The Role of E-services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus in the Printing Business: Case Lexmark

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus in the Printing Business: Case Lexmark

Esko Penttinen Timo Saarinen Pekka Sinervo IGI Global

156

Chapter XI

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus in the Printing Business: Case Lexmark

Esko Penttinen Helsinki School of Economics, Finland Timo Saarinen Helsinki School of Economics, Finland Pekka Sinervo Lexmark, Finland

Ab Today, many manufacturing companies are focusing on their service operations, which are often seen as a better source of revenue than the traditional product business. E-services can accelerate this process by offering companies new ways to control products and monitor equipment from a distance. This chapter describes the changes which are taking place in the printing business. It tells the story of Lexmark, a printer manufacturer that has recently created differentiated offerings to its business customers. In the case of Lexmark, this repositioning of offerings has been enabled by e-services. Here, the e-services consist of the Lexmark Fleet Manager system which monitors the use and availability of the equipment and makes suggestions on how to improve the printing processes on the customer site. The case ends with a description of the actual challenges that Lexmark is currently facing. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

Background: Theory Suggests Moving to wards S ervices Management theory suggests that product manufacturers should move downstream closer to the customer and provide different kinds of services along with their tangible products (Oliva & Kallenberg, 2003; Penttinen & Palmer, 2007; Quinn, 1992; Vargo & Lusch, 2004; Wise & Baumgartner, 1999). Manufacturers’ traditional value-chain role—producing and selling goods—has become less and less attractive as the demand for products has stagnated throughout the economy (Wise & Baumgartner, 1999). The demand for different kinds of services, on the other hand, has grown considerably. Increasingly, the customers of manufacturing companies are concentrating on their core competencies and, often, do not regard the maintenance of machines as being part of their core business. Services within the manufacturing business include, for example, maintenance services, condition monitoring services, training services, consultation services, installation services, and documentation services (Oliva & Kallenberg, 2003). Increasingly, these services are in electronic format. As an example of an electronic service, manufacturing companies have innovated information systems that enable condition monitoring from a distance. These systems allow companies to keep an eye on their equipment on the customer site more effectively. Service industries have grown in importance compared to the agricultural and manufacturing industries. Steady productivity increases in agriculture and manufacturing have meant that it takes ever fewer hours of work to produce or buy an automobile, a piece of furniture, or a home appliance. While productivity has improved, the demand for goods is somewhat capped; people can only consume limited quantities of automobiles, sofas, and washing machines (Quinn, 1992). At the same time, the installed base of products

has been expanding steadily in many industries, thanks to the accumulation of past purchases and to longer product life spans (Wise & Baumgartner, 1999). The combination of this stagnant product demand and an expanding installed base has pushed economic value downstream, away from manufacturing and toward providing services required to operate and maintain products (Wise & Baumgartner, 1999). Many manufacturing companies have learned their lesson and have turned to services in search for growth and increased pro. tability (Penttinen & Palmer, 2007). Examples of successful companies include the elevator company KONE and the bearing producer SKF (Penttinen, 2007; Penttinen & Palmer, 2007; Penttinen & Saarinen, 2005). These companies have been actively inventing electronic services. For example, SKF has innovated intelligent bearings which report the status of the bearings to SKF. This is done by inserting a sensor to the bearing core which measures the vibration and motion status of the rotating components. These e-services allow SKF to provide maintenance contracts more economically than before. Similarly, KONE has added intelligence to their elevators, allowing a more efficient monitoring of their products from a distance. Others have not been as successful in making the transition from product manufacturer to service provider. According to Oliva and Kallenberg (2003), there are three successive hurdles to overcome the problems related to the transition from products to services. First, firms might not believe in the economic potential of the service component for their product (e.g., engineers are more excited about building a multimillion-dollar piece of equipment than about a service contract for cleaning it). Second, firms might not have the capabilities and competencies to provide services for their products. Third, firms might fail in deploying a successful service strategy (e.g., Ford Motor Co.’s attempt to enter after-sales services was blocked by its network of independent dealerships) (Oliva & Kallenberg, 2003).

157

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

What Are Electronic Services? In the marketing literature, services have been defined according to the IHIP framework (Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1985). The IHIP framework lists intangibility, heterogeneity, inseparability of production and consumption, and perishability as the distinguishing traits of services. Compared to tangible goods, services are intangible. Services are heterogeneous, meaning that services are customized to individual customers. The production and consumption processes of services cannot be separated. Services are perishable, meaning that it is impossible, for example, to store services for later use. More recently, services have been defined as processes, activities, performances, or changes in the condition of an economic unit. In short, services are the “application of specialized competencies through deeds, processes, and performances for the benefit of another entity or the entity itself” (Vargo & Lusch, 2004, p. 2). In the case of manufacturing companies’ eservices, we define and conceptualize e-services as service systems that enable the dissemination and transmission of information from the manufacturers’ products to the manufacturer. At the current case company, the printer manufacturer Lexmark, the core of the company’s e-services is the Lexmark Fleet Manager system, which is described later in the chapter.

Setting the Stage: SELLING PriNters aNd PriNter CapacitY to CompaNies In this chapter, we look at the manufacturers of printing machines. We tell the story of Lexmark which has recently turned to services in their B2B activities and launched the e-services concept, Lexmark Fleet Manager system. Increasingly, the turnover of Lexmark comes from services: for example from maintenance services and from

158

consultation services. The objective of this case study is to familiarize the reader to case Lexmark and to describe the e-services that the company has innovated. The core of the e-services is the Lexmark Fleet Manager system. We will also discuss the transition from products to services taking place in this company. We begin by giving some basic facts of the printing business, then, we introduce case Lexmark and describe how their business model has changed recently. We conclude by listing some key challenges that the company faces. According to the Gartner Research Group, document handling and printing expenses can amount to 1–3% of a company’s turnover. Whereas the other parts of the IT-related activities have often been outsourced outside, printing and document handling activities are the last islands of the IT services that have not been thoroughly considered from the perspective of outsourcing. Generally speaking, relatively little effort has been put to optimizing the printing processes in offices. Procurement processes related to printers and printing material are scattered and seem to fall between the IT side with printers and the office equipment side with copy machines. Even though there is potential for considerable savings, very few companies are interested in optimizing their document handling and printing processes. When aiming to optimize the printing processes in an office, an important ratio to understand is the ratio describing the number of employees to the amount of equipment within the company. According to Lexmark Finland, currently, this ratio is usually two to one; meaning that there are, on average, two employees per one piece of output equipment (printer, copy machine, fax, etc.). Lexmark has encountered companies, where the ratio has been one to one, meaning that each employee has one printer or copy machine or fax at his/her disposal. In most cases, this represents a considerable waste of resources in offices. Naturally, individual employees have individual printing needs. For example, in some companies,

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

printing may be seen as a critical operation (due to, e.g., confidentiality issues); and therefore, each employee must have his/her own printer. However, in general, we can try to find the optimal ratio of employees per printer; and, according to the Gartner research group, the optimal ratio, in office work on average, is eight to one.

Case DescriptioN: LeXmark Lexmark is a manufacturer and supplier of printing solutions including laser and inkjet printers, multifunction products, associated supplies and services. The company employs 13,000 people worldwide and has a turnover of around 4.3 billion euros. Lexmark International Inc. was founded in 1991 when IBM decided to hive off its printing business to retail investors. All business functions from new product development to sales departments were shifted to the new company. Lexmark entered the New York Stock Exchange as an independent company in 1995. Lexmark initially focused on business-to-business (B2B) companies but extended its product range to providing business-to-consumers (B2C) printers in the mid-1990s when ink jet technology came to the market. This case description and the following challenges focus on the B2B activities of the company. In the B2B activities, during the recent years, we can observe an important change in focus: “In B2B, we printer manufacturers compete over printed papers, not machine sales. It is more important for us to provide MRO (maintenance, repair and operations) products and services for our customers than selling the actual printing machines” (CEO Lexmark Finland). The margins on product sales (namely printers in this case) have decreased sharply lately. This is due to increased competition in the market. The printer market went through a period of rapid change and this was due to the digitalization of office printing. Copy machines moved from the analogical to the

digital world. Suddenly, copy machines were able to be used as printers through office networks. Printer manufacturers responded by innovating multifunction products that could function as printers and copy machines simultaneously. Today, in offices, 55–60% of sheets of paper are printed using traditional printers and 45–50% are printed or copied using copy machines. The trend is toward the increasing use of printers. More and more of information can be stored in electronic format, either by originally entering the data in electronic form or by scanning the existing information in electronic format. This favors the use of printers. The change in the product market described above has affected the focus of the printer manufacturers, including our case company Lexmark. Today, the focus is not in product sales, but, rather, in providing companies service contracts. “By providing service contracts, we can ensure the MRO business for our company” (CEO Lexmark Finland). Under the service contract, the equipment is delivered as part of the monthly contract and the charges are based on the number of printed sheets of paper, or cost per page, and not based on the aggregation of the equipment cost over a period of time.

E-Services: The Fleet Manager System How to provide these service contracts? For doing this, Lexmark has created new e-service offerings. The core of Lexmark’s electronic services is the fleet manager system depicted in Figure 1. It is an information system which essentially monitors the equipment located on the customer site, transmitting automatically updated information on, for example, the number of printed sheets, type of sheets, location of printers and users, and change patterns of use. This information can be used to control the costs on the customer site: by analyzing printing information and by making suggestions on how the printing operations could

159

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

be optimized on the customer site. The system is located within the customer company provided there are less than 500 devices on the customer site. For global customer companies and for those clients whose number of devices exceeds 500 devices, Lexmark proposes the ARMS system. Here, Lexmark manages the system on a server which is located outside the customer company. Lexmark then provides the customer company a customized view to the system, including all the information the customer wants to see. The core system, fleet manager, consists of five parts: the Asset Manager, the Billing Manager, the Consumables Manager, the Availability Manager, and the Optimization Manager. The Asset Manager is used to manage the equipment. It identifies and registers the equipment in the customer environment and enables the collection of data from printers and other related equipment. It tracks the life cycle of the equipment and makes suggestions when certain equipment needs to be updated or renewed. The collection of the data is automated, and the data are directly transmitted to the system. The Billing Manager uses the data from the Asset Manager system to produce billing information and reporting analyses based on the number of pages printed at the customer site. The customer can choose from a variety of billing op-

tions: a recurring monthly charge, a monthly per page charge, or a combination of the two. The Consumables Manager observes the machinery and alerts Lexmark when, for example, the toner level is getting low. The system automatically sends out an e-mail indicating that the machine needs maintenance. The customer can also choose the option that the new spare part is delivered automatically to the customer site. The Availability Manager monitors the device and reports changes in the condition of the machine. It automatically reports the down time of the equipment; and, based on this information, the availability of the printing equipment can be obtained as a service level percentage. For example, the customer can be guaranteed to have a 95% service level, which guarantees that the printer will be available for 95% of the time. The Availability Manager then notifies whether this objective has been achieved or not. The Optimization Manager observes the printing processes on the customer site and evaluates whether the processes could be improved by changing the setup of the equipment. It alerts if some devices are overloaded most of the time and makes suggestions on how such problems could be resolved.

Figure 1. The Lexmark .eet manager system

Optimization manager

a sset manager

Billing manager

a vailability manager Consumables manager

160

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

Differentiated Offerings Generally speaking, today, the customer usually pays for printed sheets of paper. In 2002, Lexmark launched the concept of “print-move-manage.” These three levels can be described as steps toward a more service-oriented market offering. Within the “print-move-manage” framework, each step basically means transferring some responsibility of the functioning of the printers to Lexmark. Moving towards the “manage” part means that Lexmark does more for the company and the company can free its human resources to more productive activities. Print” relates to the hardware and technical printing solutions that are used for market entry. Here, the main idea is the consolidation of the equipment base. There are many advantages that the customer company can gain by consolidating the printers and the related equipment. First, it is easier to arrange maintenance contracts for the machines when the equipment is more uniform. Second, the MRO (maintenance, repair, and op-

erations) logistics is more efficient whereby the company can compare and choose their MRO suppliers in a more efficient manner. Third, IT support becomes more straightforward when the number of servers and the variety of brands are decreased. Finally, it is easier to take backups when the systems and machinery are consolidated. “Move” is about combining activities, making the most use of multifunction machines and about scanning documents into electronic format and saving them as well as distributing them electronically. Here, the main idea is about changing the culture of the customer company. For example, by using two-sided printing, the company can save in printing costs but it also has considerable environmental effects. Most of the pollution from paper printing is concretized when the paper is produced. By using two-sided printing, approximately 40% of the negative environmental effects can be avoided. Scanning documents into electronic format and archiving them electronically can further reduce these effects.

Figure 2. Differentiated offerings at Lexmark D is tributed F lee t M an agem e nt

V alueP rin t B usiness

• V alu e A dd M a nage d S ervice s d irec tly from Lex m ark

• Ac c om m oda tion to C u stom er w ho w ants d irec t

• A ss et T ra ck in g and R epo rt ing, Av ailability Se rv ice s, Opt im iz atio n S ervic es and C ons um a ble s S ervice s

re lations hip w ith Le xm ark

D irec t

• U nb undled off er – B reak /F ix Se rv ic e a nd S upplie s

• Complex C us tom er en viro nm e nt, c om plex b illin g

• C lick o r C artridg e bas ed (tb c) – M ont hly fix a nd v aria ble

• D e vic e c ount greater than 500 units*

• Sim ple P ric ing m at rix for s ale s • Pag e c ounts prov id ed b y the c usto m er (W eb P ortal)

S ervic es A llianc es D F M

• N o repo rt ing or va lue adde d s ervice s

• V alu e Ad d M a nage d Se rv ices s old throug h the Pa rtn er

• D ev ic e c oun t greater than 50 devices*

C h a nn el

vs

• A ss et T rac k in g and R eporting S ervic es • C o nsu m ab les S ervice s (op tio nal)

V alueP rin t P artn er • P ro gram

• Complex C us tom er env iron m en t, c om p lex billing

m ainly ad dres sing C o pie r D ealer

• D e vice co unt greater than 200 units*

• Gu a ra n te e d H W /S U /S pa re P ar t- O nl y W a rr an ty p ri cin g fo r ter m o f e n d- use r co st-p e r-p a ge co ntra ct

L exm ark Fleet M ana ger

• D e al er h a s a p oss ib ility to o ffer o w n se rvic es • Sp e cific W eb P or tal fo r the p ar tne r to e a se p ro ce sse s

• C u st om e r rec og niz es va lue of s erv ic es , as se t m a nagem ent, c ons um ables m an agem ent, a nd a vailab ilit y s erv ic es

• Sp e cia l tech n icia n s tr ai nin g an d te ch ni cal s up p or t m ate ri al

• O pe ra tion ally m an aged by t he P artner (AS P m ode l)

• D ev ic e c oun t starting from 1 unit*

• Simple C us tom er billing /bas ic repo rt ing • D e vic e c ount less than 200 units*

A cq u isitio n /C o pie r B as ed

vs

M a na ge d S ervice s

161

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

“Manage” is about controlling the output environment: becoming conscious of the costs and trying to find ways to control and lower these costs. For doing so, Lexmark has created differentiated offerings for different customer segments. Figure 2 depicts these offerings. On the left side of Figure 2, Lexmark provides the equipment through dealers. On the right side, Lexmark interacts directly with the customer, delivering equipment directly to the customer, and providing maintenance services and consultation services. Beginning from the lower left corner of Figure 2, the ValuePrint Partner concept is offered to small companies and organizations through the dealer network. The offering is made primarily to copier dealers, giving them tools and techniques to improve printing processes on their customers’ sites. The main idea for Lexmark here is to use the dealer network efficiently by providing the dealers guarantees on hardware, software, and spare part warranties. ValuePrint Business concept is offered directly to customer companies without the use of the dealer network. Lexmark proposes simple, unbundled offerings without reporting or valueadding services. The main challenge here is to accommodate the offering to customer needs. The billing is based on the number of printed pages; this information is provided by the customer through the Web portal. The ValuePrint Partner and the ValuePrint Business concepts are acquisition/copier based, which means that the customer purchases equipment and services separately. In other words, the offering that Lexmark makes to the companies and dealers is not bundled. The main difference between the ValuePrint Partner and the ValuePrint Business offerings is that the ValuePrint Business offering is made directly to customers whereas the ValuePrint Partner is made to the copier dealers. The ValuePrint Business is also directed to somewhat larger customer companies than the ValuePrint Partner.

162

The Lexmark managed services are depicted on the right side of Figure 2. For a simple customer setting with basic reporting, Lexmark proposes the use of Lexmark Fleet Manager. The Lexmark Fleet Manager is essentially an information system and was described in the previous section. Here, the customer recognizes the value of services provided by the Fleet Manager system and is willing to pay for these services. Services Alliances Distributed Fleet Management (DFM) is basically the Fleet Management offering that is made to a more complex customer environment which requires more complex billing processes. The Lexmark Fleet Manager and Services Alliances concepts are made to the market through Lexmark’s partners, the application service providers (ASPs). Interacting directly with customers, Lexmark proposes the Distributed Fleet Management concept which is basically an outsourcing contract in which the customer company can choose from a variety of service levels. The highest service level means that the customer outsources everything from the physical printers to the maintenance and technical support to Lexmark. Here, everything ranging from technical equipment (printers, copying machines, networks, etc.) to technical support is outsourced to Lexmark. These outsourcing contracts are maintained either by controlling the client’s machines from a distance or by placing Lexmark employees on the customer site. These concepts are offered primarily to large companies and organizations: for example in Finland, the Distributed Fleet Management contracts are targeted to the top 150 companies and organizations.

Challenges and New Requirements An important challenge in selling the service contracts to large companies is finding the right negotiation partner from the client company. The

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

decision to outsource output management is a strategic one. Therefore, the decision should be taken by top management. In Finland, companies have been criticized for having too few marketing and IT people in their top management. Often, the company names an IT director who is responsible for the IT budget. Usually, the IT director has previously worked as an IT manager and has very seldom had the opportunity to take part in the strategic development of the company. This means focusing on costs and not looking at the big picture of making processes more efficient. Therefore, the customer’s decision to outsource or not to outsource is made based on hard numbers and cold facts. It is Lexmark’s job to convince the customer that Lexmark will be able to provide the service contracts more efficiently than the customer’s own current practices. Lexmark has recognized that it cannot provide these service contracts on their own: they need to partner with application side partners, outsourcing partners, and other product manufacturers. When providing service contracts for large customer companies, it is essential to try to partner even with competitors such as Hewlett Packard. It would be somewhat arrogant to think that Lexmark alone can provide service contracts for large companies that have tens of thousands of employees. Providing document-handling service contracts for large companies requires more than printers, scanners, and the necessary network to combine the existing equipment. It is about making different kinds of equipment from various product and service providers work well together. This is why Lexmark needs partners, even from the competitor side. Besides networking with other companies and even competitors, Lexmark has had to re-educate its current staff. The role of sales managers has changed quite dramatically. Today, the sales managers really need to have knowledge of their customers’ internal processes, and they need to interact with their customers more than they used to do. Lexmark has put considerable effort

in re-educating its sales managers and giving them tools and techniques to deal with the new sales situation.

Transferring Responsibility and Risks As already mentioned above, when Lexmark proposes these service contracts, it takes more responsibility of the customer’s document-handling and printing processes. This brings up the question of risk management. What happens when something goes wrong? Fortunately, printing is very rarely a critical function within a company (although, for example, there are examples of instances where a failure to print out an offer has resulted in losing an important business opportunity). Nevertheless, risks related to product failure and its consequences, for example, are stipulated within the service contract. The risks for Lexmark include the client’s unwillingness to trust Lexmark in improving the document handling and printing processes. This might lead to wasted resources on Lexmark’s side without any compensation. What risks might there be for the client? In some companies and organizations in Finland, some service providers have been too ambitious in decreasing the number of printers in the workplace. In other words, the ratio of employees/equipment has been too high. Now, if the client company has taken a 5-year leasing and service contract, it might be very difficult to get it cancelled and to improve the situation.

Current Challenges Facing the Organization At Lexmark, we can see four main challenges when moving from product focus to service focus. They are related (1) to acquiring of new resources, (2a,b) to convincing the customers and Lexmark employees, (3) to finding the right negotiation partner, (4) to determining the level of

163

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

service for each customer, and (5) to innovating new e-services. 1. New Resources in the Form of IT Solutions and Human Resources As described in the text, the role of the sales manager has changed dramatically. What kinds of innovations could be used to help the sales managers transfer from mere salespeople to consultants who have to understand the client’s internal processes and needs and wants? What kinds of IT innovations, besides the asset management system described in the text, could be used? 2a. Convincing the Customers to Purchase Printers As Services It is very challenging for Lexmark to find arguments to convince the customer company that it should outsource its printing activities to Lexmark. Very often, taking this decision would mean that the customer company’s own staff is made redundant and should be moved to more productive activities. Currently, these arguments are made using hard facts describing how much the company would save in monetary terms if document-handling and printing activities were optimized and made more efficient. What kinds of novel arguments could there be? 2b. Convincing the Personnel of Lexmark and Tackling the Internal Processes Besides convincing the customers of the new business deal, there are several internal challenges in the transition. In the past, the Lexmark sales managers were compensated according to their hardware revenue, in other words, the amount of printers they sold to their customers. Today, the situation is reversed. The managers are remunerated according to the revenues from the number of the printed pages that their customers print. The transition has an effect on how the different divisions within the company

164

are evaluated. The CEO must understand that when the company moves to the service focus, some divisions may actually show negative results, even though the overall performance of the company has improved. What kinds of solutions could there be for getting the message through to the personnel? What kinds of new internal performance measurement instruments could the company use? 3. Finding the Right Negotiation Partner in the Client Organization Every outsourcing decision is a strategic one, and it should be made by the top management. However, printing process and document-handling optimization is not seen as important activities within the customer companies of Lexmark. Therefore, it is very challenging to get face-to-face meetings with appropriate negotiation partners within the customer company. What kinds of strategies could Lexmark use in order to get the top management interested? 4. How to Determine Whom to Target with the Service Contracts Lexmark proposes their Distributed Fleet Management and outsourcing services mainly to large firms, with more than 500 pieces of output equipment (printers, copy machines, faxes, etc.). Smaller firms are not equally attractive to Lexmark because they do not have the critical mass of document-handling and printing needs. Current challenges facing Lexmark include: How to determine what level of service contract is suitable for each customer? What should be the level of service contract offered to large firms/smaller firms? What other determinants than the customer company size should there be? 5. How to Innovate New Services with the Fleet Manager Electronic Information System The Lexmark Fleet Manager system currently includes the Asset Manager, the Bill-

The Role of E-Services in the Transition from the Product Focus to the Service Focus

ing Manager, the Consumables Manager, the Availability Manager, and the Optimization Manager systems. These systems were described in the chapter. What kinds of new innovative systems could Lexmark incorporate to this Fleet Manager system?

References Oliva, R., & Kallenberg, R. (2003). Managing the transition from products to services. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 14(2), 160–172. Penttinen, E. (2007). Transition from products to services within the manufacturing business. Doctoral dissertation, Helsinki School of Economics, Finland. Retrieved June 5, 2008, from http://hsepubl.lib.hse.fi/FI/diss/?cmd=show&dissid=343 Penttinen, E., & Palmer, J. (2007). Improving firm positioning through enhanced offerings and

buyer-seller relationships. Industrial Marketing Management, 36(5), 552–564. Penttinen, E., & Saarinen, T. (2005). Opportunities and challenges for B2B industrial manufacturing firms: Case SKF. In T. Saarinen, M. Tinnila, & A. Tseng (Eds.), Managing business in a multichannel world: Success factors for e-business (pp. 117–127). Idea Group Publishing. Quinn, J. (1992). Intelligent enterprise: A knowledge and service based paradigm for industry. New York: Free Press. Vargo, S., & Lusch, R. (2004). Evolving to a new dominant logic for marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68(1), 1–17. Wise, R., & Baumgartner, P. (1999). Go downstream: The new profit imperative in manufacturing. Harvard Business Review, 77(5), 133–141. Zeithaml, V., Parasuraman, A., & Berry, L. (1985). Problems and strategies in services marketing. Journal of Marketing, 49(2), 33–46.

165