The Scandinavian Baltic Crusades 1100-1500
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION
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• De finiti o n)> ora crusade • Participants in the Ba iLie C tu ~ades • The Ba il ie at the time olt lw Crmades
DAVID LI NDHOLM MA was born In 1970. He was educated at the University of Lund In Sweden where he studied medieval archaeology, history and ethnology. He Is also a specialist in medieval weaponry and warfare.
CHRONOLOGY
7
THE ARMIES
9
EQUIPMENT OF THE SCANDINAVIAN CRUSADERS
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• The dilliculties of interpn:ting sources • 1100-1 ~WO: shields - sword.,- helmets- mail atmourthe gambeson- the importance or the bow and crossbowclose comha1 weapons • 1300-1 ~ 00: additional pla te reinforcementsthe coat-of-plates- helmet~: the bascinct, the 'Order helmet' and the 'J...ettlc-hat'- mmual cop,ing of.,ome infantrv and cavah"\ items- ~>hields and hucJ...Ier~. \\'eapom: hand-held guns- crossbows- swords- daggers- pole-arms • 1400- 1500: plate armour - halberds and polcall.e1>Jongswords- crossbows
DAVID NICOLLE was bom In 1944 and worked in the BBC Arable service for a number of years, before gaining an MA from the School of Oriental and African Studies, London, and a doctorate from Edinburgh University. He has written many books and articles on medieval and Islamic warfare.
ANGUS McBRIDE is one of the world's most respected historical i llustrators, and has contributed to more than 90 Osprey titles in t he past three decades.
MILITARY EQUIPMENT IN THE BALTIC LANDS & NOVGOROD
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• 1100-1300: Armour- shit:lcJ.,- weapons • 1300-1500
STRATEGY & TACTICS • • • • •
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Strongpoint., and raiding Climalt.' and terrain- \\inlet warfare Boats and ships Fortifications Siege warfare
AFTERMATH OF THE CRUSADES
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FURTHER READING
42
PLATE COMMENTARIES
43
INDEX
48
Men-at-Arms • 4 36
The Scandinavian Baltic Crusades 1100-1500
D Lindholm & D Nicolle · Illustrated by A McBride
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THE SCANDINAVIAN BALTIC CRUSADES 1100-1500 INTRODUCTION arc familiar with the Cmsades to the Holy Land during the Middle Ages; others know of the Rcconquista, in what arc now Spain and Portuga l, which was another form of medieval crliSadc. In conu·ast, the crusades that took place around the Baltic Sea during the same period are less well known. Even those studies which have been made have emphasized the role of Gcnnans, and above all the Germanic military orders - the Sword Brethren, and the Teutonic Knights - rather than that of the Scandinavian peoples who played such a vital role. These expeditions were regarded as genuine crusades, both bj the medieval European Church and by Lhose who took pan in them. The Baltic Crusades, as they are now known, were sanctioned by Papal authority; and they had a profound impact upon the subsequent histol) of all the states that surround the Baltic Sea. os·1 PEOPLE
D e fin it i on s of a c ru sa d e
OPPOSITE The Danish knight Henrik Plot in full armour, shown In a 14th century stained glass wi ndow. This Illustrates the transitional styles of body defence - probably with a coat-of-plates worn over a mail hauberk and 'soft' armour as also found In the grave-pits at Vlsby. (In situ Do llefjelde Church, Denmark)
In recent times a 'crusade', in its original religious and warlike sense, has generally been regarded simply as an ugly phenomenon from the Western world's blood-stained past, without much consideration being given to the actual origins of the term. To the Christian peoples of the Middle Ages, however, the word had a very specific meaning: it was an armed expedition or series of expeditions intended to remove a perceived threat to the Christian faith , or to convert non-Ch1istians to Christian iry (by force if necessary) , or to achieve both these ends. Not all such religiously inspired armed confl i ct~ were against Muslims or pagans, however. Those against 1he Albigensians in sou thern France were undertaken to crush a ' heresy'; while those against the Byzami ne Imperial capital of Constantinople, against Bulgars, Hussites and o1her peoples and communities in Europe, pitted Latin or Catholic Christians against Christians who adhered to a different version of the faith. Meanwhile, the so-called ' Italian Crusades' were little more than poli tical wars to maintain or extend Papal power. At the legal core of all such crusades lay the tact that such mi litary efforts had to be sanctioned by the Pope - Christ's represenrative on earth - or, at the least, by a respected bishop who was himselfrepresentiug the Pope. Participating in a crusade offered many material and spiritual benefits for the believing vVestern European Christian, and this was as true of the Baltic Crusaders as it was of I hose who mounted expeditions to Lhe Holy Land in Palestine. These benefits may be sununaJiLecl as follows: While a man was on crusade, all his assets were protected; they could not be seued in payment of taxes or other debts. All his sins were
3
forgi\cn. including those committed while on the cntsadc it'>elf. A crusader would not be prosecuted for am crime'> committed before the crmade, and if lw fulfilled hi., oath and completed hi., crusade (and .,UJ"\ived), then these crimes would be forgi\en b\ the worldh authorities; in other words, a man could return horne with a clean slate, both spirituall} and legally. Anr loot that \ .... \ he might take while on crmade could usually be kept, although a tithe was normally expected to be paid to the Church v, / ~~ i·-. out of 1>uch ' profits' of ~ l.l:l 4>/: i..···...~· campaigning. People from all wall-s of life took pan in these ventures, ranging from king-. and prince\ of the MAZOVJA blood through C\er. le\el '\., ··..... ot -;otiet\ dm'n to the verT ··•·..~~····,.....·-·\ poore'>t. Impired b\ their Poznan ' ···· faith and their hope for Lhe GREAT POLAND .,,,Jnnion of their immortal Swedish territory ..,oub. the\ gathered whate\et meam the\ could CJ Danish t~rritory aflord and set off into the ,---""' Swedish Crusades distant unkn0\\11, to rid the world of those they ~ Danish Crusades belic\ed to be 'enemies of the faith'. rn the past, many historiam have made much of the fact that the crusades were a means for ruler:. ami cotnnnmitics in times of local peace to rid themselves - at least temporarily - of landless and burdensome younger sons of the propcrtkcl clas.,cs, and of greedy and troublemaking noblemen whose ambitions threatened the stabilitY of the state. In reality, this docs not usually 'iCt'lll to have been the case. In<>tead, the vast m~jority of crusaders took part because rhev believed in what they were doing and accepted'' hat their local religious leader\ told them was their du~ to God. Thb wa., a tim<' '' ht>n man\' believed in the reaching of their Church so strongh that the\ \\ere \\illing to lay down their lives for it. Difficult as it mm be in ou1 -,ecular age, it is essential to grasp the~e facts if one wishes to under-.tand the cntsades became <;uch a popular mo,ement, dra\\ ing in man) of the leading political and ecclesiastical princes of Europe to \UCh a remarkable degree.
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,d,,
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P a rticipant s In th e Balt ic C r u sa d es
Tn the carl~ )Cars the Baltic Crusade., mosth imohed ~(andinmia and the German-speaking a reas. ' Outrc mer'. or the crusader lt'lritories in the Middle East, provided a more appealing arena for wuthern monarchs and their peoples. After th e loss of the la~r rragme nts of the Ho ly Land in 1291, crusading opportunities in 1he ea<;tern ~leditenanean became limited. A<> a re.,ult, French and Hurgundian would-be cmsade1'!. began to show increasing imere'>t in the pagan lands of the Baltic region, this being especiall) apparent dudng the 11th century. The Teutonic Knights, as an international military order of chivalry, could poren rially draw upo n manpower from right across Christendom , but in rea li ty the Order's rccnliling bases were limited to their core lands within the German Empire. Where Lhe Scandinm·ian counuie., were concerned, it \\tl.'> never a very large-scale affair, and there was no qucslion of the Baltic Cmsades capturing the imagination of an entire conlinent in the wa\ that the First Crusade to j crw..ale m had done. T here were, of course, many volunteers; but for rh e most part rhc forces involved were ' roy-a l crusades', carried our by rule rs and the relinues tha t lhcy lhe mselves could muster, whether from Denmark, Norway or Sweden. The Baltic Crusade'>, and especialh the campaign<> direned against the pagan Lithuaniam, also came to be ~een as offering an opportunity for men to gain valuable military cxpet·ience without hm ing to travel all the way to the Middle East, where a feeble cmsading cOon was sti ll under way. It was for these reasons 1hal the Baltic became th e most popular region for cr 11~ading during the 14th cen tury. Thi~ is furtJ1er highlighted by the facr that the Papal autholities offered rhe same re\,ards and conditions to Scandina\;an ~mereigns a.., were offered to the English and French when it came w allocaling the tax revenues collected by the Church for the specific pwvose of financing a crusade. By the mid-14th cen tury I he Church came to realize that a dwindling income from these taxes meant lhaL, if continued pre sure \\
LO be maintained in the BaJLic region, a larger portion needed to he handed over to rh e monarchs acw ally inmlved. ~fo1al pressure wa<> al~o C'\elted: for example, St Bi rgitta of Sweden was at that time extremelr influential, both in rh e Church and in worldly matters. She wrote on tJ1c topic of cmsading se\eral times, in an anempt to revive interest amongst J..ings who now .seemed to lack sumcie nt enthusiasm.
The Bishop's Citadel of Kuressare, on the Estonian Island of Saaremaa, described as the only medieval fortress In the Baltic States which Ia virtually complete. Nevertheless, the upper parts of both the walls and the towers were added during the 20th century.
5
The Baltic at the time of the Crusades
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Since at least the Bronte Age. the BaJtic Sea has been a factor \\ hich connected rather than di,,ided those peoples and counu·iei> which hl\ around iti> shore..,. It prO\ ided relatively easy communications and tr-ade routes between mall\ different regions. The fairly modest <,i;e and enclosed nalttre of the Baltic Sea also meant that crossing it wa.., 1101 particular!\ difficult. During the Iron Age and Earl~ Medie,al period \\ideh known a.., the \ 'il,ing period -trade in this rc~on intensified to a remarkable degree. A., a re ... ult traders and raiders from almost all the surrounding coast.., sailed across the Baltic to visit their neighbour..,, either for peaceful pmpoi>eS or othen\ise. Thh. had the impot tant effen of ensudng that the peoples of the Baltic Sea posse!>sed much broader and more accurate knowledge of each other than was the c;tse, for example, amongM the earl) crmarler!. to the Middle Easl. In the Mediterranean the cmL~tal and maritime peoples may have known a l<>L about t.•ach other. but the ordinat) crusaders from further north and weM wen.· \\Ocfullv ignorant about their Muslim foe~. A.., the people'> of the Scandinm ian Pen imula and of Denntat k began to consolidate inw kingdotm along es<,etllialh \\'e<,tet n European line'>. the problem!. posed b\ tribal raiders from elsewhere in the Baltic cea-,ed to be a local is~ue \\hich could be dealt \\itJ1 piecemeal. It now became a matter lor royal authority and became a state responsibility. It also orTcrc·d the new rulers of' what became Denmark, Sweden and, to a l e~sct extent, Norway a means of exerting and demonstrating royal pmn.'r a~ prott'ctor' of their sul~jeCL'>. Although the..,e per.,i>.ten 1 raid~ \\ere not the onh rea\on for \\hat -.ub-.equently beccune Lhe Baltic Cru~ades, Lhe\ certain!~ gaYe added momentum to the movement.
POLAND Union of Kalmar Teutonic Kntghts .,.,. ~
Castles Hanseatic league
hom the -;tart it becanw clear Lhat the geographical dispo'>itiun of the new (andinmian 'tate' t'nabled them to locus on sligluh different region.., at least lO begin \\ith. Dt'nmark lool-.c:d ea,tward to the \\'c:ndbh coast of what is no" non lwrn Germany, and to the southem ot midBaltic region of what are now the Polish coa~t and parL~ of the new independent Baltic ~tate,. Swt'rlen looked towards Finland and the northern pans of the Baltic rmL~tline. To a large extent thi-. di'>pmition also reflected regional politic'>; Denmark "a' alreach much more do~eh connectl'rl bv u·ade and political relatiotv.. hip' to northem Getman}. while Sweden had closer cnnnt'ctions to the: ti'ing Russian prindpalit) of Novgorod and tJ1e tribtt l areas around Fin land. Tn comidering the following chronolog)' of the major cventl>, readers should bear in mind that the earliest campaigns were not ~tricth speaking 'crusades', becaml' the Pope had not \et sanctioned them as w·t~r-. conducted in rlw name of Chri'>tianit\. Pope Ut ban had proclaimed 'the Cntsade' (the First Cru<>ade) in 1096, directed lO\\. It would take: manv years before the idea of a 'northern' or Ba ltic Crusade took root in Scandinavia. However, in 1103 King Eric I 'Ever Good' of Denmark made an armed pilgdmage w Palestine, the flr~t European crowned mler to 'isit the neKly e<;tablbhcd Cmsader Kingdom of .Jnmalem although he died on his \\"'<1\ home. Four ) ear'> later Sigurd .Jm-.alafar, one of the co-rulers of 'orway, also made an epic \Ovage from Scandina\ia through the Straits of Gibraltar to the eastern Medircrranc:an, where his little fleet helped the cntsaders conquet the coast. Thi~ should again, perhaps, be regarded a~ an armed pilgrimage, since the broader ideCl of 'crmacting' - as a calling, distinct from I he specific expedition which we now call, \dth hindsight, the 'Fir~t Cru'lade'- had not yet fulh de, eloped. OPPOSITE Key for numbered castles some with modern place n am es In brac kets: (1) Copenhagen (2) Kalundborg (3) Sprog o (4) Nyborg (5) TArnborg (6) Vord lngborg (7) Stoc kholm (8) Tavestunhus (9) Viborg (1 0) Kn holm (11) Landskrona (12) Kopor'ye (13) Narva (14) Reval (Tallinn) (15) Leal (Lihula) (16) Abo (17) Kuressare (18) Kast elholm (19) Segewold (Sigu lda) (20) Raseborg (21 ) Hasenpoth (Aizpute) (22) Turaida
CHRONOLOGY I095-99 First Crusade to the Iloly Land. 1103 Pilgtimage of King Erik of Denmark to the easL II 08 .\n appeal for help i'> made in Lhe northern German Dioce'e of Magdeburg. 1135 Danish attack on rlw Slav (Rugian) island of Rl'tgen. I 147 The first ' northern crusade' against the pagan Baltic Slnv!>. 1168-69 King Valdemar I of Denmark attacks and conquers Rl'tgen island. I l 71 Pope ,\Jexander H1 authorizes crmade'> against the pagan populations or the ea"Cnl Baltic (Sia\ , Bait and Finn II ihe'i). 1185 Pomeranian Slavs !lurrender to King Canute IV of Denmark. 1188 Estonians (Finm) raid the Swedish city of t.Jppsala. 1198 Pope Innocent TTl authorizes Lhe Livonian Crusade against the eastern Baltic coast. 1200 Bi'>hop Alben establbhes the see of Riga (now in Lat\ia) and the Order of Sword BroLherl). l 206 Valdemar Seijre lead~ hb £1eet agaimt the Osilian (Estonian-Finn) i..,lancl of Osel, supported by Archbi~hop Andreas Sunesen of Lund.
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1200-09 Con quc~t of the Livs (now central Lania) by crusader~ and
Bishop Albert. 1217 Pope I lonotilh ITl authorizes a crusade against the Prussiam
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(now in north-t•astern Poland and the Russian enclave of Kaliningrad). 1219 King \'alclcmar TJ of Denmark goes on a crusade against the Ew,; according to legend the Danish national flag miraculomh fell from the 'k' at the battle of Lmdanise during this expedition. King \aldc•mar founds the cit\' of Reval (now Tallinn) and initiates 1he conquest of northern Esronia. 1226 Gennan Emperor Frederick IT's Bull of Rimini grants Pnt'>-.ia to the Tcuwnic Order in what are now north-eastern Poland, the Rm.sian enclave ofKaliningrad and part of western Lithuania. 1230 Pope Grcgot)' IX authorizes the Teutonic Knights to anack tlw pagan Pru ~siam. 123 1-40 The Te ut on ic Knigh ts and other German crusaders conquer the western Prussian tribes. 1236 The German Order of Sword Brothe rs is virtually wiped out hy th(' pagan Lithuania ns a t Siaulai (Saule). 1240 Fir'it Baltic Crusade against th e Russians of ovgorod; Swedish cntsaders defeated by Prince Alexander Nevski. 1249 Conquest of the central regions of Finland (pagan Sumi and Em i tribe~ ) hv Swedish forces under Birger J arl. 1254-56 ConqueM of the pagan Samogitians in Sam land (no'' the eastern pan of the Ruc;sian enclave ofKaliningracl). 1290 Conque'>l of pagan Semigallia (now coastal Lithuania) bY the fetllonic Knights of Lh·onia (now Lat\ia). 1291 Fall of cnt~ader-held ,\ ere in Palestine; transfer of the headquarter-, of the Temonic Knight<> ro \'en ice. 1292 Swedi'>h crmadet"> establish an outpost in pagan Korela (Fi nnic) teniLOt') .tt \'iborg (now \ 'yborg in nord1-western Rus~ia). 1300 Swede'> forrif} Land.,krona on the River Neva (now St Peter~bmg in north-western Rmsia) on the frontier bet\,·een the pagan (Finn) Korela and l7hora tribes. 1308 Teutonic Knights occupy Danzig (now Gdansk in northern Poland). 1309 fh e headq uarter of the Teutonic Knights is moved from Venice to Marie nburg in Prussia (now Malbork in Pola nd). 13 18 Novgorod ians raid Swedish-ru led Finland and burn the ca thedral in Abo (now Turku). 1323 Treat} of N6teborg ends the war bet\,•een Swcdt'n and Novgorod; peace is agreed between the Teutonic Knights and Grand Duke Gee! imina'> of Lithuania. 1316 King Valdemar I\' of Denmark sell'> Danishheld territon in what is now northern Estonia to the Teutonic Knights. 1348 King ~lagnus ofS,,·eden invades Russia (King ~l agnus' First Crusade). 1350 King ~lagnus of Sweden\ Second Crusade.
A king and one of his retainers or guards, In a tate 12th century Swedish-Danish relief carving. Note that the helmet, right, Is of the almost flat-topped form but still has a nasal; the mail coif covers almost the whole face and Is shown In a different stylized manner to the mall hauberk. The soldier Is otherwise armed with a tall, almost flat-topped kite shield and a sword. (In situ Lyngsjo Church, SkAne, Sweden)
1362 Christian Prussians and crusaders capture wesLCrn Lithuanian c.ity of Kaunas. 1364 Pope Vrban \'issues a Bull urging a cominuation of the crusade against the Ducl1\ of Lithuania, the la~t 'pagan· '\late in Europe. 1381 Cannon used b) TeuLOnic Knights f01 the fin.t time on the Rj,·er 'emen. 1382 Teutonic Knights seize the l .ithuanian c-apital ot \ 'ilniw•. 1381 JogaJio (Jagiello) become'> ntler of tlw '>tilllt~~gel~ pagan Crand Duchy of Lithuania. 1386 Grand Duke Jagiello of Lithuania is bapti/ed ao., a Chri<;tian, is crmmcd King of Poland as Ladi.,la'> II. and foundo., the Jagiellon dyna'it)' which ruled Poland until I 668. 1398 Teutonic Knights capture the Swccli~h island of (,otland and regain Samogelia from Grand DukP Alcxandct \')tauta., (\\'irold) of Lithuania. 1409 Samogctians revolt against Teutonic Knight!>' rule. 1410 Poles and Lithuanians defe<1t the Teutonic Order at the battle ofTannenberg. 14 23 Last German crusaders reach Prussia. 1429 Teutonic Knights sent to defend I Iungat) against the Ottoman Turb. I ~54-66 The Thirteen Years' War between Poland-Prw.~ian rebel alliance and Teutonic Knights; Teutonic Knight'> !me western Prussia but retain eastern PnL'>'>ia , ••t.,sab of the Poli-.h crm,11, and remain independem in Livonia (no" Lal\ia and b.tonia). l.J-96 Swedish force attack the RtL'>sian (~luscm·ite) lot lit''' of Ivangorod on the eastern frontit>r of Estonia. 1302 Wolter von Plettenberg, Ma-.ter of the Teutonic Knight-. in Limnia, defeats Czar Ivan II of ~lusco\'\ at L1kc ~molina. 1361 Livonia divided between Poland and \\eden (0'>el i<;land to Denmark in 1573).
THE ARMIES In Early Medieval and High MediPval Scandinavia a S)~tem of defence developed which was still largt>ly based on the charaneristic Viking Age dependence upon ships. It came to be known a!> the INiung, and it enabled a ruler to summon a specified number of ~ighting men from a particular geographical region. By the time of the Baltic Crusades each hundare district should have been able to muMer up one hundred men and four ships, and formed part of a larger region called a svealand. The vel.sel was called a sniirka or 'seashell'. and wa-. technologically a descendant of the Viking age warship. ~1eatl\\hile the nlf(t/and formed the core of the Swedish kingdom. and could mu'>ter as manv a~ 2,200 w own teJTiLOry and, as such, pro,ed 'en u~eful for Ualtic crusading expeditions. This /edung had it.'> roots ill the Viking .\ge, and "-.u. found in all Scandinavian countries at one time 01 another. First formalized in Denmark during the first half of the 1 lth centu~. it prO\ided a legal wa~
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Inlaid silver d ecorations from a 12th century sword blade. Although excavated on the eastern side of the Baltic Sea, the weapon was almost certainly made in Germany or Scandinavia; the decorations show warriors In typica l 12th century European knightly equipment. (after D.A.Drboglav)
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method whereby a king could mmter an arm~ - ot colleCL taxe~ paid as an alternative to attending the mmter. The concept \\ent back to the 9rh and I Oth centuries, when 'Sea King•,' could be elected and ghen prmisional authority oYer men who had a'>'>embled for a limited time or to achieve certain limited and pre-agreed goal<.. '\e,enheles..,, these carlv and temporary 'kingships' had no power of enforcement 0\er their men, and exercised authorit'. onh b\ coment. Being cemred upon a ship, such an organizational unit con.,isted of the \hip it'>elf, the men ir carried plus their personal equipment and prmisiom: all the ship's company agreed to serve for a -;et number of drt\'>. The lPdung system of a'isembling men must not be confused with 'feudalism', since the lPdung was not gathered around leaders on the basis of their nobility or seniorit} by birth. Instead it imohed free men who o'~11ed farms and who were eligible lor military duty, and as such it had more in common with later concept~ ol milita!) consc1iption. No exemptions from taxation or any other ~on of reward were offered as compensation for service; the ~en·ice itself r('mnined an obligation. On the other hand, the taxes clemancled in place or service from those individuals who did not present th emselves to serve later became a pennanent tax, especially after the ll'dung wa<; abandoned in fa, our of more truly feudal methods of a~sembling an army. Although the lPdwzg eventually declined, the raising of Ievie~ ol free men remained an aspect of military power in all Scandimwian coun tries unril the emergence of true conscript armies in the 17th centun.' Finland may also have had 110ille form o( lnlung <;\'>tem after its conquest by Sweden, and the ledung sv'>tem was cenainh used in Denmark as well ao; in i:':orwav. At it'> mmt ba'>ic Je,el the '>\'>tem relied on each hemman or fam1 ~upplving one armed man, thu-. spreading the burden of prmiding arlequateh equipped foot'>oldier.., throughom the entire community. The 14th cemun 'ia" '>ignificant changes in the socio-political climate and in militan technolog). both of" hkh resulted in a differem military situation. lh now the Scandinavian nobility had also strengtlwned its a hi lin ro muster well-armoured and well-rnonnted cavalr} forces. The evidence shows that a great many, perhaps even a m of tile newl) conquered territories. 1 See MAA 399, Me<Mval Scalld
EQUIPMENT OF THE SCANDINAVIAN CRUSADERS ARMOUR & WEAPONS, 1100-1300
When studying medieval military equipment, horse-harness and related objects, we are always f~1ced with the question of how representative the surviving artefacts really are. 'Where Scandinavia is concerned, it is also important to recognize that, in military as in so many other respect<>, this region was not quite the same as Continental Europe. An interesting example of this phenomenon was the Norwegian Kongshird ('king's army'), a mil itary force which the written sources assure us was well eq uipped by Scandinavian standards. evertheless, the Kongshird lacked items such as great helms and plate reinforcements to its armour, at a time when these were widespread amongst the knights of France or Germany. For instance, in the region ofUpplsandslagen during the 13th century, the law required that only one man from every hnmnrm need achieve the same standard of military equipment that was expected of every man in the Hinl, which consisted of the king's best men.
RIGHT Scandinavian inscribed effigla l slabs: 12th century knight from Vejerslev in Denmark, believed to be identified as a crusader because of the cross on his helmet and carried in his h and. FAR RIGHT The kn ight Blrger Persson and his wife, 1327. His armour is of the old-fashioned type, consisting of ringmail without plate additions. (in situ Uppsala Domkyrka, Uppsala)
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A
(A) Sword from Denmark, second half of the 12th century (National Museum, Copenhagen; photograph via E.Oakeshot1) (B) Sword from Scandinavia, second half of the 13th century (private collection; photograph via E.Oakeshot1) (C) Sword from Denmark, second half of the 14th century (National Museum, Copenhagen; photograph via E.Oakeshot1)
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B
Milital) demandl> and the availabili tY of arms and armour dif1ered considerabh between the Scandinm·ian countriel>. Thc~e variations tended to renect wealth and acccs-. to the major armsproducing centte.., of \\'e'>lt.'rn Europe. The standards of militan equipmcm in medieval Denmar~ \\ere. for e"Xamplc:. '>omewhere between those of the poorer ~tate-. of :'\on\'<\\' and Sweden to the north, and \\ealthier Genuam to the south. Furthermore, much of the Dani~h aristocraC\· had clme link<> \\ith the northern German aristocracv, whic h ea'>ed the '>pread of new ideas and milital) 'fashion.,·. Throughout Scilndinmia fighting men used whatever they could obtain or wa~ issued to them by hig her authority. Arms, armour and costume were in no ~ense unifc>r m. Documetllal)' sources migh1 record the level of equipment that was required, as i'l 110rt of ideal. Mediev-al illustrated sourc<'s r<'rord what an anist thought men should have, based on hi!> own obsen not a militan bac~\\"ater, vet c the nature of warfiue in the Baltic region wa~ not the same as that in Fn1nce. England, Spain or the Cnrsader states of the Middle East. Scandinimilar to rhose of a well equipped Viking warrior from a et' ntlll"}' and a half earlier. Until well into the 12th ccnlu ry the ordinary inlanuyman's shield was still round in shape, and rhe popularily of' this fonn may actually have persisted even longer, since it was holh reliable and easy to make. Further developments in the design and 11tructure of ~hielcls initiall} reneCLed the changing needs of monnted combatant~. resulting in an elongated or so-called 'kite' shield which could proteettheir nrlnerable legs. fhis was then gradually -;hortened and made more curved in section, which ofiered greater resilience to blow~ \\ithout adding much weight. Evenmally these elongated shields wcr<' also adopted bv men fighting on foot. The most t)'Pical Scandina,ian sword of thi.., period remained the <>ingle-hand weapon that had been used ..,inn· a t lea~r the l 1th cemun·: this had sn11ight edge~. a pommel of round. mal, disc or almond -;hape. and a straight crossguard. The onlv real change was in the
point, which graclun lly became more acute, permitting thrusting as well as cutting. \'\'hilc even this was not uniH' rsal, the evidence nc,·enheless tends to support thE' idea that methods of using a sword laid increasing empha<>is on the point rather than rel}ing so much on the edge. Scandinavian lwlmct-. from this period included the pointed or conical sOtylc of \'iking Age helmet with e)e- and noseguards (usually known as the Gjermundb) form) might still ha\e been used. During the I~th centurv helmet., used by mounted combatants reflectc·ct Continental European fashions; many if not most '"ere probably imported from Germany or elsewhc·rc. ·1 he first such new fashion was for facegua rds; th ese started as sim ple plates attached lo ord inary helmet'>, but gradually became larger. From this the f1ll ly enclosed helmet or great helm soon developed, and was used in candina,ia as elsewhere in Westem Europe, though on I} b~ caval!). B)' contrast, the broad-brimmed 'kettle' helmet or chapel-de-fer became much more popular in 13th century Scandina,ian am1ies, being cheap to manufacture and highl}' effectiYe. A distinniwh Scandina,ian Yer'!.ion of this 'war-hat' would in fact be developed during the Hth centun. The mo!>t tYpical bodv armour wa the mail hauberk, IL'malh \\ith each ring hming n\C others pas~ed through it and ri\'eted clo-;ed. The mail shirt<, tL'>E'd dtu;ng the \'iking Age probably did not reach much further than the groin at most, and some were noticeabl\' shorter, while mail sleeH·~ that onh reached the elbows were considered adequate. .\gain, the ri~ing imponance of ca\'all) and their greater need fm protection led to .,ignificant changes in armour, including mail hauberks that reached to mid-thigh and \\~th wrist-length slee,es; thereafter, mail mittem wc.:re added to protect the hands. A later development wa~ mail kggings. supported by a belt or strapped around the rear of the legs. Another cle\'cloprnent was the mail coif or hooded extension of the hauberk, replacing the earlier mail avcnLial that was sometimes attached to the rims of helmet.'l. T h e mail hood then developed into a separate piece of armour. All forms of mail were secured to the body or limbs using leather cords, otherwise the mail tended to flap about, making the wearer clnmsy, slow and Lircd. The final item of armour was the gambeson, a form of soft armour. This was uot a nc\\ imention, the Romans having worn something similar. During the Middle Ages the gambeson unden,ent several changes but retained its original purpose- to absorb a blum impact and e\en to resist piercing anacks. Cloth, when well padded. is superio1 to metal \\hen absorbing the shock of a blow; when worn beneath mail armour the padded gambe<;on also protected the wearer from the chafing, wimer cold or '>lin-warmed heat of metallic armour. Sometime<; gambesons were worn on their mm, as the only annour a\'ailable to footsoldiers, being relati\cly cheap to manufacture.
Two bronze m ace·heads, 13th century. This type of w eapon w as widespread and came in many forms; the simplest version was simply a wooden c udgel with Iron studs hamm ered ln. (National Museum, Copenhagen; end Malmli LAnsmuseum)
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Th e I mportanc e of the bow a nd crossbow Scan eli na\ iam had a long tradition of using sub-;tantial bows in both hunting and warfare, a \impl<:' 's<:'lr bow being u\ed from the \ iking Age \\ell into the later medie\'al period. 'J hei1 si7es varied from relati,eh c;hon to what might be called true 'longbow\', but whether that term shou ld properly be used is largely a matter of seman tics. Long bowshafts have sun ivecl from the preceding m illennia, for A instance from the hogs of Nydam. A wall painting in Soclra Racta churc h inclt1des a figure with a short bow on his lef"t shoulder; one bow found in Norw·a y was 35in (89cm) long, while illuMrations f"rom the Viking era al'io depict weapons that look orl; a• rows with broad head~ were less suitable in warfare, since they were generally unable lO penetrate even tingmail armour. '!\That is more imporl a nt was how these simple bows were used. There seem to be no records of bows or crossbows being used in lnmttions, as would be th e case in much of Continenta l Europe. Pcrhap11 the archers were dispersed amongst other troops, being employed defensively - as was the ca~e in 14th-15th century England. H owever. the fact that the Upplanclslagen military laws stipulated that each lrdung man should have a bow and arrows suggeMS that the men we1 e expected to be able to use them. Perhaps archery was !>omething that ev<.'l) man was expected to be able to do reonablv well, but at \\hich ven few were specialists- as was often tJ1e C importance in Scandina\'ia and some otJ1er parL'> of the Baltic can be -.cen from its carl) appeardl1cc, and from the large numbers of crossbow bolts that arc almost routineh found ar fortifications and battle sites. In fact tJ1e crossbow became the weapon of
I
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(A) A highly decorated 12th or 13th century sword from Finland, with an Inlaid pommel and qutttons. (National Museum, Helsinki) A heavy axe head; this would have been more of a toot than a weapon, but would have been used by peasant warriors If nothing else was available. (Untversttets Oldsakssamling, Oslo) (B)
Axehead from Norway, of a type which would have been useful both as a weapon and as a woodsman's axe. This design remained In use with minor changes from the Viking Age to the 18th century. (Universitets Otdsakssamltng, Oslo)
(C)
A highly decorated 1oth to 13th century axe from Finland, the tntatd socket part with front and rear extensions along the sides of the helve. (National Museum, Helsinki) (D)
choice for common soldier-;, along with the spear or halberd, and remained 110 C\Cil into the carl} 16th century period of unrest. The first recorded usc of the crossbow by Scandinavians dates from 1170 and the Dani~h crusade against the Estonians, and its popularity increased Mcadih thereafter. It was considerabh easier to usc than a hand bel\\, and required far le<>s practice to achieve an acceptable leH' I of skill. h shot bolts at greater spcl'd than a bow, resulting in greater damage lO tJw target and being more cflecthe against armour. The 13111 cellllll) sa'' fu1ther adoption of the crossbow, which prO\ed to be especially effective in \icge warhtrc, most notably from behind cover inside fortifications. As a con.,equence the crossbow became an indispemable asset in the hands of Baltic Cmsaders. In some respects the simple or early form of crossbow was aclltally easier to manufacture than a good quality handbow, its bolts or shafts ccrt
A mid- 14th century German great helm, known as the Prank Helm, of a type used throughout those regions Influenc ed by, a nd s upplied with mltltary equipment from, Germany. (Waffensammlung, VIenna; Ministry of Works photog raph)
Clo se comb a t w ea pon s
OtJwr \\capom that \\el e used during the Baltic Cmsades included the weir-axe. This came in a \ariet\ of ~ves, bur rhe heavy battleaxc \\ilS largeh finional: a real war-axe needed ro be light enough to \\ield quiclJv in order to be an cffecri,·e weapon. T he effectiveness of the a.xc was largeh due to its cuuing weight being concentrated at one end of the shaft, rather than being '>pread out along its length, a'> 11ith a .,,,ord; conseqn<>nllY the total weight of a war-a.xe could be considerabl) less than 1hat of a sword. Such war-axes ranged from those held in one hand to those wirh longer shafts wielded in both hands. The Iauer, in Scandina,;;m hands, may actuall) ha\e in11uenced 1he devt>lopmen t of pole-arms in Russia. The spear remain<>d a \eJ'} impor1an 1 wE-apon, being cheap and straigh tforward to make ancl easy to U'>e. \1\·' hen wit>lckcl in conjunction with a shiC'Id it was also highly effective as 1he weapon of infantl'\ formation!> faring mounted enemie<>. During the 13th centurY, if not caJlicr, the mace al-.o became increasingh popular, perhaps primarih in reaction to incn:a.,ingh heaw armour. The mace can be sceu primarily ""
lWo small wooden buc kler-type shields believed to d at e from the 13th century; they are reInforced with d ecorative metal stri ps and w ith large central bosses over their fist -grips. (National Museum, Copenhagen)
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an armour-breaking weapon, in contra~t to the cotlcemratcd cutting or penetrating action of a sword. axe or ~>peat. The di~tinctive medieval mace had studs, spikes or short. blum, blaclc-like flange~ for increed impact through the concentration ol the ''hole weight of the blo'' in small a reas of the surface. The dagger or knife ob' ioush came in mam '>hape" and si1es. since it was an indispensable tool for c\ct)da\ chore-. and for eating food. Such an all-purpose utili!) knife had a blade of ,tbout the length of a man ·s hand, usually with a single edge. s, contt that were most commonly struck in mounted combat. Con<;equemh: it was amongst horsemen that such developme1w. fip,t occurred. Another more brradual change wa'> the de\elopmem of rigid or semi-rigid body am1our culminating in the coat-of-plate~. This fom1 of armour consisted of a flexible CO\Cting or ba'>e of leathet or se,eral layers of cloth. to which plates of steel \\ere ri' eted, the number and size of which ,~aried a great deal. Se,eral example-. \\t'rc found in the gra,epir.'i at Korsbetningen on the Swedish i'>land of (.otland, ha\ing been buried following a battle in 1361. The coat-of~plate-. \\as \\Om mer a mail hauberk and quilted soft am1out. This combination rendered the combatant's torso ,;nually im ulnerablc to am thing e:-.cept powerful mi'isile weapons and t11e he a' icst pole-anm, "hcrc.·a... hi-. arm-. and legs remained relative!) exposed. The helmet also underwent .,ignificant changes during the 14th centwy, tl1e full or great helm being replaced b} 01her t)pes that had
The Iron plates from two coatsof-plates excavated from the grave-pits of the battle of Vlsby in Gotland, 1361 . {A) This armour consists of 2g plates riveted to a support of leather or linen; It Is of a type which appeared at the end of the 13th century In Continental
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Europe . (B) This form with f ewer and l arger plates is regarded as a l ater style. (National Historical Museum, Stoc kholm)
fewer nat Surfaces, in an ;'1ll('111pl tO ('nsnre that blows glanced ofT' harmkssly. For horsemen the rno~t noticeable new style was tlw bascineL, which could incorporate a mo,cablc visor of either the 'pig-face' or 'dog-face' shape. ln addition to pro\iding very efleCiive protecrion for head, neck and face, the bascinet also muallv had a mail aventail attached to i~ rim to cover the neck and throaL A distincti\e form of ha'iciner found only in northem Europe and snniving in a single specimen from Poland i~ now known a'i the 'Order helmet', renecting its ~upposeci a'lsociation with the military order of 'Teutonic Knights. The face was protected by a visor and the helmet had an aventail. The lower part was essentially the sanw m; that of ordinary bascinelS, but the upper part wa.s extended into a tall point rather like the traditional helmets of Russia and further c·ast; this helmet therefore seems to be a fusion ofWestern and Eastem styles. Beneath these various forms of helmets it was still common to wear a mail coif with a padded cloth coif underneath. For rootsoldier!> the most visible development was a ncar universal adoption or various forms or blimmecl kettle-hats or chapels-de-fer; this type had been developed during the 13th century but really came into its own during the follmving century. A special fonn of kettle-hat developed in Scandina\ia had a rounder skull and a narrower brim. It is worth noting that inlamrymen seemed inclined to continu~ using helmets that did not cover their faces and hardly impaired their vision at all. The re
Walt or ceiling painting of St Olaf, with the axe which was the symbol of his martyrdom. The painting was made c.1380; the long-shafted axe now seems to have the socket extended Into a hammer-like head on the back. It was almost a forerunner of the poleaxe, Indicating that the tong-hatted axe wielded with two hands continued to be In use throughout the Middle Ages. (fn situ Skamatrup church, Denmark)
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Weapons
Helmets, from the end of the 13th to the mid 15th centuries: (A) Reconstruction of the great helm found in the castle of Aranaes, c. 1300 (B) The great helm found at Aranaes, in It s original condition (National Historical Museum, Stockholm) (C) Norwegian ' kettle' helmet o r chapel-d e-fer, 13th century (National Historical Museum, Stockholm) (D) 'Kettle' helmet, 14th-15th century (Museum of Estonian History, Tallinn) (E) Danish ' kettle' helmet, first half of the 15th century (Royal Danish Arsenal Museum, Copenhagen)
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Here the main developments were associated with missile weapons and infant.ry pole-arms. It was during the 14th cemury that gunpowder reached Scandinavia and the Baltic, the Teutonic Knights and Danish armies being relatively earlier than Sweden and Norway in the use of this ne11 technology. Early hand-held guns were litlle more than miniatmiLed cannons, and would haYe been more effective in frightening an enemy than in doing much physical hann. Such devices did, however, prove useful when attacking or defending fortifications, where the man with a gun could fire from behind considerably better cover than was possible with a bow or crossbow- the vertical and horizontal staves of the latter needed more space and they were shot through larger embrasures. On the other hand, firing mechanisms were so unreliable that guns could only be used effecti\·eh in static connicts such as sieges. During the 14th century the crossbow wali developed further. Increases in its reliability and power renected both improved techniqnes of manufacture and higher quality materials. The crossbow now seems to have replaced the handbow almost entirely. The bolts shot by such weapons remained essentially the same as before, their points being mostly of the basic armourpiercing bodkin shape, though such points now tended to be shoner and squatter than those on arrows to be shot from hand-bows. The sword similarly underwent minor changes, but tl1esc were to a large extent cosmetic, changing the appearance of the weapon rather than the way in which it was used. A surviving weapon known as the Tritonia Sword is a good example of a type that was very popular as a horseman's weapon during the later 13th and first half of the 14th century. I t is also necessary tO point out that, while typologies of sword blades can shed light on the emergence of newer or more fashionable forms, the older or more traditional ones remained in production at the same time. One innovation which appeared during the late 13th and early 14th centuries was the longsword. This was a development of the earlier horseman's single-handed war sword and was, in effect, an enlarged version with a longer blade which made it easier for a man on horseback to reach his target. This new form was then developed further into a separate class of weapon, for use both on horseback and on foot. Tn reality the type of sword used by an individual was almost certainly a matter of individual preference or was simply what a particular employer saw fit lO issue to his followers. This was the century during which the dagger became more prominent as a fighting weapon, at least in the sense that it was increasingly often depicted in pictorial sources. These show that daggers were specifically weapons rather than also serving more utilitarian
functions. The 14th centur, fighting dagget relied on it'> point to inflict cl.unage. allowing the \\t>apon to be thnto,t into the mo\t \ulnerable chin~ in the jointed area' of armour. Contrar; to a ,,;c(e.,prcad modem belief, the slashing rype of attack using the edge of a dagger wa~ quite useless even aga inst an opponent wearing ordinary clothing, whi le a thn"t could penetrate deep into the vitnl orgam without much effort. The mace remaint>d in usc, as did other forms of wcapom ''hich tdiecl on \\eight. Amongst the other edged weapons would hme been tlw axe, but this did not sec aTI) :.ignificnnt changes. It doc' .'>eem that the earlier type of long-hafted axe wielded \dth two hand') now fell into disuse, perhaps ail a result of th e development of more efficient pole-arms which combined au axe blade with other useful fentures. One of the most significant dcvelopmems during the 14th centut)' was this combining of thrusting and slashing blnde'> into one weapon, of which tlw halberd would e\·en tualh become tlw mo'>t de\'eloped t\ pe. Its basic de.,ign was nevenhele'>s simple: one or more cutting blade-, were added to a sub,tantial spear shaft to create a hugely imprmed weapon. The precise date when these new cut-and-thrust weapons appeared is not known, bul rhey were clearly present in Contincnt.al Europe in the first half of the 14th century and in Scandina\'ia during the second half of that century. :\leanwhile the spear remained an important weapon, but would gradually be replaced by earl\' forms of halberd'> amongst profe.)sional soldicn. if not yet among local militias.
(A) Bronze gun-barrel from Loshult, Skilne, Sweden; length, 11 .81n/30 em; early 14th century. (National Historical Museum, Stockholm) (B) Bronze barrel of a late 14th century hand-gun; length, 7 .51n/19cm. (National His torical Museum, Stockholm) (C) Removeable Iron breech from a cannon, 15th century. Such weapons were probably supplied with multiple breeches; loaded separately and then fixed Into the rear of the barrel by means of a wedge between the breech and part of the carriaee, these allowed rapid fire. (Museum of Estonian History, Tallinn)
ARMOUR & WEAPONS, 1400- 1500
The m~or directions or technological change in 15th century Scandinavian milirar;· equipment were towards more plate armour, and an tncrea.,ed reliance on more complex form~ of pole-arm~. Another feature of this ccntur.· was the fac t that cntsading efforts shifted aw<1y from the Scr~ ndin avian coun u·ies and were henceforth most ly limited to the Teutonic Knights and the Gcnnan-spcaking region~ ~outh of the Baltic. During the 15th cenwry armom tended to develop into more '>pecialized fonm. ew techniques also meant that it was often quicker and cheaper to manufactme items of plate rather than of ringmail. Plate not o nly gave better protection bm also permi tt ed increased mobility, largely because the old fm>hioned, thickly padded ,oft armours worn beneath mail could now largely be dispensed with - the benet filling plate armour required little or no such padding. Furthermore, the armour became modular rather than covering large areas of the body wi th singlt> pieces of iron or stee l. Thi~ even included the torso, \\hich could nm\ he covered with two large pieces lor the front and for the back, each of which often consi-;tcd of two separate t>lements. resulting in a better fit and greater mobility. M<.·anwhile mai l declined in importance in fa\'our
'
( I
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Scandinavian dagger dating from the 14th or 15th century. (Museum of Estonian History, Tallinn; photograph D.Nicolle)
This statue In Storkyrkan, Stockholm, dates from 1489, and was made to commemorate victory at the battle of Brunkeberg. It Is a majestic piece, and If we disregard the decorative elements it is an interesting example of both armour and horse harness from the late 15th century.
/
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of plate annour, often on ly being included as a means of covering vulnerable gaps in plate defences at the armpits, elbows and groin. Small plates could be attached to a flexible garment to form a scaJe-lined brigandine, which resulted in a relatively tight-fittingjacket, usually sleeveless. For mounted soldiers, pieces of plate armour now covered their legs, someti mes with mail underneath. The soldier's upper body was covered first with a thin arming jacket, on top of which went plate armour covering the torso, arms and shoulders. Although almost all styles of armour corresponded to a general model, there were significant regional variations and different solutions to specific problems. The jupon was a padded garment that developed out of the earlier gambeson but was tailored to follow the contours of the body, and was often worn on the o utside of an armour. This enabled thejupon to double as a warm outer gannent in cold weather. T he ' kettle-hat' retained essentially the same shape, but occasionally borrowed features from other popular helmets such as the sallet. This resulted in an interesting version which had a deeper and wider brim with a slit for the eyes. Wiele brimmed chapels-de-fer were most common among footsoldiers, but sometimes fully armoured riders used them: they offered excellent protection plus improved visibility. Weapons
The 15th century was characterized by a continuation of several 14th centu ry developments, most notably towards better pole-arms, stronger crossbows and more efficient use of gunpowder, the latter resulting in greater numbers of more powerful cannons and handheld guns. However, the change in weapons technology that had the most direct impact on the way battles were fought was the fully developed halberd and poleaxe. The former now consisted of a shaft about 50-SOin (c.130-200mm) long, with a metal head which incorporated not only a cutting edge and thrusting point but often one or more sharpened hooks. The great advantage of this weapon was its remarkable ease of use, while also being highly effective against both heavily and lightJy armoured foes. To achieve its best effect tl1is halberd was intended w be used by men in formation. Other styles of pole-arm also d eveloped, including new forms of spear such as those ·with additional horizontal
Pagan Prusslan statues, mostly in the form of armed warriors, perhaps used as gravemarkers or for some other religiou s purpose; they were found In what is now th e Rus sian enc lave of Kalinlngrad , ox -KISnlgsberg. The swords suggest that they date from the 1Oth to 12th centuries. Note that two of the rear vi ews seem to show a round , slung shield, and a hood with a large llrlplpe. At centre, a cap with an upturned flap resembles that whic h we reconstruc t In Plat e Ft . Most of these figures have drinking horns. (after V.I.Ku lakov)
cross-bar<>, as shown in Dolnstein 's famous dntwing'>. This remained in use into the Renaissance period, when it evolYed into weapons -.uch as the partisan and the pike. The poleaxe was another chantcteristk deYclopment of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. It ccune to be regarded a'> a di'>tinctheh J..nighlly or chi\'alrous weapon. and found pm ticular fa\ our in Continental Europe, though it wa~ less popular iu Sweden and "\oma~. TaJ..en into widespread LL'ie in Germany, the poleaxe \\een in the 'Fight Books' of t.his period, where texts dealing with the sword and bucJ..lcr are now fe''· '' hile large shields are entirch absent; in conUenionl> dealing'' ith the uo;e of a sword and dagger were abundant. \\'here crossbow., were concerned, the bowstme became notabh '>trongcr while the manner of spanning the \\Capon changed in consequence, with the adoption of the cranJ..:, goat\-foot or ''indla~~ mechani'>nh.
MILITARY EQUIPMENT IN THE BALTIC LANDS & NOVGOROD The regions along the ea~tern side of the Baltic Sea experienced in(luence'\ from the Eur.:L'\ian steppes that \\ete neH'r felt in Scandinada, although the\ did reach '>l'\t'ral part., of Central Europe. Thi'> had the eflt:ct that, \\hile the ba~ic npes of militan ecptipnwnt U'>ecl along the eastern and '><>uth-ea.'>tem ... hores of the Baltic differed \t'f\ little from thme of Scandin.l\i.t and \\'estem Europ<.>, tlwi• clecoratiom and some a'\pects of the it sn ](• or .lppt'
21
The m~jur influence was, of course, from the great nomadic horse-based cultures of the steppes. This was present from at least the early 6th century onwards. Unfortunately, there are as yet fewer surviving examples of medieval military equipment from these regions than from Western Europe; but as archaeological research develops further, the historians of these countries will be able to delve more deeply into their military-technological histOI). 1100-1300
Estonian and Scandinavian weapons , ranging from the 10th to 12th centuries. (Museum of Estonian History, Tallinn; photograph D .Nicolle)
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The mail shirt was the standard form of body armour along the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic, as it was in Scandinavia during this period. But there was also use of a form of scale armour, consisting of small metal scales sewn on to an undergarment of leather or several layers of cloth. Padded soft armours similar to the gambeson were also present. Helmets basically corresponded to those found in Scandinavia, while there were distinctive local or ea~tern styles, including those in which the top narrowed into a point about 8in (20cm) high. 1L was also quite common LO attach a mail aventail to the rim of a helmet to provide additional protection. Mail coifs were similarly used, although mail leggings do not seem tO have become as popular as they were in Western Europe. Perhaps it wa~ the influence of the great horse cultures of the East which precluded items that tended to impede horsemanship. As elsewhere, the use of mittens and hand protections were important; again as in Western Europe, plate reinforcements were used. It is possible that this was an ongoing tradition from the earlier Viking Age, while at the same time being influenced by the Eurasian steppe cultures, especially as the use of bone or metal reinforcements might elsewhere have been regarded as an archaic technique by the medieval period. Similarly the pointed style of helmet that became common in this area can be traced back to a common root that was presem from Inctia to the Baltic. Tllis form of helmet essentially consisted of a round base which narrowed acutely or more gentJy to a narrow top. The sh ields used east and south-east of the Baltic coast were initially of the same round type as used in Scandinavia dUiing the same period. These continued to be used, but were later supplemented with the kite-shaped and so-called 'heater' types of shield. The way in which these sh ields were constructed was probably much the same as elsewhere, though as yet there is not enough archaeological evidence to slate this with certainty. A base ofwooden boards would have been covered with one or more layers of leather, parchment or even, on occasions, with fur. The round shield would always have had a boss, and some form of reinforcement around the rim to prevent the boards splitting. The exterior of such shield could, of course, be painted in designs or colours.
Wea pon s
The \\Capons were mu(h the '"me a~ those u!>ed b) other European peoples. Swords a nd axes remained the favourite edged weapons, and these could be wielded with one hand. rhere ~ lillie t'\ idence for the use of long-hafted axes 1\it'lded with two hand' such "' those seen in Scandinavia. Most swords were of the dottble-cdged, straight-bladed l\pe. w.ing very much the \atne language of form <\\ ~een funher west. \\'eight) weapons \UCh "' the mace were popular, especially for usc on horseback, as was aJso true of spears and lances. The bo'' was a particuhu·ly importan t weapon in the Baltic regions, hm"ing long been used b) the hunting communitie1> of these sparsely popula ted lands. A\ such it doubled a~ a weapon of war and a tool for suni\'al in ,, diflicult climate. On the othct hand, the crossbow does not seem to have achie,ed the same popularity as it did in Scandin avia or Continental Europe. i nevitably, these bows ha\e left little trace in the archaeological record; yet there is no reason to suppose that they were differem from those used on the oth e r side of the Baltic. The size a nd weight of the bows might, however, have differed. Longbow~ are known to have been used in Europe from t11e earl} Bronze Age onward..,, -;o th eir de'>ign \\<\.\ clearly known; on the other hand, a smaller bo" is easier to me as a hunting weapon in dense forest. It is an interesting possibilit)' that Lithuanian and Rmsian forces may have had access to the Magyar form of bow, which was a composite weapon, widely used b\ the peoples of the '>tcppes and eas1em forests before the spread of the ~horter but thicker Turco-~1ongol how. Not on I) were new wa,es of steppe peoples pushing imo Eastern and Cenu-al Europe from the 12th century om\-ards, but Hun:. and orlwr-. had been migrating into whar is now Hungary and some surrounding rt'j.,rlOlll> from
ABOVE Part of a 13th century wall-painting at Garda on the Swedish Island of Gotland, which seems to have been painted by an artist from the East . The eas1em Influences are seen In the helmets of the horsemen, which still do not have the face-guards which were otherwise normal In Europe at this time. The shields are of the smaller 'heater• type; and note that the spears have crossbars, which is usually a f eature of hunting weapons. (In situ Garda Church, Gotland, Sweden) LEFT Another detail from the 13th century Garda wall· painting; these helmets are significant. The man on the right has a tall , pointed or 'spired ' style of the type commonly seen In Russia or in Byzantine art. The man In the centre wears some form of brimmed 'ket11e· hat'. (In situ Garda Church, Gotland, Sweden)
23
a much earlier date. All of the!>e people11 relied to a great e\.tent upon archer) and U!>ed ''uiou~ fonm of composite hm,. Such how~ would hme been '>lllaller in O\erall .,i1e than thmc of simple one-piece wooden construction comrnonh used in Europe. In Ru ...-.ia and sonw other pan~ of the far north of ea-,tern Europe and wcstem A~ia, a form of bow mad(' o f more than o ne piece of wood and sometinws reinforced by bone or antler, was also widespread. In some respects iLo; cons truc t io n had dements in common with the fully com po"i re bow of wood. sinew and hom. and m;w indeed ha\'e been its archaeological predecessor. The most common pole-arm was the spear, as it was in Scandinm ia. and "a' of similar comtnrction, although the spearheads were not 'en large in compar;.,on to some earlier Viking .\ ge spear blade-.. ~ l ost were around 7-8in ( 17-20cm ) long and, when used lor hunting such animab a., boars, would ha\'e incorporated a crossbar. A knife of some son would ha,·c been almost uni\'ersallv carried, in desigm ranging from the carl~ single-edged utility knife to the later lonm of specia lited fighting kni\es. 1300-1500 Armour in the Baltic region initially d eveloped in much the same way as it did in Scandinm ia and the rest of Europe. One major difference, howeve r, seems lObe tha t true pl a te a rmour did not achieve such wide popu larity in th e easte rn Balti c countries, Novgorod and the re~l of Rmsi a as it did elsewh e re in Europe. The reasons for this are unclear, bm may in clude the absence of a 'chivalrous culture· with it11 associated tournamerH11 and other such a ris tocratic acti\ities. which encouraged the drvelopmerH of hea\icr armour within Europe. Another pm~ibilit\ i~ that plate armour simply did not sene am useful purpme in the son of \\arfare that erupted between the re.,urgent nnth e Finn and Bait populations and the crusading annie'> and militan order11. The \CJ\ nature of the dcnseh fore-.ted countn·.,irle and the relmi,·e lack of large face-to-face battle-. on open ground would ll
24
(mntimud (II/ juiJ!:• 13)
A horse's bit and a pair of bronze stirrups from a 12th century Estonian grave. These Items are closer In style to those used by the nomadic peoples of the steppes In southern Russia than to Western European forms, and s how that the area on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea absorbed technological Influences from the East as well as from the West. (Museum of Estonian History, Tallinn; photograph D.Nicolle)
Iron caltrops used as a defence against cavalry attack; Estonia, 13th-14th century. (Museum of Estonian History, Tallinn; photograph D.Nicolle)
A
11:111
BUILDING OF A TIMBER FORT, LATE 12TH CENTURY 1: Danish knight 2
2: Danish sergeant 3: Captured Estonian wamor
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or comiderabl} greatc:-r impOitance \\(\~ the increasing volum<.· ol equipment a'ailable to the ordinan f(>O~oldiers who, a\ llw 'ea1., passed, acquired larger mail shin'>. mail co1fs and coats~f-plate, , ''hich offered good protection without h.unpe1ing mm·emem 01 bc:ing too hem,. Il i-. imponam to under-.raud that this was an exarnpll' of an exchange of inlluences between \\'e-.Lc:tn Europe and rhe c.·a,tt•rn regions of the Baltic and even funhcr east. Similarly. there wa' a con 1inuccl u~c of metal reinforccmeJILS to protect the arms, prima1 ih in the fonu of 'splints' or srrips of metal. ' elbow cups' and imprmed hand dclcnccs. \\'hen these changes and developments are ,;ewed a'> a whole. it seems that it was the in\'ading CJU\ading armies Lhat had lO .ICI,IJ}l to local circumstances, rather than local peoples cop\ing the im ,lder.,. On the other hand the use of padded armour of variou' dc,igm became jmt as important for local fighting men as it wa' fm the in\'acling crusader'>. or cour;;e, such garmems also offered imul.llion, and rhe cominued use of leather and furo; against the hiring cold ol the Ba ltic winter remained an i1nponant t~spect of military equipmenl in rhis region.
STRATEGY & TACTICS The 't'\o1 thc1n or Baltic Cn.1\ade.., \\<.'Ill through se\·er.tl phC.''· rhei1 and tactics often being adapted to '>Uit changing cin Ulll'>t.mre' and challenges. In many waV'• the'>e campaigns became a \\,u ol endurance on all sides; it wa'> very dillicult and cost!}. espee l ve~ g• eath outnumbered b\ the local inhabitants. The struggle Lhm bccam<.· one of establishing 01 n·mm ing a 'iet-ie'> of ~trongpoints. Thc~e prmed to be the best, and pt·rhaps rhe onh mean' by which the Scandinm ian cmsader'> could coni rol COIHJUel<.'d terriwn·. To htce the indigenou' E"onian' and Lat\ians the Da1w.h or Swedi'>h ctu-.ading armies numben:cl no more than 1,000 li<>OJh. ~uch small number'> made the initial conqueM of large area~ \l'J"\ difficult; this wa,, the main reason why the.• Baltic area saw the building of mam more castles tht~n was the case in Denmark and Sweden them~e l ws. B\ con~tnlcting such a slrongpoint 1hc occupiers could gradual!\ Pxlencl their contml outwards through a poliC\ of combined mili1an .trrion, co-opera1ion, 1radc and politics, 1hm en·ntually taking owt a largct teniwn . ~ew fortifications could rhen be built funhe1 awa\, ,mel the procc-., rt'peated a.'> often a-. nec<·-.s;\1\. Crmacling armics simph newr had enough men to conguc.·1 the Baltic r('gion ouuight- in fact , the\ oft<"n fouud them.,eht>'> bt·,iegccl \dthin their ca\Lles, surrounded h\ a 't'a of enemies. Such a 'tratt·g. and its as,ociated tactic~> were to a large cxteut dictated b~ 11w lact that ~he area was almost completd; CO\'cn·cl by dense fore),ts or lakes. This a lso had the effect of making rivers and other waterways ('XI ren1c.·h important a\'enues of mm·enwnr for both sides. As a r('sult, castle~ tend('d robe erccted close for such \ita! lines of communication. SU
An 11th o r 12th century spearhead f rom Finland, with curved extensions each side of the sock et . (National Museum, Helsinki)
33
Scandinavian seals, Illustrating types of Baltic shipping: (Top) Seal of the city of Bergen , dating from 1376, showing that the ol der type of Sc andinavian ships used In the early crusad es were s till In use - or at least still had symboli c resonance. The ref ere nc es to the old VIking longshlp are obvious. (Below) Seal of the city of Stralsund, 132 9 - half a century before that of Bremen - showi ng a kogg, w ith raised f orec astle and st em c astle. This type of v essel, In various sizes, was the most common sh ip type In the Baltic fo r several centuries.
34
In Europe 1lw warfare of the medicntl period focused m a grcm extent on the t<wng or holding of castles and fortified wwm. Such ccunpaigns also laid considerable emphasi'> on '>ending relief to -;uch places when thev were cut off, Ull eatcned or under arrack. If a place fell or sun·cndered, it nonnalh accepted its ne" lords- \d1o could, in thei1 turn. ~ub~equentl~ expect to endure anotiH'l -.iege a~ the pre,iotb proprietor;, auempwd LO reclaim that location HoweYer, this mock of ,,.uf~u e ''a~ not the preYailing pauern in the Baltic Crusadt''>. at leaM not after the initial invasions of1he coa-.tal area~. From the Iron Age onward settlements and wwn;, had i~prung up along these coasts as a result of trade. Some of these tmms were already quite large. but were quick!} besieged anrl conquered by the crusader~. The construction of su·ongpoints, usually in the fo1111 of casLles, became a very important aspect of :.ubsequent warfare, but besieging such places was neithet the onh nor eYen the major method of conducting warl~1re. Instead, the Baltic Cru~ade:. were largeh a matter of skirmishes and raid'>, dut ing \\hich occa'>ional set-piece baules occurred - normall} only when both sides believed thaL they could achie\e tactical acl\'antages in such a conrrontation. Furthermore. the terrain did not aiJm, for 'en imaginati\·e manoeuning; the mmement;, or troops tended ro be relatiYelv predictable, and aYailable routes were stricth· limited b\ gt·ogt of men imohed would have been small, ranging from a touple or hundred to perhaps a thomand troop<,. One severe limitation Wclh hem"Y r.tin or melting ~llO\\. Because the raiding pattie-, \\t>te them-.ehe-, relati\ch limited in number, they could not aflord w get caught ll\ defending forces against ~>llch naruraJ obstacle~. Ao, a con.,eqm'nn•. the Teutonic Knights. \\ith their Yen· limited number-. of men, mack a point of dhiding their raiding forces into small detarhnwnt.,, in orde1 to minimiLe possible losses if a part) got itself cut on or trapped.
Raiding wa~ ~>a fe•;t when it wa<> carried out relatively close to friendh fort/>, and along the Riv<'r:-. l), ina and Niemen. This wa~ because. in a counuy that offered :-.o few road~ and so manv obstacles, pro\'i'>ion-. were always a problem . Since <'ach man had to carry whatever he needed, poor planning 01 unfc>reseen mishaps sometimes resulted in soldier'> having to eat their 0\\ n pack-animals - and even, on more than one occasion, their hot'>e'>. An example of the problenh pre'iented b' the Baltic tenain i'> prO\ided b' a Swedi'>h thrmt towards the lake and wwn of Ladoga from the Swedish ca~tle of \'iborg in 1293. Troops '"ere sent into the Ladoga region and erected a fori known as Keksholm; bm its ganison wa<; wiped out b) a O\gorodian coun ter-attack the ,·ery same year. It simplv prO\ eel impos~ible to main tain a castle around 200 miles' travelling dbtance from the neare~t friend!) st rongpoim; 1hat 200 miles had to be travelled by water, becau~e the direct merland distance of just 50 mile<; w were stacked heavil)' in favour of the def<'nding popula tio n. In crude terms, the Novgoroclian o r Lithuanian forc<'s. operating within thcir<)\\11 territories, were capable or absorbing and tlwn swamping the invading crusaders. During the earl)' )'t'ars of the Baltic Crusades it was customary to ~laughter a ll captives our of hand, with the exception of the p<'asams and labourers who were still required to cultivate the land for their new masters. On the~e wild frontier<> capmred fighting men "ere killed regardless of th<' starus of the \1ctim or hb killer. J'hi'> \\th not nom1al behmiour \dthin A \\'estern Chri'>tendom, and a'> more cru'iader'l arri,·cd, panicularh during 1he I lth ccnmn, there began to be more oJy,enance ol tlw f:•miliar practice of taking p1isoner'> for ramom. lhi' in mrn resulted in parleys or brief truce'> to negotiat<' th<' release of captives. :'\laturalh, since he normal!\ had no means of raising a ransom, the ordinary footsolclicr could still expect little mere)' if he fell into <'ncmy hands.
.·
Baltic shipping: (A) Boat 5 from He lgeandsholmen, dated to the first decade of the 14th century; this Is an Interesting example of a sniJcka of a type used by the l edung armies during the preceding centuries. It had a length of 72ft/22m and a beam of 11.5ft/3.5m. An Important c hange from the earlier Viking period Is that the rudder Is now fixed to the sternpost. The ship could be sailed as well as rowed , and would have been ideal for disembarking troops because of Its ability to navigate s hallow waters. (B) Reconstruction of the hull of the Breme r kogg, dated to the 1380s; In additio n to the m issing mast a nd rigging, there w ould also have been a substantial supe rstructure at the stem. (C) Rec onstruc tion by Harald Akerlund of a shi p found at Kalmar and dating from the mid- 13th century. This was a freight tran sport, with a length of 36ft/11m and a beam of 14.9ft/4.55 m et res.
35
Climate and t e rrain
The castle of Abo In southwestern Finland. Originally constructed In the 1280s to support a Swedish crusade In th is region, it was subsequently enlarged, most notably In the second half of th e 14th century.
Viborg Cast le In south-easte rn Finland, dating from the late 14th century.
The climate of the Baltic region i~ mild enough dudng summer, although spdng and autumn often ~ee 'en hcaw rain'>. 1l1is. ''hen coupled \dth severe wintet'> and hean snm,fall, made warfare difficult at certain '>eason-, of the) ear. For example. tlw record-. tell m that on one winter campaign tht' TeuLOnic Knights had to trmel in single file hccam<.• it '"'" impossible to pa" through tht' dN·p '>llO\' ''hich Ia\ on either side of their path; the tactical hatards of <;uch a march formation in thick forest need no emphasis. The extreme cold thnders, who were accustomed to these conditions and were operating in a climate '' ith '' hich thev were familiar. Circumstances could b<.•come e\en more difficult for the cmsaclers if there was a mild. wet wintet ''hen the ground did not free1e; at such times the entire countn'>ick ..eemed to turn into an impassable bog. haunted '" clou(b of biting in~ecrs after the arri,al of warmer weather. The n•.,ult of all thc'>e factor<; was that a son of no-man \-l,md <,oon emerged between the fightinl{ partie~. Thi~ could consist or strerches of rough termin up to perhaps 120 miles (190km) wide, "ith 110 real roads and in which onlv the watenvay~ offered pm.sabk routes. Winter warfare
36
The idea or fighting during winter was not normally regarded a~ ~ensib l e in Continental Europe, but in Sc11nclinada it was traditionally seen as a suitable st•ason for any arnw that could cope with the cold. In a region where even wellestablished dirt road-. were simply non-existent across wide .,,,athe'> of the country, it was actuall} ea~ier to campaign in cold winters than in summer. became the ,,,Hen,-.w., were nonnalh froLen and thus prm ided eaS\ routes for tra\el bv sleigh and on hor-.ehack. EH•n the fore~ts tended to be ea.~iet to pcnellleighs could operate in am thing ('Xccpt rhc .,oftest and deepest snow. flw onh pra< tical alremativc wa'> to maJ...e at least part of the joutll(.'\ b\ coastal -,hipping.
The use of ski~ and sleighs was well documented throughout the entire Scandinavian and Baltic region. Although not witable lor transporting large number of troops. skis did permit easy scouting in wintertime. The use of horsC'-drawn sleighs provided a practical method of transporting equipnwnt and supplies during a campaigu - indeed, the onl) method that could be adopted during cmsading expediLiom other than using the river~. \\'inter warfare thus became more or les~ a necessit\ rathet than a maner of choice; in the milder seasons it was often impo'>'>ible 10 tt<m'>pon heavy loads deep inland or to ttb'>tantially larger supplies of food and even of equipment in ordet to maintain a crusading force at an cffecti\C Jc,el of fitness and flgh1ing capahilit:v. Sleighs were pullt>d h} horses harnessed singly or in pairs, which could easi ly pull many hundrech of pounds weight if packed on a well-made sleigh. Troops were normally obliged to march on foot if they had no h orses 10 ricle. Riding horses themselves were generally not well su ited to win ter campaigning. During one especially bitter winter the Teutonic Knights lost a n estimated o ne thousand horses, which represented virtnally their e ntire stock and thus reduced tllem to a n infantry force until replacement mounts could be obtained. Once the initial conq uest of rhe coastal regions had been completed and the area of control had been pushed up the m was to be made .. ormally there were two forays during each winter, one in December and one in Janm\r) or Februaq, with some time between these expedition<. for the Chtisunas celebratiom. The crusader'> \\erc able w pur<,ue thi!. twin campaigning strateg\ panh as a result of the fact that a number of their main bases \\ere located on the coa'its, which made it easier for them to ship in supplie'i throughout much of the ve~u. B, conu-ast the Lithuanians, who lived inland , founcl it much more difficult to procure 'ittpplie'> during wintcr.
The city walls and outer towers of Tallinn (Reval), as they appeared In the late 19th century before the city spread much beyond Its medieval fortifications.
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Boats and ships
Castle plans: (A) Gurre , Denmark
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(B) Lihula, Estonia: 1 c itadel, 2 first bailey, 3 living quarte rs, 4 = s tabl es, 5 = fossa, 6 = outer w all, 7 = quarry or pit , 8 = Inne r gate, 9 = entrance w ay, 10 =second bailey, 11 = moat , 12 = e mbankment, 13 = w ell and spring.
=
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(C) Raseborg, Fi nland: 1 = line of old moat , 2 = line of new m oat , 3 = natural wate r obstac le.
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Seafaring capability and a capacil:\ to wage war on w·a ter was an important aspect of these conflicL'>, C'>pecialh where Denmark and Sweden were concerned. For the Tcutoni< Knights and the other German crusaders this wa.o; also import.mt but gencr.tlh les'> '>0, as these somhern participams had greater acce..,.., to Janel communications. The Scandina\ian countrieo;, mmt not.thh '-.orw of the olcl \ 'iking Age long.,hips right inw the 14th centun. Thi'> o;t\le of '>hip. knmm a'> a miirka in Sweden, was an ideal Yessel for tmmporting trOOJh. being able to can;around 25 men pins their equipment, .Ulcl being extrernelv o,eaworth~. lL was equipped \dth oar'>, which made it ](:..,., \UKeptible lO being becalmed, and which also enabled '>II< h H''>SCI'> to n.l\igate estuaries, riYers and lakes. This versatilil). along with its '>hallow draught, made the .wiiclw suitable for both tramporting and puuing ashore men and equipment during \at·ious crusading campaigns. The major disadvan tage of the miirlw wa'> that it was not particular!} suitable for fighting on watC:'r when compared to the later kop;g, which cou ld carry more troops and was built in several different sizes. Being comiderably higher in the water it pron·cl to be a better fighting ship. especially when fitted '~ith small fighting platform<; 01 'castles' for archers or crossbowmen fore and aft. flw higher hulls of these vesseb made it possible to shoot down on am enctm who was in a more old fashioned Viking-style ship. The peoples who lived along the t'tt'rn and o;outhern Baltic coasts were emhusia.<;tic raiders, a.\ the Scanclimt,ians thcrmche., had been in earlier years. Their ships are belined to h.tn- bct•n vcr: '>imilar to the older \lking Age longships. Thio; technological inferiority, pluo; the fact that Ciled control oYer mmt of the cml'ih, made actual o;ea battles \irtualh non-exi'>tent.. Once the Christian mariners of the Baltic Sea abandoned long.,hips in fa\Otu of lwggs, an) attempt bv unde< ked, \hallow-draught Baltic ships to tackle an armed \\'e.,tcrn ,·es~el would almmt renainl) f~til. Once the crusaders YenturC:'d far inland up the riven., however. the balancP might be mor<' equal. The Lithuanians and Novgorodian Russians maintained fleets of river boats for 1he specific purpo!>e of blocking \ita! watPnvay'i and avc•nu<'S of communication.
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Fortifications N
t 38
Ca.'ltles are remarkablv abundant in the Baltic region. ~fmt wen.· built b\ crmader 'i, b\ the militan orders or b\ the hi..,hop'> who al'>o "ielded significant militan power in these land'>. Mearmhile the nati\c population., had their mm traditions of fortification. :\..., .1 1 e.,ult the B.tlti< Cm-,ades were charactcriLcd b\ a '>t~le of \\adare in "hich fortificatiom pl.t\ed .111 c.:xceptionalh import."\nt role - as W abo the ca'>e itt the Latin-Cn.ts."\der
\Iiddle East, where terdtory could not be held in thl' fi1ce of powerful imading force~ \\ithout the prc~cnce of castles. The earliest form<; consisted of can hworks with timber addition~. in the old Western European moue-and-haile) style; but these remained \Uinerahle to fire e'en in ~uch we h nologically prinu uvc warfare a... that conducted by the peopll''> of the Baltic coa\tlancb. Tl1e crusaders soon experienced this threat, and dlorl.~ ''ere rapidl)' put in hand ro bui ld virtually fire-proof stone fortificaLions. Since the troops of Lithuania and even No\'gorod had very little c'pcrience in siege warfare, such ~trongpoinL<> ga'e the crusaders ~olid anchors for their arc•as of comrol. Over time more elaborate and occa<;ionally quire large fortifications were con~>tructed, rhe biggest probably being the Marienburg of rhe Teutonic Knights and the Viborg of the Swedes. fhe earlier defemi'e works constructed b' t11e local indigenous populations were mo.,th in naturalh Mrong locatiom '>LICh as hilltops, hluffo; or peninsulas, and they made full use of such terrain. \~1wn the crusaders conquered Lhese regions they often rebui lt in the identical locations for the same tactica l or strategic reasons. The remains of lllOM fortificatiom ill the Baltic lack clll idcnLifiable moat, since man\ of the location., \\ere strong enough \\itlwut this feature, tl1eir nantral advantages suflking to slow dmm .111 advancing enem\. Thi'i was patticularh apparent when the castle wa'> on top of a steep ~>lope. The quality of rhe acLUal foniflcation work tended to be high, c~pt·cially those bui lt by or for the Teutonic Knights. One reason may ha\c been an exchange of personnel with the Order's holdings in the ~Iiddle East and othct places where the 'icience of militat) architecture \\~1'. more advanced. Nc' enheless, the site'> of the Baltic fon ifications \\Cte general smaller than the epic fortre'i'>CS in t11e cnt-;ader ~tates of the eastern \Ieditermncan. Seeking to control a wide region, with a Mrictly limited number of u·oops bur agaimt an enem} lacking any sophisticated tradition of siege warfare, it was better for the crusader occupiers of r.he Baltic states to have nttmerou~ smaller, clispers<'d castles than a few very large regional cemres.
The so-ca lled Virgin Tower w hich fo rmed part of t he Inner d efences between the Toompea Citadel and the medieval city of Reval. (D.Nico lle photograph)
Siege warfare
Nevenheless, in unpacified country sonw kind of siege of one or more of their .strongpoints was a con~Lant possibility. As ah·ead)' pointed out, the one local resource in almostunlimitccl supply was timber- that is, solid fuel. Consequently it wa~ normally only tetnporal') strongpoint!> that were built of such material~ once stone fortifications were being built. Siege equipment in the form of mangoneb, ballistas .md othet large missile-throwing or -.hooting de,ices wet e med bv the crU'>. Ballering num '>et'm have been of the simple ancl relatiYely small hand-held type wit·lckd h)' teams
39
The city walls of Tallln , the largest city and capital of Estonia. They mostly date from the late 14th century. There Is a dramatic difference between the crowded Interior of the old city on the left, as seen from the Paks Margareta or 'Fat M argaret' Tower towards the Great Coastal Gate, and the exterior of the medieval city which now consists of a public park. (D. Nicolle photograph).
40
of men, but they pro\'ed eflective l'llough. I lowcver, rhe most effeni\e tactic when dealing with Baltic fortificatiOili> wa~ '-oimplv to .surround 1he place and star\'e ilS defender~ into !>ubmi-.t the g.tte and timber pali<;ade. The impact of smol...e ha~ often been O\erlooked h\ militat; histonan' when discussing the eflecti,enes~ of fire: cleme ... mokc coulcl efleniwh blind and choke the defenders and. undet the right circumstance~. might e\'en lead to it~un. In their struggle again~t the itwacling crw.aders the nati,·e popularions used the simpleM of siege de,ice~ such a and cros~bow:, was likelv to succeed "ithour incurring excessive\} heaw los~e~.
AFTERMATH OF THE CRUSADES The longer tetm resullS or the Baltic Cru ... adt•'> agotill'ol the indigenotL'\ peoples of rhe region can be judged in .1 munbet of "··~"· and ~ome of these de\elopmenlS had long-l~ting nunifkatiom. In general terms, the conflict.\ in the Baltic .,cem to have spnrrerl on rhe emergence there of more clearh defined linJ.,ruisric and cultural regions, and thus e\entually of nation '>tal<.''>. It itcc.~ wil h which the face the invading crusader<>. T he defence or ad\'ance of C:hri-;tianil} against paganism had bt•en the corner-;tone of the Baltic crmading movement, and tlw '·l'>L state of Lithuaniathe ltt'ot pagom -.tate in Europe olli( ialh became Chri~tian in I :~Hii. \\'ithin Sumdinada il\elf. the tlnee natioth of Denmark. \,mwa\ and Sweden were united rrom 1397 in the
lloublesome Union of Kalmar, which had originall) been ~uggcsted b) Queen Marga• eta J. One significant effect of thi~> union was a decline in Scandinavian interest in Baltic crmading. Thi' more or leo;~> left the Jeu10nic Ordet on its o\\ll: the Order became an important po\\er 111 Scandinmian regional politics during the lllmultuous 15th ceutury, b11t this devclopmem fonuibULed to that Order'~ ~eemingly sudden collapse. It is important to recognite that the Bailie region comprised a large number of di\'erse powers, but that all were linked by a common interest in tradt>. The Baltic Crusades were not, in am simple sem.e. dircctc:d against a common 'ea~tern enem\ ·. but re,ulted in a 'ihifting pattern of allegiances and alliances in which the ll'aders of the Crusades a lways had to work pragmatically within the e\i-.ting pattern of economic ties and interest~. The raw 111aterials and pmducL'> extracted from tlw great nonhetn foresL<> and seas were of continuing ,~<~lue for man} centuries; the importance of the salted fi'>h , furs, walrus ivo•; and resins that Scandinm ian seamen, hunters and trappers supplied to merchants from mor<' southerly countries would soon be joined, and later m·er~hadowed bv the timber products that fcxl the great age of shipbuilding and world-"~ de nm igation that ,, .., already thmning at the turn of the 15th and 16th centurie'>. 'laintaining the delicate balance thar regulated Baltic trade would become .so increasingly important lO other European nations that in time the m<~jor powers would be led ro intervene directly in the region on ~e' era I occao,ions . .\t what we would todm term the geopolitical leH· I, the Baltic Cru~ades resulted in a number of 'ery olwious de,elopnwnts. S\\eden gained conrrol oi Finland, which was e\entually drawn into the hean ol the Swedish state rather than being merely a distant pnwince. Finland would in fact pia\ a very important strat<.•gic role, as well as being a ,igniflcant source of manpower for Sweden , •-ight up to tlw time ''hen it ''as lost w Rmsia in 1808. Sweden al'>o gained other prminces in the Baltic region, constructing ~>everal strong castles that would pia} an important part in the later Great Nordic VVar and in the Swedish expansions of the 17th and 18th cenrurie'>. South of the Baltic, the kingdom of Poland emerged a-. a significant power on the eastern frontiet of the Get man Empire, ol bed Novgorod and likewi'>e grew into a m~or power, \\ ho'>e often \\,Hiike rivalry with Sweden lao,wd long after the end of the medieval pc.-iod. In realin, the enmin· b<.·tween Rus.,ia and Sweden , which lasted from 1250 umil IH08, was a con~equence ol the cnLsacling movement, which led to a cla~h of their trading interests. It might be a rgoecl that the various su uggle' that swit kcl a ronnel the Baltic Crusade' a cwallv encouraged the unification of 1\mgorod and .\lo'>cow. leading to the development of the late• Russian T.-.an't '>tate.
The keep of the c astle of Raseborg, eiCtenslvely restored in the late 19t h cent ury.
41
Meanwhile another and much more ~ignilicant threat to Christendom was emerging far LO the l>Outh-cast, \vith the rio;e of the Ottoman Turks. This threat became acute during the !me 15th and earh 16th ccnnuies, and consequent!} the old conflict between Orthodox Christian and Cat.ho1ic Christian lands in e
FURTHER READING
42
Andersson, 1., A Hisl01)' of Swedm (London, 1955) Amicns, A., ·Structure and Manulacurring Techniques of PaLtem\\'clded O~jects found in the Baltic States' ,jounwl of Ilie iron and )/eel lnslitulP (1968) 563-5 71 Antiens, A., 'The O ld Arms of Basilsimsa ( Histor) of the Ventspilskaya Okrug)', Sovietslwy ~enta, 50 (1983) Bc nni ngh ovcn, F., Der Orden der Scltwerlbriidn (Cologne, 1065) Bogdan, H ., Les Chevaliers Teulonique~ (Pari.~. 1995) Bosi, R., Tlze Lapps: Ancient People~ and Pfarr\ Snir1 (London, 1960) Bruiningh, H . Baron, 'Der alteste mitteblterliche Crabstein Livlands aus dcr St Martinkirche auf H olme bei Riga', in (anon. eel.), Balllsrhe Studien zur Archiiologie und GeulmlrlP, Arbeitn1 des Baltischen \'orbereitended Komelees fiir den X\'1 Archiiologilclwn KongrPS\ in Ple~kau 1914 (Riga. 1914) 171-175 Brundage.J.A. (u·.), The Chronicle of Ht'lll) oj Ur,onw (.\ladison. 1961) Brundage,]~-\.. The Thirteenth-Centuf\ J.i,onian Cn.tsacles',jahrbiirher fiir Gesclzichle Osteuropas, n.s. XX (1972) 109 Christensen, A.E., 'Denmark between the \"il,ing .\ge ;md the time of the \'aldcmars', .\lediaeual Sea ndmavia, I ( 1966) :tl-48 Christi-amen, E., The .\'ortlzem Cnwults: TIIP Ba//1( and Catholic Frontier 1100-1525 (London, 1980) Dcvcike, .J., The Lithuanian Diarchie!-.', 'flit• .~/avonir and f;ast European Review, XXVIII ( 1949-50) 392-397 Girnbutas, M., The Balls: Ancient P1•op!t·~ and Plam Snif's (London, 1963) H~jdu, P. (tr. G.F. Cushing), Finno-Ugrim1 l.anguaws and PPojJles (London, 1975) J mikkala, E., A Hist01y of Finland (London, 1962) Kivikoski, E., Die Eisenuil Finland~ (Berlin, Hl47) Kivikoski, E., Finland: A ncieJIL Pr'O/JlPs mul Plarl'.\ S!'riPs (London, 1967) Ku lakov, V.I., Istoriya Prussii do 1283 godo (Moscow, 2003) Larsson, L., Kalmar unionens tid (Swcl..holm, 1997) Leppaaho,j., Spiiteisem.eitlirlzt' n'ajft'll aus Finn/and: Srhwt>rlimrlzriften und Wajfenverzien.mgen des 9.-12Jalmwndnl\ (l lclc;inki, 196-l) Lind, J., The Russian Sources of King C\lagnus Eriksson'<; campaign against Novgorod 1348-1351- recon..,idered", ,\fpdwn,al Scandinavia, XII ( 1988) 248-272 Lind,J., 'The Russian-Swedish Border according to the Peace Treaty of ~oteborg (OrekhoYets-PahJ...infuinna) and the Political Status of the :--,lonhern Pan of Fenno!>candia ·. .\ledwn,al Srmulmavw, XIII (2000) 100-117 Lindholm, 0., & D.Nicolle, ,\lrdlf>l.l(l[ Scandmavian. \murs ( 1) 1100-1300.
Men-at-. \rms :'\o.396 (Oxford, 200:J) Lindho lm , D., & D.Nicolle, Medieval Scandinavian Armies (2) 1300-1500, .\ft•n-at-t\Jm<; . o.399 (Oxford, 200:J) \furrav, V: (ed.). Crusade rmd C.onvenion on the Baltic Hrmtirr, 1150-1500 (Aldershot, 2001) \fussel, L. , 'Problemcs militaries du Monde Scandinave (\'11-X rie siecl(')', in Sttlimnne di Studi del Centro Italiano di Stud1 ~ulli \ lto Medioevo (Spoleto, 1968) 229-291 Muss<'t, L. , Les PeujJle.s Srandinrwl'~ cn1 Moyrn Age ( Pa1i!>, 1931) :'\licollc. D., Annies of ,\ledieval Russia 750-1250, ~fen-at-. \rms l':o.333 (Oxford, 1998) ~icolle, D .. l.akr Peipu~ 1242, Campaigns ~o.46 (London, 1996) Riley-Snlilh , J. (cd.), A lias of the Cwsadt'S ( London , ] 9!> I ) Sawyer, P. & B., .\lediroal Sramlinrwia: From Convrr~ion to Reformation cirra 800-1500 (Mi nneapolis, 1993) Sedov, \'Y., Finno-L'grw i Baltui t' Rpoklw Sn·dnevrkovya (~Io~cow, 1987) ShpakO\·skv, V., & D.Nicollc, Medieval Russian An11ies 1250-1500, Men-atArms No.367 (Oxforrl, 2002) Sl..mm- 'ielsen, ~-. & N.Lund (ed~.). Danish Medieval Hisforr: Nrw Cum·nts (Copenhagen, 1981) · Sla.,ki. K. , ' Die danisch-polni~chcn Be7ichungen mn dem Tode Valdemar~> TI. bis t.ttm Entstc he n der Kalmarer Union', AIPdinroal .~candhuwia, n· (1971) 80-90 Smith, .J.C., & W.Urban (lr. ), The l.ivonian Rhynli'(/ C:hronirle (Bloomington, 1977)
Urban, vV., 'The Organisation and Defe nce of th e Livonian Frontier in the Thirteenth Century', ~perulum. XL\1II (1973) 523-532. llrbau, W., The Baltic Cru.sadr' (Chicago, 1991) Urban, \\'., /he ?russian Cmwde ( 'e'' York, 1980) L' rban. \\'., Tlze Sa mogifian Crusade (Ch irago, l 9R9) L'rban, \\'., fhe 1/>tllomc Knights: 1\ Military 1ftslOT) (London, 2003). Unstalu, E., The History of thl' Estonian Peopli' (London, 1952). Albert Co/lim armour cm1 be Sfl'11 and orrlfl'!> plr1red via his websitf':
www.,;aam1orati .com
PLATE COMMENTARIES
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A : THE DANISH INVASION OF THE ISLAND OF R0GEN , 11 68- 11 6 9 A1 : King Valdemar I of Denmar k Although Denmark was tn close economic and cultural contact with neighbouring northern Germany, its military equipment was, like that of the other Scandinavian states, still rather old-fashioned. Therefore we have reconstructed the king here with good quality arms and armour, although it would have been seen as half a generallon behind the times by a French or even an English observer. King Valdemar wears a one-piece iron helmet w1th integral nasal, over a mall coif with its ventail pulled across his throat and chin. H1s mail hauberk With its long sleeves and mittens is, however, of the latest design; It is worn over a quilted gambeson which probably replaced the more archa1c felt 'soft armour'. His mall chausses are of the type which cover
only the fronts and sides of his thighs, knees and legs and are worn w1th soft leather boots. H1s sh1eld, sword and sword belt are of des1gns which could have been seen 1n the late 11th century, but the decorations on his horse's harness follow the latest trends in Germany and northern France. A2: Danish knight The seemingly archaic character of some Scand1nav1an armour 1s seen on this man, whose simple Iron helmet has 1ron ear- and neck-pieces attached by short leather straps. His matI hauberk has an integral coif with a ventail across hts mouth, but the sleeves are only of three-quarter length: the hauberk is slit at the sides, which was more for fighting on foot than on horseback. The scabbard is tied to the soft leather sword belt In the normal manner. The shield 1s of the long kite-shaped variety needed when the only other body protectton was the mail hauberk; note hts lack of leg protection. A knobbed bronze mace was typical of many parts of Scand1nav1a and the Baltic reg1on.
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A3: Slav nobleman from Baltic coast The Slav-speak1ng and as yet still pagan tribes of what is today north and north-eastern Germany were quite rich and had wide trading contacts, as well as the booty from their raiding; hence, this nobleman's military gear is relatively abundant and decorated. The 1ron helmet is probably of Polish or Russ1an ong1n, built up from four segments each with a ra1sed re.nforc1ng corrugation, riveted beneath an iron frame; but note that his simple mall hauberk lacks a coif. The neck of h1s linen sh1rt IS closed by a gilded bronze brooch. He is armed with an abundantly decorated war-axe, plus a s1mple kn1fe. The large round shield would be held on his fist rather than on h1s lower arm and hand, as was the case with most Western European shields. Here, as his village and idols burn, the ill-fated warrior was trying to save a horn sacred to the pagan god Svantevit. B : BUILDING OF A TIMBER FORT, LATE 12th CENTURY 81: Danish knight By the late 12th century the Danish, and to a lesser extent the other Scandinavian kingdoms, had been drawn more closely into the mainstream of Western European culture. This was clearly reflected In the arms and armour of their military aristocracies. This knight has a high-domed, one-piece iron helmet of a type popular in Germany to the south. The ventail of the coif of his long-sleeved mail hauberk is here shown unlaced; one slightly old-fashioned note is struck by his mittens, which lack fingers and are more like extensions of the sleeves, whereas the very long skirts of h1s tunic again reflect German fash1ons. Beneath the mail hauberk and the tunic is a th1ckly qu1lted gambeson, and his legs are protected by mail chausses worn over normal woollen hose. 82: Danish sergeant The 1ncreas1ngly popular flat-topped form of helmet was apparently also reflected 1n some helmets which were of twopiece construction. This lower-status sergeant's mail coif is here taken off h1s head, exposing 1ts quitted lining. Again the man has a qu1lted form of soft armour beneath his mail hauberk, visible at h1s neck and below the hem of the hauberk. The bagginess of his leggings might indicate that they are trousers rather than more typically Western European hose; trousers continued to be worn in Scandinavia, particularly by
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The sea l of Blrger Brosa, Sweden, late 12th century. The helmet and armour are typical for the time, although the face-guard - which was becoming Increasingly common - is lacking here, and the helmet still has an o ld-fashioned nasal bar. The sword also looks more like a Viking Age weapon, with a broad groove and stubby quillons. See Plate A1 . (Riksar'kivet, Stockholm)
men of poorer origins. The blade of his spear has short curved lugs or 'wings', which were another archaic style, suitable for fighting on foot rather than on horseback. 83: Captured Estonian warrior He appears to be a peasant warrior rather than a member of the indigenous Eston1an anstocracy, h1s weapons being a substantial axe that might also have been a working tool, and a knife 1n a decorated leather sheath. The blade of the spear is a form found throughout the Baltic region. but the bronze standard was actually found in a Lithuanian or Prussian rather than an Eston1an tribal area. C : DANISH CRUSADE AGAINST THE ESTONIANS, 1219 According to legend, it was dunng this campaign that the Danish flag fell miraculously from the sky at the battle of Lyndanise. C1: Danish knight One again the arms, armour and even the clothing styles of this member of the Danish knightly aristocracy indicate strong German infl uence. The tall, two-piece iron helmet has a fixed iron visor, and is worn over a mail coif which forms an integral part of the mail hauberk. The visibly raised outline of a very thickly quilted gambeson worn beneath the hauberk and the surcoat can be seen at his shoulders. His legs and feet are now protected by complete, all-round mall chausses, though these have leather soles beneath his feet. The scabbard is still tied to the sword belt in a traditional manner; the knight IS also armed with a massive bronzeheaded mace, thrust beneath h1s saddle. C2: Low-status crusader The directly riveted construction of this man's helmet might reflect Eastern rather than Western European influence, and would probably have been cons1dered old-fashioned even 1n Scandinavia. H1s hm1ted form of ma11 hauberk, baggy trousers, fight1ng kn1fe and s1mple short-hafted infantry spear also show h1m to be a peasant or low-status warrior. The reality behind the story of how what became the Damsh national flag 'fell from heaven' during this battle is, of course, unknown. Perhaps a blood-stained cloth might have been blown across the field of combat, being seen by some religiously excited crusaders as a white cross on a red background? C3: Danish sergeant As a professional soldier, although one of humble origins, this Danish sergeant wears an early form of brimmed iron 'kettle-hat' -a style of helmet which became very popular throughout later medieval Scandinavia. Since he is fight1ng with a large axe wielded with both hands, he has slung h1s large k1te-shaped shield on h1s back, held by its broad leather guige strap. The mail co1f of his mail hauberk is again oldfashioned, lacking a ventail to be drawn across h1s ch1n and throat, but the hauberk 1tself IS worn over a quilted softarmour. The dist.nctive bronze hilt of h1s sword is often associated with Finland, and the weapon might be war-booty.
Swedish panel paintings, 13th century: (Top left) Note at right t he warrior wit h a flat-topped great helm , a shortened kite shield with a rou nded top, and a surcoat. (Top right) Both warriors wear full mall and carry swords, one having a smaller 'heater'-shaped shield s lung on his back. (Right) At left, two fully armou red knights on horseback, one with a great helm and t h e other with only a mall coif. (in situ DlldsjiS Church, Smli land, Sweden)
D : SWEDISH DEFEAT BY PRINCE ALEXANDER NEVS KI , 1240 Defeated on the River Neva by the Prince of Novgorod in July 1240 dunng the Baltic First Crusade, these unfortunates try to escape by boat. 0 1: Swedish knight, mid - 13th c entury With h1s flat-topped great helm, full mail armour and partially padded surcoat, th1s knight looked essentially the same as fighting men of comparable status elsewhere in Western Europe. Only the fact that he wears boots over his mail chausses might indicate a local Scandinav1an style, perhaps reflecting the weather in this part of Europe; his battleaxe, while unusual elsewhere in Western Europe, would not be entirely unknown. The shorter shield Is a new fashion, asapparently - are the quilted cuisses around his thighs and knees. The same applies to his horse's caparison, saddle and harness. 02: Swedis h infantry sergeant Most of th1s man's military equ1pment is aga1n in the mid13th century Western European mainstream. It consists of a low-domed one-piece iron helmet with an integral nasal; a full mail hauberk with a mail coif, here worn underneath a quilted cloth-covered coif; a full-length, long-sleeved quilted gambeson; and a modern style of short but broad - almost triangular - shield. On the other hand, the substantial fighting knife slung almost horizontally from his sword belt, and the baggy trousers worn over his close-fitting hose, are very Scandinavian or Baltic.
0 3: Swedi sh sailor or boatman The one-piece, broad-brimmed iron 'war-hat' had by now become very widespread in Scandinavia. It was once again common for men from many backgrounds to carry a substantial knife or dagger. Otherwise th1s man's multiple layers of cloth1ng, especially the broad-shouldered cape with a hood - here shown pushed back off the head - seem designed for work1ng 1n a potentially cold and wet environment such as the Baltic Sea.
E : SWEDISH CRUSADERS , c. 12 75 E1: Swedish knight The nature of warfare in and around the dense forests, bogs and lakes of Finland meant that some of the heaviest armour used in other parts of Europe was often unsuitable. This was usually a conflict of raid and ambush, in terra1n without roads or very many passable tracks. This Swedish knight wears a
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Mail habergeon or small form of hauberk, early 14th century; t his piece is in fact English, bu t is entirely typica l of armour of that period. The style woul d have been more or less the same since the late Viking Age, with o nly a lengthening of the arms and skirts to accommodate riders. (London M useum)
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brimmed 'kettle-hat' or chapel-de-fer which does not interfere w1th his vision; its substantial cheekpieces are a distinctively Scandinavian feature. Otherwise, he has a German-style coat-of-plates beneath a separate mail coif and over a full mail hauberk, plus mall chausses for his legs. E2: Swedish sergeant with sp anned crossbow Walking with a spanned and loaded crossbow could be a dangerous thing to do, unless there was good reason to expect an ambush. The helmet worn by this sergeant may be old-fashioned in Its basic shape, but is quite advanced in its corrugated or fluted reinforced surface. He otherwise relies on mail for protection, and is armed with a relatively short infantryman's sword and a thick circular, wooden, buckler form of sh1eld. In add1t1on to a crossbow with a composite stave a crossbowman needed an 1ron spann1ng-hook on a belt around h1s hips, and a quiver to hold the short bolts or arrows. E3: Finn auxi liary wi t h pack-mule Local indigenous auxiliaries are known to have been less well armed than th61r Scand1navian rulers and colon1zers. This man only has a rather anc•ent two-piece iron-framed helmet, though h1s sword 1s a f1ne old-fashioned weapon. His thick fur-lined coat would also have prov1ded some protection.
F : THE GATES OF DANI S H REVAL , EARLY 14th CENTURY F1: Danish crossbowman Northern Estonia and its ma1n c1ty of Reval {today called Tallinn) was all that remained of Denmark's crusading expans1on by the 14th century, and would soon be sold to the Order of Teuton1c Kmghts. Nevertheless. 1t was a valuable possess•on that would have been well guarded. Because of the b11ing north w1nd th1s crossbowman wears a fur-lined hat rather than a helmet: beneath th1s is a mail COif which also covers h•s shoulders. The outline of a thtekly padded mall tippet or collar is also visible. Over h1s longsleeved hauberk - which lacks m1ttens, because of his role as a crossbowman - he has a scale-lined coat-of-plates. His other equipment consists of a spanmng-belt for his crossbow, a quiver for his bolts, a small wooden buckler, and a sword which has both a very old-fashioned pommel and much more modern down-curved quillons. F2: Lithuanian nobleman Whether a fully armed Llthuan1an nobleman would ever have approached the gates of Reval is unknown; however, this well-armed warrior represents the best equipped military elite of Europe's last pagan state. His helmet is of segmented construction with an iron frame; rawhide thongs threaded around the rim secure an internal lining, while the neckpiece is loosely riveted so that it can move slightly. He wears a gold torque around his neck and a gold armband above his elbow, below a short-sleeved ma1l hauberk. In addition to a short sword w1th a pla1n iron pommel and quilions, whose scabbard hangs from a richly decorated belt. he IS armed w1th a decorated spear and javelins. His prickspurs are of a distinctive form, and are kept in place with leather straps and iron buckles. F3: Teutonic brother knight The m11itary orders usually had the best and most up-to-date equ1pment. Certa1nly this brother knight of the Teutonic Order IS well armoured, w1th an ear1y form of bascinet which has a h1nged v1sor and a ma1l aventail attached to the 1ns1de of its rim; the broad, shoulder-covering part of this aventail also extends over part of the man's upper arms. The coatof-plates opens only on the nght shoulder, where an iron pin is threaded through lfOn staples. Beneath the coat-of-plates is a mail hauberk with three-quarter sleeves; additional arm protections are in the form of hardened leather rerebraces for the upper arms, splinted vambraces for the lower arms, and partially plated gauntlets. His chausses appear to be scale-lined, rather than with the usual ringmall. His massive single-edged falchion would be held in a scabbard that was slit down almost the full length of one side. G : KING MAGNUS OF SWEDEN INVADES RUSSIA , 134 8 G1 : King Magnus Eriksson of Sweden By the mid-14th century the m1iltary equipment of the ruling elite of Sweden and the other Scandinavian kingdoms was fully within the Western European - more particularly, German - trad1t10n. Consequently King Magnus is shown w1th a deep form of bascinet with a face-covenng ma1l flap, here 1n 1ts lowered position, and a coat-of-plates beneath a heraldiC surcoat. Under these he wears a mail hauberk. padded aketon or gambeson rerebraces. vambraces and gauntlets, h1s leg armour is
S1m1larly complete. He 1s armed with a knightly sword, a flanged mace, a substantial dagger, and a second saddlesword beneath the flap of his saddle. In contrast, his horse harness is quite simple; note that much of the length of the reins is now made of chain rather than leather as a precaution aga1nst 1ts getting severed 1n combat. G2: Swedish knight In contrast to the armour worn by his king, this ordinary Swedish knight wears old-fashioned gear, most notably h1s massive flat-topped great helm. It Is worn over a separate ma11 coif which protects the neck but not the shoulders. Beneath this is the sleeveless surcoat and long-sleeved mail hauberk. His plated gauntlets are more up-to-date, but his leg armour is again very trad1t1onal. In contrast h1s swordbelt, sword, dagger and dagger-sheath suspension system are in a more recen t style. He carries the Swedish battle standard known as the Folkunga Vapnet. G3: German mercenary Judg1ng by h1s arms and armour, th1s mercenary commander passing on the report of his scouts comes from southern rather than northern Germany. Some degree of Italian stylistic and technological influence is visible, most obviously in his deep-brimmed steel 'war-hat' helmet. In other respects his body armour is similar to that of K1ng Magnus, but 1ncludes guard-chains attached to the coat-of-plates beneath his surcoat; these will prevent the man los1ng his weapons 1n the tumult of battle. His haubergeon has broad three-quarterlength sleeves, which hang in pointed rear extensions behind his elbows. Under the fabric outer coverings his upper-arm rerebraces are lined with riveted iron splints, his gauntlets and th1gh-covering cuisses with scales. The fact that the scales are on the exterior of h1s feet-protecting sabatons is probably a matter o f fashion. His slightly concave heater shield is slung on his back by its long guige. He is not riding his own destrier or war-horse while scouting in the forest. but has selected a smaller and perhaps more nimble local mount with a s1mple native Baltic or Finnish harness.
H : S WEDI SH ATTACK ON MU SCOVITE FORTRESS, 1496 In that year Swedish c rusaders attacked the fortress of lvangorod overlooking the River Narva on the eastern frontier of Estonia. H1 : Swedish artilleryman By the late 15th century there had been many significant developments in European military eq uipment, in Scandinavia as elsewhere; not least was the widespread adopt1on of gunpowder weapons. Here an artilleryman prepares to fire a med1um-sized cannon which is protected by a moveable limber shield. The firing IS done by healing a touche in a charcoal brazier, then applying it to the 'touche hole' or touch hole. The gunner is protected by a notably bulbous style o f bri mmed chapel- de-fer that was very popular in Scandinavia. He also has a mail tippet on h1s neck and shoulders, and a long-sleeved, padded, and probably scale-lined jacque worn over a mail hauberk or haubergeon. H2: Finnish crossbowman In con trast to the lightly protected gunner, this crossbowman wears almost complete 'white harness' or fully plated armour. The only pieces that are m1Ss1ng are the mass1ve breast and back plates wrth the1r attached hip-covering fauld.
Toompea Castle, the oldest part of the fortifications of the city of Reval, now called Tallinn, the capital of Estonia. See commentary Plate F. (D.Nicolle photograph)
The former have been replaced by a cloth-covered, scale-lined bngand1ne - in the case of a footsold1er, presumably for reasons of weight. His helmet is a part1cularty deep form of brimmed 'war-hat' with eye-slits cut in the front part of the brim. The crossbow is still of a relatively traditional form, but 1t 1s now spanned by means of the leverage exerted wrth an 1ron 'crow·s-foot', which made rt easiE!I' to pull back the strings of the more powerful forms of stave. H3: Swedish man - at- arms This man is c learly a member of the wealthy and fashionconscious military elite. His helmet is of the latest style, an iron salet form with a v1sor that could be raised or lowered. This was often worn With a steel bevor wh1ch covered the chin, throat and upper chest; 1t did not move w1th the head, but was fixed to the breastplate. In add1!Jon to the loose tabbard which is fastened only at the shoulders, he has a velvet jacket with widely puffed sleeves. This garment goes over the armour of his arms, upper chest and back, but 1s tucked 1ns1de the plackart and fauld wh1ch protect h1s abdomen, hips and groin. Below this IS a mail haubergeon. The leather sword belt is split so that one part goes closely around the waist of his armour while the other part falls loosely down to his left hip. The front of his hips have the additional protection of plated tassels wh1le the rest of h1s legs are enclosed in full steel leg harness.
47
INDEX Refc.·•t·nct·' tn lllu.,tnllion~ art· 'h(n\n 111 b o ld I'I,He' ,ue
•'I'"""
( ..uda, Gotland 23 ( •<'llll.ln cno...aders 21. :IH <·•·•man mercenan G3('11. 17) (,t'IIH,\Ih :-\
,\bn H. 36 i\ lcxa n rlt• t \1•·"1-i. Pm K(' 8, 0 (2R, 4.'i)
"'"'he lmets IIOil-1'10(1 II. 11-13, 22. 44 , 45 Ullll-1400 16,16--17.24,33, 46 I fUII-J.'iwedbh H1 (32. HI 11'1'
C.utl,uul 9. 23 CoUll(' C
1\,tltl<. I h1· ..11 the time of the Crm~de< 4 , 6 , ti- 7 1\t'l)(t'll, Sl'oll n l
bo;m :lH
'I"P'· B.1ltic
lin"" • Bilge1, 'f',tl of 44 1\n•nJ..dx·•K· b.mle of 20 c.1hrnp,, 11 on 2·1 C.lptilh :l.'i t;mlt·'· htnldmg 33. 3-t. 35. 38 vr ulw lortific'-atinn' <:lu ;,u.tn,, cru>.tdn between :1. 12 1 hoonnlnw 7-(l t Ba ltic 8, 0 (28, 43) 'Cn l\,tcl <'. 1lu·' ( Fi .-,1 Crusade) 7 <111\Mkt, lnw.... latu' C2 (27, 44) <111\,ldt·\, aftennath nf 1().-12 < '-lng \ l.1gnus' First ,md '><·•nnd H 1 llt,,tdt·' ht·tw<•en Christiam 3. 12
'"""I'·'·
l).mi'h 1m,.uh· .1gainst the l:.stonian\ C(:!i, Ill D.mhh n ""'der. c""'howm.tn Fl (30,
48
Fi11l.md X. 10, II Finn oiiiXi li a q E3 (29. •16) Fi illl i\11 (I O\\lmwmdn H 2(32. ·17) rm lifit.l1inm :lH-3!1 ' " 11/111 <,L\IIe\, building huil
I,,,Jrn .... l'uinu or <10-1 1 k11tg, 12rh ct:n lltn 8 kni~ht'
l!hh cen tun ll n.mhh 3, A2 (23, 13), Bl (2h. II), C J (27.H) ~~"·dj,h 01 (28, ~5). El (2!1. l~r- 16) , G2P1.4il lnunmc 3. 5, 8, 19. 21, F3 (3U, lh) , :1-1, :16. :17. '\8. 39. 41 N.nc...,.,.rre. Sa.trermkt i-l.md, 1\r,Jtnp\ C·oLtdt•l 5 l.tdll):ol :15 1..11\t.tll\ :l3 I 1hu l.1 <,L,tle, Estonia 38 I 11h11ania 9, 40 l.nh llanian ro ..·es 35, :l!l Li rl 11oart ia 11 n o bleman F2(:l0, IIi) I HI HO
'>dolor. S\\edi>h 0 3(:.!1! l:l ) !'>1 Rorgiua of .,,,t'dt·n ·, !'>1 (.,•urge stante 20 . !!I !'>1 Ol|
\e,tb. Scandina1 i 12. 15, 17, :12, 23, 15 ships. Baltic !l, )(), 34 . 35, 'IH su·g1· 11<11rart' !11, :111-W '>l.11 nol>leman A3(2'; 11) snltralsund. seal ol em 31 \lr.llt'g\ 33-10 H'l'flltmtl ( re~iun) !J S"t·ckn 6, i, :tl, :t~. Hl-11 S11ed ish ;m... l. -lh) a n i llermmn HI (:12, 17) kmgh~ Dl (:!R. 1'>), F. I (2'1. l:i-lti), C2(31. 17) man-ar-anm H3C:l:.!, 171 'ailoo 01 bo.1tm~n 0 31211, I'H "''lleams 0 2(2!l !1), E2 (:.!!1, lh) ~"c·drsh dl'ft•at l11 1'11111 t· ,\ln.onder :-.n sJ..i H. 0 (2R. Frl ""edrg.t n S\\ord Brother;, Onlt·• of :l, 7, H
'""·"'I'
tac ti" 3:\-IO Tallinn '" Reval tt·of
Gl c:il.~~i)
m.llhll-.!llll\, S\\edish H3 C:t!. 171 \l.u11·nhurg !>. 39 llll'l 3 l't•r """. Bn-ger II l'lu1. llt'lllil. 3 Pnl.nul Pnlt•, 9 . .J I I'll""'"' ,t,Hll<''· pagan 2 1 1,, idc r>. tnba l li 1a iding 31-35 Rast•bnrg castle, Fin laml 38 . 41 Rt•l.tl (now lltllinn) R, F'(30, 111), 37, 39, 40. 4 7 Ri'tgt·n 1\lancl 7, A (25, l:l-11) Ru'"'' H, G (31. 4&--17), II
\';olckmao I, King nf lknm.uJ.. i \'ihmg C::hrle 36 I'I
\I I:!:>. H)
1\, IS boll, 14. 2:~21 clo\C combat n-11i uo"bo"' 1-1-l:l. IK. 21
l :i. I H, :/0-~1.21.33
'"cucls 10. 12. l~-1:1. 14 , IH, :!:1. 11 \\-anu·• \\ar fare 3t~J7
The uniforms, equipment, history and organizatton of the world's military forces. past and present
The Scandinavian Baltic Crusades 1100-1500 This book describes and illustrates the armour, weapons, fortifications and ships of one of the leastknown phases of the medieval Crusades- the expeditions by Scandinavian Catholics against the pagan peoples to the east of the Baltic Sea, and their subsequent clashes with the
Full colour artwork
Eastern Orthodox Russian princes of Novgorod and Muscovy. rrom isolated castles built in this bleak \\ilderness of forests, lakes and bogs, the small garrisons struggled equally against the enemy and the
har~h
terrain and climate.
1 he text 1s Illustrated with
photographs of rare museum relics and of castles, and spirited colour plates by Unrivalled detail
Photographs
Angus McBride.
ISBN 978-HI4176-9R8-:>
OSPREY PUBL SH NG
www.ospr eyp ubli s hin g.co m
