The New Woman in Print and Pictures: An Annotated Bibliography

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The New Woman in Print and Pictures

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The New Woman in Print and Pictures An Annotated Bibliography M ARIANNE B ERGER WOODS

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London

LIBRARY

OF

CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Woods, Marianne Berger, 1941– The new woman in print and pictures : an annotated bibliography / Marianne Berger Woods. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7864-3624-8 softcover : 50# alkaline paper 1. Women — United States — History — Bibliography. 2. Feminism — United States — History — Bibliography. 3. Women’s rights — United States — History — Bibliography. I. Title. Z7964.U49W66 2009 [HQ1410] 016.30540973 — dc22 2009006124 British Library cataloguing data are available ©2009 Marianne Berger Woods. All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. On the cover: Wash Day, Underwood & Underwood ca. 1901, Library of Congress; background ©2008 Shutterstock Manufactured in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Box 611, Je›erson, North Carolina 28640 www.mcfarlandpub.com

To all contemporary and historic New Women

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CONTENTS Preface 1 Introduction 5

PRIMARY

PART I WORKS, 1894–1938 19

PART II SECONDARY WORKS, 1962–2008 97 Index 179

vii

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PREFACE “Hindsight is 20/20” is a tried and true expression. Had I known eight years ago what I know now, I probably would not have undertaken this enormous project. Having said that, I’m not sorry that I did. My reasons for persisting are many. First is my hope that this will be a valuable aid to New Woman scholars. I developed an afﬁnity for the New Woman while perusing microﬁlm of historical Ohio newspapers. Though I was not looking for her, the frequency with which her image appeared in the mid-to-late 1890s newspapers aroused my curiosity in what later became my orphan obsession. Because I was too busy tending children to participate in the feminist movement of the late 1970s, I regard this book as my penance — and my tribute to the women who did march for abortion rights, for women’s rights, for human rights. Without their showing me a different way and without my reading of Herstory by June Sochen (1981), I would still be stuck in the kitchen and laundry room. I earned a master’s degree and doctorate because I had role models showing me what women could achieve. A few words as to the methodology and philosophy for making choices for this work: At the outset I included every book or article including “New Woman” in its text, and I made a note of each book/essay identiﬁed by a scholar as “New Woman,” without regard for date. Soon it was evident the material is too vast for this kind of scrutiny. So I eliminated critical reviews of New Woman books contemporary with their publication — the plethora of material written in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in regard to the reception of speciﬁc novels and plays. I also excluded material strictly related to women’s suffrage and eugenics, even those with “New Woman” in their titles. For secondary materials I focus on more modern articles, essays, and book chapters — but only those with titles including those words. 1

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Then I chose 1894 as the beginning of New Woman period literature. I am aware that most scholars regard The Story of an African Farm (1883) by Olive Schreiner as the ﬁrst New Woman novel and Lyndall as the ﬁrst New Woman ﬁctional character, because she refuses to marry the father of her child so as not to thwart her chances of becoming an actress. And certainly Lady Florence Dixie’s futuristic Gloriana, or The Revolution of 1900 (1890) suggests potential feminist revolution. Further, The Heavenly Twins (1893) by Sarah Grand is a feminist tract and precursor of the New Woman. But for the sake of consistency, none of these three made my list. One would also be remiss in failing to categorize A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen as “New Woman,” but its 1879 date places it outside my time frame. Many scholars/authors have named other novels/short stories/plays preceding 1894 as examples of New Woman literature. While abiding by the aforementioned parameters, I have also eliminated blatantly antifeminist works, despite their New Woman titles. I surely have overlooked some excellent and viable contributions, and again, to their authors, I apologize. The almost overwhelming mass of possibilities and the wish to “ﬁnish” meant calling a halt to new entries. I kept bumping into myself (ﬁnding “possibilities” that I’d already annotated and thinking they were new). As my dissertation advisor, Judith Arcana, once told me, “It’s time to quit when that happens.” This annotated bibliography does include all period (1894 to 1938) novels with a New Woman protagonist and all articles with the New Woman as subject. As mentioned, I had hoped to locate every article with New Woman in the title, but after ﬁnding 1,092 articles, cartoons, and poems on ProQuest alone, I abandoned this scheme. I have retained the short articles I had already annotated, primarily from journals such as Shafts and Punch, and dropped the new-to-me historical articles from the New York Times, Life, and other newspapers and journals. This annotated bibliography, then, includes historical novels and plays that other scholars or I have categorized as having New Woman “status,” historical articles and poems directly related to the New Woman, and critical material written since the mid–1960s, when the New Woman began to receive attention again. Since the 1980s, interest in the New Woman has mushroomed, so only those essays or articles with “New Woman” in their titles are included. (Other essays or articles in the same collections may contain New Woman subject matter.) The same criteria applied to dissertations, but many with “New Woman” in their titles are not annotated, either because en masse they are too expensive to order or because they are not available at all. The abundance of material demanded boundaries; these are mine.

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Putting together The New Woman in Print and Pictures has been a labor of devotion, not love. And I could not have completed it without the assistance of many. My institution, the University of Texas of the Permian Basin (UTPB), awarded me two grants for research assistance and to obtain the images for this book. Thanks to all the administrators for their encouragement and especially to the anonymous donor who provided a faculty development grant, enabling me to complete my research and fund annotation assistance. Of the individuals who helped me, ﬁrst and foremost is Anita Voorhies. A reference librarian at the Dunagan Library, UTPB, she went out of her way in ordering books and articles by Interlibrary Loan that I was unable to locate in other repositories. On several occasions when a microﬁlm came in, she went beyond the call of duty to locate the articles I needed and photocopy them for me. She ordered many images from the University of Texas in Austin; she performed a myriad of helpful tasks in the ﬁve years I have been associated with the university. Even before teaching at UTPB, I worked intensely on the research for this book. I was then living in Meadville, Pennsylvania, and not ofﬁcially associated with Allegheny College, but the Pelletier Library staff always did much to help me. The Library of Congress, the Ransom Center (University of Texas, Austin), and the Oberlin College Library also provided me with books, articles, and services. Thanks also to Susan K. Martin of La Trobe University (Melbourne), who, when Interlibrary Loan was unable to obtain Futures Exchange from Australia, sent a copy of her article to me. And to Kent Smith of the Illinois State Museum, who went out of his way to locate The “New Woman” in Chicago, 1910–45: Paintings from Illinois Collections, a catalog that accompanied the 1993–94 exhibition of that title. Because of the extensive reading and writing necessary to create this bibliography, several scholars helped with annotations. Although each contributed greatly, the work of Jessica Cox of Great Britain has been invaluable. She was able to read novels unavailable in the United States, and she made several trips to the British Library, which holds the only copies worldwide of a number of New Woman books. Jessica and I hope to meet one day on one side of the “big pond” or the other. I thank Ann Heilmann, Jessica Cox’s mentor and one of the world’s preeminent New Woman scholars, who led me to Jessica and who provided advice and encouragement. Other contributors of New Woman books and articles are Christine Bayles Kortsch, Pamela Miles, Janie Nelson, Misty Wiberg, and Dusty Murphy. Thanks to my colleagues Christine Hahn and Roland Spickermann for annotations from articles in German, to my cousin Karen Thutt Geduldig

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4

for annotating articles written in French, and to my friend Grace Aguilar for annotating an article in Spanish. As to the illustrations, I have chosen images only whose captions included the words “New Woman” or “New Women.” There are, of course, many more pictures and cartoons indicating the threat posed by the New Woman to the status quo. As mentioned, images of the New Woman, especially those in the Toledo Blade and Cincinnati Enquirer, are what ﬁrst attracted me to the New Woman phenomenon. I obtained illustrations from a variety of sources in the public domain, through private sources, and through previous personal collection. Richard L. Helmes of The Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County photographed images selected from the Cincinnati Enquirer. Friend and colleague Tara Tappert found others in old newspapers at the Library of Congress. After seeing Edward Lamson Henry’s The New Woman (1897) in the February 1995 issue of Art & Antiques, I long searched for the original. When it reappeared in the exhibition and catalog Off the Pedestal: New Women in the Art of Homer, Chase, and Sargent (2006), I was delighted. Curator Holly Pyne Connor generously put me in touch with the owner and lent the color transparency that the Newark Museum of Art had made for its catalog. Thanks to Jonathan Miller for preparing all the images and organizing them for publication. And to Patricia Green of Homer, Alaska, for her generosity in indexing the entries. I recognize my dissertation advisor, Judith Arcana, who encouraged me when this bibliography was a mere twenty-ﬁve pages long. An editor is, of course, the most important link between author and audience, and Ellen Green of St. Paul, Minnesota, has helped me to be grammatically correct, consistent, and understandable throughout the compilation of this volume. I thank her for her expertise and patience.

INTRODUCTION To offer a simple deﬁnition of the New Woman would trivialize a complex phenomenon. There is no single vision or image of the New Woman. In fact, it is the multidimensional aspect of the women of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that characterizes them. Women were and are complex and creative; their striving for diversity led to the New Woman movement. Even liberated women such as Beatrix Potter, English writer and illustrator of children’s books who smoked cigarettes and believed in her own professional abilities, were conservative on the issue of female suffrage. Ida Tarbell, the American muckraker, certainly pursued her own career, but she thought it wrong for married women with children to become professionals. The New Woman was a combination of tradition and innovation. The movement of the 1890s was certainly not the ﬁrst feminist insurgence in history, but in its naming through the exchange between Sarah Grand and Quida in the North American Review in the spring of 1894,1 the New Woman movement became more widespread than that of any feminist movement before or since. Buoyed by the forthcoming “new” century, everything was dubbed new. There were New Art, New Journalism, New Political Economy, New Morality, New Sex, and so forth, and of course, the New Woman. The phenomenon ﬂowered due to the plethora of novels (primarily British) and plays published in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries referencing independent women and the conﬂuence of women working outside the home, as well as female suffrage, dress reform, women’s advances in legal rights, increased educational opportunities, birth control, and sexual and physical freedom. Naming the New Woman in 1894 gave credence to a growing feminist movement and mobilized its conservative critics. A storm of poems and images depicting the New Woman with the diversity of the women themselves soon joined the novels and plays. 5

Introduction

6

The novels vary in the degree of independence evinced by their protagonists. Some of these stories seem terribly conservative to the early twentyﬁrst-century mind — often they focus on romance and end with a conventional marriage, but at some point in these stories, their protagonists attempt independence. Often New Woman characters have intended to live their own lives but in the end acquiesce to the pressures of society. In cases where the New Woman became too brazen or daring in terms of conventional late-nineteenthand early-twentieth-century roles for women, the ﬁnal resolution was death to her — often suicide — and/or death to her child or children. This was the price women paid for going too far. Victorian society regarded women as incapable of taking care of themselves, assuming the protection of men was necessary. In The Damnation of Theron Ware (1896), when Methodist minister Theron Ware encounters the red-headed Irish Catholic organist, Celia, he thinks he is ﬂattering her by saying that titled European males would “ﬁght one another for you”: “That is the old-fashioned idea,” she said, in a musing tone, “that women must belong to somebody, as if they were curios, or statues, or race-horses. You don’t understand, my friend, that I have a different view. I am myself, and I belong to myself, exactly as any man. The notion that any other human being could conceivably obtain the slightest property rights in me is as preposterous, as ridiculous as — what shall I say?— as the notion of your being taken out with a chain on your neck and sold by auction as a slave, down on the canal bridge. I should be ashamed to be alive for another day, if any other thought were possible to me.”2

The New Woman (ﬁctional or real) challenged prevailing Victorian attitudes such as Ware’s and posited an alternative to the accepted and acceptable True or Ideal Woman. The New Woman was characterized in 1924 as “one who wanted to belong to the human race, not to the ladies aid society to the human race.”3 Also signiﬁcant to the emergence of the New Woman was the legislation passed in Britain in 1894 allowing women to vote in local elections. Women of New Zealand won the right to vote at the federal level in 1893. By 1894 women in South Australia could vote in state elections, and in 1903 Australia granted female suffrage in national elections. Canada followed but not until 1918, then the United States in 1922, Great Britain in 1928, and South Africa in 1930. In 1919 Woman’s Journal announced the election of the American Nancy Langhorne (Lady Astor) to the British House of Commons, noting also that the United States had previously elected Jeannette Rankin to Congress. Finland, Holland, and Denmark, the anonymous author wrote, had all “returned women to parliament in the last twelve months.”4 But the New Woman’s main platform was not limited to suffrage and politics.

7

Introduction

Factors leading to the New Woman phenomenon and the proliferation of New Woman literature were many and varied; one would never be able to identify the issue or problem that contributed most signiﬁcantly. Concerns regarding marriage were central to feminist writing — especially to Sarah Grand. Her campaign aimed at the double standard and women’s inability to protect themselves from husbands who frequently infected them with sexually transmitted diseases, subsequently impregnated them, and then left them to care for both mentally and physically unhealthy children. As early as 1880, Grand wrote “The Baby’s Tragedy” in The Lady’s Realm. Her interest was immorality and the shameful way that men, including those of the upper classes, treated their wives. Grand did not disdain marriage; in fact, quite the opposite. Her intent was enlightenment, education, and empowerment. In the United States, Annie E. Tomlinson spoke out against inequality in male and female relationships in her 1896 article, “The New Woman and the Marriage Problem.”5 With the advent of the New Woman, many considered matrimony and maternity to be decisions, not duties! The moral issue regarding the double standard took precedent with New Woman authors. Perhaps the most blatant and straightforward dialogue about the issue shows up in Howard’s End. Henry, Margaret’s philandering husband, has just barred Helen, his pregnant, unmarried sister-in-law, from “his” and Margaret’s home. Margaret becomes irate: “Not any more of this!” she cried. “You shall see the connection if it kills you, Henry! You have had a mistress — I forgave you. My sister has a lover — you drive her from the house. Do you see the connection? Stupid, hypocritical, cruel — oh, contemptible!— a man who insults his wife when she’s alive and cants with her memory when she’s dead. A man who ruins a woman for his pleasure, and casts her off to ruin other men. And ... gives bad ﬁnancial advice, and then says he is not responsible. These men are you. You can’t recognize them because you can’t connect. I’ve had enough of your unseeded kindness. I’ve spoilt you long enough. All your life you have been spoilt. Mrs. Wilcox spoiled you. No one has ever told you what you are — muddled, criminally muddled. Men like you use repentance as a blind, so don’t repent. Only say to yourself: ‘What Helen has done, I’ve done.’” “The two cases are different,” Henry stammered. His real retort was not quite ready. His brain was still in a whirl, and he wanted a little longer. “In what way different? You have betrayed Mrs. Wilcox, Helen only herself. You remain in society, Helen can’t. You have had only pleasure, she may die. You have the insolence to talk to me of differences, Henry?”6

There were many Henrys in Britain and around the world, but not all women had the courage to confront their husbands, and women such as Margaret provided positive role models in saying, “enough is enough.” Although she was married, this one conversation shows Margaret’s New Woman status! Married New Women did not want to be deﬁned primarily by their roles

Introduction

8

as wives and mothers, and they worried more about selfidentity than about the outwardly visible effects of dress reform, smoking cigarettes, and mobility. Whereas the Victorian woman was frequently likened to a bird in a cage — the New Woman sought escape but when she escaped she often found it difﬁcult to get on in life. The latchkey and the bicycle became icons symbolizing the New Woman’s entrée to freedom. British law barred women from access to “New Zealand New Women.” New Zealand was their own keys before 1912, the ﬁrst country to enact woman suffrage; these New Women with manly haircuts and dress ride and in Newark, New Jersey, “A Judge in that advanced tandem. Chicago Daily Tribune, 31 May 1896. town has decided that wives belonging to clubs have a legal right to a latchkey and to return home at any of the small hours that best suit them.” Further, the New York Times reported in 1898, “Husbands who oppose this right as an exclusive one of their own are liable to arrest and ﬁne.... The latchkey unlocks the last fetter binding downtrodden woman to tyrannical conventions.”7 The New Woman captured the interest and imagination of writers and image-makers alike. Articles appeared in magazines, journals, and newspapers that appealed to all segments of society: highbrow, middlebrow, and lowbrow. Poems, jingles, ditties, couplets, and limericks exposed and exploited the New Woman. At least two British magazines sponsored reader competitions for poems deﬁning the New Woman. The anonymous winner of the contest in the one-penny paper Woman wrote in September 1894: She ﬂouts Love’s caresses, Reforms ladies’ dresses, And scorns the Man-Monster’s tirades; She seems scarcely human, This mannish “New Woman,” This “Queen of the Blushless Brigade.”8

Home Chat held its competition in September 1895. The winner of this contest submitted a three-verse rhyme:

9

Introduction

Who cuts her back hair off quite short And put on clothes she didn’t ought, And apes a man in word and thought? New Woman. Who rides a cycle round the town, In costume making all men frown And otherwise acts like a clown? New Woman Who’s sweetest of the sweet, I say, Because she throws not sex away, Is always lady-like, yet gay? True Woman.9

The phenomenon was trivialized in Britain’s Punch, or the London Charivari, which regularly published poems, cartoons, and caricatures meant to make the New Woman look ridiculous. Newspapers in the United States soon jumped on the bandwagon, publishing stories and images related to the New Woman. Even smaller cities such as Cincinnati and Toledo (Ohio) featured articles pro and con and images deﬁnitely attracting viewer attention. Many of them were syndicated and reproduced in a variety of newspapers and journals. Anxiety regarding motherhood can be seen in a 1909 issue of Life— a hen lays an egg and asks, “Hey! What’s that?” William H. Walker, illustrator for Life, produced images of women in extreme situations such as “The New Navy,” a centerfold in April 1896 depicting an entirely female navy in “about 1900 A.D.” The New Woman was used even to sell new products. Given her interest in athletics and public life, manufacturers devised new garments — even new undergarments! For one who took to the wheel, the Gage-Downs Company of Chicago created the “Bicycle Waist” and advertised in Ladies’ Home Journal. Inasmuch as the New Woman posed a threat to the status quo and created gender anxiety in conservative males, the New Woman continued to carry on with her domestic duties. Advertisements for modern conveniences such as the Sweeperette depicted an old woman with the old-fashioned broom that the New Woman would not use; the housewife was to assume that if she used Grand Rapids’ Sweeperette she would have more free time. If she utilized modern conveniences she could be out and about, and she was also told it would behoove her to bathe with Ivory Soap and clean her teeth with Rubifoam. Images of the New Woman were so pervasive that they appeared on cigarette cards, postal cards, and even on stereographs (two practically identical photographs mounted side by side on a stiff card and placed in a viewer called a stereoscope). A hinged paper doll of 1901 was part of the New Woman rev-

Introduction

10

olution in Britain. This illustrates the folly of the threat to the so-called “natural order.” With a walking stick in one hand, the other tucked in her jacket in typical Britishy “swagger,” this (smoking) New Woman is dressed to go out. Her husband, a puppet positioned under pictures of the church and the hen, is posed to change the diapers (nappies) of the screaming twins and do the wash. The bicycle was seen as a means of freedom to the New Woman, and Puck, the American equivalent of Punch, depicted a wide variety of riding “new” women in a comical manner. But women riding their bicycles came under intense scrutiny for several reasons. Unlike the horse that could be ridden sidesaddle, the bicycle could not. One New Woman who donned bloomers to ride her bike in New York State was arrested. But in other locations women were celebrated for mounting the new-fangled wheel. The Chicago Daily Tribune of 13 April 1895 reported on Annie “Londonderry” Kopchovsky of Boston (paid one hundred dollars by the Londonderry Lithia Spring Water Company to advertise with a bicycle placard), who rode a bike around the world in ﬁfteen months. The article titled “New Woman on a Tour” reported that Londonderry had never ridden a bike previously (she practiced one afternoon). A sketch of her standing beside the bicycle in bloomers illustrates the article.10 She had ridden off, leaving her husband and three small children. Upon her return, she wrote extensively for the New York World, and in an article This New Woman takes charge of driving the regarding her journey she hansom while the former driver appears forlorn in the cab. Another man is depicted in the wrote, “I am a journalist and a background with a smirk on his face. Punch, New Woman if that term or the London Charivari, 19 December 1896. means that I believe I can do

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anything that any man can do.” A documentary ﬁlm —The New Woman: The Life and Times of Annie “Londonderry” Kopchovsky— is currently in production.11 Londonderry was not alone in traveling a long distance on the bicycle. The Boston Daily of 3 October 1894 reported on a British woman, Miss Bacon, who went on a 1,200-mile ride through England and Scotland. Her sporty costume was noted as “rational and pretty.” The reporter wrote: “No one, I am glad to hear, even laughed at The husband stays home and knits while the New her.”12 In ﬁction Jane de Woman prepares for a ride on her bicycle. Toledo Mullin, mother of Janet, Blade, 22 June 1895. a young pregnant single woman, blamed Janet’s pregnancy on the independence afforded by the bicycle.13 African American women took to the wheel as well. In Contending Forces: A Romance Illustrative of Negro Life North and South, 1899, Sister Davis cycles with her gentleman friend. Although she is not out on her own, that she takes the lead is signiﬁcant. Women were beginning to engage in sports other than cycling. Horseback riding became safer when the sidesaddle was discarded for the controversial “riding astride.” The change did not go without notice as evidenced in a New York World article about Miss Pauline French — a New Woman who dared to ride astride. An anonymous poet wrote about the controversy in a graphic poem about the acceptability of riding astride in Boston. In the extreme, New Women were depicted as hunters, but in reality a Miss Kittie Carr killed a “Big Wildcat” when her male companion was afraid to do so. Included in a short video in the recent exhibition Off the Pedestal: New Women in the Art of Homer, Chase, and Sargent, were two New Women facing off in a boxing match. Some crazy events took place to commemorate the freedom New Women experienced. A “Bloomer Ball” took place in Jackson Park (Chicago) in July

13

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1895, and in Long Island, a New Woman party for a little girl. The children (likely all girls) received paper clothing. Blindfolded, they attached the clothing to the New Woman in the manner of “Pin the Tail on the Donkey.”14 Newspapers also reported on the amazing and unusual professions that women were taking on. One woman in Masardis, Maine, was building a lumber mill on the Aroostook River, while in Honolulu a woman reportedly was a policeman. In an article titled “The New Woman as a Jockey” in Leslie’s Weekly (23 September 1897), the author noted that Elliott had won ﬁrst prize: “Arrayed in a bifurcated skirt, and seated upon a bicycle sulky, she did a mile in 2:25.” The race was held in Pittsﬁeld, Maine. A New Woman in Georgia distilled whisky. And the New Woman Manufacturing Company was established in 1913, though who ran it and what it produced is unknown. In addition to print culture there were ﬁlms, music lyrics, a variety of speeches, and exhibitions on the subject. Lubin Manufacturing Company produced a silent ﬁlm, The Newest Woman, in 1909. The movie opens with a husband and wife seated at the table when a package arrives. She is excited because the package contains her new bloomer outﬁt, but he is disturbed and says she cannot keep it. To get even, he appears in a “pantaloon suit” with lace and rufﬂes emerging from the cuffs. So ... she discards her bloomer suit, he changes into his manly suit, and they kiss and make up. Meanwhile a couple of vagabonds discover the clothing thrown out the window and put it on. They laugh hilariously! The one in the bloomer outﬁt is obviously the “newest woman.” Eight scenes comprise a 1912 ﬁlm, The New Woman and the Lion. Produced by Selig Polyscope, it is set in a town hosting the circus. The many escapades include that of a Mr. Jones attempting to crawl in under the tent to avoid the admission fee. But the big excitement revolves around men of all varieties (ﬁremen, cowboys, and so forth) failing to catch an escaped lion. Finally the circus manager offers a ﬁve-hundred-dollar reward, and Mr. Jones’s wife charms the ﬁerce beast into submission. Lianhua Film Company produced the Chinese ﬁlm New Woman (Xin Nuxing) in 1934. It tells the story of a young female music teacher, Wei Ming, whose goal is to become a writer. As she learns that her manuscript has been accepted for publication, the trustee of her school declares his love for her. Opposite: The “New Woman” hinged paper doll from 1901 shows a mother outﬁtted in her “manly” riding gear and smoking a cigarette. The New Woman on this plaque is ready for adventure while her movable husband must stay home with the twins, whom he can rock while washing the nappies that must be changed so the babies can “be kept dry.” Apparently the wife has become conversant with liberated ideas through attending a women’s rights meeting at Trinity Church. The National Archives, Great Britain.

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Though she does not know he is married, she rejects his advances and coincidentally loses her job. Meanwhile her sister, who has been caring for Wei Ming’s little girl, becomes a widow, subsequently losing the resources to take care of her. She brings the child, quite ill, to Wei Ming, who does not have the money that the hospital wants and sets about earning it quickly in a brothel. Her client is an unscrupulous trustee, so she abandons the plan, and the child dies. In her misery, Wei Ming chooses suicide. As she is dying, she learns of the slander that the news media are spreading and decides she should live to revenge them. Alas, it is too late. Ruan Lingyu, the actress playing Wei Ming in the ﬁlm based on the life and death of writer Ai Xia, also committed suicide.15 In Isle of Gold: A Musical Comedy in Three Acts, “The New Woman” is one of ﬁve compositions written by Charles A. Bryne and published by Howley, Haviland and Company in 1897. No copies of the song exist today. P. M. Piper wrote and composed a humorous song, also called “The New Woman,” published by Weekes in 1896. R. Morton composed and William George Eaton wrote the lyrics for yet another song titled “The New Woman,” published by Francis, Day & Hunter in 1895. Finally, Frank Rush Webb wrote a two-step march, “The New Woman,” for two pianos and eight hands, published by T. Presser in 1907. Women presented most of the early lectures about the New Woman, but John Farrar spoke about “New Women Writers” at the Community Church Auditorium in New York City on 24 November 1927. There were symposia critiques and analyses of the New Woman This poem by an anonymous as well. Also in 1927 the journal Current Hisauthor relates the escapades tory staged a symposium to discuss on paper of the New Women in Boston in a graphic manner. Life, 23 the various aspects related to women in the May 1901. Reprinted from the 1920s. Eight authors — Carrie Chapman Catt, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Leta S. HollingsChicago Record-Herald.

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worth, Anthony M. Ludovici, Martha Bensley Bruére, Hugh L. McMenamin, Joseph Collins, and Magdaleine Marx presented on a variety of topics. In the introduction to the symposium journal, the editors noted the controversial nature of women’s status and the impartiality they strove for in selecting the essays. Since the reemergence of interest in the New Woman in the late twentieth century, several symposia have considered the subject. “The New Woman: Gendering the Fin de Siecle” was held at the University of London in February 1998. Chris Willis, Angelique Richardson, Deborah Parsons, Deirdre Osborne, Laura Marcus, and Sally Ledger comprised its organizing committee. Other New Woman conferences, symposia, and colloquia, primarily in Great Britain, have recorded their procedures and are cited in this bibliography. Also included are summaries of retrospective exhibitions, held in the late twentieth and early twenty-ﬁrst centuries, related to the visual productions of New Women or images with New Woman subject matter. Women exhibited seventy-seven works Caricatura de la New Woman. This in the spring 1915 exhibition of the studious caricature of the New Woman National Academy of Design in New ran in the Spanish-language version of York City. A notice in the Humboldt Punch, 19 May 1894. Standard of 27 April titled “Art and the New Woman,” described paintings as containing subject matter New Women would likely have considered conservative — women sitting demurely with nothing to occupy them, women in bed, women holding babies, and so forth. The New Woman phenomenon was not restricted to Great Britain and the United States. Although some scholars maintain that the movement ended

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Introduction

by the 1920s, in some countries it was just catching on. Jennifer Waelti-Walters has identiﬁed several French novels of the early twentieth century as New Woman. Though German New Women did not rise to the fore until the mid–1920s, Hermione Ramsden had by the end of the nineteenth century observed, “Women have begun to ask: Who am I? and not: Whose am I?”16 By the end of World War I two million German soldiers had died, and the gender imbalance forced women to work. At that time a higher percentage of women were working in Germany than in any other European or North American country. The period between 1924 and 1929 comprised “golden years” for German women, and the New Woman symbolized the era. New Women also emerged later among those in countries such as France, Russia, Japan, China, Egypt, and those with roots in Spain. The very severe New Woman appeared as “Caricatura de la New Woman” in Chile’s Punch on 19 May 1894. The cover of Leslie’s Weekly Illustrated of 10 June 1897 lampooned the African American New Woman in its unfortunate, cartoon-like “First Parade of the New Woman’s Society in Possumville.” Mainstream literary history all but ignored the New Woman until after the women’s liberation movement of the 1970s. She was written out of history and thus marginalized. Angelique Richardson has noted, “Silenced for the best part of the twentieth century, New Woman voices have formed the focus of increasing scholarly debate in the last two decades, a focus which has seen them acclaimed by many as unadulteratedly feminist.”17 And still, even in the early twenty-ﬁrst century — ninety men have received Nobel Prizes in Literature whereas only nine women have earned that award. May this volume inspire further investigation into New Woman literature and encourage twenty-ﬁrst-century women to follow their creative muses.

Notes 1. Michelle Elizabeth Tusan located the use of the term New Woman before Grand’s article appeared in North American Review. See Tusan, “Inventing the New Woman: Print Culture and Identity Politics during the Fin de Siecle,” Victorian Periodicals Review 31 (1998): 169–82. 2. Harold Frederic, The Damnation of Theron Ware (Chicago/New York: Herbert S. Stone, 1896): 378–79. 3. Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 54. Quoted in Rheta Childe Door, Woman of Fifty, 2d ed. (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1924): 101. 4. Anonymous, “The New Woman M.P.,” Woman’s Journal 4 (1919): 534. 5. Annie E. Tomlinson, “The New Woman and the Marriage Problem,” The (Boston) Woman’s Journal (5 September 1896). 6. E. M. Forster, Howard’s End (London: Edward Arnold, 1910), 305.

Opposite: An especially mocking caricature of African Americans staging a feminist parade was published in Leslie’s Weekly, 10 June 1897. Library of Congress.

Introduction

18

7. Anonymous, “The New Woman’s Latch Key,” The New York Times (31 October 1898): 7. Reprinted from the Baltimore American. 8. Karl Beckson, London in the 1890s: A Cultural History (New York/London: W.W. Norton, 1992), 129. 9. Anonymous, “Home Chat” (21 September 1895): 29. In Margaret Beetham and Kate Boardman, Victorian Women’s Magazines: An Antholog y (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2001): 115. 10. Anonymous, “New Woman on a Tour,” Chicago Daily Tribune (13 April 1895): 16. Londonderry reportedly responded to a bet (by a man) of a large sum “that no woman could accomplish the feat.” Her journey began on 25 June 1894 and ended in late March or early April, ahead of the ﬁfteen-month deadline and having raised $5,000, primarily by her lectures illustrated with lanternslides taken on the trip. Londonderry’s great grandnephew Peter Zheutlin has written of her in his book Around the World on Two Wheels (Verlag Maxime, 2009) and in online stories (see The Christian Science Monitor, 28 August 2006, and Women in Judaism: A Multidisciplinary Journal 5, Spring 2008). “Annie Londonderry,” he wrote, “according to one newspaper, ‘sailed away like a kite down Beacon Street.’” 11. Thanks to Judith Arcana for alerting me to the documentary. 12. Boston Daily (3 October 1894): 8. 13. St. John Hankin, The Last of the DeMullins (London: Bulter and Tanner, 1909). 14. The New York Times, 26 July 1896, p. 10. 15. The three ﬁlms are all available for viewing at the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 16. Hermione Ramsden, We Women and Our Authors (London and New York: John Lane [The Bodley Head], 1899), 1. 17. Angelique Richardson, “The Eugenization of Love: Sarah Grand and the Morality of Genealogy,” Victorian Studies 42 (No. 2, Winter 1999/2000): 227.

Part I

PRIMARY WORKS, 1894–1938 Works are listed alphabetically by author within year/date of publication.

1894

advances women had made, encouraged them to continue their work in education, philanthropy, and housekeeping arts and sciences, but admonished them to shun politics.

1. Anonymous. “A Ballade of the New Manhood: By an Unregenerate Male.” Punch (26 May 1894): 249. A quote by Sarah Grand from the Pall Mall Gazette of 16 May 1894 prefaces this “ballad.” The ﬁnal line of each of the ballad’s three stanzas refers to Madame Grand as grave, ﬁrm, irate, and severe. The gist is that men must be on their best behavior or suffer the wrath of one Sarah Grand. This article was part of an ongoing Punch series of misogynist New Woman riddles, poems, letters, and short essays. See other Anonymous entries for 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1897.

4. ____. “Scott on the New Woman.” Punch (18 August 1894): 73. In this six-line rhyme, the author listed the New Woman’s negative aspects, especially with regard to her perceived feelings about men. 5. ____. “Of the New Woman.” Vanity Fair: A Weekly Show of Political, Social, and Literary Wares (18 October 1894): 265–66. This article is a response to a letter to the editor —“The Unbeautiful New Woman” by Mrs. Gertrude Atherton—published in the same issue. Atherton referred to English woodcuts of six “advanced women” who happened to have been writers but whom she called “she-males.” This type of woman, she claimed, was doomed because she was bereft of good looks and good humor. Atherton believed men should refuse to marry such women so there would be no chance of repeating the model of bad looks (and likely feminist tendencies). Anonymous called Atherton a credible critic because her

2. ____. “The New Woman: A New Nursery Rhyme for Child-Men.” Punch (26 May 1894): 252. After a short introductory statement, the author contributed a fourline rhyme in regard to the New Woman existing only on paper but at that being a nag. 3. ____. “The New Woman Suffrage Movement.” The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 48 (3 July 1894): 469–70. The author of this short essay championed the 19

6–9

20

Primary Works (1894–1938)

The New Woman on the bicycle can take on many different personas, from servant girl to mother-in-law to Salvation Army worker to widow. Puck, 1895; Library of Congress. own work was published but also stated that simply embracing new-fangled ideas did not qualify women as New Women of the type Atherton railed against.

6. ____. “The New Woman.” The Woman’s Signal (29 November 1894): 345. The unidentiﬁed author lamented liberated women’s fear of identifying themselves as New Women as well as media ridicule of the New Woman. The author referenced a contemporary view of the New Woman in the Quarterly Review, while soundly refuting use of the philosophy of the apostle Paul as a sounding board for acceptance of the new over the old.

7. ____. “The New Woman under Fire.” Review of Reviews 10 (December 1894): 656–66. The author warned that the hyster-

ical and unnatural New Woman, unﬁt for her natural roles as wife and mother, was soon to fade to oblivion.

8. Arnold, Ethel M. Platonics: A Study. London: Osgood, McIlvaine, 1894. This novel explores the relationship between two women, Kit Drummond and Susan Dormer. When Susan’s neighbor Ronald Gordon falls in love with Kit (after being refused by Susan), the women’s intimacy shatters. Kit returns Ronald’s affection and they marry, yet Kit is tortured by her disloyalty to her ﬁrst love, Susan. Susan dies of grief, leaving Kit a letter expressing her undying love. Hailed as a veiled exploration of lesbian love, Platonics is Arnold’s only published work. 9. Barry, William F. “The Strike of a

Primary Works (1894–1938) Sex.” Quarterly Review 179 (1894): 289–318. The author reviewed and commented on the following New Woman books: Marcella by Mrs. Humphry Ward, The Heavenly Twins by Sarah Grand, Woman in the Past, Present, and Future by August Bebel, Die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter by Von Irma Von Troll-Borostyani, Das Recht der Frau, Vermächtniss einer Unglücklichen (The Strike of a Sex) by G. Noyes Miller, and Man and Woman by Havelock Ellis. A long introduction traces women’s rights issues from the French Revolution. The body of the review deals with most of the aforementioned books, primarily with Grand’s The Heavenly Twins. The writing, rambling and unfocused, makes discernment of the author’s point difﬁcult. Only at the end is it clear: “The New Woman ought to be aware that her condition is morbid, or, at least, hysterical.... The New Woman will not continue long in the land.”

10. Beerbohm, Max. “The Pervasion of Rouge.” The Works of Max Beerbohm. London: John Lane, 1923. (The essay “The Pervasion of Rouge” appeared in 1894). This essay waxes on the evils of cosmetics, equating the revival with women’s use of paints during the Roman Empire and its subsequent fall with what he predicts will occur in Britain in the 1890s. The antifeminist tract contains derogatory and sarcastic comments about women who wish to exercise and to be out and about. 11. Brooke, Emma Frances. A Superﬂuous Woman. London: William Heinemann, 1894. This novel opens with the renowned London socialite/beauty Jessamine Halliday on her deathbed. Medical services have been obtained to no avail. Finally the unconventional Dr. Cornerstone sees that Jessamine suffers from having been promised to someone she cannot tolerate and advises her to seek her own way. Temporarily cured, Jessamine goes off to work as a servant for a farming family in rural Scot-

21

10–14 land. There she ﬁnds her love but is torn between him and the duty she feels to her aunt and her intended, Lord Heriot. After a long emotional battle, she chooses Heriot and lives to regret it. By chance she is able to contact Dr. Cornerstone, who comes to her bedside but is unable to cure her of the melancholy that eventually takes her life. The doctor calls her a “superﬂuous” woman among the many in Great Britain at the time.

12. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or Alice Mona Henryson Caird). The Daughters of Danaus. London: Bliss, Sands, and Foster, 1894. In this novel, Hadria Fullerton marries Herbert Temperley and adopts an illegitimate child, Martha, whose mother is dead and whose father turns out to be Hadria’s would-be lover, Professor Theobald. Hadria goes to Paris to develop her musical talents, leaving her husband at home with his sister. Hadria’s musical aspirations are crushed, her talent falls into decay, Martha’s father claims her in an act of manipulative revenge, and her sole male friend — the beloved of her sister, Valeria — dies. 13. Chopin, Kate. A Night in Acadie. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifﬂin, 1894. These twenty-one short stories are set in New Orleans and/or Natchitoches Parish. Of these, “Athénaïse” is the most feminist story. In it, protagonist Athénaïse Miché’s growing discontent with marriage causes her to leave her husband, though she returns to him a happy wife when she learns she is pregnant. 14. Crackanthorpe, B[lanche] A[lthea]. “The Revolt of the Daughters.” Nineteenth Century 35 ( January 1894): 23–31. Crackanthorpe likened contemporary disagreements between mothers and daughters to labor strikes. Though she admitted that girls had gotten short shrift historically, she maintained that only women who could not enter marriage, “the best profession,” should

15–18 aspire to any other. She blamed mothers for spending too little time with their young daughters and chastised daughters for being stubborn. Perhaps, she concluded, a mediator should intervene in female generational disputes just as in the world of labor.

15. ____. “The Revolt of the Daughters: A Last Word on ‘The Revolt.’” Nineteenth Century 35 (March 1894): 424–29. Crackanthorpe likened the positions of upper-class and upper-middle-class girls to

22

Primary Works (1894–1938) the caste system—these girls and their mothers should learn from working-class girls and their mothers the importance of supporting themselves. She wrote that there was less strife in these relationships because the mothers instructed the daughters in the ways of the world, allowed them to experience life, and trusted they would use their heads. She believed work would enhance the self-esteem of the young women and beneﬁt the marriage relationship should they choose it.

16. Cuffe, Kathleen. “A Reply from the Daughters I.” Nineteenth Century (March 1894): 437–42. In response to Crackanthorpe’s article in the January 1894 issue of Nineteenth Century, Cuffe asserted that “young damsels” had not been asked their opinion of the independence issue. She intended to provide the point of view of the average young woman, asking only for a few concessions — the privileges accorded young married women, such as going into society without a chaperone.

A “New Woman.” The New Woman is out on a hunting expedition when she encounters a woman of the older type who appears to frown upon the hunter. Both women appear determined, and one can imagine the unfriendly conversation that may ensue. Iris, 1894.

17. D. B. M. “The New Woman.” Shafts 2 (March 1894): unpaginated. Reprinted in Juliet Gardiner, ed., The New Woman, 1993. Shafts, a progressive English feminist newspaper, offered this eight-verse poem on the positive attributes of the New Woman within a year of her formal identiﬁcation. The poet described how women were formerly unthinking puppets but became liberated, thinking beings, ﬁnding their voices and their freedom — but not without misgivings! 18. Davidson, Mrs. H. Coleman. What Our Daughters Can Do for Themselves: A Handbook of Women’s Employments. London:

Primary Works (1894–1938) Smith, Elder, 1894. Several articles (all revised and some rewritten) that originally appeared in Hearth and Home comprise this book. They offer commentary on the various occupations available to women, citing difﬁculties and pitfalls and offering advice on how to enter particular ﬁelds and listing their duties. The articles cover a broad range of subjects, including beekeeping, clerkships, detectives, journalism, medicine, and photography, as well as more conventional occupations such as governess, lady-help, and needle worker. The author encouraged women to undertake meaningful work, arguing that “there can be no dishonor in doing work which is not in itself dishonorable” (84), although she displayed a conventional attitude towards gender roles. On the possibility of working in an asylum, for example, she noted: “Few ladies could stand it long; the mental strain is so great, and the perpetual association with lunatics is so trying” (131). Nevertheless, she displayed beliefs typical of the New Woman — encouraging women to embark on traditionally male careers and noting, for instance: “There is no nobler profession open to women than medicine” (179).

19. Dixon, Ella Hepworth. The Story of a Modern Woman. London: William Heinemann, 1894. This novel is set in London, represented as a cage full of alienated and often desperate inmates. The uppermiddle-class protagonist, Mary Erle, struggles to support herself as a pen-for-hire after the death of her father. Refusing to be the mistress of old family friend Vincent Hemming, Mary depends on herself alone. She ﬁnds support in her upper-class friend Alison Ives, a woman whose dilettante philanthropy among fallen working-class women causes her to fall sick and eventually die. The two women’s pact, “never [to] do anything to hurt another woman,” unites them in their effort to avoid conventional marriage and extramarital affairs.

23

19–22

20. Duncan, Sara Jeannette (aka Mrs. Everard Cotes). A Daughter of Today. London: Chatto and Windus, 1894. In this novel, Elfrida Bell, an aspiring artist, changes the focus of her art from painting to writing after realizing, with the help of fellow artist John Kendall, that as a woman she can better earn a living as a writer. She struggles to make it, ﬁrst in Paris, then in London, while becoming friends with Kendall and another young writer, Janet Cardiff. Cardiff ’s father, in pursuit of Elfrida Bell, is part of a complicated love rectangle among the young people. Bell prefers Kendall, who ultimately becomes engaged to Janet Cardiff. After learning of Janet’s engagement to John Kendall and receiving a highly critical appraisal of the novel she went undercover in a burlesque show to research, Elfrida Bell commits suicide with the poison she carried in a Persian ring. Her parents have her body removed to her birthplace—Sparta, Illinois— and erect a monument to her memory. 21. Eastwood, Mrs. M. “The New Woman in Fiction and Fact.” Humanitarian 5 (November 1894): 375–79. The ﬁrst third of this article is a satiric sketch of the New Woman, the second deals with men’s response to the phenomenon, and the third is a straightforward analysis of Eastwood’s raison d’être. The sound synopsis states: “She [New Woman] has reviewed and begun to test her possibilities” resulting in “some astonishing discoveries, the primal and most important being the discovery of independent staying properties in her back-bone, which enable her to stand without male support.” Eastwood had great hopes for the advancement of women; that this is her only extant work is disappointing. 22. Egerton, George (aka Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright). Discords and Keynotes. London: John Lane, 1894. In these two collections of short stories, female protagonists consider the problem or society’s idealization of womanhood. They explore women’s sex-

24

Primary Works (1894–1938)

The commandments on the back of this Chicago Stove & Range Co. trade card indicate all the things the husband must do to keep the New Woman happy, including purchasing the Marquart Steel Range for her. The reverse side of the card is a more traditional advertisement. Courtesy, The Winterthur Library: Joseph Downs Collection of Manuscripts and Printed Ephemera.

Primary Works (1894–1938) uality, work, and artistic ability while challenging patriarchal attitudes. Using womancentered plots, the stories focus on individual women’s consciousnesses. Through dreamlike states or ﬂashbacks, the stories place the reader within each protagonist’s inner monologue.

23. Fernald, James Champlin. The New Womanhood. New York: Funk and Wagnall, 1894. Fernald set out separate and distinct roles for men and women in this antifeminist tract. He apparently hoped to appease women and validate his words as a male minister with an introduction by Marion Harland, who announced in her ﬁrst sentence that the battle for women’s rights was over. Fernald maintained that only in savage tribes did women undertake “man’s work.” Thus, by sticking with strict proscribed gender roles, society was advancing civilization. He offered practical solutions to lighten women’s work and suggestions for curricula in girls’ educations. He had especially harsh words for women who left the farm to secure work in the city. 24. Grand, Sarah (aka Frances Elizabeth Bellenden-Clark McFall). “The New Aspect of the Woman Question.” North American Review 158 (March 1894): 270–76. In this manifesto by the prominent British feminist on the independent woman, Grand lambasted irresponsible simple-minded men, calling them the “Bawling Brotherhood.” With the phrase “new woman” to identify the antithesis of what she referred to as the “cow-woman” or “scum-woman,” she named the independent woman. 25. ____. “The Man of the Moment.” North American Review 158 (May 1894): 620–27. In this short essay following Ouida’s response to “The New Woman” in Grand’s March essay in North American Review, Grand identiﬁed contemporary upper-class men as “the man of the moment.” With this terminology she indicated hope that male attitudes would change, though she believed

25

23–27 that men of the time shirked their responsibilities. They were not respected, she wrote, and for good reason. Conversely, she believed the manners of the New Woman to be perfect. The balance she wished to see between the sexes would come about only when men behaved in a manner eliciting respect from women.

26. ____. “The Modern Girl.” North American Review 158 ( June 1894): 706–14. Grand expounded on the folly of keeping young upper-class women ignorant of the “ways of the world” and then expecting them to be ﬁt partners when their parents decided it was time for them to marry. She recommended that parents give their daughters more options and ease off hastily arranged marriages. This article followed Grand’s March contribution to North American Review, in which she named the “New Woman.” 27. Grundy, Sydney. The New Woman: An Original Comedy in Four Acts. London: Chiswick, 1894. Grundy jumped on the bandwagon early, getting his four-act satire published in 1894 and having it produced at London’s Comedy Theatre (some sources say Manchester’s Comedy Theatre) on 1 September 1894. There the play enjoyed a run of 173 performances, though it closed in New York in less than two weeks. The play’s New Woman protagonist, Mrs. Sylvester, a married woman writer, spends time in the company of an upper-class man — a recent Oxford grad, Gerold, with whom she collaborates in the authorship of a progressive novel. Three other New Women ﬂock to Gerold’s atelier, but they present little threat to the stability of his marriage (his wife is his aunt’s former servant) in comparison with Mrs. Sylvester, who seems intent on breaking it up. Gerold eventually comes to his senses and rejects Mrs. Sylvester’s advances, remaining devoted to his “woman who is woman,” maintaining the status quo. The play is not revolutionary, but it created a

28–34 furor, probably due to the suggestion that the married New Woman would engage in illicit sex if she could.

28. Hall, E. B., and Scott, H. S. “Character Note: The New Woman.” Cornhill 23 (1894): 365–68. These authors conﬂated the character of the contemporary young woman into “Novissima” and of the young man into “Calamus.” Novissima, for all her striving for newness, does not stand a chance, as Calamus’s dean at Cambridge predicts that the New Woman will soon be passé. To prove it, Calamus marries Edith, a traditional woman who loves being a “mum.”

29. Harper, Charles. Revolted Women: Past, Present, and To Come. London: Elkin Mathews, 1894. This diatribe against the “New Woman” includes several interesting caricatures of women as birds of prey and such. It largely argues that the goal of the women’s movement is not to achieve equality but to gain entitlement to rule over men. 30. Harraden, Beatrice. In Varying Moods. Edinburgh: Blackwoods, 1894. In this collection of short stories, “A Bird of Passage” is of particular interest as its protagonist, a female piano-tuner, turns out to be the famous musician Thyra Flowerdew. 31. ____. Ships That Pass in the Night. London/New York: Putnam, 1894. In this novel, Bernadine and Robert, aka “the Disagreeable Man,” meet as convalescents at a Swiss health resort. As they become closer, Bernadine learns that Robert, despairing over his health, is waiting only for his mother’s death to commit suicide. After Bernadine leaves the resort, she learns of the death of Robert’s mother and fears Robert has carried out his plan, but he has realized he is in love with her. He visits her in England, suggesting they meet the following day (when he plans to reveal his love). That afternoon Bernadine is hit by a wagon and dies without seeing him, but Robert takes

26

Primary Works (1894–1938) her advice not to kill himself and returns to Switzerland and life.

32. Harrison, Constance Cary. A Bachelor Maid. New York: Century, 1894. This New Woman novel was early by American standards. Marion Irving is a young woman whose teacher and companion, Sara Stauffer, is a lecturer on women’s rights. Marion falls for Alexander Gordon, who is aware of Stauffer’s shady past as well as of her feminist hypocrisy — she has tried to win his hand. Instead, Stauffer lands Marion’s father, a wealthy judge. Marion experiments with independence by living in an apartment with another single woman, Mignon Cox. In the end, these bachelor maids acquiesce and marry their mates of choice. 33. Haweis, M. E. “The Revolt of the Daughters II: Daughters and Mothers.” Nineteenth Century (March 1894): 430–31. In this response to Crackanthorpe’s “Revolt of the Daughters” in the January and March issues of Nineteenth Century, Haweis immediately identiﬁed herself as an old-fashioned woman. She stated that independence might be all right for the American girl, but English girls were not ready for it. Though she recognized that things were changing, she lamented, “There is nothing like the … shielded ﬂower, and the extinction of a beautiful thing is melancholy.” In the ﬁnal sentences, however, she advised the mothers of rebellious daughters to get lives of their own to minimize their pain. 34. Hemery, Gertrude. “The Revolt of the Daughters: An Answer — By One of Them.” Westminster Review 141 (1894): 679–81. Hemery was eighteen years old at the time she provided this rebuttal to Lady Jeune’s February 1894 essay in Fortnightly Review. Her views portrayed a mature young woman who believed that keeping a girl secluded and in darkness as to the ways of the world could only breed unhappiness when she later experienced real life. Hemery concluded this brief essay by stating that

Primary Works (1894–1938)

27

Sydney Grundy was an English playwright whose farce, The New Woman, enjoyed a long run in Great Britain though it closed in New York City in less than two weeks. This playbill depicts a bespectacled New Woman with pages from her novel strewn about her. Two of the discarded sheets of paper may contain possible titles for this novel — one is “Naked but Not Ashamed” and the other is “Man the Sprayer.” The viewer can see the symbolic latchkey on the wall behind her and the lit cigarette on the frame. The Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.

35–40 when she had children, her daughters would be educated in the same manner as her sons and that the daughters’ knowledge would provide them the wherewithal to make intelligent choices.

35. Holdsworth, Annie E. Joanna Trail, Spinster. London: William Heinemann, 1894. In this novel, Joanna Trail, in her mid-thirties, inherits an estate from her uncle and begins to assert her own wishes in deﬁance of her painfully conventional married sisters, Mrs. Prothero and Mrs. Crane. Joanna engages in philanthropy with the charismatic Mr. Boas, helping redeem sixteen-year-old Christina Dow, a fallen woman who eventually marries Amos Bevan, a respectable journalist. Joanna and Mr. Boas fall in love, though he doesn’t realize it until he returns to ﬁnd that Joanna has died after contracting diphtheria while nursing her sister. He kisses her infectious corpse, unaware that Joanna knew of his love for her before he realized it himself. The novel’s title comes from the plate for Joanna’s cofﬁn. 36. Hunt, Violet. The Maiden’s Progress. New York: Harper, 1894. This drama-style novel follows Mary Elizabeth Maskelyne, aka Moderna, from her debut at age eighteen to her engagement to Edward Coniston at twenty-seven. In the interim, Moderna experiments with various artistic and scientiﬁc pursuits to the dismay of her conventional family. 37. Iota (aka Kathleen Mannington Caffyn). A Yellow Aster. London: Hutchinson, 1894. In this novel, Gwen Waring is the unconventional offspring resulting from the unique and comical marriage of two intellectuals. After growing up without the affectionate mother-daughter relationship for which both she and her mother yearn (each in her own way), Gwen marries Sir Humphrey Strange, then struggles with her role as wife. When she becomes pregnant, Gwen insists that she and Sir Humphrey

28

Primary Works (1894–1938) part. Her mother’s death, the grave illness of her newborn son, and learning of her husband’s own battle with life-threatening illness help to make Gwen aware of her potential to play the nurturing role of loving wife and mother.

38. Jeune, Lady Mary. “The Revolt of the Daughters.” Fortnightly Review 55 (February 1894): 267–76. In this response to Crackanthorpe’s article in the 1894 issue of Nineteenth Century 35, Jeune related a rather idealistic view of relationships between mothers and daughters, stating that she was unaware of the problems about which Crackanthorpe wrote. She claimed it as fact that “woman was created for the purpose of being the wife and mother of mankind.” She went on to justify and sanction the double standard. In regard to educating young women in the “mysteries of the Book of Life,” Jeune advocated keeping them ignorant and pure. 39. Jim’s Wife’s Husband. “A Chat with Mme. Sarah Grand.” Woman (21 May 1894). Literary Supplement: 1–2. The anonymous male author admitted to being intimidated by Grand. He interviewed her in her Kensington ﬂat but was immediately made to feel at ease by Grand’s conservative and “male-friendly” answers to his questions. 40. Johnstone, Edith. A Sunless Heart. London: Ward, Lock and Bowden, 1894. In this two-volume novel, published anonymously, twins Gaspar and Gasparine — the children of the disreputable Sir Gaspar O’Neill — live in poverty, struggling to make ends meet. Gasparine obtains a position as a governess in a private school in Scotland. Gaspar teaches the violin while Gasparine sells her paintings, and the twins ﬁnally come to live a more comfortable life. Their prosperity, however, is disrupted by the death of Gaspar, who has always struggled with poor health. Gasparine is devastated upon his death but soon befriends the strange Lotus Grace, who takes her in with

Primary Works (1894–1938) her aunt (who is not, in fact, her aunt but her former employer) as well as with Ladybird, a girl of questionable background. As Gasparine grows close to Lotus Grace, Lotus reveals that she cannot love anyone— a consequence of the abuse she suffered as a child at the hands of her father’s business partner, who became her sister’s husband. She reveals that Ladybird is her daughter — the result of this abuse. Gasparine begs Lotus to open her heart to those who care about her; Lotus leaves her home to consider this. Eventually she resolves to return, but before she can begin anew, she dies in a train crash. Gasparine and Ladybird never discover her fate. Gasparine goes on to marry, have children, and make a name as an artist — primarily for her portrait of Lotus, which she refuses to sell even for a large sum.

41. Leighton, Dorothy. Disillusion: A Story with a Preface. London: Henry, 1894. In this novel, playwright Mark Sergison remains unknown until he receives accolades for his play The Heir — Presumptive. Outside the limelight he credits Linda Grey as his collaborator; she is a typist by day, a devoted worker in the Spade Club (a socialist cause), and a woman’s rights activist. At the time his play opened they had known each other approximately a year, having lived in the same apartment building. Sergison glories in his success and becomes friendly with a London socialite, Celia Adair. She smokes and is otherwise liberated due to family money, but her father’s suicide results in Adair’s reduced circumstances, and she fancies becoming a dress designer. She never carries through because Sergison, believing he loves her, rescues her. Although he is a feminist man, the two are ill suited, and the responsibility of a wife causes Mark to give up writing plays for writing news. He has forgotten Linda Grey but learns she is destitute and asks her to work for him. By this time he and Celia have a son, cared for by an incompetent nanny. Celia takes up with

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41–42 a former suitor and leaves home. Linda Grey notices an undiagnosed injury in the son, which is taken care of in the nick of time. Mark gives in to his physical needs and proclaims his love to Linda, but when Celia returns ill and in need, Mark takes her in, and she dies in his arms. Linda feels deceived and Celia’s death leaves Mark questioning his relations with the two women. Which is best — love or friendship?

42. Linton, Elizabeth Lynn. The One Too Many. London: Chatto and Windus, 1894. In this three-volume novel originally serialized in Lady’s Pictorial, the protagonist Moira is married off early to the abusive and controlling but socially acceptable Mr. Brabazon, who believes it his duty to educate and mold the timid and naive Moira. Her every move must be approved by her husband so that her life is much like that of a caged bird. Efﬁe Chegwin is Moira’s friend and conﬁdant who, educated at Girton College, brings some of her college friends into the Brabazon circle. Working as a selfappointed social worker, Efﬁe Chegwin lives in “masculine circumstances” in London’s East End, where she meets and eventually marries a policeman. The story of an extremely unhealthy relationship between social equals is juxtaposed with a healthy love between social misﬁts. Brabazon ﬁnds he much prefers the company of the Girton girls (he ensconces one in the home he shares with Moira) and begins ignoring though still controlling his young wife. Meanwhile Moira meets and falls for Efﬁe’s cousin, George Armstrong. The third volume ﬁnds Moira becoming more self-conscious about her miserable existence and acknowledging that since childhood she has felt like “one too many.” After ﬁnally asserting herself, she believes there is no chance of future happiness and drowns herself. In pairing Moira with Efﬁe, author Linton provided an example of Victorian polarity.

43–47

43. Matheson, E. “The ‘New Woman.’” New York Times, 30 December 1894, p. 22. This four-verse poem supports the New Woman and her many accomplishments. 44. Ouida (aka Marie Louise de la Ramée). “The New Woman.” North American Review 158 (May 1894): 611–19. Ouida was the most notable respondent to Sarah Grand’s “The New Aspect of the Woman Question,” written two months earlier in the North American Review. Ouida extrapolated the phrase “new woman” from Grand’s text, replaced the lowercase “n” and “w” with uppercase letters, and thus christened the New Woman. Ouida’s article is a vitriolic attack on the New Woman, who, she argued, was audacious to think she could be “admitted into public life.” 45. Papillon, Edward Thomas. Alleyne: A Story of a Dream and a Failure. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1894. This novel deals with the problem of licentiousness and its impact on future generations. A young widow, Alleyne Carlile, makes her second marriage to Edward Kyleman Grand — a man of many vices. Grand arrives in the neighborhood as the new tenant of Marlowe Park, whose previous occupants — the old Marlowe family — have been disreputable, “the very incarnation of animalism” (37). Grand becomes enchanted with Carlile after a series of chance encounters. She is aware of an old family prophecy stating that all good traits will pass to one side of the family, all bad traits to the other, and that although “good” will come close to reforming “bad,” the latter will eventually kill the former. Grand’s doctor warns him against marriage, for fear his dissolute nature will pose a danger to his wife and any children the marriage may produce. After he discovers that he and Alleyne Carlile are distantly related, his concern about the prophecy grows, and he becomes less inclined to marry her. Eventually, however, he overcomes these concerns, and they

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Primary Works (1894–1938) marry. Some time later, Alleyne discovers a letter from her husband revealing his concerns. She vows to stand by him, believing a woman’s place is next to her husband. Grand begins to drink heavily, until one night, while inebriated, he accidentally pushes his wife down the stairs, killing her, and thus fulﬁlling the prophecy. Grand returns to his sinful life in the city.

46. Paston, George (aka Emily Morse Symonds). A Modern Amazon. London: Osgood, McIlvaine, 1894. This two-volume novel at ﬁrst tackles the topic of upper-class women working in a limited number of positions for half the salaries paid to men. Regina Haughton enters the professional world as a journalist working for a magazine known as Men and Women. She meets Agatha Staunton, a woman’s rights activist, and by association is referred to as “the amazon.” Before long Regina Haughton has two suitors — the editor of the magazine, Stephen Faulkner, and Dr. Kenyon, whom she thinks of as a friend and would like to have as a brother. Kenyon persists, and though Haugton convinces him that the only marriage she will embrace is one without physical relations, he believes he can convince her otherwise once they have made their vows. This does not happen for quite some time, and Regina must assert herself and leave him temporarily to maintain the independence she desires. In the end they work out their problems, and by novel’s end they apparently will live together amicably. 47. Pearson, Karl. “Women and Labour.” Fortnightly Review 29 (May 1894): 561–77. The ﬁrst sentence sets the tone — Pearson claimed there were two problems in modern life: women and labor. He contended that women deserved certain rights but that they must not get out of hand. According to Pearson, the women’s movement was failing due to class distinctions. Women needed protection. He categorized sexual

Primary Works (1894–1938) instinct according to class, believed women’s desire for emancipation would pass, and thought that degeneration would occur and lead to socialism. He did not name the New Woman but certainly focused on what he perceived to be the negative attributes of liberated women.

48. Raimond, C. E. (aka Elizabeth Robins). George Mandeville’s Husband. London: William Heinemann, 1894. One of few American New Woman novels, this work’s plot is convoluted and easily misunderstood. The protagonist, Lois Carpenter

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48–49 Wilbraham, decides to devote her life to defending women’s rights, and she adopts the pseudonym “George Mandeville.” Her decision comes at the expense of her husband Ralph’s career as a painter and the wellbeing of their daughter, Rosina. Ralph responds by molding Rosina into the role of a proper wife, and ultimately she fades due to overprotection. A satire, this novel is written from the point of view of the pitiful husband.

49. Rita (aka Eliza Humphreys). A Husband of No Importance. London: T.

Role reversal was common in depictions of New Women and their husbands. Cincinnati Enquirer, 25 September 1894.

50–53 Fisher Unwin, 1894. This novel explores the life of the New Woman who marries only to ensure her ability to live independently. The protagonist is a successful writer, attending lectures and leading discussions without the presence or opinion of her husband. She eventually learns to avoid the extremes that characterize the New Woman. Her selfrecognition at the end of the novel provides the platform for her to appreciate her husband as she realizes that men have not been listening to her because of her militancy.

50. Smith, Alys Pearsall. “A Reply from the Daughters.” Nineteenth Century 35 (March 1894): 443–50. This response to Crackanthorpe’s “The Revolt of the Daughters II” in the January 1894 issue of Nineteenth Century is the second reply from “the daughters”; Kathleen Cuffe responded ﬁrst in the same issue. Smith said unmarried daughters withered because they were prevented from living their own lives. She compared the life of a single girl with that of a boy, saying the life of the dependent daughter was wasted. And … she made a plea for the right of all young women to follow their own destiny. 51. Tivoli (aka Horace William Bleackley). Une Culotte or a New Woman: An Impossible Story of Modern Oxford. London: Digby, Long, 1894. This playful novel weaves a convoluted tale of forlorn love and intrigue. To learn the truth about men, the protagonist and her best friend enroll in an all-male school, disguised as men. Indeed they learn the truth, but it is not exactly what they expected and much more than they bargained for. Author Tivoli revealed that the “new woman” believes she can reform men by boycotting them, but that good women cannot consort with libertines — which most men are — and he blames society for making them that way. 52. Ward, Mrs. Humphry (aka Mary Augusta). Marcella. London: Smith, Elder, 1894, reprinted with introduction by Amie

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Primary Works (1894–1938) Watters. London: Penguin, 1984. Ward based this novel partly on her experience of rural life after her family’s move to Hertfordshire in 1892. Marcella Boyce, a budding socialist, returns to the old family home of Mellor Park with her family, where she becomes engaged to Aldous Raeburn, the grandson of the wealthy Lord Maxwell. As his wife, she believes, she will be able to enact vast improvements for the povertystricken cottagers. During their engagement, however, she becomes fascinated with the socialist Harry Wharton, and when Raeburn refuses to interfere to save the life of a villager who killed a man while poaching on the Maxwell estate, Marcella Boyce breaks off the engagement. She leaves Mellor to live and work as a nurse among the poor in London, where she comes to regret her rejection of Raeburn and to reconsider her idealistic socialist beliefs. She rejects a proposal from Wharton, realizing she does not love him. After her father’s death, she returns to Mellor, where she begins improvements to the surrounding area. Discovering that Raeburn, now Lord Maxwell, is still in love with her, she begs his forgiveness, and following a full and frank confession of her previous behavior and attitudes, they become engaged.

53. Whitby, Beatrice. Mary Fenwick’s Daughter. London: Hurst and Blackett, 1894. This is the story of Bab, the headstrong tomboy, only daughter of Mary and Capt. Godfrey Fenwick. Bab is her nickname, a shortened version of “baby” given to minimize the confusion of having two in the household (“Bab” and her mother) with the same name (Mary). The novel chronicles Bab’s many adventures, including those related to a possible future husband. Although she has no personal agenda for entertaining marriage and with some encouragement could become a true New Woman, her sense of Victorian propriety leads eventually to her engagement to two men. A serious accident with a high-spirited horse

Primary Works (1894–1938) puts her in a dependent position, bringing her to realize that her lifelong companion, friend, and ﬁrst casual ﬁancé, Jack, is really the love of her life. In the end they marry, and though Jack’s attentive ways repelled her in her prime, as a semi-invalid she welcomes his generous aid.

54. Winter, John Strange (aka Henrietta Stannard). A Blameless Woman. New York: International News Company, 1894. When Margaret North is orphaned, she goes to live with her aunt and uncle in an English village. Though it is a small place, there are many amusements, and Margaret ﬁnds herself the object of two men’s affections. A Russian/Polish prince sweeps her off her feet, and she goes to live with him in Berlin with the impression she will be studying German under the roof of a respectable English family. The prince keeps her hidden from polite society, and when his promise to take her to Russia for a proper wedding falls through and she learns he has a wife and children in Russia, Margaret returns to her aunt and uncle. She ﬁnally agrees to marry her English suitor, and they have two children. As she becomes content with her life, the prince emerges, her loving husband learns of her past, and she is forced to pay for her sins with a divorce. Her independent spirit comes to the fore after the prince’s wife dies and he wants to cart Margaret off again. She refuses to go, remaining in Britain to be a mother to her children.

1895 55. Allen, Charles Grant Blairﬁndie. The Woman Who Did. London: John Lane/Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1895. In this novel, Herminia Barton, a Girton College graduate, rejects conventional notions of marriage and childrearing in favor of a liberated relationship and the pursuit of a feminist ideal. Her agenda is not truly feminist, as her main concerns are for her lover, Alan Merrick, and her love child, Dolores

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54–59 (Dolly). The couple travels to Italy where Merrick contracts typhoid. Before his untimely death, he offers to marry Herminia Barton. She refuses and loses the support of both his family and hers. She then focuses her energy on Dolly, who chooses the conventional life her mother eschewed and eventually rejects her mother because she does not “ﬁt” the traditional role. Herminia ends her life with a phial of prussic acid to clear the way for her daughter’s upwardly mobile marriage.

56. Andrew, J. D. “The New Woman.” The Manchester Quarterly 13 (April 1895): 182–92. Andrew scathingly reviewed several new novels by New Women, then laid the blame for women’s desire for emancipation on John Stuart Mill, whom he called a “forcibly-feeble failure.” Andrew went back to Eve in relating the curse of women. He believed New Women were frustrated spinsters who would become amiable once they found a man. The novels discussed are Story of an African Farm and Dreams by Olive Schreiner (aka Ralph Iron), Heavenly Twins by Sarah Grand, and The Yellow Astor by Iota. 57. Anonymous. “A Dream of the New Woman.” Punch 58 ( January 1895): 17. This ﬁfteen-verse poem enumerates the positive and negative outcomes of New Womanhood. It was part of an ongoing Punch series of misogynist New Woman riddles, poems, letters, and short essays. See other Anonymous entries for 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1897. 58. ____. Westminster Gazette (10 January 1895): 71. This ﬁve-verse rhyme refers to a speciﬁc incident in which the terms lady (the Victorian concept as decorative and idle) and woman (the active, progressive New Woman) were employed. 59. ____. “Nursery Rhyme for the New Woman.” Punch (2 March 1895): 106. This six-line rhyme iterates how the feminist woman tamed her husband.

60–68

60. ____. “The New Woman’s Camera.” The (San Francisco) Examiner, 14 March 1895, p. 14. This short article proﬁles San Francisco photographer Mary Winslow, extolling her abilities and tenacity in carrying out her duties professionally, artistically, as a businesswoman, and on the street. The manner in which she traveled — donning a man’s hat and carrying a revolver — illustrates the latter category. 61. ____. “The New Hen: A Fable.” Punch (23 March 1895): 133. A New Hen meets an old cock and is telling him how she has been liberated from laying and hatching eggs when the mistress of the house comes to kill her for the evening meal.

62. ____. “’Array and the New Woman.” Punch (18 May 1895): 230. This long rhymed letter, posted to Charlie by ’Arry (Harry) describes the New Woman phenomenon. ’Arry, who has taken Dannel’s daughter Lil to a New Woman play that neither could fully appreciate, tells Charlie he has no intention of marrying. If he should change his mind, he wouldn’t “tyke … no New Woman!”

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63. ____. “‘The Work of the Devil’: The New Woman’s Bible.” The Woman’s Tribune 12 (Washington, D.C., 25 May 1895): 85. The author in the ﬁrst part of this brief essay simply stated the facts of publication of the new Bible but in the second presented opinion and commentary as to why women deserve to revise the Bible in accordance with their own point of view. 64. ____. “Dos Dominae.” Saturday Review (May–June 1895). The author or authors of this series of articles elicited support for the New Woman. The third article chronicles a confrontation between the Old Woman and New Woman. 65. ____. “The New Woman.” The Woman’s Column 8 (8 June 1895): 1. This short article quotes a speech by the Rev. Ida C. Hultin at a New England Suffrage Festival. Hultin believed that the New Woman had existed from the beginning of time but had only recently come to self-realization. 66. ____. “MISONEOGYNY.” Punch (20 June 1895): 35. This letter to Mr. Punch from “A Bachelor” includes a rhyme proclaiming the New Woman an imaginary ﬁgure. 67. ____. “The New Woman in Trouble.” New York Tribune, 23 June 1895, p. 23, c. 2. This brief article set in Harlem presents a conversation between two men; the subject is their fate in light of the advance of New Women. The ﬁrst “Man” relates an incident in which he encountered a distressed New Woman situated outside a bar with her bicycle. Her dog had gone into the bar, but she, a respectable woman, could not. Man went in and rescued dog: women still need men in some situations.

This bonneted New Woman hen is surprised about the egg she laid. Life, 25 March 1909.

68. ____. “Advice to the New Woman.” Review of Reviews 12 ( July 1895): 84–85. This article reprises so many quotes that discerning the author’s view is difﬁcult. The short essay rebuts a piece in Humanitarian by Florence Hobson.

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69. ____. “The ‘New Woman’ in Court.” Harvard Law Review 10 (October 1895): 177–78. This excerpt in “Notes” refers to a divorce case, Groth v. Groth, in Cook County, Illinois, in which a woman suing for divorce was ordered to pay alimony and solicitor’s fees to her estranged spouse. The author cited precedence in a case in England, restitution to the husband resting in a previous law that put wives on equal footing with their husbands. 70. ____. “The New Woman.” The Woman’s Column 8 (12 October 1895): 1. This seven-verse poem enumerates the capabilities inherent in the New Woman and concludes that women have always performed many tasks—there are simply more now. 71. ____. “The New Woman in Somerset: Told by the Old Woman at the Farm.” Punch (16 November 1895): 229. The Old Woman pokes fun at the New Woman through a poem in dialect (perhaps Cockney) regarding an independent woman who drops by the farm on her wheel.

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69–77 lect, friendship, and equality, without the “degradation” of physical relations. Alan tries to convince her otherwise, but she does not relent. Finally they wed, but they do not consummate the marriage. They go off to an Italian honeymoon, and all of the art they see satisﬁes Alan, but upon their return to London, he again feels unfulﬁlled. He nags Opalia to change her mind, and unwilling to do so, she returns to social work. Alan throws himself into his work and becomes enamored of one of his sitters. Opalia observes the two in a ﬁt of passion and seeks the advice of an older woman, who advises her to submit to biblical tenets—it is the wife’s responsibility to keep her husband pure. Opalia returns to Alan and consummates the marriage, resulting in the birth of a baby boy who inspires her “womanly” instincts and puts an end to her youthful idealism.

72. A. S. B. “The Pilot on ‘The New Woman.’” The (Boston) Woman’s Journal, 2 February 1895, p. 36. A. S. B. questioned the policy of the Pilot (acknowledging that other newspapers were equally at fault) in admiring individual women regarded as New Women while denouncing the movement as a whole.

75. Clifford, Mrs. W. K. A Flash of Summer: The Story of a Simple Woman’s Life. London: Methuen, 1895. Katherine Kerr, the young niece of Robert Morris, marries Edward Belcher, a man who anticipates her inheritance of Morris’s fortune — until Robert discovers a grandchild by his late son. Katherine runs away from the philandering Edward, meets and falls in love with Jim Alford, then becomes convinced she must return to Edward. When she learns of Jim’s death, however, her strength to do so fails her, and she commits suicide.

73. Betts, Lillian W. “The New Woman.” New Outlook 52 (12 October 1895): 587. This short piece defends the New Woman, who Betts called the “ﬂower of this marvelous century.”

76. Courtney, William L. The Feminine Note in Fiction. London: Chapman and Hall, 1895. In this treatise, the author feminized and marginalized New Woman literature.

74. Cleeve, Lucas (aka Adeline G. I. Kingscote). The Woman Who Wouldn’t. London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, 1895. In this novel, artist Alan D’Arcy and feminist/activist Opalia Woodgate are in love. Opalia does not disdain marriage but believes the union must be one of intel-

77. Crackanthorpe, B[lanche] A[lthea] “Sex in Modern Literature.” Nineteenth Century 218 (1895): 607–17. After a long introduction on realism in modern plays, Crackanthorpe discussed sex in relationship to the theater. She believed it had its place in theater as a part of life and that those

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Primary Works (1894–1938) who relegated sex to the gutter did so out of personal disregard for what should be considered beautiful.

78. Cross, Victoria (aka Vivian Cory). The Woman Who Didn’t. London: John Lane, 1895. In this direct response to Allen’s novel The Woman Who Did, protagonist Eurydice Williamson falls in love on a journey back from the East. When her lover proposes, she confesses that she is already married. She claims she married after searching for true love for eight years without ﬁnding it, believing at age twenty-three that it might never occur. Despite her lover’s persistence, Eurydice elects to stay the course she has chosen, sacriﬁcing her happiness as a woman to her sense of duty. The novel deals well with the double standard, Eurydice remaining faithful even as her husband philanders. 79. D’Arcy, Ella. Monochromes. London: John Lane, 1895. This collection of short stories deals, to varying degrees, with feminist issues. “The Pleasure-Pilgrim” is of particular interest: Lulie loses the love and respect of Campbell when he learns of her sordid past as an actress. She kills herself to prove the sincerity and depth of her feeling for Campbell, whose doubts nevertheless persist. 80. Denison, Thomas Stewart. The New Woman: A Comedy of A.D. 1950. Chicago: T. S. Denison, 1895. In this threeact “futurist” play about the New Woman of the 1950s, the plot centers on a New Woman’s club with rigid rules regarding its members’ involvement with men. The women eventually sneak exchanges with men, even proposing marriage, which leads to dissolution of the club. 81. Dix, Gertrude. The Girl from the

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78–82 Farm. London: John Lane; Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1895. This is the story of a valiant New Woman, Katharine Marchant. The setting is Allington, the seat of the deanery; the dean, his wife Ellen, son Hilary, and daughter Katharine comprise the Marchant family. The son is weak of mind and body, whereas the daughter is bright and ﬁt, recently graduated from an English woman’s college. Katharine has aspirations — she aims to be a librarian in London. Her father, however, uses his eye disease and impending blindness to keep her at home. Katharine assists with his magnum opus and intends to leave after its completion. But he implores her to stay. Befriending a homeless young pregnant woman—“the girl from the farm,” whom the dean and his wife believe to be a blight on their social status — Katharine leaves home taking the woman her cowardly brother impregnated.

82. Dougall, Lily. The Madonna of a Day. New York: D. Appleton, 1895. Young journalist Mary Howard eschews traditional notions about religion and womanhood but denounces the “New Woman” as “pure myth … a ridiculous and horrid phantasm.” She ﬁnds herself stranded with a group of ill-mannered, threatening men after sleepwalking from a train while traveling from Vancouver through the Gold Range to Montreal. After the sinister Hamilton attempts to force her to marry him, a deformed dwarf, ironically named “Handsome,” assists in her escape. Reunited with her friends, Mary Howard leaves Handsome to his own devices, and he, temporarily raised to a better life by her inﬂuence, rapidly returns to vice and dissipation. Recognizing this, she concludes that such men “could be turned into any sort of beautiful thing that one chose, if there were

Opposite: A doctor and a colonel meet for a face-to-face discussion of the New Woman. While the colonel wonders what the New Woman will turn into as she ages, the doctor assures him that she won’t grow old because she is already ill. Punch, or the London Charivari, 11 May 1895.

83–86 women to do it, and the women were angels.” Thus the heroine questions the revision of gender roles in light of the emergence of the New Woman and advocates a more conventional ideology in which women’s purpose is to raise men to a higher plane.

83. Dowie, Ménie Muriel (aka Mrs. Henry Norman). Gallia. London: Methuen, 1895. In this novel, Gallia Hamesthwaite is an unconventional young woman who falls in love with Dark Essex, despite his warnings. After he rejects her, she becomes engaged to Mark Gurdon, the embodiment of her eugenic ideals. Mark, rejected by Essex’s sister Margaret, has also kept a mistress, who has miscarried his child. Gallia learns of Mark’s sordid past but agrees to marry him, though she makes no pretense of loving or respecting him. Dark Essex eventually falls for Gallia, and congratulating her in the end, he only then discloses his inherited heart condition. 84. Doyle, A. Conan. Out of the City: A Story of the New Woman. N.c.: International Press Association, 1895. This serialized novel in seventeen chapters was published in The Weekly Call, Topeka, Kansas, 7 September 1895–11 January 1896. The setting is “The Wilderness,” a small housing development in Norwood, a rural area becoming a London suburb. The misses Williams, elderly sisters who have inherited farmland, ﬁnally allow three cottages to be built there. The story centers on the lives of the inhabitants, of concern to the Williamses. The Admiral Hay Denvers and the widower Dr. Balthazar Walker and his daughters give no cause for alarm, but Mrs. Westmacott and her nephew certainly do. Mrs. Westmacott clearly is a New Woman, and she sets out with zeal to convert her neighbors into feminists. The admiral is a hard sell, but she ﬁnally charms him onto the platform of a women’s rights meeting. Meanwhile, the admiral’s successful stockbroker son Harold,

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Primary Works (1894–1938) the Walker daughters Clara and Ida, and Charles Westmacott partner up. The young women suspect something between their widowed father and the New Woman and plot to show Dad what he’s “in for” if he succumbs to marriage. Their own love affairs develop until it is revealed that Harold, Clara’s young man, has been swindled by his absentee boss and is in grave ﬁnancial straits. Mrs. Westmacott saves the day with her generosity, wealth, and guardianship of the boss/scoundrel, her brother. The young Westmacotts marry and go off to ranch in Texas while the New Woman takes a position as head of a women’s college in Colorado. The doctor lives with Clara and her now independently successful stockbroker husband. Doyle’s portrayal of Mrs. Westmacott allows the New Woman to possess “feminine” traits without compromising her feminist views.

85. Egerton, George (aka Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright). “The Regeneration of Two.” In Discords. London: Elkin Matthews and John Lane, 1895. This ﬁnal story in the collection Discords tells of a young widow, “a disillusioned woman of the world,” whose life is transformed following a chance encounter with a poet who forces her to question traditional gender roles and woman-to-woman relations. She establishes a home for women in trouble and eventually reunites with the poet. The story concludes with their proposed union, based on notions of independence and freedom. 86. Ford, Isabella O. On the Threshold. London: Edward Arnold, 1895. This New Woman novel examines the woman question, socialism, and marriage. Lucretia Bampfylde (narrator) and her friend Kitty Manners take lodgings together while studying in London, where they meet Mr. Estcourt, a fellow student at Kitty’s art school, and a poet. He convinces them to join the recently formed socialist society,

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William H. Walker, Another New Woman. Life, 7 November 1895.

87–91 where they debate issues such as socialism and the woman question. They become involved in various escapades that ﬁnd them walking through the streets in the middle of the night, associating with prostitutes, and so forth. Lucretia Bampfylde becomes aware that Manners and Estcourt are falling in love; they eventually decide to marry. Lucretia reveals that “the idea of marriage does not attract or interest me very much” because “women’s lives are so cut up when they marry” (201). The novel concludes with the two women sailing down the river “towards the east — towards the dawn.”

87. Friederichs, Hulda. “The ‘Old’ Woman and the ‘New.’” The Young Woman 3 (1895): 202. In this short piece, Friederichs defended the New Woman from the naysayers who did not bother to understand what she was all about. She wrote of two types of New Women: real and caricatured. She provided insight into what the real New Woman was about and compared her with the Old Woman, limited by society in what she could do. Friederichs assured the reader that the Old Woman was admirable but that hers was not the life that all women desired. 88. Hall, George F. A Study in Bloomers or The Model New Woman: A Novel. Chicago: American Bible House, 1895. This short novel explores the feminist and feminine sides of the bloomer-clad New Woman, Grace Thorne. Her suitor, the Rev. Dr. Frank Charlton, is at ﬁrst put off by the bloomers and the manner in which the young woman participates in cycling, riding astride, and other “masculine” athletic pursuits. In the end he realizes she is traditional at the core, becomes a convert, and marries the New Woman. 89. Hamblin, Jessie de Foliart. A New Woman. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1895. Two English gentlemen pursue two young American women in a race for a ﬁancée and, subsequently, a wife. Sir Alfred Gates and

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Primary Works (1894–1938) Lord Avon set out for America, believing it to be more fertile ground for romance and conquest. A £50,000 wage is to be paid to the man who succeeds ﬁrst. Sir Alfred secures a hasty engagement, but the wedding does not come off, and eventually his ﬁancée, Agnes Easton, the daughter of a Congressman, breaks the engagement. Her school friend, Helen Herman, an orphan/ heiress with three million dollars, offers to take Alfred off Agnes’s hands though her plans do not include marriage. Circumstances intervene and all become aware that Alfred is in pursuit of fortune. Meanwhile, Helen develops feelings for Lord Avon, but with his attempt to “play hard-to-get,” Helen loses interest. Although her fortunes reverse and Helen goes to England to work as an actress, she remains true to her New Woman precepts. She refuses him, deciding to return to America to take up a meaningful life in politics.

90. Hannigan, D. F. “Sex in Fiction,” Westminster Review 143 (1895): 616–25. This critique of contemporary criticism of the New Novel in the Contemporary, by James Ashcroft Noble, weaves in the author’s opinion of Grant Allen’s The Woman Who Did. Hannigan maintained that sex was a part of life and as such should be dealt with in literature. 91. Hardy, Thomas. Jude the Obscure. London: Methuen, 1895. In this novel, protagonist Sue Bridehead (suggesting a virginal maidenhead) represents the emancipated New Woman both in theory and in body. She is the wife of Philotson, whom she leaves to be with her cousin and lover, Jude Fawley. Sue and Jude have two children and she is pregnant with a third when Jude’s son from a former marriage kills the children and himself in response to the futility and hardships of life. Sue miscarries. She leaves Jude and the ideals they shared to return to her marriage and the conventions it represents, and lives on in misery after Jude’s premature death.

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Fashionable Fads and The New Woman. This compilation of images depicts the variety of activities and sports in which New Women may engage. Cincinnati Enquirer, 13 October 1896.

92. Harrison, Constance Cary. A Bachelor Maid. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1895. In this novel, Mr. Justice Irving marries his daughter Marion’s erstwhile teacher and companion, Sara Stauffer (a lecturer on

women’s rights). Alexander Gordon, the object of Marion’s affection, is aware of Stauffer’s shadowy past and acknowledges her feminist hypocrisy. Wishing to protect Marion from the damage to her family’s

93–98 reputation that disclosing the truth about Stauffer would cause after the marriage, Gordon allows Marion to believe he loves Stauffer. Marion experiments with independence by living in an apartment with another single woman, Mignon Cox. In the end, Stauffer deserts Justice Irving, and though Cox and Marion Irving both have had inclinations toward living independent lives, they are true women who marry their mates of choice.

93. Henry, Josephine K. “The New Woman of the South.” The Arena (February 1895): 353–62. This essay pleas for enfranchisement and lists the reasons for which the women of the American South believed they should have it. Following his conclusion, the author provided excerpts from letters and petitions from women requesting her vote. 94. Henry, Richard (aka Henry Chase Newton and Richard Butler). The Newest Woman: The Destined Monarch of the World. London: Chapman and Hall, 1895. Unavailable worldwide. The author and publisher are also listed as: Millie Finkelstein … Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne Sportsman, 1895. One copy is available at the State Library of Victoria in Melbourne. 95. Hilton, Alice. “‘The New Woman’: Is She New?” The Chautauquan 21 (August 1895): 621–22. Here Hilton expressed her views regarding the independence of American women. She claimed these women, especially those of the middle class, had been more capable than women of other countries due to their roles as pioneers. She then advised women to ignore the call of the educated New Woman to remain single. These women, she claimed, should observe the advances of women in the western United States who were especially strong and equal to the men they married. 96. Holnut, W. S. Olympia’s Journal. London: George Bell and Sons, 1895. This novel takes the form of a diary published, so

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Primary Works (1894–1938) the narrator claims in the introduction, as a confession. Olympia Colville Daw, a vain, self-assured young woman, aspires to become a successful novelist. She practices her art by keeping a diary and studying the character of her acquaintances. Upon meeting the eccentric millionaire George Braithwaite, Daw decides that marriage to him will provide her the opportunity to study his character in detail and thus to produce a great novel. Following the marriage, she discovers they are entirely unsuited for one another, and after he steals the notebooks in which she has recorded her cruel observations of his character, they separate. Some months later, she is called to his bedside. Realizing she is largely to blame for his impending death, she asks his forgiveness. He begs her to allow him to take her notebooks, which she has not read, to the grave with him, proud that his wife has written so much about him. She agrees and he dies, leaving her guilt-ridden.

97. Hunt, Violet. A Hard Woman: A Study in Scenes. New York: Appleton, 1895. In this novel, frivolous socialite Lydia Barker marries artist Ferdinand Munday. Lydia ﬂirts and teases men such as Cossie Davenant, who later threatens to blackmail her with indiscreet letters. Ferdinand, who has meanwhile fallen in love with Nevill France, his model and an up-and-coming actress, becomes a slave to commercial success to satisfy the demands of Lydia’s shallow lifestyle. Just when the heartless Lydia realizes her love for Ferdinand, he begins to long for Nevill as he idealized her in his masterpiece. 98. Iota (aka Kathleen Mannington Caffyn). A Comedy in Spasms. London: Hutchinson, 1895. In this novel, Australian Elizabeth Marrable marries Richard Prynne but loves Tom Temple. She chooses not to dishonor herself by eloping with Tom. Instead, she devotes herself to nursing the headaches of her older husband.

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99. Kenealy, Arabella. The Honourable Mrs. Spoor. London: Digby, Long, 1895. This novel focuses on class boundaries and the role of women in high society. The “honourable” Mrs. Besley Spoor attempts to conceal her disreputable past as an actress from her husband’s respectable friends but becomes concerned after encountering a young girl while running through the woods near her home with ﬂowers in her hair — an attempt to counter the oppressive feelings resulting from time spent with her husband’s social circle. She gradually becomes obsessed with the idea of discovery and consequently her façade begins to slip: she drinks excessively, paints her face, and swears — seemingly reverting to her former character. She eventually decides to kill the girl, whom she considers responsible for her downfall, but just before she stabs her, she realizes the girl is blind and could not have seen her in the woods. Realizing that “her undoing had been but her own doing” (276), she gives the girl all her jewels along with a note for her husband with instructions for delivery the next day, reveals she is “going to try if work will drive the devil out of me” (278), and disappears into the night. 100. Kinross, Albert. A Game of Consequences. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1895. In this novel, Jessica Clarke, a young and ambitious governess, elopes with Capt. Jack Winter after ensuring that he has made ample provision for her future if/when he tires of her. When they fall in love and Jack proposes, Jessica insists he test his love for her by going out among other women before their lifelong commitment. Jack meets Eva Gray and Jessica meets Leslie Crake, but Eva and Leslie are paired off at a New Year’s Eve party as Jessica and Jack are presumed married. 101. Linton, Elizabeth Lynn. At the Excelsior. New York: Merriam, 1895. In chapter 4 of this novel, “The New Woman: In Haste and at Leisure,” Linton’s protago-

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99–103 nist, Phoebe Barrington, turns into an egotistical and vain monster. Subliminally, Barrington desires independence, yet she mocks those who achieve it. There may be some autobiographical elements — independent in her youth, Linton later became antifeminist.

102. Mann, Mary E. Susannah. London: Henry, 1895. The status and wellbeing of the Upwell children (all in their twenties) is shattered upon the death of their father, and they are left to fend for themselves — almost. According to Victorian propriety the three girls must be placed with a new family, while their brother is allowed to continue his medical studies in London. Susannah (called Susan) goes to live with her deceased mother’s good friend, a self-righteous tightwad. At a point of desperation after being promised to the son, Susan learns that her brother is ill and goes to London to ﬁnd employment as a maid in his boardinghouse. The plot is long but intriguing — the brother eventually kills himself and his doctor, and Susan falls in love. Incidents related to social status delay Susan and her sweetheart from declaring their love. There is a problem with the engagement, but Susan continues to display self-sufﬁciency. 103. Marsh, Richard. Mrs. Musgrave and Her Husband. London: William Heinemann, 1895. This novel bears the hallmarks of both New Woman and sensation ﬁction. Mr. Musgrave, recently married, suspects his wife is the daughter of a convicted murderer after overhearing a conversation in which a Dr. Byam implicates her. His suspicions are seemingly conﬁrmed when his wife reveals her dislike for Byam, who is found murdered shortly afterwards. Musgrave discovers the murder weapon in his wife’s handbag and disposes of it. He vows to stand by his wife, who soon gives birth to a daughter. Shortly afterward, Musgrave reads in the paper that a clue to the murder

104–108 has been found. A few days later, the paper reports that Mrs. Musgrave is wanted by the police. She reveals to her husband that she killed Byam after he threatened to divulge to Musgrave that her father killed her mother unless she “would come to him in his bed one night” (80). The couple travels to Brussels, where Musgrave makes arrangements for them to ﬂee to America. Before they can put their plans into action, however, Mr. Charlecote, a friend of Byam who is investigating his murder, discovers their whereabouts. Musgrave and Charlecote ﬁght, and Charlecote is accidentally killed. Mrs. Musgrave is distraught; convinced they will end up in the gallows, the Musgraves spend a ﬁnal night together. When the police arrive in the morning, they kill themselves and their daughter, thus escaping “man’s justice” (190).

104. Matheson, E. “The New Woman” (poem). Shafts: A Paper for Women and the Working Classes 3 (August 1895): 69. This four-verse poem supporting the New Woman praises those who dare to take on tasks that men are unwilling to tackle. Originally published in Chambers’s Journal, it was reprinted in the New York Tribune on February 14, 1895, then in Shafts. 105. Meade, T. A. “The New Woman.” To-day’s Woman (22 June 1895): 14. After denouncing the ﬁctitious construction of a New Woman, Meade celebrated all that was good about the progressive, “true” New Woman who was becoming her own person. 106. Moore, George. Celibates. London: W. Scott, 1895. This three-story collection begins with that of Mildred Lawson. She breaks off an unhappy engagement, brieﬂy pursues an art and then a writing career, while experiencing several disastrous relationships from which she gains her sense of self-worth. She returns home to her brother after a foolish investment in a socialist newspaper ruins her

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Primary Works (1894–1938) ﬁnancially. Mildred comes full circle, engaged once again to the man she left at the outset — whom she rightly suspects of having proposed only after her brother’s untimely death left her an heiress. Two other narratives follow.

107. Paston, George (aka Emily Morse Symonds). A Study in Prejudices. New York: D. Appleton, 1895. This novel features characters practicing gender roles atypical in the Victorian era. Two sisters work outside the home while their brother takes responsibility for maintaining the home. Cecily, the protagonist, challenges the idea of femininity while remaining independent. 108. Pickering, Percival. A Pliable Marriage. London: Osgood, McIlvaine, 1895. In this novel, Dora Grant, a New Woman, is engaged to Allen Drummond, but the proposed marriage is one of convenience: she wishes to marry for monetary reasons, while he requires a housekeeper and hostess. Allen plans to make Dora fall in love with him, then to reciprocate with the secret feelings he has for her. The marriage takes place; shortly Allen receives news that the husband of the woman he once loved, Clare Berner, has died. The newlyweds travel to London, where Allen is to act as executor to Mr. Berner’s estate, which necessitates his spending much time with Clare. Dora, realizing she is falling in love with her husband, suspects he still loves Clare. Clare seemingly conﬁrms Dora’s suspicions, showing her a love letter from Allen, in fact written many years earlier. Dora tells Allen she is in love — but doesn’t reveal that he is the object of her affection— and requests an end to the marriage. She travels to London where she intends to resume her maiden name, keep a bonnet shop, give lessons, and try lecturing. Some time later, Allen is badly injured in an accident. Clare sits at his bedside, but he mistakes her for Dora and she realizes he is in love with Dora. Clare travels to London

Primary Works (1894–1938) and confesses to Dora. Dora returns with Clare and is reunited with her husband.

109. Pinero, Arthur Wing. The Amazons: A Farcical Romance in Three Acts. Boston: W. H. Baker, 1895. Miriam, Marchioness of Castlejordan, and her husband, Jack, in their youth had been determined to conceive male children. As it turns out, they have three girls but give them masculine names and dress and rear them as boys. All is set “right” when the girls became young women and ﬁnd their imposed roles too narrow. Against their mother’s wishes, they ﬁnd they enjoy the companionship of three young men. This play was ﬁrst performed at the Court Theatre in London on 7 March 1893, running until 8 July. Its greatest success was at the Lyceum Theatre in New York, where “The Amazons became the talk of the town.” After opening in February 1894, and running about eighteen or nineteen weeks, The Amazons went on tour. 110. ____. The Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith. London: Heinemann, 1895. This four-act play is set in Venice over a oneweek period including Easter. The main characters are British citizens on holiday, involved in a triangular relationship. It is the old story of the misunderstood husband, his slighted wife, and his lover, who agrees to soil her reputation in the interest of modernity and free love. Agnes Ebbsmith, a widow with no regrets, is the socialist/feminist who advocates a meeting of the minds with Lucas Cleeve, a “gentleman” with political aspirations, willing to forsake all for love. Friends and relations manipulate and interfere, but in the end the two women in the triangle see eye to eye. Although the conclusion of the drama is unclear, Cleeve appears to left with little but his political position. 111. Raimond, C. E. (aka Elizabeth Robins). The New Moon. New York: D. Appleton, 1895. This novel concerns the married Dr. Geoffrey Monroe, and Dorothy,

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109–114 the granddaughter of one of his patients. Their intense friendship grows into a mature but unconsummated love. Both the dullard wife and crabby grandmother are ill, but they seem to persevere in keeping the couple apart. Dorothy is the doctor’s intellectual equal and has feminist notions that she never acts upon except to accept that she will never really be with him and must be satisﬁed with the status quo.

112. Ralph, Julian. “The Sad Fate of a New Woman.” The Cosmopolitan 20 (November 1895): 548–52. In this story, New Woman Mildred Starke of New York City has had a career speaking on feminist issues and she enjoys athletic events and contests, but Jack Hibbard sweeps her off her fee. Hibbard has enjoyed manly activities and loved entertaining at his hunting lodge. After only a few weeks of marriage he invites several friends for a weekend adventure, as does his wife. To Mildred, Jack is more interested in his friends than in her, and she becomes determined to go back to her mother. 113. Rita (aka Eliza Humphreys). A Woman in It. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1895. The “Introductory” notes that this story does not end in matrimony or death as most novels do. Mrs. Noel Gray is the nom de plume of Nina Garrett, the Irish protagonist of this novel. She is estranged from her crooked husband, and Lutie (Lucretia Gabwell) becomes her trusted spinster friend. They exchange honest jibes revealed through diary entries and letters. Gray/Garrett’s life leads to many escapades in employment and relationships, both male and female. The novel, a study in psychology, takes the reader on a long, involved route in exploring the intimacy between the two women at center stage; the male characters operate in the wings, weaving in and out of the women’s lives. 114. Sharp, Evelyn. At the Relton Arms. London: John Lane, 1895. In this novel, two brothers, Digby and Jack Raleigh, share

115–123 an infatuation with Lady Joan Relton. Relton’s parents died when she was young, and she has grown up being independent. She loves to ﬂirt and even accepts proposals for brief periods, but she has no interest in marriage. Digby is a musician and she hates music; Jack is a wanderer with no intention of settling down. Lady Joan likes them both but likes her freedom more. In her youth she aspired to the visual arts, but in the end she determines to write a novel.

115. Stutﬁeld, Hugh. “Tommyrotics.” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 157 ( June 1895): 833–45. Spurred by Max Nordau’s Degeneration, author Stutﬁeld denounced novels and plays by and about the New Woman. This literature so threatened his radical conservatism that he suggested contacting the police to ban such publications. As the title suggests, Stutﬁeld believed the New Woman’s concerns were nonsense. 116. Sudermann, Hermann. Magda: A Play in Four Acts. Translated from the German by Charles Edward Amory Winslow. Boston: Lamson, Wolffe, 1895. Magda, the prodigal daughter returning home from an eleven-year absence, is not welcome. Her military father had cast her from the Schwartze home because she refused to conform: she rejected the suitor her father chose for her and went off to pursue a career as an opera singer. After a struggle to achieve fame and ﬁnancial stability, Magda is invited to appear in a music festival in her hometown. After some cajoling by the local pastor, Schwartze softens his stance and receives Magda. Schwartze and his second wife, Magda’s stepmother, are shocked by some of her tales, but nothing compares with the revelation that she has a son fathered by the revered councilor, Dr. Von Keller. Schwartze insists they marry, and Magda reluctantly agrees, but when Von Keller says she must give up her career to aid him in his and that their son must be cast away, she ﬂatly refuses. This New Woman deﬁnitely has a mind of her own.

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117. Sykes, A. G. P. “The Evolution of the Sex.” Westminster Review 143 ( January– June 1895): 396–400. This author mercilessly criticized the abilities of New Woman authors of novels and plays, referring to them as “the modern feminine.” 118. U. V. W. “The New Woman.” The Monthly Packet 89 (1895): 128–30. This short antifeminist essay outlines the unfeminine manners of the New Woman.

1896 119. Anonymous. “The Old Way with the New Woman.” The Woman’s Journal 25 ( January 1896): 30. This is a reprint of a ﬁve-stanza poem from Punch. 120. ____. “Bishops and the New Woman.” The Woman’s Journal: Boston (18 July 1896): 227. Several Methodist bishops commented on the New Woman with a variety of exclamations ranging from total acceptance to total rejection. 121. ____. “The New Woman.” Truth, or, Testimony for Christ 22 ( July 1896): 369–70. Ensconced in a section titled “Notes by the Way,” this short paragraph notes that all biblical sources from Genesis to Revelations point to women remaining silent. The anonymous author wrote that ignoring this dictate was expected of Unitarians but that the Salvation Army, the Presbyterians, and even the Methodists allowed women to preach was shocking. 122. ____. “What Is a (New) Woman Like?” Punch (3 October 1896): 158. This article was part of an ongoing Punch series of misogynist New Woman riddles, poems, letters, and short essays. See other Anonymous entries for 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1897. 123. ____. “A Chat with Madame Sarah Grand.” Hub 11 (17 October 1896): 419–20. In this interview Grand discussed her experiences with cycling, noting that only a year earlier, in 1895, she had begun

Primary Works (1894–1938) using “the wheel” in Paris. A young American student, then residing with her, had encouraged her to ride. When asked about her “cycling costume,” Grand replied that in Paris she wore bloomers but in the English countryside she felt compelled to wear a skirt. She did not cycle in London. Grand treated at length the physical and psychological advantages of cycling, especially for those engaged in “brain work.”

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124–127 story, New Woman Sophie is a domineering and manipulative yet beautiful witch and her husband, Alexander, is a meek, beaten-down puppet. His mother comes for a visit and Sophie dictates her husband’s every move. The story illustrates that the New Woman was seen as antithetical to the True Woman, who was subservient to her husband. Many comic images of the New Woman depicted women telling men what to do.

124. ____. “The New Woman.” The Woman’s Journal (26 December 1896): 407. In this reprint of a letter to the editor of a prominent newspaper in India in response to a September article regarding modern ﬁction, the female author argued point by point that the New Woman was entitled to equality in every area of her life and that moving into traditional “male” arenas did not make her manly.

126. Braun, Lily von Gizycki. Die Neue Frau in der Dichtung. Stuttgart: Dietz Verlag, 1896. In this early essay of European literary works, Braun described the New Woman as a recent phenomenon with disparate identities. The term New Woman identiﬁed the emancipated female ideal and denounced women rejecting traditional roles.

125. ____. “A Russian ‘New Woman.’” Temple Bar 108 (1896): 518–29. In this short

127. Coleman, A. H. “The Newest New Woman.” Free Review 7 (November

William H. Walker, The New Navy. The commanding “battle-axe” is hardly admirable according to this caricature. Life, 16 April 1896.

128–130

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1896): 220–24. We include this review of Chrystal: The Newest of Women —a book by “An Exponent,” likely published in 1896 when Coleman wrote this review—in hopes that someone may ﬁnd a copy of the book. We can ﬁnd no other reference to it.

Collins also examined world religions, concluding that no religion was fair to womankind. She interspersed her address with quotes from noted authors, primarily the philosopher/political economist J. S. Mill and his wife, Harriet Taylor.

128. Collins, May L. A Plea for the New Woman. An address delivered before the Ohio Liberal Society, February 2, 1896. New York: Truth Seeker, 1896. Speaker Collins linked the progress she saw in liberating women to the theory of evolution. She claimed that war and ignorance held women from progressing and noted that women’s lot improved during peace, citing as an example that the United States led other nations in its treatment of women — primarily because of its paucity of war.

129. De Koven, Mrs. Reginald. “The New Woman and Golf Playing.” The Cosmopolitan 21 ( July 1896): 352–61. The greater portion of this article provides a history and how-to of golf. Though De Koven encouraged women and recognized two clubs owned and operated by women, she admonished female readers to defer to men on the links. 130. Frederic, Harold. The Damnation of Theron Ware. Chicago/New York: Her-

This image accompanies an article in The Cosmopolitan about the great strides women were then making in playing and competing in golf matches. It is signiﬁcant that this woman is situated alone in the center of the composition. The Cosmopolitan, 21 August 1896.

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131–135

bert S. Stone, 1896. While the women in this novel play secondary roles to the protagonist, Theron Ware, they are all stronger than he. As the town’s new Methodist minister, Ware is expected to symbolize strength, but he doesn’t. His recent move to an inhospitable church appears to induce discontent into his life. For intellectual stimulants he courts the Catholic priest and a retired doctor (the priest’s friend) as well as an Irish redhead (New Woman) who plays the organ like an angel. Ultimately he falls in love with the redhead, who denounces marriage (likely because she is involved with the priest). Ware’s wife, Alice, is stalwart and awaits his emotional and physical return. She takes charge, forcing him to quit the ministry, and they move to Seattle. The novel was published in England as The Illumination.

ers, 1896. Hansson offered a biographical introduction to and analysis of the lives of “six modern women” who distinguished themselves in ﬁelds including education, literature, and theater: Sonia Kovalevsky, George Egerton, Eleonora Duse, Amalie Skram, Marie Bashkirtseff, and Anne Charlotte Edgren-Lefﬂer. While Hansson’s treatment was often sympathetic to her subjects, she combined this sympathy with seemingly stark antifeminist sentiments, suggesting that in all cases cited, “womanly feeling … asserts itself in spite of everything” (v) and concluding: “The more highly a woman’s mind and body are developed, the less is she able to dispense with man, who is the source of her great happiness or great sorrow, but who, in either case, is the only meaning of her life. For without him she is nothing” (191).

131. Glasier, Katharine Bruce. Aimée Furness, Scholar. London: Clarion Ofﬁce, 1896. Unavailable worldwide.

134. Harvey, H. E. “The Voice of Woman.” Westminster Review 145 ( January–June 1896), 193–36. In this short essay, Harvey exposed the evils of the double standard and the methodology that made women internalize it. The author articulated progressive views of “women’s place” because women were beginning to “have opinions of their own” and they deserved “a fair hearing.” 135. Hunt, Violet. The Way of Marriage. London: Chapman and Hall, 1896. The introduction to this collection of short stories about marriage begins with a scene in which Mrs. Munday challenges the novelist Mr. St. Jerome (the narrator of the stories) to tell her the history of various guests at a dinner party. She asks him to “write down the secret histories—the why and the wherefore — of the marriages of all these people” (xii). The stories that follow purport to be Mr. St. Jerome’s account of the people, including that of a man duped into marrying a woman from a lower social sphere, an aristocrat who fell in love with an actress with a shady past, a woman who discovered the night before her wedding that

132. Graffenried, Clare de. “The New Woman and Her Debts.” Popular Science Monthly 49 (September 1896): 664–72. This author pointed to the contributions of the ancient woman and called for a return to the pre-industrialized world of handcrafts. She both lamented and celebrated increased paid employment for women and called for greater control of the exploitation of women and children in factories. The piece is inconsistent, both extolling the virtues of tenement wives in keeping crowded spaces neat and clean and criticizing them for disorder. As to how woeful conditions might be improved, she called upon the ﬁn de siècle New Woman to educate young women so they could better stand up for themselves but admonished them to not forget the traditional values of their foremothers. 133. Hansson, Laura Marholm. Six Modern Women: Psychological Sketches. Trans. Hermione Ramsden. Boston: Roberts Broth-

136–140 her husband previously lived with another woman, a couple whose relationship is overshadowed by the woman’s memory of an earlier love affair, a woman reluctant to marry and abandon her role as homemaker

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Primary Works (1894–1938) to her mother and siblings, and a semisupernatural tale of a woman who apparently wishes her husband back to life and is consequently forced to live a kind of death in life.

136. Kenealy, Arabella. “The Dignity of Love.” Humanitarian 8 ( January–June 1896). A portion of this article —“Thank Heaven for the New Woman!”— is reprinted in Juliet Gardiner, The New Woman (1993), 27–28. 137. MacCorrie, John Paul. “The War of the Sexes.” Catholic World 63 (August 1896): 605–18. The author of this essay begins by dismissing the nervousness of people concerned about the New Woman movement and continues to iterate his support for the equality for women—within their own sphere. At the heart of his argument is the claim that women must stay in their place according to biblical dictates. If woman dares enter the so-called masculine world, he wrote, the natural order is disturbed and trouble will be the result. 138. Metcalfe. “To a Wouldbe New Woman.” Life (9 January 1896): 27. This poem asks women to remain in their current situations, promising better times and suggesting that only ugly women get involved with suffrage. Miss Pauline French is depicted riding her horse through Central Park in the controversial “astride” position. The riding costume she designed is described in detail in the article about her. French was the daughter of Mark Hanna, a United States Senator from Ohio. Reprinted in Cincinnati Enquirer, 31 October 1896.

139. Meynell, Alice. “The Wares of Autolycus.” Pall Mall Gazette (2 January 1896). This is a satiric diatribe on the New Woman. 140. Morgan-Dockrell, Mrs. C. “Is the New Woman a Myth?” Humanitarian 8 ( January–June 1896): 339–50. In this essay,

Primary Works (1894–1938) Morgan-Dockrell traced gender equality back to Adam and Eve. She maintained that the intention of the creator of the universe was to make woman and man equal in all respects, especially intellectually, but that that interpretation of the concept had gone awry. She claimed that the ﬁctional New Woman was not representative of the movement as a whole and that the excesses incorporated into New Woman characters would dissipate. She believed that equality in all areas of life would prevail, bringing men and women together for mutual good. She predicted, in a straightforward and strong futuristic argument, that the road to achieving this goal would be rocky. This is her only extant work.

141. Oliphant, Margaret. “The AntiMarriage League.” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 159 (1896): 135–49. In this article, Oliphant, a conservative novelist, attacked Thomas Hardy’s Jude the Obscure and Grant Allen’s The Woman Who Did. Both novels were too radical for Mrs. Oliphant, and she accused the New Woman writers of forming an “anti-marriage league.” She objected vehemently to the weak, puppet-like men in Jude. Oliphant believed it unnatural to reverse accepted gender roles and suggested Hardy’s reversal rested on his preference that his characters not marry. She referred to the females in each novel as “animal” or “savage” because they engaged in sex outside of marriage. She maintained that the novels backﬁre because readers wind up feeling sorry for the men. 142. Pope, Barbara E. “The New Woman.” Waverly Magazine (18 July 1896). Margaret Hartwell was a young married woman from Wyoming. Her husband Frank, an attorney, fully ascribed to traditional male and female roles. Margaret believed, however, that she could do everything a man could do. Frank’s ﬁrst encounter with his wife’s liberation came when she ﬁxed the shutters that the carpenter was supposed to mend. Frank was

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141–147 shocked that his wife would undertake a manly task. He was further shocked when she conﬁded in him that idleness did not suit her and that she intended to go to court with him. The short story is on microﬁlm at the Library of Congress, unfortunately not in entirety.

143. Robinson, John Bunyon. The New Woman and Other Poems. Chicago: C. M. Barnes, 1896. This is a seventy-eightpage poetic diatribe on the personhood of the New Woman. 144. Rugg, George. The New Woman: A Farcical Sketch with One Art, One Scene and One Purpose. Boston: W. H. Baker, 1896. This short skit based on Pilgrim’s Progress reverses the roles of the main characters. Darius Simpkins is a househusband, his wife Maria an attorney. Author Rugg clearly demonstrated the isolation of women with young children, in a humorous manner. Ultimately Darius rebels, claiming Maria will hereafter share the household drudgery. 145. Rutherford, Mark (aka William Hale White). Clara Hapgood. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1896. In this novel, Madge Hapgood breaks off an impetuous engagement after becoming pregnant by her ﬁancé, Frank. Later, Clara Hapgood passes up the chance to marry the man she loves — Baruch Cohen — so that he may fall in love with her stigmatized sister and provide her and her child a somewhat normal life. Clara enlists to aid an Italian, Mazzini, in the role of spy. She dies in Italy, but Baruch and Madge name their daughter after her. 146. Seabury, Emma Playter. “The New Woman.” New England Magazine 14 ( July 1896), 641. In this ﬁve-verse rhyme Seabury asserted that the New Woman was not militant — she simply wanted to participate in every aspect of life while remaining a warm, caring person. 147. Smith, John. Platonic Affections. London: John Lane/Boston: Roberts Broth-

148–151 ers, 1896. In this novel, George Heaton’s fate is sealed when he leases a summer cottage in the seaside resort of Lifport in North Devon. There he breaks out of a solitary life to befriend the Captain Whitstables and the widow Nelly Elton, Mrs. Whitstable’s sister. George returns to Britain after a twoyear absence, eager to see his dear friend Parson Jack Passmore. Meanwhile his platonic feelings for Nelly intensify, but he cannot give in to love due to his earlier, unrequited love for a married woman. George and Nelly agree to live as sister and brother in an abandoned home known as “Venn’s Folly” near the parson’s abode. The name of the house becomes a metaphor for the platonic relationship within its walls. It turns out that George’s ﬁrst love has died, leaving a daughter, and Passmore places the child in the care of Nelly and George. She serves as communicator between her surrogate parents, who ﬁnally agree their platonic experiment is a failure.

148. Syrett, Netta. Nobody’s Fault. London and Boston: John Lane and Robert Brothers (respectively), 1896. This New Woman novel tells the story of Bridget Ruan, the daughter of a publican and his wife. She receives a good education and subsequently struggles against the monotony of everyday life among her mother’s acquaintances before escaping to an equally unfulﬁlling life as a teacher. Eventually she ﬁnds some success as a writer, then makes an unhappy marriage and consequently separates from her husband. Falling in love with an old friend, Larry Carey, she prepares to embark on a relationship with him, but when her father suddenly dies, she sacriﬁces this possibility of happiness for the sake of her mother. 149. Thompson, Maurice. “Is the New Woman New?” Essays from the Chap-Book. Chicago: Herbert S. Stone’s, 1896. Though Thompson claimed earlier support for woman suffrage and paid lip service to “full

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Primary Works (1894–1938) freedom,” he chastised the “manly woman,” using the sixteenth-century French author and feminist Louise Labé as scapegoat. He seems particularly irritated with and threatened by New Woman protagonists in contemporary novels. He advocated separate spheres and used the voice of a “Noble” unidentiﬁed woman to reinforce his argument citing the “great” three M’s — men, marriage, and maternity—as hallmarks of womanhood and chastise the Louise Labés of the world, likened to a “recurring decimal.”

150. Tomlinson, Annie E. “The New Woman and the Marriage Question.” (Boston) Woman’s Journal 27 (6 September, 1896): 1. Although Tomlinson referred to the recent increase in divorce as a “disease,” she fully supported women’s desire for equality. She acknowledged that the disparity of the sexes had existed throughout history but believed woman’s awareness of the power of the male had caused her discontent. In this forward-thinking article, Tomlinson advocated that married women keep their maiden names and be ﬁnancially independent. She further stated that the family with a male at the helm went against democratic principles. She believed the New Woman would rectify the inequality in marriage through her economic independence (“the modern industrial woman”) and ability to wait until men value women’s worth. If men did this, the basic marriage “problem” would be solved. 151. Tooley, Sarah A. “The Woman’s Question: An Interview with Madame Sarah Grand.” Humanitarian 8 (March 1896): 160–69. The interview Grand afforded Tooley took place after the publication of Heavenly Twins. The topics they covered include the enfranchisement of women, admitting women to Parliament, women as cyclists and proper apparel when cycling, divorce, male and female cohabitation without marriage, and books by Grant Allen and Thomas Hardy. Grand was pre-

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152

Frances Benjamin Johnston’s Self Portrait as a New Woman was made circa 1896. Johnston was a professional Washington, D.C., photographer who depicted herself in the attitude of the New Woman of the 1890s. Library of Congress. dictably feminist in her answers, but she maintained that young married women must remain in the home to nurture and educate their children. A photograph of Grand is included.

152. Warden, Gertrude. The Sentimental Sex. New York: D. Appleton, 1896. Mrs. Lambert, whose nom de plume is Iris, supports herself by writing a volume of romantic poems. They fall into the hands of Niel

153–160

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Vansittart, a young English emigrant to Australia. He falls in love and, after making his fortune in farming and real estate, sails back to England to pursue his “Iris.” After persuading her to marry him by revealing his income, he realizes he cannot make her into the perfect wife he has envisioned. They are ill suited; jealousy and misunderstanding mar their relationship. In the end he commits suicide (the die is cast early in the script when Iris notes that Neil is “dying to know her”). Role reversals account for the title.

153. Winston, Ella W. “Foibles of the New Woman.” Forum (21 April 1896): 186–92. This antifeminist tract argues that women are best ﬁt for domestic life.

1897 154. Anonymous. “The Old to the New.” Punch (9 January 1897): 15. This article was part of an ongoing Punch series of misogynist New Woman riddles, poems, letters, and short essays. See other Anonymous entries for 1894, 1895, and 1896. 155. ____. “The New Woman at Vassar.” The Woman’s Column 10 (12 June 1897): 1. In this short report on the commencement speech of Vassar’s president, James M. Taylor cautioned the 105 graduates to beware of the New Woman and her un-Christian attributes. 156. ____. “New Woman as a Jockey.” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Weekly 85 (23 September 1897): 202. This positive article recognizes the accomplishments of a New Woman identiﬁed as Miss Leota Elliott, shown in an accompanying photograph. Elliott, from Orient, Maine, had won several horse races in Pittsﬁeld (Maine). 157. Bell, Lilian Lida (aka Mrs. A. H. Bogue). From a Girl’s Point of View. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1897. The chapters of the book provide

Primary Works (1894–1938) sketches of different types of male and female: the Irresistible Man, the Stupid Man, and so forth, and in the ﬁnal chapter, the New Woman. She was new in America when Bell wrote this defense of her in 1897. She lauded the New Woman for her ability to converse on a broad range of subjects. She also pointed out that dress did not deﬁne the New Woman but that her newly honed attributes of practicality and helpfulness did.

158. Boyle, Margaret P. “The ‘New Woman’ in Germany.” The Outlook 57 (23 October, 1897): 468–70. Author Boyle provided an overview of the accomplishments of women in German history from the Middle Ages (when veneration of the Virgin Mary began) to the contemporary era, when women were admitted to university for advanced degrees. She applauded the strides of women in academe, pointing to their struggles as students. 159. Broughton, Rhoda. Dear Faustina. London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1897. Though titled with reference to Faustina Bateson, the protagonist in this novel is Althea Vane. The death of Althea’s father upsets the entire household as the widow/ Althea’s mother leaves her semi-grown children to fend for themselves, so that she can crusade for social justice. Althea’s friend Faustina takes her under her wing. Althea works for Faustina’s social causes but soon realizes her friend has a domineering and abrasive nature. Faustina is unkind to Althea, and the younger woman must return to live with her sister and brother-inlaw. She is not, however, challenged by or satisﬁed with the superﬁcial way of life they embrace. John Drake, a gentleman-turnedfeminist/socialist whom Althea has met through Faustina, rescues Althea from her proper social sphere and returns her to the work she loves — helping the workingwomen of London. 160. Brown, Herbert E. Betsey Jane on

Primary Works (1894–1938) the New Woman. Chicago: C. H. Kerr, 1897. In this novel, Betsey Jane is the protagonist, who, with husband Benjamin, sets out to discover the New Woman in New England after receiving a brief education from their two college-age children, who both espouse the phenomenon. Benjamin is more receptive to the New Woman than is Betsey Jane. Though Betsey Jane wears bloomers and rides a wheel, she is unsure of the other liberated roles women are embracing. She and Benjamin decide to ﬁnd out for themselves through a month-long bicycle excursion around New England. They experience many adventures in regard to New Women and come to the conclusion that family life best thrives with traditional gender roles.

161. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or Alice Mona Henryson Caird). The Morality of Marriage and Other Essays on the Status and Destiny of Woman. London: George Redway, 1897. In this series of articles published in Westminster Review, North American Review, Fortnightly Review, and Nineteenth Century (1884–1894), Caird related her views on marriage and other issues related to women. In her essay with the abbreviated title “The Mortality of Marriage” (Fortnightly Review 53 [1890]: 310–30), Caird pointed to the injustices of marriage, stating that woman is born strong but purportedly becomes weak as she ages. If women are so weak, she asked, how could they bear multiple children, take care of home, and often take care of her husband’s business as well? Caird was militant in her belief that women, not men, must have legal authority over their children. 162. Chapman, Elizabeth R. Marriage Questions in Modern Fiction, and Other Essays on Kindred Subjects. London: George Redway, 1897. Chapman argued that contemporary ﬁction reinforced negative views of women, that literary stereotypes must change for women’s real circumstances to

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161–165 change, and that there are arguments for marriage reform or abolition (among those who argue to change it at all). She also examined the negative consequences of misogynistic applications of Old Testament scriptures and argued for indissoluble marriage as a positive sociological ideal rather than an enforced byproduct of religion.

163. Clark, Annie. Paper on Art and the New Woman. Uitenhage, Eastern Cape (South Africa): W. S. J. Sellick, 1897. The British Library is the only known holder of this paper, but the item is missing from the library’s collections. 164. Colville, William Wilberforce. Newest of the New Women. Boston: Banner of Light, 1897. In this two-chapter story with a double plot, the protagonist appears to be the Italian sculptor L. G. V. Bernardo, whose work Christ and John the Baptist has been brought to Boston by Mr. and Mrs. Eastlake-Gore and who is the talk of the town. The sculptor’s nineteen-year-old sister, Gloria, accompanies him and they are entertained by the Eastlake-Gores, who are major philanthropists. Mrs. Eastlake-Gore is an Italian poet whose magnum opus is Cynthia, an epic poem revering the true identity of L. G. V. Of course, Gloria is Lavinia Gloria Victoria, a female sculptor whose work, Mrs. Eastlake-Gore believes, would not be recognized if the Boston art lovers knew a woman had executed it. Gloria is the “newest of new women” and her brother, L(udovico), is in reality an excellent tenor. 165. Crawford, Virginia M. “Feminism in France.” Fortnightly Review 61 (1897): 524–34. This essay is a general discussion of the state of the women’s movement in France at the end of the nineteenth century. Crawford credited both Slav women then living in Paris and French men such as Alexander Dumas (a convert to feminism), for advancing the feminist cause. Jules Bois’s L’Eve Nouvelle, the English people,

161–168

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Edward Lamson Henry, The New Woman, 1897. Henry painted a genre scene of the New Woman on a solo outing. She encounters a farm family that offers her a glass of water. The gentleman has a quizzical look on his face while the wife’s and daughter’s body language indicate their displeasure. Oil on canvas, 16 x 22 in. (40.64 x 55.88 cm); Private collection, Illinois. and the bicycle also had a positive inﬂuence on French feminism, Crawford explained.

166. Dawson, Miles Menande. “The New Woman.” The Arena 18 (August 1897): 275. This ﬁve-stanza poem relates how the New Woman chooses a husband more wisely and then behaves as a “womanly woman” out of happiness with her superior choice of mate. 167. Egerton, George (aka Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright). “At the Heart of the Apple,” from Symphonies (1897), reprinted in Ann Heilmann, ed., The LateVictorian Marriage Question: A Collection of Key New Woman Texts. Vol. 3. London and New York: Routledge with Thoemmes, 1998. In this short story a girl identiﬁed as

Evir is taken from her native Britain to live on a secluded island in Norway. She lives with a man she believes is her master but who is really her father (her mother abandoned them). As she grows, she attempts to broaden the circle that has enclosed her, and she meets two boys. One is the son of a minister who teaches her to read and write; the other impregnates her. After seven years, the father of her boy-child comes to claim the child and her. She ﬂatly and boldly rejects both marriage and his intention to have a part in the child’s life.

168. Grand, Sarah (aka Frances Elizabeth Bellenden-Clark McFall). The Beth Book. London: William Heinemann, 1897. In this novel, Beth Caldwell grows up and

Primary Works (1894–1938) marries Dr. Daniel Maclure, a man about whom she knows almost nothing. She endures years of unhappiness, knowing that he not only married her for an anticipated income (which fell through), but that he has also cheated on her with one of his patients. He also conducts vivisection-style experiments on animals, while she is busy pursuing a writing career. Beth is ﬁnally released from the miserable marriage when a series of bizarre circumstances results in her standing witness for a childhood friend who has been the victim of mistaken identity. Although her testimony ultimately is not required, her husband invokes a typical double standard, telling her never to return. He asks her back (after the anticipated income comes to Beth after all), but in the meantime she has found success as a writer for women and moved to London to pursue her work. Beth falls for another man who is ill and nurses him back to health, but in doing so she compromises her own. Her friends intervene and she is able to get back to work but ﬁnds her enthusiasm gone. By novel’s end she regains it and enters the sphere of public speaking.

169. Hewitt, Emma Churchman. “The ‘New Woman’ in Her Relation to the ‘New Man.’” Westminster Review 147 (March 1897): 335–37. This succinct defense of the New Woman calls men on the carpet for virtually causing her to exist and then criticizing their own creation. 170. Hogarth, Janet E. “The Monstrous Regiment of Women.” Fortnightly Review 68 (December 1897): 926–36. In this general report on the state of the young workingwoman in Great Britain, Hogarth faulted the educational system for not teaching girls to think for themselves. She applauded the Central Bureau for the Employment of Women that was set up in Liverpool, and she eagerly awaited the arrival of a similar bureau in London. She wrote that though there were opportunities for young women, there was no system for

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169–173 them to learn what they were best suited for, what was available for women, and how to ﬁnd employment.

171. Lanceﬁeld, R. T. Tim and Mrs. Tim: A Story for the “Club” and “Society” Man and the “New” Woman. Toronto: The Toronto News Company, 1897. In this novel, the young husband Timothy Wright is asked to join a men’s club by one of his neighbors. He resists as ﬁrst but ﬁnally capitulates and subsequently throws himself into the work of the club and rises to prestigious ofﬁce. His young wife is unhappy about his persistent absence from home and attempts to blackmail him by learning the club secrets. The plan fails, and Tim joins more clubs to travel as their representative. 172. Oppenheim, Annie Isabella. “An Episode in the Life of a New Woman.” Belgravia: A London Magazine 92 (1897): 312–36. In this short story, Elizabeth Barton assumes responsibility for her orphaned niece, Peggy Gunning, a young woman reared in a protective manner. Barton brings Peggy to London with a plan to make her into an independent woman who eschews marriage. The experiment does not work, as Gunning falls for a gentleman attending one of her aunt’s social events. Barton tries to force the man to marry her niece, but he declines. Barton appears most unhappy at the conclusion because she is unable to control the events of life. 173. Paston, George (aka Emily Morse Symonds). The Career of Candida. New York: D. Appleton, 1897. In this novel, author Paston explored the characteristics associated with the New Man by granting recognition to the New Woman and studied the effects of the New Woman on male gender roles. The character Candida uses her education to build a successful life but in the end transforms into the typical caretaker, leaving her own happiness behind to take care of her dying husband.

174–181

174. Peard, Frances Mary. The Career of Claudia. London: Richard Bentley, 1897. Claudia, the New Woman in this novel, rejects the advances of her young gentleman friend to pursue a career as a gardener. Her friends cannot believe she chooses manual work over becoming a respectable housewife, but she does so for a while. Eventually she marries her suitor, but she insists on living an independent life nevertheless. 175. Sharp, Evelyn. The Making of a Prig. London: John Lane: The Bodley Head, 1897. Katharine Austen is the nearly adult daughter of a widowed rector living in a rural English village. Katharine’s only childhood playmate and now dearest friend is Ned; their escapades were those of a brother and sister. As relatively little of note occurs in the village, a carriage accident constitutes a major incident, especially when the victim is interred in the rector’s home for months, recovering from his injuries. He is Paul Wilton, a barrister whose family hails from Yorkshire. After his departure from the rectory, the rebel Katharine becomes restless and decides to attempt the life of the London working woman. Her chance meeting with Paul leads her to a teaching position and causes the renewal of their on-and-off relationship. Though Katharine engages in meaningful employment, her motives are not strictly feminist (for instance, she does not take to the wheel), she never exhibits disdain for the institution of matrimony, and by novel’s end the reader knows she will end up with Paul. 176. Shaw, George Bernard. You Never Can Tell. (1897). Reprinted in Shaw, Plays Pleasant. London: Penguin, 1975. In this play, a rebellious New Woman with a scientiﬁc education deﬁes her father by smoking. 177. Stutﬁeld, Hugh. “The Psychology of Feminism.” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 161 (1897): 104–17. The author, some-

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Primary Works (1894–1938) what sympathetic toward women, was unable to support equality as deﬁned by the New Woman.

178. T. P. W. “The New Woman on the Bible.” Scottish Review 30 (October 1897): 300–22. This lengthy criticism of volume 1 of The Woman’s Bible (remarking on the ﬁrst ﬁve books of the Old Testament and edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1895) has a sarcastic edge. The author analyzed the text, criticizing the women who worked with Stanton because they failed to consider contemporary exegesis by noted biblical scholars. The author revealed sexist views, noting that women are inherently physically and intellectually inferior to men. 179. Tyrell, George. The Old Faith and the New Woman. Philadelphia: Woodstock College Press, 1897. Reprinted from The American Catholic Quarterly Review ( July 1897). After a long, philosophical introduction on new ideas, the Rev. Tyrell at ﬁrst appeared to defend the New Woman in a sixteen-page tract. He pointed to mythological and religious females who showed intellect and strength as well as women of the Renaissance and Baroque who contributed in scholarly areas. Yet he also supported the nature theory, noting that women who concentrated too extensively on education would be unable to conceive. He was adamant that the home would be in ruins if women began to compete with men.

1898 180. Anonymous. “The New Woman and Children.” The Woman’s Standard 10 ( January 1898): 1–2. The author answered the question of whether New Women have any interest in children by telling about the successful clubs she set up for young men to interest them in a variety of topics and prevent them from becoming hooligans. 181. ____. “The New Woman.” Life

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182–186

In these stereoscopic images, the New Woman is set for a cycling ride in her jaunty attire while the husband stays home to do the washing. The two images merge in three dimensions when inserted in the stereoscope. Underwood & Underwood, 1897. (5 May 1898): 31. Originally published in Harper’s Bazaar. This seven-stanza poem notes how Adam and Eve lived in peace until somehow the New Woman was fashioned from an indeterminate bone (perhaps the funny bone?). Now women have become too “public,” and the poem pleads for a return to the old.

182. ____. “A Change for the New Woman.” Life (2 June 1898): 31. This advertisement for Mutual Life of New York offers a private sort of “Social Security” to aid and protect women in their twilight years. 183. ____. “Sarah Grand on the Old and the New Woman.” The Woman’s Signal 10 (1 September 1898): 140. This is a summary of Sarah Grand’s “The New Woman and the Old,” which ran in Lady’s Realm in August 1898. 184. Arling, Nat. “What Is the Role of the ‘New Woman’?” Westminster Review 150 (November 1898): 576–87. This is an impassioned plea for women’s rights from a Christian perspective. Arling wrote in re-

sponse to a contemporary editorial in the Cambrian News, but his arguments were amazingly modern.

185. Blathwayt, Raymond. “On the New Woman: A Talk with Madame Sarah Grand.” Great Thoughts from Master Minds (March 1898): 373–74. In this interview, Sarah Grand consistently defended both women’s positions as well as her own books, particularly The Heavenly Twins and The Beth Book. 186. Dunne, Finley Peter. “On The New Woman.” In Mr. Dooley in Peace and In War. Boston: Small, Maynard, 1898. Reprinted in Mr. Dooley on Ivrything & Ivrybody. New York: Dover Publications, 1963. Author Dunne was an Irish immigrant who rose to success with his humorous stories written in colloquial speech for the Chicago Post. His short satirical essay turns the tables when the man of the house, Mr. Donahue, pretends to be the idle woman lying in bed awaiting a child. He sends the women scampering to fulﬁll his demands.

187–193

187. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. Women and Economics: A Study in the Economic Relation between Men And Women as a Factor in Social Evolution. 3d ed. Boston: Small, Maynard, 1898. Inﬂuential in ﬁn-de-siècle feminist work and arguing that economic dependency was a crucial contributing factor in the continuing oppression of women, Gilman intended to “show how some of the worst evils under which we suffer, evils long supposed to be inherent and ineradicable in our natures, are but the result of certain arbitrary conditions of our own adoption, and how, by removing those conditions, we may remove the evils resultant” (see preface). Drawing on Darwinian ideas, Gilman assessed the social evolution of the human species leading to the economic dependence of woman on man. She argued that freedom from this dependency would vastly improve the quality of life—including marital relations and child development—while the continued economic oppression of women would further retard the development of the human species. 188. Glasgow, Ellen. Phases of an Inferior Planet. New York: Harper Brothers, 1898. In this novel. Marian Musin and Anthony Algarcife marry and have a baby, Isolde, who dies in infancy. When Anthony loses his job as a science instructor at a conservative school — for publishing a scandalous article on the origins of sex — Mariana leaves to perform in an opera troupe. Anthony becomes a priest, and Mariana returns as another man’s wife but dies of pneumonia while seeking reconciliation with Anthony. He considers suicide but decides it would be selﬁsh. 189. Grand, Sarah (Frances Elizabeth Bellenden-Clark McFall). “The Modern Girl.” The Temple Magazine 2 (February 1898): 323–26. While extolling the advantages of the independent woman, Grand cautioned young British women not to lose sight of their manners and decorum. She

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Primary Works (1894–1938) responded to the critics of the New Woman in noting that the deportment of young women had nothing to do with the women’s movement.

190. ____. “The New Woman and the Old.” Lady’s Realm 4 (August 1898): 466– 70. In this concise piece, Grand laid out the basic differences between Old and New Women in the form of a polemic. She stated that although the Old Women criticized the advances heralded by the New Women, they were quick to take advantage of them upon acceptance by the general population. 191. ____. “Sarah Grand on the Old and New Woman.” Woman’s Signal 10 (1 September 1898): 140. This is a reprint of the article in the August 1898 Lady’s Realm.

192. ____. “At What Age Should Girls Marry?” Young Woman 7 (1898): 161–65. First laying out the contemptible manner in which young women had in the past been pushed into marriage, Grand turned to her own time, discussing the role of education in prolonging girlhood and how young women of the ﬁn de siècle had a right to determine their own course (she concluded that doing so before age twenty-ﬁve was not wise). She tacked on seven letters from prominent women on the suitable age for girls to marry. 193. ____. “The Modern English Girl.” Canadian Magazine 10 (1898): 297–301. Although Grand extolled the strength of young English women of the late nineteenth century, she was also concerned about their apparent (to her) selfcenteredness and lack of manners, which she maintained were especially evident in comparison with young French women. Grand was quick to defend the woman’s movement, stating that whatever might be lacking in the modern English girl was more a result of poor upbringing than independence.

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194. ____. The Modern Man and Maid. London: Horace Marshall and Son, 1898. The booklet, as Grand called this literary piece, is divided into four sections with a “Warning” in substitution of an introduction or preface. There she acknowledged that this short work does not constitute a complete examination of the sexes. The ﬁrst two chapters are a juxtaposition of good and bad qualities in the modern young male and female (the ﬁrst essay is the reprint of the article in The Temple Magazine). In the last two chapters Grand expostulated on the institution of marriage and on young people choosing life partners. Her frequent refrain is that neither young men nor young women are prepared to make intelligent choices and that they certainly had no advance training to be wives, husbands, or parents. Educating them was of prime importance. 195. Grand, Sarah, et al. “Does Marriage Hinder a Woman’s Self-development?” Lady’s Realm 5 (1898): 576–86. Seven women — Sarah Grand, The Hon. Mabel Vereker, Gertrude Atherton, Lady Troubridge, Mona Caird, Lady Teresa F. Hamilton, and Mrs. Mary Wynne — answered the question. Their opinions ranged from afﬁrmative to a fairytale view of the advantages of wedlock, the widest difference between Caird and Hamilton/Wynne. Among those questioning whether married women could fulﬁll professional aims within marriage, the common concern was how liberated and liberating a husband could be and how much strength a woman must have to persevere in self-development when pressing domestic duties interfere. The role reversal Caird employed likely made the greatest impact on the reader as she ended her essay with the rhetorical question. Wynne claimed that unhappy marriages were the result of two people uniting for the wrong reasons. 196. Grant, Sadi. A New Woman Subdued [A Tale]. London: Digby, Long, 1898.

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194–197 In this anti–New Woman novel, Beatrice Smith-Gore, a New Woman who is concerned with women’s rights, lives a lonely existence. Visiting her friend Lady Vereker, Beatrice is cast into high society where she meets Capt. Robert Orchardson, with whom she falls in love. They marry, and she relinquishes her concern with the higher aims of women. Shortly after the wedding, she discovers her husband is already married because his ﬁrst wife’s sister arrives demanding money. The ﬁrst marriage took place ﬁfteen years earlier, and Captain Orchardson believed his ﬁrst wife to have been killed in a train crash. Suspecting the family of his ﬁrst wife is attempting to obtain money, he sends Beatrice to British Columbia to discover the truth. She discovers that his ﬁrst wife is indeed alive and well and has a child by Captain Orchardson, of whom he has no knowledge. Beatrice spends several weeks with the family without revealing her true identity. When a ﬁre breaks out, Orchardson’s ﬁrst wife is badly burnt and subsequently dies from her injuries. Orchardson travels to America to be with Beatrice, who has also been injured. When she recovers, they remarry and resume a happy life together.

197. Gwynn, Stephen. “Bachelor Women.” Contemporary Review 72 (1898): 866–75. The introduction discusses the ideas of the Italian writer Signor Ferrero regarding the new class of British women who lived alone and supported themselves —“Bachelor Women.” The author then turned to an analysis of two novels dealing with this problematic “third sex.” One was Among Thorns by Noel Ainslie and the other was The Making of a Prig by Evelyn Sharp. Though the female protagonists leave home for bohemian lifestyles in London and appear to have options, their choices are limited in the long run. Living independently does not fulﬁll the Bachelor Woman forever, and she must choose marriage or the life of the social outcast.

198–202

198. Harmon, Lillian. “The New Martyrdom.” The Adult ( January 1898). Harmon wrote of the New Woman and how men were threatened by being unable to run all over her as compared with the “ideal” woman. Men were like “shipwrecked sailors” or ﬁsh out of the sea. 199. Hund, Dr. John. The New Woman. Chicago: W. B. Conkey, 1898. This novel set in rural Illinois tells of the Melchers, a German farm family of the 1890s. Daughter Belle has progressive ideas threatening familial order and well-being. Referred to derogatorily as “Miss Bloomer,” the “New Woman,” and “Crazy Belle,” she errs ﬁrst in persuading her parents to allow her to attend a Young Ladies Academy in a neighboring community. Brother John/Jack moves away as well, causing the parents great distress. Mother decides living in town will be advantageous, and the parents move to Farmville. By then Belle is secretly married and has children; she has found work as a typewriter girl and divorced her husband. Jack has become a tramp. With the children gone, the parents move back to the farm, and eventually both children came back home to live. Belle reunites with her husband and children and renounces her New Woman ways. The old order is happily reestablished. 200. Jeune, Lady. “The New Woman and the Old: A Reply to Sarah Grand.” The Lady’s Realm 4 (September 1898): 600–04. Reprinted in Ann Heilmann, ed. The LateVictorian Marriage Question: A Collection of Key New Woman Texts. Vol. 2. London and New York: Routledge with Thoemmes, 1998. In this antifeminist essay, Jeune attacked the New Woman as “a bad dream” and claimed that the old and the new woman were not as disparate as Grand professed. But Jeune renounced Grand’s treatment of the old woman as one who had no sense of humor, was too rigid in her ways, and kowtowed to men. She also condemned Grand for bringing men’s immoral actions

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Primary Works (1894–1938) and the spread of sexually transmitted disease to the attention of the public. She lauded women’s “purifying inﬂuence” over men and proffered a romantic vision of women’s role in life.

201. Maule, Marie K. “A Week with a New Woman.” The Club Woman (May 1898): 37–41. Theodosia (Dosie) Stubbs is en route from a family funeral in San Francisco to her home in Lincoln, Nebraska. She realizes that the train will stop in the hometown of Miriam, her school chum of twenty years past, and she pays her friend a visit. She ﬁnds that Miriam runs a perfect household, is a perfect mother and wife, and leads a perfect life, with stimulating and meaningful activities. Miriam’s life is an inspiration to Stubbs who realizes her own life is stiﬂing. Since The Club Woman was the journal of the Women’s Club, the story seems to suggest that its members could be trained to live a life like Miriam’s. 202. Meade, Elizabeth Thomasina. The Cleverest Woman in England. London: James Nisbet, 1898. This novel opens with Dagmar Olloffson announcing her engagement to the members of London’s Forward Club, of which she is the most active and progressive. The women there ﬁnd it hard to believe Olloffson will relinquish her freedom to the ancient institution (marriage), but they are even more amazed when they learn the identity of her intended, Geoffrey Hamlyn, an arch-conservative. She assures the women that she and Hamlyn have agreed to a pact of independent living and that their love will conquer all differences. The two encounter problems on return from their honeymoon — especially when his mother and sister move in. Not without dissension, Dagmar is able to maintain her schedule of lecturing, meeting with her feminist friends, and caring for unfortunate young women. The couple has a daughter and when the baby is just a month old, Dagmar learns that one of the charity boarders in her home has smallpox. She

Primary Works (1894–1938) does everything to safeguard her family from the disease but in the end dies in an infectious hospital — a happy woman because she realizes that were she to live she would never be able to integrate marriage and family life with her feminist interests.

203. Slater, Edith. “Men’s Women in Fiction.” Westminster Review 149 (May 1898): 571–77. This examination of how male authors have depicted women in ﬁction focuses primarily on the nineteenth century. Slater’s concern was that men had stereotyped their women characters and that these stereotypes had persisted from one generation to the next. The grave danger was that women readers had believed the ways in which their gender was depicted and that this had thwarted differences in personality. Slater lambasted Thomas Hardy (among others) but extolled George Meredith and William Shakespeare for their “development of individuality.” 204. Todd, Mary Ives. The Heterodox Marriage of a New Woman. New York: R. L. Weed, 1898. This novel tells how New Woman and Chicagoan Rae Raymond, sticks to her guns and resists marriage — or almost. Rae resists traditional marriage (that is, the traditional marriage ceremony, in which a couple agrees to promises they may not be able to keep). In the end Rae falls in love with a Russian American, who persuades her to return with him to Russia. She gives up what might have been a promising newspaper career, marries in a heterodox ceremony, and sets sail for Russia with her mother. A postscript tells that Raymond and her husband subsequently lived useful lives, educating and aiding Russian peasants. J. Elizabeth Hotchkiss coined the term “heterodox marriage.” 205. Webb, Charles Henry. Harper’s Bazaar, reprinted in the New York Tribune, March 31, 1898, p. 6, c. 6. This nine-stanza poem renounced the New Woman and implored her to return to domesticity because

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203–208 she was tampering with stability within the future realms of men and the population.

1899 206. Anonymous. “A Woman Policeman: The New Woman in the Sandwich Islands.” New York Tribune, November 13, 1899, p. 5, c. 3. This brief article discloses the extraordinary situation of a female policeman in Honolulu. It lauds Helen Wilder, the daughter of a wealthy sugar magnate, for her choice of occupation, then exposes her abilities as related to the best interests of children and animals. 207. Barry, William Francis. The Two Standards. New York: Century, 1899. Marion Greystone was born to act, but her rigid Christian mother does all she can to squelch Marion’s creativity and individuality. Marion grows into a British beauty, is pursued by a number of men, and though she prefers the stage and freedom, she marries the wealthy Lucas Harland to save her rector-father who is deeply in debt both personally and in the country church he serves. The long novel is one of reverses — in fortune, love, and religion. Marion ﬁnds her true love, a German artist/playwright, but rather than act on impulse to be with him, she leaves for the United States to pursue her career. Once she is on the verge of success, Harland loses his fortune, and Marion returns to see him through. He rebukes her, but when he sinks to the depths in prison, Marion rescues and takes him home to care for him. Meanwhile, the German playwright resurfaces to employ Marion in his latest play, investigating the meaning of Christian love. Marion learns that the Italian woman she met on the ship to America and lived with later, is her husband’s lover. Further, the woman’s son is his. The ﬁnal scene is one of reconciliation at Harlan’s deathbed. 208. Beaumont, Mary. Two New Women and Other Stories. London: James

209–214 Clark, 1899. This collection’s ﬁrst short story, “Two New Women,” centers on an Italian holiday taken by two young emancipated women — a doctor named Daphne and a landscape architect, Betty. They are accompanied by the latter’s uncle, a man of independent means. Their ﬁrst stop is Venice, where they encounter a young male British engineer. They ﬁnd they have a lot in common and thereafter travel together, enjoying the scenery and the company of one another. By the end of the trip both men are smitten, but the women will not give up their independence and so decline offers of matrimony.

209. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or Alice Mona Henryson Caird). “Does Marriage Hinder a Woman’s Self-Development?” The Lady’s Realm 5 (1899): 581–83. This short essay deals with role reversal in families with a feminist wife/mother. The husband has to juggle traditional “woman’s work” while carrying out his important chemical experiments. This is not his only problem; his sister is also a scientist, and she surpasses him professionally. 210. Chant, L. Ormiston. “Woman as an Athlete: A Reply to Arabella Kenealy.” Nineteenth Century 45 (1899): 745–54. This essay is a sarcastic rebuttal to Kenealy and others who claimed that women’s athleticism would sap future generations of their vitality. 211. Cholmondeley, Mary. Red Pottage. London: Edward Arnold, 1899. In this novel, Rachel West endures years of poverty following her father’s death, but regains her fortune after her father’s business partner dies without leaving heirs. Hester Gresley, a young author, is Rachel’s best friend. Rachel becomes the conﬁdante of Lady Violet Newhaven, whose illicit lover, Hugh Scarlett, falls in love with Rachel. Hugh and Lord Newhaven draw lots to determine which of them shall commit suicide to settle a dispute over Lady Newhaven. It

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Primary Works (1894–1938) later emerges that Hugh drew the short spill but failed to live up to the bargain. Lord Newhaven kills himself instead, leaving a note relating the facts for his wife. The revelation causes Rachel to break her engagement to Hugh, whereupon Hugh dies after falling through the ice. Rachel’s friend Hester has a nervous breakdown after her clergyman brother burns the manuscript of her recently written novel, but Rachel nurses her back to health.

212. Chopin, Kate. The Awakening, 1899. Now available in Kate Chopin, The Awakening and Selected Stories. Ed. and intro. Nina Baym. New York: Modern Library, 1993. During a vacation to Grand Isle, protagonist Edna Pontellier realizes the limited fulﬁllment her married life has provided her. She falls in love with Robert Lebrun, whose mother runs the resort where she is staying. The episode changes Edna, making her unable to return to a life of conformity. She leaves her husband and asserts her independence in inadequate ways. After a ﬁnal meeting with Robert, Edna realizes the hopeless nature of her urge for fulﬁllment and drowns herself off the coast of Grand Isle. 213. Dixon, Ella Hepworth. “Why Women are Ceasing to Marry.” Humanitarian 14 (1899): 391–96. This essay is a general discussion of the pros and cons of marriage as it affected the New Woman and society at the ﬁn de siècle. 214. Hall, Sharlot Mabridth. “The New Woman — Eve’s Sister.” The Club Woman’s Magazine 2 (New York: June 1899): 34–35. In this essay, Hall pointed to the New Woman she believed to be the most progressive — the American. She set the stage through a brief historical account of feminist movements, then moved to the contributions that American women made through war and westward expansion. She credited women’s greater success to sobriety.

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215. Hansson, Laura Marholm. We Women and Our Authors. Trans. Hermione Ramsden. London/New York: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1899. Hansson provided portraits of women in ﬁction by male authors. Paul Heyse was her hero, and she believed his work inspired the depictions of women in novels following his. But the later novelists Ibsen and Bjöornson portrayed women of the middle or lower classes striving for independence, whereas Heyse’s women were “noble, aristocratic,” and sought self-knowledge and self-awareness. Author Hansson saw the move to realism as “morose” and degenerate. In her opinion women had lost their womanliness in the transformation from dependence to self-sufﬁciency. 216. Hopkins, Pauline E. Contending Forces: A Romance Illustrative of Negro Life North and South. 1899. Reprint, New York: Oxford University Press: 1988. This novel is about a family of privilege assumed to be white at the beginning of the nineteenth century and how their world falls apart with rumors that the mother is part black. Hopkins traced the family through the century from South to North to South and from wealth to poverty to the comfort of middle-class respectability and back again to wealth. Primarily set in Boston, the book is important in the context of its documenting the otherwise ill-recorded

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215–216 lives of African Americans in New England at the turn of the century. The light-complexioned protagonist Sappho Clark ﬂees her past and the South to relocate in Boston. She gains some freedoms with the move, but hides her past and so is not emo-

Sister Davis Cycling with Her Gentleman Friend. An early African-American novel includes a depiction of New Woman Sister Davis as she takes the lead in an outing with her “gentleman friend.” In Pauline E. Hopkins, Contending Forces: A Romance Illustrative of Negro Life North and South, 1899. Reprint, New York: Oxford University Press: 1988.

217–220 tionally free. She must connect with her past to become a New Woman and recover her identity.

217. Hunt, Violet. The Human Interest: A Study in Incompatibilities. London: Methuen, 1899. In this novel, Phoebe Elles is married to Mortimer but decides that she has fallen in love with Edmund Rivers, a misanthropic painter only vaguely aware of her existence. Though Phoebe and Edmund are not lovers, Mortimer names Edmund as co-respondent in a divorce suit based on trumped-up eyewitness accounts. Phoebe’s conﬁdante/rival for Edmund, Egidia Giles, sets about putting things right for Edmund’s sake, as Phoebe makes a melodramatic attempt to end her own life by way of a potion concocted for her by Dr. Andre, a mesmerist. Dr. Andre reveals that the potion he has give the ﬂighty Phoebe is a placebo just as a telegram arrives announcing Mortimer’s death, an event freeing Phoebe to continue her antics. 218. Kenealy, Arabella. A Semi-Detached Marriage. London: Hutchinson, 1899. In this novel, Celia Welldron is a young heiress who appears intent on taking her place in her late father’s dynamite business as if she had been a son. Her father’s partner, John Strahen, is supportive of her in this endeavor, and they work together in a collegial relationship, practically as siblings. Although there are romantic sparks between the two, Celia, against her better judgment, falls for the obnoxious and obdurate Sir Latimer Coyle. He is unorthodox and though he claims to love Celia, he disdains marital vows (though he ﬁnally acquiesces) and advocates living apart as each of them has a home. After about three months of the experiment, Celia is weary of the situation because her “husband” comes and goes as he pleases. They agree to a compromise and live for awhile in his London townhouse. There Celia realizes that her husband has a son kept locked away

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Primary Works (1894–1938) in an attic room because of his clubfoot. In an unexpected visit, Strahen reveals that the marriage is void as Coyle’s estranged ﬁrst wife was alive at the time of his marriage to Celia. Coyle is uninterested in renewing the vows. Meanwhile Celia realizes she is pregnant, begs him to marry her for the sake of the unborn child, and when he refuses, leaves his home in a snowstorm. Strahen rescues her. Though she is extremely ill and loses the child, she lives to marry the man she should have wed in the ﬁrst place. The novel is classiﬁed as a New Woman novel for two reasons: Celia Welldron appears strong and independent though taken in by the cad Coyle, and she supports the independence of her cousin Pansy by funding her education to become a physician.

219. Lombraso, Caesar, and Ferrero, William. The Female Offspring. New York: Appleton, 1899. This scientiﬁc piece examines the relationship between physiological and physical characteristics of female criminals and their crimes. Topics examined include facial and cephalic anomalies, tattoos, and measurements of skulls. Categories of criminal behavior considered include prostitution, murder, abortion, and arson. 220. Marholm Hansson, Laura. We Women and Our Authors. Trans. Hermione Ramsden. London and New York: The Bodley Head, 1899. This work examines the representation of women in the works of several male writers—Gottfried Keller, Paul Heyse, Henrik Ibsen, Björnstjerne Björnson, Leo Tolstoy, August Strindberg, Guy du Maupasssant, and Jules Barbey D’Aurevilly — the author’s professed aim “to draw a characteristic sketch of the eight most remarkable heads among the legion of authors belonging to the nineteenth century … to uncover and expose to view the subjectmatter of their productions” (212). Her treatise examines the portrayal of women by these writers speciﬁcally in relation to the position of women in society, and the

Primary Works (1894–1938) work is interesting both in this respect and as a piece of literary criticism. Hansson suggested that Keller and Heyse understand women, while Ibsen’s women “claimed a right which they would not relinquish … the right to cultivate the ego” (10). She termed Tolstoy and Strindberg “WomenHaters” and concluded that Keller, Barbey D’Aurevilly and Maupassant “are the greatest of women’s authors, not the authors for the women of yesterday, today or tomorrow, but the interpreters of woman, authors from whom we can learn to understand ourselves as we gaze upon the reﬂection of our own images in the soul of man” (213).

221. Norris, Frank. McTeague: A Story of San Francisco. New York: Doubleday and McClure, 1899. In this provocative novel about the progressively destructive nature of greed, the author portrayed realism in a style reminiscent of Stephen Crane’s Maggie: Girl of the Streets. The female actor exhibits tendencies toward self-sufﬁciency and self-reliance combined with a propensity to frugality, but she vacillates between that nature and her desire to be the submissive wife. Her natural bent toward frugality, however, becomes an obsession to the point that it completely destroys her and those she loves. Norris also made an indictment on the evils of alcohol abuse. 222. Paston, George (aka Emily Morse Symonds). A Writer of Books. New York: D. Appleton, 1899. The protagonist Cosima, a budding writer, struggles to survive and write a great novel. Haunted by novelists of the past such as George Eliot, she goes through life expecting it to unfold as a novel. Along the way, Cosima forges her own experimental style, going against convention not only as a novelist but also as a woman. 223. Schreiner, Olive. “The Woman Question.” The Cosmopolitan (December 1899:) 45–54. Schreiner did not identify the modern woman as New Woman,

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221–227 though she certainly attacked the issue of woman’s labor. Her thesis was that while man’s work became broader and more meaningful over time, woman’s work became narrower and less important. Woman’s most momentous labor, giving birth to and rearing children, lost its status as the work children did (on farms, for instance) was taken over by machinery. When the children were not as necessary to family productivity, the role of mother lost social acceptability. Men moved to a myriad of jobs in the nineteenth century, Schreiner wrote, but women were more conﬁned to the home and boredom as family size diminished.

224. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. “The New Woman.” Independent 51 (30 November 1899). In this response to Sen. John J. Ingalls’s article on the “Woman Question,” Stanton maintained that, though men and women are different, they must work together as equals to better society. 225. Trémauden, Ernestine de. The Ideal New Woman after Real Old Models. St. Louis: B. Herder: 1899. This small book, an English translation of the French work, is a knee-jerk reaction to the emergence of the New Woman as acknowledged in the introduction. The author credited/blamed freemasonry and socialism for the emergence of late-nineteenth-century feminism, while pointing to the equality she believed Christianity had accorded women. Trémauden advised women to observe the following twenty chapters, wherein she provided biblical female role models. 226. Williams, Ellen. Anna Masden’s Experiment. London: Greenig, 1899. Unavailable worldwide.

1900 227. Amin, Quasim. Al-Mar’a al-jadida (The New Woman (1900). Trans. Samiha Sidhom Peterson. Cairo: The

228–232 American University in Cairo Press, 1995. Inﬂuenced by Western thinkers, the Egyptian lawyer Amin divided this landmark book regarding the status of Egyptian women into the following sections: “A Historical Perspective on Women,” “Women’s Freedom,” “A Woman’s Obligation to Herself,” “A Woman’s Obligation to Her Family,” “Education and Seclusion,” and “The Current State of Thought on Women in Egypt.” 228. Carey, Rosa Nouchette. The Mistress of Brae Farm. London/New York: Macmillan, 1900. Ellison Lee, the mistress of Brae Farm, is a capable young woman who owns and operates a working farm in rural England. Her widowed cousin, Col. Gavin Trevor, owns the adjoining property, and they become fast friends. Though Lee seems to prefer single life, eventually they are engaged. The story involves three other single women: Trevor’s sister Muriel; Lee’s cousin on her mother’s side, the widow Lorraine Herbert; and an elderly woman who befriends the lovable Herbert. Although each woman exhibits some New Woman characteristics, none is as independent as the mistress of Brae Farm. It appears that Trevor and Lee will marry in spite of Trevor’s preference for Mrs. Herbert, but love wins over commitment and responsibility, and Lee releases Trevor to marry Lorraine Herbert. Lee’s New Woman’s status is thus assured, and she continues life as the efﬁcient manager of the farm while doting on the Trevor children.

229. Dix, Gertrude. The Image-Breakers. London: William Heinemann, 1900. This novel examines socialist Utopianism and sexual relationships through the experiences of two protagonists, Rosalind Dangerﬁeld and Leslie Ardent. Rosalind, the upper-class wife of a wealthy factory owner, and Leslie, a working-class artist, brieﬂy live together in a socialist community. When Leslie leaves the community to pursue a career as an illustrator, Rosalind questions her

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Primary Works (1894–1938) friend’s loyalty to the cause. Their attempts to maintain unconventional relationships with men further challenge the women’s eroticized relationship. While Rosalind’s asexual relationship with her co-leader, Justin Ferrar, ultimately fails, Leslie discovers that by refusing traditional marriage and continuing to work to support herself, she is able to craft a satisfactory relationship. 230. Forbes, Athol. “My Impressions of Sarah Grand.” Lady’s World 11 ( June 1900), 880–83. In this rare interview Grand claimed to regret how the New Woman had come to be characterized. She said she meant the New Woman to be “one who, while retaining all the grace of manner and feminine charm, had thrown off all the silliness and hysterical feebleness of her sex.” 231. Grant, Robert. Unleavened Bread. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1900. This novel charts the rise of Selma White from her life as an orphan in a small Massachusetts town to that of the wife of a powerful senator. Selma’s soul longs for independence and her capabilities warrant the desire, but due to societal restrictions on women, she put her energies into making the men in her life successful and powerful. After two marriages in which she allows love to rule, her aspirations are not met, and she marries James Lyons, a lawyer with whom she can become a partner in life as in work. Their interests and political views are compatible. Lyons encourages her to become involved in projects that involve keeping her intellectual, social, and moral interests ﬁne-tuned. Although most of her energy is geared toward his success, he values her as an equal, and when a crisis occurs during his tenure as governor of the state, he listens to Selma’s advice, assuring his election as senator from Massachusetts.

1901 232. Filene, Peter G. Him/Her/Self: Sex Roles in Modern America. Baltimore: Johns

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233–235

In dress and demeanor this caricature refers to ancient Greek Amazons. While the women go off to ﬁght in the Trojan War, the men and children remain at home in tears. Life, 9 August 1900. Hopkins Press, 1974. This book only brieﬂy mentions the New Woman, providing general information to deﬁne her. Although not in the index, there is also reference to Caroline Ticknor’s Atlantic Monthly article, “The Steel Engraving Lady and the Gibson Girl” ( July 1901).

233. Stewart, Ella Seass. “Some Ancient New Women.” The Arena 26 (November 1901): 513–18. This article is a lively discussion of the feminist roles of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Abigail Adams, with quotes by each historical woman.

234. Ticknor, Caroline. “The Steel Engraving Lady and the Gibson Girl.” Atlantic Monthly 88 ( July 1901): 105–08. In

this brief article, Ticknor juxtaposed the New Woman (Gibson Girl), who was out in the world, with the homebody (Steel Engraving Lady), who awaited the return of her man.

1902 235. Anonymous. “Passing of the ‘New Woman.’” New York Tribune, 22 June 1902, p. 6. The author celebrated the fact that many commencement addresses delivered by “prominent men” at women’s colleges and universities were unanimous in proclaiming that the era of the New Woman was over. The article presents excerpts from

236–243 the addresses and discusses an address by a (Kansas) congressman lamenting that nowhere had he seen an article titled “Woman in the Home” though, in his opinion, it was high time for one.

236. F. A. J. “The New Woman.” The Woman’s Standard 14 (Waterloo, Iowa: February 1902), 1–2. In this brief column the author deﬁned the New Woman as the old woman in a new package wrapped in equality. 237. Robertson, Peter. The Seedy Gentleman. San Francisco: Stanley-Taylor, 1902. This novel addresses many topics, one of which is the New Woman (119–28). Robertson explored the reasons for which some men had become amenable to the notion of the New Woman. He postulated that a painful revelation evolved when they realized that the New Woman enriched rather than harmed the lives and interactions of the two genders. 238. Shaw, George Bernard. Mrs. Warren’s Profession. London: Grant Richards, 1902. Though Shaw’s controversial play, written in 1893 but not published until 1902, predated the naming of the New Woman, the character Vivian Warren (Mrs. Warren’s daughter) ﬁts the mold. Shaw juxtaposed the prostitute and accountant as “professions” available to mother and daughter in mid-to-late-nineteenth-century England in a poignant portrayal of women coming to terms with limited choices. Due to censorship, Mrs. Warren’s Profession was not performed until 1925. 239. Syrett, Netta. Roseanne. London: Hurst and Blackett, 1902. Roseanne Lavell, the daughter of an alcoholic artist and a music-hall dancer who died when Roseanne was a baby, considers vocations including dancer and artist. But after a childhood spent at boarding school, she ultimately is frustrated by them all. She falls in love with an old friend of her father’s, Jim Clifford, who is married to her former teacher, Mar-

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Primary Works (1894–1938) garet Irwin. Theirs is a marriage undertaken out of mutual loneliness rather than mutual passion. Clifford repents his passionless marriage after he falls in love with Roseanne but feels duty-bound to his wife. Roseanne recognizes the impossibility of the relationship and leaves for America. Clifford and Margaret remain married but live separate lives.

240. Winchester, Boyd. “The Eternal Feminine I: The New Woman.” The Arena (April 1902): 367–73. In this polemic on the role and responsibilities of New Women, the author praised the self-reliance and initiative of the New Woman, then expostulated that the area in which she should be in charge was “home life.”

1903 241. Clement, Ernest W. “The New Woman in Japan.” The American Journal of Sociolog y 8 (March 1903): 693–98. This short article deals primarily with a new Civil Code enacted in Japan in the early twentieth century. The author acknowledged prominent historical women in Japan and blamed Buddhism for imposing grave restrictions on women’s rights. He noted the double standard extant in Japan and that the country had not come up to the standard of treatment of women in the West though he believed the new code improved Japanese women’s legal rights. He was ambivalent about women in Japan reaching the level of independence attained by Western women, stating that it would deﬁnitely upset the status quo. 242. ____. A Handbook of Modern Japan. Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1903. Outside of a few editorial changes, chapter 8, “The New Woman in Japan” is a reprint of what Clement wrote for The American Journal of Sociolog y, above. 243. Dodd, Anna Bowman. “The New Woman in Turkey.” The Century Illustrated

Primary Works (1894–1938) Monthly Magazine 44 (1903): 925–33. The subtitle of the article, “How Ancient Rights and Modern Dress Protect and Improve the Lot of Turkish Women,” says it all. This piece is about social and cultural conditions in Turkey at the beginning of the twentieth century and has nothing to do with the New Woman.

244. London, Jack. A Daughter of the Snows. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1903. In London’s ﬁrst novel, Frona Welse is the Alaskan-born daughter of a wealthy and inﬂuential trader. She returns to the Klondike after ten years away at school to assume a role on the frontier. She narrowly escapes the machinations of Gregory St. Vincent, a coward and scoundrel who is tried for and acquitted of murder. Gregory turned his back as a white man killed the “squaw” he had abducted, and her Indian husband killed the white man in revenge. Frona ﬁnally rejects Gregory in favor of Vance Corliss, a young mining engineer with whom she shares many adventures.

1904 245. Anonymous. “Women and Their Work.” The Outlook (October 1904): 256–58. This short essay denies the existence of the New Woman. The author supported a conservative agenda, espousing that women develop their capabilities so as to become better housewives and mothers. 246. Baker, Mary Hime. “Ethics of the New Woman’s Social and Domestic Life.” The Club Woman: Woman’s World 3 (October 1904): 8–9. This short essay provides a brief history of the improvements in education for women in America and a plea for equality in professional opportunity, greater access to birth control, and representation in all organizations, especially those dealing with the welfare of children. 247. Cooley, Winnifred Harper. The New Womanhood. New York: Broadway

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244–250 Publishing, 1904. By relating speciﬁc examples of the New Woman’s predecessors, Cooley provided an excellent understanding of the historical development of the New Woman. She also noted that every aspect of human life (education to propagation) is related to females. She was supportive of women pushing for as much education as possible and encouraged them to engage in suffrage activities so they could be elevated to equal status with males. She also listed the professional women, especially Americans, she knew of.

248. Meyrick, Geraldine. The Club Woman: Woman’s World 1 (October 1904): 109. This ﬁve-stanza poem relates the message that those who criticize the New Woman have never bothered to ﬁnd out who she really is.

1905 249. Malet, Lucas. “The Threatened Re-Subjection of Women.” Fortnightly Review (1 May 1905): 806–19. In this endorsement of Theodore Roosevelt’s viewpoint regarding separate spheres, Malet analyzed women’s situation in England according to class. He reported that in the upper and lower classes man remained master, whereas in the middle class his position was threatened (Malet wished women of this group would heed T. R.’s words). The author referred to the New Women as threatening all of society with their “sexless, homeless, unmaternal” independence. He predicted that the women’s movement would dissolve but that some good would come of it — speciﬁcally, the elevation of wifedom and motherhood. 250. Wharton, Edith. The House of Mirth. 1905. Reprint, New York: Penguin, 1985. In this novel, Lily Bart’s fortunes steadily decline, leaving her at a loss as to how to support herself. Nearly raped by Gus Trenor, to whom she is in debt, she

251–253 struggles to maintain employment without success. She even ponders blackmail. Ultimately, the legacy that might have saved her goes to her creditors. Lily is deﬁned by an unrealized love affair with Lawrence Seldon, who eventually ﬁnds her in her boardinghouse, dead of an overdose of sleeping potion.

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1906 251. Black, Helen C. Notable Women Authors of the Day. London: MacLaren, 1906. See the entry on Sarah Grand on pages 320–28. 252. Deland, Margaret Wade Campbell. The Awakening of Helena Ritchie. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1906. In this novel, Helena Richie awakens to the shame of pretending to be a widow when actually she is the longtime mistress of Lloyd Pryor, who has posed as her brother. Pryor has lost interest in Helena and fears the response of his daughter should he carry through with his promise to marry her. Realizing his growing disinterest, Helena gives up her charge of David, an orphan entrusted to her by the local clergyman, Dr. Lavendar, and plans to leave town for a fresh start. Lavendar returns David to Helena’s care, however, due to the sincerity of her remorse and her bond with the child. 253. Jones, J. Wilton, and Gertrude Warden. Woman’s Proper Place: A Duologue. London: S. French, 1906. Richard and Mary Montagu Robinson are the only characters in this brief play. It opens with “Mr. M. R.” at home. “Mrs. M. R.” soon returns from meeting with some feminist women who have been discussing the book Women’s Proper Place. She rails about it to her husband, who listens attentively and says little. When Mrs. M. R. learns she has lost money in an investment scam, she turns to her husband for solace, and he offers to recoup her loss with money from the sales of Woman’s Proper Place. The play ends with the Mrs. returning to her wifely duties.

This cigarette card, a collectible enclosed within a pack of cigarettes, shows a New Woman decked out in a new-fangled golf costume as she swings her golf club.

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254–257

255. Moore, Frank Frankfurt. The Marriage Lease. London: Hutchinson, 1907. In this novel set in the ﬁctional land of Azalea, a planned community, Bernard Blamforth wants to be president. He and Violet Castledene fall in love and marry just as the state undertakes to abolish conventional marriage in favor of a marriage lease. Chaos ensues and the story conSmoking and drinking “extra ﬁne” wine indicates the cludes with the Azaleans, kind of lifestyle to which this New Woman “mon- under Bernard’s leadership, key” has become accustomed. Life, 18 January 1906. devolving from their highly successful utopian experimentalism to utter conventionalism, which 1907 produces higher birthrates. 254. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. “A Woman’s Utopia.” The Times Magazine ( January–March), 1907. This incomplete utopian ﬁction was Gilman’s ﬁrst foray into the genre to which she would return in Moving the Mountain (1911) and Herland (1915). Morgan G. Street, about to go traveling for twenty years, challenges his cousin, Hope Cartwright, to improve New York, while he is away, with the aid of a $20 million donation. Returning in 1927, he witnesses vast change effected largely by the increased political inﬂuence of women. These include environmental improvements (clean air and water), the introduction of free trade, and revisioned roles—speciﬁcally women’s roles — within society. Only women who wish to become mothers and raise children do so, while other women specialize in different areas productive to the community. The changes improve not only the position of women but of men and children as well. Gilman’s idealized vision of society is undermined somewhat by her problematic attitude towards race — particularly towards immigration and, as she terms it, “the Negro problem.”

256. Robins, Elizabeth (aka C. E. Raimond). Votes for Women! London: Mills and Boon, 1907. Originally titled The Friend of Women, this play opens with a gathering at a country estate in Hertfordshire. Miss Vida Levering is staying there when Jean Donbarton, betrothed to a politician, comes for a visit. Levering seeks support for a woman’s shelter, but the topic of the day is a ruckus made by suffragettes. Donbarton becomes interested in the subject because of her ﬁancé’s position but soon breaks off her engagement to attend a march for suffrage in London with Levering. Playwright/producer Robins, a renowned actor who played Hedda in Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler (1890) in London, returned to America after her actor-husband committed suicide. She wrote prose under the pseudonym C. E. Raimond. 257. Siganou-Parren, Kalliroi. “The New Woman: A Drama in Four Acts” (1907). In Modern Women Playwrights of Europe. Ed. Alan P. Barr. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. This New Woman play was set in Constantinople and

258–262

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Athens between 1897 and 1916. The protagonist, Mary Myrton, is a young selfsufﬁcient artist who falls in love with a young man from an upwardly mobile family. He says he wants to break from the deceit and superﬁciality of his dysfunctional family, but he does not have the courage to do so. He marries Mary in secret but succumbs to his mother’s dictates and leaves Mary pregnant and fending for herself. Mary moves to America and rears their son, Paul. He becomes an Olympic star; his victories capture his father’s attention and lead him to self-understanding.

258. Smedley, Constance. “The Hedda Gabler of To-Day,” Fortnightly Review 8 ( July 1907): 77–90. Using Ibsen’s Hedda Gabler as a point of departure, Smedley provided a thoughtful analysis of the multifaceted aspects of men’s lives versus the sterility of women’s. She noted that men and women had preconceived notions of what it means to be a spouse but that men were not expected to ﬁt the mold as women were. Smedley wrote about Victorian women of the 1870s and 1880s who inspired the independent women about whom Ibsen and Rhoda Broughton later wrote.

1908 259. Anonymous. “The ‘New’ Woman.” Life (3 December 1908): 52. This short piece references an article regarding the American woman by the London physician Andrew Macphail. The subject is the future of women’s hips, which he predicted would be slim due to childlessness. 260. Hankin, St. John. The Last of the DeMullins. 1908. This play was ﬁrst performed at the Stage Society at the Haymarket Theatre in London, December 6–7, 1908. The patriarch of the rural DeMullins family is suddenly stricken with a slight stroke, and his wife sends for their wayward daughter, Janet, a single mother who lives

Primary Works (1894–1938) in London with her young son. As the story unfolds, the paternity of her son Johnny is revealed. Janet prefers her independence and her work as a milliner to marriage. Her father has grown attached to the boy, however, and seeing that his other daughter’s chance for a “suitable” marriage is slim, he orders Janet to return to the family home, suggesting he and his wife adopt Johnny. Janet will have no part of it, and after a family disagreement of huge proportions, she and Johnny leave the family home never, it seems, to return. Janet is a true New Woman, sticking to her mandate for independence.

261. Martin, Edward Sandford. In a New Century. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1908. This collection of essays addresses topics of importance at the preceding turn of the century. Those of particular interest are “Divorce” and “Woman Suffrage.” Martin concluded that the increase in divorce did not necessarily indicate an increase in failed marriages generally but only in failed marriages in which the couples chose not to continue until death. As for woman suffrage, he conjectured, giving women the vote would not be revolutionary as many women would not vote anyway.

1909 262. Hamilton, Cicely. Marriage as a Trade. New York: Moffat, Yard, 1909/London: Chapman and Hall, 1912. The ideas Hamilton put forth in this text are modern even in the early twenty-ﬁrst century. She examined the intellectual, moral, and emotional inferiorities that women are led to believe they are created with and likened these “so-called” absolutes with the tenets that despotic governments purport to keep weaker citizens under their control. Hamilton related the plight and woes of women to men, society, and marriage. She called marriage a trade that women must apply for in

Primary Works (1894–1938) order to be taken care of and discussed this trade in the context of being a wife, mother, low-wage earner, intellectually constrained and without choices. In other words, the housekeeping trade was the only one open to women and therefore they had to enter it to live. Only when enough women resisted marriage would improvement be made.

263. ____. “The New Woman on the Stage by a Critic’s Wife.” The Lady’s Realm 25 (1909): 684–88. In this brief article Hamilton asserted that women were inﬂuential in theater as playgoers, actors, and managers. She then reviewed several shows, ending in a surprising way, with a note that playwrights had become too negative in regard to men. 264. Wells, H. G. Ann Veronica. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1909. In this novel, the heroine is symbolic of Wells’s ideology regarding the New Woman at the beginning of the twentieth century. She was no longer “new,” and though she had succeeded in some of her battles, she took one giant step forward and many baby steps back.

1910 265. Anonymous. (No title). Life (19 May 1910): 55. In this ditty, a New Woman encourages the beaver wife to become involved in the suffrage movement, but “Mrs. Beaver” declines as she is too “dam” busy. 266. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or Alice Mona Henryson Caird). “The Lot of Women.” Westminster Review 174 ( July 1910): 52–59. This article is a plea for women of all social classes to awaken to the legal and political disadvantages that befall them due to disenfranchisement. 267. Deland, Margaret Wade Campbell. “The Change in the Feminine Ideal.” Atlantic Monthly 105 (1910): 289–302. Deland’s position on the New Woman was

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263–269 ambivalent. She worried about the future of the advances that women (who, like she, dared to speak in public) had made, but then stated that the two evils of feminism— individualism and social responsibility — were threatening the well-being of the family. Divorce was, in most cases, “supreme individualism.” Deland’s diatribe on universal suffrage rests on racist and class-based remarks. She concluded that all was not bad with the New Woman — she just wanted things to change too fast.

268. Farr, Florence (aka Emery). Modern Woman: Her Intentions. London: F. Palmer, 1910. This collection of essays addresses topics including the ﬁght for suffrage, the role of money in marriage (and divorce), the impact of prostitution on public health and on the lives of the women who practice it, the potential beneﬁts of eugenic sterilization of certain members/ classes of society, the application of contemporary emerging theories of consciousness to women, and the desirability of androgyny in both sexes. 269. Forster, E. M. Howard’s End (1910). London: Edward Arnold, 1973. This novel opens with an exchange of letters between the Schlegel sisters — Margaret and Helen. They have a younger brother, Tibby (Margaret, the elder, reared him due to the death of their mother during his birth), who later attends Cambridge University. Both sisters have emancipated views of womanhood, though Margaret is of a serious nature and Helen is more ﬂippant. The story revolves in two circles both of which the sisters had become part of incidentally: that of the Wilcoxes, an English family of pretense, and that of Leonard Bast, a common clerk with intellectual leanings. Margaret and Helen are interested in living authentic lives, and by novel’s end honesty and fairness win out with the revelation that Margaret’s friend Mrs. Wilcox (a Howard) has willed Howard’s End to her — a fact the

270–273 Wilcox family kept from her even after Margaret wed the widowed Henry Wilcox. The unfortunate Bast (eventually killed by Charles Wilcox) impregnates Helen. Margaret points to a double standard when husband Henry will not allow Helen to spend the night in his home, reminding him of the affair he had with Jacky (Mrs.) Bast during the time he was married to his ﬁrst wife and the mother of his children. At ﬁrst Wilcox refuses to see any connection between the two events, but Margaret prevails, Helen has her child, and Howard’s End becomes her lawful property.

270. Harvey, Alexander. “The New Woman’s Literary Work.” Life (10 November 1910): 56. In regard to a new edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, Harvey responded sarcastically to Miss Christobel Pankhurst’s suggestion that women write entries on historical women. 271. London, Jack. Burning Daylight. New York: Macmillan, 1910. In this novel, Elam Harnish, aka “Burning Daylight,” is a self-made man who uses ruthless tactics until stenographer Dede Mason convinces him his exploitative money-grubbing is wrong. Elam gives up his fortune and business for her, and they lead a simple life together. He demonstrates his devotion to Dede and the ideals they share when he has the opportunity to remake his fortune but deliberately passes it up to return to Dede. 272. Meredith, George. Lord Ormont and His Aminta. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1910. Lord Ormont, a retired British military man, is Matthew Weyburn’s hero. Aminta, a student at the “sister” school that Weyburn attends, is an orphan under the jurisdiction of a domineering aunt. The aunt has aspirations for Aminta way beyond the schoolboy and connives a match between the lord and her part Spanish niece, whose social standing is not equal to that of Ormont. Due to the circumstances of Victorian society, Aminta is never

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273. Sharp, Evelyn. Rebel Women. New York: John Lane, 1910. The short stories in this collection were previously printed in the Manchester Guardian, the Daily Chronicle and Votes for Women. Many of them relate the difﬁculties suffragettes had in securing meeting places. “The Women at the Gate” is about thirteen suffragettes who attempt entry of Parliament. “The Person Who Cannot Escape” tells the story of a female lodger in a small country cottage. The family is large, and the lodger sympathizes with the wife, who works from early morning to late night. Worn down, the woman/mother admits to her boarder that she never wants to bring a girl-child into the world to follow in her footsteps as a workhorse. “Votes for Women-Forward” is about opening a “suffrage shop” and the struggles by women to be taken seriously. Other stories include: “To Prison while the Sun Shines,” “Shaking Hands with the Middle Ages,” “Filling the War Chest,” “The Conversion of Penelope’s Mother,” “At a Street Corner,” “The Crank of all the Ages,” “Patrolling the Gutter,” “The Black Spot of the Constituency,” “The Daughter Who Stays at Home,” “The Game that Wasn’t Cricket,” and “Dissention in the Home.”

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274. Syrett, Netta. Olivia L. Carew. London: Chatto and Windus, 1910. This novel charts the progress of the eponymous heroine, a woman who abhors the idea of fulﬁlling the typical domestic role: “I am not one of those women … who can be content with domestic life” (10). Nevertheless, she agrees to marry Richard Carew, asking why as she does so. After almost a year of marriage, Olivia becomes pregnant; distraught at the prospect of motherhood, she believes it will hinder her development as a scholar. While away on a business trip, Carew receives a letter from his wife stating that she is ill. When he returns, he discovers “she had now no cause to dread the arrival of the undesired child” (34). Olivia resolves not to fall pregnant again. As a consequence of her refusal to conduct a physical relationship with him, Carew seeks solace elsewhere. He is honest with his wife about this, saying she can divorce him if she wishes. He leaves for England; Olivia agrees to join him in six months. When reunited, they travel to Italy, where they meet a number of Carew’s acquaintances, including Sylvia Carnegie, who has recently inherited a large fortune, and Hugh Alison, a writer. Olivia becomes almost obsessed with Alison and attempts some writing of her own. She ﬁnally separates from her husband, acknowledging that the marriage has been “a great mistake” (155). Carew decides to return to America for a year. Just before he leaves, he realizes Sylvia Carnegie is in love with him and promises to marry her once he returns and divorces Olivia. Olivia completes her novel and pays for its publication. It meets with little success. She reviews her position and begins to regret the separation from her husband. She enters into an illicit relationship with Hugh Alison, but he grows bored and leaves her. On the day Carew is due back in England, someone runs in front of Sylvia’s car, which hits her. Sylvia realizes it is Olivia, attempting to kill herself. When Carew returns, Sylvia tells all

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274–277 that has happened and sacriﬁces their relationship so that he may return to Olivia. He reaches Olivia just as she is about to shoot herself, and they are reunited.

1911 275. Anonymous. “A Born Politician.” Life (5 January 1911): 57. In this short exchange between two New Women, one mentions that cooks should be encouraged to become interested in suffrage because, if they do, so will their mistresses. 276. Crothers, Rachel. He and She (1911). Boston: Walter H. Baker, 1933. This three-act play, apparently written in 1911, was originally titled The Herfords, but after eight years Crothers revised and renamed the script. It premiered at the Little Theatre in New York in 1920 with the author playing the role of the protagonist, Ann Herford. The story is about women’s proper place. A married couple, both parties New York sculptors, shares equally in professional life though it is understood that only Tom Herford will enter a frieze competition. He works hard on his preparatory drawings, but they do not ring true with Ann Herford, who tries to cajole him into altering them. He refuses. She draws something of her own and offers it to him. He refuses again but encourages her to submit sketches on her own. She wins the competition and a large cash prize. In the midst of their elation, teenage daughter Millicent comes home from boarding school and announces she has decided to quit school and marry. Ann convinces Tom he must carry through with the execution of the frieze while she takes Millicent to Europe in hopes she’ll forget her “love.” Subplots involve the concerns of friends and relatives about whether women have a right to work outside the home. 277. Deland, Margaret Wade Campbell. The Iron Woman. New York/London:

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This postcard was written to “Nellie” in Fairﬁeld, Iowa, in 1911, thus indicating that the New Woman, at least in the United States, was still alive and well. This New Woman goes out to a feminist rally, leaving the doll-like twins in the care of the stiff and unhappy husband. Harper and Brothers, 1911. In this sequel to The Awakening of Helena Richie, the reader ﬁnds David grown and in love with Elizabeth, an impulsive girl who marries David’s spoiled rival, Blair, in a ﬁt of petty rage. Sarah Maitland, Blair’s mother, is the driving force behind Maitland Iron Works, and she disinherits Blair after he steals Elizabeth from David. After Sarah dies in a plant explosion, however, her will is unclear. David and Elizabeth (who has quickly realized her mistake in marrying Blair) are about to defy convention and embark on an affair when Helena reveals her shameful past and warns that they will ﬁnd themselves in the same situation if they proceed. Helena’s shame prevents her from marrying Elizabeth’s uncle.

278. George, W. L. A Bed of Roses. London: Frank Palmer, 1911/New York:

Boni and Liverigh, 1919. George wrote this novel for the explicit purpose of exposing the plight of single women — especially those of the middle class — in London in the early twentieth century. The novel opens with Victoria Fulton sailing back to England after her military husband has killed himself by abusing alcohol during his assignment in India. Determined to make it on her own, Victoria enters several situations ending in economic disaster due to the ineptness/weakness of men. She ﬁnally works as a waitress in a restaurant in which she meets a socialist customer who lends her books that change her way of thinking. Standing ten to twelve hours a day results in a severe case of varicose veins, and Victoria must quit her job. She calculates how best to make a living and chooses prostitution. This book was banned in libraries. In the preface to the New York edition, George

Primary Works (1894–1938) answered critics, pointing out that women might regard men as commodities just as men had considered women, for decades if not centuries. A more suitable title might have been A Bed of Thorns, as Victoria Fulton’s story is far from pretty.

279. Houghton, Stanley. Hindle Wakes. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1912. This three-act play is set in the milling community of Hindle in early twentieth-century Britain. The issue that takes center stage, exposes, and ultimately examines the double standard is the illicit weekend escapade of the mill owner’s spoiled son, Alan Jeffcote, and a young woman who works in the mill, Fanny Hawthorn. Jeffcote is engaged to another, religious, young woman, which complicates resolution. Each parent has an opinion as to what should be done, but in the end New Woman Fanny settles it all by refusing to marry Alan (his ﬁancée Beatrice has already refused on religious grounds). The play is about the chattel of women, moral and class issues, and the New Woman’s independence. First performed by Miss Horniman’s Repertory Company of Manchester at the Aldwych Theatre on June 16 1912, Hindle Wakes is a little-known play deserving scholarly attention. 280. Kenton, Edna. “How Women Propose.” Bookman 33 (1911): 274–79. With no mention of the New Woman per se, this review of contemporary literature in which women propose to men is no doubt about these progressive women. After introducing Jane Eyre as someone who comes close to proposing, author Kenton discussed male authors who cast their protagonists in traditional male roles. 281. Schreiner, Olive. Women and Labor. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1911. Author Schreiner focused on the need for the Woman’s Movement to become ﬁrmly established so as to enable women to exercise their abilities and power. In chapter 6, “Certain Objections,” she proposed that so-

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279–284 cial freedom in the workforce would beneﬁt the interactions and relationships of men and women. Greater equality would result not only in a closer union between the genders but, along with the development of the New Woman, her compatriot — the New Man — would evolve.

282. Wharton, Edith. Ethan Frome. 1911. In this novel, Mattie Silver, the cousin of Zeena Frome, Ethan’s hypochondriac wife, comes to live with the couple after her parents die. She and Ethan fall in love, and Zeena, suspecting, sends Mattie away. Ethan and Mattie make a suicide pact that backﬁres, crippling them both.

1912 283. Atherton, Gertrude. Julia France and Her Times. New York: Macmillan, 1912. This novel subtly explores the shortcomings of the “Cult of True Womanhood” against the backdrop of the inception of the women’s suffrage movement in the late 1800s. This is an eloquent record of the transformation of the young, sheltered, and naïve Julia Edits. Julia, forced by her mother into an arranged, loveless marriage to the tyrant, soon-to-be duke, Harold France. Author Atherton ascertained that not many women are strong enough to go through life without love, unless they have undergone a process of disillusion similar to Julia’s. She made the story believable by introducing historically accurate information through the storyline about life in England and the British aristocracy. 284. Daviess, Maria Thompson. The Elected Mother. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1912. This convincing argument for the ability of women to hold public ofﬁce and still perform their duties as wives and mothers explores the concept of strong women being supported and encouraged by men who are secure with their manhood — unselﬁsh men who want what is best for all women.

285–291

285. Dumont, Frank. The New Woman’s Husband: A Satire in One Scene. Philadelphia: Penn, 1912 (©1897). This anti–New Woman play in one scene features Mrs. Sheep as the New Woman and Mr. Gentle Sheep as her long-suffering husband. The play opens with Mr. Sheep doing the housework and lamenting his marriage to a New Woman. The postman brings a letter from Mr. Sheep’s brother, saying he will arrive shortly; Sheep panics at the prospect of revelation of the true state of his marriage. Mrs. Sheep appears, threatening to box her husband’s ears unless he proceeds with the housework. Then she leaves to attend a dogﬁght. As her husband continues his chores, his brother, John, arrives. Mr. Sheep says he is doing the housework because his wife is an invalid, but Mrs. Sheep arrives home, revealing the lie. When John laughs at his brother’s predicament, Mrs. Sheep throws him out and strikes her husband with a broom. At this point, Mrs. Sheep’s mother, Mrs. Flash, arrives to “protect” her “poor little abused daughter” from her husband, with the aid of a large bulldog. When Mr. Sheep deﬁes his wife and mother-in-law, they set the dog on him. 286. Gerould, Katharine Fullerton. “The Newest Woman.” Atlantic Monthly 109 (1912): 606–11. In this article, author Gerould denounced the female protagonists in works by Shaw, Wells, and Bennett. Gerould claimed that the sexual freedoms ascribed to the women were not realistic even though the genre in which they professed to write was realism. She called them “misrepresented heroines,” saying the male authors simply did not understand contemporary women. 287. Grand, Sarah (Frances Elizabeth Bellenden-Clark McFall). Adnam’s Orchard. London: William Heinemann, 1912. In this allegorical novel, Adnam Pratt undertakes to operate an orchard owned by his father for proﬁt as well as for the beneﬁt of the men who work for him. His half-brother, Ser-

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Primary Works (1894–1938) aph, destroys the orchard in a drunken rage, for which he is never held accountable. Before his father can make amends for blaming Adnam, the father is killed in an accident; Adnam’s mother dies after the funeral. When Adnam discovers that his father did not update his will after Adnam’s birth, he goes in search of his fortune. The female characters—Adnam’s mother, Ursula Pratt, and the determined Ella Banks — prompt this novel’s categorization as “New Woman.”

288. Sowerby, Githa. Rutherford and Son: A Play in Three Acts. New York: George Doran, 1912. Throughout this play, the female characters strive hopelessly to achieve a sense of independence and power, thus demonstrating the harsh reality that men maintain superiority over women through political prominence. 289. Stocking, Annie W. “The New Woman in Persia.” Woman’s Work 27 (1912): 279. Stocking related improvements made from clothing to education in liberating Persian women. She was most excited that in 1902 only a half-dozen Moslem girls attended the American Mission School, whereas in 1912 there were more than 160, and an additional 70 schools had been started with total female enrollment at about 5,000. 290. Syrett, Netta. Three Women. London: Chatto and Windus, 1912. In this novel, three very different women sharing a few common characteristics face the challenges and choices of life each in her own way. Phillida, the protagonist, displays the variety of ways and degrees to which a woman could characterize herself a New Woman. The New Woman’s desire for selfidentity and love is evident. 291. Wharton, Edith. The Reef. New York: D. Appleton, 1912. A chance meeting robs Sophie Viner, the New Woman of this novel, of her second and presumably last chance to live a comfortable life. After escaping an unpleasant working/living situa-

Primary Works (1894–1938) tion, Viner spots the familiar face of George Darrow. The two indulge in a brief romance and part without planning to meet again, but when they do meet again, their lives and the lives of those around them change dramatically.

1913 292. Baker, Elizabeth. Chains: A Play in Four Acts. Boston: John W. Luce, 1913. In this play, Maggie Massey — the unwed sister of Lily Wilson (married to Charlie)— breaks her engagement after she discovers her true motive for marrying Walter is to escape the grind of her job. Maggie alone defends Charlie when he suggests abandoning his secure but tedious position as a clerk to emigrate to Australia, from which he proposes to send for Lily. His future is decided when Lily tells him she is pregnant. 293. Boyce, Frank M., Jr. Governor Jane: A Story of “The New Woman.” Niverville, New York: M. S. Boyce, 1913. Jane Carmen and MacDonald Stuart ﬁnally marry after a long engagement, but discontent surfaces when Jane realizes MacDonald is underpaying miners in the western United States. Jane’s socialist inclinations cause her to offer aid to the strikers, and MacDonald’s learning of this causes a rift and she strikes out on her own. She wants to become a journalist and adopts Jane Laurence as a pen name. She writes about the rights of laborers and women and speaks at a women’s club on the New Woman in regards to suffrage. Her views appeal to the residents of the ﬁctitious state of Columbia, and she is nominated as the Democratic candidate for governor. She loses by a narrow margin but after trouble erupts in the mills and the newly elected male governor is killed, she is forced to assume the position (the law requires the runner-up to do so). As governor, Jane settles the strike and becomes immensely popular, but the predominantly Republican legislature rescinds female suf-

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292–295 frage on all but local issues. Jane becomes tired of the challenges of political life and concludes that politics is not intended to be in women’s realm. Then she goes to meet the next Republican candidate for governor and ﬁnds him to be none other than her husband, MacDonald Stuart. Learning he has softened his views and provided the miners more support, she says she has made a big mistake, and they renew their marriage.

294. Cather, Willa Sibert. O Pioneers. Boston: Houghton Mifﬂin, 1913. Not without her own old-fashioned notions, Alexandra Bergson serves as a sort of pioneer for women. The business-savvy protagonist, following the death of her father, leads her mother and three younger brothers through a period of extreme hardship, and because of her good choices brings them into great fortune. But her success and position of prominence cost plenty. Though Bergson suffers through a tragic subplot (the death of her younger brother), she gets her own happy ending when she is reunited with a friend and love interest from her youth. 295. Daviess, Maria Thompson. The Tinder-Box. New York: Century, 1913. Evelina Selby is a small-town Tennessee girl who goes away to college, then completes an advanced degree in Paris’s Ecole des Beaux Arts. Jane, her wealthy friend from college, lives in Boston and greets Evelina upon her return from Paris. Jane is an avowed feminist and proposes a scheme to Evelina whereby young women will achieve equality with young men by taking the lead in romantic relationships to the extent of proposing. Evelina agrees it is worth a try. Immediately upon her arrival in Glendale, Evelina asserts herself by living independently in her childhood home (her parents are both deceased). She sees that the women there are much too dependent on men and plans to revolutionize the town with verbal warfare. Jane arrives from Boston and takes the initiative that Jane lacks, setting every-

296–301 thing in order in a short time. Meanwhile, Evelina falls in love with a ﬁfth cousin, James Hardin. Jane appears to reform the town ladies’ man, and they become a couple. Several others, who heretofore awaiting the male initiative, follow suit.

296. Glasgow, Ellen. Virginia. New York: Doubleday, 1913/Doubleday Doran, 1929. This novel traces the life of the title character from her girlhood in the postwar South through her marriage to Oliver, an idealistic playwright who eventually sells out. After devoting her life to her husband and three children, Virginia ﬁnds herself alone after her children have grown up and her husband leaves her for an actress. Her daughter, Jenny, points out the folly of a woman’s being altruistic when no such selﬂessness is expected from a man. 297. Kenton, Edna. “A Study of the Old ‘New Woman,’ Part I.” Bookman 37 (April–May 1913): 154–58. This article examines “New Woman” literature published before the christening of the New Woman. Starting with Jane Eyre, author Kenton pointed to New Women characters preceding those in the novels of the 1890s. Kenton’s argument is unconvincing, as frequently she pointed to independent ﬁctional characters succumbing to marriage and selfsacriﬁce. 298. ____. “A Study of the Old ‘New Woman,’ Part II.” Bookman 37 (1913): 261–64. Kenton claimed that the New Women of the 1890s were, by 1913, hopelessly old-fashioned. As to the conventional attitudes of the so-called New Women, she wrote, they were not free because they reacted against or within contemporary society. She recommended Frances Hodgson Burnett’s A Lady of Quality, Sudemann’s Magda, and Harold Frederic’s Celia Madden. The women in these works make no excuses for who they are, which Kenton maintained was the hallmark of a free woman.

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299. ____. “The Militant Woman — and Women.” Century 87 (November 1913): 13–20. This article defends the “militant” or New Woman of early twentieth-century Britain. Kenton wrote that suffrage was an outward sign of women’s discontent and only one aspect of the women’s movement. Women generally, she claimed, were tired of living in a man’s world with rules and ideologies created by men. She believed that woman’s spiritual freedom would evolve after women obtained economic freedom. According to Kenton, men were having problems because they could not abide women’s bid for independence. 300. Münsterberg, Margarete. Anna Borden’s Career: A Novel. New York and London: D. Appleton, 1913. This work examines cosmopolitan life at the turn of the century, and one girl’s personal quest to ﬁnd meaning and purpose. Münsterberg revealed her broad, thorough knowledge of life in the political realm both domestically and abroad, in the upper echelons of American society, and in the plight of lowly factory workers who ﬁght to survive in the tenements. She artfully wove the life of one Anna Borden in and out of each of these sectors of society, subtly suggesting the underlying message that young girls would do well to heed the guidance of their parents. At the end, the reader has hope that Anna realizes her true calling. 301. Raimond, C. E. (aka Elizabeth Robins). Way Stations. New York/London/ Toronto: Hodder and Stoughton, c. 1913. This compilation of Robin’s speeches and articles (1905–1913) deals with the Women’s Movement in England. Some appeared in various magazines and newspapers; others were not previously published. Robins called her preface “Women’s Secret,” there acknowledging that men did not deliberately set out to enslave women — it simply happened that way. But she believed that the twentieth century must put an end to

Primary Works (1894–1938) it. Basically her pieces discuss how little is known about women because of the silence imposed on them —“a conspiracy of silence.” Women buy into it, and it keeps them subjugated, she wrote. Women who spoke out were thought exceptional, not normal. Men talked about what women were like, and their views were accepted. Robins advocated that women speak out about women and that men represent women honestly and fairly. 302. Robins, Elizabeth (aka C. E. Raimond). Way Stations. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1913. This series of essays chronicles the women’s movement in England from October 1905 to June 15, 1912. It denies that all men have consciously conspired against women or that all women are angels but advocates that both are victims of circumstance. It contends that suffrage did not create sex antagonism, but that suffrage brought it to light, and that the struggle for suffrage reinforced the faith of all people in human nature. 303. Wharton, Edith. The Custom of the Country. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913. This novel details the experiences of the protagonist Undine Spragg, her attempts to gain wealth and position through a series of marriages and divorces. Wharton contrasted American and French society through her heroine’s unions with an American businessman and a member of the French aristocracy. Undine is an unsympathetic character — selﬁsh and mercenary, with little regard for others, including her parents and her own child. Although this is not a typical New Woman novel, Wharton’s satirical examination of society life highlighted the limitations placed on middle-class women as a consequence of the expectations of society, in which the only means available for self-improvement for a woman like Undine was marriage. Wharton criticizes the protagonist’s ideology — money and position are all — through a satirical narrative voice.

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1914 304. Anonymous. “The New Woman and New Dances.” (London) The Times (20 January 1914): 5. This syndicated article from a New York correspondent describes a Boston sermon in which Cardinal O’Connell expounded upon the evils of dancing, laying the “problem” at the feet of the New Woman, who he believed might cause the family to collapse. The article mentions other religious denominations eschewing dance and purports that a couple of U.S. Episcopal bishops believed it was less harmful than other vices. 305. Hale, Beatrice Forbes-Robertson. What Women Want: An Interpretation of the Feminist Movement. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1914. This book is an in-depth analysis of the state of affairs of women and feminism in the early twentieth century. Hale placed the position of women (primarily in the United States though she made some reference to Britain) within the context of democracy and Christianity, stating that both sanction equality for women in all areas of life. 306. Kiper, Florence. “Some American Plays: From the Feminist Viewpoint.” Forum 51 (1914): 921–31. Kiper critiqued twelve American plays and their playwrights dealing with issues between the sexes. She believed that The High Road by Edward Sheldon and A Man’s World by Rachel Crothers dealt most sensitively with the modern independent woman. She said Crothers had a better understanding of the issues facing early twentieth-century women and preferred A Man’s World to all the other plays. 307. Patten, Simon N. “The Evolution of a New Woman.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 56 (November 1914): 111–21. This article’s introduction discusses the manner in which the English dealt with “social problems,” which according to Patten, depended upon polar-

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308. Peattie, Elia W. The Precipice: A Novel. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifﬂin, 1914. This work is a call for women to ignore the pressures of society and take the road less traveled — to deprive themselves of love if necessary so as to achieve equality and independence. Author Peattie, however, suggested that women did not have to ﬁght this age-old battle alone if men truly valued them. These extraordinary men could help women by standing beside them in their struggle, thus signiﬁcantly narrowing the great crevasse between them. 309. Weber, Marianne. “Die Neue Frau.” Frauenfragen und Fauengedanken (Questions and Thoughts of Women). Tübingen, Germany: J.C.B. Mohr, 1914. After a general introduction to the historical woman, Weber turned to the modern woman who wanted to become her own person and wished to be deﬁned by something other As the old year goes out in the guise of an aged than her role in the domestic male, the New Year comes in with an elderly sphere. To achieve this, wrote woman encouraging her to take her place as a New Weber, the New Woman must take responsibility for her acWoman. Life, 15 January 1914. tions — a brave and challenging ization (men are intellectual, women sex- move but one that could bring liberation ual, and so forth.). Women and men were from all old conventions. Weber noted that described with opposing attributes. Patten women no longer felt the need of a man to believed that in America the pattern was be compete but instead were compelled to more evolutionary, and he provided exam- develop their own capabilities and profesples of how physical characteristics were sional skills to achieve completeness. The linked to virtues. He pointed out that girls New Woman wanted to develop her own and women were evolving from a primitive spirituality and discover for herself the sense sexual phase and that, with better nutrition, of life. According to Weber, this was an imthe gender gap would diminish. He be- portant step in the development of humanlieved that it behooved men to embrace ity. The New Woman retained her tradiwomen’s ambitions and aid them in devel- tional female character (that of motherhood, oping their intellects. childcare, and so forth), but she could move

Primary Works (1894–1938) beyond personal matters to realize her inner wishes and follow her own path. Weber said she wanted the synthesis of both forms of living. In early twentieth-century Germany. this New Woman was referred to as the dualistic type.

310. Williams, Jesse Lynch. And So They Were Married: A Comedy of the New Woman. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1914. In this play, Helen is a scientist and a New Woman. In the course of two days and three acts, her conservative family, Ernest (her equal in work and love), and she manage to examine marriage inside and out. Through a series of manipulations and amid much consternation, Helen and Ernest are ﬁnally married by the judge (Uncle Everett). Though the play is a farce, it provokes considerable thought regarding a woman’s options at the beginning of the twentieth century.

1915 311. Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or Alice Mona Henryson Caird). Stones of Sacriﬁce. London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1915. Unavailable worldwide.

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310–316 inhabitants, describing their superior style of clothing, governing, and producing food as well as controlling the population. The three young men learn the language and become part of an experiment to reintroduce bisexual union in Herland. This fails when the most supermasculine of the three, Terry, attempts to rape his native wife. One of the three friends, Jeff, stays and acknowledges the superiority of Herland to America. Terry is expelled as a criminal, and the other male, Van Dyck, leaves with his wife, who has decided to experience the inferior ways of the outside world so that she can tell her people about Herland.

314. Syrett, Netta. Rose Cottingham. London: G. P. Putnam, 1915. This novel, originally titled The Victorians, challenges traditional roles and ideologies placed on women by society and reveals some of the mental and physical transitions necessary for the acceptance of the New Woman. Facing constant ridicule, emotional neglect, and oppression, Rose Cottingham’s show of strength and determination are symbolic of women’s ability to succeed.

312. Crothers, Rachel. A Man’s World: A Play in Four Acts. Richard G. Badger, 1915. In this play, Frank Ware is a female writer who has adopted the child of a disgraced woman who died in childbirth. Frank falls in love with Malcolm Gaskell, but when she discovers he is the man who fathered her adopted child and deserted the mother, she ends their relationship despite her conviction that he is the only man she will ever love.

315. Woolf, Virginia. The Voyage Out. London: Hogarth, 1915. In this novel, Rachel Verinder, sheltered and unworldly, embarks on a sea voyage to South America. Along the way she falls in love with Terence Hewet and meets Mr. and Mrs. Dalloway and a motley collection of others. Her aunt, Helen Ambrose, sets out to teach her the ways of the world, trying to craft her into the elegant hostess her mother had been. Rachel’s sensitive temperament and lack of worldly wiles lead both to self-discovery and to disaster.

313. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. Herland (1915). New York: Pantheon, 1979. This is the tale of three young men who discover a utopian land populated entirely by women who, through a supposed miracle of evolution, reproduce asexually. The narrative exalts the virtues of the land and its

316. Wormwood, Edyth M. The New Woman in Mother Goose Land. Franklin, Ohio/Denver: Eldridge, 1915. In this takeoff on the Mother Goose rhyme, “Peter, Peter, Pumpkin Eater.” Peter, followed by his wife, uses a paper-maché pumpkin to obtain their desires — she wants ﬁnancial

317–322

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and political equality, and he wants her at home.

1916 317. Anonymous. “The New Woman: An Historical Note.” The Times (6 January 1916): 11. Following a brief history of the New Woman over twenty-two years, the author extolled the virtues of the “New New Woman” in terms of the enormous help she could give in the war effort. 318. Dodge, Arlita. “New Woman.” The Bookman: A Review of Books and Wife (May 1916): 43. In this poem of eight stanzas the author acknowledged the existence of the New Woman in her second incarnation, evolving into a suitable wife. 319. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. With Her in Ourland (1916). Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 1979. This novel is the sequel to Herland, Gilman’s utopian novel of 1915. Here Van Jennings and Ellador leave the otherworldly Herland to investigate The World. As man and wife, they embark from West to East visiting Europe, Asia, and then the Americas. The astutely perceptive and intelligent Ellador analyzes all countries and cultures using a varied methodology. Due to her “tools,” her detached posture, and her use of Herland as a barometer, Ellador is able to pinpoint the positive and negative aspects of every country and culture the couple visits. Jennings’s America (the United States) is saved for last, and Ellador is brutally honest in her assessment of his homeland. In the end, she decides there is nowhere in The World where she could raise a child. She and Van Jennings return to Herland, where their son is born. 320. London, Jack. The Little Lady of the Big House. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1916. Paula Forrest, a wife but not a mother, draws attention as the little lady of the book’s title and London’s portrait of the

Primary Works (1894–1938) New Woman. With pride and skill (both artistic and athletic) typically reserved for males, Mrs. Forrest demands respect, but with full awareness of her own sensuality, does not forsake her more feminine attributes. For twelve years, she serves as a happily married and faithful Circe of sorts, who harmlessly toys with her male admirers. Her husband blesses the game, but when Mr. Forrest’s old friend Evan Graham arrives, the sport swiftly spirals out of control. Still in love with her husband but mad about another man, Paula views herself as a big game hunter and, unable to pick between prizes, takes her own life.

321. Stokes, Rose Pastor. The Woman Who Wouldn’t. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1916. In this three-act play about a Pennsylvania working-class family, Mary Lacey, the protagonist, works as a ﬂower maker in her parents’ home, helping to support the family suffering economic duress due to a strike at her father’s plant. Mary is engaged to Joe, but a prettier young woman turns his head. When Mary learns she is pregnant, she asks the family doctor to perform an abortion, but he ﬂatly refuses. Mary’s parents eventually learn about her “condition,” and her father banishes her from home. She ends up in Pittsburgh working as a spokeswoman for the union, showing up in her hometown when her child is eight years old. Joe is now a widower and proclaims his love for her and the child, Josephine ( Joey), but Mary cannot return his love. She is willing to face the world as a single, working mother. 322. Syrett, Netta. Rose Cottingham Married. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1916. In this novel, the protagonist Cottingham is a published novelist from a prominent family of rural England who goes to London to visit old friends. She ﬁnds everything much different from her previous visits: some young women are trying to live independently (especially as artists), while oth-

Primary Works (1894–1938) ers are into competitive sports such as tennis and golf. Many are against marriage and enter into “free love” partnerships. Cottingham begins to investigate these ideas and becomes interested in socialism and labor leader John Dering. Although her grandmother/guardian does not consider Dering a suitable partner, Cottingham marries him. Their life together is far from perfect, but the birth of their child brings them together. Though married, Rose produces several novels, and Dering reclaims his seat in Parliament.

1917 323. Wharton, Edith. Summer. New York: D. Appleton, 1917. This is the story of Charity Royall, a young woman who evades the improper advances of her lawyerguardian until she falls in love with a young architect, Lucius Harney, and becomes pregnant with his child. She ﬁnally gives in to the marriage proposals of her guardian, realizing that her options are limited, as Harney is engaged to another.

1918 324. Kollontai, Alexandra. “New Woman.” In The New Morality and the Working Class. Moscow: N.p., 1918. Available online at www.marxists.org/archive/ kollonta/1918/new-morality.htm. This essay, ﬁrst published as part of Kollontai’s book in Moscow in 1918, was not translated into English until 1971. Although Kollontai formally divided the essay into two parts, it appears to be in three. In part 1 she set out the advances made in women’s independence, which she maintained are reﬂected in the literature of the early twentieth century in Russia and other European countries. Women were experiencing liberation in the personal as well as professional realms of life, and they did not subvert their life am-

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323–326 bitions to nurture their love relationships. In part 2 Kollontai constrasted the “love” roles of female protagonists in contemporary literature to those of their literary foremothers. In the latter part of the essay she deviated from an analysis of New Women in literature to concerns of women in contemporary life. She said the industrial revolution and capitalism made clear the need for independent women, and she was concerned about unequal opportunities among women of divergent classes to advance economically and socially.

325. Ragan, Ruth. Saki, “New Woman.” New York: Young Women’s Christian Association, 1918. Saki is a Japanese girl who has exhausted the educational opportunities of her village. With her parents’ blessing, she goes off to Tokyo to pursue studies related to a career in writing. City life both attracts and repells her, but she recognizes her independent streak and joins a New Woman society. Subsequently she lives openly with a young man, believing this is the liberation professed by her New Woman colleagues and by Western society. He cheats on her, and she stabs him and ends up in jail, where eventually she is given a Bible. Reading the Bible changes her life, and she becomes a New Woman for the second time — now living a Christian life, helping girls like herself.

1919 326. Dixon, Thomas. The Way of Man: A Story of the New Woman. New York: D. Appleton, 1919. In this novel, New Woman Ellen West carves out a career as an editor of The New Era, a feminist journal. She is beautiful and surrounded by several serious suitors, but she wants nothing to do with marriage and seeks to live freely with the man of her choice, the nephew of her best friend. This aspiring and ambitious writer, Ralph Manning, sweeps Ellen off her feet, but his traditional views on marriage and

327–331

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family life are something to be reckoned with, and Ellen is intent on making Ralph see things her way. They ﬁnally consummate their love affair without the sanction of traditional marriage. After a year the socalled honeymoon is over, and their disagreements, plus Ellen’s jealousies, lead to Ralph’s falling for Ellen’s southern niece, who has come to live with her. Ellen concludes that she had been wrong about her feminist views. After arranging for Ralph to marry the niece, Ellen marries a former suitor.

327. Woolf, Virginia. Night and Day. London: Hogarth, 1919. Set in London before the outbreak of World War I, this novel explores the inanity of social conventions. Four characters — Katharine Hilbery, William Rodney, Ralph Denham, and Mary Datchet—chafe against the restraints of domestic life, participate in social reform, question traditional marriage, and challenge class hierarchy.

1920 328. Abbott, Harriet. “What the Newest New Woman Is.” Ladies’ Home Journal (August 1920): 154. This short story chronicles two women engaged in business during World War I. When family ﬁnances stabilize after the war, they return to their homes and babies, celebrating during lunch their wise choice and concluding that the “old freedom” is preferable to the “new freedom.” Author Abbott professed that only self-centered women preferred “the excitement and adventures of the working-day world.” She further linked feminist activities to the Bolshevist Party. A woman’s “Bill of Rights” is ensconced in a ﬂowery frame at the bottom of one page — a woman on the left ponders which kind of freedom to choose; on the right the same woman holds an infant and smiles. The ﬁnal statement of the “Bill of Rights” reads: “The newest new

Primary Works (1894–1938) woman deiﬁes not herself, but through her new freedom elects to serve others.”

329. Gerould, Katharine Fullerton. Modes and Morals. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920. The chapter titled “The Newest Woman” considers the state of the jeune ﬁlle in English literature. Although Gerould pointed out that young women have played many roles in the game of love in literature of the past, the difference in the early twentieth century was that the new liberated women were of a more respectable class. She complained that though the authors believed they were dealing in realism, young women would not react to love in the manner that many of them depicted. 330. Lawrence, D. H. The Lost Girl. London: William Heinemann, 1920. In this novel Lawrence traced the steady descent of Alvina Houghton as she moved down the rungs of Britain’s social ladder from society lady to lost girl. The story for the most part spans the years of Houghton’s life between her earliest days in the 1880s and the entrance of Italy into World War I. Due to her family’s decline in status and her own strong yet wavering will, Houghton faces the threat of spinsterhood and poverty, still working against that threat and the wishes of those who care to advise her. Through a series of personal trials, she loses the respect of townsfolk but ﬁnds love in the form of a troubled young Italian whom she eventually marries. By novel’s end, she is with child yet, because of the war, soon to be without her husband. Lawrence suggested death would follow quickly for the married pair, but that is left as a question rather than a conclusion.

1921 331. Galsworthy, John. To Let. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1921. This novel brings to light the detrimental effect of the

Primary Works (1894–1938) devaluation of women on all members of society. Galsworthy made this serious subject somewhat more palatable through his clever use of tongue-in-cheek. He advocated that change was inevitable and that those who adapted and found innovative ways to deal with it would survive.

1923 332. Fabian, Warner (aka Samuel Hopkins Adams). Flaming Youth. New York: Macaulay, 1923. This novel portrays a fantasy world, where women are free to make their own choices and to live life as they please. Fabian brought authenticity to his story by discussing hot-button issues of the day such as abortion and euthanasia and alluding to the fashionable Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell, the nervous-disease specialist, whom women of the elite class were inclined to visit. He skillfully injected the underlying reasons for the “ﬂapper” philosophy and the “Salamander” school of thought — namely, ﬂash novels, movies, and the theater. The protagonist is the epitome of the modern ﬂapper (pleasure before all else), but she is enlightened and ultimately saved by her lover, Fabian, who, possessing a trace of the pedagogue, claimed embodied all men of strong intellect.

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332–337 Messenger 5 ( July 1923): 757. In a brief paragraph under “Editorials,” Randolph and Owen heralded the New Negro Woman as one who would lead Negro men and women to greater freedom and realization of potential in all areas of life.

1924 335. Dorr, Rheta Childe. A Woman of Fifty. 2d. ed. New York: Funk and Wagnall, 1924, 101. Dorr was a biographer of Susan B. Anthony and author of books pertaining to women and the evils of drink. On page 54 she described the New Woman as wanting “to belong to the human race, not to the ladies aid society to the human race.”

333. Norris, Charles G. Bread. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1923. The novel characterizes the “new woman” as torn between a life of self-indulgent pleasure and selfsufﬁciency and one of self-sacriﬁce in the traditional role of woman in a patriarchal society — the former free of ﬁnancial worries, the latter mere existence lacking even basic necessities. Norris nevertheless made a strong case for the life of self-sacriﬁce, portraying it the more fulﬁlling of the two lifestyles. In the end, the protagonist is left only with regrets.

336. Hall, Radclyffe (aka Marguerite Hall). The Unlit Lamp. London: Jonathan Cape, 1924. This novel is the story of the Ogden family of Seabourne-on-Sea (Great Britain). The family is provincial and pretentious — especially the matriarch, who is excessively proud of her overblown heritage. There are two daughters: the elder, a brilliant girl named Joan, and Milly, who aspires to be a violinist. The parents secure governess Elizabeth Rodney, who remains with the family many years, teaching and encouraging the young women. The sickly, demanding parents do everything possible to keep their daughters homebound, while the girls, assisted by Rodney, plot to leave home without aid of husbands. Finally, with Joan’s assistance, Milly succeeds in attending music school in London. Meanwhile the relationship between mentor and Joan intensiﬁes, with Rodney scheming to enable Joan to achieve her dream of becoming a doctor. In the end, all the potential New Women acquiesce to tradition. Milly dies, Rodney marries, and Joan cares for invalids, including her domineering mother.

334. Randolph, A. Philip, and Chandler Owen. “The New Negro Woman.” The

337. Seaton, Grace Thompson. Chinese Lanterns. New York: Dodd, Mead,

338–340

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1924. In this long book, Seaton recorded labor practices among the female population in China at the end of the nineteenth century and into the 1920s. She used the term “New Woman” in many instances and identiﬁed the occupations in which they engaged. She said women in southern China labored more stringently than women in other parts of the country; they worked as stone breakers, road builders, and menders. Seaton saw women transporting coal in baskets to a military hospital, propelling Chinese junks, and working as gondoliers. These women were wearier than their contemporary farmers of either gender. She referred to the Chinese women as amazons but believed they were healthier than their contemporaries in the factories because they labored out-of-doors. She detailed occupations including the establishment by three women of a commercial press in 1896, those in the hairnet industry at its height in the early 1910s and in the silk-hosiery industry, embroidery workers, prostitutes, and more. This is an excellent resource for the study of ﬁn-de-siécle Chinese women.

1925 338. Crothers, Rachel. Mary the Third: A Comedy in Prologue and Three Acts. Boston: Walter H. Baker, 1925. This play deals with the romantic fates of three generations of women, all named Mary. Act I, set in 1870, focuses on the grandmother’s courtship with the grandfather. Act II, set in 1897, chronicles the mother’s courtship with the father. Act III, set in 1922, is about their ambivalent young daughter. Although the third Mary and her brother urge their parents to admit their error and divorce, Mary repeats the error. She believes her love for her future husband is unique and blessed (as the other two named Mary believed when they married).

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339. Hamilton, Cicely Mary. Diana of Dobson’s: A Romantic Comedy in Four Acts. New York/London: S. French, 1925. In this play, Diana Messingberd is a downtrodden assistant at Dobson’s Drapery, who decides to spend the entire sum of a small inheritance on a few months’ pleasure rather than invest it for little interest. She goes to an upper-class resort, pretends to be a wealthy widow, and rejects the proposal of a man in whose business she once labored. In addition, she casts away the shiftless Victor Bretherton, whom she challenges to provide for himself for even six months — as she has had to do for years. He takes her up on it, which she discovers only later when they ﬁnd each other in poverty. Eventually they marry. 340. Williams, Harold Herbert. Modern English Writers, 1890–1914. London: Sedgewick and Jackson, 1925. (Reissued as Vol. 2. New York/London/Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press, 1970.) This book is a running commentary and criticism of literature of the era of the title. Williams devoted chapter 4 to “Women Novelists” and examined the following authors and their oeuvres: Mrs. Humphry Ward, Olive Schreiner, Sarah Grand, George Egerton, Iota, Elizabeth Robins, May Sinclair, M. P. Willcocks, Beatrice Harraden, Lucas Malet, John Oliver Hobbes, Mary E. Coleridge, “Elizabeth,” Ellen Thorneycroft, Lady Ritchie, Margaret Louisa Woods, John Strange Winter, Mrs. W. K. Clifford, Mrs. Alfred Sidgwick, Netta Syrett, Una L. Silberrad, Ethel Sidgwick, Jane Barlow, Katharine Tynan, Nora Hopper, E. C. E Somerville and Martin Ross, Ouida, Mary Elizabeth Braddon, and Marie Corelli. The chapter “A Note on American Novelists” includes excerpts on Mary Eleanor Wilkins, Ellen Glasgow, Gertrude Franklin Atherton, Kate Douglas Wiggin, and Edith Wharton, as well as on many men.

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341–342

On this postcard the father peels an apple as the unhappy daughter reaches for it. One baby wails from the high chair while the other one sucks on a bottle on the ﬂoor. The wife looks quite together in her bicycle outﬁt and appears to be giving instructions to her frowning mate.

1926 341. Cather, Willa Sibert. My Antonia. Boston/New York: Houghton Mifﬂin, 1926. In this novel, Antonia, the daughter of Bohemian immigrants, struggles to survive on the tough Nebraska frontier. Jim Burden, a friend who grew up on a neighboring farm, is the narrator. After working as a hired girl in a neighboring town, getting a bad reputation for her love of dancing, and eventually having a child by a man who deserts her, Antonia loses contact with Jim, who has left Nebraska for the East. Twenty years later, Jim returns to ﬁnd her happily married in an egalitarian relationship, raising almost a dozen children and working a thriving farm. 342. Faust, Allen K. The New Japanese Womanhood. New York: George H. Doran,

1926. An American, Faust asserted his qualiﬁcations for authorship of a book on Japanese women in the ﬁrst chapter, stating he had served as president of a women’s college for twenty-ﬁve years. The book is about the customs and culture of Japan, both historically and in modern days. Although the author heralded the improvement in women’s educational opportunities and disdained Japanese marriage customs, his outlook was conservative. He professed that women enjoyed being dominated by men in conditions that smacked of slavery (having to mind the mother-in-law and being sequestered in the back of the home). He made much of the Japanese tradition of ancestor worship and its ramiﬁcations in society. In the ﬁnal chapter Faust related his hopes for advances for Japanese women and provided short biographical sketches of several women who had achieved success.

343–349

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343. Kelly, George. Craig’s Wife: A Drama. Boston: Little, Brown, 1926. In this play Harriet Craig is the wife of Walter Craig, whose aunt, Miss Austin, lives with them. The aunt moves out, declaring that Harriet’s controlling manner is aimed at driving everyone away from her home, over which she feels the need to exercise complete sovereignty. In the end, Harriet gains the control she desires, but only after achieving total isolation as well. 344. Kerr, Sophie. “The Tyrant.” Woman’s Home Companion ( July 1926): 7–8, 84–88. Avery Madden, the protagonist of this short story, is a New Woman, though not so named. At age seventeen she must become the family breadwinner, and she does so. She retains her interest in art and manages to save enough to study in Paris. An American architect discovers her, and she return to the United States to undertake an important commission. Meanwhile, she reconnects with a rich American man and falls in love with him. When Avery realizes he will not support her life as an artist, she breaks off the relationship and devotes her life to her work.

1927 345. Hollingsworth, Leta Stetter. “The New Woman in the Making.” Current History (October 1927): 7–20. This scientiﬁc examination of the origins of self-awareness addresses reproduction and other issues women have faced. Hollingsworth had strong feelings regarding women’s desire to ﬁnd self-fulﬁllment and the problems they continued to face in attaining it. 346. Hum-Ishu-Ma, Mourning Dove. Cogewea: The Half-blood. Boston: Four Seas, 1927. This romantic novel is believed to be the ﬁrst literary work produced by a Native American. It portrays life on the great Montana cattle range, where the protagonist struggles with conﬂicts resulting

Primary Works (1894–1938) from her deep cultural roots and Native American spiritual traditions being challenged by the modernist ideas promoted by a new, so-called civilized society.

347. Schreiner, Olive. From Man to Man. New York/London: Harper and Brothers, 1927. Author Schreiner began this posthumously published novel in the 1870s and worked on it until her death in 1920. Set in colonial South Africa, it follows the lives of two sisters — Rebekah and Bertie — as they struggle within the limited roles offered to late–Victorian women. Rebekah marries a man she does not respect, and Bertie, seduced by a visiting tutor, ﬁnds herself lost in a foreign country, the mistress of a Jewish merchant. The story ends tragically with Bertie’s death and Rebekah’s unfruitful search for her lost sister.

1928 348. Fauset, Jessie. Plum Bun: A Novel without a Moral. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1928. In this novel, Angela Murray, a light-skinned black woman who passes as white, struggles to be a painter. She becomes the concubine of a wealthy white man, Roger Fielding, who fails to fulﬁll her dreams of romance. Angela reclaims her racial identity, recognizing that there is no quick ﬁx for social inequality. She ends up with Anthony, the black man she loves, and studies art in Paris. 349. Hall, Radclyffe. The Well of Loneliness (1928). New York: Covici-Friede, 1934. In this novel, the love of a lesbian couple, Stephen Gordon and Mary Llewellyn, is put to the test by an unsympathetic society during World War I. Ultimately Stephen recognizes she can never give Mary a normal life, so she sacriﬁces her happiness by convincing Mary that she is having an affair with another woman, even though she is not. Stephen steps aside, having arranged

Primary Works (1894–1938) for Mary’s male admirer, Martin, to help Mary pick up the pieces.

350. Ide, Kikue. “Japan’s New Woman: Legal and Political Relationships of Women of Japan Today. An Interpretation.” Paciﬁc Affairs 1 (August–September, 1928): 1–11. In this reprint of an address to the Pan-Paciﬁc Woman’s Conference in 1928, Ide presented a brief history of historical Japanese women, then turned to the rights they were seeking to acquire. She maintained that the only way to achieve advances was through enfranchisement. She quoted 1925 census ﬁgures relevant to women working in the professions as well as in factory jobs. Regarding education, she said, girls customarily attended primary school and special high schools for girls that were not the academic equal of boys’ schools. Girls were not permitted to attend preparatory middle schools enabling them to succeed in high school. All reforms had to start with suffrage, she said. 351. Larsen, Nella. Quicksand. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928. In this novel, Helga Crane, the child of biracial parents, leaves a Chicago slum to teach school in the South but ﬁnds it not to her liking. After having been raised from the age of ﬁfteen by her white uncle, Helga is not welcomed by his new wife upon her return to Chicago, so she ﬁnds employment as the companion to a black woman lecturer, Mrs. Hayes-Rore. They travel to Harlem, where Helga ﬁnally ﬁnds an identity as a black woman that is worth celebrating. She lives for a while in Copenhagen and refuses the proposal of Axel Olsen, a white painter. Back in America, Helga marries the Rev. Mr. Pleasant Green on impulse, then ﬁnds she can’t remedy this mistake by running away because of the burdens of pregnancy and motherhood. Neither can she run away from her identity as a black American woman.

352. Mueller, H. F. “The New Woman.” Life (26 July 1928): 92. This is a

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350–355 brief exchange between a generic bride and groom, regarding cooking. The groom has assumed the bride had gone to his mother’s to learn to cook. The bride arrives at her mother-in-law’s only to ﬁnd all appliances and plumbing in need of repair and must put her attention to ﬁxing them before taking the older woman to the airport for a ﬂying lesson.

353. Woolf, Virginia. Orlando: A Biography (1928). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1956. In this novel, Orlando travels through three centuries, beginning in Queen Elizabeth’s court and ending up in the modern world. At various historical moments he/she wakes up with a different gender. The novel considers the nature of sexuality, particularly its performative qualities, as well as the construction of history.

1929 354. Anonymous. “Enigma of the New Woman Voter.” The Times (London) (30 May 1929): 8. Although votes by women were new in Britain in 1929, this article does not focus on any way in which their votes might change the election but notes that the possibility of changed outcomes is an unspoken issue. 355. Larsen, Nella. Passing. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1929. This three-part novella lays out the trauma of biracial women able to pass for white. Two school chums, Irene Westover and Clare Kendry, are both of light complexion and do pass, but each has chosen a different path in early adulthood: Clare marries a wealthy white man who believes she is white, and Irene marries a Harlem doctor. Their paths cross when a chance meeting in their hometown, Chicago turns the world of each young woman upside down. Clare claims she misses her roots and is weary of the façade, and so she enlists Irene to help her reenter black society. Problems ensue as Clare takes

356–359 advantage of Irene’s goodwill to make advances on her husband; one wonders how sincere her motivation might be.

356. Rice, Elmer. Street Scene. New York: Samuel French, 1929. The setting for this three-act period piece is New York City during a summer heat wave. Rose Maurrant is the New Woman in a tenement occupied by Italian, Jewish, Swedish, and German immigrants and the all–American Joneses. Young Rose is mature, responsible, and sensible beyond her years. She attempts to counsel her mother, who is having an affair with a younger man. Her alcoholic father is not responsive to the needs of his family and becomes violent when drunk. Rose is afraid of the situation, especially for how if may affect her younger brother. Sam, the college-educated son of a Jewish socialist, is in love with Rose. Though he might provide security, Rose refuses his proclamation of love as she does the advances of her boss. Her worst fears are realized when her father ﬁnds his wife and her lover together and kills them both. Rose accepts responsibility for her brother but is determined to move on with her life. Although rejected by many houses in New York, The Playhouse ﬁnally performed Street Scene, which subsequently won a Pulitzer Prize. 357. Syrett, Netta. Portrait of a Rebel. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1929. This novel, Syrett’s last, relates the life of Pamela Thistlewaite of Gideon Grange, Hampstead. From her teen years, Thistlewaite (a twin of her sister Fanny), rebels against the restrictions imposed on girls and women by Victorian society and their lack of educational equality. The girls are practically sequestered until their great-aunt’s return from India. Shortly thereafter Fanny is engaged, and Pamela is impregnated by a young man claiming love but who, she discovers, is already married. Pamela’s shame takes her to France where Fanny awaits the arrival of her ﬁrst child. When Fanny dies in

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Primary Works (1894–1938) childbirth Pamela decides to raise her daughter and Fanny’s son as Fanny’s twins. Pamela’s father, a well-respected judge, expects her and the children to move into his household, but Pamela stands her ground and opens a bookstore in Chelsea, where she succeeds as a single mother, shopkeeper, and campaigner for women’s rights. Love, not without its trials (the distance between her and her daughter Fanny, for instance) enters Pamela’s life. In the last part of the novel, after the death of her intended, Pamela returns to Gideon Grange and lives her life among friends and relatives, the most precious of whom is her granddaughter Pamela.

1931 358. Chappell, Clovis Gillham. Christ and the New Woman. Nashville: Cokesbury, 1931. A lectureship set for Wesleyan College in 1924 resulted in this ﬁrst presentation in April 1927 by the Rev. Clovis G. Chappell, pastor of the First Methodist Church in Memphis, Tennessee. Chappell spoke (for 117 pages) on the New Woman. He expressed empathy for the modern woman but also pointed out the problems that could arise should she not hold herself to Christian ideals.

1932 359. Crothers, Rachel. When Ladies Meet: A Comedy. New York/Los Angeles: S. French, 1932. In this two-act play, Mary Howard is a writer in love with her married publisher, Rogers Woodruff. His wife, Claire, realizes, when they meet, that Mary’s latest plot about extramarital love is about Mary’s affair with Rogers. When he denies Mary’s importance to him during the women’s confrontation, Mary realizes she has been played for a fool. Claire, having met one of her philandering husband’s mis-

Primary Works (1894–1938) tresses, cannot go on pretending that their life together is happy. Both women are changed, and Rogers loses them both.

1933 360. McCracken, L. “Madam Sarah

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360–363 they encouraged women to entertain away from home. The Church and the Irish were way ahead, she believed, in granting women their rights.

1937

Grand and Women’s Emancipation.” The Vote (25 August 1933): 1–2. McCracken noted the privilege of a personal interview with Grand, though Grand had written to McCracken about women’s emancipation from her home in Bath. Grand had been president of the Tunbridge Wells Branch of the Women’s Constitutional Suffrage Society. The society had a parade at the time of the ﬁrst election, and Grand led the procession to the polling place and was the ﬁrst woman to cast her vote. Grand paid tribute to all pioneers (women and men) who had worked to achieve female suffrage. She also discussed dress reform and how that one initiative worked to give women power in other areas of their lives. She said that many changes were due to World War I and mentioned future publication of her memoirs.

362. Borsodi, Mrs. Ralph. “The New Woman Goes Home.” Scribner’s Magazine (February 1937): 52–6 and 76–77. In this article Borsodi made a plea for women to return to the home, speciﬁcally the kitchen. She used scientiﬁc data as proof that it was more economical for twentieth-century women to leave paid jobs and come home, where they could use new-fangled appliances to do their own work. Borsodi did acknowledge that the low value placed on women’s work made the prospect of leaving paid work unappealing for a lot of women, and she suggested that men and society try to remedy this, though she fell short of suggesting that wives and mothers be paid real wages.

1934

363. Atherton, Gertrude. Can Women Be Gentlemen? Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries, 1938. In this series of essays Atherton claimed that aside from obvious anatomical differences, women were no different from men. She also asserted that women could succeed if they became planners as opposed to dreamers. If one was resourceful, she could make a clear-sighted plan for unforeseen circumstances over which she had no control. Atherton held that such a woman was the one who made history and was responsible for progress (however small). She could develop tenacity with which to ﬁght the battle of life, and she could survive no matter how much battering she might be forced to endure.

361. Curtayne, Alice. The New Woman: Text of a Lecture (The Renaissance of Woman). Dublin: Anthonian, 1934. Curtayne wrote that a century of women began in 1833 in America with “little feminist groups.” She divided feminism into three lots — secular, Catholic, and Irish. She championed Catholic women for recognizing the accomplishments and virtues of biblical women and extolled Irish feminism for its advanced thought. Secular feminists, she wrote, had made masculinity the feminine ideal — it was a large problem! Women should not compete with men in the public arena. Workingwomen and the women’s club movement were both curses because

1938

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Part II

SECONDARY WORKS, 1962–2008 Works are listed alphabetically by author.

364. Abram, Trudi, “Representations of American Femininity: True-woman, New Woman and Thomas Wilmer Dewing’s Enigmatic Woman.” Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California, 1999. Although the title references the New Woman, this dissertation is in reality a reading of the images of women in the paintings of American artist Thomas Wilmer Dewing (1851–1938). As women were moving out of the box created for them in the Victorian era, their choices made it unclear as to exactly what/ who the ﬁn-de-siècle woman was. According to Abram, this ambiguity —“womanas-enigma”— appears in Dewing’s work.

366. Ahrens, Rüdiger. “Motivgeschichtliche Aspekte der New Woman im Englischen Drama der Jahrhundertwende.” Motive and Themen in Englischsprachiger Literatur als Indikatoren Literaturgeschichtlicher Prozesse: Ed. Heinz Müllenbrock and Alfons Klein. Tübingen, Germany: Niemeyer, 1990. The author concluded on pages 319–20 that the motif of the New Woman at the turn of the century was neither uniform nor clear but that it changed the social-historical development of the women’s movement. Its association with other types, such as the woman with a past or the femme fatale, evolved to an orientation of male rationality. Feminine independence largely overcame sex-speciﬁc stereotypes, allowing the New Woman to step out of the frame of imaginative texts and play a role in public life. The New Woman no longer limited herself to traditional areas of the arts and social care but became increasingly involved in politics and business.

365. Adickes, Sandra. To Be Young Was Very Heaven: Women in New York before the First World War. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997. See chapter 4, “Movers and Shakers: The New Women,” and chapter 8, “New Woman in Love.” In chapter 4 Adickes interweaved biographical materials with the feminist accomplishments of the following: Marie Saul Jenney, Rose Pastor Stokes, Elsie Clews Parsons, Mabel Dodge Luhan, Margaret Sanger, Crystal Eastman, Inez Milholl and Henrietta Rodman, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, and Dorothy Day.

367. Aikins, Janet E. “Clarissa and the New Woman: Contexts for Richardson Scholarship.” Studies in the Literary Imagination 28 (Spring 1995): 67–86. Women 97

368–373 contributed extensively to the professionalization of studies on Samuel Richardson (1689–1861) at the beginning of the twentieth century. In this special issue on Richardson’s Clarissa, Aikins examined the shaping of Clarissa in light of the time when women’s rights were at the fore.

368. Allen, Louise Anderson. “Laura Bragg: A New Woman Practicing Progressive Social Reform as a Museum Administrator and Educator.” Ed.D. diss., University of South Carolina, 1997. This biography chronicles the life and work of an important but little-known New Woman. Originally from Massachusetts, Laura Bragg found herself in Charleston, South Carolina, as the ﬁrst female director of a major American museum. As a result of Bragg’s innovative educational programs in the early twentieth century, she was lured back to Massachusetts, where she replicated and expanded the work she had done in Charleston. 369. Allen, Raye Virginia. Gordon Conway: Fashioning a New Woman (American Studies Series). Houston: University of Texas Press, 1997. Born in Texas to wealthy parents, Conway became an artist/illustrator who fashioned an image of the New Woman during the 1910s. Her illustrations were based on her own image and found their way into major fashion magazines in the United States and abroad. 370. ____. “An Image-maker from Texas: Gordon Conway and a New Look for a New Woman.” Southwest Historical Quarterly 101 ( July 1997), 17–57. This article is related to the book published in the same year. It expands Conway’s importance as a costume designer in the nascent movie industry in Great Britain. 371. Amin, Quasim. The New Woman: A Document in the Early Debate on Egyptian Feminism. Trans. Samiha Sidhom Peterson. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1995. First published in Arabic in 1900 as

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Secondary Works (1962–2008) Al-Mar’a al-jadida, this short book followed on the heels of another by Amin dealing with women’s issues —The Liberation of Woman, published in 1899. Reversing his opinion of 1894 in which he chastised Western society for allowing women too much freedom in The New Woman, Amin promoted adoption of the thinking and writing of Western authors as to the freedom of Egyptian women. He believed the advancement of Egyptian society depended upon the education and freedom of women, especially in regard to better educating their sons. He was amazingly aware of particular European and American women who had made their mark as professionals, indicating that he had traveled a good deal.

372. Amin, Sonia Nishat. The World of Muslim Women in Colonial Bengal, 1876– 1939. Leiden, New York/Köln: E. J. Brill, 1996. Given the dearth of information on the New Woman in India, of special interest is chapter 8, “The New Woman in Literature.” The ﬁrst part of the chapter gives a background of feminist literature in India. Amin then turned to speciﬁc works, which though far from being considered “feminist” from American or English standards, enlightened the reader as to how restrictive women’s lives were in India. The chapter then discusses the work of several authors dealing with New Woman issues: Majibar Rahman, Nurunnessa Khatrin Bidyabinodini, Akhter Mahal Syeda Khatun, and Roketa Sakawat Hossein. In works by these authors, the protagonists’ revolutionary moves included marriage for love rather than parental arrangement and education to improve domestic skills. 373. Ammons, Elizabeth. “The New Woman as Cultural Symbol and Social Reality: Six Women Writers’ Perspectives.” 1915, the Cultural Moment: The New Politics, the New Woman, the New Psycholog y, the New Art, and the New Theatre in America. Ed. Adele Heller and Lois Rudnick.

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374–375

This advertisement encourages liberated women to use a Sweeperette rather than rely on old-fashioned implements such as brooms. Ladies’ Home Journal, August 1895. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1991. The introduction deals with the state of women’s work as the century was changing from the nineteenth to the twentieth. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps advocated professions other than writing for women. But Ammons claimed that women wanted to write, and she discussed the writing of six New Women: Willa Cather, Jessie Fauset, Mary Austin, Angeline Grimké, Edith Wharton, and Sui Sin Far.

374. Ardis, Ann Louise. “‘The Apple and the Ego of Woman’: A Prehistory of English Modernism in the ‘New Woman’ Novels of the 1890s.” Ph.D. diss., Univer-

sity of Virginia, 1988. In this dissertation, Ardis situated New Woman novels within the literary criticism of the era and within the limited scholarship of the late 1970s/ early 1980s. She was especially interested in crediting authors of the novels with breaking into modernism, though she stopped short of claiming that the New Woman authors of the turn of the century were a direct inﬂuence on the modernists. Ardis argued for bringing New Woman novels from the margins to the mainstream so as to understand the culture of the era.

375. ____. “E. M. Hull, Mass Market Romance and the New Woman Novel in

376–380

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the Early Twentieth Century.” Women’s Writing 3 (1996), 287–96. Although most romantic/sensationalist ﬁction has been omitted from the canon, in this essay Ardis examined the interwar-era works of Edith Maude Hull, categorizing them and the author as New Women. Ardis argued that by accepting the negative criticism of works by Hull and other mass-culture writers, the intertextuality of the era is ignored. She considered sexual issues of the protagonists in Hull’s The Sheik, Captive of the Sahara, and Jungle Captive, juxtaposing them with New Woman characters in works by Sarah Grand, George Egerton, and Iota.

376. ____. “‘The Journey from Fantasy to Politics:’ The Representation of Socialism and Feminism in Gloriana and The ImageBreakers.” Rediscovering Forgotten Radicals: British Women Writers, 1889–1939. Ed. Angela Ingram and Daphne Patai. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. In this thoughtful and thoughtprovoking essay comprising chapter 2, Ardis exposed the central theses in Gloriana: or The Revolution of 1900, written in 1890 by Lady Florence Dixie and The Image Breakers by Gertrude Dix. Ardis was interested in the characters each author constructed so as to depict change in British feminist/ socialist ideology. The idealistic Dixie dreams about a revolution led by her protagonist, Gloriana DeLara, whereas Leslie Ardent, the more practical supporting ﬁgure in Dix’s The Image Breakers, understands the limitations of her power and the socialist agenda to inspiring anything so grand as a revolution. Her contribution to feminism and social change is through her actions in life situations. Ardis also incorporated the role of critics in their reluctance to recognize feminism’s important role in the Socialist movement. 377. ____. New Women, New Novels: Feminism and Early Modernism. Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1990.

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In this comprehensive study of the New Woman in ﬁction and in life, Ardis wove together critics’ responses to the novels, the publishing business, the role of the circulating libraries, audience response, and literacy rate. She took into account the social and cultural milieu in the closing decade of the nineteenth century and pre–World War I era, linking reality to ﬁction.

378. ____. “Organizing Women: New Woman Writers, New Woman Readers, and Suffrage Feminism.” Victorian Women Writers and the Woman Question. Ed. Nicola Diane Thompson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Here Ardis argued that the more radical nature of lesser-known New Woman authors and their works was the very aspect that kept them more obscure. She maintained that the betterknown authors such as Sarah Grand and Olive Schreiner straddled the feminist fence in their outspokenness in the popular press. Ardis called for scholars to research “reception histories” and the construction of personal personae in New Woman authors. With regard to Grand, Ardis purported that, to neutralize a radical image, she purposely constructed a persona at odds with the feminist protagonists in her novels. 379. ____. “‘Retreat with Honour’: Mary Cholmondeley’s Presentation of the New Woman Artist in Red Pottage.” Writing the Woman Artist: Essays on Poetics, Politics, and Portraiture. Ed. Suzanne W. Jones. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991. With references to the New Woman throughout the text, Ardis’s paper deals speciﬁcally with Hester Gresley, the New Woman protagonist of Red Pottage. 380. Ashton, Elaine. “The ‘New Woman’ at Manchester’s Gaiety Theatre.” The New Woman and Her Sisters: Feminism and Theatre, 1850–1914. Ed. Vivien Gardner and Susan Rutherford. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. The Gaiety Theatre was managed by New Woman

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Annie Horniman. In addition to this remarkable feat, Horniman backed Florence Farr’s season of New Drama at the Avenue Theatre in London in 1894 and Yeats’s Abbey Theatre in Dublin. She was supportive of women playwrights and those who dealt with working-class issues, airing their productions at The Gaiety. 381. Attwood, Lynne. Creating the New Soviet Woman: Women’s Magazines as Engineers of Female Identity, 1922–53. Houndmills/Basingstoke/Hampshire/London: Macmillan, 1999. In this book Attwood investigated women’s roles from the Russian Revolution into post–World War II by looking at stories in two women’s magazines: Rabotnitsa and Krest’yanka. These stories point to the complex roles women played— from workers and producers of goods under Bolshevic Socialism to producers of children after the population was ravaged by the war. The stories reveal the ambiguity of women’s roles over a thirty-year period. 382. Bair, Barbara. “‘Our Women and What They Think’: Amy Jacques Garvey, New Negro Womanhood, and the Woman’s Page of the Negro World.” Feminist Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heilmann. London, Sydney, and Chicago: Pandora Press, 2003. This paper, presented at a conference at Manchester Metropolitan University in July 2000 and included as chapter 8 of the proceedings, chronicles the feminist activities of Marcus Garvey’s wife, Amy Jacques. She started a women’s page in The Negro World, the journal of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) to promote a feeling of comradeship, problem sharing, and social/political awakening. Although the page was shortlived (February 1924–April 1927), Jacques Garvey was able to enlighten thousands of women with its articles, editorials, letters to the editor, and even advertisements. The page featured women of many hues succeeding despite adversity.

381–385

383. Banta, Martha. Imaging American Women: Idea and Ideals in Cultural History. New York: Columbia University Press, 1987. Chapter 1, “American Girls and the New Woman,” deals with New Woman images in the United States. Long and somewhat rambling, it identiﬁes female types and conﬂates them with the New Woman to produce a composite type. Her argument is ﬁrst set within the literary canon, but it moves to the visual, where it is less convincing. 384. Bardsley, Janice Bridges. “Writing for the New Woman of Taishnõ Japan: Raichõ Hiratsuka and the Seitõ Journal, 1911–1916.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 1989. The Seitõ was Japan’s Bluestocking Society of the early twentieth century and also the title of its journal published 1911–1916. Hiratsuka Raichõ was its leader. Striving toward independence against establishment and governmental restrictions and constraints, these New Women (atarashii onna) fought the hard ﬁght. This dissertation is divided into three parts — a biography of Hiratsuka Raichõ, the history of the Seitõ Society and its short-lived journal, and an analysis of the push toward New Womanhood and how this played out in the family life of its members. 385. Bean, Lawless. “Gissing’s ‘Comrades in Arms’: New Women, Old Attitudes. Turn-of-the-Century Women 1 (Winter 1984), 37–42. This essay examines a short story, “Comrades in Arms,” originally published in the English Illustrated Magazine (September 1894). Bean summarized the story and provided some analysis of the relationship between its protagonists, Wilfred Langley and Bertha Childerstone. He pointed to incidents of role-reversal that society and Langley were not ready to accept. Bean maintained that the story was “profeminist,” reﬂecting the anxieties of a time when women were becoming more independent.

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386. Beck, Claire. The New Woman as Librarian: The Career of Adelaide Hasse. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 2006. This is a biography of Adelaide Hasse (1868–1953), whose career spanned the United States with her ﬁrst library position at the Los Angeles Public Library (LAPL) and the last at the New York Public Library. Hasse ﬁrst became interested in government documents at the LAPL; she went from there to become the ﬁrst librarian in the ofﬁce of the Superintendent of Documents at the Government Printing Ofﬁce (GPO). Hasse’s

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concerns about librarianship are as relevant today as during her momentous career.

387. Beckson, Karl. London in the 1890s: A Cultural History. New York/London: W.W. Norton: 1992. Beckson’s chapter 6, “The New Woman,” is a thorough discussion of feminist activities before and, to a limited extent, after the emergence of the naming of the New Woman. He carefully wove the issue of suffrage together with the “woman question” and New Woman novels. He focused on 1890s London, with some mention of the American New Woman. 388. ____. A Magazine of Her Own? Domesticity and Desire in the Woman’s Magazine, 1880–1914. London/New York: Routledge, 1996. In chapter 8, “The New Woman and the New Journalism,” Beetham introduced the concept of the New Woman with historical underpinnings and then discussed the phenomenon within the context of the New Journalism (term coined by Matthew Arnold in 1887). She drew attention to how the “new” was in actuality the beginning of the shattering of Victorian rigidity in terms of class and gender. The work notes the founding of the Institute of Women Journalists in 1895 and that between 1880 and 1920 as many as 120 new magazines in Britain dedicated themselves to women’s issues. On the whole, women, as may be expected, were accorded secondary roles in terms of professional journalism. A common thread was the deﬁnition of femininity in opposition to New Womanhood.

Proctor & Gamble indicates using Ivory Soap will help women become stronger and healthier to take on roles as New Women. Ladies’ Home Journal, September 1895.

389. ____. “The Reinvention of the English Domestic Woman: Class and ‘Race’ in the 1890s Woman’s Magazine.” Women’s

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Studies International Forum 21 (May–June 1998), 223–233. This study focuses on British women’s magazines read by women in the 1890s both at home (England) and in the colonies. Concentrating on Woman at Home, it presents an analysis of the correspondence columns that editor Annie S. Swan ran in the journal. Many of the letters, particularly those written by missionaries and missionary wives, reinforced England’s imperialist ideology. Although not speciﬁcally about the New Woman, Beetham theorized that the “woman at home” was constructed to counteract independent women and reassert England’s white, middle class, domestic claim on its women as well as on its colonies.

390. Beetham, Margaret, and Kate Boardman. Victorian Women’s Magazines: An Antholog y. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2001. This collection of reprinted articles and images is primarily from British newspapers of 1837– 1901. Although not one of the articles is titled “The New Woman,” the last entry is a reprint of Jim’s Wife’s Husband’s “A Chat with Mme. Sarah Grand,” Woman (21 May 1894 Literary Supplement). See entry under Jim’s Wife’s Husband in “The New Woman Debate” in this volume. 391. Bennett, Alma J. “A Critic’s Response to Stage Representations of the ‘New Woman’ during the Progressive Era.” American Theater Quarterly 10 (September 1996): 219–30. This special issue on theater history in part examines the reviews of Amy Leslie, theater critic for the Chicago Daily News from 1890 to 1930. Bennett maintained that Leslie’s opinions and behavior mirrored the New Woman characters in the plays she reviewed. Both were outwardly liberated, challenging the boundaries of traditional notions of how women should behave, but both also held traditional views and were thought to be “womanly women.” 392. Bergman, Jill. “‘Natural’ Divi-

390–394

sions/National Divisions: Whiteness and the American New Woman in the General Federation of Women’s Clubs.” New Woman Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism, and International Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham. London/New York: Routledge, 2004. Bergman’s essay centers on the General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) and how their attitudes and policies regarding race and desegregation paralleled the U.S. government’s expansionist policies. Social evolution, she said, also played a role in the exclusion of black women from membership in the GFWC — though black women had made signiﬁcant strides, white women did not recognize them. 393. Birkle, Carmen. “Multiculturalism and the New Woman in Early Twentieth-Century America.” Feminist Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heilmann. London, Sydney, and Chicago: Pandora, 2003. This paper, presented at a conference at Manchester Metropolitan University in July 2000 is included as chapter 5 of the proceedings. Birkle investigated one short story each of ﬁve authors: In “A Warrior’s Daughter” by Native American author Zitkala-sa (1876–1938), the protagonist is a trickster enacting gender reversals to achieve a semblance of independence. Sui Sin Far (1865–1914), a Chinese American/Canadian, deals with cultural hybridity challenging traditional marital arrangements. Mexican American author Maria Cristina Mena (1893–1965) examines the role of patriarchy in its relationship to the Catholic Church. The protagonist of German Protestant Helen Reimensnyder Martin (1868–1919) rebels against her controlling husband when he orders their daughter to assume traditional a “true woman” lifestyle that excludes an education. All these women also grapple with ethnic issues.

394. Bland, Lucy. Banishing the Beast: Sexuality and the Early Feminists. New York:

395–400

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The New Press, 1995. Bland honored her grandmother Sybil Cooper by including a photograph of her as a New Woman. Of special interest is the section of chapter 4 called “‘New Woman’ Writings and Marriage Exposed.” Here Bland discussed the courage of New Woman novelists in exposing the dangers of male promiscuity in marriage relationships.

395. ____. Labor and Love: Woman’s Experience of Home and Family, 1850–1940. Ed. Jane Lewis. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986. In chapter 5 Bland addressed late nineteenth-century concern in Britain about gender inequalities in marriage. She stated that these issues went from being revealed in ﬁction during the 1890s to fact in the early twentieth century. The segments in the chapter titled “New Women” and “ShipWrecked Sailors” and “From ‘New Woman’ to ‘Freewoman’” are most geared to these issues. 396. ____. “The Married Woman, the ‘New Woman’ and the Feminist: Sexual Politics of the 1890s.” Equal or Different: Women’s Politics 1800–1914. Ed. Jane Rendall. Oxford: Blackwell, 1987. The title lays out the content of this article, which deals with the women’s movement of the 1890s, the inequality of the law and lawmakers’ reluctance to change, and the function of New Woman novels in bringing issues related to women’s unequal positions to the fore. 397. Blankley, Elyse. “Beyond the ‘Talent of Knowing’: Gertrude Stein and the New Woman.” Critical Essays on Gertrude Stein. Ed. Michael J. Hoffman. Boston: Hall, 1986. Blankley’s thesis is that Stein rejected the New Woman because of her intuitiveness in sensing that, even with the equivalent of a man’s education, a woman would never be equal to a man. She objected to the composite image of the New Woman, preferring to be viewed within the context of her personal identity rather than

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as one of a group. Her views on the subject are most apparent in Fernhurst, Blankley wrote, though in 1898 Stein delivered a lecture in Baltimore in which she supported the New Woman.

398. Bohata, Kirsti. “Bertha Thomas: The New Woman and ‘Anglo-Welsh’ Hybridity.” New Woman Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism, and International Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham London/New York: Routledge, 2004. In this paper Bohata examines the hybridity relative to late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century writings of Bertha Thomas (1845–1918). Perhaps best known as the biographer of George Sand, Thomas traversed the emotional, physical, and geographical distances between Wales and England and between tradition and feminism. Like the author, who never lived outside England but had paternal roots in Wales, the protagonists (male and female) deal with displacement issues and for one reason or another never experience a sense of belonging. Some of the women characters in Thomas’s oeuvre, though ambivalent, do exhibit New Woman tendencies. 399. ____. “For Wales, See England? Suffrage and the New Woman in Wales.” Women’s History Review 11 (2002), 643–56. Although the title incorporates the New Woman, the article is more about Welsh women and the issue of suffrage than the total concept. 400. Bonnell, Marilyn. “Sarah Grand and the Critical Establishment: Art for Woman’s Sake.” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 14 (Spring 1995), 123–48. Bonnell looked at Grand’s literary contributions within the context of the novel writing of the 1890s. She presented a comprehensive picture of the critical reception of Grand’s work, concentrating on The Heavenly Twins, reprinted six times between 1897 and 1923. She pointed out the gender-speciﬁc

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response to the novel. Her thesis was that women novelists were more interested in presenting a moral within their works, but that men, wishing to retake the market, elevated the novel to an art form. The author used a propensity of primary source material.

401. ____. “Sarah Grand: The New Woman and Feminist Aesthetics.” Ph.D. diss., Pennsylvania State University, 1992. Sarah Grand’s work has been interpreted and reinterpreted, but Bonnel maintained that few scholars used a “feminine” paradigm for doing so. Using the theories of twentieth-century author Carol Gilligan, this dissertation attempts to reassess Grand in a less radical light. 402. Boos, Florence. “The Socialist ‘New Woman’ and William Morris’s ‘The Water of the Wondrous Isles.’” Victorian Literature and Culture 23 (1995): 159–175. The author posited the protagonist, Birdalone, in William Morris’s penultimate novel, as an example of the quintessential New Woman of the 1890s, though her argument is far from convincing. Providing adequate summary of the novel, Boos inserted material on contemporary socialist issues and legislation regarding the liberation of women (changing the age of consent for a young woman from twelve to thirteen). But the fact that Birdalone swims, engages in physical work, and embraces her sexual nature hardly proves that she is an independent New Woman. Part of the problem may lie in William Morris’s predilection for the medieval era and that, though Birdalone and her associates live in contemporary times, the language and setting is feudal. 403. Bordin, Ruth Birgitta Anderson. Alice Freeman Palmer: The Evolution of a New Woman. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993. This work is a biography of Alice Freeman Palmer. 404. Brandon, Ruth. The New Women and the Old Men: Sex and the Woman Ques-

401–406

tion. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990. Brandon examined the “modernist theories” of several late nineteenth-century couples, notably Eleanor Marx and Edward Aveling, Hubert and Edith Bland, Olive Schreiner and Henry Havelock Ellis, and later Henry Havelock Ellis and his wife, Edith Lees. Liaisons among the couples caused friction and relationship ruptures despite their espousal of liberal attitudes toward gender relationships. 405. Brandt, Maria F. “‘For His Own Satisfaction’: Eliminating the New Woman Figure in McTeague.” American Transcendental Quarterly 18 (March 2004): 5–23. The 1924 ﬁlm Greed is based on the 1899 novel by Frank Norris —McTeague. Director/producer Erich von Stroheim admitted trying to replicate the novel in his ﬁlm. The story centers on Trina, a New Woman, and McTeague, a dentist infatuated with her. Brandt speculated about Norris’s autobiographical relationship to McTeague, at least in his fascination with the New Woman. First intrigued with the notion of the independent woman, after marriage to Trina, McTeague turns against her and becomes abusive. Trina then abandons her New Woman role to conform to McTeague’s increasing disinterest in strong women. Eventually he leaves her and takes her money. Her stress over the loss of funds is greater than that over the loss of her husband, and she is perceived as “greedy.” In the end, McTeague murders Trina. Though scholars claim other versions made more of the event, the published novel trivializes the murder along with the buried New Woman. Brandt interspersed contemporary criticism with Freudian analysis in her essay.

406. ____. “Reading Anxiety: The New Woman and Narrative Strategy in American Literature, 1899–1909.” Ph.D. diss., Boston College, 2003. Using Kate Chopin’s The Awakening, Frank Norris’s McTeague, and Gertrude Stein’s Three Lives, Brandt examined the anxiety that the New

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Woman created in white, middle-class society, which had previously been fairly stable in terms of woman’s role and “place.” The anxiety, she theorized, was due to the white, middle-class envisioning of the potential for other groups to break away from their containment and disrupt their own stability.

407. Brennen, Matthew C. “Repression, Knowledge, and Saving Souls: The Role of the ‘New Woman’ in Stoker’s Dracula and Murnau’s Nosferatu.” Studies in the Humanities 19 ( June 1992), 1–10. Brennen argued that the female characters in Dracula (Lucy Westenra and Mina Harker) have been misinterpreted as antifeminist backlashes to the New Woman. He believed that while Lucy may be a continuation of the “Ideal Woman” of the nineteenth century, Mina is totally different. She is able to come into her own and take responsibility not only for herself but also for the people of Bremen. (In a sense she becomes a Christlike ﬁgure in that she dies so that they might live.) Her character, according to Brennen, becomes even more enlightened in the ﬁlm adaptation of Dracula by F. W. Murnau, Nosferatu (1922). Brennen examined the women in terms of intelligence, self-awareness, and the New Woman prototype whereas other scholars have looked only at their sexual behavior. 408. Brooks, Kristine. “New Woman, Fallen Woman: The Crisis of Reputation in Turn-of-the-Century Novels by Pauline Hopkins and Edith Wharton.” Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers 13 (1996): 91–112. In this extensive study of the protagonists of Hopkins’s Contending Forces: A Romance Illustrative of Negro Life North and South and Wharton’s The House of Mirth, Brooks analyzed the women’s situation within the sociocultural context of the era. Both Hopkins’s Sappho Clark and Wharton’s Lily Bart attempt to ﬁnd themselves and their uniqueness, but both are bound by stereotype and tradition. Brooks

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looked at every angle using several tools of analysis. 409. Brouwer, Ruth Compton. New Women for God: Canadian Presbyterian Women and India Missions, 1876–1914. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990. This is the ﬁrst book to examine the role of Protestant Canadian women who undertook missionary work in Central India. Brouwer’s study focuses on the forty-nine women associated with the Toronto-based Women’s Foreign Missionary Society (WFMS), a branch of the Presbyterian Church organized in 1876 and merged with the Home Mission Society in 1914. In general the women missionaries came up against more resistance from their male colleagues than from their potential converts. They likely experienced a greater sense of freedom and status in India than they would have in Victorian Canada. They were responsible for setting up hospitals and schools, but their particular brand of learned feminism did not lead to their ordination once they returned home. The majority of the women were upper-middle class, and although a number of the women likely entered missionary work as an acceptable work alternative to domesticity, many left the work to marry and fulﬁll family responsibilities. 410. Buckberrough, Sherry. “Delaunay Design: Aesthetics, Immigration, and the New Woman.” Art Journal 54 (Spring 1995): 51–55. This is a discussion of Sonia Delaunay’s printed textiles and clothing design of the 1920s. Buckberrough wrote of the designer’s interest in linking the movement of color, form, and physical material to the movement of populations, including the migration of the international avantgarde to Paris before and after World War I. She also posed the argument that Delaunay’s clothing designs — based on African, Egyptian, and Eastern sources — were protective of personal privacy.

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411. Burke, Carolyn. “The New Poetry and the New Woman: Mina Loy.” Coming to Light: American Women Poets in the Twentieth Century. Ed. Diane Wood Middlebrook and Marilyn Yalom. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985. Mina Loy was once considered the quintessential emancipated female poet. She was in the center of the New York avant-garde. Writing poetry for Others: A Magazine of the New Verse, her work paralleled the activities of Alfred Stieglitz, Gertrude Stein, and the Italian Futurists. Loy wrote her “Feminist Manifesto” in 1914. She was inﬂuenced by and inﬂuenced feminists Marianne Moore, Mabel Dodge, Margaret Sanger, and Emma Goldman. Author Burke likened Loy’s vers libre to the free expression of the dance of Isadora Duncan and wrote that Loy was trained as a painter and transposed the visual expression of the genre to her poetry. Burke reviewed critical response to Loy’s poems and provided her own analysis plus comment by contemporary critics.

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ﬁrst two decades of the twentieth centuries. Chapter 5, “Feminism and the Woman Citizen in the Inter-War Years,” is divided thus: “The Legacy of War,” “A Feminist Programme,” “Training Women for Citizenship,” “Feminist Questions and Party Politics,” “From Politics to Culture,” “Feminist Theory in the 1920s and 1930s,” and “Feminism and Internationalism.”

414. Camp, Karen Mechel. “Crossing Over: New Women at the Turn of the Century.” Ph.D. diss., University of Alabama, 2000. Using the works of the well-known New Woman novelists (Hardy, Gissing, Schreiner, and Grand) as well as some by lesser-known authors such as Mary Cholmondeley, Amy Levy, and Michael Fields, Camp investigated the “trickle down” effect of images and writing in popular culture.

412. Burks, Mary Fair. Survey of Black Literary Magazines in the United States: 1859–1960. Ph.D. diss., Columbia University Teachers College, 1975. 413. Cain, Barbara. English Feminism, 1780–1980. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Two chapters of this text are related to the New Woman of the 1890s–1930s. Chapter 4, “The ‘New Woman’ and the Militant,” is divided into segments titled: “Feminism and the ‘New Woman’”; “Feminism, the Labour Movement, and Working-Class Women”; “Militancy”; and “Feminism and Imperialism.” This chapter focuses on British women of the last two decades of the nineteenth and the

This little New Woman appears to have leadership potential! The young lad stands by with hands in his pockets while she indicates a “take charge” stance. Punch, or the London Charivari, 1 September 1894.

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The ﬁrst portion of the dissertation deals with New Woman cartoons in Punch with analysis of their meaning, the second part on reactions to New Woman literature both by critics of the era and by contemporary critics and scholars.

415. Campbell, Sandra, and Lorraine McMullen, eds. New Woman: Short Stories by Canadian Women, 1900–1920. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1991. Many of the writers of the stories in this collection, arranged chronologically from 1901 to 1919, were journalists. They include Adeline M. Tekey, Winnifred Eaton Reeve (Onoto Watanna), Kathleen “Kit” Coleman, Susan Jones (S. Carleton), Sara Jeannette Duncan, Isabel Ecclestone Mackay, Alice Jones, Jean Blewett, Marjorie Pickthall, E. Pauline Johnson (Tekahionwake), Mabel Burkholder, L. M. Montgomery, Madge Macbeth, Edith Eaton (Sui Sin Far), Nellie McClung, Mazo de la Roche, Ethelwyn Wetherald, Jean N. McIlwraith, Mary Lowrey Ross, and J. G. Sime. 416. Cash, Eric. “Confessions of a Skirt-Chasing Feminist: Wells’s TonoBungay and the Idea of a New Woman.” The Wellsian: The Journal of the H. G. Wells Society 17 (Winter 1994), 32–45. This article is an examination of H. G. Wells’s novel Tono-Bungay and the roles of his female characters. Cash set his work against other scholarship dealing with the novel but purported that his analysis focused on feminist and class issues. That Cash cast the protagonist’s “Aunt Susan” and his lover Efﬁe Rink in the mold of the New Woman may give some scholars pause, as neither female embodies the spirit of the New Woman (Cash acknowledged this in his ﬁnal paragraph). 417. Cassidy, Cheryl M. “Bringing the ‘New Woman’ to the Mission Site: Louise Manning Hodgkins and the Heathen Woman’s Friend.” American Periodicals 16 (2006): 172–99. This article charts changes in the journal of the female missionary so-

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ciety of the Methodist Episcopal Church from its inception in 1869 to the early twentieth century. Mrs. Harriet Merrick Warren was the ﬁrst editor and remained until her death in 1893. Her daughter-in-law took over for six months until Miss Louise Manning Hodgkins, an English professor at Wellesley College, was hired for the position. Changes during the sojourns of the two editors reﬂect changes in administration: Warren focused on “heathens” in need of conversion while Hodgkins championed young single women who became professional missionaries. The renaming of the journal —Woman’s Missionary Friend from the original The Heathen Woman’s Friend— reﬂected that change. Warren touted missionary work as an extension of home life, while Hodgkins emphasized its professional aspects.

418. Chadwick, Whitney. Women, Art, and Society. London: Thames and Hudson, 1990. Chapter 8, “Modernism, Abstraction, and the New Woman, 1910–1925,” is framed within the context of modernity and the production of textiles and fashion. 419. Cherry, Deborah. Painting Women: Victorian Women Artists. London/New York: Routledge: 1993. This is a history of British women artists of the Victorian era with black-and-white illustrations. One artist, Flora Reid, is singled out for her selfportrait as a New Woman depicted in “manly” garb, but no image is provided. The artistic McDonald sisters, Margaret and Frances, were eulogized as “Women New” in a satirical poem in The Glasgow Evening News on 13 November 1894 (206). 420. Chesler, Ellen. “New Woman: New World: The Life of Margaret Sanger.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1990. 421. Chothia, Jean. “The New Woman and English Theatre in 1894.” European Theatre in Turmoil: Meaning and Signiﬁcance of the Theatre a Hundred Years Ago. Ed. Hubert Hermans, Wessel Krull, and Hans van

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Maanen. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996. In this paper (presented at a conference held at Groningen University in March 1994) Chothia discussed the prototypes for Grundy’s The New Woman and several other plays.

422. ____, ed. The New Woman and Other Emancipated Woman Plays. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. This compilation of reprinted turn-of-thecentury plays includes: The New Woman by Sidney Grundy, The Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith by Arthur Wing Pinero, Votes for Women! by C. E. Raimond (Elizabeth Robins), and The Last of the De Mullins by St. John Hankin. Jean Chothia’s introduction provides a brief literary history of the emancipated woman as well as a sociocultural backdrop for each play and a synopsis of its plot. She also listed the cast of each premier performance. 423. Chou, Katherine Hui-ling. “Staging Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the New Woman Movement in Chinese Spoken Drama and Film, 1910–1949.” Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1997. This dissertation challenges prevailing attitudes toward the New Woman as exhibited in male discourse in Chinese drama and ﬁlm. Chou examined a large body of what she called “alternative text” to present a broader and more accurate picture of the role of the New Woman in modern Chinese drama and ﬁlm. 424. Chung, Hilary. “Questing the Goddess: Mao Dun and the New Woman.” Autumn Floods: Essays in Honour of Marian Galik. Ed. Raoul D. Findeisen and Robert H. Gassman. Berne, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 1998. Mao Dun was an important male author of the May Fourth period in early twentieth-century Chinese literature. He participated in Chiang Kai-Shek’s Northern Expedition to unite China in the late 1920s. Though he never graduated from the university he attended, he wrote pro-

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fusely on issues regarding modern intellectuals. He and other young writers published the Western literature of authors such as Shaw, Keats, Byron, Zola, Flaubert, Balzac, Chekhov, and Tolstoy (whom he admired most). He also studied and often referenced Norse mythology. In this paper Chung examined the connections made by Mao Dun between Norse goddesses, the emancipated Chinese woman, and his own ambivalence toward the New Woman.

425. Churgin, Jonah Reuben. “The Quiet Revolution: the New Woman and the Old Academe.” Ed.D. diss., Columbia Teachers College, 1976. 426. Clements, Kendrick A. “The New Era and the New Woman: Lou Henry Hoover and ‘Feminism’s Awkward Age.’” Paciﬁc Historical Review 73 (August 2004): 425–61. Lou Henry Hoover’s life paralleled those of many Progressive Era women. In this essay her biography is interspersed with descriptions of her attitudes and philosophy regarding women’s rights. Her interest in women succeeding in ﬁtness, business, and the sciences likely stemmed from her education at Stanford University (her degree was in geology), while her business acumen came from her banker-father. Hoover was active in promoting and supporting both the Girl Scouts and the National Amateur Athletic Foundation (NAAD), which encouraged physical ﬁtness (though not necessarily competitive sports) for young women. Although her sympathies were with all women wishing to participate fully in both the professional world and family life, her wealth enabled a level of freedom unavailable to most women of her era. 427. Connor, Holly Pyne, ed. Off the Pedestal: New Woman in the Art of Homer, Chase, and Sargent. Newark, New Jersey, and London: Rutgers University Press, 2006. This exhibition catalog accompanied a show originating at The Newark Museum and moving to the Marion Koegler McNay Art

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Museum in San Antonio, then the Frick Art and Historical Center in Pittsburgh. The show and catalog included many images of New Women, including Gibson Girls and other types predating the naming of the New Woman. The incorporation of the names of well-known American painters was likely a marketing technique, as many of the women in their works were less liberated than images exhibited from the popular press. The exhibition included a motion picture of two women boxing.

428. Cooper, Emmanuel. The Sexual Perspective: Homosexuality and Art in the Last 100 Years in the West. London/New York: Routledge, 1994. In chapter 8 Cooper identiﬁed and provided biographical infor-

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mation and artistic analysis regarding a signiﬁcant number of visual artists who worked from the 1920s to the post–World War II era, when a return to family life compromised their output. He linked them through an exploration of sexuality and gender issues identiﬁed in their work. He also included a reproduction of at least one piece in each artist’s oeuvre. His review includes the following: the American author Djuana Barnes and her partner of ten years, the sculptor Thelma Wood, and Berenice Abbott, an American photographer who captured the lovers on ﬁlm; Frenchwoman Marie Laurencin; the English artist Gladys Hynes; the South American surrealist (though she disdained the term due to its macho associations) Leonor

E. W. Hoyt & Co. appeals to all New Women to use Rubifoam for their dental needs. Ladies’ Home Journal, April 1896.

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Fini; Polish-born Tamara de Lempicka; the German Jeanne Mammin; Scottish realist Joan Eardley. Overall the chapter is a contribution to the knowledge of these New Woman artists, many of them otherwise little known.

429. Corbin, Pamela Beth. “Feminist Performance in New York City, 1880–1927: Staging the Collision of Victorianism, Woman Suffrage, and the New Woman Movement.” Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2003. Corbin’s thesis is that it did not matter which performance genre women engaged in (parades, speeches, theater), the theme was consistently that of protest. Women needed an outlet to express their views, and in performance they were able to make public their presence and force the recognition of issues of equality. 430. Cothran, Casey Althea. “Love, Marriage, and Desire in the Era of the New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, 2003. In this dissertation Cothran investigated ﬁctional New Woman characters in terms of their romantic inclinations and how authors dealt with these issues. 431. Crow, Duncan. The Victorian Woman. New York: Stein and Day, 1972. Crow mentioned the New Woman over several pages in the ﬁnal chapter, “The New Daughters of Propriety,” but the work is primarily a discussion of the reticence of society in offering higher education to young British women. Crow identiﬁed several “types” of young women: intellectual, athletic, social, and homebodies. Much of the discussion centers on women of earlier than 1893 and what contemporary authors have written of them. 432. Cruse, Amy. The Victorians and Their Reading. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifﬂin, 1935. Chapter 16 of this work examines the lives and works of authors (male as well as female) of ﬁction and nonﬁction before the naming of the New Woman in 1894. Cruse has shed light on

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Eliza Lynn Linton’s transformation from feminist to antifeminist and provided literary examples of Linton’s change of views, questioning whether Queen Victoria’s role as “chief of state” had anything to do with the rise of the New Woman, not as an advocate but as an example in the life she lived. She has also discussed many lesserknown “Girls of the Period,” thus providing fodder for future researchers.

433. Cunningham, Abigail Ruth. “The Emergence of the New Woman in English Fiction, 1870–1914.” Ph.D. diss., University of Oxford, 1974. 434. ____. The New Woman and the Victorian Novel. London: Macmillan, 1978. This investigation into the New Woman in late Victorian novels is primarily a look at the new freedoms accorded women—being able to read about, write about, and talk about sex. In the introduction, Cunningham charted reforms in the law and education as parallel to the advancement of the New Woman. She discussed how the novels caused readers to question traditional notions regarding love (sex) and marriage and how they “discard their old assumptions and strike out into a more radical course of thought or action.” By the early twentieth century, she wrote, the New Woman was practically passé— she had made her point. Women could travel more freely, speak freely on a number of subjects, and return to home and hearth. 435. ____. “The ‘New Woman’ Fiction of the 1890s.” Victorian Studies 17 (1973/ 74): 177–86. This overview of New Woman novels pays attention to Thomas Hardy’s Jude the Obscure. Although Cunningham identiﬁed one common bond in New Woman novels — the New Woman’s frankness regarding previously taboo subjects — she distinguished between the types of New Women portrayed in the novels, among them the “bachelor girl” and the woman of more conservative vein or “purity school.”

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436. Cunningham, Patricia A. Fashioning the New Woman: Dress Reform — Politics, Health, and Art, 1850–1920. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2003. In the ﬁnal chapter, “Fashion, Dress Reform, and the New Woman,” Cunningham addressed the changes in fashion occurring from the end of the nineteenth century to the end of World War I. In terms of haute couture she discussed the inﬂuence of the aesthetic (which promoted a return to classical and medieval styles) and reform movements on dress design as well as refuting earlier claims regarding designer Paul Poiret’s fashion innovations and contributions to dress reform. Cunningham regarded Poiret as a self-promoter and gave Mariano Fortuny more credit for creative design. She also commented on the need for reform in garments worn by workingclass women. 437. Davis, Jill. “The New Woman and the New Life.” The New Woman and Her Sisters: Feminism and Theatre, 1850–1914. Ed. Vivien Gardner and Susan Rutherford. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. In the introduction to this chapter, Davis linked Fabian Socialism with the progressive New Drama in England, investigated socialism and Darwinism within the context of feminism in the early twentieth century, and posited the “eugenics movement” as hampering the progress of feminism. She wrote, “Feminism in this period was appropriated and reorganised by male discourse.” The second part deals with “Shaw and the New Woman,” particularly in respect to Mrs. Warren’s Profession, Man and Superman, and Getting Married. 438. Davis, William A., Jr. “Reading Failure in[to] Jude the Obscure: Hardy’s Sue Bridehead and Lady Jeune’s ‘New Woman’ Essays, 1885–1900.” Victorian Literature and Culture 26 (1998): 53–70. This article explores the close friendship between Thomas Hardy and the antifeminist Lady Mary

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Jeune, proposing that their conversations inﬂuenced Hardy in framing the character of New Woman Sue Bridehead in Jude the Obscure. Davis noted a difference in the attitudes of the two authors (Lady Jeune wrote short essays) towards the New Woman, however. Lady Jeune ﬁrmly believed the New Woman to be a passing fad, while Hardy dealt seriously and sympathetically with the reality of Sue Bridehead and the problems she faced in striving for independence. In positing Sue’s New Woman ideas and allowing her failure, Hardy revealed his ambivalence toward his protagonist and, according to Davis, the inﬂuence of Lady Jeune. 439. DeBerg, Betty. Ungodly Women: Gender and the First Wave of American Fundamentalism. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990. Using fundamental Christian periodicals of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries plus contemporary (1980s) feminist scholarship, DeBerg situated the family and the church within the context of the times. The author’s many references to the New Woman and the threat she posed to the paternalism of home and church are useful as are the sexist quotes she pulled from the conservative literature of the late Victorians. 440. Deegan, Mary Jo, ed. The New Woman of Color: The Collected Writings of Fannie Barrier Williams. DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois Press, 2002. Known as a “leader, an orator, an intellectual, and a sociologist,” Williams was an educated woman of the northern United States, who mingled with the Negro elite of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. She was born in Brockport, New York, and was the ﬁrst African American to graduate from the local teachers’ college. After graduation Williams went to the South to teach, but while attending art school in Washington, D.C., she met attorney Samuel Laing Williams. They married and settled in Chicago. There she became active in black

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social and intellectual circles and was brieﬂy employed by Mrs. Potter Palmer and the Board of Lady Managers to gather works made by African-American women for the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition. Fannie Williams spoke formally on two occasions at the fair, sharing the podium with Anna Julia Cooper and Mary Church Terrell. She also wrote profusely for several publications, one of which was Woman’s Era, a newspaper for African-American women published in Boston in 1894. This book is a collection of her speeches and articles from a variety of sources.

441. Deutsch, Sarah. Women and the City: Gender, Space, and Power in Boston, 1870–1940. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Chapter 3, “The Moral Geography of the Working Girl (and the New Woman)” is about Boston’s South End. Using primary materials of the late nineteenth century, Deutsch attempted to dispel assumptions made by the so-called helping professions (white police, white reformers and white religious ﬁgures) regarding racial stereotypes of immigrants and African Americans prevalent at the time. Although moralists suspected independent women of unsavory activities when left unchaperoned, the young women generally bound themselves together in family-like units where they felt safe. The chapter identiﬁes many young Boston women of the era who would otherwise remain anonymous. 442. Diethe, Carol. “Nietzsche and the New Woman.” German Life and Letters 48 (October 1995): 428–40. After a brief introduction to the backwardness of German feminism at the turn of the century and a limited discussion of Nietzsche’s views, the discussion turns to Nietzsche as an eligible bachelor. Scholarly attention to the era of the New Woman in Germany is superseded by a gossipy discussion of women who were interested/uninterested in Nietzsche as a possible husband. The women discussed in-

441–446

clude Malwida von Meysenbug, Meta von Salis, Resa von Schirnhofer, Helene von Druskowitz, and Helen Zimmern.

443. Dijkstra, Bram. Idols of Perversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986. This encompassing work analyzes late nineteenth and early twentieth-century visual images of British, western European, and American origin within a sociocultural context and juxtaposes the images with contemporary literature. A helpful index identiﬁes speciﬁc New Woman passages, but the New Woman theme weaves throughout. In chapter 10, Dijkstra wrote that the theme of the vampire and Dracula emerges from an unrealistic fear of the New Woman run amuck. This book of enlightening ideas is written in easy-to read, matter-of-fact language. 444. Dittrich-Johansen, Helga. “La’ Donna Nuova; di Mussolini Tra Evasione E Consumismo.” Studi Storica 36 (1995), 811–43. Written in Italian, this is an exposé on Rachele Guidi Mussolini, the wife of Benito Mussolini. 445. Doughty, Terri. “Sarah Grand’s The Beth Book: The New Woman and the Ideology of Romance Ending.” Anxious Power: Reading, Writing, and Ambivalence in Narrative by Women. Ed. Carol J. Singley and Susan Elizabeth Sweeney. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. This short piece argues for the conservative aspect of Beth, the New Woman protagonist in Grand’s The Beth Book. Doughty maintained that though most critics claim Beth to be revolutionary, she never totally rejected the need for a man in her life. 446. Dowling, Linda. “The Decadent and the New Woman in the 1890s.” Nineteenth Century Fiction 33 (March 1979): 434–53. This article examines the roles of the “decadent dandy” and the New Woman in Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm (1882). Dowling called books like this the “twin programs” of the New Woman

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and the decadent. She claimed that contemporary Victorian critics transferred decadent traits from the dandy to the New Woman.

447. Dreves, Vivien E. “The New Woman Goes Home: Myrtle Mae Borsodi Pits Home Production against Industrialization, 1929–1940. New York History ( July 1990): 283–307. Myrtle Mae Simpson Borsodi was a New Woman who, in leaving rural Iowa for the liberation of a career and city life, actually became conﬁned. The title of the article practically tells the story. After Myrtle’s marriage, she applied new technology to housekeeping, hoping to convince her reading public that the monetary value of women’s work at home would make working outside the home seem foolhardy.

448. Duberman, Martin Bauml, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past. New York: New American Library, 1989. This collection includes, among others, essays by Carroll SmithRosenberg, “Discourses of Sexuality and Subjectivity: The New Woman, 1870– 1936,” and Esther Newton, “The Mythic Mannish Lesbian: Radclyffe Hall and the New Woman.” 449. Duke, Debra. “From True Woman to New Woman: Mary Kelly Edwards, Single Woman Missionary to Natal, South Africa, 1868–1927.” Ph.D. diss., Princeton Theological Seminary, 2004. In this long work, essentially a biography set in the cultural and historical context of the era between the “true woman” and the “new woman,” Edwards is born and reared in Ohio to fallen-away Quakers. She becomes a teacher and marries, but after her husband dies she is again considered single and decides to devote her life to mission work in Natal. Afﬁliated with the Congregational Church, she is the ﬁrst white woman to undertake such work in South Africa. The author’s effort to distinguish Edwards as strad-

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dling the two polar women’s movements of the nineteenth century is a refreshing aspect of the work.

450. Dupree, Ellen. “The New Woman, Progressivism, and the Woman Writer in Edith Wharton’s The Fruit of the Tree.” ALR: American Literary Realism 31 (Winter 1999): 44–62. After a theoretical discussion of her methodology, author Dupree has explored the role of Wharton’s New Woman characters in The Fruit of the Tree in terms of their relationship to patriarchy. Dupree identiﬁed three types of independent women: the progressive-era social worker ( Justine Brent), the selﬁsh and superﬁcial “transitional New Woman” (Bessy Wetmore), and the self-supporting single woman (for which she provided no singular example). 451. Dyck, Reginald. “Willa Cather’s Reluctant New Woman Pioneer.” Great Plains Quarterly 23 (Summer 2003): 161– 73. This article provides an analysis of gender issues relevant to both modernism and anti-modernism in the second decade of the twentieth century, through Cather’s protagonist Alexandra in O Pioneers! As a manager of her family farm, Alexandra’s roots are set deep into the Nebraska soil, and though she shows no signs of the rebellion that characterized many New Women in ﬁction, she is a strong and determined woman holding fast to her ideals. Dyck pointed to Alexandra as a “transitional” New Woman due to her not-fully-devloped feminism. Alexandra appears, however, to be the quintessential New Woman in her isolation from other women (including her mother) and from men (primarily her brothers) as a result of her misunderstood “manly” actions. And, though she, like many New Woman, succumbs to marriage at novel’s end, Dyck assures his readers that Alexandra’s marriage to Carl is based on friendship and not silly romantic love. 452. Ehrenpreis, David. “Cyclists and

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Amazons: Representing the New Woman in Wilhelmine Germany.” Woman’s Art Journal 20 (Spring/Summer 1999): 25–31. This article discusses images created by several German male artists — Bruno Paul, Hugo Höppener, Arthur Strasser, Karl Bauer, Albert Knob, in reference to the New Woman movement, and Lily Braun’s 1896 essay, “Die Neue Frau in der Dichtung.” Outside of Bruno Paul’s caricature— The Breadbasket— the images chosen portray the New Woman as cyclist or Amazon. This is a reaction, Ehrenpreis has posited, to the increased use of the new-fangled wheel by females and the publication of the novel Die Amazonenschlacht, by Maria Janitschek. When used as an advertisement, the image of a woman with a bicycle frequently depicted conﬁdence and forward movement, but the Amazon was the epitome of antifeminism.

453. Elliott, Bridget J. “Aubrey Beardsley’s Images of ‘New Women’ in the Yellow Book.” Ph.D. diss., University College, London, 1985. 454. ____. “New and Not So ‘New Women’ on the London Stage: Aubrey Beardsley’s Yellow Book Images of Mrs. Patrick Campbell and Rejane.” Victorian Studies 31 (Autumn 1987): 33–57. This article examines the predominantly critical attitudes of Victorians toward the “woman question” and suggests that their harsh attacks on many of Aubrey Beardsley’s pictures of women went beyond objections to his style and sexual explicitness. Elliott argued that Beardsley’s embodiment of the integrally linked causes of the New Woman and the New Theater in his Yellow Book portrait of Mrs. Patrick Campbell was threatening to many and therefore condemned as deviant. His portrait of the French actress Madame Rejane gave critics the opportunity to marginalize Beardsley— by categorizing him as a Francophile. 455. Elz, A. Elizabeth. “Kate Chopin’s

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The Awakening and Willa Cather’s A Lost Lady: the Evolution of the New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Baylor University, 2001. In her dissertation, Elz juxtaposed the novels noted in her title and through them traced the development in America between the eras of the entrapped True Woman and the freedom-bound New Woman. In her 1899 novel, Chopin investigated the possibility of change for the perfect wife/mother, whereas Cather’s protagonist, Marian Forrester, experiences more options in her quest for selffulﬁllment during the second decade of the twentieth century.

456. Engle, Sherry Darlene. “New Woman Dramatists in America, 1890–1920: Martha Morton and Madeleine Lucette Ryley.” Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1996. The new freedoms that New Women enjoyed during the Progressive Era made theater a popular genre for women. They became performers, playwrights, managers, producers, agents, and critics as well as the larger segment of the audience. Engle focused on pioneer writers Martha Morton (1865–1925) and Madeleine Lucette Ryley (1858–1934). Known in the early twentieth century for their many accomplishments and their ability to live independent, comfortable lives, these women’s names and works became obscure in the following century. Relying primarily on magazine and newspaper articles and contemporary reviews, Engle wove these women and many other female playwrights into her discourse on the Progressive Era. 457. Erdim, Esim. “The Ring or the Dove: The New Woman in Katherine Anne Porter’s Fiction.” Women and War: The Changing Status of American Women from the 1930s to the 1950s. Ed. Maria Diedrich and Dorothea Fischer-Hornung. New York/Oxford/Munich: Berg, 1990. The protagonists in most Porter stories are named Miranda. Though Porter explored gender relations and her protagonists often realized

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their inability to break from stereotypical feminine roles, according to Erdim, the tide of the times between the two wars kept them in their traditional roles. They were never able to orchestrate their own rebirths and thus were unsuccessful in achieving New Woman status.

458. Evans, Heather Anne. “The New Woman’s New Appetite: Cooking, Eating and Feeding in Sarah Grand’s New Woman Fiction (Ireland).” Ph.D. diss., Queen’s University at Kingston, 2004. This dissertation deals with women’s roles in cooking, eating, and feeding people in ﬁn de siècle Britain, as portrayed in Grand’s Ideala (1888), The Heavenly Twins (1893), The Beth Book (1897), and Babs the Impossible (1897). 459. Ewen, Stuart. Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture. New York: McGrawHill, 1976. Chapter 6, “Consumption and the Ideal of the New Woman,” deals with the New Woman of the 1920s and how she was used in advertising ploys to market a variety of new-fangled timesaving devices for the home (from packaged yeast to Hoover sweepers), which, though modern, were far from liberating. 460. Faue, Elizabeth. Writing the Wrongs: Eva Valesh and the Rise of Labor Journalism. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2002. This biography of the Minnesota journalist Eva McDonald Valesh (penname Eva Gay) relates her involvement with labor and working-class issues. The introduction notes that Valesh dyed her hair red, smoked cigars, and wore green silk pajamas! But Valesh was a serious muckraker who worked for some time as Samuel Gompers’s “right-hand man.” Author Faue has provided an even-handed analysis of the contributions of this New Woman of the Progressive Era. 461. Fauré, Christine. “The Utopia of the New Woman in the Work of Alexandra Kollontai and Its Impact on the French

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Feminist and Communist Press.” Trans. Debra Irving. Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change. Ed. Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986. Alexandra Kollontai was a Russian feminist whose writing inﬂuenced French feminism in two waves — over her lifetime she wrote prodigiously on women’s issues, especially in the 1970s when feminism came again to the fore in France (she went into exile there for political reasons). According to Fauré, Kollontai’s contributions to liberal thinking of the era are articulate, but perhaps because of the translation to English, the integration of her work into the French psyche and political scene has not been coherent.

462. Federico, Annette R. “An ‘Oldfashioned’ Young Woman: Marie Corelli and the New Woman.” Victorian Women Writers and the Woman Question. Ed. Nicola Diane Thompson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Although certainly she was not categorized as a New Woman author, some aspects of Marie Corelli’s work mirror the characteristics associated with the New Woman. Corelli believed in strict adherence to nineteenth-century gender stereotypes despite her belief in woman’s intellectual and economic equality and the fact that she was a single professional woman. This essay focuses on The Sorrows of Satan (1895), Corelli’s bestseller, pointing out inconsistencies between Corelli’s life and works. 463. Feng, Jin. The New Woman in Early Twentieth-Century Chinese Fiction. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press, 2004. In this comprehensive study Feng examined issues related to the ﬁctional Chinese New Woman and her relationship to the Chinese woman’s movement of the early twentieth century. The male authors whose works are included in the study are

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Lu Xun, Yu Dafu, Ba Jin, and Mao Dun. The female authors include Bing Xin, Fang Yuanjun, Lu Yin, and Ding Ling. Feng addressed the differences that authorial gender, class, and modernity posed in the May Fourth-era literature as well as audience response to the works. He “evolutionized” the emancipation of women from the earliest type, dubbed the “girl student,” to the later liberated New Woman.

464. Fernando, Lloyd. “New Women” in the Late Victorian Novel. University Park Pennsylvania: Penn State University Press, 1977. Though Fernando was one of the ﬁrst U.S. scholars to identify the New Woman in late nineteenth-century literature, he limited his study of her to her involvement in the cause for suffrage. In light of that issue, he examined the novels of Thomas Hardy and the four Georges—Eliot, Meredith, Moore, and Gissing. 465. Fleischmann, Ellen L. The Nation and Its “New” Women: The Palestinian Women’s Movement, 1920–1948. Berkeley/ Los Angeles/London: University of California Press, 2003. This work chronicles women’s contributions to nation building, especially during the British Mandate period (1920–48). The ﬁrst part of the book examines the history and background of the women’s movement in Palestine in relationship to British politics. The second part explores and analyzes various facets of the Palestinian women’s movement, stressing the intertwined aspects of feminism, nationalism, and colonialism. 466. Flint, Kate. “The American Girl and the New Woman.” Special issue: “Women’s Writing at the Fin de Siécle,” ed. Sally Ledger. Women’s Writing 3 (1996): 217–29. In this article discusses young American New Woman characters as they were represented both through travel literature written by foreign authors as well as in novels/short stories by American, English, and Canadian authors. The discussion jux-

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taposes male and female authors and how the New Woman novel served both feminist and anti-feminist agendas. Although some of the literary sources predate 1894, the study is worthwhile because of the lack of scholarly attention given the American New Woman.

467. ____. “Reading the New Woman.” Browning Society Notes 17 (1987/88): 55–63. The English “love-story” novel is juxtaposed with the New Woman novel in this brief article. Concerned journalists and physicians feared that novels would arouse women’s sexual appetites and were therefore dangerous. Flint pointed out that New Women novels exposed the dangers of venereal disease and that, as a result, women often put off having sex. 468. Fluhr, Nicole M. “Figuring the New Woman: Writers and Mothers in George Egerton’s Early Stories.” Texas Studies in Literature and Language 43 (Fall 2003): 243–65. The essay examines works by George Egerton (Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright), considered by the author to be protomodernist writing, and particularly the protagonists in Keynotes and Discords, who exemplify the roles of mothers and writers. 469. Formanek-Brunell, Miriam. Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commerciali zation of American Girlhood, 1830–1930. New Haven, Connecticut/London: Yale University Press, 1993. Chapter 5, “New Women and Talismen: Rose O’Neill and the Kewpies, 1909–1914,” investigates the biographical underpinnings of Rose O’Neill’s cartoon creation of the Kewpie (based on the Renaissance Cupid). Although O’Neill’s Kewpie originally was androgynous (the artist intended it as a liberating father ﬁgure or New Man), it lost every possibility that New Woman O’Neill intended when it became commercialized. 470. Forrey, Carolyn. “Gertrude Atherton and the New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1971. After a broad grounding

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in New Woman ﬁction in the ﬁrst chapter, Forrey focused on Atherton’s works and the possible consequences of her works on readers. Atherton’s long career mirrored the changes women were experiencing in the social arena: the romantic novels of the 1880s, the works of the early twentieth century in which she offered alternatives to women, her most radically feminist works of the early 1920s, a return to more traditional lives for women after the suffrage war was won, and the culminating novel of her career, Black Oxen.

471. ____. “Gertrude Atherton and the New Woman.” California Historical Quarterly 55 (1976), 194–209. This short biography of novelist Gertrude Atherton reveals two sides of her character: serious intellectual and consummate socialite. Atherton was a proliﬁc author whose works chronicled the settling of California as well as historical ﬁctions related to famous women such as Aspasia, Madame de Staël and Madame Récamier. Forrey made a valid case for considering Atherton a New Woman because, though the novelist loved society and dressed as a “glamor girl” well past middle age, she always put her career ﬁrst. Segments of Forrey’s dissertation are incorporated into this article. 472. ____. “The New Woman Revisited.” Women’s Studies 2 (1974): 37–56. Following the introduction, in which she developed a succinct portrait of the New Woman, Forrey discussed eight New Woman novels.

473. Forster, Laurel. “‘Nature’s Double Vitality Experiment’: May Sinclair’s Interpretation of the New Woman.” Feminist Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heilmann. London, Sydney, and Chicago: Pandora Press, 2003. This paper, presented at a conference at Manchester Metropolitan University in July 2000 and included as chapter 12 of the proceedings, focuses on

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Feminism, May Sinclair’s long response to the anti-feminist tract by Sir Almroth Wright in The Times (1912), as well as on her ﬁctional work. Forster has maintained that Sinclair was inﬂuenced by the views of Jean-Baptist Lamarck and Herbert Spencer in regard to evolutionary theory and philosophy. She believed that women were developing both greater intellectual capacity and physical strength (the “double vitality”).

474. Fourie, Fiona. “A ‘New Woman’ in the Eastern Cape.” English in Africa 22 (October 1995), 70–80. Englishwoman Beatrice Hicks was a self-proclaimed New Woman who lived in the Eastern Cape from 1894 to 1897. While in Africa, Hicks worked as a teacher/governess, and after her return to England she reﬂected on her experience in a travel book titled The Cape as I Knew It. In this article she advocated that “surplus women” of Great Britain emigrate to the cape, where they could experience greater freedom. Fourie’s interpretation of some passages of Hicks’s book is inconsistent. The manner in which the author intermingled contemporary research on the New Woman into the story of Beatrice Hicks is disconcerting. 475. Frager, James. Woman’s Chronolog y. New York: Henry Holt, 1994. Mention is made on page 420 of the advent of Japan’s Bluestocking organization, Atarashi Onna (New Women), founded in 1911 by Raichõ Hiratsuka and Fusae Ichikawa. 476. Frame, Lynn-Marie Hoskins. “Forming and Reforming the New Woman in Weimar Germany.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1997. Frame’s dissertation is an in-depth study of the modern German woman using primary source material in German literature and of popular culture created during the Weimar Republic (1918–1933). One positive consequence of the New Woman is that it mirrored the Weimar notion of Germany as an

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emerging modern nation, but her particular modernity was acceptable only when of beneﬁt to the nation. Using popularculture genres, particularly Vicki Baum’s Helene Willfüer, Thea von Harbou’s novel Frau im Mond, and the ﬁlm version directed by Fritz Lang, Frame set the German Neu Frau within the context of Weimar society, culture, and politics.

477. ____. “Gretchen, Girl, Garconne? Weimar Science and Popular Culture in Search of the Ideal New Woman.” Women in the Metropolis: Gender and Modernity in Weimar Culture. Ed. Katharina von Ankum. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. During the Weimar era, many so-called scientiﬁc theories of categorization emerged. Frame divided her article into two sections, the ﬁrst dealing with the maledominated world of science and medicine and the second, which analyzes the late1920s, German, New Woman novel Stud. Chem. Helene Willfüer by Vicki Baum. The connections that the scientiﬁc community made between body and character are reﬂected, Frame posited, in this novel, thus deﬁning women according to male theories. 478. Freedman, Estelle B. “The New Woman: Changing Views of Women in the 1920s.” Journal of American History 61 (September 1974): 372–93. This article deals with the New Woman of the 1920s. Freedman challenged prevailing historical rhetoric about how women’s history was written. She reviewed and analyzed the historiography of women’s history, calling for revisionist histories that accurately and adequately portray women’s status in the post-franchise era. This article is reprinted as chapter 1 in Decades of Discontent: The Women’s Movement, 1920–1940 (ed. Lois Scharf and Joan M. Jensen, pages 21–42). 479. Friedenreich, Harriet Pass. “Jewish Identity and the ‘New Woman’: Central European Jewish University Women in the Early Twentieth Century.” Gender and

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Judaism: the Transformation of Tradition. Ed. T. M. Rudavsky. New York: New York University Press, 1995. This short article appears as chapter 8 in the form of a report on the research Friedenreich was undertaking on four hundred Central European women of Jewish origin who graduated from university. She was interested in their degree of “Jewishness” and how they related to the lifestyles of their mothers and grandmothers. One Jewish New Woman, Käte Frankenthal, a doctor and socialist, receives extra attention.

480. Friedlander, Judith. Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986. This is a compilation of twenty-four papers presented at three conferences (1979, 1980, and 1982) organized by the New Family and the New Woman Research Group. The purpose of the meetings was to bring feminist scholars from the United States, France, England, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands together to share knowledge related to “women’s roles in Western Europe and the United States. The only paper with “New Woman” in the title is Christine Fauré’s on the Russian feminist Alexandra Kollontai. 481. Fryer, Judith. The Faces of Eve: Women in the Nineteenth Century American Novel. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Chapter 5, “The New Woman” examines literature of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Fryer maintained that no male author (she examined only Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry James, and William Dean Howells) was capable of developing a New Woman character. And among women authors she contended only Kate Chopin’s Edna Pontellier achieved New Woman status in The Awakening. 482. Fryer, Sarah Beebe. Fitzgerald’s New Women: Harbingers of Change. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1988. Fryer maintained that other critics’

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(especially male) readings of Fitzgerald’s female protagonists have not reﬂected a deep understanding of the limitations on women in the years between the two world wars. Although women purportedly were becoming more in control of the sexual and social aspects of their lives and they were awarded suffrage, they were still dependent economically. This, she said, limited their autonomy. In addition, their new independence was analyzed by the new psychology, and unconventional behavior was considered abnormal. Fryer looked at the female characters in Fitzgerald’s ﬁction within a feminist context.

483. Furer, Andrew J. “Jack London’s New Women: A Little Lady with a Big Stick.” Studies in American Fiction 22 (Autumn 1994): 185–215. This is an examination of the female protagonists of three London novels: Frona Welse in A Daughter of the Snows, Dede Mason in Burning Daylight, and Paula Forrest in The Little Lady of the Big House. Furer stated that though London constructed images of New Women, they were geared to the feminine and heterosexual. To do this the authors restrained the sexual aggressiveness of female adventurers and athletes. Though they were economically independent and free thinkers, they competed in feminine dress, and their femininity provided for a certain social acceptance. 484. Furlough, E. “Selling the American Way in Interwar France: Prix-Uniques and the Salons-des-Art-Menagers,” Journal of Social History 26 (Spring 1993), 491–519. The New Woman is mentioned only brieﬂy, on page 507, though the entire article deals with women’s issues and is an important discussion of the relationship between France and the United States during the World War I. 485. Gainor, J. Ellen. “G. B. S. and the New Woman.” New England Theatre Journal 1 (1990), 1–17. In the ﬁrst section of this

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three-part essay, Gainor introduced several of G. B. Shaw’s novels, rather unrecognized in the late twentieth/early twenty-ﬁrst centuries but much better known than his plays at the time of conception. She then discussed his best-known plays from the Plays Unpleasant series, Candida and Mrs. Warren’s Profession. Following the New Woman literary canon, Shaw’s protagonists exhibit independent spirits and actions that compromise them in the ﬁnal scenes.

486. ____. Shaw’s Daughters: Dramatic and Narrative Constructions of Gender. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991. The ﬁrst part of this book, “G.B.S.’s New Women,” examines themes and issues reﬂected in the novels and plays of George Bernard Shaw. The ﬁrst chapter, “The New Woman and the Victorian Novel,” takes up Shaw’s relationship to the New Woman when the phenomenon emerged in the 1880s, reached its apex in the 1890s, and died out (according to Gainor) in the early twentieth century. Chapter 2, “New Women and Odd Women at Work,” focuses on two of Shaw’s early plays, Candida and Mrs. Warren’s Profession (both written in 1898). The protagonist Vivie Warren in Mrs. Warren’s Profession is more representative of New Woman. The last chapter of the trilogy, “The New Woman in Love,” appears as an oxymoron and is. There Gainor discussed New Woman issues in relation to the twentieth century 487. Ganobesik-Williams, Lisa. “Charlotte Perkins Gilman and The Forerunner: A New Woman’s Changing Perspective on American Immigration.” Feminist Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heilmann. London, Sydney, and Chicago: Pandora Press, 2003. This paper, presented at a conference at Manchester Metropolitan University in July 2000, is included as chapter 4 of the proceedings. GanobesikWilliams focused on the increasingly con-

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servative views on immigration that Gilman exhibited through the periodical The Forerunner, which she published single-handedly from 1909 to 1916. From the ﬁrst articles Gilman wrote on the subject (“The Making of Americans” and “Malthusianism and Race Suicide”) to her last serialized book (With Her in Ourland), GanobesikWilliams traced Gilman’s “social-evolutionary” views, concluding that the author’s fear of diluting her pure New England roots provided her motivation.

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‘New Woman’ at Manchester’s Gaiety Theatre” by Elaine Ashton.

490. ____. New Woman Plays. London: Methuen Drama, 1991. This is a collection of four New Woman plays written between 1890 and 1914 by four British women play-

488. Gardiner, Juliet, ed. The New Woman: Women’s Voices, 1880–1918. London: Collins and Brown, 1993. This collection revives New Woman literary works of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Gardiner summed up the book: “The New Woman is an attempt to present a selection of women’s voices from a wide spectrum of feminists, anti-feminists, observers and polemicists.” Her focus, however, was on Britain, and she included a piece from Grant Allen’s The Woman Who Did as well as excerpts from other familiar works. The poem “The New Woman” by “D.B.M.,” reprinted from Shafts ( January 1894), has not enjoyed a signiﬁcant revival. 489. Gardner, Vivien, and Linda Fitzsimmons, eds. The New Woman and Her Sisters: Feminism and Theatre, 1850–1914. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. These papers from a conference on the New Woman in theater provide a variety of viewpoints. The introduction deals with understanding the New Woman movement, especially within the context of theater. A valuable chronology of international feminist activities from 1890 to 1918 is included in the introduction (xv–xxi). This has three headings: Social and Political, Cultural, and Theatrical. There is no index, but two chapters contain “New Woman” in their titles: “The New Woman and the New Life” by Jill Davis and “The

Although dress and undergarment reform appealed to New Women, this Chicago manufacturer encourages New Women to purchase its Bicycle and Chicago waists professing they will provide health, freedom, and ﬂexibility. Ladies’ Home Journal, May 1896.

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wrights —Alan’s Wife by Florence Eveleen Bell and C. E. Raimond (Elizabeth Robins), Diana of Dobson’s by Cicely Hamilton, Chains by Elizabeth Baker, and Rutherford and Son by Githa Sowerby.

491. Gerson, Carole. “Fitted to Earn Her Own Living: Figures of The New Woman in the Writing of L. M. Montgomery.” Children’s Voices in Atlantic Literature and Culture. Ed. Hilary Thompson. Guelph: Canadian Children’s Press, 1995. The article examines the oeuvre of Canadian author of the 1920s and 1930s L. M. Montgomery. Montgomery wrote novels, essays, and left an unpublished journal. Gerson discussed the range of feminist ideas with which Montgomery imbued her protagonists. Though some showed independent qualities, Montgomery conveyed her most liberal ideas to her journal rather than through her characters. 492. ____. “Wild Colonial Girls: New Women of the Empire, 1883–1901.” Journal of Commonwealth and Postcolonial Studies 3 (Fall 1995), 61–77. This essay compares Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm, Sara Jeannette Duncan’s A Daughter of Today, and Miles Franklin’s My Brilliant Career (made into a ﬁlm in 1979). The protagonists of each novel straddle constructions of gender and class and deal with issues related to imperialism and colonization as each occupies a place alien her rearing (as the author lived in a place alien to hers). Gerson saw the taming of the female characters in all three novels as emblematic of the taming of the countries by their socalled mother. 493. Giddings, Paula. When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America. New York: William Morrow, 1984. Amy Jacques Garvey is mentioned on page 194 as a “New Negro Woman.” 494. Gilbert, Pamela. “Ouida and the other New Woman.” Victorian Women

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Writers and the Woman Question. Ed. Nicola Diane Thompson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Gilbert’s thesis is that although Ouida is cast as an antifeminist, two of her female characters, Cigarette (Under Two Flags, 1867) and Folle-Farine (Folle-Farine), exhibit New Woman tendencies and predate the naming of the New Woman. Ouida considers race, sex, gender, imperialism, and colonization, using these young women to illustrate the complexity of these issues.

495. Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. No Man’s Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century. Vol. 2: Sex Changes. New Haven, Connecticut/London: Yale University Press, 1989: 47–82. Chapter 2, “Home Rule: The Colonies of the New Woman,” deals primarily with an in-depth analysis of Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm (1833) and Charlotte Perkin Gilman’s Herland in terms of the social, spiritual, and biological realms of the era. The ﬁrst section investigates the relationship between imperialism and the role of women as seen in the characters in Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm. The chapter goes on to relate the inﬂuence of Schreiner’s landmark book on subsequent authors and how the actions of early twentieth-century feminists often paralleled those of Lyndall, even in the religious overtones her martyrdom implies. The ﬁnal section deals with a juxtaposition of Rider Haggard’s She with Gilman’s Herland as well as an investigation into theological issues relating to male dominance. It concludes with the notion that both Schreiner and Gilman’s views were tied too closely to women’s anatomy. 496. Glendening, John. “The Bartlett Trial Revisited: Delicacy, Judicial Bias, and New Women.” Dalhousie Review 70 (Fall 1990): 308–37. Although the famous Bartlett trial predated the naming of the New Woman, Glendening’s analysis of the

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trial focused on Mrs. Bartlett’s rather surprising acquittal and its relationship to the women in the courtroom audience.

Bridehead to Olive Schreiner’s Lyndall in The Story of an African Farm and the heroine of George Egerton’s “A Cross Line.”

497. Godard, Barbara. “A Portrait with Three Faces: The New Woman in Fiction by Canadian Women, 1880–1920.” The Literary Criterion 19 (1984): 72–92. This author examined the works of the Canadian ﬁn de siécle authors Sara Jeanette Duncan, Joanna E. Wood, and Margaret Adeline Brown in relationship to their biographies. Godard concluded that though the women and their female characters set out to attain independence and may have come close, every one of them opted for the “happy ever after” ending that society maintained was achieved through marriage.

500. Goodyear, Frank H., III. Zaida Ben-Yusuf: New York Portrait Photographer. London/New York: Merrell, 2008. Although this book has no chapters per se, a section on The New Woman presents images of noted individuals that photographer Ben-Yusuf created at the ﬁn de siécle. BenYusuf was a British citizen who aspired to be the new Julia Margaret Cameron, and like the pioneer Cameron, she focused her lens on portraits. She also aimed the viewﬁnder on herself— as Goodyear notes, there are ten extant self-portraits. The author placed Ben-Yusuf in the world of ﬁne art and photography, exploring her understanding of the work of J. M. Whistler and John Alexander as well as her relationships with F. Holland Day and Frances B. Johnston.

498. Gold, Janet N. Clementina Suárez: Her Life and Poetry. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995. Of special interest is the section “The ‘New Woman’ in Honduras” (pages 76–88). Suárez lived her entire life in Tegucigalpa, Honduras, where she rejected the traditional Catholic model of home and family to write and perform her poetry. Author Gold noted Suárez’s feminist characteristics as well as pointing out a number of Honduran women, who contributed politically, socially, and artistically but about whom nothing was written. 499. Goode, John. “Sue Bridehead and the New Woman.” Women Writing and Writing about Women. Ed. Mary Jacobus. London: Croom Helm, 1979. Chapter 5, “Sue Bridehead and the New Woman,” is a critique of D. H. Lawrence’s, Kate Millet’s, and John Lucas’s criticism of the role of Sue Bridehead in Thomas Hardy’s Jude the Obscure. Following is Goode’s argument (though it lacks cohesion) for comparing

501. Gorsky, Susan Rubinow. Femininity to Feminism: Women and Literature in

Mrs. New Woman turns the tables when she indicates her displeasure with her husband’s cooking by telling him her mother’s cooking was much better than his. Cincinnati Enquirer, 11 August 1895.

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the Nineteenth Century. New York: Twayne, 1992. Chapter 2, “Marriage and Family: Gentle Ladies and New Women,” provides a comprehensive look at the title subjects in nineteenth/early twentieth-century English and American literature and juxtaposes them with life during that era. It considers marriage and family and myriad related topics: love and engagement, children and childrearing, birth and death, choice of marriage partners, separation, and divorce. Although the pre–New Woman era is its focus, there is enough material on the New Woman to interest scholars as Gorsky has consulted an astounding number of sources.

502. ____. “Old Maids and New Women: Alternatives to Marriage in the English Woman’s Novel.” Journal of Popular Culture 7 (Summer 1973): 68–85. A survey of New Woman novels from the midnineteenth century to World War I. Gorsky’s discussion begins with the period before the naming of the New Woman, with Brontë’s Jane Eyre (1847). She concluded with Marion Vincent in Testing of Diana Mallory (1908) by Mrs. Humphry Ward. 503. Gottlieb, Lois C. “The Perils of Freedom: The New Woman in Three American Plays of the 1900s.” Canadian Review of American Studies 6 (1975): 84–98. This is an analysis of women’s roles in the Progressive Era as shown in three plays: The Easiest Way (1908) by Eugene Walter, The City (1909) by Clyde Fitch, and The Faith Healer (1910) by William Vaughn Moody. It concludes that though the female protagonists desire freedom, the men in their lives exercise control and the women acquiesce, returning to traditional gender expectations. 504. Grossman, Atina. “The New Woman, the New Family and the Rationalization of Sexuality: The Sex Reform Movement in Germany, 1928–1933.” Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1984. This dissertation

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has much more to do with the medical profession, social issues related to reproduction, and eugenics in Weimar Germany than with the literary New Woman.

505. Guenther, Irene. Nazi Chic? Fashioning Women in the Third Reich. Oxford/ New York: Berg, 2004. Although the entire book delineates the dress of German women from the World War I to World War II, chapter 3, “The ‘New Women’,” addresses most directly the way in which liberated women dressed and the reception given them by the press. According to Guenther, the era of the New Woman was limited to the years from 1924 to 1929, termed the “Golden Years.” Before that time the Germans were involved in a conﬂict with the French, and out-of-control inﬂation ensued. After the ﬁve-year era, worldwide economic depression and the rise of Nazism led to conservative dress and the decline of the New Woman. The chapter is packed with social, political, and cultural aspects of the era related fashion and the anti–Semitism of the ready-to-wear industry in Berlin, where the Jewish population was prominent. 506. Hackett, Robin. Sapphic Primitivism: Productions of Race, Class, and Sexuality in Key Works of Modern Fiction. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2004. Chapter 3, “Olive Schreiner and the Late Victorian New Woman,” is the piece most directly related to New Woman literature. Here author Hackett provided an analysis of race and sexuality in Olive Schreiner’s literary works, including nonﬁction and letters, with an emphasis on her ﬁction, primarily The Story of an African Farm. Hackett argued that Schreiner was inconsistent and contradictory in these works. She theorized that Schreiner’s judgment of modernity and her literary development of the New Woman and New Man were in contradistinction to her African characters.

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507. Haire-Sargeant, Lin. “American Girl to New Woman: Themes of Transformation in books for Girls, 1850–1925.” Ph.D. diss., Tufts University, 2004. This dissertation treats the role of girls/women in children’s literature from the midnineteenth century and the Seneca Falls Convention in New York State to 1920, when women in the United States were granted the vote. It examines a number of pre–New Woman books as well as A Little Princess (1905), Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1903), Anne of Green Gables (1908), and A Girl of the Limberlost (1909), written after the advent of the phenomenon. It notes changes in theme and amount of independence exhibited by characters within that period. 508. Hamilton, Lisa K. “New Women and ‘Old’ Men.” Women and British Aestheticism. Ed. Talia Schaffer and Kathy Alexis Psomiades. Charlottesville/London: University Press of Virginia, 1999. Chapter 3 juxtaposes the works of decadent ﬁction writers with those of New Woman authors, notably Oscar Wilde and Sarah Grand. It notes that the Victorian obsession with health and the scientiﬁc study of physiognomy brought the male body into mainstream discussion. It maintains that the dissolution of “separate spheres” caused assertive women to be considered masculine and aesthetic males as effeminate, thus conﬂating the decadent with the New Woman, despite Grand’s purposeful use of the term “degenerate” in charging men with immoral behavior so as to set them apart. 509. Harmon, Sandra D. “The Club Woman as New Woman: Late NineteenthCentury Androgynous Images.” Turn of the Century Women 1 (Winter 1984), 27–37. This in-depth discussion of articles related to the New Woman appeared in The Club Woman (the ofﬁcial journal of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs) from 1897

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to 1900. The membership of that organization was predominantly white and middleclass. The essays begins with a look at a story called “A Week with a New Woman” by Marie Maule, from the May 1898 issue of The Club Woman.

510. Harris, Katharine Sumner. “The New Woman in the Literature of the 1890s: Four Critical Approaches.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1963. In this early scholarly study of New Woman literature, Harris set the stage for an examination of four New Woman novelists by reviewing the writings of John Stuart Mill, John Ruskin, and George Eliot. Although Harris discussed many New Woman novels and novelists of the 1890s, she concentrated on those of George Gissing, George Bernard Shaw, George Meredith, and Thomas Hardy. 511. Harris, Kristine. “The New Woman: Image, Subject, and Dissent in the 1930s Shanghai Film Culture.” Republican China 20 (1995), 55–79. Harris suggested that the controversy regarding social messages in the 1935 silent ﬁlm The New Woman (Xin Nüxing) led to the suicide of leading actress Ruan Lingyu (1910–1935). In so doing, she duplicated the role and fate of the ﬁlm’s protagonist — the teacher/ writer/single mother, Wei Ming. This is an earlier version of the chapter in Sheldon Hsiao-peng Lu’s book. 512. ____. “The New Woman Incident: Cinema, Scandal, and Spectacle in 1935 Shanghai.” Transnational Chinese Cinemas: Identity, Nationhood, Gender. Ed. Sheldon Hsiao-peng Lu. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997. This essay, included in chapter 11, is about the silent ﬁlm The New Woman (Xin Nüxing), which featured actress Ruan Lingyu in the role of Wei Ming, a teacher who had aspirations to write, and opened during the 1935 lunar festival in Shanghai. Harris’s detailed synopsis accompanies an analysis of critical and

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popular response to the ﬁlm and to Ruan’s tragic suicide. For the scene relating the trauma of Wei’s death, Harris provided the words for “Song of the New Woman,” composed by musician Nie Er (see that entry for text of the song), and sung by underpaid female factory workers. Ruan’s death invoked questioning in the minds of many Chinese feminists, who saw Wei/Ruan as weak rather than seeing society as harsh and critical.

513. Harris, Robin O. “‘A New Representative of Southern Intellect’: Julia Anna Flisch, A New Woman of the New South.” Ph.D. diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 1998. This dissertation is essentially a study of the life of Julia Anna Flisch (1861–1941). She was an educator and author who advocated for opportunities for southern women who were not a part of the southern aristocracy or the working classes. As she fought to provide opportunities and choices, Flisch was a powerful role model for women forced to ﬁght to ﬁnd their niches. 514. Hartman, Kabi. “‘What Made Me a Suffragette’: The New Woman and the New (?) Conversion Narrative.” Women’s History Review 12 (2003), 35–50. In the early twentieth century, British suffragettes were often imprisoned for speaking in public or in lobbying for the vote. Their “conversion” to suffragism was often likened to Christian conversion, and the tribulations they faced, with Jesus Christ’s death and resurrection. This article investigates the experiences of a few British suffragettes who wrote of their imprisonments and resulting abuses in the Suffragette, as well as in Votes for Women, the journal of the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). 515. Hawkesworth, Celia. “A Serbian Woman in a Turkish Harem: The Work of Jelena DimitrijeviW.” SEER (The Slavonic East European Review) 77 (1) ( January 1999): 56–73. The proliﬁc writing of Jelena

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DimitrijeviW, Serbian intellectual/author/ traveler, was ignored from before her death until the end of the twentieth century. Her masterpiece, Nove (New Woman, 1912), is a novel about young Muslim Turkish women. Known and respected at the time of publication, it was forgotten until its reemergence with this article. Through its protagonist Emir Fatma the novel explores the central theme of arranged marriage — exposing both sides of the question and the perspectives of both genders. It was Fatma’s childhood dream to go to Paris; there she died but her diaries keep her views alive. DimitrijeviW traveled the world and spent a year in America. She wrote one novel about that experience, acknowledging that American women were more conservative than she had been led to believe.

516. Heilmann, Ann. “Mona Caird, [1843–1932], Wild Woman, New Woman, and Early Radical Feminist Critic of Marriage and Motherhood.” Women’s History Review 5 (1996): 67–95. Heilmann placed Caird within the context of ﬁrst-wave feminism and discussed what that meant in light of her theories and her works. She maintained that Caird was a woman ahead of her times in that her writing dealt with some issues that other authors took up later, including the feminists of the 1970s/80s. She dealt with Caird’s militant feminist ideas and questions about the sanctity of marriage and motherhood, which would appear radical even in the twenty-ﬁrst century. She lamented the limited scholarly attention paid to Caird’s oeuvre. The second section of the paper, titled “Vita,” contains biographical information on Caird and a number of pictures. The third section, “Mothers Versus Daughters,” investigates relations between mothers and daughters, particularly Daughters of Danaus (1894) and Stones of Sacriﬁce (1915). 517. ____. “Feminist Resistance, the Artist, and ‘A Room of One’s Own’ in New

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Woman Fiction.” Women’s Writing: The Elizabethan to Victorian Period 2 (1995), 291–308. New Woman novels of the ﬁn de siècle addressed the issue of a “room of one’s own” that Virginia Woolf dealt with decades later. Through her investigation of themes relating to space and privacy in six to seven New Woman novels, Heilmann asserted that the authors were projecting their frustration at not having space in which to work and time in which to pursue creativity through the protagonists in their novels.

518. ____. The Late-Victorian Marriage Question: A Collection of Key New Woman Texts. Vols. 1–5. London/New York: Routledge with Thoemmes, 1998. This ﬁvevolume set is a comprehensive collection of reprinted primary materials and early novels related to the New Woman debate. The subtitles of the set are: Marriage and Motherhood; The New Woman and Female Independence; New Woman Fiction (1): Marriage, Motherhood and Work; New Woman Fiction (2): Gender and Sexuality; and Literary Degenerates. Invaluable to New Woman scholars of British origin, many of Heilmann’s excerpts are from little-known publications and are thus difﬁcult to locate. Her introduction to each volume provides succinct information regarding the works she selected. 519. ____. “The ‘New Woman’ Fiction and Fin-deSiècle Feminism.” Special issue: “Women’s Writing at the Fin de Siècle,” ed. Sally Ledger. Women’s Writing: The Elizabethan to Victorian Period 3 (1996): 197–216. Heilmann juxtaposed New Woman lit-

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erature written by men and women at the end of the nineteenth century and concluded that their writing is different. She posited that New Woman ﬁction by women dealt with multiple issues and concerns but that that written by men focused primarily on sexuality and sensuality. Women’s writing dealt with the real-life problems of contemporary women, but because the ﬁctionalized New Women were primarily of the middle class, working-class women had little in common with the feminists in the novels and so were provided few role models. Male authors and antifeminist female authors provided confusing messages by trying to harness their New Woman protagonists after having introducing them as liberated.

The “ideal” husband washes the clothing using a scrub board while rocking the cradle with one foot. The New Woman oversees the scene in an authoritative pose while smoking a cigarette. Toledo Blade, 26 February 1895.

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520. ____. New Woman Fiction: Women Writing First-wave Feminism. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000. This book is a theoretical investigation of the so-called ﬁrst and second waves of feminism, that is, the late nineteenth, early twentieth, and late twentieth centuries. Heilmann juxtaposed and compared the two movements within the context of the social, cultural, and political contexts of each era. 521. ____. “The New Woman in the New Millennium: Recent Trends in Criticism of New Woman Fiction.” Literature Compass 3 ( January 2006): 32–42. This review of the historical underpinnings and the current state of scholarship regarding the New Woman includes a wide spectrum of criticism, some of which is not included in this bibliography. Its hails the recent investigation of scholars delving into New Women from a variety of cultures. 522. ____. New Woman Strategies: Sarah Grand, Olive Schreiner, and Mona Caird. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2004. This apt title describes Heilmann’s highly theoretical, analytical, and critical work regarding works by a triad of British New Woman authors. This study delves into issues of race, gender, and representation in the literary works of Grand, Schriener, and Caird, at times utilizing the theoretical framework of French feminists Hélene Cixous and Luce Irigary. Heilmann examines the works of Sarah Grand in a chronological manner drawing from feminist theory, all the while taking into account biographical events in Grand’s life. The analysis of Schreiner’s oeuvre is more random, though the beginning of the section—“Transitions and Transﬁgurations: Dreams (1890), The Story of an African Farm (1883), and From Man to Man (1926)”— examines the function of allegory and dreams in Schreiner’s short stories. The ﬁnal segment, Part III, is devoted to Mona Caird’s examination of myth in her stories and novels. Heilmann proposed that Caird

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was ahead of her time and that many of her ideas were more radical than those proposed by other authors. Caird and Grand, Heilmann noted, both espoused freedom for women, but they approached the topic from different perspectives.

523. ____. “New Women and the New Hellenism.” The New Woman in Fiction and in Fact. Ed. Angelique Richardson and Chris Willis. London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2001. In this essay Heilmann investigated the manner in which Hellenism (an intense interest in things Greek) functioned in sexual relationships of the late nineteenth century, especially as concerns the protagonists of Olive Schreiner’s “The Buddhist Priest’s Wife” and Ethel Arnold’s Platonic (1894). 524. ____. “(Un) Masking Desire: Cross-dressing and the Crisis of Gender in New Woman Fiction,” Journal of Victorian Culture 5 (1) (Spring 2000): 83–11. 525. ____. “Wilde’s New Women: The New Woman on Wilde.” The Importance of Reinventing Oscar: Versions of Wilde during the Last 100 Years. Ed. Uwe Böker, Richard Corballis, and Julie Hibbard. Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi, 2000. Heilmann’s essay is one of many papers presented at a September 2000 conference to reassess Wilde and commemorate the centenary of his death. Using texts by Lady Florence Dixie, Sarah Grand, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Heilmann posited that although the popular press attempted to link dandies and New Women, the aforementioned authors distanced themselves from dandies such as Wilde. 526. Heilmann, Ann, ed. Feminist Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century. London/ Sydney/Chicago: Pandor, 2003. This collection of essays derives from a July 2000 conference held at Manchester Metropolitan University in conjunction with the University of Wales Swansea. Its theme was “Feminist Forerunners: The New Woman in the

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National and International Periodical Press, 1880 to the 1920s.” See entries in this volume for Lisa Ganobcsik-Williams, Carmen Birkle, Sabina Matter-Seibel, Sue Thomas, and Laurel Forster. Heilmann wrote the introduction.

527. Heilmann, Ann, and Margaret Beetham, eds. New Woman Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism, and International Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. London/ New York: Routledge, 2004. This collection of essays branches from traditional New Woman scholarship to consider issues and information related to New Woman in overlooked geographical and racial communities. Though each article is valuable, only those with New Woman in the title and pertinent to the time frame are annotated here; see entries for Kirsti Bohata, Nóra Séllei, Ingrid Sharp, Angelika Kóhler, Trina Robbins, Muta Kazue, and Jill Bergman. 528. Heilmann, Ann, and Stephanie Forward, eds. Sex, Social Purity, and Sarah Grand. London/New York: Routledge, 2000. 529. Helland, Janice Valerie. “The ‘New Woman’ in Fin-de-Siècle Art: Frances and Margaret MacDonald.” Ph.D. diss., University of Victoria, 1991. 530. Heller, Adele, and Lois Rudnick, eds. 1915, the Cultural Moment, the New Politics, the New Woman, the New Psycholog y, the New Art, and the New Theatre in America. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1991. Part 2 of this book is devoted to three articles about the New Woman. The articles, listed separately in this bibliography, are by Lois Rudnick, Elizabeth Ammons, and Kay Trimberger. 531. Hewitt, Nancy A. Southern Discomfort: Women’s Activism in Tampa, Florida, 1880s–1920s. Urbana/Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001. Chapter 8, “New Women,” deals with the manner in which women moved into the political

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arena through unions, starting with a cigarfactory strike and moving into the war effort and suffrage. Hewitt points to differences in race and class among the Latin, African American, and Anglo populations in Tampa and to how the women there became involved in various aspects of society and politics.

532. Hickok, Kathleen. Representations of Women: Nineteenth Century British Women’s Poetry. Westport: Greenwood, 1984. In chapter 8, “The New Woman,” Hickok has provided a short discussion regarding a few women poets who dealt with the subject of female independence in their work. Several of them predate the naming of the New Woman, but one poem by Dollie Radford is signiﬁcant in openly praising the comfort provided by the cigarette. 533. Higishi, Sumiko. Cecil B. De Mille and American Culture: The Silent Era. Berkley University Press, 1994. Chapter 4 is titled “The Screen as Display Window: Constructing the New Woman.” Subtitles within the chapter are “The New Woman as a Consumer,” “Cinderella on the Lower East Side: The Golden Chance,” “The New Woman versus the New Immigrant: The Cheat,” and “The Sentimental Heroine versus the New Woman: The Heart of Nora Flynn.” The New Woman is of interest to De Mille because his mother, Beatrice, seemed to epitomize the New Woman. She became a successful theatrical agent after the death of De Mille’s father. De Mille’s play The Golden Chance is likened to a discourse on the New Woman. 534. Himmelfarb, Gertrude. The DeMoralization of Society: From Victorian Virtues to Modern Values. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995. In her chapter “The New Women and the New Men,” Himmelfarb juxtaposed several works of the ﬁn de siècle with the life situations of their authors. Of particular note to her were Olive Schreiner, George Gissing, Eleanor Marx, H. G.

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Wells, and Oscar Wilde. Although many critics and politicians regarded them as going too far in terms of liberated morality, Himmelfarb concluded that the roles they advocated and played seem more traditional in considering them a century later.

535. Höfele, Andreas. “Dandy und New Woman.” Die ’Nineties: Das Englische Fin de Siècle zwischen Dekadenz ud Sozialkritik. Ed. Manfred Pﬁster and Bernd Schulte-Middelich. Munich: Francke, 1983: 147–63. In the 1890s Oscar Wilde, Max Beerbohm, and Aubrey Beardsley were known as the new Dandies, and like New Women, they broke with so-called “societal norms” regarding gender. While the Dandy practically disappeared by the close of the century, the New Woman of the 1890s was clearly a part of the emancipation movement continuing into the twentieth century. The New Woman phenomenon was a civil shock that quickly became a cliché and the subject of caricature — she smoked, rode the bicycle, played tennis, climbed the Alps, appeared in intense contemplation of scientiﬁc books, disdained the corset, and despised men. G. B. Shaw expressed motifs of resistance (insecurity and fear of men) to the New Woman in Mrs. Warren’s Profession. In this play, New Women are not only able to liberate themselves from the power of man, but they also appear strong enough to take care of themselves. However popular the image of the New Woman, there is no clearly deﬁned “authentic” type. New Women such as Thomas Hardy’s Sue Bridehead — a femme fatale— seem to have contradictory impulses. Enlightened intellectually, she retains a neurotic aversion to all physical being (in terms of the body). Even as the New Woman protests the norms of Victorianism, she remains caught in these norms. The Dandy and the New Woman share the same opponent: the Victorian middle class. Both protest it in neuralgic manner. Nevertheless both the Dandies and the New

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Woman shook rigid deﬁnitions of masculinity and femininity in the 1890s

536. Holm, Brigitta. “Vierge Moderne: The New Woman in Karelia.” Edith Södergran: A Changing Image — Looking for a New Perspective on the Work of a Finnish Avant-garde Poet. Ed. Petra Broomens, Adriaan van der Hoeven, and Jytte Kronig. Groningen: Werkgroep Vrouwenstudies, 1993. The ﬁve papers in this slim book are selected presentations from a 1992 international symposium commemorating the centenary of the birth of Edith Södergran. Author Holm theorized that Södergran’s 1916 collection Dikter (Poems) was particularly inﬂuenced by the New Woman movement. She stated that other scholars have misinterpreted Södergran’s “Vierge Moderne” (her magnum opus) and that its modern theme is related to women’s independence. Södergran, she said, would have been familiar with “New Woman,” by the Russian author Alexandra Kollontai as well as an essay by the German Elisabeth Dauthendey, who was born in St. Petersburg. 537. Honey, Maureen, ed. Breaking the Ties that Bind: Popular Stories of the New Woman, 1915–1930. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992. This is a collection of New Woman stories published as serials in the American popular press between 1915 and 1930. The introduction describes Honey’s methodology and the uniting themes in the stories she chose. She referred to them as New Woman “fantasy” tales but extolled their usefulness in bringing role models and hope to the masses of women who read them. 538. ____. “So Far Away from Home — Minority Women Writers and the New Woman.” Women’s Studies International Forum ( July–August 1992), 473–85. The image of the New Woman was primarily white, but Honey unearthed some New Women of color from the 1920s. After a long introduction in which she discussed

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white New Woman stories, she turned to Cogewa, a novel by the Native American Mourning Dove, and A Daughter of the Samurai by the Japanese-American author Etsu Sugimoto. She gave brief mention to novels by the African Americans Jessie Fauset and Nella Larsen. Honey argued that New Women of color had more in common with ﬁrst-generation white New Women because of their circular trajectory, moving away from small towns to cities and returning again to the protection of their ethnic communities.

539. Hopper, Helen M. A New Woman of Japan: A Political Biography of Katô Shidzue. Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1996. Shidzue was reared in the early twentieth century in traditional Japanese upperclass culture to be a “good wife and wise mother.” After marrying the Baron Istimoto Keikichi at age seventeen, Shidzue shed traditional roles. Her husband took her to New York because he wanted her to assimilate what he perceived as New Woman behavior, and at his insistence, she became schooled in independence.

540. Howard, Angela, and Sasha Ranaé Adams Tarrant. Redeﬁning the New Woman, 1920–1963. New York: Garland, 1997. This is a collection of feminist and antifeminist articles written by noted individuals, such as Henry Ford, and lesser-known authors who published in American journals from the 1920s to the 1960s. Many of the readings deal with the issue of women’s place. 541. Hu, Ying. Tales of Translation: Composing the New Woman in China, 1899–1918. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000. This book deals with issues related to Chinese women in life and in ﬁction from the end of the Qing era to the beginning of that known as the May Fourth. The terms xin nü xin and xin funü (New Woman) did not, however, enter the Chinese vocabulary until after this time period. The work covers characters in a myr-

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iad of texts by male and female authors and relates them to their contemporaries in Western life and ﬁction. Advances in the lives of women outside the country are compared with those of Chinese women, who were being observed by outsiders and held to so-called Western standards regarding progress in women’s rights. Hu maintained that a single view of woman as backward was projected to the outside world, and her intent in this revisionist history was to alter that view.

542. Hughes, Linda. New Woman Poets: An Antholog y. London: The Eighteen Nineties Society, 2001. Hughes’s introduction, acknowledges that poetry by New Woman authors has not been given the attention it deserves and encourages scholars to examine this genre. This slim volume reproduces poems by eighteen women, ranging from the lesser known to well-known names such as E. Nesbit and Mary E. Coleridge, published between 1884 and 1905. Hughes divided the poems into three sections: “Desire and Sexuality,” “Social Interventions,” and “Revising Literary Tradition.” The poems are indeed little known and provide a deeper understanding of the literary tradition of the era. 543. Hunter, Jane H. How Young Ladies Became Girls: The Victorian Origins of American Girlhood. New Haven, Connecticut/London: Yale University Press, 2002. In chapter 10, “New Girls, New Women,” Hunter used imaginative resources (class prophecies and alumni records) as well as diaries, standard surveys, and percentages to chart the importance of the high-school-educated girl to the development of the New Woman. She followed the progress of eleven of the young women, learning how the hopes for independence expressed in youth were dashed in adulthood. She argued that many New Woman scholars have ignored this group of white women who provided the courage and in-

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Secondary Works (1962–2008) cal state of the rights of women and the status of woman suffrage in Japan.

545. Ingram, Angela, and Daphne Patai, eds. Rediscovering Forgotten Radicals: British Women Writers, 1889–1939. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. This collection of thirteen essays by well-respected American and British scholars, deals with social, economic, literary, and gender issues found in literature from the ﬁfty years spanning London’s East End dock strike of 1889 to the beginning of World War II in 1939. Most directly related to the New Woman are the ﬁrst two essays: “New Women and Socialist-Feminist Fiction: The Novels of Isabella Ford and This cartoon is a spoof on the New Woman who, Katharine Bruce Glasier” by when approached by a tramp, indignantly corrects Chris Waters and “The Jourhis assumption that she is a man. Whether she is ney from Fantasy and Politics: mentioning her husband to simply let the stranger The Representation of Socialknow she is a woman or whether she is put in this ism and Feminism in Gloriana position so others get the message that she still and The Image-Breakers” by needs the protection of a man is up for grabs. The Ann Ardis. They are treated inBroad Axe, St. Paul, Minnesota, 11 July 1895. dependently in listings under each author’s name. spiration to new matriculating college 546. Ishii, Kazumi. “Josei: A Magazine women. Most of the study focuses on New for the ‘New Woman.’” Intersections: GenEngland though some examples, especially der, History and Culture in the Asian Context those of African-American women, are 11: 1–13. Josei, ﬁrst published in Japan in from the South. 1922 as a literary magazine for women, was 544. Ide, Kikue. “Japan’s New Woman.” launched by Kurabu (Club) Cosmetics as a Paciﬁc Affairs (August–September 1928): public relations ploy. Josei’s editor, Osanai 1–11. This reprint of a keynote speech de- Kabru, tried to keep it in production by inlivered to the Pan-Paciﬁc Women’s Confer- troducing lighter material, but it folded in ence in Honolulu in August 1928 presents 1928. In this article, Kazumi discussed Josei a history of the state of affairs of Japanese and other women’s journals of the same era. women. It laments that though there were She also covered the origins and speciﬁc liberated women in Japan who accom- meanings of a variety of words related to plished great feats, they have been written women and elaborated on the contents of out of history. It also reports on the politi- Josei.

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547. Israel, Betsy. Bachelor Girl: The Secret History of Single Women in the Twentieth Century. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. The subtitle is somewhat disturbing in that so many scholarly books have been written on this topic that the Bachelor Girl is hardly a secret. Chapter 3, “Thin and Raging Things: New (New) Women, Gibson Goddesses, Flapping Ad Darlings, and the All-new Spinster in Fur,” includes a discussion of the aforementioned categories that Israel characterizes as New Women. 548. Jacobus, Mary, ed. Women Writing and Writing About Women. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1979. This book contains a brief chapter on “Sue Bridehead and the New Woman,” by John Goode, pages 100–13. 549. Johnson, Joan Marie. Southern Ladies, New Women: Race, Region, and Clubwomen in South Carolina, 1890–1930. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004. This book provides a comparative study of black and white women’s clubs in South Carolina as well as their counterparts in the northern United States. It focuses on these: South Carolina Federation of Women’s Clubs (SCFWC), South Carolina Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs (SCFCWC), and the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC). According to Johnson, the women in these late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century clubs shaped the stories comprising Southern memory and identity—for both whites and blacks. A signiﬁcant amount of material relates to the two most prominent leaders of the clubwomen: Louisa Poppenheim of the SCFWC and Marion Birnie Wilkinson of the SCFCWC.

550. Johnson, Josephine. Florence Farr, Bernard Shaw’s “New Woman.” Gerrards Cross, England: Smythe: 1975. This is a biography of Florence Farr, an actress in George Bernard Shaw’s plays. 551. Johnson, Patricia E. “The New

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Woman and the Old Prostitute: Women and the Professions in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Victorian Studies 10: 2004.

552. Jordan, Ellen. “The Christening of the New Woman: May 1894.” Victorian Newsletter 63 (Spring 1983): 19–21. This is a recounting of the literary events leading to Sarah Grand’s use of the term “the new woman” in her March 1894 article, “The New Aspect of the Woman Question,” in The North American Review. Ouida literally capitalized on Grand’s term with her retort in her May 1894 article “The New Woman,” in the same journal. Although these were English and French authors, respectively, the articles were published in New York. 553. Juana, Alcira Arancibia, and Yolanda Rosas, eds. The New-Woman in Works by Hispanic Women-Writers. Montevideo, Uruguay: Instituto Literario y Cultural Hispanico, 1995. 554. Jusová , Iveta. The New Woman and the Empire. Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2005. In this short book of four chapters, Josová explored issuses related to race, gender, and class within the context of ﬁn de siècle imperialism. The ﬁrst chapter, “Sarah Grand: The New Woman as an Imperialist Feminist,” deals with Grand’s female protagonists and the way in which Grand created them to support both evolutionary theory and Britain’s racial superiority. The three other chapters bring new light on the works of George Egerton, Elizabeth Robins and Amy Levy in terms of the ethnic backgrounds of their characters. 555. Kazue, Muta. “The New Woman in Japan: Radicalism and Ambivalence Towards Love and Sex.” New Woman Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism, and International Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham. London/New York: Routledge, 2004. Kazue charted the origins of the New Woman in Japan through new journals dedicated to

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women — in particular, Seitõ (Blue-stocking ). Initiated in the ﬁrst decade of the twentieth century, the movement was squelched before World War I. Attention focused on the changes that New Woman pioneers made in their personal lives, negative publicity regarding their behavior, and Japan’s ingrained conservatism led to its early demise.

556. Keathley, Elizabeth Lorraine. “Revisioning Musical Modernism: Arnold Schoenberg, Marie Pappenheim, and Erwartung’s New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., SUNY/Stonybrook, 1999. 557. Kent, Susan Kingsley. Sex and Suffrage in Britain, 1860–1914. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987. Some New Woman references appear throughout the book, but on pages 83–84 are notes that the New Women novelists concentrated on two areas of subject matter: purity and the bachelor girl. 558. Kersley, Gillian. Darling Madame: Sarah Grand and Devoted Friend. London: Virago, 1983. The ﬁrst segment (not quite half ) of this book is a biography of Sarah Grand interspersed with quotations from Grand’s voluminous writings. The second half consists of diary excerpts from Grand’s conﬁdant Gladys Singers-Bigger on her friendship with Grand from 1922 until Grand’s death in 1943. The year 1922 is signiﬁcant because that is when Grand took up her duties as “mayoress” of Bath, and she and Singers-Bigger met there. SingersBigger spoke of Grand as “Darling,” but Kersley indicated that Grand held her at bay, only fully embracing her when she pulled away. Quotations from their correspondence intersperse the diary excerpts. 559. Kessemeier, Gesa. Sportlich, Sachlich, Männlich: Das Bild der “Neuen Frau” in den Zwanziger Jahre (Sporty, Practical and Masculine: The Image of the “New Woman” during the 1920.). Dortmund, Germany: Ebersbach, 2000. Dortmund, Germany:

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Museum Kunst Kulturgesch, 2000. Written in German, this title gives every indication of an exhibition, but the book does not appear to be an exhibition catalog.

560. King, Lynda J. “The New Woman in Robert Musil’s Comedy Vinzenz und Die Freundin Bedeutender Manner.” Modern Austrian Literature 16 (1983): 23–37. Musil was interested in relations between men and women in the ﬁrst quarter of the twentieth century. King analyzed the complex relationships that Musil set up in his 1923 farce and incorporated an astute discussion of Austrian women’s history of the same era. 561. Kitch, Carolyn L. The Girl on the Magazine Cover: The Origins of Visual Stereotypes in American Mass Media. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. 562. Kóhler, Angelika. “Charged with Ambiguity: The Image of the New Woman in American Cartoons.” New Woman Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism, and International Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham. London/New York: Routledge, 2004. Köhler looked beneath images of the Gibson Girl and cartoons by anonymous artists pictured in Life magazine from 1900 to 1915. She discussed the ambivalence that the Gibson Girl presented to viewers — was she a modern Ideal Woman or a true New Woman? The cartoons, in an attempt to stabilize society and restore the “natural” roles advocated by the rough-riding president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt, offered caricatures of gender roles, their then-recent upheaval, and liberated women. 563. Kolb, Deborah. “The Rise and Fall of the New Woman in American Drama.” Educational Theatre Journal 27 (May 1973), 149–60. Juxtaposing women’s situation between 1890 and 1920 with feminist plays of the same era, Kolb exposed the “rise and fall” of the actual New Woman

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with the New Woman protagonists. She paid particular attention to these New Woman plays: A Man’s World, He and She, and Mary the Third by Rachel Crothers; Why Marry? by Jesse Lynch Williams; and Margaret Fleming by James Herne.

564. Kosta, Barbara. “Unruly Daughters and Modernity: Irmgard Keun’s Gilgi — Eine von Uns.” The German Quarterly 68 (Summer 1995): 271–86. This article focuses on Keun’s novel Gilgi — Eine von Uns, written in 1931. Gilgi was a German New Woman whose personal life paralleled the new freedoms women were seeking after World War I. The protagonist’s problems are indicative of those that young independent women encountered in the Weimar period — unwanted pregnancies, rifts between mothers and daughters, societal marginalization, and pressure to conform to traditional roles. Gilgi was controversial, and the National Socialist Party blacklisted her in 1933. 565. Kovikova, Irina. “Representations of Women in Russian Culture and the New Woman in Soviet Gender Ideology: Literary Ideological Discourse of the 1920–30s.” Der Weibliche Multikulturelle Blick: Ergebnisse eines Symposiums. Ed. Hannelore Scholz and Brita Baume. Berlin: Trafo, 1995. Though the focus of this article is not on the 1920–30s as one would expect, its general theme centers on the fact that women throughout Russian history could achieve a sense of independence only when serving the state. 566. Kramarae, Cheris, and Paula A. Treichler. Feminist Dictionary. Boston: Pandora, 1985, 300–01. The New Woman is deﬁned by a compilation of three quotes contemporary with the advent of the phenomenon (the 1890s) as well as two quotes from the 1980s. 567. Kryder, LeeAnne Giannone. “SelfAssertion and Social Commitment: The

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Signiﬁcance of Work to the Progressive Era’s New Woman.” Journal of American Culture 6 (Summer 1983): 25–30. Kryder claimed that, unlike men, Progressive Era women found meaning in their work. She used the lives and careers of Jane Addams, M. Carey Thomas, Ida Tarbell, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman to substantiate her claim.

568. Kucich, John. The Power of Lies: Transgression in Victorian Fiction. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994. This treatise deals with New Woman ﬁction in chapter 6, “Feminism’s Ethical Contradictions: Sarah Grand and New Woman Writing.” Its thesis concerns the tension between honesty and performance in works by Sarah Grand; the author believes that the lack of honesty holds back the development of New Woman ﬁction. Grand’s works, according to Kucich, are windows through which the changing roles of women as well as Grand’s own ambivalence toward feminist issues can be seen. Because of the performative aspects of Grand’s life and oeuvre, he related her work to sensation ﬁction and claimed that The Beth Book (by Grand) and A Sunless Heart (by Edith Johnstone) are the only two novels to present an optimistic view of the New Woman. 569. Kuhn, Anna K. and Barbara D. Wright. Playing for Stakes: German-language Drama in Social Context. Oxford and Providence: Berg Publishers, 1994. Set in Weimar Germany, both Der Fröhliche Weinberg (The Merry Vineyard), 1925, by Carl Zuchmayer and Hoppla!, Wir Leben! (Hoppla! That’s Life!), 1927, by Ernst Toller are considered within the context of their feminist agendas and the perception of critics writing from the 1920 to the 1970s. Wright maintained that critics and reviewers either purposely ignored the feminist agendas of the plays or could not come to grips with the notion of strong, competent women. Through their respective protagonists — Klärchen Gunderlach and Eva

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Berg — Zuchmayer and Toller reﬂected on women’s roles during the Weimar Republic. This article is as much an investigation of the role of the New Woman of the 1920s as an analysis of critical response.

570. Kulba, Tracy. “New Woman, New Nation: Emily Murphy, the Famous Foundation and the Production of a Female Citizen.” Ph.D. diss., University of Alberta, 2004. 571. Laity, Cassandra. “From Fatal Woman to New Woman: Yeats’s Changing Image of Woman in His Art and Aesthetic.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1984. This discussion of the works of Irish poet/playwright W. B. Yeats examines how his views of women changed both personally and in his works from one century to the next. Laity maintained that Yeats’s “conversion” from viewing women as femme fatales to viewing them as the “New” took place in relationship to the shift from women of the Romantic and Pre–Raphaelite era to those of the Ibsen era. She closed with an examination of his three New Woman plays, The Shadowy Waters, Deirdre, and The Play Queen. 572. ____. “W. B. Yeats and Florence Farr: The Inﬂuence of the ‘New Woman’ Actress on Yeats’s Changing Images of Women.” Modern Drama 28 (December 1985): 620–37. Yeats ﬁrst saw Farr in A Sicilian Idyll and thought of her as the quintessential New Woman. He was drawn to her “unwomanly womanliness.” He created several characters with her in mind though she acted in only one of his plays. Though her name was excluded from the title, Maud Gonne, the “other” New Woman discussed in the article, was also a major ﬁgure in Yeats’s life. 573. Larson, Jil. “Sexual Ethics in Fiction by Thomas Hardy and the New Woman Writers.” Rereading Victorian Fiction. Ed. Alice Jenkins and Juliet John. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire:

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Macmillan, 2000. This paper, originally “Rethinking Victorian Culture,” was presented at a conference in Liverpool in 1996. Here Larson juxtaposed “The Buddhist Priest’s Wife”(written in 1890 but published posthumously in 1923) by Olive Schreiner with Thomas Hardy’s Jude the Obscure (1895) as well as Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm (1893) with Sarah Grand’s The Heavenly Twins (1893) by comparing and contrasting their New Women characters. The literature is devoted to the ideology of “separate spheres [in which] males are credited with reason and females with feeling or emotion,” but Larson pointed out that women grappled with their awareness of both intellect and feeling; she proposed that the authors’ intent was to challenge readers to rethink the notion of separate spheres.

574. Lavin, Maud Katherine. “Hannah Höch, Photomontage and the Representation of the New Woman in Weimar Germany, 1918–1933.” Ph.D. diss., City University of New York, 1989. The focus of this study is on the Berlin Dada artist Hannah Höch and her use of mass media in photomontage. It examines in particular a scrapbook made with images related to the New Woman. Lavin considered how the use of common media images intersected within the context of both the modern avant-garde and popular culture. 575. ____. “The New Woman in Hannah Höch’s Photomontages: Issues of Androgyny, Bisexuality, and Oscillation.” Reclaiming Female Agency: Feminist Art History after Postmodernism. Ed. Norma Broude and Mary D. Garrard, Berkley: University of California Press, 2005. Lavin’s interest in this essay centered on prevailing theories of sexuality in Weimar Germany within the context of images of women in Hanna Höch’s photomontages. She investigated the depiction of cross-gendered women in selected works by Höch, maintaining that the artist purposely left interpretation open to

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viewer and theorist alike. Thus there is no clear-cut resolution regarding women’s then-changing roles or the place they would/could hold in Weimar society in the 1920s. Although Lavin did not discuss the relationship of Höch’s own ﬂuid sexual relationships to her imagery, a symbiotic association seems likely.

576. Law, Graham. “New Woman Novels in Newspapers. Medial History 7 (2001): 17–32. In this article Law analyzes New Woman literature appearing in the popular press in Britain in the 1880s and 1890s. While its focus is serialized novels, it also delves into the history of the syndicated press, treats shorter works within the popular weeklies and biweeklies, and includes images of the New Woman. Law theorized that the stories and images he found — advertisements in The Illustrated London News as well the image of a black New Woman riding a bicycle depicted on a 1896 Christmas card — provide an understanding of a multidimensional New Woman persona rife with contradictions. Overall the article aids in understanding the function and role of newspapers in disseminating literature in the late Victorian era. 577. Leaker, Catherine Joan. “Breaking Possibilities: The New Woman Novel and the Failures of Feminist Fiction.” Ph.D. diss., University of Rochester, 2000. This dissertation investigates the manner in which the late-nineteenth-century New Woman and New Woman novel were doomed. Leaker focused on the works of Olive Schreiner, George Egerton, and Mona Caird, using critical response to the novels and the correspondence of Schreiner to substantiate her thesis. She explored the intersection of politics and feminism through the novels, concluding there was no way for the writers to reach consensus and thus, as Schreiner had feared, the experiment failed. 578. Ledger, Sally. “Gissing, the Shop-

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girl and the New Woman.” Women: A Cultural Review 6 (Winter 1995): 263–74. This is a study of Gissing’s New Woman protagonists Rhoda Nunn and Mary Barfoot along with shop girl Monica Madden of The Odd Women. Gissing’s 1893 work was one of many anticipating the naming of the New Woman. As middle-class women became more visible in city life toward the close of the nineteenth century, they were frequently mistaken for and/or accused of being prostitutes. Ledger juxtaposed the male ﬂâneur with the female shop girl, illustrating the double standard regarding behavior of men and women on the streets of London.

579. ____. “Ibsen, the New Woman and the Actress.” The New Woman in Fiction and Fact: Fin-de-Siecle Feminisms. Ed. Angelique Richardson and Chris Willis. London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2001. Although the majority of the essay consists of Ledger’s investigation into the manner in which sexuality and motherhood function in Henrik Ibsen’s plays, she turned in the ﬁnal section to the enactment of Ibsen’s female roles, focusing primarily on those of Elizabeth Robins. 580. ____. “The New Woman and Feminist Fictions.” The Cambridge Companion to the Fin de Siècle. Ed. Gail Marshall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Ledger focused in chapter 8 on morality, sexuality, and motherhood — key concerns in the New Woman novels and short stories of Sarah Grand, George Egerton, Grant Allen, Thomas Hardy, Mona Caird, and Ménie Muriel Dowie. This essay is especially valuable in its analysis of these themes, found in many of Egerton’s short-stories in the collection Discords and Keynotes and in Sarah Grand’s 1894 collection, Our Manifold Nature: Stories from Life. 581. ____. “The New Woman and the Crisis of Victorianism.” Cultural Politics at

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the Fin de Siècle. Ed. Sally Ledger and Scott McCracken. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Ledger began where Elaine Showalter left off in making connections between the New Woman, the decadent, and the dandy. She claimed that though the popular press and much of society connected the alleged sexual impropriety of the New Woman with the trial of Oscar Wilde, the reality was that New Woman authors were simply advocating that men raise their level of sexual purity to that of women. Ledger placed the New Woman within the politics of empire through eugenics movements and dealt with the relationship of the New Woman and various socialisms of the late nineteenth century. She related the failure of the New Woman to coalesce to the feminist movement a century hence.

582. ____. The New Woman: Fiction and Feminism at the Fin de Siècle. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1997. In this encompassing work, Ledger examined New Woman ﬁction within the cultural and sociopolitical context of the era of the New Woman in Great Britain. Her introduction provides a brilliant analysis of the underpinnings of the New Woman in relation to other social and political movements. 583. ____. “The New Woman, the Bostonians, and the Gender of Modernity.” Barcelona English Language and Literature Studies 7 (1996): 55–62. Unavailable for review. 584. Ledger, Sally, ed. Women’s Writing at the Fin de Siècle. Special edition of Women’s Writing 3 (1996): Introduction. Ledger provided a brief history of New Woman scholarship and summarized the work of other contributors to this issue: Ann Heilmann, Kate Flint, Scott McCracken, Rosie Miles, Talia Schaffer, Ann Ardis, and Eileen Sypher.

585. Ledger, Sally, and Scott Mc-

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Cracken, eds. Cultural Politics at the Fin de Siècle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

586. Lefko, Stefana Lee. “Female Pioneers and Social Mothers: Novels by Female Authors in the Weimar Republic and the Construction of the New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, 1998. Through analysis of novels by Clara Viebig, Lisbeth Burger, Vicki Baum, and Thea von Harbou, Lefko showed how the ordinary lives of New Woman protagonists paralleled larger political issues of the era. For example, an unwanted pregnancy, seemingly only a personal problem, was related to issues of birth control and abortion being debated in the legislature. Women’s concerns about contemporary issues were the subject matter of novels written by these women of the Weimar Republic. 587. Lemons, J. Stanley. “The New Woman in the New Era: the Woman Movement from the Great War to the Great Depression.” Ph.D. diss., University of Missouri, 1967. 588. Lerner, Gerda, ed. The Female Experience: An American Documentary. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1979. This work includes a variety of essays examining the New Woman from the late eighteenth century to the 1970s. Chapter 8, “Creating New Women,” discusses many New Women, but only Belva Lockwood and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn are from the turn of the century. 589. Lewis, Jane, ed. Labor and Love: Woman’s Experience of Home and Family, 1850–1910. New York and Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986. Lucy Bland’s chapter 5, “Marriage Laid Bare: Middle-Class Women and Marital Sex, 1880–1914,” discusses the New Woman. 590. Lin, Li-Chun. “The Discursive Formation of the ‘New’ Chinese Woman, 1860–1930.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1998. Lin investigated the

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rise and fall of independence for Chinese women from the 1860s to the 1930s. Her ﬁrst revelation is that Protestant missionaries in China were ﬁrst to link its weak international status with the miserable state of affairs for women in the mid-nineteenth century. A number of male intellectuals took up the cause of the missionaries, but improvement for women was short-lived. Lin examined popular literary genres such as magazines as well as the higher-brow genres of poetry and novels in charting the position of women and their difﬁculties during this era of change.

591. Liu, Jui-Chi (Rachel). “Carnival Culture and the Engendering of Florine Stettheimer.” Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1999. Using highly theoretical underpinnings, Liu examined the ultra-feminized pinkness of painter Florine Stettheimer’s self-portraits as statements countering the masculinization of modernism. Liu brought attention to the notion of woman as androgynous, the mass culture of the early twentieth century, how a woman such as Stettheimer negotiated women’s positions, and to the Jewish Diaspora. 592. Lowy, Dina B. The Japanese “New Woman”: Contending Images of Gender and Modernity, 1910–1920. Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 2000. Central to this dissertation is the Seito (or Bluestocking) organization/ periodical and how both shaped and reacted to debate regarding the New Woman in early twentieth-century Japan. The period of 1910–26, the Taisho era, was one of emerging modernity in Japan, and Lowy examined the New Woman within this context. As in other countries, reaction to the New Woman varied, ranging from the view that she embodied all of society’s modern ills to the notion that she represented hope for the future. Reactions (or overreactions) to the Seito movement included the founding of a conservative group known as “The True New Women.”

591–594

593. ____. The Japanese “New Woman”: Issues of Gender and Modernity. New Brunswick, New Jersey/London: Rutgers University Press, 2007. This work is based on Lowy’s dissertation, above. In the ﬁrst decades of the twentieth century Japan was struggling to deﬁne itself in terms of modernity. The New Woman (atarashii onna) movement converged with the nation’s push toward creating a national identity; this book explores the intersection of feminism, modernity, and the inﬂuence of the West in shaping Japan’s future. At the close of the Menji period (1868–1912) a new women’s organization, the Seitõsha (Bluestocking Society) emerged to counter the prevailing ideology of the “good wife, wise mother.” Raichõ Hiratsuka, an unconventional upper middle-class woman educated at the Japan Women’s College, was the founder of the movement and editor of Seitõ, the journal associated with it. Seitõ was inaugurated the same month (September 1911) that the Literary Society presented Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll House, thus creating a furor related to the role of women in Japanese culture. Following on the heels of this production, the Literary Society produced (May 1912) Hermann Sudermann’s Magda, another play about the aberrant behavior of a woman. The government censored it. Lowy chronicled the decade of the teens in terms of the emergence of independent women and the role of another organization, The True New Women (Shinshin Fujinkai), as a more conservative alternative to the Seitõsha and a subsequent short-lived organization, the New Woman’s Association, begun by Raichõ in 1919 after Seitõsha folded in 1916. The ﬁnal chapter is a brief exploration of the New Woman movements of Egypt, China, and Korea, with emphasis on the parallelism of the subordinate positions of women to men and the status of colonial nations to imperialist powers. 594. Mackay, Barbara. “The New Woman in the Drama of Beuchner, Ibsen,

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Strindberg and Brecht.” DFA thesis: Yale School of Drama, 1974.

595. Mackie, Vera. Feminism in Modern Japan: Citizenship, Embodiment and Sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Chapter 3, “The New Woman,” chronicles the political progress women made from the early inauguration of the Bluestocking Society in 1911 (and its accompanying journal, Seitõ,) through the 1940s. Central to women’s advancement in Japan and the focus of their action was the repeal of Article 5 of the 1905 Public Peace Police Law, prohibiting women from attending political meetings. After the Bluestocking Society disbanded in 1916, the New Women’s Association formed to organize and lobby—ﬁrst for the repeal of this law and then for suffrage. Although universal suffrage was granted to men in 1920, women did not win the privilege until after World War II. The article also addresses other issues related to women’s progress and the control over their bodies such as birth control, abortion, and support for single mothers. 596. MacPike, Loralee. “The New Woman, Childbearing, and the Reconstruction of Gender, 1880–1900.” NWSA Journal 1 (1989), 368–97. The author viewed the new concept of women’s identity in British and American culture during the 1880s and 1890s through contemporary novels and the new occupational freedoms available to women. Because of changing patterns of marriage and childbearing, MacPike claimed the New Woman was economically self-sufﬁcient and freed from the biological imperatives of maternity. That idea, however, grew from Social Darwinist and other reductive theories of sexuality at the turn of the twentieth century. 597. Maier, Sarah E. “Subverting the Ideal: The New Woman and the Battle of the Sexes in the Short Fiction of Ella D’Arcy.” Victorian Review: The Journal of

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the Victorian Studies Association of Western Canada and the Victorian Studies Association 20 (Summer 1994), 35–48. This article addresses Ella D’Arcy’s collections of short stories in Monochromes (1895) and Modern Instances (1898). Maier claimed that D’Arcy’s New Woman stories are more radical than those by other authors, but in the summaries provided, the New Women frequently commits suicide. Maier explained that the protagonists in D’Arcy’s stories feel overwhelmed by the enormity of the problems they face. Unable to cope with the pressure of being molded into the Ideal Woman, they succumb to the coward’s way out. Maier noted that D’Arcy’s works have not received the attention they deserve.

598. Mäkinen, Helka. “Elli Tompuri: Uusi Nainen Ja Punainen Diiva.” Ph.D. diss., University of Helsinki, 2001. 599. Mally, Lynn. “Performing the New Woman: The Komsomolka as Actress and Image in Soviet Youth Theater.” Journal of Social History 30 (Fall 1996): 79–95. Komsomolka was the symbol for the New Soviet Woman of the 1920s. In this informative article Mally investigated the image of the Komsomolka in the Leningrad Theatre of Working Class Youth (TRAM or Theater for Working-Class Youth). Young participants of the theater wrote all of the ten plays presented. TRAM was based at Gleron House in the Moscow-Noriskir district of Leningrad. Mally disclosed that although TRAM plays did not show women as equal partners in the family, they did present the possibility of a redistribution of gender roles at some time. The plays’ widespread appeal may have been due to that hope. The women involved in production of the plays were treated so inequitably that the reader wonders whether there was any real understanding of the roles of New Women. 600. Mangum, Teresa. “Feminist Fiction and Fictional Feminism: Sarah Grand

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and the New Woman Novel.” Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1991. This examination of Sarah Grand’s New Woman novels falls within the context of the inﬂuence of the new scientiﬁc and medical theories of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Magnum’s thesis was that these new beliefs and laws regarding gender difference affected Grand’s ideas and that they were played out in the plots of her novels.

601. ____. Married, Middlebrow and Militant: Sarah Grand and the New Woman Novel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998. In this in-depth study of Grand’s novels and the role they played in examining the institution of marriage at the ﬁn de siècle, Mangum addressed Grand’s two trilogies. Ideala, The Heavenly Twins, and The Beth Book comprise the ﬁrst trilogy. Grand completed the ﬁrst two books of the second trilogy —Adam’s Orchard and The Winged Victory— but because of her disillusionment with World War I, she never ﬁnished the third. 602. ____. “Style Wars of the 1890s: The New Woman and the Decadent.” Transforming Genres: New Approaches to British Fiction of the 1890s. Ed. Nikki Lee Manos and Meri-Jane Rochelson. New York: St. Martin’s, 1994. Chapter 3, Mangum’s contribution on Sarah Grand, likely was spun from her dissertation. She identiﬁed Grand as “one of the foremothers of New Woman literature.” Basically this is an indepth study of Grand’s The Beth Book (1897) and its relationship to the contemporary Decadent or Aesthetic movement in Britain. 603. Manos, Nikki Lee. “New Woman (Feminism).” The 1890s: An Encyclopedia of British Literature, Art and Culture. Ed. G. A. Cevasco. New York: Garland, 1993. In this extensive entry on the British New Woman of the 1890s, Manos deﬁned the New Woman, including discussion of the

601–606

leading New Woman novels, plays, and articles. In identifying the arrival of the New Woman in the 1890s, she wrote: “[The] New Woman may have exploded on the social scene, but she embodied the simmering resentment that women had felt for decades.”

604. Manos, Nikki Lee, and Meri-Jane Rochelson. Transforming Genres: New Approaches to British Fiction of the 1890s. New York: St. Martin’s, 1994. There are references to the New Woman throughout the volume. 605. Marchant, Jamie. “Ellen Glasgow’s New Women: Barren Ground and They Stooped to Folly.” Centennial Review 41 (Winter 1997), 63–81. In this reappraisal of two of Glasgow’s novels and their female protagonists — Dorinda Oakely in Barren Ground and Milly Burden and Mary Victoria Littlepage in They Stooped to Folly— Marchant challenged former analysis (primarily by male critics) of them as loveless and therefore unsatisﬁed. Instead these characters relinquished their dependence on men to develop their own unique natures. Milly and Mary Victoria, in particular, embodied dimensions of the New Woman of the 1910s regarding sexual freedom and career. 606. Marcus, Jane. “Salome: The Jewish Princess Was a New Woman.” Bulletin of the New York Public Library 78 (1974), 95–113. In this captivating analysis of O. Wilde’s Salome, Marcus reevaluated the characters of Salome and John the Baptist, following Wilde’s lead in pronouncing it the duty of the artist to rewrite history. Marcus maintained Salome and John were precursors of Christ, on equal footing with each other and Christ, saying Wilde “transforms her [Salome] from sinner to saint and makes her a real person as well.” Marcus wrote that people were confused by Beardsley’s illustrations of Salome in Wilde’s publication of the play, but that this was so be-

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Three New Women whose facial features appear identical call the shots by indicating exactly where the men with whom they wish to dance must wait for them. Punch, or the London Charivari, 27 July 1895. cause Beardsley never read it. Beardsley likened Salome to Isben’s Hedda Gabler (albeit Salome is a biblical ﬁgure)— strong women cast as sex objects thwarted in their artistic careers — much like Wilde’s own mother. Marcus maintained that Beardsley’s images are insensitive to Wilde’s intentions.

607. Marks, Patricia. Bicycles, Bangs, and Bloomers: The New Woman in the Popular Press. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990. In this work, primarily made up of the images of New Women as depicted in satire and caricature in Punch, Life, and London Truth, Marks theorized that men in fear of change produced the exaggerated comic ﬁgures. 608. Marriner, Gerald L. “A Victorian in the Modern World: The ‘Liberated’ Male’s Adjustment to the New Woman and the New Morality.” South Atlantic Quar-

terly 76 (Spring 1977), 190–203. In this article Marriner pointed to the discrepancy between the views of so-called liberated men and their reluctance to carry them out in their relations with women. He focused on Hutchins Hapgood and Neith Boyce and how their unconventional marriage suited Hapgood until Boyce engaged in the same liberated sexual activities as her husband. In the last paragraph Marriner referred to the New Woman, but the article is really about Hutchins Hapgood and how he functioned as a “Victorian in the Modern World,” which was the title of his autobiography.

609. Martin, Margaret Kathleen. “Discovering Lily Lewis: A Canadian Journalist and New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., University of Saskatchewan, 2001. Lily Lewis and Sara Jeannette Duncan, both Canadian journalists of the late nineteenth and early twenti-

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eth centuries, accompanied one another on a trip around the world in 1888. According to Martin, attention was paid to the life and oeuvre of Duncan, but Lewis was shrouded in obscurity. This dissertation attempts to exhume Lewis and in the process examine the complex web that kept her and her works hidden. One of Martin’s theses is that Lily Lewis’s involvement with feminism made her undesirable in the view of historians.

610. Martin, Susan K. “The Newest Woman in a New World: Gender Anxiety and New Women in Turn-of-the-Century Australian Fiction.” Futures Exchange: ACH 23 (2004): 121–36. This is an analysis of the futuristic novel The Newest Woman: The Destined Monarch of the World (1895), by Millie Finkelstein. Set in Melbourne in 1950, it involves an inversion of gender roles, with women at the helm. The book was serialized in a journal titled Melbourne Sportsman, and according to Martin the story is more about “feminine romance than masculine sporting”(123). It portrays women running the government successfully albeit perversely in terms of cross-dressing, and men’s perception of the situation, thus playing out the anxiety of the modernist era. 611. Martin, Wendy. “Brett Ashley as New Woman in The Sun Also Rises.” New Essays on The Sun Also Rises. Ed. Linda Wagner Martin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. According to Martin, the protagonists of Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises— Brett Ashley and Jake Barnes—represent the quintessential female and male of the jazz era (post–World War I). Brett is modeled after the modern woman of the 1920s known as “The Flapper,” but her independence is limited by dependence upon men for ﬁnancial and psychological security. 612. Matter-Seibel, Sabina. “Pauline Hopkins’s Portrayal of the African-American New Woman in Contending Forces and the

610–615

Colored American Magazine.” Feminist Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heilmann. London, Sydney, and Chicago: Pandora Press, 2003. Literary editor of Colored American Magazine in the years before 1904, Pauline Hopkins was the ﬁrst black American woman to hold such a position. In her short tenure with the journal she published ten of her short stories and three serialized novels. But Hopkins’s outspokenness caused her to be dismissed after the conservative Booker T. Washington purchased the journal. She then took a position with Voice of the Negro, an Atlanta-based magazine focusing on the “New Negro Man.”

613. Matthews, Jean V. The Rise of the New Woman: The Women’s Movement in America, 1875–1930. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003. The entire work is about women’s issues in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Chapter 2, “The New Woman and the New Politics” provides some background on New Woman issues in America, including a brief history of professions available to women and the concomitant education required. Despite the title, limited attention is paid to women’s organizations and their “inﬂuence” in making positive change for women. 614. McArthur, Judith N. Creating the New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women’s Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893–1918. Chicago/Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997. In this important contribution to understanding women’s history in the southern United States, McArthur provided limited information on African-American women, and all the photographs are of white women. 615. McCarthy, Kathleen D. Women’s Culture: American Philanthropy and Art, 1830–1930. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 1991. A few sporadic sections of this work refer to the art collectors Is-

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abella Stewart Gardner and Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney as New Women.

616. McClure, Nancye Jane. “New Woman Satire: A Gynocentric Weapon of Change.” Ph.D. diss., University of Mississippi, 2001. This dissertation examines how British and American New Woman authors employed satire, generally thought to be a masculine idiom, in their works. McClure analyzed authors Ella d’Arcy, George Egerton, Sara Grand, Kate Chopin, and Elizabeth Barstow Stoddard. 617. McCullough, Mary Katherine. “Figuring Gender: British and American Women’s Narratives of the 1890s.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1992. Using the New Woman novels of Pauline Hopkins, Kate Chopin, Sarah Orne Jewett, and Florence Converse, McCullough examined the polemics of maternity and eroticism appearing to deﬁne the identity of the protagonists. In chapter 1 she investigated works of the 1860s but otherwise focused primarily on those of the 1890s. She grounded the phenomena of the New Woman in texts by Sarah Grand and George Egerton, then turned to examples of American ﬁction by Pauline Hopkins and Kate Chopin in regard to their repositioning of class, race, and desire within the context of liberation. Finally she turned to the sexologists and how Sarah Orne Jewett and Florence Converse rejected and/or reﬂected their theories. 618. McDonald, Jan. “New Women in the New Drama.” New Theatre Quarterly 6 (1990): 31–42. This is a comprehensive discussion of the faces of the New Woman in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century theater. The new dramatists moved woman to center stage and brought issues related to the “woman question” to the fore. Although they revealed woman’s plight but made few suggestions to remedy it, McDonald concluded that a few “ladies” had become women.

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619. McKenna, Isobel Kerwin. “Sara Jeannette Duncan: The New Woman: A Critical Biography.” Ph.D. diss., Queen’s University at Kingston, 1981. This is the biography of a little-known Canadian writer who authored twenty books and several plays. Duncan was born in 1861 and became a journalist who traveled around the world and used material from her journey as the basis for her ﬁrst book. Although she married, she continued writing even after her husband’s retirement to Great Britain. Only one of her novels, The Imperialist, was in print in 1981, when the dissertation was written. 620. McKinney, Lauren D. “From New Money to New Woman: Social Change and Melodrama in Three British Novels of the 1890s.” Ph.D. diss., Temple University, 1995. McKinney examined Thomas Hardy’s Jude the Obscure, Mona Caird’s The Daughters of Danaus, and George Gissing’s The Whirlpool, claiming that, although the ﬁrst two novels were regarded as tragedies and the third was considered a naturalistic novel, the works fall within the Victorian genre of melodrama. 621. McLaren, Angus. Sexual Blackmail: A Modern History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002. Chapter 7, “Blackmail and the New Woman,” treats the issue of women blackmailing men for monetary advantages or moral consequences during the 1920s and ’30s. In the popular press these lawsuits (“heart balm”) centered on seduction, breach of promise, and alienation of affection. McLaren investigated legislation dealing with the cases as well as stories in the press regarding a variety of cases. While most of the situations he exposed were in British newspapers and journals, Hollywood took up stories about blackmail and made them into popular movies at home and abroad. The notoriety of the subject, McLaren maintained, was due to a shifting

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of moral codes and loosening of sexual standards.

622. McNamara, Mary Jo. “Minerva Chapman’s Miniatures: Costume and the New Woman.” Dress 29, 2002: 75–85. This article discusses the American painter and miniaturist Minerva J. Chapman, whose work from 1905 to 1915 reﬂects the changing fashion of women as they donned the more “rational” dress enabling them to become more active participants in the public sphere. 623. McNease, Francesca Mallory. “The New Woman as Bifurcated Female in ‘Jude the Obscure,’ ‘The Story of an African Farm,’ ‘The Odd Women,’ and ‘Ann Veronica.’” Ph.D. diss., Oklahoma State University, 1994. The novels mentioned in McNease’s title are generally regarded as New Women novels, but she maintained that they fall within the Victorian era’s predilection for biological determinism. The female protagonists in the novel may seem to be New Women, but, McNease wrote, they are actually femme fatales who carry out their predetermined biological roles as wives and mothers. 624. Meskimmon, Marsha, and Shearer West, eds. Visions of the “Neue Frau”: Women and the Visual Arts in Weimar Germany. Brookﬁeld, Vermont: Ashgate, 1995. In this collection of essays developed from a 1992 symposium at Leicester University about German women artists of the 1920s and 1930s, the writers examined the role of women in the arts (painters, sculptors, photographers, dancers, and women in ﬁlm) during the Weimar period. Among the essayists are Marsha Meskimmon, Erika Esau, Erich Ranfft, Ute Eskildsen, Renate Berger, Shulamith Behr, Carol Diethe, Stephen Lamb, and Dorothy Rowe. 625. Miller, Nina. “Love Poetry and the New Woman: Literary Negotiations in Edna St. Vincent Millay, Genevieve Taggard, and Dorothy Parker.” Ph.D. diss.,

622–628

Northwestern University, 1991. Miller juxtaposed the masculine, bohemian, literary world of New York City (particularly Greenwich Village and the Algonquin Round Table) with the three women writers of the title, who attempted to navigate that world both personally and professionally.

626. Mitchell, Delores. “The New Woman as Prometheus: Woman Artists Depict Women Smoking.” Woman’s Art Journal 12 (Spring/Summer 1991): 3–9. This article is primarily about images of women smoking by Jane Atché, Louise Lavrut, and Frances Benjamin Johnston. Mitchell juxtaposed the work of the women with the images of women smoking created by men. She related sexual and gender differences in smoking iconography and revealed that the images created problems for viewers who accepted gender stereotypes. 627. Moreland, Kim. “Henry Adams, the Medieval Lady, and the ‘New Woman.’” Clio: A Journal of Literature, History, and the Philosophy of History 18 (Spring 1989): 291–305. This is an analysis of how, after the death of Marian “Clover” Hooper Adams (Adams’s wife), Henry Adams retreated to Chartres and the medieval world of the Madonna. According to Moreland, Adams did this out of his need for a queen/mother/caretaker and to negate the threatening presence of the New Woman. 628. Mori, Maryellen T. “The Splendor of Self-Exhalation: The Life and Fiction of Okamoto Kanoko.” Monumenta Nipponica 50 (1995), 67–102. Mori wrote that Kanoko, reared in a privileged Japanese household, the Onuki, grew up thinking herself special. She wanted to become a novelist and but achieved this goal only through the total devotion of her husband (cartoonist Ippei) and his willingness to assume the duties traditionally assigned to women. Kanoko associated with other feminists in Japan, brieﬂy joining the Seitõ, or

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Bluestocking Society, but found those organizations were not for her. Her poetry and prose were as controversial and nonconforming as she.

629. Munro, Eleanor. Originals; American Women Artists. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979. In the section titled “Methods and Matriarchs”(pages 38–58), is a segment called “A Century of History and the New Woman Artist.” 630. Murphy, Gretchen. “New Women in the New Paciﬁc: Japanese-American Romances in the Context of U.S. Empire.” Prospects 29 (2004), 395–428. This article examines issues related to women in ﬁn de siécle ﬁction, especially that written by John Luther Long and Winnifred Eaton (Reeve) (Onoto Watanna). Murphy’s thesis is that the love triangles revealed in Long’s 1895 novella, Miss Cherry Blossom of Tokyo (which morphed into Madame Butterﬂy), his novel The Fox Woman (1900), and several novels by Eaton (possibly based on Long’s works) are indicative of the relationship between Japan and the United States between 1895 and 1907. One might question the use of the term New Women in the title, as the female protagonists had intense relationships with and depend heavily on men on both sides of the Paciﬁc. 631. Murphy, Mary Patricia. “Timely Interventions: Gender, Temporality, and the New Woman (Thomas Hardy, Olive Schreiner, H. Rider Haggard, Sarah Grand, Mona Caird).” Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1997. Using as an example one novel by each of the aforementioned authors, Murphy addressed issues of the construction of time and how time relates to gender and temporality. 632. Murphy, Patricia. “Disdained and Disempowered: The ‘Inverted’ New Woman in Rhoda Broughton’s Dear ‘Faustina.’” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 19 (Spring 2000): 57–79. In the beginning of the article Murphy positions Dear Faustina

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as an anti–New Woman novel though her subsequent discussion of criticism contemporary with the novel refuted this designation. After a long grounding of ﬁn-de-siècle literature related to emancipation and women’s issues, Murphy directed her attention to a careful analysis of female homosexuality in relationship to the New Woman and within the context of the then-current theories of sexologists such as Havelock Ellis. The “inverted” New Woman is Althea, whose promise as a New Woman (and Faustina’s partner) is reversed by the novel’s conclusion in which a gentleman provides her with more support and encouragement in pursuing activities related to “woman’s work” than Faustina has previously given in molding her into a socialist/feminist.

633. ____. Time Is of the Essence: Temporality, Gender, and the New Woman. Albany, New York: Albany State University Press, 2001. Based on her dissertation at the University of Iowa, Murphy investigated the dual issues of time and the New Woman in ﬁn de siécle Britain in this book. She found analogies between “Women’s Time” by Julia Kristeva and the manner in which New Woman writers have challenged the prevailing acceptance of the male construction of time. Her scholarship centers on the deconstruction of the semiotics of time in the following novels: She by H. Rider Haggard (1887), Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy (1891), The Beth Book by Sarah Grand (1897), the Daughters of Danaus by Mona Caird (1894), and The Story of an African Farm by Olive Schreiner (1883). 634. Nash, Mary. “Milicianas and Homefront Heroines: Images of Women in Revolutionary Spain (1936–39).” History of European Ideas 11 (1989): 235–44. In the Spanish Civil War, two new and important types of women appeared —“the militia woman and the home-front heroine.” The impact of “this new female image in the

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“Drama,” featuring The New Woman: An Original Comedy in Three Acts by Sydney Grundy.

Mrs. Tompkins is assisted in getting dressed by her husband and son while she reads over the article she has written about the independence of the New Woman. Life, 17 October 1912. light of the collective experience of Spanish women” is the focus of the article. According to Nash, these examples of highly visible Spanish women did not reﬂect the reality of women in Spain but rather the unique turmoil into which gender roles and perceptions are thrown during wartime.

635. Nelson, Carolyn Christensen, ed. A New Woman Reader: Fiction, Articles, Drama of the 1890s. Peterborough, Ontario/Orchard Park, New York: Broadview, 2000. The book is divided into three sections —“Short Stories by New Woman Writers,” with works by George Egerton, Sarah Grand, Netta Syrett, Victoria Cross, Ada Radford, Mabel E. Wotton, and Ella D’Arcy; “Articles,” including reprints of “The Debate over Women’s Suffrage,” “Sarah Grand on the New Woman: Her Critics Respond,” “The Marriage Question,” “The Attack on the New Woman Writers,” “The Revolting Daughters,” and

636. Newlin, Keith, ed. American Plays of the New Woman. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000. This anthology includes the following plays identiﬁed by Newlin as containing New Woman subject matter. The Great Divide by William Vaughn Moody (1906), A Man’s World by Rachel Crothers (1910), As a Man Thinks by Augustus Thomas (1911), Overtones by Alice Gerstenberg (1913, ﬁrst performance two years later), The Outside by Susan Glaspell (1917), and Why Marry? by Jesse Lynch Williams (1917). The editor provided a synopsis of each with biographical information for each playwright. He concluded with a discussion of the demise of New Woman plays and attention to the New Woman in a general sense. 637. Newton, Esther. “The Mythic Mannish Lesbian: Radclyffe Hall and the New Woman.” Signs (Summer 1984): 557– 75. Newton did a creditable job of differentiating between ﬁrst- and second-generation New Women in Hall’s novels —The Unlit Lamp (1924) and The Well of Loneliness (1928). The Unlit Lamp portrays the ﬁrst generation of lesbians, who battled to ﬁnd autonomy outside the family, who ignored questions of sexuality because the Victorian woman was deﬁned as sexless. They dealt in romantic friendships. The second generation, however, became identiﬁed with Stephen Gordon in The Well of Loneliness, deﬁned by masculine traits and gender inversion. This article is also included in Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, ed. Martin Bauml Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey Jr. (1989). 638. Ng, Yee-Ling. “Modern Fiction and the Creation of the New Woman: Madame Bovary, Jude the Obscure and Women in Love.” Ph.D. diss., University of Hong Kong, 1998.

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639. Nie, Er. “Song of the New Woman.” Reprinted in “The New Woman Incident: Cinema, Scandal, and Spectacle in 1935 Shanghai.” Transnational Chinese Cinemas: Identity, Nationhood, Gender. Ed. Sheldon Hsiao-peng Lu. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997: 286. This is a poem to the New Woman. 640. Niemtzow, Annette. “The Marital Whip: Literary Reactions to the New Woman in Hawthorne, James, and Adams.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1973. This dissertation does not circulate. 641. Nord, Deborah Epstein. Walking the Victorian Streets: Women, Representation and the City. Ithaca, New York/London: Cornell University Press, 1995. The book has three parts with part 3 titled “New Woman.” The index indicates only three references to the New Woman, but the description/deﬁnition of her on pages 216–17 deserves consideration. 642. Norton, Mary Beth and Ruth M. Alexander, eds. Major Problems in American Women’s History: Documents and Essays. Boston/New York: 2007. Chapter 11 is titled “The ‘New Woman’ in Public Life and Politics, 1900–1930.” A brief introduction deﬁning the American New Woman of the early twentieth century precedes reprints of these essays: “Mary Church Terrell Praises the Club Work of Colored Women,” 1901; “Mary Church Terrell Describes Lynching from a Negro’s Point of View,” 1904; “The U.S. Supreme Court Upholds a Maximum Hours Law for Working Women in Muller v. Oregon,” 1908; “Margaret Dreier Robins Describes the Purposes of the Women’s Trade Union League,” 1909; “Jane Addams Applauds the ‘Beginnings of a New Conscience’ Regarding the ‘Ancient Evil’ of Prostitution,” 1912; “Inez Haynes Irwin Recalls the Militance of Suffragists in the National Woman’s Party,” 1921; “Elsie Hill and Florence Kelley Take Opposing Positions on a Proposed Woman’s Equal Rights Bill,”

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1922; and “Margaret Sanger Publishes Letters Documenting American Wives’ and Husbands’ Urgent Need for Legal Birth Control,” 1829. 643. Owens, Carolyn Jill Tedford. “Topical Themes in the Fiction of Netta Syrett, 1890–1920.” Ph.D. diss., University of Mississippi, 1984. Owens dealt with the contemporary issues of the New Woman and marriage she identiﬁed in Syrett’s Nobody’s Fault, Drender’s Daughter, Rose Cottingham, The Tree of Life, and Ann Page. In discussing Nobody’s Fault, The Tree of Life, Drender’s Daughter, Rose Cottingham, and Rose Cottingham Married, she focused on socialist theory. She investigated themes of the supernatural in Syrett’s Barbara of the Thorn, “Sylvia,” A Castle of Dreams, and “A Birthday.” She proposed that in Syrett’s New Woman novels, the female protagonists become independent after rebelling against parents, teachers, and/or marriage partners and discovering how difﬁcult being on one’s own can be.

644. Patterson, Martha Helen. Beyond the Gibson Girl: Reimagining the American New Woman, 1815–1915. Chicago/Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005. The ﬁrst four chapters of this 2005 volume rest on earlier scholarship published in journals and/or Patterson’s 1997 dissertation. Chapter 5, “Mary Johnston, Ellen Glasgow, and the Evolutionary Logic of Progressive Reform,” has added Glasgow to the mix ( Johnston’s oeuvre was considered in the dissertation). In the ﬁnal chapter, “Willa Cather and the Fluid Mechanics of the New Woman,” Patterson provided extensive analysis regarding New Women protagonists in Cather’s short stories as well as in the following novels: Alexander’s Bridge (1912), Oh Pioneers! (1913), and The Song of the Lark (1915). Patterson’s analysis considers issues related to the eastern and western parts of the United States, the meaning of water and land, and gender and ethnicity.

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645. ____. “Incorporating the New Woman in Wharton’s The Custom of the Country.” Studies in American Fiction 26 (Fall 1998): 213–36. The protagonist of Wharton’s The Custom of the Country, Undine Spragg, is the subject of this article. Patterson believed Undine was the closest Wharton came to inventing a New Woman character, but Undine’s dependence upon men makes that questionable, particularly as a good portion of Patterson’s argument places Undine in the “shift in patriarchal tactics from the old entrepreneurial to the new managerial corporate capitalism.” 646. ____. “Survival of the Best Fitted: Selling the American New Woman as Gibson Girl, 1895–1910.” American Transcendental Quarterly 9 (1995): 73–87. In this encompassing discussion of Charles Dana Gibson’s “Gibson Girl,” a turn-of-thecentury icon of female modernity, Patterson suggested that the plethora of Gibson girl images helped create a stabilized American identity during a period of “immense social and political turmoil.” The images, popular enough to appear on a variety of objects, were collected by and exchanged among contemporary women. In the era of Darwinist theory, the rights and freedoms of women exploited and were exploited by this New Woman imagery. 647. ____. “‘Survival of the Best Fitted’: The Trope of the New Woman in Margaret Murray Washington, Pauline Hopkins, Sui Sin Far, Edith Wharton, and Mary Johnston, 1895–1914.” Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1996. What is now known as the Progressive Era (1895–1914) produced many important women writers. This dissertation explores the works the authors of the title in light of their reﬂecting the many reform issues that society grappled with at the time. 648. Pepper, Harriet Murdock. “The New Woman: Images of Women in the Short Stories of Harriet Prescott Spofford.”

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Ph.D. diss., State University of New York, Albany, 1990. Although examining Spofford’s portrayal of women within the context of the New Woman, Pepper admitted that the characters fall into the traditional roles of wife and mother. Nevertheless she argued that Spofford’s women are not submissive to their men but exist on an equal plane.

649. Perkins, Wendy. “Virginia Woolf ’s Dialogues with the ‘New Woman.’” Family Matters in the British and American Novel. Ed. Elizabeth Mahn Nollen and Sheila Reitzel Foor. Bowling Green, Ohio: Popular Press, 1997. The discussion centers on Mrs. Ramsey and Lily, the female protagonists in To the Lighthouse. Perkins argued that these characters mirror Woolf ’s ambivalence as to liberated and to domestic woman. 650. Perrot, Michelle. “The New Eve and the Old Adam: French Women’s Condition at the Turn of the Century.” Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars. Ed. Margaret Randolph Higonnet et al. New Haven, Connecticut/London: Yale University Press, 1987. This short piece on the New Woman in France discusses how World War I reined them in, returning them to traditional roles. 651. Pﬁsterer, Susan. “Cultural Anxiety and the New Woman Playwright: Mrs. E. S. Haviland’s On Wheels.” Australasian Drama Studies 27 (October 1995), 143–50. In 1896 Mrs. E. S Haviland wrote On Wheels, a New Woman play in three acts that Pﬁsterer located in handwritten manuscript form in Sydney’s Mitchell Library. Pﬁsterer surmised from the costume descriptions that Haviland’s play had been performed, but she found no reviews or further evidence to prove it. Her analysis of the play focuses on the freedom the bicycle provided New Women, on the role cross-dressing played in framing the older, self-proclaimed New Woman protagonist Moggs, and on gender-role issues as a whole.

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652. Pitavy, Souques D. “Presenting the New Woman: Some Narrative Strategies Used by Ellen Glasgow, Kate Chopin, and Willa Cather.” Revue Francois d Etudes Americaines 69 ( June 1996), 67–76. This article presents an analysis of turn-of-thecentury authors presenting the New Woman by rejecting conventional images of women. Avant-garde painting, music, and political discussions inspired them. They aimed to redeﬁne the traditional role of women through their novels: Ellen Glasgow in The Descendant (1897) and Virginia (1913), Kate Chopin in The Awakening (1899), and Willa Cather in My Antonia (1918) and A Lost Lady (1923). Each author presented women who are strong, intellectual, and on a par with men. The female characters in the novels see themselves as important and realize their positions in the world around them. 653. Priesand, S. Judaism and the New Woman. New York: Behrman, 1975. Chapter 7, “The Jewish Mother Stereotype,” of this survey of the position of women through Jewish history puts her in the context of modern literature in the United States. Chapter 8, “Great Jewish Women,” includes names as well as information on some women who made their mark at the turn of the twentieth century. 654. Prieto, Laura R. At Home in the Studio: The Professionalization of Women Artists in America. Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Harvard University Press, 2001. Chapter 5, titled “Portrait of the Artist as a New Woman,” runs the gamut of ﬁn de siécle issues from bohemianism to suffrage. Prieto stressed links with suffrage and the New Woman and how these littleknown artists depicted feminist women. Though she described the pictures, a great void in the reproductions weakens her argument. 655. Pullen, Christine. “Amy Levy: Her Life, Her Poetry and the Era for the

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New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Kingston University, 2000.

656. Pushkareva, Natalia. Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century. Trans. and ed. Eve Levin. Armonk, New York, and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997. Chapter 4, “The New Women of the New Epoch: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” is a valuable contribution to understanding Russian women of the era. The chapter is divided into themes progressing chronologically. The ﬁrst segment of the chapter deals with women in politics, economics, and education, the second with customs of peasant women and their unenviable lives. It moves on to discuss women’s rights and organizations related to emancipation. The last topic is Russian fashion of the era. 657. Pykett, Lyn. The “Improper” Feminine, the Women’s Sensational Novel and the New Woman Writing. London: Routledge, 1992. Pykett’s thesis centers on the difﬁculty of New Women and New Women authors in divorcing themselves from the concept of True Womanhood. The book is divided into thirds with the ﬁrst part providing a deﬁnition of the New Woman. The second part deals with Mona Caird’s The Daughter of Danaus and Ménie Muriel Dowie’s Gallia and provides a brief introduction to Grand’s novels. The third part, “Breaking the Bounds: The Improper Feminine and the Fiction of the New Woman” is divided into subsections dealing with identifying and deﬁning the New Woman. Throughout the work, Pykett draws on the works of Mona Caird, Sarah Grand, Iota (K. M. Caffyn), George Egerton, Mary Cholmondeley, and Ella Hepworth Dixon in juxtaposition with contemporary criticism and modern theories. 658. ____. “Portraits of the Artist as a Young Woman: Representations of the Female Artist in the New Woman Fiction of the 1890s.” Victorian Women Writers and

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In this Adam Forepaugh & Sells Brothers Circus poster, c. 1896, a New Woman jumps through hoops while riding lightly on the bare back of the white horse. Two “clown women” look askance at her amazing tricks! Library of Congress. the Woman Question. Ed. Nicola Diane Thompson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Chapter 8 in this compilation of essays discusses issues related to several women writers that Thompson has arranged chronologically in terms of subject matter. Pykett’s contribution juxtaposes the biographical aspects of several Victorian writers with the lives of the female characters in their books, concluding that though the New Woman artist (musician, painter, or writer) may acquiesce to tradition in both life and ﬁction, striving toward nonconformity is a deﬁning trait.

659. Quance, Roberta. “Concha Mendez [Towards a New Woman]: Una Mujer Moderna.” Revista de Occidente 211

(December 1998): 103–14. This article describes the life and times of the modern woman from 1926 to 1936 in the “Generation of the 27” in Spain. Concha Mendez is one of these women. Part of the middle class of the era, Mendez lacked nothing materially, but spiritually and intellectually she was crushed, not being allowed to read a book or a newspaper. Other rebellious women such as Margarita Nelken reﬂected on the social condition of women, saying they needed moral emancipation to liberate them from their conventionalism, including the expected marriage. Despite Mendez’s marriage, she became an accomplished author, poet, and world traveler who hoped to produce some theatrical projects when she visited the United States. Various critics

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have stated that Mendez’s best work occurred during her marriage, and though Quance agreed to some extent, she was quick to point out that Mendez’s poetic maturity also coincided with the new dignity women enjoyed as citizens of the Republic, which broadened the legal status of women.

660. Raftery, Judith. “Chicago Settlement Women in Fact and Fiction: Hobart Chatﬁeld Chatﬁeld-Taylor, Clara Elizabeth Laughlin, and Elia Wilkinson Peattie Portray the New Woman.” Illinois Historical Journal 88 (Spring 1995), 37–58. This article investigates the connections between novels by Chatﬁeld-Taylor, Clara Elizabeth Laughlin, Elia Eilkinson Peattie and the life situations of prominent Chicago settlement workers, notably Jane Addams and her Hull House associates. The novels are: Two Women and a Fool by Chatﬁeld-Taylor, Just Folks (1910) by Laughlin, and The Precipice: A Novel by Peattie. The protagonists in the three novels are far from rubber-stamped; each New Woman has a way of fulﬁlling her calling to undertake social/settlement work, but their methods differ as do their personal lives. Raftery noted that the New Woman characters change between the ﬁrst and third novel to reﬂect the changes in settlement work. 661. Raub, Patricia. “A New Woman or an Old-fashioned Girl? The Portrayal of the Heroine in Popular Women’s Novels of the Twenties.” American Studies 35 (Spring 1994): 109–30. In examining popular women’s novels of the 1920s for their inﬂuence in shaping the attitudes of middleclass women of the era, Raub found that single female protagonists were not as liberated as might be expected. Often the women who gave the impression of being “ﬂappers” were in their hearts oldfashioned. 662. Reesman, Jeanne Campbell. “Jack London’s New Woman in a New World: Saxon Brown Roberts’s Journey into the

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Valley of the Moon.” American Literary Realism 24 (Winter 1992): 40–54. Reesman argued that London’s female protagonist, Saxon Brown Roberts, in The Valley of the Moon displays New Woman characteristics. In light of her husband Billy’s weaknesses, Saxon is a strong woman and makes major decisions, but she seems unrelated to the independent New Woman of the era. The section investigating London’s commentary on contemporary short stories is interesting, but otherwise the article is reminiscent of a book report.

663. Reilly, Joy Harriman. “From Wicked Woman of the Stage to New Woman: The Career of Olga Nethersole (1870–1951).” Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1984. This dissertation examines the life and works of little-known ﬁn-de-siècle English actress/manager Olga Nethersole. Her theatrical roles as temptress/seducer/ fallen woman were in direct opposition to her personal life. She was better appreciated in America, where she made eleven major theatrical tours between 1894 and 1914, more than in her native England. A successful businesswoman, she managed her own company and later left the stage to promote woman’s suffrage, health education, and social reform, thus proving herself a capable New Woman. 664. Rennick, Gregory. The Neue Frau: Representations of Women from Expressionism to the New Objectivity. McMaster Museum of Art with support from the City of Hamilton. Hamilton, Ontario: 2006. This 2006 exhibition featured images of women in German art from the ﬁrst quarter of the twentieth century. A brochure accompanied the exhibition. 665. Rich, Charlotte Jennifer. “Transgression and Convention: The New Woman and the Fiction of Kate Chopin, Edith Wharton, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman.” Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia, 1998. In the works of each of the novelists that Rich

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chose to investigate, the protagonists experience a tug-of-war between conventional and unconventional roles for women at the end of the nineteenth century. In her nonﬁction writing, Gilman called for a new literature to explore modern options for women. These novels answer the call, revealing how difﬁcult it was for women to break out of traditional roles while maintaining respectability.

666. Richardson, Angelique. “The Eugenization of Love: Darwin, Galton, and New Woman Fictions of Heredity and Eugenics.” Ph.D. diss., Birkbeck College, University of London, 1999. 667. ____. “The Eugenization of Love: Sarah Grand and the Morality of Geneology.” Victorian Studies 42 (Winter 1999/ 2000): 227–55. This thoughtful piece provides a new interpretation of Sarah Grand’s novels, thus countering Teresa Mangum’s claim that Grand rejects late nineteenthcentury interest in eugenics. Richardson substantiated her argument with the introductions Grand wrote to her novels. She maintained that Grand’s novels had more to do with eugenics than with modern feminism. Grand, Richardson argued, was interested in women taking control of their bodies for the purpose of racial progress. Grand’s work, Richardson maintained, was not an attack on the institution of marriage but was misinterpreted by late twentiethcentury scholars who made Grand into an anti-institutional ﬁgure. 668. Richardson, Angelique, and Chris Willis. The New Woman in Fiction and in Fact: Fin de Siècle Feminisms. London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2001. This collection of articles investigates the complexity and contradictory aspects of the New Woman at the ﬁn de siècle. See those related to New Woman ﬁction under authors Talia Schaffer, Chris Willis, Sarah Wintle, and Sally Ledger, in this volume. 669. Richardson, LeeAnne Marie. “En-

666–670

gendering Empire: The New Woman and the New Imperialism in Fin de Siècle Fiction.” Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 2000. Especially pertinent to study of the New Woman and Britain are chapters 3, “Staking Claims: Colonizing the New Woman Novel,” and 4, “‘Aboriginal’ Interventions: The New Woman Adventure Novel.” In chapter 3 Richardson examined Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1897), H. Rider Haggard’s She (1887), and Mr. Meeson’s Will (1888). Richardson has theorized that in these works the male authors appropriated New Woman tropes to serve their own masculine interests. Chapter 4 compares the literary works of Rudyard Kipling and those of the little-known author Flora Annie Steel, which have been all but forgotten. On the Face of the Waters (1896) is the focus. Race and gender ﬁgure in Richardson’s assessment of Steel’s oeuvre, with Richardson defending her against the criticism of those who have maintained that Steel’s work embraces Britain’s imperialism.

670. ____. New Women and Colonial Adventure Fiction in Victorian Britain: Gender, Genre, and Empire. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006. Especially pertinent to study of the New Woman and Britain are chapters 3, “Staking Claims: Colonizing the New Woman Novel,” and 4, “‘Aboriginal’ Interventions: The New Woman Adventure Novel.” In chapter 3 Richardson examined Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1897) plus H. Rider Haggard’s She (1887) and Mr. Meeson’s Will (1888). In these works, Richardson theorized, the male authors appropriated New Woman tropes to serve their own masculine interests. Chapter 4 compares the literary works of Rudyard Kipling with those of the little-known author Flora Annie Steel, primarily On the Face of the Waters (1896). Race and gender ﬁgure in the assessment; Richardson defends Steel against those maintaining that her work embraces Britain’s imperialism.

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671. Rijnbout, Frans A. “The ‘New Woman’ in Plays by Granville Barker and His Contemporaries.” Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1997. This dissertation examines New Woman characters in the plays of little-known Harley Granville Barker in comparison with the New Women in plays by better-known playwrights of the same era. Rijnbout identiﬁed the New Women in The Fugitive and A Family Man by John Galsworthy, Getting Married and Misalliance by George Bernard Shaw, and Votes for Women! by C. E. Raimond (Elizabeth Robins). These he juxtaposed with The Marrying of Ann Leete, The Voysey Inheritance, Waste, and The Madras House by Barker. He concluded that while all of the New Women exhibit meritorious characteristics, Barker’s characters exhibit greater truthfulness and individuality. 672. Robbins, Trina. “The Day of the Girl: Nell Brinkley and the New Woman.” New Woman Hybridities. Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham. London/ New York: Routledge, 2004. Essayist Robbins investigated the popular illustrations that Nell Brinkley created for Hearst publications from 1910 to 1930. Her thesis is that Brinkley’s gender inﬂuenced the tone of her writing and the progressive imagery she produced for works in the popular press. Rather than depict the leisured upper-class “girls” that Gibson drew, Brinkley depicted active working “girls,” drawing attention to the differences between the two. Robbins maintained that although the images may at ﬁrst appear to be glamour girls, they are more like the New Women of the early twentieth century. 673. Roberts, Mary Louise. Disruptive Acts: The New Woman in Fin-de-Siècle France. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. Chapter 1, “The New Woman,” in this valuable study of New Woman novels and plays set in ﬁn de siécle France is of particular interest. Roberts discussed the

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novels and plays within the context of contemporary criticism. The following chapters have more to do with the following actors/newswomen: Marguerite Durand, founder of the newspaper La Fronded; actor Sarah Bernhardt, Caroline Rémy (Séverine), and their relationships with the popular press. Often female reporters put on disguises or wrote under pseudonyms and likewise, actresses played men on stage, thus demonstrating how gender identities could be adopted and were in ﬂux.

674. Rodd-Rasplica, Laurel. “Yosano Akiko and the Taisho Debate over the ‘New Woman.’” Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945. Ed. Gail Lee Bernstein. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. A university production of Ibsen’s A Doll’s House opened in Tokyo in November 1911, starring Matsui Sumako (1886–1919). The critic Ihara Seiseien noted the reaction of two women in the audience (one a sister of a playwright and the other a playwright) and dubbed them atarashii onna (new women). During the fairly liberal era of “Taishõ democracy,” four prominent women came to the fore in an attempt to redeﬁne the roles of contemporary women: Yosano Akiko (1878–1942), Hiratsuka Raichõ (1886–1971), Yamakawa Kikue (1890–1980), and Yamada Waka (1879–1957). Seitõ (Bluestockings), founded by Raichõ in 1911 became the forum for feminist debate. This article, illustrated with wonderful photographs of the women and their families, deals with the lives of these New Women and their trials in trying to effect change. 675. Rosenberg, Rosalind. “New Psychology and the New Woman.” Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1982. Chapter 3 links John Dewey and the “new psychology” of the 1890s with the New Woman. The footnotes provide additional references to the New Woman.

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676. Rosenzweig, Linda W. The Anchor of My Life: Middle-Class American Mothers and Daughters, 1880–1920. New York: New York University Press, 1991. Chapter 5, “I Am So Glad You Could Go to College’: The ‘New Woman’ and Her Mother,” is speciﬁcally related to the New Woman. In this chapter Rosenzweig has presented information gleaned from journals and letters by the ﬁrst wave of young women who attended college in the United States. Her interest was in the reactions of the mothers of the young women: how these women from the generation of the “true woman” relate to their collegeeducated offspring. She found the majority of the mothers extremely supportive though they did not always agree with their daughters’ decisions. The majority of journals/letters are from young women attending eastern U.S. colleges and universities, especially the private “sister colleges.” Most are from upper-middle-class families, and most expressed concern regarding ﬁnances and how their absences affected their families. Those who went to graduate school generally did so in Europe (due to the reluctance of American universities to admit them), and sometimes their mothers accompanied them. A few of the New Women’s names are recognizable: M. Carey Thomas (later president of Bryn Mawr College), author Willa Cather, Virginia Gildersleeve (who taught at Columbia and became a dean at Barnard), and Crystal Eastman (whose mother was an exception to the “stay-at-home mom” stereotype in becoming the ﬁrst woman ordained in the Congregational Church). 677. Ross, Frances Mitchell. “The New Woman as Club Woman and Social Activist in Turn of the Century Arkansas.” Arkansas Historical Quarterly I (Winter 1991): 317–51. This article deals with the progressive reforms the Arkansas Federation of Women’s Clubs was able to enact statewide. Though the New Woman is linked to these accom-

676–678

In Cigarette Girl, photographer Robert Demachy depicted the smoking New Woman in a dramatic chiaroscuro for an issue of Alfred Steiglitz’s publication, Camera Notes, 6 July 1902. plishments in the title and occasionally in the text, there is little of the New Woman in the women of the federation. They were primarily interested in maintaining traditional roles for women (albeit improving them), Ross admitted that the federation “had long denied women’s rights interests.”

678. Ross, Sara. “The Americanization of Tsuru Aoki: Orientalism, Melodrama, Star Image, and the New Woman.” Camera Obscura 60 (Fall 2005): 129–56. The title of this article practically sums up its content of this article. Tsuru Aoki was a Japanese American who found her way to a career on the stage and to the arm of a Japanese actor/husband during the 1910s and 1920s. In her career she bridged the images of Japanese doll, sexualized Oriental courtesan, and modern American woman to become a respected actor. Ross explored the way in which the contemporary press cast Aoki and

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compared her with other female Hollywood actors of the era. Aoki was able to rise above both the courtesan/doll stereotypes and emerge as the honest working girl/good wife that suited both American and Japanese audiences.

679. Rotkirch, Anna. “New Woman with Old Feelings? Contrasting Kollontai’s and Colette’s Writings on Love.” Available online at www.valt.helsinki.ﬁ/staff/rotkirch/ kollontai%20and%20colette.pdf. In this article Rotkirch juxtaposed the political and personal views of the Russian author Alexandra Kollontai and the French author Colette (Willy), who were contemporaries (Kollontai lived from 1871 to 1952 and Colette from 1873 to 1953). The author analyzed themes in Kollontai’s famous essay of 1918, “The New Woman,” as well as her novel Red Love, originally published as Vasilisa Malygina (1924), and some lectures and essays. As to Colette’s work, Rotkirch focused on The Vagabond (1910) and The Pure and the Impure (1932).

680. Rowe, Victoria. “The ‘New Armenian Woman’”: Armenian Women’s Writing in the Ottoman Empire, 1880– 1915.” Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, 2000. 681. Rowland, Diane Baker. “Sisterhood and Social Conscience: The Emergence and Evolution of the Feminist New Woman in Selected American Fiction, 1864–1933.” Ph.D. diss., University of Miami, 1985. Although the title suggests a broader time frame, this study focuses on pre–World War I and the era between the two world wars. Rowland’s thesis is that the New Woman type in ﬁction was following the example of historical women who were active in reform causes. Fifteen American literary works are referenced chronologically, ending with the demise of the New Woman in relationship to the Great Depression and the onset of America’s involvement with World War II.

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682. Royster, Beatrice. “The Ironic Vision of Four Black Women Novelists: A Study of the Novels of Jessie Fauset, Nella Larsen, Zora Neale Hurston, and Ann Petry.” Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1975. 683. Rudnick, Lois Palken. “Feminist Utopian Visions and the ‘New Woman’: Jane Addams and Charlotte Perkins Gilman.” Gender, I-Deolog y: Essays on Theory, Fiction and Film. Ed. Cornut Gentille Chantal and Jose Angel Garcia-Landa. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996. 684. ____. Mabel Dodge Luhan: New Woman, New Worlds. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. One section of chapter 3, “Movers and Shakers,” deals with “The New Woman.” It includes a brief discussion of women such as Crystal Eastman, Henrietta Rodman, and Ida Rauh of Greenwich Village, all associates of Luhan. 685. ____. “The New Woman.” 1915, the Cultural Moment: The New Politics, the New Woman, the New Psycholog y, the New Art and the New Theatre in America. Ed. Adele Heller and Lois P. Rudnick. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1991. Rudnick distinguished between the two generations of the New Woman — the ﬁrst, which came to the fore in the 1890s, and her cultural descendant, who emerged in the 1910s. While the chapter is a general discussion on New Women, it speciﬁes several “literary, progressive, and radical” New Women. 686. Ruether, Rosemary Radford. New Woman New Earth: Sexist Ideologies and Human Liberation. New York: Seabury Press, 1975. Although not speciﬁcally oriented toward the New Woman of the 1890s, this is a valuable text. Ruether explained the transfer of control from a matriarchy to patriarchy in world religions. She also linked psychological and sociological movements to religion in this historical survey.

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687. Rupp, Leila J. “Feminism and the Sexual Revolution in the Early Twentieth Century: The Case of Doris Stevens.” Feminist Studies 15 (1989): 372–93. Doris Stevens was a New Woman in the 1910s and 1920s. Born in Nebraska, graduated from Oberlin College in 1911, and a major player in the National Women’s Party, she is now all but forgotten. Rupp relates her story and tells how her liberated heterosexual notions caused rifts with some, including Alice Paul, in the suffrage movement. 688. Russell, Mona L. “Creating the New Woman: Consumerism, Education, and National Identity in Egypt, 1863– 1922.” Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1997. In this work on women’s involvement in the rise of consumerism in Egypt , Russell used popular media (travel books, advertising, magazines) to reveal the impetus for change within the household and in women’s roles. She began by concentrating on Egyptian women of the middle and upper classes but concluded by comparing women’s roles in Egyptian consumer culture with those of the United States and western Europe. 689. Russell, Penny. “Recycling Femininity: Old Ladies and New Women.” Australian Cultural History 13 (1994), 31–51. Russell examined the relationship between the use of bicycles and the debate over the emergence of the New Woman in New South Wales. While some made arguments for the physical and mental beneﬁts of bicycle riding, the image of women on bicycles raised concerns about the nature of femininity, female emancipation and feminism, and female immorality. The analysis of contemporary writings reveals an emphasis on the bifurcation of the female body, health issues, and female sexuality. 690. Russell, Thomas Arthur. “Women’s Leadership Roles in the Student Christian Movement and the Rise of the New Woman, 1880–1920.” Ph.D. diss., Vander-

687–692

bilt University, 1999. This dissertation investigates the women leaders of the AngloProtestant Student Christian Movement (SCM) within the context of the New Woman movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Although the two movements may seem incongruous, Russell’s theorized that the leaders of the Christian organization intersected with feminism and became New Women themselves.

691. Ryan, Mary P. “The Projection of a New Womanhood: The Movie Moderns in the 1920s,” 113–30. Decades of Discontent: The Women’s Movement, 1920–1940. Ed. Lois Scharf and Joan M. Jensen. Westport, Connecticut/London: Greenwood, 1983. This overview of movies looks primarily at those of the 1920s in which female protagonists were imaged as the carefree, modern ﬂapper, or New Woman. Unlike the New Woman of the 1890s, she was presented within the context of looser modern sexual codes and thereby was somewhat objectiﬁed. She was usually a “working girl,” but unlike her mother who was a domestic or older sister who was a factory worker, this New Woman had a job behind a counter or a desk. And always, the way out of her lowpaying, unsatisfying job was to marry a rich man. 692. Sato, Barbara Hamill. The New Japanese Woman: Modernity, Media, and Women in Interwar Japan. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2003. Sato identiﬁed three types of modern Japanese women during the era between the two world wars: the modern girl (modan gã ru), the self-motivated housewife (shufu), and the professional working woman (shokug yõ fujin). Her thesis is that the three types were directly motivated by a new consumer culture and by the women’s magazines that promulgated these new commodities and modernist ideas. Subsequently they brought about change in women’s identities, points of view, and behavior.

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This comprehensive study of Japanese women during that era includes black-andwhite photos (and a few color plates) from contemporary magazines.

693. Scanlon, Leon. “New Women in the Literature of 1883–1909,” University of Michigan Papers in Women’s Studies 2 (2) (1976): 133–58. Beginning with Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm (1883) and concluding with Ann Veronica by H. G. Wells (1909), Scanlon provided analysis of the chronological progression of New Woman characteristics in the ﬁctional protagonists of the era he identiﬁed. His thesis is that from 1883 to 1909 a gradual integration of the Victorian “Ideal” woman took place: Lyndall of The Story of an African Farm is militant and aggressive (essentially more male), whereas Ann Veronica, deﬁnitely an independent creature, exhibits feminine traits, thus signifying a more realistic and acceptable New Woman. 694. Schaffer, Talia. “‘Nothing But Foolscap and Ink’: Inventing the New Woman.” The New Woman in Fiction and in Fact. Ed. Angelique Richardson and Chris Willis. London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2001. Here Schaffer challenged other scholars in their interpretations of Sarah Grand and Ouida’s famous March and May articles in North American Review (1894). Focusing more on Ouida than on Grand, she theorized that Ouida constructed a radically feminist persona for the New Woman so that her views and lifestyle might be seen in a more conservative light. Further, she argued that though scholars have polarized Grand and Ouida, their views on women’s issues were not so far aﬁeld and that both used the press to construct a New Woman that suited their purposes. The quote in the title comes from a line in a jingle published in Punch (26 May 1894).

695. Scharf, Lois, and Joan M. Jensen, eds. Decades of Discontent: The Women’s Movement, 1920–1940. Westport, Connecti-

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cut/London: Greenwood, 1983. In this compilation, two articles — chapter 1, “The New Woman: Changing Views of Woman in the 1920s” by Estelle B. Freedman, and chapter 5, “The Projection of a New Womanhood: The Movie Moderns in the 1920s” by Mary P. Ryan, are especially pertinent to the New Woman. See annotations under the name of the respective authors.

696. Schneider, Dorothy, and Carl J. Schneider. American Women in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920. New York: Facts on File, 1993. A division of chapter 5 is titled “Sex and the New Woman” though references to the New Woman occur throughout the text. The claim (p. 16) that the New Woman was “quintessentially American” is in error. 697. Schoemperlen, Diane. Vital Signs: New Woman Writers in Canada. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Oberon Press, 1998. 698. Scott, Ann Firor. “The ‘New Woman’ in the New South.” The South Atlantic Quarterly 56 (Autumn 1962): 473– 83. Southern women’s experiences were tempered by the ideas and inﬂuence of their northern sisters, causing them to reassess traditionally proscribed gender roles. The southern New Woman tended to be wealthy and educated, and Scott asserted that in the Reconstruction Era increased travel opportunities provided access to new places and new ideas, and women so responded to the “Women’s Movement.” Their membership in respectable groups such as missionary societies, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), women’s clubs, and village improvement societies, made their activities socially acceptable. 699. ____. “What, Then, Is the American: This ‘New Woman?’” Journal of American History 65 (December 1978): 679–705. This is an article about Emma Willard (1787–1870), best known for starting the Troy (New York) Female Seminary in 1821.

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The school became one of the most famous in the United States due to Willard’s insistence that the curriculum mirror that of men’s institutions, where mathematics and sciences were taught.

700. Seaton, Esta Klein. “The Changing Image of the American Woman in a Mass-Circulation Periodical: The Ladies’ Home Journal, 1890–1919.” Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota: 1967. In the ﬁrst section, titled “The New Woman,” of chapter 8, titled “Continuity, Challenge, and Change: 1914–1919,” Seaton outlined The Ladies’ Home Journal’s previous anti–New Woman stance and how it changed somewhat with the September 1914 issue. She then advocated the “busy woman” and the more relaxed attitudes toward the New Woman, still extolling the advantages of the woman at home. 701. Séllei, Nóra. “A Hungarian New Woman Writer and a Hybrid Autobiographical Subject: Margit Kaffka’s ‘Lyrical Notes of a Year.’” New Woman Hybridities. Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham. London/New York: Routledge, 2004. Essayist Séllei located the hybridity between writer Margit Kaffka and her autobiographical work. The work Séllei analyzed is Kaffka’s “Lyrical Notes of a Year,” dealing with the early years of World War I and Kaffka’s early marriage. Though Séllei identiﬁed Kaffka as a “New Woman writer,” few New Woman characteristics are evident in either her life or in that of her female protagonist. 702. Senf, Carol A. “Dracula: Bram Stoker’s Response to the New Woman.” Victorian Studies 26 (1982): 33–49. This discussion about New Woman issues in Dracula treats Stoker as ambivalent toward the New Woman — he believes in gender equality but not in regard to sex, choosing the traditional career of wife and mother for his heroines. 703. Shapiro, Susan C. The Mannish New Woman: Punch and Its Precursors.”

700–705

The Review of English Studies, New Series 42 (November 1991): 510–22. As the title suggests, the author juxtaposed imagery and prose regarding the New Woman of the 1890s (especially that found in Punch) with liberated women of previous eras. Shapiro maintained that the New Woman was part of the scene at least from the medieval era as manuscript illustrations depict athletic women on their borders. Although the author’s focus on sports and sports-related clothing, no illustrations are included. 704. Sharp, Ingrid. “Riding the Tiger: Ambivalent Representations of the New Woman in the Periodicals of the Weimar Republic.” New Woman Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism, and International Consumer Culture, 1880–1930. Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham. London/ New York: Routledge, 2003. This essay discusses the manner in which women were depicted both in literature and in images in Germany during the era known as the Weimar Republic (1919–33). Sharp investigated the manner in which the controversial New Woman was marketed differently in three of Berlin’s popular periodicals: Die Dame (Lady), Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung (Berlin Illustrated Newspaper or BIZ), and UHU. Sharp also discussed the manner in which each journal responded to the New Woman protagonist in Vicki Baum’s serialized novel, Stud. Chem. Helene Willfüer.

705. Shen, Ruihua. “New Woman, New Fiction: Autobiographical Fictions by Twentieth-Century Chinese Women Writers.” Ph.D. diss., Eugene: University of Oregon, 2003. In the ﬁrst half of the twentieth century, Chinese women writers adopted autobiographical ﬁctional writing so that their voices could be heard. This dissertation examines these works called “authentic literature” by the authors and places it within the context of the New Woman movement. Shen theorized that their literature is not any more coherent than the image of the New Woman and that gener-

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ally it conﬂicts with male portrayals of the modern Chinese female.

was, and continues to be, the butt of ridicule and misogynist insecurity.

706. Sherrard-Johnson, Charlene. Portraits of the New Negro Woman: Visual and Literary Culture in the Harlem Renaissance. New Brunswick, New Jersey/London: Rutgers University Press, 2007. Chapter 2, “Jessie Fauset’s New Negro Woman Artist and the Passing Market” is most pertinent to New Woman study. Fauset’s protagonist in Plum Bun, Angela Murray, is lightskinned and can pass for white. She is a New Woman pursuing a career as a painter. She encounters problems related to gender, class, and race during the 1920s/30s in New York’s Fourteenth Street artistic milieu. This works also relates Fauset’s work to that of her contemporaries and to issues of the consumerism of the era. Into this investigation of other artists in the area and to the Harlem Renaissance, the author has woven real-life incidents and experiences into her analysis of Fauset’s works. Although Sherrard-Johnson did not imply that Fauset’s stories are autobiographical, she related incidents from the lives of AfricanAmerican artists that illustrate Fauset’s knowledge of contemporary events.

709. ____. Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle, New York: Penguin, 1991. References to the New Woman are made throughout the book, but chapter 3, “New Women,” is devoted to an exploration of gender relations. Showalter examined these relations from the perspective of the socialist underpinnings of the women, particularly through in the works of Olive Schreiner and Eleanor Marx.

707. Shor, Francis Robert. Utopianism and Radicalism in a Reforming America, 1888–1918. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 1997. Chapter 2, “The ‘New Woman’ in Turn-of-the Century Utopian Fiction: Bellamy’s Equality and Gilman’s ‘A Woman’s Utopia,’” relates speciﬁcally to the title text. Shor juxtaposed Bellamy’s and Gilman’s feminist writings and found them lacking in “equality,” especially as they relate to gender, race, and class. Though both intellectualized gender equality, motherhood and family life remained paramount for them. 708. Showalter, Elaine. “Feminists under Fire: Images of the New Woman from the Nineties to the 1990s.” Times Literary Supplement ( June 25, 1993): 14–15. This short piece tells how the New Woman

710. Showalter, Elaine, ed. Daughters of Decadence: Women Writers of the Fin de Siècle. London: Virago, 1993. This collection of eighteen short stories written by women from 1880 to 1918 takes a feminist bent. The authors range from famous women such as Charlotte Perkins Gilman to the little known Ada Leverson and Vernon Lee. Showalter’s introduction provides historical context for the stories. 711. Silverman, Debra. “The ‘New Woman,’ Feminism and the Decorative Ants in Fin de Siècle France.” Eroticism and the Body Politic. Ed. Lynn Hunt. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. Female images that proliferated at French art exhibitions turned from femme fatale to femme féconde as the nineteenth century moved into the twentieth. Silverman posited that this conservative backlash was overreaction to concern about the emergence of the femme nouvelle (New Woman). Because women’s sphere was linked historically with the interior of the home and its associative decorative arts in France, the male establishment of the Central Union of the Decorative Arts assigned women a greater role in developing their own exhibition (1895) and in conceiving the art nouveau style. This, according to Silverman was done not out of generosity but of fear of the New Woman. 712. Simpson, Anne B. “Architects of the Erotic: H. G. Wells’s ‘New Woman.’”

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Seeing Double: Revisioning Edwardian and Modernist Literature. Ed. Darola M. Kaplan and Anne B. Simpson. New York: St. Martin’s, 1996. In this chapter Simpson analyzes the protagonists in Wells’s Edwardian novels Ann Veronica (1909) and The Wife of Sir Isaac Harman (1914). Though Simpson credits Wells for having made an attempt to infuse both Ann Veronica and Lady Ellen Harman with a semblance of independence, both women abandon New Womanhood for tradition. Wells also wrote two tracts indicating empathy for the “Woman Question,” but in the novels he was unable to create female characters who attained equality, likely reﬂecting his reticence towards modernity.

713. Singh, Uma. New Woman and Mass Media. Jaipur, India: Surabhi, 2002.

713–715

714. Slaybaugh, Douglas. “From New Womanhood to Companionate Marriage in the Progressive Era: The Case of Frances Cochran MacDaniels.” Ohio History 111: 183–97. From every indication, Frances Cochran (the great-granddaughter of Charles Grandison Finney) would become a New Woman in the area of social work after her graduation from Oberlin College in 1912. Her plans went awry, however, and she married a former classmate and settled into marriage and domestic life. In this article. Slaybaugh investigated the brief period when these changes took place in Cochran’s life. 715. Smith, Catherine Munn. “Marion Moodie: From Proper Lady to New Woman.” Alberta History 49 (Winter 2001): 9–15. This brief biographical sketch depicts

Crusade against the New Woman. It is apparent that this Cincinnati assemblyman was dead set against the New Women depicted in active poses around his cameo portrait. Cincinnati Enquirer, 27 December 1896.

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how the Canadian nurse Marion Moodie transformed herself from ideal woman to New Woman as she went from caring for the family at home to caring for people in rural communities to becoming a nurse in the Canadian Army Medical Corps during World War I.

4 investigate themes related to childhood, women’s friendship, and cross-dressing in works by George Egerton, Ménie Muriel Dowie, Emma Frances Brooke, and Mary Cholmodeley, which Smith suggests showed greater potential for wishful thinking than political change.

716. Smith, Greg M. “Silencing the New Woman: Ethnic and Social Mobility in the Melodramas of Norma Talmadge.” Journal of Film and Video 48 (Fall 1996): 3–16. The silent ﬁlm star Norma Talmadge was capable of portraying women of disparate ethnic identities, Smith wrote, through her use of costume. Talmadge crossed class barriers in her portrayal of New Women who were upwardly mobile, thus transcending their humble beginnings. Her characters found success in careers and turned later to the traditional roles of wives and mothers, choosing mates who provided a secure future. This is the path of the second-generation New Woman, and though Smith did not make the distinction, he painted a representative portrait.

719. Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “Discourses of Sexuality and Subjectivity: The New Woman 1870–1936.” Hidden From History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past. Ed. Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus. and George Chauncey Jr. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1991. Rhetoric constructed by male sexologists at the start of the twentieth century controlled the responses of the ﬁrst generation of New Women, who had no sexual language with which to retort and thus enraged their younger sisters. These New Women of the World War I era and beyond used the sexologists’ discourse to combat gender distinctions, thereby inverting “the very process of bourgeois myth formation.” At the end are literary examples of how New Woman discourse was formulated and how it challenged the men’s language.

717. Smith, Joan, ed. Femmes de Siécle from the 90s: Women Writing at the End of Two Centuries. London: Chatto and Windus, 1992. This is a collection of short stories from the ends of two centuries — the nineteenth and the twentieth. About half of the late Victorian-era stories were published in The Yellow Book. The reader may recognize some of them: Ella D’Arcy, Ada Leverson, Charlotte Mew, Olive Schreiner, Evelyn Sharp, Netta Syrett (Christina Middleton), and Edith Wharton. 718. Smith, Sherri Catherine. “Civic Fantasy: New Women Fiction, Citizenship, and the Limits of the Aesthetic.” Ph.D. diss. Indiana University, 2000. In chapters 1 and 2 of this dissertation Smith used the novels of Mona Caird, Sarah Grand, Mrs. Everard Cotes, and Iota to explore the tension between politics and what she referred to as “aesthetic perversion.” Chapters 3 and

720. ____. Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America. New York: Knopf, 1985. In this examination of education and the New Woman, SmithRosenberg asserted that the New Woman originated as a “literary phrase popularized by Henry James” but then stated that James was referring to American women in Europe. The last chapter, “The New Woman as Androgyne: Social Disorder and Gender Crisis, 1870–1936” considers issues of sex. 721. ____. “The New Woman and the New History.” Feminist Studies 3 (Fall 1975): 185–98. In this article Smith-Rosenberg suggested new methodologies for studying the history of women, heretofore the silent majority. 722. Sochen, June. The New Woman: Feminism in Greenwich Village, 1910–1920.

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New York: Quadrangle, 1972. This book discusses literary ﬁgures in Greenwich Village — New Women and their men. The second-wave New Women featured are Crystal Eastman, Henrietta Rodman, Ida Rauh, Neith Boyce, and Susan Glaspell.

723. Sokolsky, Anne Elizabeth. “Not Just a New Woman Writer: The Political Awakenings in Tamura Toshiko’s Fiction from 1936 to 1938.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2003. Sokolsky maintained that Toshiko is the most important Japanese New Woman writer of the late Meiji (1968–1912) and the Taishô (1912– 1926) eras. After having lived in North America for eighteen years she returned to Japan from 1926 to 1938, when Japan was under military rule. Her books relate the racism she and others experienced while abroad and the alienation she felt as a “returnee.” Her works predate the postcolonial theories of better-known male scholar/authors such as Edward Said, Homi Bhabha, and Trinh T. Minh-ha. Sokolsky noted the manner in which Toshiko was able to traverse East and West, referring to this as “ﬂuid marginality.” 724. Solomon, Alisa. Re-dressing the Canon: Essays on Theatre and Gender. London/New York: Routledge, 1997. Chapter 2, “The New Drama and the New Woman: Reconstructing Ibsen’s Realism,” is of special interest. Here the author argued for a realistic and feminist interpretation of Ibsen’s A Doll House and Hedda Gabler. Solomon juxtaposed contemporary criticism with recent scholarship to support her argument ending with three productions of the late twentieth century (1981 and two in 1991) that she believed show the female protagonists in the manner Ibsen intended. 725. Sorel, Nancy Caldwell. The Women Who Wrote the War. New York: Arcade, 1999. In the very short chapter 19 are provided biographical sketches of several women who became foreign correspondents

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at the end of World War II. Although all of them were employed by American newspapers/magazines, Iris Carpenter of the Boston Globe was British. The others were Virginia Irwin of the Saint Louis Post-Dispatch, Lee Carson of INS (International News Service), Marjorie “Dot” Avery of the Detroit Free Press, Catherine Coyne of the Boston Herald, Helen Kirkpatrick of the Chicago Daily News, and Martha Gellhorn (wife of Ernest Hemingway) of Collier’s.

726. Spires, Robert C. “New Art, New Woman, Old Constructs: Gomez de la Serna, Pedro Salinas, and Vanguard Fiction.” Modern Language Notes 115 (March 2000): 205–23. Although written in English, this theoretical discussion of Gómez’s El Novelista and Salinas’s Vispera del Gozo includes pertinent passages in Spanish. The novels were written in reaction to 1920s and ’30s modernism, and Spires refuted the female protagonists representation the New Woman. He also concluded that although the protagonists’ were more objectiﬁed than liberated, they paved the way for more positive feminist representations later in the century. 727. Spring, Joel H. Images of American Life: A History of Ideological Management in Schools, Movies, Radio, and Television. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. In chapter 4, “Controlling Sexuality: Youth Culture, The New Woman, and Movies in the 1920s,” Spring investigated the sexuality of youth in the 1920s. Educators and sexologists agreed then that the emancipated woman, movies, and youth culture all contributed to a loosening of sexual mores. People believed the solution was to direct young men’s sexual energy into socially acceptable and constructive activities such as athletics, clubs, student government, and other extracurricular activities and that young women’s sexual urge was conﬁned to reproduction. Both were admonished to engage in sexual activity only within the sanctity of marriage.

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728. Stein, Joseph. “The New Woman and the Decadent Dandy.” Dalhousie Review 5 (1975): 54–62. In this short article Stein situated the Regency Dandy and the New Woman of the 1890s primarily within the context of Max Beerbohm’s literary works: Works and More, Yet Again, and Zuleika Dobson. 729. Stephens, Judith L. “Why Marry?: The ‘New Woman’ of 1918.” The Theatre Journal 34 (May 1982): 183–96. Jesse Lynch Williams’s three-act play Why Marry? won the ﬁrst Pulitzer Prize for the genre. In this essay, Stephens analyzed the New Woman protagonist according to four characteristics that identiﬁed as those “assigned to women … as standards for comparison.” Stephens lamented the identiﬁcation of the female protagonists in the novels of ﬁve major Western authors by their ﬁrst names

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only while she referred to the protagonist of Why Marry? only as “Helen.”

730. Stetz, Margaret Diane. British Women’s Comic Fiction, 1890–1990: Not Drowning, but Laughing. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate, 2001. In chapter 1, “The Laugh of the Medusa,” Stetz dealt with the difﬁculty the New Woman writers of the 1890s had in working with humor in their short stories and novels. Literally a doublesided sword, feminist humor could be interpreted in two ways — simply as defensive, countering men’s vitriolic humor, or as reinforcing all that was negative about the New Woman. Little about this long chapter (forty-nine pages) seems humorous (Stetz was defensive at times), but she raised issues that many New Women scholars have ignored and investigated literature that others did qualify as “New Woman.”

These New Women await being served tea, but the man of the house indicates his displeasure with their liberated views by deciding to have his tea with the servants who, he indicates, are more feminine. Punch, or the London Charivari, 15 June 1895.

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731. ____. “Keynotes: A New Woman, Her Publisher and Her Material Studies.” Studies in the Literary Imagination 30 (Spring 1997): 89–105. This is a long but fascinating tale of a ﬁrst-edition copy of Keynotes, a novel by George Egerton (Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright). Egerton gave the hand-inscribed book to her publisher, John Lane, in March 1895. Because it was a presentation copy, and perhaps because she did not care for the original cover, the author made a satin embroidered cover especially for Lane. Thus, Stetz argued, Egerton conﬂated the meaning of brainwork and handiwork. The book turned up at a Christie’s auction in 1988, and Stetz carefully researched for its earlier whereabouts. 732. ____. “The Laugh of the New Woman.” The Victorian Comic Spirit: New Perspectives. Ed. Jennifer A. Wagner-Lawlor. Aldershot, GB, Brookﬁeld, U.S.A., Singapore, and Sydney: Ashgate, 2000. Chapter 12 examines the role of laughter/humor in mid-to-late nineteenth-century literature. It reveals how laughter was used to construct unequal gender relations; though women may have been able to make temporary strides by subjugating male humor, its long-term effects were not successful. The authors investigated are Ella Hepworth Dixon, Edith Nesbit, Alice Meynell, Laura Marholm Hansson, and George Egerton (Mary Chavelita Dunne).

733. ____. “Odd Woman, Half Woman, Superﬂuous Woman: What was the New Woman?” Iris 11 (1984): 20–21. The ﬁrst page is a summary deﬁning the New Woman of the late nineteenth century. The second contains two New Woman cartoons. 734. Stevens, Sarah E. “Fuguring Modernity: The New Woman and the Modern Girl in Republican China.” NWSA Journal 15 (Fall 2003): 82–102. Stevens focused on Chinese Women in ﬁction during

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the Republican era in China (1911–1949). She divided women into the two groups referenced in the title: the New Woman and the Modern Girl. Her thesis was that the New Woman was a symbol for modernity in China, whereas the Modern Girl represented anxieties regarding China’s attempt to become a modern nation. The term New Woman was likely ﬁrst used in China by Hushi, an intellectual of the May 4 uprising after World War I. Stevens characterized the two types with similar visual traits, New Woman more politically astute and the Modern Girl as a femme fatale with an advanced libido. According to Stevens, many people, including some scholars, did not distinguish between them.

735. Stott, Annette. “Prairie Madonnas and Pioneer Women: Images of Emigrant Women in the Art of the Old West.” Prospects: An Annual of American Cultural Studies 21 (1996): 299–325. Stott divided images of women and children in the American West into two groups. Those created between 1840 and 1890 she called “Prairie Madonnas” and likened to the Ideal Woman. Those created after 1890 she called “Pioneer Women,” likening them to the New Woman of the era. She admitted that they and their earlier sisters were independent types. 736. Stubbs, Patricia. Women and Fiction: Feminism and the Novel, 1880–1920. London: Methuen, 1981. The only mention in this work of the New Woman is a discussion of Eliza Lynn Linton’s antifeminist novel The New Woman in Haste and at Leisure (1895). 737. Studlar, Gaylyn. “Out-Salomeing Salome: Dance, the New Woman and Fan Magazine Orientalism.” Michigan Quarterly Review 34 (Fall 1995): 487–510. This essay discusses the popularity of Orientalism in Hollywood ﬁlms and in dance from 1916 to 1926. The New Woman’s desire for freedom was exempliﬁed in the American concert

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dance. This was a place where the “emblematic value of the Orient as a locus of release from repression could be safely acted out with pagan abandon.”

738. Sutton, Katie. “Female Masculinity in Weimar Cinema.” Trafﬁc 4 ( January 2004): 27–48. During the interwar era in Weimar Germany, three ﬁlms that posed the New Woman in terms of her new sexuality were produced in three consecutive years: Pandora’s Box (Die Büchse der Pardora) directed by Georg Wilhelm Pabst, 1929, Morroco (Marokko) directed by Josef von Sternberg, 1930, and Girls in Uniform (Mädchen in Uniform) directed by Leontine Sagan, 1931. This paper examines the role of the New Woman in the ﬁlms through the psychoanalytic theory of previous scholarship, while proposing a new interpretation using queer ﬁlm criticism. 739. “Symposium on The New Woman.” Current History 27 (1927): 1–48. The editors made it clear in the preface that they had no opinion on the “controversy.” The proceedings include the following papers: • Carrie Chapman Catt. “Woman Suffrage Only an Episode in Age-Old Movement,” 1–6 • Charlotte Perkins Gilman. “Woman’s Achievements Since the Franchise,” 7–14 • Leta S. Hollingsworth. “The New Woman in the Making,” 15–20 • Anthony M. Ludovici. “Woman’s Encroachment on Man’s Domain,” 21– 25 • Martha Bensley Bruère. “The Highway to Woman’s Happiness,” 26–29 • Hugh L. McMenamin. “Evils of Woman’s Revolt against the Old Standards,” 30–32 • Joseph Collins. “Woman’s Morality in Transition,” 33–40

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• Magdaleine Marx. “Frenchwomen’s Lack of Political Progress,” 41–48.

740. Tanner, Ailsa. Bessie MacNicol: New Woman. Edinburgh: The author, 1998. This biography of the late nineteenthcentury Glasgow artist Bessie MacNicol includes material on the art scene in Glasgow during the era. MacNicol studied brieﬂy in Paris and was inﬂuenced by the Impressionists. She exhibited many places in Scotland, England, on the Continent, and in the United States. Her works are primarily portraits, many among the collections of museums including the National Gallery of Scotland. Since MacNicol’s career was largely undocumented and she died in 1904 at age thirty-four, Tanner relied on extant letters and newspaper reports for much of her information. The book is highly illustrated with ﬁne-quality color reproductions. 741. Terborg-Penn, Rosalyn. “Discontented Black Feminists: Prelude and Postscript to the Passage of the Nineteenth Amendment.” Decades of Discontent: The Women’s Movement, 1920–1940. Ed. Joan and Lila Scharf. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1983. 742. ____. “Discrimination against African-American Women in the Women’s Movement.” Afro-American Woman: Struggles and Images. Ed. Sharon Harley and Rosalyn Terborg-Penn. Port Washington, New York: Kennikat, 1987. 743. Thébaud, Françoise. A History of Women in the West: Toward a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Belknap, 1994. In this collection of essays several authors deal brieﬂy with New Women of Russia, France, Italy, Great Britain, and Germany. 744. Thomas, Mary Martha. The New Woman in Alabama: Social Reform and Suffrage, 1890–1920. Birmingham: University of Alabama Press, 1992. In this work, the

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author elaborated on article above and celebrated Alabama women who were heretofore overlooked. The chapter on Black Women’s Clubs is an important contribution. A list of unpublished manuscripts in the back of the book is a ﬁnd for anyone examining southern women.

conservative playwrights maintained the status quo in regard to opportunities for women, the New Woman emerged in many productions challenging outdated attitudes. In chapter 7, Thompson explored drama that attempts to reconcile the New Woman with the Old in posing liberated marriages.

745. ____. “The ‘New Woman’ in Alabama, 1890 to 1920.” Alabama Review 43 ( July 1990), 163–80. Thomas juxtaposed the activities of white women with those of black women throughout the text, but all the pictures she chose are of white women. Both white and black women were of the middle class, though the black women worked outside of home and the white women for the most part did not. Thomas posited that the women went from domestic feminism to municipal housekeeping. African Americans supported suffrage earlier than their white sisters, who approached the issue with trepidation.

748. Tichi, Cecelia. “Women Writers and the New Woman.” Columbia Literary History of the United States. Ed. Emory Elliott, Martha Banta, Terence Martin, et al. New York: Columbia University Press, 1987. This is an overview of American New Woman ﬁction written by women from the 1880s to the 1930s. Tiche concentrated on the authors Sarah Orne Jewett, Margaret Deland, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Mary Wilkins Freeman, Ellen Glasgow, Kate Chopin, Willa Cather, Edith Wharton, Gertrude Stein, and their works.

746. Thomas, Sue. “Elizabeth Robins, the ‘New Woman’ Novelist, and the Writing of Literary Histories of the 1890s.” Feminist Forerunners: New Womanism and Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century. Ed. Ann Heilmann. London/Sydney/Chicago: Pandora, 2003. This paper, presented at a July 2000 conference at Manchester Metropolitan University, is chapter 9 of the proceedings. Thomas analyzed both contemporary and recent criticism of Robins’s works, particularly her novel The Open Question: A Tale of Two Temperaments (1898) and her collection of short stories. Thomas questioned earlier interpretations of Robins’s works and offered new insight into the actress/author/business woman. 747. Thompson, Doreen Helen. “Propriety and Passion: Images of the New Woman on the London Stage in the 1890s.” Ph.D. diss., University of Victoria, 1992. This dissertation is a broad overview of the position of women in the English theater of the late nineteenth century. Although

749. Todd, Ellen Wiley. “Art, the ‘New Woman’ and Consumer Culture: Kenneth Hayes Miller and Reginald Marsh on Fourteenth Street, 1920–1940.” Gender and American History since 1890. Ed. Barbara Melosh. London/New York: Routledge, 1993. The introduction to chapter 6 sets the stage for Todd’s juxtaposition of the New Woman that Miller depicts in popular imagery with Marsh’s shopping girls. 750. ____. The “New Woman” Revised: Painting and Gender Politics on Fourteenth Street. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. The entire book provides scholarship regarding images of New Women of the so-called Fourteenth Street School in the 1910s, ’20s, and ’30s in the United States. 751. Tomlinson, Susan. “Vision to Visionary: The New Negro Woman as Cultural Worker in Jessie Redmon Fauset’s Plum Bun.” Legacy 19 (2002), 90–97. This analysis of Plum Bun provides insight into Fauset’s construction of her protagonist, the African-American artist Angela Murray, as well as into Murray’s personal journey to

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self-realization. Tomlinson discussed Murray as an outsider in Union Square’s artistic milieu while comparing the white artists who were a part of the so-called Fourteenth Street School. Murray’s introduction to new womanhood was through an artist-friend, Paulette. Tomlinson acknowledged Murray’s struggle with race and gender within the context of both the New Woman and New Negro movements of the 1920s.

752. Trimberger, Ellen Kay. “The New Woman and the New Sexuality: Conﬂict and Contradiction in the Writings and Lives of Mabel Dodge and Neith Boyce.” 1915, the Cultural Moment: The New Politics, the New Woman, the New Psycholog y, the New Art and the New Theatre in America. Ed. Adele Heller and Lois Rudnick. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1991. Trimberger’s essay centers on Dodge and Boyce, New Women of Greenwich Village in the early twentieth century. She examined their lives and works in a detailed comparison in the areas of sexuality, love, and intimacy. She also investigated the childishness of the men with whom both Dodge and Boyce associated. 753. Tusan, Michelle Elizabeth. “Inventing the New Woman: Print Culture and Identity Politics during the Fin-de-siècle.” Victorian Periodicals Review 31 (1988): 169–82. This article distinguishes between the ﬁctional and the feminist New Woman and between images of the New Woman presented by the mainstream and the feminist press. The thesis is that the mainstream press reacted to the phenomenon whereas the feminist press acted. Feminist periodicals such as Shafts, The Women’s Herald (ﬁrst to use the term New Woman with initial caps), The Woman’s Gazette, and The Woman’s Signal were British journals positing the New Woman as a liberated homebody. Published by feminists, the journals nevertheless did not want to present the New Woman as a type making a clean break

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with her foremothers. The journals and the British New Woman were all but phased out, according to Tusan, after the defeat of the 1897 bill for female enfranchisement and the image of the suffragette took her place.

754. Tyrer, Pat. “‘A Bird Alive in a Snake’s Body’: The New Woman of Evelyn Scott’s The Narrow House.” Southern Literary Journal 38 (Fall 2005), 43–61. Novelist Evelyn Scott positioned The Narrow House in the early 1920s, a time of rapid change in the United States. Tyrer pointed to Scott as a pioneer of modernism in tackling the hardships of women breaking from the conﬁnes of traditionalism. There is a tension between the opportunities of the modern era and women’s inability to become independent. All women in the novel are conﬁned by their inability to transcend the strictures society has put on them, and the darkness and narrowness of the house conﬁnes each in a different way. Although Tyrer characterized Winnie (the daughterin-law) as a New Woman and Alice (the adult daughter) spoke the phrase in the title of the article and by association is believed to be one, neither appears representative of this liberated female. Tyrer made many comparisons with literature of the era by other female authors and related incidents in the novel that she believed were autobiographical. 755. Ullman, Sharon. “The ‘Self-Made Man’: Male Impersonation and the New Woman.” Passing: Identity and Interpretation in Sexuality, Race and Religion. Ed. Maria Carla Sánchez and Linda Schlossberg. New York: New York University Press, 2001. Ullman’s chapter 7 deals with gender anxiety in the era of woman suffrage and the New Woman played out in vaudevillian acts of male impersonation. In the early twentieth century, traditional gender roles were called into question in conjunction with men’s insecurities regarding the

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emergence of the New Woman. Ullman discussed several women who impersonated men, including the famous English actress Vesta Tilley.

756. Vedder, Catherine Mary. “New Woman, Old Science: Readings in Late Victorian Fiction.” Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1993. Vedder examined New Woman novels by George Meredith, Grant Allen, Thomas Hardy, and Olive Schreiner within the context of Darwin’s theories of evolution. 757. Vicinus, Martha. “Rediscovering the ‘New Woman’ of the 1890s: The Stories of ‘George Egerton.’” Feminist ReVisions: What Has Been and Might Be. Ed. Vivian Patraka and Louise A. Tilly. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983, 12–25. The essays in this book celebrate the tenth anniversary of the inauguration of the Woman’s Studies program at the University of Michigan. Vicinius’s essay is the ﬁrst of the collection and obviously relates to the short story writer George Egerton (Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright, 1859–1945). Vicinus has interwoven the themes in Egerton’s stories (published as Keynotes and Discords) through the lens of biography. In her stories, Egerton focused on women’s interest in and awareness of sexuality and the ramiﬁcations that issue, in some ways reﬂecting her own tumultuous relationships with men. 758. Von Ankum, Katharina. “Material Girls — Consumer Culture and the ‘New-Woman’ in Anita Loos’s Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and Irmgard Keun’s Das Kunstseidene Mädchen.” Colloquia Germanica 27 (1994), 159–72. The author juxtaposed the German novel Das Kunstseidene Mädchen (1932) with its American prototype, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1925). The protagonists in the two novels are similar in some ways and different in others, though Von Ankum, using Frame’s typography, characterized them both as “The Girl.” This is an interesting sociocultural study of the

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economic situation of the two countries and how it inﬂuenced post–World War I feminism. In light of Von Ankum’s declaration of their New Women status, the manner in which both Loos’s and Keun’s protagonists depend on men would make some shudder.

759. ____. “Motherhood and the ‘New Woman’: Vicki Baum’s Stud. Chem. Helene Willfüer and Irmgard Keun’s Gilgi — Eine von Uns.” Women in German Yearbook: Feminist Studies in German Literature and Culture 11 (1995), 171–88. Using the protagonists of Baum and Keun’s novels as reﬂective of postwar Weimar’s desire for an antidote to the New Woman, von Ankum proposed the “New Mother.” This female is a professional as well as a single mother. Both Helene Willfüer and Gilgi (actually Gisela) are young women searching for independence, which, though beset by unwanted motherhood, each pursues while raising her child. 760. Von Papen, Manuela. “Opportunities and Limitations: The New Woman in Third Reich Cinema.” Women’s History Review 8 (1999): 693–724. This article provides a reassessment of women’s roles in Third Reich Germany through investigation of the cinema of the era. Although preparations for and the ﬁnal enactment of war provided women with opportunities for self-determination and independence, government control of movie-making ensured that these roles were seen as subservient to the nation and a temporary detour to women’s ultimate vocations as wives and mothers. 761. Wachter, Phyllis E. “Surname Arnold; Occupation: Spinster; Avocation: New Victorian Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Temple University Press, 1984. 762. Waelti-Walters, Jennifer. “‘New Women’ in the Novels of Belle Epoque France.” History of European Ideas 8 (1987): 537–48. In the introduction, Waelti-

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Walters identiﬁed ﬁve French novelists of the early twentieth century whom she characterized as dealing with New Woman themes. The focus of her discussion, however, is on only two authors—Louise-Marie Compain and Colette Yver — and their respective novels, L’Un vers l’autre (One towards the Other) and Les Cervelines (The Brainy Women), both published in 1903. The New Women protagonists are identiﬁed and their issues are related in terms of tradition/marriage/dependence and modernity/professions/independence. In a footnote, Waelti-Walters revealed that she was working on a book about New Women themes in French literature.

763. Wallinger, Sylvia, and Monika Jonas, eds. Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung: Studien zur Bezwungenen Weiblichkeit in der Literatur vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Innsbruck: Institute für Germanistik, 1986. 764. Walls, Elizabeth MacLeod. “A Domestic Feminist: The New Woman and the Rhetoric of British Literary Modernism, 1880–1935.” Ph.D. diss., Texas Christian University, 2001. In this dissertation Walls maintained that nineteenth-century feminism was trivialized in the twentieth century and provided the platform for a backlash of what she referred to as “domestic feminism.” The “New New Woman” novelists whose works she examined — E. M. Forster, D. H. Lawrence, Joseph Conrad, James Joyce, Evelyn Waugh, and Virginia Woolf— recast the nineteenth-century version into a less melodramatic (that is, Victorian), more sensible and improved New Woman. 765. ____. “A Little Afraid of the Women of Today”: The Victorian New Woman and the Rhetoric of British Modernism.” Rhetoric Review 21 (2002): 229–46. In the aftermath of the New Woman phenomenon of the 1890s, no recognizable female identity formed in Great Britain. Thus authors noted as part of the

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construction of modernism both drew on and rejected the literary canon from the writing of the end of the previous century. According to Walls, “Modernists outwardly disdained Victorian women’s writing; yet they revived ‘the woman of the past’ in their art.” They eventually crafted these seemingly incongruous views into a coherent vision that became known as the “modernist movement. “

766. Ware, Susan. Modern American Women: A Documentary History. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. Part 1 contains a collection of primary materials arranged chronologically from the 1890s to the 1970s. New Women are speciﬁcally targeted in chapter 1, “Visions of the New Women.” An introductory essay precedes essays by prominent and not-so-prominent American women: Nellie Bly, Bertha Palmer, Anna J. Cooper, Frances Willard, Anzia Yezierska, Belle Lindnar Israels, and Eudora Amnons. A short biography precedes each piece. Chapter 6, encompassing 1920 to 1963, includes a reprint of Eudora Ramsay Richardson’s short story “Men Are Like That” from a 1928 issue of Ladies’ Home Journal that Ware retitled “The New Woman in Fiction.” Richardson’s tale is that of Emma Morrison, a bank employee constantly passed over for promotion and totally aware of the reason. In the end, her new boss admits to the bank president that Emma is responsible for saving him from ﬁnancial disaster (as she saved the old boss on many occasions) and gives her a promotion. 767. Warford, Pamela Neal. The Social Origins of Female Iconography: Selected Images of Women in American Popular Culture. Ph.D. diss., St. Louis University, 1979. In chapter 1 Warford explained that though the Gibson Girl was touted as the New Woman, in reality she was a continuation of the Victorian lady. 768. Warne, Vanessa, and Colette Colligan. “The Man Who Wrote A New

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Woman Novel: Grant Allen’s The Woman Who Did and the Gendering of New Woman Authorship.” Victorian Literature and Culture 33 (2005): 21–46. This essay primarily addresses the manner in which Grant Allen constructed an identity for himself through his role as a male author of New Woman novels. The authors probed all known works by Allen as well as the critical responses to these works, pointing to discrepancies the critics saw between Allen’s words and actions. Warne and Colligan also investigated how Punch lampooned New Woman literature and the manner in which New Woman imagery in Punch related anxiety regarding male authorship. A direct retort to Allen’s The Woman Who Did was a piece in Punch titled “The Woman Who Wouldn’t Do,” 30 March 1895.

769. Waters, Chris. “New Women and Socialist-Feminist Fiction: The Novels of Isabella Ford and Katharine Glasier.” Rediscovering Forgotten Radicals: British Women Writers, 1889–1939. Ed. Angela Ingram and Daphne Patai. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993, 25–42. Ford and Glasier were socialist-feminist writers and friends. Walters identiﬁed the novels of the 1890s as best embodying New Woman sensibilities within the context of socialism. Waters picked Ford’s On the Threshold and Glasier’s Aimée Furness, Scholar, her thesis that, with varying degrees of success, Ford and Glasier created characters making conscious efforts to reconcile socialism with feminism. 770. Watson, Barbara Bellow. “‘The New Woman’ and The New Comedy.” Fabian Feminist: Bernard Shaw and Woman. Ed. Rodelle Weintraub. University Park, Pennsylvania: Penn State University Press, 1977. Watson claimed that Shaw challenged the existing “order of society.” In a thorough examination of Shaw’s female characters, she saw that Shaw cast women in feminist roles. He relegated marriage to stage left and stage right, whereas the life and in-

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terests of the female protagonists were at center stage. Shaw according to Watson, saw a hope for the world in the strong women characters he created.

771. Watts, Cedric. “Hardy’s Sue Bridehead and the ‘New Woman.’” Critical Survey 5 (1993): 152–56. The article opens with a brief history of the state of education, opportunities for women, and literary tracts dealing with the subject, starting with J. S. Mill’s The Subjection of Women (1896). Reacting to Thomas Hardy’s 1912 postscript of a German review of Jude the Obscure, the remainder of the article deals with the issue of the newness of the New Woman character in works by Hardy. 772. Weininger, Susan S. The ‘New Woman’ in Chicago, 1910–1945: Paintings from Illinois Collections. Rockford, Illinois: Rockford College, 1993. This catalog accompanied the exhibition of works by twenty-three women artists considered New Women who worked and lived in the Chicago area between 1910 and 1945. The exhibitions took place between November 1993 and October 1994 at the Rockford College Art Gallery, Illinois Art Gallery, Chicago and Illinois State Museum, Rockport. Weininger wrote the essay for the catalog; she and Robert Adams co-curated the exhibition. 773. Weisberger, Bernard A. The La Follettes of Wisconsin: Love and Politics in Progressive America. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994. Chapter 3, “Belle: A “New Woman” and Her Family 1891– 1911,” is about Belle Case La Follette, the wife of Bob La Follette, former governor of Wisconsin and U.S. Senator during the Progressive Era. Belle was an advocate of women’s physical ﬁtness and held progressive ideas and ideals of her own while continually placing the needs of her husband and children ahead of her own. She was Bob’s helpmeet in the most positive deﬁnition, but she continually strove to become

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her own person. Finally, after Bob started La Follette’s Weekly (a progressive journal) and Belle contributed a column to the journal, she developed independence, enough money, and status; later she promoted female suffrage.

774. West, June B. “The ‘New Woman.’” Twentieth Century Literature 1 ( July 1955): 55–68. Through a survey of American literature (novels, plays, poems, and magazine stories), West charted the manner in which women were depicted in an independent manner between World Wars I and II. She broke her discussion into subjects of freedom for women: economics, sex, and attitudes toward marriage, drinking, and smoking. The literary works West discussed have received little attention and deserve more. The titles of magazine articles and periodicals are not always identiﬁed in the text, but they appear in the endnotes. 775. Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill. New Women of the New South: The Leaders of the Woman Suffrage Movement in the Southern States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. This book deals primarily with suffrage and racial issues through the stories of eleven women of the South involved with these causes. Wheeler asserted that the southern women she dubbed “New Women” looked and acted like southern “ladies” to avoid the appearance of militancy. 776. Wiley, Catherine. “Looking Elsewhere: Staging the New Woman as Feminine Subject.” Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1990. This dissertation deals with images of women in English plays of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by Oscar Wilde and C. E. Raimond (Elizabeth Robins). 777. ____. “The Matter with Manners: The New Woman and the Problem Play.” Women in Drama. Ed. James Redmond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. In her discussion of the New Woman

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aspects of the “problem play,” Wiley considered the following plays, ranging from what she deemed the most conservative to the most liberal: Mrs. Dane’s Defence (1900) by Henry Arthur Jones, The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893) by Arthur Wing Pinero, Mrs. Warren’s Profession (Wiley dated completion of the manuscript as 1894 and a private London performance as 1902) by G. B. Shaw, and Votes for Women (1907) by Elizabeth Robins. The “problem play” dealt with contemporary problems such as the Woman Question as well as the very act of acting, problematic because of the lack of reality and authenticity of the New Woman protagonists. In her detailed summaries of each play, Wiley pointed to the marginalization of women and the fact that audiences read their independence as not having proper manners. She awarded greatest liberality to the only play of the four to be written by a woman.

778. Willard, Carla. “Conspicuous Whiteness: The New Woman, the Old Negro, and the Vanishing Past of Early Brand Advertising.” Turning the Century: Essays in Media and Cultural Studies. Ed. Carol A. Stabile. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2000. This article (chapter 9) discusses the role of the newly developed abbreviated syntax of brand advertising in the late nineteenth century. Ads admonished housewives (the new consumers) to shed their old ways of keeping house and use the new brand-name products. New Women were cast as youthful and more freewheeling in contrast to the women of the past who were housebound. Willard’s thesis is that an “epiphany” occurs when the consumer’s needs and the brief textual message of the ad meet in her mind. Blacks in advertisements functioned as signiﬁers of the old images of aunts and uncles (such as Jemima and Rastus). Consumers saw them as the old order, much like the darkened past, that the new streamlined ads were created to counter.

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779–782

779. Williams, Sian Rhiannon. “Y Fry- the New Woman. It identiﬁes her and prothones”: Portread Cyfnodolion Merched y vides a succinct proﬁle of the American Bedwaredd Ganrif ar Bymtheg o Gymraes woman from 1870 to 1920. Yr Oes [Images of Women in Nineteenth782. Winston, Diane H. Red-Hot and Century Welsh Women’s Periodicals].” Lla- Righteous: The Urban Religion of the Salfur: Journal of the Society for the Study of vation Army. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Welsh Labour History 4 (1984), 43–56. The Harvard University Press, 1999. Winston ﬁrst Welsh periodical intended principally chronicled the rise of the Salvation Army for women in Wales was Y Gymraes, which from its inception in Britain in 1880 until appeared in 1850. The image of women it about 1950. Chapter 2, “The New Woman, portrayed was one of domesticity and sub- 1886–1896,” is about Maud Booth, who demission. It avoided issues of birth control livered her controversial speech, “The New and working women. Y Frythones, the ﬁrst Woman,” in New York City in 1895. WinWelsh magazine for women, edited by a ston maintained the speech was antifemiwoman, was published in 1879 but did not nist though Booth extolled the egalitarian offer a new view of women. Only in the aspects of the Salvation Army. This long 1880s did any of the women’s periodicals in Wales publish articles related to the status of women. 780. Willis, Chris. “‘Heaven Defend Me from Political or Highly Educated Women!’: Packaging the New Woman for Mass Consumption.” The New Woman in Fiction and in Fact. Ed. Angelique Richardson and Chris Willis. London: Palgrave/ Macmillan, 2001. Willis examined New Woman characters in “commercial” novels, short stories, and detective ﬁction, a relatively unexplored genre in New Woman literature that makes Willis’s contribution especially valuable. She pointed out that most of the plots are similar but that the “commercial” ﬁction reached a broader audience. 781. Wilson, Margaret Gibbons. The American Woman in Transition: The Urban Inﬂuence, 1870–1920. Westport, Connecticut.: Green- The young boy in this cartoon appears perplexed wood, 1979. The introduction when his young New Woman boxing opponent gives excellent information on obeys his command. Life, 10 March, 1921.

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chapter provides a complete picture of the “female soldiers” of the organization before 1896, though the opening paragraph focuses exclusively on Booth. Maud and her husband, Ballington, were Brits answering a call to Salvation Army leadership in the United States. Ballington was the son of the founder, William Booth, and Maud was a convert whose Anglican pastor/father’s religion did not serve, she felt, enough practical purpose. The chapter provides historical data on both female and male “soldiers,” though the New Woman is central to the discussion.

783. Wintle, Sarah. “Horses, Bikes and Automobiles: New Woman on the Move.” The New Woman in Fiction and in Fact. Ed. Angelique Richardson and Chris Willis. London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2001. This essay focuses on the progression of women’s mobility and accompanying independence from horseback riding to bicycle riding to driving the new-fangled car in the early twentieth century. Wintle noted a variety of sources related to the three modes of transportation, but the works of a Mrs. Edward Kennard comprise the bulk of her discussion. 784. Witt-Brattström, Ebba, ed. The New Woman and the Aesthetic Opening: Unlocking Gender in Twentieth-Century Texts. Stockholm: Södertörns högskola: 2004. This collection of essays was originally presented at a conference of the same title at Södertörn University College in Stockholm, 10–12 October 2003. The conference investigated New Woman ﬁction/ﬁlms/ biography spanning the twentieth century, encompassing works from both East (Poland) and West (none from the United States). The volume of essays is diverse and deals with women and their works from areas heretofore uninvestigated. In addition to Witt-Brattström, the contributors are: Annegret Heitmann, Lisbeth Larsson, Unni Langäs, Viola Parente-Capková, Helena

Secondary Works (1962–2008)

Forsäs-Scott, Birgitta New, Britt Andersen, Ursula Naeve-Bucher, Anna Rotkirch, Claudia Lindén, Kristina Fjelkestam, Rita Paqvalén, Antje Wischmann, Malgorzata Anna Packalén, and Christine Frisch.

785. Wittman, Livia Käthe. “The New Woman as Doubly Other: Aspects of the Constitution of Jewish Femininity in the Early Twentieth Century Novel; Papers Offered for Gyorgy N. Vajda and Istvan Fried.” Celebrating Comparativism. Ed. Katalin Kürtosi and József Pal. Szeged, Hungary: University of Szeged, 1994. At the outset of her paper, Wittman noted that she had read ﬁfty novels with New Woman protagonists in several languages though she chose to discuss only Die Intellektuellen (The Intellectuals) by German author Grete Meisel-Hess. Set in Budapest in the early twentieth century, the two New Women of the novel are Tekla, a poet who adores her husband, and Eva, a divorced visual artist and interior designer. Tekla is Jewish, and Eva is described as a “goy lady” in the novel. Wittman analyzed their positions as friends who negotiate the terrains of race, class, and gender in quest of emancipation. 786. Wittman, Livia Z. “Liebe oder Selbstverlust: Die Fiktionale Neue Frau im Ersten Drittel Unseres Jahrhundrets.” Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung: Studien zur Bezwungenen Weiblichkeit in der Literatur vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Ed. Sylvia Wallinger and Monika Jonas. Innsbruck: Institute für Germanistik, 1986. Around the turn of the twentieth century, numerous comparative critiques appeared to deal with the New Woman, the becoming woman, and the modern woman. The authors (both female and male) were aware of the connection between scientiﬁc and political recognitions and ﬁghts, economically caused social changes as well as new proposals of femininity in literature. This essay discusses the issue how female authors of different languages projected the New

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Woman in the ﬁrst third of the twentieth century. This ﬁction has certain themes in common: the New Woman fought for realization of her own personality, desires, and dreams — not only for the right to education, work, and political activity, but to self-realization and the rights to the most intimate area of their lives. They experienced the tense sphere of love affairs as well as the destroying force of prejudice and the predominance of the male world.

787. ____. “The New Woman as a European Phenomenon.” Neohelicon 19 (1992), 49–68. This three-part article starts with an argument that the category “classic realism” is not appropriate for works by New Woman authors. The second section analyzes three New Woman texts: Pages from the Diary of an Emancipated Woman (Tagebuchblåtter Emanzipierten), 1902, by Elsa Asenijeff; the 1906 short story by Virginia Woolf, “Phyllis and Rosamund”; and The Anthill (Hangabody), 1917, by Margit Kaffka. Within a highly analytical framework, Wittman argued that the mobility and ﬂexibility of the characters in these works negated their inclusion as examples of classic realism. In the third part Wittman discussed New Woman novels within the context of pleasure and the theories of Roland Barthes. 788. ____. “Träume, Utopien und Wege zur Verwirklichung: Entwurfe der ‘Neuen Frau’ in Romanen des Auslands um 1900.” Deutsche Literatur von Frauen I: Vom Mittelalter bis zum Ende des 18. Ed. Gisela Brinker-Gabler. Munich: Verlang C. H. Beck (1988): 205–20. The representation of the New Woman in literature was mainly a European phenomenon. Most relevant works appear in West European and Scandinavian literature. This article analyzes the process of emancipation, social-economic aspects, and the prospects of education for women in the treated works of ﬁction. The New Woman ﬁghts for a balance between

787–790

marriage, relationships with men, and professional life—between binding love on one side and independency on the other side. Fiction projects the ideal man for the New Woman and analyzes the psychological pattern of the reality. In the famous Dreams by Olive Schreiner, the New Woman is proposed as free woman. Franz Kafka relates in Stationen the different stages of realization of emancipation. This important work is dedicated to the New Woman as a female educational and social ﬁction. The female authors of different European languages discussed the many-facetted process of the search for the identity of women in the ﬁction they wrote.

789. ____. “Zwischen ‘Femme Fatale’ und ‘Femme Fragile’— die Neue Frau? Kritische Bemerkungen zum Frauenbild des Literarischen Jugendstils.” Jahrbuch fur Internationale Germanistik 17 (1985), 74–110. At the turn of the twentieth century, women started to liberate themselves from socioeconomic and social-psychological constraints leading to changes in roles and in art expressions that resulted in the Jugendstil (youth style). Some of the female ﬁction authors aligned not only style and ﬁguration but also the conception of femininity along the two dominating types of the Jugendstil (femme-fatale and femme fragile). Some female authors discussed in their theoretical and ﬁctional works the types of women who were a product of the male imagination, hence revealing the background for the emergence of such projections of femininity. Some interesting conclusions found in the literature include those in Fried von Bülow’s Die Stilisierte Frau and Hedwig Dohm’s Christa Ruland. The New Woman of the turn of the century may be characterized as the searching, the fragment, or the transition-like, as is evident in evolving models of femininity. 790. Woloch, Nancy. Women and the American Experience. New York: Alfred A.

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176

Knopf, 1984. In chapter 12, “The Rise of the New Woman,” Woloch enumerated the contributions that women made during the Progressive Era. Although Woloch’s discussion centered on “shrinking families, the college woman, the professional woman, clubwomen and crusaders, educated homemakers, and social housekeepers,” she continually returned to Jane Addams, whom she apparently considered the quintessential New Woman.

791. Wright, Barbara D. “The New Woman of the Twenties: ‘Hoppla! That’s Life!’ and ‘The Merry Vineyard.’” Playing for Stakes: German Language Drama in Social Context. Ed. Anne K. Kuhn and Barbara D. Wright. Oxford/Providence: Berg, 1994. This work considers Carl Zuchmayer’s Der Fröliche Weinberg (The Merry Vineyard, 1925) and Ernst Toller’s Hoppla! Wir Leben (Hoppla! That’s Life, 1927) in terms of the context of their feminist agenda and of how critics viewed the plays from the 1920 to the 1970. Wright argued that critics and reviewers purposely ignored the feminist agenda in the plays or could not come to grips with the notion of the strong, competent women protagonists, Klärchen Gunderlach and Eva Berg. This article is as much an investigation of the works as an analysis of critics’ responses to the role of the New Woman of the Weimar Republic. 792. Wright, Dorothea Curtis. “Visions and Revisions of the ‘New Woman’ in American Realistic Fiction from 1880 to 1920: A Study in Authorial Attitudes.” Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill, 1971. This dissertation is about American authors who dealt with New Woman issues in their writing. Wright divided her thesis into two sections: the ﬁrst, “Questions,” considers works by William Dean Howells, Henry James, and Henry Adams, and the second, “Answers,” examines works by Robert Grant, Edith Wharton, and Robert Herrick.

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793. Wright, Emily Powers. “The New Woman of the New South.” The History of Southern Women’s Literature. Ed. Carolyn Perry and Mary Louise Weaks. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2002. The ﬁrst part of the article provides an analysis of Josephine Henry’s essay and the contributions southern women made to the suffrage movement. Wright then concentrated on a survey of extant writing regarding two additional aspects: feminist writers and ﬁctional female characters in the role of the New Woman. She noted that although Kate Chopin’s work does not support the criteria of a southern New Woman character (except perhaps in her short story “An Egyptian Cigarette” of 1910), Chopin behaved like one. Other literary works are mentioned, but Wright maintained that the New Woman was not fully endorsed in any southern work until 1913, with Mary Johnston’s Hagar. 794. Yagil, L. “Family Ideology of the Vichy Government and the Concept of the ‘New Woman.’” Guerres Mondiales et Conﬂits Contemorains 188 (December 1997): 27–49. During France’s Vichy government women were seen as the hope of the nation to birth and rear a new generation of strong males. Young girls were encouraged to be physically active and to engage in sports so as to accomplish the government’s mission. The motto for the national Revolution was “Work, Family, Country.” Although the future New Women were educated to be healthy and robust, the government had no interest in developing them to be equal with men in the stadium and in professions. Their role was to be gracious and perform society’s social and moral roles. 795. Yang, Dong. “Edith Wharton: A Writer of Female Sexual Consciousness in the Era of the New Woman.” Ph.D. diss., Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 1996. This dissertation examines themes of sexuality in the oeuvre of Edith Wharton.

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Rather than focusing on Wharton’s private life, Yang argued that Wharton, while dealing with New Woman themes in her work, was a leader of women’s sexual liberation and economic independence.

796. Zink, Abbey Lynn. “Between the Lines: The New Woman as Journalist and Fiction Writer.” Ph.D. diss., Northern Illinois University, 2001. Zink brought to light the literary works and journalist careers of the following American women: Eliza-

796

beth L. Banks, Elizabeth Bisland, Alice Dunbar-Nelson, Mary Roberts Rinehart, and Edith Wharton. Whereas male writers who achieved fame during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (when the little-known women were also active) moved from journalism to writing ﬁction and prose, women writers utilized “crossgenre practices”— meaning they went back and forth between literary works and journalistic writing.

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INDEX Numbers refer to entries, except those preceded by I (as in I-6), which indicate pages in the introduction. A. S. B., article 72 Abbott, Berenice 428 Abbott, Harriet, short story 328 Abortion see Crime Abram, Trudi, Ph.D. diss. 364 Adams, Abigail 233 Adams, Henry 627, 640, 792 Adams, Marian “Clover” Hooper 627 Adams, Robert 772 Adams, Samuel Hopkins see Fabian, Warner Addams, Jane 567, 642, 660, 683, 790 Adickes, Sandra, book 365 The Adult 198 Advertising 459 Africa 410, 474 African Americans I-11, 216, 254, 334, 348, 351, 355, 382, 392, 408, 412, 440, 441, 493, 531, 538, 543, 549, 612, 614, 642, 682, 706, 741, 742, 751, 778; see also Biracial women Ahrens, Rüdiger, book 366 Aikins, Janet E., article 367 Ainslie, Noel 197 Akiko, Yosano 674 Alabama 744, 745 Alabama Review 745 Alberta History 715 Alexander, John 500 Alexander, Ruth M., editor 642 Allen, Charles Grant Blairﬁndie 78, 90, 141, 151, 488, 580, 756, 768; novel 55 Allen, Louise Anderson, Ed.D. diss. 368 Allen, Raye Virginia: article 370; book 369 ALR: American Literary Realism 450 The American Catholic Quarterly Review 179 The American Journal of Sociolog y 241 American Literary Realism 662 American Mission School 289 American Periodicals 417 American South 93, 513, 543, 775

American Studies 661 American Theater Quarterly 391 American Transcendental Quarterly 405, 646 American West 735 Amin, Quasim, books 227, 371 Amin, Sonia Nishat, book 372 Ammons, Elizabeth 530; book chapter 373 Amnons, Eudora 766 Andersen, Britt 784 Andrew, J. D., article 56 Anglo-Protestant Student Christian Movement 690 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 307 Anonymous: advertisement 182; articles 5, 6, 60, 64, 65, 67–69, 120–23, 154–56, 180, 183, 206, 235, 259, 304, 317, 354; ballad 1; ditty 265; essays 3, 63, 245; fable 61; Jim’s Wife’s husband, article 39, 390; letters 62, 66, 124; poems 57, 70, 71, 119, 181; rhymes 2, 4, 58, 59; short stories 125, 275 Anthony, Susan B. 335 Aoki, Tsuru 678 Ardis, Ann Louise 545, 584; articles 375; book chapter 376, 378, 379; book 377; Ph.D. diss. 374 The Arena 93, 166, 233, 240 Arkansas Federation of Women’s Clubs 677 Arkansas Historical Quarterly 677 Arling, Nat, article 184 Armenia 680 Arnold, Ethel M., novel 8 Arnold, Matthew 388 Arson see Crime Art and artists I-5, I-11, I-15, 364, 369, 370, 410, 418, 419, 427, 428, 436, 452, 562, 574, 575, 591, 622, 626, 629, 646, 654, 658, 664, 711, 740, 772 Art Journal 410

179

Index

180

Asenijeff, Elsa 787 Ashton, Elaine 489; book chapter 380 Astor, Laky see Langhorne, Nancy Atarashi Onna 475 Atché, Jane 626 Atherton, Gertrude Franklin (Mrs.) 195, 340, 470, 471; essays 363; letter 5; novel 283 Athleticism 210 Atlantic Monthly 234, 267, 286 Attwood, Lynn, book 381 Austin, Mary 373 Australia I-6, 94, 473, 526, 610, 651, 689, 732 Australian Cultural History 689 Aveling, Edward 404 Avery, Marjorie “Dot” 725 Bacon,—(Miss) I-11 Bair, Barbara, book chapter 382 Baker, Elizabeth 490; play 292 Baker, Mary Hime, essay 246 Banks, Elizabeth L. 796 Banta, Martha: book 383; editor 748 Barcelona English Language and Literature Studies 583 Bardsley, Janice Bridges, Ph.D. diss. 384 Barker, Harley Granville 671 Barlow, Jane 340 Barnes, Djuana 428 Barry, William Francis: article 9; novel 207 Bartlett,—(Mrs.) 496 Bashkirtseff, Marie 133 Bauer, Karl 452 Baum, Vicki 476, 477, 586, 704, 759 Baume, Brita, editor 565 Bean, Lawless, essay 385 Beardsley, Aubrey 453, 454, 535, 606 Beaumont, Mary, short stories 208 Bebel, August 9 Beck, Claire, book 386 Beckson, Karl: article 389; books 387, 388 Beerbohm, Max 535, 728; essay 10 Beetham, Margaret: book 390; editor 527, 555, 562, 672, 701, 704 Behr, Shulamith 624 Bell, Florence Eveleen 490 Bell, Lilian Lida (aka Mrs. A. H. Bogue), book 157 Bellamy, Edward 707 Ben-Yusuf, Zaida 500 Bennett,— 286 Bennett, Alma J., article 391 Berger, Renate 624 Bergman, Jill 527; essay 392 Bernhardt, Sarah 673 Bernstein, Gail Lee, editor 674 Betts, Lillian W., article 73 Beuchner,— 594 Bhabha, Homi 723 Bible see Religion Bicycles and bicycling I-8, I-10, I-11, I-13, 165, 452, 576, 607, 689, 783

Bidyabinodini, Nurunnessa Khatrin 372 Biracial women 351, 355; see also African Americans Birkle, Carmen 526; conference paper 393 Bisland, Elizabeth 796 Björnson, Björnstjerne 220 Black, Helen C., biographies 251 Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 115, 141, 177 Bland, Edith 404 Bland, Hubert 404 Bland, Lucy 589; book chapter 396; books 394, 395 Blankley, Elyse, book chapter 397 Blathwayt, Raymond, article 185 Bleackley, Horace William see Tivoli Blewett, Jean 415 Bluestocking Society see Japan; Seitõ Bly, Nellie 766 Boardman, Kate, book 390 Bogue, Mrs. A. H. see Bell, Lilian Lida Bohata, Kirsti 527; article 399; book chapter 398 Bois, Jules 165 Böker, Uwe, editor 525 Bonnell, Marilyn: article 400; Ph.D. diss. 401 The Bookman 280, 297, 298, 318 Boos, Florence, article 402 Booth, Ballington 782 Booth, Maud 782 Booth, William 782 Bordin, Ruth Birgitta Anderson, book 403 Borsodi, Myrtle Mae Simpson (Mrs. Ralph) 447; article 362 Boyce, Frank M., Jr., novel 293 Boyce, Neith 608, 722, 752 Boyle, Margaret P., article 158 Braddon, Mary Elizabeth 340 Bragg, Laura 368 Brandon, Ruth, book 404 Brandt, Maria F.: article 405; Ph.D. diss. 406 Braun, Lily von Gizycki 452; essay 126 Brecht, Bertolt 594 Brennen, Matthew C., article 407 Brent, Justine 450 Bright, Mary Chavelita Dunne see Egerton, George Brinker-Gabler, Gisela, editor 788 Brinkley, Nell 672 Brontë, Emily 502 Brooke, Emma Frances 718; novel 11 Brooks, Kristine, article 408 Broomens, Petra, editor 536 Broude, Norma, editor 575 Broughton, Rhoda 258; novel 159 Brouwer, Ruth Compton, book 409 Brown, Herbert E., novel 160 Brown, Margaret Adeline 497 Browning Society Notes 467 Bruère, Martha Bensley I-15, 739 Bryne, Charles, A. I-14 Buckberrough, Sherry, article 410

181 Buddhism see Religion Bulletin of the New York Public Library 606 Burger, Lisbeth 586 Burkholder, Mabel 415 Burnett, Frances Hodgson 298 Burke, Carolyn, book chapter 411 Burks, Mary Fair, Ph.D. diss. 412 Butler, Richard see Henry, Richard Caffyn, Kathleen Mannington see Iota Cain, Barbara, book 413 Caird, Mona (aka Mona Alison or Alice Mona Henryson Caird) 195, 516, 522, 577, 580, 620, 631, 633, 657, 718; articles 161, 266; essay 209; novels 12, 311 California Historical Quarterly 471 Cambrian News 184 Camera Obscura 678 Cameron, Julia Margaret 500 Camp, Karen Mechel, Ph.D. diss. 414 Campbell, Mrs. Patrick 454 Campbell, Sandra, editor 415 Canada I-6, 171, 409, 415, 466, 491, 497, 570, 609, 619, 664, 697, 715 Canadian Magazine 193 Canadian Review of American Studies 503 Carey, Rosa Nouchette, story 228 Carlton, S. see Jones, Susan Carpenter, Iris 725 Carr, Kittie (Miss) I-11 Carson, Lee 725 Cartoon and caricatures I-9, I-10 Cash, Eric, article 416 Cassidy, Cheryl M., article 417 Cather, Willa Sibert 373, 451, 455, 644, 652, 676, 748; novels 294, 341 Catholic World 137 Catt, Carrie Chapman I-14, 739 Centennial Review 605 Central Bureau for the Employment of Women 170 Century 299 The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 3, 243 Cevasco, G. A., editor 603 Chadwick, Whitney, book 418 Chamber’s Journal 104 Chant, L. Ormiston, essay 210 Chantal, Cornut Gentille, editor 683 Chapman, Elizabeth R., book 162 Chapman, Minerva J. 622 Chappell, Clovis Gillham (Rev.), lecture 358 Chatﬁeld-Taylor, Hobart Chatﬁeld 660 Chauncey, George, Jr. 637; book 448; editor 719 The Chautauquan 95 Cherry, Deborah, book 419 Chesler, Ellen, Ph.D. diss. 420 Chicago Daily News 391 Chicago Daily Tribune I-10 Chiang Kai-Shek 424 China I-13, 337, 423, 424, 463, 510, 541, 590, 638, 639, 705, 734

Index

Cholmondeley, Mary 379, 414, 657, 718; novel 211 Chopin, Kate 406, 455, 481, 616, 617, 652, 665, 748, 793; short stories 13, 212 Chothia, Jean: conference paper 421; book 422 Chou, Katherine Hui-ling, Ph.D. diss. 423 Christianity see Religion Chung, Hilary, book chapter 424 Churgin, Jonah Reuben, Ed.D. diss. 425 Cixous, Hélene 522 Clark, Annie, paper 163 Cleeve, Lucas (aka Adeline G. I. Kingscote), novel 74 Clement, Ernest W., articles 241, 242 Clements, Kendrick A., article 426 Clifford, Mrs. W. K. 340; novel 75 Clio: A Journal... 627 The Club Woman 201, 509 The Club Woman: Woman’s World 246, 248 The Club Woman’s Magazine 214 Coleman, A. H., review 127 Coleman, Kathleen “Kit” 415 Coleridge, Mary E. 340, 542 Colette, Sidonie G. C. (Willy) 679 Colligan, Colette, article 768 Collins, Joseph I-15, 739 Collins, May L., address 128 Colloquia Germanica 758 Colored American Magazine 612 Colville, William Wilberforce, short story 164 Commencement addresses 235 Compain, Louise-Marie 762 Connor, Holly Pyne, editor 427 Conrad, Joseph 764 Constantinople see Turkey Contemporary 90 Contemporary Review 197 Converse, Florence 617 Conway, Gordon 369, 370 Cook, Blanche Wiesen, editor 461 Cook County, IL 69 Cooley, Winnifred Harper, book 247 Cooper, Anna Julia 440, 766 Cooper, Emmanuel, book 428 Cooper, Sybil 394 Corbin, Pamela Beth, Ph.D. diss. 429 Corelli, Marie 340, 462 Cornhill 28 Cory, Vivian see Cross, Victoria Cosmetics 10 The Cosmopolitan 112, 129, 223 Cotes, Mrs. Everard see Duncan, Sara Jeannette Cothran, Casey Althea, Ph.D. diss. 430 Courtney, William L., treatise 76 Coyne, Catherine 725 Crackanthorpe, Blanche Althea 16, 33, 38, 50; articles 14, 15, 77 Crane, Stephen 221 Crawford, Virginia M., essay 165 Crime (prostitution, murder, abortion, arson) 219, 268, 496, 551, 621

Index

182

Critical Survey 771 Cross, Victoria (aka Vivian Cory) 635; novel 78 Crothers, Rachel 306, 636; plays 276, 312, 338, 359 Crow, Duncan, book 431 Cruse, Amy, book 432 Cuffe, Kathleen 50; article 16 Cunningham, Abigail Ruth: article 435; book 434; Ph.D. diss. 433 Cunningham, Patricia A., book 436 Current History 345, 739 Curtayne, Alice, lecture 361 D. B. M. 488; poem 17 Dafu, Yu 463 Daily Chronicle 273 Dalhousie Review 496, 728 Dancing 304 D’Arcy, Ella 597, 616, 635, 717; short stories 79 Darwin, Charles 756 D’Aurevilly, Jules Barbey 220 Dauthendey, Elisabeth 536 Davidson, Mrs. H. Coleman, handbook 18 Daviess, Maria Thompson: book 284; novel 295 Davis, Jill 489; book chapter 437 Davis, Sister I-11 Davis, William A., Jr., article 438 Dawson, Miles Menande, poem 166 Day, Dorothy 365 Day, F. Holland 500 DeBerg, Betty, book 439 Deegan, Mary Jo, editor 440 De Koven, Mrs. Reginald, article 129 Deland, Margaret Wade Campbell 748; article 267; novels 252, 277 de la Ramée, Marie Louise see Ouida de la Roche, Mazo 415 de la Serna, Gomez 726 Delaunay, Sonia 410 De Mille, Cecil B. 533 Denison, Thomas Stewart, play 80 Denmark I-6 Deportment 543 Deutsch, Sarah, book 441 Dewey, John 675 Dewing, Thomas Wilmer 364 Diedrich, Maria, editor 457 Diethe, Carol 624; article 442 Diijkstra, Bram, book 443 Dimitrijevic, Jelena 515 Dittrich-Johansen, Helga, article 444 Divorce 69, 150, 261, 267 Dix, Gertrude 376; novels 81, 229 Dixie, Florence (Lady) 376, 525 Dixon, Ella Hepworth 657, 732; essay 213; novel 19 Dixon, Thomas, novel 326 Dodd, Anna Bowman, article 243 Dodge, Arlita, poem 318 Dodge, Mabel 411, 752 Dohm, Hedwig 789

Dorr, Rheta Childe, book 335 Dougall, Lily, novel 82 Doughty, Terri, book chapter 445 Dowie, Ménie Muriel (aka Mrs. Henry Norman) 580, 657, 718; novel 83 Dowling, Linda, article 446 Doyle, A. Conan, novel 84 Dress 622 Dreves, Vivien E., article 447 Duberman, Martin Bauml 637, 719; book 448 Duke, Debra, Ph.D. diss. 449 Dumas, Alexander 165 Dumont, Frank, play 284 Dun, Mao 424, 463 Dunbar-Nelson, Alice 796 Duncan, Sara Jeannette (aka Mrs. Everard Cotes) 415, 492, 497, 609, 619, 718; novel 20 Dunne, Finley Peter, essay 186 Dupree, Ellen, article 450 Durand, Marguerite 673 Duse, Eleonora 133 Dyck, Reginald, article 451 Eardley, Joan 428 Eastman, Crystal 365, 676, 684, 722 Eastwood, Mrs. M., article 22 Eaton, Edith (Sui Sin Foi) 415 Eaton, Winnifred (Onoto Watanna) 630 Economic dependency 187 Edgren-Lefﬂer, Anne Charlotte 133 Education 3, 246, 247 Educational Theatre Journal 563 Edwards, Mary Kelly 449 Egerton, George (aka Mary Chavelita Dunne Bright) 133, 340, 468, 554, 577, 580, 616, 617, 635, 657, 718, 731, 732, 757; short stories 22, 85, 167 Egypt 227, 371, 410, 688 Ehrenpreis, David, article 452 Eliot, George 464, 510 “Elizabeth” 340 Elliott, Bridget J.: article 454; Ph.D. diss. 453 Elliott, Emory, editor 748 Elliott, Leota (Miss) 156 Ellis, Henry Havelock 9, 404, 632 Elz, A. Elizabeth, Ph.D. diss. 455 Emery see Farr, Florence Employment and labor 18, 47, 132, 170, 206, 223, 281 Encyclopedia Britannica 270 Enfranchisement 151, 266 England see Great Britain English Illustrated Magazine 385 English in Africa 474 Engle, Sherry Darlene, Ph.D. diss. 456 Entertainment I-11 Erdim, Esim, book chapter 457 Esau, Erika 624 Eskildsen, Ute 624 Evans, Heather Anne, Ph.D. diss. 458 Ewen, Stuart, book 459

183 The Examiner (San Francisco) 60 Exponent, An 127 F. A. J., article 237 Fabian, Warner (aka Samuel Hopkins Adams), novel 332 Fabian Socialism 437 Far, Sui Sin (Edith Eaton) 373, 393, 415, 647 Farr, Florence (aka Emery) 550, 572; essays 268 Farrar, John I-14 Fashion 436 Faue, Elizabeth, book 460 Fauré, Christine 480; book chapter 461 Fauset, Jessie 373, 538, 682, 706, 751; novel 348 Faust, Allen K., book 342 Federico, Annette R., book chapter 462 Feminist movements 214 Feminist Studies 687, 721 Feng, Jin, book 463 Fernald, James Champlin, tract 23 Fernando, Lloyd, book 464 Ferrero, Signor 197 Fields, Michael 414 Filene, Peter G., book 232 Film and movies I-13, I-14, 511, 512, 533, 691, 716, 727, 737, 738, 760 Fini, Leonor 428 Finkelstein, Millie see Henry, Richard Finland I-5, 598, 679 Finney, Charles Grandison 714 Fischer-Hornung, Dorothea, editor 457 Fitch, Clyde 503 Fitzgerald, F. Scott 482 Fitzsimmons, Linda, editor 489, 490 Fjelkestam, Kristina 784 Fleischmann, Ellen L., book 465 Flint, Kate 584; articles 466, 467 Flisch, Julia Anna 513 Fluhr, Nicole M. essay 468 Flynn, Elizabeth Gurley 365, 588 Foot, Isabella O., novel 86 Forbes, Athol, article 230 Ford, Henry 540 Ford, Isabella 545, 769 Formanek-Brunell, Miriam, book 469 Forrey, Carolyn: articles 471, 472; Ph.D. diss. 470 Forsäs-Scott, Helena 784 Forster, E. M. 764; novel 269 Forster, Laurel 526; conference paper 473 Fortnightly Review 34, 38, 47, 161, 165, 170, 249, 258 Forum 306 Forward, Stephanie, editor 528 Fourie, Fiona, article 474 Frager, James, book 475 Frame, Lynn-Marie Hoskins: book chapter 477; Ph.D. diss. 476 France 165, 225, 484, 650, 652, 673, 711, 743, 762, 794

Index

Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Weekly 156 Franklin, Miles 492 Frederic, Harold 298; novel 130 Free Review 127 Freedman, Estelle B. 695; article 478 Freeman, Mary Wilkins 748 Freemasonry 225 French, Pauline (Miss) 1–11 French Revolution 9 Friedenreich, Harriet Pass, book chapter 479 Friederichs, Hulda, article 87 Friedlander, Judith: book 480; book editor 461 Frisch, Christine 784 Fryer, Judith, book 481 Fryer, Sarah Beebe, book 482 Furer, Andrew J., article 483 Furlough, E., article 484 Furness, Aimée 131 Futures Exchange: ACH 610 Gainor, J. Ellen: article 485; book 486 Galsworthy, John 671; novel 331 Ganobesik-Williams, Lisa 526; book chapter 487 Garcia-Landa, Jose Angel, editor 683 Gardiner, Juliet 17, 136; editor 488 Gardner, Isabella Stewart 615 Gardner, Vivien, editor 489, 490 Garrard, Mary D., editor 575 Garvey, Amy Jacques (Mrs. Marcus) 382, 493 Gellhorn, Martha (Mrs. Ernest Hemingway) 725 Gender: equality 140; inequality 395; roles 161 George, W. L., novel 278 Gerald, Katharine Fullerton: article 286; book 329 The German Quarterly 564 Germans and Germany 158, 309, 366, 372, 428, 442, 476, 477, 504, 505, 535, 536, 559, 565, 624, 704, 738, 743, 758, 759, 760, 763, 785, 786, 788, 791 Gerson, Carole: article 492; book chapter 491 Gerstenberg, Alice 636 Gibson, Charles Dana (and Gibson Girl) 562, 646, 672, 767 Giddings, Paula, book 493 Gilbert, Pamela, article 494 Gilbert, Sandra M., book 495 Gildersleeve, Virginia 676 Gilligan, Carol 401 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins I-14, 487, 495, 525, 567, 665, 683, 707, 710, 739, 748; book 187; novels 313, 319; short story 254 Gissing, George 414, 464, 510, 534, 578, 620 Glasgow, Ellen 340, 605, 644, 652, 748; novels 188, 296 The Glasgow Evening News 419 Glasier, Katharine Bruce 545, 769; writings 131 Glaspell, Susan 636, 722 Glendening, John, article 496

Index

184

Godard, Barbara, article 497 Gold, Janet N., book 498 Golf 129 Goldman, Emma 411 Gompers, Samuel 460 Goode, John 548; book chapter 499 Goodyear, Frank H., III, book 500 Gorsky, Susan Rubinow: article 502; book 501 Gottlieb, Lois C., article 503 Graffenried, Clare de, article 132 Grand, Sarah (aka Frances Elizabeth BellendenClark McFall) I- 5, I-7, 1, 9, 39, 44, 56, 123, 151, 183, 185, 200, 230, 251, 340, 360, 378, 390, 400, 401, 414, 445, 458, 508, 522, 525, 528, 552, 554, 558, 568, 573, 580, 600–02, 616, 617, 631, 633, 635, 657, 667, 694, 718; articles 24, 26, 189–93; booklet 194; essay 25; novel 168, 287 Grant, Robert 792; novel 231 Grant, Sadi, novel 196 Great Britain I-5-, I-6, I-15, 10, 17, 69, 249, 299, 301, 307, 354, 376, 388–90, 395, 413, 419, 421, 431, 437, 518, 545, 557, 576, 582, 602–04, 743 Great Plains Quarterly 451 Greece 257 Grimké, Angeline 373 Grossman, Atina, Ph.D. diss. 504 Grundy, Sydney 421, 422, 635; play 27 Guenther, Irene, book 505 Guerres Mondiales et Conﬂits Contemorains 794 Gwynn, Stephen, article 197 Hackett, Robin, book 506 Haggard, H. Rider 495, 631, 633, 669, 670 Haire-Sargeant, Lin, Ph.D. diss. 507 Hale, Beatrice Forbes-Robertson, book 305 Hall, E. B., article 28 Hall, George F., novel 88 Hall, Radclyffe (aka Marguerite Hall) 448, 637; novels 336, 349 Hall, Sharlot Mabridth, essay 214 Hamblin, Jessie de Foliart, novel 89 Hamilton, Cicely Mary 490; article 263; book 262; play 339 Hamilton, Teresa F. (Lady) 195 Handcrafts 132 Hannigan, D. F., critique 90 Hankin, St. John 422; play 260 Hansson, Laura Marholm 732; biog. studies 133, 215, 220 Hapgood, Hutchins 608 Hardy, Thomas 141, 151, 204, 414, 435, 438, 464, 499, 510, 535, 573, 580, 620, 631, 633, 756, 771; novel 91 Harland, Marion 23 Harley, Sharon, editor 742 Harmon, Lillian, article 198 Harmon, Sandra D., article 509 Harper, Charles, “diatribe” 29 Harper’s Bazaar 181, 205

Harraden, Beatrice 340; novel 31; short stories 30 Harris, Katharine Sumner, Ph.D. diss. 510 Harris, Kristine, article 511; book chapter 512 Harris, Robin O., Ph.D. diss. 513 Harrison, Constance Cary, novels 32, 92 Hartman, Kabi, article 514 Harvard Law Review 69 Harvey, Alexander, article 270 Harvey, H. E. essay 134 Hasse, Adelaide 386 Haviland, Mrs. E. S. 651 Haweis, M. E., article 33 Hawkesworth, Celia, article 515 Hawthorne, Nathaniel 481, 640 Heathen Woman’s Friend 417 Heilmann, Ann 167, 200, 584; articles 516, 521, 524; books 518, 520, 522; book chapter 519, 523, 525; editor 473, 526–28, 555, 562, 612, 672, 701, 704, 746 Heitmann, Annegret 784 Helland, Janice Valerie, Ph.D. diss. 529 Heller, Adele, editor 530, 685, 752 Hemery, Gertrude, essay 34 Hemingway, Ernest 611, 725 Henry, Josephine K. 793; essay 93 Henry, Richard (aka Henry Chase Newton, Richard Butler, Millie Finkelstein) 610; book 93 Hermans, Hubert, editor 421 Herrick, Robert 792 Hewitt, Emma Churchman, article 169 Hewitt, Nancy A., book 531 Heyse, Paul 215, 220 Hickok, Kathleen, book 532 Hicks, Beatrice 474 Higishi, Sumiko, book 533 Higonnet, Margaret Randolph, editor 650 Hill, Elsie 642 Hilton, Alice, article 95 Himmelfarb, Gertrude, book 534 Hiratsuka, Raichõ 384, 475, 593, 674 Hispanic writers 553 History of European Ideas 634 Hobbes, John Oliver 340 Hobson, Florence 68 Höch, Hannah 574, 575 Hodgkins, Louise Manning 417 Höfele, Andreas, book chapter 535 Hoffman, Michael J., editor 397 Hogarth, Janet E., report article 170 Holdsworth, Annie E., novel 35 Holland see Netherlands Hollingsworth, Leta Stetter I-15, 739; article 345 Holnut, W. S., novel 96 Holm, Brigitta, book chapter 536 Home Chat I-8 Homosexuality 428 Honduras 498 Honey, Maureen: article 538; editor 537

185 Hoover, Lou Henry 426 Hopkins, Pauline 408, 612, 617; novel 216 Höppener, Hugo 452 Hopper, Helen M., book 539 Hopper, Nora 340 Horniman, Annie 380 Horses, racing and riding 156, 783 Hossein, Roketa Sakawat 372 Houghton, Stanley, play 279 Howard, Angela, book 540 Howells, William Dean 481, 792 Hu, Ying, book 541 Hughes, Linda, book 542 Hull, Edith Maude 375 Hultin, Ida C. (Rev.) 65 Humanitarian 21, 68, 136, 140, 151, 213 Humboldt Standard I-15 Hum-Ishu-Ma, Mourning Dove, novel 346 Humor 730, 732 Humphreys, Eliza see Rita Hungary 785 Hunt, Lynn, editor 711 Hunt, Violet: novels 36, 97, 217; short stories 135 Hunter, Jane H., book 543 Hurd, John (Dr.), novel 199 Hurston, Zora Neale 682 Hynes, Gladys 428 Ibsen, Henrik 220, 258, 579, 593, 594, 606, 674, 724 Ichikawa, Fusae 475 Ide, Kikue, address 350, 544 Illinois Historical Journal 660 The Illustrated London News 576 Independent 224 India 124, 409, 713 Inferiorities 262 Ingalls, John J. (Sen.) 224 Ingram, Angela, editor 545, 769 Institute of Women Journalists 388 Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context 546 Iota (aka Kathleen Mannington Caffyn) 56, 340, 657; novels 37, 98 Irigary, Luce 522 Iris 733 Iron, Ralph see Schreiner, Olive Irving, Debra, translator 461 Irwin, Inez Haynes 642 Irwin, Virginia 725 Ishii, Kazumi, article 546 Israel, Betsy, book 547 Isreals, Belle Lindnar 766 Italy 444, 743 Jacobus, Mary, editor 548 James, Henry 481, 640, 720, 792 Janitschek, Maria 452 Japan 241, 242, 325, 342, 350, 384, 475, 539, 546, 555, 595, 628, 674, 692, 723

Index

Jenkins, Alice, editor 573 Jenney, Marie Saul 365 Jensen, Joan M.: book 695; editor 691 Jeune, Mary (Lady) 34, 438; article 38; essay 200 Jewett, Sarah Orne 617, 748 Jews see Religion Jim’s Wife’s Husband see Anonymous Jin, Ba 463 John, Juliet, editor 573 Johnson, E. Pauline (Tekahionwake) 415 Johnson, Joan Marie, book 549 Johnson, Josephine, book 550 Johnson, Patricia E., article 551 Johnston, Frances Benjamin 500, 626, Johnston, Mary 644, 647,793 Johnstone, Edith, novel 40, 568 Jonas, Monika, editor 763, 786 Jones, Alice 415 Jones, Henry Arthur 777 Jones, J. Wilton, play 253 Jones, Susan (S. Carleton) 415 Jordan, Ellen 552 Josei 546 Journal of American Culture 567 Journal of American History 478, 699 Journal of Commonwealth and Postcolonial Studies 492 Journal of Film and Video 716 Journal of Popular Culture 502 Journal of Social History 484, 599 Journal of Victorian Culture 524 Journalism and journalists I-5, I-9, I-10, 388, 609, 725, 796 Joyce, James 764 Juana, Alcira Arancibia, editor 553 Jusová, Iveta, book 554 Kabru, Osanai 546 Kaffka, Margit 701, 787 Kafka, Franz 788 Kanoko, Okamoto 628 Kaplan, Darola M., editor 712 Kazue, Muta 527; article 555 Keathley, Elizabeth Lorraine, Ph.D. diss. 556 Keikichi, Istimoto (Baron) 539 Keller, Gottfried 220 Kelley, Florence 642 Kelly, George, play 343 Kenealy, Arabella 210; article 136; novels 99, 218 Kennard, Mrs. Edward 783 Kent, Susan Kingsley, book 557 Kenton, Edna, articles 280, 297–99 Kerr, Sophie, short story 344 Kersley, Gillian, book 558 Kessemeier, Gesa, book 559 Kessler-Harris, Alice, editor 461 Keun, Irmgard 564, 758, 759 Khatun, Akhter Mahal Syeda 372 Kikue, Yamakawa 674

Index King, Lynda J., article 560 Kingscote, Adeline G. I. see Cleeve, Lucas Kinross, Albert, novel 100 Kiper, Florence, article 306 Kipling, Rudyard 669, 670 Kirkpatrick, Helen 725 Kitch, Carolyn L., book 561 Knob, Albert 452 Kóhler, Angelika 527; book chapter 562 Kolb, Deborah, article 563 Kollontai, Alexandra 461, 480, 536, 679; essay 324 Kopchovsky, Annie “Londonderry” I-10, I-11 Kosta, Barbara, article 564 Kovalevsky, Sonia 133 Kovikova, Irina, book chapter 565 Kramarae, Cheris, book 566 Kronig, Jytte, editor 536 Krull, Wessel, editor 421 Kryder, LeeAnne Giannone, article 567 Kucich, John, book 568 Kuhn, Anna K.: book 569; editor 791 Kulba, Tracy, Ph.D. diss. 570 Kürtosi, Katalin, editor 785 Labé, Louise 149 Labor see Employment and labor The Ladies’ Home Journal I-9, 328, 700 Lady’s Pictorial 42 The Lady’s Realm 183, 190, 191, 195, 200, 209, 263 Lady’s World 230 La Follette, Belle Case (Mrs. Robert) 773 La Follette, Robert 773 La Follette’s Weekly 773 Laity, Cassandra: article 572; Ph.D. diss. 571 Lamarck, Jean-Baptist 473 Lamb, Stephen 624 Lanceﬁeld, R. T., novel 171 Lang, Fritz 476 Langäs, Unni 784 Langhorne, Nancy I-6 Larsen, Nella 539, 682; novels 351, 355 Larson, Jil, article 573 Larsson, Lisbeth 784 Latchkey I-8 Latinos 531 Laughlin, Clara Elizabeth 660 Laurencin, Marie 428 Lavin, Maud Katherine: book chapter 575; Ph.D. diss. 574 Lavrut, Louise 626 Law, Graham, article 576 Lawrence, D. H. 499, 764; novel 330 Leaker, Catherine Joan, Ph.D. diss. 577 Ledger, Sally I-15, 668; articles 578, 583; books 581, 582; book chapter 580; editor 466, 519, 581, 584, 585; essay 579 Lee, Vernon 710 Lees, Edith (Mrs. Henry H. Ellis) 404 Lefko, Stefana Lee, Ph.D. diss. 586

186 Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers 408, 751 Leighton, Dorothy, novel 41 Lemons, J. Stanley, Ph.D. diss. 587 Lempicka, Tamara de 428 Lerner, Gerda, editor 588 Lesbian relationships 8, 349, 428, 637 Leslie, Amy 391 Leslie’s Weekly I-13 Leverson, Ada 710, 717 Levin, Eve, translator/editor 656 Levy, Amy 414, 554, 755 Lewis, Jane, editor 589 Lewis, Lily 609 Libraries and librarians 278, 386 Life I-9, 138, 181, 182, 259, 265, 275, 352, 607 Lin, Li-Chun, Ph.D. diss. 590 Lindén, Claudia 784 Ling, Ding 463 Lingyu, Ruan I-14, 511, 512 Linton, Elizabeth (also Eliza) Lynn 432, 736; novels 42, 101 The Literary Criterion 497 Literature 296, 340, 374, 377, 411, 414, 507, 780 Literature Compass 521 Liu, Jui-Chi (Rachel), Ph.D. diss. 591 Llafur: Journal of the Society ... 779 Lockwood, Belva 588 Lombraso, Caesar, scientiﬁc study 219 London, Jack 483, 662; novels 244, 271, 320 A London Magazine 172 London Truth 607 Long, John Luther 630 Loos, Anita 758 Lowy, Dina B.: book 593; Ph.D. diss. 592 Loy, Mina 411 Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng 511; editor 512, 639 Lubin Manufacturing Co. I-13 Lucas, John 499 Ludovici, Anthony M. I-15, 739 Luhan, Mabel Dodge 365, 684 Macbeth, Madge 415 MacCorrie, John Paul, essay 137 MacDaniels, Frances Cochran 714 Mackay, Barbara, DFA thesis 594 Mackay, Isabel Ecclestone 415 Mackie, Vera, book 595 MacNicol, Bessie 740 Macphail, Andrew (Dr.) 259 MacPike, Loralee, article 596 Maier, Sarah E., article 597 Mäkinen, Helka, Ph.D. diss. 598 Malet, Lucas 340; article 249 Mally, Lynn, article 599 Mammin, Jeanne 428 Manchester Guardian 273 Mangum, Teresa 667; book 601; book chapter 602; Ph.D. diss. 600 Mann, Mary E., novel 102

187 Manners 118, 189, 193 Manos, Nikki Lee: book 604; book chapter 603; editor 602 Marchant, Jamie, article 605 Marcus, Jane, article 606 Marcus, Laura I-15 Marholm Hansson, Laura see Hansson, Laura Marholm Marks, Patricia, book 607 Marriage I-7, 192, 194, 195, 213, 262, 268, 280, 395, 430, 497, 501, 502, 727, 774 Marriner, Gerald L., article 608 Marsh, Reginald 759 Marsh, Richard, novel 103 Marshall, Gail, editor 580 Martin, Edward Sandford, essay 261 Martin, Helen Reimensnyder 393 Martin, Linda Wagner, editor 611 Martin, Margaret Kathleen, Ph.D. diss. 609 Martin, Susan K., article 610 Martin, Terence, editor 748 Martin, Wendy, book chapter 611 Marx, Eleanor 404, 534, 709 Marx, Magdaleine I-15, 739 Mass media 561, 574 Matheson, E., poems 43, 104 Matter-Seibel, Sabina 526; book 612 Matthews, Jean V., book 612 Maule, Marie K. 509; short story 201 Maupassant, Guy du 220 McArthur, Judith N., book 614 McCarthy, Kathleen D., book 615 McClung, Nellie 415 McClure, Nancye Jane, Ph.D. diss. 616 McCracken, L., article 360 McCracken, Scott 584; editor 581, 585 McCullough, Mary Katherine, Ph.D. diss. 617 McDonald, Frances 419, 529 McDonald, Jan, article 618 McDonald, Margaret 419, 529 McFall, Frances Elizabeth Bellenden-Clark see Grand, Sarah McIlwraith, Jean N. 415 McKenna, Isobel Kerwin, Ph.D. diss. 619 McKinney, Lauren D., Ph.D. diss. 620 McLaren, Angus, book 621 McMenamin, Hugh L. I-15, 739 McMullen, Lorraine, editor 415 McNamara, Mary Jo, article 622 McNease, Francesca Mallory, Ph.D., diss. 623 Meade, Elizabeth Thomasina, novel 202 Meade, T. A., article 105 Meisel-Hess, Grete 785 Melbourne Sportsman 610 Melosh, Barbara, editor 749 Mena, Maria Cristina 393 Mendez, Concha 659 Meredith, George 203, 464, 510, 756; novel 272 Meskimmon, Marsha: book chapter 624; editor 624 Metcalfe, poem 138

Index

Mew, Charlotte 717 Meynell, Alice 732; diatribe 139 Meyrick, Geraldine, poem 248 Michigan Quarterly Review 737 Middleton, Christina see Syrett, Netta Miles, Rosie 584 Milholl, Inez 365 Mill, John Stuart 56, 510, 771 Millay, Edna St. Vincent 625 Miller, G. Noyes 9 Miller, Kenneth Hayes 749 Miller, Nina, Ph.D. diss. 625 Millet, Kate 499 Minh-ha, Trinh T. 723 Mitchell, Delores, article 626 Modern Austrian Literature 560 Modern Language Notes 726 Montagu, Mary Wortley (Lady) 233 Montgomery, L. M. 415, 491 The Monthly Packet 118 Moodie, Marion 715 Moody, William Vaughn 503, 636 Moore, Frank Frankfurt, novel 255 Moore, George 464; short stories 106 Moore, Marianne 411 Morality I-5 Moreland, Kim, article 627 Morgan-Dockrell, Mrs. C. essay 140 Mori, Maryellen T., article 628 Morris, William 402 Morton, Martha 456 Morton, R. I-14 Mourning Dove 538 Movies see Film and movies Mueller, H. F., article 352 Munro, Eleanor, book 629 Münsterberg, Margarete, novel 300 Murder see Crime Murnau, F. W. 407 Murphy, Emily 570 Murphy, Gretchen, article 630 Murphy, Mary (Patricia): article 632; book 633; Ph.D. diss. 631 Music I-14 Musil, Robert 560 Mussolini, Rachele Guidi (Mrs. Benito) 444 Mutual Life of New York 182 Naeve-Bucher, Ursula 784 Nash, Mary, article 634 Nation Woman’s Party 642 National Academy of Design I-15 Native American 346, 393, 538 Negro see African Americans; Biracial women Nelken, Margarita 659 Nelson, Carolyn Christensen, editor 635 Neohelicon 787 Nesbit, Edith 542, 732 Netherlands I-6, 421, 525, 683 Nethersole, Olga 663 New, Birgitta 784

Index

188

New England Magazine 146 New England Theatre Journal 485 New Orleans, LA 13 New Outlook 73 New Theatre Quarterly 618 New York History 447 New York Times 43 New York Tribune 104, 205 New York World I-10, I-11 Newlin, Keith, editor 636 Newton, Esther 448; article 637 Newton, Henry Chase see Henry, Richard Ng, Yee-Ling, Ph.D. diss. 638 Nie, Er, poem 639 Niemtzow, Annette, Ph.D. diss. 640 Nineteenth Century 14–16, 33, 38, 50, 161, 210 Nineteenth Century Fiction 446 Noble, James Ashcroft 90 Nord, Deborah Epstein, book 641 Nordau, Max 115 Norman, Mrs. Henry see Dowie, Mènie Muriel Norris, Charles G., novel 333 Norris, Frank 405, 406; novel 221 Norton, Mary Beth, editor 642 North American Review 24–26, 44, 161, 552, 694 NWSA Journal 596, 734 Occupations see Employment O’Connell,—(Cardinal) 304 Ohio History 714 Ohio Liberal Society 128 Old Woman 64, 71, 87, 190, 191, 200 Oliphant, Margaret, article 141 O’Neill, Rose 469 Oppenheim, Annie Isabella, short story 172 Osborne, Deirdre I-15 Others: A Magazine of the New Verse 411 Ouida (aka Marie Louise de la Ramée) I-5, 25, 340, 494, 552, 694; article 44 The Outlook 158, 245 Owen, Chandler, article 334 Owens, Carolyn Jill Tedford, Ph.D. diss. 643 Pabst, Georg Wilhelm 738 Paciﬁc Affairs 350 Paciﬁc Historical Review 426 Packalén, Malgozata Anna 784 Pal, József, editor 785 Palestine 465 Pall Mall Gazette 1, 139 Palmer, Alice Freeman 403 Palmer, Bertha 766 Palmer, Mrs. Potter 440 Pankhurst, Christobel (Miss) 270 Pan-Paciﬁc Woman’s Conference 350 Papillon, Edward Thomas, novel 45 Pappenheim, Marie 556 Paqvalén, Rita 784 Parker, Dorothy 625 Parsons, Deborah I-15 Parsons, Elsie Clews 365

Paston, George (aka Emily Morse Symonds), novels 46, 107, 173, 222 Patai, Daphne, editor 545, 769 Patraka, Vivian, editor 757 Patten, Simon N., article 307 Patterson, Martha Helen: article 646; book 644; book chapter 645; Ph.D. diss. 647 Paul, Bruno 452 Peard, Frances Mary, novel 174 Pearson, Karl, article 47 Peattie, Elia Wilkinson 660; novel 308 Pepper, Harriet Murdock, Ph.D. diss. 648 Periodicals Review 753 Perrot, Michelle, book chapter 650 Perry, Carolyn, editor 793 Persia 289 Peterson, Samiha Sidhom, translator 227 Petry, Ann 682 Pﬁster, Manfred, editor 535 Pﬁsterer, Susan, article 651 Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart 373 Philanthropy 3 Photographers and photography 500 Pickering, Percival, novel 108 Pickthall, Marjorie 415 Pilot 72 Pinero, Arthur Wing 422, 777; plays 109, 110 Piper, P. M. I-14 Pitavy, Souques D., article 652 Plays see Theater Poets and poetry I-5, I-8, 411, 532, 542, 655 Poland 428, 784 Politics I-5, I-6, 3, 5, 266, 284, 354, 396, 436, 531 Pope, Barbara E., short story 142 Poppenheim, Louisa 549 Popular Science Monthly 132 Porter, Katherine Anne 457 Potter, Beatrix I-5 Priesand, S., book 653 Prieto, Laura R., book 654 Prospects 630, 735 Prostitution see Crime Psomiades, Kathy Alexis, editor 508 Puck I-10 Pulitzer Prize 356, 729 Pullen, Christine, Ph.D. diss. 655 Punch, or the London Charivari I-9, I-10, 1, 2, 4, 57, 59, 61, 62, 66, 71, 119, 122, 154, 414, 607, 694, 703, 768 Pushkareva, Natalia, book 656 Pykett, Lynn: book 657; book chapter 658 Quance, Roberta, article 659 Quarterly Review 6, 9 Racial issues 775 Radford, Ada 635 Radford, Dollie 532 Raftery, Judith, article 660 Ragan, Ruth, novel 325

189 Rahman, Majibar 372 Raimond, C. E. (aka Elizabeth Robins) 422, 490, 671, 776; articles/speeches 301; novels 48, 111; see also Robins, Elizabeth Ralph, Julian, short story 112 Randolph, A. Philip, article 334 Ranfft, Erich 624 Rankin, Jeannette I-6 Raub, Patricia, article 661 Rauh, Ida 684, 722 Redmond, James, editor 777 Reesman, Jeanne Campbell, article 662 Religion 120, 121, 184, 225, 304, 305, 358, 361, 393, 417, 439, 449, 690; Bible 63, 121, 178; Buddhism 241; Jews and Judaism 479, 505, 591, 606, 653; Moslems/Muslims 289, 372, 515 Reid, Flora 419 Reilly, Joy Harriman, Ph.D. diss. 663 Rejane,—(Madame) 454 Rémy, Caroline (Séverine) 673 Rennick, Gregory, exhibition 664 Republican China 511 Reve, Winnifred (Onoto Watanna) 415 The Review of English Studies 703 Review of Reviews 7, 68 Revista de Occidente 659 Revue Francois d Etudes Americaines 652 Rhetoric Review 765 Rice, Elmer, play 356 Rich, Charlotte Jennifer, Ph.D. diss. 665 Richardson, Angelique I-15; article 667; book 668; editor 523, 579, 694, 780, 783; Ph.D. diss. 666 Richardson, Eudora Ramsay 766 Richardson, LeeAnne Marie: book 670; Ph.D. diss. 669 Richardson, Samuel 367 Rijnbout, Frans A., Ph.D. diss. 671 Rinehart, Mary Roberts 796 Rita (aka Eliza Humphreys), novels 49, 113 Ritchie,—(Lady) 340 Robbins, Trina 527; book 672 Roberts, Mary Louise, book 673 Robertson, Peter, novel 237 Robins, Elizabeth (aka C. E. Raimond) 340, 554, 746, 777; essays 302; play 256; see also Raimond, C. E. Robins, Margaret Dreier 642 Robinson, John Bunyon, poems, diatribe 143 Rochelson, Meri-Jane: book 604; editor 602 Rodd-Rasplica, Laurel, book chapter 674 Rodman, Henrietta 365, 684, 722 Roman Empire 10 Roosevelt, Theodore 249 Rosas, Yolanda, editor 553 Rosenberg, Rosalind, book chapter 675 Rosenzweig, Linda W., book 676 Ross, Frances Mitchell, article 677 Ross, Martin 340 Ross, Mary Lowrey 415

Index

Ross, Sara, article 678 Rotkirch, Anna 784; book 679 Rowe, Dorothy 624 Rowe, Victoria, Ph.D. diss. 680 Rowland, Diane Baker, Ph.D. diss. 681 Royster, Beatrice, Ph.D. diss. 682 Rudnick, Lois Palken: article 530; books 684, 685; editor 530, 685, 752; essay 683 Ruether, Rosemary Radford, book 686 Rugg, George, skit 144 Rupp, Leila J., article 687 Ruskin, John 510 Russell, Mona L., Ph.D. diss. 688 Russell, Penny, article 689 Russell, Thomas Arthur, Ph.D. diss. 690 Russia 125, 324, 381, 536, 565, 599, 656, 743 Rutherford, Mark (aka William Hale White), novel 145 Ryan, Mary P. 695; book chapter 691 Ryley, Madeleine Lucette 456 Sagan, Leontine 738 Said, Edward 723 Salinas, Pedro 726 Salvation Army 782 Sánchez, Maria Carla, editor 755 Sand, George 398 Sanger, Margaret 365, 411, 420, 642 Sato, Barbara Hamill, book 692 Saturday Review 64 Scandinavian literature 788 Scanlon, Leon, article 693 Schaffer, Talia 584, 668; book chapter 694; editor 508 Scharf, Joan, editor 741 Scharf, Lila, editor 741 Scharf, Lois, book 695; editor 691 Schlossberg, Linda, editor 755 Schneider, Carl J., book 696 Schneider, Dorothy, book 696 Schoemerlen, Diane, book 697 Schoenberg, Arnold 556 Scholz, Hannelore, editor 565 Schreiner, Olive (Ralph Iron) 56, 340, 378, 404, 414, 446, 492, 495, 506, 522, 523, 534, 573, 577, 631, 633, 693, 709, 717, 756, 788; article 223; book 281; novel 347 Schulte-Middelich, Bernd, editor 535 Scotland 428 Scott, Ann Firor, articles 698, 699 Scott, Evelyn 754 Scott, H. S., article 28 Scottish Review 178 Scribner’s Magazine 362 Seabury, Emma Playter, rhyme 146 Seaton, Esta Klein, Ph.D. diss. 700 Seaton, Grace Thompson, book 337 SEER (The Slavonic East European Review) 515 Seiseien, Ihara 674 Seitõ Journal 384, 555, 593, 595, 674 Selig Polyscope I-13

Index Séllei, Nóra 527; essay 701 Seneca Falls Convention 507 Senf, Carol A., article 702 Sex roles 232, 720 Shafts: A Paper for Women and the Working Classes 17, 104, 488, 753 Shakespeare, William 203 Shapiro, Susan C., article 703 Sharp, Evelyn 197, 717; novels 114, 175; short stories 273 Sharp, Ingrid 527; essay 704 Shaw, George Bernard 286, 485, 486, 510, 535, 550, 671, 770, 777; plays 176, 238 Sheldon, Edward 306 Shen, Ruihua, Ph.D. diss. 705 Sherrard-Johnson, book 706 Shidzue, Katô 539 Shor, Francis Robert, book 707 Showalter, Elaine 581; article 708; book 709; editor 710 Sidgwick, Mrs. Alfred 340 Sidgwick, Ethel 340 Siganou-Parren, Kalliroi, play 257 Signs 637 Silberrad, Una L. 340 Silverman, Debra, book chapter 711 Sime, J. G. 415 Simpson, Anne B.: book chapter 712; editor 712 Sinclair, May 340, 473 Singapore 732 Singers-Bigger, Gladys 558 Singh, Uma 713 Singley, Carol J., editor 445 Skram, Amalie 133 Slater, Edith, article 203 Slaybaugh, Douglas, article 714 Smedley, Constance, article 258 Smith, Alys Pearsall, article 50 Smith, Catherine Munn, article 715 Smith, Greg M., article 716 Smith, Joan, editor 717 Smith, John, novel 147 Smith, Sherri Catherine, Ph.D. diss. 718 Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll 448; article 721; book 720; book chapter 719; editor 461 Sochen, June, book 722 Socialism 225 Södergran, Edith 536 Sokolsky, Anne Elizabeth, Ph.D. diss. 723 Solomon, Alisa, book 724 Somerville, E. C. E. 340 Sorel, Nancy Caldwell, book 725 South Africa I-6, 163, 347, 449 South America 428 South Atlantic Quarterly 608, 698 Southern Literary Journal 754 Southwest Historical Quarterly 370 Sowerby, Githa 490; play 288 Spain 634, 659, 726 Spencer, Herbert 473 Spires, Robert C., article 726

190 Spofford, Harriet Prescott 648 Sports see Athleticism; Bicycles and bicycling; Golf; Horses, racing and riding Spring, Joel H., book 727 Stannard, Henrietta see Winter, John Strange Stanton, Elizabeth Cady 178; article 224 Steel, Flora Annie 669, 670 Stein, Gertrude 397, 406, 411, 748 Stein, Joseph, article 728 Stephens, Judith L., article 729 Stettheimer, Florine 591 Stetz, Margaret Diane: articles 731, 733; book 730; book chapter 732 Stevens, Doris 687 Stevens, Sarah E., article 735 Steward, Ella Seass, article 233 Stieglitz, Alfred 411 Stocking, Annie W., article 289 Stoddard, Elizabeth Barstow 616 Stoker, Bram 407, 669, 670, 702 Stokes, Rose Pastor 365; play 321 Stott, Annette, article 735 Strasser, Arthur 452 Strindberg, August 220, 594 Stubbs, Patricia, book 736 Studi Storica 444 Studies in American Fiction 483 Studies in the Humanities 407 Studies in the Literary Imagination 367, 731 Studlar, Gaylyn, article 734 Stutﬁeld, Hugh, articles 115, 177 Suárez, Clementina 498 Sudermann, Hermann 593; play 116 Suffrage I-6, 3, 65, 247, 261, 267, 268, 273, 275, 283, 299, 360, 387, 399, 464, 514, 557, 595, 642, 654, 744, 745, 775 Sugimoto, Etsu 538 Sumako, Matsui 674 Sutton, Katie, article 738 Swan, Annie S. 389 Sweden 784 Sweeney, Susan Elizabeth, editor 445 Switzerland 424 Sykes, A. G. P., article 117 Symonds, Emily Morse see Paston, George Symphonies 167 Symposia I-15 Sypher, Eileen 584 Syrett, Netta (Christina Middleton) 340, 635, 643, 717; novels 148, 239, 274, 290, 314, 322, 357 T. P. W., article 178 Taggard, Genevieve 625 Talmadge, Norma 716 Tanner, Ailsa, book 740 Tarbell, Ida I-5, 568 Tarrant, Sasha Ranaé Adams, book 540 Taylor, James M. 155 Tekahionwake see Johnson, E. Pauline Tekey, Adeline M. 415

191 Temple Bar 125 Temple Magazine 189 Terborg-Penn, Roslyn: book chapter 741, 742; editor 742 Terrell, Mary Church 440, 642 Texas Studies in Literature and Language 468 Theater (includes buildings, plays) 27, 109, 260, 263, 276, 279, 306, 356, 380, 391, 421–23, 429, 437, 454, 485, 486, 489, 490, 503, 530, 563, 569, 571, 572, 579, 594, 599, 618, 635, 636, 663, 673, 729, 747, 770, 791 The Theatre Journal 729 Thébaud, Françoise, book 743 Thomas, Augustus 636 Thomas, Bertha 398 Thomas, M. Carey 567, 676 Thomas, Mary Martha: article 745; book 744 Thomas, Sue 526; book chapter 746 Thompson, Doreen Helen, Ph.D. diss. 747 Thompson, Hilary, editor 491 Thompson, Maurice, essay 149 Thompson, Nicola Diana, editor 378, 462, 658 Thorneycroft, Ellen 340 Tichi, Cecelia, book chapter 748 Ticknor, Caroline 232; article 234 Tilley, Vesta 755 Tilly, Louise A., editor 757 The Times 317, 473 Times Literary Supplement 708 The Times Magazine 254 Tivoli (aka Horace William Bleackley) novel 51 To-day’s Woman 105 Todd, Ellen Wiley: book 750; book chapter 749 Todd, Mary Ives, novel 204 Toller, Ernst 569, 791 Tolstoy, Leo 220 Tomlinson, Annie E. I-7, article 150 Tomlinson, Susan, article 751 Tompuri, Elli 598 Tooley, Sarah A., article 151 Toshiko, Tamura 723 Trafﬁc 738 Treichler, Paula A., book 566 Trémauden, Ernestine de, translator 225 Trimberger, Kay 530; essay 752 Troubridge,—(Lady) 195 Truth, or, Testimony for Christ 121 Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 400, 632 Turkey 243, 257, 515 Turn-of-the-Century Women 385, 509 Tusan, Michelle Elizabeth, article 753 Twentieth Century Literature 774 Tynan, Katharine 340 Tyrell, George (Rev.), tract 179 Tyrer, Pat, article 754 U. V. W., article 118 Ullman, Sharon, book chapter 755 U. S. Supreme Court 642 Univ. of Michigan Papers in Women’s Studies 693

Index

Valesh, Eva 460 Vanity Fair 5 van der Hoeven, Adriaan, editor 536 van Maanen, Hans, book editor 421 Vedder, Catherine Mary, Ph.D. diss. 756 Vereker, Mabel (The Hon.) 195 Vicinus, Martha: book 448; editor 719; essay 757 Victorian Literature and Culture 402, 768 Victorian Newsletter 552 Victorian Review: The Journal... 597 Victorian Studies 435, 551, 667, 702 Viebig, Clara 586 Voice of the Negro 612 von Ankum, Katharina: articles 758, 759; editor 477 von Bülow, Fried 789 von Druskowitz, Helene 442 von Harbou, Thea 476, 586 Von Papen, Manuela, article 760 von Meysenbug, Malwida 442 von Salis, Meta 442 von Schirnhofer, Resa 442 von Sternberg, Josef 738 von Stroheim, Erich 405 Von Troll-Borostyani, Von Irma 9 Wachter, Phyllis E., Ph.D. diss. 761 Waelti-Walters, Jennifer, article 762 Wagner-Lawlor, Jennifer A. 732 Waka, Yamada 674 Wales 399, 779 Walker, William H. I-7 Wallinger, Sylvia, editor 763 Walls, Elizabeth MacLeod: article 765; editor 786; Ph.D. diss. 764 Walter, Eugene 503 Ward, Mrs. Humphry (aka Mary Augusta) 9, 340, 502; novel 52 Warden, Gertrude: novel 152; play 253 Ware, Susan, book 766 Ware, Theron (Rev.) I-6 Warford, Pamela Neal, Ph.D. diss. 767 Warne, Vanessa, article 768 Warren, Harriet Merrick (Mrs.) 417 Washington, Booker T. 612 Washington, Margaret Murray 647 Watanna, Onoto see Eaton, Winnifred; Reve, Winnifred Waters, Chris 545; book chapter 769 Watson, Barbara Bellow, book chapter 770 Watts, Cedric, article 771 Waugh, Evelyn 764 Waverly Magazine 142 Weaks, Mary Louise, editor 793 Webb, Charles Henry, poem 205 Webb, Frank Rush I-14 Weber, Marianne, book 309 The Weekly Call (Topeka, KS) 84 Weininger, Susan S., exhibition catalog 772 Weintraub, Rodelle, editor 770

Index

192

Weisberger, Bernard A., book chapter 773 Wells, H. G. 286, 416, 534, 693, 712; novel 264 The Wellsian: the Journal of the H. G. Wells Society 416 West, June B., article 774 West, Shearer, editor 624 Westminster Gazette 58 Westminster Review 34, 90, 117, 134, 161, 169, 184, 203, 266 Wetherald, Ethelwyn 415 Wetmore, Bessy 450 Wharton, Edith 340, 373, 408, 450, 645, 647, 665, 717, 748, 792, 795, 796; novels 250, 282, 291, 303, 323 Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill, book 775 Whistler, J. M. 500 Whitby, Beatrice, novel 53 White, William Hale see Rutherford, Mark Whitney, Gertrude Vanderbilt 615 Wiggin, Kate Douglas 340 Wilde, Oscar 508, 525, 534, 535, 581, 606, 776 Wilder, Helen 206 Wiley, Catherine: book chapter 777; Ph.D. diss. 776 Wilkins, Mary Eleanor 340 Wilkinson, Marion Birnie 549 Willard, Carla, book chapter 778 Willard, Emma 699 Willard, Frances 766 Willcocks, M. P. 340 Williams, Ellen, work 226 Williams, Fannie Barrier (Mrs. Samuel L. Williams) 440 Williams, Harold Herbert, book 340 Williams, Jesse Lynch 636, 729; play 310 Williams, Sian Rhiannon, article 779 Willis, Chris I-15, 668; book 668; book chapter 780; editor 523, 579, 694, 780, 783 Wilson, Margaret Gibbons, book 781 Winchester, Boyd, article 240 Winslow, Charles Edward Amory, play translation 116 Winslow, Mary 60 Winston, Diane H., book 782 Winston, Ella W., tract 153 Winter, John Strange (aka Henrietta Stannard) 340; novel 54 Wintle, Sarah 668; book chapter 783 Wischmann, Antje 784 Witt-Brattström, Ebba, editor 784 Wittman, Livia Käthe, book chapter 785 Wittman, Livia Z.: articles 787, 789; book chapter 788; essay 786 Woloch, Nancy, book 790 Woman I-8; Literary Supplement 39 Woman at Home 389 Woman’s Art Journal 452, 626 Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) 698

The Woman’s Column 65, 70, 155 Woman’s Era 440 The Woman’s Gazette 753 Woman’s Home Companion 344 Woman’s Journal 72, 119, 120, 124, 150 Woman’s Missionary Friend 417 The Woman’s Signal 6, 183, 191, 753 The Woman’s Standard 180, 236 The Woman’s Tribune 63 Woman’s Work 289 Women: A Cultural Review 578 Women in ﬁction 215 Women’s Club 201 Women’s clubs 549 Women’s Foreign Missionary Society 409 The Women’s Herald 753 Women’s History Review 399, 514, 516, 760 Women’s rights 9 Women’s Studies 472 Women’s Studies International Forum 389, 538 Women’s Trade Union League 642 Women’s Writing 375, 466, 517, 584 Wood, Joanna E. 497 Wood, Thelma 428 Woods, Margaret Louisa 340 Woolf, Virginia 517, 649, 764, 787; novels 315, 327, 353 Working-class 15 World War I 484, 502, 555, 650, 681, 701, 719 World War II 595, 681 Wormwood, Edyth M., rhyme 316 Wotton, Mabel E. 635 Wright, Almroth (Sir) 473 Wright, Barbara D.: book 569; book chapter 791; editor 791 Wright, Dorothea Curtis, Ph.D. diss. 792 Wright, Emily Powers, book article 793 Wynne, Mary (Mrs.) 195 Xai, Ai I-14 Xin, Bing 463 Xun, Lu 463 Yagil, L., article 794 Yang, Dong, Ph.D. diss. 795 Yeats, W. B. 571, 572 Yezierska, Anzia 766 Yin, Lu 463 Young Woman 87, 192 Yuanjun, Fang 463 Yver, Colette 762 Zimmern, Helen 442 Zink, Abbey Lynn, Ph.D. diss. 796 Zitkala-sa 393 Zuchmayer, Carl 569, 791