Thus Have I Seen: Visualizing Faith in Early Indian Buddhism

Thus Have I Seen

This page intentionally left blank

Thus Have I Seen Visualizing Faith in Early Indian Buddhism

andy rotman

2009

Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education. Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam

Copyright © 2009 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rotman, Andy, 1966– Thus have I seen : visualizing faith in early Indian Buddhism / Andy Rotman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-19-536615-0 1. Tripit.aka. Su¯trapit.aka. Avada¯ na. Divya¯ vada¯ na. 2. Faith (Buddhism). 3. Vision—Religious aspects—Buddhism. 4. Spiritual life—Buddhism. 5. Buddhism—Doctrines. I. Title. BQ1567.R68 2008 294.3'823—dc22 2008009796 Cover art: Bharhut. Sung Period (circa second century BCE) Pillar Relief, “Adoration of the Buddha” (BHT 15). The cover art depicts a panel from the Buddhist stu¯pa at Bharhut in central India. The devotees are “all eyes” as they stand with their hands folded in veneration before the shrine for the Buddha’s footprints. One figure, flanked by two winged deities, touches the right footprint in worship. According to the inscription on the right border (Luders 1963:87–88), this is likely the divinely born Arahaguta. The pillar containing this image is housed in the Indian Museum in Kolkata. Printed with permission from the ACSAA Color Slide Project.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

To my parents, who have always believed in me

This page intentionally left blank

Acknowledgments

This project is the culmination of a lot of hard work, much of it not my own. I owe a great debt to the Department of South Asian Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago. It offered me education, training, funding, and friendship, all in good measure. I am particularly indebted to Sheldon Pollock and Steven Collins, the two chairs of my dissertation committee. Professor Pollock instilled in me a love for the intricacies of Sanskrit, and in the spring of 1993, pulling down a dusty copy of the Divya¯vada¯na from the shelves in his office and thrusting it into my hands, inaugurated this project. Professor Collins has overseen my learning in Buddhism, Sanskrit, and Pali, and without his prodding, I might still be residing in India, reading another book, passing another year. Paul Griffiths, the third member of my dissertation committee, helped me cultivate philosophical rigor and precise argumentation, both of which I hope are present to an even greater extent in this, the revised version of my dissertation. I should also like to thank Christopher Pinney who, during his short stay at the University of Chicago, offered me tremendous assistance in formulating my ideas about South Asian visual culture. And, of course, from my years in Chicago there are many friends to thank: Amy Wescott, whose sagacity helped me to keep my work in perspective; Nick Collier, without whom Sanskrit would never have been as much fun; William Elison, my perennial sounding board for all ideas; Elizabeth Peréz, who taught me to appreciate the aesthetics of icons; and Laura Desmond, a fount of knowledge about the erotics of power.

viii

acknowledgments

In India, I have even more debts that I look forward to repaying, for I received enormous help from many scholars and institutions. In Sarnath, the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies provided me with a happy home for many years, and the scholars at the Institute helped me tremendously. They taught me the complexities of Buddhism, Sanskrit, Tibetan, and, by example, the pleasures to be gained by unerring generosity. In Pune, I received an equally warm reception from scholars at the Bhandarkar Institute, Deccan College, Fergusson College, Pune University, and Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth. Though a complete list of all those who helped me in India would be impossible to compile, for I received so much from so many, I would at least like to thank my friends and teachers around Sarnath: John Dunne, Sara McClintock, K. N. Mishra, Ramesh Negi, Lobsang Norbu Shastri, Ramu Pandit, Andrea Pinkney, Geshe Ngawang Samten, Pema Tenzin, and Ram Shankar Tripathi. And in Pune, I would like to thank Shrikant Bahulkar, Gayatri Chatterjee, M. G. Dhadphale, M. K. Dhavalikar, Ramchandra Gadgil, J. R. Joshi, Sunila Kale, Suresh Nadkarni, Christian Novetzke, Sucheta Paranjpe, and Parimal Patil. My debts are also numerous in the United States. Mark Blum, Mario D’Amato, Georges Dreyfus, Jay Garfield, Peter Gregory, Jamie Hubbard, Maria Heim, Steve Heim, Susanne Mrozik, Abraham Zablocki, and the rest of the Five College Buddhist Studies faculty have been enormously helpful. Their comments and critiques have helped me to formulate a much better book. Having presented portions of this book at numerous conferences, seminars, and colloquia, I would also like to thank those present on those occasions for their feedback. These include Brian Axel, Aditya Behl, Lauren Berlant, Peter Brown, Dipesh Chakrabarty, Lawrence Cohen, Norman Cutler, Richard Davis, David Eckel, Jamal Elias, Rick Fantasia, Janet Gyatso, Charles Hallisey, Paul Harrison, Jens-Uwe Hartmann, Oskar von Hinüber, Ronald Inden, Matthew Kapstein, Timothy Lenz, Ritty Lukose, McKim Marriott, William Mazzarella, Michael Meister, Patrick Pranke, Frank Reynolds, David Seyfort Ruegg, Jay Schleusener, Clinton Seeley, and Kevin Trainor, though in truth there are many more. I would also like to give hearty thanks to James Russell and Sandy Huntington, for their early encouragement and guidance; Gregory Schopen, for his enthusiastic support as I first formulated my project; John Strong, for his extremely helpful comments on my manuscript; Lewis Davis, for his insights into economic theory; Gwen Colvin and David Kittelstrom, for their editorial interventions; Connie Kassor, for her work on the index; Marilyn Rhie and Alexis Neubert, for their help with the cover image; the Religion Department at Smith College, for providing me with a wonderful home since the turn of the millennium; my students, for their passionate interest and probing questions; and April Strickland, for the strength of her love.

acknowledgments

ix

I also owe much to many institutions for their financial support. I was fortunate to receive funding from the University of Chicago, Fulbright-Hays, the Rocky Foundation, the National Endowment of the Humanities, and Smith College, which provided me with generous financial assistance and a sabbatical year to finish this book. Last, I would like to thank my family. My brothers and my parents have always encouraged me, supported me, and given me love in more ways and in greater measure than I ever could have expected. They help make my life, and my work, rich and rewarding beyond belief.

This page intentionally left blank

Contents

Introduction, 3 Part I The Practice of S´raddha¯ 1. Seeing and Knowing, 23 2. Getting and Giving, 39 Part II The Practice of Prasa¯da 3. 4. 5. 6.

Agency and Intentionality, 65 Participation and Exclusion, 89 Proximity and Presence, 113 Politics and Aesthetics, 129

Part III Seeing the Buddha 7. Past and Present, 151 8. Images and Imagination, 177 Epilogue, 197 Appendix: Contents of the Divya¯vada¯na, 203 Abbreviations, 205 Notes, 209 Bibliography, 281 Index, 311

This page intentionally left blank

Thus Have I Seen

This page intentionally left blank

Introduction

It did not seem odd to him that the subway held more compelling things than the famous city above. There was nothing important out there, in the broad afternoon, that he could not find in purer form in these tunnels beneath the streets. —Don DeLillo, Libra Compared to those faceless hordes of people rushing through the train station, these crazy preposterous stories of a thousand years ago are, at least to me, much more real. —Haruki Murakami, Kafka on the Shore Although Buddhism is often depicted as a religion of meditators and philosophers, some of the earliest writings extant in India offer a very different portrait of the Buddhist practitioner. In the Divya¯vada¯na (“Divine Stories”), a vast collection of Buddhist moral biographies written in Sanskrit in the early centuries of the Common Era, most lay religious practice consists not of reading, praying, or meditating, but of visually engaging with certain kinds of objects. In these stories, seeing is an integral part of Buddhism, and the ways of seeing described in the text and the results that they generate function as a kind of skeleton key for opening up Buddhist conceptualizations about the world and the ways it should be navigated. These visual practices, moreover, are represented as the primary means of cultivating faith, a necessary precondition for proceeding along the Buddhist spiritual path.

4

thus h ave i seen

Though discourses of the Buddha are well known for their opening words, “Thus have I heard,”1 the Divya¯vada¯na presents a different model of transmission and authorization. The traditional invocation is attributed to the venerable ¯ nanda, acknowledging his direct and aural connection with the Buddha and A ¯ nanda uttered this refrain, estabhis teachings. After the Buddha’s demise, A lishing his bona fides, and then repeated the Buddha’s words so that they could be recorded and preserved for posterity. In the Divya¯vada¯na, however, devotees are enjoined to look, not just hear, and visual legacies and lineages are shown to trump their oral counterparts. As the title to this book suggests, the Divya¯vada¯na is visual literature grounded in a visual epistemology. The Divya¯vada¯na contains thirty-six avada¯nas, or stories, along with two ¯ tras (see appendix for list), and these chronicle the spiritual development of su Buddhist devotees with a focus on karmic history.2 I recently finished a translation of the first half of the text, which is being published simultaneously by Wisdom Publications (Rotman 2008), and there I describe in detail the history and importance of the Divya¯vada¯na as well as the pleasures of the narratives it contains. These stories are excellent resources for studying Buddhism as well as wonderful karmic romps through India and across the cosmos. That volume is intended as a companion to this study, for reading the stories in full provides one with a much more nuanced and holistic sense of the Divya¯vada¯na and its aims. While compelling as literature, the stories in the Divya¯vada¯na also have the rhetorical power and precision of law. More than half of the stories in the Divya¯vada¯na derive from moral exempla in the vinaya—or, monastic code—of the Mu¯lasarva¯ stiva¯ dins, a branch of Buddhists that flourished in the first half of the first millennium in northwest India. All the stories in the Divya¯vada¯na, however, are invariably meticulous in their language and content, and invariably didactic in their attempts to regulate lay and monastic conduct. This makes the text particularly amenable to a close reading sensitive to its legal reasoning and intent. The Divya¯vada¯na is also an important object for literary analysis because its stories have circulated widely, first in India and then throughout Asia, as both narrative and narrative art, leaving an indelible mark on Buddhist thought and practice. Many of the stories that appear in the Divya¯vada¯na were translated into Tibetan and Chinese and incorporated into their canonical texts, and there are extremely popular stories, such as the Sudhanakuma¯ra-avada¯na, for which we have translations and reworkings in Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese, Pali, Khotanese, and a host of other languages.3 The Sudhana story is also centrally featured among the sculptures at Borobudur, the great Buddhist shrine on Java in Indonesia, joining many other narratives from the Divya¯vada¯na represented at the site ( Jaini 1966; Fontein 1981). “No other Buddhist story,” writes

I ntroduction

5

Padmanabh Jaini (1966: 534), “seems to have enjoyed such wide popularity.” All told, the stories in the Divya¯vada¯na have played an essential role in Buddhist self-understanding for nearly two thousand years. The practices of “seeing” (dars´ana) in the Divya¯vada¯na, however, are very complex. The pioneering works of Jan Gonda (1969), Lawrence Babb (1981), and Diana Eck (1985) offer preliminary insight into the role of the visual in South Asia, but little has been written about the visual in early Indian Buddhism.4 In light of more recent scholarship by anthropologists and art historians, as well as scholars of film, photography, colonialism, and nationalism, it is clear that vision and visual systems in South Asia, both past and present, are diverse; that they are socially and culturally constructed; and that they influence what one sees, what one believes, and what one does.5 While South Asia’s visual systems share many common traits, the logic and practice of specific visual systems have yet to be worked out on an individual basis. This diversity of visual systems and practices means there is little one can take for granted in a study of the visual worlds of premodern India, and it is with this in mind that I begin my analysis of the Divya¯vada¯na. The attempt to work my way up from textual minutiae to larger conceptualizations necessitates detailed analyses, what one reader called a methodology of extremely close reading. Fortunately these narratives are precise and sophisticated—rhetorically, exegetically, and hermeneutically. One can find meaning in a word-choice, omission, or digression, even when such authorial decisions may not have been premeditated. Patient readers who make it to the end of this work will, I hope, be convinced of this. My analysis of the Divya¯vada¯na is also well annotated with footnotes. I provide the original Sanskrit, Pali, and Tibetan for translated passages, contextualize my arguments with references to Buddhist and Indic materials, and offer various parallels and theoretical insights when appropriate. While I am reminded of Noël Coward’s remark that “having to read a footnote resembles having to go downstairs to answer the door while in the midst of making love,” the notes that accompany this book should be more satisfying than Coward portends. Though reading the Divya¯vada¯na closely is a necessary means of data collection, the aim of my project is to document not only what Buddhists write, but also what they are said to do. As mentioned above, much of what they are represented as doing in their religious practice is not reading, praying, or meditating, but visually engaging with certain kinds of objects. As a result, I frequently find myself as a historian doing a kind of anthropology of art, what Alfred Gell (1998: 7) explains as the study of “social relations in the vicinity of objects mediating social agency.” This means studying “art as a system

6

thus have i seen

of action” (1998: 6), examining the interplay between images, the forces represented and exerted by these images, and the individuals who interact with them. One could call this network of relations “the power of images,” as David Freedberg (1989) does in his book of the same title. Owing to the historical nature of my project, however, I examine these relations primarily as they are embedded in textual culture, trying to link specific visual practices into the specifics of a larger social world. Yet the visual component of the Divya¯vada¯na is more than just a visual culture with consensus and homogeneity regarding visual practices and processes; it is also a visual economy. The text presents a world in which there are natural laws dictating that certain ways of seeing and objects of sight are spiritually efficacious, and this leads those who recognize these natural laws (i.e., knowledgable Buddhists) to structure and organize their lives and institutions accordingly for additional spiritual benefit. What results is a system in which images participate in a give-and-take “as part of a comprehensive organization of people, ideas, and objects” (Poole 1997: 8), and they are also involved in the production, consumption, and exchange of value. Making sense of this visual economy allows one to address important questions regarding the ways that seeing and visual objects are valued, and how this value is constructed and mediated.6 The “value” in this visual economy, however, is neither cash nor hard currency. It is faith. In the Divya¯vada¯na, two forms of faith are mentioned, ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da. Each of these varieties of faith is generated in separate visual economies, with different visual practices, visual objects, and mechanisms for creating value. Yet in both cases, seeing certain objects under certain conditions generates faith, and such faith allows one to participate in the moral world of Buddhism. In his work on faith and devotion in Therava¯ da Buddhism, V. V. S. Saibaba (2005: 133) puts it succinctly: faith “is of paramount importance because it is the preliminary requisite of the whole spiritual endeavor to attain nibba¯na and [it] also governs all spiritual growth.”

Moral Economies and Market Moralities The moral world of Buddhism in the Divya¯vada¯na, however, turns out to be a moral economy, and faith is what gives one the right to participate in it. Faith is the seed money that allows one to invest in a Buddhist future. It allows one to buy in, creating the possibility for “spiritual growth.” To use the analogy of a card game, faith is like the chips one receives to ante up for a first hand. While one can perform good or bad deeds without faith, one does so not as a Buddhist, and the rewards are limited.7 To be a Buddhist, faith is a requisite. And

I ntroduction

7

once one has faith, one can participate in the Buddhist moral economy, accruing moral value through good deeds. My use of the term “moral economy” requires some explanation, for it differs from the standard usage. In E. P. Thompson’s seminal work on the English working class in the eighteenth century, he examines how and why a time of severe food shortages led that populace to “a pattern of social protest which derives from a consensus as to the moral economy of the commonweal” (1971: 126).8 “The moral economy,” Thompson (1991: 340) explains, “is summoned into being in resistance to the economy of the free market.” In regard to this element of resistance, at least in part, Thompson criticizes the work of Paul Greenough (1982, 1983) on the Bengal famine of 1943–1944. In “The Moral Economy Reviewed,” Thompson (1991: 346–347) reprimands Greenough for reconstructing a Bengali value-system that is “holistic” and “allows no space for variety and contradiction.” While unjust food shortages created riots in eighteenth-century England, it seems that in Bengal, “Food of all sorts lay before their eyes,” while people were starving on the streets of Calcutta, “but no one attempted to seize it by force.” The attitude of the people was one of “complete resignation,” and “they attribute their misery to fate or karma alone . . .” (Thompson 1991: 346; citing Greenough 1982) Thompson describes Greenough’s account as a “demoralisation induced by prolonged dearth,” but I don’t think “demoralisation” is quite the right term. This wasn’t a case in which morals or moral principles were corrupted, perverted, or deprived of influence. Families broke apart, with fathers abandoning wives and children, but this was “explicable in terms of Bengali moral conceptions” (Thompson 1991: 347; citing Greenough 1982). As Thompson (1991: 347) concludes, perhaps incredulously, “So deeply are the patriarchal values internalised that the abandoned passively assent to their own abandonment.”9 While Thompson is doubtful that in twentieth-century Bengal, morality could acquiesce so fully and completely to the market economy—and I am not sure that it does (cf. Appadurai 1984)—such an acquiescence is just what we find in the Divya¯vada¯na. In its stories, the working population doesn’t need to impose its morality on the market to make sure it is treated justly; nor does it need to resist the market. The market, with its notions of commodification and exchange, is the accepted template for moral action, so one need not try to make the market moral by applying one’s moral principles. That would be redundant. The dharma of the laity is, in many ways, already an extension of the rules and regulations found in the market. The moral economy in the Divya¯vada¯na is actually a market morality.

8

thus h ave i seen

In the Kanakavarn.a-avada¯na, we also read of a famine, and we are told both its cause and its solution. Long ago, King Kanakavarn.a ruled an incredibly wealthy and enormous kingdom, with eighty thousand cities, 570 million villages, eighteen thousand ministers, and twenty thousand wives. King Kanakavarn.a, the Buddha concludes, “followed the dharma and ruled his kingdom according to dharma.”10 One day, however, “alone in a secluded place, absorbed in meditation,”11 it occurred to King Kanakavarn.a, “I really should exempt all merchants from customs and transit fees. I should exempt all the people of Jambudvı¯pa (Black Plum Island) from taxes and duties.”12 King Kanakavarn.a then enacted his plan, but “from ruling his kingdom in this way for many years, eventually the constellations became misaligned so that the heavens would produce no rain for the next twelve years.”13 Distressed at this terrible predicament, King Kanakavarn.a arranged for all the food in Jambudvı¯pa to be collected in a single granary and then distributed in equal portions to all the people of Jambudvı¯pa. There was sufficient food for eleven years, but in the twelfth year “the rice and other means of subsistence collected from Jambudvı¯pa were finally exhausted, except for a single measure of food that remained in King Kanakavarn.a’s possession.”14 At that time, fortuitously, a bodhisattva in King Kanakavarn.a’s realm attained awakening as a solitary buddha. Surveying all of Jambudvı¯pa with his divine sight, “that lord solitary buddha saw that the rice and other means of subsistence collected from Jambudvı¯pa were finally exhausted, except for a single measure of food that remained in King Kanakavarn.a’s possession. It occurred to him, ‘I really should have compassion for King Kanakavarn.a. I really should accept and consume alms from the home of King Kanakavarn.a.’ ”15 So the solitary buddha made use of his magical powers, flew over to King Kanakavarn.a’s palace, and asked the king for food. King Kanakavarn.a then addressed his entourage: “Permit me, officers, to grant this last bit of rice that I, ¯ la) may all the people King Kanakavarn.a, possess. By this root of virtue (kus´alamu 16 of Jambudvı¯pa be completely freed from poverty.” After placing that last bit of food in the solitary buddha’s bowl, the king and his followers all prepared to die, succumbing at last to hunger. But then the solitary buddha caused it to rain, for weeks on end, first “soft foods, such as boiled rice, barleymeal, lentils and rice, fish, and meat, and hard foods made from roots, stalks, leaves, flowers, fruits, sesames, candied sugar, molasses, and flour,”17 and then grains, butter, cloth, and jewels. “Thanks to King Kanakavarn.a,” we are told, “all this occurred, and the people of Jambudvı¯pa were completely freed from poverty.”18 The cause of the famine in this story is the revoking of taxes. Taxation, as the text makes clear, is both moral and necessary. As a follower of the dharma,

I ntroduction

9

the king maintained taxes, duties, and tariffs, and he helped Jambudvı¯pa (i.e., the Indian subcontinent) become a thriving and prosperous kingdom.19 While absorbed in meditation, however, King Kanakavarn.a decides to implement an idea that he thinks is for the good of the people but which, unfortunately, contravenes dharma. Meditation, it seems, should be left to monastics.20 The king abolishes taxes, perhaps under a libertarian-like notion of taxation as theft. Yet taxation has a moral and divine importance. As a result of this breach of dharma, a twelve-year famine ensues. The king then implements a policy of 100 percent taxation on edible goods, so that he can provide for the poor. He reapportions his kingdom’s food in equal measure to his citizens, but the damage, both economic and cosmic, is already done. The solution to the famine comes in the form of a newly awakened solitary buddha who decides to perform an act of compassion. After eleven years of famine, all the food in the kingdom has been consumed except for a single serving in the king’s possession. The solitary buddha then flies to the king so that he can receive that last bit of food. In terms of nutrition, that single measure of food will not save the king or the kingdom. As an offering, however, that food serves as moral payment for a power to effect great change in the natural world. While in other cases such offerings give the donor purchase for a “fervent aspiration” (pran.idha¯na)—to be reborn in a wealthy family, for example—here the king uses the merit accrued from his offering as the capital to buy his kingdom out of poverty. The accrued merit is both “root” and “capital” (mu¯la), the basis for future good deeds and attainments, and the purchasing power for current ones. Roots of virtue, Luis Gomez (1996: 332) observes, “are like roots (mu¯la) because, once performed, they remain as the basis for future virtue, and, if properly cultivated, grow, mature, and bear fruit.”21 In this case, as our narrator the Buddha explains, King Kanakavarn.a’s offering functioned as a “root” that helped him develop into a buddha. Yet the term mu¯la also refers to one’s investment or financial principal.22 To use a false cognate, mu¯la here really is the moola, the king’s bank of virtue, which allows for the solitary buddha’s moral action. King Kanakavarn.a must engage with the solitary buddha in a series of exchanges, first food for merit and then merit for food. King Kanakavarn.a must give to get, but the getting is good when the recipient of one’s moral action is such a great “field of merit ” (pun.yaks.etra) as a solitary buddha.23 As the Buddha explains, If, monks, beings were to know the result of charity and the consequence of offering charity as I know the result of charity and the consequence of offering charity, then at present they would never eat

10

thus h ave i seen their last remaining mouthful of food without giving it away or sharing it, should a worthy recipient of that food be found.24

Rather than a demoralization, as Thompson proposed, this famine in the Divya¯vada¯na prompts a remoralization. The king’s abolishment of taxes as well as his egalitarian redistribution policy were immoral incursions on the market. The market had it right. Taxes are moral, for they help provide for the kingdom on the ground and among the stars. Taxes should be given to kings just as food offerings should be given to solitary buddhas. Both types of giving help provide for one’s self and for one’s community, and in both cases the recipients are worthy. The king’s redemption comes with his decision to give away his country’s last bit of food to a very worthy recipient. By making an offering to a solitary buddha, he earns enough merit to transform a single meal into a bounty sufficient to feed an entire kingdom. This idea of a market morality, with its emphasis on accruing merit, has similarities to what Melford Spiro (1970) refers to as kammatic Buddhism, as opposed to nibbanic Buddhism.25 Kammatic Buddhism is a moral system that emphasizes the performance of good deeds, giving (da¯na) in particular, in order to accrue merit. The accrual of merit leads to health, wealth, and other such good things in life, and the more merit one accrues, the more of these things one experiences. In kammatic Buddhism, Spiro (1970: 119) writes, one’s karma is “the net balance, the algebraic sum, of one’s accumulated merit and demerit. If the accumulated merit is the larger, one’s karma is good and karmic retribution is pleasurable; if the demerit is larger, one’s karma is bad and karmic retribution is painful.” This quantification of merit finds its most obvious material manifestation in the widespread practice of what Spiro refers to as “merit bookkeeping.” According to Spiro (1970: 111), “Many Burmese keep merit account books, which at any time permit them to calculate the current state of their merit bank.” Similar practices have also been observed in Sri Lanka (Rahula 1956: 254), and most notably in China, where merit accounting became quite popular in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Brokaw 1991). A particularly detailed account of merit bookkeeping occurs in The Ledger of Merits and Demerits, a famous Chinese morality book written in perhaps the twelfth century. There the religious practitioner is instructed as follows: As for the way of practice, one should always have a pen, an inkwell and a notebook ready by the head of the bed in the bedroom. First one should write down the month, then write down the day of the month. Under each day, make two columns for merits (kung) and demerits (kuo). Just before one retires for the night, one should write down the

I ntroduction

11

good and bad things one has done during the day. Consult the Ledger for the points of each deed. If one has done good acts, record them in the merit column. If one has done bad things, record them in the demerit column. One should not just write down good acts and conceal bad ones. At the end of each month count the total of merits and demerits. Compare the two. Either subtract the number of demerits from the number of merits or use the number of merits to cancel out the number of demerits. After subtraction or cancellation, the number of merits or demerits remaining will be clear. (Yü 1981: 120–121) Judging by such a description, Spiro’s metaphor of the “merit bank” to explain an individual’s stock of merit is not anomalous. In Chün-fang Yü’s description of Buddhism in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, she writes that “merit is similar to money” (1981: 122), an observation that holds true for Spiro’s account of contemporary Burma and the narratives in the Divya¯vada¯na. Merit in the Divya¯vada¯na is the primary medium of exchange and measure of value for the Buddhist community. It can be earned, stockpiled, transferred, cashed in, and depleted. It is the principal commodity for the Buddhist community, and it is the gold standard for Buddhist morality. Yet money is also similar to merit. The balance in one’s actual bank account is indicative of one’s moral standing. Numerous characters in the Divya¯vada¯na “cash in” the merit they’ve accrued from an offering in order to be reborn “in a family that is rich, wealthy, and prosperous.”26 As Russell Sizemore and Donald Swearer (1992: 4) explain, “Because the law of kamma guarantees that each receives the fate merited by his/her acts and because wealth, being good, is a fit reward for meritorious action, prosperity is a proof of virtue.”27 The two economies, moral and commercial, don’t just mirror each other, they also intersect and interact. Buddhism in the Divya¯vada¯na functions much like a currency exchange, providing places and procedures that allow individuals to exchange one currency for another. Instead of allowing for the conversion of dollars into rupees or rubles, however, it allows one to convert money and moral action into merit, and merit into money and moral attainment. And it offers excellent rates of return. One can accrue merit by giving to Buddhist saints and shrines, and merit can be transformed into roots of virtue for fervent aspirations that promise future wealth, be it economic or spiritual. But currency conversion of this kind isn’t something that can be done at one’s home. It requires one to visit particular sites and perhaps particular people, both of which I will discuss in what follows. Such connections between merit and money are also indicative of much larger connections between the moral and economic spheres in Indian

12

thus h ave i seen

Buddhism. Considering the aforementioned similarities between kings and buddhas,28 as well as those between royal law and Buddhist law, taxes and almsgiving, it shouldn’t be surprising that commercial law and moral law in the Divya¯vada¯na have overlapping jurisdictions.29 These connections are likewise apparent in the ´ sa¯ stric world of brahmanical texts, which share many ideas with their Buddhist counterparts. The Hindu system of the trivarga, for example, poses that the “trinity” of dharma, artha, and ka¯ma—nicely rendered by Wendy Doniger and Sudhir Kakar (2002: xiii) as “piety, profit, and pleasure”—are the three “aims of human life” (purus. a¯rtha). According to the Arthas´a¯stra (1.7.3) and the Ka¯masu¯tra (1.2.1), these human aims are “interconnected” (anyonya¯nubandham), and even the Manusmr.ti, which strenuously advocates the position of dharma, recommends that the three aims be pursued together (Manu ii.224).30 Bhartr. hari, a great philosopher of language from perhaps the fourth century, sums up such sentiments about money and merit in the Divya¯vada¯na quite fittingly. He offers counsel about wealth, greed, and propriety, as well as the relative merits of religious life, political power, and amorous pursuits. In one of his deservedly famous epigrams from the Nı¯tis´ataka, he explains, It’s the rich man who has high status. He’s the scholar, the learned and discerning one, the only one thought to be an orator and considered handsome. Gold carries with it all good qualities.31

Buddhism and Mercantilism In the Divya¯vada¯na, however, Buddhism is more closely connected with mercantile law than with royal law, and the Buddhist practitioner with the merchant, not the king.32 In nine of the stories in the Divya¯vada¯na, there are strikingly similar accounts of caravans of merchants bringing their goods to the seashore, loading them on ships, and setting off to make their fortunes overseas.33 Certain images appear again and again: the caravan leader deciding to organize an overseas venture to make money, the long and dangerous caravan journey to and from the ocean, the boatload of merchants docking at Ratnadvı¯pa (Treasure Island) to collect precious stones, the distraught relative bemoaning the dangers of the sea, and so on. Numerous descriptions and stock passages regarding merchants, trade goods, and maritime commerce are also scattered throughout the text. There is an unmistakable mercantile ethos in these stories. Most notably, we find the mercantile notion of exchange transposed onto the karmic realm.

I ntroduction

13

This results in a commodification of merit such that characters are represented as buying their way out of future suffering by making the appropriate offerings and thereby accruing a sufficient stock of this bankable virtue. In one story, a boy ensures a good rebirth for himself by paying five hundred ka¯rs. a¯pan.a coins to have a meal provided for the monastic community (Divy 303.12ff.). Elsewhere, the Buddha answers the mercantile critique that the economics of this karmic materialism are incommensurable, that the great karmic rewards that he promises must be false because they are so far in excess of the meager offerings that he receives (Divy 70.16–71.22). In another instance, the Buddha distances himself from ordinary materialism, refusing a boatload of jewels from five hundred merchants with the protest that he has no use for such worldly goods (Divy 233.7–9)—though in other cases the karmic efficacy of such offerings is given in exacting detail (Divy 481.26–483.21). It is this preoccupation with mercantilism in its various forms that makes the Divya¯vada¯na so useful for gaining insight into the relationship between the religious and the mercantile. This relationship was integral to the moral and social worlds of Buddhist monasticism, and the discourse that resulted from the dynamics of this relationship left an indelible mark on Buddhist thought and doctrine. Gregory Schopen has already explored this connection within Indian Buddhism in his excellent and prolific work on “Buddhist monks and business matters”—to quote the title of a recent collection of his articles (Schopen 2004). Buddhism had strong connections with the merchant class in India,34 and these connections helped both Buddhism and mercantilism to flourish.35 Unfortunately, it is probably impossible to determine whether the world of the merchant represented in the Divya¯vada¯na was thriving or floundering when these stories were compiled—whether the trade boom during the first four centuries of the Common Era had come or, indeed, had come and gone. Kalpana Upreti (1995: 20), who has written extensively on the Divya¯vada¯na, argues that the text’s “exaggeration and hyperbole in describing gifts as well as [the] spiritual merit accruing from them” indicate a “desperate attempt” on behalf of the Buddhist monastic community in northern India to make up for the loss of royal patronage after the fall of the Kus.a¯n.a empire and the dwindling of merchant donations as foreign trade waned in the fourth century CE. Yet this is no more than speculation. Equally plausible is that these stories were written during the halcyon days of the Kus.a¯n.a Empire, when foreign trade was booming, and indicate instead that the construction and maintenance of new monasteries were quickly draining their resources; or that the competition for donations from other religious groups was making it difficult for them to raise funds; or, perhaps, that large-scale proselytism required

14

thus h ave i seen

more financial backing than they were receiving. Many scenarios are possible, and the “desperate attempt” Upreti reads into the text is as speculative as the rest. Since it’s also difficult to map out the large-scale demise of foreign trade that took place in the fourth century CE—to pinpoint when and where tradeinduced recessions occurred during the late-Kus.a¯n.a/early-Gupta period—let alone to determine exactly when and where the Divya¯vada¯na was compiled, any attempt to understand the text’s relationship with mercantilism by locating the text chronologically with regard to this trade boom and the fortunes of the Kus.a¯n.as will inevitably result in a choice among necessarily hypothetical scenarios. Instead, we can focus on what we do know more definitively. During the first centuries of the Common Era, throughout much of urban northern India and the Deccan, Buddhism as well as Jainism were intimately connected with the merchant world. The appearance of mercantilist themes and tropes in the Divya¯vada¯na is apparently a reflection of that interaction. Yet the relationship between monastics and merchants in the Divya¯vada¯na, let alone in the world beyond, far transcends a simple give and take. For example, while merchants in the Kus.a¯n.a realm functioned jointly in different associations for different ends—guilds for business, “town corporations” (nigamas) for politics, and lay associations for charity—the Buddhist monastic community also engaged with the world in all three of these ways but without the convenient tripartite separation that merchants devised for themselves. Frequently these roles blurred together and overlapped. Recourse to epigraphical and archeological materials is helpful in setting the parameters of how and why monastics and merchants interacted, but it is an examination of these interactions in the Divya¯vada¯na that will help us to use these materials as a component of intellectual history. Only through an examination of the full complement of nontextual and textual materials, an examination that regards each corpus of materials as informing and interacting with the other, can we uncover the gaps for early Buddhists between action and imagination—the tension, that is, between what they did and what they thought they should do.36 Much of this task, however, is outside of the purview of this book. Nevertheless, in the chapters that follow, merchants and mercantile ways of thinking will provide an important context for analyzing the text’s visual and moral economies. I will also address some of the specificities of merchantmonastic interactions in an effort to make sense of the mechanisms of exchange that helped constitute the social world of Indian Buddhism. These specificities and the reasoning by which they abide are crucial for understanding the kinds of actions that faith entails and the logic that they follow.

I ntroduction

15

Faith and Action In the Divya¯vada¯na, seeing generates faith, and after a character gains faith, he or she makes an offering, as though the action of giving were the natural and perhaps inevitable outcome of the arising of faith. Though I recognize the danger of what Bernard Faure, following Wittgenstein, refers to as the “ ‘causal superstition’ that leads us to assume the existence of a belief behind every act” (1996: 26; citing Wittgenstein 1979: 4e), the Divya¯vada¯na does describe a causal connection in acts of faith, and not just between belief and act, but between act, belief, and act. Acts of seeing generate the mental states of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da. These mental states, in turn, generate acts of giving. It is the origins and implications of this matrix of seeing-believing-giving that I explore in much of what follows. Part of the problem in understanding the connection between action and belief, and belief and action, follows from the misconceived notion that ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da are forms of belief that require acceptance or rejection, as with the Nicene Creed. As Donald Lopez (1998: 34) writes, The problem, then, is not whether belief exists—this is difficult to determine—but whether religion must be represented as something that derives from belief, as something with external manifestations that can ultimately be traced back to an inner assent to a cognitive proposition, as a state of mind that produces practice. In the Divya¯vada¯na, the mental states of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da do exist, but their existence is not founded on an “an inner assent to a cognitive proposition.” The two states are more affective than conceptual, more empirical than theoretical, more faith than reason.37 They are forms of faith, both transitive and ethical, as well as forms of belief, with elements of trust and confidence.38 The entry on “faith” in the Encyclopedia of Religion begins by claiming that “FAITH, in probably the best-known definition of it, is ‘the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen’ ” (Pelikan 1987: 250). Yet this citation from Hebrews 11:1, so popular that the author offers no citation, is the antithesis of how one would define ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da in the Divya¯vada¯na. These forms of faith require that things are seen. Moreover, they involve not just, or even necessarily, assurance and conviction, but action. In addition to being mental states, ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da are also complex bodily practices that involve the performance of ethical deeds.39 This connection between believing and doing (though not between doing and believing) is well described by Michel de Certeau. His formulation of belief brings us back to issues of value, exchange, and commodification. He asserts that “a belief devoid

16

thus h ave i seen

of practical implications is not a belief” (1985: 199), and to this end cites Pierre Janet (1928): “For us, belief is nothing more than a promise of action: to believe is to act; to say that we believe in something is to say: we shall do something.” Yet de Certeau also posits a contractual nature for belief, such that the believer, who is in an inferior position with relation to the object of belief, gives something away in the hope of getting something back in the future. To quote de Certeau (1985: 192–193): Émile Benveniste recognizes in the functioning of the word kred (credo)—a function he ranks among “economic obligations”—a sequence linking a donation to remuneration. To believe, he says, is to “give something away with the certainty of getting it back.” A coming and going of the “thing” marks, through a separation among moments, that which distinguishes its successive owners. The communication established by the goods put in circulation posits a distinction of sites (the detainers of the “thing”) by that of time. It temporalizes the relation of the one to the other. The object of the exchange is itself altered by this distance between moments, since the due—or expected—is not the same as the given, but an equivalent: the analogy between the offered and the received would be the work of time on their identity. The sequence of the gift and restitution thus temporarily articulates an economy of exchange. It will develop on the side of credence, or “crediting,” of the creditor or “believer” and, more explicitly, toward credit, where Marx sees “the judgment that political economy bears on the morality of man.” (citing Benveniste 1969: i, 171–179 and, on Marx, Bourdieu 1974: 23) This notion of belief as a practice involved in a moral economy is particularly helpful in explaining the logic of giving in the Divya¯vada¯na. Ritual acts of giving in the text are frequently implicated in belief-practices; they are not simply acts of generosity but acts of belief as “expectational practice” (de Certeau 1985: 195). They are investments, pledges, and securities that guarantee payment in the future. But in the Divya¯vada¯na, to quote Pierre Bourdieu (1999: 240), “the dream of virtue and disinterestedness” frequently disguises the fact that “virtue is a political matter. As he notes, “people have an interest in disinterestedness and generosity,” and it is this interest, and the mechanics of this interest, that I try to identify. In his work on the Zen imaginaire in medieval Japan, Bernard Faure recognizes the importance of such interested and expectational practices in shaping Buddhist institutions, but he de-emphasizes the role of belief in these activities. Faure (1996: 284) explains,

I ntroduction

17

We need to conceive this imaginaire on the mode of the debt and the gift rather than that of belief, as act rather than thought; but also on the mode of gift-giving, as something that breaks the economic circle, moving beyond into pure loss or expenditure. Though I agree with Faure more generally about the dangers of positing belief as the prompt for action, it is an important aspect of the Buddhist imaginaire in the Divya¯vada¯na that ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da are represented as prompts for action and prompted by action. These representations, one needs to remember, are also part of a larger discursive strategy to constitute Buddhist morality and ethics. This is, after all, didactic literature. Hence, while both ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da are implicated in systems of belief, they also transcend our notions of “belief.” The relationship that characters in the Divya¯vada¯na have with the market morality of Buddhism, for example, bears many similarities with the relationship, in Pierre Bourdieu’s analysis, that contemporary consumers have with the market populism of globalization. In a collection of essays entitled Acts of Resistance: Against the Tyranny of the Market, Pierre Bourdieu (1998: 29) explains, Everywhere we hear it said, all day long—and this is what gives the dominant discourse its strength—that there is nothing to put forward in opposition to the neo-liberal view, that it has succeeded in presenting itself as self-evident, that there is no alternative. If it is taken for granted in this way, this is as a result of a whole labour of symbolic inculcation in which journalists and ordinary citizens participate passively and, above all, a certain number of intellectuals participate actively. Against this permanent, insidious imposition, which produces, through impregnation, a real belief, it seems to me that researchers have a role to play.40 (emphasis added) Like Bourdieu, I am also interested in how “a whole set of presuppositions is being imposed as self-evident” (Bourdieu 1998: 30), and like the researchers to whom Bourdieu gestures, I am interested in how this “real belief” is inscribed and incorporated into practice and social life. While I don’t think that the market morality of Buddhism is an “insidious imposition,” I do think that it is, as with globalization in Bourdieu’s (1998: 34) analysis, “a powerful discourse, an idée force, an idea which has social force, which obtains belief.” My sense is that the Divya¯vada¯na “obtains belief” primarily through the discourses of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da. The former emphasizes that the market morality of Buddhism explains the world “as it really is” (yatha¯bhu¯ta), and the latter emphasizes how faith can arise naturally and spontaneously when one

18

thus h ave i seen

sees certain objects. Taken together, Buddhism has particularly strong claims to truth, and the faith that it requires of its adherents is depicted as easy to obtain. In this configuration, however, Buddhism is especially dependent on seeing, and the role of seeing as a reliable “instrument of knowledge” (prama¯n.a) and instrument of faith will require considerable attention.

The Specifics In part I, I describe the practice of ´sraddha¯, the causes and conditions that lead to its arising and the subsequent behavior that its arising entails. I begin, in chapter 1, with an analysis of the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, focusing on the close connection between ´sraddha¯ and seeing. Seeing and ´sraddha¯ are intertwined, and the discourse of the latter necessitates an understanding of the role of the former for moral action. In chapter 2, I explore the contrast between ´sraddha¯ and bhakti. While the Divya¯vada¯na portrays bhakti as a false confidence in divine forces, it represents ´sraddha¯ as a mental state that arises with regard to trustworthy individuals and with regard to certain “indirect objects” whose truth is professed by those trustworthy individuals. The practice of ´sraddha¯ begins with a visual confirmation of the truth of certain objects and phenomena, and it culminates in the making of offerings. This connection between seeing and giving, with ´sraddha¯ as the mediator, results in an epistemological and ethical formulation that engages the problem of karmic materialism. I then discuss the idea of a gold standard of the karmic system, a method of conversion between merit and money, and what it means for the Buddhist believer. In part II, I describe the practice of prasa¯da, which like ´sraddha¯ originates with a visual interaction and culminates in giving, but which suggests a different epistemology, for it arises without one’s consent or even, necessarily, one’s awareness.41 It also suggests a different sociology of practice, both in terms of eligible participants and the visual objects engaged. In discussing the specifics of this practice, I consider prasa¯da as a mental state—why it arises, in whom it arises, and what its arising leads to—as well as the various “agents of prasa¯da” (pra¯sa¯dika) and the visual medium through which they operate. In chapter 3, I discuss the meaning of prasa¯da, the domains in which it operates, and its connection with the visual. As Kanga Takahata (1954: 24) observed, “the central idea of the avada¯ na literature is cittaprasa¯ da or spiritual cleansing, and what is inseparable from this is the practice of da¯ na or charity.” Following this insight, I discuss prasa¯da-initiated offerings, the intention with which they are made, and the implications this has for Buddhist notions of charity. In chapter 4, I consider prasa¯da as praxis, and how beggars, gods, kings,

I ntroduction

19

and monks engage with it, try to engage with it, or ignore it. I then discuss the issue of the agency of prasa¯da and its significance for Buddhist ethics. An individual’s karma is represented as a closed system in the Divya¯vada¯na, and only an outside agent can generate a karmic intrusion that will allow one to escape from one’s karmic destiny and the inevitable suffering of sam . sa¯ ra. Just as Isaac Newton, in the first of his three laws of motion, recognized that every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it, so too with individuals and their karmic fate. Individuals are destined to live out their karma and suffer, lifetime after lifetime, reaping precisely what they have sowed, unless there is a karmic intervention to alter the vector of their lives. Newton’s assertion is also known as the Law of Inertia, for objects, much like individuals in the Divya¯vada¯na, possess an inertia that causes them to remain in that state of motion—or being— unless an external force acts upon them. Within the text, prasa¯da is just such a force, and it allows one to escape one’s fate and embark on the Buddhist path toward liberation.42 In chapter 5, I continue an analysis of prasa¯da, first focusing on the Toyika¯ story, which offers an egalitarian vision of the practice of prasa¯da in a time after the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a. This account offers additional insight into the specifics of ritual action and the construction of shrines, and the importance of proximity and place for the mechanics of prasa¯da. This configuration of prasa¯da stresses a logic of presence, and the geography of practice that emerges may offer a subaltern perspective on early Buddhist pilgrimage. In chapter 6, I discuss the aesthetics and erotics of prasa¯da and how these help to explain the compelling power that prasa¯da exerts, both in objects and in people, and its apparent naturalism. Last, I consider the various connections between giving, karmic status, and social status, and the insights this might offer into the prestige economy of Buddhism. In part III, in an effort to develop a more complex understanding of the visual world of the Divya¯vada¯na, I examine practices of seeing the Buddha that are outside of the typologies of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da. In the discourse of ´sraddha¯, seeing produces a moving experience that is both cognitive and emotive, and it generates in the viewer a strong conviction in the efficacy of giving. Within the mechanism of prasa¯da, seeing is an affair of “the flesh,” to use Merleau-Ponty’s language. It is like a form of touch, “an action by contact—not unlike the action of things upon the blind man’s cane” (Merleau-Ponty 1964: 170). This form of seeing has a visceral immediacy that creates in the viewer an unselfconscious and compelling urge to give. But the Divya¯vada¯na also contains other forms of seeing that are less immediate and visceral, and require more mental intermediation on the part of the viewer. Special practices are required, for instance, to

20

thus h ave i seen

see the Buddha after his death, when his physical form has been cremated and his remains distributed as relics. In chapter 7, I return to the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na and consider what monastics say about seeing the Buddha and what they do when confronted with the opportunity. I then focus on two accounts from the cycle of stories about King As´oka that address the problem of how to see the Buddha’s physical body after he has passed into final nirva¯n.a. The first concerns King As´oka and the logistics of pilgrimage, and the second involves Upagupta and the veneration of images. In chapter 8, I reflect further on the role of images in Buddhist worship, and what the sculptures and paintings on Buddhist monuments in South Asia may be able to tell us about the “ways of seeing” (Berger 1977) of premodern Buddhist practitioners. Seeing Buddhist art, it seems, involved quite a bit of listening. Lastly, I consider more broadly the world of the visual in the Divya¯vada¯na and offer some suggestions with regard to the social and political transformations that may account for its construction. There are a number of threads that I try to tie together in these chapters— ´s raddha¯ and prasa¯da as both mental states and practices, notions of exchange, and the realm of the visual. But the moral universe of the Divya¯vada¯na is a dense and intricate weave, and although much of what follows involves close philological work in juxtaposition with more synthetic theorizing, this book as a whole is more of a prolegomenon to the study of visual and moral economies in Buddhism than a definitive account. With this in mind, in the epilogue I offer a few concluding remarks as to the significance of this project and then address some of the questions that linger. Buddhist philosophers and sociologists, cultural, intellectual, and art historians will certainly have more to add to my conclusions, clarifying a practice with reference to a text, image, or inscription, qualifying a hypothesis through ethnographic data, or perhaps deliberating more broadly on faith as a visual and seemingly involuntary practice. I only hope that I can encourage such a wide variety of scholars to engage with my work.

part i

The Practice of S´raddha¯

This page intentionally left blank

1 Seeing and Knowing

If, before our eyes, we see someone who is truly suffering, we do sometimes feel his suffering and pain as our own. This is the power of empathy . . . The reason that people sing songs for other people is because they want to have the power to arouse empathy, to break free of the narrow shell of the self and share their pain and joy with others. —Haruki Murakami, The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle For the relationship between the laity and the Buddhist monastic community to be properly maintained, the laity must feel that it receives sufficient karmic merit in exchange for its offerings of material goods and that the merit it accrues won’t diminish or decay. Without this belief, a major catalyst for lay offerings to the monastic community would simply disappear. But how can one verify the contention, so fundamental for Buddhism’s market morality, that offerings to the monastic community produce good karma for the donor and that karmic payback or payoff is inevitable? The Buddha, whom the text touts as the ultimate authority in such matters, explains, Actions never come to naught, even after hundreds of millions of years. When the right conditions gather and the time is right, then they will have their effect on embodied beings.1 But how can one be sure?2

24

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

What often precedes the recitation of this maxim in the Divya¯vada¯na is a narrative in which lay characters develop the form of belief known as ´sraddha¯ in two related phenomena: the commensurability of the karmic system and the efficacy of making offerings to monastics as a means to progress within that system. This mental state of ´sraddha¯, however, does not simply arise when these phenomena are described, as I have just done. These phenomena must also, in a literal and ekphrastic sense,3 be seen. In what follows, through a close examination of the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, the first avada¯na in the Divya¯vada¯na, I will discuss this experience of ´sraddha¯—the necessary conditions for its cultivation and its close connections with visuality.

The Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na: Karma Described, Karma Induced The Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na is a complex narrative. In its thematization of ´sraddha¯, it deals with how the doubting nature of mortals can be overcome, how unvirtuous individuals can be convinced of the error of their ways, and how unvirtuous characters who have died can be provided for. Before discussing these issues, however, I will summarize a lengthy but important section of the story.4 After returning home with a boat full of jewels from Ratnadvı¯pa (Treasure Island), the caravan leader Kot.ikarn.a is accidentally stranded by his caravan on the shores of the ocean. Kot.ikarn.a then sets off on his own and soon finds himself in a giant iron city surrounded by five thousand hungry ghosts begging him for water. “Friends, who are you?” he asks. “What deed led you to be reborn here?” “S´ron.a, the people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince. You won’t have ´sraddha¯ [in us].” “Friends, I can see what’s before my eyes. Why wouldn’t I have ´sraddha¯ [in you]?”5 The hungry ghosts then explain that they had been insolent and had not given alms, and for this reason have come to the ancestral realm. Kot.ikarn.a departs, and soon enters another iron city full of hungry ghosts where he engages in the same exchange as above with a crowd of thousands of its inhabitants. They explain that they were reborn as hungry ghosts because they had been full of pride and had not given alms. Kot.ikarn.a then continues on his way and meets a man on a flying mansion who is making love with four nymphs. The man gives Kot.ikarn.a food and

seeing and knowing

25

drink and then tells him to leave because danger is imminent. Kot.ikarn.a gets down off the flying mansion, and as the sun rises, the flying mansion and the nymphs disappear. In their place appear four black-spotted dogs that flip the man over and begin ripping the bones out of his back and devouring them. At sunset, the dogs disappear. The flying mansion then reappears along with the four nymphs, and the man once again begins to make love with them. Kot.ikarn.a asks this man as well what deed he had done to be reborn there, and he too responds that the people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince and that he won’t have ´sraddha¯ [in him]. Once again Kot.ikarn.a says, “I can see what’s before my eyes. Why wouldn’t I have ´sraddha¯ [in you]?”6 The man then explains that he had been a shepherd who butchered sheep by day, and although the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana couldn’t convince him to stop doing this completely, he was convinced enough to follow the Buddhist “moral code” (´s¯ı lasama¯da¯na)7 at night. As a result of following the moral code at night, he now experiences divine pleasure at night, and as a result of butchering sheep during the day, he experiences suffering during the day. The man then requests Kot.ikarn.a to go and see his son who also butchers sheep for a living. “Tell him, ‘I have seen your father. He says that the consequence of this deed will be most undesirable. Stop this evil practice that goes against the true dharma!’ ” “Friend, as you said before, ‘The people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince.’ He won’t have ´sraddha¯ [in me].” “S´ron.a, if he doesn’t have ´sraddha¯ [in you], tell him, ‘Your father says that underneath the slaughtering pen a pot full of gold is buried. Retrieve it and use it to enjoy yourself fully. And from time to time offer alms to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana and then direct the reward in our names. Maybe then this bad karma will diminish, give out, and finally be exhausted.’ ”8 After this exchange, Kot.ikarn.a continues on his way. At sunset, he meets another man making love with a nymph on a flying mansion. The same basic conversation occurs, and then at sunset, the flying mansion and the nymph disappear. In their place appears a giant centipede that wraps itself around the man and begins to eat his head. At sunrise, the centipede disappears. The flying mansion then reappears, along with the nymph, and the man once again begins to make love with her. Then more or less the same conversation as in the previous episode ensues, except that in this case, the man explains that he had been a brahman adulterer. He then asks Kot.ikarn.a to inform his son, who is also an adulterer, that the consequence of this deed will be undesirable and that he should stop this evil practice. If his son doesn’t have ´s raddha¯

26

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

[in him], he explains, Kot.ikarn.a should tell his son that there is a pot of gold buried underneath the fire altar for the agnis..t oma sacrifice. He should use it to enjoy himself fully as well as to make offerings and direct the reward in their names. Kot.ikarn.a continues on his way once again until he meets a woman on a flying mansion along with four hungry ghosts bound to the four corner-posts of her bed. The woman feeds Kot.ikarn.a and then enters the flying mansion. In the meantime, Kot.ikarn.a feels compassion for the four hungry ghosts and tries to feed them, but whatever food he gives them turns, respectively, into dung beetles, iron balls, flesh, and pus and blood. When the woman reemerges, Kot.ikarn.a asks her what deed she did to be reborn there. As before, she replies that the people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince and that he won’t have ´s raddha¯ [in her]. Kot.ikarn.a again counters that seeing what is before his eyes, why wouldn’t he have ´s raddha¯ [in her]. Following this now formulaic interaction, she tells of the misdeeds of the four hungry ghosts around her, who were previously her husband, son, daughter-in-law, and maidservant. She also explains how she had been a virtuous brahman woman, but because of making an improper fervent aspiration was reborn as a hungry ghost, though one of great power. She then asks Kot.ikarn.a to inform her daughter, who is a prostitute, that the consequence of such an action is undesirable and that she should therefore stop this evil practice. Likewise, she explains that if she doesn’t have ´s raddha¯ [in him], Kot.ikarn.a should tell her that in the old house where her father used to live there is a golden water-pitcher and four iron jars filled with gold. She should use this to enjoy herself fully as well as to make offerings and direct the reward in their names.9 That night, while Kot.ikarn.a is asleep, the woman arranges for him to be transported back to his family’s park in the village of Va¯ sava. When he wakes up, the first things he sees are the inscribed items that his parents left there for his speedy return or auspicious rebirth. Concluding that his parents think that he is dead, he decides to join the Buddhist monastic community. Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana refuses him, however, and tells him that he must first deliver the messages as he received them. Kot.ikarn.a then visits each of the children of the hungry ghosts whom he was asked to meet and delivers the messages that were given to him. In each case, the recipient of the message doesn’t have ´s raddha¯ [in him] and then is convinced by seeing the gold that Kot.ikarn.a explains was hidden by the deceased. Then each in turn comes to have ´s raddha¯. At one level, the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na is simply a karma story: a series of exempla demonstrating that good actions lead to good results and bad actions

seeing and knowing

27

lead to bad results. For example, as the first group of five thousand hungry ghosts explains in retrospect about themselves, We were abusive and scornful, we were greedy and stingy. We didn’t make even the smallest offerings. That’s why we’ve come to the ancestral realm.10 The second group of thousands of hungry ghosts likewise remarks, We were intoxicated with the pride of good health, intoxicated with the pride of wealth and indulgence. We didn’t make even the smallest offerings. That’s why we’ve come to the ancestral realm.11 The former shepherd also offers a similar example. As a human, he explains, he butchered sheep by day; now, as a result, he spends his days as a hungry ghost being devoured by dogs. Likewise, at night he followed the precepts of the Buddhist moral code, so now at night he experiences divine pleasure— in this instance, “fooling around, enjoying himself, and making love with [divine nymphs].”12 Similarly, the former adulterer, as a result of spending his days following the Buddhist moral code and his nights committing adultery, now spends his days making love with a divine nymph and his nights being devoured by a giant centipede. As for the former brahman woman’s husband and son, they are perpetually hungry because as humans they chastised the brahman woman for offering alms to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana. Since the husband said, “Why doesn’t that lousy, shaven-headed ascetic eat dung beetles instead?”13 and the son said, “Why doesn’t that lousy, shaven-headed ascetic eat balls of iron instead?”14 any food given to them now turns, respectively, into dung beetles and iron balls. The former brahman woman’s daughter-in-law and maidservant are also perpetually hungry. The daughter-in-law ate special foods that were destined for the brahman woman’s relatives, and the maidservant ate special foods that were sent by those relatives to the brahman woman, and each of them lied about it. Since the daughter-in-law said, “Wouldn’t eating the food that was sent to you as a gift be like eating one’s own flesh?”15 and the maidservant said, “Wouldn’t eating the food that you sent as a gift be like eating pus and blood?”16 any food given to them turns, respectively, into flesh and pus-and-blood.17 Kot.ikarn.a’s own experiences in the text also represent a fulfillment of karma. Early in the avada¯ na, before Kot.ikarn.a departs with his caravan for

28

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

Ratnadvı¯pa, he performs auspicious rituals and benedictions to ensure his well-being. Before he can depart, however, his mother expresses her fear that she will never see him again. Kot.ikarn.a then speaks harshly to her—he commits the act of harsh speech18—reproaching her for acting inauspiciously even though he has performed the requisite rites. “Don’t you see the terrible realms of existence that there are?”19 he angrily exclaims. Kot.ikarn.a’s mother then urges him to confess his sin of harsh speech. Kot.ikarn.a does so and is forgiven. He then performs auspicious rituals and benedictions once again and sets off with his caravan. Though Kot.ikarn.a has been forgiven, the karmic effects of his act still come to roost. Kot.ikarn.a thinks that since his mother has spoken inauspiciously, he will somehow be doomed to a terrible existence. He thinks that he will die and be reborn in one of the lower realms of existence: a hell realm, an animal realm, or a realm of hungry ghosts. But this is not the case. Whether or not Kot.ikarn.a’s mother was aware of these evil existences is not of direct consequence; instead, Kot.ikarn.a’s act of harsh speech leads him to see exactly what he questioned his mother’s ability to see—it leads him to see, as it were, the results of his karma. As the Buddha explains at the end of the avada¯ na, “He committed the act of harsh speech in the presence of his mother. As a result of that action, he witnessed terrible realms of existence in this lifetime.”20 That the avada¯ nas in the Divya¯vada¯na are “karma stories” is nothing new; Maurice Winternitz (1993: 266) discussed this some three quarters of a century ago. What has not been discussed, though, are the discursive strategies used in the text to induce characters to believe in the system of karma.21 As the character of the Buddha often explains at the end of avada¯ nas in the Divya¯vada¯na, And so, monks, the result of absolutely evil actions is absolutely evil, the result of absolutely pure actions is absolutely pure, and the result of mixed actions is mixed. Therefore, monks, because of this, you should reject absolutely evil actions and mixed ones as well, and strive to perform only absolutely pure actions. It is this, monks, that you should learn to do.22 The difficulty lies, though, not in informing nonbelievers that all beings are subject to the laws of karma and that something must be done to prevent those individuals who lead or have led unvirtuous lives from future suffering. The difficulty lies in convincing them. Yet, why should someone have confidence in such a system when the results of one’s actions are often said to become manifest only after one’s death and future rebirth? For such a phenomenon renders

seeing and knowing

29

it impossible for ordinary mortals to witness for themselves the truth that everyone gets their just desserts.

S´raddha¯ Defined Crucial to this discussion is a proper understanding of the term ´sraddha¯. Etymologically it may be explained as “to place” (dha¯) a “wager” (´srat) or “to put” (dha¯) one’s “heart” (´srat) on something,23 but the meaning of the term is still ambiguous in Sanskrit, with a long and complicated history in Indian literature. In Vedic materials, ´sraddha¯ primarily means “a belief in the existence and generosity of the gods” or “a belief in the efficacy of ritualistic worship” (Das Gupta 1930: 318, 320).24 In the Hindu context more generally, it has been explained as an “aspiration of the heart for a transcendent goal . . . a confidence in some appropriate ‘means’ (sa¯dhana) to reach that goal . . . [and] a reliance on the ´sa¯stra for the knowledge of both . . . the goal and the means (Rao 1974: 178).25 In Buddhist literature, the term ´sraddha¯ (Pali, saddha¯) is equally multivalent. One standard definition occurs in the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa’s great compendium from the fourth or fifth century CE: It is saddha¯ in that by its means they have saddha¯, or it itself has saddha¯, or it is just having saddha¯. Its characteristic is having saddha¯ or making ready; its function is clearing like the water-clearing gem, or leaping forward like crossing a flood; its manifestation is the absence of impurity, or commitment; its proximate cause is any ground for saddha¯, or the factors of stream-attainment such as hearing the good dhamma. It should be seen as a hand, property, and seed.26 Within Buddhist studies, the term has been similarly polysemous. It has been taken to mean “faith,” “belief,” “confidence,” “trust,” and “esteem,”27 and even among contemporary scholars there is no consensus as to what degree, to use Jayatilleke’s (1963: 387) terminology, ´sraddha¯ is affective, cognitive, or conative. In his work on early Buddhist theories of knowledge, Jayatilleke (1963: 398) posits saddha¯ as primarily cognitive, as an inferior kind of knowing.28 In contrast, Rupert Gethin (1992a: 107) quite convincingly argues that saddha¯ in Pali Buddhist literature isn’t cognitive, but affective—in other words, that it is “a more straightforward positive response of trust or confidence towards something or somebody” than it is “a belief in propositions or statements of which one does not—or cannot—have knowledge proper (however that be defined).”29

30

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

To counter Jayatilleke’s position, Gethin cites a passage from the Sam . yuttanika¯ya that contains a conversation between the Buddhist layman Citta and the skeptical Nigan.t.ha Na¯ taputta.30 Their conversation contrasts having saddha¯ regarding the existence of a phenomenon and having direct “knowledge” (ña¯n.a) of that phenomenon. The Nigan.t.ha Na¯ taputta asks Citta if he has saddha¯ in the ascetic Gotama regarding what he says about the cessation of thought. Citta says no—much to the pleasure of the Nigan.t.ha Na¯ taputta—but then explains that he doesn’t proceed out of saddha¯ in the matter since he has known it for himself and seen it to be true.31 As Rupert Gethin (1992a: 110) concludes from this passage, there is “a positive feeling of confidence or trust (saddha¯) that one might have in someone who states that such and such exists [ for example, the Buddha], but however justified one’s confidence is, a more subtle and refined reason or ground for thinking that something exists, is direct and personal knowing and seeing that something exists.” As Gethin suggests, saddha¯ in the Pali materials is frequently represented as being acquired through an oral/aural medium.32 In the Divya¯vada¯na, however, the logic and medium of ´sraddha¯ is reversed. Characters see things for themselves and then develop “a positive feeling of confidence or trust”—that is, they develop ´sraddha¯ only after having a “direct and personal knowing and seeing that something exists.” The text presents numerous textual pictures that portray this dependence of ´sraddha¯ on seeing. The resultant narrative world is so dominated by a visual culture that a kind of materialism exists within the text whereby objects of knowledge are construed as tangible, visible properties. Making use of visual language and visual images, the text follows a “seeing is believing” logic in which, in some sense, to know something is to see it—not to hear it—and to teach something is to show it. As a corollary of this, to receive a teaching of the dharma is to see it, and in objects that one can see, one can have more than confidence—one can have belief, one can have knowledge. Considering that ´sraddha¯ functions within a visual world in the Divya¯vada¯na, in what follows, I will discuss ´sraddha¯ and the rhetoric of seeing—how seeing is believing, how seeing is authoritative, how believing is seeing, and how the visual character of the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na contrasts with the oral character of the Pali versions of the story.

Seeing Is Believing When Kot.ikarn.a asks the two groups of hungry ghosts and the individuals who alternately indulge in pleasures and succumb to torments what deed

seeing and knowing

31

they had done that led them to be born in such a place, they each counter that “the people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince.” As a representative doubting mortal of Jambudvı¯pa, Kot.ikarn.a explains that seeing what is before his eyes, why wouldn’t he have ´s raddha¯? In other words, for him, seeing is believing. The efficacy of seeing, in turn, is contrasted with the incredulity associated with hearing.33 The former shepherd, for example, explains that the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana had tried repeatedly to get him to stop butchering sheep but that he wouldn’t listen. As he explains, The noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana, out of compassion for me, came and said, “Friend, the consequence of this deed will be most undesirable. Stop this evil practice that goes against the true dharma!” But I didn’t heed his words and stop. Again and again he tried to dissuade me. “Friend,” he said, “the consequence of this deed will be most undesirable. Stop this evil practice that goes against the true dharma!” Even then I didn’t abstain.34 The former shepherd then requests Kot.ikarn.a likewise to try to convince his son to stop butchering sheep. How? By first telling him that such an act will have a terrible consequence, and if that doesn’t work, by telling him where the former shepherd had buried a pot of gold. When Kot.ikarn.a goes to the former shepherd’s son and tells him that he has seen his father and that “he says that the consequence of this deed will be most undesirable” and that he should “stop this practice that goes against the true dharma,”35 he is—as expected— rebuffed. This is the conversation that ensues: “Sir, it’s now been twelve years since my father died. Has anyone ever been seen coming back from the next world?” “Friend, I am such a person. I have come back.” He didn’t have ´sraddha¯ [in him]. “Friend, if you don’t have ´sraddha¯ [in me], this is what your father said: ‘Underneath the slaughtering pen is a pot filled with gold. Retrieve it and use it to enjoy yourself fully. And from time to time offer alms to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana and then direct the reward in our names. Maybe then this bad karma will diminish, give out, and finally become exhausted.’ ” “I’ve never heard such a thing before,” he reflected. “I’ll go and see. If it’s the case, all this must be true.” He went and dug it up. He found that everything was just as [Kot.ikarn.a had said]. And then he had ´sraddha¯.36

32

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

Kot.ikarn.a claims that he should be listened to because he has seen the man’s father and his father has given him a message, but the man doesn’t trust him because, as he claims, no one has ever been seen coming back from the next world. Seeing is the criterion for believability. Then, since the boy doesn’t have ´s raddha¯ [in him], Kot.ikarn.a delivers the rest of his father’s message regarding the hidden pot of gold and how it should be used. The boy has never heard such a thing before—presumably, that his father had buried a pot of gold and that he should make use of it in this way—so he doubts him. He needs visual proof to be convinced of Kot.ikarn.a’s message. The boy then digs up the pot of gold and is convinced of the truth of everything Kot.ikarn.a has said. This scenario is repeated with the former brahman adulterer and his adulterous son and with the former brahman woman and her prostitute daughter. In each case, the now hungry ghosts weren’t convinced, while they were humans, from listening to Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana’s entreaties that they stop their evil actions, nor were their children convinced by Kot.ikarn.a’s pleas. It is only when they see gold that they have ´sraddha¯.

Seers Are Authorities When Kot.ikarn.a tells the shepherd, the adulterer, and the prostitute that he has been to the next world and returned, each of them is incredulous. To see the next world, one generally needs to die, and after death there is no coming back to the same life. But Kot.ikarn.a is no ordinary individual. Like Kot.ikarn.a, the monk Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana is also represented as journeying to the next world and then, upon his return, passing on a message. In the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, the narrator explains that the venerable Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana would journey among the five realms of existence: the realms of hell, animals, hungry ghosts, gods, and mortals37— and having seen all this, he would come to Jambudvı¯pa and address the four assemblies [i.e., monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen]. Then whoever had a student or pupil that didn’t eagerly follow the religious life would take him and approach the venerable Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana . . . and the venerable Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana would properly admonish him and properly instruct him. In this way, again and again, those who were properly admonished and properly instructed by the venerable Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana would eagerly follow the religious life, and later on they would attain distinction.38

seeing and knowing

33

The “message” that Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana passes on to those who need dis¯ nanda, the cipline is made clear later in the story. As the Buddha explains, “A monk Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana or even someone like Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana can’t be everywhere. Therefore, a five-sectioned wheel [of existence] is to be established in the entrance hall of the monastery.”39 Like Kot.ikarn.a who warned that evil actions (e.g., butchery, adultery, prostitution) produce evil results (e.g., bad rebirths), the wheel of existence—as Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana’s replacement— offers the same warning. It depicts the five realms of existence and the forces that propel one through this karmic system. In what follows in the story, the boy Sahasodgata goes to the monastery, sees the wheel of existence, realizes that various deeds lead to various destinies, and comes to fear the possibility of rebirth in a terrible existence. He then decides to make offerings to the Buddha and the monastic community to circumvent such a fate. In both the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na and the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, those mortals who have seen the next world and—as it is clear in the case of Kot.ikarn.a—seen the workings of karma, are the ones who can “properly admonish and properly instruct” others. They are the ones who can teach that one’s actions determine one’s destiny, and that one should act accordingly to ensure a good future. For both Kot.ikarn.a and Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana, seeing provides authority. Kot.ikarn.a, for example, thinks that when he speaks about such matters he should be trusted since he has seen the results of karma “before his eyes.” This trope regarding the authority of seers is also developed in the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na. There the Buddha tries to convince an incredulous brahman that he should believe him when he tells of the karmic rewards that one’s actions bring: in this case, that his wife will attain awakening as a solitary buddha in exchange for some roasted barley that she gave as alms to the Buddha. The Buddha then asks the brahman if he has ever seen something amazing. In response, the brahman describes a giant banyan tree that five hundred carts could fit under. The Buddha then questions the brahman about how such a tree could be produced by such a small seed: “Who will have ´sraddha¯ in you that from a seed this size arises such a big tree?”40 The brahman replies, “Whether honorable Gautama has ´sraddha¯ in me or not, it was there before my eyes.”41 He then proceeds to explain that there was a good field and a healthy seed, and with the proper rainfall, rich soil, and the right conditions, a great banyan arose. Then the Blessed One utters this verse: Just as a field and seed were there before your eyes, brahman, likewise karma and its results are right before the eyes of tatha¯ gatas. Just as you see, brahman, that a seed is small but a tree is very large, I too see, brahman, that a seed is small but the results are great.42

34

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

Since the Buddha can see the results of karma with his divine eye—they are “right before his eyes” (pratyaks.a)—even without going to the next world, as Kot.ikarn.a and the venerable Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana had done, he can speak with authority. He knows what has happened, what will happen, and why any such happenings occur.43 Trust can therefore be put in his words. This is made explicit in the Jyotis.ka-avada¯na. When a brahman boy has doubts about a prediction that the Buddha has made, a ks. atriya boy “with deep-seated ´sraddha¯”44 offers this verse: The sky with the moon and stars may fall down, the earth with its mountains and forests may fly away, the water of vast oceans may dry up, but great seers will never speak falsely.45 Authority is contingent on sight. It empowers one to speak the truth.46

Seeing Is Authoritative While seeing the results of karma gives certain characters in these stories authority, the very act of seeing is also vested with authority. Characters are often represented as coming to believe by seeing a token of a belief system. In the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, for example, since an effective instructor and disciplinarian such as Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana can’t always be present, a wheel of existence is established as an icon of Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana’s teaching. Seeing this icon is precisely what gets Sahasodgata to have ´sraddha¯ in the workings of karma and in the importance of doing good deeds—in this case, making offerings to the Buddha and the monastic community. In the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na, the doubting brahman comes to have ´sraddha¯ in the Buddha because the Buddha, like the seed of a banyan tree, can also produce things that are amazing. Just after the Buddha recites the previously cited verse about a field and seed, he performs the following feat: The Blessed One then stuck out his tongue from his mouth so that it covered the entire sphere of his face up to his hairline. Then he said to the brahman, “What do you think, brahman, would a person who can stick out his tongue from his mouth and cover the entire sphere of his face knowingly tell lies, even for the sake of hundreds of thousands of cakravartin’s kingdoms?”47 The brahman then comes to have ´sraddha¯ in him. In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, the token of the karmic system in which people come to have ´sraddha¯ is gold. The shepherd, the adulterer, and the prostitute

seeing and knowing

35

each come to have ´sraddha¯ in the truth of Kot.ikarn.a’s words when they see the buried gold to which Kot.ikarn.a directs them. Although there are other possibilities for how the gold got there, the notion is somehow that money doesn’t lie. For each of them, the existence of their respective caches of gold seems to mean that Kot.ikarn.a really did go to the next world, meet with his or her deceased parent, and bring back a true message. After Kot.ikarn.a delivers the third and final message and the last recipient (the prostitute) comes to have ´sraddha¯ in Kot.ikarn.a’s words by seeing the stash of gold, Kot.ikarn.a then reflects, “The whole world has ´sraddha¯ in gold, but no one has ´sraddha¯ in me.”48 Kot.ikarn.a finds this ironic, presumably, for “then he smiled.”49 Why is it, then, that gold should symbolize the truth of Kot.ikarn.a’s words for the shepherd, adulterer, and prostitute yet produce only a smile for Kot.ikarn.a himself? I will return to this question in what follows.

Believing Is Seeing Just as to see is to believe in these avada¯ nas, often to believe is to see. In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, after Kot.ikarn.a returns from his expedition to Ratnadvı¯pa, he goes off to a secluded spot with his half-brothers, Da¯ saka (Servant) and Pa¯ laka (Protector), to compare their income and expenditures. While his halfbrothers go back to check on the loading of cargo, Kot.ikarn.a is forgotten, and the caravan sets off without him. When the members of the caravan realize what has happened, they decide not to go back for Kot.ikarn.a. “If we go back,” they surmise, “every single one of us will straightaway meet with some disaster.”50 They then continue on to Va¯ sava, where they store their goods. Only then, after repeatedly lying to Kot.ikarn.a’s parents about their son’s fate, do they confess that they left him behind. The narrator then explains that some time after this episode a visitor came to Kot.ikarn.a’s parents and told them that Kot.ikarn.a had returned. They gave him a reward, but when they looked outside for their son, they didn’t see him. This happened a second time as well, and when they didn’t see Kot.ikarn.a this time either, “they began never to have ´sraddha¯ in anyone again.”51 Shortly thereafter, “crying from grief, they went blind.”52 Later in the story, after Kot.ikarn.a has come back from his sojourn in the next world, he returns to the village of Va¯sava. Kot.ikarn.a’s parents are informed by many people that their son has returned, but “they no longer had ´sraddha¯ in anyone.”53 Kot.ikarn.a eventually arrives at the gateway to their home, and when they hear his voice, they begin to cry. Their tears dissolve the film over their eyes, and for the first time since Kot.ikarn.a departed, twelve years previously, they can

36

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

see. As his parents remark, “Son, crying with grief over you, we became blind. Now, thanks to you, our sight has been restored.”54 It seems that once Kot.ikarn.a’s parents began never to have ´sraddha¯ in anyone again, they lost their sight. When they are sure that Kot.ikarn.a has once again returned, the truth of what others have told them is confirmed. Once again they can have ´sraddha¯ in what others have to say. Only then can they see. . In support of this reading, I point to a section of the Sangharaks.ita-avada¯na that very closely parallels Kot.ikarn.a’s sojourn among the hungry ghosts and in which the same metaphorical notion of “seeing as believing” occurs. The monk . Sangharaks.ita is also accidentally left behind at the seashore by the caravan with which he is traveling. He too sets off on his own, sees horrific sights, asks the individuals involved what deeds they did to be reborn there, is told that the people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince, counters that since he can see what is before his eyes why wouldn’t he have ´sraddha¯, and is then told of their mis. deeds. As Sangharaks.ita proceeds, he passes through three monasteries, each seemingly normal for half the day and then sites of misery for the other half of the day. In each case, the monks undergo terrible suffering: they begin to break each other’s skulls with hammers, douse each other with molten lead, and—in the third instance—all of them are torched and incinerated. As it is explained to . Sangharaks.ita, these are the results of monks performing misdeeds within the confines of a monastery: fighting in the dining hall, wasting food that was given out of ´sraddha¯ (´sraddha¯deya), and lighting a fire in the monastery. . Eventually, Sangharaks.ita arrives at a hermitage where five hundred brahman seers reside, but none of them will respond to his request for shelter. The one virtuous seer there explains the situation to him: “Why isn’t shelter given to you [ followers of the Buddha]? It’s because you have a fault. You’re great . talkers. I’ll give you shelter this time if you don’t say anything.”55 Sangharaks.ita agrees, but during the night the deity who lives at that hermitage presses him . to teach the dharma. Sangharaks.ita relents and recites two verses that contain the word “brahman” in the hope that they will appeal to the seers.56 The brahmans gather together and listen. Meanwhile, the deity living there exercises her magical powers so that the seers can’t see each other. San.gharaks.ita then ¯ tra known as the “Simile of the Town” (nagaropama). teaches the su While this religious discourse was being recited, all of them clearly grasped the truth and simultaneously achieved the reward of the nonreturner. They also acquired magical powers. Then all of them in . one voice exclaimed, “Well said, Bhadanta Sangharaks.ita!” The deity then released the effects of her magical powers, and they began to see each other.57

seeing and knowing

37

At first, followers of the Buddha are chastised for talking too much. As I understand this passage, they are being reprimanded for telling stories— making bold claims and speaking without authority. This is much the same criticism that the incredulous brahman in the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na lev. eled against the Buddha. Yet, Sangharaks.ita has traveled to the next world and back and has seen the fruits of karma before his eyes. He is an authority. . When Sangharaks.ita does teach the seers, he opens their eyes, as it were, to the truth of the Buddhist teaching. In teaching them, he shows them the truth, and when they know the truth, they can see.

This page intentionally left blank

2 Getting and Giving

Do you believe that ahead of you grief carries the flag of your destiny? And in the skull do you discover your ancestry condemned to bone? —Pablo Neruda, The Book of Questions

S´raddha¯ and Bhakti: States of Mind In trying to determine what ´sraddha¯ is, it is helpful to determine what it isn’t, and the text makes it clear that one thing it isn’t is bhakti. As a practice, bhakti often involves cultivating a love toward a divine being, and as a mental state, it is marked by a feeling of devotion, something akin to faith.1 Though little is known about the practice of bhakti until, perhaps, the sixth century CE, when it appears in the literature of decidedly vernacular and heterodox South Indian movements, the sentiment of bhakti can be traced back through a variety of earlier religious and secular texts in Sanskrit.2 Instead of assessing these materials, however, I will examine how bhakti is delineated as a practice and a mental state within the Divya¯vada¯na. These accounts in the Divya¯vada¯na not only offer early evidence for the intellectual and social history of bhakti—though from a rival perspective—they also help to mark out a realm of thought and expression against which ´sraddha¯ can be defined.

40

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

At the beginning of the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, it is said that the householder Balasena didn’t have a son but desired one. Therefore, he prayed to the likes of S´iva, Varun.a, Kubera, S´akra, and Brahma¯ , as well as a park deity, a forest deity, a crossroads deity, and a deity who received oblations. He also prayed to his hereditary deity, who shared the same nature as him and who constantly followed behind him. There is a popular saying that as a result of such prayers, sons are born and daughters as well. But this isn’t the case. If this were the case, then every man would have a thousand sons, just like a cakravartin king. Instead, it’s because of the presence of three conditions that sons are born and daughters as well. Which three? The mother and father must come together in love; the mother must be healthy and fertile; and a being seeking rebirth must be standing by. It’s because of the presence of these three conditions that sons are born and daughters as well. Nevertheless, the householder Balasena remained devoted to such prayers.3 What the narrator seems to be saying is that no results are produced by “praying” (a¯ya¯cana) to gods or goddesses (or however one wants to gloss this act that certain religious practitioners direct toward their presiding deities); instead, certain events, such as a pregnancy, happen when the proper karmic conditions are met. That this futile exercise describes the practice of bhakti is made clear in a parallel passage. In the Dharmaruci-avada¯na, as a ship full of merchants is about to be devoured by a giant sea monster, the captain of the ship tells those merchants, “Death stands before us all. So what should you do now? Each of you should pray to that god in whom you have bhakti. Perhaps by these prayers some goddess will free us from this great danger. There is no other means of survival.” Then those merchants, afraid as they were of dying, began to pray to the gods such as S´iva, Varun.a, Kubera, the great Indra, and Vis.n.u to save their lives. Despite their prayers, nothing particular happened to save them from the deadly danger that they faced.4 Denigrated in the text are both the act of praying (a¯ya¯cana), which is represented as being ineffectual, and—apparently—the mental state of bhakti that those practitioners possess with regard to S´iva, Varun.a, Kubera, and so on. In contrast, although there is at least one lay disciple of the Buddha on board, no one prays to the Buddha. The Buddha, apparently, isn’t one in whom any of the

getting and giving

41

merchants has bhakti, or if any of them has bhakti in the Buddha, none considers him to be a “god” (deva). Following their ineffectual prayers, at the bidding of that lay disciple of the Buddha, the merchants focus their awareness (smr.ti) on the Buddha and say in one voice, “Praise to the Buddha!”5 The Buddha, in turn, transforms this outcry so that the sea monster can hear it, and after he does hear it, he slowly retreats. In a parallel passage in the Pu¯rn.a-avada¯na this practice is explicitly cited as “taking refuge.” There, a boat full of merchants who are assailed by a fearsome hurricane pray to S´iva, Varun.a, Kubera, S´akra, and so on, but to no avail. Then, when they find out that one of the merchants on board is the monk Pu¯rn.a’s brother, they say, ¯ rn.a is very powerful because of his merit. “Gentlemen, the noble Pu Let’s take refuge in him alone!” In one voice they all of them released ¯ rn.a! Praise! Praise to the noble Pu ¯ rn.a!”6 the cry, “Praise to the noble Pu ¯ rn.a then intercedes and the merchants are saved.7 Pu Once again, having bhakti in a deity is disparaged as an improper mental state and praying to a deity is belittled as an ineffective practice.8 In contrast, focusing one’s awareness on the Buddha, reciting “Praise to the Buddha,” and taking refuge in a powerful Buddhist figure are shown to be effective practices. No mention is made in these passages, however, of the proper mental states that one should cultivate.

S´raddha¯ and Bhakti: Objects of Mind Other differences between ´sraddha¯ and bhakti concern the objects toward which these mental states are directed, and the kinds of events that are represented as reinforcing or weakening them. With bhakti, as Edith Ludowyk-Gyomroi (1947: 48) explains, “devotion is directed not towards a system of thought but towards a person.” In the above example from the Dharmaruci-avada¯na, that person is a deity. In the Supriya-avada¯na, however, that person is a human being. There the junior caravan leader Supriya takes care of the ailing senior caravan leader Magha, who is on the verge of dying. As the narrator explains, “Supriya attended to Magha, with bhakti and respect, like a good son would his father.”9 In these cases, bhakti is a kind of faith in someone as an actor or agent. When characters in the text pray to a god, they are hoping for that god to intervene in mundane affairs (e.g., create a pregnancy, repel a monster, calm a

42

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

storm). When a character serves another character with bhakti, there is also an expectation of getting, as it were, a return on one’s investment. Supriya serves Magha with bhakti, a man he had previously never met, because only he can help him to journey to the great trading center Badaradvı¯pa ( Jujube Island) where he can obtain the precious jewels that will allow him to fulfill every person’s desire for wealth. As Supriya exclaims when he first hears that Magha is on his deathbed, “Oh no! I hope the great caravan leader Magha doesn’t die before I get to see him! Who else will tell me how to go to the great trading center Badaradvı¯pa!”10 With ´sraddha¯, however, what is being espoused is a more open-ended kind of confidence—a phenomenon made clearer by a closer look at the text’s grammar. The verbal forms of ´sraddha¯ that occur in the text are rarely accompanied by explicit objects—hence my use of brackets around the subject in such instances—so exactly what characters are having confidence in can be ambiguous. In those few instances when objects for this confidence are supplied, it is “trust or confidence towards something or somebody” (Gethin 1992a: 107). Yet, while this description may be linguistically true, it misses some sense of the relationship between ´sraddha¯ and its objects, at least in the Divya¯vada¯na. Gethin suggests as much in his gloss on the previously mentioned passage regarding Citta and the Nigan.t.ha Na¯ taputta that contrasts saddha¯ with “knowledge” (ña¯n.a). There, as I mentioned before, Gethin (1992a: 110) refers to “a positive feeling of confidence or trust (saddha¯) that one might have in someone who states that such and such exists.” This is clear throughout his translation of the passage. The verbal forms of ´sraddha¯ have no direct objects, only indirect objects that are in the genitive (e.g., the saman.a Gotama, the Blessed One, saman.a or bra¯hman.a). Gethin (1992a: 109–110) translates each of these instances with the addition of “[when he says]”—“Do you trust the saman.a Gotama [when he says] that . . .” “I do not have trust in the Blessed One [when he says] that . . .” and “who is the saman.a or bra¯hman.a that I shall [need to] have trust in [when he says] that . . .” Likewise, K. R. Norman (1979: 326) explains that the verbal form of ´sraddha¯ has two “slightly different meanings: ‘to have faith in’ and ‘to take someone’s word for something.’ ” In the Divya¯vada¯na, the object of one’s ´sraddha¯ is an individual as a speaker of the truth, and to a greater extent, the truth of that speaker’s utterance. The Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na provides numerous such examples where the object of an individual’s ´sraddha¯ seems to be not just another individual, but the message that a particular individual conveys. For example, when Kot.ikarn.a delivers messages to the shepherd, the adulterer, and the prostitute, the text explains that each of those individuals “didn’t have ´sraddha¯ [in him]”—in other words, they didn’t have ´sraddha¯ in the message that he was delivering. When each of them then

getting and giving

43

follows his instructions and finds out that everything was just as Kot.ikarn.a had said, each of them then has ´sraddha¯—in other words, they each have ´sraddha¯ in the truth of what Kot.ikarn.a had said. Likewise, many people informed Kot.ikarn.a’s parents that Kot.ikarn.a had returned, but “they no longer had ´sraddha¯ in anyone.” In each instance in the above section from the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, I could replace the translations of “he didn’t have ´sraddha¯ [in him],” “you won’t have ´sraddha¯ [in us],” “why wouldn’t I have ´sraddha¯ [in you],” and so on, with “he didn’t have ´sraddha¯ [in what he said],” “you won’t have ´sraddha¯ [in what we say],” “why wouldn’t I have ´sraddha¯ [in what you say].” Perhaps this would even improve on the accuracy of my translation. One indication that ´sraddha¯ might not solely be directed toward individual beings—as is the case with bhakti—is a warning found in the Abhidharmakos´a against cultivating ´sraddha¯ in a teacher.11 It is, as Nalinaksha Dutt (1940: 642) observes, “akin to prema (‘affection’) and works more as an obstacle than as an aid to spiritual progress.” That ´sraddha¯ directed toward individuals can also be a hindrance is seen in the various stories of Vakkali in Pali literature.12 Vakkali is said to be “foremost among those who are actively engaged in saddha¯,”13 but this doesn’t seem to be a particularly desirable designation. One story line is that once the brahman Vakkali has seen the Buddha, “he can never have enough of seeing the magnificence of his physical body.”14 Consumed as he is with a desire to see the Buddha constantly, he joins the monastic community. Once there, he foregoes the practices of a monk—“he abandons recitation, subjects of meditation, and concentration”—and instead “wanders about contemplating the Teacher.”15 The Buddha chastises him: “Vakkali, what’s the use of looking at this foul body of mine?”16 But this has no effect. Realizing that Vakkali needs something to shock him out of his present condition so that he can spiritually advance, the Buddha rebukes him and sends him away. Vakkali then goes to Vulture Peak, where “because of the strength of his saddha¯, he can’t descend down the path of insight meditation.”17 Distraught at being separated from the Teacher, he contemplates suicide.18 The Buddha, however, intercedes, and eventually Vakkali attains arhatship. Examining the terms bhakti and ´sraddha¯ in a wide range of Sanskrit sources, Minoru Hara (1964: 142) comes to similar conclusions: Our conclusions, then, are that ´sraddha¯ expresses a state of mind activity directed toward impersonal objects, that this holds true even when the verb ´srad-dha¯- takes an object which is grammatically personal; that the nature of ´sraddha¯ is more intellectual than emotional; and that this state of mind or activity originates in a ritual context,

44

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯ namely that of Vedic Brahmanism orthodoxy. And these semantic aspects of ´sraddha¯ stand in striking contrast to bhakti: impersonal and personal, intellectual and emotional, and Vedic-Brahmanic and Hinduistic.

Leaving aside certain doctrinal implications of Hara’s conclusions, the term ´sraddha¯ in the Divya¯vada¯na seems to accord well with what Hara writes, particularly the notion that even when ´sraddha¯ has an individual as a direct object, what this really indicates is “a state of mind activity directed toward impersonal objects.” Having argued above that in the Divya¯vada¯na to have ´sraddha¯ in someone also means to have ´sraddha¯ in what he or she says, the question then arises as to what are the “impersonal objects” that such a person speaks of and, hence, that are to be the objects of ´sraddha¯. I contend that there are two such objects: first, the system of karma, and second, the efficacy of offering the rewards from almsgiving to one’s deceased parents—more literally, “assigning the reward” (daks.in.a¯ ⫹ a¯ √dis´ ). In what follows, once again referencing the Kot.ikarn.aavada¯na, I will examine what, precisely, these objects are in which characters come to have ´sraddha¯. While the karmic system requires a minimum of additional exegesis to clarify, “assigning the reward” is more elusive and needs greater explanation. To try and make sense of the process and mechanics of the latter, I will examine two specific instances in which “assigning the reward” is prescribed, and another instance in which inscribed offerings are made for the benefit of a lost child.

Objects of S´raddha¯: Karma and Daks. in.a¯ The only time in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na that the reader is alerted that a character is being made to have ´sraddha¯ in something is when another character responds that “the people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince.” This expression occurs in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na eight times, each time in exactly the same context. When Kot.ikarn.a travels to the next world, each time he meets a hungry ghost he asks what deed he, she, or they did to be reborn there. Each time, the response is the same: “S´ron.a, the people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince. You won’t have ´sraddha¯ [in me/us].” And then Kot.ikarn.a counters that he has ´sraddha¯ in what’s before his eyes. This happens five times: twice with a group of hungry ghosts and then three times with hungry ghosts who are on flying mansions. In each of those last three encounters, Kot.ikarn.a is instructed to go and tell that hungry ghost’s erring son or daughter that he has

getting and giving

45

seen his or her deceased father or mother, and so forth, and then to say “that the consequence of this deed will be most undesirable. Stop this evil practice that goes against the true dharma!” In each case, Kot.ikarn.a responds, as he has been instructed to say, that “The people of Jambudvı¯pa are difficult to convince. He [or ‘she’] won’t have ´sraddha¯ in me.” The belief in question in each of these examples is the belief in the system of karma. The other “impersonal object” in which characters come to have ´sraddha¯ is the efficacy of “assigning the reward” (daks.in.a¯ ⫹ a¯ √dis´ ). Such a connection between ´sraddha¯ and daks. in.a¯ is also found in Vedic literature. As Hermann Oldenberg (1896: 448–450) explains, ´sraddha¯ designates the mental state of one who believes in the efficacy of Vedic sacrifices and, as such, is liberal in offering a “sacrificial fee” (daks. in.a¯) to the officiating priests.19 In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, this practice of “assigning the reward” is mentioned six times: three times in the nearly identical messages that Kot.ikarn.a is asked to deliver and three more times in those respective messages to the shepherd, the adulterer, and the prostitute. In the case of the former shepherd cum hungry ghost, for example, he first tells Kot.ikarn.a that he should tell his son to stop his evil ways or else he will experience an evil result—in other words, that karma really is binding just as Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana had told him. Kot.ikarn.a then replies that his son, as a mortal of Jambudvı¯pa, probably won’t have ´sraddha¯ [in him]. In response, Kot.ikarn.a is told that if his son doesn’t have ´sraddha¯ [in him], he should be told to dig up the pot of gold that his father buried and then do two things. First, “Enjoy yourself fully.”20 Second, And from time to time offer alms to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana and then direct the reward in our names. Maybe then this bad karma will diminish, give out, and finally be exhausted.21 It is all this, apparently, that the shepherd, the adulterer, and the prostitute come to have ´sraddha¯ in when each of them follows Kot.ikarn.a’s instructions and finds out that everything was just as he had said. This second prescription presents us with an instance of “assigning the reward.” At one level, this practice is fairly clear. It is “a ritualized recitation of a verse or verses which formally designated the beneficiaries of the merit produced from a specific donation or gift” (Schopen 1994a: 545).22 Yet not all the intricacies of this practice are known. A good starting place for making sense of this second prescription, within the very localized context of this story, is another “assigning the reward” passage that occurs very early in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na. There Balasena has just found out that his wife is pregnant with a boy, and in his joy, he puts his desires to words in this inspired utterance:

46

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯ May my son not be ignoble. May he perform those duties I expect of him. May he, having been supported by me, support me in return. May he be the one to claim my inheritance. May my family lineage be long lasting.23

The last of these inspired utterances reads as follows: And may he, when we are dead and gone, make offerings, either few or many, as well as perform meritorious deeds, and then direct the reward [in our names] with these words—“This shall follow these two wherever they are born and wherever they go.”24 Here Balasena hopes that after he and his wife have passed away,25 his son will make some offerings and then direct the reward from those offerings in their names. Notice that the proposed recipients of the offerings (i.e., Balasena and his wife) aren’t specified as Buddhist, nor is there any indication that they are. All that is known of Balasena’s beliefs and practices is that he has bhakti in a variety of gods and that he prays to them. As I have shown previously, these are not considered to be properly Buddhist within the Divya¯vada¯na. In their own prescriptions for the assigning of rewards from offerings, however, the former shepherd, the former adulterer, and the former brahman woman each tell Kot.ikarn.a to tell his son (or her daughter) to make offerings to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana. Presumably, as inhabitants of the next world, they are authorities as to which offerings provide them with the most benefit. Interestingly, though, there is no prescription for making such offerings to any other Buddhist monk. There are also two other interpretive problems regarding this inspired utterance that need to be addressed: since the referent for the neuter indexical “this” (idam) isn’t specified, what is the “this” that “shall follow these two wherever they are born and wherever they go”? And what assistance will the “this” offer? In an effort to address these problems and at the same time elucidate the mechanics of the practice of “assigning the reward,” I’ll return once again to the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na. To resume—After Kot.ikarn.a’s parents are twice duped into giving rewards to individuals who claim that Kot.ikarn.a has returned home, they begin never to have ´sraddha¯ in anyone again, but they also do something to ensure their son’s well-being: In parks and in their community halls and temples,26 they presented and established umbrellas, fans, water pots, and shoes that were

getting and giving

47

inscribed with these letters: “If S´ron.a Kot.ikarn.a is still alive, [this is] for his speedy return, for his quick return. Otherwise, if he has died and passed away, [this is so] that the life that he has been born into shall be followed by another, even better existence.”27 While this practice may or may not be the same as assigning the reward of an offering in someone’s name—that which Balasena hoped his son Kot.ikarn.a would some day perform for him and what those hungry ghosts hoped their children would one day perform for them—my sense is that this practice shares enough similarities with these other instances of “assigning the reward” to be instructive and also help clarify the elusive “this” in the inspired utterance mentioned above. Notice that the inscribed offerings made by Kot.ikarn.a’s parents are said to be efficacious in two separate instances: whether Kot.ikarn.a is dead or whether he is alive. In the case of Kot.ikarn.a’s death, these offerings are to function in a similar way to the rewards-from-offerings that Kot.ikarn.a’s parents hope will one day be assigned to them. They are to help lead one to and through a better rebirth. In the case that Kot.ikarn.a is still living—a case unlike the one mentioned by the hungry ghosts—these are to help speed along his return. But again, how is this to be done? After Kot.ikarn.a enters the first iron city and meets the first group of hungry ghosts who tell him that they have been reborn there because they had been abusive in a previous life and hadn’t given alms, these hungry ghosts tell Kot.ikarn.a this: “Go, S´ron.a! You’re very powerful because of [your] merit. Have you ever seen anyone who entered a city of hungry ghosts leaving it safe and sound?”28 When Kot.ikarn.a does leave the city, he meets the city’s gatekeeper. Previously, when Kot.ikarn.a was entering the gates to the city, he had asked that gatekeeper if there were any water in the city. The gatekeeper had answered his questions with silence, which Kot.ikarn.a apparently understood to signify his assent.29 Now Kot.ikarn.a says to him, “Hey friend! It would have been good if you’d have informed me that this is a city of hungry ghosts. Then I wouldn’t have entered it.” “Go, S´ron.a!” the gatekeeper said to him. “You’re very powerful because of [your] merit. That’s how you entered a city of hungry ghosts and left it safe and sound.”30 Kot.ikarn.a then continues on his way, and once again, in another iron city, the same events take place and the same conversations ensue. In the end, two separate crowds of hungry ghosts and two separate gatekeepers tell Kot.ikarn.a that the reason he, unlike ordinary mortals, can come and go from these

48

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

cities of hungry ghosts is that he is “very powerful because of [his] merit” ( pun.yamahes´a¯khya).31 This expression is crucial for understanding the utility that offerings can have for others in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, but it is surprisingly tricky to interpret.32 Regardless of how the etymology of this expression is construed, however, the sense of the term mahes´a¯khya that seems best to fit its usage in the Divya¯vada¯na is “very powerful.”33 Setting aside the expression mahes´a¯khya, the term pun. ya in pun. yamahes´a¯khya is still problematic. Franklin Edgerton, in his Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary, proposes that this “merit” ( pun. ya) was “acquired by past deeds”—in other words, that meritorious deeds were performed in the past and hence merit was accrued. But who performed these deeds in the case of Kot.ikarn. a? Later in the Kot. ikarn. a-avada¯na the monks who are listening to the Buddha tell the story of Kot.ikarn. a ask him what deed Kot.ikarn. a did that resulted in these events that ensued. The Buddha makes no mention, though, of Kot.ikarn. a having performed a meritorious deed such that he gained sufficient power to enter and leave a city of hungry ghosts. Regarding Kot.ikarn. a’s meritorious deeds, the Buddha explains only that since in a former life Kot.ikarn. a “made offerings to the stu¯ pa of the perfectly awakened Ka¯ s´yapa and then made a fervent aspiration, as a result of that action, he was born in a family that was rich, wealthy, and prosperous.”34 Kot.ikarn.a, it seems, is very powerful not because of the merit accrued from his own meritorious actions, but because of the merit that his parents accrued, when they presented and established inscribed offerings in parks, community halls, and temples, and which they then directed toward him. The merit, in other words, is his, but the meritorious deeds were theirs. Approaching this from another narrative perspective, if it is to be assumed these inscribed offerings made by Kot.ikarn.a’s parents had some effect—and the text gives no indication to the contrary35—and since this is the only effect of such a kind mentioned and since this effect does explain how Kot.ikarn.a could navigate through the next world and then safely return, this interpretation seems quite plausible. Now to return to the question of what the “this” is in Balasena’s inspired utterance mentioned above and what assistance the “this” will offer Balasena and his wife. It seems that the implied subject of “this” is “this merit,” and it is this merit that once directed to others will make those individuals more “powerful” (mahes´a¯khya). As a result of this power, recipients such as Kot.ikarn.a are better able to deal with whatever situations they have to face as a consequence of their karma, or as Balasena and the hungry ghosts aspire, such recipients are destined for a favorable rebirth and a fortunate existence.36

getting and giving

49

. Two passages from the Bhais´ajyavastu and the Sanghabhedavastu of the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya provide additional support for at least the first of these two claims.37 In the Bhais´ajyavastu, the brahmans and householders of Nagarabindu serve a meal to the Buddha and then, after seeing five hundred hungry ghosts approaching, begin to flee. The Buddha explains that those hungry ghosts are their deceased relatives and offers to assign the reward from their offering in the names of those hungry ghosts. With their consent, “the Blessed One, with a voice having five qualities, then commenced to assign the reward in their names: May the merit from this very gift follow these hungry ghosts! May they quickly rise up and out of the dreadful realm of hungry ghosts!”38 . Likewise in the Sanghabhedavastu, King Suddhodana is described as feeding the Blessed One, along with the monastic community, and then presenting him with Nyagrodha Park. Thereupon, “the Blessed One, with a voice possessing five qualities, assigned the reward: May the merit from this very gift follow the S´a¯ kyas! May they always attain the station desired or wished for!”39 In both these instances what will “follow” the designated recipients of these rewards—like the “this” that will “follow” Balasena and his wife “wherever they are born and wherever they go”—is specified as “merit.” It seems quite reasonable that “the merit” (yat pun.yam) and the “this” (idam) mentioned in the previous prescription share the same referent. It is also worth noticing that in the example from the Bhais´ajyavastu the intended recipients are deceased ancestors, while in the example from the . Sanghabhedavastu the intended recipients are the members of a lineage, presumably both past and present. Though the two explicit “assigning the reward” examples in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na cite only deceased ancestors as their beneficiaries, the inscribed offerings that Balasena and his wife make on their son Kot.ikarn.a’s behalf are not peculiar in their intention of benefiting a recipient whether he “is still alive” or whether “he has died and passed away.” Nevertheless, it seems that these particular offerings were intended primarily for the deceased, for when Kot.ikarn.a is finally returned to his family’s park in the village of Va¯ sava, the first thing he sees are these inscribed offerings, and the first thing he thinks is, “If my parents have accepted that I’m dead, why should I go home again?”40

50

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

Following the logic of the story, one can intercede directly on behalf of the inhabitants of this world of humans and animals, but once beings have died and passed away from this world of humans and become hungry ghosts (or residents of the ancestral realm), one can ease their difficulties only by making such offerings as the text prescribes. For example, after Kot.ikarn.a has been left behind by his caravan, he proceeds on his own by donkey. That night, however, a dusty wind blows that covers over the path that he is following. From then on, the donkeys can only plod along, alternately sniffing and trudging. Frustrated at their slow pace, Kot.ikarn.a begins to beat them. “Suffering from thirst, with pained looks on their faces and their tongues hanging out, they continued on.”41 Seeing them like this, Kot.ikarn.a felt compassion. He reflected, “If I don’t set them free, I’ll straightaway meet with some disaster. Who has such a cruel heart and so little concern for the next world that he’d whip the bodies of these donkeys with a goad?” He set them free. “From now on,” he said, “may you eat grass whose fresh upper part hasn’t already been eaten and that hasn’t already been trampled! May you drink water that isn’t dirty! And may cool winds blow on you from all four directions!”42 Here Kot.ikarn.a first ponders the immutability of karma—if he mistreats those animals he will suffer the result of that deed and he will “meet with some disaster.” Moved by his compassion, he sets them free, for in this world one can help others directly. Yet compassion and direct action don’t serve Kot.ikarn.a in the next world. When, soon thereafter, he enters two different iron cities and meets thousands of hungry ghosts who beg him for water, he can’t help them. “Friends,” he says, “I’m looking for water as well. Where is there water that I can give you?”43 Then later, when Kot.ikarn.a meets the former brahman woman on a flying mansion along with her husband, son, daughter-in-law, and maidservant who are now hungry ghosts bound to the four corner-posts of her bed, those four hungry ghosts plead, “S´ron.a, you’re compassionate. We’re hungry. Give us some food!”44 Though the woman had told Kot.ikarn.a not to intercede— “S´ron.a, if these hungry ghosts ask you for anything, don’t give it to them!”45— Kot.ikarn.a offers them food that turns into dung beetles, iron balls, flesh, and pus and blood, respectively, as a result of their karma. Owing to the terrible smell of all this “food,” the woman returns and says, “S´ron.a, you were forbidden by me! Why did you give them food? What can I say of my compassion? Your compassion is greater.”46 Though Kot.ikarn.a is compassionate, and compassion can lead one to perform good deeds and reap the results thereof, he can’t feed hungry ghosts directly and satisfy them.

getting and giving

51

As the story instructs us, to feed a hungry ghost one must make offerings in the human realm and then direct the reward of these offerings to that particular individual. In other words, once a relative has died, if that person has been reborn as a hungry ghost—and there is no way of knowing besides, perhaps, asking a buddha—the only way to help alleviate that individual’s sufferings is to follow the text’s prescription. As the hungry ghosts themselves later explain, to assist them one should offer food to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana and then direct the reward accrued from such offerings in their names.47 This is the way, however indirectly, that they can be helped. As the hungry ghosts also explain, this practice is to be performed by the deceased’s children. None of the hungry ghosts ask Kot.ikarn.a himself to perform it on their behalf; he is only asked to convey such a request to their children. Likewise, Balasena hopes that his son Kot.ikarn.a will one day perform meritorious deeds and assign the reward on his behalf. Though Balasena is Kot.ikarn.a’s father and not his son, the extenuating circumstances of the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na lead to a reversal of fortunes such that Balasena, in making inscribed offerings for the benefit of Kot.ikarn.a, seems to be performing a similar though not specified practice of “assigning the reward.” Other aspects of these inscribed offerings are also a bit unusual. For example, though they do seem to convey merit to their designated recipient, there is no “ritualized recitation of a verse or verses,” but rather an inscription of them. There is also no intercessor—such as the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana—to assign the merit that is generated from the offering to its intended recipient. Further, there is no mention of any Buddhists in this practice, either as donors or recipients. It is merely said that these offerings were presented and established in parks, community halls, and temples. Moreover, while in other instances food is offered—since “hungry ghosts” ( preta),48 as this common rendering of their name indicates, are always hungry—here umbrellas, fans, water pots, and shoes are offered, perhaps as requisites for a journey. All this raises the question of whether, if it is the case with this practice that such offerings convey merit to a recipient so that he becomes more powerful, it is also the case in the instances where “assigning the reward” practice is clearly specified. Now to return once again to the second prescription made by each of the hungry ghosts (i.e., to offer alms to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana from time to time and then direct the reward in the name[s] of one’s dead ancestors). Regardless of the mechanics involved in this “assigning the reward” practice, this prescription still contains other problems that need to be considered. For example, to whom should the rewards of these meritorious deeds be directed? In each occurrence of this prescription, a hungry ghost tells Kot.ikarn.a to instruct one of his or her descendants to make offerings “and then direct the reward in our

52

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

names.”49 But is the object one’s mother and father, three generations of ancestors,50 or one’s tribe?51 In Balasena’s inspired utterance concerning the offerings that Kot.ikarn.a will one day make on his behalf, the object to which the reward should be directed also isn’t specified, only the result that “this shall follow these two wherever they are born and wherever they go.”52 This makes it clear that the object is Balasena and his wife. In the parallel passage in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯davinaya (GM iii 4, 160.17–161.1), the object to which the reward should be directed is mentioned, and once again it occurs in the genitive plural—“in our names” (asma¯kam . namna¯)—not in the dual as might be expected. One possible explanation is that this expression became fixed regardless of the number of the object. Likewise puzzling is the observation that follows this second prescription that “maybe then this bad karma will diminish, give out, and finally be exhausted.”53 Presumably, the karma in question is that of the deceased relative/ hungry ghost in question, but it could refer, in addition, to the karma of the intended performers of this practice of “assigning the reward.” Perhaps by following this prescription, for example, the shepherd and the others can help to alleviate their deceased parent’s suffering as well as their own. The assigning of merit from such meritorious deeds, however, doesn’t guarantee any results. The text is circumspect: “maybe,” or “perhaps,” or “may it be that” (apy evaitat) this will be the case. This circumspect attitude regarding the efficacy of this practice is striking considering that Balasena as well as the hungry ghosts who petition Kot.ikarn.a mention no other means to preserve themselves in the next world. It is also striking since in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯davinaya the desire of donors to secure for themselves a permanent source of ongoing merit that will preserve them in this world and the next—through this very practice of “assigning the reward”—is represented as leading to a variety of regulations and practices regarding the building and maintenance of monasteries (Schopen 1994: 544–547).54 If the practice of “assigning the reward” is such an important means of conveying merit, and if this practice accords with karmic laws that hold true for all mortals, why is its efficacy in question? The importance of probing the intricacies of “assigning the reward” becomes clearer when confronted with the apparent irony that both the system of karma and the process of daks.in.a¯ present: in a world in which ´sraddha¯ is predicated on seeing, these objects, the ones in which characters come to have ´sraddha¯, for the ordinary mortal are completely invisible. To phrase it another way, how is it that characters should only have ´sraddha¯ in what they can see and yet come to have ´sraddha¯ in two things that they can’t see? Is all this that

getting and giving

53

different from the boy S´vetaketu in the Cha¯ndogya Upanis. ad who is told to have ´sraddha¯ in “this subtle essence that you don’t perceive”?

The Paradigm of the Believer What then is ´s raddha¯, and what does an individual who has it do? As I mentioned before, unlike bhakti which is represented as a faith in unseen forces that can intervene in human affairs, ´s raddha¯ is represented as a mental state that individuals have with regard to others and with regard to certain “indirect objects” whose truth those others profess. For an individual to have ´s raddha¯, it is necessary that the individual have a visual confirmation of the truth of certain indirect objects (e.g., the system of karma, the process of daks. in.a¯) or be convinced of the truth of these objects by individuals who likewise claim to have experienced such a visual confirmation. Hence, characters never have ´s raddha¯ in entirely unseen objects, though they may have ´s raddha¯ in objects that they themselves have not seen by dint of having ´s raddha¯ in others who have seen them. For this entire process to work, an individual must hear the dharma regarding such objects—that is, a true description of how they function—from an eyewitness who speaks truthfully (e.g., the Buddha, Maudgalya¯ yana, Kot.ikarn.a).55 As I already quoted the text as saying, “great seers will never speak falsely.” This process is not without its problems. First, as in the case of the Kot.ikarn.aavada¯na, the requisite objects to be seen require one to journey to the next world. Yet, as more than one character in the text notes incredulously, “Has anyone ever been seen coming back from the next world?” Second, these objects— in this case, the system of karma and process of daks.in.a¯—can’t be seen directly. They are indirect objects, proceedings in motion. A character can only see individual actions or the individual effects of those actions, such as a man being mauled by dogs or consumed by a giant centipede. The causal connections that define these systems aren’t visible to an ordinary mortal; they are processes whose truth can’t be confirmed through mundane vision. Third, even these individual events don’t speak for themselves. Whether Kot.ikarn.a sees a city of hungry ghosts or the hungry ghosts inside, he still needs to have what he sees explained. In other words, even when he gains visual confirmation of an object—let alone an indirect object—he is still dependent on others to explain to him what it is that he sees. For example, during his travels, when Kot.ikarn.a is face to face with a lofty iron city full of hungry ghosts, he mistakes it for something else—not once,

54

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

but twice. Both times, as Kot.ikarn.a is about to enter such a city, he meets “a man standing there at the gate who is black, cruel, and fierce, with red eyes and a massive body, who brandishes an iron staff in his hands.”56 Kot.ikarn.a then asks each of these gatekeepers if there is water inside the city, and each of them answers his question with silence. When Kot.ikarn.a is leaving each of these cities, he chastises them: “Hey friend!” he says on both occasions. “It would have been good if you’d have informed me that this is a city of hungry ghosts. Then I wouldn’t have entered it.” Regardless of whether such hungry ghosts would speak the truth—for the text only claims that “great seers never speak falsely”—Kot.ikarn.a is still dependent on them to explain even what he sees before his eyes. Much the same can be said of Kot.ikarn.a’s engagement with the operations of karma and daks.in.a¯. For example, when Kot.ikarn.a meets hungry ghosts like the former shepherd or the former adulterer, he can see their situations before him. Yet it is only in response to his question—“What deed led you to be reborn here?”—that he learns what it is that he sees and the causal links of karma that are at work there. To explain it in another fashion, visual confirmation is a necessary condition for establishing the truth of an object (whether the identity of a city or the connections that constitute a karmic chain), but such confirmation is singularly difficult for the ordinary mortal to gain, and it isn’t a sufficient condition. If an individual does gain such visual confirmation of an object, he is still dependent on someone else to explain to him what that object is. An individual needs to see it for himself and have someone explain it. Seeing alone does not produce confidence and trust; one is still dependent on the words of another. This is illustrated most vividly in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na. Since Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana can’t always be present to instruct and discipline monastics and laypeople, the Buddha has a group of monks draw a wheel of existence in the entrance hall of their monastery. But images don’t always speak for themselves. Brahmans and householders would come and ask, “Noble ones, what is this that’s drawn here?” “Friends,” they would say, “we don’t know either.” Then the Blessed One said, “A monk is to be appointed in the entrance hall who can show/prove [the wheel of existence] to those brahmans and householders who keep on coming.” The Blessed One had said that a monk is to be appointed, so without making any distinction they appointed monks though they

getting and giving

55

were childish or foolish, immature or even unvirtuous. They themselves didn’t understand [the wheel of existence], how then could they show/prove it to the brahmans and householders who would come? So the Blessed One said, “A competent monk is to be appointed.”57 Like Kot.ikarn.a, who saw two cities of hungry ghosts but didn’t grasp what they were, the brahmans and householders see the wheel of existence but don’t understand it. For them to grasp the significance of the wheel of existence, a competent monk must be there who can dars´ayati it to them—that is, most literally, “cause them to see it.” Their understanding of the object is contingent upon this act. They need someone who—and here the secondary meanings of dars´ayati come to bear—“proves it to them,” “demonstrates it to them,” “explains it to them.” In the same way that the brahmans and householders can’t grasp the object without it being shown/proved to them, the person who performs this act of showing/proving can’t do so without understanding it. Epistemology and visuality are intertwined: showing/proving necessitates understanding, and understanding necessitates seeing. By the use of the verb dars´ayati, the text elides the notion that the wheel of existence needs to be explained with words, but the interaction that is recounted between the brahmans, householders, and monks belies this notion. The brahmans and householders see the wheel of existence, ask the monks what it is, and expect a response—a response in words. Since they are already looking at the wheel of existence, they expect that it will be explained to them, not shown to them once again. Yet the text is elusive. The visual subsumes the oral/aural, but the absorption is not complete. Considering that ´sraddha¯ in the Divya¯vada¯na is represented as being dependent on both a verbal and a visual interaction, it may be useful to think of this mental state as neither cognitive, following Jayatilleke, nor affective, following Gethin, but as the product of an aesthetic engagement.58 As Nelson Goodman (1976: 247–248) remarks about engaging with art, Most of the troubles that have been plaguing us can, I have suggested, be blamed on the domineering dichotomy between the cognitive and the emotive. On the one side we put sensation, perception, inference, conjecture, all nerveless inspection and investigation, fact and truth; on the other, pleasure, pain, interest, satisfaction, disappointment, all brainless response, liking and loathing. This pretty effectively keeps us from seeing that in aesthetic experience the emotions function cognitively. The work of art is apprehended through the feelings as well as through the senses.

56

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

It may be that unlike a Kantian aesthetics of “disinterested interest,”59 ´sraddha¯ in the Divya¯vada¯na is an embodied aesthetic experience, a multisensory embrace of images, or at least a trust in one who has had such an experience. In other words, ´sraddha¯ may not be simply a linguistic response to objects, but rather something more complex, perhaps akin to states produced by the practices of buddha¯nusmr.ti (“bringing to mind the Buddha”) or kasina meditation. These epistemological conditions and conceits in the Divya¯vada¯na help constitute a framework for practice that encourages the practitioner to be selfreliant and bear witness to the karmic truths of the phenomenal world, but that framework also constrains him to be dependent on the words of others. With . this in mind, consider the oft-quoted Kesaputta-sutta of the Anguttara-nika¯ya.60 In the Kesaputta-sutta, the Ka¯ la¯ mas of Kesaputta ask the Buddha how to evaluate the truthfulness of what ascetics and brahmans tell them, for when they listen, they have doubts and uncertainty. “Who of these honorable ascetics speaks truthfully and who falsely?”61 As the Buddha explains, Now look here, Ka¯ la¯ mas. Don’t be led by report, tradition, or hearsay. Don’t be led by canonical authority, by logic or inference, or by reasoned consideration, nor by the results of indulging in speculation, by good appearances, or by the thought that some ascetic is your teacher. Ka¯ la¯ mas, when you know for yourselves that these dhammas are unwholesome; these dhammas are faulty; these dhammas are condemned by the wise; and these dhammas, when performed and undertaken, lead on to loss and suffering—then, Ka¯ la¯ mas, you should reject them.62 While the self-reliance that the Buddha preaches here may sit well with the Buddhism of the Pali canon and the “Protestant” Buddhism that has emerged since the nineteenth century, it offers little practical advice for characters in the Divya¯vada¯na. The truth of the phenomena toward which ´sraddha¯ is directed, such as the system of karma and the process of daks. in.a¯, may be important for maintaining the laity’s conviction in the efficacy of their offerings, but such truth is difficult for anyone, whether Ka¯ la¯ mas or not, to “know for oneself.” Granted that ´sraddha¯ is not “knowledge,” but in the realm of practice, regardless of the visual rhetoric of the text, how is ´sraddha¯ anything more than confidence in the words of another? This configuration and rhetoric of ´sraddha¯ raises numerous questions, yet many of these questions are complicated by the fact—which I mentioned in chapter 1—that more than two-thirds of the stories in the Divya¯vada¯na also occur in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya. Considering that the Divya¯vada¯na is

getting and giving

57

generally thought to have been intended for the laity and the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯davinaya the exclusive preserve of monastics, the occurrence of the Kot.ikarn.aavada¯na in nearly identical form in both texts makes questions of audience doubly difficult. One can imagine that non-Buddhists might have been attracted to the character of Kot.ikarn.a, for Kot.ikarn.a isn’t said to be a Buddhist or shown to engage in any Buddhist practices until after his journey to the next world. In fact, the truths in which Kot.ikarn.a comes to have ´sraddha¯—that is, the system of karma and the process of daks.in.a¯—aren’t represented as being particularly Buddhist either, only aspects of the world “as it really is” (yatha¯bhu¯ta).63 The warrant for their truthfulness isn’t that the Buddha has taught them, even if he is an eyewitness to this effect, but that, like the Buddhist layman Citta in the previously cited example, he has known them for himself and seen them to be true. Even Kot.ikarn.a’s decision to go forth as a monk isn’t motivated by his desire to follow the religious life; rather, it is because he assumes that his parents think that he is dead. As he reflects, “If my parents have accepted that I’m dead, why should I go home again? Instead, I’ll go away. I’ll go forth as a monk under the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana.”64 And what about monastics? In the stories of the Divya¯vada¯na, monastics are never represented as having ´sraddha¯; only the laity are said to possess it. Yet, if monastics weren’t supposed to have ´sraddha¯ in Buddhist teachers or doctrines, what purpose did this discourse on ´sraddha¯ serve in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯davinaya? And what constituted their initial engagement with these phenomena? Was such an engagement also dependent on the visual? Clearly the questions that the text raises exceed the answers that it gives.

The Gold Standard of the Karmic System Previously I concluded that the object of one’s ´sraddha¯ was an individual as a speaker of the truth, and to a greater extent, the truth of that speaker’s utterance. So what, then, is the significance of Kot.ikarn.a’s remark in the Kot.ikarn.aavada¯na that “the whole world has ´sraddha¯ in gold, but no one has ´sraddha¯ in me?”65 What does it mean to have ´sraddha¯ in gold, as opposed to having ´sraddha¯ in the Buddha, Maudgalya¯ yana, or Kot.ikarn.a? And what is the truth for which gold stands? At one level in the Divya¯vada¯na, gold stands for the karmic truth that good actions produce good results, and often those results amount to possessing material wealth. There is, as it were, a gold standard for judging one’s karmic worth whereby the amount of wealth one possesses indicates the character of

58

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

one’s former deeds and the extent of one’s karmic stock. What is being said is that “money talks,” and the story money tells is of an individual’s karmic legacy. The material rewards of good actions—which, at least in the Divya¯vada¯na, can generally be construed as acts of giving (da¯na)—are most clearly enumerated in the Da¯na¯dhikaran.a-maha¯ya¯nasu¯tra (“The Maha¯ ya¯ na Su¯tra on the Topic of Giving”).66 The text lists thirty-seven gifts that a wise man should give and the results that will accrue from each gift. Yet, only some of those results are spirit. ual, like obtaining “the flowers of the factors of awakening” (bodhyangapus. pa)67 or becoming fully purified from attachment, hate, and delusion. Many of the gifts simply result in material benefits; giving wealth to get more wealth. For example, [12.] He gives a gift of clothing, which results in his enjoying excellent clothing. [13.] He gives a gift of shelter, which results in his having distinguished mansions, upper apartments, palaces, residences, multi-story buildings, gardens, and parks. [14.] He gives a gift of a bed, which results in his enjoying himself in an upper-class family.68 The possession of wealth, however, is more than just a fortuitous byproduct of ritual acts of giving. As the text makes clear, it is also primary among the reasons that such deeds are performed in the first place. In a number of instances, characters make offerings and then use the merit accrued from such offerings to gain—if not purchase—future wealth. For example, in the Buddha’s account of what Kot.ikarn.a did in the past that resulted in what transpired in the present, he narrates how in a previous life Kot.ikarn.a—then a caravan leader from the North Country—donated a jeweled earring as well as additional funds to help repair a broken-down stu¯pa. After making these contributions, he performed a great pu¯ja¯ and then made this fervent aspiration: “By this root of virtue may I be born in a family that is rich, wealthy, and prosperous; and may I obtain such virtues so that I may please and not displease just such a teacher as this one!”69 As a result of his fervent aspiration, the Buddha explains, this is precisely what occurred. This episode reaffirms the idea that I mentioned in the introduction that merit can be used as a currency for an advance purchase on future wealth.70 One can cash in the virtue that one has stockpiled by using a root of virtue as the mechanism of exchange. This allows one to capitalize on the virtue that one has, utilizing this moral capital to assure that one’s fervent aspiration comes true and to convert one’s present-day merit into future prosperity. In many ways, merit and gold are convertible forms of currency. One can gain merit through acts of giving, and through the acquisition of merit one can

getting and giving

59

gain money or gold, whether as a byproduct of one’s virtuousity or as a direct requested result. In addition to being both a natural and desired result of performing good deeds, the possession of wealth also indicates an advanced position along the path toward spiritual awakening. Throughout the avada¯ nas in the Divya¯vada¯na, characters who are destined for spiritual distinction in their own lifetimes are either born into wealth as laymen (e.g., Kot.ikarn.a, Jyotis.ka) or royalty (e.g., ¯ rn.a, Supriya). As´oka, Kanakavarn.a), or else they accrue it on their own (e.g., Pu It is as though the good karma that results in characters becoming wealthy somehow also leads those characters to spiritual achievement. This presents the outside observer with an apparent truism that the acquisition of wealth is a last step toward spiritual achievement or, more dubiously, that the acquisition of wealth itself somehow leads to this goal. Though the latter represents a false etiology, to the uninformed there is nothing to obviate the truth that characters who achieve spiritual greatness in their own lifetimes (and not merely a prediction to do so in the future) are disproportionately those who were rich and then abandoned their lucrative careers for spiritual pursuits.71 This realm of knowledge that gold represents has its proper place within the larger framework of karmic logic, but taken alone it can represent a form of materialism anathema to spiritual pursuits. And such a materialism is all the more likely to be construed in a visual culture in which objects of knowledge are tangible, visible properties. For example, one can have ´sraddha¯ in the Buddha and in the truth of the systems of karma and daks. in.a¯ and recognize that gold can be an indicator of karmic status; yet, having ´sraddha¯ in gold and adhering only to the gold standard of worth—as in, the richer you are, the better you are—is contrary to the teachings of the text as a whole. The possession of gold may be an indicator of one’s spiritual status, but one should not trust in it and the truth for which it stands. One should trust in the Buddha, in monastics such as Maudgalya¯ yana, and in laymen like Kot.ikarn.a. When Kot.ikarn.a remarks, “. . . but no one has ´sraddha¯ in me,” just such a critique could be understood. Without laypeople having ´sraddha¯ in each other, there isn’t the mutual trust necessary to create a Buddhist community that could work together. Furthermore, after Kot.ikarn.a makes this remark, the text records that “then he smiled.” This I understand as an acknowledgment of the irony that having ´sraddha¯ in gold and having ´sraddha¯ in the Buddha are not the same things, but rather an instance of synecdoche gone wrong. Though perhaps Kot.ikarn.a speaks somewhat in jest when he marvels that everyone has ´sraddha¯ in gold, I think there is a truth underlying his irony—that the gold standard of karma can undermine the Buddha’s dharma. Yet this truth threatens to be undermined once again, ironically, since the visual materialism of the

60

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

dharma that the Buddha is represented as teaching can help lead to just such a misunderstanding. It is desirable that the laity that supports the Buddhist monastic community possesses wealth, but other problems also arise when this desire leads to gold becoming fetishized. Another possible reading of this valorization of gold follows a different metonymic history. In the same way that in the Bra¯ hman.as the object of ´sraddha¯ shifted from a god to the sacrificial officiant (.rtvik) or the rite performed (Hacker 1963: 188)—loosely stated, from an object, to a mediator or a means—it seems that the object of ´sraddha¯ similarly shifted in the Divya¯vada¯na from the system of karma to one means of advancing within that system (i.e., making offerings and having the resulting daks. in.a¯ assigned to a beneficiary) to the currency used to make this occur—here objectified as gold. Perhaps Kot.ikarn.a’s remark that everyone has ´sraddha¯ in gold and no one has ´sraddha¯ in him is a twofold lament: first, that no one has ´sraddha¯ in him as a speaker of the truth regarding the system of karma and the process of daks.in.a¯; and second, that gold has become an icon for these phenomena. Kot.ikarn.a’s smile, then, could be an ironic recognition of this metonymic slippage—the confusion between object and means.

The Logic of Giving Yet, it is easy to understand how this slippage might have occurred. Practically speaking, one who has ´sraddha¯ in the system of karma and the efficacy of daks.in.a¯ should follow the Buddhist moral code and make offerings to proper recipients at the proper times. In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, however, the former is often subsumed within the latter; or, put another way, proper behavior is reduced to proper giving. In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, for example, when the hungry ghosts explain the karmic logic of their situations, they tell of the bad things they did, such as butchery and adultery, as well as the good things—more specifically, following the Buddhist moral code. Yet when the former butcher, the former adulterer, and the former brahman woman ask Kot.ikarn.a to inform their children to stop their evil ways, they ask only that their children offer alms to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana from time to time and then direct the reward in their names. No mention is made of following the Buddhist moral code. They seem to think that if their children make offerings to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana and assign the merit to them, their children will avert a bad rebirth and they themselves will gain sufficient merit to one day move on to a better existence.

getting and giving

61

This same kind of essentializing is also evident when the former brahman woman bemoans her fate to Kot.ikarn.a. As she explains, “Since I gave alms to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana, I should have been reborn in the excellent company of the gods of the Tra¯ yastrim sa.”72 Though she may also have done .´ other good deeds, making offerings to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana is the only deed she chooses to mention, and that alone seems to be sufficient to get one into heaven.73 As one who possesses the mental state of bhakti engages in the act of prayer, one who possesses the mental state of ´sraddha¯ engages in the act of giving. This aspect or consequence of ´sraddha¯ is also found in brahmanical texts. On the basis of passages in the Upanis.ads and Bra¯ hman.as, Hermann Oldenberg (1896: 448–450) tries to extrapolate from the connection between ´sraddha¯ and daks. in.a¯ and connect ´sraddha¯ more directly with gift giving. Likewise, in regard to the Bhagavad Gı¯ta¯, Paul Hacker (1963: 189) explains, In connexion with “giving,” the first of two constituents (originally “trust”) appears as respect for the person on whom a gift is bestowed, a respect that abstains from criticizing the weakness of the recipient of the gift, acknowledges this merits, sympathizes with him, etc.; the second constituent (originally “desire”) has taken the form of zeal in bestowing the gift. In the Pali materials, this active component of ´sraddha¯ is also found, though it is not explicitly labeled as giving. As Na¯ gasena in the Milindapañha explains, “saddha¯ has the characteristic of leaping forward.”74 Gethin (1992a: 111, 115), in turn, concurs: “saddha¯ is seen primarily as important as initiating spiritual practice,” and “the arising of confidence provides the motivation to act.” To the extent that ´sraddha¯ is “the motivation to act,” in the Divya¯vada¯na this act is the offering of a gift. In the case of the children of those hungry ghosts to whom Kot.ikarn.a spoke, having ´sraddha¯ entails offering the gift of alms to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana. In the case of Kot.ikarn.a, by contrast, having ´sraddha¯ entails offering the gift of himself to the Buddha. When Kot.ikarn.a finally returns home after his travels among the hungry ghosts, as his parents cry tears of joys and regain their sight, Kot.ikarn.a speaks his first words to his parents in twelve years: Mother, Father, permit me. Because my ´sraddha¯ is true, I want to go forth as a monk from home to homelessness.75 Kot.ikarn.a’s parents are distraught at his request and beg him not to go forth as a monk until after they die. Kot.ikarn.a relents and agrees to wait.

62

the practice of ´ S RADDHA ¯

Kot.ikarn.a hasn’t seen his parents in twelve years, and they haven’t yet conversed, but he nevertheless wants to abandon his family immediately and offer himself as a Buddhist disciple. Why? My sense is that Kot.ikarn.a’s ´sraddha¯ motivates him to give, and he wants to give the best possible gift to the best possible . recipient. As the Buddha explains in the Sangharaks. ita-avada¯na, “There is no better gift for a tatha¯ gata than a gift of new disciples.”76 I hope that I have shown in this section on ´sraddha¯ that there is a strong epistemelogical connection in the Divya¯vada¯na between seeing and believing and an equally strong ethical connection between seeing and giving. Moreover, a commitment to this epistemology necessitates a commitment to giving. These realms are perforce connected. In the section that follows, I will consider another paradigm of thinking and doing that seems to function within a similar epistemological and ethical universe. This paradigm involves the term prasa¯da.

part ii

The Practice of Prasa¯da

This page intentionally left blank

3 Agency and Intentionality

What the eyes do not see, the heart does not grieve over. —José Saramago, Blindness While some characters in the Divya¯vada¯na need to be convinced of the workings of karma before they make offerings to the Buddha and the monastic community, others are inspired to do so immediately upon seeing certain objects. One scenario that occurs frequently in the text can be called the seeing-prasa¯da-giving-prediction typology. It runs as follows: a being sees the Buddha (dars´ana), prasa¯da arises in him or her, and then the being makes the Buddha an offering (da¯na), at which time the Buddha foretells the reward that the donor will accrue as a result of his or her gift (vya¯karan.a). This scenario can be seen, for example, at the beginning of two consecutive avada¯nas in the text—the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na and the Stutibra¯hman.a-avada¯na. In the former, a brahman’s daughter sees the Buddha, prasa¯da arises in her, and then she offers the Buddha some barleymeal as alms. The Buddha then tells her that as a result of her offering, thirteen eons in the future, she will attain awakening as the solitary buddha named Supran.ihita (Resolute). In the latter, it is a brahman who sees the Buddha and in whom prasa¯da arises; he, in turn, offers the Buddha a verse of poetry and is told that twenty eons in the future, he will attain awakening as the solitary buddha named Stava¯rho (Praiseworthy). This sequence of events, as well as variations upon it, occurs with sufficient frequency in the text to merit questioning its grammar

66

the practice of prasa¯ da

and significance as a trope. Through an examination of this trope and the discourse of prasa¯da that it contains, I hope to elucidate certain Buddhist conceptions regarding the iconic value of particular individuals and objects as well as a particular sociology and logic of giving. Engaging with these phenomena, in turn, raises intriguing questions regarding the role of intentionality in the making of offerings, who does and doesn’t benefit from the making of such offerings, and what all this might indicate about the world outside the text. In the exegesis that follows, I will examine this seeing-prasa¯da-givingprediction typology, focusing specifically on the mental state of prasa¯da. Why does prasa¯da arise? What does its arising lead to? In whom does it arise, and in whom should it arise? In addressing these questions, I will discuss the various “agents of prasa¯da” ( pra¯sa¯dika) and the visual medium through which they operate, and then what happens when prasa¯da is conveyed to an individual— the compulsion that arises to make offerings, the location and degree of the agency involved, and the extraordinary rewards that such offerings yield.

Prasa¯da and Pra¯sa¯dika In Buddhist discourse, prasa¯da and ´sraddha¯ have sufficient semantic overlap such that one has often been defined by the other. Such synonymy is evident in Buddhist scholastic sources in both Sanskrit and Pali,1 and also in the sutta materials of the Pali canon.2 In English sources, this apparent synonymy means that prasa¯da, like ´sraddha¯, has often been translated as “faith.” This interchangeability of prasa¯da and ´sraddha¯ is even seen at times in the Divya¯vada¯na,3 though as I will argue, the terms mediate seeing and giving in distinctly different ways. In terms of etymology, prasa¯da can be explained as a nominalized form of the causative of pra ⫹ √sad. Its basic meanings include “clearness,” “calmness,” “graciousness,” and “serene joy,” and more commonly, “food that has been offered to images of the gods.” In an essay on the term pasa¯da, the Pali equivalent to Sanskrit prasa¯da, Edith Ludowyk-Gyomroi (1943: 82) defines it more specifically as “a mental attitude which unites deep feeling, intellectual appreciation and satisfaction, clarification of thought and attraction towards the teacher.”4 Rupert Gethin (1992a: 112), in turn, notes that pasa¯da “conveys at the same time notions of a state of mental composure, serenity, clarity or purity, and trust.”5 As Gethin also notes, however, “it is almost impossible to translate effectively.” While I agree with Gethin’s assessment and have therefore chosen to leave prasa¯da untranslated, the term does have a very specific meaning and function in the Divya¯vada¯na. Furthermore, the typology of prasa¯da that I mentioned above differs considerably from what is found in the Avada¯nas´ataka,

agency and intentionality

67

an earlier Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯din avada¯na compilation,6 let alone from the typologies of pasa¯da.7 In an effort to explain the meaning and function of prasa¯da in the Divya¯vada¯na, and the seeing-prasa¯da-giving-prediction typology, I will begin with an examination of the word pra¯sa¯dika. The term pra¯sa¯dika is constituted etymologically by prasa¯da and an agentive suffix. In other words, that which is pra¯sa¯dika is an agent of prasa¯da. One common usage of this term is in the sense of “attractive.” Objects so called attract attention or interest; they draw others in to see them, and at the same time they convey a kind of “graciousness” ( prasa¯da) such that others become “pleased” ( prasanna). In numerous instances throughout the text, prasa¯da is conjoined with two other words denoting external beauty to form a synonymic string of descriptions—“beautiful, good-looking, and attractive” (abhiru¯po dars´anı¯yah. pra¯sa¯dikah.). This tripartite expression is used to describe newborn children,8 men,9 women,10 the ascetic Gautama,11 nymphs,12 kinnara girls,13 as well as male and female hungry ghosts.14 In the context of the seeing-prasa¯da-giving-prediction typology, however, pra¯sa¯dika doesn’t have the sense of “attractive.” The sense it does have is difficult to explain; it is easier to describe what something that is pra¯sa¯dika does than what it means. Generally it is the Buddha and Buddhist practitioners who are said to be pra¯sa¯dika. They are, quite literally, “agents of prasa¯da,” and as such they instill prasa¯da in others. For example, in a long and recurring list of descriptive epithets of the Buddha, it is said that “he instills prasa¯da and his followers instill prasa¯da.”15 Two parrot chicks also make this observation about the Buddha in the S´ukapotaka-avada¯na.16 In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na and the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, it is the noble Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana and the venerable Maha¯ka¯´ syapa, respectively, who instill prasa¯da. Each is said to “instill prasa¯da through his body and instill prasa¯da through his mind.”17 This prasa¯da, in turn, is conveyed almost exclusively though the medium of sight—individuals see an agent of prasa¯da, such as the Buddha, and then prasa¯da arises in them. In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, for example, a brahman woman sees the noble Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana and then her “mind is filled with prasa¯da.”18 Likewise, in the Supriya-avada¯na, one thousand robbers see the Buddha and the monastic community made up of his disciples and then “cultivate prasa¯da in their minds.”19 ¯ kandika-avada¯na. What it means to be pra¯sa¯dika is further elucidated in the Ma When the mendicant Ma¯kandika first sees the Buddha, he observes that the Buddha “is pra¯sa¯dika and is worthy of being seen.”20 The text then continues: At the sight of him, [the mendicant Ma¯kandika] was pleased and delighted. He then reflected, “Such an ascetic as this one is pra¯sa¯dika, worthy of being seen, and captivates everyone.”21

68

the practice of prasa¯ da

The expressions with which pra¯sa¯dika is juxtaposed help to illustrate the term’s semantic range. The Buddha is “worthy of being seen” or “very goodlooking” ( pradars´anı¯ya), and as this term is a gerundive, it also has the sense of an imperative—“he should be seen.” This juxtaposition of terms is particularly interesting because elsewhere, as in the Kot.ikarn.a story in the Pali Vinaya, pa¯sa¯dika is followed by “worthy of pasa¯da” ( pasa¯danı¯ya).22 Here, however, there seems to have been a switching of gerundives, as though “worthy of pasa¯da” and “worthy of being seen” were somehow interchangeable; or, perhaps, that there was a similarity between an injunction to see the Buddha and one to cultivate prasa¯da. I will return to this idea later. The last epithet in the passage quoted above describes the power that the Buddha has over others. He “captivates everyone” (sakalajanamanoha¯rı¯)—more literally, he “grabs” (ha¯rı¯ ) the “minds” (mano) of “all” (sakala) “people” ( jana). Though frequently it is prasa¯da that arises in the “minds” or “hearts” (citta) of those people who have been grabbed by his sight, in this instance only “pleasure” ( prı¯ti) and “delight” ( pra¯modya) arise in Ma¯kandika. As the rest of the story makes clear, Ma¯kandika doesn’t have the right disposition for prasa¯da to arise in him. He merely becomes enamored with the Buddha’s good looks, thinking him to be “attractive” and hence a good match for his daughter. I will return to this episode in chapter 6. Stereotyped interactions between laypeople and solitary buddhas also suggest that prasa¯da is conveyed through a visual medium. In the Men.d.hakaavada¯na, for example, a certain householder and his family see a solitary buddha who “instills prasa¯da through his body and instills prasa¯da through his mind.”23 Furthermore, as the text explains, “those great beings teach the dharma through deeds not words.”24 Solitary buddhas, in short, are not verbal teachers. They convey Buddhist teachings and prasa¯da through bodily action, and these are learned and instilled by seeing. So, as the text continues, like a royal goose with outstretched wings, he flew up into the sky and began to perform the miraculous deeds of causing fire and heat, making rain and lightning. Magic quickly wins over the ordinary person. Like trees cut down at the roots, they fell prostrate at his feet and began to make fervent aspirations.25 Most often pra¯sa¯dika objects exercise their power in a visual domain. While in this trope, which occurs repeatedly in the Divya¯vada¯na,26 no mention is made of prasa¯da arising in those who see a solitary buddha, the sight of his visual sermon, a series of miraculous deeds, does prove to be karmically effective. Whoever sees these deeds undergoes a change of heart that leads him or her to make a fervent aspiration for some karmic goodness in the future.

agency and intentionality

69

Such examples testify to the enormous karmic benefits of seeing the dharma embodied or displayed. Solitary buddhas offer no verbal teachings of the dharma, only visual ones, and even without the mechanism of prasa¯da in effect, the sight of these visual spectacles is incredibly effective. While the Buddhist community “may have had no intention of establishing thaumaturgy as a means of propaganda” (Lamotte 1988: 51), other than the Buddha’s condemnation of miracles in the Jyotis. ka-avada¯na27 (and this too is made ambiguous by context28), there is no criticism of miracle-working in the Divya¯vada¯na.29 Seeing the dharma inspires and incites, and here the power of such seeing seems to have surpassed the discourse of prasa¯da. Conversely, there are other objects in the Divya¯vada¯na that are not directly defined as pra¯sa¯dika but nevertheless function as “agents of prasa¯da.” For example, in the Maitreya-avada¯na, monks ask the Buddha to display the undisturbed remains of the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa so that at the sight of them, they 30 can “cultivate prasa¯da in their minds”; in the Kuna¯la-avada¯na, the monk Upagupta asks King As´oka whether he would like to see the deity who witnessed the Buddha’s birth “for the sake of further increasing the king’s prasa¯da”;31 in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, a caravan leader sees a stu¯pa for the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa and “becomes even more full of prasa¯da”;32 in the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯avada¯na, a brahman “becomes full of prasa¯da”33 when he sees the Buddha’s magnificent tongue; in the Ma¯kandika-avada¯na, King Udayana sees his wife ´ya¯ma¯ vatı¯ miraculously stop the arrows that he fires from his bow, and when S he then hears that she is a disciple of the Buddha and that she has directly experienced the reward of the nonreturner, “he becomes full of prasa¯da”;34 and in the Kuna¯la-avada¯na, it is said that King As´oka’s “prasa¯da arose particularly at the Bodhi tree, where he thought, ‘Here the Blessed One perfectly awakened to unsurpassed perfect awakening!’ ”35 In terms of the ability of these respective objects to produce prasa¯da in others, the Divya¯vada¯na appears to present no hierarchy of value. Buddhas may be more karmically advanced than arhats, and one object may be a more valuable than another as a field of merit, but all are represented as equally efficacious agents of prasa¯da. Images of the Buddha, whether magically produced by the Buddha himself or generated in the mind of a practitioner, are also shown to instill prasa¯da. In the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na and elsewhere, it is said that when buddhas manifest their smiles, rays of light emerge from their mouths to alleviate the torments of beings in the hot and cold hells. Then, “in order to engender their prasa¯da, the Blessed One manifests a magical image of himself for them to see.”36 Likewise in the Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra, “a crowd of people become full of prasa¯da”37 when they see the Buddha carrying on a dialog with a magical image that he had created of himself. In the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na, by contrast,

70

the practice of prasa¯ da

it is an image of the Buddha envisioned during the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti that allows prasa¯da to arise. Notice the agentive quality of phenomena that are pra¯sa¯dika. Someone or something conveys prasa¯da, and the character who receives it becomes prasanna. In linguistic terms, that is to say, the nominalized causative of pra √sad leads to the nominalized past participle of the same verb. Likewise pra¯sa¯dika objects seem to lead to the arising of prasa¯da in individuals; they are the cause, the arising of prasa¯da is the result, and the individuals are the fortunate recipients. In the Ma¯ndha¯ta¯-avada¯na, for example, when the guildmaster’s son sees the perfectly awakened Sarva¯bhibhu¯, “intense prasa¯da arises in him.”38 This is then glossed by saying that “he is one whose mind has been made to be possessed of prasa¯da.”39 Although no agent is specified, it seems that the arising of prasa¯da is caused not by the efforts of the guildmaster’s son but by the power of the perfectly awakened Sarva¯bhibhu¯’s visage. In most instances involving the laity, the arising of prasa¯da requires no explicit effort on their part, no specific thought or deed other than simply catching sight of a pra¯sa¯dika object. For them, prasa¯da is more of an experience than a practice, for they are shown not to act before pra¯sa¯dika objects but to react. While some laypeople are said to “cultivate prasa¯da,” as opposed to it just arising in them, this too appears to be more of a reflex act than a practiced, proactive response. It is this inevitability of response among certain groups of people, this power of pra¯sa¯dika objects to generate prasa¯da in those who view them, that I will explore more fully in chapter 6. Monks, on the other hand, can better control their response to pra¯sa¯dika objects. As will become clear in chapter 4, they can choose to practice prasa¯da, not just passively experience it, and they can also choose to abandon the practice.

Secular Prasa¯da? The term prasa¯da also occurs in the Divya¯vada¯na within a typology of seeing and giving that is formally similar to the one I have described but that is outside of the realm of religious ritual. In the previously mentioned Stutibra¯hman.aavada¯na, the seeing-prasa¯da-giving-prediction typology is first worked through in the narrative present—a brahman sees the Buddha, prasa¯da arises in him, and he then offers the Buddha a stanza of poetry and is told of his future awakening as a solitary buddha. The Buddha then remarks that “in a previous time, [the brahman also] praised me with a single verse.”40 In the past, he explains, there was a king named Brahmadatta who ruled in the then-affluent city of Va¯ra¯n.ası¯. Also living there were a certain brahman and his wife. One day the

agency and intentionality

71

brahman’s wife said to him, “Husband, it’s the cold season. Go and say some favorable words to the king. Maybe then he’ll offer us some shelter from the cold.”41 So, the brahman goes to the king and utters a verse in praise of the king’s elephant, who is “dear and beloved to the whole world.”42 He exclaims, A body equal in form to Indra’s elephant, handsome and with excellent features— you are honored with royal splendor, O great and mighty elephant, your appearance is magnificent by any standard of beauty! Then the king, full of prasa¯da, utters this verse: My mighty elephant is dear and beloved, instilling joy and stealing the sight of men. You speak words in his praise, and so I grant you five excellent villages.43 Though here too the arising of prasa¯da leads to the making of an offering (i.e., five excellent villages), this example makes it clear that the occurrence of prasa¯da isn’t restricted to what might be thought of as the religious realm. Such categories as “religious” and “secular” are simply not recognized in the Divya¯vada¯na. In fact, such a categorization runs counter to the logic of the text, for it presents Buddhist teaching as a kind of natural law that fully permeates the social world, blind to such distinctions as “religious” and “secular.” In short, prasa¯da isn’t just a kind of faith. It is a mental state that occurs within different social realms in response to sensory contact with certain phenomena. Though vision is the predominant form of sensory contact for this transmission of prasa¯da, here, in what is a rare exception, the mode of transmission is aural, not visual. While one might claim that the brahman’s encomium is an “image-text” (Mitchell 1994: 89), a picture in words of the king’s elephant that functions iconically as the elephant himself, it is nonetheless words, not a living object, that causes prasa¯da to arise in this case.44 Another seemingly secular instance of this phenomenon can be found in the Jyotis.ka-avada¯na. There, a brahman is trying to sell two pieces of cloth, though he knows little of their quality. The householder Jyotis.ka tells him that one is used and the other unused, and that the used one is worth two hundred and fifty ka¯rs.a¯pan.a coins and the unused one is worth five hundred. “Why is that?” the brahman asked. “Brahman,” Jyotis.ka said, “I’ll let you see it before your eyes. Look here.”

72

the practice of prasa¯ da He threw the unused one high into the air. It remained there like a canopy. Then he threw the used one. As soon as it was thrown, it fell down. The brahman saw this and was in awe. “Householder,” he said, “you possess great magic and power.” “Brahman,” Jyotis.ka said, “show me the unused one again.” [Jyotis.ka then took the unused piece of cloth and] threw it on top of a thorny boundary hedge, and it passed over without clinging. He threw the other, and it stuck on a thorn. The brahman was even more full of prasa¯da and said, “Householder, you possess great magic and power. Offer whatever is your intention [ for the two pieces of cloth].”45

When the brahman first sees the magical properties of the unused piece of cloth, he is “in awe” ( param . vismayam)—more literally, the “highest” or “greatest” ( param) “astonishment” or “amazement” (vismayam). When he witnesses this again, he is “even more full of prasa¯da,” as though the former were, in fact, a kind of prasa¯da that was then extended “even more” when he witnessed another magical feat. Though Jyotis.ka possesses no magical powers, the brahman seems to think of Jyotis.ka as a kind of miracle worker, for twice he observes that Jyotis.ka possesses “great magic and power.” Though Jyotis.ka’s performance involving the unused piece of cloth is not a visual sermon within the realm of religious teaching, his actions, like the miraculous deeds of a solitary buddha, do offer a form of visual instruction. His deeds appear miraculous to the brahman and cause prasa¯da to arise in him. These deeds attest not to the truth of a solitary buddha’s powers but to the truth of an object’s worth in the marketplace. They are testimonies to a different aspect of the “law of nature” (dharmata¯). This parallel suggests that even though the text does not distinguish between “religious” and “secular,” there may be some particularly close ties between what one might be tempted to classify as “religious” and “mercantile.”

Sights One Never Tires of Seeing There are also a number of instances in the Divya¯vada¯na when sights that instill prasa¯da are also said to be “sights one never tires of seeing” (asecanakadars´ana). Though the exact etymology of this expression is unclear,46 it does seem to mark certain objects as being somehow compulsively watchable, thus offering additional insight into what it means to be an “agent of prasa¯da” and what it means to gaze at such an object.

agency and intentionality

73

Most frequently, the term asecanakadars´ana occurs as an epithet of a buddha. For example, in the Ma¯ndha¯ta¯-avada¯na, when [a guildmaster’s son] saw [the perfectly awakened Sarva¯bhibhu¯], who was adorned with the thirty-two marks [of a great man] and was a sight one never tires of seeing, intense prasa¯da arose in him. Since prasa¯da had been cultivated in his mind, he got down from his vehicle and bedecked the Blessed One with flowers made of four kinds of jewels.47 ¯ pas. In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, The expression is also used to describe stu a caravan leader from the North Country donates a jeweled earring to an old ¯ pa and then departs to dispose of his couple to help repair a broken-down stu goods. After he returns, he saw that the stu¯pa had become a sight one never tires of seeing. And at the sight of it, his prasa¯da became even greater . . . Filled with prasa¯da, he gave the wealth that remained [ from the sale of his earring] and a little more. . . .48 . . And in the Sangharaks.ita-avada¯na, as the monk Sangharaks.ita stares out to sea, the narrative voice remarks that “the Blessed One has said that there are five things one never tires of seeing: A mighty elephant and a king, an ocean and a rocky mountain— one never tires from seeing these or a buddha, the best of blessed ones.”49 A passage in the Rudra¯yan.a-avada¯na affirms this notion for at least one object that is asecanakadars´ana—the Buddha. In the story, painters come to King Bimbisa¯ra’s palace to paint an image of the Buddha, and then the text observes that “Lord buddhas are a sight one never tires of seeing.”50 That is why, presumably, “[the painters] would remain staring at whichever of the Blessed One’s limbs they happened to look at, and they wouldn’t be satisfied. Hence, they couldn’t grasp the Blessed One’s full appearance.”51 This sentiment has a striking resonance with a description that is found in the commentary to the Theraga¯tha¯ of the monk Vakkali, the wayward character in the Pali materials who was obsessed with looking at the Buddha. As I mentioned in chapter 2, Vakkali was “never satisfied with seeing the perfection of [the Teacher’s] physical form.”52 Within the Pali discourse of saddha¯, this is considered a fault. Vakkali is said to have cultivated saddha¯ to such an extreme that “because of the strength of his saddha¯, he couldn’t descend down the path of

74

the practice of prasa¯ da

vipassana¯ meditation.”53 In these materials, it is Vakkali’s flaw that the Buddha is an object that he can never get enough of seeing. In the Divya¯vada¯na, by contrast, there are objects that one can never get enough of seeing, such as the Buddha, and this seems to occur because of something inherent in the objects themselves. The painters in the Rudra¯yan.aavada¯na are never satisfied as they gaze at the Buddha, but this isn’t a fault of theirs. It’s simply the way things are, and the text does nothing to repudiate this behavior.

Prasa¯da Is Fundamental The term prasa¯da also occurs in other contexts and typologies in the Divya¯vada¯na that testify to its seemingly intrinsic nature for Buddhists and its strong claims to truth. Compare, for example, the stereotypical admission of intent made by lay Buddhists in the Pali materials and in the Divya¯vada¯na. In the final words of a number of suttas in the Maj jhima-nika¯ya, a layperson will praise the Buddha and then say, “I take refuge in the honorable Gotama, the dhamma, and the community of monks. Hereafter and for as long as I breathe, may the honorable Gotama consider me a disciple who has taken the refuges.”54 Variations of this vow occur throughout the Divya¯vada¯na, but the layperson making the vow always includes that he or she will be “a disciple who is full of prasa¯da.”55 Possessing prasa¯da seems to be essential for being a good Buddhist—even perhaps for being a Buddhist at all. The importance of prasa¯da in the Divya¯vada¯na can also be seen in the valorization of what is known in Pali as the four “principal trusts” (aggappasa¯da). While in the Pali sources these are statements that are to be trusted, in the Divya¯vada¯na they are “declarations of truth” (satyava¯kya) that have enormous power to effect change.56 In the Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra, for example, King Prasenajit of Kos´ala is deceived into thinking that his son, Prince Ka¯la, has been soliciting women in his harem. Merciless by nature, the king has Ka¯la’s hands and feet cut off. When Ka¯la bemoans his fate, wondering why the Buddha doesn’t ¯ nanda to go to Ka¯la, pay attention to his condition, the Buddha then instructs A place his hands and feet back where they belong, and recite a declaration of truth so that they will be restored to their original condition: Having approached, put Prince Ka¯la’s hands and feet back in their proper place. Then say, [i] Among those beings who have no feet, two feet, or many feet, and among those who have form or have no form, and those who

agency and intentionality

75

are conscious or are without consciousness or are neitherconscious-nor-without-consciousness, a perfectly awakened tatha¯gata arhat is said to be the best. [ii] Among those dharmas that are conditioned or are unconditioned, detachment is said to be the best. [iii] Among communities, groups, gatherings, or assemblies, the monastic community made up of a tatha¯gata’s disciples is said to be the best. By this truth, by this declaration of truth, may your body be restored to the way it was before!57 ¯ nanda then does as the Buddha instructs, and Ka¯la’s body is restored to A its original condition. ¯ nanda recites at the Buddha’s bidding is This declaration of truth that A a version of the first, third, and fourth of the principal trusts.58 Setting aside ¯ nanda the issue of how to account for these different versions, notice that A does not express some kind of “trust” in these assertions. He simply states them,59 and then says that “by this truth, by this declaration of truth”60 may Prince Ka¯la’s body be restored. What in Pali are propositions to be trusted are here propositions to be accepted as truth. And if there were any doubts about ¯ nanda’s declaration the truth of these propositions, the very truthfulness of A of truth, which by convention only works when the truth has been stated, is then visibly demonstrated with the restoration of Ka¯la’s body. Likewise demonstrated is the transformative power that this truthfulness seems to possess. Prasa¯da is true, and truth is efficacious.

Prasa¯da, Intentionality, and Exchange Understanding prasa¯da, however, involves more than enumerating the “agents of prasa¯da” and discussing the connections between prasa¯da, visuality, and truth. Within the seeing-prasa¯da-giving-prediction typology, prasa¯da is not just a mental state that arises in response to seeing someone or something—it also involves a compulsion to give. It is this intentionality of prasa¯da that helps explain the connection between prasa¯da and giving, and the unique status of the prasa¯da-initiated gift. The kind of giving that results from prasa¯da and the form of exchange that it helps constitute is well illustrated in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na in the interactions between the boy Sahasodgata, the householder who is his boss, and a group of five hundred merchants.61 Though prasa¯da in this story does not arise

76

the practice of prasa¯ da

from seeing a pra¯sa¯dika object, the reason for its arising and the giving that ensues follows a model of exchange that helps to explain the basic mechanics of the experience of prasa¯da. In the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, the boy Sahasodgata takes a job as a day laborer helping a householder to build a home so that he can earn five hundred ka¯rs. a¯pan.a coins, the amount required to feed the community of monks led by the Buddha. This offering of food, he has been assured, will lead him to a good rebirth where he can indulge in the same pleasures that he has seen represented on a wheel of existence. Since Sahasodgata is frail, he and householder agree that he should only be paid if the householder is satisfied with his work. Once at work, Sahasodgata tells “popular stories ”62 that captivate his coworkers. In response, “they follow his every footstep, though he works very quickly, so that they won’t miss hearing his story.”63 In this way, they double their output. When Sahasodgata’s boss hears about this, he starts to give Sahasodgata twice his daily wage. Then this dialog ensues: “Uncle,” [Sahasodgata] said, “why are you giving me twice the daily wage?” “Son,” he said, “I’m not giving you twice the daily wage. Rather, since I’m possessed of prasa¯da, I’m doing the duty of one who has prasa¯da.” “Uncle,” he said, “if you are full of prasa¯da toward me, then hold onto it yourself until the work on your house is done.”64 Here the householder makes it clear that though Sahasodgata is receiving twice the amount of his wage, he is not being paid twice. He is being paid his proper wage plus an additional sum that is the result of a kind of “duty” (adhika¯ra)65—a compulsion, as it were, incumbent upon one who has prasa¯da. Hence, “doing the duty of one who has prasa¯da” means making an offering as a result of the duty of prasa¯da. Glossed in another way, this “duty of one who has prasa¯da” ( prasanna¯dhika¯ra) might be thought of as a token or, perhaps, a fulfillment of having prasa¯da. As Gregory Schopen (1996: 98–99) observes, Edgerton [in his Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary] suggests that prasanna¯dhika¯ra means here “service tendered by one who is kindly disposed, i.e. service of friendship,” but this seems to be a little off. The householder is not tendering a “service” but making a gift, and not from friendship but from gratitude for a service done for him. He is, then, perhaps more precisely saying: “Son, I am not giving two days wages, but I, being grateful, am giving a token of my gratitude.”

agency and intentionality

77

Schopen’s redefinition is helpful, but I would like to make an additional corrective by tweaking it with regard to two issues: the nature of prasa¯dainitiated giving and the location of agency. This issue of the giving that occurs while “doing the duty of one who has prasa¯da” ( prasanna¯dhika¯ram . ⫹ √kr.) is discussed most succinctly by Schopen (1996: 92–100) in the context of an argument about the ownership of Buddhist ¯ lasarva¯stiva¯din texts, Schomonasteries. On the basis of various passages in Mu pen argues that monasteries given to the monastic community were not debtfree gifts. In return, the recipient monks were obligated to perform a number of acts benefiting the monastery’s donor: most notably, the recitation of verses and the assigning of the resultant merit. “This arrangement,” Schopen (1996: 100) remarks, “looks . . . less like a gift than an exchange of mutual benefits.” But from a somewhat different perspective, these offerings of monasteries are, in fact, archetypal gifts. As Maurice Godelier (1999: 43–45) writes in The Enigma of the Gift, within the logic of gift exchange and not commercial exchange, to give . . . means to transfer without alienating, or to use the legal language of the West, to give means to cede the right of use without ceding actual ownership . . . [ for] the giver continues to be present in the thing given . . . [it] does not become detached from his (physical or legal) person, and this presence is a force, that of the rights he continues to exercise over the thing given and through it over the recipient who accepts it. Godelier (1999: 48) then goes on to explain that “a gift creates a debt that cannot be cancelled by a counter-gift . . . [and] the debt creates an obligation to give in return.” ´ay-v Illustrative of this process is a passage from the S´ayana¯sanavastu (S 37.7–38.13), also cited by Schopen, that contains another instance of one “doing the duty of one who has prasa¯da.” In this passage, a householder hears a monk reciting a verse for the sake of donors who have died and decides to have a monastery built so that a monk will recite verses on his behalf, both now and after his death. The householder then has a monastery constructed, but no monks live there and hence no verses are recited for his benefit. In short, he receives no return on his investment. To help make the monastery productive, he then assigns the monastery to the monk Upananda. However, Upananda, one of the “group of six” (.sad.vargika) monks and a notorious slacker in regard to monastic regulations,66 lives elsewhere, and the monastery remains empty. A pilgrim monk then arrives in town and sees the empty monastery. With Upananda’s consent, he takes up residence in the monastery and proceeds to take excellent care of it.

78

the practice of prasa¯ da

When the householder hears of this, he is “pleased” ( pra¯modya). He then goes there in person, and when he sees the excellent condition of the monastery, he is “full of prasa¯da” (abhiprasanna). Thereafter he presents that mendicant with some cloth. Upananda then protests to the mendicant that since the monastery was assigned to him, he should turn over the cloth to him. All this is then reported to the Buddha who concludes that “when someone has prasa¯da toward another, and does the duty of one who has prasa¯da [i.e., makes an offering as a result of prasa¯da to that person], that thing belongs to that person alone. But an acquisition connected with the rainy-season retreat belongs to Upananda.”67 In other words, any income or property that accrued in the monastery during the rainy season belongs to Upananda (Schopen 1996: 91), but an offering that results from actualizing the duty that arises from prasa¯da is the property of the intended recipient. The pilgrim monk has cleaned the monastery—that is, he has given the gift of cleaning the monastery—and when the householder sees that this is the case, that he has received something for nothing, the obligation to give in return arises. The gift that he offers in return, the piece of cloth, is not governed by the normal rules of exchange that function within the monastery. Following the Buddha’s ruling, the visiting monk can keep the cloth that the householder has given him. As Schopen (1996: 98) remarks, “it is the private property of the monk involved and forms thus—along with the inheritance of family property—a part of the private wealth that the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯davinaya allows monks to have.” This logic of gift exchange is also evident later in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na. Five hundred merchants, after successfully completing a voyage, return to Ra¯jagr. ha. Though they’re hungry, “there was nothing to be had in Ra¯jagr. ha, regardless of money, since it was a lunar holiday.”68 Thinking that whoever feeds the monastic community might have some food left over for sale, they approach the householder, Sahasodgata’s former employer, in whose home Sahasodgata is feeding the community of monks led by the Buddha. The householder then directs them to Sahasodgata: They approached him and said, “Householder’s son, please give us whatever food is left over. We’ll pay for it.” “I won’t offer it to you for a price,” he said. “Instead, I’ll offer it in just the same way [as I did to the community of monks led by the Buddha].” He then satisfied them with food and drink. They then went to the householder and said, “Householder, you have profited and gained much—for with food and drink you have satisfied in your home the community of monks led by the Buddha as well as these five hundred merchants.”

agency and intentionality

79

“The householder’s son has profited and gained much,” he said. “He, not I, has satisfied the community of monks led by the Buddha with food and drink.”69 Though Sahasodgata explains to the merchants that he offers them food in the same way that he offered food to the monastic community, these two food offerings apparently function within different realms. Sahasodgata’s offering to the monastic community, it seems to me, can be understood within the logic of commercial exchange, for the objects of exchange are wholly alienable (i.e., ka¯rs.a¯pan.a coins and karmic merit), and after the exchange, “each party is once more independent and free of obligations to others” (Godelier 1999: 43).70 Yet, Sahasodgata’s offering to the merchants functions within the realm of gift exchange. It is given with no expectation of commercial benefit, and—as will become clear in what follows—he is nervous when it appears that it does. The merchants, nevertheless, comment that Sahasodgata “has profited and gained much” from feeding the respective communities of monks and merchants. In response, the householder remarks that Sahasodgata has gained much, but he mentions only Sahasodgata’s offering to the monastic community. The householder, it seems, only recognizes the profit that Sahasodgata has accrued from his transaction with the monks and not the profit he has earned from his gift to the merchants. This latter gift has created a debt, and such a debt creates an obligation to give in return. In this case, the debt of the merchants will result in huge financial rewards for Sahasodgata. After the merchants have spoken with the householder, the caravan leader urges the rest of the merchants to offer Sahasodgata whatever they have to spare: Since they were already full of prasa¯da [toward Sahasodgata] and since they were encouraged by the caravan leader, [the five hundred merchants] gave as many jewels, such as gems and pearls, as they could. A great collection was amassed. “Son, take it,” the caravan leader said. “Uncle,” he said, “I didn’t sell [you that food and drink].” “Son, nor are we paying you,” the caravan leader said. “And if you calculate the value [of all this, you’ll see that] many hundreds of meals like this can be had with [ just] a single one of these jewels. Since we’re full of prasa¯da toward you, we’re doing the duty of one who has prasa¯da. Take it.” “Uncle,” he said, “I fed the community of monks led by the Buddha so that I could be reborn among the gods. Therefore, whatever was left over was given to all of you. If I take this, it stands to reason that I won’t be reborn among the gods.”

80

the practice of prasa¯ da “Son,” the caravan leader said, “do you have ´sraddha¯ in the Blessed One?” “Yes, uncle, I have ´sraddha¯ [in him].” “Then go ask the Blessed One.” [Sahasodgata] then approached the Blessed One, and having approached, he venerated with his head the feet of the Blessed One and then sat down at a respectful distance. The householder’s son said this to the Blessed One: “Blessed One, after feeding the community of monks led by the Buddha, I gave the leftover food and drink to some merchants. Possessed of prasa¯da toward me, they [want to] do the duty of one who has prasa¯da. Am I permitted to take it or not?” “If they are possessed of prasa¯da and do the duty of one who has prasa¯da [i.e., make an offering as a result of prasa¯da],” the Blessed One said, “then take it.”71

Sahasodgata is afraid that accepting this offering from the merchants will constitute the acceptance of a payment for the meal he has provided, and that this will jeopardize his goal in feeding the monks. In other words, he thinks that if he receives a cash payment now then he won’t, in addition, receive the karmic payment of divine rebirth—that remuneration from the merchants may preclude remuneration from the monks. The Buddha explains, however, that he may accept the merchants’ offering. Since it is an offering that results from the duty of prasa¯da, as in the above example from the S´ayana¯sanavastu regarding the ownership of monasteries, it isn’t a payment that will negate his contract with the Buddhist community. He has still earned a divine rebirth. Sahasodgata’s offering to the monks, as I said previously, seems to adhere to the logic of commercial exchange. It is something like a payment—closer, perhaps, to a promissory note that will entitle the beneficiary to a divine rebirth. His offering to the merchants, however, adheres more closely to the logic of gift exchange, as does their counter-gift to him. The merchants have received food without payment—something for nothing, as it were—and they must give in turn. This parallel between gift exchange and prasa¯da exchange is crucial: seeing a pra¯sa¯dika object and receiving a gift both cause prasa¯da to arise in an individual.72 The householder in the passage from the S´ayana¯sanavastu as well as the householder and the merchants in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na all develop prasa¯da not from seeing an object that is conventionally described as pra¯sa¯dika but from receiving a gift—respectively, a cleaning of one’s monastery, double the labor from one’s workforce, and a free meal. Regardless of the particular form of these prasa¯da-generating gifts, the result of receiving

agency and intentionality

81

them is the same: the recipient must do “the duty of one who has prasa¯da” ( prasanna¯dhika¯ra). Previously I glossed this as “a compulsion to give,” but following the model of gift exchange, perhaps it should be understood as an “obligation to give in return.” This then raises the troubling question of how to explain the agency of offerings that result from the duty of prasa¯da. Edgerton and Schopen explain prasanna¯dhika¯ra as the fulfillment of a desire or a duty of the giver. But my sense is that much of the agency of the action bypasses the predilections of the giver. It is as though the act which is the development or cultivation of prasa¯da leads to inevitable results, and those results will take place regardless of the giver’s intentions. Much like the karma described in the Abhidharmakos´a as “non-agitated” (a¯niñja)73 or “determinate with regard to its result” (vipa¯ke niya74 tam . hi), these acts necessarily lead to particular outcomes. With regard to gift exchange, Godelier (1999: 45) remarks that “there is in the thing given a ‘power’ which works on the recipient and compels him to ‘give in return.’ ” But how and where does one locate the forces that generate this power? In The Gift, Marcel Mauss (1990: 13) claims that the object given is “invested with life, often possessing individuality,” and that “it seeks to return . . . to its ‘place of origin’ or to produce, on behalf of the clan and the native soil from which it sprang, an equivalent to replace it.” Though Mauss’s animist explanation has its critics,75 I do think, following Mauss’s insights, that the agency of the counter-gift that follows the gift of prasa¯da somehow resides in the gift of prasa¯da itself. It is generated by the force that is prasa¯da. Furthermore, this force is not a mundane power that is the product of a concatenation of social forces. In the text, it is understood to be in accordance with natural law, much in the same sense as Buddhist law or dharma. It is, to be vague, a higher power. Now if this paradigm of exchange also holds for the seeing-prasa¯dagiving-prediction typology, then the gift of prasa¯da that pra¯sa¯dika objects bestow can also be said to create a debt that necessitates a counter-gift. Yet the debt of prasa¯da, insofar as it falls within the logic of gift exchange, cannot easily be repaid. An identical counter-gift cannot be offered by ordinary mortals, for they cannot give the gift of prasa¯da, and even if they could, it would have little value for pra¯sa¯dika entities such as the Buddha. Furthermore, even if such a gift could be offered it would still not erase the debt, “for the object that returns to its original owner is not ‘given back,’ but is ‘given again,’ ” and this given-again gift is not sufficient to erase the debt incurred (Godelier 1999: 44).76 Within this system, prasa¯da is an inalienable possession whose ownership can never be fully ceded. It may pass from pra¯sa¯dika entities to the laity, but the latter can never fully control it. It may compel them to offer counter-gifts, but as ordinary

82

the practice of prasa¯ da

non-pra¯sa¯dika beings, they will never be in a position to offer prasa¯da as a gift to anyone else. The counter-gifts that are given, in fact, such as some barleymeal or a verse of poetry, have almost no use-value for their recipients. Though the text is not explicit in this matter, it does seem that the debt incurred has not been repaid in full—not even close.77 My sense is that the debt remains until the recipients of prasa¯da give something more personal, something likewise inalienable, to the Buddhist community—namely, themselves. For as I mentioned at the end of the previous chapter, “there is no better gift for a tatha¯gata than a gift of new disciples” (Divy 341.19–21).78 So what then are the implications of equating the practice of viewing pra¯sa¯dika objects and receiving a gift? From the economic standpoint of the monastic community, it certainly seems efficacious to have a class of objects that give the gift of prasa¯da endlessly to those who come and see them. These pra¯sa¯dika objects, besides being inexhaustible gift-givers—efficient gift factories, as it were—are also incredibly efficient manufacturers of debt. Those who come and see them, and in whom prasa¯da arises, are indebted to the de facto caretaker of all pra¯sa¯dika objects, the monastic community. Having received this gift of prasa¯da, this debt, they are prompted to give in turn, again and again, until they give themselves to the monastic community as monks and nuns. Even then, though, there is significant archeological evidence that monks and nuns were active donors at religious sites (Schopen 1997: 64). Perhaps these offerings can be understood as additional payments on longstanding arrears. In the end, such economic analyses are not sufficient. The giving of gifts is a complex social act. As Mauss (1990: 79) explains, “these phenomena are at the same time juridical, economic, religious, and even aesthetic and morphological, etc.” What the gift of prasa¯da produces is something very different from what monks produce through their assigning of merit. It is not a blessing or a boon, but a gift that necessitates additional gifting. Nevertheless, both receiving a gift and receiving the sight of a pra¯sa¯dika object can cause prasa¯da to arise in the recipient, and in both instances this prasa¯da results in the recipient’s making of an offering, with similar circulation patterns in each case. So what is the significance of equating these two systems of exchange? Why configure prasa¯da, the fundamental constituent of being Buddhist, as being a gift?

Rewards of Prasa¯da Next in the seeing-prasa¯da-giving-prediction typology is the prediction that the Buddha makes as to the reward that an individual will receive for making an

agency and intentionality

83

offering that results from the duty of prasa¯da—that is, from making a prasa¯dainitiated counter-gift. Here, however, there is some slippage within the text as to what exactly leads an individual to attain a reward. In what follows, I will discuss various possibilities: the offering itself, the root of virtue that an offering constitutes, the fervent aspiration or declaration of truth that often follows an offering, and simply possessing the mental state of prasa¯da itself. The explanation that it is the prasa¯da-initiated offering itself that produces the reward is made very clear in the Ma¯ndha¯ta¯-avada¯na. As the Buddha concludes at the end of a brief story that follows the standard prasa¯da typology, The merchant Otkarika was none other than me at that time and at that juncture. Possessed of prasa¯da, I threw a handful of mung beans into the perfectly awakened Vipas´yin’s bowl, and of that handful, four mung beans fell into his bowl and the rest fell on the ground. As a result of that action, I established kingship, lordship, and dominion over the four islands. As for that mung bean that dashed against the rim of his bowl and fell on the ground—as a result of that action, I surmounted the Tra¯yastrim . s´a gods. Monks, if that mung bean had fallen in his bowl, given the situation, I would have established kingship, lordship, and dominion over gods and mortals alike.79 This explanation is also in evidence in the Da¯na¯dhikaran.a-maha¯ya¯nasu¯tra, though the text does not mention prasa¯da. The text simply lists gifts and their results. For example, [9.] He gives an extensive gift that results in his obtaining extensive enjoyments. [10.] He gives a gift of food that results in his being free from the cravings of hunger. [11.] He gives a gift of drink that results in his being free from thirst everywhere in all his lives [yet to come].80 Elsewhere, however, it seems that an offering is valuable in that it functions as a root of virtue. As I discussed in the introduction, a root of virtue is a “virtuous deed” (kus´ala), or the merit accrued from such a deed, that functions as both “root” and “capital” (mu¯la). It functions as a “root” in that it creates a foundation for more virtuous deeds, and it functions as “capital,” for this virtuousness is like a currency that can be cashed in. This can be seen in the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯avada¯na and the Stutibra¯hman.a-avada¯na, both of which I mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. In the former, a brahman’s daughter offers barleymeal as alms to the Buddha, and this functions as a root of virtue for her reward. As ¯ nanda, by this root of virtue the Buddha explains, “That brahman’s daughter, A will not suffer a karmic downfall for thirteen eons.”81 In the latter, a certain

84

the practice of prasa¯ da

brahman offers the Buddha a poem, and he explains that “by this root of virtue he will not suffer a karmic downfall for twenty eons.”82 In other instances, these prasa¯da-initiated offerings function as a root of virtue, and this, in turn, gives purchase on a fervent aspiration. In this common trope, characters begin their fervent aspirations with an acknowledgment that what they aspire for will occur through the agency of a root of virtue—that selfsame root of virtue that was engendered by the preceding offering. In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, for example, as was cited before, a caravan leader donates a ¯ pa. When he later returns and sees the jeweled earring for the upkeep of a stu stu¯pa, which has been repaired during his absence, he is full of prasa¯da: Filled with prasa¯da, he gave the wealth that remained [ from the sale ¯ pa]. Then he performed of his earring] and a little more [to the stu a great ceremony and made this fervent aspiration: “By this root of virtue may I be born in a family that is rich, wealthy, and prosperous; and may I obtain such virtues so that I may please and not displease just such a teacher as this one!”83 This is then confirmed at the end of the avada¯na by the Buddha’s expla¯ pa of the nation of what has transpired: “Since he made offerings to the stu perfectly awakened Ka¯ ´ syapa and then made a fervent aspiration, as a result of that action, he was born in a family that was rich, wealthy, and prosperous.”84 Similar examples abound.85 Though the text seems to postulate that some offerings have fixed values— that they lead directly to particular results or that they constitute certain roots of virtue that can be used toward different ends—it is not always the case in the Divya¯vada¯na that a particular offering leads to a particular result or even that the making of an offering is itself the cause that leads to a particular result. There are variables, which the text sometimes chooses to emphasize, such as one’s stockpile of merit. Ordinary mortals don’t know the extent of their stockpiles of merit, so unbeknownst to them, one small offering could lead to a great reward, or perhaps to no significant benefit. Another important variable is the mental state of the donor. This requires some explanation. In certain stories in the Divya¯vada¯na, it is clear that even offerings with little material worth or utility can have great value, great purchase on some future reward, if they are an outgrowth of a proper mental state such as prasa¯da. The Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na provides a particularly graphic representation of this phenomenon. In the story, a leprous beggar woman sees the venerable Maha¯ka¯´ syapa who, as previously mentioned, “instills prasa¯da through his body and instills prasa¯da through his mind,”86 and decides to make him an offering.

agency and intentionality

85

Then the venerable Maha¯ka¯´ syapa, understanding her thoughts with his mind, held out his begging bowl. “If you have anything to spare, my sister, please put it in my bowl.” Cultivating prasa¯da in her mind, she poured [some rice water] into his bowl. Then a fly fell in. She began to take it out when one of her fingers fell off into the rice water. She reflected, “Although the noble one, out of respect for my feelings, hasn’t thrown [this rice water] away, he won’t partake of it.” Then the venerable Maha¯ka¯´ syapa, understanding her thoughts with his mind, right before her eyes, sat down against the base of a wall and began to eat. She reflected, “Although the noble one, out of respect for my feelings, has partaken of this, he won’t think of this food as a proper meal.” Then the venerable Maha¯ka¯´ syapa, understanding her thoughts, said this to that woman who was dependent on the city for alms: “Sister, I am happy! I can pass the whole day and night on the food [that you have given me].”87 She became very excited. “The noble Maha¯ka¯´ syapa has accepted alms from me!” Then, while cultivating prasa¯da in her mind for the venerable Maha¯ka¯´ syapa, she died and was reborn among the gods of 88 Tus.ita (Content). If the leprous beggar woman’s offering of rice water (with finger) were to be judged by its use-value, even though Maha¯ka¯´ syapa managed to make a meal of it, she no doubt would have earned very little merit. With the enumeration of offerings and their rewards in the Da¯na¯dhikaran.a-maha¯ya¯nasu¯tra as a benchmark, an offering of some rice water probably wouldn’t merit rebirth among the Tus.ita gods. While the woman may have been just one small offering away from attaining the karmic threshold that would allow her such an auspicious rebirth, the emphasis here is on how the mental state that leads to an act of giving can elevate even a mundane offering into something, karmically speaking, very valuable. Throughout the Divya¯vada¯na there are numerous accounts of donors making offerings of items that have little market value and then the Buddha foretelling the great results that such offerings will bring. Likewise, there are also many accounts of individuals attaining some distinction, and then the Buddha explaining that this occurred because these individuals had previously made some particular offerings—once again, ones with little financial value.89 Besides the leprous beggar woman’s offering of some rice water, other offerings mentioned include a single lamp,90 a lump of clay,91 some barleymeal,92 some rice gruel,93

86

the practice of prasa¯ da

and a stanza of poetry.94 These offerings were karmically valuable, however, because of the mental states of the donors. What the text emphasizes is that the karmic value of an offering isn’t determined exclusively by its material worth. Rather, it is determined by its worth as an object or practice plus the “worth” of the mental state. And what is stressed repeatedly in these accounts is that the mental state of prasa¯da is worth a great deal in terms of its karmic value. This immense value of prasa¯da is made explicit in the Indrabra¯hman.aavada¯na. Its value is simply inconceivable. As the Buddha explains, In this way buddhas are inconceivable, and the dharma of buddhas inconceivableas well. For those possessed of prasa¯da in the inconceivable, the result is likewise inconceivable. It is not possible to understand the extent of the virtues of those who are inconceivable, of those who turn the unobstructed wheel of dharma of perfectly awakened buddhas.95 Yet, the above verse makes no mention of any offering being made after the arising of prasa¯da. Indeed, there are some cases when prasa¯da arises in an individual, no explicit offering is made, and yet a great result is produced. For example, in the Na¯gakuma¯ra-avada¯na, it is said that Na¯gakuma¯ra (Na¯ga Prince) is carried off by a garud.a bird to the slopes of Mount Sumeru. There he sees monks engaging in meditation, study, yoga, and concentration. And seeing them, his mind was filled with prasa¯da. Possessing prasa¯da, he reflected, “These noble ones are truly free from the different kinds of suffering!” Then he died and passed away and was born in Va¯ra¯n.ası¯ in a family of brahmans who performed the six duties of a brahman.96 Likewise in the Cu¯d.apaks.a-avada¯na, the Buddha explains that though the five hundred wives of Udayana, king of the Vatsas, were burned in a fire, they were all pure and thereby upon their deaths all found good rebirths. Some of those women became “spontaneously arising beings” (upapa¯duka¯), some oncereturners and stream-enterers, and, as the Buddha continues, “those women in the harem who had improved their minds through prasa¯da in me, after the dissolution of their bodies, were reborn in a favorable existence among the gods in heaven.”97 And in the Pa¯m . ´suprada¯na-avada¯na, the elder Upagupta, after bedecking the wicked Ma¯ ra with a garland of animal carcasses and breaking his evil resolve, instructs him as follows:

agency and intentionality

87

Listen, my friend. Many times you yourself have committed offenses against the Blessed One. There is no other way to wash away bad dharmas planted in the mind besides prasa¯da in the Tatha¯ gata.98 In each of these instances, prasa¯da alone seems to be the cause of the rewards to come, not the making of an offering or even the intention to make an offering which, for some reason, is never fulfilled.99 Possessing or cultivating prasa¯da is itself an act of considerable karmic value. In fact, prasa¯da alone, as the text makes clear elsewhere, constitutes the karmic currency of roots of virtue.100 For example, in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, in the story of the past—which explains why, in the present, Sahasodgata has to take a job as a day laborer—Sahasodgata was a householder’s son who spoke harshly of a solitary buddha. Later, however, that solitary buddha has compassion for him, and so flies up into the air and performs the standard miracles. Then, “with intense sincerity, the householder’s son fell prostrate at his feet and began to make a fervent aspiration: Though I have uttered harsh words at someone so worthy of offerings from good people, may I not suffer from this deed. But since now my mind is full of prasa¯da, by this root of virtue may I be born in a family that is rich, wealthy, and prosperous, and may I obtain such virtues so that I may please and not displease a teacher even more distinguished than this one!”101 In short, prasa¯da is an exceptionally valuable karmic commodity. Its juxtaposition with the meager offerings it frequently generates only highlights its enormous yield, and—contrary to the form of the seeing-prasa¯da-givingprediction typology—its great value and power is not necessarily contingent upon the making of offerings. It can generate its own rewards. This independent figuration of prasa¯da, however, raises some intriguing problems for the gift-exchange model of prasa¯da. If prasa¯da arises in individuals and yet these individuals make no offerings, how do they deal with the “duty of one who has prasa¯da”? Aren’t they compelled to give like those in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na? Or is the act of cultivating prasa¯da itself a counter-gift?

This page intentionally left blank

4 Participation and Exclusion

He spoke frequently of the past, it is true, not as something dead and forgotten however, but rather as something which we carry within us, something which fructifies the present and makes the future inviting. —Henry Miller, The Colossus of Maroussi In addition to detailing particular methods whereby a character can earn merit, the discourse on prasa¯da in the Divya¯vada¯na also elaborates a sociology of practice, and in doing so makes pointed claims about its beneficiaries. In contrast to the notion that offerings have fixed values and that the greater the material value of the item given the greater the reward—an idea that privileges those with greater financial resources—the practice of prasa¯da is seemingly more egalitarian. The only people excluded are the wealthy and fortunate. As I mentioned previously, those in whom prasa¯da arises are generally individuals with little disposable income: a brahman’s daughter whose husband is away collecting wood in the forest,1 a bull about to be slaughtered,2 a young woman with no job or family,3 and so on. Yet the text also contains a metanarrative to this effect. In the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, there is a four-part discourse on the logic of giving that makes normative claims about who should be giving and the importance of the mental state that accompanies that act. In what follows, I will offer a close reading of the four parts of this story in an attempt to explain who it is that can and cannot make offerings within the prasa¯da paradigm and why that is the case.

90

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

Prasa¯da as Praxis: Beggars, Gods, and Kings The first part of the narrative, which I have already discussed, describes the efficacy of cultivating prasa¯da and making even the most meager of offerings. ´ra¯ vastı¯ for alms cultivates A leprous woman who is dependent on the city of S prasa¯da in Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa, offers him some rice water (complete with leprous finger), and as a result, dies and is reborn among the Tus.ita gods. ´akra and his attempt to follow The second part of the narrative concerns S ´ the leprous woman’s example. “Sakra, lord of the gods,” the text explains, “saw the woman offering rice water, cultivating prasa¯da in her mind, and then dying, ´akra then approaches the Buddha but he didn’t see where she was reborn.”4 S and asks him about her whereabouts. The Buddha explains that she has been reborn among the Tus.ita gods—in an even higher realm of existence than the lord of the gods himself. “Since gods can look and come to know what is below ´akra lost sight of the leprous woman them, but not what is above them,”5 S ´akra, when she entered the Tus.ita heaven. Then it occurs to S These mortals can’t see [the results of ] merit and demerit before their eyes, and yet they make offerings and perform meritorious deeds. I can see [the results] of merit right before my eyes, since I am appointed in the results of my own merit.6 So why shouldn’t I make offerings and perform meritorious deeds?7 ´akra disguises himself as a poor weaver working in With this in mind, S a dilapidated house. Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa, “having pity for the destitute, for orphans, 8 and for beggars,” soon approaches the broken-down house and holds out his ´akra fills his bowl, but Maha¯ ka¯´ bowl for alms. S syapa realizes that his offering is that of divine ambrosia and deduces that the “poor weaver” before him must ´akra. be S “Kaus´ika,” he says, “why do you create obstacles for those beings who suffer, especially when the Blessed One himself, a perfectly awakened tatha¯ gata arhat, has completely uprooted that arrow of doubt and uncertainty that you have cultivated for so long?” “Noble Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa, you ask why I create obstacles for those beings who suffer. Well, these mortals can’t see [the results of ] merit before their eyes, and yet they make offerings and perform meritorious deeds. I can see [the results] of merit right before my eyes. So why shouldn’t I make offerings? Indeed the Blessed One has said, Meritorious deeds are to be performed. Not performing meritorious deeds brings suffering.

participation and exclusion

91

Those who perform meritorious deeds can rejoice in this world and in the next.”9 The venerable Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa, however, offers no reply. ´ Sakra understands the Buddha’s message correctly—one should perform meritorious deeds so that one can escape suffering—but what he doesn’t understand is that he isn’t a proper donor. The proper donor is one who is in need of merit, one who is suffering. Earlier in the story, Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa makes it clear that helping the poor is his intention. When Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa is turned away from the householder Ana¯ thapin.d.ada’s door because, with his unkempt looks, he is mistaken for a non-Buddhist renunciant, he then takes the opportunity to serve (incognito) Buddhist “believers” (´s ra¯ddha). As he explains, “I’ll go then and do good deeds for the poor.”10 In other words, he will receive offerings from the poor, as when he later receives rice water from the leprous beggar woman. In corresponding versions of this story in Pali literature,11 Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa also plays the role of benefactor to the poor by being a recipient of their offerings. But in those accounts a different sociology of giving is presented. For example, the objection that Kassapa (Skt., [Maha¯ ]ka¯´ syapa) makes to Sakka (Skt., ´akra) regarding the latter’s attempt to give him alms is more explicit—not S particularly different, simply more clear. As Kassapa explains in the Uda¯naat..thakatha¯ and the Dhammapada-at..t hakatha¯, “You have committed a terrible deed, Kosiya (i.e., Sakka), in stealing away this opportunity from the unfortunate.12 By making an offering to me today, any unfortunate person could obtain the position of an army general or a guildmaster.”13 Left unsaid, however, is whether a fortunate person could also have obtained such rewards from such an offering, and whether the mental state accompanying that act is significant. A more important difference between the Pali versions of the story and the ´akra’s reasoning for offering alms Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, however, is in S to Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa. In the Uda¯na-at..thakatha¯, following Kassapa’s above-cited rebuke, Sakka complains, “Bhante, who is more unfortunate than me?”14 Kassapa replies, “How can you be unfortunate, enjoying as you do the glory of ruling over the gods?”15 Sakka then goes on to explain that three divine beings have now become more effulgent than him, suggesting that an offering to Kassapa will lead to an increase in his own effulgence. Much the same is recounted in the Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯.16 In the version of the story in the Uda¯na, Sakka’s explanation of his plight is brief: “We too need merit, Bhante Kassapa. We too should perform meritorious deeds.”17 In response, Kassapa doesn’t reject Sakka’s logic, but he redirects his critique at Sakka’s deceptiveness. “That

92

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

may be so,” Kassapa continues in the Uda¯na-at..thakatha¯ and the Dhammapadaat..thakatha¯, “nevertheless, from now on you shouldn’t deceive me like that and give me alms.”18 ´akra doesn’t claim that he In the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, by contrast, S wants to make offerings because others are eclipsing his glory. Instead, what ´akra is the fact that others perform meritorious deeds blindly, without even galls S seeing the results that such deeds will produce, while he can see the results of meritorious deeds “right before his eyes.” With such foresight, why shouldn’t he perform meritorious deeds? What follows is much the same as in the Pali materi´akra’s offering of alms prevents someone less als: Maha¯ka¯´ syapa complains that S ´ fortunate from doing the same, Sakra protests that he too should make offerings, and then Maha¯ka¯´ syapa more or less signals his assent through his silence. Here there is a significant difference, though, between the Pali materials and the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na. In the Pali materials, Sakka’s offering, however deceitful, earns him merit. This is clear from the following exchange between Kassapa and Sakka in the Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯: “Since I was deceitful and made you an offering, is there virtue in it for me or is there not?” “There is, venerable one.”19 ´akra earns no merit. Instead, each time S ´akra fills But in the Divya¯vada¯na, S Maha¯ka¯´ syapa’s bowl, the latter spills it out. When this is explained to the Buddha, he permits the monks to use covers for their begging bowls. In other words, ´akra prevented from earning any merit from his offering, but this not only is S incident is also used to justify the establishment of a rule so that in the future only designated individuals will have their offerings accepted. Though there is ¯ lasarva¯stiva¯dins that monastics no indication in the Pra¯timoks.a-su¯tra of the Mu should accept or reject the offerings of donors on the basis of their respective stockpiles of merit (Banerjee 1954), such a criterion does seem to be suggested in this case.20 Within this discourse of prasa¯da, offerings are to be made by “those ´akra, apparently, doesn’t fit into this category. beings who suffer.” S The third part of the narrative concerns King Prasenajit and his attempt, ´akra before him, to follow the leprous woman’s example. He offers to like S feed the Buddha for seven days, and the Buddha accepts his invitation. So, the following day King Prasenajit serves and indulges him and the monastic community with fresh and fine foods. Meanwhile, a bowl-carrying beggar stood in the area of the elders cultivating prasa¯da in his mind. “This king,” he thought, “can see [the results] of merit right before his eyes since he is appointed in the results of

participation and exclusion

93

his own merit. Yet he is still unsatisfied with this merit, so he makes more offerings and performs more meritorious deeds.”21 After all present finish eating and washing their hands, King Prasenajit sits down in front of the Buddha to listen to the dharma, and the following conversation ensues: “Your Majesty,” the Blessed One said, “in whose name shall I assign the reward from the offering—in your name or in the name of that person who has earned more merit than you?” “The Blessed One has eaten the food that I have offered as alms,” the King reflected. “Who else could have earned more merit than me?” With this in mind, he said, “Blessed One, may the Blessed One assign the reward from the offering in the name of that person who has earned more merit than me.” The Blessed One then assigned the reward in the name of that bowl-carrying beggar. And it went on like this for six days.22 As a result, the king is despondent, for he earns no merit from his offerings. Noticing the king’s condition, the king’s ministers make the necessary arrangements so that on the final day of the king’s food offering, the Buddha will assign the reward to him. The ministers order an enormous amount of food to be prepared, and make arrangements so that at the next day’s meal half the food will be served to the monks and half will be dumped on the ground. On the following day, this is precisely what takes place, and though the bowlcarrying beggars are eager to accept the food that has already fallen on the ground, they are prevented from doing so. Then that one bowl-carrying beggar said, “Though the king has an abundance of food and wealth, there are others like us who are suffering and longing for it. Why then isn’t it being given away? Why throw it away without making use of it?”23 That bowl-carrying beggar’s mind became distracted. It wasn’t possible for him to cultivate prasa¯da in his mind as he had before.24 When it then comes time for the Buddha to assign the reward from the offering, he assigns it in the name of King Prasenajit: In the case of a [king] with an army of elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers who protects a city and its people— now you see the power offering even dry and bland rice gruel as alms.25

94

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

This assignment of the reward is peculiar. The king has presumably accrued more merit this time than the bowl-carrying beggar, for the king did feed the Buddha and the monastic community while the beggar did not cultivate prasa¯da in his mind. But no one offered “dry and bland rice gruel.” Instead, the ¯ nanda, likewise, is puzzled, king had served a variety of fresh and fine foods. A and so he remarks, “Many, many times, Bhadanta, the Blessed One has eaten at the home of King Prasenajit of Kos´ala and assigned the reward from an offering in someone’s name. But I don’t remember a reward ever being assigned like this before.”26 In explanation, the Buddha recounts a story of King Prasenajit’s former “karmic bonds” (karmaploti). In a previous life, the king was a householder’s son. Orphaned at a young age and struggling to make ends meet, he takes a job guarding the field of a family friend. One day, the boy’s mother brings him some bland rice gruel, but before the boy can eat it, he sees a solitary buddha who “instills prasa¯da through his body and instills prasa¯da through his mind.”27 Then, “with intense prasa¯da, he offers the bland rice gruel to the solitary buddha.”28 The Buddha then explains, That poor man was none other than King Prasenajit of Kos´ala at that time and at that juncture. Since he offered some bland rice gruel to that solitary buddha as alms, because of that karma, six times he will have kingship, lordship, and dominion among the Tra¯ yastrim sa .´ ´ra¯ vastı¯, he will be a ks. atriya king gods, and six times, right here in S who has been duly consecrated. And because of that karma which remains, he has now become a ks.atriya king who has been duly consecrated. His offering of alms has come to fruition.29 “It is with reference to this,” the Buddha continues, “that I say . . .”30 and then he repeats the verse that he first used to assign the reward in the name ¯ nanda rightly observes, this verse isn’t a conventional of King Prasenajit. As A assignment of the reward, for no mention is made of the king’s receiving any reward from the offering that he has just made. No mention is made of any reward at all. Instead, the Buddha takes this opportunity to describe the offering that Prasenajit made in a previous life that resulted in his becoming a king in this one. That offering follows the familiar typology: a poor person sees an object that instills prasa¯da, and with the arising of prasa¯da makes a meager offering. While King Prasenajit’s offering to the Buddha is not without its virtues, the Buddha’s account of King Prasenajit’s former karmic bonds and his assignation of merit to the king single out those offerings that are made within the typology of prasa¯da as being most efficacious. This typology of giving contrasts with the model of giving put forth in the previously cited Da¯na¯dhikaran.a-maha¯ya¯nasu¯tra.

participation and exclusion

95

Instead of a simple correspondence in giving—as in, one who makes such-andsuch an offering will experience such-and-such as a result—here there is no obvious correspondence between material offering and karmic result. Moreover, ´akra, is shown to fail at the practice of giving as a means a king, in addition to S of earning merit. The fourth part of the narrative begins as word quickly spreads that the Buddha has revealed the former karmic bonds of King Prasenajit and how his path to kingship began with a small offering of bland rice gruel. Though the king seems not to have accrued any reward from his latest offering, he nevertheless decides to make an even more extravagant one. He provides the Buddha and the monastic community with all the necessary provisions for the three months of the rainy season; he gives them foods with a hundred different flavors and enough clothes so that “each and every monk is provided with hundreds and thousands of garments”;31 and he collects a million jars of oil so that there can be an offering of “oil-lamp trees.”32 Meanwhile, a certain woman who is dependent on the city for alms and is “suffering greatly”33 hears that the king has offered food and clothes to the monastic community and is getting ready to perform a ceremony with oil-lamp trees. And so, she thinks, This King Prasenajit of Kos´ala isn’t satisfied with his merit, so he still makes offerings and performs meritorious deeds. I really should collect [oil] from someplace so that I can offer a lamp to the Blessed One as well.34 She then begs a little bit of oil, and uses it to light a lamp that she has placed where the Buddha will do his walking meditation. Thereafter, she makes this fervent aspiration: ´a¯ kyamuni arose in the By this root of virtue, just as the Lord S world, when people lived for one hundred years, as a teacher ´a¯ kyamuni; likewise, may I too, when people live for one named S ´a¯ kyamuni. As that excelhundred years, be a teacher, that very S ´ lent pair, Sa¯ riputra and Maudgalya¯ yana, were his first pair of ¯ nanda his personal attendant, S ´uddhodana disciples, the monk A his father, Maha¯ ma¯ ya¯ his mother, Kapilavastu his city, and Prince ´a¯ riputra Ra¯ hulabhadra his son; likewise, may the excellent pair, S and Maudgalya¯ yana, also be my first pair of disciples, the monk ¯ nanda my personal attendant, S ´uddhodana my father, Maha¯ ma¯ ya¯ A my mother, Kapilavastu my city, and Prince Ra¯ hulabhadra my son. And as the Blessed One will pass into final nirva¯n.a and his relics be

96

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

distributed; likewise, may I too pass into final nirva¯n.a and may my relics be distributed.35 ¯ nanda notices that the lamp that the woman has Later in the evening, A offered is still lit. Since it is “impossible and inconceivable that lord buddhas ¯ nanda tries to put out the lamp, but he isn’t would go to sleep in the light,”36 A able to do so. The Buddha then explains to him, ¯ nanda, you’ll just exhaust yourself. Even if gale-force winds were to A blow, they wouldn’t be able to put it out, much less the movement of a hand, the edge of a robe, or a fan. This is so precisely because this lamp was lit by that woman with a great resolution of mind.37 The Buddha then repeats the particulars of the woman’s fervent aspiration, and explains that they will come true. Like the bowl-carrying beggar who recognized the impropriety of King Prasenajit making more offerings and earning even more merit, the woman who is dependent on the city for alms also wonders why the king isn’t satisfied with his merit. Yet, unlike that bowl-carrying beggar, she doesn’t then cultivate prasa¯da. She only has this thought and then decides that she too should make an offering. After begging her way to some oil, she offers a lamp to the Buddha and makes a fervent aspiration—that is, she uses the root of virtue constituted by her offering so that her aspiration will be fulfilled. Instead of cultivating prasa¯da, the woman who is dependent on the city for alms cultivates “a great resolution of mind”38 which, like prasa¯da, also produces amazing results. In the Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra, for example, the Buddha, “with a resolute [mind]”39 puts his foot down on the ground, and as a result the whole world system begins to shake. Without getting into the particularities of this mental state and whether it offers another rubric for action, suffice it to say that its use here reaffirms the notion that certain paradigms of seeing and giving are particularly efficacious for the poor. This is not to say that rich people can not or should not make offerings, for such a prohibition would constitute economic suicide for the monastic community, but that within certain practices, money is not a viable currency for karmic development. This, the text seems to be saying, can be a difficult lesson for kings, and perhaps for the wealthy and fortunate in general. Testifying to the power of this woman’s offering is the quite literally unbe´a¯ kyamuni Buddha lievable reward that she will receive as a result. She will be S ´a¯ kyamuni himself. Regardless of whether this means that she will be a future S Buddha who is seemingly identical to his predecessor or, more ontologically ´a¯ kyamuni Buddha to whom she has just made an offering, troubling, the very S

participation and exclusion

97

the prediction has an unmistakable force. Even a poor woman—a doubly bereft karmic position40—who focuses her mind in the right way and then makes an offering toward an appropriate field of merit can achieve the highest results, even becoming a buddha. As a testament as well to Maha¯ ka¯ ´ syapa’s assertion that offerings should be made by “those beings who suffer,” here it is precisely such a being who is “suffering greatly” that is shown to benefit from making an offering. Within the social logic of giving presented here, proper donors are not simply poor or unfortunate, but those whose meager stock of merit leaves them suffering. When ´akra and King Prasenajit hear of the great results that the leprous woman S received from her offering, they try to make offerings as well, but to no avail. ´akra is physically prevented from doing so, and King Prasenajit is allowed S to do so but is assigned no merit from the deed. King Prasenajit nevertheless make an even more elaborate offering, yet here as well no mention is made of any merit being assigned. They are not proper donors. They are not suffering from a lack of merit. King Prasenajit’s second offering, however, is more than just an exercise in futility; it is also a marker of his greed. When the woman who is dependent on the city for alms observes that King Prasenajit isn’t satisfied with his merit, it is this observation that constitutes—or, perhaps, leads to—a resolution of mind valuable enough that she can have full purchase on future buddhahood. Perhaps her observation functions something like a declaration of truth, much in the same way that the principal trusts became powerful performatives for ¯ nanda. A In other words, there is something wrong about the king—someone successful, someone appointed in the results of previous good deeds—making offerings out of a desire for more merit. It runs contrary to the “law of nature” ´akra before him, can’t cultivate prasa¯da or prop(dharmata¯). The king, like S erly focus his mind, so he can’t advance within the karmic system. His status, perhaps even his social status, has prevented him from experiencing prasa¯da, making efficacious offerings, and moving beyond his position in life.

What Is It that Kings Practice? What then is a king supposed to do? If kings aren’t supposed to give or if they don’t earn merit from giving, what kind of Buddhist practice should they cultivate? Although King Prasenajit makes an offering of a week’s worth of meals and then an even larger offering of three month’s worth of monastic requisites, he doesn’t seem to earn any merit from these deeds. One could imagine

98

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

the character of King Prasenajit becoming increasingly rattled as the destitute around him make meager offerings and are told of their great rewards to come, while his offerings yield no results. This inefficacy, this apparent futility of royal giving within the prasa¯da paradigm, might help explain the feverish intensity with which many kings are represented as making offerings. Much in the same way that the Buddha and other asecanakadars´ana objects are something that one can’t get enough of seeing, giving is something that kings can’t get enough of doing. King As´oka’s frenzy of giving at the end of his life offers a good example of this. In the As´oka-avada¯na, after King As´oka “has found ´sraddha¯ in the teachings of the Blessed One,” he asks the monks “who it was that gave the most extensive gift to the Blessed One’s order.”41 They explain that it was the householder Ana¯ thapin.d.ada, who gave a gift of ten billion gold pieces. In response As´oka declares, “I too will make a gift of ten billion [gold pieces] to the Blessed One’s order.”42 As´oka then embarks on a spree of donations to the Buddha and the monastic community. He gives one hundred thousand gold pieces to each of the eighty-four thousand stu¯pas that he had previously built; he puts on a quinquennial festival during which he spends four hundred thousand gold pieces and feeds three hundred thousand monks;43 and he presents the monastic community with the great earth (except for his treasury), and with his harem, his cabinet of ministers, his own person, and his son Kuna¯la, all of which he then redeems for four hundred thousand gold pieces. At this point, As´oka falls ill. Though 96 percent of the way to his goal of giving ten billion gold pieces to the Blessed One’s order, his offering is not complete. As he laments, “This intention of mine has not been fulfilled.”44 Still intent, nevertheless, on completing his offering, he continues to the Kukkut.a¯ra¯ ma monastery, but then the heir apparent, his grandson Sampadin, issues an order prohibiting his access to state funds. Now penniless and powerless, he offers what little else remains: the gold plates on which his food is served, and then when those are taken away, the silver plates that are used in their place, and when those are taken away, the copper plates that are used instead. Soon, however, these too are taken away. Forced to eat off plates of clay, he is now destitute. All he has left is half of a myrobalan fruit. As´oka then has that myrobalan given to the monastic community on his behalf. With that done, he then presents the entire earth (except for the state treasury) to the community of the Blessed One’s disciples. As he explains, With this gift, I seek neither Indra’s abode nor reward in the Brahma¯ World,

participation and exclusion

99

let alone royal glory, which is unsteady like a tidal current. Instead, since I honored it with bhakti, as the result of this gift may I attain something that cannot be taken away, which is honored by the noble and which is safe from change— sovereignty over the mind.45 As´oka then dies. Although As´oka has completed his goal of offering ten billion gold pieces to the Blessed One’s order, no mention is made of whether his vow has come true or will do so in the future. As in the case of King Prasenajit, it may be that this offering, however extensive, does not produce the desired results of the donor. It is unclear, however, whether this last offering should be evaluated within the prasa¯da paradigm, for As´oka makes the offering not with prasa¯da, but with bhakti. One explanation might be that As´oka generates bhakti because as a king he can’t cultivate prasa¯da, and his offering goes unrewarded because bhakti, as I discussed in chapter 2, is generally ineffectual when coupled with an aspiration. Then again, As´oka’s frenzy of giving might be explained within the rubric of prasa¯da as a panicked reaction to his inability to cultivate prasa¯da, an interpretation that might also explain King Prasenajit’s decision to offer three month’s worth of requisites to the monastic community. Yet such interpretations are only tentative, for there are significant peculiarities in the As´oka cycle of stories regarding prasa¯da, ´sraddha¯, and bhakti. While there are examples in the As´oka stories of the normative use of these terms,46 there are also quite a few instances when these terms are used unconventionally.47 Even the standard tropes regarding prasa¯da are absent.48 I suspect that the As´oka stories were written at a different time, or by different authors, or for a different audience than the other stories in the Divya¯vada¯na. This isn’t to claim that the remaining stories in the text are fully homogeneous in terms of tropes, but the As´oka stories do seem to function within a different framework. Regardless of the distinctiveness of the As´oka stories, the logic of giving that kings tend to follow in the Divya¯vada¯na still falls somewhat outside of the prasa¯da paradigm.49 Most notably, kings have a fixation on giving and the benefits it yields which contrasts with the less premeditated giving that occurs when one offers prasa¯da-initiated gifts. In the Candraprabhabodhisattvacarya¯-avada¯na, for example, King Candraprabha, much like King As´oka, is extremely intent on giving. As the text explains, he is “a bodhisattva who gives away everything, who abandons

100

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

everything, and who does so without attachment.”50 The brahman Raudraks.a then hears that “there is a king named Candraprabha who has vowed to himself to give away everything,”51 so he goes to the king and asks him for his head. Since King Candraprabha “desires to make a sacrifice that will be greatly distinguished as the best of sacrifices,”52 he says to him, “Brahman, freely and without interference, you may take this head of mine—it is my best limb.”53 In what follows, King Candraprabha uses the offering of his head so that he can make a declaration of truth for the attainment of unsurpassed perfect awakening.54 In Reiko Ohnuma’s (2007: 91) work on “gift of the body” (dehada¯na) stories, she describes how such offerings of the body, including King Candraprabha’s self-sacrifice, were often conceived as “the paradigmatic example or fullest embodiment of da¯na-pa¯ramita¯ (the ‘perfection of generosity’).” As Ohnuma (2007: 170) explains, “gifts of the body constitute a fulfillment of da¯na-pa¯ramita¯ precisely because of the great purity of intention that is assumed to accompany such gifts.” It is purity of intention above all that characterizes the gift of the body as an ideal form of gift. This model of giving offers a stark contrast to the prasa¯da model. A gift of the body necessitates a great purity of intention on the part of the donor. Yet, within the prasa¯da paradigm, as I described in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, the intentionality of the donor is effectively erased by the natural exigencies of prasa¯da once it has arisen. This isn’t to say, though, that donors within the prasa¯da paradigm don’t have larger designs regarding the uses of giving. In certain cases, such donors make use of the roots of virtue that their offerings constitute and make fervent aspirations for rewards in the future, such as rebirth “in a family that is rich, wealthy, and prosperous.” These larger designs, however, don’t interfere with the mechanics of prasa¯da. Perhaps a distinction should be made between the intention with which one performs an action, and the intention that one has for the functionality of the action performed. In other words, there is a distinction between the intention to perform an act and the intention to achieve that act’s effect. The former might be called “acting with intention”; the latter, “acting with purpose.”55 Successful instances of giving within the prasa¯da paradigm might be considered “acting with intention,” even though that intention is often all but eclipsed. What is missing on those occasions, however, is some ulterior motive for making an offering, such as karmic distinction or financial security in the future. Unsuccessful instances of giving within the prasa¯da paradigm might be considered “acting with purpose,” for on those occasions donors act with the purpose of their own future reward.56 ´akra gives divine ambrosia In the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, for example, S to Maha¯ ka¯ ´ syapa, and King Prasenajit offers food and requisites to the monastic

participation and exclusion

101

community, not because they want to feed those respective recipients, but because they have heard of the great rewards a leprous woman has received from offering rice water to Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa. They too want to enjoy such benefits. Such a dichotomy creates a necessary or forced naiveté on the part of those donors “acting with intention” such that they make their offerings with no thought of ´akra and the effects that their offerings will have. Later in the story, after both S King Prasenajit have made their offerings and have had their high hopes for some beneficial results dashed, a suffering woman dependent on the city for alms makes a more meritorious offering of an oil lamp. Yet her offering isn’t inspired by the leprous woman’s offering, but by King Prasenajit’s folly: he “isn’t satisfied with his merit so he still makes offerings and performs meritorious deeds.” Hence, she makes her offering with no apparent ulterior motive. Elsewhere, however, in what constitutes a compelling rejoinder to the prasa¯da paradigm, kings are shown to benefit greatly from “acting with purpose.” In the Maitreya-avada¯na, in yet another instance of the kingly desire for superlatives and excess, King Dhanasammata becomes furious when he hears that King Va¯ sava rules a kingdom as prosperous and fortunate as his own, so he challenges the latter to battle. With both sides lined up for a war, however, King Dhanasammata discovers that a buddha, the perfectly awakened Ratnas´ikhin, lives within King Va¯ sava’s realm. Realizing that he has no hope of winning a battle against someone who has a buddha on his side, King Dhanasammata decides to sue for peace. He then sends an envoy to King Va¯ sava, and mutual goodwill is affirmed. With peace assured, King Va¯sava then approaches the perfectly awakened Ratnas´ikhin and asks him, “Bhadanta, at whose feet do all kings fall prostrate?” “At those of a cakravartin king, your majesty,”57 the perfectly awakened Ratnas´ikhin replies. With that said, King Va¯ sava invites Ratnas´ikhin Buddha and the community of monks over to his house for a meal on the following day. When that time comes, King Va¯ sava feeds Ratnas´ikhin with his own hands and then falls prostrate at his feet and makes a fervent aspiration: “Bhadanta, by this root of virtue may I be a cakravartin king.” Immediately a conch sounded. The perfectly awakened Ratnas´ikhin then said this to King ¯ Va sava: “Your majesty, when people live for eighty thousand years, ´an.kha (Conch).”58 you will be a cakravartin king named S When King Dhanasammata hears of this prediction, he too approaches the perfectly awakened Ratnas´ikhin and asks him, “Bhadanta, at whose feet do all cakravartin kings fall prostrate?”

102

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

“At those of a perfectly awakened tatha¯ gata arhat, your majesty,”59 the perfectly awakened Ratnas´ikhin replies. King Dhanasammata then invites Ratnas´ikhin Buddha and the community of monks over to his house for a meal on the following day. He too feeds Ratnas´ikhin with his own hands and then falls prostrate at his feet and makes a fervent aspiration: “By this root of virtue may I be a teacher in the world, a perfectly awakened tatha¯ gata arhat.” “Your majesty,” the perfectly awakened Ratnas´ikhin said, “when people live for eighty thousand years, you will be a perfectly awakened tatha¯ gata arhat named Maitreya.”60 In the story, King Dhanasammata isn’t a particularly virtuous character. He sets out to attack King Va¯ sava because the latter rules a kingdom as prosperous as his own and is only deterred because he knows he can’t win. He offers food to Ratnas´ikhin Buddha not with a noble purpose but with the ulterior motive of forcing King Va¯ sava, in a future rebirth, at the zenith of his power, to fall prostrate at his feet. Yet his offering—even without prasa¯da, even without a noble purpose—constitutes a sufficient root of virtue for him to successfully make a fervent aspiration to be the future Buddha Maitreya, the next buddha to appear in this world. Clearly more work needs to be done on the logic of kingly giving, for it runs counter to the logic of prasa¯da, and yet both systems are well represented in the Divya¯vada¯na.

Prasa¯da as Praxis: Monks Like the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na also makes normative claims about the experience of prasa¯da, but unlike the former, it concerns itself with the appropriateness of the practice for monks. In the story, ¯ pa containing some of the Buddha’s a monk (1) prostrates himself before a stu hair and nails,61 and then (2) “bringing to mind the Tatha¯ gata in his form, [3] cultivates prasa¯da in his mind as he thinks, The Blessed One is just like this—a tatha¯ gata, an arhat, a perfectly awakened being, perfect in knowledge and action, a sugata, a knower of the world, an unsurpassed guide for those in need of training, a teacher of gods and mortals, a buddha, and a blessed one.”62 Meanwhile, the Buddha observes that monk engaging in what the text describes as the first and third of these practices, and thereafter he enjoins the

participation and exclusion

103

other monks to look at that monk and observe the same: “Monks, look at this monk who prostrates himself with his entire body at this stu¯pa for hair and nails and cultivates prasa¯da in his mind.”63 Then he explains to them, As many grains of sand as there are in that space between the land that this monk has tread upon and the stratum of the golden wheel,64 which is eighty thousand leagues down below, this monk will enjoy that many thousands of reigns as a cakravartin king.65 Then it occurs to the monks that— “One cannot count the grains of sand in a pit that is a man’s height in depth, what then of those in the eighty thousand leagues leading down to the stratum of the golden wheel? Who can pass so much time stuck in sam . sa¯ ra?” So from then on those monks never again ¯ pa for hair and nails.66 made offerings to a stu ´akra and King Prasenajit in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, monks Unlike S here are represented as cultivating prasa¯da, or at least being able to cultivate prasa¯da. As I mentioned previously, they engage with pra¯sa¯dika objects more actively than the laity. The monk in this passage generates in his mind an image of the Buddha, making use of a standard tenfold list of characteristics,67 and cultivates prasa¯da. He does for himself what “agents of prasa¯da” such as Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana and Maha¯ ka¯´ syapa do for others. But what is at issue is whether such a practice leads to desirable results. For the suffering masses engaged in the karmic project of performing good deeds to accrue merit for a favorable rebirth, the experience of prasa¯da is very effective. It assures them a reward in the future. But for those monks who desire to transcend more quickly the repeating cycle of birth, death, and birth again, cultivating prasa¯da isn’t very effective. The experience of prasa¯da produces good karma, and that good karma has great purchase within the realm of sam . sa¯ ra, but that same good karma also binds one within this realm. It is said that the lay donors in the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na and the Stutibra¯hman.a-avada¯na will have to wait eons until they attain some form of awakening, and the monk in the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na will have to pass eons as a cakravartin king, with no mention even made of his future awakening. The impropriety of this practice for monks, who are supposed to be eager to escape sam . sa¯ ra, is apparent in this long karmic sentence. Since nirva¯n.a is an extinguishing of karma, good karma as well as bad can get in the way. Hence, the monks stop their ritual ¯ pa. activities at the stu Yet, there seems to be some ambiguity in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na as to precisely what practice or practices the single monk performs, the Buddha

104

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

describes, and the monastic community refrains from. At first, the text explains that the monk engages in three practices: (1) he prostrates himself before a stu¯pa containing some of the Buddha’s hair and nails, (2) he performs buddha¯nusmr.ti with regard to the Tatha¯ gata’s form, and (3) all the while he cultivates prasa¯da in his mind. When the Buddha sees the monk, he observes only that the monk engages in the first and third of these practices. No mention is made of him performing buddha¯nusmr.ti. Likewise, when he enjoins the other monks to observe the lone monk, he again mentions only the first and third of these practices and leaves out buddha¯nusmr.ti. When the monks hear this, they ¯ pa. stop making offerings at the stu There appears to be some slippage about the practice in question here. For the Buddha, the practices of prostration, buddha¯nusmr.ti, and prasa¯da seem to be subsumed into the former and the latter. When the monks hear of the results that these endeavors will produce, they stop making offerings at the ¯ pa, apparently believing that it is this practice that will mire them in sam stu . sa¯ ra. Yet, in the beginning of the story, it is explained that it is a “rule” or a “law of ¯ pas for the hair and nails of buddhas nature” (dharmata¯ khalu) that there are stu while they are alive, and that when buddhas are withdrawn for meditation, ¯ pas. Then, the text monks perform pu¯ja¯—unspecified ritual acts—at these stu explains, some monks go off for alms and others “experience the pleasures of meditation, liberation, and meditative concentration and absorption.”68 In other words, it is “natural” or “normal” or “to be expected” (dharmata¯) that ¯ pas and then engage in some meditative monks would perform pu¯ja¯ at such stu practice. The text here also uses the plural “buddhas” to indicate that this wasn’t simply a passing phenomenon. This was and is the case under the dispensation of all buddhas. Still, judging from the Buddha’s prediction, the practice of prasa¯da must not have been one of the “normal” practices, for its results are certainly not “to be expected.” Monks, presumably, want to escape from sam . sa¯ ra, but the practice of prasa¯da embeds them further in it. It is odd, though, that the Buddha makes no mention of buddha¯nusmr.ti. Although claims have been made for the importance of the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti beginning in the early centuries of the Common Era (Harrison 1978), here the practice of prasa¯da seems to eclipse it. It is performed, but goes unnoticed and unmentioned, attesting once again to the importance the text ascribes to prasa¯da.69 Nevertheless, when the monks hear the Buddha’s prediction, they don’t stop the practices of prostration or prasa¯da. Instead, it is said that they stop mak¯ pa. But how is making offerings different from ing “offerings” (ka¯ra) at the stu the accepted practice of performing pu¯ja¯, and what is the connection between

participation and exclusion

105

making offerings and the practices of prostration and prasa¯da? Regardless of the logic of the monks’ decision, the Buddha neither directly champions nor ¯ pa. Rather, “knowcondemns their choice to no longer make offerings at the stu ing with his mind the thoughts of those monks,”70 he is sympathetic to their desire not to be stuck in sam . sa¯ ra. As he explains, Sam . sa¯ ra, monks, is without beginning or end for those beings hindered by ignorance, fettered by desire, and bound by the chains of desire—they are reborn over and over again for a very long time. The beginning of suffering is not known.71 But how then are these monks to escape from sam . sa¯ ra? The As´okavarn.a-avada¯na may offer some clues. In the story a bull sees the Buddha, and his mind is then filled with prasa¯da. The Buddha then foretells the bull’s future: ¯ nanda, his mind filled with prasa¯da in the presence of That bull, A the Tatha¯ gata, will die after seven days and be reborn among the Ca¯ turmaha¯ ra¯ jika gods, where he will be the son of the great king Vais´ravan.a. Then, having passed away from there, he will be reborn ´akra, lord of the gods. among the Tra¯ yastrim sa gods as the son of S .´ Having passed away from there, he will be reborn among the Ya¯ ma gods as the son of Lord Ya¯ ma. Having passed away from there, he will be reborn among the Tus.ita gods as the son of Lord Tus.ita. Having passed away from there, he will be reborn among the Nirma¯n.arati gods as the son of the divinely born Sunirma¯n.arati (Greatly Delighting in Creation). Having passed away from there, he will be reborn among the Paranirmitavas´avartin gods as the son of the divinely born Vas´avartin (Master). Continuing like this, he will not suffer a karmic downfall for ninety-nine thousand eons. Then, having experienced divine pleasure among the gods in the sphere of desire, in his last life, his last existence, his last body, his last incarnation, he will take on human form. He will be the king named As´okavarn.a (Praised as Griefless), a cakravartin, a conqueror of the four corners of the earth, a just and virtuous ruler possessing the seven treasures . . . At that time he will make offerings, renounce his cakravartin kingship, shave off his hair and beard, put on red clothes, and with perfect ´sraddha¯, go forth from home to homelessness. Then he will directly experience awakening as a solitary buddha and become the solitary buddha named As´okavarn.a.72

106

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

At the end of the story, the Buddha explains that while it is good to cultivate prasa¯da, it is even better to then make a fervent aspiration. But this is not ex¯ nanda to put into practice. As the Buddha explains: actly what he tells A But now since his mind is filled with prasa¯da in my presence, as a result of that action, he will experience divine-like pleasure and attain ¯ nanda, that having awakening as a solitary buddha. And so it is, A prasa¯da in mind toward tatha¯ gatas produces results that can’t even be imagined. What to say of making a fervent aspiration? So then, ¯ nanda, this is to be learned: “Bit by bit, moment by moment, even A for just a snap of the fingers, we should bring to mind the phenomenal ¯ nanda, that you should learn to do.73 form of the Tatha¯gata.” It is this, A As in the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na, here one who experiences prasa¯da achieves a reward that leads him or her to be stuck in sam . sa¯ ra for a very long time. In this case, the bull will be reborn in this cosmic realm again and again for ninety-nine thousand eons. While the experience of prasa¯da is karmically expedient, often culminating in awakening, it does engender many rebirths in sam . sa¯ ra. One can imagine the monks in the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na complaining that they didn’t join the monastic community so that they could perform a practice that would lead them to cycle through birth after birth for eon after eon only once again to take rebirth as humans and go forth as monks. Why follow the path of the bull in the As´okavarn.a-avada¯na who will need to wait ninety-nine thousand eons to “go forth from home to homelessness,” when they have already done so? The expectation was surely to engage in practices that would offer them a more immediate release. This may explain why the Buddha doesn’t surmise from the bull’s example ¯ nanda, who is a monk, should cultivate prasa¯da, but rather that he should perthat A form buddha¯nusmr.ti and “bring to mind the phenomenal form of the Tatha¯gata.” While in the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti was subsumed within the practice of prasa¯da, here the Buddha reverses that hierarchy. One possible explanation for these erasures concerns the multiple provenance of these stories. Since it appears that these stories were meant to function for both lay and monastic audiences (Rotman 2008: 19–30), a certain overlap and slippage of ideas is be expected. Hence, even if it seems that the practice of prasa¯da was intended for impoverished laity and the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti for monks, a story regarding one of these practices might be followed by a conclusion about the other, and vice versa. Although in the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na the monks respond to the Buddha’s prediction by no longer making offerings at the stu¯pa, the issue at ¯ pa stake seems to be less about the external form of a religious practice (i.e., stu

participation and exclusion

107

veneration) than about the propriety of particular mental activities (i.e., prasa¯da, buddha¯nusmr.ti). Such a distinction may provide a useful hermeneutic for engag¯ pa worship ing with the longstanding argument concerning the practice of stu and its relation to the rise of the Maha¯ya¯na.74 While I won’t rehash the pleadings for or against such a connection, the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na seems to represent both sides of the argument, offering opposing views about the veneration ¯ pas by monastics. As a rule, it is said, monks perform pu¯ja¯ at stu ¯ pas for of stu a buddha’s hair and nails when a buddha is withdrawn for meditation, but it is with Gautama Buddha’s consent that monks in his order stop making offer¯ pas because that practice (or, at least, particular practices that ings at such stu may accompany it) leads to undesirable results. Yet, the issue at stake in the ¯ pa veneration but the internal pracDivya¯vada¯na isn’t the outward practice of stu tices that may go along with it. In other words, in the Divya¯vada¯na the practice of ¯ pa veneration is subsumed within the practices of prasa¯da and buddha¯nusmr.ti, stu rendering the former practice an external shell for the latter ones. One last point: While monks may not have been instructed to generate prasa¯da in themselves, there is evidence that they were instructed to generate it ´ iks.a¯samuccaya, S ´a¯ntideva’s “compendium of training” from in others. In the S the ninth century that quotes passages from many Buddhist texts, including stories from the Divya¯vada¯na, monks are instructed to shun outside activities and develop a stable mind. The ability to focus on objects for as long as one desires, it is said, has many benefits. Furthermore, the text continues, Even at present [a bodhisattva with this ability] becomes capable of benefiting sentient beings because of his capacity to generate prasa¯da. How? Steadfast at all times, he gently speaks very kind words and thus wins over those people who are fortunate. And so, that which should be appropriated is produced. And this is the duty of a bodhisattva—namely, winning over sentient beings. Blessed One, as it is made clear by the bodhisattva, the noble Priyadars´ana, in the noble Dharmasam . gı¯ti-su¯tra [“The Su¯tra of the Recitation of Dharma”], the bodhisattva should proceed in such a way that the moment he is seen, beings become possessed of prasa¯da. For what reason? Blessed One, a bodhisattva has no other duty than winning over sentient beings. It is this maturation of beings, Blessed One, that is [the goal of ] the bodhisattva’s recitation of the dharma.75

108

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

Here bodhisattvas are enjoined to function as pra¯sa¯dika objects. Yet, unlike pra¯sa¯dika objects described in the Divya¯vada¯na, bodhisattvas do not naturally generate prasa¯da in others. It is a skill that they must develop through mental concentration. In this iteration of the bodhisattva’s practice, this skill is also crucial for accomplishing the oft-stated goal of the bodhisattva, that of benefiting sentient beings.76 The best way of “benefiting” sentient beings, according to the text, is “winning over” (a¯varjana) sentient beings. In the above verse, the bodhisattva is said to accomplish this through “very kind words,” but in what follows the bodhisattva is advised to proceed accordingly so that others will be won over by seeing him. This is how the miracles of solitary buddhas are often said to function in the Divya¯vada¯na. As I mentioned previously, it is often remarked in such instances that “magic quickly wins over the ordinary person.”77 Hence, “the recitation of dharma” that leads to “the maturation of beings” is not really a “recitation” (sam . gı¯ti) at all. The duty is not to “collectively” or “properly” (sam ) “recite” or “proclaim” (gı¯ti) the dharma, but to convey it through visual . means. Considering that the above verse explains the production of prasa¯da in a way different from the description that follows it—that is, through verbal not visual means—perhaps this particular verse was quoted because of what it implies about the acquisition of prasa¯da. What is “produced” by the bodhisattva is prasa¯da, and this is what “should be appropriated” by the person who is “fortunate” or “suitable” (bhavya).78 But this isn’t just a matter of propriety. It is also an injunction. Prasa¯da is “worthy of being appropriated” or “worthy of being seized [by the mind]” (a¯deya; Tib., gzung bar ’os pa), yet it is also something that should be done. In a sense, this is a counterpart to the argument I made previously that the Buddha is “worthy of being seen” and “should be seen” (pradars´anı¯ya), and as it is said in the Pali, is “worthy of being used to generate pasa¯da” and “should be used to generate pasa¯da” (pasa¯danı¯ya).

Intention, Compulsion, and Ethics In summary, what is emphasized in the Divya¯vada¯na is that certain objects— ¯ pas, and sometimes solitary such as buddhas, images of buddhas, arhats, stu buddhas—whether directly labeled as such or not, are “agents of prasa¯da” (pra¯sa¯dika), and when certain individuals, particularly the poor who lack in merit, see these objects, prasa¯da arises in them. This prasa¯da, in turn, generates a compulsion to give, for this is the “duty of one who has prasa¯da” (prasanna¯dhika¯ra). The offerings that result from this duty of prasa¯da are objects

participation and exclusion

109

of little market value, yet they yield extraordinary results for the donor, such as future awakening. There are a number of possible explanations to account for the connection in this process between prasa¯da and giving: most notably, the intention model and the karma model. In many ways, the intention model offers a compelling explanatory rubric: prasa¯da motivates an act of giving and then accompanies its performance. It is, in some sense, both cause and agent.79 For example, in the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na, after developing prasa¯da, a brahman’s daughter offers barleymeal as alms to the Buddha “with intense prasa¯da,”80 and in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, a poor man likewise offers bland rice gruel to a solitary buddha “with intense prasa¯da.”81 This model, however, cannot explain those instances when prasa¯da arises in an individual and then he or she makes no offering, or when it is prasa¯da itself that is the cause of rewards to come, not some unspecified intention to make an offering that, for some reason, is never fulfilled. The karma model also offers a possible explanation: the arising of prasa¯da in individuals results, seemingly naturally and inevitably, in those individuals making offerings. An act (i.e., producing the mental state of prasa¯da) yields as its result another act (i.e., giving). Yet, the karma system likewise has difficulty explaining those instances in which no offering is made. In this way, both the intention model and the karma model share limitations not only with each other but with the gift-exchange model of prasa¯da which also has difficulty explaining such instances when no prasa¯da-initiated counter-gift occurs.82 Consideration of the karma model, however, raises a heuristically useful point: if the act of giving is in some sense a result of the arising of prasa¯da, is this act of prasa¯da-initiated giving necessarily accompanied by an intention? In various philosophical materials, for example, it is said that acts of a buddha are without intention, volition, or effort, and in the absence of discursive thought. As Paul Griffiths (1995: 103) explains, such acts involve at least the following: first, the absence of any intentions or volitions (cetana¯, abhisam . ska¯ra) on Buddha’s part as causes of that action; second, following from the first, the absence of any effort (yatna, a¯bhoga) or deliberation involving constructive or analytical thought (vikalpa) informing or guiding the action; and third, as a corollary of the first and second points, the absence of any possibility of wrong action, or making mistakes. While the rightness or wrongness of those offerings that result from prasa¯da is not in question here (for the efficaciousness of such offerings beggars the question of their truthfulness), the first and second of the above descriptions do accord with depictions of prasa¯da-initiated giving. Both the acts of a buddha

110

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

and the giving that results from prasa¯da are characterized by a spontaneity and effortlessness, characteristics that I will discuss more fully in chapter 6.83 Though the philosophical technicalities of the mechanics of karma, such as the relation of “volition” (cetana¯) to mental states and bodily action, have been worked out in Pali and Sanskrit Buddhist sources and in recent scholarship on these materials,84 what interests me is not a philosophical answer to this question. Recourse to either Therava¯ din or Vaibha¯ s.ika works would yield different answers, regardless of the usefulness of applying philosophical paradigms to a corpus of stories. With that said, my sense is that the silence or, at least, the indeterminacy regarding the intention with which individuals make prasa¯da-initiated offerings has important implications for the logic of giving. Even in those instances when an individual makes a prasa¯da-initiated offering “with intense prasa¯da,” there is no indication that the individual is conscious that prasa¯da has arisen. Donors do not speak of forces, such as compassion or compunction, compelling them to give. The compulsion of prasa¯da, it seems, is prasa¯da itself. The donor need not feel some personal desire or inclination to make an offering but only an external impetus to do so—such is the mechanism of prasa¯da. Arjun Appadurai’s work on praise and emotion in Hindu India offers insight into some possible implications of this formulation. Appadurai (1990: 101) describes an instance of “coercive subordination” in which beggars bless and praise their (potential) benefactors “to trap them in the cultural implications of their roles as superiors, that is, in the obligation to be generous.”85 Here Buddhist orthopraxy seems to be doing much the same; it traps individuals into giving. It provides the naturalized and necessary logic for what Bourdieu refers to as “bodily hexis.”86 Individuals who come and see prasa¯da-generating objects are compelled to make offerings. Not doing so would be tantamount to admitting that prasa¯da has not arisen in one. And if prasa¯da has not arisen in one, then presumably one has not accrued the vast amounts of merit such objects are capable of generating. Then again, even if an individual were to be conscious of his or her mental state at the time of prasa¯da-initiated giving, and even if that mental state were to be instrumental in the act of giving, the mental referent of prasa¯da seems to be sufficiently vague—“joy” or “satisfaction,”87 “faith” or “tranquility”88—to allow for the easy assumption that prasa¯da had, indeed, arisen. This formulation raises an intriguing parallel with an extremely popular contemporary practice in South Asia involving seeing, giving, and prasa¯da. Typically, one has dars´ana of a person or object; makes an offering to him, her, or it; and then in return receives what in Hindi is known as prasa¯d—a substance (generally food) that has been empowered by that recipient of devotion. Icons

participation and exclusion

111

´iva lin.gas, statues, and chromolithographs function as the empowersuch as S ing objects, and though they are not referred to as pra¯sa¯dika, they do cause the mundane substances offered to them to be transformed into prasa¯d. Furthermore, in the case at least of modern Hinduism, there are elaborate social and cultural structures to insure that after the devotee has dars´ana of a person or object, he or she makes an offering on behalf of that person or object.89 In other words, after having dars´ana, the donor-cum-viewer is compelled by an outside force to give. An outside force likewise compels the giving that results from prasa¯da. To reiterate: the arising of prasa¯da is represented as having less to do with an individual’s personal efforts than with the force exerted by pra¯sa¯dika objects. As “agents of prasa¯da” it is they, and not the individual, that are the primary cause of the arising of prasa¯da. Similarly, the agency involved in making a prasa¯dainitiated offering has less to do with an individual’s personal efforts than with the force that prasa¯da exerts once it has arisen. The inclination to give seems to reside in prasa¯da itself and to be naturally produced by it. It is precisely this outside agency of prasa¯da-initiated giving that renders the practice so effective. Within the rigid fatalism of cause and effect that is so conspicuous in the Divya¯vada¯na, only a karmic intrusion can divert one from one’s karmic destiny.90 Unlike the notion in Japanese martial arts that one can act with “no mind” or with an absence of volition,91 the giving that results from prasa¯da isn’t merely an action performed with minimal personal agency. It is also an action generated by an outside force. Agents of prasa¯da are not simply objects that others engage with, but objects that dictate the terms of engagement and the outcome of that engagement. In other words, within the textual world of the Divya¯vada¯na, a certain class of actions are propelled not by the individual practitioner, nor by a monastic code or a litany of lay precepts, but by pra¯sa¯dika objects themselves and the prasa¯da that they generate. What is needed, then, is an anthropology of the icon to study the system of action that these objects engender.92 I will come back to this idea in the chapters that follow. This formulation of agency raises some intriguing questions for Buddhist ethics and practice. Instead of placing the burden on the individual to cultivate right thoughts and to perform proper actions, as is generally thought to be the case in Buddhist ethics (e.g., Saddhatissa 1970: 87–112), the Divya¯vada¯na presents individuals as being able to proceed from seeing to giving and then on to a reward in the future with a bare minimum of personal effort and mental conditioning.93 They are, in a sense, passive performers who are acted upon through the forces of prasa¯da: first by pra¯sa¯dika objects and then by the giving that prasa¯da entails. It is sufficient merely to enter the presence of a pra¯sa¯dika object, see it, and then make an offering.

112

the practice of

¯ DA PRASA

This mechanism of prasa¯da affects the very fundamentals of Buddhist ethics. For example, from the very outset of the Buddhist-Hybrid-Sanskrit Dharmapada, it is explained that an individual’s mental state when performing an action is of paramount importance in determining his or her resultant condition. But from the perspective of the Divya¯vada¯na, the first two verses of the Dharmapada are a call not to meditate or to do good deeds for a neighbor, but to go and see an object that causes prasa¯da and then make an offering. As they exhort, . . . If, with a polluted mind, one speaks or acts, then suffering follows as a wheel the draught ox’s foot. . . . If, with a mind possessed of prasa¯da, one speaks or acts, then happiness follows as a shadow that never departs.94 Perhaps in the early centuries of the Common Era these verses were intended as a call to go on pilgrimage to where pra¯sa¯dika objects could be found so that one’s mind could be transformed from one that is “polluted” (pradus..ta) into one “possessed of prasa¯da” (prasanna). Then happiness would follow, not to mention great karmic rewards in the future. With the establishment of many new monasteries in the first centuries of the Common Era, most of them situated just outside of urban centers along trade routes and hence easily accessible (Heitzman 1984), there very well may have been a concerted effort among the monastic community to encourage pilgrimage to these sites as well as donations. But the practice of prasa¯da cannot be explained away by financial considerations. Most of those in whom prasa¯da arises have little disposable income, and the prasa¯da-initiated offerings they make have little market value. Still, the venerable Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana explains in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na that “perfectly awakened tatha¯ gata arhats are certainly to be seen and certainly to be offered respect,”95 and the same appears to have been true for other pra¯sa¯dika objects as well. I return to this connection between pilgrimage and pra¯sa¯dika objects in the chapters that follow.

5 Proximity and Presence

But there is a better part of me. A part that craves contact, that craves immersion. That part in all of us wants more than lunch breaks by the creek. That part wants to toss sandwiches aside and dive in, feeling an almost religious need to be immersed in something larger. And here, by the water, we don’t just suspect that there is something larger. We know it. —David Gessner, Under the Devil’s Thumb Although the practice of prasa¯da is rarely discussed directly in Buddhist materials, the numerous traces of this practice that are found in the Divya¯vada¯na may offer some clues about the ritual activities of those individuals in the past whose deeds and offerings were insufficient to have been enshrined in inscriptions. As I’ve mentioned, the practice of prasa¯da seems to have been aimed at the downtrodden, those suffering from a dearth of merit. It probably wasn’t intended for those with sufficient financial resources to make donations worthy of being recorded or those capable of overseas exploits, which are such a staple in Indian narrative literature. But how can such a subaltern history be formulated with such a paucity of material, with nothing more than some narrative threads in a series of didactic stories? The task is difficult, but at least the narrative threads are numerous. In the previous chapter I examined a particular typology of prasa¯da, describing both the practice and practitioners. In what follows I want to elaborate on the mechanics of prasa¯da, first by looking

114

the practice of prasa¯ da

closely at a story that narrativizes the practice of prasa¯da and then by thinking more broadly about the social and political implications of this material. I will begin with a close analysis of the Toyika¯ story, commenting on the importance of proximity, presence, and ritual action in generating prasa¯da.1

Proximity and Ritual Action In the Indrabra¯hman.a-avada¯na and then again in the Toyika¯maha-avada¯na,2 a story is told about a place called Toyika¯ that concerns the practice of prasa¯da. Though tropes are repeated in the Divya¯vada¯na, this is the only story that occurs twice, and the only one that narrativizes and contextualizes the mechanics of prasa¯da both for when a buddha is alive and for when no buddha is in livingand-breathing presence. ¯ nanda going to Toyika¯ . There a The story begins with the Buddha and A brahman plowing in the fields sees the Buddha— who is adorned with the thirty-two marks of a great man, whose body is radiant with the eighty minor marks, who is adorned with a halo extending an arm’s length, whose brilliance is greater than a thousand suns, and who, like a mountain of jewels that moves, is beautiful from every side.3 Then he reflects, “If I go to Lord Gautama and pay my respects, my work will suffer. If I don’t go to him and pay my respects, my merit will suffer. Isn’t there any skillful way wherein neither my work nor my merit will suffer?” Then this thought occurred to him: “I will pay my respects standing right here. This way neither my work nor my merit will suffer.” Standing right there and still holding his goad-post, he paid his respects: “I pay my respects to Lord Buddha!”4 ¯ nanda, The Buddha then explains to A This brahman has a [great] opportunity to put an end to worldly existence. If he only had the proper experience, knowledge, and insight, [it would have occurred to him] that in this place lies the undisturbed skeleton of the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa. Hence, he could have venerated me and, in this way, have venerated two perfectly awakened ¯ nanda, lies the undisturbed buddhas. How is that? In this place, A skeleton of the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa.5

proximity and presence

115

The “skillful way” (upa¯ya) that the brahman devises to venerate the Buddha and not stray from his work is not skillful enough, however. The Buddha does not consider the rite that the brahman performs successful. The brahman “pays his respects” or “respectfully greets” (abhiva¯danam . √kr.) the Buddha from beside ¯ his plow, yet the Buddha tells Ananda that the brahman has missed a “[great] opportunity to put an end to worldly existence.” If the brahman had “the proper experience, knowledge, and insight,” he would have known to come closer and venerate both Gautama Buddha and Ka¯´ syapa Buddha. In the version of the story preserved in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya, the problem is glossed even more clearly as one of proximity. As the Buddha explains, ¯ nanda, this brahman has made a mistake. Had he approached A and respectfully greeted me in this place, then he could have looked and come to know for himself that in this place lies the undisturbed skeleton of the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa. Having approached, he could have venerated me. Hence, he could have venerated two per¯ nanda, lies the fectly awakened buddhas. How is that? In this place, A undisturbed skeleton of the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa.6 It is being in the presence of the object of veneration that allows for a skillful way of practice. In this case, ritual action from a distance is a mistake.

Ritual Action: How and Where In the above portion of the Toyika¯ story, two forms of ritual action are differentiated—that of “respectfully greeting” (abhiva¯dana) and “venerating” (vandana). The act of “respectfully greeting” does not occur frequently in the Divya¯vada¯na, nor is it described in detail, but it is elaborated upon in texts such as the Manusmr.ti.7 V. S. Apte (PSED, s.v. abhiva¯dana) explains the practice as a form of “salutation of a superior or elder by an inferior or junior, or of a teacher by his disciple. It consists in (1) rising from one’s seat (pratyuttha¯na); (2) clasping the feet (pa¯dopasam . graha), and (3) repeating the form of salutation (abhiva¯da) which includes the name of title of the person addressed, followed by the mention of the person’s own name.” In the Toyika¯ story, however, the act of “respectfully greeting” is done at a distance, too far away for “clasping the feet.” As a practice in the Divya¯vada¯na, it is distinguished only by its relative lack of efficacy. By “respectfully greeting” the Buddha, the brahman has not “put an end to worldly existence.” The process of “venerating” is also not defined in the Divya¯vada¯na, but it does occur frequently in a stereotyped trope

116

the practice of prasa¯ da

of what one does upon meeting the Buddha—one “venerates with one’s head the feet of the Blessed One.”8 This act does require physical proximity and also a touching of the feet. And it is this act that has great karmic efficacy. Ritual action from a distance, however, is not always problematic. In the Pu¯rn.a-avada¯na, Vakkalin sees the Buddha “from a distance,”9 from the top of a mountain, and still, as soon as he sees him, his mind becomes filled with prasa¯da. In the Toyika¯ story, the brahman’s first sight of the Buddha is instead accompanied only by a stereotyped description of the Buddha’s wondrous physical form. Elsewhere, as in the As´okavarn.a-avada¯na10 and even in an earlier incident in the Toyika¯maha-avada¯na itself,11 when a character sees the Buddha and then this description occurs, prasa¯da immediately arises in that character. Here, however, the trope is diverted. Visual contact is presented as insufficient. Closer contact is needed. Though the standard trope of seeing the Buddha and immediately developing prasa¯da is here curtailed, the practice of prasa¯da is not abandoned. It is only reworked. As will become clear in what follows in the story, what is at stake here is the utility of certain objects for ritual practice, the means by which they can be utilized, and the mapping out of karmically potent Buddhist space. We return now to the story. In response to the Buddha’s pronouncement ¯ nanda that the brahman has missed a chance to venerate two buddhas, A springs into action: ¯ nanda very quickly folded his upper garment into The venerable A four as a seat and then said this to the Blessed One: “May the Blessed One please sit down on this seat that I have specially prepared. In this way this piece of earth will have be made use of by two perfectly awakened buddhas—previously by the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa 12 and at present by the Blessed One.” The Buddha does so, and then asks the monks if they would like to see “the undisturbed assemblage of remains of the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa.”13 They assent and remark that “at the sight of it, monks can cultivate prasa¯da in their minds.”14 Some na¯ gas then raise the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa’s undisturbed remains. Thereafter, the Buddha tells the monks to grasp its appearance, and then it disappears. Meanwhile, King Prasenajit hears that the Blessed One has raised up the undisturbed remains of the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa,15 so he and a host of others set out to see of it. But it disappears before they arrive. The people “feel miserable and dejected”16 and wonder whether their coming there has been in vain. A lay disciple of the Buddha then begins to circumambulate the place where the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa’s remains had been.

proximity and presence

117

And with his mind, he formed this thought: “How much merit will I get from respectfully walking around [this place]?” Then the Blessed One, knowing with his mind the thoughts of that lay disciple and that large crowd of people, uttered this verse so that they wouldn’t have any regrets: Hundreds of thousands of gold coins or nuggets are not equal to the wise man, prasa¯da in mind, who walks around shrines of a buddha. One of the lay disciples then offered a lump of clay at this place, and thus formed this thought: “Elsewhere the Blessed One has explained how much merit is earned from respectfully walking around [shrines of a buddha]. But how much merit will there be from [offering] a lump of clay?” Then the Blessed One, knowing with his mind his thoughts as well, uttered this verse: Hundreds of thousands of gold coins or nuggets are not equal to one, prasa¯da in mind, who places a single lump of clay at a shrine of a buddha.17 The story continues with this style of exposition as the Buddha explains that hundreds of thousands of golden objects are not equal to one, prasa¯da in mind, who places heaps of pearls and lovely flowers at shrines of a buddha . . . to the wise man, prasa¯da in mind, who festoons with garlands shrines of a buddha . . . to the wise man, prasa¯da in mind, who makes a gift of oil lamps at shrines of a buddha . . . to the wise man, prasa¯da in mind, who sprinkles perfume at shrines of a buddha18 and so on. Here the discourse on prasa¯da is less about when the mental state of prasa¯da arises than where the practice of prasa¯da should be performed. In the common trope, an individual sees the Buddha, prasa¯da arises in him, and he makes an offering; the location is incidental. These events occur wherever one happens to see the Buddha, which is frequently in an unidentified place in a town that the Buddha has recently entered for alms.19 But here the location of the practice of prasa¯da is anything but incidental.

118

the practice of prasa¯ da

In the above passage and in the one that precedes it, three forms of effective ritual action are mentioned—“veneration” (vandana), “seeing” (dars´ana), and the practice of prasa¯da—and each is shown to require the practitioner to make a pilgrimage in order to perform the practice in question. With regard to veneration, as I described above, the Buddha explains that if the brahman plowing his fields had come to him, he could have venerated two buddhas, for “in this place” he stands and the remains of Ka¯´ syapa lie.20 To reiterate, this practice requires physical proximity to the object of veneration. The process of dars´ana is, likewise, location specific, for ordinary mortals can only see what is near to them. In this passage, however, the practices associated with dars´ana are not fully clear. When the Buddha asks the monks if they want to see the assemblage of Ka¯´ syapa’s remains, they assent and explain that “at the sight of it, monks can cultivate prasa¯da in their minds.” In the previous chapter on prasa¯da, I explained the potential pitfalls of such a practice for monks. Unlike the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na, however, here there is no direct dismissal of the practice. The Buddha merely counters with an injunction that makes no mention of prasa¯da: “Contemplate its appearance, monks, for it will disappear.”21 Regardless of the specifics of the monks’ practice, their request reaffirms the idea that the experience of prasa¯da arises from having dars´ana of an appropriate object. But what does one do when it is not possible to have dars´ana of a ritual object, such as Ka¯´ syapa’s remains? How can one engage with an object that appears as nothing more than a spot of earth, an unmarked place on the ground? In the Toyika¯ story, after King Prasenajit hears that the assemblage of Ka¯´ syapa’s remains has been made visible, he sets off with a large entourage to have dars´ana of it. Unfortunately, it disappears before they arrive, so they are understandably “miserable and dejected.” Within the visual logic of these stories, ritual practice is dependent on visible objects, and it is unclear what these pilgrims can do at the site if there is nothing there for them to see. Even the monks for whom the assemblage of Ka¯´ syapa’s remains was raised are instructed only to engage with it visually. Other than contemplating the appearance of Ka¯´ syapa’s remains, no mention is made of any other practice. Without visual recourse to the assemblage of Ka¯´ syapa’s remains, a lay disciple decides instead to circumambulate the place where his remains had been in sight. As he does so, “he thus formed a thought with his mind” regarding the amount of merit he will accrue from this act. Though the lay disciple does not cultivate prasa¯da, this particular way of forming a thought in one’s mind is shown to yield remarkable results elsewhere in the Divya¯vada¯na. As I mentioned in chapter 3, a beggar woman in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na makes an offering of an oil lamp with “a great resolution of mind”22 and uses the root of

proximity and presence

119

´a¯ kyamuni virtue constituted by this act to make a fervent aspiration to become S Buddha himself. Strangely, even though the lay disciple is not described as cultivating prasa¯da as he circumambulates Ka¯´ syapa’s no-longer-visible remains, the Buddha grasps the lay disciple’s thought and then recites a verse extolling the rewards of those who circumambulate shrines of a buddha while being prasa¯da in mind. To repeat— Hundreds of thousands of gold coins or nuggets are not equal to the wise man, prasa¯da in mind, who walks around shrines of a buddha. This verse raises two immediate questions. The first question is whether the Buddha is praising the lay disciple whose thought he intercepted or chastising him. The lay disciple is never said to be “prasa¯da in mind” but only to have “formed a thought with his mind,” so the Buddha could be disciplining him by describing a more efficacious practice. But this doesn’t seem to be the case. It is said that “after hearing this [verse of the Buddha], many hundreds of thousands of beings also placed lumps of clay there as offerings.”23 They understood what the Buddha said as words of encouragement, perhaps not differentiating between being “prasa¯da in mind” and “forming a thought with one’s mind.” Then in what follows, as other people perform ritual acts at Toyika¯ , they too form thoughts with their minds regarding the efficacy of their offerings, and the Buddha again responds that those who are prasa¯da in mind and perform such acts will enjoy great rewards. This similarity between being “prasa¯da in mind” and “forming a thought with one’s mind” also occurs in the Nagara¯valambika¯avada¯na, which I discussed in chapter 3. While the qualities of this latter mental state are unclear, the text is explicit that it functions similarly to prasa¯da, and characters themselves seem to confuse the two. The second question is whether the “place” (prades´a) that the lay disciple circumambulates is actually a “shrine of a buddha” (buddhacaitya). Judging by those hundreds and thousands of beings who follow the lay disciple’s example and make offerings there, this does seem to be the case. But what makes a “place” into a “shrine”? What makes a site ritually effective, and how should one engage with it?

Creating Shrines, Making Use of Places In one of his early articles, Gregory Schopen addresses the question of the connection between “a spot of earth” or “a place on the ground” (pr.thivı¯prades´a)

120

the practice of prasa¯ da

and “a true caitya” (caityabhu¯ta). Schopen (1975: 175) maintains that in certain materials the connection involves the cult of the book—that the Buddha is present, in some sense, “on the spot where the dharmaparya¯ya is or is recited, etc.” and that “this in itself would be quite enough to render that spot sacred, to make it a powerful caitya.” Though there are great linguistic similarities in the case of the Toyika¯ story—for the Buddha is said to sit down upon “a place on the ground”24—it isn’t clear that this is an instance of “simply using the term pr.thivı¯prades´a to indicate the place where the dharmaparya¯ya was” (Schopen 1975: 174). In more recent work, Schopen (1997: 29, 131–132) directly considers this connection of “place” and “shrine” in the Toyika¯ story. In his assessment, the text “is concerned solely with the sacralization of that otherwise unmarked piece of ground by acts of worship and the establishment of a festival (maha)” (1997: 29). While Schopen is right that the text is concerned with the sacralization of the site at Toyika¯ —with somehow endowing it with sacred significance, with marking it as a site of ritual efficacy—the text is also interested in explaining how the ritual efficacy of such a site arises. And this problematic doesn’t seem to involve the cult of the book. Instead, it involves the act of “making use of ” (paribhoga) something. Now in the Toyika¯ story, the Buddha first explains that if the brahman plowing his fields had come to him, “in this place” he could have venerated two ¯ nanda then asks the Buddha to sit down there so that “this piece of buddhas. A earth will be made use of by two perfectly awakened buddhas—previously by the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa and at present by the Blessed One.” ¯ Judging by Ananda’s request that the Buddha sit down there so that the place will be twice “made use of,” the internment of Ka¯´ syapa’s bones there already constituted a making use of the spot, but the Buddha’s standing there did not. It seems that for the Buddha to make use of the spot, he needs to sit down on it—perhaps understood as a need to touch it, to engage with it more physically. In the version of the Toyika¯ story in the Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯, this notion of a shrine being constituted by an object that has been made use of is stated explicitly. There the Buddha explains to a brahman “the three kinds of shrines: shrines for bodily remains, memorial shrines, and shrines by use.”25 In a commentary to the Khuddaka-pa¯.tha, the great fifth-century scholar Buddhaghosa clarifies this classificatory system: It should be built up, thus it is a shrine—it is said that it should be the object of pu¯ja¯. Or, it is a shrine because it has been built up. Moreover, it is of three kinds: a shrine by use, a memorial shrine,

proximity and presence

121

and a relic shrine. In this regard, the Bodhi tree is a shrine by use, an ¯ pa with a reliquary image of the Buddha is a memorial shrine, a stu 26 that contains a relic is a relic shrine. In regard to the creation of shrines, it seems that there may have been a connection between making use of an object and sitting on it or in its presence. Both “the place” (prades´a) in question in the Toyika¯ story and the Bodhi tree in Buddhaghosa’s example are apparently made use of by the Buddha’s . sitting there. In the story of the present that begins the Ka¯lin gabodhi-ja¯taka ( Ja iv, 228–230; trans. in Cowell et al. 1990: iv, 142–143), a Bodhi tree is likewise transformed into a “shrine by use” by the Buddha’s sitting at its base and meditating.27 Though Ka¯´ syapa’s bones would technically be a shrine for bodily remains according to this schema, this doesn’t negate the interpretation that Ka¯´ syapa’s bones still make use of the spot, for they too could be said to have an active connection with it. This notion of “making use of ” is further glossed in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯davinaya. As Gregory Schopen explains, monastics are shown to be obligated to make use of things that people give them as a way of generating merit for those donors. Hence, the notion of “merit resulting from use” (paribhoga¯nvyam . pun.yam) is applied to a range of monastic offerings (Schopen 1996: 112ff.).28 Much like these examples, here too there is a sense that certain objects must be put to use as a way of creating merit.29 Here, however, merit is not created as a gift-in-turn or a payment of goods to an individual donor. Instead, merit is created by dint of transforming a place into a more potent field of merit for any future donor.30 Now in the Toyika¯ story, this passage concerning the logic of making use of something has multiple concerns, and primary among them is promoting pilgrimage to shrines of a buddha. The text seems to contend that a “place” becomes a “shrine of a buddha” when it is made use of by a buddha, and this occurs through close physical contact. If this is the case, then the notion of a “shrine of a buddha” has a potentially wide signification, encompassing any place that a buddha sat or slept.31 India may very well be filled with such shrines, whether they are recognized or not. Yet how does one know if a place has been transformed into a “shrine of a buddha”? In the Kuna¯la-avada¯na, for example, when Upagupta brings As´oka to various sites associated with the Buddha’s life and explains that “in this place” such-and-such event occurred, are these sites merely “places” or also “shrines of a buddha”? Did the Buddha’s activities in these places constitute a making use of them or were these activities inert, as standing apparently was in the Toyika¯ story?32 When one considers the exhortations that the Buddha later makes in the

122

the practice of prasa¯ da

Toyika¯ story regarding the great rewards accrued from ritual practices at “shrines of a buddha,” this question of the status of these sites becomes crucial. The Toyika¯ story also seems to have another purpose: to appropriate and consolidate religious power. The Toyika¯ story attempts to incorporate the Toyika¯ site into Gautama Buddha’s biography and hence make Ka¯´ syapa’s remains into a site of pilgrimage within Gautama’s dispensation. These efforts may very well have been successful, for Fa-hsien, in the fifth century, and Hsuan-tsang, in the seventh century, are both said to have visited the place where Ka¯´ syapa’s 33 full body was enshrined. John Strong argues that the various Toyika¯ stories may attest to a larger Buddhist project of using the cults of previous buddhas, such as Ka¯´ syapa, to ap´a¯ kyamuni’s dispensation. propriate sites associated with other divinities into S As Strong (1999: 10; cf. Strong 2004: 39–44) explains, The cult of previous Buddhas, in fact, would seem to have been an ideal way for incorporating non-Buddhist, pre-Buddhist or brahmanical elements into the Buddhist fold. By identifying indigenous divinities and local sacred places with past Buddhas, Buddhists could effectively “convert” them to Buddhism while still maintaining them at a distance.34 While this project of incorporation is somewhat vague in the Toyika¯ story in the Divya¯vada¯na—the sacralization of the “place” in question merely creates a Buddhist site on an area that abuts a brahman’s property—in other versions of the story, it is more explicit. The version of the story in the Dhammapadaat..thakatha¯, for example, tells of a land grab by which a brahmanical site is transformed into a Buddhist one. As Strong (1999: 9) nicely summarizes: The Buddha and his entourage, approaching the village of Todeyya (Skt., Toyika¯ ), come to a shrine, a “god-place”—devat.t.ha¯ na—that is apparently dedicated to some local divinity. The Buddha sits down ¯ nanda to summon the brahmin who is plowing next to it and sends A a nearby field. The brahmin comes but instead of venerating the Buddha, he pays his respects only to the shrine. The Buddha then asks him about the place he has just venerated and the brahmin answers that the shrine (which he now calls a “cetiyat.t.ha¯ na,” “a caitya place”) has long been there and that worshipping it is an old custom of his people. The Buddha then reveals to him that this shrine is actually the site of the golden caitya of the Buddha Ka¯´ syapa, a replica of which he then fashions in mid-air, using his supernatural powers. This is enough to convert the brahmin and his shrine to Buddhism.

proximity and presence

123

One can see a similar co-option of brahmanical phenomena in the incident that precedes the Toyika¯ story in the Indrabra¯hman.a-avada¯na. The Buddha tells an arrogant brahman named Indra that he should look underneath the pit in his home where the agnihotra offering is made and that there he’ll find a “post” (yas..ti) made of gos´¯ı rs. a sandalwood that is the length of the Buddha’s body. The brahman does so, and as a result becomes full of prasa¯da. He then goes to the Buddha and receives teachings, at which time he directly experiences the reward of the stream-enterer. The brahman then asks the Buddha if he can celebrate a festival with the gos´¯ı rs. a-sandalwood post, and the Buddha gives his permission. Then, in a remote place, with great respect, he raised35 that post and a festival was celebrated. Realizing that this festival would promote virtue, other brahmans and householders as well bound kus´a grass [ for offerings]. Since this festival with a post was celebrated by the brahman Indra, it came to be known as the Indramaha—the Indramaha (Indra Festival).36 While the Indramaha is well known in Sanskrit sources as a brahmanical festival that originated with the gift of a post by the great god Indra,37 here the festival is given a Buddhist origin. Instead of the Indramaha being so called because it is in praise of the god Indra, the idea here is that the festival is actually in praise of the Buddha but named after the brahman Indra who originated it. With this etiological story, a brahmanical festival not only becomes a Buddhist one, but good brahmans are shown to be Buddhist. Though I can find no reference to a brahmanical festival called Toyika¯ maha, the parallels between these two stories in the Indrabra¯hman.a-avada¯na are unmistakable. The most blatant aspect of this grab at power, however, occurs through the ritual actions that are performed at Toyika¯ —most notably, the offering of lumps of clay. Following the example of the lay disciple who offered lumps of clay at Toyika¯ , and bearing in mind the Buddha’s words that “hundreds of thousands of gold coins or nuggets are not equal to one, prasa¯da in mind, who places a single lump of clay at a shrine of a buddha,” many hundreds of thousands of beings place lumps of clay there as offerings. Though the site had been unmarked, it is now presumably piled high with an enormous mound of ¯ pa has been created. As John Strong (1999: 17) observes, clay. In short, a stu ¯ pa; its mode of construcThis, to be sure, is a commemorative stu tion makes it clear that the remains of [the Buddha] Ka¯´ syapa are not ¯ pa at Toyika¯ is built in enshrined in it. But it is exactly the way the stu the Dharmaguptaka, Mahı¯´ sa¯ saka, and the Maha¯ sa¯ m . ghika Vinayas,

124

the practice of prasa¯ da except that in the latter, King Prasenajit eventually arrives with seven hundred carts filled with bricks and asks the Buddha for permission ¯ pa. to “enlarge” (and obviously to reinforce) the dirt stu

The Toyika¯ story, in short, seeks to transform the Toyika¯ site into a recognized and recognizable “shrine of a buddha” (and a doubly powerful one at that) and hence into a site of pilgrimage.

Prasa¯da, Presence, and Practice Now I want to return to the representation of the practice of prasa¯da in the Toyika¯ story, and how such a practice can be done. Although there are accounts ¯ pa for Ka¯´ elsewhere of a stu syapa at Toyika¯ , and one may have been built with the lumps of clay described above, the site of Ka¯´ syapa’s remains is described as unmarked. It is referred to only as a “place.”38 How then is the practitioner to generate prasa¯da? If the site has no visual marker, then presumably there is no pra¯sa¯dika object at which practitioners can gaze in order to generate prasa¯da. Again Schopen’s work provides a useful heuristic. In “Burial Ad Sanctos and the Physical Presence of the Buddha in Early Indian Buddhism,” Schopen (1997: 114–147) discusses the Toyika¯ story, and he argues, among other things, for the functional equivalence of an assemblage of relics and a living buddha. To this end, Schopen cites the above passage from the Toyika¯ story in which the Buddha laments that the brahman plowing his field missed an opportunity to venerate two buddhas. He then quotes the more explicit verse that occurs later in the story after hundreds and thousands of beings have already performed a variety of ritual acts at the site where Ka¯´ syapa is buried. As the Buddha observes, One may honor [a buddha] still living as well as one passed into final nirva¯n.a. Cultivating prasa¯da equally in one’s mind, here there is no difference in merit.39 As Schopen (1997: 132) remarks, “the implications here are that there is no distinction between a living Buddha and an assemblage of relics—both make the sacred person equally present as an object of worship, and the presence of either makes available the same opportunity to make merit.” This equivalence, in turn, has important implications for Schopen’s argument regarding Buddhist mortuary practices. According to Schopen, dying or being buried in the presence of a buddha had reputedly salvific effects, and in consideration of the above, this could have meant in the presence of a living buddha or in the

proximity and presence

125

presence of buddha relics. This latter phenomenon, Schopen maintains, may offer an explanation for the archeological evidence at many Buddhist sites of numerous votive stu¯pas containing the bones and ash of practitioners in the presence of a main stu¯pa. While I agree with Schopen’s speculations regarding Buddhist mortuary practices, more needs to be said about the proposed equivalence of buddhas and buddha relics vis-à-vis the practice of prasa¯da—for in the Toyika¯ story, there is no mention of any mortuary practices. Instead, the proposition that buddhas and buddha relics are functionally equivalent bears only on the logistics of the practice of prasa¯da. The narrative function of this proposed equivalence is to demonstrate that, in addition to the Buddha himself, the assemblage of Ka¯´ syapa’s remains is also a pra¯sa¯dika object. Yet the practice of prasa¯da that is associated with Ka¯´ syapa’s remains has been reworked. In the previous chapter, seeing pra¯sa¯dika objects was shown to lead to the arising of prasa¯da. Here, however, the arising of prasa¯da requires a more proximate physical engagement with pra¯sa¯dika objects. The efficacy of the practice necessitates presence. Now in the beginning of “Burial Ad Sanctos,” Schopen makes a similar argument about the ritual efficacy of presence based on a passage in the Maha¯parinibba¯na-sutta and a corresponding account in the Sanskrit version of the text from Turfan in China. In the former, the Buddha maintains that there are four places that “a noble son who has saddha¯ should see and should powerfully experience”40—the sites of the Buddha’s birth, awakening, first teaching of the dhamma, and final nibba¯ na. As the Buddha explains, “Thinking, ‘Here ¯ nanda, the noble son who has saddha¯ should see the Tatha¯ gata was born,’ A and should powerfully experience that site”;41 and so on for the other sites as well. The Buddha continues that those “monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen who have saddha¯”42 will visit these four sites and have the thoughts, ‘Here the Tatha¯ gata was born,’ and so forth. Then the Buddha says, ¯ nanda, while engaged in traveling to these shrines, those who are A pasa¯da in mind and die, all of them, after the dissolution of their bodies, after death, will be reborn in an excellent existence in a heavenly world.43 The Sanskrit recension of the text preserves a similar sentiment: Those who are prasa¯da in mind and die in my presence, all of them who still have karma to work out will go to heaven.44 As Schopen (1997: 117) concludes from this passage, “the monk redactor of the text accepted as fact that a devout death that occurred within the range of

126

the practice of prasa¯ da

this presence [of the Buddha] assured for the individuals involved—and these were monks and laymen—rebirth in heaven.” In the above passage from the Sanskrit recension of the text, there are linguistic difficulties that are telling of a certain slippage with regard to the mechanics of the practice of prasa¯da. What I translate above as “in my presence” (mama¯ntike) could perhaps be read with the expression “prasa¯da in mind”— hence, “those who are prasa¯da in mind in my presence and die.” In a lengthy footnote, Schopen addresses some of the interpretive difficulties of this passage, and he is right that the order of these terms in Sanskrit indicates the former reading and not the latter.45 Nevertheless, to the best of my knowledge, the notion of dying in another’s presence is unattested in the Divya¯vada¯na, while the stereotyped expression in the reverse order (i.e., object ⫹ antike ⫹ cittaprasannah.) occurs frequently.46 The reason that I mention this linguistic problem is that regardless of how one interprets this passage, whether one takes “in my presence” to be connected with “prasa¯da in mind” or “dying,” in the events of the Toyika¯ story, it is only the former configuration that comes to bear. In other words, what is essential in the Toyika¯ story is not dying in the presence of a buddha but having prasa¯da in the presence of a buddha. And what is very clear from the text is that this practice is equally valid in the presence of a living buddha and in the presence of a buddha-as-relics. This complex of ideas and the implications for practice that they suggest take on an even greater importance in consideration of the widespread currency of the above verse that equates honoring a living buddha and honoring one who has passed into final nirva¯n.a. Schopen cites a number of texts that contain this verse or close variants of it—the Khotanense text of the Pradaks. in.a-su¯tra, the Buddhacarita of As´vaghos.a, the Schedkungsformular manuscript from Turkistan, and the Caityapradaks. in.aga¯tha¯ (what Waldschmidt calls a sondertext of the Sanskrit Maha¯parinirva¯n.a-su¯tra).47 These last two texts, in addition to containing the verse in question, also preserve versions of many of the verses that precede this verse in the Divya¯vada¯na and in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya. And it is these verses that describe the utility of different offerings made at shrines of a buddha by one who is prasa¯da in mind. As Schopen (1997: 132) remarks, “Notice that all of these texts emphasize that the individual is to ‘make his mind equally devout’ [i.e., cultivate prasa¯da equally in one’s mind] in regard to the actual presence and the relic (samam . cittam . prasa¯dya; same cittaprasa¯de hi; sems dge ba ni mtshungs ’gyur na; yid kyi dang ba mnyam na; etc.).” What is special about being in the presence of a living buddha or a buddha’s relics is the opportunity it affords to cultivate prasa¯da.

proximity and presence

127

Prasa¯da, Presence, and Relics Implicit in the Toyika¯ story and in these accounts that Schopen cites is that there is a close connection between the practice of prasa¯da and rituals that in¯ pas. This same connection is also evident in a variety of other volve relics or stu Buddhist texts. As Kevin Trainor (1997: 166; cf. 1989: 187–189) explains, in various Pali materials, there is a trope of practitioners witnessing the relics of a buddha performing miracles, and “one of the primary words used to describe this response, which recurs throughout the Pali textual tradition, is pasanna and its cognates.” Such a response, for example, occurs in the post-canonical Thu¯pavam . sa, which narrates King Dut.t.haga¯ min.¯ı ’s efforts to enshrine the Buddha’s relics in ¯ pa). At one point in the text, the relics of Gautama the Maha¯ thu¯pa (Great Stu Buddha fly into the air and simultaneously produce fire and water. The text explains that “upon seeing this miracle, one hundred and twenty million gods and mortals cultivated pasa¯da and attained arhatship.”48 Subsequently, when King Dut.t.haga¯ min.¯ı installs the relics, the great earth shuddered, shook, and quaked up to its ocean limits, the great ocean was agitated, lightning flashed in the sky, a sudden downpour of rain fell, and the six heavens were in a single tumult. When the king saw this marvel, he was possessed of pasa¯da and performed pu¯ja¯ to the relics with his white parasol with golden festoons. He then gave [to those relics] the sovereignty of Tambapan.n.idı¯pa (Copper Leaf Island) for a week, and after unfastening his ornaments and finery worth thirty million [coins], he offered them as well. Likewise, all the dancing women, ministers, and the rest of the multitude and the gods also offered all their ornaments.49 Trainor also cites a passage from the Dha¯tuvam . sa, a similarly post-canonical work that likewise chronicles the distribution of relics after the Buddha’s final nibba¯na. In that text, when the forehead-bone relic of the Buddha flies into the air and performs the miracle of fire and water, it elicits the following reaction from the people below: When the people saw the Teacher’s miracle, which they had never seen before, they were enraptured and found pasa¯da in the Victor. To such an excellent shrine [each person] offered their scents, garlands, and jewelry, bowing their heads in veneration.50

128

the practice of prasa¯ da

In these examples from the Thu¯pavam . sa and the Dha¯tuvam . sa, the practice of prasa¯da (or in this case, pasa¯da) is likewise connected to stu¯pas and relics,51 but the logic of engagement is reversed. While the Toyika¯ story stresses physical engagement with a mortuary site, here it is a visual connection that is foregrounded. In both cases, though, the arising of pasa¯da culminates in the making of an offering. As Trainor (1997: 171; cf. 1989: 187) concludes, The relics perform marvels that recall those performed by the Buddha before his passing away, and the effect of these marvels on the witnesses is the mental state of pasa¯da. This mental state is also closely connected with rituals of venerating the relics, including both material offerings and gestures of obeisance. The meaning of all this is clear: the activity of seeing and ritually worshipping the relics of the Buddha gives rise to positive mental states. While I agree with Trainor that here the relics of the Buddha are represented as agents of pasa¯da just as the Buddha or, for that matter, other pra¯sa¯dika objects, I would reverse the order of events that Trainor describes. It is not the case that “ritually worshipping the relics of the Buddha” gives rise to the mental state of pasa¯da, but that being possessed of pasa¯da culminates in acts of ritual worship—such as offering the sovereignty of Tambapan.n.idı¯pa for a week.52 This connection between prasa¯da and the veneration of shrines is also apparent in later avada¯na materials, raising the possibility, as Jonathan Walters (1997) has already done, that avada¯nas in general are somehow tied to rituals involv¯ pas. For example, in the Ahora¯travavratacaityaseva¯nus´am ing shrines and stu . saavada¯na, the tenth chapter of the As´oka-avada¯nama¯la¯, the following verse occurs: Those men, full of prasa¯da, who anoint a shrine of a perfectly awakened one with the five fragrances will become individuals [devoted to] the highest good, powerful, luminous, and with bodies that are fragrant.53 While, in the examples from the Thu¯pavam . sa and the Dha¯tuvam . sa, pasa¯da arises from seeing buddha relics perform miraculous deeds, this verse from the Ahora¯travavratacaityaseva¯nus´am . sa-avada¯na is reminiscent of the numerous verses in the Toyika¯ story that extol the virtues of being “prasa¯da in mind” while performing ritual acts at shrines of a buddha. Though it is possible that in these cases a visual connection is necessary for prasa¯da to arise in those individuals who visit Buddhist shrines, proximity seems to be the primary cause. But how is it that prasa¯da arises? Is simply being in the presence of a shrine of a buddha sufficient cause? Is it enough just to see a pra¯sa¯dika object?

6 Politics and Aesthetics

Perceptual activity nonconsciously spreads to behavioral representations, increasing the likelihood of behaving similarly to others in the current environment . . . Our conclusion that the effect of perception on behavior is an automatic process that does not depend on conscious choice is consistent with recent neuropsychological findings as well. —Tanya L. Chartrand and John A. Bargh, The Chameleon Effect: The Perception-Behavior Link and Social Interaction How could one agree to weighing the alleged shortcomings of an automatic process and its minor disadvantages against the real havoc it creates in thought—a phenomenon that manifests itself against all the coercive hierarchies of the practical-rational world, all the rotten clandestine and transferential “combinings” of desire in the villainous domain of aesthetics, all the agents provocateurs, in short, of realist thought? —Salvador Dali, New General Considerations Regarding the Mechanism of the Paranoiac Phenomenon from the Surrealist Point of View In the Toyika¯ story, as I discussed in chapter 5, “shrines of a buddha” can function as de facto pra¯sa¯dika objects, be they “shrines for bodily remains” or “shrines by use.” Being in the presence of these objects,

130

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

moreover, allows for prasa¯da to arise and for the giving that follows from prasa¯da to ensue. As in those cases when an individual sees a pra¯sa¯dika object, here too the arising of prasa¯da is represented as having less to do with an individual’s personal efforts than with the force that these shrines exert. They are the “agents of prasa¯da,” and they, not the individual, are the primary cause of the arising of prasa¯da. The unerring ability of buddhas and shrines of a buddha to generate prasa¯da is never questioned, nor is the unerring ability of prasa¯da-initiated practices to generate merit for the Buddhist practitioner. Their efficacy is not in question. But what are the implications of such a seemingly fail-safe practice? What would it mean to get such a practice wrong? What would happen if an individual went to a recognized prasa¯da-inducing object and did not feel the need to make an offering? In what follows, I will discuss the apparently automatic and spontaneous nature of prasa¯da-initiated giving and the implications of such naturalism. I will then discuss the erotics of prasa¯da and the significance this has for an aesthetics of prasa¯da. These questions of agency and aesthetics have particularly important implications for the sociology of prasa¯da and, perhaps, the politics behind it.

The Power of Objects The practice of prasa¯da at Toyika¯ is represented as happening rather perfunctorily, almost automatically. One goes to a shrine, prasa¯da arises, and offerings are made —be they lumps of mud or oil lamps—and great rewards are predicted as a result of these deeds. Here, too the efficacy of prasa¯da does not rely on previously purifying the mind or cultivating proper intention but instead on being in the right place with respect to pra¯sa¯dika objects. But how does all this happen with apparently so little effort, and what does it mean that it does? In his discussion of contemporary ritual practices in a village in North India, Christopher Pinney offers an account of one such practice that seems to happen, as it were, automatically. A local resident named C.B. Tiwari advocates this practice, a six-sentence mantra that invokes Paramaham . sji. As Pinney (1997a: 166–167) explains, The great appeal of the technique — and this is what Tiwari continually stresses —is that faith or belief is not necessary, desires will be fulfilled without belief (bina vishvas). The analogies that tumble forth from Tiwari’s lips are all grounded in a technological world in which all that matters is effect: “Suppose that you want to use some electric

politics and aesthetics

131

power—you make a connection, fit your tube light, lay the wiring, provide a switch, connect this to the overhead wires. If the power is available, the tube is fine, the wiring is fine, the switch is fine, the tube light will come on— (chalega!)—with belief or without belief”— he flicked his thumb to and fro as though switching the current on and off. To produce surges of electricity in one’s own life all that was required was the utterance of six sentences. Although this example of efficacy as electricity describes a verbal utterance and not a moment of visual engagement, the principle involved here well describes the visual logic that governs many of the interactions between practitioner and divine image that Pinney (2002) describes elsewhere. What matters is being “plugged in”—reciting the right mantra or, as seems to be the case in the Toyika¯ example, being present in the right place and following ritual protocol. When the right conditions are met, the current will flow —be it electricity or prasa¯da. The power of objects, both auditory and visual, to affect individuals seemingly automatically is also well attested in Sanskrit literature. In the Bha¯gavatapura¯n.a, it is said that when the women of Vr. nda¯ van hear the music of Kr. s.n.a’s flute, their “minds are captivated by Kr. s.n.a,”1 and regardless of the consequences, they promptly stop whatever they are doing—milking cows, feeding infants, even washing themselves — and go to him. Though various family members try to stop them, “they do not turn back; Kr.s.n.a has stolen their hearts, and they are enchanted.”2 Compelled by Kr.s.n.a’s flute, they are inextricably drawn to him, and only physical force can hold them back. Those women who are physically restrained are overcome with desire and can only meditate upon him. It is this cathexis that leads directly to their liberation from material reality and karmic bondage. The listener of the tale, King Pariks.it, is baffled and asks how it is that these women, who know Kr. s.n.a only as a material being, a lover, can attain emanci´rı¯dha¯ rasva¯ min, pation from material reality. In response, one commentator, S makes the following point: “The power of a thing does not require [our] understanding [in order for it to be effective]. The drink of immortality achieves its effects when it is drunk even if the drinker thinks otherwise.”3 Kr. s.n.a’s power is not contingent on belief. All one needs is to be directly wired; one does not need to know how the wiring works. Similar examples of the power of objects also occur in the Maha¯bha¯rata, but there the results are more sexual than spiritual and those affected are men, ¯ di-parvan” (“The Book of the Beginning”) not women. For example in the “A ´aradvat’s austerities, sends the (1.120.1–13), Lord Indra, threatened by the sage S

132

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

´aradvat sees her, a shudder comes over nymph Ja¯ lapadı¯ to stop him. When S him, and although he maintains his poise, “his semen flows forth, though he isn’t aware of it.”4 In the following chapter (1.121.3–5), the great seer Bharadva¯ ja sees the nymph Ghr. ta¯ cı¯ alight, just after she has bathed. The wind blows her ¯ ran.yaka-parvan” (“The skirt away, and he immediately ejaculates. In the “A Book of the Forest”) (3.110.13–15), a glimpse of the nymph Urvas´¯ı has much the same effect on the great seer Ka¯´ syapa; he promptly ejaculates, despite his long engagement in ascetic austerities.5 In each of these cases, the sight of a divine maiden causes a man to have an orgasm spontaneously, even though each of these men is a religious practitioner engaged in rigorous ascetic discipline involving sexual abstinence. But despite the self-control they have acquired through their austerities, the right image leads them to ejaculate automatically, without their consent or even, necessarily, their awareness. The text assumes that humans have an “innate, species-wide disposition to respond to particular perceptual stimuli in predetermined ways,” what Alfred Gell terms “ethology” (1992: 44). It is, as it were, a natural law. Contrary to what these stories tell us, such visual and visceral interactions are not automatic. The electrical outlet that Tiwari describes has been socially engineered, and built into its construction is a cover-plate that masks its origins and full range of functions. Bodily and visual practices, such as those that involve prasa¯da, have likewise been socially and culturally inscribed.6

Automatic Actions, Politics, and Pornography One helpful way of thinking about these seemingly automatic actions follows from Pierre Bourdieu’s well-known notion of habitus, whose “structuring structures” are said to inscribe in us a belief that many of our learned and conditioned behaviors are actually natural and innate. “Automatic and impersonal, significant without intending to signify,” Bourdieu (1999: 80) writes, “ordinary practices lend themselves to an understanding no less automatic and impersonal.” My interest, however, is not in trying “to define rigorously the status of the semi-learned grammars of practice — sayings, proverbs, gnomic poems, spontaneous ‘theories’ which always accompany even the most ‘automatic’ practices” (1999: 20). There isn’t enough data from the Buddhist world in the early centuries of the Common Era to progress very far in such an endeavor. What is instructive, though, is Bourdieu’s contention that such thoroughgoing inscriptions of practice serve political ends. To quote Bourdieu (1999: 49) at length,

politics and aesthetics

133

If all societies and, significantly, all the “totalitarian institutions,” in Goffman’s phrase, that seek to produce a new man through a process of “deculturation” and “reculturation” set such store on the seemingly most insignificant details of dress, bearing, physical and verbal manners, the reason is that, treating the body as a memory, they entrust to it in abbreviated and practical, i.e., mnemonic, form the fundamental principles of the arbitrary content of the culture. The principles em-bodied in this way are placed beyond the grasp of consciousness, and hence cannot be touched by voluntary, deliberate transformation, cannot even be made explicit; nothing seems more ineffable, more incommunicable, more inimitable, and, therefore, more precious, than that given body, made body by the transubstantiation achieved by the hidden persuasion of an implicit pedagogy, capable of instilling a whole cosmology, an ethic, a metaphysic, a political philosophy, through injunctions as insignificant as “stand up straight” or “don’t hold your knife in your left hand.”7 As Bourdieu (1999: 164) observes, “every established order tends to produce (to very different degrees and with very different means) the naturalization of its own arbitrariness,” and such a structure leads to what he terms doxa —the experience of “a quasi-perfect correspondence between the objective order and the subjective principles of organization” such that “the natural and social world appears as self-evident.” In other words, the conditioned comes to seem unconditioned and natural—not contrived but somehow preordained. Such a doxic view permeates the Divya¯vada¯na, for it presumes throughout that Buddhist cognitive and causal realities are natural laws, not religious creations. This conception of Buddhist teaching and practice is particularly evident in the Divya¯vada¯na’s accounts of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da. In the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, Kot.ikarn.a isn’t said to possess ´sraddha¯—to be a Buddhist believer— or to be a Buddhist practitioner until after his otherworldly journey. What then constitutes his “conversion”—if one can call it that—is seeing that the way the world functions is in accordance with Buddhist law (i.e., karma) and that the best way to succeed in the world is to follow Buddhist precepts, such as not taking life and making offerings. Likewise, Kot.ikarn.a’s father, Balasena, is never said to have ´sraddha¯ in the Buddha or to engage in Buddhist practices. Even the offerings that he makes, which appear to be successful, don’t involve Buddhist recipients. The warrant of the truthfulness of these beliefs and practices isn’t the testimony of the Buddha, but seeing for oneself that they are true.

134

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

Accounts of prasa¯da are similarly delineated. Inasmuch as the mechanics of prasa¯da abide by the laws of the natural world, the efficacy of prasa¯da is not particularly Buddhist in construction but simply the way the world works. The laws that govern the mechanics of prasa¯da are the laws of karma, which in turn are the laws of nature. In the Toyika¯ narrative it is said that great rewards come to those who visit shrines of a buddha and make offerings while being “prasa¯da in mind.” Notice that no mention is made of this mental state being directed toward the Buddha. Seeing pra¯sa¯dika objects makes one “prasa¯da in mind” regardless of one’s thoughts, feelings, or intentions. Everyone at Toyika¯ is equally affected. Receptivity is the default. It would take some rupture or crisis to be otherwise. In addition to this mental leveling of the practitioner’s field of activity, the story also features a sociological leveling. While the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na shows the experience of prasa¯da to be open to the poor and closed to gods and kings, suggesting a subaltern configuration for prasa¯da, the Toyika¯ story represents the practice as being available and efficacious for the hundreds and thousands of people who make prasa¯da-initiated offerings. Presumably these include King Prasenajit “along with the women of his harem, as well as princes, ministers, military commanders, townspeople, and villagers.”8 No sociological study of this representation of the practice is necessary. Individual tastes and habits are elided, as are, apparently, differences in gender, age, race, and class. It is this representation of a sociological leveling, a uniformity of response, that brings to mind Bourdieu’s observation that seemingly automatic behavior betrays a social and political agenda.9 Yet how does one get at the politics behind this discourse on prasa¯da? An instructive analogy can be found in Only Words, Catherine MacKinnon’s (1993) tract concerning the effects of viewing pornography. Like the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya, the probable source for the narratives in the Divya¯vada¯na, this is a legal text, and its mode of argumentation is similarly didactic. Though MacKinnon’s piece relies on logic that at times seems tortuously stretched, its naturalized discourse regarding the power of pornographic objects has striking similarities with the rhetoric in the Divya¯vada¯na regarding the power of pra¯sa¯dika objects. These similarities, in turn, suggest a more political reading for the discourse of prasa¯da. In Only Words, MacKinnon claims that consumers of pornography are compelled to live out the pornographic images that they see. These images, she claims, are performatives that men have no choice but to obey, and as such they are not mediated or moderated by thoughts that men may have. This is not to say that pornography does not contain or engender ideas, but as MacKinnon (1993: 21–22) explains,

politics and aesthetics

135

the way it works is not as a thought or through its ideas as such. The message of these materials, and there is one, as there is to all conscious activity, is “get her,” pointing at all women . . . This message is addressed directly to the penis, delivered through an erection, and taken out on women in the real world. The content of this message is not unique to pornography. It is the function of pornography in effectuating it that is unique. Like others who have claimed that pornography can “provoke gut reactions” (Kuhn 1985: 21) or elicit “ ‘automatic’ bodily reactions” (Williams 1999: 5; cf. Maha¯bha¯rata citations above), MacKinnon (1993: 61) claims that pornography manipulates the perpetrator’s socialized body relatively primitively and directly . . . This is men’s beloved “hard-wiring,” giving them that exculpatory sense that the sexual desires so programmed are natural and so operate before and beyond their minds—got there before they did, as it were. Much like the Toyika¯ narrative, MacKinnon’s work elides differences between subjectivities, such as young and old, gay and straight, by positing that the spectacle of certain objects imposes a uniformity and inevitability of response. Furthermore, these reactions—regardless of whether they are “primitive” or, as in Bourdieu’s habitus, learned—produce responses that are seemingly innate and automatic. MacKinnon’s belief in the efficacy of pornography is not unlike C. B. Tiwari’s belief in the efficacy of the Paramaham . sji mantra; both share in the same belief that “faith or belief is not necessary, desires will be fulfilled without belief.” In addition to these similarities between the “hard-wiring” of viewers of pornography as described by MacKinnon and the mechanics of prasa¯da as depicted in the Divya¯vada¯na, the politics for which MacKinnon marshals her account also has its parallels in the Divya¯vada¯na. As a lawyer committed to the eradication of pornography, MacKinnon is concerned with the legalities that govern the production, dissemination, and consumption of pornographic images. One loophole that she sees in this legislation involves the notion that there is thinking—“mental intermediation,” as she terms it—on the part of consumers of pornography when they see pornographic images.10 Instead, MacKinnon argues that pornography has so habituated and conditioned men in our society that pornographic images now evade these male viewer’s critical faculties, neatly bypassing the brain, and addressing the penis directly. As MacKinnon (1993: 24) explains, “I am not saying that . . . [a rapist’s] head is not attached to his body; I am saying that his body is attached to his head.”

136

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

Though MacKinnon’s argument is ripe for critique — she accounts for differences neither among pornographic images nor among subject-positions of the viewer (cf. Butler 1997)—her concern with the bodily effects of visual practices is useful for understanding the politics of the discourse of prasa¯da.11 It is the concern with the effects of visual objects, be they pornographic or pra¯sa¯dika, that links together the prescriptive accounts in both the Divya¯vada¯na and MacKinnon’s work. In both accounts certain images or words are more important for their function than their content. Such polemics betray an agenda, and in MacKinnon’s case it is apparent: Seeing certain images (i.e., pornography) inevitably leads certain individuals (i.e., men) to perform certain actions (i.e., acts of violence against women), and therefore such images should be banned. Likewise in the Buddhist case, seeing or being in the presence of certain images (i.e., pra¯sa¯dika objects) inevitably leads certain individuals (i.e., the poor, and perhaps others) to perform certain actions (i.e., acts of giving), and therefore such images should be sought out. The politics of the discourse of prasa¯da, then, are the reverse of MacKinnon’s. The message isn’t prohibitive but advocatory: Regardless of your age, gender, or mental faculties (though financial and social standing do seem to matter in some configurations of the discourse), go and see pra¯sa¯dika objects and—as naturally follows—make offerings. The results will be most desirable. Many avada¯nas containing this discourse of prasa¯da are also structured in a way that is particularly conducive to inculcating such a rigid system of values. For example, Susan Suleiman’s description of the early twentieth-century French didactic novel (roman à thèse) applies equally well to avada¯nas. As Suleiman (1993: 54) explains, the story told by a roman à thèse is essentially teleological—it is determined by a specific end, which exists “before” and “above” the story. The story calls for an unambiguous interpretation, which in turn implies a rule of action applicable (at least virtually) to the real life of the reader. The interpretation and the rule of action may be stated explicitly by a narrator who “speaks with the voice of Truth” and can therefore lay claim to absolute authority, or they may be supplied, on the basis of textual and contextual indices, by the reader. The only necessary condition is that the interpretation and the rule of action be unambiguous—in other words, that the story lend itself as little as possible to a “plural” reading. Furthermore, the rhetorical means to achieve these ends involve redundancy,12 “the presence (even if it is only implied, not stated) of a rule of action

politics and aesthetics

137

addressed to the reader,”13 and “the presence of a doctrinal intertext”14 (1993: 56)—all features of avada¯na literature. While I don’t want to claim that these attributes are necessarily markers of an intentionally political discourse, I do think that the discourse of prasa¯da, like avada¯nas and the roman à thèse, “seeks to impose a single ‘correct’ meaning on the world as on the text” (Suleiman 1993: xvi). The political implications of such a figuration are apparent.

Aesthetics, Erotics, and Corpothetics Even though everyone among the hundreds and thousands of people in the Toyika¯ story get prasa¯da right, there are instances when individuals get prasa¯da wrong. There are the deviant few who misapprehend the “correct meaning” of prasa¯da and the monological truth for which it stands. This would be the rupture and crisis that I mentioned previously. But this moment of misapprehension is revealing. It helps to explain the aesthetics of the experience of prasa¯da and the consequences of the elision of “mental intermediation.” When one gets prasa¯da wrong, the problem is not that one has deliberated and consciously made a choice that is somehow mistaken. The problem is that one has a faulty disposition, a faulty nature — or, to follow Tiwari and MacKinnon’s metaphor, faulty wiring. As a result of this fault, seeing a pra¯sa¯dika object results not in the state of prasa¯da and the making of a prasa¯da-initiated offering but in a libidinal pleasure and a consequent urge to give.15 This bifurcation of results highlights an overlap between pra¯sa¯dika objects as those things that are ritually effective and those things that are “attractive,” as in the frequently occurring string of epithets discussed in chapter 3—“handsome, good-looking, and attractive.”16 In both cases, an individual sees the Buddha or one of his disciples and is aroused to give, but offerings that arise from a libidinal impulse are rejected. In the Ma¯kandika-avada¯na, for example, a wandering mendicant named Ma¯kandika and his wife Sa¯kali give birth to an incomparably beautiful daughter who is appropriately named Anupama¯ (Incomparable). When she grows up, her father decides to choose a husband for her based on this criterion: “I won’t give this girl to anyone because of his high standing, nor because of his wealth or even his learning. Instead, I’ll give her to whoever is as beautiful or more beautiful than she is.”17 One day, Ma¯kandika happens to see the Buddha, “and at the sight of him, he is pleased and delighted.”18 He then reflects, “Such an ascetic as this one is pra¯sa¯dika, is very good-looking, and captivates everyone. Indeed, a suitable husband is difficult to find for any woman,

138

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

but how much more so in the case of Anupama¯. I have found a son-in-law!”19 Thereafter, Ma¯kandika informs his wife of his decision, and the two of them go to see the Buddha. When they catch sight of him, Ma¯kandika’s wife recognizes that the Buddha is a “great seer”20 and realizes her mistake. “He won’t accept our daughter as a devotee,” she concludes. “Turn back. Let’s go home.”21 Disregarding his wife’s assessment of the situation, Ma¯kandika nevertheless has their daughter Anupama¯ adorned so that she may be presented to the Buddha as a bride. Ma¯kandika’s wife protests, and five times she concludes, “This is not a husband who will love our daughter. Turn back! Let’s go home.”22 Eventually, Ma¯kandika does offer his daughter’s hand in marriage to the Buddha, and the Buddha destroys any such aspirations she might have had with what he himself regards as “repellent words”:23 Brahman, even when I saw Ma¯ra’s daughters, I felt neither craving nor passion— I have no desire at all for sensual pleasures. Therefore I can’t bring myself to touch this girl, not even with my foot, filled as she is with piss and shit.24 This account contains an odd mixture of sexualized and devotional discourse. At the sight of the Buddha, Ma¯kandika isn’t filled with prasa¯da but is instead “pleased and delighted” and eager to offer the Buddha his daughter in marriage. Ma¯kandika recognizes no impropriety in this deed, for within the domestic sphere a “gift of a maiden” (kanya¯da¯na) is an appropriate offering.25 In this case, however, his arousal to give is in error. It arises not from prasa¯da but from libidinal desire. This is apparent when Ma¯kandika first offers his daughter to the Buddha. He remarks, May the Blessed One behold my virtuous daughter, a shapely and well-adorned young woman. I offer this amorous girl to you, and with her behave like a man of virtue, like the moon in the sky with [his wife] Rohin.¯ı .26 Although Ma¯kandika addresses the Buddha as “Blessed One,” seemingly acknowledging the Buddha’s status as an eminent ascetic, he is apparently not aware that the Buddha is celibate,27 for he then tells him to accept his daughter and behave with her “like a man of virtue.”28 Following the analogy to the moon and his wife Rohin.¯ı , he should behave like a good husband. But Ma¯kandika’s focus on beauty as the sole determining factor for marriage contravenes brahmanical injunctions as well (see Kane 1930–1962: ii, 429–431).

politics and aesthetics

139

His response to the Buddha’s beauty is multiply mistaken. He is both miswired and misguided. By contrast, Ma¯kandika’s own wife recognizes the Buddha as a great seer, not a future son-in-law. Yet, she seems to be confused about what offering should be made. First, she complains that the Buddha won’t accept their daughter as a devotee, as though they were offering their daughter to the Buddha as the prized gift of a new disciple.29 But then she complains that the Buddha won’t be a proper husband. Though the Buddha is many things to many people — a great seer, a teacher, a victor, and so on—he is a husband or a bridegroom to no one. In both cases, Ma¯kandika’s wife refers to their daughter as kuma¯rika¯, an affectionate, diminutive, and even desexualizing term that in the voice of a mother might be translated as “sweet little girl.” Ma¯kandika’s wife, unlike her husband, appears to be wary of treating their daughter as a sexualized commodity. As for the Buddha, he speaks “repellent words” to Ma¯kandika’s daughter to demonstrate his detachment from sense pleasures and to try to cultivate the same in her. Whereas Ma¯kandika was swayed by the beauty of the Buddha, the Buddha explains that he is not swayed by the sight of Ma¯kandika’s daughter. He has a different nature, and this yields a different response.30 This story, with its paired motifs of prasa¯da and its perversion, is reminiscent of an episode from Maxim Gorky’s childhood when he inappropriately kissed a miracle-working image of the virgin. As Gorky (cited in Freedberg 1989: 320) notes, “She’ll probably cause my arms to wither for carrying her with dirty hands. I loved the Virgin . . . and when the time came to kiss her, I tremblingly pressed my lips to her mouth, not noticing how the grownups did it. Someone’s strong arm hurled me into the corner by the door . . . You simpleton! said my master in a mild rebuke . . . For several days I waited like one condemned. First I had grasped the Virgin with dirty hands, then I had kissed her in the wrong way . . . But apparently the Virgin forgave my involuntary sin.” “He behaved to her,” David Freedberg (1989: 320) notes, “impetuously and immaturely—as if she were some mortal woman, of the kind he knew, and not as some divine unknowable being. To her and not to it. Gorky’s sin consisted in acting spontaneously on that basis.” Yet the sin, as Gorky notes, was “involuntary.” Considering that the Virgin was “the most beautiful of all women on earth” (Freedberg 1989: 320), Gorky’s mistake was understandable. Nevertheless, his confusion between spiritual love and erotic love merited a strong-armed response.31 Gorky’s response to the virgin is not unlike Ma¯kandika’s response to the Buddha. Though the object is supposed to instill prasa¯da and not erotic desire, the power and beauty of the object can stimulate an improper, libidinal response. To use Jean-François Lyotard’s language, it is as though one engages with such objects primarily in the figural realm—that realm in which “meaning is not

140

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

produced and communicated, but intensities are felt” (Carrol 1987: 31). Yet these intensities are then registered and responded to in a discursive realm, and this happens as though by default, without any conscious decision-making. Though the experience of prasa¯da is represented as routine, in the sense of habitual and predictable, it is not routine in the sense of mundane or commonplace. The experience of prasa¯da is mesmerizing. This is most apparent in the recurring epithet “sights one never tires of seeing” (asecanakadars´ana), which I discussed in chapter 3. In this category of objects, the Buddha’s visage is grouped together with mighty elephants, oceans, and rocky mountains— objects that often engender emotional responses such as awe and amazement. . . In the Sangharaks.ita-avada¯na, for example, after the venerable Sangharaks.ita begins to look at the ocean, he is transfixed. He remains staring at the ocean, though it serves no ulterior motive but an autotelic enjoyment.32 Finally, “in the last watch of the night, he is overcome by exhaustion and falls asleep.”33 As I mentioned previously, during the experience of prasa¯da one is not “acting with purpose.” One is, so to speak, carried along. As a result of this mesmeric quality of the experience of prasa¯da and its resultant lack of mental intermediation, these different responses to pra¯sa¯dika objects involve an immediate and tactile grasping, and hence a sensory and corporeal aesthetics. While a libidinal response to a pra¯sa¯dika object entails an explicit erotics, the canonically correct response of ritual giving involves a more subtle erotics. The immediacy of the arising of prasa¯da, the result of this lack of mental intermediation, generates an erotic quality.34 In discussing visual practices in postcolonial India, Christopher Pinney makes much the same claim. As Pinney (2002: 361) writes, Within film, chromolithography, and studio photography one can trace parallel movements which involved the abolition of the space of contemplation and the intensification of an erotic tactility . . . Contemplation—which was promulgated in India through colonial Arts Schools from the mid 1850s onward—might be seen as concerned with “hermeneutics” in Sontag’s terms, its abolition allowing the emergence of a new “erotics.”35 It is this “new” erotics, this interested aesthetics, as opposed to Kant’s disinterested variety, that Pinney terms “corpothetics.” Once again, a comparison with pornography is instructive, for there seems to be a similar aesthetics — or corpothetics—involved in visually engaging with pra¯sa¯dika objects and watching certain enunciative spectacles in pornographic films. And what is crucial about this analogy is the similarity of function of these two phenomena.

politics and aesthetics

141

In her discussion of stag films Linda Williams (1989: 71) distinguishes between the narratives of such films and the extranarrative enunciative spectacles that occur “when the bodies within the frame come so close that their means of relation is no longer looking but touching.” Explaining the tactile effect of such images, she writes, “It is, in short, as if the spectacle of the naked or nearly naked body . . . retards any possible forward narrative drive. It seems in effect to be saying, ‘Let’s just feast our eyes and arrest our gaze on the hidden things that ordinary vision . . . cannot see . . . who needs more” (1989: 71)? It is these images, she claims, that “seek to move us” (1989: 285). If Williams is right, part of the power of pornographic films is that the intended function is effected not through the narratives of the films but through such extranarrative spectacles. According to Williams, this distinction between “narrative” and “number,” between story and tableau, is a common trait of both pornographic films and movie musicals (1989: 130–134). But as is clear from Williams’ account—and this is crucial—narration can be an impediment to the function. The central function of pornographic films is arousal, and this is effected through their spectacles not their stories.36 In Lyotard’s terminology, it is not a discursive process but a figural one.

The Extranarrative Function of Avada¯ nas All this raises some intriguing possibilities about the function of avada¯nas. The viewer of pra¯sa¯dika objects, like the viewer of pornographic spectacles, views images whose function is less to communicate than to arouse, and this function is effected naturally, effortlessly, and automatically, or so it seems. But the listener of avada¯nas (or, more recently, the reader) is also confronted with similar extranarrative enunciative spectacles that “retard any possible forward narrative drive.” This happens, for example, during prasa¯da episodes, wherein characters in the story and outside listeners alike experience a narrative pause. Occasionally these excursuses from the narrative are also extended, such as when they contain stereotyped descriptions of the Buddha’s physical form. As I mentioned previously, one particular stereotyped description of the Buddha occurs a number of times immediately after a character sees the Buddha and immediately before he develops prasa¯da. The Buddha is envisioned as one who is adorned with the thirty-two marks of a great man, whose body is radiant with the eighty minor marks, who is adorned with a halo extending an arm’s length,

142

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

whose brilliance is greater than a thousand suns, and who, like a mountain of jewels that moves, is beautiful from every side. This trope functions as a kind of description of the content of the prasa¯da experience. Put another way, this description is a discursive reading of a figural encounter—a moment, as it were, of the sublime put into words. Such extranarrative interruptions also occur outside of the discourse of prasa¯da. Most notably, there are various stock descriptions of the powers and attributes of buddhas37 and a stereotyped description of the qualities of arhats.38 Many of these descriptions occur frequently and as such are often abbreviated with a cursory “and so on as before” (pu¯rvavat ya¯vat).39 The most common of these stereotypical descriptions is a tenfold list of characteristics applied to buddhas. Generally, after an introduction explaining that in the past there arose in the world a particular buddha, this list occurs as an enumeration of his attributes.40 But this list also occurs in a different stereotyped passage, immediately after it is said that “the Blessed One is just like this—.”41 As I discussed in chapter 4, the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na shows that this list of epithets is not the content of the prasa¯da experience, as the previously mentioned list seems to have been, but the content of the meditative practice known as buddha¯nusmr.ti. The Pali materials also state this more explicitly.42 And so, my point: since some of these stereotyped descriptions function explicitly as objects of contemplation outside of the larger narratives in which they are embedded, perhaps some of these other stereotyped descriptions—all of which, it should be noted, describe pra¯sa¯dika objects — also function as nonnarrative enunciative spectacles. These are “image-texts” (Mitchell 1994: 89) with an iconic force that resists a discursive reading, but they are not extraneous to the message of their stories. Perhaps, in some sense, they are the message itself. My sense is that there are different but complementary functions in the narrative and extranarrative components of these stories. The former is more legalistic, didactic, and discursive, and the latter is more impressionistic, contemplative, and figural. More loosely, the former seeks to teach us, and the latter, like the pornographic image, “seeks to move us.”

Giving, Gold, and Status Though thousands of people are said to have gone to the Toyika¯ site and been moved to make a variety of offerings, it isn’t clear what benefit these offerings yield. What does one gain from acting on the reflex to give?

politics and aesthetics

143

In the Toyika¯ story, people first come to the Toyika¯ site to see the undisturbed body of the perfectly awakened Ka¯´ syapa and are upset when that isn’t possible. Then, “so that they wouldn’t have any regrets,” the Buddha utters the following verse. Hundreds of thousands of gold coins or ornaments are not equal to the wise man, prasa¯da in mind, who walks around shrines of a buddha. As we’ve seen, this verse is then followed by a sequence in which individuals make a variety of offerings and the Buddha recites similar verses about the status of such offerings. Within the logic of the story, the characters appear to be making offerings to find out how much merit will be accrued from making different types of offerings rather than actually to accrue that merit. By contrast, the Buddha seems to be intent on making it clear that a variety of offerings all yield value, as long as one is prasa¯da in mind. The verses that the Buddha recites, however, are perhaps unexpected in their meaning. The text says that such quantities of gold “are not equal to he who”43 makes such-and-such an offering. I take this to mean that a person who is prasa¯da in mind and makes certain offerings at shrines of a buddha is more valuable than vast quantities of gold. One would need to take numerous liberties with Sanskrit grammar to construe this verse as meaning that offerings of vast quantities of gold are not equal to offerings of much lesser market value (e.g., lumps of clay) if the latter is made by someone who is prasa¯da in mind. If my interpretation is correct, the question then becomes what it means to say that someone is more valuable than vast quantities of gold or, as it is said in the version of the story in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya, more valuable than “hundreds of thousands of mountains of gold, each equal to Mount Meru.”44 One interpretation of this equation relies on the idea of the gold standard of the karmic system. If a vast quantity of gold is indicative of a vast quantity of merit, then perhaps the idea here is that being prasa¯da in mind and then making an offering at a shrine of a buddha results in large quantities of merit. Shrines of a buddha, it could be argued, are such large fields of merit that even meager offerings at these sites can yield great results. It is also possible to read the value in question in terms of social status. In chapter 3, I discussed how giving improves not only one’s karmic status but also one’s social status, for giving generates merit and leads to prosperity. Conversely, one’s wealth is indicative of these forms of status. Giving, in other words, leads to religious and social capital, and good fortune —be it spiritual, financial, or political—is a sign of just such capital. According to this rationale, practitioners who perform certain acts of giving at the Toyika¯ site could be said

144

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

to earn religious capital—which the text refers to as “merit”—as well as social capital. By accruing these forms of capital, they become more valuable and worthy in society, and this value and worth are given a great price in terms of the preferred hard currency of the day—gold. The claim that giving leads to social status is hardly new. Paul Veyne, for example, in his work on euergetism in ancient Rome during the Hellenistic and Roman periods (˜300 BCE–300 CE), describes in detail how acts of public patronage were a crucial way for notables to express their membership in the upper class, and by doing so prime themselves for political careers and a certain “prestige” (1990: 122–124). Elsewhere, as well, Veyne discusses the connection between giving and the Aristotelian notion of “magnificence” (1990: 13–18) and royal “majesty” (1990: 380). Within a South Asian context, R. A. L. H. Gunawardana (1981: 136) likewise claims that the earliest Bra¯hmı¯ inscriptions in Sri Lanka, most of which were to the Buddhist monastic community, “reflect a state of intense competition for status conducted through acts of conspicuous generosity.” Yet the kinds of offerings that are represented as being offered during the practice of prasa¯da are not conspicuously generous. They are not the luxury goods, as it has been argued, that were designated for use in Buddhist rituals (Liu 1988: 88–102), and as objects they don’t share in an obvious “magnificence” or “majesty.” They are the surplus of a more mundane existence. What makes the practice of prasa¯da at Toyika¯ story so interesting is that it allows those who are not wealthy merchants, those with little material means at their disposal, to engage in the activities of offering gifts and pursuing status. The text is explicit that this process works with regard to karmic status— consider the case of the beggar in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na whose prasa¯da-initiated gift of some rice water to the noble Maha¯ka¯´ syapa earns her sufficient merit to be reborn among the Tus.ita gods. Yet the connection in the text between karmic status and social status is less clear. After the beggar in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na is reborn as a god, for example, “word spread all around”45 about this event. Hearing this news, King Prasenajit then goes to the Buddha and attempts to emulate the beggar woman’s act of giving and presumably receive a similar reward. The message here is that the practice of prasa¯da leads one to a state of being that even kings desire—and, at least in this case, can’t attain. The claim of the text is that Buddhism can help one convert religious capital into social capital, or the converse, and it offers a fantastic rate of return that allows small offerings to generate great rewards. The goal of such claims to convertibility was surely to increase donations and combat donor fatigue, but my suspicion is that there were naysayers. Much like the incredulous brahman

politics and aesthetics

145

in the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na who doesn’t believe the Buddha’s prediction that small offerings can lead to great karmic results, did small offerings really lead to great social results? Did Buddhism as an institution have sufficient social capital to lend itself to any significant status claims, particularly for the kind of meager gifts associated with the practice of prasa¯da? It may be instructive in this regard to consider Marcus Banks’s account of the donor fatigue among Srimali Jains in Leicester, England and the fortunes of the Jain Centre there. In the words of Banks (1991: 245), “It is a ‘failure’ for the Leicester Srimalis as they no longer see gifts made to . . . [the Jain Centre in Leicester] as Maussian ‘gifts to god’ and the symbolic capital they accrue by gifting is valueless to them—where is the prestige for a British Telecom Worker in being associated with an international meditation centre?” Did Indian Buddhists face a similar struggle with regard to the practice of prasa¯da? Was the prestige of Buddhism so great that a beggar could offer some rice water and achieve significant social mobility through that act?

Stages of Faith and Issues of Agency Although there is no mention in the Divya¯vada¯na of faith coming in stages, my sense is that prasa¯da was understood as a preparatory state that initiated one’s development as a Buddhist but was meant to be supplemented, if not superseded, by additional stages of faith. Some sense of these stages can be inferred from the definition of ´sraddha¯ in the Abhidharmasamuccaya, a text attributed to . the fourth-century philosopher Asanga: What are the forms of ´sraddha¯? It is conviction in what is real, prasa¯da regarding that which has virtuous qualities, and longing for what is possible. It has the function of providing a basis for will.46 (emphasis added) Here ´sraddha¯ is conceived of as an encompassing term for three forms of faith: (1) abhisam . pratyaya, (2) prasa¯da, and (3) abhila¯.s a. In his commentary on this passage, Sthiramati, a sixth-century scholastic, offers this gloss: “´sraddha¯ has [1] the form of conviction in what is the case. It has [2] the form of prasa¯da concerning the good qualities possessed [by the three jewels]. And it has [3] the form of yearning for what is possible, as when one thinks ‘I can obtain it’ or ‘I can make it so.’ ”47 Now what is the relationship between these elements? Judging by a similar commentary on this passage in the eighteenth-century Tibetan text entitled The Necklace of Clear Understanding: An Elucidation of the System of Mind and

146

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

Mental States (Sems dang sems byung gi tshul gsal bar ston pa blo gsal mgul rgyan),48 these three mental states represent a progression, a sequence of spiritual development. In this text, however, the order is (1) prasa¯da, (2) abhisam . pratyaya, and then (3) adhimukti, a common replacement in the scholastic tradition for abhila¯.sa.49 Regardless of the precise ordering and terminology, what is important with regard to the issues in this book is that there is a progression, a sense of stages of faith, and that prasa¯da represents an early one. In this lineage of scholarship, prasa¯da is a state of mental clarity in which mental disturbances are quieted. It is thus a state of “inspired clarity,” as Dunne and Apple translate the term, with regard to “that which has virtuous qualities”—namely, the three jewels: the Buddha, the dharma, and the monastic community. The Necklace of Clear Understanding makes clear that prasa¯da provides one with the mental clarity that allows one to develop abhisam . pratyaya. Without the clarity of prasa¯da, most individuals cannot think clearly enough to develop abhisam . pratyaya. Abhisam . pratyaya is a “conviction” or “trusting confidence” in the fact that certain things are the case, that certain claims are true. Basically abhisam . pratyaya entails a reasoned acceptance of the most fundamental Buddhist truths. The Tibetan commentary cites interdependent arising (pratı¯tyasamutpa¯da), which is a common example. The process of generating such faith involves examining the Buddha’s teachings and realizing through reasoning that what he has said is true. Abhila¯.s a or adhimukti is a “longing” or “yearning” to become like the objects in which one has faith (i.e., the three jewels), and it is based on realizing that one can indeed become like them. It thus presupposes abhisam . pratyaya, for in the context of developing abhisam . pratyaya one realizes it is possible to become a buddha. One might imagine this sequence in a scenario such as this: An individual sees a stu¯pa, and then prasa¯da arises in him, along with a sense of mental clarity and tranquility, and an urge to give. This experience of prasa¯da is relatively passive, for it is the prasa¯da-inducing powers of the stu¯pa that generates faith in the individual, tilling his field of merit so that roots of virtue can be planted. With the arising of prasa¯da, the individual then becomes an active agent in his development as a Buddhist. He studies the Buddha’s teachings and comes to a “conviction” (abhisam . pratyaya) that at a fundamental level they are true. He does not yet have a full realization of the four noble truths, but he grasps the truth of teachings such as interdependent arising and karma. He further understands that, according to these basic principles, he too can become like the Buddha. His experiences of inspired clarity and his study of the Buddha’s teaching have led him to greatly admire the Buddha. Hence, now that he knows that he can become buddha-like, his admiration engenders a “longing” to become a buddha.

politics and aesthetics

147

This third stage of “longing” is well represented in various ja¯takas and, indeed, in the Divya¯vada¯na itself. There are numerous accounts of bodhisattvas who, yearning to become buddhas, perform exceptionally difficult deeds in pursuit of this goal, like sacrificing one’s body to feed a starving beast.50 In the end, this is a longing for nirva¯ n.a, not just for a better rebirth, as with prasa¯da-initiated action. This bifurcation calls to mind Spiro’s distinction between nibbanic and kammatic Buddhism, as well as the soteriological limits of the moral economy that kammatic Buddhism entails. This emphasis on the heroic agency of the bodhisattva, and the trying deeds that he must perform, contrasts with the distinctively nonheroic agency of those in whom faith is shown to have just arisen. For prasa¯da to arise in an individual, he or she need not exert oneself physically, mentally, or spiritually. Simply catching sight of a buddha image or a shrine—or perhaps even a spiritually advanced monk (Mrozik 2007: 73–76)—is sufficient. One need not even be aware of the arising of prasa¯da. The exigencies of prasa¯da and the actions it engenders are sufficient to start one on the Buddhist path, even if one is not cognizant of faith’s arising or its great rewards. Only later, as the text explains, “after striving, struggling, and straining,”51 can one come to experience arhatship. This formulation of prasa¯da undermines the fantasy of sovereign, imperial, or heroic consciousness in agency, and in doing so offers a glimpse into the ways that power uses people, not just the converse.52 Characters in the Divya¯vada¯na are not fully sovereign subjects, and it is soteriologically important that they aren’t. As I mentioned previously, faith is represented as a karmic intervention, an outside force that generates thought and action, and as such it provides individuals a means to create for themselves a new existence and a better destiny. With faith, individuals can act as Buddhists and in the Buddhist moral economy, and the outside agency of prasa¯da-initiated action ensures that it will be performed with the right intention, circumventing any possible base inclinations or motives. But what are the ethical implications of a system in which one becomes a Buddhist and first acts as a Buddhist with little self-consciousness or choice? In the conclusion to Becoming Sinners: Christianity and Moral Torment in a Papua New Guinea Society, Joel Robbins (2004: 315) offers this assessment of the ethical field: “Having defined the moral domain as one in which actors are culturally constructed as being aware both of the directive force of values and of the choices left open to them in responding to that force, we have to recognize that it is fundamentally a domain that consists of action undertaken consciously . . . The ethical field cannot be governed by unconscious cultural compulsion.” Yet the practice of prasa¯da is governed by just such a compulsion. It is impersonal, in that it is prompted by an outside agent, and seemingly amoral,

148

THE PRACTICE

of

¯ DA PRASA

for it is outside the domain of moral choice. Such a depiction of the awakening of faith challenges the idea of the newly minted Buddhist as an autonomous subject, as well as the normativity of the heroic agency found in stories of the bodhisattva. The discourse of prasa¯da is more about negotiating and accommodating the power of others then asserting one’s own, and as such requires a conception of the Buddhist ethical field that understands the limitations of personal and practical sovereignty. This configuration of prasa¯da, with its reliance on a nonheroic human agency, well serves a public that is poor, in terms of both merit and money. While according to karma theory, one reaps what one sows, and as such is in control of one’s life and destiny, it is this population, the disenfranchised and disempowered, that has the most difficulty maintaining control of its survival. The bull in the As´okavarn.a-avada¯na is about to be butchered. The king in the Kanakavarn.a-avada¯na is about to starve. The leprous beggar woman in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na is in pain with rotten limbs. Though struggling to endure, they needn’t worry about mustering the courage, resolve, and determination of the bodhisattva to embark on the Buddhist path. These characters may be karmically responsible for their suffering, but they are not responsible for the faith that will help them escape it. Prasa¯da is a wonderful refuge for the powerless.

part iii

Seeing the Buddha

This page intentionally left blank

7 Past and Present

What the mind takes in through the ears stimulates it less effectively than what is presented to it through the eyes and what the spectator can believe and see for himself. —Horace, Ars Poetics As I mentioned in previous chapters on ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da, stories of the character Vakkali in Pali literature emphasize that too strong a desire to see the Buddha can be an impediment to karmic development, and that karmic development is not contingent upon seeing the Buddha. As the Buddha himself remarks, “Whoever sees the dhamma, Vakkali, sees me, and whoever sees me sees the dhamma.”1 In Pali materials, it is the first half of this aphorism that tends 2 to be emphasized. In the Sam . yutta-nika¯ya, the sick and bedridden Vakkali acknowledges to the Buddha that he has long desired to see him, and the Buddha chastises him, explaining that his own physical form is foul. He then tries to convince Vakkali of the impermanence of matter (ru¯pa) and the remaining four aggregates (khanda)— . feeling (vedana¯), recognition (sañña¯), conditioning (sankha¯ra), and consciousness (viñña¯na). In other words, the Buddha tries to persuade him—to rework the above aphorism—that seeing the dhamma is helpful for escaping the suffering of conditioned existence and seeing the Buddha is not.3

152

seeing the buddha

The Divya¯vada¯na, by contrast, emphasizes the second half of the above aphorism.4 In the Pu¯rn.a-avada¯na, following the familiar prasa¯da paradigm, a seer named Vakkalin (Pali, Vakkali) looks down from Mount Musalaka, where he resides, and sees the Buddha. “As soon as he sees him, his mind becomes filled with prasa¯da in the presence of the Blessed One.”5 Filled with prasa¯da, Vakkalin decides to descend the mountain and approach the Blessed One for his dars´ana, but he fears that the Buddha will pass him by in his search for new disciples. So he flings himself off the mountain. The Buddha, always alert, makes use of his magical powers and catches him. He then gives Vakkalin a discourse on the dharma, and when the latter hears it, he directly experiences the result of the non-returner. The Buddha then ordains Vakkalin and explains, “Monks, this monk Vakkalin is foremost among my monks who are ardently devoted in their ´sraddha¯ to me.”6 In the ardor of his ´sraddha¯ and/or prasa¯da, Vakkalin flings himself off a mountain to catch the Buddha’s attention and, presumably, offer himself as a new disciple, dead or alive. Yet, no mention is made of any negative qualities that Vakkalin may have had, nor is there any condemnation of his intense desire to see the Buddha’s physical form. In what precedes this Vakkalin narrative in the ¯ rn.a-avada¯na, as the Buddha along with the monastic community are flying to Pu ¯ rpa¯raka, the efficacy of seeing the Buddha is repeatedly validated. the city of Su Five hundred women see the Buddha, prasa¯da arises in them, and they eventually attain the result of the stream-enterer. Then five hundred seers see the Buddha, prasa¯da arises in them, and they eventually attain arhatship. In both of these cases, and in the case of Vakkalin, the prasa¯da paradigm is affirmed, and hence the workings and power of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da are shown to be interconnected. Unlike the Vakkali story in the Sam . yutta-nika¯ya, here what is emphasized as being karmically efficacious is not grasping the Buddha’s “dharmic form” (dharmaka¯ya)—the Buddha’s teachings or, as it were, the Buddha embodied in the dharma—but seeing the Buddha’s “physical form” (ru¯paka¯ya)—his human, corporeal body.7 To a certain extent, seeing the Buddha is seeing the dharma, but put more accurately for characters such as these women and seers, seeing the Buddha is an efficient means for seeing the dharma. And this is affirmed again and again in the text. Throughout the Divya¯vada¯na, seeing the appropriate objects is represented as transformative, whether they be “indirect objects” that allow for the cultivation of ´sraddha¯, or pra¯sa¯dika objects that engender prasa¯da. But seeing the Buddha in his physical form is a trope so powerful and prevalent that it exceeds the confines of the discourses of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da. It is a practical and theological impulse that permeates these stories and characterizes the visual world of the text.

past and present

153

In what follows, I will examine some other instances in the Divya¯vada¯na of seeing the Buddha, offering more examples of visual tropes in an effort to thematize the visual world of the text more broadly. First I will consider what monastics say about seeing the Buddha and what they do when confronted with such an opportunity, and then I will discuss how one sees the Buddha after his final nirva¯n.a, focusing specifically on the various mechanisms that allow for this to happen.

Seeing the Buddha: The Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na Reconsidered “In certain avada¯na texts,” John Strong (1979a: 225) explains, “ ‘wisdom’ (i.e., a vision of the Buddha’s dharmaka¯ya) was not thought to be enough, even for a monk. A total experience of the Buddha necessitated a vision of his ru¯paka¯ya as well.” For the assortment of characters in the Divya¯vada¯na, however, this assessment needs to be slightly revised. Laypeople in the Divya¯vada¯na are frequently represented as seeing the Buddha’s physical form first and his dharmic form afterward—such is the logic of prasa¯da paradigm. For characters such as those women and seers in the Pu¯rn.aavada¯na, seeing the Buddha’s physical form is a crucial impetus for their karmic development, and a necessary precursor to their hearing (and seeing) the Buddha’s dharmic form. For others, such as the bull in the As´okavarn.a-avada¯na and the brahman in the Stutibra¯hman.a-avada¯na, seeing the Buddha’s physical form is all that is necessary to begin traveling down the path to solitary buddhahood. A vision of the dharma will come in the future, but seeing the Buddha’s physical form is the point of departure. The converse of this chronology of events, to which Strong refers, is apparent in examples concerning monastics—but only monastics, at least in the Divya¯vada¯na. Hence, I would remove the word “even” from Strong’s remarks. This modification, though, is more than a quibble. Here too, as with the practice of prasa¯da, monastics and laypeople are represented as engaging in different activities, and such differences may imply, if not signify, some differences or desired differences in regard to the real-world performance of cultic practices. I will return to this point in chapter 8. The example that Strong uses to illustrate his claim—which, following my modification, pertains to monks alone—comes from the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na. We now return to the story from where I left off in chapter 2. After Kot.ikarn.a delivers the messages that he has received to the butcher, adulterer, and prostitute, he goes forth as a monk in the Buddhist order. Under the guidance of the venerable Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana, he learns the full corpus of

154

seeing the buddha

Buddhist teachings and directly experiences arhatship. Meanwhile, the students and pupils of Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana go to him and say, “We have seen you and paid our respects to you, our instructor. Now we’ll go and pay our respects to the Blessed One.”8 Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana consents, explaining that “perfectly awakened tatha¯ gata arhats are certainly to be seen and certainly to be offered respect.”9 Thereafter, Kot.ikarn.a joins Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana’s assembly and likewise addresses him: “Thanks to you, my instructor, I have seen the Blessed One through his dharmic form but not through his physical form. I too am going, my instructor. I shall see the Blessed One through his physical form as well.”10 Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana agrees that he should go, “for it is as difficult to get a glimpse of perfectly awakened tatha¯ gata arhats, my child, as it is of a flower from an udumbara tree.”11 Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana also asks Kot.ikarn.a to ask the Buddha five questions, on his behalf, regarding monastic rules in the regions of As´ma¯ para¯ ntaka. ´ra¯vastı¯ and approaches the Buddha. The Kot.ikarn.a then makes his way to S ¯ nanda to prepare seats for him and Kot.ikarn.a in the Buddha, in turn, asks A same building. The Buddha then enters the building, sits down, and makes his awareness fully present. Kot.ikarn.a soon follows and does likewise, and the two of them “pass the night together in noble silence.”12 At daybreak, the Buddha finally addresses Kot.ikarn.a: ´ron.a, may the dharma that I myself have fully known, understood, “S and expressed inspire you to recite.” ´ron.a, Given the opportunity by the Blessed One, the venerable S following the As´ma¯ para¯ ntaka intonation, recited passages at length and out loud from The Inspired Utterances (Uda¯na), The Farther Shore (Pa¯ra¯yan.a), and Discerning the Truth (Satyadr.´s ), as well as The Verses of S´aila (S´ailaga¯tha¯), The Sage’s Verses (Muniga¯tha¯), and Discourses Concerning the Goal (Arthavargı¯ya Su¯tras).13 When the Blessed One ´ron.a Kot.ikarn.a had finished his recitation, he said this was sure that S ´ron.a Kot.ikarn.a: “Excellent! Excellent, S ´ron.a! Sweet to the venerable S is the dharma that you have spoken and presented! It is that which I myself have fully known, understood, and expressed.”14 In the above passage, the initiates of Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana, having seen and paid their respects to their teacher, desire to do the same with regard to the Buddha. Likewise, Kot.ikarn.a, having seen the Buddha’s dharmic form under Maha¯ka¯tya¯ yana’s instruction, desires to see the Buddha’s physical form before his eyes. Maha¯ka¯tya¯ yana’s response in each case indicates that these are normative progressions, for he readily agrees that buddhas are to be seen and offered respect and that one should take advantage of the rare opportunity of

past and present

155

doing so. There is no sense here, as in the Pali versions of the Vakkali story, that the Buddha’s physical form is foul. Here it is something that even the venerable Maha¯ka¯tya¯ yana agrees should be seen and respected. Yet, although Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana has said that seeing the Buddha’s physical form is a worthy ambition, the power of this sight does not figure actively in the narrative that follows. Even attaining a holistic vision of the Buddha’s physical and dharmic forms does not seem to be particularly transformative for Kot.ikarn.a. Instead, seeing the Buddha is an occasion for affirming the truth of the vision that Kot.ikarn.a already has had of the Buddha’s dharmic form. It is a moment for validating a particular concatenation of the Buddha’s teachings. When Kot.ikarn.a meets the Buddha, no mention is made of him ever looking at, contemplating, or being moved by the Buddha’s physical form. Rather, without either of them speaking a word, they spend the night together meditating. At dawn, the Buddha expresses his hope that the dharma he has understood and expressed shall give Kot.ikarn.a the inspiration to recite the dharma as well. In response, Kot.ikarn.a recites a number of texts, and then the Buddha exclaims that these very texts are the dharma that he himself has understood and expressed. In other words, thanks to Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana’s instruction, Kot.ikarn.a has correctly seen the dharmic form of the Buddha, and just like the Buddha he has “fully known, understood, and expressed” the true dharma. This represents not only a lineage of teachers who have seen, known, and expounded the true dharma (i.e., the Buddha, Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana, Kot.ikarn.a), but also an authorization of what constitutes the Buddha’s dharmic form. Seeing the Buddha is valuable for Kot.ikarn.a not in the sense that it is a karmically transformative experience but because it allows Kot.ikarn.a to meet the Buddha, and on that occasion, to have a set of what are presum¯ lasarva¯stiva¯din texts affirmed as the word of the Buddha,15 to have ably Mu the As´ma¯para¯ntaka style of recitation legitimized, and later to have a set of monastic regulations for that region sanctioned.16 But why is seeing the Buddha’s physical form at first raised as a normative desire and practice, and then dropped for a discourse on the shape and importance of his dharmic form? Answering this question in full requires that one first address other difficult questions: To what extent is the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯ na an assemblage of narrative fragments taken from previous versions of the story? What was the author’s intention in recasting and adding to these fragments? Addressing these questions, however difficult, offers a useful starting point for determining what was at stake in crafting this particular version of the story. In this regard, it is worth noting the similarities and differences between the Kot.ikarn.a story in the Divya¯ vada¯ na and its counterpart in the Pali Vinaya.17

156

seeing the buddha

The version of this story in the Pali Vinaya begins with the main character Kut.ikan.n.a (Skt., Kot.ikarn.a) deciding to go forth as a monk under the venerable Maha¯kacca¯na (Skt., Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana). Three times Kut.ikan.n.a requests Maha¯kacca¯na for his permission, and three times Maha¯kacca¯na explains the hardships of the monastic life. Finally, he acquiesces to Kut.ikan.n.a’s request. Three years later, after a quorum of monks is finally organized to confer the higher ordination on Kut.ikan.n.a, Kut.ikan.n.a decides that he would like to go and see the Blessed One. As Kut.ikan.n.a explains, “Indeed I have heard that the Blessed One is like this and like that, but I have not seen him face to face. Bhante, I’d like to go and see the Blessed One—that arhat, that perfectly awakened buddha—that is, if my instructor allows me.”18 Maha¯kacca¯na consents, expressing his enthusiasm for Kut.ikan.n.a’s decision, and says, “You shall see, ´ron.a], that the Blessed One instills pasa¯da, is worthy of pasa¯da,”19 Son.a [Skt., S and is in other ways calm and gifted. Kut.ikan.n.a then goes to the Buddha. They pass the night together, and then in the morning the Buddha says to Kut.ikan.n.a, “Monk, may the dhamma appear to you so that it may be spoken.”20 Kut.ikan.n.a then recites the At..thaka-vaggika¯ni (“The Book of Eights”), and following this, asks more or less the same five questions about monastic rules that are preserved in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na. Much like the Kot.ikarn.a story in the Divya¯vada¯na, what begins as a desire to see the Buddha’s physical form develops into an occasion for authorizing certain texts. While the story mentions the idea of the Buddha as a purveyor of pasa¯da, it does not show pasa¯da to arise at his sight. Moreover, no mention is made of seeing the Buddha through his various forms.21 Other versions of the Kot.ikarn.a story in other vinayas also have Kot.ikarn.a expressing a wish to see the Buddha and then an episode in which he recites a number of texts to confirm their canonical status, but—excluding the version in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯davinaya that is nearly identical to the one in the Divya¯vada¯na—the theme of the various forms of the Buddha doesn’t appear to be developed elsewhere.22 Setting aside the notion in the Pali version of the Vakkali story that the Buddha’s physical body is foul—for as we know, texts can and do embody contradictions—the idea that monastics want to see the Buddha and should be able to do so is sanctioned across numerous Buddhist traditions. The Kot.ikarn.a story offers a narrative template that relies on this trope to sanction particular texts. What distinguishes the version in the Divya¯vada¯na (and its nearly identical twin in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya) from the others is, as I have already mentioned, the various forms of the Buddha and their implicit connection. Yet, even in a tradition that emphasizes visually engaging with the Buddha, monks are not represented as having a karmically transformative experience from such an engagement. Seeing the Buddha’s physical form is clearly crucial—crucial

past and present

157

enough, presumably, to have been added to the mix—but the trope is not reconstituted to have Kot.ikarn.a or his fellow monastics actively engage with the Buddha as a visual object or respond with pleasure at his sight. So what does all this mean? Seeing the Buddha is shown to be important for monastics not because his physical form functions as a powerful visual object, such as one of the pra¯sa¯dika variety, nor because this act allows for what John Strong refers to as a “total experience of the Buddha,” as though seeing the Buddha’s dharmic form plus seeing the Buddha’s physical form equals some form of release or sublime satisfaction. Instead, seeing the Buddha is shown here to be an occasion for his authorizing presence. In short, seeing the Buddha’s dharmic form is followed by seeing the Buddha’s physical form, at which time the Buddha himself can authorize the truth of that first vision. Seeing is efficacious here as well, but the object of sight has an authorizing not an activating presence.

Seeing the Buddha after His Final Nirva¯n.a Regardless of how the Divya¯vada¯na represents laypeople and monastics as thinking about and engaging with the physical form of the Buddha, the text also narrativizes a time period after the Buddha’s death when such direct encounters are no longer possible. For what does one do after the Buddha’s physical body has been cremated and the desire to see his physical form arises? How can one engage with the Buddha’s physical form if it is no more than ash and bones ensconced in various stu¯pas? The Toyika¯ story offers a partial answer to this question. It suggests, as I discussed in chapter 5, that seeing a buddha who has passed into final nirva¯n.a and seeing a living buddha function in the same way for cultivating prasa¯da. One might assume, then, that seeing a former buddha’s remains or a shrine that a buddha has activated is functionally equivalent to seeing a living buddha. Other accounts, however, offer a more nuanced description of how to see the Buddha’s physical form, and in doing so offer insight into what other objects might have functioned as “agents of prasa¯da” and why such a discourse might have been important to disseminate. This also leads to some important historical questions about the promotion of pilgrimage. More specifically, in what follows I will discuss two accounts that offer responses to these questions. The first occurs in the Kuna¯la-avada¯na, which is the second23 in a cycle of four avada¯nas in the Divya¯vada¯na that narrate the legend of King As´oka. In this avada¯na, King As´oka goes on a pilgrimage with the monk Upagupta to sites associated with the life of the Buddha, then to sites

158

seeing the buddha

associated with the Buddha’s chief disciples, and finally to meet the disciple Pin.d.ola Bharadva¯ ja, who had been an eyewitness to many of the Buddha’s great deeds. The second response occurs in the Pa¯m . ´suprada¯na-avada¯na, the first avada¯na in the As´oka cycle. In this case, after Upagupta conquers and converts the evil Ma¯ra, he requests Ma¯ra to manifest the physical form of the Buddha, a sight he has never seen before, for the Buddha had passed into final nirva¯n.a one hundred years before Upagupta’s birth.24

As´oka’s Pilgrimage The story of As´oka’s pilgrimage provides an interesting case study in visual piety, for as a king, As´oka is neither a layman nor a monk, but a special class of being who follows a unique dharma. The rules of conduct for a king, particularly a cakravartin king such as As´oka, are often different from those by which the laity and monastics abide. Still, the conduct of a king is emblematic of an ethical ideal that has great social power.25 Even if this ideal is not to be emulated directly by either the laity or monastics, for not everyone can be a world conqueror, such behavior is indicative of a moral vision that, in turn, reflects and offers insight into the often-conflicting ethos embodied in the text.26 Besides this difficulty of construing what insight such an ideal can offer into the intellectual and social worlds of the text, certain peculiarities in the entire As´oka cycle of stories regarding ´sraddha¯, bhakti, and prasa¯da—as I mentioned in chapter 4—complicate an analysis of As´oka’s pilgrimage experience. Nevertheless, the development in the Kuna¯la-avada¯na of the trope of seeing and the experiences it engenders well complements such themes in the rest of the text. Here too it is taken for granted that characters want to see the Buddha’s physical form, but in this case, characters are represented as trying to fulfill this desire in a time after the Buddha’s demise. It is this problem of praxis—how to make the deceased Buddha both present and visible—that is addressed most succinctly in the story. I will begin with a summary of a section of the story in which As´oka confronts this problem. “Shortly after [King As´oka] develops prasa¯da [sic] in the teachings of the Buddha,”27 wherever he sees Buddhist monks, he falls prostrate at their feet and venerates them. When he hears of the monk Upagupta, whom he is told the Buddha predicted would be the best of instructors, he goes to meet him. At their meeting, As´oka gazes at him, expresses the joy he feels at his sight, and remarks, “From seeing you, my prasa¯da has doubled!”28 As´oka then tells Upagupta that he wants to honor the places where the Blessed One lived, and Upagupta agrees to show them to him.

past and present

159

First on their pilgrimage is Lumbinı¯ Grove where the Buddha was born. Once there, As´oka remarks that those who have seen the Buddha’s birth and heard his voice “are fortunate and have performed a meritorious deed.”29 Then, “for the sake of increasing the king’s prasa¯da,”30 Upagupta asks the king if he would like to see a deity who saw the Buddha’s birth and heard his voice. As´oka assents, and then Upagupta declares, May the divine maiden who lives here in this As´oka tree, who saw the perfectly awakened Buddha with her own eyes, manifest her body for the increase of prasa¯da in the mind of King As´oka.31 After the deity appears, As´oka asks her to describe “the glory of the Blessed One being born.”32 “I cannot fully bring it to light with words,”33 she explains, so instead she describes it briefly in verse as a luminous and earth-shaking event. As´oka then gives one hundred thousand gold coins to the place of the Buddha’s birth, has a shrine constructed there, and departs. The next stop on their pilgrimage is Kapilavastu, where the Buddha grew up. There Upagupta shows As´oka numerous places connected with the Buddha’s life and narrates the events that occurred there. This guided tour begins at the place where the Buddha as a newborn child was brought before his fa´uddhodana, and continues on through more than a dozen sites ther, King S until Upagupta shows As´oka a place and explains that the na¯ga king Ka¯lika had praised the Buddha there. Then As´oka, who had been silent through the tour, remarks, “May I see this na¯ga chief who saw the Tatha¯gata?”34 Immediately, Ka¯lika appears, and As´oka says, Recount for me some of the qualities of the Buddha. Friend, tell me what it was like when the Sugata was alive.35 Like the deity in the preceding episode, Ka¯lika also says “I cannot fully bring it to light with words,”36 and then briefly in verse describes the earthshaking effects of the Buddha and his luminosity. As´oka then has a shrine constructed there and departs. In this section of the story, As´oka’s first step in making the absent Buddha present is in managing to see someone who had, in turn, seen the Buddha when he was alive. This creates a visual lineage that links As´oka with the Buddha, so when As´oka sees the deity living in the tree that is his namesake and when he sees the na¯ga chief Ka¯lika, he is somehow seeing the Buddha’s physical form.37 But seeing alone is not sufficient. A verbal supplement is necessary, as in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na when Kot.ikarn.a sees a city of hungry ghosts or in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na when householders and brahmans see the wheel

160

seeing the buddha

of existence. Here, however, what is provided is not a verbal explanation of a visual phenomenon but a verbal creation of such a phenomenon. These are image-texts, pictures in words.38 Nevertheless, “the glory of the Blessed One being born” and “the qualities of the Buddha” are not phenomena that either the tree deity or Ka¯ lika are able, with words, “to fully bring to light” or “to properly illuminate” (sam . praka¯´sayitum). Their words are only partly efficacious. Though As´oka can’t really see the Buddha by seeing the tree deity and Ka¯lika, and though these visual proxies can’t fully conjure the Buddha through their words, a combination of seeing these visual agents and hearing their descriptions of the Buddha creates an effective multimedia experience by which the Buddha is brought to life. I say “effective” not because of what As´oka thinks or feels in response—for the text is silent on these matters—but because of what he does in response: he makes an offering. At the start of their pilgrimage, Upagupta remarks that seeing the tree deity will increase As´oka’s prasa¯da, and though the term is not mentioned again, perhaps the logic of prasa¯da dictates As´oka’s reactions. Seeing pra¯sa¯dika objects leads one to give, and these experiences of seeing-andhearing also lead one to give. In the cases of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da, giving is the marker of the efficacy of the experience. It signifies that the giver has already received something—that the giver and his counterpart have already engaged in an exchange—and I am assuming much the same here. Yet, As´oka makes his offerings not to the tree deity and Ka¯ lika—those who apparently gave As´oka the gift of a multimedia experience of the Buddha—but to the sites themselves where the Buddha performed various deeds. As´oka, for example, offers money “to the birthplace [of the Buddha]” ( ja¯tya¯m) and then has a shrine constructed there. He offers nothing to the tree deity. The agent, apparently, receives no commission. Though it seems that the tree deity and Ka¯lika offer As´oka the experience of the Buddha as a gift, and then As´oka offers counter-gifts to various third parties, my sense is that such a gift was thought to come from the Buddha-related sites themselves, though some help from various custodians was necessary for the delivery to be made. Hence, counter-gifts should be given to the sites themselves, not their custodians. Unlike the case considered in chapter 3 in which the monastic community is the de facto caretaker of all pra¯sa¯dika objects and recipient of any counter-gifts, here the caretakers are only caretakers. After the construction of a shrine at the Buddha’s birthplace, one can imagine that then, as now, any offerings received would be the property of the overseeing monastic community. This emphasis on the venerability of the places associated with the Buddha’s biography is demonstrated in Upagupta’s guided tour. Again and again,

past and present

161

he explains that “in this place” (asmin prades´e)39 such-and-such event happened. It is as though these places that were touched by the Buddha are somehow spatial conduits to his presence, much in the same way that the tree deity and Ka¯lika, having had dars´ana of the Buddha, are visual conduits to his presence. In each of these cases, whatever or whoever interacts with the Buddha, whether through sight or touch, remains somehow charged or activated with his presence. All this, of course, resonates with the episode in the Toyika¯ story, which ¯ nanda asks the Buddha to sit down upon “a I discussed in chapter 5, when A place on the ground” so that he can make use of it and turn it into a shrine. As the pilgrimage continues, Upagupta takes As´oka to see the Bodhi tree, then to R.s.ipatana, and finally to Kus´inagarı¯, where the Buddha passed into remainderless nirva¯n.a. There, Upagupta explains, The great sage, wise and most compassionate, having trained in the imperishable dharma and vinaya the world with its gods, mortals, antigods, yaks.as, and na¯gas, with his mind at ease as there were no beings left to train, then took rest.40 “Hearing this,” the text continues, “the king lost consciousness and collapsed.”41 After he was revived with a splash of water to the face, he gave one hundred thousand gold coins to the site of the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a and had a shrine built there. Upagupta’s description of the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a has a powerful effect on As´oka. It knocks him unconscious, and it is only after he regains consciousness that in response he offers money to the site and builds a shrine. Though Upagupta has no visual connection with the Buddha, he himself appears to be an “agent of prasa¯da,” for As´oka’s prasa¯da doubled when he saw him previously. Nevertheless, it is Upagupta’s words, not his visual legacy or power, that create such a catharsis in the king. The right words in the right place have a powerful effect. Seeing, hearing, and giving—in that order—are also shown to work together as As´oka and Upagupta continue on their pilgrimage. The two set off so that As´oka may perform pu¯ja¯ at the bodily relics of those disciples whom the Buddha declared to be foremost in some quality. Upagupta brings As´oka to the Jeta Grove, and gesturing with his right ´a¯ riputra. Offer ¯ pa of the elder S hand, he remarks, “This, great king, is the stu ´a¯ riputra possessed, and Upahim/it praise.”42 As´oka then asks what virtues S gupta explains that he was foremost of the wise, and adds in verse, No one in the entire world except the Tatha¯gata

162

seeing the buddha has even a sixteenth ´a¯riputra.43 of the wisdom of S

Then he continues, The incomparable wheel of the true dharma that the Victor set in motion was kept in motion ´a¯riputra. by the learned S What righteous person other than the Buddha knows the treasury of virtues amassed ´a¯radvatı¯ here by this son of S and is able to give voice to each and every one of them?44 Then As´oka, “with joy in his heart, offers one hundred thousand [gold ´a¯ radvatı¯”45 and offers praise to his wisdom. coins] to the stu¯pa of the son of S ¯ pa of Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana. In reNext, Upagupta shows As´oka the stu sponse to the king’s query regarding this disciple’s virtues, Upagupta explains that he had been foremost of those possessing magical powers. Then he adds in verse that “pu¯ja¯ should be performed diligently”46 for Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana, ´akra’s palace to shake, subdued two na¯ ga kings, and possessed who caused S unfathomable virtues. Again, As´oka offers one hundred thousand gold coins. ¯ pa of Maha¯ ka¯´ The same trope is then repeated at the stu syapa, the foremost ¯ pa of Batkula, who is foremost of of those with few desires, but then at the stu those with few ailments but who never recited even a single verse, As´oka offers only a single small coin. As As´oka explains, this is because he was knowledgeable but “had so few desires that he didn’t do that which others had done to benefit sentient beings.”47 In other words, he didn’t teach. ¯ nanda. There Upagupta ¯ pa of A Upagupta and As´oka then proceed to the stu ¯ nanda was foremost of those well listened in the Buddha’s teachexplains that A ings and a preserver of the Buddha’s word. Then in verse he praises him as “an ocean of oral tradition.”48 As´oka, in turn, offers ten million gold coins. The ¯ nanda more than king’s ministers then question him as to why he honors A ¯ nanda preserved the pure the others. As´oka explains that he does so because A dharmic form of the Buddha, and it is because of him that “the lamp of dharma still burns today and dispels the darkness of defilement in beings.”49 Again the same pattern is on display. First, the pilgrim is shown a powerful site. In this case, the sites are not places where the Buddha performed some ¯ pas of great disciples. Following the distinction I made previously, act, but stu these sites are not shrines by use or memorial shrines but shrines for bodily

past and present

163

remains. They are reliquaries. Then, in the presence of these shrines, a description is offered. These descriptions are not unlike what one finds today on museum placards affixed next to sculptures that feature the exploits of buddhas and arhats, or what one hears from tour guides while wandering among the paintings and sculptures at Ajanta, Sanchi, Sarnath or any number of Indian museums. Finally, offerings are made, not to the guide, but to the sights/sites themselves. Again this has its modern parallels, for now such places have donation boxes next to the objects in question, as is the practice throughout much of South Asia.50 The story of As´oka’s pilgrimage is then interrupted for an account of As´oka’s love for the Bodhi tree, which he had visited previously with Upagupta, and the jealousy that this love mistakenly inspires in his wife, Queen Tis.yaraks.ita¯ . As the narrator explains, King As´oka gave one hundred thousand [gold coins] to [the place of the Buddha’s] birth, awakening, [setting in motion] the wheel of dharma, and final nirva¯n.a. But his prasa¯da arose particularly at the Bodhi [tree]. There he thought, “Here the Blessed One perfectly awakened to unsurpassed perfect awakening!” He therefore sent to the Bodhi [tree] those jewels that were the most precious.51 Queen Tis.yaraks.ita¯ , however, assumes that her husband As´oka is sending gifts to a woman, not a tree. “Although the king enjoys his pleasures with me,” she thinks, “he sends those jewels that are most precious to Bodhi.”52 Under this misconception, she hires a sorceress to bring about Bodhi’s destruction, and as this begins to occur, as the Bodhi tree begins to wither, As´oka is distraught. As he explains, “When I look at the base of the king of trees, I know that even now I am looking at the self-made Master.”53 When Tis.yaraks.ita¯ comes to comfort the king, however, she realizes her error and has the spell reversed. When the tree recovers, As´oka decides to perform “the highest honors twice”54 and so makes offerings of jewels, foods, perfumes, and flowers. The opening remarks indicate that As´oka was possessed of prasa¯da in the presence of the Bodhi tree, though in the previous description of this encounter it was seeing the tree and then hearing Upagupta’s words that proved effective. On that occasion, Upagupta explained that “in this place”55 the bodhisattva defeated the evil Ma¯ ra and attained unsurpassed perfect awakening. This, of course, was followed by As´oka making an offering to the site. Here the Bodhi tree seems to be a powerful icon in its own right, for As´oka closely identifies the Buddha with the Bodhi tree—indeed, he equates the two. He says that looking at the Bodhi tree, he sees the Buddha. This is not just an unmarked space on the ground, a “place” where an event occurred, but a powerful object with a

164

seeing the buddha

field of effects all its own. In the same way that a buddha’s relics were said to be functionally equivalent with a living buddha, here As´oka seems to be saying that seeing the Bodhi tree is functionally equivalent to seeing the Buddha. After making offerings to the Bodhi tree, As´oka implores the followers of the Buddha to draw near to him, and soon three hundred thousand monks surround him. But none of them sits in the senior monk’s seat. That, he is told, belongs to Pin.d.ola Bharadva¯ ja.56 Incredulously, As´oka remarks, “There is a monk still alive who saw the Buddha?”57 Yes, he is told, Pin.d.ola Bharadva¯ ja “saw the Buddha and he still lives.”58 As´oka then asks if he can see him, for as he explains, Great and incomparable would be my gain, and my bliss unsurpassed here in this world, were I to see before my eyes that eminent being of the Bharadva¯ ja clan.59 Then Pin.d.ola Bharadva¯ ja, “like a royal goose,”60 descends from the skies, surrounded by thousands of arhats. As´oka sees him and immediately falls fully prostrate before him. Then, with his hands respectfully clasped, stares at him and tells of the unprecedented “joy”61 he feels now that “he has seen the elder.”62 As he explains, Because of your dars´ana, even today, the Tatha¯ gata is seen. Because compassion was gained and because of your dars´ana, double the prasa¯da arises in me. Elder, you saw the lord of the triple world, my guru, the Lord Buddha!63 Pin.d.ola explains that he has seen him many times, and in response As´oka asks, “Elder, where did you see the Blessed One, and how?”64 Pin.d.ola then recounts the times that he saw him, beginning with an encounter after the Buddha had conquered Ma¯ ra during a rainy-season retreat. At that time I was right there in the presence of the perfectly awakened Buddha. As you see me before your eyes, that’s how I saw the sage.65 Pin.d.ola then goes on to explain, once in prose and once in verse, that he saw ´ra¯ vastı¯ and when, after teachthe Buddha when he performed the miracle at S ing the dharma to his mother, he descended from the Tra¯ yastrim sa Heaven. .´ “At that time I was right there,”66 he says again of both events. Pin.d.ola then recounts the time at the city of Pun.d.avardhana when the Buddha said to him, “Do not pass into final nirva¯n.a until after the dharma has disappeared.”67 And

past and present

165

finally, he explains, he was present when as a child As´oka “cultivated prasa¯da”68 and then as an offering put a handful of dirt in the Buddha’s bowl. Pin.d.ola then tells As´oka to put aside any doubts he may have and let the community of monks be served their food. As´oka, however, says that since “he has been awakened to an awareness of the Buddha,”69 he will bathe the Bodhi tree and afterward offer food to the community of monks. And so, As´oka announces that he will put on a great quinquennial festival. Once again As´oka is concerned with connecting himself to the Buddha through a visual legacy. When he hears that Pin.d.ola Bharadva¯ ja, a disciple who saw the Buddha directly, is still alive, As´oka wants to see him so that he can connect himself with another lineage of seeing the Buddha. Such a sight, As´oka explains, will bring him “bliss.” As´oka makes his intention clear by saying that he wants to see Pin.d.ola “before his eyes” (sa¯ks.a¯t), precisely what Kot.ikarn.a says again and again in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na leads to ´sraddha¯. But when As´oka sees Pin.d.ola before his eyes, he develops not ´s raddha¯ but a “joy,” which he then glosses in verse. First, he explains that the Buddha is seen “today,” “now,” “at present” (adya), “because of your dars´ana.” This I take in two ways: the Blessed One is seen today “because of your dars´ana”—for you (Pin.d.ola) saw the Buddha when he was alive, and now I (As´oka) see you (Pin.d.ola). It is both of these acts that create the visual legacy that allows As´oka to see the Buddha at present. A double reading is also possible for the following sentence. As´oka explains that “double the prasa¯da” arises in him “because compassion was gained and because of your dars´ana.”70 As I already explained, “because of your dars´ana” has two readings, but “because compassion was gained” can also be read in two ways. Pin.d.ola had dars´ana of the Buddha because of the latter’s compassion for him—that is, he “gained” or “obtained” (la¯bha) the Buddha’s compassion—and As´oka had dars´ana of Pin.d.ola because Pin.d.ola was likewise compassionate and allowed As´oka to receive his gaze. In the previous verse, As´oka explained that his “gain” (la¯bha) would be incomparable if he could see Pin.d.ola, but this “gain” could occur only because of the “gain” that Pin.d.ola received from the Buddha—his compassion and, hence, his sight—and the similar “gain” that As´oka received from Pin.d.ola. This double dars´ana, in turn, results in a double prasa¯da. Unlike the brahman in the Toyika¯ story who missed an opportunity to venerate two buddhas at once, here As´oka takes advantage of a similar two-for-one deal. By gazing at Pin.d.ola, he sees two “agents of prasa¯da” at the same time: Pin.d.ola, who “has the body of a solitary buddha”71 and even performs the miracles of one, flying through the air “like a royal goose,” and the Buddha, whose sight is somehow captured in Pin.d.ola’s visage through a visual legacy.

166

seeing the buddha

That Pin.d.ola should be an agent of prasa¯da is not surprising, for he is likened to a solitary buddha. But it is curious that Pin.d.ola, by seeing the Buddha, has been charged with the Buddha’s pra¯sa¯dika power, rendering him doubly effective in generating prasa¯da in others. Whereas in the Toyika¯ story a “place” became “shrine” because the Buddha sat down upon it, and hence it was “made use of,” here Pin.d.ola becomes a carrier for the Buddha’s prasa¯da though the tactile connection of a corpothetic vision. This is the visual lineage that As´oka mentioned previously. In what follows, As´oka asks Pin.d.ola both where and how he saw the Buddha. Again it is no surprise that As´oka questions Pin.d.ola as to where he saw the Buddha, for As´oka seems to believe that if he goes to a place where the Buddha was seen, he can see him there as well. And in this endeavor he has been successful. By going to those sites associated with the Buddha’s biography, seeing those who have seen him, and listening to their descriptions of him, As´oka claims to have seen the Buddha. Yet, while As´oka has managed to see the Buddha—though perhaps this term should have scare quotes around it—the “how” aspect of this endeavor is difficult to generalize. Again the same question arises: How can one see the Buddha after he has passed into final nirva¯n.a? In this regard, Pin.d.ola provides an answer, not necessarily for how As´oka himself can see the Buddha, but for how he thinks As´oka can help others to see the Buddha. Pin.d.ola begins his answer by making it clear that he was present at many ´ra¯ vastı¯ and his descent of the Buddha’s great deeds, such as his miracle at S from the Tra¯ yastrim sa Heaven, and that he saw them with his own eyes. This .´ establishes his visual lineage with the Buddha, which is crucial for As´oka’s own method of seeing him, but it also establishes him as an eyewitness, an authorizing presence who can legitimize the veracity of what the Buddha has said and done. Given all that Pin.d.ola has seen, he can have ´sraddha¯ in the word of the Buddha, and others can have it in him. In this regard, Pin.d.ola tells of the incident at Pun.d.avardhana when the Buddha instructed him not to pass into final nirva¯n.a until the dharma has disappeared. When Pin.d.ola repeats this injunction in verse, he explains that it was an “order” (a¯jña¯) given to him by the Buddha. With that said, Pin.d.ola then gives a firsthand account of the time when As´oka offered a handful of dirt to the Buddha, and the Buddha, following the standard prasa¯da typology, foretold the reward that this offering would bring. Remarking once again that “at that time I was right there,”72 Pin.d.ola quotes the Buddha’s prediction: One hundred years after my final nirva¯n.a, this boy will be a king named As´oka in the city of Pa¯ t.aliputra. He will be a cakravartin king

past and present

167

ruling over one of the four continents, a dharmic dharmara¯ja who will widely distribute my bodily relics and establish eighty-four thousand dharmara¯jika¯s.73 This prediction, as we know from what precedes it in the story, has already come true. One hundred years after the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a in the city of Pa¯ t.aliputra, As´oka was born and then he became a cakravartin king who distributed the Buddha’s relics. Being a cakravartin king, As´oka is “dharmic ” or “a follower of the dharma” (dha¯rmika), and he is “a dharma-king” (dharmara¯ja). As Strong (1989: 56) explains, “all cakravartins, no matter what their type, were dharmara¯ jas . . . they at least nominally relied on Dharma, honored, revered, and esteemed Dharma, had Dharma as their standard, Dharma as their banner, and Dharma as their mandate.”74 But As´oka has done more than just uphold the dharma; he has also disseminated it. He has created eighty-four thousand dharmara¯jika¯s—“dharma-king” ¯ pas,76 which contain the relics of that other monuments,75 sometimes called stu ¯ nanda with regard dharma-king, the Buddha. As the Buddha said previously to A to As´oka, He will make Jambudvı¯pa fully adorned with my reliquaries and cause them to be honored by gods and mortals.77 It is this act of constructing dharmara¯jika¯s that is instrumental in establishing As´oka as a preserver of the dharma, for as the text explains, “when King As´oka had completed the eighty-four thousand dharmara¯jika¯s, he then became a dharmic dharmara¯ja.”78 In this way, the Buddha’s predictions about Pin.d.ola and As´oka are intertwined. Pin.d.ola can live as long as the dharma survives, and As´oka, by upholding and disseminating the dharma, tries to ensure that the dharma does just that. Pin.d.ola’s life is in As´oka’s hands.79 But Pin.d.ola’s answer is flawed. Pin.d.ola seems to think that the construction of dharmara¯jika¯s will allow people to see the dharma, that the “how” aspect of seeing the Buddha can be accomplished by visiting such sites and gazing upon them. And this very well may be true, as it seems to be in other sources.80 Seeing the Buddha has been equated to seeing the dharma, and buddha relics have been equated to a living buddha, so perhaps seeing buddha relics functions the same as seeing the dharma. Yet, when As´oka wants to see the dharma, he doesn’t visit any of the dharmara¯jika¯s that he has had constructed. Instead of going to see the Buddha’s relics, he goes to see sites associated with the Buddha’s biography. In short, the Buddha is seen not in the places where his remains happen to be housed but in places where he lived.

168

seeing the buddha

In addition to creating dharmara¯jika¯s, As´oka has also created another system of shrines to benefit sentient beings. Once again, let us return to the story. Before embarking on his pilgrimage to various sites associated with the Buddha’s life, As´oka exhorts his ministers: “Gentlemen, spare no effort in honoring the Blessed One!”81 With that said, he falls prostrate before Upagupta and says, “Elder, this is my desire. I shall honor those places where the Lord Buddha lived, and mark them with signs as a favor to posterity.”82 “Well done! Well done, great king!” Upagupta replies. “Your intention is magnificent.”83 During the course of As´oka’s pilgrimage, as was his wish and apparent intention, he visits places where the Buddha lived, makes offerings there, and in many cases has shrines built.84 It is through this last act that these places are marked with signs. But how is the construction of these signs “a favor to posterity”? As in the case at Toyika¯ , it seems that he has turned these “places” (prades´a) into “shrines” (caitya), and in doing so, has created objects that will allow others to “honor” (√arc) the Buddha just as he has done. What once were unmarked places on the ground are now places that are marked—perhaps with “signs,” perhaps with “shrines.” Others can now visit them and, perhaps, upon seeing them and hearing tell of the Buddha’s exploits, become filled with prasa¯da. Even without such shrines, As´oka was able to do so, calling forth visual proxies. With the construction of shrines, it seems that the task could only be easier.

Upagupta and Ma¯ ra The story of Upagupta’s interaction with Ma¯ ra offers a different answer for how to see the Buddha after his final nirva¯n.a.85 Unlike As´oka, Upagupta is a monk, not a king, and the method he describes is certainly not available to the masses. But like As´oka, he too desires to see the Buddha’s physical form. Even though he is an arhat, and as such has seen the dharma, he wants to see the Buddha as well. To see one might be to see the other, but Upagupta, like Kot.ikarn.a, wants to see both. Upagupta first comes into contact with Ma¯ ra shortly after his initiation as a monk, when Ma¯ ra disrupts his first large-scale public teaching of the dharma with showers of pearls and gold and with divine displays. This prompts Upagupta to discipline Ma¯ ra by saddling him with what at first look like garlands of flowers but then turn out to be a dead snake, a dead dog, and a human corpse. Unable to remove these hideous garlands or find another who can do so—even Brahma¯ is unable—Ma¯ ra approaches Upagupta contritely. Upagupta then explains to him that “there is no way to wash away bad dharmas planted

past and present

169

in the mind besides prasa¯da in the Tatha¯ gata.”86 With that said, “[Ma¯ ra] recollected for a long time the virtues of the Buddha and, with a mind made full of prasa¯da in the Buddha, fell prostrate at the feet of the elder [Upagupta].”87 Then he asked to have the garlands removed. Upagupta agrees to remove the garlands, but first an agreement must be made. “What agreement?”88 Ma¯ ra asks. First, Upagupta explains, Ma¯ ra must no longer harass the monks. But there is also a more personal duty. “Unsettled, Ma¯ ra says, ‘Elder, have prasa¯da. What do you command?’ ”89 Upagupta then remarks that since he became a monk one hundred years after the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a, he has never seen the Buddha’s physical form. As he laments, I have already seen the dharmic form of the lord of the triple world, which resembles a mountain of gold, but I have not seen his physical form.90 Hence, Ma¯ ra’s second duty is that he must “make manifest here the form of the Buddha.”91 Ma¯ ra agrees, but he sets forth an agreement as well: When suddenly you behold him here, wearing the costume of a buddha, you are not to bow down out of respect for the virtues of the Omniscient One. With your mind rendered beautiful from bringing the Buddha to mind, if you make show of even a little pu¯ja¯ toward me, O powerful one, I will be burned up.92 Upagupta assents, and then Ma¯ ra enters the forest to transform himself. When Ma¯ ra emerges, “he has magically created the form of the Blessed One, a sight one never tires of seeing, adorned with a circular halo extending an arm’s length.”93 He has also created the form of many of the Buddha’s great disciples and of a large crowd of monks. At this, Upagupta is joyful, thinking “This is just like the form of the Blessed One!”94 But he also laments at the pitilessness of impermanence that destroys physical forms such as the Buddha’s body. Then, “with his awareness focused on the Buddha as an object, his mind became fixed, such that he thought, ‘I am seeing the Lord Buddha!’ ”95 He then approaches the form that Ma¯ ra has manifested, and with his hands respectfully folded, he remarks, “Oh! The splendid form of the Blessed One! What more is there!”96 He then continues extolling the virtues of the Buddha’s physical form as well as those of karma, which allowed for this to happen.

170

seeing the buddha Then, having forgotten that his conception occurred by focusing on the Perfectly Awakened One as an object, with his conception fixed on the Buddha, he fell prostrate at Ma¯ ra’s feet with his whole body, like a tree cut down at the roots. Unsettled, Ma¯ ra then says, “Bhadanta, you shouldn’t transgress that agreement [of ours] in this way.” “What agreement?” Upagupta says. Ma¯ ra then says, “Didn’t Bhadanta make this promise: ‘I will not bow down to you’?”97

In response, Upagupta “replies, with the words stuck in his throat, ‘Evil one!’ ”98 Upagupta then explains that he knows that the Buddha has passed into nirva¯n.a, “yet seeing his figure, which is pleasing to the eye, I bow down to that seer. I don’t honor you.”99 Ma¯ ra then asks how it is that he isn’t honored when Upagupta bows down in this way. In response, Upagupta explains— Just as a person bows before clay images of the gods without honoring some conception of clay but with a conception of the gods [in mind], likewise, gazing upon you here, bearing the form of the lord of the world, I bowed down without honoring some conception of Ma¯ra but with a conception of the Sugata [in mind].100 Ma¯ ra then sheds his Buddha disguise, pays his respects to Upagupta, and departs. Four days later, though, he himself rings a bell in Mathura¯ for the following proclamation: “Whoever among you wishes for the joy of heaven and release should listen to the dharma from the elder Upagupta! And let those of you who never saw the Tatha¯ gata see the elder Upagupta!”101 And he said, Whoever wants to cast off poverty, which is the root of misfortune, [and to attain] prosperity with ample splendor here [and now], and whoever longs for heaven and release, he should listen with ´sraddha¯ [in Upagupta] to the dharma [that he teaches]. Those who have not seen the greatly compassionate Teacher, that self-made and foremost of men, should look upon the elder Upagupta as though he were the Teacher, a shining light in the three spheres of existence.102

past and present

171

Word of this spread through Mathura¯ , and soon many hundreds and thousands of brahmans assembled. For them, Upagupta preached a step-by-step discourse, and from hearing this, many hundreds and thousands of beings planted roots of virtue leading to liberation; others attained the reward of the stream-enterer, once-returner, or nonreturner; and eighteen thousand individuals went forth as monks and eventually attained arhatship. Upagupta begins Ma¯ ra’s training in the dharma by explaining that the only way to clear away one’s bad dharma is to cultivate prasa¯da in the Buddha. Ma¯ ra then follows Upagupta’s advice, not by visiting a pra¯sa¯dika object but by calling one to mind. Much like the monk in the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na, Ma¯ ra brings the Buddha to mind through the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti, though here there is no mention of a tenfold list of characteristics. Considering the number of times that Ma¯ ra tried to tempt or annoy the Buddha, which he readily admits to Upagupta, it is not surprising that he can conjure his image without relying on a list of attributes. For Upagupta, however, the Buddha is a figure from the past he has never met. Though he has seen him in his incarnation as the dharma, he has never seen him in his physical embodiment, alive in flesh and blood. Hence, Upagupta agrees to remove the garland of carcasses with which he has saddled Ma¯ ra only if the latter will stop harassing the monks and “make manifest here the form of the Buddha.” Ma¯ ra agrees, under the provision that Upagupta not perform certain ritual acts toward him. Ma¯ ra’s conditions are ambiguous, though, not just to Upagupta who is incredulous when he is later accused of transgressing these conditions, but also to the reader. First, there is some confusion as to who or what Upagupta will suddenly behold. Ma¯ ra explains that Upagupta will “see him [the Buddha] here, wearing the costume of a buddha.” But clearly this isn’t the case, for Upagupta will see Ma¯ ra dressed up as the Buddha, not the Buddha dressed up as the Buddha. This is why Mukhopadhyaya in his edition of the As´oka¯vada¯na emends the tam to tvam, the accusative “him” to the nominative “you,” though no mention is made that such an emendation has occurred or that this reading is unattested among the manuscripts used to produce the Divya¯vada¯na. This switch, however, allows an easier reading to be intuited if not preserved—“When suddenly you behold [me] here, wearing the costume of a buddha.” Yet, it is precisely this ambiguity that is explored throughout this encounter between Upagupta and Ma¯ ra. When Upagupta bows down before an image of the Buddha, whether that image be made of Ma¯ ra himself or of clay, who precisely is the object of veneration? I will return to this question shortly. Ma¯ ra then tells Upagupta to refrain from two acts. Upagupta is not to bow down out of respect for the Buddha’s virtues, and he is not to make Ma¯ ra the

172

seeing the buddha

object of pu¯ja¯, or the latter will be consumed by fire. While the first act is unclear in terms of object—presumably it is Ma¯ ra who is not to be bowed down to—the second act is unclear in terms of practice. Ma¯ ra’s fear is not that Upagupta will perform pu¯ja¯ toward him, but that he will make a display of pu¯ja¯ toward him. Is Ma¯ ra afraid here of Upagupta’s actions or appearances? Are the two one in the same? Regardless of these ambiguities, Upagupta assents. Ma¯ ra then disappears into the forest and soon reappears in the guise of the Buddha with an extended entourage. Gazing at this representation of the Buddha, Upagupta marvels at the likeness of the image before him to the Buddha—though one wonders how Upagupta could make such an assessment if he never before saw the Buddha’s physical form. Just as Ma¯ ra himself had done previously, Upagupta uses an image of Ma¯ ra’s creation to perform buddha¯nusmr.ti, though on this occasion the image is created with Ma¯ ra’s body and not with Ma¯ ra’s mind. Notice that when Upagupta sees Ma¯ ra dressed up as the Buddha, he doesn’t really see the Blessed One but only something “just like the form of the Blessed One.” He doesn’t see the Buddha through Ma¯ ra; rather, Ma¯ ra’s impersonation of the Buddha allows Upagupta to bring the Buddha to mind, and it is only then, with his mind fixed on an image of the Buddha, that he can really see him. It is only then that he exclaims, “I am seeing the Lord Buddha!” It is at this moment, while Upagupta is seeing the Buddha in his mind, that he falls prostrate before Ma¯ ra. Ma¯ ra seems to interpret this act as follows: since Upagupta bows down before him, this means that he bows down to him, in the sense that he is an object of veneration or, to his peril, an object of pu¯ja¯. Unsettled, Ma¯ ra then cautions Upagupta not to transgress their agreement, but Upagupta pleads ignorance. “What agreement?” he says. Upagupta’s reply here is precisely what Ma¯ ra said to Upagupta when the latter first explained the conditions under which he would remove the carcasses that he had hung around Ma¯ ra’s neck. In fact, talk of various “agreements” (samaya) occurs throughout the interchanges between Ma¯ ra and Upagupta, giving a juridical sensibility to the actions they perform and the pronouncements that they make. In response to Upagupta’s query, Ma¯ ra misquotes Upagupta’s previous assent, providing an object for a practice when previously there was none: “Didn’t Bhadanta make this promise: ‘I will not bow down to you.’ ” This misquotation constitutes a refinement of the terms of their agreement concerning the first of the acts not to be performed, but it also allows for a clarification regarding the propriety and efficacy of bowing down before images. When bowing down before living beings, the object of veneration is, presumably, the being that is

past and present

173

bowed down to. Yet the object of veneration is not so clear when bowing down before images. After Upagupta overcomes his apparent anger at this misinterpretation, he then clarifies that one can honor a conception of the Buddha through an image of the Buddha, and this is what he was doing when he bowed down before Ma¯ ra. Hence, though Ma¯ ra may have thought he was being honored when Upagupta bowed down before him, it was actually the Buddha who was being honored through this act. This is why Ma¯ ra did not burst into flames when Upagupta bowed down before him. In short, objects are the means through which veneration can be performed. Such instrumentality is also on display during As´oka’s visit to the stu¯pas of ¯ pas, the Buddha’s foremost disciples. Though As´oka makes offerings at the stu ¯ pas but the disciples for he is not honoring the materials that make up the stu ¯ pas were built. Regardless of whether these stu¯pas are themwhom those stu selves those disciples, an ontological equation I discussed previously, or only functional referents for those disciples, As´oka makes it clear that the disciples ¯ pas.103 are the objects of his devotion, not the stu John Strong has also written about this problem of the status of images and devotional acts performed toward them, and I owe much to his insights. Concerning the episode between Upagupta and Ma¯ ra, Strong (1989: 108) offers this explanation: Upagupta is not saying and is not acting as though the Buddha were somewhere else than before him. For him, the image of the Buddha, ¯ paka¯ ya, “is” the Buddha. fashioned by Ma¯ ra, that is, his form, his ru What it is made of—clay, wood, metal, or, in this case, Ma¯ ra—is not the Buddha; but it itself comes to re-present the Buddha in a way that is obviously religiously real. Though I disagree with Strong about which image of the Buddha is the Buddha, for Upagupta makes it clear that the buddha that Ma¯ ra has fashioned only resembles the Buddha while the one he has created in this mind is the Buddha, Strong’s insight into the function of such images is crucial. They allow for the Buddha to be re-presented, brought into the present tense for the practitioner. As David Freedberg (1989: 30) explains, responses to images are often “predicated on the perception that what is represented on an image is actually present, or present in it. But perhaps with such responses, it is not that the bodies are present; it is as though they were present.” What is interesting here is the mechanism by which the Buddha is represented. In Upagupta’s case, the Buddha isn’t present in Ma¯ ra, he doesn’t

174

seeing the buddha

see the Buddha in Ma¯ ra; instead, Ma¯ ra is instrumentally useful for seeing the Buddha and making him present. While Ma¯ ra is the instrument, the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti is the agent. As´oka uses Ma¯ ra’s representation of the Buddha to perform buddha¯nusmr.ti so that the Buddha can be truly re-presented. In Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga, buddha¯nussati (Skt., buddha¯nusmr.ti) is said to be performed on the basis of ten epithets of the Buddha (Vajiranana 1975: 183–208), yet here an image is used to perform the practice, as is the case with the monk in the Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na. Though the particularities of the practice described here are obscure to me,104 it is clear in this case that buddha¯nusmr.ti is being performed in conjunction with an image. This accords with Paul Harrison’s (1992a: 220) assessment that “there can be no doubt that by the second century CE some Buddhists were indeed practicing a form of buddha¯nusmr.ti that . . . included detailed visualization of the physical body of the Buddha, and was accompanied by the use of images.” So what is at stake here? As is clear from the prasa¯da typology that I discussed previously, it isn’t enough to see the Buddha or other pra¯sa¯dika objects, one must also make offerings to them. But how can this be done after the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a? How can one see the physical form of the Buddha and make offerings to him after he is dead and gone? The As´oka story provides various answers to this question. As´oka sees the Buddha by going on pilgrimage to sites where the Buddha was—or, perhaps, those that he made use of—and gazing at those who themselves had seen the Buddha and listening to their descriptions of him. He then makes offerings to the sites themselves, creating shrines in the process so that future pilgrims will be able to see and give and benefit with greater ease. Upagupta, by contrast, sees the Buddha by gazing at an image of the Buddha and performing the practice of buddha¯nusmr. ti. He then bows down, not to the image of the Buddha that Ma¯ ra created, but directly to the Buddha himself, though he is dead and gone. And so one wonders: If Upagupta can use an image of the Buddha to see the Buddha and venerate him, were paintings and sculptures of the Buddha used for the same purpose? If one looked at an image of the Buddha, engaged in a visualization of him, and then made an offering with him in mind, would that person have received all the merit that one would receive from directly looking at the Buddha and making an offering to him? This would have allowed those practices that are described as being directed toward the Buddha with extraordinary results, such as As´oka’s gift of dirt, to be replicated after his final nirva¯n.a. Furthermore, was this matrix of practices tied to pilgrimage? As´oka manages to see the Buddha at sites famous for the Buddha’s deeds, and buddha

past and present

175

images were certainly more plentiful at Buddhist monasteries and pilgrimage centers than in private homes. So were stories such as the As´oka cycle used to justify the practice of pilgrimage by explaining its logic and benefits? Did one travel to Buddhist shrines because it was there that the Buddha could be represented and seen, there where one could make offerings and achieve fantastic rewards?

This page intentionally left blank

8 Images and Imagination

A myth is a unit of imagination which makes it possible for a human being to accommodate two worlds. —Antjie Krog, Country of My Skull One way to begin to answer questions about the forms of ritual activity that occurred after the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a is to consider carefully the sculptures and paintings on Buddhist monuments in South Asia. There one finds no shortage of representations of the Buddha and of narratives that involve him,1 including scenes from the Divya¯vada¯na.2 Buddhologists and Indologists of the last centuries, however, have tended to evaluate these images from the perspective of a universalist Kantian aesthetics, with its disinterested evaluation of beauty, and to embrace them or dismiss them as such.3 Yet an examination of the early social life of these objects indicates that a different sort of engagement with them was prevalent in the past. Michael Meister (1995: 194), for example, suggests that traditionally images in South Asia were evaluated not by some “ ‘universals’ of aesthetic criticism” but by their efficacy in creating dars´ana for the viewer. Hence, “art and architecture . . . [were] tools to create . . . mental visions” (1995: 193). In this realm, “to ‘know’ divinity is to ‘see’ it,” and so a work of art “has as its goal a transforming vision, of which the artist and artwork are tools and the viewer becomes the vehicle” (1995: 193, 194). As Meister (1995: 199–200) explains,

178

seeing the buddha We may look—as art historians or, worse, antiquarians—at an image of the Hindu Great Goddess to judge if it is beautiful or well formed, and at its age or provenance; but its role in the temple’s sanctum is as a stimulus for the worshipper’s ‘vision.’ Thus around it rituals arise that paint and clothe the image, surround it in sound and scent, in order further to accentuate its psychological effect on the viewer and make it efficacious.

Unfortunately, no examination of millennia-old images, however thorough, can uncover the thoughts and sensations that visitors had in the early centuries of the Common Era when they experienced such images in situ at monasteries and shrines in Gandha¯ra and Mathura¯, the main treasure troves of Kus.a¯ n.aperiod art. Much like David Tomas’s (1996: 14) insights regarding Michael Leahy’s infamous first-contact photographs from the 1930s in the New Guinea Highlands, “their paradox lies in their almost perfect opacity: to see and yet not to know means to be privy to a truth in these cases, which for us cannot exist.” As Tomas (1996: 14) explains, “Histories and theories are bird’s-eye reconstructions that, even with all the goodwill in the world, do not correspond to the visceral practices and contorted structures of first-contact events.” It is these visceral practices, these corpothetic moments of seeing, that hold the key for interpreting much early Buddhist art in South Asia. Such practices cannot be intuited or discerned by merely judging the apparent aesthetic qualities of such objects and identifying their component parts. The bridge between seeing and knowing is not that easy to span. Even evaluating Indian Buddhist images by indigenous standards of beauty, whether ancient or modern, still misses the point.4 As Meister makes clear, these images were created not for their splendor but for their ritual efficacy.5 The aesthetic involved was not one of disinterested pleasure but of karmic effect. Their value as art was in their capacity as visual objects to further one’s karmic development.6 Hence, in trying to determine the use and reception of these images, an awareness of this aesthetic and its manifold forms is crucial. Understanding what images were supposed to do is necessary for understanding how images were used. In short, understanding the workings of images in South Asia requires apprehending the social conjunctions and mental worlds that were produced when these objects were experienced. This is an undertaking of some difficulty, particularly in the case of premodern South Asia, where data are rather meager for hypothesizing an anthropology of art. If such practices are to be inferred, though, careful consideration must be given to the use of such objects as well as

images and imagination

179

to the visual aesthetic of those who viewed them, the valued formal qualities of their visual perception—what Jeremy Coote (1992: 248) calls “the cultural eye.” Robert L. Brown’s (1997) article on the visual representations of ja¯ takas on South and Southeast Asian monuments offers a good starting point for such an endeavor. Brown tries to make sense of so-called narrative art7 by first addressing very practical concerns that belie the notion that art is meant to be read, that the visual aesthetic in place was one of decoding, and in the process also challenges the idea that such art was intended to produce the kind of dars´ana experience Meister describes. In contrast to Vidya Dehejia (1990), who presumes a narrative coherence in Buddhist sculpture and painting, Brown argues that the difficulties in seeing and deciphering narrative art on Buddhist monuments makes it extremely unlikely that a narrative reading of these images was intended. Often these images are inaccessible without ladders, invisible without flashlights, and even when they can be seen, no linear narrative is represented. As Brown (1997: 98) remarks, Images do not “tell” stories. As I have said, the story or narrative must be known if the images illustrating the story are to make sense (at least in terms of the word story). There is no way anyone could ever, even after seeing all the visual depictions extant of a particular ja¯ taka story, be able to tell what the name of the characters are, what their exact relationships are, the exact sequence of their interactions, and the sometimes surprising moral point being made, without having read the text or heard the story.8 These representations, Brown (1997: 72, 73–74) posits, were not intended to be “ ‘read,’ or even looked at in any logical or analytical fashion”; instead, they functioned “to indicate, to make ‘actual,’ the Buddha through his life and history . . . to make the Buddha’s presence felt, his forms and teachings manifest.” Hence, the individual who engaged with these images was not a viewercum-reader, but a practitioner-cum-worshipper. As Brown (1997: 71) remarks regarding the paintings at Ajanta, The paintings were there for worshippers, not for viewers, and the choice of “viewer” as the way to characterize most often the person relating to the Indian art is to “art historicize” the material, to make it an issue between art historian and object. Instead, the issue for me is between worshipper and deity.9 Brown (1997: 74, 100) concludes that these images were used “to historicize and manifest the presence of the Buddha”—to re-present him, using

180

seeing the buddha

Strong’s locution—“through a visual (re)presentation of his history.”10 But how was the Buddha historicized and manifested through these narrative images? ¯ pas were considered to be living Much has been written on the notion that stu beings, making the Buddha manifest and present for his devotees,11 but how did narrative images that could barely be seen and hardly be read participate in this process?12 Brown (1997: 73) argues these images of the Buddha’s deeds historicize and actualize the Buddha’s presence “simply by being there.”13 Brown (1997: 65, 98) claims that these narrative images “are not present on the monuments to tell stories, but are there with an iconic function,” and by icon in this context, Brown means that it is “a form of the deity that is the focus of reverence and worship.” But if these images can’t really be seen or read, how can they be a focus of ritual activity? If, as Meister claims, “to ‘know’ divinity is to ‘see’ it,” what were the ritual activities that would have allowed practitioners to engage with this “form of the deity” that these narrative images manifested? How can it be, as Brown (1997: 99) claims, that “ja¯ takas on the monuments worked as icons”? Furthermore, considering how may stories in the Divya¯vada¯na are about seeing the Buddha, why represent scenes from these stories, images that involve seeing the Buddha, in such a way that visiting pilgrims can’t easily see them or understand them? My sense is that, contrary to Brown, these images didn’t “historicize and manifest the presence of the Buddha . . . simply by being there.” Instead, as in the case of As´oka, these images needed words to bring them to life. While devotees were viewing and experiencing these images, guides of some sort were most likely narrating stories or reciting panegyrics associated with them.14 Dehejia herself suggests that guides played a crucial mentoring role in mediat¯ pa at Bharhut. As Dehejia (1998: 22–23) ing the images for the viewer at the stu explains, It seems likely that the first-time visitor to Bharhut was taken around the stupa by a monk who acted as a spiritual guide. After all, is that not our experience even today when we visit Puri, Hardwar, or Varanasi? While the Buddhist pilgrim would have been familiar with the Buddha’s life story and the important ja¯ takas, he or she would not have deciphered too many narratives without a mentor’s guidance.15 Brown may be correct that these images helped to actualize the Buddha’s presence, but these images surely functioned as visual prompts as well—if not as their primary function, then as a secondary one.16 Though Brown suggests that these objects were not intended to be read, perhaps this “phantasmagoria”17 of images were meant to be narrativized, evoked, and described in the

images and imagination

181

manner of Ka¯ lika, Pin.d.ola, Upagupta, or even Dehejia. Donations, of course, would have followed. These days, when one visits sites such as Ajanta, Bodh Gaya, Sanchi, and Sarnath, guides are available to usher visitors from object to object and tell them a variety of stories that are associated with each piece—stories that are ´ra¯ vastı¯ (Divy 143– often included in the Divya¯vada¯na, such as the miracle at S . 18 166) and the prediction of Lord Dı¯pankara (Divy 246–254). Brown is right that images don’t tell stories and that it is difficult to read or deduct the “authorized” stories from them, but at least in my experience, guides often use these images as touchstones to tell a variety of stories. On repeated visits to these sites, I have heard different guides offer different identifications of the same objects, different readings for the same inscriptions, and conflicting stories about the date of a piece, its ritual functions, or the narrative that it represents. Only sometimes do these identifications, inscriptions, and stories coincide with the history of these objects as told by the Archaeological Survey of India or other voices of authority. Brown argues that since objects at these sites are difficult to see and interpret, they didn’t serve a narrative function. But this is not the case at present. Objects can be evocative of stories in a way quite separate from their status as pieces of art. This contrast is made particularly clear in James Clifford’s work on the politics of museums. In Routes, Clifford describes a discussion that occurred in 1989 between staff members of the Portland Museum of Art and elders of various Tlingit tribes from Alaska. The museum was about to update its installation of Tlingit objects, such as a headdress looking like an octopus and a beaded jacket, so Tlingit elders were invited to the museum for their input. The curatorial staff seems to have expected the Tlingit elders to comment on the use, function, and history of particular items in the museum collection within their tribe. Yet, the objects were not the subject of much direct commentary by the elders, who had their own agenda for the meeting. They referred to the regalia with appreciation and respect, but they seemed only to use them as aides-mémoire, occasions for the telling of stories and the singing of songs. (1997: 189) As Clifford (1997: 191) explains, staff at the museum were faced with a number of questions: Could they reconcile the meanings evoked by the Tlingit elders with those imposed in the context of a museum of “art”? How much could they decenter the physical objects in favor of narrative, history,

182

seeing the buddha and politics? Are there strategies that can display a mask as simultaneously a formal composition, an object with specific traditional functions in clan/tribal life, and as something that evokes an ongoing history of struggle?

“Suffice it to say,” Clifford concludes, “the choices posed by the elders remained unresolved.”19 I quote this at length because the inaccessibility and often uncertain discursive quality of images on Buddhist monuments are not necessarily indicative of an intended non-narrative function.20 The placement and configuration of such objects could have been governed by a variety of rules—those of expediency, aesthetics, architecture, and so on—and the classification of such objects by modern scholars or devotees as either narrative or non-narrative, figural or discursive, abstract or representational, does not necessarily offer insight into their use or function.21 These very dichotomies, in fact, may not have been meaningful or recognized by the communities who first engaged with these objects.22 Even the longstanding scholarly tradition of classifying early Buddhist art as either iconic or aniconic has been shown to be highly problematic.23 Regardless of these problems of practice and interpretation, what occurs now at Buddhist temples and archeological sites in India is frequently an experience akin to theater. Statues, paintings, and architecture are often a backdrop for a guide’s narration or for a dialog among visitors, and though the particular images seen, descriptions heard, and conversations held may differ from tour to tour, the experience of the audience-cum-actors is nevertheless that of theater. Whether this succeeds in re-presenting the Buddha, however, is another question. Still, theater provides a heuristically useful analog. Like Tlingit art, plays are “occasions for the telling of stories and the singing of songs.” In Bhavabhuti’s drama from the eighth century CE, Uttarara¯macarita (“The Later Story of Ra¯ ma”), a theater of images and words is enacted, if not delicately parodied, and shown to produce visceral responses in the actors themselves. In act one, for example, Ra¯ ma, Sı¯ta¯ , and Laks.man.a walk through a picture gallery that displays images of their own exploits. As Ra¯ ma and Sı¯ta¯ see an image of the preparations being made for their wedding, Sı¯ta¯ explains, “Ah! I feel as though I’m in that very place, at that very time.”24 Ra¯ ma too remarks that “it is as though that time exists again.”25 As they proceed, the pictures bring the events represented once again to the present for Ra¯ ma and Sı¯ta¯ . Though Ra¯ ma chides Sı¯ta¯ at one point for responding too strongly to an image that reminds her of their separation in the forest—“My dear, you fear separation, but this is only a

images and imagination

183

picture!”26—both are sufficiently taken in by these images to feel real fear and pain and shed tears. While the characters of Ra¯ ma and Sı¯ta¯ can read the images that tell their story, for these images are meant to be read, as an element of theater, encountering these images also provides them with an occasion for narrating their deeds of the past and reflecting on their legacy. Presumably the audience, as viewers of this spectacle, would have felt, whether the picture galleries on stage were seen or unseen, readable or unreadable, that to some extent Ra¯ ma and Sı¯ta¯ had come to life.27 But precisely how initial audiences responded cannot be known—another instance of an unrecoverable first-contact event. Perhaps, though, they responded as did the great nineteenth-century sage Ra¯ makr. s.n.a Paramaham . sa when he saw a performance of the Caitanya Lı¯la¯ : he entered sama¯dhi repeatedly, and at the end of the performance “said with a smile, ‘I found the representation the same as the real’ ” (Gupta 1984: 556; cited in Pinney 1997b: 839).28 In short, though I agree with Brown that Buddhist art on South Asian monuments is often exceedingly difficult to read, I don’t think that these images are divorced from the narratives that they seem to represent, even if the relationship between the two is hard to recognize. Perhaps these narratives were created precisely to make sense of these images. As Jonathan Walters (1997: 181n10) suggests, it may be that “the carvings gave shape to the later texts that seem to correspond to them, rather than the other way around.” The Divya¯vada¯na may even have been a chapbook for monastery tour guides. If these narrative images on Buddhist monuments were, as I suggest, meant to be narrativized as a means of bringing the Buddha’s story to life, then the aesthetic in play here is certainly not one of clarity and simplicity of communication. Viewers were not meant to decode these images on their own, identifying the characters, stories, and morals at a glance, and the producers of the images were not trying to communicate discursive information in an easy manner. This is not a case of viewers lacking a proficiency or fluency in a certain visual regime, like viewers of film in its nascent period who needed direction to comprehend the images before them, for it seems that independent viewing was not the goal. Unlikely as well is that these images, with their indistinct iconic forms, were “tools to create . . . mental visions,” to re-cite Meister’s claim. Instead, viewers would have needed help to make sense of these images, a guide to serve them, as Upagupta did for As´oka. Most likely, the intended viewers were the laity and the intended guides monastics, and the former were meant to be dependent on the latter. Consider the case in the Sahasodgataavada¯na, as I mentioned in chapter 2, when the Buddha has a group of monks draw a wheel of existence in the entrance hall of their monastery. Brahmans and householders frequently come and see it, but they can’t make sense of it. In

184

seeing the buddha

response, the Buddha tells the monks to appoint a monk to show it and explain it to them. After an initial appointee shows himself to be unequal to the task, the Buddha specifies that the appointee must be competent. And so perhaps this was the model—competent monks were to be stationed at images to explain them to the uncomprehending laity.29 Through their words, these monks would help bring these images to life for the laity, but the inaccessibility of these images would also make the laity dependent on monastics, creating a sense of reliance on would-be kalya¯n.amitras. It is frequently said in the Divya¯vada¯na that those affected by Buddhist teachings are “favorably inclined toward the Buddha, intent on the dharma, and well disposed toward the monastic community.”30 What my translation here fails to convey is the physical sense that these individuals are “leaning in,” (nimna), “sloping toward” (pravan.a), and “bent over” (pra¯gbha¯ra) the Buddha, the dharma, and the monastic community.31 They are supported and upheld by them, and as these avada¯ nas repeatedly demonstrate, this dependence is necessary for their karmic development. In addition to these narrative images, Buddhist monuments in South Asia also contain large numbers of iconic images of the Buddha engaged in various ¯ dras that were popular in Gandha¯ra, postures, such as the abhaya or dhya¯na mu and their function is also not clear. While these too can be narrativized—one could, for example, tell stories about the protection or instruction that the Buddha offered or his achievements in meditation—instead of differentiating these images as narrative and non-narrative, narrative and iconic, I find it more productive to locate Buddhist images along a continuum between discursive and figural.32 With this distinction in mind, so-called narrative art can be thought of as highly discursive, and its problem in the Buddhist case being that it is very difficult to engage with discursively. These other images of the Buddha, however, are more figural, and the problem here is the meaning of that figuration—that is, how are they meant to be appreciated affectively and put to ritual use?33 In light of the description in the Divya¯vada¯na of the non-discursive, iconic function of pra¯sa¯dika objects, perhaps these objects were likewise empowered.34 More figural than those discursive images closely associated with Buddhist narratives, these images were likely more important for their effects than their stories. Perhaps they were icons for dars´ana, prompts for the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti or prasa¯da, not touchstones or aides-mémoires for stories. Again the analog of theater comes to mind, and the Uttarara¯macarita in particular. There too, figural images, those iconic representations that are less imbued with narrative concerns, are shown to have a powerful effect on viewers. In act six, when Ra¯ ma’s son, Lava, who has never met his father, unknowingly sees him for the first time, he remarks,

images and imagination

185

It’s a wonder! Hostility is put to rest, a blissful feeling spreads over me, impudence departs, I know not where, and humility makes me bend low. How is it that immediately at the sight of him, it is as though I am under another’s control? Great men are like holy places, with a greatness that is priceless and inexplicable.35 Such iconic moments are reminiscent of the experience that characters in the Divya¯vada¯na often have when they see pra¯sa¯dika objects. They are immediately moved by the power of those objects, whether they be “great men,” such as the Buddha, or “holy places,” such as the shrine at Toyika¯ . Either way, there is a loss of autonomy as the power of those objects takes control over the viewer. Most likely images on Buddhist monuments in South Asia fulfilled a variety of different roles and were put to a variety of different uses—some discursive, some figural. The various practices associated with these images may very well have involved actualizing the Buddha’s presence, as in the case of telling hagiographic stories or cultivating buddha¯nusmr.ti or prasa¯da. Such appraisals are only guesswork, but the practices and appraisals found in the Divya¯vada¯na support this guesswork. And since these practices were not documented in inscriptions, such narrative accounts may very well provide a crucial link to the past. It is precisely these accounts that can help textual anthropologists better understand the various visual aesthetics at play here, and this is the only way that internal and external aspects of these practices can ever be made to come together.

A Visual World The visual world of the Divya¯vada¯na is markedly different from the world of Therava¯ din Buddhism found in Pali texts. As Steven Collins (1992: 121) explains, even after the introduction of writing and the preservation of texts as written documents, this latter tradition “remained in various ways also an oral/ aural one.” Collins presents numerous examples from inscriptions as well as canonical and postcanonical sources to demonstrate that, as David McMahan (1998: 252) paraphrases, “the traditional method of educating monks and nuns was largely for those students to hear and commit to memory the words of their teacher.” “Buddhist texts,” Collins (1992: 130) remarks succinctly, “were more often experienced through the voice and ears than the hands and eyes.”36

186

seeing the buddha

In contrast to the oral/aural character of the Therava¯ da, the Maha¯ ya¯ na tradition—like the Divya¯vada¯na, which is considered either an early Maha¯ ya¯ na or a proto-Maha¯ ya¯ na text—has a more visual character. In his work on the contours and significance of this shift, David McMahan (1998: 264) cites, for example, the Gan.d.avyu¯ha-su¯tra, which “is written as a visual extravaganza, not only in its barrage of vivid imagery, but in its frequent use of visually oriented language and metaphor. The emphasis throughout the text is on what is seen rather than what is heard.” More broadly, McMahan contends, the writers of Maha¯ ya¯ na texts made use of this visionary character as part of a program of legitimation in which the bodhisattva of the Maha¯ ya¯ na is conceived of as superior to the ´sra¯vaka (“the hearer”), who is idealized in the Pali scriptures of the Therava¯ da. McMahan (1998: 264) also contends that this visual turn was not confined to Maha¯ ya¯ na Buddhism but was “a pan-Indic phenomenon beginning around the first or second century BCE—the same time as the emergence of writing.” According to McMahan (1998: 254), “writing was crucial to the development and character of the Maha¯ ya¯ na” and it “contributed to a restructuring of knowledge in such a way that vision, rather than hearing, became a significant mode of access to knowledge.”37 McMahan (1998: 273) then goes on to conclude “first, [that] the Maha¯ ya¯ na tended to emphasize vision to a greater extent than the orthodox traditions, who emphasized hearing, and second, that these respective orientations were specifically involved with each tradition’s claims to authority and legitimacy.” While the visual figures prominently in the Divya¯vada¯na, so too, following McMahan’s hypothesis, do literacy and writing. In a stereotypical passage that occurs throughout the Divya¯vada¯na, the first step of a young boy’s education is that he is “entrusted [to a teacher to learn] writing.”38 This process is made explicit in the Sva¯gata-avada¯na. As a young boy, Sva¯ gata begins his education when an old maid “entrusts him to a writing teacher to learn the letters,”39 and he goes off to study as a day student at a “writing school.”40 In the Ru¯pa¯vatı¯-avada¯na, a young boy’s initiation into writing is shown to occur with great pomp, lending support to the idea that this marked an important rite of passage. It is said that when Candraprabha turned eight years old, “his parents gave him a proper bath, fully anointed him, adorned him with all kinds of ornaments, and . . . he was taught how to write.”41 This occurred in a writing school along with five hundred other boys. And in the Sahsodgata-avada¯na, it is said that the young boy Sahasodgata “learned how to write and became an expert scribe,”42 showing at least that there was such a designation.43 In addition to the importance that these avada¯ nas assign to writing, encoded within at least one other avada¯na is the primacy of writing over reciting—in

images and imagination

187

other words, of the written word over the oral word. In the Cu¯d.a¯paks. a-avada¯na, we read of two brothers: the older brother Maha¯ panthaka (Highwayman) who is very intelligent, and the younger brother Panthaka (Bywayman) who is not. When Panthaka grew up, he was entrusted [to a teacher to learn] writing. [When he was asked to repeat siddham—“and so it is established”—] by the time sid was said to him he would forget dham. Now his instructor said [to the brahman who was Panthaka’s father]. “Brahman, I have to teach many boys. I can’t teach Panthaka. If a little is said to Maha¯ panthaka he grasps a lot, but by the time sid is said to Panthaka he forgets dham.” “Not all brahmans become skilled in scripts and letters,” the brahman reflected. “He will be a brahman who just recites the Vedas.”44 Panthaka, however, is also unskilled at Vedic recitation, unable to learn even the beginning of the Ga¯ yatrı¯ mantra—“by the time om was said to him he would forget bhu¯h., and when bhu¯h. was said he would forget om.”45 And so his teacher reflects, “Not all brahmans become masters of the Vedas. He will be a brahman only by birth.”46 Implicit in this story is a hierarchy of brahmans—the literate brahman is more clever than the oral brahman who just recites the Vedas, who in turn is more clever than a brahman by name only. Yet, this brahmanical hierarchy is overturned by what follows in the story. Although the unlettered Panthaka is a self-proclaimed idiot and fool, his brother Maha¯ panthaka initiates him as a monk. Panthaka then spends the three months of the rainy season contemplating a single verse, but he still can’t understand it. He is despondent. After ¯ nanda tries as well, but he too fails. Maha¯ panthaka tries to teach his brother, A Finally, the Buddha offers him a half-verse to contemplate while he cleans the monks’ sandals and shoes. While studying on his own, Panthaka comes to understand the half-verse and then directly experiences arhatship. Later, given the opportunity to teach many hundreds of thousands of beings, Panthaka offers a discourse on the dharma that instills prasa¯da in great numbers of people. As his attendant explains, “There wasn’t anyone that the venerable one didn’t instill with prasa¯da.”47 The Buddha then offers this explanation: “Monks, this monk Panthaka is foremost among those monks that are my disciples who are expert in transforming the minds of others.”48 While many characters in the Divya¯vada¯na are sent off to writing instructors as a first step in an education that is no doubt intended to help them succeed in the world of commerce and business,49 as this story makes clear, literacy is not essential for excelling within the world of Buddhist monasticism,

188

seeing the buddha

nor does writing play an important role in the ritual practices of monks.50 This is not to contradict McMahan’s hypothesis that the preponderance of the visual in the Maha¯ ya¯ na is connected with a reliance on writing, only to problematize it. There are so many unanswered questions with regard to the advent and use of writing among Indian Buddhists, their choice of language, the nature and practices of the Maha¯ ya¯ na, and the connection between all of these, that to connect the visionary character of Maha¯ ya¯ na texts in any direct way with “the emergence of writing” is a difficult endeavor. Though McMahan (1998: 273–274) argues that “the development of writing also shifted access to and organization of knowledge from an exclusively oral/aural mode to one that included visuality, and this allowed for greater analysis and commentary, as well as for dissent,” it may be that the issue at stake is not the emergence of writing but the emergence of writing in Sanskrit. The first written texts in India appeared in the third century BCE in Prakrit, with As´oka’s rock edicts probably inaugurating the practice.51 Then, in the early centuries of the Common Era, Sanskrit superseded Prakrit as the language for public and political documents. This Sanskritic turn coincides with Buddhism’s appropriation of Sanskrit to preserve the word of the Buddha (buddhavacana), even though this had been explicitly prohibited in the Pali Vinaya (Vin ii, 139) and averred for half a millennium. “Canonical texts from several centuries prior to this period,” Sheldon Pollock (2006: 56) notes, “are found redacted in various forms of Middle Indic mixed with Sanskrit (sometimes called Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit), an idiom that seems less a failure to achieve Sanskrit than a continuing reluctance to use it fully.”52 This Sanskritic turn also coincides with the first Buddhist literature ¯ ryadeva and Ma¯ tr. in Sanskrit, such as those texts “by As´vaghos.a, Na¯ ga¯ rjuna, A ceta whom tradition links with the reigns of the great Kus´a¯n.a emperors, from Kanis.ka to Vasudeva (ca 128–230 AD)” (Lamotte 1988: 585).53 As´vaghos.a’s Buddhacarita, in particular, inaugurates the use of Sanskrit for the courtly epic (maha¯ka¯vya), and in contrast to the canonical writings of Indian Buddhism that precede As´vaghos.a’s work, many of which possess features of oral literature (Allon 1997a, 1997b), the Buddhacarita contains an abundance of visual imagery. Dars´ana, as Reginald Ray (1994: 52) notes, “occupies an important place in As´vaghos.a’s soteriology.”54 Though As´vaghos.a links together a new form of literacy with a nascent visual culture, it doesn’t necessarily follow that writing is indicative of certain modes of thinking or, more specifically, that the visual in language is somehow a mark of literacy. As for the former, Jack Goody’s (1968, 1987) arguments with regard to writing and literacy in India have been the subject of much dispute. Jonathan Parry (1985: 201; cf. Falk 1990) notes that “the striking thing about

images and imagination

189

this catalogue of corollaries that Goody derives from literacy is that . . . almost none of his predictions holds unambiguously good for traditional India.” As for the latter, the notion promoted by scholars such as Walter Ong (1967, 1982) that the shift from an oral culture to a “chirographic” one based on writing and then to a typographic one entrenches a visual bias is, as even the sympathetic Martin Jay (1994: 2, 66–69) notes, somewhat grandiose and hyperbolic. Other scholars have been less reserved in their criticisms.55 Writing may have been a factor in the development of a Maha¯ ya¯ na visuality, but that only provides us with part of the answer. What Schopen (1999: 312) opines about the origin of the Maha¯ ya¯ na holds equally well regarding the origin of the visual character of the Maha¯ ya¯ na: “we are . . . well beyond—or should be—looking for single causes for the emergence or ‘rise’ of what is clearly not a single thing.” So what are these multiple causes? Changes in Buddhist material culture, such as the occurrence of the first iconic images of the Buddha, the proliferation of monastic establishments, and the development of trading routes that offered access to both, offer some explanations. In the pages that follow, I explore nine additional possibilities. The visual component of Maha¯ ya¯ na texts may, as Paul Harrison (2003: 142) suggests, be the result of “a convergence of meditation and transmission in the forest environment.” Harrison (2003: 135) explains that “these new texts may well have been the work of meditators who were also involved in the business of textual transmission, who, in their visions, encountered new revelations which they later committed to writing.” The visual aspect of their writing, in other words, is a residue, intentional or otherwise, of their visionary experiences. 2. Perhaps the dependence of the Divya¯vada¯na on visual tropes and phenomena reflects a disruption in oral communication during the period that gave rise to the text. For example, these stories may have been addressed toward people with a wide range of language practices. Visual culture often emerges where other signs fail.56 Such a condition can lead to the emergence of an “intercultural zone” (Dening 1996) in which there is a necessary surface truth to phenomena. It has been suggested that films have such a transparency;57 perhaps the same holds true for the corpus of stories in the Divya¯vada¯na. 3. Another possibility is that this dependence on the visual reflects an attempt to convey religious narratives to an illiterate community. Parallels are suggested in Michael Baxandall’s (1988: 41) work on Christian practices in fifteenth-century Italy. 1.

190

seeing the buddha

4.

The language and diction of these stories could itself be at issue (Marouzeau 1911; Agrawal 1964; Chaki 1993). Much is still unknown with regard to the social function of the Buddhist Sanskrit in which the Divya¯vada¯na is written, but it seems likely that it was meant to be understood widely. Perhaps its inclusivity, however, created a hybrid that could be understood by many but would necessarily be obscure and imprecise at different times for different linguistic communities— hence, a dependence on the visual. While As´vaghos.a’s Buddhacarita, which is written in standard Sanskrit, also possesses many visual traits, the cause of such tropes in one text need not be the cause of them in another.58 5. Donald Lopez (1995: 41) suggests that “the virtual explosion of texts by which we mark the rise of the Maha¯ ya¯ na . . . with their selfconsciousness and often exaltation of their own status as texts, as physical objects” may indicate that “the importance of the writing of the ¯ tras say than with what they su¯tras . . . [had] less to do with what the su do.” Perhaps early Maha¯ ya¯ na movements wanted “not so much new teachings as new centers of worship,” and if Schopen (1975) is right about the cult of the book, then the book might have fulfilled “the desire for restored presence, physically standing for his speech, manifest as the body of his teaching” (Lopez 1995: 41). As Lopez (1995: 41–42) concludes, ¯ tras may have been written (down) before, but here was a Su new reason for their writing. While writing might be condemned as derivative and displaced from the animation of speech (and, in this sense, dead), these dead letters could be also valued precisely because they were dead, the leftover, dispersed (and dispersible) remnants of the living Buddha, suit¯ pa, as the Lotus [Su ¯ tra] recommends. able for framing in a stu Hence, the visual character of these texts may have something to do with their function as visual objects.

6.

The nineteenth-century historian Heinrich Graetz (1975: 68) surmised that Hellenic culture was fundamentally visual in its orientation and Hebraic culture fundamentally auditory, the former considering the divine to appear within nature and the latter considering the divine to exist beyond or outside of nature. As David Chidester (1992: xi) explains, The visual mode, therefore, lends itself to a sensitivity to that which is immanent in the world; the verbal mode lends itself

images and imagination

191

to the experience of a transcendent and invisible authority that speaks over against human beings and commands obedience. Perhaps then the visual turn concerned making the transcendent more immanent, making the otherworldly more this-worldly—bringing the Buddha to the here and now. Since many of the stories in the Divya¯vada¯na seem to have been derived from the monastic legal materials of the vinaya, perhaps there is a link between the language of law and evidence as a visual phenomenon. In his work on law and the phenomenology of sight, the legal scholar Bernard Hibbitts (1994) has argued convincingly that there is a “perceived ‘fit’ between the values of traditional legal theory and the values said to be supported by visual phenomenology.” 8. In addition, since the production of the Divya¯vada¯na seems to have roughly coincided in time and place with the production of the first buddha images, perhaps these images and the textual pictures in the text were doing work similar to that of cinema in its infancy. As Susan Buck-Morss (1994: 52) writes of Eisenstein,

7.

Against initial resistance of audiences not yet used to the new cinematic prosthesis, Eisenstein tried to make visible such abstract realities as capital, class oppression, and, most especially, the mass as the collective agent of the new historical events. The particular characteristics of the screen as a cognitive organ enabled audiences not only to “see” this new collective protagonist, but (through eidetic reduction) to “see” the idea of the unity of the revolutionary people, the collective sovereignty of the masses, the idea of international solidarity, the idea of revolution itself. 9. And last, a dependence on the visual may have facilitated a synoptic spatialization of knowledge, such that causality could be isolated and the huge time gaps that often separate an act and its result could be easily conceptualized. This can be seen in numerous textual pictures within the Divya¯vada¯na that portray the various effects of karma. This can also be seen in modern Indian chromolithographs representing karma, images that show an individual misbehaving in this world and then suffering the consequences in the next world. These images, with labels such as “DoingBearing” (karn.¯ı bharn.¯ı), “The Abode of Hell” (narakva¯), and “Yama’s World” (yamalok), are frequently sold in North Indian bazaars.59 My point here, however, isn’t simply to enumerate individual answers but to warn against simplifying and essentializing the task at hand—making sense

192

seeing the buddha

of the visual and its connection to giving as well as the aesthetic that gives meaning to that dynamic. Trying to isolate the problem offers little solace. The cultural transformations that occurred, which allowed Sanskrit to become a powerfully cosmopolitan language around the beginning of the first millennium, and the political and economic formations that allowed trade, trade routes, and Buddhism to thrive, all in close proximity, most likely played a role in the development of these phenomena. As Hans Belting (1994: 3) notes, Holy images were never the affair of religion alone, but also always of society, which expressed itself in and through religion. Religion was far too central a reality to be, as in our day, merely a personal matter or an affair of the churches. In short, there are no easy answers.

Conclusion In summary, while ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da play an important role in the workings of the visual world of the Divya¯vada¯na, the visual dimension of the text easily exceeds these confines. Though prasa¯da may not have been a particularly efficacious practice for monastics, the story of Kot.ikarn.a represents monastics as nonetheless having a strong desire to see the Buddha. Seeing the Buddha, it is said, complements the experience of seeing the dharma, and this desire to see the Buddha is represented as normative. For Kot.ikarn.a, however, the result of seeing the Buddha is not a personally and karmically transformative experience as it is in the practice of prasa¯da. Kot.ikarn.a doesn’t even engage with the Buddha actively as a visual object. Instead, the Buddha is engaged with as a presiding authority. Kot.ikarn.a uses the occasion of seeing the Buddha to reiterate various texts, rules, and regulations so that the Buddha can legitimate them. Though Kot.ikarn.a claims that he wants to see the Buddha’s physical form to complement his vision of the Buddha’s dharmic form, the former seems to be in service of the latter. What matters to Kot.ikarn.a is that he has correctly seen the Buddha’s dharma. Seeing the Buddha’s physical form, though clearly an important trope, merely allows Kot.ikarn.a to corroborate his dharmic vision. But how does one see the Buddha’s physical form after he has passed into final nirva¯n.a? Two accounts from the As´oka cycle of stories offer two different answers. King As´oka sees the Buddha by going on pilgrimage to sites associated with the Buddha’s life, and once there, looking at those who had in turn looked at the Buddha and listening to their descriptions of him. These sites,

images and imagination

193

it seems, allow for a unique spatial link to the Buddha, and the eyewitnesses associated with them provide a visual lineage and, hence, visual conduit to the Buddha himself. For As´oka, being in such a site, seeing such a person, and listening to descriptions of the Buddha, or some combination of these events, brings the Buddha into visual focus. Words alone are not enough, and nor is seeing. The Bodhi tree, however, is an exception. It is both site and witness, a silent and visual gateway to the Buddha himself. And in response to these apparitions, as to be expected, As´oka makes offerings. Though As´oka is instrumental in distributing the Buddha’s relics, he visually accesses the Buddha not through any of the eighty-four thousand dharmara¯jika¯s that he has had constructed but through the unmarked sites associated with his life. It is a choice of deeds over bones. As´oka’s offerings at these unmarked sites, however, seem to create another system of shrines, a counterpart to the dharmara¯jika¯s, that will allow others to honor and see the Buddha following As´oka’s example. In short, As´oka offers a rationale and personal endorsement for pilgrimage to sites associated with the Buddha’s life, and he also establishes markers and shrines at these sites to make his paradigmatic pilgrimage that much easier to emulate. Like Kot.ikarn.a, the monk Upagupta has seen the Buddha’s dharmic form and now desires to see his physical form, but like As´oka, he cannot do so directly, for by this time the Buddha has already passed into final nirva¯n.a. Relying on neither pilgrimage nor visual legacies or descriptive verses, Upagupta instead relies on Ma¯ ra, the satanic tempter, whom he has recently saddled with a garland of carcasses. As a condition for releasing him from this fleshly burden, Upagupta requests Ma¯ ra to manifest the form of the Buddha so that he may finally behold the Buddha’s physical form. Ma¯ ra does so, impersonating the Buddha with fantastic detail, but seeing Ma¯ ra in the guise of the Buddha is not the same as seeing the Buddha himself. To this end, Upagupta then utilizes Ma¯ ra’s image of the Buddha so that he can manifest an image of the Buddha in own mind through the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti. Only then does he see the Buddha. Gazing at Ma¯ ra in the guise of the Buddha while maintaining a vision of the Buddha in his mind, Upagupta then bows down before Ma¯ ra, causing the latter to recoil in fear, afraid that his life is in jeopardy as the object of Upagupta’s devotion. But this is not the case. As Upagupta explains, images have an instrumental value for the practitioner. When one venerates an image of the gods, one’s devotion goes toward the gods, not toward the material image itself. Hence, for Upagupta, Ma¯ ra’s impersonation of the Buddha is a tool to be used in the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti, so that the Buddha may be envisioned, and in the practice of prostration, so that the Buddha may be honored.

194

seeing the buddha

Considering the prevalence and prominence of this trope of seeing the Buddha’s physical form, questions arise as to whether Buddhist devotees, at a time after the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a, also desired to see him, particularly after hearing these stories. And if they did, how was this desire fulfilled? Following Upagupta’s method seems improbable, but perhaps As´oka’s pilgrimage to sites closely connected with the Buddha’s life offers a more emulative practice. This raises the difficulty, though, of meshing what we know of Buddhist ritual practices through texts and ethnographies with the physical remains of art and architecture at Buddhist monuments, whether they be sites associated with the Buddha’s life, such as Sarnath, or those associated with his later political legacy, such as Sanchi. One problem with meshing Buddhist stories, Buddhist practice, and Buddhist monuments, however, is that if as a result of listening to Buddhist stories one were to go to Buddhist pilgrimage sites to see the Buddha, one would find that many famous stories were represented but that they were extraordinarily difficult to see and decipher—not the proper tools for the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti. But the theatrical displays that the tree deity and the na¯ ga chief Ka¯ lika perform for As´oka, and that Ma¯ ra performs for Upagupta, may offer an exemplary model. Perhaps pilgrims to these sites would have been offered a theater of images, words, and gestures to bring the Buddha to life before their eyes. This manifestation, combined with the animating force of stu¯pas themselves, and with a similar force from representations of these narratives, would have helped to create an object of devotion for the devotees. And then, with devotional object in place, the requisite offerings could be made and, in turn, the corresponding rewards promised. While much of this is conjecture, a temeritous attempt to reconstruct practices and aesthetics, social relations and intellectual formations, the visual world of the text is clearly more than an “affair of religion alone,” to cite Belting again. In the Divya¯vada¯na, Buddhist dharma applies to the religious and the secular, though no effort is made to distinguish between the two. Whether householder, merchant, brahman, or monastic, whether at work, at home, or in a monastery, Buddhist dharma applies with equal rigor and certitude. As the text repeatedly explains, Actions never come to naught, even after hundreds of millions of years. When the right conditions gather and the time is right, then they will have their effect on embodied beings.60 Hence, explaining the visual in the Divya¯vada¯na, as well as its connection with the karmically efficacious states of ´s raddha¯ and prasa¯da, requires

images and imagination

195

a sensitivity to a host of social, intellectual, and cultural phenomena. David McMahan is no doubt right to connect the visual turn of the Maha¯ ya¯ na with the emergence of writing, for Buddhism’s appropriation of Sanskrit and its hybrids marked a key moment in its public and political development. But writing and Sanskrit explain only part of the picture. Seeing in the Divya¯vada¯na is so closely connected with the tropes and residue of mercantilism that no complete picture will emerge without considering the economics of the visual turn.

This page intentionally left blank

Epilogue

The task of the narrator is not an easy one, he said. He appears to be required to choose his tale from among the many that are possible. But of course that is not the case. The case is rather to make many of the one. Always the teller must be at pains to devise against his listener’s claim—perhaps spoken, perhaps not—that he has heard the tale before. He set forth the categories into which the listener will wish to fit the narrative as he hears it. But he understands that the narrative is itself in fact no category but is rather the category of all categories for there is nothing which falls outside its purview. All is telling. Do not doubt it. —Cormac McCarthy, The Crossing In the Divya¯vada¯na, the visual, moral, and market economies interpenetrate, such that seeing, believing, giving, and buying work together to constitute the ethical field of Buddhism. This interpenetration enables certain transpositions and conversions, such as merit for money and the converse, and these allow for phenomena such as market morality, karmic materialism, and prasa¯da-initiated giving. The activities and domains of Buddhist morality are therefore expansive: very little is outside the purview of Buddhist ethics. While others have noted the longstanding connection between god and gold and how “the go(l)d standard is the base upon which everything rests” (Taylor 1999: 11), this intersection and the logic by which it abides is exceptionally clear in the Divya¯vada¯na. In the

198

epilogue

Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, for example, it is said that “the whole world has ´sraddha¯ in gold,” for according to the logic of the gold standard of the karmic system, wealth is a reliable indicator of merit and virtue, and it is worthy of our trust. In fact, just as “IN GOD WE TRUST” is written on U.S. currency, making explicit the connection between money and religion, so too in the Divya¯vada¯na gold bespeaks a trust in god—or at least in karma—rendering wealth close to divine. Those who are “rich, wealthy, and prosperous,”1 after all, are frequently said in the text to have amassed a wealth like the god Vais´ravan.a and to rival him in riches.2 This close connection between morality, market, and money is helpful for understanding not just early Indian Buddhism but also the Buddhism of today. If Buddhist morality can become a market, why shouldn’t the commercial market, or even the currency of that market, become another domain of Buddhism? Alan Klima (2004: 452) notes that after the crash of the Thai baht in 1997, “it is not geographical boundaries that are the first object of nationalistic focus anymore but the currency itself which is the new ‘territory’ to be developed and defended, and which transmits the feeling of being bound in a common identity and fate.” Money, not land, becomes the vehicle through which the nation is constituted, and Buddhism provides the affective force. Such examples of moral/market/money convergences are hardly restricted to Buddhism. Similar connections between religion and the marketplace are common enough, and since Weber’s work on the Protestant values of capitalism, scholars have begun to recognize the importance of these connections for understanding religion, politics, economics, and consumer culture.3 There is even a recent spate of books that advocate using religion for extracting oneself from the marketplace, including “Buddhist writings on greed, desire, and the urge to consume,” as a subtitle of one such work explains.4 Trying to understand the significance of such connections in the Divya¯vada¯na is trying indeed. The numerous instances I have described of seeing, believing, and giving are not simply illustrations of a rote moral or socioeconomic framework. If that were so, then by explicating this framework the illustrations would be rendered superfluous or redundant. But this is not the case. These illustrations also occupy a more forceful position. They are part of exempla, stories to live by, models for being in the world. They are the word of the Buddha in their recensions in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya, if not the Divya¯vada¯na itself, and nearly two millennia ago they also possessed considerable didactic and hegemonic force as instructional tales. If my assessment is correct, they were told to monastics and the laity, and they were instrumental in educating and disciplining both, particularly the latter, to be Buddhist subjects. Hence, they are the raw material of the framework and also illustrative

epilogue

199

of its principles and values. They are, as Marilyn Strathern (1990: 38) writes of material objects, “at once ‘nature’ and ‘culture’ in relation to system.” Yet, the frameworks that I have begun to elucidate for these examples, particularly with regard to the visual, don’t easily contain all these illustrations. The systems of ´sraddha¯ and prasa¯da help to explain the nexus of seeing, believing, and giving, but they are insufficient for mapping out a social world in its complexity. It isn’t just an either-or question of whether the visual and its various conjunctions with giving are either symptomatic of some large-scale social changes or the cause of them, a question of whether the infrastructure causes the superstructure or the reverse. Both forces are at work. These interconnected phenomena of seeing, believing, and giving are symptomatic of large-scale social, political, and economic changes, though the extent of these changes is unclear, and they are also a cause of such changes. This is the power of stories. In South Asia, as A. K. Ramanujan (1991: 43) notes, “stories are told performatively—they are not merely utterances, they are part of the action, they change its course . . . they affect addressee.” Words are not enough, though, to explain these phenomena and institutions. In his work on the use of images among the Usen Barok people of central New Ireland, Roy Wagner (1986a: 216, 221) explains how images help constitute verbal worlds, though words can never explain away the force of these images: A true image, like a metaphor (and a metaphor is a verbal image—an iconic use of language), can never be adequately glossed. It must be experienced in order to be understood, and the experience of its effect is at once its meaning and its power . . . [T]he esoteric world of power and meaning that vivifies and mystifies the Barok . . . is a world of image, in which the verbal capability, however ultimately necessary, is ancillary; the manifestation or production of unusual (or provocative) images evidences uncanny power, and power in the world is apprehended through the presence of such manifestations or appearance. In short, a discursive explanation cannot explain away the experience of the visual in the Divya¯vada¯na. But what is that experience? The Divya¯vada¯na recounts what individuals do when they see objects, and how states of belief mediate between seeing and doing. Unlike Buddhist abhidharma texts that describe in painstaking detail the intricacies of Buddhist psychology, the mental mechanics, for example, of how one sees, the Divya¯vada¯na explains instead what individuals do when they see. The text is more anthropological than psychological, and as a result I follow a more “ ‘action’-centred

200

epilogue

approach” (Gell 1998: 6), examining the visual interactions between individuals and objects and the role of seeing and objects in social processes. The text concerns itself with how agency is mediated in these interactions, how seeing can be beneficial and how objects can transfer power, hence it resists a more psychoanalytic approach that focuses on mental states or a Marxist approach that focuses on objects. The visual world of the Divya¯vada¯na is not regulated by “Cartesian perspectivalism” (Jay 1994: 69), the visual regime that dominates in modern Europe, and it cannot be parsed effectively within the confines of that scopic regime. It is, instead, a complex visual economy that values seeing as the epistemic warrant for the truthfulness of tenets and practices and attaches great moral value to the act of seeing certain image-objects. Such is the visual world of the Divya¯vada¯na. The power of seeing in the Divya¯vada¯na, the particular mechanisms for channeling and accruing agency in this visual system, is particularly apparent in my analysis of prasa¯da. When seen, pra¯sa¯dika objects cause prasa¯da to arise in a wide variety of people. It isn’t clear, though, whether this is because all of these people are susceptible to the power of pra¯sa¯dika objects or because pra¯sa¯dika objects overpower all these subjectivities. Is everyone hardwired to respond to such sights/sites, or is the spectacle of these objects so intense that it overrides everyone’s circuits? If the latter is the case, as I think it is, then in the same way that pornography, according to Catherine MacKinnon, makes all men sexual predators, pra¯sa¯dika objects make everyone prasa¯da-ized. These objects create Buddhist subjects. This, it could be argued, is their function. This mechanism of prasa¯da, in addition to creating Buddhist subjects, also suggests that as a subject the Buddha is fragmentary. The Buddha is an “agent of prasa¯da” in person but also in object, both before and after his final nirva¯n.a. He possesses what Gell terms a “distributed personhood,” in that his being is distributed “beyond the body-boundary” (1998: 104). His tongue (Divy 71.23), the clippings of his hair and nails (Divy 197.5–6), even an image of himself (Divy 68.5–6) can generate prasa¯da in others. Even after his death, a buddha is equally efficacious as a pile of bones (Divy 77.1; cf. Divy 379.19–20 and 469.3–4). Within the mechanism of prasa¯da, the agency of a buddha can inhabit a body part or a representation. A buddha is an efficacious subject, whether he is part or whole, an image or even imagined (Divy 196.8–9). The personhood of a buddha is much like the figure of trope in Wagner’s (1986b: 126) analysis— “wherever it appears, it is the same phenomenon; it is holographic throughout the range” (cf. Wagner 1991). The part/whole distinction does not apply. The Buddha is a fractured hologram, distributed among at least eighty-four thou¯ pas, thanks to As´oka’s efforts, yet each fragment exerts the same social sand stu force as the totality. As an agent of change, the Buddha is manifold.

epilogue

201

What is special about the Buddha, however, is not just his particular status as a distributed person, but the forms of seeing that he engenders. As a pra¯sa¯dika object, the Buddha causes prasa¯da to arise in almost everyone who sees him. This form of seeing involves a minimum of mental intermediation on the part of the viewer. It requires no previous learning or mental preparation, no affiliation or initiation. It is immediate and tactile, an experience that Pinney (2002) terms “corpothetic,” and it generates in the viewer an un-selfconscious and almost compulsive urge to give. To see a pra¯sa¯dika object is to be touched and transformed by an intimate experience of the Buddha’s presence. What is created, to quote Pinney (2002: 357; citing Taussig 1993: 24), is “a visceral domain in which objects become sensorily emboldened in a ‘magical technology of embodied knowing.’ ” But this is not the only form of seeing in the Divya¯vada¯na. In the discourse of ´sraddha¯, seeing is a self-conscious act of verification that enables one to grasp the truth of phenomena, such as the system of karma and the karmic efficacy of making offerings to monastics. Though visual confirmation is a necessary cause for the arising of ´sraddha¯, it is not a sufficient one. One needs to see an object before one’s eyes, then a knowledgeable other is needed to explain it. Seeing must be supplemented with hearing. One’s own visions must be supplemented with the words of another. This dependency—of the visual on the aural, of one’s own efforts on those of another—is also present in the story of As´oka. As Upagupta leads As´oka to sites associated with the Buddha’s life, As´oka is able to see the Buddha by looking at visual proxies of the Buddha, those who had seen the Buddha before his final nirva¯n.a, and listening to poetic descriptions that bring the Buddha to life. As in the case of ´sraddha¯, it is a theater of sights and sounds, what one sees and what another says, that creates an efficacious experience. Visitors to Buddhist monasteries and stu¯pas quite likely experienced, and continue to experience, a similar multimedia embrace of images seen and stories heard. Without stories, the sculptures and paintings at Buddhist sites are often undecipherable, much like the wheel of existence in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na that baffles viewers until a competent monk is appointed to explain its meaning. Only then can viewers see it correctly. While seeing alone is sufficient for the arising of prasa¯da, it is not sufficient in these other cases. One needs words—poetic descriptions of the Buddha’s form, accounts of the Buddha’s previous lives, and karmic stories that explain the results of good and bad deeds. One needs, it seems, avada¯ nas. Though it is hardly surprising that a genre of literature would attempt to justify its own existence, this justification does tell us something about the world that these avada¯ nas wanted to create. It was a world in which seeing was a crucial aspect

202

epilogue

of Buddhist practice, and listening to stories the complementary act that made visual experience meaningful. In “Narrative, Sub-Ethics, and the Moral Life” (1996), Charles Hallisey and Anne Hansen explain that Buddhist stories have, as Ramanujan noted, a performative value, that both telling them and listening to them can be a transformative experience. In exploring this aspect of Buddhist literature and practice, they ask the following question: “What did Buddhists learn from their stories and how did they learn from them” (1996: 310)? In response, Hallisey and Hansen offer an insightful analysis of “different ways in which moral life is enabled by narrative” (1996: 308), and their work testifies to the complex moral power that Buddhist stories can convey. But more questions also need to be asked of Buddhist stories, questions that help to situate the telling and listening of stories within social practice. What, for example, did Buddhists want their stories to do and how was this meant to be done? This is not an easy question, involving as it does the establishment of a Buddhist establishment, but it is a crucial one for Buddhist social and cultural history. In the preceding chapters I have tried, in part, to answer this question; I hope that my efforts will now inspire others to do the same.

Appendix Contents of the Divya¯vada¯na

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na: The Story of Kot.ikarn.a Pu¯rn.a-avada¯na: The Story of Pu¯rn.a Maitreya-avada¯na: The Story of Maitreya Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na: The Story of a Brahman’s Daughter Stutibra¯hman.a-avada¯na: The Story of a Brahman’s Panegyric Indrabra¯hman.a-avada¯na: The Story of a Brahman Named Indra Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na: The Story of a Woman Dependent on a City for Alms Supriya-avada¯na: The Story of Supriya Men.d.hakagr.hapativibhu¯ti-pariccheda: The Chapter on the Great Fortune of the Householder Men.d.haka Men.d.haka-avada¯na: The Story of Men.d.haka As´okavarn.a-avada¯na: The Story of As´okavarn.a ¯ tra Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra: The Miracle Su Sva¯gata-avada¯na: The Story of Sva¯ gata Su¯karika-avada¯na: The Story of a Wretched Pig Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na: The Story of One Foretold to Be a Wheel-Turning King S´ukapotaka-avada¯na: The Story of Two Parrot Chicks Ma¯ndha¯ta¯-avada¯na: The Story of Ma¯ ndha¯ ta¯ Dharmaruci-avada¯na: The Story of Dharmaruci Jyotis.ka-avada¯na: The Story of Jyotis.ka Kanakavarn.a-avada¯na: The Story of Kanakavarn.a Sahasodgata-avada¯na: The Story of Sahasodgata Candraprabhabodhisattvacarya¯-avada¯na: The Story of the Deeds of the Bodhisattva Candraprabha

204

appendix 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 3 7. 38.

. . Sangharaks. ita-avada¯na: The Story of Sangharaks.ita, Part 1 Na¯gakuma¯ra-avada¯na: The Story of a Na¯ ga Prince . . Sangharaks. ita-avada¯na: The Story of Sangharaks.ita, Part 2 Pa¯m . ´suprada¯na-avada¯na: The Story of a Gift of Dirt Kuna¯la-avada¯na: The Story of Kuna¯ la Vı¯tas´oka-avada¯na: The Story of Vı¯tas´oka As´oka-avada¯na: The Story of As´oka Sudhanakuma¯ra-avadana: The Story of Prince Sudhana Toyika¯maha-avada¯na: The Story of the Toyika¯ Festival Ru¯pa¯vatı¯-avada¯na: The Story of Ru¯pa¯ vatı¯ ´a¯ rdu¯lakarn.a S´a¯rdu¯lakarn.a-avada¯na: The Story of S Da¯na¯dhikaran.a-maha¯ya¯nasu¯tra: The Maha¯ ya¯ na Su¯tra on the Topic of Giving Cu¯d.a¯paks. a-avada¯na: The Story of a Good for Nothing Ma¯kandika-avada¯na: The Story of Ma¯ kandika Rudra¯yan.a-avada¯na: The Story of Rudra¯ yan.a Maitrakanyaka-avada¯na: The Story of Maitrakanyaka

Abbreviations

The following symbols are used in the Sanskrit, Pali, and Tibetan passages that are included in this work. [ ] This indicates a gap in the text that has been filled. < > This indicates a restoration or reconstruction based on another source. Abhidh-k Abhidharmakos´a. See Dwarikadas Sastri 1987. Abhidh-k-bh Abhidharmakos´abha¯.sya. See Dwarikadas Sastri 1987. Abhidh-k-vy Abhidharmakos´avya¯khya¯. See Dwarikadas Sastri 1987. Abhidh-sam Abhidharmasamuccaya. See Gokhale 1947. Abhid-sam-bh Abhidharmasamuccayabha¯.sya. See Tatia 1976. Ak Amarakos´a. See Haragovinda Sastri 1982. . AN Anguttara-nika¯ ya. See Morris and Hardy 1885–1900. Ap Apada¯ na. See Lilley 1925–1927. As At..thasa¯ linı¯. See Muller 1979. As´ soka¯ v As´oka¯ vada¯ na. See Mukhopadhyaya 1963. ´ AvS Avada¯ nas´ataka. See Speyer 1906. BhP Bha¯ gavatapura¯ n.a. See J. L. Sastri 1983a. BHSD Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary. See Edgerton 1993.

206

abbreviations Bv BvA Ch-Up Ch-Up-bh CPD Cu¯lv D Dha¯ t Dhp Dhp-BHS Dhp-G Dhp-Pr Dhp-a Divy Divy-V DN DNM DPPN GM It Ja Jñ-pr Kv Manu MhB Mil MN Mp MPS Mvy MW N Nir PJ I

Buddhavam . sa. See Jayawickrama 1974. Buddhavam . sa-at..thakatha¯ [= Madhuratthavila¯ sinı¯ ]. See Horner 1978a. Cha¯ ndogya Upanis.ad. See Gambhirananda 1992. Cha¯ ndogya Upanis.ad Bha¯.s ya. See Panoli 1991. A Critical Pali Dictionary. See Trenckner et al. 1924–. Cu¯lavam . sa. See Geiger 1925 and 1927. Derge edition of the Tibetan Tripit.aka. Dha¯ tuvam . sa. See Nandaratana 1984. Dhammapada. See Carter and Palihawadana 1987. Dharmapada. See Shukla 1979. Ga¯ ndha¯ rı¯ Dharmapada. See Brough 1962. Prakrit Dhammapada. See Bhaskar 1990. Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯ . See Norman 1906–1914. Divya¯ vada¯ na. See Cowell and Neil 1886. Divya¯ vada¯ na. See Vaidya 1959. Dı¯gha-nika¯ ya. See Rhys Davids and Carpenter 1890–1911. Des´¯ı na¯ mama¯ la¯ . See Pischel and Bühler 1880. Dictionary of Pali Proper Names. See Malalasekera 1995. Gilgit Manuscripts. See Dutt 1984. Itivuttaka. See Windisch 1975. Ja¯ taka. See Fausbøll 1877–1896. Jña¯ naprastha¯ nas´a¯ stra. See S. B. Sastri 1955. Katha¯ vatthu. See Taylor 1894–1897. Manusmr.ti (Ma¯ navadharmas´a¯ stra). See J. L. Sastri 1983b. Maha¯ bha¯ rata. See Sukthankar et al. 1933–1959. Milindapañha. See Trenckner 1880. Majjhima-nika¯ ya. See Trenckner and Chalmers 1888–1889. Manorathapu¯ran.¯ı . See Walleser and Kopp 1924–1957. Maha¯ parinirva¯ n.asu¯tra. See Waldschmidt 1951. Maha¯ vyutpatti. See Ishihama and Fukuda 1989. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. See Monier-Williams 1990. Narthang edition of the Tibetan Tripit.aka. Nirukta. See Bhadkamkar 1942. Paramatthajotika¯ I. See Smith 1959.

abbreviations Pp-A PSED PTSD RatA Saddhp . Sanghabh ´ay-v S ´iks. S Skt. SN Sv Th Th-a trans. ¯p Thu Ud Ud-a Uttarar Uv Vin Vism

207

Puggalapaññatti-at..thakatha¯ . See Landsberg and Rhys Davids 1914. The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. See Apte 1986. The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary. See Rhys Davids and Stede 1986. Ratnama¯ la¯ vada¯ na. See Takahata 1954. Saddharmapun.d.arı¯kasu¯tra. See Dutt 1986. . Sanghabhedavastu. See Gnoli 1977–1978. S´ayana¯ sanavastu. See Gnoli 1978. S´iks.a¯ samuccaya. See Bendall 1897–1902. Sanskrit Sam . yutta-nika¯ ya. See Féer 1884–1898. . Sumangalavila¯ sinı¯. See Rhys Davids, Carpenter, and Stede 1886–1932. Theraga¯ tha¯ . See Oldenberg and Pischel 1966. Theraga¯ tha¯ -at..thakatha¯ [= Paramatthadı¯panı¯ V]. See Woodward 1940–1959. translator or translated Thu¯pavam . sa. See Jayawickrama 1971. Uda¯ na. See Steinthal 1885. Uda¯ na-at..thakatha¯ [= Paramatthadı¯panı¯ I]. See Woodward 1926. Uttarara¯ macarita. See Kane 1962. Uda¯ navarga. See Bernhard 1965. Vinayapit.aka. See Oldenberg 1879–1883. Visuddhimagga. See Warren 1950.

This page intentionally left blank

Notes

introduction 1. Skt., evam . maya¯ ´srutam; Pali, evam . me sutam. For more on this expression, see Lamotte 1949–1989: 56–72 and Brough 1950. 2. For more on the nature and function of avada¯ nas, see Lenz 2003; Prakash 1970; Salomon 1999; Sarkar 1981 and 1990; Sharma 1975 and 1985; Strong 1985; Thomas 1933; and Weeraratne 1966. 3. See, for example, Bailey’s (1966) translation from the Khotanese; Chavannes’s (1934: i, 292–304) translation from the Chinese; Horner and Jaini’s (1985: i, 137–169) translation from the Pali; Schiefner’s (1893) translation from the Tibetan; and Bhattacharya’s (1898) translation of Ks.emendra’s retelling in the Avada¯nakalpalata¯. 4. Some notable exceptions include Brown 1997; Dehejia 1997; Eckel 1992; Matsumura 1985; and McMahan 2002. 5. For example, see Bundgaard 1999; Case 2000; Dalmia 2001; Davis 1997; Dehejia 2000; Desjarlais 2003; Dwyer and Pinney 2001; Granoff 2000; Granoff and Shinohara 2004; Guha-Thakurta 1995; Gutman 1982; Jain 2000; Jhala 1997; Kapur 1993; Kemper 2001; Mankekar 1999; Mazzarella 2003; Meister 1995; Pinney 1997a, 1997b, 2001, 2004; Rajagopal 2001; Ramaswamy 2003; Ryan 1997; Sanford 2002; Scott 1991; Srivatsin 2000; Stietencron 1977; and Uberoi 1990. 6. For a very good series of articles regarding photography and visual economies, see Pinney and Peterson 2003: 55–169. 7. Nevertheless, non-Buddhist practitioners in the Divya¯vada¯na can still acquire some spiritual attainments. In the Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra, for example, a mendicant named Subhadra is said to possess the five superhuman faculties (Divy 152.22–23).

210

notes to pages 7–9

8. In particular, Thompson (1991: 260) examines “the political culture, the expectations, tradition, and, indeed, superstitions of the working population most frequently involved in actions in the market. . . . ” 9. As Greenough (1982: 270) notes, however, “It is absurd to think that Bengali peasants were unresponsive in the face of famine. ‘Fatalism,’ the uncomplaining surrender to death by starving victims, is in fact the most obvious piece of evidence we have for an active Bengali adaptation to the famine. This was an adaptation, however, which succeeded only by imposing mortality upon some person in order to secure the survival of others.” 10. Divy 291.22, dha¯rmiko babhu¯va dharmen.a. 11. Divy 291.23, eka¯kino rahogatasya pratisam . lı¯nasya. 12. Divy 291.24–26, yan nv aham . sarvavan.ijo ’s´ulka¯n agulma¯n muñceyam . sarvaja¯mbudvı¯paka¯n manus. ya¯n akara¯n agulma¯n muñceyam iti. 13. Divy 292.1–3, tasy[a¯nenopa¯yena]a bahu¯ni vars.a¯n.i ra¯jyam . ka¯rayato ’paren.a sama¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ yena naks. atram vis amı bhu tam dva das ´ a vars a n i devo na vars is yati . . . . . . .. a Following Divy-V 181.5. Divy 292.1, “in many ways” (anekopa¯yena), presumably “in many wrong ways.” 14. Divy 293.15–17, sarvajambudvı¯pa¯d anna¯dyam . pariks.¯ı n.am anyatra ra¯jñah. kanakavarn.asyaika¯ ma¯nika¯ bhaktasya¯vas´is..ta¯. 15. Divy 294.22–27, sa bhagava¯n pratyekabuddhah. sarvajambudvı¯pa¯d anna¯dyam . pariks.¯ı n.am anyatra ra¯jñah. kanakavarn.asyaika¯ ma¯nika¯ bhaktasya¯vas´is..ta¯ | tasyaitad abhavat | yan nv aham . ra¯ja¯nam . kanakavarn.am anukampeyam . yan nv aham . ra¯jñah. kanakavarn.asya nives´ana¯t pin.d.apa¯tam apahr.tya paribhuñjı¯ya. ¯ yam 16. Divy 296.5–8, anumodata yu . gra¯man.yo ’yam . ra¯jñah. kanakavarn.asya¯pas´cima ¯ lena sarvaja¯mbudvı¯paka¯na¯m odana¯tisargah. | anena kus´alamu . manus.ya¯n.a¯m . da¯ridryasamucchedah. sya¯t. 17. Divy 297.10–14, idam evam . ru¯pam . bhojanam odanas´aktavah. kulma¯.samatsyama¯m .sam idam evam . ru¯pam . kha¯danı¯yam . mu¯lakha¯danı¯yam . skandhakha¯danı¯yam . patrakha¯danı¯yam . . pus.pakha¯danı¯yam . phalakha¯danı¯yam . tilakha¯danı¯yam . khan.d.as´arkaragud.akha¯danı¯yam pis..takha¯danı¯yam. 18. Divy 297.25–27, sarvam asya ra¯jñah. kanakavarn.asya¯nubha¯vena ja¯mbudvı¯paka¯na¯m . manus. ya¯n.a¯m . da¯ridryamsamucchedo babhu¯va. 19. Much the same could be said about King As´oka. He followed the dharma—at least he professed to do so in his inscriptions—he implemented taxes, and he helped India become “a thriving and prosperous kingdom” (Thapar 1961). Nevertheless, in one of his pillar inscriptions, King As´oka exempts the village of Lumbini from paying taxes because the Buddha had been born there (Barua and Chaudhury 1990: 38). A proper dharmara¯ja, it seems, can revoke the taxes for a village but not for an entire nation. Still, in the Candraprabhabodhisattvacarya¯-avada¯na, the bodhisattva King Candraprabha rules a kingdom, more or less successfully, in which no taxes were paid (Divy 316.10). But can dharmara¯jas really be bodhisattvas and vice versa? 20. The insights one gains in meditation may very well contravene royal laws and norms. 21. In the Divya¯vada¯na, this agricultural metaphor is explicit. For example, in a trope that occurs a number of times in the text, the Buddha observes the world and

notes to pages 9–12

211

comes to know the answers to many questions: among them, “For whom with roots of virtue unplanted shall I plant them? For whom [with roots of virtue already] planted shall I cause them to mature? For whom [with roots of virtue already] matured shall I cause them to be released” (kasya¯navaropita¯ni kus´alamu¯lany avaropayeyam | kasya¯varopita¯ni paripa¯cayeyam | kasya pakva¯ni vimocayeyam | Divy 124.27–125.2)? As Richard Gombrich (2003: 428) notes, “the metaphor underlying the karma doctrine (not, of course, only in Buddhism) is agricultural: one sows a seed and reaps a harvest.” ¯ s.ika¯ hairan.22. In the Cu¯d.apaks. a-avada¯na, to cite one example, the young boy Mu yaka takes a dead mouse and, acting on the advice of a guildmaster, uses it to barter and trade his way to a fortune. As a wealthy man, he then goes back to the guildmaster with a chest full of gold adorned with four jeweled mice to pay back his debt. As he presents these offerings, he explains, “This is your capital; this is your profit” (idam . te mu¯lam ¯ ayam la bhah | Divy 504.2–3). . . 23. Solitary buddhas are particularly good fields of merit for devotees to “plant” their meritorious deeds. “Thus,” as John Strong (1989: 57) notes, “any good (or bad) action directed toward him can have positive (or negative) karmic results beyond all expectations.” In the Men.d.haka-avada¯na, for example, which contains another story of a famine, the householder Men.d.haka, his wife, son, daughter-in-law, servant, and maid each give the last portion of food that they possess to a solitary buddha. They then make fervent aspirations, all of which are fulfilled immediately. When the king hears of this, he exclaims: “Oh! This field is so fertile and faultless! A seed sown today bears fruit today as well” (aho gun.amayam . ks.etram . sarvados.avivarjitam | yatroptam . vı¯jam adyaiva adyaiva phalada¯yakam || Divy 135.12–13). Since the solitary buddha is such a fecund field of merit, the karmic results of their respective offerings are obtained on the same day rather than in, say, a subsequent lifetime. 24. Divy 298.2–7, saced bhiks.avah. sattva¯ ja¯nı¯yur da¯nasya phalam . da¯nasam . vibha¯gasya ca phalavipa¯kam . yatha¯ham . ja¯ne da¯nasya phalam . da¯nasam . vibha¯gasya ca phalavipa¯kam apı¯da¯nı¯m . yo ’sa¯v apas´cimakah. kavad.as´ carama a¯lopas tato ’py adattva¯ ’sam . vibhajya na ¯ paribhuñjı¯ran sacel labheran daks. in.¯ı yam pratigra hakam . . 25. John Strong (1990: 121) nicely differentiates these two Buddhisms, explaining that there is “a nibbanic one oriented toward ending rebirth which emphasizes monkhood and meditation, and a kammatic one, which is satisfied with achieving a better rebirth and oriented toward the laity and merit-making.” Strong (1990: 122) rightly notes, however, that giving—such as a gift of food—“is an act that is kammatic and nibbanic at the same time,” thus calling into question any simple soteriological distinction between these two forms of Buddhism. Cf. Aronson 1979. 26. Divy 23.18–19, 192.14–15, 289.6–7, 313.223, etc., a¯d.hye maha¯dhane maha¯bhoge kule. For more on this “economics of salvation,” see Walsh 2007. 27. Prayudh Payutto (1994: 76) likewise remarks that “the common tendency (in Thailand) [is] to praise people simply because they are rich, based on the belief,” which he thinks is mistaken, “that their riches are a result of accumulated merit from previous lives.” 28. See also Reynolds 1972 and Collins 1998: 414–496. 29. As Payutto (1994: 20) explains, “Ultimately, economics cannot be separated from Dhamma, because all the activities we associate with economics emerge from

212

notes to pages 12–15

the Dhamma. Economics is just one part of a vast interconnected whole, subject to the same natural laws by which all things function. Dhamma describes the workings of this whole, the basic truth of all things, including economics. If economics is ignorant of the Dhamma—of the complex and dynamic process of causes-and-effects that constitutes reality—then it will be hard pressed to solve problems, much less produce the benefits to which it aims.” 30. The Maha¯bha¯rata also connects these three aims back to kingship. In Bhı¯s.ma’s instructions regarding the laws for kings, he explains that “the dharma of kings is the ultimate recourse for the entire sentient world. Hence the trivarga depends upon the dharma of kings” (sarvasya jı¯valokasya ra¯jadharma¯h. para¯yan.am | trivargo ’tra sama¯sakto ra¯jadharmes. u | Mbh 12.56.3–4; cf. trans. in Fitzgerald 2004: 296). 31. Kosambi 2000: 22, v. 51, yasya¯sti vittam . sa narah. kulı¯nah. sa pan.d.itah. sa ´srutava¯n gun.ajñah. | sa eva vakta¯ sa ca dars´anı¯yah. sarve gun.a¯h. ka¯ñcanam a¯´srayanti || 32. For more on the importance of mercantilism in the formation of Indian Buddhism, see Rotman 2003a: chap. 1. 33. The Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na (no. 1), the Pu¯rn.a-avada¯na (no. 2), the Supriya-avada¯na . (no. 8), the Dharmaruci-avada¯na (no. 18), the Sahasodgata-avada¯na (no. 21), the Sangharaks.ita-avada¯na (no. 23), the Cu¯d.apaks.a-avada¯na (no. 35), the Ma¯kandika-avada¯na (no. 36), and the Maitrakanyaka-avada¯na (no. 38). 34. See Chakravarti 1987 and Heitzman 1984. More recently, Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett likewise acknowledge the connections between mercantilism and early Indian Buddhism, but they stake out a middle ground between “the claim that Buddhism favored merchant values” and the claim “that Buddhism was a counter or alternative to the materialist society of the new cities where money ruled” (2003: 25). Bailey and Mabbett wonder “why these classes demanded an intellectual contextualization and justification for their style of life” and, again, why they “experienced a need for intellectual validation” (2003: 24; italics added). Yet the driving force of the Divya¯vada¯na, at least in my reading, comes much more from the monastic side than the merchant side—it isn’t simply the case that there was a merchant “need” and a monastic response—and the arguments mobilized are more practical than intellectual or theoretical. 35. The same could be said for Buddhism in China, where Buddhists and merchants likewise served each other’s interests well (cf. Gernet 1995). Cynthia Brokaw’s description of late imperial China sounds much like a description of India in the beginning of the Common Era, with Confucianism standing in for Hinduism. According to Brokaw (1991: 4), “Expanding economic opportunities had a profound impact on the social structure, both upsetting conventional definitions of the hierarchy and intensifying tensions between classes. Most noticeable was the elevation of the status of merchants. With the commercial growth of the period and the increasingly obvious power of money, merchants, though consigned in Confucian social theory of the bottom of the social scale, in fact enjoyed considerable power and social respectability.” 36. For a compelling argument in this regard about how Buddhist history should be done, see Huntington 2007.

notes to pages 15–24

213

37. One might also say that they are more “believing in” than “believing that.” As Slavoj Zizek (2001: 109) explains, “One can believe in ghosts without having faith in them, i.e. without believing them (considering them tricky and evil, not feeling bound to them by any pact or commitment); and, in a more tricky but crucial opposite case, one can believe (have faith in) X without believing in X.” Cf. Hoffman 1985. 38. “Faith and belief,” writes Geddes MacGregor (1987: 426), “often have been identified with each other. In medieval usage the Latin fides (‘faith’) generally means both. Even in the New Testament the distinction between the two is not entirely clear.” While ´sraddha¯ is more like our notion of “belief” and prasa¯da more like “faith,” both terms overflow these conceptual confines. For more on this distinction, see Smith 1979 and Southwold 1979. 39. Pnina Werbner and Helene Basu (1998: 5) likewise explain that in Islamic ritual, “practice and belief appear closely intertwined, grounded in ethical premises which remain largely implicit or mythically articulated. ‘Belief’ in this context can only be extrapolated from ritual action itself, or deciphered from fragmentary exegetic commentaries.” See also Mahmood 2005: 153–167. 40. Likewise analyzing the market and its apparent self-evidence, Thomas Frank (2000: 68) writes, “There is a point in the life of ideas when they become natural, when they are accepted so universally that their history, the struggles that produced them, are forgotten as though they never happened. Although the sequence of events in which this transformation takes place remains obscure, by the mid-1990s market populism was clearly on its way to becoming naturalized.” 41. For a preliminary discussion of the practice of prasa¯da, see Rotman 2003b. 42. According to Andrea Pinkney (personal communication), who is working on the evolution of prasa¯da in Sanskrit literature, prasa¯da likewise functions as a kind of “divine gift” throughout the epics, pura¯ n.as, and tantras.

chapter 1 1. Divy 131.13–14, 191.19–20, 282.17–18, 311.22–23, 504.23–24, 582.4–5, 584.20–21, etc., na pran.as´yanti karma¯n.i kalpakot.is´atair api | sa¯magrı¯m . pra¯pya ka¯lam . ca phalanti khalu dehina¯m || 2. As England was “discovering” Buddhism in the nineteenth century (Almond 1988), Henry Alabaster argued that karma, which is perfect justice, must exist if there is a just god in heaven. This must be the case, Alabaster (1871: xviii) reasons, because the “belief that we are ruled by an unjust law, or by an unjust God, capable of having ever reserved His special love for peculiar people, or of visiting on children the sins of their fathers, is too horrible.” For more on the truth and verifiability of karma, see Griffiths 1982 and White 1983. 3. Ekphrasis, as W. J. T. Mitchell (1994: 152) explains it, is “the verbal representation of visual representation.” Henri Bergson (1960: 15; cited in Jay 1994: 202) offers a particularly vivid and poetic description of such verbal imagery: “The poet is he with whom feelings develop into images, and the images themselves into words which translate them while obeying the laws of rhythm. In seeing these images pass before our eyes we in our turn experience the feeling which was, so to speak, their emotional equivalent.”

214

notes to pages 24–27

4. Divy 6.26–17.4. This summary is construed to highlight certain figures and tropes, such as the frequent absence of objects for ´sraddha¯ and daks. in.a¯. I will discuss these more fully in what follows. ¯ yam 5. Divy 7.28–8.2, ke yu . bhavantah. kena va¯ karman.a¯ ihopapanna¯h. | ´sron.a dus.kuhaka¯ ja¯mbudvı¯paka¯ manus. ya¯ na¯bhis´raddadha¯syasi | aham . bhavantah. pratyaks. adars´¯ı kasma¯n na¯bhis´raddadha¯sye. 6. Divy 10.1, aham . pratyaks. adars´¯ı katham . na¯bhis´raddadha¯sye. 7. Here “moral code” is most likely synonymous with the five rules of training (´siks.a¯pada) that many lay Buddhists observe. One abstains from killing, from taking what is not given, and from engaging in sexual misconduct, false speech, and the use of intoxicants. For more, see Lamotte 1988: 69–71. 8. Divy 10.21–29, sa tvaya¯ vaktavyah. dr..s.tas te maya¯ pita¯ kathayati anis..to ’sya karman.ah. phalavipa¯ko virama¯sma¯t pa¯paka¯d asaddharma¯t | bhoh. purus. a tvam evam . kathayasi dus.kuhaka¯ ja¯mbudvı¯paka¯ manus. ya¯ iti na¯bhis´raddadha¯syati | ´sron.a yadi na ´sraddadha¯yati vaktayas tava pita¯ kathayati asisu¯na¯dhasta¯t suvarn.asya kalas´ah. pu¯rayitva¯ stha¯pitah. | tam uddhr.tya¯tma¯nam . samyaksukhena prı¯n.aya a¯ryam . ca maha¯ka¯tya¯yanam . ka¯lena ka¯lam . pin.d.akena pratipa¯daya¯sma¯kam . ca na¯mna¯ daks. in.a¯m a¯des´aya | apy evaitat karma tanutvam . pariks. ayam . parya¯da¯nam . gacchet. 9. While the former butcher’s and adulterer’s sons engage in the same evil act as had their fathers (i.e., butchering, adultery), the former brahman woman’s daughter, unlike her mother, is a prostitute. The text here may somehow be equating making an improper fervent aspiration and prostitution. 10. Divy 8.3–4, a¯kros´aka¯ ros. aka¯ vayam . matsarin.ah. kut.ukuñcaka¯ vayam | da¯nam . ca na dattam an.v api yena vayam . pitr.lokam a¯gata¯h. || 11. Divy 9.3–4, a¯rogyamadena mattaka¯ ye dhanabhogamadena mattaka¯h. | da¯nam . ca na dattam an.v api yena vayam . pitr.lokam a¯gata¯h. || 12. Divy 9.15, ta¯bhih. sa¯rdham . krı¯d.ati ramate parica¯rayati. It may seem strange that as a reward for observing the moral code, particularly considering the third precept’s prohibition against sexual misconduct, a hungry ghost should get to make love with divine nymphs. For mortals such an act would no doubt constitute an offense—though I haven’t found any particular prohibition to that effect—since sexual misconduct with someone of superior moral qualities is said to be especially blameworthy (Bodhi 1978: 122; cf. Conze 1959: 71–72). Yet, for a hungry ghost to experience divine pleasures as a result of good deeds performed in a human incarnation is well attested in Pali literature (Collins 1998: 316–319). Still, it is seemingly incongruous to have sex as a reward for not having sex, particularly in the case of the adulterer. 13. Divy 13.17–18, kasma¯t sa mun.d.akah. ´sraman.ako busapla¯vı¯m . na bhaks.ayatı¯ti. 14. Divy 13.23–24, kasma¯t sa mun.d.akah. ´sraman.ako ’yogud.am . na bhaks.ayatı¯ti. 15. Divy 14.4–5, kim . svama¯m . sam . na bhaks.ayati ya¯ tvadı¯ya¯ni prahen.aka¯ni bhaks.ayatı¯ti.

notes to pages 27–29

215

16. Divy 14.13–14, kim . nu pu¯yas´on.itam . na bhaks. ayati ya¯ tvadı¯da¯ni prahen.aka¯ni bhaks. ayatı¯ti. 17. In many of the avada¯ nas of the Avada¯nas´ataka, as Strong (1979a: 230) has observed, “there is a direct correspondence—not necessarily between the physical act of devotion and the attainment of enlightened wisdom but between the physical act and the name (na¯ma) and physical form (ru¯paka¯ya) that the individual acquires at the time of his enlightenment. To the rupalogical act, then, corresponds a specific rupalogical fruit.” Here too, demonstrating the rigors of karmic logic, there are frequently similarities in form between one’s actions and the karmic results of such actions. The former brahman woman’s husband, son, daughter-in-law, and maidservant are each faced with consuming the food that they damned the noble Maha¯ ka¯ t ya¯ yana to eat. I’m not sure, however, if there is a connection between being a butcher and being mauled by dogs or between being an adulterer and having one’s head bitten off. 18. Divy 24.4–5, kharava¯kkarma nis´ca¯ritam. The elevated language used to express this bad deed indicates that this term may have been a technical one like pharusava¯ca¯, the expression for “harsh speech” that is found in canonical Pali literature. In Bhikkhu Bodhi’s translation of the Brahmaja¯la-sutta and extracts from its commentaries, the following gloss occurs: “ ‘Harsh speech’ is the definitely harsh volition occasioning bodily or vocal effort that cuts into the quick of another’s heart. Though there is such effort cutting into the quick of another’s heart, it does not count as harsh speech when it is backed by tenderness of mind” (1978: 124–125). 19. Divy 5.4, apa¯ya¯n kim . na pas´yası¯ti. 20. Divy 24.4–5, yad anena ma¯tur antike kharava¯kkarma nis´ca¯ritam . tasya karman.o vipa¯kena dr..s.ta eva dharma apa¯da¯ dr..s.ta¯ iti. 21. Versions of the Kot.ikarn.a narrative in Pali are also karma stories, but they don’t contain a well-developed meta-narrative to convince the reader of the truth of karma. In the Uda¯na-at..thakatha¯ (Ud-a ii, 307–314; trans. in Masefield 1994b: 775–785), for example, there is a brief account of Kut.ikan.n.a (Ud-a ii, 835–836n569) being left behind by his caravan and then setting off on his own and meeting up with hungry ghosts along the way. Though these meetings with hungry ghosts are quite similar to those that Kot.ikarn.a has in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, no mention is made of seeing and its importance, and nothing is said of saddha¯ (the Pali spelling of ´sraddha¯). Instead, the narrative is a personal account of Kut.ikan.n.a’s decision to go forth as a monk. 22. Divy 23.27–24.1, 55.9–13, 135.21–25, 193.12–16, 289.20–24, 314.4–8, 348.3, 465.7–9, etc., bhiks.ava eka¯ntakr..sn.a¯na¯m eka¯ntakr..sn.o vipa¯kah. eka¯ntas´ukla¯na¯m . dharma¯n.a¯m eka¯ntas´uklo vipa¯kah. vyatimis´ra¯n.a¯m . vyatimis´rah. | tasma¯t tarhi bhiks.ava eka¯ntakr..sn.a¯ni karma¯n.y apa¯sya vyatimis´ra¯n.i caika¯ntas´ukles.v eva karmasv a¯bhogah. karan.¯ıyah. | ity evam . vo bhiks.avah. ´siks.itavyam. 23. The etymology of ´sraddha¯ is by no means clear. In a chapter entitled “Créance et croyance” in his Le vocabulaire des institutions indo-européennes, Émile Benveniste (1993: 177) argues against the more conventional analysis of ´srad as “heart,” since its cognate √kred “ne coïncide pas avec le nom du coeur en indo-iranien: c’est un fait étrange, mais indiscutable.” Instead, “on ne peut donc que proposer une conjecture: √kred serait une sorte de ‘gage,’ ‘d’enjeu’; quelque chose de matériel, mais qui engage aussi le sentiment

216

notes to pages 29–30

personnel, une notion investie d’une force magique appartenant à tout homme et qu’on place ne un être supérieur” (1993: 179). More commonly, however, it is said to be a compound of “heart” (´srat) and “to place” (√dha¯); hence, “to put one’s heart [on something]” (e.g., Ernout 1991; Köhler 1973: 1–2). In Ya¯ks.a’s Nirukta, by contrast, ´srat is glossed as “a synonym for truth” (satyana¯ma¯ni | Nir iii.13)—as it frequently is in Vedic materials (Das Gutpa 1930: 318–319)—and ´sraddha¯ is understood as “an attitude of mind based on truth” (´sraddha¯na¯t | Nir ix.30). In his commentary on the Nirukta, Durga¯ca¯rya explains that “´sraddha¯ is that which conveys truth” (tat satyam asya¯m . dhı¯yata iti ´sraddha¯ | Nir 936). 24. For more on ´sraddha¯ in Vedic literature, see Bloomfield 1908: 186–193; Köhler 1973; Oldenberg 1896: 448–450; Pendse 1978; and Rao 1974. 25. For more on ´sraddha¯ in Hinduism, see Hacker 1963; Hara 1964 and 1979; and Smith 1979: 59–68. 26. This is a modified version of Rupert Gethin’s translation (1992a: 115). Vism xiv, 140, saddahanti eta¯ya sayam . va¯ saddahati saddahanamattam . eva va¯ esa¯ ti saddha¯ | sa¯ saddahanalakkhan.a¯ okappanalakkhan.a¯ va¯, pasa¯danarasa¯ udakappasa¯dakaman.i viya pakkhandanarasa¯ va¯ oghuttaran.am . viya | aka¯lussiyapaccupat..tha¯na¯ adhimuttipaccupat.. .tha¯na va | saddheyyavatthupadat..tha¯na¯ saddhammasavan.a¯disota¯pattiangapadat..tha¯na¯ va¯ | hatthavittabı¯ja¯ni viya dat..thabbam. 27. See Barua 1931; Carter 1978: 99–114 and 1993: 105–114; Conze 1962: 47–50; Dayal 1932: 145–147; Dhammapala 1984: 77–81; Dutt 1940; Ergardt 1977: 140–146; Gethin 1992a: 106–116; Gokhale 1994: 69–83; Guenther 1976: 61–64; Hibbets 2000; Jayatilleke 1963: 382–400; La Vallée Poussin 1908; Ludowyk-Gyomroi 1947; Ña¯ n.amoli 1963; Payutto 1995: 200–223; Pendse 1978; Saddhatissa 1978; and Saibaba 2005. 28. The Therava¯ din monk and scholar Phra Prayudh Payutto agrees. He maintains that saddha¯—which he translates as “confidence”—“must constitute belief based on reason, experience, and experimentation” (1995: 279n3). 29. In slight contrast, Jan Ergardt (1977: 145) writes that “faith in these texts [i.e., the suttas of the Majjhima-nika¯ya] is mainly an affective and conative faculty that functions in the disciple’s good decision on the way to the goal. Its cognitive aspect is secondary and derived from the dhamma, of which the utmost knowledge is the knowledge and experience of release and nibba¯na.” 30. SN iv, 298–299; trans. in Bodhi 2000: 1327–1328. 31. Such a distinction between saddha¯ and ña¯na (Skt., jña¯na) is also elaborated elsewhere in the Pali materials. In verse 97 of the Dhammapada, there is a seemingly paradoxical ascription that the man “without saddha¯” (asaddho)a is, among other things, “the greatest of men” (uttamaporiso).b In the commentarial story to this verse (Dhp-a ii, 186–188; trans. in Burlingame 1969: ii, 208–209), it is said that on one occasion, in order to shock and, in turn, spiritually benefit thirty forest monks, the monk Sa¯riputta testifies that he doesn’t “act out of saddha¯ in the Blessed One” (bhagavato saddha¯ya gaccha¯mi) that the faculty of saddha¯ and the four other faculties,c when cultivated and enlarged, are connected and terminate with the deathless state that is nibba¯na (Skt., nirva¯n.a). Sa¯ riputta explains that “those who haven’t known, seen, understood, directly experienced, or grasped [the deathless] must act out of saddha¯ in others in such matters” (añña¯tam assa adit..tham

notes to pages 30–31

217

aviditam asacchikatam aphassitam . pañña¯ya, te tattha paresam . saddha¯ya gaccheyyum). The visiting monks think that Sa¯riputta is wrong in his views, for “even now he doesn’t act have saddha¯ in the perfectly awakened Buddha” (aj ja¯pi samma¯sambuddhassa na saddhati yeva¯ ti). The Buddha explains, however, that “he doesn’t have saddha¯ in such things as the results and consequences of charity or deeds, or in the virtues of the Buddha and so on. He doesn’t act out of saddha¯ in others with respect to the states of mind that are connected with the path and its fruits and which are attained by knowledge and insight, for d he himself has obtained these” (na dinnassa va¯ katassa va¯ phalavipa¯kam . na <saddhahati> d ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ napi buddhadınam . gun.am . na <saddhahati> ti, eso pana attana pat.iladdhesu jhanavipassanamaggaphaladhammesu paresam . saddha¯ya na gacchati). Similarly, in the Indriyasam . yutta of the San.yutta-nika¯ya (SN v, 220–222; trans. in Bodhi 2000: 1689–1690), in response to a query from the Buddha, Sa¯ riputta explains that he doesn’t have saddha¯ in the Buddha that the faculties of saddha¯ and so on, when practiced, lead to nibba¯ na, since he has realized this for himself and is without doubt in the matter. a For more on this term, see Carter 1993: 108–112. b For detailed exegeses of this verse, see Norman 1980: 325–331 and Hara 1992: 179–181. c The five faculties referred to here are the saddha¯-faculty (saddhindriya), the strength-faculty (viriyindriya), the mindfulness-faculty (satindriya), the concentrationfaculty (sama¯dhindriya), and the wisdom-faculty ( paññindriya). For more on the faculties, see Gethin 1992a: 104–145. d Following the Nalanda Edition (ii, 300) and the Igatpuri Edition (ii, 352). Dhp-a 11, 187, saddhasi. 32. For example, one frequently repeated trope runs as follows: “Having heard the dhamma, he acquired saddha¯ in the Tatha¯ gata” (tam . dhammam . sutva¯ tatha¯gate saddham . pat.ilabhati | MN i, 179; i, 267; i, 344; iii, 33). Cf. Hoffman 1987: 400 and Jayatilleke 1963: 389. Perhaps this is why ´sraddha¯ is translated into classical Chinese as hsin (“faith”) or wen-hsin (“faith by listening”) (Park 1983: 15). 33. In contrast, as Steven Collins (1992: 130) remarks, “[Pali] Buddhist texts were more often experienced through the voice and ears than the hands and eyes.” I will discuss the contrast between seeing and hearing in greater depth in the chapters that follow. 34. Divy 10.3–8, a¯ryas´ ca maha¯ka¯tya¯yano mama¯nukampaya¯ a¯gatya kathayati bhadramukha anis..to ’sya karman.ah. phalavipa¯kam . | virama tvam asma¯t pa¯paka¯d asaddharma¯t | na¯ham . tasya vacanena virama¯mi | bhu¯yo bhu¯yah. sa ma¯m . vicchandayati bhadramukha¯nis..to ’sya karman.o phalavipa¯kah. | virama tvam asma¯t pa¯paka¯d asaddharma¯t | tatha¯py aham . na prativirama¯mi. 35. Divy 15.23–24, sa kathayati anis..to ’sya karman.ah. phalavipa¯ko virama¯sma¯d asaddharma¯t. 36. Divy 15.24–16.5, bhoh. purus. a adya mama pitur dva¯das´a vars. a¯n.i ka¯lagatasya | asti kas´cid dr..s.tah. paraloka¯t punar a¯gacchan | bhadramukha es.o ’ham a¯gatah. | na¯sau ´sraddadha¯ti | bhadramukha yadi na ´sraddadha¯si tava pita¯ kathayati | asisu¯na¯dhasta¯t suvarn.asya kalas´ah. pu¯rn.as tis..thati | tam uddhr.tya¯tma¯nam . samyaksukhena prı¯n.aya a¯ryam . ca maha¯ka¯tya¯yanam . ka¯lena ka¯lam . pin.d.akena pratipa¯daya¯sma¯kam . ca na¯mna¯ daks. in.a¯m a¯des´aya¯py evaitat karma

218

notes to pages 32–33

tanutvam . pariks.ayam parya¯da¯nam . gacchet | sa sam . laks.ayati | na kada¯cid evam maya¯ ´srutapu¯rvam . | pas´ya¯mi saced bhu¯tam . bhavis.yati sarvam etat satyam | tena gatva¯ khanitam . ya¯vat tat sarvam . tat tathaiva tena¯bhis´raddadha¯tam. Cf. Divy 16.8–19 and 16.22–17.4. 37. Though the Divya¯vada¯na refers only to five realms of existence, other texts include “antigods” (asura) as a sixth. For more on the wheel of existence, see Stephen Teiser’s (2006) comprehensive work on the topic and Geshe Tharchin’s (1984: 90–113) commentary on the Rudra¯yan.a-avada¯na. 38. Divy 299.5–12, ta¯ni dr..s.tva¯ jambudvı¯pam a¯gatya catasr.n.a¯m . pars.ada¯m a¯rocayati | ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ yasya kasyacit sardham . vihary antevası va¯ anabhirato brahmacaryam . carati sa tam a¯da¯ya yena¯yus.ma¯n maha¯maudgalya¯yanas tenopasam . kra¯maty . . . tam a¯yus.ma¯n maha¯maudgalya¯yanah. samyag avavadati samyag anus´a¯sti | evam aparam aparam . te a¯yus.mata¯ maha¯maudgalya¯yanena samyag avava¯dita¯h. samyag anus´is..ta¯ abhirata¯ brahmacaryam . caranty uttare ca vis´es.am adhigacchanti. 39. Divy 300.6–8, na sarvatra¯nanda maudgalya¯yano bhiks.ur bhavis.yati maudgalya¯yanasadr.´so va¯ | tasma¯d dva¯rakos..take pañcagan.d.akam . cakram . ka¯rayitavyam. 40. Divy 71.1–2, kas te ´sraddha¯syati iyatprama¯n.asya vı¯jasya¯yam . maha¯vr.ks.o nirv.rtta iti. 41. Divy 71.2–3, ´sraddadha¯tu me bhava¯n gautamo ma¯ va¯ <mam>aaitat pratyaks. am. a Following the Tibetan (Shackleton Bailey 1950: 85), read bdag gi. Divy 71.3, naitat. 42. Divy 71.8–13, yatha¯ ks. etre ca a pratyaks. as tvam iha dvija | evam . karmavipa¯kes. u pratyaks. a¯ hi tatha¯gata¯h. || yatha¯ tvaya¯ bra¯hman.a dr..s.tam etad alpam . ca vı¯jam . sumaha¯m . ´s ca vr.ks.ah. | ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ evam maya bra hman a dr s t am etad alpam ca vı jam mahatı ca sam . . . .. . . . pad iti || a

Following the Tibetan (Shackleton Bailey 1950: 85) and Cowell and Neil’s conjecture (Divy 71n5). Divy 71.8, bı¯jena. A similar example involving a banyan tree is also found in the Cha¯ndogya Upanis.ad: “Fetch a fruit from this banyan tree.” “Here it is, sir.” “Break it open.” “It’s broken, sir.” “What do you see in it?” “Sir, there are grains like tiny particles.” “Well, break open one of them.” “It’s broken, sir.” “What do you see in it?” “Nothing at all, sir.” Then he said to him, “Dear boy, this subtle essence that you don’t perceive—indeed, it is from this subtle essence, son, that this giant banyan tree arises. Have ´sraddha¯, my son. That which is this subtle essence constitutes the self of this whole world. That is the truth. That is the self. ´vetaketu. . . . ” And that’s how you are, S

notes to page 34

219

nyagrodhaphalam atah. a¯haretı¯dam. bhagava iti bhinddhı¯ti bhinnam. bhagava iti kim atra pas´yası¯ty an.vya ivema¯ dha¯na¯ bhagava ity a¯sa¯m an.gaika¯m. bhinddhı¯ti bhinna¯ bhagava iti kim atra pas´yası¯ti na kim. cana bhagava ti | tam. hova¯ca yam. vai saumyaitam an.ima¯nam. na nibha¯layasa etasya vai somyais.o ’n.imna evam. maha¯nyagrodhas tis. t.hati s´raddhatsva somyeti | sa ya es.o ’n.imaitad a¯tmyam idam. sarvam. tat satyam. sa a¯tma¯ tat tvam asi s´vetaketo iti | Ch-Up 479–481/vi.12.1–3; cf. trans. in Olivelle 1998: 255. Here ´sraddha¯ seems to have an even more affective and pious sense than it does in the Divya¯vada¯na. While in the verse from the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na, the Buddha asks the brahman to have ´sraddha¯ in him because he can see the effects of ´vetaketu is asked to have ´sraddha¯ in precisely what karma directly, in this verse, the boy S ´an.kara¯ ca¯ rya’s commentary, cannot be seen—for he sees “nothing at all.” As we read in S this elusive ´sraddha¯ somehow enables concentration and, in turn, knowledge: Therefore, “have ´sraddha¯, friend” (´sraddhatsva somya) that this gross universe, which is a product and is possessed of name and form, has arisen from existence itself, which is subtle. Although the meaning ascertained through logic and scriptures is understood to be just so; nonetheless, in the absence of intense ´sraddha¯ it is very difficult for one whose mind is engrossed in external objects and who is impelled by his own nature to comprehend very subtle objects. Hence he said, “have ´sraddha¯” (´sraddhatsva). For when ´sraddha¯ is present, there can be concentration of the mind on the thing that is to be understood, and in consequence there can be the understanding of its meaning. This is supported by such ´sruti texts as “I was absent-minded” (Br.hada¯ran.yaka Upan.isad i.5.3). atah. ´sraddhatsva somya sata eva¯n.imnah. sthu¯lam . na¯maru¯pa¯dimatka¯ryam . jagad utpannam iti | yadyapi nya¯ya¯gama¯bhya¯m . nirdha¯rito ’rthas tathaivety avagamyate tatha¯pyatyanasu¯ks. mes. v arthes. u ba¯hyavis. aya¯saktamanasah. svabha¯vapravr.ttasya¯satya¯m . gurutara¯ya¯m . ´sraddha¯ya¯m . duravagamatvam . ¯ ¯ ¯ nam sya¯d ity a¯ha—s´raddhatsveti | ´sraddha¯ya¯m tu satya m manasam sama dha . . . . bubhutsite ’rthe bhavet tatas´ ca tadartha¯vagatih. anyatramana¯ abhu¯vam (Br. Up i.5.3) itya¯dis´ruteh. | Ch-Up-bh 656. 43. The divine eye (divyacaks. u) enables one to see the passing away of beings in this world and their reappearance in the next world. In the Sa¯maññaphala-sutta of the Dı¯gha-nika¯ya (DN i, 82), it is observed that “with a divine eye, which is purified and surpasses those of mortals, [an arhat monk] sees beings passing away and being reborn, those who are inferior and superior, fair and ugly, and happy or unhappy in their destiny; he understands beings as faring according to their kamma” (so dibbena cakkhuna¯ visuddhena atikkantama¯nusakena satte passati cavama¯ne upapaj jama¯ne hı¯ne pan.¯ı te suvan.n.e dubban.n.e sugate duggate yatha¯kammu¯page satte paja¯na¯ti). This passage is then discussed in the Katha¯vatthu (Kv 256–258; trans. in Aung and Rhys Davids 1979: 151–152). There a distinction is made between those beings who have had insight into the karmic truth that one’s actions determine one’s destiny (e.g., Sa¯ riputta) and those who have come to

220

notes to pages 34–36

know this truth by making use of the divine eye (e.g., the Buddha). Kot.ikarn.a, however, seems to have come to this knowledge through observations made with his mundane vision. This passage is also well glossed in the Visuddhimagga (Vism xiii.72–78; trans. in Ña¯ n.amoli 1979: 464–466). 44. Divy 268.13, avaga¯d.has´ra¯ddhah.. 45. Divy 268.21–24, sacandrata¯ram . prapated iha¯mbaram . mahı¯ sas´aila¯ savana¯ nabho vrajet | mahodadhı¯na¯m udakam . ks. ayam . vrajed mahars. ayah. syur namr..sa¯bhidha¯yinah. || 46. Seeing into the future, however, does not necessitate that one will speak the ¯ rika (Clever) overhears a predictruth. In the Jyotis. ka-avada¯na, a mendicant named Bhu tion that the Blessed One has made to the householder Subhadra (Very Good Man). He has predicted that the child with whom his wife is pregnant will experience good fortune. To win favor with the householder and alienate him from the Blessed One, ¯ rika then tells the householder that the Blessed One has spoken falsely to him and Bhu ¯ rika does this even though “he sees that that his child will bring ruin to his family. Bhu everything will happen just as the Blessed One has predicted” ( pas´yati yatha¯ bhagavata¯ vya¯kr.tam . tat sarvam . tathaiva | Divy 263.10). The householder Subhadra comes under ¯ rika’s influence and as a result tries to kill his unborn child. He succeeds, however, Bhu only in killing his wife. 47. Divy 71.14–18, tato bhagavata¯ mukha¯j jihva¯m . nirnamayya sarvam . mukhaman.d.a¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ lam a¯ccha¯ditam ya vat kes ´ aparyantam upa da ya sa ca bra hman o ’bhihitah . . . | kim . manyase ¯ ¯ ¯ bra¯hman.a yasya mukha¯j jihva¯m nis ´ ca rya sarvam mukhaman d alam a ccha dayaty api tv asau . . .. cakravartira¯jyas´atasahasrahetor api sam . praja¯nan mr..s a¯va¯dam . bha¯.seta. 48. Divy 17.4–6, sarvo ’yam . lokah. suvarn.asya ´sraddadha¯ti na tu kas´cin mama ´sraddhaya¯ gacchati. 49. Divy 17.6, tena vaipus. pitam. The Gilgit Manuscripts (GM iii 4, 182) reads [vaipu].s pitam. The Tibetan (N 262b7; cited in GM iii 4, 182n2) reads “smiled” (’dzum phyung ba —> Skt., <smitam>). 50. Divy 6.7, yadi vayam . nivartis. ya¯mah. sarva eva¯nayena vyasanam a¯patsya¯mah.. 51. Divy 6.21, tau na kasyacit punar api ´sradaddha¯tum a¯rabdhau. Kot.ikarn.a’s father was, no doubt, particularly upset that Kot.ikarna’s half-brothers, who were born to one of his servants, didn’t live up to their names—“Servant” and “Protector.” They also didn’t heed ´ron.a Kot.ikarn.a behind under any circumstances” his earlier request: “Sons, don’t leave S (putrau yuva¯bhya¯m . na kenacit praka¯ren.a ´sron.ah. kot.ikarn.o moktavya iti | Divy 4.23–24)! 52. Divy 6.26, tau ´sokena rudanta¯v andhı¯bhu¯tau. 53. Divy 17.10, te na kasyacit ´sraddhaya¯ gacchanti. 54. Divy 17.17–18, putra¯va¯m . tvadı¯yena ´sokena rudanta¯v andhı¯bhu¯tau | ida¯nı¯m . tvam eva¯gamya caks. uh. pratilabdham. 55. Divy 338.18–20, kim . yus. ma¯kam . pratis´rayam . na dı¯yate | api tu yus.ma¯kam . dos. o ’sti bahubollaka¯ yu¯yam | samayena¯ham . bhavatah. pratis´rayam . da¯sye sacet kim . cin na mantrayasi. Burnouf (1844: 323) renders the first sentence of this passage differently. He understands the virtuous seer to be addressing his cohorts: “Pourquoi, dit-il aux Religieux, ne ¯ rya]?” donnez-vous pas l’hospitalité [à cet A

notes to pages 36–40

221

. 56. The narrator explains that the venerable Sangharaks.ita “began to recite [ from the] Chapter on Brahmans” (bra¯hman.avargam . sva¯dhya¯yitum a¯rabdhah. | Divy 339.22). What he recites, however, with minor variations, are two verses from the “Chapter on Punishment” (dan.d.avagga) in the Dhammapada (Dhp, vv. 141–142). Cf. Dharmapada (Dhp-BHS, vv. 195–196). 57. Divy 340.8–12, asmin khalu dharmaparya¯ye bha¯.s yama¯n.e sarvais tais sahasatya¯bhisamaya¯d ana¯ga¯miphalam anupra¯ptam .r ddhis´ ca¯pi nirhr. ta¯ sarvais taih. subha¯.s itam . bhadantasam . gharaks. ita¯yety ekana¯do muktah. | taya¯ devataya¯ .r ddhyabhisam . ska¯ra¯h. pratiprasrabdha¯h. parasparam . dras. .t um a¯rabdha¯h. . Although in this case the seers “obtained” (anupra¯ptam) their religious rewards, this trope, which is very common in the Divya¯vada¯na, usually relies on ocular imagery. A character “see what’s before his eyes” ( pratyaks. adars´¯ı ) and comes to have ´sraddha¯, and then later “directly experiences” (sa¯ks. a¯tkaroti) the rewards of the stages of the Buddhist path. Kot.ikarn.a, for example, after hearing the dharma from the venerable Maha¯ka¯tya¯yana, “directly experienced the reward of the stream-enterer” (´srota¯pattiphalam . sa¯ks. a¯tkr.tam | Divy 17.21); after studying the four fundamental collections of discourses (a¯gama), “directly experienced the reward of the once-returner” (sakr.da¯ga¯miphalam . sa¯ks. a¯tkr.tam | Divy 17.23); after studying the ma¯tr.ka¯s (see Gethin 1992b), “directly experienced the reward of the nonreturner” (ana¯ga¯miphalam . sa¯ks.a¯tkr.tam | Divy 18.6); and after getting rid of all his defilements, “directly experienced arhatship” (arhattvam . sa¯ks. a¯tkr. tam | Divy 18.25–26). More literally, these respective rewards were seen “with” (sa) “the eyes” (aks. a) or were “clearly placed before the eyes” (MW, s.v. sa¯kr.a¯t ⫹ √kr.). This latter rendering is a nearly literal translation of pratyaks. adars´¯ı : that is, “being a seer” (dars´¯ı ) of something that is “before” ( prati) “the eyes” (aks. a). In both instances, to know something truly means to somehow grasp it through the eyes.

chapter 2 1. See, for example, Cort 2002; Cutler 1987; and Haberman 1988. 2. For more on bhakti in Sanskrit literature, see Bailey 1988; Das Gupta 1930: 322–333; Hara 1964: 125–132; and Rao 1974. 3. Divy 1.7–17, ´s ivavarun.akuveras´akrabrahma¯dı¯n a¯ya¯cate | a¯ra¯madevata¯m . vana. ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ devatam . ´s.rnga.takadevatam . balipratigrahikam . devatam . sahajam . sahadharmikam . nitya¯nubaddha¯m api devata¯m a¯ya¯cate | asti cais. a lokaprava¯do yad a¯ya¯canahetoh. putra¯ ja¯yante duhitaras´ ceti | tac ca naivam | yady evam abhavis.yad ekaiakasya putrasahasram abhavis. yat tad yatha¯ ra¯jñas´ cakravartinah. api tu traya¯n.a¯m . stha¯na¯na¯m . sam . mukhı¯bha¯va¯t putra¯ ja¯yante ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ duhitaras´ ca | katames.a¯m traya n a m | ma ta pitarau raktau bhavatah . . . sam . nipatitau | ma¯ta¯ ¯ ¯ kalya¯ bhavati .rtumatı¯ | gandharvapratyupasthita¯ bhavati | es. a¯m traya m a m . . . stha¯na¯na¯m . sam. mukhı¯bha¯va¯t putra¯ ja¯yante duhitaras´ ca | sa caivam a¯ya¯canaparas tis..thati. 4. Divy 231.23–232.3, sarves. a¯m eva¯sma¯kam . maran.am . pratyupasthitam | tad ida¯nı¯m . ¯ bhavadbhih. kim . karan.ı yam | yasya vo yasmin deve bhaktih. sa tam a¯ya¯catu | yadi tena¯pi ta¯vad a¯ya¯canena ka¯cid devata¯sma¯kam asma¯n maha¯bhaya¯d vimoks. an.am . kurya¯t | na ca¯nyo ’sti kas´cid upa¯yo jı¯vitasya | yatas tair ban.igbhir maran.abhayabhı¯taih. ´sivavarun.akuveramahendropendra¯dayo deva¯ jı¯vitaparitra¯n.a¯rtham a¯ya¯citum a¯rabdha¯h. | naiva ca tes.a¯m a¯ya¯cata¯m . tasma¯n maran.abhaya¯j jı¯vitaparitra¯n.avis´es.ah. kas´cit.

222

notes to page 41

5. Here the recitation of this mantra is explicitly included under the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti (“bringing to mind the Buddha”). As the lay disciple of the Buddha explains, “Still, let us all raise our voices together and say, ‘Praise to the Buddha!’ If we have to die, let us die with our awareness focused on the Buddha. This way there will be a good fate for us after death” (kim . tu sarva evaikaraven.a namo buddha¯yeti vada¯mah. | sati maran.e buddha¯valambanaya¯ smr.tya¯ ka¯lam . karis.ya¯mah. sugatigamanam . bhavis.yati | Divy 232.6–8). 6. Divy 42.1–4, bhavantah. sa eva¯ryapu¯rn.ah. pun.yamahes´a¯khyah. | tam eva ´saran.a m . prapadya¯ma iti | tair ekasvaren.a sarvair evam . na¯do muktah. | namas tasma¯d a¯rya¯ya pu¯rn.a¯ya namo namas tasma¯y a¯rya¯ya pu¯rn.a¯yeti. 7. The apotropaic effects of such a practice are also described in chapter 24 of the Saddharmapun.d.arı¯ka-su¯tra, an Indian Buddhist text commonly known as the Lotus Su¯tra, which dates back to the first or second century of the Common Era. In it, the numerous benefits of “bringing to mind the bodhisattva Avalokites´vara” or reciting a salutation to him are enumerated—among them, interestingly enough, being saved from shipwrecks. Judging from the beneficiaries of this practice that are acknowledged in the text, overseas merchants were prime among the intended user-groups. As it is explained in the text, “If, good man, hundreds and thousands and millions and billions of beings are on board a boat in the middle of the ocean in search of treasures like raw and processed gold, jewels, pearls, diamonds, beryl, conch, quartz, coral, emeralds, sapphires, rubies, and pearls, even if their boat is cast onto Demoness Island by gale-force winds, if there is even one being among them who calls on Avalokites´vara, the bodhisattva, the great being, all of them will be freed from that Demoness Island” (sacet puna h. kulaputra sa¯garamadhye vahana¯bhiru¯ d. ha¯na¯m . sattvakot.¯ı n[i]yutas´atasahasra¯n. a¯m . hiran. . yasuvarn.aman.imukta¯vajravaid.u¯ryas´an khas´ila¯prava¯d.a¯´s magarbhamusa¯ragalvalohitamukta¯dı¯na¯m . kr.tanidhı¯na¯m . sa potas tes. a¯m . ka¯lika¯va¯tena ra¯ks. ası¯dvı¯pe ks. iptah. sya¯t tasmin.s ca kas´cid evaikah. sattvah. sya¯d yo ’valokites´varasya bodhisattvasya maha¯sattvasya¯ kranda m . kurya¯t sarve te parimucyeram . s tasma¯d ra¯ks.ası¯dvı¯pa¯t | Saddhp 289). Apropos of this idea, in the passage that follows this one in the text, it is said that a caravan rich in jewels can be saved from bandits if its members call out in one voice to Avalokites´vara (Saddhp 290). For an English translation of the parallel passages from the Chinese version of the text, see Hurvitz 1976: 311–312. For more on buddha¯nusmr.ti, see Harrison 1978 and 1992a. 8. Though deities are not shown in the Divya¯vada¯na to respond to prayer, elsewhere in the text they do intervene in mundane affairs—in precisely such matters as pregnancy. In the Maitreya-avada¯na, a king named Pran.a¯ da is lost in thought because, like the householder Balasena in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, he doesn’t have a son but de´akra, lord of the gods, and also a close friend of King Pran.a¯ da, sees the king sires one. S and asks him about his condition. When he hears of the king’s desire for a son, he decides to urge a divine being (devaputra) to take birth in the womb of King Pran.a¯ da’s principal queen. He does so, and soon the king’s principal queen is pregnant with a ´akra, it seems, can intercede in matters such as pregnancy, but fallen god in her womb. S he apparently doesn’t do so as a result of being prayed to. 9. Divy 109.29–110.1, upastha¯nakarma¯n.i satputra iva pitaram . bhaktya¯ gauraven.a ´sus´ru¯.s ate.

notes to pages 42–46

223

10. Divy 109.16–18, ma¯ haiva magho maha¯sa¯rthava¯ho ’dr..s.ta eva ka¯lam . kurya¯t ko me vyapades´am . karis. yati tasya badaradvı¯pamaha¯pattanasya gamana¯yeti. 11. See Abhidharmakos´a ii.32 (Abhidh-k 203) and the commentary in Yas´omitra’s Abhidharmakos´abha¯.s ya. This warning occurs most explicitly in Yas´omitra’s commentary on the aphorism “affection ( prema) is ´sraddha¯.” 12. See the Vakkali-sutta in the Sam . yutta-nika¯ya (SN iii, 119–124; trans. in Bodhi 2000: 938–941); the Paramatthadı¯panı¯ V [⫽ Theraga¯tha¯ Commentary] on verses 350– 354 (Th-a i, 147–150; trans. in Rhys Davids ii, 197–200); the Vakkali story in the Etadagga . Vagga of the Manorathapu¯ran.¯ı [⫽ Anguttara-nika¯ya Commentary] (Mp i, 248–251); the Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯ on verse 381 (Dhp-a iv, 117–119; trans. in Burlingame 1969: iii, 262–263); and Apada¯na (Ap ii, 466). For more on the connection between seeing and saddha¯ in the stories of Vakkali, see Trainor 1997: 181–183. 13. Th-a i, 147, Dhp-a iv, 119, Mp i, 249, saddha¯dhimutta¯nam aggat..tha¯ne. 14. Dhp-a iv, 118, sarı¯rasampattidassanena atitto. 15. Dhp-a iv, 118, tattha .thito saj jha¯yakammat..tha¯namanasika¯ra¯dı¯ni paha¯ya sattha¯ram olokento va vicari. 16. Th-a i, 147, kim . te, vakkali, imina¯ pu¯tika¯yena dit..thena. 17. Th-a i, 148, tassa saddha¯balavabha¯vato eva vipassana¯vı¯thim . na otarati. 18. Vakkali does kill himself in the Sam . yutta-nika¯ya (SN iii, 123). 19. For more on this connection, see Bloomfield 1908: 190–193; Das Gupta 1930: 320–321; and Rao 1974: 45–47. 20. Divy 10.25, samyaksukhena prı¯n.aya. The idea here is also that he should enjoy himself “in the right way” (samyak) according to Buddhist notions of propriety. For the passages concerning the adulterer and the prostitute, see Divy 12.11–12 and 14.27–28. 21. Divy 10.26–28, a¯ryam . ca maha¯ka¯tya¯yanam . ka¯lena ka¯lam . pin.d.akena pratipa¯daya¯sma¯kam . ca na¯mna¯ daks. in.a¯m a¯des´aya | apy evaitat karma tanutvam . pariks.ayam . parya¯da¯nam . gacchet. Cf. Divy 12.12–14, 14.28–15.1. 22. For more on this “transfer of merit,” see Schopen 1997: 43; 55n104; 78; 79; 213; 229nn42–43; and 231n61. See also Bechert 1992; Egge 2002; Filliozat 1980: 102–116; Gombrich 1971: 203–219; Oguibenine 1982: 393–414; and for a list of sources on the topic, Wezler 1997: 585–589. 23. Divy 2.13–14, ja¯to me sya¯n navaja¯tah. | kr.tya¯ni me kurvı¯ta bhr.tah. pratibibhr.ya¯d da¯ya¯dyam . pratipadyeta kulavam . ´so me cirasthitiko bhavis. yati. 24. Divy 2.15–17, asma¯kam . ca¯tyatı¯taka¯lagata¯na¯m alpam . va¯ prabhu¯tah. va¯ da¯na¯ni data tva¯ pun.ya¯ni kr.tva¯ [asma¯kam . tayor yatra yatropapan. na¯mna¯] daks. in.a¯m a¯des´ayis. yati | idam nayor gacchator anugacchatv iti. a Following GM iii 4, 160.17–161.1 and Divy 440.30. Divy 2.16, (omitted). Claus Vogel and Klaus Wille (1984: 311) translate a parallel passage from the Tibetan version of the Pravrajya¯ vastu in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya as follows: “Having made us (funeral) presents—whether they are few or many—after we shall have died and met our death, (and thus) having done good works, may he allocate the (profit of his every) gift in (our) name, (saying): ‘This shall follow the two (parents) to where they go after rebirth.’ ” 25. Presumably what is meant is after the two of them have passed away, but the text preserves the genitive plural (asma¯kam) and not the genitive dual (a¯vayoh.).

224

notes to pages 46–48

26. This compound could also be taken as “in the temples belonging to their assembly halls,” or more loosely as “in the temples that were used by their respective assemblies.” Perhaps svakasabha¯ even means something like “town halls” here. Later in the story these offerings are only mentioned as being seen “in the park that was owned by Kot.ikarn.a’s father in the village of Va¯ sava” (va¯savagra¯make paitr.ke udya¯ne | Divy 15.6–7). 27. Divy 6.21–26, ta¯bhya¯m udya¯nes.u svakasabha¯devakules.u chatra¯n.i vyajana¯ni kala´sa¯ny upa¯naha¯ni ca¯ks. ara¯n.y abhilikhita¯ni datta¯ni stha¯pita¯ni yadi ta¯vac ´sron.ah. kot.ikarn.o jı¯vati laghv a¯gamana¯ya ks.ipram a¯gamana¯ya | atha cyutah. ka¯lagatah. tasyaiva gatyupapattistha¯na¯t stha¯na¯ntaravis´es. ata¯yai. 28. Divy 8.5–6, ´sron.a gaccha pun.yamahes´a¯khyas tvam | asti kas´cit tvaya¯ dr..s.tah. pretanagaram . pravis..tah. svastiks. ema¯bhya¯m . nirgacchan. 29. In the Divya¯vada¯na, an interlocutor’s silence frequently signifies his assent, but as Gregory Schopen (1995: 114–115) notes, in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya this silence often expresses consternation and a lack of clarity. In this instance the meaning of the gatekeeper’s silence isn’t clear. 30. Divy 8.8–11, bhadramukha [yadi]a ahovata tvaya¯ mama¯rocitam . sya¯d yathedam . pretanagaram iti na¯ham atra pravis..tah. sya¯m | sa tenoktah. | ´sron.a gaccha pun.yamahes´a¯khyas tvam . yena tvam . pretanagaram . pravis´ya svastiks. ema¯bhya¯m . nirgatah.. a Following Divy 9.8. It is omitted here (Divy 8.8) and in the corresponding passage in the Gilgit Manuscripts (GM iii 4, 169.11). 31. It isn’t only inhabitants of the next world but also those of this world who recognize how difficult it is for ordinary mortals to traipse through other realms of existence. As the shepherd observes, when Kot.ikarn.a tells him that he has seen his father, “Sir, it’s now been twelve years since my father died. Has anyone ever been seen coming back from the next world?” The adulterer and the prostitute, in turn, are similarly incredulous. 32. Edgerton translates mahes´a¯khya as “one who is a great personage by reason of merit (acquired by past deeds),” but he acknowledges that there are interpretive difficulties (BHSD, s.v. mahes´a¯khya). Following classical Sanskrit, one may be tempted to translate the expression literally as “one who is called” (a¯khya) “the great” (maha¯) “lord” (¯ı´sa) “of merit” (pun.ya) or “one who is greatly distinguished by merit,” but the existence of certain variant forms like maha¯´sakya—“very” (maha¯) “powerful” (´sakya)—and maha¯yas´a¯khya— “having a very glorious” (maha¯yas´a) “name” (a¯khya)—might give, as Edgerton notes, “a clue to the real etymology of mahes´a¯khya.” The latter form, he maintains, “fits the word at least as well, and is in my opinion at as plausible etymologically as the traditional (but rather mechanical) analysis maha¯ plus ¯ı´sa plus a¯khya” (BHSD, s.v. maha¯yas´a¯khya). It is also quite possible that mahes´a¯khya is a hyper-Sanskritization of the Pali, mahesakkha, but this, in turn, is equally ambiguous. Rhys Davids and Stede (PTSD, s.v, mahesakkha) understand this as “possessing great power or authority” (maha¯ ⫹ ¯ı sa ⫹ khyam . ), though mahe ⫹ sakkha is also a possible etymology for this meaning. The Critical Pali Dictionary (s.v. appesakkha) poses an alternate derivation, suggesting “one who possesses” (ka) “great” (maha¯) “fame” (yas´as)—that is, “well respected” or “well esteemed.” 33. For example, in the Supriya-avada¯na, there is a caravan leader named Supriya who travels for a full one hundred years through remote and dangerous lands

notes to page 48

225

so that he can reach the great trading center Badaradvı¯pa. The being who had passed away and then was reborn as Supriya, and then Supriya himself are each referred to as “mahes´a¯khya because of [his] vast merit” (uda¯rapun.damahes´a¯khya | Divy 98.20, 102.6), leading the reader to conclude, with no indication to the contrary, that this quality is in some sense inheritable. While “fame” or “esteem” are possible interpretations, “very powerful” seems more likely. Deities, humans, and nonhumans are also referred to as mahes´a¯khya in passages that stress the power of those individuals. A deity appears to Supriya four times in his dreams and gives him instructions for his journey such as the following: A person who is very powerful and is protected by a deity who is very powerful can make use of [his] great powers of merit, strength, and mind, take a great raft, and set sail in the great Anulomapratiloma Ocean . . . A person who is very powerful as a result of [his] vast merit and who is protected by a deity can make use of [his] great powers of merit, strength, ¯ varta Ocean. mind, and body, take a great raft, and set sail in the great A [emphasis added] tatra yo ’sau purus. o bhavati mahes´a¯khyo mahes´a¯khyadevata¯parigr. hı¯tah. sa mahata¯ pun.yabalena vı¯ryabalena cittabalena maha¯ntam . plavam a¯stha¯ya ¯ anulomapratilomamahasamudram avatarati . . . tatra yo ’sau purus. o bhavaty uda¯rapun.yavipa¯kamahes´a¯khyo devata¯parigr. hı¯tah. sa mahata¯ pun.yabalena vı¯ryabalena cittabalena ka¯yabalena maha¯ntam . plavam a¯stha¯da¯vartam . maha¯samudram avatarati | Divy 103.5–8 and 103.25– 104.1. In the last of Supriya’s dreams, the deity gives him additional instructions, and these provide further evidence, as they stress the physical danger of someone who is mahes´a¯khya. The deity explains, You have now arrived at the great trading center Badaradvı¯pa, which neither humans nor nonhumans frequent. It is inhabited by very powerful men. Still, don’t be careless. Guard your senses, your eyes and so on, and cultivate mindfulness of the body. [emphasis added] sam . pra¯pto ’si badaradvı¯pamaha¯pattanam . manus.ya¯manus.ya¯navacaritam . mahes´a¯khyapurus.a¯dyus.itam | kim tarhi na sa¯mpratam aprasa¯dah. karan.¯ıyah. | . indriya¯n.i ca gopayitavya¯ni caks.ura¯dı¯ni ka¯yagata¯ smr.tir bhavitavya¯ | Divy 114.18–21. Additional interpretive examples could be marshaled to substantiate my claim, but instead I’ll make just one last etymological observation. Even if it doesn’t lend much support to my position, it does further suggest the term’s ambiguity. An alternate formation stemming from √´sak (“to be able”) occurs in the Supriya-avada¯na (Divy 111.10) that bears similarity to mahes´a¯khya. There the first-person form of the present-tense √´sak occurs as ´sakya¯mi instead of the normal strong form ´saknomi. Further speculation I’ll leave for others. 34. Divy 23.22–24, yad anena ka¯´syapasya samyaksam . buddhasya stu¯pe ka¯ra¯m . kr.tva¯ pran.idha¯nam . kr.tam . tasya karman.o vipa¯kena¯d.hye maha¯dhane maha¯bhoge kule ja¯tah..

226

notes to pages 48–50

35. One possibility that can be granted, though one of which I am not convinced, is that their offerings are a futile exercise that they persist in during the period of their blindness—that is, in the period when they do not have ´sraddha¯. 36. In this regard, it is interesting to observe the discrepancy between the Divya¯vada¯na and the Gilgit Manuscripts concerning what was uttered by the groups of hungry ghosts in the two iron cities. In the Divya¯vada¯na, the hungry ghosts explain that they have come to the “ancestral realm” ( pitr.loka | Divy 8.4, 9.4), while in the Gilgit Manuscripts, they explain that they have come to “the realm of hungry ghosts” ( pretaloka | GM iii 4, 169.7, 170.2). That the ancestral realm is mentioned in the Divya¯vada¯na is peculiar, for this isn’t one of the standard realms of existence in Buddhist cosmology. Yet, if this were a brahmanical text, it would be expected that a being who had come to the ancestral realm would be an ancestor and not a hungry ghost. The Hindu funereal ritual known as sapin.d.¯ı karan.a is performed precisely to enable this transformation; otherwise, the deceased would remain a ghost and not be able to rejoin his ancestors. Particularly interesting with regard to the mechanics of daks.in.a¯ is P.V. Kane’s (1930– 1962: ii, 523) observation that the reunion of the deceased and his ancestors occurs not during this ritual, but when the daks. in.a¯ (“honorarium”) is made to the presiding brahman. Also relevant is Jonathan Parry’s (1982: 84) observation—for it resonates with the events recorded in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na—that after the performance of this ritual, “the soul then sets out on its journey to ‘the abode of the ancestors’ ([Hindi,] pitr. lok) where it arrives on the anniversary of its death, having endured many torments on the way—torments which the mourners seek to mitigate by the rituals they perform on its behalf.” . 37. GM iii 1, 220.1–221.6 and Sanghabh i, 199.11–30; cited in Schopen 1994a: 545. . 38. GM iii 1, 220.20–221.2, tato bhagava¯n pañca¯ngena svaren.a tes. a¯m . na¯mna¯ daks.in.a¯m a¯des..tum . pravr.ttah. | ito da¯nad dhi yat pun.yam . tat preta¯n upagacchatu | vyuttis..thanta¯m . ks. ipram ime pretaloka¯t suda¯run.a¯t || . . 39. Sanghabh i, 199.24–26, bhagavata¯ ca pañca¯ngopetena svaren.a daks.in.a¯ a¯dis..ta¯ | ito da¯nad dhi yat pun.yam . tac cha¯kya¯n upagacchatu | pra¯pnuvantu padam . nityam ¯ı psita¯n va¯ manoratha¯n || 40. Divy 15.11–12, yady aham . ma¯ta¯pitr.bhya¯m . mr.ta eva gr.hı¯tah. kasma¯d bhu¯yo ’ham . gr.ham pravis´a¯mi. Notice the eva for emphasis. 41. Divy 7.6–7, te tr..s a¯rta¯ vihvalavadana¯ jihva¯m . nirna¯mayya gacchanti. 42. Divy 7.8–11, tasya ka¯run.yam utpannam | sa sam . laks.ayati | yady eta¯n notsraks.ya¯mi anayena vyasanam a¯patsye | ko ’sau nirghr.n.ahr.dayas tyaktaparalokas´ ca ya es.a¯m . pratod.a¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ya.s.tim ka ye nipa tayis yati | tena ta utsr s t ha h | adya gren a acchinna gra n i tr n a ni bhaks . . . .. . . . .. . ayata ¯ ¯ anavamardita¯ni pa¯nı ya¯ni pivata ana¯vila¯ni caturdis´am . ca ´sı tala¯ va¯yavo va¯ntv iti sa ta¯n utsr.jya padbhya¯m . sam . prasthitah.. 43. Divy 7.24–25, bhavanto ’ham api pa¯nı¯yam eva mr.gaya¯mi | kuto ’ham . yus.ma¯kam . pa¯nı¯yam anuprayaccha¯mı¯ti. 44. Divy 12.24–25, ´sron.a ka¯run.ikas tvam . bubhuks.ita¯ vadam asma¯kam anuprayaccha.

notes to pages 50–54

227

45. Divy 12.22, ´sron.a yady ete kim . cin mr.gayanti ma¯ da¯syasi. 46. Divy 12.29–13.1, ´sron.a niva¯ritas tvam . maya¯ kasma¯t tvayais.a¯m . dattam | kim . mama ka¯run.ikaya¯ tvam eva ka¯run.ikatarah.. 47. The mechanics of this “assigning the reward” are never mentioned in the Divya¯vada¯na, but one passage from the Dharmaruci-a¯vada¯na does offer some insight. A householder has come to the monastery at the Jeta Grove with enough food to feed five hundred monks. Unfortunately, all the monks except Dharmaruci, the temporary supervisor of the monastery, have gone off for a meal at someone’s home. The householder is disappointed that he can’t feed everyone but decides that he can at least feed Dharmaruci. Dharmaruci, however, has an insatiable appetite, and by and by eats all the food that the man has brought. The man is terrified, thinking “This isn’t a man. This isn’t any kind of man at all” (na¯yam . manus.yo manus.yavika¯rah. | Divy 238.22)! Then, “so seized was he with terror, that without even waiting to hear the assignment of the reward [that was accrued from the offering], he said, ‘Noble one, I praise you!’ and then set out for the city as fast as he could, never looking back” (daks.in.a¯des´anam api bhayagr.hı¯to ’s´rutva¯ tvaritatvaritam . prasthitah. | . vanda¯my a¯ryeti pr..s.tham anavalokayama¯no nagaram Divy 239.2–4). 48. More literally, preta means “the departed.” 49. Divy 10.27–28, 12.13, 14.29, asma¯kam . ca na¯mna¯ daks. in.a¯m a¯des´aya. 50. The object of the previously mentioned Hindu funereal ritual known as sapin.d.¯ıkaran.a is to unite the recently deceased with three generations of ancestors in the deceased’s lineage. For more on this ritual, see Gold 1988: 90–94 and Knipe 1977. . 51. In the passage that I cited earlier in the chapter from the Sanghabhedavastu . ´a¯ kyas, the North Indian tribe to (Sanghabh i, 199.24–26), merit is assigned to the S which the Buddha belonged. 52. Divy 16–17, idam . tayor yatra yatropapannayor gacchator anugacchatv iti. 53. Divy 10.27–28, 12.13–14, 14.29–15.1, apy evaitat karma tanutvam . pariks.ayam. parya¯da¯nam . gacchet. 54. As Schopen (1996: 123) remarks elsewhere, “Monasteries—to put it crudely—are not presented here [i.e., in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya] primarily as residences for monks to live in, but rather as potential and permanent sources of merit for their donors.” 55. Yet, as Derrida (2000: 188–189) notes, writing about the poems of Paul Celan, “bearing witness is not proving . . . ‘I bear witness’—that means: ‘I affirm (rightly or wrongly, but in all good faith, sincerely) that that was or is present to me, in space and time (thus, perceptible), and although you do not have access to it, not the same access, you, my adressees, you have to believe me, because I am committed to telling you the truth, I am already committed to it, I tell you that I am telling you the truth. Believe me. You have to believe me.’ ” 56. Divy 7.13–15 (cf. Divy 8.13–15), tatra dva¯re purus.as tis..thati ka¯lo raudras´ can.d.o lohita¯ks. a a lohalagud.avyagrahastah.. a Following GM iii 4, 168.6 (ms., udbandhapin.d.aka¯yas..thi). The Divya¯vada¯na (Divy 7.14) reads “a body full of holes” (udviddhapin.d.a). 57. Divy 300.26–301.4, bra¯hman.agr.hapataya a¯gatya pr.cchanti | a¯rya kim idam . likhitam iti | te kathayanti | bhadramukha¯ vayam api na ja¯nı¯ma iti | bhagava¯n a¯ha | dva¯rakos..thake bhiks.ur uddes..tavyo ya a¯gata¯gata¯na¯m . bra¯hman.agr.hapatı¯na¯m . dars´ayati | uktam bhagavata¯

228

notes to pages 55–58

bhiks.ur uddes..tavya iti te avis´es.en.oddis´anti ba¯la¯n api mu¯d.ha¯n apy avyakta¯n apy akus´ala¯n api | te a¯tmana¯ na ja¯nate kutah. punar a¯gata¯na¯m . bra¯hman.agr. hapatı¯na¯m . dars´ayis. yanti | bhagava¯n a¯ha | pratibalo bhiks. ur uddes..tavya iti. 58. For more on the cognitive/affective distinction in Buddhism, see Gellner 2001: 54–56. 59. For more on this Kantian aesthetics within a visual context, see Morgan 1998: 26–29. 60. AN i, 188–193; trans. in Woodward and Hare 1932–1936: i, 170–175 and Bodhi 2005: 88–91. For an insightful anaylsis of the sutta, see Bodhi 1988. a 61. AN i, 189, ko su na¯ma imesam . saccam a¯ha ko musa¯ ti. a Following the Igatpuri Edition (i, 217). AN i, 189, bhavanta¯nam . saman.a¯nam .. 62. AN i, 189, etha tumhe ka¯la¯ma¯ ma¯ anussavena ma¯ parampara¯ya ma¯ itikira¯ya ma¯ pit.akasampada¯nena ma¯ takkahetu ma¯ nayahetu ma¯ a¯ka¯raparivitakkena ma¯ dit..thinij jha¯nakkhantiya¯ ma¯ bhavdaru¯pata¯ya ma¯ saman.o no garu¯ ti | yada¯ tumhe ka¯la¯ma¯ attana¯ va ja¯neyya¯tha—ime dhamma¯ akusala¯ ime dhamma¯ sa¯vaj ja¯ ime dhamma¯ viññugarahita¯ ime dhamma¯ samatta¯ sama¯dinna¯ ahita¯ya dukkha¯ya sam . vattantı¯ ti—atha tumhe ka¯la¯ma¯ pajaheyya¯tha. 63. For a parallel in the Pali materials, see Payutto 1995: 182–185. 64. Divy 15.11–13, yady aham . ma¯ta¯pitr.bhya¯m . mr.ta eva gr.hı¯tah. kasma¯d bhu¯yo ’ham . ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ gr.ham pravis ´ a mi gaccha my a ryamaha ka tya yanasya ntika t pravraja mı ti . . 65. Divy 17.4–6, sarvo ’yam . lokah. suvarn.asya ´sraddadha¯ti na tu kas´cin mama ´sraddhaya¯ gacchati. 66. Considering that this text is little more than an enumeration of proper gifts and their results, its presence in the Divya¯vada¯na further attests to this “gold standard” as system of knowledge that had both cachet and currency. . . 67. There are seven factors of awakening (Skt., bodhyanga; Pali, boj jhanga). These are the awakening-factors of mindfulness (smr.ti), discrimination of dharma (dharmapravicaya), strength (vı¯rya), joy ( prı¯ti), serenity ( pras´rabdi), concentration (sama¯dhi), and equanimity (upeks.a¯). For more, see Gethin 1992a: 146–189. 68. Divy 482.16–20, vastrada¯nam . dada¯ti pran.¯ı tavastrabhogavipa¯kapratila¯bhasam . var¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ na ra mavi tan¯ı yam | pratis´rayam da nam dada ti harmyaku t a ga rapra sa dabhavanavima nodya . . . ¯ ´ses.avipa¯kapratila¯bhasam . vartanı yam | ´sayya¯da¯nam . dada¯ti uccakulabhogavipa¯kapratila¯bhasam . vartanı¯yam. 69. Divy 23.18–20, anena¯ham . kus´alamu¯lena¯d.hye maha¯dhane maha¯bhoge kule ja¯yeyam evam . vidha¯na¯m . ca dharma¯n.a¯m . la¯bhı¯ sya¯m evam . vidham . eva ´sa¯sta¯ram a¯ra¯gayeyam . ma¯ vira¯gayeyam. 70. Much the same occurs in the Jyotis. ka-avada¯na. The Buddha explains that since . in a previous life Jyotis.ka—then the householder Anangan.a (Sinless)—“made offerings to the tatha¯ gata Vipas´yin and then made a fervent aspiration, by the result of this action he was born in a family that was rich, wealthy, and prosperous” (yad vipas´yini tatha¯gate ka¯ra¯m . kr.tva¯ pran.idha¯nam . kr.tam . tasya karman.o vipa¯kena¯d.hye maha¯dhane maha¯bhoge kule ja¯tah. | Divy 289.14–16).

notes to pages 59–61

229

71. In truth, the text seems to regard material wealth not as a cause for spiritual attainments but as a precondition. For example, in the beginning of the Supriyaavada¯na, the caravan leader Supriya makes a promise that he will fulfill the material desires of all the inhabitants of Jambudvı¯pa. As he explains, “I will satisfy all beings with wealth” (sarvasattva¯ maya¯ dhanena sam . tarpayitavya¯h. | Divy 100.23)! This promise prompts Supriya to travel for one hundred years to find the necessary wealth—in this case, wish-fulfilling jewels. Supriya, however, doesn’t merely make the world rich, he makes the world rich so that he can establish everyone on the proper path of morality. As the narrator explains, “Later, when the best of the most-treasured jewels of Jambudvı¯pa had been mounted on top of a flag, the entire multitude of people living in Jambudvı¯pa were fully satisfied with the special things that they desired. When the people living in Jambudvı¯pa were fully satisfied with these things, King Supriya established them on the tenfold path of virtuous actions” (samanantaram . dhvaja¯gra¯varopite tasmin jambudvı¯papradha¯naman.iratne kr. tsno jambudvı¯paniva¯sı¯ maha¯janaka¯yo yathepsitair upakaran.avis´es. aih. sam . tarpita upakaran.asam . tarpitas´ ca jambudvı¯paniva¯sı¯ janaka¯yah. supriyen.a ra¯jña¯ das´asu kus´ales. u karmapathes. u pratis..t ha¯pitah. | Divy 122.9–13). While at first it seems that Supriya suffers from a merchant’s conceit that everyone can be satisfied with money, the outcome of the story is more telling of a mercantile ethos that considers spiritual pursuits as a viable goal only for those whose material needs have been met. Yet, this is not a case of pragmatism in which material needs are constituted by food, shelter, and clothing. Here it is every imaginable item, whether a basic provision or a luxury good, that makes up the necessary base for spiritual conversion. 72. Divy 14.17–18, yaya¯ maya¯ryamaha¯ka¯tya¯yanam . pin.d.akena pratipa¯dya pran.¯ı te a ¯ devanika ye upapattavyam . . a Following Divy-V 9.7. Divy 14.18, trayastrim . ´se. Cowell and Neil (Divy 14n1) query trayastrim . ´saddevanika¯ye. 73. The importance of making offerings to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana is further stressed by the disastrous results that are said to accrue from even criticizing this act. For example, the former brahman woman explains that her husband and son had rebuked her for making offerings to the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana and as a result were reborn as hungry ghosts whose food is transformed into dung beetles and iron balls. While these examples of giving are all directed toward the noble Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana—and are perhaps indicative of some cultic behavior on his behalf—gifts that are offered to family members are also represented as being somehow sacrosanct. Though the benefits of making such gifts are left unstated, interrupting such acts of giving proves disastrous. The former brahman woman’s daughter-in-law and maidservant had prevented gifts of food from being to delivered between the brahman woman and her relatives and as a result were reborn as hungry ghosts damned to consume only flesh and pus-and-blood. 74. Mil 35, sampakkhandanalakkhan.a¯ saddha¯. 75. Divy 17.16–17, amba ta¯ta¯nuja¯n.¯ı dhvam . pravrajis.ya¯mi samyag eva ´sraddhaya¯ aga¯ra¯d anaga¯rika¯m. One could also take samyag eva more closely with pravrajis. ya¯mi and translate this as “I want to go forth as a monk from home to homelessness in the proper way, out of ´sraddha¯.” In the Pali equivalent of this trope, K. R. Norman (1979: 329n26)

230

notes to pages 62–66

understands saddha¯ya to mean “gladly.” For more on what it means of have “gone forth by reason of saddha¯” (saddha¯pabbajita), see Bode 1911. 76. Divy 341.20–21, na¯sti tatha¯gatasyaivam . vidham . pra¯bhh.tam . yatha¯ vaineyapra¯bhr.tam.

chapter 3 1. In the Puggalapaññatti-at..thakatha¯ (Pp-A 248), the commentary to the fourth book of the Therava¯ din Abhidhamma, pasa¯da and saddha¯ are equated—as the text records, pasa¯do saddha¯pasa¯do. The two terms are also equated in the Abhidharmakos´a (Abhidh-k 1148/viii.9c): “´sraddha¯ is prasa¯da” (´sraddha¯prasa¯dah.). Likewise, in the Jña¯naprastha¯nas´a¯stra of Ka¯ tya¯ yanı¯putra (Jñ-pr i, 19), the most venerated of Sarva¯ stiva¯ din Abhidharma texts, ´sraddha¯ is explained as “prasa¯da of mind” (cetasah. prasa¯dah.). Though this last reference was cited by both Jayatilleke (1963: 385–386) and Dhadphale (1980: 44–45, 150), following La Vallée Poussin’s translation of the Abhidharmakos´a (1923–1931: ii, 106n3), I must confess that I myself was unable to find it. 2. As K. N. Jayatilleke (1963: 386) observes, “we find cetaso pasa¯da in the Nika¯yas where we can expect saddha¯.” For example, the following occurs at the end of the Madhupin.d.aka-sutta in the Majjhima-nika¯ya (MN i, 114): “Likewise, Bhante, an able-minded monk in the course of scrutinizing, with wisdom, the meaning of this discourse on the dhamma, would find satisfaction and pasa¯da of mind” (evam eva kho bhante cetaso bhikkhu dabbaja¯tiko yato yato imassa dhammapariya¯yassa pañña¯ya attham upaparikkheyya labetheva attamanatam . labhetha cetaso pasa¯dam). Frank Hoffman (1987: 410) concurs: “There does not seem to be enough difference in the meaning of pasa¯da and saddha¯ in these passages [regarding saddha¯ in the Majjhima-nika¯ya] to worry that the former sometimes occurs. They both mean faith or confidence as applied to Buddha, Doctrine, and Order.” 3. In the Indrabra¯hman.a-avada¯na, a brahman boasts that no one is his equal, so when he hears of the Buddha’s good looks, he goes to see whether the Buddha is more handsome. Catching sight of the Buddha, he reflects, “The ascetic Gautama may be more beautiful than me, but he isn’t taller” (kim . ca¯pi ´sraman.o gautamo mama¯ntika¯d abhiru¯pataro noccatara iti | Divy 75.6–7). He then tries to behold the top of the Buddha’s head, but even climbing to a higher place, he still can’t see it. The Buddha responds by telling him that the heads of buddhas can’t be looked down upon, but that if he still desires to see the extent of the Buddha’s body, he should look underneath the pit in his home where the agnihotra offering is made, and there he’ll find a post made of gos´¯ı rs.a sandalwood. That post, the Buddha explains, “is the measure of the body received from the mother and father of the Tatha¯ gata” (tatha¯gatama¯ta¯paitr.kasya¯´srayasya prama¯n.am iti | Divy 75.15–16). The brahman is incredulous, but he quickly goes there and sees that everything was just as the Buddha had said. Then, the text records, “he became full of prasa¯da” (so ’abhiprasannah. | Divy 75.19). Though this incident has clear parallels with the accounts of the butcher, the adulterer, and the prostitute in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, here the brahman is not filled with ´sraddha¯—as might be expected—but rather with prasa¯da. While this could be a case of synonymy between the two terms, on closer inspection it seems to be a coalescing of distinct but closely related terms and tropes.

notes to pages 66–67

231

4. According to Ludowyk-Gyomroi’s assessment, prasa¯da is both cognitive and affective—not an either/or scenario as was discussed previously with regard to ´sraddha¯. These respective features of prasa¯da are apparent in its frequent pairing with citta, which can be either “heart” or “mind.” As Kevin Trainor (1989: 190n8) notes with regard to the Pali vam . sa materials, “The psychological faculty called citta includes within its domian both cognitive and affective functions, though it is the latter function that comes to the fore, particularly when citta is contrasted with mano, which is identified with rationality.” 5. One exception to these interpretations of pasa¯da is noted by C. A. F. Rhys . Davids in her translation of the Dhammasangan.i. She remarks that the gloss on “eye” . (cakkhu) at the beginning of chapter 2 in the At..thasa¯linı¯ [⫽ Dhammasangan.i Commentary] is “the only early instance of the word pasa¯do, meaning literally clearness, brightness, serenity, faith, being used to denote the receptive reacting sense-agency” (1900: 174n3). 6. In the very first story of the Avada¯nas´ataka, the brahman Pu¯rn.a, who is ´ 2.3), “hears praise of the virtues of wealthy, pious, and a “believer” (´sra¯ddhah. | AvS the Blessed One and obtains great prasa¯da” (bhagavato gun.asam . pratis´rutya . kı¯rtanam ´ ¯ ¯ ¯ mahantam . prasadam . pratilabdhavan | AvS 2.10), suggesting an aural, not visual, provenance for faith. Shortly thereafter, Pu¯rn.a meets the Buddha, beholds his appearance, and makes an offering, following the prasa¯da typology, but with no mention of the term. In what follows, the Buddha performs a miracle, and following the conventions in the ¯ rn.a becomes “full of prasa¯ da, and like a Divya¯vada¯na for seeing solitary buddhas, Pu tree cut down at the roots . . . falls prostrate at the feet of the Blessed one and begins to make a fervent aspiration” ( prasa¯daja¯tah. mu¯lanikr.tta iva drumo . . . bhavatah. pa¯dayor ´ 3.16–4.1). While prasa¯da occurs frequently in nipatya pran.idhim . kartum a¯rabdhah. | AvS the Avada¯nas´ataka, where it is often generated by seeing the Buddha or his miracles ´ 4.12, 8.10, 10.12), the text does not evince the systematization of prasa¯da that is (e.g., AvS evident in the Divya¯vada¯na. For a French translation of the text, see Féer 1891. 7. For example, one particular typology of pasa¯da is found in the Maha¯vam . sa, the “Great Chronicle” of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. The text, according to Trainor, “repeatedly evokes the emotions of sam . vega and pasa¯da,” and as Trainor (1997: 82–83) remarks, “these two emotions taken together represent two significant aspects of the Therava¯ da traditions’s understanding of what it means to ‘take refuge’ in the Triple Gem.” Trainor explains, “It is the experience of fear or agitation (sam . vega) that arises when one recognizes the contingent and transient nature of all phenomena, as manifested in sickness, old age, death, etc., that provides the impetus for the taking of refuge in the path that leads to complete liberation from these ills. It is, in turn contemplation on the nature of the Buddha, Dhamma, and San.gha that gives rise to the feeling of serene joy ( pasa¯da) as one takes refuge in them and sets out on the path that leads to nibba¯ na.” 8. Divy 2.26, 26.2–3, 58.2, 99.17–18, etc. 9. Divy 153.21–22, 108.9, etc. 10. Divy 167.15, etc. 11. Divy 74.23, etc. 12. Divy 9.13, 11.1, etc. 13. Divy 114.23, 115.21, etc.

232

notes to pages 67–68

14. Divy 9.13–1, 11.1–2, 12.16, etc. 15. Divy 148.10, 182.3–4, 267.17, etc., pra¯sa¯dikah. pra¯sa¯dikapariva¯rah.. 16. Divy 198.19–20, pra¯sa¯dikah.. 17. Divy 13.9 and 82.13–14, ka¯yapra¯sa¯dikas´ cittapra¯sa¯dikah.. The power of the Buddha’s senior disciples to instill prasa¯da in others or cause them to refute it is addressed in the Sva¯gata-avada¯na. When some non-Buddhist renunciants hear that the beggar Sva¯ gata (Welcome), whom they disparagingly refer to as Dura¯ gata (Unwelcome), has become a Buddhist monk, they remark, “The ascetic Gautama has said that his order instills prasa¯da all around. But how is this supposed to instill prasa¯da all around? Now beggars, even ones like Dura¯ gata, go forth as monks in it” (´sraman.o bhavanto gautama evam a a¯ha sa¯mantapra¯sa¯dikam . . me ´sa¯sanam ity atra kim . sa¯mantapra¯sa¯dikam ity asya yatreda¯nı¯m dura¯gataprabhr.tayo ’pi krod.amallaka¯h. pravrajantı¯ti | Divy 181.14–16)! The narrative voice also explains that “when there is a senior disciple who is [great] like Mount Sumeru, many people experience prasa¯da” (sumeruprakhye maha¯´sra¯vake maha¯janaka¯yah. prasa¯dam . pravedayateb | Divy 181.18–19). Likewise, later in the story, “the Blessed One magically creates a hut made of leaves [over the venerable Sva¯ gata who is drunk] so that no one would see him and then refute their prasa¯da in the teachings” (bhagavata¯ suparn.ika¯ kut.ir nirmita¯ maitam . kas´cid dr..s.tva¯ ´sa¯sane ’prasa¯dam . pravedayis. yatı¯ti | Divy 190.12–13). a In the Arthavinis´caya-su¯tra, samantapra¯sa¯dika appears twice in descriptions of the Buddha. It is the thirty-ninth of the eighty minor marks (Samtani 1971: 64), and it also occurs, oddly, in a description of the thirty-third of the thirty-two marks of a great man (Samtani 1971: 305). According to the commentary (Samtani 1971: 306), “[A great man] instills prasa¯da everywhere because he has a form of which one never tires. In other words, he is prasa¯danı¯ya” (asecanakaru¯patva¯t sarvatah. pra¯sa¯dikah. prasa¯danı¯ya ityarthah.). In his study of the Sva¯gata-avada¯na, Kenneth Ch’en (1945–47: 271) translates this term as “universally beautiful.” Cf. Sv i, 284. b The corresponding Tibetan (D nya 26b4) is smras pa skyed par byed pas. Ch’en (1945–47: 272n109) suggests, “It may mean ‘to make their favors known by talking,’ and this would correspond to Skt. prasa¯dam.” 18. Divy 13.9–11, cittam abhiprasannam. 19. Divy 96.12, citta¯ny abhiprasa¯dya. 20. Divy 516.11–12, pra¯sa¯dikam . pradars´anı¯yam. ¯ 21. Divy 516.14–15, dr..s.tva ca punah. prı¯tipra¯modyaja¯tah. | sa sam . laks.ayati | ya¯dr.´so ’yam . ´sraman.ah. pra¯sa¯dikah. pradars´anı¯yah. sakalajanamanoha¯rı¯. 22. Vin i, 195, pa¯sa¯dikah. pasa¯danı¯yam. 23. Divy 132.27, cittapra¯sa¯dikah. ka¯yapra¯sa¯dikah.. 24. Divy 133.7, ka¯yikı¯ tes. a¯m . maha¯tmana¯m . dharmades´ana¯ na va¯cikı¯. 25. Divy 133.7–11, sa vitatapaks. a iva ham . sara¯ja upari viha¯yasam udgamya jvalanatapanavars.an.avidyotanapra¯tiha¯rya¯n.i kartum a¯rabdhah. | a¯´su pr.thagjana¯varjanakarı¯ .rddhih. | te mu¯lanikr.tta¯ iva druma¯h. pa¯dayor nipatya pran.idha¯nam . kartum a¯rabdha¯h.. 26. A householder in the Sva¯gata-avada¯na, for example, throws an ailing solitary buddha out of his house and tells him, “Go live among the beggars” (krod.amallaka¯ na¯ m . madhye prativaseti | Divy 192.4)! Undeterred, the solitary buddha reflects, “This poor householder is [spiritually] beaten and battered. He should be rescued” (hato ’yam . tapasvı¯

notes to page 69

233

gr.hapatir upahatas´ ca¯bhyuddha¯ro ’sya kartavya iti | Divy 192.5–6). To this end, he performs the standard-issue miracles of a solitary buddha, and the householder beseeches him to alight. When the solitary buddha once again returns to land, the householder honors him with offerings and then falls at his feet and makes a fervent aspiration—that he will suffer no consequences from such an offense and that his good deed will lead him to reap certain benefits. For other instances of this trope, see Divy 313.12–25 and 539.5–12. 27. Divy 275.17–18, “A monk is not to display magical power in front of a householder. Whoever does so commits a transgression” (na bhiks. un.a¯ a¯ga¯rikasya purasta¯d .rddhir vidars´ayitavya¯ dars´ayati sa¯tisa¯ro bhavati). 28. In the story, the householder Jyotis.ka announces that he has placed a bowl made of gos´¯ı rs. a sandalwood and filled with jewels on top of a pillar, and that whoever can retrieve it by making use of his magical powers can keep it. The venerable Das´abala Ka¯ ´ syapa decides, “I will fulfill this desire of his” (tad asya manoratham . pu¯raya¯mı¯ti | Divy 275.9–10), and then stretches out his arm, like the trunk of an elephant, and retrieves it. This brief episode is peculiar. Das´abala Ka¯ ´ syapa (Pali, Kassapa Dasabala) is a name generally used to designate the twenty-fourth buddha, and the Buddha Ka¯ ´ syapa does figure in a number of stories in the Divya¯vada¯na (Divy 22–24, 342–343, 346–348). Here, however, the character is said to be an ordinary monk, but the name Das´abala designates one “possessing the ten powers [of a Buddha].” With this in mind, perhaps Das´abala Ka¯´ syapa’s actions are merely expedient means, for Jyotis.ka, the intended beneficiary of his actions, does goes forth as a monk in the Buddha’s order and eventually become an arhat. Similarly, in the story of Pin.d.ola Bharadva¯ ja in the Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯ (Dhp-a 199–203; trans. in Burlingame 1969: iii, 35–38), a disciple of the Buddha uses his magical powers to retrieve a wooden bowl that a layman has placed out of reach in a bamboo tree and dared anyone to retrieve. Here too, the Buddha condemns such a use of miraculous powers. In this case, however, the Buddha then exempts himself from this restriction, and in what follows performs an impressive series of miracles. 29. Likewise, in the Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra, one of only two su¯tras included in the Divya¯vada¯na, the Buddha defeats a group of six heretical monks in a competition of miracles. At the end of the story, the Buddha finally triumphs by creating an enormous array of buddhas who each in turn perform a variety of activities—including that same set of miracles described above. This miracle causes the heretic Pu¯ran.a to flee and fret, “The ascetic Gautama will convert my disciples” (´sraman.o gautamo madı¯ya¯ñ chra¯vaka¯n anva¯vartayis.yati | Divy 164.17–18)! This prediction comes true, and soon thereafter the Buddha gives a discourse on the dharma that leads “many hundreds and thousands of beings [to accept] the refuges as well as the precepts” ( pra¯n.is´atasahasraih. ´saran.agamanas´iks. a¯pada¯ni | Divy 166.14–15). 30. Divy 77.13, cittam abhiprasa¯dayis. yanti. 31. Divy 389.72, rajña¯h. prasa¯davr.ddhyartham. 32. Divy 23.13–14, bhu¯yasya¯ ma¯traya¯bhiprasannah.. 33. Divy 71.23, abhiprasannah.. One who has prasa¯da is referred to as pra¯sa¯daja¯ta (“one in whom prasa¯da has arisen”), or as prasanna or abhiprasanna—past passive participles of the same root ( pra ⫹ √sad) being used as substantives. As with the addition of abhi to √´srad, the addition of the prefix abhi to pra ⫹ sad, forming abhi ⫹ pra ⫹ sad, has

234

notes to pages 69–72

little effect on the meaning of the term. One could translate abhi as “fully” or “complete” (as in “to fully believe” or “to have complete faith”), but that would perhaps be too strong a reading. For the most part, the effect of the additional prefix is pleonastic. 34. Divy 530.30, abhiprasannah.. 35. Divy 397.19–20, tasya bodhau vis´es.atah. prasa¯daja¯ta iha bhagavata¯nuttara¯ samyaksam . bodhir abhisam . buddheti. Cf. As´oka¯ v 93.3–4. 36. Divy 68.5–6, tes. a¯m . prasa¯dasam . janana¯rtham . bhagava¯n nirmitam . dars´anam . visarjayati. Cf. Divy 138.12–13, 265.25, and 367.3–4 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 32.11–12). For more on the Buddha’s smile, see Strong 1989: 201–204. 37. Divy 166.12, maha¯janaka¯yasya tatha¯bhiprasannasya. 38. Divy 226.27, atı¯va prasa¯da utpannah.. 39. Divy 226.28, prasa¯dı¯kr.tacetah.. 40. Divy 73.21–22, atı¯te ’dhvany anena¯ham ekaya¯ ga¯thaya¯ stutah.. 41. Divy 73.27–29, bra¯hman.a ´s¯ı taka¯lo vartate gaccha¯sya ra¯jña¯h. kr.tva¯ kada¯cit kim a Following the Tibetan (Shackleton Bailey 1951: 86), rjes su mthun pa’i legs par smra ba. Divy 73.28, kas´cid anuku¯lam . bha¯.s itam. 42. Divy 74.3–4, sarvalokasya priyo mana¯pas´ ca. 43. Divy 74.6–10, aira¯van.asya¯kr.titulyadeho ru¯popapanno varalaks.an.ais´ ca | a ’si maha¯gajendra varn.aprama¯n.ena suru¯paru¯pamb iti || tato ra¯ja¯bhiprasanno ga¯tha¯m . bha¯.s ate | yo me gajendro dayito mana¯pah. prı¯tiprado dr..s.tiharo nara¯n.a¯m | tvam . bha¯.sase varn.apada¯ni tasya dada¯mi te gra¯mavara¯n.i pañceti || a

Following the Tibetan (Shackleton Bailey 1951: 86), bkra shis rab tu bsngag. Divy 74.7, “I mark you as praised” (laks.e pras´asto). b Following the manuscripts (Divy 74n2), read suru¯paru¯pam. Cowell and Neil (Divy 74.7) emend to the vocative suru¯paru¯pa. 44. Another example of prasa¯da arising through aural contact occurs in the Cu¯d.apaks. a-avada¯na. One day when the learned brahman Maha¯ panthaka isn’t instructing his five hundred students in the recitation of brahmanical mantras, he happens to meet a Buddhist monk who explains to him in detail the tenfold path of virtuous actions. At that time, “he becomes filled with prasa¯da” (abhiprasannah. | Divy 487.20). 45. Divy 277.23–278.4, bra¯hman.ah. kathayati | kim etad evam . bhavis.yati | jyotis. kah. kathayati | bra¯hman.a tava pratyks.¯ı karomi pas´yeti | tena¯sa¯v aparibhukta upariviha¯yasa¯ ks. iptah. | vita¯nam . kr.tva¯vasthitah. | paribhuktah. ks.iptah. ks.iptama¯traka eva patitah. | bra¯hman.o dr..s.tva¯ param . vismayam a¯pannah. kathayati | gr.hapate maharddhikas tvam . maha¯nubha¯va iti | jyotis. kah. kathayati | bra¯hman.a punah. pas´yainam . yo ’sa¯v aparibhuktaka iti sa kan..takava¯.tasyoparis..ta¯t ks. ipto ’saj jama¯no gatah. | so ’nyah. ks. iptah. kan..take lagnah. | sa bra¯hman.o bhu¯yasya¯ ma¯traya¯bhiprasannah. kathayati | gr.hapate maharddhikas tvam . maha¯nubha¯vo yat tava¯bhipretam tat prayaccheti . .

notes to page 73

235

46. The Pali Text Society Dictionary derives asecanaka from √sic in the sense of “to sprinkle.” Hence, a ⫹ secana ⫹ ka would mean “unmixed, unadulterated, i.e., with full and unimpaired properties, delicious, sublime, lovely.” More compelling, however, would be to derive it from √sec in the sense of “to satiate” (Bailey 1958: 530–531). This would yield the meaning “insatiable”—an etymology that accords well with citations in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese. The commentary to the Des´¯ı na¯mama¯la¯ (DNM 31/i.72), for example, explains that “the word a¯sean.aya, which means the seeing of whom is unquenchable [i.e., someone you never tire of seeing], is derived from the word a¯secanaka [and along with a second item noted just before this] is accordingly not mentioned [in the ka¯rika verse itself ]” (a¯sean.ayas´abdas´ ca¯vitr.ptadars´ana¯rtha a¯secanakas´abdabhava iti noktau). The Amarakos´a (Ak 495/iii.1.53,) records that “something is asecanaka in that there is no end to the satisfaction [one gets] from seeing it” (tad asecanakam . tr.pter na¯sty anto yasya dars´ana¯t). The Tibetan version of the Kot.ikarn.aavada¯na (N 104b1; cited in GM iii 4, 34n1) translates asecanaka as “not satisfied” (chog mi shes —> Skt., atr.pta). And, lastly, the Maha¯vyutpatti (Mvy §392) glosses asecanaka ru¯pena in the Tibetan with “not being satisfied upon seeing the physical form” (sku byad blta bas chog mi shes pa), and in the Chinese, much the same (Bailey 1958: 530). Notice that even in those cases when sight is not mentioned, as in the Des´¯ı na¯mama¯la¯ and the Amarakos´a, asecanaka or a variant of the term is closely linked to the phenomenon of seeing. By contrast, the Pali materials don’t seem to make that connection. There asecanaka is frequently defined as “possessing strength” (ojavan) (CPD, s.v., asecanaka), though Brough and Norman translate the term as “never causing surfeit” (Brough 1962: 193 and Norman 1971: 73–74). Also noteworthy is that the expression asecanakadars´ana occurs in a verse in the Uda¯navarga (Uv 437/xxxiii.20), one of the few texts cited in the Divya¯vada¯na (Divy 34.29, 20.23), but not in very similar verses in parallel texts such as the Pali Dhammapada (Dhp 380–381/xxv.9), the Prakrit Dhammapada (Dhp-Pr 12/i.70), the Ga¯ ndha¯ rı¯ Dhammapada (Dhp-G 128/i.70), and the Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dharmapada (Dhp-BHS 7/iv.59). Unexpectedly, rather than connecting asecanakadars´ana with an object that instills prasa¯da, it connects having prasa¯da with achieving a state that is asecanakadars´ana. To quote: A monk dwelling in loving kindness who has prasa¯da in the Buddha’s teaching may attain the state that is peace, which one never tires of seeing. maitra¯viha¯rı¯ yo bhiks. uh. prasanno buddhas´a¯sane | adhigacchet padam . ´sa¯ntam asecanaksadars´anam || 47. Divy 226.26–29, tam . dr..s.tva¯ dva¯trim . ´sallaks.an.a¯lam . kr.tam asecanakadars´anam atı¯va prasa¯da utpannah. | yato ’sau prasa¯dı¯kr.taceta¯ ya¯na¯d avatı¯rya tam . bhagavantam . tais´ ¯ ¯ caturatnamayaih. pus. pair avakı rati. The Dharmaruci-avada¯na (Divy 251.20–21) describes a similar encounter with the . perfectly awakened Dipankara: “Given room, the young brahman Sumati saw the Blessed One—a sight one never tires of seeing—and was filled with intense prasa¯da. Filled as he was with prasa¯da, he tossed five lotuses at the Buddha” (labdha¯vaka¯´sas´ ca sumatir ma¯n.avo

236

notes to pages 73–75

bhagavantam asecanakadars´anam . dr..s.tva¯tı¯va prasa¯daja¯tah. | prasa¯daja¯tena ca ta¯ni pañca padma¯ni bhagavatah. ks.ipta¯ni). Likewise, in the Ma¯ndha¯ta¯-avada¯na (Divy 227.26–28): “When [the merchant Autkarika] saw Lord Vipas´yin—a sight one never tires of seeing—great prasa¯da arose in him. Full of prasa¯da, he took a handful of mung beans and tossed them ¯ pam in Lord Vipas´yin’s bowl” (bhagavantam . vipas´yinam asecanakadars´anaru . dr..s.tva¯dhikah. ¯ ¯ ¯ prasa¯da utpannah. | prasa¯daja¯tena tasya mudga¯na¯m mus t im gr hı tva pa tre praks . .. . . . iptah.). 48. Divy 23.12–16, tena sa dr..s.tah. stu¯po ’secanakadars´anah. | dr..s.tva¯ ca bhu¯yasya¯ ma¯traya¯bhiprasannah. . . . tena prasa¯daja¯tena yat tatra¯vas´is..tam aparam . ca dattva¯. 49. Divy 334.14–16, uktam . bhagavata¯ pañca¯secanaka¯ dars´anena | hastı¯ na¯gas´ ca ra¯ja¯ ca sa¯garas´ ca ´siloccayah. | asecanaka¯ dars´anena buddhas´ ca bhagavata¯m . vara iti || 50. Divy 547.12–13, asecanaka¯dars´ana¯ buddha¯ bhagavantah.. 51. Divy 547.13–15, te yam eva¯vayavam . bhagavatah. pas´yanti tam eva pas´yanto na tr.ptim gacchanti | te na ´ s aknuvanti bhagavato nimittam udgrahı¯tum. . 52. Th-a i, 147, ru¯paka¯yasampattidassanena atitto. 53. Th-a i, 148, tassa saddha¯balavabha¯vato eva vipassana¯vı¯thim . na otarati. 54. MN i, 24; i, 184; i, 205; etc., esa¯ham . bhavantah. gotamam . saran.am . gaccha¯mi . dhammam . ca bhikkhusangham . ca | upa¯sakam . mam . bhavam . gotamo dha¯retu aj jatagge pa¯n.upetam . saran.am . gatam . iti. Ña¯ n.amoli and Bodhi (1995: 107, 277, 297, etc.) translate this as “I go to Master Gotama for refuge and to the Dhamma and to the Sangha of bhikkhus. From today let Master Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone to him for refuge for life.” 55. In the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, for example, the householder Sahasodgata pledges, “I take refuge in the Lord Buddha, the dharma, and the community of monks. Hereafter and for as long as I live and breathe, consider me a disciple who is full of prasa¯da” (es.o ’ham buddham . bhagavantam . ´saran.am . gaccha¯mi dharmam . ca bhiks.usam . gham . copa¯sakam . ca ma¯m . dha¯raya¯dya¯gren.a ya¯vaj jı¯vam . pra¯n.opetam abhiprasannam iti | Divy 311.6–8). Elsewhere the vow ends with “who has taken the refuges” (Divy 53.8, 72.2–3, 76.1, 128.22–23, etc.) or “who has taken the triple refuge” (Divy 543.10, etc.). 56. For more on declarations of truth, also know as vows of truth, see Burlingame 1917 and Brown 1968 and 1978. 57. Divy 154.18–26, upasam . kramya ka¯lasya ra¯jakuma¯rasya hastapa¯da¯n yatha¯stha¯ne stha¯payitva¯ evam . vada | ye kecit sattva¯ apada¯ va¯ dvipada¯ va¯ bahupada¯ va¯ aru¯pin.o va¯ ru¯pin.o va¯ sam . jñino va¯ asam . jñino va¯ naiva sam . jñino va¯ na¯sam . jñinas tatha¯gato ’arhan samyaksam . buddhah. tes.a¯m . sattva¯na¯m agra a¯khya¯yate | ye kecid dharma¯ asam . skr.ta¯ va¯ sam . skr.ta¯ va¯ vira¯go dharmas tes.a¯m . agra a¯khya¯tah. | ye kecit sam . gha¯ va¯ gan.a¯ va¯ yuga¯ va¯ pars.ado va¯ tatha¯gatas´ra¯vakasam. ¯ ¯ ¯ ghas tes.a¯m agra a¯khya¯tah. | anena satyena satyava¯kyena tava ´sarı¯ram yatha paura n am sya t . . . . 58. These principal trusts in Pali are as follows (AN ii, 34; cf. trans. in Gethin 1992: 112–113): [i] Monks, in so far as there are beings with no feet, two feet, four feet, or with many feet; with form or formless; conscious, unconscious, or neither-conscious-nor-unconscious—of these the Tatha¯ gata is said to be the best, an arhat, a perfectly awakened being. Monks, whoever has

notes to pages 75–78

237

pasa¯da in the Buddha, has pasa¯da in what is best, and for those who have pasa¯da in what is best, the best is the result. [ii] Monks, in so far as there are conditioned dhammas, the noble eightfold path is said to be the best of these. Monks, whoever has pasa¯da in the noble eightfold path . . . the best is the result. [iii] Monks, in so far as there are dhammas either conditioned or unconditioned, detachment is said to be the best of these dhammas, that is . . . nibba¯na. Monks, whoever has pasa¯da in dhamma . . . the best is the result. [iv] Monks, in so far as there are communities or groups, the community of the disciples of the Tatha¯ gata is said to be the best of these, that is . . . a field of merit for the world. Monks, whoever has pasa¯da in the monastic community . . . the best is the result. [i] ya¯vata¯ bhikkhave satta¯ apada¯ va¯ dipada¯ va¯ catuppada¯ va¯ bahuppada¯ va¯ ru¯pino va¯ aru¯pino saññino va¯ asaññino nevasaññina¯saññino va¯ tatha¯gato tesam . aggam akkha¯yati araham . samma¯sam . buddho | ye bhikkhave buddhe pasanna¯ agge te pasanna¯ | agge kho pasanna¯nam . aggo vipa¯ko hoti | . ¯ [ii] ya¯vata¯ bhikkhave dhamma¯ sam khata ariyo at t an giko maggo tesam aggam . .. . . akkha¯yati | ye bhikkhave ariye at..thangike magge pasanna¯ . . . aggo vipa¯ko hoti | [iii] ya¯vata¯ bhikkhave dhamma¯ sam . khata¯ va¯ asam . khata¯ va¯ vira¯go tesam . dhamma¯nam aggam akkha¯yati yadidam . . . . nibba¯nam . | ye bhikkhave dhamme pasanna¯ . . . aggo vipa¯ko hoti | [iv] ya¯vata¯ bhikkhave sam . gha¯ va¯ gan. a¯ tatha¯gatasa¯vakasam . gho tesam aggam akkha¯yati yadidam . . . . puññakkhettam . lokassa | ye bhikkhave sam . ghe pasanna¯ . . . aggo vipa¯ko hoti. 59. Divy 155.1–6. 60. Divy 155.6–7, anena satyena satyava¯kyena. 61. For more on this incident, see Teiser 2006: 67–75. 62. Divy 304.27, loka¯khya¯nakatha¯. 63. Divy 304.28–29, a gacchato ’nupadam . gacchanti ma¯ loka¯khya¯yika¯m . na ´sros.ya¯ma iti. a Conjecture. Divy 304.28, tasya¯tisva¯ren.a. 64. Divy 305.5–9, sa kathayati | ta¯ta kim . dvidaivasika¯m . bhr.tim . dada¯sı¯ti | sa katha¯ ¯ dhika¯ram yati | putra na dvidaivasika¯m dada my api tu prasanno ’ham prasanna . . . karomı¯ti | ¯ ¯ sa kathayati | ta¯ta yadi tvam mama bhiprasanno ya vat tava gr he karma kartavyam . . . ta¯vat tavaiva haste tis..thatu. 65. The sense of adhika¯ra here is difficult to capture with a single-word translation in English. It is one’s duty, one’s obligation, what one simply does, yet it neither has a sense of coercion nor of being something that one could easily refuse to do. It is a duty, an impetus, and a compulsion, but also a privilege. David Eckel and David Seyfort Ruegg (personal communication) suggest the French métier. 66. See, for example, DPPN, s.v. upananda. ´ay-v 38.12–13, yasya prasannah. prasanna¯dhika¯ram 67. S . karoti tasyaiva sa upanan¯ ¯ dasya tu vars. iko labhah..

238

notes to pages 78–82

68. Divy 307.19–20, ra¯jagr.he ca parva pratyupasthitam iti na kim . cit krayen.a¯pi labhyate. 69. Divy 307.29–308.8, te tasya saka¯´sam upasam . kramya kathayanti | gr.hapatiputra dı¯yata¯m asma¯kam bhuktas´es.am . yad asti mu¯lyam . prayaccha¯ma iti | sa kathayati | na¯ham . mu¯lyena¯nuprayaccha¯my api tv evam eva prayaccha¯mı¯ti | te tena¯nnapa¯nena sam . tarpita¯ gr.hapater gatva¯ kathayanti | tasya te gr.hapate la¯bha¯h. sulabdha¯ yasya te nives´ane buddhapramukho bhiks.usam . gho ’nnapa¯nena sam . tarpita ima¯ni ca pañcaban.iks´ata¯nı¯ti | sa kathayati | anena gr.hapatiputren.a la¯bha¯h. sulabdha¯ anena buddhapramukho bhiks.usam . gho ’nnapa¯nena sam tarpito na mayeti . . 70. For more on the logic of commercial exchange, see Gregory 1982. 71. Divy 308.13–309.1, te pu¯rvam eva¯bhiprasanna¯h. sa¯rthava¯hena ca protsa¯hita¯ iti tair yatha¯sam . bha¯vyena man.imukta¯dı¯ni ratna¯ni datta¯ni maha¯n ra¯´sih. sam . pan.n.ah. | sa¯rthava¯hah. kathayati | putra gr.ha¯n.eti | sa kathayati | ta¯ta na maya¯ mu¯lyena dattam iti | sa¯rthava¯hah. kathayati | putra na vayam . tava mu¯lyam . prayaccha¯mo yadi ca mu¯lyam . gan.yate ekena ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ bhiprasanna¯h. ratnenedr.´sa¯na¯m bhakta na m aneka ni ´ s ata ni sam vidyante kim tu vayam tava . . . . ¯ ¯ ¯ prasanna¯dhika¯ram kurmo gr ha n eti | sa kathayati | ta ta maya buddhapramukho bhiks. usam . . . .¯ ¯ gho bhojito deves. u¯papatsye iti tasma¯d avas´is..tam yus mabhyam dattam yadi grahı s ya mi . . . . . stha¯nam etad vidyate yad deves. u nopapatsye | sa¯rthava¯hah. kathayati | putra¯bhis´raddadha¯si tvam . bhagavatah. | ta¯ta¯bhis´raddadhe | gaccha bhagavantam . pr.ccha | sa yena bhagava¯m .s tenopasam . kra¯ntah. | upasam . kramya bhagavatah. pa¯dau ´sirasa¯ vanditvaika¯nte nis. an.n.ah. | sa gr.hapatiputro bhagavantam idam avocat | bhagavan maya¯ buddhapramukham . bhiks.u¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ h. sam gham bhojayitva yad annapa nam avas ´ is t am tad ban ija m dattam te mama prasanna . . .. . . . ¯ ¯ prasanna¯dhika¯ram kurvanti kim kalpate tan mama grahı tum a hosvin na kalpata it | bha. . gava¯n a¯ha | yadi prasanna¯h. prasanna¯dhika¯ram . kurvanti gr.ha¯n.a. 72. Alfred Gell makes the intriguing suggestion that “seeing” (dars´an) in the Hindu context is also equated with gift exchange. Gell (1998 116) notes that “darshan is a gift of an offering, made by the superior to the inferior, and it consists of the ‘gift of the appearance’ imagined as a material transfer of some blessing.” 73. Abhidh-k 652–653/iv.45–46. 74. Abhidh-k 662–663/iv.55. 75. Godelier (1999: 54–56), for example, explains this need in terms of reciprocity, and Marshall Sahlins (1972: 160–161) explains it in terms of profit. For a list of more of Mauss’s critics, see Godelier 1999: 226n75. 76. According to Godelier (1999: 42), the problem of why a debt created by a gift is not cancelled or erased by an identical counter-gift “may be hard to understand for a mind immersed in the logic of today’s commercial relations, but it is basically simple. If the counter-gift does not erase the debt, it is because the ‘thing’ given has not really been separated, completely detached from the giver. The thing has been given without really being ‘alienated’ by the giver.” 77. For example, later in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, after Sahasodgata has received a dharma-teaching from the Buddha and has “seen the truth” (dr..s.tasatyah.), he expresses the magnitude of the gift he has received from the Buddha: What the Blessed One has done for the likes of me, Bhadanta, neither my mother nor my father have done, nor a dear one, nor any of my kinsmen or relatives, nor any king, or any deities, or deceased ancestors, nor

notes to pages 82–84

239

ascetics or brahmans. Oceans of blood and tears have dried up! Mountains of bones have been scaled! The doors to the lower realms of existence have been closed! The doors to heaven and liberation have been opened! And I have been established among gods and mortals! I have crossed over, Bhadanta! I have crossed over! And so, I take refuge in the Lord Buddha, in the dharma, and in the community of monks. Hereafter and for as long as I live and breathe, consider me a disciple full of prasa¯da. idam asma¯kam . bhadanta na ma¯tra¯ kr.tam . na pitra¯ nes..tena na svajanabandhuvargen.a na ra¯jña¯ na devata¯bhir na pu¯rvapretair na ´sraman.abra¯hman. air yad bhagavata¯sma¯kam . kr.tam | ucchos. ita¯ rudhira¯´srusamudra¯ lan.ghita¯ asthiparvata¯h. pihita¯ny apa¯yadva¯ra¯n.i vivr.ta¯ni svargamoks.adva¯ra¯n.i pratis. .ta¯pita¯h. smo devamanus. yes. v abhikra¯nto ’ham . bhadanta¯bhikra¯nta es.o ’ham . ¯ buddham bhagavantam ´ s aran am gaccha mi dharmam . . . . . ca bhiks.usam . gham . copa¯sakam . ca ma¯m . dha¯raya¯dya¯gren.a ya¯vaj jı¯vam . pra¯n.opetam abhiprasannam iti | Divy 310.30–311.8. Notice as well that Sahasodgata has apparently developed prasa¯da not from seeing the Buddha as a pra¯sa¯dika object, but from receiving from him the gift of a dharmateaching. 78. Much like the case in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na in which possessing ´sraddha¯ motivates Kot.ikarn.a to offer himself as a new disciple, possessing prasa¯da can also lead one to do the same. In the Dharmaruci-avada¯na, for instance, Dharmaruci “sees monks diligently engaged in reading, recitation, and concentration and becomes filled with intense prasa¯da. He then approaches a monk and says, ‘Noble sir, I want to go forth as a monk’ ” (bhiks.u¯n pa¯.thasva¯dhya¯yamanasika¯rodyukta¯n dr..s.tva¯tı¯vaprasa¯daja¯tah. | bhiks.um upasam . kramyaivam . vadati | a¯rya pravrajitum iccha¯mi | Divy 236.20–22). Likewise in the Cu¯d.a¯paks.a-avada¯na, a monk shows the twelve links of interdependent arising to the brahman Maha¯panthaka, and the latter,”filled with prasa¯da, says, ‘Monk, may I renounce, take ordination, and become a monk according to the dharma and monastic discipline that have been so well expressed’ ” (so ’bhiprasannah. kathayati | bho bhiks.o labheya¯ham . sva¯khya¯te dharmavinaye pravrajya¯m upasam . padam . bhiks.ubha¯vam . | Divy 487.24–26). 79. Divy 228.5–14, yo ’sav otkariko ban.ig aham eva tena ka¯lena tena samayena | yan maya¯ vipas´yinah. samyaksam . buddhasya prasa¯daja¯tena mudga¯na¯m . mus..tih. pa¯tre praks.ipta¯ tasma¯c catva¯ro mudga¯h. pa¯tre patita¯ avas´is..ta¯ bhu¯mau patita¯h. tasya karman.o vipa¯kena caturs.u dvı¯pes. u ra¯jyais´varya¯dhipatyam . ka¯ritam | yac ca¯sau mudgah. pa¯trakan..takam a¯hatya ¯ ¯ bhumau patitas tasya karman.o vipakena trayastrim . ´sa¯n deva¯n adhiru¯d.hah. | saced bhiks.ava h. sa mudgah. pa¯tre patito ’bhavis.yan na bhu¯mau stha¯nam etad vidyate yad deves.u ca manus.yes. u ca ra¯yjais´varya¯dhipatyam . ka¯ritam abhavis. yat. 80. Divy 482.13–16, vipulam . da¯nam . dada¯ti vipulabhogavipa¯kapratila¯bhasamvarta. nı¯yam | annada¯nam . dada¯ti ks.uttars.avicchedavipa¯kapratila¯bhasam . vartanı¯yam | pa¯nada¯nam . ¯ dada¯ti sarvatra ja¯tis.u tr.d.vicchedavipa¯kapratila¯bhasam vartanı yam . . ¯ lena trayodas´a81. Divy 69.28–70.1, asa¯v a¯nanda bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯ anena kus´alamu kalpa¯n vinipa¯tam na gamis yati . . . 82. Divy 73.14–15, asa¯v anena kus´alamu¯lena vim . ´satikalpam . vinipa¯tam . na gamis.yati.

240

notes to pages 84–85

83. Divy 23.16–20, tena prasa¯daja¯tena yat tatra¯vas´is..tam aparam . ca dattva¯ mahatı¯m . pu¯ja¯m . kr.tva¯ pran.idha¯nam . ca kr.tam | anena¯ham . kus´alamu¯lena¯d.hye maha¯dhane maha¯bhoge kule ja¯yeyam evam . vidha¯na¯m . ca dharma¯n.a¯m . la¯bhı¯ sya¯m evam . vidham eva ´sa¯sta¯ram a¯ra¯gayeyam . ma¯ vira¯gayeyam iti. 84. Divy 23.22–24, yad anena ka¯´syapasya samyaksam . buddhasya stu¯pe ka¯ra¯m . kr.tva¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ pran.idha¯nam kr tam tasya karman o vipa kena d hye maha dhane maha bhoge kule ja tah . . . . . .. 85. For example, King Va¯sava (Divy 65.5–11); King Dhanasammata (Divy 66.13–20); ´ra¯vastı¯ for alms (Divy 90.1–6); a householder and that a woman dependent on the city of S householder’s wife, son, daughter-in-law, servant, and maid (Divy 133.11–134.14); and so on. 86. Divy 82.13–14, ka¯yapra¯sa¯dikas´ cittapra¯sa¯dikah.. 87. Elsewhere in the Divya¯vada¯na (Divy 61.28–29, 395.23 [⫽ As´oka¯ v 90.6]) it is said that Maha¯ ka¯ ´ syapa is “foremost of those who preach the virtues of the purified” (dhu¯tagun.ava¯dina¯m agrah.). Among these virtues—which are, more accurately, a code of ascetic practices—is “eating in a single place” (eka¯sanika). If Maha¯ ka¯ ´ syapa observed this ascetic code, he would eat only once a day and in only one place, and hence whatever the beggar woman offered him would have to suffice as his meal for the day (see Ray 1994: 145n39). For more on the dhutagun.as, see Ray 1994: 293–323. 88. Divy 82.17–83.2, tata a¯yus.mata¯ maha¯ka¯´syapena tasya¯´s cetasa¯ cittam a¯jña¯ya pa¯tram upana¯mitam | yadi te bhagini parityaktam . dı¯yata¯m asmin pa¯tra iti | tatas taya¯ cittam abhiprasa¯dya tasmin pa¯tre dattam . maks.ika¯ ca patita¯ | sa¯ ta¯m apanetum a¯rabdha¯ | tasya¯s . tasminn a¯ca¯me ’ngulih. patita¯ | sam . laks.ayati | kim . ca¯py a¯ryen.a mama citta¯nuraks.aya¯ na cchorito ’pi tu na paribhoks.ayatı¯ti | atha¯yus.mata¯ maha¯ka¯´syapena tasya¯´s cetasa¯ cittam a¯jña¯ya tasya¯ eva pratyaks.am anyatamam . kud.yamu¯lam . nis´ritya paribhuktam | sa¯ sam . lam . ayati | kim . ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ca¯py a¯ryen.a mama citta¯nuraks.aya¯ paribhuktam na nena ha ren a ha rakr tyam karis yatı . . . . . ¯ti | atha¯yu.sma¯n maha¯ka¯´syapas tasya¯´s cittam a¯jña¯ya ta¯m . nagara¯valambika¯m idam avocat | bhagini pra¯modyam a aham . tvadı¯yena¯ha¯ren.a ra¯trim . divasam atina¯mayis.ya¯mı¯ti | tasya¯ atı¯vaudbilyam utpannam . mama¯ryen.a maha¯ka¯´syapena pin.d.apa¯tah. pratigr.hı¯ta iti | tata a¯yu s. mati maha¯ka¯´syape cittam abhiprasa¯dya ka¯lam . gata¯ tus.ite devanika¯ye upapanna¯. a Following GM iii 1, 81.12. Divy 82.28–29, utpa¯dayasi. Without this emendation, one would be forced to misread the verb as an imperative—as in “be happy” or “you should be happy.” For a discussion of this story in the context of the various representations of ¯ ¯ Maha ka ´ syapa, see Ray 1994: 109–110 and Wilson 2003. 89. This is not to say, though, that prasa¯da-initiated offerings are not in some sense valuable, for they are valuable in terms of an economy of merit. Working from Georg Simmel’s (1979: 62ff.) idea that “value” is a function of the resistance that has to be overcome in order to gain access to an object, a certain resistance can be postulated for merit. This resistance isn’t due to a high price, for merit cannot simply be purchased; rather, this resistance occurs because merit is accrued through meritorious deeds, and the performance of such deeds takes time, resources, and effort. This accruing of merit, in turn, is what allows one to advance in the karmic hierarchy of existence. Even the Buddha is said to have “come into being by [performing] many hundreds of meritorious deeds” (anekapun.yas´atanirja¯ta | Divy 56.21–22). But in the case of encountering pra¯sa¯dika objects, large amounts of merit can be earned in a short time, with few resources and almost no effort, approaching what Alfred Gell calls “the magic-standard of

notes to pages 85–90

241

zero work.” As Gell (1992: 58) explains, “All productive activities are measured against the magic-standard, the possibility that the same product might be produced effortlessly, and the relative efficacy of techniques is a function of the extent to which they converge towards the magic-standard of zero work for the same product . . .” (italics added). 90. Divy 90.1–3. 91. Divy 366.9–11 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 31.7–8). 92. Divy 67.14–15. 93. Divy 461.25. 94. Divy 72.12–14. 95. Divy 79.21–24 (cp. Divy 469.5–8), evam . hy acintiya¯ buddha¯ buddhadharma¯ ’py acintiya¯ | acintiye prasanna¯na¯m . vipa¯ko ’pi acintiyah. || tes. a¯m acintiya¯na¯m apratihatadharmacakravartina¯m | samyaksam . buddha¯na¯m . na¯lam . gun.apa¯ram adhigantum || 96. Divy 344.18–21, dr..s.tva¯ ca¯sya cittam abhiprasannam | prasa¯daja¯tah. sam . laks.ayati | ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ mukta¯ hy ete a¯ryaka¯ evam vidha d duh kha t | cyutah ka lagato va ra n asya m s at karmanirate . . . . . . . bha¯hman.akule ja¯tah.. 97. Divy 534.9–11, santi tasmin antah.pure striyo ya¯ mama¯ntike prasannacitta¯lam . ka¯ram . kr.tva¯ ka¯yasya bheda¯t sugatau svargaloke deves. u¯papanna¯h.. 98. Divy 359.25–28 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 22.1–3), ´s.rn.u saumya tvam . hi bhagavaty asakr.d asakr.d avaskhalito na ca buddha¯v a¯ropita¯na¯m akus´ala¯na¯m . dharma¯n.a¯m anyat praks.a¯lanam anyatra tatha¯gataprasa¯da¯d eva. 99. In Reiko Ohnuma’s study of “gift of the body” stories, she identifies one genre of stories in which “the gift is never initiated once the donor’s willingness to give has been established.” As Ohnuma explains, “the bodhisattva’s mere willingness to give performs the same function as the actual gift itself” (2007: 75–76; italics in original). 100. Roots of virtue can be created through offerings or states of mind or some combination of the two. As Luis Gomez (1996: 332) observes, roots of virtue are “those acts and states of mind that are good (kus´ala) by virtue of the good intentions that motivate them and generate merit as well as a general tendency towards the practice of virtue and the attainment of buddhahood.” 101. Divy 313.19–25, sa gr.hapatiputras tı¯vren.a¯´sayena pa¯dayor nipatya pran.idha¯nam . kartum a¯rabdhah. | yan maya¯ evam . vidhe sadbhu¯tadaks. in.¯ı ye khara¯ va¯g nis´ca¯rita¯ ma¯ tasya karman.o bha¯gı¯ sya¯m . yat tv ida¯nı¯m . cittam abhiprasa¯ditam anena¯ham . kus´alamu¯lena¯d.hye maha¯dhane maha¯bhoge kule ja¯yeyam evam . vidha¯na¯m . ca dharma¯n.a¯m . la¯bhı¯ sya¯m . prativis´is. .tataram . ca¯tah. ´sa¯sta¯ram a¯ra¯gayeyam . ma¯ vira¯gayeyam iti.

chapter 4 1. Divy 67.1ff. 2. Divy 136.1ff. 3. Divy 246.5ff. 4. Divy 83.2–4, sa¯ ´s akren.a devendren.a dr..s .t a¯ a¯ca¯mam . pratipa¯dayantı¯ cittam abhiprasa¯dayantı¯ ka¯lam . ca kurva¯n.a¯ no tu dr..s .t a¯ kutropapanneti. 5. Divy 83.7, tatha¯ hy adhasta¯d deva¯na¯m . jña¯nadars´anam . pravartate no tu¯paris..ta¯t.

242

notes to pages 90–92

6. This is apparently a reference to the fact that the character here referred to as ´akra has been appointed to the post of being S ´akra because of his past actions. This S ´akra has accrued position, however, is an office with term limits. When the karma that S to be in this position runs outs, he will, quite literally, fall from office. 7. Divy 83.15–18, ime ca ta¯vad manus. ya¯h. pun.ya¯pun.ya¯na¯m apratyaks. adars´in.o da¯na¯ni a dadati pun.ya¯ni kurvanti | aham . svapun.yaphale vyavasthi. <pratyaks. adars´y eva> pun.ya¯na¯m tah. kasma¯d da¯na¯ni na dada¯mi pun.ya¯n.i va¯ na karomi. a Following GM iii 1, 83.7–8 and Divy 84.13 and 85.21. Divy 84.17, pratyak.s adars´anena. 8. Divy 83.25–26, kr.pan.a¯na¯thavanı¯yakajana¯nukampakah.. 9. Divy 84.8–16, sa kathayati | kaus´ika kim . duh.khitajanasya¯ntara¯yam . karos.i yasya te bhagavata¯ dı¯rghara¯tra¯nugato vicikitsa¯katham . katha¯´salyah. samu¯la a¯ru¯d.ho yatha¯pi tat tatha¯gatena¯rhata¯ samyaksam . buddhena | a¯rya maha¯ka¯´syapa kim . duh.khitajanasya¯ntara¯yam . karomi | ime ta¯van manus.ya¯h. pun.ya¯na¯m apratyaks.adars´ino da¯na¯ni dadati pun.ya¯n.i kurvanti aham . pratyaks.adars´y eva pun.ya¯na¯m . katham . da¯na¯ni na dada¯mi | nanu coktam . bhagavata¯ | karan.¯ı ya¯ni pun.ya¯n.i duh.kha¯ hy akr.tapun.yata¯h. | kr.tapun.ya¯ni modante asmin loke paratra ca || 10. Divy 82.8–9, gaccha¯mi kr.pan.ajanasya¯nugraham . karomi. 11. See Visuddhimagga xii.126–127 (Vism 403–404; trans. in Ña¯ n.amoli 1979: 441); the Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯ on verse 56 (Dhp-a i, 423–430; trans. in Burlingame 1969: ii, 86–89); the Uda¯na (Ud i, 4 and 29–30; trans. in Masefield 1994a: 5 and 49–50); and the commentary on these passages in the Uda¯na-at..thakatha¯ (Ud-a 60–62 and 195–202; trans. in Masefield 1994b: 96–99 and 486–494). 12. If it is the case that Maha¯ ka¯ ´ syapa is a follower of the dhu¯tagun.a ascetic prac´akra’s offering would mean tices and can only eat once a day, then his acceptance of S that he couldn’t accept anyone else’s offering until the following day. 13. Ud-a 199 and Dhp-a 426, bha¯riyam . te, kosiya, kammam . katam . duggata¯nam . sam¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ pattim vilumpantena: aj ja mayham da nam datva kocid eva duggato sena patit t ha nam . . . .. . va¯ set.¯ ¯ t.hit..tha¯nam va labheyya ti . . 14. Ud-a 199, maya¯ duggatataro atthi bhante. 15. Ud-a 199, katham . tvam . duggato devaraj jasirim anubhavanto ti. 16. Dhp-a i, 426–427. 17. Ud 30, amha¯kampi bhante kassapa puññena attho amha¯kampi puññena karan.¯ıyam . ti. 18. Ud-a 199–200 and Dhp-a i, 427, evam . sante pi ito pat..tha¯ya mayham . ma¯ evam . vañcetva¯ da¯nam ada¯sı¯ ti. 19. Dhp-a i, 427, vañcetva¯ tumha¯kam . da¯ne dinne mayham . kusalam atthi na¯tthı¯ti | attha¯vuso ti. 20. In the Pali Vinaya, generally speaking, monks are enjoined to accept those offerings that are given to them unless those offerings are wrongly acquired or wrongly prepared. Questions regarding the stock of merit of potential donors are not considered (cf. Cullavagga viii.6 [Vin ii, 251–216]; trans in Rhys Davids and Oldenberg 1987: 289–292). One well-known canonical example of alms being refused involves the monk Subhadda. The Buddha rejected his offering of food because it had been acquired

notes to pages 93–95

243

through ill-gotten gain (DPPN, s.v. subhadda). Likewise in the Cu¯lavam . sa (Cu¯lv ii, Ch. 45, lines 30–35; trans. in Geiger 1930: i, 91–92), the monastic community refused alms from King Da¯ t.hopatissa II. This is done to protest the king’s decision to build a structure for another monastic community on their property without their consent (see Rahula 1956: 68–69). This practice of “overturning the almsbowl” ( pattanikkuj jana) also has a more recent legacy. In the early 1990s, monks in Burma refused to accept the offerings of government officials as a protest against the government’s refusal to concede defeat in the recent elections. My thanks to Patrick Pranke for these references. 21. Divy 85.20–23, anyatamas´ ca krod.amallako vr.ddha¯nte cittam abhiprasa¯dayam .s tis..thati | ayam . ra¯ja¯ pratyaks. adars´y eva pun.ya¯na¯m . sve pun.yaphale pratis..tha¯pito ’tr.pta eva pun.yair da¯na¯ni dada¯ti pun.ya¯ni karoti. 22. Divy 85.28–86.4, tato bhagavata¯bhihitah. | maha¯ra¯ja kasya na¯mna¯ daks. in.a¯m a¯dis´a¯mi kim . tava¯hosvid yena tava¯ntika¯t prabhu¯tataram . pun.yam . prasu¯tam iti | ra¯ja¯ sam . laks.. ¯ ¯ ¯ ayati | mama bhagava¯n pin.d.apa¯tam paribhun kte ko ’nyo mama ntika t prabhu tataram . . pun.¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ yam prasavis yatı ti viditva kathayati bhagavan yena mama ntika t prabhu tataram pun . . . . ya m . ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ dis ´ atv iti | tato bhagavata krod amallakasya prasu¯tam tasya bhagava n na mna daks in a m a . . . . na¯mna¯ daks. in.a¯ a¯dis..ta¯ | evam . ya¯vat .s ad. divasa¯n. 23. For more on the importance of making use of offerings, see chapter 5. 24. Divy 86.20–25, tatah. krod.amallakah. kathayati | yady asya ra¯jñah. prabhu¯tam . antas´ ca¯peneyam asti santy anye ’py asmadvidha¯ duh.khitaka¯ a¯ka¯nks.ante | kim artham . na ¯ dı¯yate | kim anena¯paribhogam choriteneti | tasya krod amallakasya cittaviks epo ja to na ´ s akya m . . . . ¯ ¯ ¯ tena tatha¯ cittam prasa dayitum yatha pu rvam . . . 25. Divy 86.28–87.2, a hastyas´varathapattiya¯yino bhuñja¯nasya puram . <sanaigamam . > pas´yasi | balam . hi ru¯ks. ika¯ya¯ alavan.ika¯ya¯h. kulma¯sapin.d.aka¯ya¯h. || a

Following GM iii 1, 86.11. Divy 87.1 reads ´sanairgamam . (mss., sanairgamam . ). 26. Divy 87.3–6, bahus´o bahus´o bhadanta bhagavata¯ ra¯jñah. prasenajitah. kaus´alasya nives´ane bhuktva¯ na¯mna¯ a | na¯bhija¯na¯mi kada¯cid evam . ru¯pa¯m . daks.in.a¯m a¯dis..tapu¯rva¯m. a Following GM iii 1, 86.15. Divy 87.5, daks.in.a¯m a¯dis..to. 27. Divy 88.16–17, ka¯yapra¯sa¯dikas´ cittapra¯sa¯dikas´ ca. 28. Divy 88.22–24, tatas tena tı¯vren.a prasa¯dena sa¯ ’lavan.ika¯ kulma¯.sapin.d.aka¯ tasmai pratyekabuddha¯ya pratipa¯dita¯. 29. Divy 88.25–89.1, yo ’sau daridrapurus.a es. a eva¯sau ra¯ja¯ prasenajit kaus´alas tena ka¯lena tena samayena | yad anena pratyekabuddha¯ya¯lavan.ika¯ kulma¯.sapin.d.ika¯ pratipa¯dita¯ tena karman.a¯ .sat.kr.tvo deves.u trayastrim . ´ses. u ra¯jyais´varya¯dhipatyam . ka¯ritava¯n .sat.kr.tvo ¯ ¯ ¯ rdhna ¯ ’sya¯m eva ´sra¯vastya¯m ra ja ks atriyo mu bhis iktas tenaiva ca karman . . . . a¯vas´es.en.aitarhi ra¯ja¯ ks.atriyo mu¯rdna¯bhis.iktah. sam vr ttah | so ’sya pin d ako vipakvah . . . . .. . 30. Divy 89.1–89.2, tam aham . sam . dha¯ya kathaya¯mi. 31. Divy 89.18, ekaikas´ ca bhiks. uh. ´satasahasren.a vastren.a¯ccha¯ditah.. 32. Divy 89.19, dı¯pama¯la¯. In Maharashtra, the term refers to a structure often located outside of Hindu temples that resembles a Christmas tree with lamps at the end of each branch. Ratna Handurukande (1978: 77), however, translates the term as “rows of lamps.”

244

notes to pages 95–99

33. Divy 89.21, atı¯va duh.khita¯. 34. Divy 89.27–90.1, ayam . ta¯vad ra¯ja¯ prasenajit kaus´alah. pun.yair atr.pto ’dya¯pi da¯na¯ni dada¯ti pun.ya¯ni karoti | yan nv aham api kutas´cit samuda¯nı¯ya bhagavatah. pradı¯pa m . dadya¯m iti. 35. Divy 90.4–11, anena¯ham . kus´alamu¯lena yatha¯yam . bhagava¯ñ ´sa¯kyamunir vars.as´ata¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ yus.i praja¯ya¯m ´ s a kyamunir na ma ´ s a sta loka utpanna evam aham api vars.as´ata¯yus.i praja¯ya¯ m . . ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ yana¯grayugam ´sa¯kyamunir eva ´sa¯sta¯ bhaveyam yatha ca sya ´ s a riputramaudgalya . . bhadrayugam a a¯nando bhiks.ur upastha¯yakah. ´suddhodanah. pita¯ ma¯ta¯ maha¯ma¯ya¯ [kapilavastunagaram .] ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ rahulabhadrah. kumarah. putro [evam . mamapi ´sariputramaudgalyayanavagrayugam . bhadrayugam . sya¯d a¯nando bhiks.ur upastha¯yikah. ´suddhodanah. pita¯ ma¯ta¯ maha¯ma¯ya¯ kapilavastu b nagaram . bhagava¯n dha¯tuvibha¯gam . kr.tva¯ pari. ra¯hulabhadrah. kuma¯rah. putrah.] yatha¯yam nirva¯syaty evam aham api dha¯tuvibha¯gam . kr.tva¯ parinirva¯payeyam iti. a Following GM iii 1, 90.8. Divy 90.8, (omitted). b Following GM iii 1, 90.8–11. Divy 90.9, (omitted). 36. Divy 90.14–15, astha¯nam anavaka¯´so yad buddha¯ bhagavanta a¯loke ´sayya¯m . kalpayanti. 37. Divy 90.23–27, khedam a¯nanda a¯patsyase | yadi vairambhaka¯ api va¯yavo va¯yeyus te ’pi na ´saknuyur nirva¯payitum pra¯g eva hastagatas´ cı¯varakarn.iko vyajanam . va¯ | tatha¯ hy ayam . pradı¯pas taya¯ da¯rikaya¯ mahata¯ citta¯bhisam . ska¯ren.a prajvalitah.. 38. Divy 90.26, mahata¯ citta¯bhisam . ska¯ren.a. ¯ 39. Divy 158.5, sa¯bhisam ska ren a . Cf. Divy 250.20 and 364.26. . . 40. Being poor is an indicator of a paucity of merit as is being born a female. In Buddhist narrative literature there is a persistent association of virtue with male sex (Mrozik 2006). For an excellent study of how virtue is gendered and embodied within Buddhism, see Mrozik 2007. For more on women vowing for buddhahood and not receiving predictions, see Derris 2000. 41. Divy 429.6–8 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 126.1–2), bhagavaccha¯sane ´sraddha¯ pratilabdha¯ . . . kena bhagavaccha¯sane prabhu¯tam . da¯nam . dattam. 42. Divy 429.12–13 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 126.6–7), aham api kot.¯ı´satam . bhagavaccha¯sane da¯na m . da¯sya¯mi. 43. In the prelude to the quinquennial festival, King As´oka gets in a bidding war over the amount of his donation. As the king complains to his minister Ra¯ dhagupta, “Who is it that is so ignorant of the ways of the world that he contends with me” (ko ’yam asma¯bhih. sa¯rdham . pratidvandvayaty alokajñah. | Divy 403.18)? Clearly the king does not like to be outdone. For more on the quinquennial festival and the nature of giving, see Strong 1990. 44. Divy 430.12–13 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 127.12), sa ca me ’bhipra¯yo na paripurn.ah.. 45. Divy 433.9–12, da¯nena¯ham anena nendrabhavanam . na brahmaloke phalam . . ka¯nks. a¯mi drutava¯rivegacapala¯m . pra¯g eva ra¯jas´riyam | a da¯nasya¯sya phalam . . tu yan me ’sti tena¯pnuya¯m cittais´varyam aha¯ryam a¯ryamahitam . na¯ya¯ti yad vikriya¯m || a

Following As´oka¯ v 132.3. Divy 433.10 reads bhaktimahato.

notes to pages 99–100

245

46. See, for example, a verse in the Pa¯m . ´suprada¯na-avada¯na (Divy 380.26–29 [cp. As´oka¯ v 52.17–20]) that nicely distinguishes between na¯ gas’ bhakti—as a kind of clinging devotion—and King As´oka’s ´sraddha¯—as a more mature understanding: Today in the village of Ra¯ ma the eighth stu¯pa stands, for at that time na¯ gas guarded it with bhakti. The king didn’t take the relics from there; firm in his ´sraddha¯, the king left them alone and withdrew. ra¯magra¯me tv as..tamam . stu¯pam adya | ¯ ¯ ¯ nagas tatkalam . bhaktimanto raraks. uh. || dha¯tu¯ny etasma¯n nopalebhe sa ra¯ja | ´sraddha¯bhu¯ ra¯ja¯ cintayati yas tv atatkr.tva¯ jaga¯ma || 47. For example, King As´oka, though he is a king, is elsewhere said to possess prasa¯da (Divy 380.1, 380.6, 289.27, 397.19, and 405.8 [⫽ As´oka¯ v 51.11, 51.16, 82.7, 93.3, 103.14]). He is also said to have both ´sraddha¯ (Divy 419.14 [⫽ As´oka¯ v 56.1, 126.1]) and— contrary to form—prasa¯da (Divy 382. 4 [⫽ As´oka¯ v 71.1]) in the teachings of the Buddha. Furthermore, although bhakti is often represented as a mental state for the less karmically developed, in one instance Upagupta explains to Ma¯ ra that “even a very small bit of bhakti [toward the Buddha] offers nirva¯ n.a to the wise as a result” (svalpa¯pi hy atra bhaktir bhavati matimata¯m . nirva¯n.aphalada¯ | Divy 360.1–2 [⫽ As´oka¯ v 22.7]). Then, in the very next line (Divy 360.2–4; cp. As´oka¯ v 22.8–9), Upagupta offers this conclusion: In short, the wicked things that you did here to the Sage, when your mind was blind with delusion, all of these have been washed away by the copious waters of ´sraddha¯ that have entered your heart. sam . ks.epa¯d yat kr.tam . te vr.jinam iha muner moha¯ndhamanasa¯ sarvam . praks.a¯litam . tat tava hr.daye gataih. ´sraddha¯mbuvisaraih. | 48. For example, the well-known passage in which King As´oka, in a previous life, offers a handful of dirt to a buddha contains no mention of prasa¯da. Rather, the verse that immediately follows the description of this event explains that the offering was made after he “developed prasa¯da” (kr.taprasa¯dah. | Divy 366.14)—an expression whose exact phrasing is unattested elsewhere in the text. 49. For example, in the Men.d.haka-avada¯na, during a famine, King Brahmadatta becomes “filled with prasa¯da” (abhiprasannah. | Divy 135.10), when he hears that the householder Men.d.haka has presented alms to a solitary buddha, and that as a result, his treasuries and granaries have become full. Judging by the standards of the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, this is doubly odd: a king comes to possess prasa¯da, and he does so through sound and not sight. Additionally odd is that no mention is made of the king possessing prasa¯da in the nearly identical version of this story contained in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya (GM iii 1, 254.18). If the Men.d.haka-avada¯na is, in fact, a reworking of this story in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya, why would a reference to prasa¯da have been added? Was this recension part of a faith-based initiative? . 50. Divy 316.14–15, bodhisattvo ’bhu¯t sarvam . dadah. sarvaparitya¯gı¯ nih.sangaparitya¯gı¯.

246

notes to pages 100–103

51. Divy 320.21–22, candraprabho na¯ma ra¯ja¯ sarvam . dado ’smı¯ty a¯tma¯nam . pratija¯nı¯te. 52. Divy 323.30–31, paramatya¯gaprativis´is..tam . tya¯gam . parityaktuka¯mah.. . 53. Divy 324.9–10, idam . bra¯hman.a ´siro ’vighnatah. sa¯dhu pragr.hyata¯m uttama¯ngam iti. 54. Besides benefiting himself, King Candraprabha’s offering also has practical benefits for his subjects. Much in the same way that, after being charged with prasa¯da, the laity makes offerings to the monastic community until they offer themselves as monastics and can then be on the receiving end of the laity’s offerings, King Candraprabha gives up his own life so that a stu¯pa can be constructed where he died, filled presumably with his bodily relics, and his subjects can go there, make offerings, “and be directed toward heaven and liberation” (svargamoks. apara¯yana . ¯ bhaveyuh. | Divy 326.29). So while the king’s offering of his head and his life may seem extreme, it allows him not only to attain awakening but also to continue to serve his kingdom as a karmic generator for generations to come. 55. Nicholson Collier’s (1998, chap. 1) work on intention was particularly helpful in formulating this distinction. 56. Giving with an ulterior motive is also shown to fail in James Laidlaw’s (1995: 296–297) account of the giving practices of the Jain community in Jaipur. Among the five kinds of gifts (Skt., da¯na; Hindi, da¯n) that he describes is the kı¯rti-da¯n or “gift given to earn one fame or status.” According to Laidlaw, “kirti-dan is well-publicized charity with an eye to who will think well of it. It is ‘advertisement,’ it is ‘not really dan at all,’ it is ‘just business,’ it is ‘almost sin ( pap).’ ” 57. Divy 64.19–21, kasya bhadanta sarve ra¯ja¯nah. pa¯dayor nipatanti | ra¯jño maha¯ra¯ja cakravartinah.. 58. Divy 65.10–14, anena¯ham . bhadanta kus´alamu¯lena ra¯ja¯ sya¯m . cakravartı¯ti | tatsa. ¯ manantaram . ca ´sankha a¯pu¯ritah. | tato ratnas´ikhı samyaksam . buddho va¯savam . ra¯ja¯nam idam . avocat | bhavis. yasi maha¯ra¯ja¯´s¯ı tivars. asahasra¯yus. i praja¯ya¯m . ´sankho na¯ma ra¯ja¯ cakravartı¯ti. 59. Divy 65.23–24, kasya bhadanta sarve cakravartinah. pa¯dayor nipatanti | tatha¯gatasya maha¯ra¯ja¯rhatah. samyaksam . buddhasya. ¯ lena ´sa¯sta¯ loke bhaveyam 60. Divy 66, 19–22, anena¯ham . kus´alamu . tatha¯gato ’rhan ¯ samyaksam buddha iti | ratnas ´ ikhı samyaksam buddhah kathayati | bhavis . . . . yasi tvam . maha¯¯ ¯ ra¯ja¯´s¯ıtivars.asahasra¯yus.i praja¯ya¯m maitreyo na ma tatha gato ’rhan samyaksam buddha iti. . . 61. For more on such stu¯pas, see Schopen 1997: 196n34. 62. Divy 196.23–197.1, tatha¯gatam a¯ka¯ratah. samanusmaram . ´s cittam abhiprasa¯dayati ity api sa bhagava¯m . s tatha¯gato ’rhan samyaksam . buddho vidya¯carar.asam . pannah. sugato lokavid anuttarah. purus. adamyasa¯rathih. ´sa¯sta¯ devamanus. ya¯n.a¯m . buddho bhagava¯n iti. 63. Divy 197.5–6, pas´yata yu¯yam . bhiks.ava etam . bhiks.um . kes´anakhastu¯pe sarvas´arı¯ren.a pran.ipatya cittam abhiprasa¯dayantam. 64. For more on the stratum of the golden wheel within cakrava¯ la cosmology, see Abhidharmakos´a iii.45–55 (Abhidh-k 451–455) and Kloetzli 1997: 32–39. 65. Divy 197.7–10, anena bhiks.un.a¯ ya¯vatı¯ bhu¯mir a¯kra¯nta¯ adho ’s´¯ı tiyojanasahasra¯n.i ya¯vat ka¯ñcanacakram ity atra¯ntara¯ ya¯vantyo va¯luka¯s ta¯vanty anena bhiks.un.a¯ cakravartira¯jyasahasra¯n.i paribhoktavya¯ni. 66. Divy 197.10–14, purus.ama¯tra¯ya¯m . ya¯vad garta¯ya¯m . na ´sakyate va¯luka¯ gan.ayitum . kutah. punar as´¯ı tiyojanasahasra¯n.i ya¯vat ka¯ñcanacakram iti | kah. ´sakyate iyatka¯lam . sam . sa¯re sam . saritum iti | atha te bhiks. avo na bhu¯yah. kes´anakhastu¯pe ka¯ra¯m . kartum a¯rabdha¯h..

notes to pages 103–107

247

67. For more on this list of epithets of the Buddha, see Griffiths 1995 60–66. 68. Divy 196.21, dhya¯navimoks.asama¯dhisama¯pattisukha¯ny anubhavanti. ´iks.a¯samuccaya (S ´iks. 69. Curiously, in the version of this story preserved in the S 148.13–149.4; trans. in Bendall and Rouse 1971: 147–148), the passage following the Buddha’s prediction in which the monks contemplate being stuck in sam . sa¯ra for eons and ¯ eons, and in which the Buddha describes the nature of sam sa ra, is left out (Divy 197.9–18). . In its place is the term ya¯vat—meaning “as far as” or “up until”—indicating that an elided passage is to be inserted. Generally, in the Divya¯vada¯na, the elided passage is a recurring trope, a stereotypical passage that can be easily recalled, but the passage in question here doesn’t seem to be a trope or a stereotype. This raises the possibility that the passage in question was simply elided with the intention that it would remain elided. Could it have ´iks.a¯samuccaya found this passage troubling? been that the compiler of the S 70. Divy 197.14, tes. a¯m . bhiks. u¯n.a¯m . cetasa¯ cittam a¯jña¯ya. 71. Divy 197.15–18, anavara¯gro bhiks.avah. sam . sattva¯na¯m . . sa¯ro ’vidya¯nivaran.a¯na¯m ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ tr..s n.a¯sam yojana na m tr s n a rgalabaddha na m dı rgham adhva nam sam dha vata m . . .. . . . . . sam . sarata¯m . pu¯rva¯ kotir na prajña¯yate duh.khasya. 72. Divy 140.8–141.2, es.a a¯nanda govr..sas tatha¯gatasya¯ntike prasannacittah. saptame divase ka¯lam . kr.tva¯ ca¯turmaha¯ra¯jikes.u deves.u¯papasyate vais´ravan.asya maha¯ra¯jasya putro bhavis.yati | tatas´ cyutva¯ trayastrim . ´ses.u deves.u¯papatsyate ´sakrasya devendrasya putro bhavis.yati | tatas´ cyutva¯ ya¯mes.u deves.u¯papastyate ya¯masya devasya putro bhavis.yati | tatas´ cyutva¯ tus.ites.u deves.u¯papatsyate sa tus.itasya devasya putro bhavis.yati | tatas´ cyutva¯ nirma¯n.aratis.u deves.u¯papatsyate sunirmitasya devaputrasya putro bhavis.yati | tatas´ cyutva¯ parinirmitavas´avartis.u deves.u¯papatsyate vas´avartino devaputrasya putro bhavis.yati | tad anaya¯ sam . tatya¯ navanava¯ ¯ tikalpasahasra¯n.i vinipa¯tam na gamis yati | tatah ka ma vacares u deves u divyam . . . . . . sukham anubhu¯ya pas´cime bhave pas´cime nikete samucchraye pas´cime a¯tmabha¯vapratilambhe manus.yatvam . pratilabhya ra¯ja¯ bhavis.yati as´okavarn.o na¯ma cakravartı¯ ca¯turarn.ava¯ntavijeta¯ dha¯rmiko dharmara¯jah. saptaratnasamanva¯gatah. . . . so ’paren.a samayena da¯na¯ni dattva¯ cakravartira¯jyam apaha¯ya kes´as´mas´ru¯n.y avata¯rya ka¯.sa¯ya¯n.i vastra¯n.i [a¯ccha¯dya]a samyag eva ´sraddhaya¯ ’ga¯ra¯d anaga¯rika¯m . pravrajya pratyeka¯m . bodhim . sa¯ks.a¯tkaris.yaty as´okavarn.o na¯ma pratyekabuddho bhavis.yati. a Following Divy 35.8. Divy 140.30, (omitted). 73. Divy 142.7–13, yat punar ida¯nı¯m . mama¯ntike cittam . prasa¯ditam . tasya karman.o ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ vipakena divyam . manus. am . sukham anubhuya pratyekam . bodhim adhigamis. yati | evam . hy a¯nanda tatha¯gata¯na¯m . cittaprasa¯do ’py acintavipa¯kah. kim . punah. pran.idha¯nam | tasma¯t tarhy a¯nanda evam . ´siks. itavyam . yat stokastokam . muhu¯rtamuhu¯rtam antato ’cchat.a¯sa m. gha¯tama¯tram api tatha¯gatam a¯ka¯ratah. samanusmaris. ya¯mı¯ty evam . te a¯nanda ´siks.itavyam. 74. See, for example, Akira Hirakawa’s “The Rise of Maha¯ ya¯ na Buddhism and Its ¯ pas” (1963) and Gregory Schopen’s (1999: 42) recent Relationship to the Worship of Stu reply which, as he explains, “could have been entitled—in conscious contradistinction to Professor Hirakawa’s old paper—‘The Rise of Maha¯ ya¯ na Buddhism and Its Relationship to the Rejection of the Worship of Stu¯pas.’ ” 75. S´iks. 124.2–8, adyatve ’pi ca sattva¯rthaks.amo bhavaty eva prasa¯dakaratva¯t | katham | sarvatra¯capalo mandam atisnigdha¯bhibha¯.s an.a¯t | a a¯varjayej janam . bhavyam a¯deyas´ ca¯pi ja¯yate ||

248

notes to pages 108–109

etad eva ca bodhisattvasya kr.tyam . yad uta sattva¯varjanam | yatha¯ a¯ryadharmasam . gı¯tisu¯tre a¯ryapriyadars´anena bodhisattvena paridı¯pitam | tatha¯ tatha¯ bhagavan bodhisattvena pratipattavyam . yat sahadars´anenaiva sattva¯h. prası¯deyuh. | tat kasma¯d hetoh. | na bhagavan bodhisattvasya¯nyat karan.¯ı yam asti anyatra sattva¯varjana¯t | sattvaparipa¯ka eveyam . bhaga¯ van bodhisattvasya dharmasam gı tir iti . . a For the Tibetan of this verse, see D khi 71b7–72a1. My thanks to Sara McClintock for her thoughts on this passage. 76. As the young boy Brahmaprabha explains to his parents in the Ru¯pavatı¯¯ avadana, nicely summing up the bodhisattva’s path as it is represented in the Divya¯vada¯na, “I want to undergo austerities and perform difficult deeds for the benefit of all sentient beings” (iccha¯my aham . sarvasattva¯na¯m . artha¯ya tapas taptum . dus. karam . caritum | Divy 477.15–16). 77. Divy 133.9–10, a¯´su pr.thagjana¯varjanakarı¯ .rddhih.. 78. Although a person in whom prasa¯da arises is certainly “fortunate” (bhavya), ´akra and those who are too fortunate and do not suffer from a lack of merit, such as S King Prasenajit, are not “suitable” (bhavya) recipients of prasa¯da. This is the case in the ´iks. a¯samuccaya. Divya¯vada¯na, anyway, if not the S 79. This idea of prasa¯da as a form of intention is particularly well illustrated in a passage in the Cu¯d.apaks. a-avada¯na. After the monk Panthaka, though slow to learn, directly experiences arhatship, the Buddha orders him to instruct a group of nuns. As he approaches the nuns, he sees that a seat of honor has been prepared for him, but he isn’t sure how to respond to the gesture: The venerable Panthaka saw that a seat of honor had been arranged, and at the sight of it, he reflected, “Was this arranged by those possessed of prasa¯da or by those who are intent on being sarcastic?” He saw that it was arranged by those who were intent on being sarcastic. So the venerable Panthaka stretched out his arm like the trunk of an elephant and put the seat of honor in its proper place. a¯yus.mata¯ panthakena sim . ha¯sanam . dr..s.tah. prajñaptakam | dr..s.tva¯ sam . laks.ayati | ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ kim ta vat prasa daja ta bhih prajñaptam a hosvit vihet hana bhipra ya bhih . . . . | pas´yati ya¯vad vihet.hana¯bhipra¯ya¯bhih. | a¯yus.mata¯ panthakena gajabhujasadr.´sam ba¯hum abhiprasa¯rya tam . sim . ha¯sanam . yatha¯stha¯ne stha¯pitam | Divy 494.13–18 | Here it is the intention behind the act that determines its karmic value. Since the nuns are sarcastic and not possessed of prasa¯da, the act of arranging a seat of honor has a negative valence. 80. Divy 67.15, tı¯vren.a prasa¯dena. 81. Divy 88.23, tı¯vren.a prasa¯dena. 82. I am still troubled, however, by the notion that an offering should be made as a result of prasa¯da. One possiblity is that an exclamation or thought can function as a gift, as in the case of Na¯ gakuma¯ ra in the Na¯gakuma¯ra-avada¯na. Another possibility is that the attainment of awakening and its repurcussions can be a gift, as in the case of King Candraprabha in the Candraprabhabodhisattvacarya¯-avada¯na, whose awakening leads to the gift of his relics, allowing devotees to see them and be directed toward heaven and

notes to pages 110–112

249

liberation. Nevertheless, more thought needs to be given to these instances when the apparent duty of prasa¯da is not discharged. 83. In the Abhidharmakos´abha¯.s ya (Abhidh-k-bh 567; cf. AN iii, 415), karma is defined as follows: “What is action? It is said: ‘It is volition and that which is produced through it’ ” (kim . punas tat karma | itya¯ha | cetana¯ tatkr.tam . ca tat). It is sometimes said, however, that the acts of a buddha are performed completely without “volition” and hence produce no karma. Such acts, that is, produce no results, so there is nothing to come to fruition in the future. They have no karmic residue. With no karma to be experienced in the future, the cycle of rebirth comes to a halt. 84. See, for example, AN iii, 415; Vism, chap. 19; Guenther 1976; and McDermott 1980; as well as Abhidh-k, chap. 4 and Dunne 2004: chap. 4. 85. Judith Irvine (1990: 154) makes a similar point in her work on the “affective registers” of the speaking styles of two Wolof castes—the nobles and griots. As she explains, “Extravagantly praising an addressee supposedly ‘strengthens’ the addressee and moves him or her to praiseworthy acts (such as distributing largesse). The audience, too, is moved and persuaded of the respectability of the person being praised.” Likewise, this social logic leads to a form of entrapment: “Whether or not you ‘really feel’ the particular emotion you display, your subjective experience presumably includes knowing that you should sound like a griot (about whose emotionality you have certain beliefs). Your attitude toward griots, and toward being for the moment associated with them, must color your feelings toward other aspects of the situation” (1990: 56). 86. As Bourdieu (1991: 93–94) explains, “Bodily hexis is political mythology realized, em-bodied, turned into a permanent disposition, a durable manner of speaking, and thereby of feeling and thinking” (italics in original). 87. PTSD, s.v. pasa¯da. 88. BHSD, s.v. prasa¯da. 89. For more on prasa¯d in Hinduism, see passages in the following: Appadurai and Breckenridge 1976; Babb 1975, 1986, and 1996; Bennett 1993; Erndl 1993; Hayley 1980; Khare 1976 and 1992; Marriott 1976; Östör 1980; and Raheja 1988. See also Andrea Pinkney’s dissertation (2008) on the history and evolution of prasa¯da in Sanskrit literature. 90. For a case of “undeserved salvation,” see Doniger 1993. Cf. Ramanujan 1991: 39–42. 91. For an interesting debate regarding the notion of “no-mind” and its application to the martial arts, see Keenan 1989; McFarlane 1990; Keenan 1990; and McFarlane 1991. For an instructive counter-perspective on such experiences, see Sharf 1995. 92. My sense of such a system is much like Alfred Gell’s (1998: 7) notion of an “anthropology of art,” which I discussed in the introduction. For one such study that considers Buddhist images that “serve as channels of powers in a cultic context,” see Faure 1998 (citation from p. 784). 93. Generally, the exercise of such personal agency is crucial in determining the value of an individual’s actions. For example, a monk’s intention while performing an act that transgresses monastic law is important in determining the degree of his culpability (Harvey 1999). 94. Dhp-BHS 4 (vv. 1–2),

250

notes to pages 112–116 . . . manasa¯ ca pradus..tena bha¯.s ate va¯ karoti va¯ | tato nam . dukkham anveti cakram va¯ vahato padam . || . . . manasa¯ ca prasannena bha¯.s ate va¯ karoti va¯ | tato nam . sukham anveti cha¯ya¯ va¯ anapa¯yinı¯ ||

95. Divy 19.4–5, dras. .t avya¯ eva paryupa¯sitavya¯ eva hi tatha¯gata¯ arhantah. samyaksam . buddha¯h. .

chapter 5 1. I have considered some of these issues previously in Rotman forthcoming a. 2. Divy 76.10–80.10 and 465.10–469.19. 3. Divy 76.14–17 (cp. Divy 465.14–16), dva¯trim . ´s ata¯ maha¯purus. alaks. an.aih. sama¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ lam ı lam kr tam as ´ tya ca nuvyañjanair vı ra jitaga tram vya maprabha . . . . kr.tam . su¯ryasahasra¯tireka. prabham jan gamam iva ratnaparvatam samantato bhadrakam . . . 4. Divy 76.18–25 (cp. 465.16–22), yadi bhagavantam . gautamam upetya¯bhiva¯dayis. ¯ ya¯mi karmapariha¯n.ir me bhavis.yatı ti | atha nopetya¯bhiva¯dayis.ya¯mi pun.yapariha¯n.ir bhavis.yati | tat ko ’sa¯v upa¯yah. sya¯d yena me karmapariha¯n.ir na sya¯n na¯pi pun.yapariha¯n.ir iti | tasya buddhir utpanna¯ | atrastha eva¯bhiva¯danam . karomy evam . na karmapariha¯n.ir na pun.yapariha¯n.ir iti | tena yatha¯gr.hı¯tayaiva pratodayas..tya¯ tatrasthenaiva¯bhiva¯danam . kr.tam abhiva¯daye buddham bhagavantam iti . . 5. Divy 76.25–77.3, bhavaks. ayakarah. ks. an.a es. a bra¯hman.ah. saced asyaivam . samyak¯ ¯ vikopratyayajña¯nadars´anam pravartate etasmin prades ´ e ka ´ s yapasya samyaksam buddhasya . . ¯ ¯ ¯ pito ’sthisam gha tas tis t hatı ty aham anenopakramen a vandito bhaveyam evam anena dva bhya¯m . .. . . samyaksam . buddha¯bhya¯m . vandana¯ kr.ta¯ bhavet | tat kasya hetoh. | asminn a¯nanda prades´e ka¯´syapasya samyaksam . buddhasya¯vikopito ’sthisam . gha¯tas tis..thati. 6. GM iii 1, 74.9–15, ks.u¯n.a a¯nanda es. a bra¯hman.ah. | [anenopakramya¯smin prades´e abhiva¯dane kr.te] sati pratya¯tmam . jña¯nadars´anam . pravartate | etasmin prades´e ka¯´syapasya ¯ ¯ samyaksam buddhasya vikopito ’sthisam gha tas tis . . . .thatı¯ti | aham anenopakramya vandito ¯ bhya¯m bhaveyam | evam anena dva¯bhya¯m samyaksambuddha . . vandana¯ kr.ta¯ bhavet | tat kasya hetoh. | asminn a¯nanda prades´e ka¯´syapasya samyaksam . buddhasya¯vikopito ’sthisa m. gha¯tas tis..thati. Cf. trans. in Schopen 1997: 131. 7. See Manu ii.120–126; trans. in Doniger and Smith 1991: 30. 8. Divy 18.1, 18.22, 19.15, 21.3–4, etc. 9. Divy 49.4, du¯ra¯d eva. 10. Divy 137.1. 11. Divy 461.19. 12. Divy 77.3–7 and Divy 465.29–466.4, atha¯yus´ma¯n a¯nando laghu laghv eva catur. gun.am uttara¯sangam prajñapya bhagavantam idam avocat | nis.¯ı datu bhagava¯n prajñapta eva¯sane evam ayam . pr. thivı¯prades´o dva¯bhya¯m . samyaksam . buddha¯bhya¯m . paribhukto bhavis. yati yac ca ka¯´syapena samyaksam . buddhena yac caitarhi bhagavateti. 13. Divy 77.9–10 and Divy 466.6–7, samyaksam . buddhasya ´sarı¯rasam . gha¯tam avikopitam. What had been referred to as an “assemblage” (sam syapa’s “bones” . gha¯ta) of Ka¯ ´ (asthi), which I translate as “skeleton,” is now described as an assemblage of his

notes to pages 116–121

251

“remains” or “relics” (´sarı¯ra). The former term seems to be used to describe Ka¯ ´ syapa’s deceased form in a dormant invisible state, while the latter term may suggest that Ka¯ ´ syapa’s form, once visible, can be used as an object of ritual activity. See, for example, Schopen’s (1997: 99–113) discussion of ´sarı¯ra-pu¯ja¯. 14. Divy 77.12–13 and Divy 466.9–10, dr..s.tva¯ bhiks.avo cittam abhiprasa¯dayis. yanti. 15. According to the account in the story, however, the na¯ gas did it, though they were acting at the Buddha’s behest. 16. Divy 78.3–4 and 466.28, duh.khadaurmanasyam utpannam. 17. Divy 78.6–16, evam . ca cetasa¯ cittam abhisam . skr.tam asma¯n me pada¯viha¯ra¯t kiyat pun.yam . bhavis. yatı¯ti | atha bhagava¯m . s tasya maha¯janaka¯yasya¯vipratisa¯rasam . janana¯rtham . tasya copa¯sakasya cetasa¯ cittam a¯jña¯ya ga¯tha¯m . bha¯.s ate | ´satam . sahasra¯n.i suvarn.ans.ka¯ ja¯mbu¯nada¯ na¯sya sama¯ bhavanti | yo buddhacaityes. u prasannacittah. pada¯viha¯ram . prakaroti vidva¯n || anyatamenopa¯sakena tasmin prades´e mr.ttika¯pin.d.o dattah. | evam . ca cittam abhisam . skr.tam . ¯ ¯ pada¯viha¯rasya ta¯vad iyat pun.yam a¯khya¯tam bhagavata nyatra mr ttika pin d asya kiyat pun. . . .. yam . bhavis. yatı¯ti | atha bhagava¯m . s tasya¯pi cetasa¯ cittam a¯jña¯ya ga¯tha¯m . bha¯.sate | ´satam . sahasra¯n.i suvarn.anis.ka¯ ja¯mbu¯nada¯ na¯sya sama¯ bhavanti | yo buddhacaityes. u prasannacitta a¯ropayen mr.ttika¯pin.d.am ekam || 18. Divy 78.24–79.16, yo buddhacaityes.u prasannacitta a¯ropayen muktasupus.para¯´sim . . . yo buddhacaityes.u prasannacitto ma¯la¯viha¯ram . prakaroti vidva¯n . . . yo buddhacaityes. u ¯ prasannacittah. pradı¯pada¯nam prakaroti vidva n . . . yo buddhacaityes.u prasannacitto gandha¯. ¯ bhis.ekam prakaroti vidva n . . 19. Divy 67.1ff., 136.20ff., 461.10ff., etc. 20. Although this passage in the Divya¯vada¯na makes no mention of the brahman having to come to “this place” to venerate two buddhas, the necessity of this act is implied, and it is made explicit in the corresponding passage in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya. 21. Divy 77.21 (cp. Divy 466.17–18), udgr.hn.¯ı ta bhiks.ava nimittam antardha¯syati. This trope of grasping the “appearance” or “physical form” (nimitta) of an object before it disappears also occurs elsewhere in the Divya¯vada¯na. In the Maitreya-avada¯na (Divy 57.1–2), the Buddha tells the monks to grasp the “appearance” (nimitta) of a “sacrificial post” (yu¯pa) for it will disappear; and then it does. In the Na¯gakuma¯ra-avada¯na (Divy 543.18–21), a young na¯ ga grasps the “appearance” (nimitta) of the place from which his instructor will disappear. He then waits there for his instructor and right there grabs hold of his robe and disappears with him. Cp. Divy 579.20. 22. Divy 90.23–27, mahata¯ citta¯bhisam . ska¯ren.a. 23. Divy 78.17–18, ´srutva¯nekaih. pra¯.sis´atasahasrair mr.ttika¯pin.d.asama¯ropan.am . kr.tam. 24. Divy 77.5–6 and Divy 466.2, pr.thivı¯prades´a. 25. Dhp-A iii, 252, sarı¯racetiyam . uddissacetiyam . paribhogacetiyan ti tı¯n.i cetiya¯ni. 26. PJ I, 221–222 (also trans. in Ña¯n.amoli 1960: 249–250), tattha cayitabban ti cetiyam . , pu¯jetabban ti vuttam . hoti, citatta¯ va¯ cetiyam . , tam . pan’ etam . tividham . hoti: paribhogacetiyam . uddissakacetiyam . dha¯tu[ka]cetiyan ti, tattha bodhirukkho paribhogacetiyam . , buddhapa.tima¯ uddissakacetiyam . , dha¯tugabbhathu¯pa¯ sadha¯tuka¯ dha¯tu[ka]cetiyam. Cf. Bentor 1994.

252

notes to page 121

27. By contrast, however, in the last verses of the Buddhavam . sa (Bv 101; trans. in Horner 1975: 98–99), one of the latest additions to the Pali canon, a wide array of “relics of use” ( paribhogikadha¯tu) are enumerated. Among these objects are included the Buddha’s almsbowl, walking staff, robes, bed covering, and drinking vessel, but it is only his “sitting mat” (nisı¯dana) that was apparently activated by the act of sitting. 28. This obligation to make use of offerings helps to explain an incident from the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na that I discussed in the previous chapter. When King Prasenajit’s ministers arrange to have half of the king’s food offerings served to the monks and the other half thrown on the ground, the bowl-carrying beggar who on the previous six days had cultivated prasa¯da and earned more merit than the king can no longer do so. He laments that the food is being thrown away and not being made use of. His plea is not just about the politics of wasting food in the face of starving beggars but about the duty of monks to utilize offerings. It is a twofold lament, and as such he can no longer cultivate prasa¯da. 29. Richard Gombrich (2003: 430) considers the way that this doctrine of paribhoga allows merit to be detached from actor’s intention, and necessitates “at least an amendment to the simple teaching that your karma is determined solely by your will.” Gombrich (2003: 436–437) concludes by dismissing its legitimacy: “The detaching of karma from volition through the doctrine of merit consequent on use [paribhoga¯nvaya m . pun.yam . ], which provides the only serious textual foundation for positing the noncommunicator [avijñapti], seems to rest on an absurdly over-literal interpretation of a little poem extolling generosity, plus an illegitimate deduction from a text which is repeating the banal doctrine that it is best to make one’s donations to holy monks—for that is analogous to sowing one’s seed in a fertile field.” It is likewise rejected in the Katha¯vatthu (Kv vii.5; trans. in Aung and Rhys Davids 1979: 200–203). 30. A similar example can be found in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na. There Sahasodgata is said to earn merit by offering certain objects so that they can be made use of by the Buddha and the monastic community. As the Buddha explains, “by providing bedding and seats to be made use of, you would be reborn among the god—much less providing food and drink to be made use of” (´sayana¯sanaparibhogena ta¯vat tvam . deves.u¯papadyetha¯ h. pra¯g eva¯nnapa¯naparibhogeneti | Divy 307.14–16). 31. As Kern (1896: 91; cited in Schopen 1975: 151) noted more than a century ago, “All edifices having the character of a sacred monument are caityas, but not all caityas are edifices.” What does constitute a shrine, at least to me, is still ambiguous. 32. Though the existence of footprint shrines is well attested in the Buddhism of South Asia, in this story the Buddha’s standing in a place is not sufficient to transform it into a shrine. In his discussion of the status of the Buddha’s footprint, Kinnard (2000: 42–43) explains that “as objects that have come into direct contact with the Buddha himself, they most logically fall into the pa¯ribhogika [i.e., shrines by use] category (although these are clearly not objects that the Buddha used); however, since they serve to commemorate the Buddha’s presence in a particular spot, they could also be considered uddes´ika relics [i.e., memorial shrines].” In the case of the Toyika¯ story, however, the ground on which the Buddha stands falls into neither category. The Buddha comes into “direct contact” with the ground beneath his feet, yet it is not considered to be an object

notes to pages 122–125

253

“that the Buddha used,” and no mention is made of its status as a memorial shrine. As John Strong (2004: 88) explains, “According to a number of Pali commentaries, the Buddha only leaves tracks when he consciously wants to do so for the sake of other beings; ordinarily his footprints cannot be perceived.” Strong goes on to cite Sinhalese and Khmer texts that propose much the same. 33. See Legge 1965: 93 and Rongxi 1996: 173. 34. Although there are indications, Strong (1999: 12) notes, that “the veneration of ´a¯ kyamuni was potentially seen as schismatic, the cult of previous Buddhas apart from S ´a¯ kyamuni served to reinforce the charisma of the their relics in conjunction with that of S latter and give it chronological depth.” 35. In a parallel trope, here a post is “raised” (ucchra¯pita¯) as an object of religious devotion, and later in the avada¯ na, in the Toyika¯ story, Ka¯ ´ syapa’s skeleton is “raised” (ucchra¯pitah. | Divy 77.20) for similar purposes. 36. Divy 76.5–9, tena vivikta¯vika¯´se mahata¯ satka¯ren.a¯sau yas..tir ucchra¯pita¯ mahas´ ca prajñapitah. | anyair api bra¯hman.agr.hapatibhih. kus´alam adhis..tha¯na¯ya bhavatv iti viditva¯ a baddha¯ | indren.a bra¯hman.ena yas..tya¯ maham . prajñapita iti indramaha indramaha ¯ ¯ iti sam . jña sam . vr.tta. a Following the Tibetan (Shackleton Bailey 1951: 86), rtsa ku shas btags te. Divy 76.8, kula¯ baddha¯. ¯ diparva 57.17–27. For a detailed account of 37. See, for example, the Maha¯bha¯rata, A this festival, see Agrawal 1970: 49–66. . 38. Schopen claims that since the versions of this story preserved in Maha¯ sanghika, ¯ pa at Mahı¯´ sa¯ saka, Dharmaguptaka, and Therava¯ da sources contain references to a stu Toyika¯ , this account in the Divya¯vada¯na, and hence its parallel in the Mu¯la¯sarva¯stiva¯davinaya, must be earlier because the site is still unadorned. As he explains, “It would appear, then, that the original version, represented now by the Mu¯lasarva¯ stiva¯ da account, was revised at some point in time, and that once this revision was made in one school’s account, it was accepted and incorporated into the accounts of all schools other than—and here probably only by an oversight—the Mu¯lasarva¯ stiva¯ da” (1997: 29). In¯ pa for terestingly, in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na (Divy 22.10ff.), mention is made of a stu Ka¯ ´ syapa at Va¯ ra¯ n.ası¯ not Toyika¯ . 39. Divy 79.19–20 (cf. 469.3–4), tis. t. hantam . p¯ujayed yas´ ca yas´ ca¯pi parinirvr.tam | samam citta m . . prasa¯dyeha na¯sti pun.yavis´es.ata¯ || A version of this verse, though with no mention of pasa¯da, also occurs in the daily liturgy at the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy (Hocart 1931: 20). My thanks to John Strong for this reference. 40. DN i, 140, saddhassa kulaputtassa dassanı¯ya¯ni sam . vejanı¯ya¯ni. For more on this passage, see Trainor 1997: 50, 175. The Sanskrit version of this passage (MPS iii, 388/41.5) also preserves the notion that these places should be sites of pilgrimage and practice—“Monks, these are the four spots of earth that a noble son or noble daughter who has ´sraddha¯ should visit during their lives” (catva¯ra ime bhiks. avah. pr.thivı¯prades´a¯h. ´sra¯ddhasya kulaputrasya kuladuhitur va¯ ya¯vaj jı¯vam a bhavanti).

254

notes to pages 125–127 a

Here I follow Schopen’s emendation (1997: 137n7). Waldschmidt reads “should be brought to mind” (anusmaran.¯ı ya¯), but this is based on a reconstruction from the Tibetan rjes su dran par ’gyur bar bya. 41. DN i, 141, idha tatha¯gato ja¯to ’ti a¯nanda saddhassa kulaputtassa dassanı¯yam . sam . veja¯ nı¯yam t ha nam . . . 42. DN i, 141, bhikkhu¯ bhikkhuniyo upa¯saka¯ upa¯sika¯yo. 43. DN ii, 141, ye hi keci a¯nanda cetiyaca¯rikam a¯hin.d.ata¯ passanacitta¯ ka¯lam . karissanti, ¯ ¯ sabbe te ka¯yassa bheda¯ param maran a sugatim saggam lokam uppaj jissantı ti . . . . . 44. MPS 41.9 and 41.14 (iii, 390), atra¯ntara¯ ye kecit prasannacitta¯ mama¯ntike ka¯la.m karis.yanti te sarve svargopaga¯ ye kecit sopadhis´es.a¯h.. Cf. Schopen 1975: 174. 45. Schopen 1997: 139–140n14. Generally the object ⫹ antike precedes the verb to which it relates. 46. Divy 137.1, 140.8, 142.7, 315.2, 465.5, etc. There is also the problem of whether to interpret antike in the stereotyped expression “object ⫹ antike ⫹ cittaprasannah.” as “prasa¯da in mind in the presence of X” (e.g., “the Blessed One,” “the Tatha¯ gata,” “me”) or as “prasa¯da in mind with regard to X” or even “in X.” Though the former often seems to be the correct interpretation, it isn’t clear that this reading is always possible. An instance in the Ma¯kandika-avada¯na seems to allow only the latter reading (Divy 534.9–11). There the Buddha tells of the various fates of King Udayana’s five hundred wives who burned to death in their harem: “Those women in the harem who had improved their minds through prasa¯da in me, were reborn after the dissolution of their bodies in a favorable existence among the gods in heaven. Some women in the harem had a nature like this (santi tasminn antah.pure striyo ya¯ mama¯ntike prasannacitta¯lam. a ka¯ram . ru¯pa¯s tasminn . kr.tva¯ ka¯yasya bheda¯t sugatau svargaloke deves. u¯papanna¯h. | evam antah.pure striyah. santi). As it is explained later in the story, women in a king’s harem cannot leave to visit monks, nor can monks enter such a harem to visit them. When a woman in the king’s harem insists on seeing the monks, a peephole is made in one of the walls in the palace to allow her this opportunity (Divy 542.3–5). Hence, while it is possible that in the previous instance those five hundred women in the harem had developed prasa¯da in the presence of the Buddha, it seems very unlikely. a The corresponding passage in the Tibetan (D nya 190b3) preserves the more standard trope: “with their minds possessed of prasa¯da in me, they died and their bodies dissolved . . .” 47. See Lüders 1940: 612–613; Bailey 1974: 16–17; von Hinüber 1981: nos. 13b, 13d, 60; and Waldschmidt 1967b: 424–427; cited in Schopen 1997: 147n75. 48. Thu¯p 246 (also trans. in Jayawickrama 1971: 133), tam . dha¯tupa¯.tiha¯riyam . disva¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ pası¯ditva¯ arahattam patta devamanussa dva dasakot iyo ahesum . For more on pasa da and . . the power of emotions in the Thu¯pavam sa , see Berkwitz 2001. . 49. Thu¯p 246 (also trans. in Jayawickrama 1971: 134), udakapariyantam . katva¯ . . ¯ ¯ ayam . mahapat. havı sankampi sampakampi sampavedhi, maha¯samuddo sankhubhi, a¯ka¯se vij jullata¯ niccharim . su, khan.ikavassam . vassi, cha devaloka¯ ekakola¯halam ashosi | ra¯ja¯ etam . acchariyam . disva¯ pasanno attano kañcanama¯likasetacchattena dha¯tuyo pu¯jetva¯ tambapan.. n.idı¯pe raj jam . satta¯ham . datva¯ tim . sasatasahassagghanakam . alanka¯rabhan.d.am . omuñcitva¯

notes to pages 127–132

255

pu¯jesi | tatha¯ sabba¯ pi na¯.t akak’itthiyo amacca¯ sesamaha¯jano deva¯ ca sabba¯bharan.a¯ni pu¯jesum. 50. Dha¯ tuv 60 (also translated in Trainor 1997: 170), adit..thapubbam . satthussa pa¯.tihı¯ram . maha¯jana¯ | ¯ disva¯ pı tipara¯ ja¯ta¯ pasa¯dam aj jhagum . jine || pu¯jesum . gandhama¯lañ ca alam . ka¯ram . sakam . sakam | sabbe vandim . su sirasa¯ cetiyam ¯ı disam . varam || 51. As in the Divya¯vada¯na, here too witnessing miracles is shown to be a transformative experience. The difference is that while in the Divya¯vada¯na pra¯sa¯dika individuals, such as the Buddha and solitary buddhas, perform such miracles, in these Pali materials the very relics of the Buddha perform such miracles. A propos of the previous discussion, however, individuals and their relics may be considered functionally equivalent. 52. I am more inclined to agree with Trainor’s (1997: 169) assessment of a few pages earlier: “This mental state is also directly related to ritual action. The experience of pasa¯da is manifested in a desire to worship the Buddha, expressed in offerings.” 53. Handurukande 1978: 76, ye pañcagandhair anulepayanti | sambuddhacaityam . manuja¯h. prasanna¯h. | . ¯ ¯ saugandhitanga baladı¯ptimantas | te sam . bhavante parama¯rthaloka¯h. || For more on the connection between avada¯ nas and shrines, see Handurukande’s (2000) edition and synopsis of three Sanskrit texts regarding caitya worship and Todd Lewis’s (1994) work subtitled “A Maha¯ya¯na Avada¯na on Caitya Veneration from the Kathmandu Valley.”

chapter 6 1. BhP 10.29.4, kr..s n.agr.hı¯tamanasah.. 2. BhP 10.29.8, govinda¯pahata¯tma¯no na nyavartanta mohita¯h.. 3. BhP (commentary on 10.29.10), na hi vastus´aktir buddhim apeks.ate | anyatha¯ ¯ matvapi pı¯ta¯mr.tavad iti bha¯vah.. My thanks to Sheldon Pollock for this reference. 4. MBh 1.120.11, tena susra¯va reto ’sya sa ca tam . na¯vabudhyata. My thanks to Laura Desmond for these references to the Maha¯bha¯rata. 5. This idea that seeing a woman can cause a man to ejaculate automatically is also found, quite famously, in Thomas Pynchon’s Gravity’s Rainbow. Here, however, it is an image of a woman and not a woman in person that is the stimulus, and the response is conditioned, varying from person to person, and not—as seems to be for seers and sages in the Maha¯bha¯rata—innate. In Book 1, Episode 11 (1976: 82–83), Pirate Prentice is given an erotic picture of Scorpia Mossmoon, “wearing exactly the corselette of Belgian lace, the dark stockings and shoes he daydreamed about often enough, but never—No he never told her. He never told anyone. Like every young man growing up in England, he was conditioned to get a hard-on in the presence of certain fetishes . . .” Promptly

256

notes to pages 132–134

ejaculating, Pirate rubs his sperm on the picture and a secret message is revealed. He has activated Kryptosam, a product developed by IG Farben, with applications, apparently, in espionage. It’s use, however, requires “a thorough knowledge of the addressee’s psychosexual profile.” 6. Though not concerned with visual practices, Philip B. Zarrilli’s work on the Indian martial art form known as Kalarippayattu offers a good example of how such bodily practices are inscribed. Working from Richard Johnson’s (1986: 44) idea that “subjectivities are produced, not given, and are therefore the objects of inquiry, not the premises or starting points,” Zarrilli then goes on to demonstrate how martial arts, as a technology of the body, can be used “to gain agency or power within certain specific contexts” (1995: 189; italics in original). 7. As Georges Vigarello shows in an article concerning the inscription of physical rectitude in Europe in the Middle Ages, it is precisely such injunctions as “stand up straight” that are replete with political significance. In the sixteenth century, Vigarello (1989: 151) explains, “a new court nobility was being established as the world of chivalry faded, and the emergence of a formal etiquette and a courtier class seemed to generate rules of deportment for the body . . . [Henceforth,] a changed culture regulated the behavior of the nobility, which, in order to define itself, invented the idea of civility.” In this world of practice, proper posture consisted of “holding oneself without effort . . . without any preliminary practice, without working on the positions . . . It is the opposite of affectation. It appears to have become second nature.” In short, “bearing and presence should be hereditary” (1989: 152, 156). These practices of civility were then so thoroughly inscribed and inculcated that they came to seem completely natural, as though hard-wired into the bodily constitution of the aristocracy. Complicit in this project was the erasure of the very origins of such a project. In the seventeenth century, for example, children of the aristocracy were to be trained in this deportment “without being overly aware of its social purpose” (1989: 183). For if these practices could be learned or adopted they could hardly be natural and hereditary—hence “civility” could not be a fixed and inherent marker of the aristocracy. What follows in Vigarello’s account is a fleet-footed transcendental move: as a means of erasing the purpose of these practices and avoiding the self-absorption that could come from such fastidious concern with the body, these practices are said to be god-given and performed for his benefit—“Physical uprightness is now suggested and imposed on a child in the name of religion” (1989: 184). 8. Divy 77.25–26, saha¯ntah.puren.a kuma¯rair ama¯tyair bhat.abala¯grair naigamaja¯napadais´ ca. 9. As Bourdieu (1999: 164) explains, “Schemes of thought and perception can produce the objectivity that they do produce only by producing misrecognition of the limits of the cognition that they make possible, thereby founding immediate adherence, in the doxic mode, to the world of tradition experienced as a ‘natural world’ and taken for granted. The instruments of knowledge of the social world are in this case (objectively) political instruments which contribute to the reproductions of the social world by producing immediate adherence to the world, seen as self-evident and undisputed, of which they are the product and of which they reproduce the structures in a transformed form.”

notes to pages 135–136

257

10. This point is made clear in MacKinnon’s (1993: 95–96) discussion of a death penalty case in Indiana: “ . . . a sex murderer claimed he could not be held responsible for his actions because he was a lifelong pornography user. To receive the death penalty, a defendant must be capable of appreciating the wrongfulness of his actions, but that is exactly what pornography was proven to destroy in the consumer by evidence in this case. Noting that the Hudnut court had accepted the view that pornography perpetuates ‘subordination of women and violence again women’ yet it is protected because its harm depends on ‘mental intermediation,’ this panel, which included Judge Easterbrook, faced the dilemma Hudnut placed them in: ‘It would be impossible to hold both that pornography does not directly cause violence but criminal actors do, and that criminals do not cause violence, pornography does. The result would be to tell Indiana that it can neither ban pornography nor hold criminally responsible persons who are encouraged to commit violent acts because of pornography!’ ” In MacKinnon’s view, the decision in Hudnut is wrong because pornography creates, to cite the words of the counsel in the above case, “a person who no longer distinguishes between violence and rape, or violence and sex” (1993: 96). 11. This concern is most evident in a parallel argument MacKinnon makes regarding hate speech. The meaning of hate speech itself, MacKinnon claims, isn’t important; what is important is the meaning of hate speech for women. In other words, “it is its function.” And as MacKinnon (1993: 29) concludes, “Law’s proper concern here is not with what speech says, but what it does.” 12. Following the work of Milman Parry and Albert Lord, there has been a tendency among scholars to attribute redundancy as a marker of oral transmission, but a redundant discourse can also be used “in order to reduce the ‘openings’ that might make a plural reading possible” (Suleiman 1993: 55). The former position is summed up by Jonathan Parry (1985: 208): “It would be nearer to the mark to say that in traditional India it was literary expression which was subordinated to the demands of oral transmission, for much of the sacred literature was composed in a form and with a redundancy which was clearly intended to facilitate memorization and faithful replication.” Yet, this explanation does not account for the variety of levels at which redundancy occurs in avada¯ nas and in Buddhist canonical literature in general. There is repetition at the level of sign (e.g., words, phrases, sentences), signifier (e.g., homonymny, alliteration, syntactic structures), and signified (e.g., synonymy and pleonasm) (Cohen 1976: 413–22). This notion that redundancy is a marker of the orality offers little explanatory force for explaining the repetition of extended passages, such as the occurrence of the Toyika¯ story in two different avada¯ nas. John D. Smith (1977: 147) makes the same point about the repetition of “longer sequences” in the Pa¯ bu¯ji epic from Rajasthan. The Toyika¯ story, for example, is not just repeated to “augment the possiblity of a correct reception of the message” (Suleiman 1993: 55), but to use the same story to create a variety of causal and contextual meaning within an extended discourse. Kirin Narayan (1989: 218–221) has demonstrated much the same effect in her description of the variety of meanings that different tellings of the same folk narrative can have in contemporary India. Though in a non-South Asian context, Robert Alter’s work on repetition in the Hebrew Bible also attests to the variety of ends for which redundancy can be used (1981: 88–113).

258

notes to pages 137–138

13. In other words, the advocatory message that I mentioned previously to go and see pra¯sa¯dika objects and make offerings. 14. The Divya¯vada¯na, for example, mentions and quotes a variety of Buddhist texts (e.g., Divy 20.23–24, 34.29–35.2). 15. As an interesting exception, there is a wonderful story in the Maha¯prajña¯pa¯ramita¯´sa¯stra (k9, 125c; trans. in Lamotte 1949–1980: 541–542) in which a woman, owing to her insufficient merit, is simply unable to see the Buddha regardless of where he positions himself. 16. Divy 2.26, 11.1–2, 26.2–3, 58.2, etc., abhiru¯po dars´anı¯yah. pra¯sa¯dikah.. 17. Divy 515.23–25, iyam . da¯rika¯ na maya¯ kasyacit kulena da¯tavya¯ na dhanena na¯pi ´srutena kim . tu yo ’sya¯ ru¯pen.a samo va¯py adhiko va¯ tasya maya¯ da¯tavyeti. 18. Divy 516.14, dr..s.tva¯ ca punah. prı¯tipra¯modyaja¯tah.. 19. Divy 516.14–17, ya¯dr.´so ’yam . ´sraman.ah. pra¯sa¯dikah. pradars´anı¯yah. sakalajanamanoha¯rı¯ durlabhas tu sarvastrı¯janasya patih. pratiru¯pah. pra¯g eva¯nupama¯ya¯ labdho me ja¯ma¯teti. 20. Divy 516.25, mahars. ih.. 21. Divy 516.28–29, na¯sau bhakta¯m . bhajate kuma¯rika¯m . nivarta ya¯sya¯mah. svakam . nives´anam. 22. Divy 517.11, 517.22–23, 518.5–6, na¯sau bharta¯ bhajate kuma¯rika¯m . nivarta ya¯sya¯mah. svam . nives´anam. 23. Divy 519.13, pratighavacanam. 24. Divy 519.14–18, dr..s.ta¯ maya¯ ma¯rasuta¯ hi vipra tr..s n.a¯ na me na¯pi tatha¯ ratis´ ca | chando na me ka¯magun.es. u kas´cit tasma¯d ima¯m . mu¯trapurı¯.s apu¯rn.a¯m . || b <spras..tum hi padbhya¯m> api notsaheyam | b

Following Tatelman 2005: 322 (cp. Divy 521.1). The Tibetan (D nya 172b) concurs. Divy 519.18, pras..tum hi yatta¯m. 25. For a prescription of this in the ´ sa¯ stras, see Kane 1930–1962: ii, 517–518. 26. Divy 519.7–10, a ima¯m . bhagava¯n pas´yatu me suta¯m . sata¯m . satı¯m | ru¯popapanna¯m . pramada¯m alam . kr.ta¯m | b ka¯ma¯rthinı¯m . yad bhavate pradı¯yate | c saha¯naya¯ sa¯dhur iva¯carata¯m . bhava¯n | sametya candro nabhası¯va rohin.¯ı m || a To preserve the meter, Thomas (1940: 655) suggests ima¯m . bhava¯n pas´yatu me ¯ suta¯m satı m . That is, “Look at this virtuous daughter of mine.” Thomas emends bhagava¯n . ¯ to bhavan because “a brahmin, it is well-known, does not address the Lord as such, but as bhava¯n” (655). For the peculiar term sata¯m . , Cowell and Neil (Divy 519n4) query satya¯m. b Speyer (1902: 359) suggests ru¯popapanna¯ pramada¯ alam . kr.ta¯ ka¯ma¯rthinı¯ yad bhavate pradı¯yate. c Speyer (1902: 359) suggests saha¯naya¯ sa¯dhu cared ratim . bhava¯n. Also possible is saha¯naya¯ sa¯dhur iva¯cared bhava¯n. For the Tibetan of this verse, see D nya 172a7.

notes to pages 138–140

259

27. While the Buddha is referred to as an “ascetic” (´sraman.a), Ma¯ kandika is described as a “wandering mendicant” ( parivra¯jaka), a term that here seems to denote a wayward form of renunciant. Likewise in Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra, the various “heretics” (tı¯rthika) who attempt to defeat the Buddha in a competition of magical powers are referred to as “wandering mendicant heretics” (tı¯rthikaparivra¯jaka¯n | Divy 146.19). 28. Adding to the confusion of sexualized and devotional discourse here is the ambiguity of this expression. It can also mean “like a saint”—more pointedly, like someone who is celibate. Speyer (1902: 359) may be right, though, in concluding that this is “another instance of the hortative particle sa¯dhu, not being understood by copyists and leading them into error.” 29. In the corresponding Tibetan (D nya 171a4), however, Ma¯ kandika’s wife concludes that “This is not a husband who will love our daughter,” just as she does in the five times that follow. 30. The Buddha makes this clear in his response to Ma¯ kandika: Since one who is deluded desires sense objects, he may long for your daughter, O brahman, for she is beautiful and attached to sense objects. In this respect a man not free from attachment is quite deluded. But I am a buddha, best of sages, active [in the world], who has obtained awakening, auspicious and unsurpassed. Just as a lotus is undefiled by drops of water, I live in the world completely undefiled. And just as a blue lotus in muddy water is in no way defiled by mud, In just this way, O brahman, I live in the world, totally separate from sense pleasures. yasma¯d iha¯rthı¯ vis. ayes. u mu¯d.hah. sa pra¯rthayed vipra suta¯m . tavema¯m | a ¯ ¯ ¯ d.hah. || ¯ avı tara go ’tra janah pramu u < sakta m > ru¯popapanna¯m vis ayes . . . . ¯ aham . tu buddho munisattamah. kr.tı pra¯pta¯ maya¯ bodhir anuttara¯ ´siva¯ | padmam . yatha¯ va¯rikan.air aliptam . cara¯mi loke ’nupalipta eva || b nı¯la¯mbujam . kardamava¯rimadhye yatha¯ pan.kena vanopaliptam | c tatha¯ hy aham . bra¯hman.a lokamadhye cara¯mi ka¯mes.u vivikta [eva] || Divy 519.25–520.7 || a

Following Cowell and Neil’s query (Divy 519n10). Divy 519.27, ´sakta¯m. Following Cowell and Neil’s query (Divy 520n2). Divy 520. 4, ca. c Following Cowell and Neil’s query (Divy 520n3). 31. A famous example of this confusion is Gianlorenzo Bernini’s statue of Saint Teresa. She is clearly aroused, though it is unclear whether that arousal is due to erotic or spiritual love. 32. In The Art of Seeing: An Interpretation of the Aesthetic Encounter, Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi and Rick Robinson (1990: 178) describe the aesthetic experience b

260

notes to pages 140–142

as “an intense involvement of attention in response to visual stimulus, for no other reason than to sustain the interaction.” It is this autotelic quality of the experience that differentiates it from a disengaged transaction within a visual economy—the automated and impersonal—and marks it as something “characterized by feelings of personal wholeness, a sense of discovery, and a sense of human connectedness” (1990: 178). 33. Divy 334.17–18, so ’pas´cime ya¯me ga¯d.hanidra¯vas..tabdhah. ´sayitah.. 34. These erotic associations of prasa¯da are also found in its modern Hindi usage. For example, Hardev Bahri’s Rajpal English-Hindi Dictionary (1999) contains the following entry: “buxom bak sam a. (of a woman) gay, frolicsome prasannacitt, mot. i evam . a¯kars. ak.” Here the physical attributes of a woman’s sexuality are defined not as generating “prasa¯da of mind” ( prasannacit) but as being “prasa¯da of mind,” eliding the difference between the object and the state that it engenders as well as any notion of mental intermediation. Being buxom is also akin to being “plump” (mot. i) and “attractive” (a¯kars. ak). Like pra¯sa¯dika objects, it draws things in; it is the agent of action. 35. As Susan Sontag (1966: 11) writes, “Ideally, it is possible to elude interpreters in another way, by making works of art whose surface is so unified and clean, whose momentum is so rapid, whose address is so direct that the work can be . . . just what it is. Is this possible now? It does happen in films, I believe.” 36. Philip Lutgendorf (1995: 230–231) makes a similar point in describing the tendency of the televised Sa¯gar Ra¯ma¯yan “to periodically halt the flow of its narrative to focus on stylized, posterlike tableaux, accompanied by devotional singing” which functioned “as a visual distillation for the contemplation of devotees.” According to Lutgendorf, contemplating this visual distillation led many viewers to experience bhakti, which in modern Hinduism, unlike in the Divya¯vada¯na (e.g., Divy 1.7–17, 231.23–232.3), is thought to be spiritually efficacious. 37. For example, “Now the Blessed One was self-controlled, and his followers were self-controlled . . .” (atha bhagava¯n da¯nto da¯ntapariva¯rah. | Divy 125.24–126.13, 182.1–20, 267.14–268.5, etc.). 38. For example, “He was free from attachment in the three realms [of desire, form, and formlessness] . . .” (traidha¯tukavı¯tara¯gah. | Divy 180.25–28, 240.23–27, 282.1–5, 492.4–8, etc.). 39. Such elisions occur for the above description of the Buddha (Divy 96.16–18) as well as for the description of arhats (Divy 18.26, 341.1, 342.6, 344.24, etc.). 40. The Blessed One, it is said, “is a tatha¯ gata, an arhat, a perfectly awakened being, perfect in knowledge and action, a sugata, a knower of the world, an unsurpassed guide for those in need of training, a teacher of gods and mortals, a buddha, and a blessed one” (tatha¯gato ’rhan samyaksam . buddho vidya¯caran.asam . pannah. sugato lokavid ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ anuttarah. purus.adamyasa¯rathim ´ s a sta devamanus ya n a m buddho bhagava¯n | Divy 344.5– . . . . 7; cp. 54.12–14, 141.17–19, 242.2–4, 246.5–7, 254.4–6, 282.20–22, etc.; and in abbreviated form, Divy 347.1, 464.15, etc). In some of these instances, the first three of these epithets—tatha¯ gata, arhat, perfectly awakened being—are skipped. 41. Divy 196.24–197.1, 290.11–13, 470.5–8, etc, ity api sa bhagava¯n.

notes to pages 142–151

261

42. On the connection in the Pali materials between the practice of buddha¯nusmr.ti and the iti pi so verse, a corresponding list of epithets minus the term tatha¯gata, see Visuddhimagga vii.2–67 (Vism 198–213; trans. in Ña¯ n.amoli 1979: 206–230); Harrison 1992a: 215–219; and Hallisey 1988 ii, 208–261. 43. Divy 78,9, 78.15, 78.23, etc., na¯sya sama¯ bhavanti yo. 44. GM iii 1, 78.1, ´satam . sahasra¯n.i suvarn.aparvata¯ meroh. sama¯h.. 45. Divy 84.24, sa¯mantakena ´sabdo visr.tah.. This trope of of “word having spread” (´sabdo visr.tah.) also occurs with regard to the prasa¯da-intiated gift of a brahman’s daughter in the bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na. There, however, no mention is made that this spreading of the word leads to an increase in the status of the brahman’s daughter. All that is said in the text is that the woman’s husband is furious at the Buddha because he thinks that he has consciously lied in order to get food. 46. Abhidh-sam 16.7–8, ´sraddha¯ katama¯ | astitvagun.avattvas´akyatves. vabhisam . pra¯ ¯ tyayah. prasa¯do ’bhila¯.s ah. | chandasam nis ´ rayada nakarmika . . 47. Abhidh-sam-bh 5.10–12, astitve ’bhisam . pratyaya¯ka¯ra¯ ´sraddha¯ | gun.atve prasa¯da¯k¯ ¯ a¯ra¯ | ´ sakyatve ’bhila¯.sa¯ka¯ra¯ ´sakyam maya pra ptum . . nis.pa¯dayitum . veti. For another translation of Sthiramati’s commentary, see Guenther 1976: 64. 48. My thanks to John Dunne for sharing the as-yet-unpublished translation of the text that he has done with J. B. Apple. For a previous translation, see Guenther and Kawamura 1975. 49. John Dunne (personal communication) notes that this order is quite common in later Tibetan texts, as is the appearance of adhimukti in place of abhila¯.s a. 50. In the Candraprabhabodhisattvacarya¯-avada¯na, for example, King Candraprabha offers his head to a beggar. As he explains to the various deities who try to thwart him, “Right here in this Man.iratnagarbha (Containing the Most-Treasured Jewel) Park of yours, I have sacrificed my head thousands of times, and no one has obstructed me. Therefore, deity, do not obstruct this man who begs for my best limb! For it was right here, deity, that I sacrificed myself to a tigress and left Maitreya behind. The bodhisattva Maitreya, who had set out forty ages ago, was surpassed with a single sacrifice of my head” (asminneva te man.iratnagarbha udya¯ne maya¯ sahasras´ah. ´sirah.paritya¯gah. kr.to na ca me kenacid antara¯yah. kr.tah. | tasma¯t tvam . devate mamottama¯ñgaya¯canakasya¯ntara¯yam . ma¯ kuru | es.a eva ¯ devate sapr..s.thı¯bhu¯to maitrı¯yo yo vya¯ghrya¯ a¯tma¯nam parityajya catva r im ´ s a . . tkalpasam . prasthito ¯ ¯ gena¯vapr..s.thıkr.tah. | Divy 326.6–11)! Cf. Gilgit Buddhist maitreyo bodhisattva ekena ´sirahparitya . Manuscripts (Vira and Chandra 1995: 1504.4 ff.); cited in Hartmann 1980: 265–266. 51. Divy 180.21–22, tena yujyama¯nena ghat.ama¯nena vya¯yacchama¯nena. 52. As Lauren Berlant (2007: 757) notes, “We persist in an attachment to a fantasy that in the truly lived life emotions are always heightened and expressed in modes of effective agency that ought justly to be and are ultimately consequential or performatively sovereign.”

chapter 7 1. Th-a i, 147, yo kho, vakkali, dhammam . passati, so mam . passati | yo mam . passati, so dhammam . passati. This saying is also found in other Pali sources, and as Alex

262

notes to pages 151–154

Wayman (1970: 28) notes, “the Mah¯ay¯ana equivalent to this is found in many places.” See SN iii, 120 (trans. in Bodhi 2000: 939); It 91 (trans. in Woodward 1948: 181); Mil 71 (trans. in Horner 1969: i, 97); and Mp i, 249. For more on this passage, see Strong 1992: 81. 2. See SN iii, 119–124; trans. in Bodhi 2000: 938–941. 3. As Kevin Trainor (1997: 183) observes, however, the version of the Vakkali story in the Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯ “presents a rather different message about the religious value of viewing the Buddha’s body.” In that account, Vakkali spends all his time as a monk staring at the Buddha, so the Buddha sends him away for the rainy season to jolt him into understanding. Vakkali is distraught at this measure, and after three months of this deprivation he decides to commit suicide by throwing himself off Vulture’s Peak. Knowing that Vakkali will destroy his chances for liberation along with himself, the Buddha “released an image [in his likeness] in order to display himself [to Vakkali]. From the moment [Vakkali] saw the Teacher, his great weight of sorrow was abandoned” (atta¯nam . dassetum obha¯sam . muñci | ath’ assa satthu dit..thaka¯lato pat..tha¯ya ta¯vamahanto pi soko pahı¯yi | Dhp-a 118). The Buddha then recites a verse for Vakkali that explains that “the monk with an abundance of joy who has pasa¯da in the teaching of the Buddha shall attain the state of peace . . .” ( pa¯moj jabahulo bhikkhu pasanno buddha¯sane adhigacche padam . santam | Dhp-a 119). Having been filled with intense joy and pleasure, Vakkali then springs into the air, where, face to face with the Buddha, he attains arhatship. Though this version of the story likewise reiterates the dangers of being attached to seeing the Buddha, it also shows this act of seeing to be beneficial. Furthermore, it incorporates the discourse of saddha¯ into the familiar typology of prasa¯da. This raises intriguing questions about why this postcanonical commentary, which according to Burlingame’s (1969: i, 57) hypothesis dates to 450 CE, glosses a verse from the Dhammapada about pasa¯da with a story about saddha¯. 4. Commenting on the aphorism in the Sam . yutta-nika¯ya, Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000: 1080n168) remarks, “Though the second clause seems to be saying that simply by seeing the Buddha’s body one sees the Dhamma, the meaning is surely that in order to really see the Buddha one should see the Dhamma, the truth to which he awakened” (italics in original). In the Divya¯vada¯na, however, to really see the Buddha requires no such reworking. 5. Divy 49.5–6, sahadars´ana¯c ca¯nena bhagavato ’ntike cittam abhiprasa¯ditam. 6. Divy 49.17–19, es. o ’gro me bhiks.avo bhiks.u¯n.a¯m . mama ´sraddha¯dhimukta¯na¯m . yad uta vakkalı¯ bhiks.ur iti. Though saddha¯dimutta also occurs in the Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯ (Dhp-a 118), it may be that ´sraddha¯dhimukta is a mistake for ´sraddha¯vimukta—that is, “released through saddha¯”—for the latter is a common epithet in Pali. As Ludowyk. Gyomroi (1947: 43) notes, making reference to the Anguttara-nika¯ya (AN i, 120), “to be saddha¯vimutta does not necessarily mean that one is an arahant.” This epithet, therefore, could apply to Vakkali. 7. For more on this two-body theory of the Buddha, see Demieville 1934; Harrison 1992b; Lancaster 1974; and Reynolds 1977. 8. Divy 19.2–4, dr..s.to ’sma¯bhir upa¯dhya¯yah. paryupa¯sitas´ ca gaccha¯mo vayam . bhagavantam . paryupa¯sis. ya¯mahe.

notes to pages 154–155

263

9. Divy 19.4–5, dras..tavya¯ eva paryupa¯sitavya¯ eva hi tatha¯gata¯ arhantah. samyaksam .buddha¯h.. 10. Divy 19.10–12, dr..s.to mayopa¯dhya¯ya¯nubha¯vena sa bhagava¯n dharmaka¯yena no tu ru¯paka¯yena gaccha¯my upa¯dhya¯ya ru¯paka¯yena¯pi tam . bhagavantam . draks.ya¯mi. For another gloss on this passage, see Harrison 1992a: 55. 11. Divy 19.13–14, durlabhadars´ana¯ hi vatsa tatha¯gata¯ arhantah. samyaksam . buddha¯s tad yatha¯ audumbarapus.pam. The udumbara (or ud.umbara) tree—that is, Ficus glomerata or the wild fig—doesn’t produce flowers; its sprouts turn directly into fruit. In chapter 7 of the Lalitavistara it is written that the blossoming of an udumbara and the arising of a buddha on earth are similarly uncommon occurrences (Mitra 1998: 129 and 154n48). As Strong (1979a: 225n10) remarks, “the ud.umbara was thought to flower only once every 3000 years and so became a metaphor for a rare event.” 12. Following GM iii 4, 188.4–5, read a¯ryasya tu¯.s n.¯ı bha¯vena¯tina¯mitava¯n. Divy 20.19, “They accepted [each other] in noble silence” (a¯ryen.a tu¯.s n.¯ı bha¯vena¯dhiva¯sitava¯n). 13. This may represent a mis-Sanskitization of the Pali form At. .t akavaggika— that is, The Book of Eights. See Lévi 1915: 413 and Bapat 1951. The corresponding passage from the Gilgit Manuscripts (GM iii 4, 188.9–10) reads “as well as The Verses of ´aila, The Sage’s Verses, The Elder Monk’s Verses, The Elder Nun’s Verses, and Discourses S Concerning the Goal” (´s ailaga¯tha¯muniga¯tha¯sthaviraga¯tha¯sthavirı¯ga¯tha¯rthavargı¯ya¯n.i ca su¯ tra¯n.i). For details regarding these texts, see Lamotte 1988: 156–163 and Lévi 1915: 401–425. 14. Divy 20.21–28, pratibha¯tu te ´sron.a dharmo yo maya¯ svayam abhijña¯ya¯bhisam .budhya¯khya¯tah. | atha¯yus.mañ chron.o bhagavata¯ kr.ta¯vaka¯´sah. a uda¯na¯t pa¯ra¯yan.a¯t satyadr..s.tah. ´sailaga¯tha¯ muniga¯tha¯ arthavargı¯ya¯n.i ca su¯tra¯n.i vistaren.a svaren.a sva¯dhya¯yam . karoti | atha bhagava¯ñ chron.asya kot.ikarn.asya katha¯paryavasa¯nam . viditva¯ a¯yus.mantam . ´sron.am . kot.ikarn.am idam avocat | sa¯dhu sa¯dhu ´sron.a madhuras te dharmo bha¯.sitah. pran.¯ı tas´ ca yo maya¯ svayam abhijña¯ya¯bhisam . budhya¯khya¯tah.. a Following GM iii 4, 188.8–9. Divy 20.22–23, asma¯t para¯ntikaya¯ guptikaya¯. 15. The same set of texts mentioned plus The Elder Monk’s Verses (Sthaviraga¯tha¯) is also declared to be the word of the Buddha by a group of merchants in the Pu¯rn.aavada¯na (Divy 34.29–35.2). As their boat is crossing the ocean, those merchants loudly ¯ rn.a hears them, he says, “Gentlerecite passages these texts. When the caravan leader Pu ¯ men, you sing beautiful songs” (bhavantah. ´sobhanani gı¯ta¯ni ga¯yatha | Divy 35.3). To this the merchants reply, “Caravan leader, these aren’t songs! This is the word of the Buddha” (sa¯rthava¯ha naita¯ni gı¯ta¯ni kim . tu khalv etad buddhavacanam | Divy 35.3–4)! As Joel Tatelman (2000: 85n57) notes, “These include what may be the earliest datable Buddhist texts.” 16. If my guess is correct that As´ma¯ para¯ ntaka designates an area in what is now Maharashtra, the Buddhist practitioners that are referred to in this region may be a branch of the Sarva¯ stiva¯ dins. There is evidence of such a presence during the reign of the Sa¯ tava¯ hanas (Mirashi 1981: 144), and this could even be an indication ¯ lasarva¯ stiva¯ dins were there as well. Certainly possible is that a branch of the that Mu ¯ lasarva¯ stiva¯ din or otherwise—would be interested in Sarva¯ stiva¯ dins in the north—Mu rules governing another branch of their order in another region. All this is complicated,

264

notes to pages 155–157

however, by the fact that variants of this story with variations in this place name occur in different vinayas. As Waldschmidt (1967a: 150–151) has noted, in the Pali Vinaya we find Avanti-Dakkhin.a¯ patha; in the Sarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya, As´maka-Avanti; in the Dharmagupta´una, or vinaya and Mahı¯´sa¯saka-vinaya, As´va-Avanti; and in the Maha¯sa¯m . ghika-vinaya, S ´ following Lévi (1915: 410, 416), Sron.a-Apara¯ nta, a conjunct formed with the main character’s name. Cf. Lamotte 1949–1980: 546–47n3. Even without a precise understanding of the area being referred to, this account does raise some interesting questions for Buddhist cultural history: Why do these separate vinayas and the Divya¯vada¯na all make reference to a set of monastic regulations in what appears to be an outlying region? Why is the list of questions that Kot.ikarn.a asks so uniform in a variety of vinayas and yet the place that these questions concern so different? Why does the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na in particular contain such variation with regard to this place name, as though the compiler(s) or scribe(s) were not aware of any place like As´ma¯ para¯ ntaka? 17. Vinaya, Maha¯ vagga, v. 13 (Vin i, 194–197; trans. in Rhys Davids and Oldenberg 1987: ii, 32–40 and Horner 1969–1975: ii, 1–11). A very similar account to this also occurs in the Uda¯na (Ud 57–59; trans. in Masefield 1994a: 100–105). 18. Vin i, 195, suto yeva kho me so bhagava¯ ediso ca ediso ca¯ ’ti, na ca maya¯ sammukha¯ dit..tho | gaccheyya¯ham . bhante tam . bhagavantam . dassana¯ya arahantam . samma¯sam . buddham . sace mam . upaj jha¯yo anuja¯na¯tı¯ti. 19. Vin i, 195, dakkhissasi tvam . Son.a tam . bhagavantam . pa¯sa¯dikam . pasa¯danı¯yam. ¯ 20. Vin i, 196, pat.ibha¯tu tam bhikkhu dhammo bha situn ti . . 21. Although an oral/aural culture is manifest in Pali materials (Collins 1992 and Cousins 1993), seeing the Buddha—that is, receiving his dassana (Skt., dars´ana)—also plays an important, though often under-acknowledged, role. For example, in T. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg’s translation of the Pali Vinaya, they render Kut.ikan. n.a’s decision “to go and see the Blessed One” more loosely as “to go and visit the Blessed One” (1987: ii, 33). 22. This assessment, however, may be premature. What I know about the Kot.ikarn. a story in other vinayas (i.e., the Sarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya, the Mahı¯´sa¯saka-vinaya, the Dharmagupta-vinaya, the Maha¯sa¯m . ghika-vinaya) is gleaned from Sylvain Lévi’s (1915: 405–412) citations and summaries of their Chinese translations. Lévi, though, is primarily concerned with the various texts that Kot.ikarn.a recites in the Buddha’s presence. In addition, following the variants of this story can be quite trying. The Kot.ikarn.a narrative tends to blend and merge with other stories in a variety of traditions. Kut.ikan.n.a, as G. P. Malalasekara (DPPN, s.v. Son.a-Kut.ikan.n.a) notes, “is evidently identical with Pa¯ t.ihı¯rasaññaka of the Apada¯ na.” Then, in the version of the story in the Maha¯sa¯m . ghikavinaya, Kot.ikarn.a’s teacher isn’t Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana, but Pu¯rn.a, the hero of the Pu¯rn.aavada¯na, so that both Kot.ikarn.a-a¯vada¯na and the Pu¯rn.a-avada¯na are fused together (trans. in Tatelman 2000: 200–205; cf. Lévi 1915: 410–411 and Tatelman 2000: 23–24). 23. Following the Chinese sources, Mukhopadhyaya (1963) reverses the order of the second and third avada¯ nas in his edition of the As´oka cycle, and Strong (1989) does as well in his translation of the stories, so that Kuna¯la-avada¯na follows the Vı¯ta¯´sokaavada¯na instead of preceding it.

notes to pages 158–161

265

24. My analysis of the As´oka stories owes much to the work of John Strong, particularly his translation and study of the As´oka¯vada¯na (Strong 1989). 25. For more on the cakravartin ideal, see Reynolds 1972 and Collins 1998: 414– 496. Strong (1989: 49–56) also discusses this with particular reference to As´oka. 26. As Steven Collins (1998: 418) rightly observes, “It would be a mistake to treat . . . [Buddhist texts in Pali], or (as is more often the case) passages within them conceived separately as ‘proof-texts,’ simply in a documentary fashion, and to forget that texts have work-like aspects, which supplement material realities imaginatively in a critical or reflective, sometimes deliberately inconclusive and open-ended way. Irony, inter alia, escapes the essentialist.” 27. Divy 382.4 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 71.1), sa ida¯nı¯m aciraja¯taprasa¯do buddhas´a¯sane. Generally one has ´sraddha¯ and not prasa¯da in the Buddha’s teachings. 28. Divy 387.12 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 79.1), tvad dars´ana¯n me dvigun.aprasa¯dah. sam . ja¯yate. 29. Divy 389.25 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 82.5), dhanya¯s te kr.tapun.ya¯´s ca. 30. Divy 389.27 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 82.7), ra¯jñah. prasa¯davr.ddhyartham. 31. Divy 390.4–6 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 82.14–15), naiva¯sika¯ ya¯ iha¯´sokavr.ks. e sam . buddhadars´inı¯ ya¯ devakanya¯ | a sa¯kd.a¯d asau dars´ayatu svadeham . ra¯jño hy as´okasya manah. prasa¯davr.ddhyai || a

Cowell and Neil (Divy 390n2) suggest omitting manah., and Mukhopadhyaya (As´oka¯ v 82.15) deletes it in his recension of the text. Since manah. breaks meter, it is likely a later addition. My sense is that manah.prasa¯da is meant to function here in the same way as the much more common cittaprasa¯da. As I mentioned previously, there are peculiarities in the As´oka cycle of stories regarding the term prasa¯da. 32. Divy 390.19–20 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 83.4–5), bhagavato ja¯yama¯nasya ´srı¯r babhu¯va. 33. Divy 390.20 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 83.5), na ´sakyam . maya¯ va¯gbhih. sam . praka¯´sayitum. 34. Divy 392.19 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 86.5), api pas´yema na¯gendram . yena dr..s.tas tatha¯gatah.. 35. Divy 392.28–29 (cp. As´oka¯ v 86.13–14), a¯khya¯hi me das´abalasya gun.aikades´am . | tat kı¯dr.´s¯ı vada bhavan sugate tada¯nima || As´oka¯ v 86.13 reads, “Tell me what the glory of the Sugata was like at that time” (tat kı¯dr.´s¯ı vada hi ´srı¯h. sugate tada¯nim . ). 36. Divy 393.1 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 86.15), na ´sakyam . va¯gbhih. sam . praka¯´sayitum. 37. Cf. Strong 1979a: 225n11. 38. For more on this “corporeality of words,” see Mitchell 1994: 151–182. 39. Divy 389.17 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 81.17), Divy 390.27 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 83.11), Divy 391.4–5 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 83.17–18), Divy 391.6 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 83.19), Divy 391.7 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 84.1), etc. 40. Divy 394.10–13 (cp. As´oka¯ v 88.10–11), a

lokam . sadevamanuja¯surayaks.ana¯gam aks.ayyadharmavinaye matima¯n vinı¯ya | a ´sa¯ntim . gatah. paramaka¯run.iko mahars.ih. || Following Cowell and Neil’s suggestion (Divy 394n2) and As´oka¯ v 88.11. Divy 394.12, vaineyasattvaviraha¯nupas´a¯ntabuddhih.. a

266

notes to pages 161–164

41. Divy 394.14 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 88.12), ´srutva¯ ca ra¯ja¯ mu¯rchitah. patitah.. a 42. Divy 394.20–21, ayam . maha¯ra¯ja sthaviras´a¯riputrasya stu¯ pah. asya¯rcanam. It is ambiguous, however, whether Upagupta is asking the king to honor S´a¯ riputra or to honor the stu¯ pa, for the term asya could refer either “to him” or “to it.” a Following As´oka¯ v 88.18. Divy 394.21, kriyatam. 43. Divy 394.25–26 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 89.1–2), sarvalokasya ya¯ prajña¯ stha¯payitva¯ tatha¯gatam | ´sa¯riputrasya <prajña¯ya¯h.>a kala¯m . na¯rhati .s od.as´¯ı m || Following As´oka¯ v 29.2. Divy 394.26, prajña¯ya¯. 44. Divy 394.27–395.2 (cp. As´oka¯ v 89.4–7), a

saddharmacakram atulam . yaj jinena pravartitam | anuvr.ttam . hi tat tena ´sa¯riputren.a dhı¯mata¯ || kas tasya sa¯dhu buddha¯nyah. purus. ah. ´sa¯radvatasyeha | jña¯tva¯ gun.agan.anidhim . vaktum . ´saknoti niravas´es. a¯t || 45. Divy 395.3–4 (cp. As´oka¯ v 89.8), prı¯tamana¯h. sthaviras´a¯radvatı¯putrastu¯pe ´satasahasram . dattva¯. 46. Divy 395.14 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 89.19), pu¯janı¯yah. prayatnena. 47. Divy 396.11–12 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 91.7), alpecchabha¯va¯n na kr.tam . hi tena yatha¯ kr.tam . sattvahitam tad anyaih . . . 48. Divy 396.20–21 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 91.14), ´srutasamudrah.. 49. Divy 397.3 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 92.6), dharmapradı¯po jvalati praja¯su kles´a¯ndhaka¯ra¯ntakaro yad adya. 50. The presence of donation boxes at shrines in South Asia has now become so common that they almost seem to be attributes or necessary markers that attest to a shrine’s formal status as shrine. Since it is now doxa in much of South Asia that one should make offerings at shrines, the establishment of a donation box at a site indicates that place’s venerability just as the proverbial red carpet does for an individual. 51. Divy 397.17–21 (⫽ As´oka¯v 93.2–5), ya¯vad ra¯jña¯´sokena ja¯tau bodhau dharmacakre parinirva¯n.e ekaikas´atasahasram . dattam . tasya bodhau vis´es.atah. prasa¯daja¯ta iha bhagavata¯nuttara¯ samyaksam . bodhir abhisam . buddheti | sa ya¯ni vis´es.ayukta¯ni ratna¯ni ta¯ni bodhim . pres.ayati. 52. Divy 397.22–23 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 93.7–8), ayam . ra¯ja¯ maya¯ sa¯rdham . ratim anubhavati a ca ratna¯ni bodhau pres. ayati. a Following As´oka¯ v 93.7. Divy 397.23, vis´es. ayukta¯m . ´s. 53. Divy 398.6–7 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 93.18), dr..s.tva¯ nv aham . tam . drumara¯jamu¯lam . ja¯na¯mi dr..s.to ’dya maya¯ svayambhu¯h.. 54. Divy 398.22 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 94.13), satka¯radvayam uttamam. 55. Divy 393.18 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 87.2–3), asmin prades´e. 56. For more on As´oka’s encounter with Pin.d.ola, see Strong 1979b: 82–86. 57. Divy 400.1–2 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 96.9–10), asti kas´cit buddhadars´¯ı bhiks.ur dhriyata iti. 58. Divy 400.3 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 96.12), buddhadars´¯ı tis..thata iti.

notes to pages 164–167

267

59. Divy 400.7–10 (⫽ As´okav 96.16–17), la¯bhah. parah. sya¯d atulo mameha maha¯sukhas´ ca¯yam anuttamas´ ca | pas´ya¯my aham . yat tam uda¯rasattvam . sa¯ks.a¯d bharadva¯jasagotrana¯ma || 60. Divy 400.13 (⫽ As´okav 96.19–97.1), ra¯jaham . sa iva. 61. Divy 400.23 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 97.10), prı¯ti. 62. Divy 400.23–24 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 97.10), sthaviram . nirı¯ks.ya. 63. Divy 400.24–26 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 97.11–13), tvaddars´ana¯d bhavati dr..s.to ’dya tatha¯gatah. | karun.a¯la¯bha¯t tvaddars´ana¯c ca dvigun.aprasa¯do mamotpannah. | api ca sthavira dr..s.tas te trailokyana¯tho gurur me bhagava¯n buddha iti. 64. Divy 401.5 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 98.1), sthavira kutra te bhagava¯n dr..s.tah. katham . ceti. 65. Divy 401.11–12 (cp. As´oka¯ v 98.7–8), tatka¯lam a¯sam . tatra¯ham . sam . buddhasya tadantike | yatha¯ pas´yasi ma¯m . sa¯ks. a¯d evam . dr..s.to maya¯ munih. || 66. Divy 401.15 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 98.11) and Divy 401.23 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 98.19), tatka¯lam . tatraiva¯ham a¯sam. Cf. Divy 401.23 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 98.19), tatka¯lam . tatraiva¯sam. 67. Divy 402.5 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 99.6), na ta¯vat te parinirva¯tavyam . ya¯vad dharmo na¯ntarhita iti. 68. Divy 402.22 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 99.19), prasa¯ditva¯. 69. Divy 403.3 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 100.9–10), buddhasmr.tipratibodhitah.. As a translation of the Chinese rendering of this passage, Mukhopadhyaya (As´oka¯ v 100n10) offers, “Having produced in me the thought of meditation on Buddha.” 70. Strong (1989: 261) translates this as “You show yourself out of compassion, and that redoubles my faith.” 71. Divy 400.16–17 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 97.4), pratyekabuddha¯´srayam. a 72. Divy 402.19–20 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 99.16–17), aham . tat ka¯lam . . a Following Mukhopadhyaya’s emendation. Mss. (As´oka¯ v 99n15) and Divy 402.19–20 read tatraiva¯sı¯t. 73. Divy 402.16–19 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 99.13–16), ayam . da¯rako vars.as´ataparinirvr.tasya mama pa¯.taliputre nagare ’s´oko na¯ma ra¯ja¯ bhavis.yati caturbha¯gacakravartı¯ dha¯rmiko dharmara¯ja¯ yo me ´sarı¯radha¯tukam . vaista¯rikam . karis.yati caturas´¯ı tidharmara¯jika¯sahasram . pratis..tha¯payis. yati. 74. Cf. AN i, 109–110; trans. in Woodward and Hare 1932–1936: i, 94 and Bodhi 2005: 115–116; cited in Strong 1989: 56n46. 75. Edgerton (BHSD) defines dharmara¯jika¯ as an “(edifice) which belongs to (serves for relics of) the king of the doctrine (⫽ Buddha); a stu¯pa.” 76. Divy 381.21 (As´oka¯ v 55.6). 77. Divy 369.1–2 (cp. As´oka¯ v 34.12–13), maddha¯tugarbhapariman.d.ita<jambus. an.d.am>a b etat karis.yati nara¯marapu¯jitam . nu | Following Divy mss. and As´oka¯v 34.12. Cowell and Neil emend to jambukhan.d.am. Following As´oka¯ v 34.13. Divy 369.12, nara¯marapu¯jita¯na¯m.

a

b

268

notes to pages 167–169

78. Divy 381.23–24 (As´oka¯ v 55.8–9), ya¯vac ca ra¯jña¯ ’s´okena caturas´¯ı tidharmara¯jika¯sahasram . pratis..tha¯pitam . dha¯rmiko dharmara¯ja¯ sam . vr.ttah.. 79. Elsewhere, however, it is said that Pin. d. ola and fifteen other great arhats were given special status as dharma protectors by the Buddha and instructed to guard the dharma until the end of the present world period. In response, these arhats made use of their magical powers and extended their lives in order to preserve and protect the dharma for posterity (cf. Strong 1979b: 52; Lévi and Chavannes 1916: 13). 80. In the Maha¯vam . sa, As´oka celebrates a festival in eighty-four thousand newly ¯ created stupas—each of which, presumably, constitutes a single dharmara¯jika¯—and at the climax of the festival a miracle occurs called “the unveiling of the world” (lokavivaran.a). As John Strong (2004: 139–140) explains, “In one Pali commentary, the unveiling of the world (lokavivaran.a) is said to be the same as the miracle called ‘making the world bright’ (lokappasa¯daka), an illumination that enables all beings to see one another from the highest heaven to the deepest hell” (BvA 46; trans. in Horner 1978b: 70). This miracle is pa¯sa¯dika in the sense of “making bright,” but also perhaps in the sense of “faith inducing.” In the Milindapañha, Strong (2004: 140) notes, “the lokavivaran.a at the time of the Buddha’s descent from heaven is presented as an occasion for laypersons to realize the four noble truths. This would seem to amount to a vision of the dharmaka¯ ya.” 81. Divy 389.3 (⫽ As´oka¯v 81.6), kena bhagava¯n bhavanto na¯rcayitavyah. prayatnena. 82. Divy 389.4–6 (cp. As´oka¯ v 81.7–9), sthavira¯yam . me manoratho ye bhagavata¯ ¯ ¯m buddhena prades´a¯ adhyus. ita¯s ta¯n arceyam cihna ni ca kurya . . pas´cimasya¯m . janata¯ya¯m anugraha¯rtham. 83. Divy 389.10 (cp. As´oka¯ v 81.10), sa¯dhu sa¯dhu maha¯ra¯ja ´sobhanas te cittotpa¯dah.. 84. As´oka has a “shrine” (caitya) constructed where the Buddha was born in Lumbı¯ni (Divy 390.24, As´oka¯ v 83.9), where the na¯ ga king Ka¯ lika praised the Buddha (Divy 393.6, As´oka¯ v 87.1), at the Bodhi tree (Divy 393.15, As´oka¯ v 87.7), and where the Buddha passed into final nirva¯ n.a in Kus´inagarı¯ (Divy 394.16, As´oka¯ v 88.14). 85. For a full translation of this encounter between Upagupta and Ma¯ ra, see Strong 1989: 185–198. Strong follows Mukhopadhyaya’s edition (As´oka¯ v 15–28). 86. Divy 359.26–28 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 22.2–3), na ca buddha¯v aropita¯na¯m akus´ala¯na¯m . dharma¯n.a¯m anyat praks. a¯lanam anyatra tatha¯gataprasa¯da¯d eva. 87. Divy 360.9–10 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 23.1), sa buddhaprasa¯da¯pya¯yitamana¯h. suciram . buddhagun.a¯n anusmr.tya sthavirasya pa¯dayor nipatya. 88. Divy 360.13 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 23.5–6), kah. samaya iti. 89. Divy 360.17 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 23.9–10), ma¯rah. sasambhrama uva¯ca | prası¯da sthavira kim a¯jña¯payası¯ti. 90. Divy 360.19–21 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 23.12–13), dharmaka¯yo maya¯ tasya dr..s.tas trailokyana¯thasya | ka¯ñcana¯drinibhas tasya na dr..s.to ru¯paka¯yo me || 91. Divy 360.21–22 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 23.13), iha vidars´aya buddhavigraham. 92. Divy 360.24–28 (cp. As´oka¯ v 23.17–24.2),

notes to pages 169–170

269

sahasa¯ tama ihodvı¯ks.ya buddhanepathyadha¯rin.am | na pran.a¯mas tvaya¯ ka¯ryah. sarvajñagun.agaurava¯t || buddha¯nusmr.tipes´alena manasa¯ pu¯ja¯m . yadi tvam . mayi | svalpa¯m apy upadars´ayis. yasi vibho dagdho bhavis. ya¯my aham || As´oka¯ v 23.17, “you” (tvam). 93. Divy 361.15–16 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 24.16–17), atha vya¯maprabha¯man.d.alaman.d.itam asecanakadars´anam . bhagavato ru¯pam abhinirma¯ya. 94. Divy 361.22 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 25.3–4), bhagavato ru¯pam idam ¯ı dr.´sam iti. 95. Divy 361.27–28 (cp. As´oka¯ v 25.10–11), sa buddha¯valambanataya¯a smr.tya¯ tatha¯py ¯asaktamana¯h. samvr.tto yatha¯ buddhah. bhagavantam aham . pas´ya¯mı¯ti. a Mukhopadhyaya (As´oka¯ v 25.10) reads buddha¯valambitaya¯. Vaidya (Divy-V 227.5) reads buddha¯valambanaya¯. 96. Divy 361.29–30 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 25.12), aho ru¯pas´obha¯ bhagavatam . | kim . bahuna¯. ¯ 97. Divy 362.16–21 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 26.5–9), sam buddha lambanaih sam . . . jña¯m . vismr.¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ tya buddhasam jña m adhis t ha ya mu lanikr tta iva drumah sarvas ´ arı ren a ma rasya pa¯dayor . .. . . . b ¯ ¯ bhramo ’bravı bhadanta na rhasi samayam t | evam tam nipatitah.a | atha ma¯rah. sasam . . vya. . tikramitum | sthavira uva¯ca | kah. samaya iti | ma¯ra uva¯ca | nanu pratijña¯tam bhadantena . na¯ham . bhavantah. pran.amis. ya¯mı¯ti. a The first half of this line is obscure. Strong (1989: 195) offers this translation: “Then Upagupta, because of his affection for the Wholly Enlightened One, forgot his agreement [with Ma¯ ra], and thinking that this image was the Buddha, he fell at Ma¯ ra’s feet with his whole body, like a tree cut down at the roots.” b As´oka¯ v 26.7 emends to tvam. 98. Divy 362.22 (cp. As´oka¯ v 26.10–11), sagadgadakan..tho ’bravı¯t | pa¯pı¯yan. 99. Divy 362.26–27 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 26.14–15), a

api tu nayanaka¯ntim a¯kr.tim . tasya dr..s.tva¯ | tam .r.sim abhinato ’ham . tva¯m . tu na¯bhyarcaya¯mi || 100. Divy 363.1–4 (cp. As´oka¯ v 27.1–4), mr.nmayı¯.s u pratikr.tis. v amara¯n.a¯m . yatha¯ janah. | a mr.tsam . jñaya¯ || . jña¯m ana¯dr.tya namaty amarasam tatha¯ham . tva¯m ihodvı¯ks. ya lokana¯thavapurdharam | ma¯rasam . jña¯m ana¯dr.tya natah. sugatasam . jñaya¯ || Mukhopadhyaya (As´oka¯ v 27.2) emends to mr.tsam . jña¯nta¯m. This sense of these verses is likewise unclear. Strong (1989: 19) translates them as follows: “Just as men bow down to clay images of the gods, knowing that what they worship is the god and not the clay, so I, seeing you here, wearing the form of the Lord of the World, bowed down to you, conscious of the Sugata, but not conscious of Ma¯ ra.” 101. Divy 363.7–10 (⫽ As´oka¯ v 27.7–9), yo yus.ma¯kam . svarga¯pavargasukham . pra¯rthayate sa sthaviropaguptasaka¯´sa¯d dharmam . ´s.r.totu yais´ ca yus.ma¯bhis tatha¯gato na dr..s.tas te sthaviropaguptam . pas´yantv iti. 102. Divy 363.11–18 (cp. As´oka¯ v 27.10–13), a

270

notes to pages 173–178 utsr.jya da¯ridryam anarthamu¯lam . yah. sphı¯tas´obha¯m . ´sriyam icchatı¯ha | svarga¯pavarga¯ya ca yasya va¯ñcha¯ sa ´sraddhaya¯ dharmam atah. ´s.rn.otu || dr..s.to na yair va¯ dvipadapradha¯nah. ´sa¯sta¯ maha¯ka¯run.ikah. svayam . bhu¯h. | te ´sa¯str.kalpam . sthaviropaguptam . pas´yantu bha¯svattribhavapradı¯pam ||

´a¯ radvatı¯ . . .” (´sa¯radvatı¯putram 103. For example, “With bhakti I venerate the son of S aham . bhaktya¯ vande | Divy 395.4 [⫽ As´oka¯ v 89.10]); “With head bowed, I venerate the renowned Maudgalya¯ yana . . .” (maudgalya¯yanam aham . vande mu¯rdhna¯ pran.ipatya vikhya¯tam | Divy 395.20 [cp. As´oka¯ v 90.2]); and “I venerate the elder Ka¯ ´ syapa . . .” (vande ¯ khalu ka¯´syapam sthaviram | Divy 396.1–2 [⫽ As ´ oka v 90.16]). . 104. The most puzzling element of the practice described here occurs just before Upagupta falls prostrate at Ma¯ ra’s feet. There are three main confusions here. First, does vismr.tya mean “having forgotten” or is it connected more closely with smr.ti as “awareness,” perhaps in the sense of “having cleared away his awareness”? Second, why is sam . buddha¯lambanaih. in the instrumental plural? The somewhat similar buddha¯valambanataya¯, which occurred previously, though Mukhodpadhyaya and Vaidya both emend the compound, was in the instrumental singular to modify smr.tya¯, but here the connection between sam . buddha¯lambanaih. and the gerund vismr.tya, whatever it may mean, is grammatically more difficult to construe. Third, the gerund adhis..tha¯ya comes from the root adhi √.s.tha¯, which has a wide range of technical meanings in Buddhist Sanskrit, including “to control” and “to magically transform.” This is a not an easy passage to translate confidently.

chapter 8 1. For a sense of the vast quantity of such images, see Zwalf’s (1996) excellent catalog of Gandha¯ ran sculpture in the British Museum, Nagar’s (1993) work on representations of the ja¯ takas in Indian art, and Raducha’s (1982) dissertation on the iconography of Buddhist relief scenes from Kus.a¯ n.a-period Mathura. 2. See, for example, Zwalf 1996: 127, 134, 183, 208, etc. 3. As David Morgan (1998: 26) explains, “The history of aesthetics since the eighteenth century has largely advocated disinterestedness as the basis for judgments of taste and artistic quality. The experience of beauty is characterized by a noninstrumental enjoyment, which means that an object is beautiful inasmuch as it possesses its reason for being within itself, inciting no form of desire or use beyond its own enjoyment ” (italics added). For more on this “orientalist aesthetics,” see Faure 1998: 770–774. 4. This is why Alfred Gell (1992: 42) thinks that “the first step which has to be taken in devising an anthropology of art is to make a complete break with aesthetics.” This “methodological philistinism,” as he terms it, “consists of taking an attitude of resolute indifference towards the aesthetic value of works of art—the aesthetic value that they have, either indigenously, or from the standpoint of universal aestheticism.” 5. Though the former often served the latter, such was not always the case. As Richard Davis (1997: 21–23) notes, “Iconographic texts urged image makers to make their images as beautiful as they could, and devotional poets of the time repeatedly proclaimed the glorious beauty of their embodied gods. Aesthetic concerns were, however,

notes to pages 178–180

271

secondary to other criteria: iconographic correctness, completeness, ritual animation, and divine presence.” Cf. Freedberg 1989: 397–398. 6. This teleology of art is most apparent in narratives concerning the first Buddha image. In the Rudra¯yan.a-avada¯na, for example, the story is told of the creation of the first image of the Buddha: a painting of his shadow, whose sight causes King Rudra¯ yan.a and his subjects to follow Buddhist teachings (Divy 548–551). Hsüan-tsang also tells of the creation of the first Buddhist image, likewise produced at the bidding of King Udayana (⫽ Rudra¯ yan.a), though in this version it is a sandalwood statue. When the Buddha meets this likeness of himself, the statue arises and venerates him. At that time the Buddha declares, “The work expected from you is to toil in the conversion of heretics, and to lead in the way of religion future ages” (Beal 1906: i, 236). For more on the karmic effects of these Buddha images, see Jaini 1979; Wickramagamage 1984; Handurukande 1982; and Lancaster 1974. For more on the anthropology of aesthetics and its importance to the study of art, see Coote 1992. 7. In what follows, I use the term narrative art and its counterpart iconic art, though they can be misleading even as purely descriptive terms. According to Wu Hung (1992b: 130), “In a narrative painting the principal figures are always engaged in certain events, acting and reacting to one another. The composition is thus essentially self-contained, and the significance of the representation is shown in its own pictorial context. The viewer is witness, not a participant. In an iconic scene, the central icon, portrayed frontally as a solemn image of majesty, ignores the surrounding crowds and stares at the viewer outside the picture. The composition is thus not self-contained; although the icon exists in the pictorial context within the composition, its significance relies on the presence of a viewer or worshipper outside it.” 8. By contrast, later Buddhist narrative art in South Asia is more accessible ´rı¯ Ra¯ jasinha, an and readable. In his work on the temple wall paintings of King Kı¯rti S eighteenth-century king from the up-country Ceylonese kingdom of Kandy, John Holt (1996: 93–94) describes the “visual liturgy” that these images constitute. Notice the difference in the placement and usage of these similarly narrative images: “My argument here is simple: that more than any other form of cultic religious expression, these paintings clearly illustrate, through their obvious accessibility, not only the fundamental mythic history of Therava¯ da Buddhist tradition but also the basic behavioral actions and cognitive tenets that explain what it meant to be Buddhist during this time . . . These paintings provided the means by which a visual understanding of Buddhism could be achieved, without the intervention of sermons preached by monks or the authoritativeness of an ancient language (Pali) in largely undistributed hallowed texts” (italics added). 9. Hans Belting (1994) makes much the same point about sacral images in Europe in his detailed work, Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image before the Era of Art. As is suggested in the title itself and then made explicit by Belting (1994: xxii) in the foreword, “My book does not explain images nor does it pretend that images explain themselves. Rather, it is based on the conviction that they reveal their meaning best by their use.” 10. This idea that the Buddha is re-presented through these images raises a troubling issue that I alluded to earlier. In the Pa¯m . ´suprada¯na-avada¯na, the Buddha isn’t just

272

notes to page 180

re-presented or made present again, but is re-presented to Upagupta, made present to him again. Yet, if Upagupta has never seen the Buddha before, how can he say that Ma¯ ra’s impersonation of the Buddha is “just like the form of the Blessed One?” If this notion of re-presenting the Buddha’s presence was in any way normative, then there must have been a citationality of the narrative tableaus on Buddhist monuments. If the Buddha was to be re-presented, and not just presented to those who had never seen him when he was alive, there must have been a known referent, something to which the viewer could key in. There must have been a known visual tradition of the Buddha image. One possibility is that these images of the Buddha were to a certain extent self-referential, and in that capacity necessarily looked familiar. In Visual Piety, David Morgan makes a similar argument for Warner Sallman’s famous “Head of Christ,” a painting from 1940 of a blue-eyed Jesus that has become the authentic Christ for many American devotees. It is “an exact likeness of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1998: 34), one elderly informant remarks. As Morgan explains, Sallman’s painting of Christ has come to be treated as though it were a photograph of Christ precisely because it encapsulates all the aspects of Jesus that its American viewers have learned to associate with him through their literature and devotional practices. But this matching of real and ideal, of visual image and mental image, only occurs because of an intense inculturation period of a particular iconic tradition. Perhaps this was also the case for the writers and listeners of the As´oka stories. Maybe the separate schools of Buddhist art were insular and self-perpetuating, hoping to produce unique visions of the Buddha that were said to be more efficacious than their counterparts. 11. Many have followed Paul Mus’s (1935: preface) argument that stu¯pas for the Buddha were regarded as the Buddha himself. As Vidya Dehejia (1998: 22) writes, “Buddhist pilgrims visited a stupa mainly to experience the unseen presence of the Buddha through proximity to his relics enshrined deep within the mound.” Carrying on Mus’s legacy, Jonathan Walters (1997: 175) claims that the Apada¯na, Buddhavam . sa, and Cariya¯pit.aka “confirm Mus’ thesis entirely . . . the Apada¯na texts about stu¯pa (and Bodhi tree) worship echo unmistakably Mus’ view that the worshiper regards the stu¯pa as though it were the Buddha or as the Buddha himself, who never died but was transformed into a sam . sa¯ric collection of bones and books and an (unknowable) nirva¯n.ic state.” For more on Buddha’s presence in absentia, see Kinnard 1999: 25–44. 12. Jonathan Walters suggests that these images may not have been enlivening icons but instead the byproducts of ritual celebrations. Walters argues that Buddhist ¯ pas were sites for festivals, and during their celebration, certain texts were recited, stu such as the Apada¯na, Buddhavam . sa, and Cariya¯pit.aka. It is in this context, he maintains, that the representations on these stu¯pas should be understood. As Walters (1997: 171) explains, “Illustrations of various sorts of royal festivals abound in the extant carvings, although they all have been considered representations of the same handful of historical stories: all royal processions are Ajattasattu’s relic march, all royal tree worship is ¯ ja¯ , etc. The truth may be far more straightforward that: these are ilAs´oka’s bodhi pu lustrations of the very festivals that have left as traces of their occurrence precisely the carvings, stu¯pas, and texts in question.”

notes to pages 180–182

273

13. Schopen (1997: 258–289) likewise argues that the central image in cave 16 at Ajanta, an iconic image of the Buddha, was a functional stand-in for his presence. As Brown (1997: 73) notes, it was “considered the actual person of the Buddha in residence in the viha¯ ra.” Iconic images and narrative images, however, particularly when the former are visible and the latter are not, do not necessarily share the same function. ¯ lasarva¯ stiva¯ dins, see Schopen For more on the role of Buddha images among the Mu 1997: 238–257 and 2005. 14. Stanley K. Abe has proposed much the same for the narrative paintings in Cave 254, a Chinese Buddhist cave temple from the Magao cave complex near Dunhuang in northwest China. He suggests that these paintings “were utilized in conjunction with oral presentations” and that they may have functioned as “a visual aid for sermons or other forms of illustrated teachings” (1990: 11, 12). 15. See also Hirakawa 1990: 273. However, while there are images of apparent stu¯pa veneration from Bharhut (Dehejia 1989: 13) and elsewhere from Gandha¯ ra (e.g., Ingholt and Lyons 1957: plates 155, 157), none of these images, to the best of my knowledge, display any engagement with the narrative art that decorated the railing, arches, ¯ pas. Representations of the use or function of narrative are and pillars around these stu absent. 16. In his account of the paintings at Dunhuang, Wu Hung well describes this ambiguity with regard to the function of narrative images. Making reference to one image, he explains that “it would be impossible for a picture at that particular location in a dark cave chamber to serve any kind of oral recitation” (1992b: 134). And with regard to the murals depicting the “subjugation of demons,” he explains that trying to read these scenes “our eyes and mind would spin until we got totally dizzy and finally gave up” (1992b: 136). But he also explains elsewhere that there were images at Dunhuang that may have been “visual aids [that] accompanied sutra lectures . . . [ for] it was hoped that sutra lectures and sutra painting would arouse the worshipper’s emotional response through a display of images and stories” (1992a: 56). 17. As Susan Buck-Morss (1992: 22–23) notes with regard to Walter Benjamin, “Phantasmagorias are technoaesthetics. The perceptions they provide are ‘real’ enough— their impact upon the sense and nerves is still ‘natural’ from a neurophysical point of view. But their social function is in each case compensatory. The goal is manipulation of the synaesthetic system by control of environmental stimuli . . . These simulated sensoria alter consciousness, much like a drug, but they do so through sensory distraction rather than chemical alteration, and—most significantly—their effects are experienced collectively rather than individually. Everyone sees the same altered world, experiences the same total environment. As a result, unlike with drugs, the phantasmagoria assumes the position of objective fact.” 18. Since these stories are narrated in multiple sources, however, it is often difficult to determine which version of the story is being told. 19. An example of a quite successful negotiation of these problems is Michael O’Hanlon’s Paradise: Portraying the New Guinea Highlands (1993), a work meant to accompany an exhibit of Wahgi materials of the same name at the British Museum. O’Hanlon manages to surmount easy dichotomies—colonial and post-colonial, diaspora

274

notes to pages 182–183

and nostalgia, authenticity and improvisation—and use Wahgi material culture as a means of exploring the complexities of Wahgi experience and practice. 20. Nancy Munn’s work on the sand stories of the Walbiri people of Central Australia exemplifies the complex ways that images and narratives can complement each other. “In sand storytelling,” Munn (1973: 87) writes, “the speaker does not enact the events to which a tale is thought to refer, but creates fleeting graphic images of it on the sand . . . ‘attributes’ of the sand . . . as part of the narrative process.” Though these images are iconic, as David Freedberg (1989: 56) explains, they only “relate figuratively to what they are supposed to represent.” 21. Wu Hung, for example, in his work on the Dunhuang murals, which also contain representations of Buddhist narratives, proposes that “(1) devotional art is essentially an art of image-making rather than image-viewing, and (2) the process of image-making has its own logic that differs from those found in writing and oral recitation” (1992: 137). The artisans who produced these images, he explains, were working within a visual logic—quite different from the narrative logic of the stories—that was inspired by the constraints of image making. At times this visual logic constitutes a recognizable aesthetic, such as the “oppositional composition” (1992: 148). Elsewhere it seems that an irregular sequence of scenes “may have resulted from a deliberate effort to increase the dramatic effect of the story by rearranging the events” (1992: 145). Cf. Shih 1993. Quite possibly, the narratives in words and images built off each other, the artist extending the narrative, the narrator extending the art, both working to create the stories that we now have. 22. In his work on Sepik art in Lowland New Guinea, Anthony Forge describes how Abelam painters do not distinguish figurative and abstract elements in their work. Even when figuration is “apparently” present in their painting, as in the likenesses of men’s faces, these painters vigorously deny any figurative intent or figurative content to their work. “Two-dimensional painting for the Abelam,” Forge (1973: 177) explains, “is a closed system having no immediate reference outside itself.” And within this system, “graphic elements modified by colour, carry the meaning. The meaning is not that a painting or carving is a picture or representation of anything in the natural or spirit world, rather it is about the relationship between things” (1973: 189). In this case, the dichotomy between abstract and figurative is clearly misleading. See also Freedberg 1989: 452–453. 23. For example, see Vidya Dehejia’s (1991) work regarding the multivalence of aniconic emblems on Indian Buddhist sites, Susan Huntington’s (1992) rejoinder, and then Dehejia’s (1992) response. 24. Uttarar 13, ammo ja¯n.a¯mi tassim . jevva padese tassim . jevva ka¯le vatta¯mi [ammo ja¯na¯mi tasminn eva prades´e tasminn eva ka¯le varte]. 25. Uttarar 13/i.18, samayah. sa vartata ivais. a. Likewise Uttarar 21/i.33. 26. Uttarar 18, ayi viprayogatraste citram etat. 27. As Sheldon Pollock (1998: 121) notes with regard to the tradition of rasa aesthetics, “the literary text can be analyzed either internally or externally, on the one hand, that is, as representations of men and women, and on the other, as representations for men and women,” with the former coming to life in the actualization of the latter.

notes to pages 183–184

275

Hence, “readers [and viewers] participate in the emotional life of the characters, and this participation would not be possible unless they themselves in some sense shared the primary emotions, for example, and partook of the predisposition to respond in similar ways to similar objects and conditions. Obviously the reader’s response to a character cannot be absolutely identical to the character’s response itself, but, just as obviously, it is intimately related.” See also Granoff 2000. 28. In the Maha¯bha¯.s ya, the grammarian Patañjali likewise writes that in the context of storytelling with pictures, the historical present may be used while narrating past events. As Victor Mair (1988: 18) explains, paraphrasing Patañjali, “it is proper to use the present tense, even though these events took place in the remote past, because the ´saubhika (‘illusionists’) and granthika (‘reciters) represent them as actually happening in front of the audience.” In short, past events are re-presented as though occurring in the present, and the audience is transformed into devotees. For more on this tradition, see Mair 1988: 17–38. 29. See Lamotte 1988: 77 and Strong 1985: 866. Although I cannot find any images from Gandha¯ra of monastics explaining Buddhist images to a lay audience, paintings of this kind do exist from Japan. See, for example, Moerman 2005: color figure 9. In that image, as Moerman (2005: 222) writes, “the nun is explaining the painting’s content with the aid of a feather-tipped pointer before a group of women; her young assistant holds an alms cup out for donations.” For an interesting parallel, see Bhikkhu Buddhadasa’s (1968) explanation of illustrations from Thai Buddhist manuscripts. Though the introduction claims that “every Buddhist, of course, no matter what his native speech may be, can read the gestures portrayed by a Buddhist image like a universal sign language” (1968: 2), the astute explanations that follow offer ample testimony to the converse. 30. Divy 80.4, 166.20–21, 271.16–17, etc., buddhanimna¯ dharmapravan.a¯h. sam . ghapra¯gbha¯rah.. 31. In the Supriya-avada¯na, these three terms are given a more tangible sense in a description of three mountain summits “whose slopes are tapered, gradually getting steeper and narrower as they rise” (anupu¯rvanimna¯ny anupu¯rvapravan.a¯ny anupu¯rvapra¯gbha¯ra¯n.i | Divy 113.15). 32. Using a stained-glass window in the apse of the Cathedral at Canterbury as an example, Norman Bryson (1981: 6) explains the difference between these two terms as follows: “By the ‘discursive’ aspect of an image, I mean those features which show the influence over the image of language—in the case of the window at Canterbury, the Biblical texts which precede it and on which it depends, the inscriptions it contains within itself to tell us how to perceive the different panels, and also the new overall meaning generated by its internal juxtapositions. But the ‘figural’ aspect of an image, I mean those features that belong to the image a visual experience independent of language— its being-as-image. With the window this would embrace all those aspects we can still appreciate if we have forgotten the stories of the Grapes of Eschol and of the last plague of Egypt, or are not at all familiar with the techniques of ‘types’ and ‘antitypes,’ but are nonetheless moved by the beauty of the window as light, colour, and design.” 33. This division, though, is also problematic. There are multi-scenic narrative murals, such as the one of the Sim . hala story in cave 17 at Ajanta, and there are mono-scenic

276

notes to pages 184–186

narratives, such as the various Gandha¯ran sculptures representing the Jyotis.ka-avada¯na, and it isn’t clear that they served the same ritual purposes or shared the same aesthetic. For example, images from the Jyotis.ka-avada¯na represent the moment when the physician Jı¯vaka delivers the would-be Jyotis.ka from a lotus that grows from his mother’s womb, though she lies burning on her funeral pyre (Burgess 1900: 35, plate 10; Comstock 1926: 26; Foucher 1905–1951, i, 526, figure 259, Group III (iv); Härtel 1981; Ingholt and Lyons 1957: 85–86 and plate 122; and Majmudar 1987: plate vii, b [⫽ Sharma 1987: plate 5]). But is the story of the entire avada¯ na important or just this particular iconic moment? And what purpose did a sculptural freeze/frieze frame of this moment accomplish? Then again, considering the structural layout of the image from the Mathura Museum, with the Buddha standing on the right, the smaller Nirgrantha standing on the left, and Jı¯vaka bending down to remove Jyotis.ka from a fiery lotus in the middle, perhaps the viewer was meant to reflect on good, evil, and karmic destiny. 34. Wu Hung likewise suggests that certain images at Dunhuang were used for the ritual of guanxiang or “visualizing the icon.” In such practices, “a worshipper visualizes the true images of the Buddha and bodhisattva in his mind’s eye, often by initial concentration on a painted or sculpted image” (1992a: 56). 35. Uttarar 127/vi.11, a¯´scaryam | virodho vis´ra¯ntah. prasarati raso nirvr.tidhanas tad auddhatyam . kva¯pi vrajati vinayah. prahvayati ma¯m | jhat.ity asmin dr..s.te kim iva parava¯n asmi yadi va¯ maha¯rghas tı¯rtha¯na¯m iva hi mahata¯m . ko ’py atis´ayah. || Later, act six shows that words alone are equally emotive. At Ra¯ ma’s request, Lava recites verses from Va¯ lmı¯ka’s Ra¯ma¯yan.a that memorialize Ra¯ma’s exploits. These have a profound effect on Ra¯ma. When he hears of the love that he and Sı¯ta shared, he responds, “Aah! Exceedingly cruel is this blow to the vitals of my heart” (kas..tam atida¯run.o ’yam . hr.dayamarmodgha¯tah. | Uttarar 137)! And when he hears words that he himself had said to Sı¯ta as a precursor to their amorous pleasures, the stage instructions say that he is “smiling bashfully, with affection and pathos” (salaj ja¯smitasnehakarun.am | Uttarar 139). 36. See also Cousins 1983 and von Hinüber 1993. 37. For more on the connection between the Maha¯ ya¯ na and the advent of writing, see Gombrich 1990; Lopez 1995; and McMahan 2002. 38. Divy 3.17–18, 26.11, 58.16, 100.1, 486.2, etc., lipya¯m upanyastah.. 39. Divy 170.12–13, sa lipyaks. ara¯ca¯ryasya¯ks. ara¯n.i ´siks. ayitum upanyastah.. 40. Divy 171.3, lekhas´a¯la¯. 41. Divy 475.24–25, ma¯ta¯pitarau susna¯tam . suviliptam . sarva¯lam . ka¯ravibhu¯.sitam . kr.tva¯ . . . lipim . pra¯payante. 42. Divy 301.16–17, lipya¯m upanyasto lipyaks. ares. u ca kr.ta¯vı¯ sam . vr.ttah.. 43. Though Sahasodgata never writes anything in the story, immediately after he is described as an expert scribe, he goes to a monastery and sees a wheel of existence with two verses below it that the Buddha had instructed “should be inscribed” (lekhayitavyam | Divy 300.20) there. Sahasodgata asks the monk in charge what is “inscribed” (abhilikhitam | Divy 301.19) there, and the monk explains the contents of the wheel of existence, answering Sahasodgata’s numerous questions about the representations before him, but makes no reference to the verses. But why proclaim Sahasodgata’s literacy and then show him to be unable to understand the image inscribed on the monastery wall

notes to pages 187–188

277

and unaware of the verses below it? The connection here is unclear, but it does show that literacy was not a sufficient skill to interpret Buddhist images, even those images with verses inscribed beneath them. As I mentioned before, a guide is needed. 44. Divy 486.2–8, tada¯ lipya¯m upanyastah. | tasya <sid>a ukte dham iti vismarati | atha tasya¯ca¯ryah. kathayati | bra¯hman.a maya¯ prabhu¯tada¯raka¯h. pa¯.thayitavya¯h. | na ´saks.ya¯my aham . panthakam . pa¯.thayitum | maha¯panthakasya¯lpam ucyate prabhu¯tam gr.hn.a¯ti asya c tu panthakasya <sid>a ukte dham iti vismaratib | bra¯hman.ah. sam . laks.ayati | sarve bra¯hman.a¯ lipyaks.arakus´ala¯ bhavanti vedabra¯hman.a es. a bhavis. yati. a Following the Tibetan (D nya 63a2), read sid. Divy 486.2 and 486.5, sı¯ty. b The Tibetan (D nya 63a2) adds, “and when he says dham he forgets sid” (dham rjod na sid brjed bar byed do). c Following Cowell and Neil’s suggestion (Divy 486n3) and the Tibetan (D nya 63a4). Divy 486.7, (omitted). 45. Divy 486.9–10, tasya om ity ukte bhu¯r iti vismarati bhu¯r ity ukte om iti vismarati. 46. Divy 486.13–14, na sarve bra¯hman.a¯ vedapa¯raga¯ bhavanti ja¯tibra¯hman.a eva¯yam . bhavis.yatı¯ti. 47. Divy 495.15, a¯yus. mato na kas´cid aprasa¯ditah.. 48. Divy 495.19–21, es.o ’gro me bhiks.avo bhikn.u¯n.a¯m . mama ´sra¯vaka¯n.a¯m . cetovivartakus´ala¯na¯m . yad uta panthako bhiks.uh.. 49. After being “entrusted [to a teacher to learn] writing,” according to the stereotyped passage, one then learns “arithmetic, accounting, matters relating to trademarks, a and to debts, deposits, and trusts” (sam . khya¯ya¯m . gan.ana¯ya¯m mudra¯ya¯m uddha¯re nya¯se niks.epe | Divy 3.18–19, 26.11–12, 58.16–17, 100.1–2, etc.). For more on this standardized education and its connection with mercantilism, see Nilakantha Sastri 1945: 9–10 and Roy 1971: 152–158. a Sastri (1945: 9–10) explains that “mudra¯ means ‘money,’ and the term seems to stand here for a knowledge of different types of money in use in commerce and rates of exchange.” As Roy (1971: 153) notes, however, “since mudra¯ means also a seal, it also might include the knowledge of different trade-marks impressed on seals and sealings during that time.” In that regard, see Divy 32.24, “he affixed his seal [to the merchandise]” (svamudra¯laks. itam . ca kr.tva¯). 50. There is a passage in the Ma¯kandika-avada¯na, however, that seems to tell of laywomen transcribing Buddhist texts or taking notes from them. In response to a query ´ya¯ ma¯ vatı¯ explains that she from Ma¯ kandika, the father of one of her cowives, Queen S needs nothing for herself but that the women in her harem could use his help—“These girls study the word of the Buddha at night by lamplight. For this they need birchbark paper, oil, ink, reed pens, and brushes” (eta¯ da¯rika¯ ra¯trau pradı¯pena buddhavacanam . pat.a ¯ ¯ ¯ | Divy 532.9–11). anti atra bhu¯rjena prayojanam tailena masina kalamaya tu lena . a The Tibetan (D nya 189a6) reads shing bal —> Skt., , affirming Cowell and Neil’s emendation. Mss. (Divy 532n3), bhu¯lena. 51. For more on the origins of writing in India, see Griffiths 1999: 34–40 and von Hinüber 1990. 52. For more on the nature and spread of Buddhist Sanskrit, see Brough 1954; von Hinüber 1989; and Mishra 1993. The latter contains transcripts of some fascinating

278

notes to pages 188–194

conversations that occurred during the International Symposium on the Language of Sanskrit Buddhist Texts (1991) in Sarnath. 53. This appropriation of the language of hegemonic Brahmanism marked a radical transformation not only for Buddhism but for Sanskrit itself. According to Sheldon Pollock (1996: 206), “What is historically important [about this period] is not that newcomers from Iran and central Asia should begin to participate in the prestige economy of Sanskrit—other groups had long sought and found incorporation in Indian cultural ´akas, Kus´a¯ nas and the Buddhist poets and intellectuals communities—but rather that S they patronized begin to turn to Sanskrit as an instrument of polity and the mastery of Sanskrit into a source of personal charisma.” 54. As Ray (1994: 52) notes, “In As´vaghos.a’s life of the Buddha, it is significant that it is not just the laity who receive dars´an [Skt., dars´ana] from the Buddha but also renunciants, gods, and even animals. For the renunciants in particular, dars´an plays a crucial role: for the sage Asita, who sees the Buddha just after his birth, for the ascetics in the hermitage, for the Buddha’s five former companions, and for Maha¯ ka¯ ´ syapa, dars´an is a vehicle to knowing who the Buddha really is, and in these cases dars´an represents a decisive experience. The gods similarly come, at the times of the great events in the Buddha’s life, to receive dars´an from him . . . [Dars´an] enables one to know the Buddha, commune with him, and actively participate in his charisma—experiences that rouse those who see him to faith, to spontaneous acts of devotion, and to insight.” 55. For a critique of Ong’s technological determinism, see Griffiths 1999: 28–32; Fabian 1983: 118–123; Finnegan 1988: 59–85; and Street 1984. Also noteworthy is Don Kulick and Christopher Stroud’s detailed case study from a village in the lower Sepik region of Papua New Guinea that challenges the notion that literacy has a reified agentive power. They demonstrate “how individuals in a newly literate society, far from being passively transformed by literacy, instead actively and creatively apply literate skills to suit their own purposes and needs” (1990: 287). 56. A common sight in airports that cater to passengers from a variety of language groups—what Walter Kirn (2001) refers to as “airworld”—is not only multilingual signs, but signs that try to surmount linguistic difference by representation in pictographs: the image of a suitcase for baggage claim, a taxi and a bus side by side for transportation, a man with arms akimbo and a woman in a skirt for the men’s and women’s bathroom, etc. 57. As Susan Sontag (1966: 11) writes, “Ideally, it is possible to elude interpreters in another way, by making works of art whose surface is so unified and clean, whose momentum is so rapid, whose address is so direct that the work can be . . . just what it is. Is this possible now? It does happen in films, I believe.” 58. For more on the visual traits of the Lotus Su¯tra, which was written in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit in the early centuries of the Common Era, see Wang 2005. 59. For a book-length compilation of such images that shows the hellish results that one experiences in the next life as a consequence of bad deeds in this one, see the Jain scholar Vijayajinendrasurisvaraji’s Naraki Citravali (1984). My thanks to Steven Heim for a copy of this book. 60. Divy 131.13–14, 191.19–20, 282.17–18, 311.22–23, 504.23–24, 582.4–5, 584.20–21, etc.,

notes to page 198

279

na pran.as´yanti karma¯n.i kalpakot.is´atair api | sa¯magrı¯m . pra¯pya ka¯lam . ca phalanti khalu dehina¯m ||

epilogue 1. Divy 1.4–5, 24.11–12, 98.17–18, 108.10–11 etc., a¯d.hyo maha¯dhano maha¯bhogah.. 2. Similarly, the 2007 Mercedes S-Class features the advertising tag line “You’re Not Buying a Car. You’re Buying a Belief.” My reading of the advertisement is that when buying one of these luxurious and expensive cars, belief is the primary commodity, for just as gold bespeaks a form of trust in the Divya¯vada¯na, so too with a new Mercedes. And here too the belief is in a gold standard of the social world, a sociodicy that legitimizes one’s wealth and privilege in society. Alex Gellert, president and CEO of the company that designed the advertisement, explains that the print campaign articulates “in straightforward language the ‘proof points’ that make the brand ‘Unlike Any Other’ ” (http://www.emercedesbenz.com/Jan06/31NewMercedesAdCampaign.html). 3. See, for example, Atherton 1992; Frank 2000; Long 2000; Loy 1997; Nelson 2002; and Sedgwick 1999. 4. See Kaza 2005 and, for example, Beaudoin 2003 and Miller 2004.

This page intentionally left blank

Bibliography

Abe, Stanley. 1990. “Art and Practice in a Fifth-Centuty Chinese Buddhist Cave Temple.” Ars Orientalis 20:1–31. Abhidharmakos´a and Abhidharmakos´abha¯.sya of Vasubandhu. Edition: See Dwarikadas Sastri 1987. Translation: See La Vallée Poussin 1923–1931. Abhidharmakos´avya¯khya¯ (Sphut.a¯rtha¯) of Yas´omitra. Edition: See Dwarikadas Sastri 1987. . Abhidharmasamuccaya of Asanga. Edition: See Gokhale 1947. Translation (French): See Rahula 1971. Abhidharmasamuccayabha¯.sya of Sthiramati. Edition: See Tatia 1976. Agrawala, Vasudeva S. 1964. “Brief Communication: A Note on the Word ca¯rika¯ in the Divya¯vada¯na.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 84:55–56. ———. 1966. “Some Obscure Words in the Divya¯ vada¯ na.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 86 (2): 67–75. ———. 1970. Ancient Indian Folk Cults. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. Alabaster, Henry. 1871. The Wheel of the Law: Buddhism. London: Trübner and Company. Allon, Mark. 1997a. “The Oral Composition and Transmission of Early Buddhist Texts.” In Indian Insights: Buddhism, Brahmans, and Bhakti: Papers from the Annual Spaulding Symposium on Indian Religions, edited by Peter Connolly and Sue Hamilton, 39–61. London: Luzac Oriental. ———. 1997b. Style and Function: A Study of the Dominant Stylistic Features of the Prose Portions of Pali Canonical Sutta Texts and Their Mnemonic Function. Studia Philologica Buddhica, Monograph Series, 12. Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies. Almond, Philip. 1988. The British Discovery of Buddhism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

282

bibliography

Amarakos´a of Amarasim . ha. Edition: See Haragovinda Sastri 1982. . Anguttara-nika¯ya. Edition: See Morris and Hardy 1885–1900. Translation: See Woodward and Hare 1932–1936. Apada¯na. Edition: See Lilley 1925–27. Appadurai, Arjun. 1984. “How Moral Is South Asia’s Economy?—A Review Article.” The Journal of Asian Studies 43 (3): 481–497. ———. 1990. “Topographies of the Self: Praise and Emotion in Hindu India.” In Language and the Politics of Emotion, edited by Catherine A. Lutz and Lila Abu-Lughod, 92–112. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Appadurai, Arjun, and Carol Breckenridge. 1976. “The South Indian Temple: Authority, Honour and Redistribution.” Contributions to Indian Sociology 10 (2): 187–209. Apte, Vaman Shivaram. 1986. The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Revised and Enlarged Edition. Kyoto: Rinzen Book Company. Aronson, Harvey B. 1979. “The Relationship of the Karmic to the Nirvanic in Therava¯da Buddhism.” Journal of Religious Ethics 7:28–36. Arthas´a¯stra of Kaut.ilya. Edition and translation: See Kangle 1960–1965. As´oka¯vada¯na. Edition: See Mukhopadhaya 1963. Translation: See Strong 1989. Atherton, John. 1992. Christianity and the Market: Christian Social Thought for Our Times. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. At..thasa¯linı¯. Edition: See Muller 1979. Translation: See Maung Tin 1920–1922. Aung, S. Z., and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, trans. 1979 (1915). Points of Controversy or Subject of Discourse (Katha¯vatthu). London: Pali Text Society. Avada¯nakalpalata¯ of Ks.emendra. Edition: See Das and Vidyabhushana 1888. Avada¯nas´ataka. Edition: See Speyer 1906. Translation: See Féer 1891. Babb, Lawrence A. 1975. The Divine Hierarchy: Popular Hinduism in Central India. New York: Columbia University Press. ———. 1981. “Glancing: Visual Interaction in Hinduism.” Journal of Anthropological Research 37:387–401. ———. 1986. Redemptive Encounters: Three Modern Styles in the Hindu Tradition. Berkeley: University of California Press. ———. 1996. Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press. Bahri, Hardev. 1999. Rajpal English-Hindi Dictionary. Delhi: Rajpal and Sons. Bailey, Greg. 1988. “The Semantics of Bhakti in the Va¯ mana Pura¯ n.a.” Rivista degli Studi Orientali 62:25–57. Bailey, Greg, and Ian Mabbett. 2003. The Sociology of Early Buddhism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bailey, Harold Walter. 1958. “Arya.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 21:522–545. ———. 1974. “The Pradaks.in.a¯ -Su¯tra of Chang Tsiang-Kuin.” In Buddhist Studies in Honour of I. B. Horner, edited by L. Cousins et al., 15–18. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing. ———. 1966. “The Sudhana Poem of R.ddhiprabha¯ va.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 29:506–532.

bibliography

283

Banerjee, Ankul Chandra, ed. 1954. Pra¯timoks. a-Su¯tra [Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da]. Calcutta: Calcutta Oriental Press. Banks, Marcus. 1991. “Competing to Give, Competing to Get.” In Black and Ethnic Leadership in Britain: The Cultural Dimensions of Political Action, edited by P. Werbner and M. Anwar, 226–250. London and New York: Routledge. Bapat, P. V. 1951. The Arthapada Su¯ tra. Visvabharati Studies, 13. Santiniketan: Visvabharati. Bareau, André. 1962. “La construction et le culte des stu¯pa d’après les Vinayapit.aka.” Bulletin de l’ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient 50:229–274. Barua, B. M. 1931. “Faith in Buddhism.” In Buddhistic Studies, edited by B.C. Law, 329–349. Calcutta, Simla: Thacker, Spink and Company. ———. 1990. Inscriptions of As´oka: Translation and Glossary. Edited by Binayendra Nath Chaudhury. 2nd edition. Calcutta: Sanskrit College. Baums, Stephan. 2002. “Jyotis.ka¯ vada¯ na.” In Buddhist Manuscripts, vol. 2, edited by Jens Braarvig, 287–302. Manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection, 3. Oslo: Hermes Publishing. Baxandall, Michael. 1988. Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style. 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press. Beal, Samuel. 1906. Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World. 2 volumes. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner and Company. Beaudoin, Tom. 2003. Consuming Faith: Integrating Who We Are with What We Buy. Lanham, MD: Sheed and Ward. Bechert, Heinz. 1992. “Buddha-Field and Transfer of Merit in a Therava¯ da Source.” Indo-Iranian Journal 35:95–108. Belting, Hans. 1994. Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image before the Era of Art. Translated by Edmund Jephcott. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Bendall, Cecil, ed. 1897–1902. S´iks. a¯samuccaya. Biblioteca Buddhica, 1. St. Petersburg: Académie impériale des sciences. Bendall, Cecil, and W. H. D. Rouse, trans. 1971 (1922). S´iks. a¯samuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhist Doctrine. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Bennett, Peter. 1993. The Path of Grace: Social Organization and Temple Worship in a Vaishnava Sect. Delhi: Hindustan Publishing Corp. Bentor, Yael. 1994. “Tibetan Relic Classification.” In Tibetan Studies (Proceedings of the Sixth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies), edited by Per Kvaerne, 16–30. Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. Benveniste, Émile. 1993 (1969). Le vocabulaire des institutions indo-européennes: vol. 1, Économie, parenté, société. Paris: Les éditions de minuit. Berger, John. 1977. Ways of Seeing. New York: Penguin Books. Bergson, Henri. 1960 (1910). Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness. Translated by F. L. Pogson. New York: MacMillan. Berkwitz, Stephen C. 2001. “Emotions and Ethics in Buddhist History: The Sinhala Thu¯pavam . sa and the Work of Virtue.” Religion 31:155–173. Berlant, Lauren. 2007. “Slow Death (Sovereignty, Obesity, Lateral Agency).” Critical Inquiry 33(4): 754–780.

284

bibliography

Bernhard, Franz, ed. 1965. Uda¯navarga. Göttingen: Vandenhoek and Ruprecht. Bhadkamkar, R. G., ed. 1942. The Nirukta of Ya¯ska (with Nighan..tu) edited with Durga’s Commentary. Bombay: The Department of Public Instruction. Bha¯gavatapura¯n.a. Edition: See J. L. Sastri 1983a. Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, ed. and trans. 1990. Prakrit Dhammapada. Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati Academy. ´ri Janaranjan. 1898. “Story of Sudhana and Kinnarı¯.” Journal of the BudBhattacharya, S dhist Text Society 6:15–18, 1–8. Bloomfield, Maurice. 1908. The Religion of the Veda, The Ancient Religion of India (from Rig-Veda to Upanishads). New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. Bode, Mabel. 1911. “The Legend of Rat.t.hapa¯la in the Pali Apada¯na and Buddhaghosa’s Commentary.” In Melanges d’Indianisme: offerts par ses élèves à Sylvain Lévi, 183–192. Paris: E. Leroux. Bodhi, Bhikkhu, trans. 1978. The Discourse on the All-Embracing Net of Views: The Brahmaja¯la Sutta and Its Commentarial Exegesis. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ———. 1988. “A Look at the Kalama Sutta.” Buddhist Publication Society Newsletter 9. Cover essay. Available at www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/kalama_l.htm. ———, trans. 2000. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Sam . yutta Nika¯ya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ———, trans. 2005. In the Buddha’s Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pa¯li Canon. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Bongard-Levin, G. M., and O. F. Volkova. 1965. The Kuna¯la Legend and an Unpublished As´oka¯vada¯nama¯la¯ Manuscript. Calcutta: Indian Studies Past and Present. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1974. “Avenir de classe et causalité du probable.” Revue française de sociologie 15 (1): 3–42. ———. 1991. “Genesis and Structure of the Religious Field.” Comparative Social Research 13:1–44. ———. 1998. “The Myth of ‘Globalization’ and the European Welfare State.” In Acts of Resistance: Against the Tyranny of the Market. Translated from the French by Richard Nice. New York: The New Press. ———. 1999. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brokaw, Cynthia J. 1991. The Ledgers of Merit and Demerit: Social Change and Moral Order in Late Imperial China. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Brough, John. 1950. “Thus Have I Heard . . .” Bulletin of the School of African and Oriental Studies 13 (2): 416–426. ———. 1954. “The Language of the Buddhist Sanskrit Texts.” Bulletin of the School of African and Oriental Studies 16:351–375. ———, ed. 1962. The Ga¯ndha¯rı¯ Dharmapada. London: Oxford University Press. Brown, Norman. 1968. “The Metaphysics of the Truth Act (Satyakriya¯).” In Mélanges D’Indianisme a la Mémoire de Louis Renou, 171–177. Paris: E. de Boccard. ———. 1978. “Duty as Truth in Ancient India.” In India and Indology: Selected Articles, edited by Rosane Rocher, 102–119. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Brown, Robert L. 1997. “Narrative as Icon: The Ja¯ taka Stories in Ancient Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture.” In Sacred Biography in the Buddhist Traditions of

bibliography

285

South and Southeast Asia, edited by Juliane Schober, 64–108. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Bryson, Norman. 1981. Word and Image: French Painting of the Ancien Régime. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Buck-Morss, Susan. 1992. “Aesthetics and Anaesthetics: Walter Benjamin’s Artwork Essay Reconsidered.” October 62:3–41. ———. 1994. “The Cinema Screen as Prosthesis of Perception: A Historical Account.” In The Senses Still: Perception and Memory as Material Culture in Modernity, edited by C. Nadia Seremetakis, 45–62. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Buddhadasa, Bhikkhu. 1968. Teaching Dhamma by Pictures: Explanations of a Siamese Traditional Buddhist Manuscript. Bangkok: Social Science Association Press of Thailand for the Social Science Review. Buddhavam . sa. Edition: See Jayawickrama 1974. Translation: See Horner 1975. Buddhavam . sa-at..thakatha¯ of Buddhadatta [ ⫽ Madhuratthavila¯sinı¯ ]. Edition: See Horner 1978a. Translation: See Horner 1978b. Bundgaard, Helle. 1999. Indian Art Worlds in Contention: Local, Regional and National Discourses on Orissan Patta Paintings. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. Burgess, James. 1900. “The Gandha¯ ra Sculptures.” Journal of Indian Art and Industry 8:31–40. Burlingame, Eugene Watson. 1917. “The Act of Truth (Saccakiriya): A Hindu Spell and Its Employment as a Psychic Motif in Hindu Fiction.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11:429–467. ———, trans. 1969 (1921). Buddhist Legends Translated from the Original Pali Text of the Dhammapada Commentary (Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯). 3 volumes. Harvard Oriental Series, vols. 28–30. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Burnouf, Eugène. 1844. Introduction a l’histoire du buddhisme indien, vol. 1. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. Butler, Judith. 1990. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge. ———. 1997. Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative. New York: Routledge. Carroll, David. 1987. Paraesthetics: Foucault, Lyotard, Derrida. New York and London: Methuen. Carter, James Ross. 1978. Dhamma: Western Academic and Sinhalese Buddhist Interpretations: A Study of a Religious Concept. Tokyo: Hokuseido. ———. 1993. On Understanding Buddhists: Essays on the Therava¯da Tradition in Sri Lanka. Albany: State University of New York Press. Carter, James Ross, and Mahinda Palihawadana, eds. and trans. 1987. The Dhammapada. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Case, Margaret. 2000. Seeing Krishna: The Religious World of a Brahman Family in Vrindaban. New York: Oxford University Press. Chaki, Jyotibhusan. 1993. “Divya¯ vada¯ na: A Language Survey.” In Aspects of Buddhist Sanskrit, edited by K. N. Mishra, 180–198. Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies. Chakravarti, Uma. 1987. The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

286

bibliography

Cha¯ndogya Upanis. ad. Edition and translation: See Gambhirananda 1992. ´ri S ´an.kara¯ca¯rya. Edition and translation: See Panoli 1991. Cha¯ndogya Upanis.ad Bha¯.sya of S Chavannes, Edouard. 1934. Cinq cents contes et apologues extraits du Tripit.aka chinois. 4 volumes. Paris. Ch’en, Kenneth K. S. 1945–1947. “A Study of the Sva¯ gata Story in the Divya¯ vada¯ na in its Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan and Chinese Versions.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9:207–314. ———. 1953. “Apropos the Men.d.haka Story.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 16:374–403. Chidester, David. 1992. Word and Light: Seeing, Hearing, and Religious Discourse. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Clifford, James. 1997. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cohen, Jean. 1976. “Poésie et redondance.” Poétique 28:413–422. Collier, Nicholson T. 1998. “Ornamenting Intentions: Intention and Implication in Buddhist Hermeneutics.” PhD diss., University of Chicago. Collins, Steven. 1982. Selfless Persons: Imagery and Though in Thera¯va¯da Buddhism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ———. 1992. “Notes on Some Oral Aspects of Pali Literature.” Indo-Iranian Journal 53:121–135. ———. 1998. Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Comstock, Helen. 1926. “Western Influence in Eastern Art.” International Studio 83:26–31. Conze, Edward. 1962. Buddhist Thought in India: Three Phases of Buddhist Philosophy. London: George Allen and Unwin. ———. 1959. Buddhist Scriptures. London: Penguin Books. Coote, Jeremy. 1992. “‘Marvels of Everyday Vision’: The Anthropology of Aesthetics and the Cattle-Keeping Nilotes.” In Anthropology, Art, and Aesthetics, edited by Jeremy Coote and Anthony Shelton, 245–274. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Cort, John E. 2002. “Bhakti in the Early Jain Tradition: Understanding Devotional Religion in South Asia.” History of Religions 42 (1): 59–86. Cousins, L. S. 1983. “Pali Oral Literature.” In Buddhist Studies: Ancient and Modern, edited by P. Denwood and A. Piatigorsky, 1–11. London: Curzon Press. Cowell, E. B., and R. A. Neil, eds. 1886. Divya¯vada¯na: A Collection of Early Buddhist Legends. Cambridge: The University Press. Cowell, E. B., Robert Chalmers, W. H. D. Rouse, Henry Thomas Francis, and Robert Alexander Neil, trans. 1990 (1895). The Ja¯taka. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi, and Rick Robinson. 1990. The Art of Seeing: An Interpretation of the Aesthetic Encounter. Malibu, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum Publications. Cu¯lavam . sa. Edition: See Geiger 1925 and 1927. Translation: See Geiger 1973. Cutler, Norman. 1987. Songs of Experience: The Poetics of Tamil Devotion. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Dalmia, Yashodhara. 2001. The Making of Modern Indian Art: The Progressives. New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press.

bibliography

287

Das, Sarat Chandra, and Hari Mohan Vidyabhushana, eds. 1888–1913. Avada¯na Kalpalata¯: A Collection of Legendary Stories about the Bodhisattvas. 2 volumes. Calcutta: W. Carey. ´raddha¯ and Bhakti in Vedic Literature.” Indian Historical Das Gupta, Mrinal. 1930. “S Quarterly 6:315–333. Davis, Richard H. 1997. Lives of Indian Images. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Dayal, Har. 1932. The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Company. de Certeau, Michel. 1985. “What We Do When We Believe.” In On Signs, edited by Marshall Blonski, 192–202. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Dehejia, Vidya. 1989. “Stupas and Sculptures of Early Buddhism.” Asian Art 11 (3): 7–30. ———. 1990. “On Modes of Visual Narration in Early Buddhist Art.” The Art Bulletin 72 (3): 374–392. ———. 1991. “Aniconism and the Multivalence of Emblems.” Ars Orientalis 21:45–66. ———. 1992. “Rejoinder to Susan Huntington.” Ars Orientalis 22:157. ———. 1997. Discourse in Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. ———. 1998. “Circumambulating the Bharhut Stupa: The Viewers’ Narrative Experience.” In Picture Showmen: Insights into the Narrative Tradition in Indian Art, edited by Jyotindra Jain, 22–31. Mumbai: Marg Publications. ———. 2000. India through the Lens: Photography 1840–1911. With contributions by Charles Allen et al. Washington, DC: Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, in association with Mapin Publishing, Ahmedabad. Demiéville, Paul. 1934. “Busshin.” In Ho¯bo¯girin, vol. 3, edited by S. Lévi, J. Takakusu, and P. Demiéville, 174–185. Tokyo: Maison Franco-Japonaise. Dening, Greg. 1996. Performances. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Derrida, Jacques. 2000. “‘A Self-Unsealing Poetic Text’: Poetics and the Politics of Witnessing.” Translated by Rachel Bowlby. In Revenge of the Aesthetic: The Place of Literature in Theory Today, edited by Michael P. Clark, 180–207. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Derris, Karen Anne. 2000. “Virtue and Relationships in a Therava¯ din Biography of the Bodhisatta: A Study of the Sotat..thakı¯maha¯nida¯na.” PhD diss., Harvard University. Des´¯ı na¯mama¯la¯ of Hemacandra. Edition: See Pischel and Bühler 1880. Desjarlais, Robert R. 2003. Sensory Biographies: Lives and Deaths among Nepal’s Yolmo Buddhists. Berkeley: University of California Press. Dhadphale, M. G. 1980. Synonymic Collocations in the Tipit.aka: A Study. Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Dhammapada. Edition and translation: See Carter and Palihawadana 1987. Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯. Edition: See Norman 1906–1914. Translation: See Burlingame 1969. Dhammapala, Gatare. 1984. “Towards the Definition of Saddha¯ and Bhakti.” In Buddhist Studies in Honor of Hammalava Saddhatissa, edited by Gatare Dhammapala,

288

bibliography

Richard Gombrich, and K. R. Norman, 77–81. Nugegoda, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Research Library. Dharmapada (Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit). Edition: See Shukla 1979. Dha¯tuvam . sa. Edition: See Nandaratana 1984. Dı¯ghanika¯ya. Edition: See Rhys Davids and Carpenter 1890–1911. Translation: See Walshe 1987. Divya¯vada¯na. (Not all of the sources listed under this subheading are cited in the book. They are included here for the convenience of scholars working on the text.) Edition (Roman): See Cowell and Neil 1886. Edition (Devana¯ garı¯): See Vaidya 1959. Translation of stories 1–17: See Rotman 2008. Edition and translation of stories 1, 2, 30, and 36: See Tatelman 2005. Translation and study of story 2: See Tatelman 2000. Translation of all or parts of stories 2, 10, 12, 17, 20, 23, 26, 27, 28, and 29: See Burnouf 1844. Study of stories 9 and 10: See Ch’en 1953. Translation (from the Chinese) and study of story 13: See Ch’en 1945–1947. Translation of story 14: See Ware 1928. Translation of part of story 17: See Schiefner 1893. Translation of stories 18–38: See Rotman forthcoming b. Translation of stories 18, 19, 20, and part of 26: See Zimmer 1925. Study of story 19: See Baums 2002. Study of story 22: See Hartmann 1980. Translation of story 22: See Ohnuma 2004. Translation of the preamble to story 23: See Ware 1938. Edition of stories 26, 27, 28, and 29: See Mukhopadhyaya 1963. Translation of stories 26, 27, 28, and 29: See Strong 1989. Translation of story 30: See Schiefner 1893. Studies of story 32: See Ohnuma 2000 and Mrozik 2006. Edition of story 33: See Mukhopadhyaya 1954. Study of story 33: See Sharma 1992. Translation of story 34: See Ware 1929. Tibetan editions and English translations of story 37: See Nobel 1955 and Tharchin et al. 1984. Edition and translation of story 38: See Klaus 1983. Doniger, Wendy. 1993. “The Scrapbook of Undeserved Salvation: The Keda¯ ra Khan.d.a of the Skanda Pura¯ n.a.” In Pura¯n.a Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation of Hindu and Jaini Texts, edited by Wendy Doniger, 59–81. Albany: State University of New York Press. Doniger, Wendy, and Brian K. Smith, trans. 1991. The Laws of Manu. London and New York: Penguin Books. Doniger, Wendy, and Sudhir Kakar, trans. 2002. Kamasutra of Vatsyayana Mallanaga. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

bibliography

289

Dooling, Richard. 1994. “Bush Pigs.” The New Yorker, 10 October 1994. Dunne, John D. 2004. Foundations of Dharmakı¯rti’s Philosophy. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Dunne, John D., and J. B. Apple, trans. n.d. The Necklace of Clear Understanding: An Elucidation of the System of Mind and Mental States (Sems dang sems byung gi tshul gsal bar ston pa blo gsal mgul rgyan) by Tshe-mchog-gling yongs-’dzin, Dka’-chen Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan (1713–1793). Dutt, Nalinaksha. 1930. Aspects of Maha¯ya¯na Buddhism and its Relation to Hı¯naya¯na. London: Luzac and Company. ———. 1940. “The Place of Faith in Buddhism.” Indian Historical Quarterly 16:639–649. ———, ed. 1984 (1950). Gilgit Manuscripts. 4 volumes. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. ———, ed. 1986. Saddharmapun.d.arı¯kasu¯tra, with N. D. Mironov’s Readings from Central Asian Manuscripts. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society. ———. 1987. Buddhist Sects in India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Dwivedi, Parasa Nath, ed. Ka¯masu¯tram of S´rı¯ Va¯tsya¯yanamuni. Varanasi: Chaukamba Surbharati Prakashan. Dwyer, Rachel, and Christopher Pinney, eds. 2001. Pleasure and the Nation: The History, Politics and Consumption of Public Culture in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Eck, Diana. 1998 (1985). Dars´an: Seeing the Divine Image in India. Columbia University Press. Eckel, Malcolm David. 1992. To See the Buddha: A Philosopher’s Quest for the Meaning of Emptiness. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. Edgerton, Franklin. 1993 (1953). Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. 2 volumes. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Egge, James R. 2002. Religious Giving and the Invention of Karma in Therava¯da Buddhism. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. Ergardt, Jan T. 1977. Faith and Knowledge in Early Buddhism. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Erndl, Kathleen M. 1993. Victory to the Mother: The Hindu Goddess of Northwest India in Myth, Ritual, and Symbol. New York: Oxford University Press. Ernout, A. 1911. “Skr. ´sraddha¯, lat. credo, irl. cretim.” In Melanges d’Indianisme: offerts par ses élèves à Sylvain Lévi, 85–89. Paris: E. Leroux. Fabian, Johannes. 1983. Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object. New York: Columbia University Press. Falk, Harry. 1990. “Goodies for India: Literacy, Orality, and Vedic Culture.” In Erscheinungsformen kultureller Prozesse, edited by Wolfgang Raible, 103–120. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Faure, Bernard. 1996. Visions of Power: Imagining Medieval Japanese Buddhism. Translated from the French by Phyllis Brooks. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ———. 1998. “The Buddhist Icon and the Modern Gaze.” Critical Inquiry 24 (3): 768–813. Fausbøll, V., ed. 1877–1896. The Ja¯taka Together with Its Commentary. 6 volumes. London: Trübner and Company.

290

bibliography

Féer, Léon, trans. 1891. Avadana-Çataka: cent légendes (bouddhiques). Annales du Musée Guimet, vol. 18. Paris: E. Leroux. ———, ed. 1884–1898. Sam . yutta-nika¯ya. 5 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Filliozat, J. 1980. “Sur le domaine sémantique de pun.ya.” In Indianisme et bouddhisme: Mélanges offerts á Mgr. Étienne Lamotte, 102–116. Louvain-la-neuve: Institut Orientaliste. Finnegan, Ruth. 1988. Literacy and Orality: Studies in the Technology of Communication. Oxford: Blackwell. Fitzgerald, James L, trans. 2004. The Maha¯bha¯rata: 11, The Book of Women; 12, The Book of Peace, part one. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Fontein, Jan. 1981. “Notes on the Ja¯takas and Avada¯nas of Barabud.ur.” In Barabud.ur: History and Significance of a Buddhist Monument, edited by Luis O. Gómez and Hiram W. Woodward, Jr., 85–108. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press. Forge, Anthony. 1973. “Style and Meaning in Sepik Art.” In Primitive Art and Society, edited by Anthony Forge, 169–192. London and New York: Oxford University Press. Foucher, Alfred. 1905–1951. L’art gréco-bouddhique du Gandha¯ra: étude sur les origines de l’influence classique dans l’art bouddhique de l’Inde et de l’Extrême-Orient. 2 volumes. Paris: E. Leroux. Frank, Thomas. 2000. One Market Under God: Extreme Capitalism, Market Populism, and the End of Economic Democracy. New York: Doubleday. Frauwallner, Erich. 1956. The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist Literature. Translated from the German by L. Petech. Roma: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. Freedberg, David. 1989. The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gambhirananda, Swami, ed. and trans. 1992. Cha¯ndogya Upanis.ad, with the Commen. tary of S´ri S´ankara¯ca¯rya. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. Ga¯ndha¯rı¯ Dharmpada. Edition: See Brough 1962. Geiger, Wilhelm, ed. 1925 and 1927. Cu¯lavam . sa. 2 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. ———, trans. 1973 (1929–1930). Cu¯ lavam sa, being the more recent part of the . Maha¯vam sa . Translated from the German into English by C. Mabel Rickmers. . London: Pali Text Society. Gell, Alfred. 1992. “The Technology of Enchantment and the Enchantment of Technology.” In Anthropology, Art, and Aesthetics, edited by Jeremy Coote and Anthony Shelton, 40–66. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ———. 1998. Art and Agency: An Anthropological Theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gellner, David N. 2001. The Anthropology of Buddhism and Hinduism: Weberian Themes. New York: Oxford University Press. Gernet, Jacques. 1995. Buddhism and Chinese Society: An Economic History from the Fifth to the Tenth Centuries. Translated by Franciscus Verellen. New York: Columbia University Press. Gethin, Rupert. 1992a. The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiya¯ Dhamma¯. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

bibliography

291

———. 1992b. “The Ma¯ tikas: Memorization, Mindfulness, and the List.” In In the Mirror of Memory: Reflections on Mindfulness and Remembrance in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, edited by Janet Gyatso, 149–172. Albany: State University of New York Press. . Gnoli, Raniero, ed. 1977–1978. The Gilgit Manuscript of the Sanghabhedavastu. 2 volumes. Roma: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. ———, ed. 1978. The Gilgit Manuscript of the S´ayana¯sanavastu. Roma: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. Godelier, Maurice. 1999. The Enigma of the Gift. Translated by Nora Scott. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind. 1994. New Light on Early Buddhism. Bombay: Sangam Books. . Gokhale, V. V. 1947. “Fragments from the Abhidharmasamuccaya of Asanga.” Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (New Series) 23:13–38. Gold, Ann Grodzins. 1988. Fruitful Journeys: The Ways of the Rajasthani Pilgrims. Berkeley: University of California Press. Gombrich, Richard. 1971. “Merit Transference in Sinhalese Buddhism: A Case Study of the Interaction between Doctrine and Practice.” History of Religions 11:203–219. Also published the same year in Precept and Practice: Traditional Buddhism in the Rural Highlands of Ceylon, 226–241. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ———. 1990. “How the Maha¯ ya¯ na Began.” In The Buddhist Forum, vol. 1, edited by Tadeusz Skorupski, 21–30. London: School of Oriental and African Studies. ———. 2003. “Merit Detached from Volition: How a Buddhist Doctrine Came to Wear a Jain Aspect.” In Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini, edited by Olle Qvarnström, 427–440. Freemont, CA: Asian Humainites Press. Gomez, Luis, trans. 1996. Land of Bliss: The Paradise of the Buddha of Measureless Light: Sanskrit and Chinese Versions of the Sukha¯vativyu¯ha Su¯tras. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Gonda, Jan. 1969. Eye and Gaze in the Veda. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company. Goodman, Nelson. 1976. Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols. 2nd edition. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. Goody, Jack, ed. 1968. Literacy in Traditional Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ———. 1987. The Interface between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gorky, Maxim. 1952. My Apprenticeship. Translated by Margaret Wettlin. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. Graetz, Heinrich. 1975. The Structure of Jewish History. Translated by Ismar Schorsh. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Granoff, Phyllis. 2000. “Portraits, Likenesses and Looking Glasses: Some Literary and Philosophical Reflections in Representation and Art in Medieval India.” In Representation in Religion: Studies in Honour of Moshe Barasch, edited by Jan Assmann and Albert I. Baumgarten, 63–107. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

292

bibliography

Granoff, Phyllis, and Koichi Shinohara, eds. 2004. Images in Asian Religions: Texts and Contexts. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Greenough, Paul. 1982. Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–44. New York: Oxford University Press. ———. 1983. “Indulgence and Abundance as Asian Peasant Values: A Bengali Case in Point.” Journal of Asian Studies 42 (4): 831–850. Gregory, Christopher. 1982. Gifts and Commodities. London and New York: Academic Press. Griffiths, Paul. 1982. “Notes Toward a Critique of Buddhist Karmic Theory.” Religious Studies 19 (3): 277–291. ———. 1995. On Being Buddha: The Classical Doctrine of Buddhahood. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. ———. 1999. Religious Reading: The Place of Reading in the Practice of Religion. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Guenther, Herbert V. 1976. Philosophy and Psychology in the Abhidharma. Berkeley: Shambhala Publications. Guenther, Herbert V., and Leslie S. Kawamura, trans. 1975. Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan’s The Necklace of Clear Understanding. Emeryville, CA: Dharma Publishing. Guha-Thakurta, Tapati. 1995. “Visualizing the Nation: The Iconography of a ‘National Art’ in Modern India.” Journal of Arts and Ideas 27–28:7–40. Gunawardana, R. A. L. H. 1981. “Social Fuction and Political Power: A Case Study of State Formation in Irrigation Society.” In The Study of the State, edited by Henri J. M. Claessen and Peter Skalnik, 133–145. The Hague: Mouton. Gupta, Mahendranath. 1984. The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. Translated by Swami Nikhilananda. New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center. Gutman, Judith Mara. 1982. Through Indian Eyes. New York: Oxford University Press. Haberman, David. 1988. Acting as a Way of Salvation: A Study of Ra¯ga¯nuga¯ Bhakti Sa¯dhana. New York: Oxford University Press. ´raddha¯ .” Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens 7:151–189. Hacker, Paul. 1963. “S Hallisey, Charles. 1988. “Devotion in the Buddhist Literature of Medieval Sri Lanka.” PhD diss., University of Chicago. Hallisey, Charles, and Anne Hansen. 1996. “Narrative, Sub-Ethics, and the Moral Life: Some Evidence from Therava¯ da Buddhism.” Journal of Religious Ethics 24 (2): 305–328. Handurukande, Ratna. 1978. “The Benefit of Caitya Worship.” In Senarat Panavitana Commemoration Volume, edited by Leelananda Prematilleke, Karthigesu Indrapala, and J. E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw, 75–77. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ———. 1982. “The Advantages of Image-Making.” Buddhist Studies (Bukkyo Kenkyu¯) 11:143–147. ———. 2000. Three Sanskrit Texts on Caitya Worship: In Relation to the Ahora¯travrata. Studia Philologica Buddhica, monograph series, 16. Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies.

bibliography

293

Hara, Minoru. 1964. “Note on Two Sanskrit Religious Terms bhakti and ´sraddha¯.” IndoIranian Journal 7:124–145. ´raddha¯ vises´a.” Indologica Taurinensia 7 (1): 261–273. ———. 1979. “S ———. 1992. “A Note on Dhammapada 97.” Indo-Iranian Journal 35:179–191. Harrison, Paul. 1978. “Buddha¯nusmr.ti in the Pratyutpanna-buddha-sam . mukha¯vasthitasama¯dhi-su¯tra.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 6:35–57. ———. 1992a. “Commemoration and Identification in Buddha¯nusmr.ti.” In In the Mirror of Memory: Reflections on Mindfulness and Remembrance in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, edited by Janet Gyatso, 215–238. Albany: State University of New York Press. ———. 1992b. “Is the Dharma-ka¯ ya the Real ‘Phantom Body’ of the Buddha?” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 15 (1): 44–94. ———. 2003. “Mediums and Messages: Reflections on the Production of Maha¯ ya¯ na Su¯tras.” The Eastern Buddhist 25 (1–2): 888 Härtel, Herbert. 1981. “Die Geburt des Jyotis.ka: Anmerkungen zu einem neu erworbenen Gandha¯ ra-Relief.” In Studien Zum Jainismus und Buddhismus: Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf (Alt-und neu-indische Studien, 23), edited by Klaus Bruhn and Albrecht Wezler, 93–106. Weisbaden: Franz Steiner. Hartmann, Jens-Uwe. 1980. “Notes on the Gilgit Manuscript of the Candraprabha¯vada¯na.” Journal of the Nepal Research Centre 4:251–266. Harvey, Peter. 1999. “Vinaya Principles for Assigning Degrees of Culpability.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics 6:271–291. (http://jbe.la.psu.edu/6/harvey991.htm). Hayley, Audrey. 1980. “A Commensal Relationship with God: The Nature of the Offering in Assamese Vais.n.avism.” In Sacrifice, edited by M.F.C. Bourdillon and Meyer Fortes, 107–125. London: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Heitzman, James. 1984. “Early Buddhism, Trade and Empire.” In Studies in the Archaeology and Palaeoanthropology of South Asia, edited by Kenneth A. R. Kennedy and Gregory L. Possehl, 121–137. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing. Hibbitts, Bernard J. 1994. “Making Sense of Metaphors: Visuality, Aurality, and the Reconfiguration of American Legal Discourse.” Cardozo Law Review 16:229–356. (http://www.law.pitt.edu/hibbitts/meta_int.htm). Hibbets, Maria. 2000. “The Ethics of Esteem.” Journal of Buddhist Ethics 7:26–42. (http://jbe.la.psu.edu/7/hibbets001.html). Hinüber, Oskar von. 1981. “Die Erforschung der Gilgit-Handschriften, Neue Ergebnisse.” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 131: *9*–*11*. ———. 1989. “Origin and Varieties of Buddhist Sanskrit.” In Dialectes dans les Littératures Indo-Aryennes, edited by Colette Caillat, 341–367. Paris: Institut de Civilisation Indienne. ———. 1990. Der Beginn der Schrift und frühe Schriftlichkeit in Indien. Abhandlungen der Geistes-und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, 11. Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur. ———. 1993. “From Colloquial to Standard Language: The Oral Phase in the Development of Pali.” In Premier Colloque Étienne Lamotte, 101–113. Louvain-la-Neuve: Institut Orientaliste.

294

bibliography

Hirakawa, Akira. 1963. “The Rise of Maha¯ya¯na Buddhism and Its Relationship to the ¯ pas.” Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 22:57–106. Worship of Stu ———. 1990. A History of Indian Buddhism: From S´a¯kyamuni to Early Maha¯ya¯na. Translated and edited by Paul Groner. Asian Studies at Hawai’i, no. 36. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Hiraoka, Satoshi. 1998. “The Relation between the Divya¯ vada¯ na and the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯ da Vinaya.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 26:1–16. Hocart, A.M. 1931. The Temple of the Tooth in Kandy. London: Luzac and Company. Hoffman, Frank. 1985. “Buddhist Belief ‘In.’” Religious Studies 21:381–387. ———. 1987. “The Pragmatic Efficacy of Saddha¯.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 15:399–412. Holt, John Clifford. 1996. The Religious World of Kı¯rti S´rı¯: Buddhism, Art, and Politics of Late Medieval Sri Lanka. New York: Oxford University Press. Horner, I. B., trans. 1969 (1963). Milinda’s Questions (Milindapañha). 2 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. ———, trans. 1969–1975. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-pit.aka). 6 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. ———, trans. 1975. Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, vol. III: Chronicle of Buddhas (Buddhavam . sa) and Basket of Conduct (Cariya¯pit.aka). London: Pali Text Society. ———, ed. 1978a. Madhuratthavila¯sinı¯ na¯ma Buddhavam . sat..thakatha¯ of Bhadanta¯cariya Buddhadatta Maha¯thera. London: Pali Text Society. ———, trans. 1978b. The Clarifier of the Sweet Meaning (Madhuratthavila¯sinı¯ ). London: Pali Text Society. Horner, I. B., and Padmanabh S. Jaini, trans. Apocryphal Birth-Stories (Pañña¯sa-Ja¯taka). 2 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Hult, David. 1991. “Reading It Right: The Ideology of Text Editing.” In The New Medievalism, edited by Marina S. Brownlee, Kevin Brownlee, and Stephen G. Nichols, 113–130. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Huntington, C. W. 2007. “History, Tradition, and Truth.” History of Religions 46 (3): 187–227. Huntington, Susan. 1992. “Aniconism and the Multivalence of Emblems: Another Look.” Ars Orientalis 22:111–156. Hurvitz, Leon, trans. 1976. Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma (Saddharmapun.d.arı¯kasu¯tra). Translated from the Chinese of Kuma¯ rajı¯va. New York: Columbia University Press. Ingholt, Harald, and Islay Lyons. 1957. Gandharan Art in Pakistan. New York: Pantheon Books. Irvine, Judith. 1990. “Registering Affect: Heteroglossia in the Linguistic Expression of Emotion.” In Language and the Politics of Emotion, edited by Catherine A. Lutz and Lila Abu-Lughod, 126–161. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ishihama, Yumiko, and Yoichi Fukuda, eds. 1989. A New Critical Edition of the Maha¯vyutpatti: Sanskrit-Tibetan-Mongolian Dictionary of Buddhist Terminology. Tokyo: Toyo Bunko. Itivuttaka. Edition: See Windisch 1975. Translation: See Woodward 1948. Iwamoto, Yutaka. 1978. Bukkyô setsuwa kenkyu¯ josetsu [“An Introduction to the Study of Buddhist Legends”]. Tokyo: Kaimei Shoin.

bibliography

295

Jain, Kajri. 2000. “The Efficacious Image: Pictures and Power in Indian Mass Culture.” Polygraph: An International Journal of Culture and Politics 12:159–185. Jaini, Padmanabh S. 1966. “The Story of Sudhana and Manohara: An Analysis of the Texts and the Borobudur Reliefs.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 29 (3): 533–558. ———. 1979. “On the Buddha Image.” In Studies in Pali and Buddhism: A Memorial Volume in Honor of Bhikkhu Jagdish Kashyap, edited by A. K. Narain, 183–188. Delhi: B. R. Publishing. Janet, Pierre. 1928. L’Evolution de la memoire et de la notion du temps. Paris: A. Chahine. Ja¯taka. Edition: See Fausbøll 1877–1896. Translation: See Cowell et al. 1990. Jay, Martin. 1994. Downcast Eyes: The Denigration of Vision in Twentieth-Century French Thought. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Jayatilleke, K. N. 1963. Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge. London: George Allen and Unwin. Jayawickrama, N. A., ed. and trans. 1971. The Chronicle of the Thu¯ pa and the Thu¯ pavam . sa, Being a Translation and Edition of Va¯cissaratthera’s Thu¯ pavam . sa. London: Luzac and Company. ———, ed. 1974. Buddhavam . sa. London: Pali Text Society. Jhala, Jayasinhji. 1997. “Speculations on the Concept of Indic Frontality Prompted by Questions on Portraiture.” Visual Anthropology 10:49–66. Jña¯naprastha¯nas´a¯stra of Ka¯ tya¯ yanı¯putra. Translation (Sanskrit). See S. B. Sastri 1955. Johnson, Richard. 1986. “What Is Cultural Studies Anyway?” Social Text 16:38–80. Jones, J. J., trans. 1949. Maha¯vastu Avada¯na. 3 volumes. London: Luzac and Company. Ka¯masu¯tra of Va¯ tsya¯ yana. Edition: See Dwivedi 1999. Translation: See Doniger and Kakar 2002. Kane, P. V. 1930–1962. History of Dharmas´a¯stra. 5 volumes. Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. ———, ed. 1962. Uttarara¯macarita, with the Commentary of Ghanas´ya¯ma and with Notes and Introduction. Includes a translation by C. N. Joshi. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Kangle, R. P., ed. and trans. 1960–1965. The Kaut.ilı¯ya Arthas´a¯stra. 3 volumes. Bombay: University of Bombay. Kapur, Anuradha. 1993. “Deity to Crusader: The Changing Iconography of Ram.” In Hindus and Others: The Question of Identity in India Today, edited by Gyanendra Pandey, 74–109. Delhi: Viking Publishers. Katha¯vatthu. Edition: See Taylor 1894–1897. Translation: See Aung and Rhys Davids 1979. Kaza, Stephanie, ed. 2005. Hooked! Buddhist Writings on Greed, Desire, and the Urge to Consume. Boston and London: Shambhala. Keenan, John P. 1989. “Spontaneity in Western Martial Arts: A Yoga¯ ca¯ ra Critique of Mushin (No-Mind).” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 16 (4): 285–298. ———. 1990. “The Mystique of Martial Arts: A Response to Professor McFarlane.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 17 (4): 421–432. Kemper, Steven. 2001. Buying and Believing: Sri Lankan Advertising and Consumers in a Transnational World. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

296

bibliography

Kern, H. 1896. Manual of Indian Buddhism. Strassburg: Verlag Von Karl J. Trübner. Khare, R. S. 1976. The Hindu Hearth and Home. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. ———, ed. 1992. The Eternal Food. Albany: State University of New York Press. Kinnard, Jacob. 1999. Imaging Wisdom: Seeing and Knowing in the Art of Indian Buddhism. Surrey: Curzon Press. ———. 2000. “The Polyvalent Pa¯ das of Vis.n.u and the Buddha.” History of Religions 40 (1): 32–57. Kirn, Walter. 2001. Up in the Air. New York: Doubleday. Klaus, Konrad, ed. and trans. 1983. Das Maitrakanyaka¯vada¯na (Divya¯vada¯na 38 ). Indica et Tibetica, band 2. Bonn: Indica et Tibetica Verlag. Klima, Alan. 2004. “Thai Love Thai: Financing Emotion in Post-Crash Thailand.” Ethnos 69 (4): 445–464. Kloetzli, W. Randolph. 1997 (1983). Buddhist Cosmology: Science and Theology in the Images of Motion and Light. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Knipe, David. 1977. “Sapin.d.¯ı karan.a: The Hindu Rite of Entry into Heaven.” In Religious Encounters with Death, edited by Frank Reynolds and E. H. Waught, 111–124. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. Köhler, Hans-Werbin. 1973. S´rad-dha¯ in der vedischen und altbuddhistischen Literatur. Weisbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. Kosambi, D. D., ed. 2000. The Epigrams Attributed to Bhartr.hari. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Kuhn, Annette. 1985. The Power of the Image: Essays on Representation and Sexuality. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Kulick, Don, and Christopher Stroud. 1990. “Christianity, Cargo and Ideas of Self: Patterns of Literacy in a Papua New Guinean Village.” Man (new series) 25:286–304. Lamotte, Étienne. 1949–1980. Le traité de la grande vertu de sagesse de Na¯ga¯rjuna (Maha¯prajña¯pa¯ramita¯´s a¯stra). 5 volumes. Publications de l’Institut Orientaliste de Louvain 25, 26, 2, 12, 14. Louvain-la-neuve: Institut Orientaliste. ———. 1988. History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the S´aka Era. Translated by Sara Webb-Boin. Louvain-la-Neuve: Institut Orientaliste. Original French edition published in Louvain, 1958. Lancaster, Lewis R. 1974. “An Early Maha¯ ya¯ na Sermon about the Body of the Buddha and the Making of Images.” Artibus Asiae 36:287–291. Landsberg, G., and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, eds. 1914. Puggalapaññatti-at..thakatha¯. London: Pali Text Society. La Vallée Poussin, Louis de. 1908. “Faith and Reason in Buddhism.” Transactions of the Third International Congress for the History of Religions, vol. 2, edited by P. S. Allen and J. de M. Johnson, 32–42. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ———. trans. 1923–1931. L’Abhidharmakos´a de Vasubandhu. 6 volumes. Paris. Law, Bimala Churn. 1976. Historical Geography of Ancient India. Delhi: Ess Ess Publications. Law, Narendra Nath. 1925. Studies in Indian History and Culture. London: Luzac and Company.

bibliography

297

Legge, James. 1965 (1886). A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms. New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corporation. Lenz, Timothy. 2003. A New Version of the Ga¯ndha¯rı¯ Dharmapada and a Collection of Previous-Birth Stories: British Library Kharos..thı¯ Fragments 16 ⫹ 25. With contributions by Andrew Glass and Bhikshu Dharmamitra. Gandha¯ ran Buddhist Texts, vol. 3. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. Lévi, Sylvain. 1908. “Sur la récitation primitive des textes bouddhiques.” Journal Asiatique 5:401–447. Lévi, Sylvain, and Edouard Chavannes. 1916. “Les seize arhat protecteurs de la loi.” Journal Asiatique 8:205–275. Lewis, Todd. 1994. “Contributions to the History of Buddhist Ritualism: A Maha¯ ya¯ na Avada¯ na on Caitya Veneration from the Kathmandu Valley.” Journal of Asian History 28:1–38. Lilley, M. E., ed. 1925–27. Apada¯na. 2 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Liu, Xinru. 1988. Ancient India and Ancient China: Trade and Religious Exchanges A.D. 1–600. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Long, D. Stephen. 2000. Divine Economy: Theology and the Market. London and New York: Routledge. Lopez, Donald S. 1995. “Authority and Orality in the Maha¯ ya¯ na.” Numen 20:21–47. Losche, Diane. 1995. “The Sepik Gaze: Iconographic Interpretation of Abelam Form.” Social Analysis 38:47–60. Loy, David. 1997. “Religion of the Market.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 65 (2): 275–290. Lüders, Heinrich. 1940. “Weitere Beiträge zur Geschichte und Geographie von Osturrkestan.” Philologica Indica. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. ———, ed. 1963. Bharhut Inscriptions. Revised and supplemented by E. Waldschmidt and M. A. Mehandale. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. 2, part 2. Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India. Ludowyk-Gyomroi, Edith. 1943. “Note on the Interpretation of ‘Pası¯datı¯.’” University of Ceylon Review 1 (1): 74–82. ———. 1947. “The Valuation of Saddha¯ in Early Buddhist Texts.” University of Ceylon Review 5 (2): 32–49. Lutgendorf, Philip. 1995. “All in the (Raghu) Family: A Video Epic in Cultural Context.” In Media and the Transformation of Religion in South Asia, edited by Lawrence A. Babb and Susan W. Wadley, 217–253. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Lutz, Catherine. 1990. “Engendered Emotion: Gender, Power and the Rhetoric of Emotional Control in American Discourse.” In Language and the Politics of Emotion, edited by Catherine A. Lutz and Lila Abu-Lughod, 69–91. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. MacGregor, Geddes. 1987. “Doubt and Faith.” In The Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 5, edited by Charles J. Adams et al., 424–430. Mircea Eliade, editor in chief. New York: Macmillan. MacKinnon, Catherine. 1993. Only Words. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Maha¯bha¯rata. Edition: See Sukthankar et al. 1933–1959.

298

bibliography

Maha¯parinirva¯n.asu¯tra. Edition and translation: See Waldschmidt 1951. Maha¯vyutpatti. Edition: See Ishihama and Fukuda 1989. Mahmood, Saba. 2005. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Mair, Victor H. 1988. Painting and Performance: Chinese Picture Recitation and Its Indian Genesis. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Majjhima-nika¯ya. Edition: See Trenckner and Chalmers 1888–1889. Translation: See Ña¯ n.amoli and Bodhi 1995. Majmudar, N. G. 1987. A Guide to the Sculptures in the Indian Musuem: Part 1, Early Indian Schools. Patna: Eastern Book House. Malalasekera, G. P. 1995 (1938). Dictionary of Pali Proper Names. 2 volumes. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Mankekar, Purnima. 1999. Screening Culture, Viewing Politics: An Ethnography of Television, Womanhood, and Nation in Postcolonial India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Manorathapu¯ran.¯ı . Edition: See Walleser and Kopp 1924–1957. Manusmr.ti (Ma¯navadharmas´a¯stra). Edition: See J. L. Sastri 1983b. Translation: See Doniger and Smith 1991. Marouzeau, Jules. 1911. “Sur les formes et l’emploi du verbe ‘etre’ dans le Divya¯vada¯na.” In Melanges d’Indianisme: offerts par ses élèves à Sylvain Lévi, 151–158. Paris: E. Leroux. Marriott, McKim. 1976. “Hindu Transactions: Diversity without Dualism.” In Transaction and Meaning: Directions in the Anthropology of Exchange and Symbolic Behavior, edited by Bruce Kapferer, 109–142. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues. Masefield, Peter, trans. 1994a. The Uda¯na. Oxford: Pali Text Society. ———, trans. 1994b. The Uda¯na-at..thakatha¯. 2 volumes. Oxford: Pali Text Society. Matsumura, Hisashi. 1985. “The Stu¯pa Worship in Ancient Gilgit.” Journal of Central Asia 8 (2): 133–151. Maung Tin, Pe, trans. 1920–1922. The Expositor (At..thasa¯linı¯). 2 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Mauss, Marcel. 1990 (1950). The Gift. Translated by W. D. Halls. London: W. W. Norton. Mazzarella, William. 2003. Shoveling Smoke: Advertising and Globalization in Contemporary India. Durham and London: Duke University Press. McDermott, James P. 1980. “Karma and Rebirth in Early Buddhism.” In Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, edited by Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, 165–192. Berkeley: University of California Press. McFarlane, Stewart. 1990. “Mushin, Morals, and Martial Arts: A Discussion of Keenan’s Yoga¯ ca¯ ra Critique.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 17 (4): 397–420. ———. 1991. “The Mystique of Martial Arts: A Reply to Professor Keenan’s Response.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 18 (4): 355–368. McMahan, David. 1998. “Orality, Writing, and Authority in South Asian Buddhism: Visionary Literature and the Struggle for Legitimacy in the Maha¯ ya¯ na.” History of Religions 37 (3): 249–274.

bibliography

299

———. 2002. Empty Vision: Metaphor and Visionary Imagery in Maha¯ya¯na Buddhism. London: RoutledgeCurzon. Meister, Michael W. 1995. “Seeing and Knowing: Semiology, Semiotics and the Art of India.” In Los Discursos sobre el Arte, edición a cargo de Juana Gutiérrez Haces, 193–207. XV Coloquio Internacional de Historia del Arte. Ciudad México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas). Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. 1964. The Primacy of Perception: And Other Essays on Phenomenological Psychology, the Philosophy of Art, History and Politics. Edited with an introduction by James M. Edie. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Milindapañha. Edition: See Trenckner 1880. Translation: See Horner 1969. Miller, Vincent J. 2004. Consuming Religion: Christian Faith and Practice in a Consumer Culture. New York: Continuum. Mirashi, Vasudev Vishnu. 1981. The History and Inscriptions of the Sa¯tava¯hanas and the Western Kshatrapas. Bombay: Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture. Mishra, Kameshwar Nath. 1993. Aspects of Buddhist Sanskrit. Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies. Mitchell, W. J. T. 1994. Picture Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mitra, Rajendralal. 1981 (1882). The Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications. ———, trans. 1998 (1881–1886). The Lalita Vistara. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. Moerman, D. Max. 2005. Localizing Paradise: Kumano Pilgrimage and the Religious Landscape of Premodern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, distributed by Harvard University Press. Monier-Williams, Monier. 1990 (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Morgan, David. 1998. Visual Piety: A History and Theory of Popular Religious Images. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. . Morris, R., and E. Hardy, eds. 1885–1900. Anguttara-nika¯ya. 5 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Mrozik, Susanne Petra. 2006. “Materializations of Virtue: Buddhist Discourses on Bodies.” In Bodily Citations: Religion and Judith Butler, edited by Ellen T. Armour and Susan M. St. Ville, 15–47. New York: Columbia University Press. ———. 2007. Virtuous Bodies: The Physical Dimensions of Morality in Buddhist Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press. Mukhopadhyaya, Sujitkumar, ed. 1954. S´a¯rdu¯lakarn.a¯vada¯na. Santiniketan: Visvabharati. ———, ed. 1963. The As´oka¯vada¯na: Sanskrit Text Compared with Chinese Versions. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. Muller, E., ed. 1979. At..thasa¯linı¯. London: Pali Text Society. Munn, Nancy. 1973. Walbiri Iconography: Graphic Representation and Cultural Symbolism in a Central Australian Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mus, Paul. 1935. Barabadur: Esquisse d’une histoire du Bouddhisme fondée sur las critique archéologique des textes. Hanoi: Imprimerie d’Extrême Orient. Nagar, Shanti Lal. 1993. Ja¯takas in Indian Art. Delhi: Parimal Publications.

300

bibliography

Ña¯ n.amoli, Bhikkhu, trans. 1960. The Minor Readings (Khuddakapa¯.tha). London: Pali Text Society. ———. 1963. “Does Saddha¯ Mean Faith? parts 1 and 2.” Wheel 52/53:11–31. ———, trans. 1979. The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) of Buddhaghosa. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. Ña¯ n.amoli, Bhikku, and Bhikkhu Bodhi, trans. 1995. The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nika¯ya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Nanayakkara, S. K. 1984. “Confidence.” In Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, vol. 4. Colombo: Government of Sri Lanka. Nandaratana, Kamburupitiya, ed. 1984. Dha¯tuvam . sa. Colombo: Cultural Publications. Narayan, Kirin. 1989. Storytellers, Saints, and Scoundrels: Folk Narrative in Hindu Religious Teaching. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Nelson, Robert H. 2002. Economics as Religion: From Samuelson to Chicago and Beyond. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. Nirukta of Ya¯ska. Edition: See Bhadkamkar 1942. Nobel, Johannes. 1955. Udra¯yan.a, König von Roruka; eine buddhistische Erzählung, vols. 1–2. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. Norman, H. C., ed. 1906–1914. Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯. London: Pali Text Society. Norman, K. R., trans. 1971. The Elders’ Verses II: Therı¯ga¯tha¯. London: Pali Text Society. ———. 1979. “Dhammapada 97: A Misunderstood Paradox.” Indologica Taurinensia 7:325–331. Oguibenine, B. 1982. “La daks.in.a¯ dans le R.gveda et le transfert de mérite dans le bouddhisme.” In Indological and Buddhist Studies: Volume in Honour of Professor J. W. de Jong on his Sixtieth Birthday, edited by L. A. Hercus et al., 393–414. Delhi: Sri Satguru. O’Hanlon, Michael. 1993. Paradise: Portraying the New Guinea Highlands. London: British Musuem Press. Ohnuma, Reiko. 2000. “The Story of Rupavati: A Female Past Birth of the Buddha.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 23 (1): 103–145. ———, trans. 2004. “A King Gives Away His Head.” In Buddhist Scriptures, edited by Donald S. Lopez, 142–158. London and New York: Penguin Books. ———. 2007. Head, Eyes, Flesh, and Blood: Giving Away the Body in Indian Buddhist Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. Oldenberg, H., ed. 1879–1883. Vinayapit.aka. London: Pali Text Society. ———. 1896. “Vedische Untersuchungen.” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 50:432–462. Oldenberg, H., and R. Pischel, eds. 1966. Theraga¯tha¯ and Therı¯ga¯tha¯. 2nd edition. London: Pali Text Society. Olivelle, Patrick, ed. and trans. 1998. The Early Upanis.ads: Annotated Text and Translation. New York: Oxford University Press. Ong, Walter J. 1967. The Presence of the Word: Some Prolegomena for Cultural and Religious History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ———. 1982. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. New York: Metheun. Östör, Ákos. 1980. The Play of the Gods: Locality, Ideology, Structure, and Time in the Festivals of a Bengali Town. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

bibliography

301

Panglung, Jampa Losang. 1981. Die Erzählstoffe des Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-Vinaya Analysiert auf Grund der Tibetischen Übersetzung. Tokyo: The Reiyukai Library. Panoli, Vidyavachaspati V., ed. and trans. 1991. Upanishads in Sankara’s Own Words (Chhandogya), vol. 3. Calicut: The Mathrubhumi Printing and Publishing Company. Paramatthajotika¯ I of Buddhaghosa. Edition: See Smith 1959. Park, Sung Bae. 1983. Buddhist Faith and Sudden Enlightenment. Albany: State University of New York Press. Parry, Jonathan. 1982. “Sacrificial Death and the Necrophagous Ascetic.” In Death and the Regenation of Life, edited by Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry, 74–110. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ———. 1985. “The Brahmanical Tradition and the Technology of the Intellect.” In Reason and Morality, edited by Joanna Overing, 200–225. London and New York: Tavistock Publications. Payutto, Phra Prayudh. 1995. Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life. Translated by Grant A. Olson. Albany: State University of New York Press. ———. 1994. Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation. Pelikan, Jaroslav. 1987. “Faith.” In The Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 5, edited by Charles J. Adams et al., 250–255. Mircea Eliade, editor in chief. New York: Macmillan. Pendse, G. S. 1978. The Vedic Concept of S´raddha¯. Pune: Three Angels Memorial Trust. Pinkney, Andrea. 2008. “The Sacred Share: Prasa¯ da in South Asia.” PhD diss., Columbia University. Pinney, Christopher. 1997a. Camera Indica: The Social Life of Indian Photographs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ———. 1997b. “The Nation (Un)pictured? Chromolithography and ‘Popular’ Politics in India, 1878–1995.” Critical Inquiry 23:834–867. ———. 2001. “Piercing the Skin of the Idol.” In Beyond Aesthetics: Art and the Technologies of Enchantment, edited by Christopher Pinney and Nicholas Thomas, 157–179. Oxford and New York: Berg. ———. 2002. “The Indian Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction: Or, What Happens when Peasants ‘Get Hold’ of Images.” In Media Worlds: Anthropology on the New Terrain, edited by Faye Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod, and Brian Larkin, 355–369. Berkeley: University of California Press. ———. 2004. “Photos of the Gods”: The Printed Image and Political Struggle in India. New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press. Pinney, Christopher, and Nicolas Peterson, eds. 2003. Photography’s Other Histories. Durham and London: Duke University Press. Pischel, R., and G. Bühler, eds. 1880. The Des´¯ı na¯mama¯la¯ of Hemachandra. Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series, vol. 17. Bombay: Government Central Book Depot. Pollock, Sheldon. 1996. “The Sanskrit Cosmopolis, 300–1300: Transculturation, Vernacularization, and the Question of Ideology.” In The Ideology and Status of Sanskrit, edited by Jan E. M. Houben, 197–247. Leiden: Brill. ´r.n.ga¯rapraka¯´ ———. 1998. “Bhoja’s S sa and the Problem of Rasa: A Historical Introduction and Annotated Translation.” Asiatische Studien Études Asiatiques 52 (1): 117–192.

302

bibliography

———. 2006. The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. Berkeley: University of California Press. Poole, Deborah. 1997. Vision, Race, and Modernity: A Visual Economy of the Andean Image World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Prakash, Shyam. 1970. Divya¯vada¯n mem . sam . skr.ti ka svaru¯pa [“The Formation of Culture in the Divya¯vada¯na”]. Agra: Pragati Prakashan. Prakrit Dhammapada. Edition and translation: See Bhaskar 1990. Puggalapaññatti-at..thakatha¯. Edition: See Landsberg and Rhys Davids 1914. Pynchon, Thomas. 1976. Gravity’s Rainbow. New York: Bantam. Raducha, Joan Anastasia. 1982. “Iconography of Buddhist Relief Scenes from Kushan Mathura.” PhD diss., University of Wisconsin at Madison. Raheja, Gloria. 1988. The Poison in the Gift: Ritual, Prestation, and the Dominant Caste in a North Indian Village. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rahula, Walpola. 1956. History of Buddhism in Ceylon. Colombo: M. D. Gunasena. ———. 1971. Le compendium de la super-doctrine (Abhidharmasamuccaya) d’Asanga. Paris: École française d’Extrême-Orient. Rajagopal, Arvind. 2001. Politics after Television: Religious Nationalism and the Reshaping of the Indian Public. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ramanujan, A. K. 1991. “Toward a Counter-System: Women’s Tales.” In Gender, Genre, and Power in South Asian Expressive Traditions, edited by Arjun Appadurai, Frank J. Korom, and Margaret A. Mills, 33–55. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Ramaswamy, Sumathi, ed. 2003. Beyond Appearances? Visual Practices and Ideologies in Modern India. Contributions to Indian Sociology, Occasional Studies, 10. New Delhi: Sage Publications. Rao, K. L. Seshagiri. 1974. The Concept of S´raddha¯ (in the Bra¯hman.as, Upanis. ads and the Gı¯ta¯). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Ratnama¯la¯vada¯na. Edition: See Takahata 1954. Ray, Reginald. A. 1994. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations. New York: Oxford University Press. Reynolds, Frank. E. 1972. “The Two Wheels of Dhamma: A Study of Early Buddhism.” In The Two Wheels of Dhamma: Essays on the Therava¯da Tradition in India and Ceylon, edited by Bardwell L. Smith, 6–30. Chambersburg, PA: American Academy of Religion. ———. 1977. “The Several Bodies of the Buddha: Reflections on a Neglected Aspect of Therava¯ da Tradition.” History of Religions 16:374–389. Rhys Davids, C. A. F., trans. 1900. A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics (Dhamma. sangan.i). London: Royal Asiatic Society. ———, trans. 1909. Psalms of the Early Buddhists: II. Psalms of the Brethren (Theraga¯tha¯). London: Pali Text Society. Rhys Davids, T. W., and J. E. Carpenter, eds. 1890–1911. Dı¯gha-nika¯ya. London: Pali Text Society. Rhys Davids, T. W., J. E. Carpenter, and William Stede, eds. 1886–1932. Suman.galavila¯sinı¯. London: Pali Text Society.

bibliography

303

Rhys Davids, T. W., and H. Oldenberg, trans. 1987 (1882–1885). Vinaya Texts (Vinayapit. aka). 3 volumes. Delhi: AVF Books. Rhys Davids, T. W., and William Stede. 1986 (1921–25). The Pali Text Society’s PaliEnglish Dictionary. London: Pali Text Society. Robbins, Joel. 2004. Becoming Sinners: Christianity and Moral Torment in a Papua New Guinea Society. Berkeley: University of California Press. Rongxi, Li, trans. 1996. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Translated by the Tripit.aka-Master Xuanzang under Imperial Order; Composed by ´raman.a Bianji of the Great Zongchi Monastery. Berkeley: Numata Center for S Buddhist Translation and Research. Rotman, Andy. 2003a. “Monks, Merchants, and a Moral Economy: Visual Culture and the Practice of Faith in the Divya¯vada¯na.” PhD diss., University of Chicago. ———. 2003b. “The Erotics of Practice: Objects and Agency in Buddhist Avada¯ na Literature.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 71 (3): 555–578. ———. 2008. Divine Stories: Divya¯vada¯na, Part 1. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ———. forthcoming a. “The Power of Proximity: Creating and Venerating Shrines in Indian Buddhist Narratives.” In Buddhist Stu¯pas in South Asia: Recent Archaeological, Art-Historical, and Historical Perspectives, edited by Jason Hawkes and Akira Shimada. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ———. forthcoming b. Divine Stories: Divya¯vada¯na, Part 2. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Roy, Sitaram, ed. and trans. 1971. Suvarn.avarn.a¯vada¯na. Historical Research Series, vol. 7. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute. Ryan, James. 1997. Picturing Empire: Photography and Visualization of the British Empire. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Saddharmapun.d.arı¯kasu¯tra. Edition: See Dutt 1986. Translation: See Hurvitz 1976. Saddhatissa, H. 1970. Buddhist Ethics: Essence of Buddhism. London: George Allen and Unwin. ———. 1978. “The Saddha¯ Concept in Buddhism.” The Eastern Buddhist (New Series) (Tokyo) 11 (2): 137. Sahlins, Marshall. 1972. Stone Age Economics. New York: Aldine and De Gruyter. Saibaba, V. V. S. 2005. Faith and Devotion in Therava¯da Buddhism. Emerging Perceptions in Buddhist Studies, no. 20. New Delhi: D. K. Printworld. Salomon, Richard. 1999. Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandha¯ra: The British Library Kharos..thı¯ Fragments. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Samtani, N. H., ed. 1971. The Arthavinis´caya-Su¯tra and Its Commentary (Nibandhana), written by Bhiks.u Vı¯ryas´rı¯datta of S´ri-Na¯landa¯viha¯ra. Foreward by P. V. Bapat. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute. ¯ ya. Edition: See Féer 1884–1898. Translation: See Bodhi 2000. Sam yutta-nika . Sanford, A. Whitney. 2002. “Painting Words, Tasting Sound: Visions of Krishna in Paramanand’s Sixteenth-Century Devotional Poetry.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 70 (1): 55–82. . Sanghabhedavastu. Edition: See Gnoli 1977–1978. Sarkar, Sadhanchandra. 1981. A Study on the Ja¯takas and the Avada¯nas: Critical and Comparative, part 1. Calcutta: Sarkar and Sucharita Sengupta.

304

bibliography

———. 1990. Studies in the Common Ja¯taka and Avada¯na Tales. Calcutta: Sanskrit College. Sastri, Dwarikadas, ed. 1987. Abhidharmakos´a and Bha¯.s ya of A¯ca¯rya Vasubandhu with Sphut.a¯rtha¯ Commentary of A¯ca¯rya Yas´omitra. 2 volumes. Bauddha Bharati Series, nos. 5–8. Varanasi: Bauddha Bharati. Sastri, Haragovinda, ed. and trans. 1982. Na¯malin.ga¯nus´a¯sana or Amarakos´a of Amarasim . ha with the Ra¯ma¯´sramı¯ (Vya¯khya¯sudha¯) Commentary or Bha¯nuji Dı¯ks. ita (Ra¯ma¯´srama). Varanasi: Chaukambha Sanskrit Sansthan. Sastri, J. L., ed. 1983a. S´rı¯madbha¯gavatapura¯n.a. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ———, ed. 1983b. Manusmr.ti. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Sastri, Nilakantha. 1945. Gleanings on Social Life from the Avada¯nas. Calcutta: Indian Research Institute Publications. Sastri, Santi Bhiksu, trans. 1955. Jña¯naprastha¯nas´a¯stra of Ka¯tya¯yanı¯putra: Retranslated into Sanskrit from Chinese Version of Hiuan Tsang. Santiniketan: Visvabharati. S´ayana¯sanavastu. Edition: See Gnoli 1978. Schiefner, F. Anton von. 1893. Tibetan Tales. Translated from the German by W. R. S. Ralston. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Company. Schopen, Gregory. 1975. “The Phrase ‘sa pr.thivı¯prades´a caityabhu¯to bhavet’ in the Vajracchedika¯ : Notes on the Cult of the Book in Maha¯ ya¯ na.” Indo-Iranian Journal 17:147–181. ———. 1994a. “Doing Business for the Lord: Lending on Interest and Written Loan Contracts in the Mu¯lasarva¯ stiva¯ da-vinaya.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 114 (4): 527–554. ———. 1994b. “Ritual Rights and Bones of Contention: More on Monastic Funerals ¯ lasarva¯ stiva¯ da-vinaya.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 22:31–80. and Relics in the Mu ———. 1995. “Monastic Law Meets the Real World: A Monk’s Continuing Right to Inherit Property in Classical India.” History of Religions 35 (2): 101–123. ———. 1996. “The Lay Ownership of Monasteries and the Role of the Monk in Mu¯lasa¯ rva¯ stiva¯ din Monasticism.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 19 (1): 81–126. ———. 1997. Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy, and Texts of Monastic Buddhism in India. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. ———. 1999. “The Bones of a Buddha and the Business of a Monk: Conservative Monastic Values in an Early Maha¯ ya¯ na Polemical Tract.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 27 (4): 279–324. ———. 2004. Buddhist Monks and Business Matters: Still More Papers on Monastic Buddhism in India. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. ———. 2005. “Taking the Bodhisattva into Town: More Texts on the Image of ‘the Bodhisattva’ and Image Processions in the Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya.” East and West 55 (1–4): 299–311. Scott, David. 1991. “The Cultural Poetics of Eyesight in Sri Lanka.” Dialectical Anthropology 16:85–102. Sedgwick, P. H. 1999. The Market Economy and Christian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

bibliography

305

Senart, Emile, ed. 1977 (1882–1897). Le Maha¯vastu: texte sanscrit publié, pour la première fois et accompagné d’introductions et d’un commentaire. 3 volumes. Tokyo: Meicho-Fukyu-Kai. Shackleton Bailey, D. R. 1950. “Notes on the Divya¯vada¯na, part 1.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 161–184. ———. 1951. “Notes on the Divya¯vada¯na, part 2.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 82–102. Sharf, Robert H. 1995. “Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience.” Numen 42 (3): 228–283. Sharma, R. C. 1987. Gandhara Sculpture: Album of Art Treasures, series two. Calcutta: Indian Museum. Sharma, Sharmistha. 1975. “Meaning, Origin and the Development of the Avada¯ nas.” Buddhist Studies ( Journal of the Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi) 2:28–33. ———. 1985. Buddhist Avada¯nas: Socio-Political Economic and Cultural Study. Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers. ———. 1992. Astrological Lore in the Buddhist S´a¯rdu¯lakarn.a¯vada¯na. Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers. Shih, Hsio-Yen. 1993. “Readings and Re-Readings of Narrative in Dunhuang Murals.” Artibus Asiae 53 (1): 59–88. Shukla, N. S., ed. 1979. The Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dharmapada. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute. ´a¯ ntideva. Edtion. See Bendall 1897–1902. Translation: See Bendall S´iks. a¯samuccaya of S and Rouse 1971. Simmel, Georg. 1979. The Philosophy of Money. London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Sizemore, Russell F., and Donald K. Swearer, eds. 1992. Ethics, Wealth, and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Smith, Helmer, ed. 1959. The Khuddaka-Pa¯.tha Together with Its Commentary (Paramatthajotika¯ I ). London: Pali Text Society. Smith, John D. 1977. “The Singer or the Song? A Reassessment of Lord’s ‘Oral Theory.’” Man 12:141–153. Smith, Wilfred Cantwell. 1979. Faith and Belief. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Sontag, Susan. 1966. “Against Interpretation.” In Against Interpretation, and Other Essays, 3–14. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Southwold, Martin. 1979. “Religious Belief.” Man 14 (4): 628–644. Speyer, J. S. 1902. “Critical Remarks on the Text Divya¯ vada¯ na.” Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgänlandes 16:103–130, 340–361. ———, trans. 1906. Avada¯nas´ataka: A Century of Edifying Tales Belonging to the Hı¯naya¯na. St. Pétersbourg: Commissionnaires de l’Académie impériale des sciences. Spiro, Melford. 1970. Buddhism and Society. New York: Harper and Row. Srivatsin, R. 2000. Conditions of Visibility: Writings on Photography in Contemporary India. Calcutta: Stree Publishers.

306

bibliography

Steinthal, P., ed. 1885. Uda¯na. London: Pali Text Society. Stietencron, Heinrich von. 1977. “Orthodox Attitudes Towards Temple Service and Image Worship in Ancient India.” Central Asiatic Journal 21:126–138. Strathern, Marilyn. 1990. “Artefacts of History: Events and the Interpretation of Images.” In Culture and History in the Pacific, edited by Jukka Siikala, 25–44. Helsinki: Suomen Antropologinen Seura. Street, Brian V. 1984. Literacy in Theory and Practice. Cambridge Studies in Oral and Literate Culture, 9. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Strong, John. 1979a. “The Transforming Gift: An Analysis of Devotional Acts of Offering in Buddhist Avada¯ na Literature.” History of Religions 18:221–37. ———. 1979b. “The Legend of the Lion-Roarer: A Study of the Buddhist Arhat Pin.d.ola Bha¯ radva¯ ja.” Numen 26 (1): 50–88. ———. 1985. “The Buddhist Avada¯ nists and the Elder Upagupta.” In Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour of R. A. Stein, edited by Michel Strickmann. Mélanges chinois et bouddhiques, vol. 22, iii, 862–881. Brussels: Institut Belge des Hautes Études Chinoises. ———, trans. 1989. The Legend of King As´oka (As´oka¯vada¯na). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ———. 1990. “Rich Man, Poor Man, Bhikkhu, King: As´oka’s Great Quinquennial Festival and the Nature of Da¯na.” In Ethics, Wealth, and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics, edited by Russell F. Sizemore and Donald K. Swearer, 107–123. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. ———. 1992. The Legend and Cult of Upagupta: Sanskrit Buddhism in North India and Southeast Asia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ———. 1999. “Relics of Previous Buddhas: The Case of the Stu¯pa of Ka¯ ´ syapa at Toyika¯ .” Presented at the 12th Conference of the International Association of Buddhist Studies in Lausanne, Switzerland. ———. 2004. Relics of the Buddha. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Sukthankar, Vishnu S. et al., eds. 1933–1959. Maha¯bha¯rata. Pune: Bhandarkar Institute. Suleiman, Susan Rubin. 1993. Authoritarian Fictions: The Ideological Novel as a Literary Genre. 2nd edition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. . Sumangalavila¯sinı¯. Edition: See Rhys Davids, Carpenter, and Stede 1886–1932. Takahata, Kanga, ed. 1954. Ratnama¯la¯vada¯na. Oriental Library Series D, vol. 3. Tokyo: Toyo Bunko. Tatelman, Joel. 2000. The Glorious Deeds of Pu¯ rn. a: A Translation and Study of the Pu¯ rn. a¯vada¯na. Critical Studies in Buddhism, no. 9. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. ———, ed. and trans. 2005. The Heavenly Exploits: Buddhist Biographies from the Divya¯vada¯na, vol. 1. New York: New York University Press and JJC Foundation. Tatia, Nathmal, ed. 1976. Abhidharmasamuccayabha¯.sya. Tibetan-Sanskrit Works Series, no. 17. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute. Taylor, A. C., ed. 1894–1897. Katha¯vatthu. 2 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Taylor, Mark C. 1999. About Religion: Economies of Faith in Virtual Culture. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

bibliography

307

Teiser, Stephen F. 2006. Reinventing the Wheel: Paintings of Rebirth in Medieval Buddhist Temples. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Thapar, Romila. 1961. As´oka and the Decline of the Maurya. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tharchin, Sermey Geshe Lobsang, Judith Chiarelli, et al., trans. 1984. King Udrayana and the Wheel of Life (Rudra¯yan.a-avada¯na). Howell, NJ: Mahayana Sutra and Tantra Press. Theraga¯tha¯ and Therı¯ga¯tha¯. Edition: See Oldenberg and Pischel 1966. Translation: See Rhys Davids 1909 and Norman 1971. Theraga¯tha¯-at..thakatha¯ of Dhammapa¯ la [⫽ Paramatthadı¯panı¯ V ]. Edition: See Woodward 1940–1959. Thomas, E. J. 1933. “Avada¯ na and Apada¯ na.” Indian Historical Quarterly 9:32–36. ———. 1940. “Note on the Divya¯ vada¯ na.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 10:654–656. Thompson, E. P. 1971. “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century.” Past and Present 50 (1): 76–136. ———. 1991. Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture. New York: The New Press. Thu¯pavam . sa. Edition and Translation: See Jayawickrama 1971. Todorov, Tzvetan. 1990. Genres in Discourse. Translated by Catherine Porter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tomas, David. 1996. Transcultural Space and Transcultural Beings. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Trainor, Kevin. 1989. “Pasanna/pasa¯ da in the Pali Vam . sa Literature.” Vidyodaya Journal of Social Sciences 3:185–190. ———. 1997. Relics, Ritual, and Representation in Buddhism: Rematerializing the Sri Lankan Therava¯da Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Trenckner, Vilhelm, ed. 1880. The Milindapañho: Being Dialogues between King Milinda and the Buddhist Sage Na¯gasena. London: Williams and Norgate. ———, et al. 1924–. A Critical Pali Dictionary. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Society of Sciences and Letters. Trenckner, Vilhelm, and Robert Chalmers, eds. 1888–1889. The Majjhima Nika¯ya. London: Pali Text Society. Uberoi, Patricia. 1990. “Feminine Identity and National Ethos in Indian Calendar Art.” Economic and Political Weekly (Bombay), vol. 25, no. 17 (Apr 28 1990): WS41–WS48. Uda¯na. Edition: See Steinthal 1885. Translation: See Masefield 1994a. Uda¯na-at..thakatha¯ of Dhammapa¯ la [⫽ Paramatthadı¯panı¯ I ]. Edition: See Woodward 1926. Translation: See Masefield 1994b. Uda¯navarga. Edition: See Bernhard 1965. Upreti, Kalpana. 1995. India as Reflected in the Divya¯vada¯na. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. ¯ ti. Edition: See Kane 1962. Uttarara¯macarita of Bhavabhu Vaidya, P. L., ed. 1959. Divya¯vada¯na. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, no. 20. Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning.

308

bibliography

Vajiranana, Paravahera. 1975. Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice. 2nd edition. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society. Veyne, Paul. 1990. Bread and Circuses: Historical Sociology and Political Pluralism. Translated by Brian Pearce. London: Penguin Books. Vigarello, Georges. 1989. “The Upward Training of the Body from the Age of Chivalry to Courtly Civility.” In Fragments for a History of the Human Body, Part Two, edited by M. Feher, 148–197. New York: Zone Books. Vijayajinendrasurisvaraji. 1984. Naraki Citravali [Pictures of Hell]. Pictures by Pritamalala Harilala Trivedi. Lakhabavala-Santipuri, Gujarat: Sri Harshapushpamrta Jaina Granthamala. Vinayapit.aka. Edition: See Oldenberg 1879–1883. Translation: See Rhys Davids and Oldenberg 1987 and Horner 1969–1975. Vira, Raghu, and Lokesh Chandra, eds. 1995. Gilgit Buddhist Manuscripts. Revised and Enlarged Compact Facsmile Edition. Biblica Indo-Buddhica Series, nos. 150–152. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa. Edition: See Warren 1950. Translation: See Ña¯ n.amoli 1979. Vogel, Claus, and Klaus Wille. 1984. “Some Hitherto Unidentified Fragments of the Pravrajya¯ vastu Portion of the Vinayavastu Manuscript Found New Gilgit.” Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften Göttingen, Philologisch-Historische Klasse, 299–337. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. Wagner, Roy. 1986a. Asiwinarong: Ethos, Image, and Social Power among the Usen Barok of New Ireland. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ———. 1986b. Symbols that Stand for Themselves. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ———. 1991. “The Fractal Person.” In Big Men and Great Men: Personifications of Power in Melanesia, edited by Marilyn Strathern and Maurice Godelier, 159–173. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Waldschmidt, Ernst, ed. and trans. 1951. Das Maha¯parinirva¯n.asu¯tra. Abhandlungen der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. 3 volumes. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. ´ron.akot.ikarn.a-Legende.” In Vom Ceylon bis Turfan: Schriften zur ———. 1967a. “Zur S Geschichte, Literatur, Religion und Kunst des indischen Kulturraumes, 203–225. Göttingen: Vandenhoek and Ruprecht. ———. 1967b. “Der Buddha preist die Verehrungswürdigkeit seiner Reliquien. Sondertext I des Maha¯ parinirva¯ n.asu¯tra.” In Vom Ceylon bis Turfan: Schriften zur Geschichte, Literatur, Religion und Kunst des indischen Kulturraumes, 417–427. Göttingen: Vandenhoek and Ruprecht. Walleser, M., and H. Kopp, eds. 1924–1957. Manorathapu¯ra¯n.¯ı . 5 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Walsh, Michael J. 2007. “The Economics of Salvation: Toward a Theory of Exchange in Chinese Buddhism.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 75 (2): 353–382. Walshe, Maurice, trans. 1987. Thus Have I Heard: The Long Discourses of the Buddha (Dı¯gha-nika¯ya). London: Wisdom Publications.

bibliography

309

Walters, Jonathan. 1997. “Stu¯pa, Story, and Empire: Constructions of the Buddha Biography in Early Post-As´okan India.” In Sacred Biography in the Buddhist Traditions of South and Southeast Asia, edited by Juliane Schober, 160–192. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Wang, Eugene Y. 2005. Shaping the Lotus Sutra: Buddhist Visual Culture in Medieval China. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. Ware, James R. 1928. “Studies in the Divya¯ vada¯ na: I. Su¯karika¯vada¯na.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 48:159–165. ———. 1929. “Studies in the Divya¯ vada¯ na: II. Da¯na¯dhika¯ramaha¯ya¯nasu¯tra.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 49:40–51. ———. 1938. “The Preamble to the Sam . gharaks.ita¯ vada¯ na.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 3:47–67. Warren, H. C., ed. 1950. Visuddhimagga. Revised by Dharmananda Kosambi. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wayman, Alex. 1970. “The Buddhist Theory of Vision.” In Añjali—Papers on Indology and Buddhism: A Felicitation Volume Presented to Oliver Hecot DeAlwis Wijesekera, 27–32. Peradeniya: University of Ceylon. Reprinted in Buddhist Insight: Essays by Alex Wayman, edited by George R. Elder, 153–62. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984. Weeraratne, W. G. 1966. “Avada¯ na.” In Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. 2, edited by G. P. Malalasekera, 395–398. Colombo: Government Publications. Werbner, Pnina, and Helene Basu, eds. 1998. Embodying Charisma, Modernity, Locality and the Performance of Emotion in Sufi Cults. London and New York: Routledge. Wezler, A. 1997. “On the Gaining of Merit and the Incurring of Demerit through the Agency of Others: 1. Deeds by Proxy.” In Lex et Litterae: Studies in Honour of Professor Oscar Botto, edited by Siegfried Lienhard and Irma Piovano, 567–589. Torino: Edizioni dell ’Orso. White, J. E. 1983. “Is Buddhist Karmic Theory False?” Religious Studies 19 (2): 223–228. Wickramagamage, Chandra. 1984. “The Origin of the Buddha Image.” In Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa, edited by Gatare Dhammapala, Richard Gombrich, and K. R. Norman, 249–255. Nugegoda, Sri Lanka: Hammalava Saddhatissa Felicitation Volume Committee. Wille, Klaus. 2000. “Fragments of the As´oka Legend.” In Buddhist Manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection, vol. 1, edited by Jens Braarvig, Jens-Uwe Hartmann, Kazunobu Matsuda, and Lore Sander, 219–232. Oslo: Hermes Publishers. Williams, Linda. 1989. Hardcore: Power, Pleasure, and the “Frenzy of the Visible.” Berkeley: University of California Press. Wilson, Liz. 2003. “Beggars Can Be Choosers.” In Constituting Communities: Therava¯da Buddhism and the Religious Cultures of South and Southeast Asia, edited by John Clifford Holt, Jacob N. Kinnard, and Jonathan S. Walters, 57–70. Albany: State University of New York Press. Windisch, E., ed. 1975 (1889). Itivuttaka. London: Pali Text Society. Winternitz, Maurice. 1993. History of Indian Literature, vol. 2, part 1. Translated and revised by Bhaskara Jha. India: Bharatiya Vidya Prakasha. Original German edition published in Leipzig, 1913.

310

bibliography

Woodward, F. L., trans. 1948. Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, vol. II: Uda¯na (Verses of Uplift) and Itivuttaka (As It Was Said). London: Pali Text Society. ———, ed. 1926. Paramatthadı¯panı¯: Uda¯na-at..thakatha¯ (Uda¯na Commentary) of Dhammapa¯la¯cariya. London: Pali Text Society. ———, ed. 1940–1959. Paramatthadı¯panı¯: Theraga¯tha¯-at..thakatha¯ (Theraga¯tha¯ Commentary) of Dhammapa¯la¯cariya. 3 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Woodward, F. L., and E. M. Hare, trans. 1932–1936. The Book of Gradual Sayings . (Anguttara-nika¯ya). 5 volumes. London: Pali Text Society. Wu Hung. 1992a. “Reborn in Paradise: A Case Study of Dunhuang Sutra Painting and Its Religious, Ritual and Artistic Context.” Orientations: 52–60. ———. 1992b. “What Is Bianxiang? On the Relationship between Dunhuang Art and Dunhuang Literature.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 52 (1): 111–192. Yü, Chün-fang. 1981. The Renewal of Buddhism in China: Chu-hung and the Late Ming Synthesis. New York: Columbia University Press. Zarrilli, Phillip B. 1995. “Repositioning the Body, Practice, Power, and Self in an Indian Martial Art.” In Consuming Modernity: Public Culture in a South Asian World, edited by Carol A. Breckenridge, 183–215. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Zimmer, Heinrich. 1925. Karman, ein buddhistischer Legendenkranz. Munich: Bruckmann. Zizek, Slavoj. 2001. On Belief. London and New York: Routledge. Zwalf, W. 1996. A Catalogue of Gandha¯ra Sculpture in the British Museum. 2 volumes. London: British Musuem Press.

Index

Abe, Stanley, 273n14 Abhidharmakos´a, 43, 81, 223n11, 230n1, 246n64, 249n83 abhiva¯dana. See respectfully greeting agent of prasa¯da. See pra¯sa¯dika Agrawala, Vasudeva S., 190, 253n37 Ajanta, 163, 179, 181, 273n13, 275n33 Alabaster, Henry, 213n2 Allon, Mark, 188 Almond, Philip, 213n2 ancestors, 49, 51, 226n36, 227n50, 238n77 ancestral realm, 24, 27, 50, 226n36 . Anguttara-nika¯ya, 56, 262n6 anthropology of art, 5, 178, 249n92, 270n4 Appadurai, Arjun, 7, 110, 249n89 Apte, Vaman Shivaram, 115 Aronson, Harvey B., 211n25 Arthas´a¯stra, 12 as it really is. See yatha¯bhu¯ta ascetic practices, 132, 240n87, 242n12 ascetics, 27, 56, 67, 137, 238n77 asecanakadars´ana (sights one never tires of seeing), 72–73, 98, 140, 235n46

As´ma¯para¯ ntaka, 154–155, 263n16 As´oka cycle of stories, 20, 175, 264n23, 265n24 as a dharmara¯ja, 210n18 distribution of the Buddha’s relics, 200–201, 268n80, 268n84 pilgrimage, 20, 157–168, 192–194, 201 and Pin.d.ola, 266n56 prasa¯da of, 69, 99, 173–175, 244n43, 245n47–48, 265n31 rock edicts, 188 As´oka-avada¯na, 98, 128 As´okavarn.a-avada¯na, 105–106, 116, 148, 153 assigning the reward, 44–47, 49, 51–52. See also daks.in.a¯ Atherton, John, 279n3 Aung, S. Z., 219n43, 252n29 avada¯na literature, 18, 28, 137. See also As´oka-avada¯na; As´okavarn.aavada¯na; Avada¯nas´ataka; Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na; Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na; Candraprabhabodhisattvacarya¯¯ d.a¯paks.a-avada¯na; avada¯na; Cu

312

index

Dharmaruci-avada¯na; Divya¯vada¯na; Indrabra¯hman.a-avada¯na; Jyotis.kaavada¯na; Kanakavarn.a-avada¯na; Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na; Kuna¯la-avada¯na; Maitreya-avada¯na; Ma¯kandikaavada¯na; Ma¯ndha¯ta¯-avada¯na; Men.d.haka-avada¯na; Na¯gakuma¯raavada¯na; Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na; Pa¯m . ´suprada¯na-avada¯na; Pu¯rn.aavada¯na; Rudra¯yan.a-avada¯na; Ru¯pa¯vatı¯-avada¯na; Sahasodgata. avada¯na; Sangharaks.ita-avada¯na; Stutibra¯hman.a-avada¯na; Sudhanakuma¯ra-avada¯na; S´ukapotaka-avada¯na; Supriyaavada¯na; Sva¯gata-avada¯na; Toyika¯maha-avada¯na Avada¯nas´ataka, 66, 215n17, 231n6 awakening of the Buddha, 125, 163, 259n30 factors of, 58, 228n67 perfect, 69, 100, 163 as a solitary buddha, 8, 33, 65, 105, 106 spiritual, 59, 148, 246n54, 248n82 a¯ya¯cana. See praying Babb, Lawrence, 5, 249n89 Badaradvı¯pa, 42, 225n33 Bahri, Hardev, 272n34 Bailey, Greg, 212n34, 221n2 Bailey, Harold Walter, 209n3, 235n46, 254n47 Balasena, 40, 45–52, 133, 222n8 Banerjee, Ankul Chandra, 92 Banks, Marcus, 145 Bapat, P. V., 263n13 Barua, B. M., 210n19, 216n27 Baxandall, Michael, 189 Beal, Samuel, 271n6 Beaudoin, Tom, 279n4 Bechert, Heinz, 273n22 belief. See ´sraddha¯ Belting, Hans, 192, 271n9 Bendall, Cecil, 247n69 Bengal, 7, 210n9

Bennet, Peter, 249n89 Bentor, Yael, 251n26 Benveniste, Émile, 16, 215n23 Berger, John, 20 Bergson, Henri, 213n3 Berkwitz, Stephen C., 254n48 Berlant, Lauren, 261n52 bhakti as a kind of faith, 41, 46, 53 and karmic results, 42 as a mental state, 40–41, 245n47 as a practice, 40–41 and prasa¯da, 99 and ´sraddha¯, 18, 39–41, 43, 61, 245n46 Bharhut, 180, 273n15 Bhartr.hari, 12 ´ri Janaranjan, 209n3 Bhattacharya, S Bloomfield, Maurice, 216n24, 223n19 Bode, Mabel, 230n75 Bodhi, Bhikkhu, 214n12, 215n18, 216n31, 223n12, 228n60, 262n1, 262n4 bodhi tree, 69, 121, 161–165, 193, 268n84, 272n11 Borobudur, 4 Bourdieu, Pierre, 16–17, 110, 132–135, 249n86, 256n9 Brahma¯ , 40, 98, 168 Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na authority of seers in, 33–34, 37, 219n42 karmic results in, 83, 103, 145 prasa¯da in, 65, 69, 109, 261n45 Bra¯ hman.as, 60–61 brahmanical text, 12, 61, 226n36 bringing to mind the Buddha. See buddha¯nusmr.ti Brokaw, Cynthia, 10, 212n35 Brough, John, 209n1, 235n46 Brown, Norman, 236n56 Brown, Robert L., 179–183, 209n4, 273n13 Bryson, Norman, 275n32 Buddhacarita, 126, 188, 190 Buddhaghosa, 29, 120–121, 174. See also Visuddhimagga buddha¯nusmr.ti (bringing to mind the Buddha)

index as a basis for prasa¯da, 70 mental state, 56, 106–107 as a practice, 104, 142, 171–174, 184, 193–194, 222n5 Buck-Morss, Susan, 191, 273n17 Bundgaard, Helle, 209n5 Burgess, James, 276n33 Burlingame, Eugene Watson, 216n31, 223n12, 233n28, 236n56, 242n11, 262n3 Burma, 10–11, 243n20 Burnouf, Eugène, 220n55 Butler, Judith, 136 cakravartin king, 40, 101, 103, 105, 158, 166–167 cakravartin ideal, 265n25 Cakravartivya¯kr.ta-avada¯na, 69, 102–107, 118, 142, 171, 174 Candraprabhabodhisattvacarya¯-avada¯na, 99–100, 186, 210n19, 246n54, 248n82, 261n50 capital, 9, 58, 83, 143–145, 211n22. See also mu¯la Carter, James Ross, 216n27, 217n31 Case, Margaret, 209n5 Chaki, Jyotibhusan, 190 Chakravarti, Uma, 212n34 Chavannes, Edouard, 268n79 Ch’en, Kenneth, 232n17 Chidester, David, 190 China, 10, 125, 212n35, 273n14 Citta, 30, 42, 57 Clifford, James, 181–182 Cohen, Jean, 257n12 Collier, Nicholson T., 246n55 Collins, Steven, 185, 211n28, 214n12, 217n33, 264n21, 265n25, 265n26 colonialism, 5, 140, 273n19 commercial exchange, 77, 79–80, 198, 238n71, 238n77 compassion of the Buddha, 161, 165 of ordinary persons, 26, 31, 50, 110, 165 of solitary buddhas, 8–9, 87

313

Conze, Edward, 214n12 Coote, Jeremy, 179, 271n6 Cort, John E., 221n1 counter-gifts, 77, 80–83, 87, 109, 160, 238n76 Cousins, L. S., 264n21 Cowell, E. B. and R. A. Neil, 218n42, 229n72, 234n43, 258n26, 259n30, 265n31, 265n40, 267n77, 277n44, 277n50 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi, 259n32 Cu¯d.a¯paks. a-avada¯na, 86, 187, 211n22, 234n44, 248n79 Cutler, Norman, 221n1 daks.in.a¯, 44–45, 52–61, 214n4, 226n36. See also assigning the reward Dalmia, Yashodhara, 209n5 da¯na (giving), 10, 18, 58, 65, 100, 246n56 Da¯na¯dhikaran.a-maha¯ya¯nasu¯tra, 58, 83, 85, 94 dars´ana (seeing) as a basis for prasa¯da, 65, 110–111, 118, 164–165 from the Buddha, 278n54 images as a source of, 177, 179, 184 as a practice, 5 Das Gupta, Mrinal, 29, 221n2, 223n19 Davis, Richard, 270n5 Dayal, Har, 216n27 de Certeau, Michel, 15, 16 Dehejia, Vidya, 179–180, 272n11, 273n15, 274n23 DeLillo, Don, 3 Demiéville, Paul, 262n7 Dening, Greg, 189n2 Derrida, Jacques, 227n55 Derris, Karen Anne, 244n40 Desjarlais, Robert R., 209n5 Dhadphale, M. G., 230n1 dhamma, 56, 151, 156, 211–212n29, 216n29, 217n32, 236–237n58, 262n4. See also dharma Dhammapada, 216–217n31, 220–221n56, 234–235n46

314

index

Dhammapada-at..thakatha¯, 91–92, 120, 122, 216–217n31, 223n12, 233n28, 242n11, 262n3, 262n6 Dhammapala, Gatare, 216n26 dharma and As´oka, 158, 167–168 Buddhist, 25, 30–31, 36, 45, 59–60, 68–70, 75, 81, 93, 152–155 as duty, 12 embodied, 69 kingly, 8–9, 158 lay, 7 object of refuge, 146 phenomena, 87 as truth, 53 Dharmaguptaka, 123, 253n38, 264n16 dharmaka¯ya (dharmic form), 152–157, 162, 169, 192–193, 268n80 Dharmapada, 112, 220–221n56, 234–235n46 dharmara¯ja, 167, 210n19 dharmara¯jika, 167–168, 193, 267n75, 268n80 Dharmaruci-avada¯na, 40–41, 227n47, 235n47, 239n78 dharmata¯ (law of nature), 72, 97, 104 dharmic form. See dharmaka¯ya Dha¯tuvam . sa, 127–128 Dı¯gha-nika¯ya, 219n43 discursive strategies of texts, 17, 28 engagement with phenomena 140–142, 199 narrative images, 182–84, 275n32 See also figural Divya¯vada¯na contents, 203–204 economies of, 197–198 as karma stories, 28 and mercantilism, 12–14 status as a text, 3–6 See also avada¯ na literature Doniger, Wendy, 12, 249n90, 250n7 Dunne, John D., 146, 249n84, 261n48–49

Dutt, Nalinaksha, 43 Dwyer, Rachael, 209n5 Eck, Diana, 5 Eckel, Malcolm David, 5, 237n65 economy, 7, 16, 19, 240n89, 278n53. See also capital moral, 6, 7, 11, 16, 147, 197–198. See also merit, economy of visual, 6, 200, 260n32 Edgerton, Franklin, 48, 76, 81, 224n32 Egge, James, 223n22, epistemology, 4, 18, 55, 62 Ergardt, Jan T., 216n29 Erndl, Kathleen M., 249n89 Ernout, A., 216n23 ethics ideals of, 158, 197 and prasa¯da, 15, 17, 19, 111, 147–148, 213n39 and ´sraddha¯, 15, 17, 62, 213n39 Fabian, Johannes, 278n55 faith. See ´sraddha¯ Falk, Harry, 188 Faure, Bernard, 15–17, 249n92, 270n3 Féer, Léon, 231n6 fervent aspiration (pran.idha¯na) importance of, 106 improper, 26, 214n9 as a result of offerings, 9, 11, 48, 58, 83–84, 100–102, 119, 211n23, 228n70 as a result of seeing miracles, 68, 87, 231n6, 233n26 field of merit (pun.yaks.etra) object offered, 69 place of moral action, 121, 146, 164 recipient of moral action, 9, 97, 211n23, 237n58 figural engagement with phenomena, 139–42 narrative images, 182–185, 275n32 See also discursive Filliozat, J., 223n22 Finnegan, Ruth, 278n55

index Fitzgerald, James L., 212n30 Fontein, Jan, 4 Forge, Anthony, 274n22 Foucher, Alfred, 276n33 four assemblies, 32 Frank, Thomas, 213n40 Freedberg, David, 6, 139, 173, 271n5, 274n20, 274n22 Gandha¯ ra, 178, 184, 270n1, 273n15, 275n29, 276n33 Geiger, Wilhelm, 243n20 Gell, Alfred, 5, 132, 200, 238n72, 240n89, 249n92, 270n4 Gellner, David N., 228n58 Gernet, Jacques, 212n35 Gethin, Rupert, 29–30, 42, 55, 61, 66 gift exchange, 77–81, 238n73 giving. See da¯na Godelier, Maurice, 77–81, 238n75–76 Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind, 216n27 Gold, Ann Grodzins, 227n50 gold standard of the karmic system, 18, 57, 143, 197–198 and merit, 11 of money, 59, 197–198, 279n2 as a system of knowledge, 228n66 Gombrich, Richard, 211n21, 252n29 Gomez, Luis, 9, 241n100 Gonda, Jan, 5 Goodman, Nelson, 55 Goody, Jack, 188–189 Gorky, Maxim, 139 Graetz, Heinrich, 190 Granoff, Phyllis, 275n27 Greenough, Paul, 7, 210n9 Gregory, Christopher, 238n70 Griffiths, Paul, 109, 213n2 Guenther, Herbert V., 216n27, 249n84, 261n47–48 Guha-Thakurta, Tapati, 209n5 Gunawardana, R. A. L. H., 144 Gupta, Mahendranath, 183 Gupta period, 14 Gutman, Judith Mara, 209n5

315

Haberman, David, 221n1 Hacker, Paul, 60–61 Hallisey, Charles, 202, 261n42 Handurukande, Ratna, 243n32, 255n53, 271n6 Hara, Minoru, 43–44, 216n25, 217n31, 221n2 Harrison, Paul, 104, 174, 189, 222n7, 261n42 Härtel, Herbert 276n33 Hartmann, Jens-Uwe, 261n50 Harvey, Peter, 249n93 Hayley, Audrey, 249n89 Heitzman, James, 212n34 heterodoxy, 39 Hibbets, Maria, 216n27 Hibbitts, Bernard J., 191 Hinduism bhakti in, 44, 260n36 dars´ana in, 238n72 prasa¯da in, 111, 249n89 ´sraddha¯ in, 29, 216n25 trivarga of, 12 Hinüber, Oskar von, 254n47, 276n36 Hirakawa, Akira, 247n74, 273n15 Hocart, A.M., 253n39 Hoffman, Frank, 230n2 Holt, John Clifford, 271n8 Horner, I. B., 209n3, 252n27, 268n80 Huntington, C. W., 212n36 Huntington, Susan, 274n23 Hurvitz, Leon, 222n7 image-text, 71, 142, 160 impermanence, 151, 169 indirect object, 18, 42, 53, 152 Indra, 40, 71, 98, 123, 131 Indrabra¯hman.a-avada¯na, 86, 114, 123, 230n3 Ingholt, Harald, 273n15, 276n33 instrument of knowledge, 18, 256n9 interdependent arising (pratı¯tyasamutpa¯da), 146, 239n78 Irvine, Judith, 249n85

316

index

Jain, Kajri, 209n5 Jaini, Padmanabh S., 4–5, 209n3, 271n6 Jainism, 14, 145, 246n56 Jambudvı¯pa, 8–9, 24–26, 31–32, 36, 44–45, 167, 229n71 Janet, Pierre, 16 Japan, 16, 111, 275n29 ja¯takas, 147, 179–180, 270 Jay, Martin, 189, 200, 213n3 Jayatilleke, K. N., 29–30, 55, 216n27, 217n32, 230n1, 230n2 Jayawickrama, N. A., 254n48 Jhala, Jayasinhji, 209n5 Johnson, Richard, 256n6 Jyotis.ka, 59, 71, 72, 228n70, 233n28, 276n33 Jyotis.ka-avada¯na, 34, 69, 71, 220n46, 228n70, 276n33 Kakar, Sudhir, 12 Ka¯ lika, 159–161, 181, 194, 268n84 Ka¯masu¯tra, 12 kamma, 11, 219n43. See also karma kammatic Buddhism, 10, 147, 211n25. See also nibbanic Buddhism Kanakavarn.a, 8, 9, 59 Kanakavarn.a-avada¯na, 8–9, 148 Kane, P. V., 138, 226n36 Kantian aesthetics, 56, 140, 177, 228n59 Kapilavastu, 95, 159 Kapur, Anuradha, 209n5 karma and bhakti, 42 in the Bra¯hman.ada¯rika¯-avada¯na, 83, 103, 145 gold standard of, 18, 57, 143, 197–198 in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, 26, 48, 53–54, 60–62 logic of, 59–60, 215n17 materialism of, 13, 18, 59, 197 in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, 89, 91–92, 100–101, 144 and suffering, 19, 25, 36, 103, 148 See also kamma ka¯rs. a¯pan.a coins, 13, 71, 76, 79

Kassapa, 91–92. See also Ka¯ ´ syapa Ka¯ ´ syapa as an agent of prasa¯da, 67, 84–85, 90–92, 100–103, 144 Buddha Ka¯ ´ syapa, 233n28 remains of, 69, 114–125, 143 stu¯pa for, 48, 69, 84, 124, 162, 250n13, 253n35, 253n37 See also Kassapa Kaza, Stephanie, 279n4 Kemper, Stephen, 209n5 Keenan, John, 249n91 Kern, H., 252n31 Khare, R. S., 249n89 Khotanese, 4, 126, 209n3 Kinnard, Jacob, 252n32, 272n11 Kirn, Walter, 278n56 Klima, Alan, 198 Kloetzli, W. Randolph, 246n64 Knipe, David, 227n50 Köhler, Hans-Werbin, 218n23–24 Kosambi, D. D., 212n31 Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na “assigning the reward” in, 45–46, 49, 51 in contrast to other stories, 215n21, 222n8, 226n36, 230n3, 239n78, 264n22 and the gold standard, 57–60, 198 and prasa¯da, 67, 69, 73, 84, 253n38 karmic results in, 26, 48, 53–54, 60–62 seeing the Buddha in, 153–158 ´sraddha¯ and belief in, 35–36, 133 ´sraddha¯ and seeing in, 18, 30–35, 165 ´sraddha¯ in speech in, 40–43 Kubera, 40–41 Kuhn, Annette, 135 Kulick, Don, 278n55 Kuna¯la-avada¯na, 69, 121, 157–158, 264n23 kus´alamu¯la. See root of virtue Kus. a¯ n.a period, 13–14, 178, 270n1 Lamotte, Étienne, 69, 188, 275n29 Lancaster, Lewis, 271n6

index La Vallée Poussin, Louis de, 230n1 law of nature. See dharmata¯ lay disciple, 40–41, 116–119, 123, 222n5 Legge, James, 253n33 Lenz, Timothy, 209n2 Lévi, Sylvain, 263n13, 264n15, n22 Lewis, Todd, 255n53 liberation in Hinduism, 131 prasa¯da as a means for, 19, 231n7, 239n77 as result of roots of virtue, 171 See also nirva¯n.a literacy, 186–189, 276n43, 278n55 Liu, Xinru, 144 logic of giving, 16, 60–62, 66, 89, 97, 99, 110 Long, D. Stephen, 279n3 Lopez, Donald, 15, 190, 276n37 Loy, David, 279n3 Lüders, Heinrich, 254n47 Ludowyk-Gyomroi, Edith, 41, 66, 216n27, 231n4, 262n6 Lutgendorf, Philip, 260n36 MacGregor, Geddes, 213n38 MacKinnon, Catherine, 134–136, 200, 257n10 Magha, 41–42 Maha¯ kacca¯ na, 156. See also Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana Maha¯ ka¯ ´ syapa. See Ka¯ ´ syapa Maha¯ ka¯ tya¯ yana as agent of prasa¯da, 103 in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, 60–61, 25–27, 31–32, 45–46, 51, 57, 112, 153–155, 264n22 in the Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na, 67 See also Maha¯ kacca¯ na Maha¯ maudgalya¯yana, 32–34, 162 Maha¯ ya¯ na, 107, 186–190, 195, 276n37 mahes´a¯khya (very powerful), 48, 224n32, 225n33 Mahmood, Saba, 213n39 Mair, Victor, 275n28

317

Maitreya-avada¯na, 69, 101–102, 222n8, 251n21 Majjhima-nika¯ya, 74, 216n29 Majmudar, N. G., 276n33 Ma¯kandika-avada¯na, 67–69, 137–139, 254n46, 277n50 making use of (paribhoga), 119–121, 252n28, 252n29 Malasekara, G. P., 264n22 Ma¯ndha¯ta¯-avada¯na, 70, 73, 83, 235n47 Mankekar, Purnima, 209n5 Manusmr.ti, 12, 115 Ma¯ ra conquered by the Buddha, 164 impersonation of the Buddha, 158, 193–194, 270n104, 272n10 with Upagupta, 86, 168–174, 245n47 market morality. See morality, market marks of a buddha or great man eighty minor, 114, 141, 232n17 thirty-two major, 73, 114, 141, 232n17 Marouzeau, Jules, 190 Marriott, McKim, 249n89 Marx, Karl, 16, 200 Masefield, Peter, 215n21, 242n11, 264n17 materialism, 13 karmic, 13, 18, 59, 197 visual, 30, 59 Mathura¯ , 170–171, 178 Matsumura, Hisashi, 209n4 Maudgalya¯ yana. See Maha¯ maudgalya¯ yana Mauss, Marcel, 81–82, 145, 238n75 Mazzarella, William, 209n5 McDermottt, James P., 249n84 McFarlane, Stewart, 249n91 McMahan, David, 185–188, 195 meditation of buddhas, 95, 104, 107, 155, 184 monastic, 43, 86, 104, 211n25 not prominent in lay Buddhism, 3, 5, 112, 145 relationship to ´sraddha¯, 56, 74 See also buddha¯nusmr.ti Meister, Michael, 177–180, 183 Men.d.haka-avada¯na, 68, 211n23, 245n49

318

index

merchants exempted from taxes, 8 and gift exchange, 78–80 prominence in Divya¯vada¯na, 12–14 reciting the Buddha’s words, 263n15 satisfaction with money, 229n71 ¯ rn.a, 40–41 saved by Pu values of, 212n34 merit (pun.ya) assigning of, 52, 77, 82, 97 as capital, 58, 83, 143–45, 211n22 economy of, 9–13, 18, 23, 48–49, 84, 97, 117, 143, 197. See also economy, moral and power, 47–48 and prasa¯da, 95–96, 103, 108, 110, 143 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 19 Miller, Vincent J., 279n4 Mirashi, Vasudev Vishnu, 263n16 Mishra, Kameshwar Nath, 277n52 Mitchell, W. J. T., 71, 142, 213n3 Mitra, Rajendralal, 263n11 Moerman, D. Max, 275n29 monuments, 20, 167, 177–185, 194, 272n10 morality, 3–20, 23, 158, 183, 179, 197–202, 229n71 market, 7, 10, 17, 23, 197 moral capital, 58. See also capital; economy, moral; merit, as capital moral code, 25, 27, 60, 214n7, 214n12 moral economy. See economy, moral Morgan, David, 270n3, 272n10 mortuary practices, 124–125, 128 Mount (Su)meru, 87, 143, 232n17 Mrozik, Susanne Petra, 147, 244n40 Mukhopadhyaya, Sujitkumar, 171, 264n23, 265n31, 267n69, 267n72, 269n95, 269n100 mu¯la, 9, 83 as capital, 9, 58, 83, 143–145, 211n22 See also root of virtue Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya as a legal text, 134 “merit resulting from use” in, 121

parallels with Divya¯vada¯na, 56–57, 156 prasa¯da in, 245n49 private property in, 78 silence in, 224n29 ´sraddha¯ in, 57 Mu¯lasarva¯ stiva¯dins, 4, 67, 77, 92, 155, 253n38, 263n16, 273n13 Munn, Nancy, 274n20 Na¯gakuma¯ra-avada¯na, 86, 248n82, 251n21 Nagar, Shanti Lal, 270n1 Nagara¯valambika¯-avada¯na karmic results in, 89, 91–92, 100–101, 144 monastic practices in, 103–104 prasa¯da in, 67, 84, 109, 118–119, 139, 148, 245n49, 252n28 Ña¯ n.amoli, Bhikkhu, 216n27, 236n54 Narayan, Kirin, 257n12 Nelson, Robert H., 279n3 narrative art, 4, 179, 184, 271n7, 271n8, 273n15 narrative images, 180, 183, 184, 271n8, 273n13, 273n16 Na¯ taputta, 30, 42 Neil, R. A. See Cowell, E. B. and R. A. Neil next world inhabitants of, 46, 224n31 karmic results in, 191 Kot. ikarn.a in, 31–35, 44, 48, 53, 57 . Sangharaks. ita in, 37 inefficacy of compassion in, 50 nibba¯na, 6, 125, 216n29, 216n31, 231n7, 237n58. See also nirva¯n.a nibbanic Buddhism, 10, 211n25. See also kammatic Buddhism . nika¯yas, 230n2. See also Anguttaranika¯ya; Dı¯gha-nika¯ya; Majjhimanika¯ya; Sam . yutta-nika¯ya nirva¯ n.a Buddha’s final, 19–20, 124, 126, 161 distribution of Buddha’s relics after, 95–96, 127 as extinguishing of karma, 103

index longing for, 147 offerings to the Buddha after, 174, 177, 200, 245n47 seeing the Buddha after, 153, 157–158, 166–170, 192–194 See also liberation; nibba¯na Nı¯tis´ataka, 12 non-Buddhist practitioners, 57, 91, 209n7, 232n17 nonreturner, 36, 69, 152, 171, 221n57 Norman, K. R., 42, 230n75, 235n46 nymphs, 24–27, 67, 132, 214n12 O’Hanlon, Michael, 273n19 Oguibenine, B., 223n22 Ohnuma, Reiko, 100, 241n99 Oldenberg, H., 45, 61, 242n20, 264n17, 264n21 Olivelle, Patrick, 219n42 once-returner, 171, 221n57 Ong, Walter, 189, 278n55 Östör, Ákos, 249n89 Otkarika, 83 Pa¯m . ´suprada¯na-avada¯na, 86, 158, 245n46, 271n10 paribhoga. See making use of Park, Sung Bae, 217n32 Parry, Jonathan, 188, 226n36, 257n12 pasa¯da, 66–67, 125, 127–128, 230n1, 230n2, 231n5, 231n7, 236n58, 254n48, 255n52, 262n3. See also prasa¯da pa¯sa¯dika, 68, 156. See also pra¯sa¯dika path (Buddhist) and visual practices, 2 and prasa¯da, 19, 147–148, 153, 231n7 and ´sraddha¯, 221n57 and wealth, 59 Payutto, Prayudh, 211n27, 216n28 Pelikan, Jaroslav, 15 Pendse, G. S., 216n24, 216n27 physical form. See ru¯paka¯ya pilgrimage of As´oka, 157–163, 168, 192–194

319

for prasa¯da, 112, 118, 174–175 to shrines, 121, 124 Pin.d.ola Bharadva¯ ja, 158, 164–167, 181, 233n28, 268n79 Pinkney, Andrea, 213n42, 249n89 Pinney, Christopher, 130–131, 140, 183, 201, 209n6 Pollock, Sheldon, 188, 255n3, 274n27, 278n53 Poole, Deborah, 6 pornography, 132–135, 140–141, 200, 257n10 Prakash, Shyam, 209n2 pran.idha¯na. See fervent aspiration prasa¯da of As´oka, 69, 99, 173–175, 244n43, 245n47, 265n31 and bhakti, 99 and buddha¯nusmr.ti, 70 and dars´ana, 65, 110, 118, 164–165 and ethics, 15, 17, 19, 111, 147–148, 213n39 in Hinduism, 111, 249n89 in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, 67, 69, 73, 84, 253n38 and liberation, 19, 231n7, 239n77 and merit, 95–96, 103, 108, 110, 143 pilgrimage for, 112, 118, 174–175 in relics, 127–128 and ritual, 114, 118–119, 128 as a root of virtue, 87, 146 in shrines, 117, 119, 128, 130, 134, 147 in solitary buddhas, 68, 72, 87, 94, 109, 165, 231n6 in stu¯pas, 73, 84, 128, 146 in the Toyika¯ story, 124–128, 130, 134, 137, 144, 157 See also pasa¯da pra¯sa¯dika (agent of prasa¯da), 66–70 as attractive, 67–68, 137, 260n34 efficacy of, 111–112, 134, 136–137, 200 gifts from, 81–82 interaction with, 129–130, 134, 174 proximity to, 125 as visual object, 68, 76, 140, 142, 201 See also pa¯sa¯dika

320

index

Prasenajit, King, 74, 92–103, 116, 118, 124, 134, 144, 249n78 Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra, 69, 74, 96, 209n7, 233n29, 259n27 pratı¯tyasamutpa¯da. See interdependent arising pratyaks.a (right before one’s eyes), 33–34, 90, 92, 221n57 praying (a¯ya¯cana), 40–41 Puggalapaññatti-at..thakatha¯, 230n1 Pun.d.avardhana, 164, 166 pun.ya. See merit pun.yaks.etra. See field of merit Pu¯rn.a-avada¯na, 41, 59, 116, 152–153, 231n6, 263n15, 264n22 Pynchon, Thomas, 255n5 Raducha, Joan Anastasia, 279n1 Rahula, Walpola, 10, 243n20 rainy season, 78, 95, 164, 187, 262n3 Rajagopal, Arvind, 209n5 Ramanujan, A. K., 199, 202 Ra¯ma¯yan.a, 260n36, 276n35 Rao, K. L. Seshagiri, 29 Ratnadvı¯pa, 12, 24, 28, 35 Ray, Reginald, 188, 240n87, 278n54 realms of existence, 32–33, 218n39 rebirth, 28, 40, 102, 106, 211n25 bad, 33, 48, 60 good, 13, 26, 47, 76, 80, 85–86, 103, 126, 147 refuge in the Buddha, 41 in the three jewels, 74, 231n7, 233n29, 236n54, 236n55, 239n77 prasa¯da as, 148 relics of the Buddha, 20, 95–96, 167 as functionally equivalent to a living buddha, 124–126, 164, 255n51, 272n11 of Ka¯´ syapa, 250n13 prasa¯da and, 127–128 in shrines, 121

respectfully greeting (abhiva¯dana), 115. See also venerating (vandana) Reynolds, Frank, 211n28, 262n7, 265n25 Rhys Davids, C. A. F., 219n43, 224n32, 231n5 right before one’s eyes. See pratyaks.a ritual contemporary, 130 during the Buddha’s final nirva¯n.a, 177 efficacy of, 120, 122–123, 125, 178 and prasa¯da, 114, 118–119, 128 and proximity, 115–116 and wealth, 58 Robbins, Joel, 147 Rongxi, Li, 253n33 root of virtue (kus´alamu¯la) as capital, 11, 58, 83–84, 87 offerings as, 8, 83, 95–96, 102, 241n100 prasa¯da as, 87, 146 See also merit; mu¯la Rotman, Andy, 4, 106, 212n32, 213n41, 250n1 Roy, Sitaram, 277n49 Rudra¯yan.a-avada¯na, 73–74, 218n39, 271n6 Ruegg, David Seyfort, 237n65 ru¯paka¯ya (physical form), 73, 141, 152–158, 168–169, 172–174, 192–194, 215n17 Ru¯pa¯vatı¯-avada¯na, 186 Ryan, James, 209n5 sacrifice, 26, 45, 100, 261n50 saddha¯, 29–30, 42–43, 61, 73, 125, 215n21, 216n28, 216–217n31, 217n32, 223n12, 229–230n75, 230n2, 262n3, 262n6. See also ´sraddha¯ Saddhatissa, H., 111 Sahasodgata-avada¯na authority of seers in, 34–35 karmic results in, 87, 252n30 literacy in, 276n43 prasa¯da, 239n77 prasa¯da and giving, 75–80, 100 prasa¯da and refuge, 236n55, 238n77

index ´sraddha¯ and seeing, 100 ´sraddha¯ in speech, 54, 183–184, 201 Sahlins, Marshall, 238n76 Saibaba, V. V. S., 6 ´akra S and King Prasenajit, 100–101, 103, 248n78 making offerings, 90–92, 95, 242n12 Salomon, Richard, 209n2 sam . sa¯ ra, 19, 103–106, 247n69, 249n83 Samtani, N. H., 232n17 Sam . yutta-nika¯ya, 30, 151–152, 217n31, 223n12, 223n18, 262n4 Sanchi, 163, 181, 194 sandalwood, 123, 230n3, 233n28, 271n6 Sanford, A. Whitney, 209n5 . Sangharaks.ita-avada¯na, 36–37, 62, 73, 140, 220n56 ´a¯ riputra, 95, 161–162, 266n42 S Sarkar, Sadhanchandra, 209n2 Sarnath, 163, 181, 194 ´ sa¯ stra, 12, 29, 258n25 Sastri, Nilakantha, 277n49 S´ayana¯sanavastu, 77, 80 Schiefner, F. Anton von, 209n3 Schopen, Gregory on “assigning the reward,” 45, 52 on the origins of the Maha¯ya¯na, 189–190 on prasa¯da, 76–78, 81–82, 124–127 on shrines, 119–121, 227n54, 247n74, 252n31, 253n38, 273n13 Scott, David, 209n5 Sedgwick, P.H., 279n3 seeing. See dars´ana seeing-prasa¯da-giving-prediction typology, 65–70, 75, 81–82, 87 Shackleton Bailey, D. R., 218n41–42, 234n41, 234n43, 253n36 Sharf, Robert H., 249n91 Sharma, Sharmistha, 209n2 Shih, Hsio-Yen, 274n21 shrines and avada¯nas, 255n53 construction of, 159–162, 168, 174, 193

321

definition of, 120–121, 252n31, 252n32 offerings to, 123, 127, 143, 266n50 pilgrimage to, 125, 175 and prasa¯da, 117, 119, 128, 130, 134, 147 sights one never tires of seeing. See asecanakadars´ana S´iks. a¯samuccaya, 107 ´iva, 40–41, 111 S Sizemore, Russell, 11 skillful way (upa¯ya), 114–115 Smith, John D., 257n12 Smith, Wilfred Campbell, 213n38, 216n25 solitary buddha As´okavarn.a, 105–106 awakening as, 8–10 as a field of merit, 211n23 miracles of, 108, 233n26 and prasa¯da, 68, 72, 87, 94, 109, 165, 231n6 Stava¯rho, 65 Supran.ihita, 65 Sontag, Susan, 140, 260n35, 278n57 Southwold, Martin, 213n38 Speyer, J. S., 258n26, 259n28 Spiro, Melford, 10–11, 147 ´sraddha¯ and bhakti, 18, 39–41, 43, 61, 245n46 and buddha¯nusmr.ti, 56, 106–107 definition of, 29 and ethics, 15, 17, 62, 213n39 in Hinduism, 29, 216n25 in the Kot.ikarn.a-avada¯na, 18, 30–36, 40–43, 133, 165 and meditation, 56, 74 in the Sahasodgata-avada¯na, 54, 100, 183–184, 201 See also ´saddha¯ ´ra¯ vastı¯, 90, 94, 154, 164, 166, 181, S 240n85 Sri Lanka, 10, 144, 231n7 Srivatsin, R., 209n5 Strathern, Marilyn, 199 stream-enterer, 86, 123, 152, 171, 221n57 Street, Brian V., 278n55

322

index

Strong, John on devotion to images, 173 on dharmara¯jas, 167 on kammatic vs. nibbanic Buddhism, 211n25 on karmic results, 211n23, 215n17 on miracles, 263n11, 268n80 on seeing the Buddha, 153, 157, 253n32 on the cults of previous buddhas, 122–123, 253n34 ¯ pas stu As´oka and, 98, 162–163, 173, 200, 268n80 for Ka¯´ s yapa, 69, 123–124, 253n38 Maha¯thu¯pa, 127 of a buddha, 102–104, 157, 272n11 prasa¯da in, 73, 84, 128, 146 as recipients of offerings, 48, 84, 180 veneration of, 104–108, 127, 273n15 Stutibra¯hman.a-avada¯na, 65, 70, 83, 103, 153 subaltern, 19, 134 Sudhanakuma¯ra-avada¯na, 4 suffering of animals, 50 freedom from, 86, 151 of hungry ghosts, 51 karmic results and, 19, 25, 36, 103, 148 of persons, 90, 93, 101 to escape from future, 13, 91–92, 97 S´ukapotaka-avada¯na, 67 Suleiman, Susan, 136–137, 257n12 Supriya-avada¯na, 41–42, 67, 212n33, 225n33, 229n71, 275n31 su¯tras, 4, 190, 233n29 Arthavargı¯ya Su¯tras, 154 Da¯na¯dhikaran.a-maha¯ya¯nasu¯tra, 58, 83, 85, 94, 96 Dharmasam . gı¯ti-su¯tra, 107 Gan.d.avyu¯ha-su¯tra, 186 Ka¯masûtra, 12 Lotus Su¯tra, 190, 222n7, 278n58 Maha¯parinirva¯n.a-su¯tra, 125, 126 Nagaropama-su¯tra, 36 Pradaks. in.a-su¯tra, 126

Pra¯tiha¯rya-su¯tra, 69, 74, 209n7, 233n29, 259n27 Pra¯timoks. a-su¯tra, 92 Sva¯gata-avada¯na, 286, 232n17, 232n26 Swearer, Donald, 11 Takahata, Kanga, 18 Tambapan.n.idı¯pa, 127, 128 Tatelman, Joel, 263n15 tatha¯ gata buddha as, 90, 102, 104–106, 125, 260n40 offerings for, 62, 82, 112, 154 prasa¯da in, 87, 106, 169 ´sraddha¯ in, 217n32 as unsurpassed, 75, 102, 236n58 Vipas´yin, 228n70 Taylor, Mark C., 197 Teiser, Stephen, 218n39 Thapar, Romila, 210n19 Tharchin, Sermey Geshe Lobsang, 218n39 Therava¯da, 6, 186, 231n7, 253n38, 271n8 Thomas, E. J., 209n2, 258n26 Thompson, E. P., 7, 10, 210n8 ¯ pavam Thu . sa, 127–128, 254n48 Tomas, David, 178 Toyika¯ ¯ nanda in, 114 A prasa¯da and, 124–128, 130, 134, 137, 144, 157 and ritual action, 115, 119, 123 as a sacred place, 120–122, 166, 168 stu¯pa in, 124, 253n38 Toyika¯maha-avada¯na, 114–116, 123 Trainor, Kevin, 127–128, 231n4, 231n7, 255n52, 262n3 Tra¯ yastrim sa, 61, 83, 94, 105, 164, .´ 166 Tus. ita, 85, 90, 105, 144 Uberoi, Patricia, 209n5 Uda¯na-at..thakatha¯, 91–92, 215n21, 242n11 Udayana, 69, 86, 254n46, 271n6

index Upagupta and As´oka, 121, 157–163, 168, 183, 201, 266n42 and Ma¯ ra, 86, 168–174, 193, 245n47, 269n97 seeing the Buddha, 193, 270n104 Upanis.ads, 53, 61, 218n42 upa¯ya. See skillful way Upreti, Kalpana, 13–14 Uttarara¯macarita, 182–185 Vaidya, P. L., 269n95, 270n104 Vajiranana, Paravahera, 174 Vakkali(n) looking at the Buddha, 73–74, 151, 155–156, 223n12, 262n3 and prasa¯da, 116, 152 and ´sraddha¯, 43, 73–74, 152 vandana. See venerating Va¯ ra¯ n.ası¯, 70, 86, 180, 253n38 Varun.a, 40–41 Va¯ sava king, 101–102 village, 26, 35, 49, 224n26 Vedas, 29, 44, 45, 187, 216n23, 216n24 venerating (vandana) buddhas, 80, 114–115, 122, 124, 253n34, 271n6 definition, 115–116, 118 images, 20, 193 monks, 158 object of, 171–174 relics, 128 ¯ pas, 107, 273n15 stu See also respectfully greeting (abhiva¯dana) very powerful. See mahes´a¯khya Veyne, Paul, 144 Vigarello, Georges, 256n7 Vijayajinendrasurisvaraji, 278n59 vinaya, 4, 123, 156, 161, 191, 264n16 Pali, 68, 155–156, 188, 242n20 See also Mu¯lasarva¯stiva¯da-vinaya Vira, Raghu, 261n50 visual confirmation, 18, 53–54, 201

323

culture, 6, 30, 59, 188, 189 economy. See economy, visual object, 6, 18, 136, 157, 178, 190, 192 practices, 3, 6, 132, 140, 256n6 systems, 5, 200 world, 19, 30, 152, 153, 185, 192, 200 Visuddhimagga, 29, 174, 220n43, 242n11, 261n42 Vogel, Claus, 223n24 Wagner, Roy, 199–200 Waldschmidt, Ernst, 126, 264n16 Walters, Jonathan, 128, 183, 272n11–12 Wang, Eugene Y., 278n58 Wayman, Alex, 261n1 wealth and pride, 27 exchange of, 58, 73, 84, 143 material, 42, 48, 57, 59–60, 89, 96, 144, 229n71 spiritual, 57, 59, 198 Weeraratne, W. G., 209n2 Werbner, Pnina, 213n39 Wezler, A., 223n22 wheel of existence, 76, 159, 218n39 as an icon, 34 incomprehensibility of, 54–55, 183, 201, 276n43 White, J. E., 213n2 Wickramagamage, Chandra, 271n6 Wille, Klaus, 223n24 Williams, Linda, 135, 141 Wilson, Liz, 240n89 Winternitz, Maurice, 28 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 15 Woodward, F. L., 228n60, 262n1, 267n74 Wu Hung, 273n16, 274n21, 276n34 yatha¯bhu¯ta (as it really is), 17, 57 Yü, Chün-fang, 11 Zarrilli, Phillip B., 256n6 Zen, 16 Zizek, Slavoj, 212n37 Zwalf, W., 270n1