with unusua l zest , a few of th e hour s o f a summer afternoon . Our hunter s ha d bee n a s successfu l a s coul d b e wished , and a t evenin g w e assemble d aroun d a ful l feas t o f "marrow bones," a treat whos e valu e mus t for ever remai n unknow n t o those wh o hav e no t trie d th e adventurou s lif e o f the hunter . We wer e ofte n surprise d to witnes s i n ourselve s a proof o f th e

2033

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

facility wit h whic h a par t a t leas t o f th e habit s o f th e savag e could b e adopted. . . . Clearly ther e wer e day s whe n th e live s o f th e explorer s wer e no t filled wit h th e stresse s produced b y heat, thirst , hunger , an d the un certainties o f tomorrow . Beside s th e grapes , wil d plum s wer e als o abundant. Ther e wa s evidence , fro m anima l droppings , tha t th e plums an d grape s wer e bein g fe d o n no t onl y b y turkey s and blac k bears, but eve n b y such carnivore s a s wolves and coyotes . Blac k walnuts no w appeare d alon g th e stream , as well as "the grea t flowering hibiscus [ros e mallow], " whic h wa s a "highl y ornamenta l plan t among th e scatterin g tree s i n th e lo w grounds." Th e me n ha d no w crossed the hundredth meridian , which form s th e boundary betwee n the Texa s panhandl e an d Oklahoma . By August 18 , Long was becoming concerned because the river seemed t o b e flowing northeastward, whic h "di d no t coincid e en tirely wit h ou r previou s idea s o f th e directio n o f th e Re d river. " However, th e assuranc e o f th e Indian s the y ha d me t wit h a wee k earlier "tende d t o quie t th e suspicion s we began t o fee l o n thi s subject." AUGUST 18 . EJ: At sunse t w e pitche d ou r ten t o n th e north sid e of th e river , and du g a wel l i n th e sand , whic h afforded a sufficient suppl y of wholesome, though brackish , water. Throughout th e nigh t th e roarin g o f immense herds o f bisons, and th e solem n note s o f th e hootin g ow l wer e heard , inter mixed wit h th e desolat e crie s of the [coyote ] an d th e screech owl. The mulberry , and th e guilandin a [Kentucky coffee tree] , growing nea r ou r camp , wit h man y o f the plant s an d bird s we had bee n accustome d t o se e in th e frontie r settlements o f th e United States , reminde d u s o f the comfort s o f home an d th e cheering scene s o f civilized society, giving us at th e sam e tim e the assuranc e tha t w e were abou t t o arriv e a t th e poin t wher e we shoul d tak e leav e o f the desert .

204

cJ he ^tlalurai & ciislory of Ike cJU ong (Oxpedilion

AUGUST 19 . EJ: Notwithstanding th e astonishin g num bers o f bison, deer , antelopes , an d othe r animals , th e countr y is les s strewe d wit h bone s tha n almos t an y w e hav e seen ; af fording a n evidenc e tha t i t i s not a favourite hunting groun d of an y trib e o f Indians. The animal s als o appea r wholly unac customed t o th e sigh t o f man . Th e bison s an d wolve s mov e slowly of f to th e righ t an d left , leavin g a lan e fo r the part y t o pass, bu t thos e o n th e windwar d side ofte n linge r fo r a lon g time, almos t withi n th e reac h o f ou r rifles , regardin g us wit h little appearance o f alarm. We had now nothing to suffer eithe r from th e apprehensio n o r realit y o f hunger , an d coul d hav e been conten t tha t th e distanc e between ourselve s and the set tlements shoul d hav e bee n muc h greate r than w e supposed it to be. The expeditio n wa s no w i n attractiv e country , whos e extensiv e grasslands promised t o b e a s good for grazing cattle a s they wer e for supporting bison . I n rock y crevice s grew penstemons an d evenin g primroses. Bu t natur e wa s not alway s benevolent. Blowflie s wer e so abundant tha t eve n a s the me n se t abou t t o consum e thei r meat , their "tabl e ofte n becam e whit e wit h th e egg s deposite d b y thes e flies." The y foun d i t expedien t t o mak e a soup and leav e th e mea t "immersed i n th e kettl e unti l w e wer e read y t o transfe r i t t o ou r mouths." Gnat s an d tick s had als o becom e abundant . Blac k bear s were no w see n frequently , feeding on grapes , plums, the berrie s of red osie r an d round-leave d dogwood , an d th e "acorn s o f a smal l scubby oak, common abou t the san d hills." Th e me n found the flesh of th e bear s "deserving of the hig h encomium s lavished upon it. " On Augus t 21, there wa s a series of thunderstorms, and at night the thunde r wa s "so blende d wit h th e roarin g o f th e bisons , tha t more experience d ear s than our s migh t hav e foun d a difficult y i n distinguishing betwee n them. " On th e followin g morning, the me n found tha t so much rai n ha d falle n during the nigh t that "the y en-

205

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R joyed th e nove l an d pleasin g sight o f a running stream of water." It had bee n tw o weeks , an d ove r 15 0 miles o f travel , sinc e the y ha d had runnin g wate r in th e strea m the y were following . Variou s tributaries, lik e th e mai n stream , had bee n "bed s of naked sand. " AUGUST 24 . EJ: Our suppl y of parched corn meal was now entirely exhausted . Sinc e separatin g fro m ou r companion s o n the Arkansa , w e ha d confine d ourselve s to th e fift h par t o f a pint each per day, and th e discontinuanc e o f this smal l allowance wa s a t firs t sensibl y felt . W e howeve r becam e gradually accustomed t o th e hunter' s lif e i n it s utmost simplicity, eating our bison o r bear meat withou t sal t or condiments o f any kind, and substitutin g turkey o r venison , bot h o f whic h w e ha d i n the greates t plenty , fo r bread . Th e fe w hungry week s we ha d spent abou t th e source s of the rive r had taugh t u s how t o dispense with superfluous luxuries , so the demand s of nature could be satisfied . The inconvenienc e w e felt fro m anothe r source was more serious. All ou r clothing ha d becom e s o dirty as to be offensiv e both to sigh t and smell . Uniting i n our persons th e professions of traveller, hostler, butcher, an d cook, sleepin g on th e groun d by night , an d bein g almos t incessantl y on th e marc h b y day; it is not t o b e suppose d w e could giv e as much attentio n t o personal neatnes s a s might b e wished. . . . The commo n pos t oak , th e whit e oak, an d severa l other species, wit h gymnocladu s or coffee-bea n tree, th e cerci s [redbud] an d th e blac k walnut , indicat e her e a soil of very considerable fertility; an d gam e is so abundant, tha t w e have i t at any time i n our power to kill as many bison, bear, deer, and turkies as w e ma y wish , an d i t i s not withou t som e difficult y w e ca n restrain th e hunter s fro m destroyin g mor e tha n sufficien t t o supply ou r wants . Ou r gam e toda y ha s bee n tw o bears , thre e deers, on e turkey , a large white wolf , an d a hare. . . .

206 6

Cy/ie ^italurai <3*Li$lory oj ike <^L, ong (Oxpedilion All o f this i n wha t i s now centra l Oklahoma , no t man y mile s west of Oklahom a City ! Ther e wer e als o man y wate r birds , suggesting that ther e wer e bodies o f water nearby. There wer e killdeers, sandpipers, yellow-shanke d snipes , and telltal e godwits (the las t two are early names for the lesse r and greater yellowlegs, respectively). Other birds include d cardinals , summe r tanagers, scissor-tailed flycatchers, and pileate d woodpeckers . Crows had replace d ravens . "Thickets of oak, elm , an d nyss a [tupelo] , bega n t o occu r o n th e hills, " wrot e James, "an d th e fertil e soi l o f the lo w plains t o b e covere d wit h a dense growt h o f ambrosi a [ragweed] , helianthu s [sunflower] , an d other heavy weeds. " The alternatio n o f forests an d luxurian t meadows, wit h plent y o f game, led the me n t o fee l tha t "th e habitatio n and th e work s of man alon e see m wantin g t o complet e th e pictur e of rural abundance. " Many o f th e plant s the y wer e no w encounterin g wer e thos e they wer e familiar wit h fro m th e easter n states . They include d car dinal flowe r (Lobelia cardinalis), balloo n vin e (Cardiospermum halicacabum), an d copperlea f (Acalypha). Tree s include d blac k locust , Ohio buckeye, and persimmon. Mistletoe gre w from th e branche s of the elms . Ther e wer e no longe r an y cacti , yuccas , prickly poppies, or other plants of the countr y close t o th e mountains . AUGUST 27. EJ: We foun d . . . the annoyanc e of innu merable multitude s o f minute , almos t invisibl e woo d ticks , a sufficient counterpar t to the advantage s of our situation. These insects, unlike th e mosquitoes , gnats, and san d flies , ar e not t o be turne d asid e by a gust of wind o r an atmospher e surcharge d with smoke , no r doe s th e closes t dres s o f leathe r affor d an y protection fro m thei r persecutions . The travelle r no sooner sets foot amon g them, the n they commence i n countless thousand s their silen t an d unsee n march ; ascendin g alon g th e fee t an d legs, the y insinuat e themselve s int o ever y article o f dress, and fasten, unperceived , thei r fang s upo n ever y part o f th e body . ... I f the insec t i s suffered t o remai n unmolested , h e protract s

207

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R

his feas t fo r some weeks , when h e ha s foun d t o hav e grow n of enormous size . ... I t i s no t o n me n alon e tha t thes e blood thirsty insect s faste n themselves . Horses , dogs, an d man y wil d animals are subject to their attacks. On th e necks of horses they are observed to attai n a very larg e size. Very likel y thes e wer e tick s o f th e sam e specie s tha t Sa y an d hi s companions were encountering on the Arkansas. Long's party passed many carcasses of bison that had recentl y been slaughtered , presumably by a passing group of Indians. "[T]he air was darkened b y flights of carrio n birds, " bot h turke y an d blac k vultures . Trees include d black cherry , linden , an d hone y locust , "all affordin g indication s o f a fertil e soil. " There wa s a colon y o f honeybees nea r th e camp , as suring th e part y that the y wer e close t o civilization . "Bees, i t i s said by the hunter s and th e Indians, " wrote James, "are rarely if ever seen more tha n tw o hundred an d fifty or three hundre d mile s in advanc e of th e whit e settlements. " Som e o f th e me n wen t t o th e be e tre e and brought back some honey "enclose d i n the skin of a deer recently killed." On Augus t 29 , Adams , th e Spanis h interpreter , straye d fro m the part y while looking for his canteen an d became thoroughl y lost . He followe d the rive r for fiv e days , withou t being abl e t o tak e an y game, befor e h e wa s found by Long and hi s men sittin g before a fire, starving and i n "th e deepes t despondency. " Traveling i n th e streambe d wa s difficult , bu t th e wood s pro vided eve n mor e difficul t going , sinc e the y wer e thic k wit h vines , including greenbria r (Smilax) an d Virgini a creeper (Parthenocissus). On Septembe r 1 , Carolina parakeet s appeared, and ther e wer e sycamores lik e thos e alon g th e Ohi o an d Mississipp i Rivers . Fro m a hilltop, ther e wa s a view toward the nort h of "a wild and mountain ous region, covered wit h forests , where , amon g th e brighte r verdure of the oak , the nyss a [tupelo], and th e castanea pumil a [chinquapin], we distinguishe d the darke r shade o f the juniper , and other s of th e coniferae." Jame s was understandably excited t o se e the day-to-day

208

2O9 9

THE SEARC H FOR TH E RE D RIVE R

desert stretching westwar d to the base of the Rocky Mountains . We hav e littl e apprehensio n o f giving too unfavorabl e an ac count o f this portion o f the country . Though the soi l is, in some places, fertile, th e wan t o f timber, of navigable streams, and of water for th e necessitie s o f life , rende r i t a n unfi t residenc e fo r any but a nomad population . Several mile s belo w th e falls , a larg e tributar y came i n fro m th e north. The amoun t of water in the rive r was now so great that it was difficult t o procee d i n th e riverbed , especially as there were patche s of quicksand . However , th e valle y wa s narro w an d it s side s wer e covered wit h trees and vines, so the me n preferred to continue alon g the strea m whe n possible . Beache s an d island s i n th e rive r wer e covered wit h youn g willows and cottonwoods . On Septembe r 8 , th e traveler s wer e luck y enough t o fin d a n abandoned lo g canoe, an d the y loade d i t with some of their baggage in orde r t o reliev e thei r tire d horses . Tw o me n wer e assigne d t o navigate the canoe downstream, but they had to spend much o f their time wadin g and dragging the cano e ove r th e shallo w bottom . Th e next da y som e twent y o r thirt y el k wer e see n alon g th e river , an d one wa s harvested t o supplemen t thei r diet . Long had regularly calculated th e party's latitude and longitud e by making appropriate celestia l measurements. It was now clear that they wer e muc h to o fa r north t o b e o n th e Re d River , which the y must hav e suspecte d fo r som e time . O n Septembe r 10 , when the y arrived o n th e Arkansas , th e explorer s realized tha t the y ha d bee n following th e Canadia n River , whic h i n fac t ha d sometime s bee n called the "re d river " by the Indian s because of the colo r of the water in it s upper reaches. I t i s probable tha t th e unusua l name Canadia n for thi s rive r was based o n th e Spanis h wor d Canada,, wit h referenc e to th e steep-walle d canyons tha t th e rive r has carved i n New Mex ico. It i s easy to find excuses for Long's inability to find the tru e Red River, but i n fac t h e ha d faile d t o fulfil l stil l another objective o f his

2 10

CV ne •-Vlaluval CJ"Liskory of Ine cJ-^ ong (^xpedilion expedition. However , his was the first exploration o f the Canadian , so th e effor t wa s by no mean s i n vain . Th e larg e tributar y that th e men ha d see n a few miles below the fall s wa s the Nort h For k of that river. This was the thir d attemp t th e governmen t ha d made to locat e the source s o f th e Re d River , th e suppose d souther n boundar y of Louisiana Territory . Pik e ha d trie d an d faile d i n 1806 , an d durin g the sam e yea r Richar d Spark s an d Thoma s Freema n ha d trie d t o ascend th e rive r from th e east . Both expeditions ha d been thwarte d by th e Spanish , an d i t wa s not unti l 185 2 tha t th e source s o f th e Red River were discovered, by Captain Randolp h Marcy . The rive r originates in th e hig h plain s o f eastern Ne w Mexic o an d th e Texa s panhandle. A t on e point , nea r Amarillo , Texas , th e Re d Rive r i s only abou t fifty miles south o f the Canadian . A t variou s places i n Oklahoma, tributarie s of th e tw o river s ar e onl y a few mile s apart . But eventuall y th e Red , afte r formin g th e boundar y betwee n Oklahoma and Texas for many miles, turns southeast, finally to ente r the Mississippi deep in the state of Louisiana. The Canadian , though , is a tributary of the Arkansas , as Long now appreciated to his dismay. Filled wit h "disappointmen t an d chagrin, " Lon g an d hi s me n crossed the Arkansas , only to find themselves surrounded by "a dense and almos t impenetrabl e can e brake , wher e n o vestig e o f a pat h could b e found." Forcin g their way through th e tal l canes, th e party "might be said to resemble a company of rats traversing a sturdy field of grass. " They wer e s o battere d an d exhauste d tha t evenin g tha t they slep t soundl y despite th e irritatio n of ticks—until (no t havin g pitched thei r tent ) the y wer e drenche d b y a heav y showe r i n th e middle o f the night . Extensive stands of giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea) alon g thi s section o f the Arkansa s Valle y had bee n note d b y Thomas Nuttal l in 1819 , an d Bell' s group had traverse d part of the sam e canebrake s several days earlier. Most of these canebreaks have now been cleare d for growin g crops and grazin g cattle . The nex t da y the me n emerge d int o open woods, where ther e

2I 1

THE SEARC H FO R TH E RE D RIVE R was a "dee p morass , covered wit h th e nelumb o [America n lotus , or pond nut ] an d othe r aquati c plants. " Eventuall y the y locate d th e trail to Fort Smith, whic h Bel l and his companions ha d followed five days earlier. Here the y met a group o f Indians, wh o tol d the m that Fort Smit h wa s only a day' s rid e away . There wer e pawpa w trees, "with rip e frui t o f an uncommo n siz e an d deliciou s flavour. " Fallen fruits wer e "eagerl y sough t afte r b y th e bears , raccoons, oppossum , &c." At th e cam p that night wer e several interesting plants, including Virginia meadow beauty (Rhexia virginica), hawkweed (Hieradum gronovii), cupsee d (Calycocarpum lyoni), an d butterfl y pe a (reporte d as Vexillaria virginica). I n a footnote , Jame s explained tha t h e ha d adopted th e nam e Vexillaria, fro m Amo s Eaton' s Manual o f Botany, in preference to an earlier and therefore more correct name that had been "severel y censured. " Linnaeu s ha d name d th e genu s Clitoria, since h e believe d tha t th e kee l i n th e blossom s resemble d a mammalian clitoris. Vexillaria, based on a Latin word for "flag," James felt to b e "equall y appropriate. " Evidently , i t wa s les s threatenin g t o nineteenth-century sensibilities . In th e evenin g th e me n receive d a visi t fro m a trade r o n hi s way from Fort Smit h to his trading pos t on the Verdigri s River: "th e first white ma n no t o f our own party whom w e have see n sinc e th e 6th o f the precedin g June. " Th e trade r gave the m coffee , biscuits, and "spirits. " H e informe d them tha t Bel l and his group had arrive d at For t Smit h a few days earlier. On Septembe r 13 , they "emerge d fro m th e dee p silenc e an d twilight gloo m of the forest " and foun d themselve s "once more surrounded b y th e work s of man. " A t a far m the y passed , they foun d their "uncout h appearanc e a matte r o f astonishmen t t o bot h dogs and men." Arrivin g at a beach opposit e Fort Smith, the y discharged a pistol and were soon ferried across to meet Major William Bradford, Captain Jame s Ballard, and th e member s of Bell's contingent. Brad ford treate d the m t o a meal an d cautione d the m not t o indulg e too lavishly o n food s tha t the y ha d no t taste d fo r some time . "Th e ex -

21 2

C/ ne ^tlalurat CsLislory of Ine c^ong Oxpeailion perience o f a few days taught u s that i t woul d have bee n fortunat e for u s i f we ha d give n mor e implici t hee d t o hi s caution, " wrot e James. The expeditio n member s wer e onc e agai n assemble d i n on e place. Sinc e leavin g Enginee r Cantonmen t o n th e Missouri , they had travele d approximatel y 1,60 0 mile s by foo t an d horseback . O f the twenty-two men who had started, seventeen returned ; three had deserted, and tw o had lef t b y prior arrangement. They had los t a few horses an d thei r tw o dogs , bu t despit e frequen t complaint s abou t their condition , all the me n had survived in reasonably good health (in contras t t o severa l othe r explorin g parties , includin g Joh n Charles Fremont' s i n 184 8 an d John W . Gunnison's i n 1853) . They had mad e n o contac t wit h th e Spanish , an d ha d me t group s of Indians of several tribes without encounterin g seriou s hostilities . Soon afte r hi s arriva l in Fort Smith , Lon g dispatche d a repor t to Secretar y o f War Calhoun . H e ma y not hav e accomplishe d al l the idealisti c goals that had bee n se t out for him, bu t he had reaso n to b e satisfie d wit h th e accomplishment s o f the ill-equippe d ban d that had struggled through roug h and largely unexplored country and returned safely .

/(L^r/~~\/lev i en EPILOGUE

THE EXPEDITIO N REMAINED AT FORT SMIT H fo r onl y a fe w day s be fore proceedin g t o its final destination, Cap e Girardeau, on the Mississippi, wher e th e me n ha d planne d t o mee t Lieutenan t Jame s Graham wit h the steamboa t Western Engineer. They wer e anxious to return eas t wit h thei r note s an d specimens , an d mad e fe w observations a s they crosse d Arkansa s an d Missour i by horseback o n rela tively wel l travele d trail s and wago n roads . S o th e expeditio n ma y be said to have ended a t Fort Smith. Fro m there on the men traveled in severa l separate groups. Bell, wit h Doughert y an d Oakley , wa s th e firs t t o leave , o n September 19 . James, Swift, an d Captai n Stephe n Kearn y set ou t the nex t da y to visi t the ho t spring s o f central Arkansas . (Kearny , who wa s visiting Fort Smith , wa s then a young ma n o f twenty-six; he wen t o n t o becom e a general an d governo r o f California. I t was his dispute with John Charle s Fremon t tha t le d to the latter' s courtmartial i n 1846. ) Long , Say , Peale, Seymour, Wilson, Adams , Duncan, an d Swene y lef t o n Septembe r 2 1 and joine d Bel l en rout e t o Cape Girardeau. Nights alon g th e rout e wer e usually spen t a t th e cabin s of settlers. O n th e first night , som e o f the me n wer e given feathe r beds , but, accordin g to James, they "spent an unquiet and almost sleepless

2) 4

G' ne ^-rialurai tyLislory of ike c^ 01117 Oxpeailion night, an d aros e on th e followin g morning unrefreshed , and wit h a painful feelin g of soreness in ou r bones , s o great a chang e ha d th e hunter's lif e produced upon our habits." Those who slept on the floo r had a better night . Much of the countr y they crossed was hilly and heavily wooded, primarily wit h oak , hickory , ash , an d maple . A t thi s season , th e ground wa s covered with acorns, on which th e settler s fattened thei r hogs. Ther e wer e man y contact s wit h Cheroke e Indians , som e o f whom gre w cotton and had blac k slaves . With the memorie s o f the many sand y arroyo s they ha d crosse d onl y a few weeks earlier, th e men were much impresse d with the clear streams that flowed throug h the Ozarks. James described the ho t spring s (now a national park ) a t som e length. Th e spring s ha d no t bee n describe d i n detai l unti l 1804 , when Willia m Dunba r an d Georg e Hunter , sen t b y Jefferson t o explore th e Ouachit a River , succeede d i n reachin g th e springs . Ste phen Lon g ha d visite d th e spring s when h e crosse d Arkansa s i n 1818, an d James' s Accoun t include s som e o f Long' s observations . American holl y (Hex opaca) an d cassin e holl y (I . vomitoria) grew near th e springs . The leave s o f the latte r wer e often use d as a substitute fo r tea, bu t cause d vomiting if used to excess . In pin e woods, a fals e foxglov e (Gerardia) wa s "on e o f th e mos t conspicuou s ob jects." "Th e angelic a tre e .. . i s commo n alon g th e bank s o f th e creek, and bendin g beneat h its heavy clusters of purple fruit." These small, spin y trees (Aralia spinosa) ar e ofte n calle d Hercules'-clu b o r Devil's walking-stick . Several kind s o f fern s als o gre w amon g th e rocks. James an d hi s companion s returne d t o th e Arkansa s a t Littl e Rock, the n a villag e of six or eigh t houses . I n nearb y swamp s grew cypress trees , "impartin g a gloom y an d unpromisin g aspec t t o th e country. ... I n th e cypres s swamps, few other tree s an d n o bushe s are t o b e seen , an d th e innumerabl e coni c excrescence s calle d knees, whic h sprin g up fro m th e roots , resembl e monument s i n a church-yard, an d giv e a gloomy and peculiar aspect t o the scenery. "

215

EPILOGUE Titian Peale , sketc h o f a cypres s tree , a t Cape Girardeau , Missouri , o n o r abou t October 12 , 1820 . (Fro m th e sketch books of Titian Ramsay Peale , Yale Uni versity Ar t Gallery , gif t o f Ramsa y MacMullen, M.A.H . 1967 )

EJ: O n th e 12t h Octobe r th e ex ploring party were all assembled at Cape Girardeau . Lieutenan t Gra ham, wit h th e steamboa t Wester n Engineer, had arrive d a day or two before fro m St . Louis ; havin g de layed ther e som e tim e subsequen t to hi s return fro m th e Uppe r Mis sissippi. In th e discharg e of the du ties on which he had been ordered , [he] an d al l hi s part y ha d suffere d severel y from biliou s an d inter mitting fever . Within a few days, mos t o f the grou p assemble d a t Cap e Girardea u had succumbe d t o "intermitting fever"—alternatin g periods of chills and fever—evidentl y malaria . James attribute d th e attack s t o thei r having breathe d "th e impur e an d offensiv e atmospher e o f the Ar kansa bottoms" a t Fort Smith. This was, of course, many years before mosquitoes were incriminated a s the vector s o f malaria. A commo n treatment wa s "administerin g larg e draught s o f whiskey and blac k pepper," bu t thi s wa s "productiv e o f muc h mischief. " "Peruvia n bark" (quinine ) was also used, but ofte n "injudiciously." Cape Girardeau at this tim e consiste d o f about twenty lo g cabins and on e o r two brick buildings—"a miserable and forsake n little town," James wrote i n his diary. The street s were gullied, and som e

21 6

Cile ^Ylalural SOisior y 0} lie o L ong foxpeJitio n were overgrown with thicket s o f ironweed an d thistle s "as to resemble small forests." The countr y near the tow n was forested with oaks, tulip trees, and tupelos, with an undergrowth of hazel and Hercules' club. South o f town wer e cypress swamps "extending wit h littl e in terruption far to th e south. " Long, though stil l suffering fro m malaria , soon lef t overlan d for Washington, a s di d Bell . Bel l continue d hi s journa l a s he crosse d Tennessee an d Virginia by horseback through generally pleasant autumn weather . NOVEMBER 20 . JB: At length , I arrived on th e sumi t opposite and i n view of George Town, an d th e Capitol i n Wash ington cit y over which wa s flying the Sta r spangled banner, the house being in Session. It is impossible to describe my feelings. I halte d an d dismounte d fro m m y horse , t o contemplat e th e scene. Si x years ago, I had witnesse d the Capito l i n flames fired by the han d of my countries foe, Phoenix-like it had rise n fro m the ashe s wit h te n fol d splendor . [Bel l had serve d i n th e Wa r of 1812 ; th e Capito l ha d bee n burne d i n 1814. ] Fou r months ago, I had turne d m y back t o th e sno w cape d mountains , m y face towar d home, sinc e then , I had encountere d man y hard ships, fatigue, privations and famine, had seen the savag e of the wilderness in his most native wildness and with all the vicitudes attending ou r tou r hav e enjoye d health , an d thank s t o th e Great Spiri t have returne d safe . Bell calculated that h e had travele d 936 miles from Cap e Girardeau to Washington ; hi s tota l distanc e sinc e h e lef t Wes t Poin t o n May 20 was 5,325 miles. On Novembe r 25 , he wa s interviewed by a reporter from a Washington newspaper , the National Intelligencer. Th e reporter wa s most impresse d by the fac t tha t th e explorer s had me t with India n tribe s "who wer e ignorant , no t onl y of the existenc e of the Peopl e o f th e Unite d States , bu t o f th e existenc e o f a rac e o f White People! "

2 17

EPILOGUE

On Novembe r 1 , Say, Peale, Seymour, and Graha m descende d the Mississipp i to Ne w Orlean s b y steamboat . Sa y wa s no t quit e through finding ne w animals. During the trip , he discovere d a lizard no mor e tha n fou r inche s long , wit h a tai l anothe r tw o an d a half inches, brow n i n color but with a darker streak along th e sides . In a footnote, h e name d i t Scincus lateralis. This is the brow n skink, now called Leiolopisma laterals. These short-legged skinks scuttle about th e ground in leaf litter and have been little studied since Say's discovery nearly two centurie s ago . From New Orleans , th e fou r me n travele d by ship t o Philadelphia, arrivin g in January, 1821. A fe w weeks later, their specimen s arrived, an d soo n Sa y an d Peal e wer e bus y unpackin g them . Peal e set t o wor k mountin g specimen s an d makin g sketches . O n Augus t 29, 1821 , Sa y wrote to hi s friend Joh n Melsheimer , describing some of his experiences on th e expeditio n as well as his present activities .

I experience d muc h difficult y i n preservin g th e insect s which I collected , man y o f them ar e interesting , thoug h they ar e not numerous . The Secretar y of War has ordere d our collection s t o b e deposite d i n th e Philadelphi a mu seum subject to his orders, a n arrangement whic h wa s anticipated from th e commencemen t o f our expedition. I am now engage d in describing the ne w species of which I find there ar e many amongs t them .

Edwin Jame s di d no t retur n t o Philadelphi a unti l th e autum n o f 1821. Afte r leavin g Cap e Girardeau , h e travele d fo r a tim e wit h Lieutenant Willia m Swift , wh o wa s now i n charg e o f the Western Engineer, but Swif t decide d t o leav e th e steamboa t for the winte r at the mout h of the Cumberland Rive r and go east by horseback. James, short o f funds an d stil l indisposed , decided t o spen d th e winte r i n Smithland, Kentucky . Although he use d th e tim e t o write up some

2 18

C/L Qlalural fj€islory yof tie J&ong Oxpetlilion of hi s data , i t wa s largely, accordin g t o Roge r Nichol s an d Patric k Halley, a winter of "sickness an d despondency. " Ho w thoroug h wa s his depressio n i s revealed i n a lette r date d Octobe r 26 , 1821 , tha t he poste d t o his brother fro m Cap e Girardeau .

I a m ful l o f complaining an d bitternes s against Maj. Long on account o f the manne r i n which h e has conducted th e Expedition. . . . We hav e travele d nea r 200 0 mile s through a n unexplored and highly interesting country and have returne d hom e almos t a s muc h a strange r t o i t a s before. I have bee n allowe d neither tim e t o examin e an d collect o r mean s t o transpor t plant s an d minerals . W e have been hurried through th e countr y as if our sole object had been , a s it wa s expressed in th e order s which w e re ceived a t startin g "t o brin g the expeditio n t o a s speedy a termination a s possible."

In th e sprin g James borrowed money an d wen t on , bu t hi s trouble s were not over . In Maryland his trunk wa s stolen, an d althoug h most of hi s possession s were recovered, th e mone y wa s gone an d h e ha d to borrow again to reach Philadelphia . After hi s arrival in Washington, Lon g prepared a formal repor t of the expeditio n fo r Secretary Calhoun. In i t he reviewe d the itin erary and provided a description of the countr y and the India n tribes encountered. Accordin g to Long, Bell was busy preparing his journal for submitta l t o Calhoun , bu t ther e i s no evidenc e tha t h e di d so. As noted earlier , Bell's journal was lost for many year s before bein g rediscovered and publishe d i n 1957 . Long persuaded Calhoun t o continue t o pay the naturalist s per diem while the y worke d on thei r note s an d collections . H e als o obtained permissio n fo r the m t o prepar e a n accoun t o f thei r experi -

2199

EPILOGUE

ences for the genera l public. Long, Say, and James were given a small office a t government expense , but had t o supply their own paper and other supplies . On Ma y 9 , 1822 , Sa y again wrote t o Joh n Melshei mer.

I [hav e been] busil y occupied with a portion o f the labou r of compilin g th e narrativ e o f ou r journe y to th e Rock y Mountains. I n additio n t o contributin g m y aid in th e or dinary diatrib e of th e work , i t fall s t o m y lo t t o describ e the ne w Quadripeds, birds & reptile s which w e met with , as well as to giv e an account , bot h mora l and physical , of the native s o f the countr y throug h whic h w e passed. Th e arranging an d recordin g o f th e Meterologica l observa tions, mad e chiefl y b y myself , als o fall t o m y share o f th e duties, though th e genera l narrative is written by our companion D r James. . . .

The description s o f th e animal s an d plant s tha t appeare d i n th e Account were , of course, written in Philadelphia o n the basi s of notes made i n th e fiel d an d whateve r specimen s the naturalist s were able to brin g back . On e wonder s t o wha t exten t th e description s migh t have bee n improve d o r expande d ha d no t man y o f Say's note s an d belongings bee n stole n o n th e retur n alon g th e Arkansa s River . However, a good man y specimen s di d surviv e the lon g tri p east, as James reported at th e conclusio n o f his narrative. EJ: Most o f the collection s mad e on thi s expeditio n hav e arrived at Philadelphia, an d are in good preservation; they comprise, amon g othe r things , mor e tha n sixt y prepare d skin s of new o r rar e animals . Severa l thousan d insects , seve n o r eigh t hundred o f which ar e probabl y new. . . . The herbariu m con -

220

Cy/ie ^elalitral &tislory oj Ine c^L, ong (Oxpeaiiion tains betwee n fou r an d fiv e hundre d specie s o f plants ne w t o the Flor a o f the Unite d States , an d man y o f them suppose d t o be undescribed . Why th e fina l preparatio n o f th e Accoun t fell t o Jame s i s unclear . Perhaps it was because he was not otherwis e occupied. Say had been appointed curato r of the America n Philosophica l Societ y an d pro fessor o f natural history at th e Universit y of Pennsylvania. Long an d his famil y ha d bee n il l fro m tim e t o time , an d ther e wer e dutie s connected wit h hi s positio n i n th e army . Say described numerou s vertebrate animal s i n th e Account , savin g th e insect s fo r variou s other publications (Appendi x 2) . James described only thirteen spe cies o f plants i n hi s narrative . Mos t o f the plant s wer e turned ove r to Joh n Torrey , wh o describe d man y o f the m i n a serie s of thre e articles published fro m 182 4 throug h 1827 . Torrey recognize d that many o f th e plant s discovere d b y James had i n fac t bee n foun d a year earlie r b y Thoma s Nuttal l o n hi s tri p u p th e lowe r Arkansa s basin. Although Nuttal l di d not publis h his descriptions until 1835 , Torrey felt oblige d to defe r t o Nuttall as the initia l discoverer. Thus he describe d onl y abou t seventy-fiv e o f th e severa l hundre d ne w species brought bac k by James (Appendix 3) . James, with help fro m Say , Long, and doubtles s Peale and Seymour, complete d th e manuscrip t i n mid-1822 . The repor t reveal s many evidence s o f the hast e i n whic h i t wa s prepared. I t wa s published b y Care y an d Le a o f Philadelphi a i n tw o volumes . A fe w months later , a Londo n publishe r put ou t a three-volum e edition . The publishe d report is dedicated to "the Honourabl e J. C. Calhoun, Secretary of War .. . a s a grateful acknowledgmen t of his indulgenc e and patronage. " To th e narrativ e of the expeditio n were appended Say' s vocabularies o f India n languages , various calculation s o f longitud e an d latitude, a day-by-day account o f weather conditions throughou t th e trip, an d Long' s repor t t o Calhou n a s wel l a s his map . Severa l o f Seymour's illustration s were also included. I n a foreword, Jame s de-

22 1

EPILOGUE scribed th e compilers ' objective s i n preparin g th e repor t an d at tempted t o justif y th e expedition' s failur e t o accomplish all that was expected o f it . EJ: In selecting from a large mass of notes and journals the materials of the followin g volumes, our design has been t o present a compendiou s accoun t o f th e labour s o f th e Explorin g Party, and o f such o f their discoverie s as were thought likel y t o gratify a libera l curiosity . . . . [W]e hop e t o hav e contribute d something toward s a more thorough acquaintanc e with the Aborigines o f our country . I n othe r part s o f our narrativ e .. . w e have turne d ou r attentio n toward s th e phenomen a o f nature, to the varie d and beautiful production s of animal and vegetable life, an d t o th e . . . features o f the inorgani c creation . I f in thi s attempt w e have faile d t o produc e an y thin g t o amus e o r in struct, the deficienc y is in ourselves. . . . It wil l be perceive d tha t th e travel s and researche s of the Expedition, hav e bee n fa r les s extensiv e tha n thos e contem plated i n th e . . , orders:—the stat e o f th e nationa l finances , during th e yea r 1821 , havin g calle d fo r retrenchment s i n al l expenditures o f a public nature,—the mean s necessar y for th e farther prosecutio n o f the object s of th e Expedition , were ac cordingly withheld . For many readers, the narrativ e provided a rewarding first impression of th e Hig h Plain s an d th e Fron t Rang e o f th e Rockies . Review s were mixed, and Lon g was frequently criticized for not havin g found the source s of the Sout h Platte and the Arkansas an d for not havin g found th e Re d Rive r a t all . Bu t th e North American Review rose t o his defens e (probabl y from th e pe n o f its editor, Edwar d Everett).

Detestable parsimony ! . . . [T]he country , whic h ha d grown and i s growing in wealth and prosperity beyond any

222

cJlie '^Yialural tJlislory o f llie J^ ong (Dxpedilion other an d al l other nations , to o poo r t o pa y a few gentlemen an d soldiers for exploring its mighty rivers, and takin g possession o f the empires , which Providenc e ha s called i t to govern ! . . . Poor, indeed , w e are i n spirit , i f not i n finance, i f we will not affor d t o pa y the expens e o f making an inventor y o f the gloriou s inheritanc e w e arc calle d t o possess. England , staggerin g and sinkin g unde r he r bur dens, can fit out her noble expeditions . . . . France has her intrepid naturalists . . . . [but] we cannot find a small party of discovery in powder and ball enough t o hunt withal, or blankets an d strouding to trade with th e Indians . . . .

William H . Goetzman n speak s o f historical commentar y centerin g on th e expeditio n members ' suppose d "careles s an d seemingl y cavalier interes t i n actua l discovery, " ofte n attribute d t o th e govern ment's niggardl y suppor t o f thei r efforts . Thi s ma y explain , t o a degree, Long's decision s no t t o follo w th e Sout h Platt e an d the Ar kansas t o thei r sources . But i t i s difficult t o find , i n th e fina l repor t of th e expedition , ver y much evidenc e o f carelessness o r o f lac k o f enthusiasm fo r discovery. It seems remarkable that even thoug h th e Long Expedition encountered Indian s o f several tribes, ther e wer e no unpleasan t inci dents othe r tha n mino r ones . I n 181 1 an d 1812 , Jea n Baptist e Champlain an d man y of his party had bee n killed by Arapahos, an d two years afte r th e Lon g Expedition returned east, the Arikara s ambushed Willia m Ashley' s part y o f trappers, killing fourteen an d ef fectively closin g the Missour i for a time. Doubtless Long was blessed with goo d luck , bu t som e credi t i s due t o hi s an d Bell' s diplomacy and t o th e know-ho w o f thei r guide s an d interpreters : Bijeau , Le doux, an d Julien. Long was criticized for speaking of parts of the Wes t as "desert" when a better evaluatio n was expected. Bu t Long' s opinio n shoul d not b e rejecte d hastily . I t was , as Goetzmann remarks , "an hones t

223

EPILOGUE and significan t assessmen t o f th e plain s area a s i t appeare d t o hi s generation an d thos e whic h followe d down t o th e Civi l War. " A s late a s 1957 , historian Walte r Prescot t Web b exclaime d tha t "th e heart of the Wes t is a desert, unqualifie d and absolute . .. . I f we do not understan d th e Wes t i t i s because we perversel y refuse t o rec ognize this fact; w e do not wan t the deser t to be there. W e prefer t o loiter o n it s edges , skirt it , avoi d it , an d eve n den y it. " T o Webb , the eigh t state s from Montan a an d Idah o t o New Mexic o an d Ari zona wer e the "deser t states, " an d al l othe r lan d wes t o f th e hun dredth meridia n was "desert rim. " "A t th e hear t o f the desert, " h e added, "ther e i s no drought , ther e i s only occasional mitigatio n of dryness." According t o historia n Donal d Worster , "Fo r almos t everyone who ha s com e int o thi s countr y i n moder n time s th e lan d o f th e West ha s jolte d th e min d an d trie d th e body . Ver y littl e of i t ha s seemed designe d fo r huma n ease . Eve n i n thes e day s of fas t auto mobiles, th e hig h plain s ar e a tria l o f patience an d a defianc e t o occupation." Americans much prefe r t o think of the Wes t a s a garden rather than a desert as they continue t o drain the aquifer s an d dam the last few streams , eve r devote d t o gree n lawns and gol f courses a s well as to wastefu l method s o f irrigation. According t o Richard Beidleman, a plannin g documen t produce d b y th e stat e o f Colorado quit e re cently had described parts of the stat e as semiarid; but upon revision, the wor d "semiarid" was removed. In writing about the Hig h Plains , Richard Dillo n ha s warned,

Much o f the lan d i s marginal in term s of agriculture and some o f i t wil l no t eve n tolerat e heav y grazing . Edwi n James and Stephen Long were not fals e prophets, entirely. But, unfortunately , it took th e Dus t Bowl of the 1930 s t o prove it . ... Th e spectr e o f th e Dus t Bow l haunt s th e West eve n today for it proved, for all time, that there lurks

224

Cv /i e ^ilalural Cj/L i ,s I o r if of I kc d-i o n g (d xpeailion behind th e myt h o f th e Grea t America n Deser t o f th e 1820s a frightening amount o f reality.

That th e Wes t i s today thriving , at leas t i n sphere s surrounding its several "oasi s cities, " i s attributable t o herculea n effort s tha t Lon g and hi s me n coul d no t hav e imagine d i n thei r wildes t dreams . Ac cording t o figure s cite d b y Worster, b y 197 6 th e federa l Burea u of Reclamation operate d 32 0 water-storag e reservoirs , 344 diversio n dams, 14,40 0 mile s o f canals , 90 0 mile s o f pipelines , 20 5 mile s o f tunnels, 14 5 pumping plants, and 16,24 0 miles of transmission lines . To tha t mus t b e adde d th e accomplishment s o f the Arm y Corps of Engineers and of state and local governments and private companies . All o f this a t a fantasti c cos t measure d not onl y i n dollars , bu t i n the live s of a host o f plants an d animal s whose habitat s hav e bee n vastly altere d o r destroye d altogether . Th e nativ e flor a an d faun a had evolve d ove r million s o f years t o fruitfull y occup y thi s semiari d land, bu t the y hav e i n considerabl e par t bee n replaced , i n a few decades, b y a n engineere d landscap e tha t wil l las t a s lon g a s th e United State s remain s peacefu l an d prosperous , and a s long a s population pressur e does not empt y the las t well or drain the las t stream dry. Stephen Long' s name , whe n i t i s remembered a t al l today , i s almost invariabl y linke d wit h th e phras e "Grea t Desert " an d wit h his failur e t o fulfil l al l the unreasonabl e goal s that ha d bee n se t for him. Ye t Long wa s the first to persuad e the governmen t t o includ e trained scientist s o n venture s throug h th e West . The shorte r expe ditions h e mad e befor e 181 9 wer e importan t i n establishin g th e American presenc e i n part s o f the Mississipp i basin , an d hi s 182 3 expedition int o Minnesota an d Lak e Superior (whic h als o include d scientists) adde d muc h t o knowledge of those areas. Long's efforts as an explore r fille d i n a majo r ga p between th e earlie r trip s of Lewis and Clar k an d o f Pik e an d th e er a o f th e fu r traders , whic h wa s

225

EPILOGUE already i n declin e whe n Fremont , "pathfinde r o f the West, " bega n the first of his expedition s i n 1842 . On th e Lon g Expedition , th e first exploration o f the West that included traine d scientists , it was inevitable tha t the descriptio n and naming o f new species of plants an d animal s be given priority—and, in an y case , a t tha t tim e biologica l scienc e ha d scarcel y advance d beyond tha t stage . Say and James applied themselve s t o th e task s at hand t o th e bes t o f thei r abilities , an d the y sa w t o i t tha t thei r findings became know n t o th e public . Sa y described, b y my count, 13 new mammals , 1 3 birds, 12 reptiles and amphibians , 4 arachnid s and crustaceans , an d mor e than 15 0 insects. To b e sure, some of the names he propose d hav e falle n int o disuse, eithe r becaus e th e spec imens wer e lost an d hi s description s wer e vague, or becaus e h e in advertently describe d a s new specie s som e that ha d bee n describe d by someon e else . Bu t h e nevertheles s provide d a n importan t firs t step i n coming t o grip s with th e previousl y almost wholl y unknow n fauna o f the Hig h Plain s an d th e Rockies . Of th e plant s collected b y James, about 14 0 species wer e de scribed a s new b y James, Torrey, Gray , Bentham, an d others . James was the first to collect specimens in the rich alpin e flora of the Rockies durin g hi s ascen t o f Pike' s Peak—surel y th e hig h poin t o f th e expedition i n ever y sense. I n th e Transaction s o f th e American Philosophical Society fo r 1825 , Jame s provided a listin g o f man y o f th e plants h e ha d collected o n th e expedition . Severa l hundre d specie s are listed , but unfortunatel y h e di d not usuall y stat e th e localit y i n which eac h wa s taken , an d h e omitte d th e specie s ye t t o b e de scribed, so his lis t i s of limited value . The description s o f geologi c features , landforms , and summe r weather alon g th e rout e al l adde d t o knowledg e o f thi s vas t ne w addition t o the territory of the United States , an d the map that Long prepared became, i n William H . Goetzmann's phrasing , "a landmark of America n cartography. " Lon g mad e severa l error s an d fals e as sumptions o n hi s ma p an d ofte n plotte d hi s campsite s incorrectly ;

226

Cy ke -fialiiral rJ'Lislory oj ike o-Long COxpeathon nevertheless, i t becam e th e standar d ma p o f th e Wes t unti l Fremont's survey s in th e 1840s . Long has been criticize d for errors in his mapping, an d th e nat uralists fo r no t statin g precisel y wher e thei r specimen s wer e collected. Bu t much o f this imprecisio n was inevitable. There were few known landmark s othe r tha n th e Rock y Mountains , Long' s an d Pike's Peaks , an d severa l rivers and streams . Sometimes the y misi dentified landmarks , as in the cas e of the Re d River. Often th e me n simply did not kno w where they were except in a most general sense. Say was often le d to say that specimens were taken "nea r the Rock y Mountains," o r James that a plant wa s found "3 0 day's journey from the mountains. " The illustration s by Seymour that were included in the Account provided Easterner s wit h thei r firs t visua l images of a worl d vastly different fro m th e shady , well-watered forests the y were accustomed to, as well as their first glimpse of members of several tribes of western Indians. The narrativ e could als o be read as an adventur e story , and even toda y it stand s a s an importan t chronicl e o f a time whe n th e land wa s empty of all bu t Indian s an d wildlife . Man y a present-day naturalist might wis h that he could encounte r som e of the bird s and mammals that the expedition' s members took for granted—not onl y free-ranging biso n an d wolves, but Carolin a parakeets , passenger pigeons, an d ivory-bille d woodpeckers! Nearly all the zoologica l specimens collected on the expeditio n have sinc e bee n lost . Th e Philadelphi a Museu m was move d fro m building t o buildin g until 1850 , whe n muc h o f th e collectio n wa s sold t o P . T . Barnu m to b e displaye d in hi s America n Museu m i n New York. Barnum's museum was destroyed by fire in 1865 . Say took most o f hi s insec t specimen s t o Ne w Harmony , Indiana , whe n h e moved ther e i n 1825 . Afte r hi s death , the y wer e returne d t o th e Philadelphia Academ y of Natural Sciences. I n 1836 , the y were borrowed b y Massachusett s entomologis t Thaddeu s Harris , who foun d them i n " a deplorabl e condition, mos t o f th e pin s havin g becom e loose, th e label s detached, & the insect s themselve s withou t heads,

227

EPILOGUE antennae, & legs , o r devoure d b y destructiv e larvae & groun d t o powder by the perilou s shakings they have received. " Som e o f Say's specimens foun d thei r wa y t o Harvard' s Museu m o f Comparativ e Zoology, wher e the y ca n stil l b e see n an d studied . A fe w o f th e species tha t Sa y collected o n th e Lon g Expeditio n ar e represente d in thi s material . Fortunately, the plant s tha t had been sent t o John Torrey hav e bee n bette r care d for , and mos t o f the m ca n stil l b e found i n th e herbariu m of the Ne w Yor k Botanica l Garden . It wa s more tha n a decade befor e naturalist s once agai n pene trated a s fa r a s th e Rockie s i n th e searc h fo r plant s an d animals . Thanks t o th e effort s o f Georg e Catli n an d Kar l Bodmer , i n th e 1830s, landscape s and Native inhabitants of the norther n plain s and the foothill s became know n throug h a serie s of brillian t paintings and the collectio n of Native artifacts . Bodmer's patron, th e Germa n prince Alexander Philip p Maximilian, was willing to endure incred ible hardships t o stud y America's inhabitants , bot h huma n an d an imal. But it was not unti l the second expeditio n of Nathaniel Wyeth , in 1834/1835 , tha t tw o well-qualifie d naturalist s traveled deepl y in the West—indeed , t o th e Pacific . Th e tw o were John Kir k Town send an d th e indefatigabl e Thomas Nuttall. In 1844 , Audubo n was collecting mammal s on th e uppe r Missouri and bemoanin g th e fat e of th e bison—a s Edwin James had don e twenty-fou r years earlier. That th e Lon g Expeditio n wa s largel y considered a succes s is demonstrated b y the fac t tha t Lon g was asked, only three years later, to undertak e a simila r exploratio n o f St. Peter' s River an d th e Re d River of the North , i n Minnesot a an d Manitoba , returnin g vi a th e Great Lakes . He was again accompanied b y Say and Seymour. James was invite d t o participate , bu t h e di d no t lear n o f th e invitatio n until th e expeditio n ha d lef t Philadelphi a i n Apri l 1823 . Sa y was therefore aske d to collec t plant s a s well as animals, even though h e was no t a n enthusiasti c botanist . Som e o f his collection s wer e lost in transit , but h e di d brin g back man y insect s a s well as much in formation o n th e Indian s th e explorer s encountered. This wa s Stephen Long' s last expeditio n o f exploration. A s a

228

C/L Q?oiura/ (iKislory of ike oL ong (Oxpedilion major an d late r a colonel i n th e Corp s o f Topographical Engineers , he wa s assigned to improvin g the navigabilit y of rivers and t o plan ning railroads . In 1829 , he publishe d a manual o f railroad construction and , in 1836 , a booklet o n bridge building that included several bridges of his own design. Later be became involve d i n hospital an d steamboat construction . A t th e tim e o f the Civi l War , h e wa s elevated to chie f o f the Corp s o f Topographical Engineers . I n 1863 , h e retired, at the ag e of seventy-nine and afte r havin g spen t nearly fifty years i n th e army . He die d a year later. Long's militar y assistants on th e 1819/182 0 expedition , James Graham an d Willia m Swift , bot h wen t o n t o distinguishe d careers . Graham wa s involve d i n surveyin g th e boundar y wit h Mexico ; Mount Graha m i n Arizon a i s named fo r him. Late r he discovere d lunar tide s on th e Grea t Lakes . By 1863, h e ha d reache d th e ran k of colonel. He die d in 186 5 whil e inspecting a seawall in Massachusetts durin g a storm. Swif t resigne d from th e arm y in 184 9 an d be came presiden t o f th e Philadelphia , Wilmington , an d Baltimor e Railroad. He was an art lover and friend o f James MacNeill Whistler . As a businessman , h e wa s sai d t o b e shrew d bu t alway s scupulou s and honest . He die d in 1885 . John Bel l lived les s than five years after returnin g to Washing ton. H e wa s first posted t o Florida , where a disput e wit h a junior officer brough t about his court-martial in 1821 . H e wa s found guilty of conduc t unbecomin g a n officer , bu t hi s sentenc e wa s remitted a few month s later . Afte r servin g for two year s i n Georgi a an d Sout h Carolina, h e resigne d from th e arm y because of poor health. He was only abou t fort y year s o f age when h e die d i n 1825 . Thomas Say had scarcely had time to help with the completio n of the Account o f the 1819/182 0 expeditio n before he wa s off on hi s second tri p with Long . Only tw o years after hi s return from thi s trip, he lef t Philadelphi a permanentl y t o participat e i n Rober t Owen' s Utopian experimen t a t Ne w Harmony , Indiana . I n 182 7 an d 1828 , he made his last major field trip, this one to Mexico with his patron , William Maclure . Befor e leavin g Philadelphia , h e ha d complete d

2299

EPILOGUE part o f his American Entomology and prepare d severa l other paper s for publication . H e als o assisted Charles Lucien Bonapart e with hi s supplement t o Alexande r Wilson' s American Ornithology. At Ne w Harmony, Say continued t o publish extensively on insects and shells, though he became mor e an d more involve d with administrative duties. I n 1827 , he elope d wit h hi s artist , Luc y Sistaire, bu t h e live d for onl y seve n mor e years , dying a t th e ag e of forty-seven with hi s life's wor k far from complete . Say i s often calle d "th e fathe r o f American entomology, " a n appellation tha t i s both to o broa d an d to o restrictive : too broa d i n that h e wa s strictly a systematist , with littl e interes t i n insec t lif e histories or control; to o restrictiv e i n that his contributions t o con chology, t o vertebrat e zoology , and t o India n ethnolog y wer e substantial. Say corresponded wit h zoologists in this country and abroad, and h e wa s electe d a foreig n membe r o f th e prestigiou s Linnea n Society of London a s well as the Zoologica l Society of London. Afte r his death , hi s frien d Georg e Or d spok e o f him a t a meetin g o f th e American Philosophica l Society :

Although on th e scor e o f Mr. Say' s literar y acquirements there ma y be som e diversit y of opinion, ye t ther e ca n b e but on e sentimen t wit h regar d t o hi s industry , his zeal , and th e exten t of his knowledge of natural history , particularly o f tha t clas s o f zoolog y to whic h h e wa s mos t at tached, Entomology . Hi s discoverie s o f ne w specie s o f insects were, perhaps, greater than ever had been made by a singl e individual.

Titian Peal e lon g outlive d Sa y an d al l th e othe r naturalist s h e had know n a s a youth , dyin g i n 188 5 a t th e ag e of eighty-six. After hi s retur n fro m th e West , h e provide d illustration s for Say' s American Entomology an d fo r Bonaparte' s researc h o n America n

23O

CJ ke '^liaiurai C/tislory oj Ike c= L±ong (Oxpedilion

1 itian Peale , pencil sketch of an Indian on horseback. (American Philosophical Society)

birds. I n 1831 , h e joine d a n expeditio n t o Colombia , an d fro m 1838 t o 184 2 h e wa s a membe r o f th e Wilke s Expedition , trav eling throughou t th e souther n ocean s an d alon g th e wes t coas t o f North Americ a o n th e Peacock. From 184 9 t o 1872 , h e wa s a n examiner i n th e Paten t Offic e i n Washington , wher e h e helpe d found th e Washingto n Philosophica l Society . Hi s spar e tim e wa s spent i n photograph y an d i n preparin g oi l painting s base d o n sketches h e ha d mad e o n hi s variou s expeditions . H e ha d live d an adventurou s lif e an d lef t behin d image s tha t ha d lon g sinc e become par t o f th e country' s visio n o f th e West , particularl y his sketches o f Indian s huntin g bison , whic h becam e wel l know n through th e engraving s o f Currie r an d Ive s an d others . Samuel Seymour remains an enigmatic figure, only occasionally mentioned i n James's Account an d i n William H. Keating's Narrative of a n Expedition t o th e Source o f St . Peter's River. He i s said t o hav e completed som e 15 0 illustration s fro m th e 1819/182 0 expedition , but onl y abou t 2 5 remai n extant , an d onl y 8 were include d i n th e

23 1

EPILOGUE Account, Keating' s Narrative included eleven of Seymour's renditions of Indian s an d scenery . Following the latte r expedition , Lon g pai d Seymour $ 2 a day for three month s t o complet e hi s work , but afte r that Seymou r seem s t o hav e vanishe d withou t a trace . Fo r a time , some of his paintings hung on the wall s of the Philadelphi a Museum, but the y disappeare d when th e museum' s holdings wer e sold at auction i n 1850 . O f Seymour's work, the Goetzmann s hav e this t o say:

His wor k seem s spare , contrive d an d eve n clums y t o u s today. Bu t he wa s an artis t in the topographica l tradition that bega n t o b e i n vogue in th e mid-eighteent h centur y when explorin g expedition s circle d th e globe . . .. Th e duty o f th e topographica l artis t was to rende r landform s as exactl y a s possible . . . but a s Seymour's renditions in dicate, th e artist' s feeling s o f awe and wonde r a t th e mo ment o f viewing inevitabl y allowed his emotion s t o giv e form an d characte r t o th e pictures.

It shoul d be pointe d ou t tha t Seymour' s paintings ar e so faithful t o the landscap e tha t man y of the landform s he painte d ca n be recognized today . Indeed , peopl e attemptin g t o follo w th e rout e o f th e expedition may—an d ofte n do—use th e painting s as a guide. But it should b e pointe d ou t tha t engraver s sometimes too k libertie s with Seymour's paintings. In his View of the Chasm Through which the Plane Issues from th e Rocky Mountains, Seymou r imaginatively included a n Indian and a member of the expedition . Perhap s hoping t o heighten the sense of untamed wilderness , the engravers for the Account omit ted thes e figures. Other engraving s also were less than perfec t ren ditions of the originals . Copies of illustrations from the Account ofte n appeared i n othe r publications, sometimes with stil l further modifi cations. Th e realis m practiced b y th e explorin g party' s artist s was often deeme d to o blan d fo r th e growin g romanticism o f th e nine -

232

Cy he •-fiaiural cj"tislory o} Ike »L ong (Oxpeclilion teenth century. Catlin's and Bodmer' s paintings of Indians, made i n the 1830s , an d Alber t Bierstadt' s landscapes , mad e i n th e 1860s , soon overshadowe d the modes t contributions o f Peale and Seymour. But the y wer e the first! Although Edwin James was in many ways the "star" of the Lon g Expedition, h e graduall y drifte d awa y from botan y an d finall y fro m science altogether. Shortly afte r his return east, he wrote to Calhoun asking that he b e assigne d to th e Medica l Departmen t o f the army . He serve d for three year s a t For t Crawford , near Prairi e du Chien , Wisconsin. H e trie d to launc h a n expeditio n t o the wes t coast, bu t Calhoun felt tha t he lacke d sufficien t experience , and nothing came of his plans. On a leave of absence i n the East , in 1827 , he married; after tha t h e wa s reassigned to posts in northern Michigan . At thes e posts, he ha d muc h contac t wit h the Ojibw a Indians, an d he trans lated th e Ne w Testamen t int o thei r language . On e o f his convert s was John Tanner , who had bee n stole n fro m hi s home a s a child by the Indian s an d reare d amon g them . Tanne r marrie d a squa w and succumbed t o whiskey , but Jame s induce d hi m t o reform . I n 183 0 he published a biography of Tanner. He als o prepared grammars and spelling books i n India n languages. In 183 4 Jame s resigned fro m th e arm y and move d t o Albany , New York , wher e fo r a tim e h e edite d th e Temperance Herald an d Journal. A few years later, he move d to a farm near Burlington, Iowa. For a tim e h e serve d a s an India n agen t i n Counci l Bluffs , bu t h e became bitte r abou t th e lac k o f sympath y an d suppor t fo r Nativ e Americans an d soo n resigne d and returne d t o hi s farm . H e wa s an ardent abolitionist , an d hi s hom e serve d a s a wa y statio n o n th e Underground Railroad for runaway slaves. He becam e somethin g of an eccentri c an d a mystic, and i n a n 185 4 lette r t o John Torre y h e confessed tha t he ha d becom e immerse d in "the chil l an d foggy domains of theology." Ye t he dreame d of one da y going forth again "t o gather weed s and stone s an d rubbish . . . and perhaps dro p thi s life wearied bod y besid e som e solitar y stream i n th e wilderness. " I n a letter t o botanis t Charle s Parry , i n 1859 , Jame s wrote, " I became a

233

EPILOGUE

settler i n Iow a twenty-tw o year s ag o an d o f course hav e see n grea t changes. Th e locomotiv e engin e an d the railroad car scour the plai n in place of the wol f and th e curlew . Mayweed and do g fennel, stink weed an d mullei n hav e take n th e plac e o f purple flox an d th e mo cassin flower. " Late i n life , Jame s receive d a lette r fro m Stephe n Long , suggesting that he write a book reviewing Long's expeditions. He began work on it , but apparentl y never go t very far. On Octobe r 25, 1861 , he fel l fro m a loa d o f woo d o n a wago n an d wa s ru n ove r b y th e wheels o f the wagon . H e die d a few days later. For all these men, th e memor y of the day s when the y struggled, half-starved, alon g the foothill s of the Rockies, recordin g plants, animals, and landform s never before seen by western people, must have seemed a brigh t flas h o f ligh t i n live s clouded wit h responsibilities less taxin g but lackin g th e reward s of discovery and th e purit y o f a new, untrammele d world.

^ippendix I

ANIMALS (OTHE R THAN INSECTS) DESCRIBED B Y THOMAS SA T I N TH E ACCOUNT O F THE LON G EXPEDITION, I8I9-I820

MAMMALS Canis latrans, coyote Canis nubilus (no w C. lupus nubilus), prairi e gra y wolf Canis velox (no w Vulpes velox), swif t fo x Cervus macrotis (antedate d by C. hemionu s Rafinesque , no w Odoc o ileus hemionus), mul e deer Sciurus grammurus (no w Spermophilus variegatus grammurus), roc k squirrel Sciurus lateralis (now Spermophilus lateralis), golden-mantled ground squirrel Sciurus macrurus (antedate d b y S . niger rufiventre Geoffre y St . Hi laire), fo x squirre l Sciurus quadrivittatus (no w Eutamias quadrivittatus), Colorad o chip munk Sorex brevicauda (now Blarina brevicauda), short-taile d shre w

235

ANIMALS DESCRIBE D I N TH E ACCOUNT Sorex pawns (no w Cryptotis parvd), least shrew Vespertilio arquatus (antedate d b y V . fuscus Beauvois , no w Eptesicus fuscus), big brown bat Vespertilio pruinosus (antedated b y V. cinereus Beauvois, no w Lasiurus tinereus), hoary bat Vespertilio subulatus (no w Maori s subulatus), small-footed myotis

BIRDS Columba fastiata, band-tailed pigeon Emberiza amoena (no w Passerina amoena), lazuli bunting Fringilla frontalis (no w Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis), house finch Fringilla grammaca (now Chondestes grammacus), lark sparrow Fringilla psaltria (now Carduelis psaltria), lesser goldfinch Hirundo lunifrons s(antedate d b y H. pyrrhonota Vieillot), cliff swallow Limosa scolopacea (no w Limnodromus scolopaceus), long-billed dowitcher Pelidna pectoralis (antedate d b y P . mekmotus Vieillot , no w Calidris melanotos), pectoral sandpiper Sylvia bifasciata (antedate d b y S. cerulea, Wilson, now Dendroica ceridea), cerulean warbler Sylvia celatus (now Vermivora celata), orange-crowned warbler Tetrao obscurus (now Dendragapus obscurus), blue grouse Troglodytes obsoleta (no w Salpinctes obsoletus), rock wren Tyrannus verticalis, western kingbird

236

i/'lppendix 1 REPTILES Agama collaris (no w Crotaphytus collaris), eastern collared lizard Ameiva tesselata (now Cnemidophorus tesselatus), checkered race runner Coluber flaviventris (no w C . constrictor flaviventris), blue racer Coluber obsoletus (now Elaphe obsoleta), pilot black snake Coluber parietalis (now Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis), red-sided garter snake Coluber proximus (no w Thamnophis sauritus proximus), western ribbon snake Coluber testaceus (no w Masticophus flagellu m testaceus), coachwhip

western

Crotalus confluentus (antedate d by C. viridis Rafinesque) , prairie rattlesnake Crotalus tergeminus (no w Sistrurus catenatus tergeminus), westernmassasauga Scincus lateralis (no w Leiolopisma laterals), brown skink

AMPHIBIANS Bufo cognatus , great plains toad Triton lateralis (antedate d b y Sire n maculosus Rafinesque , no w Neeturus maculosus), mud puppy

ARACHNIDS Galeodes pallipes (no w Eremobates pallipes), a sunspider Galeodes subulata, opposit e se x of G. pallipes, which precede d i t o n page an d therefor e ha s priority

237 ANIMALS DESCRIBE D I N THE ACCOUNT

Ixodes molestus (name never used because description was inadequate and specime n wa s lost), a tick.

CRUSTACEANS Apus obtusus (now Triops longicaudatus), a tadpole shrimp

appendizx 2 INSECTS DESCRIBE D B Y THOMAS SAT FROM SPECIMEN S COLLECTE D O N TH E LONG EXPEDITION , I 8 I 9 - I 8 2 0 Thomas Sa y chose no t t o includ e description s of insects i n the Ac count, doubtles s becaus e i t woul d have greatl y increase d it s lengt h and delaye d publication. Rather , the y wer e published fro m 182 4 t o 1835 i n his book American Entomology an d i n the Western Quarterly Reporter, Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Annals of the Lyceum of New York, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, an d Boston journal o f Natural History. About 16 0 species wer e clearl y described from th e expedition , a s indicate d b y Say's accompanyin g notes . Sa y als o describe d man y othe r specie s simply fro m "Arkansas, " "Missouri, " o r "Unite d States. " Som e of these ma y hav e bee n take n o n th e expedition , bu t the y ar e no t included here for lack of clear evidence. Say's publications were compiled, edited , an d reprinte d b y John L . LeConte i n 1859 .

HYMENOPTERA (WASP S AND BEES ) Anomalon flavicornis (now Thyreodon atricolor flavicorne), an ichneumon wasp

239

INSECTS DESCRIBE D I N TH E ACCOUNT

Astata bicolor, a digger wasp Epeolus quadrifasciatus (no w Triepeolus quadrifasciatus), bee

a parasitic

Evania unicolor (antedated b y E . appendigaster Linnaeus) , an ensign wasp Mutilla contmcta (nam e unuse d becaus e o f inadequat e descriptio n and los s of specimen), a velvet ant Mutilla quadriguttata (now Dasymutilla quadriguttata), a velvet ant Philanthus canaliculatus (now Eucerceris canaliculata), a digger wasp Philanthus zonatus (no w Eucerceris zonata), a digger wasp Pompilus formosus (no w Pepsis formosa), a spider wasp Pompilus terminatus (no w Cryptocheilus terminatus), a spider wasp Stizus grandis (no w Sphecius grandis), western cicada killer wasp Stilus renicinctus (now Stizoides renicinctus), a parasitic digger wasp Tremex obsoletris (antedate d b y T. columba Linnaeus), a wood wasp Tremex sericeus (antedated b y T. columba Linnaeus), a wood wasp

DIPTERA (FLIES ) Anthrax irroratus, a be e fly Chrysops quadrivittatus (no w Silvius quadrivittatus), a deer fly Dilophus stigmaterus, a march fly Gonia frontosa, a tachina fly Heleomyza 5-punctata (no w Suillia 5-punctata), a fungus fly Laphria fulvicauda (no w Andrenosoma fulvicauda), a robber fly Tabanus molestus, a horse fly Zodion abdominalis (antedated b y Z. fulvifrons Say) , a conopid fly

240 2 4 O Appendix 2 Appendix 2

ORTHOPTERA (CRICKET S AND GRASSHOPPERS ) Acheta exigua (no w Anaxipha exigua), Say' s bush cricket Gryllus bivittatus (no w Melanoplus bivittatus), two-stripe d grasshop per Gryllus formosus (no w Tropidolophus formosus), grea t crested grass hopper Gryllus hirtipes (no w Acrolophitus hirtipes), crested-keel grasshopper Gryllus nubilus (no w Boopedon nubilum), boopee grasshopper Gryllus trifasciatus (no w Hadrotettix trifasciatus), three-bande d range grasshopper

HEMIPTERA (TRU E BUGS) Acanthia interstitialis (antedated b y A. pallipes Fabricius , no w Saldula pallipes), a shore bug Cercopis obtusa (no w Clastoptera obtusa), alder spittlebug Cicada aurifera (no w Tibicen aurifera), a cicada Cicada dorsata (no w Tibicen dorsata), a cicada Cicada parvula (antedate d b y C . calliope Walker , no w Melampsalta calliope), a cicada Cicada pruinosa (no w Tibicen pruinosa), a cicada Cicada synodica (no w Okanagana synodica), a cicada Coreus lateralis (now Corpu s lateralis), a coreid bug Cydnus spinifrons (no w Amnestus spinifrons), a burrower bug Delphax tricarinata (no w Stobaera tricarinata) , a planthopper Flata bivittata (no w Acanalonia bivittata), a planthopper Flata stigmata (no w Cixius stigmata), a planthopper Fulgora sulcipes (no w Scolops sulcipes), a planthopper

241

INSECTS DESCRIBE D I N TH E ACCOUNT Lygaeus trivittatus (now Leptocoris trivittatus), boxelder bu g Reduvius spissipes (no w Apiomerus spissipes), a n assassi n bu g Tettigonia limbata (antedate d b y T . septentrionaUs Walker , no w Cuerna septentrionalis), a leafhopper Tettigonia obliqua. (now Erythroneura obliqua), a leafhoppe r Tettigonia 8-lineata (now Gyponana 8-lineata), a leafhoppe r

COLEOPTERA (BEETLES ) Say describe d mor e tha n 10 0 species of beetles fro m th e Lon g Expedition. Man y of his species have now been remove d t o more modern genera , but rathe r tha n indicat e thi s I have chose n to retain hi s original name s an d t o grou p th e specie s according t o th e famil y t o which eac h belongs. The stud y of beetles i s a world in itself ; all told, there ar e hundred s o f families an d untol d ten s o f thousands o f species. Beetle s were favorites of Say, and the y ar e easier to collec t an d preserve than som e othe r insects . Bruchidae (seed beetles) : Bruchus discoideus Buprestidae (metalli c woo d borers) : Buprestis campestris, B. confluenta, B. pusilla

atropurpureus,B.

Cantharidae (soldie r beetles): Cantharis jactata, C. ligata Carabidae (groun d beetles) : Bembidium inaequalis, B. sigillare, Brachinus cyanipennis, B. stygicorrds, Calosoma obsolete, Cymindis laticollis, Feronia constricta Cerambycidae (longhorne d beetles) : Callidiiim amoenum, C. fidvipenne, C. 6'fasciatum, Cerambyx solitarius, Leptura bivittata, Moneilema annulate, Prionus emarginata, P. palparis, Saperda pergrata, Stenocorus mucronatus Chrysomelidae (lea f beetles): Altica 5-vittata, Chrysomela auripennis, C. basilaris, Colaspis dubiosa, C. interrupta,Cryptocephalus bivittatus, C. confluens, Donacia aequalis, Doryphora 10-lineata,

242

Appendix 2

Galleruca dorsata, G. longicornis, G. puncticollis, G. trictncta, Hispa lateralis, Imatidium 17-punctatum, Lema trwittata Cicindelidae (tige r beetles): Amblycheila cylindriformis limbata, C. obsoleta, C. pulchra

Cicindela

Cleridae (checkere d beetles) : Trichodes ornatus Coccinellidae (lad y beetles): Coccinella humeralis Colydiidae (cylindrica l bark beetles): Synchita 4'guttata Curculionidae (weevils) : Brachycerus humeralis, Calandra compressirostra, Liparus imbricatus, L. vittatus, Rhynchaenus lineaticollis Dytiscidae (predaceou s diving beetles): Colymbetes venustus, Hydroporus undulatus Elateridae (clic k beetles): Elater rectangularis Heteroceridae (variegate d mud-lovin g beetles) : Heterocerus pallidus, H. pusillus Histeridae (histe r beetles): Ulster bifidus, H. sedecimstriatus Hydrophilidae (wate r scavenger beetles): Helophorus lineatus, Hydrophilus triangularis, Sphaeridium apicalis Lathridiidae (minut e brow n scavenge r beetles) : Lathridium 8dentatus Lucanidae (sta g beetles): Lucamts placidus, Platycerus securidens Lycidae (net-winge d beetles): Lycus sanguinipennis, L. terminalis Meloidae (bliste r beetles): Lytta albida, L. nuttalli, Meloe conferta, Nemognatha atripennis, N. minima Melyridae (soft-winge d flowe r beetles) : Malachius bipunctatus Oedemeridae (fals e bliste r beetles): Oedemera ruficollis Phalacridae (shinin g flower beetles): Phalacrus penicillatus Scarabaeidae (scara b beetles): Aphodius concavus, A. femoralis, A. strigatus, Ateuchus nigricornis, A. obsoletus, Cetonia barbata, Geotrupes excrementi, G. filicornis, Melolontha lanceolata, M. 10lineata, M. jrilosicollis, M. sericea, Trox scutellaris

243

INSECTS DESCRIBE D I N TH E ACCOUNT

Silphidae (carrio n beetles): Agathidium pallidum, Catops basilaris Staphylinidae (rov e beetles) : Anthophagus brunneus, Omalium marginatum, Oxytelus fasciatus, O . melanocephalus, O. pallipennis, Stenus quadripunctatus, Tachinus atricaudatus Tenebrionidae (darklin g beetles): Akis muricata, Asida anastomo sis, A . opaca, A. polita, Blaps acuta, B. carbonaria, B.extricata, B. obscitra, B. obsolete, B. sutwalis, Diaperis bifasciata, Opatrum pullum, Pimelia rotunda, Zophosis reticulata

Appendix 3 PLANTS NEWL Y DISCOVERE D AN D DESCRIBED FRO M TH E LON G EXPEDITION , 1820

Edwin James brought bac k specimen s o f about 70 0 species o f plants during hi s tim e wit h th e Lon g Expeditio n a s i t travele d fro m the Missour i t o For t Smith , Arkansas , fro m Jun e t o earl y Septem ber 1820 . O f these , abou t 14 0 prove d t o b e ne w t o scienc e an d were subsequentl y describe d an d name d b y Jame s himsel f (13) , by Joh n Torre y (76) , by Torrey an d As a Gra y togethe r (13) , an d by th e Englis h botanis t Georg e Bentha m (5) . Thes e ar e liste d here. The remainin g few were described by several other individuals, about a doze n o f the m b y Constantin e Rafinesque . Rafmesque' s names hav e largel y passed int o obscurit y and ar e not listed . A no table exceptio n i s Cercocarpus montanus (mountain-mahogany) , based o n specimen s tha t Jame s collecte d probabl y i n presen t Jefferson County , Colorado . Thi s i s an abundan t shru b i n th e foot hills o f th e Fron t Rang e an d provide s importan t brows e fo r dee r and elk . George Goodman and Cheryl Lawson's, Retracing Major Stephen H. Long's 1820 Expedition shoul d be consulted fo r a fuller discussio n of the plants . Thi s listing relies heavily o n thei r book .

245

PLANTS DESCRIBE D IN THE ACCOUNT PLANTS DESCRIBE D BY EDWIN JAMES (1823, 1825 ) Aquilegia coerulea, Colorado blue columbine Argemone alba (no w A. polyanthemos), prickly poppy Cucumeris perennis (antedate d b y Cucurbita foetidissima), buffalogourd Gaura mollis, velvet-leaf gaura Geranium intermedium, a wild geranium Hieracium runcinatum (no w Crepis runcinata), hawksbeard Pinus flexilis, limber pine Populus angustifolia, narrowleaf cottonwood Prenanthes runcinata (now Stephanomeria pauciflora) , wirelettuce Ranunculus amphibius, a water crowfoot Rudbeckia tagetes (no w Ratibida tagetes), prairie coneflower Solatium hirsutum (now S . triflorum), cut-leaved nightshade Stanleya integrifolia (no w S . pinnata integrifolia), prince's plume

PLANTS DESCRIBE D BY JOHN TORRE Y (1824-1827) Acer glabrum, Rocky Mountain maple Agrostis airoides (no w Sporobolus airoides), alkali sacaton Agrostis caespitosa (no w Muhlenbergia torreyi), a muhly grass Agrostis cryptandra (no w Sporobolus cryptandrus), sand dropseed Andropogon glaucum (now A. saccharoides), silver bluestem grass Androsace carinata, rock jasmine Arenaria obtusa (now A . obtusiloba), alpine sandwort Aristida fasciculata (antedate d b y A. adscensionis), three-awn grass

2466

AAppendix ppendix 33

Artemisia filifolia, silvery wormwood or sand sagebrush Asclepias jamesii (antedate d b y A. latifolia), broadleaved milkweed Asclepias obtusifolia latifolia (no w A. latifolia), broadleaved milkweed Asclepias speciosa, showy milkweed Astragalus mollissimus, woolly locoweed Bidens gracilis (no w Thelesperma megapotamica), greenthread Cantua longiflora (no w Ipomopsis longiflora),

pink gilia

Cantua pungens (now Leptodactylon pungens), a gilia Capraria pusilla (no w Mimulus flaribundus), many-flowered mimulus Carex jamesii (no w C. nebraskensis), a sedg e Castilleja occidentalis , western yellow paintbrush Celtis reticulata, hackberry Chenopodium simplex, a goosefoot Cleomella angustifolia, cleomella Dalea formosa, feather plume Darlingtonia intermedia (no w DesmantKus illinoensis), bundleflower Eriogonum tenellum, a wild buckwheat Eriogonum umbellatum, sulphur-flower Eryngium diffusion,

eryngo

Frankenia jamesii, James's frankenia Gaillardia pinnatifida, a blanketflower Gaura parvifolia (no w G. coccinea parvifolia), a butterfly weed Gaura viRosa, hairy gaura Inula ericoides (no w Leucelene ericoides), white aster lonidium lineare (no w Hybanthus linearis), green violet Krameria lanceolata, krameria

247

PLANTS DESCRIBE D I N TH E ACCOUNT Lithospermum decumbens (no w L . caroliniensis), a puccoon Lupinus decumbens (antedate d b y L. argenteus), silvery lupine Myosotis suffruticosa (no w Cryptantha cinerea), James's cryptantha Ornithogalum bracteatum (no w Lloydia serotina), alp lil y Oxybaphus multiflorus (no w Mirabilis multiflora), Colorad o four o'clock Pectis angustifolia, lemon-scente d pectis Pentstemon alpina (no w Penstemon glaber alpinus), alpin e penstemon Pentstemon ambiguum (no w Penstemon ambiguus), plain s penstemon Petalostemum macrostachyum (no w Dalea cylindriceps), a prairie clo ver Phacelia integrifolia, a scorpio n wee d Physalis lobata, purple-flowered ground-cherry Plantago eriopoda, redwool plantain Pleuraphis jamesii (no w Hilaria jamesii), galleta-grass Potentilla leucophylla (no w P . hippiana), woolly cinquefoil Potentilla nivalis (now Geum rossii turbinatum), alpine avens Prenanthes pauciflora (no w Stephanomeria paudflora), wirelettuce Prenanthes tenuifolia (no w Stephanomeria minor), small wirelettuce Primula angustifolia, alpine primrose Prosopis glandulosa, honey mesquite Psoralea jamesii (no w Dalea jamesii), James's prairie clover Pulmonaria alpina (no w Mertensia alpina), alpine bluebells Pulmonaria ciliata (now Mertensia ciliata), tall bluebells Quercus undulata, wavyleaf oak Rubus deliciosus, Boulder raspberry Rubus idaeus (antedate d b y R. occidentals) , black raspberry

248

Appendix 3 Saxifraga jamesii (now Telesonix jamesii), James's saxifrage Scutellaria resinosa, resinous skullcap Sedum lanceolatum, stonecrop Sida stellata (now Sphaeralcea angustifolia cuspidata), a globe mallow Solarium flavidum (no w S . elaeagnifolium), silverleaf nightshade Solarium jamesii, wild potato Spiraea monogyna (no w Physocarpus monogynus), ninebark Stellaria jamesiana, tuber starwort Stevia sphacelata (no w Palafoxia sphacelata), rayed palafoxia Stiffingia sylvatica salicifolia, queen's delight Teucrium laciniatum, germander Tiarella bracteata (now Heuchera bracteata), bracted alum-root Tragia ramosa, branching tragia Trifolium nanum, dwarf alpine clover Uniola stricta (now Distichli s stricta), a saltgrass Vernonia altissima marginata (now V . marginata), plains ironweed Zapania cuneifolia (no w Phyla cuneifolia), fogfruit

PLANTS DESCRIBE D BY JOHN TORRE Y AN D AS A GRA Y (1838-1843) Berlandiera incisa (antedated by B. lyrata), lyreleaf greeneyes Crepis runcinata, hawksbeard Cristatella jamesii (now Polanisia jamesii), James's crestpetal Hoffmanseggia jamesii (now Caesalpinia jamesii), James's rushpea Jamesia americana, waxflower Linosyris pluriflora (no w Haplopappus pluriflorus),

a goldenweed

249

PLANTS DESCRIBE D I N THE ACCOUNT Malva involucrata (now Callirhoe irwolucrata), purple poppy mallow Oenothera coronopifolia, cut-leaved evening primrose Oenothera jame.su, James's evening primrose Oenothera lavandulifolia (no w Calylophus lavandulifolius), lavenderleaf evening primrose Paronychia jamesii, James's nailwort Stenotus pygmaeus (no w Haplopappus pygmaeus), a goldenweed Trifolium dasyphyllum, whiproot clover

PLANTS DESCRIBE D BY GEORGE BENTHA M (1846-1856 ) Chionophila jamesii, snow-lover Eriogonum jamesii, James's wild buckwheat Penstemon jamesii, James's beardtongue Penstemon torreyi (no w P . barbatus torreyi), Torrey's beardtongue Synthyris plantaginea (no w Besseya plantaginea), kitten-tail

This page intentionally left blank

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beidleman, Richar d G . "Edwi n James: Pionee r Naturalist. " Horticulture 44 (1966): 32-34. . "The 1820 Long Expedition." American Zoologist 26 (1986): 307-313. Bell, Joh n R . Th e Journal o f Captain John R . Bell, Official Journalist o f th e Stephen H . Long Expedition t o th e Rocky Mountains, 1820. Edited by Harlin M. Fuller and Le Roy R. Hafen. The Fa r West an d the Rockie s Historical Series, Vol. 6. Glendale, Calif. : Clark , 1957. Benson, Maxine . "Edwi n James, Scientist, Linguist , Humanitarian." Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado, 1968. ed. Fro m Pittsburgh t o th e Rocky Mountains: Major Stephen Long's Expedition, 1819-1820. Golden, Colo. : Fulcrum, 1988. Bentham, George . [Severa l taxonomi c treatises. ] In Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, edite d b y A . DeCandolle . Paris : Masson, 1845-1856. Brackenridge, Henry Marie. Views of Louisiana: The Journal o f a Voyage u p the Missouri River, In 1811 (1814). I n Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites , Vol. 6. Cleveland: Clark , 1904. Bradbury, John . Travels i n th e Interior o f America i n th e Years 1809, 1810, and 1811, (1819). I n Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, edite d b y Reuben Gol d Thwaites, vol . 5. Cleveland: Clark , 1904. Chittenden, Hiram M. The American Fur Trade o f the Far West. 2 vols. 1902 . Reprint. Lincoln: Universit y of Nebraska Press, 1986.

252

BIBLIOGRAPHY Cutright, Paul Russell. Lewis and Clark: Pioneering Naturalists. 1969. Reprint . Lincoln: Universit y of Nebraska Press , 1989 . Dillon, Richard . "Stephe n Long' s Grea t America n Desert. " Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 11 1 (1967) : 93-108. Ewan, Joseph . Rocky Mountain Naturalists. Denver : Universit y o f Denve r Press, 1950 . Ewers, John C . Artists of the Old West. Garden City , N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965 . Goetzmann, William H. Army Exploration i n the American West, 1803-1863. New Haven : Yal e University Press, 1959 . . Exploration an d Empire: Th e Explorers an d the Scientists in the Winning of th e American West. 1966 . Reprint . New York : Norton, 1978 . Goetzmann, Willia m H. , an d Willia m N. Goetzmann . Th e West o f the Imagination. New York : Norton. 1986 . Goodman, Georg e J. , an d Chery l A . Lawson . Retracin g Major Stephen H . Long's J82 0 Expedition: Th e Itinerary an d Botany. Norman: Universit y of Oklahoma Press , 1995 . Haltman, Kenneth . "Betwee n Scienc e an d Art: Titian Ramsay Peale's Lon g Expedition Sketches , Newl y Recovered at the State Historical Societ y of Iowa. " Palimpses t 74 (1993) : 62-81. . "Privat e Impression s an d Publi c Views : Titia n Ramsa y Peale' s Sketchbooks fro m th e Lon g Expedition , 1819-1820. " Yale University Art Galer y Bulletin, Spring 1989 , 39-53 . Hammerson, Geoffre y A . Amphibians and Reptiles i n Colorado. Denver: Col orado Divisio n of Wildlife, 1986 . James, Edwin. "Catalogue o f Plants Collected Durin g a Journey to and fro m the Rock y Mountains , Durin g the Summe r o f 1820. " Transactions o f the American Philosophical Society, n.s. , 2 (1825) : 172-190 . , ed . Account o f an Expedition from Pittsburgh t o the Rocky Mountains, Performed i n the Years 1819 and '20, b y Order of the Hon. J.C. Calhoun, Sec. o f War: Under th e Command o f Major Stephen H. Lon g (1823). I n Reuben Gol d Thwaites , vols . 14-17 . Early Western Travels, 17481846, edite d b y Cleveland : Clark , 1905 . [Als o availabl e i n Reade x Microprint, 2 Vols., 1966. ] Lecompte, Janet . "Jame s Pursley." In Th e Mountain Men an d the Fur Traders of th e Far West, edite d b y L . R. Hafen , 8 : 277-285 . Glendale, Calif. : Clark, 1971 .

253

BIBLIOGRAPHY Mawdsley, J . R . "Th e Entomologica l Collection s o f Thomas Say. " Psyche

100(1993): 163-171 .

McDermott, J . F. "Samuel Seymour : Pioneer Artis t of the Plain s and Rock ies." Annual Report o f th e Smithsonian Institution, 1950, 497-509. McKelvey, Susa n D . Botanical Explorations o f th e Trans-Mississippi West, 1790-1850. Jamaica Plain , Mass. : Arnold Arboretum , Harvar d Uni versity, 1955 . McLarty, V. K, ed. "The Firs t Steamboats o n th e Missouri : Reminiscences of Captain W. D. Hubbell." Missouri Historical Review 51 (1957): 373 381. Murphy, Rober t C . "Th e sketche s o f Titian Ramsa y Peale , 1799-1855. " Proceedings o f th e American Philosophical Society 10 1 (1957) : 523-531. Nichols, Roger L., and Patric k L. Halley. Stephen Long and American Frontier Exploration. Newark : University of Delaware Press, 1980 . Nuttall, Thomas . Journal o f Travels into th e Arkansa Territory, During the Year 1819, with Occasional Observations on the Manners of the Aborigines (1821). In Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, edited by Reuben Gol d Thwaites, vol . 13 . Cleveland: Clark , 1905 . Oglesby, Richar d E . Manuel Lisa an d th e Opening o f th e Missouri Fu r Trade. Norman: Universit y of Oklahoma Press , 1963 . Ord, George . 1859 . " A Memoi r of Thomas Say." I n Th e Complete Writings of Thomas, Sa y o n th e Entomology o f North America, edited b y John L . LeConte, vii-xxi . New York : Bailliere Brothers, 1859 . Osterhout, G. E . "Concerning th e Ornitholog y o f the Lon g Expedition of 1820". Oologist3 7 (1920) : 118-120. . "Rocky Mountai n Botan y and th e Lon g Expedition of 1820". Bulletin of th e Torrey Botanical Club 47 (1920) : 555-562. Peale, Titian Ramsey. "Journal of Titian Ramsay Peale, Pioneer Naturalist. " Edited by A. O . Weese. Missour i Historical Review 41 (1947): 147-163. Poesch, Jessie. Titian Ramsay Peale, 1799-1885, an d His Journals o f the Willies Expedition. Philadelphia : America n Philosophica l Society , 1961 . Porter, Charlotte M. "Th e Lif e Wor k o f Titian Ramsay Peale." Proceedings of th e American Philosophical Society, 12 9 (1985) : 300-312 . Say, Thomas . Th e Complete Writings o f Thomas Sa y o n th e Entomology o f North America. Edited by John L. LeConte. 2 vols. New York: Bailliere Brothers, 1859.

254

BIBLIOGRAPHY Stroud, Patrici a Tyson . Thomas Say: New World Naturalist. Philadelphia : University o f Pennsylvania Press, 1992. Terrell, John Upton . Zebulon Pike: The Life an d Times o f an Adventurer. Ne w York: Weybright an d Talley , 1968. Torrey, John . Description s o f Som e Ne w o r Rar e Plant s fro m th e Rock y Mountains collecte d i n Jul y 182 0 by Dr . Edwi n James. Annals o f the New York Lyceum o f Natural History, 1(1824 ) : 30-36 , 148-156 ; 2 (1827): 161-254. Torrey, John, an d As a Gray . A Flora of North America. 2 vols. 1838 , 1843. Reprint. Ne w York : Hafner, 1969. Townsend, Joh n Kirk . Acros s th e Rockies t o th e Columbia. 1838 . Reprint . Lincoln: Universit y of Nebraska Press , 1978. Trenton, Patricia , an d P . H . Hassrick . Th e Rocky Mountains : A Visio n for Artists i n th e Nineteenth Century. Norman : Universit y o f Oklahom a Press, 1983. Tucker, Joh n M . "Major Long' s Rout e fro m th e Arkansa s t o the Canadian River, 1820. " New Mexico Historical Review 38 (1963) : 185-219 . Tyler, Ron . Prints of the West. Golden , Colo.: Fulcrum, 1994. Viola, Herma n J . Exploring th e West. Washington , D . C.: Smithsonia n In stitution Press , 1987. Voelker, Frederi c E. "Ezekie l Williams." I n Th e Mountai n Me n an d th e Fur Trade o f th e Far West, edite d b y L . R . Hafen , 9 : 393-409 . Glendale , Calif.: Clark, 1972. Webb, Walte r Prescott . "Th e American West : Perpetual Mirage." Harper' s Magazine, May 1957 , 26-31. Weber, W . A. , an d R . C. Wittman . Catafo g of the Colorado Flora: A Biodiversity Baseline. Niwot: University Pres s of Colorado, 1992. Weiss, H . B. , an d G . M . Zeigler . Thomas Say , Early American Naturalist. Springfield, I11.: Thomas, 1931. Wood, Richar d G . Stephen Harriman Long, 1784-1864: Army Engineer, Explorer, Inventor. Glendale, Calif. : Clark, 1966. Worster, Donald . Under Western Skies: Nature an d History i n th e American West. Ne w York : Oxford Universit y Press, 1992. Zwinger, Ann H. , an d Beatric e E . Willard. Land Above th e Trees: A Guide to American Alpine Tundra. Ne w York : Harper & Row , 1972.

INDEX

Academy o f Natural Sciences , 21 , 23, 22 6 Acer glabrum, 128 Acrolophitus hinipes, 16 8 Adams, D. , 89 , 184 , 207 , 21 3 Alligator, 19 8 Alumroot (Heuchera), 86, 14 5 Amblycheila, cylindriformis, 15 5 American Entomology (Say) , 21-22, 63, 22 9 insects illustrate d in, 50 , 55 , 111 , 139, 161 , 162 , 16 8 quotation from , 60—6 1 American Philosophica l Society , 10 , 18, 21, 24 , 73 , 220 , 22 9 Andrenosoma fulvicauda, 5 0 Androsace carinata, 145 Antelope. Se e Pronghorn Ants, prairie moundbuilding, 11 5 Aquikgia caeruka, 134 , 14 3 Arapaho Indians , 6-7 , 159 , 165-66 , 169, 22 2

Arikara Indians , 22 2 Arkansas River, 10,11,19,88,221,22 2 arrival at, 15 1 canyon a t mountains, 152-5 3 expedition's rout e along , 155-8 3 Pike on, 4 , 5 , 15 3 watershed of , 145 , 14 9 Arrowwood (Viburnum), 7 6 Artemisia filifolia, 109 Ash, 63 , 86 , 172 , 173, 208, 214 Ashley, William , 22 2 Aspen, quaking , 13 4 Astata bicolor, 13 9 Atkinson, Henr y heads th e militar y arm, 9, 2 0 on the Missouri , 41, 43, 56, 68, 92 93 overwintering a t Cam p Missouri, 67,68 Audubon, Joh n James, 31, 34 , 57, 110,227 Avocet, 20 0

256

INDEX Bachicha Canyon , 186 Badgers, 108 , 191 , 19 2 Baldwin, William, 17 , 50, 84 , 8 8 background, 20-21 , 27 death, 52-5 3 illness, 31-32, 34, 37, 45 journals, 29 , 5 3 Ballard, James, 182, 21 1 Balloon vin e (Cardiospermum), 206 Barnard, Peter, 89 , 163 , 177 , 179 Barton, Benjami n Smith, 12 , 119 Bartram, John, 21 , 47, 63 Basswood, 45, 53 , 86 Bats, 71 , 16 1 Beadle, John Hanson , 19 6 Bears black, 203 , 204 , 205 , 211 grizzly, 12 , 75 , 132 , 135 , 15 9 Beardtongue (Penstemon) , 87, 100 , 105, 108 , 119 , 143 , 189,20 4 Beavers, 107 , 13 0 Bee, 139 . Se e also Honeybe e Beetles, 7 0 blister, 111 , 13 9 bombardier, 69 Colorado potato, 64-65 , 70 darkling, 60 , 111 , 15 7 June, 98, 99 leaf, 4 5 lightning, 48-49 longhorn, 15 6 lycid, 139-4 0 metallic wood-boring , 55 mud-loving, 69 tiger, 155 , 168-6 9 Beidleman, Richard , 133 , 223 Bell, John R., 88 , 89 , 19 5 addresses chiefs, 16 6 background, 8 4

heads part y down Arkansas , 163 82 journals, 84 , 90, 92, 216 , 21 8 later life , 22 8 leaves the expedition , 213 , 216 trips into mountains, 127 , 152-53 Bell's Springs, 15 2 Bentham, George , 120 , 145 , 189 , Biddle, Nicholas, 12-1 3 Biddle, Thomas, 17 , 22, 49, 53 , 5 6 background, 1 9 leaves the expedition , 67, 84, 8 8 quarrels with Long , 20 , 45 Big Thompson River, 116 Bijeau, Joseph , 90 , 98 , 106 , 115 , 22 2 leaves expedition, 163 , 17 1 Bijeaus (Bijou ) Creek , 115 , 12 4 Bipes, 11 2 Bison decimation o f herds, 110—11 , 22 7 illustrated, 109 , 117 , 19 9 seen i n larg e herds, 107-8 , 170 71, 186 , 202- 4 use a s food by expedition, 59 , 72 , 106, 132 , 134 , 135 , 137 , 172, 187 uses by Indians , 75—7 7 Blarina brevicauda, 71 Blood letting , 12 9 Blowflies, 57 , 20 4 Bluebells, alpine , 14 5 Bobolink, 17 2 Bobwhite, 19 3 Bodmcr, Karl , 24 , 74 , 227 , 232 Bonaparte, Charle s Lucien , 155 , 22 9 Boone, Daniel , 5 1 Boone's Lick , Mo., 6 , 51 Box elder , 122 , 18 4 Brachinus cyanipennis, 69

257

INDEX Bradbury, John, 7-8 , 13,41,8 2 Bradford, William , 182 , 211 Breadroot (Psoralea), 79 , 9 7 Broomrape, 19 3 Buckeye, Ohio, 32, 20 6 Buckwheat (Eriogonwn), 120 , 185 Buffalo. Se e Biso n Bufo cognatus, 168 Bugs, tru e box elder , 7 0 shore, 4 5 Bunting, lazuli , 15 4 Buprestis confluenta, 5 5 Butterfly wee d (Gaum), 186-87 , 19 1 Buttonbush (Cephalanthus), 201 Cache l a Poudre River, 116 Cacti, 192 , 206 candelabra (cholla) , 136 , 187 prickly pear, 99 , 102 , 113, 126 Calhoun, John C., 19 , 23, 26, 83, 220, 23 2 orders to Long , 10-11 , 12 1 plans expedition, 8 , 1 6 receives report s from Long , 212, 218 Camas, deat h (Zigadenus), 13 6 Camp Martin , 44 , 56 Camp Missouri, 65, 74 , 79 , 80 , 87,

91,92

Canadian River , 124, 187, 209-10 Cane, giant , 181 , 210 Canis latrans, 15, 7 2 Canis lupus nubilus, 72 Cape Girardeau , Mo., 213, 215-16, 217,218 Carduelis psaltria, 138 Carpodacus frontalis, 13 8 Castilleja occidentalis , 14 5

Catalpa, 3 6 Catlin, George , 24 , 74 , 179 , 227 , 23 2 Centipede, 19 3 Chacuaco Creek, 124 , 184, 186 Champlain, Jean Baptiste , 6-7, 52 , 159, 22 2 Chat, yellow-breasted, 38, 44-45, 149 Cherokee Indians , 18 , 214 Cherry Creek , 12 0 Cheyenne Indians , 165-66 , 17 0 Chinquapin, 20 7 Chionophila jamesii, 145 Chipmunks Colorado, 153 , 154 eastern, 4 9 Chittenden, Hiram, 83 Chondestes grammacus, 63 Chouteau, Auguste , 39, 15 9 Chuck-will's-widow, 38, 20 8 Cicadas, 60 , 61 , 20 1 Cidndela obsoleta, 169 Cidndela pukhra, 16 8 Cimarron River , 124 , 187 Cincinnati, Ohio , 30-3 3 Clark, William , 3, 12, 14, 39, 99 as governor o f Louisiana, 8 4 on sourc e of Yellowstone River, 5, 6 Clear Creek , Colo. , 120 Clematis, 40 , 12 0 Clermont (Iro n Bird) , 17 9 Clover, dwar f alpine, 14 5 Cnemidophorus tesselatus, 157-58 Cockleburs (Xanthium), 19 3 Cody, "Buffal o Bill, " 110-1 1 Colorado River , 5 , 12 4 Colorado Springs , Colo. , 135 , 136 , 137

2588

INDEX Colter, John, 7 , 97 Colwmba fasciata, 13 1 Columbine, blue, 134 , 143 , 14 5 Comanche Indians , 4, 17 2 Coneflowers, 46 , 115 , 18 4 Cooper, James Fenimore, 8 1 Coronado, Francisco, 195 , 19 6 Cote San s Dessein , Mo. , 5 0 Cottonwood, 32, 45 , 49 , 130 , 13 5 as food fo r horses, 9 7 narrowleaf, described , 11 9 on th e Arkansa s River, 152 , 161 , 172, 17 3 on th e Canadia n River, 187 , 208 , 209 on th e Platt e River, 104 , 107 , 120 ,

122 Coues, Elliott , 12-1 3 Council Bluff , 42 , 44 , 65 , 68 , 71 , 85, 91,92 Council Bluffs, Iowa , 66 , 23 2 Cowbird, brown-headed, 171 , 187 ,

192 Cow Island , 44 , 56 , 57, 62 , 6 7 Coyotes, 71-72 , 108 , 170 , 201 , 203 Cranes sandhill, 54, 79-80, 87 whooping, 79 , 8 2 Crepis runcinata, 10 2 Crotaphytus collaris, 18 0 Cryptotis parva, 11 Curlews, 95 , 120 , 23 3 Currants, 120 , 12 7 Cutright, Pau l Russell, 12 , 101 Cypress, 214 , 215 , 21 6

Dakota sandstone , 125 , 128 , 130-3 1 Darwin, Charles , 1 4 Dasymutilla quadriguttata, 139

Dawson Butte , 13 0 Deer, 48 , 63, 77, 204 mule, 15 , 125 , 189-9 0 use a s food, 56, 108 , 137 , 148 , 152, 159 , 161 , 172 , 176 , 178 , 179 white-tailed, 55 Dendragapus obscurus, 132 Denver, Colo. , 120 , 12 8 Desert condition s allusions to, 119-20 , 158 , 195-96 , 208-9 defense o f Long regarding , 222—2 4 defined, 196-9 7 Desertion o f soldiers, 176-78 , 179 , 182 Dillon, Richard , 22 3 Disonycha 5-vittata, 45 Dodder, 18 9 Dogs on th e expedition , 91 , 163 , 173, 174,21 2 Dogwood (Cornus) , 29 , 30, 76 , 20 4 Domingues, Francisco , 13 2 Dougherty, H. , 89 , 184 , 21 3 Dougherty, John , 18 , 45, 46, 53 , 80 at Enginee r Cantonment , 67, 69, 72, 73 , 7 4 on overlan d trip s fro m Missouri River, 56 , 57 , 61 Douglas-fir, 133 , 13 4 Dove, mourning , 176 , 19 3 Dowitcher, long-billed , 8 2 Drake, Daniel, 31, 34 Ducks, 34 , 78 , 175 , 20 8 Dunbar, William , 21 4 Duncan, James , 89 , 184 , 21 3 Eagles, 76 , 10 8 bald, 82 , 172 , 20 8

259

INDEX Eaton, Amos , 84 , 211 Egrets, 175 , 208 Elaphe obsokta, 6 3 Elder (Sambucus), 46 , 17 4 Eleodes obscura, 111 Eleodes suturalis, 60 Elephant Rock , 133-3 4 Elk, 87 , 106 , 127, 13 1 as food, 72 , 108 , 172,209 use by Indians, 77 Elm, 172 , 173, 201 , 202, 206 Engineer Cantonment, 66-67, 68 82, 87 , 92 , 94 , 21 2 Eremobates pallipes, 12 6 Eriogonum jamesii, 120 Escalante, Silvestre , 3, 13 2 Evening sta r (Mentzelia), 119 , 161 , 189 Fabricius, J.C., 27, 4 5 Finch, house , 13 8 Fishes, 73 , 175 , 208 Flax (Linum) , 120 , 184 Fly deer, 11 4 robber, 50 Flycatcher, scissor-tailed , 175, 20 6 Fort Lisa , 6 5 Fort Osage , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 7 9 Fort Smith , Ark. arrival at , 182 , 211-1 3 description, 182-83 , 215 established by Long, 1 9 planned destination , 163 , 176, 178 Foster, Robert, 89 , 163 , 177 Fountain Creek , 136 , 140, 149, 151 , 158 Fountain Formation , 125 , 128, 131 Fox, swift , 112-1 3

Foxglove, fals e (Gerardia), 214 Franklin, Mo., 51-53 , 54 , 86 , 87 Freeman, Thomas, 21 0 Fremont, Joh n Charles, 212 , 213 , 225, 22 6 Gaura mollis, 186 Cilia, scarlet , 119 Godwit, marbled , 95 Goetzmann, W.H . and W.N., 116 , 222, 225 , 23 1 Goldfinch, lesser , 138 Gonorrhea, 46 Goodman, George , 113 , 115, 186 , 201 Gopher, pocket , 85-8 6 Gourd, buffalo , 136 , 137, 187 Graham, James , 17, 88, 21 7 at Cap e Girardeau, 213 , 215 at Enginee r Cantonment , 68, 69, 80,87 background, 2 0 later life , 22 8 Grapes, 172 , 178, 183, 202, 203, 204 Grasses, 104 , 120, 161, 204 Grasshoppers, 146-47 , 16 8 Gray, Asa, 134, 149, 150, 225 Great America n Desert . See Desert conditions Gregg, Josiah, 19 6 Groundnut (Apios americana), 65, 7 5 Ground squirrel , golden-mantled, 154 Grouse blue, 13 2 sharp-tailed, 10 1 Halley, Patrick , 20 , 78 , 21 8 Haltman, Kenneth , 16 , 67

2(50

0

INDEX Hammerson, Geoffrey, 112 , 16 8 Harebell (Campanula), 28 , 13 4 Hares, 106 , 10 8 Harris, Thaddeus, 226-2 7 Hawkweed (Hieradum), 21 1 Heliotrope, 10 5 Hercules'-club (Aralia spinosa), 214 , 216 Heterocerus pallidus, 69 Heuchera bracteata, 145 Hickory, 45-46 , 174 , 213 Hogbacks, 123 , 125 , 128 Holly (Ilex) , 21 4 Honeybees, 49-50 , 56-57, 63, 207 Hops (Humulus), 12 8 Hornbeam American, 4 6 hop, 76 , 86 Horseflies, 47-48 , 17 0 Horses, 112 , 177 , 186, 19 2 slaughter fo r food , 176 , 19 4 Horsetails (Equisetum), 50 , 14 9 Hot springs , 41, 140 , 148 , 213 , 21 4 Hubbell, William , 4 4 Huerfano River , 124 , 15 9 Humboldt, Alexande r von , 1 4 Hummingbird, Ruby-throated, 28-2 9 Hunter, George, 214 letan, 74-7 5 Indians, 67 , 69 , 73 , 90, 91 , 116 , 212, 222. Se e also Arapahos , Arikaras, Cherokees , Cheyennes, Comanches, lowas , Kansas, Kaskaias, Missouris , Omahas, Osages , Otos, Sioux , Shoshones attacks by , 50, 52 , 9 2 diseases of, 46 , 88 , 9 7

foods of , 86, 125 , 19 1 languages of, 167 , 169 , 172 , 177, 220, 23 2 trails of, 135-36, 141 , 152 , 176, 192 Indigo, fals e (Amorpha), 104 , 161 , 192 Iowa Indians , 7 5 James, Edwin, 90, 195 , 21 9 background, 8 4 bitterness agains t Long , 21 8 climbs Pike' s Peak, 140-4 9 joins the expedition , 23 , 84-87, 88,89 later years , 232-33 leaves expedition, 213 , 21 7 plants newl y collected by , 21, 225 , 244-45 prepares the Account, 27 , 28, 220 21, 22 3 trips int o mountains , 127 , 130—31 , 134, 15 2 James Peak , 149 , 18 7 Jamesia, 15 0 Jasmine, rock , 14 5 Jay, blue, 175 , 20 1 Jefferson, Thomas , 3, 11 , 12 , 24, 72 , 101,214 Jessup, Augustus, 18, 36, 37 , 3 8 background, 2 3 joins overlan d trips , 47, 53 , 56 , 5 7 leaves the expedition , 67 , 68, 84, 88 Jimsonweed (Datura), 3 4 Johnson, James , 9, 1 0 Julien, Stephen, 89, 163 , 165 , 174 , 178, 179 , 22 2 Juniper, 46, 122 , 126 , 131 , 142 , 20 7

261 INDEX Kansas Indians , 56, 57-62, 78, 98 Kansas River , 44 , 55, 56-58 Kaskaia Indians , 160 , 165-66, 197 200 Kearny, Stephen , 21 3 Keating, Willia m H. , 230-3 1 Kentucky coffe e tree (Gymnocladus), 63, 73 , 203, 205 Kestrel, 14 9 Killdeer, 20 6 Kingbird, western , 159-60 , 18 5 Kingfishers, 38 , 17 5 Kinnikinnik (Arctostaphylos), 12 8 Kiowa Indians , 5—6 , 16 5 Kite Mississippi, 20 1 swallow-tailed, 5 4 Lady's slipper , yellow, 4 0 Lark, horned , 18 7 Latelesha, 81 , 97 Lawson, Cheryl, 113 , 115, 186, 201 Ledoux, Abraham , 166 , 222 joins expedition , 90 , 98 leaves expedition , 152 , 163, 171 , 172 Leiolopismalaterale, 21 7 Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 64 Leptocoris trivittatus, 7 0 Lewis, Meriwether , 11 , 12 , 99, 119, 120. Se e also Lewis and Clar k Expedition Lewis and Clar k Expedition, 11 , 65 66, 22 4 animals an d plant s recorded by, 12, 71-72 , 119, 154, 159, 189, 190 journals, 12-13 , 14 , 16 , 101, 104, 113

Lice, 75 , 167 , 199 Licorice, wil d (Glycyrrhiza), 10 4 Lily sego, 12 5 southern red, 40 Limnodromus scolopaceus, 82 Linnaeus, Carl , 12 , 14 , 23, 27 , 30 , 72, 186,21 1 Lisa, Manuel , 4 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 39, 52 , 73 , 97 Lisa, Mary , 7 3 Lizards brown skink , 21 7 checkered race-runner, 157-5 8 eastern collared, 18 0 glass snake, 17 5 horned, 62, 102 , 149, 157, 191 two-legged, 111-1 2 Locoweed, Colorad o (Oxytropis lambertii), 8 7 Locust black, 20 6 honey, 53 , 63 , 207 Locust, Rock y Mountain , 14 7 Long Expeditio n arrival at Fort Smith, 182-83 , 21112 criticisms of , 195 , 221, 222-24 , 226 departure fro m Counci l Bluff , 93 , 94 departure fro m Pittsburgh , 23-2 4 final report (Account) , 16 , 218-22 financial problems , 83 , 84-87, 90, 221-22 order of procession, 95, 13 3 successes, 15 , 225-27 Long, Stephe n H. , 11 , 15 , 17 , 89, 213,216,219

2(52

INDEX Long, Stephe n H . (cont.) accomplishments, 18-19 , 224-2 7 and constructio n of steamboat, 19 , 25 divides expedition , 161 , 163 early career , 10 , 18-1 9 and th e "Grea t Desert," 195-97, 222-24 issues orders, 69 , 87-8 9 later life , 224 , 227-28 prepares map, 225-26 quoted, 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 69 , 19 5 reports t o Calhoun, 83, 212, 21 8 trip t o Washington an d return , 67, 68, 82, 83-8 7 Long's Peak , 116 , 117, 124, 130, 226 first sighted, 11 4 Lotus, america n (pon d nut) (Nelumbo), 75 , 86 , 21 1 Louisiana Territory , 3 , 4, 6 , 21 0 Loup River , 95 , 96 , 98 , 16 3 Lousewort (Pedicularis), 14 2 Loutre Island , 47 , 48, 4 9 Lupine, 11 9 Lycostomus sanguinipennis, 139 Lyell, Charles, 12 5 Lyons Formation , 125 , 128, 131 Lytta nuttalli, 139 Mackenzie, Alexander , 3 Maclure, William , 22 , 208, 228 Macrobasis albida, 11 1 Magpies, 101 , 113, 187 Malaria, 215, 216 Mallow, 9 5 globe, 18 4 purple poppy , 10 2 rose, 20 3 Manitou Springs , Colo. , 14 0

Maple, 86 , 21 4 Rocky Mountain , 12 8 Marcy, Randolph, 21 0 Marigold, whit e mars h (Caltha), 142 Martin, purple , 20 1 Massasauga, western, 118-1 9 Masticophus testaceus, 155 Maximilian, Alexander , 22 7 Mayweed (Anthemis), 34 , 23 3 Meadow beauty , Virginia (Rhexia) , 211 Melanoplus mexicanus, 14 7 Melsheimer, John , 217 , 219 Mermaid, fals e (Floerkea), 8 6 Mertensia alpina, 14 5 Mesa d e Maya , 18 7 Mesquite, 169-70 , 191 Michaux, Andre , 30, 38 Milfoil, wate r (Myriophillum), 10 4 Milkvetch (Astragalus) , 45, 95, 108, 189 Milkweed (Asclepias), 105 , 136, 161 Mississippi River, 37-39, 43 , 88 , 213, 215 Missouri Indians , 66 , 7 5 Missouri River, 7 , 9 , 37 , 78 , 22 2 ascent b y expedition, 42 , 43-67, 68 plans t o explore , 11 , 19 , 41 Mistletoe, 20 6 Mockingbirds, 118 , 149, 187, 208 Moneilema annulate , 15 6 Monroe, James , 8, 16 , 19 , 2 6 Monument Creek , 124 , 133, 135 Mosquitoes, 37 , 87 , 95 , 158 , 159 , 200, 21 5 Mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus), 244

263 INDEX Mud pupp y (Necturus), 2 7 Mulberry, 172 , 174 , 203 , 20 8 Mullein, common , 46 , 233 Mushrooms, 17 4 Myers, Charles, 89 , 163 , 177 , 179 Myotis subulatus, 161 Native Americans . Se e Indian s Negro Mesa , 18 7 Nichols, Roger , 20 , 78 , 218 Nightshade, 34 , 53 Ninebark (Physocarpus), 86 , 12 8 Ninnescah River , 17 4 North Park , Colo., 106- 7 North Platt e River , 106 , 12 4 Nowland, Mordecai , 89, 163 , 177 , 178, 17 9 Nuttall, Thomas , 20 , 22, 36, 81 , 132 , 139, 20 8 Genera and Catalogue, 14, 10 2 on th e Arkansas , 13 , 41, 179 , 180 , 195,210, 22 0 on th e Missouri , 7, 13 , 227 Oakley, James, 89, 184 , 21 3 Oaks, 40 , 46 on th e Arkansas , 173 , 180 , 18 3 on th e Canadian , 187 , 204 , 205 , 206, 207 , 214, 216 on th e Fron t Range , 122 , 126 , 131, 13 2 O'Fallon, Benjamin , 53, 69 joins expedition , 18 , 45 visits wit h Indians , 56 , 74-75, 80 81,93 Ohio River , 9, 25-37 Omaha Indians , 73, 75 , 78 Onions, wild , 87 , 94-95 Opossums, 49 , 21 1

Orchid northern green, 13 4 showy, 3 7 Ord, George , 12 , 14 , 22, 101-2 , 104 , 159, 22 9 Osage Indians , 19 , 179 , 18 2 Osage orang e (Maclurapomifera), 76 , 208 Oto Indians , 66 , 74-75 , 77 , 80, 169 Owls, 108 , 192 , 20 3 burrowing, 151 , 170 , 193 , 19 4 Paintbrush, India n scarlet, 4 0 western yellow , 145, 14 6 Palmer Lake , Colo., 132 , 133 , 14 5 Parakeet, Carolina , 38 , 43, 48 , 52, 175, 207 , 208 , 22 6 described, 32-33 Parish, William, 89 , 152 , 16 3 Parkman, Francis , 19 6 Parry, Charles, 149 , 23 2 Parsnip, water (Sium) , 120 Partridge pea (Cassia) , 19 2 Passerina amoena, 15 4 Pawnee Indians , 4 , 38, 61 , 75 , 17 0 villages of, 80-81, 90, 96-100, 102, 16 3 Pawpaw, 53, 21 1 Pea, butterfl y (Clitoria), 21 1 Peale, Charles Willson, 22 , 23 , 2 4 Peale, Rubens , 22 , 2 3 Peale, Titian , 17 , 31, 53 , 67, 72 , 89, 90, 129 , 21 3 background, 22-2 3 becomes lost , 200-20 1 illustrations of birds, 64,80,88,194 illustrations of Indians, 59 , 60 , 77 , 78, 98 , 198 , 199 , 23 0

264

INDEX Peale, Titian (cont. ) illustrations of insects, 61, 16 2 illustrations o f plants, 100 , 105, 119, 137,21 5 illustrations of Western Engineer, 26,66 illustrations of wildlife, 35 , 85 , 102, 109 , 118, 154, 158, 185, 190 journal, 15 , 28, 5 4 later life , 217 , 229-3 0 overland trip s from th e Missouri, 47,62 trips into the mountains , 127 , 13031 Pcale's Museum , 21, 22 , 101 , 217 , 226, 23 1 Pecans, 180 , 208 Pelican, white , 37, 38 , 20 8 Penstemon jamesii, 189 Pepper-grass (Lepidium), 11 3 Pepsis formosa, 161 , 182 Perry Park , Colo., 13 1 Persimmon, 39, 206 Petalesharoo, 81 , 97 Peterson, Roge r Tory, 3 3 Philadelphia Museum . See Peale's Museum Phoebe, Say's , 15 5 Pigeon band-tailed, 131-3 2 passenger, 82, 22 6 Pika, 14 4 Pike, Zebulon , 22 , 9 2 describes deserts of West, 19 5 expedition of , 4-6, 121 , 140, 152, 153, 159 , 179, 224 fails t o find Red River , 21 0 journals of, 14 , 16 , 9 6

Pike's Peak , 124 , 135, 136, 226 climbed b y James, 140-49, 22 5 height estimated , 14 0 identified b y Long, 114 , 130 painted by Seymour, 138 , 139 Pines, 132 , 142, 149 Pinus flexilis , 14 9 Pittsburgh, Pa., 17, 25 , 27 , 2 8 Plantain, 53 , 95 Platte River , 5, 56, 57 , 88 , 97 . See also North Platte , Sout h Platt e arrival at , 65 , 80, 102- 5 confluence o f forks, 105 , 106 Plum Creek , 124 , 128, 132

Plums, 176, 178 , 179, 203 , 204

Pokeweed (Phytolacca), 53 , 174 , 201 Polyphylla 10-lineata , 98 , 9 9 Poppy, prickly (Argemone) , 104-5, 161, 20 6 Populus angustifolia, 11 9 Prairie-chickens, 54 , 87 , 88 , 172, 173 Prairie clover (Dalea), 108 , 185 Prairie dogs, 99, 101-2 , 118 , 143, 144, 173 , 193 Primrose alpine, 14 5 evening, 108 , 204 Primula angustifolia, 14 5 Prince's plum e (Stanleya), 13 6 Pronghorn (antelope) , 77 , 186 , 204 described, 12 , 103- 4 painted b y Peale, 11 8 taken by expedition, 95 , 106 , 120, 132, 135 , 161 Puccoon (Lithospermum), 95, 10 0 Purcell, James, 5-6, 12 1 Purgatoire River, 124 , 164-65, 184, 189

265

INDEX

Pursh, Frederick, 12, 13-14, 41, 120 , 136

Purslane (Portulaca), 115 , 18 9 Pyrola secunda, 13 4

Raccoon, 211 Rafinesque, Constantine , 15 , 27, 86 ,

155, 19 0

Raspberry, 127 , 18 9 Rat kangaroo, 13 6 wood, 38, 53-54 , 153 Ratibida tagetes, 184 Rattlesnakes, 57 , 118 , 155 , 170 , 19 1 Redbud (Cercis) , 29, 30, 20 5 Red Mouse , 197 , 19 8 Red River , 160 , 22 6 search for , b y Long, 10 , 11 , 88 , 163, 184-20 9 search for , by Pike, 4 , 5 sources discovere d b y Marcy, 21 0 Robins, 120 , 136 , 149 , 18 7 Rocky Ford , Colo. , 124 , 161 , 163 , 184 Rocky Mountain s first sighted, 11 4 geology of , 123-25 , 128 , 130-31 , 152-53 painted b y Seymour, 116 , 117 ,

118, 13 9

Roses, wild , 40, 9 9 Roxborough Stat e Park , Colo. , 128 Rubus deliciosus, 127 St. Charles , Mo., 45 , 47, 52 St. Charle s River, 158 , 15 9 St. Louis , Mo., 37 , 39-42, 84, 85 St. Vrai n River , 116 , 12 4 Saldula pallipes, 4 5

Salpinctes obsoletus, 126 Salt deposits , 36 , 49, 51-52, 131 , 200 Sandbur (Cenchrus), 19 3 Sandpipers, 20 6 Bartram's, 4 7 pectoral, 8 2 semipalmated, 34 , 3 5 upland, 9 5 Santa F e Trail, 5 , 7 , 163 , 164 , 187 , 196 Sassafras, 46 , 18 3 Sarsaparilla, commo n (Aralia) , 128 Saxifrage, James's , 14 5 Say, Thomas , 15 , 17 , 27, 87 , 89 , 9 0 animals describe d by , 225, 234 ,

238

background, 21—22 , 2 3 later life , 220 , 226 , 228-2 9 leaves for Philadelphia , 213 , 21 7 loses possessions , 112 , 177-79 , 21 9 meets Audubon, 3 1 overland trip s from th e Missouri , 45, 47-48, 53-55 overland tri p t o Kansas , 56 , 57-62, 67 studies Indian customs and languages, 73-78 , 80-81, 88, 220 writes t o correspondents , 196 , 217 , 219 Sayornis saya, 15 5 Scorpion-grass (Myosotis), 18 9 Sensitive bria r (Schrankia), 19 1 Seymour, Samuel , 16 , 18 , 87, 90 , 213, 22 6 background, 2 4 later life , 217 , 220 , 230-31

266 INDEX Seymour, Samuel (com. ) overland trip s from th e Missouri , 47, 53 , 56 , 5 8 paintings o f Indians, 62 , 74 , 165 66 paintings o f landscapes, 115—16 , 117, 118 , 122-23, 133 , 138-39 trip into mountains , 130-3 1 Sheep, bighorn , 131 , 147 Shooting star (Dodecatheon), 128 Shoshonc Indians , 7 Shrews, 7 1 Shrimps, tadpole , 105— 6 Sioux Indians , 6 , 7 , 75 , 11 1 Sistrurus tergeminus, 118 Skink, brown, 21 7 Skullcap (Scutellaria), 105 Skunks, 48 , 72 , 17 4 Smallpox, 9 7 Smithland, Ky. , 36, 21 7 Snakeroot, prairi e (Liatris) , 46 Snakes. See also Rattlesnake s blue racer , 70 glass, 17 5 pilot black , 63-64 red-sided garter , 70 western coachwhip , 15 5 western ribbon, 7 0 Snowberry (Symphoricarpos), 46 , 9 9 Snowlover, 14 5 South Park , Colo. , 4 , 5, 6 , 12 1 South Platt e River , 4, 124 , 221 , 222 expedition follows , 106-23, 125, 127 sources of, 146 , 149, 160 Spanish, 5 , 159 , 160, 197, 199 , 210 , 212 Sparks, Richard , 21 0

Sparrow, Lark, 63, 64 Speedwell (Veronica) , 10 5 Spermophilus grammurus, 18 5 Spermophilus lateralis, 15 4 Sphedus grandis, 162 Spider flowe r (Cleome), 10 8 Spiderwort (Tradescantia), 40, 8 6 Spruce, Colorad o blue, 134 , 149 Spurge (Euphorbia), 113 , 185 Squirrels, 48, 87 , 20 8 fox, 28 , 5 7 gray, 3 4 rock, 18 5 Steamboats, 9 , 10 , 19 , 34, 41 , 51 . See also Western Engineer on th e Missouri , 43-44 Stizoides renidnctus, 16 3 Stobaera tricarinata, 45 Stonecrop (Sedum), 29 , 30, 14 2 Sumac, smoot h (Rhus glabra), 39, 53 , 76 Sunflowers (Hdianthus), 105 , 161 , 172, 189 , 206 Sun spiders , 126, 15 7 Swallows bank, 3 8 barn, 8 7 cliff, 15 5 Sweney, John , 89 , 184 , 213 Swift, William , 17 , 53 , 178 , 179 , 213, 21 7 accompanies expeditio n t o Rockies, 88 , 89 , 90, 14 0 at Enginee r Cantonment , 68 background, 20 later life , 22 8 loses possessions, 17 7 overland tri p to Kansas , 56 Swifts, chimney , 5 1

267

INDEX Sycamore, 32 , 45 , 54 , 207 Syphilis, 46 Tamias quadrivittatus, 153 Tanager, summer , 206 Tanner, Henry S. , 114 Tarantulas, 181 , 20 8 Telesonix jamesii, 145 Terns, 20 0 least, 34-35, 43 Thwaites, Reuben, 13 , 29 Tibicen dorsata, 6 0 Ticks, 87 , 181,204,206-7,21 0 Toad, grea t plains, 168 Tollgate Canyon , 187 Torrey, John, 21 , 84 , 149 , 23 2 describes plants collected b y James, 109 , 127 , 128, 145 , 150 , 191, 220 , 22 5 Towhee, 14 9 Townsend, Joh n Kirk , 33, 227 Triepeolus quadrifasciatus, 13 9 Trifolium nanum, 145 Tropidolophus formosus, 16 8 Tucker, Joh n M., 184 , 187 , 189 , 190 , 193 Tulip trees , 183 , 21 6 Tupelo, 206 , 207 , 216 Turkeys, 76 , 20 5 observed, 38 , 201 , 20 3 taken fo r food, 34, 48 , 56 , 158 , 159, 161 , 17 4 Turtles, 34 , 174 , 175 , 201 Tyrannus verticalis, 16 0 Ute Creek , 124 , 189, 190 , 19 3 Verdigris River, 180, 21 1 Vermivora celatus, 82

Verplank, Joseph, 89, 141 , 143 , 145 , 184, 18 9 Vetch (Vicia), 95 Vetchling, hoary (Latkrus), 9 5 Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus), 20 7 Vulpes velox, 11 2 Vultures, 28 , 108 , 201 , 207 , 20 8 Wallflower, wester n (Erysimum), 10 4 Walnut, black , 49 , 63 , 172 , 173, 203 , 205 Warblers, 17 5 cerulean, 8 2 orange-crowned, 8 2 Wilson's, 5 4 Wasps cicada killer , 16 2 digger, 13 9 mutillid, 13 9 tarantula hawk, 161-62 , 182 Waterton Canyon, 122-2 4 Waxflower (Jamesia), 15 0 Webb, Walte r Prescott , 223 Western Engineer, 10, 17 , 18 , 20 , 27 , 28, 10 3 at Enginee r Cantonment, 67, 68, 75 construction of , 2 5 description of , 19 , 25-26, 3 9 navigation problem s of, 34, 35 , 37 , 38, 44 , 47, 50-51 , 53 , 56 on th e Mississippi , 83, 88, 213 , 215 sketched b y Peale, 26 , 6 6 wood stop s for, 30, 4 9 Whipoorwill, 2 8 Wildcats, 49, 15 9 Willard, Beatrice , 144 Williams, Ezekiel , 6-7 , 52 , 15 9

268 INDEX Willows, 45 , 104 , 130 , 152 , 161 , 173, 20 9 Wilson, Alexander , 12 , 13 , 14 , 22, 54, 155 , 22 9 Wilson, Zachariah , 89 , 141 , 143 , 144, 145 , 184 , 21 3 Wintergreen, one-sided , 134 Witch hazel, 40 Wolf River, 56 , 57 , 6 2 Wolves described by Say, 7 2 howling heard , 87 , 17 0 observed, 54 , 174 , 187 , 201 , 203 , 204, 20 8 taken by hunters, 20 5 Woodchuck, common , 50 , 101 Woodpeckers ivory-billed, 208 , 22 6

Lewis's, 12 , 14 9 pileated, 34, 206 , 20 8 red-headed, 14 9 Wormwood, silver y (Artemisia), 10 9 Worster, Donald , 223 , 22 4 Wren, 149 Carolina, 5 2 rock, 126 , 18 5 Yellowlegs, 28 , 20 6 Yellowstone Expedition, 9 , 10 , 68, 83 Yellowstone River , 4, 5 , 6, 8 , 9 , 42 , 44, 92-93 Yucca, 105 , 126 , 20 6 Zwinger, Ann, 14 4

The Natural History of the Long Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1819-1820)

Read more

Over the Rocky Mountains

Read more

In the Rocky Mountains

Read more

Over the Rocky Mountains

Read more

Over the Rocky Mountains

Read more

Over The Rocky Mountains

Read more

Over the Rocky Mountains

Read more

Rocky Mountains

Read more

Edible Native Plants of the Rocky Mountains

Read more

Edible Native Plants of the Rocky Mountains

Read more

The Natural History of the Lewis and Clark Expedition

Read more

The Natural West: Environmental History in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains

Read more

a lady's life in the rocky mountains

Read more

Forest fragmentation in the southern Rocky Mountains

Read more

The Vigilantes of Montana. Justice in the Rocky Mountains

Read more

Das Phantom der Rocky Mountains

Read more

Up in the Rocky Mountains: Writing the Swedish Immigrant Experience

Read more

Das Phantom der Rocky Mountains

Read more

Das Phantom der Rocky Mountains

Read more

The Rocky Road to Romance

Read more

The Natural History of Moths

Read more

The Romance of Natural History

Read more

The Natural History of Religion

Read more

The Natural History of Nonsense

Read more

Handbook of the trees of the northern states and Canada east of the Rocky Mountains

Read more

East of the Mountains

Read more

East of the Mountains

Read more

The Mountains of Brega

Read more

The Mountains Of Brega

Read more

The Mountains of Mourning

Read more

Recommend Documents

The Natural History of the Long Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1819-1820)

The natural History of THE LON G E X P E D I T I O N T O TH E ROCKY MOUNTAIN S 1819-1820 The natural Historu of T...

Over the Rocky Mountains

In the Rocky Mountains

Over the Rocky Mountains

Over the Rocky Mountains

Over The Rocky Mountains

Over the Rocky Mountains

Rocky Mountains

Edible Native Plants of the Rocky Mountains

cover title author publisher isbn10 | asin print isbn13 ebook isbn13 language subject publication date lcc ddc subject ...

Edible Native Plants of the Rocky Mountains

cover title author publisher isbn10 | asin print isbn13 ebook isbn13 language subject publication date lcc ddc subject ...