The Publishing Centres Of The Greeks From The Renaissance To The Neohellenic Enlightenment

'HE PUBLISHING CENTRES OF THE GREEKS From the Renaissance to The eohellenic nlightenment

NATIONAL BOOK CENTRE OF GREECE MINISTRY OF CULTURE

H ijl

V

11 1

^ow^^BSUjlljt'SC'M E k l f i

^

Cover: The Trojan Horse, from Ν. Loukanis, Homer's Iliad, Venice, 1562. Inside cover: Part of the Map of Greek Printing with the signature of K. Sp. Staikos.

THE PUBLISHING CENTRES OF THE GREEKS From the Renaissance to The Neohellenic Enlightenment

BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF THE NATIONAL BOOK CENTRE DIRECTOR

Christos G. Lazos PRESIDENT

Rena Stavridi-Patrikiou VICE-PRESIDENT

Dimitris Daskalopoulos SECRETARY

Maria Eustathiadi MEMBERS

Maria Agelidou Giorgos Giannakopoulos Nikolaos Gogos Giorgos Dardanos Manos Kontoleon Konstantinos Koroulis

© NATIONAL BOOK CENTRE, 2001 ISBN: 960-7894-30-8 KOTINOS S.A. EDITIONS Panou Aravantinou 10 Athens 106 74 Tel.: 72.41.933, fax: 72.32.754 e-mail: [email protected]

TRANSLATION

David Hardy PHOTOGRAPH

Socrates Mavrommatis PROOFS CORRECTED

Stella Tsamou

GREECE GUEST OF HONOUR AT THE 53rd FRANKFURT BOOK FAIR 2001

THE PUBLISHING CENTRES OF THE GREEKS From the Renaissance to The Neohellenic Enlightenment

Catalogue of Exhibition

Konstantinos Sp. Staikos Triantaphyllos E. Sklavenitis

NATIONAL BOOK CENTRE OF GREECE MINISTRY OF CULTURE

We would UL· to thank the following Cultural Institutions for their contribution to the Exhibition Hellenic National Library Library of the Hellenic Parliament Gennadeios1 Library Hellenic Literary and Historical Archive Centre for Neohellenic Research National Hellenic Research Foundation Library of Konstantinos Sp. Staikos —Library of Philippos Iliou

To the anonymous Greek printer

PREFACE

The subject of this exhibition and the accompanying catalogue is the history of the Publishing Centres of the Greeks from the Renaissance to the Neohellenic Enlightenment. The exhibition, the product of arduous research and of profound scholarship, is closely associated with the interests and aims of the National Book Centre. The subject of the exhibition, the field of research involved, and the systematic approach adopted by the researchers are all completely in keeping with the conviction of the NBC: that the dissemination of books, the supporting of research, and the acquisition of knowledge lead not only to social self-awareness, but also to individual freedom. In the hands of the few, the book can become a tool of repression, but in the hands of many it is an instrument of resistance and emancipation. The subject of the exhibition, the history of the publishing activities of Greeks during a critical chronological period, provides us with the opportunity of learning about the literacy and cultural level of a particular society, by tracing the history of books as the bearers of cultural goods. At the same time, it enables us to form picture of the unseen mechanisms that drive society, and the nature of its economy, through examining books as merchandise. It reveals to us, finally, the measure of the aesthetic aspirations of society, through a consideration of books as created artefacts. In chronological terms, the field of research extends from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, and, geographically, it includes the most important cities that emerged as major centres of the publication of Greek books. Through its presentation of this field, the exhibition gives prominence to the course followed by Greek society in its quest for and cultivation of those elements of cohesion that formed its national consciousness: language and education. This course was long and complex, and was pursued between the two very different worlds of the Ottoman empire and Europe. One section of society left behind the difficult conditions in the East and settled in the West, where it became economically and culturally active and followed the changing circumstances of life in the large European cities. Having made its contribution to the Renaissance, it cultivated its own independent discourse, proceeded to the onerous task of creating its own national identity, and

IX

struggled to produce a national education, in which the main instrument was the production of books. The editions published had a religious-liturgical content, since religion was the primary cohesive tissue. There were other books, however, designed to teach and preserve the Greek language - that is, 'for learning', and books intended for relaxation - that is, 'for perusal'. There were books that presented the radical ideas of the Enlightenment and led to the first breech with traditional models of thought and behaviour. Contact with the ideas of the Enlightenment modified the views held by these new social forces, which sought, now acting alone, to deal with questions of the education of the Greek people. Taking the new ideas as their basis, they drew up the designs for a new national perspective, and at the same time participated in the promotion of a climate of economic and intellectual prosperity during the period of the Lights in Europe. Their activities took place against the background of what was happening in Europe, and their history is connected with major turning points in European history. From this point of view, the present exhibition makes a considerable contribution to the creation of a sound infrastructure for the study not only of relations between Greeks and Europe or the Ottoman empire, but also of the more general mechanisms that carried European societies from the Renaissance to modern times. It is one of those contributions that shun ideological rhetoric and block the path to the arbitrary exploitation of the past. The National Book Centre once again congratulates Konstantinos Sp. Staikos and Triantaphyllos Sklavenitis, those experienced book historians, for the admirable manner in which they have conceived and implemented the exhibition. It also thanks them warmly for their contribution, made over many years now through their high academic conscientiousness, to historical research.

Rena Stavridi-Patrikiou Associated Professor in the Panteios University President of the National Book Centre

XI

CONTENTS

PREFACE

IX

CONTENTS

XIII

INTRODUCTION

XV

VENICE The most important centre of Greek books

2-23

FLORENCE The greatest centre of teaching Greek letters during the Renaissance

24-41

ROME Papal policy against Greek books

42-55

ALCALA The beginnings of the dissemination of Greek books in Spain PARIS The Royal Press and the establishment of Greek studies in France

62-73

GENEVA The bastion of Greek books supported by supporters of the Reformation

74-87

56-61

CONSTANTINOPLE The Patriarchal Press and the efforts to combat theological views and ideologies

88-103

JASSY - BUCHAREST The publications of the Orthodox Church in resistance to Catholic propaganda

104-119

XIII

VIENNA The publishing centre of Greek books during the Neohellenic Enlightenment (1787-1820) The interest in publishing evinced by Greek communities

120-145

BUDA-PEST

146-151

TRIESTE (1787-1820) The publications of a flourishing Greek community

152-155

LEIPZIG A centre of the free Greek press

156-165

MOSCOW - ST PETERSBURG The provision of Greek education and the national expectations of the Greeks MOSCHOPOLIS A press at the service of the Orthodox faith

172-177

MOUNT ATHOS An attempt to establish a press in the monastic republic

173-177

SMYRNA An unsuccessful begining

175-177

166-171

CORFU Ideological and administrative documents during the period of French rule

178-183

ZAKYNTHOS A press at the time of British rule

184-185

CHIOS Outposts of the Neohellenic Enlightenment in the Aegean islands KYDONIES Greek books at the service of education

185-186 186-187

PRESSES IN THE GREEK STATE

187

XIV

INTRODUCTION 1 he history of Greek printing is comprised of two large, virtually independent chapters since, from the early decades of the 16th century, the publishing of Greek books began to serve two completely different purposes: the dissemination of Greek letters and the consolidation of Greek studies in the context of Renaissance humanism on the one hand, and spiritual and religious needs on the other. The initiative of the humanists The earliest endeavours to print Greek books are recorded in Italy and date from about 1470 - at the time that peripatetic and other printers began to publish grammar handbooks - Manuel Chrysoloras's famous Erotemata - as aids to the teaching of Greek language in both the major and less important publishing centres, such as Venice, Milan, Breccia, and Reggio d'Emilia. From this time to the end of the incunabular period, in 1500, many important presses were founded that were oriented towards the printing of Greek books, and 80 editions were produced by them. Three cities played leading roles in the output of Greek books: Venice, Milan and Florence. In addition to the Italian printers who founded these humanist presses, Greek scholars and printers not only staffed the most important of these centres, but often made their contribution to some very fine publications. The first Greek to work with an Italian press or publishing house was Dimitrios Damilas, who collaborated with Dionigi Paravicino in Milan on the first edition of Konstantinos Laskaris's Grammar, in 1476. Damilas also played a leading role in the publication of the first edition of the Homeric poems, printed at the Florentine workshop of Bartolomeo di Libri in 1487/8 and edited by Dimitrios Chalkokondylis. Chalkokondylis himself, a fine teacher in Padua and Florence, published two Greek books in Milan, in collaboration with Ulric Scinzenzeler and Giovanni Bissoli and Benedetto Mangio. One of these is the monumental Byzantine lexicon, the Suda (1499). From the middle of the last decade of the 15th century, Ianos Laskaris, who was advisor on educational and bibliological matters to Lorenzo and Pietro de'Medici, attempted to establish a Greek press in Florence, in collaboration with Lorenzo de Alopa. The Anthology of Maximos Planoudis, printed with the famous 'little capitals', symbolises the beginning of their collaboration and was followed by many editions oriented towards Classical literature and culture in general. Finally, Markos Mousouros, Arsenios Apostolis, Iousrinos Dekadyos, Dimitrios Loukas and others all worked with Aldus Manutius's press in Venice from 1494 onwards, as editors and proof-readers of a large number of editions produced by the great humanist printer.

XV

Of the 80 Greek incunabula, 74 were printed on presses owned by westerners, and were mainly publications of a grammatical or lexicographical character. They also included some of the fundamental works of Classical thought, however, such as the five-volume edition of Aristotle (1495-1498), Aristophanes' Comedies (1498), The Complete Works of Homer (1487-1489), the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius (1496), the Tragedies of Euripides (ca. 1495), and others. All the Greek incunabula were printed in Italy, with the exception of a grammar handbook that was published without date, probably about 1488, in Deventer, Holland (Coniugationes verborum graecae). Precisely at the turn of the 15th century, the end of the period of incunabula, Greek printing began to spread to the North, to countries outside the traditional area of Italy. This development was the result of the systematic study of Greek literature in the original in all the countries beyond the Alps, without exception, and as far East as Prague. At the same time, the teaching of Greek language, literature and philosophy was introduced, with the establishment of chairs in all the important intellectual centres of the North, as well as in smaller towns that developed into crossroads of humanism. The leading figures in this spread of Greek printing were none other than the most important representatives of the humanist spirit in the North, who had previously studied at and toured the outstanding humanist centres of Italy. Equipped with an excellent knowledge of the Greek language and the secrets of the printer's art, they threw themselves into the arduous endeavour to reprint more accurate -compared with some of the editiones principes copies of the Classics, and to publish new editions based on unknown or inaccessible manuscripts. The most important of these presses-publishing centres emerged originally in Paris, Basel, Strasbourg, and Alcala, and later also in Geneva, Lyon, Frankfurt, Antwerp, London, Leiden, Leipzig and elsewhere. At the same time, attempts were made to print bilingual editions, mainly of Greek grammars, in some of the smaller towns, such as Tübingen and Erfurt. By the middle of the 16th century, when Greek printing had spread to an impressive extent, when thousands of Greek editions changed hands on the Frankfurt market and any printer could procure Greek typefaces, initial capitals and headpieces without difficulty, Luther's Reformation lent a new dimension to Greek books. Luther's followers believed that the genuine text of the New Testament was the one written in Greek, which had first been published in Basel, in 1516, edited by Erasmus himself. The restoration of the Greek text of the New Testament, however, was one of the great religious and philological stories of the Reformation. It all began in Paris, when the humanist printer and fine Hellenist Robert Estienne published two editions of the New Testament in a small format (160), in 1546 and 1549. He went on to print a third edition in 1550, in a large format (folio), using, of course, the famous grecs du roi. This was an editio regia, and also a critical edition based on the collation of sixteen manuscripts, with a large number of variae lectiones in the margins. From a typographic view it was one of the finest books ever printed. In his introductory letter, Robert Estienne declares and assures Christians everywhere that he is publishing 'the New Testament of Our Lord Jesus Christ, in the language in which it was written, under the dictation of the Holy Spirit! This declaration relegated the

XVI

Vulgata, the theological foundation of the Catholic Church, to the status of a mere transla­ tion. The dons of the Sorbonne were accordingly not slow to unleash a relentless war against Estienne, whom they ultimately obliged to leave Paris with his typefaces and seek refuge in Calvin's Geneva. Since that time, the text of Estienne's New Testament has been reproduced in tens of thousands of stereotyped copies, published by Protestants, and thus fuelling, amongst other things, the study of Greek literature, both generally and with the ulterior aim of the scholastic exegesis of passages from the Gospels and other works of Christian theology. Venice As early as the end of the 15th century, the Greek scholars who were active at the presses and in academic circles in Italy realised the role that might be played by books in reaching the dispersed Greek communities, both as an educational tool and as a cohesive force linking Greek Orthodox Christians everywhere. The reading pub, ,. lie that these pioneers of the Greek book sought to reach lived under " , ° centres οι either Venetian or Ottoman rule. Within the Ottoman empire, although tf» r l·there were no presses, the distribution of printed books did not encounter any obstacles. In the Venetian possessions, too, scattered amongst the Aegean islands, in the Ionian sea and Crete, no presses were to be found, and the printing centre of Venice retained its monopoly in these areas for centuries. The city, of course, was the home of the most populous Greek community of the diaspora, and it was here that the printer's art was developed by the Greeks, in a place pulsating with publishing life, with dozens of presses changing hands, and tens of thousands of books being distributed to the South and the North from as early as 1486. Sometimes founding printing houses of their own and sometimes collaborating with Italian printers, Greeks created a map of publishing at the beginning of the 16th century that remained virtually unchanged until the end of the 18th century. Their publications covered all aspects of an organised western city: grammars, dictionaries and encyclope­ dias for school use and general educational purposes, editions of ancient and Cretan liter­ ature, liturgical books that catered for all the needs of Orthodox worship and secured a large permanent clientele in the Orthodox East for five centuries, theological treatises, and other works. As long as the Serenissima Repubblica played a leading political role in the Mediterranean, until it the arrival of the French, Venice continued to be the preeminent publishing and printing centre of the Greeks. Florence - Rome Despite the fact that serious efforts were made, in both Florence and Rome, to establish Greek presses, supported by the Medici and Pope Leo X respectively, none of these endeavours bore fruit. Greek scholars and printers are to be found in these publishing centres from the middle of the 16th century, invariably against the background of the dissemination of Greek letters during the Renaissance. The leading figures in these movements were Ianos Laskaris and Zacharias Kalliergis and Arsenios Apostolis in Rome. Greek printing was revived in Rome in the 17th century, however, as an instrument of the Catholic Propaganda in the East. The press founded in Rome was staffed by pro-unifi-

XVII

cation Greeks like Petros Arkoudios and Neophytos Rodinos, and was used to print theological tracts and liturgical books, and even Greek grammars, which were distributed free, mainly to Greek communities in the East. Paris The involvement of Greeks with printing in France was confined to Paris, and had merely a symbolical character: it consisted of the selection of the handwriting of Angelos Vergikios as the model on which was based the engraving of the royal typefaces of François I. Angelos Vergikios was not only the most famous calligrapher of the 16th century but, as counsellor to François I, supported the formation of a fine royal Greek library, which formed the foundations of the publishing programme of the royal press and much else. It was the end of the 18th century before there was a revival of Greek interest in publishing and printing in Paris. It was then that Adamantios Korais began his collaboration with the philhellene printers Didot J. M. Eberhart. Dozens of volumes were printed between 1798 and 1833 in the context of the Neohellenic Enlightenment. Geneva Greek printing in Geneva, it could be claimed, was a continuation of the history the press in Paris, since Robert Estienne, the famous Hellenist and printer of Greek to the king of France, François I, sought refuge in the Swiss city to avoid persecution by the Catholics. Here he continued his publishing work, with a series of important first editions and philological monuments of Greek literature, such as the Complete Works of Plato. Others who were directly involved in publishing in Geneva were Francesco Porto, the Greek teacher, and his son Aimilios, who also compiled some important bilingual (Greek and Latin) etymological lexicons. Alcala The Greek publications of the university city of Alcala bear the stamp of Dimitrios Doukas. Doukas, who taught Greek in the university of this city, collaborated with the printer Arnao Guillen de Brocar to design a new set of Greek typefaces, which were used to print the Polyglot Bible of Cardinal Jiminez de Cinseros. Greek books began to be printed with these fonts in 1514, but subsequent editions failed to live up to the standard set by Cardinal Jiminez, and no Greeks took part in the Spanish publications programme. Constantinople The initiative to set up a Greek press in Constantinople was taken by the ecumenical patriarch Cyril Loukaris. His objective was to give greater independent power to the 'voice' of the Orthodox flock of the ecumenical patriarchate - both with regard to broad theological and doctrinal questions of concern to Orthodoxy, and to restrain the Catholic Propaganda. His effort was made in about 1625, and although he was not successful at this time with the political interventions, it marked the starting point that led to the establishment of a fine patriarchal press at the end of the 18th century. Jassy - Bucharest Printed books were produced in Romania from the beginning of the 16th century, though Greek printing flourished in this country as the result of a political event: the acquisition of semi-autonomous status by the rulers of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1699, which led to the emergence of suitable conditions in which a press oriented mainly towards the production of Greek books could flourish. The Greek books published on Romanian presses were financed almost exclusively by the Greek rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia, and by Romanian philhellenes. The presses were established at the initiative of

XVIII

Dositheos, the patriarch of Jerusalem, and the publications were mainly of a theological character and designed to refute Catholic propaganda. Moschopolis - Mount Athos - Smyrna Various attempts were made to establish Greek presses in Greece and the Greek East, but without any success in the 18th century. The first effort of note was made in Moschopolis, a city in northern Epiros near lake Ochrid. This press was installed in the monastery of Hosios Naum and functioned from 1731 to 1769, publishing liturgical texts, mainly Akolouthies. Mount Athos, with its large monastic community and the Athonite Academy, which operated in the Vatopedi Monastery, offered suitable conditions for the establishment of a press. An initiative to install a press in the Vatopedi Monastery came from Evgenios Voulgaris. This plan did not come to fruition, but a press was ultimately set up in 1759 in the Great Lavra where, under the leadership of Kosmas of Epidavros, the archimandrite of the monastery, and with the collaboration of the printer Doukas Sotiris, a single book, the Psalterion, was published. There are still many unsolved problems relating to the first Greek book printed in Smyrna, in particular to the conditions under which it was published and the identity of the printer. The edition in question, which was printed 'by Markos' in 1764, is the Akolouthia of hosios Symeon, the founder of the Flamouriou Monastery, which is located on Mount Pelion in Thessaly, overlooking the Aegean sea. Corfu Although the Ionian islands hardly felt the weight of the Ottoman yoke, and came gradually under Venetian rule from the 14th century to 1798, the intellectual achievements of the scholars of these islands are not comparable with those of the Cretan renaissance. And despite the fact that many Cretan scholars sought refuge in the Ionian islands after the capture of Crete (1699), and communications with Venice became more frequent, the question of the founding of a press never seems to have been considered seriously. It was only with the capture of Venice by the advancing armies of Napoleon (1797) and the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1799), when the Ionian islands were placed under French occupation, that the issue arose, in this same year, of installing and operating a press. From its foundation in 1799 until 1817, the Corfu press was indissolubly linked with the political history of Corfu and the Ionian islands in general. The press was a public one, and was an instrument of political authority, supporting the occupying forces of the day, as is obvious from its publication output. Zakynthos The establishment and operation of a press on Zakynthos is associated with the political situation prevailing in the Ionian islands. When the British occupied Zakynthos in 1809, followed in a few days by Kephallonia, Kythera and Ithaki, the island was proclaimed the capital of the part of the Ionian islands under British occupation. The British immediately took steps to found a press, which was already functioning in November of 1810. The actual presses and other essential equipment were probably bought in Malta, and the press was originally set up in the home of Andreas Kornelios, and later functioned in a room built specifically for the purpose. Chios The foundation of a press on Chios took place in the context of the attempts to

XIX

upgrade the level of Greek education and culture at the time of the Neohellenic Enlightenment. Towards the end of the 18th century, the School of Chios was experiencing considerable growth, which reached its climax in 1815, when Neophytos Vamvas assumed the duties of director. This kernel of intellectual activity was to develop into the most important centre of education in the Ottoman East. At the same time, the creation of a fine library created suitable circumstances and the appropriate climate in which a press could function. The first steps towards the foundation of the press date from 1805 and are mentioned in a letter written by Dorotheos Proios to Adamantios Korais. The inspiration for the idea was that of Korais himself, who urged the School authorities and the learned circles of Chios to support the creation of a press to function as part of the School's activities. Circumstances finally matures about 1818, when the School commissioners assigned to Greeks living in Vienna, the task of searching for suitable printing equipment, and the press began to function in 1819. Kydonies Kydonies, a small town on the Asia Minor coast, experienced considerable growth in population about 1770, after the Orloff episode, when large numbers of refugees settled there. From the beginning of the 19th century, indeed, a commercial and industrial class evolved that made a decisive contribution to the support of cultural activities. This was the background for the functioning of the School of Kydonies, which was directed by Benjamin of Lesbos from the beginning of the 19th century. The first serious debate and proposals to found a press took place in 1817, when A.F. Didot visited the town and attended the lectures at the School. After this, the teachers at the School decided to send Konstantinos Tombras, a Greek, to Paris for tiaining, and he eventually assumed the running of the press about 1819.

The beginnings of Greek printing were connected with the seminal period of the Italian Renaissance, and the publishing plans of the Greeks over the following centuries were associated with the attempt to satisfy religious and devotional needs, the efforts to preserve the Greek language, and the dissemination of education. The Greek presses and editions of the 18th century bear the imprint of the robust movement of the Neohellenic Enlightenment. The early modern book modified relations compared with the traditional religious book, in terms of both the production and the purchasing of books, and contributed to the spreading of the new ideas of the Greek renaissance. The modern Greek state created after the War of Independence of 1821 was founded on a tradition of Greek book-production that went back three and a half centuries and counted about 7,000 titles. Konstantinos Sp. Staikos Book Historian

XX

THE GREEK PUBLISHING CENTRES PRINTERS • BOOKS - COMMENTARIES

Είτχυρόυ έ|ίιλ3ΐ.

Γλυκύ.Κρίτων ιδ.

1. Printer 's mark of Nicolaos Glykys.

2

VENICE

VJreek books were first printed in Italy as early as 1470, as a natural consequence of the systematic cultivation of Greek literature that can be observed in Italy from the late 14th century onwards against the background of the Italian Renaissance. The pioneers of Greek book-production were Italian and German printers who for the most part published handbooks with a view to supporting Greek studies at the numerous centres at which humanist literature was fostered. One book that was published again and again from 1470 onwards was Manuel Chrysoloras's Erotemata, a grammar written by the great master designed specifically to teach the Greek language to westerners. Greeks began to turn to the printing of Greek books in 1476, when the Cretan Demetrios Damilas printed the first dated Greek book in Milan, in collaboration with the Italian Donigi Paravicino: the Epitome of the eight parts Early Greek of speech by Konstantinos Laskaris. Despite the primacy of printers Milan as a systematic centre for the publication of Greek books in the decade 1470-1480, the first Greek-owned presses were founded and came into operation in Venice, in 1486 and 1499. Little is known of the first of these, which is said to have been founded in 1486 by two Cretan clerics, Alexandras of Candia and Laonikos (Nikolaos Kawadatos of Kydonia). It may be conjectured from the colophon that the press was set up and operated in their home and, judging from the content and style of their editions, their aim seems to have been to print books for Greek schoolchildren. Their editions included the Psalterion and the pseudo-Homeric Battle of Frogs and Mice. The second Greek press was also founded by two Cretans, Nikolaos Vlastos and Zacharias Kalliergis, and was staffed by the most eminent Greek representatives of the world of letters then in Venice, amongst them Markos Mousouros and Ioannis Grigoropoulos. The press functioned for about two years, from 1499 to 1500. Very elegant editions were printed on and circulated from its presses, the first being the Etymologicum Magnum. The publishing activities of this house had a clearly humanist orientation and were probably addressed to the learned public of Italy and the North. This establishment, which was under the protection of Anna Notara, the daughter of Loukas Notaras, the last duke of Constantinople, became one of the most famous of the incunabular presses and its editions were distinguished by their Byzantine brilliance. Three other works, in addition to the Etymologicum

3

The most important centre of Greek books

4

• ; . : . "

" • • • . :

Venice

2. Venice, coloured engraving with the Grand Canal in the foreground and the Marcian Library and the Doge 's Palace on the main axis. Venice, Correr Museum.

5

Magnum, were printed for the first time; the Commentary on the ten Categories of Aristotle of Simplicius (1499), the Commentary on thefivevoices of Amnionitis Hermiae (1500) and the Therapeutics of Galen (1500). A feature shared by all these publications was the elaborate fonts used, which were designed by Zacharias Kalliergis, and the elegant initial capitals and headpieces, printed in red ink, which were modelled on the corresponding capitals and headpieces in the manuscripts of Ioannis Rossos. At the turn of the century, from the beginning of 1500, the printing of Greek editions, began to spread rapidly to the North under the guidance of some fine Hellenists and humanist printers, with the purpose of supporting humanist studies, especially at the numerous intellectual centres of France and Germany. Greek publishers and printers were now seeking for funds in order to consolidate the production of Greek books for the Greeks scattered through Europe. The earliest efforts in this direction were due to Z. Kalliergis and date from 1509 in Venice and 1515 in Rome. A similar initiative was taken by Ianos Laskaris in Rome, beginning in 1513. Although neither of these endeavours bore fruit, the editions produced by Zacharias Kalliergis established the character of Greek books in terms of both their aesthetic appearance and their content. We now turn to developments from the beginning. The first person to give expression in printed form to his desire to support Greeks by providing the books indispensable to the cultivation of the Greek language and the preservation of Orthodox beliefs was Ioustinos Dekadyos of Corfu. Dekadyos was a member of the publishing team of the philhellene printer Aldus Manutius in Venice, and in the prologue to the Psalterion (ca. 1496), which he addressed to

f

'the Greeks in Greece', he announced to Greeks everywhere that the edition of the Psalterion was the herald of future publications, since he was intenting to publish the Triodion, Pentekostarion, Parakletike, etc. About twelve years later, in 1509, Kalliergis inaugurated the second stage of his printing career in Venice by publishing four books of great importance from the point of view of their content, and completely accessible, in terms of cost, to the general Greek public. In the Exepsalmata, indeed, a little book that con­ tained 'The alphabet', 'The Holy Trinity', 'The Lord's Prayer', etc., he sought to Z K a l u cater lor the i t ~ , σ , ., . ., , the nrst press r daily spiritual and religious needs of the aver­ age Greek family. This small work of art, the Exepsalmata, thus served as a rallying cry for Orthodox Christians to preserve the Greek language and the Orthodox tradition. In his last publishing venture of this period, the Horologion, Kalliergis appealed to Orthodox Christians everywhere to contribute to his publishing project, so that he would be in a position to bring his vision to completion. Charac­ teristically, he writes: For without your assistance, it will be difficult to do these things. As part of his pub­ lishing philosophy he produced, in collaboration with his son, Nikolaos Kalliergis, the first printed work of Cre­ tan literature, the Apokopos of Bergadis. Despite Kalliergis's appeals, however, his press failed to establish itself in Venice and he was obliged shortly afterwards to resume his career in Rome, where he became a member of the learned circles round Ianos Laskaris and Pope Leo X. After the death of Pope Leo X in 1521 and the disappearance from the scene

7

Venice

3. Engraving of the church of San Giorgio in Venice, next to one of the buildings of the Flanginianon College. Venice. Greek Institute.

Venice

4. Markos Mousouros, woodcut from P. Giovio. Elogia Virorum litteris illustrium, Basel 1577.

5.Printer's mark of Zacharias Kalliergis in the Etymologicum Magnum.

of Kalliergis after 1523, not only did the Greek High School in Rome cease to function, but it also suspended all its activities in the production of printed Greek editions. About 1520, therefore, the primacy in the printing of Greek books reverted once more to Venice. The Greek books printed throughout the entire 15th and the first two decades of the 16th century, were addressed either to the general humanist public, or to its purely Greek element, and were a characteristic reflection of the intellectual aspirations and creative writing of Greek scholars as a whole. The great intellects of the period, such as Georgios Trapezountios, Theodoras Gazis, Ioannis Argyrapoulos, Cardinal Bessarion, Andronikos Kallistos, Markos Mousouros, Demetrios Chalkokondylis, and many others, did not concern themselves with literature and poetry but devoted their energies to the teaching of Greek language and literature to the western public, and to a reappraisal of the manuscript tradition. At the same time, these scholars threw themselves into the task of translating into Latin the most important works of Classical literature and of the Church Fathers, in order to enable those who did not have access to the originals to share in the Greek spirit. The visions of Ioustinos Dekadyos and the efforts of Zacharias Kalliergis may not have met with the appropriate response, but from the second decade of the 16th century, more specifically from 1521, another Greek was to lay the foundations for the production of Greek books. This was Andreas Kounadis, a merchant from Patras who moved to Venice and, despite having no education in letters or any interest in printing, succeeded in founding a publishing and printing house and making Venice the undisputed centre of Greek books down to the beginning of the 19th century. In collaboration with Greek scholars and Italian printers, he laid down a charter for Greek books that served for centuries as the guide to the contents of books printed for Greeks of the diaspora. Throughout the entire 16th, 17th and 18th century, Greek and Italian publishing houses in Venice and 'peripatetic' printers turned their interest to Greek

8

books, in order to meet both the intellectual aspirations and educational needs of Greeks everywhere, and liturgical needs of Orthodox Christians. Greek philologists and proof-readers, and also businessmen, supported these presses, sometimes in partnership with Italian printers and sometimes as publishers in their own right, with a specific programme. Greek and Italian printing To return to Andreas Kounadis, for whose books for the Greeks life and work there is very little evidence, we may note that when he decided to take an interest in the world of publishing, there was no Greek practising the printer's art in Venice, and he therefore turned to the press of the philhellene Aldus Manutius. (Aldus had died in 1516 and his publishing house had been taken over by his father-in-law, Andrea d'Asola.) Kounadis suggested to Stefano Sabio, one of the Nicolini Sabii brothers, that they should collaborate, and promised to make him the master-craftsman of the Greek book. So it was to be, and the first example of their collaboration, the Psalterion, appeared in 1521. Judging from the books printed with his 'surname' after his death, Kounadis had given his ambitious publishing programme a solid foundation and placed it on a business footing, but his premature death at the end of 1522 or the beginning of 1523 prevented him from enjoying the fruits of his initiative. By good fortune, however, his father-in-law, Damiano di santa Maria, in collaboration with the Sabii brothers, undertook to continue his dream, in which project they met with outstanding success. They broadened their publishing activities and, in addition to printing first editions of important liturgical works - which had been announced by Ioustinos Dekadyos as early as 1497 - such as the Parakletike, the Triodion and the Euchologion, proceeded to publish works of Cretan literature, including the Mourning for Death, The Story of Tagiapiera, Apollonius, and many others. This initiative by Kounadis and the success of his publishing programme, secured thanks to his harmonious collaboration with Damiano di santa Maria and the Sabii brothers, was of decisive importance. It brought home to the Italian printers that the market for Greek books - both liturgical and secular extended not only to the Greeks of Venice and Crete, then under Venetian rule,

9

Venice

6. Aldus Manutius, from a woodcut of the period.

7. The large-format printer's mark of Aldus Manutius.

Venice

8. The printer's mark of Nikolaos Vlastos from his edition of the Etymologicum Magnum, Venice, 1499.

9.Printer's mark of Andreas Kounadis.

but also to the traditional areas of Greece and the territories that were former possessions of the Byzantine empire, on which were to be found Greek communities and independent monastic centres. An important and also rather charming role was played in establishing the contents of Greek books by Cretan literature, with verse works appearing as early as 1509 (Bergadis's Apokopos), and more regularly from 1523 onwards. The economic progress of Crete was accompanied by notable literary output from the 15th century onwards, the roots of which went back to the late 14th and which reached its Cretan zenith in the years before 1669 and Literature the final capture of the island by the Turks. The prevalence of rhyming verse, of western origins, from the end of the 15th century on led to an intensification in the local literary production, due to the need to produce new versions of earlier Byzantine poetry. During the first period of Cretan literature, which may be assigned to the last decade of the 16th century (ca. 1590), the outstanding figures were the poets Georgios Choumnos (Genesis of the World), Ioannis Pikatoros (Rhyme lamenting the bitter, insatiable Hades), Marinos Phalieros (Rhyme of Consolation), Stephanos Sachlikis (The Arch-Pimps), the anonymous poet who wrote The Donkey, the Wolf and the Fox, and Gabriel Akontianos (Rhyme of Apollonios of Tyre). The most important poem of this period, however, was Bergadis's Apokopos, which was also the first example of Cretan poetry to appear in printed form (Venice, Zacharias and Nikolaos Kalliergis, 1509). During the second period, extending from 1590 to 1669, which is regarded as the golden age of Cretan theatre, the hallmark of Cretan literature is its use of models from the Italian Renaissance. Important works from this period include the Erophile by Georgios Chortatzis, King Rodolinos by Ioannis Andreas Troilos, Stathis, by an anonymous poet, and the most outstanding work in the whole of Cretan literature, the Erotokritos of Vincenzo Cornaro. Virtually all these poetic works appeared not only in manuscript form but also as handy and affordable little books which were printed again and again in Venice, in many thousands of copies. It is indicative that between 1523 and 1600, a corpus of works from the first period of Cretan literature was published by the Venetian presses in at least 32 editions. Under these highly favourable circumstances for Greek book production, the

10

houses of Kounadis and the Sabii brothers (who had in the meantime founded an independent publishing house) lost their monopoly in publishing printed books for Greeks, and new publishing houses sprang up around the pioneers of the Greek printer's art. The Italian Jacopo Leoncini founded a publishing establishment that developed into one of the most productive presses, and collaborated with well-known scholars resident in Venice, such as Theophanis Logaras, Grigorios Malaxos and Zacharias Skordylis. Mention may also be made here of Bartolomeo Zanetti and his son Cristoforo, and of Andrea and Jacopo Spinelli, Zuan Battista Tauroceni, and Domenico de Poloni.

Venice

CA

10. Candid or the Great Castle (imaginary drawing), the capital of the ' kingdom of Crete ' in the period of Venetian rule, was the centre of scholarship on the island and the most important commercial port. Engraving from Braun -Hogen berg. Civitates orbis terrarum. 1508.

However, the man whose publishing career left its mark on the Greek book in the middle of the 16th century, despite his extremely brief involvement with printing, was Nikolaos Sophianos. Born on Corfu at the beginning of the 16th century, Sophianos was a typical Renaissance figure. A Renaissance figure: Having studied probably in Rome about 1517-1518, Nikolaos Sophianos he worked initially as a manuscript copyist, at the same time compiling catalogues of manuscripts owned by great collectors. In 1543 he visited Greece in order to buy manuscripts for Don Diego da Mentoza, the Spanish ambassador of Charles V in Venice. During the course of his travels to monasteries and towns in Greece Sophianos noted the illiteracy and ignorance of the Greeks, who lacked even the basic tools essential to the cultivation of Greek language and literature. On his return to Venice, Sophianos shared his concerns with a circle of young scholars, whom he called 'associates', and embarked upon his publishing career

11

11. Printer's mark of Dimitrios Marmaretou.

Venice

12. Printer's mark of Stephane da Sabios.

in 1542. His purpose was to translate important works of ancient Greek literature into simple Greek and publish them together with other useful pedagogical works. A good example of this enterprise is Plutarch's De liberis educandis (1544) and the Horologion (1545). Unfortunately his initiative does not seem to have received the support it deserved and, despite his having announced that he would also publish the works of Lucian and other educational treatises, the entire project was suspended at the end of 1545. Special mention should be made, however, of another of his publishing designs, which he did carry out: the first printed map of Greece, with tables of place names based on Herodotus, Strabo, Ptolemy and Pausanias. This map, which bore the title Totius Graeciae descriptio, saw at least three editions, from 1536 to 1552, and formed the basis for later cartographic endeavours for at least a century. Down to the middle of the 17th century, the picture of Greek printed books in Venice did not change, and production remained in the hands of Italian printers working in collaboration with Greek businessmen and publishers. In the second ba The famous Creek ^ °^ ^ e ^ t n c e n t u r y' however, two Greek-owned presses: Glykys, Saros P u b l i s h i n S and printing houses made their appear" ' ance that were to play a highly important role in the production and distribution of books: those of Nikolaos Glykys and Nikolaos Saros. The press owned by Nikolaos Glykys developed into the most productive centre of the Greek diaspora, and was also the longest-lived Greek press. Its founder was born in Ioannina in 1619 and moved to Venice in 1647, where he at first engaged in commerce. When Glykys decided to turn his attention to printing, the production of Greek books was controlled by three Italian printers: Valentino Mortali, Orsino Albriggi, and Andrea Giuliano. Glykys started his publishing enterprise by purchasing Albriggi's press (before November 1670) and at the same time acquired the exclusive right to publish some important Greek titles. His name first appears in the Horologion of 1670, which seems to have been a co-production with Albriggi, since the title-page bears both their printer's marks for the first and only time. Glykys worked zealously until his death in 1693, producing at least 106 titles, most of which were liturgical texts. After his death, Nikolaos Glykys's publishing house passed into the hands of his son, Michael, who was obliged to enter into partnership with the merchant Panos Stratis in order to maintain his father's business. At the beginning of 1702, Michael entrusted his press to his son Demetrios, who dissolved his partnership with Stratis and worked, until his death in 1721, without very satisfactory results, publishing only 35 titles. March 1721 ushered in a new period for the house of the Glykys family, with

12

the management being assumed by Nikolaos Glykys the younger, who formed a partnership with the merchant Georgios Sawas in 1724. Glykys's association with Savas did not prosper, however, and an attempt by the merchant John Stanos to support Glykys's publishing activity also foundered. Eventually, after a battle in the courts (1738), Nikolaos Glykys once more assumed sole control of the press. In the meantime, however, the inactivity to which the press had been reduced during the period of these conflicts had resulted in an impressive increase in the output of the Italian Girolamo Bortoli. Bortoli had acquired two important presses that published Greek books, those of Nikolaos Saros and Francesco Giuliano, and tried to secure the exclusive rights to many titles with

Venice

13.Printer's mark of Nikolaos Glykys and Demetrios Theodosiou.

a liturgical content, which would have greatly weakened the activities of the Glykys house. In the end, however, Nikolaos Glykys took the appropriate steps and resolved his problems with Bortoli towards the end of 1742. From this point, a new era began for the Glykys house which lasted until 1788, during which the number of presses doubled, the craftsmen-printers employed rose to 20, and the number of titles published during these 49 years came to a total of at least 400. The orientation of the publications did not change, however, and the press continued to print mainly liturgical books. After the death of Nikolaos Glykys the younger in 1788, the publishing house was taken over by his son, Michael Glykys the younger and entered upon a period marked by political developments in Venice, which came into French possession in 1796 and was ruled by Austria from 1797-1805 and 1818-1843. Despite the fact that the censorship exercised by the Austrian authorities made publishing difficult, the impetus of the Glykys press did not flag. During the time of the Neohellenic Enlightenment and the period before the Greek War of Independence, more specifically from 1802-1820, its publishing output was of a highly impressive order, with 453 titles. The Glykys press began to decline in 1828, owing to Michael's physical exhaustion, though possibly also to the lack of any descendants and trusted collaborators. In 1831, after his death, the business passed into the hands of his sis-

13

14.Printer's mark of the da Sabio brothers.

^ê^^ft?

Venice

ter Eleni's brother-in-law Ioannis Andreas Michael Mylonopoulou-Glykys. In spite of the latter's conscientious efforts, however, no progress of note was made and the Glykys house began gradually to fail: the last book bearing its stamp is dated to 1854. The other important Greek press founded in the 17th century was that of Nikolaos Saros. Saros, who was born in Epiros and moved to Venice before 1687, founded a publishing company (in collaboration with his brothers, Lambros, Konstantinos and Ioannis) with the aim of channelling books to Greeks under

15. Printer's mark of Nicolaos Glykys.

Ottoman domination. Saros's press began to function on 23 June 1688, though Nikolaos Saros, who worked as a printer in the workshop of the Italian Michael Varvonios (Barboni), signed his editions as early as 1680. Only nine years after the founding of the press, however, Nikolaos Saros died suddenly, leaving his publishing house to his brothers. Neither they nor their sons had any knowledge of printing, however, and the press was in the end bought by Antonio Bortoli (February 1706/7), who agreed to print Saros's name and printer's mark in his editions until he had paid off the value of the pur­ chase price. At least 315 books were printed in Nikolaos Saros's name between 1680 and 1788, most of them of religious or liturgical content.

16. Printer's mark of Petros Ravani.

The last important Greek press founded in Venice was that of Demetrios Theodosiou. Theodosiou's family came from Ioannina and was one of the great Epirot merchant families of Venice in the 17th and 18th century. Demetrios Theodosiou served as an apprentice printer in Glykys's workshop, and assumed management of the press in 1745, after which he opened his own „,, _ . . „ bookshop. In 1755, he received a permit to found his The foundation ot , _,. ,. ... * . ., Λ _ own press, undertaking an obligation to print books * in Slavonic for the Slav population of the Balkans. The first work to appear from his presses was the Annual containing the entire church ceremonial without omission. Theodosiou became very active as a printer and at the age of 65 (1769) sub-

14

mitted an application to the Senate for permission to take his brother's son Andreas into the business. Andreas learned the printer's art under his uncle and became enrolled in the Printers' and Booksellers' Guild as his heir. By this time, the press had developed into a truly Balkan centre, maintaining commercial relations with Slav countries such as Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Wallachia and Hungary. Despite this international activity, however, the house of Theodosiou was

Venice

17. The Marcian Library from the square of San Marco. 18th-century engraving.

faced with many economic difficulties in 1780 and, according to official authorities, had difficulty keeping the name alive. Demetrios Theodosiou was therefore obliged to enter into partnership with Pietro Marcuzzi, who at the same time worked as head printer. On 11 March 1782, Demetrios Theodosiou died and the business was taken over by Panos Theodosiou. Panos worked zealously to put the printing house back on its feet and in 1800 managed to upgrade the publishing programme and enrich the typographic material. At the same time he renewed his contracts with booksellers in the Slav countries and employed Dositheos Obradovic as a proofreader, to ensure that his Slavonic editions were reliable. However, about 1820 Panos Theodosiou, presumably under the pressure of fresh economic problems, entered into partnership with the learned merchant Michael Vasileiou, and the press in effect ceased to function.

18.Printer's mark of Bartholomaios Zanetti. ^ ,'

WÈÈl·'^ «ja jjfj

WKL

15

1. Battle of Frogs and Mice, Venice, Laonikos the Cretan, 1486.

Manutius, in Venice, with no date though probably about 1494, there is no mention of his name. According to what is implied by Apostolis in his Prologue, not only was the Galeomyomachia his own publication, but he was anticipating a career in the future independent of Aldus.

The pseudo-Homeric Battle of Frogs and Mice was a very popular text during the Renaissance, circulating in both manuscript form and as an early printed book. It was first published in Brescia by the printer Thomas Ferrandus, with no date, though about 1474, and contained a parallel Latin translation by the famous Hellenist Carlo Marsuppini. Laonikos's edition - the first with a commentary based on the narrative of Tigres from Caria is the only one printed exclusively in Greek before 1500. Four further editions (three in Latin and one in Greek) were printed in Venice, Montegna and Parma.

3. M U S A E U S , Concerning Hero and Leander, Venice, Andrea Soceri, 1517.

Musaeus was a pupil of Nonnus, and his work is assigned to the output of Greek literature during the Imperial period (from the fall of Alexandria in 30 B.C. to the closure of the Athens School by Justinian). His little epic about Hero and Leander, his only surviving work, is a 2. Galeomyotnachia, Venice [Arseromance with a tragic ending. nica Apostolis], ca. 1494. Although undated, Concerning Hero The Galeomyomachia, or Battle of Cats and and Leander was perhaps first printed by Aldus, about 1495. It contains the Latin Mice, according to the manuscript traditranslation of the work, which is often tion, is one of only the two purely literattributed to Markos Mousouros and was ary Byzantine works printed in Greek one of the first products of the Aldus before the end of 1520. It is a dramatic press. Primacy of publication is also parody that unfolds in 384 trimeters, narclaimed by Ianos Laskaris with the book rating the war between a cat and some entitled the One-line Adages from Varimice. The work is written on the model ous Poets, which also contains Musaeus's of the pseudo-Homeric Battle of Frogs poem and which was printed in Floand Mice. The author of the Galeomyrence, perhaps by Lorenzo de Alopa, omachia 's was Theodoras Prodromos or around 1495. Ptochoprodromos, an eccentric poet who was active in Constantinople in the first Aldus's edition is the first Greek book half of the 12th century, at the time of to contain illustrations. These consist of the emperors Alexios, John and Manuel two woodcuts of the same subject and in Komnenos. the same style of drawing, depicting the The edition of the Galeomyomachia is fortified cities of Sestos and Abydus, the Hellespont flowing between them, and highly interesting from every point of Hero watching Leander as he swims view. First of all, despite the fact that it across the strait. The only essential difwas printed with the fonts of Aldus

16

4. A R I S T O P H A N E S , Eleven Comedies, Venice, Melchior Sessa,

fetence between them lies in the positions of the protagonists and the manner of representing the strait. The Concerning Hero and Leander was not reprinted until 1517, and then it was in a smaller format and included the Orphic Argonautica and also the Hymns and Concerning stones. The style of the drawing of the two woodcuts decorating the book was the same as that of the first ones and they were also similar in theme.

Venice

1538. The editto princeps of the nine Comedies of Aristophanes was printed in 1498 at the press of Aldus Manutius in Venice. The edition was edited by Markos Mousouros himself, who was also the philological editor of the scholia accompanying the edition. Aldus's publication was not only the editio princeps, but also the only incunabular edition.

•'Znstt

From the 16th century onwards, however, a great number of editions of Arisophanes' Comedies appeared, with the addition of the Lysistrata and the Thesmophoriazousae to the nine in the editio princeps.

se(hts

5.

P L U T A R C H , Patdagogos (De liberis educandis), Venice, in the residence of Bartholomaios the calligraphier, 1544. This edition of the Paidagogos of Plutarch had occupied Ianos Laskaris from as early as 1496, when he included it in the programme of educational books published in Florence with the financial support of Pietro de' Medici. Through the Prologue to the Paidagogos, which is addressed to Dionysios, the bishop of Mylopotamos and Chersonisos, Laskaris announces that he is undertaking his publishing venture with the aim of providing the Greek people with essential school handbooks, so that the ecumenical character of the ancient spirit will not be lost.

17

19. These woodcuts of Leander swimming across the Hellespont were first printed in the edition of Musaeus. in a larger format, about 1494.

7. Aesop's Fables, Venice, in

Venice

Salikati, 1644. The reference 'In Salikati' on both the title page and the colophon marks the coming into operation of a printing house that produced twenty Greek books in Venice during a period of about four years, from 1643 to 1646. The founder of the press is said to have been the Italian Altobello Sallicato, but he did not in fact print any Greek books, since he had died by the time the first Greek printed edition appeared from his workshop. The precise number and identity of the Greek uniate scholars and grammarians who printed these twenty Greek books is not recorded. We know only that they called their initiative the Sacred Team of Friends and that the owners of the enterprise were Angelos Venizelos of Athens and Angelos Limboda.

ΡΛΟΥΧΑΡΧρΥΦίΛΟΣΟΦΟΥ 2 I I ΦίΛι/ω» νομίζω ngù iffAs yw'^αινΰίίτΛοτίΗανμα//καλοί oΤ^% JOT »(ti (ftuttw^u «ίο^οϊίώί offit Οφμύξβ HS τίώ αία,-ίξο φί^βοΰμΰΐ c-Kö/Ä JhswtöTOjçextSocw o't vt βι, Βίλαιά/3 ί%Ά(άΊ&5α$ΒφρόνιμΑίΗφγΜκίίοι 'nfftt#«4i&i <ΐυ TW-STDIC. ^^TffaiwiMw/.Ciie« vc^y^[&qy£w9ct'Kcah{ii> Ήώ jcvifftv ifìs aiSfasw· ÓOTUAOÌ'ZSÒV Qniv^vnvK^ow'ne'TSjiio'w S6&Mì(gj. AccfiiTcäw 3κκίίων,«/μ€ομΛΑίθο©ΐς UtÄct νάμα σνμμίξονι μΑο-Ίάία* -ivyf, ywcüxx*^plw λί^&ΊΖΒλπίαυ,ίί τιαλκ [ KW-ΛΟ-Π WW oiSiv evcuαφ χαλάν-miSpa ^iefUi-rijia,aç 5 Λ » : [ -aw ιταθΐΛΒ,ίίίχίΤώί lij ΐλίτ/χα ».φ.νζ&ζ&&ίς· HΣ .ÌStSw'etpa ; ·•_ φρόίΐμας STO» ó d / g r ^ W ó-BWimif ,«'Bia<ì{ Atj«· arania^vf j ngùiì ςίξα.ΐνγάο<4 aùAVc*;« jcaAif,a«tr>(B ΚΚΛ^ΙΛ^ΟΟ mane* ; βία· eïc« AorSJoV ài w iwAfà-si» χαλάν 3*οκυρο<} -napptcioA \ .zsSÈi TSÌOMOU αυτίώ *ϊίώ d/ywea*-Ugo κα-nt ΚΛΗ6«« SWaîfle»: •àffilj^ida'ywoç&u; yfrâftsi/fiï/ov ηφμΑ γ/χσιον,ί)TOφρόνημα j.sóciiTiti·Ηά^μαλίζά OçSwc ίφώ χλαβάνλίγΛ οTasocnit c*çwoç ó Ιϊΐίρχχμ&'πξχ χαλά) >y ì£ eve« μα^αλόι^^ βϊβρωτιίΒο-· WÌTTÉ)> ! Tnf/V»3? atxrmv,ooTH tpgunv ci
20. Printer's mark of Nikolaos Sophianos.

'~&Cm

Graia & Vri
6. HOMER, JZÎW, Venice [translation by Nikolaos Loukanis], Giovanni Pietro Pinelli, 1640.

8. BERGADIS, Apokopos, Venice, Orsino Albriggi, 1667.

This is the third edition of the JZzad in the popular dialect, which was printed for the first time in 1526 in Venice, in a translation by Nikolaos Loukanis. The volume is adorned by a large number of woodcuts depicting the feats of the Achaeans during the siege of Troy. These woodcuts, made by an Italian artist named Carnesecca, are a hallmark of books printed during the Renaissance. The title page is dominated by the printer's mark of the Pinelli press: a tree (pine or cedar) bordered by a Renaissance frame of great elegance.

The Apokopos by Bergadis, a poem probably written at the beginning of the 15th century, is one of the most characteristic examples of Cretan literature. First published in Venice, in 1509, by Nikolaos, the son of the great Greek printer Zacharias Kalliergis, its plot is based on a dream: a descent into Hell. The poet's purpose was to convey moralising messages, such as the readiness with which the living forget the dead, the greed of clerics, and the callousness of people in general. The title of the poem is derived from its first, stereotyped line: 'Once I grew weary from toil (apo kopo) and wished to sleep!

18

*

• -

-

-,

ΑΡΪΣΤΟΦΑ ΝΟΥΣΕΥΤΡΑΡΕΛαΤΑΤΟΥ

AR Ι S T O P H Α NIS FACETISSIMI Ρλ^τοΐ.'

UtiH*

Nebula, Ran** Equité*· Acharna* Veßa* Awe/* Vax* Concionante!* Ceterispera celehräntef. Lyfiftrate,

Α^«ρ«5*

EÏplu/H» ΕκκλΗΛ«^«· AycnfCKTH'

19

Venice,

This edition by the Italian printer Orsino Albriggi appeared in 1667 and is the eighth, in chronological order, print­ ed in Venice - an indication of the great popularity enjoyed by the Apokopos, judging also from the fact that manu­ scripts circulated alongside these print­ ed editions of the poem.

cohesion of the Greek people. Giuliano's edition is the first to appear in printed form, and the verse chronicle was not reprinted until 1710, by Nikolaos Saros. The same spirit informs another verse chronicle, that of Anthimos Diakrousis, which was printed in Venice by Valenti/A.lf

9.

M A R K O S

Ï

DEPHARANAS,

The story of Sossanis, Venice, 1667.

W

Xx^

Σ

£ α ΣΆ ΝΝΗ Σ·||

4Mf*

Wë

/β

F Ν Ε Τ. Γ Η Σ ϊ Ν. ΪΙβρά Ο*paya Α'λοβπ-^Η· ψχ%Χ"· Πϋλ/sT« *>ν ίίρ trai Μ&ρτζιιλ,ιαιϊ.

no Mortali in 1679. This latter work is devoid of originality and life, despite being modelled on the chronicle of Tzane Bounialis.

BOU-

NIALIS, Verse narrative of the terible war on the island of Crete, Venice, Andrea Giuliano, 1681. 21. Printer's mark of Orsinio Albriggi.

• ·•

e ι ο f ;ϊ ι . Τ

Markos Depharanas of Zakynthos was one of the Greek poets active in the mid­ dle of the 16th century. He wrote and published two poems: Didactic words from father to son (1543) and The story of Sossanis. Both are written in the same fif­ teen-syllable rhyming verses, with a strongly Christian origin and tone. The The story of Sossanis was very popular during the period of Turkish domination and went through at least 11 editions, which began to appear in print­ ed form in 1569. The 1667 edition was printed by Orsino Albriggi, whose press was later owned by Nikolaos Glykys.

10. MARINOS T Z A N E

Λ/ΛΑ

The Verse narrative of the terible war on the island of Crete by Bounialis purports to be a chronicle of the Cretan war of 1669, which ended with the subjugation of the island to the Ottoman Turks. The long text is of undoubted historical impor­ tance and, despite being emotionally charged, clearly reveals a sense of the

20

11. GEORGIOS CHORTATZIS, Erophile, Venice, Antonio Bortoli, 1746. The Erophile, written by Georgios Chor­ tatzis about 1600, was modelled on the old Italian tragedy Orbecche by G. Girai di. Despite the fact that the plot involves

•
mhâ Λ

• M;.

«ïifc WS *

νV

^ •''* Λ

~^

r> t e l i t i Hlr * Ç s Λ ·\

-«

Ar.

\5K £ßc /αν/ν <£Gyô:éi,wéyfcvt#v • OöL-

"ErK Ε τ r u Σ Ι Ν, 4Xm<.

τφ Βαρ/3ωμίω. Που^/fw* «ocra «{«ν BJ^ .

J A...

21

1 Ib.

•ΒΛ

Venice wild, bloody scenes, the Erophile was

ten in verse by Iakovos Trivolis, it possessed little literary merit but met with a great response: after the first edition of Venice in 1528, it was reprinted at least seven times before the end of the 18th century. The plot consists of an account of the achievements of a Venetian sailor who fought successfully against the Turks. The only other known work by Trivolis is the short poem The story of the king of Scotland and the queen of England.

highly popular and was performed in the theatres of Candia down to 1669. This 1746 edition of the Erophile by the Italian printer Antonio Bortoli was the first to be printed in the 18th century. The editto princeps was that of 1637, which appeared from the press of Antonio Giuliano.

12. Life and feats of king Alexander the Great, Venice, Demetrios Theodosiou, 1778.

14. VlCENZO CORNARO, A Love poem called Erotokritos,

This is the fifteenth, in chronological order, of the known editions (1529-1805) of the Rimada, a metrical, rhyming Narrative of Alexander. A verse narrative based on the Legend ofAlexander the Great by Pseud-Kallisthenes, the Rimada was published before the so-called Phyllada of the History of Alexander the Great, a prose version that was first printed in Venice in 1680. The Rimada and Phyllada were popularising books that cultivated and spread the Alexander Romance. They kept the memory of Alexander alive so strongly in the popular mind that he was easily transformed, in order to give expression to the desires and ideological aspirations of the Greeks, through literary references and art.

22. Printer's mark of Antonio Bortoli.

13. [I. Trivolis], The Story of Tagiapiera [Venice, Nikolaos Glykys], 1782. The Story ofTagiapiera, is one of the first examples of the literary output of the early decades of the 16th century. Writ-

22

Venice, Nikolaos Glykys, 1792. Vincenzo Cornaro's Erotokritos is the finest achievement of Cretan poetry. It is a verse love story with over 10,000 lines and was probably written in the early decades of the 17th century, in the Great Castle - that is, Candia. The model for the Erotokritos is the old French novel Paris and Vienna, which dates from the 15th century. The first edition of the Erotokritos appeared in Venice in 1713 from the press of Antonio Bortoli, and saw a total of eleven further editions in the 18th century.

•ι -

7.*. l à 'M

Γ/' ' Ss?"

Ö'NOMAZOME'NH

E Ρ Ω ΦΓΛ . ΠΟΙΗ'.ΜΑ T O r ÀO Γ Ι Ώ Τ Α ' T O T

ΓΕΩΡΓΙΟΥ

: Ν ET

Γ Η .2 Ι Ν ,

ά"ψμς% *ι 7 4 ^* .-COÌAldE-ΝΖΑ D F S U P I 2 R Ì U R I .

.*,:•*.

11

23

••:•••

i:'

tr'..

23. The large-format printer 's-publisher 's mark of the Giunta publishing house.

24

FLORENCE

Α.although Florence was a major centre of Renaissance humanism in the 15th

The greatest century, with many outstanding Greek scholars active in the city, amongst them centre of teaching Demetrios Chalkokondylis, Ianos Laskaris, Manuel Chrysoloras, Georgios Trape- Greek letters zountios, Ioannis Argyropoulos, and others, no Greek press was established in during the the city of the Arno before the end of the 15th century. For a period of some Renaissance 30 years, however, from 1487 to 1517, Greek scholars worked with 'the most famous publishing and printing centres of Florence and contributed to the pub­ lication of some highly important works, mainly of Classical literature. The history of Greek printing in Florence is linked ideologically with two events of decisive importance for the development and character of humanism: the com­ position of the Erotemata by Manuel Chrysoloras, in the context of the humanist , ^, ! teaching of Greek at the Studium in Florence (from 1396 Λ/ί Manuel Chrysoloras f\ . . . . , _„ n . . . , ,, c j . onwards), and the organisation bv ralla Strozzi ol the J at the Studium „. ., . . ° _, . „ first special mission to buy Greek manuscripts from the East, in order to disseminate Greek literature in Italy. Nevertheless, and despite the fact that Greek letters were cultivated in Florence to a greater extent than in any other cultural centre in Italy and that the city was the home not only of Chrysoloras, but also of Georgios Trapezountios, Demetrios Chalkokondylis, Ioan­ nis Argyropoulos and Andronikos Kallistos, the first Greek book was printed only about seventeen years after the earliest known Greek incunabula and a decade after the first successful endeavour to print Greek books to support humanist lit­ erature in schools. This initiative was taken by Bonus Accursius in Milan, in 1476, the very year in which the first dated Greek book -K. Laskaris, Epitome of the eight parts of speech- appeared from the press of a Greek printer, Demetrios Damilas. The involvement of Byzantine scholars with the publishing presses of Flo­ rence goes back to before the first attempt to print Greek books there, in 1488. It probably began about 1478, when the Expositio super libros Ethicorum Aristotelis appeared from the press of Santo Jacopo di Ripoli. This was an edition of the essay by Donato Acciaioli written at the request of Cosimo de'Medici in 1463, which is based on the 'nova traductio' by his teacher, Ioannis Argyropoulos. The publishing of this edition coincided with Donato's death, when Argyropoulos was still living in Florence, in 1478. Another of Argyropoulos's translations, the Ethica ad Nicomachum by Nicolaus Laurentius, was printed two years later, in 1480, one year before he moved

25

Florence

24.Demetrios Chalkokondylis, engraving from Ν. Reusner, Icônes, Basel, 1599.

to Rome. This is a revised edition of the Ethics, which adopts a different hermeneutic approach from the scholastic translations of the Middle Ages. For decades one of the demands of the humanists had been for an edition of the complete works of Homer, judging by an appeal from Pope Nicholas V, about 1452, for a gifted Hellenist to translate the Homeric poems into Latin, so that the significance of the epic would be more widely understood. Unfortunately, Carlo Marsuppini, who undertook the translation, died prematurely in 1453, having delivered only the first two books of the Iliad to the pope. The Opera Omnia of Homer, the first Greek incunabular edition printed in Florence, is also regarded as a monument to Greek literature and western humanism. The edition contains all Homer's works, and also the pseudoHomeric Battle of Frogs and Mice. It was financed by two of Chalkondylis's pupils, the philhellene Florentine scholars Bernardo and Neri Nerli. The philological editing and reconstitution of the texts was undertaken by Demetrios Chalkokondylis, based on the preserved manuscripts. Both volumes were probably printed by Demetrios Damilas, using a font based on his own handwriting that had first been used to print Laskaris's Grammar in Milan, in 1476. The whole of the typographic work appears to have been carried out in the workshop of the most productive printer in Florence, Bartolommeo di Libri. In 1489, the year in which the second volume of Homer was published, there appeared an independent Hymn of Callimachus, the fruit of Angelos Politianos's philological work on ancient Greek poetry. This Hymn, On the Bath ofPallas was included in the book by A. Poliziano, Michellaneorum centuria prima, which was printed in 1489 by Antonio di Bartolommeo Miscomini. The font used for this pamphlet Cdiphyllon '), which belonged to Miscomini, represents the earliest Greek character-set to appear in Florence, and was used in the edition of M. Ficino's Platonica theologia. Judging by the colophon of the Hymn -Politiani ex Callimacho in Palladis Lauarea- it may also have appeared as a separate booklet. The first systematic attempt in Florence to promote Greek letters through printing is owed to Ianos Laskaris. In 1494, the very same year that Aldus Manu-

26

Florence

25.Theodoros Gazis. woodcut from Ρ. Giovio, Elogia Virorum litteris illustrium. Basel. 1577. 26. Manuel Chrysoloras, engraving measuring 15x16.8 cm. from P. Giovio. Elogia Virorum litteris illustrium. Basel. 1577.

27. Georgios Trapezountios. woodcut from P. Giovio. Elogia Virorum litteris illustrium, Basel. 1577. 28. Ioannis Argyropoulos. woodcut from P. Giovio. Elogia Virorum litteris illustrium, Basel. 1577.

tius's preparations for his press were bearing fruit in Venice, the first example of Laskaris's publishing philosophy appeared, in the form of the Anthologia. Having ploughed south Italy and especially the East Ianos Laskaris and in search of Greek manuscripts, in his efforts to enrich the Alopa Press the Medici library, Laskaris had formed a specific view of the role that printing might play in the broad dissemination of Greek letters on a broad scale. His philosophy may be summarised.as ubique libri imprimuntur, ubique biblotheque aperiuntur. Laskaris worked in Florence from 1494 until at least the end of 1495 and published eight books: the Anthology of Maximos Planoudis, the Tragedies of Euripides, the Hymns of Callimachus, the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius, the Dialogues of Lucian, the Oneline Adages from Various Poets, the Table of Kevis, and the Erotemata of Chrysoloras. A prelude to the publishing programme, the Anthology (1494) is the only Greek incunabulum to bear the name of Laurentius de Alopa, the Venetian printer who worked in Florence. Whether, and to what extent, Alopa continued to print other incunabula for Laskaris, or his financer, while retaining his own anonymity, or whether Laskaris employed another printer, possibly a Greek, remains unclear. The typeface used for the editions was the famous 'little capitals' - that is, majuscule letters designed to resemble ancient Greek inscriptions, and a set of minuscule letters based on Laskaris's handwriting. However, Laskaris's idea of the 'little capitals' proved impractical for long texts and

28

added greatly to the cost of the books. The minuscule characters, which had been Florence intended only for the commentary, were used exclusively in the printing of Lucian's Dialogues. An indication of Laskaris's printing philosophy is given by the fact that in an endeavour to give his books an ancient character, he stripped them of all decorative headpieces and even of small initial capitals. Of his publication programme, five books appeared without indication of date: Euripides, Callimachus, Kevis, the Adages, and Chrysoloras. Florence was captured by the French on 17 November 1494, and about one year later Laskaris followed Charles VIII to Paris, while any Greek incunabula that contained any reference to the Medici were apparently 'marginalised'. This explains why later important editions had to seek markets outside Florence: Aldus included the Argonautica in his 1503 Catalogue. About one year after the end of Laskaris's publishing career, in 1497, a collection of poetry in Latin by Michael Marullus Tarchaniotis was published in Florence, it bore the title Epigrammatum libri IV. Hymnorum The Giunti natumlium Won IV and was printed by a company called Societas Colubris. Marullus, who was known at the court of the Medici, dedicated the Epigrammata to Lorenzo de Medici and the Hymns to his patron Antonio San Severino, the prince of Salerno. The same year of 1497 witnessed the first appearance in Florence of a publishing house that was to develop into the most famous printing establishment in Italy after that of Aldus Manutius: the Giunti. The lead-

29

29. Florence, woodcut from Bernardino da Firenze. Le bellezze di Firenze. Florence L. Morgiani and Giovanni di Pietro, ca. 1495.

Florence

30. M. Maroullos Tarchaniotis, woodcut from P. Giovio. Elogia Virorum litteris illustrium, Basel, 1577.

ing figures in this enterprise, Filippo and Lucantonio, were to play a highly important role in the dissemination of Greek books, especially after Aldus's death in 1513. It appears from typographic appearance of the first two volumes printed by them, Zenobius's Selection of proverbs ofTareus and Dedemous (1497) and Chrysoloras's Erotemata (undated), that they intended to continue their work, taking Laskaris's publishing philosophy as their model. However, the Orphic Hymns and the Argonautica reveal a clear change of direction in the character of the Greek books ultimately promoted by the Giunti. The edition of the Orphic works is adorned by headpieces and initial capitals, printed, moreover, in red ink. When we recall that the Giunti bought the Kalliergis-Vlastos printing equipment (1499-1500), it seems likely that they came under the influence of the Byzantine style given by these two pioneering Greek printers to the four Greek incunabula published by them. The Florentine publishing and printing family of the Giunti developed into one of the most important houses not only in Italy but also in the North, producing mainly editions of Classical Greek and Latin literature, and humanist writings. It may be argued, indeed, that they followed the tradition established by Aldus Manutius in Venice, borrowing almost in toto his publishing and typographic style. The Giunti did not confine themselves to Florence, but extended their activities to other important Italian intellectual centres, such as Venice and Rome, and to Lyon in France. The systematic involvement of the Giunti with the publication of Greek books dates from 1514, when they published a small-format edition of Chrysoloras's Erotemata. In the following year, 1515, five more Greek books appeared from their presses: two grammars (by Th. Gazis and K. Laskaris) and three books containing works of Classical literature. The founder of the publishing house was Filippo Giunti, who was born in 1450 in the district of S. Spirito in Florence. Nothing is known of his youth other than the fact that in 1480, he was for a short time a goldsmith's assistant in the establishment of Antonio del Pal-

30

laiolo. In 1489 he secured a five-year lease with the Badia Fiorentina for an Florence establishment 'to be used as a stationer's'. In the following year, 1490, he started a company with his brother, Lucantonio (who was a printer by profession, in Venice), mainly with the aim of selling the first editions published by Lucantonio in Venice. The Giunti bookshop met with a favourable reception from the Florentine public, and they thus secured the necessary conditions in which to expand their work. In 1497, the Giunti brothers transferred their activities to a new establishment, belonging to one Zanmobi di Mariano, an event that marks the beginning of their career as a printing house, though there is no document attesting to this. Filippo continues to be referred to as a stationer, and it is not until 1507 that he is cited as a printer. In 1499 he moved to Badia, the home of almost all the stationers, bookbinders and printers: it was a historic town, since even the great Vespasiano da Bisticci had his scriptorium there. Filippo renewed his lease in 1503, and the new contract refers for the first time to the fact that the rooms 'are for the use of a printer'. In 1509 he broke off his partnership with his brother, since they dis31. Ianos Laskaris, agreed about the orientation woodcut from of the publications produced P. Giovio, Elogia Virorum litteris by the company. The division illustrium. Basel, 1577. of the jointly held property was not settled amicably, and the court case was to continue until Filippo's death in September 1517. In order to form an idea of the publishing career of Filippo Giunti, we are obliged to rely on indirect sources, since there are no surviving documents in which he himself gives testimony to his work. Nevertheless, in his first period, from 1497 to 1500, the clear humanist orientation is evident in the publication of three books, two of which were editiones principes. Judging by the contents of these publications, Filippo's endeavours seem to be a continuation of the publishing programme of Ianos Laskaris. These three Greek incunabula are: Zenobius's Selection of proverbs ofTareus and Dedemous, the Orphic Hymns and Argonautica, and an undated edition of Chrysoloras's Erotemata. Filippo Giunti's

31

Florence

32. Frontispiece of the Giunti edition Demetrios ofPhaleron, De Elocutione, Florence, 1552.

contribution to these editions was confined solely to funding and distribution; the editor and printer was Benedetto Ricardini, known as 'Philologos', who was a pupil of Angelos Politianos and a personal friend of Pietro Crinito. It appears from the quarrel between the two brothers that the Greek incunab­ ula had not enjoyed the commercial success anticipated, and Filippo accordingly turned to the publication of works of Latin literature and the writings of dis­ tinguished Italian humanists, such as Pietro Bembo, Pietro Crinito, Petrarch, Gio­ vanni Pontano, and others. Two impor­ tant works were published in 1505 and 1506: Six Comedies by Terence -an edi­ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ $ΑΛΗtion based on textual restorations by Poli­ Ρ Ε Ω Σ P E P I ΕΡΜΗΝΕΙΑΣ. tianos- and Seneca's Tragedies, respec­ DEMETRII PHALEREI DE E L O C V T I O N E . tively, the latter being the source of the famous edition by Jose Bade in 1514. Ricardini died in 1505, and his posi­ tion as philologist and editor was taken by Luca Robbia. Robbia was in turn suc­ ceeded by Mariano Tucci, to whom is owed, inter alia, the edition of Cicero's Epistles of 1510. In addition to these philologists, however, other important scholars staffed the Giunti printing and FLORENTIAE publishing centre, helping to make its ' APVD I V N T A S M D HI. publications complete, reliable editions of the Classics. They included Pietro Candido Decembrio, the cleric Giocondo da Verona, Giovanni Craston from Piacenza, Antonio Placido, Carlo Aldobrando, Francesco Alfieri, and many others. The impressive output of the Giunti and their colleagues resulted in an increase in their circle of clients. One factor that played a decisive role in this was undoubtedly the exclusive rights they managed to secure from Pope Leo X. According to this concession, they had exclusive rights for ten years, both for Classical editions and for the use of their font, Aldus Manutius's corsivo. The first editions published under this papal concession appeared in 1516, after the editio princeps of a work of great importance to humanist letters: the complete works of Xenophon. By this time Filippo had the economic ease and the organisation to turn once again to the publication of Greek books. These edi­ tions are distinguished by their very elegant typographic style, since material purchased from Kalliergis and Vlastos was used for the initial capitals and head­ pieces. In 1515, the following works were printed in a small, octavo format and

32

i

bearing the characteristic, charming printer's mark of the Giunti: Th. Gazis's Florence Grammar, Oppianos's HalieutiL·, Apollonius of Alexandria's Concerning construction, Aristophanes' Comedies, and K. Laskaris's Grammar. In this same year, 1515, the staff of the Giunti house was joined by the important philologist and colleague of H Aldus Manutius, the great Markos Mousouros. Mousouros edited the editio vrinceps of the w ww£ ^\ HalieutiL· of Oppianos in 1515, and the second »MK^/(y/g edition of Theocritus's Bucolic poems. After Filippo's death in 1517, his work was continued in a worthy manner by his sons, «BSP ìr~ \^Ό/ ΓΛ ^§fë/s Bernardo, who is mentioned occasionally as his ^ - B a l l -Κ w V - NdZ-^ / ^fifn father's partner from as early as 1503, and Benedetto, who first appeared on the printing scene at a later date, in 1540. 33. Printer's mark nW^JfA 7tf of Filippo Giunti. The Giunti publishing family continued to produce Greek books in the 16th and 17th century, most of them reprints of their publications down to 1530; so, too, did a number of other Florentine printing establishments, though no contribution to this was made by Greeks.

||gP

^^k^r*

l*tpl%% VJ^SK

i ISJSB

a&w

MS!

m43p\

34. General view of the Laurentian Library, drawing by Michelangelo. Engraving by G. Zocclii (18th century).

33

Florence

35. Large printer 's mark of the Giunti.

15. HOMER, Opera, 2 volumes, Florence [Demetrios Damilas] [not before 31 January 1488].

Ianos Laskaris in Florence and Rome. The book was highly popular in the Byzantine period and later became a favourite with the learned circles of Italy, and above all of France. It consists of an Anthology of epigrams by Classical and Byzantine authors, compiled at the end

One of the most important achievements of the Renaissance was the publication of the entire works of Homer, edited by the great Renaissance master, Demetrios Chalkokondylis of Athens. Chalkokondylis, who for decades taught the most important pioneers of humanist philos­ ophy, undertook the demanding task of collating and evaluating the manuscript tradition, so that the edition would be as reliable as possible. Ever since the time of Petrarch, in 1364, the West had been searching, orig­ inally for a Latin, though also for a Greek, edition of Homer, since, as time went on, an increasing number, mainly of Italians, were able to read him in the original. Chalkokondylis's edition, which is known to have received financial support from two of his philhellene pupils, Bernardo and Neri Nerli, was greeted with great enthusiasm by the entire humanist world. Although not stated in the book, the layout and design of the edition was by Demetrios Damilas, the first Greek to work in Greek printing. Damilas's printing career in Milan came to an end about 1480, when moved to Florence, probably after an invitation from Chalkokondylis himself.

APXIOY. ΕΙΣ ΤΟΥΣ ΤΕΣΣΑΡΑΣ ΑΓΩΝΑΣ- ; _ , · . _ _ _ , ,

^ É X X A F É X Ê I X I N . Α Γ Ω Ν Ε Σ ΑΝΕΛΛΑΔΛ-ΤΕΣ' , ΪΑΡΕΪΙΡΟΙ.

•

ΟΙ AYO.MÊNjONHTnH-iOI • ••;( -"•'

'

ΔΥΟ Δ Α Θ Α ' •-

-• Ν Α Τ Ω Ν .

Ε^Νοΐ.ΑίϊΤοίίΑΟ.ΓΆΛΑΙΜΟΝΟΣ.ΑρΧΕΜΟΡΟΙΟ;

# * - * % * j ' * ^ Λ 6 Τ Ω Ν 3 Κ Ο Τ Ι Μ Ο Ϊ . ΜΗΛΑ.1ΕΛΙΝΑ..

ί,ϊ

,; • ' •' '^"'V;' :-ν

*Τ';,

γ

.

PIT«.

Α(ΟΤΧΜΟΥ.ΕΙΪΗΕΑΚΛΚΝ)ΚΑΪ-ΑΗΙΑΙΟΝ-* : Α Ν

ΙΪΒΑΝ^ΪΕΘΛΑ'ΡΑΛΑΕΗΪΚΗΧΕΙΚΡΑΤΑΙΑΖ

•„ .;·"•

ΑΔΕΡΟΧΕΙΑΩΝΟΣΚΑΙ ΔΙΟΣ Λ ΓΕΝΕΑ.••*,*<***"; Ν ΚΕΙΤΑΙ ΔΕ Σ#ΙΝ ΑΓΩΝ ΟΥ ΧΑΛΚΕΟΥ Α Ν Τ Ι ΛΕΒΗΤΟΊ* "

ΛΑΛΩΣΤΙΣ Ζ Ω Α Ν ΌΐΣΕΤΑΙ Η ΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ <• "'. ΑΝΤΑΙΟΥ ΤΟ ΠΤΩΜΑ. ΠΡΕΠΕΙ ΔΗΡΑΚΛΕΑ Ν Ι Κ Α Ν Τ Ο Ν Δ Ι Ο Σ . Λ Ρ Γ Ε Ι Ω Ν Α ΠΑΛΑ ΟΥ Λ Ι Β Υ Ω Ν -

^ Ο

«-S!;·*;*»-

ΑΝΤΊΠΑΤΡΟΥ.ΕΙΣΑΡΙΑΝ. .Σ Τ Α Α Ι Ε Υ Σ Α Ρ Ι Η Σ Ο ΜΕΝΕΚΛΕΟΣ,.ΟΥΚΑΤΕΛΕΓΪίΕϊ

ΙΈΡΣΕΑ ΣΟΝ ΚΤΙΣΤΗΝ:ΤΑΡΣ£ ΚΙΛΙΣΣΑ ΠΟΛΙ . ΤΟΙΟΪ ΓΑΡΠΑΙΔΟΧ ΠΤΗΝ01 Ρ Ο Δ Ε Σ , Ο Υ Δ Α Ν ΕΚΕΙΝΟΙ

,.... ΟϊυΛΥΤΟΧ ΠΕΡΣΕΥΣ ΝΩΤΟΝΕΔΕΙΞΕ. Θ Ε Ω Ν .

\rf

\ _

Η ΓΑΡ.ΕίΥΣΠΛΗΤΓΩΝίΗ ΤΕΡΜΑΤΟΣ ΕΙΔΕ Τ Ι Σ ΑΚΡΟΥ -ΙίΙδΕΟΝ::ΜΕΣΣΩΙ.ΔΟΥΠΟΤΕΝΐΣΤΑΔ1Πί.; Λ Έ Ο Ν Τ Ο Σ ΪΓΛΟΣΟΪΟΥ ΕΙΣ τ ο

'

ΜοΝΗΜΕΡίοΝ.

1 ΟΞΟΤΑ,ΪΗΕ.ΡΙΔΩΝ Μ Ε Δ Ε Ω Ν . Ε Κ Α Τ Η Β Ο Λ Ε Ì O I B E .

.-• • y p È KAXIÇNHTHi ΚΡΑΤΕΡΟΥΣ INA OH PAX ΕΓΕΙΡΜί. • '·. . ,.:**;'.'_';:"

16. A N T H O L O G I A , Anthology of various epigrams [Anthologia Planudea, edited by Ianos Laskaris], Florence, Laurentius de Alopa, 11 August, 1494. The Anthology of various epigrams marked the beginning of the publishing career of

34

Ο.ΣΣοΝ ΕΡΙΤΑΥΣΑΙ ΜΕΡΟΠΩΝ ΔΕΜΑΧ.ΟΣΣΘΝ ΑΥΣΑΙ ΛΑΩΝ ΤΕΡΠΟΜΕΝΛΝ ΙΕΡΟΝ ΣΤΟΜΑ-ΜΗ ΔΕΝΟΗΣΩ

ί

ΖΗΝΟΣΜΕΙΛΙΧΙΟΙΟΛΑΧΩΝΘΡΟΝΟΝ Â N E F O X Ô Î T O N .

of the 13th or beginning of the 14th century by Maximos Planoudis. Its sources were existing anthologies of epigrams, especially the Anthology of Konstantinos Kephalas, though some epigrams were added and others, like the erotic verses, removed. The Anthology is prefaced by a dedicatory epigram written by Laskaris 'to ancient letters'. In this, Apollo assigns to the Muses ('the Muses with the bronzeimprinted pages') the task of rescuing the glory of the motherland and, through books, spreading the poetic heritage of ancient, divine Greece to the West. The

Florence

«U"rcì.p t-O-ij ^tr^KCTE X.OI. Hpo.pt βνμ-Όρ EO\»VH }<cu òi ·ΤΓλκο-α.μ.( yoq S'a».« cntv<})ec ώ-Β-^'ίττϊμί^ olpov ει>ι··β-λψ>γ - 0 2 Ì ( S ' ( | a . T 0 >;a.ìpt VE ίνρ-ά Ka'*c,l"î>al"«,"a-c'«"«'««-TÌTepotld-a. "ΊΓροβ-κύ^Ό.. V? <Ρ'λί «rie γα-ρ tre -Β-ρίοίΓο κ.τ-Εα.-7-Earïy Εοιο-ϊρ. ώ α e ; ^ ο Λ óupy<Jocx.o*x*x-pT-epòcacitYopoÌ*ic *pNc AcuîToy φ8φ>3"αι a-fa-^t-Éfu/otloc tlytx.a. *J-îfU<ç · CJTJ-ÎÎI-OI αικ.(Ό·ο8ΐ γμωοΊοιοΟτ-οιι Eo'trT-a. <^Ε\ις [óLptro ν T-ó^e óiS^e χ.οι k-8«t[rαΤοι Beo! ^ 0 1 3

<1χ.Εί<-ΐ{) α-γγί{Λαχ>ι.ϊ ìVùy tna-i ιτολλιχ- 2ik^H8»ii -

Τ

oy2£Hfi_<jV>€*r ΡϊΓ^τ-α. O-V0MTHC opp^a-jtot; k y ^ p û y ώ γερορ . tf-ric X-qfoj) a-jiHp α.λαΛΗμ-Ε(ΐοςΕΛ6<ί1? α-'ΥΎΕΛΛω^'ΈΓ^ιτΕϊΕ |ι*υα_ικο^·τ*Ε κοκ φιΛορ-^o|/ ιιλλ^ωι;χ.θίΐ.ιν·>ι<χ.Ερ(;ρΗμ_Ε|Γθΐά-ΐ/ο ρΕςά.λ>ι·Τ·«"f-^yo^T-ov d E 8EAÓVO-|U/ a.^H8EOt.>Cv8HO-CMx3^W- ce; VÉx.a.AHT"<SUaj/ ?6a.x,nc t c Ä πμ-oy Ί κ κ Τ ο χ EA8«H EC οΈαυ-οϊ|ία.ρ Εμ-1ω α.·χτοίΤΗλΐα~ Ϊ3α-^ΕΪ · κ 2Ì^Ì'2s.e|a-M.etlKiplAé
<3Î~i-!C τ ο ι ρ-;λα.ιΐϊα.((·τ-Ε «^tT-u^a-Te Ε'ίΛ<-ο£Γα. VOM

Τ·οΐ>2w «a « jt.ÉJO\ovo-i «.mjEcTct-^EEc T-oiàjroi ρ1(τό{ΐά.'ΪΤΟ£ΤΕθ'<ρΐ|(Ερν«{{>,,γ·ν
co>^c^V3^^0'A»Ae^ÎAoio-ieSxji^iV^iox(3 Ό-α-ο-ιρ · f/Loi2u ÎLOLAKTO-lET-oV^cLloi^ovi |α-ρ fcr w o y Ίί-Β-ϊορ ώοΗ cqra.x_T-oi jci^no-o>t.m ÎO-STOO-EO- ΕΛ8Ο · e«2i:<ÎK«V ΈΓούρ'οα κ ο ί jt-HT-Époq CU/TIC 'ix.B>/cox oTxot». 08Ì -ο-ρώτο(/ YEI/OVIV χ α ^ t-T-pE^oy óuiFé; -

,'.*

«υ^Ερι/Τάρ ©-iToarotró V v p o / t a i ct^yû/i-Et/oc -tr? à^ga.Afcoîo-ïyîS'éo^ou J a y ερ^αΐρίοΥγοαιι ^otfcóVvftriìos'Tro'ctec ouyvT-*t oi^oM-tyoio

α&ίομ-αι

•^ψίϊ^ρμ-(φι>4

X-aìt /CHVÉTO 8 νμ-« ·

. ^αίμ-ϊι/ Ήβ^ον •SO*·*«· κ ° " yóo-ipiy eo'yr-ct.. Τ òy 2 ι uu-rt Ό-ροο-é^TTt <-ίτοΑντΛ»-ε e*ioc ÓV vox «Ve.

MM Hi

15

35

text is also prefaced by a long dedication to Pietro de'Medici, written in Latin. The editio princeps of the Anthology is the only one of Laskaris's books that bears an indication of the printer: per Laurentium Francisci de Alopa Venerum'. The text was printed exclusively in capital letters, designed in accordance with Laskaris's recommendation that they should resemble ancient inscriptions; these suggest the Classical world and stress the style that he desired to give to Greek books containing Classical texts.

17. LUCIANUS, Dialogues, Florence [Laurentius de Alopa (?)], 1496.

After the capture of Florence by Charles VIII, the city lost its reputation as a centre for the dissemination and cultivation of Greek letters. This naturally had repercussions on the production of Greek books, especially those not accompanied by a Latin translation. Many copies of Lucian remained unsold, and at some unknown date came into the possession of the Giunti publishing house. The Giunti published the editio princeps of Philostratos's Images in Florence, 1517, using fonts they had acquired from Kalliergis, and incorporated it into the edition of Lucian's text.

is. APOLLONIUS RHODIUS,

Lucian, who was born at Samosata in northern Syria in the 2nd century AD, was the most perspicacious and witty scholar of his day, and was very popular and widely read during the Renaissance. Although the Dialogues of the Gods published by Laskaris was the only incunabular edition in Greek of any of Lucian's works, the author was read in the West through the twenty editions of his work in Latin translations printed before 1500, most of them editions of the Dialogues; ten of these were printed in Italy. The first of Lucian's works to appear in print was the Dialogoi VI printed by Georgius Lauer in Rome, between 1470 and 1472. The following works by him were also printed in Italy in incunabular editions: Vera historia, in the Latin translation of Lilius Catellanus ; De virtute conquerente, in the Latin translation of Carolus Aretinus; and De praecedentia Alexandri, Hannibalis et Scipionis, translated into Latin by Johannes Aurispa.

36

Argonautica [with the scholia of Lucillus, Sophoclius and Theon], Florence [Laurentius de Alopa (?)], 1496. Apollonius was born in Alexandria, and was called Rhodius because he spent the larger part of his life on this island. His long epic poem, the Argonautica, is possibly the most important epic we know between Homer and Nonnus. This edition, one of the fines examples of early Greek printing, contains the comments of Lucillus (a writer of proverbs, historian and commentator from Tarras in Crete), Sophoclius (a grammarian of the 2nd (?) century AD ), and the Alexandrian sophist Theon. The Argonautica saw only a single incunabular edition that of Ianos Laskaris, which was printed in Florence in 1496, without any indication of the printer. Since the Anthology is signed by Lorenzo de Alopa, it has been conjectured that all Laskaris's publications were printed by him. From a typographic point of view, this book is

Florence >WfiT4piviri(i· CirfsfÌK^vjm τόίς'όρόφβι«· ^4λΐί<*-·ί.φωνΚΛ'κ?«3·Λυμ.Λ^βξ.ΐο^ îu À* μφότΜ«' κβα^τα 3·κλΊω)ΐ,ΐί*ίτΛ βρρίνωμ £ρωο·ι £ aivofiTÌ^ «,μτω ^ ρ 4 κ<*τί τόμ ip^ouiij f»1òv \éroi'l*M η Ρο'ξω καΪ4| Τ Tretpot^ittfä.«,Λ^φ^νΤ*Vic /tyjac ττοιίν ·

POS

Α Π Α Ι Δ Ε Ύ Τ Ο Ν ΓΟΛΛΑ ΒΙΒΛΙΑ ΛΝΟΥΜΕΝΟΝ-

Κ Α Ι

1

*ι /X.HJ! aajuî ίον i'?·*νά'!5·ΐΐ5-ίν4ςτοιςως ÎTV£t(iW T*Wï4^âo/wwv™ç0£\ioiç'Kja-i<ι/ Γ*Ι? ΙΓ3Ι oW>5v;iI ÄUWYjTl'ff* j"Àfl ΤΓ*λ*Ιίϋ fi) τρελού AÌÌ*.TI'UCU &φ*νΛ* Λ) Mj«ç Κ-Λ-ϋΤρά· 4 (Λ.Η Τω ai*p.t<.|ipiÓo9"eU njItoitetltt>ltOy>[i>M τυφΛ»1!«V * ! «Tfλ*ύο·Κka^Vç TrcuA» κωΜτνΡ«.ά^γ^ίμοις /tìv TgfyittAj«.oicop;i(;"t* (ji&\i*.iì] Ρ« Ä ί« **ΐακο'ρως KJ άνΛγιΓκίκΓκν */«* τ*μυ ί-ϊΓΐ^ΐ^ωμ-φΟάνον·?· Τ ο'φ^ΛΛμου το ^ο'/χβ,.ίίΐίτ« Pi ττο' μ,οι !κ<ψίν·Μμ fui 4Α?ς Τ apyrρκΛίίΐΛ^inibii τ irf^k^i&v&iv·!*)n/fiihç ίι,τΐ'ς μίνο'μονς -erpiç τ όροομ κ«.νο'μα'τ2 o-uiyf ίφ4;.ιίτκκςί£ωΪιυ.>ί) ΟΟ-Λ κί^Ηλ« »vj'fio'i* lì) -irttp«.' Kwo^wvi . T t oVitpM,ç.Hj τβ,ΰτΛ ρ.κ μ α ί ω ν 4/u.îv 4AtvaSTo'ô^4A«,Tf''!l''»'*?»''T/u-Vo-ω/ι it >5 W 2aiiV·«! li) jUt^VHeJ-tti ju.Vo-iì>pavo ί'0'^Ι""rwp.TrMjuAvï/Α,Ιν Xi<«vàit[il<.o-a.ir^ecpHKiu.oTi>vlt(;ûctv2pi lì)ÌWÌHJτρλυ(>Τîixïofiî. ' " 3 ? Γ ω μ·*τί V^ ' ^ β ι ο « τ BÇ/U.H ff.ï&9 :.W«i2wjjii; κ\μ.ί\Ηΐτί roi -aruTfît, τΐς i » χρω ττρος ΤΛ) £ïÇ\i* ruvifo-i*^"« »çïia«Victt Λ«? «ΌΙ ;'-*Ι|ΐ*·)ί τω Äifii fyn^oÎTaçje/vA'tvi ? το μο'νω -»ΛίΠα Îkîfi* βμ*2ρ*μ$\>ΐ·ϋ. )JVV Ιλ·5» ίζ4ζ·το ourΟζΗτωρ ί ' γ } * ^ " * ) τ * Τ ίουιιώίΡν of* ΤϊΛρά ? UK/WOHIKCitj i u 7 i o'nloimç μ.άΜ?*μ. Μ«·ν*ΐυρι{|ικβ.^( ι1 ςν 7ΓΛ μ| 1ί ίκ4μ*οο-ΛονυΛΛ«?*ίΗΜΜ3Ε^Η?ί','!'λ'**ι^τΐΐΐΐ(,|*.4ί··τί οίιίΛκτοϋ^ "»AwHCTnuXictptclHO-cUO-nifl Û«Tffr»AJoVi,W<j «ÎUT* WiKa{w2HÇM^ri(O^A«0'*i;«i«pîÊ*All> ^""Κος T*Çi£i\io» Ρ-ψ ^χΊζίν ΤΗ χΊρί -ti) Λ^ΛγΐΓμωΐΓΚ"!? *«.!«

•

37

-

Florence

ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΙΟΥ ΡΟΔΙΟΐ ΑΡΓΟΝΑΚτικαΝ ΓΡητοΝ. •• f.XCJMESOIIF.O ίΟΙΒΕ.ΙΙΑ' Ι Ι Γ Ε Ν Ε Π Ν Κ.1ΕΑ « Ω Τ Ω Η

| MMHXOMAI.Òj .-1OHT010 Ε ΚΑΤΑ »TOMA-3CAI ΛίλπΕΤΡΑΣ» Κ Ι Λ Ν Ε Α Ι . Β Λ Ι Ϊ Λ Η Ο Σ Ë*HMOZrNHi ΠΙΛΙΑΟ,

μος υ-ο-έ « ΰ όιΟ,ΙϊίΧιπωϊ-

ως γ τ ) * « ί η>μ& ρχβ- οι

-D-eiiLì ΐΛΕΪ riusi*- i«ïoi £V HA cirri γ

» F ï l t l O M ΜΕΤΑ ΚΩΛΧ£(ΖΥΓΟΝ ΗΛΑΧΑΗ ΛΓΓπ. r o i « « rÀr ΠΪΛΙ'ΗΪ Î A T Î H Ε Κ Λ Ϊ Ε Ν . Ω Χ Μ Ι Ν ό π ί ι ι η ,

Xfet J&YM φΛΕΓΙ

MOifA » E N E I x r i r E f « Τ Ο Ϊ Λ Α Ν Ε Ρ Ο Ι . Ο « Ι Ι Ν Ϊ Α Ο Ι Γ Ο ,

ΔΗΜΟΘΕΝ OIOFialAOH ϊΠΑΓΜίχιΉτΕι ΑΛΜΗΜΑΙ. tHtOa

ΑΟΪ ΜΕΤΕΠΕΙΤΑ Π Κ Ν ΚΑΤΛ B A V I U Ϊ Η Ι Ω Μ

ΛΐΙΜΕΠσΐΟ i'ttOtK

ΚΙΩΝ ΔιΛ ΠΟΧξΙΝ ÂNAYfOr,

ΑΛΑΟ ΜΕΝ É ï E Ï A n i l N YlìlAVOX.AAAO

e* o'vv Λ^Γος
r e ν ίο- / ι * Η,.

i'iliifOf.

ΚΛΛΛΓΠΕΜ AÌtìI ΡΕΛΙΛΟΝ IN IXXUMiHCiJ (JI'OXOH.IJN.

VOUJTÌKUV ί.ρ-

Vi IV « ή ίρ,-WTro Çpiiyi 0_CV'UTH, a i φ«Η i p i r m ν»;, | i ^ * „ fuuip,:, *vjot^i Avliff i 2<M*iv a ï a u / t u m Orò «rvVl)i ;W pù T0 , KÎÏeyxwMfe-.u.

•tu «o 2«»*i( ùwfti. Ej^ai» ( „ 4 , ^ . l-t;
18

the most characteristic example of early printing, and the first time the text was printed together with the commentary. The text is printed in a majuscule font, like the Anthology, but the scholia sur­ rounding it on three sides are in lower case. The Argonautica, the Anthology and Luciaris Dialogues are the only publica­ tions of Laskaris in Florence to bear the date of publication.

19. MICHAEL MARULLUS 37. Printer's mark of the Societas Colubris or Compagnia del Drago.

MHXuzzjiiim.

the original one hundred and thirteen. The Hymns {Hymni naturales) are contained in four books and dedicated to Antonio San Severino, Marullus's friend and patron. They form a group of twen­ ty-one poems, mainly in praise of ancient deities, such as Zeus, Pallas, Eros, Eter­ nity, Kronos, Aphrodite, Hermes, and others. They are primarily of a symbolic character and represent Marullus's most mature work. He himself asserted that they were his contribution to humanism and the literature of the day. The book was printed at one of the last three presses -the first of the three, in chronological order- founded in the city of the Arno before 1500, known by the name Societas Colubri. (Colubris Unio or Compagnia del Drago). Evi­ dence for the identity of the press of the Societas is incomplete, and the names of the printers are unknown. We do know, however, that many of the editions print­ ed by the Compagnia were for another Florentine printing and publishing house, which consisted of Antonio Tubi­ ni and Andrea Ghirolandi, for whom Lorenzo de Alopa worked as a printer.

20. X E N O P H O N , Opera, Flo­ rence, Philippus Giunta, 1516.

TARCHANIOTIS, Eptgrammatum libn IV. Hymni, Florence, Socie­ tas Colubris, 26 November, 1497.

The works of the 5th/4th c. BC Athen­ ian historian Xenophon were very pop­ ular during the Renaissance. Except for the Hiero, which is included in the edi­ tion of Kevis edited by Ianos Laskaris (Florence, ca. 1495), all the editions of Xenophon appeared in Latin transla­ tions, though these were edited by some of the most famous scholars of the Renaissance, such as Francesco Filelfo,

The last incunabular edition of the Epigrammata of Marullus appeared in 1497 in Florence, and includes four books of epigrams and four more of hymns. The two books of additional epigrams do not differ in terms of their subjects from the edition printed in Rome (i486-). Eightyseven epigrams are added in this way to

38

: . — i , * —

! MICHAELIS TARCHANIOTAE MA RVLLI CONSTANTINOPÖLITA NI EPIGRAMMATON AD LAV: RENTIVM MEDICEN PE x

TRI FRANCISCIFILIVM LIBER

PRIMVS.

... J^I!UI.«i

T E R MILLE NECES/DV ι incommoda Marris: (vis PVTET AONIAS POSSE lùiuaredeasV Ite quoep LaureiuuCcipqj arma enfesqj feeuë; Mi 11ria; cominès nec pudet effe mete. jQuiieq?manirs ferm/pofito ferrenfe libeltos. Et piacene rnufis eft fine dulce nihil. |Sed tarnen hisftudiïsdebecur laffafeneccus. I nterea.certe fudor utercp decec. "a modo diuerfo gladios dû ftrigi iHocnbi finceri pignus amons hab«

ί s '

-•'» η . •

39

••

.

t

:.-.

C

;

••.:./;--i -

„:

« 'û'

Florence Leonardo Bruni, Omnibono Leoniceno

38. Printer 's mark of the Societas Colubris or Compagnia del Drago.

original was translated into Latin, Italian and French, and 19 editions appeared in the course of the 18th century. The Florence edition contains the Greek and Latin text of the edition published by Aldus Manutius and Markos Mousouros (Venice, about 1494), but is further enriched by the addition of the Italian translation by Antonio Maria Salvini, a Florentine poet and writer (1653-1729), to whom a chair in Greek was entrusted at the age of only 23.

and Andrea Magnanimo. Almost all Xenophon's works, under the title Opera, were printed twice by 1500 (undated), in Milan and Venice, by Guillaume le Signerre and Bernadino de Vitalibo respectively. From the Renaissance to the 19th century, Xenophon was regarded as the most reliable and authoritative witness for Socrates. He earned this credibility amongst philosophical circles precisely because he did not entertain ambitions of being a philosopher, and to some extent on account of his nonphilosophical character. The Memorabilia are not included in incunabular editions, except for the Apologia pro Socrate in the Latin translation by Leonardo Bruni (Milan, unknown date). The editio princeps of the works of Xenophon was printed in Florence in 1516 at the most famous publishing house in Florence in the 16th century, that of the Giunti brothers. The texts are prefaced by an introductory prologue addressed to the patron of Greek literature, Pope Leo X. The prologue is signed by Angelo Colocci, a member of his circle and a leading figure in the revival of Greek literature in Rome.

22. [THEODOROS PRODROMOS], Galeomyomachia, Florence, Press of the Archbishopric, 1832. Reprint of the editio princeps of the Galeomyomachia of Theodoros Prodromos, which had been published by Arsenios Apostolis at the press of Aldus Manutius in Venice, about 1495. This Florence edition is the only one known after Apostolis's editio princeps. The title page, indeed, bears Aldus's printer's mark, which is not found in the editio princeps, consisting of an anchor and dolphin and the initials A.R., which probably refer to Arsenios Apostolis.

21. MUSAEUS, Concerning Hero and Leander, Typis Caesaris, 1765. The poem Concerning Hero and Leander by Musaeus, which was very popular during the Italian Renaissance and was repeatedly published and reprinted during the 15th century, continued to interest the educated public even in the 18th century. The

40

Γ Α Λ Ε ÛMΤ Ο ΜΛ Χ IA

s .

Εν Φλωρεντίφ, ex. του τυπογραφείου άρχ^ιεττκτχοτίκοΰ, ψωΧβ'.

41

;

PERÏUVSTJU D N O M E O COIENÖ: DHO Ï^COEO BOSK), SACRI, ÎNVJC7T, ATQ, I L ^ O K D I N I S ï ? ÎOATtfNÎS HVtrUïN ROMANA CVMA NEGOTIORVM PROMOTORI' OlGNiSSÌUOJ "-

Vife«« tioHÜi™ uHer&ti.JeJ ftm haie mh Soumit'BeuäficikieJhreniem n/ptiimu/,α muht aim: hauti prua τ •ytibitf.-tt uißifijf etabwahtm, tuä$ elari-y* nomini Meste*!, sc. inmiìrtm m hum fr?air? /ine • f-tat ernie bentfteenha •' ti Jiberjlitat tua,ut cum metibi pîurîbuf ttormnîhui deuiaUtt,astefentiam/ ineà mit tiï/çruxtttiie'ob/emitj stiœimctt&m atitjuôâ perpetuimi cxQte uàtem· capte iuovuvt. m. me vetituntat meiran'am τμίΐχ unquum dcîcreî eMmu' llkid 'inm-tw i»e cmttetutuew» emßdc ut cum yttecipuatummrtatiim pmttmaiia maona. Vcbù admiration? >ac wmmenaetiBne • rire dutcant,rerum prùeaputii, et rccerttìtm hìtfsft'at eieeuraiifrimê phjetpmm. pisuedijt wbOittinta-ti•uetutttfima-s.:. arte -temper ebìc&atttr ßttrir, hunt ttnuitnìtr ìi^en'y mei fietuni, et iaberem benigni ac ììhcmh uultutta JW Jcepium tucarit. • ar deferìdas - tyuarc frbe-m utbiurt K,cûittS si Itoti ut prr erat, eerie' quantum ito/ferite, toiru,-:_/'; mira arie ddùteatam-iam diu tibi debitam maann--animi"dl.icni.ut til·} Men, ut amneï ïnidîteft tueriiin eßeteru, me £W ad Utuam uri- semyer neir.rrcm, :r r:;;!<•< .KM quoque arata lit tltantm mener,*» ri,-,-' -ÌWiMffl ;:nu™ast~>. A : *«_ ,——" —'"· ρ,ιιτράΜηΐι aelrae-itft

39. The Vatican with St Peter, 1593, from the map of Rome by Antonio Tempesta.

42

ROME

Xrom the middle of the 15th century onwards, Rome offered an ideal situation in which Greek printing could flourish. Partly because, under the Pope Nicholas (f 1455), many eminent Greek and Italian scholars embarked upon an endeavour to assemble and translate into Latin a highly important corpus of works of Classical literature and writings of the Church Fathers ; and also because it was in the environs of Rome, at Subiaco, that printing was first practised in Italy (1465). Despite this, no Greek books were printed in Rome before the middle of the second decade of the 16th century, even though the printing workshops of Rome had been staffed by Greek scholars since the first decade of the history of the printed book in Rome. Greek scholars first became involved with publishing and printing in Rome in the context of an Academy created around the first printers in Italy, Conrad Sweynheim and Arnoldtz Pannarzt. The initiative in the founding of this Academy, as also in its printing activities, The Academy of was taken by Giovanni G. Andrea de Bussi Andrea de Bussi, the bishop of Aleria, in the year 1467. It was at this time that the two printers came to live in the palace of Pietro Massimo in Rome, an event that brought into being the first humanist publishing centre. This period was still dominated by the figure of Cardinal Bessarion and his circle, and Bussi, who, with Theodoras Gazis, had studied under Vittorino da Feltre, collaborated with the eccentric archaeologist Pomponio Leto, and with Lampugnino Birago, Andronikos Kallistos, Niccolò de Valle, and others. At least twenty-three editions came from the presses of the two printers (1468-1472), most of them Latin authors such as Cicero, Livy, Lactantius, Ovid and Suetonius. One notable edition, from both a publishing and academic point of view, was that of Strabo's Geography, which appeared about 1469 in the translation by Guarinus Veronensis and Grigorios Tiphernas. Cardinal Bessarion's highly important treatise on Plato, the Adversus Platonis Calumniatorem, was also published by this press in Rome, before 13 September 1469. One year before the Academy ceased to function, Bussi and the German print -

43

Papal policy against Greek books

40. Pope Nicholas V. engraving of the founder of the Vatican Library.

Rome

41. Rome at the time of Pope Innocent VIII. woodcut from Cosmographie Universalis, Sebastian Münster, Basel, Heinrich Petri, 1550.

44

ers, who were encountering serious economic difficulties, decided to appeal to Rome pope Sixtus IV for financial support. Their printed appeal, a single sheet that was appended to the edition of Nicolaus de Lyra, Postilla St. Bibliotn, is an impor­ tant document for the history not only of printing but also of books and libraries in general. From the last decade of the 15th century, the baton of the cultivation of Greek literature and its systematic dissemination through printing had indisputably passed to Venice. It was not until the second decade of the 16th century, when the papal throne was occupied by Leo X, a great philhellene, that there was any serious attempt to revive the study of Greek letters in Rome. Two Greek presses were founded at this time in Rome: the first in the context of a Greek College that was opened on the Quirinal Hill, and the second as a result of a partnership between Zacharias Kalliergis and Cornelio 42. Pope Leo X.from Benigni. a painting by Raphael After the humiliation suffered by the Cambrai federation, intellectual and cultural events became less prominent in Venice, and conditions were not at all favourable for printing houses - partic­ ularly those producing Greek editions - especially after the temporary closure of the Aldine press. Gradually, the centres of the study of Greek literature moved to Rome, an initiative owed almost exclusively to Pope ρ τ ν Leo X and his circle. The pope not only lent his support to " . the dissemination of Greek education and culture, but, in addi- „ " , 1 ° tion to founding the Greek High School, created the necessary infrastructure for the proper education of Greek children, thereby providing the first Greek educational refuge in the West. He was assisted in this dream by Ianos Laskaris, Markos Mousouros and Zacharias Kalliergis, who were soon joined by the Cretan Arsenios Apostolis. Kalliergis was in Rome from 1514, when he assumed supervision of the Greek College, though we have no information as to his activities in the intervening years (1509-1514). He remained true to his beliefs and, with an unquenchable passion for the printing and promotion of Greek books, he prepared the ground for the creation of a third printing establishment - the first Greek press in the papal capital. On this occasion, he had the protection and financial support of one of the richest men of the day in Italy, the patron of the arts Agostino Chigi.

45

(1483-1520). Uffizzi Gallery.

Rome

43. P. Leto, woodcut from N. Reusner, Icônes, Basel, 1599.

Agostino Chigi was born in Sienna and acquired great financial power through trade and by founding a network of banks. At first he worked together with his father in his birthplace and in Viterbo. From 1487 onwards he extended his activities to Rome, were he enjoyed outstanding success, during the papacy of Alexander VI and particularly that of Julius II. In 1506 he stood at the pope's side in his war with the Bentivoglio family of Bologna. His commercial enterprises reached their zenith when Pope Leo X came to the throne (1513), a man with whom he had enjoyed a personal friendship since the beginning of the century. After acquiring his great financial power, Chigi decided to offer his support to the field of letters and the arts. He had alongside him as his personal advisor in these matters a man nurtured on humanist ideals and a lover of ancient Greek thought, Cornelio Benigni, and was aware of Leo X's love of Classical Greece. Chigi was himself enamoured of the painting of Raphael, who was then working in Rome on his account, and he soon became the most important sponsor of the Muses in the papal capital. The most famous of the beneficiaries of his support were, in addition to Kalliergis, Ottavio Petrucci, Paolo Giovio, Pietro Bembo, secretary to the pope, Raphael, and the excellent satirist and poet Pietro Aretino, who was known as 'divinus Aretinus'. Chigi died on 10 April 1520, one year before the death of Pope Leo. Kalliergis once more changed direction with regard to his publications. He now turned to the publication not only of liturgical books and works of Classical literature, but mainly to reprints of works on grammar. The Kalliergis press This final period in Kalliergis's career as a printer is marked by two features: its great length (1514-1523), during which he produced a corpus of seven editions; and his collaboration with the Italian scholar, publisher and printer, Cornelio Benigni. The first work to appear from Kalliergis's Roman press was an edition of the epinician poems of the first of the great lyric poets: 'novem lyricorum longe ... princeps ' according to an anonymous Hellenistic epigram. Pindar's Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian Odes ('with an old, very useful explanation, and a commentary likewise') appeared in 1515. These poems, of course, had already

46 \

been printed by Aldus two years earlier, in January 1513, but Kalliergis's edition Rome was superior in that it included scholia for the first time, and was based on a manuscript more faithful to the originals. The book is the first Greek edition to be printed in Rome: more accurately the first book exclusively in Greek, for Paolo Ennea's Operetta bellissima da imparare la lingua graeca had appeared in Greek and Latin in 1510. We may recall here that in 1469, Gazis had edited the Nodes Atticae in the papal capital, to which the first Greek printed sheet was appended. For his edition of Pindar, Kalliergis collaborated with Cornelio Benigni, and it is conceivable that Benedetto Lampridio also assisted in the preliminaries. The form taken by Kalliergis's partnership with Benigni is unknown. Presumably Benigni gave Kalliergis financial support with the expenses incurred in equipping the printer's workshop, and paid him for his typographic work, while himself shouldering the responsibility for the distribution of the book, so that he would either reap the profits or stand the losses. Cornelio Benigni, who was born in Viterbo, lived in Rome 44. Cardinal Bessarion, from at least as early as the first woodcut from P. Giovio, decade of the 16th century. His Elogia Virorum litteris illustrium, Basel, 1577. involvement with publishing was confined to the period of papacies of Julius II and Leo X. Benigni assisted in the publishing programmes of Agostino Chigi, and his dependence on the patron of arts was sharply criticised by his contemporary, the humanist Giovanni Pierio Valeriano, though at the same time he described him as 'optime litteratus '. Before collaborating with Kalliergis on the edition of the odes of Pindar, he had worked as editor and translator on the publication of Ptolemy's Geography, along with Marco Benevento, the monk Celestino, Giovanni Cota di Verona and Scipio, also known as Karteromachos. At the urging of Pope Julius II, this book was printed in Rome in 1507 by Bernardinus Venetus de Vitalibus for the Roman bookseller Evangelista Tosino. The books printed by Kalliergis in Rome do not have a uniform character, and included both Classical literature, such as works by Pindar and Theocritus, and also handbooks of grammar and encyclopedic dictionaries: Phrynichus, Thomas Magistros and Guarino Favorino's Lexicon. They also included two liturgical books: the first edition of the Oktoechos (1520) and a small-format liturgical

47

book with the Latin title Horae in Laudem (1516). Kalliergis's work as a printer in Rome was brought to completion in 1523 with the publication of Favolino's bulky Lexicon; after this period there is no evidence for Kalliergis's life. The prehistory of the Greek press that was established and operated in the Greek College of Rome is directly connected with the desire on the part of Pope Leo X and a small circle of Italian humanists and Hellenists to do all they could to revive the study of Greek literature in Rome, which had been in decline for about thir­ ty years, broadly speaking since the death of Argyropoulos. Before 1517, the year m w m c n TVi Γ l·- Γ 11 th e P r e s s o n the Quirinal hill began to funcp„ ° tion, there were very few centres of the cultivation of Greek letters: the Greek College, in which Greeks and foreigners taught Greek and Latin; the printing workshop of Zacharias Kalliergis (1515), where efforts were made to publish literary and grammatical works by Byzantine and Attic writers ; and finally, the endeavours of Pope Leo, through the Apostolic Diaconate, to disseminate and expound Greek liturgical books. More specifically, from 30 April 1515, two Italian humanists, Francesco Speroli and Vicenzo Pimpinelli, were employed by the papal secretariat to teach, read and chant Greek liturgical books. From 20 October of the same year, Bat­ tista Casali, the scion of a Roman noble family, professor of Rhetoric at the Sapienza, author of treatises on rhetoric, and a poet, was employed by the Apos­ tolic Diaconate 'qui exponit evangelium in lingua graeca '. All three were members of the learned circle around Angelo Colocci who, together with Scipio Karteromachos and other Roman scholars, was the most enthusiastic visionary of the revival of Greek studies in Rome. The beginning of the systematic practise of Greek printing in Rome is asso­ ciated with the desire and the persistent efforts of Colocci to ensure that the Greek books that brought such brilliance to the history of Venetian printing, through the editions that circulated from the Aldine press, were also published in Rome. In 1511, Colocci wrote anxiously to Karteromachos that two book­ sellers, Giacomo Mazzocchi and 'Mercurio' (a pseudonym for Evangelista Tosi­ ni) were planning to print Greek books in Rome, were intending to bring print­ ers from Venice, and were counting on the assistance of Zacharias Kalliergis, who had been in Rome since February 1514, as director and first teacher of the Greek College there, and resided in Colocci's home. Angelo was disturbed, because he felt that the idea of setting up and running a Greek press in Rome on a permanent basis was his own and Karteromachos's idea. However, the honour of being the first systematic printer of Greek books in the city on the Tiber was to fall to neither of the interested parties, Colocci and Mazzocchi, but to the indefatigable and enthusiastic Cretan, Zacharias Kalliergis.

48

The printing workshop of the Greek College of Rome was established in the house of Angelo Colocci, in which the College's teaching rooms and student residence were also housed. The general supervision, the work of publication, and the fonts used to print the books were the responsibil- „ . ,. . ,t r rinting in trie ity and exclusive occupation of Laskaris, while the organi_ ì r u sation of the workshop and the actual printing were assigned ° to the Italian Vittore Carmelio who was paid for this by the Apostolic Diaconate from 22 September 1516 to 30 July 1517. It is not known where, when or from whom Carmelio, who was known as 'magister stampator grechus ' acquired the knowledge required for printing Greek texts, but there is no evidence that he was previously involved in printing. After the publication of the first book from the College press, Commentary on Homer 's Iliad (1517), Vittore no longer appears as a paid employee of the Apostolic Diaconate; if, therefore, he really continued to work as a printer alongside Laskaris, it was probably on Colocci's account. It is also not impossible that the printing of the other treatises that appeared from the Greek press was carried out by Greeks whose names are still unknown working under Kalliergis's guidance. The total output of the College press was five editions: the Commentary on Homer's Iliad (1517), Porphyry's Homeric questions (1518), the Commentarli in septem tragedias Sophoclis: quae ex aliis eius compluribus iniuria temporum omissis, solae supersuerunt... (1518), the Philisophical and rhetorical miscellany (ca. 1519) and the Apophthegms of philosophers and generals (ca. 1519); to these five should probably be added a sixth, the Speeches of Isocrates (ca. 1520). To print them, use was made of all Laskaris's fonts, cast for him in Florence, and also two Latin fonts based on characters used by the early German printer Eucharius Silber. The missionary work carried out in eastern Europe and the East, however was in the hands of the famous Propaganda. The Propaganda had devised and inaugurated a publications programme since 1628, consisting mostly of Greek books. The content of these books either preached the idea c r of the unification of the Church through theological , ^ j -,. , , ρ. . , , de Propaganda Fide r σ treatises, or consisted of simple educational texts, such as Grammars, and they were normally distributed free by the Propaganda. To make their arguments for unification more convincing to Greek Orthodox Chris­ tians, the Vatican assigned the task of writing theological treatises to Greeks who were in favour of unification, such as Petros Arkoudios, Leonardos Philaras, Neophytos Rodinos, Leon Allatios and many other graduates of the Greek High School of St Athanasios in Rome. The theme of these works was aimed not at changing the form of the Orthodox liturgy, but at resolving doctrinal differences, particularly with regard to the question of the emanation of the Holy Spirit. The 49

first book printed by the Propaganda (which signed its editions as Sacra Congregano de Propaganda Fide) was the Christian Orthodox teaching of Petros Arkoudios, which appeared in 1628. In order to convey the extent of this proselytising and propaganda activity on the part of Rome, it is enough to note that the Propaganda aimed at converting not only the Greek Orthodox but also all the non-Catholic peoples of the Balkan peninsula. It therefore proceeded to produce books in Hebrew, Arabic and Armenian, and also in rare languages such as Chaldaean, Aramaic and Abyssinian. As we have seen, these publications contained simple, frequently bilingual grammatical texts, designed to teach young children, which created the impression that the Catholics supported education in general. Indicatively, from 1628 to 1793 the Propaganda published at least 71 editions, in thousands of copies, addressed exclusively to Greek speakers. The response of the Orthodox clergy, at the publications level, to this penetrating policy pursued by Catholicism came mainly from presses that operated in Moldavia and Wallachia, which were run in these semi-autonomous principalities by Greeks and philhellene princes. In 1526, three years after the disappearance of Kalliergis from the printing scene, Demetrios Doukas made his appearance in Rome, publishing the Divine Liturgy. An old colleague and editor of Aldus Manutius, he taught at the University of Alcala in Spain, before printing a Greek book at an unknown press, which possessed all the features of Kalliergis's publications: initial capitals and headpieces cut in Kalliergis's style, and fonts and a number of small capitals that came from the same set. However, this endeavour, too, was not destined to be successful or to consolidate Greek printing in Rome, and after the death of Pope Leo X in 1521, his successors Adrian VI and Clement VII (1523-1534) ceased to lend support to the cultivation of Greek studies in Rome. Still within the learned circles of the Vatican, Cardinal Marcello Gervini (15011555), later Pope Marcellus II (1555), had expressed interest just before 1540 in publishing a number of Greek and Latin books based on manuscripts kept in the Vatican library. From Gervini's correspondence with Paolo Manuzio it is plain that the cardinal had selected the Roman printer Antonio Biado (1497-1567) to undertake the publishing of Greek books. Biado, indeed, had visited Venice to consult Manutius on how to acquire Greek fonts and other necessary equipment. In Venice, Biado probably met Nikolaos Sophianos, who was working at the time as a manuscript copyist. Sophianos introduced Biado to a caster of fonts, Stefano Nicolini da Sabio, who probably also engraved the fonts acquired by Biado on Gervini's account. In the end, a new Greek font was engraved, based on the script used by Sophianos to copy manuscripts ; Sophianos used this font to print a series of books in Venice, amongst which were Plutarch's De liberìs educandies (1544)

50

and an Astrolabe (1544). And with it, Pietro Vettori (1499-1585) and Donato Gian- Rome otti (1492-1573), a Florentine scholar who resided in Rome and was a member of Cardinal Ridolfi's circle, 'planned to print, without cease, not only religious texts but also any Greek material that came into their hands! The first book to be printed with these fonts was the first volume of the Comentary on Homer, by the archbishop of Thessalonike, Eustathios (1542). However, the plan to complete this work in four volumes was immediately suspended, mainly on account of the large size of the characters and the interlines required, which inflated the cost of the publication. It was accordingly decided to strike a new series of characters to complete the Interpretation of thefour Gospels.

45.Printer's marks of the Sacra Congregatici de Propaganda Fide.

The design of the new fonts was assigned to Giovanni Onorio, the 'scriptor graecus ' of the Vatican, and the three remaining volumes of Eustathios's work was printed with the new characters (1542-1550). Biado did not work alone in the printing of this work, for the new contract signed with Gervini refers to Benedetto Giunti and Niccolo Maiorano as well as to Biado. It should be noted here that in 1542, the year in which the first volume of the Comentary on Homer appeared, Biado also printed the Interpretation of the four Gospels by the archbishop of Ochrid, Theophylaktos. After the death of Pope Marcellus II (Cardinal Gervini) in 1555, and the parallel endeavours made by Greek circles to consolidate Greek studies in Rome, humanist movements of this kind declined. It was not until the early decades of the 17th century, again at the initiative of the Vatican, that attempts were made to revive Greek letters, this time for purely missionary and propaganda purposes. We are now in the period of the patriarchate of Cyril Loukaris and the bitter confrontation between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. The Vatican, concerned at the activities of the 'heretical' patriarch in Constantinople, sought the help of the king of France in order to take the necessary steps to protect its missionary work.

51

Rome

23. PlNDAR, Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian Odes, Rome, Zacharias Kalliergis and Cornelio Benigni, 1515.

24. T H E O C R I T U S , uyiis, Rome, Zacharias Calliergis for Cornelio Benigni, 15 January, 1516.

This is the first exclusively Greek book to be printed in Rome. It bears the date 1515 and is based on a book in Greek and Latin by P. Ennea, Operetta bellissi­ ma da imparare la lingua graeca (Rome, 1510).

ΓΙΝΔΑΡΟΥ, ΟΛΥΜΠΙΑ.. ΝΕΜΕΑ.

ΡΥβΙΑ. ΙΣΘΜΙΑ.

Kalliergis's second typographical work in his Roman period was the Idylls of Theocritus, the greatest bucolic poet of antiquity. The editto princeps of the work had been printed perhaps by Demetrios Damilas at the expense of Bonus Accursius about 1481, and it was followed by the editions of Aldus (1495) and the Giunti (1515); nevertheless, Kalliergis's edition was more complete, because for the first time it contained commentaries and also a series of unpublished Idylls ('Ήρακλίσκος', "Ηρακλής λεοντοφόνος', 'Βάκ­ χαι,','Ήλακάτη', amongst others), the surviving epigrams of Theocritus, Ήέλεκυς' and the Ήτερύγιον'.

! Ο))

œ

'•Ί-Λ;ν-^.ν3

25. SOPHOCLES, commentant

li

rimprcffi Roms per Zaclnrüm Calctgi Cretenicm ; pr. mi'lTuS»D» N*Lcûnjs*X»Poiit4 Max» cactiam condì tioriCjUtncquis alius per quinquennium hos imprimere, nutuenunckre Librespoflìt:utqiquifecus feecrit, isab uni. uetfa çWiEcelefiatoio orbeterrarum expers cxcominunica

in septem tragedias Sophoclis: quae ex aliis eius compluribus iniuria temporum amissis, solae supersuerunt..., Rome, Press of the Greek High School, 1518.

23

46. Printer's mark of Cornelio Benigni.

This is the second book to be printed at the Greek High School, after Porphyry's Commentary on Homer's Iliad, which was also edited by Ianos Laskaris. The edi­ tion of Sophocles, here printed for the first time together with scholia, was intended to enhance the knowledge of the pupils of the High School, and includes commentaries on the tragedies Ajax, Electra, Oedipus Tyrranus, Antigone, Oedipus at Colonus, Trachiniae, and Philoctetes.

This edition of Pindar's Odes, which for the first time also included the scholia, was printed in a large number of copies (at least a thousand), with the support of the Hellenist Cornelio Benigni. Like the scholars and patrons of art in the circles in which he moved, Benigni dreamed of making Rome a centre of Greek printing, and aspired to 'steal' the glory of Venice, which was owed primarily to Aldus Manutius.

52

<υ*

wiwr-κ ΘΙΤΤΌΠΡΧΓΕΠΓ .SKÔ'IOI· QESSAAONI'KHS FASEKBOAAÎ E Î S • I ; H

1

K

O ' H H ' P O I

Ϊ Λ Ι Α ' Δ Α »

f·'

/

/c"< ...>îg& (Λ /<·Υ "Îy >

.

--•

•- M 1 i ^M^<^|g| ïèW κ-"

. f è.

ROMAE

M.

D.

XL II. ;';:

W'

-tf\

27

53

Rome

It is worth noting that this edition was based on a manuscript that belonged to the personal library of Markos Mousouros, which contains this scholar's corrections.

His writing concentrated on commentaries on ancient poets, and the Comentary on Homer was his most important work. The commentary on Homer is a work of inestimable value, since not only was it written with very great care and patience, taking into account treatises by ancient grammarians, but it is also the only surviving work by Archbishop Eustathios. The first edition of the Comentary on Homer, which is also the most valuable, was printed with a font based on the script of Nikolaos Sophianos. It is conceivable that Sophianos had a hand in the printing and design of the first volume, while Matthaios Devaris compiled the extensive index included in volume four.

26. Apophthegms of philosophers (Praeclam Dicta Phuosophorum), Rome, Press of the Greek High School [Arsenios Apostolis, ca. 1519]. Ancient sayings and apophthegms were very popular with the learned and educated public of Italy during the Renaissance, and even more so that of the North, especially from the time that Erasmus (1499) turned his attention to the ancient world. This edition of the Apophthegms consists of a collection of sayings by philosophers, orators and generals, including Aristotle, Agamemnon, Gorgias, Hippomachos and many others (123 in all), and is dedicated to Pope Leo X. It discharges Arsenios Apostolis's moral duty to his father, Michael, who had collected a number of sayings, to which he had given the title Ionia, though he had never succeeded in publishing them.

47. Printer's mark of Zacharias Kalliergis during his period in Rome.

28. P . A R K O U D I O S , Concerningpurfication by fire, Rome, Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, 1637. Petros Arkoudios, who was born in Corfu in the middle of the 16th century, studied at the High School of St Athanasios in Rome and was awarded a doctorate in philosophy and theology. He embraced Catholicism and was assigned important missions by the popes with a view to organising the Church's interests in Poland. He wrote many theological and doctrinal tracts, a significant number of which were printed on various European presses, as well as that of the Propaganda in Rome. The Concerning purfication by fire was printed after his death (f 1634) by his pupil Paisios Ligaridis.

27. E U S T A T H I O S , Archbishop of Thessalonike, Comentary on Homer, 4 vols., Rome, 1542-1550. Eustathios, Archbishop of Thessalonike, who was born in the middle of the 12th century and died in 1198, was one of the most cultivated scholars of his day. A grammarian and a formidable orator, he was praised for his contribution to letters by the distinguished historians Nikitas and Michael Choniatis.

54

Rome

29. Anthologion, Rome, Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, 1738.

ALPHABETUM

The Anthologion is an abridged compilation of the liturgical books used for worship according to the Eastern Orthodox rite. It was first published by the Orthodox in Venice in 1564. The first Anthologion compiled by order of the Vatican was published in Rome in 1598, so that travelling priests and monks would be able to carry with them a single book of 600 pages instead of twenty liturgical books with a total of 4,000 or 5,000 pages. An anonymous akolouthia (office, or order of service) was chosen for general use, in place of the many different akolouthiai named after their institutors. Anthologion was also the title of a series of liturgical books published in 1738 by the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, although it is much lengthier (though smaller in format) than the original compilation of liturgical books. The contents were divided into nine books with a total of 4,000 pages, usually published in five volumes: (l) Anthologion of Menaia, (2) Triodion - Pentekostarion, (3) Parakletike, (4) Akolouthia of anonymous saints Gospels -Prayer Book, (5) Psalter -Bookof Hours. Well-made octavo editions with an abundance of rubrics and numerous engravings, with the pages numbered in Greek alphabetic numerals.

30. Alphabetum Graecum, Rome, Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, 1771. Although intended for school use, this book is distinguished by the elegance of

55

GRAECUM Cum Oratione Dominicali 5 Salutatione Angelic*, Symbolo Fidei 5 i$ Praeceplis Dec,

UOMAE MDCCLXXI. Typis Sac. Congregations de Propag. Fide. Trufiimn facilitate..

. Iffi«

': !

pSSHHMHSsHSBHK

30

its printing and its austere character. It is a bilingual, Greek and Latin, work, with a prologue written by the head of the workshop himself, Johannes Chrisophorus Amadutius. The Alphabet primer gives the phonetic values of the Greek letters in terms of the Latin letters, records the vowels separately from the consonants, and draws attention to other explanations of accentuation. The book closes with a Greeting to the Virgin Mary, the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and a psalm. These are spread over ten pages with characteristically wide margins, which reveal the care and attention invested in the printing of the edition.

48. Printer's mark of the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide.

49. Frontispiece of the edition by Alfonso de Prado, Quaestiones Dialecticae, Alcala, M. de Eguia, 1530.

CÊtoçfttonee Bialecticç fiipza hbzoe 'ßcriIxrmcniae:edireama$iftro Blpt>onfo*0?ato: 5n Compiuteli academia Xiberalm artiupfeflotf.

56

ALCALA

T hhe Christian population of Spain became acquainted with Greek literature after the Moslem invasion of the Iberian peninsula, since part of the Greek cultural heritage was disseminated through Arabic translations. The end of the 14th century witnessed the beginning of more substantial contacts between the Spanish and the Byzantines, thanks to the Catalan and Navarre companies. At the initiative of Juan Fernandez de Hereida (Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller), some of the ancient and medieval authors, such as Thucydides and Ioannis Zonaras, were translated into Aragonese. About a hundred years later, at the beginning of the 15th century, the house of Aragon conquered Sicily (1409) and the kingdom of Naples (1435). Their rulers thus came into direct contact with the Italian Renaissance and at the same time were given an opportunity to communicate with areas in which Hellenism was still alive. They not only took an interest in promoting works of Classical literature, in Latin translations (Lorenzo Valla began to translate Homer in 1441, at the request of King Alphonse V the Magnificent), but also proceeded to found a fine Greek library. At the same time, they lent their support to the humanist work of a number of important Byzantine scholars, such as Theodoros Gazis and Athanasios Chalkiopoulos. The beginning of the systematic cultivation of Greek letters in Spain dates back to the end of the 15th century: in 1499, the cardinal of Spain, Francisco Jimenez de Cinseros, founded the College of San Idelfonso in Alcala de Xenares, an institution that formed the kernel of the University of Complutensis. The two

57

The beginnings of the dissemination of Greek books in Spain

50. Cardinal Francisco Jimenez de Cinseros.

biblical languages, Greek for the New Testament and Hebrew for the Old Testament, began to be studied on equal terms with Latin for the first time in a Spanish educational centre. Cardinal Cinseros had a specific design in mind, and was intending to publish the Polyglot Bible, a project that required not only considerable financial support, but also a specially trained staff. The preparatory philological work began in 1502, aimed initially at publishing the New Testament, which required a multi-disciplinary endeavour. A search was made for the most reliable manuscripts kept in the Vatican Library, which were readily loaned by Pope Julius II and his successor, Leo X, though a copy was purchased of a manuscript that belonged to the library of Cardinal Bessarion. The group assembled to carry out the philological editing of the Bible consisted of the most eminent representatives of the Spanish world of scholarship at that time: Antonio de Nebrija, who was responsible for the Latin, and Nunez de Gusmân, who shouldered the responsibility for the Greek, with contributions from Juan de Vergara, Diego Lopez de Zuniga, and a little later from Vettor Fausto and Demetrios Doukas. At the same time, Cardinal Cinseros assigned to the printer Arnald Guillen de Bracar the task of engraving a Greek character set in order to print the Greek texts. G. de Bracar, who worked as an independent printer in the town of Logrono from 1502 on (having previously worked in Pamplona), was deeply influenced in his philosophy of printing by the Spanish humanist Antonio de Nebrija, and in 1508 printed a handbook of grammar by him entitled De litteris grecis, which is thought to be the first book printed in Spain with an extensive Greek text. The first continuous Greek printed text to appear in Spain is the New Testament (fifth volume of the Polyglot Bible), which was from the press of G. de Bracar. It

58

appeared on 10 January 1514, and constituted a publishing marathon that was Alcala completed two years later. Two more books were published for Doukas in this same year of 1514: Manuel Chrysoloras's Erotemata and the poem of Musaeus entitled Concerning Hero and Leander. Doukas had been invited to Spain by Cardinal Cinseros to teach Greek at the University of Complutensis. Although there was every indication that the brilliant development of Greek studies and Greek printing in Spain would continue even after the death of Cardinal Cinseros, things turned out differently. Doukas left Spain in 1514 and his teaching duties were assumed in 1519 by Hernan de Nünez. who also published two Greek books at Brocar's press: Concerning Helen and Alexander by Demetrios Moschos, and Ad nepotes by Basil the Great. However, some notable Hellenists left Spain and settled in Italy, where they continued the brilliant tradition created by Cardinal Cinseros. Greek books continued to be printed in Spain, and Doukas's pupil Nunez, published a volume in Alcala, in 1524, containing a selection of works by Greek authors: Luaan's I^omenippos, Isocrates's Oratio ad Demonicum, Demosthenes's Olynthiacs, the Study by the sophist Libanius, and others. Despite the growth of interest in Greek studies, however, Spanish humanism continued to cling to its medieval educational and intellectual practices. There was a clear fondness for ancient Greece, but this was aimed not so much at understanding Greek philosophy as at attaining at a closer understanding of the sacred Christian writings in the original.

51. The old university of Alcala or Complutensis, founded at the beginning of the 16th century.

59

Alcala

3i. MANUEL CHRYSOLORAS,

tion was Cardinal Jimenez de Cinseros (1436-1517), the founder of the University of Alcala. A group of scholars led by Diego Lopez de Zuniga worked for fifteen years, carefully collating the texts and making the necessary emendations to a large number of manuscripts that belonged to Jimenez or were borrowed from the Vatican Library. Demetrios Doukas, who taught Greek at the University of Alcala from 1513 onwards, collaborated on the publication

Erotemata, Alcala, Arnald Guillen de Brocar, 1514. This edition of the Erotemata, which also includes treatises on grammar by Demetrios Chalkokondylis, Theodoras Gazis and two anonymous writers, is the first book published by Demetrios Doukas in Spain. It consists of a re-publication of Aldus's edition (1512) devoted to the young Caesar of Aragon by Aldus himself. The Alcala edition is based on a copy that formed part of Doukas's personal library. At the end of the book, Doukas confesses in a note to students at the University of Alcala, that when he came to Spain at the invitation of Jimenez de Cinseros, he had encountered an incredible dearth of Greek books. It was this, indeed, that had encouraged him to publish a number of grammars and poems. And in fact, in 1512, the library of the College of San Idelfonso contained only fourteen Greek works, both manuscripts and printed books.

32. Polyglot Bible, 5 volumes, Alcala, Arnald Guillen de Brocar, 1514-1517 (appeared in 1522).

32

of the New Testament, which formed the first volume of the five-volume edition Five epigrams by colleagues of Jimenez were published at the end of this first volume, the first being that by Doukas.

52. Printer's mark of Amala Guillen The first of the large Polyglot Bibles, and de Brocar. the earliest edition of the New Testament in Greek, even though for reasons of privilege it was published in 1522, after the New Testament of Erasmus (1517). The edition of this Bible contained the Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and Latin texts of the Old Testament and the Greek and Latin texts of the New Testament. The inspiration and leading light of the edi-

60

Ρ/Μ mW y£i eternata,

*

φιγίο

ös

conftniciioiie*

Ep&rûixcrià. Tfcü Χρυσό

esepi σύμτά£εως>

Toîfle.

Be

λωρα» EV *~

foìmatt'one-

TTzpì σχΗΛίατισϋον 7ώμ temporam.

çu UUo djalcondrlae*

Χ^όμωμ εκ τώμ χαλκομ= ÄvAovt 0.uartu&

gajae

Το Ιέταρτομ 7ο ν γοβη

• anomalie

verbiß

rospi άμωΜΟΛώμρΗΛΐά== τ<£>μ, '. Be

enclitica. .

ίσερΓεγκΑιτικώμ*. ©eruentiae'. * ιιιβηοΛίφί

eje

/μίΰθΛαι;ΛΐομόστιΧοι εκ . , vari)?

" poetfe»

ΑιάφόρωμισοίΗτώμ.

31

61

53. François listens to a reading of Diodorus Siculus. Woodcut attributed to Geoffroy Tory, Paris, 1575.

!<• " E r f

,F"

]|Ι"Μ>ΐ

u„

$«,ιι'iìira-', -

W«f"2?"Sü3ir«

t,r,

fiai

< ,s ήίΙΕρ» iff** li >'^ # BTftiM j

62

ιρ?.™'"ΐΐ;;,-!™ s : .»'"'.•·./"a.v;,v.-., ;

• ™ϊκ·

).„';·


-V

ν

PARIS

Ιη the 15th century, when Erasmus was living in Paris, he attempted to include in his edition of Adagia (proverbs) some important sayings derived from Greek literature, but was unsuccessful in his endeavour due to the lack of Greek man­ uscripts. Despite this, the strongest reverberations of the huge output and distri­ bution of Greek books from the time of Aldus (1494) onwards were felt in Paris, from as early as the first decade of the 16th century. A group of French and Ital­ ian humanists, amongst whom were Guillaume Tardif, Robert Gaguin, Paolo Emili, Angelo Cato, Gilles de Delft, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, and many others, asserted strongly that if France were less advanced than Italy in the 'humanist spirit', this was due to the fact that the French were lagging behind in knowledge of Greek education and culture. Although efforts to establish the teaching of Greek in Paris date from 1458 (Gregorio di Citta di Castello), the consolidation of the tradition is due mainly to Ianos Laskaris. Laskaris, who lived in the French capital from 1496, not only taught Greek to some important French intellectuals, such as Guillaume Budé, but made a decisive contribution to the formulation of the internationalist spirit characteristic of French thinkers of the early 16th century. Despite the fact that the French humanists showed a strong inclination to become acquainted with Greek thought, and even Plato's ideas, they themselves were adherents of Platonic philosophy, just as Guillaume Fichet and Robert Gaguin adhered steadfastly to the roots of their Catholic education and culture. The main moving force behind the production and distribution of Greek books in Paris was François Tissard: a graduate of Ferrara, pupil of Demetrios Sparti atis, and a teacher of the Greek language, he returned to Paris in 1507 full of plans and dreams of disseminating humanist culture. He took the initiative of having the first Greek book in France published at the press of Gilles de Gourmont: the Βίβλος ή γνωμαγυριχή, which appeared on 12 December 1507, was a grammar handbook that contained the alphabet and rules of pronunciation. Tissard col-

63

The Royal Press and the establishment of Greek studies in France

54. King François I, engraving from A. Thevet, Les vrais portraits et vies des hommes illustres, 77, Paris. 1584.

Paris

55. Paris, woodcut from H. Schedel, Liber Chronicarum, Nürnberg, Anton Koberger, 1493.

64

laborated with Gourmont in publishing only four Greek treatises, though the latter continued to print Greek books for twenty-six years. At the same time, he trained other printers in his workshop and initiated them into the 'mysteries' of Greek typesetting. These men later worked as typesetters in other publishing houses and made a decisive contribution to broadening public interest in Greek books. Amongst them was Pierre Vidouvé, who was distinguished by his encyclopedic knowledge and printed books for Jean Petit and Denis Lecuyer. From the period of Gilles de Gourmont until the time when Robert Estienne began to practise as a printer of Greek, the following came to the fore in the French capital as publishers of Greek books: Josse Bade (Ascensius), Simon de Colines, Conrad Neobar, Christian Wechel and Guillaume Morel. The Estienne family undoubtedly elevated Greek printing to enviable levels, thanks to the king of France, François I, who had a vision that France would continue to be the leading country in Europe with regard to culture, and would promote Greek thought in every way possible. François I was a persistent supporter of literature and the education of the young, with a view to nurturing individuals capable of teaching the Christian religion and applying the laws freed from their passions and in accordance with the principle of equality for all: individuals, that is, who would be distinguished by their social conscience. The Estienne family began its publishing and printing activities through

65

Henri Estienne, in 1502, the date of his collaboration with the early printer of Paris, Higman Hopyl. However, neither he nor his son Robert became involved in the publication of Greek books before 1544.

56. Robert Estienne, engraving possibly by Leonard Gaultier, A. A. Renouard, Annales des Estiennes, 246.

The chronicle of their involvement with Greek printing is as follows: in 1540, the premature death of Conrad Neobar, who bore the title 'Royal Printer of Greek', left his position vacant. Immediately afterwards, -o -u * υ f in October 1541, King François I commissioned the as Royal Printer engraver Claude Garamont to produce a new set of Greek characters, based on the handwriting of the calligrapher Angelos Bergikios. Garamont handed this set to Robert Estienne, anointing him de facto 'Royal printer of Greek'. Robert used these characters to print his first Greek book: Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, 1544. After this, the same set of Greek characters was used to print many editions based on manuscripts kept in the royal library of François I. They included the Roman Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1546), grammatical works by Manuel Moschopoulos, the New Testament of Robert Estienne (1546), the Roman History of Dio Cassius (1548), and many others. Robert Estienne continued to work in Paris until 1556, when he was threatened by the opponents of the Reformation and was obliged to move with his family to Geneva. Here he continued his publishing career with the same zeal and even greater success. The departure of Robert Estienne from Paris did not bring an end to the publishing and printing of Greek books. His own publishing house continued to function under the guidance of his brother Charles, who, indeed, printed the editio princeps of Appian's Roman History in 1551, an outPrintpr«? of standing example of the Greek printed book. Furthermore, Creek Rnnk<î ever since the time of Gilles de Gourmont, many important printers in Paris had leaned towards the printing of Greek books, amongst them Simon de Collines, Christian Wechel, Jacobus Bogardus, Martin le Jeune and, of course, Guillaume Morel. Robert Estiennes position as 'royal printer of Greek' was not inherited by his brother Charles, but went to Andrian Turneb, who taught Greek in the Le Moine College in Paris, and was regarded as one of the

66

most widely cultured scholars in France in his day. However, all this publishing activity is signed by western scholars and printers, and we have to wait for the end of the 18th century for Greek involvement, when Adamantios Korais worked with the famous Firmin-Did ot press to publish annotated editions of the Classics against the background of the Neohellenic Enlightenment.

Paris

1798-1820 Greek editions appearing from the presses of Paris multiplied from the last years of the 18th century. From 1798 to 1820, more than 80 Greek books were printed, all of them at Greek initiative. About half these books are publications by Adamantios Korais (1748-1833), possibly the greatest philologist and Adamantios thinker of modern Greece. Korais in Paris His authoritative editions of ancient authors, with significant improvements to the texts and extensive commentaries, are accompanied by long introductions in which matters relating to education, training and language are analysed and examined in the context of an intellectual consideration of national issues and an endeavour to raise morale. Korais worked with the printer F. Didot, and their collaboration resulted in the newly cut set of plain Didot characters, which finally put an end to the dynasty of ligatures characteristic of the Venetian typeface tradition ever since the time of Aldus. This font, with some modifications, is still in use today, despite all the technological innovations. Most of Korais's books were printed at the press of J.M. Eberhart. The editions of this period were financed mainly by Greek national benefactors, merchants from Russia such as the Zosimas brothers. Of the other Greek editions from the presses of Paris, it is worth noting the books of Panayiotis Kodrikas and the combative pamphlets that were part of the ideological resistance to the ideas of Adamantios Korais, and the publications of Grigorios Zalikoglou and Konstantinos Nikolopoulos, which were mostly editions of ancient authors. The literary journals Melissa (1819-1821), Athena (1819) and Museum (1819) were also published in Paris.

67

57. Adamantios Korais.

58.Ambroise Firmin-Didot (1790-1876).

Paris

33. MANUEL CHRYSOLORAS,

34. SOPHOCLES, Seven tragedies,

Erotemata, Paris, Gilles de Gourmont, 1512.

Paris, Simon de Collines, 1528.

This is the second Paris edition of Chrysoloras's Erotemata, the first having also been printed by Gourmont in 1507. It is the fourth book in chronological order printed by G. de Gourmont and marks the end of his collaboration with François Tissard.

1 '*. Γ

ο/ .

ΕΡΩΤΗΜΑΤΑ TOX ΧΡ^ΣΟΛαΡΑ·

The first edition of Sophocles' Tragedies was printed by Aldus Manutius in Venice, in 1502. The edition by Simon de Collines includes a parallel Latin translation of the tragedies for the first time; it was published a few years after the first edition accompanied by a commentary, which was printed by the Giunti family in Florence, in 1522. S. de Collines, who has the glory of having been the first to introduce into France the characters known as italics, which had been inspired by Aldus, was distinguished by his very elegant and authentic typographic genius. He published over fourteen Greek books: the first was Theodoras Gazis's translation, Traductio in Ciceronis, which appeared in 1502, the same year as the edition of Sophocles.

•tÌHHJt titU. JJoSll J3[\03Q jmoj, doi3fi 01J3JV L * . . » V \ " l ,, j | i

<£GrammaticaChryfoIorg.%

35. EUSEBIUS PAMPHILI, Ecclesiastical History, Paris, Robert Estienne, 1544.

59.Printer's mark of Robert Estienne, as printer to the king of France.

This book symbolises the coming into operation of the Greek press of the king of France, François I, and used characters cut by Claude Garamont on the basis of the handwriting of Angelos Bergikios - the famous grecs du roi. It also symbolises the beginning of Estienne's career as a printer and publisher of Greek books, which he continued in Geneva after leaving Paris. This book made use for the first time of some superb initial capitals and headpieces, which are thought to be the most elegant of the 16th century.

33

The edition was hymned by Charles Rousseau in an epigram in honour of Tissard, referring to him as the inspiration behind early Greek printing in Paris. Tissard's initiative in publishing Greek books was immediately received with flattering comments by the French court, too, and the duke of Valois himself, later François I, summoned Tissard to an audience, in order to enquire about his plans.

68

Sbphoclis tragœdi« ièptem«

Tragœdiaram nomina*

\ > >-, V ^ \ · ^ - * *

teìfoio* jti«ssi^^®- r Aiaxfiagéliiferr ; *" ν ·4^^-'^>^ κλίκτ^ Elettra« · ei^wacTiigoew©-« Oedipüs tyranœts* ά»αι>·όνιι4 Antigone,., ^ i i ^ W ç άθϊ κ·ολ&ν£, Oedipus colonêus* vçxjtmeu. Trachini^, <&λο«τ«7ϊ
'//cc?nœ/^ JdfSc>?tœ

r

69

Paris

36. New Testament, Estienne, 1546.

Paris, Robert

37. D I O CASSIUS, Roman History, Paris, Robert Estienne, 1548.

This is the first edition of the New Tes­ tament from Robert Estienne, and the first book printed with the second set of grecs du roi of Claude Garamont. This edition, and the re-publication of the New Testament in 1549, are known in bibliophile circles as the 'mirificam ', after

iTH2 i

KAINHS

*ΐ K H 2

First edition of Dio Cassius's Roman History, which covers the period from the foundation of Rome to AD 229. The surviving copies record the period from 68 BC-AD 54 and contain unique evidence relating to Claudius's invasion of Britain. Robert Estienne relied on the manuscript in the library of François I. The text, which is superbly printed using the famous grecs du roi, is accompanied by twenty-five pages containing Robert's emendations. Three years later, in 1551, Estienne published the editio princeps of the summary of Dio's History compiled by Ioannis Xiphilinos in the 11th century.

ΔΙΑΘΗ-

Α ΠΑΝΤ A

! Nouu m Teftamentum. ilX

EIBI.IOTHECA

REGIA

38. A N A K R E O N (Ankreonteia), Extracts from the Texan, Paris, [Guillaume Morel for], Henri Estienne, 1554.

BcttfA^V οίγχάω χΰουίρωτ aj%fwm. L V I Ε τ Ι ΑΕ. Exofficina Roberti Sttpbdm typogrdfbi M. &

X i V ί.

This edition is of great interest, from both a philological and a typographical point of view. When Henri Estienne printed the poems of Anakreon of Teos (6th c. BC), he believed, in common with his contemporaries, that he was publishing the lyric poems of Anakreon that were perhaps sung at the court banquet of the tyrant Polykrates of Samos. However, the text is merely that of the Anakreonteia, a collection of lyric poems in the style of Anakreon written at different periods, some as late as the 10th c. AD. This is the editio princeps, translated into Latin by Estienne himself, who had bought the manuscript in Louvain from

36

the first word of Estienne's prologue 60. Printer's mark addressed to King François I. In this of the Estiennes. prologue, Estienne refers to his appeal for a second set of Greek characters to be cut, so that he could publish works in pocket-book format. Robert Estienne's edition of the New Testament was reprinted in 1549 and served as a model for many other editors and printers who were supporters of the Reformation.

70

ΤΩΝ Δ Ι Ω Ν Ο Σ Ρ Ω Μ Α Ϊ Κ Ω Ν Ι Σ Τ Ο Ρ Ι Ω Ν Ε Ι Κ.Ο Σ Ι Τ Ρ Ι Α

ΒΙΒΛΙΑ.

DionisRomaiiarumhiftorittumlibri, χ χ ι ι ι, à χ.χ χ,·ν J ad I T I n vfquc.

EX Β I B L Ι Ο Τ H E C A R E G I A.

LVTETHTAE, _ Jt.JÌkrU Ex officina Rob.Srephani.Typographi•; Regii.typis Regiis. •..--•• M. D. XLVIIÌ.

'^Lcn

',r7

Ex priuilcgio Regis. , -, ' tnki]

/-η

38

71

40. ADAMANTIOS KORAIS, Works of Hippokrates and Galen, Paris, I. M. Eberhart, 1816.

Paris the Englishman John Clemens, a friend of Thomas More. The edition is distinguished by its great elegance. The poems are printed in Estiennes large font. The wide interlines and margins add considerable grace to the page layout. A series of epigrams by Anakreon, as well as the poems of Alkaios and a song by Sappho, were printed in the medium font, while the Latin comments and scholia, and the inserted Greek characters are in the smallest set in Estienne's repertoire.

This is a translation into Greek of the book by Korais that had been awarded a prize by the French University (1800). He added the Nomos of Hippocrates and the text of Galen. All these works, apart from that by Galen, appeared in improved French translations. The introduction is addressed 'to young Greeks studying medicine'. The review of ancient medicine and the references to the state of medicine in Greece, give Korais the opportunity for analyses and exhortations, observations and visions, on the improvement both of medical studies and of the terms under which medicine was practised. His comments are aimed at quacks and their arbitrary diagnoses.

39. ADAMANTIOS KORAIS, Forerunner of the Greek Library, Paris, F. Didot, 1805.

6I.Printer's mark of A. Firmin-Didot.

This is the first book to appear in the Greek Library, a series of publications with extensive introductions to the works of ancient Greek authors by Adamantios Korais. It is also the first book by Korais whose publication was financed by Greek merchants, the Zosimas brothers. This collaboration was to last until 1814, and produced eleven volumes. And the first Greek book using the newly cut Didot characters - the 'plain' characters' - designed according to Korais's wishes. The Forerunner of the Greek Library extends over 134 pages. It is followed by the special prologues devoted to each of the three authors, the edition of the text, and the dense scholia and indices. The polemic launched in the introduction against grammars and the scholastic teaching of language exercised a great influence on teaching methods, the composition of grammars, and anthologies of texts designed to aid language teaching.

4i. ADAMANTIOS KORAIS, Homer's Iliad, book III, Paris, I.M. Eberhart, 1818. Edition of books I-IV of the Iliad (1811, 1817, 1818, 1820) by Adamantios Korais, which was not included in the Greek Library series, and was published anonymously. The edition is accompanied by extensive scholia, but in place of the introduction are to be found four episodes (one for each volume) of a narrative whose hero is Papatrechas, a naïve priest from Volissos on Chios, who proves to be the most effective herald of the benefits of education. As K. Th. Dimaras notes: 'He is so artful, so skilful in singling out characteristic features, in isolating theridiculous,in outlining in

72

Paris

ΟΜΗΡΟΥ '->. ΙΑΙΑΔΟΣ ΡΑΨΩΔΙΑ Γ, MET' ΕΞΗΓΗΣΕΩΝ ΠΑΛΑΙΩΝ

ΕΚΔΟΣΙ2

ΚΑΙ ΝΕΩΝ.

ΒΟΑΙΣΣΙΑ.

ΕΝ ΠΑΡΙΣΙΟΙΣ, ΕΚ ΤΗΣ ΤΪΠΟΓΡΑΦΙΑΣ Ι. Μ, ΕΒΕΡΑΡΤΟΤ. SB

TROUVE,

CHEZ THEOPHILE BARROIS, PÉRE, LIIiRAÎRE, RUE HAUTEEEUILLE, N« ïS.

A Ώ 1 H, •

•-

•-,:•

•

62.Printer's mark of J. M. Eberhart. 41

a few phrases the form and thoughts of men, that he has succeeded in a few pages in creating a living figure of Greek literature; he is the first to create a

human type that has survived to the present day: Papatrechas. Modern Greek narrative prose begins with the work of a scholar.'

73

63. Printer 's mark of the Estiennes, in Plato, Complete Works, 1578.

74

GENEVA

Έhe history of Greek printing in Geneva begins with the Reformation and the

persecution of Luther's followers by the Catholics, which obliged a large num­ ber of intellectuals to move to different cities and countries that professed reli­ gious tolerance. In Geneva, about half a century after the impressive output of Greek books from the presses of Basel, refugee scholars of Italian, French, British, and Greek origins, pioneered the dissemination of Greek books to the Swiss public. Calvin himself, and above all his 'lieutenant', Théodore de Bèze, who was a Hellenist, helped to establish Greek as one of the basic courses in university education. In the middle of the 16th century, a major theological dispute had arisen as to what was the authentic language of the New Testament; those who asserted that it was Greek were persecuted and subjected to pressure by the Catholic countries. According to the view taken by the leaders of the Reformation, Greek was the authentic language of the New Testament and therefore the foundation of Christian faith. The art of printing made its first appearance in Geneva in 1478 and the first book published there was Le livre des Saints Anges by Adam Steinschaber de Schweinfurth. No Greek books were published from that time until 1551, when Robert Estienne came to live in Geneva. Estienne, the most famous printer of his day Ώ l·» rt T7 f . „ " in denevâ

m<

o n e

e

e s t

ever

^ °^ ^ ^ that lived, sought refuge in Geneva from persecution by the dons of the Sorbonne, for assert-

ing that the authentic text (dictated by the Holy Spirit) was written in Greek, a view that downgraded the Vulgata to the level of a translation, even though it was recognised as the only authentic text by the Catholic Church. When he came to Geneva, Estienne brought in his baggage printer's equipment from his Paris press, and also the famous characters known as grecs du roi, designed for the king of France, François I, on the basis of Angelos Bergikios's handwriting. Estienne placed this material at the disposal of Calvin, with the objective of

75

The bastion of Greek books supported by supporters of the Reformation

64. Calvin, portrait engraved under the supervision of de Bèze by Pierre II Woeriot, for J, Calvin. Recenil des opuscules. Geneva, 1566.

Geneva

65. Engraving of the famous printer Jacobus Stoer,from J. Fernet, Ambiani universa Medicina [Geneva], 1580.

achieving the ends of the Reformation and of disseminating Greek letters. However, Estienne was involved with editions of theological texts down to 1559, and did not continue the programme of Greek editions inaugurated by him in Paris. Robert Estienne was succeeded by his son, Henri, who settled in Geneva in 1555 and devoted himself for forty-three years to the publication of Greek literature. Henri Estienne published some monumental editions on his presses, such as the Complete Works of Xenophon (1561), the re-publication of the Anthology of Maximos Planudis (1566), the Medicae Artis Principes (1567) (which included the most important medical treatises by Greek, Roman and Byzantine writers, apart from those by Hippocrates and Galen), the Thesaurus linguae graecae(1572), the CompleteWorL· of Plato (1578), and many others. Henri's work was continued by his son, Paul, down to 1626. It may be noted at this point that a very important role was played in the dissemination of Greek language and literature in Geneva by the chair of Greek studies established at the Academy in 1559, the first teacher being François Berauld. In 1561, this chair was taken up by Francesco Porto, who was also active, until his death in 1581, at the presses of Estienne and Jean Crespin. Porto acquired a great reputation with the scholarly and theological circles of Geneva, since he was a personal friend of Calvin and his successors, men like Théodore de Bèze, of important philologists who worked as editors of Classical literature, and of writers. Alongside the Estiennes, another dynasty of printers that established itself in Geneva, having come there from Arras, was founded by Jean Crespin. The first Greek work printed by him was the monumental Greek-Latin dictionary: Lexica Graeca-latina, which appeared in 1554. Crespin's activJean Crespin printer ities were mainly directed towards theology and reliof Greek books gious propaganda, but since he knew Greek well, he also published Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus and many other works. His successors continued to publish Greek books down to the 17th century. These two printing houses were followed in the printing of Greek books by

76

Geneva

F R A N C I S C I P O R T I

C R Ε Τ E Ν S IS,

C O M M E N T A R I !

IN

Ρ Ι ΝDΑ ΚΓ

Olympia ^ fjthta^

timea^

AjpudToannem Syluîumv

j*»

66. Frontispiece of Francesco Porto, Commentarli in Pindari ... [Geneva], Jean des Bois (Sylvius), 1583.

.•

77

many other publishers and printers who resided in Geneva, such as Hieronymus Commelinus, Jean des Bois, Eustache Vignon and Jacobus Stoer. It should be noted, however, that printing in 16th-century Geneva was not a simple affair. Every book whose place of publication was given as Geneva was consigned to the flames by the Catholic countries. The Holy Inquisition in the Catholic countries had anathematised books print­ ed in Geneva, and they were also destroyed by the French in order to protect their own commercial presses, mainly those at Lyon. Accordingly, at this peri­ od the place of publication is not given as Geneva, so as to give the non-dog­ matic, cultured public of France the opportunity of buying these books, while taking refuge behind the alibi of ignorance as to their place of publication. Francesco Porto It is worth examining the person of Francesco Porto and his important philological work in greater detail. An emi­ nent Hellenist and one of the first Greek supporters of the Reformation, he came to Geneva after a long and fruitful career as a teacher in Catholic Italy, and soon proved himself to be a pil­ lar of support of humanist studies in Switzerland. Francesco was the scion of a Cretan family probably of Italian origin (Porto) which embraced the Catholic faith, though he himself was thor­ oughly Hellenised, and used to boast that he was Ά Greek by Race'. According to the evidence of Martin Krousios, he was born on 22 August 1511, at Rethymnon on Crete, where there indeed was a

78

family named Porto that was one of the Cretan noble houses. Recent research Geneva has shown, however, that his father Theophilos, who married his first wife Maria Dramytinou in 1508, is mentioned in many notary documents as an inhabitant of Exoporto (Burgo) in Candia; Candia was also the home of his grandfather, who had the same name, Francesco Porto, was 'artium et medicinae doctor ', and was probably the writer of an obsequious letter to Pope Leo X shortly after the latter's ascent to the throne (1513). It is conceivable, therefore, that Francesco was born not in Rethymnon, but in the Cretan capital, Candia. According to the testimony of Ioannis Zygomalas, who was his fellow-pupil, he attended courses in the Péloponnèse given by the famous Hellenist Arsenios Apostolis, the archbishop of Monemvasia (1524-1535). This circumstance (which should be placed between the beginning of 1524 and the end of 1525, when Francesco left for Venice) accounts for his fine philological training, and allows us to suppose that his father detected his son's leanings towards Classical letters and thought it wise to send him out of the island, first to a famous teacher and thereafter to Venice. By coincidence, Arsenios also settled in Venice, from 1527 until his death in 1535. We have no information as to how or where in Italy Francesco spent the next ten years of his adolescence and early manhood (1526-1536); what is certain is that during this time he perfected his knowledge of Greek and Latin. At the beginning of 1536, 67. Engraving of Geneva, made in Francesco Porto, a mere 1655 for the printer twenty-five years old, was Pierre Chovet.

79

Geneva

68. Sixteenth-century printing press, from the printer's mark of Conrad Badius.

69. Printer's mark of Jean Crespin.

appointed public professor of the Greek language at Modena, with an annual salary of 300 liras. He served in this post for ten years, to the end of 1545, when he was invited to Ferrara. In the small, yet flourishing town of Modena, which had only recently been reattached to the duchy of Ferrara, some of the scholars and friends of Greek literature, such as Giovanni Grillenzoni and Lodovico Castelvetro, had already founded an 'Academy' on the model of other Italian towns. Here scholars gathered to discuss, read and criticise their own literary efforts. Porto, who was the second teacher of Greek literature in Modena, began his lessons in the large hall of the Government House on 1st February 1536, in the presence of the duke of Ferrara, Hercule II d'Esté (1534-1559), the son of Lucretia Borgia, and before a select audience. The teaching of the young professor was a great success, and he attracted a large audience, mainly of young people, not only from Modena, but also from neighbouring towns. His contemporaries described him as 'a man of excellent character, more educated than all those of his age in Greek and Latin literature'. At the same rime, he also gave private lessons and became one of the most active members of the Academy'. In Modena, he married an Italian woman named Ioanna and acquired at least his first two children here, to whom he gave the ancient names Hermodoros and Xenophon. When the Academy of Modena began to show sympathy for the Reformation, however, it became suspect in the eyes of the court of Rome. Pope Paul III was the first to attempt to excommunicate the Academicians, who were regarded as mainly responsible for the spread of Calvinist ideas in the town; later, as a compromise solution, they were obliged to sign a confession of faith before three of the cardinal's emissaries. This document was signed on 1st September 1542, by the higher clergy, the nobles and the notables of the town, and by virtually all the Academicians. Francesco Porto, one of the first to be accused, not without reason, as a Calvinist, had left Modena just before this date, having

80

Geneva

70. Luther in his library, seventeenthcentury engraving.

81

Geneva

71. Portrait of Theodore de Bèze, from Poemata, Geneva, 1548.

decided to go to Crete to visit his sick father. He returned to the town on 9 September, however, saying that he had cancelled his journey. He was then permitted, though only after strenuous efforts, to sign the confession, and therefore received permission to continue his lectures. This was the first time that Porto, under pressure and in order to escape the Holy Inquisition, signed a document that went against his conscience. The situation deteriorated from day to day. The Academy closed down. He had no other course but to flee. By good fortune, Duke Hercule II d'Esté, seeking to bestow greater glory on the University of Ferrara, invited Porto to take up the post of teacher of 'the Greek orators and poets', with an annual salary of 400 liras. Hercule's wife, and daughter of Louis XII, the king of France, the famous Renée de France, at this time kept the most brilliant court in Italy, which offered a welcome to liberal minds and supporters of the Reformation; she entrusted Porto with the task of teaching Latin to her two daughters, the princesses Lucretia and Eleonora d'Esté, at a three-monthly salary of 205 liras. However, the pro-Calvinist activities of the duchess Renata, who welcomed and protected all supporters of the Reformation and those who suffered persecution (Calvin himself Ve« itili <Ιοβ< prompte ftmpo» Um: Mi fdtis tfiilUm utltctitfffcmmii. visited her in 1536 and later became f $ her confessor), began to become a source of disquiet to her husband, and to incur the criticism of the Roman court. Under the influence of the Jesuits, who settled in Ferrara from 1547 on, and under the pressure of Rome, the duke, who had hitherto shown tolerance towards the supporters of the 'heresy' protected by his wife, began to adopt a harsher attitude. At the instigation of the Jesuit monk Jean Pelletier, who kept Ignatius Loyola directly informed about Renée 's activities, the duke removed from his environment all his wife's favourites who were suspected of 'heretical' activities. Amongst them was Francesco Porto, who was dismissed from the University (9 March 1554) and was obliged to depart almost immediately with his two older sons, leaving the rest of his family and his extensive library behind in Ferrara. He arrived in Venice on 28 March.

82

At this point, Porto's 'Venice adventure' begins: he led four years of a semilegal life until he was arrested, interrogated, and tried by the Holy Inquisition of Venice (1558). He then spent three years in exile, a life of wandering and uncertainty, until he came to Geneva in 1561. In 1562, Porto established his large family in rooms made available to him by the Academy, and took care to marry off and provide dowries for his two daughters, Anna (1564) and Lucretia (1579). His two sons, Xenophon (1569) and Aimilios (1576), who followed his father's profession and was also a Hellenist, also married in Geneva. Francesco's wife, Ioanna, died in 1574 and he then married for the second time. Despite all these financial and family distractions, the fact that he had finally settled in the secure, austere environment of Geneva enabled him to work without further distraction and to be very productive, which proved to be of benefit to Classical studies. This final period of his life, the two decades 1561-1581, was more creative than all the previous ones. He taught Greek literature with success at Calvin's Academy, and became the colleague and friend of Calvin himself and of his successor Théodore de Bèze. He printed editions of Greek authors or commentaries on them, collaborated with the most important researchers, editors and printers of Greek books in Geneva, revised texts and dictionaries, composed and printed ancient epigrams to famous individuals, maintained correspondence with eminent European scholars, and even printed apologetic essays in support of the views of the Reformation. According to the astute comment of Emile Legrand, 'the presses of Geneva printed virtually no work relating to Greek studies without Porto having some (large or small) part in it! When Francesco Porto died, on 5 June 1581, he left Greek studies on a solid foundation in Geneva. He was succeeded at the Academy by his pupil, the leading humanist Isaac Casaubon, and his work as a printer was continued by his son, Aimilios, who later taught in the Academy at Lausanne and the University of Heidelberg.

Geneva

72.Printer's mark of the house of Chovët.

83

42. Poetae Graeci principes heroic carminis..., 5th volume [Geneva], Henri Hestienne, 1566.

to bankruptcy. The idea of publishing the Thesaurus was conceived by his father, Robert, who had also published the Thesaurus linguae latinae (1543). The compilation of the Thesaurus was largely the work of Guillaume Bude, who had devoted himself to gathering material for a thesaurus since 1522. The provisional texts were used for his edition of the Commentant linguae graecae (1529). Henri Estienne's Thesaurus was not compiled in the traditional manner of dictionaries and encyclopaedias, with the words arranged in alphabetical order, but had entries classified according to their etymological roots. The Thesaurus did not enjoy the same good fortune as the rest of Henri's publications. The bulky size of the book and therefore the cost, particularly after the ten years of preparation, imposed a selling price that made it inaccessible to scholars. This, combined with the political upheaval following the St Bartholomew Massacre, which coincided in time with its publication, led Henri into a financial impasse. Estienne worked on the publication of the Thesaurus from 1558, under the supervision of his father, and three years later acquired exclusive rights, awarded to him by King Charles IX. When Henri lost the financial support of Ulrich Fugger, the banker from Augsburg, he was obliged to have recourse to the rulers of Europe for assistance.

In 1566, Henri Estienne placed on the market in Frankfurt (probably on the occasion of the spring book fair), the finest book he ever printed. It was a large-format (folio) edition of about one thousand five hundred pages, which contained first and foremost the Iliad and the Odyssey, and also the other poems attributed to Homer. Henri did not confine himself to the earlier editions, but restored many dubious passages with excessive severity. He consulted all eighteen previous editions and one manuscript - Vetustissimum Exemplar (a very old copy) - on which he placed very great weight, and which is now in the Public Library of Geneva. Essentially, then, this is a critical edition that forms a landmark in the study of the Homeric poems. The second volume of this monumental publication contained the poems of other great poets of antiquity, such as Hesiod, Callimachus, Theognis, and Theocritus, and also the Orphic poems and the Golden Verses attributed to Pythagoras.

43. HENRICUS STEPHANUS, Thesaurus linguae graecae, 5th volume [Geneva], Henri Estienne, 1572. The Thesaurus linguae graecae is, alongside the edition of Plato, the most important publication produced by Henri Estienne, and an irreplaceable tool for the study of the Greek language. The work had a disastrous effect on Estienne, however: it certainly won him eternal glory in intellectual circles, but it also led him

44. P L A T O , Opera Omnia,3 volumes [Geneva], Henricus Stephanus, 1578. Despite the fact that a Latin translation of Plato's works was published by Marsilio Ficino as early as 1484-85 and the

84

3ft-fl<7

ΘΗΣΑΥΡΟΣ ΤΗΣ •ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ

FAÌÌ22H2,

Τ Η S Ì AV-RV S· G R A E C A E L I N G VAE,

<^ib Henrico Stephano conßmölus. t f o j O P R 1 T E R ALIA ΡL V R ΙΜ λ qua: primus pra:ftiqit,.( paterna: ìnThefauro Latino diligentia: œmulusjvocabula in certas claiTes diitribuit,mul~ tiplici deriüatorum ferie ad primigenia, tanquam ad radi-. ces vndepuil,uJant,reuücata. , T H E S A ' V R V S LECTORI, ' Nunc alii intrepide valigia noftra fequantur: educe plana \ u d ì qua: lakbiofa fu

A-liΨ

"^

A N N O M. D. L X X I I , excudebatHenr.Stephanus.

c ' y M P R I V I L E G I O C M S. M A I E S Τ AT I S , E T . C H R I S T I A N I S S. G A L LIARVM REGIS.

V 43

85

Geneva

•I L:A;T Ο N-IS, Α . . Ρ Λ rsfpeétâns.

ï.::oÎit.iSt;";iïj;ri:ita!qur'-;

•tl ίλΐγ,Μ im W K I Ï . τφαΛυί

(AipL.jtm-j l'An

Id'jLìiiiitriin oblirui.

ray'-) otijii iippiV.tsr. ,ϋίίΛι-

j ^ l ^ i l e T M é V i ^ ^ m ^ mA*tt»wiS^u- ί

••.'.'•

•riuyiJU^umii.niJanu.Hi.i.quà^™';^;; •-·'•':i rtjot)ticriniy 1 dili(ÌHittr :fcai.ftrri>i::)i,lli)a,i,!dli.-L-i)iiiiiCi.]:iJt:f!url· i,'."'."" •jiiÙmvjlMffl. Quoti .'ti!f m ir.iniir.,· Ί..ί

e.

pnau.it ciiÌi rfi",il- filins lJl.lll::"îJÎeï ΙΤΙ-;Μ-ΛΛj^iHJTWaÎiUJiiUÎTnTiyiT). 6ΐ//«ώ*ΑΐΚΓ.· • c i ò r c i p u jiii'ttil^l[iuòt!fp;tn:iiti;inur. ybiprimùmàvnbiijjilitidiira p h n i m fpiusìuriipfriiriiiìlidvwòtìmninm iiiiiii :

VliumcilulipiJiicriìiflÌlT.a. N'iiiìurfÌfUÌn; «c d.aerfcrol&P ΛΛίίΚί iicitjLw • Λμ

ôfuit

ii'/iia/Uu^Tuät

\ '

t*?!i.'it.i.utiitiij3luf(itS

. • Α > -

•Όπ-

1

m .Vil .i-. !.λ ι'-ίί Ί-·-. Ρ·-;!-:.: di: '.:.'; ils ίί.ι,.,η) i .uu-W ^TOW,«SLrtytiA3kjrr$>itWnvfi&f

âio-

lurrm i-Jìl- pie Flit ir. Ai.|tliil[i . iiucmzd::!(iilum-..l.rfU\i.:nlv t i il: |·ιι, , Ν^ιΐΜΓ!«ιι per loiitni. Afbt nic-'.i,d';j.u!--' w "' t " • 11:111.1 vttboruι»ftrun-:i.liύπιτ-.j ornali'tu'

r.amsi'crrijoi-.n.uidiìfis. AEqiM fiihciïS:' iufladTf crcìo ci i|i!sfa::i.ii:': I irLi! i i;.-ii.ti·:

s^è*«éA«w--'^î4^'*',aîna''-^Vlr**. • ÄiUinljUflip "^TiAojii^trcu JV UÎIÇ'Éia^et A Ê -

i >4' W ά *5Spf rji ÎW'ÎSJ",>Î<«HÇO», (lia J• iU9t οίπιΆοΙ (ûflUMOI, (M aJAe^l ) f l j r o J O Ü -

CÌ- >u-{yì ir^jhuVhi

Jllutqïiiii/nitf.ti'Çy|>'jc>

!ii>f>(5fyiJ(ìrMnii6Ìit/J(U"7u.(/-nr ( »i 1 -,·,'-: ï ; tUÎ V^4>-f i i JEIÎÎ, Λΐξίωί. i l i l Ç , S u j O i £ i ' W ' :

.•;i ΕΙ :> i'xtJ^" •;? Cwv^f i', 1 ·- .V-^.'-'-'.r^.o*

v:!lriinplrl-i<:iinì;L : i;
1 i-jii;:-:-ulïÎ ΟΡ.-Λ;Ο , numi pilli

ilili.vi il) Wiiiiii-'iiii flirtili! • g ç m r t i c c n d i p h i i i l i i n p c t c g t i n u i : AEtjuèi)

44

74. Printer 's mark of Jacques Stoer.

edztìo princeps of the original, edited by Markos Mousouros, appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius in 1513, we have to wait for 1578 for the publication of the most reliable Greek and Latin edition of Plato's writings. Henri Estienne, who undertook the task in Geneva, informs us in his prologue that the edition aspired to be worthy of Plato himself and also of the history of his own press. This period was a particularly dramatic one for his publishing house, which had been ruined financially by the publication of the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (which appeared six years earlier), and also suffered from the embargo placed on Protestant Geneva by the Catholic states. This obliged Estienne to follow labyrinthine routes to channel his books to the international market in Frankfurt.

86

For the Latin translation of the text, Henri Estienne did not content himself with the one that already existed, but assigned to Jean de Serres the task of translating Plato's works de novo. De Serres did not approach the texts with the 'piety' demanded, and his continuous quarrels with Estienne eventually led to the lawcourts. In his letter to the reader, Estienne supplies valuable information on the reconstitution of the texts and the history of the publication: he collated his manuscripts with the edition of Aldus Manutius (1513) and that of Basel (1536 and 1566), and for the Laws, also took into account the Louvain edition (1531), while at the same time consulting all the available manuscripts. In cases where the solution to textual problems could not be found in the manuscript tradition, he decided to have resort to conflation, though always at a secondary level ("εις δεύτερον πλουν"). Being aware of the dangers involved in conflation, mainly because it 'blinds' those who attempt it, he did not incorporate his conclusions in the text, but inserted them in marginal scholia (or at the end of the volume), adding the necessary explanations. Despite the fact that the Latin translation by Jean de Serres did not reach the stan­ dards of the publication, and was indeed never reprinted, his exemplary concern to reconstitute the text gave Estienne the prestige that surrounded his name. Henri Estienne's Plato is of great typographical interest, in that it is the most elegant edition of his work. Quite apart from the original woodcut on the title page, with his printer's sign, and the variety of the initial letters, it is the only book in which Estienne used a complete series of headpieces.

45. New Testament Aubert], 1638.

1633 and the necessary proof-reading remained unfinished. Accordingly, since it had not yet been decided which was the appropriate press at which to print it, the edition was postponed from year to year, particularly as it had proved impossible to find a suitable, competent proof-reader of Greek education. In the end, Bredorode, the Dutch ambassador in Basel, and the Geneva printer Pierre Aubert, signed a contract in 1636, envisaging the printing of 1,500 copies. In this book, the ancient Greek text was printed alongside the Modern Greek translation. The edition is distin­ guished by its meticulous typographical appearance, use being made of the fonts of Henri Estienne that had presumably come into Aubert's possession. Aubert's printer's mark is identical with that of Aldus Manutius: an anchor with a dol­ phin wrapped around the shaft. The date recorded in the edition is based on the Herodian number system.

[Geneva, Pierre

This is the first edition of the translation of the New Testament from ancient Greek into the koine. A plan to translate the New Testament is known as early as 1620, when the patriarch, Cyril Loukaris, charged one Gabriel with the task of translating the New Testament and John

ΕΥΑΓΓΕΛΙΟΝ Τ.ΟΎ ΪΗΣΟΥ ΧΡΪΣΤΟΤ ΚΑΤΑ ΜΑΤΘΑΙΟΝ. Αΐί^νηχβϊ. KfipitAajw

New. α.

Ι&ΙΒΛΟΣ £§"$ euuX&tçou, I v i ψ ΔΛΟΑ

3

^

ΙΒΛΙΟΝ

t

it

$"£H#«™* S «ri?«.- T.AM»r.if. . ÉSS ' ^ , £ φ τα ά~ ί 3

Λ »" ί

.

> ..ιτ|].)

Λ*ϊ»7*χ«β. ίΛκ«β 3 6-

ι. Κ'βζγΛρ

ίγπππι

τον

κταΰοΐ. * è ο' WOfitx kywwn

;

.

το* ictîcfoC * è li iaiuSßej'Smi- , (TÉ rè* Ìoy'/»p )^ -pvç

άιΝλφύί

w

Geneva

•TO* itrfa/u._ iaçtifj, 3t'$LW

4 A ^ U - ^ . - S ^ K J Ï -τ ..::

Α

"

Chrysostom's commentary on the Bible for the Christians of Ukraine. The delicate and exacting task of translation was finally undertaken by the monk Maximos Rhodios from Kallipolis who, with the assistance of the pastor Antoine Leger, Meletios Vlastos and other, unknown helpers, brought the original plan for the translation to com­ pletion on 20/30 March 1631. Unhappily, Maximos Rhodios died on 24 September

7'5. Printer s mark of JoJin and Ezaïe Le Preux.

87

.

·

.

-

•

«:-·

76. Ioannis Argyorapoulos teaching in the Catholic Museum . (University of Constantinople in the years before the fall of the city): codex Barocci 87, fol. 33v (Bodleian Library).

88

CONSTANTINOPLE

A highly important chapter in the history of Greek publishing relates to the struggle by the Orthodox Church to counter the propaganda of the Catholic Church, and to make its own views known on matters arising out of the policy pursued by Western states with regard to the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It also sought to give publicity to its views on the theological and doctrinal questions advanced from time to time by leading figures of the Church in the West and the East. The systematic endeavours by the Vatican to impose the primacy of the Holy See on the whole of Christendom and to proselytise Orthodox Christians everywhere date, in effect, from the time of the Council of Ferrara-Florence (14371439), which marked the last opportunity to bridge the chasm dividing the Eastern and Western Churches. Despite the fact that the Byzantine state officially agreed to the unification of the two Churches (Florence, 6 July 1439), it was rejected by the populace of Constantinople and many senior members of the clergy. Nevertheless, throughout the 16th century, the eminent Byzantine intellectuals and scholars who migrated to Italy maintained a pro-unification stance, either for political and religious reasons, or purely order to survive, though divectly involved in humanist intelectual life. The leader of the supporters of unification was Cardinal Bessarion who was almost proclaimed pope in two elections, and who gave expression to the concept of 'Byzantium after Byzantium', in all his political and spiritual actions, at the same time playing a leading role in the dissemination of Platonism to the West. From the Ottoman invasion of Europe in the middle of the 16th century, however, down to the collapse of the power of the sultans, the Orthodox clergy acquired a completely different importance for Westerners, as the only Christian institution in the Ottoman empire that had a sophisticated, legitimate organisation and was able to influence its flock in a variety of ways. In a situation where the centre of the conflict between the West and the Ottoman empire had shifted to Southeastern Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean, the Orthodox clergy played a key role in the gathering of information and the creation of a communications network, in order to organise an internal front. Not only did various political circles attempt to enter into relations with the prelates of the Orthodox Church, but the governments of great states assigned to Greek clerics, working mainly in Venice, special missions to gather military information regarding the Aegean, often under the pretext of collecting manuscripts.

89

The Patriarchal Press and the efforts to combat theological views and ideologies

Constantinople

77. Cardinal Bessarion, engraving from J. B. Schioppalalba, Disserta tio i perantiguam tabulam Graecam, Venice, Modestus Foutius, 1716.

90

The proclamation of Cyril Loukaris as Ecumenical Patriarch in 1620, his policy and career, and the fact that the patriarchal throne was occupied for the first time by a prelate who had come under the influence Cyril Loukaris of Calvin, encouraged Western politicians and eccleagainst the Catholics siastical officials to turn their attention to the Phanar. Loukaris had become closely acquainted with the proselytising methods of the Vatican before he ascended to the patriarchal throne, since in 1593 he had been sent as exarch to Poland by his mentor Meletios Pigas, then patriarch of Alexandria. His mission was to avert the union of the Orthodox Ukrainians and White Russians with the Catholic Church. Although Loukaris failed to achieve his aim in Poland, he supported the Orthodox Christians and a group who called themselves the 'Brotherhood' of Leontopolis (the small town of Lvof on the border between Poland and the Ukraine), in their efforts to found a press with the aim of printing Orthodox ecclesiastical and school books. An important role in the working of this press was played by Arsenios, the archbishop of Elasson (c. 1549-1625). His publishing output consisted of about five booklets, amongst which were a Grammar (1591) and a treatise by Meletios Pigas, In support of Christian Piety (1593). The 'Brotherhood' press functioned from 1591 to 1594. From the moment that Loukaris ascended the papal throne he attempted to found a Greek press with the aim of supporting the education of the higher clergy. Since he was one of the best-read men of his day, he understood the significance of schools, universities and libraries, on the European model of education, the absence of which meant that the higher clergy were afflicted by a lack of culture to the point that many of them did not even know the liturgy. His correspondence with the archbishop of Cambridge, George Abbot was designed to secure the enrollment of pupils with a gift for theology in British universities. As part of Loukaris's project, a well-educated cleric from Kephallonia, Nikodimos Metaxas, travelled to England about 1620 in order to learn the printer's art. In England, Metaxas not only studied at some of the

91

Constantinople

78. Patriarch Cyril Loukaris, engraving published in Collectanea, 1707.

Constantinople

INO Ρ OL

9. Cenerai vieil' of Constantinople ioidi f'eraa and Calatile in the foreground and the Bosporos. dividing eastern from European Turkey. In the baekgrohind arc scontar and ecclesiastical inomnncnls of Constantinople. Engraving ley Johann Friedlich Trabst

93

Constantinople

INOPOL

79. General view of Constantinople with Peran and Galatas in the foreground and the Bosporos, dividing eastern from European Turkey. In the backgroiund are secular and ecclesiastical monuments of Constantinople. Engraving by Johann Friedrich Probst.

93

Constantinople

80. Cornelius Haga, ambassador in Constantinople of the United Low Countries. Oil painting by an anonymous painter of the 17th-century Dutch school. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

famous presses of London, but at the same time procured the necessary printing equipment to form an independent press. He produced his first effort at publication in London in 1625, entitled Biblion Orthu Logon. In June 1627, Metaxas left London on the ship Royal Defence, bound for Constantinople, accompanied by two assistant printers and bringing with him boxes of books, a press, characters, and other decorative The first Greek press material. With the support of Patriarch Loukaris and in Constantinople the British and Venetian ambassadors, he managed to secure a permit to set up a press in Constantinople. The same year, 1627, the newly founded press produced its first book, which is also the first Greek book to be printed in the East, entitled: Brief treatise concerning the Jews, by the Ecumenical Patriarch Cyril. This publishing enterprise, however, was not destined to succeed, since it was a source of annoyance to all those opposed to Loukaris and his policy. Led by the Jesuits, the French ambassador, and the Catholics in general - who feared that the patriarch would spread Calvinist ideas in the East - the Turks, at the orders of the Kaimakami, invaded Metaxas's house on 22 June 1628, confiscated the press, the books and the rest of the material, and arrested the staff. Thanks to his British nationality, Metaxas escaped further consequences, but was deported, after all his printing equipment had been returned to him on condition that he would remove it from Constantinople. One of Loukaris's projects of a wider educational character was his translation of the New Testament into modern Greek. He had also himself written a catechism in the demotic language. His initiative with regard to the New Testament was effectively supported by the ambassador of the Low Countries in Constantinople, Cornelius Haga, and the difficult task of translation was undertaken by the monk Maximos Rodios of Kallipolis, aided by others. The translators had completed their work by the beginning of 1632, and at the end of this year or the beginning of the next, Loukaris prepared the prologue for the edition. Nevertheless, and despite the fact that Haga intervened with the Dutch gov-

94

ernment to secure its promise to finance the publication of the New Testament, publication was delayed by the difficulty of finding a suitable Hellenist to under­ take the proof-reading. The book was finally published in Geneva in 1638 by the printer Pierre Aubert, in 1,500 copies that are distinguished by their highly tasteful printing. A major theological issue arose in Christian circles as the result of another initia­ tive taken by Patriarch Loukaris: the writing of his Confession, which he intend­ ed to print at Metaxas's press in Constantinople. This work rp,,
95

Constantinople

81. Constantinople, engraving of the 16th century showing the main monuments. D = Ayia Sophia and L — the Ecumenical Patriarchatge. Athens. Gennadios Library.

Constantinople

82. Frontispiece of the Confession of Faith by Patriarch Loukaris, from the Amsterdam edition, 1629.

the Orthodox Church. The reactions also had a political character, however, since the edict of Alais in 1629 had brought to an end the long period of religious wars in France: with the victory of Catholicism. The acceptance or rejection of the authenticity of the text provided the corresponding interpretation of Loukaris's real intentions and aspirations. That is, whether or not he was really a victim of political pressure from the Protestant side, with the only way to 'preserve' Orthodoxy from the Vatican and its proselytising propaganda being to entrust it to the 'embrace' of Geneva. Before the creation of the first independent press in Constantinople, by which the Orthodox Church acquired a voice, there were two attempts to run a patriarchal press towards the end of the „....„ ••• 18th century. These, however, were connected rather with specifLA; ic circumstances and the initiatives CONFESSION of particular patriarchs, and did DE ΡΟΥ DES EGLISES · not represent a decision taken by Chreftiennes Grecques ou Orientales. the Phanar to create a patriarchal , Tar le tres-reuerend Patriarche de Conftantinocîe, au nom de tous les CenduBeurs défaites Bglifes. ' publishing house. The first of them derived from Traduitfidellemencdu Latin Imprimé à Cmîkn. tiittfle au, (sois de Mars 162% the decision by some of the Catholics in Galatas to embrace the Orthodox faith. The patriarch Cyril V demanded that they be baptised Ί again, and this provoked a very sharp reaction by the Orthodox and Catholic officials, which led to Cyril's dethronement in May 1751. vs. In the context of this dispute, and four Pierre de !ä Tornbeidemeuiant fur le· with the return of Cyril to the DsmàlaBiblefWnçoyfe. ι«*?· patriarchal throne in 1752, four books were published in Constantinople in the space of two years (1756-1757), under the guidance of the patriarch himself. The first is entitled Booklet against the Latins (1756) and the other three have titles connected with the problem of baptism, e.g. Castigation ofBaptism. Little is known of the press on which these books were printed, and we are completely ignorant of the names of the printers. It may be conjectured that patriarchate circles turned to Armenian printers who had maintained publishing houses in Constantinople since 1576, and that these supplied the characters used to print Patriarch Cyril's editions. A few years later, in 1763, Samuel I ascended to the patriarchal throne and

96

sought to establish a patriarchal press. The first fruits of this endeavour appeared Constantinople in 1764 - a Psalterion in Karamanlidika (Turkish written with Greek characters) in 1768, and the Orders of Holy Matrimony, which is dated to 1769. The press founded by Samuel was set up in the Phanar, just behind the patriarchal church of St George and the complex of the archives and library. The printer is said to be Panayiotis Kyriakidis of Constantinople. A patriarchal press, as an official instrument of the patriarchal throne, was founded at the end of the 18th century and operated until the early decades of the 19th century. We do not know precisely when or in what circumstances the leadership of the Orthodox " Church took this decision. However, the initiative was probably connected with the innovative ideas of the Neohellenic Enlightenment, the heretical views of Voltaire and the French Revolution (the Porte brought pressure to bear on patri -

83.Printer's mark of the Patriarchal Press.

archal circles to reject these), and with the attempts of some Greek scholars to advance views on language and religion to which the conservative circles of the Church found themselves diametrically opposed. Whatever the case, the decision to found a patriarchal press was taken by Gregorios V, an ardent supporter of the improvement of education for the subjugated Greeks, during the first period of his patriarchate (1797-1798). The press did not enjoy a smooth history and from time to time fell into decline, as a result both of the indifference towards it of some circles in the Patriarchate, and of the general conditions prevailing in Constantinople regarding printing, publishing and book-distribution. According to the founding enactment, the necessary capital was collected from private individuals close to the Phanar, and the task of printing was assigned to Ioannis Pogos, an Armenian printer of Constantinople. At the same time, let-

97

Constantinople

ters of recommendation were sent to the other Orthodox patriarchates and dioceses, relating to the measures that needed to be taken with regard to the distribution of the Patriarchate's publications in the regions under Ottoman rule, and the restriction of other Greek printed matter in the area of their jurisdiction. The first work to be printed at the new press, in 1798, is possibly the Encyclical to the inhabitants of the Ionian islands by the patriarch Gregorios V, though this has the same date as three other publications, including the Christian Apology of v Athanasios Panos. .f-~"~- ~-~& ~ß- " -~ — ~~

Despite the ambitious plans "*,°"· = : '•^"^•^:^^^0^^^^iu entertained for the patriarchal "ZIP. -~ --"*-— —- "•• jg~ _ press, from which a significant number of publications appeared during the first three years of its operation, it was underused after the departure of Gregorios V (1798) and particularly after 1801. After that time, the press encountered serious problems and a series of firmans had to be issued by the sultan, confirming its operation and strengthening its competitiveness by banning the importing of foreign books, though these had little effect. When Cyril VI came to the patriarchal throne in May 1813, he observed that the press had been abandoned. In collaboration with the Synod, the wardens and the Greek notables he undertook a new initiative. The decision was taken to contract out the operating of the press to two private individuals close to the Patriarchate, who held titles in the Great Church of Christ: Konstantinos Koressios and Alexandras Argyramos. The results of this move made themselves apparent as early as 1815, when the press became very active once more. Five years later, however, in 1820, Koressios decided to leave, since the press was facing serious financial problems arising out of the grandiose project to publish the Ark of the Greek lan-

98

"-'•"5^<

guage, which commenced in 1816, though the first volume was not completed until 1820. This new turmoil, which occurred in the final years before the Greek Uprising, and the sharpening of relations between patriarchate circles and the pioneers of the Neohellenic Enlightenment, resulted in the patriarchal press being given a new role. It was to be freed of the bonds of the official Church and become the publishing centre f '*-. 'r"-.,.:.i:: r>frJ&PZt--.-«**—··——:~-- —• 0 f the Greek Nation. Its publications now bear the indication At the Greek press of the Nation' The ratification of its new name and the change of orientation of its publications coincide with the third term of office of Gregorios V, and the most critical period in the history of the Ecumenical Patriarchate since the Fall of Constantinople (1453). The upheaval created in Constantinople by the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence (1821) was attended by persecutions of the Greek population of the city, and the Turks invaded the press and destroyed most of its equipment. The press remained closed for fully ten years, and by the time it began to operate again, the independent state of Greece state had been founded. This in turn led to a change in the role played by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, which had hitherto been the only 'free' institution of the Greeks of the diaspora.

99

Constantinople

84, The monastery of St Gerasimos at Mala on Kephlonia, where the press of N. Metaxas may have been set up.

Constantinople 46. T H E O P H I L O S KORYDAL E U S , Essay on Rhetoric, don, William Starsby, 1625.

48. Castigation of Baptism [Con­ stantinople], 1756.

Lon­

This book was printed at the initiative of the patriarch Cyril V himself, against the background of the turmoil caused amongst the faithful by the baptism of Catholics into the Orthodox faith. The patriarch Cyril had demanded that some of the Catholics of Galatas should be re-baptised, and this provoked a strong reaction amongst not only the Orthodox but as well among the Catholics that ultimately led to his dethronement in May 1751. The Castigation of Baptism was pub­ lished for a second time in 1758. This edition was funded by the Kykkou Monastery on Cyprus, printed in Leipzig by Johann Gottlieb, Emmanuel Preitkopf and edited by Seraphim of Pisidia.

First and only independent edition of the Essay on Rhetoric by the Athenian philosopher Theophilos Korydaleus. The work is not a general theory of rhetoric but is designed, as the author himself notes in his prologue, to express certain parts of political discourse in the inter­ ests of clarity. The book was probably printed by Korydaleus's pupil Nikodimos Metaxas, during the period he spent in London (1622/3-1626) with a view to founding the first patriarchal press in Constantinople.

47. GREGORIOS PALAMAS, Apodeicttc Speeches [London, Niko­ dimos Metaxas, 1626-1627].

85. Printer's mark of Ivan Fedorov. tit

atç'iw »φβί ììvtH,

ΓΐΛίντιμ

μη

fafw.

This is the first book published by Nikodimos Metaxas in London. It was printed at the press of William Jones and bears his characteristic printer's mark, which is accompanied by the saying Floreat in aeternum. The edition includes three treatises; from the Apodeictic Speeches by Gregorios Palamas it contains the Constitution of Georgios Scholarios, also known as Onhodox Reluge, and the Dialogue of Maximos Margounios, Bishop of Kythera. The edition opens with a dedication in the form of a letter addressed to the Ecumenical Patriarch Cyril, to Gerasimos of Alexandria, to Athanasios of Antiochia and to Theophanes of Jerusalem. The texts contained in it defend the Ortho­ dox position against the Catholics.

100

49. SAMUEL CHANTZERIS, Patriarch of Constantinople, Orders of Holy Matrìmony, Constantinople, Panayiotis Kyriakidis Vyzantios, 1767. This is the fifth and final book known to have come from the second press in Constantinople (1756-1767), which operated within the spirit of the Patriarchate and was the product of the doctrinal dispute surrounding the Anabaptists. The small output of three books in 1756, when Cyril V, was patriarch, is associated with this dispute. The patriarch Samuel I delivered two speeches and issued two related encyclicals 'against those who take women for money and make a trade and profit of

mBgmmgmmgg^mgmgagmeÊBaa

ΓΕίΐΡΓΓΟΥ τ σ τ Pl'OX

Constantinople

ΣΧΟΛΑ;

TO' Σ Ϊ ' Ν Τ Α Γ Μ Α :

"ΟΡΘΟΔΟ'ΑΟΧ

ΚΑΤΑΦϊ'πΟΐί,

Ta ϋςεξον fycfjSpaTevzêiit Μονχχν. τμήμα πς£^ν.(φλiffô αίτίίβΐι S" '%ί<τρύ&? χ$ο%ή><>μΙαί. %$ ÇTi'fë$r!ijù..TçÎTUju'Cuv.o
86. Georgios Scholarios, The Constitution (London, c. 1625).

101

Constantinople

50. [ATHANASIOS PARIOS], Christian Apology, Constantinople, Press of the Patriarchate, 1798. The Christian Apology was written by Athanasios Parios, one of the most fervently anti-Western spirits, who had studied in Smyrna and attended the lectures of Evgenios Voulgaris at the Athonite Academy. The Apology is mainly an attack on Voltaire, whom Parios regards as the most important representative of the new ideas, and whom he describes as 'godless, antichrist, malicious, homunculus, lecherous and profane'. This anonymous publication was clearly anti-Enlightenment in character and constituted a strong attack on the French Revolution and a libel against 'satanical' liberal books. This patriarchal admonishment was intended to discourage the Orthodox diaspora from adopting the pioneering ideas and the messages of the Enlightenment.

«•*£« Ιΐ«ΐ'βγ4 τ ? XU/ÎMBÎJ; rîfnfejr'y·

49

87. Printer's mark of A. Matthews.

holy wedlock'. The patriarch's target are dowries and the great social and moral problems arising from them; he informs us about the 'thousand improprieties' that occur and hastens to restore to the forefront the earlier orders of the Church with regard to matrimony. Above all, he attempts, in a direct, demotic language (in the tradition of sermons and teachings in the Turkish period), to convince and admonish the Christians with arguments of an overtly national and social nature: 'the leaders of no class amongst the Greek people take care and provide for the interests of the common people'. 'We, the once great and illustrious Greek people, which spread from the Black Sea to the Adriatic gulf and Sicily, are in danger of soon vanishing and disappearing, even from our broad ancestral homeland of Greece, through our foolishness and irresolution and improvidence!

51. A N T H I M O S , Patriarch of Jerusalem, Didaskalia Patriki, Constantinople, Pogos of Armenia, 1798. The Didaskalia Patriki was printed in the Phanar at the press of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, which was founded by the patriarch Gregorios V and first came into operation in 1798, after a number of unsuccessful attempts to create a patriarchal press dating from the period of the patriarch Cyril Lucaris (1626). The reasons for the publication of this anti-patriotic text are probably connected with the policy of the Patriarchate,

102

which was attempting to distance itself from the revolutionary, insurrectionary movements of Rhigas and his circle, and also from the new ideas on democracy and liberty that were stirring Europe.

Theophilos Korydaleus and Spyridon Milias (1757), which were repeatedly pub­ lished with additions and modifications. The Constantinople edition of the Episto­ larion, by the doctor Basil Tzeucharis, includes some of the epistolary forms used by Korydaleus, and also selections from other epistolaria. The larger part of the book is devoted to letters by Alexan­ dras and Nikolaos Mavrokordatos, a cir­ cumstance that is readily explained by the fact that the press and its editions worked within the Phanariot and patri­ archal traditions, that the manuscript epistolaria of the Mavrokordati were eas­ ily accessible, and that their content was suitable for use as a model of how to write letters. Their philosophical and moral meanings and ideas were gener­ ally accepted and their scope and rheto­ ric were the envy of both clerics and laymen in the Church.

The work is attributed to Athanasios Parios, and was certainly not written by Anthimos, the patriarch of Jerusalem, who was seriously ill at this time. Indeed, according to Sergios Makraios, he regis­ tered a strong protest when he was out of danger and was informed about the pub­ lication.

qψ • χ ρ ι Σ τ ι Α Ν m Ή ..ff Ipl

ΑΠΟΛΟΓΙΑ

; AN!*1 Tum&eia·*,

•

Αϊν"

HUÎÈ 1

'^MSV

.•""•'•'·

I :

ß^

wï* aite Tmç JWfàetêsK$\( AWJL

• •'v^ì-Sfì

.^ui^wcvs %-ξΰς tXpfAffÄv' των Έ.ύ<ηβων ,

"^{^

" Α Ι ί Ai ίΤ fi :,

Κ ΤΟΪ ΠΑΝΑΓΙΩΤΑΤστ KA-I/xV ^ H ΘΕΙΟΤΑΤΟΤ11ΑΊΡΙΑΡ / τ ΐ ^ ν , 5JΧΟΓΚΪΡΙΟΤ *>

Ρ Vii*

Constantinople

Γ ΡΗΓΟ ρ.ιοτηΗ? ivre ew"i{JiäcS"uj^et(r« ΤΆΒΧ τίνος

Jit*·

ΕΤΣΕΒΟΪΣ ΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΟΙ

ρ

Ht?>f Te TU7TÙJ^KC-A

άν'ϋίλίύΙΛΆΰΊ-J

A'-'tyoÇ

"Α^^"

s ΖΗΛΩΤΟΪ ί ΘΕΟΣΕΒΟϊΣ. 4% *)

re «ψ·,,·,

. •'/ . m*;g

88.Printer's mark of the Patriarchal Press.

50

52. Epistolarion,

Constantinople,

Patriarchal Press, 1804. Epistolaria, in both manuscript and print­ ed form, were collections of models of how to compose letters. Of the printed Greek epistolaria, we may note those by

103

89. Coat-of-arms of Konstantinos Basarab as rules of Hungary-Wallachia.

104

JASSY - BUCHAREST

Ί\he regime of the two Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which enjoyed a semi-autonomous status after the treaty of Carlo witz in 1699, offered excellent conditions for the consolidation of the second, this time suc­ cessful, attempt to establish and operate Greek presses in the wider area of the East or, more correctly, the area then controlled by the Ottoman empire. In this case, too, as in that involving the patriarch Cyril Loukaris in 1624, the motive force behind the setting up of presses in the monasteries and cathedrals of Mol­ davia and Wallachia was supplied by the clergy. From the early decades of the 17th century, the Orthodox East was an area in which Catholics and Protestants competed to proselytise mainly the Greek minorities, both through organised missions and through the channelling of printed propaganda material. The Orthodox patriarchates reacted dynamically and in coordination, and their reaction forms the background to the efforts to operate a press in Constantinople in 1624. Despite the fact that the Greeks of the East were fully covered, at both the educational and the religious-liturgical level, by the books channelled from the Greek presses of Venice, the Orthodox Church considered the printing and distribution of editions containing doctrinal and explanatory material to be a matter of overriding urgency, in order to counter Catholic propaganda effectively. In this way, the Christians of the East would, in effect, gain independence from the non-Orthodox countries who were pro­ moting their political aspirations in the East, invariably in association with their religious ambitions. It should be stressed here that in Romania, in contrast with other areas of the Ottoman empire, printing had been practised since as early as the beginning of the 16th century, more specifically since 1508. This, taken in conjunction with the positive attitude adopted by many Romanian rulers to the foundation of Greek presses in Moldavia and Wallachia, led rapidly to Bucharest becoming the most important Greek cultural centre in the East after Constantinople. Three points may be noted with regard to the distinctive features of these presses: a) that they were founded and run without any commercial orientation, since their editions were made available and distributed free ; b) that they were financed exclusively by individuals from the princely court (mostly the princes) ; and c) that the line taken by their publications was aimed at checking the pros­ elytising policy of the Catholics and promoting doctrinal issues from the stand­ point of Orthodoxy.

105

The publications of the Orthodox Church in resistance to Catholic propaganda

Jassy Bucharest

I

106

Jassy Bucharest

—•

• . . - . . , . •

·

·".»

"

•.nitfSaiÉÌW>Ì"'

•- ν 7 90. General view of Bucharest from the 'princely court ' lithograph of the period.

" * * > • •

χ

107

Jassy Bucharest

91. Coat-of-arms ofAlexandros Mavrokordatos as prince of Hungary-Wallachia.

?#i^!ift^îï^'

^©iSy&^j© ê

Greek books were printed in workshops set up in monasteries and cathedrals in Moldavia, specifically in the Monastery of the Three Hierarchs at Jassy, though also at a number of others. The founding of Greek presses in Moldavia was the inspiration of Dositheos, the patriarch of Jerusalem (1669-1707), at the precise period when Georgios Doukas was prince of Moldavia. The presses creThe presses of Moldavia ated in Moldavia noted the place of publication of their books on the title page: Monastery of the Three Hierarchs, Monastery of Cetatuia, Monastery of St Sawas (Greek presses), Michael Ro and Georgios Chatzi-Dimos, and the New Greek Press. The first Greek book from the Three Hierarchs, where there was also a Romanian press, was the Decree of the Patriarch Parthenios - that is, the decision taken by the Church Council directed against the Calvinists, printed as early as 1642; this remained an isolated initiative, however, for the following book to appear from its presses, the secretly published Alphabet primer (Bucoavna) is dated to 1651. The edition of the first Geek printed book, the Decree, had a religious content and appeared on the occasion of the Council directed against the Calvinists, which convened in Jassy at the invitation of the philhellene prince of Moldavia Basil Loupos (1634-1653), and was attended by representatives of Petros Mogilas (Archbishop of Kiev) and the Ecumenical Patriarch Parthenios. The second endeavour to publish Greek books in the Monastery of the Three Hierarchs dates from 1809, with the publication of the To the glory of the holy, consubstantial and indivisible Holy Trinity, translated from the Russian at the wish of Gabriel, the Metropolitan and Exarch of Moldavia, Wallachia and Bessarabia. This second movement also had a transient character, for the only Greek book that appears to have been printed there is the Theharas of Agapios Landos (1814). Unlike the many other monasteries of Moldavia, the monastery of Cetatuia, which was founded in 1669, developed into a cultural centre that concentrated on the cultivation of Greek letters. The Monastery of Cetatuia came under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Jerusalem, and Dositheos resided there every time he visited Jassy to work on the preparations for the struggle against the proselytising policy of the Catholic Church. In order to support theological studies, he not only created the conditions in which the Monastery could attract important scholars and clerics, but also invited the eminent theologian and doctorphilosopher Nikolaos Kerameus, professor at the Princely Academy of Constantinople, to settle there. The press of Cetatuia printed only Greek books, and the first to appear is dated to 1682. This was the treatise written by Nektarios, the patriarch of Jerusalem, Objection to the primacy of the Pope. The following edition from the

108

Monastery appeared in 1683 and contained texts of a doctrinal content written Jassy by Symeon Makarios, the archbishop of Thessalonike, the Against heresies, and Bucharest others. The rest of the Greek books printed between 1685 and 1698 make no ref­ erence to a particular press, but bear the mark 'in Jassy' ; they are associated with the press of Cetatuia on the basis of the fonts they used. During this period - that is, the fourteen years, approximately, from 1685 to 1698 - only five books were printed, but these were of great importance. In 1685 appeared an Eortologion of the martyrs and saints Sergius and Bacchus. Print­ ing of the next book began in 1692 and was completed in 1694. This was the Tomos Katalages (Τόμος Καταλλαγης), which contains treatises of theological interest written by a large number of authors, both named and anonymous, the former including John Nomophylax, Georgios Koressios, and the hieromonk Makarios Makris. The next two publi­ cations also date from 1694, and, final­ ly, the Tomos agapes kata Latinon by Dositheos, the patriarch of Jerusalem, appeared in 1698. Very little is known of the organisa­ tion of the press, or of the editors, proof­ 92. Alexandros readers and printers who worked there. Mavrokordatos From a letter written by Dositheos we (1754-1819). prince of Moldavia. learn that in 1680, while he was staying in Jassy, he provided funds to a Wallachian hieromonk named Mitrophanis to engrave a set of Greek characters that were used to print all the Greek books published by the Monastery of Cetatuia. The printers were Wallachian monks, such as Mitrophanis, who printed three books, Demetrios Padure, and Dionysios and Athanasios, while the editing of the texts was shared by many scholars and teachers at the court of the princes of Moldavia, amongst them Ioannis Molivdos, Ioannis Komninos from Herakleia (a notary of the Great Church and teacher of Georgios Doukas, the prince of Moldavia), and the doctor-philosopher Jeremiah Kakavelas. After 1698, the patriarch Dositheos had less frequent contact with the monastery of Cetatuia and cultivated closer relations with Wallachia. Conse­ quently, printing in Jassy stagnated during the first quarter of the 18th century, while the output of books in Wallachia was more dynamic. Nevertheless, Greek

109

Jassy

books continued to be printed occasionally in Jassy, though not at the Monastery of Cetatuia; one of them was the edition of John of Damascus's Edition of the Orthodox faith, published by the Monastery of St Savvas, which came under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. On 22 August 1786, another, this time private, attempt seems to have been made to found a Greek press, but without success. The leaders of this initiative are s a t 0 n a v e een Michael Ro and ^ ^ Michael Ro and Georgios ChatziGeoreios Chatzi- Dimos Dimos from Trikke. The only book bearing their name is the Speech against nicotine, by Nikolaos Mavrokordatos, a treatise against the use of tobacco in response to the essay by Mitrophanis Grigoras, In praise of nicotine. At the beginning of 1812, specifically in January of this year, there was a movement in Jassy to establish an exclusively Greek printing centre. The relevant application submitted to the Divan of the Principality of Moldavia on 12 January 1812, is signed by a number of Greek and Romanian merchants: Zapheiris Stamou, Christodoulos Ioannou, Thomas Nerantzis, Panayiotis Diogenidis, Christos Konstantinou, Stavros Radovic, Alexandras Moukos, Kosmas Gozo and Anastasios Michael Geitzas. The application was folGreek Press of Jassy lowed by an exchange of documents between the secular and ecclesiastical authorities relating to the preconditions necessary for the founding of a press, according to the regulations, and in about the middle of 1812, Manuel Bernardos published a printed text entitled News for patriotic and cultured GreeL· about the Greek Press established in Jassy. This text, which is published in Logios Hermes (Vienna, June 1812 issue, p. 161-167), informs readers of the names of commissioners appointed to collect the subscriptions for the editions of the Greek Press in Jassy, Bucharest, Constantinople, Odessa and the Péloponnèse. This new publishing and printing house came into operation at the end of 1812, and it is known from publication of the Civil Code..., in 1816, that its presses were, again, set up at the Monastery of the Three Hierarchs. This newly founded press published not only a significant number of editions, but also revolutionary pamphlets and proclamations by Alexandras Ipsilandis. The first book to appear from its presses was the Alphabet primer of 1813, edited by Manuel Bernardos. Although the scattered centres of Greek printing at this time published texts with themes relating to the Enlightenment, the character of Greek Printing did not change, but clung to the production mainly of texts with a religious content. At least twenty-eight titles were published, amongst them revolutionary pam-

110

Jassy Bucharest

93. The Monastery of St Savvas in Jassy. in which there was a Greek press and school.

Ill

Jassy

phlets and proclamations by Alexandras Ipsilandis in Greek and Wallachian. The Civil Code... by Skarlatos Alexandras Kallimachis (1816), which was embellished by the brilliant engravings of Demetrios Kondoleon, was a tour deforce of printing. In Wallachia, the systematic publication of Greek books began in 1690, just eight years after the first Greek book was printed at the Monastery of the Three Hier­ archy. The first press in Wallachia was installed in the Cathedral of Bucharest Γ™ r T*r 11 u · in 1690, during the reign of the prince Konstanö The presses of Wallachia ' f\ ι , tinos Bragoveanu, and the first book printed by it was a treatise by Meletios Pigas, the patriarch of Alexandria, entitled Hand­ book against the schism of the Papists. In this same year of 1690, the Cathedral press published two more polemical works, this time revolving around Calvinism: Meletios Syrigos, Against the Calvinists, and the patriarch Dositheos's Handbook against the Calvinist Lunacy. The press of the Bucharest Cathedral functioned in its original form until 1715, publishing at least 17 editions, most of which contained doctrinal and litur­ gical texts, with a very few exceptions, such as Plutarch's Parallel lives of Greeks and Romans (1704). An important role in the printing and publishing of books in Wallachia was played by an inspired figure of the Orthodox clergy, the hieromonk Anthimos Iviritis, later metropolitan bishop of Hungary-Wallachia. Anthimos came to Wal­ lachia from Constantinople in 1690, at the invitation of the prince, Konstantinos Bragoveanu, and was appointed abbot of the Monastery of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple at Snagov. He was active at various printing centres in Wallachia, such as those of the Snagov Monastery, the town of Tergoviste (the old capital of Wallachia), and the Bishopric of Rimnik. He edited a signif­ icant number of books, not only in Greek, but also in Romanian and Arabic. He was the target of various political intrigues that led in the end to his assassina­ tion in 1719, which deprived the Church and Greek printing of a leading figure of Danubian culture. The so-called Antim (Anthimos) press was established in the church of Antim, which still survives in Bucharest, next to the mansion of the Holy Synod of the ρ ρ. Orthodox Church of Romania. This workshop, which τ , » n ^ . . Λ/Γ , had both a Greek and a Romanian press, functioned All Saints Monastery , _ trnin ... , \ _ . . , t_t„ J from 1716 until 1719. Although very few Greek books were printed here - separated, moreover, by long intervals of time - they were of exceptionally fine typographic appearance. Amongst them are the Ioudaika of Alexandras Mavrokordatos (1716) and the Deofficiis of Nikolaos Mavrokordatos (1719).

112

Although Greek books had been printed on the press of Bucharest at intervals I Jassy. before 1767, it was in this year that the Greek press was revived at the initiative j Bucharest and under the supervision of the prince Alexandras Scarlatos Gikas. The printing work was assigned to the scholar Georgios Konstantinos. The New Greek We are now in the period when the Holy Sepulchre was Press in Bucharest seeking to disseminate the Christian faith in both Eastern Europe and the East, under the guidance of Ephraim, the patriarch of Jerusalem. According to the hieromonk Metaxopoulos, a Christian press was founded with the financial aid of Alexandras Skarlatos Gikas, and the actual printing press was brought to Bucharest from France at the responsibility of the scholar Ioannis Phalis -Georgios Kostantinos [Ioannitis]. The first work to appear from the 'New Greek Press' was the Orthodox Confession, originally printed in St Petersburg and republished at this press in 1767, edited by Ephraim, the patriarch of Jerusalem, himself. The Christian teaching of the Orthodox faith., another polemic against the Catholic Church, was published in the following year, 1768. About 1783, this press seems to have been reorganised and its operation was now supervised by the brothers Nikolaos and Ioannis Lazaros of Ioannina, who are known 94. Konstantinos for their activities as commercial Mavrokordatos booksellers. Greek books were print(17 It-1769). prince of Modavia. ed from time to time in the rooms of the Bucharest Cathedral, bearing the names of different printers, even after the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821. The press even went so far as to equip itself with a typeface for music, as is clear from the Neon Anastasematarion of 1820. The Greek press of the Monastery of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple at Snagov was founded by Anthimos Iviritis. It came into operation in 1697, with the publication of the Handbook, a treatise by loan° nis Karyophyllis. The Snagov press also printed the Orthodox Confession of Dositheos, the third edition chronologically speaking, and based on a different

113

Jassy Bucharest

manuscript from the one that served as the model for the first edition, published in Holland in 1667. The final Greek book printed at Snagov by Anthimos is the Eortologion of 1701. When Anthimos Iviritis was appointed bishop of the town of Rimnik, in 1705, he brought the typographic equipment from the Snagov Monastery to the monastery in his bishopric, and later took it with him to Bucharest, when he p. .i was proclaimed metropolitan bishop of Hungary-Wallachia. In Rimnik, Anthimos edited three Greek books, the most important of which is the Volume ofJoy (1705). This contained the Letters of Photios, the patri­ arch of Constantinople and a great book-lover. Anthimos's editions are dated down to 1705, and another book by him was published in Rome in 1747, many years after his death, under the title Katavasion. In the old capital of Wallachia, Tergoviste, the printing of Greek books began in 1709. The press here was set up in the rooms of the Cathedral and was under the general supervision of Anthimos Iviritis, while the printing Tergoviste of the editions was undertaken by the hieromonk Mitrophanis Grigoras and by Georgios Radovitsis. Six books were printed in their workshop down to 1710, the first being the Annual Book for 1709, which contained five couplets written by Grigoras to the prince K. Bragoveanu.

95. The coat-of-arms of Nikolaos Mavrokordatos as prince of Moldavia and Wallachia. , *

S

ig

."•"-'"•~-Λ

, , . ,.,. . % · - . , . „

i-j

Dositheos and his nephew Chrysanthos undoubtedly occupy an eminent place both in the intellectual life of Moldavia and Wallachia, and in the activities of the presses. Nevertheless, there was a respectable number of other gifted intel* ·j · j lectuals who gave decisive support to the modern Greek . , . T language and education, and to Orthodox teaching, in n intellectual circles ι ,n , t *. Λ -, -, -, « ι both private and public schools, and academies. A deci­ sive role was played by the foundation of the Princely Academy of Bucharest and Jassy, which joined the list of similar, existing academies: the Patriarchal Academy (Constantinople), the Flanginianon College (Venice), the Kottounianon College (Padua) and the Papal College (Rome). The Princely Academy was founded by prince Konstantinos Basarab, and Sevastos Kyminitis was appointed as its first director in 1689. Its teaching was Greek-centred, and it operated within the world of the Phanar. When it opened, the Princely Academy attracted not only gifted pupils from the area of South­ eastern Europe, such as Georgios Kastriotis and Panayiotis Sinopeus, but also teachers, who came here to enrich the teaching staff. Special mention may be made of Theodoras Symeon of Trebizond, Markos Porphyropoulos of Cyprus, and Konstantinos Malatios.

114

The editions printed for about two centuries at the presses of the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, represent the most important writings of the representatives of religious humanism. Over and above the theological interest of these texts for Orthodoxy, the ecclesiastical and secular leaders, in this very sensitive area of the Balkans, and also in Poland, the Ukraine and Russia, lent their support in a unique way both to political and religious questions and to educational issues, preserving the freedom of the press through the monastery

Jassy Bucharest

ΓΡΦΦ&

96. The Princely Academy in Bucharest. Plan and elevation.

workshops. The struggle was fought on many fronts and involved the curbing of pro-unification propaganda and the organisation of a Balkan front against the Turks, while an attempt was also made to improve the quality of intellectual life at private and courtly level.

115

Jassy Bucharest

decorative elements, but mainly as a result of the extensive use of red lettering, which is used in all the liturgical texts, apart from the Psalterion and the Oktoechos. The equally extensive use of initial capitals, The Objection to the primacy of the Pope is normally printed with red ink, with the correct dimensions and the appropriate one of the first books to be printed in the interlines, creates an unprecedented typoprincipalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, graphical style, even when compared with and, of course, one of the first anü-Catholic Venetian editions of the period. texts to be printed in Jassy and Bucharest. The author of the Objection, Nektar ios, the patriarch of Jerusalem, who had 55. SEBASTOS T R A P E Z O U N been taught philosophy by Theophilos TIOS KYMINITIS, Doctrinal Korydaleus himself, was distinguished teaching, Bucharest, Anthimos Iviriby his strong stance against the prosetis, 1703. lytising policy of the Catholics. He was also the first to impose the influence of the patriarchate of Jerusalem on the church of Hungary and Wallachia. This book is distinguished by its austere layout and design, and has only one m ornament, which was printed as a colophon and consists of three epigrams extolling the art of printing. The calligraphic font used to print the texts contrasts with the inelegant, roughly cut initial capitals.

53. N E K T A R I O S , Patriarch of Jerusalem, Objection to the primacy of the Pope, Jassy, the hieromonk Mitrophanes, 1682.

%&

Ε'λί? ft» AiWlIS c ! Η>ρώ '

t

Hins Oir>O^X'l

·

eft

S«

Geranie* E'A^Uc <*>s Πί£ί<Γ?£* TÄAÄJ *

ê Μι!»ικ f«iiroç $· Η ' λ ί κ τ ìty'Ctuwv

54. Anthology, Monastery of the Eisodia, Anthimos Iviritis, 1697.

'al

The Anthology contains an important corpus of liturgical books, such as the Psalterion, the Oktoechos, the Pentekostarion, the Triodion, all the Menala, etc. From what is known of the editions published in Moldavia and Wallachia, the Anthology seems to be the most elegant book printed in these regions: not only with regard to the design of each individual page and the tasteful use of the few

116

55

This is one of the two published treatises by Sebastos Kyminitis, out of the total of about 100 works that represents his intellectual output, the first being the Eortologion of 1701 (Sangov). Sebastos Kyminitis was the first teacher at the Princely Academy in Bucharest, and one of the most eminent scholars of his time. He was repeatedly

honoured by the rulers of Wallachia and received public praise for his rhetorical skills. In addition to the two editions of his writings - the Teaching was published one year after his death - he published a large number of epigrams and speeches. This edition of the Doctrinal teaching is dedicated to the ruler of Wallachia, Konstantinos Basarab, and the introductory address is signed by Georgios Postelnikos Kastriotis, a person of considerable influence over the political and diplomatic life of Wallachia, who had been Kyminitis's pupil at the Princely Academy and founded a school in his native town of Kastoria.

apostles; references to the emperors of the West and East and their careers ; concerning the schism between the two Churches; concerning the so-called holy war; the disasters and sieges of Constantinople, and much else. In his prologue to the edition, Chrysanthos extols the enormous importance of Dositheos's endeavours. He compares the uswerving Christian spiritual art of Dositheos's discourse with the science of medicine and the practice of the doctor's art to the benefit of the patient: for, as time went on, Dositheos had diagnosed the sorry state of the Catholic Church, which was beset by degenerate and eccentric doctrines, and had reached the point of openly despising the apostolic and patristic 'written and unwritten traditions'.

56. D O S I T H E O S , Patriarch of Jerusalem, History of the patriarchs of Jerusalem, Bucharest, Stoika Iakovitzis, 1715.

Jassy Bucharest

57. C H R Y S A N T H O S N O T A R A S ,

Syntagmation, Tergoviste, 1715. This is undeniably a monumental tome, of large format, with a text occupying 1,429 pages. The book was printed on only a a single occasion, in Bucharest, in Hungary-Wallachia, towards the end of the rule of the Voevod Stephen Kantakouzinos in 1715. The treatise, the introduction to which was written by Chrysanthos, Dositheos's nephew, is divided into twelve books, beginning with the period of office of the patriarch James the Brother of the Lord, the first hierarch of Jerusalem, and ending with Chrysanthos. In all, the lives of 123 patriarchs of Jerusalem are described. The work contains a vast number of the issues and problems that had been of concern to the Orthodox Church, such as: the divine assemblies of the holy

Chrysanthos Notaras, who was nephew of Dositheos and his successor on the patriarchal throne of Jerusalem, also continued his uncle's work. His career makes him one of the pioneering personalities of Modern Greek thought in the late 17th and early 18th century. During the period from 1686 to about 1692 he lived in Bucharest as a guest at the royal court of Wallachia. Here he engaged in writing extensively, though some of his works, like the Paraphrase of the Proverbs of Solomon, remained unpublished. The Syntagmation inlcudes a large number of regulations, relating mainly to ecclesiastical officia and the obligations and duties incumbent on bearers of titles. One

117

97. The coat-of-arms of Konstantinos Basarab as prince of Hungary-Wallachia.

U^MMSSMM^

Jassy Bucharest

of the chapters contains a rendering in Cyrillic of the Greek text: this section is a description of the metropolitan, archiépiscopal and episcopal thrones of Moscow.

tion is signed by Ioannis and Nikolaos Lazaros of Ioannina. The edition is austere, decorated mainly by two full-page illusrations of the Mavrogenis coat-of-arms in various compositions.

58. M A N O L A K I S PERSIANOS,

Brief summary of the heroic feats ofJohn Nicholas Peter Mavrogenis, Bucharest, Demetrios Typographos, 1789. Not only Manolakis Persianos, but also Matthaios Myreon the younger, Philaretos, the Bishop of Rimnik, Alexandras Kalphoglou, Ioannis Tzanetos, Skarlatos «ι»

»

The book was dedicated by Skarlatos Alexander Kallimachis, Hospodar of Moldavia (1812-1819), to his father. It was published in three volumes in 1817. In the same year an Alphabetical table of the contents and difficult words of all three parts of the Code was published separately. Part I: On personal property law. Part II: On real property law. Part III: On the designation of matters relating to personal property law and real property law. Appendix: On determining the contributions of borrowers. On holding public auctions in accordance with local custom. Orphan Code for the Jassy trusteeship court. Handwritten at the end of each volume: By high command inspected and signed by me, Ananias Kouzanos, Nomophylax, with his official seal. Kouzanos was one of the compilers of the Code. As one would expect, this 'official' publication is the best specimen of the output of the Greek Press at Jassy (1813-1821), containing splendid engravings by Demetrios Kondoleos. The Legislation of John George Caragea, Hospodar of Wallachia (1812-1818), which the Moldavian Government ordered from Vienna, also appeared in the same year, 1817, and was reprinted in 1818. One of its compilers was the poet Athanasios Christopoulos.

'imé04wésë%

τ"

»

T W

8|»;ΡΓλ!α» i-iTÇÎpaiiUtrèTÏiri κ°ραζ'οχ'άμ$-ί, ||; ïi'y'i/Lidi'Wi' Ζ'ακίης xojpaef NtïiûAae. *& assi,E')t!'iî(«çap£'pi'ν\βο&ίβ^τΛοκτί, ^g: îg , -ysp/4euitis ®» A v a i s . ^ t »P 1 T , - I - , . . S g „ É ' < f iViiac άμΐλ&τί SeoY triaVasr ί'λι'ξ«5, .$£..; è§ç . aro^AaV ä s & Ä 'es τ ί λ ο ί iXpfttsTOj. ' gì

si

98. The coat-of-arms of Konstantinos Basarab as prince of Hungary-Wallachia.

WW K | | „ »So

'

59. Civil Code of the Principality of Moldavia, Jassy, Greek Press, Part I 1816, Part II 1816, Part III 1817.

*

58

Slatinianos and others worked on this edition, the purpose of which was to extol the personality and life of Prince Nikolaos Mavrogenis. The encomia are written in the form of verse chronicles in fifteen-syllables couplets, and also in prose. The address to Prince Mavrogenis that opens the edi-

118

ΚΩΔΙΞ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΟΣ .

Τ0 f

Π ΡΙ Γ ΚΙ ΠΑ τ ο τ ΤΗ 2

:

ΜΟΛΔΑΒΊΑΣ. ΜΕΡΟΣ Α'.

'' ώ""-?-

•

V— *•

NOM a

Έ Ν Ί Α Έ Ι SU

ARU'. 'Εν τφ VSBtypi&ivu Έλλψ'/ν.ώ Τυπογράφεία>. "EvâoV te 'ItçS Moyac7}QÌ8 τών tqmv 'leqaqyß

59

119

99. The young prince Joseph visits the press. Holzschnitt v. Exeter, after a painting by Russ.

120

VIENNA

Έhe term Neohellenic Enlightenment is applied to a period extending from the middle of the 18th century to the outbreak of the Greek War of Indepen­ dence of 1821, during which the teachers of the Greek people and intellectuals in general applied themselves to an endeavour to improve the education of Greeks throughout the world. The Neohellenic Enlightenment, which formed a part of the European Enlightenment, was strongly influenced by the particular condi­ tions in which Greeks found themselves, living mainly under the Ottoman yoke, in semi-autonomous areas, or in organized communities in the West and East. The main weapon deployed by this movement was the Greek printed book, which acted as the link with the Greeks of the diaspora. The subjects of the books were mainly related to schools and education, though there was also con­ siderable writing devoted to vital issues of concern to intellectuals and church officials, such as: language questions, the dissemination of the ideas of the French Revolution, love of the ancient world, and a wide range of concerns and reac­ tions to be found amongst those who cultivated Greek thought. The earliest examples of the publishing activity of the leading figures of the Neo­ hellenic Enlightenment cover the period from the middle of the 18th century (as Adamantios Korais noted in a memorandum of 1803) to the beginning of the final decade of that century - that is, the years of Demetrios Katartzis and his followers, and of Rhigas himself. This interval may be divided into two periods, the earlier of which is distin­ guished by the promotion of the name of Voltaire, the philosopher who became a symbol of the liberalism of his day and a standard _, .„ . ,. „„ π n .L , .. Ρ ι. , Manifestation of the tor all progressive writers, by virtue of his révolu_, .. , tionary ideas, which aroused the disquiet of Greeks, ° and of his philhellenism. In this period, which was still an obscure one for Greek letters, two names make their appearance: Iosipos Moisiodax and Evgenios Voulgaris. These two intellectuals, having originally followed parallel courses, ended in opposite camps, but for both the printed book was from the very beginning the most powerful weapon in their careers during the Enlightenment. In his Apology (1770), Moisiodax gives better expression than any other writer to the spirit of his period, and the desire for the intellectual regeneration of the Greek nation. And he notes the need for the dissemination of the applied sciences (mathematics, physics, geography), which was so pressing that it took pri-

121

The publishing centre of Greek books during the Neohellenic Enlightenment

Vienna .

'....;:'..•*

.

....-•"''

"I·'!

..

,;

·

,'"

.

:,, , .

. ih .;

. "'"'"'

» ^./ * ι.

.

,

-,

!•-€ ..

''li'-

" "-" ~·-" •• v ; '

-

•»;>- • f-r

.,.

:-•.: *·•'••

-

•

•/•-'•••

•'..

122

·,

«,(*«>>?(

-

Vienna

«itert>,

-*

100. General view of Vienna at the time of the Austro-Russian war, from Schlegel, Vienna gloriosa, 1703.

123

Vienna

lOi.Alexandros Ipsilandis (1726-1805), prince of Wallachia and Moldavia, patron of Iosipos Moisiodax, engraving of the period.

ority over writings on logic and metaphysics. And indeed, with the exception of the Geography of Meletios (1728) and that of Chrysanthos Notaras, the Way of Mathematics of Methodios Anthrakitis (1749), and, at the level of translation, the History of Rollins, all of which were very difficult to obtain, there was nothing available to the Greek public. Evgenios Voulgaris, having been the first to introduce the work of Voltaire to the Greek world, eventually became the fiercest critic of the moderns amongst the conservative ranks and the circle around the patriarchate. He published his Logic in Leipzig in 1766 and a few years later, in 1770, began in St. Petersburg to publish a series of translations of pamphlets by Voltaire. After 1791, however, Voulgaris played a leading role in the publication of works refuting Voltaire's philosophy, and every year after this the Greek public enthusiastically welcomed similar publications. To the beginning of the second period during the early Neohellenic Enlightenment may be assigned the activity of Demetrios Katartzis, whose work remained unpublished in his lifetime, in contrast with that of all the other enlighteners, without exception. He was a progressive who never went to extremes and who sought to align the Greek world with the west and at the same time with an unshakeable religious position. The publishing philosophy of the enlighteners was foreshadowed by a number of people who played a leading role in the reproduction of learned and other texts designed to arouse the Greek nation: the publishers-printers of Vienna, Polyzois Lambanitziotis, Georgios Venturis and the Markides-Pouliou brothers. The book that symbolised this period, as a typical example of Greek preoccupations of the time, was the Modern Geography of Daniel Philippidis and Grigorios Konstantas (1791). One year earlier, in 1790, Rhigas had published his Florilegium of Physics, inspired by French and German writers. In this same year, 1790, it was Rhigas once more, this time with his School for Delicate Lovers, a translation of a contemporary French work typical of the revolutionary period, who marked the beginning of a new period in Greek contact with foreign literature.

124

The Phanariots, who developed into a powerful economic force in the early 18th century, are represented by individuals that played decisive roles in the intel­ lectual advancement of the Greek people and the history of modern Hellenism. From 1709, Phanariots became princes of Moldavia, and from 1716 also of Wallachia. In these principalities, which acquired a strong Greek , , character and an equally strong Western complexion, were _1. created the first free Greek centres. In the sphere of publi­ cations with which we are concerned, the princes made a decisive contribution to books infused with the spirit of the Enlightenment, despite the fact that the works printed by the Romanian-Greek presses operating under their direct super­ vision and financial control in cathedrals and monasteries, were not characterised by this spirit. The dedicatory letters with which a vast number of Greek books of this period were prefaced, honouring Mavrokordatos, Soutsos, Mavrogenis, and also Romanian philhellenes, are indicative of the considerable financial sup­ port provided by these men to the scholar printer-publishers. From the middle of the 18th century on, and the emergence of the new ideas of the Enlightenment, there was a striking increase in the output of books for the Greek public that was directly connected with the European movement. In addition to Venice, the traditional centre of book-production, foreign printers turned their attention to the publishing of Greek books „, , T T , ι ι. -η ? , τ ,ι Ine change m Leipzig, Vienna, Moschopolis, Bucharest, Jassy, the . , uv w Patriarchate of Constantinople, Paris, Moscow and St , f .
125

Vienna

translations inspired by the spirit of the Enlightenment, and also to other pub­ lishing programmes, such as the Greek Library of Adamantios Korais. I said above that at the time of the Neohellenic Enlightenment, in addition to Venice, the traditional centre of Greek books, other presses opened in areas that enjoyed semi-independent status, such as Constantinople, cities within the Russ­ ian empire, Lwof in Poland, and elsewhere. Geograph The character and ically, these centres form a great arc extending from aesthetics of books Leipzig to Moscow. Despite the fact that there were just two sources for the cutting and produc­ tion of the Greek fonts used in all these centres, the character of a book differs substantially with the place of publication. With the passage of time, the aes­ thetic of these books came to reflect on the one hand the character of the local publishing activity, and on the other the particular taste dictated by the contents of the text (functional, scientific, pamphlets), or the personality of the printer himself and his technique. Whatever the case, even in the books assembled for this exhibition, it is easy to discern some of the. common characteristics of book production during the time of the Neohellenic Enlightenment, depending on their particular identity. One of the main features of the Neohellenic Enlightenment was its contact with foreign literature, through learned translations of western works that take us to the very beginnings of this current in the modern Greek experience. There were two stimuli that created the necessary preconditions for these publications: __ , ,. curiosity on the part of cosmopolitan Greeks on the one r Translations or , , J , ,, r L, , ; , „ , Λ hand, and on the other a knowledge of foreign languages ° by a number of learned and cultured Greeks, who lived in organised communities in the European commercial centres and the Danubian principalities ruled by Phanariot princes. In these latter areas, indeed, there was a clearly discernible desire on the part of the rulers to give the local popu­ lation a Western orientation; to this end they funded publications translated from western languages, many of which, however, never reached the press. The printing of learned translations and paraphrases dates from the middle of the 18th century and is marked by a search for suitable subjects that would be of interest to the Greek intellectual world. There were two influences: the major, contemporary achievements of the Westerners, and the works of west­ ern literature which were introduced to their pupils by foreign teachers employed at Greek educational centres. To form an accurate idea of the scope and partic­ ular thrust of the interests of Greek men of letters, we should not make judge­ ment solely on the basis of those works that were published, for a large num126

ber of translations remained unpublished, amongst them those assigned by prince Vienna Michael Soutsos to Katartzis and Kodrikas. The material may be divided into two categories: major, important works, such as Don Quixote, Molière 's comedies, and treatises by Voltaire, Fontenelle and Real de Curban, and representative examples of light poetry and the theatre. Special reference should be made here to the theatre: a word charged with the ancient tradition. Although it was not until the early 19th century that the first amateur attempts were made by Greeks to stage plays, in Phanariot centres, at Odessa and possibly elsewhere, significant numbers of these works were published from 1790 onwards. With regard to published works, the translations of western writings that appeared for a period of about fifty years, from 1750 to 1790, can be counted on one's fingers. Mention may be made here of Rollin 's History (1750), the Tales of Halima (1762), Voulgaris's translations of Voltaire (1770), Pilpai's Mythology, Ramsay's Moral Journey, and Marmontel's Moral Journey of Bellisarios, all of them dating from 1783. Accordingly, the appearance of Rhigas's School for delicate lovers i 03. Nikolaos (Vienna 1790) not only symbolises Mavrokordatos, prince the start of the inspired patriot's of Hungary-Wallachia, publishing career, but also marks from the De officiis. Leipzig. 1722. the beginning of the considerable publications output during the years until his death. Between 1790 and 1797 we have at least twenty publications, including works by Goldoni, Metastasio, Lessing and Marmontel. No other form of writing is so thinly represented throughout the whole of the Neohellenic Enlightenment as creative literature. It is symptomatic of the rudimentary nature of this literature that the boundary between prose and poetry is not drawn with complete clarity. Characteristically, satire makes use of both verse and prose. The first attempt to write a modern Greek novel was made by the Phanariot ruler Nikolaos Mavrokordatos about 1718 in a work entitled The Parerga of Philotheos, which was printed for the first and only time in Vienna in 1800.

127

Vienna

104. Rhigas Velestinlis, engraving by D. and P. Demetrakou, Mykonos, Laogravhic Collection.

i05.Printer's mark of the Pouliou brothers.

A first example of creative writing at the end of the early Neohellenic Enlightenment is offered by the 'Anonymous 1789'. This is an unprecedented way of composing a diatribe, using a narrative technique the style of which is influenced by French models. In contrast with the 'Anonymous', which moved within a very limited learned environment, Rhigas introduced a new kind of literature in his School for Delicate Lovers, which supplied an impulse to Greek education and culture, and which met with an immediate response from the general public. The School was printed in 1790 in Vienna, where two years later (1792) another ground-breaking prose work was published with the title The Results of Love. This consists of three tales set in a strict, puritan society, though they give expression to the energy and drive of the younger generation. The following year, 1793, saw the appearance of an unusual work entitled Dialogues for the Dead by Polyzois Kontos. This is a long verse piece that fulminates against the French Revolution and is an open indictment of Voltaire, who is held responsible for many evils. A new form of verse-writing was created in the Phanariot environment, a typical representative of which was Nikolaos Mavrokordatos (Phiraris). The entire work was published anonymously in Moscow, in 1810, under the romantictitleBosporos in Borysthenes. In it can be seen a conjunction of the earlier progressive attitude adopted by the Phanariots and a more conservative spirit, which began to be a feature of the new works of the time. Although the verse-writers who came just after Mavrokordatos were not Phanariots, they moved in the same spirit and were influenced by this climate. Mention should be made here of Dionysios Photeinos, the author of the History of the Old Testament (1818-1819), who set his hand to the composition of a verse poem entitled According to Women, and to a paraphrase of the Erotokritos called New Erotokritos, which were printed in 1818. To this circle belong Georgios Rousiadis, Charisios Megdanis, Georgios Sakellarios, Michael Perdikaris, Athanasios Christopoulos and Ioannis Vilaras. All these men knew and corresponded with each other and are mentioned in the introductory notes of their publications.

128

Vienna

106. The Prunksaal of the National Library of Austria, where Rhigas and Ventotis often studied. 18th-century engraving.

129

Vienna

The central, supreme figure of the Neohellenic Enlightenment, Adamantios Korais dominated Greek cultural and intellectual life until his death in 1833. Born in Smyrna in 1748, he went as a young man to Amsterdam, where he engaged in commerce. There he made contact with the currents of Adamantios Korais western culture that have left their mark on his work. He later studied medicine at Montpelier, after which he settled in Paris, where he acquired a fine reputation as a critical editor of ancient Greek texts. An eyewitness of the French Revolution, Korais came under the influence of its messages and made connections with the circles of the Ideologists. In collaboration with French republicans, he published a large number of patriotic pamphlets in which he called upon his fellow Greeks to rise against the Turks. In a long series of editions of ancient authors, under the general title Greek Library, Korais began each volume with a long introduction, Spontaneous Reflections on Greek Education and knowledge, in which he elaborated sagely and combatively on his disquiet at the form of Greek education, the modern Greek language, and Greek society. His thinking was dominated by two demands: the liberation of Greece from the Turkish yoke, and the overthrow of the internal tyranny of the aristocracy and the clergy. Profoundly and unswervingly a republican, he encountered many reactions to his work and his teaching. He lived in Paris for the rest of his life and during the years of the Greek War of Independence, was the republican and enlightened conscience of the Greek People. Books with a purely doctrinal content and texts giving expression to the policy of the Orthodox Church on a wide variety of subjects began to be printed for the Ecumenical Patriarchate as early as the late 16th century. The publishing activities of patriarchate circles moved in two directions: initially, from the time of Cyril Loukaris on, they were designed to counter the policy of penetration and proselytising of the Orthodox World practised by the Catholic Church, and subsequently to restrain and confront the new ideas that emerged at the time of the Greek Enlightenment. These new ideas were none other than the revolutionary, subversive movements of the Greeks everywhere, especially of Rhigas and his circle, which were steeped in republican ideology. At the same time, the advance of the French armies to the east impelled the Porte to insist that the Patriarchate take a stance, which in the end proved to be controversial. This stance assumed an ideological guise and developed into an open conflict between progressive intellectuals and the clergy and its conservative supporters, which dates from around the end of 1790. One of the books that supplied the spark for this confrontation was the Triumph of the Orthodox Faith by Antonios Manuel, which was printed in Vienna in 1791. In it a sketch is given

130

of the enemy of Orthodoxy, who is none other than Voltaire, on account both of his philosophy and revolutionary ideas, and of his atheism. After that time, Voltaire's name effectively symbolised the movement of intellectual emancipa­ tion and liberalism characteristic of progressive Greeks during the period prior to the national uprising.

Vienna

To counter the supporters of these liberal ideas, publications by the clerics of the patriarchate, frequently anonymous recommended Greeks everywhere to shun and condemn those who wasted their time reading material of this kind and deifying thatridiculousman - that is, Voltaire. In 1798, moreover, the Ecu­ menical Patriarchate formed a commit­ tee to inspect publications, which was to condemn any book that did not con­ form with its own thinking. The most distinguished men of let­ ters of the time became embroiled in the dispute, circulating inflammatory, condemnatory, and dissenting texts, mainly from Venice and Vienna. They included Evgenios Voulgaris, Sergios Makraios, and Athanasios Parios for the Church, and Christodoulos Pamblekis, Demetrios Katartzis, Adamantios Korais, Polyzois Kontos, Rhigas Velestinlis, Daniel Philippidis, Michael Perdikaris and many others, for the progressives. . ,. - .•••:;•

^-γ-r

The necessity for Greeks to make con­ tact with and cultivate the intellectual achievements of western civilisation after the Renaissance is noted in 1766 by Evgenios Voulgaris in his Logic, where he refers to Hobbes, Descartes, Newton ' a m o n g s t o t h e r s · A few years later, losipos Moisiodax made these comments more specific, offering a diagnosis of the problem that was holding Greek education back, and stressing the predominant philosophy of teaching. It was a conviction shared by the early teachers of the Neohellenic Enlight­ enment that for the brilliant prospects held out by science to become common­ place, it was necessary above all for the applied sciences to penetrate the Greek schools and be taught there. Pioneering creativity

a n d

Locke

131

107. Evgenios Voulgaris, engraving from the edition of his Logic. Leipzig, 1766.

In particular, the moderns launched a bitter attack on the backward state of the teaching of mathematics, the lack of maths books, the outdated manner in which maths was taught, and the complete absence of this subject from the cur­ riculum of most schools. The appeals and comments of this nature made by Moisiodax, Balanos, Darvaris, Theotokis, Psalidas, Kastorianos and others were not without result. If we look at the output of Greek books from the beginning of the 18th century until the eve of the Greek Uprising, in 1820, a substantial shift can be seen in the philosophy inform­ ing the publication of science books (books on geography, mathematics, medicine, botany, physics, chemistry and other sciences). The output of science books between 1750 and 1800 multiplied fourfold in comparison with the first half of the century, and doubled again in the first twenty years of the 19th century. The expression 'the war of the pamphlets' might be used as the title for a cat­ egory of books that give expression to a sharply critical and at the same time apologetic spirit. They are written in order to arouse or directly condemn, with Ρ, regard to emotional and intellectual matters and areas τ , τ» ui involving the conscience, that are foreign to the tradition. * ' Their authors inveigh violently against the clergy, the social establishment and the bourgeois class, and the books frequently have the char­ acter of a manifesto, aimed at imposing an ideology that lies at the extreme boundaries of the Enlightenment. This appealing publishing activity is distinguished by its originality. The authors of the pamphlets, who are often also their designers, assiduously omit their name from thetitlepage, inventing imaginary writers as pseudonyms, non­ existent places of publication, and false dates. Many different intellectual circles became embroiled in this war of the pam­ phlets, including the patriarchate, the supporters of Korais, the opponents of Voltaire, the protagonists of linguistic reform, those on the margins, individuals by nature ranging from subversive to paranoid, and finally a number of eccentric littérateurs. Combative and apologetic pamphlets of this kind were used to promote a variety of ideas: the attitude of the conservative Church to the revolutionary ideas of Voltaire and his supporters; innovations in the creative thought and liberal rational discourse of the Enlightenment; the views on the national and language questions of Korais's supporters and their opponents; and various revolutionary and national movements aimed at rousing the Greek people. Given the general picture of the wide dispersal of Hellenism at the beginning of the final decade of the 18th century, the journal or news-sheet was unequivocally the means of communication most appropriate to the intellectual aspira-

132

tions of the Greeks and their ideas of national regeneration and revolution. The lead in this initiative was taken by the Markides-Pouliou brothers, and since their aims were to disseminate all kinds of news rei- T , . _.. evant to the Greek people -international, financial, periodical press military, political, and news of books- it is evident that from the start the newssheet was in keeping with the pulse of the times.

Vienna

Oîeueé tccotrefίίφ » practices

2 t | ï b uφ ί α

fur attge^cnbc

@$riftfe0cr urti» Dmcfer in bat

'"

$Jiicij&ri!cf erepeit, in wtt^tin

, jam

«ut& afles, m a i Jsenfcf&e« »on antxttt S8iCÉ|* fènf^fim, 8IHI|J» unb ®c»etWfd$mi, bic èffS* bre SSntCbriitfttfiinjl in naÇtt S8ttKm&if#afe ufcïiP' Sttbininnj (ifira, j« nrtffe» itilbtj 1(1, ίκικίιφ cifiam ttict. 3ît6fl &cngtfügfem ouiSfujji'ficitcn

|?o

t te α ί > - » ' φ ft Bon

e&tfftian ©ottlo* $ditttt; äSu<4iir»iffi: in SBitn. SRii Suiifitiu

-*SB i r π ,

ι g t ο,

3 « fficrteje b « S t i t i i f # e t t SiK&Banifaj.

V;234Ç62?B 108. Viennese press. 1810.

The Journal, with its dispatches, especially from Constantinople, played a highly important role in the movement leading to the Greek Uprising and in the Enlightenment of the subjugated Greeks. Its permanent correspondent in Constantinople, indeed, was, through the variety of information and news he provided, the voice of the Greek people, since it was in that city that the most significant events unfolded, with regard both to the movement towards Greek liberation, and to behind-the-scenes activities involving the Phanariots and the Patriarchate. The Journal published news and information relating to dragomans, doctors and merchants, members of high society, diplomatic missions, men of learning, opportunists, Phanariots and men from patriarchate circles. The Markides-Pouliou brothers' Journal, with its successful circulation, prepared the ground for the foundation of the periodical that was to play a more important role than any other journal in supporting the expression of the Greek Enlightenment: the Learned Hermes.

133

109. Title page ornament of the Pouliou brothers.

60.

A N A S T A S I O S POPAS, The Most excellent of books, called Phosphorus, Vienna, Thomas Trattner, 1756.

ably consists of a series of earlier writings by the author dating from between 1765 and 1777. The introductory essay includes extracts from his discourses, which demonstrate that Mathematics and Physics are more useful to the Greek people in their present condition than Logic and Metaphysics. This note is followed by the texts of his lectures at the Princely Academy, a few occasional writings representative of his views or responses to his accusers, and two inaugural lectures, on Philosophy and Mathematics, dating from 1765.

The Most excellent of books, called Phosphorus is one of the first works that might be described as humanist to appear during the early period of the modern Greek Enlightenment. It is a collection of adages of the period compiled by Anastasios Popas of Ioannina in 1719, written in simple language and dedicated to his bosom friend, Michael (Michalakis) Perdikaris (Predikaris) of Monemvasia. The small dedicatory poem to Perdikaris composed in the iambic metre 62. RÉTIF DE LA BRETONNE, by Popas alludes to the many benefits he The School for Delicate Lovers, or has derived from his friendship, and to the Book of Morals, containing the longstanding, genuine affection between strange adventures of the most them, which he publicly honours through beautiful women in Paris who the publication of the Phosphorus. flourished during the present century, Vienna, Josef Baumeister, 1790. The Phosphorus was the first Greek book to be printed at the press of Thomas Trattner, who went on to become the The School for Delicate Lovers, or Book of most important printer-publisher-bookMorals, containing the strange adventures of seller of the 18th century in the Habsburg the most beautiful women in Paris who flourempire. ished during the present century, was the first of two books published by Rhigas in Vienna in 1790, the other being the Florilegium. The School is a collection of six short stories translated from the exten61. IOSIPOS MOISIODAX, Aposive literature of the period, which were logy, Vienna, Thomas Trattner, 1780. reworked by Rhigas and given a new spirit through the use of simple, lively The Apology of Iosipos Moisiodax in a language. These short stories, translated sense represents the repayment of a perby Rhigas 'to exercise his diligence', mark sonal debt regarding the pursuit of truth, the beginnings of the development of since he had previously wasted the modern Greek prose writing. These youthflower of his youth. ful exercises express all his passion for the The work is an idiosyncratic treatise, beauty of life, and reveal Rhigas's emothe second part of which possibly never tional world and his unfettered thinking. appeared, despite having been announced. The translations of the short stories It is not a continuous text, and prob-

134

ο B*WÉ««Œ«1B»·»·**««»^ Ι

Ο

ΊΩΣΗ'ΠΟϊ TOI'" ΜΟΕίΟ'ΔΑΚΟΣ

ι» ο

ΑΠΟΛΟΓΙΑ Μ Ε' Ρ Ο S

Π Ρ i l " Τ Ο Ν. ο

οΟ—0—#(M)#=^Ö—()ο ο ζίψττ. Έ? τ$ Bisyvy της 'Amçkç,

Ι78θ

Ο

s

ί_ Δ 5*δ '•υ'/

-V-tr

Vf

£ί ft, :*'Γ^£ '!! Ρ

ο

'Ss J), "θ" ( , Ο

ÄI

·-'

^a^m^m ic

ο Ε il

«I

n a c a τφ ίΕ'υ'τ'βνεΓ» J$ ΆντοκξΧ'ΐοξικψ Η Β«(Γ/λ«^ ' ΤΐΛΆ7§αφφ Ύυπαγξόίφφ 'iïûuwji xaoa/vyθωμάα-φ νωμχΰ-φτφτψάττί «s»Tçατίηξν. Ι ςατινεξν. g ο ' • ; .... ι . , • • • • • • · Ι fi ( ζ

oC^)(^)o

61

135

the press or the printer, and with a false date of publication (5793), was in fact printed on the presses of Ventotis. It is a section of a very extensive poem, the sec­ ond part of which was never published. The title of the book is taken from the work by Lucian of the same name, and the persons taking part in the dialogues include Pluto, a Satyr, Voltaire, Rousseau, the two Mirabeaux and a number of other dead persons. The leading role in the dialogues is played by Voltaire who is represented as attempting to express regret for the damage caused to mankind by his ideas. This publication forms part of an infor­ mal confrontation between the men of learning and the Church with regard to the ancient authors. Lucian, who was par­ ticularly popular as a school book, became a symbol of this difference of opinion, rep­ resenting for the Church an example of a reprehensible way of thinking.

were made by Rhigas during his stay in Constantinople, in 1786. The vague reference 'from the French dialect' conceals a long series of short stories by the prolific NicolasEdmé Rectif (or Rétif) de la Bretonne (1724-1806), which appeared under the general title Les Contemporaines (42 volumes containing 244 short stories). Retif literally flooded the French market with his huge tomes, the distinctive features of which are their bold realism and contemporary relevance. ΝΕΚΡΙΚΟΙ ΔΙΑΛΟΓΟΙ, Γ ^-^αντεϋεντεςτε

κ,-ςιχαςγν,αεντεζ inxça

~4

, Α Γ Α Κ 0 Ύ ~ , . . Ε Γ Σ ΤΟ'Ν Α > Η Ι Μ ••..,,^—^ΡΟΤΤΟΠΗ; T O T ; ÌIAOT'TONOS ,

"Ίίϊ

Z-P

O Si Π Ρ Λ" Γ ο Λ·.

64><WOSEPH GUILLAUME,^

Proofofthe authority of the books of the New and Old Testament and defence of the truth in them. Reconstruction of Voltaire's hible, Vienna, Markides Pouliou brothers,

63

1794. 6 3 . P O L Y Z O I S K O N T O S , Dia­ logues for the Dead, Vienna [Georgios Ventotis], 5793 (= 1793).

This bulky book is of great importance and highly illuminating for to the con­ frontation between the 'conservatives' and the teaching of Voltaire. It consists of a translation from the French by Nikophoros Theotokis, in which he attempts to refute Voltaire's interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. The result was, however, that Greek readers actually found out more about the teaching of the

The Dialogues for the Dead was written by Polyzois Kontos, a priest and teacher who was born in Ioannina, studied philoso­ phy and theology in Venice, acquired a sound knowledge of Italian and French, and settled in Vienna. This poem, which was published without any indication of

136

Vienna

ΑΠΟ'ΔΕΙΑΙΣ TOT" ΚΤ'ΡΟΤΣ Tiïîf ΤΗΣ ΝΕΑΣ, ΚΑΓ ΠΑΛΑΙΑΣ ΔΙΑΘΗΚΗ2 ΒΙΒΛΓΠΝ, ΚΑΓ ΤΗ~2 Ε'Ν ΑΤ'ΤΟΓΣ Λ'ΛΗΟΕΙΑΣ

ΥΠΕΡΑΣΠΙΣΕ. Η*

J?* 1\. 11/ Χ XX

J\ 11 ι\

ΤΗΣ TOT" ΒΟΛΤΕ'ΡΟΤ ΒΙ'ΒΛΟΤ, τη( XCÛilUUfVlfS

ΤΕΛΕΤΤΑίΟΝ ΔίΕΡΜΗΝΕΤΘΕίΣΗΣ ΔΙΑΘΗΚΗΣ, Ε'Κ

TH'S ΓΑ'ΛΛίΙΝ

ΦβΝίίΣ

Μ Ε Τ Α Φ Ρ Α Σ Θ Ε Ι Η'ΠΕΡ Π Ι Ό 2 £ Τ £ ' Θ Η 2 Α Ν

S Α,

ΚΑΓΤΙΝΕ2

ΣΗΜΕΙΏ/ΣΕΙΣ.

1794· ΠΑΡΆ

Ε"ν rj ΒΙΕ'ΝΝΗτηί J&Çffos TOfS

ΑΤ'ΤΑώΕΛΦΟΙΣ

?4V·

ΜΛίΡΚΙ': ΠΟΤ'ΛΙΟΤ,

64

137

Vienna

French Enlighteners, which they could not have learned from Greek sources. This ambivalent tactic of giving publicity to anathematised works disturbed the Patriarchate, which ensured that the Church's disquiet was expressed by its representatives. The Church's concerns were the following: would it not be better for the public if the views of the impious were not recorded at all, even with the aim of contesting them? The question was put more clearly by Nikodimos Agioritis, who represented the Orthodoxy of his time. In 1801, he wrote: 'Let the wise man not read these anathematised books written by the godless, since they harm the weak, and even those strong in the faith.'

established language of education and everyday life in the Danubian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, where Mavrokordatos was raised; and second, that this text was written in ancient Greek, and aspired, moreover, not to diverge from the rules of the Attic dialect. The reasons that this essay remained unpublished for so many years may well be manifold; given Mavrokordatos's financially comfortable situation, and also his baptism in publishing with his Concerning Duty as early as 1719, we shall have to look elsewhere for the causes that kept the Parerga unpublished. The real reason that Grigorios Konstantas took the initiative of publishing it several years after Mavrokordatos's death is no secret, however. In his introduction, Konstantas is quite categorical about the value of the book: 'for it describes the morals and character of the superior peoples in the Greek east, and books written by wise men of the ancient world.'

65. [ N l K O L A O S M A V R O K O RDATOS], Parerga ofPhilotheos, Vienna, Franz Anton Schrümbel, 1800.

11 O.Printer's mark of G. L. Schulz.

A U D A X i< PROVIPV.y.

From every point of view, this edition of the Parerga ofPhilotheos, edited by Grigorios Konstantas, marks the culmination of the 18th century and the publishing activities of the Greeks in Vienna and the broader areas of the east and west in which the Greeks practised the art of Gutenberg. The Parerga ofPhilotheos was written by the Phanariot prince Nikolaos Mavrokordatos about 1718, and remained in manuscript form until 1800. Two points deserve particular attention with regard to this attempt to write what is probably the first modern Greek novel: first, that the Parerga was written at a period when French was the internationally recongnised language of diplomacy, and the

138

66. ATHANASIOS CHRISTOPOULOS, Lyric Poems [Vienna], 1811. Athanasios Christopoulos was considered to be a great poet of his generation, and his publishing career began in 1805, with the Achilles and the Grammar of Aeolic-Doric. His Lyric Poems, of which there were four editions before 1820 (1814, 1817, 1818), were first published with no indication of place or press, though actually in Vienna at the press of J. B. Zweck (formerly of Georgios Ventotis). The work was published without the poet's knowledge, and the expenses were met by Tzannis Koutoumas and Drosos

Vienna

WBMBEgJ •

.

:

-

:

••••••

••-•-

W ΦΙΛΟ

ΠΑΡΕΡΓΑ. Ν νν

π ρ α" τ ο κ ΤΤΠίΙΘΕ'ΝΤΑ,

Ε y îiiêvi/y ΐης.&κς

ι 8οο .

139

giaci

Nikolaou. It was prefaced by a prose lin­ guistic satire entitle Dream, which was perhaps by either Christopoulos himself or Stephanos Kanelos. Ideologically speaking, the work is typical of the Phanariot cli­ mate of the time and attacks Korais. Oth­ erwise, it is a work of lyric poetry which, as Kanelos observes in his Notes for the Apologist, has a 'great sweetness in these lyric verses'.

AYPJIA ΑΘΑΝΑΣΊΟΥ ΧΡΙΧΧ01ΤΚΛΚ

finance required for the publication. At the same time, they approached Anthimos Gazis, who was resident in Vienna, to undertake the implementation of the venture. Gazis was a cleric with a profound interest in letters, editor of the three-volume Lexicon of the Greek Language (Vienna, 1809, 1812, 1816), and a close acquaintance of powerful politicians such as Kapodistrias, then Russian foreign minister, and the metropolitan Ignatios, a leading figure in the cultural affairs of the Danubian principalities. He immediately answered the call, and on 1st January 1811, Anthimos Gazis (archimandrite of the Greek church of St George in Vienna) published the first volume of the Learned Hermes, appending to it the by now stereotypical Notice announcing the publication and intimating its contents to readers. NOTICE The present literary journal is already taking itsfirststep, at the urging and partly at the expense of the newly founded Literary Society of the Greek Lyceum in Bucharest; its purpose is to furnish literary news, relating mainly to knowledge of the Sciences and Learning; to observations on the Greek language; to comparison of phrases and idioms of the modern language with those of the ancient; and to purifying the modern language. To news of newly published books in Greek and foreign languages relating to Greek literature and the new discoveries of the Sciences in Archaeology, Geography, History, Chronology, Economics, and other such beneficial matters, contributing to the advancement of learning. The said Literary Society is donating to the most famous schools of the Greeks a copy

ór ydtzn ç /o'/y '/{.M/ja-fco

A.'uiot-/
66

67. Learned Hermes, published by Markidis Pouliou Brothers, Vienna, 1811-1821. The idea of founding a literary journal was inspired by Adamantios Korais, whose exhortations encouraged Ignatios, the metropolitan of Hungro-Wallachia to propose the concept to the members of the newly founded Literary Society of Bucharest. The response was immediate, and the members of the Society contributed the

140

Vienna

fi •" Ρ

r~%

M Γ I

s

ι χ 2/0*

*£N ΒΙΕΝΝΗ, ΤΗΣ Α 0 Ϊ 2 Τ Ρ Ι Λ Σ Λ Ήκ Toi Tujîoyjaçen'j , Ί » . BKJS-A, SfSxiew.

67

141

of this Learned Hermes, which shall be pre­ sented here in Vienna to whatever fellow Greek or acquaintance the wardens of the Τ F Α Γ l ì Δ Ι λ", local schools shall determine, so that it shall !ΐ,*'·,.εί; ψίντΐ πνίξεις di.tjcy^ev/j, be sent to them safely. Any other erudite and muse-loving Greeks who desire to have \-- 'Χργγραφεί&ά μί^πΰξά ι ο ί Εϊγίπςάτΰυ Α'ξχαντΰ; L·the present Learned Hermes, shallfindit Γ- ^ α Λ ο Μ ^ λ ι & ο κ χί,'ΰΐΌυ Ϋακωβακ»ν'Ιξου, τον with the patriots listed below, paying at the ';':..':• Λομ$ φι%ογ.εΗ7ς*. . · ' . - \ :--. beginning of each six months the sum of 7 1/2 piastres, or 15 for a whole year. In the present year, in each month, two leaves of paper, or two printed sheets will be published; one on the first of the month, and the other on thefifteenth,or on occasion more, depending on the material, with paper covers, like the present sheet. All erudite Greeks who are resident in Greece are therefore asked to inform me immediately of their observations, that is, those relating to Geography, Astronomy, Natural History, Archaeology, to ancient Inscriptions, the only venerable remains of 68 antiquity; to the sites of ancient cities, to nal gave great prominence to matters of coins; to parchment manuscripts, and to any linguistic interest. other thing of this sort relating to learning, The language question, which had which will be noted in the present Learned become one of the vital concerns of intel­ Hermes with their name and in the observ­ lectuals, particularly from the last decade er's own words. By good fortune. of the 18th c , and had set literary ques­ tions within a context of ideological con­ frontation, emerges graphically from the The contents of the Learned Hermes in pages of the Learned Hermes. The jour­ the event diverged from the stereotyped nal, indeed, became the mouthpiece of announcement in the 'Notice', and the circle around Korais with regard to played an important role in many issues matters of this nature, and withstood the of concern to Hellenism during the peri­ systematic attacks of other literary jour­ od of the Enlightenment. The larger part nals in Vienna, of Kalliope, and of Panayof the contents was devoted to material otis Kodrikas and his circle. and research relating to announcements The Learned Hermes, which had a pre­ of and comments on new publications, determined fortnightly circulation, attract­ critical reviews of books, and articles on ed an important circle of colleagues around ancient Greek literature and language. it, amongst whom are to be counted the There were also articles of archaeologi­ most important intellectuals resident in cal interest, reports of excavations, and Vienna, such as Stephanos Kanelos, Nicopublications of inscriptions, and the jour-

•Π0Λ;ΤΕΕ'Ν,Ή.

142

lo Piccolo, Christophoros Philetas, Konstantinos Ikonomos, Benjamin of Lesbos, Neophytos Vamvas, Daniel Philippidis, and many others. This circle was educated in the west and had connections with the major centres of Europe and helped to give the Learned Hermes an international literary interest, as its issues began to include news of translations of foreign journals, and the like. During the course of its life (18111821), the Learned Hermes came to be sold over a very wide geographical area extending from Bucharest, Constantinople, and Odessa, and from Moscow, Trieste, Livorno and Paris, as far as London. Despite this, the movement never seems to have been strong enough to create a solid core of subscribers and a permanent, secure financial base, and publication of it became difficult for long periods, such as 1812-1815, when the number of issues announced was not in fact printed (in 1814 seven issues were printed). In 1813, Theoklitos Pharmakidis was called upon to save the journal, followed later by Konstantinos Kokkinakis. The lack of subscriptions was made good shortly before the beginning of the Greek Uprising by the members of the Literary Society of Bucharest. This made it possible for the journal to appear frequently after 1816, and it finally closed on 1st May 1821, with an announcement of the beginning of the Greek War of Independence.

ot intellectual world, published the wellknown KorakistiL· before the Greek Uprising (1813), and two tragedies inspired by the Classicism of the time; these were clearly influenced by the French classicising style, but of no aesthetic value. The

J&JS-vp mHttxmer'O/aipr

rcyéïfta j>e'foy ττύ'Ιλβί

it&iryemi as jvr yaû'y rnJ jrewfi
rr/fear*

ehr/ τη ϊφττύλΜον

li û'Ju'c-:, *>'

ftfiaTtapieo/ieynif « an/ff!Wsi<s -„> r ï w ^ j w A i f ^

•?"**

70

first, the Aspasia appeared in 1813 (Vienna), and the second was reprinted, after the present work, in Smyrna, in 1836. Two years later, in 1816, he published another work, the Abduction ofKourka, in the same classicising style, based on Lutrin, a satirical poem by N. D. Boileau.

68. IAKOVAKIS RlZOS N E R OULOS, Polyxene, Vienna, Johannes Bartholomew Zweck, 1814.

69. MICHAEL PERDIKARIS, Hermilos or Dimokrithirakleitos,

Iakovakis Rizos Neroulos, one of the most characteristic personalities of the Phanari-

The Hermilos or Dimokrithirakleitos is one of only two works by Michael Perdikaris

first volume [Vienna], 1817.

143

Vienna

to be published, the other being the Pre­ liminaries to the Hermilos, which appeared in the same year. Characteristically, the subtitle Dimokrithirakleitos, is drawn from Voulgaris's Logic. The printing of the book was supervised by Anthimos Gazis and was partly financed by the Agoras brothers from Kozani, who lived in Pest. Perdikaris was born in Kephallinia and brought up in Kozani. The publication was beset by a num­ ber of major mishaps that are indicative of the critical nature of the times. The Hermilos was written before 1807 and Perdikaris notes that he finished it 'with a thousand dangers and endless toil and trouble'. The manuscript was sent by the author to Gazis on 15 February 1815, via Budapest, but the anticlerical nature of both this and the Preliminaries to the Her­ milos made the Austrian censors scepti­ cal. Permission was finally given for its publication, after a favourable recom­ mendation by B. Kopitar, on condition that the place of printing should not be included in the book.

70. HOMER, Iliad (a paraphrase by Georgios Rousiadis), Parts A-D, Vienna, Greek Press of De Hirschfeld, 1817.

112. Title-page ornament of f. Baumeister.

the wealth of monumental architecture in ancient Greece. The critiques and comments of his contemporaries were by no means flat­ tering about the quality of the transla­ tion: When Hades saw Homer was blind, he asked Who blinded thee? - G. Rousiadis

ΓΕΩΡΓΙΟΙ ' 2ΑΚΕΑΜΡΙΟΓ IATPoT JTOI EK KOZÄJK

;

ÎIO I H M A T I A . t

lpoff ^ωνηΘί ντα π β ρ «ù-ou

:-::ΛΛ

Tû

" >§! ; g

^ ^ ''

TS. :τ ι fj..w τ α τ ω kuciip

Mogi φ. -

Ι ΚΛΝΣΤΑΝΤΙΝ,Ω,

^2~*S

Ε

Ν

hiwu'^τυΤΛγρνψΰο

TAKIATZHj

ΒΙΕΝΝΗ Toy • -Ιώ a Wóìj 2νΐ?αερ Λ -

71

7ΐ. GEORGIOS SAKELLARIOS, Poems, Vienna, Johannes Schneirer, 1817.

This rhyming translation of Homer's Iliad is from the hand of the Macedon­ ian scholar and author Georgios Rou­ siadis, who moved in Phanariot circles. The edition of the Iliad was printed in four volumes dated 1817, and is illus­ trated by 38 engravings, many of which are of a symbolic character, extolling the spirit of Classicism through depictions of the nine Muses, or giving prominence to

The title Poems covers the entire poetic output of Georgios Sakellarios. The collec­ tion comprises two Laments 'for the death of his beloved wife', two Nights (influenced by the work of the same name by Young), in which the poet reflects on the vanity of the world, and a poem 'on vanity'. This is the first and only edition of this collection, which was published by

144

Vienna

the Kapetanakis brothers and financed by Konstantinos Takiatzis.

ic Α Λ A ,1 Ο Π Η ΠΑΑΙΝ0ΣΤ0Υ2Α

72. ZlSIS DAOUTIS, Various Moral and Humorous Verses, Vienna, J. B. Zweck, 1818.

.

ΠΕΡΙ ΠΟΙΗΤΙΚΗΣ ΜΕΘΟΔΟ T.! V r r

γ

rj

Π VI "'" '" <ί ' ", ~ ' , xcù k-ονψ . ' C-ira -ίο / · " ! - , και ευτάκτ'ω;, T.aça

The Various Moral and Humorous Verses, in the form in which it appeared, must have given rise to confusion amongst the reading public, since many of the poems in it were printed anonymously. The Memnonby Voltaire, for example, is published in a translation by Evgenios Voulgaris in 1766 (the very year in which his Logic appeared), with minor variations. The Letter of the American Zeila is printed in an anonymous translation, based on Claude Joseph Dorat, Lettre de Zeila, jeune sauvage, esclave à Constantinople à Valcour, officierfrançais(Paris, 1764). And the Concerning the Vanity of the World was composed in verse by Kaisarios Dapontes, and was first published in 1766. Finally, 65 anonymous Phanariot verse works were published under the title Assorted poems with a variety of material.

•' · "II

ri» il

i i f tu
Χ 'νΡΙΣΙΟΤ Λ Η Μ Η Τ Ρ ΐ Ο Τ ΜΕΓΔΑΝΟΤ Τ Ο ΐ"

,-. ._. ..

_

E_K- Κ Ο 7, Λ Λ1

i„-^:~°<^

':'

ΗΣ.

ψχ{ά Χ ^ ο χ , και Χίφε'λειαμ των Φιλόμουσων Ν ι'ι τοΖ Γένους, των τψ ΐίοιψιχ-ήν ,υ,ΐ-: •• ' -ρίχομένων.rVÙv'.'TîûWtcv Ύϋτ.Οίζ εκώθείσο ; Δαττάν-^ τοϋ 'Ενπμολο>'f[urâroy za!. $(Xc^EV£çarûy

'••·-.- 'ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟ Γ l i M N N O r •'Τ'ΛΚΙλΤΖΒ.

'-• Έ ν - Β ίιν νη r i ; Αουςρι-άΐ,

;

;

: της T'uftoy ρ « ω t'a ς το.ί" Ί ω α ν ν ou £ν'ε'ίρερ.

»-.-• '.. •· '••' • .. i 8 i ; 9 · . · ' :

r;'"

."„:.. Λ*?-

73

73. CHARISIOS

MEGDANIS, son of Demetrios, Homecoming of Calliope or Concerning the Poetic Method, Vienna, Johannes Schneirer, 1819. The first of the varied writings of Dimitriou Megdanis was published in 1812 and had a historical character. Entitled Greek Pantheon, it is a collection devoted to the mythical history of the Gods. Through the romantic work Homecoming of Calliope or Concerning the Poet-

145

z'c Method, Megdanis informs his readers, it is his desire to record the methods and kinds of the art of Poetry, since this art has been embellished both by our ancient ancestors and by the modern Sages of flourishing Europe. He believes, indeed, that the practice of Poetry by the young will broaden the horizons of the Greek people. Megdanis's text opens with an epi­ gram in four lines in praise of M. Perdikaris, composed As an Example ofsin­ cere Friendship. His method includes the different kinds of verse, the conjugations and voices of words, and the kinds of poetry (Dramatic, Comedy, Elegiac, etc.).

Budapest

MâtyJstemplom - Mitiaskirche.

113. The Cathedral of St Matthew.

146

BUDA-PEST

(1787-1820)

Έhe Greek communities of many of the towns in Hungary were formed during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries by Greeks who came to Hungary from the Ottoman empire, mainly from Macedonia. They enjoyed economic success that culminated in the 18th century when they engaged in organised commercial and trading activity. After they had come together in communities, they proceeded to erect their own churches and run their own schools, though their connections with the homeland remained strong and found expression in a range of benefactions. The need for Greek books, initially of a liturgical character and later school text­ books and others, was satisfied by purchases made in Venice and on the com­ mercial distribution networks for Greek books. Just as the Greeks of Vienna assigned the printing of their books to Austrian presses that possessed Greek type­ faces, the Greeks of Pest, from 1787, and of Buda, from 1796, invariably printed their books on Hungarian-owned presses; down to the Greek War of Indepen­ dence of 1821, about 22 of these books were published in each of these two towns. The authors and editors were scholars, teachers, students and clerics who either lived permanently in Hungary or were temporary residents. The financers of and subscribers to these volumes were mostly merchants, parents of schoolchildren, and the reading public that was gradually created. The books themselves were school textbooks, and historical, philosophical and scientific texts. As we have noted, most of the Greek books printed in Hungary were writ­ ten by Greeks living in or having connections with the country. The most impor­ tant of these men succeeded in assembling notable personal libraries of manu­ scripts and printed books, both Greek and foreign. Their studies, their affinity with the Hungarian way of life, and above all the great ideological and politi­ cal upheavals of the period, led them to a consciousness of their national iden­ tity that was based on knowledge of the Greek past. This called forth the admi­ ration of the Hungarians and other Europeans who came into contact with them, but set them apart from the other Orthodox Balkan peoples of the empire. The best example of this national consciousness is provided by the first historian of Greek literature, Georgios Zaviras (Siatista in Macedonia 1744-Hungary 1804). Zaviras was a merchant and scholar who produced a wide variety of writing (45 original works and 19 translations), giving expression to the intellectual tra­ dition of the Greeks of Hungary, both in his own day and in later times, thanks to the vicissitudes experienced by his unpublished work, and the fortunes of his fine library of manuscripts and books.

147

The interest in publishing evinced by Greek communities

Ρ Buda-Test

74. MICHAEL PAPAGEORGIOU, A handy, full guide to the German language for inexperi­ enced Roumeltots, Pest, press of Frangiskos Patzo, 1792. Michael Papageorgiou (Siatista 1727Vienna 1796) studied in Ioannina under Evgenios Voulgaris, and then in Ger­ many, and taught in schools in Greece, Germany, Hungary and Austria. He compiled and published books on the teaching of his mother tongue (Alphabetarion) and German (three series of lan­ guage method books and a dictionary). The book presented here saw two other editions (Vienna 1772 and 1793) and con­ tains a German Alphabet Primer and vocabulary, and German-Greek dialogues set in Greek and German typefaces. The book is addressed mainly to Greek-speak­ ing merchants who traded in Germany.

75. K O N S T A N T I N O S K A R A IOANNOU, Treasury of Gram­ mar, 2 volumes, Buda, Royal Press, 1796-1797.

114. Ornament of the press of the Royal Pandidakterion.

Academy at Jassy, where he may well have known and associated with Iosipos Moisiodax. In his greeting to readers, Karaioan­ nou asserts that / have not encountered to this day a treatise on grammar of this kind, and goes on to set out the reasons why • Θ Η Σ Α Τ ΡΟ'Σ

' '"ν

ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΙΚΗ^/ΣΤΝΤΕΘΕΓΣ ΜΕ'Ν Ί1Σ CFlON TE ΈΤΜΒΘΟ'ΔΛΣ ΠΑΡΑ' TO'!' ΒΗΣΤΗΜΟΝΙΚΛΤΑ'ΤΟΤ 'ΙΑΤΡΟΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΟ? ΚΩΝΣΤΑΝΤΙ­ ΝΟ* ΚΑΡΑΪίΙΑ'ΝΝΟΤ , ΠΕΡΙΕ'ΧΛΝ 'ΑΝΕΔΛΕΙΠΙΓΣ ΈΚ ΠΑΝΤΛΝ,ΤΛίί ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΙΚίΤΝΤΟ'KA'AAISTONΆΦΙΕΡΧΙΘΕΓΣ Δ Ε "

Ι

.

ΐ- ΤΟΓΣ ΈΚΛΑΜΠΡΟΤ ΑΤΌΙΣ ΚΑΓ„ > ΈΛΛΟΠ'ΜΟΙΣ Τ Ι Ο Γ Σ Τ σ Τ ' Τ ψ Η Λ Ο Τ Α ' Τ Ο ΐ ' ΕΎΣΕΒΕΣΤΑ'ΤΟΤ ΚΑΓ ΣΟΦΧΪΓΑ'ΤΌΤ '

-

Ή Γ Ε Μ Ο' Ν Ο Σ • Π Α ' Σ ( £ | ρ W ï O B A A X I ' A S ΚΤΡΙ'ΟΤ'ΙΏΑΝΟΤ ΆΑΕΕ VNAPOT ΚΛΝΣΤ ΛΝΤΙ'ΝΟΤ

Μ Ο Τ Ρ Ο' Τ Ζ Η ΚΩΝΣΤΑΝΤΙ'Ν'Λ, Γ Ε β Ρ Γ Π ί , ΔΒΜΗΤΡΓΧί, •ΝΙΚΟΛΑ'«, ΚΑΓ ΤΛΓΈΚΛΑΜΠΡΟΤΑ'ΤΑ Α'ΤΤ ΑΔΕ'ΛΦΧΪ> Α'ΤΤΟ~Τ ΚΤΡΙ'Λ '

.

ΠΑΝΑΓΙίΙ'ΤΗ. ΝΤ-Ν.ΠΡίΓΤΟΝϊΤΠ.ΟΙ2ΈΚΔΙ'ΔΟΤΑΙ μετά 7Tçoff^iixvjÎ πολλών Κανόνων ανεκδότων, και αναγκαίων παραδειγμάτων φίλοτνόνφ ΰπαδ$> ΆΆΊ ακξϊ€% άίΰζΆίύΰει ΤΟ ερ Ίίξεΰΰιν έλαχίςΰ Π Ο Α Τ Ζ Λ Ή S O N T 0~ϊ \, Λιδαϋκάλα τ£ εξ Ιωαννίνων. , * Τ Q' Μ Ο Σ Α. Έ Ν Β 0 Τ' Δ Α Ί Εν τ« Βζα\ικ% Ύνιπογ§&φί# τίϊΐ χατQó
*

* *

The Treasury of Grammar by the doctorphilosopher Konstantinos Karaioannou, a Thessalian man of letters and close col­ league and adviser of Prince Gregorios Gikas, was the first Greek book to be printed at Buda, at the Royal Press of the Hungarian Academy, using a typeface and other typographic material taken from similar centres in Vienna. Karaioannou, who was a member of the circle of pupils around Voulgaris in Constantinople, and probably also at the Athonite Academy, played a leading role in the introduction of reforms into the

148

75

the Treasury approaches perfection. The publication was edited by Polyzois Kontos, also known as the writer of the Dialogues for the Dead.

76. The Ostracism of the Impious Chistodoulos the One-eyed ofAkarnania, Buda, Press of the Royal Pandidakterion of Hungary, 1800. The Ostracism of the Impious Christodoulos the One-eyed ofAkamania is the last of

Buda-Τest

75

149

a series of pamphlets published with regard to the philosophy and views of Christodoulos Pamblekis, as recorded in his Of Philosophy (1786). These pam­ phlets include the Letter of Evgenios Voulgaris (1791), the Liturgy of the Oneeyed (1793), the Reply of Anonymous (1793), the Wretchedness of the Wiseacres (1794), and others. In the preface to the anathema addressed to the 'Pious Readers', it is -iTPOXEIPOS, «i ΕΤΠΟ'ΡΓΣΤΟΣ

Δ Ι Δ Α"Σ Κ Λ Λ Ο Σ, /

ΤίΤΝ ΠΡΧΧΤΟΠΚίΡΠΝ Ρ'ΛΜΕΛΙΤΧΤΝ, ,ΤΙΓΣ . .ΓΕΡΜΑΝΙΚΗΣ ΓΛα'ΣΣΗϋ. TOTSÇÎ , .

hiGXioy ετ&φελεςχτον, καϊ • «ϊκγχαΐΰταην, εις έχεινβς TÎ5Ç, Ϋίομελίτας OKIZ Ttifowi, Swi vè. jt$kä$j&» Γε.?μα'/ιχ& Γ$χμ*οί vTiçi/χ« ïrfi;«», ΓΚΡΜΆΝΙ.' ΚΟ*Ν Α'ΛΦΛΒΗΤΑ'ΡΙΟΝ. Hantfltj Ρ'αΜΑΙΙΚΟΪΈΡΜΑΝΙΚΟΥΝ ΛΕΞΙΚΟ'Ν. ^ τμτα •, ΓΕΡΜΑΝΟΓαΜΑΙΓΚΟΔίΑ-

Εφ ^ tf*W(S ΜϊΧΑΪΓΛ ΠΑΠΑ" ΓΕΛΡΓΐΟΤ, τ?Γ 2lATISTE'iiS. TeC T/p«T«Tey, ^ %^οΊμωτάτον t '»

ΓΕΛΡΠΌΤ

ΚΛΝΪΤΑΝΤΙ'ΝΟΤ

r

\ ;~

ΠΕΛΕΓΚΑ.

Τίϊ ί* KASTOHAS,

Kv ΠΕ'ΣΤΑ,. I79J. •Ε» τΐ ΎιΛιγ^φφ ti ΦΡΑΝΚΙ'ΣΚΟΤ ÏÎA'TZKQ.

74

stressed that the cause of this blasphemy is not Christodoulos, but others: 'but Ahitophel had many other collaborators and assistants in this, both pupils and friends, who printed it and distributed it free to anyone who wanted, in order to supplement that which he, the godless, had not been able to finish; some of these followers are even now still distributing those booklets'.

150

77. FRANCOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA MOTHE FÉNELON, Adventures ofTelemachos, translated by Demetrios Govdelas, vols. I-II, Buda, Press of the Royal Pandidakterion, 1801. Second translation of Fénelon's Aventures de Télémaque (1699), based on the first translation by Athanasios Skiadas, published in Venice in 1742. The third edition of this work, in Govdelas's translation, was also published in Venice in 1803. Translations and editions of Fénelon's work were the product of the interest in the ancient world and the demand for works of a moralising character. This novel was read by Greeks as a historical text containing moderate moral and political precepts and pleasant excursions into the ancient past, which lay somewhere between myth and history.

Buda-Test

Ό ΈΗίΙΣΤΡΑΚΙΣΜΟ'Σ • Τ Οτν

Α'ΣΕΒΟΥ-Σ • • - ·

ΧΡΙΣΤΟΔΟΤ'ΛΟΤ T O T "

ΜΟΝΟΦΘΑ'ΛΜΟΤ ΤΟΤ~ ΕΞ ΆΚΑΡΝΑΝΙ'ΑΣ •• ' :. .

;.'. -

tó, ψτά

'Ά Τ :0 ϊ '

ΤΜ έοεζάχ; ccVTod εξενεχάερ,''m)

" ίνιώταις

' :^'

'retiti των Όξάοξοζών'ΕκκΧ^-

/ , σ/αις αναγνωσ^εν

-'

,.

ΦΡΙΚΤΟΝ ΣΤΝΟΔΙΚΟ'Ν 'ΉΔΗ

ΠΡΧΓΪΟΝ ΜΕΤΛ

,

ΤΤΙΊΧΙΘΕ'Ν

ΤΟΪν

,

Π Ρ Ο Ο Ι Μ Ι' Ο Τ

ΔΑΠΑ'ΝΗ ΦΙΛΟΧΡΙ'ΣΤΛΝ*

;

ϊ

V,wç ο No/moç CÖ Κυ^ιε. ΠασαΓα» ivroX«) ά*8 α Χ ^ « « ' -— ;

Ψαλμ: giPj· 8 5, 86·

MW ι ιιι ι τ τ ι τ — — • ΙΤΊΜ 11 • ι ιι ni ι^ — ••!•• i i ι — i l • ι »η» 1111M iMi 111 •"! 11 • nf ι πι •• • fiiniry—iMiMrnmifmw nr—r ηπ πητητι ΤΤΜΓΙ Π IWÌIW* Ι — Β .'•

f

-

1.

-•*-·•· • ' - • -

••••••

! • • • - • •

'• •

• •

'Έ.Ν ΒΟΤ'ΔΑ, l g ο; ο„

76

151

•

- ·•••—• • '

• ;..;•—•' ; . • ' '• .;..

•

'

·

;

•

"

ΕΜΠΟΡΙΚΗ Η

Τ

ΟΔΗΓΙΑ Ο Ι

Α Κ Ρ Ι Β Η Σ - Κ Α Ι ΣΑΦΕΣΤΑΤΗΝ Δ Ι Δ Α ^ Κ Α ΑΪ Α ·, ΝΑ

ΚΡΑΤΗ

ΤΙΝΑ'2

TÀ

ΚΑΤΑΣΤΙΧΑ

£'ΐΣ

ΠΑΡΓίΛΑίΣ'AIÎIAAÎÎV

Κ on u ς

Τ Η Ν

ΣΚΡΙΤΟΥΡΑ Κα( νί. χάρη μι,

·Ν*Τ Ο Π Ι Α

ΙυκιλΙαν "χάΒι Μπιλάηζιο

,ΚΑΤΑ- ΤΗΝ ΜΕΘΟΔΟΝ ΤΩΝ ΟΛΛΑΝΔΕΖΩΝ. Υ

•••

„ Α'μχ$ήι ϊμ-κοςν; 7r>.sriy i>6($inct òXtirSafat, t, Η lïifya iè, κ' ïj τξοχοτή àcvioç πλΖ-χος μύει.

Τ Ε Ρ Γ Ε 2 Τ Ι Ω, EV τ? Τναογμφ!«

η

l'udiva Wbturka

1 7 9 3.

79

152

ZHÎJXÏM,

TRIESTE

(1787-1820)

Τ*

he presence of Greeks in Trieste, albeit in small numbers, from the middle of the 18th century onwards, stirred the business interest of Georgios Konstantinou, an employee of a Greek press in Venice who was a compiler and editor. Konstantinos decided to found a press in the free port of Trieste, anticipating that he would capture part of the Greek and Slav book market. However, he was prevented from creating his press by the reaction on the part of the Greek presses of Venice to the danger of competition. The Greeks of Trieste were never to found a Greek press, not even during the decades when the Greek community was growing, nor later when it was at its zenith. Their needs were met by the printers of Venice or Vien­ na, or by the foreign-owned presses of Trieste that possessed Greek typefaces.

The publications of a flourishing Greek community

115. The Caredotti Residence in Trieste in the middle of the 19th century.

From 1787 to 1820, thirty-five Greek books were printed in Trieste at seven of the city's presses. They had a very wide range of contents, though the most important of them were combative volumes responding to the critics of the Greek people, or taking sides in the ideological struggles of the day. Some books sup­ ported a pro-Russian stance, while a few had a religious content and a few more were literary in character. There were also a few school books, while the aids for merchants, though numbering only three, supplemented what was almost a complete system of handbooks relating to commercial professional training: com­ mercial arithmetic, the keeping of account books, and commercial correspon­ dence, all compiled by Greeks of Trieste.

153

Trieste

78. KELESTINOS OF RHODES,

biskos, who was director of the of the Androulakis-Tambiskos and Pontini company in Trieste at this time, and was responsible for its correspondence. The book makes use of the question and answer method tried and tested in the Grammatical handbooks. It gives def­ initions and examples of the accounting entries that need to be kept by a merchant, taking advantage of the large format to set out specimens in which the pages cor­ respond with those of an actual commer­ cial account book. Many of the examples in the book, moreover, make use of real figures, and considerable interest attach­ es to the attempt to establish how far the general body of details provided by com­ mercial handbooks constitutes an accurate reflection of the commerce of the period.

Wretchedness of the Wiseacres, Trieste, Imperial Royal Press, 1793. The Wretchedness of the Wiseacres is another publication that was mar­ shalled against modern ideas; it deals with the chapter 'On Thought' in the Logic of Evgenios Voulgaris, and was published under the pseu­ donym Kelestinos of Rhodes in the form of a response to an imaginary letter. A piece of contemporary evidence suggests that this was a pseudonym for Spyridon Zarzetos. The book was one of the large number of combative publica­ tions of the time that formed part of the conflict between modern and traditional ideas, between enlightened scholars and Church circles.

80. Devotional prayers, Gaspar Veis, 1804.

79. [IOANNIS TAMBISKOS], Guide to Commerce, Trieste, Ioannis Batistas Speraindio, 1793.

Trieste,

This is an extensive collection of prayers, chants and canons gleaned from liturgi­ cal books for use in the Christian home, though not in church when following the services. It has been claimed that it is the work of Agapios Leonardos, a teacher in the school of Dimitsana and Argos.

Guide to the keeping of account books with examples, showing merchants how to fill in their account books using the double entry method {scrittura doppia). On the cover, beneath a fine picture of the port of Trieste, shown fully active as a trading port, are printed the verses: 'An unlearned merchant irrevocably loses his wealth. / But experience and progress make wealth remain' The book 116. Title-page ornament offended the pride of the merchants, of the Brantaze which was quite sensitive on this point; and Bessek press. it is presented as an instrument by which they can overcome their professional ignorance. The author signs his name with the initials LT., and may have been the wholesale merchant Ioannis Tam-

si. [IOANNIS Β ALASISACHYRAS], Introduction to Grammar, Trieste, Imperial and Royal Press of the Armenian Fathers and Mechitaristes, 1809. This book by a teacher at the school of the Greek Community of Trieste was printed at the school's expense and used as a handbook for teaching purposes.

154

Trieste

* ,

**

ι

^

Cd Φ.

Η ΑΘΛΙΟΤΗΣ J O N \) ΔΟΚΗΣΙΣΟΦΩΝ, ί)το< άτολο<7<ά υπεξ της πίςέως Τ Λ Ν

&4

X P I 2 T I A N Ü N

SRV

τ

προς àvaiçBcriv ηνων φ<λο<το0ίκων' λημμάτων*

Ε7Π'£ολΐί Χυν^εθ«(Γ« ττα^α Κελες/ν»' Ta ΡοίΑ,

If·

If

•Ss

'δ f

ε £ <γ ε ς t ω'·,· . -μ,ωνίας.

Ϊ

7 9 3/

78

155

;,-• Μ. +:

JOHANN GOTTLOB IMMANUEL BREITKOPF

117. Engraving with the silhouette of J. G.I. Breitkopf.

156

LEIPZIG

Tthanks to the fame of its University, Leipzig developed into an important German book centre as early as 1430, but it was not until the 18th century that the circumstances arose in which Greeks turned to the publication of Greek books on its presses. And despite the fact that Leipzig became the third most important centre of Greek books during the Neohellenic Enlightenment, after Vienna and Venice, the subjects covered by these editions do not enable them to be assigned to any specific publishing programme or ideological orientation. What distinguishes Leipzig from Venice and Vienna is that the city had only a small Greek community, compared with the flourishing Greek populations of the capitals of the Serenissima Repubblica and the Austro-Hungarian empire. The majority of the Greek books produced were thus destined for export, to be channelled to the dispersed Greek public through the bookshops of Vienna and Greek booksellers. It is unlikely that any Greek printers and publishers (not in the sense of financiers) worked with the presses of Leipzig, apart from Thomas Mandakasis, who was the link between Voulgaris and Theotokis, and possibly others; no Greek printers, at least, signed the editions that came from the presses of the city. The largest number of books is signed by Emmanuel The presses of Leipzig Breitkopf, who collaborated from time to time with Härtel and J. Gottlob. This is the famous publishing house Breitkopf & Härtel, which acquired world-wide fame on account of its unique library. Others who distinguished themselves as printers of Greek books include G. W. Sommer, A. Martinus, Eng. Ben. Swickert, J. G. Mankins, and others. The total number of editions, which were presumably ordered by Greek publishers and merchants or the booksellers of Vienna, amounted to about 120 titles, dating from between 1695 to about 1831. In the 18th century, however, the production and distribution of Greek books in Leipzig was not monopolized by Greeks, since other printers who had commercial ties with booksellers in Leipzig and Vienna produced Greek books aimed at German and Austrian philological and university circles. One such work was the monumental edition of Theocritus's Idylls, with commentary by Henri Estienne, Isaac Casaubon and Joseph Scaliger, printed in 1765 by G. A. F. Loeper. The typographic character of the Greek editions printed in Leipzig reflects that of similar books produced in Vienna: Breitkopf's typefaces, for example, are

157

A centre of the free Greek press

similar to those of Baumeister. No ligatures are used, except in a very few cases, and the initial capitals are not distinguished by their elegance; this is also true of the headpieces and the entire range of decorative material used at the beginn i n g s m d

The typographic character of the publications

e n d s o f M v i d u a l

cha

ters

R e d

k

· ^ W a S U S e d 0 n l y m u b l i c a t i o n s o f a P liturgical or generally theological content, such as the Divine and Holy Akolouthia, printed by Sommer in 1775. The De officiis of Nikolaos Mavrokordatos, printed in the workshop of Th. Fritsch in 1722, offers a striking contrast with the other Greek editions of Leipzig. The elaborate portrait of the ruler opposite the title page predisposes the reader for an excellently designed book. The bilingual (Greek and Latin) is austere, despite being printed with a calligraphic font, with references at the sides of the pages. There are no initial capitals, headpieces, or other decorative ornaments, apart from a very tasteful engraving on the subject of the peaceful coexistence of man with the animal kingdom. Finally, mention may be :-&JiC made here of Sommer 's edi­ tion Sacred Gleaning of the Old and New Testament (1775), which is embellished with a large number of full-page engravings. Any attempt to draw general conclusions from the subjects of the Leipzig editions soon leads to an impasse. It may be noted, however, that most of the Greek books date from the second half of the 18th centu­ ry, from 1757 to 1799, and include original works by leading figures of the Neohellenic Enlightenment, such as Evgenios Voulgaris's Logic, Ige

;

^

¥

^

ig

158

1

P

_ _ ^ _ _ _ v , _ „ ,_r..™™™__,„„_™„__>. ^ 1 ^ ? ' ' ^ ωψ^^ϊ^Γψ)

Leipzig. This was perhaps the same year that Nikiphoros Theotokis was in Leipzig Leipzig, publishing the Elements of Physics and the Speeches on Lent, before he assumed the headship of the Princely Academy in Jassy. Ilias Miniatis's Stone of Scandal had already been printed on Breitkopf 's press in „t , Λ . 1 l ì 6 SUDICCtS 1718. This was an anti-papal tract that appeared in printed „ , ,. . form for the first time four years after Miniatis's death (1714). In 1766, the Mirrors of Women, by the great 18th century poet Kaisarios Daponte, was printed for the first time, also at the press of Breitkopf. A respectable number of Leipzig editions is represented by theological books, in contrast with Vienna, where no such books were published. The Orthodox Confession, which was connected with one of the great theological issues of the 17th century, in which a leading role was played by the patriarch Cyril V, was printed on Fritsch's press in X.SchloßotlerTefttiTig . lo.JWw Colegiu. die tua, g e und Buifcnbusn? Gros Col egtum . Γη tick, fi-uben., 1695. This was the same year %S'Ihmtas Ktrch. li.Qjrimmtj'eh - ....... . ,Thor . . „ . . _, Korri Uaus ? Rentte-rcy. y. Pauh fi er Kirch. \X.S.?ftclatt,s Kiirh. "T.SarfiffcrThor. tA..Pa.u.tinnrrCóliqt.u.Tn-. 2.3. Geïvand hau s that the Latin Orthodoxa ConΧΚοτη haus . tr.PeSerj Ktre% . x + .ffùlafir fehà. b-Baffüf/rr Kirch l6.Petters Thor. if Thomas Thor. iKgndijch Thor, 17. PrÜers- Co le g tum- l " ' Thoma-J ft hui . fessa Catholica appeared from Sntuffch Thor. Iß. Buse k Keller, the same workshop. In 1758, the Breitkopf and Gottlob press published a Proskynetarion of Jerusalem, the Evangelical Trumpet by Makarios Patmios and the Psalterion and Annual Bible, in a total of five editions from 1760 to 1768. In 1761, the Interpretation of the Gospels by Theophylaktos, archbishop of Bulgaria was reprinted, having originally been published in Rome by Antonio Biado as part of the initiative of Cardinal Gervini. The Proskynetarion ofJerusalem was reprinted by Breitkopf in 1780, and two years later, the Orthodox Teaching of Platon, the metropolitan bishop of Moscow, appeared from the same press, translated into ι^Μο^υ^ια^ϊάψψιη^ ein#emctnt (teller• Q r It " J ^lÏKàkfrmxtfcfi affi, 6ie imi î>urrfpict άάμ <mt£,·, Greek by Adamantios Korais 118. Engraving t » ei$c^<wejtfiumt^ himself. Leipzig. 1665. ,

159

of

Leipzig

119. Leipzig press in the 17th century.

An important part of the publishing map at the time of the Neohellenic Enlightenment is given over to translations of works of western literature, though in Leipzig this category is strikingly meagre. The only such works here are the Death of Abel, by Salomon Gessner and Montesquieu's Le causes de la Grandeur et de la Décadence des Romains, in 1795, Eustathios Makremvolitis's The adventures of Hysmene and Hysmenias (1792) and Iakovakis Rizos's Aspasia (1823) and Ioannis Skarlatos's Zizanion, a drama (1831). At least four Leipzig publications bear the seal of the rulers of Hungary-Wallachia. The first of these, printed by Fritsch, was Nikolaos Mavrokordatos's Deofficiis, in 1722. This was followed by a translation from Italian by Manos Apostolis entitled Adages of old philosophers, in 1772, dedicated to Konstantinos Basarab, and three years later the Sacred Gleaning in 1775, with the seal of Gregorios Gikas, prince of Moldavia and Wallachia; and finally, the Political Theatre, translated from Latin by Nikolaos Mavrokordatos and printed in 1758. For the first two decades of the 19th century, from which we have a total of about 24 editions, the orientation of publishing remained the same and the printing of Greek books was monopolised by Breitkopf and Härtel. The dominant figures were the official representatives of the Church, Athanasios Parios and Evgenios Voulgaris, who wrote books such as the Hundred years after Christ (1805) and the Christian Apology (1805). Four editions between 1816 and 1817, with a geographical content, also came from the hand of Daniel Philippidis, amongst them the Geography of Romania. Finally, special mention should be made of Demetrios Chatzi-Polyzois, a teacher in Vienna who later also taught in Leipzig. Having decided to produce a philological pamphlet against ignorance, entitled Vengeance most just, on Breit kopf 's press, he found himself at odds with the printer himself and his pupils in general. It is worth stressing here with regard to the Greek press in Leipzig, a subject that has not been touched upon by historians of the book and printing, that it flourished mainly at the time of the Neohellenic Enlightenment, largely as a result of its freedom of the press, which was not subject to censorship or questions of privilege, a characteristic hallmark of Venice and Vienna deriving from the politically and ideologically disturbed years of the 18th and early 19th century.

160

Leipzig

120.Kaisarios D'aponte, portrait of 1730.

161

Leipzig

82. N I K . A L . M A V R O K O R -

monk Kaisarios Daponte (1714-1784), whose life was full of vicissitudes, travel, questing and aspiration. He wrote in a sappy, popular language and produced verse versions of old stories, chronicles, works on geography and travels in quest of 'the wondrous stories and rare things of the world'. It moves somewhere between Christian self-control and repentance and the inquisitiveness and curiosity about the world that was predominant in the century of the Enlightenment.

D A T O S , De officits, Leipzig, Thoma Pritschius, 1722. The De officiis is a philosophical essay by the Greek Phanariot ruler of the semiautonomous principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia (1709-1730). Based on moral philosophy and clearly influenced by Aristotle and Cicero, it presents models inspired by virtue and social justice. , ί ΐ ί * w i " /X-aJi/ JÎEPJ ^ Κ Α Θ Η Κ Ο Ν Τ Ω Ν

|g|

·... " B T Β Λ Ο Σ

:'•

. ϋΤΕΓΡΑΦΕΪΞΑ Π-APiC TO'? ΕΤΣΕΒΕΣΤ-Α'τΟΤ, Ί*¥ΙΪΑΟΤΑ'τοτ β

84. EVGENIOS VOULGARIS,

ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ ΝΙΚΟAÄOY .

Logic, Leipzig, Breitkopf, 1766.

ΊΛΕΞΑ'ΝΔΡΟΤ ΜΑΤΡΟΚΟΡΔΑ'ΤΟΐ

ΒΟΕΒο'ΔΑ. ·"

'••%·]? ":.

.'•

DE

''

' Ivi B E R ,

."' '

The Logic of Evgenios Voulgaris was widely disseminated to Greek schools, since he himself taught it for years and circulated a fairly large number of manuscript copies. It is an important work, worthy to stand alongside the great writings of the European Enlightenment. In it Voulgaris draws comparison between the great western philosophers of his century - h e shows a special preference for Leibniz and Wolff- and the ancient Greeks. He censures Theophilos Korydaleus and writes characteristically that the later Greek peripatetic philosophers had not done enough walking. He liked to introduce examples drawn from the natural science of his time and was in favour of experimentation as away of seeking for the truth. Linguistically, Voulgaris adopted an extreme position, asserting in his 'Prolegomena' that philosophy can only be taught to one who has a command of ancient Greek. It is worth mentioning at this point that this work contains the first reference

Τ

'"'•

Ο F F I C- "Ï I S

i < r a ^ C R I P _ T U S ; ^ ; p n S | I M O , G'p.SÏSSIMO ATQUE SAPIENTISSIMO..fîiN'CIPE AC DUCE TOTJUS UNGRO-YALACHIA * -

.'••'·

DOMÌNO,.QOMINO

J 0: Ä NN* E

N I C O L A O

-.'' ÄLEXANDRI MAUROCORDATO ï' - , ν θ Ι Ϊ Ο D/A. r ' . ΈΜΤΙΡΧΕ-Ίίφε

SE-CUÎTDA

LÂriX£:CON[ ERSU$t

$ LIP

S J AL *

EX OFFICINA T H O M Ä FRITSCHII, 172:

82

The virtues of the citizens of the ancient world are incorporated into the framework of Christian ethics and regulate the rules of behaviour, in which rationality is predominant. The work was first published in Bucharest in 1719. 121. Printer 's mark of Breitkopf and Härtel.

83. KAISARIOS DAPONTE, Mirror of women, vols. Leipzig, Breitkopf, 1766.

I-II,

Verse biographies of good and bad women from the Old Testament, by the

162

Π Ρ Ο Ο I'Mν Ι Ο Ν ο; TE s κ ο π ο s το~ϊ

3 Ι Β Α Ι Ο Τ, Κ Α ί Τ ί Ν Ε Σ irtçX Κοάγχοντων αιιλα,βοίΐ, Κεφαλαίων , Λ . νεκεν ο Θεός τη TS ώ/Β-ξύττα φύο-c-t τα, <τπίξμανα της ίςετ-φ Sii όενημΤν λόγος, (ω των α,λλων ζωών Άενψόχο,μεν) ΙΛΓΛ'γορενχ τα, §ίοντα, a-waSit τε suìj τ& rî? εγγρίφα νόμχ τόϊς έγκεαο„ λα,μμ&οις tkétaSjeu Τη φύο-Η Τυποις. λύχνος γαρ φηο-ι τοϊς ποο-'ι μα ν,Λμ "• Ρ*! ), ο νόμος ο-χ, x.oìj φως τους Τξίβοις μα. Sìa, h τψ TS ττξοττΛΤοςος ΜΧΛξτίφ) /χ,μ,α-υρωσενΤοίς αυτχς, ελλα,μπομενοι τη χα,ριτι τύ noUvaνόμα, οφάλομεν τους άπα της 3-είας γραφής βα/φους κα,λλΰνοντες,

Ε

PROOEMIUM SCOPUSQUE LIBRI, & qui de Officiis fcripfcrint. • A ρ· fc lex Scripturaria impreflîs primitus Nfita lunt divinitus natura: ho- naturx fìgnis. Lucernaemm mquit^^-t!S-v-'°s-

Î minis lèminiâ virtutis.

Itaque ratio in nobis (per quam a ceteris anim.ilibus diftingvimur iisqueprav celiimus) dicìat quid fit conveniens quidve fieri oporteat: concinitque

pedìbus meis verbum tuum, & lumen femuismeis. Sedquia perpeccatum primi parentis haec figna obfcurata iiint,debemus,iiluitrati gratia nova: legis, ea tincìuris divins Scripture A τόϊς

•ΜΛ· '

163

Leipzig

was Johann Christian Fischer. Essential­ ly it is a work by Voltaire, in which there is a historical account of the leading fig­ ures of the Patriarchate, and in which the ideological problem of the two Church­ es is touched upon. Voulgaris, who enriches the edition with a large number of notes, praises Voltaire: 'Voltaire is always Voltaire, bringing good and bad together in the same works, and min­ gling things that deserve acceptance and praise with things worthy of aversion and censure.'

to Voltaire in a Greek text, at a time when he was still alive and had been widely condemned for his liberalism, by a Greek cleric, amongst others. •

•

•

•

•

•

•

••

,

*

'

.

·

•

ΠΕΡΙ ΤΩΝ

ΔΙΧΟΝΟΙΩΝ ΤΩΝ EN TAIS

ΕΚΚΛΗΣΙΑΙ2 TH2 ΠΟΛΟψΑΣ. Δ Ο Κ Ι ΜΙ Ο Ν

ΙΣΤΟΡΙΚΟΝ ΚΑΙ ΚΡΙΤΙΚΟΝ

At the end of his introduction to the 'Dear Readers', Voulgaris thought it appropriate and necessary to refer to the question of religious tolerance, to which frequent reference is made. In this way, out of a need to give expression to and define the concept of religious tolerance, Voulgaris introduces one of the funda­ mental principles of Western Enlighten­ ment and enriches the modern Greek vocabulary with the new term anexithriskia.

Tcûkmç dç την χοιητερ&ν τ<3ν,#Φ yjtfcc Efâwcûv Διάλεκτο»

Μετοιφξκ&εν

MSTÌ4 χ, Σίΐμοωματων τιψψίζορ(mv vi, Kçmm-j en h τ(λιι κ£ο?ιτί$η ΚΛΪ

2 Χ ΕΔ ΙΑ 2 ΜΑ Π Ε Ε Ι

ΤΗΣ ΑΝΕΞΙΘΡΗΣΚΕΙΑ2. ί'κ -Tat. 7ιέ ijì- c,/ix,,„„ Το) ^ 7ο'^ι .

1768.

85

85. Historical and Critical Essay Concerning Disunity in the Church of Poland. [Evgenios Voulgaris], Design for Religious Tolerance com­ prised of two treatises: the first, Concerning Disunity [Leipzig], 1768. 122. Printer's mark of Breitkopf and Härtel.

The work entitled Historical and Critical Essay Concerning Disunity in the Church of Poland. Design for Religious Tolerance comprised of two treatises: the first, Con­ cerning Disunity, is a translation made by Evgenios Voulgaris, based on an anony­ mous work whose author, it is hinted,

86. NlKIPHOROSTHEOTOKIS, The Discovery of the Ascetic Writ­ ings of Isaac, bishop of Syros, Leipzig, Breitkopf, 1770. Nikiphoros Theotokis prefaces the edi­ tion of the life of Isaac, bishop of Syros with an address to the readers in which he refers to the initiative of Ephraim, the patriarch of Jerusalem, in entrusting to him the publication of the surviving works of Isaac. Ephraim had himself discovered the Philoponemata of Isaac in the Lavra of St Sawas in Palestine, and had studied them zealously. The volume is divided into 86 speech-

164

es recording Isaac's preaching and exegesis on matters relating mainly to the human soul. The edition is supplemented by four letters written by Isaac to his brothers, such as the 'he who loves tranquility' .

87. Sacred Gleaning from the Old And New Testament, Leipzig, Sommer Press, 1775. This is an edition dedicated to the prince of Moldavia and Wallachia Gregorios Gikas, the address of which is signed by Polychronios Demetriou who made the translation from the German original. The original was published in 1705 by the German theologian, teacher and academician Johann Hübner. After that date, the Sacred Gleaning was reprinted again and again in Latin, Italian, Russian and Polish. It contains fifty-two stories from the Old Testament and a similar number from the New Testament. The narratives are enriched by full-page characteristic illustrations, probably based on the original.

given the task of touring various monastic centres in the Aegean and mainland Greece in order to collect manuscripts or copy those he was unable to acquire ; the long-term aim was to provide support for Greek studies, now upgraded, at the university centres of Nikaia. Amongst the many, varied treatises written by him is the Epitome of Logic, which was first printed in 1605. The Leipzig edition, edited by Dorotheos Voulismas of Ithaki, also contains other works by Vlemmydis, such as the Concerning Physics, Speech concerning the body, Speech concerning the soul, Speech concerning Faith, and others.

89. [DEMETRIOS CHATZIPOLYZOIS], Vengeance Most Just ...on Ignorance, Leipzig, Ioannis Breitkopf, 1791. The pamphlet Vengeance Most Just ...on Ignorance, was written by the teacher of the Greeks, Demetrios Chatzi-Polyzos (Polyzois). As the author himself informs his readers, he wished to compose a kind of 'Speech against Ignorance' on the model of Lucian's Peri Diabolis Logou. Meantime, however, the teacher's psychological balance appears to have been disturbed, to the point where he incurred the mockery of the Greeks who lived in Vienna and Leipzig, where Polyzois taught. Polyzois over-reacted to these imagined or real taunts, and the ' Speech against Ignorance' became a kind of rambling counter-diatribe against his imagined accusers and persecutors, who supposedly included some of his former pupils - who had, moreover, failed to pay their fees.

88. NlKIPHOROS V L E M M Y DIS, Epitome of Logic, Leipzig, Breitkopf Press, 1784. Nikiphoros Vlemmydis, who lived from 1197 to 1272, was an outstanding literary figure during this troubled period of the Byzantine empire. He led the life of a monk from 1235 onwards, was a teacher, and later served as counsellor to Theodore II Laskaris, the emperor of Nikaia. In 1239, after he had won the emperor's unqualified trust, he was

165

123 .The library of the Hermitage, which received Catherine the Great's collection of books. Painting by A. Vasil 'evie Tyzanov.

166

Moscow - ST PETERSBURG (1770-1820)

Tthe religious and political relations between Russia and the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem necessitated the creation of a Greek school and press in Russia. A press was almost founded in Russia in the last decade of the 17th century, at the initiative of Dositheos, the patriarch of Jerusalem, who wished to establish a press that would be productive and secure against political instability, on which to print books to counter western proselytising propaganda. This press never came into operation, but its typefaces were used by the Greek Lichoudis brothers in Moscow in 1704 to print the first trilingual dictionary. In the 17th and 18th century, Greek relations with Russia were served by pamphlets and books of pro-Russian content printed on the presses of the European cities. Ï >' During the 1770s, at the time of Catherine the Great and the Russo-Turkish war, some of ™ —_ — ^™ this output was printed in *» -« ^sâ ' ' ' Moscow and St Petersburg. This practice continued later, too, during the second RussoTurkish war and Napoleon's campaign against Russia. From 1770 to 1821, about 40 Greek books were published in Moscow and as many again in St Petersburg. The presses in question were owned by Russians and the typesetters knew no Greek. The writers, translators and editors of the books were Greeks resident in Russia. More than half the editions were by two important scholars and bishops in Russia, Evgenios Voulgaris (1716-1806) and Nikiphoros Theotokis (1730-1800), and were works of philosophy, history, theology, ecclesiastical rhetoric, and science. Notably, the works of Voulgaris include his translations of four works of Voltaire (1771). The publication of many of these books were financed by the Zosimas brothers, merchants from Epiros who had commercial headquarters in the town of Ninja in the Ukraine, as well as in Moscow and Livorno. Their name is synonymous with national benefactor. The brothers supplied the funds for the publication of about sixty Greek books, not only from the presses of Russia but also in Venice, Vienna, Bologna and Paris (1796-1842).

167

The provision of Greek education and the national expectations of the Greeks

124. View ofthe Kremlin in Moscow during the coronation of Catherine II.

Moscow 90. EVGENIOS VOULGARIS, St Petersburg To the Auspicious ... marriage ... of Paul Petrides ... and Natalia Alexievna ... a Wedding Tribute, 1773. Ode by Evgenios Voulgaris in ancient Greek with the translation by Lucas Sitchkarev opposite, written to celebrate the marriage of the grand duke of Rus­ sia, Paul and Natalia Alexievna. One of the many flattering pamphlets written by Voulgaris, and a little earlier by Antonios Palladoklis (1771), to the empress Cather­ ine the Great, and her family, courtiers and generals.

umes appeared in 1792). In his title, Voul­ garis declares that the translation was made at the command of the empress Catherine II, to be used by Greek and Russian youths and those brought up in Greek communities. The volumes are prefaced by Evgenios Voulgaris's address to Catherine II, in Greek. The Latin and Greek texts are printed on opposite pages, with the commentary at the foot of the page.

•EYXAPISTI'A ΜΕΓΑ'ΛΗΝ KÏPl'ÀN Τ ? Ι Π Ε Ε Α £ Τ Ο Ν

ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΟΡΑ

ΆΙΚΑΤΕΡΙΝΑΝ Ì A'ïTOKPATOPIKOf

9i. EVGENIOS VOULGARIS, A Thanks-giving to Catherine II, Moscow, Press of the Imperial Acad­ emy, 1775.

-

Σ ; Λ Λ Β Ι Ν Ι Ό Τ ΚΑΙ' Χ ε Ρ Σ Γ Γ Ν Ο ^ "

Μετά

_ '

A brief thanks-giving from Evgenios Voulgaris to the empress Catherine II, on the occasion of his enthronement as arch­ bishop of Slavinion and Cherson, for all that she has done on behalf of Orthodox Christians, and a prayer wishing long life to herself, crown-prince Paul and his wife Natalia. It is followed by the address to the archbishop of Moscow, Platon, delivered when Evgenios Voul­ garis was ordained priest. 125. Ornament, in the form of a headpiece, of the Imperial Academy of Science.

ΘΡΟ'ΝΟΤ Α'ΤΤιϊΐ * τ' no' " Ε ' ϊ Γ Ε Ν ί Ό ϊ Α'Ρ.ΧΙΕΠΙΞΚΟ'ΠΟΤ,' τ ί ϊ xeiÇoTZv'txj άντ8.

*"È«i Α'ΡΟΕ' οχτνβρ,

«.

91

93. A N A S T A S I O S M I C H A E L , Grammar of the Russian Dialect, Moscow, Christian Ridigeros and Christopher Claudius for the Imper­ ial University Press, 1796. Book by Anastasios Michael of Philippoupolis in Thrace, dedicated to the brotherhood of Greek merchants in Moscow, three of whom, all of whom came from Ioannina and traded in Moscow, financed the publication. The text of the Grammar is supplemented by

92. V I R G I L , Aeneid, translated by Evgenios Voulgaris, vol. I, St Peters­ burg, Press of the Imperial Academy, 1791. Translation of Virgil's Aeneid into dactylic hexameters (the second and third vol­

168

Moscow St Petersburg

imiAiAHI

£

d£,//,

AKCBIKl'ìSi'Ort

- , C ~ , /• {'LA- ' /L·,,,,/,, ./, •'/„•.„,„„/

óL.,.^

/ •

/.:, ,,„••„„;.„ •„„Λ..,/.,, • .•/ f·/,,„.,/,.-r ./.-, Or*!™ <ά •;'••/,„/.-,,/.;. •/"' //r.,„.„/,-r •_'/.-Si ,/r /., ex,/.- ./, Ci /,',.. Ι $'„„/ V ;-,.,:,· Jr. • y-/.;,„ ./•• 7„„/ì/'„. .-/ S« un/*» »i ,'sì/,..„,r ai /,'cfyi /X,,.- ..,. ,/.•, /:'/?„„,:./.,..

169

126. Engraving of Archbishop Evgenios Voulgaris shortly before his death, dedicated to count Alexander de Stroganoff who was, inter alia, Head of the Imperial Libraries.

Moscow 'a collection of words' and 'dialogues' in St Petersburg common use (set in two columns, of

95. The Homeric Antiquities and Archaeology of Corfu, Moscow, Press of Liubi Gariu and Popov, 1804.

Greek and Russian).

94. NlKIPHOROS THEOTOKIS,

The Homeric Antiquities and Archaeology of Corfu is a translation by archbishop Evgenios Voulgaris of two works: Everardus Feithius, Antiquitatum Homericum libri IV (1677) and Angelo Maria Quirini's Primordia Corcyrae (1725). At the beginning of the edition is appended a list giving the names of the authors from which information has been drawn relating to questions of state, practical matters, customs and morals, cults, and many other things mentioned in the Homeric poems. An indication of the complexity of this publishing endeavour, with its references to ancient texts and additional passages in many different languages, is given by the list of Oversights, which occupies eighteen pages.

Elements of Mathematics, vol. I, Moscow, Christian Ridigeros and Christopher Claudius for the Imperial University Press, 1798.

96. NIKIPHOROS THEOTOKIS,

96

Kyriakodromion, vol. I, Moscow, Liubis, Garios and Popov for the Community Press, 1808.

A gleaning by Nikiphoros Theotokis from the works of earlier and modern mathematicians. The first volume contains Geography and Arithmetic, the second (1799) the Theorems of Archimedes, Plane Trigonometry and Conical Sections, and the third (1799) Algebra. The 127. Ornament, in the form of a headpiece, of publication was funded by the Zosimas brothers to be distributed free to schoolthe Imperial Academy of Science. children. The address to the Zosimas brothers makes reference to important teachers from Ioannina and their work: Methodios Anthrakitis, Balanos Vasilopoulos, and Kosmas Vasilopoulos son of Balanos.

Interpretation and moral commentarysermon on every passage of the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of St Paul read on Sunday during the Liturgy (two volumes). The edition was printed at the expense of the Zosimas brothers, as was the two-volume edition of 1796 containing the sermons for the passages from the Gospels. These publications, of bound volumes in valuable, hard cases, were sent to monasteries, schools and leading individuals.

170

Moscow St Petersburg

p====

iUKcXTCVlA/h àAeZJOJSMà/^ I :77ar( vW*TGJA/' A JEEJLJAA ^ ? •" _

_

;

J£ 7 . .

•)<; Τ •

.

_

ìli

.}£. j . :

'

-

<...' - • •

; -

: ', ' ' •' -

-

-

_

.

.

.

.

.

.

128. Catherine the Great, engraving from Varinos 's Dictionary, Venice, 1779.

Ê

TÏwXW

«.yafàî , & „ s e i ,

êl;WaTA,

•rè Λ5φ%ο» τάλβί^Ίτοϊ 3-Ditio-ttT» . hi MoU'rm

C^Uovïf 6 ^'ÙSÇ Ì J / ^ T ' θποι notfti X
S 1 i *.V «

'"'*

»ι «μφ-ίλος, ji Ast^f^te» TO V P S« > tè 'sr'r »*•

129. Decorative composition in the colophon o/Akolouthia for the Fifteen Holy Martyrs, by Gregorios Konstantinidis, hieromonk, published in Moschopolis in 1741.

*?

172

MOSCHOPOLIS (1731-1765) J. he first attempt of any note to operate a printing press on a systematic basis in the area of the Greek East under Ottoman rule was at Moschopolis, a town in northern Epiros near lake Ochrid, which experienced great development towards the end of the second decade of the 18th century: more specifically after the Treaty of Passarowitz (between Austria and Turkey) in 1718, which favoured Moschopolis and enable it to develop into a major commercial crossroads. The inhabitants of the town, who numbered about 60,000 in the middle of the 18th century, were occupied in trade and craft-industrial activities, and also promoted learning through the foundation of an Academy and the creation of a fine library. However, the press at Moschopolis, which first began to function in 1731, did not support Greek education and culture, since its publications were mainly of texts with a liturgical character. Neither the founder nor the financer of the press is known; what we do know is that the entire organisation of it was shouldered by the hieromonk and printer Gregorios Konstantinidis. This press, which for most of its life operated in the Monastery of Hosios Naum, was equipped with original material, in terms of its fonts and embellishments. The aesthetic appearance of the publications of Moschopolis was influenced by Romanian printing and is characterised by the extensive use of woodcuts of religious content, in layouts not found otherwise in the history of Greek printing. The total output, from 1731 to 1769, does not exceed 16 editions. Of these, only three had a secular content.

MOUNT ATHOS

(1759)

J. he second attempt to establish a permanent press in the general area of Greece was on Mount Athos. Given the great size of the monastic community, the liturgical needs of the many of churches, and the spiritual requirements of the monks, all the conditions were present in which a publishing house on Athos could survive and grow. The question of founding a press first occupied the holy corn-

173

ai press at the service of the Orthodox faith

130. Moschopolis, from an engraving in the Prodromos Monstery, Vienna, 1767.

An attempt to establish a press in the monastic republic

munity about 1750, more specifically in the context of the Athonite Academy, which functioned in the grounds of the Vatopedi Monastery. The inspiration for the idea was that of Evgenios Voulgaris, the head of the Athonite Academy, who in 1754 informed the patriarch, Cyril V, of his intention to establish a print­ ing press in the monastery. This initiative never became more than a working plan, however, and when Voulgaris left the Athonite Academy a few years later, even the Academy itself gradually went into decline.

131. General view of Mount Athos, engraving by the archimandrite Minas, Moscow, 1768.

132.Printer's mark of Gregorios Konstantinidis in Moschopolis.

ΛΟΥΚΑΣ

Nevertheless, the idea of operating a press on Mount Athos seems to have begun to mature, and in 1759 the archimandrite of the Great Lavra, Kosmas of Epidavros, entered into a partnership with the printer Doukas Sotiris of Thasos, and supplied him with all the necessary typographic material. Sotiris, who had previously worked in Jassy, supervised the cutting of the characters, assem­ bled the decorative material required, and in 1759 produced the first and only publication of Mount Athos: the Selection from the Psalterion. Although there was a general willingness to follow up on this first effort, the Psalterion was, in the end, the only fruit of the enterprise.

174

SMYRNA

(1764)

J. he publication of the Akolouthia ofhosios Symeon, this time on the Asia Minor coast, at Smyrna in 1764, encountered great difficulties. It is no surprise that efforts were made to print a Greek book in Smyrna, an area that had deep Greek roots and a large, dynamic Greek population, The edition is signed 'by Markos', and the texts were edited and proof-read by one Konstantinos Emmanuel of Rhodes ; nothing further is known of either of these. Judging by the character set, the material may be identified as coming from the Moschopolis press, and was either the remnants of this set, or was recast using the original moulds. With regard to the decorative material used in

An unsuccessful begining

133. Smyrna, coloured engraving (aquatint), by I. Clark (W- Turner. Journal. London 1820).

the edition, special interest attaches to a woodcut at the top of the first page of the text. The subject of this is unprecedented in a Greek book, since its characteristic feature is the insignia of the British royal family: the lion with crown and horse, set in a decorative floral composition, the main axis of which is a stylised lily. The large warships of the British fleet are known to have had presses on board, and it is not impossible that, in unknown circumstances, the book was printed on a British ship in order to avoid the formalities required to establish a press in Smyrna.

175

Moschopolis 97. Akolouthia of Saint Bessarion, Mount Athos archbishop of Larissa, Moschopo­ Smyrna lis, Hieromonk Gregorios Konstanti­ nidis of Moschopolis, the printer, 1744.

134. Printer's mark of Gregorios Konstantinidis in Moschopolis.

The tenth publication from the press, and the last of the ten printed by Gre­ gorios, who himself edited the book. An Akolouthia, or Phyllada, is a manuscript or printed pamphlet containing the serv­ ice held on the day dedicated to the memory of a saint who attained sancti­ ty in later times, and whose name is not, therefore, included in the twelve Menala. The Akolouthia for Saint Bessarion (f 1540) was first printed in Bucharest in 1705, edited by Mitrophanis Grigoras. The fol­ lowing Bucharest edition, in 1759, is regarded as the second edition, possibly because the Moschopolis edition was not known. The spread of the veneration of Bessarion, as a saint who offered pro­ tection against the plague, to a wide area ('guardian and truly protector of all Thessaly and the pride of Greece and Epirus'), may be associated with the need to bolster the religious morale of the Christians, to which the circulation of the akolouthia and synaxarion of a new saint, of great distinction in the general geographical area, will also have con­ tributed.

98. Selection from the Psalterion, Mount Athos, Doukas Sotiris, 1759. This is the only printed book produced on Mount Athos down to the end of the 18th century. It was printed at the Monastery of the Great Lavra, with the financial support of the archimandrite,

176

Kosmas of Epidavros, to whom was also owed the initiative for founding a press in the monastery. The printer employed was Doukas Sotiris, who first worked in this field in Jassy, in 1743, and who undertook to engrave a new set of characters to meet the needs of the monastery press. The title page is adorned by his printer's mark: an eagle with a crown held by two winged lions, and the initial letters of his name, Δ.Κ. and Σ.Τ. at the four corners. It is highly interesting to note that a papal ornament is printed on page 6 of an edition produced on such a bastion of Orthodoxy as Mount Athos.

99. Akolouthia ofhosios Symeon, Smyrna, 'by Markos', 1764. This edition of the Akolouthia ofhosios Symeon was financed by the monks of the Flamouriou Monastery, which clings to the north side of Mount Pelion and gazes over the Aegean. It is the first Greek book to be printed in Smyrna, by a printer named Markos, using characters that belonged to the Moschopolis charac­ ter set. The proof-reader is stated to be Konstantinos Emmanuel of Rhodes, at present unknown from any other source. The probable cir­ cumstances in which the book was printed are examined in the present section.

••ΕΚΛΟΓΉ Τ ο ί Ύ Α Λ Γ Β Β ί Ο Τ ΠΑΜΤο'Σ ISuXXiy^ <*& (Χψ 7Μζ& τα ϊΛλΰγΐΐΑω*. •T^Tä Ai^Ä^ttÄXy Κυ£Λ8 JM ίο ίου τ? y τ a ίζ L· {ό f ou ων . «,α^Ά'® ΑΝ A S I Ω. τω àu τω Α^ω · NiuT 7?}Μψί Τυ7ΐοΐζ ΟΚ$ό&&ά$£§Ι

177

135. Corfu, procession of St Spyridon on the Spianada, J. Cartwright, Views of the Ionian Islands, London, 1821.

178

CORFU

(1798-1817)

A

although the Ionian islands hardly felt the weight of the Ottoman yoke, and gradually came under Venetian rule from the 14th century to 1797, the intellectual achievements of the scholars of these islands are not on the same level as those of the Cretan renaissance. And despite the fact that many Cretan scholars sought refuge in the Ionian islands after the capture of Crete (1699), and that communications with Venice became more frequent, the question of founding a press never seems to have been considered seriously. It was only with the capture of Venice by the advancing armies of Napoleon (1797) and the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1799), when the Ionian islands were placed under French occupation, that the question of installing and operating a press arose. From its foundation in 1799 until 1817, the Corfu press was indissolubly linked with the political history of Corfu and the Ionian islands in general. The press was a public one, and was an instrument of political authority, supporting the occupying forces of the day, as is obvious from its publication output. The press was founded by the French Republicans in April 1799. The direction of it was assigned to Pavlos Kappadokis of Corfu, and it was staffed by French technicians and installed in the Monastery of St Francis. During the brief period of its operation, repeated attempts were made to enrich it with new printing materials, mainly with character sets from Italy and France, and to ensure that it was supported by experienced craftsmen and proof-readers, so that its publications would have an excellent, authoritative appearance. This first press on Corfu ceased to function on 20 March 1799, with the departure of the French from the island and the entry of the Russian and Turkish troops. The Russian-Turkish occupation lasted until 21 March 1800, after which the Septinsular Republic, a semi-autonomous Greek state under the suzerainty of the Sublime Porte, was created. In 1800, Dionysios Sarandopoulos was appointed director of the press, and attempted to improve its quality by ordering new material from a foundry in Venice. He also visited Trieste to perfect his technical knowledge of type-setting. From the end of 1803, the Constitution of the Septinsular Republic was in force, with a special decree relating to printing, but in 1807 the Ionian islands reverted to French occupation (1807-1814). The director general of the Ionian islands, César Berthier, took a direct interest in the revival of the Corfu press, and proclaimed the importance of printing for any civilised people in a decree issued on 3 December 1807. The running of

179

Ideological and administrative documents during the period of French rule

Corfu

136. Corfu, engraving from A. Marmora, Della Historia di Corfu, Venice, Presso il Curii, 1672.

137.Emblem of editions and singlesheet pamphlets printed on Corfu during the period of French Republican rule, 1798-1799.

the press was still in the hands of Sarandopoulos, and the directors managed, through appropriate manoeuvres, to impose religious and political censorship, though this undermined the credibility and appearance of the publications. Things did not change until March, 1808, when Berthier was replaced by General Donzelot, who saw to it that the equipment of the press was renewed

(:ίττΑ~ΌΪ

CORFV;"

E ^Sv£

FORT Ε

ζ ζ Έ

and that it was staffed with more competent personnel. The new printing mate­ rial arrived on Corfu from Naples in October 1809, together with three Neapoli­ tan printers. The press continued to operate until 1813, still under Sarandopoulos, despite the many attempts to replace him. In 1813 there was a further attempt at reorganisation, under the direction of the Italian printer Pasquale Gambardella. When the British took over the island on 26 June 1814, Gambardella was removed from the press and Dimitrios Zervos was appointed director by the British General Campbell. The problems con­ tinued, however, during this new period of the press's activities, and conflicts about the ownership of the printing material formed a major obstacle to its smooth operation. The end of 1817, and the issuing of a new constitution for the Ionian islands, marked the beginning of the long period of the British protectorate', which came to an end with the incorporation of the Ionian islands in the Greek state. In 1843, indeed, after a long period during which only the state was allowed to print, permission was given for the founding of private presses in the Ionian islands, and freedom of the press was established by a decision of Parliament on 22 May 1848.

180

The press of Corfu was a typical example of an instrument of political authority, as we have already noted. From its presses appeared all kinds of documents associated with the political administration: decrees, laws, constitutions (singlesheets), newspapers and books, in four languages - Italian, Greek, French and English. It is indicative that from 1798 to 1817, out of a total of at least 175 titles, only 65 were works of literature and academic treatises, with five more of theological content and three school handbooks.

Corfu

138. Emblems of editions and single-sheet pamphlets printed on Corfu during the period of French Republican rule. 17 98-i7 99.

181

Corfu

works, designed to be used as a response to the criticisms levelled against the Greeks by J. L. Bartholdy. Lellis's translation of the Love of education is a rendering of an article published in the Journal de I 'Empire in Paris, on 11 September 1808, above the signature Ω (= J.F. Boissonade).

100. Collection of various novels, Corfu, D. Sarandopoulos, 1807. Selection and translation by Ioannis Kaskambas of moralising and love stories and a variety of myths drawn from named and, more often, unnamed sources. The book was approved for publication by the public press on account of its simple style, its lively discourse, and the correct ideas of its author, qualities that

102. Essai sur l'état de la civilisation des Phéaciens, Corfu, 1811. Work by M. A. Melikis written in French and translated into Greek by Nikolaos Mavrommatis, and published in both languages, in two columns, extensively annotated in Greek at the foot of the pages. It is a history of the civilisation of Corfu (arts, letters and sciences) from the time of Homer to the end of the 18th century.

139. Emblem of editions and single-sheet pamphlets printed on Corfu during the period of the Septinsular Republic (1799-1807).

103. A T H A N A S I O S C H R I S T O POULOS, Lyrika, Corfu, Press of Corfu, 1814.

made it worthy to benefit the Greek people. The book was dedicated to Russian officials in the Septinsular Republic and in Russia.

Second edition of the collection of poetry by Athanasios Christopoulos (17721847), based on the first edition, pub101. J. F . BOISSONADE, The lished in Vienna (1811), but with 140. Emblem of editions love of learning of present-day and single-sheet omissions. The edition is attributed to Greeks, translated by Konstantinos pamphlets printed on A. Z. Kallos. It has been said of the LyriTheodoridis Lellis, Corfu, Dionysios Corfu during the period ka that they were 'the first notable poetof the Septinsular Sarandopoulos, 1809. ic voice heard in Greece since the capRepublic (1799-1807). The Love of learning of the Greeks is a small ture of Crete (1699), The poems, of few lines and a wide variety of rhythms sixteen-page pamphlet translated from revived a 'minor' school of poetry, that French into Greek by Konstantinos of Anacreontic poems, and at the same Theodoridis Lellis, who was from the time, after a century and a half of poetPéloponnèse, and printed at the expense ic silence, created the appropriate cirof the translator himself. It is a brief list cumstances for a lyrical tradition that of modern Greek authors and their

182

culminated in the work of Dionysios Solomos.'

models of ancient Greek lyric poetry. As he himself confesses, he followed the sound left in his ears by the poems of Anakreon, and rejected any mechanical, superficial resort to ancient metres, and

104. SAMUEL JOHNSON, Rasselas, Pnnce of Abyssinia, a Tale, Corfu, Press of the Administration, 1817.

ME'Λ H

Corfu

A'NAKLPEONTIIC A" ! τ Ν:τκ e ι Ν Τ A

Translation by Petros Petridis of John­ son's Prince of Abyssinia. A Tale (1759). The work has a strong didactic element, with its effected choices in the plot and the development of the legend, and was apparently not well received by the Greeks - a circumstance for which the rhetorical translation was partly to blame. However, it had been already translated into Greek in Livorno in 1806, when it was planned to publish it, and it appeared again in Athens, in 1861, in a different translation.

'·

Π Ά Ρ Α ΓίΙΑ'ΝΝ'όΥ

ΖΑΜΠΕΛΙ'ΟΥ

A K r t A A i ' o r .

x.f;„

> λί£«,.

•ÄK Ε Ρ Κ Y Ρ A ÉÏÏ Τ« ί ϊ ΠΛΤ Ι· A • I 1 T!iS A I Û I K U I E Û Î . lu.?.

105

the foreign custom of rhyming verses and syllabic metre. In terms of language, he moves somewhere between the declarations in favour of the archaising language and the proclivity for the popular language professed by other poets of his time: his aim was a high language that was a mixture of the learned and demotic tongues. Zambelios is better known for the tragedies he wrote: the elements in his success were his patriotic fervour, his ancient repertoire, in the manner of Vittorio Alfieri, and his pedagogical didacticism.

»mmiMtmHSZmgmmmmmiimBii:

105. I O A N N I S Z A M B E L I O S , Anacreontic songs, Corfu, Press of the Administration, 1817. Collection of 40 Anacreontic love poems and io Anacreontic Bacchic poems from the youth of I. Zambelios (1787-1856), who wrote with an eye on the Classical

183

141. Emblem of editions and single-sheet pamphlets printed on Corfu during the period of the Septinsular Republic (1799-1807).

Zakynthos

.

.. . .

...... .. , .

it4·:--: - " i.

I

.

! i

ΑΔΑΜΑΝΤΙΟΣ ΚΟΡΑΗΣ

: 142. Engraving of the bust of Adamantios Korais.

ITO ΞΗΝ1ΙΝ MEN ΙΣΑ AK Tilt ΦΥΣΑΣΙΗ Μ' ΕΛΛΑΔΙ ΠΕΦΙΛΠΜΕΝΗΝ FUN ΤΟΝ ΠΑΡΙΣΙΩΝ KEIM AI 1:γΐ**0η τό ι *?4$ *ι*ί» άπΐ9χν? %ό iÄ'J3, Aitateti 6. '""•"ιΓ i ? i i i . i ?yt

184

ZAKYNTHOS

(1810-1817)

Έhe establishment and operation of a press on Zakynthos is associated with the political situation prevailing in the Ionian islands. When the British occu­ pied Zakynthos in 1809, they immediately took steps to found a press, which was already functioning in November of 1810. The actual presses and other essential equipment were probably purchased in Malta, and the press was orig­ inally set up in the home of Andreas Kornilios, though it later functioned in a room built specifically for the purpose. The equipment was rudimentary: a press and sets of typefaces with Latin and later also Greek characters. It was decided to produce a fortnightly news-sheet entitled Newspaper of the Liberated Ionian Islands (1813). Since 1811, the British had already published a newspaper in Italian, the Gazetta Zacinthia, which had an overtly propaganda character and lavished praise on the benefits they had brought to the island, while at the same time castigating the policy of Napoleon. The total output of the Zakynthos press does not exceed 53 editions in a peri­ od of 8 years (1810-1817), most of which, in effect, represent its work down to 1814, at which date a large part of its equipment and staff was transferred and incorporated in the press of Corfu. After that time, that is, from 1814-1817, only two editions are known to have come from the Zakynthos press.

CHIOS

A press at the time of British rule

(1819-1821)

J. he foundation of a press on Chios took place in the context of the attempts to upgrade the level of Greek education and culture at the time of the Neohellenic Enlightenment. Towards the end of the 18th century, the School of Chios was expanding, a process which reached its climax in 1815, when Neophytos Vamvas assumed the duties of director. This kernel of intellectual activity was to develop into the most important centre of education in the Ottoman East. At the same time, the creation of a fine library created suitable circumstances and the appropriate climate in which a press could function. The first steps towards the foundation of the press date from 1805 and are mentioned in a letter written by Dorotheos Proios to Adamantios Korais. The inspiration for the idea was that of Korais himself, who urged the School author­ ities and the learned circles of Chios to support the creation of a press to be run as part of the School's activities. Circumstances finally matured about 1818, when the School commissioners

185

Outposts of the Neohellenic Enlightenment in the Aegean islands

Chios

assigned to Konstantinos Kokkinakis and Georgios Glarakis, who lived in Vienna, the task of searching for suitable printing equipment; the typefaces were ordered by the state from the Paris workshop of the famous French philhellene Ambroise Firmin Didot. One of the finest craftsmen printers of the day, the German I.D.G. Bayrhoffer was employed in September 1819, and the press was ready to operate. Despite the favourable circumstances, however, the press was not a success, and ceased to function only three years later (February 1821). Its total known

143. Chios, engraving from 0. Dapper, Description exacte des isles de l'archipel et de ... Chypre, Rhodes .... Amsterdam, George Galtet, 1703.

output does not exceed nine books, which were designed to serve the needs of the School. Of these, mention may be made of two pamphlets printed for the American Protestant missionaries Levi Parsons and Pliny Fisk, who at the time were attending courses in Greek at the Chios School.

KYDONIES

(1819-1821)

xVydonies, a small town on the Asia Minor coast, experienced considerable growth in population about 1770, after the Orloff episode, when large numbers of refugees settled there. From the beginning of the 19th century, indeed, a commercial and industrial class evolved that made a decisive contribution to the support of cultural activities. This was the background for the functioning of the School of Kydonies, which was directed by Benjamin of Lesbos from the beginning of the 19th century.

186

The first serious debate and proposals to found a press took place in 1817, when A.F. Didot visited the town and attended the lectures at the School. The teachers at the School, Theophilos Kairis and Gregorios Saraphis, and a num­ ber of town notables adopted a positive attitude to the idea, and decided to send Konstantinos Tombras of Kydonies, a pupil at the School, to study under Didot in Paris, on a scholarship provided by Chatzi-Emmanuel Saltelis. Tombras took a great interest in the art of printing, as Korais himself observed. Tombras returned to Kydonies from Paris at the end of June, 1819, bringing with him the materials needed to organise a fully equipped printing press. The press was set up in a building in the forecourt of the church of the Virgin Orphani, and probably began operations in 1819, when it published an Ode by Evanthia Kairi and some verses in honour of A. F. Didot. It began to publish books systematically in 1821, though its work was soon interrupted by the out­ break of the Greek Uprising and the destruction of the town on 3 June 1820. During this period it printed a total of six books, with varied contents and on subjects completely unrelated to each other.

PRESSES IN THE GREEK STATE

Greek books at the service of education

(1821-)

τ*

he Greeks who fought in the War of Independence (1821-1827) assembled all the forces and means at their disposal: the fonts and other printing equip­ ment were sent by the Greeks and Philhellenes of Europe, and technical knowl­ edge was drawn from all the centres in which Greeks had been active before the outbreak of the Uprising: Constantinople, Kydonies, Chios, and cities of the diaspora. Men skilled in other spheres, such as clock-makers and weapons man­ ufacturers were also pressed into action. Newspaper editors, translators, and authors were sought amongst both experienced and younger Greeks and Phil­ hellenes. Efforts were also made to find the means to distribute their printed materials: subscribers, sellers, buyers. With the end of the War of Independence and the arrival of the Governor, Ioannis Kapodistrias (1828-1831), there arose a greater need for printed materi­ al, and new educational conditions were created, which facilitated the growth of printing. The kernel for the founding of printing houses to meet the needs of Greek society, through the new presses set up in the capital and the large Greek towns, was formed by what remained of the printing equipment of the period of the War and the professional skill of the printers who survived. The printing and publishing activities of Greek of the diaspora followed its own dynamic.

187

144.Or nament of a press at Kydonies.

LIST OF BOOKS

S/N

ENTRY DATE NUMBER

AUTHOR-TITLE

CITY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PROVENANCE

1.

(1)

1486

Battle of Frogs and Mice

Venice

fiffl/l (3)*

HNL

2.

(15)

1488

Homer, Opera

Florence

BHlli (5)

LKS

3.

(16)

1494

Anthologia,

Florence

BH1/1 (13)

LKS

4.

(2)

Venice

BH1/1 (9)

HNL

Florence

Bifl/l (19)

LKS

Florence

BH 1/1 (18)

LKS

BH 1/3 (52)

LKS

Anthology of various epigrams 1494 Galeomyomachia 5. 6.

(17) 1496

Lucianus, Dialogues

1496

Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica

(18)

7.

(19)

1497

Michael Marullus Tarchaniotis, Epigrammatum libri IV. Hymni

Florence

8.

(33)

1512

Manuel Chrysoloras, Erotemata

Paris

9.

(31)

1514

Manuel Chrysoloras, Erotemata

Alcala

BH 1/1 (41)

LKS

10.

(23)

1515

Pindar, Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian Odes

Rome

BH 1/1 (47)

LKS

11.

(24)

1516

Theocritus, Idylls

Rome

BH 1/1 (49)

12.

(20)

1516

Xenophon, Opera

Florence

Hoffmann, III, 576

LKS

13.

(3)

1517

Musaeus, Concerning Hero and Leander

Venice

BH 1/1 (55)

LKS

14.

(25)

1518

Sophocles, Commentarii in septem tragedias Sophoclis: quae ex aliis eius compluribus iniuria temporum omissis, solae supersuerunt...

Rome

BH 1/1 (60)

LKS

* See p. 196 for abbreviations.

189

LKS

LKS

S/N ENTRY DATE NUMBER

AUTHOR-TITLE

CITY

BIBLIOGRAPHY PROVENANCE

15.

Apophthegms of philosophers

Rome

BHl/1 (62)

LKS

Alcala

BHl/i (40)

R

Paris

Brunet, V, 446

HNL

Venice

Hoffmann, 1,252

LKS

Rome Eustathios, Archbishop of Thessalonike, Comentary on Homer

BHl/i (101)

LKS

(26)

1519

(Praeclara Dicta Philosophorum) 16.

(32)

1522

Polyglot Bible

17.

(34)

1528

Sophocles, Seven tragedies

18.

(4)

1538

Aristophanes, Eleven Comedies

19.

(27)

1542-1550

20.

(35)

1544

Eusebius Pamphili, Ecclesiastical History

Paris

Schreiber 77

LKS

21.

(5)

1544

Plutarch, Paidagogos

Venice

BH1/1 (107)

HNL

Paris

Schreiber 90

LKS

Paris

Schreiber 96

HNL

Paris

Schreiber 139

LKS

(De liberis educandis) 22.

(36)

1546

New Testament

23.

(37)

1548

Dio Cassius, Roman History

24.

(38)

1554

Anakreon (Anakreonteia), Extracts from the Teian

25.

(42)

1566

Poetae Graeci principes heroic carminis...

[Geneva]

Moeckli 65

HNL

26.

(43)

1572

Henricus Stephanus,

[Geneva]

Moeckli 77

HNL

[Geneva]

Moeckli 93

GL

London

BHII/1 (144)

LKS

[London]

SHI/1 (167)

LHP

Rome

BHII/1 (254)

LKS

[Geneva]

BHII/1 (267)

LKS

Thesaurus linguae graecae 27.

(44)

1578

Plato, Opera Omnia

28.

(46)

1625

Theophilos Korydaleus, Essay on Rhetoric

29.

(47) [1626-1627] Gregorios Palamas, Apodeictic Speeches

30.

(28)

1637

P. Arkoudios, Concerning purfication by fire

31.

(45)

1638

New Testament

32.

(6)

1640

Homer, Iliad

Venice

BHII/1 (290)

LKS

33.

(7)

1644

Aesop's Fables

Venice

BHII/l (362)

LHP

190

S/N

ENTRY DATE NUMBER

AUTHOR-TITLE

CITY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PROVENANCE

34.

(8)

1667

Bergadis, Apokopos

Venice

BH 11/2(475)

LKS

35.

(9)

1667

Markos Depharanas, The story of Sossanis

Venice

BFII/2 (476)

LKS

36.

(10)

1681

Venice Marinos Tzane Bounialis, Verse narrative of the teribie war

BH 11/2(565)

LKS

on the island of Crete 37.

(53)

1682

Nektarios, Patriarch of Jerusalem, Objection to the primacy of the Pope

Jassy

BH 11/2(568)

LKS

38.

(54)

1697

Anthology

Monastery of the Eisodia

ΒΉ 11/3(678)

LKS

39.

(55)

1703

Sebastos Trapezountios Kyminitis, Doctrinal teaching

Bucharest

BH III/l (13)

LKS

40.

(56)

1715

Dositheos, Patriarch of Jerusalem, History of the patriarchs of Jerusalem

Bucharest

BH III/l (97)

LKS

41.

(57)

1715

Chrysanthos Notaras, Syntagmation

Tergoviste

BH lll/l (101)

LKS

42.

(82)

1722

Nik. Al. Mavrokordatos, De officiis

Leipzig

BH III/l (146)

LKS

43.

(29)

1738

Anthologion

Rome

BH III/l (246)

LKS

44.

(97)

1744

Akolouthia of Saint Bessarion, archbishop of Larissa

Moschopolis

Bif III/l (313)

LKS

45.

(11)

1746

Georgios Chortatzis, Erophile

Venice

BH III/l (345)

LHP

46.

(48)

1756

Castigation of Baptism

[Constantinople] BH III/l (482)

LKS

47.

(60)

1756

Anastasios Popas, The Most excellent ofbooL·, called Phosphorus

Vienna

BH III/l (480)

LKS

48.

(98)

1759

Selection from the Psalterion

Mount Athos;

BH III/l (530)

LKS

49.

(99)

1764

Akolouthia ofhosios Symeon

Smyrna

BHIII/2 (596)

LKS

50.

(21)

1765

Musaeus, Concerning Hero and Leander

Tygjs

PAP II (676)

LKS

Caesaris

fÇjfUr ite. 191

S/N

ENTRY DATE AUTHOR-TITLE NUMBER

CITY

BIBLIOGRAPHY PROVENANCE

51.

(83)

1766

Kaisarios Daponte, Minor of women

Leipzig

fiffIII/2 (647)

LKS

52.

(84)

1766

Evgenios Voulgaris, Logic

Leipzig

ΒίΠΙΙ/1 (645)

LKS

53.

(49)

1767

Samuel Chantzeris, Patriarch of Constantinople, Orders of Holy Matrimony

Constantinople ΜΠΙΙ/1 (657)

LKS

54.

(85)

1768

Historical and Critical Essay [Leipzig] Concerning Disunity in the Church of Poland. [Evgenios Voulgaris],Design for Religious Tolerance comprised of two treatises: the first, Concerning Disunity

BHill/i (691)

LKS

55.

(86)

1770

Leipzig Nikiphoros Theotokis, The Discovery of the Ascetic Writings of Isaac, bishop ofSyrok

ΒίΠΙΙ/1 (735)

LKS

56.

(30)

1771

Alphabetum Graecum

PAP I (302)

LKS

57.

(90)

1773

Evgenios Voulgaris, To the Auspicious ... marriage ... of Paul Petrides ... and Natalia Alexievna ...a Wedding Tribute

BH 111/2(782*)

LKS

58.

(87)

1775

Sacred Gleaningfromthe Old And New Testament

Leipzig

BHIII/2 (83Ò)

LKS

59.

(91)

1775

Evgenios Voulgaris, A Thanks-giving to Catherine II

Moscow

ÄFfIII/2 (827*)

LKS

60.

(12)

1778

Life and feats of king Alexander the Great

Venice

LH, IV, 150

LBM

61.

(61)

1780

Iosipos Moisiodax, Apology

Vienna

BH ΠΙ/2 (113*)

R

62.

(13)

1782

[I. Trivolis], The Story ofTagiapiera

[Venice]

BH ΠΙ/2 (1076)

LHP

63.

(88)

1784

Nikiphoros Vlemmydis, Epitome of Logic

Leipzig

BH ΠΙ/2 (1142*)

LKS

64.

(58)

1789

Bucharest Manolakis Persianos, Brief summary of the heroic feats of John Nicholas Peter Mavrogenis

BHIII/2 (1238)

LKS

Rome

192

S/N ENTRY DATE NUMBER

AUTHOR-TITLE

65.

(62)

1790

Rétif de la Bretonne, Vienna The School for Delicate Lovers, or Book of Morals, containing the strange adventures of the most beautiful women in Paris who flourished during the present century

66.

(89)

1791

[Dimitrios Chatzi-Polyzois] Vengeance Most Just... on Ignorance

Leipzig

LH, I, 48

LKS

67.

(92)

1791

Virgil, Aeneid

St Petersburg

LH, I, 31

LKS

68.

(14)

1792

Vicenzo Cornaro, A Love poem called Erotokritos

Venice

LH, I, 87

LKS

69.

(74)

1792

Michael Papageorgiou, A handy, full guide to the German language for inexperienced Roumeliots

Pest

LH, 1,

LKS

70. (78)

1793

Kelestinos of Rhodes, Wretchedness of the Wiseacres

Trieste

LH, 1,125

LKS

71.

1793

[Ioannis Tambiskos], Guide to Commerce

Trieste

LH, 1,119

LKS

Vienna

LH, 1,136

LKS

\CJ%5seph Guillaume, £ Vienna Proof of the authority of the booL· of the New and Old Testament and defence of the truth in them. Reconstruction of Voltaire's bible

LH, I, 158

LKS

(79)

CITY

172. (163) 5793(=1793) Polyzois Kontos, Dialogues for the Dead 73.

(64)

1794

74.

(93)

1796

75.

(75)

1796-1797

76.

(50)

77.

(94)

BIBLIOGRAPHY PROVENANCE

BH 111/2(1257)

IL

Anastasios Michael, Grammar of the Russian Dialect

Moscow

LH, I, 11

R

Konstantinos Karaioannou, Treasury of Grammar

Buda

LH, II, 19

LKS

1798

[Athanasios Parios], Christian Apology

Constantinople LH, II, 126

LKS

1798

Nikiphoros Theotokis, Elements of Mathematics

Moscow

LKS

193

LH, II, 119

S/N ENTRY DATE NUMBER

AUTHOR-TITLE

CITY

BIBLIOGRAPHY PROVENANCE

78.

(51)

1798

Anthimos, Patriarch of Jerusalem, Didaskalia Patriki

Constantinople

Iliou I, 217*

79.

(65)

1800

[Nikolaos Mavrokordatos], Parerga ofPhilotheos

Vienna

GM, *45

LKS

80.

(76)

1800

The Ostracism of the Impious Chistodoulos the One-eyed of Akarnania

Buda

GM, *31

LKS

81.

(77)

1801

Francois de Salignac de la Mothe Fénelon, Adventures ofTelemachos

Buda

Iliou II, *1801.51

HNL

82.

(52)

1804

Epistolarion

Constantinople

Iliou II, *1804.25

LKS

83.

(80)

1804

Devotional prayers

Trieste

Iliou II, »1804.27

LKS

84.

(95)

1804

The Homeric Antiquities and Archaeology of Corfu

Moscow

Iliou II, *1804.3

LKS

85.

(39)

1805

Adamantios Korais,

Paris

Iliou II, »1805.87

LKS

Corfu

Iliou II, 1807.61

LKS

Moscow

Iliou II, *1808.22

LKS

Forerunner of me Greek Library 86.

(100)

1807

Collection of various novels

87.

(96)

1808

Nikiphoros Theotokis, Kyriakodromion

88.

(81)

1809

[Ioannis Balasis Achyras], Introduction to Grammar

Trieste

Iliou II, »1809.19

LKS

89.

(101)

1809

BoissonadeJ.F., The love of learning of present-day Greeks

Corfu

Iliou II, »1809.47

LHP

90.

(66)

1811

Athanasios Christopoulos, Lyric Poems

[Vienna]

Iliou II, »1811.41

LMH

91.

(102)

1811

Essai sur l'état de la civilisation

Corfu

Iliou II, 1811.29

LHP

des Phéaciens LKS

Vienna 92.

(67) 1811-1821 Learned Hermes

93.

(68)

1814

Iakovakis Rizos Neroulos, Polyxene

94.

(103)

1814

Athanasios Christopoulos, Lyrika

194

Vienna

Iliou II, »1814.60

LMH

Corfu

Iliou II, »1814.49

LMH

S/N ENTRY DATE NUMBER

AUTHOR-TITLE

CITY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PROVENANCE

95.

(40)

1816

Adamantios Korais, WorL· of Hippokrates and Galen

Paris

Iliou II, *1816.46

LKS

96.

(59)

1816- 1817

Civil Code of the Principality of Moldavia

Jassy

Iliou II, .»1817.90

LKS

97.

(69)

1817

Michael Perdikaris Hermilos or Dimokrithirakleitos

[Vienna]

Iliou II, »1817.47

LMH

98.

(70)

1817

Homer, Iliad (a paraphrase by Georgios Rousiadis)

Vienna

Iliou II, »1817.79

LKS

99.

(71)

1817

Georgios Sakellarios, Poems

Vienna

Iliou II, »1817.27

LMH

100.

(104)

1817

Samuel Johnson, Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia, a Tale

Corfu

Iliou II, »1817.71

HNL

101.

(105)

1817

Ioannis Zambelios, Anacreontic songs

Corfu

Iliou II, »1817.64

CNR

102.

(41)

1818

Adamantios Korais, Homer's Iliad

Paris

Iliou II, »1817.77

LKS

103.

(72)

1818

Zisis Daoutis, Various Moral and Humorous Verses

Vienna

Iliou II, 1818.20

LMH

104.

(73)

1819

Charisios Megdanis, son of Demetrios, Homecoming of Calliope or Concerning the Poetic Method

Vienna

GM, »1165

LMH

105.

(22)

1832

[Theodoras Prodromos], Galeomyomachia

Florence

GM, 10244

LKS

195

ABBREVIATIONS BH I

Legrand, Emile, Bibliographie Hellénique ou description raisonêe des ouvrages publiés en grec par des Grecs au XXVe et XVIe siècles..., vol. I-IV, Paris, 1885-1906.

BH II

Legrand, Emile, Bibliographie Hellénique ou description raisonêe des ouvrages publiés par des Grecs au dixseptième siècles... vol. I-V, Paris, 1894-1903.

BH III

Legrand, Emile, Bibliographie Hellénique ou description raisonêe des ouvrages publiés par des Grecs au dixhuitième sièclesiii... Oeuvre posthume complétée et publiée par Louis Petit et Hubert Pemot, vol. I I I , Paris, 1918-1928.

Brunet

Brunei, J . - C , Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur des livres and Supplément, 8 vols., repr. Paris

CNR

Centre for Neohellenic Research National Hellenic Research Foundation

(G. P. Maisonneuve & Larose), 1966. GL

Gennadeios Library

GM

Girds, Dimitrios S. - Mexas, Valerius G., Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία 1800-1863,τόμ. Α'-Γ, Αθήνα,

Hoffmann

Hoffmann, S. F. W., Bibliographisches Lexicon der gesummten Literatur der Griechen, I-III, repr.

1939-1957. Amsterdam (Adolf M. Hakkert), 1961. HNL

Hellenic National Library

IL

Library of Philippos Iliou

Iliou I

Iliou, Philippos L, Προσθήκες στην 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία Α.Τά βιβλιογραφικά

κατάλοιπα

του É. Legrand καίτοϋ Η. Pernot (1515-1799), Αθήνα, 1973. Iliou II

Iliou, Philippos L, 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία του 19ου αιώνα.Βιβλία-φυλλάδια,τόμ.

Α' 1801-

LH, Ι

Ladas, Georgios G. - Hatzidimos, Athanasios D., 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία των ετών 1791-

LH, II

Ladas, Georgios G. - Hatzidimos, Athanasios D., Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία τών ετών 1796-

1818, Αθήνα, 1997. 1795, Αθήνα, 1970. 1799, Αθήνα, 1973. LH, III

Ladas, Georgios G. - Hatzidimos, Athanasios D., Προσθήκες διορθώσεις και

συμπληρώσεις

στην 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία του Emile Legrand γιά τους αιώνες XV, XVI καίΧνίΙ,

Αθήνα,

1976. LH, IV

Ladas, Georgios G. - Hatzidimos, Athanasios D., 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία: Συμβολή στον δέκατο όγδοο αιώνα [τόμ. Α'], Αθήνα, 1964.

LH, V

Ladas, Georgios G. - Hatzidimos, Athanasios D., 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία: Συμβολή στον δέκατο δγδοο αιώνα,τόμος δεύτερος, Αθήνα, 1976.

LHP

Library of the Hellenic Parliament

LKS

Library of Konstantinos Sp. Staikos

LMH

Library of Manos Haritatos (ELIA)

Moeckli

Moeckli, G. Chaix, P., Dufovr, Α., Les livres imprimés a Genève de 1550 a 1600, Genève, Librairie Droz, 1966.

PAP I

Papadopoulos Thomas, 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία

(l466ci-1800), τόμ. A, Αλφαβητική καί

χρονολογική κατάταξις, Αθήνα, 1984. PAP II

Papadopoulos Thomas, (Παράρτημα) Προσθήκαι - συμπληρώσεις

R

Reproduction

Schreiber

Schreiber, F., The Estiennes, New York 1982.

Αθήνα, 1986.

196

- διορθώσεις,τόμ.

Β',

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL WORKS Asdrahas, Sp. (ed.), Ή οικονομική δομήτών Βαλκανικών χωρών, 15ος-19οςαί., Αθήνα, Μέλισσα, 1979. Dimaraw, Κ. Th., Ιστορία της Νεοελληνικής Λογοτεχνίας, Αθήνα 92000. Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους,τ. Γ-ΙΑ', Αθήνα, Εκδοτική Αθηνών, 1974-1975. Vakalopoulos, Αρ., Ιστορία του Νέου Ελληνισμού, τ.Ä-Η', Θεσσαλονίκη 1974-1998.

GREEK NATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Balta, Evangelia, KaramanlidiL·. Additions (1584-1900). Bibliographie analytique, Athènes 1987. , Karamanlidika. Nouvelles additions et compléments [1746-1935], Athènes 1997. Ginis, Dimitrios S. - Mexas, Valerios G., Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία 1800-1836, τόμ. Α'-Γ', Αθήνα 1939-1957. Dalleggio, Eugène, Bibliographie analytique d Ouvrages religieux en Grec imprimes avec des caractères latins, Athènes 1961. Iliou, Philippos, Προσθήκες στην Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία. Α. Τά βιβλιογραφικά κατάλοιπα του É. Legrand καίτου Η. Pernot (1515-1799), Αθήνα 1973. , 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία του 19ου αιώνα. Βιβλία-φυλλάδια, τόμ. Ä 1801-1818, Αθήνα 1997. Ladas, Georgios G. - Hatzidimos, Athanasios D., Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία των ετών 1791-1795, Αθήνα 1973. , 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία τών ετών 1796-1799, Αθήνα 1970. , Προσθήκες διορθώσεις καί συμπληρώσεις στην 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία του Emile Legrand γιά τους αιώνες XV, XVI καίXVII, Αθήνα 1976. , Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία, Συμβολή στο δέκατο όγδοο αιώνα [Τόμος πρώτος], Αθήνα 1964. , 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία, Συμβολή στο δέκατο όγδοο αιώνα. Τόμος δεύτερος, Αθήνα 1976. Legrand, Emile, Bibliographie Hellénique ou description raisonnée des ouvrages publiés en grec par des Grecs au XVe et XVIe siècles..., vol. I-IV, Paris 1885-1906. , Bibliographie Hellénique ou description raisonnée des ouvrages publiés par des Grecs au dixseptième siècle..., vol. I-V, Paris 1894-1903. , Bibliographie Hellénique ou description raisonnée des ouvrages publiés par des Grecs au dixhuitième siècle... Oeuvre posthume complétée et publiée par Louis Petit et Hubert Pernot, vol. I-II, Paris 1918-1928. Papadopoulos, Thomas Ι., 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία (1466 ci. -1800), τόμ. A', Αλφαβητική καί χρο­ νολογική άνακατάταξις, Αθήνα 1984.

199

, (Παράρτημα) Προσθήκαι - συμπληρώσεις - διορθώσεις, τόμ. Β', Αθήνα 1986. , Ιονική Βιβλιογραφία. Bibliographie Ionienne 16ος-19ος αιώνας, Ανακατάταξη - Προ­ σθήκες - Βιβλιοθήκες,τ. Α', 1508-1863, Αθήνα, Ιονική Τράπεζα, 1996, καί Αθήνα, Φίλοι της Γενναδείου Βιβλιοθήκης, 21998· τ Β', 2001. — , 'Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία (1544-1863). Προσθήκες - Συμπληρώσεις, Αθήνα, Εταιρεία Ελληνικού Λογοτεχνικού καί Ιστορικού Αρχείου, 1992. , Βιβλιοθήκες Αγίου 'Όρους. Παλαιά ελληνικά έντυπα. Πρώτη προσπάθεια συγκροτήσε­ ως συλλογικού καταλόγου. Παράρτημα, Άβιβλιογράφητες εκδόσεις, Αθήνα 2000. Sévérien, Salaville - Dallegio, Eugène, Karamanlidika. Bibliographie analytique dœouvrages en langue turque imprimé caractères grecs, vol. 1,1584-1850, Athènes 1958.

HISTORY OF BOOKS GENERAL WORKS

Angelou, Α., «Τό λαϊκό έντυπο: μερικά νέα ερωτήματα»,Τά'Ιστορικά,τ. Ι,τχ. 2 (1984),σ. 389396. [= Των Φώτων Β'.'Όψειςτου Νεοελληνικού Διαφωτισμού, Αθήνα, Μορφωτικό "Ιδρυμα της Εθνικής Τραπέζης, 1999,σ. 19-29.] Anatomie bibliologiche, Saggi di storia del libro per il centenario de «La Bibliofilia», Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 1999. Bruner, J-Ch., Manual du Libraire et del' amateur de livres, 6 vol., Paris, G. P. Maisonneuve e Larose, 1996. Clair, C, A History of Printing in Britain, London, Cassel and Company Ltd, 1965. Contributi alla stroria del libro Italiano, Miscellanea in onore di Lamberto Donati, Firenze, Leo S. Olsch ki, 1969. Conway, Melissa, The Diario of the printing press of San Jacopo di Ripoli, 1476-1484, Commentary and transcription, Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 1999. Droulia, Loukia, «Histoire du livre grec. État des recherches grecques et tendances actuelles», Revuefrançaised'Histoire du Livre, no 92-93 (1996), p. 313-345. , Ή 'Ιστορία του ελληνικού βιβλίου.Προσεγγίσεις καί σύγχρονες κατευθύνσεις της έρευ­ νας. Βιβλιογραφία των ελληνικών εργασιών (1965-2000), Αθήνα 2001. , 'L imprimerie grecque: naissance et retards', στον τόμο Le livre et l'historien. Etudes offertes en l'honneur du Professeur Henri-Jean Martin, Genèv, Droz, 1997, p. 327-341. Eideneier, Hans - Moenich, Ulrich - Toufexis, Notis, Θεωρία καίπράξη των εκδόσεων της Υστε­ ροβυζαντινής Αναγεννησιακής καί Μεταβυζαντινής Δημώδους Γραμματείας, Ηράκλειο, Πανεπιστημιακές Εκδόσεις Κρήτης, 2001. Flabouras, D., «Τά αρχέτυπα (Incunabula) και ή καταλογογράφησή τους», Βιβλιογραφική Επι­ θεώρηση,τ. Ι,τχ. 2 (1974),σ. 87-91. Geanakoplos, Deno John, Greek Scholars in Venice, Studies in the Dissemination of Greek Learning from Byzantium to Western Europe, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1962. Ελληνική έκδοση, Αθήνα 1965. Graecogermania, Griechischstudien deutscher Humanisten, Die Editionstätigkeit der Griechen in der italienischen Renaissance (1469-1523), Wolfenbüttel, Acta humaniora, 1989.

200

Greek Font Society, Greek Letters, From Tablets to Pixels, Edited by Michael S. Macrakis, New Castle, Delaware, Oak Knoll Press, 1996. Hoffmann, S.F.W., Bibliographisches Lexicon der Gesummten Literatur des Griechen, vol. 3, Amsterdam, Adorf H. Hakkert, 1961. Iliou, Philippos, «Σημειώσειςγιά τά "τραβήγματα"των ελληνικών βιβλίων τόν 16ο αιώνα»,Ελλη­ νικά 28 (1975),σ. 102-141. , «Βιβλίακαί αριθμοί:ή μαρτυρίατώντραβηγμάτων»,ΤάΊστορικά,τ. 8,τχ. 14,15(1991), σ.157-216. , «Βιβλία με συνδρομητές. Ι. Τά χρόνια τοϋ διαφωτισμού (1749-1821)», Ό Ερανιστές 12 (1975), σ. 101-179 καί 16 (1980), σ. 285-295. «II. Από τά χρόνια της 'Επανάστασης έως τό 1832» Ό Ερανιστής 22 (1999), 172-240. , «Συγχωροχάρτια»,Γάϊστορίχά,τ. Ι,τχΐ (Σεπτ. 1983), 35-84· τ. 2,τχ3 (Μάιος 1985), 3-44. , La lecture en Grèce à l ' époque des Lumières et de la Révolution (1749-1832). Étude des souscripteurs aux éditions en langue grecque, Paris, Ε .Ρ .H .E., 1964 [πολυγραφημένο]. Irigoin, Jean, Les debuts de la typographie Grecque, Paris-Athènes, Daedalus, 1992. Karas, Yannis, Οι Θετικές Επιστήμες στον 'Ελληνικό Χώρο ( 15ος- 19ος ai.) Αθήνα, Ι. Ζαχαρόπου­ λος, 1991. Kefallinaiou, Evgenia, Νεοελληνικά 'Αλφαβητάρια 1771-1981, Αθήνα,Παρασκήνιο, 1995. Κέντρο Νεοελληνικών 'Ερευνών, Έθνικοϋ Ιδρύματος Ερευνών, Τό βιβλίο στις προβιομηχανικές κοινωνίες, Πρακτικά Ä Διεθνούς Συμποσίου, Αθήνα 1982. Kokkonas, Giannis, «Κατάλογος αρχετύπων της 'Εθνικής Βιβλιοθήκης της Ελλάδος. Με ένταξη τών αντιτύπων του Μουσείου Μπενάκη», Τετράδια Εργασίας, ΚΝΕ/ΕΙΕ 5 (1983). Koumarianou, Aikaterini - Droulia, Loukia - Layton, Evro, Τό ελληνικό βιβλίο 1476-1830, Αθή­ να, Εθνική Τράπεζα τής Ελλάδος, 1986. Kremmidas, Vasilis - Sklavenitis, Triantafyllos - Staikos, Kostas (έκδ.), Θησαυροί της Εθνικής Βιβλιοθήκης. Κατάλογος "Εκθεσης, Αθήνα 1999. Kyriaki-Manesi D., «Ή λογοκρισία τοϋ ελληνικού βιβλίου τους δύο πρώτους αιώνες τής τυπο­ γραφίας (1471 -1669)»,Τεκμήριον, 1 (1998), σ. 23-34. Labros, P., Περί αρχής καί προόδου τής τυπογραφίας έν 'Ελλάδι. Εισαγωγή Παναγιώτης Φ. Χριστόπουλος. Βιογραφία-έργογραφία Γεώργιος Λαγανάς, Αθήνα, Εταιρεία Φίλων τού Λαού, 1999. L'activité editoriale des Grecs pendant la Renaissane et les premiers livres grecs imprimés à Strasbourg, Catalogue rédigé par M. Manousakas et K. Staikos avec la collaboration de B. Bouvier, Athènes 1989. Le Livre et l ' Historien, Etudes offertes en l ' honneur du Professeur Henri -Jean Martin, Réuniees par Frédéric Barbier - Annie Parent-Charon, François Dupuigrenet Desroussilles, Claude JollyDominique Varry, Genève, Libraire Droz S. Α., 1997. Marinescu, Marina, Mythologikon Syntipas, Bertoldo, Genovefa: zur Geschichte der Volksbucher und ihrer Leserschaft in Südosteuropa, Frankfurt am Main, R. G. Fischer, 1992. McKerrow, R. B., Printers and Publishers Devices in England and Scotland 1485-1640, London, Bibliographical Society, 1913. Moennig, Ulrich, Οι νεοελληνικές εκδόσεις τής Typographia Orientalis τοϋ Johann Heinrich Callenberg (1746εως 1749η 1751 περ.), Αθήνα,Ερμής, 1999. Papastratou, Dori, Χάρτινες εικόνες.'Ορθόδοξα θρησκευτικά χαρακτικά, 1665-1899, τ. Α-Β',Άθήνα 1986.

201

, Ό σιναϊτης Χατζηκυριάκης εκ χώρας Βούρλα. Γράμματα - Ξυλογραφίες, 1688-1709, Αθήνα 1981,217 σ. Patrinelis, Ch. G., Τό ελληνικό βιβλίο κατά την Τουρκοκρατία (1476-1820). Περιλήψεις μαθημά­ των , Θεσσαλονίκη, Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο, 21989. Polemi, Kalliopi, 'La page de titre du livre grec et son évolution (XVIe-XVIIIe siècle). Première approche d' un problème et d' une source'. D.E.Α. Πανεπιστήμιο της Σορβόννης, Παρίσι 1983 [πολυγραφημένο]. Rhodes, Dennis Ε., Incunabula in Greece. A First Census compiled, München, Kraus International Publications, 1980. Sklavenitis, Triantafyüos Ε., «Ή δυσπιστία στό έντυπο βιβλίο κι ή παράλληλη χρήση του χειρό­ γραφου», Τό βιβλίο στίς προβιομηχανικές κοινωνίες, Πρακτικά Ä Διεθνούς Συμποσίου ΚΝΕ/ΕΙΕ, Αθήνα 1982, σ. 283-293,352. , «Βιβλιολογικά Α. 1. Για τίς εκδόσεις του Χρονογράφου- ά Ψευδοδωρόθεος· β' Κιγάλας. 2. Γιά τήν τυπογραφία Θεοδοσίου ά Αθησαύριστος κατάλογος του 1802- β' Ή "δεύτερη " έκδο­ ση της "Κωνσταντινιάδος" καί τό κλείσιμο της τυπογραφίας, 1820. 3. Σύσταση "Φιλολογικής Εφορίας" καί προγραμματισμός εκδόσεων τοϋ "Συστήματος των εν Κωνσταντινουπόλει Γραικών Εμπόρων", 1817.4. Συνοδευτικό Προκήρυξης τοϋ Π. Ίωαννίδη γιά βιβλίο του, 1826. 5. Ψευδώνυμο βιβλίο τοϋ Νικολάου Σπηλιάδη, 1837», Μνήμων 8 (1980-82), σ. 337-369. , «Ή βιβλιοθήκη τών έντύπωντής μονής Μεγίστης Λαύρας τοϋ Αθω», Μνήμων 11 (1986), σ. 83-122. , Τά εμπορικά εγχειρίδια της Βενετοκρατίας καί της Τουρκοκρατίας καί ή Εμπορική εγκυκλοπαίδεια του Νικολάου Παπαδόπουλου, Αθήνα, Εταιρεία Μελέτης Νέου Ελληνι­ σμού. Παράρτημα τοϋ περιοδικού Μνήμων 5,1990. Schulderer, Victor, Greek Printing Types 1465-1927, Facsimilesfroman Exhibition ofBooks Illustrating the Development of Greek Printing shown in the British Museum, London 1927. Skiadas, Ν. Ε., Χρονικό τήςΈλληνικήςΤυπογραφίας, Αθήνα 1976,1981,1982,3τ. [τ. Α1476-1828 (1976),τ. Β' 1829-1862 (1981),τ. Γ 1863-1909 (1982)]. Staikos, Konstantinos Sp., Χάρτα της Ελληνικής Τυπογραφίας. Ή εκδοτική δραστηριότητα τών Ελλήνων καί ή συμβολή τους στην πνευματική Αναγέννηση της Δύσης, τ. ΚΙ 15ος αιώνας, Αθήνα 1989. , Charta of Greek Printing. The Contribution of Greek Editors, Printers and Publishers to the Renaissance in Italy and the West, vol. I: 15th Century, Dinter, Cologne 1998. , «Φιλοβιβλία. The Contribution made by Philobibly to the Editing and Preparation of editiones principes during the Renaissance», La Bibliofilia, Fascicolo speciale del Centenario, èroçC, άρ. 2-3,1998, σ. 125-133. , Philosophical Editions in the first century of Printing, Κατάλογος Έκθεσης, Athens, European Cultural Centre of Delphi, 2001. Staikos, K. Sp. - Sklavenitis, T. E. (ed.), Πεντακόσια Χρόνια έντυπης παράδοσης τού Νέου Ελληνισμού (1499-1999). Κατάλογος "Εκθεσης, Βουλή τών Ελλήνων,2000 [καί σε CD ROM]. , Τά Κέντρα τού Ελληνικού Βιβλίου (15ος- 19ος αιώνας), Τυπογράφοι, έκδοτες, σήματα καίέμβλήματα. Centers of Greek Book Production (l5th-19th century) Printers, publishers, devices and emblems. Κατάλογος της Έκθεσης στό πλαίσιο τοϋ Διεθνούς Συνεδρίου, Τό 'Έντυπο Ελληνικό Βιβλίο ( 15ος-19ος αιώνας), Δελφοί, Τετάρτη 16-Κυριακή 20 Μαΐου 2001. Catalogue of Exhibition accompanying the International Congress, The Printed Greek Book (l5th-19th century), Delphi, Wednesday 16 - Sunday 20 May 2001. Athens, Ευρωπαϊκό Πολιτιστικό Κέντρο Δελφών, European Cultural Centre of Delphi, 2001.

202

The Beginnings of Printing in the Near and Middle East: Jews, Christians and Muslims, Edited by Lehrstuhl für Türkische Sprache, Geschichte und Kultur Universität Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek Bamberg, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2001. The Italian book, 1465-1800, Studies presented to Dennis E. Rhodes, on his 70th birthday, Edited by Denis V. Reidy, London, The British Library, 1993. The Publishinh Activity of the Greeks During the Italian Renaissance (1469-1523), Catalogue Supervised by M. Manousakas and K. Staikos, Leiden 1989. Tinto, Alberto, Gli annali tipografici di Eucario e Marcello Silber, (1501-1527), Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 1968. Trovato, Paolo, L ' Ordine dei tipografi, Lettori, Stampatori, Correttori tra quattro e cinquecento, Roma, Bulzoni Editore, 1998. Vranousis, L., 'L hellénisme postbyzantin et Γ Europe. Manuscrits, livres, imprimeries et maisons d' édition'. [Rapport, XVIe Congrès Internationald'Études Byzantines. [=] XVI. Internationaler Byzantinisten-kongress, Akten II/I, Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik, vol. 32/1 (1982), p. 393-480. [-] Λύχνος, revue de culture grecque, no 33-36 (1987-1988) καί αγγλικά με προσθήκες στό περ. Modern Greek Studies Yearbook, issue 2 (1986), p. 1-71.] Zappella, Giuseppina, Le marche dei tipografi e degli editori italiani del cinquencento, voi. I—II, Milano, Editrice Bibliografica, 1986.

VENICE Angelomati-Tsougaraki, Eleni, «Μιά πατριαρχική καταδίκη του τυπογραφείου τοΰ Δημητρίου Θεοδοσίου, 1761», Ό Ερανιστής, τ. 18 (1986), σ. 85-92. Ahmanson-Murphy, Aldine Collection at UCLA, Department of Special Collections University Research Library University of California, Los Angeles, 1989. Aldus Manutius and Renaissance Culture, Essays in Memory of Franklin D. Murphy, Florence, Leo S. Olschki, 1998. Aldo Manuzio e l'ambiente veneziano 1494-1515, a cura di Susy Marcon e Marino Zorzi, Venezia, il Cardo, 1994. Aldo Manuzio tipografo 1494-1515, Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, 17 giugno - 20 luglio 1994, Firenze, Octavo, Franco Cantini, 1994. Armeni, Ebrei, Greci stampatori a Venezia. Catalogo a cura di Scilla Abbiati [Venice 1989]. Asdrahas, Sp. L, 'Faits économiques et choix culturels: à propos du commerce du livre entre Venise et la Méditerranée orientale au XVIIIe siècle', Studi veneziani,vol. XIII (l97l),p. 587621. Athens Consert Hall, Ή Βενετία των Ελλήνων. Ή 'Ελλάδα των Βενετών .Σημάδια στον χώρο καί στον χρόνο. Ή έκθεση αυτή προγραμματίστηκε άπό τό Γνωμοδοτικό Συμβούλιο του Συλ­ λόγου «Οι Φίλοι τής Μουσικής» γιά τόν 'Οργανισμό Μεγάρου Μουσικής Αθηνών. 'Επιστη­ μονικός σύμβουλος: Χρύσα Α. Μαλτέζου. 'Επιμέλεια: 'Έφη Ανδρεάδη. 15 Μαρτίου - 30 Απριλίου 1999 [σ. 122-135: Πίτσα Τσάκωνα, «Ελληνικά τυπογραφεία στη Βενετία»]. Barker, Nicolas, Aldus Manutius and the Development of Greek Script and Type in the Fifteenth Century, Sandy Hook, Connecticut, Chiswich Book Shop Inc., 1985. Caprinato, Caterina, 'Le prime traduzioni Greche di Omero: if Iliade di Nikolaos Lukanis e la Batrachomyomachia di Dimitrios Zinos', Atti del secondo incontro internazionale di linguistica Greca, a cura di Emanuele Banfi, Trento, Dipartimento di Scienze Filologiche e Storiche, 1997.

203

, 'Posthomerica Neograeca I, Sulla fortuna di Achille e Fisignatos nei testi greci in demotico (XIV-XVI seca)', ACME, Annali della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell'Università degli Studi di Milano, Volume LI - Fascicolo II - Maggio-Agosto 1998. , Sull ' attività editoriale di Dimitrios Zinos presso la tipografia dei da Sabbio. In: Σύνδεσμος. Studi in onore di Rosario Anastasi, vol. I, Catania: 1991, p. 193-207. , Appunti per una nuova edizione della Batrachomyomachia du Dimitrios Zinos. In: N. Panayotakis (a cura di), Origini della Letteratura Neogreca, Atti del Secondo Congresso Internationale 'Neograeca Medii Aevi', voi. II, Venezia 1991, p. 391-415. Cataldi Palau, Anna-Clara, Gian Francesco d ' Asola, E la tipografia Aldina, La vita, le edizioni, la biblioteca dell'Asolano, Genova, sagep, 1998. Danezis, G., «Ό νεοελληνικός Αΐσωποςτοϋ 1644 καί οι Cento FavoleΜοταΙίτού G. M. Verdizzotti», Θησαυρίσματα,τ. 24 (1994),σ. 203-219. Fletcher III, Harry George, New Aldine Studies, Documentary essays on the life and work of Aldus Manutius, San Francisco, Bernard M. Rosenthal, Inc. 1988. Follieri, Enrica, «Il libro greco per i Greci nelle imprese editoriali romane e veneziane della prima metà del cinquecento», Venezia, Centro di Mediazione tra Orient e Occidente (secoli XVXVI). Aspetti e problemi, Florence, 2 (1977), p. 483-508. Infelise, Mario, L'editoria Veneziana nel '700, Milano, Franco Angeli, H991. Kaklamanis, St. E., «Ειδήσεις γιά τή διακίνηση του έντυπου δυτικού βιβλίου στον βενετοκρα­ τούμενο Χάνδακα,μέσα 16ου αιώνα», Κρητικά Χρονικά, τ. 26 (1986),σ. 152-176. , «Τρεις πρώτες εκδόσεις (1545-1549) άπό τό τυπογραφείο του Βασιλείου Βάρελη καί ό Μητροφάνης Καισαρείας»,Θησαυρίσματα,τ. 20 (1990), σ. 218-252. , «Αρχειακές μαρτυρίες γιά τή ζωή του Ανδρέα Κουνάδη καί του Δαμιανού di Santa Maria», Αρχές της νεοελληνικής λογοτεχνίας. Πρακτικά τοϋ δευτέρου Διεθνούς Συνεδρίου «Neograeca Medii Aevi» (Βενετία, 7-10 Νοεμ. 1991), έπιμ. Ν. Παναγιωτάκης,τ. Β', Βενε­ τία 1993, σ. 595-605. , «Από τό χειρόγραφο στό έντυπο: Θησέος καί γάμοι της Αιμιλίας (1529)», Θησαυρί­ σματα, 27 (1997),σ. 147-223. Karathanasis, Α., Ή Φλαγγίνειος Σχολή της Βενετίας, Θεσσαλονίκη 1975. Kehagioglou, G., «Νέα στοιχεία γιά ελληνικά έντυπα του 18ου αιώνα: ενδείξεις του βενετικού αρχειακού ύλικοϋ », Επιστημονική Επετηρίδα της Φιλοσοφικής Σχολής τοϋ Αριστοτελείου Πανεπιστημίου Θεσσαλονίκης, τ. 22 (1984), σ. 233-250. , «Ξενόγλωσσες εκδόσεις ελληνικών τυπογραφείων της Βενετίας. Συμπληρωματικά στοι­ χεία γιά τόν 18ο αιώνα», Ελληνικά,τ. 41/2 (1990),σ. 287-311. — , «Βενετική έκδοση του Περί των διχονοιών των εν ταϊς έκκλησίαις τής Πολωνίας τοϋ Ευγενίου Βούλγαρη»,Ελληνικά,τ. 44 (1994),σ. 453-460. Kontosopoulos, Nicolaos, «Τά εν Βενετία τυπογραφεία ελληνικών βιβλίων κατά τήν Τουρκοκρατίαν», Αθηνά 58 (1954),σ. 286-342. Kremmydas, Β., «'Ιστορία τοϋ ελληνικού εμπορικού οϊκου τής Βενετίας Σελέκη καί Σάρου», Θησαυρίσματα,τ. 12 (1975),σ. 171-199. Lanaro, Maddalena, Accademie e cultura Aspetti storia tra sei e settecento, Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 1979. Layton-Zenioy, Evro, 'Notes on Some Printers and Publishers of 16th Century Modern Greek Books in Venice', Θησαυρίσματα,τ. 18 (Ι98ΐ),σ. 119-144. Layton, Evro, 'Zacharias and Nikolaos Kallierges and the First Edition of the Apokopos of Bergadis', Θησαυρίσματα,τ. 20 (Ι990),σ. 206-217.

204

, 'Cretan contributions to Greek Books for Greek Readers in the Sixteenth Century'. Μαντατοφόρος,τχ. 33 (1991),σ. 16-19. , 'Notes on the Illustration of the Sixteenth Century Greek Book in Italy', Ροδωνιά.Τιμή στον M.I. Μανούσακα,τ. Α', Ρέθυμνο, Πανεπιστήμιο Κρήτης, 1994, σ. 267-277. , The Sixteenth Century Greek Book in Italy. Printers for the Greek World, Venice, Istituto Ellenico di Studi Bizantini e Postbizantini di Venezia, 1994. Le civiltà del Libro e la stampa a Venezia. Testi sacri ebraici, cristiani, islamici dal Quatrocento al Settecento, a cura di Simonetta Pelusi, Padova, Il Poligrafo, 2000 (Civiltà Veneziana. Studi 51). Liata, Eutihia, «Ειδήσεις γιά την κίνηση του ελληνικού βιβλίου στίς αρχές του 18ου αιώνα», Ό Έρανιστής,τ. 14 (1977),σ. 1-35. Maglaras, Α. D., Συμβολαί είςτήν ερευναν καί μελέτην των Stampe. Stampe της έκ Κεφαλληνίας οικογενείας Carburi,Πάτρα 1977,66 σ. (πολυγραφημένο). Maltezou Chryssa, Incisioni dell ' Istituto Ellenico di Venezia, Venezia, Istituto Ellenico di Studi Byzantini e Postbizantini di Venezia, 2000. Manousakas, Manousos Ι., «Ή παρουσίαση άπό τόν 'Ιανό Λάσκαρη των πρώτων μαθητών του Ελληνικού Γυμνασίου της Ρώμης στον πάπα Λέοντα τόν Γ (15 Φεβρουαρίου 1514)», Ό Ερα­ νιστής ί (1963),σ. 161-172. , 'Una prefazione greca inedita di Giovanni Grigoropoulos per una edizione veneziana del 1498', Bisanzio e l'Italia. Raccolta di studi in onore di Agostino Pertusi, Milano 1982,p. 218-228. Manousakas, Manousos I.- Patrinelis, Ch. G., «Ή αλληλογραφία του 'Ιωάννου Γρηγορόπουλου μετά τοϋ Μ. Μουσούρου, Ά. Αποστόλη, Ζ. Καλλιέργη καί άλλων λογίων της Αναγεννήσεως χρονολογουμένη (1494-1503)»,ΕΜΑ 10 (i960).σ. 163-201. Manousakas, Μ. I. -Staikos, Κ., Οι εκδόσεις των ελληνικών βιβλίων άπό τόν'Άλδο Μανούτιο καί τά πρώτα ελληνικά τυπογραφεία της Βενετίας (Le Edizioni di testi greci da Aldo Manuzio e le prime tipografie greche di Venezia). Κατάλογος με τήν επιμέλεια..., στή σειρά Venetiae quasi alterum Byzantium, Αθήνα,"Ιδρυμα Ελληνικού Πολιτισμού, 1993. Mastoridis, Κ., ' The first greek typographic school', ΗΥΦΕΝ, βήμα γιά τήν τυπογραφία ,τ. Α', τχ.2 (1998),σ. 75-86. Mertzios, Κ. D., «'Οκτώ άδειαι διά τήν έκτύπωσιν βιβλίων εν Βενετία (1559-1572)», Αθηνά,τ. 69 (1966-1967), σ. 171-180. Michaelaris, P., «Ανέκδοτες επιστολές (1695-1696) τού Μιχ. Ν. Γλυκύ στον Μιχ. Σταμ. Περούλη», Θησαυρίσματα,τ. 13 (1976),σ. 245-257. Moennig, Ulrich, «Ό S. Schultze καί ό Α. Fr. Woltersdorf πελάτες στό βιβλιοπωλείο τοϋ Bortoli στή Βενετία (1750). Μέ προσθήκες καί συμπληρώσεις στην Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία»,Μνη­ μών 15 (1993), σ. 149-173. Panagiotakis, Ν. Μ., «Τό κείμενο τής πρώτης έκδοσης τού Απόκοπου. Τυπογραφική καί φιλο­ λογική διερεύνηση»,Θησαυρίσματα,τ. 21 (Ι99ΐ),σ. 89-209. Papadaki, Irini, «Ή ελληνική εκδοτική δραστηριότητα στή Βενετία», Δημοσία Ίλαρία, Βενετία 1999, σ. 105-132. Patrinelis, Ch. G., «'Επιστολές Ί π π . Βάρελη καί Μανουήλ Γλυτζούνη», Μεσαιωνικά καί Νέα Έλληνικά,τ. 4 (1992),σ. 283-319. Perdikis, S. Κ., Ή Μονή Κόκκου, ό αρχιμανδρίτης Κυπριανός καίό τυπογράφος Μιχαήλ Γλυκής. Λευκωσία, Κέντρον Μελετών τής Μονής Κόκκου, 1989,129 σ. Pertusi, Agostino, "ΕΡΩΤΗΜΑΤΑ per la storia e le fonti delle prime grammatiche Greche a Stampa", Italia medioevale e umanista V (1962) manoscritti e stampe dell ' Umanismo, Studi in onore di Giovanni Mardersteig.

205

Ploumidis, G. S., Τό βενεπκόν τυπογραφεϊον του Δημητρίου καί του Πάνου Θεοδοσίου (17551824), Αθήνα 1969. , «La stampa greca a Venezia nel secolo XVII», Archivio Veneto,V, issue 93 (1971), p. 29-40. , ' Tre tipografie di libri greci: Salicata, Saro e Bortoli', Ateneo Veneto,issue 9 (1971), p. 245-251. Politis, L., «Έντυπο περγαμηνό ειλητάριο άπό τό τυπογραφείο τοϋ Ν. Σοφιανού», Μνημόσυνον Σοφίας Αντωνιάδη, Βενετία 1974, σ. 227-236. , 'Venezia come centro della stampa e della diffusione della prima letteratura neoellenica', Venezia, centro di mediazione tra Oriente e Occidente (secoli XV-XVI). Aspetti e Problemi, voi. 2,Florence 1977, p. 443-482. , 'Venezia come centro della stampa e della diffusione della prima letteratura neoellenica', Venezia, centro di mediazione tra Oriente e Occidente (secoli XV-XVI). Aspetti e Problemi, voi. 2,Florence 1977, p. 443-482. Sklavenitis, Τ. E., «Σχόλιο στη "δεύτερη" έκδοση της 'Εγκυκλοπαίδειας τοϋ Πατούσα, 1710», Μνήμων,τ. 7 (1978-79),σ. 144-150. Staikos, Konstantinos Sp., 'The Printing Shop of Nikolaos Vlastos and Zacharias Kallierges. 500 years from the establishment of the first Greek Printing Press', La Bibliofilia year CII, no. 1 (2000) p . 11-32. Staikos, K. Sp., «Μιά προσφώνηση τοϋ 'Άλδου Μανούτιου προς τόν Daniele Clark) στην editio princeps τοϋ Αριστοφάνη, Βενετία 1488», B0YK0AEIA,Mé7anges offerts à Β. Bouvier, Γενεύη 1995, σ. 139-146. Trifona, Lydia, «Ό Μακάριος Χριστιανόπουλος-Μαριδάκης καί οι προσπάθειες του γιά την εκτύ­ πωση τοϋ πρώτου του βιβλίου (1742-1743)», Θησαυρίσματα,τ. 10 (1973), σ. 189-201. Tselikas, Ag., 'Notizie sugli arbori del mercato librario a Venezia in alcune cause civili dei tipografi Giovanni da Colonia e Nicolò Jenson (1471-1485)', στον τόμο Άνθη Χαρίτων, Έλληνικόν Ίνστιτοϋτον Βυζαντινών καί Μεταβυζαντινών Σπουδών της Βενετίας, 1998, σ. 707-728. Veloudis, G., Das griechische Druck-und verhgshans ' Glikis ' in Venedig (1670-1854). Das griechische Buch zur Zät der Türkenherrschafl, Wiesbaden 1974 [ελληνική έκδοση, 1987]. Vranousis, L., 'Les imprimeries vénitiennes et les premiers livres grecs', Venezia centro di mediazione tra Oriente e Occidente (secoli XV-XVI). Aspetti e Problemi. Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Storia della Civiltà Veneziana... (Venezia, 3-6 ottobre 1973), voi. II, Florence 1977, p . 509-519.

FLORENCE Barberi, Francesco καί Cernili, Emilio, 'Le edizioni greche "in Gymnasio Mediceo ad Caballinum montem" (1517-1519)', Typographi romani del cinquecento, Florence, L. Olschki, 1983, p. 57-97. Hobson, Antony, 'The Printer of the Greek Editions "In gymnasio mediceo ad Caballinum montem" ', Studi di Biblioteconomia e stroria del libro in onore di Francesco Barberi, 1976, p. 331-335. I Giunti tipografi editori di Firenze 1497-1570, Parte Prima Annali 1497-1570 di Decio Deck, A cura e con un oaggio introduttivo, Dr. Renato Delfiol, Parte Seconda, Commentario Agli Annalio 1497-1570 'Giunta' e correzioni con una appendice sulle filigrane delle edizioni giuntine del primo trentennio di Luigi Silvestro Camerini, Firenze, Giunti Barbèra, 1978.

206

I Giunti Tipografi Editori di Firenze 1571-1625, Annali Inediti con un'appendice sui Bibliografi dei Giunti a cura di Luigi Silvestro Camerini, Firenze, Giunti Barbèra, 1979. Kristeller, Paul, Early Florentine Woodcuts, London, The Holland Press, 1968. La Stampa a Firenze 147' 1-1550, Omaggio a Roberto Ridolfi, Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 1984. Manousakas, M. I. - Staikos, K. Sp., Τά ελληνικά αρχέτυπα που εκδόθηκαν στην Φλωρεντία (π. 1475-1500). Βιογραφικά σημειώματα των Ελλήνων λογίων, Μανοΰσος Μανούσακας της Ακαδημίας Αθηνών. Παρουσίαση-Είσαγωγή, Σχόλια τών εκδόσεων καί επιμέλεια του Κατα­ λόγου, Κωνσταντίνος Σπ. Στάικος. Αθήνα 1998. , The Publishing Activity of the GreeL· During the Italian Renaissance (1469-1523) - Ή εκδο­ τική δραστηριότητα τών Ελλήνων κατά τήν εποχή της Ιταλικής αναγέννησης (1469-1523). Κατάλογος με τήν επιμέλεια Μ. Μανούσακα καί Κ. Σπ. Στάικου, Αθήνα, Μουσεΐον Μπε­ νάκη 1987.

ROME Ascarelli, Fernanda, Le Cinquecentine Romane, 'Censimento delle edizioni romane del XVI secolo possedute dalle biblioteche di Roma', Milano, Editrice Etimar S.P.A., 1972. Barberi, Francesco, Tipografi Romani del Cinquecento, Guillery, Ginnasio Mediceo, Calvo, Dorico, Cartolari, Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 1983. Korinthiow, L, «Οι ελληνικές εκδόσεις του τυπογραφείου της Propaganda Fide», Παρνασσός, τ. 19 (1977), σ. 247-262. Papadopoulos, Thomas Ι., «Βιβλία Καθολικών καί βιβλία 'Ορθοδόξων», Ό Ερανιστής 19 (1993) 36-65. , «Δράση Θεοφίλου Κορυδαλέως στή Ζάκυνθο. Σχέσεις του μέ Νικόδημο Μεταξά», Μνη­ μοσύνη 14 (1998-2000) 33-82. Tinto, Alberto, Gli Annali Tipografici di Eucario e Marcello Silber (1501-1527), Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 1968. Tsirpanlis, Zah. Ν., «01 ελληνικές εκδόσεις της "Sacra Congregano de Propaganda Fide" (ΐ7οςαί.). (Συμβολή στή μελέτη του θρησκευτικού ουμανισμού)»,Παρνασσός· 16 (1974),σ. 508-532. [= Ί libri greci pubblicati dalla "Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide" (XVII sec). Contributo allo studio dell' umanesimo religioso', Balkan Studies, vol. 15,issue. 2 (1974), p. 204-224]. , «Ό Κύριλλος Λούκαρις καί ή καθολική προπαγάνδα της Ρώμης (1622-1638)», Κρητολογία,τ. 4 (1977),σ. 49-56. , «Από τήν φιλορθόδοξη πολιτική της Βενετίας στην Ελληνική Ανατολή (Ανέκδοτα έγγραφα τών ετών 1581 -1597)», ΕΕΒΣ 39-40 (1972-73) 295-312.

ALCALA Abad, Julian Martin, La Imprenta en Alcala de Henares (1502-1600), Introduction a la 'Tipobibliografia Espanola' José Simon Diaz, vol. I-III, Madrit, Argo/Libros, S.A., 1991. Irigoin, J., 'La contribution de Γ Espagne au développement de la typographie grecque' Minerva, 10 (1996), 59-75. Merton, Reginald, Cardinal Ximenes and the Making of Spain, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., LTD, 1934. Norton, F. J., Printing in Spain 1501-1520, Cambridge at the University Press, 1966.

207

PARIS

A view of the Early Parisian Greek Press; Including the lives of the Stephani; Notices of other contemporary Greek printers ofParis; And various particulars of the Literary and Ecclesiastical History o their Times, vol. I-II, Amsterdam, B. R. Grüner - Publisher, 1969. Angelou, Α., «Περιηγηταί στην Ελλάδα. Πώς είδε ό Α. Φ. Διδότος την Ελλάδα των τελευταίων προεπαναστατικών χρόνων στίς "Σημειώσεις άπό ένα ταξίδι στην Ανατολή"», 'Ιστορία Εικονογραφημένη,ετ. Α',τχ. 1 (Ιούλιος 1968),σ. 144-150. Armstrong, Elizabeth, Robert Estienne Royal Printer, An Historical Study of the Elder Stephanus, Gabridge at the University Press, 1954. Europa Humanistica, Collection publiée par Γ Institut de Recherche et d' Histoire des Textes, La France des Humanistes. Hellénistes I, par Jean-François Maillard, Judit Kecskeméti, Catherine Magnien, Monique Portalier, Turnhout, Brepols, 1999. Flocon, A., L ' univers des livres. Étude hostorique des origina à lafin du XVIIIe siècle, Paris, Hermann, 1961. Greswell, W. P., A Wiew ofthe Early Parisian GreekPress. Including the Lives of the Stephan notices of other contemporary Greek Printers of Paris, vol. I-II, Amsterdam, Β. R. Grüner, 1961. Histoire de I ' édition française, tome I, Le livre conquérant, Du Moyen Age au milieu du XVIIe siècle, tome II, Le livre triomphant 1660-1830, Paris, Promodis, publié avec le concours du Centre National des Lettres, 1982-1984. L ' art du Livre à l ' imprimerie nationale, Introduction Julien Cain, Paris 1973. Les Didot, Trois siècles de typographie et de bibliophilie 1698-1998, Catalogue par André Jammes, avec le concours de Françoise Courbage, Paris, 1998. Margaris, Dim., «Μιά ζωή γιά τόν Ελληνισμό (Αμβρόσιος Φιρμίνος Διδότος)», Ήμερολόγιον Μεγάλης Ελλάδος, 1927 καί στό βιβλίο του Πρόσωπα καίθέματα, Αθήνα 1962, σ. 21-33. Schreiber, Fred, The Estiennes an annotated catalogue of 300 Highlights of their various presses, Introduction by Nicolas Barker, New York, E. K. Schreiber, 1982. , Simon de Colines, An Annotated Catalogue of 230 Examples of his press, 1520-1546, Friends of the Brigham Young University Library, Provo, Utah, 1995. Winn, Mary Beth, Anthoine Vérand Parisian Publisher 1485-1512, Prologues, Poems, and Presentations, Genève, Librarie Droz S.A., 1997.

GENEVA

Chaix, Paul, Dufour, Alain et Moeckli, Gustave, Les Livres Imprimés a Genève de 1550 a 1600, Nouvelle édition, revue et augmentée par Gustave Moeckli, Genève, Librairie Droz, 1966. Gaullieur, E.H., Études sur la typographie Genevoise du XVe au XIXe siècles et sur l ' intorduction de Γ imprimerie en Suisse, Nieuwkoop B. de Graaf, 1971. Gilmont, Jean-François, Jean Crespin, Un éditeur réformé du XVIe siècle, Genève, Librairie Droz S.A., 1981. Homère chez Calvin, Figures de l'hellénisme à Genève, Mélanges Olivier Reverdin, Genève, Droz, 2000. Ή Καινή Διαθήκη του Κυρίου ημών Ιησού Χριστού εις άπλήν διάλεκτον γενομένη [1638] μετάφρασις διά Μαξίμου τοϋ Καλλιουπολίτου άνατυπωθεΐσα δ' επιμέλεια 'ΕμμανουήλΧ. Κάσδαγλη, Επιλεγόμενα Αλκής Αγγέλου, τόμοι Α'-Β'. Παράρτημα Συναγωγής Μεταφρασμά­ των, 'Επιμέλεια Ευφημία 'Εξίσου Αγαμέμνων Τσελίκας, Αθήνα, Μορφωτικόν "Ιδρυμα 'Εθνικής Τραπέζης, 1995, 1999.

208

Le Livre à Genève, 1478-1978, Catalogue de l'exposition organisée par la Bibliothèque publique et universitaire à l'occasion du 500e anniversaire de l'imprimerie à Genève. Introduction et notices rédigées par Antal Lökkös, Genève, Comité du 500e anniversaire, 1978. Manoussaks, M. I. - Staikos, K. Sp. (ed.), L'activité editoriale des Grecs pendant la Renaissance. De l ' Italie à Genève, XVe-XVIe siècle, Athènes 1988,204 p. Ministry of Culture, 'Ελληνικές εκδόσεις στην Ελβετία τόν 16ο και 17ο αιώνα - Impressions grecques en Suisse aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles, Αθήνα, 'Εθνική Πινακοθήκη καί Μουσείο Αλεξάνδρου Σούτζου, 1991,78 σ. [Κατάλογος έκθεσης πού οργανώθηκε με τήν ευκαιρία της 700ης επετείου της Ελβετικής'Ομοσπονδίας. Πρόλογος: Μαρίνα Λαμπράκη-Πλάκα. Κείμενα: Olivier Reverdin.] Panagiotakis, Ν., «Φραγκίσκος Πόρτος: ένας Έλληνας στή Γενεύη του Καλβίνου», Olivier Reverdin - Νίκος Παναγιωτάκης, Οι ελληνικές σπουδές στην Ελβετία του Καλβίνου, Αθήνα, Μορφωτικό "Ιδρυμα 'Εθνικής Τραπέζης, 1995, σ. 55-91.

CONSTANTINOPLE Apostolopoulos, D. G., «Ή λογοκρισία πού δεν έγινε», Ό Ερανιστής,τ. 19 (1993), σ. 235-243. Arvanitidis, Georgios L, «Κύριλλος ό Λούκαρις. Τά κατά τόν θάνατον καί ταφήν του αει­ μνήστου πατριάρχου, καί τίνα των πρό αυτών γεγονότα», Κύριλλος ό Λούκαρις (15721638), Αθήνα 1939. Augliera, Letterio, Libri, politica, religione nel Levante del seicento. La tipografia di Nicodemo Metaxas primo editore de testi nell ' Oriente ortodosso, Βενετία, Istituto Veneto, 1996. Balanos, Dimitrios Simos, Ή 'Ομολογία Κυρίλλου του Λουκάρεως, Αθήνα 1906. , Ή Λουκάρειος 'Ομολογία, Αθήνα 1907. Bokos, Giorgos D., Τάπρώτα ελληνικά τυπογραφεία στοχώροτης «Καθ' ήμάςΆνατολης»(16271827) [Κωνσταντινούπολης, Αγίου Όρους, Σμύρνης, Μοσχόπολης, Κέρκυρας, Ζακύνθου, Χίου, Κυδωνιών, 'Επανάστασης 1821], Αθήνα, ΕΛΙΑ, 1998. Chritsopoulos, Tasos Ath., «Ή Κιβωτός της Ελληνικής γλώσσας», Αθηνά 70 (1968), 223-252. Clogg, Richard, 'Some Protestant Tracts Printed at the Press of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople: 1818-1820', Eastern Churches Review, vol. II, no. 2 (1968), 152-164. Diamantopoulos, Adamantios, Ν., «Κύριλλος Λούκαρις ό Κρής. Ό μέγας Οικουμενικός πατριάρ­ χης τοϋ ΙΖ' αιώνος (1620-1638). Ιστορική μελέτη», Κύριλλος όΛούκαρις(1572-1638), Αθήνα 1939,σ.11-57. Hering, Gunnar, Ökumenisches Patriarchat und europäische Politik 1620-1638, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GmbH, 1968. Layton, Evro, 'Nicodemos Metaxas, the First Greek Printer in the Eastern World', Harvard Library Bulletin, vol. XV, no. 2 (1967), p. 140-168. Manousakas, Manousos Ι., «Ή ανέκδοτος μυστική αλληλογραφία τοϋ Κυρίλλου Λουκάρεως προς τόν Άγγλον πρεσβευτήν εν Κωνσταντινουπόλει, Sir Thomas Rowe (1625-1628)». ΐΐεπραγμένατοϋ Θ' Διεθνούς Βυζαντινολογικοΰ Συνεδρίου, Θεσσαλονίκη, 12-19 Απριλίου 1953,τ. Β', Αθήνα 1955, σ. 533-543. Meyer, Ph., «Lukaris». Herzog-Hauck: Realena/klopädie für protestntische Theologie und Kirche, 3 XI,Leipsig 1902, p. 682-690. Mihalcesco, T., «Les idées calvinistes du patriarchem Cyrille Lucaris». Revue d Tiistoire et de philosophie religieuses, pubi. Par la Faculté de Théologie protestante de l'Université de Strasbourg, 11, Strasbourg-Paris 1931, p. 506-520.

209

Papadopoulos, Hrysostomos, Κύριλλος Λούκαρις, 'Επιμέλεια Γρηγορίου Παπαμιχαήλ, Αθήνα 2 1939.

JASSY-BUCHAREST Camariano-Gioran Ariadna, 'Écoles grecques dans les Principautés Danubiennes au temps des Phanariotes', Symposium, p. 49-56. , Les Académies princières de Bucarest et de Jassy et leurs professeurs, Θεσσαλονίκη, IMXA, 1974. Camariano, Nestor, 'Nouvelles informations sur la création et l'activité de la typographie grecque de Jassy (1812-1821)', Balkan Studies 7 p. (1966), σ. 61-76. Drägan Corneliu, Dima, 'La bibliophilie des Mavrocordato', Συμπόσιον,σ. 209-216. Ionascu, Ion, 'Le degré de l'influence des Grecs des principautés Roumaines dans la vie politique de ces pays', Symposium, p. 217-228. Karathanasis, Α., Οι "Ελληνες λόγιοι στή Βλαχία (1670-1714). Συμβολή στή μελέτη της ελληνικής πνευματικής κίνησης στίς παραδουνάβιες ηγεμονίες κατά την προφαναριώτικη περίοδο, Θεσσαλονίκη 1982. Ekonomidis, Dim. Β., «Τά εν Μολδαβία ελληνικά τυπογραφεία καί αί εκδόσεις αυτών (1642\%2ί)»,Αθηνά Tb (1974-75), σ. 259-301. , «Τά έν Βλαχία ελληνικά τυπογραφεία καί αί εκδόσεις αυτών (1690-1821)»,Αθηνά 76 (1977),σ. 59-102. Papacostea-Danielopoulou, Cornelia - Demeny, Lidia, Carte si tipar in societatea Româneascâ si Sud-Est Ruropeianà (Secolele XVII-XIX), Βουκουρέστι, Ed. Eminescu, 1985, ρ. 264. Simonescu, Dan, 'Le livre grec imprimé en Roumanie (1642-1830)', Συμπόσιον,σ. 127-134. Soutzo, Démètre Skarl., 'Les familles princières grecques de Valchie et de Moldavie', Symposium, p. 229-253. Symposium = Symposium L ' Epoque Phanariote, 21-25 Octobre 1970, A la memoire de Chéoboule Tsourkas, Thessaloniki, Institute for Balkan Studies, 1974. Tomescu, Mircea, Istoria Cärti ii Românesti de la începuturi Pina la 1918, Bucuresti, Editura Stiinüficä, 1968. Tureanu, Emile, 'Les controverses des Jansénistes et la création de l'imprimerie grecque en Moldavie. - Le livre grec en Russie: Lapport des presses de Moldavie et de Valachie (16821725)', Études des littérature Roumaine et d'éscrits slaves et grecs des Principautés Roumaines, Leiden 1985,p. 275-314,448-449. Strempel, Gabriel, Antim Ivireanul, Bucuresti, Editura Academiei Romane, 1997.

VIENNA Dardas, Α. Ν., «ΟΙ ελληνικές εκδόσεις τών Σιατιστινών Μαρκίδων Πουλιού στή Βιέννη (1791-1797). Οι απόδημοι στην Αυστροουγγαρία αδελφοί Μαρκίδες Πουλιού πρωτερ­ γάτες στό φωτισμό τοϋ Γένους», Νεοελληνικός Διαφωτισμός (απόπειρα μιας νέας ερευνητικής συγκομιδής). Πρακτικά Πανελληνίου Συνεδρίου, Κοζάνη 8-10 Νοεμβρίου 1996, Κοζάνη, Ινστιτούτο Βιβλίου καί Ανάγνωσης, 1999, σ. 81-118. Dimaras, Κ. Th., Φροντίσματα, Αθήνα 1962. , Ελληνικός Ρωμαντισμός, Αθήνα 21985.

210

, Ιστορικά φροντίσματα Α, Ό Διαφωτισμός καίτό κορύφωμα του, Εκδοτική φροντίδα Πόπη Πολέμη, Αθήνα 1992. , Νεοελληνικός Διαφωτισμός, Αθήνα 61993. , Ιστορικά φροντίσματα Β',Αδαμάντιος Κοραής, Αθήνα 1996. Enepekides, Polychronis Κ., Beiträge zur Kulturellen und politischen Geheimtätigkeit der Griechen in Wien vor dem Griechischen Aufstand, Berlin, Akademie-Verlag, 1960. , Συμβολαί εις την ίστορίαν του ελληνικού τύπου καί τυπογραφείων της Βιέννης, 17901821. Άνάτυπον έκ του Πανηγυρικού Λευκώματος των Θεσσαλικών Χρονικών (σ. 379-402), Αθήνα 1965 [= του 'ιδίου, Κοραής, Κούμας, Κάλβος, Αθήνα 1967, σ. 197-275]. Kitromilidis, P., ΊώσηποςΜοισιόδαξ,Αθήνα 1985. , Νεοελληνικός Διαφωτισμός, Αθήνα, ΜΙΕΤ, 1996. , Ή Γαλλική 'Επανάσταση καί ή Νοτιοανατολική Ευρώπη, Αθήνα 22000. Koumarianou, Ekaterini, Ό ελληνικός προεπαναστατικός Τύπος. Βιέννη-Παρίσι (1784-1821), Αθήνα,"Ιδρυμα Ελληνικού Πολιτισμού, 1995. , Δανιήλ Φιλιππίδης -Barbie de Bocage -'ΆνθιμοςΓαζής,Άλληλογραφία (1794-1819), Αθήνα, ΟΜΕΔ,1966. Laios, G., «Ό βαρώνος Λάνγκενφελντ καί ό Ρήγας Βελεστινλής», Επιθεώρηση Τέχνης, 'έτος Α', 6, Ιούνιος 1955, σ. 435-442. , «Ό Γεώργιος Βεντότης ό Ζακύνθιος καί ή πρώτη ελληνική εφημερίδα (1784)», Επιθε­ ώρηση Τέχνης ,ϊτος Α',τ. Β',8 (Αυγ. 1955),σ. 149-154. , «Γεώργιος Βεντότης, ό Διαφωτιστής Συγγραφεύς καί Τυπογράφος καί ό Πατέρας της Ελληνικής Δημοσιογραφίας», (Νέα στοιχεία άπό τά Αυστριακά Αρχεία), Επτανησιακά Φύλλα, Αφιέρωμα,περίοδος Γ, 6, (1958), σ. 162-184. , Οι αδελφοί Μαρκίδες Πουλιού, ό Γεώργιος Θεοχάρης καί άλλοι σύντροφοι του Ρήγα, ΔΙΕΕ 12 (1975), σ. 101-270. Mayer, Anton, Wiens, Buchdrucker-Geschichte, 1482-1882 Herausgegeben von den Buchdruckern Wiens, Erster Band, 1482-1882, Zweiter Band 1682-1882, Wien 1883-1887. Pidonia, Komnini D., «Ελληνικά Παλαιότυπα της Βιβλιοθήκης του Ελληνικού Σχολείου καί των Ελληνικών 'Ορθοδόξων 'Εκκλησιών τής Βιέννης»,Τετράδια Εργασίας, 13 (1987) 11-199. Politis, Alexis, «Ή προσγραφόμενη στον Ρήγα πρώτη έκδοση τού Άγαθαγγέλου. Τό μόνο γνω­ στό αντίτυπο», Ό Ερανιστής, 7 (1969), σ. 173-192. Staikos, Κ. Sp., Τά τυπωμένα στη Βιέννη ελληνικά βιβλία, 1749-1800 [Αθήνα 1995], "Ιδρυμα Ελλη­ νικού Πολιτισμού. , Ελληνικές εκδόσεις στά χρόνια του Νεοελληνικού Διαφωτισμού, Ευρωπαϊκό Πολιτι­ στικό Κέντρο Δελφών, Αθήνα 1998. Veloudis, Giorgos, «Ή παρουσία τού Salomon Gessner στη λογοτεχνία τού ελληνικού Διαφωτι­ σμού», Ό Ερανιστές·, 11 (1974),σ. 17-40. Vranousis, L., «Αθανάσιος Ψαλίδας, ό διδάσκαλος τού Γένους (1767-1832)», Ιωάννινα 1952. Ηπειρωτική Εστία, 1 (1952), σ. 331-470. , ΡήγαςΒελεστινλής-Φεραϊος. Συναγωγή κειμένων,φιλολογική επεξεργασία καί παρου­ σίαση Λ. Βρανούσης,τ. Α'-Β', Αθήνα 1968-1969. , «Ρήγας καί Μαρμοντέλ», Έλληνογαλλικά - Αφιέρωμα στον Roger Milliex, Αθήνα 1990, σ.121-157. , Εκδόσεις καί χειρόγραφα τού «Σχολείου Ντελικάτων Εραστών», Αθήνα 1970. , Εφημερίς. Τό Δημοσιογραφικόν όργανον τών Ελλήνων πατριωτών της Βιέννης, 17901797, Ακαδημία Αθηνών, Αθήνα 1995.

211

— , (έκδ.) Έφημερίς. Ή αρχαιότερη Ελληνική Εφημερίδα πού έχει διασωθεί. Βιέννη 17901797. Έκδοτες: οι αδελφοίΜαρκίδες Πουλιού, 6 τόμοι, Αθήνα, Ακαδημία Αθηνών, 1995. — , 'Άγνωστα πατριωτικά φυλλάδια καίΑνέκδοτα κείμενα της εποχής του Ρήγα και του Κοραή. Ή φιλογαλλική καίάντιγαλλική προπαγάνδα,Αθήνα, Ακαδημία Αθηνών, 1997. — , Ρήγας ή κατά ψευδοφιλελλήνων Άνέκδοτον έργον του Μιχαήλ Περδικάρη (1811), Αθήνα, Ακαδημία Αθηνών, 1997.

BUDA-PEST Füves, Öbön, «Ή παραμονή καί τό έργο τοϋ Πολυζώη Κοντού στην Ουγγαρία (1794-1801)», Ηπειρωτικά Χρόνια, 23 (1981) 327-334. Katsiardi-Hering, Olga, 'L'idée de la Révolution dens laghorizon politique des Grecs de Hongrie (Fin XVIIIe Siècle)', Extrait: Centre de Recherches Néohelléniques Fondation Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, Actes du IIIe colloque d'histoire (Athènes 1ί-17 Octobre 1987), La révolution Française et l'hellénisme moderne, Arhènes 1989, p. 87-118. Kranis, Dimitrios Α., Ή Πνευματική δράση των 'Ελλήνων τής Ουγγαρίας καί ειδικότερα των Μακεδόνων κατά τήν περίοδο 1600-1880, Αθήνα 1991. Todorov, Varban, Catalogue of Greek manuskripts and printed books (l7th-19th century) the collection in Nyiregyhaza, Hungary, Contribution to the History of the Greek Diaspora, Τετράδια Εργα­ σίας 22, Athens, Centre for Neohellenic Research National Hellenic Research Foundation, 1999. Zaviras, Georgios Ι., Νέα Ελλάς ή Έλληνικόν Θέατρον, Άνατύπωσις Α 'Εκδόσεως, ΈπιμέλειαΕΊσαγωγή-Εόρετήριον: Τάσου Αθ. Γριτσόπουλου, Αθήνα, 1972.

TRIESTE Katsiardi-Hering, Olga, Ή ελληνική παροικία τής Τεργέστης (1751-1830), τ. Α'-Β', Αθήνα 1986. , «Προσπάθειες γιά τήν ίδρυση ελληνικής τυπογραφίας στην Τεργέστη ( 1765) », Τά Ιστο­ ρικά τ. 1,τχ2,Δεκ. 1984,σ. 253-264. Ladas, G. G., Ι.Συνοπτική'ΙστορίατοοΈλληνισμοϋτήςΤεργέστης. Il.'HΒιβλιογραφία των έντυ­ πων πού εκδόθηκαν από τους "Ελληνες τής Τεργέστης, Αθήνα 1976.

LEIPZIG Breitkopf & Härtel, Gedenkschrit und Arbeitsbericht von Oskar von Hase, 4. Auflage, Erster Band: 1542 Bis 1827, Zweiter Band: 1828 Bis 1918, Druck und Verlag von Breitkopf & Härtel in Leipzig, 1917-1919. Eideneier, Hans - Moennig, Ulrich - Winterwerb, Helma, Neograeca in Germania, Bestände Frühneugriechischer und Liturgischer Drucke des 16.-18. Jahrhunderts in Bibliotheken des Deutschsprachigen Raums, τετράδια εργασίας,23, Athen, Institute for Neohellenic Research / National Hellenic Research Foundation, 2000. Moennig, Ulrich, «Ένα άβιβλιογράφητο αλφαβητάρι τοϋ Θωμά Μανδακάση (Λειψία 1761)»,Τά Ίστορικά,τ. 13,τχ24-25 (Ίούν-Δεκ. 1996) 121-128.

212

MOS COW- ST PETERSBUR G Batalden, Stephen K., Catherine H's Greek Prelate. Eugenios Voulgaris in Russia, 1771-1806, New York 1982 [East European Monographs, Boulder, no 115]. , Eugenios Voulgaris in Russia, 1771-1806: A Chapter in Greco-slavic Ties of he Eighteenth Century, Διδακτορική διατριβή, University of Minnesota, Minnesota 1975,21986. Caterina di Russia l'imperatrice e le arti, Catalogo di Mostra, Firenze 23 maggio - 9 agosto 1998, Milano, Electa, 1998. Fonkic Boris, «Tó μαθητικό τετράδιο τοϋ Ελευθέριου (Ευγένιου) Βούλγαρη», Ό Ερανιστής 22 (1999), 80-89. Kamariano, Nestor, «Επτά σπάνια ελληνικά φυλλάδια δημοσιευμένα στην Πετρούπολη (17711772)», Ό Ερανιστή,τ. 18 (1986), σ. 1-34.

MOSCHOPOLIS Peyfuss, M.D., Die Druckerei von Moschopolis 1731-1769 Q Buchdruck und Heiligenverehrung im Erzbistum Achrida, Vienna, Bohlau, 1989. Bokos, Giorgos D., Τάπρώταέλληνικάτυπογραφεϊαστόχώροτης«Καθ'ήμάςΆνατολής»(ΐ6271827) [Κωνσταντινούπολης, Αγίου Όρους, Σμύρνης, Μοσχόπολης, Κέρκυρας, Ζακύνθου, Χίου, Κυδωνιών, Επανάστασης 1821], Αθήνα, ΕΛΙΑ, 1998. Christopoulos, Ρ. Η., Τόβιβλίο «Ή Αλήθεια Κριτής» και ή τυχοδιωκτική δράση του συγγραφέα του Leandro Lombardi στον ελληνικό χώρο. Διδακτορική διατριβή. Αθήνα 1984,221 σ.,14 είκ. Society for Macedonian Studies, Διεθνές Συμπόσιο Μοσχόπολις, Θεσσαλονίκη 31 'Οκτωβρίου - 1 Νοεμβρίου 1996, Θεσσαλονίκη 1999.

MOUNT ATHOS Bokos, Giorgos D., Τά πρώτα ελληνικά τυπογραφεία στό χώροτής «Καθ'ημάς Άνατολή~ς»( 16271827) [Κωνσταντινούπολης, Αγίου Όρους, Σμύρνης, Μοσχόπολης, Κέρκυρας, Ζακύνθου, Χίου, Κυδωνιών, Επανάστασης 1821],Αθήνα,ΕΛΙΑ, 1998. Sklavenitis, Triantafyllos E., «Ή Β ιβλιοθήκη των εντύπων της Μονής Μεγίστης Λαύρας τοϋ Αθω », Μνήμων, li (1987), 109.

SMYRNA Bokos, Giorgos D., Τά πρώτα ελληνικά τυπογραφεία στό χώρο της «Καθ' ήμάς'Ανατολής»( 16271827) [Κωνσταντινούπολης, Αγίου Όρους, Σμύρνης, Μοσχόπολης, Κέρκυρας, Ζακύνθου, Χίου, Κυδωνιών, Επανάστασης 1821], Αθήνα, ΕΛΙΑ, 1998.

CORFU- ZAKYNTHOS Bokos, Giorgos D., «Συμπληρωματικά στοιχεία σχετικά μέ την πρόταση του Π. Μαρκίδη-Πούλιου γιά εγκατάσταση τυπογραφείου στά Επτάνησα»,Μνήμων,8 (1980-82), σ. 321-336.

213

, Τά μονόφυλλα τού κερκυραϊκού τυπογραφείου κατά την περίοδο της γαλλικής κυριαρ­ χίας στά Επτάνησα (1797-1799,1807-1814). -Les placards de Γ Imprimerie de Corfou pendant la période de la dominationfrançaisedans l ' Heptanèse, Κέρκυρα, 'Ιόνιο Πανεπιστήμιο, 1998. , 'Les Français et Γ imprimerie heptanésienne', Extrait: Centre de Recherches Néohelléniques Fondation Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, Actes du IIIe colloque d'histoire (Athènes 1417 octobre 1987), La révolution Française et l'hellénisme moderne, Athènes 1989, p. 185-205. , Τά πρώτα ελληνικά τυπογραφεία στόχώρο της «Καθ ' ημάς Ανατολής »(1627-1827) [Κων­ σταντινούπολης, Αγίου Όρους, Σμύρνης, Μοσχόπολης, Κέρκυρας, Ζακύνθου, Χίου, Κυδω­ νιών , 'Επανάστασης 1821], Αθήνα, ΕΛΙΑ, 1998. Konomos, Dinos, «Άγνωστες Ειδήσεις τοΰ 1813 άπό τήν '"Εφημερίδα των Ιωνικών ελευθερω­ μένων νήσων" της Ζακύνθου», Επτανησιακά Φύλλα 12 (1984), 129-131. Navari, Leonora, «A Landmark in the History of Greek Printing» The New Griffon 2 (1991) 3-7. Panagiotopoulos, V., «Προτάσεις τού Π. Μαρκίδη-Πούλιου γιά εγκατάσταση ελληνικής τυπο­ γραφίας στην Ιόνιο Πολιτεία (1800)», Πρακτικά τού Γ"Πανιονίου Συνεδρίου, Αθήνα 1967, τ. Α, σ. 292-297. Viguier, Jules, L'imprimerie nationale de Corfu 1798-1799, Ornée d'un bois original de D. Galanis, Corfou, Imprimerie Landos, 1917.

CHIOS Bokos, Giorgos D., Τά πρώτα ελληνικά τυπογραφεία στόχώρο της «Καθ' ήμάςΆνατολής»(16271827) [Κωνσταντινούπολης, Αγίου Όρους, Σμύρνης, Μοσχόπολης, Κέρκυρας, Ζακύνθου, Χίου, Κυδωνιών, Επανάστασης 1821], Αθήνα, ΕΛΙΑ, 1998. Clogg, Richard, «Ό Parsons καί ό Fisk στό γυμνάσιο της Χίου τό 1820», Ό Ερανιστής 5 (1967), 177-193. Fasoulakis, St., «Δείγματα βιβλίων άπό τήν τυπογραφία της Σχολής Χίου», Χιακά Χρονικά, τ. 8 (1976), σ. 17-19. Gialas, Α. L, «Ή τυπογραφία εις τήν Χίον καί τά Ψαρά κατά τους χρόνους του Αγώνα», Χιακή Έπιθεώρησις, τ. 9 (1971), σ. 95-102. Horeanthis, Κ., «Ή τυπογραφία στή Χίο καί τά Ψαρά, 1754. 1819-1822. 1824. 1862-1962», Χίος, 'Ημερολόγιο 1977,100 σ. Loukatos, Spiridon D., «Ό Άδμάντιος Κοραής καί ή έν Χίω τυπογραφία», Εις μνήμην Κωνστα­ ντίνου Αμάντου, Αθήνα 1960, σ. 187-200. Papadopoulos, Thomas L, «Τά περί τυπογραφίας στή Χίο τόν ιη' αιώνα», Χιακά Χρονικά, τ. 9 (1977), σ. 41-42. [Αντίκρουση στή θεωρία του Κ. Χωρεάνθη.]

KYDONIES Bokos, Giorgos D., Τά πρώτα ελληνικά τυπογραφεία στό χώρο τής «Καθ'ημάς Ανατολής »(16271827) [Κωνσταντινούπολης, Αγίου Όρους, Σμύρνης, Μοσχόπολης, Κέρκυρας, Ζακύνθου, Χίου, Κυδωνιών, 'Επανάστασης 1821], Αθήνα, ΕΛΙΑ, 1998. Kavvadas, Stephanos D., Ό Κυδωνιάτης Κωνσταντίνος Τόμπρας: ό πρώτος εθνικός τυπογράφος της Επαναστάσεως, Αθήνα, Ένωσις Κυδωνιατών, 1975. Michailaris, P., «Άλλο ένα έντυπο τής τυπογραφίας των Κυδωνιών», Ό Ερανιστής, τ. 17 (1981), σ. 277-278.

214

INDEX

INDEX Abbot George 91 Academy of Bucharest 114 Acciaioli Donato 25 Accursius Bonus 52 Adrian VI (pope) 50 Aesop 18 Agamemnon 54 Akontianos Gabriel 10 Albriggi Orsino 12, 18, 20 Aldobrando Carlo 32 Alexander the Great 22 Alexander VI (pope)46 Alexandras of Candia 3 Alexievna Natalia 168 Alexios (emperor) 16 Alfieri Francesco 32 Alfieri Vittorio 183 Allatios Leon 49 Alphonse V the Magnificent (king) 57 Amadutius Johannes Chrisophorus 55 Ammonius Hermiae 6 Anthimos (patriarch of Jerusalem) 102 Anthimos Iviritis 112, 113, 114 Anthrakitis Methodios 124, 170 Antonio del Pallaiolo 30 Antonio San Severino (prince of Salerno) 29, 38 Apollonius of Alexandria 33 Apollonius Rhodius 28, 36 Apostolis Arsenios 16, 40, 45, 54, 79 Apostolis Manos 160 Apostolis Michael (archbishop of Thessalonike) 54 Archimedes 170 Aretino Pietro 46 Aretinus Carolus 36

Argyramos Alexandras 98 Argyropoulos Ioannis 8, 25, 48 Aristophan 17 Aristotle 54, 162 Arkoudios Petros 49 Arsenios (archbishop of Elasson) 91 Asola Andrea d' 9 Athanasios (monk) 109 Athanasios (patriapch of Antiochia) 100 Athonite Academy 148, 174 Aubert Pierre 87, 95 Aurispa Johannes 36 Bacchus (Saint) 109 Bade Jose 32, 65 Balanos Kosmas 132, 170 Bartholdy J. L. 182 Bartolommeo di Libri 26 Basarab Konstantinos Bragoveanu 112, 114, 160 Basil the Great 59 Bayrhoffer I. D. G. 186 Baumeister 158 Bèze Théodore de 75, 76, 83 Bembo Pietro 32, 46 Benevento Marco 47 Benigni Cornelio 45, 46, 47, 52 Benjamin of Lesbos 143, 186 Bentivoglio (family) 46 Bergadis 7, 10, 18 Bergikios Angelos 66 Bernadino de Vitalibo 40 Bernardos Manuel HO Berthier César 179, 180 Bessarion (cardinal) 8, 43, 58 Birago Lampugnino 43 Biado Antonio 50, 51, 159 Boileau N. D. 143

217

Bois Jean des 78 Boissonade J. F. 182 Borgia Lucretia 80 Bortoli Antonio 14, 20, 22 Bortoli Girolamo 13 Bounialis Tzane 20 Breitkopf & Härtel (publishing house) 157 Breitkopf Emmanuel 157,159,160 Bracar Arnald Guillen de 58, 60 Bruni Leonardo 40 Bude Guillaume 63, 84 Bussi Giovanni Andrea de 43 Callimachus 26, 28, 29, 84 Calvin 76, 83, 91, 95, 108 Candido Decembrio Pietro 32 Carmelio Vittore 49 Casali Battista 48 Casaubon Aimilios 83 Casaubon Isaac 83, 157 Cassius Dio 70 Castelvetro Lodovico 80 Catellanus Lilius 36 Catherine the Great 168 Cato Angelo 63 Celestino (monk) 47 Chalkiopoulos Athanasios 57 Chalkokondylis Demetrios 8, 25, 26, 34, 60 Chantzeris Samuel 100 Charles IX (king) 84 Charles V (king) 11 Charles Vili (king) 29, 36 Chatzi-Dimos Georgios 108, HO Chatzi-Polyzois (Polyzos) Demetrios 160, 165 Chigi Agostino 45, 46, 47 Choniatis Michael 54 Chortatzis Georgios 10, 20

Choumnos Georgios 10 Christopoulos Athanasios 118, 128, 138, 140 Chrysoloras Manuel 3, 25, 28, 29, 30, 59, 60, 68 Cicero 43, 162 Cinseros (cardinal) 58, 59 Clement VII (pope) 50 Colines Simon de 65 College of San Idelfonso in Alcala 57,60 College press 49 Collines Simon de 68 Colocci Angelo 40, 48, 49 Colubri Societas (Compagia del Drago) 38 Commelinus Hieronymus 78 Cornaro Vincenzo 10, 22 Cosimo de Medici 25 Cota Giovanni di Verona 47 Craston Giovanni 32 Crespin Jean 76 Crinito Pietro 32 Cyril V (patriarch) 96, 98, 100, 108, 159, 174 Cyrillic 118 Damiano di santa Maria 9 Damilas Demetrios 3, 26, 34, 52 Daponte Kaisarios 145. 159, 162 Darvaris D. 132 Delft Gilles de 63 Demetriou Polychronios 165 Demosthenes 59 Depharanas Markos 20 Descartes 131 Devaris Matthaios 54 Diakrousis Anthimos 20 Didot Ambroise Firmin 72, 186, 187 Dimaras K. Th. 72 Dio 70 Diogenidis Panayiotis 110 Dionysios (monk) 109 Dionysios (bishop of Mylopotamos) 17 Dionysius of Halicarnassus 66 Domenico de Poloni 11 Don Diego da Mentoza 11 Dorat Claude Joseph 145

Dositheos (patriarch of Jerusalem) 108, 109, 113, 114, 117, 167 Doukas Demetrios 50, 58, 59, 60 Doukas Georgios 108, 109 Doukas Sotiris 174, 176 Dramytinou Maria 79 Eberhart I. M. 72 Emili Paolo 63 Emmanuel Konstantinos 175, 176 Ennea Paolo 47, 52 Erasmus 63 Este Eleonora d' (princesse) 82 Estienne Henri 66, 76,84,87,157 Estienne Robert 65,66, 70, 76,84 Euripides 28, 29 Eusebius of Caesarea 66 Eustathios (archbishop of Thessalonike) 51, 54 Fausto Vettor 58 Favolino Guarino 47 Feltro Vittorino da 43 Fénelon 150 Fernandez Juan de Hereida 57 Ferrandus Thomas 16 Ficino Marsilio 26 Filelfo Francesco 38 Fischer Johann Christian 164 Fisk Pliny 186 Fontenelle 127 François I (king) 65, 66, 68. 70 Fugger Ulrich 84 Gazis Anthimos 140,144, Gazis Theodoras 8, 30, 33, 43, 47, 57,60 Gaguin Robert 63 Galen 6, 72 Gambardella Pasquale 180 Garamont Claude 66. 70 Geitzas Anastasios Michael 110 Gerasimos of Alexandria 100 Gervini Marcello (cardinal) 50. 51. 159 Gessner Salomon 160 Ghirolandi Andrea 38 Gianotti Donato 51

218

Gikas Alexandras Scarlatos 113 Gikas Gregorios (prince) 148, 160, 165 Gilles de Gourmont 63, 65, 68 Giovio Paolo 46 Giraldi G. 20 Giuliano Andrea 12, 20 Giuliano Antonio 22 Giuliano Francesco 13 Giunti Benedetto 33, 51 Giunti Bernardo 33 Giunti (family) 30, 33, 36, 52, 68 Giunti Filippo 30, 31, 32 Giunti Lucantonio 30, 31 Glarakis Georgios 186 Glykys Demetrios 12 Glykys Michael 12, 13 Glykys Nikolaos 12, 13, 22 Gozo Kosmas 110 Goldoni 127 Gorgias 54 Gottlieb Johann 100 Gottlob J. 157, 159 Greek College of Rome 48 Greek High School of St Athanasios 49, 54 Greek Press at Jassy 118 Gregorio di Citta di Castello 63 Gregorios V (patriarch) 97, 98, 99, 102 Grigoras Mitrophanis HO, 114, 176 Grigoropoulos Ioannis 3 Grillenzoni Giovanni 80 Guillaume le Signerre 40 Gusmâri Nunez de 58 Haga Cornelius 94, 95 Härtel 160 Hercule II d'Esté (duke of Ferrara) 80, 82 Hermodoros 80 Herodotus 12 Hesiod 76, 84 Hippocrates 72 Hippomachos 54 Hobbes 131 Homer 18. 34, 36, 54, 76, 84 Hopyl Higman 66 Hübner Johann 165

Ikonomos Konstantinos 143 Ioannis Komninos (emperor) 16, 109 Ioannis Phalis-Georgios Kostantinos 113 Ioannou Christodoulos 110 Ioustinos Dekadyos 6, 8, 9 Ipsilandis Alexandras 110, 112 Isocrates 49 Jimenez Francisco de Cinseros (cardinal) 57, 60 John of Damascus 110 Johnson Samuel 183 Jones William 100 Julius II (pope) 46, 47, 58 Justinian 16 Kairi Evanthia 187 Kairis Theophilos 187 Kalliergis Zacharias 3,6, 7,8,10, 18. 32, 36, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52 Kalliergis Nikolaos 7, 10, 18 Kallimachis Skarlatos Alexander 118 Kallimachis Skarlatos Alexandras 112 Kallistos Andronikos 8, 25, 43 Kallos A. Z. 182 Kalphoglou Alexandras 118 Kanelos Stephanos 140, 142 Kantakouzinos Stephen 117 Kapetanakis (brothers) 145 Kapodistrias Ioannis 140 Karteromachos (Scipio) 47, 48 Karyophyllis Ioannis 113 Kaskambas Ioannis 182 Kastorianos 132 Kastriotis Georgios Postelnikos 114. 117 Katartzis Demetrios 121,124.127, 131 Kelestinos of Rhodes 154 Kephalas Konstantinos 34 Kerameus Nikolaos 108 Kevis 28. 29, 38 Kodrikas Panayotis 127, 142 Kokkinakis Konstantinos 143,186 Kondoleon Demetrios 112

Konstantas Gregorios 124, 138 Konstantinidis Gregorios (hieromonk) 173, 176 Konstantinou Christos 110 Konstantinou Georgios 113.153 Kontos Polyzois 128, 131. 136 Kopitar B. 144 Korais Adamantios 72, 121, 126, 130,131,140,142,159,185,187 Koressios Georgios 109 Koressios Konstantinos 98 Kornilios Andreas 185 Korydaleus Theophilos 100,103. 116, 162 Kouzanos 118 Kounadis Andreas 8, 9, 11 Koutoumas Tzannis 138 Kyminitis Sevastos 114, 116 Kyriakidis Panayiotis 97, 100 Lactantius 43 Lazaros Ioannis 113 Lazaros Nikolaos 113 Lambanitziotis Polyzois 124 Landos Agapios 108 Laonikos (Nikolaos Kawadatos of Kydonia) 3, 16 Laskaris Ianos 6, 7,17, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36, 38, 45, 49, 52, 63 Laskaris Konstantinos 3,25,30,33 Laurentium Francisci de Alopa 28, 34, 36 Laurentius Nicolaus 25 Lecuyer Denis 65 Lefèvre Jacques d'Étaples 63 Legrand Emile 83 Leo X (pope) 7, 32, 40. 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 54, 58, 79 Leonardos Agapios 154 Leoncini Jacopo 11 Leoniceno Omnibono 40 Lessing 127 Leto Pomponio 43 Libanius 59 Lichoudis (brothers) 167 Limboda Angelos 18 Livy 43 Locke 131 Loeper G. A. F. 157 Logaras Theophanis 11

219

Lopez Diego de Zuniga 60 Lorenzo de Alopa 38 Lorenzo de Medici 29 Loyola Ignatius 82 Louis XII (king) 82 Loukanis Nikolaos 18 Loukaris Cyril (patriarch) 51, 87. 91, 94, 95, 96, 102, 105, 130 Loupos Basil 108 Lyra Nicolaus de 45 Lucian 29, 36, 59, 136, 165 Lucillus 36 Lucretia (princesse) 82, 83 Luther 75 Lopez Diego de Zuniga 58 Mazzocchi Giacomo 48 Magistros Thomas 47 Magnanimo Andrea 40 Maiorano Niccolo 51 Makarios Symeon 109 Makraios Sergios 103, 131 Makremvolitis Eustathios 160 Makris Makarios 109 Malatios Konstantinos 114 Malaxos Grigorios 11 Mankins J. G. 157 Manuel Antonios 130 Manuel Komnenos (emperor) 16 Manuzio Paolo 50 Manutius Aldus 6, 9, 16, 17, 29, 30, 32, 40, 50, 52, 60, 63, 68, 87 Marcellus II (pope) 50, 51 Marcuzzi Pietro 15 Margounios Maximos (bischop of Kythera) 100 Markides-Pouliou (brothers) 124, 133 Marmontel 127 Marsuppini Carlo 16, 26 Martinus A. 157 Massimo Pietro 43 Mavrogenis Nikolaos (prince) 118, 125 Mavrokordatos Alexandras 103, 112 Mavrokordatos Nikolaos 103,110, 112, 127, 128, 138, 158, 160. 162 Mavrommatis Nikolaos 182 Maximos Rhodios 87

Medici Pietro de 17 Megdanis Charisios 128, 145 Meletios (bischop of Athens) 124 Melikis Μ. Α. 182 Mercurio 48 Metastasio 127 Metaxas Nikodimos 91.94,95,100 Michael Anastasios 168 Milias Spyridon 103 Miniatis Ilias 159 Mirabeaux 136 Miscomini Antonio di Bartolommeo 26 Mitrophanis (monk) 109 Mogilas Petros 108 Moisiodax Iosipos 121, 131, 132, 134, 148 Molivdos Ioannis 109 Monastery of Cetatuia 108, 109 Monastery of St Sawas 108, 110 Monastery of the Three Hierarchs 108, 110. 112 Montesquieu 160 Morel Guillaume 65 Mortali Valentino 12. 20 Moschopoulos Manuel 66 Moschos Demetrios 59 Moukos Alexandres 110 Mount Athos 173. 174, 176 Mousouros Markos 3, 8, 16, 17, 33, 40, 45, 54 Mylonopoulou-Glykys Ioannis Andreas Michael 14 Myreon Matthaios 118 Musaeus 16, 40, 59 Nebrija Antonio de 58 Nektarios (patriarch of Jerusalem) 108 Neobar Conrad 65, 66 Nerantzis Thomas 110 Nerli Bernardo 26, 34 Nerli Neri 26, 34 Neroulos Iakovakis Rizos 143.160 New Greek Press 108 Newton 131 Nicholas V (pope) 26, 43 Nicolini Stefano da Sabio 50 Nikiphoros Theotokis 132, 136, 164. 170

Nikodimos Agioritis 138 Nikolaou Drosos 138 Nomophylax John 109 Nonnus 16, 36 Notara Anna 3 Notaras Chrysanthos 114,117,124 Notaras Loukas 3 Nunez Hernan de 59 Obradovic Dositheos 15 Onorio Giovanni 51 Oppianos 33 Orphic 17, 30. 31, 84 Ovid 43 r a d u r e Demetrios 109 Palamas Gregorios 100 Palladoklis Antonios 168 Pamblekis Christodoulos 131, 150 Pannarzt Amoldtz 43 Papageorgiou Michael 148 Paravicino Donigi 3 Parios Athanasios 98, 102, 103, 131, 160 Parsons Levi 186 Parthenios (patriarch) 108 Patmios Makarios 159 Paul (duke of Rusia) 168 Paul HI (pope) 76, 80 Pausanias 12 Pelletier Jean 82 Perdikaris Michael 128,131,134, 143, 144 Persianos Manolakis 118 Petit Jean 65 Petrarch 32 Petridis P. 183 Petrucci Ottavio 46 Phalieros Marinos 10 Pharmakidis Theoklitos 143 Philaras Leonardos 49 Philitas Christophoros 143 Philippidis Daniel 124, 131. 143, 160 Philostratos 36 Photinos Dionysios 128 Phrynichus 47 Piccolo Nicolo 142 Pigas Meletios 91, 112

220

Pikatoros Ioannis 10 Pimpinelli Vicenzo 48 Pindar 47, 52, 76 Pinelli Giovanni Pietro 18 Placido Antonio 32 Planoudis Maximos 28, 34, 76 Plato 43, 76, 84 Platon (archbishop of Moscow) 159, 168 Plutarch 12, 17, 112 Pogos Ioannis 97, 102 Politianos Angelos 26, 32 Pontano Giovanni 32 Popas Anastasios 134 Porphyropoulos Markos of Cyprus 114 Porphyry 49. 52 Porto Francesco 76, 78, 79, 80. 83 Porto Theophilos 79 Princely Academy 108 Prodromos Theodores or Ptochoprodromos 16, 40 Proios Dorotheos 185 Psalidas Athanasios 132 Pseud-Kallisthenes 22 Ptolemy 12, 47 Pythagoras 84 Quirini Angelo Maria 170 Radovic Stavros 110 Radovitsis Georgios 114 Ramsay 127 Real de Curban 127 Renata (duchesse) 82 Rhigas (Velestinlis) 103.124,128, 130, 134, 136 Ricardini Benedetto 32 Ridolfi (cardinal) 51 Rimnik 114 Ro Michael 108. 110 Robbia Luca 32 Rodinos Neophytos 49 Rodios Maximos 94 Rollin Charles 124, 127 Rossos Ioannis 6 Royal Printer of Greek 66 Rousiadis Georgios 128. 144 Rousseau Jean-Jacques 136 Rousseau Charles 68

Sabii brothers 9, 11 Sabio Stefano 9 Sachlikis Stephanos 10 Sacra Congregano de Propaganda Fide 50, 55 Sakellarios Georgios 128, 144 Sallicato Altobello 18 Saltelis Chatzi-Emmanuel 187 Salvini Antonio Maria 40 Samuel I (patriarch) 96 Sarandopoulos Dionysios 179, 180 Saraphis Gregorios 187 Saros Nikolaos 12, 13, 14, 20 Sa w a s Georgios 13 Scaliger Joseph 157 Scholarios Georgios 100 Seneca 32 Seraphim of Pisidia 100 Sergius (saint) 109 Sessa Melchior 17 Silber Eucharius 49 Simplicius 6 Sinopeus Panayiotis 114 Sixtus IV (pope) 45 Skordylis Zacharias 11 Slatinianos Skarlatos 118 Soceri Andrea 16 Societas Colubris 29 Socrates 40 Solomos Dionysios 183 Sommer G. W. 157, 158 Sophianos Nikolaos 11, 50. 54 Sophocles 52, 68 Soutsos Michael 125, 127 Spartiatis Demetrios 63 Spinelli Andrea 11 Spinelli Jacopo 11 Stamou Zapheiris HO Stanos John 13 Starsby William 100 Steinschaber Adam de Schweinfurth 75

Stoer Jacobus 78 Strabo 12. 43 Stratis Panos 12 Strozzi Palla 25 Symeon Theodoros of Trebizond 114 Suetonius 43 Sweynheim Conrad 43 Swickert Eng. Ben. 157 Takiatzis Konstantinos 145 Tarchaniotis Michael Marullus 29, 38 Tardif Guillaume 63 Tauroceni Zuan Battista 11 Terence 32 Tzanetos Ioannis 118 Tzeucharis Basii 103 Theocritus 33. 47. 52. 84 Theodore II Laskaris (emperor) 165 Theodoridis Lellis Konstantinos 182 Theodosiou Andreas 15 Theodosiou Demetrios 14. 22 Theodosiou Panos 15 Theognis 84 Theon 36 Theophanes (patriarch of Jerusalem) 100 Theophylaktos (archbishop of Ochrid) 51 Theophylaktos (archbishop of Bulgaria) 159 Tiphernas Grigorios 43 Tissard François 63, 68 Tombras Konstantinos 187 Tosini Evangelista 47. 48 Trapezountios Georgios 8, 25 Trivolis Iakovos 22 Troilos Ioannis Andreas 10 Tubini Antonio 38 Tucci Mariano 32

221

Valeriano Giovanni Pierio 47 Valla Lorenzo 57 Valle Niccolò de 43 Vamvas Neophytos 143, 185 Varvonios Michael (Barboni) 14 Vasileiou Michael 15 Vasilopoulos Balanos 132, 170 Venetus Bernardinus de Vitalibus 47 Venizelos Angelos 18 Ventotis Georgios 124, 138 Vergara Juan de 58 Veronensis Guarinus 43 Vespasiano da Bisticci 31 Vettori Pietro 51 Vidouvé Pierre 65 Vignon Eustache 78 Vilaras Ioannis 128 Vlastos Nikolaos 3, 30, 32 Vlemmydis Nikiphoros 165 Voltaire 102. 121, 124. 127, 128, 131. 136, 145. 164. 167 Voulgaris Evgenios 102,121,124, 127,131, 145. 148.150.154.158. 160, 162, 164, 167, 168, 170, 174 Voulismas Dorotheos 165 Wechel Christian 65 Xenophon 32, 38. 80. 83 Xiphilinos Ioannis 70 Zambelios Ioannis 183 Zanetti Bartolomeo 11 Zanetti Cristoforo 11 Zanmobi di Mariano 31 Zarzetos Spyridon 154 Zaviras Georgios 147 Zenobius 30. 31 Zonaras Ioannis 57 Zosimas (brothers) 125, 167. 170 Zygomalas Ioannis 79 Zweck J. B. 138

THE CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITION 'THE PUBLISHING CENTRES OF THE GREEKS FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE NEOHELLENIC ENLIGHTENMENT' DESIGNED ELECTRONICALLY BY MARY KARAVA USING G.F.S. DIDOT FONTS. THE PROCESSING OF THE FIGURES. COLOUR SEPARATIONS. ELECTRONIC MONTAGE AND PRODUCTION OF FILM WERE BY 'DIAGRAMMA' CHRISTOS KOUTROUDITSOS. THE TYPOGRAPHICAL SUPERVISION OF THE PUBLICATION WAS BY ANNA CHATZIANTONIOU. 5,000 COPIES WERE PRINTED IN OCTOBER 2001 FOR THE NATIONAL BOOK CENTRE OF GREECE, UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF PETROS BALIDIS, ON EUROPE CHAMOIS 100 GR PAPER. THE BINDING WAS SUPERVISED BY VASILIS KYPRAIOS.

IfTERATOMES LITERATURES PHILO 8 OP H I PHILOS OFM I

«user

MA TJHEMA tlCIÌÌ

'^im^t

iWm

llpST?" o|