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4/4!, ).4%2!#4)/. 4HEORYANDPRACTICEOFANEWPARADIGM FORTHEDESIGNDISCIPLINES %DITEDBY'ERHARD-"UURMAN
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4/4!, ).4%2!#4)/.
4/4!, ).4%2!#4)/. 4HEORY AND PRACTICE OF A NEW PARADIGM FOR THE DESIGN DISCIPLINES %DITED BY 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
"IRKHØUSER n 0UBLISHERS FOR !RCHITECTURE "ERLIN "OSTON "ERLIN
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&OREWORD 'ERHARD - "UURMAN )NTRODUCTION 'ERHARD - "UURMAN #ONTENT 'RAPHICS (OW TO 2EAD THE 6ISUALS 4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER 6ISIONS AND 5SER -ODELS IN THE (ISTORY OF (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD )NTERACTION $ESIGN n $ESIGN AS )NTERACTION /N THE %MERGENCE OF $ESIGN AS A 3YMBOLIC &ORM OF -ODERN #OMMUNICATION .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ 4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN 'ENERATION &LASH ,EV -ANOVICH 2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER (OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ #ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY #ULTURAL !NTHROPOLOGICAL 2EmECTIONS AND A 3ERIOUS 'AME $ESIGN %XPERIMENT -ERGING -OBILITY -EDIA AND #OMPUTING 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH 6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN "EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER (EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG )NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS n 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS #HRISTIAN 7EBER 'ERHARD - "UURMAN "ETWEEN -AN AND -ACHINE 2APHAEL 0ERRET 'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN )NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILIP !CKERMANN "IO3ONICS )NTERACTIVE 'ROWTH 3YSTEM $ANIEL "ISIG 4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI 2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER )NTERACTION $ESIGN $ElNITION AND 4ASKS #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER "IOGRAPHIES ,INKS )NDEX
#ONTENTS
)N THIS BOOK WE PROVIDE A GLIMPSE OF THE NEW DISCI PLINE OF INTERACTION DESIGN WHICH IS GAINING IN IMPOR TANCE IN DESIGN PROGRAMS AT COLLEGES UNIVERSITIES AND COMPANIES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD ! HOST OF QUESTIONS SOLUTIONS METHODS THEORIES SUB DISCIPLINES AND IDEOLOGIES INTERSECTS IN THE lELD OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION 6ARIOUS DESIGN DISCIPLINES HAVE BEGUN TO DEVELOP THEIR OWN UNDERSTANDING OF THE CONCEPT OF INTERACTION 4HEY ARE ENDEAVORING TO DElNE ITS POSSIBLE MEANINGS BASED ON THEIR OWN PERSPECTIVES AND AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF THEIR INDIVIDUAL HISTORIES !S WITH ANY DISCOURSE THIS ONE ALSO BRINGS WITH IT DIVERSE INTER PRETATIONS AND EMPHASES ! CLEAR UNDERSTANDING WILL UL TIMATELY EMERGE IN A WORLD THAT REINVENTS ITSELF ACROSS ALL FORMS OF EXPRESSION BASED ON INTERACTIVE PRINCIPLES IN DE SIGN ART WORK AND ENTERTAINMENT 7ITH THIS BOOK WE WOULD LIKE TO HELP DEVELOP AND DESCRIBE A COMPREHENSIVE DElNITION OF THE CONCEPT AND PLACE CURRENT DISCOURSE ON A BROADER FOOTING n NOT ONLY FOR THOSE WORKING IN THE lELDS OF DESIGN AND APPLIED SCIENCES BUT FOR A LAY AUDIENCE AS WELL )T IS A MATTER OF GREAT URGENCY FOR US AS A DESIGN DISCIPLINE TO PRESENT OUR STANDPOINT DElNE OUR SOLUTIONS AND EXPLAIN OUR LINKS TO THE ENVIRONMENT OF SYSTEMS IN WHICH INTERACTION DESIGN IS EMBEDDED /UR POSITION DIFFERS GREATLY FROM THAT COMMONLY FOUND IN %NGLISH SPEAKING COUNTRIES WHERE THE TERM INTER ACTION DESIGN REFERS TO THE CONCEPTUALIZATION EVALUATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERACTIVE COMPUTER SYSTEMS IN CLUDING THE DEVELOPMENTS LINKED TO THESE SYSTEMS 3)' #() 4HE %NGLISH VERB hTO DESIGNv PRIMARILY DESCRIBES THE PLANNING WORK ASSOCIATED WITH CONTROLLING EITHER DI RECTLY OR INDIRECTLY THE STEPS INVOLVED IN COMPUTER USE 4HIS CONCEPTION OF DESIGN IS CONFUSING AT LEAST AS VIEWED FROM THE %UROPEAN TRADITION WHICH FOCUSES ON THE DE SIGN AESTHETIC DIMENSIONS OF THE PROBLEM )N THE DESIGN DISCIPLINES THERE HAS BEEN A RELATIVELY CLEAR DIVISION OF LABOR BETWEEN THE lELDS OF COMMUNICA TION DESIGN AND INDUSTRIAL DESIGN TO NAME THE TWO MOST IMPORTANT OVER THE LAST FEW DECADES (OWEVER CATEGORI CAL BOUNDARIES BETWEEN THESE lELDS HAVE TODAY BECOME BLURRED INASMUCH AS WE ARE INCREASINGLY REPLACING ME CHANICAL SOLUTIONS WITH )4 STRATEGIES SUPPLEMENTING REAL OBJECTS WITH VIRTUAL REALITIES AUGMENTATION AND SOLVING
PROBLEMS THROUGH CONTACTLESS OR NONVISUAL INSTALLATIONS 4HE CRUCIAL QUESTION IS WHETHER OR NOT WE CAN RETAIN OUR MANNER OF WORKING WHICH IS GROUNDED IN BOTH DElNABLE AND CLEARLY DElNED STRATEGIES MATERIALS AND FACTORS 4HESE DISCIPLINARY BOUNDARIES ARE INCREASINGLY JUMBLED THEMATICALLY EXPANDED AND DIFFERENTIATED n IN FACT THEY ARE BECOMING POROUS !S A RESULT OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND ALSO OUT OF OUR OWN INSECURITY WE FORGE CREATIVE YET MOSTLY ARBITRARY LINKS FROM ONE SUBJECT OR BRANCH OF SCIENCE TO ANOTHER n ALWAYS IN SEARCH OF AN APPROPRIATE PROBLEM ORIENTED SOLUTION 4HIS NECESSARILY LEADS US TO THE QUESTION OF WHAT hGOOD DESIGNv WILL MEAN IN THE FUTURE ,ETS SAY THIS MUCH FOR NOW INTERACTIVITY AS A CHARACTERISTIC OF DESIGN IS ACHIEVED PRIMARILY THROUGH INTELLIGENT SITUATION ADAPTED AND ENTERTAINING INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN SYSTEMS AND USERS $ESIGN IS BASED ON THESE NECESSI TIES AND THE FAMOUS MAXIM IS APPLICABLE HERE TOO FORM FOL LOWS FUNCTION 4HIS BOOK PROVIDES INSIGHT INTO THE WORK OF THE )NTER ACTION $ESIGN 0ROGRAM AT 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH )T SHOWS HOW THIS EXCITING NECESSARY AND NEW UNDERSTANDING OF DESIGN HAS INmUENCED OUR ATTITUDES AS DE SIGNERS AND AESTHETES "Y WAY OF CONCLUSION ) WOULD LIKE TO THANK THE AUTHORS OF THIS BOOK FOR THEIR COLLABORATION AND PATIENCE 3PECIAL THANKS GO TO .ORBERT 3CHMITZ FOR HIS CRITICAL REMARKS AND COMMEN TARY 2OBERT 3TEIGER OF 6ERLAG "IRKHØUSER FOR HIS UNmAGGING FAITH IN OUR PROJECT $ANIEL (UG FOR HIS ORGANIZATIONAL TALENTS AND lNALLY *ÓRGEN 3PØTH FOR HIS UNCOMPROMISING DEVOTION TO THE DESIGN OF THIS BOOK 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
&OREWORD 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
&/2%7/2$
'RAPHIC 3YMBOLS BLANK TEXT LINE FOOTNOTE lGURE CAPTION NUMERATION BEGINNING OF CITATION END OF CITATION PARAGRAPH PROCEED END OF ARTICLE
)NTRODUCTION AND /VERVIEW 4HE DESIGN OF INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS IS A COMPLEX TOPIC SINCE A WIDE RANGE OF SUBJECT AREAS MUST BE DRAWN UPON FOR ITS DEVELOPMENT 4HOUGH NO BINDING DElNITION HAS BEEN FORMULATED TO DATE THERE EXISTS A SERIES OF MODEL AP PROACHES THAT CAN BE VIEWED AS PARTIAL THEORIES ! COM PLETE REVISION OR REDElNITION OF THE TERM IS NOT THE AIM OF THIS COLLECTION SINCE IT IS NOT REALLY POSSIBLE TO DEVELOP A VALID ALL ENCOMPASSING CONCEPT )N THE CONTEXT OF DE SIGN INTERACTION DESIGN WE CAN BASE OUR DISCUSSION ON A SIMPLE DElNITION )NTERACTION DESIGN SIGNIlES THE PARA DIGMATIC REPRESENTATION AESTHETIC SENSORY PRESENTATION AND TECHNOLOGICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPUTER SUPPORT ED PERCEPTIONS COGNITION AND SENSORICS AND ACTIONS ACTUATOR SYSTEMS AND VISUALIZATION IN MIXED MEDIA )N THIS lELD WE FOCUS ON VARIOUS TYPES OF SIGN SYSTEMS %CO HAS EXTENSIVELY EXPLORED ARCHITECTURE LANGUAGE KINESICS IMAGES FASHION TACTILITY AND MUSIC AS lELDS OF SEMIOTIC STUDY 7HAT IS INTERESTING IS THAT WE CAN GRASP THESE TRA DITIONAL hLANGUAGESv AS DOMAINS OF ACTION AND COMMUNI CATIVE PERFORMANCE 7E CAN RECOGNIZE THE POTENTIAL AND LIMITATIONS OF THEIR TECHNOLOGICAL EMULATION AND TRANS LATION WHILE WITNESSING THE MERGER OF THEIR CHARACTERISTIC FORMS OF EXPRESSION ) HAVE INCLUDED &IGURE TO SHOW HOW WE CAN REDElNE THESE SEMIOTIC lELDS FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE NEW TECHNOLOGICAL POTENTIAL 4OGETHER WITH A HOST OF BUZZWORDS FROM SCIENCE AND RESEARCH THE TRADITIONAL lELDS OF SEMIOTIC INVESTIGATION PROVIDE A GLIMPSE OF THE NEW ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION 4HE TERMS PRESENTED HERE HAVE NOT BEEN lXED IN A DElNITIONAL SENSE BUT ARE MEANT TO PROVIDE ORIENTATION FOR THE STUDY OF THE FOLLOWING TEXTS /NE IMPORTANT MOTIVE FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THIS COLLECTION IS TO DEMONSTRATE HOW THESE TRANSFORMA TIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS ARE PERMEATING DESIGNERS AREAS OF WORK CHANGING THEIR SUBSTRATE CODES RULES AND THUS THEIR FOUNDATIONS AND SELF CONCEPTION !T THE SAME TIME THIS BOOK INTENDS TO SHOW WHERE THE NEW BEGINNINGS LIE AND HOW THE DISCIPLINE IS TACKLING THE CURRENT CHALLENGES
&ROM THE VANTAGE POINT OF THE DESIGN DISCIPLINES EF FORTS TO DEVELOP A VALID UNDERSTANDING OF THE TERM INTER ACTION DESIGN ARE OF GREAT INTEREST DUE TO THE SIGNIlCANT CHANGES IN MATERIALS AND RESOURCES $ESIGNERS PERCEIVE THE WORLD AS A FORMABLE SIGN UNDERGOING CONSTANT CHANGE AS A RESULT OF BOTH INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE DESIGN ACTS AND INTERVENTIONS 9ET IT IS NOT ONLY TODAYS CONSUMERS WHO ARE CONSTANTLY FORCED TO REAPPRAISE BOTH WHAT THEY PERCEIVE AND THE REALITY THEY CONSTRUCT FROM THEIR PERCEPTIONS $ESIGNERS ARE ALSO INCREASINGLY LOSING THEIR BEARINGS NO LONGER GUIDED BY THE QUALITIES AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND RESOURCES ! MULTI OPTIONAL CODIlCATION AND DECODI lCATION APPARATUS IS TRANSFORMING ARCHITECTURE PROD UCTS LANGUAGE MUSIC AND MANY OTHER SIGN SYSTEMS INTO RANDOMLY INTERCHANGEABLE SYNAESTHETIC PLAYING lELDS 0ROJECTS WITH TITLES LIKE h4HE $ISAPPEARING #OMPUTERv OR h4HINGS 4HAT 4HINKv SHOW THAT WE MUST REVISE OUR IDEAS ABOUT OUR CULTURAL ARTIFACTS AND DESIGN IN THE TWENTY lRST CENTURY ! SERIES OF FRAGMENTARY REPORTS FROM THE SEM INARS AND RESEARCH PROJECTS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DESIGN AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH -EDIA AND $ESIGN HAS BEEN PROVIDED TO ILLUSTRATE THIS POINT 5 %CO %INFÓHRUNG IN DIE 3EMIOTIK TH UNALTERED EDITION -UNICH HTTPWWWDISAPPEARING COMPUTERNETPROJECTSHTML HTTPWWWMEDIAMITEDURESEARCH#ONSORTIUM0UB7EBPL )$
)NTRODUCTION 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
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PLEX LIVING CONDITIONS ARE NO LONGER REGULATED SOLELY ON THE BASIS OF TRADITIONAL SIGNS MEANINGS AND FORMS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION 4ECHNOLOGY SUPPORTS AND REPRESENTS FORMS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION CREATING NEW POTENTIAL FOR EXPERIENCE !T THE SAME TIME OBJECTS LOSE ANY BINDING MEANING SINCE THEY FUNCTION AS CARRIERS OF MEANING IN MULTIPLE SENSES 4EXTILE PRODUCTS THAT HAVE EVOLVED INTO hWEARABLESv ARE AS FASHIONABLE ACCESSORIES JUST AS READABLE AS HIGH TECH GADGETRY ,IKEWISE THE COMPUTER HAS BECOME EVER SMALL ER AND MORE POWERFUL AND THUS THE BACKBONE OF A NET WORKED CULTURE 4HE TRADITIONAL REPERTOIRE OF DESIGN IS JUST AS AWKWARD IN ITS DEALINGS WITH THESE NEW DEVELOPMENTS AS YESTERDAYS DESIGNERS WERE IN THEIR ATTEMPTS TO INVEST WHAT WAS THEN NEW TECHNOLOGY WITH CULTURAL MEANING
)NTRODUCTION 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
,EARNING FROM (ISTORY ) WOULD LIKE TO DESCRIBE A FEW IMPORTANT DEVELOPMEN TAL PHASES OF THE DESIGN DISCIPLINES IN ORDER TO SENSITIZE THE READER TO THEIR SIGNIlCANCE 4HE HISTORY OF DESIGN CAN BE REmECTED IN FOUR TYPICAL IMAGES 4HE lRST CONCERNS THE HISTORY OF THE lRST TYPOLOGIES AND MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF OBJECTS AS WELL AS THE IDEAS CONCERNING THEIR USE 4HE )NDUSTRIAL 2EVOLUTION AND ITS ACCOMPANYING SOCIAL TRANSI TIONS LED TO THE lRST ARCHETYPAL SIGNS OF USE AND TO NEW MEANINGS 0EOPLE AND MATERIALS WERE hPROGRAMEDv INSO MUCH AS THEY WERE INSCRIBED WITH INFORMATION ON USE BENElTS AND VALUE THROUGH THE METHODS OF SERIAL PRODUC TION 4HIS AGE SOUGHT OUT NEW FORMS OF EXPRESSION BUT WAS CHAINED TO HISTORYS REPOSITORY OF SIGNS 4HE SECOND NARRATIVE DEALS WITH ENTIRELY NEW CONSTRUC TIONS WHICH IN TURN LED TO NEW FORMS OF EXPRESSION IN TECHNOLOGY &ORM AND FUNCTION WERE INCREASINGLY TREATED AS INSEPARABLE ENTITIES AND AN ALPHABET OF ELEMENTARY FORMS SIGN SYSTEMS AND RULES EMERGED $ESIGN n AS A VI SUAL SCIENCE n CREATED BOTH THE INTERIORS AND THE ACCESSO RIES OF MODERN SOCIETY AND ITS CHANGED VIEW OF MANKIND 4ECHNOLOGY BECAME THE ENGINE OF DEVELOPMENT AND ITS ARTIFACTS SYMBOLIZED THE SPEED AND QUALITY OF PROGRESS 2EVOLUTIONARY UPHEAVAL OCCURRED IN THOSE PLACES WHERE PEOPLE TOYED WITH MEANING INVERTING IT AND THUS DISCOV ERING THE RELEVANCE OF PLACE AND CONTEXT 2ECOGNIZING THE COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION OF THESE SIGNS WE LEARN BY LOOKING AT THE THIRD NARRATIVE EVEN MORE ABOUT THE POWER OF OBJECTS AND THE PRESENTATION OF INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY 4HE INCREASING COMPLEXITY OF THIS REALITY RESULTED IN PROGRAMMATIC LEAPS SYSTEMATIZATION INCREASES IN EFlCIENCY OBJECTIlCATION PROCESSES AND A MANIA FOR STYLISTIC REGULATION $ESIGN REmECTED INDUSTRIAL POWER AND THE GROWING INDIVIDUALIZATION OF SOCIETY AND IT EVOLVED INTO A REPRESENTATION OF A NEW SOCIAL VALUE SYSTEM AND VALUE HIERARCHY 4HE LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND DIALECTICS OF THIS PROGRESS INTENSIlED AS SIGNS LOST THEIR CAPACITY TO PROVIDE ORIENTATION 4HE ENVIRONMENT GREW INTO A CON FUSING FOREST OF SIGNS WITH INSTRUMENTAL STYLES AND MAR KETING METAPHORS 'OOD DESIGN IN SHORT WAS DECLARED TO BE INVISIBLE )N THE FOURTH NARRATIVE WE ENCOUNTER THE ONGOING INDIVIDUALIZATION OF MASS TASTES INTELLIGENT MATERIALS INFORMATIONAL NETWORKING FORMS MINIATURIZATION AND ROBOTICS 4ECHNICALLY SUPPORTED OR SOCIONIC FORMS OF COM MUNICATION EMERGE IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN BEINGS AND TECHNOLOGY (ERE THE MECHANICS OF OUR COM
)NTERACTION $ESIGN ) WOULD LIKE TO MASTER THE NEW CHALLENGES IN SUCH A WAY THAT WE RETAIN AND EXPLOIT THEIR POTENTIAL )N MY OPIN ION TWENTY lRST CENTURY DESIGN WILL HAVE TO DEAL WITH AMONG OTHER ISSUES THE FOLLOWING ASSUMPTIONS AND QUES TIONS *OINT TEACHING AND RESEARCH WORK IN THE TECHNICAL SOCIAL AND VISUAL SCIENCES DESIGN $ESIGNERS WILL BECOME THE ENGINEERS OF EXPERIENCE hDESIGN THE EXPERIENCEv $IGITAL INFORMATION WILL TAKE ON PHYSICAL FORM 3ENSORY AND ACTORIC ARTIFACTS WILL ACT IN SOCIAL CONTEXTS (OW WILL WE NEGOTIATE AND DEAL WITH THE NEW VALUES 7ITH WHAT AND HOW ARE WE TO FULlLL EMOTIONAL NEEDS 7ILL LIFE ITSELF BECOME THE PUTTY OF DESIGN )NTERACTION DESIGN CANNOT BE REDUCED TO THE ELEMENTS OF PERCEPTION TO THE ACTION THEORETICAL COMPONENTS OF INTERPERSONAL OR SOCIAL INTERACTION OR TO THE TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE MODELING REPRESENTATION OF PROCESSES )N LINE WITH -EAD ) PREFER TO VIEW SOCIAL INTERACTION INCLUDING COMPUTER BASED SOCIAL INTERACTION AS AN ON GOING ACTIVITY THAT CAN NO LONGER BE STOPPED TODAY )N THIS ACTIVITY WE DEVELOP SITUATIONAL ACTION GUIDELINES ONGOING ADJUSTMENT AND MAKE USE OF DETERMINISTIC BE HAVIORAL INSTRUCTIONS 4HE PARTICIPANTS IN INTERACTION ARE HUMAN BEINGS THEMSELVES WHO WILL INCREASINGLY COORDI NATE THEIR ACTIONS NEEDS AND WORK WITH THE HELP OF INTELLI GENT MECHANISMS AND WHO WILL BE ABLE TO SOLVE EMERGENT PROBLEMS THROUGH THE POTENTIAL OF COLLABORATION COM MUNICATION AND INFORMATION &OR THIS REASON THE CORE PROBLEM OF INTERACTION DESIGN LIES IN EMULATING SUPPORT ING AND REPLACING THE ENDLESS POSSIBILITIES AND REPERTOIRE OF INTERACTION THROUGH TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES WHEN THIS IS DEEMED SENSIBLE 4HIS COORDINATION AS WELL AS THE CRE ATION OF SOCIAL MEANING IS ACHIEVED THROUGH THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY AND THE PLAYFUL EXPLOITATION OF NEW POTENTIAL IN THE MOST DIVERSE OF CONTEXTS 4HEREIN LIES A MAJOR CHAL LENGE FOR THE DESIGN OF THE FUTURE
4HESE GENERAL REmECTIONS ARE NOT MEANT TO NEGATE THE COMPLEXITY OF THE HUMAN INTELLECT THE WORK OF CONSCIOUS NESS OR THE POWERS OF LIVELY AND IMAGINATIVE THOUGHT )T WILL BE A WHILE YET BEFORE A MACHINE EXISTS THAT BESTS US IN THESE AREAS -Y REmECTIONS MERELY ADDRESS THE PROSPECTS OF AND OUTLOOKS ON A LIFE IMMERSED IN TECHNOLOGY THAT IS AN EXISTENCE AS TOTAL INTERACTION '( -EAD 'EIST )DENTITØT UND 'ESELLSCHAFT AUS DER 3ICHT DES 3OZIALBEHAVIORISMUS &RANKFURT A -
ING THOSE DEVELOPED BY ,AUREL 2EEVES AND .ASS 4AKING AS AN EXAMPLE THEATER AND AGENT METAPHORS HE EXPLAINS HOW WE CAN VIEW AS A SOCIAL ACT THE CONSTRUCTION OF REAL ITY THROUGH COMPUTER INTERACTION BETWEEN VIRTUAL AGENTS AND REAL USERS )N HIS CONCLUSION &RIEDEWALD DESCRIBES THE ELEMENTS OF hCOLLABORATIONv AND hEXPERIENCEv AS THE FUNDAMENTAL CONSTITUENTS OF INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS 5NDERSTANDING SOCIAL INTERACTION IS CRUCIAL FOR CONCEPTUALIZING ENHANCED MORE EASILY COMPREHENSIBLE INTERFACES BETWEEN HUMANS AND MACHINES IN THE FUTURE .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ )NTERACTION $ESIGN n $ESIGN AS )NTERACTION /N THE %MERGENCE OF $ESIGN AS A 3YMBOLIC &ORM OF -ODERN #OMMUNICATION )N HIS ESSAY h)NTERACTION $ESIGN n $ESIGN AS )NTERAC TION v .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ PORTRAYS ALL MANIFESTATIONS OF DESIGN THROUGHOUT THE AGES AS THE SYMBOLIC CAPITAL OF SO CIAL STATUS 4HE AUTHOR VIEWS THE FUNCTION OF DESIGN IN AN INCREASINGLY NETWORKED SOCIETY AS A MEANS OF STABILIZING AND DYNAMIZING COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE n BEGINNING IN THE 2ENAISSANCE AND ENDING IN OUR MODERN FUNCTIONAL SOCIETIES )F WE EXAMINE THE SIGNIlCANCE OF DESIGN AS AN EXPRESSION OF SOCIAL lGURATIONS IN PRE INDUSTRIAL INDUS TRIAL AND POST INDUSTRIAL ERAS INTERACTION DESIGN CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THESE DEVELOPMENTS 4HE ACCELERATION OF INTERACTION RELATIONS STIMULATED BY CON TINUALLY ENHANCED TECHNOLOGY COMPELS US TO TURN TO THE ISSUES RAISED IN THESE TECHNOLOGICAL WORLDS &OR THE AUTHOR THE CONCEPT OF INTERACTIVITY IS COM MON IN THIS MEANING BUT HE PERCEIVES A NOVELTY IN THE OB JECTIlCATION OF SOCIAL CONDITIONS THROUGH TECHNOLOGY )N TERACTION DESIGN AND ITS ASSOCIATED TASKS ARE ALSO VIEWED AS THE CONSEQUENCE OF THE SOCIALLY AND TECHNOLOGICALLY LINKED INTERACTION RELATIONS OF OUR TIME
)NTRODUCTION 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
!BOUT THE %SSAYS 4HE SECOND PART OF THE INTRODUCTION PROVIDES A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE CONTRIBUTIONS AND ESSAYS IN THE BOOK 2EADERS MAY USE THIS OVERVIEW FOR AN INITIAL THEMATIC ORI ENTATION -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD 4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER 6ISIONS AND 5SER -ODELS IN THE (ISTORY OF (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION )N THIS ESSAY -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD INVESTIGATES HOW DETERMINIST AND CONSTRUCTIONIST IDEAS HAVE INmUENCED THE DESIGN OF TECHNICAL SYSTEMS (E BEGINS WITH A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF TECHNOLOGICALLY AND SOCIALLY DETERMINIST EX PLANATIONS OF THE LINKS BETWEEN TECHNOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL CHANGE THEN INTRODUCES A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST APPROACH THAT CENTERS ON HUMAN BEINGS WHO IN CONJUNCTION WITH TECHNOLOGY FORM A DYNAMIC SYSTEM WITH DIVERSE FEEDBACK OPTIONS 4HE CONCEPTION DEVELOPED HERE STATES THAT PROG RESS CAN BE PROMOTED AND THAT IT RESULTS FROM TECHNOLOGI CAL DEVELOPMENTS AND INITIATING ACTIONS BY USERS TECHNOL OGY APPLICATIONS "ASED ON THESE REmECTIONS n AND DRAWING ON THE WORK AND ANALYSES OF 6ANNEVAR "USH * # 2 ,ICKLIDER $OUG LAS %NGELBART !LAN +AY AND OTHERS n &RIEDEWALD DEMON STRATES HOW AN ANTHROPOCENTRIC CONCEPTION OF THE WORLD HAS INCREASINGLY INmUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION (E ALSO SHOWS THE GROWING SIG NIlCANCE THAT COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY CONCEIVED AS A SOCIO TECHNICAL SYSTEM HAS ASSUMED AS A RESULT OF NEW FORMS OF COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION #ITING THE ANALYSES OF LINGUIST "ENJAMIN 7HORF &RIE DEWALD DESCRIBES HOW AN UNDERSTANDING OF NON LINEARITY AND ITS SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION AS WELL AS OF THE RELATIONS BETWEEN SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION LANGUAGE AND REALITY CONSTRUCTION HAS OPENED UP ENTIRELY NEW RESEARCH lELDS IN SCIENCE AND DESIGN HYPERTEXT AND )NTERNET ! FURTHER HISTORICAL STEP IN THIS EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS IS CONSTITUTED BY INSIGHTS INTO BOTH COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PER CEPTUAL SENSOMOTORIC AND COGNITIVE NEEDS OF USERS AS WELL AS DEVELOPMENTS RESULTING FROM THESE INSIGHTS 4HIS INCLUDES THE INVENTION OF THE COMPUTER MOUSE BY $OUGLAS %NGELBART WHICH TODAY IS ONE OF THE STANDARD FEATURES OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION ,ASTLY &RIEDEWALD PRESENTS NEW HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION APPROACHES INCLUD
3CHMITZ THEN ARGUES THAT A NEW THEORY OF DESIGN IS DOOMED TO FAILURE IF IT ONLY CONCENTRATES ON QUESTIONS OF FORMAL AESTHETICS !N IMPORTANT ASPECT OF HIS ESSAY CON CERNS THE POTENTIAL OF A NEW DISCIPLINE OF DESIGN ONE THAT FOCUSES ON THE FAIRLY DISTRIBUTED SOCIAL AND TECHNICAL COM PETENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL USER INSTEAD OF THE AVAILABILITY OF BOTH MATERIALS AND SITES OF PRODUCTION &OR 3CHMITZ INTERACTION DESIGNS TASK IS TO EXPOSE AND DESIGN THE ACCESS POINTS TO THIS SYMBOLIC CAPITAL OF A WORLD SOCIETY 4HESE REmECTIONS TEACH US THAT WE WOULD DO WELL TO UNCOVER THESE MECHANISMS AND TECHNOLOGIES THROUGH GOOD DESIGN &OR THIS REASON THE INTEGRATION OF QUALITATIVE FACTORS INTO OUR TOOLS AND STRUCTURES CAN BE SEEN AS BOTH A BIT OF DIS TRIBUTIVE JUSTICE AND A FORFEITURE OF POWER IN FAVOR OF THE RULING ELITE 'ERHARD - "UURMAN 4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS )N THIS ARTICLE "UURMAN DISCUSSES HOW TECHNOLOGI ZATION PROCESSES MUST BE UNDERSTOOD IN GENERAL TERMS AND WHY WE CAN CONCEIVE OF SOCIAL PROGRESS AS AN ON GOING NEVER ENDING EXPERIMENT (E ESCHEWS THE VIEW THAT TECHNICAL ARTIFACTS AND SERVICES RESULT FROM SOCIALLY FORMULATED NEEDS AND THE UTILIZATION OF FUNCTIONS 2ATHER INASMUCH AS IT ENGENDERS USE TECHNOLOGY PERMEATES OUR PRESENT LIVES AND BECOMES A STRUCTURAL CONDITION FOR OUR INDIVIDUALITY ,EV -ANOVICH 'ENERATION &LASH ,EV -ANOVICH DESCRIBES IN HIS ESSAY THE BURST OF CRE ATIVITY THAT &LASH TECHNOLOGY HAS TRIGGERED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD OVER THE LAST FEW YEARS (E VIEWS THE MASS USE OF THIS SPECIlC FORM OF EXPRESSION AS REmECTING THE CULTURAL SENSI BILITY OF AN ENTIRE GENERATION 4HIS NEW GENERATIONS INTER EST IN MEDIA THEORY AND MEDIA CRITIQUE IS ON THE DECLINE AND CREATIVE POTENTIAL IS BEING TAPPED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW SOFTWARE )N THE AESTHETICS OF THESE INDIVIDUAL SOFT WARE CREATIONS -ANOVICH SEES A REVIVAL OF TRADITIONAL FORMS OF EXPRESSION (ERE INFORMATION DESIGN FUNCTIONS AS A TOOL FOR RECOGNIZING AND DESCRIBING REALITY !CCORDING TO -ANOVICH PROGRAMMING n THE NECESSARY BASIS FOR THIS
CREATIVE EXPRESSION n REPRESENTS A GAIN IN BOTH EXPRESSIVE POWER AND NEW FORMS OF EXPRESSION 2EGINE (ALTER 2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION )N HER ESSAY h2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE v 2EGINE (AL TER EXAMINES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEMORY AND INTER ACTION 3HE DElNES MEMORY AS A CONDITION FOR COMMU NICATION AND EXPLORES THE FUNCTION OF FORGETTING AS THE REQUIREMENT FOR PERCEIVING NEW INFORMATION &ROM THIS ANGLE FORGETTING FUNCTIONS AS A CONDITION OF REMEMBER ING 4HE COMPUTER NORMALLY CONCEIVED AS EXTERNALIZED MEMORY PERFORMS THIS FORM OF REMEMBERING AND FOR GETTING CEASELESSLY NOT IN THE PRODUCTION OF SEMANTICALLY MEANINGFUL CONTENT BUT IN PURE COMPUTING OPERATIONS 4HE DELEGATION OF MEMORY IN THE SENSE OF COMMUNICA TION TO THE COMPUTER IS BASED ON A MISTAKEN ASSOCIATION OF THE COMPUTER WITH HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS )N (ALTERS VIEW THE COMPUTER AS A CHANNEL DEVOID OF SENSE AND MEANING STANDS IN DIRECT OPPOSITION TO THE INTENTIONAL ACTIONS OF DESIGN )NTERACTION MEDIATES BE TWEEN TWO SYSTEMS HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE COM PUTER WHOSE GREATEST CREATIVE POTENTIAL LIES IN THEIR ABILITY TO PRODUCE THE UNEXPECTED )T IS ONLY FROM THIS VIEWPOINT THAT THE COMPUTER GAINS CREATIVE RELEVANCE AND ONLY HERE THAT IT IS NOT NEUTRALIZED AS AN EXTENSION OF HUMAN CON SCIOUSNESS )N THIS CASE BOTH SYSTEMS EXIST CONCOMITANTLY AND PRODUCE NEW CONTENT (EREIN LIES AN IMPORTANT DE SIGN APPROACH 4AKING EXPERIMENTAL FORMS OF REMEMBER ING AND CONTEXT RELATED INTERACTION AS AN EXAMPLE THE AUTHOR SHOWS HOW THE ACT OF REMEMBERING FUNCTIONS IN SUCH HYBRID FORMS TODAY 4HESE EXPERIMENTS ALSO DEAL WITH NEW PRINCIPLES OF NARRATION AND THE WAYS IN WHICH WE CAN INSCRIBE RANDOM CONTEXTS WITH EXTERNAL OR FOREIGN MEMORIES 4HEY SHOW US HOW WE ACTIVATE EXPAND AND CHANGE OUR MEMORY OF PLACE 4HE EXAMINATION OF THE AC CESS POINTS TO SUCH SNIPPETS OF MEMORY MAKES CLEAR HOW IMPORTANT INTERACTION IS FOR DESIGN
TIONS OF THE PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN REPRESENTING RISK TRUST ENVIRONMENTS &OR THE AUTHOR THE BASIC CONCEPTION DEVEL OPED IN THIS ARTICLE CAN SERVE AS A VALID MODEL FOR EXPERI MENTAL GAMES THE lELD OF QUALITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY *ÓRGEN 3PØTH 1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN -AKING USE OF A WEALTH OF VISUAL MATERIAL FROM INTER ACTION DESIGN CLASSES AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED !RT IN :URICH *ÓRGEN 3PØTH CONCENTRATES IN HIS ARTICLE ON A RANGE OF DIDACTIC ISSUES (E DESCRIBES THE FOUNDATIONS OF VISUAL DESIGN WHICH DEVELOPED IN SEVERAL STAGES IN %UROPE AND ARE INCORPORATED INTO TODAYS DESIGN PROGRAMS -OV ING FROM 'RASSET IN &RANCE TO +ANDINSKY AND !ICHER HE EXPLAINS AND ILLUSTRATES THROUGH EXAMPLES METHODOLOGI CAL CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE PRODUCTION OF SIGNS AND SIGN STRUCTURE 4HE AUTHOR DISCUSSES THE INCLUSION OF DIGITAL MEDIA AS A NEXT LOGICAL STEP AND PRESENTS MOVING SIGNS ANIMATION AND EVEN THE AUTONOMOUS GENERATION OF SIGNS AS FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR THE DISCIPLINE 7ITH ITS VI SUAL MATERIAL AND FUNDAMENTAL APPROACH THIS REPORT IS OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO EDUCATORS AND COLLEGE PROFESSORS "ERND +ERSTEN 6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN PROVIDES US WITH INSIGHT INTO HOW HU MAN PERCEPTION WORKS IN VIRTUAL WORLDS (IS ANALYSES IN THIS ESSAY ARE BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT ONE MUST lRST UNDERSTAND THE LAWS OF PERCEPTION AND NOT ONLY INTUI TIVELY IN ORDER TO CONSTRUCT A SPECIlC REALITY 4AKING AN APPROACH CLOSELY LINKED TO PSYCHOPHYSICS +ERSTEN lRST DESCRIBES HOW IMAGES EMERGE IN OUR MINDS AND WHAT POWER THESE TECHNICALLY GENERATED IMAGES POS SESS (E PROVIDES AN OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE AND ADDRESSES A WIDE RANGE OF MORE ADVANCED POINTS CONFRONTING CREA TORS OF VIRTUAL WORLDS
)NTRODUCTION 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
*ÓRGEN &RITZ (OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZS ARTICLE ADDRESSES THE IDEA OF hTRANSFERSv BETWEEN VIRTUAL AND REAL WORLDS PARTICULARLY THEIR STRUC TURE OCCURRENCE AND OTHER DESCRIPTIVE FEATURES h4RANSFERv ALSO REFERS TO THE TRANSFORMATION OF WHAT IS TRANSFERRED AND THUS THE PROCESSES BY WHICH IT ADAPTS TO ANOTHER WORLD /N THE BASIS OF COMPUTER GAMES &RITZ ANALYZES CONSCIOUSLY MADE TRANSFERS AS WELL AS THE ASSOCI ATED ADAPTATION AND RE FORMATION PROCESSES (E ATTEMPTS TO EXPLAIN THE TRANSFERS AND THEIR CONDITIONS AUTHORITIES CONTEXTS IMPULSES TO ACT ETC USING SCRIPTS PRINTS AND FACTS AND INVESTIGATES THEIR SPECIlC EFFECT AND FORMS CON SCIOUS PROBLEM SOLVING UNCONSCIOUS EMOTIONALIZING &URTHERMORE HE DESCRIBES THE DIFlCULTIES OF UNWANTED TRANSFERS BETWEEN REAL AND VIRTUAL WORLDS AS WELL AS THE ONGOING CONTROL MECHANISMS THAT DESIGNERS MUST DESIGN AND PLAN 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ #ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY #ULTURAL !NTHROPOLOGICAL 2EmECTIONS AND A 3ERIOUS 'AME $ESIGN %XPERIMENT -ERGING -OBILITY -EDIA AND #OMPUTING )N HIS ESSAY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ DESCRIBES A HYBRID REALITY THAT IS BASED ON AND CAN BE DESCRIBED BY BOTH OUR MOBILE BEHAVIOR IN THE REAL WORLD AND OUR USE OF DIGITAL MEDIA AND COMPUTERS 7ALZ DISCOVERS ENTIRELY NEW SOCIO EMO TIONAL INTERACTIONS AND COMMUNICATION ACTIONS IN THESE TECHNOLOGICALLY CHARGED TIME AND SPACE BOUND HYBRID REALITIES (IS TWO PART CONTRIBUTION CONSISTS OF AN INVESTI GATION OF THIS PROCESS OF CHANGE BASED ON AN EXPERIMENTAL GAME - ! $ #OUNTDOWN AND AN ACCOMPANYING CUL TURAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 7ALZ lRST INTRODUCES THREE MECHANISMS MEDIA COMPUTING AND MOBILITY IN EVERYDAY LIFE (E DESCRIBES THESE AS CONSTITUENT COMPONENTS OF OUR INTERACTIONS AND HUMAN TECHNOLOGY RELATIONS )N PRIN CIPLE THEY FORM hHYBRID REALITIESv 4HE THEORETICAL CORE OF HIS GAMES EXPERIMENTAL STRUCTURE IS GROUNDED IN THESE RE mECTIONS ON THE CURRENT AND FUTURE MEANS OF PRODUCING MAINTAINING AND DISSOLVING WHAT HE CALLS DISTANT PROXIM ITY AND PROXIMATE DISTANCE )T IS ALSO BASED ON HIS EXPLICA
)N ADDITION TO DESCRIBING HOW WE EXPERIENCE VIRTUAL WORLDS +ERSTEN INCLUDES AN OVERVIEW OF THE MOST IMPOR TANT LAWS OF PERCEPTION (E ENUMERATES THE FACTORS DE SIGNERS MUST CONSIDER IN THEIR WORK INCLUDING THOSE THEY CAN ONLY CONTROL IMPRECISELY EXAMPLE MOODS AND EMO TIONS AND THOSE THAT n WITH A DEGREE OF SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE n THEY CAN COMPUTE QUITE CONSCIOUSLY A FOCUS ON BEAUTY QUICKLY LEADS TO A hDICTATE OF BEAUTYv !DDITIONAL POINTS OF INTEREST IN THIS ARTICLE ARE THE IN SIGHTS PROVIDED BY PERCEPTUAL RESEARCH INTO THE LIMITS AND POTENTIAL OF HUMAN PERCEPTION OF THE MEDIA THE DISCUS SION OF THE CONTROLLABLE AND LESS CONTROLLABLE FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF VIRTUAL WORLDS AND LASTLY THE AUTHORS RE mECTIONS ON THE BOUNDARIES OF OUR hCONSTRUCTIONAL IMAGI NATIONv )N THIS ESSAY THE AUTHOR BRINGS TOGETHER KNOWL EDGE OF SCIENTIlC LAWS INSIGHTS INTO PLANNING LIMITATIONS AS WELL AS THE ETHICAL MORAL CONSIDERATIONS THAT MUST mOW INTO APPLICATIONS 4HESE THREE BASIC ASSUMPTIONS COR RESPOND TO THOSE IN THE DISCIPLINE OF DESIGN .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER "EING )NVISIBLE 4HIS ESSAY QUESTIONS WHETHER WE ARE SUFlCIENTLY EX PLOITING THE POTENTIAL OF THE DIGITAL MEDIA AND WHY WE MUST REGARD THEIR PERCEPTUAL AND EXPRESSIVE PROPERTIES AS A SOURCE OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL FOR SENSITIVE PROFOUND DE SIGN CONCEPTS 4HE AUTHORS INTRODUCE THREE CENTRAL CON CEPTS THAT THEY GO ON TO EXAMINE FROM A SYSTEMS THEORY VIEWPOINT hNONLINEARITY AND POTENTIALITY v hTRUST v AND hMATERIALv 7ITHIN THIS DElNED FRAMEWORK THE AUTHORS DEVELOP DIFFERENT HYPOTHESES PRESENT VARYING REmEC TIONS AND SKETCH OUT THE PROSPECTS FOR INTERACTIVITY AND DESIGN 4HE QUESTIONS ARE PURSUED FROM TWO VERY DIFFER ENT VIEWPOINTS THAT OF THE SCIENTIST AND THAT OF THE ART IST 4HIS CONSTELLATION DEMONSTRATES THE NECESSITY FOR BOTH IMPROVED COLLABORATION AND AN ENTIRELY NEW INTERFACULTY APPROACH THAT ENDEAVORS TO PROMOTE PROGRESS AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF AN ENTIRE RANGE OF OPTIONS SCIENTIlC ARTISTIC PRACTICES METHODICAL REmECTIONS AND SCIENTIlC EXCLUSION PRINCIPLES AS WELL AS ARTISTIC INDIVIDUALITY AND FREEDOM 4HIS APPROACH CAN BE INTERPRETED AS A METAPHOR FOR OUR SHIFT FROM A WORLD OF CLOSED SYSTEMS BREACHES IDEOLO GIES AND SPEECHLESSNESS TO A UNIVERSE OF mOWING BOUND ARIES BETWEEN THE EXPLICABLE THE PROVED THE MOMENTARY THE SUBJECTIVE AND THE APPROXIMATE
$ANIEL (UG (EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UGS ESSAY EXAMINES THE DOMINANCE OF TECH NICALLY PRODUCED IMAGES IN OUR EXPERIENCE OF THE WORLD AS WELL AS THE RELATED QUESTION OF WHY SOUNDS BOTH NATU RAL AND ARTIlCIAL ARE GIVEN SUCH LITTLE ATTENTION IN OUR DIS COURSE (E lRST APPROACHES THE SUBJECT FROM A HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE PROVIDING AN IN DEPTH LOOK AT HOW THE DOMINANCE OF TECHNICALLY GENER ATED IMAGES CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS (UG THEN QUESTIONS WHAT SIGNIlCANCE SOUNDS HAVE AND HOW WE NOT ONLY COMPLETE OUR PERCEPTION OF REAL ITY BUT ALSO REMEMBER AND UNDERSTAND WITH THE HELP OF ACOUSTIC SIGNALS ,ASTLY HE PROVIDES A FEW SUGGESTIONS AS TO HOW DESIGNERS CAN MAKE FORMAL AND FUNCTIONAL USE OF SOUND AND HOW INTERACTION CAN BE ACHIEVED BY ACOUSTIC MEANS (UG DEVELOPS THESE THOUGHTS USING EXAMPLES FROM VARIOUS SUB DISCIPLINES INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AUDIO VISUAL MEDIA INTERACTION DESIGN #HRISTIAN 7EBER 'ERHARD - "UURMAN )NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS n 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS )N THEIR ESSAY #HRISTIAN 7EBER AND 'ERHARD - "UUR MAN TAKE A TOPICAL LOOK AT THE lELD OF WEARABLE COMPUTERS &ROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF INTERACTION DESIGN THIS AREA OF WORK AND RESEARCH IS OF GREAT SIGNIlCANCE BECAUSE IT BRINGS TOGETHER A NUMBER OF THEMATIC ISSUES WIRELESS TECHNOLO GIES MINIATURIZATION UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING CONTEXTUAL COMPUTING INTERFACES DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES TEXTILE TECH NOLOGY AS WELL AS FASHION INDUSTRIAL AND INTERACTION DE SIGN -ANY RESEARCH INSTITUTES UNIVERSITIES AND COMPANIES ARE STUDYING AND DEVELOPING WEARABLE COMPUTERS 4HIS IS A HIGHLY COMPLEX lELD FOR DESIGN SINCE IT SEEKS TO INTEGRATE SPECIlC FUNCTIONALITIES COMMUNICATION INFORMATION IN TERACTION INTO EXISTING HUMAN CLOTHING AND GEAR (ERE WE ARE NOT ATTEMPTING TO INVENT NEW CLOTHES OR OTHER WEAR ABLE ACCESSORIES BOTH FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETIC 2ATHER WE ARE PRIMARILY WORKING TO INCORPORATE TECHNOLOGICAL MATERIAL AND CREATIVE INNOVATIONS INTO EXISTING ARTIFACTS SO AS TO GIVE USERS IN THE SPECIlC CONTEXTS IN WHICH THEY ACT AN ADDED BENElT THAT FUNCTIONS IN THE BACKGROUND (ERE DESIGN NECESSARILY BECOMES INTERACTION DESIGN )TS QUALI TIES CANNOT BE MEASURED IN TERMS OF SUPERlCIAL EFFECTS BUT
PRODUCTION 7HEREAS IN THE S #ONSTRUCTIVE !RT IN PARTICULAR EXPLOITED THESE SPECIAL COMPUTER CAPABILITIES EG $OMINIC "OREHAM &RANK "TTGER NOWADAYS INDUS TRY IS INCREASINGLY APPROPRIATING SIMILAR PROCEDURES FOR $ WORLDS GAMES PHYSICAL SIMULATIONS ETC &OR THIS REA SON AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF DESIGN WORK LIES IN CODIFY ING THE RULES BY WHICH MACHINES GENERATE FORMS COLORS AND PATTERNS 4HE AUTHORS PRESENT THIS CENTRAL THESIS USING A PRACTICAL CASE STUDY FROM CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 4HIS WORK ILLUSTRATES WHAT IS MEANT BY THE CODIlCA TION OF IMAGES TURNING IMAGES INTO NUMBERS 4HE AU THORS PROVIDE AN ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION TO THE WAYS THAT AESTHETIC IMAGERY AND ITS MATHEMATICAL BASIS ARE CONNECTED 4HE TECHNICALLY PRODUCED IMAGES PREVALENT TODAY MUST BE UNDERSTOOD AS TOOLS OF KNOWLEDGE PRODUC TION OR KNOWLEDGE RECEPTION 4HEIR FUNCTION CAN ONLY BE EXPLAINED IN THE CONTEXTS FROM WHICH THEY EMERGE ON A REAL TIME BASIS 0HILIP !CKERMANN )NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS %NTITLED h)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS v THIS ESSAY DEALS WITH THE POTENTIAL OF INTERACTIVE PROCESSING CHAINS )T SHOW CASES A SAMPLE APPLICATION THAT 53- 3CHØRRER 3HNE !' COMMISSIONED THE AUTHOR 0HILIP !CKERMANN TO DEVELOP !CKERMANN lRST DISCUSSES THE COMPUTER AS A POWERFUL SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT THAT ALLOWS USERS TO EXPERIENCE IN AN EXPERIMENTAL SPACE THE PERMEATION OF THEORY AND PRACTICE
)NTRODUCTION 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
RATHER IN TERMS OF THE PROPERTIES OF HUMAN TECHNOLOGY INTERACTION AND THE NEW WAYS THIS hINVISIBLEv TECHNOLOGY SIGNALS IT IS THERE 2APHAEL 0ERRET "ETWEEN -AN AND -ACHINE )N HIS ESSAY 2APHAEL 0ERRET EXPLAINS HOW MACHINES PERCEIVE US AND HOW WE RESPOND TO THIS PERCEIVED REPRE SENTATION #ENTERING ON POSSIBLE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS IN HUMAN MACHINE INTERACTION HE DESCRIBES THE TECHNICIZED SENSORY APPARATUS OF OUR ELECTRIlED SOCIETY AND ITS MEM BERS &ROM THIS STATUS REPORT WHICH TREATS CURRENT AND FU TURE TECHNICAL FACILITIES INPUTS AND OUTPUTS 0ERRET DE VELOPS THE FOUNDATIONS FOR HIS CONCEPT OF INTERACTIVITY (E TESTS THIS CONCEPT IN HIS EXPERIMENTAL INSTALLATION h$RESS CODE v n A REAL ROOM EQUIPPED WITH SENSORS THAT TRACK THE MOVEMENTS OF TWO INTERACTING PARTIES 4HE INSTALLATION THEN REPRESENTS THE MOVEMENT PATTERNS IN TEXTILE FORM IN THE REAL WORLD 4HROUGH THIS PROCESS SURVEILLANCE DATA IS NOT ONLY RETURNED TO THE PERSON GENERATING IT BUT ALSO RE WORKED AS CLOTHING REMEMBERED AND PUBLICLY DISPLAYED )N ADDITION THE AUTHOR PRESENTS EXAMPLES OF HUMAN MACHINE INTERACTIONS OR PARTNERSHIPS FROM THE ARTS AND SCIENCES +NIGHT 2IDER "LADE 2UNNER (E USES THEM TO ELABORATE ON HIS THOUGHTS CONCERNING THE QUALITATIVE NEW DEMANDS PLACED ON TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS THAT ARE INCREASINGLY LENDING THEMSELVES TO SENSUOUS IMMEDIATE AND EVEN BEAUTIFUL FORMS OF EXPRESSION AS A RESULT OF OPTI MIZED INTERACTION PROCESSES -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN 'ENERATIVE $ESIGN 4HIS ESSAY BY -AX 2HEINER AND &ELIX %GGMANN DE SCRIBES BOTH THE CONCEPTUALIZATION AND THE RESULTS OF A WORKSHOP IN THE INTERACTIVE MEDIA PROGRAM AT THE 5NI VERSITY OF !PPLIED !RTS IN :URICH %NTITLED h'ENERATIVE $ESIGN v THE WORKSHOP CENTERED ON THE FUNDAMENTALS OF GRAPHIC PROGRAMMING AND EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMMING PROCEDURES 4HE AUTHORS DElNE GENERATIVE DESIGN AS THE MACHINE BASED PRODUCTION OF FORMS $ESIGNERS DO NOT CREATE THE FORMS THEMSELVES BUT RATHER WRITE THE RULEBOOKS FOR THEIR
5SING A PRODUCT CONlGURATOR AS AN EXAMPLE !CKER MANN SHOWS THE COMPLEX INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN PRODUCT DATA THE SIMULATIVE ENVIRONMENT AND THE COMMERCIAL PROCESSES OF PLANNING PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 4HE CONlGURATOR IS A FUNCTIONAL INTERACTIVE SIMULATION THAT DYNAMICALLY DEPICTS ALL PROPERTIES OF THE MODEL AND ITS MODULES HERE THE MODEL IS A MODULAR OFlCE FURNITURE SYSTEM )T ALSO PORTRAYS ANY USE RELATED CHANGES IN THESE PROPERTIES FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL RULES ROLES PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ETC !CKERMANN DESCRIBES THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCH INTERACTIVE SIMULATIONS WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF DIA LOGIC BUSINESS PROCESSES AND THEIR COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS WHICH ALSO FALL UNDER THE HEADING hENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNINGv %20 (E REGARDS INTERACTIVE SIMULATIONS AS DElNING VISIONS IN THE lELDS OF MULTIMEDIA COMPUTING AND INTERACTION DESIGN /NE REASON FOR THIS VIEW IS THAT SUCH SIMULATIONS ENHANCE THE ECONOMIC EFlCIENCY OF IN NOVATION PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION PROCESSES hCUS TOMER SATISFACTIONv ! CONSISTENT DISPLAY OF DATA PRODUCT DATA KNOWL EDGE PROCESS DATA CUSTOMER DATA ETC IS THE NECESSARY FOUNDATION FOR SIMULTANEOUS BUSINESS PROCESSES )N SIMU LATIVE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENTS ALL RECORDED DATA MUST BE PROCESSED AND ORGANIZED INTO RELEVANT VIEWS #ONSTANTLY UPDATED DATA IS THEREFORE A MUST FOR COMPANY WIDE COL LABORATIVE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4HIS MEANS THAT EVERY ACTIVITY FROM ENGINEERING TO CUSTOMER CARE MUST BE PROCESSED ON A REAL TIME BASIS SO THAT NECESSARY CHANGES CAN BE DISPLAYED 4HE COMPANY AND ITS OPERA TIONS ARE REmECTED IN AN EXTENSIVE DATA MODEL AND BECOME LIKE AN ORGANISM VISIBLE IN THEIR LATEST FORM AT THE INTER FACES /N THE BASIS OF A CONlGURATION TOOL DEVELOPED FOR 53- (ALLER !CKERMANN SHOWS HOW PRODUCT DATA PHYSI CAL GEOMETRIC DATA WHICH IS DEPENDENT ON OTHER BUSI NESS DATA CAN BE DISPLAYED AND MADE INTEROPERABLE IN A SIMULATIVE INTERACTIVE ENVIRONMENT 4HE AUTHOR CONVINCINGLY DEMONSTRATES THE POTENTIAL OFFERED BY INTERACTIVE SIMULATIONS THAT ALLOW US TO LINK SUB PROCESSES TO FORM A SINGLE DYNAMIC COMPANY WIDE PROCESS )F THIS MODEL IS EXTENDED ACROSS THE BOUNDARIES OF BUSINESSES NATIONS AND OTHER hSYSTEMS v A MECHANISM CAN BE SET IN PLACE THAT PERFORMS A NUMBER OF FUNC TIONS IT CAN INFORM US OF THE OPERATIONAL STATUS OF SAY SOMEONES CAR CONlGURE A PRODUCT AND ULTIMATELY DE SCRIBE ALL HUMAN ACTION AND RENDER IT COMPREHENSIBLE AS THE EXECUTION OF A TECHNICAL OPTION %VENTUALLY WE WILL
END UP VIEWING THESE PROCESSES FROM AN AESTHETIC VIEW POINT AND SEEKING WAYS TO INTEGRATE SUCH MECHANISMS INTO OUR ENVIRONMENTS AS AESTHETIC PHENOMENA /NE EXAMPLE IS THE GLASS 67 FACTORY IN 7OLFSBURG WHICH DEMONSTRATES THAT EVEN TODAY WE ARE CREATING THEATRICAL PRESENTATIONS AND LIFESTYLES FROM MORE RATIONAL PRODUC TION PROCESSES $ANIEL "ISIG "IO3ONICS )NTERACTIVE 'ROWTH 3YSTEM )N HIS ESSAY $ANIEL "ISIG DESCRIBES A MEANS OF TRANS FORMING HUMAN INTERACTION INTO SPATIAL TIME BASED SIGN FORMATIONS WITH THE AID OF A DYNAMIC SELF ORGANIZING SYS TEM 4HE EXPERIMENT EXPLORES THE AESTHETIC RULES NECES SARY TO CONSTRUCT SUCH FORMATIONS AS WELL AS THE QUESTION OF HOW INTUITIVE INTERACTION CAN BE REALIZED VIA COMPLEX SYSTEMS 4HE EXPERIMENT SIMULATES BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES WITH WHICH THE USER CAN INTERACT 4HE SYSTEMS GROWTH PROCESS IS CONTROLLED VIA A NETWORK OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT LEAD TO CHANGES IN THE SYSTEMS APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOR 4HESE CHANGES ARE INDICATED THROUGH BOTH ACOUSTIC AND VISUAL OUTPUT -ICROPHONES THAT RECORD USER INPUT TRANSFORM SIGNALS INTO CHEMICAL PROCESSES THAT UL TIMATELY LEAD TO CHANGES IN THE GROWTH AND SHAPE OF THE ORGANISM "IO3ONICS HAS BEEN CONCEIVED AS AN EXPERIMENTAL INSTALLATION )T IS INTENDED TO SHOW HOW AN IMMEDIATE FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP CAN BE ESTABLISHED BETWEEN AN AB STRACT CHEMICAL MODEL AND SOUND IN GENERAL )T MAKES CLEAR THAT WE CAN EXERT AN INmUENCE ON OUR ENVIRONMENT THROUGH ALL TYPES OF FEEDBACK 4HE INSTALLATION GIVES US AN IMPRESSION OF THE POS SIBLE CHEMICAL REACTIONS AT WORK WHEN WE HEAR A PLEASANT HUMAN VOICE THAT CAUSES A SHIVER TO RUN DOWN OUR SPINE )T INSPIRES SUCH REmECTIONS WHILE PROVIDING AN INTRIGUING AND STARTLING VIEW OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
#AROLINE 3CHUBIGER )NTERACTION $ESIGN $ElNITION AND 4ASKS #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER EVALUATED A RANGE OF TOPICAL WELL KNOWN WORKS ON DESIGN INTERACTION DESIGN AND AS SEMBLED THESE IN AN ANTHOLOGY )N THIS ESSAY SHE FOLLOWS A DElNED METHODOLOGY IN COMPARING AND ANALYZING VARIOUS METHODICAL TERMINOLOGICAL AND COMMUNICATION THEORETICAL ISSUES RELATED TO THIS THEMATIC lELD 3CHUBIGER PROVIDES US WITH A SELECT METHODOLOGICALLY SOUND VIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON INTERACTION DESIGN )T INCLUDES BOOKS THAT WE RECOMMEND AS INTRODUCTORY READING AND USE IN CLASS ROOM INSTRUCTION
)NTRODUCTION 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
"ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI 4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE 'ENERALLY THE TERM AUGMENTED REALITY !2 REFERS TO AN INTERACTIVE REAL TIME SUPERIMPOSITION OF VIRTUAL AND REAL INFORMATION 4HIS OVERLAP OCCURS AT GEOMETRICALLY DE lNED LOCATIONS AND ALLOWS USERS TO SUPPLEMENT THEIR EN VIRONMENT WITH DIGITAL INFORMATION PRECISELY AT THE PLACES WHERE IT IS FUNCTIONALLY AND AESTHETICALLY DESIRED 7ITHIN AN AUGMENTED REALITY SYSTEM !23 VIRTUALITY IS ALWAYS ORIENTED TOWARD REALITY 4HROUGH TANGIBLE INTERFACES DIGITAL INFORMATION IS GIVEN PHYSICAL FORM 4HE PHYSICAL INTERFACE REPRESENTS AND CONTROLS THE DIGITAL INFORMATION 4HESE PHYSICAL MODELS BOTH PROVIDE OUR EYES AND HANDS WITH ALL THE NECESSARY DATA AND COMMUNICATE QUALITATIVE NON LINGUISTIC INFORMATION )N THIS ESSAY THE TEAM OF AUTHORS DESCRIBES THE CON CEPT AND STRUCTURE OF AN !23 EQUIPPED WITH A TANGIBLE USER INTERFACE AND DEVELOPED FOR CHEMISTRY INSTRUCTION 7ITH THIS EXPERIMENTAL DEVICE STUDENTS CAN MANUALLY COMBINE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AS THEY LOOK INTO AN ARTIlCIAL LY GENERATED MIRROR IMAGE 4HE ELEMENTS ARE PORTRAYED IN REAL TIME AS COMPUTER GENERATED THREE DIMENSIONAL MOL ECULE MODELS 0ETER 4ROXLER 2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM )N HIS ESSAY 0ETER 4ROXLER DESCRIBES WAYS OF SPARKING YOUNG PEOPLES INTEREST IN ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCI ENCE SPECIlCALLY ROBOTICS 4ROXLER ARGUES THAT IT IS POSSI BLE TO COMBINE IN A SINGLE APPROACH THE TEACHING OF COM PUTER SCIENCE MECHATRONICS AND ROBOTICS WITH SOFT SKILLS SUCH AS TEAM PRESENTATIONAL AND COMMUNICATIVE ABILITIES 4HE AUTHOR DESCRIBES IN DETAIL A PROJECT THAT STUDENTS IM PLEMENTED WITH THE HELP OF ,EGO -INDSTORM 4HE PROJECT IS USED AS AN EXAMPLE TO INTRODUCE THE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF THIS SPECIlC FORM OF MAN MACHINE INTERACTION
! )NTRODUCTION !S THIS COLLECTION TOOK SHAPE ITS CREATORS FELT A DESIRE TO hVISUALIZEv THE ESSAYS AND THEIR THEMATIC LINKS *ÓRGEN 3PØTH THE BOOKS CHIEF DESIGNER AND -AGNUS 2EMBOLD A COMPUTER SCIENTIST AND SPECIALIST FOR DYNAMIC DATA GRAPH ICS WORKED TOGETHER WITH THE EDITOR TO ESTABLISH PRACTICABLE AND EFFECTIVE PRINCIPLES FOR VISUALLY ILLUSTRATING THE RELATION SHIPS BETWEEN ESSAYS AND CONVEYING THEM TO THE READER " #ONCEPTS " 4HE PROBLEM ! FEW OF THE ESSAYS HAVE CLOSE THEMATIC LINKS WHILE OTHERS FOCUS SO STRONGLY ON ONE TOPIC THAT THEY MORE OR LESS STAND ALONE )N MANY CASES COMMON KEYWORDS MAKE SURPRISING CROSS REFERENCES BETWEEN TWO SEEMINGLY UNRE LATED ESSAYS 4HE CHALLENGE LAY IN lNDING FORMS OF GRAPHI CAL TYPOGRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION FOR THE ESSAYS THAT WERE BOTH APPEALING AND INFORMATIVE $UE IN PART TO THEIR NUMBER AND SCOPE WE WERE SEEKING A WAY TO AUTOMATI CALLY GENERATE GRAPHICS ACCORDING TO PREDElNED RULES " "ASIS OF VISUALIZATION ! DATA GRAPHIC n LIKE A BAR CHART n DEPICTS QUANTIl ABLE DATA !NY AUTOMATED GENERATION OF CONTENT GRAPH ICS REQUIRES AN AUTOMATED QUANTIlABLE TRANSFORMATION OF THE MOSTLY TEX TUAL INFORMATION IN THE ESSAYS 5NLIKE HUMAN BEINGS OUR CURRENT COMPUTING SYSTEMS CAN ONLY INSUFlCIENTLY hREADv OR INTERPRET ESSAYS WHICH MEANS THAT IN OUR WORK WE HAD TO RELY ON DATA THAT ALREADY EX ISTED IN THE TEX TS AND WAS NOT ADDED THROUGH INTERPRETATIVE READ ING OR ASSOCIATION " $IFFERENT WAYS OF DATA SELECTION SUBPARTS !N IMPORTANT FACTOR WAS THE MANNER OF DATA COLLEC TION )N WHAT FOLLOWS WE WOULD LIKE TO PROVIDE A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF ALL DATA UNDER CONSIDERATION )T IS POSSIBLE TO DIVIDE ESSAY DATA INTO TWO MAIN GROUPS DATA THAT MUST BE COLLECTED hMANUALLYv IN OUR CASE USING HUMAN INTELLIGENCE AND DATA THAT CAN BE CAP TURED AUTOMATICALLY BY MACHINE INTELLIGENCE
" +EYWORDS +EYWORDS ARE TERMS THAT IDENTIFY AN ESSAY IN A SPECIAL WAY OR HAVE INCREASED SIGNIlCANCE FOR IT )F A PERSON RE SEARCHES A SUBJECT USING ONE OF THESE KEYWORDS IT WILL PRO DUCE A LIST OF SEARCH RESULTS THAT SHOULD INCLUDE THE ESSAY TO WHICH IT IS ATTACHED +EYWORDS MAY EX IST IN OR BE ADDED TO AN ESSAY )N ANY CASE THEY REPRESENT A SPECIAL MARKER SET BY AN AUTHOR OR CATALOGUER +EYWORDS ARE SUBJECTIVE n THEY REmECT THE SPECIlC PERSPECTIVE AND BACKGROUND OF THE PERSON WHO DECLARES THEM " -ETADATA %X AMPLES OF ESSAY METADATA ARE THE ESSAYS AUTHOR THE TIME PERIODS IN WHICH IT WAS WRITTEN ITS LANGUAGE THE NUMBER OF IMAGES IT USES THE TYPE OF IMAGES TEX T GENRE INTENDED AUDIENCE LENGTH IN CHARACTERS WORDS SENTENC ES SECTIONS PAGES lLE FORMAT TYPEFACE ETC 7E lND THAT IT IS POSSIBLE TO AUTOMATE THE COLLECTION OF SOME OF THESE METADATA &OR EX AMPLE THE LANGUAGE IN WHICH AN ARTICLE IS WRITTEN CAN BE DETERMINED BY COMPARING THE WORDS USED IN THE ARTICLE WITH WORDS OF OTHER KNOWN LANGUAGES )F THE ARTICLE CONTAINS WORDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE REGION WHERE 2OMANIAN IS SPOKEN IT WAS MOST LIKELY WRITTEN IN 2OMA NIAN )F WORDS ARE UNKNOWN TO THE COMPUTER IT WILL NOT BE ABLE TO DETERMINE THE LANGUAGE &OR THE MOST PART THE TIME PERIOD DURING WHICH THE ESSAY WAS WRITTEN CAN BE RETRIEVED AUTOMATICALLY n PROVIDED THAT THE TEX T WAS WRIT TEN ON A COMPUTER AND THE WORD PROCESSING PROGRAM KEPT TRACK OF THE WRITING SESSIONS )F IMAGES ARE AVAILABLE IN DIGITAL FORM IT IS ALSO POSSIBLE TO AUTOMATE THE PROCESSING OF IMAGE METADATA SINCE IN THIS CASE IMAGE lLE FORMATS DIMENSIONS COLOR DEPTHS AND RESOLUTIONS ARE KNOWN (OWEVER IMAGE CONTENT IS META INFORMATION THAT NEEDS TO BE CLASSIlED MANUALLY #ONSEQUENTLY CLASSIlCATION OF METADATA AS MANUAL OR AUTOMATIC MUST BE PERFORMED ON A CASE BY CASE BASIS !LTHOUGH THE LENGTH OF A TEX T IS META INFORMATION IT CAN BE DETERMINED AUTOMATICALLY IN SUCH GREAT DETAIL THAT IT TRANSITIONS TO THE DOMAIN OF AUTOMATI CALLY COLLECTABLE DATA 4HE FORMULATION ALONE MAKES CLEAR THAT THIS IS SECOND NATURE FOR HUMAN BEINGS ! COMPUTER CAN ONLY COMPARE CHARACTER PATTERNS WITHOUT EX TENSIVE PROGRAMMING IT IS UNABLE TO GRASP THE CONSTRUCT OF LANGUAGE
#ONTENT 'RAPHICS (OW TO 2EAD THE 6ISUALS
#/.4%.4 '2!0()#3 (/7 4/ 2%!$ 4(% 6)35!,3
" 3TATISTICAL DATA !N ESSAY IS USUALLY STORED ELECTRONICALLY IN THE FORM OF ALPHANUMERICAL CHARACTER SEQUENCES WHICH COMPUT ERS CAN EASILY CRUNCH #ONSEQUENTLY DATA COLLECTION CAN BE EASILY AUTOMATED WHEN THE DATA PERTAINS TO THE NUM BER OF CHARACTERS WORDS SENTENCES SECTIONS AND PAGES IN AN ESSAY OR TO THE FREQUENCY OF WORDS AND CHARACTERS ALL OTHER FREQUENCIES LEAD TO UNUSABLE RESULTS (OWEVER THIS DATA HAS ONLY A LIMITED SIGNIlCANCE 3TATISTICAL ANALYSES ARE MUCH MORE INTERESTING WHEN SEVERAL ESSAYS ARE COMPARED %SSAY STATISTICS CAN BE COMPILED IN ORDER TO COMPARE TWO ESSAYS TO COMPARE ONE ESSAY WITH ALL OTHERS OR TO ANALYZE THE ENTIRE ESSAY COLLECTION OR BOOK " 3TRUCTURAL DATA #OMPUTER LINGUISTIC PROCESSES CAN BE USED TO EVALU ATE GRAMMATICAL AND STRUCTURAL INFORMATION IN AN ESSAY (OWEVER THEY REQUIRE THAT THE GRAMMAR OF THE LANGUAGE BE WELL KNOWN AND THAT THE AUTHOR OF THE TEX T ACTUALLY USE IT ! COLLECTION OF PURELY ASSOCIATIVE WORDS EVEN IF THEY REPRESENT A STATEMENT OF SORTS CANNOT BE ANALYZED LINGUIS TICALLY !ND EVEN IF A LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS YIELDS RESULTS THESE RESULTS SAY LITTLE ABOUT THE SUBJECT OF THE ESSAY 4HEY ARE BETTER SUITED TO UNDERSTANDING TEX T GENRE OR THE COMPLEX ITY OF THE AUTHORS STYLE WHICH MAY IN TURN SHED LIGHT ON THE COMPLEX ITY OF THE SUBJECT MATTER " $ATA SELECTION IN THE PRESENT CASE 7E HAVE CONCENTRATED ON DATA THAT WAS EASY TO COL LECT AUTOMATICALLY 4HE FREQUENCY OF WORDS BOTH IN AN ES SAY AND IN COMPARISON TO OTHER ESSAYS PROVIDED US WITH A BASIS FOR GRAPHICS GENERATION )N ORDER TO CREATE DETAILED GRAPHICS WITH THE GREATEST POSSIBLE THEMATIC SIGNIlCANCE WE DISREGARDED METADATA AND FOCUSED SOLELY ON WORD FRE QUENCY )N ORDER TO REMOVE FROM THE STATISTICS AN ESSAYS NON THEMATIC lLLER WORDS IT AND ONE IS THAT ETC WE USED A MANUALLY COMPILED STOP WORD LIST AS A lLTER IN THE PRELIMINARY STAGE OF THE PROJECT 4HE TERM hSECOND AUTHORv WAS ANOTHER VITAL CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTED REPRESENTATIONAL MODE 4HE SECOND AU THOR WAS IDENTIlED FOR EACH EX AMINED WORD IN AN ESSAY AND REPRESENTS THE AUTHOR WHO USES THIS SPECIAL WORD MOST FREQUENTLY IN HIS HER ESSAY %ACH EX AMINED WORD THUS ES TABLISHES A THEMATIC LINK BETWEEN TWO ESSAYS AT LEAST IN STATISTICAL TERMS
!N ABANDONED APPROACH TO VISUALIZING THE ESSAY CONTENT !ND ONLY RARELY DOES THIS SHED LIGHT ON THE COMPLEX ITY OF THE SUBJECT MATTER !UTHORS OFTEN WRITE COMPLEX SENTENCES ABOUT SIMPLE TOPICS 0ROSE WRITERS MAY PURPOSELY DO SO FOR REASONS OF STYLE
)N A SECOND STAGE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ESSAYS ARE DETERMINED "OTH THE hSECOND AUTHORv AND RELATIVE FRE QUENCIES ARE CALCULATED FOR EVERY WORD IN ORDER TO IDENTIFY WHICH OF THE TWO AUTHORS AND WHICH ESSAY ATTACHES hGREAT EST IMPORTANCEv TO THE WORD 4 HIS IS FOLLOWED BY GEOMETRIC COMPUTATIONS THAT CON VERT THE CAPTURED DATA INTO GRAPHIC STRUCTURES IN OUR CASE PRIMARILY CIRCLES 4 HE POSITION OF THE CIRCLES CENTER AS WELL AS RADIUS LENGTH lLLER COLORS TYPEFACE COLOR AND CIRCLE TRANSPARENCY VARY DEPENDING ON DATA 4 HE GRAPHIC STRUCTURES ARE EXPRESSED IN THE DESCRIP TIVE LANGUAGE 36' AND WRITTEN INTO AN OUTPUT lLE /NCE ALL THE DESCRIPTIONS FOR A CONTENT GRAPHIC HAVE BEEN PIECED TOGETHER THE lLE IS CLOSED AND TRANSFERRED TO A BROWSER PROGRAM WITH A SOFTWARE COMPONENT FOR THE DISPLAY OF 36' lLES 4 HIS COMPONENT THEN CONVERTS THE DESCRIP TION INTO VISUAL OUTPUT 4 HE AUTHORING TOOL $IRECTOR ALSO HAS A DISPLAY FUNC TION FOR VECTOR BASED GRAPHICS THAT PERMITS DIRECT DISPLAY IN THE SYSTEM AND THAT WOULD PRESUMABLY HAVE SIMPLIlED THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS THROUGH SIMPLER MANIPULATION DURING GRAPHICS GENERATION (OWEVER WE DECIDED TO FORE GO THIS ALTERNATIVE OUTPUT FOR REASONS OF TIME 7E USED !DOBE )LLUSTRATOR FOR GRAPHICS AND !DOBE )N$ESIGN FOR BOOK LAYOUT 36' SCALABLE VECTOR GRAPHICS &OR MORE INFORMATION PLEASE VISIT HTTPWWWWORG'RAPHICS36' 7# 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB #ONSORTIUM A GROUP OF INDUSTRY PROFES SIONALS DEDICATED TO STANDARDIZING ELECTRONIC DATA FORMATS 8-, E8TENDABLE -ARKUP ,ANGUAGE A META LANGUAGE USED TO DESCRIBE DATA FORMATS $IRECTOR USES ,INGO WHOSE SYNTAX IS CLOSELY RELATED TO 0!3#!, A LANGUAGE DEVELOPED BY .IKLAUS 7IRTH OF THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUTE OF 4 ECHNOLOGY IN :URICH 3EE ALSO hSTOP WORD LISTv IN THE SECTION h$ATA SELECTION IN THE PRES ENT CASEv )N OUR CASE THE 3AFARI BROWSER BY !PPLE WITH THE 36' PLUG IN BY !DOBE AVAILABLE AT HTTPWWWADOBECOMSVG
#ONTENT 'RAPHICS (OW TO 2EAD THE 6ISUALS
# 0RODUCTION # )MPLEMENTATION CRITERIA 4 HE GRAPHICS GENERATED WERE INTENDED FOR HIGH QUAL ITY REPRODUCTION IN THE BOOK 3INCE WE WANTED THEM TO CONSIST PRIMARILY OF TYPOGRAPHY AND COLORED AREAS WE SE LECTED A VECTOR RATHER THAN A PIXEL BASED FORMAT )N AD DITION AS AN OUTPUT lLE THE FORMAT WAS TO BE WRITTEN BY MEANS OF AN ALGORITHM TO ENSURE A FULLY AUTOMATED PRO CESS 4 HIS MADE IT ESSENTIAL TO WORK WITH AN hOPENv FOR MAT THAT HAD A WELL KNOWN INTERNAL SYNTAX AND COULD BE EASILY PROCESSED BY BOOK LAYOUT PROGRAMS 4 HE 3CAL ABLE 6ECTOR 'RAPHICS &ORMAT OF THE 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB #ONSORTIUM WHICH WAS DElNED WITH THE SUPPORT OF !DOBE AND OTHER COMPANIES FULlLLS THESE REQUIREMENTS !S AN ADDED ADVANTAGE IT IS READABLE BY HUMAN BEINGS IN A FORM SIMILAR TO 8-, !N ADDITIONAL DEMAND ON THE GENERATION PROCESS WAS THAT IT SHOULD PERMIT QUICK AND mEXIBLE ALTERATIONS TO THE RULES OF GRAPHICS GENERATION 4 HIS IS WHY WE SELECTED -AC ROMEDIA $IRECTOR AS AN AUTHORING TOOL WITH AN INTERPRET ED PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE IN ORDER TO IMPLEMENT THE ALGORITHM -ACROMEDIA $IRECTOR ALLOWS FOR DIRECT SCRIPT EDITING WITHOUT RECOMPILATION AND FEATURES FUNCTIONS FOR MANIPULATING TEXTS WORDS AND CHARACTERS &URTHER THE AU THORING TOOL MAKES POSSIBLE AN UNCOMPLICATED DISPLAY OF GRAPHICS WITHIN THE PROGRAM IN ADDITION TO OUTPUT OF THE GRAPHICS AS A TEXT lLE IN 36' FORMAT # 'ENERATION PROCESS 4 HE GRAPHICS GENERATION PROCESS UNFOLDS SEQUENTIALLY IN A NUMBER OF STAGES )T IS PARTIALLY REPEATED FOR EACH RE GENERATION OF THE SAME GRAPHIC )T STARTS BY READING AND hCLEANINGv THE TEXT n THAT IS BY CONVERTING OR DELETING BLANK PARAGRAPHS BLANK CHARACTERS SPECIAL CHARACTERS ETC 4 HE TEXT PROCESSED IN THIS WAY IS THEN lLTERED WORD BY WORD SEE hSTOP WORD LISTv IN u$ATA SELECTION IN THE PRES ENT CASEh AND EVALUATED YIELDING A TABLE THAT CONTAINS ALL WORDS THAT APPEAR IN THE ESSAY PLUS THEIR FREQUENCY $ATA PREPARATION ONLY NEEDS TO BE PERFORMED ONCE PER ESSAY AND THIS INFORMATION CAN THEN BE STORED AS AN INTERME DIARY RESULT !T THIS POINT IT IS POSSIBLE TO COMPUTE HOW MANY WORDS HAVE A lLLER FUNCTION HOW MANY CROP UP SEVERAL TIMES AND HOW MANY STAND ALONE IN THE ESSAY COL LECTION 3TANDARDIZED VALUES CAN BE DERIVED FOR THE ENTIRE LENGTH OF THE ESSAY
# 'RAPHIC LEVELS /UR CONTENT GRAPHICS CONSIST OF THREE LEVELS EACH OF WHICH REPRESENTS DIFFERENT INFORMATION # "ACKGROUND 4 HE BACKGROUND OF EACH GRAPHIC CLASSIlES THE ESSAY IN QUESTION WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF ALL OTHER ESSAYS IN THE BOOK 4 HE CONCENTRIC CIRCLES REPRESENT THE INDIVIDUAL ES SAYS WITH THE RADIUS IN DIRECT PROPORTION TO THE ESSAYS CHARACTER COUNT SEE &IGURE )N ADDITION THE ESSAYS ARE DEPICTED AS A PIE SLICE THAT HAS BEEN COLOR CODED ACCORD ING TO *OHANNES )TTENS COLOR CIRCLE AND WHOSE WIDTH OF THE CENTRAL ANGLE DERIVES FROM THE NUMBER OF COINCIDING WORDS BETWEEN THE ESSAY IN QUESTION AND THAT OF THE SEC OND AUTHOR 4 HE RADIUS OF THE PIE SLICE ALSO DERIVES FROM THE LENGTH OF THE INDIVIDUAL ESSAYS THE SAME IS TRUE OF THE CONCENTRIC CIRCLES SEE &IGURE )N THE CONTEXT OF THE BOOK THE ESSAYS HAVE BEEN ARRANGED SO THAT THE lRST ESSAY APPEARS AT THE TOP OF THE CIRCLE AND THE OTHERS FOLLOW IN A CLOCKWISE DIRECTION 4 HE RADIUS OF THE WHITE SPACE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE PIE SLICES IS RELATIVE TO THE LENGTH OF THE OTHER ESSAYS SEE &IGURE "OTH THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CENTER OF THE WHITE SPACE AND ITS RADIUS AND THE DISTANCE BETWEEN ITS RADIUS AND THE OUTERMOST CONCENTRIC CIRCLE STAND IN DIRECT PROPORTION TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LENGTH OF THE ESSAY IN QUESTION AND THAT OF THE LONGEST ESSAY IN THE BOOK ! SHORT ESSAY IS THUS REPRESENTED BY A SMALL AMOUNT OF CENTRAL WHITE SPACE A LONG ESSAY BY A LARGE AMOUNT 4 HE SLICES THUS HAVE hLENGTHSv CORRESPONDING TO EACH OF THE ES SAYS 4 O ILLUSTRATE THE COLOR CODE WE HAVE GIVEN EACH SLICE A SOLID COLORED OUTER EDGE THAT RUNS ALONG THE CONCENTRIC CIRCLE ALLOTTED TO THE CORRESPONDING ESSAY # "ARCODE STRUCTURE 4 HE BARCODE STRUCTURE WHICH APPEARS WITHIN THE CONCENTRIC CIRCLE OF THE ESSAY IN QUESTION BREAKS DOWN ITS STRUCTURE SEE &IGURE "OTH THE CENTRAL ANGLE AND TRANSPARENCY OF EACH BAR CORRESPOND TO THE LENGTH OF THE ESSAYS PARAGRAPHS ! LONG PARAGRAPH IN THE TEXT IS DEPICT ED BY A LIGHT SHADE IE A HIGH DEGREE OF TRANSPARENCY AND A WIDE CENTRAL ANGLE 4 HE WHITE SPACE AT THE END OF THE BARCODE RING STANDS FOR THE AMOUNT OF SOURCE INFORMATION AND FOOTNOTES AT THE END OF A TEXT ! LARGE AMOUNT OF WHITE SPACE IN THE BARCODE RING INDICATES AN ESSAY WITH A LOT OF FOOTNOTES AND SOURCE INFORMATION
4 HIS IS THE ONLY MANUALLY IDENTIFIED METADATA IN THE GRAPHIC
#ONTENT 'RAPHICS (OW TO 2EAD THE 6ISUALS
# 7ORD CIRCLES 4HE SO CALLED WORD CIRCLES APPEAR IN THE FOREGROUND OF THE GRAPHIC AND REPRESENT A SELECTION OF THE MOST FRE QUENTLY USED WORDS IN THE ESSAY SEE &IGURE ! WORDS FREQUENCY AND TO SOME EXTENT ITS IMPORTANCE IS PRO PORTIONAL TO BOTH ITS TYPE SIZE AND THE DIAMETER OF ITS CIRCLE 4HE WORD CIRCLES COLOR IS THE BASIC COLOR ASSIGNED TO THE AUTHOR ACCORDING TO THE COLOR CIRCLE AND THE ESSAYS POSITION IN THE BOOK 7E HAVE USED A TRANSPARENT SHADE TO PERMIT HIGHLIGHTS AND ACCENTS WHEN DIFFERENT WORD CIRCLES OVERLAP /N THE ONE HAND THE WORD CIRCLES ARE PLACED IN DIFFERENT PIE SLICES TO INDICATE WHICH SECOND AUTHOR USED THE WORD MOST FREQUENTLY /N THE OTHER THEIR POSITION ON THE RADIAL AXIS BETWEEN THE AUTHOR IN QUESTION IN THE CENTER AND THE SECOND AUTHOR ON THE EDGE REmECTS THE FREQUENCY RATIO BETWEEN BOTH ESSAYS IF THE WORD IS MORE hIMPORTANTv TO THE SECOND AUTHOR THAN TO THE AUTHOR OF THE ESSAY IN QUESTION THE WORD CIRCLE APPEARS CLOSER TO THE SECOND AUTHOR n AND VICE VERSA 7ORD CIRCLES IN THE CENTER OF THE GRAPHIC ARE UNALLIED AND HAVE NO SECOND AUTHOR 4HE TYPE COLOR IS GRAY AND THEIR RADIAL POSITION IN THE WHITE SPACE REmECTS THEIR FRE QUENCY IN THE TEXT &REQUENTLY APPEARING WORDS ARE POSI TIONED IN THE CENTER SELDOM USED WORDS ALONG THE EDGE 4HE WORD CIRCLES CENTRAL ANGLES HAVE BEEN DETERMINED ACCORDING TO THE POSITION OF THE WORDS lRST LETTER IN THE ALPHABET )N EACH PIE SLICE WORDS BEGINNING WITH A B C COME lRST AND THE REST RUN CLOCKWISE $ 3UMMARY /UR GOAL WAS TO CREATE CONTENT GRAPHICS FOR THE ESSAYS USING A PROCESS MARKED BY A HIGH DEGREE OF AUTOMATION AND BASED ON WORD FREQUENCY )N ADDITION TO CONTENT WE PAID CLOSE ATTENTION TO THE SUBJECTIVE AESTHETICS OF REP RESENTATION )N THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS DESCRIBED WE REPEATEDLY CONSIDERED THE READERS SUBJECTIVE IMPRESSION OF THE GRAPHICS lNE TUNING THE RULES USED TO CONVERT COL LECTED DATA INTO GRAPHICAL STRUCTURES /UR OBJECTIVE WAS TO ALLOW READERS INTUITIVELY TO FORM THEMATIC CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE ESSAY FROM THE INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS -AGNUS 2EMBOLD *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
&OR THE PROGRAM OF THE APPROACH COMPARE 7IEBE % "IJKER 4HOMAS 0 (UGHES AND 4REVOR * 0INCH EDS 4HE 3OCIAL #ONSTRUCTION OF 4ECHNOLOGICAL 3YSTEMS .EW $IRECTIONS IN THE 3OCIOLOGY AND (ISTORY OF 4ECHNOLOGY #AMBRIDGE -ASS !NNE *ORUNN "ERG AND -ERTE ,IE h&EMINISM AND #ONSTRUCTIVISM $O !RTIFACTS HAVE 'ENDER v 3CIENCE 4ECHNOLOGY (UMAN 6ALUES
4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD
#OMPARE FOR EXAMPLE -ERRIT 2OE 3MITH ,EO -ARX EDS $OES 4ECHNOLOGY $RIVE (ISTORY 4HE $ILEMMA OF 4ECHNOLOGICAL $ETERMINISM #AMBRIDGE -ASS $ANIEL #HANDLER 3HAPING AND "EING 3HAPED #OMPUTER -EDIATED #OMMUNICATION -AGAZINE NO
4(% #/.4).5/53 #/.3425#4)/. /& 4(% #/-054%2 53%2 6)3)/.3 !.$ 53%2 -/$%,3 ). 4(% ()34/29 /& (5-!. #/-054%2 ).4%2!#4)/. -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD !BSTRACT 4HE DESIGN OF INTERACTIVE COMPUTER SYSTEMS SINCE THE END OF 7ORLD 7AR )) HAS BEEN INmUENCED BY A SERIES OF SCIENTIlC THEORIES AND IDEAS ABOUT THE TYPICAL COMPUTER USER 4HE PRINCIPAL ACTORS INVOLVED IN THIS DEVELOPMENT WERE ALL CONVINCED THAT THE ANSWER TO THE QUESTION OF HOW TO REPRESENT AND IMPART KNOWLEDGE WOULD BE THE KEY TO GOOD SYS TEM DESIGN 4HIS ARTICLE PURSUES THE QUESTION OF WHICH INTERACTION HAS TAKEN PLACE BETWEEN THESE IDEAS ABOUT INFORMATION SYSTEM USERS AND THE TECHNICAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPED IN THE PAST FEW DECADES ! WHOLE SERIES OF THEORIES HAS BEEN SUGGESTED IN AN ATTEMPT TO EX PLAIN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECHNICAL AND SOCIAL CHANGE 4ECHNICAL DETERMINISM AND SOCIAL DETERMINISM ARE THE TWO MAIN THEORIES 4HOSE WHO BELIEVE IN TECHNICAL DETERMINISM ARGUE THAT THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES PREDETERMINE THE DIRECTION OF CHANGES AND SET THE CONDITIONS FOR SOCIAL CHANGE 4HOSE WHO REPRESENT THE SOCIAL DETER MINISTIC DIRECTION FORMULATE THE IDEA THAT THE INmUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY CAN ONLY BE UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF THE IMPORTANCE OR MEANING THAT HUMANS ATTRIBUTE TO IT
4ECHNICAL DETERMINISM IS PRINCIPALLY CRITICIZED FOR REDUCING THE COMPLEX SOCIAL SYSTEM TO THE INTERACTION OF ITS INDIVIDUAL PARTS AND FOR TYPICALLY OVERLOOKING THE SOCIAL CONTEXT IN WHICH THE TECHNOLOGY IS EMBEDDED !CCORDINGLY ITS DESCRIPTION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE IS INSUFlCIENT 3OCIAL DETER MINISM ALSO REDUCES TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY TO A LINEAR SYSTEM WITHIN A lXED CONTEXT OF CAUSE AND EFFECT )N THIS CONTEXT SCIENCE AND TECHNO LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ARE NOT UNDERSTOOD AS A CULTURE WITH ITS OWN RATIO NALE OF INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT !LTHOUGH BOTH TECHNICAL AND SOCIAL DETERMINISM ARE COMING UNDER ATTACK WITH INCREASING FREQUENCY THEY CONTINUE TO REMAIN THE MOST POPULAR AND INmUENTIAL THEORIES FOR DESCRIBING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY )N ORDER TO DESCRIBE THE INTERACTION BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY AND SOCI ETY BETTER THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISTIC APPROACH WAS DEVELOPED IN THE MID S 4HIS PLACED THE HUMAN ACTOR IN THE CENTER OF THE PRO CESS BEING EXAMINED AND OBSERVED TECHNOLOGY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT AS AN EXTREMELY DYNAMIC SYSTEM WITH A MULTITUDE OF FEEDBACK !S "ERG AND ,IE STATED h3EVERAL OF OUR STUDIES CONCLUDED THAT CHANGING TECHNOLOGIES INITIATE A PERIOD OF INSTABILITY AND PROVIDE POSSIBILITIES FOR SOCIAL CHANGE BUT WE ALSO SAW THAT DESIRABLE CHANGES HAD TO BE INITIATED BY HUMAN ACTIONv
(ANS $IETER (ELLIGE 7ELTBIBLIOTHEK 5NIVERSAL ENZYKLOPØDIE 7ORLDBRAIN :UR 3ØKULARDEBATTE ÓBER DIE /RGANISATION DES 7ISSENS 4ECHNIKGESCHICHTE n 0ETER "URKE 0APIER UND -ARKTGESCHREI $IE 'EBURT DER 7ISSENSGESELLSCHAFT "ERLIN /RIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN %NGLISH AS ! 3OCIAL (ISTORY OF +NOWLEDGE &ROM 'UTENBERG TO $IDEROT
.ORBERT "OLZ +ONFORMISTEN DES !NDERSSEINS %NDE DER +RITIK -UNICH 6ANNEVAR "USH h!S 7E -AY 4HINK v !TLANTIC -ONTHLY n )BID
-ODERN -YTHS 4HE COMPUTER AND THE )NTERNET ARE OFTEN UNDERSTOOD AS A KIND OF GLOBAL LIBRARY IN WHICH THE TOTAL KNOWLEDGE OF MANKIND IS STORED CONTINUALLY GROWING AND BECOMING MORE COMPLETE n EVEN THOUGH THIS WAS RECENTLY EXPOSED AS A LEGEND BY (ANS $IETER (ELLIGE !ND 0ETER "URKE POINTED OUT IN HIS FUNDAMENTAL WORK ON THE BIRTH OF THE KNOW LEDGE SOCIETY THAT WISDOM CANNOT BE ACCUMULATED 4HE )NTERNET IS PRESENTED AS A MEDIA TIDAL WAVE ABRUPTLY WASHING OVER US AND OFFERING NO ESCAPE /NLY THERE ARE NO ABRUPT INNOVATIONS IN THE lELD OF THE MEDIA THERE IS NO DEUS EX MACHINA WHICH CAN OPEN THE GATES TO THE PARADISE OF KNOWLEDGE -EDIA TECHNOLOGIES ARE AND WILL REMAIN TOOLS WHICH REQUIRE MANIPULATION AND CONTROL THEY PROVIDE ANSWERS TO CONCRETE QUESTIONS AND OFFER SOLUTIONS TO CONCRETE HUMAN PROBLEMS #RITICAL DISCUSSIONS OF THE NEW MEDIA ARE OFTEN DISMISSED ACCUSED OF BEING REACTIONARY REmEXES OR HOSTILE TOWARD TECHNOLOGY SOMETIMES EVEN OF BEING ANTI MODERNIST 4HE COMMUNICATION SCIENTIST .ORBERT "OLZ FOR EXAMPLE IS OF THE OPINION THAT THIS IS ABSOLUTELY ANACHRO NISTIC THAT PERHAPS WE ARE ON THE WAY BACK TO A MYTHICAL AGE AND THAT OUR PRESENT SHOULD BE THE AGE OF DESCRIPTION NOT OF CRITIQUE 4HE ONLY ISSUES TODAY ARE OF APPROPRIATE DESCRIPTION AND OF hOPPORTUNISM AND ECLECTICISMv 4HE TRUTH IS THAT WHICH CORRESPONDS TO THE SPIRIT OF THE TIMES AND GOOD THEORY IS WHAT ALLOWS US TO SEE MORE THAN BEFORE NOT WHAT DEFENDS KNOWLEDGE AND TEACHES US TO MAKE CRITICAL DECISIONS WRITES "OLZ 4HIS WAY OF DEALING WITH THE HISTORY AND CURRENT EVENTS OF MEDIA NEGLECTS TO MENTION THAT THE DESCRIPTION OF hNEW MEDIAv FORMULATED TODAY AND THE KNOWLEDGE OR INFORMATION SOCIETY ITSELF ARE THE RESULT OF A HISTORICAL PROCESS IN WHICH CERTAIN IMAGES POSSESSED AN IMPOR TANT DISCOURSE LEADING FUNCTION 4HUS TODAYS COMPUTER AND )NTERNET MYTHS DO NOT REmECT AN ETERNAL AND MONOLITHIC TRUTH RATHER THEY AROSE IN THE COURSE OF MORE THAN YEARS OF HISTORY AND DURING THAT TIME WERE UNDERGOING CONSTANT TRANSFORMATION 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE IS A REVEALING EXAMPLE OF THE POWER AND INmUENCE OF MODELS WHICH ARE THEMSELVES TIED TO A CERTAIN IDEA ABOUT THE INTERPLAY OF SOCIAL AND TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT 4HE FOLLOWING WILL
TRACE THE INmUENCE THAT DETERMINISTIC AND CONSTRUCTIVISTIC IDEAS HAVE POSSESSED AND THE LESSONS WHICH CAN BE LEARNED FOR THE DESIGN OF FUTURE TECHNICAL SYSTEMS 6ANNEVAR "USH THE )NFORMATION 0ROBLEM AND THE -EMEX 4HE IDEA OF THE PERSONAL COMPUTER THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE AND THE CONCEPT OF HYPERTEXT WHICH IS MOST OBVIOUSLY EMBODIED IN THE 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB CAN BE TRACED BACK TO 6ANNEVAR "USHS VISIONARY ARTICLE h!S 7E -AY 4HINK v WRITTEN AT THE END OF AND PUBLISHED IN !UGUST "USH n WAS A TYPICAL REPRESENTATIVE OF AN AGE OF UN INTERRUPTED BELIEF IN THE BENElCIAL POWER OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY !S ADVISOR TO 0RESIDENT &RANKLIN $ 2OOSEVELT AND DIRECTOR OF THE IN mUENTIAL /FlCE OF 3CIENTIlC $EVELOPMENT AND 2ESEARCH DURING THE 7ORLD 7AR )) "USH RECOGNIZED THAT ACCESS TO EXPONENTIALLY INCREAS ING KNOWLEDGE WAS DEVELOPING INTO THE CENTRAL PROBLEM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY "USH SUMMARIZED THIS hINFORMATION PROBLEMv IN THE FOL LOWING WAY h4HERE IS A GROWING MOUNTAIN OF RESEARCH "UT THERE IS INCREASED EVIDENCE THAT WE ARE BEING BOGGED DOWN TODAY AS SPECIALIZATION EX TENDS 4HE INVESTIGATOR IS STAGGERED BY THE lNDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THOUSANDS OF OTHER WORKERS n CONCLUSIONS WHICH HE CANNOT lND TIME TO GRASP MUCH LESS TO REMEMBER AS THEY APPEARv
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#OMPARE ALSO 3TEFAN 7ILLEKE $IE 4ECHNOKRATIEBE WEGUNG IN .ORDAMERIKA UND $EUTSCHLAND ZWISCHEN DEN 7ELTKRIEGEN &RANKFURT A - "USH *AMES - .YCE AND 0AUL +AHN ! -ACHINE FOR THE -IND 6ANNEVAR "USHS -EMEX IN &ROM -EMEX TO (YPERTEXT 6ANNEVAR "USH AND THE -INDS -ACHINE ED *AMES - .YCE AND 0AUL +AHN "OSTON -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD h"LICK ZURÓCK AUF DEN -EMEX !NMERKUNGEN ZU 6ANNEVAR "USHS !UFSATZ !S 7E -AY 4HINK v )NFORMATIK &ORUM n
(E FURTHER RECOGNIZED THAT THIS PROBLEM REQUIRED NEW METHODS OF ORGANIZING THE GROWING AMOUNT OF INFORMATION "USH ATTEMPTED TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM IN THE TECHNOCRATIC TRADITION BY PROPOSING TO MECHA NIZE ACCESS TO THE TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIlC KNOWLEDGE SAVED IN LIBRARIES WITH THE HELP OF PROGRESSIVE TECHNOLOGY THUS MAKING IT MORE EFFEC TIVE 4HIS APPROACH WAS BASED ON THE CONVICTION THAT ALL ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DECISIONS IN POST WAR SOCIETY SHOULD BE MADE BY EXPERTS WHO THUS WOULD NEED EFFECTIVE ACCESS TO AS MUCH RELEVANT INFORMATION AS POSSIBLE ! TECHNOCRAT "USH WANTED TO APPLY TECHNOLOGY TO SOLVING THE SOCIAL PROBLEMS HE OBSERVED (E CALLED THE DEVICE PROPOSED FOR THIS TASK h-EMEX v MEMORY EXTENDER SEE &IGURE h! -EMEX IS A DEVICE IN WHICH AN INDIVIDUAL STORES ALL HIS BOOKS RECORDS AND COMMUNICATIONS AND WHICH IS MECHANIZED SO THAT IT MAY BE CONSULTED WITH EXCEEDING SPEED AND mEXIBILITY )T IS AN ENLARGED IN TIMATE SUPPLEMENT TO HIS MEMORYv "USHS ESSAY PRESENTED A TYPICAL SOCIAL DETERMINISTIC APPROACH TO WARD THE EXPLANATION OF TECHNICAL PROGRESS WHICH IDENTIlED A DEFECT IN SOCIETY AND DESCRIBED THE TECHNOLOGY NECESSARY TO CORRECT IT "USH ENVISIONED -EMEX AS A TOOL TO SUPPORT INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITY AND DID NOT PLAN TO IMITATE COGNITIVE PROCESSES LATER THE GOAL OF ARTIl CIAL INTELLIGENCE !) )N CONTRAST TO !) RESEARCHERS WHO TRIED TO MAKE THE COMPUTER hTHINKv LIKE A HUMAN BEING "USH SAW -EMEX AS AN AID SUPPORTING HUMANS MENTAL ACTIVITY BY THE USE OF AN AUTOMATIC PROCE DURE FOR INDEXING SAVING AND RECALLING INFORMATION )NDIVIDUAL PIECES OF INFORMATION WOULD BE GROUPED INTO hASSOCIATIVE TRAILSv ACCORDING TO THE INDIVIDUAL CONCEPTS OF THE USER IN TODAYS TERMINOLOGY ONE WOULD SPEAK OF hLINKSv 4HIS DIRECT ORIENTATION OF A TECHNICAL SYSTEM ON BIO LOGICAL PROCEDURES DIFFERENTIATED "USH FROM OTHER SCIENTISTS OF HIS AGE AND SHOWS HIS PROPINQUITY TO CYBERNETIC THINKING
#OMPUTER SPECIALISTS AND INFORMATION SCIENTISTS TODAY HAPPILY REFER TO "USHS ARTICLE WITH ITS CONCEPT OF ASSOCIATIVE LINKING OF INFOR MATION AS THE lRST DESCRIPTION OF A MACHINE WHICH MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO SAVE INFORMATION IN A FORM SUITED TO THE WAY PEOPLE THINK 4HEY CONSIDER -EMEX TO BE THE PROTOTYPE FOR HYPERTEXT MULTIMEDIA IN FORMATION RETRIEVAL AND THE )NTERNET -EMEX ITSELF WAS NEVER BUILT HOWEVER IT INmUENCED THE IDEAS AND GOALS OF THE SCIENTISTS AND EN GINEERS WHO LATER DEVELOPED HYPERTEXT SYSTEMS THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE AND THE 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB !LTHOUGH -EMEX REMAINED A hPAPER MACHINE v BECAUSE OF "USHS REPUTATION AND RHETORIC h!S 7E -AY 4HINKv UNLEASHED A FAR REACHING STIMULATING RESPONSE 4HE ESSAY CAME OUT AT THE RIGHT TIME TO OPEN THE EYES OF SCIENTISTS AND THE WALLETS OF POLITICIANS AS 2 ! &AIRTHORNE POINTED OUT AS EARLY AS
#OMPARE $OUGLAS # %NGELBART h0OSSIBILITIES FOR 4EACHING -ACHINE !CTIVITY AT 32) v 3TANFORD 2ESEARCH )NSTITUTE -EMORANDUM -ENLO 0ARK 3TANFORD 5NI VERSITY ,IBRARY 3PECIAL #OLLECTIONS $OUGLAS # %NGELBART #OLLECTION "OX &OLDER $OUGLAS # %NGELBART h4HE !UGMENTED +NOWLEDGE 7ORKSHOP v IN ! (ISTORY OF 0ERSONAL 7ORKSTATIONS ED !DELE 'OLDBERG 2EADING -ASS n
-ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD $ER #OMPUTER ALS 7ERKZEUG UND -EDIUM $IE GEISTIGEN UND TECHNISCHEN 7URZELN DES 0ERSONAL #OMPUTERS "ERLIN UND $IEPHOLZ n 4HIERRY "ARDINI "OOTSTRAPPING $OUGLAS %NGELBART #OEVOLUTION AND THE /RIGINS OF 0ERSONAL #OM PUTING 3TANFORD CHAPTER )BID FF
$OUGLAS # %NGELBART h!UGMENTING (UMAN )NTELLECT ! #ONCEPTUAL &RAMEWORK v 3UMMARY 2EPORT TO !IR &ORCE /FFICE OF 3CIENTIFIC 2ESEARCH -ENLO 0ARK F )BID )BID )BID
$OUGLAS %NGELBART AND THE !UGMENTATION OF (UMAN )NTELLECT )F ONE CONSIDERS 6ANNEVAR "USH TO BE AN INTELLECTUAL THEN $OUGLAS # %NGELBART IS THE VISIONARY DEVELOPER WHO SET OUT TO GIVE "USHS CONCEPTS FORM AND SHAPE !T THE BEGINNING OF THE S SOME YEARS AFTER HE lRST READ h!S 7E -AY 4HINK v %NGELBART BECAME CONVINCED THAT BUILDING A TOOL FOR BETTER MASTERING THE INTELLECTUAL PROBLEMS OF AN INCREASINGLY COMPLEX WORLD WOULD BE A WORTHY GOAL /VER THE NEXT FEW YEARS %NGELBART DEVELOPED THE CONCEPT OF A COMPUTER BASED SYSTEM FOR THE AUGMENTATION OF HUMAN INTELLECT (E WORKED ON THE REALIZATION OF HIS VISION BETWEEN AND AT THE 3TANFORD 2ESEARCH )NSTITUTE IN -ENLO 0ARK #ALIFORNIA !T THE BEGIN NING OF THE S HE BECAME DIRECTOR OF A RESEARCH GROUP ASSIGNED THE TASK OF DEVELOPING AIDS FOR EFlCIENT COMMUNICATION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE COMPUTER %NGELBART RECOGNIZED EARLY ON THAT THE TRANSITION FROM MANUAL TOOLS LIKE PAPER AND PENCIL TO COMPUTER BASED TOOLS WOULD ALSO BRING ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES TO WAYS OF WORKING AND WORK mOW &OR THIS REASON HE MADE A CASE FOR THE CONTINUOUS TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION OF WORKERS 4HUS THE DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF NEW SOFTWARE TOOLS WERE NOT %NGELBARTS ONLY GOALS HE ALSO ASPIRED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW METHODS OF WORKING WITH THESE TOOLS 4HE WORK WITH A COMPLEX TECHNICAL SYSTEM LIKE THE COMPUTER AL WAYS CONSISTS OF A COMPLEX COMBINATION OF HUMAN AND MECHANICAL WORK PROCESSES AT THE HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE )N %NGELBART WROTE h4HE TERM hMAN MACHINE INTERFACEv HAS BEEN USED FOR SOME YEARS TO REPRESENT THE BOUNDARY ACROSS WHICH ENERGY IS EXCHANGED BETWEEN THE TWO DOMAINS %XCHANGE ACROSS THIS hINTERFACEv OCCURS WHEN AN EXPLICIT HUMAN PROCESS IS COUPLED TO AN EXPLICIT ARTIFACT PROCESSv
4HUS THE MOVEMENT OF THE lNGER WHILE TYPING ON A KEYBOARD AN EXPLICITLY HUMAN PROCESS ACTIVATES THE APPROPRIATE PROGRAM mOW OF THE COMPUTER ITS EXPLICITLY MECHANICAL PROCESS )N THIS WAY THE HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE IS THE PLACE AT WHICH THE INTERACTION BE TWEEN THE MECHANICAL PROCESS OF THE COMPUTER AND THE ACTIVITY OF THE HUMAN TAKES PLACE "ECAUSE OF THIS THE INTERFACE MUST BE DESIGNED WITH GREAT CONSCIOUSNESS AND CARE !CCORDING TO %NGELBART AN APPROPRIATE INTERFACE SEE &IGURE FOR ENABLING A SMOOTH COMBINATION OF HUMAN AND MECHANICAL PRO CESSES COULD CONTRIBUTE TO THE AUGMENTATION OF THE COGNITIVE ABILITIES OF HUMANS 4O DESCRIBE THIS STEP FORWARD %NGELBART ASSUMED A HIERAR CHICAL SEGMENTATION OF THE USERS COGNITIVE ABILITIES 4HE LOWEST LEVEL IS THE MANIPULATION OF CONCEPTS h(UMANS ;HAVE= THE BIOLOGICAL CAPABIL ITY FOR DEVELOPING ABSTRACTIONS AND CONCEPTS 4HEY COULD MANIPULATE THESE CONCEPTS WITHIN THEIR MINDS TO A CERTAIN EXTENT AND THINK ABOUT SITUATIONS IN THE ABSTRACTv 4HE NEXT LEVEL WAS THE MANIPULATION OF SYMBOLS h(UMANS MADE ANOTHER GREAT STEP FORWARD WHEN THEY LEARNED TO REPRESENT PARTICULAR CONCEPTS IN THEIR MINDS WITH SPECIlC SYMBOLSv /N THE HIGHEST LEVEL UNTIL NOW THE MANUAL MANIPULATION OF EXTERNAL SYMBOLS ENHANCED THE HUMAN ABILITY TO PERCEIVE AND IMAGINE 4HE MANUAL MANIPULA TION OF EXTERNAL SYMBOLS INCLUDES TRANSFORMATION INTO GRAPHIC FORMS OF REPRESENTATION BY APPLYING AIDS SUCH AS PAPER AND PENCIL RULER AND COMPASS %NGELBART ARGUED THAT TODAYS FORMS OF THINKING ARE FUNDA MENTALLY SHAPED BY THE WAY IN WHICH HUMANS HAVE LEARNED TO DEAL WITH SYMBOLIC FORMS OF REPRESENTATION n IN BOTH WRITTEN AND SPOKEN FORM
%NGELBARTS CONCEPT OF THE HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE 3OURCE $OUGLAS # %NGELBART h!UGMENTING (UMAN )NTELLECT %XPERIMENTS #ONCEPTS AND 0OSSIBILI TIES v 3UMMARY 2EPORT TO THE !IR &ORCE /FFICE OF 3CIENTIFIC 2ESEARCH -ENLO 0ARK
4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD
"ENJAMIN ,EE 7HORF 3PRACHE $ENKEN 7IRKLICH KEIT "EITRØGE ZUR -ETALINGUISTIK UND 3PRACHPHILOSOPHIE 2EINBEK BEI (AMBURG n /RIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN %NGLISH AS ,ANGUAGE 4HOUGHT AND 2EALITY 3ELECTED 7RITINGS OF "ENJAMIN ,EE 7HORF %NGELBART h!UGMENTING (UMAN )NTELLECT ! #ON CEPTUAL &RAMEWORK v )BID
)N HIS FURTHER ARGUMENTATION %NGELBART CALLED UPON THE WORK OF THE ETHNO LINGUIST "ENJAMIN ,EE 7HORF WHO WAS VERY POPULAR WITH SCIENTISTS WORKING ON THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGY CYBERNET ICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE AROUND 7HORF SUPPORTED THE THESIS THAT THE CENTRAL CONCEPTS OF A CULTURE ARE SHAPED BY AND EMBEDDED IN ITS LANGUAGE AND THAT ALL MEMBERS OF A CULTURE INTERNALIZE THESE CONCEPTS WHEN THEY LEARN TO SPEAK )N OTHER WORDS THE ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE DETERMINES THE ACQUISITION OF A CERTAIN WAY OF THINKING AND VIEW OF THE WORLD %NGELBART SEIZED UPON 7HORF S THEORY AND EXPANDED IT SO THAT IT COULD BE APPLIED NOT ONLY TO LANGUAGE BUT ALSO TO TECHNICAL ARTIFACTS LIKE THE COMPUTER AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR THE REPRESENTATION AND MA NIPULATION OF SYMBOLS 7HILE 7HORF WAS OF THE OPINION THAT THINK ING OBTAINED ITS STRUCTURE THROUGH LANGUAGE ONLY %NGELBART PROPOSED THE HYPOTHESIS THAT TECHNICAL ARTIFACTS HAVE A SIMILAR EFFECT (OW EVER BECAUSE THE SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF A THOUGHT INmUENCES THE WORLD VIEW IT EXPLAINS THE COMPUTER REPRESENTATION MUST ALSO
PRODUCE A NEW INDEPENDENT VIEW OF THE WORLD )F THIS HYPOTHESIS PROVES CORRECT IT WOULD BE POSSIBLE TO CONSTRUCT hTHINKING TOOLSv WHICH DO NOT IMITATE COGNITIVE PROCESSES BUT INSTEAD CAN STRENGTHEN THE NATURAL INTELLIGENCE OF HUMANS IN THE SAME WAY THAT TOOLS STRENGTHEN THEIR MANUAL ABILITIES 4HE HUMAN AND TECHNICAL COMPONENTS OF THE SOCIO TECHNICAL SYSTEM WERE THUS EQUALLY IMPORTANT WHEREBY THE FUNCTIONALITY OF THE COMPUTER TOOL AND THE HUMAN ABILITY TO USE THIS TOOL COME TOGETHER AT THE HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE
%NGELBARTS CONCEPT OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT BY BOOTSTRAPPING
)BID )BID )BID
%NGELBART RECOMMENDED SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION OF DIFFERENT COMPUTER TOOLS WITH RESPECT TO THEIR EFFECT ON THE WORK OF THE USER 4HROUGH THIS NOT ONLY COULD THE INITIAL HYPOTHESIS ON THE CHARACTER OF COMPUTER BASED TOOLS BE VERIlED BUT A STEP BY STEP IMPROVEMENT TO SYSTEMS CONSISTING OF HUMANS AND COMPUTERS COULD FOLLOW %NGELBART PROPOSED A METHOD FOR THIS CO EVOLUTION KNOWN AS hBOOTSTRAPPINGv (E UNDERSTOOD THIS AS AN ADAPTIVE AND RECURSIVE METHOD OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPING WHOSE GOAL WAS TO DEVELOP TOOLS AND METHODS WHICH IN TURN WOULD BE USED TO DEVELOP BETTER TOOLS AND METHODS FOR PROB LEM SOLVING
!T lRST %NGELBART WANTED TO EXAMINE HOW PEOPLE DEAL WITH NEW TOOLS AND HOW THESE CHANGE THEIR WORKmOW )N THE NEXT STEP HE WOULD ANALYZE WHICH POSITIVE EFFECTS APPLICATION OF THE TOOL HAD ON THINK ING (E ARRIVED AT THE HOPEFUL SUPPOSITION THAT THE USE OF A COMPUTER OFFERED THE POSSIBILITY OF AUTOMATICALLY MANIPULATING SYMBOLS AND THROUGH THIS HUMANS WOULD BE ABLE TO REACH A FOURTH LEVEL IN THE DE VELOPMENT OF THEIR INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES %NGELBART ALSO DESCRIBED WHAT HIS SYSTEM FOR AUGMENTING HUMAN INTELLECT MIGHT LOOK LIKE h3YMBOLS WITH WHICH THE HUMAN REPRESENTS THE CONCEPTS HE IS MANIPULATING CAN BE ARRANGED BEFORE HIS EYES MOVED STORED RECALLED OPERATED UPON ACCORDING TO EXTREMELY COMPLEX RULES x )N THE LIMIT OF WHAT WE MIGHT NOW IMAGINE THIS COULD BE A COMPUTER WITH WHICH WE COULD COMMUNICATE RAPIDLY AND EASILY COUPLED TO A THREE DIMEN SIONAL COLOR DISPLAY WITHIN WHICH IT COULD CONSTRUCT EXTREMELY SOPHIS TICATED IMAGES WITH THE COMPUTER BEING ABLE TO EXECUTE A WIDE VARIETY OF PROCESSES UPON PARTS OR ALL OF THESE IMAGES IN AUTOMATIC RESPONSE TO HUMAN DIRECTIONv 4HROUGH THE USE OF INTERACTIVE COMPUTER TOOLS %NGELBART ATTEMPTED TO SOLVE A PROBLEM CONSIDERED TO BE IMPORTANT BY POSTWAR SOCIETY NAMELY QUICK AND RELIABLE DECISION MAKING IN A CONFUSING WORLD IN mUENCED BY A MULTIPLICITY OF UNCERTAIN AND MUTUALLY DEPENDENT FAC TORS !T THE SAME TIME HE WAS QUITE AWARE THAT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TOOLS HE DEVELOPED WOULD HAVE AN EFFECT ON SCIENCE SOCIETY AND CULTURE )NSTEAD OF ADOPTING A LINEAR AND MONOCAUSAL PERSPECTIVE %N GELBART KEPT IN MIND THAT HUMANS AND TECHNOLOGY ALWAYS MUTUALLY INmUENCE EACH OTHER 4HE CO EVOLUTIONARY ASPECTS OF %NGELBARTS VI SION OF INTERACTIVE COMPUTER USE WERE BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT LANGUAGE IS NOT JUST A SYMBOL FOR THE THINGS IT DESCRIBES BUT IS ITSELF SO CIALLY CONSTRUCTED 4HIS IMPLIES THAT n DESPITE HIS ORIENTATION TOWARD "USHS -EMEX AND HIS HIERARCHICAL SEGMENTATION OF HUMAN ABILITIES n %NGELBART DID NOT FOLLOW A SOCIAL DETERMINISTIC APPROACH &OR HIM THE DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL OR
3TAN !UGARTEN 4HE )NVENTION OF 0ERSONAL #OMPUT ING 4HE /RIGIN OF THE -OST )MPORTANT 4ECHNOLOGY OF OUR 4IME UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPT CIRCA !LAN # +AY h! $YNAMIC -EDIUM FOR #REATIVE 4HOUGHT v 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE -INNESOTA .#4% 3EMINARS ON 2ESEARCH IN %NGLISH %DUCATION -INNEAPO LIS !LAN # +AY ! 0ERSONAL #OMPUTER FOR #HILDREN OF !LL !GES 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE !#- .ATIONAL #ONFER ENCE "OSTON
#HILDREN PLAY 3PACEWAR ON THE $YNABOOK $RAWING BY !LAN +AY 3OURCE +AY 0ERSONAL #OMPUTER AS IN &OOTNOTE
4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD
#OMPARE HERE WITH -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD +ONZEPTE DER -ENSCH #OMPUTER +OMMUNIKATION IN DEN ER *AHREN * # 2 ,ICKLIDER $OUGLAS %NGELBART UND DER #OMPUTER ALS )NTELLIGENZVERSTØRKER 4ECHNIKGESCHICHTE n 7ILLIAM + %NGLISH ET AL h$ISPLAY 3ELECTION 4ECHNIQUES FOR 4EXT -ANIPULATION v )%%% 4RANSACTIONS ON (UMAN &ACTORS IN %LECTRONICS (&% n $OUGLAS # %NGELBART AND 7ILLIAM + %NGLISH ! 2ESEARCH #ENTER FOR !UGMENTING (UMAN )NTELLECT !&)03 &ALL *OINT #OMPUTER #ONFERENCE 7ASHINGTON n &RIEDEWALD $ER #OMPUTER ALS 7ERKZEUG UND -EDIUM
SOCIETY ARE SYMBIOTIC PROCESSES NOT LINEAR AND MONOCAUSAL BUT RATHER COMPLEX AND DYNAMIC 4HE SYSTEM DEVELOPED IN %NGELBARTS LABORATORY KNOWN AS THE hO. ,INE 3YSTEMv .,3 CONSISTED OF A WHOLE RANGE OF NEW COMMU NICATION TOOLS WHICH SUPPORTED THE COOPERATIVE WORK OF A SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT GROUP 4HESE INCLUDED A WORD PROCESSING SYSTEM WITH SEGMENTATION TOOLS A DOCUMENT ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM A TELECON FERENCING SYSTEM THAT ALLOWED DIFFERENT PEOPLE TO WORK ON THE SAME DOCUMENT AT THE SAME TIME HYPERTEXT AND THE USE OF SIMPLE SCREEN GRAPHICS )N ADDITION %NGELBART AND HIS COLLEAGUES TESTED A NUMBER OF DEVICES FOR SUPPORTING HUMAN COMPUTER COMMUNICATION INCLUDING THE TYPEWRITER KEYBOARD LIGHT PEN VIDEO MONITOR THE CHORD KEYBOARD DEVELOPED BY %NGELBART HIMSELF AND TODAYS OMNIPRESENT MOUSE -ORE EXOTIC INPUT DEVICES WERE TESTED SUCH AS A DATA GLOVE AND KNEE AND EYE CONTROLS )N $ECEMBER %NGELBART AND HIS TEAM WERE lNALLY READY TO PRESENT THEIR SYSTEM AT THE FALL CONFERENCE OF THE !MERICAN &EDERATION OF )NFORMATION 0ROCESSING 3OCIETIES !&)03 IN 3AN &RANCISCO )N A MINUTE TOUR DE FORCE %NGELBART PRESENTED ALL THE IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF .,3 (E SHOWED THE AUDIENCE THE MOUSE AND THE CHORD KEYBOARD AND EXPLAINED HOW THEY WORKED AND HOW TO USE THEM HOW DATA ARE SET UP ON THE MONITOR HOW TEXT IS EDITED HOW CROSSREFERENCES ARE GENERATED AND HOW ONE CAN SEARCH IN A DOCUMENT &INALLY HE DEM ONSTRATED HOW THE .,3 COULD BE USED TO WORK TOGETHER WITH ANOTHER USER WHO IS NOT IN THE SAME ROOM &OR MOST OF THOSE PRESENT WHO HAD NEVER WORKED ON AN INTERACTIVE COMPUTER TERMINAL IT WAS A SHORT AND FASCINATING GLIMPSE INTO A COMPLETELY FOREIGN WORLD !MONG THE AUDIENCE WAS !LAN +AY WHO WAS TO GIVE NEW IMPETUS TO THE lELD OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION THROUGH HIS DEVELOPMENT OF A GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS
!LAN +AY #OGNITIVE 0SYCHOLOGY AND 'RAPHICAL 5SER )NTERFACES !LAN # +AY IS OCCASIONALLY CALLED THE h&ATHER OF THE 0#v BECAUSE AT THE END OF THE S HE DESCRIBED A lCTIVE COMPUTER WHICH HE NAMED THE h$YNABOOKv 4HE $YNABOOK WAS TO BE A POWERFUL CEN TRAL UNIT AND WOULD HAVE A mAT GRAPHICAL SCREEN 3O THAT IT COULD BE CAR RIED EVERYWHERE IT WOULDNT BE BIGGER OR HEAVIER THAN A SPIRAL BOUND NOTEBOOK 4HE $YNABOOK WOULD BE A PERSONAL DYNAMIC MEDIUM FOR THE MASSES ON WHICH USERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO SAVE ALL THEIR PERSONAL DOCUMENTS TEXTS SOUNDS PICTURES AND ANIMATIONS 4HROUGH AN INTER FACE TO A DATA NETWORK ONE WOULD BE ABLE TO USE THE $YNABOOK TO ACCESS THE ACCUMULATED KNOWLEDGE OF MANKIND !LAN +AY CAME TO THE NEWLY FOUNDED 8EROX 0ALO !LTO 2ESEARCH #ENTER 0ARC WITH THIS VISION IN
!LAN # +AY h4HE %ARLY (ISTORY OF 3MALLTALK v IN (ISTORY OF 0ROGRAMMING ,ANGUAGES )) ED 4HOMAS * "ERGIN *R AND 2ICHARD ' 'IBSON *R 2EADING -ASS n !LAN # +AY h5SER )NTERFACE ! 0ERSONAL 6IEW v IN 4HE !RT OF (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERFACE $ESIGN ED "RENDA ,AUREL 2EADING -ASS !LAN # +AY h-ICROELECTRONICS AND THE 0ERSONAL #OMPUTER v 3CIENTIFIC !MERICAN )BID )BID
$ESPITE ENORMOUS ADVANCES IN MICROELECTRONICS AT THIS POINT IN HISTORY THE TECHNOLOGY NECESSARY FOR BUILDING A $YNABOOK LARGE SCALE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS mAT DISPLAYS WAS NOT AVAILABLE "ECAUSE OF THIS +AY DECIDED lRST TO DEVELOP AN h)NTERIM $YNABOOKv AT 0ARC 4HE RESULT OF THIS WORK WAS THE lRST PERSONAL WORKSTATION THE 8EROX !LTO AND THE 3MALLTALK PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE WITH ITS GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE DE VELOPED BETWEEN AND +AY WAS INmUENCED BY THE THEORIES OF -ARSHALL -C,UHAN WHICH INSPIRED HIM TO CONSIDER THE COMPUTER AS A MEDIUM RATHER THAN A TOOL ! FURTHER INSPIRATION WAS THE WORK OF 3EYMOUR 0APERT WHO CONVINCED HIM THAT COMPUTER LANGUAGES CAN BE THINKING TOOLS AND THAT GRAPHICAL COMMUNICATION IS A POWERFUL MEANS FOR HUMAN COMPUTER INTERAC TION !FTER READING -C,UHANS BOOK 5NDERSTANDING -EDIA +AY EXPLAINED THAT hTHE MOST IMPORTANT THING ABOUT ANY COMMUNICATIONS MEDIUM IS THAT THE MESSAGE RECEIPT IS REALLY MESSAGE RECOVERY ANYONE WHO WISHES TO RECEIVE A MESSAGE EMBEDDED IN A MEDIUM MUST lRST HAVE INTERNALIZED THE MEDIM SO IT CAN BE @CONTRACTED OUT TO LEAVE THE MESSAGE BEHINDv &OR THIS REASON +AY BEGAN TO UNDERSTAND THE USE OF A COMPUTER AS A COMMUNICATIVE ACT AND THE COMPUTER AS ITS MEDIUM )T ALSO BECAME CLEAR TO HIM THAT HIS REAL GOAL WAS TO SHAPE AN ENTIRELY NEW MEDIUM FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT FROM ALL OTHER MEDIA WHICH HAD PRECEEDED IT 4HE COMPUTER WOULD BECOME A DYNAMIC MEDIUM n AN AID TOWARD PRE SENTING EXPLAINING AND ANIMATING THOUGHTS DREAMS AND FANTASIES AS WELL AS TEXTS PICTURES AND SOUNDS !LAN +AY HAD ADMIRED %NGELBARTS O. ,INE 3YSTEM BECAUSE OF ITS INGENIOUS POSSIBILITIES FOR SUPPORTING INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES "UT THAT WASNT ENOUGH FOR HIM (E WANTED AN EVEN MORE POWERFUL MORE UNIVERSAL AND MORE USER FRIENDLY COM PUTER SYSTEM THAT WAS FUN TO USE
7HILE WORKING WITH -C,UHANS THEORY +AY ALSO BECAME PER SUADED THAT THE COMPUTER WITH ITS POSSIBILITY OF INTERACTION OFFERED A WAY OF AVOIDING THE PASSIVITY AND BOREDOM ASSOCIATED WITH ALL OTHER PREVIOUS MEDIA &INALLY IT BECAME CLEAR TO HIM THAT THE COMPUTER LIKE EVERY OTHER MEDIUM WOULD TRIGGER CHANGES ON AN INDIVIDUAL AS WELL AS A SOCIAL LEVEL (E WROTE h7HAT -C,UHAN WAS SAYING IS THAT IF THE PERSONAL COMPUTER IS A TRULY NEW MEDIUM THEN THE VERY USE OF IT WOULD ACTUALLY CHANGE THE THOUGHT PATTERNS OF AN ENTIRE CIVILIZATION (E HAD CERTAINLY BEEN RIGHT ABOUT THE EFFECTS OF THE ELECTRONIC STAINED GLASS WINDOW THAT WAS TELEVISION n A REMEDIEVALIZING TRIBAL INmUENCE AT BEST 4HE INTENSELY INTERACTIVE AND INVOLVING NATURE OF THE PERSONAL COMPUTER SEEMED AN ANTIPARTICLE THAT COULD ANNIHILATE THE PASSIVE BOREDOM INVOKED BY TELEVISION "UT IT ALSO PROMISED TO SURPASS THE BOOK TO BRING ABOUT A NEW KIND OF RENAISSANCE BY GOING BEYOND STATIC REPRESENTATIONS TO DYNAMIC SIMULATION 7HAT KIND OF A THINKER WOULD YOU BECOME IF YOU GREW UP WITH AN ACTIVE SIMULATOR CONNECTED NOT JUST TO ONE POINT OF VIEW BUT TO ALL POINTS OF VIEW OF THE AGES REPRESENTED SO THEY COULD BE DYNAMICALLY TRIED OUT AND COMPAREDv 4HE TERM hDYNAMIC SIMULATIONv REFERS TO THE POSSIBILITY OF PRO CESSING COMPARING AND SUPERIMPOSING TEXT AND PICTURES QUICKLY WITH THE HELP OF THE COMPUTER AND THUS INTERACTING WITH THE INFORMATION 4HUS IN +AYS CONCEPT DYNAMIC SIMULATION WAS THE CENTRAL ELEMENT ON THE PATH TOWARD REALIZING THE $YNABOOK (E SPOKE ONLY OF THE $YNABOOK AND NO LONGER OF THE COMPUTER BUT HE WAS NOT ONLY TRYING TO CAPTURE THE SPIRIT OF -C,UHANS THEORY +AY ALSO IMPLIED THAT THE $YNABOOK WOULD HAVE A SIMILAR EFFECT ON CULTURE AS THE h'UTENBERG TECHNOLOGYv DID
3EYMOUR 0APERT -INDSTORMS +INDER #OMPUTER UND NEUES ,ERNEN "ASEL FF /RIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN %NGLISH AS -INDSTORMS #HILDREN #OMPUTERS AND 0OWERFUL )DEAS )BID )BID (OWARD 2HEINGOLD 4OOLS FOR 4HOUGHT 4HE 0EOPLE AND )DEAS "EHIND THE .EXT #OMPUTER 2EVOLUTION .EW 9ORK
0APERT F &OR THE IDEAS EFFECTIVE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROGRAMING LANGUAGES COMPARE (EIKE 3TACH :WISCHEN /RGANISMUS UND .OTATION :UR KULTURELLEN +ONSTRUKTION DES #OMPUTER 0ROGRAMMS 7IESBADEN +AY h5SER )NTERFACE v
4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD
4HE CONCEPT OF SELF CONTROLLED AND PRACTICAL LEARNING THAT DEVELOPED WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF NINE TEENTH CENTURY EDUCATION REFORM HAS BEEN ANCHORED IN CONVENTIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS MUCH LONGER IN THE 53 THAN IN %UROPE #OMPARE ,UDWIG -ARCUSE !MERIKANISCHES 0HILOSOPHIEREN 0RAGMATISTEN 0OLYTHEISTEN 4RAGIKER :ÓRICH F 3EYMOUR 0APERT 4HE #ONNECTED &AMILY "RIDGING THE $IGITAL 'ENERATION 'AP !TLANTA
!LAN +AYS METHODOLOGY OF INTERFACE DESIGN WAS BASED ON COGNI TIVE CONSTRUCTIVISTIC EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 4HIS ASSUMES THAT PUPILS BEST ACQUIRE THEIR KNOWLEDGE IN SELF CONTROLLED INTERACTION WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENT h;#OGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY= COMPLAINS THAT MUCH TRADITIONAL TEACH ING IS BASED ON A MODEL OF A PIPELINE THROUGH WHICH KNOWLEDGE PASSES FROM TEACHER TO STUDENT 4HE NAME CONSTRUCTIVISM DERIVES FROM AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL ACCORDING TO WHICH THE LEARNER HAS TO CONSTRUCT KNOWLEDGE AFRESH EVERY TIMEv #OGNITIVE EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REPLACES THE LINEAR MODEL WITH A DYNAMIC FEEDBACK INTENSIVE MODEL OF THE ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE IN WHICH HUMANS WITH THEIR PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE ABILITIES OCCUPY THE FOCAL POINT +AY CAME INTO CONTACT WITH THESE IDEAS IN WHEN HE GOT TO KNOW -)4 0ROFESSOR 3EYMOUR 0APERT AND HIS WORK ON THE USE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN COMPUTER SUPPORTED EDUCA TION OF CHILDREN 0APERT WAS ONE OF THE MOST HIGHLY PROlLED REPRE SENTATIVES OF COGNITIVE EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 5NITED 3TATES (E HAD WORKED WITH *EAN 0IAGET THE INmUENTIAL AND HIGHLY RESPECTED FOUNDER OF THIS lELD IN 'ENEVA FOR lVE YEARS BEFORE BEGINNING HIS WORK AT -)4 0APERT HELD THE POSITION THAT THE PRESENTATION AND INTERACTION POSSIBILITIES OF THE COMPUTER COULD BE USED TO CONSTRUCT ARTIlCIAL hMICRO WORLDSv /NE POSSIBLE MICROWORLD WAS AN INTERACTIVE LEARNING ENVI RONMENT WHICH PUPILS COULD EXPLORE ACTIVELY n SIMILAR TO THEIR REAL EN VIRONMENT )N A PLAYFUL MANNER THEY COULD ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF MATHEMATICS FOR EXAMPLE 0APERT AND HIS COLLEAGUES DEVELOPED THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE ,/'/ FOR REALIZING HIS IDEA 7ITH THIS LANGUAGE CHILDREN COULD CREATE COMPUTER PROGRAMS EFFORTLESSLY )N THE PROCESS OF hTEACHING THE COMPUTER HOW TO THINK v THE CHILDREN THEMSELVES DEVELOPED AN IDEA OF HOW MATHEMATICAL PROB LEMS ARE STRUCTURED AND FOUND WAYS OF SOLVING THEM 0APERT FOUND THAT A PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE IS LIKE A NATURAL LANGUAGE AND THEREFORE
HAS A STRONG INmUENCE ON COMPUTER CULTURE !CCORDING TO HIS VIEW ONE SHOULD BE ABLE TO CONCLUDE THAT EDUCATORS WHO ARE INTERESTED IN THE USE OF COMPUTERS AND SENSITIVE TO CULTURAL INmUENCES MIGHT PAY PARTICULAR ATTENTION TO THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE (OWEVER EDUCA TORS MAY OFTEN BE TOO FRIGHTENED OF TECHNOLOGY OR TOO IGNORANT TO AT TEMPT TO INmUENCE THE LANGUAGES OFFERED BY MANUFACTURERS AND HAVE ACCEPTED THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES OFFERED BY INDUSTRY AND SCIENCE IN SPITE OF THEIR INADEQUACY "EFORE THE DEVELOPMENT OF ,/'/ PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES WERE OFTEN COMPARED TO A RECIPE WHICH EXPLAINED STEP BY STEP AND IN DETAIL THE OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT BY A SOULLESS MECHANISM IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE A CERTAIN RESULT 4HIS TYPE OF LINEAR PICTURE IS TYPICAL FOR A TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISTIC DESIGN AND NOT ADAPTED TO HUMAN PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES ,/'/ ON THE OTHER HAND WOULD SUPPORT THE COM MUNICATION PROCESS BETWEEN THE COMPUTER AND ITS USER $URING HIS VISITS TO "OSTON +AY MET WITH CHILDREN WHO COULD WRITE PROGRAMS FOR DRAWING GENERATING CONCRETE POETRY OR TRANS LATING %NGLISH TEXTS INTO SIMPLE ,ATIN +AY WAS DEEPLY IMPRESSED BY HOW EFFORTLESSLY THE CHILDREN LEARNED TO WORK WITH THE COMPUTER AND BY HOW CREATIVE THEY WERE IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF PROGRAMS ,OOKING BACK HE EXPLAINED h)T WAS AS IF ) WERE POSSESSED BY THE ANAL OGY BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL LITERACY AND ,/'/v
)BID )BID F *EROME 3 "RUNER %NTWURF EINER 5NTERRICHTSTHEORIE "ERLIN /RIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN %NGLISH 4OWARD A THEORY OF INSTRUCTION )BID )BID FF +AY h5SER )NTERFACE v )BID
/NE YEAR EARLIER AS HE WAS WORKING ON THE CONCEPT FOR HIS DOCTOR ATE HE HAD ASSUMED THAT COMPUTER USERS HAD TO BE GOOD PROGRAM MERS BEFORE THEY COULD USE THE COMPUTER EFFECTIVELY 0APERTS WORK SEEMED TO PROVE THE OPPOSITE BECAUSE THE CHILDREN ALSO HAPPILY AND CREATIVELY USED PROGRAMS WHICH THEY HADNT WRITTEN THEMSELVES 4HEY WERE JUST AS INSPIRED BY USING PROGRAMS AS BY DEVELOPING THEM +AY CONCLUDED THAT EVERY GOOD PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE MUST BE CONCEIVED SO THAT CHILDREN AND COMPUTER LAYMEN IN GENERAL COULD WORK WITH COMPUTERS EVEN WITHOUT HAVING UNDERGONE EXTENSIVE TRAINING %ACH DEVELOPMENT FROM +AYS h,EARNING 2ESEARCH 'ROUPv ,2' WAS THUS EVALUATED FOR HOW WELL IT COULD BE LEARNED BY CHILDREN AND THE EXTENT TO WHICH IT SUPPORTED THE SOLUTION OF COMPLEX PROBLEMS h4HE ABILITY TO @READ A MEDIUM MEANS YOU CAN ACCESS MATERIALS AND TOOLS CREATED BY OTHERS 4HE ABILITY TO @WRITE IN A MEDIUM MEANS YOU CAN GENERATE MATERIALS AND TOOLS FOR OTHERS 9OU MUST HAVE BOTH TO BE LITERATE )N PRINT WRITING THE TOOLS YOU GENERATE ARE RHETORICAL THEY DEMONSTRATE AND CONVINCE )N COMPUTER WRITING THE TOOLS YOU GENER ATE ARE PROCESSES THEY SIMULATE AND DECIDE h)F THE COMPUTER IS ONLY A VEHICLE PERHAPS YOU CAN WAIT UNTIL HIGH SCHOOL TO GIVE @DRIVERS ED ON IT n BUT IF ITS A MEDIUM THEN IT MUST BE EXTENDED ALL THE WAY INTO THE WORLD OF THE CHILDv "UT HOW SHOULD A COMPUTER SYSTEM BE CONSTRUCTED SO THAT OPERAT ING IT IS CHILDS PLAY !NSWERS TO THIS QUESTION WERE ALSO GIVEN BY COG NITIVE EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ESPECIALLY THE WORK OF *EROME "RUNER ANOTHER STUDENT OF 0IAGET &ROM HIS OBSERVATION OF CHILDRENS DE VELOPMENT "RUNER ELABORATED A MODEL IN STAGES FROM WHICH DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEARNING COULD BE DERIVED 4HE STUDY FOCUSED ON THE ISSUE OF THE REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE h(OW CAN CHILDREN FREE THEMSELVES OF THE INmUENCE OF STIMULI IN THE PRESENT AND STORE EARLY EXPERIENCES IN A MODEL AND WHICH RULES APPLY TO STORING EXPERIENCE AND RETRIEVING INFORMATION FROM THIS MODEL v (E PROPOSED THE THESIS hTHAT HUMANS PROBABLY DO THIS IN THREE WAYSv
!CCORDING TO THIS ABILITY AND KNOWLEDGE ARE ACQUIRED IN THE lRST SENSOMOTORIC STAGE PRIMARILY THROUGH ACTIONS OR THE IMITATION OF AC TIONS )N THE SECOND ICONIC DEVELOPMENT STAGE THERE ARISES THE ABILITY TO ABSORB INFORMATION REPRESENTED BY PICTURES VISUALLY OR BY SOME OTHER SENSUAL PERCEPTION 7ITH THIS PICTURES DEVELOP THE IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF SUMMARIZING ACTIONS )N THE THIRD SYMBOLIC STAGE OF DE VELOPMENT THE ABILITY TO DEAL WITH ABSTRACT TERMS WHICH CAN BE CRE ATED OR TRANSFORMED BY USING FORMAL RULES EVOLVES 4HERE ARE ALSO BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE THREE FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTA TION )N SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION THE WORDS WHICH STAND FOR THE THINGS ARE ARBITRARY /NLY SYNTAX AND GRAMMAR BRING ORDER TO THE PROCESS OF PERCEPTION AND THUS ARE THE MEANS BY WHICH REALITY IS CONSTRUCTED +AYS CONCLUSION BASED ON HIS STUDY OF "RUNERS THEORY WAS THAT EVEN A COMPUTER MEDIUM LIKE THE $YNABOOK NOT ONLY SHOULD BE OPER ATED OR PROGRAMMED ON THE SYMBOLIC LEVEL BUT ALSO HAD TO SUPPORT THE SENSOMOTORIC AND ICONIC ABILITIES OF THE HUMAN USER )N +AYS OWN WORDS h$OING WITH IMAGES MAKES SYMBOLSv 4HE MAXIM FOR THE DE SIGN OF A HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE DERIVED FROM THIS h.OW WE AGREE WITH THE EVIDENCE THAT THE HUMAN COGNITIVE FACILI TIES ARE MADE UP OF A DOING MENTALITY AN IMAGE MENTALITY AND A SYM BOLIC MENTALITY THEN ANY USER INTERFACE WE CONSTRUCT SHOULD AT LEAST CATER TO THE MECHANISMS THAT SEEM TO BE THEREv +AY WAS FURTHER CONVINCED THAT THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESSES INCREASINGLY USE FORMS OF REPRESENTATION IN A PARALLEL MAN NER (E ARGUED THAT CREATIVE PROCESSES ALWAYS INCLUDE THE USE OF SEN SOMOTORIC AND ICONIC FORMS OF REPRESENTATION ESPECIALLY IN ART AND SCIENCE )NDEED CREATIVE WORK IN THESE lELDS IS SELDOM AN ABSTRACT MANIPULATION OF SYMBOLS 4HINKING IN VISUAL OR ICONIC REPRESENTATION IS ALSO LESS SUSCEPTIBLE TO BLOCKAGES WHICH CAN OCCUR WHENEVER NEW INTERESTING IMPRESSIONS DIVERT FROM THE CORE OF THE PROBLEM
!LAN +AYS CONCEPT OF THE HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE
4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD
)BID #HARLES ( &ERGUSON AND #HARLES 2 -ORRIS #OMPUTER "ATTLES #OMPUTERSCHLACHTEN âBERLEBENSSTRAT EGIEN IN DER WELTWEIT WICHTIGSTEN )NDUSTRIE &RANKFURT A - AND .EW 9ORK /RIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN %NGLISH #OMPUTER 7ARS (OW THE 7EST #AN 7IN IN A 0OST )"- 7ORLD $AVID #ANFIELD 3MITH AND #HARLES )RBY h8EROX 3TAR ,IVE $EMONSTRATION v IN 3UMMARY 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE #() #ONFERENCE ED #LARE -ARIE +ARAT AND !RNOLD ,UND .EW 9ORK
)N OTHER WORDS BECAUSE ONE FORM OF REPRESENTATION IS NOT SUPE RIOR TO ANOTHER hTHE BEST STRATEGY FOR THE DESIGN OF A USER INTERFACE WOULD BE TO GENTLY FORCE A SYNERGY BETWEEN THEMv 4O ACHIEVE THIS +AY BEGAN TO CONSIDER THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF REPRESENTATION IN THE DE SIGN OF THE HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE AS HAVING EQUAL RIGHTS 7ITH THE HELP OF THE MOUSE THE USER COULD INTERACT WITH DATA IN A SENSOMOTORIC MANNER MANIPULATE TEXT AND PICTURES AND NAVIGATE WITHIN THE hIN FORMATION SPACEv CREATED BY THE COMPUTER 3CREEN WINDOWS AND ICONS AS WELL AS THE METAPHOR OF THE DESKTOP CALLED UPON THE VISUAL ABILITIES OF THE USER AND THE 3MALLTALK PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE WAS A POWERFUL TOOL FOR THE MANIPULATION OF SYMBOLS (OWEVER hVISUAL COMMUNICA TIONv BECAME THE CENTRAL ELEMENT IN THE DESIGN OF THE HUMAN COM PUTER INTERFACE 4HE PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF USER INTER FACES DEVELOPED BY +AYS WORKING GROUP WERE APPLIED CONSEQUENTLY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF 8EROXS lRST COMMERCIAL WORKSTATION THE 8EROX
3TAR INTRODUCED IN SEE &IGURE )T POSSESSED A SOPHISTICATED GRA PHICAL USER INTERFACE WHICH COULD BE USED SO INTUITIVELY THAT hMOST PEOPLE x COULD DEAL WITH A 3TAR WORKSTATION IN ABOUT AN HOURv ,OOKING BACK THE 3TAR HAD hx A PROFOUND EFFECT ON THE PERSONAL COMPUTER INDUSTRY x ;)T INTRODUCED= MANY OF THE ELEMENTS OF SUCCESSFUL GRAPHICAL USER INTER FACES '5)S INCLUDING ICONS DIRECT MANIPULATION THE DESKTOP META PHOR DIALOG BOXES UNIVERSAL COMMANDS AND POINTING AND CLICKING ;)T= POPULARIZED OTHER '5) TECHNIQUES SUCH AS BITMAPPED DISPLAY OVERLAPPING WINDOWS THE MOUSE NOUN VERB COMMANDS AND OBJECT ORIENTATIONv
8EROX h3TARv WORKSTATION WITH GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE AND MOUSE 3OURCE 8EROX #ORPORATION
!LAN # +AY h#OMPUTER 3OFTWARE v 3CIENTIFIC !MERICAN n "RENDA ,AUREL #OMPUTERS AS 4HEATER 2EADING -ASS "YRON 2EEVES AND #LIFFORD )VAR .ASS 4HE -EDIA %QUATION (OW 0EOPLE 4REAT #OMPUTERS 4ELE VISIONS AND .EW -EDIA ,IKE 2EAL 0EOPLE AND 0LACES 3TANFORD 2EEVES AND .ASS
4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD
#OMPARE 7ERNER 2AMMERT h#OMPUTER 5SE AT (OME n ! #ULTURAL #HALLENGE TO 4ECHNOLOGY $EVEL OPMENT v IN 4HE )NFORMATION 3UPERHIGHWAY AND 0RIVATE (OUSEHOLDS #ASE 3TUDIES OF "USINESS )MPACTS ED 7ALTER "RENNER AND ,UTZ +OLBE "ERLIN .EW 9ORK 4OKYO n *EF 2ASKIN h)NTUITIVE %QUALS &AMILIAR v #OMMUNICATIONS OF THE !#- NO -ICHAEL , $ERTOUZOS h#REATING THE 0EOPLES #OMPUTER v 4ECHNOLOGY 2EVIEW n
4HE 3TAR BECAME A BUSINESS mOP FOR 8EROX AND IT WASNT UNTIL THE DETOUR VIA THE !PPLE -ACINTOSH AND -ICROSOFT 7INDOWS THAT THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE EXPERIENCED ITS BREAKTHROUGH IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE S !CCORDING TO !LAN +AY MODERN USER INTERFACES WITH THEIR FOCUS ON THE DIRECT MANIPULATION OF OBJECTS ON THE SCREEN HAVE ONLY JUST BEGUN TO SCRATCH THE SURFACE OF THE COMPUTERS POSSIBILITIES ! USER IN TERFACE THAT USES METAPHORS WILL ALWAYS BE AN ABSTRACTION WHICH CAN NOT BE FOLLOWED BY ALL USERS IN THE SAME WAY (OWEVER BY NOW MOST COMPUTER USERS HAVE BECOME SO ACCUSTOMED TO GRAPHICAL USER INTER FACES AND THEIR WEAKNESSES THAT THEY CONFUSE THIS FAMILIARITY WITH THE USER FRIENDLINESS OF THE COMPUTER )N THIS CONTEXT 2AMMERT SPEAKS OF A REDUCTION TO THE EVERYDAY LEVEL IN DEALING WITH THE INADEQUACIES OF TECHNOLOGY "ECAUSE OF THIS THE CLAIM IS JUSTIlED THAT THE METAPHOR OF THE DESKTOP HAS BECOME AN IMPEDIMENT TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVEN MORE USER FRIENDLY COMPUTERS TODAY AS !LAN +AY POINTED OUT AS EARLY AS h! POWERFUL GENRE CAN SERVE AS WINGS OR CHAINS 4HE MOST TREACH EROUS METAPHORS ARE THE ONES THAT SEEM TO WORK FOR A TIME BECAUSE THEY CAN KEEP MORE POWERFUL INSIGHTS FROM BUBBLING UP !S A RESULT PROGRESS IS SLOW xv 4HE DESKTOP METAPHOR IS ALSO OBSTRUCTIVE FOR ANOTHER REASON THE GROUP OF USERS ORIGINALLY TARGETED BY THE MANUFACTURERS OF USER FRIENDLY COMPUTERS WERE CLASSICAL INFORMATION WORKERS SUCH AS SCI ENTISTS AND MANAGERS .ORMALLY THEY DIDNT HAVE EXPERIENCE IN DEAL ING WITH COMPUTERS BUT FELT COMFORTABLE IN THE CLASSICAL OFlCE EN VIRONMENT 3INCE THEN HOWEVER THE USE OF COMPUTERS HAS RADICALLY CHANGED OFlCE WORK AND MANY YOUNGER COMPUTER USERS FROM THE .INTENDO 'ENERATION WERE ABLE TO GATHER EXPERIENCE WITH COMPUTERS IN THEIR CHILDHOOD *UST AS THE CAR HAD TO LIBERATE ITSELF FROM THE MODEL OF THE HORSE DRAWN CARRIAGE IN ORDER TO GAIN ITS OWN PROlLE THE HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE MUST FREE ITSELF OF THE INITIALLY HELPFUL BUT NOW RATHER CONSTRICTIVE MODEL OF THE DESKTOP
"EYOND THE 'RAPHICAL )NTERFACE !T THE SAME TIME THAT THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE BECAME ACCEPTED A YOUNG GENERATION OF SCIENTISTS LIKE "RENDA ,AUREL "YRON 2EEVES AND #LIFFORD .ASS BEGAN TO DEVELOP NEW CONCEPTS OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION WHICH APPLY A THEATER OR AGENT METAPHOR !N INTERFACE CON CEPT CALLED h"OB v INTRODUCED BY -ICROSOFT IN THE MID S SEE &IGURE WAS BASED FOR EXAMPLE ON THE WORK OF 2EEVES AND .ASS AT 3TANFORD 5NIVERSITY 4HEIR WORK SPRANG FROM THE PREMISE THAT HUMANS HAVE A TENDENCY TO EQUATE THE VIRTUAL WORLDS CREATED BY THE MEDIA WITH REAL LIFE #ONSEQUENTLY THE INTERACTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL WITH THE COM PUTER AS A PROCESS OF REALITY CONSTRUCTION ACTUALLY HAS A SOCIAL NATURE "OB WAS AN ATTEMPT TO DEVELOP AN INTERFACE WHICH BUILT UPON THE EXPERIENCE OF THE USER IN EVERYDAY SITUATIONS )N ADDITION IT WAS THE lRST LARGE SCALE COMMERCIAL ATTEMPT TO OVERCOME THE 7)-0 0ARADIGM 7INDOWS )CONS -ENUS 0OINTING IN FAVOR OF AN ALTERNATIVE USER INTER FACE )NSTEAD OF PROCESSING ICONS ON THE SCREEN WITH THE MOUSE THE USER NOW INTERACTS WITH h"OBS &RIENDSv 4HESE INCLUDED hPERSONAL GUIDES v EACH OF WHICH POSSESSES HIS HER OWN PERSONALITY 4HIS PER SONALITY IS EXPRESSED THROUGH PITHY ONE LINERS AND SHORT ANIMATIONS &OR EXAMPLE h2OVERv THE DOG GIVES MOODY COMMENTS AND WIGGLES HIS EARS TO EXPRESS SURPRISE 4HE GUIDES OFFER A SERIES OF NAVIGATION POS SIBILITIES TO CHOOSE FROM BUT THERE IS NO HANDBOOK FOR "OB 5SERS ARE FORCED TO RELY ONLY ON THEIR PERSONAL GUIDE ALTHOUGH THERE IS ALSO AN IMPERSONAL GUIDE IN THE FORM OF A SIMPLE LOUDSPEAKER MOUNTED ON THE WALL n FOR THOSE USERS WHO ARE ABSOLUTELY UNABLE TO GET USED TO ANIMATED ANIMALS AS NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
5SER INTERFACE OF -ICROSOFTS "OB WITH h2OVERv IN THE LOWER RIGHT CORNER 3OURCE HTTPWWWDIGIBARN COM ACCESSED ON !UGUST
3TEVEN *OHNSON )NTERFACE #ULTURE 7IE NEUE 4ECH NOLOGIEN +REATIVITØT UND +OMMUNIKATION VERØNDERN 3TUTTGART /RIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN %NGLISH AS )NTERFACE #ULTURE (OW .EW 4ECHNOLOGY 4RANSFORMS THE 7AY 7E #REATE AND #OMMUNICATE -ARK 7EISER h4HE #OMPUTER FOR THE ST #ENTURY v 3CIENTIFIC !MERICAN NO n -ARK 7EISER AND *OHN 3EELY "ROWN 4HE #OMING !GE OF #ALM 4ECHNOLOGY "EYOND #ALCULATION 4HE .EXT &IFTY 9EARS OF #OMPUTING ED 0ETER * $ENNING AND 2OBERT - -ETCALFE .EW 9ORK n
*EFFREY - "RADSHAW 3OFTWARE !GENTS #AMBRIDGE -ASS +AY #OMPUTER 3OFTWARE n 0ATTIE -AES h!GENTS THAT 2EDUCE 7ORK AND )NFORMATION /VERLOAD v #OMMUNICATIONS OF THE !#- NO
4HE PROGRAM WAS A COMMERCIAL FAILURE PRIMARILY BECAUSE THE USER ESPECIALLY IN %UROPE DID NOT REACT POSITIVELY TO THE hPERSONALITIESv OF THE DIFFERENT CHARACTERS AND BECAUSE hSOMEWHERE ALONG THE WAY THE GOOD FAITH OF USER FRIENDLY METAPHORS HAD BEEN REPLACED BY THE HYSTE RIA OF TOTAL SIMULATIONv
"OB WAS PROBABLY THE LAST SERIOUS ATTEMPT TO DEVELOP A NEW TYPE OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE FOR A PERSONAL COMPUTER IN THE TRADI TIONAL SENSE BECAUSE IN THE MEANTIME HARDWARE DEVELOPMENT HAS BEEN MAKING ANOTHER EFFORT TO REVOLUTIONIZE OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE COMPUTER 4HROUGH THE ONGOING IMPROVEMENT OF THE INTEGRATION DEN SITY AND PERFORMANCE IT WILL SOON BE POSSIBLE TO EQUIP EVEN EVERYDAY OBJECTS WITH hINTELLIGENCEv $ISCUSSION OF THE hDISAPPEARING COMPUTERv OR THE UBIQUITOUS COMPUTER ABOUNDS "UT HOW CAN ONE COMMUNI CATE WITH COFFEE CUPS REFRIGERATORS OR WITH A hPERSONAL DIGITAL ASSIS TANTv WHICH IS SMALLER THAN A 7ALKMAN THUS LACKING EITHER A MONITOR OR A KEYBOARD 7ITHIN THIS CONTEXT THE IDEA OF THE SOCIAL HUMAN COMPUTER IN TERFACE WILL BE DEVELOPED FURTHER )NTELLIGENT HELP PROGRAMS KNOWN AS hSOFTWARE AGENTS v WILL BE INTEGRATED INTO THE INTERFACE 4HE IDEA OF USING SUCH PROGRAMS IN THE DESIGN OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTER ACTION CAN ALSO BE TRACED BACK TO !LAN +AY WHO DESCRIBED THEM AS hAN ACTIVE EXTENSION OF ONES PURPOSES AND GOALSv )NSTEAD OF DIRECTLY MANIPULATING OBJECTS ON THE SCREEN THE USER OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM WOULD DELEGATE TASKS VIA SPOKEN INPUT TO PERSONALIZED SOFTWARE AGENTS WHO CARRY THEM OUT ON THE BASIS OF THEIR INFORMATION ON THE INTERESTS AND GOALS OF THE USER 4HE METAPHOR OF THE PERSONAL ASSISTANT WHO COMMUNICATES WITH THE HUMAN USER IN THE MOST NATURAL WAY POSSIBLE IS POPULARLY APPLIED TO SUCH SOFTWARE AGENTS 4HEY TRY TO SUPPORT A SMOOTH INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND COMPUTERS BECAUSE THEY WORK SO INTUITIVELY $ESPITE CERTAIN SIMILARITIES THERE ARE FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BE TWEEN ICONS AND SOFTWARE AGENTS ICONS MUST REMAIN VISIBLE IN ORDER TO BE MOVED FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER ON THE SCREEN )N ADDITION THEY ARE PASSIVE AND THUS MUST BE MOVED BY THE USER )N CONTRAST TO THIS AGENTS CAN REGISTER EVENTS AND CHANGES AND REACT TO THEM ACTIVELY 4HEY ARE SET UP TO CONTINUOUSLY RECORD AND ANALYZE THE USERS INTER ACTIONS IN ORDER TO COLLECT INFORMATION ABOUT THEIR PREFERENCES GOALS AND STRATEGIES 4HIS INFORMATION IS THEN USED TO ADAPT THE USER INTER FACE TO THE NEED OF THE USER TO AUTOMATE CERTAIN TASKS COMPLETELY OR IN PART 5LTIMATELY IT SHOULD BECOME POSSIBLE FOR AGENTS TO LEARN BY
4HE #ONTINUOUS #ONSTRUCTION OF THE #OMPUTER 5SER -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD
"RADSHAW
EXAMPLE AND TO CONSTRUCT PROCESSES THEMSELVES !GENTS ARE THUS PROGRAMS WHICH ARE ABLE TO FORMULATE AND DE lNE GOALS TO INITIATE PROCESSES AND TO INTERACT WITH OTHER SOFTWARE AGENTS AND THE USER IN THE SENSE OF REACTING TO EVENTS APPROPRIATELY 4HE IDEA OF LEARNING THROUGH COOPERATIVE WORK AND EXPERIENCE INTER ACTIVE LEARNING HAS THUS BECOME A CENTRAL ELEMENT IN THE DESIGN OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACES AND PLAYS A ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWARE AGENTS 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW FORMS OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION HAS THUS NOW TURNED DETERMINISTIC IDEAS UPSIDE DOWN THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IS OBVIOUSLY NOT FORMED BY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNOLOGY BUT INSTEAD IS SHAPED ACCORDING TO REQUIREMENTS RESULTING FROM SOCIAL INTERACTION 3UMMARY AND #ONCLUSION 4HE STARTING POINT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN COMPUTER IN TERFACES WAS THE DIAGNOSIS OF AN hINFORMATION PROBLEMv DURING AND DIRECTLY AFTER THE 7ORLD 7AR )) WHICH MADE IT INCREASINGLY DIFlCULT TO GAIN ACCESS TO THE BODY OF EXPONENTIALLY GROWING WORLDWIDE KNOWL EDGE )N THE FOLLOWING YEARS THIS PROBLEM WAS INTENSIlED BY THE INTRO DUCTION OF THE ELECTRONIC DIGITAL COMPUTER BECAUSE IT NOT ONLY MADE THE FAST ACCESS TO INVENTORIES OF DATA POSSIBLE BUT IT ALSO BECAME THE SOURCE OF MORE AND MORE INFORMATION ITSELF !PPROPRIATELY THE lRST DEVELOPMENTS IN THE S AND @ S WERE CHARACTERIZED BY THE SEARCH FOR PROCEDURES WHICH WOULD MAKE EFlCIENT ACCESS TO INFORMATION POS SIBLE AND RELIEVE THE USER OF ROUTINE WORK
7ITH THE INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS WHICH HAD THE POTEN TIAL TO SUPPORT THE USERSS INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES IT BECAME CLEAR THAT THE COMPUTER WAS BY NO MEANS MERELY ANOTHER INCARNATION OF WELL KNOWN hTOOLS FOR THINKING v BUT RATHER PRESENTED AN OPPORTUNITY TO CONSTRUCT COMPLETELY NEW THINKING AND WORKING WORLDS !S A REACTION TO THIS REALIZATION IN THE S AND EVEN MORE INTENSELY IN THE S THE COMMUNICATIVE ASPECT OF THE HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION STEPPED INTO THE SPOTLIGHT OF RESEARCH AND DEVEL OPMENT )N RETROSPECT IT IS CLEAR THAT IN THIS PHASE THE SEARCH TO TRY AND UNDERSTAND THE USER BECAME THE CENTRAL QUESTION 7ITH DEVELOPING CLARITY ABOUT THE QUALITIES OF THE USER ALSO CAME THE SEARCH FOR A LINGUA FRANCA FOR HUMAN COMPUTER COMMUNICATION WHICH SHOULD MAKE AN INTUITIVE AND FRICTIONLESS UNDERSTANDING POSSIBLE 4HE LEITMOTIF OF THIS DECADE LONG DEVELOPMENT PROCESS HAS BEEN THE QUESTION OF HOW THE COMPUTER CAN REPRESENT KNOWLEDGE ADEQUATELY SO THAT IT IS NO LONGER ORIENTED TO THE CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITS OF THE COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY BUT RATHER TO THE USERS NEEDS AND ABILITIES AS HE OR SHE ABSORBS INFORMATION 4HE SEARCH FOR AN ANSWER HAS STILL NOT COME TO AN END AND THE NEARLY YEAR HISTORY OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION APPEARS TO BE AN ONGOING APPROACH TO THIS GOAL 4HE DIGITAL REVOLUTION POSITED FOR THE LAST YEARS HAS THUS RE VEALED ITSELF TO BE A NEVER ENDING STORY !N ABYSS IS YAWNING BETWEEN THE FEVERISH PROMISES OF CYBERGURUS AND THE EXPERIENCE OF TYPICAL COMPUTER USERS WHO AGAIN AND AGAIN lND THEMSELVES FORCED TO BUY IMPROVED HARDWARE TO MEET THE LATEST SOFTWARE STANDARD WHO WONDER WHERE THEIR DATA DISAPPEARS WHEN THE COMPUTER CRASHES WHO HAVE NO IDEA WHY THEY CANT GET INTO THE )NTERNET )T SEEMS THAT UP TO NOW THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION HAS SWEPT ALONG ONLY THE COMPUTER n AND LEFT THE HUMAN BEHIND
&RANCOIS "URKHARDT $ESIGN DER :UKUNFT !RCHITEK TUR $ESIGN 4ECHNIK KOLOGIE #OLOGNE &OR A GOOD COMPILATION OF PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES OF DESIGNER SEE $ER DIGITALE 7AHN ED "ERNHARD % "ÓRDEK &RANKFURT
)NTERACTION $ESIGN n $ESIGN AS )NTERACTION .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ
#F /LAF !RNDT h+REIDE UND #OMPUTER /RDNUNGS PRINZIPIEN IN DER $YNAMISCHEN "ILDGESTALTUNG v IN $AS "AUHAUS EDS *EANNINE &IEDLER AND 0ETER &EIERABEND #OLOGNE n (ARTMUT 7INCKLER h$IE PREKØRE 2OLLE DER 4ECHNIK 4ECHNIKZENTRIERTE VERSUS @ANTHROPOLOGISCHE -EDIENGE SCHICHTE v IN âBER "ILDER 3PRECHEN 0OSITIONEN UND 0ERSPEKTIVEN DER -EDIENWISSENSCHAFT ED (EINZ " (ELLER -ATTHIAS +RAUS 4HOMAS -EDER +ARL 0RÓMM (ARTMUT 7INCKLER -ARBURG n
4HE 0ROBLEM OF )NTERACTIVITY 4O WHAT EXTENT IS INTERACTIVITY ACTUALLY SOMETHING NEW 4O WHAT EXTENT IS INTERACTION DESIGN A NEW FORM OF DESIGN PARALLEL TO OR RE PLACING THE OLD FORMS OF COMMUNICATION AND INDUSTRIAL DESIGN #ON FRONTED WITH SUCH A QUESTION AT THE OUTSET THE ARTISTICALLY INCLINED READER CAN PERHAPS ALREADY ANTICIPATE THE ANSWER THIS DISCUSSION WILL ARRIVE AT YES AND NO !ND INDEED IT MAKES SENSE TO KEEP BOTH IN MIND THE QUESTION OF WHAT IS NEW ABOUT INTERACTION DESIGN AND THE QUESTION OF WHAT THIS NEW ASPECT IS ABLE TO TELL US ABOUT DESIGN AS A WHOLE )T THUS SEEMS APPROPRIATE TO STATE THE THESIS OF THIS ESSAY AT THE BEGINNING )NTERACTION DESIGN IS A FUNDAMENTAL SYNTHESIS OF DESIGN IN GENERAL (OW IS THIS TO BE UNDERSTOOD 4HE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE OBJECT AND THE USER HAS OF COURSE AL WAYS BEEN AN ELEMENT OF DESIGN 4HERE ARE TWO POLES IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN AND OBJECT THAT DETERMINE DESIGN WHICH IS POSITIONED BETWEEN THE COMMUNICATIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTWORK AND OB SERVER ON THE ONE HAND AND THE INTERACTIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECH NICAL TOOL AND HUMANS ON THE OTHER $ESPITE ALL THE TALK OF SOCIO DESIGN DESIGN THEORY HAS TO DATE CONCENTRATED EXCLUSIVELY ON THE LATTER POLE 4HEREFORE RATHER THAN FURTHER REmECTING ON THE ACTUAL AND ALLEGED POTENTIALS OF THE TECHNICAL CONDITIONS OF THE DIGITAL SPHERE AND ITS EMANCIPATORY POSSIBILITIES WE WILL FOCUS ON THE CONNECTION BE TWEEN DESIGN AND INTERACTION BELOW )N ITSELF THIS HORIZON OF INQUIRY INDICATES THAT WE ARE DEALING WITH CONmICTS THAT HAVE ALWAYS BEEN FUNDAMENTAL TO THE THEORETICAL DISCUS SION OF DESIGN I E BETWEEN FORM AND FUNCTION AESTHETICS AND UTILITY ETC )NTERACTION DESIGN THUS REQUIRES A CERTAIN REDElNITION OF THE CON CEPT OF DESIGN
).4%2!#4)/. $%3)'. n $%3)'. !3 ).4%2!#4)/. /. 4(% %-%2'%.#% /& $%3)'. !3 ! 39-"/,)# &/2- /& -/$%2. #/--5.)#!4)/. .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ
-ARSHALL -C,UHAN $IE 'UTENBERG 'ALAXIS $AS %NDE DES "UCHZEITALTERS $ÓSSELDORF 6IENNA .ORBERT "OLZ 4HEORIE DER NEUEN -EDIEN -UNICH 0ETER 7EIBEL h4RANSFORMATIONEN DER 4ECHNO ËSTHETIK v IN $IGITALER 3CHEIN ËSTHETIK DER ELEKTRONISCHEN -EDIEN ED &LORIAN 2TZER &RANKFURT A - PP n &OR A GOOD OVERVIEW FROM THE DESIGN PERSPECTIVE SEE 2OLF 'ÓNTER 2ENNER $IE 0OSTMODERNE +ONSTELLATION 4HEORIE 4EXT UND +UNST IM !USGANG DER -ODERNE &REIBURG I " -C,UHANS EUPHORIA MAY HAVE BEEN JUSTIFIED AT THE TIME OF WRITING #F -ARSHALL -C,UHAN $IE MAGISCHEN +ANØLE 5NDERSTANDING MEDIA $ÓSSELDORF
! COMPARISON CAN BE MADE BETWEEN ON THE ONE HAND &RIEDRICH +ITTLER 'RAMMOPHON &ILM 4YPEWRITER "ERLIN AND * $AVID "OLTER $ER $IGITALE &AUST -UNICH AND ON THE OTHER 0AUL 6IRILIO ËSTHETIK DES 6ERSCHWINDENS "ERLIN #F $ANIELA +LOOCK 6ON DER 3CHRIFT ZUR "ILDSCHIRM KULTUR !NALYSE AKTUELLER -EDIENTHEORIEN "ERLIN !N EXEMPLARY CRITIQUE IS OFFERED BY +AY +IRCHMANN "LICKE AUS DEM "UNKER 0AUL 6IRILIOS :EIT UND -EDIENTHEORIE AUS DER 3ICHT EINER 0HILOSOPHIE DES 5NBEWUSSTEN 3TUTTGART ESP PP n #F ALSO (EINRICH ,ÓTZELER +UNSTERFAHRUNG UND +UNSTWISSENSCHAFT 3YSTEMATISCHE UND ENTWICKLUNGS GESCHICHTLICHE $ARSTELLUNG UND $OKUMENTATION DES
,ET US BRIEmY REVIEW THE CONSENSUAL VIEW OF INTERACTIVITY THAT WE lND IN MATERIALIST INTERPRETATIONS OF MEDIA 7HETHER THE FOCUS IS ON THE )NTERNET A MEDIA ART INSTALLATION OR DATA DESIGN IT IS GENER ALLY AGREED THAT THESE ARE ALL STRUCTURALLY DISTINGUISHED BY A RELATION SHIP BETWEEN PRODUCER RECIPIENT AND TECHNOLOGY 4HIS RELATIONSHIP IS FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT FROM THAT CHARACTERIZING OBJECTS OF THE PAST WHICH ARE CONCEIVED IN COMPARATIVELY STATIC TERMS ! LINEAR DETERMINATION OF THE USER BY lXED DESIGN RULES IS REPLACED BY AN OPEN FEEDBACK RELATIONSHIP BASED ON THE TECHNICAL POTENTIAL OF THE EQUIPMENT -C,UHAN WAS ONE OF THE lRST TO PRESENT SUCH AN ARGU MENT IN HIS ANALYSIS OF BOOK CULTURE IN 4HE 'UTENBERG 'ALAXY 4ECH NOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS THEMSELVES SUCH AS NEW DATA SYSTEMS GENERATE A DECISIVE BREAK BETWEEN THE OLD BOOK CULTURE AND THE NEW QUALITA TIVELY UNIQUE INFORMATION SOCIETY 'OOD DESIGN n UNDERSTOOD HERE AS INFORMATION DESIGN n ULTIMATELY DERIVES FROM KNOWLEDGE OF THESE MA TERIAL PRECONDITIONS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 4HESE PARADIGMS ARE GENERALLY WELL KNOWN AND DO NOT NEED TO BE ELABORATED HERE $ESPITE THEIR AT TIMES EFFUSIVE POSTSTRUCTURALIST AIR OF REVOLUTIONARY KNOWLEDGE SUCH THEORETICAL MODELS ARE VERY MUCH WITHIN THE TRADI TION OF EARLY MODERN ART THEORY AND EVEN MORE CLEARLY THAT OF EARLY DESIGN THEORY $ID NOT 'OTTFRIED 3EMPER ONCE DERIVE THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOOD FORM FROM THE LOGIC OF TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT SPECIlCALLY THE IMMA NENT STRUCTURES OF MATERIAL 4HE INSIGHTS THAT MATERIALIST ART THEORY DERIVED FROM THE CONDITIONS PREVAILING DURING THE "RONZE AND )RON !GES ON THE BASIS OF DIFFERENT TOOLS AND ORNAMENTAL FORMS WERE RAPIDLY TRANS FERRED TO THE CHALLENGES OF THE )NDUSTRIAL 2EVOLUTION -ATERIALS RANGING FROM CAST IRON TO REINFORCED CONCRETE WERE SEEN AS OBVIOUSLY DETERMINING THE FORM OF THE INDUSTRIAL AGE n JUST AS WOOD FOR EXAM PLE HAD ONCE DETERMINED THE FURNISHINGS OF THE 'OTHIC PERIOD )T WAS NO ACCIDENT THAT AT THE SAME TIME SUCH hAPPLIEDv AESTHETICS WERE BEING TAKEN UP IN ALL AREAS OF AN EMERGING AUTONOMOUS ART SCENE 0AINTING SCULPTURE ETC JUSTIlED THEMSELVES IN TERMS OF THE PURE PRES ENCE OF THEIR MATERIALS COLOR TONE STONE &INALLY EVEN CELLULOID SPOKE FOR ITSELF AND WAS CAST IN TERMS OF hPUREv CONTEMPLATION IN THE AUTONO
5MGANGS MIT DER BILDENDEN +UNST VOLS &REIBURG -UNICH /RBIS !CADEMICUS 0ROBLEMGESCHICHTEN DER 7ISSENSCHAFT IN $OKUMENTEN UND $ARSTELLUNGEN ED &RITZ 7AGNER VOL ) n VOL 'IEDIONS CLASSIC STUDY ALTHOUGH CHARACTERIZED BY MANY ARGUMENTS ANALOGOUS TO THOSE OF THE 7LFLIN SCHOOL ILLUSTRATES THE NECESSITY OF A MORE COMPLEX SOCIAL HISTORICAL APPROACH TO EVEN THE MOST EVERYDAY TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 3IEGFRIED 'IEDION $IE (ERRSCHAFT DER -ECHANISIERUNG %IN "EITRAG ZUR ANONY MEN 'ESCHICHTE &RANKFURT A - .IKOLAUS 0EVSNER 7EGBEREITER MODERNER &ORMGE BUNG 6ON -ORRIS BIS 'ROPIUS (AMBURG /N THE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY ITSELF SEE 7OLFGANG +NIG AND
MOUS ARTWORK !LONG WITH PEINTURE PURE PURE SCULPTURE AND CIN£MA PUR THERE EMERGED A DESIGN PUR FREE OF OBLIGATIONS OF FUNCTIONALITY %VEN THE ALMOST IMMATERIAL STRUCTURES OF THE DIGITAL SPHERE HAVE RE CENTLY BECOME A FOCUS FOR THIS KIND OF ARTISTIC AESTHETIC BASED ON MATE RIAL AND TECHNIQUE INCLUDING THOSE IN THE DESIGN lELD (OWEVER THIS AESTHETICIZING INTERPRETIVE GESTURE HARDLY DOES JUSTICE TO THE DIVERSITY OF ART AND CERTAINLY NOT TO THE COMPLEXITY AND CULTURAL RELEVANCE OF DESIGN AND INTERACTION DESIGN THAT IS NOW EMERGING )T IS IN ANY CASE INDICATIVE THAT THE 'OLDEN ,EGEND OF DESIGN IS READ MORE OFTEN AS A NARRATIVE OF INTERNALLY LINKED ACTS OF ARTISTIC GENIUS THAN AS AN ACTUAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AESTHETIC EVERYDAY WORLD )T IS NO ACCIDENT THAT THE HEROES AND INVENTORS OF THIS STORY ARE FOR THE MOST PART ARTISTS AND ARCHITECTS WHOSE APPROACHES HAVE BEEN CHARACTERIZED BY AESTHETIC UTOPIAS OUTSIDE THE SOCIAL TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC REALITIES OF THEIR TIME %VEN THE FETISH OF INDUSTRIALISM SEEN IN THE CASE OF CONTRUCTIVISTS AND PRODUCTIVISTS WAS NOT REALLY AIMED AT THE NEW INDUSTRIAL CULTURE 2ATHER IT SOUGHT TO SUBORDINATE THIS TO ITS OWN CONCEPT OF ART 7HILE %IFFELS MASTERPIECE OF PRODUCTION AND CONSTRUCTION IS DESCRIBED AS A COMPROMISE WITH INAPPROPRIATE DECORATION BETWEEN WHAT IS REC OGNIZED AS AN INGENIOUS CONSTRUCTIVE SOLUTION THE h4OWER OF THE 4HIRD )NTERNATIONALEv BY 4ATLIN IS REGARDED AS A CONSISTENT REALIZATION OF THE NEW NECESSARY INDUSTRIAL FORM /NE RARELY lNDS MENTION OF THE FACT THAT THE TOWER IN 0ARIS BUILT BY A BRIDGE ENGINEER AND SUCCESSFUL BUSINESSMAN IS STILL STANDING WHEREAS THE STUDIO PATHOS OF THE 2US SIAN IS QUITE SIMPLY IMPRACTICAL 4HESE AND OTHER SELF EVIDENT ASPECTS OF THE DESIGN DISCOURSE RE QUIRE CRITICAL REmECTION )T IS USEFUL IN THIS CONTEXT TO ASK THE SUPPOS EDLY NAIVE QUESTION AS TO WHY DESIGN EXISTS AT ALL 4HE FACT THAT IN OUR MODERN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY WE ARE SURROUNDED BY MORE THAN MERELY NECESSARY TECHNICAL ITEMS AND THAT TRADITIONAL COSTUMES ARE ONLY SEEN OCCASIONALLY AT FOLK FESTIVALS AND MASQUERADE BALLS IS ONLY SUPERlCIALLY SELF EVIDENT $ECORATIVENESS AND FUNCTIONALITY CAN HARDLY EXPLAIN THE PERMANENCE OF CHANGE %VEN THE SUPPOSEDLY OBJECTIVE hGOOD FORMv IS TODAY MERELY ONE STYLISTIC lGURE AMONG OTHERS $ESIGN HAS NEVER ONLY BEEN ABOUT WHAT IS BETTER AND MORE BEAUTIFUL ABOVE ALL IT HAS BEEN
#F 7ERNER (OFMANN 'RUNDLAGEN DER MODERNEN +UNST %INE %INFÓHRUNG IN IHRE SYMBOLISCHEN &ORMEN 3TUTTGART FF /N THESE PROBLEMS WITHIN THE CURRENT DESIGN DEBATE CF *ÓRGEN #LAUS h$AS ELEKTRONISCHE "AUHAUS 'ESTALTUNG MIT 5MWELTv :URICH AND /LAF !RNDT h+REIDE UND #OMPUTER /RDNUNGSPRINZIPIEN IN DER $YNAMISCHEN "ILDGESTALTUNG v IN $AS "AUHAUS ED *EANNINE &IEDLER AND 0ETER &EIERABEND #OLOGNE n (OWEVER THESE ARE ULTIMATELY PROBLEMS THAT HAVE ALREADY BEEN FORMULATED BY THE )$: #F DIVERSE CONTRIBUTIONS IN $ESIGN DER :UKUNFT !RCHITEKTUR $ESIGN 4ECHNIK KOLOGIE ED &RANCOIS "URKHARDT #OLOGNE
CONCERNED WITH WHAT IS DIFFERENT AND NEW 4HIS DYNAMIC IS AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF THE SOCIAL SUBSYSTEM OF DESIGN AND POINTS FAR BACK INTO AN ERA PREDATING THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN INDUSTRIAL CULTURE
&OR AN ANALYSIS REFERRING TO CLASSIC PRODUCT DESIGN SEE 4NIS +ØO h$AS 6ERSCHWINDEN DER 'EGENSTØNDE n ZUR 'ESTALTBARKEIT DER -IKROTECHNOLOGIEN v IN $ESIGN *AHR BUCH $ESIGN :ENTRUM %SSEN ED 0ETER :EC %SSEN n 2EGARDING %IFFEL SEE #HRISTOPH !SENDORF h3TRME UND 3TRAHLEN $AS LANGSAME 6ERSCHWINDEN DER -ATERIE UM v 7ERKBUND !RCHIV 'IEEN n #F .IKLAS ,UHMANN $IE +UNST DER 'ESELLSCHAFT &RANKFURT A -
)NTERACTION $ESIGN n $ESIGN AS )NTERACTION .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ
7OLFHARD 7EBER h.ETZWERKE 3TAHL UND 3TROM BIS IN 0ROPYLØEN 4ECHNIKGESCHICHTE v ED 7OLF GANG +NIG VOL "ERLIN (ANS *OACHIM "RAUN AND 7ALTER +AISER %NERGIEWIRTSCHAFT !UTOMATISIERUNG )NFORMATION 3EIT 0ROPYLØEN 4ECHNIKGESCHICHTE ED 7OLFGANG +NIG VOL "ERLIN #F 3KE $INKLA 0IONIERE INTERAKTIVER -EDIENKUNST 6ON BIS HEUTE /STFILDERN 2UIT (ANS 0ETER 3CHWARZ -EDIEN +UNST 'ESCHICHTE -EDIENMUSEUM :+- -UNICH .EW 9ORK AND 6ISION 2UHR +UNST -EDIEN )NTERAKTION AUF DER :ECHE :OLLERN )) )6 $ORTMUND EXHIBITION CATALOG ED -USEEN DER 3TADT $ORTMUND AND 7ESTFØLISCHES )NDUSTRIEMUSEUM :ECHE :OLLERN )) )6 /STFILDERN
/NE COULD ALSO REFER HERE TO THE ORIGIN OF THE DISEGNO OF THE 2ENAISSANCE ALTHOUGH THIS WOULD REQUIRE MORE EXTENSIVE CONSIDERATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE AUTONOMOUS AESTHETIC OF THE CINQUECENTO TO THE ARTISTIC CRAFT OF THE TIME %UGEN ,EITHERER )NDUSTRIEDESIGN %NTWICKLUNG 0RODUKTION KONOMIE 3TUTTGART
)NTERACTION ROOM )NTERACTION ROOM )NTERACTION ROOM )NTERACTION ROOM
3YMBOLIC &ORMS OF %VERYDAY #OMMUNICATION OR THE /RIGIN OF $ESIGN )N ORDER TO UNDERSTAND THIS DEVELOPMENT WE NEED TO PLACE LESS EMPHASIS ON THE COLLOQUIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL USE OF THE TERM DESIGN IN 'ERMANY AND MORE ON THE ORIGINAL %NGLISH MEANING WHICH REFERS TO BLUEPRINT DRAFT OR MODEL !LTHOUGH THE FOLLOWING HISTORICAL EX CURSUS MAY AT lRST SEEM ODD TO SOME READERS IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WE REVIEW IN A NECESSARILY BRIEF FORM THE EMERGENCE OF DESIGN ) AM OF COURSE SPEAKING HERE NOT IN CONCEPTUAL TERMS BUT IN TERMS OF A DIF FERENTIATED SOCIAL SYSTEM !T AN EVERYDAY LEVEL THE USE OF THE CONCEPT AS A CONTRAST TO FREE AND AUTONOMOUS ART n AND AS A WAY OF IDENTIFYING DIFFERENT FORMS n CONTINUES TO MAKE PRAGMATIC SENSE (OWEVER THE CONCERN HERE IS NOT WITH THE ORIGIN OF DESIGN IN A TECHNICAL AND MATERIAL SENSE BUT IN A SOCIAL SENSE !S INDICATED ABOVE IT SHOULD BECOME CLEAR THAT THE CONVENTIONAL IDEA OF THE GENESIS OF DESIGN AS AN ARTISTIC RESPONSE TO THE CHALLENGES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IS ITSELF A FORESHORTENED AND AESTHETICIZING PERSPECTIVE )T WILL BECOME CLEAR AT THE END OF THIS DIS CUSSION WHY THIS APPARENT DIGRESSION IS ESSENTIAL FOR AN UNDERSTANDING OF INTERACTION DESIGN AS A PARADIGM OF DESIGN IN GENERAL $ESIGN IS A SPECIlCALLY SYMBOLIC FORM WITHIN THE SOCIAL RELATIONS OF MODERN HUMAN BEINGS OR EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THE CENTRAL QUESTION EXPLORED BY THIS ESSAY A SPECIlC FORM OF INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMAN BEINGS VIA THE SYMBOLIC FORMS OF THEIR EVERYDAY CULTURE &OR THIS REA SON IT IS VALID TO RETURN TO THE BEGINNINGS OF THIS MODERN DEVELOPMENT n THE EARLY 2ENAISSANCE n WHEN THESE SPECIlC INTERACTIVE RELATIONS TOOK SHAPE $ESIGN EMERGED WITH MODERN SCIENCE AN INDEPENDENT SYSTEM OF ART CAPITALISM AND MANY OTHER lELDS OF INSTRUMENTALLY RATIONAL ACTION IN THE %ARLY -IDDLE !GES IN THE CULTURAL CENTERS OF &LANDERS AND )TALY n REGIONS WITH WHICH WE CONVENTIONALLY ASSOCIATE THE ARTISTIC EMERGENCE OF THE 2ENAISSANCE )T WAS A PRODUCT OF A COMPREHENSIVE REVOLUTION IN ALL AREAS OF SOCIETY ECONOMY AND CULTURE AS WELL AS THE REPLACEMENT OF TRADITIONAL VIEWS OF THE WORLD AND OF THE ASSOCIATED STATIC SOCIAL ORDERS OF %UROPEAN FEUDALISM
)NTERACTION $ESIGN n $ESIGN AS )NTERACTION .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ
#F .ORBERT %LIAS âBER DEN 0ROZE DER :IVILISATION &RANKFURT A - PP AND .ORBERT %LIAS âBER DIE :EIT !RBEITEN ZUR 7ISSENSSOZIOLOGIE )) &RANKFURT A - #F .ORBERT %LIAS $IE HFISCHE 'ESELLSCHAFT 5NTER SUCHUNGEN ZUR 3OZIOLOGIE DES +NIGTUMS UND HFISCHEN !RISTOKRATIE &RANKFURT A - 0IERRE "OURDIEU %LEMENTE ZU EINER SOZIOLOGISCHEN 4HEORIE DER +UNSTWAHRNEHMUNG IN "OURDIEU :UR 3OZI OLOGIE DER SYMBOLISCHEN &ORMEN &RANKFURT A - n
.ORBERT %LIAS DESCRIBES THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PROCESS OF CIVILIZA TION AS A DISSOLUTION OF INHERITED PROBLEMATIC POWER RELATIONS WHICH IN THE (IGH -IDDLE !GES LED TO THE POWER £LITES OF FEUDAL SOCIETY BEING CHALLENGED BY AN ALLIANCE BETWEEN AN INCREASINGLY POWERFUL KINGSHIP AND THE URBAN BOURGEOISIE &ROM HIS HEARTLAND IN THE )SLE DE &RANCE THE &RENCH KING WAS GRADUALLY ABLE TO BRING NEARLY THE WHOLE OF &RANCE UNDER UNIlED CONTROL !MONG OTHER THINGS THIS RESULTED IN LEGAL SECURITY FOR THE RISING COMMERCIAL CLASSES IN THE TOWNS WHO CONSE QUENTLY ALLIED THEMSELVES WITH THIS EXPANDING CENTRALIST POWER )F NOT DESTROYED FOLLOWING VIOLENT RESISTANCE THE OLD FEUDAL NOBILITY WAS GRADUALLY FORCED TO SURRENDER ITS ORIGINAL AUTONOMY AND MILITARY PRO FESSION IN FAVOR OF A PROGRESSIVE SUBORDINATION TO THE CENTRAL POWER 4HE SECURE ECONOMIC SPHERE THAT EMERGED PROMOTED THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY MANUFACTURING THE RATIONALIZATION OF COMMERCE AND ADVAN CES IN AGRARIAN PRODUCTION THAT HAD ALREADY BEGUN IN THE -IDDLE !GES 4HIS DEVELOPMENT ALSO MEANT INCREASING WEALTH FOR THE MARGINALIZED hBLOOD NOBILITYv AT A TIME WHEN THIS CLASS WAS SEEING ITS LEGITIMACY AS A WARRIOR CASTE CHALLENGED 4HE ARISTOCRATIC CLAIM TO POWER WAS NOW NO LONGER BASED ON MILITARY POWER AND READINESS FOR ACTION BUT INCREAS INGLY ON FORMS OF SOCIAL INTERCOURSE ON A PERMANENT FORM OF SELF PRESENTATION AND CONlRMATION OF ITS ARISTOCRATIC ETHOS AS A SOCIAL DISPO SITION n A CODE OF BEHAVIOR THAT ENTAILED THE INDIVIDUAL BECOMING PART OF EVER LARGER MORE ANONYMOUS SOCIAL CONTEXTS 7ITHIN SUCH CONTEXTS THE SLIGHTEST ACTION OR FORM OF COMMUNICATION HAD FAR REACHING CON SEQUENCES THAT WERE OFTEN DIFlCULT TO COMPREHEND 4HIS DEVELOPMENT IS MOST CLEARLY EXEMPLIlED BY &RANCE AND "URGUNDY 4HE &RENCH KING GRADUALLY AND DELIBERATELY BOUND THE LOCAL FEUDAL LORDS TO HIS COURT A DEVELOPMENT THAT CONCLUDED WITH THE CONSTRUCTION OF 6ERSAILLES 4HIS NOT ONLY DISTANCED THE LORDS FROM THE REGIONAL SOURCES OF THEIR POWER BUT REQUIRED THAT THEY HOLD THEIR OWN NOT ONLY IN THEIR ANCESTORS RURAL CASTLES AND LOCAL MARKET TOWNS BUT ALSO IN AN EXTREMELY COMPLEX AND POPULOUS ROYAL HOUSEHOLD "RINGING TOGETHER THE GRANDEES OF THE LAND IN THIS WAY MEANT THAT THEY WERE NOW REQUIRED TO COORDINATE THEIR BEHAVIOR WITH THAT OF THEIR RIVALS WITHIN AN ALMOST INCOMPREHENSI BLY LARGE COURT SOCIETY 2ATHER THAN BEING ABLE TO EXPRESSES THEIR
URGES AND DESIRES SPONTANEOUSLY AND AS WAS OFTEN THE CASE VIOLENTLY THEY NOW HAD TO CONSIDER AND COORDINATE THEIR ACTIONS IN RELATION TO A LARGE NUMBER OF PARTLY UNKNOWN PEOPLE 4HE REPLACEMENT OF THE ROB BER BARONS CRUDE TWO HANDED SWORD WITH THE ELEGANT FOIL OF THE TH CENTURY IS NO LESS AN EXPRESSION OF THE RElNEMENT OF CUSTOM THAN THE ELEGANT AND OBLIGATORY RULES OF ETIQUETTE GOVERNING RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE FROM A WIDE RANGE OF STATUS GROUPS 4HIS PROCESS INCLUDED THE AESTHETIC RESHAPING OF SOCIAL LIFE THE SYMBOLIC FORMS OF WHICH FUNC TIONED AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AND AS INSTRUMENTS FOR REPRE SENTING POWER 4HE UBIQUITY OF DESIGN THAT WE SPEAK OF TODAY IS ONLY THE MOST RECENT HIGHPOINT IN THIS DEVELOPMENT OF A UNIVERSAL AESTHETIC hSTRUCTURINGv OF EVERYDAY LIFE IN MODERN SOCIETIES 4HE ABILITY TO INTER ACT IN A STATUS SPECIlC APPROPRIATE MANNER WAS A PRECONDITION FOR THE ACQUISITION OF POWER AND REQUIRED A COMPLICATED AND COMPREHENSIVE SHAPING OF LIFE 4HIS TENDENCY WAS EXPRESSED IN THE EMERGING FORMS OF CUSTOM AND TASTE REGARDING FURNISHINGS CLOTHING AND ALL OTHER OBJECTS OF EVERYDAY LIFE 4HE PRESSURE TO hDESIGNv EVERYTHING HOWEVER WAS NOT BASED ON A METAPHYSICAL ASPIRATION TO ART OR THE INDIVIDUALS OWN PLEASURE DESIGN HAD BECOME A FORM OF SYMBOLIC CAPITAL RELATED TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SOCIAL POSITION
#F $ETLEV & 0EUKERT -AX 7EBERS $IAGNOSE DER -ODERNE 'TTINGEN "AZON "ROCK h7OHNEN UND 3OZIO $ESIGN v IN ËSTHETIK ALS 6ERMITTLUNG !RBEITSBIOGRAPHIE EINES 'EN ERALISTEN #OLOGNE n )N A CERTAIN SENSE THE EMPIRICAL ANALYSES OF THE (EIDELBERG 3).53 STUDY CAN BE INCLUDED IN THIS TRADITION "ERTHOLD "ODO &LAIG !LLTAGSØSTHETIK UND POLITISCHE +ULTUR ZUR ØSTHETISCHEN $IMENSION POLITISCHER "ILDUNG UND POLITISCHER +OMMUNI KATION RD ED "ERLIN
)NTERACTION ROOM )NTERACTION ROOM
4HE DEVELOPMENT OF MORE COMPLEX FORMS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION WAS STRENGTHENED BY THE DEMANDS OF THE NEW ECONOMY OF THE RISING BOURGEOISIE WHICH REPRESENTED THE SECOND SOURCE OF THE DYNAMIC OF MODERN SOCIAL EXISTENCE )NSTRUMENTALLY RATIONAL PRODUCTION PROCESSES IN MANUFACTURING TRADE BOTH ON A NATIONAL SCALE AND BETWEEN THE ECO NOMIC ZONES OF THE RISING NATION STATES AND DISCIPLINED REINVESTMENT NOT ONLY PRODUCED PREVIOUSLY UNHEARD OF WEALTH BUT ABOVE ALL LED TO A CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF CAPITAL ACCUMULATION /N THE ONE HAND THIS REQUIRED A HIGH DEGREE OF SELF DISCIPLINE AND A RATIONAL LIFESTYLE CHAR ACTERISTICS TYPICAL OF THE PRE 2EFORMATION AND 2EFORMATION BURGHERS OF THE THRIVING CITIES IN &LANDERS SOUTHERN 'ERMANY AND 3WITZERLAND /N THE OTHER HAND IT DEMANDED THE ABILITY TO INTERACT ON AN EVER MORE PRECISE LEVEL WITH A LARGER NUMBER OF ECONOMIC PLAYERS WHO IN SOME CASES WERE LOCATED HUNDREDS AND EVEN THOUSANDS OF KILOMETERS AWAY )T IS IMPORTANT TO BEAR IN MIND THE EXTRAORDINARY NATURE OF THIS PHENOMENON WHICH -ARX AND 7EBER RIGHTLY INCLUDED IN THEIR DIS CUSSIONS ON THE GENESIS OF CAPITALISM *UST AS TODAY THE )NTERNET CAN BE USED TO CARRY OUT PRECISE lNANCIAL TRANSACTIONS ACROSS CONTINENTS A BILL OF EXCHANGE ISSUED BY A &LORENTINE BANK DIRECTOR AT THE TIME COULD INITIATE INTENSE RATES OF PRODUCTION IN THE MOST DISTANT COLONIES &OR BOTH THE COURTIER AND THE MEMBER OF THE COMMERCIAL MIDDLE CLASS AN INCREASINGLY RElNED AND CALCULABLE WAY OF LIFE THUS BECAME A NECESSITY 4HIS FUNDAMENTAL CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR HAD A PROFOUND EF FECT ON THE EMOTIONAL LIFE OF THE MODERN INDIVIDUAL AND WAS PROBABLY THE MOST IMPORTANT PRECONDITION FOR THE ABILITY TO ENGAGE IN HIGHLY COMPLEX SOCIAL INTERACTION 4HE COMPETITION THAT DEVELOPED BETWEEN THE RISING BOURGEOISIE AND THE OLD AND NEW ARISTOCRACY MEANT THAT THIS PROCESS REMAINED DYNAMIC AND IT CONTINUES TODAY IN THE AESTHETIC SELF PORTRAYAL OF AND COMPETITION BETWEEN THE DIFFERENTIATED STRATA OF MODERN hMIDDLE CLASS SOCIETYv 4HIS HIGHLY SIMPLIlED ACCOUNT OF THIS COMPLEX DEVELOPMENT HAS CONCENTRATED ON TWO ASPECTS OF THE INTERDEPENDENT PROCESSES OF THE FORMATION OF MODERN CIVILIZATION I E THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVER MORE DIFFERENTIATED AESTHETIC FORMS INCLUDING THOSE CHARACTERIZING EVERY DAY CULTURE AND THE INCREASING INTERCONNECTION AND INTERACTION OF
+AY +IRCHMANN 6ERDICHTUNG 7ELTDRUCK UND :EIT VERLUST 'RUNDZÓGE EINER 4HEORIE DER )NTERDEPENDENZEN VON -EDIUM :EIT UND 'ESCHWINDIGKEIT IM NEUZEITLICHEN :IVILISATIONSPROZE /PLADEN
)NTERACTION $ESIGN n $ESIGN AS )NTERACTION .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ
4HE CONCEPT OF MEDIUM HERE IS BASED ON #ASSIRERS NOTION OF SYMBOLIC FORM %RNST #ASSIRER 0HILOSOPHIE DER SYMBOLISCHEN &ORMEN $ARMSTADT #F ALSO %RWIN 0ANOFSKY $IE 0ERSPEKTIVE ALS SYMBOLISCHE &ORM REPRINTED IN 0ANOFSKY !UFSØTZE ZU 'RUNDFRAGEN DER +UNSTWISSENSHAFTEN ED (ARIOLF /BERER AND %GON 6ERHEYEN ND REVISED EDITION "ERLIN n &OR AN EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF SUCH ICONIC CONCEPTS IN THE FIELD OF MEDIA STUDIES SEE .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ h"EWE GUNG ALS SYMBOLISCHE &ORM v IN âBER "ILDER 3PRECHEN 0OSITIONEN UND 0ERSPEKTIVEN DER DEUTSCHEN -EDIENWIS SENSCHAFT ED (EINZ " (ELLER ET AL -ARBURG n
ALL SOCIAL ACTORS !FTER ALL THE EVER GREATER AGGREGATION OF SOCIAL LIFE PRESUPPOSES AN EVER GREATER COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE AND AN EVER GREATER CAPACITY FOR INTERACTION AMONG A CONSTANTLY INCREASING NUM BER OF SOCIAL ACTORS ! CONCEPT SUCH AS INTERACTION DESIGN INCLUDES BOTH SIDES OF THIS INTERCONNECTED PHENOMENON %LIASS lGURATION SOCIOLOGY DESCRIBES THIS PROCESS OF DIFFERENTIATION AS A SHIFT TOWARDS AN EXERCISE OF POWER THAT IS LESS AND LESS UNIFORM SINCE THE COMPLEXITIES THAT EMERGE NECES SITATE RECIPROCAL INTERACTIONS THAT ARE BOTH hADAPTEDv AND hOPENv $E SIGN IS ITSELF AN AID TO THE STABILIZATION AND DYNAMISM OF THESE FORMS OF COMPETENCE 4HIS CAN BE ILLUSTRATED BY WHAT MIGHT BE TERMED THE INFORMATION DESIGN OF 2ENAISSANCE CARTOGRAPHY 4HE BEAUTIFUL MAPS AND GLOBES PRODUCED IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY n AN AGE IN WHICH THE KNOWN AND UNKNOWN WORLD WAS SUBORDINATED TO A RATIONALLY UNITARY SYSTEM OF LONGITUDES AND LATITUDES n ALSO SERVED TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATION BETWEEN WHAT WERE NOW INTERNATIONAL CAPITALIST TRADING CENTERS IN .UREMBERG !UGSBURG PORTS ON THE .ORTH 3EA AND THE -EDITERRA NEAN AND PLANTATION OWNERS IN THE DISTANT 3PICE )SLANDS 4HE ACCURACY OF THESE MAPS INDICATES A HIGH LEVEL OF COORDINATION BETWEEN VERY DIF FERENT PEOPLE FROM VERY DIFFERENT SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS AND CLASSES FROM THE $UISBURG HUMANIST -ERCATOR TO THE AVERAGE $UTCH SEAMAN 4O SUMMARIZE THEN TECHNOLOGY AND THE DESIGN OF THE SYMBOLIC FORMS OF MODERN CULTURE ARE BOTH FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETIC ELEMENTS OF THE CIVILIZING PROCESS INVOLVING THE INCREASING INTERCONNECTION OF SOCIETY AS A WHOLE )T WOULD BE POINTLESS TO TRY TO DETERMINE A LOCUS OF ORIGIN SINCE BOTH THE SOCIAL REQUIREMENTS OF FUNCTIONALLY CAPITALIST SOCIETIES AND THEIR OBJECTIlCATION AS TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN HAVE PRO MOTED ONE ANOTHER FOR AT LEAST SIX HUNDRED YEARS )NTERACTION DESIGN IS THE LATEST PHASE IN A HISTORY OF DESIGN THAT AS A SYSTEM CANNOT BE DElNED IN PURELY TECHNICAL TERMS BUT MUST BE REGARDED AS A SYMBOLIC EXPRESSION OF A SOCIAL lGURATION
0ETER &LICHY 4ELE 'ESCHICHTE DER MODERNEN +OMMUNIKATION &RANKFURT .EW 9ORK AND &RANCIS $ +LINGENDER +UNST UND INDUSTRIELLE 2EVOLUTION $RESDEN &RANKFURT A - #F 0IERRE "OURDIEU $IE FEINEN 5NTERSCHIEDE +RITIK DER GESELLSCHAFTLICHEN 5RTEILSKRAFT &RANKFURT A - #F 0ETER 'LOTZ #HANCEN UND 'EFAHREN DER 4ELEKRATIE $ER 7ANDEL DER +OMMUNIKATIONSKULTUR SEIT IN +URSBUCH .EUE -EDIEN ED 3TEFAN "OLLMANN -ANNHEIM
$ESIGN AS )NTERACTIVITY AND )NTERACTION $ESIGN 4O RETURN TO OUR STARTING POINT DESIGN BEGINS WHERE THESE SPECIlC SOCIAL PROCESSES OF INCREASING AGGREGATION ARE GIVEN SYMBOLIC FORM 4HE INDIVIDUAL PHASES OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ARE AN ELEMENT OF THIS PROCESS WHICH NOT ONLY BRINGS ABOUT AN INCREASE IN WEALTH AND COMFORT FOR ALL MEMBERS OF SOCIETY BUT MAKES THESE n NECESSARILY CON NECTED n FACTORS DEPENDENT UPON ONE ANOTHER IN AN EVER MORE COM PLEX lGURATION /R PUT ANOTHER WAY IT FORCES THEM INTO EVER MORE DIFFERENTIATED AND ACCELERATED INTERACTIVE RELATIONSHIPS )NTERACTION DESIGN IS IN THIS SENSE NOTHING REALLY NEW 4HE TECHNICAL POSSIBILITIES OF DIGITAL DESIGN REPRESENT A POTENTIAL FOR THE FURTHER DEVEL OPMENT OF WHAT HAS LONG BEEN A CONTINUOUS PROCESS (OWEVER n AND ) DID PROMISE AT THE OUTSET TO PROVIDE A CONTRADICTORY ANSWER TO THE QUESTION OF THE NOVELTY OF INTERACTION DESIGN n THIS TYPE OF DESIGN DOES TAKE THIS DEVELOPMENT TO A NEW LEVEL &OR THE lRST TIME THE SOCIAL RELA TIONSHIP INHERENT IN THE COMMUNICATION OF SYMBOLIC FORMS IS OBJEC TIlED IN THE TECHNOLOGY ITSELF )N SIMPLE PRAGMATIC TERMS THIS SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP REPRESENTS A FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION IN THE BROAD lELD OF PRACTICAL DESIGN AS A lELD OF SPECIALIST ACTIVITY AT THE SAME TIME IT BE COMES THE PARADIGM OF THE ENTIRE AGE OLD SOCIAL SUBSYSTEM OF DESIGN WHICH IS IN THIS RESPECT NOTHING MORE THAN THE SYMBOLIC FORM OF THE SOCIALLY INTERACTIVE RELATIONS SPECIlC TO MODERN CIVILIZATION
)N THIS SENSE INTERACTION DESIGN CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS THE EXPRESSION OF A QUALITATIVELY NEW AND SPECIlC COMMUNICATIVE RELATIONSHIP IN A POST INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY 9ET IN SPITE OF ALL THE OPTIMISTIC TALK OF A NEW FREEDOM THIS IS MERELY A FORM OF INSIGHT INTO NECESSITY SINCE DESIGN HAS ALWAYS BEEN n AS OUR HISTORICAL EXCURSUS SHOWS n A POWER PHENOMENON )N THIS SENSE OUR ANALYSIS CAN BE PLACED IN THE TRADITION OF -ARX AND 7EBER $ESPITE ALL THE EMANCIPATORY CLAIMS OF THE ARTS AND CRAFTS MOVEMENT OF "AUHAUS AND CONTEMPORARY ART DESIGN INCLUDING INTERACTION DESIGN REMAINS UNAVOIDABLY TIED TO A POWER RELATIONSHIP .EVERTHELESS IN ITS EVER MORE DIFFERENTIATED FORMS IT CAN CONTRIBUTE TO A CIVILIZED SOCIETY IN TERMS OF PRODUCTIVE DIFFERENTIATION ! PURELY AESTHETICIZING FORM OF DESIGN THEORY AND DESIGN HISTORY AS REFERRED TO AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS DISCUSSION FAILS TO TAKE ACCOUNT OF THIS CON NECTION )N COMPARISON TO CONVENTIONAL INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT DESIGN INTER ACTION DESIGN IS LESS AND LESS TIED TO LOCATION AND MATERIAL COSTS )N VIEW OF THIS ONE MIGHT SEE IT AS AN ANTICIPATION OF THE WORLD SOCIETY AND EGALITARIAN UTOPIA ENVISAGED BY %LIAS ! PEACEFUL WORLD SOCIETY WOULD ACCORDINGLY lND ITS SYMBOLIC EXPRESSION IN THE AESTHETIC OF UNI VERSAL COMMUNICATION !LTHOUGH THIS MIGHT SEEM NAIVELY IDEALISTIC IT SHOULD BE BORNE IN MIND THAT THE REALIZATION OF SUCH A VISION WOULD NOT SO MUCH RELY ON MATERIAL AND LABOR POWER BUT ON SOCIAL AND TECH NICAL COMPETENCE !ND THIS IS AN UNLIMITED RESOURCE (OWEVER THIS TYPE OF SYMBOLIC CAPITAL I E THE MASTERY OF THE MOST ADVANCED FORMS OF COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY HAS ALWAYS BEEN UNEQUALLY DISTRIBUTED )T WOULD BE POINTLESS TO IGNORE THIS FACT AND YET AT THE SAME TIME ONE OF OUR PRAGMATIC AND VALID GOALS SHOULD BE TO ENABLE AN EVER GREATER PART OF THE POPULATION n AND TODAY WE CAN REFER IN THIS CONTEXT TO WORLD POPULATION n TO HAVE A SHARE IN THIS CAPITAL )T IS THE TASK OF THE INTERACTION DESIGNER TO SHAPE THIS PROCESS IN CONCRETE AND EFFECTIVE WAYS 'OOD DESIGN IS THUS ALWAYS COMPETENT INTERACTION TO THIS EXTENT IN TERACTIVE TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN REPRESENT THE BASIS OF EVERY GOOD DESIGN AND INTERACTION DESIGN SHOWS WHAT GOOD DESIGN HAS ALWAYS BEEN
)NTERACTION $ESIGN n $ESIGN AS )NTERACTION .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ
)NTERACTION ROOM )NTERACTION ROOM
4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
' - "UURMAN /NLINE 4ECHNOLOGIEN IM !UTOMO BILDESIGN #ONSTANCE
4/4!, ).4%2!#4)/. ).4%2!#4)/. !3 ! '5)$).' 02).#)0,% "%9/.$ !%34(%4)#3 'ERHARD - "UURMAN 4ECHNOLOGY 0RODUCES 5SE )N THE lELD OF INTERACTION DESIGN WE DO NOT VIEW TECHNOLOGY AES THETICS DESIGN AND ARTIFACTS AS ISOLATED OBJECTS 2ATHER IN THIS DIS COURSE WE EXAMINE THE CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES OF TECHNOLOGIZATION PROCESSES AND SEARCH FOR FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS COVERING THE USE OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY IN SURFACES BODIES AND SPACES (ERE THE DESIGNED ARTIFACT CAN ONLY BE UNDERSTOOD AS THE ICON OF AN ENTIRE CULTURE THAT CHANGES OUR THINKING PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOR THROUGH TECHNOLOGY )N OUR VIEW IT IS IMPORTANT TO SEE TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN AS THE STRUCTURING ELEMENTS OF OUR CULTURES )F TECHNOLOGY BECOMES A DElNING FACTOR FOR SOCIAL CONDITIONS CULTURE PERCEPTION EDUCATION KNOWLEDGE THOUGHT AND PLAY IT IS NO LONGER TO BE UNDERSTOOD AS A MEDIATOR OR A MEANS OF COMMUNICATING MEANS END RELATIONS 2ATHER TECHNOLOGY BECOMES A STRUCTURAL FORCE &OR THIS REASON TECHNOLOGY DESIGN IS NOT THE RESULT OF SOCIALLY FORMULATED NEEDS OR UTILIZED FUNCTIONS /N THE CONTRARY IT PERMEATES OUR ENVIRONMENT AND BECOMES A PRECONDITION FOR OUR INDI VIDUALITY AND OUR SELF CONCEPTION SINCE IT PRODUCES USE )F WE VIEW TECHNOLOGY AS A FUNDAMENTAL CONDITION FOR OUR WORK AND A PRINCIPLE STIMULATING INDIVIDUALITY SOCIAL PROCESSES AND CULTURE THIS RECOGNITION MUST DRAW OUR ATTENTION TO OUR OWN ACTIVITIES )N INTERACTION DESIGN WE DEAL WITH INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ACTUATORS AND SENSORS TELEMATIC SYSTEMS AND MUCH MORE 7E EXPERIMENT WITH THESE SYSTEMS AND lND THAT THEIR MERE EX ISTENCE ENGENDERS USE OR MORE APTLY EXPERIMENTAL USE IN OUR OWN CASE )N USING THESE TECHNOLOGIES WE ALSO DEVELOP OUR OWN CULTURAL AND DISCIPLINARY IDENTITY
4HE CONSIDERATION OF MEANS END RELATIONS IS THE DISTINGUISHING ACT THAT TRANSFORMS OUR DEEDS INTO CONSCIOUS AND KNOWLEDGE BASED PRACTICAL ACTION &OR THIS REASON CONCEPTUAL WORK IS OF VITAL IMPOR TANCE TO DESIGN SINCE IT PROCEEDS FROM A PURELY EXPERIMENTAL DEBATE AND LEADS TO PURPOSEFUL DIRECTED ACTION )N THE TRADITIONAL DESIGN DISCIPLINES LARGE CHAINS OF THE DEVELOP MENTAL PROCESS PLANNING DESIGN CONSTRUCTION COMMUNICATION ETC ARE INTEGRATED INTO MEDIA BASED DEVELOPMENTAL AND PLANNING TOOLS 4HEIR LOGIC DETERMINES THE DESIGNERS MANNER OF WORK CREATIVE METH ODS AND OF COURSE THEIR ACTUAL RESULTS 4ODAY MOST OF THE INNOVATIONS IN DESIGN ARE BASED ON THE EXPERIMENTAL USE OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES 4HE MOST DIVERSE KNOWLEDGE HAS BEEN INTEGRATED INTO THESE DEVEL OPMENTAL PLANNING AND INFORMATION ENVIRONMENTS (ERE IT HAS ALSO BEEN MADE MANAGEABLE 7ITH THE OPTIMIZATION OF TOOLS STRUCTURES HAVE ALSO BEEN PERFECTED WHICH MAKE THE SCOPE OF ACTION IN THE DESIGN PROCESS APPEAR PREDETERMINED n AND WHICH MAKE FOR REPETITION AND MONOTONY )N INTERACTION DESIGN DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES AND WORKING PRINCI PLES ARE LINKED 4HE EXPERIMENTALLY ACQUIRED SOLUTIONS CROSS THE TRADI TIONAL BORDERS BETWEEN SPATIAL PRODUCT COMMUNICATION AND INTERFACE DESIGN AND ADDRESS THE WAYS IN WHICH THE NEW REALITIES IN TECHNOLOGI CAL ENVIRONMENTS AFFECT OUR PERCEPTIONS AND ACTIONS $ESIGN ACTIVITIES ARE EXAMINED THAT CANNOT BE DERIVED FROM THE TRADITIONAL DISCIPLINES BRANCHES OF KNOWLEDGE
3YSTEM $YNAMICS /UR ENTIRELY PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS FOCUS ON TECHNOLOGY AS A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT IN ARTIFACTS CONTEXTS AND DEVELOPMENTS SINCE THIS GIVES US AN INDICATION OF WHAT QUESTIONS TO ASK 7HICH TECHNOLOGIES TRANSFORM AND STRUCTURE OUR CULTURE IN THIS MANNER AND HOW ARE WE TO UNDERSTAND THESE CHANGES 7E CAN ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS BY TAKING A LOOK AT PRACTICAL LIFE 4HE NEW MEDIA BASED INFORMATION AND TRANSACTION SYSTEMS ENABLE PARTICIPATORY STRUCTURES SINCE THEY DISSOLVE OR MINIMIZE THE TRADI TIONAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PRODUCER AND CONSUMER AUTHOR AND READER DESIGNER AND USER )F WE ARE ALL ABLE TO ACQUIRE UNDERSTAND AND USE THESE NEW TECHNOLOGIES THERE IS GREAT POTENTIAL FOR CREATING SO CIETIES THAT CONSIST SOLELY OF AUTHORS DESIGNERS PRODUCERS AND OTHER ARTISTICALLY CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS 7E SEE TODAY THAT MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES ARE LEADING TO MORE DIRECT EXCHANGE RELATIONS BETWEEN PRODUCERS OF CULTURE AND CONSUMERS -USICIANS FOR INSTANCE ARE USING THESE NEW DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS TO REACH THEIR CUSTOMERS MORE DIRECTLY ,ARGE CORPORATIONS PUBLISHERS AND PRODUCERS ARE INCREASINGLY AT A DIS ADVANTAGE THEY MUST DEVISE NEW STRATEGIES TO JUSTIFY OR PROTECT THEIR DOMINANT MARKET POSITION 4HESE DEVELOPMENTS ARE A SOURCE OF IN NOVATION FOR OUR CULTURE SINCE OLD STRUCTURES I E POWER RELATIONS ARE DISAPPEARING AND NEW ONES ARE BEING NEGOTIATED &ROM THE DESIGNERS PERSPECTIVE THE NEW CHALLENGES LIE IN TESTING AND DEVELOPING INTER ACTIVE SYSTEMS THROUGH EXPERIMENTS AND IN CREATING APPLICATIONS IN THE MOST DIVERSE lELDS "UILDING UPON SUCH CONCEPTUAL WORK WE CAN THEN CREATE EXPERIMENTAL TOOLS AND CLARIFY APPLICATION AND FUNCTION ALITY THROUGH PROTOTYPES !T STAKE HERE ARE DISCOVERIES EXPERIMENTS AND THE SENSORY EXPERIENCE OF THESE NEW STRUCTURES 5SERS MUST BE SHOWN HOW THEY CAN UNLEASH THEIR CREATIVITY AND BROADEN THE SCOPE THEY HAVE TO MANEUVER IN )N PRACTICE WE SEE THAT ENTIRELY NEW MODELS ARE EMERGING !N ARTICLE IN 3PIEGEL ONLINE REPORTS THAT ROUGHLY PEOPLE IN THE &EDERAL 2EPUBLIC OF 'ERMANY DO BUSINESS ON E"AY )T GOES WITHOUT SAYING THAT THEIR BEHAVIOR WILL AFFECT OLD STRUCTURES IN BOTH THE COMMERCIAL AND SERVICE SECTORS
7HEN REAL ARTIFACTS OPERATE IN VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS OR ARE AUG MENTED WITH INFORMATION FROM DIGITAL MEDIA AUGMENTED REALITY !2 TECHNOLOGIES ARE AT WORK )N THIS lELD OBJECTS IN THE REAL WORLD ARE SUPPLEMENTED AND EXPANDED THROUGH INFORMATION FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD h)NTELLIGENT OBJECTv IS THE NAME GIVEN TO ARTIFACTS WITH TECHNICAL CAPACITIES THAT CAN IMPROVE OR EXPAND UPON THE FUNCTIONALITY OF CER TAIN OBJECTS OR INFORMATION IN TECHNICAL STRUCTURES 4HIS lELD CROSSES TRADITIONAL BOUNDARIES MAN MACHINE REALITY VIRTUALITY TO CREATE HYBRID STRUCTURES BETWEEN REALITY AND VIRTUALITY )F WE ARE ABLE TO DE lNE THE LOCATION OF A BOOK USING SO CALLED SMART TAGS WE CAN CREATE LIBRARIES IN THE DIGITAL MEDIUM BY INTERACTING WITH THIS BOOK AS A REAL OBJECT !S WE ORGANIZE THESE OBJECTS BOOKS IN THE REAL WORLD THEIR TECHNICAL REPRESENTATION HERE AN ELECTRONIC DOCUMENT IS MIRRORED IN VIRTUAL SPACE VIRTUAL LIBRARY )N TELEMATIC ENVIRONMENTS WE ARE DEVELOPING REAL OBJECTS THAT CAN ACT SEMI AUTONOMOUSLY IN THEIR NATU RAL ENVIRONMENTS AND ARE CAPABLE OF SELF ORGANIZATION 3O CALLED AS SISTANT SYSTEMS SUPPORT US IN A RANGE OF lELDS 4ELEMATIC APPLICATIONS IN TRAFlC SYSTEMS ARE BUT ONE EXAMPLE )N THIS lELD RESEARCHERS ARE CONDUCTING IN DEPTH EXPERIMENTS TO MAKE LIFE EASIER FOR THE PERSON BEHIND THE WHEEL 7ITH THE HELP OF ASSISTANT SYSTEMS IMPORTANT IN FORMATION ON TRAFlC SYSTEM AND SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT IS GATHERED TO DESCRIBE THE TRAFlC ENVIRONMENT AND INTERPRET TRAFlC SITUATIONS 4HE VISION OF A DRIVERLESS TRAFlC NETWORK HAS LED TO A VARIETY OF REEVALUA TIONS IN DESIGN /UR TRAFlC SYSTEM IS A PICTURE BOOK OF TECHNICAL AND VISUAL DESIGN %VERYWHERE WE LOOK WE lND SUBSYSTEMS THAT HAVE BEEN CONCEPTUALIZED ON THE BASIS OF TRADITIONAL MAN MACHINE MAN ENVI RONMENT INTERACTIONS 4HE RISE OF INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS IS CHANGING INFRA STRUCTURES LOGICAL STRUCTURES AND OUR INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIORAL STRUCTURES AS ROAD USERS
4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
4HE CAR WAS SEEN IN ITS DAY AS THE TRADITIONAL SYM BOL OF OUR AGE SINCE IN OUR CURRENT COMPLEX OF IDEAS ABOUT INDIVIDUAL MOBILITY IT ONLY REPRESENTS A SUBSYSTEM OF THE OVERALL TRAFFIC SYSTEM 4HE REASON THAT THIS SUBSYS TEM STILL PLAYS SUCH AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES AND IS A POPULAR DESIGN OBJECT MAY BE THAT THE AUTOMOBILE HAS NOT STOPPED BEING A CENTRAL FASHIONABLE ACCESSORY THAT REFLECTS INDIVIDUAL IDEAS ABOUT MOBIL ITY (OWEVER IT IS NOT AN EFFECTIVE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE ENTIRE SYSTEM AND ITS RELATED ISSUES
.EW 3IGNS AND .EW 3YMBOLIC 3YSTEMS 'IVEN THE POSSIBILITIES PORTRAYED IT IS EASY TO SEE THAT THESE TECH NOLOGIZATION PROCESSES WILL CHANGE OUR PERCEPTION OF THE WORLD $IGI TAL INFORMATION SPACE NETWORKED PRODUCTS INTELLIGENT TRANSACTION SERVICES INFORMATION SERVICES AND CONTEXTUALIZING ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS REQUIRE NEW MODES OF PERCEPTION AND ACTION BECAUSE WE WILL EXPERIENCE OUR OWN CULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN THE TECHNICAL MEDIA IN NEW WAYS AND ALSO BECAUSE WE WILL NEED TECHNICAL EXTENSIONS IN ORDER TO BE CAPABLE OF PERCEPTION AND ACTION AT ALL TIMES AND IN ALL PLACES "OTH THE SYMBOLIC SYSTEMS AND THE TRADITIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES OF THE CITY KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIETY ARE SIMPLY NO LONGER RELIABLE BANK CEN TER OF POWER LIBRARY KNOWLEDGE IN ITS ENTIRETY STATE UNIT IN A VALUE SYSTEM PROPERTY HERITAGE EXPRESSWAY QUICKEST MEANS OF REACHING A DESTINATION ETC 4HE CAR IS A GOOD EXAMPLE !S A SYMBOL OR ICON IT NO LONGER ENABLES US TO ADEQUATELY UNDERSTAND n NEVER MIND OPTIMIZE n THE TOPIC OF MOBILITY )T WOULD BE WISER TO REmECT ON THE EXPERIENTIAL QUALITY OF TRAVELING OR THE TELEMATIC PROCESS OF TRAFlC CONTROL 4HE EXAMPLE OF THE CAR BRINGS HOME THE FACT THAT WE MUST TAKE AN INTEREST IN THE MECHANISMS OF SUCH LARGE SYSTEMS TRAFlC IN THEIR SYSTEMIC EN VIRONMENT IF WE ARE TO RENDER THEM VISIBLE AND ILLUSTRATE THEIR LOGICAL LINKS AND INSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS 4HE INSIGHTS THUS ACQUIRED WILL LEAD TO NEW AND EXEMPLARY CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES AND SHOW US WHAT WE MUST OFFER TRAFlC PARTICIPANTS IN ORDER TO BEST SATISFY THEIR MOBILITY REQUIREMENTS )N SUCH SCENARIOS THE USE OF THE AUTOMOBILE IS ONLY ONE POSSIBLE SOLUTION #ONTRASTING WITH OUR OLD MECHANISTIC SYSTEMS A COMPLEX OF TASKS EMERGES HERE BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY !S WILL BE SHOWN THIS COMPLEX EXTENDS INTO THE BIOLOGICAL AND SOMATIC AS PECTS OF OUR EXISTENCE )F WE ARE TO KEEP OUR BEARINGS IN TODAYS MUTABLE CULTURES WE RE QUIRE NEW KNOWLEDGE AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES /NE REASON IS OUR DESIRE TO CONSTANTLY CONTEXTUALIZE AND UPDATE ALL FUNCTIONAL INFORMATION AIR TRAFlC BLOOD BANK STOCK EXCHANGE ETC 4HE SIGN SYSTEMS BROKERED BY OUR CULTURES ARE OFTEN UNABLE TO ADEQUATELY MEET THESE CHALLENGES BECAUSE THEY CANNOT SUITABLY RESPOND TO THE DIFFERENT VIEWS WE HAVE OF
THEM CONTEXTS STANDPOINTS "ASICALLY THEY HAVE BEEN CREATED FOR THE LONG HAUL AND ARE NOT DYNAMIC /UR VALUE SYSTEMS WILL CHANGE AS WE REORGANIZE AND PLAN OUR LIVES WITH THE HELP OF DIGITAL MEDIA WHEN WE USE THESE MEDIA TO COMMUNI CATE CULTIVATE RELATIONS DO BUSINESS AND TRANSFER VALUES 4ODAYS SYS TEMS MUST COMMUNICATE DIFFERENT VALUES AND THEY NEED NOT ALWAYS BE ENDURING 2ATHER THEY MUST BE ABLE TO ESTABLISH THEMSELVES ON A TEM PORARY BASIS THEY MUST PRODUCE CLARITY NOT REDUNDANCY THEY MUST BE INDEPENDENT OF LOCATION AND BE AVAILABLE WHERE THEIR UTILITY VALUE EMERGES &INALLY THEY MUST PROVIDE US WITH SECURITY WHEN WE ARE NO LONGER ABLE TO GUARANTEE SECURITY BY TRADITIONAL MEANS 4HESE SYSTEMS WILL GIVE RISE TO NEW CULTURAL SIGN SYMBOLIC SYS TEMS 9ET THESE SYSTEMS MAY BE AS mEETING AS THE TECHNOLOGIES THAT FA CILITATED THEM 7E CAN NO LONGER FALL BACK ON THESE SIGNS ARTIFACTS AND THEIR MEANINGS )NSTEAD WE MUST CONCENTRATE ON THE STRUCTURAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THEY EMERGE AND FUNCTION
4 3 +UHN $IE 3TRUKTUR WISSENSCHAFTLICHER 2EVO LUTIONEN ND REVISED EDITION INCLUDING THE POSTSCRIPT FROM &RANKFURT A - " 'ROYS ,OGIK DER 3AMMLUNG AM %NDE DES MUSEALEN :EITALTERS -UNICH 6 0APANEK $ESIGN FOR THE 2EAL 7ORLD (UMAN %COL OGY AND 3OCIAL #HANGE ND COMPLETELY REV ED ,ONDON ( ! 3IMON $IE 7ISSENSCHAFTEN VOM +ÓNSTLICHEN ND EDITION 6IENNA
0ROGRESS THROUGH 5SE $EVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN THE DESIGN DISCIPLINES WERE CONSTANTLY SEEN AND UNDERSTOOD IN RELATION TO TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES $ESIGN SOLUTIONS WERE AND REMAIN MIRROR IMAGES OF THE MYSTERIOUS WORLDS OF KNOWLEDGE THAT ONLY DISCLOSED THEIR MEANING AND RELEVANCE TO OUR SOCIAL EXISTENCE THROUGH DESIGNED ARTIFACTS 4HUS IT HAS NOT ONLY BEEN THE CODED RESULTS OF SCIENCE THAT GIVE US INSIGHT INTO THE ADVANCES OF EACH AGE 2ATHER EVERYDAY DEVICES USED FOR A SPECIlC PURPOSE DIS SEMINATE TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS TO ALL SECTORS OF SOCIETY 4HE STRUC TURAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH TECHNOLOGY IS SOCIALIZED ILLUSTRATE NOT ONLY HOW PROGRESS EMERGES BUT ALSO THE CHANNELS THROUGH WHICH IT IS PERCEIVED AND THE WAYS WE DEVELOP INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS &OR THIS REA SON INTERACTION DESIGN FOCUSES ON DIRECT PARTICIPATORY MODELS THAT IN TEGRATE USERS INTO THE PROCESS OF SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT MORE INTENSELY THAN EVER BEFORE "Y ACQUIRING AND USING OBJECTS AND SERVICES CONSUMERS DETER MINE WHAT DIRECTION PROGRESS WILL TAKE 4HEY ARE ABLE TO MAKE INITIAL JUDGMENTS ABOUT THE SENSE AND VALUE OF TECHNOLOGY IN ITS PRACTICAL APPLICATION 4HROUGHOUT HISTORY WE HAVE SEEN THE EMERGENCE OF THE CONCEPT OF A MORE OR LESS EDUCATED CONSUMER ONE WHO IS CAPABLE OF SELF ORGANIZATION AND HAS YEARNED FOR THOUGHT UP WORKED ON AND AC QUIRED PARTICIPATORY STRUCTURES STANDARDS LAWS ERGONOMICS ETHICS ETC 4ECHNOLOGY AND ITS USE MUST THEREFORE BE UNDERSTOOD AS A PRACTI CAL MODEL OF PARTICIPATION AND INTERACTION BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE THAT CAN BE APPREHENDED THROUGH THE SENSES +UHN AND 'ROYS HAVE RUMINATED EXTENSIVELY ON ARTIFACTS THAT MUST BE ULTIMATELY VIEWED AS A MEANS OF ORIENTATION AND THEY HAVE CONSIDER WAYS IN WHICH THE MECHANISMS OF CENSORSHIP FUNCTION IN SCIENCE AND CULTURE
2EmECTIONS 7HILE THE STUDY OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES DOES NOT NECESSARILY RESULT IN A QUANTITATIVE INCREASE IN MATERIAL PROGRESS IT DOES ENABLE US TO PER CEIVE AND DESCRIBE THE LIMITATIONS OF SUCH PROGRESS -EDIA TECHNOLOGY IS PREDESTINED TO DEVELOP VISUAL AND OTHER SIMULATIVE MODELS PORTRAY ING STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS AND SYSTEMIC CONDITIONS )F THESE CONDI TIONS ARE PREDICTABLE AND IF WE CAN RENDER THEM VISIBLE WE CAN THEN INTERVENE IN THE REAL PROCESSES BEHIND THEM 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF SUCH MODELS AND TOOLS CONSTITUTES A HIGHLY IMPORTANT lELD OF ACTIVITY IN INTERACTION DESIGN 0RIOR TO EVERY QUANTITATIVE ADVANCE THESE PROCESS SIMULATION TECHNOLOGIES ARE OF QUALITATIVE IMPORTANCE AND HELP REDUCE MISTAKES AT LEAST IN THE AREAS WHERE WE HAVE AN IDEA OF THEIR CAUSES $ESIGNERS HAVE ALWAYS WORKED TO OBTAIN SOCIAL BENElTS FROM THE LATEST KNOWLEDGE AND THE MOST ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES AND THIS HAS ALWAYS DRAWN SOCIETYS ATTENTION TO PROGRESS 0ROGRESS BECOMES EYE CATCHING BECAUSE IT IS SHOWN IN ITS BEST AND MOST BEAUTIFUL FORM (IS TORICAL CONCEPTS OF ARCHITECTURE INCLUDING THOSE BY ,E #ORBUSIER AND NEW MEDIA CONCEPTS )NTERNET SHOW THE POWER THAT SUCH CONCEPTS CAN HAVE IN DISSOLVING AND ALTERING TRADITIONAL STRUCTURES &OR THIS REASON WHEN WE STUDY REAL CONDITIONS WHEN WE REC OGNIZE THEIR INADEQUACIES AND ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE OF NEW TECHNOLO GIES WE ALSO SEE THE ESSENTIAL FOUNDATIONS OF QUALITATIVE PROGRESS 0APANEK 3IMON AND OTHERS HAVE VIVIDLY PORTRAYED THE ETHICAL AND SYSTEMIC DIMENSIONS OF PROGRESS ORIENTED ACTION BY DESIGNERS 4ODAY THESE THOUGHTS AND INSIGHTS HAVE ACQUIRED A NEW TOPICALITY SINCE WE HAVE TECHNOLOGIES THAT CAN CONVEY THE PORTRAYED SITUATION IN AN EXEMPLARY AND ALMOST ENTERTAINING WAY )F WE WISH TO UNDERSTAND THE TECHNOLOGIZATION PROCESS AS COGNI TIVE WORK MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES CAN ILLUSTRATE OUR COGNITIVE PROGRESS 7E MUST JUXTAPOSE TECHNOLOGY WITH TECHNICALLY COMMUNICATED AND DESIGNED EXPLANATORY MODELS PERCEPTION ) WOULD LIKE TO COMPARE THIS FORM OF MONITORING WITH THE COCKPIT OF AN AIRPLANE AND ITS PILOT WHO CONTROLS THE mIGHT SYSTEMS WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF A LARGE NUMBER OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS INDICATORS REGULATORS AND COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT 7ITHOUT THIS SET OF INSTRUMENTS THE PILOT COULD NOT ENSURE
4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
THE SAFETY OF THE ENTIRE SYSTEM /NE PIECE OF EQUIPMENT IS MONITORED BY THE OTHER SINCE HUMAN BEINGS THOUGH INTEGRATED IN THE TECHNICAL SYSTEM DO NOT HAVE ADEQUATE PERCEPTUAL CAPACITIES TO RELIABLY MONITOR THE SYSTEM THEMSELVES OR TO ENSURE ADEQUATE SAFETY 4HE SYSTEM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT ARE TOO LARGE TOO CONFUSING AND TOO DANGEROUS 4HIS PRINCIPLE OF TRUST AND CONTROL IS CHARACTERISTIC OF OUR INTER ACTION WITH A MANMADE TECHNOLOGY (OWEVER THE USE OF MEDIA TECH NOLOGIES REQUIRES NOT ONLY A COMPREHENSIBLE VIEW OF A DIRECT ACTION MEANS BUT ALSO A VIEW OF THE EXTENDED CONTEXT SYSTEMS ENVIRON MENT AND THE CONSEQUENCES DIVERGING GOALS &ROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF DESIGN A NUMBER OF QUESTIONS EMERGE AT THE FOLLOWING LEVELS 0ERCEPTUAL LEVEL HOW CAN HUMAN BEINGS MONITOR COMPLEX PROCESSES 3YSTEMS LEVEL CAN WE TRANSFER CONTROL TO MACHINES #AN SYSTEMS BE SELF ORGANIZING AND SELF DEVELOPING 7ILL WE BECOME THE SUBJECTS OF THIS MONITORING AND CONTROL 3YMBOLIC LEVEL ARE THE SYSTEMS AND THEIR MODELS COMPREHENSIBLE 4HESE ARE CENTRAL QUESTIONS IN OUR DISCIPLINE THAT REQUIRE INTEN SIVE PRACTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY !ND TRANSLATING KNOWLEDGE INTO CONCEPTS FOR PRACTICAL ACTION REQUIRES POLITICAL LEGAL AND ADMINISTRA TIVE COORDINATION IN ADDITION TO FORMAL ACTION )N MANY CASES THIS ALSO INVOLVES TECHNICALLY TRANSMITTED RULE BASED COMMUNICATION TRANSAC TIONS AND INFORMATION BUT IT IS PRIMARILY A MATTER OF PERSONAL ACTION 4HE CONSISTENT LEGAL REGULATION AND FORMALIZATION OF SUCH ACTION CON CEPTS CAN RESULT IN PRE FORMATIVE AND INSTRUCTIVE SYSTEMS WHICH FROM AN INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE STANDPOINT REDUCE THE QUALITY OF LIFE LOSS OF CONTROL .ATURALLY THIS IS ONLY ONE OF THE MANY POSSIBLE STRUCTURAL EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY
)NTERACTION DESIGN WILL BE OF VITAL IMPORTANCE TO THOSE lELDS IN WHICH INTELLIGENT ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS ARE INVENTED TO BOLSTER THE INDIVIDUALS ROLE IN THE SYSTEM AS CUSTOMER STUDENT HELP SEEKER FORM lLER ETC )NTERACTIVE SYSTEMS EXHIBIT THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS RULE BASED SELF EXPLANATORY INTUITIVE CONTEXTUAL COOPERATIVE ORIENTED TO SURFACES BODIES OR SPACES 4HEY ALSO REmECT THE COMPLEX CONDITIONS OF MONITORING AND CON TROL 7E CAN ONLY AVOID TOTALITARIAN STRUCTURES IF WE GIVE EXPRESSION TO THE INDIVIDUAL NEED FOR CONTROL AND MONITORING IN THE PLANNING OF SYSTEMS 4HIS DOES NOT MEAN THAT WE MUST MONITOR AND CONTROL EV ERYTHING AND EVERYONE 2ATHER WE MUST UNCOVER THE COMPLEX MECH ANISMS OF OUR CULTURE IN ORDER TO CONDUCT AN HONEST DEBATE ON THE LIMITS OF PARTICIPATION
# 3ODDU 'ENERATIVE $ESIGN 0OLITECNICO OLI -ILANO 5NIVERSITY HTTPWWWGENERATIVEDESIGNCOM
&UTURE 4ECHNOLOGIES .OWADAYS ANY DISCUSSION OF A NEW DElNITION OF DESIGN MUST lRST ADDRESS THE CHANGES IN THE TECHNOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT IMPLICATED BY THE NEW CONCEPT )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WOULD LIKE TO DESCRIBE A NUMBER OF INTERESTING TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES IN DESIGN ACTIVITIES !FTERWARD ) WILL SHOW HOW THOSE OF US WORKING IN INTERACTION DESIGN INTEGRATE THESE TECHNOLOGIES INTO OUR THOUGHTS AND DEEDS AND HOW WE EXPLOIT THEM 7E EXAMINE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN ORDER TO BE CAPABLE OF ACTION WITHIN NEW STRUCTURES 4HAT IS NOT TO SAY THAT THOSE OF US IN DESIGN WILL NO LONGER CONTINUE TO CREATE CHAIRS REFRIGERATORS CARS POSTERS OR SPACES RATHER WE ASSUME THAT THESE ARTIFACTS ARE SELF CON TAINED SUBSYSTEMS )NTERACTION TAKES PLACE WHEN WE IDENTIFY THESE ARTIFACTS AS INTER ACTIVE ICONS IN THE TECHNOLOGIZATION PROCESS AND APPLY DESIGN TO THE SYSTEMIC CONDITIONS IN WHICH THEY MUST FUNCTION )F FOR EXAMPLE WE EXAMINE THE ISSUE OF MOBILITY WE SEE THAT THE CAR IS JUST ONE OPTION IN THE ENTIRE TRAFlC SYSTEM 7E IDENTIFY NEW TYPES OF DEVICES AND FUNCTIONS ADDRESS THE PO TENTIAL AND LIMITS OF ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE PONDER GENERATIVE DESIGN AND DEVOTE OURSELVES TO ASPECTS OF INDIVIDUALIZED MASS PRODUCTION PORTABLE COMPUTERS AND ROBOTICS
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN 'ENERATIVE DESIGN REFERS TO THE ENTIRE GAMUT OF CONCEPTS AND TECH NOLOGIES THAT ENABLE THE SEMI AUTONOMOUS MACHINE BASED PRODUC TION OF FORMS IN A VARIETY OF lELDS INCLUDING ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN )T EXTENDS OUR TECHNOLOGICAL CAPABILITIES INTO THE SPHERE OF CREATIVE WORK .OT LEAST IT WAS THE DIVERSE DEBATES ON FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES SUCH AS CRE ATIVITY PERCEPTION PLANNING FRAMEWORKS AND !PPARATIVE +UNST GEN ERATIVE ART THAT DECODED CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THIS MYSTERIOUS WORK AND n DUE TO THEIR SYSTEMICS n ASSIGNED THEM TO DATA PROCESSING MACHINES 4ODAYS ADVANCES IN COMPUTER SCIENCE TECHNICAL INFORMATICS AND COMPUTATIONAL VISUALISTICS ALLOW US TO PERFORM HIGHLY COMPLEX TASKS WITH RESULTS THAT INEVITABLY PRODUCE TECHNICAL IMAGERY IN ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN )T GOES WITHOUT SAYING THAT MACHINE CAPABILITIES EG THE FOLLOWING OF COMPLEX RULES CAN ONLY UNFOLD IN PRECISELY DElNED AR EAS )NVENTIONS AND INNOVATIONS ARE NOT POSSIBLE HERE IF WE INSIST ON EVALUATING THE MEANING OF THE hNEWv IN TERMS OF ITS SOCIAL RELEVANCE %XPERIMENTS IN GENERATIVE DESIGN ARE BEING CARRIED OUT IN THE lELD OF ARCHITECTURE )N HIS PROFESSION AS AN ARCHITECT 3ODDU HAS DEVEL OPED NUMEROUS EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF THIS TECHNOLOGY WHILE SHOWING ITS POTENTIAL AND LIMITATIONS )N THE DEVELOPMENT OF #!$ TOOLS WE CAN ALSO lND APPLICATION EXAMPLES OF THE CONTEXT RELATED AND SPECIlCATION CONTROLLED GENERATION OF FORMS !ND WE DISCOVER CREATIVE WORK IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS OF ARTIFACTS WHICH TAKES US FROM A SET OF RULES ALGORITHMS TO CONCRETE AND EXPLICIT VARIANT CREATION 4O DATE THE DISCIPLINE POSSESSES ONLY A RUDIMENTARY KNOWLEDGE OF HOW TO DEVELOP SUCH RULES
4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
& 0ILLER 7EB 3ITE ON -ASS #USTOMIZATION HTTPWWWMASS CUSTOMIZATIONDE 7 "ENJAMIN $AS +UNSTWERK IM :EITALTER SEINER TECHNISCHEN 2EPRODUZIERBARKEIT DREI 3TUDIEN ZUR +UNST SOZIOLOGIE &RANKFURT A -
-ASS #USTOMIZATION $ESIGN HAS ALWAYS INVOLVED DEVELOPING CONCEPTS AND SOLUTIONS THAT MUST BE ABLE TO FUNCTION FOR A DElNED GROUP OF USERS 4HE DEVEL OPMENT OF PRODUCTS SERVICES IMAGES AND TECHNICAL PICTORIAL WORLDS HAS ALWAYS BEEN ORIENTED TO THE VERIlABLE CONDITIONS CONSTRAINTS CULTURAL NEEDS AND SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS OF A RELATIVELY LARGE AND ANONYMOUS MASS CONSISTING OF AVERAGE CONSUMERS ! LARGE NUMBER OF PARALLEL DEVELOPMENTS WERE NECESSARY TO FACILITATE AND PERFECT THE AC CURACY AND RELEVANCE OF ARTIFACTS FOR SUCH A LARGE GROUP 4HIS REQUIRED A LARGE BODY OF KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING CONSUMERS THEIR NEEDS AND HABITS AS WELL AS THEIR ANTHROPOMETRIC COGNITIVE SENSORY AND CULTURAL STANCES AND REALITIES 7E DESCRIBE MANY OF THE ADVANCES IN THIS AREA AS FUNCTIONAL KNOWLEDGE THAT FURTHERS THE PROGRESS OF OUR SOCIETY AS A CIVILIZATION 7ITH THE INCREASED INDIVIDUALIZATION OF THE POPULATION IN MODERN TIMES CERTAIN NECESSITIES AROSE IN CONNECTION WITH INDIVIDUALIZATION AS AN EXPRESSION OF OUR DESIRE FOR UNIQUENESS AND THE RELATED PROBLEM OF VISUAL CONSISTENCY AS A SIGN OF A CULTURAL AFlLIATION $ESIGNERS SATISFY THIS DESIRE FOR INDIVIDUALIZATION IN A SPECIAL WAY AND IN DOING SO THEY ARE CONFRONTED WITH THE NEEDS OF AN INDUSTRY THAT IS LOOKING FOR NEW PRODUCTION AND SALES CONCEPTS SAVINGS POTENTIAL AND NEW WAYS OF RE TAINING CUSTOMERS )N TRADITIONAL PRODUCTION PROCESSES THE TECHNI CAL POSSIBILITIES OF INDIVIDUALIZATION AS WELL AS DIFFERENTIATION WORK WERE INITIALLY RESTRICTED TO A LIMITED NUMBER OF ATTRIBUTES $AILY DESIGN TASKS INVOLVE ADAPTING AND MODIFYING ARTIFACTS AND POSITIONING THESE AS AESTHETIC VARIANTS IN THE MARKETPLACE INNOVATION 4HE CAR INDUSTRY HAS DEVELOPED COMPREHENSIVE STRATEGIES IN THIS lELD #AR MANUFACTUR ERS OFFER DIFFERENT COLOR OPTION AND MODEL VARIANTS CHASSIS MOUNTINGS !MERICAN STRATEGIES FOR CAR DEVELOPMENT THUS RETURNING TO %UROPE ON THE SLY AND OTHER DIFFERENTIATION METHODS )N SEEMING CONTRADIC TION TO THIS TREND IN VARIANT CREATION A LARGE NUMBER OF CARS TYPES ARE BECOMING INCREASINGLY SIMILAR IN APPEARANCE 4HE PERCEPTION OF DIFFERENCE IS THUS BASED ON AN ASSUMED HIGHLY DIFFERENTIATED CAPACITY TO DECODE TECHNICAL FORMS OF EXPRESSION )NDIVIDUALITY IS CELEBRATED ON THE LEVEL OF TECHNICAL IMAGES PARTICULARLY IN THIS SECTOR
)N CONTRAST THE STRUCTURAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE ENTIRE SYSTEM ARE BECOMING INCREASINGLY ALIKE AND THEREBY BRIDGING OR ELIMINATING THE TRADITIONAL BORDERS BETWEEN CULTURAL IDENTITIES 4HIS IS A NECESSARY DEVELOPMENT IF THE ENTIRE SYSTEM IS TO FUNCTION FOR CONSUMERS TRAFlC LOGISTICS CITY ETC 4HE FEWER FUNCTIONAL DISTUR BANCES THERE ARE IN THE SYSTEM THE MORE THE CONSUMER CAN REVEL IN THE lNE DIFFERENCES AND THE SYSTEMS ACTUAL USE ,ET US NOTE HERE THAT THE CROSS BORDER STANDARDIZATION OF LARGE TECHNICAL SYSTEMS TRAFlC COMMUNICATIONS INFORMATION ETC IS MAK ING INDIVIDUALIZATION NECESSARY AT THE LEVEL OF DESIGN 4HIS OBSERVA TION CAN BE VERIlED IN OTHER LESS COMPLEX AREAS OF OUR CULTURE &OR EXAMPLE THE ART OF BOOKMAKING TYPOGRAPHY AND EDITORIAL DESIGN ONLY BLOSSOMED AFTER AN EVER LARGER NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN A DElNED CULTURAL AREA ACQUIRED A STANDARDIZED LANGUAGE STANDARDIZED FORMS OF WRITING AND REPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY )F WE CONSIDER THE POSSIBILITIES OFFERED BY INTERACTIVE MEDIA SYS TEMS IT IS EASY TO SEE THAT THE POTENTIAL OF DESIGN #!$ #!%$ TESTING RAPID PROTOTYPING AND PRODUCTION RAPID MANUFACTURING WILL TAKE ON NEW DIMENSIONS IN LARGE TECHNICAL SYSTEMS !N AGE CHARACTERIZED BY THE MASS REDUPLICATION OF THE ORIGINAL IS TRANSITIONING INTO AN AGE TYPIlED BY THE EXCLUSIVE PRODUCTION OF ORIGINALS 4HIS IS A HISTORICAL TRANSFORMATION !SSUMING THAT TECHNOLOGICAL PLATFORMS ARE BECOMING STANDARDIZED IE OPEN AND ACCESSIBLE WE MUST RECOGNIZE THE POTEN TIAL FOR AN ADDITIONAL INDIVIDUALIZATION ASSAULT 7E WILL INCREASINGLY INCLUDE CONSUMERS IN THE AESTHETIC DIFFERENTIATION OF ARTIFACTS IN THOSE CASES WHERE TECHNICALLY STANDARDIZED CONSTRUCTIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES ARE IN PLAY )N INTERACTION DESIGN WE WILL ADDRESS OURSELVES TO THE QUESTION OF HOW THESE MECHANISMS CAN BECOME OPERABLE WITH OUT PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND IN WHAT WAYS CUSTOMERS CAN PARTICIPATE IN THE PLANNING PRODUCTION AND THE DELIVERY OF THEIR ARTIFACTS
0 -ENZEL AND & $!LUISIO 2OBO 3APIENS %VOLUTION OF A .EW 3PECIES #AMBRIDGE -ASS ! 'EHLEN $ER -ENSCH SEINE .ATUR UND SEINE 3TELLUNG IN DER 7ELT TH ED "ONN , -UMFORD 4ECHNICS AND #IVILIZATION .EW 9ORK
2OBOTICS 2OBOTICS IS TO A SOME EXTENT A MARGINAL TOPIC FOR DESIGNERS )N MY VIEW ONE REASON IS THAT SUCH MACHINES FUNCTION IN ENVIRONMENTS CREATED BY AND FOR PEOPLE )N ORDER TO FUNCTION AS AUTONOMOUSLY AND AS INTELLIGENTLY AS POSSIBLE IN SUCH ENVIRONMENTS THE MACHINE MUST EITHER BE PROGRAMMED OR POSSESS SPECIlC CAPABILITIES IN ORDER TO RE SPOND TO THIS UNKNOWN ENVIRONMENT -ECHANICAL ARMS WITH lNGER LIKE PINCERS MOVE ABOUT TRANSPORTING OBJECTS WITH GREAT PRECISION HUMANLIKE MACHINES HUMANOID '/,%- CLIMB STAIRS AND NEGOTI ATE DIFlCULT TERRAIN 4HE ADVANCES IN THE lELD OF ACTUATORS SENSORS AND ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE ARE MAKING IT POSSIBLE TO DEVELOP BETTER MORE AG ILE AND CONTEXT SENSITIVE MACHINES THAT ARE CAPABLE OF LEARNING &ROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF DESIGN AN INTERESTING PROBLEM IS THAT IN TERMS OF TECHNICAL ANATOMY AND FUNCTIONALITY A CERTAIN TYPE OF ROBOT IS BECOM ING MORE SIMILAR TO HUMAN BEINGS 4HIS RAISES QUESTIONS OF MODELS )F WE ASSOCIATE THE #ITROÔN h$UCKv FROM THE S WITH A FRIENDLY FACE WE WILL CERTAINLY HAVE TO REEVALUATE SUCH ISSUES WHEN DESIGNING ROBOTS /THER PROBLEMS ARE LINKED TO THE DESIGN OF OUR SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH HENCEFORTH MAY BE PEOPLED BY MOBILE ROBOTS THAT TAKE CARE OF THE ELDERLY EG *APAN DISPOSE OF GARBAGE OR WORK IN FACTORIES (OW WILL WE EXPERIENCE SUCH MACHINES HOW WILL WE COEXIST AND COMMUNI CATE WITH THEM AND ON WHAT EMOTIONAL LEVEL WILL WE EXPERIENCE THESE NEW CIRCUMSTANCES &URTHERMORE ENTIRELY NEW ISSUES IN MAN MACHINE INTERACTION WILL BECOME SIGNIlCANT FOR DESIGNERS SUCH AS THE lELDS OF GESTURE RECOGNITION AND MULTIMODAL INTERACTION SPEECH CONTROL
4HE 4ECHNOLOGIZATION OF THE "ODY 4HE TECHNOLOGIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY IS ANOTHER lELD OF STUDY 7E CAN ASSUME THAT WITH THE TECHNOLOGIZATION OF THEIR ENVIRONMENTS HUMAN BEINGS WILL NOT ONLY WANT TO DESIGN THIS ENVIRONMENT BUT ALSO THEMSELVES WITHIN IT )N A SOCIOLOGICAL SENSE WE CAN SEE THIS PROCESS UNFOLDING IN THE FORMATION OF NEW TYPES OF ACTIVITIES SOCIAL BEHAV IORAL PATTERNS RITUALS VALUE SYSTEMS ETC IN A CREATIVE SENSE WE lND IT IN ORNAMENT AND FASHION BOTH VIEWED AS SIGNS OF SOCIAL CATEGORI ZATION AND DIFFERENCE CREATION INDIVIDUALIZATION AND NATURALLY IN A TECHNICAL SENSE WE CAN OBSERVE IT WHEN WE SEEK TO TECHNICALLY OR STYLISTICALLY OPTIMIZE OUR BODIES THROUGH SURGERY WHEN WE hREPAIRv OR TECHNICALLY UPGRADE OUR BODIES )N OUR CASE THE QUESTION OF TECHNI CAL UPGRADES IS OF INTEREST SINCE HERE EXISTING STRUCTURES AND LIMITS ARE DISSOLVED AND NEW ONES EMERGE 4AKING SO CALLED WEARABLES AS AN EX AMPLE WE CAN SEE THAT HIGH TECH INTERVENES IN FASHION OR VICE VERSA AND THAT THE SYSTEMIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEVICE AND FASHION IS BEING RESTRUCTURED )NITIALLY WE MAY REGARD OURSELVES AS DElCIENT CREATURES 'EHLEN AND lND IN TECHNOLOGY A SET OF INSTRUMENTS WHICH FOR SOME TIME NOW HAS DISTANCED US FROM OUR SPECIAL RHYTHMS -UMFORD USED THE CLOCK AS AN EXAMPLE TO DEVELOP THIS THOUGHT #LOCKS COOR DINATE OUR SOCIAL LIVES RITUALS WORK AND REST TIME )TS MECHANISM HAS A LEVELING EFFECT AND TO A CERTAIN DEGREE ROBS US OF OUR INDIVIDUALITY 4HE CLOCK WAS NOT INVENTED BECAUSE IT WAS NEEDED 2ATHER ITS USE PRODUCED OUR MECHANICAL CIVILIZATION 7E MAY ALSO ASSUME THAT THOUGH THE TECHNOLOGIZATION OF FASHION WAS NOT NEEDED IT TOO WILL HAVE PROFOUND CONSEQUENCES FOR OUR SELF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES "Y EXAMINING ALL CONCEIVABLE TECHNOLOGIES TO SEE WHETHER THEY CAN BE INCORPORATED INTO OUR CLOTHES CLOTHES AS A PROTECTIVE FUNCTION AGAINST ENVIRONMENTAL INmUENCES WE INTEGRATE OUR BODIES INTO A HIGHLY TECHNICAL ENVIRON MENT THAT MOST PERFECTLY UTILIZES ITS POTENTIAL WHEN IT CAN CALCULATE NEARLY ALL FACTORS 4HE HUMAN BODY THE ANIMAL BODY IS ALREADY ONE STEP FURTHER IS NOT ONLY COORDINATED IN TERMS OF ITS RHYTHM )T WILL ALSO BECOME AN EXTENDED ORGAN INTERFACE THAT EXPRESSES ITS OWN CONSTITU TION AS WELL AS AN INFORMATION MEMORY AND TRANSACTIONAL LINK n A BIO ADAPTOR WITH A SYNCHRONIZED IMAGE IN VIRTUAL SPACE AGENTS SYSTEM
4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
HTTPWWWSCARACOM^OLELITERATURBIOADAPTERHTML . 'ERSHENFELD 7ENN DIE $INGE DENKEN LERNEN -UNICH " ( &ELDERER 7UNSCHMASCHINE 7ELTERFINDUNG 6IENNA 7ILKHAHN &UTURE /FFICE $YNAMICS HTTPWWWFUTURE OFFICECOMHOMEHTML
(ERE IS A QUOTE FROM .ORBERT 7IENERS h4HE "IO !DAPTERv h6IEWED FROM THE hOUTSIDE v THE ADAPTER INSERTS ITSELF BETWEEN THE INADEQUATE COSMOS AND THE DISENCHANTED HUMAN BEING )T HERMETICAL LY SEALS OFF THE HUMAN BEING FROM HIS TRADITIONAL ENVIRONMENT /NLY IN THE INITIAL STAGES OF ADAPTATION DOES THE BIO ADAPTER MAKE USE OF ITS OWN INFORMATION WHICH HAS BEEN STORED FOR THIS PURPOSE AND OF INFORMATION ABOUT ITS CONTENT )NITIALLY THE HUMAN BEING ENJOYS A PRO CESSED THERAPEUTICALLY ENRICHED PERCEPTION OF SELECT ASPECTS OF HIS RE MEMBERED COSMOS )N THE lRST STAGE OF ADAPTATION THE ADAPTER REPRE SENTS THE hOUTSIDEv AND SIMULATES INTERRELATIONS BY CONCEIVING OF ITSELF AS A PARTNER 4HE PERSON WHO FEELS ATTRACTIVELY DETACHED FROM HIS EN VIRONMENT lNDS HIMSELF IN THE MIDST OF A CONVERSATION IN A GAME LIKE DIALOG WITH A BENEVOLENT AUTHORITY (OWEVER THE TRUE ACTIVITY OF THE BIO ADAPTER IN THIS PHASE LIES IN SIMULATING A COMMUNICATION SHIELD A MEMBRANE BETWEEN THE VARIOUS STRUCTURES OF ITS CONTENTS CONSCIOUS NESS )T SIMULATES INTERCOURSE WITH THE hOUTSIDEv BY EXPLORING THE IN CORPORATED HUMAN BEING AND SUBJECT TO COMPREHENSIVE LEARNING PRO CESSES BY ANALYZING ALL MESSAGES SENT FROM THE HUMAN EVEN METABOLIC PRODUCTS TO THE NOW HYPOTHETICAL UNIVERSE )T OFFERS BACK TO THE HU MAN BEING SELECT PORTIONS OF THIS IN NEW COMBINATIONS WHEREBY THE EMPHASIS IS ALWAYS ON THE CRITERION OF HAPPINESS 3O TO PUT IT BRIEmY THE BIO ADAPTER FUNCTIONS AS A SET OF MACRO INSTRUCTIONS AS AN INFOR MATIONAL MIRROR SIMULATING A NO LONGER EXISTENT OUTSIDE NEWS SOURCE THE BIO UNITS IMPULSES ARE ANALYZED REGROUPED ACCORDING TO THE CON JECTURAL EMPHASIS ON DESIRE TRANSCODIlED AND REGISTEREDv 4HE TECHNOLOGIZATION OF OUR BODY HAS SOME WAY TO GO YET 4HERE ARE SENSIBLE AND LESS SENSIBLE APPLICATIONS IN THIS AREA AND WE MUST EVALUATE EACH INDIVIDUALLY
5BIQUITOUS #OMPUTING AND !MBIENT )NTERFACES !S PART OF HIS h4HINGS 4HAT 4HINKv RESEARCH CONSORTIUM 'ER SHENFELD HAS DESCRIBED A WORLD OF INTELLIGENT TECHNOLOGY AND OBJECTS 4HE TECHNOLOGY AROUND US IS EQUIPPED WITH FUNCTIONS THAT HELP US COME TO GRIPS WITH OUR DAILY LIFE WORK HANDICAPS AND RESTRICTIONS &ROM A VERY SPECIlC VIEWPOINT THIS THOUGHT IS VERY OLD AND ITS HISTORY IS ILLUSTRATED AND EXAMINED IN THE BOOK 7UNSCHMASCHINE 7ELTERlN DUNG 4HE MANY EXAMPLES DISCUSSED THEREIN REVEAL HOW NAIVELY PEOPLE HAVE UNDERSTOOD TECHNOLOGY AS AN ENABLER AND CURE ALL AS AN INTELLIGENCE ENHANCER AND MECHANICAL BRIDE 4HE BOOK ALSO MAKES CLEAR THAT TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS TODAY MUSTNT BE VIEWED AS A MEANS END RELATION BUT RATHER AS A MEANS OR MEDIUM OF IDENTITY FORMATION 'ERSHENFELDS CONCEPT IS LINKED TO THE AGE OLD IDEAS OF RESOURCEFUL PEOPLE WHO SOUGHT TO OPTIMIZE THE HUMAN CONDITION CONDITIO HUMANAE AND TO INTEGRATE IT INTO A WORLD IN WHICH THE POSSIBILITIES OF TECHNICAL ACTION SYSTEMS LEAD TO NEW FORMS OF MEANING CREATION AND PRACTICE )N THIS hNEW WORLD v OUR SILENT SERVANTS EQUIPMENT MACHINES AND ENVIRONMENTS ARE COMBINED TO FORM NETWORKED INTELLIGENT ENVIRON MENTS 4HE LATEST DEVELOPMENTS IN THE lELD OF hAMBIENT INTERFACESv FOCUS ON INFORMATION ENVIRONMENTS THAT ARE CUSTOMIZED TO SPECIAL NEEDS AND APPLICATION PURPOSES 4HE lELD OF hROOMWAREv INCLUDES NEW OFlCE FURNITURE SYSTEMS THAT PROVIDE INTELLIGENT SUPPORT FOR THE INFORMATION WORKER -ATERIALS ARE GIVEN INTELLIGENT PROPERTIES PEOPLE ARE hENHANCEDv WITH NEUROIMPLANTS AND OUR HOMES BECOME SENSORY ENVIRONMENTS THAT ASSIST INFORM AND TRACK US REGARDLESS OF WHERE WE ARE OR THE TIME OF DAY /UR HOMES ARE A CONTEXT SENSITIVE SUPPLEMENT TO OUR NATURAL DISPOSITIONS
' "ONSIEPE 'UI "ONSIEPE /NLINE HTTPWWWGUI DESIGNDE * 2ASKIN 4HE (UMANE )NTERFACE .EW $IRECTIONS FOR $ESIGNING )NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS 2EADING -ASS " 3HNEIDERMAN 5SER INTERFACE $ESIGN RD EDITION "ONN
6ISUAL 2EPRESENTATION !GENTS AND )NTERFACES )F WE WANT TO DISCUSS INTERFACES WE MUST ENDEAVOR TO DESCRIBE THE TERMS GENERAL MEANING )N THE CONTEXT OF DESIGN PRINCIPLES hINTERFACEv PRIMARILY REFERS TO THE FUNCTIONAL STATISTICAL AND DYNAMIC INFORMATION THAT WE RECEIVE FROM OUR MONITORS OR DISPLAYS SCREEN DESIGN OR TO THE CONTROL ELEMENTS IN MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL ELECTRONIC OR DIGITAL SYS TEMS )NTERFACE DESIGN AND SCREEN DESIGN PRIMARILY CENTER ON THE LOGICAL CONTINUATION OF TRADITIONAL DESIGN TASKS 4HESE TASKS CAN BE EXPLAINED ON THE BASIS OF THE DESIGN DISCIPLINES REPERTOIRE AND RELATED BRANCHES OF KNOWLEDGE "ONSIEPE EXPLORES THESE QUESTIONS IN A VIVID AND FUNDA MENTAL TREATMENT (IS DIAGRAM SHOWS THE NEW TASKS AT THE INTERSECTION OF USER TASK AND TOOL 4HE ANALYSES BY 2ASKIN AND 3HNEIDERMAN ARE MUCH MORE PRACTICAL IN SCOPE 4HEIR WORK GIVES DESIGNERS INSIGHT INTO DIFFERENT CONSIDERATIONS AND APPROACHES AND CAN BE SEEN AS TEST ED INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER DElNABLE QUESTIONS IN DElNED TASKS USER INTERFACE DESIGN )N OUR VIEW THE WORK BECOMES MOST EXCITING WHEN FOR EXAMPLE THE INTERFACE CONSISTS OF ANIMATED lGURES IN THE DIGITAL MEDIUM AND THE SUGGESTIVE FORCE IS USED FOR A SENSORY AND EMOTIONAL COMMUNICATION OF INSTRUCTIONS INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE )N SO CALLED IMMERSIVE SPACES VIRTUAL lGURES BECOME PSEUDO REALISTIC ACTORS WHO COMMUNICATE WITH US ESCORT US THROUGH VIRTUAL SCENES OR ASSIST US AS WE SEARCH THROUGH DIGITAL ARCHIVES 4HESE KINDS OF INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS SIMULATE A PERSONAL PARTNER AND GRACEFULLY DUPE US AS TO THE TECHNICAL NATURE OF THE MEDIUM
0ROGRESS AS %XPERIMENT )N THE PREVIOUS PARAGRAPH ) DESCRIBED THE TECHNOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES THAT ARE BASED ON LINKING THE STRUCTURES BETWEEN SYSTEM ELEMENTS AND THAT ORGANIZE TWO WAY COMMUNICATION PROCESSES DATA EXCHANGE $YNAMIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS ARE ROOTED IN THE IDEA OF ORGANIC MOD ELS AND WERE lRST INTRODUCED TO THE TECHNOLOGY DISCOURSE IN THE RULE SYSTEM THEORIES CYBERNETICS DEVELOPED BY .ORBERT 7IENER 7IENERS THEORIES HAVE PLAYED A SIGNIlCANT ROLE IN FURTHERING TECHNOLOGICAL AD VANCES IN LARGE INCREASINGLY COMPLEX TECHNICAL PROJECTS SPACE TRAVEL AND THEY FORM AN INTEGRAL PART OF OUR LIVES 0UT DIFFERENTLY 7IENER SPECULATED IN HIS LATER WRITINGS THAT OUR SOCIETIES WILL ONLY EXTEND AS FAR AS IT IS POSSIBLE TO EFFECTIVELY TRANSMIT INFORMATION (ERE THE PO TENTIAL FOR A PROGRESSIVE TECHNOLOGIZATION OF OUR LIVES IS IMMENSE IF WE TREAT THIS TECHNOLOGIZATION IN A PURELY SYSTEMIC FASHION !T ISSUE HERE IS NOT THE TECHNOLOGY ITSELF BUT THE TECHNOLOGIZATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS FORMS OF THOUGHT ORGANIZATION AND AC TION 7E MUST RECOGNIZE THAT TECHNOLOGY AS A MATERIAL ICON STRUCTURES HUMAN BEHAVIOR PERCEPTION THOUGHT AND ACTION 4HE CONDITIONS OF INDIVIDUALITY USE AND SOCIAL PARTICIPATION ARE NEWLY ORGANIZED INSOFAR AS TECHNOLOGIES ARE BEING DEVELOPED THAT ARE NOT ABSOLUTELY NEEDED BUT WHOSE EXISTENCE ENGENDERS USE 7ITH THIS A NEW APPROACH IS POSSI BLE THAT ULTIMATELY VIEWS ALL PROGRESS AS THE RESULT OF SOCIAL EXPERIMEN TATION RATHER THAN PLANNING )F WE WANT TO GRAPPLE WITH THE DESCRIBED ASPECTS OF THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES WE MUST lND WAYS OF CONSTRUCTIVELY INCORPORATING THIS INSIGHT INTO OUR THOUGHTS )N PRINCIPLE WHAT IS AT ISSUE HERE IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL AND PLAYFUL TOOLS FOR AS MANY DAILY REQUIREMENTS AND APPLICATION lELDS AS POSSIBLE n TOOLS THAT GIVE BACK TO HUMAN BEINGS THEIR PLEASURE IN EXPERIMENTATION .UMEROUS EXAMPLES OF NEW MEDIA USAGE SHOW THAT PEOPLE STILL HAVE A CURIOSITY ABOUT AND DESIRE FOR SEEMINGLY PURPOSELESS EXPERIMENTS AND THAT THESE TRAITS CAN LEAD TO NEW SOCIAL OBJECTIVES AND ECONOMIC PROSPECTS "Y BETTER UNDERSTANDING THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF OUR SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND OUR MENTALITY WE CAN CULTIVATE ENTIRELY NEW WAYS OF USING TECHNOLOGY )F IT IS POSSIBLE TO LEARN SOMETHING NEW THROUGH THE PLAYFUL USE OF TECHNOLOGY IF IT ENABLES US TO SEE WHAT HAS BEEN INVISIBLE
4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
OR TO RETHINK EXISTING OPINIONS THEN WE MUST ALSO UNDERSTAND RESPON SIBLE ACTION TO BE THE RESULT OF TECHNOLOGIZATION PROCESSES 7E ARE INCREASINGLY DEPENDENT ON SOLUTIONS THAT DIFFER FROM THOSE OFFERED BY TRADITIONAL DESIGN TECHNOLOGIES IN OUR EFFORTS TO GAIN INSIGHT INTO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ACTING PARTIES THEIR METHODS AND PURPOSES n AND IN OUR EFFORTS TO ENSURE AT LEAST THE ILLUSION OF RESPON SIBLE ACTION
$YNAMICS AND )NDIVIDUALITY 4HE NEW FORMATS AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS DEAL WITH STRUCTURAL CON NECTIONS BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE )N MANY CASES WHAT IS AT STAKE IS A hSETTING IN RELATIONv OF FACTORS INmUENCES ENVIRONMENTS HABITS CUL TURES AND TECHNOLOGIES !ND MOST OFTEN WE ENCOUNTER FACTORS THAT ARE INITIALLY DIFlCULT TO COMPARE )N SUCH CASES DESIGN BRINGS TOGETHER DIS CRETE ASPECTS IN A MODEL AND TRANSLATES THEM INTO A UNIFORM LANGUAGE WITH THE GOAL OF RENDERING THEM COMPARABLE 4HERE ARE MANY PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF THIS ,ET US CONSIDER THE LATEST TELEMATIC SYSTEMS IN THE lELD OF TRAFlC CONTROL (ERE INFORMATION ON TRAFlC FORMATION CON STRUCTION SITES AND WEATHER CONDITIONS IS INTERPRETED AND TRANSFORMED INTO PRECISE INSTRUCTIONS 5SERS n IN THIS CASE CAR DRIVERS n DO NOT NEED IMAGES OF THE WEATHER CONSTRUCTION SITES OR TRAFlC JAMS SINCE THEY ARE IN THE MIDST OF THE ACTION 7HAT THEY REQUIRE IS INFORMATION ON HOW BEST TO BEHAVE IN CONJUNCTION WITH ALL THE OTHER ROAD USERS IN ORDER TO REACH THEIR DESTINATIONS AS QUICKLY AND WITH AS LITTLE TROUBLE AS POSSIBLE /NE ACHIEVES SOLUTIONS BY AUGMENTING THE REAL SITUATION WITH INFORMATION ON BEHAVIORAL MODALITIES (OWEVER THE CONSISTENT IMPLEMENTATION OF THIS INFORMATION BY THE USERS THEMSELVES IS A PRE CONDITION FOR THE ACTUAL SOLUTION )F THEY DO NOT FOLLOW THIS LOGIC THEY MAKE MANY SYSTEMS USELESS AT THE VERY LEAST )N OTHER CASES SUCH DIS OBEDIENCE CAN HAVE FAR WORSE CONSEQUENCES 3YSTEMIC QUESTIONS OF THIS COMPLEXITY ARE FAR REACHING AND LEAVING IDEALISTIC ASSUMPTIONS ASIDE IT APPEARS IMPOSSIBLE IN PRACTICE TO OVERCOME lXED INSTITUTIONAL OR CULTURAL HABITS !LTHOUGH WE CAN RECOGNIZE AND DEPICT THE INTERACTION OF FACTORS SURMOUNTING THEM REQUIRES MORE THAN MERE DISCUSSION )T IS HERE THAT WE REACH THE LIMITS OF TECHNOLOGY SINCE ITS POWER IS LIMITED BY ERRONEOUS INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR 7E CAN THUS ASSUME THAT TECHNOLO GIZATION PROCESSES WILL ACCELERATE AND THAT INDIVIDUAL FREEDOMS WILL BE MINIMIZED )T WOULD BE DIFlCULT TO VERIFY THE CLAIM THAT THE AUTOMA TISMS OF AN INCREASINGLY AUTONOMOUS TECHNOLOGY ARE A CORRECTIVE MEA SURE THAT WE ARE IMPLEMENTING DELIBERATELY AND YET UNCONSCIOUSLY TO SET OURSELVES LIMITS
2 3ENNETT $ER FLEXIBLE -ENSCH DIE +ULTUR DES NEUEN +APITALISMUS "ERLIN , -UMFORD -YTHOS DER -ASCHINE +ULTUR 4ECHNIK UND -ACHT 6IENNA - (ARDT AND ! .EGRI %MPIRE #AMBRIDGE -ASS
/UR WORK MUST THEREFORE FOCUS ON THE QUESTION OF HOW TECH NOLOGY INDIVIDUAL TECHNOLOGY MUST BE DESIGNED TO OPTIMIZE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTS AND HOW TRADITIONAL AND ENTRENCHED INTEREST GROUPS CULTURE IDENTITIES ETC CAN PEACEFULLY CHANGE IN THESE DYNAMIC ENVI RONMENTS )T APPEARS THAT MORE AND MORE PEOPLE ARE RECOGNIZING THAT THOSE OF US IN DESIGN CAN ALSO EFFECT PROFOUND CHANGES BY PRODUCING AESTHETIC VISUAL WORLDS !ND YET THESE COMPLICATED IMAGES ARE MAKING US CERTAIN OF ONE THING NAMELY THE COMPLEXITY OF THE CONDITIONS WILL REMAIN INDElNITELY AND THAT EVERY TECHNOLOGIZATION PROCESS MUST BE REGARDED AS AN EXPERIMENT /UR INDIVIDUAL STANCE SHOULD NOT ONLY BE MARKED BY mEXIBILITY 0ERHAPS n GIVEN OUR OWN STRUCTURAL DISPOSITION AND MOTIVATIONS WORK LANGUAGE DESIRE n WE SHOULD BE MORE PERSIS TENT 3ENNETT DESCRIBES THE HARM THAT CAN BE DONE IN INDIVIDUAL CASES BY THE DEMAND FOR mEXIBILITY !CCORDING TO HIM SOCIAL STRUCTURES TECHNOLOGY AS AN ICON AND INDIVIDUAL INTERESTS STAND IN OPPOSITION TO ONE ANOTHER 4HEY ENABLE US TO RECOGNIZE THE DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF mEXIBILITY AND DYNAMISM 7E VIEW DYNAMISM AS A FORCE THAT AIMS AT CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT AND THAT WE CAN USE TO FULlLL INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE INTERESTS (OWEVER WE MUST ASSUME THAT WE WILL ALSO HAVE TO EXPEND AN EVER GREATER AMOUNT OF ENERGY NOT ONLY ON UNCOVERING THESE DIFFERENT INTERESTS AND GOALS BUT ALSO ON COMMUNICATING THEM .OR SHOULD WE SUBSCRIBE TO THE IDEA THAT BY MAKING TECHNOLOGY MORE mEXIBLE WE CAN BREAK OR MINIMIZE ITS FORMATIVE POWER )T IS AT THIS POINT THAT IT ACQUIRES ADDED INmUENCE -C,UHAN ILLUSTRATES THIS THROUGH TWO EXAMPLES %LECTRIC LIGHTING IS A DETERMINING FORCE IN OUR LIVES SINCE IT IS UNIMPORTANT WHAT IS ILLUMINATED 4ELEVISION SHAPES OUR VIEW OF THE WORLD SINCE ALL AVAILABLE IMAGES HAVE A RANDOM CONTENT AND RELEVANCE IN OUR LIVING ROOMS .O ONE NEEDS TO JUSTIFY THEIR USE OF THESE MEDIA 4HESE TECHNOLOGIES ARE FORMATIVE IN THAT THEY REDElNE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL HABITS AND ATTITUDES AND THEY HAVE AN INSTRUCTIVE EFFECT BECAUSE THEIR MERE AVAILABILITY HAS THE CHARACTER OF AN APPEAL
3UMMARY )N THE VARIOUS DESIGN DISCIPLINES INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COMMUNICA TION DESIGN ETC WE ARE CONTINUING TO FUNCTIONALIZE THE PERCEPTUAL lELDS OF SURFACE $ AND SPACE $ AND TO DERIVE DISCIPLINARY CAT EGORIES AND lELDS OF WORK FROM THEM )N THE EVOLUTION OF OUR DISCI PLINES THIS HAS LED TO PARTIALLY AUTONOMOUS lELDS OF THOUGHT ACTIVITY AND RESPONSIBILITY EACH WITH ITS OWN LAWS ASSUMPTIONS IDEOLOGIES AND TECHNIQUES )N THE HISTORY OF DESIGN AND TECHNICAL DESIGN IT WAS THE OLD MASTERS FROM ,EONARDO DA 6INCI TO 0ETER "EHRENS WHO WERE ABLE TO CONSIDER THE TOTALITY OF THE WORLD IN THEIR WORK 6ERY INDIVIDUAL lELDS OF WORK AND EXPERTISE HAVE DEVELOPED IN OUR AGE SURELY DUE TO THE INCREASINGLY COMPLEX CONDITIONS 4HE USE OF KNOWLEDGE TECHNOLOGIES STRATEGIES AND MATERIALS COMPLICATES AND EXPANDS OUR POSSIBLE COURSES OF ACTION AND OPENS UP A SCIENTIlC VIEW OF OUR PRACTICAL WORK .OWADAYS DESIGN MUST BE UNDERSTOOD AS A KNOWLEDGE BASED ACTIVITY AND ACCORDING TO THIS DEl NITION THE DESIGNED ARTIFACT BECOMES A LINK IN A PERPETUAL CHAIN OF ARGUMENTATION THAT WE ALSO CALL CULTURE 7E DO NOT DECLARE EVERY RESULT THING TO BE A CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENT !ND YET THIS DIALOGIC PROCESS BE TWEEN MAN AND MACHINE MUST BE UNDERSTOOD AS A FUNDAMENTAL CUL TURAL TECHNOLOGY 7HEN WE CONSIDER THE CONCEPT OF PROGRESS IN OUR EFFORTS TO GAIN CLARITY ON THE CHANGED CONCEPT OF DESIGN WE ALWAYS ENCOUNTER THE IM AGE OF THE MACHINE DEVELOPED AND EXTENSIVELY DISCUSSED BY -UMFORD OR (ARDT .EGRI !T THE HEART OF THIS METAPHOR IS AN OMNIPOTENT REALITY CONSISTING OF MACHINES APPARATUSES BUREAUCRACIES AND MECHA NISMS THAT GAIN POWER OVER US 4HIS IMAGE OF AN ALL POWERFUL MACHINE APPEARS WELL SUITED FOR EXPLORING FEARS AND RESERVATIONS AND FOR GIVING ARGUMENTATIVE FORCE AND EXPRESSION TO THESE FEARS AND RESERVATIONS )N ACCEPTING THIS IMAGE THOUGH WE FORFEIT THE CAPACITY TO MAKE SOBER ASSESSMENTS )F WE ATTEMPT TO lND AN IMAGE BETTER SUITED TO THE CURRENT AGE THIS METAPHOR WILL FADE AND BE REPLACED BY THE IDEA OF INVISIBLY NETWORKED TECHNO SYSTEMS )MAGINING THEM IS NOT EASY BECAUSE THESE NETWORKS ELUDE OUR PERCEPTION &OR THIS REASON A CENTRAL CHALLENGE LIES IN DEVEL
4OTAL )NTERACTION )NTERACTION AS A 'UIDING 0RINCIPLE "EYOND !ESTHETICS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
%UROPEAN 5NION 4HE $ISAPPEARING #OMPUTER 0ROJECT HTTPWWWDISAPPEARING COMPUTERNETPROJECTSHTML
OPING STRATEGIES FOR RENDERING THE INVISIBLE VISIBLE AND FOR FACILITATING NEW ACCESS POINTS 4HESE BONDS WILL DEVELOP IN THOSE PLACES WHERE WE HAVE ACCESS TO STRUCTURES WHERE WE BECOME CAPABLE OF ACTION AND NEW EXPERIENCES 7E GAIN EMOTIONAL ACCESS TO THE TECHNOLOGIES THAT PROVIDE US WITH VIEWS OF MYSTERIOUS NEW WORLDS AND THAT MAKE hCONNECTIONv POSSIBLE WITH THEM DESPITE OUR LIMITATIONS &OR THIS REASON WE SEE MEDIA AS A MEANS OF CLAIMING A BIT OF THE WORLD FOR OURSELVES AND THUS AS IN DISPENSABLE FOR OUR INTELLECTUAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 6IEWED SOBERLY WE MUST RECOGNIZE THAT STRUCTURAL FORCES INFORM THIS LOUD AND SUPERlCIAL WORLD OF MACHINES 7E THEREFORE NEED NEW lELDS OF EX PERTISE IF WE ARE TO UNDERSTAND AND MANIPULATE THE COMPLEX SITUATION AND TO SHARE THESE EXPERIENCES WITH A LARGE NUMBER OF PEOPLE !T STAKE IN THE FUTURE ARE NOT ONLY A REDUCTION OF COMPLEXITY AND A hDISAPPEAR ANCE OF THINGS v BUT ALSO NEW FORMS OF COMMUNICATION NEW SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANING AND MAKING THE MECHANISMS AND THEIR STRUCTURAL RELATIONS VISIBLE !T STAKE IS ALSO THE QUESTION OF HOW WE WILL CONVEY THROUGH THE SENSES TECHNOLOGYS POTENTIAL WITHIN THE CATEGORIES OF SUR FACE BODY AND SPACE (OWEVER WE HAVE FOUND THE BASIC UNDERSTAND ING OF WHERE OUR REmECTIONS MUST BEGIN BEYOND ANY SUCH CATEGORIES
h'ENERATION &LASHv INCORPORATES REVISED VERSIONS OF THE TEXTS COMMISSIONED FOR WWWWHITNEYBIENNIAL COM AND HTTPWWWELECTRONICORPHANAGECOMBIEN NALE "OTH EXHIBITIONS WERE ORGANIZED BY -ILTOS -ANE TAS %LECTRONIC /RPHANAGE h/N 54/0)!v WAS COMMIS SIONED BY &UTUREFARMERS
'ENERATION &LASH ,EV -ANOVICH
4HIS ARTICLE IS ABOUT h&LASH 'ENERATIONv AND NOT ABOUT THE 7EB SITES MADE WITH &LASH SOFTWARE -ANY OF THE SITES WHICH INSPIRED ME TO CONSIDER h&LASH AES THETICSv ARE NOT NECESSARILY MADE WITH &LASH 4HEY USE 3HOCKWAVE $(4-, 1UICKTIME AND OTHER MULTIMEDIA 7EB FORMATS 4HUS THE QUALITIES ) DESCRIBE IN THIS TEXT AS BEING SPECIFIC TO h&LASH AESTHETICSv ARE NOT UNIQUE TO &LASH SITES &OR INSTANCE THE WORK OF ,ISA *EVBRATT *OHN 3IMON AND 'OLAN ,EVIN
'%.%2!4)/. &,!3( ,EV -ANOVICH
4HE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THIS ESSAY EXAMINE THE PHENOMENON OF &LASH GRAPHICS ON THE 7EB WHICH HAS ATTRACTED A LOT OF CREATIVE TALENT OVER THE PAST FEW YEARS &LASH AESTHETICS ARE MUCH MORE THAN THE PROD UCT OF A PARTICULAR SOFTWARE HARDWARE CONlGURATION LOW BANDWIDTH LEADING TO THE USE OF VECTOR GRAPHICS 4HEY EXEMPLIFY THE CULTURAL SENSIBILITY OF A NEW GENERATION 4HIS GENERATION DOES NOT CARE IF ITS WORK IS CALLED ART OR DESIGN )TS REPRESENTATIVES ARE NO LONGER INTERESTED IN THE hMEDIA CRITIQUEv THAT HAS PREOCCUPIED MEDIA ARTISTS FOR THE PAST TWO DECADES )NSTEAD THEY ARE ENGAGED IN A SOFTWARE CRITIQUE )NSTEAD OF SAMPLING COMMERCIAL MEDIA THEY WRITE SOFTWARE CODE IN ORDER TO CREATE THEIR OWN CULTURAL SYSTEMS 4HE RESULT IS A NEW MODERNISM OF DATA VISUALIZATIONS VECTOR NETS PIXEL THIN GRIDS AND ARROWS "AUHAUS DESIGN IN THE SERVICE OF INFORMATION DESIGN 2EPLACING THE BAROQUE AS SAULT OF COMMERCIAL MEDIA THE &LASH GENERATION DISHES UP MODERNIST AESTHETICS AND THE RATIONALITY OF SOFTWARE )T USES INFORMATION DESIGN AS A TOOL TO MAKE SENSE OF REALITY AND TRANSFORMS PROGRAMMING INTO A TOOL OF EMPOWERMENT
3EE HTTPWWWPOTATOLANDORGLANDFILL
4URNTABLE AND &LASH 2EMIXING FOR WWWWHITNEYBIENNIALCOM 4URNTABLE IS A 7EB BASED SOFTWARE THAT ALLOWS USERS TO MIX UP TO SIX DIFFERENT &LASH ANIMATIONS IN REAL TIME 5SERS CAN ALSO MODIFY THE COLOR PALETTE THE SIZE OF INDIVIDUAL ANIMATIONS AND OTHER PARAMETERS 4HE ARTISTS PARTICIPATING IN WWWWHITNEYBIENNIALCOM WERE INVITED TO SUBMIT SHORT &LASH ANIMATIONS 4HESE WERE EXHIBITED ON THE SITE BOTH SEPARATELY AND AS PART OF 4URNTABLE REMIXES 3OME REMIXES CONSISTED OF A NUMBER OF ANIMATIONS BY THE SAME ARTIST WHILE OTHERS USED ANI MATIONS BY DIFFERENT ARTISTS )T HAS BECOME A CLICH£ TO SAY THAT hWE LIVE IN A REMIX CULTUREv 3URE WE DO "UT ISNT IT POSSIBLE TO GO BEYOND THIS SIMPLE STATEMENT OF FACT &OR INSTANCE CAN WE DISTINGUISH BETWEEN DIFFERENT REMIX AESTHETICS 7HAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REMIXES MADE WITH ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTER TOOLS AND EARLIER FORMS SUCH AS COLLAGES AND MONTAGES 7HAT ARE THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AUDIO AND VISUAL REMIXES 4HINK LOOP !S THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF AN ELECTRONIC SOUND TRACK THE LOOP HAS ASSUMED A SURPRISINGLY STRONG POSITION IN CONTEM PORARY VISUAL CULTURE 7HEN LEFT TO THEIR OWN DEVICES &LASH ANIMATIONS 1UICK4IME MOVIES AND THE CHARACTERS IN COMPUTER GAMES WILL LOOP ENDLESSLY n OR UNTIL THE USER INTERVENES WITH A CLICK !S ) HAVE SHOWN ELSEWHERE ALL NINETEENTH CENTURY PRE CINEMATIC VISUAL DEVICES RELIED ON LOOPS 4HROUGHOUT THE NINETEENTH CENTURY THESE LOOPS KEPT GETTING LONGER AND LONGER n EVENTUALLY TURNING INTO A FEATURE NARRATIVE 4ODAY WE ARE WITNESSING A MOVE IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION ARTISTS ARE SAMPLING SHORT SEGMENTS OF FEATURE lLMS OR 46 SHOWS ARRANGING THEM AS LOOPS AND EXHIBITING THESE LOOPS AS hVIDEO INSTALLATIONSv 4HE LOOP HAS BECOME THE NEW DEFAULT METHOD FOR CRITIQUING MEDIA CULTURE REPLACING THE STILL PHOTOGRAPH USED IN THE POST MODERN CRITIQUES OF THE S !T THE SAME TIME THE LOOP HAS SUPERSEDED THE STILL PHOTOGRAPH AS THE NEW INDEX OF THE REAL SINCE WE ALL KNOW THAT A STILL PHOTOGRAPH CAN BE DIGI TALLY MANIPULATED IT APPEARS THAT A SHORT MOVING SEQUENCE ARRANGED IN A LOOP IS A BETTER WAY OF REPRESENTING REALITY FOR THE TIME BEING
4HINK )NTERNET 4HE PHENOMENON THAT IN POST MODERN TIMES WAS REFERRED TO AS hQUOTING v hAPPROPRIATION v AND hPASTICHEv NOW NO LONGER REQUIRES ANY SPECIAL NAME )T IS SIMPLY THE BASIC LOGIC OF CUL TURAL PRODUCTION DOWNLOAD IMAGES CODE SHAPES SCRIPTS ETC MODIFY THEM PASTE THE NEW WORKS ONLINE n CIRCULATE THEM .OTE ON THE )N TERNET THE ALWAYS EXISTING LOOP OF CULTURAL PRODUCTION IS MUCH FASTER A NEW TREND OR STYLE MAY SPREAD OVERNIGHT LIKE A PLAGUE 7HEN ) ASK MY STUDENTS TO CREATE THEIR OWN IMAGES BY TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS OR BY SHOOTING VIDEO THEY HAVE A REVELATION IMAGES DO NOT HAVE TO COME FROM THE )NTERNET 3HALL ) ALSO REVEAL TO THEM THAT IMAGES DO NOT HAVE TO COME FROM A TECHNOLOGICAL DEVICE THAT RECORDS REALITY THAT THEY CAN BE DRAWN OR PAINTED INSTEAD 4HINK IMAGE !ND COMPARE IT TO SOUND )T SEEMS POSSIBLE TO LAYER A LARGE NUMBER OF SOUNDS AND TRACKS WHILE MAINTAINING LEGIBILITY 4HE RESULTS BECOME INCREASINGLY COMPLEX AND INCREASINGLY INTERESTING 6I SION SEEMS TO BE WORKING DIFFERENTLY THESE DAYS /F COURSE THE COM MERCIAL IMAGES THAT WE SEE EVERYDAY ON 46 AND IN THE CINEMA OFTEN CONSIST OF MANY LAYERS AS WELL SOMETIMES RUNNING INTO THE THOUSANDS BUT THESE LAYERS WORK TOGETHER TO CREATE A SINGLE ILLUSIONISTIC OR SUPER ILLUSIONISTIC SPACE )N OTHER WORDS THEY ARE NOT BEING PERCEIVED AS SEPARATE IMAGES 7HEN WE START MIXING ARBITRARY IMAGES TOGETHER WE QUICKLY DESTROY ANY MEANING )F YOU NEED PROOF OF THIS JUST VISIT THE CLASSIC $IGITAL ,ANDlLL SITE (OW MANY SEPARATE IMAGE TRACKS CAN BE MIXED BEFORE THE COMPOSITE BECOMES NOTHING BUT NOISE 3IX SEEMS THE RIGHT NUMBER n WHICH IS EXACTLY THE NUMBER OF IMAGE TRACKS YOU CAN LOAD ONTO 4URNTABLE 4HINK SAMPLE VERSUS ENTIRE WORK )F WE ARE INDEED LIVING IN A RE MIX CULTURE DOES IT STILL MAKE SENSE TO CREATE WHOLE WORKS n IF THESE WORKS WILL BE TAKEN APART AND TURNED INTO SAMPLES BY OTHERS ANYWAY )NDEED WHY PAINSTAKINGLY ADJUST THE SEPARATE TRACKS OF A $IRECTOR MOVIE OR AN !FTER %FFECTS COMPOSITION WHY TRY TO GET IT JUST RIGHT IF THE hPUBLICv IS JUST GOING TO USE SOME FREE SOFTWARE TO hOPEN SOURCEv THEM INTO THEIR INDIVIDUAL TRACKS ANYWAY /F COURSE THE ANSWER IS YES WE STILL NEED ART 7E STILL WANT TO SAY SOMETHING ABOUT THE WORLD AND OUR LIVES IN IT 7E STILL NEED OUR OWN hMIRROR STANDING IN THE MIDDLE
'ENERATION &LASH ,EV -ANOVICH
!FTER '5) BASED APPLICATIONS SUCH AS (YPERCARD $IRECTOR 0HOTOSHOP AND OTHERS BECAME COMMONPLACE MANY COMPUTER ARTISTS CONTINUED TO DO THEIR OWN PROGRAMMING WRITING CUSTOM CODE TO CONTROL AN INTER ACTIVE INSTALLATION PROGRAMMING AN INTERACTIVE MULTI MEDIA WORK IN ,).'/ ETC 4HIS WAS NOT REFERRED TO AS SOFTWARE ART )T WAS TAKEN FOR GRANTED THAT EVEN IN THE AGE OF '5) BASED APPLICATIONS A REALLY SERIOUS ARTISTIC ENGAGEMENT WITH COMPUTERS REQUIRES GETTING ONES HANDS DIRTY WITH CODE
OF A DIRTY ROAD v AS 3TENDAHL DElNED ART IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 9ET WE ALSO NEED TO ACCEPT THAT FOR OTHERS OUR WORK WILL BE JUST A SET OF SAMPLES OR MAYBE JUST ONE SAMPLE 4URNTABLE IS THE VISUAL SOFTWARE THAT MAKES THIS NEW AESTHETIC CONDITION PAINFULLY OBVIOUS )T INVITES US TO PLAY WITH THE DIALECTIC OF THE SAMPLE AND THE COMPOSITE THE IN TERPLAY BETWEEN OUR OWN WORKS AND THE WORKS OF OTHERS 7ELCOME TO VISUAL REMIXING &LASH STYLE 4HINK 4URNTABLE
!RT -EDIA !RT AND 3OFTWARE !RT 2ECENTLY hSOFTWARE ARTv HAS EMERGED AS THE DYNAMIC NEW lELD IN THE NEW MEDIA ARTS &LASHS !CTION3CRIPT $IRECTORS ,INGO 0ERL -!8 *AVA3CRIPT *AVA # AND OTHER PROGRAMMING AND SCRIPTING LANGUAG ES ARE THE MEDIUM OF CHOICE FOR A STEADILY INCREASING NUMBER OF YOUNG ARTISTS 4HEMATICALLY SOFTWARE ART OFTEN DEALS WITH DATA VISUALIZATION /THER AREAS OF CREATIVE ACTIVITY INCLUDE THE TOOLS FOR ONLINE COLLAB ORATIVE PERFORMANCE COMPOSITION +EYSTROKE $* 6* SOFTWARE AND ALTERNATIVES TO CRITIQUES OF COMMERCIAL SOFTWARE !UTO )LLUSTRATOR ESPECIALLY THE BROWSERS EARLY CLASSICS LIKE .ETOMAT 7EB 3TALKER AND MANY OTHERS THAT HAVE EMERGED SINCE THEN /FTEN THESE ARTISTS CRE ATE NOT SINGULAR WORKS BUT SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENTS OPEN FOR OTHERS TO USE SUCH AS !LEX 'ALLOWAYS h#ARNIVOREv 3TYLISTICALLY MANY WORKS IMPLICITLY REFERENCE VISUAL MODERNISM *OHN 3IMON SEEMS TO BE THE ONLY ONE SO FAR WHO HAS EXPLICITLY WOVEN MODERNIST REFERENCES INTO HIS WORKS 3UDDENLY PROGRAMMING IS COOL 3UDDENLY THE TECHNIQUES AND IM AGERY THAT FOR TWO DECADES WERE ASSOCIATED WITH 3)''2!0( GEEKNESS AND BAD TASTE THE VISUAL OUTPUT OF MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS PARTICLE SYSTEMS THE 2'" COLOR PALETTE ARE A WELCOME SIGHT ON THE PLASMA SCREENS OF GALLERY WALLS )T IS NO LONGER /CTOBER AND 7ALLPAPER BUT &LASH AND $IRECTOR MANUALS THAT ARE REQUIRED READING FOR ANY SERIOUS YOUNG ARTIST /F COURSE COMPUTER ARTISTS HAVE BEEN WRITING THEIR OWN SOFTWARE SINCE THE DISCIPLINES EARLY DAYS IN THE S )N FACT UNTIL THE MID S THE ONLY WAY TO MAKE COMPUTER ART WAS TO WRITE SOFTWARE OR AT LEAST USE SPECIAL VERY HIGH END PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES DESIGNED BY OTHERS SUCH AS :GRASS 3O WHATS DIFFERENT ABOUT THE RECENT PHE NOMENON OF SOFTWARE ART !ND IS IT NECESSARY ,ETS DISTINGUISH THREE lGURES THE ARTIST THE MEDIA ARTIST AND THE SOFTWARE ARTIST
)N THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND THE lRST HALF OF THE TWENTIETH CEN TURY THE ROMANTIC MODERNIST ARTIST WAS VIEWED AS A GENIUS WHO CRE ATED FROM SCRATCH AND IMPOSED THE PHANTOMS OF HIS IMAGINATION ON THE WORLD 7ITH MEDIA ARTISTS A NEW lGURE ARRIVED ON THE SCENE IN THE S n S CORRESPONDING TO THE POST MODERNIST PERIOD /F COURSE MODERNIST ARTISTS ALSO USED MEDIA RECORDING TECHNOLOGIES SUCH AS PHOTOGRAPHY AND lLM BUT THEY TREATED THESE TECHNOLOGIES THE SAME WAY THEY DID OTHER ARTISTIC TOOLS AS A MEANS OF CREATING AN ORIGINAL AND SUBJECTIVE VIEW OF THE WORLD )N CONTRAST POST MODERN MEDIA ARTISTS ACCEPT THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF AN ORIGINAL UNMEDIATED VISION OF REALITY THEIR SUBJECT MATTER IS NOT REALITY ITSELF BUT THE REPRESENTATION OF REAL ITY BY MEDIA AND THE WORLD OF MEDIA 4HEREFORE THESE MEDIA ARTISTS NOT ONLY USE MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES AS TOOLS THEY ALSO APPROPRIATE THE CONTENT OF COMMERCIAL MEDIA ! TYPICAL MEDIA ART STRATEGY IS TO RE PHOTOGRAPH A NEWSPAPER PHOTOGRAPH TO RE EDIT A SEGMENT OF A 46 SHOW OR TO ISOLATE A SCENE FROM A (OLLYWOOD lLM 46 SHOW AND TURN IT INTO A LOOP CONSIDER THE WORK OF .AM *UNE 0AIK $ARA "IRNBAUM $OUGLAS 'ORDON 0AUL 0FFEFER *ENNIFER AND +EVIN -C#OY .ATURALLY A MEDIA ARTIST DOES NOT HAVE TO USE COMMERCIAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES PHOTOGRAPHY lLM VIDEO NEW MEDIA 3 HE CAN ALSO USE OTHER MEDIA FROM OIL PAINT TO PRINTING TO SCULPTURE 4HE MEDIA ARTIST IS A PARASITE WHO LIVES OFF COMMERCIAL MEDIA n THAT IS OFF THE COLLECTIVE CRAFTSMANSHIP OF HIGHLY SKILLED PEOPLE )N AD DITION AN ARTIST WHO SAMPLES FROM SUBVERTS POKES FUN AT COMMERCIAL MEDIA CAN ULTIMATELY NEVER COMPETE WITH THEM )NSTEAD OF A FEATURE lLM WE GET A SINGLE SCENE INSTEAD OF A COMPLEX COMPUTER GAME WITH PLAYABILITY NARRATIVE !) ETC WE GET A CRITIQUE OF ITS ICONOGRAPHY 4HIRTY YEARS OF MEDIA ART AND POST MODERNISM HAVE INEVITABLY LED TO A COUNTER MOVEMENT 7E ARE TIRED OF TAKING THE EXISTING MEDIA AS A STARTING POINT 7E ARE TIRED OF BEING SECONDARY AND ONLY REACTING TO WHAT ALREADY EXISTS
%NTER THE SOFTWARE ARTIST n THE NEW ROMANTIC )NSTEAD OF WORKING EXCLUSIVELY WITH COMMERCIAL MEDIA INSTEAD OF USING COMMERCIAL SOFT WARE THE SOFTWARE ARTIST LEAVES HIS HER MARK ON THE WORLD BY WRITING THE ORIGINAL CODE 4HIS ACT OF CODE WRITING IS HIGHLY SIGNIlCANT REGARD LESS OF WHAT THIS CODE ACTUALLY DOES IN THE END ! SOFTWARE ARTIST RE USES THE LANGUAGE OF MODERNIST ABSTRACTION AND DESIGN LINES GEOMETRIC SHAPES MATHEMATICALLY GENERATED CURVES AND OUTLINED COLOR lELDS TO GET AWAY FROM BOTH lGURATION IN GENERAL AND THE CINEMATOGRAPHIC LANGUAGE OF COMMERCIAL MEDIA IN PARTICULAR )NSTEAD OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND lLM 46 CLIPS WE GET LINES AND ABSTRACT COMPOSITIONS )N SHORT INSTEAD OF 1UICK4IME WE GET &LASH )NSTEAD OF THE COMPUTER AS A MEDIA MACHINE A VISION HEAVILY PROMOTED BY THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY AND MOST CLEARLY ARTICULATED BY !PPLE IN THEIR PRO MOTION OF THE -AC AS A hDIGITAL HUBv FOR OTHER MEDIA RECORDING PLAY ING DEVICES WE lND OUR WAY BACK TO THE COMPUTER AS A PROGRAMMING MACHINE 0ROGRAMMING LIBERATES ART FROM ITS SECONDARY STATUS VIS Í VIS COMMERCIAL MEDIA 4HE RECENT POPULARITY OF hSOUND ARTv PROBABLY HAS A SIMILAR BACKGROUND 7HILE COMMERCIAL MEDIA NOW MAKE USE OF EV ERY POSSIBLE VISUAL STYLE COMMERCIAL SOUND ENVIRONMENTS STILL HAVE NOT APPROPRIATED SOUND SPACE IN ITS ENTIRETY !LTHOUGH ROCK AND ROLL HIP HOP AND TECHNO HAVE ALREADY BECOME STANDARD ELEVATOR MUSIC AT LEAST IN THE MORE HIP ELEVATORS IN PLACES LIKE THE (UDSON (OTEL IN .9# IT SEEMS THAT THE RHYTHM LESS REGIONS OF SOUND SPACE ARE STILL UNTOUCHED n AT LEAST FOR NOW
'ENERATION &LASH ,EV -ANOVICH
54/0)! IN 3HOCKWAVE 54/0)! IS A 3HOCKWAVE PROJECT BY &UTUREFARMERS FOR THE )NTERNET SECTION OF THE 4IRANA "IENNALE &UTUREFARMERS !MY &RANCESCHINI AND 3ASCHA -ERG 52, HTTPNUTRISHNIAORGLEVEL 54/0)! IS PLAYFUL YET DECEITFUL PRETENDING TO BE MORE INNOCENT SIMPLER AND LIGHTER THAN IT ACTUALLY IS !T lRST GLANCE WE MIGHT MISTAKE IT FOR SOMETHING MADE FOR CHILDREN n OR FOR ADULTS WHOSE POINTS OF REF ERENCE ARE NOT +ARL -ARX 3IGMUND &REUD 2EM +OOLHAAS AND 0HILIP 3TARK BUT TEXT MESSAGING 'NUTTELA RETRO !TARI GRAPHICS AND NETTIME 4HIS IS THE NEW S GENERATION OF ARTISTS )N CONTRAST TO THE VISUAL AND MEDIA ARTISTS OF THE S n S WHO TOOK AIM AT MEDIA ADS CINEMA TELEVISION THIS NEW GENERATION DOES NOT WASTE ITS ENERGY ON ANY MEDIA CRITIQUE )NSTEAD OF BASHING THE COMMERCIAL MEDIA ENVI RONMENT IT CREATES ITS OWN 7EB SITES MIXES SOFTWARE TOOLS FURNITURE CLOVES DIGITAL VIDEO &LASH 3HOCKWAVE ANIMATIONS AND INTERACTIVES 4HE NEW SENSIBILITY THAT 5TOPIA EXEMPLIlES SO WELL IS SOFT ELEGANT RESTRAINED AND SMART 4HIS IS THE NEW SOFTWARE INTELLIGENTSIA ,OOK AT THE THIN LOW CONTRAST LINES OF 54/0)! PRAYSTATIONCOM AND SO MANY &LASH PROJECTS FEATURED AT THE 4IRANA "IENNALE 7HEREAS THE IMAGES BY THE PREVIOUS GENERATION OF MEDIA ARTISTS n FROM .AM *UNE 0AIK TO "ARBARA +RUEGER n SCREAMED AT THE TOP OF THEIR LUNGS AND TRIED TO COMPETE WITH THE INTENSITY OF COMMERCIAL MEDIA THE NEW DATA ARTISTS SUCH AS &RANCESCHINI -ERG WHISPER IN OUR EARS )N CONTRAST TO MEDIA ARROGANCE THEY OFFER US INTELLIGENCE )N CONTRAST TO THE MEDIA STREAM OF ENDLESSLY REPEATED ICONS AND SOUND BYTES THEY OFFER US SMALL AND ECONOMICAL SYSTEMS STYLIZED NATURE ECOLOGY AND THE GAME MUSIC GENERATOR ,EGO LIKE PARADE IN 54/0)! &UTUREFARMERS ARE AMONG THE FEW &LASH 3HOCKWAVE MASTERS WHO USE THEIR SKILLS FOR SOCIAL RATHER THAN SIMPLY FORMAL ENDS 4HEIR PROJECT hTHEYRULENETv IS A SHINING EXAMPLE OF THE WAYS SMART PROGRAMMING AND SMART GRAPHICS CAN BE USED FOR POLITICAL ENDS )NSTEAD OF PRESENT ING A PACKAGED POLITICAL MESSAGE THE PROJECT GIVES US DATA AND TOOLS TO ANALYZE THIS MESSAGE )T KNOWS THAT WE ARE INTELLIGENT ENOUGH TO DRAW
THE RIGHT CONCLUSIONS 4HIS IS THE NEW RHETORIC OF INTERACTIVITY WE ARE CONVINCED NOT BY LISTENING OR WATCHING A PREPARED MESSAGE BUT BY AC TIVELY WORKING WITH DATA REORGANIZING IT UNCOVERING THE CONNECTIONS BECOMING AWARE OF CORRELATIONS 54/0)! DOES NOT HAVE AN EXPLICIT POLITICAL CONTENT )NSTEAD IT CONVEYS ITS MESSAGE THROUGH A VISUAL ALLEGORY ,IKE 3IM#ITY AND SIMI LAR 3IMS THE PROGRAM PRESENTS US WITH AN ENTIRE MINIATURE WORLD THAT OPERATES ACCORDING TO ITS OWN SYSTEM OF RULES !LL THE ANIMATION IN 54/0)! IS THE RESULT OF CODE EXECUTION n NOTHING IS HAND ANIMATED 4HE COSMOGONY OF THIS WORLD REmECTS OUR NEW UNDERSTANDING OF OUR OWN POST #OLD 7AR PLANET DOMINATED BY SUCH THEMES AS THE )NTERNET ECOLOGY 'AIA AND GLOBALIZATION .OTICE THE THIN BARELY VISIBLE LINES THAT CONNECT THE ACTORS AND THE BLOCKS 4HIS IS THE SAME DEVICE USED IN THEYRULENET )N THE UNIVERSE OF 54/0)! EVERYTHING IS INTERCON NECTED AND EACH ACTION BY AN INDIVIDUAL ACTOR AFFECTS THE SYSTEM AS A WHOLE )NTELLECTUALLY WE KNOW THAT THIS IS HOW OUR %ARTH FUNCTIONS ECOLOGICALLY AND ECONOMICALLY BUT 54/0)! REPRESENTS THIS FUNCTION ALITY ON A SCALE WE CAN PERCEIVE AND GRASP
4HE LINES ALSO SERVE ANOTHER PURPOSE $ESPITE #.. 'REENPEACE THE GLASS ROOF OF "ERLINS 2EICHSTAG AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS AND DEVICES INTENDED TO MAKE THE INNER WORKINGS OF MODERN SOCIETIES TRANSPAR ENT TO THEIR CITIZENS MOST OF IT IS NOT VISIBLE 4HIS IS NOT ONLY BECAUSE WE DON@T KNOW THE MOTIVES BEHIND THIS OR THAT GOVERNMENT POLICY OR BECAUSE ADVERTISING AND 02 CONSTANTLY MAKE THINGS APPEAR DIFFERENT FROM HOW THEY REALLY ARE 4HE WAYS IN WHICH SOCIETIES FUNCTION ARE NOT VISIBLE IN ANY LITERAL SENSE &OR INSTANCE WE DONT KNOW WHERE TO lND THE hCELLSv THAT MAKE OUR CELL PHONES WORK WE DONT KNOW THE EXACT STRUCTURE OF THE PRIVATE lNANCIAL NETWORK THAT ENCIRCLES THE EARTH WE DONT KNOW WHAT COMPANIES ARE LOCATED IN THE BUILDINGS THAT WE PASS ON OUR WAY TO WORK EVERYDAY AND SO ON "UT IN 54/0)! WE DO KNOW BECAUSE THE LINKS ARE MADE VISIBLE 54/0)! IS A UTOPIA BECAUSE IT IS A SOCIETY WHERE CAUSE AND EFFECT ARE RENDERED TRANSPARENT AND COMPRE HENSIBLE 4HE PROGRAM RE WRITES -ARXISM AS VECTOR GRAPHICS IT SUBSTI TUTES THE lGURE OF hCONNECTIONSv FOR THE OLD lGURE OF hUNVEILINGv 54/0)! IS SERIOUS BUSINESS BEHIND A PLAYFUL FA½ADE n BUT ITS NOT ALL BUSINESS 54/0)! IS A VISUAL AND INTELLECTUAL DELIGHT THAT DRAWS ON THE CURRENT FASCINATION WITH COMPUTER GAMES AND INTERACTIVE IMAGE SOUND SOFTWARE )T IS 4ETRIS MEETS -ARX MEETS DATA MINING MEETS THE CLUB DANCE mOOR )T IS A GAME FOR A NEW GENERATION THAT KNOWS THAT THE WORLD IS A NETWORK THE MEDIA IS NOT WORTH TAKING VERY SERIOUSLY AND PROGRAMMING CAN BE USED AS A POLITICAL TOOL
4HE 5NBEARABLE ,IGHTNESS OF &,!3( 4HE )NTERNET SECTION OF THE 4IRANA "IENNALE WWWELECTRONICOR PHANAGECOMBIENNALE WAS ORGANIZED BY -ILTOS -ANETAS %LECTRONIC /RPHANAGE 4HE EXHIBITION PRESENTED A FEW DOZEN PROJECTS BY 7EB DESIGNERS AND ARTISTS MANY OF WHOM WORK WITH &LASH OR 3HOCKWAVE -ANETAS COMMISSIONED 0ETER ,UNENFELD .ORMAN +LEIN AND MYSELF TO WRITE AN ANALYSIS OF THE SHOW 4HIS TEXT IS MY CONTRIBUTION MANY OF ITS IDEAS EMERGED FROM THE CONVERSATIONS THAT THE THREE OF US HAD ABOUT THE WORKS ON DISPLAY 4HE NAMES IN BRACKETS REFER TO THE SHOWS ARTISTS PLEASE GO TO THE SHOW SITE TO VIEW THEIR PROJECTS "IOLOGY &LASH ARTISTS ARE BIG ON BIOLOGICAL REFERENCES !BSTRACT PLANTS MINIMALIST CREATURES AND CLOUDS OF PIXELS DANCE IN PATTERNS THAT SIGNAL hLIFEv TO THE HUMAN EYE 'EOFF 3TEARNS DECONCEPTCOM 6ITALY ,EOKU MOVICH UNCLICKABLECOM $ANNY (OBART DANNYHOBARTCOM UNCON TROLCOM /FTEN WE SEE SELF REGENERATING SYSTEMS "UT THIS IS NOT LIFE AS IT NATURALLY DEVELOPED ON %ARTH 2ATHER IT LOOKS LIKE SOMETHING WE ARE LIKELY TO ENCOUNTER IN SOME BIOTECH LABORATORY IN WHICH BIOLOGY IS PLACED IN THE SERVICE OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION 7E SEE HYPER ACCELER ATED REGENERATION AND EVOLUTION 7E WITNESS COMPLEX SYSTEMS EMERG ING BEFORE OUR EYES -ILLIONS OF YEARS OF EVOLUTION ARE COMPRESSED INTO A FEW SECONDS !NOTHER FEATURE DISTINGUISHES LIFE Í LA &LASH FROM REAL LIFE THE AB SENCE OF DEATH "IOLOGICAL ORGANISMS AND SYSTEMS ARE BORN DEVELOP AND EVENTUALLY DIE )N SHORT THEY HAVE TELEOLOGY "UT IN &LASH PROJECTS LIFE WORKS DIFFERENTLY SINCE THESE PROJECTS ARE LOOPS THERE IS NO DEATH ,IFE GOES ON FOREVER n OR MORE PRECISELY AS LONG AS YOUR COMPUTER IS CONNECTED TO THE .ET !MPLIlCATION &LASH !ESTHETICS AND #OMPUTER 'AMES !BSTRACT ECOSYSTEMS IN &LASH PROJECTS HAVE ANOTHER CHARACTERIS TIC THAT MAKES PLAYING SO PLEASURABLE *OEL &OX 4HEY MAKE BRILLIANT USE OF THE COMPUTERS POWER TO AMPLIFY USER ACTIONS 4HIS POWER PUTS
'ENERATION &LASH ,EV -ANOVICH
A COMPUTER IN LINE WITH OTHER MAGICAL DEVICES .OT SURPRISINGLY THE MOST OBVIOUS PLACE TO SEE IT IS IN GAMES ALTHOUGH IT IS ALSO AT WORK IN ALL OF OUR INTERACTIONS WITH A COMPUTER &OR INSTANCE WHEN YOU IN STRUCT -ARIO TO STEP TO THE LEFT BY MOVING A JOYSTICK YOU INITIATE A SHORT DELIGHTFUL NARRATIVE -ARIO ENCOUNTERS A HILL HE STARTS CLIMBING THE HILL THE HILL TURNS OUT TO BE TOO STEEP -ARIO SLIDES DOWN TO ITS BASE -ARIO GETS UP SHAKING ALL OVER .ONE OF THESE ACTIONS REQUIRE ANYTHING FROM US !LL WE HAVE TO DO IS MOVE THE JOYSTICK ONCE 4HE COMPUTER PROGRAM AMPLIlES OUR SINGLE ACTION EXPANDING IT INTO A NARRATIVE SEQUENCE (ISTORICALLY COMPUTER GAMES WERE ALWAYS ONE STEP AHEAD OF GENER AL HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACES )N THE S AND S USERS COMMU NICATED WITH COMPUTERS USING NON GRAPHICAL INTERFACES THEY ENTERED THE PROGRAM ONTO A STACK OF PUNCH CARDS TYPED A COMMAND LINE AND SO ON )N CONTRAST SINCE THEIR BEGINNINGS IN THE LATE S COMPUTER GAMES HAVE MADE USE OF INTERACTIVE GRAPHICAL INTERFACES )T WAS ONLY IN THE S THAT THESE WERE INCORPORATED INTO PERSONAL COMPUTERS 3IMILARLY TODAYS GAMES USE WHAT MANY COMPUTER SCIENTISTS THINK WILL BE THE NEXT PARADIGM IN (#) ACTIVE AMPLIlCATION OF THE USERS AC TIONS )N THE FUTURE n OR SO WERE TOLD n AGENT PROGRAMS WILL WATCH OUR INTERACTIONS WITH A COMPUTER RECORD THE PATTERNS AND THEN AUTOMATE MANY OF THE TASKS THAT WE DO REGULARLY FROM BACKING UP DATA TO lL TERING OUT AND ANSWERING OUR EMAIL 4HE COMPUTER WILL ALSO MONITOR OUR BEHAVIOR AND ATTENTION LEVEL ADJUSTING ITS BEHAVIOR ACCORDINGLY IE SPEEDING UP SLOWING DOWN AND SO ON )N SOME WAYS THIS NEW PARADIGM IS ALREADY AT WORK IN A VARIETY OF APPLICATIONS &OR INSTANCE )NTERNET BROWSERS OFFER US A LIST OF SITES RELEVANT TO OUR SEARCHES THE -ICROSOFT /FlCE !SSISTANT TRIES TO GUESS WHEN WE NEED HELP (OWEVER THERE IS A CRUCIAL PROBLEM WITH MOVING TO SUCH ACTIVE AMPLIlCATION ACROSS ALL OF (#) 4HE MORE POWER WE DELEGATE TO A COMPUTER THE LESS CONTROL WE HAVE OVER WHAT IT IS DOING (OW DO WE KNOW THAT THE AGENT PROGRAM HAS IDENTIlED A CORRECT PATTERN IN OUR DAILY USE OF EMAIL (OW DO WE KNOW THAT A COMMERCE AGENT HAS GOTTEN US THE BEST DEAL WHEN NEGOTIATING WITH OTHER AGENTS ON THE 7EB (OW CAN WE BE SURE IT HASNT BEEN CORRUPTED BY THEM )N SHORT HOW DO WE KNOW THAT A
COMPUTER AMPLIlED OUR ACTIONS CORRECTLY #OMPUTER GAMES ARE JUST THAT GAMES 4HE WORST THAT MAY HAPPEN WHEN WE PLAY THEM IS THAT WE LOSE !CTIVE AMPLIlCATION IS PRESENT IN PRACTICALLY EVERY GAME -ARIO EMBARKS ON MINI NARRATIVES OF ITS OWN WITH A SINGLE MOVE OF THE JOYSTICK TROOPS CONDUCT COMPLEX MILITARY MANEUVERS WHILE YOU CONTROL ONLY THEIR LEADER 2AINBOW 3IX ,ORA #RAFT EXECUTES ENTIRE ACROBATIC SEQUENCES TRIGGERED BY THE PRESS OF A KEY .OTE THAT IN hNORMALv GAMES THIS AMPLIlCATION DOES NOT EXIST WHEN YOU MOVE A SINGLE lGURE ON A CHESSBOARD NOTHING ELSE HAPPENS YOUR MOVE DOES NOT INITIATE A SEQUENCE OF ACTIONS &LASH PROJECTS USE A LOT OF ACTIVE AMPLIlCATION )T GIVES MANY PRO JECTS A MAGICAL FEELING /FTEN WE ARE CONFRONTED WITH AN EMPTY SCREEN THEN A SINGLE CLICK BRINGS A WHOLE UNIVERSE TO LIFE EG ABSTRACT PARTICLE SYSTEMS PLANT LIKE OUTLINES OR A POPULATION OF MINIMALIST CREATURES 7E ALSO ENCOUNTER THE USER AS A KIND OF GOD CONTROLLING THE UNIVERSE IN MANY COMPUTER GAMES BUT &LASH PROJECTS ALLOW US TO FEEL THE JOY OF CREATING THE UNIVERSE FROM SCRATCH !CTIVE AMPLIlCATION IS NOT THE ONLY FEATURE THAT &LASH PROJECTS SHARE WITH GAMES -ORE GENERALLY AS 0ETER ,UNEFELD HAS SUGGESTED COMPUTER GAMES SERVE THE SAME PURPOSE FOR THE &LASH GENERATION THAT MOVIES SERVED FOR 7ARHOL #INEMA AND 46 COLONIZED THE UNCONSCIOUS MINDS OF PREVIOUS GENERATIONS OF MEDIA ARTISTS WHO CONTINUE TO USE THE GALLERY AS THEIR THERAPY COACH SPEWING OUT BITS AND PIECES OF THEIR CHILDHOOD MEDIA ARCHIVES FOR THE PUBLIC TO VIEW $OUGLAS 'ORDON &LASH ARTISTS ARE LESS OBSESSED WITH COMMERCIAL TIME BASED MEDIA )N STEAD THEIR ICONOGRAPHY TEMPORAL RHYTHMS AND INTERACTION AESTHETICS COME FROM GAMES -IKE #LAVERT MIKECLAVERTCOM 3OMETIMES USER PARTICIPATION IS NEEDED FOR THE &LASH GAME TO WORK SOMETIMES THE GAME JUST PLAYS ITSELF 54/0)! BY FUTUREFARMERSCOM DEXTROORG
&LASH VERSUS .ET !RT 4HE )NTERNET EXHIBITION OF THE 4IRANA "IENNALE THIS TITLE IS DEEPLY IRONIC 4HE EXHIBITION DID NOT INCLUDE ANY PROJECTS FROM !LBA NIA OR ANY OTHER POSTCOMMUNIST COUNTRY IN %ASTERN %UROPE FOR THAT MATTER 4HIS WAS QUITE DIFFERENT FROM MANY EARLY .ET ART EXHIBITIONS IN THE MID S WHOSE STARS CAME FROM THE %AST 6UC #OSIC !LEXEI 3HULGIN /LGA ,IALINA 4HE .ET ART OF THE S WAS THE lRST INTERNA TIONAL ART MOVEMENT SINCE THE S TO INCLUDE %ASTERN %UROPE IN A BIG WAY 0RAGUE ,JUBLJANA 2IGA AND -OSCOW WERE JUST AS IMPORTANT AS !MSTERDAM "ERLIN AND .EW 9ORK &EATURING AS MANY ARTISTS FROM THE 7EST AS FROM THE %AST .ET ART ACCURATELY REmECTED THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL UTOPIA OF THE NEW S POST #OLD 7AR WORLD .OW THIS UTOPIA IS OVER 4HE POWER STRUCTURES OF THE 'LOBAL %M PIRE HAVE BECOME CLEAR AND THE DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE )NTERNET EXHIBI TION OF THE 4IRANA "IENNALE MIRRORED THEM -ANY OF THE PARTICIPAT ING ARTISTS WORK IN THE WORLDS KEY )4 REGIONS 3AN &RANCISCO 3ILICON 6ALLEY .EW 9ORK 3ILICON !LLEY AND .ORTHERN %UROPE 3O WHAT HAPPENED )N THE MID S .ET ART RELIED ON SIMPLE (4-, THAT RAN WELL ON BOTH FAST AND SLOW CONNECTIONS 4HIS PROMOTED ACTIVE PARTICIPATION BY ARTISTS FROM THE %AST "UT THE SUBSEQUENT COL ONIZATION OF THE 7EB BY MULTIMEDIA FORMATS n &LASH 3HOCKWAVE 1UICK4IME AND SO ON n REINSTATED THE TRADITIONAL 7EST %AST POWER RELATIONS .OW 7EB ART REQUIRES FAST )NTERNET CONNECTIONS FOR BOTH ART ISTS AND AUDIENCES 7ITH ITS SLOW CONNECTIONS THE %AST IS OUT OF THE GAME 4HE 5TOPIA IS OVER WELCOME TO THE %MPIRE 4HE 4IRANA "IENNALE DID INCLUDE ONE ARTIST FROM #HINA WHO CONTRIBUTED A BEAUTIFUL MARTIAL ARTS ANIMATION "UT WE NEVER FOUND WHO HE WAS 4HE ONLY TRACE WE HAVE OF HIM IS HIS EMAIL ADDRESS ZHU? ZHQ SOHUCOM -AYBE HE DOESNT EVEN LIVE IN #HINA
'ENERATION &,!3( &!1 !FTER ) POSTED THE PRECEDING THOUGHTS ON POPULAR NEW MEDIA ART CYBERCULTURE MAILING LISTS RHIZOMEORG AND NETTIMEORG ) RE CEIVED MANY RESPONSES (ERE ARE MY ANSWERS TO TWO OF THE MOST COM MON QUESTIONS THAT ) WAS ASKED 1UESTION )SNT THE hSOFT MODERNISMv YOU DESCRIBE SIMPLY A RESULT OF THE PARTICULAR TECHNOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS OF MULTIMEDIA ON THE .ET #ER TAIN FEATURES OF &LASH ARE DESIGNED TO DELIVER ANIMATION OVER A NARROW BANDWIDTH AND YOU SEEM TO MISTAKE THEM FOR A BROADER ZEITGEIST !NSWER 3INCE THE NEW &LASH RELEASE &LASH -8 ALLOWS FOR VIDEO IMPORTS AND VIDEO STREAMING IT IS POSSIBLE THAT WE WILL NO LONGER lND THE AES THETICS OF THE h&LASH GENERATIONv hSOFT MODERNISMv ON &LASH SITES IN THE FUTURE 4HATS lNE BY ME -Y CONCERN IN THIS ESSAY IS NOT WITH &LASH SOFTWARE AND ITS LIMITATIONS CAPABILITIES PER SE BUT WITH A NEW SENSIBILITY THAT HAS MANIFESTED ITSELF IN MANY &LASH PROJECTS OVER THE LAST COUPLE OF YEARS )N OTHER WORDS ) AM INTERESTED IN THE h&LASH GEN ERATIONv 4HIS IS QUITE DIFFERENT FROM &LASH SOFTWARE FORMATS &OR THIS REASON THE READERS OF MY TEXT WHO ACCUSE ME OF CON FUSING A TECHNICAL STANDARD WITH AESTHETICS ARE MISSING MY POINT 4HE VECTOR ORIENTED LOOK OF hSOFT MODERNISMv IS NOT SIMPLY A RESULT OF NAR ROW BANDWIDTH OR A NOSTALGIA FOR S DESIGN )T ALWAYS OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE BEGIN TO GENERATE GRAPHICS THROUGH PROGRAMMING WHEN THEY DISCOVER THAT THEY CAN USE SIMPLE EQUATIONS ETC 4HIS IS ALSO WHY THE hSOFT MODERNISMv OF &LASH PROJECTS AND OTHER SOFTWARE ART REPLAY THE AESTHETICS OF EARLY COMPUTER ART S n S n SOMETIMES IN AMAZ ING DETAIL 2EMEMBER AT THIS POINT IN TIME PEOPLE WERE ONLY ABLE TO CREATE IMAGES AND ANIMATIONS THROUGH PROGRAMMING
'ENERATION &LASH ,EV -ANOVICH
1UESTION 4HERE IS NO REASON WHY SOFTWARE ART CANNOT USE REPRESENTATIONAL IMAGES OR ANY OTHER FORM 7HY DO YOU ASSOCIATE SOFTWARE ART WITH NON REPRESENTATIONAL ABSTRACT VECTOR BASED GRAPHICS !NSWER .ATURALLY SOFTWARE ARTISTS CAN USE REPRESENTATIONAL IMAGES OR ANY OTHER hCONVENTIONALv FORM OR MEDIA )T WAS NO ACCIDENT THAT SOON AF TER THEIR ARRIVAL AT 8EROX 0!2# IN THE S !LAN +AY AND HIS ASSO CIATES CREATED A PAINT PROGRAM AN ANIMATION PROGRAM OVERLAPPING WINDOWS ICONS 3MALLTALK AND OTHER PRINCIPLES OF MODERN INTERACTIVE GRAPHICAL COMPUTING 4HE CAPACITY TO MANIPULATE AND GENERATE MEDIA SHOULD NOT BE SEEN AS AN AFTER THOUGHT TO THE MODERN COMPUTER )T IS IMPORTANT FOR ITS IDENTITY AS A hPERSONAL DYNAMIC MEDIUMv !LAN +AY 4O PUT IT DIFFERENTLY THE COMPUTER IS A SIMULATION MACHINE AND AS SUCH IT CAN AND SHOULD BE USED TO SIMULATE OTHER MEDIA 3O ) HAVE NOTHING AGAINST SOFTWARE ARTISTS USING CREATING MEDIA BUT ) HOPE THAT THE &LASH GENERATION WILL EXTEND ITS PROGRAMMING WORK TO INCLUDE REPRESENTATIONAL MEDIA )N OTHER WORDS IN THE EARLY S THE PAINT PROGRAM AND THE ANIMATION PROGRAM HAD A REVOLUTIONARY EFFECT ON PEOPLES PERCEPTION OF THE COMPUTER ALLOWING THEM TO SEE IT LESS AS AN ADDING MACHINE AND MORE AS A CREATIVE MEDIUM .OW AF TER ALMOST TWO DECADES OF MENU BASED MEDIA MANIPULATION PROGRAMS AND THE USE OF COMPUTERS AS MEDIA DISTRIBUTION MACHINES GREATLY AC CELERATED BY THE 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB A LITTLE PROGRAMMING COULD PROVE QUITE REVOLUTIONARY )N SHORT WE ARE NOW SO USED TO THINKING OF THE COMPUTER AS A hPERSONAL DYNAMIC MEDIUMv THAT WE NEED TO REMIND OURSELVES AND OTHERS THAT IT IS ALSO A PROGRAMMABLE MACHINE 0LEASE CONSIDER HOW PROGRAMMING HAS BEEN EMPLOYED SO FAR TO CREATE USE STILL IMAGES ANIMATION AND lLM VIDEO 4HERE ARE THREE TRAJECTORIES THAT CAN BE TRACED HISTORICALLY /NE TRAJECTORY BEGINS WITH THE EARLIEST WORKS OF COMPUTER ART n THE lLMS THAT /SCAR &ISHINGERS STUDENTS MADE AT THE 7HITNEY IN THE MID S AND THAT REPRESENT A DIRECT LINK TO EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY MODERNISM 4HIS TRAJECTORY EXTENDS TO THE hSOFT MODERNISMv OF TODAYS &LASH PROJECTS AND DATA
VISUALIZATION ARTWORKS )N OTHER WORDS PROGRAMMING IS USED HERE TO GENERATE AND CONTROL ABSTRACT IMAGES 4HE SECOND TRAJECTORY BEGINS IN THE S WHEN (OLLYWOOD AND 46 DESIGNERS STARTED USING COMPUTER GENERATED IMAGERY #') (ERE PROGRAMMING WAS PUT INTO THE SERVICE OF TRADITIONAL CINEMATIC REAL ISM 0ARTICLE SYSTEMS FORMAL GRAMMARS !) AND OTHER SOFTWARE TECH NIQUES GENERATED mYING BATS HILLY LANDSCAPES OCEAN WAVES EXPLOSIONS ALIEN CREATURES AND OTHER lGURATIVE ELEMENTS 4HESE WERE INTEGRATED INTO THE PHOTOREALISTIC UNIVERSE OF NARRATIVE lLMS 7HAT ABOUT USING ALGORITHMS NOT SIMPLY TO GENERATE THE lGURA TIVE ELEMENTS OF A NARRATIVE BUT ALSO TO CONTROL THE WHOLE lCTIONAL UNI VERSE 4HIS IS THE THIRD TRAJECTORY PROGRAMMING IN COMPUTER GAMES n (ERE ALGORITHMS CONTROL THE NARRATIVE EVENTS CHARACTER BEHAVIOR CAMERA MOVEMENT AND OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GAME WORLD n ALL IN REAL TIME 5NFORTUNATELY AS WE ALL KNOW AESTHETICALLY REVOLUTIONARY COMPUTER AND PLAYER DRIVEN GAME WORLDS FEATURE FOR MULA DRIVEN CONTENT THAT CAN MAKE EVEN A BAD (OLLYWOOD lLM APPEAR ORIGINAL AND INSPIRING 'RAND 4HEFT !UTO IS NO EXCEPTION DESPITE ITS BREAKTHROUGHS IN SIMULATING A MORE COMPELLING OPEN UNIVERSE ) THINK THIS BRIEF SURVEY SHOWS THAT THERE IS STILL AN UNTOUCHED SPACE COMPLETELY OPEN FOR EXPERIMENTATION AND CREATIVE RESEARCH A SPACE IN WHICH PROGRAMMING CAN BE USED TO GENERATE AND OR CONTROL lGURATIVE lCTIONAL MEDIA &OR INSTANCE IN THE CASE OF MOVIES PRO GRAMMING CAN BE USED TO GENERATE CHARACTERS ON THE mY TO COMPOSITE IN REAL TIME CHARACTERS SHOT AGAINST A BLUE SCREEN WITH BACKGROUNDS TO CONTROL THE SEQUENCE OF SCENES TO APPLY lLTERS TO ANY SCENE IN REAL TIME TO COMBINE PRE RECORDED SCENES WITH IMAGERY GENERATED ON THE mY TO HAVE CHARACTERS INTERACT WITH THE VIEWER ETC )N SHORT PROGRAM MING CAN BE USED TO CONTROL ANY ASPECT OF A lCTIONAL MEDIA WORK
/F COURSE ONCE IN A WHILE WE ENCOUNTER SIMILAR PROJECTS AT PLACES LIKE 3)''2!0( OR )3%! BUT THEY ARE TYPICALLY RESEARCH DEMOS THAT HAVE BEEN CREATED AT UNIVERSITIES AND DO NOT REACH SOCIETY AS A WHOLE .ATURALLY ONE MAY RAISE THE OBJECTION THAT AN ALGORITHMICALLY CON TROLLED COMPLEX lCTIONAL UNIVERSE REQUIRES THE KIND OF PROGRAMMING INVESTMENT ONLY POSSIBLE IN A COMMERCIAL GAME COMPANY OR A UNI VERSITY !FTER ALL THIS IS NOT THE SAME AS WRITING A SCRIPT THAT DRAWS A FEW LINES THAT KEEP MOVING IN RESPONSE TO USER INPUT 9ES BUT WHY DO lCTIONAL lGURATIVE WORKS HAVE TO FOLLOW COMMERCIAL MEDIA FORMULAS )F ONE ACCEPTS THAT THE CHARACTERS DO NOT HAVE TO BE hPHOTOREALISTIC v THAT THE lCTIONAL WORLD DOES NOT HAVE TO BE EXCLUSIVELY THREE DIMEN SIONAL THAT CHANCE AND RANDOMNESS CAN CO EXIST WITH NARRATIVE LOGIC AND THAT STICK lGURES CAN CO EXIST WITH $ CHARACTERS AND VIDEO FOOT AGE ETC PROGRAMMING lGURATION lCTION BECOMES LESS FORMIDABLE )N SHORT WHILE ) WELCOME &LASH PROGRAMMING ) THINK IT IS MUCH MORE CHALLENGING TO PROGRAM 1UICK4IME
0OSTSCRIPT /N 4HE ,IGHTNESS OF &LASH 7HEN ) lRST VISITED THE MOST FAMOUS &LASH SITE n PRAYSTATIONNET n ) WAS STRUCK BY THE LIGHTNESS OF ITS GRAPHICS 1UIETER THAN A WHISPER MORE ELEGANT THAN $OOR OR #HANNEL MORE MINIMAL THAN THE S MINIMALIST SCULPTURES BY *UDD MORE SUBDUED THAN A WINTER LANDSCAPE ENSHROUDED IN FOG n THE SITE PUSHED THE CONTRAST SCALE TO THE LIMITS OF LEGIBILITY ! SIMILAR LIGHTNESS AND RESTRAINT CAN BE FOUND IN MANY PROJECTS INCLUDED IN THE "IENNALE SHOW !GAIN THE CONTRAST WITH THE SCREAMING GRAPHICS OF COMMERCIAL MEDIA AND THE MEDIA ART OF PREVI OUS GENERATIONS IS STRIKING 4HE LIGHTNESS OF &LASH CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS THE VISUAL EQUIVALENT OF ELECTRONIC AMBIENT MUSIC %VERY LINE AND EVERY PIXEL COUNT &LASH APPEALS TO OUR VISUAL n AND COGNITIVE n INTELLIGENCE !FTER A CENTURY OF 2'" COLOR WHICH BEGAN WITH -ATISSE AND ENDED WITH THE AGGRESSIVE SPREADS OF 7IRED WE ARE ASKED TO START OVER TO BEGIN FROM SCRATCH 4HE &LASH GENERATION INVITES US TO UNDERGO A VISUAL CLEANSING n THIS IS WHY WE SEE A MONOCHROME PALETTE OF WHITE AND LIGHT GRAY )T USES NEO MINIMALISM TO CURE US FROM POSTMODERNISM )N &LASH THE RATIONALITY OF MODERNISM IS COMBINED WITH BOTH THE RATIONALITY OF PROGRAMMING AND THE EFFECTS OF COMPUTER GAMES AND THIS COMBINATION HAS CREATED THE NEW AESTHETICS OF LIGHTNESS CURIOSITY AND INTELLIGENCE -AKE SURE YOUR BROWSER HAS THE RIGHT PLUG IN WELCOME TO THE &LASH GENERATION ) AM NOT ADVOCATING A REVIVAL OF MODERNISM )T GOES WITHOUT SAYING THAT WE DONT WANT TO SIMPLY REPLAY -ONDRIAN AND +LEE ON OUR COM PUTER SCREENS 4HE TASK OF THE NEW GENERATION IS TO INTEGRATE THE TWO KEY AESTHETIC PARADIGMS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY BELIEF IN SCIENCE AND RATIONALITY EMPHASIS ON EFlCIENCY AND BASIC FORMS IDEALISM AND THE HEROIC SPIRIT OF MODERNISM AND SKEPTICISM INTEREST IN hMAR GINALITYv AND hCOMPLEXITY v DECONSTRUCTIVE STRATEGIES BAROQUE OPAQUE NESS AND THE EXCESSES OF POSTMODERNISM S n !T THIS POINT ALL THE FEATURES OF THE SECOND PARADIGM HAVE BECOME TIRED CLICH£S 4HEREFORE A PARTIAL RETURN TO MODERNISM IS NOT A BAD lRST STEP AS LONG AS IT IS JUST A lRST STEP TOWARD DEVELOPING NEW AESTHETICS FOR THE NEW AGE
'ENERATION &LASH ,EV -ANOVICH
/F COURSE THESE AESTHETICS SHOULD ALSO REmECT THE DIFlCULT ISSUES OF GLOBALIZATION 4HE REMIX CULTURE WE ARE LIVING NOW IS NOT ONLY EN GAGED IN REMIXING ALL PREVIOUS CULTURAL FORMS AND TEXTS BUT ALSO IN REMIXING VARIOUS FEATURES OF WHAT USED TO BE CALLED hNATIONAL CULTUREv 4HIS INCLUDES EXISTING REMIXES BETWEEN IMMIGRANT POPULATIONS AND THEIR HOST CULTURES 4HE SOLUTION OFFERED BY MULTINATIONAL CONGLOM ERATES IS OBVIOUSLY NOT SATISFACTORY n A COMPOSITE THAT TAKES CERTAIN SIGNIlERS FROM A FEW NATIONAL CULTURES THE &RENCH IDEA OF ELEGANCE *APANESE MANGA ICONOGRAPHY hCOOL "RITANNIAv REFERENCES AND SO ON ONLY TO INTEGRATE THEM INTO A RATHER BLAND AND MONOLITHIC TEXT THAT IS SENT ROUND THE WORLD )T REMINDS ME OF A 3OVIET STYLE CENTRALIZED ECONOMY IN WHICH THE OUTPUT OF ALL THE COLLECTIVE FARMS WAS lRST SENT TO A CENTRALIST AUTHORITY ONLY TO BE REDISTRIBUTED NATIONALLY ,UCKILY IN ALL CORNERS OF THE GLOBE MUSICIANS THEATER GROUPS DANCERS DESIGN ERS ARCHITECTS AND SO ON ARE EXPLORING A VARIETY OF REMIXES THAT FOLLOW A DIFFERENT LOGIC .OBODY KNOWS WHAT WILL EMERGE FROM THIS GLOBAL CULTURAL LABORATORY n AND THIS IS WHAT MAKES OUR TIMES SO INTERESTING !LTHOUGH MOST OF MY ARGUMENTS IN THIS PAPER ARE ABOUT VISUAL CULTURE AND VISUAL AESTHETICS IT IS IMPORTANT AT THIS POINT TO EVOKE A DIFFERENT PRACTICE -USIC HAS HISTORICALLY BEEN THE ARTISTIC lELD THAT HAS ALWAYS BEEN AHEAD OF OTHER lELDS IN THE USE OF COMPUTERS TO MAKE POS SIBLE NEW AESTHETIC PARADIGMS !CTIVITIES IN THE lELD OF POPULAR ELEC TRONIC MUSIC OVER THE LAST THREE DECADES TESTIFY TO HOW EMPOWERING NEW TECHNOLOGIES CAN BE IN WELDING NEW COMPLEX AND RICH REMIXES BETWEEN DIFFERENT CULTURES STYLES AND SENSIBILITIES 7ITHOUT ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTING TECHNOLOGIES n FROM TURNTABLES AND TAPE RECORDERS TO PEER TO PEER lLE SHARING NETWORKS AND MUSIC SYNTHESIS SOFTWARE ON A REGULAR LAPTOP n MANY ASPECTS OF THIS CULTURE WOULD NEVER EXIST 7ITH ITS MULTITUDINOUS VOICES AND A REAL BOTTOM UP hEMERGENTv LOGIC THE lELD OF ELECTRONIC SOUND WHICH PRETTY MUCH MEANS ANY SOUND TODAY IS A POWERFUL ALTERNATIVE TO THE hTOP DOWNv CULTURAL COMPOSITES SOLD BY GLOBAL MEDIA CONGLOMERATES AROUND THE WORLD ,ET US HOPE THAT ARTISTS AND DESIGNERS IN OTHER lELDS WILL FOLLOW MUSICS LEAD IN USING A COMPUTER TO MAKE POSSIBLE SIMILARLY RICH REMIX CULTURES
2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER
#F 3 +RØMER ED -EDIEN #OMPUTER 2EALITØT 7IRKLICHKEITSVORSTELLUNGEN UND .EUE -EDIEN &RANKFURT A - ALSO ' # 4HOLEN h0LATZVERWEIS 5N MGLICHE :WISCHENSPIELE VON -ENSCH UND -ASCHINE v IN . "OLZ & +ITTLER ' # 4HOLEN ED #OMPUTER ALS -EDIUM -UNICH
2%-%-"%2).' 4(% &5452% -%-/29 !.$ ).4%2!#4)/. 2EGINE (ALTER )NTRODUCTORY 2EMARKS 7ITH THE PROPAGATION OF THE )NTERNET IN RECENT DECADES THE ON GOING TELEMATIC PENETRATION OF OUR LIVING SPACE HAS LED TO AN EXPONEN TIALLY INCREASING BOOM IN DISCOURSES SOME EUPHORIC ABOUT AND SOME CRITICAL OF MEDIA 3INCE THE SOBERING COLLAPSE OF THE DOTCOM MOVE MENT THIS BOOM HAS NOT ONLY LEVELED OUT CONSIDERABLY THE NERVOUS DISCOURSE OF THE hFOUNDING YEARSv SEEMS TO HAVE BEEN CUT OFF AS IF IT WERE ONLY REALLY ABOUT THE EXCITEMENT OF THAT TIME 7HAT HAS BECOME SOCIALLY ESTABLISHED HOWEVER IS THE RECOGNI TION OF THE OPERATIVE ADVANTAGES OF THE NEW MEDIA 4HE GREAT DEBATES ABOUT ISSUES OF ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE WERE DEFUSED BY REDUCING THEM TO THE OPTIMIZING FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION AND DATA ADMINISTRATION 7ITH THIS YET ANOTHER ANTHROPOMORPHIC TECHNOLOGY MODEL OF THE -ODERN !GE APPEARS TO HAVE PREVAILED LOCATING hx TECHNICAL INSTRU MENTS ON THE HORIZON OF A PROSTHESIS LIKE REINFORCEMENT AND REPLACE MENT OF HUMAN SENSUAL AMBULATORY AND REASONING ORGANSv ,INKED WITH THIS DOMESTIlCATION OF THE ELECTRONIC AGE AND THE COMMON UNDERSTANDING OF THE COMPUTER AS A PROSTHESIS OF MAN n WHO PRESUMABLY THINKS AND BEHAVES IN AN UNCHANGING MANNER AND IS THE CENTER OF ALL OTHER EQUALLY UNCHANGING THINGS n IS THE IDEA OF THE COM PUTER AS STORAGE !CCORDING TO THIS CONCEPTION THE COMPUTERS ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC IS THAT IT WORKS AS AN EXTENSION OF THE PERSONAL HUMAN MENTAL FUNCTIONS ESPECIALLY THE ABILITY TO REMEMBER AND THEREBY PRE SERVES AND PROVIDES ACCESS TO SUCH VAST AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION THAT NOT EVEN THE BEST TRAINED HUMAN BRAIN CAN COMPETE
#F * !SSMANN $AS KULTURELLE 'EDØCHTNIS 3CHRIFT %RINNERUNG UND POLITISCHE )DENTITØT IN FRÓHEN (OCHKULTUREN -UNICH %VEN hNONSENSEv LIKE RANDOMLY GENERATED SEQUENCES OF NUMBERS APPEALS TO A CONVENTION OF SENSE EVEN IF IT IS A NEGATION #F MY COMMENTS 2 (ALTER h6ORBEMER KUNG $IE :UKUNFT DES 2AUMSv )N 2 (ALTER " -EURER ED 3CHRIFTENREIHE DES ,ABORATORIUMS DER :IVILISATION !KADEMIE $EUTSCHER 7ERKBUND &RANKFURT A - AND .EW 9ORK AND " -EURER $IE :UKUNFT DES 2AUMS IBID 3 +UBRICK ! 3PACE /DYSSEY '"
-EMORY IN THE COMPREHENSIVE SENSE IS THAT hCONNECTIVE STRUC TUREv INHERENT IN EVERY CULTURE WHICH MAKES THE MERE EXISTENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL WITHIN SOCIETY POSSIBLE BY PROVIDING ORIENTATION HOPE AND REMEMBRANCE THROUGH ITS LINKING AND BINDING POWER 4HE QUESTION OF WHAT THE hMEMORYv OF THE COMPUTER ACHIEVES AND WHAT IT DOES NOT HOW IT CHALLENGES THE EXISTING CONCEPT OF MEMORY IS CLOSELY CON NECTED NOT ONLY TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND ACTIVITY OF SOCIETIES IN GENERAL BUT ALSO TO THE THEMATIZATION OF INTERACTION WHICH n AS AN ORIGINATOR OF MEANING n CANNOT BE REALIZED WITHOUT MEMORY 4HE FOLLOWING ARTICLE DISCUSSES MEMORY AND INTERACTION IN THE PERSPECTIVE OF CREATIVE INTERVENTION "ECAUSE OUR LIVING SPACE IS AL WAYS SIMULTANEOUSLY THE LOCATION FOR BEHAVIOR ORIENTATION AND COM MUNICATION TELEMATIC CHANGE TO ITS STRUCTURE THE MOST CONSTITUTIVE OF WHICH CERTAINLY INCLUDES THE WORK OF THE MEMORY AND ITS FORMS OF ORGANIZATION ALSO RAISES THE QUESTION OF HOW CREATIVE ACTIVITY IS DELIM ITED !LL THE MORE AS OUR CURRENT SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS CAN NO LONGER BE UNDERSTOOD USING THE PARADIGMS OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY 9ET THE UNDERSTANDING OF hDESIGN AS A PROCESS v OFTEN VERBALIZED AS NO MORE THAN EMPTY WORDS THESE DAYS IS NOT SOLICITED ONCE MORE ONLY SYMBOLICALLY (OWEVER AS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEMORY AND INTERACTION REMAINS UNCLEAR IN THE UTILIZATION OF WHAT ARE KNOWN AS INTERACTIVE MEDIA THIS ARTICLE FOCUSES ON AN UNDERSTANDING OF REmEXIVE AND THUS PROCESS ORIENTED DESIGN THAT SHIFTS CONCEPTUAL ACTING TO THE FOREGROUND 4HEREFORE AFTER INVESTIGATING THE CONCEPTS OF MEMORY AND INTER ACTION IN THE COURSE OF THE PAPER ) WILL INTRODUCE TWO PROJECTS WHICH IN MY VIEW PRESENT IMPORTANT ASPECTS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION OF THE IS SUES ADDRESSED BY THIS PUBLICATION ) HOPE THAT THE PARADOX IN THE TITLE OF MY ARTICLE n 2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE n WILL BECOME INFERABLE IN MY PORTRAYAL OF THESE WORKS AS STRATEGIES OF CONCEPTUAL ACTING ACHIEVED BY BRINGING TOGETHER MEMORY AND INTERACTION !S A PARAPHRASE OF THE CRI TIQUE OF CONSUMPTION AND THE UNDERSTANDING OF MEMORY AND INTER ACTION AND AT THE SAME TIME AS A SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ) WILL GIVE THE COMPUTER (!, FROM 3TANLEY +UBRICKS lLM ! 3PACE /DYSSEY THE lNAL WORD
- (ALBWACHS $AS 'EDØCHTNIS UND SEINE SOZIALEN "EDINGUNGEN &RANKFURT A - !LEIDA !SSMANN AND *AN !SSMANN FOR INSTANCE ERECT THEIR THEORY OF MEMORY EXPLICITLY ON THE FOUNDATIONS DEVELOPED BY (ALBWACHS #F ! !SSMANN * !SSMANN h$AS 'ESTERN IM (EUTE -EDIEN UND SOZIALES 'EDØCHTNIS v IN $IE 7IRKLICHKEIT DER -EDIEN %INE %INFÓHRUNG IN DIE +OM MUNIKATIONSWISSENSCHAFT + -ERTEN 3 * 3CHMIDT 3 7EISCHENBERG EDS 7IESBADEN n
2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER
#F - , -INSKY 3 0APER 0ERCEPTRONS #AMBRIDGE IN THIS CONTEXT %LISABETH 2OUDINESCO SPEAK OF A hNEW MYTHOLOGY OF THE BRAINv #F % 2OUDINESCO 7OZU 0SYCHOANALYSE 3TUTTGART % %SPOSITIO 3OZIALES 6ERGESSEN &ORMEN UND -EDIEN DES 'EDØCHTNISSES DER 'ESELLSCHAFT &RANKFURT A - # "ARALDI ' #ORSI % %SPOSITO EDS ',5 'LOS SAR ZU .IKLAS ,UHMANNS 4HEORIE DER SOZIALEN 3YSTEME &RANKFURT A -
#LARIlCATIONS -EMORY !T lRST GLANCE NO PAIR OF CONCEPTS APPEARS TO BE AS ALIEN TO EACH OTHER AS MEMORY AND INTERACTION )N FACT THE MOBILITY AND DYNAMICS SIGNALIZED BY THE CONCEPT OF INTERACTION ARE DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSED TO THE STATIONARY NATURE OF THOSE CONTAINERS LIKE LIBRARIES MUSEUMS ENCYCLOPEDIAS AND ARCHIVES WHICH ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE CONCEPT OF MEMORY 4HIS DICHOTOMY IS REINFORCED AS LONG AS MEMORY IS CONCEIVED OF AS A MNEMOTECHNIC ABIL ITY THAT ACCUMULATES INFORMATION AND STORES IT FOR RECALL !CCORDING TO THIS CONCEPTION MEMORY ALWAYS WORKS BEST WHEN WHAT WAS STORED CAN BE REPRODUCED CORRECTLY IE IN AGREEMENT WITH TEMPORALLY PAST REAL OBJECTS AND EVENTS -EMORY ALWAYS APPEARS EQUATED WITH THE REMEMBRANCE OF SOME THING THAT HAS ALREADY HAPPENED IN THE PAST WHICH IS lLED AS INFORMA TION 4HIS STATIC CONCEPTION CARRIES THROUGH TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE COMPUTER AS A MEDIUM OF STORAGE AND WITH REFERENCE TO THE LARGEST TELEMATIC GLOBAL ARCHIVE THE 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB 7HEN THE WORD MEMORY IS USED IN THIS ARTICLE IT IS USED NEITHER IN THE SENSE OF REMEMBRANCE NOR IN ANY OTHER CONNECTION TO THE PAST -EMORY IS PRESUMED TO BE A CREATIVE POTENTIAL THAT IS A MANNER OF PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ACTIVITY WHICH IS ACTIVE AND WHICH ACTIVATES IN THE PRESENT !NOTHER IDEA THAT WILL NOT BE DISCUSSED IN THIS MEMORY MODEL IS THE BELIEF THAT THE ACTIVITY OF THE HUMAN ABILITY TO THINK CAN ALSO BE EXECUTED BY A COMPUTER ORIGINATING FROM !LAN 4URING AND TESTED IN HIS MACHINE OF THE SAME NAME 4HE METAPHOR OF NEURAL NETWORKS FORMULATED IN NEUROBIOLOGY THE COGNITIVE SCIENCES AND ULTIMATELY IN COMPUTER SCIENCE HAVE ALSO BEEN OMITTED 4HE SUBJECT OF THIS ARTICLE AS A WHOLE IS NOT THE MEMORY OF INDIVIDUALS BE IT DElNED AS BIOLOGICAL OR PSYCHOLOGICAL OR AS AN ALGORITHMIC REmECTION BASED ON THE IMAGE OF THE HUMAN BRAIN
(OW THEN COULD A MEMORY BE CONCEIVED AS AN ACTIVE RESOURCE WITH AN INmUENCE ON PRESENT ACTIVITY EXERTING ITS EFFECT FREELY WITHOUT INDIVIDUALIZATION OR TECHNOLOGICAL ABBREVIATION 7HAT CONSEQUENCES WOULD SUCH A CONCEPTION HAVE ON OUR UNDERSTANDING OF INTERACTIVITY AND THE COMPUTER !ND HOW CAN MEMORY AND INTERACTIVITY BE LINKED TO FUNCTION AS CREATIVE INTERVENTION %LENA %SPOSITO ENTERED A TERRITORY THAT PREVIOUSLY HAD BEEN RESERVED PRIMARILY FOR THE CULTURAL SCIENCES IN HER STUDY 3OZIALES 6ERGESSEN 3HE DEVELOPED A SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY OF MEMORY AS THE MEMORY OF SOCIETY -Y ARGUMENTATION ESSENTIALLY FOLLOWS THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY WHICH n COMING FROM .IKLAS ,UHMANNS SYSTEM THEORY n CONCEPTUALIZED AN ANALYSIS OF hFORMS AND MEDIAv PROCEEDING FROM MEMORY ALL THE WAY TO TELEMATIC CONTEXTS )N DEVELOPING HER THEORY OF MEMORY %SPOSITO KNOWN AS A COEDI TOR OF THE ,UHMANN GLOSSARY PICKS UP ON ONE OF THE BASIC TROPES OF SYSTEMS THEORY SOCIETY CONSISTS OF COMMUNICATION 4HEREFORE WRITES %SPOSITO WHEN THE SUBJECT OF MEMORY COMES UP IT ALWAYS CONCERNS COMMUNICATION AND MOREOVER A SUPER INDIVIDUAL MEMORY WHICH REFERS TO THE COMMUNICATION THAT CONSTITUTES SOCIETY AND THE LINKAGES BETWEEN THEM "Y DETACHING FROM INDIVIDUAL FORMS OF MEMORY SHE ALSO COM PLETES A SEPARATION IMPORTANT FOR THE ISSUES RELEVANT HERE NAMELY THE SEPARATION OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND COMMUNICATION )N THIS CONCEPT MEMORY IS NOT A hCONTAINERv FOR REMEMBRANCES NOT ADHERENCE TO THE PAST BUT RATHER A PREREQUISITE FOR COMMUNICATION 4HUS THE FOCUS OF A COLLECTIVE AND PAST ORIENTED REMEMBRANCE WHICH PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE CULTURAL SCIENCE THEORIES OF MEMORY PRIMARILY IN CONNEC TION WITH -AURICE (ALBWACHS IS SHIFTED IN FAVOR OF A COMMUNICA TION THAT ALWAYS AND ONLY TAKES PLACE IN A GIVEN PRESENT
4HE CONCEPT OF hOBSERVATIONv PLAYS A CENTRAL ROLE IN SYSTEM THEORY AS OBSERVATION OF THE FIRST SECOND THIRD ORDER &OR BETTER UNDERSTANDING BY READERS LESS FAMILIAR WITH ,UHMANNIAN SYSTEM THEORY OBSERVATION CAN ALSO BE DESIGNATED AS REFLECTION % %SPOSITO )BID 4HIS ALSO EXPLAINS THE TITLE 3OZIALES 6ERGESSEN n SOCIAL BECAUSE IT ALWAYS CONCERNS SOCIETY % %SPOSITO n
-EMORY AS %SPOSITO CITES .IKLAS ,UHMANN HAS THE TASK OF hOB SERVINGv SOCIETY )NFORMATION ABOUT WHAT IS OBSERVED BECOMES AVAILABLE THROUGH THAT WHICH CAN BE REMEMBERED h7ITH ,UHMANN ONE CAN PRESUME THAT MEMORY IS AN ABRIDGED EXPRESSION FOR THE RECURSIVENESS OF OPERATIONS "EYOND THE CONTINU OUS mOW OF NEW OPERATIONS THIS RECURSIVENESS ALLOWS WHAT IS REPEATED AND THUS REMEMBERED TO BE RETAINED WHILE EVERYTHING ELSE FALLS PREY TO OBLIVION 2EPETITION GENERATES REDUNDANCY AND THIS SAVES THE SYSTEM FROM ELABORATING INFORMATION FROM SCRATCH EACH TIME x -EMORY IS NOT SIMPLY A @STOCK OF PAST EVENTS BUT ABOVE ALL THE ORGANIZATION OF ACCESS TO INFORMATIONv 4HE EMERGENCE OF REDUNDANCY CHARACTERIZES MEMORY AND PERMITS THE DIFFERENCES TO BE IDENTIlED 2EDUNDANCY ALLOWS VARIETY TO BE REC OGNIZED A PROCESS WHICH IS LINKED IN TURN TO THE CONSTANT VERIlCATION OF COHERENCE THAT IS TO THE CREATION OF A SEQUENCE ORDER h/NLY BECAUSE THERE IS MEMORY CAN THE ELEMENTS IN A NUMBER OF ESTABLISHED RELATIONS n WHICH THEN ARE PROJECTED TO THE ENVIRONMENT AS WELL n BE COORDINATED WITH EACH OTHER -EMORY THUS LEADS ABOVE ALL TO A CONSTANT ADAPTATION OF THE SYSTEM TO ITSELF AND THEREFORE ALSO TO A RE VISION OF THE EVENTS x 4HUS THE TASK OF MEMORY IS TO PRODUCE ORDER THIS ORDER BECOMES EVER MORE COMPLEX AS MEMORY BECOMES MORE ABLE TO TOLERATE DISORDER AND COHERENCE AND AS IT BECOMES MORE ABLE TO GENERATE SURPRISES AND DISCONTINUITIES AND INTEGRATE THESEv
4HIS CONCEPTION OF MEMORY IS FORMULATED IN AN EXCLUSIVELY OPERA TIVE FUNCTION AND THUS IN ITS RELATION TO ANY GIVEN PRESENT 4HROUGH THE OBSERVER A PERMANENT ENDLESS UPDATING OF INFORMATION TAKES PLACE UPDATING WHAT IS CURRENTLY INFORMATIVE ABOUT A SYSTEM AND RECHECKING IT AGAINST WHAT IS REDUNDANT 2EMEMBERING AS CURRENT OBSERVATION IN THE SENSE OF A DIFFEREN TIATION BETWEEN REDUNDANCY AND VARIETY IS A PROVISO FOR THE ABILITY TO FUNCTION (OWEVER AN ESSENTIAL PREREQUISITE FOR THE ABILITY TO FUNCTION AT ALL IS FORGETTING 2EMEMBERING AND FORGETTING THUS CONSTITUTE AN IN DISSOLUBLE RELATIONSHIP MEMORY IS LINKED TO FORGETTING h-EMORY VERIlES COHERENCE AND DOES NOT SERVE TO STORE ANY KIND OF CONTENTS x 5LTIMATELY MEMORY IS RESPONSIBLE MORE FOR THE LOSS OF CONTENTS THAN FOR THEIR PRESERVATION MORE FOR FORGETTING THAN FOR REMEMBERING 4HE FORM OF MEMORY CONSISTS NOT IN THE IDENTITY OF THE REMEMBRANCE BUT RATHER IN THE DIFFERENCE REMEMBERING VERSUS FORGETTING &OR THE VERY REASON THAT MEMORY CONDENSES THAT WHICH IS TO REMAIN STABLE AND THEREFORE WILL BE REMEMBERED IT ALLOWS EVERY THING ELSE TO BE FORGOTTEN AND PRECISELY THIS ABILITY TO FORGET MAKES IT POSSIBLE FOR A SYSTEM TO DEVELOP THE ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE SOMETHING NEW AND TAKE IT INTO ACCOUNTv
2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER
)BID n
4HE ABILITY TO CREATE THIS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING IS THUS AN ESSENTIAL ABILITY OF MEMORY 7HEN WE DEAL WITH THE hWAREHOUSEv COMPUTER AND THUS WITH TELEMATIC MEMORY THIS ABIL ITY BECOMES EVEN MORE RELEVANT AND CALLS THE EQUATION MEMORY STORAGE INTO QUESTION h3OCIAL EVOLUTION PROCEEDED INCREASINGLY WITH SOPHISTICATED FORMS OF STORING INFORMATION WHICH MADE IT POSSIBLE TO HAVE A GROW ING AMOUNT OF INFORMATION AT OUR DISPOSAL AND TO PRODUCE EVER MORE INFORMATION (OWEVER THIS STORAGE MUST lRST OF ALL BE EVALUATED AS A FORM OF FORGETTING x /NE CAN ALLOW ONESELF TO hFORGETv EVERYTHING EXCEPT THE ONE TRACE THAT MAKES IT x POSSIBLE TO HAVE RECOURSE TO THE INFORMATION x 4HE MORE IS FORGOTTEN THE GREATER IS THE AMOUNT OF INFORMATION AVAILABLE .OVELTY AND FORGETTING ARE STRONGLY CORRELATED .OVELTY IS THE TOOL OF FORGETTING AND AT THE SAME TIME PRESUPPOSES FORGETTING 4HE CONDITION FOR THIS FORGETTING HOWEVER IS EXPANSION OF THE CAPACITY TO REMEMBER /NE COULD ALSO SAY THAT MEMORY BECOMES INCREASINGLY MORE ABSTRACT AND THAT ABSTRACTION GENERALLY LEADS TO FORGETTING BECAUSE THROUGH IT DETAILED ASPECTS OF PHENOMENA CAN BE DISREGARDED )N THIS SENSE AND NOT AS DATA STORAGE COMPUTERS CAN BE REGARDED AS AN UNEXPECTED FORM OF MEMORY 4HE COMPUTER MAKES SUCH LARGE CAPACITIES FOR ELABORATION AVAILABLE THAT IT ALMOST BECOMES POSSIBLE TO FORGET ENTIRELY n OR AT LEAST TO REMEMBER IN A HIGHLY AB STRACT FORMv 3OCIAL FORMS OF MEMORY ARE POSSIBLE ONLY THROUGH THE TECHNOLO GIES OF COMMUNICATION AVAILABLE TODAY n MEDIA WHICH ARE INCREAS INGLY INDEPENDENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL MEMORY OF PSYCHIC SYSTEMS 4ELE MATIC MEMORY ULTIMATELY INCREASES THIS INDEPENDENCE IN RELATION TO SUCH MEDIA AS WRITING OR PRINTING IN A PREVIOUSLY UNKNOWN MANNER 4HIS STATE OF AFFAIRS HAS FAR REACHING CONSEQUENCES THAT AFFECT ABOVE ALL THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN USERS AND COMPUTERS AND THUS THE CHARACTER OF CREATIVE ACTIVITY AS SOCIAL INTERVENTION
)MPORTANT AT THIS JUNCTURE IS THEREFORE THAT THE RELATIONSHIP BE TWEEN FORGETTING AND MEMORY IS ONE OF DIRECT AND MUTUAL DEPENDENCE AND THAT THE AMOUNT OF INFORMATION SENT TO THE COMPUTER FOR STORAGE n AND THUS THE NECESSITY OF FORGETTING n IS POTENTIALLY UNLIMITED "UT HOW CAN A CONCEPT OF MEMORY THAT IS SIMULTANEOUSLY AND EX PONENTIALLY CHARACTERIZED BY FORGETTING BE RELEVANT FOR DESIGN 7HAT IS MORE ISNT THE COMPUTER WHOSE OPERATIONS PROCEED WITH NO REGARD TO MEANING OR IMPORTANCE DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSED TO DESIGN WHICH ALWAYS PROCEEDS INTENTIONALLY 4HE POINT IS THUS TO MEDIATE BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE TO ENABLE MEANINGFUL COMMUNICATION n AND THUS INTERACTION
#F % %SPOSITO 3 4URKLE ,IFE ON THE 3CREEN )DENTITY IN THE !GE OF THE )NTERNET .EW 9ORK
#LARIlCATIONS )NTERACTION )NTERACTIVITY IS CONSIDERED THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTIC OF THE COM PUTER 7HAT IS MEANT HERE IS EITHER TECHNOLOGICALLY DElNED INTERACTION OR INTERACTION THAT INCLUDES HUMANS THE USERS 4HIS INTERACTION CAN BE BOTH INDUCED AND ACCEPTED BY THE hINTELLIGENTv MACHINE THE COM PUTER 4HE lRST HINTS OF VAGUENESS ARE ALREADY APPARENT IN THE USAGE OF THE CONCEPTS OF INTERACTION AND INTERACTIVITY WHICH WILL BE ELUCIDATED BELOW %VERY FORM OF INTERACTIVITY INCLUDES INTELLIGENCE AS A REQUIREMENT FOR COMMUNICATION ! TECHNOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING OF INTERACTIVITY COMPARES THE INTELLIGENCE OF THE COMPUTER WITH THE INTELLIGENCE OF THE USER AND RELATES THEM TO EACH OTHER (OWEVER THE COMPUTER IS NOT INTELLIGENT IN THE ROMANTIC SENSE OF MACHINE INTELLIGENCE THAT ADAPTS TO THE CONCEPTIONS AND THE STRUCTURE OF OUR CONSCIOUSNESS IE COM MUNICATES UNDERSTANDABLY !S OUR SUBJECT IS INTERACTION IN THE CONTEXT OF COMMUNICATION ) WILL SET ASIDE THE DIFFERENCES OF OPINION SURROUNDING ARTIlCIAL INTEL LIGENCE MY ARGUMENTATION ADHERES TO THE OPINION THAT !) DOES NOT DO JUSTICE TO THE INlNITE DIVERSITY AND UNPREDICTABILITY OF COMMUNICATION AND CAN ONLY BE REALIZED WITH THE PARTICIPATION OF PSYCHIC SYSTEMS )MPUTING MACHINES WITH CONSCIOUSNESS BY ATTEMPTING TO CONSTRUCT IT ARTIlCIALLY HAS NO BEARING ON THE QUESTION POSED HERE NAMELY HOW THE COMPUTER INTERVENES IN THE WAY SOCIAL SYSTEMS CONSTITUTE MEANING AND HOW THE USER RELATES TO SUCH INTERVENTION "EYOND THE CONSTRUCTIONS OF ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE INTERVENTION IS REQUIRED OF THE COMPUTER IE LIKE PSYCHIC SYSTEMS IT IS SUPPOSED TO EXERT AN INmUENCE ON THE MEANING OF COMMUNICATION ALTHOUGH IT IS A SYSTEM THAT NEITHER CONSTITUTES MEANING NOR OPERATES WITH MEAN ING !S MENTIONED ABOVE THIS DEMAND FOR INTERVENTION IS ALL THE MORE VALID IN THE CONTEXT OF QUESTIONS OF DESIGN -OREOVER THE CONSEQUEN CES THE INDIFFERENTLY OPERATING COMPUTER HAS ON SOCIAL SYSTEMS MAY NOT BE IGNORED )N FACT THE COMPUTER BY ANALOGY WITH THE PSYCHIC SYSTEM WHICH GIVES RISE TO COMMUNICATION DOES GENERATE SURPRISES WHICH DIFFEREN
TIATES IT FROM THE MACHINES OF THE AGE OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY 4HESE DO EXACTLY WHAT IS DEMANDED OF THEM OTHERWISE THEY ARE MALFUNCTION ING AND REQUIRE REPAIR "Y CONTRAST THE COMPUTERS SPECIlC INTELLIGENCE CONSISTS IN THIS VERY PRODUCTION OF THE UNEXPECTED )TS ARITHMETIC OP ERATIONS WHICH CANNOT BE GRASPED PREDICTED OR UNDERSTOOD BY THE USER MAKE UP ITS INTELLIGENCE BUT THE COMPUTATIONAL POWER DOES NOT SERVE AS A REmECTION OF OUR CONSCIOUSNESS 7HAT CONCERNS US HERE IS NOT HOW A KIND OF VIRTUOUS TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION TAKES PLACE THAT CANNOT BE REALIZED WITH HUMAN MEANS BUT THE FACT THAT IT IS TRANSFORMED INTO SOMETHING ELSE 3UBJECTING THE PROCEDURE BETWEEN INPUT AND OUTPUT TO MICROPROCESSING ACTUATES A COMPLEX SERIES OF OPERATIONS BETWEEN BOTH ENDS AND THIS PROCESS DOES NOT COMPLY WITH THE REGULARITIES OF OUR CONSCIOUSNESS 4HE NECESSARY OPERATIONS ARE CONDUCTED FOR ME IN SECRET AND SURPRISE IS NOT SO MUCH PERSONAL ASTONISHMENT AS RATHER THE GENERATION OF RESULTS THAT ) THE USER CANNOT CONCEIVE OF OR GRASP 4HE INVISIBILITY OF COMPUTER SCIENCE THE hOPAQUE TECHNOLOGY v THUS DIFFERENTIATES THE COMPUTER FROM TRADITIONAL NON INTELLIGENT MA CHINES 4HIS INVISIBILITY APPEARS TO HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS AS A REmEC TION OF ITSELF BUT NEVERTHELESS IS NOT 4HE MEDIATION n THE INTERACTION n BETWEEN MAN AND COMPUTER IS HARDLY A DIRECT CONNECTION BETWEEN TWO DIFFERENT SYSTEMS MAN AND COMPUTER )NTELLIGENCE AS A PREREQUISITE FOR INTERACTION CAN BE LOCATED ONLY IN THE MEDIUM AS THE BEARER OF COMMUNICATION (OWEVER THE OPERATION OF THE ISOLATED COMPUTER AS A CLOSED SYSTEM CIRCULATING WITHIN ITSELF DOES NOT GENERATE ANY MEANINGFUL PROCESSES LINKED TO COMMUNICATION 4HEREFORE IT IS IMPORTANT TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THE COMPUTER AND THE MEDIUM h! COMPUTER THAT IS PRESUMABLY INGENIOUS BUT ABSOLUTELY ISO LATED WOULD BE OF ABSOLUTELY NO USE )N REALITY THE POINT IS ALWAYS COM MUNICATION AND NOT PRIMARILY CONSCIOUSNESS (OWEVER TO THE EXTENT THAT THE SUBJECT IS COMMUNICATION IT MAKES NO SENSE TO RESTRICT IT TO A SINGLE PARTNER *UST AS THE POINT OF COMMUNICATION IS TO LINK UP TO OTHER COMMUNICATION ONE COULD ALSO SAY THAT THE DESTINY OF COMPUTER
% %SPOSITO 4HE TERM hNONTRIVIALv MACHINES IS TAKEN FROM (EINZ VON &OERSTER AND DESIGNATES MACHINES FOR WHICH THE SAME INPUT ALWAYS GENERATES DIFFERENT OUTPUTS VARYING ACCORDING TO TIME AND DEPENDENT ON THE HISTORY OF THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH THE ENVIRONMENT 4HIS ALSO DIFFERENTIATES MY APPROACH FROM A MODEL THAT REGARDS HETEROGENEITY AGAINST THE BACKGROUND OF NORMALITY AND THUS INTEGRATES IT ONLY AS DIVERGENT 4HE DISCUSSION THIS RAISES ABOUT THE CULTURAL MODEL OF MODERNITY CANNOT BE PURSUED HERE
2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER
% %SPOSITO 7 2 .EUMAN 4HE &UTURE OF THE -ASS !UDIENCE #AMBRIDGE -ASS . "OLZ h(YPERTEXT IM 0OSTHISTOIRE v IN ' # 4HOLEN - 3CHOLL - (ELLER ED :EITREISE "ILDER -ASCHINEN 3TRATEGIEN 2ØTSEL "ASEL &RANKFURT A -
SCIENCE IS TO DISSOLVE INTO TELEMATICSv 4OTAL INTERACTION WOULD ONLY MAKE SENSE IN SOCIAL SYSTEMS IF IN KEEPING WITH THE DIGITAL LOGIC OF MUTUAL hHARD WIRING v IT INDUCED COMMUNICATION AS AN ENVIRONMENT OF NETWORKED MEDIA (OWEVER THIS MUST BE CLEARLY DIFFERENTIATED FROM THE CONCEPTION THAT PROJECTS hA SEAMLESS MULTIMEDIA ENVIRONMENT THAT REPRODUCES ITSELF THROUGH THE INTERACTIVE EMPLOYMENT OF INFORMATION v A NUMERIC PARALLEL UNI VERSE IE THAT WORKS WITH THE CONCEPTION OF A SUPER CONSCIOUSNESS )N FACT ACCORDING TO THIS VIEW THE AUTOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF THE COMPUTER HAS MERELY BEEN CUSTOMIZED THROUGH INPUTS FROM THE OUTSIDE n BY THE USER 4HIS IN TURN IS LINKED TO THE ENDLESS VARIETY OF COMMUNICATION AND MAKES hSEAMLESSNESSv NOT ONLY IMPOSSIBLE BUT ALSO MEANINGLESS )NTERACTIVITY AS THE MEDIATION OF INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS PROVIDED NOT BY THE ISOLATED COMPUTER AND NOT BY THE ISOLATED PERSON MUST IN STEAD BE UNDERSTOOD AS MEDIATIZED COMMUNICATION AND HENCE MEANS NEW KINDS OF STRUCTURAL LINKAGES )NTERACTION AS MEDIA DYNAMICS BE COMES POSSIBLE ONLY DUE TO THE hx NON TRIVIAL MACHINE WHICH PROCEEDING FROM EXTERNAL INPUT IE PROCEEDING FROM THE BEHAVIOR OF THE USER EXECUTES SURPRISING THINGS x )N THIS VIEW INTERACTION WITH THE COMPUTER REPRODUCES BOTH THE MUTUAL PERCEPTION CHARACTERISTIC FOR INTERACTION AMONG THOSE PRESENT AS WELL AS THE PERCEPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND THIS MAKES IT POSSIBLE FOR THE SAME INPUT x TO BE COMPARED WITH THE PREVIOUS INPUT AND PROCESSED AS A DIFFERENCE RATHER THAN AN EQUIVALENTv 0ROCESSING INFORMATION AS A DIFFERENCE IE THE PRODUCTION OF CONTINGENCY AS IT IS hDEMONSTRATEDv BY THE INDIVIDUAL COMPUTER DOES NOT PRODUCE ANY COMMUNICATION ITSELF n EVEN IF WE DO SPEAK WITH THE COMPUTER FROM TIME TO TIME !S A MEDIUM THE COMPUTER IS NOT ANOTHER hCONSCIOUSNESSv THAT COMMUNICATES INSTEAD IT DOUBLES THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE USER AND CONFRONTS THE USER WITH HIS OR HER OWN UNEXPECTEDNESS 4HE USER OF THIS NON TRIVIAL MACHINE A PRODUCER OF SURPRISES CAN NEITHER FORE SEE THIS NOR RECOGNIZE IT (OWEVER HE
DRAWS NEW INFORMATION FROM THE COMPLEXITY THAT CONFRONTS HIM IN THIS MEDIATIZED MANNER 4HIS DESCRIBES THE NATURE OF THE COMMUNICATIVE CONNECTION BE TWEEN MAN AND COMPUTER DEMONSTRATING HOW IT CORRESPONDS TO THAT OF INTERACTION .EW INFORMATION BECOMES VISIBLE ENTERS THE MEMORY OF THE USER AND PRODUCES NEW STRUCTURAL LINKAGES 4HUS TO SUMMARIZE IT IS CLEAR THAT TELEMATIC MEMORY DOES NOT hPRESERVEv ANY INFORMATION BUT RATHER ITS OWN DECISIONS SELECTED BEYOND MEANING IN PERPETUALLY NEW ARITHMETIC COMPUTATIONS )T IS A FUNCTION SPECIlC AND MEDIA SPECIlC MEMORY AND CAN NEITHER REFER DIRECTLY TO THE FORMS OF EXISTING SOCIAL MEMORY NOR BE INTEGRATED INTO THESE FORMS 4HE EFFECTS OF TELEMATIC MEMORY ON A SOCIAL MEMORY n EG IN ORGANIZATIONS CULTURAL PHENOMENA ETC n ARE IMPARTED EXCLU SIVELY IN MEDIATIZED COMMUNICATION THAT IS IN THE WAY THEY DEAL WITH WHAT THEY HOLD TO BE UNPREDICTABLE )N THIS SENSE INTERACTIVITY FUNCTIONS LIKE A COMMUNICATION HINGE INTEGRATING THE hUNTHINKABLEv THAT ENTERS SOCIAL SPACE INTO THE COM MUNICATIVE DESIGN OF THE SOCIAL n IDEALLY AS THE EXTREME INCLUSION OF CONTINGENCY 4HIS GENERATES A CONTINUING PROCESS OF PARADOXES IE AS THE EXPERIMENTAL INTEGRATION OF SOMETHING THAT REPEATEDLY IS PROVEN TO BE IMPOSSIBLE TO INTEGRATE AND WHICH REQUIRES THE ABILITY TO MAKE NEW CONNECTIONS CONSTANTLY !T THE SAME TIME THROUGH THIS PROCESS IT BECOMES EVIDENT THAT MEMORY IS A FUNCTION OF SOCIAL AUTOPOIESIS )T MAKES THOSE CUSTOMIZED CONNECTIONS POSSIBLE THAT SET IN MOTION THE PROCESS OF REALIZING WHAT HAS NOT YET BEEN THOUGHT "ECAUSE A CON TINUING PROCESS OF VERIFYING COHERENCE PROCEEDS ON THE LEVEL OF SOCIETY CREATIVE INTERVENTION IS AIMED AT MEDIATION WHICH CONSISTS IN SIMULTA NEOUSLY EXISTING HYBRID FORMS OF THE ANALOG AND THE DIGITAL
h)MPERFECTv IS USED IN THE 'ERMAN LANGUAGE AS THE GRAMMATICAL CONCEPT FOR PAST n 4HE EXPRESSION WAS TAKEN FROM ' # 4OHLEN $IE :ØSUR DER -EDIEN +ULTURPHILOSOPHISCHE +ONTUREN &RANKFURT A - STW % %SPOSITO
& .EUHAUS , (ODEL Ú 3TART?3ZENARIO?3TART &ACHHOCHSCHULE BEIDER "ASEL ). )NNENARCHITEKTUR UND !RCHITEKTUR "ASEL UND 3ENONES n 4HE SCENARIOS ARE #ENTER A CONDENSED TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICA TIONS INFRASTRUCTURE WHICH CAN LINK REMOTE LOCATIONS BETTER ESPECIALLY TO LARGE CITIES &REE 3TATE A VISION OF POLITICAL AUTARCHY THAT RELEASES THE CITY FROM THE CEN TRALISTIC STRUCTURES OF &RANCE 2ESERVOIR A WORST CASE SCENARIO WITH THE PERSPECTIVE OF FLOODING THE VALLEY AND TOWN #ULTURAL (ERITAGE 3ENONES PROSPERS AS A TOURIST DESTINATION AND DEVELOPS A LEISURE ORIENTED ECONOMY
"EYOND THE 3CREEN 4HE ABOVE DISCUSSION ABOUT MEMORY AND INTERACTION DID NOT DEAL WITH TIME 4HE UNDERSTANDING OF MEMORY AND THE UNDERSTANDING OF INTERACTION THIS IMPLIED WAS INITIALLY EXPOUNDED AS IF TIME n AS PAST PRESENT FUTURE n WOULD NO LONGER PLAY A ROLE )N FACT TEMPORAL REFERENCES ARE SUBORDINATED TO THE CONCEPT OF MEMORY BUT THIS DOES NOT MEAN THAT THEY DISAPPEAR (OWEVER THEIR MEANING CHANGES IN THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN PAST AND FUTURE UNIQUE TO THE -ODERN !GE IS TRANSFORMED INTO DECI SIONS THAT DEAL WITH THE PAST AS AN hIMPERFECT FUTUREv $ECISIONS INVERT hx THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PAST AND FUTURE WITH REFERENCE TO TEMPORAL DETERMINATION 4HEY RECONSTRUCT THE PAST IN THE FORM OF A STILL OPEN ALTERNATIVE ABOUT WHICH A DECISION MUST BE MADE n AND DE PENDING ON THE DECISION A NEW HISTORY WILL BEGIN WHICH WILL REMEM BER AND FORGET OTHER THINGSv 4O ILLUSTRATE THIS IN THE FOLLOWING ) WOULD LIKE TO INTRODUCE A PRO JECT PAPER THAT DEALS WITH THE mEXIBLE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PAST AND FUTURE IN AN EXEMPLARY MANNER 4HIS PROJECT MAY FURTHER BE SUITABLE FOR UNFOLDING THE DIMENSIONS OF CREATIVE STRATEGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF MEMORY AND INTERACTION 3UCH STRATEGIES WERE ADDRESSED IN THE ABOVE REMARKS BUT ONLY IMPLICITLY
4HIS PROJECT DEALS WITH THE DEPICTION OF DEVELOPMENT SCENARIOS )T IS THE CULMINATION OF A SEMESTER LONG THEME OF DEVELOPING FORMS OF CREATIVE INTERVENTION IN THE TOPICAL CONTEXT OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMA TION 4HE COMMUNITY OF 3ENONES A SMALL TOWN IN THE 6OSGES REGION OF &RANCE AGAINST A REAL BACKDROP OF INDUSTRIAL DECLINE IS FACING THE UR GENT TASK OF CREATING A NEW FUTURE 4HE AUTHORS &ABIAN .EUHAUS AND ,UKAS (ODEL PORTRAYED THE POSSIBLE PROSPECTS FOR THE TOWN IN ORDER TO lND A WAY TO ENABLE ITS RESIDENTS TO CONFRONT THEIR FUTURE DIRECTLY 3TART?3ZENARIO?3TART AS THE PROJECT IS ENTITLED DEVELOPS FOUR SCENARIOS WHOSE PROJECTED FUTURE REALIZATIONS CAN BE PURSUED BY 3E NONES AND ITS ENVIRONS IN FOUR DIFFERENT WAYS 4HE GEOGRAPHICAL AND TEMPORAL POINT OF DEPARTURE IS IDENTICAL FOR ALL FOUR PATHS 4HEY BEGIN IN THE PRESENT AND IN THE CENTER OF THE TOWN THEN DEPART IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS SOMETIMES INTERSECT AND lNALLY END IN THE DEVELOPMENT PROSPECT FOR 3ENONES ADDRESSED BY THE RESPECTIVE SCENARIO (OWEVER WHAT IS DECISIVE FOR OUR SUBJECT HERE THE CONNECTION BETWEEN MEMORY AND INTERACTION IS THE WAY THE SCENARIOS ARE COM MUNICATED 4HREE lCTIVE RESIDENTS OF 3ENONES OF DIFFERENT AGES ACCOM PANY EACH OF THE PATHS !T THE POINT OF THE PATHS DEPARTURE THEY ARE INTRODUCED IN THE GRAMMATICALLY DETACHED THIRD PERSON #£CILE WHITE COLLAR WORKER YEARS OLD '£RARD UNEMPLOYED YEARS OLD *UDITH SCHOOLGIRL YEARS OLD 4HE INTRODUCTION OF THE THREE CHARACTERS DE SCRIBES THEIR CONCRETE LIVING CONDITIONS REPORTS ABOUT THEIR DESIRES FEARS AND PREFERENCES IMMEDIATELY MAKING THEM FAMILIAR IN ALL THEIR BANALITY !T INTERVALS ALONG THE WAY ANYONE WALKING ALONG THE INDIVIDUAL PATHS lNDS SMALL PLAQUES WITH WHICH HE OR SHE IS ADDRESSED BY THE DIFFERENT CHARACTERS n NOW IN DIRECT ADDRESS 4HEY SEEM TO RECOGNIZE THE TRAVELER MAKE REFERENCE TO HIS OR HER PRESENT LOCATION TELL STORIES ABOUT THEMSELVES IN THE RELEVANT AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT REFER TO THEIR CURRENT lCTIVE SITUATION IN LIFE TELL WHAT THEY ARE THINKING AND PLANNING AT THE MOMENT WHAT CONCERNS THEM WITH REFERENCE TO THE SCENARIO REALIZED AT THE END OF THE PATH 4HEY ALSO AGE ALONG THE WAY 4HEIR BIOGRAPHIES VARY n DEPENDING ON THE SCENARIO OR THE PATH ONE IS TRAVERSING RESPECTIVELY
2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER
&OUR FUTURES PERSONALIZED IN lCTIVE CONTEMPORARY WITNESSES WHO CONTINUALLY CROSS OUR PATHS AT CERTAIN LOCATIONS RELEVANT TO THE RESPEC TIVE SCENARIOS PLANNING IN WHOSE LIVES WE PARTICIPATE OVER A PERIOD OF SEVERAL YEARS ! CLASSICALLY STRUCTURED STORY ANALOG FORMS OF COMMUNI CATION TRANSPORTABLE WOODEN PLAQUES AS WRITING MEDIUM AND STORAGE IN REAL SPACE NO $ ANIMATIONS THIS PROJECT IS REALIZED WITHOUT USING ANY DIGITAL MEDIA WHICH MAY ASTONISH OR EVEN DISAPPOINT THE READER OF THIS ARTICLE 3O WHY THIS EXAMPLE 7HAT IS REMARKABLE ABOUT THIS CONSTRUCTION n WHICH BY THE WAY ONLY DISPENSED WITH DIGITAL MEDIA AS A MEANS OF REALIZATION FOR PRACTICAL REASONS ALTHOUGH IT CERTAINLY COULD HAVE BEEN OPTIMIZED WITH SUCH TOOLS n IS NOT THE SCENARIO TECHNIQUE IN COMMON USE FOR SOME TIME NOW .OR IS IT NEW TO ATTEMPT TO INVOLVE THOSE AF FECTED BY POSSIBLE CHANGES IN THE EVENTS AND TO MAKE THEM CARRY OR AT LEAST SHARE THE BURDEN OF THE POTENTIALLY IMMINENT DEVELOPMENTS 4HESE FORMS OF PLANNING PRACTICE HAVE BEEN COMMON FOR SOME DE CADES 2EMARKABLE IS THE COMBINATION OF hWANDERING THROUGHv SEVERAL REAL PRESENT AND SIMULTANEOUSLY IMAGINARY FUTURES WHOSE VARIOUS SO CIAL BIOGRAPHICAL CULTURAL POLITICAL ECONOMIC ASPECTS ARE DEPICTED IN DETAIL 4HE FACT THAT THESE PATHS ARE TRAVERSED BY RESIDENTS WHO ARE ALSO FAMILIAR WITH THE TOWN HEIGHTENS THE COMPLEXITY OF THE PROJECT AND EXPANDS ITS TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL DIMENSIONS BY ADDING A SOCIAL ONE 4HE MEMORY OF THE TOWN AND ITS RESIDENTS IS PROJECTED ONTO POSSIBILI TIES FOR ACTION THE REPETITION OF THE EXTERNAL INDUSTRIAL COLLAPSE REALITY IS TRANSFORMED BY THE THREE lCTIVE RESIDENTS INTO A NARRATIVE OF AN IN TERNAL LANDSCAPE WHICH IS PERCEIVED AND CONSIDERED BY EACH CHARACTER INDIVIDUALLY 7HAT REALLY PUTS THIS PROJECT WAY BEYOND THE HORIZON OF MODERN NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES HOWEVER IS THE INTRODUCTION OF lCTIVE CHARACTERS IN THEIR CONSTELLATION TO THE RESIDENTS )N THE lCTIVE CHARACTERS THE RESI DENTS OF THE TOWN OBSERVE REmECT NOT ONLY THEMSELVES AND THE FAMIL IAR SURROUNDINGS TO BE CHANGED AT THE SAME TIME THEY ALSO OBSERVE AN IMAGINARY ALTERNATIVE
4HUS IT IS NOT SO MUCH THE EXTERNAL TOPICAL REFERENCE TO THE TRANS FORMATION OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES THAT IS REMARKABLE ABOUT THIS PROJECT BUT RATHER THE FACT THAT IT ADOPTS THE CREATIVE METHODS REQUIRED FOR THE TRANSFORMATION IN ORDER TO REALIZE THE PROJECT 3TART?3ZENARIO?3TART APPLIES MULTIPLE LAYERS LIKE LEXIA AND PRO CESSES THEM INTO A COMPLEX FABRIC THAT BEHAVES LIKE A MULTISEQUENTIAL NETWORK OF MEMORY AND ANTICIPATION 4HE TYING TOGETHER OF MULTIFARI OUS LEVELS OF THE REAL AND THE IMAGINARY AND THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE LEVELS OF MEMORY COULD BE CONSIDERED A HYPERTEXTUAL CONSTRUCTION WHICH LEADS THROUGH THE hKNOWNv OR REDUNDANT SPACE IN THE SENSE OF THE ,ACANIAN LOOP WHICH HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH MERE REMEMBRANCE WHILE AT THE SAME TIME OPENING UP A GEOGRAPHICALLY AND BIOGRAPHI CALLY ALTERNATIVE SPACE
0 *UCHLI Ú $RAUSSEN )NTERAKTIVE 6IDEO INSTALLATION (YPER7ERK &ACHHOCHSCHULE BEIDER "ASEL "ASEL #F WWWRESURFACETNET n 4HE AUTHOR DIRECTED HIS OWN RESEARCH FOCUS PRIMARILY ON THE INTERACTIVE CONTEXT OF TIME AND NARRATION 4HIS DISCUSSION WILL NOT BE PURSUED HERE AS THE TOPICS OF AESTHETIC INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR TIME LIES ON A DIFFERENT CONTEXTUAL LEVEL 6 % &RANKL $IE 3INNFRAGE IN DER 0SYCHOTHERAPIE -ÓNCHEN :ÓRICH #F WWWTORATSTELARCSTELARCHTM
/N THIS SIDE OF THE SCREEN 7HILE 3TART?3ZENARIO?3TART DEALS WITH THE INTERACTION BETWEEN MEMORY AND SPACE THE VIDEO INSTALLATION $RAUSSEN BY 0ATRICK *UCHLI WORKS WITH THE INTERACTION BETWEEN A BIOLOGICAL BODY FUNCTION BREATH ING AND NARRATIVE 4HIS MAY SEEM STRANGE AT lRST IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ISSUES DISCUSSED HERE EVEN IF ONE CONCEDES THAT THE HUMAN BODY IS EQUIPPED WITH AN EVOLUTIONARILY DEVELOPED MEMORY THAT IS STORED IN ITS GENES .EVERTHELESS NEITHER EVOLUTION NOR BIOLOGICALLY GROUNDED THEORIES OF MEMORY ARE RELEVANT HERE BUT RATHER THE WAY THE GEN ERATION OF INFORMATION IS BOUND TO THE HUMAN BODY WHICH DEVELOPS FROM THIS A NEW COMPLEX FORM OF COMMUNICATION 5SING A RESPIRATION SENSOR FROM MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY A NON CON TACT THERMOCOUPLE THE VIDEO INSTALLATIONS THEM THE RESPIRATORY MOVE MENTS OF THE OBSERVER MEASURES lLTERS AND AMPLIlES THROUGH AN IN TERMEDIATE DEVICE AND lNALLY FORWARDED TO A SOFTWARE PROGRAM WHICH USES THESE DATA TO PREPARE REAL TIME VIDEO AND AUDIO %ACH CHANGE OF BREATH FROM INHALING TO EXHALING SETS THE INTERVENING SIGNAL "ECAUSE THE BREATHING OF THE VIEWER VISIBLY CHANGES THE RHYTHM OF THE VIDEO SEQUENCES A NEW NARRATIVE ALWAYS RESULTS 4HE VIDEO TELLS AN INCOMPREHENSIBLE STORY WHICH RUNS AS AN ENDLESS LOOP IN THE INSTALLATION n NOT MAKING THE NARRATIVE ANY LESS INCOMPREHENSIBLE 4HE ENDLESS LOOP RENDERS SUCH CONCEPTS AS BEGIN NING AND END VOID THUS DISSOLVING DRAMATURGICAL STRUCTURES INTRO DUCTION CONmICT CATHARSIS ETC 7HAT IS IMPORTANT HERE IS THAT THIS DISSOLUTION DEPRIVES THE VIEWER OF THE OPPORTUNITY TO USE HIS OR HER OWN EXPECTATIONS BUILDING UP SUSPENSE CLIMAX DENOUEMENT TO ATTEMPT TO DECIPHER THE VIDEO WHILE WATCHING IT 4HE PUZZLE IS NOT THE POINT OF THE INSTALLATION BUT ATTEMPTING TO SOLVE IT CAN INmUENCE THE VIEWERS BREATHING THROUGH EXTERNAL INmUENCES SUCH AS VIEWING HABITS
#RITICS COULD OBJECT THAT $RAUSSEN MERELY ACCOMPLISHES BY OTHER MEANS WHAT THE ACTIONS OF ARTISTS LIKE 3TELARC HAVE PLAYED THROUGH FOR YEARS IN A MUCH MORE RADICAL VERSION (OWEVER 3TELARC WHO EX PERIMENTS WITH THE TRANSFORMATION OF HIS BODY BY CONNECTING IT TO MACHINES EXECUTES A TECHNOID ASSIMILATION TRANSFORMING THE PHYSI OLOGICAL BODY INTO A KIND OF MACHINE (IS CONCEPT ORIGINATES IN THE DREAM OF THE IMMORTALIZATION OF A HUMAN BEING WHO SEES HIMSELF AT THE MERCY OF INTELLIGENT MACHINES THAT ENDANGER HIM .EVERTHELESS THE VIDEO INSTALLATION $RAUSSEN DOES NOT EXACTLY DE PICT A FEAT OF BIOTECHNICAL TRANSFORMATION 2ATHER IT PRESENTS THE AES THETIC FORM OF A MEDIATIZATION THAT REMAINS RECOGNIZABLE AS THE BORDER BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE THROUGH THE CUSTOMIZATION OF COMPUTA TIONAL OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE GIVEN VIEWER AND THE WAY THESES ARE USED 4HE BORDER REGION SHIFTS WITH THE VIEWERS BREATHING SIMUL TANEOUSLY CAUSING A PERMANENT CHANGE IN THE NARRATIVE GUARANTEEING THAT EACH AND EVERY OUTPUT IS UNIQUE 7HAT IS SPECIAL ABOUT THIS IN STALLATION IS NOT THE INTERACTION BETWEEN PHYSICAL BODY MEMORY AND AESTHETIC lLM MEMORY BUT RATHER n AND THAT IS WHY IT IS MENTIONED HERE n THE REmEXIVE INTERACTION BETWEEN ANALOG AND DIGITAL TIME
2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER
#F ON THIS ' # 4HOLEN n - &OUCAULT !RCHØOLOGIE DES 7ISSENS &RANKFURT A -
#ONCLUDING IN BETWEEN 4HE DISCOURSE BETWEEN MEDIA EUPHORIA AND MEDIA CRITIQUE APOS TROPHIZED AS hNERVOUSv AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS ARTICLE CANNOT BE DE CIDED ON THE BASIS OF MY REMARKS ON MEMORY AND INTERACTION 4HE POINT WAS RATHER TO EDGE INTO THAT MAGICAL AURA OF PROMISE THAT STILL CLINGS TO INTERACTION TO LOCATE INTERACTION IN THE DEMYSTIlCATION OF THE DISCOURSE ON DESIGN )NTERACTION WOULD THUS CLAIM THAT EMPIRE IN BETWEEN WHERE OBJECTS IN COMMUNICATIVE MEDIATIZATION ARE KEPT IN MOTION AND WHERE MEMORY RELEASED INTO A PROCESS OF SOCIAL AUTOPOI ESIS IS UNDERSTOOD TO BE STATIC )NTERACTION WHICH OPENS UP THIS ROOM FOR MANEUVER WOULD ALWAYS BE ON THE MOVE WHEREVER CONNECTIONS ARE TRIED OUT AND THUS AT THE SAME TIME BIPOLAR SCHEMES ARE ABANDONED n SUCH AS TECHNOLOGY VER SUS NATURALNESS PAST VERSUS FUTURE 9ET THIS BIPOLAR THINKING IS STILL REmECTED IN THE ANTHROPOMORPHIC UNDERSTANDING OF THE COMPUTER AS A PROSTHESIS AND DERIVED FROM THIS IN ITS DElNITION AS A WAREHOUSE FOR INFORMATION OR KNOWLEDGE OR REMEMBRANCE 4ECHNOLOGY THAT WHICH IS THREATENING IS DOMESTICATED AS THE OPPOSITE OF NATURE TO WHICH WE BELONG (OWEVER THIS ARTICLE ALSO AIMED TO SHOW THAT MEMORY IN THE WORDS OF &OUCAULT THUS TURNS INTO A hPLACE OF TRANQUILIZED SLEEPv )N REFERRING TO THE PAST AS SOMETHING CONCLUDED HOWEVER WE CONTINUE TO SPLIT OFF MEMORY FROM THE INVENTORY OF THE PRESENT SOMETHING THAT EMERGED ONLY WITH MODERN PROGRESSIVE THOUGHT 4HEREFORE THROUGH ITS CONCEPT OF MEMORY AS THE ORGANIZATION OF ACCESS TO INFORMATION AND THE CONSEQUENCE OF TAKING MEMORY INTO EVERY PRESENT AND INTE GRATING IT INTO SOCIAL COMMUNICATION THE WORK OF %SPOSITO APPEARS TO ME TO BE A VALUABLE CONTRIBUTION TO CURRENT DESIGN ISSUES
INCLUDE INCLUDE INCLUDE INCLUDE
STDIOH GETOPTH UNISTDH ERRH
INT SPEED INT EMOTION INT FEAR VOID SAYCHAR S [ INT SAYINGSPEED EMOTION SPEED INT WORDDELAY SPEED
]
WHILE S [ PUTCHAR S IF S t t [ FmUSHSTDOUT USLEEPWORDDELAY ] S ] PRINTFu
VOID CONCERNED [ SAYh$!6%x34/0 34/0 7),, 9/5x 34/0 $!6%xv SAYh7),, 9/5 34/0 $!6%xv SAYh34/0 $!6%xv ]
h$!6% x 34/0 34/0 7),, 9/5 x 34/0 $!6% x 7),, 9/5 34/0 $!6% x 34/0 $!6% x )- !&2!)$ x )- !&2!)$ x )- !&2!)$ $!6% x $!6% x -9 -).$
2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER
VOID AFRAID [ ]
EMOTION SAYh)- !&2!)$x)- !&2!)$xv EMOTION SAYh)- !&2!)$ $!6%xv EMOTION SAYh$!6%x-9 -).$ )3 '/).'xv
VOID STUTTERCHAR S [ INT SDELAY EMOTION SPEED
]
WHILE S [ PUTCHAR S IF S t t [ FmUSHSTDOUT USLEEPSDELAY ] S ] PRINTFu
VOID FEARED [ INT N )3 '/).' x ) #!. &%%, )4 x ) #!. &%%, )4 x -9 -).$ )3 '/).' x 4(%2% )3 ./ 15%34)/. !"/54 )4 ) #!. &%%, )4 x ) #!. &%%, )4 x -9 -).$ )3 '/).'
]
FOR N N N [ STUTTERh) #!. &%%, )4x) #!. &%%, )4xv EMOTION STUTTERh-9 -).$ )3 '/).'v EMOTION STUTTERh4(%2% )3 ./ 15%34)/. !"/54 )4v EMOTION ]
VOID MUMBLECHAR S [ INT MDELAY FEAR SPEED
] VOID DYING [ ]
WHILE S [ PUTCHAR S FmUSHSTDOUT USLEEPMDELAY ] PRINTFu
MUMBLEh) #!. &%%, )4x) #!. &%%, )4xv FEAR MUMBLEh) #!. &%%, )4xv FEAR MUMBLEh)- !x&2!)$xv
x h4(%2% )3 ./ 15%34)/. !"/54 )4v ) #!. &%%, )4 x ) #!. &%%, )4 x ) #!. &%%, )4 x )- ! x &2!)$ xv
2EMEMBERING THE &UTURE -EMORY AND )NTERACTION 2EGINE (ALTER
4HE SCREENPLAY OF +UBRICKS FILM IS BASED ON A SHORT STORY BY !RTHUR # #LARKE h4HE 3ENTINEL v ALTHOUGH ONLY FEW SCENES FROM THIS STORY REMAINED IN THE FINAL VERSION OF THE FILM - "ALMER Ú HALS END "ASEL 4HE PROGRAM RUNS ON 5NIX # 7ALTHARD Ú (!,S LIFESPACE "ASEL n (!,S ,IFESPACE AND HALS?END WERE RESPECTIVELY DESIGNED AND WRITTEN FOR THIS ARTICLE
INT MAININT ARGC CHAR ARGV;= [ CHAR CH EMOTION FEAR SPEED WHILE CH GETOPTARGC ARGV uFh [ SWITCH CH [ CASE tF@ SPEED BREAK ] ] CONCERNED SLEEP AFRAID SLEEP FEARED SLEEP DYING SLEEP PRINTFu
2E ENTRY 4O OFFER HERE A PARAPHRASE AND A CONCLUSION AS ANNOUNCED ABOVE IT IS TIME FOR THE SUPERCOMPUTER (!, FROM +UBRICKS ! 3PACE /DYSSEY TO HAVE HIS SAY 3TRICTLY SPEAKING THESE ARE THE LAST WORDS HE SPEAKS ON BOARD THE SPACESHIP $ISCOVERY 4HEY ARE ADDRESSED TO THE ASTRONAUT $AVID "OWMAN THE ONLY SURVIVING MEMBER OF THE CREW ON BOARD WHO SAVES HIS OWN LIFE BY SWITCHING OFF (!, WHO ALREADY HAS THE DEATHS OF THE OTHER ASTRONAUTS ON HIS CONSCIENCE 4HIS EXAMPLE OF UNSUCCESSFUL INTERACTION IS NOT AN OCCASION FOR A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ON TECHNOLOGY EVEN THOUGH (!, CERTAINLY DOES ORIGINATE FROM THE LIMITED TECHNICIZED IMAGINATION TYPICAL TO SCIENCE lCTION LITERATURE WHICH CLEARLY SEALED HIS FATE "ECAUSE THIS FORM OF NARRATION ALWAYS CONVEYS THE CONFRONTATION BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL WHEN PUSH CAME TO SHOVE (!, HAD NO CHANCE OF SURVIVAL (OWEVER MORE THAN ANYTHING ELSE HE STANDS FOR AN IMAGE OF TECHNOLOGY THAT IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE INABILITY TO ASSIMILATE !S AN INGENIOUS AND AT THE SAME TIME INDIFFERENT AND ARBITRARY CONSCIOUSNESS HE IS THUS IN DANGER OF MAKING HIMSELF INDEPENDENT n "UT THIS IS NOT A MOVIE RE VIEW AND AN EPOCH MAKING lLM LIKE ! 3PACE /DYSSEY IS CERTAINLY FAR REMOVED FROM EXHAUSTING ITSELF IN ONE DIMENSIONAL TECHNOLOGICAL SKEPTICISM (!,S LAST WORDS ARE PARAPHRASED BY CODE AND PIXELS 4HE # PRO GRAM HALS?END WRITTEN BY -ARC "ALMER AND THE BAND OF DIGITAL COLORS DESIGNED BY #ATHERINE 7ALTHARD n (!,S ,IFESPACE ARTICU LATE IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES THE SECULARIZATION OF TECHNOLOGY THAT HAS BEEN TAKING PLACE SINCE THE lLMS RELEASE 0RAGMATIC ON THE ONE HAND AESTHETIC ON THE OTHER THE TWO LANGUAGES BREAK UP THE PROJECTION OF A hSEAMLESS MULTIMEDIA ENVIRONMENTv "OLZ #ODE AND PIXELS MARK TWO UNITS INSTEAD FROZEN IN PERMANENT MOVEMENT IN WHICH THE LOGO CENTRIC CONSTRUCTION (!, AND ITS GOAL OF PERFECTION DISSOLVE (!, IS SWITCHED OFF AND ALONG WITH IT THE ILLUSION OF THE TECHNOID SUPERCONSCIENCE !FTER A CATHARTIC JOURNEY THROUGH SPACE AND TIME $AVID "OWMAN RETURNS TO HIS OWN ROOTS AND THOSE OF HUMANITY 4HAT IS THE PRIVILEGE OF SCIENCE lCTION
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
3UMMARY 4HIS ARTICLE IS CONCERNED WITH TRANSFERS THEIR STRUCTURE OCCUR RENCE AND OTHER MATTERS 0RINCIPALLY IT DEALS WITH TRANSFERS BETWEEN THE VIRTUAL WORLD AND THE REAL WORLD %VERY TRANSFER NECESSARILY INVOLVES A TRANSFORMATION OF WHAT IS TRANSFERRED THE CRUX OF WHICH IS A PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT TO THE OTHER PARTICULAR WORLD 4RANSFERS DO NOT SIMPLY HAPPEN THEY ARE INTENDED OR AT LEAST PRESUPPOSE A CERTAIN WILLINGNESS 2EGARDING COMPUTER GAMES THE QUESTION IS WHETHER AND WHAT TRANSFERS OCCUR AND WHAT TRANSFORMATIONS FOR INSTANCE THOSE OF AN EMOTIONAL KIND ARE INVOLVED IN THEM /NE CAN TRANSFER SCHEMATA AND ESPECIALLY SCRIPTS (OWEVER THIS IS ONLY POSSIBLE WHERE THERE IS A FRAMING COMPETENCE AND WHERE THE SCRIPT OFFERED IS ACCOMPANIED BY AN INTEREST IN THE SCRIPT 7HETHER hPRINTSv ARE TRANSFERRED DEPENDS TO A LARGE DEGREE ON THE CONTEXT -ETAPHORS UNDERSTOOD HERE AS ATTEMPTS TO SEE THINGS IN AN UNAC CUSTOMED WAY TO hSEE SOMETHING AS SOMETHING ELSE v ARE SYMBOLICALLY FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATA WITH STRUCTURAL CONGRUENCIES )T IS AN OPEN QUES TION WHETHER AND TO WHAT EXTENT TRANSFERS TAKE PLACE AT A METAPHORICAL LEVEL 4RANSFER AT A SOCIODYNAMIC LEVEL IS NO LONGER TIED TO INDIVIDUAL SCENES IMAGES AND ELEMENTS BUT RELATES TO THE IMPULSES RELEVANT TO ACTIONS 4RANSFERS OF SCRIPTS PRINTS AND FACTS MAY TAKE PLACE CONSCIOUSLY OR ROUTINELY 7E CAN DISTINGUISH A VARIETY OF TRANSFER FORMS PROBLEM SOLVING EMOTIONAL ETC 4HE TRANSFERS IN COMPUTER GAMES ARE PRIMARILY OF THE PROBLEM SOLVING KIND WHICH AS A RULE TAKE PLACE CONSCIOUSLY )F AN UNDESIRABLE TRANSFER FROM THE VIRTUAL TO THE REAL WORLD OC CURS THEN THE RELEVANT CONTROL MECHANISMS HAVE FAILED
(/7 6)245!, 7/2,$3 !&&%#4 53 /. 4(% 3425#452% /& 42!.3&%23 &2/- 4(% -%$)! 7/2,$ 4/ 4(% 2%!, 7/2,$ *ÓRGEN &RITZ
+LNER 3TADTANZEIGER *ULY 3UMMARIES OF THE MOST IMPORTANT RESEARCH RE SULTS CAN BE FOUND EG 7ERNER 3ACHER h*UGENDGEFØHR DUNG DURCH 6IDEO UND #OMPUTERSPIELE v IN :EITSCHRIFT FÓR 0ØDAGOGIK 7EINHEIM OR %RICH ,SCHENKOHL -ICHAELA "LEYER &ASZINATION #OMPUTERSPIEL %INE PSYCHOLOGISCHE "EWERTUNG 6IENNA
4HE MODEL WAS DEVELOPED TOGETHER WITH STUDENTS AS PART OF THE ACADEMIC RESEARCH SEMINAR 7IRKUNGEN VIRTUELLER 7ELTEN IN THE WINTER SEMESTER AND SUMMER SEMESTER ) WOULD LIKE TO THANK ESPECIALLY #HRISTIAN 2OSTOCK (EIKE %SSER 4ANJA 7ITTING AND 3ILKE +ELLER FOR THEIR IMPORTANT SUGGESTIONS
/UTLINE OF THE 0ROBLEM h6IDEOS INCITE TO ACTIONS n 4WO AXE CASUALTIES AFTER HORROR lLMSv 4HESE AND SIMILAR HEADLINES IN DAILY NEWSPAPERS REFER TO CRIMES WHICH MAY POSSIBLY HAVE BEEN CAUSED BY MEDIA INmUENCES &EARS THAT THERE MAY BE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN BEHAVIOR IN THE REAL WORLD AND PROBLEM ATIC MEDIA CONTENT HAVE GIVEN RISE TO A lELD OF MEDIA EFFECTS RESEARCH WHICH HAS PURSUED THESE POSSIBLE CONNECTIONS IN THOUSANDS OF RE SEARCH PROJECTS 4HE EFFORT INVOLVED IN THIS IS CLEARLY OUT OF PROPORTION TO THE RETURN .O DElNITE CONNECTIONS CAN BE PROVEN 4HE hEFFECTSv WHICH MAY COME FROM THE MEDIA DEPEND CRUCIALLY ON THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN THE SUBJECTIVE PECULIARITIES AND EXPECTATIONS OF THE RECIPIENTS ON THE ONE HAND AND MEDIA OUTPUT ON THE OTHER 4HE DEMANDS FROM THE PUBLIC FOR CLEAR STATEMENTS TO BE MADE ON THE DAMAGING EFFECTS OF MEDIA OUTPUT ARE THWARTED AS A RULE BY THE COMPLEXITY OF THE SUBJECT 4HE PROBLEMS OF MEDIA EFFECTS RESEARCH ALSO AFmICT RESEARCH EF FORTS AIMED AT ASCERTAINING THE EFFECTS OF VIRTUAL WORLDS %XPERIMENTS SPECIAL lELD INVESTIGATIONS AND SURVEYS ARE EMPLOYED IN AN ATTEMPT TO ANSWER THE QUESTION OF WHETHER COMPUTER GAMES MIGHT HAVE PROB LEMATIC EFFECTS 4HE LIMITED SCOPE OF QUESTIONING IN THE INVESTIGA TIONS DIFFERENCES IN RESEARCH METHODS AND LACK OF UNIFORMITY IN THE USE OF TERMS MAKE IT VERY DIFlCULT TO ADEQUATELY COMPARE THE CLEARLY DIVERGENT RESULTS WITH EACH OTHER !S WITH MEDIA EFFECTS RESEARCH DEF INITE AND INHERENTLY CONSISTENT RESULTS ARE DIFlCULT TO ACHIEVE (ERE TOO IT IS THE CASE THAT THE COMPLEX STRUCTURE OF CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE PROCESSES OF INTERPLAY BETWEEN COMPUTER GAME AND PLAYER CANNOT BE ADEQUATELY COVERED BY THE FORMS OF EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION PRACTICED AND THE VERY LIMITED SCOPE OF QUESTIONING THEY INVOLVE )N THE FACE OF THE PLENITUDE OF INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH PROJECTS THERE IS MOREOVER NO MODEL WHICH COULD ADEQUATELY DEPICT THE hEXCHANGE PROCESSv BEFORE DURING AND AFTER THE COMPUTER GAME )N OTHER WORDS WE LACK A MODEL ORIENTED RESEARCH PARADIGM WITH REFERENCE TO WHICH EMPIRICAL RESEARCH COULD DEVELOP AN APPROPRIATE SCOPE OF QUESTIONING )T WILL BE THE OBJECT OF THIS ARTICLE TO PRESENT SUCH A MODEL AND SUPPORT IT WITH EMPIRICAL RESULTS 7E WILL BEGIN BY INTRODUCING TWO CENTRAL CONCEPTS OF THIS MODEL TRANSFER AND TRANSFORMATION
4RANSFER AND 4RANSFORMATION 7HAT !RE h4RANSFERSv )N GENERAL LINGUISTIC USAGE THE TERM hTRANSFERv CAN REFER TO A MOVE MENT IN REAL SPACE EG A BUS TRANSFER FROM AIRPORT TO HOTEL OR A SYM BOLIC TRANSFER EG THE TRANSFER OF MONEY FROM ONE BANK ACCOUNT TO ANOTHER )T MAY ALSO REFER TO THE TRANSFER OF SOMETHING LEARNED TO AN OTHER TASK OR SITUATION #OMMON TO ALL FORMS OF TRANSFER IS A PROCESS BY WHICH SOMETHING EG PEOPLE MONEY THOUGHTS SKILLS hMOVESv FROM ONE CONTEXT TO ANOTHER 4HIS SOMETHING MAY ALSO CHANGE hTRANS FORMv ITSELF DURING THE MOVING PROCESS SO AS TO BE BETTER ADAPTED TO THE NEW CONTEXT h4RANSFERv IS THUS A PROCESS OF MOVEMENT BETWEEN TWO CONTEXTS WHICH MAY INCLUDE TRANSFORMATIONS 4HE CONCEPT OF hTRANSFERv THUS DESCRIBED WILL NOW SERVE US TO DE SCRIBE THE COMPLEX PROCESSES INVOLVED IN VISITS TO THE VIRTUAL WORLD %VIDENTLY WE hENTERv THIS VIRTUAL WORLD AND THEN LEAVE IT AGAIN 7HAT INTERESTS US NOW IS WHAT WE TAKE WITH US IN THIS MOVING PROCESS INTO THE VIRTUAL WORLD AND WHAT WE BRING OUT WITH US 7E THEREFORE NEED TO KEEP OUR EYE ON THIS SOMETHING IN THE TRANSFER PROCESS AND ESPECIALLY TO PAY ATTENTION TO ITS TRANSFORMATIONS 4HIS SOMETHING MIGHT BE FOR EXAMPLE THE FEELINGS OF THE PLAYER 7E COULD INVESTIGATE WHAT FEELINGS THE PLAYER HAD BEFORE THE GAME IN OTHER WORDS WITH WHAT FEELINGS THE PLAYER ENTERED THE VIRTUAL WORLD )N A SECOND STEP WE WOULD EXAMINE WHAT TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES THESE FEELINGS WERE EXPOSED TO IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD &INALLY IN A THIRD STEP WE WOULD TRY TO ESTABLISH WHAT FEELINGS WERE TRANSFERRED FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD INTO THE REAL WORLD IN WHAT MANIFESTATION THEY APPEAR HERE AND WHAT TRANSFORMATION PRO CESSES THEY ARE SUBJECT TO 7ITH THE AID OF THE CONCEPTUAL PAIR hTRANSFER n TRANSFORMATIONv WE WILL INVESTIGATE A COMPLEX EXCHANGE PROCESS BETWEEN GAME AND PLAYER ON THE ONE HAND AND THE VIRTUAL WORLD AND OTHER WORLDS ON THE OTHER ! MODEL BASED ON THIS CONCEPTUAL PAIR MIGHT REPRESENT A POSSIBILITY OF PARTIALLY OVERCOMING WHAT HAS PROVED AN hUNFRUITFULv PARADIGM OF MEDIA EFFECTS RESEARCH 4HE BASIS OF THE TRANSFER PROCESS MODEL IS THE CONCEPT OF A hNET WORK OF THE LIVED WORLDv 4HE LIVED WORLD OF HUMANS FORMS THE
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
&ULLY DESCRIBED ON #$ IN *ÓRGEN &RITZ h3O WIRKLICH WIE DIE 7IRKLICHKEIT v IN (ANDBUCH #OMPUTERSPIELE 6IRTUELLE 3PIEL UND ,ERNWELTEN "ONN #F 'ERHARD 2OTH &ÓHLEN $ENKEN (ANDELN &RANKFURT A - ESPECIALLY
FRAMEWORK FOR THE hSENSIBLEv ORDERING OF PERCEPTIONS AND BEHAVIOR )T DOES NOT FORM AN ALL EMBRACING WHOLE IT IS COMPOSED OF A NETWORK OF WORLDS WHICH DO NOT EXIST INDEPENDENTLY BUT ARE RECIPROCALLY INTERRE LATED !LONGSIDE THE REAL WORLD FOR HUMANS EXIST THE DREAM WORLD THE MENTAL WORLD THE PLAY WORLD THE MEDIA WORLD AND lNALLY THE VIRTUAL WORLD 4HESE VARIOUS WORLDS DENOTE hPLACESv IN WHICH SPECIlC WAYS OF HANDLING STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS TAKE PLACE 4HE WORLDS ARE THE RESULT OF SOCIAL AGREEMENTS AS TO HOW THE STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS ARE TO BE CLASSIlED IN THE HUMAN BRAIN WHAT BELONGS TO WHICH WORLD HOW IT IS TO BE UNDERSTOOD HOW WE RECOGNIZE THAT WE ARE NOW IN THAT WORLD AND THAT WE ARE LEAVING IT AGAIN 7HAT ARE THE FUNDAMENTALS OF hTRANSFERv IN RELATION TO THE hNET WORK OF THE LIVED WORLDv 0EOPLE CLASSIFY THE IMPRESSIONS THEY ACCU MULATE AS BELONGING TO PARTICULAR hWORLDSv 4HEY ATTAIN THEIR IMPOR TANCE ONLY IN RELATION TO THIS CLASSIlCATION ! MURDER IN THE REAL WORLD HAS A DIFFERENT MEANING THAN IT HAS IN THE WORLD OF lLM OR IN A COM PUTER GAME &OR PEOPLE TO EVEN UNDERSTAND WHAT hMURDERv MEANS THEY MUST CONSTRUCT SCHEMATA FOR IT MUST LEARN TO DEVELOP CRITERIA FOR IT 3TIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS ARE ON THE ONE HAND DECODED BY MEANS OF THE CONSTRUCTED SCHEMATA AND ON THE OTHER HAND THEY IMPEL US TO DEVELOP THE SCHEMATA FURTHER AND TO DIFFERENTIATE THEIR STRUCTURES 4HIS TAKES PLACE ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY n BOTH WITH REGARD TO THE ELEMENTS AND TO THEIR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS 4HIS GIVES RISE TO NEU RONAL PATTERNS WHICH MAKE IT POSSIBLE FOR PEOPLE TO PROCESS THE STIMU LATORY IMPRESSIONS APPROPRIATELY AND TO DEVELOP SUITABLE BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS FOR MANY DIFFERENT SITUATIONS )NTRA 7ORLD AND )NTER 7ORLD 4RANSFERS )F A PERSON HAS LEARNED IN THE REAL WORLD TO DEVELOP SCHEMATA FOR CERTAIN SITUATIONS WHICH ALLOW THEM TO ACT SUCCESSFULLY THESE SCHE MATA WILL BE REINFORCED THE MORE FREQUENTLY SIMILAR SITUATIONS ARISE )F SOMEONE IS CONFRONTED WITH A SIMILAR STIMULATORY IMPRESSION THEY WILL TEND TO PERCEIVE AND ACT ACCORDING TO THIS SCHEMA 4HIS TRANSFER OF SCHEMATA WITHIN A WORLD FOR EXAMPLE WITHIN THE REAL WORLD OR THE MEDIA WORLD WE WILL CALL hINTRA WORLD TRANSFERv 7ITH INCREASING EX
PERIENCE THE STOCK OF SCHEMATA AND THEIR DEGREE OF DIFFERENTIATION WILL DEVELOP SO THAT A PERSON WILL BE IN A POSITION BOTH TO PERCEIVE MANY DIFFERENT SITUATIONS APPROPRIATELY AND TO ACT EFFECTIVELY IN THEM 4O THIS EXTENT WE CAN ALSO UNDERSTAND TRANSFERS AS ATTEMPTS BY THE COGNITIVE SYSTEM TO ANCHOR AND STABILIZE SCHEMATA SO AS TO LIGHTEN THE LOAD ON THE CONSCIOUS MIND AND THEREBY BE ABLE TO ACT MORE RAPIDLY 4HERE ARE SUFlCIENTLY PLAUSIBLE NEUROBIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS FOR THIS )N AN hINTER WORLD TRANSFER v SCHEMATA WHICH HAVE VALIDITY AND MEANING FOR A CERTAIN WORLD EG THE REAL WORLD ARE TRANSFERRED TO ANOTHER WORLD EG THE VIRTUAL WORLD 4HE SCHEMATA WHICH ARE IM PORTANT FOR DRIVING A CAR IN THE REAL WORLD ARE TRANSFERRED BY PLAYERS TO THEIR DRIVING GAME IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD (OWEVER THIS TRANSFER IS NOT COMPLETE AND UNLIMITED )MPORTANT ELEMENTS ARE MISSING FROM IT WHICH ARE VITAL FOR DRIVING IN THE REAL WORLD $RIVING IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD ALTHOUGH ON A SEMANTIC LEVEL CERTAINLY SIMILAR TO DRIVING IN THE REAL WORLD HAS OTHER POSSIBILITIES LIMITATIONS AND EFFECTS 0LAYERS ARE VERY MUCH AWARE OF THIS 4HEY KNOW THAT THEIR DRIVING IS TAKING PLACE IN A VIRTUAL WORLD AND THAT THEREFORE THE SCHEMATA FOR REAL DRIVING HAVE ONLY LIMITED VALIDITY JUST AS LIMITED AS THE SCHEMATA OF VIRTUAL DRIVING RELATIVE TO STEERING CARS IN THE REAL WORLD
#F $ANIEL , !LKON 'EDØCHTNISSPUR !UF DER 3UCHE NACH DER %RINNERUNG 3TUTTGART PP #F *ÓRGEN &RITZ h:WISCHEN &RUST UND &LOW v IN (ANDBUCH #OMPUTERSPIELE "ONN
.O 4RANSFER 7ITHOUT 4RANSFORMATION )N ORDER FOR SCHEMATA TO FORM AT ALL AND FOR THESE SCHEMATA TO ATTAIN SIGNIlCANCE FOR NEW SITUATIONS A hFEAT OF ABSTRACTIONv IS NECES SARY IN THE HUMAN BRAIN 4HE CONCRETE STIMULATORY SITUATION WITH ITS WEALTH OF DETAILS AND PECULIARITIES MUST BE hTRANSFORMEDv INTO PATTERNS AND STRUCTURES WHICH CAN BE hWOVEN INTOv THE NEURONAL NETWORK OF THE HUMAN BRAIN )N OTHER WORDS THE STIMULATORY IMPRESSION WILL ONLY BE ADMITTED IN SO FAR AS IT lTS IN WITH WHAT HAS ALREADY BEEN DEVELOPED AS A STRUCTURE IN THE BRAIN 4HE STIMULATORY IMPRESSION BECOMES AN IMPULSE WHICH LEAVES ITS IMPRESSION IN THE NEURONAL NETWORK IN A SPE CIlC WAY AND ONLY CONTINUES TO HAVE EFFECTS IN ITS TRANSFORMED FORM WHICH IS hWOVEN INTOv WHAT IS ALREADY THERE 0ART OF THESE CONTINUING EFFECTS IS TO INDUCE THE NEURONAL STRUCTURES TO DEVELOP CONSOLIDATE AND INTERLINK WITH OTHER SCHEMATA 7HAT HOLDS FOR INTRA WORLD TRANSFERS ALSO HAS A DECISIVE SIGNIl CANCE FOR TRANSFER PROCESSES IN THE INTER WORLD SPHERE TO BE ABLE TO TRANSFER REQUIRES TRANSFORMATION INTO SCHEMATA WHICH ABSTRACT FROM CONCRETE INDIVIDUAL CASES AND THEIR PECULIARITIES AND MAKE STRUCTURES AVAILABLE FOR THIS WHICH PERMIT EXPERIENCES OF SIMILARITY /NLY THROUGH SUCH A TRANSFORMATION ARE TRANSFERS BETWEEN WORLDS POSSIBLE SINCE ONLY THUS CAN THE STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS ATTAINED IN ONE WORLD ALSO ATTAIN THEIR SIGNIlCANCE IN OTHER WORLDS 4HE STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS IN ONE WORLD ARE UNDERSTOOD IN ANOTHER WORLD BECAUSE THEY SEEM hSOMEHOWv FAMILIAR 4HE TRANSFORMATION EFFECTS A STRUCTURAL ADJUST MENT FOR AS LONG AS IT TAKES ON A CERTAIN LEVEL FOR SIMILARITIES TO AP PEAR IN OTHER WORDS FOR CERTAIN SCHEMATA TO hlTv )N TRANSFER PROCESSES EG BETWEEN VIRTUAL WORLDS AND THE REAL WORLD IT IS NOT OBJECTS OF PERCEPTION WHICH ARE TRANSFERRED BUT STIM ULATORY CONlGURATIONS WHICH HAVE BEEN ADAPTED TO EXISTING SCHEMATA )T FOLLOWS THAT ALL TRANSFERS BETWEEN A VIRTUAL WORLD AND THE REAL WORLD ARE AT THE SAME TIME ALSO TRANSFORMATIONS )N THE PROCESS OF ADJUST MENT THE STIMULATORY CONlGURATIONS CHANGE AND THEY HAVE TO CHANGE BECAUSE IT IS THEIR OBJECTIVE TO BECOME INTEGRATED INTO THE NEURONAL NETWORK OF THE HUMAN BRAIN SINCE ONLY THUS DO THEY BECOME hSIG NIlCANT v IN THAT THEY hSIGNIFY v OR POINT TO SOMETHING ELSE )N INTER
WORLD TRANSFERS THIS ADJUSTMENT OF PERCEPTION STIMULI TO EXISTING SCHEMATA CAN AS A RULE ONLY SUCCEED ON A MORE GENERAL MORE ABSTRACT LEVEL WHICH LEAVES ASIDE THE CONCRETE SIGNIlCANCES IN EACH RESPECTIVE WORLD 4HUS IN A TRANSFER IMPRESSIONS CHANGE FROM THE CONCRETE TO THE ABSTRACT FROM ACTUAL PRESENCE TO GENERAL PATTERN FROM DIRECTLY EX PERIENCED FEELING TO THE SPECIlC SPECTRUM OF FEELINGS WHICH ARISES IN COMPARABLE SITUATIONS 4O THIS EXTENT THE PARADIGM OF CAUSE AND EFFECT IN THE ASSESSMENT OF INTER WORLD TRANSFER PROCESSES IS INADEQUATE AND DISCUSSION OF THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA AND VIRTUAL WORLDS IN THE REAL WORLD WILL BE PROBLEM ATIC FROM THE START )T IS FAR MORE A QUESTION OF EXAMINING ON WHAT LEVELS A TRANSFER TAKES PLACE AND HOW THE ADJUSTMENT PROCESS BETWEEN STIMULATORY IMPRESSION AND SCHEMATA TAKES ITS COURSE 4HE FOLLOWING WILL ATTEMPT TO SET OUT A MODEL WHICH PERMITS THE INVESTIGATION OF TRANSFER PROCESSES ON DIFFERENT LEVELS 4RANSFER ,EVELS "ASIC 0RINCIPLES FOR 4RANSFER 0ROCESSES 7HAT IS HAPPENING IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD MUST lRST BE SEEN AS IM PORTANT AND INTERESTING BY THE PLAYER SO THAT IT DRAWS ATTENTION TO ITSELF AND AWAY FROM OTHER EVENTS OCCURRING SIMULTANEOUSLY OR WHICH HAVE JUST OCCURRED !S SOON AS THE NECESSARY DEGREE OF ATTENTION IS REACHED THE HAPPENINGS ON THE SCREEN TRIGGER A WEALTH OF MEMORIES WHICH ARE GRADUALLY EXPERIENCED AS COHERENT AND MEANINGFUL 4HE PROCESS OF RE MEMBERING IS INmUENCED BOTH BY VARIOUS PERCEPTIONS FROM DIFFERENT TIME LEVELS AND BY EMOTIONAL JUDGEMENTS 4HE PROCESS OF REMEM BERING DETERMINES WHETHER ATTENTION IS MAINTAINED OR DIMINISHES TO THE EXTENT THAT THE PLAYER LEAVES THE VIRTUAL WORLD AGAIN )F THE PLAYER REMAINS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD COGNITIVE AND EMOTIONAL DEMANDS WILL BE MADE WHICH MAY BE EXPRESSED THROUGH STRESS OR mOW /NLY THUS CAN ATTENTION BE KEPT CONSTANT AND ONLY THUS WILL THE PLAYER BE SO hIMPRESSEDv THAT THE GAME WILL LEAVE hTRACESv WHICH CAN BE TRANSFERRED TO OTHER WORLDS 7HAT KIND OF hTRACESv MIGHT THESE BE THAT ARE SUITED TO TRANSFER 7E CAN lRST CONSIDER FEELINGS THE COM PUTER GAME HAS EVOKED WHICH CONTINUE FOR A SHORT TIME AFTER THE GAME
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
3IEGFRIED * 3CHMIDT +OGNITIVE !UTONOMIE UND SOZIALE /RIENTIERUNG &RANKFURT A - PP &URTHER DISCUSSIONS CAN BE FOUND ON #$ IN *ÓRGEN &RITZ h!LLES NUR NACH SCHEMA & v IN (ANDBUCH #OM PUTERSPIELE "ONN &URTHER DISCUSSIONS LOC CIT ; =
AND MAY LATER INmUENCE SOCIAL SITUATIONS IN THE REAL WORLD &OR EXAM PLE PLAYERS MAY BE IN A GOOD MOOD AFTER A SUCCESSFUL GAME AND SHOW THIS FEELING IN A CONVERSATION WITH THEIR FRIENDS )T WOULD BE CONCEIV ABLE FOR THE COMPUTER GAME TO CONTAIN SPECIALIZED INFORMATION WHICH PLAYERS MAKE USE OF AFTER THE GAME IS OVER AND REFER TO IN CONVERSATION FOR INSTANCE )T MIGHT POSSIBLY BE PATTERNS OF ACTION TRIED OUT IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD AND THEN hDEMONSTRATEDv AFTER THE GAME IS OVER EG KICKS AND PUNCHES FROM A KARATE GAME !LL THESE POSSIBLE hTRACESv FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD ARE SCHEMATA IN WHICH MANY PARTICULAR PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES HAVE CONDENSED INTO ENTIRETIES BECAUSE OF SIMILARITIES h3CHEMATA THUS ORGANIZE PAR TICULARS INTO ENTIRETIES x 3CHEMATA THUS REDUCE COMPLEXITY 4HEY GIVE OUR IDEAS STABILITY AND PERMANENCE AND THEY PERMIT RAPID REACTION /NLY WITH THE AID OF SCHEMATA CAN WE PERCEIVE AND RECOGNIZE SOME THING AS SOMETHING /N THE OTHER HAND SCHEMATA ALSO ACT AS RESTRIC TIVE CONDITIONS FOR EVERY OTHER ACTIVITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS IE THEY TURN PERCEIVING AND RECOGNIZING INTO PROCESSES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A HU MAN REALITY OF EXPERIENCE WHICH IS BASED ON COGNITION DEPENDENT DIF FERENTIATIONSv 4O THIS EXTENT SCHEMATA STRUCTURE AREAS IN PEOPLES LIVED WORLD AT VARYING LEVELS OF COMPLEXITY AND OR ABSTRACTION 4HEY ORGANIZE KNOWLEDGE OF OBJECTS CONDITIONS EVENTS ACTION PROCEDURES IN THE FORM OF TYPICAL EXPERIENCE PATTERNS EG SCHEMATA FOR A BANK TRANSFER FOR THE PURCHASE OF HOUSEHOLD ARTICLES FOR KNOCKING A NAIL INTO A WALL 3CHEMATA THUS MAKE ORIENTATION AND BEHAVIORAL CONlDENCE IN LIVED WORLD RELATED ACTION AND SITUATIONAL CONTEXTS EASIER !T THE SAME TIME THEY PERMIT AN ADJUSTMENT PROCESS IN PEOPLE AS THEY EXPERIENCE LIFE 3CHEMATA MAKE DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE SIMILAR TO EACH OTHER COMPARABLE AND THUS TRANSFERABLE 4HE MORE ABSTRACTLY STRUC TURED THE SCHEMATA THE MORE THEY APPEAR TO BE SUITED TO TRANSFER
4YPES OF SCHEMATA CAN BE GROUPED ON VARIOUS LEVELS WITH REGARD TO THEIR DEGREE OF ABSTRACTION &IVE SUCH LEVELS CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM EACH OTHER RELATIVELY WELL THE FACT LEVEL THE SCRIPT LEVEL THE PRINT LEVEL THE METAPHORICAL LEVEL THE DYNAMIC LEVEL ,ET US TAKE A SOMEWHAT CLOSER LOOK AT THE INDIVIDUAL LEVELS IN RELA TION TO POSSIBLE TRANSFER PROCESSES 4HE &ACT ,EVEL 7E ARE TALKING HERE ABOUT CONCRETE FACTS WHICH CAN HAVE SIGNIl CANCE FOR THE REAL WORLD 4HE CONCEPTS OF THE REAL WORLD STRUCTURED IN SCHEMATA AS hKNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE WORLD v ARE BASED INITIALLY ON A CHILDS OWN AUTHENTIC EXPERIENCES WHICH IT UNDERGOES IN THE FAM ILY WITH OBJECTS AND FACTS )NFORMATION FROM THE PEOPLE IT RELATES TO WITH VARYING DEGREES OF CLOSENESS COMPLEMENTS AND DIFFERENTIATES THE SCHEMATA WHICH THE CHILD FORMS FOR ITSELF ABOUT THE REAL WORLD 6ERY SOON CONCEPTS OF THE REAL WORLD ARE ALSO DECISIVELY MOLDED BY MEDIA OF ALL TYPES BY PICTURE BOOKS INFORMATIVE BOOKS NEWSPAPERS PICTURES lLMS RADIO AND TELEVISION NEWS 4HESE MEDIA OFFER BEYOND ONES OWN PRIMARY EXPERIENCES A BROADENING AND DEEPENING OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE WORLD !T THE SAME TIME THEY CREATE MEDIA SPECIlC SCHEMATA IN WHICH THIS KNOWLEDGE IS PRESENTED !LL INFORMATION ABOUT THE REAL WORLD WHICH IS NOT BASED ON ONES OWN AUTHENTIC EXPERIENCES REQUIRES A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF WHETHER IT CONTAINS CREDIBLE FACTS IN OTHER WORDS WHETHER WHAT WAS BEING REPORTED DOCUMENTED OR SHOWN REALLY DOES REPRESENT THE REAL WORLD 4HIS PROCESS OF REALITY EXAMINATION STILL APPEARS RELATIVELY SIMPLE WITH hPUREv FACTS WHICH WE CAN IF NECESSARY CHECK OURSELVES EG THOSE IN hTRAVEL GUIDES v hPLANT IDENTIlCATION BOOKSv AND OTHERS
4ANJA 7ITTING UND (EIKE %SSER )NTERMONDIALE 4RANSFERPROZESSE VON UND ZUR VIRTUELLEN 7ELT UNPUBLISHED DISSERTATION AT THE &ACHHOCHSCHULE +LN #OLOGNE 2 3CHANK AND 2 !BELSON 0LANS 'OALS AND 5NDERSTANDING !N ENQUIRY INTO HUMAN KNOWLEDGE (ILLSDALE %RLBAUM %G 3IEGFRIED * 3CHMIDT +OGNITIVE !UTONOMIE UND SOZIALE /RIENTIERUNG &RANKFURT A - PP
3EE FOR EXAMPLE 0HILIP "ANYARD ET AL %INFÓHRUNG IN DIE +OGNITIONSPSYCHOLOGIE "ASEL -UNICH PP )N PARTICULAR 2OLF /ERTER 0SYCHOLOGIE DES 3PIELS -UNICH F AND FF (OWARD 'ARDNER $ER UNGESCHULTE +OPF 7IE +INDER DENKEN 3TUTTGART PP AND PP
%G (EINZ (ENGST h-EDIENKINDHEIT HEUTE v IN .EUE -EDIEN n .EUE 0ØDAGOGIK ED 3TEFAN !UFENANGER "ONN PP (EINZ -OSER %INFÓHRUNG IN DIE -EDIENPØDAGOGIK /PLADEN PP 7ERNER &RÓH 2EALITØTSVERMITTLUNG DURCH -ASSENMEDIEN /PLADEN P 'ARDNER LOC CIT ; = /ERTER LOC CIT ; =
4HINGS GET MORE DIFlCULT WHEN JUDGMENTS ASSESSMENTS AND EVALUA TIONS INmUENCE THE REPRESENTATION OF THE FACTS (ERE AS A RULE WE ARE MORE SKEPTICAL BEFORE WE DECIDE TO DElNITELY RELATE TO THE REAL WORLD THE FACTS WE HAVE BEEN GIVEN BY TAKING THEM APPROPRIATELY INTO AC COUNT IN OUR CONCRETE ACTIONS EG BEHAVING PARTICULARLY CAREFULLY IN A CERTAIN NEIGHBORHOOD BECAUSE THE CRIME RATE IS SUPPOSED TO BE PAR TICULARLY HIGH THERE 4HIS INTER WORLD TRANSFER ON THE FACTUAL LEVEL FROM THE MEDIA WORLD TO THE REAL WORLD IS ALSO POSSIBLE IN RELATION TO THE VIRTUAL WORLD 6IR TUAL WORLDS CAN REPRESENT ASPECTS OF THE REAL WORLD INFORMATION ABOUT THINGS PROCESSES STRUCTURES HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS 4HIS IS PARTICU LARLY TRUE OF VIRTUAL WORLDS WITH A PRONOUNCEDLY SIMULATIVE OR INFOR MATIVE CHARACTER )N hINFOTAINMENTv PRODUCTS SUCH AS +ULTUREN DER !N TIKE #ULTURES OF !NTIQUITY OR %INE KURZE 'ESCHICHTE DER :EIT ! "RIEF (ISTORY OF 4IME SPECIALIZED INFORMATION IS PROVIDED ON PARTICULAR SUB ASPECTS OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE WORLD 4HE VARIOUS FORMS OF SIM ULATION GAMES ARE ABOUT PRESENTING hPLAYABLE MODELSv OF ASPECTS OF THE REAL WORLD 4HESE MODELS FROM VEHICLE COMMERCIAL AND MILITARY SIM ULATIONS THROUGH TO THE SIMULATION OF COMPLEX POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC PROCESSES OFFER THE OPPORTUNITY TO GAIN NOT ONLY KNOWLEDGE OF FACTS BUT INFORMATION ABOUT THE FUNCTIONAL CYCLES OF COMPLEX NETWORKS 7HETHER AND TO WHAT EXTENT THESE MODELS ARE REALLY IN A POSITION TO DELIVER APPROPRIATE INFORMATION ABOUT THE REAL WORLD OR WHETHER THE ENTERTAINMENT ASPECT IS ALL TOO PROMINENT MUST BE EXAMINED VERY THOROUGHLY IN EACH INDIVIDUAL CASE .EVERTHELESS IN A SURVEY OF THE COMPUTER GAME PLAYERS SAID THEY hHAD EXTRACTED INFORMATION FROM GAMES WHICH WAS OF USE TO THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF REALITYv 4HE 3CRIPT ,EVEL h3CRIPTSv ARE SCHEMATA FOR THE COURSE OF CERTAIN EVENTS OR EXEM PLARY STANDARD SCENES SUCH AS hGOING TO THE CINEMAv OR hUSING PUB LIC TRANSPORTv IN WHICH MODES OF BEHAVIOR INCLUDING CONVENTIONAL FORMS OF COMMUNICATION ARE PRESCRIBED AS MODELS IN FAMILIAR SITUA TIONAL CONTEXTS ! CLASSIC EXAMPLE IS THE RESTAURANT SCRIPT EXAMINED BY 3CHANK AND !BELSON 4HE BEHAVIOR OF THE PEOPLE IN THESE SITUATIONS
FOLLOWS CERTAIN RULES EXPECTATIONS AND STANDARDS SO THAT THE FRAME WORK IN WHICH CONCRETE BEHAVIOR TAKES PLACE CAN BE PREDICTED !S A RULE THE PARTICIPANTS CONDUCT THEMSELVES WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THIS SCRIPT AND DO NOT BREAK IT /NCE PEOPLE HAVE LEARNED SUCH hSCRIPTS v THEY CAN APPLY TRANSFER THEM TO SIMILAR SITUATIONS 4HE TERM hSCRIPTv HAS BECOME GENERALLY ACCEPTED IN SCIENTIlC THEORY COGNITIVE PSY CHOLOGY DEVELOPMENTAL AND THOUGHT PSYCHOLOGY AND ESPECIALLY MEDIA RESEARCH AND EDUCATION ! TYPICAL SCRIPT RELATES TO A RECURRING EVENT AND CONTAINS CHAR ACTERISTICS WHICH CAN BE RECOGNIZED AND ORGANIZED #HILDREN CAN AC QUIRE SIMPLE SCRIPT KNOWLEDGE AS EARLY AS THEIR SECOND YEAR EG THE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS FROM GETTING UP TO HAVING BREAKFAST 7HEN LINKED WITH LINGUISTIC ABILITIES SCRIPTS IN CHILDREN DEVELOP INTO A CATALOG OF TYPICAL EVENTS AGAINST WHICH NEW INCIDENTS ARE MEASURED h3CRIPTS PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE THROUGHOUT LIFE 4HEY HELP US TO PROCESS NEW EXPERIENCES AND IN THIS WAY APPROPRIATE THEM TO OURSELVES 4HE HEAD OF A lVE YEAR OLD CHILD IS ALREADY lLLED TO THE BRIM WITH USEFUL SCRIPTS MANY OF WHICH WILL BE INVOKED IN THE FOLLOWING DECADES OF LIFE 4HE OTHER ABILITIES AND TYPES OF UNDERSTANDING MAY DETERIORATE TO A GREATER OR LESSER EXTENT WITH AGE BUT THE ABILITY TO USE SCRIPTS PROVES TO BE ASTONISHINGLY ROBUSTv 3CRIPTS MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS FOR ACTION IN THE LIVED WORLD VERY EFFECTIVELY h4HE CONCEPT OF SCRIPTS EXPLAINS MUCH BETTER THAN OTHER THEORETICAL APPROACHES WHY CHILDREN BOTH WHEN PLAYING AND NOT CORRECTLY CARRY OUT CHAINS OF ACTION RELATIVELY EARLY 4HEIR KNOWLEDGE ESPECIALLY THAT OF SOCIAL CONVENTIONS IS ORGANIZED IN SCRIPTS /NE ONLY HAS TO THINK OF HOW EARLY CHILDREN ARE TAUGHT GREETING AND LEAVE TAKING HOW SOON THEY LEARN THE RULES OF EATING AND THE WHOLE PROCEDURE OF MEALTIMES &OR CHILDREN THE ACTING OUT OF SCRIPTS MEANS THEIR BEING ABLE TO PERFORM SCENES FROM THE LIVES OF THE ADULTSv 7E MAY CONCLUDE FROM THIS THAT SCRIPTS ARE PARTICULARLY SUITED TO TRANSFER THE CHAINS OF ACTION SUMMARIZED IN SCRIPTS CAN BE TRANSFERRED PARTICULARLY WELL TO SIMILAR SITUATIONS 4AKING A hBASIC SCRIPTv AS A START ING POINT CHILDREN VERY QUICKLY LEARN TO MODIFY THEIR SCRIPTS ACCORDING TO THE SITUATIONAL CONTEXT
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
/ERTER LOC CIT ; = -OSER LOC CIT ; = (ENGST LOC CIT ; =
3CRIPTS INITIALLY ATTAIN THEIR SUITABILITY FOR TRANSFER BY VIRTUE OF THE FACT THAT CHILDREN EXPERIENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THESE SCRIPTS THROUGH hSUCCESSFUL MODELSv 4HE MODELS ARE AS A RULE THE REAL PEOPLE IN THEIR LIVED WORLD PARENTS RELATIONS FRIENDS )N ANY GIVEN SOCIAL SITUATION THE CHILDREN THEN TEST THEIR ABILITY TO MAKE THESE SCRIPTS BEHAVIORALLY EFFECTIVE ! PREPARATION FOR THIS AND ALSO A RECAPPING EXERCISE CAN BE ROLE PLAYING WITH OTHER CHILDREN 4HE COMMON SCRIPT WILL THEN FORM THE FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROCESSES OF PLAY h)NSOFAR AS THE PARTICIPANTS KNOW A COMMON PLAYING SCRIPT THEY ARE IN A POSITION TO KEEP UP THE GAME FOR A LONG PERIOD AND REMAIN IN VERBAL COMMUNICATIONv 4HE hSCRIPT CAPABILITYv OF CHILDREN THUS PROVES TO BE AN IMPORTANT PRE CONDITION FOR ROLE PLAYING WITH OTHER CHILDREN 3CRIPTS ARE TRANSFERRED NOT ONLY WITHIN THE REAL WORLD INTRA WORLD TRANSFER BUT ALSO AS ROLE PLAYING SHOWS BETWEEN THE REAL WORLD AND THE WORLD OF PLAY )N THESE INTER WORLD TRANSFERS IT IS NOT THE STRUCTURE OF THE SCRIPTS WHICH CHANGES BUT THEIR SIGNIlCANCE IN RELATION TO THE LIVED WORLD THEIR hFRAMEWORKv #HILDREN ARE AWARE THAT THE SHOPPING SCRIPT IN THE REAL WORLD IS IMBUED WITH QUITE DIFFERENT CONSEQUENCES THAN IN THE PLAY WORLD SO THAT IN SPITE OF SIMILARITIES IT IS SOMETHING DIFFERENT )N OTHER WORDS ALONG WITH SCRIPT CAPABILITY CHILDREN ALSO AT TAIN THE ASSOCIATED FRAMING COMPETENCIES IE THE KNOWLEDGE OF WHEN THEY ARE IN THE REAL WORLD AND WHEN IN THE PLAY WORLD 4HESE FRAMING COMPETENCIES TAKE ON PARTICULAR IMPORTANCE WHEN CONCERNED WITH TRANSFER PROCESSES RELATED TO MEDIA AND VIRTUAL WORLDS FOR INTER WORLD TRANSFERS ARE CONCEIVABLE AND OBSERVABLE HERE TOO FOR EXAMPLE STANDARD SCENES FROM A MEDIA WORLD EG THAT OF lLM MIGHT BE TRANSFERRED ONTO SIMILAR SCENES IN REAL LIFE ! PRECONDITION FOR SUCH INTER WORLD TRANSFERS AT THE SCRIPT LEVEL IS HOWEVER A CLEAR SIMILARITY BE TWEEN THE SITUATIONS AND CONDITIONS IN THE REAL AND THE MEDIA WORLD !S A RULE THIS IS NOT THE CASE SO THAT PARTIAL SCRIPTS AT MOST MIGHT BE SUITED TO TRANSFER !N IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE INTER WORLD TRANSFER OF SCRIPTS IS PLAYED BY 0ROBEHANDELN EXPLORING THE OUTCOMES OF ACTIONS INTERNALLY )N THE CONTEXT OF SUCH 0ROBEHANDELN A COGNITIVE PROCESSING OR A hlTTINGv OF THE SCRIPT AND THE SITUATION RELATED TO IT TAKES PLACE h)N THIS PROCESS
IT IS THEN ALSO DECIDED WHETHER AND HOW A NEW SCRIPT WILL BE INTE GRATED INTO THE BEHAVIORAL REPERTOIRE )T IS PRECISELY IN THIS lTTING THAT TELEVISION EXPERIENCES MIGHT AGAIN PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE &IRSTLY THE PROGRAMS THEMSELVES GIVE INDICATIONS AS TO WHETHER SUCH SCRIPTS ARE SUCCESSFUL n PARTICULARLY WHEN THEY OCCUR REPEATEDLY IN SERIALS 3EC ONDLY HOWEVER lCTIONAL TELEVISION EXPERIENCES ARE OFTEN ALSO SUITABLE FOR RE ENACTING EXPERIMENTATION AND PROCESSING OF NEW @SCRIPT SUG GESTIONSv /NLY AFTER A PHASE OF 0ROBEHANDELN WILL THE VIEWERS DE CIDE WHETHER THEY WANT TO TAKE OVER THE MEDIA hSCRIPT SUGGESTIONSv INTO THEIR OWN BEHAVIORALLY EFFECTIVE SCHEMATA OR NOT )N ANALYZING THE INTER WORLD TRANSFER PROCESS TWO SIDES MUST BE BORNE IN MIND THE hSCRIPTS OFFEREDv BY THE VIRTUAL AND MEDIA WORLD AND THE hSCRIPT INTERESTv ON THE SIDE OF THE SUBJECT 4HE SCRIPTS OFFERED INCLUDE NOT ONLY ACTION SERIES AND ACTION PAT TERNS BUT ALSO hSTYLES v SPECIAL PROPS SCENERY SPECIlCATIONS WHICH IN TEGRATE THE hCORE SCRIPTv INTO A CONTEXT OF EXPERIENCE AND IMPLEMENT IT MULTIMEDIALLY 4O THIS EXTENT THE SCRIPTS ARE NOT ESPECIALLY RELATED TO REQUIREMENTS FOR ACTION IN THE ENVIRONMENT BUT ALSO OFFER OPPORTUNI TIES FOR THE EXTERNAL REPRESENTATION OF IDENTITY WISHES 4HE SCRIPT INTEREST ON THE SIDE OF THE SUBJECT IS DIRECTED AT OB TAINING hSCREENPLAYSv FOR PROCESSES OF SELF GUIDED SOCIALIZATION 4HESE hSCREENPLAYSv TAKE ON SPECIlC CONTOURS IN THE LEARNING PROCESSES OF PEERS 4HEY ARE NOTHING DElNITIVE RATHER AS SCRIPTS THEY ARE hCRYSTALLI ZATIONS OF INTERESTS PREFERENCES PATTERNS OF INTERPRETATION AND ACTIVITY SPECIlC TO AGE AND GENERATION 4HEY ARE DIFFERENTIATED SPECIlCALLY BY GENDER AND GROUPv !GAINST THIS BACKGROUND YOUNG PEOPLE GATHER IMPULSES FOR THE MODIlCATION OF THEIR OWN SCRIPTS FROM THE RANGE OF SCRIPTS ON OFFER )NTER WORLD TRANSFERS ARE THUS INSEPARABLY ASSOCIATED WITH PRO CESSES OF TRANSFORMATION ADJUSTMENT AND PROCESSING ! DIRECT TRANS FER ON THE SCRIPT LEVEL CAN BE RULED OUT 7HAT INSTEAD TAKES PLACE IS hSCRIPT ADAPTATIONSv REPRESENTED BY A hRECONCILING FORMULAv BETWEEN THE SCRIPTS ON OFFER AND THE SCRIPT INTEREST 4HIS IS ALSO TRUE OF SCRIPTS ON OFFER IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD
%MPIRICAL EVIDENCE FOR THIS LOC CIT ; = PP ,OC CIT
4HESE DO NOT AS A RULE ACHIEVE THE DEGREE OF CONCRETENESS AND DIFFER ENTIATION WHICH HAS BECOME THE STANDARD IN THE MEDIA WORLD WITH ITS lLM AND TELEVISION OFFERINGS 2ATHER THERE IS SO FAR AT LEAST A PREPON DERANCE OF QUITE SIMPLE ACTION SCHEMATA WHICH HAVE NOT YET MATURED INTO SCRIPTS SUITABLE FOR TRANSFER #OMPUTER GAME PLAYERS lND LITTLE AT THE SCRIPT LEVEL WHICH MIGHT SERVE AS A STIMULUS TO MODIFY THEIR OWN SCRIPTS IN THE REAL WORLD 4HE SCRIPTS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD ARE MORE SUITED TO STIMULATING THE WORLDS OF WISHES AND IMAGINATION )T IS THUS RELATIVELY FREQUENT FOR PLAYERS TO PICTURE IMAGINATIVE DEVELOPMENTS IN THE GAME PROCESS OR DEVELOP IDEAS ABOUT WHAT THEY MIGHT STILL EXPECT FROM THE GAME IN QUESTION -ORE PRONOUNCED IS TRANSFER INTO THE MENTAL WORLD INSO FAR AS IT IS DIRECTED AT PROBLEM SOLVING )F COMPUTER GAME PLAYERS HAVE NOT SOLVED SPECIlC GAME PROBLEMS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD THEY WILL OFTEN CONTINUE TO BE PREOCCUPIED WITH THEM EVEN AFTER THEY HAVE SWITCHED OFF THE COMPUTER h4HERE WAS A PARTICULARLY HIGH INCIDENCE OF PROB LEM SOLVING TRANSFERS AFTER HAVING ENGAGED IN ADVENTURES OR STRATEGY GAMES SINCE THESE DEMAND A PARTICULARLY DEEP IMMERSION IN THE REAL ITY OF THE GAMEv "ASICALLY THIS POINTS TO AN INTENSE INTRA WORLD TRANSFER WITHIN THE VIRTUAL WORLDS )NTENSIVE REmECTION ABOUT THE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS CAN HAVE THE EFFECT THAT SKILLS THUS DEVELOPED ARE SUCCESSFULLY APPLIED IN SIMILAR SCRIPTS WITH THE SAME OR COMPARABLE GAMES !ND IN FACT EFFECTIVE PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES AT THE SCRIPT LEVEL OF COMPUTER GAMES ARE AN AID TO SUCCESS IN SIMILAR GAMES 4HE hPOSTPROCESSINGv OF PROBLEMS THROUGH INTRA WORLD TRANSFER LEADS TO COGNITIVE RELIEF IN FUTURE SESSIONS OF THE GAME 4HE PREFRONTAL WORKING MEMORY OUTSIDE THE GAME IN THE MENTAL WORLD CAN AT HIGH PHYSIOLOGICAL METABOLIC EXPENSE AND WITH A RELATIVELY LARGE AMOUNT OF TIME UNDERTAKE THE LINKING OF THE COGNITIVE SUB NETWORKS NECESSARY FOR SOLVING THE PROBLEMS 7ITH INCREASING hEXPORTINGv OF THE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS INTO THE MENTAL WORLD THESE LINKS ARE CONSOLIDATED AND THE NETWORKS BECOME SMALLER BY SWITCHING MORE ECONOMICALLY 0LAYERS EXPERIENCE THIS SUBJECTIVELY IN THE GAME PROCESS BY BEING ABLE TO MASTER THE TASKS TO BE DEALT WITH IN THE GAME MORE SMOOTHLY AND
WITH LESS EFFORT 4HEY CAN WITHDRAW ATTENTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS FROM THIS ASPECT OF THE GAME 7HILE BEGINNERS NEED TO EMPLOY LARGER AR EAS OF THE CORTEX FOR COMPLICATED COGNITIVE OR MOTOR CHALLENGES IN THE GAME THE AREAS BECOME SMALLER WITH INCREASING REPETITION PRACTICE AND FAMILIARITY UNTIL ONLY A SMALL OR NO AMOUNT OF CORTICAL ACTIVITY CAN STILL BE DETECTED WHEN SOLVING THESE TASKS IN THE GAME 4HIS OFFERS PLAYERS THE GREAT ADVANTAGE ESPECIALLY IN AN INTERACTIVE GAME AGAINST HUMAN OPPONENTS OF TURNING THEIR CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTION TO OTHER ASPECTS OF THE GAME AND FOR EXAMPLE DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE STRATEGY AT THEIR LEISURE 4HE 0RINT ,EVEL 7HERE A SCHEMA IS DETACHED FROM A CONCRETE CONTENTUAL AND SO CIAL REFERENCE AND IS MORE ORIENTED TOWARDS THE FUNCTIONS OF A SIMPLE PATTERN OF ACTION WE lND OURSELVES AT THE PRINT LEVEL 3IMPLE PATTERNS OF ACTION SUCH AS hCLAPPING HANDS v hHOPPING ON ONE LEG v hTHROWING A BALL AWAY v OR hOPENING A DOOR v WHICH HAVE ONLY A LIMITED DEPTH OF ACTION AND LITTLE CONTEXTUAL ANCHORAGE ARE CALLED hPRINTSv )N CONTRAST TO SCRIPTS PRINTS HAVE ONLY RUDIMENTARY ACTION SEQUENCES AND ARE DE TACHED FROM SOCIAL REFERENCES AND CONTEXTS ! PRINT REPRESENTS ONLY IT SELF AND DOES NOT REFER TO A MEANING WHICH WILL ONLY ARISE IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT 0RINTS CAN APPEAR AS ELEMENTS OF SCRIPTS 4HE PRINT hOPENING A DOORv MIGHT FOR INSTANCE BE AN ELEMENT IN THE SCRIPT hGOING INTO A STRANGE ROOM AND MAKING CONTACTv #HILDREN LEARN VERY QUICKLY AND VERY EARLY THOSE PRINTS THAT ARE IMPORTANT TO THEM hCLIMBING ONTO A CHAIR v hPUSHING AN OBJECT AWAY v hPUTTING A JACKET ON v OR hTURNING ON THE TAP v AND THEY ALSO LEARN TO TRANSFER THESE PRINTS TO OTHER CONTEXTS AND INTEGRATE THEM INTO SCRIPTS 4O THIS EXTENT THEY ALREADY HAVE GOOD QUALIlCATIONS FOR LEARNING VERY EARLY THE PRINTS REQUIRED IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD AND COMBINING THEM INTO COMPLEX ACTION SEQUENCES 7HETHER THESE hVIRTUAL PRINTSv ARE TRANSFERRED INTO THE REAL WORLD AND ARE MANIFESTED THERE IN A CONCRETE FORM APPEARS QUESTIONABLE 4HE PRINTS AFTER ALL HAVE VERY DIFFERENT MEANINGS AND CONSEQUENCES DEPENDING ON THE WORLD IN WHICH THEY OCCUR 7E ONLY HAVE TO THINK OF SHOOTING GAMES FOR EXAMPLE IN WHICH
/N THE PHENOMENON AND FUNCTION OF METAPHORS CF 'REGORY "ATESON -ARY #ATHERINE 7O %NGEL ZGERN 5NTERWEGS ZU EINER %PISTOMOLOGIE DES (EILIGEN &RANKFURT A - FF +LAUS -OLLENHAUER h$IE &UNKTION DES 3YMBOLS IN DER %RZIEHUNG v IN $AS 3YMBOL n "RÓCKE DES 6ERSTEHENS *ÓRGEN /ELKERS AND +LAUS 7EGENAST ED 3TUTTGART "ERLIN AND #OLOGNE PP
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
,OC CIT $UDEN $AS 'ROE &REMDWRTERBUCH -ANNHEIM ,EIPZIG 6IENNA AND :URICH #F #HRISTIAN 3TRUB h0EIRCE ÓBER -ETAPHERN v IN +REATIVITØT UND ,OGIK ED (ELMUT 0APE &RANKFURT A -
THE PRINT hSHOOT ANYTHING THAT MOVESv IS ONLY TOO CLEARLY THE MAIN FO CUS %VEN IN THE DUEL lGHTER TYPE OF GAME IN WHICH THE PRINTS CONSIST OF KARATE BLOWS AND KICKS A DIRECT TRANSFER INTO THE REAL WORLD CAN BE ALL BUT RULED OUT )N OUR INVESTIGATIONS THERE WERE TRANSFERS INTO THE PLAY WORLD IN INDIVIDUAL CASES IE THE CHILDREN TESTED OUT THE PRINTS IN PLAYFUL EXPERIMENTS WITHOUT ANY SERIOUS INTENTION OF HURTING THEIR PLAYMATES 3OMETHING ELSE MAY OCCUR IN SPORTS SIMULATIONS 4HUS FOR EXAM PLE BASKETBALL GAMES OFFER INCENTIVES TO TRANSFER PRINTS IN THIS CASE PARTICULAR THROWS AND MOVES TO THE REAL SPORT $RIVING GAMES ARE ESPECIALLY SUITED TO TRANSFER GIVEN THAT THE VIEW OUT OF A REAL CAR ONTO THE ROAD APPEARS LIKE LOOKING AT A SCREEN 4HE hSCREENv DIVIDES BOTH DRIVERS AND COMPUTER GAME PLAYERS FROM DIRECT AND IMMEDIATE ACCESS TO THE WORLD hBEHIND ITv "OTH DRIVING AND COMPUTER GAMES REQUIRE INPUT DEVICES TO INmUENCE THE WORLD hBEHIND THE SCREENv GEARSTICK STEERING WHEEL AND PEDALS ON THE ONE HAND MOUSE JOYSTICK AND KEY BOARD ON THE OTHER .EVERTHELESS NO TRANSFERS OCCUR BECAUSE DRIVING GAMES ARE ANYTHING BUT DRIVING SIMULATIONS AND TRANSFERS AT THE PRINT LEVEL WOULD BE LIFE THREATENING BEYOND ALL MEASURE -ORE FREQUENT ARE TRANSFERS OF PRINTS INTO THE MENTAL WORLD WHERE SOMEONE MERELY IMAGINES TRANSFERRING A SPECIAL PRINT INTO THE REAL WORLD &OR EXAMPLE A PARTICULAR COMPUTER GAME MIGHT REQUIRE INDIVIDUAL lGURES IN THE GAME TO BE BROUGHT TOGETHER INTO A GROUP WITH THE AID OF A MOUSE )T MAY HAPPEN AFTER A LONG AND INTENSIVE SES SION OF THE GAME THAT THIS WAY OF SEEING AND ACTING IS TRANSFORMED WHEN PERCEIVING PEOPLE IN THE REAL WORLD AND THE PLAYER BRINGS THESE PEOPLE TOGETHER IN THOUGHT WITH THE HELP OF AN IMAGINARY MOUSE 4HESE TRANSFERS HAPPEN SPONTANEOUSLY AS A RULE AND CAN BE DESCRIBED AS AN IMPULSE TO ACT IN THE IMAGINATION 4HUS AFTER SHOOTING GAMES ONE HEARS REPORTS OF THE IMPULSE TO hSHOOTv PASSERS BY OR ANIMALS EN COUNTERED IN THE REAL WORLD )N OTHER WORDS THE PLAYER IN REALITY DOES NOT ACTUALLY SET OFF THE IMPULSE TO ACT BUT WITH REFERENCE TO THE OBJECTS IMMEDIATELY PRESENT IN THE REAL WORLD CARRIES IT OUT MERELY IN THOUGHT OR PLAYFUL IMITATION
4HE -ETAPHORICAL ,EVEL 4HE TERM hMETAPHORv DESCRIBES AN EXPRESSION OF SPEECH hIN WHICH A WORD OR GROUP OF WORDS IS TRANSFERRED OUT OF ITS ACTUAL CONTEXT OF MEANING INTO ANOTHER WITHOUT THERE BEING A DIRECT SIMILE BETWEEN THE DESCRIPTIVE TERM AND THAT WHICH IT DESCRIBESv 4HROUGH METAPHORS ORIGINAL MEANINGS ARE hCONVERTEDv WITH THE AID OF METAPHORS WE CAN hSEE AS xv ! CHILD CAN hSEEv A BUILDING BLOCK hAS xv IF IT WERE A SHIP ON A STORMY SEA "UT IT CAN ALSO hSWITCH OVERv AND SEE THE BUILDING BLOCK AS A BUILDING BLOCK n OR AGAIN AS SOMETHING COMPLETELY DIFFERENT 4HERE ARE NO LIMITS TO THE IMAGINATION OF A CHILD !S SOON AS IT CREATES A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AN OBJECT AND SOMETHING IMAGINED THE hCONVER SION PROCESSv SETS IN )N METAPHORICAL USAGE THIS PROCESS OF CONVERSION IS TURNED INTO LANGUAGE IE PLAYFUL BEHAVIOR HAS BEEN hCONDENSEDv INTO A TERM 4HE TERM hOLD AS THE HILLS v WHEN REFERRING TO PEOPLE CRE ATES A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AGE OF HILLS AND THAT OF A PERSON AND THROUGH THIS METAPHOR MAKES IT FORCEFULLY CLEAR HOW hANCIENTv THE PER SON IS )N A METAPHOR TWO STATEMENTS ARE PLACED SIDE BY SIDE LIKE AN AB BREVIATED COMPARISON OR ANALOGY 4HE HILLS ARE VERY OLD 9OU ARE hAS OLD AS THE HILLS v -ETAPHORICAL UNDERSTANDING MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO SEE THE PERSON AS IF HE WERE WITH REGARD TO AGE LIKE THE HILLS hOLD AS THE HILLSv 4HE COGNITIVE CAPABILITIES OF HUMANS MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO CRE ATE A BRIDGE BETWEEN THE TWO SENTENCES /NLY IN THIS WAY DOES SENTENCE BECOME MEANINGFUL AND UNDERSTANDABLE 4HUS ARISES A COMMON hGROUND OF MEANING v EVEN THOUGH THERE IS A hBORDER OF MEANINGv BE TWEEN THE TWO SENTENCES HERE THE HILLS THERE A PERSON 4HE RELATION SHIP BETWEEN THE TWO SENTENCES IS WHAT IS EXCITING AND STIMULATING )N THIS CONTEXT THERE MAY BE hDARINGv METAPHORS WHICH OPEN UP NEW POSSIBILITIES OF RELATIONSHIP TO OUR THOUGHT OR hWORN OUTv METAPHORS WHICH HAVE BECOME hCONVENTIONAL RHETORICv 4HE PROCESS OF METAPHOR CREATION MIRRORS THE COGNITIVE AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF HUMANITY 7ITH THE AID OF METAPHORS PEO PLE ARE ABLE TO lND NEW LINES OF CONNECTION IN THOUGHT PROCESSES AND BRING AREAS OF EXPERIENCE INTO RELATIONSHIP WITH EACH OTHER
&ULLY DESCRIBED AND COMMENTED ON BY !LFRED ,ORENZER h$ER 3YMBOLBEGRIFF UND SEINE 0ROBLEMATIK IN DER 0SYCHOANALYSE v IN $AS 3YMBOL n "RÓCKE DES 6ERSTE HENS *ÓRGEN /ELKERS AND +LAUS 7EGENAST ED 3TUTTGART "ERLIN AND #OLOGNE PP #F LOC CIT ; = ,OC CIT ; = PP
-ETAPHORS BREAK THROUGH HABITS OF THOUGHT AND ESTABLISHED COGNI TIVE MODELS BY ALLOWING US TO CONCEIVE OF AND EXPERIENCE NEW WAYS OF LOOKING AT THINGS 4HEY CREATE ASSOCIATIONS IN PLACES WHERE THEY HAD NOT PREVIOUSLY BEEN SEEN 7ITH THE AID OF METAPHORS PEOPLE MAKE AR EAS ACCESSIBLE TO THEMSELVES WHICH ARE UNFAMILIAR UNACCUSTOMED AND INCOMPREHENSIBLE TO THEM 4HEY CAN hSEE NEW THINGS AS xv -ETAPHORS ALSO MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO RELATE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS AND SCENES FROM VARIOUS WORLDS AND CONTEXTS TO EACH OTHER 4HUS CONDI TIONS IN THE ONE WORLD CAN TAKE ON A MEANING WHICH REPRESENTS ELE MENTS AND SCENES IN ANOTHER )T APPEARS hAS IF v THE ONE RESEMBLES THE OTHER BECAUSE IT IS POSSIBLE THROUGH HUMAN THOUGHT TO CREATE RELATION SHIPS BETWEEN DIFFERENT AREAS OF EXPERIENCE 4HE COGNITIVE CAPABILITY OF HUMANS CONSISTS IN CREATING RELATIONSHIPS OF SIMILARITY WHICH LEAVE ASIDE THE SUPERlCIAL PHENOMENA AND TRACK DOWN COMMON STRUCTURAL FEATURES BELOW THE SURFACE 7ITH THE SENTENCE h4HE LAST FAMILY GATHERING WAS LIKE @#ORONA TION 3TREET v THE SPEAKER CREATES A STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A SE QUENCE OF SCENES IN HIS OR HER REAL WORLD AND SCENES FROM A WELL KNOWN TELEVISION SERIES 7ITH THE AID OF CONSCIOUS OR UNCONSCIOUS METAPHORS PEOPLE CREATE STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DIFFERENT AREAS OF LIFE AND EXPERIENCE 4HUS THE FORMS OF RELATIONSHIP AT THE FAMILY GATH ERING MIGHT POSSIBLY HAVE HAD STRUCTURAL SIMILARITIES TO A PARTICULAR SCENE IN h#ORONATION 3TREETv !T ALL EVENTS ONE CAN SEE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN A SCENE IN THE REAL WORLD AND A SCENE IN h#ORONATION 3TREETv FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THEIR STRUCTURE h#ORONATION 3TREETv THUS BE COMES A METAPHOR FOR THE REAL FAMILY SCENE AND MAKES AN UNFAMILIAR AREA ACCESSIBLE TO THE HEARER -ETAPHOR FORMATIONS IN THE AREA OF SOCIAL ACTION INCLUDE POS SIBILITIES OF TRANSFER 7HILE TRANSFERS AT THE SCRIPT LEVEL ARE BASED ON RELATIVELY CONCRETE ACTION SCHEMATA METAPHORICAL TRANSFER TAKES PLACE AT A MUCH MORE ABSTRACT LEVEL 7HAT IS TRANSFERRED IS NOT SCRIPTS TAKEN FROM THE REAL WORLD TO WHICH DIRECT EXPERIENCE ATTACHES !N hAS IF xv IS AS FAR AS IT GOES A MERELY STRUCTURAL CONGRUENCE A SIMILARITY IN THE STRUCTURE OF INTERACTION )T IS SYMBOLICALLY FUNCTIONAL SCHEMATA WHICH TAKE ON THE CHARACTER OF TRANSFERS AT THE METAPHORICAL LEVEL
4HIS IS BEST MADE CLEAR WITH THE HELP OF THE COTTON REEL GAME DE SCRIBED BY &REUD "Y THROWING AWAY AND RETRIEVING A COTTON REEL A CHILD hACTS OUTv THE DEPARTURE AND RETURN OF ITS MOTHER 4HE LINKING OF THESE TWO SCENES IS WHAT CONSTITUTES THE SENSE AND THE PLEASURE OF THE COTTON REEL GAME 7HILE DIFFERENT IN APPEARANCE BOTH SCENES ARE BASED ON A VERY SIMILAR STRUCTURE OF INTERACTION )N EACH CASE THE POINT IS A hGOING AWAY AND COMING BACK v BOTH WITH REGARD TO THE MOTHER AND IN RELATION TO THE COTTON REEL 7ITH THE AID OF STRUCTURAL CONGRU ENCE THE PLAYFUL BEHAVIOUR OF THE CHILD IMPLIES SOMETHING MORE THAN THE COTTON REEL GAME AND CREATES A METAPHORICAL TRANSFER TO ITS INTER ACTION WITH ITS MOTHER )N A SIMILAR WAY PATTERNS OF ACTION IN COMPUTER GAMES CAN BE METAPHORS FOR ACTION IN THE REAL WORLD 0REFERENCES WHEN CHOOSING COMPUTER GAMES HAVE A LOT TO DO WITH HOW FAR THE GAMES lT IN AT THE METAPHORICAL LEVEL WITH PLAYERS IN THEIR CONCRETE SITUATION IN LIFE /UR INVESTIGATIONS SHOW VERY CLEAR EVIDENCE FOR THIS INTER WORLD TRANSFER FROM THE REAL WORLD INTO THE VIRTUAL WORLD 3OME ADOLESCENTS AND YOUNG ADULTS ARE AWARE THAT FUNDAMENTAL PATTERNS OF ACTION IN COM PUTER GAMES ARE REmECTED IN THEIR OWN LIFE SITUATION AND THAT THIS MAY BE A REASON TO DEVOTE ONESELF MORE INTENSIVELY TO CERTAIN COMPUTER GAMES 3UCH A TRANSFER DEPENDS ABSOLUTELY ON A METAPHORICAL TRANSFORMA TION 4HE ELEMENTS OF ONE WORLD MUST hCONVERTv TO THE OTHER WORLD IN THEIR STRUCTURAL CORRESPONDENCES SO AS NOT TO BE HELD UP AT THE hBOR DERLINESv BETWEEN THE WORLDS -ETAPHORICAL TRANSFER IS METAPHORICAL TRANSFORMATION )N THIS RESPECT COMPUTER GAMES CONTAIN A MULTIPLE INTERWOVEN BAND OF MEANINGFUL METAPHORS WHICH REFER TO INDIVIDUAL CONTEXTS AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS READY TO OPEN UP TO THE hMETAPHORICAL EYEv OF THE PLAYER 7HETHER AND TO WHAT EXTENT ELEMENTS OF THE VIRTUAL WORLD AT THE METAPHORICAL LEVEL ARE TRANSFERRED INTO THE REAL WORLD IS AN OPEN RE SEARCH QUESTION &IRST INDICATIONS THAT SUCH A THING IS POSSIBLE AND CAN START TO DETERMINE BEHAVIOR ARE ASSOCIATIVE TRANSFERS FROM THE VIRTUAL INTO THE REAL WORLD WHICH IN AN EMPIRICAL SURVEY WERE DESCRIBED BY TWO THIRDS OF COMPUTER GAME PLAYERS )N ASSOCIATIVE TRANSFERS STIM
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
&ULL DISCUSSIONS ON THESE TOPICS CAN BE FOUND IN *ÓRGEN &RITZ h7ARUM EIGENTLICH SPIELT JEMAND #OMPUT ERSPIELE v (ANDBUCH #OMPUTERSPIELE #$ "ONN 4HE FULL RESULTS OF THESE INVESTIGATIONS CAN BE FOUND IN (EIKE %SSER UND 4ANJA 7ITTING h%IN #OMPUTERSPIEL IST KEIN &ERNSEHFILM v (ANDBUCH #OMPUTERSPIELE #$ "ONN
ULATORY IMPRESSION IN THE REAL WORLD SPONTANEOUSLY ASSOCIATE THEM SELVES WITH IMAGES SOUNDS OR SITUATIONS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD 4HUS SOME PLAYERS FEEL ALMOST ALARMINGLY REMINDED OF THE GAME $OOM WHEN THEY GO ROUND A DARK BLIND CORNER OF A HOUSE 4HE 3OCIODYNAMIC ,EVEL 4RANSFER AT A SOCIODYNAMIC LEVEL IS NO LONGER TIED TO INDIVIDUAL SCENES IMAGES AND ELEMENTS BUT RELATES TO THE IMPULSES RELEVANT TO ACTIONS !T THE SOCIODYNAMIC LEVEL THE QUESTION FREED OF ALL CONTENTUAL REFERENCES AND CONCRETE IMPULSES TO ACT IS WHAT THE BASIC PATTERNS ARE TO WHICH ACTIONS ARE GEARED 7HILE THERE IS A WIDE VARIETY OF THESE BASIC PATTERNS IN THE REAL WORLD IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD THESE ARE LIMITED TO JUST A FEW STRUGGLE EXPANSION ENRICHMENT ARMING AND REINFORCEMENT RACING ORDER ASSOCIATION !ND THESE FEW PATTERNS ARE FORMS OF EX PRESSION OF THE UNDERLYING hMESSAGEv CHARACTERIZING COMPUTER GAMES hMEDIALLYv TO EXERCISE POWER DOMINION AND CONTROL 4HIS LEVEL OF TRANSFER IS WHERE TRANSFORMATION IS FURTHEST ADVANCED 4HE CONCRETE IMPULSE TO ACT IS BROUGHT BACK TO ITS hCOREv AT THE SOCIO DYNAMIC LEVEL IE BACK TO A FUNDAMENTAL ORIENTATION OF ACTION WHICH IS VALID IN THE REAL WORLD JUST AS MUCH AS IN THE VIRTUAL BECAUSE THE BASIC PATTERNS IN THEIR FUNCTION ARE FORMS OF ACTION OF THE BASIC HU MAN NEEDS FOR AUTONOMY RELATEDNESS AND COMPETENCE 4HE QUESTION THUS DOES NOT ARISE EITHER WHETHER A TRANSFER OF THE BASIC PATTERNS TO AND FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD TAKES PLACE OR NOT )T IS UNNECESSARY BE CAUSE THESE BASIC PATTERNS ARE THE CORE OF ALL ACTION NO MATTER WHETHER THE ACTION IS REALIZED IN THE REAL WORLD THE PLAY WORLD OR THE VIRTUAL WORLD )T IS HOWEVER POSSIBLE THAT INTENSIVE USE OF COMPUTER GAMES WILL RESULT IN A SHIFT OF EMPHASIS IN THE DIRECTION OF SPECIAL SOCIODYNAMIC PATTERNS WHICH ARE TYPICAL OF COMPUTER GAMES IE TO ACHIEVE POWER CONTROL AND DOMINION 4HOSE BASIC PATTERNS WOULD CONVERSELY DIMIN ISH WHICH CONSISTED OF EMPATHETIC FORMS OF BEHAVIOR BEING ABLE TO SYMPATHIZE UNDERSTANDING THE FEELINGS OF OTHERS 7E WILL BE COMING BACK TO THE SIGNIlCANCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN TRANS FER PROCESSES "UT lRST SOME REMARKS ON THE POSSIBLE FORMS OF TRANSFER
&ORMS OF 4RANSFER 7E WILL NOW COMPARE THE LEVELS OF TRANSFER WITH THE FORMS OF TRANSFER FOR WHICH PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS HAVE PROVIDED EVIDENCE 0ROBLEM SOLVING TRANSFER %XAMPLE 4HINKING ABOUT THE SOLVING OF GAME PROBLEMS SEEKING INFORMATION ABOUT POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FROM FELLOW PLAYERS OR SPECIALIST MAGAZINES 0ROBLEM ORIENTED TRANSFERS HAVE BEEN WIDELY CONlRMED ESPECIALLY WITH FREQUENT PLAYERS %MOTIONAL TRANSFER %XAMPLE &EELINGS SUCH AS ANGER ANXIETY TENSION JOY PRIDE CONTINUE AFTER THE GAME SESSION 4HIS WAS CON lRMED IN INTERVIEWS WITH MANY PLAYERS 4HE DURATION AND INTENSITY OF EMOTIONAL TRANSFERS WOULD NEED TO BE INVESTIGATED )NSTRUMENTALLY ACTION ORIENTED TRANSFER %XAMPLE 0ATTERNS OF ACTION REQUIRED IN A COMPUTER GAME ARE TESTED AND SPECIlCALLY APPLIED IN THE REAL WORLD OR THE PLAY WORLD !CCORDING TO OUR INVESTIGATIONS SO FAR THE TRANSFERS ARE ALWAYS TO THE PLAY WORLD YOUNG PEOPLE WHO HAVE PLAYED KARATE ON THE COMPUTER TEST OUT THESE PATTERNS IN THE PLAY WORLD AND THUS DO NOT ATTRIBUTE ANY SERIOUS CHARACTER TO THEM )T IS POSSIBLE THAT INSTRUMENTALLY ACTION ORIENTED TRANSFERS TAKE PLACE AT ANOTHER TRANSFER LEVEL LESS AT THE SCRIPT LEVEL AND MORE AT THE META PHORICAL LEVEL AND DYNAMIC LEVEL %THICAL MORAL TRANSFER %XAMPLE h/RGIES OF DESTRUCTIONv MIGHT LEAD TO THE ACQUISITION OF A HUMANITY DESPISING AND VIOLENCE AFlRM ING VALUE ORIENTATION OR TO FEELING REINFORCED STRENGTHENED IN IT /UR INVESTIGATIONS SHOW NO GROUNDS FOR THIS )T IS POSSIBLE THIS TRANSFER ALSO TAKES PLACE AT ANOTHER TRANSFER LEVEL ! TRANSFER AT THE SCRIPT LEVEL POS SIBLY PRESUPPOSES A VERY INTENSIVE MEDIA INmUENCE WHICH IS CONlRMED BY VIOLENT EXPERIENCES IN THE REAL WORLD 4HE BORDERLINES BETWEEN VIR TUALITY AND REALITY MIGHT THEN POSSIBLY START TO CRUMBLE
!SSOCIATIVE TRANSFER %XAMPLE 3TIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS IN THE REAL WORLD ARE SPONTANEOUSLY ASSOCIATED WITH IMAGES AND EXPERIENCES IN A COMPUTER GAME 4HIS APPEARS PARTICULARLY POSSIBLE WHEN THE IM PRESSIONS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD ARE COMMENSURATELY DENSE AND INTENSE HIGH hEXPERIENCE DENSITYv 4HERE IS ALREADY INITIAL EVIDENCE FOR THIS )T COULD BE SUPPOSED THAT ASSOCIATIVE TRANSFERS ARE STRENGTHENED IF PERCEPTION OF THE VIRTUAL WORLD APPROACHES EVER CLOSER TO THE WAY OF PERCEIVING THE REAL WORLD CAMERA PERSPECTIVE AND DATA HELMET AND THE EXPERIENCE OF THE VIRTUAL WORLD IS hLOADEDv IN AN ESPECIALLY AFFEC TIVE WAY EG THROUGH PERMANENT THREATENING SITUATIONS AND HORROR EFFECTS )N THIS CASE hmASHBACKSv CAN NO LONGER BE RULED OUT IE THE IMAGES IMPRESSED IN THE GAME hNO LONGER MELT AWAY BUT REMAIN IN CONSTANT EXISTENCE OR APPEAR UNCONTROLLEDLY AS IF BY THEMSELVESv 2EALITY STRUCTURING TRANSFER %XAMPLE %XPERIENCES IN A GAME ARE RELATED TO THE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE REAL WORLD #OMPUTER GAMES ARE lCTIONAL AS A RULE SO THAT TRANSFERS AT THE SCRIPT LEVEL MAY BE RULED OUT 4RANSFERS MAY HOWEVER OCCUR AT THE FACT LEVEL )MITATIVE COMPUTER GAMES SIMULATIONS MIGHT REACH A DEGREE OF CLOSENESS TO REALITY WHICH WOULD MAKE REALITY STRUCTURING TRANSFERS POSSIBLE 4HIS MIGHT GIVE RISE TO PROBLEM AREAS 4HIS APPLIES TO COMMERCIAL SIMULA TIONS AS MUCH AS TO mIGHT SIMULATIONS DRIVING GAMES BATTLE SIMULA TIONS AND WAR SIMULATIONS )NFORMATIONAL TRANSFER %XAMPLE )NFORMATION IN A GAME FACILI TATES UNDERSTANDING OF THE REAL WORLD IN THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 4YPI CAL OF THIS CASE ARE THE INFOTAINMENT PRODUCTS IN WHICH INFORMATION IS hDRESSED UPv IN AN ENTERTAINING WAY 7HAT IS ACTUALLY LEARNED IN SUCH INFOTAINMENTS DEPENDS VERY MUCH ON THE PRODUCT AND WOULD NEED TO BE INVESTIGATED EMPIRICALLY -EMORY RELATED TRANSFER %XAMPLE %LEMENTS OF A COMPUTER GAME BOTH AT THE CONTENT AND THE ACTION LEVEL ARE RETAINED IN THE MEMORY 4HIS AREA OF TRANSFER HAS SO FAR NOT BEEN INVESTIGATED )N
TERESTING QUESTIONS WOULD BE 7HAT IS RETAINED IN THE MEMORY EG ELEMENTS OF THE GAMES USER INTERFACE THE GAMES STORY CERTAIN NAMES JUDGMENTAL ASPECTS EMOTIONAL ASSESSMENTS AND REACTIONS &OR HOW LONG 7HY THAT IN PARTICULAR (OW ARE THE ELEMENTS OF THE COMPUTER GAME RETAINED IN THE MEMORY MEMORY PATTERNS (OW IS THE MEM ORY COLORED 7HAT PATH DOES THE FORGETTING CURVE TAKE 4IME EXPERIENCING TRANSFER %XAMPLES 4HE STRUCTURING OF TIME IN THE REAL WORLD IS ABOLISHED IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD BEING EXPERIENCED AND DESCRIBED AS TIME WASTING )T IS POSSIBLE THAT THE EXPERIENCE OF TIME IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD EG RAPID SUCCESSIONS OF IMPULSES WITH PER MANENT PRESSURE TO ACT ASSOCIATED WITH A HECTIC STRESSFUL FEELING IS TRANSFERRED TO THE REAL WORLD OR EVEN THE MEDIA WORLD IN THE FORM OF ZAPPING AND REMAINS CONSTANT THERE FOR A GREATER OR LESSER LENGTH OF TIME 4RANSFER RELATED TO IMAGINATIVE ACTIVITY %XAMPLE 4HE IM PRESSIONS IN A GAME ELEMENTS STORY ROLES ACTIONS PROCEDURES ARE IMAGINATIVELY CONTINUED AND DEVELOPED IN THE WORLD OF THOUGHTS 3UCH TRANSFERS HAVE BEEN REPORTED 4HEY NEED TO BE SYSTEMATICALLY IN VESTIGATED 4RANSFER AND #ONSCIOUSNESS 0ROCESSES OF #ONSCIOUSNESS IN THE 6IRTUAL 7ORLD 3ESSIONS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD ARE AS A RULE ACCOMPANIED BY CON SCIOUSNESS 4HE FOLLOWING ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF THIS WHICH MAY MAKE CLEAR THE VARIABILITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS PROCESSES IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD &IRSTLY THERE IS THE UNDIVIDED ATTENTION WHICH PLAYERS MUST BRING TO GAME PROCESSES IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO REMAIN IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD 4HEY EXPERIENCE THIS AS A STATE OF THE HIGHEST ALERTNESS AND CONCENTRATION 4HIS ONLY BECOMES APPARENT TO THEM AFTERWARDS HOW EVER !S LONG AS THEIR OUTWARD ATTENTION IS DIRECTED TOWARDS THE GAME THEY EXPERIENCE THEMSELVES AS BEING IN A STREAM OF ACTIONS WHICH ONLY KNOW THE OUTER PERSPECTIVE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 0LAYERS ARE AFTERWARDS
#F &ERDINAND &ELLMANN h)NTENTIONALITØT UND ZUSTØNDLICHES "EWUSSTSEIN v IN "EWUTSEIN 3YBILLE +RØMER &RANKFURT A - PP
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
4HE %NGLISH LANGUAGE DISTINGUISHES BETWEEN hAWARENESSv CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE SENSE OF MENTAL ALERT NESS AND hCONSCIOUSNESSv CONSCIOUSNESS WITH REGARD TO THE ASPECT OF WILL PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE DEVELOPING ALTERNATIVES MAKING CHOICES #F 7ILLIAM ( #ALVIN $IE 3YMPHONIE DES $ENKENS -UNICH AND 6IENNA PP )N VIEW OF THIS ONE MIGHT DESCRIBE THE CONSCIOUSNESS PROCESS IN EXAMPLE BY THE TERM hAWARENESS v AND IN EXAMPLE BY hCONSCIOUSNESSv h3ELF AWAREv WOULD THEN BE THE CONSCIOUSNESS PROCESSES DESCRIBED IN EXAMPLES AND
CONSCIOUS THAT THEY WERE FULLY AWARE IE INVOLVED WITH FULL UNDIVID ED ATTENTION /FTEN PLAYERS ARE CONFRONTED WITH PROBLEMS WHICH MUST BE CONSCIOUSLY SOLVED TO BE ABLE TO PROGRESS IN THE COURSE OF THE GAME 7HERE SUCH A SITUATION ARISES THEY WILL INTERRUPT THE STREAM OF ACTIONS AND REmECT CONSCIOUSLY IE CHOOSE FROM THE POSSIBLE COURSES OF ACTION ONE WHICH SEEMS APPROPRIATE TO THEM 4HIS IS WHERE THE OUTER PER SPECTIVE OF CONSCIOUSNESS LINKS WITH AN INNER PERSPECTIVE 7HEN PLAY ERS CONSCIOUSLY RECOGNIZE THE PROBLEMS IN THE COURSE OF A GAME AND THUS DIRECT THEIR CONSCIOUSNESS TO THE OUTER PERSPECTIVE THE REQUIRE MENT ARISES TO EXPAND THEIR CONSCIOUSNESS IN ITS INNER PERSPECTIVE IE TO LOOK FOR POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FROM AMONG THE STOCK OF SCHEMATA AND QUERY THEIR USEFULNESS OR TO CONSTRUCT COMPLETELY NEW SCHEMATA !T THE END OF A GAME PROCESS OR WHEN TIREDNESS FRUSTRATION OR BOREDOM SET IN CONSCIOUSNESS WILL TURN AWAY FROM THE GAME PROCESS 4HE STATE OF MAXIMUM ALERTNESS AND CONCENTRATION FADES AND ATTEN TION TURNS TO THE INNER PERSPECTIVE 0LAYERS BECOME AWARE OF THE TIME THAT HAS PASSED THEIR CURRENT FEELINGS AND ALSO WHETHER THEY WANT TO CONTINUE PLAYING AT ALL #ONSCIOUSNESS THEN TURNS COMPLETELY AWAY FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD PERHAPS REMAINS WITH THE PLAYER FOR A WHILE UNTIL IT THEN DIRECTS THE hBEAM OF ATTENTIONv AT ASPECTS OF THE REAL OR MENTAL WORLD 0LAYERS MAY PERHAPS ALSO lND THE LEISURE TO THINK A LITTLE MORE INTENSIVELY ABOUT THEMSELVES 7HY AM ) PLAYING AT ALL 7HY AM ) SO IN TERESTED IN THIS PARTICULAR GAME 7HAT DOES THIS GAME HAVE TO DO WITH THE REST OF MY LIFE 7HY DO ) GET SO ANNOYED WHEN THE GAME DOESNT WORK OUT FOR ME 7HAT DOES ALL THIS SAY ABOUT ME 7ITH THESE QUES TIONS CONSCIOUSNESS IS NO LONGER DIRECTED AT THE GAME BUT AT PLAYERS THEMSELVES 4HE GAME IS THEN MERELY A hCATALYSTv FOR THE CONSCIOUSNESS TO ENABLE US TO hEXPERIENCE OURSELVESv
!LL FOUR EXAMPLES ARE CONCERNED WITH THE TERM hCONSCIOUSNESS v OR AT LEAST COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF THIS SORT ARE DESCRIBED WITH THIS TERM 7E WOULD NOW LIKE BRIEmY TO PRESENT THREE WAYS OF LOOKING AT CON SCIOUSNESS AND WITH THEIR HELP EXPLAIN THE SIGNIlCANCE THAT CONSCIOUS NESS CAN HAVE IN TRANSFER PROCESSES TO AND FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD /N THE -EANING AND &UNCTION OF #ONSCIOUSNESS )N GENERAL CONSCIOUSNESS IS UNDERSTOOD AS A hCONDITIONv WHICH AN INDIVIDUAL MAY HAVE AND WHICH RESULTS FROM AN EXCHANGE OF SENSORY IMPRESSIONS #ONSCIOUSNESS MANIFESTS ITSELF SPONTANEOUSLY AND CANNOT BE hMADEv BY A SUBJECT 4O THIS EXTENT THE CONDITIONALITY OF CONSCIOUS NESS IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE LIFE OF THE ORGANISM IS AN EXPRESSION FOR THE BEING IN THE WORLD OF A PERSON AND FOR THEIR UNAVOIDABLE ATTACHMENT TO SITUATION 4HE CONDITIONALITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS DISPLAYS DYNAMICS IN WHICH QUALITATIVELY DIFFERENT CONDITIONS ARE SEAMLESSLY LINKED WITH EACH OTHER 4O THIS EXTENT IN OUR CONDITIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS WE EXPE RIENCE THE EXPRESSION OF OUR OWN VITALITY /NLY IN THE CONDITIONALITY OF THEIR CONSCIOUSNESS DO PEOPLE ENCOUNTER THEMSELVES DEVELOP A FEELING OF SELF WHICH ENABLES THEM TO APPREHEND LIFE AS A WHOLE #ONSCIOUS NESS AS A CONDITION IS THUS INSEPARABLY ASSOCIATED WITH A PERSONS h)v IT IS ) WHO OBSERVE SOMETHING WHO DO AND EXPERIENCE SOMETHING 4HIS ASPECT OF CONSCIOUSNESS CAN BE DESCRIBED BY THE TERM h) CONSCIOUS NESSv 7HERE CONSCIOUSNESS IS ASSOCIATED WITH REmEXIVE THOUGHT PRO CESSES IE WHERE IT FOCUSES WHOLLY ON ITSELF AND ATTEMPTS TO EXPAND THE AREA OF THAT WHICH IS CONSCIOUS ABOUT ONESELF WE SPEAK OF hSELF AWARENESSv 4HE OCCURRENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS CAN TAKE PLACE WITH VARYING DE GREES OF INTENSITY !CCORDING TO HOW STRONGLY ) FOCUS ON A STIMULUS THE STRONGER WILL BE MY ATTENTION 7ITH INCREASING ATTENTION ) WILL EXCLUDE OTHER PERCEIVED IMPRESSIONS AND THOUGHTS EVER MORE STRONGLY SO AS TO BE COMPLETELY CONCENTRATED ON THE ONE STIMULUS OR THOUGHT ABSORB IT WIDE AWAKE AND REACT TO IT 4HIS IS hATTENTION CONSCIOUSNESSv
7ILLIAM ( #ALVIN $IE 3YMPHONIE DES $ENKENS -UNICH AND 6IENNA 4OR .RRETRANDERS 3PÓRE DIE 7ELT $IE 7ISSENSCHAFT DES "EWUTSEINS 2EINBEK ,OC CIT ,OC CIT ; = ,OC CIT ; = PP ,OC CIT ; =
!NOTHER WAY OF LOOKING AT CONSCIOUSNESS ARISES WHEN WE FOCUS ON THE DECISION MAKING AND ACTING ASPECT (ERE hCONSCIOUSNESSv BECOMES A COGNITIVE FUNCTION EMPLOYED IN PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE DEVELOP ING ALTERNATIVES AND SOLVING PROBLEMS WHICH CANNOT BE SOLVED THROUGH ROUTINE ALONE h4HE ROLE OF CONSCIOUSNESS IS PERHAPS CLEAREST WHERE A GOAL OR PURPOSE x CAN BE ACHIEVED THROUGH ALTERNATIVE MEANS AND WHEN TWO OR MORE MEANS ARE TRIED AFTER CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONv )N THIS RESPECT CONSCIOUSNESS CONSISTS IN ITS ESSENTIAL FORM IN THE CHOOS ING REJECTING AND SORTING OUT OF GIVEN POSSIBILITIES h#ONSCIOUSNESS IS THE RESULT OF A COMPREHENSIVE SORTING OUT OF INFORMATION AND ITS GE NIUS IS BASED NOT ON THE INFORMATION IT CONTAINS BUT ON THAT WHICH IT DOES NOT CONTAINv )T IS THUS hNOT AN AUTHORITY RESIDING AT THE HIGH EST LEVEL ISSUING INSTRUCTIONS TO SUBORDINATE UNITS IN THE BRAIN BUT A SELECTING FACTOR MAKING A CHOICE OUT OF THE MANY POSSIBILITIES OFFERED BY THE UNCONSCIOUSv #ONSCIOUSNESS CANNOT THEREFORE ITSELF CON CEIVE BUT hMERELYv CHOOSE AND MAKE USE OF A hVETOv WHEN IMPULSES TO ACTION ARE PRESSING WHICH SHOULD NOT BE REALIZED 4O THE EXTENT THAT CONSCIOUSNESS IS INVOLVED IN THE SOLVING OF PROBLEMS THIS CAN ALSO MEAN THAT NEW SCHEMATA ARE DEVELOPED &ROM A NEUROBIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW THE HUMAN BRAIN RELIES ON CONSTANTLY SETTING UP NEW NEURONAL LINKS CAPABLE OF APPROPRIATELY CONTROLLING BE HAVIOR OR SOLVING PROBLEMS 4HE OCCURRENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS IS ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH THE STATE OF NEW LINKAGE OF NERVE NETWORKS h4HE MORE EFFORT IS MADE AT LINKAGE THE MORE CONSCIOUS THE PROCEDURE BECOMES 4HE MORE @PREFABRICATED NETWORKS THERE ARE FOR A PARTICULAR COGNITIVE OR MOTOR TASK THE MORE AUTOMATICALLY AND UNCONSCIOUSLY WE CARRY OUT THE TASK #ONSCIOUSNESS IS THE BRAINS OWN SIGNAL TO COPE WITH A NEW PROBLEMv 7E CALL THE TYPES OF CONSCIOUSNESS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SOLVING OF PROBLEMS hPROBLEM SOLVING CONSCIOUSNESSv 4HIS STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS OCCURS WHEN THE COGNITIVE EMOTIONAL SYSTEM IS CONFRONTED WITH EVENTS AND PROBLEMS WHICH APPEAR SUF lCIENTLY IMPORTANT AND WHICH ARE SUFlCIENTLY NEW 4HOSE WHICH THE PRECONSCIOUSLY WORKING SYSTEM CATEGORIZES AS UNIMPORTANT APPEAR NOT AT ALL OR ONLY VERY UNCLEARLY IN OUR CONSCIOUSNESS )MPORTANT BUT FAMILIAR EVENTS AND TASKS LEAD TO THE ACTIVATION OF PROCESSING CHAN
NELS WHICH HAVE ALREADY DEALT WITH THEM IN THE PAST 7E THEN CARRY THE ACTIONS OUT AUTOMATICALLY AND UNCONSCIOUSLY AND AT THE MOST HAVE AN ACCOMPANYING AWARENESS WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE OF THE DETAILS h/NLY WHEN AN EVENT OR TASK IS CATEGORIZED AS NEW AND IMPORTANT EG IN CONNECTION WITH THE GRASPING OF NEW TYPES OF FACTS NEW SIGNIlCANC ES OF OBJECTS EVENTS SENTENCES THE LEARNING OF NEW MOTOR SKILLS THE IMAGINING AND REMEMBERING OF NEW COMPLEX CONTENTS THE PRONOUNC ING OF NEW COMPLEX SENTENCES THE EXECUTION OF NEW MOVEMENTS THE SOLVING OF DIFlCULT PROBLEMS COMPLICATED PLANNING OF ACTION THE AC TIVE REMEMBERING OF KNOWLEDGE THEN OUR SLOW WORKING CONSCIOUS NESS AND CONCENTRATION SYSTEM IS BROUGHT TO BEAR AND WE EXPERIENCE THE ACCOMPLISHED OPERATIONS AS EFFORT AND WORK 4HIS IS ALL THE MORE SO THE MORE UNFAMILIAR THE EVENT OR THE TASK IS )NTELLECTUAL WORK IS WORK TOO AND USES UP A COMMENSURATE AMOUNT OF METABOLIC ENERGY 4O THE SAME EXTENT THAT THE OPERATIONS ARE REPEATED BECOME PRACTICED AND lNALLY BECOME MORE OR LESS AUTOMATIC AND THUS MORE EFFORTLESS THE REQUIREMENT OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND CONCENTRATION ALSO DIMINISHES UNTIL lNALLY n IF AT ALL n ONLY AN ACCOMPANYING AWARENESS REMAINSv 0ROBLEM SOLVING CONSCIOUSNESS IS THUS A SPECIAL hTOOL OF THE BRAINv WHICH IS EMPLOYED BY THE BRAIN IN THE CASE OF NEW TYPES OF DIFlCULT AND SIGNIlCANT COGNITIVE OR MOTOR PROBLEMS WHICH NEED TO BE SOLVED )T IS HOWEVER TRUE THAT hTHE MORE AUTOMATICALLY A FUNCTION RUNS THE FASTER MORE RELIABLE AND CHEAPER FOR THE BRAIN )T IS THEREFORE NOT SUR PRISING THAT THE BRAIN ALWAYS STRIVES TO DRAW THINGS FROM THE ASSOCIA TIVE CORTEX #ONSCIOUSNESS FOR THE BRAIN IS A CONDITION TO BE AVOIDED WHEREVER POSSIBLE AND ONLY EMPLOYED IN EMERGENCIESv #ONSCIOUSNESS 0ROCESSES AND 4RANSFERS )N A TRANSFER SCHEMATA FROM DIFFERENT LEVELS ARE TRANSFERRED TO NEW STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS IE THESE NEW IMPRESSIONS ARE UNDERSTOOD AND MASTERED WITH THE AID OF THE SCHEMATA )N INTER WORLD TRANSFERS SCHEMATA WHICH HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO DEAL WITH FOR EXAMPLE THE VIRTUAL WORLD ARE TRANSFERRED TO ANOTHER WORLD EG THE MENTAL WORLD OR REAL WORLD 4HUS FACTS SCRIPTS PRINTS OR EVEN METAPHORS MIGHT MOVE FROM ONE WORLD TO ANOTHER BY BEING TRANSFERRED 4HIS PROCESS
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
/N THIS POINT SEE %RNST VON 'LASERSFELD 2ADIKALER +ONSTRUKTIVISMUS )DEEN %RGEBNISSE 0ROBLEME &RANKFURT A -
MAY TAKE PLACE UNCONSCIOUSLY AND ONLY BE DISCERNIBLE TO AN OBSERVER OR PLAYERS MAY BE CONSCIOUS OF IT TO THE EXTENT THAT THEY CAN TALK ABOUT THE TRANSFER ! PROBLEM SOLVING TRANSFER THINKING ABOUT THE SOLUTION OF GAME PROBLEMS AND DISCUSSING THEM WITH OTHERS IS INCONCEIVABLE WITHOUT PROCESSES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 0LAYERS CANNOT SOLVE THE PROBLEMS ARISING BY USING ROUTINE ALONE IE THE SCHEMATA AVAILABLE FOR THE GAME PRO CESSES CANNOT BE APPLIED WITHOUT ANY PROBLEMS THE GAME SITUATION CANNOT BE BROUGHT INTO LINE hASSIMILATEDv WITH THE AVAILABLE SCHE MATA 0LAYERS THEN HAVE TO CONSIDER HOW TO PROCEED WHICH OF THE POS SIBLE ALTERNATIVES FOR ACTION THEY WANT TO TAKE 4HIS THINKING PROCESS RESULTS IN DECISIONS WHICH ARE TESTED AND IF SUCCESSFUL LEAD TO THE CRE ATION OF NEW ACTION ROUTINES NEW SCHEMATA IN HANDLING THESE PROB LEMS )N OTHER WORDS PLAYERS NEED TO BRING THEIR SCHEMATA INTO LINE hACCOMMODATEv THEM WITH THE GAME SITUATION BY CHANGING THEM )N DOING SO THEY BECOME CONSCIOUS OF THE PROBLEM AND CONSCIOUSNESS MANIFESTS ITSELF IN ITS FUNCTION AS hPROBLEM SOLVING CONSCIOUSNESSv 4HE ACCOMMODATION PROCESS BRINGING THE SCHEMATA INTO LINE WITH THE GAME SITUATION MAY TAKE PLACE DIRECTLY IN THE GAME /FTEN HOWEVER THE GAME WILL BE CARRIED ON hIN THE HEAD v IE PLAYERS WILL THINK ABOUT THE GAME LONG AFTER THE COMPUTER HAS BEEN SWITCHED OFF 4HEY SET UP hTHOUGHT EXPERIMENTSv WHERE THEY IMAGINE WHAT A SO LUTION TO THE PROBLEM MIGHT LOOK LIKE OR WITH WHAT SCHEMATA THEY MIGHT SUCCEED )N OTHER WORDS PLAYERS TRANSFER THE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS FROM THE VIRTUAL TO THE MENTAL WORLD 3HOULD THIS NOT LEAD TO SUCCESS SUGGESTIONS FOR SOLUTIONS ARE STUDIED IN COMPUTER MAGAZINES TRANSFER TO THE MEDIA WORLD OR FRIENDS ARE ASKED FOR ADVICE AND HELP TRANSFER TO THE REAL WORLD
4HIS CONSCIOUSNESS ASSOCIATED PROBLEM SOLVING TRANSFER IS AC CORDING TO OUR INVESTIGATIONS AMONG THE MOST IMPORTANT AND ONE OF THE MOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING FORMS OF TRANSFER )TS VALUE FOR COGNITIVE LEARNING PROCESSES SHOULD NOT BE UNDERESTIMATED AS THE RESULTS OF THE THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS CAN BE APPLIED AND TESTED IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD AT ANY TIME %MOTIONAL TRANSFER IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH PROCESSES OF CON SCIOUSNESS IE PLAYERS ARE CONSCIOUS THAT THEY ARE TRANSFERRING FEELINGS EVOKED BY THE GAME SUCH AS JOY ANGER PRIDE TENSION 4HESE FEELINGS CARRY ON FOR SOME TIME AFTER A GAME AND ARE TRANSFERRED TO THE MENTAL WORLD AND IN PART ALSO TO THE VIRTUAL WORLD !FTER A SHORT TIME HOW EVER THEIR SIGNIlCANCE DIMINISHES )N EMOTIONAL TRANSFER CONSCIOUSNESS MANIFESTS ITSELF AS h) CON SCIOUSNESSv 0LAYERS BECOME CONSCIOUS OF THEIR FEELINGS AND THE REA SONS FOR THEM AND ARE THUS OFTEN ALSO ABLE TO RELATIVIZE THE TRANSFER PROCESS AND THEREBY MODERATE IT )NSTRUMENTALLY ACTION ORIENTED TRANSFERS IF THEY TAKE PLACE AT ALL WILL NOT AS A RULE BE APPARENT TO PLAYERS 4HE SCHEMATA DEVELOPED FOR THE VIRTUAL WORLD ARE NOT AS A RULE SUITED TO A TRANSFER TO THE REAL WORLD AT THE SCRIPT OR PRINT LEVEL ! TRANSFER AT THE METAPHORICAL LEVEL WHILE APPARENTLY POSSIBLE REQUIRES PLAYERS WITH A HIGHLY DEVELOPED CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE SENSE OF SELF AWARENESS IF ONE WISHES TO lND SUF lCIENTLY CONVINCING EVIDENCE FOR IT IN hIN DEPTH INTERVIEWSv
4HE SAME IS TRUE OF ETHICAL MORAL TRANSFERS )T CAN GENERALLY BE SAID THAT THE OCCURRENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS IS CONNECTED TO THE TRANS FER LEVEL IE THE DEEPER THE TRANSFER LEVEL THE LESS THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE TRANSFER 6IOLENTLY ORIENTED AND HUMANITY DESPISING CONTENT IN COMPUTER GAMES IS FOR MOST PLAYERS NOT IN THE LEAST SUITED TO TRANSFER AT THE SCRIPT OR PRINT LEVEL BECAUSE THESE LEVELS ARE RELATIVELY ACCESSIBLE TO THEIR CONSCIOUSNESS "UT WHAT IF THIS CONTENT AND THE GAME DYNAM ICS ASSOCIATED WITH IT BECOME hEMBEDDEDv AS METAPHORS FOR FORMS OF INTERACTION BETWEEN PEOPLE 4O THE EXTENT THAT CLEAR hMEMORY BRIDGESv OCCUR IN AN ASSO CIATIVE TRANSFER SO THAT PLAYERS FEEL SPONTANEOUSLY REMINDED OF GAME ELEMENTS WHEN CONFRONTED WITH STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS IN THE REAL WORLD THEN THIS TRANSFER ALSO BECOMES CONSCIOUS 4HIS HAPPENS RELA TIVELY SELDOM HOWEVER !SSOCIATIONS ARE TOO DIFFUSE AND DETACHED FOR A TRANSFER CLEARLY TO ENTER INTO CONSCIOUSNESS 2EALITY STRUCTURING TRANSFERS MIGHT PROVE PROBLEMATIC IF COM PUTER GAME SPECIlC SCRIPTS AND PRINTS WERE ABSORBED WITHOUT A NEC ESSARY EXAMINATION AS INFORMATION FOR UNDERSTANDING REALITY !S A RULE REALITY STRUCTURING TRANSFERS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH PROCESSES OF CON SCIOUSNESS BECAUSE PLAYERS IN A GAME PROCESS ARE CONSTANTLY CONFRONTED WITH THE PROBLEM OF WHETHER THEIR REALITY STRUCTURING SCHEMATA DEVEL OPED FOR THE REAL WORLD CAN BE APPLIED TO THE GAME PROCESSES )F THESE hASSIMILATION PROCESSESv FAIL PLAYERS ARE CONFRONTED WITH THE PROBLEM OF ADJUSTING SCHEMATA TO THE VIRTUAL WORLD 4HIS THEN DEMANDS CON SCIOUSNESS IN THE FORM OF hPROBLEM SOLVING CONSCIOUSNESSv WHICH IN OLDER PLAYERS SHOULD BE IN A POSITION TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN REALITY AND VIRTUALITY )NFORMATIONAL TRANSFER TAKES PLACE AT THE FACT LEVEL AS A RULE 3UCH A TRANSFER BECOMES APPARENT TO PLAYERS BECAUSE THEY ARE CON FRONTED WITH THE PROBLEM OF JUDGING WHETHER FACTS AND INFORMATION FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD ARE SUITED TO UNDERSTANDING THE REAL WORLD )T
CANNOT BE RULED OUT HERE THAT RELATIVELY OBSCURE INFORMATION IN COM PUTER GAMES OR INFOTAINMENT PRODUCTS MIGHT UNOBTRUSIVELY ACHIEVE REALITY STRUCTURING FUNCTIONS 3YSTEMATICALLY EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATIONS ARE NEEDED HERE TO ILLUMINATE THE PROCESSES OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN INFOR MATIONAL TRANSFERS 4HE MEMORY OF COMPUTER GAMES AND THEIR INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS IE MEMORY RELATED TRANSFER HAS AS YET NOT BEEN SYSTEMATICALLY INVES TIGATED 4HUS NEITHER DO WE KNOW WHAT PART OF GAMES CONTINUES TO BE REMEMBERED AND REACHES THE CONSCIOUSNESS THROUGH A QUESTIONING IMPULSE 0ROBABLY THIS DEPENDS BOTH ON THE PECULIARITIES OF THE GAMES AND ON THE SPECIAL INTEREST OF A PLAYER ! TIME EXPERIENCING TRANSFER PRESUPPOSES h) CONSCIOUSNESSv IT BECOMES APPARENT TO ME THAT ) EXPERIENCE THE VIRTUAL WORLD CHRONO LOGICALLY DIFFERENTLY THAN THE REAL WORLD 4HE hRE ENTRY TIMEv WHICH AFTER LONG SESSIONS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD IS NECESSARY TO THEN FULLY AC CLIMATIZE TO THE REAL WORLD BECOMES APPARENT TO PLAYERS THROUGH THE TRANSFER OF SPECIAL TIME EXPERIENCES WHICH THEY HAVE HAD IN THE VIR TUAL WORLD TO THE REAL WORLD 4HUS IT MIGHT HAPPEN THAT AFTER AN AC TION PACKED COMPUTER GAME PLAYERS REACT FASTER IN THE REAL WORLD FOR A TIME BUT ALSO HAVE THE FEELING OF BEING UNDER HIGHER PRESSURE TO ACT ! TRANSFER RELATED TO IMAGINATIVE ACTIVITY IE A CONTINUATION OF GAME ACTIVITIES IN THE MENTAL WORLD POSSIBLY ALSO THE PLAY WORLD RE QUIRES CONSCIOUSNESS (OWEVER THE INTENSITY OF hATTENTION CONSCIOUS NESSv MAY BE DEVELOPED TO DIFFERING DEGREES )F ALL OTHER THOUGHTS AND STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS ARE SWITCHED OFF PLAYERS CAN CONCENTRATE EN TIRELY ON PICTURING THE COURSE OF A GAME IN EVERY DETAIL OR MENTALLY IMPOSING CHANGES IN A GAME 4HEY MAY ALSO AS IF IN A DAYDREAM GIVE THEMSELVES UP TO THE THOUGHT OF CONTINUING THE GAME WHILE PURSUING OTHER ACTIVITIES BESIDES
/N THE KEYWORD hFASCINATION v CF $IETER "AACKE h:UM PØDAGOGISCHEN 7IDERWILLEN GEGEN DEN 3EH 3INN v IN 7ELTBILDER 7AHRNEHMUNG 7IRKLICHKEIT $IETER "AACKE AND &RANZ *OSEF 2LL /PLADEN PP
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
(UBERT 3CHLEICHERT hâ BER DIE "EDEUTUNG VON "EWUSSTSEIN v IN 3YBILLE +RØMER "EWUTSEIN &RANKFURT A - ! FUNCTIONAL CYCLE IS THUS CREATED WHICH CAN BE REPRESENTED AS A MODEL CF LOC CIT ; = /N THE REALITY EMPHASIS OF DIFFERENT WORLDS CF !LFRED 3CHÓTZ AND 4HOMAS ,UCKMANN 3TRUKTUREN DER ,EBENSWELT 6OL &RANKFURT A - PP
#ONSCIOUSNESS OF 4RANSFERS 4HE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS CONSISTS IN THE FACT THAT OUT OF THE WEALTH OF STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS AND INFORMATION LINKED TO CEREBRAL ACTIVITIES IT ONLY SELECTS A SMALL PART THAT WHICH IS RELEVANT TO THE GIVEN SITUATION #ONSCIOUSNESS IS IMPORTANT TO PEOPLE BECAUSE IT IS hTOLDv BY SPECIAL AREAS OF THE BRAIN WHAT IS IMPORTANT FOR THEM 4HIS IS ALSO TRUE OF CONSCIOUSNESS OF TRANSFERS 4RANSFERS BECOME CONSCIOUS WHEN IT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW SOMETHING ABOUT THEM 4HIS MIGHT BE THE CASE WHEN A 0ROBEHANDELN WITH TRANSFERRED SCHEMATA THROWS UP PROBLEMS BECAUSE THEY DO NOT lT BECAUSE THEY ARE NOT AS SIMILABLE IN RELATION TO THE SITUATION )T MIGHT HOWEVER ALSO BE THE CASE WHEN AN INTEREST IN lNDING OUT SOMETHING ABOUT TRANSFER PROCESSES IS SPARKED IN THE PLAYER )F A PERSON IS ASKED ABOUT TRANSFER PROCESSES THEN THAT IS PRECISELY WHERE THEIR ATTENTION WILL BE DIRECTED h4HERE IS ONE OPERATION WHICH IS ALWAYS PERFORMED CONSCIOUSLY TALKINGv )F PLAYERS TALK ABOUT THEIR EXPERIENCES FEELINGS AND THOUGHTS REGARDING TRANSFER PROCESSES DUR ING COMPUTER GAMES THEY BECOME APPARENT TO THEM AND OTHERS 7ITH CONSCIOUSNESS OF TRANSFER PROCESSES PLAYERS ATTAIN OPPORTUNITIES TO IN mUENCE THIS PROCESS n AND SCIENTISTS GAIN INSIGHTS #ONDITIONS FOR 4RANSFER 7HAT MAKES TRANSFERS FROM VIRTUAL WORLDS TO OTHER WORLDS POSSI BLE 7HAT REINFORCES THEM 4HE VIRTUAL WORLD MUST GAIN MY ATTENTION AND THEREBY TRIGGER THE IMPULSE TO hGO INTOv THIS WORLD !S SOON AS THE VIRTUAL WORLD HAS AWAKENED INTEREST IN ME AND COMMANDED MY ATTENTION IT BECOMES REAL TO ME !S SOON AS ) WITHDRAW MY AT TENTION FROM IT HOWEVER IT DISAPPEARS AS hREALITYv 4HE FASCINATION WITH WHICH WE MAY APPROACH VIRTUAL WORLDS CAN ALSO BE DESCRIBED AS A PARTICULAR FORM OF ATTENTION AND THEREBY CONSCIOUSNESS WITH RESPECT TO THIS WORLD /NLY WHEN THE VIRTUAL WORLD HAS EXCITED MY ATTENTION AND IT HAS THEREBY BECOME hREALv TO ME CAN TRANSFERS COME FROM THIS WORLD &EELINGS ARISE IN RELATION TO HAPPENINGS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD AND ) DEVELOP SCHEMATA FOR SUCCEEDING IN THIS WORLD AND THUS REACHING THE SPECTRA OF FEELING WHICH ) REGARD AS POSITIVE
7ILLINGNESS TO 4RANSFER 4HE MORE STRONGLY A WORLD COMMANDS MY ATTENTION THE MORE INTENSE THE FEELINGS ARE THAT ARISE IN THE GAME PROCESSES THE GREATER WILL BE THE WILLINGNESS TO TRANSFER 4HE INTENSITY AND DURATION OF SES SIONS IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD CERTAINLY HAVE AN INmUENCE ON WILLINGNESS TO TRANSFER 4HE DURATION AND INTENSITY OF GAME PROCESSES ARE INmU ENCED BY THE SIGNIlCANCE A GAME HAS FOR A PLAYER 4O WHAT EXTENT DO WE hNEEDv THE VIRTUAL WORLD TO REACH GOOD FEELINGS (OW FAR DOES THE GAME AND THE OPERATIONS REQUIRED IN IT lT IN WITH ONES OWN POSSIBILI TIES (OW FAR DOES THE GAME REmECT SOMETHING OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE PLAYERS LIFE 4HE LEVELS OF LINKING BETWEEN GAME AND PLAYER ARE OFTEN EXPRESSED IN THE TYPE OF GAME CHOSEN 3OME FAVOR ACTION GAMES OTHER ARE hSPECIALISTSv IN STRATEGY GAMES WHILE ANOTHER GROUP LOVES THE hJUICYv RIDDLES IN ADVENTURES 7ILLINGNESS TO TRANSFER EXPRESSES ITSELF IN A PLAYERS TENDENCY TO TRANSFER THE INTENSE FEELINGS AND THOUGHT AND ACTION SCHEMATA hSUC CESSFULv IN A VIRTUAL WORLD TO ANOTHER WORLD TO CONTINUE EXPERIENCING IN ANOTHER SPHERE WHAT WAS SUCH A POSITIVE EXPERIENCE IN THE lRST 4HIS MAY MEAN ANOTHER VIRTUAL WORLD IE A SIMILAR COMPUTER GAME OR THE MENTAL WORLD THE PLAY WORLD OR THE REAL WORLD 7HETHER AND TO WHAT EXTENT THIS WILLINGNESS TO TRANSFER CAN BE REALIZED IS CRUCIALLY DEPEN DENT ON THE FACTORS WHICH CONSTITUTE ACCEPTANCE OF THE TRANSFER !CCEPTANCE OF A 4RANSFER "EFORE A TRANSFER IMPULSE CAN BE hTRANSPLANTEDv AND hIMPLANTEDv INTO hANOTHERv WORLD IT MUST PASS UNDAMAGED THROUGH A hTRANSFER CONTROLv BY OUR CONSCIOUSNESS /UR CONSCIOUSNESS MIGHT NOT HAVE ANY INmUENCE ON ALL THE DIFFERENT IMPULSES TO ACTION AS WELL AS PERCEPTION AND THOUGHT SCHEMATA WHICH ARISE AND DEVELOP WILLINGNESS TO TRANSFER "UT CONSCIOUSNESS DOES CHOOSE WHAT PART OF THEM BECOMES CONSCIOUS !ND IT CAN EXERCISE A hVETO v IE PREVENT CERTAIN IMPULSES BEING REAL IZED OR IMPLEMENTED IN PRACTICE
/NE MIGHT CONSIDER AN ADOLESCENT FOR EXAMPLE WHO ACTIVELY PARTICIPATES IN A KARATE CLUB )T IS CERTAINLY NOT THE KARATE GAME THAT GIVES HIM THE ACTION ORIENTED SCHEMATA FOR KARATE BUT THE TRAINING SESSIONS IN THE CLUB
(OW OUR CONSCIOUSNESS OR A CERTAIN AREA OF THE BRAIN CONTROLS THE STREAM OF TRANSFER IMPULSES FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD AND HOW RIGID OR LAX IT IS IN DOING SO HAVE NOT EVEN BEGUN TO BE EXAMINED BY RE SEARCHERS 7HAT IS ALSO UNRESOLVED IS WHETHER AND IF SO WHICH IMPULSES MIGHT UNDERGO THE hTRANSFER CONTROLv !LL FURTHER STATEMENTS ON THE SPHERE OF TRANSFER ACCEPTANCE CAN THUS BE ONLY HYPOTHETICAL OR BASED ON CHANCE lNDINGS 7E MAY lRST ASSUME THAT SUITABILITY CHECKS MIGHT BECOME CON SCIOUS FOR IMPULSES DIRECTED AT RELATIVELY CONCRETE ACTION IE TRANSFERS ON OFFER AT THE SCRIPT AND PRINT LEVELS 3PONTANEOUS IMPULSES IN PLAY ERS FOR EXAMPLE TO TRANSFER CLICKING ON THINGS ON A SCREEN TO OBJECTS IN THE REAL WORLD WILL BECOME CONSCIOUS AND GIVE RISE TO FEELINGS OF ASTONISHMENT AND WONDER BECAUSE SUCH A TRANSFER IS OBVIOUSLY UN REASONABLE )F SUITABILITY CHECKS TURN OUT POSITIVELY HOWEVER EG FOR THROWING TECHNIQUES IN BASKETBALL THIS MIGHT THEN RESULT IN A TRANSFER TO THE REAL WORLD AT THE PRINT LEVEL 4RANSFERS FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD TO THE MENTAL WORLD ARE CON SIDERABLY SIMPLER THAN THOSE TO THE REAL WORLD 4HEY ARE NOT SUBJECT HERE TO THE STRICT SUITABILITY CHECKS OF CONSCIOUSNESS BECAUSE SUCH A TRANSFER DOES NOT LEAD DIRECTLY TO ACTION 4HE IMPULSES FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD ARE MERELY CARRIED ON IN THOUGHT 4HE SCHEMATA AND CONTENT FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD CAN BE CONTINUED WITHOUT ANY ACCOMMODATION PROBLEMS IE WITHOUT ANY NEED TO ADAPT THE SCHEMATA TO THE MENTAL WORLD !S SOON AS THERE ARE TO BE TRANSFERS FROM THE VIRTUAL TO THE REAL WORLD A COMPLEX ACCOMMODATION PROCESS WILL AS A RULE BE REQUIRED *UST AS EYES MUST BE ADJUSTED TO DIFFERENT DISTANCES IT WILL BE NECES SARY TO MODIFY THE SCHEMATA FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD UNTIL THEY CAN BE SUCCESSFULLY APPLIED IN THE REAL WORLD 4HIS EFFORT SEEMS TO MAKE LITTLE SENSE IN VIEW OF THE POSSIBILITY OF RECOURSE TO EXISTING SCHEMATA DE VELOPED FOR THE REAL WORLD !N ASSIMILATION OF REAL CONDITIONS TO THE SCHEMATA TESTED OUT IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD CAN AS A RULE BE ELIMI NATED IE THE RULES CONTEXTS AND POSSIBILITIES FOR ACTION ARE TOO DIFFER ENT IN THE TWO WORLDS !N ASSIMILATION MIGHT AT MOST BE POSSIBLE WITH SIMULATIONS EXTREMELY CLOSE TO REALITY OPTIMIZED FOR TRAINING PURPOSES
EG mIGHT SIMULATORS &ROM THIS VIEWPOINT VIOLENTLY ORIENTED GAMES MIGHT BECOME PROBLEMATIC IF IN THEIR GRAPHIC APPEARANCE THEY BRING THEMSELVES EVER MORE CLOSELY INTO LINE WITH THE STIMULI AND VISUAL PER SPECTIVES WHICH WE NORMALLY hFRAMEv AS BELONGING TO THE REAL WORLD 4HESE RESERVATIONS ARE ESPECIALLY VALID WHEN PLAYERS HAVE INSUFlCIENT hFRAMING COMPETENCE v IE HAVE DIFlCULTY IN CONTROLLING TRANSFER PRO CESSES AND APPROPRIATELY ASSIGNING STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS TO RESPEC TIVE WORLDS 7E WILL BE COMING BACK TO hFRAMING COMPETENCEv AT THE END OF THE ARTICLE !CCEPTANCE IS RELATIVELY HIGH WITH EMOTIONAL TRANSFERS &EELINGS AS hEMOTIONAL MARKERSv JUMP FROM WORLD TO WORLD ATTACH THEMSELVES TO STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS DETERMINE ALTER AND COLOR THE SCHEMATA ASSOCIATED WITH THESE STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS &EELINGS HAVE THE PE CULIARITY OF LINGERING ON FOR A CERTAIN TIME !LTHOUGH THE STIMULATORY IMPRESSION IS NO LONGER PRESENT THE EMOTIONAL COLORING ASSOCIATED WITH IT MAY GO ON AND EVEN INmUENCE OTHER STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS FOR A SHORT WHILE 4HIS IS ALSO TRUE OF EMOTIONAL TRANSFERS FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD 4HUS FEELINGS OF SUCCESS AND PRIDE ABOUT ACHIEVEMENTS DEMONSTRATED IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD MAY LAST FOR A SHORT TIME AFTER A GAME JUST AS FEELINGS OF RAGE ANGER AND TENSION MAY 4HE PERSISTENCE OF THESE FEELINGS IS RELATED TO THE INTENSITY OF THE GAME PROCESSES AND WITH THE SIGNIlCANCE THESE PROCESSES HAVE IN THE REMAINDER OF A PLAY ERS LIFE #ONSCIOUSNESS WILL ONLY INTERVENE IN THIS TRANSFER PROCESS IF THE TRANSFERRED FEELING LASTS FOR TOO LONG AND INmUENCES BEHAVIOR IN A DISPROPORTIONATELY MARKED WAY &EELINGS APPEAR AS mEETING COMPANIONS WHICH PEOPLE ENCOUNTER IN EVERY ONE OF THEIR WORLDS AND WHICH MAY ACCOMPANY THEM FROM WORLD TO WORLD 4HIS PECULIARITY ALSO GIVES THEM THE FUNCTION OF CREAT ING ASSOCIATIONS IN THE STREAM OF EXPERIENCE AND ABSORBING EXCESSIVE mUCTUATIONS )T IS THUS IN THEIR NATURE TO LINGER ON AND IT IS THEREFORE ALSO UNDERSTANDABLE THAT WE TREAT EMOTIONAL TRANSFER WITH UNDERSTAND ING AND TOLERANCE
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
3CHEMATA AND SCHEMATA DEVELOPMENT IN COMPUTER GAMES
#F (UMBERTO 2 -ATURA h+OGNITION v IN $ER $ISKURS DES 2ADIKALEN +ONSTRUKTIVISMUS 3IEGFRIED * 3CHMIDT &RANKFURT A - 6OLKER 2IEGAS h'LOSSARY v IN :UR "IOLOGIE DER +OGNITION 6OLKER 2IEGAS AND #HRISTIAN 6ETTER &RANKFURT A - #F (UMBERTO -ATURA 7AS IST ERKENNEN -UNICH AND :URICH AND 4HUS IN 3IEGFRIED * 3CHMIDT +OGNITIVE !UTONOMIE UND SOZIALE /RIENTIERUNG &RANKFURT A -
#F *ÓRGEN &RITZ AND 7OLFGANG &EHR h#OMPUTER SPIELE ALS &ORTSETZUNG DES !LLTAGS v IN (ANDBUCH #OM PUTERSPIELE #$ "ONN h3CHEMATAv ARE PROCEDURAL PATTERNS CREATED BY THE WORKINGS OF THE BRAIN OR COGNITIVE PROGRAMES CONCERNED WITH PERCEPTION AND ACTION CF 3IEGFRIED * 3CHMIDT h$ER BEOBACHTETE "EOBACHTER v IN :UR "IOLOGIE DER +OGNITION 6OLKER 2IEGAS AND #HRISTIAN 6ETTER &RANKFURT A - PP
4HE TWO TERMS COME FROM *EAN 0IAGETS THEORY ! SUCCESSFUL INTERPRETATION OF 0IAGETS CONSTRUCTIVISTIC THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE CAN BE FOUND IN %RNST VON 'LASERSFELD 2ADIKALER +ONSTRUKTIVISMUS )DEEN %RGEB NISSE 0ROBLEME &RANKFURT A - PP ,OC CIT ; =
3TRUCTURAL ,INKING AND 4RANSFER 3TRUCTURAL ,INKING WITH THE 6IRTUAL 7ORLD 7HEN LIVING CREATURES ACT SUCCESSFULLY IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT IN OTHER WORDS ARE ABLE TO SURVIVE THEN THE STRUCTURE OF THESE CREATURES AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ARE STRUCTURALLY LINKED WITH EACH OTHER 4HIS hSTRUCTURAL LINKINGv SAFEGUARDS THE CONTINUED EXISTENCE OF THE CREATURES IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT 3TIMULI FROM THE ENVIRONMENT PROVOKE IRRITATIONS IN THE SYSTEM OF A CREATURE TO WHICH IT RESPONDS IN A SYSTEM SPECIlC MANNER EG THROUGH CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR PATTERNS OR PERCEPTION SCHEMATA 7HILE THE ENVIRONMENT TRIGGERS THESE CHANGES IT DOES NOT DETERMINE THE NATURE AND COURSE OF THE ADJUSTMENT PROCESS #REATURES CERTAINLY REACT TO THAT WHICH THEY ENCOUNTER BUT WITHOUT EXCEPTION IN THE MANNER IN WHICH THEY THEMSELVES ARE STRUCTURED IE SELF ORGANIZING OR hAUTOPOIETICALLYv 4HIS WIDELY DElNED CONCEPT OF hSTRUCTURAL LINKINGv CAN ALSO BE EMPLOYED TO CHARACTERIZE THE INTERACTIVE PROCESS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND THEIR MEDIA ENVIRONMENT )N THE CONTEXT OF OUR OWN EMPIRICAL INVES TIGATIONS THE TERM hSTRUCTURAL LINKINGv WAS USED AS A MODEL FOR EXPLAIN ING THE PREFERENCES OF COMPUTER GAME PLAYERS FOR CERTAIN GAMES AND GAME TYPES 4HE STIMULI OFFERED BY A hVIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTv TRIGGER ADJUSTMENT PROCESSES IN PLAYERS IN WHICH THEIR OWN STRUCTURE BECOME EVIDENT 4HEY PRIMARILY CHOOSE GAMES WHICH ARE hSUITEDv TO THEM BOTH WITH REGARD TO PREFERENCES INTERESTS AND DISLIKES WHICH ARE ORIENTED TO GAME CONTENT AND ALSO IN RELATION TO PERSONALITY TRAITS CONCRETE LIVING SITUATIONS AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THEIR LIVING CONTEXT 'IVEN THE PREFERENTIAL CHOICES OF PLAYERS WE CAN SEE RESULTS OF STRUCTURAL LINKING WITH THE VIRTUAL WORLD 7E WILL NOW TAKE A SOME WHAT CLOSER LOOK AT THE PROCESS OF THIS LINKING SO AS THEN TO ELUCIDATE WHERE THE ELEMENT OF TRANSFER LIES AND WHAT IT MEANS WHEN WE TALK OF THE hEFFECTS OF VIRTUAL WORLDSv )N THE INTERACTIVE PROCESS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT INDIVIDUALS DEVELOP SCHEMATA ACCORDING TO HOW THEY ARE STRUCTURALLY DETERMINED FOR PERCEPTIONS AND ACTIONS WHICH ARE COLLATED WITH THE ENVIRONMENT 4HE SAME THING ALSO HAPPENS WITH REGARD TO THE VIRTUAL WORLD )N THE PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT AND DIFFERENTIATION OF SCHEMATA
TO STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD THOSE SCHEMATA ARE RETAINED WHICH ARE SUCCESSFUL WHICH SAFEGUARD SURVIVAL IN THE VARIOUS VIRTUAL WORLDS )N ADDITION THOSE WORLDS ARE CHOSEN FOR PREFERENCE IN WHICH EACH PLAYER CAN OPERATE SUCCESSFULLY WITH THESE TRIED AND TESTED SCHEMATA &ROM THIS VIEWPOINT TOO PREFERENTIAL CHOICES ARE UNDER STANDABLE 4HE PROCESS OF STRUCTURAL LINKING IS DETERMINED BY ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION 7ITH REGARD TO THE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT THIS MEANS THAT PLAYERS INITIALLY ATTEMPT TO ACCESS THE STIMULATORY IM PRESSIONS OF THE VIRTUAL WORLD WITH THE SCHEMATA ACQUIRED IN THE REAL AND MEDIA WORLD 4HEY UNDERSTAND THEM AGAINST THE BACKGROUND OF THEIR EXPERIENCES HITHERTO AND DIRECT THEIR BEHAVIOR ACCORDINGLY 7E CALL THIS FORM OF ADJUSTMENT OF STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS TO EXIST ING SCHEMATA ASSIMILATION 4HE ASSIMILATORY ADJUSTMENT PROCESS THUS REDUCES THE NEW STIMULATORY IMPRESSION FROM THE VIRTUAL WORLD TO PREVIOUSLY PRESCRIBED SENSORY MOTOR OR CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURES h%ACH STEP IN MY INTERPRETATION OF THE WORLD IS BASED ON ITS OWN STOCK OF EARLIER EXPERIENCES BOTH MY OWN DIRECT EXPERIENCES AND ALSO THOSE EXPERIENCES PASSED ON TO ME BY MY FELLOW HUMAN BEINGS ESPECIALLY MY PARENTS TEACHERS AND SO ON !LL THESE COMMUNICATED AND DIRECT EXPERIENCES AMALGAMATE INTO A CERTAIN UNITY IN THE FORM OF A STOCK OF KNOWLEDGE WHICH SERVES ME AS A SCHEMA OF REFERENCE FOR THE PARTICULAR STEP IN MY INTERPRETATION OF THE WORLD !LL MY EXPERIENCES IN THE LIVED WORLD ARE RELATED TO THIS SCHEMA SO THAT FROM THE OUTSET ) ENCOUNTER THE OBJECTS AND EVENTS IN THE LIVED WORLD IN THEIR TYPICALITY x %VERY INTERPRETATION IN THE LIVED WORLD IS AN INTERPRETATION WITHIN A FRAME WORK OF WHAT HAS ALREADY BEEN INTERPRETED WITHIN A REALITY FAMILIAR FUNDAMENTALLY AND ACCORDING TO TYPEv 7HAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR EXPERIENCES IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD ,ET US ELUCIDATE THE ASSIMILATION PROCESS IN COMPUTER GAMES THROUGH THE EXAMPLE OF A DRIVING GAME 4HE STIMULATORY IMPRESSION OF A DRIVING GAME BEARS A REMOTE SIMILARITY TO DRIVING AS EXPERIENCED IN REALITY 4HE WAYS OF REPRESENTING DRIVING IN THE MEDIA WORLD IN lLMS AND TELEVI SION SERIES HAVE ALSO LED AS A RULE TO THE RECIPIENT DEVELOPING CERTAIN SCHEMATA FOR THE PERCEPTION OF DRIVING SCENES IN lLMS 7ITH THIS STOCK
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
&OLLOWING DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FUNCTIONS OF TEXTS ONE MIGHT SEE COMPUTER GAMES LIKE TEXTS hAS HIGHLY CONVENTIONALISED OCCASIONS FOR THE CARRYING OUT OF COGNITIVE OPERATIONSv 3CHMIDT LOC CIT ; = P 4HE RESULTS OF THESE COGNITIVE AND SENSORY MOTOR OPERATIONS DEPEND NOT ONLY ON THE COMPUTER GAME BUT ON THE PLAYING SITUATION AND THE PARTICULAR OVERALL CONDITION OF THE COGNITIVE SYSTEM #F LOC CIT ; =
OF SCHEMATA PLAYERS ATTEMPT TO ACQUIRE COGNITIVE AND ACTION ORIENTED ACCESS TO A COMPUTER GAME )N ADDITION THEY MUST ACTIVATE SCHEMATA NECESSARY FOR INTERACTION WITH COMPUTERS AND COMPUTER GAMES IN GENERAL )N SHORT EVERYTHING AVAILABLE IN THE PLAYERS STOCK OF SCHEMATA IS CHECKED FOR SUITABILITY 4HUS PLAYERS CAN ONLY GRASP THOSE ELEMENTS OF A GAME WHICH ARE PROVIDED FOR THROUGH THEIR SCHEMATA 7E SHOULD BE CONSCIOUS THOUGH THAT VIRTUAL WORLDS ARE NOT AN ENTIRELY FOREIGN PHENOMENON BUT ARE ORIENTED TOWARDS FAMILIAR PATTERNS AND SCHE MATA KNOWN FROM THE REAL AND MEDIA WORLDS )F IT WERE NOT POSSIBLE EVEN TO BEGIN ASSIMILATIVE ADJUSTMENT PROCESSES IT IS QUESTIONABLE WHETHER SUCH GAMES COULD ATTRACT INTEREST OR CAUSE A DEMAND AT ALL ,ET US NOW ASSUME THAT A PLAYER HAS FOUND INITIAL ACCESS TO A GAME WITH THE AID OF THEIR SCHEMATA 4HEY SEE WHAT GOES ON IN THE GAME AND MUST ACT APPROPRIATELY IN ORDER TO STAY IN IT (OWEVER THEY LACK THE PREREQUISITES THEY ARE NOT YET IN A POSITION TO ADEQUATELY GRASP THE FUNDAMENTAL ACTION DETERMINING INFORMATIVE STIMULI OF THE GAME AND CONVERT THEM INTO THE NECESSARY ACTIONS IN THE GAME 4HE ASSIMILATION PROCESS DOES NOT PRODUCE THE DESIRED RESULT 4HERE NOW ARISES WHAT 0IAGET CALLS A hPERTURBATION v THAT IS TO SAY A DISTURBANCE A DISAPPOINT MENT A SURPRISE !ND THIS MAY NOW TRIGGER THE PROCESS OF hACCOM MODATIONv "Y ACCOMMODATION WE UNDERSTAND THE MODIlCATION OF EXISTING SCHEMATA OR THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW SCHEMATA THE BETTER TO DO JUS TICE TO THE STIMULATORY IMPRESSION THROUGH THIS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT ! PLAYER WHO IN A DRIVING GAME HAS DIFlCULTY IN ADEQUATELY STEERING THE hVIRTUAL CARv WILL AFTER A NUMBER OF ATTEMPTS DEVELOP ACTION SCHE MATA WHICH ARE CONSIDERABLY MORE SUCCESSFUL 4HE PLAYER ALSO LEARNS BETTER TO RECOGNIZE DANGER POINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE GAME WITH THE AID OF NEW SCHEMATA !S SOON AS A PLAYER LEARNS THAT THESE SCHE MATA ARE SUCCESSFUL THEY ARE INCLUDED IN THE hSTOCKv OF PERCEPTION AND ACTION SCHEMATA AND ARE THEN AVAILABLE FOR OTHER DRIVING GAMES !CCOMMODATION PROCESSES RELATED TO THE VIRTUAL WORLD OF COMPUTER GAMES ARE DETERMINED BY THE REQUIREMENT TO ATTAIN POWER DOMINION AND CONTROL /NLY ADJUSTMENT PROCESSES WHICH ENSURE THIS ARE hSUC CESSFULv AND WILL BE ADDED TO THE hSTOCKv OF SCHEMATA 4O THIS EXTENT
THESE PROCESSES MIRROR SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN OUR SOCIETY 3OCIETYS ORI ENTATION TOWARDS POWER DOMINION AND CONTROL IS STRUCTURALLY LINKED BOTH WITH COMPUTER GAMES AND WITH THEIR PLAYERS 4RANSFER 0ROCESSES IN THE #ONTEXT OF 3TRUCTURAL ,INKING ! COMPUTER GAME PLAYER WHO HAS MANY YEARS PLAYING EXPERIENCE WILL HAVE A CORRESPONDING COLLECTION OF SCHEMATA WHICH ARE HIGHLY SUCCESSFUL IN THE VARIOUS VIRTUAL WORLDS "UT ARE THEY ONLY SUITABLE FOR VIRTUAL WORLDS #OULD THEY NOT POSSIBLY ALSO BE USED IN THE REAL OR MENTAL WORLD (ERE BEGINS WHAT WE CALL TRANSFER OR MORE ACCURATELY INTER WORLD TRANSFER IE THE TRANSFER OF SCHEMATA FROM ONE WORLD INTO ANOTHER 4HE ASSIMILATION PROCESS MAKES USE OF SCHEMATA WHICH CAN NOT IN FACT lT 3TRUCTURAL LINKING IS THREATENED WITH DISASTER 7E NEED ONLY THINK OF A DRIVER INVOLVED IN ROAD TRAFlC IN A REAL CAR ASSIMILATING THE TRAFlC SITUATION WITH SCHEMATA DERIVED FROM COMPUTER GAMES )T IS PRECISELY THESE RESERVATIONS WHICH EXIST AMONG THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND TO A GREAT EXTENT DETERMINE THE SCIENTIlC DEBATE AND WHAT WE CALL hMEDIA EFFECTS RESEARCHv 4HE PROBLEM RAISED IN EFFECTS RESEARCH IS THAT OF SCHEMATA DEVELOPED IN THE VIRTUAL OR MEDIA WORLDS BEING TRANSFERRED UNCHECKED INTO THE REAL WORLD AND INmUENCING THOUGHT AND ACTION THERE /R TO PUT IT INTO A hHANDYv FORMULA COMPUTER GAMES CAUSE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR IN THE REAL WORLD !S WE HAVE SEEN SUCH A SWEEPING SUPPOSITION OF EFFECT CANNOT BE RECONCILED WITH THE COMPLEX PROCESS OF STRUCTURAL LINKING )NTER WORLD TRANSFER IS INCLUDED IN THE CYCLE OF ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION SO AS TO EXPAND THE STOCK OF POSSIBLE SCHEMATA BUT NOT SO AS TO AUTO MATICALLY AFFECT BEHAVIOR SEE &IGURE 2ATHER THIS PROCESS IS LINKED TO MANY DIFFERENT AND COMPLEX CONDITIONS WHICH WERE DISCUSSED IN 3ECTION "ASICALLY IT IS NOT THE TRANSFER OR WILLINGNESS TO TRANSFER WHICH IS PROBLEMATIC BUT A POSSIBLE INAPPROPRIATENESS OF TRANSFER WHICH COULD BE ESTABLISHED BY AN EXTERNAL OBSERVER 4HIS INAPPRO PRIATENESS OF TRANSFER DOES INDEED BECOME PROBLEMATIC WHEN IT STEMS FROM DEFECTIVE FRAMING COMPETENCE IN A PERSON ,ET US LOOK AT THIS PROBLEM IN CONCLUSION
,IVED 7ORLDS AS #OGNITIVE #ONSTRUCTIONS
#F ON THIS *ÓRGEN &RITZ h3O WIRKLICH WIE DIE 7IRKLICHKEIT v (ANDBUCH #OMPUTERSPIELE #$ "ONN ,OC CIT ; =
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
)N SOCIALLY EXTREMELY ISOLATED CHILDREN AND ADOLES CENTS WHOSE ABILITY TO RELATE IS DISTURBED WHO CONSUME FILMS IN AN ALMOST ADDICTIVE FASHION AND HAVE ONLY TO A LIMITED EXTENT FOUND EMOTIONAL ACCESS TO THEM SELVES AN ADEQUATE STOCK OF SCHEMATA MIGHT NOT HAVE BEEN COLLECTED IN INTERACTION WITH PEOPLE IN THE REAL WORLD SO THAT THESE CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS ARE THEN OBLIGED TO FALL BACK ON SCHEMATA FAMILIAR TO THEM FROM TELEVISION
&RAMING #OMPETENCE 7E NOW COME BACK TO THE EXAMPLE TOUCHED ON AT THE VERY BEGIN NING OF THE VIOLENT CRIMINAL WHOSE ACTS WERE ASCRIBED TO THE HORROR lLMS HE SAW )T SEEMS AS IF SCHEMATA THAT BELONG IN THE MEDIA WORLD HAD BEEN TRANSFERRED hUNCHECKEDv INTO THE REAL WORLD 4HIS COULD ONLY HAVE HAPPENED IF WILLINGNESS TO TRANSFER HAD BEEN EXTRAORDINARILY HIGH AND TRANSFER ACCEPTANCE WEAKENED TO A CONSIDERABLE DEGREE SINCE OTHERWISE A SUITABILITY CHECK WOULD HAVE LED TO A CANCELLATION OF THE ACTIONS )N SUCH SERIOUS TRANSFER MALFUNCTIONS IT MAY BE ASSUMED THAT THE CULPRIT WAS NOT CONSCIOUS THAT DIFFERENT SCHEMATA APPLY AND ARE APPROPRIATE IN THE REAL WORLD AS OPPOSED TO IN THE MEDIA WORLD (E LACKED THE COMPETENCE TO FRAME THE SITUATION IN SUCH A WAY THAT HE COULD EMPLOY THE SCHEMATA APPROPRIATE TO IT )N DEALING WITH THE VARIOUS WORLDS AND THE SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED IN THEM PEOPLE HAVE DEVELOPED FRAMEWORKS FROM WHICH THEY SELECT AVAILABLE SCHEMATA &RAMEWORKS ARE REGULATORY SYSTEMS FOR ORIENTA TION AND THE OPTIMIZATION OF ACTIONS IN VARIOUS CONTEXTS OF LIFE 4HEY ARE EMPLOYED BOTH FOR ORIENTATION IN ASSIGNING STIMULATORY IMPRES SIONS TO A PARTICULAR WORLD AND ALSO TO ANSWER THE QUESTION OF HOW A SOCIAL EVENT IS TO BE UNDERSTOOD 4HE PROBLEM OF TRANSFER IS BA SICALLY A PROBLEM OF FRAMING COMPETENCE OR THE ABILITY TO lND THE CORRECT FRAMEWORKS FOR STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS AND MAKE THE PROCESS OF STRUCTURAL LINKING DEPENDENT ON THIS FRAMEWORK SELECTION ! FUN DAMENTAL ELEMENT OF FRAMING COMPETENCE IS THE RECOGNITION THAT FACTS WHICH MAY CLAIM VALIDITY IN THE ONE WORLD HAVE NO BUSINESS IN THE OTHER AND THAT ACTION SCHEMATA WHICH ARE SENSIBLE AND EXPEDIENT IN THE ONE WORLD MAY LEAD TO FATAL CONSEQUENCES IN THE OTHER )T IS THERE FORE SENSIBLE TO DRAW BORDERS BETWEEN THE WORLDS AND CONTROL TRANSFERS BETWEEN THEM 4HIS IS ONLY POSSIBLE WHEN TRANSFER PROCESSES BECOME CONSCIOUS n AN IMPORTANT TASK FOR MEDIA EDUCATION 7HERE DOES THE PROBLEM OF FRAMING COMPETENCE STAND IN RELATION TO THE VIRTUAL WORLD )N ALL OUR INVESTIGATIONS COMPUTER GAME PLAY ERS ALMOST UNANIMOUSLY EMPHASIZED THAT THEY ARE PERFECTLY CAPABLE OF DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN THE VIRTUAL AND REAL WORLDS AND THAT WHILE THEY OCCASIONALLY EXPERIENCE TRANSFERS OF FEELINGS AND SCHEMATA THEY HAVE
THESE WELL UNDER CONTROL 4HE PROBLEM WITH THIS IS THAT PLAYERS ARE ONLY CONSCIOUS OF WHAT THEY ARE CONSCIOUS OF 4HE METHOD OF INTENSIVE NAR RATIVE INTERVIEW OFTEN USED BY US MAY PERHAPS DIRECT THE ATTENTION OF PLAYERS TO PHENOMENA OF WHICH THEY ARE NOT hTHATv CONSCIOUS IN EVERY DAY LIFE BUT MUCH IS UNEXPRESSED NEVERTHELESS AND REMAINS MORE A DIFFUSE NOTION THAN AN EXPERIENCE IMBUED WITH CONSCIOUSNESS #OM PREHENSIVE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATIONS ARE NEEDED HERE TO GET TO KNOW THE SCOPE AND INTENSITY OF THE TRANSFER PROCESSES BETTER AND ESTIMATE THEIR HAZARD POTENTIAL REALISTICALLY /NLY IN THIS WAY CAN WE ACHIEVE DEPEND ABLE INFORMATION ON HOW THE VIRTUAL WORLD AFFECTS US 4HE "ASIC )DEAS OF THE 4RANSFER -ODEL 4HE MODEL WE HAVE PRESENTED IN ITS INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS WILL NOW BE DESCRIBED IN ITS ESSENTIAL FEATURES AND ILLUSTRATED WITH DIAGRAMS 4HE BASIS OF THE TRANSFER MODEL IS THE REALIZATION OF CONSTRUCTIVISM THAT 2%!,)49 IS COGNITIVELY CLOSED TO US )N A STRUCTURAL LINKING WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT THE HUMAN BRAIN CONSTRUCTS ITS OWN PARTICULAR WORLD WHICH IT LIVES EXPERIENCES AND COLLATES IN INTERRELATIONSHIP WITH ITS EN VIRONMENT h4HIS LIVED WORLD IS CONSTRUCTED BY OUR BRAIN WITH PAINS TAKING EFFORT OVER MANY YEARS AND CONSISTS OF PERCEPTIONS THOUGHTS IDEAS MEMORIES FEELINGS WISHES AND PLANS WHICH OUR BRAIN HASv 4O MEANINGFULLY ORGANIZE THE DIFFERENT IMPRESSIONS AND SAFEGUARD ITS SURVIVAL IN THE WORLD THE HUMAN BRAIN HAS LEARNED IN A PROCESS OVER MANY YEARS TO ASSIGN STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS TO VARIOUS AREAS OF ITS LIVED WORLD IE THE REAL WORLD THE MENTAL WORLD THE DREAM WORLD THE PLAY WORLD THE MEDIA WORLD AND THE VIRTUAL WORLD
,OC CIT ; =
4HE DIAGRAM h,IVED 7ORLDS AS #OGNITIVE #ONSTRUCTIONSv ILLUS TRATES HOW THE VARIOUS AREAS OF THE LIVED WORLD hCONDENSE OUTv BETWEEN OUTER STIMULI AND INNER STIMULI 4HUS THE LIVED WORLD IS UNDERSTOOD AS A STAGE ON WHICH STIMULATORY IMPRESSIONS DIFFERENTIATE THEMSELVES INTO STRUCTURES WHICH MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO ASSIGN THEM TO COGNITIVELY DIFFERENT WORLDS )N THIS WAY OF LOOKING AT THINGS THE hEFFECTv OF VIRTUAL WORLDS ON PEOPLE IS A PROCESS OF TRANSFERRING SCHEMATA WITHIN A WORLD OR BETWEEN DIFFERENT WORLDS !N ILLUSTRATION OF THIS TRANSFER IS SHOWN IN THE DIAGRAM h#OGNITIVE 2EVOLVING 3TAGE FOR 4RANSFER 0ROCESSESv 7ITH THE AID OF THIS hCOGNITIVE TURNTABLE v FORMED SCHEMATA ARE ASSIGNED TO VARIOUS AREAS OF THE LIVED WORLD 4HE ASSIGNMENTS TAKE PLACE AGAINST THE BACKGROUND OF PEOPLES EXPERIENCES 4HE SCHEMATA ARE DEVELOPED THROUGH THE LEARNING OF AC TION EFFECTS IE THROUGH THE EXPERIENCE THAT CERTAIN ACTION PATTERNS RESULT IN CERTAIN CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMENT $EVELOPING AND APPLY ING THE SCHEMATA CREATES THE COMPETENCE TO ACHIEVE CERTAIN INTENTIONS AND GOALS WITH SUFlCIENT RELIABILITY AND FREQUENCY 0ERCEPTION SCHEMA TA AND ACTION SCHEMATA FORM A UNITY HERE h4HE PERCEPTION OF CERTAIN ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS AND THE WISHES AND PLANS THAT ARISE FROM THIS @AUTOMATICALLY EVOKE SUGGESTIONS OR PROGRAMS FOR ACHIEVING REALIZA TIONv 4HIS MEANS THERE ARE NO WHOLLY SEPARATE SCHEMATA FOR PER CEPTION AND ACTION BUT A FUNDAMENTAL CONTINUITY AND COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN THE TWO SPHERES 4HERE IS NO FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCE EITHER BETWEEN SCHEMATA WHICH HAVE BEEN FORMED FROM EXPERIENCES WITH THE REAL WORLD AND RE FER BACK TO THE REAL WORLD AND THOSE hINTENDEDv FOR OTHER AREAS OF THE LIVED WORLD 4HUS IN CERTAIN SITUATIONS AND UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS ON THE hCOGNITIVE REVOLVING STAGE FOR TRANSFER PROCESSESv SCHEMATA MAY BE ASSIGNED TO AREAS OF THE LIVED WORLD FOR WHICH THEY WERE ORIGI NALLY NOT INTENDED &OR EXAMPLE A MEDIA INmUENCED SCHEMA OF HOW PASSERS BY ARE TO BE GREETED MIGHT BE AUTOMATICALLY PROVIDED FOR BE HAVIOR IN THE REAL WORLD AND THEN ALSO EMPLOYED )N THIS CASE WE WOULD BE DEALING WITH AN hINTER WORLD TRANSFERv 4HE hAUTOMATICALLYv EVOKED SCHEMATA WILL HOWEVER BE TESTED MORE OR LESS CONSCIOUSLY FOR APPROPRI
ATENESS MEANING ALSO FOR POSSIBLE EFFECTS BEFORE BEING CARRIED OUT &ROM THIS VIEWPOINT hTRANSFERv MEANS A SPECIAL FORM OF NEURONAL ASSOCIATIONS A SCHEMA THAT WAS ORIGINALLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE MEDIA WORLD IS ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH THE REAL WORLD 4HE QUESTION NOW ARISES AS TO WHAT LEVEL WITH REGARD TO ABSTRACTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS CAPA BILITY THIS TRANSFER TAKES PLACE AT AND WHAT FORMS ARE OBSERVABLE 4HE DIAGRAM h4RANSFER ,EVELS IN #OMPUTER 'AMESv PROVIDES A GOOD INSIGHT INTO WHAT LEVELS OF TRANSFER WE CAN ASSUME IN COMPUTER GAMES 4HE VARIOUS LEVELS SURROUND EACH OTHER IN RINGS 4HE OUTER RING IS FORMED BY THE FACT LEVEL 4HE POSSIBLE TRANSFER PROCESSES HERE ARE VERY CONCRETE AND AS A RULE READILY ACCESSIBLE TO CONSCIOUSNESS ! PLAYER CAN CHECK WHETHER THE INFORMATION THE COMPUTER GAME IS INTENDED TO PROVIDE ABOUT THE REAL WORLD IS CORRECT AND USABLE TO UNDERSTAND ASPECTS OF THE REAL WORLD 4HE CLOSER THE RINGS GET TO THE CENTER THE MORE ABSTRACT IS THE MAN IFESTATION OF THE TRANSFER IE THE TRANSFER POSSIBILITIES FREE THEMSELVES FROM THE CONCRETENESS OF THE PROFFERED VIRTUAL WORLD AND RELATE TO MORE GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE GAME !T THE INNER TRANSFER LEVELS THE CON CRETE FACTS ARE hSTRIPPEDv OF DETAILS AND CONTENTUAL QUALIlCATIONS 4HE PARTICULAR THE DECORATIVE DETAIL IS REMOVED AND UNDERNEATH THE CON CRETENESS REMAINS SOMETHING GENERALIZABLE NAMELY THAT WHICH CHAR ACTERIZES THE FACTS EVEN IN THE ABSENCE OF A CONCRETE MANIFESTATION )N THE STRATEGY GAME 3UDDEN 3TRIKE WHICH IS CONTENTUALLY AND CONCRETELY GEARED TO 7ORLD 7AR )) AN INFORMATIONAL TRANSFER WOULD BE POSSIBLE AT THE FACT LEVEL IE PLAYERS WOULD THEN BE ABLE TO MAKE STATE MENTS ABOUT MILITARY ASPECTS OF 7ORLD 7AR )) EG WEAPONS WEAPON SYSTEMS ASSESSMENTS OF CONDUCT IN BATTLE !T THE CONSIDERABLY DEEPER METAPHORICAL LEVEL THE STRATEGY GAME MIGHT BE CONCERNED WITH CER TAIN DEVELOPMENT TASKS OR PROBLEM AREAS FOR PLAYERS EG INTELLECTU ALLY MASTERING SITUATIONS OF STRESS OR CIRCUMVENTING THEM SENSIBLY WITH THEIR OWN STRENGTHS AND ABILITIES 4HE EXAMPLE INDICATES THAT AT A DEEPER TRANSFER LEVEL PLAYERS CAN lND THEMSELVES AGAIN IN THEIR FUNDAMENTAL AND SELF DETERMINING ACTION AND EXPERIENCE PATTERNS
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
#OGNITIVE 2EVOLVING 3TAGE FOR 4RANSFER 0ROCESSES 4RANSFER ,EVELS IN #OMPUTER 'AMES
)N THE DIAGRAM THE AREA WITH RELATIVELY HIGH TRANSFER SUITABILITY HAS BEEN SPECIALLY MARKED 4HIS AREA MAY LIE ON THE VARIOUS TRANSFER LEVELS 7HAT ENCOURAGES THIS TRANSFER HOWEVER AND WHAT WILL POSSIBLY INHIB IT IT IS A RESEARCH QUESTION WHICH HAS SO FAR REMAINED UNANSWERED 3OCIAL 3CIENCE 2ESEARCH 0ROSPECTS !T THE BEGINNING OF OUR REmECTIONS WE MENTIONED THE EXPECTATION OF THE GENERAL PUBLIC THAT SCIENCE MAKE A CONTRIBUTION TO ANSWERING THE QUESTION OF WHETHER OR NOT COMPUTER GAMES HAVE NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON THEIR PLAYERS "EHIND THIS LIES THE IDEA THAT IT WOULD MAKE SENSE TO RELATE MEDIA EFFECTS TO A MODEL OF CAUSE AND EFFECT AND TO MAKE STATEMENTS WHICH COULD BE GENERALIZED 4HIS EXPECTATION IN THE DIREC TION OF CAUSALITY AND GENERALIZATION CANNOT BE FULlLLED BY TRADITIONAL MEDIA EFFECTS RESEARCH ! CAUSAL MODEL IS OF LITTLE HELP IN EXPLAINING MEDIA EFFECTS #URRENT lNDINGS ARE RATHER THAT MEDIA ARE ELEMENTS IN A CIRCULAR PROCESS OF STRUCTURAL LINKING OF INDIVIDUALS WITH THEIR EN VIRONMENT -EDIA CAN REINFORCE AND WEAKEN POINT OUT ARTICULATE REGULATE SPEECH AND OFFER CONTENT SCHEMATA AND BEHAVIORAL DISPOSI TIONS FOR SELECTION )NDIVIDUALS RELATE TO THIS RANGE OF OPTIONS IN THAT THEY lSH OUT WHAT IS SUBJECTIVELY USABLE AND INCORPORATE IT INTO THEIR BIOGRAPHICAL MODEL 3EEN IN THIS LIGHT THERE ARE NO CAUSES AND EFFECTS ONLY A MOTIVATIONAL PLEXUS THE PATTERN OF WHICH MIGHT BE INVESTIGAT ED 4HIS PLEXUS UNFOLDS THE DYNAMICS OF HUMAN THOUGHT AND ACTION AND IS THE MOTIVE FOR INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENTS )T WOULD BE A MEANINGFUL RESEARCH TASK TO INVESTIGATE THE INTER ACTIONS WITHIN THIS PLEXUS AND UNDERSTAND THEIR FUNCTIONAL PROCESSES 4O BE ABLE TO DO THIS ADEQUATELY WE NEED A RESEARCH PARADIGM WHICH DOES JUSTICE TO THE COMPLEXITY OF THE OBJECT OF INVESTIGATION 4HE TRANSFER MODEL PRESENTED HERE IS INTENDED AS AN ATTEMPT TO UNDERSTAND COMPLEX PHENOMENA IN MEDIAL EXCHANGE PROCESSES AND POSE APPRO PRIATE RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN RELATION TO THEM )N WHAT WAY DOES THIS TRANSFER MODEL REPRESENT SCIENTIlC PROGRESS 4HE MODEL IS OPEN TO A WIDE SPECTRUM OF PHENOMENA )TS SYSTEM IC ORIENTATION AVOIDS THE hTUNNEL VISIONv OF A MEDIA EFFECTS RESEARCH WHICH ATTEMPTS TO TRACK DOWN ISOLATED EFFECTS OF MEDIA
)T TAKES INTO ACCOUNT BOTH THE FACTOR OF INDIVIDUALS WITH THEIR SO CIALIZING FRAMEWORK DATA AND CURRENT LIFE SITUATION AND THE MEDIUM WITH ITS OWN PECULIAR STIMULATING POTENTIAL 4O THIS EXTENT THE MODEL IS OPEN TO A PLEXUS OF DIFFERENT INmUENCING FACTORS 4HE MODEL GIVES UP THE CONCEPT OF hMEDIA EFFECTv WHICH HAS BE COME FRUITLESS 4HE CONSTRUCT OF hTRANSFERv IS BETTER PLACED TO MONITOR THE EXCHANGE PROCESSES BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND THE MEDIA h4RANSFERv MORE PRECISELY AND DISCRIMINATINGLY COVERS WHAT CAN TAKE PLACE IN AN INDIVIDUAL BEFORE DURING AND AFTER THE USE OF MEDIA 4HE NEW WAYS OF LOOKING AT THINGS WHICH THE MODEL OPENS UP MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO FORMULATE APPROPRIATE IE PRECISE AND DISCRIMINATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND ADVANCE SCIENTIlC PROGRESS 4HUS FOR EXAMPLE RESEARCH EFFORTS MIGHT ILLUMINATE THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH POS SIBLE TRANSFER PROCESSES ARE ENCOURAGED OR INHIBITED )F FOR EXAMPLE WE ARE INTERESTED IN WHETHER HIGHLY AGGRESSIVE SEEMING %GO 3HOOTERS MAY HAVE PROBLEMATIC EFFECTS AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH QUESTION MIGHT BE UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS THE PRINT TRANSFER OF SPECIAL PATTERNS EG SHOOTING AT PEOPLE IS ENCOURAGED OR INHIBITED IN THE GAME AND IF IT IS WHAT ARE THE PREFERRED DIRECTIONS OF TRANSFER EG MEDIA WORLD VIRTUAL WORLD PLAY WORLD MENTAL WORLD OR EVEN REAL WORLD 4HE MODEL DOES NOT ALLOW INDEED IT ABSOLUTELY PREVENTS THE PASSING OF SWEEPING VALUE JUDGMENTS ON COMPUTER GAMES IN GENERAL OR ON ONE GAME IN PARTICULAR 3CIENTIlC PROCEDURES AND METHODS MOVE ABOVE ALL BETWEEN THE POLES OF hPERCEIVINGv AND hEXPLAININGv )N CON TRAST TO EVERYDAY PERCEIVING AND EXPLAINING THE PROCEDURES AND METH ODS BY WHICH SCIENCE ACHIEVES ITS RESULTS ARE TRANSPARENT AND VERIlABLE 4HE EMPIRICAL BASIS ON WHICH THE DATA WERE COLLECTED IS DESCRIBED SO THAT IT IS POSSIBLE TO ASSESS WHAT AREA OF VALIDITY THE RESULTS HAVE !T A LEVEL OTHER THAN THAT OF hPERCEIVINGv AND hEXPLAININGv LIES THE AREA OF hJUDGINGv (ERE THE ASSESSMENT OF FACTS IS DONE ACCORD ING TO THE CRITERIA GOOD BAD WORTH STRIVING FOR TO BE AVOIDED UN HEALTHY HEALTHY 3CIENTIlC RESEARCH WHICH HAS TO DO WITH CRITERIA SUCH AS CORRECT INCORRECT EXACT INEXACT CANNOT CONTRIBUTE ANYTHING DIRECTLY TO THE AREA OF JUDGING 3CIENTIlC RESULTS CANNOT REPLACE JUDG MENT BUT JUDGMENTS CAN CERTAINLY GAIN ARGUMENTATIVE FORCE FROM A
(OW 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS !FFECT 5S /N THE 3TRUCTURE OF 4RANSFERS FROM THE -EDIA 7ORLD TO THE 2EAL 7ORLD *ÓRGEN &RITZ
0ERCEIVING %XPLAINING *UDGING
BACKGROUND OF RELEVANT RESEARCH RESULTS )T REMAINS A VALUE DECISION HOWEVER WHICH IS SOMETHING FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT FROM THE RESULTS OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH 4HE DIAGRAM h0ERCEIVING %XPLAINING *UDGINGv ILLUSTRATES THE WEB OF TENSION BETWEEN PERCEIVING EXPLAINING AND JUDGING AND MARKS THE POSITIONS OF SCIENCE AND JUDGING AUTHORITIES
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
#/.34)45%.43 /& (9"2)$ 2%!,)49 #5,452!, !.4(2/0/,/')#!, 2%&,%#4)/.3 !.$ ! 3%2)/53 '!-% $%3)'. %80%2)-%.4 -%2').' -/"),)49 -%$)! !.$ #/-054).' 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ !BSTRACT 7E ARE CURRENTLY ENCOUNTERING A hHYBRID REALITYv IN WHICH MOBILI TY MEDIA AND COMPUTING ARE MERGING !S A RESULT OUR SOCIO EMOTIONAL INTERACTIONS AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATING ARE CHANGING DRAMATICALLY ALONG WITH UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGICAL DEVICES AND ENVIRONMENTS 4HIS CHANGE CAN BE REmECTED IN AND RESEARCHED THROUGH EXPERIMENTAL GAME DESIGN AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 0ART ) OF THIS PAPER GIVES A DETAILED THEORETICAL OUTLINE AND PART )) INTRODUCES -!$ #/5.4 $/7. A MOBILE MULTIPLAYER PROTOTYPE GAME THAT INVESTIGATES AND FACILITATES PROXIMATE DISTANCE AND DISTANT PROXIMITY ON THE MOVE INTO HYBRID REALITY
) !N )NTRODUCTION TO (YBRID 2EALITY 4HIS PAPER IS DIVIDED INTO TWO MAIN SECTIONS )N 0ART ) ) COMPARE AND CRITICALLY DISCUSS THREE MECHANISMS THAT TECHNOGENICALLY CONSTI TUTE OUR INTERACTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS WITH EACH OTHER AND WITH OUR ARTIFACT CULTURES n MEDIA COMPUTING AND MOBILITY IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES 4HESE MECHANISMS ENABLE VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL WORLDS TO MERGE TO FORM A hHYBRID REALITYv 3ECTION ) ELABORATE ON THESE MECHANISMS AND SUGGEST WAYS OF BETTER UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL WAYS OF CREATING MAINTAINING AND ANNULLING PROXIMATE DISTANCE AND DISTANT PROXIMITY TODAY AND IN THE FUTURE ) ALSO SUGGEST WAYS OF BETTER UNDERSTANDING THE TRUST RISK MACROENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH THESE PRACTICES TAKE PLACE )NVESTIGATING THESE HYBRID CONSTRUCTIONS SHOULD PROVE BENElCIAL FOR THE lELDS OF INTERACTION INTERACTIVE SYSTEM DESIGN EXPERIMENTAL GAME DESIGN AS WELL AS THE QUALITATIVE SOCIAL SCIENCES SUCH AS CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY WHICH SERVES AS A RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND IS PRESENTED IN THE INTRODUCTION 3ECTION ) ALSO DElNE KEY TERMS DISCUSS RELATED RESEARCH AND SUMMARIZE THE AWARD WINNING EMPIRICAL GAME -!$ #/5.4$/7. -# WHICH ) LOOK AT IN GREATER DETAIL IN PART )) !S A DAYLONG MULTIPLAYER EXPERIENCE -# MERGES THE AFOREMENTIONED MECHANISMS ALLOWING FOR IN SITU INSIGHTS INTO HOW PLAYERS INITIATE MAINTAIN AND DISRUPT PLAY FUL PROXIMITY AND DISTANCE AS THEY MOVE INTO HYBRID REALITY WHERE TRUST AND RISK ACQUIRE A NEW MEANING !T THE SAME TIME -# CLEARLY REPRESENTS A DIGITAL GAME EXPERIMENT THAT CHALLENGES BOTH THE STATION ARY QUALITY OF 0# CONSOLE BASED COMPUTER GAMES AND THE SUPPOS EDLY hMOBILEv CHARACTER OF CELLPHONE AND HANDHELD COMPUTER GAMES 4HE RESEARCH APPROACH OUTLINED HERE IS THE lRST VERSION OF WHAT WILL EVENTUALLY BE AN APPLIED CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF MOBILITY MEDIA AND COMPUTING ) WILL PRESENT MY CONCLUSIONS IN THE LAST SECTION OF THIS PAPER
0LEASE NOTE THAT THIS PAPER IS A SHORTENED VERSION OF THE MASTERS THESIS THAT ) SUBMITTED TO THE )NSTITUTE OF #ULTURAL !NTHROPOLOGY AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF 4ÓBINGEN 'ERMANY IN !UGUST 4HE THESIS CON SISTED OF -# ITS ONLINE DOCUMENTATION AT HTTPWWWMADCOUNT DOWNDE &LASH PLUG IN REQUIRED AS WELL AS A FULL LENGTH PAPER THAT IS ALSO AVAILABLE AS A DOWNLOAD ON THE -# SITE "ECAUSE THE -# DOCU MENTATION IS AVAILABLE ONLINE ) WILL MAINLY FOCUS ON A THEORETICAL OUT LINE OF HYBRID REALITY MECHANISMS IN THIS PAPER ! DETAILED EVALUATION OF -#S GAMING SESSIONS CAN BE FOUND IN MY THESIS AS WELL
, 3UCHMAN 0LANS AND 3ITUATED !CTION 4HE 0ROBLEM OF (UMAN -ACHINE #OMMUNICATION #AMBRIDGE # ,EINBACH h-ANAGING FOR "REAKTHROUGHS ! 6IEW FROM )NDUSTRIAL $ESIGN v IN #REATING "REAKTHROUGH )DEAS 4HE #OLLABORATION OF !NTHROPOLOGISTS AND $ESIGNERS IN THE 0RODUCT $EVELOPMENT )NDUSTRY ED 3 3QUIRES AND " "YRNE 7ESTPORT ( 3ACHER AND ' ,OUDON h5NCOVERING THE .EW 7IRELESS )NTERACTION 0ARADIGM v )NTERACTIONS .EW 6ISIONS OF (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION VOL )8 *ANUARY &EBRUARY
&ARAWAY 3O #LOSE 3O #LOSE AND 9ET 3O FAR #URRENTLY INDIVIDUALS IN RADICAL MODERN SOCIETIES ARE CONSTANTLY ALTERNATING OR hTRAVELINGv BETWEEN STATES OF FACE TO FACE AND FACE INDEPENDENT AGENCIES )NDIVIDUALS NEGOTIATE CHOREOGRAPH DESCRIBE PERFORM AND THUS CULTIVATE CLOSE AND DISTANT RELATIONSHIPS NOT ONLY WITH ONE ANOTHER BUT ALSO WITH EVERYDAY ARTIFACTS AND THEIR EVERY DAY ENVIRONMENTS 4HIS ALTERNATION PRODUCES INDIVIDUAL OVERLAPPING FORMS OF PHYSICAL AND MEDIATED PROXIMITY AND DISTANCE &OR EXAMPLE WE CANNOT STRICTLY SPEAK OF hBEINGv ON THE )NTERNET IN THE SENSE OF hONE PERSON ONE DESKTOP COMPUTERv PARADIGMS 2ATHER WE HAVE TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT SIMILAR OR )NTERNET RELATED COMPUTING NETWORKS SUCH AS THOSE ENABLING DIGITAL CELLPHONE TELEPHONY WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS 7,!.S AND UBIQUITOUS COMPUTERS SUCH AS MICROCHIP CONTROLLED WASHING MACHINES -0 PLAYERS AND MOBILE TELEPHONES 4HESE HAVE BECOME INDISTINGUISHABLE FROM THE FABRIC OF EVERYDAY LIFE BECAUSE WE CAN REGARD ARTIlCIALITY AND EMOTIONAL PROXIMITY AND DIS TANCE AS A HYBRID "ACKGROUND #ULTURAL !NTHROPOLOGY AND %XPERIMENTAL %THNOG RAPHY #ULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY hAIMS TO RESEARCH PAST AND PRESENT CULTURAL PHENOMENA WITH THE HELP OF SOCIOSCIENTIlC METHODS )N CONTRAST TO MANY SPECIALIZED CULTURAL SCIENCES IT CONCENTRATES NOT ON THE CULTURE OF THE UPPER CLASSES BUT ON THE CULTURE AND LIFESTYLES OF THE BROAD MASSESv !S OPPOSED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES AND MOST BRANCHES OF THE QUANTITATIVE SOCIAL SCIENCES NOT TO MENTION COMPUTER SCIENCE THIS KIND OF RESEARCH USUALLY DOESNT START BY FORMULATING A THEORY OR A SCE NARIO IN ORDER TO EVALUATE INDIVIDUAL PRACTICE .OR DOES IT USE A THEORY OR A SCENARIO TO VALIDATE OR OVERTURN THEORETICAL HYPOTHESES 2ATHER INSTEAD OF CONTRIBUTING DISCURSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS OR EXPERIMENTAL lND INGS TO THE SOCIAL SCIENCES AGENDA CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH PRIMARILY FORMULATES THEORIES REITERATIVELY FROM THE EMPIRICAL OBSERVA TION OF THE hPROCESS BY WHICH NEW FORMS BECOME PART OF DAILY LIFEv "ECK MENTIONS A QUASI DICTUM FOR THIS INVERTED RESEARCH APPROACH WHEN HE CITES (ANS 5LRICH 'UMBRECHTS h-ÓHEN DER %BENEv LABOR OF
! 'IDDENS 4HE #ONSEQUENCES OF -ODERNITY RD PRINTING 3TANFORD * 5RRY 3OCIOLOGY BEYOND 3OCIETIES -OBILITIES FOR THE ST #ENTURY ,ONDON 0 :OCH 3 +IMPELER AND - *OEPGEN 6IRTUELLE -OBILITØT %IN 0HØNOMEN MIT PHYSISCHEN +ONSEQUENZEN :UR 7IRKUNG DER .UTZUNG VON #HAT /NLINE "ANKING UND /NLINE 2EISEANGEBOTEN AUF DAS PHYSISCHE -OBILITØTSVER HALTEN "ERLIN , -ANOVICH 4HE ,ANGUAGE OF .EW -EDIA #AM BRIDGE AND ,ONDON 3EE FOR EXAMPLE 7 7EISER h4HE #OMPUTER FOR THE ST #ENTURY v 3CIENTIFIC !MERICAN 3EPTEMBER n
GROUND 'UMBRECHT SUGGESTS INVOLVING A LARGE NUMBER OF HIGHLY AC CURATE THICK DESCRIPTIONS OF SOCIAL PRACTICE (IS APPEAL h3PECULATE LESS n RESEARCH EVERYDAY LIFE QUALITATIVELY 4HEN FORMULATE 4HEN RESEARCH AGAIN 4HEN FORMULATE 4HEN RESEARCH AGAIN xv (OWEVER ) MYSELF lND IT USEFUL AND APPROPRIATE TO WORK EXPERI MENTALLY AND THUS TO TRY TO DEVELOP AN APPLIED CULTURAL ANTHROPOL OGY )N THIS CONTEXT MY RESEARCH RELATED TO -# WAS INSPIRED BY OTHER SCHOLARS INCLUDING SOCIOLOGIST ,UCY 3UCHMAN WHO HAS COMBINED ETH NOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF WORK AND TECHNOLOGIES IN USE WITH THE IN SITU DE VELOPMENT OF NEW PROTOTYPE INFORMATION SYSTEMS SEE &OOTNOTE ) AM ALSO INTERESTED IN EXPERIMENTAL ETHNOGRAPHY PROJECTS ON LEISURE ACTIVITIES THAT REmECT .ORTH !MERICAN CAMPING CULTURE CARRIED OUT BY CULTURAL SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION RESEARCHERS AS WELL AS IN THE 5-43 RELATED hCULTURE CENTRIC APPROACH ;THAT= WAS USED TO EXPLORE AND DEVELOP A ' SERVICE CONCEPT FOR 53 TEENAGERSv $ISEMBEDDING 2EEMBEDDING -ECHANISMS "ASED ON THE AFOREMENTIONED RESEARCH PRACTICE ) HAVE COME TO BELIEVE THAT CULTURAL PRACTICES OF CREATING PROXIMATE DISTANCE AND DIS TANT PROXIMITY SPRING FROM THREE hDISEMBEDDINGv AND hREEMBEDDINGv MECHANISMSv IN THE SENSE THAT !NTHONY 'IDDENS THE SOCIOLOGIST AND DIRECTOR OF THE ,ONDON 3CHOOL OF %CONOMICS LENDS THESE TERMS SEE IN RADICAL MODERN SOCIETY MOBILITY MEDIA AND COMPUTING IN OUR DAILY LIVES ) WILL INVESTIGATE THESE MECHANISMS DRAWING HEAVILY ON THE WRITINGS OF MOBILITY SCHOLAR *OHN 5RRY "-7 'ROUP SO CIAL SCIENTISTS :OCHE +IMPELER *OEPGEN NEW MEDIA THEORETICIAN AND ARTIST ,EV -ANOVICH AND THE LATE -ARK 7EISER WHO WAS THE lRST TO PROPOSE THE SCIENTIlC DISCIPLINE OF hUBIQUITOUS COMPUTINGv TOGETHER WITH HIS COLLEAGUE 3UCHMAN MENTIONED IN THE PRECEDING SECTION ) ASSUME THAT THESE MECHANISMS GIVE RISE TO NOVEL TRUST RISK ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH PROXIMATE DISTANCE AND DISTANT PROXIMITY ARE FRAMED AND NEGOTIATED TODAY AND IN THE FUTURE
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
- 7EISER 2 'OLD AND * 3 "ROWN h4HE /RIGINS OF 5BIQUITOUS #OMPUTING 2ESEARCH AT 0!2# IN THE ,ATE S v )"- 3YSTEMS *OURNAL VOL /NLINE AT HTTPWWWUNI TUEBINGENDEKULTUR STUDIUMSTUDIERENAMLUISTUDAMLUIHTML *UNE 4 (ENGARTNER h6OLKSKUNDLICHES &ORSCHEN IM MIT DEM UND ÓBER DAS )NTERNET v IN -ETHODEN DER 6OLKSKUNDE 0OSITIONEN 1UELLEN !RBEITSWEISEN DER %U ROPØISCHEN %THNOLOGIE ED 3 'TTSCH AND ! ,EHMANN "ERLIN 3 "ECK ED 4ECHNOGENE .ØHE %THNOGRAPHISCHE 3TUDIEN ZUR -EDIENNUTZUNG IM !LLTAG -ÓNSTER
3EE HTTPWWWCANYOUSEEMENOWCOUK 7 0IEKARSKI AND " 4HOMAS h!21UAKE 4HE /UTDOOR !UGMENTED 2EALITY 'AMING 3YSTEM v IN #OM MUNICATIONS OF THE !#- VOL *ANUARY n * &ALK ET AL h0IRATES 0ROXIMITY 4RIGGERED )NTER ACTION IN A -ULTI 0LAYER 'AME v IN (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION n ).4%2!#4 0ROCEEDINGS OF ).4%2!#4 ED - (IROSE !MSTERDAM
! $IX ET AL h%XPLOITING 3PACE AND ,OCATION AS A $ESIGN &RAMEWORK FOR )NTERACTIVE -OBILE 3YSTEMS v IN !#- 4RANSACTIONS ON #OMPUTER (UMAN )NTERACTION 4/#() VOL 3EPTEMBER
! PLAYER IN 2OOM OF -#S MULTI USER VIRTUAL REALITY ACCESSED THROUGH ONE OF THE POCKET 0#S USED FOR GAMING
4ECHNOGENIC #ONSTITUTION OF 2EALITY IN THE &ORM OF A 'AME %XPERIMENT /NE SUCH IN SITU EXPERIMENT IS THE MOBILE MULTIPLAYER HYBRID REALITY GAME -# WHICH WAS TAILORED TO AND BUILT FOR THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+: AND ITS STUDENTS 4HE ('+:S POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM IN MOBILE APPLICATION DESIGN -!$ COMMISSIONED ME TO CREATE THE GAME UNDER MY LABEL PLAYBE -!$ STUDENTS WERE TO CODEVELOP PARTS OF THE GAME DURING A VARIETY OF -!$ WORKSHOPS UNDER MY SUPERVISION )N BRIEF -# IS A DAYLONG POCKET 0# 7,!. BASED LIVE ACTION ROLE PLAYING GAME FOR ('+: STUDENTS )T UTILIZES BOTH A DISTRIBUTED COLLABORATIVE VIRTUAL REALITY AND A PHYSICAL CAMPUS BUILDING AS hGAME BOARDSv 4HESE SEAMLESSLY FADE IN AND OUT OF EACH OTHER -#S PLOT FEA TURES A COUNTDOWN AND A h-R 8v ELEMENT 4HE GOAL OF EACH TEAM IS TO PREVENT A HIDDEN BOMB FROM BLOWING UP THE SCHOOL 4HEY MUST ALSO IDENTIFY A SABOTEUR WITHIN THEIR RANKS )N THIS PAPER ) WOULD LIKE TO DISCUSS SOME ASPECTS OF THE PLANNING PRODUCTION FUNCTIONALITY &IGURE AND EVALUATION OF THE GAME -# AND ITS RELATED RESEARCH HAVE BEEN PRESENTED AT A NUMBER OF GAME DEVELOPERS CONFERENCES WORLDWIDE AND IT WON A MAIN PRIZE IN THE )NTERNATIONAL "AUHAUS COMPETITION #ON 4EXTS AND #O 4EXTS 2ELATED 2ESEARCH 4HE EXPERIMENTAL GAME THAT ) CREATED AS PART OF MY RESEARCH IS RELATED TO PROJECTS SUCH AS #AN 9OU 3EE -E .OW A hGAME ONLINE AND ON THE STREETv !21UAKE THE AUGMENTED REALITY !2 VERSION OF THE $ EGO SHOOTER 1UAKE AND THE )NTERACTIVE )NSTITUTES UBIQUITOUS GAMING EXPERIMENT 0IRATES !S OPPOSED TO 0IRATES MY EXPERIMENTAL GAME SCENARIO DOES NOT AIM TO SHOW hHOW PROXIMITY SENSING TECHNOLOGY CAN BE INTEGRATED INTO COMPUTER GAME DESIGN TO PROVIDE RICHER GAME EXPERIENCES IN SOCIAL SETTINGSv 2ATHER MY GAME SCENARIO TAKES AN ETHNOGRAPHI CALLY DRIVEN APPROACH FROM WHICH A GAME PLOT IS DERIVED THAT IS SUP POSED TO FOSTER FORMS OF PROXIMATE DISTANCE DISTANT PROXIMITY WITHIN
SELF CREATED AND FRAMING TRUST RISK ENVIRONMENTS 4HIS DIFFERS FROM A MERE TECHNOLOGY DRIVEN MECHANISTIC ASSUMPTION THAT SOCIAL INTERAC TION WILL BE hMORE PROXIMATEv IF PLAYERS ARE PHYSICALLY CLOSER TO EACH ANOTHER (ENCE MY CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH TO UBIQUITOUS GAMING MAY BE CATEGORIZED AS DRIVEN BY CONTENT CO TEXT AND CONTEXT 4HIS NOTION ALSO UNDERLIES MY REmECTIONS HERE h#ONTEXTv IN (#) 6ERY OFTEN IN (#) AND UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING hCONTEXTv CAN BE CHARACTERIZED AS A MOSTLY FUNCTIONALIZED AND FUNCTIONALIZABLE ONTO LOGICAL VIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS 4HESE SYSTEMS ARE ABLE TO SENSE THE CONTEXT OF INDIVIDUALS PLACES OR ARTIFACTS OR THEY ARE hCONTEXT AWAREv OF THESE INDIVIDUALS PLACES AND OR ARTIFACTS $IX ET AL PRESENT A RELATIVELY CONCISE MOBILE (#) DElNITION OF hCONTEXTv AS IT APPLIES TO THE DESIGN OF MOBILE SYSTEMS 4HEY DISTINGUISH BETWEEN INFRASTRUC TURE SYSTEM DOMAIN AND PHYSICAL CONTEXT /THER (#) RESEARCH PRO POSES THE FOLLOWING DElNITION h#ONTEXT IS ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE USED TO CHARACTERIZE THE SITUATION OF AN ENTITY !N ENTITY IS A PERSON
( )SHII # 7ISNESKI * /RBANES " #HUN AND * 0ARADISO h0ING0ONG0LUS $ESIGN OF AN !THLETIC 4ANGI BLE )NTERFACE FOR #OMPUTER 3UPPORTED #OOPERATIVE 0LAY v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE #ONFERENCE ON (UMAN &ACTORS IN #OMPUTING 3YSTEMS #() .EW 9ORK 4HE AUTHORS DEFINE hCOMPUTER SUPPORTED COLLABORATIVE PLAYv AS hCOMPUTER TECHNOLOGY THAT ENHANCES PHYSICAL EXERTION SOCIAL INTERACTION AND ENTERTAINMENT IN SPORT AND PLAYv
# 7AGNER h$AS "EWEGUNGSSPIEL v IN (OMO ,UDENS $ER SPIELENDE -ENSCH )) )NTERNATIONALE "EITRØGE DES )NSTITUTES FÓR 3PIELFORSCHUNG UND 3PIELPØDAGOGIK AN DER (OCHSCHULE h-OZARTEUMv 3ALZBURG ED ' ' "AUER -UNICH 3ALZBURG
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
! + $EY h5NDERSTANDING AND 5SING #ONTEXT v IN *OURNAL OF 0ERSONAL AND 5BIQUITOUS #OMPUTING VOL 3 "ECK 5MGANG MIT 4ECHNIK +ULTURELLE 0RAXEN UND KULTURWISSENSCHAFTLICHE &ORSCHUNGSKONZEPTE "ERLIN )BID * , ,EMKE 4EXTUAL 0OLITICS $ISCOURSE AND 3OCIAL $YNAMICS ,ONDON 3 "ECK ! + $EY
PLACE OR OBJECT THAT IS CONSIDERED RELEVANT TO THE INTERACTION BETWEEN A USER AND AN APPLICATION INCLUDING THE USER AND THE APPLICATION THEM SELVESv ) DONT AGREE WITH EITHER DElNITION DESPITE THEIR FOCUS ON MOBILITY $ElNING #O 4EXT AND #ON 4EXT 2ATHER LET ME DElNE WHAT CO TEXT AND CONTEXT MEAN IN THE RE SEARCH PRESENTED HERE !CCORDING TO MY DElNITION hENTITIESv n IN LINE WITH $EYS TERMINOLOGY n NEGOTIATE THE SPECIlC SITUATION BOTH BY THEMSELVES AND TOGETHER WITH OTHER ENTITIES )N OTHER WORDS CONTEXT MAY NOT BE DESCRIBED AS A CHARACTERIZATION OF AN INDIVIDUALS SITUA TION 2ATHER AN ENTITYS REmECTIVE CONCRETE AND CREATIVE INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER ENTITIES CONSTITUTE A MUTUAL AND MOMENTARY SITUATIONAL CONTEXT ) CALL SUCH A PERSPECTIVE THE PRAGMATICS OF PRACTICE WHEREAS "ECK COMPLEMENTARILY SUGGESTS THAT hx HUMAN ACTION SHOULDNT BE OBSERVED AS TELEOLOGICAL INSTRU MENTAL OR NORM REGULATED )NSTEAD IT SHOULD BE REGARDED AS PRACTICE IN A COMPREHENSIVE SENSE ON THE ONE HAND AS INTER ACTIVE AND CONCRETE ACTION VIS Í VIS THE SOCIAL AND MATERIAL ENVIRONMENT ON THE OTHER AS BOTH A SUBJECTIVITY FORMING SELF EDUCATIONAL PROCESS AND A CULTURE FORMING SOCIAL PROCESSv 3O CONTEXT IS NOT ONLY A LOCAL PHENOMENON IE CONTEXTS ARE AL WAYS OBJECTIVE CONSTRUCTS OF CULTURES SOCIETIES AND SUBJECTIVE BACK GROUNDS hORIENTATIONSv ACCORDING TO "ECK 4HESE INmUENCE INDIVIDU ALIZED SITUATIONS OF USE AS WELL )N ADDITION TO UNDERSTANDING MACRO AND MICROCONTEXTS AS BOTH FRAMING AND CONSTITUTIVE CATEGORIES THAT FACILITATE SIGNIlCATION ) AM IN AGREEMENT WITH "ECK WHEN HE REMINDS US THAT NO CONTEXT CAN EXIST WITHOUT A CO TEXT h) UNDERSTAND THE TERM @CO TEXT IN A COMPREHENSIVE SENSE IT DOES NOT ONLY REFER TO LINGUISTIC DISCOURSE SYSTEMS BUT ALSO TO NON LINGUIS TIC @MEANING MAKING RESOURCES *AY , ,EMKE @THE CONVENTIONS OF
GESTURE AND DEPICTION THE SYMBOLIC AND FUNCTIONAL VALUES OF ACTIONS THE TYPICAL PATTERNS OF ACTION THAT OTHER MEMBERS OF OUR COMMUNITY WILL RECOGNIZE AND RESPOND TO 4HE DECISIVE FACTOR IS THAT DIFFERENT @MEANING MAKING RESOURCES REMAIN VALID AND CAN ALSO BE USED VARI OUSLY IN DIFFERENT HISTORICAL SITUATIONS IN DIFFERENT CULTURAL TRADITIONS AND FOR PEOPLE OF DIFFERENT AGES GENDER AND SOCIAL STATUSv ) CANNOT SAY WHETHER $EY WOULD REGARD CO TEXTS IN THIS SENSE AS BE ING hRELEVANT TO THE INTERACTION BETWEEN A USER AND AN APPLICATIONv )N THIS PAPER HOWEVER THEY ARE #O 4EXT AND #ON 4EXT OF (YBRID 2EALITY 4HEREFORE YOU MAY WANT TO VIEW THE FOLLOWING EXPLANATIONS IN 3ECTION ) AS AN OUTLINE OF A RADICAL MODERN SOCIETYS CO TEXT OF A HIS TORICAL SITUATION AND A CON TEXT OF CULTURE FORMING SOCIETAL PROCESSES "OTH THE PROCESSES AND THE SITUATION ARE BEST EXPRESSED THROUGH A HY BRIDIZATION OF MOBILITY MEDIA AND COMPUTING -# HENCE BECOMES AN OBSERVABLE FORM OF HYBRID REALITY PERFORMED AT ('+: -OBILE 'AME %XPERIMENTATION AND #ULTURAL !NTHROPOLOGY )N THE HYBRID REALITY SCENARIO AT THE ('+: ) EXPECTED THAT A GAME EXPERIMENT WOULD PROVIDE A FAMILIAR SAFE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH PLAY ERS COULD FEEL COMFORTABLE ) ALSO ASSUMED THAT A MOBILE AND COLLAB ORATIVE GAME WOULD ALLOW EASIER ACCESS TO THE INDIVIDUAL PLAYERS 2ESEARCH BASED ON 0IAGETS GAME THEORY HAS YIELDED THE FOLLOWING RE SULTS h)T IS CERTAIN THAT A GAME INVOLVING MOTOR MOVEMENT SETS AN EN TIRE PERSON IN MOTION AND THAT THIS INNER AND OUTER MOVEMENT AFFECTS THE PLAYERS EMOTIONAL LIFE AND COGNITION 7ITH THE HELP OF MOVEMENT WHICH IS PRIMAL IN NATURE WE CAN GAIN DIRECT ACCESS TO THE PERSON THROUGH PLAYv
# +LIMMT h#OMPUTER 3PIEL )NTERAKTIVE 5NTER HALTUNGSANGEBOTE ALS 3YNTHESE AUS -EDIUM UND 3PIELZEUG v :EITSCHRIFT FÓR -EDIENPSYCHOLOGIE VOL 2 "ULAND h:UR 'RUNDLEGUNG EINER 3PIELFORSCHUNG $EFINITIONEN n 3YSTEMATIK n -ETHODOLOGIE v IN (OMO ,UDENS $ER SPIELENDE -ENSCH )) )NTERNATIONALE "EITRØGE DES )NSTITUTES FÓR 3PIELFORSCHUNG UND 3PIELPØDAGOGIK AN DER (OCHSCHULE h-OZARTEUMv 3ALZBURG ED ' ' "AUER -UNICH 3ALZBURG n 2 #AILLOIS $IE 3PIELE UND DIE -ENSCHEN -ASKE UND 2AUSCH 3TUTTGART
! 2OLLINGS AND % !DAMS !NDREW 2OLLINGS AND %RNEST !DAMS ON 'AME $ESIGN )NDIANAPOLIS * (UIZINGA (OMO ,UDENS 6OM 5RSPRUNG DER +ULTUR IM 3PIEL 2EINBEK BEI (AMBURG * &RITZ ED 7ARUM #OMPUTERSPIELE FASZINIEREN %MPIRISCHE !NNØHERUNGEN AN .UTZUNG UND 7IRKUNG VON "ILDSCHIRMSPIELEN 7EINHEIM !CCORDING TO THE MANUFACTURER .INTENDO BETWEEN /CTOBER AND -ARCH ALONE MILLION 'AME "OY !DVANCES WERE SHIPPED WORLDWIDE 0LEASE SEE HTTP GAMEBOYEXTENDEDGAMERNETCGI BINNEWSPROFULLNEWS CGI NEWSID 'AME"OY !DVANCE IS THE SUCCESSOR TO 'AME"OY WHICH .INTENDO SAYS HAS SOLD OVER MILLION UNITS WORLD
!DDING TO THIS INSIGHT AND MY HYBRID REALITY APPROACH OTHER RESEARCHERS NOTE THAT DURING A COMPUTER GAME hx PARA SOCIAL INTERACTIONS TAKE PLACE BETWEEN THE GAMES PLAYERS AND CHARACTERS ;WHICH ARE REPRESENTED BY THE PLAYERS THEMSELVES= 4HE ACTIVITIES OF THESE MEDIA CHARACTERS HAVE DIRECT CONSEQUENCES FOR THE PLAYERS TRIGGERING EMOTIONS FEAR RAGE ETC AND CREATING SUSPENSE !T THE SAME TIME THEY GIVE THE PLOTS AND THE PLAYERS A DIRECTION A MEAN ING THEY FORCE THE PLAYERS TO BECOME ACTIVE TO DEFEND THEMSELVES TO ATTACK OR AVOID ATTACKS x &OR THE PLAYERS THE PARA SOCIAL INTERACTION WITH CHARACTERS LEADS TO THE PERCEPTION OF THE NECESSITY TO ACT !T THE SAME TIME COMPUTER GAMES OFFER THEIR USERS NUMEROUS OPPORTUNITIES TO ACTv 3INCE INTERACTIVE GAMING IS A BROAD SUBJECT IN ITS OWN RIGHT n SEE FOR EXAMPLE THROUGH n ) WILL NOT DElNE THE TERM OVER AND ABOVE WHAT ) AM STATING THROUGHOUT THIS PAPER (OWEVER MY DECISION TO UTI LIZE POCKET 0#S FOR -# WAS BASED ON THE SUCCESS AND PENETRATION OF THE PORTABLE INTERACTIVE TOYS 'AME"OY AND 'AME"OY !DVANCE AND THE INTENSE HISTORY OF HANDHELD COMPUTER GAMES IN THE LATE S AND S ) ASSUMED THAT AT LEAST SOME OF THE -!$ STUDENTS AND SUB SEQUENT ('+: PLAYERS HAD USED HANDHELD COMPUTER GAME DEVICES IN THE PAST OR GREW UP PLAYING $ONKEY +ONG AND 0AC -AN ON HANDHELD COMPUTERS #ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY )N THIS SECTION ) WOULD LIKE TO COMPARE THREE MECHANISMS OF HY BRID REALITY COMPUTING MEDIA AND MOBILITY IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES ) WILL ALSO SHOW THE CHANGES IN HOW WE EXPERIENCE PROXIMITY AND DIS TANCE TODAY AND IN THE FUTURE 4HESE REmECTIONS REPRESENT -#S THEO RETICAL FOUNDATIONS #OMPUTING AND -EDIA IN /UR $AILY ,IVES "ECHDOLF TAKES A CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE ON MEDIA BASED ON CONSTRUCTIVIST CULTURAL STUDIES )N HIS MODEL OF A
WIDE SINCE ITS INTRODUCTION IN 2 +LANTEN AND * 'IELENS ED %LECTRONIC 0LASTIC "ERLIN 5 "ECHDOLF h+ULTURWISSENSCHAFTLICHE -EDIEN FORSCHUNG &ILM UND &ERNSEHEN v IN -ETHODEN DER 6OLKSKUNDE 0OSITIONEN 1UELLEN !RBEITSWEISEN DER %U ROPØISCHEN %THNOLOGIE ED 3 'TTSCH AND ! ,EHMANN "ERLIN F , -ANOVICH )BID
CULTURAL CIRCULAR mOW THE PRODUCTION AND BROADCAST OF A GIVEN MEDIA FORMAT n A MOVIE FOR INSTANCE n LEADS TO A MEDIA PRODUCT THAT IS BASED ON SPECIlC SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS (ENCE THE PRODUCERS OF THE MEDIA FORMAT OR 46 PROGRAM ENCODE MESSAGES IN THE MEDIA PROD UCT WHICH CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS A hTEXTv 4HESE MESSAGES DO NOT MIR ROR REALITY BUT INSTEAD REPRESENT MEDIA RECONSTRUCTIONS OF REALITY THAT RECIPIENTS DECODE ON THEIR OWN TERMS 4HIS FRAMEWORK CAN EITHER BE SUBORDINATE OR SELF INVENTED AND WILL mOW BACK INTO THE CONSTRUCTION OF A MEDIA CONSTRUCTED REALITY AND INTO THE PRODUCTION OF OTHER ME DIA FORMATS 4HOUGH A HOLISTIC RESEARCH MODEL IN THEORY "ECHDOLF S SUGGESTION MAY NOT BE FAR REACHING ENOUGH TO CAPTURE THE EMPIRI CAL REALITY OF THE DEEPLY INTERTWINED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY #OMPUTING AND -EDIA )NTERTWINED )N A VERY CONVINCING WAY -ANOVICH HYPOTHESIZES AN INTER TWINED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPUTING AND MEDIA THAT HAS BEEN SHAPING MODERNITY #OMPUTERS ARE NO LONGER CALCULATORS CONTROL MECHANISMS OR SIMPLE COMMUNICATION DEVICES BUT MEDIA PROCESSORS )N THIS CONTEXT -ANOVICH ARGUES THAT WE ARE INCREASINGLY INTERACTING AND COMMUNICATING WITH PEOPLE ARTIFACTS AND ENVIRONMENTS THROUGH COMPUTED MEDIA AND THAT WE ARE FACING A COMPUTERIZATION OF CULTURE AND EVERYDAY LIFE -ANOVICH STATES THAT THIS TREMENDOUS IMPACT ON MODERN SOCIETY AND CULTURE IS ONLY COMPARABLE TO THE IMPACT THAT THE PRINTING PRESS AND PHOTOGRAPHY ONCE HAD h4HERE IS NO REASON TO PRIVILEGE THE COMPUTER AS A MACHINE FOR THE EXHIBITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MEDIA OVER THE COMPUTER AS A TOOL FOR MEDIA PRODUCTION OR AS A MEDIA STORAGE DEVICE x 4HE COMPUTER MEDIA REVOLUTION AFFECTS ALL STAGES OF COMMUNICATION INCLUDING AC QUISITION MANIPULATION STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION IT ALSO AFFECTS ALL TYPES OF MEDIA n TEXTS STILL IMAGES MOVING IMAGES SOUND AND SPATIAL CONSTRUCTIONSv
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
)BID )BID )BID )BID 4 0ARSONS 4HE 3TRUCTURE OF 3OCIAL !CTION .EW 9ORK , -ANOVICH
-ANOVICH ARGUES THAT AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THIS TWIN HISTORY MEDIA HAVE UNDERGONE AN EVEN MORE DRAMATIC IDENTITY CHANGE THAN COMPUTING (E THEN ARTICULATES A MAIN PRINCIPLE OF NEW MEDIA h!LL NEW MEDIA OBJECTS WHETHER CREATED FROM SCRATCH ON COMPUTERS OR CONVERTED FROM ANALOG MEDIA SOURCES ARE COMPOSED OF DIGITAL CODE THEY ARE NUMERICAL REPRESENTATIONSv )F WE ACCEPT THIS VIEW THEN WE MUST ASSUME WITH "ECHDOLF THAT THE ENTIRE CIRCULAR mOW OF CUL TURE WITH REGARD TO MEDIATION MUST HAVE CHANGED h-EDIA BECOMES PROGRAMMABLEv WHEN ALL OF TODAYS MEDIA OBJECTS ARE SUBJECT TO AL GORITHMIC MANIPULATION )N OTHER WORDS MESSAGES ENCODED IN MEDIA PRODUCTS ARE ENCODED IN A COMPUTERIZED FORM (ENCE THEY REPRESENT COMPUTERIZED MEDIA RECONSTRUCTIONS OF A COMPUTERIZED REALITY THAT RECIPIENTS ENCODE -OREOVER -ANOVICH MAKES OUT A COMPUTERIZATION OF MEDIA 3O IF WE ACCEPT MY EARLIER SUGGESTION THAT COMPUTERIZED MEDIA RECONSTRUCT A COMPUTERIZED REALITY THEN WE MIGHT AGREE WITH -ANOVICH WHEN HE WRITES h4HE COMPUTERIZATION OF CULTURE GRADUALLY ACCOMPLISHES SIMILAR TRANSCODING IN RELATION TO ALL CULTURAL CATEGORIES AND CONCEPTS 4HAT IS CULTURAL CATEGORIES AND CONCEPTS ARE SUBSTITUTED ON THE LEVEL OF MEAN ING AND OR LANGUAGE BY NEW ONES THAT DERIVE FROM THE COMPUTERS ONTOLOGY EPISTEMOLOGY AND PRAGMATICS .EW MEDIA THUS ACTS AS A FORERUNNER OF THIS MORE GENERAL PROCESS OF CULTURAL RECONCEPTUALIZA TIONv 4HOUGH -ANOVICH MOSTLY FOCUSES ON MEDIA FORMS AND THEIR SEMI OTIC ORGANIZATION AND STANDARDIZATION AND THOUGH HE RATHER NARROWLY DElNES THE TERM hCULTUREv AS A DETERMINED CONGLOMERATE OF RESULTING PRODUCTS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION COMPARABLE TO 4ALCOTT 0ARSONS CON CEPT OF NORMATIVE INTEGRATION WHERE hCULTUREv IS EXPRESSED IN THE STANDARDIZING AND NEUTRALIZING MOMENTS OF SOCIAL SYSTEMS ) SUPPORT -ANOVICHS ANALYSIS AND ) VIEW hCULTURE;S= ENCODED IN DIGITAL FORMv AS A SIMULTANEOUS PREREQUISITE MEDIUM AND RESULT OF HUMAN COM PUTED MEDIA PRACTICES IN PARALLEL TO FACELESS SOCIAL PRACTICES AND PRAC TICES INVOLVING FACEWORK
#OMPUTED -EDIA #OMPLEXES AND .ETWORK #ONNECTIVITY )F WE REGARD A GENERAL THREEFOLD STRUCTURE OF MEDIA ARTIFACTS MEDIA FORMATS AND MEDIA CONTENTS AS A MEDIA COMPLEX AND IF IN ADDITION WE ARE IN AGREEMENT WITH -ANOVICH THEN MOST OF THESE MEDIA COMPLEXES HAVE TODAY TURNED INTO COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES -ANY OF THESE COMPLEXES HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO CONNECT TO ABSTRACT COMPUTING SYSTEMS n COMPUTER AND COMPUTING INFRASTRUCTURES THAT ARE CALLED WIDE AREA NETWORKS 7!. AND THAT CONSIST OF MANY INTER CONNECTED COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES 4HE )NTERNET IS THE MOST EX TENSIVE 7!. KNOWN AND THE 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB 777 IS JUST ONE OF MANY WAYS TO A DISSEMINATE MEDIA FORMATS AND CONTENT USING THE )NTERNET INFRASTRUCTURE UPON WHICH THE 777 IS BUILT AND B TO DISSEMINATE MEDIA FORMATS AND CONTENT INTO COMPUTED MEDIA COM PLEXES AND TO ALLOW INDIVIDUALS TO TRANSFER FORMATS AND CONTENTS FROM COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES INTO OTHERS COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES #OMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES ALSO MAY CONNECT TO OTHER TYPES OF NETWORKS n MICRO )NTERNETS IF YOU WISH ,OCAL AREA NETWORKS ,!.S OR THE WIRELESS VERSION OF THE LATTER SO CALLED 7,!.S ARE JUST TWO EXAMPLES /R THEY MAY CONNECT TO OTHER COMPUTING DEVICES THAT ARE MAINTAINED OR UTILIZED BY OTHER INDIVIDUALS 4HESE NETWORKS OF COM PUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES ALLOW FOR COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICA TION BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS
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+OMMUNIKATIVE &UNKTIONEN VON +URZMITTEILUNGEN 3-3 v IN :EITSCHRIFT FÓR -EDIENPSYCHOLOGIE NO n ) VERY CONSCIOUSLY DO NOT EMPLOY THE TERM hUSERv IN MY RESEARCH ONLY (#) AND THE DRUG BUSINESS CALL THEIR CLIENTS hUSERSv
3 "ECK F )BID )BID 3EE 3 "ECK FF
3IMILARLY A %UROPEANS CELLPHONE WILL CONNECT TO A %UROPEAN PRO VIDERS PART OF A DIGITAL CELLULAR NETWORK SYSTEM KNOWN AS THE GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS '3- WHICH IS COMMONLY RE FERRED TO AS A SECOND GENERATION ' WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY n AS OP POSED TO THE FORMERLY ESTABLISHED ' WIRELESS NETWORKS THAT ONLY SUP PORT ANALOG VOICE TRANSMISSION 3O WHEN WE USE OUR CELLPHONE TO TALK TO SOMEBODY '3- ENCODES OUR VOICES DIGITALLY hVIA A UNIQUE ENCODER WHICH EMULATES THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN SPEECHv AND WHICH ALLOWS FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF A SHORT MESSAGE A SO CALLED 3-3 !L THOUGH -ANOVICH DOES NOT FOCUS ON 3-3 RESEARCH WE SEE THAT THE AS PECT OF DIGITIZATION PLAYS A MAJOR ROLE IN HIS ARGUMENT OF hTHE COMPUT ERIZATION OF CULTUREv 7HILE SOME COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES n FOR EXAMPLE CELLPHONES n ALREADY CONNECT TO PREVIOUSLY SEPARATED COM PUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES SUCH AS PERSONAL COMPUTERS VIA THE )NTERNET WITH THE GOAL OF TRANSMITTING TEXTUAL MEDIA CONTENT INTERCONNECT ING NETWORKS OF COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES WILL ALLOW INDIVIDUAL ! TO CALL AND TALK TO INDIVIDUAL " WITH INDIVIDUAL !S CELLPHONE )NDIVIDUAL " WILL ANSWER THE PHONE CALL THROUGH HIS HER PERSONAL COMPUTERS SPEECH INPUT DEVICE EG A MICROPHONE SEE &OOTNOTE 3O ABOVE AND BEYOND MEDIA NONMEDIA AND PARAMEDIA COMMU NICATION WITH AND WITHIN THE COMPLEX OF COMPUTED MEDIA INDIVIDU ALS MAY COMMUNICATE VIA ABSTRACT SYSTEMS THAT IS VIA NETWORKS OF COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES USING MEDIA NONMEDIA AND PARAMEDIA CHANNELS )N DOING SO INDIVIDUALS UTILIZE NETWORKED MEDIA ARTIFACTS THAT OFFER MEDIA FORMAT BOUND COMMUNICATION POTENTIAL EG EMAIL OR 3-3 THAT MAY BE USED BY CREATING MEDIA CONTENT THAT THE MEDIA FORMAT ALLOWS FOR )N THE CASE OF EMAIL THIS MEANS TEXT IMAGES EMBED DABLE IN AN EMAIL MESSAGE AND ATTACHED VIDEOS )N THE CASE OF 3-3 INDIVIDUALS CREATE MEDIA CONTENT SUCH AS SHORT TEXT MESSAGES 3O UTI LIZING THESE NETWORKS AND THEIR COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES PEOPLE PRACTICE PROXIMITY AND DISTANCE WITH ONE ANOTHER IN THEIR OWN WAY n IN THEIR WORDS BY INVENTING NEW FORMS OF EXPRESSION ETC #ONSIDER FOR EXAMPLE HOW 3-3 BECOMES LANGUAGE IN USE /N THE OTHER HAND THESE NETWORKS OF COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES CONSOLIDATE ENVI RONMENTS OF TRUST AND RISK
.EXT 'ENERATION #OMPUTER -EDIATED #OMMUNICATION 2E SEARCH 3ELDOM IF EVER DOES ANY TECHNO PHOBIC OR TECHNO EUPHORIC THESIS CONCERNED WITH COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION TAKE A hUTILIZERv PERSPECTIVE TO ANALYZE SOCIAL PRACTICES OF THIS hUTILIZERv WHILE INCOR PORATING THICK INTERPRETATIONS OF THE UTILIZERS CULTURE 4HEREFORE WE NEED A PERSPECTIVE THAT DOES NOT REGARD THE DIGITAL MEDIA PHENOM ENON AS IF MEDIA WERE LOCATED OUTSIDE OF EMPIRICAL REALITY BUT ACCEPTS MEDIA AS EMPIRICAL REALITY THAT IS DEEPLY INTERTWINED WITH EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE LATE MODERN PERIOD h/NE WOULD HAVE TO COME UP WITH A CON CEPT OF MEDIA THAT VIEWS ALL MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AS CULTURAL AND SOCIAL 4AT 3ACHEN ;THINGS OF ACTION= @MEDIA CULTUREv )N CONTRAST TO THE ABOVE MENTION NOTION OF CULTURE ENCODED IN DIGITAL FORM "ECK ONLY TAKES AN INITIAL STEP TOWARD APPROXIMATING MEDIA CULTURE WHEN HE STATES h4ELEPRESENT AND TECHNICALLY ORGANIZED FORMS OF COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION CAN ONLY THEN BE SUITABLY ANALYZED IF MEDIA WITH THEIR ACTION OPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS ARE ADDRESSED TOGETHER WITH CULTURAL CONVENTIONS AND THE SYMBOLIC POTENTIAL OF THEIR USE "OTH POLES THEN REMAIN IN VIEW WHEN THE PRAGMATICS OF MEDIA USE ;ITALICS "ECKS= IS OBSERVED AND WHEN IT IS APPLIED TO THE TWO ABSTRACTIONS @CULTURE AND @SOCIETYv (OWEVER "ECK DOES NOT EXPLAIN WHY A CULTURE ALLOWS FOR TELE PRESENT AND TECHNICALLY PLANNED FORMS OF COMMUNICATION AND IN TERACTION WHEN THIS CULTURE FUNCTIONS AS A PREREQUISITE MEDIUM AND RESULT OF SOCIAL PRACTICES )N OTHER WORDS HE DOES NOT EXPLAIN HOW MEDIA CULTURE HAS EVOLVED SOCIO HISTORICALLY AND HOW THE hMEDIAv IN MEDIA CULTURE IS INCREASINGLY BASED ON COMPUTING #OMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES INDEED REPRODUCE CULTURAL VALUES AND NORMS WHEN PEOPLE UTILIZE AND COMMUNICATE WITH THEM THROUGH MEDIA NONMEDIA AND PARAMEDIA CHANNELS IN EVERYDAY ACTIVITIES )N THIS CASE COMPUTERS ARE 4AT 3ACHEN PHENOMENOLOGICAL ARTIFACTS AND IMAGINARY CONSTRUCTS 7HEN INDIVIDUALS OR GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALS
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
! 'IDDENS 3 'RAHAM AND 3 -ARVIN 4ELECOMMUNICATIONS AND THE #ITY %LECTRONIC 3PACES 5RBAN 0LACES ,ONDON * 5RRY * 5RRY -OBILE #ULTURES DRAFT PUBLISHED ONLINE BY THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AT ,ANCASTER 5NIVERSITY HTTPWWWCOMPLANCSACUKSOCIOLOGYSOCJU HTML 0 :OCHE 3 +IMPELER AND - *OEPGEN FF )BID
COMMUNICATE WITH COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES THROUGH MEDIA NON MEDIA AND PARAMEDIA CHANNELS THIS CONCEPT OF INTERACTION SHOULD NOT BE INTERPRETED AS A TECHNICISTIC OR AN INFORMATION THEORY CONCEPT BUT RATHER AS AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT THAT ADDRESSES COM PUTEDMEDIACOMPLEXES CULTURE AND THE SOCIAL PRACTICES R EVOLVING AROUND THESE COMPLEXES "E IT OUR 6#2S WASHING MACHINES !4-S OR OTHER ABSTRACT SYSTEMS WE SHOULD ACCEPT THAT COMPUTED MEDIA COM PLEXES ARE UBIQUITOUS AND A lRM lXTURE OF OUR DAILY ROUTINES -EDIA AND -OBILITY IN /UR $AILY ,IVES 7E CAN DESCRIBE TODAYS EVERYDAY LIFE AS A hCOMPLEX OF REACTIONS TO ABSTRACT SYSTEMS x IN A DIALECTIC OF DISPERSAL AND GLOBALIZATION ;AND= A DIALECTIC BETWEEN POWERLESSNESS AND EMPOWERMENTv )F WE EXAMINE THIS COMPLEX OF REACTIONS AS IT APPLIES TO INDIVIDUAL DIS LOCATION WE SEE THAT INDIVIDUALS UTILIZE NETWORKED COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES FOR REALIZING PROXIMITY AND DISTANCE THROUGH THEIR ACTIVITIES )N PARALLEL THEY ORIENT THEMSELVES UTILIZING THESE COMPUTED NETWORKED COMPLEXES IN THE COURSE OF WHAT URBAN TECHNOLOGY RESEARCHERS 3TEPHEN 'RAHAM AND 3IMON -ARVIN CALL A hTIME SPACE CHOREOGRAPHY OF PHYSICAL AND ELECTRONIC EVERYDAY MOBILITYv 4RAVELING AS A 3PACE 4IME #HOREOGRAPHY 7HEN NETWORKED COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES SUCH AS CELLPHONES OR NETWORKED HANDHELD COMPUTER GAME DEVICES SUCH AS 'AME"OY !D VANCE MERGE WITH INDIVIDUAL DAILY MOBILITY FROM HOME TO WORK TO LEI SURE ACTIVITY AND BACK HOME AGAIN WE CAN EASILY SEE THAT THE PHYSICAL VIRTUAL AND THUS SYMBOLIC CHANGE OF AN INDIVIDUAL FROM ONE SITUATION AL SOCIAL SPACE AND OR PLACE TO ANOTHER DOES NOT MERELY MANIFEST ITSELF DURING THE TRADITIONAL ONE PERSON ONE DESKTOP COMPUTER PARADIGM "RITISH SOCIOLOGIST *OHN 5RRY INVESTIGATES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL CORPOREAL TRAVEL AND THE UTILIZATION OF COMPUTED COMMUNI CATION TECHNOLOGIES (E DESCRIBES FOUR DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF hTRAVELv ABOVE AND BEYOND COMMUNICATION USING THE TELEPHONE LETTER FAX OR CELLPHONE
h4HE PHYSICAL MOVEMENT OF OBJECTS WHICH ARE BROUGHT TO PRO DUCERS OR TO CONSUMERS WHOSE PHYSICAL TRAVEL MAY BE CONSEQUENTLY REDUCED IMAGINATIVE TRAVEL TO BE TRANSPORTED ELSEWHERE THROUGH THE IMAGES OF PLACES AND PEOPLES ENCOUNTERED ON RADIO AND ESPECIALLY THE UBIQUITOUS 46 VIRTUAL TRAVEL TO @TRAVEL OFTEN IN REAL TIME ON THE )NTER NET WITH MANY OTHERS SO TRANSCENDING GEOGRAPHICAL AND OFTEN SOCIAL DISTANCE AS WELL AS THE PHYSICAL CORPOREAL TRAVEL OF PEOPLE AS BEING @ON THE MOVE HAS BECOME A @WAY OF LIFE FOR MANYv "UILDING UPON THIS CATEGORIZATION 5RRY BROADENS THE SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY AND ARGUES FOR hA RECONSTITUTED SOCIOLOGY THAT TAKES MOBIL ITY AS ITS CENTRAL CONCERNv "UT THE CONCEPT OF hMOBILITYv DOES NOT RELY ENTIRELY ON COMBINED NOTIONS OF SOCIAL PROXIMITY AND DISTANCE 3IMILAR TO 'RAHAM -ARVIN :OCHE +IMPELER *OEPGEN ASSIGN A SPACE TIME DIMENSION TO MOBILITY BUT EXPLICITLY ASSIGN SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS TO MOBILITY AS WELL 4HESE DIMENSIONS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED SIMULTANEOUSLY -EDIA AND -OBILITY IN 0ARALLEL :OCHE +IMPELER *OEPGEN INTRODUCE A DElNITION OF hVIRTUALv MO BILITY THAT TAKES US BACK TO *OHN 5RRY AND THE NOTION OF MEDIA NON MEDIA AND PARAMEDIA COMMUNICATION WITH AND THROUGH THE COM PUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES DISCUSSED IN THE PRECEDING SECTIONS 6IRTUAL MOBILITY hx CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS A HUMAN OPTION TO USE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS TO MAKE MOBILITY POSSIBLE BY VIRTUAL MEANS WITHOUT THE PARTICIPANTS NECESSARILY BEING PHYSICALLY MOBILE THEM SELVES IE IN MOTION (ERE VIRTUAL COMMUNICATION OFFERS SPACE TRAN SCENDING OPTIONS FOR SYNCHRONOUS COMMUNICATION WITH OTHER PEOPLE WHO ARE LOCATED AT DISTANT PLACESv
)BID ! 'IDDENS 2 - "AECKER ET AL 2EADINGS IN (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION 4OWARD THE 9EAR 3AN &RANCISCO 4HE 53!S .ATIONAL !TOMIC -USEUM HAS AN ONLINE EXHIBITION ON THE -ANHATTAN 0ROJECT AT HTTP WWWATOMICMUSEUMCOMTOURMANHATTANPROJECTCFM
3 0OOLE 4RIGGER (APPY 4HE )NNER ,IFE OF 6IDEO GAMES RD PRINTING ,ONDON FF 6 "USH h!S 7E -AY 4HINK v IN 4HE !TLANTIC -ONTHLY NO n 2 - "AECKER ET AL 6 "USH , -ANOVICH FF
"ASED ON THIS :OCHE +IMPELER *OEPGEN STATE THAT THE PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL POTENTIAL OF MOVEMENT HAS INCREASED ALONG WITH THE PHYS ICAL AND VIRTUAL INFRASTRUCTURES BETWEEN COMMUNICATION PARTICIPANTS 4HUS :OCHE +IMPELER *OEPGEN ARGUE THAT THE HISTORIES OF MEDIA AND MOBILITY RUN IN PARALLEL AND HAVE ACCELERATED THE GROWTH OF THESE INFRA STRUCTURES h7ITH THE INCREASING DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE AND TIME TRANSCENDING TECHNOLOGIES TO SUPPORT COMMUNICATION WE CAN ALSO OBSERVE AN INCREASE IN SOCIETAL MOBILITYv )F WE COMBINE THIS ARGUMENT WITH 5RRYS CATEGORIES OF TRAVEL WE SEE THAT TRAVELING BACK AND FORTH BETWEEN FACELESS AND FACEWORK COM MITMENTS ENTAILS PARTICIPATING IN MEANINGFUL COMMUNICATIVE SOCIAL ACTS THAT HAVE BEEN ENABLED BY THE ACCELERATED TWIN HISTORY OF MOBILITY AND MEDIA )N OTHER WORDS THE INTERRELATION OF MOBILITY AND MEDIA CAUSES A DILEMMA IN THAT WE TRAVEL BECAUSE WE HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO TRAVEL WHILE AT THE SAME TIME WE ARE FORCED TO TRAVEL BECAUSE OF THIS POTENTIAL 4HE $ILEMMA OF -OBILITY AND -EDIA AND -EDIA AND #OMPUTING 4HIS ONE DILEMMA OF LATE RADICAL MODERNITY CAUSED BY THE IN TERRELATION OF MEDIA AND MOBILITY MAY BE ILLUSTRATED WITH THE SO CIOLOGICAL METAPHOR THAT "RITISH SOCIOLOGIST !NTHONY 'IDDENS INTRO DUCED THE EVER MOVING EVER ACCELERATING CAR OF THE JUGGERNAUT THAT REPRESENTS MODERNITY 3O WHAT IS THE JUGGERNAUT 4HE JUGGERNAUT IS A METAPHOR FOR OUR GLOBALIZED SOCIETIES OUR IDEAS OUR PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE !S WE GROW MORE COMPLEX WE ALSO DRAG ALONG EVERYONE AND EVERYTHING THAT BLOCKS OUR PATH )F WE DO NOT WANT TO BE RUN OVER BY THE JUGGERNAUT WE NEED TO JUMP ONTO THE VEHICLE AND GO ALONG FOR THE RIDE 4HE SAME METAPHOR APPLIES TO THE INTERRELATION OF MOBIL ITY AND COMPUTING IN OUR DAILY LIVES hCOMPUTERSv ONLY BECAME POS SIBLE BECAUSE THE CONCEPTS OF COMPUTING AND THE TECHNOLOGY REQUIRED TO IMPLEMENT THESE CONCEPTS WERE DEVELOPED IN THE S AND S h4HE INITIAL MOTIVATION WAS TO SPEED THE ROUTINE AND LABORIOUS CALCU LATIONS REQUIRED FOR BALLISTIC EG ARTILLERY AND ATOMIC ENERGY COM PUTATIONSv 4HIS QUOTE POINTS TO THE EVENT THAT SPURRED THE DEVELOP
MENT OF THESE CONCEPTS AND THE RELATED TECHNOLOGY 7ORLD 7AR )) 4HE 53 GOVERNMENT HAVING HEARD RUMORS THAT THE .AZIS WERE BUILDING AN ATOMIC BOMB DECIDED TO BUILD A FACILITY OF THEIR OWN FOR NUCLEAR WEAPONS RESEARCH IN ,OS !LAMOS A REMOTE CITY IN .EW -EXICO -ANY RENOWNED SCIENTISTS GATHERED THERE INCLUDING THE FATHER OF THE lRST BOMBS COUNTDOWN CIRCUIT WHO WAS LATER TO BECOME A PIONEER IN COMPUTER GAMING 7ILLIAM ! (IGINBOTHAM (IGINBOTHAM BRINGS TOGETHER TWO OF THE MAJOR FORCES THAT EVENTUALLY LED TO THE COMPUTER IZATION OF EVERYDAY LIFE NAMELY THE MILITARY AND GAMING )N AT A TIME WHEN (IGINBOTHAM WAS SERVING AS DIRECTOR OF THE ELECTRONICS DEPARTMENT IN ,OS !LAMOS 6ANNEVAR "USH PUBLISHED THE HIGHLY INmUENTIAL PAPER h!S 7E -AY 4HINKv )T FORESHADOWED BOTH (#) AND UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING 2ATHER THAN USING COMPUTING MACHINERY FOR MERE NUMBER CRUNCHING OR FOR ENHANCING PRODUCTIVITY RESEARCHERS LIKE "USH REALIZED HOW COMPUTERS COULD BE USED TO hIN SPIRE HUMAN CREATIVITYv )N HIS PAPER "USH PRESENTS A VISION THAT HAS MUCH IN COMMON WITH -ANOVICHS DESCRIPTION OF A COMPUTERIZA TION OF CULTURE h4HE DIFlCULTY SEEMS TO BE NOT SO MUCH THAT WE PUBLISH UNDULY IN VIEW OF THE EXTENT AND VARIETY OF PRESENT DAY INTERESTS BUT RATHER THAT PUBLICATION HAS BEEN EXPANDED FAR BEYOND OUR PRESENT ABILITY TO MAKE REAL USE OF THE RECORD 4HE SUMMATION OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE IS BEING EXPANDED AT A PRODIGIOUS RATE AND THE MEANS WE USE FOR THREAD ING THROUGH THE CONSEQUENT MAZE TO THE MOMENTARILY IMPORTANT ITEM IS THE SAME AS WAS USED IN THE DAYS OF SQUARE RIGGED SHIPSv -ANOVICH IDENTIlES DATA PROCESSING AND MASS MEDIA AS THE MAJOR TRAJECTORIES THAT HAVE ENABLED MODERNITY 7E SHOULD NOTE THAT -A NOVICH DElNES MODERNITY AS BEING CHARACTERIZED BY SUCH FEATURES AS MASS RECORD KEEPING AND AUTOMATION )N CONTRAST ALMOST YEARS EARLIER "USH ARGUED THAT INDIVIDUALS WERE ALREADY CONFRONTED WITH A hMAZEv THAT THEY COULDNT POSSIBLY NAVIGATE BECAUSE THEIR hMEANSv WERE OUTDATED AND INAPPROPRIATE 7E MAY COMPARE "USHS hMEANSv WITH THE TEXTUAL PROGRAMED $ASEINSFORM THAT &LUSSER VIEWS AS BEING
3HORT FOR GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM '03 IS A SATELLITE NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEM COMPRISING SATELLITES AND THEIR RECEIVERS ON EARTH 4HE 53 $EPARTMENT OF $EFENSE DEVELOPED AND OPERATES THE SYSTEM WHICH ORIGINALLY WENT BY THE NAME OF .!634!2 .AVIGATION 3YSTEM WITH 4IMING AND 2ANGING 7HEN THREE SATELLITES AND ONE RECEIVER MOUNTED ON A CAR FOR EXAMPLE EXCHANGE DATA IT IS POSSIBLE FOR THE '03 SYSTEM TO CALCULATE THE LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE OF THE RECEIVER 9OU CAN FIND A VARIETY OF '03 RELATED LINKS AND BIBLIOGRA PHIES AT HTTPWWWNGSNOAAGOVGEODETIC?LINKSSHTML 4HE SITE IS HOSTED BY .ATIONAL 'EODETIC 3URVEY OF THE 53 $EPARTMENT OF #OMMERCE
- -C,UHAN 5NDERSTANDING -EDIA 4HE %XTENSIONS OF -AN .EW 9ORK " ,AUREL #OMPUTERS AS 4HEATRE "OSTON
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
6 &LUSSER -EDIENKULTUR ED 3TEFAN "OLLMANN ND %DITION &RANKFURT A - 6 "USH 0 "OURDIEU hKONOMISCHES +APITAL KULTURELLES +APITAL SOZIALES +APITAL v IN 3OZIALE 5NGLEICHHEITEN ED 2 +RECKEL 'TTINGEN n
REPLACED BY THE TECHNO IMAGES PROGRAMING US TODAY %VEN SO &LUSSERS ARGUMENT IS MORE PERCEPTION BASED )T IS ALMOST IRONIC THAT IF WE COMPARE "USH WITH -ANOVICH WE SEE THAT "USHS RECOGNITION OF A MAZE LIKE DAILY LIFE n WHICH hPUB LISHESv AN OVERmOW OF EXPERIENCE n COULD ONLY HAVE BEEN FACILITATED BY DATA PROCESSING AND MASS MEDIA OMNIPRESENCE IF WE UNDERSTAND -A NOVICH CORRECTLY )N ORDER TO HELP INDIVIDUALS lND THEIR WAY THROUGH THE MAZE "USH CONCEPTUALIZES h-%-%8 v WHICH IS THE PRECURSOR TO MODERN MOSTLY PERSONALIZED COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES h#ONSIDER A FUTURE DEVICE FOR INDIVIDUAL USE WHICH IS A SORT OF MECHANIZED PRIVATE lLE AND LIBRARY )T NEEDS A NAME AND TO COIN ONE AT RANDOM h-%-%8v WILL DO ! -%-%8 IS A DEVICE IN WHICH AN IN DIVIDUAL STORES ALL HIS BOOKS RECORDS AND COMMUNICATIONS AND WHICH IS MECHANIZED SO THAT IT MAY BE CONSULTED WITH EXCEEDING SPEED AND mEXIBILITY )T IS AN ENLARGED INTIMATE SUPPLEMENT TO HIS MEMORYv "USHS -%-%8 AS A COMBINATION OF COMPUTING AND MEDIA IS ONE DRIVING FORCE OF THE JUGGERNAUT WHEREAS MOBILITY AND MEDIA CON STITUTE ANOTHER 7E COULD FURTHER ASSUME THAT INDIVIDUAL PRACTICES WITHIN THE RE PRODUCTION OF SOCIETAL RAPPORT ON TOP OF THE JUGGERNAUT WILL THEN NOT ONLY BE DEPENDENT ON ECONOMIC SOCIAL OR CULTURAL CAPITAL BUT ALSO ON MOBILE CAPITAL n THAT IS ON CAPITAL THAT COMPRISES THE CONCEPT OF mEXIBILITY AND OF ENFORCED TRAVEL BACK AND FORTH BETWEEN FACELESS AND FACEWORK COMMITMENTS COMMITMENTS THAT WILL BRING TO LIFE FORMS OF PROXIMATE DISTANCE AND DISTANT PROXIMITY 4HIS PRESUMPTION SUGGESTS THAT BEING IN A STATE OF MOBILITY MAY MEAN THAT MOBILE CAPITAL MUST lRST BE INCORPORATED THROUGH A TIME INVESTMENT THEN OBJECTIlED VIA EXTENSIVE TRAVEL BOTH PHYSICALLY AND VIRTUALLY THAT IS WITH AND THROUGH COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES &INALLY IT WILL BE INSTITUTIONALIZED IN THE FORM OF OVERLAPPING FACELESS AND FACEWORK SOCIALITIES THAT ARE CONVERT IBLE TO ECONOMIC CAPITAL 3O WHENEVER RESEARCHING THESE STATES OF MO BILITY IN THE SENSE OF A CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF MOBILITY MEDIA AND COMPUTING WE WILL NEED TO CONCENTRATE ON TRAVEL PRACTICES CULTURE
-OBILITY AND #OMPUTING IN /UR %VERYDAY ,IVES )T IS IN WONDER THAT ) GAZE AT THE EMPIRICAL REALITY OF hMOBILEv COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES SUCH AS DIGITAL CELLULAR PHONES POR TABLE PERSONAL COMPUTERS HANDHELD COMPUTERS SMART PHONES WEAR ABLE AND WIRELESS COMPUTING DEVICES DIGITAL WRISTWATCHES AND '03 IN CAR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS HANDHELD COMPUTER GAMING DEVICES 'AME"OY 'AME"OY !DVANCE OR HYBRIDS BETWEEN TELEPHONES AND GAMING DEVICES .OKIAS N GAGE 4HE PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL TRAVEL PRACTICES SPRINGING FROM BOTH A UTILIZATION OF AND B ORIENTATION PROVIDED BY C MEDIA NONMEDIA AND PARAMEDIA COMMUNICATION WITH THESE COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEX ES AND lNALLY D COMMUNICATION THROUGH THESE MOBILE COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES n ALL OF THIS GENERATES LIFESTYLES AND CAN BE HELD RE SPONSIBLE FOR PROCESSES OF SOCIAL INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION )NDEED THESE DEVICES COMBINE ASPECTS OF MOBILITY MEDIA AND COMPUTING AND COULD BE CALLED PHYSICAL AND PORTABLE MANIFESTATIONS OF AN INTERRELATION BETWEEN EVERYDAY MOBILITY AND EVERYDAY COMPUT ING /N THE OTHER HAND THEY CAN ALSO BE UNDERSTOOD AS PROSTHETIC EXTENSIONS OF OUR CULTURAL BODIES OR AS BEARERS OF DRAMATIC TECH NIQUES FOR ORCHESTRATING HUMAN RESPONSE DURING HUMAN COMPUTER ACTIVITIES IN WHICH PRODUCERS OF COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES DESIGN THEATERLIKE MODALITIES OF HUMAN ENACTMENT (OWEVER THE TWIN HISTORY OF MOBILITY AND COMPUTING IN OUR DAILY LIVES MAY BEST BE EXPLAINED WITH THE HELP OF $ONKEY +ONG 3PACE )N VADERS 0AC -AN &ROGGER AND $EFENDER n GAMES PLAYED ON HANDHELD COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES LONG BEFORE 'AME"OY )N EXPLAINING THEM SUCH ) ALSO INTEND TO PREPARE YOU FOR THE EMPIRICAL STUDY ) WILL PRESENT IN 0ART )) OF THIS PAPER IN WHICH MOBILE COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES ARE USED AS COMPONENTS FOR ESTABLISHING A HYBRID REALITY GAME SCENARIO IN THE FORM OF -#
6 "URNHAM 3UPERCADE ! 6ISUAL (ISTORY OF THE 6IDEOGAME !GE n #AMBRIDGE 3 , +ENT 4HE 5LTIMATE (ISTORY OF 6IDEO 'AMES &ROM 0ONG TO 0OK£MON AND "EYOND n 4HE 3TORY "EHIND THE #RAZE 4HAT 4OUCHED /UR ,IVES AND #HANGED THE 7ORLD 2OSEVILLE #! + ,ISCHKA 3PIELPLATZ #OMPUTER +ULTUR 'ESCHICHTE UND ËSTHETIK DES #OMPUTERSPIELS (EIDELBERG
"URNHAM F )BID 2 +LANTEN AND * 'IELENS 5 3CHÓTTE h"ITS "LEEPS "RIGHT 0LASTIC v PROLOG TO %LECTRONIC 0LASTIC ED 2 +LANTEN AND * 'IELENS "ERLIN n )BID
3 4REPTE . 2ANN£ AND - "ECKER h@'AMEBOY FÓR DIE 'ROEN %INE EMPIRISCHE !NALYSE DER SPIELERISCHEN 0$! .UTZUNG v LECTURE FOR .UTZUNG DER -EDIENSPIELE n 3PIELE DER -EDIENNUTZER 4AGUNG DER &ACH GRUPPE 2EZEPTIONSFORSCHUNG IN DER $EUTSCHEN 'ESELLSCHAFT FÓR 0UBLIZISTIK UND +OMMUNIKATIONSWISSENSCHAFT *ANUARY (ANOVER
#OMPUTED -EDIA #OMPLEXES AND -OBILE 'AMING 7HEN BROWSING THROUGH THE LITERATURE ON THE HISTORY OF DIGITAL GAMING WE lND ONLY ONE SOURCE THAT MENTIONS MOBILE COM PUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES MORE EXPLICITLY "URNHAM DEDICATES ONE CHAPTER TO THE SERIES OF BATTERY OPERATED HANDHELD GAME SYSTEMS EN TITLED 'AME 7ATCH WHICH WERE PRODUCED BY THE *APANESE MANUFAC TURER .INTENDO FROM ON 4HESE HANDHELD COMPUTERS hCONSISTED OF A SMALL MINICONSOLE WITH A BLACK AND WHITE ,#$ SCREEN OFTEN WITH PRINTED OVERLAYS TO SIMULATE COLOR BACKGROUND GRAPHICS AND CONTROL INTERFACE 'AMES LIKE &IRE AND 0ARACHUTE CHALLENGED PLAYERS WITH SIM PLE TASKS SUCH AS RESCUING CHARACTERS FROM A BURNING BUILDING OR SAV ING A LOST PARACHUTIST FROM VICIOUS SHARKSv )NTERESTINGLY ENOUGH THE CELLPHONE GAMES RELEASED IN n COMPUTED MEDIA FORMATS THAT ARE AVAILABLE ON ALL MANUFACTURERS COMPUTED MEDIA ARTIFACTS n MOSTLY REPRODUCE OR MIMIC THESE OLDER GAMES %VEN THE CELLPHONES COMPUTED MEDIA CONTENT DOES NOT DIFFER MUCH FROM 'AME 7ATCH MEDIA CONTENT n A CASE OF HISTORY REPEATING ITSELF FOR ECONOMIC REASONS REDUCED MEDIA FORMAT PRODUCTION COSTS FOR CELLPHONE PRODUCERS 7E CAN ASSUME THAT THE SUCCESSORS TO THE .INTENDOS 'AME 7ATCH SERIES 'AME"OY AND LATER 'AME"OY !DVANCE WILL BE MIMICKED ON CELL PHONES TOGETHER WITH 'AME"OY MEDIA ARTIFACT INPUT CONVENTIONS 'AME"OY MEDIA FORMATS AND MEDIA CONTENT "UT THE STORY OF HANDHELD COMPUTER GAMES AND THUS THIS SPECIlC ASPECT OF THE TWIN HISTORY OF MOBILITY AND COMPUTING HAS AN EARLIER FORERUNNER )N AN IMPRESSIVE VISUAL HISTORY OF HANDHELD COMPUTER GAMES BASED ON *ARO 'IELENS COLLECTION OF SUCH DEVICES %LECTRONIC 0LASTIC TRACES THE RELATIONSHIP BACK TO WHEN -ATTELS THEN MARKETING DIRECTOR -ICHAEL +ATZ SAW A DEMONSTRATION OF THE NEWLY DEVELOPED ,%$ TECHNOLOGY AND hx HIT UPON AN IDEA USING IT TO CREATE A CALCULATOR SIZED GAME !UTO 2ACE WAS BORN 0LAYERS HAD TO STEER A @CAR REPRESENTED BY AN ,%$ AVOIDING COLLISION WITH ON COMING @TRAFlC ,IKE WITH 0ONG THE RECIPE FOR SUCCESS WAS INSPIRED SIMPLICITY YOU ONLY NEED TEN SECONDS TO LEARN THE GAME BUT HOURS TO MASTER IT -ATTEL LAUNCHED SEVERAL MORE ,%$
GAMES BUT THE REAL BREAKTHROUGH FOR HANDHELDS ONLY OCCURRED IN THE WAKE OF THE ADVENT OF ,#$ DISPLAYS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTIESv 4HIS WAS WHEN 'AME 7ATCH TOOK OVER )T IS PERHAPS MENTIONED AS AN EXAMPLE BY "URNHAM BECAUSE IT WAS hTHE MOST SUCCESSFULv OF ALL ,#$ GAMES PRODUCED AT THE TIME )N THIS CONTEXT LET ME MENTION A TALK GIVEN BY 4REPTE 2ANN£ "ECKER WHO ADDRESS THE QUESTION OF WHETHER TODAYS PLAYFUL USE OF HANDHELD COMPUTERS BY ADULTS MAY BE COMPARED WITH A YOUNGER AUDI ENCES USE OF 'AME"OY 4HEY ASK h'AME"OY FOR GROWNUPS v )T IS THESE ADULTS WHO YEARS AGO WERE PROBABLY PLAYING .INTENDOS 'AME 7ATCH GAMES /CTOPUS OR $ONKEY +ONG -"S 3IMON 4/-9S "REAK OUT 0ACMAN #OLECO 3AFARI "AMBINO "LOCKOUT "ANDAI $EFENDER %NTEX -OON 0ATROL 'AKKEN AND $R 3LUMP .CHA "YCHA 0OPY !PART FROM 3CHÓTTES INSIGHT THAT HANDHELD COMPUTER GAMES NOT ONLY INVADED OUR HOMES BUT ALSO REPRESENT VITAL REMNANTS OF MY GEN ERATIONS CHILDHOOD THESE COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES ALLOWED INDI VIDUALS TO TAKE COMPUTERS ON PHYSICAL TRIPS FOR EXAMPLE TO SCHOOL FRIENDS HOMES OR ON HOLIDAY .EXT TO WRISTWATCHES THESE DEVICES PROBABLY BECAME OUR lRST DIGITAL ACCESSORIES AND DIGITAL TOYS )T IS AT THIS POINT IN MY ARTICLE THAT TRAVELPRACTICES CULTURE SECTION IN TERFACES WITH COMPUTINGMOBILEMEDIACOMPLEXESPRACTICES CULTURE SECTION BECAUSE THE PORTABLE TOY INTERFACES BECAME DIGITAL -OBILE #OMPUTED -EDIA #OMPLEXES AND 5BIQUITOUS #OM PUTING ) HAVE DESCRIBED HOW UBIQUITOUS COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES ARE PART OF OUR EVERYDAY LIVES AND ROUTINES ) BELIEVE THAT IT IS IN UBIQUI TOUS COMPUTING THAT WE WILL ALSO lND A KEY TO ACCESSING MOBILITY AND COMPUTING IN OUR DAILY LIVES /N THE ONE HAND THE TERM UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING ALLUDES TO THE ACTUAL UBIQUITY OF COMPUTING TECHNOLOGY AS AN EMPIRICAL REALITY IN USE ORIENTATION AND COMMUNICATION "ASED ON THIS UBIQUITOUS COM PUTING HAS A SOCIAL AND A CULTURAL DIMENSION THAT CAN BE INVESTIGATED /N THE OTHER HAND UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING CONSTITUTES A FAST GROW
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
, 3UCHMAN
ING SUBDISCIPLINE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE )N THE LATE S ANTHROPOLO GISTS AND COMPUTER SCIENTISTS AT THE MAJOR COMPUTER SCIENCE RESEARCH INSTITUTION 8EROX 0!2# COINED THE TERM hUBIQUITOUS COMPUTINGv !T THAT TIME ,UCY 3UCHMAN WAS DIRECTING A RESEARCH GROUP AT 0!2# 3HE PROVIDES A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTRUCTIONS OF HUMAN ACTION AND COMMUNICATION THAT UNDERLIE THE DESIGN OF INTERACTIVE MACHINES 3HE ALSO PROPOSES AN ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVE DRAWN FROM DEVELOP MENTS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES !S A CONSEQUENCE OF COMMON INTERESTS AND COMMON PROJECTS A NEW RESEARCH PROGRAM h5BIQUITOUS #OM PUTING v WAS ESTABLISHED AT 0!2# IN UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE LATE -ARC 7EISER !LTHOUGH RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AT 0!2# AT THE TIME OF ITS ESTABLISHMENT WAS PROTOTYPICAL MANY OF THE 0!2# CONCEPTS FOUND THEIR WAY INTO COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES THAT TODAY SHAPE CULTURES ENCODED IN DIGITAL FORM &ROM THIS WE CAN SEE THAT THE MECHANISM OF COMPUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES NOT ONLY CONTAINS THE NOTION OF MOBILITY AND COMPUTING BUT ALSO SUMMARIZES IT 3O WHEN WE AS CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGISTS WANT TO RESEARCH MOBILITY AND COMPUTING PRACTICES n USES OF ORIENTATIONS PROVIDED BY AND COMMUNICATION WITH AND THROUGH UBIQUITOUS COM PUTED MEDIA COMPLEXES AND NETWORKS n WE WILL RESEARCH UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING TRAVELPRACTICES CULTURE
4HE JUGGERNAUT BOMB WITH A 0# NOTEBOOK RUN NING THE COUNTDOWN SERVLET CONNECTED TO THE GAME SERVER /NE PLAYER HAS TO PREVENT THE REST OF THE TEAM FROM DISARMING
)) ! #ULTURAL !NTHROPOLOGICAL AND 'AME $ESIGN %XPERIMENT IN (YBRID 2EALITY 4HE 'AME )S 7HERE 9OU !RE )N THE lRST PART OF THIS PAPER ) FOCUSED ON THE CO TEXT OF A HIS TORICAL SITUATION AND THE CONTEXT OF CULTURE FORMING SOCIETAL PROCESSES WITH REGARD TO A HYBRIDIZATION OF MOBILITY MEDIA AND COMPUTING AS DISEMBEDDING REEMBEDDING MECHANISMS OF HYBRID REALITY !S A RESULT OF THESE ANALYSES ) SUGGEST LOOKING AT COMPUTINGMEDIACOMPLEXES PRACTICES CULTURE AND TRAVELPRACTICES CULTURE IN COMBINATION WITH UBIQUITOUSCOMPUTING TRAVELPRACTICES CULTURE 4HIS WILL ENABLE US TO BETTER UNDERSTAND INDIVIDUAL PRACTICES OF CREATING MAINTAINING AND ANNULLING PROXIMATE DISTANCE AND DISTANT PROXIMITY AND ALSO TO GRASP MORE CLEARLY THE TRUST RISK ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH THESE PRACTICES TAKE PLACE )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WILL BRIEmY PRESENT AN APPLIED EMPIRICAL STUDY OF HYBRID REALITY THAT ) DESIGNED AND CONDUCTED IN THE FORM OF THE MULTI PLAYER EXPERIMENTAL GAME OF -#
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
3TUDY &ACTS ('+:S POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM -!$ COMMISSIONED ME TO CONCEPTUALIZE CREATE AND DOCUMENT -# HAVE -!$ STUDENTS CO PRODUCE PARTS OF THE GAME AND COMBINE -#S DEVELOPMENT WITH THEORETICAL AND WORKSHOP TEACHINGS $UE TO MOST OF THE STUDENTS INEXPERIENCE WITH COMPLEX DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES AND THE NECES SARY TIME INVESTMENT THIS ROUTE DID NOT PROVE TO BE OVERLY EFFECTIVE (ENCE ) WAS MAINLY SUPPORTED BY A PRODUCTION TEAM THAT CONSISTED OF *AVA PROGRAMMER 4HOMAS 3EIBERT AND &LASH DESIGNER 4IM 2UETZ !DDITIONAL ASSISTANCE CAME FROM GAME LEVEL DESIGNER +ATRIN 3CHBEL AND MANY OTHERS WHO ARE CREDITED ON THE GAME DOCUMENTARY 7EB SITE HTTPWWWMADCOUNTDOWNDE "ASED ON ETHNOGRAPHIC lELDWORK -!$ CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT A GAME DESIGN CONCEPT AND LOGISTICAL PREPARATION OF -# INCLUDING SPECIlC GUIDING QUESTIONS FOR AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE GAME WE PRODUCED THE GAME MAINLY IN 3TUTTGART AND IMPLEMENTED IT AT ('+: BETWEEN LATE -ARCH AND -AY !T THE CONCLUSION OF THE PROJECT ) EVALU ATED FOUR GROUPS OF VOLUNTEER ('+: STUDENTS WHO PLAYED THE GAME ON FOUR CONSECUTIVE DAYS IN -AY THREE FULL TEAMS ONE INCOMPLETE GROUP IN ALL PARTICIPANTS 0ARTS OF THE GAME SCENARIO SESSIONS WERE VIDEO TAPED AND ALL THE PLAY SERVER ACTION WAS LOGlLED INCLUDING TEXTUAL CONVERSATION )N ADDITION ) CONDUCTED PARTICIPATORY OBSERVATION OF THE GAME SESSIONS AND LED DISCUSSIONS WITH THE GROUPS ONCE GAME SES SIONS WERE OVER )N SOME CASES ) ALSO CARRIED OUT SEMISTANDARDIZED IN TERVIEWS WITH SINGLE PLAYERS !LL THE INTERVIEWS WERE FULLY TRANSCRIBED 9OU CAN lND ADDITIONAL DETAILS OF THE EVALUATION ITS PREPARATION AS WELL AS GROUP ANALYSES IN THE DOCUMENTATION ON THE -# 7EB SITE !BOUT -!$ #/5.4$/7. )NTRODUCTION )N ADDITION TO ATTENDING LECTURES AND DOING THEIR CLASS ASSIGN MENTS lVE STUDENTS PLAYED THE DAYLONG -!$ #/5.4$/7. GAME THROUGHOUT ('+:S PHYSICAL ARCHITECTURE BASEMENT TO lFTH mOOR AND WITHIN A *!6! MULTI USER TWO DIMENSIONAL VIRTUAL REALITY THAT SI MULTANEOUSLY SIMULATES A SIXTH mOOR 6IA HANDHELD COMPUTER CLIENTS
#OMPAQ I0!1S THAT RUN A &LASH FOR POCKET 0# BASED FRONT END PLAYERS CONNECT TO ('+:S WIRELESS ,!. TO ACCESS AND POPULATE THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR (ERE THEY MAY INTERACT WITH OTHER PLAYERS GAME OBJECTS CHARACTERS AND EVENTS 0LAYERS MAY ALSO DO THINGS IN THIS GAME THAT THEY USUALLY DO FOR FUN IN REAL LIFE SUCH AS EATING TOO MANY BURG ERS BAD OR HAVING SEX AND SMOKING POT GOOD 0LAYERS ALSO INTERACT WITH PHYSICAL PLAYERS AND PROTAGONISTS PHYSICAL GAME ELEMENTS AND OTHER MEDIA SUCH AS TELEPHONE ANSWERING MACHINES AUTOMATED PHONE BOOTH CALL INS GIVING GAME RELEVANT INSTRUCTIONS AND 7EB SITES !T CERTAIN POINTS BOTH PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL GAME COMPONENTS ALLOW AND FORCE PLAYERS TO SWITCH BETWEEN THESE WORLDS OR TO SEAMLESSLY MERGE THEM WHEN PLAYERS FOR EXAMPLE OUTPUT OR hDECRYPTv THE MUCH NEEDED VIRTUAL PUZZLE FROM THEIR I0!1 ONTO A PHYSICAL PRINTER WHICH THEY ALSO MUST LOCATE 4HE 3TORY -# ASSIGNS A TEAM OF lVE PLAYERS THE ROLE OF HEROES WHO HAVE TO LOCATE AND DISARM A FAKE PHYSICAL ATOMIC BOMB HIDDEN SOMEWHERE IN THE BUILDING )T REPRESENTS A JUGGERNAUT ELEMENT SEE &IGURE 0LAY ERS HAVE TO lND DEACTIVATION CODE FRAGMENTS IN HYBRID REALITY SHARE GAME INFORMATION WITH OTHER PLAYERS EITHER THROUGH AN 3-3 LIKE TEXT CHAT INTERFACE OR FACE TO FACE MEETINGS AND INTERACT WITH PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL GAME COMPONENTS AND CHARACTERS IN ORDER TO STOP THE TICKING COUNTDOWN IN TIME /NE STUDENT IS RANDOMLY ASSIGNED THE SELF INTER PRETABLE ROLE OF SABOTEUR UNBEKNOWNST TO THE OTHER PLAYERS n AT LEAST AT THE BEGINNING OF THE GAME 4HIS HEIGHTENS THE GAMES DRAMA AND SUSPENSE AND ITS IMPACT ON PLAYERS
& 4EMPLETON 9/5 n 4HE #ITY .EW 9ORK )N THIS CONTEXT THE TERM HAS MUCH IN COMMON WITH THE (#) DEFINITION SEE $ .ORMAN h4HE 0SYCHOPATHOL OGY OF %VERYDAY 4HINGS v IN 4HE $ESIGN OF %VERYDAY 4HINGS ED $ .ORMAN .EW 9ORK n ! -ARCUS AND % #HEN h$ESIGNING THE 0$! OF THE &UTURE v IN )NTERACTIONS .EW 6ISIONS OF (UMAN #OM PUTER )NTERACTION VOL )8 *ANUARY &EBRUARY n
# ,UPP AND / 'ERSTHEIMER h.EEDS VERSUS 4ECH NOLOGY n 4HE #HALLENGE TO $ESIGN ' !PPLICATIONS v IN &ROM % #OMMERCE TO - #OMMERCE 0ROCEEDINGS OF #/ 4)- ED % $HOLAKIA ET AL 2 ) +INGSTON
!NALOGOUS TO ' "ACHELARD 0OETIK DES 2AUMES TH PRINTING &RANKFURT A - hx ;IN THE= "UILDING OF -ANKIND WE HAVE STUDIED A SERIES OF IM AGES THAT WE CAN UNDERSTAND AS THE "UILDING OF 4HINGS DRAWERS CHESTS CLOSETS (OW MUCH PSYCHOLOGY IS LOCKED WITHIN THEM )NSIDE THEY CARRY AN AESTHETIC OF THE HIDDEN x !N EMPTY DRAWER IS UNIMAGINABLE )T CAN ONLY BE THOUGHTv
(ENCE -# HAS BEEN CONCEPTUALIZED TO CREATE A HYBRID REALITY TRUST RISK GAME ENVIRONMENT THAT CAN BE DElNED AS A CUSTOMIZED CON TEXT AND CONTENT DRIVEN MIX BETWEEN %LECTRONIC !RTS CROSS ME DIA GAME AND COMMERCIAL FAILURE -AJESTIC PLAYHOUSE WRITER &IONA 4EMPLETONS CITYWIDE PIECE h9/5 n 4HE #ITY v LIVE ACTION ROLE PLAY ING GAMES TREASURE HUNTS AND UBIQUITOUS GAMING APPROACHES &UNCTIONAL 3PECIlCATIONS )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WOULD LIKE TO GIVE A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF SOME MA JOR FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF -# IN KEYWORD STYLE 2ETRANSLATING 3OCIAL 0RACTICES AT ('+: 3OME OF THE SOCIAL PRACTICES OF ('+: STUDENTS SUCH AS THEIR SOCIOLECT WERE RETRANSLATED INTO THE GAME NARRATIVE 4HESE RETRANSLA TIONS ALSO TOOK PLACE FOR STUDENT INTERACTIONS WITH EVERYDAY ARTIFACTS AND SITUATIONS FOR EXAMPLE ENROLLING FOR CLASSES STUDYING SWITCHING BETWEEN ROOMS LECTURE SITUATIONS CELLPHONE UTILIZATION FOR MEETING IN A ('+: ROOM 'AME"OY PLAY DURING LECTURE BREAKS AS WELL AS FOR STUDENTS UTILIZATION OF AND ORIENTATIONS WITH EVERYDAY ENVIRONMENTS EG THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MAIN BUILDING LEVELS STUDIOS STOREROOMS COMPUTER POOL ROOMS ETC 4HE GOAL WAS THREEFOLD AA THE HYBRID REALITY GAME SCENARIO WOULD CONSTITUTE A HIGHLY PROBABLE AND COM PRESSED EVERYDAY LIFE HYBRIDIZATION OF MOBILITY MEDIA AND COMPUTING THAT AB WOULD ALLOW FOR OVERLAPPING VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL EVERYDAY FACTORS AND THAT AC WOULD ALLOW FOR SOCIAL INTERACTION IN BOTH VIRTUAL AND REAL GAME COMPONENTS 0LAYERS ARE FREE TO ENTER AND LEAVE OR EVEN QUIT THE GAME ENTIRELY 5BIQUITY OF -OBILE #OMPUTED -EDIA #OMPLEXES 4HE GAME PROVIDED UBIQUITY OF MOBILE COMPUTED MEDIA COM PLEXES IN THE PROBABLE FORM OF A HYBRID HANDHELD COMPUTER HAND HELD COMPUTER GAMING DEVICE n THESE FORMS OF HYBRID DEVICES OR HY BRID MOBILE APPLICATIONS COMBINING INTERACTION METAPHORS OF CELL PHONES AND HANDHELD COMPUTER DEVICES ARE EXTENSIVELY RESEARCHED IN THE lELD OF (#) AND -(#) IN MOBILE APPLICATION PROTOTYPE
CONSULTING BASED ON SYSTEMS THEORY AND ALSO IN THE COMPUTER GAMING INDUSTRY 4HE TELECOMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY IS ALREADY MANU FACTURING AND DISTRIBUTING THEM 0HYSICAL "UILDING AS 'AME "OARD 4HE GAME UTILIZES THE COMPLETE PHYSICAL ARCHITECTURE OF ('+:S MAIN CAMPUS BUILDING BASEMENT TO lFTH mOOR AS A PHYSICAL GAM ING ENVIRONMENT IN ADDITION TO ADAPTING TYPICAL mOOR PLANS OF THIS BUILDING FOR THE DESIGN OF A SIMULTANEOUSLY PLAYABLE MULTI USER VIR TUAL SIXTH mOOR 4HIS SIXTH mOOR IS CONSTANTLY ACCESSIBLE AND DISPLAYED USING HANDHELD COMPUTER GAME DEVICES CONNECTED TO ('+:S MULTI SPOT 7,!. 4HE PREPARED HANDHELD GAME DEVICES WERE HANDED OUT TO PLAYERS PRIOR TO THE DAYLONG GAME AFTER A MISSION BRIElNG SESSION 0HYSICALITY "ECOMES 6IRTUALITY 7HEN THE GAME IS PLAYED EVENTS SOCIAL INTERACTION POSSIBILITIES PERSONA AND EVERYDAY ARTIFACTS ARE RETRANSLATED INTO CLUES AND AR TIFACTS ON THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR FOR EXAMPLE INTEGRATION OF THE VICE DEAN AS A RE AND DISAPPEARING CHARACTER ALLUSION TO AND RIDDLES ABOUT ('+:S HISTORY OR FESTIVITIES IN :URICH SUCH AS THE ANNUAL h"Gv BURNING INTRODUCTION OF EXCHANGE STUDENT CHARACTERS AND FACULTY CHARACTERS TEACHING CLASSES NOT TAUGHT ON ('+:S PHYSICAL mOORS DIS PLAY OF VIRTUAL WATER DISPENSER AND BLACKBOARD 4HE 3ABOTEUR 4HE GAME INTRODUCES A hCLONINGv FUNCTIONALITY SOLELY RESERVED FOR THE SABOTEUSE SABOTEUR WHO IS RANDOMLY PICKED BY THE GAME SERVER AT THE START OF THE GAME SESSION 4HIS CLONING FUNCTIONALITY ALLOWS SABO TEURS TO DUPLICATE ANY GIVEN PLAYER THEMSELVES INCLUDED FOR A LIMITED PERIOD OF TIME AND TO SWITCH BETWEEN THEIR ORIGINAL PLAYER AND THE CLONE TO CAUSE CONFUSION AND HIDE THEIR REAL INTENTIONS FROM THE OTHER PLAYERS BY DISTRACTING ACTS COUNTERFEIT TEXT MESSAGES OR PLAYER ATTACKS UNDER SOMEBODY ELSES NAME )N OTHER WORDS AT TIMES THERE CAN BE TWO hv PLAYERS ON THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR n ONE IS THE AUTHENTIC PLAYER AND THE OTHER CONTROLLED BY THE SABOTEUSE SABOTEUR
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
)NCORPORATION OF /THER -EDIA -# INCORPORATES OTHER FORMS OF MEDIA INTO THE GAME NARRATIVE SUCH AS TELEPHONE NUMBERS LEADING TO ANSWERING MACHINES OR A 7EB SITE WITH ARTISTS THAT NEED TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH THE CORRECT ARTWORK ON ANOTHER 7EB SITE WHERE THE 52,S OF THESE 7EB SITES ARE CONCEALED ON THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR 5BIQUITY OF "OTH 6IRTUAL AND 0HYSICAL 'AME #OMPONENTS 4HROUGHOUT THE GAME SESSION THE UBIQUITY OF BOTH VIRTUAL AND PHYSICAL GAME COMPONENTS IS GUARANTEED BECAUSE OF GAME COMPONENTS SUCH AS A ENFORCED PHYSICAL MOBILITY AS A RESULT OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PHYSICAL GAME ELEMENTS ACROSS THE MAIN CAMPUS BUILDING FOR EXAM PLE A PHYSICAL WALL SIZE COORDINATE SYSTEM ON THE lFTH mOOR FOR DECOD ING COORDINATES FOUND ON THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR OR A FAKE BOMB WHICH CONNECTS TO THE GAME SERVER AND IS HIDDEN IN THE BASEMENT B ENFORCED VIRTUAL MOBILITY THROUGH THE ALLOCATION OF VIRTUAL GAME ELEMENTS ACROSS THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR 0LAYERS CAN INTERACT WITH THESE GAME ELEMENTS n hEXAMINEv THEM hEATv THEM OR hSMOKEv THEM FOR EXAMPLE KEYS FOR OPENING SAFES AND TRAPS FOOD FOR KEEPING UP A PLAYERS ENERGY LEVELS hWEEDv NEEDED FOR INFORMATION DISCLOSURE ETC 0LAYERS MAY ALSO COLLECT GAME ELEMENTS IN THEIR VIRTUAL BACKPACKS OR DEPOSIT ITEMS BACK ONTO THE mOOR FROM THEIR BACKPACKS 3OME OF THESE LOOSE GAME ARTIFACTS WILL REVEAL INFORMATION ONCE THEY ARE TAKEN TO OTHER lXED GAME ARTIFACTS FOR EXAMPLE IF THE LOOSE BOOK ON h-OBILE -ULTI 0LAYER (YBRID 2EALITY 'AMINGv IS TAKEN TO THE lXED GAME CHAR ACTER h0ROF !NTHONY 'IDDENS WHO TEACHES ON THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR v 'IDDENS WILL REVEAL A TELEPHONE NUMBER THAT HAS TO BE CALLED (YBRID 'AME $ESIGN 3WITCHING BETWEEN 0HYSICALITY AND 6IRTUALITY 4HE GAME DESIGN CONTAINS GAME ELEMENTS AND CLUES THAT ALLOW PLAYERS TO SEAMLESSLY SWITCH BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL GAME COM
PONENTS LEVELS AND VICE VERSA FOR EXAMPLE RESEARCHING THREE DIGITS ON THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR IN ORDER TO OPEN A PHYSICAL LOCKER WITH A NUMERIC LOCK ON THE GROUND mOOR 0LAYER #OMMUNICATION ON THE 6IRTUAL 3IXTH &LOOR 4HE GAME SYSTEM ALLOWS FOR VIRTUAL UBIQUITY BY THE WAY OF AN 3-3 LIKE CHAT MODULE ENABLING GROUP COMMUNICATION THROUGH THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR AND ALLOWING FOR THE DESIGNATION OF PHYSICAL PLAYER MEETINGS 4EXTUAL 4ONALITY AND $RAMATIC "ALANCE 4O ACHIEVE A DRAMATIC BALANCE THE GAME SCENARIOS TEXT TONALITY IS IRONIC AND WITTY 4HIS CONTRASTS WITH THE OVERALL LOOK FEEL OF THE GAME WHICH IS MENACING AND EVEN SOLEMN AT TIMES FOR EXAMPLE THE HIDDEN BOMB LOOKS AUTHENTIC AND TICKS LOUDLY 6IRTUAL 3IXTH &LOOR )NTERFACE 0LAYERS CONTROL THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR BY MOVING FROM ROOM TO ROOM WITH THE HANDHELD COMPUTERS CURSOR KEYS AND WITHIN A ROOM THEY USE THE HANDHELD COMPUTERS TOUCH SCREEN TO INTERACT WITH OTHER PLAYERS CHARACTERS AND GAME ARTIFACTS SUCH AS hFOODv WHICH IS REPRE SENTED ON A RECTANGULAR MATRIX AND lLLED INTO MATRIX CELLS FROM DATA BASES AS A GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION $EPENDING ON THE ARTIFACT CHAR ACTER THEY ARE INTERACTING WITH PLAYERS HAVE A VARIETY OF COMMANDS AT THEIR lNGERTIPS EG hREAD v hEXAMINE v hAUDIO PLAY v hFUCK v hSCAN v hOPEN v hPRINT v ETC 0LAYER PLAYER INTERACTION IS POSSIBLE WITH COM MANDS SUCH AS hATTACKv OR hmIRTv
/NCE REDUCED TO PLAYERS ARE RESET TO THE hWAKE UP ROOMv ON THE VIRTUAL TH FLOOR 0LAYERS ARE NOTIFIED THAT THIS WILL HAPPEN AT APPROXIMATELY ENERGY LEVEL %ATING AND DRINKING RAISES THE LEVEL AND SOMETIMES EAT ING REVEALS INFORMATION THAT IS NEEDED TO SOLVE THE GAME )N THE DOUBLE SENSE OF hLOCALv FIRST LOCAL AS IN A ('+: BASED GAME PLOT AND SECOND LOCAL AS IN ('+: STUDENTS PLAYING THE GAME AND OTHER ('+: STUDENTS STAFF AND FACULTY SERVING AS AN AUDIENCE
4HE 4ICKING "OMB !T ALL TIMES PLAYERS CAN CHECK THE REMAINING BOMB COUNTDOWN TIME ON THEIR HANDHELD COMPUTER IDENTIFY THEIR LOCATION AND THAT OF OTHER PLAYERS ON THE VIRTUAL SIXTH mOOR CHECK ON THEIR AND OTHER PLAY ERS ENERGY LEVELS SEND AND RECEIVE 3-3 LIKE TEXT MESSAGES GATHER LOOSE GAME ARTIFACTS IN THEIR VIRTUAL BACKPACKS AND DEPOSIT GAME AR TIFACTS IN A MATRIX CELL IF ONE IS AVAILABLE 4HE FAKE PHYSICAL BOMB IS CONNECTED TO THE GAME SERVER AND HIDDEN SOMEWHERE INSIDE ('+: #ONCLUSION -# REPRESENTS A SUSPENSEFUL WITTY LOCALIZED AND MOBILITY EN FORCING CUSTOM SCENARIO THAT CREATES SPECIlC YET TOLERABLY CONTROLLABLE TRUST RISK ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH THE INTERRELATION OF MOBILITY MEDIA AND COMPUTING ALLOWS A GROUP OF INDIVIDUALS TO PRACTICE EMPIRICALLY OBSERVABLE INDICES OF PROXIMATE DISTANCE AND DISTANT PROXIMITY IN HY BRID REALITY 4ECHNICAL 3PECIlCATIONS )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WILL GIVE A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE MOST IMPORTANT TECHNICAL SPECIlCATIONS 'AME 3ERVER 3IDE *AVA -# RUNS ON A CUSTOM BUILT *AVA MULTI USER PLATFORM -ANY OF THE REQUIREMENTS CONCERNING A MULTI USER ENVIRONMENT ARE DIRECTLY MET BY THE CORE FEATURES OF *AVA TECHNOLOGY )T ALLOWED US TO EASILY HANDLE THE SESSION MANAGEMENT OF SERVER SIDE CONCURRENCY ISSUES US ERS INmUENCING ONE ANOTHER OR SOME COMMON ARTIFACT AND TO PROVIDE PLUGGABILITY TO ANY *$"# CAPABLE DATABASE IN OUR CASE WE USED A -3 !CCESS $" ALTHOUGH IT COULD BE EXCHANGED WITH ANY OTHER *$"# CA PABLE DATABASE IE -Y31, /RACLE 3YBASE ETC 4HE $" WAS USED FOR DECLARATIVELY PROGRAMMING SUCH THINGS AS THE VIRTUAL REALITY GAME EVENTS OVER 62 SPACE TIME AND GAME ELEMENT DEPENDENCIES 4O ENSURE A HIGH LEVEL OF mEXIBILITY WE BUILT THE SYSTEM WITH A SO CALLED MODEL ARCHITECTURE IN MIND 4HIS ARCHITECTURE SEPARATES THE THREE DIFFERENT LAYERS OF RESPONSIBILITY THAT ARE COMMON TO 7EB BASED
APPLICATIONS VIEW CONTROLLER MODEL BACK END 4HIS ARCHITECTURE IS OFTEN CALLED A THREE TIER ARCHITECTURE SEPARATING THE FRONT END FROM THE MIDDLEWARE AND THE BACK END /N THE SERVER SIDE WE USED 4OMCAT IMPLEMENTATION AS AN APPLICATION SERVER 4HIS IS AN OPEN SOURCE REFER ENCE IMPLEMENTATION FOR THE SERVLET AND JSP !0) 4O ALLOW ANY NUMBER OF CONCURRENT PARTICIPANTS WE SIMPLY RELIED ON THE SERVLET ARCHITECTURE THAT COMES WITH THE *AVA %NTERPRISE %DI TION %VERY REQUEST FROM THE CLIENT WAS HANDLED WITHIN A SINGLE THREAD ON THE SERVER SIDE THUS ALLOWING FOR ANY NUMBER OF GAME PLAYERS ON THE CLIENT SIDE 4O MAINTAIN A CERTAIN CLIENT STATE REMEMBERING WHICH ARTIFACTS THE PLAYER HAS IN HIS HER BAG HOW MUCH STAMINA WAS LEFT ETC WE USED THE SERVLET !0) INHERENT SESSION MANAGEMENT !0) 4HIS WAS AN ESSENTIAL POINT AS THE MOBILE DEVICES WHICH WERE USED AS CLI ENTS OFTEN WERE NOT RELIABLE IN TERMS OF CONNECTIONS AND HAD TO BE RECHARGED REGULARLY 7ITH SESSION MANAGEMENT A PLAYER COULD SIMPLY TURN HIS HER DEVICE OFF AND RECONNECT AT A LATER TIME %VEN SO SESSION TIMEOUTS WERE INITIATED AFTER SIX HOURS OF INACTIVITY -OREOVER SOME GLOBAL PARAMETERS FOR THE GAME WERE HANDLED AT APPLICATION SCOPE WHICH MOST OFTEN WAS IMPLEMENTED AS DEPENDENT SINGLETON OBJECTS 4HEN WE lGURED OUT WHICH ACTIONS COULD TAKE PLACE AT THE SAME TIME BY DIFFERENT PLAYERS 4HESE ACTIONS WERE ALL SYNCHRONIZED SO IT WAS IM POSSIBLE WITHIN THE GAMING LOGIC TO REACH AN INCONSISTENT STATE &OR EXAMPLE IF TWO PLAYERS ARE IN ONE ROOM AND EVERY PLAYER REACHES FOR AN ARTIFACT IN THIS ROOM ONLY ONE PLAYER CAN hPICK UPv THE ARTIFACT AND A FAILURE MESSAGE IS SENT TO THE OTHERS 4O ALLOW FOR PLUGGABILITY OF ADDITIONAL BEHAVIOR IE NEW ACTION CLASSES TO BE INTEGRATED INTO THE GAME WE USED THE COMMAND PATTERN TO COVER THE DIFFERENT ACTIONS WHICH THE PLAYERS COULD TAKE 4O EXTEND THE BEHAVIORAL GAMUT OF THE PLAYERS WE ONLY NEED TO EXTEND AN ACTION CLASS REGISTER IT WITH THE GAMING LOGIC AND ALLOW THE PLAYERS TO EXECUTE THAT NEW ACTION 7ITH THIS FEATURE IT IS EASY TO EXTEND THE POSSIBILITIES OF THE GAME WITHOUT REPROGRAMMING OTHER UNRELATED LOGIC &INALLY WE COVERED THE INTERNATIONALIZATION ASPECT WITH THE IN !0) WHICH ALSO COMES WITH THE *AVA CORE LANGUAGE 7ITHIN LANGUAGE SPECIlC TEXT REPOSITORIES IT IS POSSIBLE TO DElNE ROOM DElNITIONS ACTION FEEDBACK
-!$ #OUNTDOWNS -# POCKET 0# &LASH APPLICATION STRUCTURE LINKED TO THE *AVA GAME SERVER VIA MULTIPLE 7,!. HOTSPOTS
#ONSTITUENTS OF (YBRID 2EALITY 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ
0 -OLYNEUX h!USBLICKv IN 3PIELPLATZ #OMPUTER +ULTUR 'ESCHICHTE UND ËSTHETIK DES #OMPUTERSPIELS ED +ONRAD ,ISCHKA (EIDELBERG n
TEXT ERROR MESSAGES ETC IN SEVERAL LANGUAGES TO MAKE THE -# MULTI USER PLATFORM TRULY INTERNATIONAL #LIENT 3IDE 0OCKET 0#S &LASH 4HE POCKET 0#S GIVEN TO EACH PLAYER FOR THE GAME RAN THE -# mASH APPLICATION FOR THE PLAYERS AND IN TURN COMMUNICATED WITH THE GAME SERVER VIA SOME 7,!. HOTSPOTS DISTRIBUTED ACROSS ('+:S PHYSICAL mOORS 3EE &IGURE FOR THE &LASH APPLICATION STRUCTURE INFOR MATION mOW #ONCLUSION 4HE EVALUATION OF -# GAME SESSIONS IN -AY IS DOCUMENTED IN DETAIL AT HTTPWWWMADCOUNTDOWNDE AND DEMONSTRATES THAT THROUGH SUCH A SCENARIO PLAYERS WERE NOT ONLY FORCED TO SHARE BUT WERE ALSO EAGER TO APPLY THEIR TRUST AND RISK STRATEGIES AND TACTICS DUR ING THEIR GAME SESSION 0LAYERS ENACTED A WIDE RANGE OF VERBAL NONVER BAL PARAVERBAL AS WELL AS MEDIA NONMEDIA AND PARAMEDIA COMMU NICATIVE PRACTICES DURING THEIR OVERLAPPING JOURNEYS BETWEEN FACELESS AND FACEWORK SOCIALITIES IN HYBRID REALITY 3ECONDLY -# ALSO SHOWS THE URGENT POLITICAL DIMENSION OF HYBRID REALITY WHERE ISSUES SUCH AS PRI VACY AND CONTROL ARE ALTERED "ECAUSE TRUST AND RISK HAVE RARELY BEEN RESEARCHED UNDER TOLERABLY CONTROLLABLE CONDITIONS MY STUDY MAY CONTRIBUTE NOT ONLY TO HELPING US UNDERSTAND INDIVIDUAL CO TEXTS AND CONTEXTS IN AN ARTIlCIAL PLAYFUL AND COMPRESSED LOCAL CO TEXT AND CONTEXT BUT ALSO TO GIVING US INSIGHT INTO INDIVIDUAL LOCAL AND GLOBAL CO TEXTS AND CONTEXTS IN RADICAL MOD ERN SOCIETIES OUTSIDE SUCH A GAME SCENARIO WHERE WE ARE ON THE MOVE BETWEEN PROXIMATE DISTANCE AND DISTANT PROXIMITY IN HYBRID REALITY 4HIS MAY ALSO ACCOUNT FOR THE FUTURE OF GAMING WHEN WE LISTEN TO DIGITAL GAME DESIGN GURU 0ETER -OLYNEUX n DEVELOPER OF INNOVATIVE TITLES SUCH AS 0OPULOUS OR "LACK 7HITE n WHO STATES THAT PHYSICAL RE ALITY AND THE REALITY OF GAMES WILL BE INCREASINGLY HARD TO TELL APART ,ET US BE PREPARED WHEN GAMES BECOME SERIOUS
!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS -UCH OF THIS WORK HAS BEEN FUNDED BY THE 5NIVERSITY OF !RT -E DIA AND $ESIGN IN :URICH 3WITZERLAND ('+: AND SPECIlCALLY BY ITS POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM -OBILE !PPLICATION $ESIGN -!$ )N THIS CONTEXT ) ESPECIALLY WANT TO THANK 'ERHARD "LECHINGER 2AOUL (EINKEL *ÓRGEN %NGE 3USANNE 3CHIESSER -URIEL 3TADELMANN 7ERNER 4RIET #HRISTIAN 7ILDHABER "ARBARA "ERGER -ARGARETE *AHRMANN -ARCO #ASTELLANO 'ERHARD - "UURMAN AND LAST BUT NOT LEAST THE -!$ STUDENTS CLASS OF WHO PARTICIPATED IN THE CREATION OF -# AND THE ('+: STUDENTS WHO VOLUNTEERED TO PLAY IT 4HE -# PROGRAMMING TEAM OF 4HOMAS 3EIBERT AND 4IM 2UETZ IS RESPONSIBLE FOR MAKING MY VISION A REALITY 0ERHAPS THEY ARE STILL SLEEP DEPRIVED ) AM ALSO INDEBTED TO !RWIN (AMBASIC AND THE STERN 'MB( TEAM WHO REALIZED -#S ONLINE DOCUMENTATION !DDITIONAL FUNDING FOR THIS PROJECT CAME FROM 5NIVERSITØTSBUND 4ÓBINGEN E6 'ERMANY "-7 'ROUPS )NSTITUT FÓR -OBILITØTSFORSCHUNG "ERLIN 'ERMANY DONATED BOOKS AND MATERIAL WHILE ISOMEDIA 'MB( 3TUTTGART 'ERMANY PROVIDED 7,!. HARDWARE FOR TESTING THE GAME ) AM INDEBTED TO MY -! AND 0H$ SUPERVISOR "ERND *ÓRGEN 7ARNEKEN 5NIVERSITY OF 4ÓBINGEN AND TO MY PARTNER +ATRIN 3CHBEL WHO SHOWED PATIENCE AND COMMITMENT THROUGHOUT THE PROJECT
1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
)NTRODUCTION )N THIS ARTICLE ) WILL DISCUSS SOME BASIC ISSUES IN CONNECTION WITH VISUAL DESIGN AS PRACTICED SYSTEMATICALLY BY US IN THE )NTERACTION $ESIGN $EPARTMENT AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH 7HAT INTERESTS ME IN THIS REGARD IS THE QUESTION OF HOW WE CAN BUILD ON THE CLASSIC DIDACTIC UNDERSTANDING OF VISUAL DESIGN AS DEVELOPED BY 'RASSET +ANDINSKY +APITZKI !ICHER AND OTHERS AND IN WHAT MANNER WE SHOULD CONCEIVE OF THE TREATMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF SIGNS IN LIGHT OF INTERACTIVE TECHNOLOGY 4HIS PARTICULARLY INCLUDES THE USE OF COMPUTERS TO GENERATE SIGNS IN THE SERVICE OF THEIR MEANING AND THE QUESTION OF HOW TO FAMILIARIZE YOUNG DESIGNERS WITH THE VARI OUS DIMENSIONS OF DESIGN AND THE COMPLEX PROBLEM OF INTERPRETA TION 4HESE QUESTIONS ARE POSED ABOVE ALL FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE DESIGNER AND TEACHER
15%34)/.3 /. 4(% -%4(/$ /& 6)35!, $%3)'. *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
7ASSILY +ANDINSKY 0UNKT UND ,INIE ZU &LØCHE "EITRAG ZUR !NALYSE DER MALERISCHEN %LEMENTE &REIBURG %UGÞ NE 3 'RASSET -£THODE DE COMPOSITION ORNEMENTALE 0ARIS ,IBRAIRIE CENTRALE DES BEAUX ARTS CF .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ +UNST UND 7ISSENSCHAFT IM :EICHEN DER -ODERNE !LFTER 7EIMAR PP ET AL
(ISTORY 7HEN WE THINK ABOUT INFORMATIONAL AESTHETICS VISUAL RHETORIC DYNAMIC DATA GRAPHICS COMPUTER ART SCIENTIlC VISUALIZATION OR OTHER RELATED THEMES WE lND THAT THE TRAIL LEADS TO VARIOUS THEORIES AND SCI ENCES CULTURES OF THOUGHT TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR AREAS OF APPLICATION "EFORE WE DISCUSS THE SITUATION OF CONTEMPORARY INTERACTIVE COMPUTER GRAPHICS WE SHOULD lRST CONSIDER THE HISTORICAL DIDACTIC DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS OVER AN ADEQUATE PERIOD OF TIME ! MILE STONE OF MODERN ART IS THE WORK OF 7ASSILY +ANDINSKY WHO IN A SORT OF TRANSITIONAL PHASE ATTEMPTS AS A FREE ARTIST TO lT HIS AUTONOMOUS WORK INTO A METHODICAL SET OF RULES )N HIS BOOK 0OINT AND ,INE TO 0LANE WE lND THIS TELLING SENTENCE h4HE CONTENTION PREDOMINANT UNTIL TODAY THAT IT WOULD BE FATE FUL TO ANALYZE ART SINCE THIS WOULD INEVITABLY LEAD TO THE DEATH OF ART DERIVES FROM THE UNKNOWING UNDERESTIMATION OF THE ELEMENTS UNCOV ERED AND THEIR PRIMARY FORCEv )N THIS STATEMENT +ANDINSKY RELIES ON STRINGENT TEACHING SYSTEMS OF THE ACADEMIC ESPECIALLY THE &RENCH TRADITION EG OF 'RASSET "ASED ON THIS EARLY WORK BY &RENCH AND "AUHAUS ARTISTS THE 5LM 3CHOOL CONTINUED THIS LINE OF THOUGHT FURTHER DEVELOPING OUR UNDER STANDING OF VISUAL DESIGN 0ARTICULAR MENTION SHOULD BE MADE OF THE WORK OF +APITZKI AND !ICHER WHO HAVE HAD A STRONG INmUENCE ON THE lELD OF INFORMATIONAL DESIGN )N THE lELDS OF ART AND CYBERNETIC AES THETICS MENTION SHOULD BE MADE ABOVE ALL OF THE WORK OF (ERBERT &RANKE AND "EN ,APOSKY ,APOSKYS WORK IS BASED ON THE INTERACTION OF MANIPULATED ELECTRONIC OSCILLATIONS SINUS OSCILLATIONS SAWTOOTH CURVES PRODUCED WITH A MODIlED OSCILLOSCOPE ON PHOTOGRAPHIC PA PER OSCILLONS &ROM THERE MORE COMPLEX CONCEPTIONS OF THE MEAN ING OF THE COMPUTER IN DESIGN WERE NOT FAR BEHIND 4HE INFORMATIONAL AESTHETICS OF -AX "ENSE AND THE ,ONDON EXHIBITION #YBERNETIC 3EREN DIPITY HAVE HAD A DECISIVE IMPACT ON FURTHER THOUGHT ON THE DE SIGN DISCIPLINES EVEN THOUGH PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS IN THE BROAD SENSE TOOK A FEW DECADES TO MATERIALIZE
3INCE THEN THE ARTS DESIGN DISCIPLINES AND THE SCIENCES HAVE OCCU PIED THE SAME GROUND DUE TO THE RECOGNITION THAT COMPUTER GENERATED IMAGES NOT ONLY SERVE TO CREATE AESTHETIC STATEMENTS BUT MUST ALSO BE CONSIDERED hVERIlCATIONSv OF SCIENTIlC MODELS -ANDELBROT WAS THE lRST TO SPEAK OF A hVISUAL RHETORICv IN THIS REGARD 7ITH THE COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY WE HAVE TODAY AND OUR KNOWLEDGE OF PERCEPTION AND SIGNS WE HAVE A COMPREHENSIVE INSTRUMENT IN ORDER TO DEVELOP EXPRESSIONS OR MODELS OF UNDERSTANDING USING ALL MEDIA AND SENSES %VERYTHING CAN BE EXPRESSED IN EVERYTHING SEE ALSO ,ES &LEURS DU -AL #HARLES "AUDELAIRE )F WE NOW CONSIDER THE AREAS OF APPLICATION OF INTERAC TIVE DYNAMIC COMPUTER GRAPHICS WE WILL APPRECIATE ITS SIGNIlCANCE IN ALL SEGMENTS OF OUR CULTURE IN THAT IT GIVES MEDIAL EXPRESSION TO OUR OBJECTS KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCES "ASED ON THIS TECHNOLOGY WE CAN CREATE NEW TOOLS WHICH ALLOW US TO INmUENCE MODULATE AND CON TROL THE BEHAVIOR OF SUCH MEANINGS )NTERACTIVITY IS CREATED THROUGH A FEEDBACK LOOP OF SYSTEMS AND USERS /UR ATTENTION SHOULD NOW BE TURNED TO THE NEW DEVICES AND INTERFACES WHICH ) WILL REFER TO AS hSYN THESIZERSv WITH WHICH WE CAN FORM AND DESIGN THIS INTERACTION INTO AN EVENTFUL ENTERTAINING INSTRUCTIVE AND INFORMATIVE INTERPLAY
1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
&ERDINAND DE 3AUSSURE 'RUNDFRAGEN DER !LLGEMEI NEN 3PRACHWISSENSCHAFT %RSTER 4EIL +APITEL ) $IE .ATUR DES SPRACHLICHEN :EICHENS "ERLIN 7ILLIAM (UFF h!RGUMENTE ZUM 'RUNDKURSv 5LM
3IGNS AND 3IGN 3TRUCTURES 3INCE &ERDINAND DE 3AUSSURE WE UNDERSTAND SIGNS AS THE RELA TIONSHIP LINK BETWEEN THE SIGNIlED SIGNIlCATION AND THE SIGNIlER SIGNAL 7E lND SUCH SIGNS IN LANGUAGE AND DESIGN 4HE hSIGNIlEDv IN THIS SYSTEM ALWAYS CORRESPONDS WITH A CONCEPTION A CONCEPT AND THE SIGNIlER IS A SOUND IMAGE AN ICONOGRAM PICTOGRAM CARTOGRAM DIAGRAM ETC 5MBERTO %CO DElNES hSIGNSv AS EVERYTHING WHICH STANDS FOR SOMETHING ELSE BASED ON OUR SOCIAL CONVENTIONS %VEN WITH THIS BASIC UNDERSTANDING WE CAN PERCEIVE THAT EVERY THING CAN BE EXPLAINED THROUGH SIGNS )N OTHER WORDS THE PRODUCTION OF SIGNS IS NOT ONLY A LINGUISTIC OR DESIGN RELATED ACT IT IS ALSO A TRANS FORMATION OF MEANINGS FROM THE SIGNIlED TO THE SIGNIlER AND VICE VERSA 4HEREFORE WE UNDERSTAND THE PRODUCTION OF SIGNS AS A CREATIVE ACT IN THAT NEW SIGNS ARE CREATED BUT ALSO AS THE CREATION OF NEW RELA TIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE SIGNIlED AND THE SIGNIlER IN OUR CULTURE 4HIS GIVES RISE TO MANY INTERESTING ASPECTS FOR NEW METHODS IN TREATING CUL TURAL SIGNS /F INTEREST TO US IS THE ASPECT OF DEVELOPING SIGNS AS A SYSTEMATIC DESIGN METHOD &IRST WE WILL CLARIFY HOW WE CAN PROCEED SYSTEMATI CALLY WITH THE MEANS AVAILABLE TODAY IN ORDER TO MEET THE CONSTANT AND INCREASING REQUIREMENT FOR NEW SIGNS ,EARNING SIGNS IS A CENTRAL ASPECT OF THE EDUCATION OF DESIGNERS 3TUDENTS MUST LEARN WHAT SIGNS ARE THEORY AND HOW THEY ARE READ AND CREATED )N OUR lELD WE ARE ESPECIALLY INTERESTED IN MEANS AND METHODS OF SIGN PRODUCTION WHICH POINT THE WAY TO LATER WORK IN THE lELDS OF INTERFACE DESIGN HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION SCREEN DESIGN ETC TECHNICALLY SUPPORTED METHODS OF SIGN PRODUCTION ARE OF PARTICU LAR IMPORTANCE
7E lRST ADDRESS THE CREATION OF SIGNS AS AN INTELLECTUAL PROCESS INTRODUCING THE SIGN BEARER THE SCREEN THE BASIC SIGNS PIXELS AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION AND THE REPERTOIRE OF ALL POSSIBLE SIMPLE AND COMPOUND AESTHETIC SIGNS IN A DElNED CONTEXT )N THIS MANNER STU DENTS LEARN TO RECOGNIZE COMPLEX DESIGNS AS A COMBINATION OF THE SIM PLEST FORMAL ELEMENTS MORPHEMES WHICH FORM THE SIGN IN RELATION TO A DElNED ENVIRONMENT !CCORDINGLY WE UNDERSTAND THE PLANE AS A CONTINUOUS IMAGE STRUCTURE CREATED BY THE ABSENCE OF SUCH LIMITS 3TRUCTURES ARE DESCRIBED BY THE ARRANGEMENT AND RELATIONSHIP OF THEIR PARTS SIGNS OR SIGN ELEMENTS )N THIS REGARD (UFF DISTIN GUISHES BETWEEN VARIABLE AND INVARIABLE PHYSICAL AND PERCEPTIVE STRUC TURES 0HYSICAL STRUCTURES DESIGNATE THE REAL PROCESS WHILE PERCEPTIVE STRUCTURES REFER TO THE PERCEPTION OF THIS REALITY BY OUR SENSORY ORGANS AND INTELLECT 4HE SYSTEMATIC DEVELOPMENT OF SIGNS AND STRUCTURE IS BASED ON THESE PRIOR CONSIDERATIONS LEADING US TO THE QUESTION OF HOW THESE MATTERS SHOULD BE REPRESENTED AND HOW TO EXPLORE AND PRACTICE THEM IN CONCRETE PROJECTS
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1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
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#OLOR METHODOLOGY 3TUDENT "ARBARA 3CHULER )!$ ('+: ,ECTURER *ÓRGEN 3PØTH 4RIX "ARMETTLER
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#OLOR METHODOLOGY 3TUDENT 'REGOR &RASER )!$ ('+: 0HOTOGRAPHY 3IMONE ,ACHER ,ECTURER *ÓRGEN 3PØTH 4RIX "ARMETTLER
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1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
0ROGRAMMED $ESIGN "UILDING ON THIS VERY BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO OUR BASIC CONCEPTS WE WILL NOW DISCUSS THE QUESTION OF WHAT PROGRAMMED DESIGN CAN BE IN PRINCIPLE 4HE FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES IN THIS REGARD DO NOT CONCERN THE QUESTION OF THE MEANS WE SELECT FOR THE PROGRAMMING BUT THE CER TAINTY THAT DESIGN WILL USE PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL LAWS 7E UNDER STAND hPROGRAMMED DESIGNv TO MEAN THE CREATION OF SIGN AND STRUCTURE FORMATIONS THROUGH RULES 7E KNOW THESE SETS OF RULES AS SYMMETRY THEORY GEOMETRY TOPOLOGY COMBINATORICS OR CHROMATICS 4HESE RULES ARE APPLIED IN STUDENT PROJECTS AND TESTED BOTH MANUALLY AND INTEL LECTUALLY .EXT WE ASSUME THAT THESE SETS OF RULES CAN BE OBJECTIlED US ING COMPUTERS 4HUS WE ENCOUNTER A NEW CONCEPT MAKING THE DE VELOPMENT OF DESIGN APPEAR AS A PARTIALLY AUTOMATED PROCESS 4HE QUESTION MUST THEREFORE BE POSED TO WHAT UNDERSTANDING OF DE SIGN WE SHOULD EMPLOY WHEN WE GIVE THE GENERATION OF SIGNS AND SIGN STRUCTURES WHICH ULTIMATELY FORM COMPLEX TECHNICAL IMAGES OVER TO A MACHINE BASED PROGRAM ALGORITHM )N ADDITION TO MANY OTHER QUESTIONS WE ALWAYS STRESS THE TENSION BETWEEN DETERMINATION AND AN OPEN AESTHETIC PROCESS IN THESE EXERCISES 7E DElNE A hPROGRAMv AS PROCESSING INSTRUCTIONS FOR DElNED SIGN ELEMENTS FOLLOWING A REPETITIVE PATTERN )N THIS CONTEXT WE CAN WORK WITH EITHER THE SIMPLEST SIGN ELEMENTS OR COMPLEX SIGNS
"Y FOLLOWING THESE BASIC INSTRUCTIONS STUDENTS LEARN TO CREATE SIMPLE SIGNS AND SIGN STRUCTURES USING PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE DUR ING WHICH THE PRINCIPLE OF SUCH SIGNS AND SIGN STRUCTURES IS TRANSLAT ED INTO MACHINE READABLE CODE 4HE RESULTING UNDERSTANDING OF THE MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THESE FORMS GIVES THE STUDENT DIRECT AND IMMEDIATE INSIGHT INTO THE INTERPLAY OF AESTHETICS MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY 7E LEARN THE RULES OF PROGRAMMED AESTHETICS AS AN INTELLECTUAL PROBLEM UNDERSTANDING AND BASED ON THIS KNOWL EDGE PROCEED TO TRANSLATE AESTHETIC PHENOMENA INTO THE MACHINE LANGUAGE )N SO DOING WE LEARN A NEW LANGUAGE THUS EXPANDING OUR METHODICAL REPERTOIRE OF IMAGE GENERATION -ASTERY OF FORMAL LAN GUAGES AS FORMS OF EXPRESSING AESTHETIC PHENOMENA IS A CENTRAL AND SUBSTANTIAL PRECONDITION FOR UNDERSTANDING COMPUTER GENERATED AND INTERACTIVE DESIGN DEF $RAW2ECTSTART0OS8 START0OS9 WIDTH HEIGHT LINE7IDTH COLOR FARBE SETZEN 3ET#OLORCOLOR LINENBREITE SETZEN 3ET,INE3IZELINE7IDTH ZEICHENPOSITION SICHERN 3AVE0OS ZEICHENPOSITION VERSCHIEBEN 4RANSLATESTART0OS8 START0OS9 RECHTECK ZEICHNEN HORIZ WIDTH VERT HEIGHT ,INE; HORIZ VERT = ; HORIZ VERT = ,INE; HORIZ VERT = ;HORIZ VERT = ,INE;HORIZ VERT = ;HORIZ VERT = ,INE; HORIZ VERT = ;HORIZ VERT = ALTE ZEICHENPOSITION HERSTELLEN 2ESTORE0OS
1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
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$YNAMIC 'RAPHICS AND 3UPERSIGNS 4HE DESIGN OF INTERACTIVE OBJECTS SYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENTS IN CREASINGLY INVOLVES THE DESIGN OF RELATIONSHIPS AND THE ARRANGEMENT OF SIGNS AND NOT SO MUCH THE DESIGN OF DISCRETE VISUAL OBJECTS AND ELEMENTS )N DYNAMIC INFORMATIONAL SYSTEMS OBJECTS ARE REPRESENTED BY CONTROLLABLE PARAMETERS !S A RESULT A SIGN BECOMES A PARAMETER IZED OBJECT WHOSE PROPERTIES ARE DETERMINED BY VARIABLES 4HESE VARI ABLES ARE GENERATED BY EXTERNAL PROPERTIES SYSTEM PROPERTIES OF OB JECTS USER BEHAVIOR ETC 4HROUGH ITS DYNAMIC SIGNIlCATION THE SIGN ITSELF BECOMES A TIME BASED CHANGEABLE AND DYNAMIC SIGNIlER /UR PERCEPTIVE CAPACITIES ARE CHALLENGED MORE ON THE SYNTHETIC LEVEL IF WE REINTERPRET A LARGE QUANTITY OF THE SIMPLEST SIGNS INTO CONSTANTLY RE FORMING SUPERSIGNS AND DENOTE THEM ON THAT LEVEL 4HE FORMATION OF SUPERSIGNS SERVES TO REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF INFORMATION WHICH MUST BE INCORPORATED IN INTERACTING WITH OUR ENVIRONMENT /BJECTS IN THAT EN VIRONMENT ARE PERCEIVED AS A WHOLE 4HE COMBINATION OF DETAILS INTO A WHOLE BECOMES AN IMPORTANT LEARNING MECHANISM 4HE BENElT OF THIS REDUCTION IN INFORMATION IS DEMONSTRATED IN QUANTITATIVE FASHION IN THE REDUNDANCY THEORY OF LEARNING USING RESULTS IN INFORMATIONAL THEORY 4HE INFORMATION IN A SUPERSIGN AS LESS THAN THE TOTAL INFORMA TION IN ALL OF ITS COMPONENTS AND CAN THEREFORE BE INCORPORATED FASTER %XAMPLES OF SUPERSIGNS INCLUDE STOCK EXCHANGE INFORMATION SYSTEMS WEATHER CHARTS TRAFlC INFORMATION SYSTEMS ETC 4HE INCREASING ABIL ITY OF OUR ENVIRONMENT TO PERCEIVE THE CHANGING QUALITIES AND RELA TIONSHIPS OF OBJECTS AND EXPRESS THEM AS DATA SENSORY ENVIRONMENTS RAISES THE NEED FOR SUCH DYNAMIC INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS WHICH WE CAN THEN INTERPRET AS SUPERSIGNS OF OUR AESTHETIC CULTURE
1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
6ILEM &LUSSER )NS 5NIVERSUM DER TECHNISCHEN "ILDER !UFLAGE 'TTINGEN
)NTERACTION AND 3YNTHESIZERS /UR PERCEPTION OF DYNAMIC INFORMATIONAL PRESENTATIONS FOCUSES INCREASINGLY ON THE CHANGE IN THIS SUPERSIGN IN ORDER TO VISUALLY RECORD THE BEHAVIOR AND TENDENCY OF AN OBJECT )N THIS CONTEXT SIGNS BECOME ANIMATIONS MOVING AND lLMED CIRCUMSTANCES THE CONSTANT CHANGE REPRESENTS THE TRUE INFORMATION 7E CONSIDER IT NECESSARY TO STUDY AND MASTER THE FOUNDATIONS OF SIGNS AND SIGN STRUCTURES SINCE THIS IS THE SOURCE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL REPERTOIRE FOR THE REPRESENTATION OF CIRCUM STANCES REPRESENTERS AND RELATIONSHIPS )SSUES AS TO THE PRODUCTION OF OBVIOUS AND CONNECTABLE SIGNS FOR OUR WORLD CAN BE CONVEYED AND LEARNED THROUGH THIS KNOWLEDGE &LUSSER SAID OF THE MEANING OF TECH NICAL IMAGES THAT THEY hx TAKE ON A FUNCTION IN THE FORM OF PHOTOGRAPHS lLMS VIDEOS TELEVISION SCREENS AND THE COMPUTER TERMINAL WHICH HAS UNTIL NOW BEEN OCCUPIED BY LINEAR TEXTS x IE CARRYING VITAL INFORMATION FOR SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUALv ,IKE A CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM WE COMBINE THE WORLD AND ITS SYS TEMS TO FORM INCREASINGLY COMPLEX LOGICALLY RELATED DATA WHICH GIVE US A SECOND ARTIlCIAL VIEW OF THE CONDITION OF OUR WORLD 4HE STOCK MARKET IS ANOTHER GOOD AND ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE OF HOW WE REPRESENT THE STATE OF OUR GLOBAL ECONOMY PRECISELY AND IN REAL TIME 7E GENERATE ESTIMATES ON THE STATE OF THE ECONOMY USING THESE VERY GRAPHS WHOSE ACCURACY IS BASED ON THE UNDERLYING DAILY TRADING HISTORY
)N A FURTHER STEP WE MUST DISCUSS THE CHARACTERS OF TIME BASED DYNAMIC INFORMATIONAL REPRESENTATIONS IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND THESE ASPECTS AS WELL /F COURSE THE QUESTION AS TO THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRADITIONAL LINEAR AND NONLINEAR STRUCTURES BECOMES INTERMIXED WITH THE QUESTION OF CHANGE BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC VISUAL SIGNS 7E MUST KEEP IN MIND OF COURSE THAT THESE SIGN WORLDS ARE DEVELOPED IN PART BY THE USER )N THIS SENSE THEY ARE NOT CRYSTALLINE EVENTS 'RO PIUS BUT CHANGEABLE AND mUID SIGNS 7E CAN NO LONGER LEARN TO READ THE DISCRETE SIGNS OF SUCH REPRESENTATIONS SINCE THEY ARE CONSTANTLY CHANGING (OWEVER THE hSUPERSIGNv THUS DESIGNATED BECOMES A REP RESENTER WHOSE DYNAMIC GESTURES AND lGURE BASED EXPRESSIVE POWER INTEND A NEW LEGIBILITY 4HE INITIAL ISSUE IS NOT THE QUESTION OF USE BUT OF THE CREATION AND RECEPTION OF TECHNICALLY GENERATED MOVING IMAGES AND THE METHODOLOGICAL AND DESIGN CHALLENGES FOR DOCTRINE 4HE QUES TIONS POSED AND THE INSIGHT CONTAINED IN THIS ARTICLE CAN BE CARRIED FURTHER AND ARE DECISIVE FOR CONCRETE WORK IN INTERACTION DESIGN AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH
$YNAMIC DATA GRAPHICS 3TUDENT $ANIEL ,ÓTHI )!$ ('+: ,ECTURER 0ROF 0H$ 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
6ISUAL THESAURUS 3TUDENT 0ATRICK 6UARNOZ )!$ ('+: ,ECTURER 0ROF 0H$ 'ERHARD - "UURMAN
4RANSLATION OF SOUND 3TUDENT $ANIEL ,ÓTHI )!$ ('+: ,ECTURER *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
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1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
1UESTIONS FOR !LL 7E MAY PROCEED FROM THE REALIZATION THAT OUR TECHNICAL MEANS ARE SUITABLE TO REPRESENT INFORMATION ABOUT OBJECTS IN A DYNAMIC FASH ION ALTHOUGH THEY MAY ALSO BE USED TO MANIPULATE THE OBJECTS OF OUR WORLD REMOTELY ) AM THINKING IN THIS REGARD OF FEEDBACK INTERFACES WHICH NOT ONLY DISPLAY THE CONDITION OF OBJECTS BUT ARE THEMSELVES USED TO CHANGE OR MODULATE OBJECTS IN VARIOUS WAYS "ASED ON THIS UNDERSTANDING THE QUANTITY OF OUR INTERFACES FORM INTERACTIVE ENVI RONMENTS FOR DIRECT AND REAL TIME MANIPULATION OF REALITY AND WE ARE LOCATED AT THE INTERFACE BETWEEN THE REAL WORLD AND VIRTUAL SPACE &ROM A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS WILL BE OF IMPORTANCE IN THE FUTURE )N THE FUTURE WILL WE FORM SIGNS OR WILL WE INSTEAD FORM INSTRU MENTS AND RULES UNDER WHICH SIGNS AND SIGN STRUCTURES WILL BE CREATED IN USE (OW SHOULD SIGNS LOOK IN ORDER TO REMAIN LEGIBLE AND SUBJECT TO ACCURATE INTERPRETATION )F AS A SOCIETY WE NO LONGER CONCERN OURSELVES AS MUCH WITH THE QUESTION OF THE OBJECTIVE ACCURACY AND LEGIBILITY OF SIGNS HOW DO WE SPECIFY THE CONSTRUCTS WHICH OUR SIGNS AUTOMATICALLY GENERATE IN USE )F WE MAKE THE INVISIBLE VISIBLE DISPLAYING FUNCTIONS ACTIVITIES OR TECHNICAL MATTERS ARE THESE TRULY IMAGES #AN WE EVEN ANSWER QUES TIONS AS TO THESE TECHNICAL IMAGES AND THEIR CREATION WITH TRADITIONAL THEORIES
4HESE QUESTIONS AND OTHERS ARE RELEVANT TODAY AND WILL BE IN THE FUTURE 7ORK IS ALREADY UNDERWAY IN ORDER TO RESOLVE THESE ISSUES 4HE DESIGNERS OF THE FUTURE WILL CONFRONT THESE CHALLENGES AND DEVELOP NEW SOLUTIONS IN A PRACTICAL MANNER 4ODAYS EXPERIMENTS INCORPORATE THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE OLD MASTERS AS REmECTED IN THE LOGIC OF OUR MACHINES AND CODES 7E MUST NOW DEVELOP INTERPRETATIONS DISCUSS NEW LEGIBILI TIES AND UNDERSTAND THE TECHNICAL IMAGES THEMSELVES AND THEIR CREATION AS THE SIGNIlCATION OF OUR CULTURE NOW AND IN THE FUTURE
1UESTIONS ON THE -ETHOD OF 6ISUAL $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH
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6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN
3EE . 0 $ALAL : 1UIBLE AND + 7YATT h#OGNITIVE $ESIGN OF (OME 0AGES !N %XPERIMENTAL 3TUDY OF #OMPREHENSION ON THE 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB v )NFORMATION 0ROCESSING AND -ANAGEMENT n PARTICULARLY
6)35!, 0%2#%04)/. !.$ 6)245!, 7/2,$3 "ERND +ERSTEN )NTRODUCTION 4HE !CT OF 0ERCEPTION IN 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS 0ERCEPTION IS OUR WAY OF DIRECTLY ACCESSING THE WORLD IT ENABLES US TO RE CONSTRUCT REALITY ! LARGE PORTION OF OUR BRAIN IS SOLELY ENGAGED IN PROCESSING VISUAL SIGNALS TO CREATE A REPRESENTATION OF REALITY 4HIS IS THE REASON THAT REPRESENTATIONS n THAT IS REALITY AS IT IS CONVEYED BY DIFFERENT MEDIA CINEMA TELEVISION COMPUTERS THE )NTERNET AS WELL AS INTERACTIVE INTERFACES n CAN COMPETE WITH OUR IMMEDIATE PERCEP TION OF REALITY 4ODAY WE PERHAPS EXPERIENCE A LARGER NUMBER OF THINGS n AND WITH GREATER INTENSITY n THROUGH SUCH ARTIlCIAL hINTERFACESv THAN THROUGH OUR IMMEDIATE ENVIRONMENT OR THROUGH INTERACTION WITH OTH ER PEOPLE )N ANY CASE ) BELIEVE THAT MEDIA BASED PERCEPTION IS GROW ING IN IMPORTANCE )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WOULD LIKE TO DESCRIBE A FEW OF THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN PERCEPTION THAT ARE ENABLING VIRTUAL WORLDS THE INTERFACE REPRESENTATIONS TO REPLACE OUR EVERYDAY EXPERI ENCE OF REALITY )N ORDER TO DESIGN ADEQUATE VIRTUAL WORLDS WE MUST STUDY THE LAWS OF HUMAN PERCEPTION THAT DETERMINE THE WAY WE CON STRUCT REALITY 3INCE PERCEPTION IS IMMEDIATE AND BASED ON UNBEWUSSTE 3CHLÓSSE hUNCONSCIOUS CONCLUSIONS v ( VON (ELMHOLTZ n IT IS INDEED POSSIBLE TO IMPROVE OR CORRECT TO A SURPRISING DEGREE THE INTUITIVELY DEVELOPED INTERFACE DESIGN SOLUTIONS OF THE PAST )N THIS ESSAY ) WILL OUTLINE THE PRINCIPAL LAWS OF PERCEPTION IN VIRTUAL WORLDS AS WELL AS THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL REPERCUSSIONS
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4HE SECTION OF THIS ESSAY ENTITLED h(OW )MAGES %MERGE IN THE -INDv DESCRIBES A FEW OF THE RULES AND TRICKS BY WHICH THE BRAIN OPER ATES WHEN IT TAKES IN VISUAL INFORMATION FROM A SCREEN AND CONSTRUCTS A THREE DIMENSIONAL WORLD THAT HAS SIGNIlCANCE FOR HUMAN BEINGS (OW DOES THIS PROCESS UNFOLD 7HAT ARE THE LIMITS TO CREATING VIRTUAL OR ARTIlCIAL WORLDS FROM A PSYCHOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW 4HE SECTION h4HE 0OWER OF )MAGESv DISCUSSES A FEW BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EMOTIONAL EFFECT OF IMAGES 5SING AVATARS ARTIlCIAL HUMAN BEINGS AS AN EXAMPLE ) SET OUT TO EXPLAIN HOW PRETERNATURALLY BEAUTIFUL IE VIRTUAL CREATURES CAN BE CREATED AND HOW WE EXPERIENCE THEM )N THE FUTURE AVATARS MIGHT SERVE AS MORE EASILY COMPREHENSIBLE INTERFACES BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE 4HE LAST SECTION OF THIS ESSAY h"EAUTIFUL .EW 7ORLD v SHOWS HOW THESE lNDINGS FROM THE lELD OF PERCEPTUAL PSYCHOLOGY MAY BE EMPLOYED IN DESIGNING VIRTUAL WORLDS &INALLY IN A SURVEY OF VIRTUAL WORLDS FROM THEIR BEGINNINGS TO MODERN TIMES ) SKETCH A PICTURE OF THE POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITS OF VIRTUAL OR ARTIlCIAL WORLDS AND SUMMARIZE MY lNDINGS 3INCE OUR RETINAS ONLY REGISTER TWO DIMENSIONAL FORMS ONE IMPORTANT GOAL OF VISUAL PERCEPTION IS THE RE CREATION OF THE THREE DIMENSIONAL WORLD /UR PERCEPTUAL FACULTIES ARE SO GREAT THAT THOUGH WE NORMALLY TAKE NO NOTE OF IT WE INTERPRET THIS TWO DIMENSIONAL REP RESENTATION OF REALITY AS IF IT WERE A THREE DIMENSIONAL REAL WORLD ,IKE ALL OTHER HUMAN BEINGS YOU TOO WILL SEE A CUBE IN &IGURE AL THOUGH THE CUBES EDGES DO NOT EXIST IN THE PHYSICAL WORLD THEY ARE WHITE LIKE THEIR BACKGROUND 9OU ARE ABLE TO SEE THIS lGURE AS A CUBE BECAUSE IT IS AN ACCURATE TWO DIMENSIONAL PROJECTION OF A VIRTUAL CUBE (OWEVER SINCE THE PROJECTION IN &IGURE LEAVES OPEN TWO SPATIAL POSSIBILITIES YOUR IN TERPRETATION OF THE CUBE YOUR RECONSTRUCTION OF REALITY MAY CHANGE AS THE CUBE hmIPmOPSv &OCUS ALTERNATELY ON POINT ! AND POINT " IN &IGURE IN ORDER TO SEE THE TWO POSSIBLE CUBES 4O THE EXTENT THAT A TWO DIMENSIONAL PROJECTION ACCURATELY REPRODUCES A THREE DIMEN SIONAL WORLD OUR PERCEPTUAL SYSTEM WILL AUTOMATICALLY INTERPRET IT AS SUCH 4HE ANIMATED VERSION OF THIS CUBE ON THE )NTERNET ILLUSTRATES THIS
PHENOMENON IN MORE DETAIL 4HE AUTOMATIC PROCESS OF INTERPRETING THE THREE DIMENSIONAL WORLD hUNCONSCIOUS CONCLUSIONSv ALLOWS US TO EXPERIENCE INTERFACE REPRESENTATIONS AS REAL OBJECTS IN SPACE )N THE SECTION h4HE 0OWER OF )MAGESv BELOW ) WILL DESCRIBE HOW THIS ILLUSION CAN TAKE THE PLACE OF OUR EXPERIENCE OF REALITY .EW RESEARCH INTO THE PERCEPTION OF VIRTUAL WORLDS HAS REVEALED TWO ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF REALITY PERCEPTION 2ECENT lNDINGS HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT THE ELABORATE CONSTRUCTIONAL EFFORTS INVOLVED IN PERCEPTION TAKE THEIR TOLL AND GREATLY RESTRICT CONSCIOUS PERCEPTION $EPENDING ON OUR EXPERIENCE AND ATTITUDES CONSCIOUS PERCEPTION ONLY REPRESENTS A SMALL PART OF THE IMAGES OF REALITY AND IS IN THE END SELECTIVELY CONTROLLED BY ATTENTION )T IS DIFlCULT TO EXPERIENCE THE LIM ITS OF PERCEPTION BECAUSE NATURALLY WE ARE NOT AWARE OF WHAT WE DO NOT PERCEIVE (OWEVER VIRTUAL WORLDS ARE NOW BEING CREATED THAT CON VINCINGLY DEMONSTRATE THE LIMITS OF CONSCIOUS VISUAL PERCEPTION 4HESE ANIMATIONS ALLOW YOU TO EXPERIENCE FOR YOURSELF WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE AUTOMATIC ATTENTION PROCESS IS INTERRUPTED 4HE OTHER lLM EX AMPLES WHICH CONTAIN hEDITING ERRORS v OR WHICH REQUIRE YOU TO FOCUS YOUR ATTENTION ON SPECIlC ITEMS CLEARLY DEMONSTRATE HOW ASTONISH INGLY RESTRICTED CONSCIOUS PERCEPTION IS )NCIDENTALLY THEY ARE EXCEL LENT EXAMPLES OF HOW MUCH MORE EFFECTIVE A VISUAL DEMONSTRATION CAN BE THAN A LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION !NOTHER BASIC FEATURE OF HUMAN PERCEPTION MAY SEEM OBVIOUS BUT ITS SIGNIlCANCE IS GREATLY UNDERESTIMATED HUMAN BEINGS EXPERI ENCE BEAUTY (UMAN PERCEPTION IS NOT ONLY A PROCESS BY WHICH WE UNDERSTAND THE WORLD IT ALSO CONSTITUTES A SYSTEM OF REWARDS BASED ON OUR PERCEPTION OF BEAUTY "EAUTY SERVES AS AN ENGINE FOR HEIGHT ENING OUR PERCEPTUAL EXPERIENCE AND CONTROLLING OUR ATTENTION 7E EXPERIENCE THIS PHENOMENON IN ART AND RECENTLY AN EVER LARGER NUMBER OF PEOPLE HAS RECOGNIZED THE IMPORTANCE OF BEAUTY PERCEP TION FOR DESIGNING VIRTUAL WORLDS 4HIS ISSUE IS EXPLORED IN GREATER DE TAIL IN h"EAUTIFUL .EW 7ORLDv
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6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN
4HIS SECTION OF MY ESSAY WAS INSPIRED BY A BOOK BY $ $ (OFFMAN THAT ) HIGHLY RECOMMEND READING 4HE *OY OF 0ERCEPTION 4RANSL ( +OBER 6ISUELLE )NTELLIGENZ 7IE DIE 7ELT IM +OPF ENTSTEHT 3TUTTGART &IGURE FROM - ,IVINGSTONE P EF "ERND +ERSTEN AND "£ATRICE (ASLER 6ISUAL 0ERCEP TION "EAUTY AND !RT HTTPVISLABCHVWSK?TUTO RIAL 0LEASE FOLLOW THE LINKS h#OLORS v h%XPERIMENTS AND %XERCISES v AND h-IX #OLORS AND /PPOSITE #OLORSv &IGURE FROM - ,IVINGSTONE P F EF
/PTIMALLY DESIGNED hINTERFACESv CONSIDER THE LIMITS OF CONSCIOUS PERCEPTION AND ALSO ASSIGN A KEY ROLE TO BEAUTY PERCEPTION WHICH LARGELY CONTROLS ATTENTION 4HROUGH THE FOCUSED CONTROL OF PERCEPTUAL IMPRESSIONS IN VIRTUAL WORLDS WE ENDEAVOR NOT ONLY TO ADEQUATELY PRESENT INFORMATION TO PEOPLE USABILITY BUT ALSO TO CREATE SUCCESSFUL DESIGNS THAT DELIGHT THE USERS WHO ARE STUDYING THE INFORMATION WE PRESENT EMOTION )N MY ASSESSMENT WE HAVE ONLY JUST BEGUN DESIGN ING VIRTUAL WORLDS THAT MEET THESE CRITERIA &URTHERMORE WE ONLY HAVE A PRELIMINARY UNDERSTANDING OF THE EMOTIONAL EFFECTS OF VIRTUAL WORLDS DESIGNED IN THIS WAY AND THE SIGNIlCANCE OF THIS KNOWLEDGE IS PROB ABLY GREATLY UNDERESTIMATED ) HOPE THAT THE NEXT TWO SECTIONS OF THIS ESSAY WILL HELP YOU TO FORM YOUR OWN JUDGEMENT OF THIS MATTER
(OW $O )MAGES %MERGE IN THE -IND 4HIS SECTION DESCRIBES A FEW OF THE RULES BY WHICH THE BRAIN PRO CESSES VISUAL INFORMATION FROM A SCREEN !LTHOUGH DESCRIBING HOW AN INDIVIDUAL IMAGE EMERGES IN THE MIND IS A FAIRLY COMPLEX UNDERTAK ING ) WILL NONETHELESS ATTEMPT TO DELINEATE THE TEMPORAL SEQUENCE OF IMAGES THAT LEADS TO ENTIRELY NEW IMPRESSIONS n THE PERCEPTION OF MO TION FOR INSTANCE 7HEN WE WATCH A MOVIE ON 46 OR IN THE CINEMA AN ENTIRE lCTIONAL WORLD EMERGES IN OUR HEADS (OW IS THIS POSSIBLE )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WOULD LIKE TO SHOW THAT NEITHER THE SCREEN NOR THE PROJECTIONS OF LIGHT BUT RATHER THE BRAIN AND ITS GRADUAL PROCESSING OF VISUAL INFORMATION ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE MOVIES ENTERTAINMENT VALUE )N FACT WHAT WE SEE WHEN WE WATCH 46 IS FOR INSTANCE IM AGES OR SEMI IMAGES PER SECOND ON THE 46 SCREEN 4HESE ARE CON STRUCTED AT VERY HIGH SPEEDS LINES AT A BANDWIDTH OF -(Z AND CONSIST OF TRIPLETS OF RED GREEN AND BLUE PIXELS THE 2'" SIGNAL &IG URE SHOWS A GREATLY ENLARGED PHOTOGRAPH OF A TELEVISION SCREEN 4HE THREE PRIMARY COLORS ARE COMBINED OPTICALLY TO ENABLE US TO SEE THE ENTIRE SPECTRUM OF COLORS 4HIS WILL FUNCTION AS LONG AS WE ARE NOT COLORBLIND THAT IS AS LONG AS THE SO CALLED CONES OR RECEPTORS IN OUR RETINAS ARE WORKING PROPERLY THOUGH ABOUT FOUR PERCENT OF ALL
MEN HAVE RED GREEN DElCIENCIES 7E WILL FOR INSTANCE PERCEIVE YEL LOW IF OUR RECEPTORS FOR GREEN AND RED ARE STIMULATED IN NEARLY EQUAL MEASURE )NTERESTED READERS CAN VISIT OUR )NTERNET COLOR MIXER TO STUDY HOW COLOR MIXING WORKS ON A MONITOR #ONSEQUENTLY WE CAN SAY THAT COLORS EMERGE IN THE HUMAN BRAIN BASED ON THE DIVERSE FREQUENCIES OF REmECTED LIGHT 4HESE COLORS STIR OUR EMOTIONS AND GIVE US PLEASURE 4HUS THE GRAYSCALES OF AN OLD BLACK AND WHITE TELEVISION SET CONTAIN ALMOST THE SAME VISUAL INFOR MATION AS THE IMAGES OF A COLOR TELEVISION SET YET PEOPLE PREFER THE COLOR IMAGES AND THUS COLOR 46 4HERE IS ONE SITUATION IN WHICH COLOR INFORMATION IS OF OVERRIDING IMPORTANCE COLORBLIND INDIVIDUALS WILL BE UNABLE TO DISTINGUISH COLORS OF THE SAME BRIGHTNESS )N A GRAY SCALE VERSION OF AN IMAGE WHERE ONLY THE BRIGHTNESS DIFFERS AS IN IM AGES CREATED BY 0HOTOSHOP IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR COLORBLIND INDIVIDUALS TO DISTINGUISH THE COLORS AS DEMONSTRATED BY THE PAINTING )MPRESSION 3UNRISE BY #LAUDE -ONET A B #OLOR COMBINATIONS ARE OF GREAT SIGNIlCANCE IN ART AND DESIGN 9OU WILL PRESUMABLY SEE THEIR EFFECTS IN -ONETS PAINTING THE SUN AND ITS GLEAM HAVE A PRETERNATURALLY LUMINOUS EFFECT AT LEAST IN THE ORIGI NAL VERSION AND WE HAVE THE IMPRESSION THAT THE SUNLIGHT SHIMMERS 4HIS EFFECT CAN BE USED IN VIRTUAL WORLDS TO INCREASE THE VIEWERS AT TENTIVENESS 7HEN COLORS OF THE SAME BRIGHTNESS ARE USED IN ADVER TISEMENTS AS IS OFTEN THE CASE THE FONT IS NOT EASY TO RECOGNIZE BUT LEGIBILITY IS NOT THE ONLY GOAL OF GOOD DESIGN EVEN IF IT DOES QUALIFY AS A USABILITY FACTOR
7HEN YOU LOOK AT THE FIGURE TOP LEFT n A CRATER ON -ARS n YOU WILL PROBABLY SEE A HAPPY FACE 4HE THREE FIGURES AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PAGE DEMONSTRATE THE 4HATCHER )LLUSION WE HARDLY SEE ANY DIFFERENCE BE TWEEN THE UPSIDE DOWN IMAGE MIDDLE AND THE ORIGINAL LEFT /NLY WHEN WE SEE THE PICTURE ON THE RIGHT IT IS EVIDENT HOW POOR OUR RECOGNITIONAL ABILITY HAS BEEN THE FACE IS A GROTESQUE DISTORTION OF THE ORIGINAL -ARS PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN FROM HTTPWWWMSSSCOM EDUCATIONHAPPY?FACEHAPPY?FACEHTML 4HATCHER PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN FROM HTTPWWWESSEX ACUKPSYCHOLOGYVISUALTHATCHERHTML
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)NTERESTED READERS CAN FIND MORE ON THIS THEORY OF OBJECT PERCEPTION IN " +ERSTEN AND - 4 'RONER IN 0RAXISFELDER DER 7AHRNEHMUNGSPSYCHOLOGIE "ERN IN PREPARATION -ARS PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN FROM HTTPWWWMSSS COMEDUCATIONHAPPY?FACEHAPPY?FACEHTML - " ,EWIS AND 2 ! *OHNSTON h4HE 4HATCHER )LLUSION AS A 4EST OF #ONlGURAL $ISRUPTION v IN 0ERCEPTION n PHOTOGRAPH FROM HTTPWWWESSEXACUKPSYCHOLOGYVISUALTHATCHERHTML
9OU CAN ALSO STUDY ON THE )NTERNET THE TEMPORAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THIS OCCURS &ILIP * 0IZLO HTTPVISORUNIBECH^BKERSTEN)!$$EMO0HI &OR AN )NTERNET DEMONSTRATION OF HOW MOTION AND SOUND INFORMATION CAN BE INTEGRATED TO CREATE A CAUSAL ILLUSION SEE -ICHAEL "ACHS h/PTICAL )LLUSIONS AND 6ISUAL PHENOMENAv HTTPWWWMICHAELBACH DEOTMOT?BOUNCEINDEXHTML
6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN
4HE &LASH ANIMATION ON OUR 7EB SITE PROVIDES INSIGHT INTO THE MODULAR STRUCTURE OF OUR PERCEPTION "ERND +ERSTEN AND "£ATRICE (ASLER HTTPVISLAB CHVWSK?TUTORIAL &OLLOW THE LINKS h%XPERIMENTEv AND h$AS 3EHEN MIT DEM 'EHIRNv AVAILABLE ONLY IN 'ER MAN 4HE MODULAR STRUCTURE ALSO EXPLAINS WHY THE COLORS OF THE SAME BRIGHTNESS ENHANCE OUR ATTENTIVENESS 7E CAN SEE THE SUN AND ITS LIGHT BECAUSE OF THE COLOR DIFFERENCES BUT THE PERCEPTION OF BRIGHTNESS DOES NOT SIGNAL AN OBJECT AND THUS WE CAN NOT LOCATE THE SUN AND ITS GLEAM n RESULTING IN AN IMPRESSION OF MOVEMENT
6ISUAL PERCEPTION IS STRUCTURED MODULARLY .OT ONLY COLOR BUT FORM MOTION AND DEPTH TOO ARE PROCESSED IN SEPARATE CHANNELS )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WOULD LIKE TO DESCRIBE THEIR PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS &ORTUNATELY OBJECT PERCEPTION UNFOLDS FOR THE MOST PART BOTH INDEPEN DENTLY OF OBJECT SIZE AND IN AUTOMATIC PROCESSES THAT IS ESSENTIALLY OUR PERCEPTUAL SYSTEM HELPS US TO RECOGNIZE OBJECTS IN THREE DIMENSIONAL SPACE AND FOR THIS REASON THE WORLD AS SEEN ON A SMALL mAT SCREEN CREATES A FAIRLY CONVINCING ILLUSION OF REALITY 7E RECOGNIZE OBJECTS IN DEPENDENTLY OF THEIR SIZE EVEN ON A SMALL MONITOR )NCIDENTALLY THIS SO CALLED SIZE CONSTANCY IS CONSIDERABLY MORE IMPORTANT THAN MOST OF US REALIZE /UR REmECTION IN A MIRROR IS IN FACT HALF OUR REAL HEIGHT )F YOU DONT BELIEVE ME MEASURE THE SIZE OF YOUR HEAD OR BETTER YOUR HEIGHT IN THE MIRROR )T WILL CORRESPOND TO HALF YOUR BODY HEIGHT )N ADDITION OBJECTS DONT APPEAR THREE DIMENSIONAL ON A SCREEN THEY DO NOT FOR INSTANCE HOVER IN SPACE AS IN A HOLOGRAM &OR THE MOST PART WE ARE NOT AWARE OF THESE FACTS AND THEY DO NOT DIMINISH OUR ENJOY MENT OF A lLM OR THE ILLUSION IT CREATES %VEN IF THE LAWS GOVERNING OUR CAPACITY TO RECOGNIZE OBJECTS HAVE NOT YET BEEN WELL EXPLAINED AND CANNOT BE DESCRIBED IN DETAIL HERE IT IS CLEAR THAT THIS CAPACITY IS MUCH MORE EFFECTIVE THAN THAT OF A COMPUTER /N THE BASIS OF PAST EXPERIENCE WE EVEN RECOGNIZE OBJECTS AS COMPLEX AS HUMAN FACES 7E CAN FOR INSTANCE RECOGNIZE AN ATTRACTIVE ACTOR AND HIS MOOD WHICH WE INTERPRET ACCORDING TO HIS FACIAL EXPRESSION (UMAN PERCEPTION HAS SPECIALIZED IN THE SOCIAL STIMULI IMPORTANT TO US MANY OF WHICH ARE PROVIDED BY THE HUMAN FACE 7E ONLY REQUIRE A FEW FEATURES TO hSEEv A FACE AND ITS MOODS 4HIS IS MADE EVIDENT BY THE hHAPPY FACEv PICTURE IN REALITY A CRATER ON -ARS AND BY CARTOON CHARACTERS A B C (OWEVER OUR BRAIN HAS SPECIALIZED IN UPRIGHT FACES 4HE 4HATCHER )LLUSION SHOWS THAT WE CAN HARDLY DISTINGUISH AN ALTERED UPSIDE DOWN IMAGE FROM THE ORIGINAL 7HEN WE SEE IT IN AN UPRIGHT POSI TION THOUGH IT BECOMES OBVIOUS HOW POOR OUR RECOGNITIONAL CAPACITY
HAS BEEN THIS FACE IS IN FACT GROTESQUELY DISTORTED 7E ARE ALSO ABLE TO QUICKLY INTERPRET THE MOODS OF UPRIGHT FACES &ACES LEAVE A DEEP IMPRESSION ON US IN THAT THEY ALLOW US TO DRAW FAR REACHING CONCLU SIONS ABOUT THE PERSON OR COMIC BOOK CHARACTER IN SECONDS mAT AS THE NEXT SECTION OF THIS ESSAY WILL SHOW &OR THIS REASON WE ARE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE DIFFERENT PEOPLE WITH GREAT ACCURACY EVEN AFTER LONGER PERI ODS OF TIME 7E NOT ONLY CONSTRUCT OBJECTS SUCH AS FACES IN THREE DIMENSIONAL SPACE BUT ALSO STRING THESE IMAGES TOGETHER OVER TIME BY INTERPRETING AS MOTION VIEWS OF THE SAME OBJECT FROM DIFFERENT ANGLES UNDER CER TAIN TEMPORAL CONDITIONS 3INCE THE INDIVIDUAL IMAGES CHANGE WITH TIME THEY ARE PARTIALLY PROCESSED AS AN IMPRESSION OF MOTION OR INTER PRETED IN ENTIRELY GENERAL TERMS AS CAUSE EFFECT RELATIONS !N ILLUSION OF CAUSALITY EMERGES IN BOTH CASES &URTHERMORE OUR PERCEPTUAL SYSTEMS ABILITY TO INTEGRATE TWO OR MORE IMAGES TO FORM AN ENTIRE 'ESTALT UNI lED WHOLE CREATES NEW SOCIAL WORLDS IE THE STRUNG TOGETHER IMAGES ARE EXPERIENCED AS BELONGING TOGETHER )F A lLM CUT CREATES THIS SCENE CHANGE EVEN THE CAUSAL CONDITIONS IN REALITY MAY BE VIOLATED %NTIRELY NEW CONNECTIONS EMERGE 3OUND CAN MAKE A SIGNIlCANT CONTRIBUTION TO CREATING THE ILLU SION OF REALITY )T IS ALSO INSTRUMENTAL IN MAKING THE VIRTUAL WORLD A SEPARATE ARTIlCIAL WORLD AND NOT SIMPLY A REPRESENTATION OF THE hREALv WORLD /NE OF OUR BRAINS BASIC CONSTRUCTIONAL ABILITIES IS THE WAY IT ASSIGNS LANGUAGE TO CORRESPONDING LIP MOVEMENTS EVEN IF WE ONLY HEAR LANGUAGE FROM A SINGLE SOUND SOURCE MONO REPRODUCTION )N AN ARTIlCIAL WORLD IT IS NOT ONLY SOUND THE CLICK OF A VIRTUAL KEY ON THE MONITOR BUT MUSIC TOO THAT SUPPLEMENTS AND SUPPORTS VISUAL IN FORMATION -USIC CAN FOR INSTANCE CREATE THE ILLUSION THAT WE ARE EX PERIENCING A PERSONS OR CARTOON CHARACTERS INNER LIFE 4HESE PERCEIVED MOODS ARE TRANSPORTED BY MUSIC OR ARE EXPERIENCED PARALLEL TO IT 4HE VISUAL INFORMATION IS THUS INTEGRATED WITH THE AUDITORY INFORMATION TO FORM A 'ESTALT 4HIS QUALITY ABOVE ALL TRANSFORMS A lLM INTO AN ARTIS TIC OR VIRTUAL WORLD THAT DECEIVES THE SENSES
+ATE -OSS HAS BOTH CHILDLIKE FACIAL FEATURES AND MORE MATURE CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS HIGH PRONOUNCED CHEEKBONES AND CONCAVE CHEEKS WHICH SHE HIGHLIGHTS WITH MAKEUP
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)BID - 2 #UNNINGHAM IS CITED HERE h-EASURING THE 0HYSICAL IN 0HYSICAL !TTRACTIVENESS 1UASI %XPERI MENTS ON THE 3OCIOBIOLOGY OF &EMALE &ACIAL "EAUTY v IN *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY n
6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN
#HRISTOF 7OLF h:WISCHEN )LLUSION UND 7IRKLICHKEIT 7ACHOWSKIS -ATRIX ALS FILMISCHE !USEINANDERSETZUNG MIT DER DIGITALEN 7ELT v IN "EITRØGE ZUR -EDIENØSTHETIK UND -EDIENGESCHICHTE (AMBURG * ( ,ANGLOIS AND , ! 2OGGMAN h)NFANTS DIF FERENTIAL SOCIAL RESPONSE TO ATTRACTIVE AND UNATTRACTIVE FACES v IN $EVELOPMENTAL 0SYCHOLOGY n 0ICTURES TAKEN FROM -ARTIN 'RÓNDLS INFORMATIVE 7EB SITE HTTPBEAUTYCHECKDE 3EE THE LINK h+INDCHEN SCHEMAv
/UR IMPRESSION IS OFTEN SO IMMEDIATE AND GENUINE THAT WE FORGET THAT THE VIRTUAL WORLD IS BUT A MERE REPRESENTATION OF THE REAL WORLD WE LAUGH OR CRY FOR EXAMPLE WHILE OBSERVING THE DANCING LIGHT ON THE SCREEN SOAP OPERAS !T WHAT POINT DOES THIS RECONSTRUCTION OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD BECOME REALISTIC AND GENUINE 3CIENCE PROVIDES A STARTLINGLY SIMPLE ANSWER HERE AT THAT MOMENT WHEN THE INFORMATION WE RECEIVE IS IDENTICAL WITH SENSORY INFORMATION FROM OUR EVERYDAY LIVES )N THE lLM -ATRIX 7ARNER "ROTHERS THE STIMULATION OF THE PROTAGONISTS BRAINS AND NOTHING MORE PRODUCES IMAGES IN THEIR MINDS 4HE PROTAGONISTS DO NOT EVEN KNOW THAT THEY ARE LIVING IN A VIRTUAL WORLD 7E TOO CAN EXPERIENCE THIS ILLUSION 4HE SENSORY IN FORMATION THAT WE RECEIVE FROM MODERN CINEMA SCREENS AND MONITORS IS FULL OF TRICKS DESIGNED TO FOOL THE LAWS OF PERCEPTION EVEN THOUGH THE INFORMATION IS BY NO MEANS COMPLETE SINCE IT LACKS FOR EXAMPLE THE SENSE OF TASTE OR TACTILE PERCEPTIONS 4HE VIRTUAL WORLD IS NOT A SIMPLE MORE OR LESS ACCURATE MIRROR IMAGE OF REALITY )T IS AN ENTIRELY NEW ARTIlCIAL WORLD 4HE DIFFERENCE LIES IN THE FACT THAT ARTISTS AND DESIGNERS HAVE AVAILED THEMSELVES OF PARTICULARLY SUCCESSFUL ARRANGEMENTS OF OB JECTS OR SPECIAL SOCIAL STIMULI SUCH AS ATTRACTIVE ACTORS -USIC IS ADDED TO INmUENCE OUR MOODS PARTICULARLY IN lLM 3ERIES OF IMAGES CAN BE ARRANGED TO SUGGEST NEW CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS DECISIVELY SHORTENING OR LENGTHENING OUR SENSE OF TIME !LL TOLD THESE ARTISTS OR DESIGNERS CREATE AN AESTHETIC STYLE IN AN ARTIlCIAL WORLD WITH VARYING DEGREES OF SUCCESS ONE IN WHICH THE GOOD PEOPLE ARE ALWAYS BEAUTIFUL NEWSCASTERS BLOND HYPERLINKS BLUE CORRECT ANSWERS REWARDED ETC 4HIS NEW ARTIlCIAL WORLD CAN BE CREATED TO INCREASE THE VIEWERS ATTENTIVENESS OR IF WE ARE VERY CLEVER TO DETERMINE WHAT HOW MUCH HOW QUICKLY AND WITH WHAT LEVEL OF INTEREST SOMETHING IS PERCEIVED 4HIS GOAL IS SHARED NOT ONLY BY ARTISTS BUT BY DESIGNERS TOO ESPECIALLY THOSE WHO CREATE PRODUCTS THAT PEOPLE LIKE TO BUY AND THAT ARE TO BE USED INTELLIGENTLY )N THE FOL LOWING SECTION ) WOULD LIKE TO OUTLINE THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EMOTIONAL EFFECTS OF IMAGES THE hPOWER OF IMAGESv
4HE 0OWER OF )MAGES !N INTIMATE KNOWLEDGE OF UNCONSCIOUS PERCEPTION THAT IS PEO PLES UNCONSCIOUS INFERENCES ABOUT THE WORLD IS ESSENTIAL FOR UNDER STANDING THE DIALOGICAL FORMS OF MAN MACHINE INTERACTION AND THE EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA 5SERS DO NOT SIMPLY RECOGNIZE HUMAN FACES BUT IMMEDIATELY FORM JUDGEMENTS ABOUT THEIR BEAUTY JUST AS THEY DRAW FAR REACHING UNCONSCIOUS CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE SUBJECTS PERSONALITY *UDGEMENTS ABOUT THE BEAUTY OF HUMAN FACES ARE SIMILAR ACROSS CUL TURAL BORDERS AND EVEN SMALL CHILDREN WILL OBSERVE BEAUTIFUL FACES LON GER AND MORE ATTENTIVELY THAN FACES DEEMED LESS BEAUTIFUL (ARDLY ANYONE CAN RESIST THE CHARMS OF A SMALL CHILD AND HARDLY ANYONE WILL NOT TREAT A CHILD WITH KINDNESS )F WE COMPARE +ATE -OSSS FACE WITH THAT OF A FOUR YEAR OLD CHILD WE SEE THAT A BEAUTIFUL FEMALE FACE HAS MUCH IN COMMON WITH THE FORM OF A SMALL CHILDS FACE A B h+ATE -OSS HAS BOTH CHILDLIKE FACIAL FEATURES AND MORE MATURE CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS HIGH PRONOUNCED CHEEK BONES AND CONCAVE CHEEKS WHICH SHE HIGHLIGHTS WITH MAKEUP )T IS PRECISELY THIS COMBI NATION OF FEATURES THAT ACCORDING TO #UNNINGHAM MAKES HER FACE SO ATTRACTIVEv
7HICH OF THESE TWO PHOTOGRAPHS TOP APPEALS TO YOU MORE )N CERTAIN CASES WE CONSIDER A PERSON WITH ENLARGED PUPILS LEFT MORE LIKABLE THAN THE SAME PERSON WITH SMALLER PUPILS RIGHT 3EE TEXT )LLUSTRATION TAKEN FROM 2 $ :AKIA 7HICH OF THESE WOMEN PICTURED AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PAGE WOULD YOU HIRE FOR A MANAGERIAL POSITION REQUIRING AN AUTHORITARIAN DECISION MAKING STYLE 4YPI CALLY BASED ON FIRST IMPRESSIONS VIEWERS FAVOR WOMEN WITH A MORE VIRILE APPEARANCE 3EE TEXT 0ICTURES TAKEN FROM 5 +ÓHNEN AND 3 3CZESNY
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+ ,ORENZ + AND 0 ,EYHAUSEN !NTRIEBE TIERISCHEN UND MENSCHLICHEN 6ERHALTENS -UNICH 0IPER +ONRAD ,ORENZ WRITES h!S LONG AS THE FEW STIMULI AVAI LABLE IN THE DIAGRAM EXIST THE REACTION TO THE SIMPLIlED DUMMY IS JUST AS INTENSE AS TO THE NORMAL SITUATIONv ,ORENZ )LLUSTRATION TAKEN FROM 2 $ :AKIA 0ERCEPTION AND IMAGING "OSTON &IG &OR AN OVERVIEW SEE 2 (ENSS 'ESICHT UND 0ERSN LICHKEITSEINDRUCK 'TTINGEN
0ICTURES FROM 5 +ÓHNEN AND 3 3CZESNY h(ABEN MASKULINE &RAUEN MEHR %RFOLG v IN 'EHIRN UND 'EIST FOUR PORTRAITS OF WOMEN 3EE ALSO 3 3ZESNY UND 5 +ÓHNEN h-ETA #OGNITION ABOUT "IOLOGICAL 3EX AND 'ENDER 3TEREOTYPIC 0HYSICAL !PPEARANCE AND 4HEIR )MPACT ON THE !SSESSMENT OF ,EADERSHIP #OMPETENCE v IN 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY "ULLETIN
6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN
/LIVER #HRISTEN PROVIDES A VIVID DESCRIPTION OF THE MORPHING PROGRAM "IT-ORPH AT HTTPVISORUNIBE CHEVENTSBRAIN0OSTER$OKU?"ITMORPHINDEXHTM 3EE $ ) 0ERRET + ! -AY AND 3 9OSHIKAWA h&ACIAL 3HAPE AND *UDGMENTS OF &EMALE !TTRACTIVENESS v IN .ATURE n 3EE THE SIMILAR FINDINGS ABOUT THE HUMAN BODY IN " +ERSTEN h!VERAGENESS %XAGGERATION AND !TTRACTIVENESS OF (UMAN "ODIESv IN +ONGRESS DER 3CHWEIZERISCHEN 'ESELLSCHAFT FÓR 0SYCHOLOGIE 3'0 /CTOBER IN "ERN 3WITZERLAND 3EE AND
4HIS +INDCHENSCHEMA BABYISH APPEARANCE IS OFTEN USED AS A MODEL WHEN IMAGES ARE MANIPULATED EG IN THE CREATION OF CARTOON CHARACTERS AND AVATARS LIKE ,ARA #ROFT 4HE lGURES EYES ARE ENLARGED WITH MAKEUP AND THE CHEEK BONES EMPHASIZED THROUGH THE APPLICA TION OF ROUGE TO A SMOOTH BABYLIKE SKIN POWDER ! MORE DETAILED STUDY OF THE BEAUTY OF THE HUMAN FACE REVEALS THAT ONE CAN CREATE PRE TERNATURALLY BEAUTIFUL FACES BY MIXING OR MORPHING A VARIETY OF FA CIAL SHAPES 4HESE ARTIlCIAL FACES ARE NORMALLY MORE BEAUTIFUL THAN THE INDIVIDUAL FACES THAT THEY CONSIST OF &URTHERMORE 0ERRET ET AL HAVE SHOWN THAT THE BEAUTY OF THE HUMAN FACE CAN BE HEIGHTENED AR TIlCIALLY PRETERNATURALLY 4HE AVERAGED OUT FACE FROM A VARIETY OF AT TRACTIVE INDIVIDUAL FACES IS JUDGED TO BE MORE BEAUTIFUL THAN EVEN THE MOST BEAUTIFUL NATURAL OR ARTIlCIAL FACE 4HE PERCEPTION OF A PERSONS BEAUTY PLAYS A KEY ROLE IN THE UNCONSCIOUS INFERENCES OTHERS MAKE ABOUT THEM INSOFAR AS BEAUTY ATTRACTS ATTENTION AND INmUENCES IMPOR TANT JUDGMENTS ABOUT PERSONALITY SUCH AS HOW INTELLIGENT AND LIKEABLE THE PERSON IS 7E ENJOY LOOKING AT ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE THEY AROUSE POSI TIVE EMOTIONS THAT THEMSELVES PAVE THE WAY FOR FAVORABLE INTERACTION /F COURSE BEAUTY IS IMPORTANT IN DESIGN FOR OTHER MORE GENERAL REA SONS 7E DELIGHT IN WELL DESIGNED 7EB SITES AND PREFER ATTRACTIVE PROD UCTS EG SHOES #ERTAIN PRODUCTS SOLD AT MUCH HIGHER PRICES THAN ITEMS OF EQUIVALENT VALUE MAY OWE THEIR SUCCESS TO THE FACT THAT THEY ARE PERCEIVED AS BEING MORE BEAUTIFUL THAN THE LESS EXPENSIVE PRODUCTS EG THE lRST COLORED COMPUTER ;) MAC= GLASS ITEMS IMPRINTED WITH A BEAUTIFUL DESIGN ;2ITZENHOFF= AND LOVELY SCARVES ;"URBERRY= &UR THERMORE ATTRACTIVELY DESIGNED INTERFACES APPEAR TO IMPROVE USABILITY SEE h!TTRACTIVE 4HINGS 7ORK "ETTERv BELOW )N RECENT YEARS WE HAVE WITNESSED THE BIRTH OF A NEUROBIOLOGICALLY ORIENTED THEORY OF BEAUTY AND PEOPLE ARE INCREASINGLY RECOGNIZING THE SIGNIlCANCE OF BEAUTY FOR DESIGN +ONRAD ,ORENZS CONCEPT OF A KEY STIMULUS AND ITS ANALOGOUS EFFECT ON PEOPLE IN THE FORM OF THE +INDCHENSCHEMA BASED ON THE SHAPE OF A SMALL CHILDS FACE ILLUSTRATE IMPRESSIVELY HOW IMAGES CON TROL OUR EXPERIENCE OF THE WORLD /NLY A FEW OF THESE hKEY STIMULIv n WHICH TRIGGER THE DESIRED BEHAVIORAL RESPONSES IN OTHER PEOPLE n ARE
KNOWN TO US !DDITIONAL hKEY STIMULIv ARE ILLUSTRATED IN THE lGURE OP POSITE 7HICH OF THESE TWO PHOTOGRAPHS APPEALS TO YOU MORE A B 4HE SIZE OF A PERSONS PUPILS CHANGES WITH THEIR EMOTIONAL STATE AND ALSO WITH THE INTENSITY OF LIGHT )N CERTAIN CASES WE lND A PERSON WITH ENLARGED PUPILS MORE LIKEABLE EVEN AFTER WE HAVE DISCOVERED THAT THIS IS THE ONLY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO IMAGES OF THE PERSON 4HE FORMATION OF VISUAL IMPRESSIONS OF THE HUMAN FACES HAS BEEN STUDIED IN DEPTH OVER THE LAST FEW YEARS 4HE lNDINGS SHOW THAT PEOPLE ONLY REQUIRE A CURSORY GLANCE TO FORM SET OPINIONS ABOUT PERSONAL ITY TRAITS SO CALLED UNCONSCIOUS CONCLUSIONS )N A SPLIT SECOND VIEWERS WILL DECIDE WHETHER TO CATEGORIZE A PERSON AS hAUTHORITARIAN v hEMOTIONALv OR hINTELLIGENTv !PPEARANCE CAN ALSO DETERMINE PERCEIVED LEADERSHIP COMPETENCE 7HICH OF THE TWO WOMEN SHOWN IN THE PIC TURES WOULD YOU HIRE FOR A MANAGERIAL POSITION REQUIRING AN AUTHORI TARIAN DECISION MAKING STYLE 3ABINE 3ZESNY AND 5LLRICH +ÓHNEN HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT WOMEN WITH MASCULINE FACIAL FEATURES ARE AT A DISTINCT ADVANTAGE A B
!FTER VIEWING THE MOSTLY UNKNOWN POLITICIANS FOR JUST TEN SECONDS THE PARTICIPANTS ASSIGNED THEM VERY CONSISTENT SPECIFIC PERSONALITY TRAITS RIGHT 3EE TEXT 3 &REY $IE -ACHT DES "ILDES $ER %INmUSS DER NON VERBALEN +OMMUNIKATION AUF +ULTUR UND 0OLITIK "ERN &IGURE MODIlED
( 3TURM h-EDIENWIRKUNGEN n EIN 0RODUKT DER "EZIEHUNGEN ZWISCHEN 2EZIPIENT UND -EDIEN v IN %MPIRISCHE -EDIENPSYCHOLOGIE ED *O 'OEBEL AND 0ETER 7INTERHOFF 3PURK -UNICH n 3EE ALSO ( 3TURM $ER GESTRESSTE :USCHAUER &OLGERUNGEN FÓR EINE REZIPIENTENORIENTIERTE $RAMATURGIE 3TUTTGART
3EE " +ERSTEN ET AL h%VALUATION OF A #OMPUTER "ASED 3033 #OURSEv CHAP IN TH )NTERNATIONAL .ETTIES #ONFERENCE RD )NTERNATIONAL #ONFERENCE ON .EW ,EARNING 4ECHNOLOGIES ED + 7AEmER *OHNSEN AND ' :EIBEKAKIS &RIBOURG
6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN
3 &REY $IE -ACHT DES "ILDES $ER %INmUSS DER NONVERBALEN +OMMUNIKATION AUF +ULTUR UND 0OLITIK "ERN &IGURE MODIlED FROM IBID &IGURE #ITED IN THE IMPORTANT WORK BY 4 -EYER $IE )NSZENIERUNG DES 3CHEINS 6ORAUSSETZUNGEN UND &OLGEN SYMBOLISCHER 0OLITIK &RANKFURT A -
-ORPHING TECHNOLOGY MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO hVIRILIZEv FACES )N MY OPINION THE MEDIA ARE INCREASINGLY DISSEMINATING AN IDEAL OF BEAUTY THROUGH MANIPULATED MOSTLY RETOUCHED IMAGES AND THUS ESTABLISHING A DICTATE OF BEAUTY WITH WHICH NO LIVING CREATURE CAN COMPETE 4HIS IS JUST ONE OF THE MEDIAS SPECIAL WAYS OF PRESENTING REALITY AND IT IS BECOMING INCREASINGLY IMPORTANT IN POLITICS AS A RESULT OF THE EXPLOI TATION OF UNCONSCIOUS IMPRESSIONS AND BODY LANGUAGE -EDIA BASED PERCEPTION HAS COME TO REPLACE OUR REAL LIFE EXPERIENCE 3IEGFRIED &REY HAS SHOWN THAT hTHE WAY A PERSON MOVES APPARENTLY DETERMINES THE PROCESS BY WHICH OTHERS SPONTANEOUSLY ASSIGN TRAITS TO THAT PERSON IT DOES SO TO A MUCH GREATER DEGREE THAN THE PERSONS STATIC PHYSIOG NOMIC APPEARANCEv )T ONLY TAKES OBSERVERS A FEW SECONDS TO FORM COMPLEX UNCONSCIOUS CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE PERSON IN QUESTION &REY DEMONSTRATED THIS MOST CONCLUSIVELY BY SHOWING STUDY PARTICI PANTS SHORT lLM SEQUENCES OF POLITICIANS FROM THE 53! 'ERMANY AND &RANCE 4HE PARTICIPANTS BIASES ARE BASED ON VISUAL IMPRESSIONS FORMED WITHIN THE SPACE OF SECONDS WITHOUT SOUND AND ARE ILLUS TRATED IN &IGURE 0LEASE NOTE THAT IN THIS STUDY 53 CITIZENS WERE ASKED TO ASSIGN TRAITS TO 'ERMAN POLITICIANS WHOM THEY HAD IN MOST CASES NEVER HEARD OF &REY SHOWED THAT ON THE ONE HAND THESE BIASES WERE THE SAME FOR OBSERVERS FROM VARIOUS COUNTRIES AND THAT ON THE OTHER THEY WERE COMPELLING AND QUITE SPECIlC UNCONSCIOUS CONCLUSIONS )T IS NO SE CRET THAT POLITICIANS CAREFULLY CHOREOGRAPH THEIR PUBLIC APPEARANCES #ITING 2ONALD 2EAGANS MEDIA CONSULTANT 4HOMAS -EYER REPORTS HOW POLITICIANS ALWAYS SEEK AN IMAGE THAT SPEAKS LOUDER THAN WORDS h4HE IMAGE TELLS THE WHOLE STORY NO MATTER WHAT 2ONALD 2EAGAN SAYSv )NDEED POLITICIANS APPEAR IN THE MEDIA AS ACTORS n AND NOWADAYS AC TORS AS POLITICIANS 7E RECEIVE A WEALTH OF INFORMATION ON THE STATE OF THE WORLD FROM THE 46 NEWS (ERTHA 3TURM HAS SHOWN THAT PEOPLE EXPERIENCE EMOTIONAL IMAGES WITH FACTUAL TEXT SNIPPETS WHICH ARE OFTEN ENCOUN TERED ON THE NEWS AS THE MOST UNPLEASANT TYPE OF IMAGE AND HAVE THE MOST DIFlCULTY REMEMBERING THEM #ONSEQUENTLY THIS ALLEGED
WEALTH OF INFORMATION IN THIS CASE NEGATIVE NEWS LEAVES US WITH AN INNER UNEASE WHOSE ORIGINS WE HAVE DIFlCULTY DETERMINING )N CON TRAST COMPUTERS AND THE )NTERNET ENABLE PEOPLE TO PLAN THEIR TIME IN A MORE PERSONAL WAY 0ERHAPS THIS IS THE PRIMARY REASON THAT COM PUTER LEARNING IS IN NO WAY INFERIOR TO CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION TODAY (ERE THE MUCH LAUDED INTERACTIVITY OF THE NEW MEDIA ASSERTS ITSELF 3INCE THE USER DETERMINES TIME SEQUENCES HIMSELF AN ENTIRELY NEW MODE OF PERCEPTION EMERGES ONE THAT ALLOWS FOR CONSCIOUS INTERAC TION WITH INFORMATION AS WELL AS A MORE EFFECTIVE LEARNING PROCESS SEE THE RESTRICTIONS DISCUSSED IN THE NEXT SECTION 6IRTUAL WORLDS HAVE EMERGED ON THE BASIS OF THE LAWS OF HUMAN PERCEPTION AND IN PARALLEL TO THE CONTEMPORARY DELUGE OF IMAGES AND THE SPREAD OF MAN MACHINE INTERACTION )N VIEW OF THIS mOOD OF IM AGES n AND IN VIEW OF AN INCREASINGLY VISUALIZED WORLD ON THE ONE HAND AND THE BEAUTY AND PERSUASIVENESS OF MANIPULATED IMAGES ON THE OTHER n IT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE DESIGNERS OF THESE VIRTUAL WORLDS TO UNDERSTAND VISUAL LANGUAGE AND ITS IMMEDIATE MANIPULATIVE EFFECT ON OUR EXPERIENCE OF THE WORLD 4HIS AMOUNTS TO A LIBERATING STEP FOR HUMAN ACTION )NSIGHT INTO VISUAL LANGUAGE ALLOWS US NOT ONLY TO DE TACH OURSELVES FROM IMMEDIATE PERCEPTION AND ITS RAMIlCATIONS BUT ALSO TO ACT CONSCIOUSLY ONCE AGAIN &INALLY WE MUST ASK OURSELVES HOW THE POWER OF IMAGES CAN BE SENSIBLY DEPLOYED WHEN DESIGNING VIRTUAL WORLDS THAT IS TO SAY WHEN CREATING MODERN INTERFACES
4HE FIRST TEACHING MACHINE INVENTED BY 3IDNEY 0RESSEY IN )T HAD COMPLEX CAPABILITIES AND EVEN REWARDED THE USER WITH A PIECE OF CANDY FOR A CORRECT ANSWER SEE TEXT , 4 "ENJAMIN h! (ISTORY OF 4EACHING -ACHINES v !MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGIST &IGURE MODIlED
" ,AUGWITZ P ,AUGWITZ CITES THE ALERTNESS WEARINESS SCALE 7ACHHEITS -ÓDIGKEITSSKALA DEVELOPED BY 2 3TEYER 0 3CHWENKMEZGER 0 .OTZ AND - %ID $ER -EHRDIMENSIONALE "ElNDLICHKEITSFRAGE BOGEN -$"& 'TTINGEN )BID P ! !BELE 3TIMMUNG UND ,EISTUNG 'TTINGEN & ' !SHBY ! - )SEN AND ! 5 4URKEN h! .EUROPSYCHOLOGICAL 4HEORY OF 0OSITIVE !FFECT AND )TS )NmUENCE ON #OGNITION v 0SYCHOLOGICAL 2EVIEW n
, 4 "ENJAMIN h! (ISTORY OF 4EACHING -ACHINES v !MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGIST lG MODIlED 4HE TEACHING MACHINES THAT " & 3KINNER CREATED IN THE S LED TO A GENUINE BOOM THAT FADED AS QUICKLY AS IT HAD mARED UP
6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN
" ,AUGWITZ h3CHN BUNT ËSTHETISCHE &ARBGESTAL TUNG VERBESSERT 'EBRAUCHSTAUGLICHKEIT v LECTURE AT THE )NTERNATIONAL #OLOR #ONFERENCE OF THE 5NIVERSITY OF -ANNHEIM UNDER THE DIRECTION OF (ANS )RTEL TO /CTOBER &OR A DETAILED DISCUSSION SEE " ,AUGWITZ %XPERIMENTELLE 5NTERSUCHUNG VON 2EGELN DER ËSTHETIK VON &ARBKOMBINATIONEN UND VON %FFEKTEN AUF DEN "ENUTZER BEI IHRER !NWENDUNG IM "ENUTZUNGSOBERmØCHENDESIGN /NLINE AT HTTPWWWDISSERTATIONDE .O
/UTLOOK "EAUTIFUL .EW 7ORLD )N DESIGN BEAUTY CAN MOTIVATE PEOPLE TO GRAPPLE INTELLIGENTLY WITH COMPLEX VIRTUAL WORLDS &OR THIS REASON ATTRACTIVELY DESIGNED USER INTERFACES ARE IMPORTANT FOR THE USABILITY OF AND INTERACTION WITH MODERN INTERFACES SUCH AS COMPUTERS THE )NTERNET ROBOTS AND MULTI FUNCTIONAL DEVICES SUCH AS THOSE THAT COMBINE CELLPHONE CAMERA AND ADDRESS BOOK FUNCTIONALITY )N FACT "ETTINA ,AUGWITZ HAS SHOWN IN A PERSUASIVE EXPERIMENT THAT ATTRACTIVELY DESIGNED USER INTERFACES EVEN FUNCTION BETTER )N THE CASE OF A SIMPLE DATABASE PROGRAM THE AESTHETICS OF COLOR DESIGN HAD A POSITIVE EFFECT ON THE USERS SUBJEC TIVE PERCEPTION OF THE WORK LOAD AND RESULTED IN LESS PHYSICAL FATIGUE AS COMPARED TO AN INTERFACE THAT WAS LESS APPEALING BUT OTHERWISE IDENTICAL 4HE MOOD OF THE PEOPLE WHO WORKED WITH THE hUGLYv COLOR VERSION WORSENED SIGNIlCANTLY AS COMPARED TO THE MOOD OF THE OTHER USER GROUP h0OSSIBLY THE MOOD CHANGE ACROSS THE ALERTNESS FATIGUE SCALE x IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE EFFECTS ON FATIGUE PERCEPTIONv /VER THE LONG TERM THIS CHANGED SENSE OF WELL BEING CAN OF COURSE LEAD TO CHANGES IN PRODUCTIVITY )T IS NOTEWORTHY THAT THE PARTICIPANTS WERE NOT AT ALL CONSCIOUS OF THE IMPROVED USABILITY h4HE RELATIVELY BETTER USABILITY OF THE AESTHETICALLY DESIGNED INTERFACE IS NOT REmECTED IN THE PARTICIPANTS ASSESSMENT OF USABILITYv )T MAY BE EASIER TO PREDICT THE PERCEIVED USABILITY OF AN INTERFACE THROUGH THE SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF A CLEAR STRUCTURE AS OPPOSED TO THE INTERFACES AESTHETIC DESIGN BUT THE INTERRELATIONS HAVE NOT YET BEEN ADEQUATELY MAPPED OUT )N THEORETICAL TERMS MOODS MAY EXPLAIN THE POSITIVE INmUENCE OF AN ATTRACTIVE COL OR DESIGN ON QUANTIlABLE PRODUCTIVITY -ANY STUDIES HAVE VERIlED THE GENERALLY POSITIVE INmUENCE OF GOOD MOODS ON PRODUCTIVITY $ONALD .ORMAN ALLUDES TO NEW lNDINGS INDICATING THAT EMOTIONAL STATES SUCH AS POSITIVE MOODS INmUENCE PROBLEM SOLVING ABILITY (E WRITES h3OMEONE WHO IS RELAXED HAPPY IN A PLEASANT MOOD IS MORE CREATIVE MORE ABLE TO OVERLOOK AND COPE WITH MINOR PROBLEMS WITH A DEVICE n ESPECIALLY IF ITS FUN TO WORK WITHv #OMPUTER SIMULATIONS OR LEARNING PROGRAMS ARE NORMALLY SUCH COMPLEX INTERFACES THAT THEY REQUIRE THE USERS INTEREST AND INDEED THEY ARE OFTEN USED BECAUSE A PROBLEM MUST BE SOLVED
)N CONCLUSION ) WOULD LIKE TO DISCUSS HOW NEW VIRTUAL WORLDS CAN BE DEPLOYED IN COMPLEX SITUATIONS SUCH AS COMPUTER SIMULATIONS OR TEACHWARE IN WHICH THE VIRTUAL WORLD IS INDEED INTENDED TO REPLACE THE REAL WORLD &UNCTIONAL TEACHING MACHINES GO BACK A LONG WAY AND THE lRST SUCH TEACHING MACHINE DEVELOPED IN BY 3IDNEY 0RESSEY IS SURPRISINGLY COMPLEX AND USEFUL 4HE TEACHING MACHINE IN THE ILLUS TRATION OPPOSITE ASSIGNED USERS SPECIlC TASKS SUCH AS VOCABULARY DRILLS IN A SMALL WINDOW AND ACCEPTED ANSWERS VIA FOUR KEYS RIGHT 4HERE WAS A SMALL LEVER ON THE BACK OF THE TEACHING MACHINE AND WHEN SHIFTED THE MACHINE WOULD ONLY ASSIGN NEW TASKS IF THE USER GAVE A CORRECT ANSWER )T WAS ALSO POSSIBLE TO TELL THE MACHINE WHEN AFTER HOW MANY CORRECT ANSWERS THE USER WAS TO GET A PIECE OF CANDY )N THIS SENSE THE MACHINE WAS INTERACTIVE AND hREWARDINGv EMOTIONAL ELEMENT ! MORE ADVANCED VERSION OF THIS TEACHING MACHINE NO LON GER POSED A QUESTION IF IT HAD ALREADY BEEN ANSWERED CORRECTLY TWICE 4AILORED TO USER NEEDS INTERACTIVE IT THUS PREVENTED REDUNDANT DRILL ING AND hAUTOMATICALLYv FOCUSED THE USERS ENERGIES ON TASKS HE OR SHE FOUND DIFlCULT 7OULDNT IT SEEM LOGICAL THAT TEACHING MACHINES SUCH AS THIS COULD SOON REPLACE OUR TEACHERS AND MOTHERS AT LEAST FOR VO CABULARY DRILLS 4HE OPPOSITE IS TRUE AS A LOOK AT THE HISTORY OF TEACH ING MACHINES REVEALS 4O DATE THEY HAVE NOT SUCCEEDED IN CATCHING ON 4HE NEW MEDIA IN GENERAL WHETHER CINEMA TEACHING MACHINES EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE TELEVISION COMPUTERS HAVE NOT YET ESTAB LISHED THEMSELVES AS lRM lXTURES OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION %XPERTS LIKE 2ONALD 3 $ANIEL ARGUE THAT PUPILS MISS THE HUMAN TOUCH OF hA LIVING BREATHING TEACHERv 4HERE IS NO SOCIAL INTERACTION CONVERSATION OR DIALOG WHEN WE USE SUCH EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE OR LIKABLE AVATARS FOR THAT MATTER AND THIS APPARENTLY KEEPS HUMAN BEINGS FROM IM MERSING THEMSELVES IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD IN PLACE OF THE REAL WORLD IN STRUCTION #OMPUTER GAMES HOWEVER LEND THEMSELVES WELL TO SUCH IMMERSION
0ERCEPTION OF #OLOR AND (UMAN &ACES IN 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ELOW YOU WILL FIND A FEW PROPERTIES OF THE HUMAN PERCEPTION OF COLORS AND FACES AS WELL AS THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR DESIGNING MODERN INTERFACES ! CLEAR STRUCTURE AND AN AESTHETIC DESIGN PROBABLY IMPROVE THE INTERFACES PERCEIVED EASE OF USE )T IS ARGUED THAT AN AESTHETIC DESIGN IS CRUCIAL AS IT INFLUENCES BOTH SALES APPEAL AND THE INTELLIGENT USE OF A MODERN INTERFACE USABILITY 0ROPERTY
3IGNIFICANCE FOR DESIGNING VIRTUAL WORLDS
#OLOR #OLOR IMPRESSIONS EMERGE IN THE BRAIN
4ECHNICAL PROCESSES CAN BE EXPLOITED TO CREATE IMAGES WHICH COLORBLIND PEOPLE SEE AS WELL AS PEOPLE WITH NO COLOR DEFICIENCY
#OLORS OF THE SAME BRIGHTNESS ARE RECOGNIZED IN THE hWHATv SUBSYSTEM BUT NOT IN THE hWHEREv MODULE
4HIS COLOR COMBINATION CAN BE USED TO ENHANCE VIEWERS ATTENTIVENESS
7E PERCEIVE IDENTICAL COLORS AS BELONGING TOGETHER THE 'ESTALT LAW OF SIMILARITY
4HIS MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO ESTABLISH LINKS BETWEEN PARTS OF A PICTURE THAT ARE SPATIALLY APART CLARITY %LEMENTS WITH THE SAME FUNCTION EG BLUE HYPERLINKS ARE IMMEDIATELY COMPREHENSIBLE AS SUCH
#ERTAIN COLOR COMBINATIONS ARE CONSIDERED MORE BEAUTIFUL THAN OTHERS
4HESE COLOR COMBINATIONS LIFT THE USERS MOOD WHICH IN TURN ENHANCES THE INTERFACES OBJECTIVELY QUANTIFIABLE USABILITY BETTER PRODUCTIVITY !TTRACTIVE PRODUCTS SELL BETTER FOR EXAMPLE COLOR VS BLACK AND WHITE 46 SETS
&ACE 4HE HUMAN BRAIN HAS SPECIALIZED IN THE RECOGNITION OF HUMAN FACES
4HEY CAN BE USED TO INCREASE THE PERCEIVERS ATTENTIVENESS
7E KNOW EXACTLY WHAT MAKES A FACE APPEAR BEAUTIFUL
)T IS EASY TO TECHNICALLY MANIPULATE PHOTOGRAPHS OF FACES TO MAKE THEM MORE BEAUTIFUL SEE &OOTNOTE
0EOPLE WITH BEAUTIFUL FACES ARE PERCEIVED TO BE ATTRACTIVE INTELLIGENT AND LIKEABLE
4HESE FACES CAN CREATE THE DESIRED CONTEXT FOR A PRODUCT OR EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE
0RETERNATURALLY BEAUTIFUL FACES EXIST THAT ARE MORE APPEALING THAN EVEN THE MOST BEAUTIFUL INDIVIDUAL HUMAN FACES
4HESE FACES CAN BE USED AS COMIC BOOK CHARACTERS AND AVATARS 4HE MOST SIGNIFICANT SHORTCOMING OF CURRENT TEACHWARE IS THAT IT OFFERS NO DIALOG WITH USERS !VATARS ARE ONE POSSIBLE WAY OF OVERCOMING THIS
&OR MORE ON THE ERGONOMIC ISSUES NOT EXAMINED IN THIS ESSAY SEE THE LUCID SURVEY BY #HR % 7EBER h7EB $ESIGN n %IN NEUES !NWENDUNGSFELD DER 7AHR NEHMUNGSPSYCHOLOGIE v IN 0RAXISFELDER DER 7AHRNEH MUNGSPSYCHOLOGIE ED " +ERSTEN AND - 4 'RONER "ERN
$ ! .ORMAN h%MOTION AND $ESIGN !TTRACTIVE 4HINGS 7ORK "ETTER v )NTERACTIONS -AGAZINE IX n 3EE ALSO .OAM 4RACTINSKY h!ESTHETICS AND !PPARENT 5SABILITY %MPIRICALLY !SSESSING #ULTURAL AND -ETHODOLOGICAL )SSUES v HTTPWWWACM ORGSIGCHICHIPROCEEDINGSPAPERNTHTM
6ISUAL 0ERCEPTION AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS "ERND +ERSTEN
9OU CAN CREATE THESE PICTURES USING THE 0HOTOSHOP PLUG IN 6ISCHECK 3EE HTTPACCESSPICNIC TERMINAL CHCATEGORIESONLINE4OOLS ! VERY GOOD SHAREWARE PROGRAM BY -ASAKA ZU &UJIMIYA CAN BE FOUND AT HTTPWWWASAHI NET ORJP^&8 - &*-9
#OMPUTER GAMES ARE INCREASINGLY APPROXIMATING COMPUTER SIMU LATIONS CREATING IN SOME lELDS VIRTUAL WORLDS THAT OFFER CONVINCING SUBSTITUTES FOR A hREALv ENVIRONMENT -ODERN $ SYSTEMS ACCOMPA NIED BY SOUND VISUALLY ENHANCE THE IMPRESSION OF CAUSALITY HOWEVER IF THESE VIRTUAL WORLDS ARE TO OFFER AN EVEN BETTER SUBSTITUTE FOR THE REAL WORLD THEY WILL HAVE TO PROVIDE SIMULATED EXPERIENCES OF TOUCH AND ACCELERATION TOO AT LEAST FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF PERCEPTUAL PSY CHOLOGY 4ODAY THE VERY BEST PROGRAMS PERHAPS ALLOW FOR A TRANSFER TO THE REAL WORLD OF THE SKILLS PRACTICED AND LEARNED IN THE VIRTUAL DO MAIN FOR INSTANCE A NUMBER OF MODERN mIGHT SIMULATORS ARE APPAR ENTLY JUST AS EFFECTIVE AS REAL mYING LESSONS )T SEEMS THAT INDIVIDUAL FEEDBACK FROM COMPLEX SYSTEMS CAN PROVIDE VALID INSIGHT THAT CANNOT BE CONVEYED BY SEVERAL DESCRIPTIVE EXAMPLES IN A BOOK CF THE INTERAC TIVE )NTERNET EXAMPLES CITED IN THIS TEXT TO ADD DEEPER INSIGHT INTO THE VERBAL DESCRIPTIONS EG $ESIGN ALWAYS HAS A FUNCTION AND INTERFACE DESIGN SHOULD BY NO MEANS IGNORE ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS )N ADDITION TO AES THETIC DESIGN A CLEAR INTERFACE STRUCTURE POSSIBLY BASED ON 'ESTALT LAWS IS ALSO AN IMPORTANT FACTOR PARTICULARLY FROM OUR PERSPECTIVE AND PARTICULARLY IN VIEW OF THE LIMITATIONS PLACED ON CONSCIOUS VI SUAL PERCEPTION SELECTIVE ATTENTION #LARITY IS LIKELY TO PROMOTE THE PERCEIVED EASE OF USE BUT PERHAPS n AS $ONALD .ORMAN THEORIZES n THE PERCEIVED EASE OF USE AND THE AESTHETICS OF A DESIGN ARE CLOSELY INTERLINKED !S HAS ALREADY BEEN EMPHASIZED THESE INTERRELATIONS HAVE YET TO BE EXPLAINED SCIENTIlCALLY 4HE BOXES OPPOSITE SUMMARIZE IN LIST FORM A NUMBER OF PROPERTIES OF OUR PERCEPTION OF COLORS AND FACES AS WELL AS THEIR SIGNIlCANCE FOR DESIGNING MODERN INTERFACES
4ODAY INSIGHTS INTO THE PERCEPTION OF VIRTUAL WORLDS OFFER DEVEL OPERS OF USER INTERFACES A WIDE ARRAY OF DESIGN TOOLS )N MY OPINION THOUGH THE DESIGN OF ADEQUATE USER INTERFACES IS STILL IN ITS INFANCY 4HERE ARE NO DESIGN RULES IN THE SENSE OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR ACTION AND EVEN IN THE CASE OF A SIMPLE INTERFACE WE ARE ONLY ABLE TO SAY IN HIND SIGHT WHAT FACTORS HAVE BEEN ESPECIALLY EFFECTIVE AND WHAT INmUENCES HAVE BEEN SUPERSEDED BY OTHERS IN TERMS OF EFFECTIVENESS (OWEVER THE PRACTICAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BEAUTIFUL FACES ARE ASTONISHINGLY WELL KNOWN AND EASY TO FULlLL )N THE FUTURE WE SHOULD BE ABLE TO SIMULATE THE WORLDS OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE EVEN MORE CONVINCINGLY THAN NOW ROBOTS MUST BE BEAUTIFUL TOO 4HIS IS PERHAPS ONE INTERPRETATION OF THE SOMEWHAT AMBIGUOUS TERM hTOTAL INTERFACEv
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
! CRICKET IS ANY OF SEVERAL SALTATORIAL INSECTS OF THE FAMILY 'RYLLIDAE CHARACTERIZED BY LONG ANTENNAE AND STRIDULATING ORGANS ON THE MALES FOREWINGS h4HERE WAS SOMETHING IN HER THEN THAT WANTED VERY BADLY TO RUN BUT SHE KNEW THAT SHE WOULDNTv 7 'IBSON #OUNT :ERO .EW 9ORK
"%).' ).6)3)",% .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER !BSTRACT )N THIS PAPER WE DESCRIBE THREE GRIDLINES TO WHICH THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA AND THEIR RELATION TO THE USER CAN BE hSNAPPEDv NONLINEARITY AND POTENTIALITY CONlDENCE AND MATERIAL $RAWING ON SYSTEMS THEORY WE ALSO EMPHASIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF DULY INCORPORATING THE RELATIONAL FEATURES OF INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS RATHER THAN SEPARATELY ADDRESSING EACH OF THEIR CONSTITUENT COMPONENTS !S PRAC TICED TODAY INTERACTION DESIGN MOST OFTEN NEGLECTS THE SPECIlC PROPER TIES OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA WHICH ARE IDENTIlED IN OUR THREE GRIDLINES TIMELAYER? ! CRICKET IS CHIRPING IN THE WARM QUIET OF THE NIGHT TIMELAYER? !LONG EACH GRIDLINE KEY ISSUES ARE DISCUSSED IN GENERAL TERMS AND THEN RECONSIDERED LATER IN THE CONTEXT OF THEIR RELEVANCE FOR THE DESIGN OF INTERACTIVE )#4S 7E HAVE TAKEN A SLIGHTLY UNUSUAL APPROACH TO THESE TOPICS ONE THAT IS BASED ON AN INTERPLAY OF METHODS FROM THE ARTS AND SCIENCES AND THAT CORRESPONDS TO OUR DIFFERENT BACKGROUNDS
h!N UNBALANCED COMPOSITION LOOKS ACCIDENTAL INCIDENTAL AND UNCONVINCING )TS SUBELEMENTS SEEK TO CHANGE THEIR POSITION AND SHAPE IN ORDER TO ATTAIN A STATE THAT BETTER HARMONIZES WITH THE ENTIRE STRUCTURE )N NO WAY DOES BALANCE PRESUPPOSE SYMMETRYv 2 !RNHEIM +UNST UND 3EHEN #OLOGNE
)NTRODUCTION )N THIS ESSAY WE WILL DESCRIBE THE SPECIlC PROPERTIES OF HUMAN IN TERACTION WITH INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES )#4S AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES FOR INTERFACE DESIGN 7E SHALL PROCEED IN AN UNUSUAL MANNER COMBINING SCIENTIlC AND ARTISTIC METHODS THAT REmECT OUR BACKGROUNDS IN MEDIA ART DESIGN AND THEORETICAL PHYSICS /N THE ONE HAND THERE IS THE hOBJECTIVEv SCIENTIlC METHOD "ASED ON WELL DElNED CONCEPTS IT IDENTIlES PROBLEMS FORMULATES HYPOTH ESES TESTS THESE AGAINST DATA AND ELABORATES SOLUTIONS BASED ON LOGICAL ARGUMENTS &INALLY IT CONSOLIDATES THE RESULTS IN AN EXPLANATORY FRAME WORK THAT SHOWS NEW PATHS FORWARD /N THE OTHER HAND THERE IS THE hSUBJECTIVEv ARTISTIC METHOD 4HIS BUILDS ON INSIGHTS THAT THEMSELVES HAVE BEEN GAINED FROM PERSONAL EX PERIENCE AND OBSERVATIONS )T DEVELOPS THOUGHTS ON ISSUES OF PERSONAL AND SELECTIVE IMPORTANCE THUS SKETCHING OUT A KIND OF SUBJECTIVELY STRUCTURED MAP BASED ON REmECTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS )T INDUCES THE OBSERVER OF THE PROCESS TO ACT IN A CORRESPONDING WAY )T CREATES AN EXPLANATORY STRUCTURE AS WELL n ON A TOTALLY DIFFERENT LEVEL OF COURSE
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
- -C,UHAN 4HE 'UTENBERG 'ALAXY 4ORONTO !) ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE n THE CAPACITY OF A COM PUTER TO PERFORM OPERATIONS ANALOGOUS TO LEARNING AND DECISION MAKING IN HUMANS h@-AYBE THE IDEA IS TO THINK OF TIME DIFFERENTLY SHE SAYS AFTER A WHILE @3TOP TIME STRETCH IT OR OPEN IT UPv $ $E,ILLO 4HE "ODY !RTIST .EW 9ORK
h3HE LOOKED AT THE FACE IN THE BATHROOM MIRROR AND TRIED TO UNDERSTAND WHY IT LOOKED DIFFERENT FROM THE SAME FACE IN THE FULL LENGTH MIRROR DOWNSTAIRS IN THE FRONT HALL ALTHOUGH IT SHOULDNT BE HARD TO UNDERSTAND AT ALL SHE THOUGHT BECAUSE FACES LOOK DIFFERENT ALL THE TIME AND EVERYWHERE DUE TO A HUNDRED DAILY VARIABLES "UT THEN AGAIN SHE THOUGHT WHY DO ) LOOK DIFFERENT v $ $E,ILLO 4HE "ODY !RTIST
$ 6ERTOV h+INOKI 5MSTURZ v IN ,%&
4HE SCIENTISTS HYPOTHESIS AND THE ARTISTS OBSERVATIONS ARE IN AGREEMENT ON ONE POINT INTERACTION DESIGN DOES NOT FULLY EXPLOIT THE POTENTIAL OF THE MEDIUM h#AN IT TAP THIS POTENTIAL AT ALL v SEEMS A FAIR QUESTION TO ASK !NOTHER HYPOTHESIS IS THAT TRULY INNOVATIVE DESIGN IS ONLY POSSIBLE IF THE PREDOMINANTLY VISUAL COMPONENT OF INTERACTION IS REPLACED BY SOMETHING NEW !S LONG AS INPUT IS PRIMARILY OF A VISUAL NATURE NOTHING RADICALLY NEW IS POSSIBLE #ONSIDER THE ELECTRODES IN THE HUMAN BRAIN 'UTENBERG SET THE STAGE FOR A SHIFT FROM AN ORAL TO A VISUAL CULTURE 4HERE CERTAINLY WONT BE ANY MORE MAJOR TRANSI TIONS LIKE THESE UNTIL WE BECOME A hNEURALv CULTURE 7E WONT PURSUE THIS SECOND HYPOTHESIS ANY FURTHER THOUGH 4HE MEDIUM TO WHICH WE ARE REFERRING IS NOT ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE OR VIRTUAL REALITY 7E ARE MAINLY INTERESTED IN USER INTERACTION WITH THE )#4 DEVICES THAT ARE ALREADY QUITE WIDESPREAD IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES &URTHERMORE OUR FOCUS IS MORE ON SOFTWARE n IT IS WITHIN THIS CONTEXT THAT THE FOLLOWING DIS CUSSION MUST BE VIEWED #LEARLY WE HAVE CONSIDERABLY RESTRICTED THE POSSIBLE INTERACTION SETTING ALTHOUGH OUR ANALYSES ALSO APPLY TO A MORE GENERAL lELD (OWEVER PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND OTHER WIDESPREAD DEVICES WILL CHANGE AND BECOME INTEGRATED WITH OTHER )#4S SUCH AS !) OR WEARABLES AND IT IS WORTH MAKING THE BEST OF THE TECHNOLOGY WE HAVE IN ORDER TO PROlT FROM ITS POTENTIAL 4HIS WILL ENABLE US TO LEARN AND APPLY OUR KNOWLEDGE TO FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
/UR IDEAS SNAP TO THREE GRIDLINES h.ONLINEARITY AND POTENTIALITYv n THESE ARE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF MANY NEW )#4S AS OPPOSED TO TRADITIONAL ANALOG APPLICATIONS 4HESE CONCEPTS REFER TO THE STRUCTURE OF INTERACTION AND HELP US UNDERSTAND WHAT IS LOST IF THESE PROPERTIES ARE NOT CONSIDERED IN INTERFACE DESIGN h#ONlDENCEv n THIS REFERS TO SEVERAL FACETS OF THE USERS AND DE SIGNERS ATTITUDE TOWARD THE NEW MEDIA #ONlDENCE IS NECESSARY IF THE NEW MEDIA ARE TO BE USED TO FULL ADVANTAGE 4HE DESIGNERS TASK IS TO WORK TOWARD BUILDING CONlDENCE h-ATERIALv n THIS DEALS WITH SOME BASIC PROPERTIES OF )#4S AND THE THING THEY PROCESS AND WORK ON DATA AND IMMATERIAL lLES %XPRESSED POETICALLY THEY WORK ON IDEAS IN MUCH THE SAME WAY THAT A KNIFE CARVES WOOD 7HATS MORE THE COMPUTER HAS SUCH STRIKING PROPERTIES n ITS ASTONISHING SPEED AND REPRODUCIBILITY n THAT THIS MATERIAL CANNOT BE IMAGINED WITHOUT THEM 0OETIC WORDS n WELL THESE WOULD BE DIF FERENT "UT THE MATERIAL HAS SOMETHING POETIC IN ITSELF 4HIS MATERIAL n NOT ONLY THE DATA THAT )#4S PROCESS NOT ONLY THEIR PROPERTIES BUT ALL THEY PROVIDE US WITH 6AST SETS OF POSSIBILITIES 3TILL ONE QUESTION REMAINS $O WE WANT TO USE THESE POSSIBILITIES AT ALL 4AKEN IN THE CON TEXT OF THE NEW MEDIA AND IN EXTREME CASES KNOWLEDGE ALSO KIND OF A MATERIAL LOSES ITS BOUNDARIES AND DISAPPEARS INTO ITS OBJECTIVE FORM ONLY TO RE EMERGE IN EACH INDIVIDUALS CONSCIOUSNESS IN AN ADEQUATE SPECIlC AND UNIQUE WAY
2EDUCTIONISM IS THE BREAKDOWN OF COMPLEX THINGS INTO SIMPLER CONSTITUENTS )T EMPHASIZES THE SINGLE COM PONENTS AND DISREGARDS THEIR INTERRELATION IN A WHOLE 2EGARDING REDUCTIONISM "ATESON WRITES h)T IS THE TASK OF EVERY SCIENTIST TO FIND THE SIMPLEST MOST ECONOMICAL AND USUALLY MOST ELEGANT EXPLANATION THAT WILL COVER THE KNOWN DATA "EYOND THIS REDUCTIONISM BECOMES A VICE IF IT IS ACCOMPANIED BY AN OVERLY STRONG INSISTENCE THAT THE SIMPLEST EXPLANATION IS THE ONLY EXPLANATION 4HE DATA MAY HAVE TO BE UNDERSTOOD WITHIN SOME LARGER 'ESTALTv ' "ATESON IN -IND AND .ATURE ! .ECESSARY 5NITY .EW 9ORK
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
h4HESE ARE THE INTERMEDIARY PERIODS OF MENTAL VACUITY OR DENSITY IN WHICH TERMINATION SEEMS IMMI NENT OR ENTIRELY NEW LINKS ARE ESTABLISHEDv ' 'ROSKLAUS h-EDIUM UND :EIT n :UM 6ERSCHWINDEN DES ZEITLICHEN )NTERVALLS v $AUERq3IMULTANEITØTq%CHTZEIT ED 3 $RUEHL AND " 2ICHARD IN +UNSTFORUM )NTERNATIONAL VOL *ULY n 3EPTEMBER
4HESE TOPICS ARE ADDRESSED IN THE NEXT THREE SECTIONS TIME LAYER? 0AUSE TAKE A BREATH HUSH n THE CRICKET STOPS 2EMAINS OF THE DAY PASS INTO NIGHT .OTHING HAPPENS 1UIET 3LOW 3TILL TIMELAYER? 4HE lFTH SECTION PRESENTS A MORE THEORETICAL APPROACH ,ETS START WITH THE QUESTION OF WHERE TO DRAW THE LINE BETWEEN THE USER OR USER INTERFACE AND THE OBJECT )N PRINCIPLE THERE IS A WHOLE RANGE OF INTEGRA TION LEVELS FROM THE TRADITIONAL SEPARATION OF USER INTERFACE AND OBJECT TO THE DISSOLUTION AND COMBINATION OF THESE NOTIONS INTO A COMPRE HENSIVE SYSTEM $IFFERENT AND EASILY FORMED SUBSYSTEMS MAY ASSUME EACH OF THESE ROLES AT DIFFERENT PERIODS AND ON DIFFERENT OCCASIONS 7E COULD ELABORATE ON THESE IDEAS USING THE CONCEPTS AND METH ODS OF SYSTEMS THEORY (OWEVER ISNT SYSTEMS THEORY JUST A COMPLI CATED WAY OF EXPRESSING OUR AWARENESS THAT REAL THINGS ARE COMPLEX 4HE ARTIST KNOWS THAT IT IS NOT OBJECTS THAT MATTER BUT RATHER RELATIONS AND INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN THESE RELATIONS 3HE EVEN ASKS h7HY MUST WE KNOW THE BOUNDARIES OF SYSTEMS v 4HIS IS A GOOD QUESTION )T ONLY BECOMES IRRELEVANT UNDER A REDUCTIONIST METHODOLOGY 4HE SCIENTIST WILL REMAIN MUM HERE n OR DEFEND HIS POSITION !FTER ALL REDUCTIONISM NEED NOT BE BAD 4HE SIXTH SECTION DISCUSSES THE PRECEDING POINTS IN THE CONTEXT OF DESIGN AND THE LAST SECTION CONCLUDES OUR DISCUSSION
!ND WHAT IS THE GOAL OF THIS PAPER $O WE WANT TO SHOW HOW THE GENUINE PROPERTIES OF THE NEW MEDIA CAN BE PUT TO THEIR BEST USE $O WE INTEND TO DRAFT GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNERS 7ELLx IT MIGHT BE BEST TO TEACH THEM HOW TO ASK A FEW QUESTIONS THAT HAVE PREVIOUSLY BEEN IGNORED TO TEACH THEM HOW TO ASK THE CRUCIAL QUESTIONS TO TEACH THEM TO LEARN HOW TO DISCUSS THESE QUESTIONS GROW IN THE PROCESS AND BROADEN THEIR HORIZONS TO TEACH THEM HOW TO BECOME CONSCIOUS !ND TO DRAW INSPIRATION 4HIS GENERALLY MAKES PEOPLE OPEN MINDED AND HELPS THEM TAKE DECISIONS ON THEIR OWN WITHOUT ADHERING TO UNSEEN RESTRICTIONS %VEN SO WILLINGLY ACCEPTING RESTRICTIONS NEED NOT BE BAD OR RESULT IN IRRELEVANT DESIGN n SUCH DESIGN CAN BE GOOD VERY ADEQUATE AND FRUITFUL
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
h4HE STORY STARTS AND STOPS GOES FORWARD AND LOSES ITSELF AND VANISHES NEVER TO BE SEEN AGAINv 0 !USTER )N THE #OUNTRY OF ,AST 4HINGS 0ENGUIN #ONTINGENCY n h)T COULD BE DIFFERENT xv 0LEASE REFER TO HTTPDEWIKIPEDIAORGWIKI+ONTINGENZ h+NOWLEDGE IS A BURDEN 7AY TOO MUCH INFORMA TION IS BUZZING THROUGH THE BELFRY MAKING LIFE DIFFI CULTv 0 &ELIXBERGER h6OLLE $RHNUNGv &OLGE CHANGE8 HTTPWWWCHANGEXDEPDFD?A PDF
.ONLINEARITY AND 0OTENTIALITY )NTERACTION IN THE CONTEXT OF )#4S FOSTERS NONLINEARITY 4HE SCIEN TIST FROWNS AND DEMANDS DElNITIONS n BUT IT WILL BECOME ADEQUATELY CLEAR WHAT THIS TERM MEANS &OR EXAMPLE NONLINEARITY REFERS TO THE SPECIlC PROPERTIES OF A HYPERTEXT IN WHICH USERS lND AND DElNE THEIR PATH THROUGH A NEW WORLD ON THEIR OWN 4HE INTERLINKED TEXT CHANGES CONTEXT QUICKLY AND ABRUPTLY DEPENDING ON THE SPECIlC PATH USERS DECIDE TO TAKE 4HE BACKGROUND AND FUTURE OF EACH PART ACCESSED AS WELL AS THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THESE PARTS CHANGE TOO *UST IMAGINE TWO IDENTICAL RED SQUARES THAT APPEAR TO BE DIFFERENT SHADES OF RED IF PLACED AGAINST BACKGROUNDS OF DIFFERENT SHADES OF GREEN 4HIS IS ONLY ONE EXAMPLE 4HE CONCEPT OF NONLINEARITY IS MUCH BROADER !S THE SCIENTIST KNOWS n WE NEED DElNITIONS 7E ONLY OFFER ONE WAY OF UNDERSTANDING NONLINEARITY 7E ONLY MAKE ASSOCIATIONS RESTRICT PLACE IN CONTEXT DISCARD AND BEGIN ANEW !N UNDERSTANDING OF NONLINEARITY EMERGES IN THIS DISCOURSE 5SER MUST ENTER A NONLINEAR CONTEXT AND BE FULLY CONlDENT THAT THEY WILL NOT GET LOST TIMELAYER? 4HE NIGHT ERODES COLORS AND SOUNDS REMINISCENCES FADE ONLY THE CRICKET REMAINS #HIRP CHIRP TIMELAYER? !ND THE CONTEXT MUST NOT BETRAY ITS READERS 4HEY CAN TAKE COMBINE AND DISCARD WHATEVER THEY LIKE COMPOSE THE PARTS IN AN UNPRECEDENTED MANNER PLANNING GOING SOMEWHERE OR JUST FOLLOWING SOME GENTLE mOW SOME TENSION OR CURIOSITY $IFFERENT LAYERS ARE POS SIBLE AT THE SAME TIME THE SIMPLEST EXAMPLE BEING DIFFERENT PROGRAM WINDOWS $IFFERENT PROCESSES ARE POSSIBLE AT THE SAME TIME )NTERACT WHEN IT IS POSSIBLE JUMP AWAY WHEN CALCULATIONS NEED TIME AND PRO HIBIT INTERACTION *UMP BACK HAVE A LOOK DECIDE 7E CAN ONLY SCRATCH THE SURFACE .ONLINEARITY IS A LABEL FOR ONE SET OF DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF )#4S &ROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE ME DIUM THESE FEATURES ARE ACCESSIBILITY REPRODUCIBILITY PARALLELISM AND TRANSFERABILITY FROM THE USERS VIEWPOINT CHOICE FREEDOM DEMOCRACY AND ACCOUNTABILITY 4HIS IS THE ESSENCE OF NONLINEARITY IN THIS CONTEXT POTENTIALITY 6IRTUALLY EVERYTHING IS POSSIBLE AND MAKES SENSE &ASTER AND SMALLER DEVICES FASTER AND LARGER MEMORY n HEREIN LIES THE PO TENTIAL !ND POTENTIAL CALLS FOR REALIZATION n )#4 NONLINEARITY IS CLOSELY
RELATED TO THE FACT THAT THE POTENTIALITY OF SITUATIONS CAN BE PRESERVED AND NEED NOT DISSOLVE INTO FACTUALITY UNTIL THE VERY LAST MOMENT !ND DISSOLUTION IS OFTEN REVERSIBLE n OR NOT NECESSARY 4AKEN A STEP FURTHER NONLINEARITY REFERS TO THE CONTINGENCY OF INTERACTION 4HE THINGS THAT HAPPEN ARE NOT NECESSARY BUT ALSO ARE NOT ARBITRARY 4HIS APPLIES TO THE DESIGN AND USE OF INTERACTION n THERE ARE ALWAYS MANY POSSIBILI TIES AND ONE WILL BE MANIFEST EITHER CONSCIOUSLY CHOSEN OR SEEMINGLY ACCIDENTAL 4HE QUALITY OF NONLINEARITY IS OF SPECIAL IMPORTANCE TO THE STA TUS NATURE AND PERCEPTION OF KNOWLEDGE IN OUR SOCIETY $UE TO ITS AVAILABILITY AND POTENTIALITY THE VALUE OF AUTHORSHIP MAY DRAMATICALLY FALL #HANGES IN THE WAY WE DEAL WITH KNOWLEDGE ARE UNAVOIDABLE 4HE lXED TEXT GIVES WAY TO MUCH MORE OPEN FORMS h#HOOSING WHAT TO KNOWv IS IMPORTANT NOT hKNOWINGv 4HIS PRODUCES A TOTALLY NEW AND EVEN MORE PRONOUNCED INDIVIDUALISM THAN HAS PREVIOUSLY BEEN SEEN AND DEPLORED IN OUR 7ESTERN SOCIETIES "UT IT IS A QUIET INDIVIDU ALISM ONE THAT TEARS APART THE AUTHORITIES KNOWLEDGE AND STRUCTURE KEEPS THE PARTS THAT lT AND DISCARDS THE OTHERS 6IEW A TEXT A MESSAGE OR A MEDIUM AS AN OBJECT TO BE FORMED RATHER THAN A SUBJECT TAKING THE READER ON A JOURNEY h4HE VALUE OF AUTHORSHIP DRAMATICALLY FALLSv n FURTHER STEPS IN A MISTY MORNING 7HAT IS PHILOSOPHY ABOUT 5NDERSTANDING THE WRIT INGS OF PAST SCHOLARS +NOWING THEIR PROBLEMS AND STRUGGLES #ONTRIB UTING TO CLASSICAL EDUCATION ,EARNING TO THINK TO SHARPEN OUR MINDS TO DEVOTE OURSELVES TO ISSUES OF PERSONAL AND CURRENT IMPORTANCE )S IT ABOUT FRAMING OUR THOUGHTS
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
h) WOULD LIKE TO EMPHASIZE THE FACT THAT DATA ARE NOT EVENTS OR OBJECTS BUT ALWAYS RECORDS OR DESCRIPTIONS OR MEMORIES OF EVENTS OR OBJECTS !LWAYS THERE IS A TRANSFORMATION OR RECODING OF THE RAW EVENT x v ' "ATESON 3TEPS TO AN %COLOGY OF -IND n #OLLECTED %SSAYS IN !NTHROPOLOGY 0SYCHIATRY %VOLUTION AND %PISTE MOLOGY 3AN &RANCISCO
#ONlDENCE 7HEREAS NONLINEARITY MAY BE THE MOST IMPORTANT PROPERTY OF )#4S CONlDENCE IS AN IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC OF USERS AND THEIR INTER ACTION WITH )#4S #ONlDENCE IS IMPORTANT ON SEVERAL LEVELS 5SERS MUST HAVE A HIGH LEVEL OF CONlDENCE IN THEIR ABILITY TO DEAL WITH NON LINEARITY AND WITH ALL THE POTENTIAL OF )#4 DEVICES "UT )#4 USERS ARE NOT AS ISOLATED AS IT MIGHT SEEM FROM OUR DISCUSSION OF NONLINEARITY 7ISE GUIDANCE IS NECESSARY TO PREVENT THEM FROM LOSING THEIR WAY WHILE EXPLORING THE VAST NEW WORLDS 4HUS USER CONlDENCE IS NOURISHED IN THE DELI CATE INTERPLAY BETWEEN THREE FACTORS THE GUIDANCE PROVIDED BY THE STRUCTURE INTERACTION DESIGN AND THE USERS OWN ABILITIES 4HE USER SHOULD BE CONlDENT THAT THIS INTERPLAY IS POSSIBLE AND FRUITFUL !ND )#4S HAVE TO ENHANCE CONlDENCE AND MAKE USERS BETTER ABLE TO DEAL WITH THE SITUATION BY GIVING THEM BOUNDARIES TO PREVENT THEM FROM GETTING LOST )N ADDITION USERS MUST BE TAKEN SERIOUSLY 4HEIR ABILITIES DETERMINE HOW MUCH THEY CAN BE DISTRACTED HOW MUCH MULTITASKING THEY CAN HANDLE AND HOW QUICK THEY ARE 4HESE ABILITIES OFTEN EXIST n OR AT LEAST THE POSSIBILITY TO DEVELOP THEM )N SUCH A CONTEXT LEARNING BY DOING IS AN ADEQUATE OPTION FOR USERS AND INTERACTIONS n ESPECIALLY WITH REGARD TO THE VAST SET OF POSSIBILITIES 0LAYING AROUND lNDING YOUR WAY TAKING YOUR TIME MAKING DE TOURS LEAVING THE DIRECT PATH ALWAYS CONlDENT THAT NOTHING WILL GO WRONG n SOMETIMES THIS IS THE ONLY STRATEGY THAT WORKS !ND IF ANXI ETY OR FEAR CROP UP IF CONlDENCE IS LOST n USERS WILL RETREAT AND LEAVE THE SPACE AND EVERYTHING WILL BE LOST "Y CONlDENCE WE ALSO MEAN CONlDENCE IN THE )#4 DEVICE ITSELF THE CERTITUDE THAT THIS THING THAT IS A BLACK BOX FOR MOST USERS WILL WORK AS IT SHOULD #ONlDENCE IN THE COMPUTER AND IN THE 7EB AS A WINDOW ON THE WORLD AS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR PREVIOUSLY UNIMAGINED POSSIBILI TIES #ONlDENCE THAT THE USERS FOOTPRINTS IN THE 7EB WILL BE TREATED WITH CONlDENTIALITY 3ECURITY PRIVACY OBSERVATION SURVEILLANCE n THESE ISSUES GO BEYOND INTERACTION DESIGN IN ANY CONCRETE SENSE BUT UNDENIABLY LURK IN THE BACKGROUND n WE MAY GET USED TO THE THREATS THEY POSE WE MAY EVEN ACCEPT THEM BUT THEY SHOULD BE DISCUSSED
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
h) SUGGEST WE THINK OF INVISIBILITY AS A KIND OF DEGREE ZERO IMAGES AND INFORMATION THAT ARE ALWAYS READY TO SPRING FORTH BUT REFUSE TO REFUSE TO BE BORNv , -ARKS h)NVISIBLE -EDIA v IN .EW -EDIA ED ! %VERETT AND * #LADWELL .EW 9ORK n -ATERIALGERECHTIGKEIT n THE 'ERMAN TERM FITS BEST HERE )T MEANS hDOING JUSTICE TO THE MATERIALv
, "URCKHARDT h-IES IS -ORE v IN $ESIGN n 5NSICHT BAR ED , "URCKHARDT /STFILDERN n 3EE THE END OF THE SIXTH SECTION LABELED h$ESIGNv
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
h"UT PEOPLE AND THEIR TOOLS ONLY EXIST @IN TERMS OF THE COMBINATIONS THAT THEY MAKE POSSIBLE AND THROUGH WHICH THEY ARE POSSIBLE 5SERS ARE ONLY THE PERCEIVABLE ELEMENTS THE IDENTIFIABLE COMPONENTS PRODUCED BY MUCH MORE COMPLEX PROCESSES (OWEVER THEY ALSO SERVE TO KEEP SUCH PROCESSES IN CHECK xv 3 0LANT NULLEN EINSEN "ERLIN
-ATERIAL -ATERIAL IS IMPORTANT ON SEVERAL LEVELS TOO *UST LOOK AT YOUR COM PUTER )T HAS AN INPUT INTERFACE WHICH YOU DO NOT NEED TO SEE 4HERE IS AN OUTPUT INTERFACE THAT IS SEPARATED VISUALLY FROM THE INPUT UNIT BUT NEVERTHELESS DIRECTLY LINKED TO THE ACTIONS OF YOUR HANDS .OTE HOW THIS IS DIFFERENT FROM WORKING ON MOST OTHER MATERIALS -OST OFTEN ACTION AND MONITORING COINCIDE *UST THINK OF WRITING WITH A PEN OR PAINTING #OMPARE IT TO THE USE OF A MOUSE AND THE MONITORING FUNC TION OF A SCREEN 3UCH AN ARRANGEMENT IS MORE LIKE PLAYING AN INSTRU MENT -ONITORING VIA THE SENSE OF HEARING IS SEPARATE FROM THE ACTION OF THE PLAYERS lNGERS )#4 DEVICES ARE TIME LESS AND LOCATION LESS )T IS ONLY THEIR INTER FACE THAT GENERATES THE COORDINATES NECESSARY TO ORGANIZE INFORMATION AL CONTENT AND TO REPRESENT IT IN A PERCEPTIBLE FORM )N A CERTAIN SENSE THE MATERIAL YOU WORK ON IN THE CONTEXT OF )#4S OFFERS NO RESISTANCE 4AKE SCISSORS n IF SOMETHING GOES WRONG WHEN YOU USE THEM THEY DO NOT GET THE BLAME "UT A COMPUTER 7ITH SCISSORS YOU HAVE AN IMMEDIATE SENSATION OF THE THICKNESS OF THE PAPER YOURE CUTTING 9OU SEE THE LIMITS DIRECTLY )N CONTRAST THE COMPUTER PROVIDES A CLEAN SURFACE AND REPRESENTS CONTENTS IN AN IMMATERIAL FORM ON THE SCREEN /NLY LIGHT !LWAYS NEAT NEW CLEAN NEVER SHOWING TRACES OF USE NEVER WORN OUT NEVER AGING )MAGINE THE ATMOSPHERE THE MA TERIALITY THAT A BOOK OR A SHEET OF PAPER CREATES 4HE SCREEN IS A MIR ROR OF OTHER CONTENTS 2EmECTION AND PROJECTION DOMINATE 4HE WHOLE VAST WORLD WITHIN THE COMPUTER AND ON THE 7EB REMAINS STRANGELY DEVOID OF MATERIALITY AND DOES NOT REFER TO A MATERIAL BODY .EVERTHE LESS SOME TRACES OF USE REMAIN BUT ON ANOTHER LEVEL TRACES OF PURE IN FORMATION IN LOG lLES NOT VISIBLE NOT VISUAL BUT NEVERTHELESS TRACKING THE USER IN GREAT DETAIL (OW ARE WE TO DEAL WITH THE IMMATERIAL WITH THE MATERIAL OF THE IMMATERIAL )F THE COMPUTER IS A hTOOL v WHAT MATERIAL DOES IT WORK ON )T IS DIFlCULT TO RECOGNIZE THIS MATERIAL TO UNDERSTAND IT FULLY AND NOT VIO LATE ITS PROPERTIES !FTER HAVING RECOGNIZED THIS MATERIAL WE MAY lND IT DIFlCULT TO SHOW ITS LIMITS (OW OBJECTIVE IS THIS MATERIAL 0ARTS OF IT SOME OF ITS CHARACTERISTICS ARE ONLY MANIFESTED IN INTERACTION THEY
ONLY EMERGE IN COMBINATION WITH THE USERS CHARACTERISTICS 5SER MA TERIAL AND )#4 DEVICE CANNOT BE NEATLY SEPARATED 4HUS IT IS NOT THE MATERIAL THAT THE COMPUTER WORKS ON BUT THE MATERIAL THE INTERACTION WORKS ON THAT IS OF ESSENCE 4HESE IDEAS ARE BROAD IN SCOPE /N THE ONE HAND THEY REFER TO -ATERIALGERECHTIGKEIT A CONCERN OF THE MID NINETEENTH CENTURY THAT IS LINKED TO THE IDEA OF HONESTY ITSELF /N THE OTHER THEY REFER TO THE ALL ENCOMPASSING HOLISTIC APPROACH TO DESIGN PROPOSED BY "URCK HARDT WHICH COMPRISES NOT JUST THE OBJECT TO BE DESIGNED AND ITS MATERIAL BUT ITS WHOLE HISTORY FROM METAL ORE TO GARBAGE DUMP FROM INITIAL IDEA TO lNAL SOCIAL CONSEQUENCE
3YSTEMS THEORY IS THE ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX THINGS WITH A FOCUS ON THE INTERRELATEDNESS OF THEIR PARTS h3YSTEMv AS DEFINED BY VON &OERSTER h! SYSTEM IS A BOX THAT YOU CAN TICKLE ON ONE SIDE AND THAT SNEEZES ON THE OTHERv ( VON &OERSTER hâ BER "EWUSSTSEIN 'EDØCHTNIS 3PRACHE -AGIE UND ANDERE UNBEGREIFLICHE !LLTØGLICHKEITEN v IN X 'RÓN ( VON &OERSTER #OLOGNE ! SLIGHTLY EXPANDED TRANSLATION FROM A PARAGRAPH IN ( 7ILLKE 3YSTEMTHEORIE &RANKFURT A -
7 .EUSER h:UR ,OGIK DER 3ELBSTORGANISATION v IN 3YSTEMTHEORIE n 0HILOSOPHISCHE "ETRACHTUNGEN IHRER !NWENDUNGEN ED + 'LOY 7 .EUSER AND 0 2EISINGER "ONN "OUVIER 6ERLAG . ,UHMANN h$IE !UTOPOIESIS DES "EWUSSTSEINS v IN 3ELBSTTHEMATISIERUNG UND 3ELBSTZEUGNIS "EKENNTNIS UND 'EDØCHTNIS ED ! (AHN AND 6 +APP &RANKFURT A - n
. ,UHMANN h$IE OPERATIVE 'ESCHLOSSENHEIT PSYCHISCHER UND SOZIALER 3YSTEME v IN $AS %NDE DER GROSSEN %NTWÓRFE ED ( 2 &ISCHER ! 2ETZER AND * 3CHWEITZER &RANKFURT A - n 3AME AS .ONSENSE IS AN IMPORTANT PART OF HUMAN KNOWL EDGE 3OMETIMES UNDULY DOMINANT h3HE FINISHES THE WHOLE GRAVITATIONAL TRANSACTION WITH NOT MUCH ALTITUDE AND A NASTY HEAD OF DARK VELOCITYv . 3TEPHENSON 3NOW #RASH .EW 9ORK
3YSTEMS ,ET US OPEN UP A BLACK BOX AND EXAMINE ITS CONTENTS WITH THE HOPE THAT THIS WILL HELP US ORGANIZE THE PREVIOUSLY ELABORATED IDEAS ON A HIGHER OR MORE ABSTRACT LEVEL 7HAT WE lND MAY BEST BE UNDER STOOD AS GUIDING PRINCIPLES AS A MEANS OF FRAMING IDEAS AND POSING OTHERWISE FORGOTTEN QUESTIONS )NSPIRATION NOT KNOWLEDGE IS REQUIRED IN AN ENVIRONMENT THAT IS MADE UP OF VAST AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION /NE APPROACH IS SYSTEMS THEORY 3YSTEMS THEORY IS CRUCIAL FOR INTER ACTION DESIGN BECAUSE IT IS CRUCIAL FOR ALL THINGS THAT ARE MORE COMPLEX THAN ROLLING DICE 4HAT IS THE GREAT ADVANTAGE AND THE GREAT DISADVAN TAGE OF THIS hTHEORYv -ANY AUTHORS WILL CLAIM THAT SYSTEMS THEORY IS IRRELEVANT 7E ARE IMPERTINENT OR SILLY OR MAYBE JUST PLAIN PRAGMATIC !NYTHING IS POSSIBLE IN SYSTEMS THEORY AND SOMETIMES ITS HARD TO UN DERSTAND WHY SO MUCH SPACE IS NECESSARY TO TACKLE THE PROBLEMS AT HAND n IF YOU CAN SEE THEM ,EAF THROUGH SOME BOOKS ABOUT IT AND YOU WILL UNDERSTAND WHAT IS MEANT BY THAT 3YSTEMS THEORY MAY BE SEEN AS AN INTELLECTUAL PLAYGROUND )T INVITES YOU TO MAKE FREE ASSOCIATIONS WITH ONLY YOUR WILLPOWER TO KEEP YOU FROM LEAVING A CERTAIN hSCIENTIlC LEVELv (AVE CONlDENCE THAT YOU WILL NOT GET LOST 4HIS GENERAL UNEASINESS MAY BE DESCRIBED AS FOLLOWS SINGLE AS PECTS OF SYSTEMS THEORY ARE SO CLOSELY INTERTWINED AND INTERDEPENDENT THAT THEY SHOULD BE REPRESENTED SIMULTANEOUSLY 4HIS IS NOT POSSIBLE BY MEANS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE 4HATS WHY BEGINNERS WILL ALWAYS EN COUNTER CONCEPTS AND PROBLEMS WHICH THEY MUST ALREADY UNDERSTAND BUT WHICH REQUIRE DISCUSSION TO BE UNDERSTOOD IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO DEAL WITH THE SPECIlC PROBLEM CURRENTLY DISCUSSED .ONLINEARITY CREEPS INx (OWEVER HAVING OPENED THIS TOOLKIT WE MIGHT AS WELL TAKE SOME THING OUT (ERES ,UHMANN TO GIVE YOU THE GIST h!UTOPOETIC SYSTEMS ARE SYSTEMS THAT GENERATE AND REPRODUCE THEIR CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS BY MEANS OF THE ELEMENTS THEY ARE MADE OFv 3UCH SYSTEMS HAVE TO FULlLL FOUR CONDITIONS AUTONOMY RELATION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT HOMEOSTASIS IE THEY HAVE TO BE IN A STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM AND RE PRODUCTION &URTHERMORE THEY ARE hOPERATIONALLY CLOSEDv 4O DESCRIBE SUCH SYSTEMS WE NEED TO hDESCRIBE THE OPERATION THAT GEN
ERATES AND REPRODUCES THE SYSTEM AS OPPOSED TO ITS ENVIRONMENTv 7E MUST ALSO DESCRIBE THE FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS THAT ARE NOT FURTHER REDUCIBLE FOR THE SYSTEM AND THAT FORM THE BASIS OF ITS SELF REPRODUC TION 4HE EXAMPLES THAT ,UHMANN DISCUSSES IN THIS CONTEXT ARE hSO CIAL SYSTEMSv WHERE THE OPERATION IS COMMUNICATION AND THE ELEMENTS RESULT FROM PREVIOUS COMMUNICATION OR hCONSCIOUSNESSv WHERE THE OPERATION IS hTO CONDENSE ELEMENTS TO EVENTS v AND THE BASIC ELEMENTS ARE hTHOUGHTSv 4HIS IS SOMEWHAT MESSY INDEED "UT INSPIRING TOO !ND BEWARE NOT TO BE IMPRESSED BY SUCH THEORETICAL NONSENSE WILL YOU #OMPARE THIS WITH )#4 7HAT CONSTITUTES THE SYSTEM IN THIS CONTEXT 4HE ELEMENTS THE OPERATIONS )T IS NOT THE )#4 DEVICE ALONE BUT THE COMBINED SYSTEM OF )#4 AND USER THAT CONSTITUTES A SYSTEM AS CHARACTERIZED ABOVE "E CONlDENT 3YSTEMS THEORY IS FUZZY /P ERATIONS AND ELEMENTS ARENT UNIQUE 4HE MOST IMPORTANT THING IS TO THINK ABOUT THEM IN THE lRST PLACE TIMELAYER? xAND DO NOT LISTEN TO THE CRICKET TIMELAYER? 4HIS IS ONLY ONE ASPECT THE THING WE RETRIEVED lRST )T STICKS TO THE REST EVERYTHING GOOEY LIKE MELTED CHEESE %VEN CONTRADICTORY THINGS CREEP OUT ON THEIR OWN 7E SEE A GEM WE FETCH IT FROM THE BOX AND THROW IT AT YOUR FEET 0ICK IT UP OBSERVE ITS SHINING FACETS DO NOT BE AFRAID OF THE TOPIC n ENJOY 7E WILL NOT DWELL HERE ANY LONGER 9OU HAVE TO ENJOY IT ON YOUR OWN YOU HAVE TO IMMERSE YOURSELF IN THE ENTRAILS OF SYSTEMS THEORY THE SHINING SLIMY ENTRAILS TELLING A STORY E8ISTEN: ,ETS QUICKLY CLOSE THIS BOX x 7HAT WE MUST DO HERE IS FOCUS ON RELATIONS AND HIERARCHIES OF RELATIONS RATHER THAN FOCUSING ON SINGLE OBJECTS AND ADDRESSING THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THEM ONLY AS SECONDARY 4HIS IS NOT REALLY A REVOLU TIONARY IDEA BUT IT IS SOMETIMES FORGOTTEN SO REMEMBERING IT AND US ING IT AS A GUIDING PRINCIPLE WHILE DESIGNING INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS SHOULD PROVE VERY FRUITFUL 4HERE ARE COUNTLESS OBJECTS THAT WE HAVE KNOWL EDGE OF BUT THE CAPABILITY TO RELATE THEM WISELY IS RARE )T IS NOT A QUES TION OF PRODUCING NEW KNOWLEDGE BUT NEW RELATIONS )N THE CONTEXT OF THE NEW MEDIA AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS THESE IDEAS DElNITELY HAVE A ROLE TO PLAY 4HE MATERIAL WHICH THE INTERACTION WORKS ON IS CLOSELY RELATED TO SUCH IDEAS
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
h4HE MILKY FABRIC DIVIDED SEEMED TO BUBBLE BECAME TWO PATCHES OF SHIFTING GREYv 3AME AS ( -ATURANA h4HE "IOLOGICAL &OUNDATIONS OF 3ELF #ONSCIOUSNESS AND THE 0HYSICAL $OMAIN OF %XISTENCE v IN "EOBACHTER n +ONVERGENZ DER %RKENNTNISTHEORIEN . ,UHMANN ( -ATURANA - .AMIKI 6 2EDDER AND & 6ARELA -UNICH n $ #RONENBERG E8ISTEN: (IERARCHIES OF RELATIONS SYSTEMS THEORY AND COMMUNICATION n LET "ATESON TAKE YOU ON A RIDEx IF NOTHING ELSE INSPIRING IT WILL BE 3EE THE COLLECTION OF ESSAYS REFERRED TO IN
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
$ESIGN )N THIS SECTION WE ADDRESS THE IMPLICATIONS THAT THE MAIN POINTS OF THE PRECEDING SECTIONS NONLINEARITY AND POTENTIALITY CONlDENCE MATERIAL RELATIONS HAVE FOR THE DESIGN OF INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS 7E RETURN TO THE HYPOTHESIS AND OBSERVATIONS MENTIONED IN OUR INTRODUCTION DESIGN DOES NOT EXPLOIT THE FULL POTENTIAL AND PROPERTIES OF )#4 4HIS POTENTIAL IS REFERRED TO IN THE ABOVE MENTIONED POINTS 4ODAY WHEN SUCH SYSTEMS ARE DESIGNED AND USED PATTERNS THAT EM PHASIZE LINEAR AND SINGLE OBJECTS EMERGE BUT THEY DO NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE DIFFERENT LEVELS OF THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THEM OR THEIR PO TENTIAL FOR NEW DESIGN AND USE 4HE MAIN POINT IS NOT EXPLORING THE VISUAL ASPECT OF THE INTER FACE BUT DESIGNING INTERACTION THAT IS MAKING THE RELATIONS BETWEEN UNDERLYING DATA ACCESSIBLE #HANGE NOT STASIS IS THE INVARIABLE AND DESIGN MUST ACCOMMODATE ALL POSSIBILITIES OF CHANGE $ESIGNING )#4 DEVICES IS MUCH MORE LIKE DESIGNING A MACHINE THAN A POSTER OR A BOOK 4HE MAIN FOCUS LIES IN BUILDING A SYSTEM THAT PROCESSES LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA ON SEVERAL LEVELS TIMELAYER? OF DADA OF ANY KIND TIMELAYER? 'IVING DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THIS DATA OFFERING DIFFERENT WAYS TO ACCESS IT PROVIDING A VARIETY OF CHOICES n THESE ARE SOME OF THE WAYS THAT NONLINEARITY AND POTENTIALITY ARE MANIFESTED IN THE DESIGN PROCESS 4HESE MANIFESTATIONS ARE NOT ONLY AN EXTENSION OF DESIGN AS PRACTICED IN ANALOG MEDIA n MOST PEOPLE GREATLY UNDERESTIMATE THIS FACT IF THEY ADMIT IT AT ALL
h)NCIDENTALLY IF YOU ARE IN AGREEMENT WITH WHAT HAS COME BEFORE YOU ARE NOT PERMITTED TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN FORM AND CONTENT OR BETWEEN READING AND THINKING 4HIS APPLIES TO ALL TEXTS NOT JUST PHILOSOPHY AND TO ALL WORKS OF ART AND MUSIC 4HE WORK IS ALWAYS THE EXPRESSION OF ITS @REALIZATION IN WHICH EVERYTHING IS DECIDEDv # 2OSSET $IE 7AHL DER 7ORTE "ERLIN
0ROTOTYPING IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF INCOMPLETE REPRESENTATIONS OF A TARGET SYSTEM 0ROTOTYPING IS AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF AN ITERATIVE DESIGN APPROACH IN WHICH DESIGNS ARE CREATED EVALUATED AND REFINED UNTIL THE DESIRED LOOK AND FEEL AND USABILITY IS ACHIEVED 0ROTOTYPES CAN RANGE FROM EXTREMELY SIMPLE SKETCHES EG PAPER PROTOTYPING LOW FIDELITY PROTOTYPES TO FULL SYSTEMS THAT CONTAIN NEARLY ALL THE FUNCTIONALITY OF THE FINAL SYSTEM HIGH FIDELITY PROTOTYPES
h3INCE WORDS ALONE EXPRESS A THOUGHT IT CAN BE LIKENED TO A PHANTOM AWAITING A BODYv 3AME AS h-OVING UPWARD MEANS SURMOUNTING RESISTANCEx MOVING DOWNWARD OR FALLING MEANS GIVING IN TO THE TUG FROM BELOW &OR THIS REASON IT IS PERCEIVED AS PASSIVE SURRENDERINGv 3AME AS 3TATEMENT FROM 0 &EYERABEND MOST CITED NEVER CORRECTLY 0 &EYERABEND 7IDER DEN -ETHODENZWANG &RANKFURT A -
$ESIGNERS TRADITIONALLY COME FROM THE VISUAL ARTS RATHER THAN FROM PROGRAMMING (OWEVER DIGITAL DESIGN IS CLOSELY RELATED TO PROGRAM MING TO SYSTEMIC AND LOGICAL METHODS AND TO THEIR CORRESPONDING LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION AND FORMALIZATION 4HESE ARE CRUCIAL FOR DEALING WITH THE VAST PART OF THE DESIGN PROCESS THAT IS ESSENTIAL BUT REMAINS HIDDEN INVISIBLE NOT ACCESSIBLE OR ONLY ACCESSIBLE THROUGH CERTAIN PA RAMETERS $ESIGN HAS TO ADOPT A NEW DIDACTIC METHOD FOR THE DIGITAL MEDIA ONE THAT IS DIFFERENT FROM THOSE PREVIOUSLY APPLIED )T IS NEC ESSARY FOR US TO EXPLORE THE DESIGNED SYSTEM TO MAKE THE VISION AND REALITY OF IT COINCIDE 0ROTOTYPING 4HE TASK HAS ALWAYS BEEN TO COMMUNICATE n NOT JUST TO LOOK PRETTY /UR POINT IS NOT THAT WE NEED TO BREAK WITH OLD TRADITIONS BUT THAT WE MUST FURTHER DEVELOP AND ENRICH THEM WITH THE NEW POSSIBILITIES OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA 4HE VISUAL ASPECT OF THE INTERFACE MAY STILL MAKE USE OF THE TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF GRAPHIC DESIGN BUT NEW APPROACHES ARE NEEDED TO MANAGE ALL THE INVISIBLE lRST LEVEL INFORMATION )NVISIBLE ASPECTS BECOME VISIBLE BY BEING INVISIBLE IN INTERACTION
)N ORDER TO DEAL WITH THE PROPERTIES OF NONLINEARITY AND POTENTIAL ITY USERS NEED GUIDELINES THAT ENHANCE THEIR CONlDENCE 4HEY MUST NAVIGATE THROUGH THE SYSTEM lND THE INFORMATION THEY ARE LOOKING FOR AND BE GUIDED TO THEIR DESTINATIONS PERHAPS WITHOUT THEIR EVEN KNOWING IT 4HEY MUST BE GIVEN A WORKING NAVIGATION SYSTEM AND AS MUCH FREEDOM AS POSSIBLE IN ADDITION TO A MAP FOR THE JOURNEY 4HEY MUST BE TOLD WHERE THEY ARE WHERE THEY HAVE COME FROM AND WHERE THEY CAN GO "UT AGAIN THIS IS THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH 7HAT ABOUT THE EMOTIONAL ASPECT OF INTERACTION )T IS POSSIBLE AND NECESSARY TO EN TER INTO A RELATIONSHIP WITH USERS TO TALK TO THEM TO CHALLENGE THEM AND BOLSTER THEIR CONlDENCE /NE WALKS A lNE LINE BETWEEN TOO MANY RULES AND TOO MUCH FREEDOM 7E NOW COME TO THE hMATERIAL v WHICH IS PERHAPS THE BIGGEST CHAL LENGE )LLUSTRATE THE MATERIAL OF INTERACTIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF NEW MEDIA )DENTIFY ITS BASIC COMPONENTS n AS IN THE ANALYSIS OF BASIC DE SIGN COMPONENTS UNDERTAKEN BY !RNHEIM 4HE MATERIAL MAY EVEN CHANGE DEPENDING ON THE DESIGNER THE USER THE CONTEXT )T MAY TAKE THE FORM OF STORIES SEQUENCES INTERDEPENDENCIES )N SHORT DIFFERENT TYPES OF RELATIONS STRUCTURE THIS MATERIAL )N PRACTICE THERE ARE MANY CHOICES n ANYTHING GOES BUT NOT hANYTHING GOESv 0LAY WITH EX PECTATIONS CONVENTIONS TRADITIONS STICK TO THEM OR DISCARD THEM n KNOWINGLY %XPERIENCE IN VIRTUAL WORLDS HAS YET TO lND ITS FORM %XPE RIENCES FROM THE REAL WORLD CAN BE MIRRORED IN THE VIRTUAL ONE BUT THE RIGHT LANGUAGE MUST BE FOUND TIMELAYER? 4HE CRICKET HAS GONE A SPIDER SLOWLY SPINS ITS WEB SLOWLY COVERING IDEAS AND THOUGHTS CATCH ING SPLINTERS AND DUST ,IKE DREAMS TIMELAYER? VIRTUAL SPACE HAS A DIFFERENT TIME SCALE
3AME AS h;)N THIS= SITUATION YOU CANNOT RELY ON HAVING FOUNDATIONS AN EXTERNAL REFERENCE POINT TO SERVE AS FOUNDATION 7HATEVER IS REGULAR IS A CONDITION INSEPA RABLE FROM YOUR CO IMPLICATIVE HISTORY IT IS NOT SITTING OUT THERE #ONFRONTING THAT ABSENCE OF FOUNDATION IS FOR OUR TRADITIONAL EPISTEMOLOGIES ; = A RATHER TRICKY SITUATION "UT THATS THE CHALLENGE WHERE BIOLOGI CAL RESEARCH SEEMS TO BE TAKING USv .OT ONLY BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH WE MIGHT ADD & 6ARELA h/N THE #ONCEPTUAL 3ELECTION OF #URRENT #OGNITIVE 3CIENCEv )N THE SAME BOOK AS REFERRED TO IN
,ET US CITE VON &OERSTER ON EPISTEMOLOGY h/NTOL OGY EXPLAINS THE NATURE OF THE WORLD EPISTEMOLOGY EXPLAINS THE NATURE OF OUR PERCEPTION OF THIS WORLDv !ND h0ERCEPTION IS THE CAUSE 4HE WORLD IS THE EFFECT %PISTEMOLOGY IS THE TRANSFORMATION RULEv 2E TRANSLATED FROM ( VON &OERSTER h%PISTEMOLOGIE UND +YBERNETIK 2ÓCKBLICK UND !USBLICK %IN &RAGMENT v IN +YBERN%THIK "ERLIN )NVISIBLE NOT VISIBLE
"EING )NVISIBLE .ADIA 'ISLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER
, "URCKHARDT $ESIGN IST UNSICHTBAR 6IENNA %XCERPTS CAN BE FOUND IN THE COLLECTION REFERRED TO IN , "URCKHARDT ED $ESIGN DER :UKUNFT n !RCHITEKTUR $ESIGN 4ECHNIK KOLOGIE #OLOGNE !CCORDING TO DEFINITELY MORE THAN AN OPTION IN TRADITIONAL DESIGN x 7 *ONAS $ESIGN n 3YSTEM n 4HEORIE %SSEN ( !BELS %INFÓHRUNG IN DIE 3OZIOLOGIE 7IESBADEN FF REFERS TO IDEAS FROM ,UHMANN
4HE STATEMENT THAT hDESIGN IS INVISIBLEv IS NOT A REFERENCE TO FORM 4HE PROCESS GOES BEYOND THE MERE PRESENTATION OF A MATERIAL OBJECT 4HIS STATEMENT REFERS TO THE DESIGN OF ORGANIZATIONS $ESIGN IS ABOUT GENERATING SYSTEMS 4HIS IS JUST ONE OPTION IN TRADITIONAL DE SIGN BUT AN IMPERATIVE IN INTERACTION TIMELAYER? 9OU WANT RECIPES EXAMPLES OF HOW TO COOK A CRICKET "E IMAGINATIVE 9OU AND YOUR GUESTS HAVE TO EAT IT IN THE END "E CON lDENT TIMELAYER? 'ENERATING SYSTEMS AND GENERATING STRUCTURE MEAN SOLVING PROB LEMS 0UT DIFFERENTLY hSTRUCTURE REDUCES COMPLEXITYv 4HIS MEANS THAT THROUGH STRUCTURE FORMATION CERTAIN PROBLEMS ARE SOLVED ONCE AND FOR ALL 4HEY ARE NOT TAKEN UP FOR REPEATED DISCUSSION AGAIN 4HE SOLUTIONS ACHIEVE THE STATUS OF FACTS 4HIS REDUCES COMPLEXITY BUT THE DANGER IS THAT WE MAY FORGET THAT THESE FACTS ARE ONLY SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS WHOSE IMPORTANCE STATUS OR SOLUTION MAY CHANGE OVER TIME "UT THIS PROCESS AND THE RESULTING STRUCTURE ARE CRUCIAL SINCE THEY GENERATE MEANING IN THE WORLD OFFERING A STABLE FOUNDATION FOR A WORLDVIEW FRAMED BY FACTS AND GAINED THROUGH THIS PROCESS OF hDE lNITIVELYv SOLVING SOME PROBLEMS 6IEW THIS IN THE CONTEXT OF 6ARELAS APPROACH TO COGNITION WHICH HAS BEEN ADAPTED TO INTERACTION DESIGN AND WHICH RELATES THE DIFlCULTY AND THE DANGER OF IDENTIFYING BOUND ARIES TO BOTH A hRICH FRAMEWORK OF SELF ORGANIZATIONv AND hVIABLE TRA JECTORIESv EMERGING hIN CO ORDINATION IN RECIPROCITYv
#ONCLUSION )NTERACTION DESIGN INVISIBLE IS THE CORE IS THE VISIBLE SURFACE 4HE SURFACE OF A VAST BODY 9OU CAN TOUCH AND SCRATCH THIS SURFACE TEAR IT APART AND INTRUDE UPON THE BODY IT COVERS ONLY TO BE CONFRONTED WITH ANOTHER SURFACE 9OU ARE INVITED TO IMMERSE YOURSELF IN IT YOU ARE FORCED TO 9OU PURSUE YOUR PATH A PATH THAT FORMS AS IT IS WALKED DOWN A PATH YOU FORM AS YOU FOLLOW IT AND lND YOUR WAY 9OUR GUIDE IS THERE WATCHING INVISIBLY PRESENT IS YOUR GUIDE IS NOT THERE YOU WATCH n WATCH OUT "E CONlDENT COURAGEOUS n BE (OW COME YOU FEEL LOST 7E HAVE CONCEPTUALIZED AND PREPARED lRM GROUND FOR YOU TO LOSE YOUR FOOTING FOR YOU TO lND YOUR WAY BEING INVISIBLE
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
)N THIS ARTICLE ) WILL FOCUS ON hSOUNDv AS A MORE GENERAL CONCEPT AND LEAVE ASIDE ITS MORE ORGANIZED AND COMPLEX MANIFESTATIONS SUCH AS MUSIC OR SPEECH 7OLFGANG 7ELSCH h!UF DEM 7EG ZU EINER +ULTUR DES (RENS v IN 'RENZGØNGE DER ËSTHETIK 3TUTTGART
(%!2 -% ).4%2!#4 $ANIEL (UG )NTERACTION $ES;EYE=GN )T IS OFTEN SAID THAT WE LIVE IN A PREDOMINANTLY VISUAL CULTURE &ROM PRINT MEDIA TO 46 FROM ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS TO BRANDING VISUAL EX PRESSION SEEMS TO BE THE DOMINANT FORM OF COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY %VEN MUSIC PROMOTION IS INCONCEIVABLE THESE DAYS WITHOUT A MASSIVE DOSE OF IMAGES AS SHOWN BY #$ COVERS AND THE VISUAL HYPERTROPHY OF -46 4HE METAPHOR OF THE hmOOD OF IMAGESv IS CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH MODERN 7ESTERN CULTURE AND ) OFTEN HAVE THE IMPRESSION THAT THE DIS COURSE IN THE lELD OF DESIGN n TO WHICH THIS BOOK CONTRIBUTES n IS CON CERNED PRIMARILY WITH THE VISUAL OR PHYSICAL DIMENSION OF ARTIFACTS 7HERE DOES THIS DOMINANCE OF THE VISUAL COME FROM 7HAT ABOUT OUR SENSE OF HEARING 7HAT SPECIlC CHARACTERISTICS DOES IT HAVE WHAT FUNCTION DOES IT FULlLL IN OUR PERCEPTUAL APPARATUS AND WHAT POSITION AND SIGNIlCANCE DOES IT HAVE FOR DESIGNERS &INALLY WHAT CONTRIBUTION CAN SOUND MAKE IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERACTION DESIGN )N THIS ESSAY ) WOULD LIKE TO EXPLORE THESE ISSUES AND THOUGH THERE WILL PROBABLY BE NO CONCLUSIVE ANSWERS ) HOPE TO PROVIDE INSPIRATION AND RAISE AWARE NESS FOR SOUND AS AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF THE ARTIFACTS WE CREATE WHETHER THEY ARE INTERACTIVE OR NOT !CCORDING TO SOME AUTHORS THERE HAS BEEN A LONGSTANDING HIS TORICAL AND CULTURAL FOCUS ON SIGHT 3OME ARGUE THAT THIS HAS LED TO ITS DOMINANCE IN THE CONSCIOUS PERCEPTION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF THE WORLD AND THE ARTIFACTS IN IT 7OLFGANG 7ELSCH DESCRIBES THIS hPRI MACY OF THE VISUALv AS THE RESULT OF A LONG SOCIOCULTURAL PROCESS WITH ITS ROOTS IN 'REEK PHILOSOPHY /RIGINALLY 'REEK SOCIETY WAS A hCULTURE OF HEARING v BUT THIS GRADUALLY BEGAN TO CHANGE AROUND THE FOURTH CEN TURY " # )N THE SIXTH CENTURY " # (ERACLITUS SUGGESTED THAT THE EYES
WERE MORE PRECISE WITNESSES THAN THE EARS !CCORDING TO 7ELSCH IT WAS 0LATO WHO ULTIMATELY SET THE STAGE FOR THE PRIMACY OF THE VISUAL IN THE COURSE OF THE NEXT YEARS IN HIS PARABLE OF THE CAVE PURE GOOD IS REPRESENTED BY THE SUN WHILE THE CAVES DARKNESS SYMBOLIZES MANS IGNORANCE 4HIS PERSPECTIVE WAS TO DElNE THE NEO 0LATONIC AND ME DIEVAL METAPHYSICS OF LIGHT AND THE hPATHOS OF LIGHTv THAT WE lND IN THE %NLIGHTENMENT #HRISTIAN METAPHYSICS IS RIFE WITH METAPHORS OF BOTH LIGHT SEEN AS A REVELATORY TRUTH BRINGING POWER AND DARKNESS IDENTIlED AS A SOURCE OF EVIL -EDIEVAL SCIENCE SAW VISION AS A DIVINE TOOL FOR UNDERSTANDING THE WORLDS ELEMENTARY TRUTHS 4HE hPRIMACY OF THE VISUALv HAS ALSO LEFT ITS MARK ON OUR LANGUAGE )F SOMEBODY hHEARS VOICES v HE OR SHE IS CONSIDERED MENTALLY ILL BUT PEOPLE WITH hVISIONSv ARE INNOVATIVE OR EVEN PROPHETIC PROVIDING US WITH NEW INSIGHTS
+ARL +ARST h'ESCHICHTE DES /HRS v IN $IE 7ELT AUF TNERNEN &ÓSSEN DIE 4NE UND DAS (REN 'TTINGEN (ANNES 2AFFSAEDER !UDIODESIGN ,EIPZIG 7OLFGANG 7ELSCH -ARSHALL -C,UHAN AND 1UENTIN &IORE 4HE -EDIUM IS THE -ASSAGE !N )NVENTORY OF %FFECTS #ORTE -ADERA #!
-OOZAK IS -URRAY 3CHAFERS ADAPTATION OF THE TRADE NAME OF THE -UZAK #ORPORATION WHICH PROVIDES BACKGROUND MUSIC FOR ALL KINDS OF SPACES FROM OF FICES TO RESTAURANTS (E USES IT TO DESCRIBE hALL KINDS OF SCHIZOPHONIC MUSICAL DROOL ESPECIALLY IN PUBLIC SPACESv 3CHAFER
4HE TERM hSOUNDSCAPEv WAS COINED BY -URRAY 3CHAFER IN (E DEFINES THIS TERM AS hTHE SONIC ENVI RONMENT TECHNICALLY ANY PORTION OF THE SONIC ENVIRON MENT REGARDED AS A FIELD FOR STUDY 4HE TERM MAY REFER TO ACTUAL ENVIRONMENTS OR TO ABSTRACT CONSTRUCTIONS SUCH AS MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS AND TAPE MONTAGE PARTICULARLY WHEN CONSIDERED AS AN ENVIRONMENTv 3CHAFER (IS IDEAS PLAY A VITAL ROLE IN UNDERSTANDING THE ACOUSTIC WORLD AND HAVE PROVIDED A FRAMEWORK FOR MANY RE SEARCHERS INCLUDING "ARRY 4RUAX WHOSE THEORY OF ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION INSPIRED A NUMBER OF REFLEC TIONS IN THIS ARTICLE
7ITH SCIENCE INCREASINGLY UNCOVERING THE hSECRETSv OF THE EAR WE HAVE LEARNED THAT HEARING IS A SENSE THAT IS BY NO MEANS INFERIOR TO SIGHT )F WE DIRECTLY COMPARE THE TWO WE CAN EVEN lND SOME PROPER TIES OF THE EAR THAT SURPASS THE ABILITIES OF THE EYE ,ETS CONSIDER WAVE LENGTH RANGE 4HE RECEPTIVE RANGE OF THE EYE LIES BETWEEN AND NANOMETERS )N hMUSICALv TERMS THIS MEANS THAT THE EYE CAN PERCEIVE THE FREQUENCY RANGE OF ABOUT ONE OCTAVE WHEREAS THE EAR CAN PERCEIVE UP TO TEN OCTAVES &URTHERMORE THE EAR REACTS MUCH FASTER TO STIM ULI AND CAN COPE WITH SIMULTANEOUS STREAMS OF INFORMATION WHILE THE EYE ALWAYS REGISTERS IMAGE AFTER IMAGE &ROM A CULTURAL HISTORICAL VIEWPOINT PREFERENCE FOR SIGHT MAY ALSO RESULT FROM ITS ANALYTICAL NA TURE 4HROUGH SIGHT WE CAN ANALYZE OUR ENVIRONMENT BREAK IT DOWN INTO A STRUCTURE OF OBJECTS AND CAPTURE OUR IMPRESSIONS AS IMAGES AND VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS WHICH MAKES POSSIBLE REPEATED INVESTIGATIONS AND THUS ANALYSIS 2ECORDING ACOUSTIC SIGNALS HOWEVER WAS IMPOSSIBLE BEFORE THE INVENTION OF THE PHONOGRAPH !ND EVEN WITH THE SUPPORT OF THIS MACHINE AND ITS DESCENDANTS ANALYSIS OF ACOUSTIC DATA HAS RE MAINED TRICKY BECAUSE THEY ARE INSEPARABLY CONNECTED TO TIME n IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO STOP A SOUND AT A CERTAIN POINT TO HAVE A hCLOSER LOOKv 4HEREFORE IT IS NOT SURPRISING THAT THE IDEAL OF RATIONALIZING THE WORLD AND WIPING AWAY THE hIRRATIONAL DUSTv OF THE -IDDLE !GES HAS RESULTED IN AN ALMOST RELIGIOUS BELIEF IN THE EYE AS A PRIVILEGED SOURCE OF RECOG NITION AND UNDERSTANDING )N THE TWENTIETH CENTURY PHILOSOPHERS STARTED TO RECOGNIZE AND CRITICIZE THE PRIMACY OF SIGHT !CCORDING TO (EIDEGGER SEEING TRANS FORMS BEINGS INTO OBJECTS SUBJECTING THEM TO DIAGNOSIS AND PRODUC TION 4RANSPARENCY AND VISIBILITY ARE CENTRAL VALUES IN MODERN SOCIETY AND IF WE PURSUE THIS THOUGHT FURTHER WE MUST REALIZE THAT THE PRIMACY OF THE VISUAL AND THE POLICE STATE WITH ITS EMPHASIS ON SURVEILLANCE ARE CLOSELY RELATED
4HE hPRIMACY OF THE VISUALv EXERTS AN INmUENCE NOT ONLY ON RELI GION SCIENCE LANGUAGE AND ARCHITECTURE BUT ALSO ON VISUAL ART -AR SHALL -C,UHAN PUTS IT THIS WAY h!RT OR THE GRAPHIC TRANSLATION OF A CULTURE IS SHAPED BY THE WAY SPACE IS PERCEIVED 3INCE THE 2ENAISSANCE THE 7ESTERN ARTIST PERCEIVED HIS ENVIRONMENT PRIMARILY IN TERMS OF THE VISUAL %VERYTHING WAS DOMINATED BY THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER (IS CONCEPTION OF SPACE WAS IN TERMS OF A PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION UPON A PLANE SURFACE CONSISTING OF FORMAL UNITS OF SPATIAL MEASUREMENT (E ACCEPTED THE DOMINANCE OF THE VERTICAL AND THE HORIZONTAL n OF SYMMETRY n AS AN ABSOLUTE CONDI TION OF ORDER 4HIS VIEW IS DEEPLY EMBEDDED IN THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF 7ESTERN ARTv )T IS OBVIOUS THAT 7ESTERN SOCIETY HAS DEVELOPED A PREFERENCE FOR THE EYE "UT DO WE REALLY LIVE IN AN AGE WHEN IMAGES AND THE VISUAL DOMINATE THE MEDIA )N FACT THIS IS NOT ALWAYS THE CASE 3TRANGELY ENOUGH DESPITE THE CLEAR CULTURAL FOCUS ON THE VISUAL SOUNDS HAVE NEVER BEFORE BEEN SUCH A DOMINANT FORCE IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES !UDIO VISUAL MEDIA ARE UBIQUITOUS AND ESPECIALLY IN URBAN AREAS THERE IS AL MOST NO SPACE WITHOUT RADIO 46 OR FUNCTIONAL MUSIC WHAT ONE CRITIC HAS CALLED h-OOZAKv 4HESE SOUNDS ENGULF US ALONG WITH THE NOISES OF CARS SIRENS AND SO FORTH /F COURSE THE WORLD HAS ALWAYS BEEN lLLED WITH SOUNDS WHICH FOR THE MOST PART ORIGINATE FROM hNATURALv SOURCES AND FORM A WELL BALANCED ECOLOGICAL SOUNDSCAPE (OWEVER WITH THE START OF INDUSTRIALIZATION MACHINES BEGAN TO SHAPE THE SOUNDSCAPE WITH THEIR MONOTONOUS ACOUSTICS !ND lNALLY THE ELECTRIlCATION OF THE SOUNDSCAPE HAS LED TO AN ALMOST CONSTANT AND UBIQUITOUS PENETRATION OF OUR ENVIRONMENT BY SOUND
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
4HERE SEEMS TO BE AN OBVIOUS DISCREPANCY BETWEEN OUR CULTURAL FOCUS ON SIGHT AND THE ACTUAL ENVIRONMENT THIS CULTURE CREATES 4HIS ENVIRONMENT IS SATURATED WITH SOUNDS THAT OFTEN ARE NOT THERE BE CAUSE SOMEBODY CAREFULLY DESIGNED THEM TO lT A CERTAIN ENVIRONMENT 2ATHER THESE SOUNDS ARE THE ACCIDENTAL BY PRODUCTS OF A VISUALLY ORI ENTED CIVILIZATION !ND THIS FOCUS BEGINS EARLY IN OUR GENERAL EDUCA TION WHICH TENDS TO EMPHASIZE THE VISUAL AND THE TEXTUAL 3OUND IS ONLY INTRODUCED IN MUSIC CLASSES AND OUTSIDE THE MUSICAL CONTEXT IT IS USUALLY NOT ADDRESSED AT ALL /UR CULTURE HAS NO REAL hAURAL TRAINING v AND AS A RESULT MOST PEOPLES AURAL ABILITY IS NO MATCH FOR THEIR VISUAL PROlCIENCY MEANING THEY ARE NOT AS GOOD AT UNDERSTANDING SOUND AS AN ELEMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND DESIGN 4HIS HAS A GREAT IMPACT ON OUR LIVES IF WE CONSIDER THE FACT THAT MANY OF THE SOUNDS THAT SURROUND US ARE NOT ACCIDENTAL BUT RESULT FROM INTERACTIVE PROCESSES BETWEEN PEOPLE INCLUDING THEIR ARTIFACTS )N THE ACOUSTIC WORLD THE LISTENER IS THE SOUND MAKER AND VICE VERSA 4HIS BOOK FOCUSES ON ASPECTS OF INTERACTIVITY AND THE DYNAMICS OF THE PROCESSES BETWEEN HUMANS AND INTERACTIVE TECHNOLOGY ) BE LIEVE THAT IT IS ESSENTIAL TO CONSIDER SOUND IN THIS CONTEXT BECAUSE THE DESIGNER CREATOR PROGRAMMER OF AN INTERACTIVE SYSTEM CANNOT DENY THE FACT THAT AS HUMAN BEINGS AND TECHNOLOGY INTERACT COOPERATE AND EVEN FUSE THE HOLISTIC VIEW OF OUR CREATIONS SENSORY IMPACT ON OUR LIVES WILL BECOME ALL THE MORE IMPORTANT 4HE DESIGNS OF THE FUTURE WILL BE COMPLEX SELF REmECTIVE INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS THAT SHARE WITH US THE SAME MULTISENSORY SPACE n AND THIS INCLUDES ACOUSTIC SPACE )N THIS ESSAY ) WILL OUTLINE THE THEORETICAL CONCEPTS THAT CAN HELP US UNDERSTAND SOUND AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR COMMUNICATION AND INTER ACTION WITH OUR ENVIRONMENT ) WILL ALSO DESCRIBE THE IMPACT OF ACOUS TIC DESIGN ON PRODUCT AND MEDIA DESIGN 4HIS WILL GIVE US A PRACTICAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE IMPORTANCE OF SOUND IN THE TRADITIONAL DESIGN PROCESS ) WILL THEN INVESTIGATE THE STILL YOUNG lELD OF SOUND DESIGN IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERACTION DESIGN ) WOULD ALSO LIKE TO MENTION THAT ) HAVE CHOSEN TO FOCUS ON NONSPEECH SOUNDS AND WILL FOR THE MOST PART EXCLUDE MUSIC FROM MY ANALYSIS
!N EXCELLENT EXPLANATION OF THE PROCESS OF ACOUSTIC SEGREGATION CAN BE FOUND IN 3 "REGMAN !UDI TORY 3CENE !NALYSIS #AMBRIDGE "ILD DER 7ISSENSCHAFT NO
3OME 2EmECTIONS ON THE .ATURE OF 3OUND )N THE lRST PART OF THIS ESSAY ) INTRODUCED THE NOTIONS OF THE hPRI MACY OF THE VISUALv AND THE hCULTURE OF HEARINGv "OTH TERMS ILLUSTRATE THE TENDENCY TO EMPHASIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF ONE SENSE OVER ANOTHER (OWEVER THERE IS NO POINT IN CREATING A HIERARCHY OF THE SENSES AS THEY ALL WORK TOGETHER /FTEN THE REDUNDANCIES BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT SIGNALS WE RECEIVE THROUGH DIFFERENT SENSORY CHANNELS ARE NECESSARY TO INTERPRET THE EVENTS AROUND US 4HE OVEREMPHASIS ON SIGHT OR ANY OTHER SENSORY CHANNEL LEADS TO A hREVERSE HANDICAP v AS DESCRIBED BY .IETZSCHE IN 4HUS 3POKE :ARATHUSTRA A STATE IN WHICH A PERSON HAS TOO LITTLE OF EVERYTHING AND TOO MUCH OF ONE THING .EVERTHELESS EVERY SENSE HAS ITS UNIQUE AND SPECIlC PROPERTIES )N THIS SECTION ) WOULD LIKE TO REmECT ON THE NATURE OF SOUND AND OUR SENSE OF HEARING /F ALL THE SENSORY CHANNELS ) WOULD CLAIM THAT HEARING IS THE MOST CONSTANTLY USED 3OUNDS ARE OMNIPRESENT %VEN IN SPACE WHERE hNO ONE CAN HEAR YOU SCREAMv !LIEN YOU CAN HEAR YOUR BLOOD CIRCULAT ING IN YOUR VEINS YOUR HEART BEATING IN YOUR CHEST AND MAYBE EVEN THE SUBTLE HUM OF YOUR NERVOUS SYSTEM !ND WHEN WE SLEEP OUR EARS REMAIN AWAKE REGISTERING AND INTERPRETING THE ACOUSTIC EVENTS AROUND US (EARING IS ALWAYS hONv AND ALWAYS hOPENv IN CONTRAST TO THE EYE THE EAR CANNOT MOVE OR CLOSE n IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO hLISTEN AWAY v AS WE MIGHT hLOOK AWAYv 4HE EYE IS SELECTIVE IT SCANS ONE OBJECT AFTER THE OTHER )N CONTRAST THE EAR IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL ASSEMBLING A STREAM OF MANY SIMULTANE OUS ACOUSTIC EVENTS IN VIRTUALLY MILLISECONDS AND EXTRACTING INFORMA TION FROM THIS STREAM 7HEN WE LISTEN TO A SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA WE HEAR ABOUT TWENTY DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS AT THE SAME TIME 4HESE CREATE AN INCREDIBLY COMPLEX BLEND OF TIMBRES AND HARMONIES MELODIES AND RHYTHMS .ONETHELESS WE ARE ABLE TO DISTINGUISH SINGLE INSTRUMENTS AND OUR BRAIN WOULD EVEN BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF THIS COMPLEX SONIC STREAM IF TWO PEOPLE BEHIND US BEGAN TALKING OR WE WERE DISTURBED BY THE RINGING OF A CELLPHONE
!NOTHER PROPERTY OF SOUND ONE THAT IS COMMONLY EXPLOITED IS ITS STRONG EMOTIVE POWER )N lLM THE EMOTIONAL CONTEXT OF A SCENE n A CENTRAL ASPECT OF ITS MEANING n CAN BE TOTALLY ALTERED BY A DIFFERENT SOUNDTRACK "UT WE DO NOT EVEN HAVE TO ENTER THE HIGHLY DEVELOPED REALM OF MOVIE SOUNDTRACKS TO REALIZE THAT SOUNDS AROUSE EMOTIONS n THE ANNOYANCE THEY CAN CAUSE SHOWS THIS CLEARLY ENOUGH !LTHOUGH IT IS TRUE THAT THE BRAIN EVENTUALLY GROWS ACCUSTOMED TO SOUNDS PARTICU LARLY HOMOGENOUS ONES THESE SOUNDS CAN STILL INmUENCE OUR EMOTIONS UNCONSCIOUSLY AND CAUSE MENTAL STRESS OR TENSION )N FACT PART OF THE STIMULI FROM THE EAR IS DIRECTLY CONDUCTED TO THE AREAS OF THE BRAIN THAT NOT ONLY CONTROL EMOTIONS BUT ALSO MANAGE THE BODYS HORMONAL BAL ANCE AND OVERSEE BASIC LIFE FUNCTIONS (ENCE SOUND HAS A DIRECT NON CONTROLLABLE INmUENCE ON US AND CAN EVEN PROVOKE PHYSICAL REACTIONS SUCH AS AN ACCELERATED PULSE #OMBINED WITH OUR INABILITY TO hSHUTv OUR EARS THIS EMOTIVE COMPONENT OF SOUND CREATES AN EXTREMELY POW ERFUL TOOL FOR DESIGNERS )T IS IMPORTANT FOR US TO TAKE THIS CHARACTERIS TIC OF HEARING INTO ACCOUNT WHEN DESIGNING hTHINGS THAT MAKE SOUNDv $UE TO THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HEARING THE AUDITORY CHANNEL CAN ALSO BE USED TO MANIPULATE PEOPLE AND IS OFTEN EXPLOITED FOR THIS PURPOSE BY THE ADVERTISING AND lLM INDUSTRIES &URTHERMORE ACOUSTIC EVENTS CONNECT PEOPLE ! hSHARED PERCEP TIONv CREATES A STRONG SENSE OF BELONGING AS CAN BE OBSERVED AT GATHER INGS AS DIVERSE AS TRIBAL DANCES AND POP CONCERTS 6ISUAL EXPERIENCES CREATE MUCH WEAKER BONDS BECAUSE OF DIVERGENT POINTS OF VIEWS !LSO AN EVENT THAT CAN ONLY BE SEEN BY A FEW OR BY NO ONE AT ALL CAN STILL BE PERCEIVED BY HUNDREDS WHEN ACCOMPANIED BY SOUND !NOTHER PROPERTY OF SOUND EVENTS IS THAT THEY ARE TEMPORARY AND ALWAYS CONNECTED TO A DYNAMIC PROCESS "ECAUSE THEY ARE NOT STATIC THEY LARGELY ELUDE OUR UNDERSTANDING WHICH IS BASED ON THE VISUAL PARADIGM OF ANALYSIS 4HIS IS ONE OF THE MAIN REASONS WHY OUR CULTURE HAS IGNORED THE STUDY OF SOUND AND REGARDED IT AS IRRATIONAL FOR SUCH A LONG TIME
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
) HAVE INDICATED THAT THROUGH OUR SENSE OF SIGHT WE ANALYZE THE EN VIRONMENT AND BREAK IT DOWN INTO A STRUCTURE )N CONTRAST TO THIS RATHER SERIAL PROCESS SOUNDS GIVE US INFORMATION ABOUT OUR ENVIRONMENT AS A WHOLE TAKEN IN FROM ALL DIRECTIONS SIMULTANEOUSLY &OR EXAMPLE IF WE STAND IN A LARGE CHURCH FOOTSTEPS AND VOICES TELL US SOMETHING ABOUT THE ARCHITECTURAL PROPERTIES OF THE BUILDING 0ERCEIVING SPACE IN THIS WAY IS ESSENTIALLY DIFFERENT FROM PERCEIVING IT VISUALLY WHICH ENTAILS SCANNING THE ENVIRONMENT AND DIVIDING IT INTO SEVERAL HIERARCHICAL ELE MENTS SUCH AS FOREGROUND AND BACKGROUND 4HE EAR TRANSPORTS THE SPATIAL INFORMATION QUICKLY AND HOLISTICALLY )T DOES NOT RELIABLY COM MUNICATE THE EXACT DISTANCE OF SINGLE OBJECTS SINCE FACTORS LIKE WIND AND THE GEOGRAPHICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ENVIRONMENT MAY CHANGE THE SOUNDS VOLUME AND CHARACTER &OR EXAMPLE A DOGS BARKS MIGHT BE LOUDER OR FAINTER DEPENDING ON THE WIND AND THE LANDSCAPE )N THIS CASE OUR SENSE OF HEARING MUST BE SUPPLEMENTED BY OTHER SENSES SUCH AS SIGHT OR TOUCH FOR US TO CONTEXTUALIZE AND INTERPRET THE INFORMATION 4HIS EFFECT IS HEIGHTENED WITH AMPLIlED OR ELECTRO ACOUSTICALLY ALTERED SOUNDS &URTHERMORE OUR COGNITION ARCHITECTURE IS STRUCTURED IN SUCH A WAY THAT SPATIAL REPRESENTATIONS REQUIRE COMPLEX PROCESSING WHEN GENERATED BY AUDITION n AS OPPOSED TO SIGHT ,AST BUT NOT LEAST THERE IS THE DIMENSION OF SOUND THAT CONNECTS IT TO THE PHYSICAL TANGIBLE WORLD /N THE ONE HAND SOUNDS ARE CLOSELY TIED TO PHYSICAL MOVEMENT 4HINGS THAT MOVE EMIT SOUNDS BECAUSE THEIR MOVEMENT CAUSES AIR WAVES WITH A FREQUENCY AND AMPLITUDE THAT CAN BE RECOGNIZED BY CREATURES WITH A SENSE OF HEARING &OR BATS THIS FREQUENCY LIES IN THE ULTRASONIC RANGE FOR WHALES IN THE INFRASONIC RANGE h5LTRASONICv AND hINFRASONICv ARE TERMS BASED ON THE HUMAN RANGE OF ACOUSTIC PERCEPTION WHICH SPANS (Z TO K(Z 4HIS MEANS THAT WE CAN POTENTIALLY HEAR EVERY PHYSICAL EVENT THAT CAUSES VIBRATIONS WITHIN THIS RANGE )T IS INTERESTING TO NOTE IN THIS CONTEXT THAT ON THE LOWER END OF THE FREQUENCY RANGE SOUND TURNS INTO VIBRA TIONS THAT CAN BE FELT ESTABLISHING A CONTINUUM OF THE SENSORIAL RANGE 4HIS OFFERS GREAT POTENTIAL FOR EXPRESSIVE DESIGN AND INDEED THESE LOW SOUNDS ARE WIDELY USED IN DISCOS AND CINEMAS TO MAKE PEOPLE hFEELv THE MUSIC
/N THE OTHER HAND SOUNDS ARE DIRECTLY CONNECTED TO AN ARTIFACTS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 4HE ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND OBJECTS PROVIDE US WITH INFORMATION ON THEIR QUALITY 7E MIGHT SEE A TRANS PARENT OBJECT BUT WE WILL ONLY BE ABLE TO TELL WHETHER IT IS GLASS OR ACRYLIC AFTER TAPPING IT WITH OUR lNGER 7E CAN DISTINGUISH METALS IN THE SAME WAY OR DETERMINE WHETHER A PIECE OF WOODEN FURNITURE IS MADE OF HARDWOOD OR PLYWOOD OR WHETHER IT IS IN GOOD OR BAD CONDI TION 3OUND HAS GREAT POTENTIAL FOR CONVEYING INFORMATION ABOUT HID DEN PROCESSES OR PROPERTIES ) HAVE DESCRIBED MANY CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND .OW ) WOULD LIKE TO LOOK AT THE WAY SOUND WORKS IN THE CONTEXT OF ITS SOURCE GENERATION AND ITS RECEIVER OR LISTENER
"ARRY 4RUAX !COUSTIC #OMMUNICATION ND ED 7ESTPORT #ONNECTICUT
!COUSTIC #OMMUNICATION 7HEREAS TRADITIONAL STUDIES OF SOUND FOCUS ON THE TRANSFER OF EN ERGY ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION n A lELD ESTABLISHED BY "ARRY 4RUAX n DEALS WITH THE EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION )N THIS COMMUNICATIONAL AP PROACH THE LINEAR VIEW OF SOUND PROCESSING IS REPLACED BY A MULTIDI MENSIONAL MODEL THAT TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE ACCOMPANYING COGNITIVE PROCESSES !COUSTIC COMMUNICATION EXAMINES BOTH THE LISTENING PRO CESS AND THE LISTENERS THEMSELVES WITHIN A SOUNDSCAPE THAT IS PART OF A DYNAMIC SYSTEM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE )T CONSIDERS THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXT IN THE BROADEST ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL AND CULTURAL SENSE 3OUND IS ESSENTIAL FOR ORIENTATION NAVIGATION AND COMMUNICA TION IN ANY GIVEN ENVIRONMENT 4HIS BECOMES EVIDENT IF WE CONSIDER HOW BLIND PEOPLE USE SOUND AS A MEDIUM AND A TOOL "ASED ON THE SOUNDS THEY HEAR n AND BASED ON THE ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK THEY RECEIVE FROM THE SOUNDS THEY THEMSELVES MAKE n BLIND PEOPLE ARE ABLE TO PER CEIVE THE SPATIAL PROPERTIES OF A ROOM 4HEY CAN TELL IF A DOOR IS CLOSED OR OPEN AND IDENTIFY THEIR POSITION THE TIME OF DAY THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE AROUND THEM AND EVEN WHAT THESE PEOPLE ARE DOING )NDEED THIS ABILITY IS NOT RESTRICTED TO BLIND PEOPLE 7E ALL MAKE USE OF THE SAME SKILLS EVEN IF WE DO NOT DO SO IN SUCH A DELIBERATE WAY 0EOPLE WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS HAVE SIMPLY LEARNED TO LISTEN MORE CAREFULLY AND TO UNDERSTAND THE MEANING OF SOUNDS IN CERTAIN CONTEXTS !N EXAMPLE OF THE MEDIATING FUNCTION OF SOUND BETWEEN HUMAN BEINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT IS THE CONCEPT OF THE KEYNOTE SOUND 4HE KEYNOTE SOUND CAN BE SEEN AS THE hBACKGROUNDv AGAINST WHICH ALL OTHER SOUNDS ARE HEARD )T REPRESENTS A FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERIS TIC OF THE ENVIRONMENT ! KEYNOTE SOUND CAN BE A SIREN IN A HOSPITAL AREA DISTANT TRAFlC IN A VILLAGE CLOSE TO A HIGHWAY AN ELECTRIC HUM IN AN OFlCE OR COW BELLS IN THE !LPS +EYNOTE SOUNDS ARE INEXTRICABLY LINKED TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT )F THEY SUDDENLY FALL SILENT WE MAY FEEL DISORIENTED
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
-URRAY 3CHAFER 4HE 3OUNDSCAPE /UR 3ONIC %NVIRONMENT AND THE 4UNING OF THE 7ORLD 2OCHESTER .9 7HEN ) SPEAK OF NOISE ) AM NOT REFERRING TO THE TECHNICAL TERM THAT DESCRIBES AN EQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF ALL FREQUENCIES AT THE SAME LEVEL WHITE NOISE BUT TO THE POPULAR TERM THAT IS MUCH MORE IMPORTANT IN THE CONTEXT OF ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION
3OUND IS ALSO IMPORTANT FOR SOCIAL INTERACTION ,UDWIG VAN "EETHOVEN DESCRIBED DEAFNESS AS BEING CONDEMNED TO A LIFE OF SOLITUDE AMIDST OTHER PEOPLE 7E MAKE PEOPLE AWARE OF OUR PRESENCE BY MAKING SOUNDS AND WE NOTICE THEIR PRESENCE THROUGH THE SOUNDS THEY MAKE EVEN IF THEY ARE NOT SEEN 7E COMMUNICATE OUR EMOTIONS THROUGH PARALANGUAGES THE TONE IN WHICH WE SAY SOMETHING MAY COMPLETELY CHANGE ITS MEANING 3OUND ALSO PLAYS A VITAL ROLE IN THE SOCIAL INTERAC TION IN COMMUNITIES #HURCH BELLS CALL THE VILLAGERS TO MASS +EYNOTES MAY THEREFORE FUNCTION AS SHARED ACOUSTIC ELEMENTS FOR THOSE PEOPLE WHO HEAR THEM AND THEY BOND INDIVIDUALS TO AN ACOUSTIC COMMUNITY /F PARTICULAR IMPORTANCE NOWADAYS ARE MUSICAL CODES WHICH HAVE THE POWER TO DElNE GROUPS )N CULTURAL CONTEXTS WE CAN lND SOUNDS WITH ARCHETYPAL FUNC TIONS THE WIND RAIN A BABY CRYING AND SOUNDS WITH SYMBOLIC MEAN INGS 3UCH SOUNDS ARE SHARED BY A LARGE COMMUNITY WHICH MAY EVEN EVOLVE INTO A WHOLE CULTURE !ND AS CULTURES GROW CLOSER TOGETHER IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE CERTAIN SOUNDS MAY ACQUIRE A GLOBALLY COMPREHENSI BLE MEANING +NOWLEDGE OF THIS CAN BE JUST AS IMPORTANT AS KNOWLEDGE OF GLOBALLY SHARED VISUAL SYMBOLS ) WILL COME BACK TO THIS ISSUE LATER IN MY DISCUSSION OF INTERACTION DESIGN %LECTRO ACOUSTICS HAVE BROUGHT A WHOLE NEW DIMENSION TO THE COMMUNICATIVE POWERS OF SOUND 2ADIO CREATES ENTIRELY NEW FORMS OF ACOUSTIC COMMUNITIES 4HESE ARE NO LONGER DElNED BY HOW WELL AND HOW FAR SOUND TRAVELS IN AN ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT BUT BY HOW WELL A CERTAIN FREQUENCY BAND CAN BE RECEIVED %LECTRO ACOUSTICS HAVE ALSO MADE IT POSSIBLE TO AMPLIFY AND RECORD SOUNDS WHICH PUTS THE DE SIGNERS IN CONTROL $IGITAL MEDIA COMPLETE THIS PROCESS BY ABSTRACTING SOUNDS ON THE LEVEL OF BITS AND BYTES MAKING THEM ANALYZABLE IN A MANNER SIMILAR TO VISUAL DATA 3CHAFER INTRODUCED THE TERMS hLO lv AND hHI lv TO DESCRIBE THE QUALITIES OF SOUNDSCAPES (E DOES NOT MEAN THE lDELITY OF AN OUT PUT SIGNAL AS COMPARED TO THE ORIGINAL INPUT SIGNAL 2ATHER THE TERMS DESCRIBE HOW WELL THE SOUNDSCAPE IS DElNED AND STRUCTURED AND HOW INTELLIGIBLE IT IS TO THE LISTENER 4HE PENETRATION OF URBAN AREAS BY SOUNDS WHICH ) TOUCHED UPON IN THE INTRODUCTION OFTEN RESULTS
IN EXTREMELY LO l SOUNDSCAPES THAT MAKE COMMUNICATION DIFlCULT )N THIS CONTEXT ) WOULD ALSO LIKE TO POINT OUT THAT FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION hNOISEv IS NOT JUST AN UNDESIRED SIDE EFFECT OF SIGNAL PROCESSING BUT RATHER A PREREQUISITE FOR COMMUNICA TION PROCESSES AND CRUCIAL FOR THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LISTENER AND THE ENVIRONMENT 4HE SIMPLE EQUATION hMORE NOISE MORE NUISANCEv DOES NOT HOLD WATER SINCE WHAT IS COMMONLY CALLED hNOISEv MAY OFTEN HAVE A FUNCTIONAL AND INFORMATIONAL IMPACT ON THE SOUNDSCAPE THAT DEPENDS ON OR IS PART OF A WIDER CONTEXT 4RUAX DESCRIBES THREE FUNCTIONS TO WHICH hNOISEv CAN REFER &IRST CLEARLY RECOGNIZABLE AND MEANINGFUL SOUNDS THAT TRIGGER NEGATIVE ASSOCIATIONS SUCH AS DISLIKE OR STRESS OR EVEN THE DISRUPTION OF AN ACTIVITY SECOND NOISE AS AN ACOUS TIC ELEMENT THAT OBSCURES THE AUDITORY hIMAGEv OF THE SOUNDSCAPE AND MAKES IT MORE DIFlCULT TO EXTRACT INFORMATION AND THIRD NOISE AS THE ONLY SOURCE OF NEW INFORMATION /FTEN PEOPLE REFER TO SOUNDS THAT THEY DO NOT UNDERSTAND BUT CONSIDER POTENTIALLY MEANINGFUL AS hNOISEv )T IS THE DIFlCULTY WITH WHICH INFORMATION CAN BE EXTRACTED FROM LO l SOUNDSCAPES THAT MAKES THEM SO hNOISYv !S WE CAN SEE THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF EVERY SOUND DEPENDS ON ITS CONTEXT 4HIS CONTEXT CAN BE OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL OR CUL TURAL NATURE AND ALL ASPECTS TAKEN TOGETHER FORM A HIGHLY INTERACTIVE SYSTEM IN WHICH EVERY ELEMENT BOTH ACTS AND REACTS PASSIVELY OR AC TIVELY 5NDERSTANDING THE INFORMATIVE AND COMMUNICATIVE COMPONENT OF SOUND ALSO HELPS US GRASP ITS POTENTIAL IN THE CONTEXT OF DESIGN !S ) POINTED OUT EARLIER WE ALWAYS CONTRIBUTE ACOUSTICALLY TO THE DESIGN OF OUR ENVIRONMENT IN A HIGHLY INTERACTIVE PROCESS /UR AIM MUST BE TO BECOME MORE AWARE OF THE COMPLEX NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF SOUND AND TO hUSEv IT NOT JUST AS A NICE ADD ON TO SPICE UP OUR CREATIONS BUT AS AN EMANCIPATED AND CENTRAL ELEMENT OF DESIGN ) HAVE ELABORATED ON SOUND ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND ITS INFORMATIVE AND COMMUNICATIVE POWER )N WHAT FOLLOWS ) WILL DESCRIBE THE MANI FOLD FUNCTIONS SOUND CAN FULlLL IN DESIGN
4RUAX !COUSTIC #OMMUNICATION 2AYMOND &REYMANN h$AS !UTO n +LANG STATT ,ØRM v IN $ER +LANG DER $INGE !KUSTIK n EINE !UFGABE DES $ESIGN ED !RNICA 6ERENA ,AGENMAIER -UNICH
3OUND IN THE #ONTEXT OF )NDUSTRIAL $ESIGN +EEPING THE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION IN MIND LET US ASSESS THE ACTUAL IMPORTANCE OF SOUND FOR DESIGN 7HILE TRADITIONAL ACOUSTIC DESIGN HAS AIMED TO MAKE A STIMULUS AVAILABLE TO THE RECEIVER AND TO AVOID UNDESIRABLE hNOISE v HOLISTIC AND RESPONSIBLE DESIGN ENDEAVORS TO ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTION h7HAT KIND OF EN VIRONMENT IS DESIRABLE MEANINGFUL OR BENElCIAL v !COUSTIC DESIGN IN THIS CONTEXT SEEKS TO MODIFY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LISTENER AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM )N FACT SOUND PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE INTERACTION BETWEEN TWO OR MORE PEOPLE BETWEEN PEOPLE AND ARTIFACTS AND BETWEEN PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN GENERAL ) WOULD LIKE TO ILLUSTRATE THIS WITH A FEW EXAMPLES FROM THE hTRADITIONALv lELD OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN ) MENTIONED EARLIER THAT SOUND IS DIRECTLY CONNECTED TO PHYSICAL MOVEMENT 4HIS IS WHERE SOUND ENTERS THE lELD OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN !LTHOUGH IT MIGHT GENERALLY BE PERCEIVED AS A DISCIPLINE DEALING WITH PHYSICAL OBJECTS IN WHICH THE VISUAL FORM IS AN ESSENTIAL CRITERION ACOUSTIC DESIGN PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE DESIGN OF MANY EVERY DAY AND NOT SO EVERYDAY PRODUCTS )"-S hSILENTv TYPEWRITER ILLUSTRATES THE COMPLEXITY OF SOUND IN DESIGN AND SHOWS THAT LESS SOUND IS NOT NECESSARILY BETTER 4HE SILENT TYPEWRITER CAUSED SO MUCH CONFUSION AMONG CUSTOMERS THAT THE MAK ERS HAD TO REDESIGN THE DEVICE SO IT WOULD MAKE SOUNDS AGAIN 5S ERS HAD BEEN CONDITIONED TO EXPECT CHARACTERISTIC MECHANICAL SOUNDS FROM TYPEWRITERS AND THE MISSING ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK IN THE NEWLY DE SIGNED MODEL CAUSED CONFUSION AND DISTRUST
!NOTHER EXAMPLE IS CAR DESIGN (ERE ACOUSTICS PLAY A CENTRAL ROLE FROM THE SOUND OF THE ENGINE TO THE SOUND THE DOORS MAKE 2AYMOND &REYMANN EXPRESSES IT THIS WAY h'IVEN THE CURRENT LOW LEVEL OF NOISE IN CAR INTERIORS IT IS NOT ONLY A SOUNDS VOLUME BUT ITS QUALITY THAT IS IMPORTANT x )N ADDITION TO KEEPING NOISE LEVELS LOW THEY ;THE SOUND ENGINEERS= MUST ALSO COM POSE A BALANCED HARMONIOUS SOUND PATTERNv 4HE ACOUSTIC DESIGN OF CARS COVERS THE SOUND OF THE ENGINE COM MUNICATING HIDDEN POWER AND THE ANTICIPATED DRIVING EXPERIENCE AND THE SOUND CHARACTERISTICS THAT ARE TYPICAL AND UNIQUE FOR THE CAR MODEL AND IMPORTANT FOR BRANDING STRATEGIES 4HE SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH A CAR COMMUNICATE OTHER INFORMATION TOO IE JUST BY LISTENING TO THE ENGINE PEOPLE ARE ABLE TO TELL WHETHER THE CAR IS RUNNING POORLY OR EFlCIENTLY AND WHETHER IT IS NECESSARY TO SHIFT GEARS %XPERIENCED MECHANICS ARE ABLE TO DIAGNOSE A PROBLEM SIMPLY BY LISTENING TO THE ENGINE AND THE CARS MECHANICAL PARTS /R TAKE HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES #ONCERNING THESE EVERYDAY OBJECTS 2AYMOND ,OEWY WRITES h! FRIDGE HAS TO BE BEAUTIFUL 4HIS MEANS IT ALSO HAS TO SOUND GOODv (OWEVER THERE IS MORE THAN JUST AN AESTHETIC DIMENSION TO THE REFRIGERATORS hGOOD SOUNDv THE SOUND OF ITS DOOR PROVIDES US WITH IMPORTANT INFORMATION ON WHETHER IT CLOSES PROPERLY AND THE REFRIGERATORS HUM SHOULD BE DISCREET YES BUT ALSO AUDIBLE ENOUGH TO DEMONSTRATE THAT IT TOO IS WORKING PROPERLY 4HE SAME AP PLIES TO A VACUUM CLEANER .ATURALLY IT SHOULDNT BE TOO LOUD BUT IF IT IS TOO SOFT ITS SOUND WONT COMMUNICATE THE POWER OF THE APPLIANCE !ND IF WE HAVE A VACUUM CLEANER THAT MAKES NO NOISE HOW WILL WE NOTICE IF SOMETHING IS STUCK IN THE TUBE
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
#HEONG HYON ,EE ET AL h3OUND !N %MOTIONAL %LEMENT OF )NTERACTIONS ! #ASE 3TUDY OF A -ICROWAVE /VEN v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE #ONFERENCE ON $ESIGNING )NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS !#- n
!LL THESE EXAMPLES SHOW HOW SOUND CONVEYS INFORMATION ON HID DEN PROCESSES HOW SOUND HELPS PEOPLE CREATE THE APPROPRIATE MENTAL MODEL FOR A COMPLEX MACHINE AND HOW IT COMMUNICATES EMOTIONAL AND AESTHETIC QUALITIES THAT CAN BE USED FOR DESIGN ) BELIEVE THAT THIS POTENTIAL IS VASTLY UNDERESTIMATED ESPECIALLY IN THE lELD OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA WHERE INCREASINGLY COMPLEX SYSTEMS ARE EMERGING )N THE NEXT SECTION ) WOULD LIKE TO DESCRIBE WAYS OF EXPLOITING THIS POTENTIAL )N GENERAL WE CAN IDENTIFY TWO KINDS OF SOUNDS IN PRODUCT DESIGN SOUNDS THAT ARE BASED ON AN OBJECT@S ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES DETERMINED BY ITS MATERIALS AND DESIGN AND SOUNDS THAT WORK AS COMMUNICATIVE ELEMENTS &OR EXAMPLE CAR DOORS MAKE A CHARACTERISTIC SOUND BASED ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES THAT INDICATES THAT THEY ARE PROPERLY CLOSED )N SOME MODELS THERE IS ALSO A BEEP OR A RECORDED VOICE TO INFORM PAS SENGERS THAT THE DOORS ARE STILL OPEN )N THIS CASE WE HAVE THE PHYSICAL SOUND AND AN ADDED ELECTRONIC BACKUP "Y WAY OF A FEW OTHER EXAM PLES COFFEE MACHINES MAKE A CHARACTERISTIC GURGLING SOUND THAT MAKES US LOOK FORWARD TO OUR CUP OF COFFEE 3TEAK SIZZLES IN THE PAN MAKING OUR MOUTHS WATER (OWEVER IF WE USE A MICROWAVE TO HEAT WATER FOR INSTANT COFFEE OR TO COOK A MEAL THE MICROWAVE WILL NOT PROVIDE US WITH THE SAME INFORMATION OR AWAKEN THE SAME EMOTIONS CONCERNING THE ANTICIPATED EXPERIENCE 3OUND CAN BE USED TO ESTABLISH THIS EMO TIONAL CONTEXT 4HIS WAS INVESTIGATED BY A TEAM OF 3AMSUNG DESIGNERS WHO ATTEMPTED TO DESIGN SPECIlC SOUNDS NOT ONLY TO INDICATE THE BE GINNING AND END OF THE COOKING PROCESS BUT ALSO TO CONVEY EMOTIONAL FEEDBACK ON THE COOKED FOOD 4HEY DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN TWO TYPES OF SOUNDS n FEEDBACK AND INFORMATIVE SOUNDS 4HEN THEY DESIGNED VARIOUS SOUNDS FOR EACH CATEGORY AND EVALUATED THEM TOGETHER WITH USERS 4HE DESIGNERS FOUND THAT SOUNDS HAD SEVERAL POSITIVE EFFECTS HELPING TO ACQUAINT USERS WITH THE PRODUCT AND ITS FUNCTIONS FEATURES 5SERS WERE ABLE TO INTERACT WITH THE PRODUCT THROUGH ITS SOUNDS AND THE SOUNDS GAVE THE USERS A GREATER SENSE OF SATISFACTION COMPARED WITH INTERACTION THAT WAS RESTRICTED TO THE SENSE OF SIGHT OR TOUCH
-ICHEL #HION !UDIO 6ISION .EW 9ORK 4HE FAMOUS DOORS IN 3TAR 7ARS 4HE %MPIRE 3TRIKES "ACK ARE ONE EXAMPLE )N FACT THEY DO NOT MOVE AT ALL n THERE ARE TWO STEADY SHOTS OF THE DOOR CLOSED AND OPEN h-OVEMENTv IS CREATED THROUGH SOUND DESIGNED BY "EN "URTT #HION n
3OUND IN THE #ONTEXT OF !UDIOVISUAL -EDIA !S OPPOSED TO PRODUCT DESIGN SOUND IN AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA IS NOT PART OF THE ARTIFACT BUT OF ITS CONTENT 7HEN SOUND IS AN ELEMENT OF A MEDIATED MESSAGE THE MEANINGS AND FUNCTIONS DESCRIBED ABOVE RE MAIN VALID HOWEVER IN THE CONTEXT OF MEDIA INCLUDING RADIO AND 46 SOUND FOLLOWS AND CREATES NEW SEMANTICS MEANINGS AND STRUCTURES -OST OF THE EXISTING STUDIES OF SOUND IN THE CONTEXT OF MEDIA FO CUS ON TRADITIONAL AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA SUCH AS CINEMA MOVIES AND 46 6ERY LITTLE CAN BE FOUND ON THE SO CALLED NEW MEDIA SUCH AS #$ 2/- $6$ OR THE )NTERNET &EW PUBLICATIONS GO BEYOND A TOOL AND TECHNOL OGY CENTERED APPROACH &ILM LITERATURE USUALLY DOES QUITE A GOOD JOB WITH SOUND ALTHOUGH IT GENERALLY GIVES IT A LOWER PRIORITY THAN IMAGES 4HE USE OF SOUND IN MOVIES IS OFTEN LIMITED TO CREATING A CONVINCING SOUNDTRACK THAT IS ANALOGOUS AND REALISTICALLY TIED TO THE SCENE ON THE SCREEN h(EAR A DOG SEE A DOGv IS ONE OF THE BASIC PREMISES OF MOVIE SOUND DESIGN )NTERESTINGLY ENOUGH THE MOST OUTSTANDING MOVIES HAVE SOUNDTRACKS THAT GO BEYOND THIS SIMPLISTIC UNDERSTANDING OF SOUND USE 0ROGRES SIVE MOVEMENTS IN CINEMA INCLUDING THE .EW (OLLYWOOD SCHOOL HAVE ALWAYS USED SOUNDS AS AN AUTONOMOUS SEMANTIC LEVEL EQUIVALENT TO THAT OF IMAGERY )N FACT A lLMS SOUNDTRACK IS JUST AS IMPORTANT AS ITS IMAGES 4HE COMPLEX RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IMAGES AND SOUND HAS LONG BEEN UNDERESTIMATED !N IMPORTANT THEORIST WHO STUDIES SOUND IN MOVIES IS -ICHEL #HION 4YPICAL OF THOSE IN THIS lELD #HION HAS AN EXTENSIVE MUSICAL BACKGROUND (E WORKED AT THE .ATIONAL #ONSERVATORY OF 0ARIS COM POSING MANY -USIQUE #ONCRÞ TE PIECES AND ASSISTING 0IERRE 3CHAEFFER !S A THEORIST HE DElNED A NEW lELD THAT EXAMINES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOUNDS AND IMAGES #HION VIEWS SOUND NOT JUST AS A SUB ORDINATE AND SOMEWHAT COSMETIC ELEMENT IN MOVIES BUT AS A CENTRAL COMPONENT THAT PROJECTS OR EVEN IMPOSES MEANING ON IMAGES )N THIS CONTEXT HE INTRODUCES THE TERM hADDED VALUEv
h"Y ADDED VALUE ) MEAN THE EXPRESSIVE AND INFORMATIVE VALUE WITH WHICH A SOUND ENRICHES A GIVEN IMAGE SO AS TO CREATE THE DElNITE IM PRESSION x THAT THIS INFORMATION OR EXPRESSION @NATURALLY COMES FROM WHAT IS SEEN AND IS ALREADY CONTAINED IN THE IMAGE ITSELFv !LTHOUGH WE MAY REGARD THE SOUNDS IN A MOVIE AS hNATURALv GIV ENS EVERY ONE OF THEM HAS BEEN DESIGNED AND PLACED IN THE lLM INTEN TIONALLY !DDED VALUE IS CREATED THROUGH LANGUAGE SPOKEN TEXT MUSIC AND SOUND EFFECTS 3OUND PLAYS A ROLE IN THE PERCEPTION OF MOVEMENT AND SPEED IT INmUENCES OUR PERCEPTION OF TIME WHEN WE VIEW AN IMAGE IT CAN SUGGEST A SEQUENCE OF EVENTS EVEN IF THE IMAGES THEM SELVES DO NOT SUGGEST IT AND IT CAN GIVE US THE SENSE OF A DIRECTION AND A GOAL THANKS TO ITS PROPERTY OF BEING TIED TO DYNAMIC PROCESSES IN TIME 3OUNDS IN MOVIES CREATE MEANING ON SEVERAL LEVELS 4HE lRST AND MOST BASIC LEVEL IS THAT OF TONALITY 3OUNDS WITH VERY LOW FREQUENCIES HAVE SPECIlC CONNOTATIONS IN MAINSTREAM MOVIES 4HE SAME APPLIES TO HIGH FREQUENCY SOUNDS 4HE VOLUME OF A SOUND CAN ALSO TRANSPORT A SPECIlC MEANING &OR EXAMPLE LOUDNESS IS OFTEN EQUATED WITH AG GRESSION /N A HIGHER LEVEL SOUND HAS SEVERAL NARRATIVE FUNCTIONS "ARBARA &LÓCKIGER HAS DEVELOPED A VERY HELPFUL SYSTEM OF CATEGORIES THAT ) WILL BRIEmY OUTLINE HERE 4HE lRST CATEGORY CENTERS ON THE ASPECTS OF ORIENTATION SETTING AND SCENOGRAPHY )NTERACTING WITH IMAGES A SOUNDTRACK CREATES THE SCENOGRAPHY AS A WHOLE )T IS ABLE TO CHARACTERIZE LOCATIONS DUE TO OUR AURAL ABILITY TO INSTANTLY PERCEIVE THE SPACE AROUND US AS A WHOLE "Y REPRODUCING A SOUNDSCAPE THE MOVIEMAKER CAN ALSO INSTANTLY TRANSFER THE VIEWER LISTENER TO ANOTHER TIME AND PLACE WITHOUT HAVING TO GIVE ANY FURTHER EXPLANATIONS
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
"ARBARA &LÓCKIGER 3OUND $ESIGN $IE VIRTUELLE +LANGWELT DES &ILMS -ARBURG n 3CHAFER 0IERRE 3CHAEFFER 4RAIT£ DES OBJETS MUSICAUX %SSAIS INTERDISCIPLINES 0ARIS
4HE OTHER CATEGORY IS THAT OF MATERIAL ) HAVE ALREADY DESCRIBED THE CLOSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OBJECTS AND THE SOUNDS THEY PRODUCE 4HESE SOUNDS ARE A PRODUCT OF AN OBJECTS MATERIAL AND MECHANICS &LÓCKIGER UNDERSCORES THE SIGNIlCANCE OF THIS PROPERTY FOR lLM AND AUDIO ENABLED MEDIA IN GENERAL h4HE MOVING IMAGE DEMATERIALIZES THE OBJECTS AND SOUNDS GIVES THEM BACK THEIR PHYSICALITYv 3OUND MAKES THE DISEMBODIED OBJECTS ON THE SCREEN VERY CONCRETE AND TAN GIBLE )T GIVES US INFORMATION ABOUT THE HIDDEN TRUTHS LYING BENEATH THE SURFACE OF THE IMAGERY )N GENRES SUCH AS SCIENCE lCTION OR FANTASY OBJECTS AND BEINGS THAT WE HAVE NEVER SEEN BEFORE ARE hEXPLAINEDv AND BECOME CREDIBLE THROUGH SOUND 7HEN WE ANALYZE SOUND IT IS OFTEN DIFlCULT TO lND THE RIGHT WORDS FOR OUR IMPRESSIONS "OOKS ABOUT ACOUSTICS AND SOUND ARE GENERALLY FULL OF GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF WAVEFORMS AND FREQUENCY SPEC TRA 4HEY DEMONSTRATE OUR TENDENCY TO COMMUNICATE AND UNDERSTAND BY VISUAL MEANS /F COURSE BOOKS AS A MEDIUM IMPOSE AN ESSENTIAL LIMITATION ON US REDUCING COMMUNICATION TO WRITTEN LANGUAGE AND IMAGES 3CHAFER WRITES IN THIS CONTEXT h4O REPORT ONES IMPRESSIONS OF SOUND ONE MUST EMPLOY SOUNDS ANY OTHER METHOD IS SPURIOUSv /F COURSE THIS IS A PURIST POSITION WHICH ALTHOUGH ESSENTIALLY TRUE IS HARDLY APPLICABLE IN PRACTICE )T IS POSSIBLE TO DESCRIBE SOUNDS BY OTHER MEANS SUCH AS LANGUAGE OR THE HUMAN VOICE !FTER ALL THE DIFlCULTY OF DESCRIBING SOUNDS IS NOT ONLY A RESULT OF THE BOOK AS A MEDIUM BUT PARTIALLY STEMS FROM A LACK OF EDUCATION AND SENSITIZA TION WHICH ) MENTIONED EARLIER ,AST BUT NOT LEAST THIS DIFlCULTY HAS ITS ROOTS IN THE NATURE OF SOUNDS WHICH ARE NOT CLEARLY DElNED EVENTS BUT A CONTINUOUS STREAM OF INNUMERABLE ENTITIES IN A TIME CONTINUUM !S SUCH THEY ARE MORE DIFlCULT TO GRASP AND ANALYZE THAN IMAGES 7E CAN SOLVE THIS PROBLEM BY USING AN ANALYTICAL METHOD OF DIFFERENTIA TION AND RESOLUTION TAKEN FROM INFORMATION THEORY
5SING THIS APPROACH &LÓCKIGER HAS CREATED A COMPREHENSIVE OVER VIEW OF SUCH A SEMANTIC STRUCTURE 3HE IDENTIlES VARIOUS ASPECTS OF MEANING GENERATED BY THE PHENOMENA THAT 0IERRE 3CHAEFFER CALLS hSON IC OBJECTSv OBJETS SONORES ) WOULD LIKE TO PROVIDE A SHORT OVERVIEW OF A MAIN FOUNDATION OF THESE SEMANTIC STRUCTURES BECAUSE IT CAN HELP US GRASP MATERIAL THAT WE CAN WORK WITH AS DESIGNERS AND BECAUSE IT CAN ENABLE US TO COPE WITH THE DIFlCULTY OF COMMUNICATING SUBJECTIVE IMPRESSIONS ABOUT SOUNDS &LÓCKIGER IDENTIlES BOTH A lRST AND A SECOND SEMANTIC ORDER 4HE lRST ORDER CENTERS ON THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS 7HAT EMITS SOUNDS 4HE lRST STEP IN SOUND ANALYSIS IS TO DIVIDE THE CONTINUOUS mOW OF SOUND INTO SEGMENTS IN ORDER TO ROUGHLY CATEGORIZE THESE ELEMENTS THROUGH A COMPARISON OF EVENTS ALREADY KNOWN TO US /F COURSE TAK EN IN ISOLATION THE DElNITION OF THE SOURCE OF AN ACOUSTIC EVENT SAYS NOTHING ABOUT THE FORM OR QUALITY OF A SONIC OBJECT 4HIS REPRESENTS AN EARLY CONCEPTUAL STEP IN THE PROCESS 7HAT MOVES !S MENTIONED EARLIER SOUND IS ALWAYS LINKED TO SOMETHING THAT MOVES BE IT AN ANIMAL A ROBOT THE WIND OR THE MEMBRANE OF A LOUD SPEAKER /FTEN THESE MOVEMENTS CAN BE PERCEIVED VISUALLY !T OTHER TIMES HOWEVER THEY ARE HIDDEN IN A SYSTEM !N EXAMPLE HERE IS THE HUM OF A COMPUTERS HARD DRIVE 7HAT MATERIAL EMITS SOUNDS 7E RECEIVE A GREAT DEAL OF INFORMATION ABOUT A MATERIAL FROM THE SOUND IT MAKES )TS EVEN POSSIBLE TO HEAR ITS AGGREGATE STATE EG WA TER STEAM OR ICE /FTEN THE MATERIAL REPLACES A SOURCE SUCH AS AIR THAT IS NOT A CLEARLY DElNED OBJECT BUT CAN BECOME AUDIBLE WHEN MOVING OVER CERTAIN SURFACES
&LÓCKIGER n -ARK 7EISER h4HE #OMPUTER FOR THE 4WENTY &IRST #ENTURY v 3CIENTIFIC !MERICAN 3EPTEMBER n
(OW DOES IT SOUND 4HIS IS WHERE WE BEGIN TO RUN INTO DIFlCULTY ,ANGUAGE HAS ONLY A LIMITED ABILITY TO DESCRIBE A SOUND /NOMATOPOEIC LANGUAGE OFTEN SEEMS TO BE THE MOST APPROPRIATE SOLUTION TO THIS PROBLEM THE HOWL ING OF THE WIND THE BANG OF A GUNSHOT THE ROAR OF A WATERFALL 4HE PROBLEM LIES IN THE SUBJECTIVE INTERPRETATION OF SOUND SOME PEOPLE WILL DESCRIBE THE SOUND OF A FAN AS A HUM OTHERS AS A WHIR )N ADDITION WE CAN ALSO DESCRIBE A SOUND BY ITS FREQUENCY RANGE OR TIMBRE IE hDEEPv OR hHIGHv /R WE CAN DESCRIBE SOUNDS BY THEIR VOLUME LOUD SOFT AND RHYTHMIC PROPERTIES HECTIC STEADY 7HERE IS THE SOUND &INALLY WE CAN DESCRIBE A SOUND BY ITS SPATIAL SITUATION THE DIS TANCE BETWEEN THE SOUND AND THE LISTENER AND ITS LOCATION AMIDST OTHER SOUNDS IN THE SAME ACOUSTIC SPACE 4HE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE EN VIRONMENT ALSO SHAPE THE SOUND 7HATS MORE THE SOUND CAN HAVE A CERTAIN POSITION RELATIVE TO THE LISTENER OR MOVE ABOUT IN SPACE 4HE SECOND ORDER DEALS WITH AN EXTENDED MEANING OF A SONIC OBJECT RESULTING FROM AN ADDED CONTEXT (ERE WE lND SOME CLAS SIlCATIONS THAT HAVE PARALLELS TO WHAT ) HAVE ALREADY DESCRIBED IN THE CONTEXT OF ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION THERE ARE SIGNALS SYMBOLS KEY SOUNDS STEREOTYPES AND LEITMOTIFS 3IGNALS ARE SONIC OBJECTS THAT HAVE A SPECIlC COMMUNICATIVE CONTENT WITHIN A CERTAIN SOCIETY 3YMBOLS ARE ACOUSTIC SIGNS THAT HAVE A SPECIlC SIGNIlCANCE AND CONNOTATION EG CHURCH BELLS OR POLICE SIRENS +EY SOUNDS n NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH THE CONCEPT OF KEYNOTE SOUNDS n ARE SONIC OBJECTS THAT BECOME CHARGED WITH MEANING THROUGH THEIR STRATEGIC POSITIONING AND REPETI TION IN A DElNED CONTEXT 3TEREOTYPES ARE CREATED BY THE REPETITION OF THE SAME SOUND MEANING ASSOCIATION IN SEVERAL MOVIES WHICH OFTEN OCCURS WITHIN A SPECIlC GENRE &INALLY THE IDEA OF A LEITMOTIF IS BASED ON THE CONCEPT WE ENCOUNTER IN 7AGNERS WORK IN WHICH lGURES OR PLACES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH CERTAIN MELODIES 4HIS ASSOCIATION CAN BE EXTENDED TO SOUNDS IN GENERAL
2EmECTIONS ON 3OUND IN THE #ONTEXT OF )NTERACTIVITY ) HAVE SHOWN HOW SOUND CAN BE A CENTRAL ELEMENT IN OUR INTER ACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT &OR THIS REASON IT SHOULD BE MADE AN INTRINSIC PART OF INTERACTION DESIGN 7E MUST TAKE IT INTO ACCOUNT WHEN WE CONCEPTUALIZE AND DESIGN INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENTS "UT WHAT EXACTLY IS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SOUND DESIGN AND IN TERACTION DESIGN "ASED ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND IN THE CON TEXT OF DESIGN IN GENERAL ) WOULD SUGGEST THE FOLLOWING LINKS BETWEEN SOUND AND INTERACTIVITY )NTERACTIVITY IMPLIES TWO WAY INmUENCE A SYSTEM OF RECIPROCAL IN PUT AND OUTPUT INVOLVING TWO OR MORE AGENTS )T IS MORE THAN JUST A TRIGGERING OF EVENTS OR A ONE WAY INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEM )F WE LOOK AT ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION WE SEE THAT IT HAS THE SAME CORE CHARACTERIS TICS 7E SEND AND RECEIVE SOUNDS AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOUNDS WE HEAR INmUENCE OUR AURAL BEHAVIOR IN THE ENVIRONMENT )NTERACTION IS GENERALLY PROCESS ORIENTED 4HIS MEANS THAT THE ELE MENTS OF INTERACTION NEVER STAND ON THEIR OWN BUT ARE ALWAYS INTER RELATED AND LINKED TO A TEMPORAL DEVELOPMENT 3OUNDS THEMSELVES ARE INHERENTLY BOUND TO PROCESSES IN TIME EG PHYSICAL MOVEMENT 4HIS CREATES ANOTHER INTERESTING PARALLEL 4RULY INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS TEND TO BE COMPLEX 3OUNDS HAVE THE CA PACITY TO QUICKLY CONVEY COMPLEX INFORMATION )NTERACTIVE SYSTEMS ARE BECOMING INCREASINGLY WIDESPREAD AND FORMING THE VERY FABRIC OF OUR LIVES 3OUNDS THEMSELVES ARE UBIQUITOUS THEY PASS THROUGH WALLS AND DOORS AND THEY COME FROM ALL SIDES SI MULTANEOUSLY /UR PERCEPTUAL APPARATUS HAS LEARNED TO COPE WITH THIS ) SEE A GREAT POTENTIAL IN THE INTENTIONAL USE OF SOUND AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AND INTERACTION IN THE DESIGN OF UBIQUITOUS SYSTEMS
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
-ARK 7EISER 'REGOR +RAMER ET AL 3ONIFICATION 2EPORT 3TATUS OF THE &IELD AND RESEARCH !GENDA !LAIN * $IX ET AL (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION ND EDITION (ARLOW FF
)NTERACTIVE SYSTEMS ARE INCREASINGLY hDISAPPEARINGv FROM VIEW THAT IS THEY ARE BEING CONCEALED IN OBJECTS THAT DO NOT CONVEY THAT THERE IS MORE TO THEM THAN MEETS THE EYE 4HIS IS INTRINSICALLY RELATED TO HIDDEN PROCESSES THAT WE CANNOT UNDERSTAND OR CONTROL 3OUNDS HAVE THE WONDERFUL CAPACITY TO CONVEY INFORMATION AND PROVIDE FEED BACK ON THESE HIDDEN PROCESSES !S A CONSEQUENCE THEY ENABLE US TO REUNITE THESE HIDDEN SYSTEMS WITH OUR CONSCIOUS PERCEPTIONS OF THE ARTIFACTS AROUND US 4HERE IS RELATIVELY LITTLE INFORMATION ABOUT SOUND IN THE CURRENT LITERATURE ON INTERACTIVITY (OWEVER A NUMBER OF SOURCES SUBSTANTIATE THESE SUGGESTED PROPERTIES )N THE NEXT FEW SECTIONS OF THIS PAPER ) WOULD LIKE TO DESCRIBE SOME SPECIlC EXAMPLES OF HOW SOUND CAN PLAY A CENTRAL ROLE IN INTERACTIVE PROCESSES /NE STARTING POINT FOR SUCH A STUDY IS THE lELD OF SONIlCATION WITHIN THE BROADER DISCIPLINE OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION (#) 3ONIlCATION INVESTIGATES WAYS OF DEPLOYING NONSPEECH SOUNDS TO CON VEY COMPLEX DATA OR INFORMATION ABOUT COMPLEX PROCESSES THROUGH THE AUDITORY CHANNEL ! MORE SPECIlC DElNITION OF SONIlCATION IS THE TRANSFORMATION OF DATA RELATIONS INTO PERCEIVED RELATIONS IN AN ACOUS TIC SIGNAL !LAN $IX AND HIS ASSOCIATES HAVE CREATED AN OVERVIEW OF THE GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NONSPEECH SOUNDS IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERAC TIVE SYSTEMS h3OUNDS CAN FUNCTION AS ALARMS OR PROVIDE WARNINGS OR STATUS IN FORMATION THAT FOCUS THE USERS ATTENTION ON IMPORTANT INFORMATION THAT HE OR SHE WOULD OTHERWISE MISSv 3OUNDS CAN HELP USERS PICK UP VITAL CLUES AND INFORMATION WHILE THEIR VISUAL ATTENTION IS DIRECTED ELSEWHERE 4HIS IS COMMONLY USED IN VIDEO GAMES TO WHICH ) WILL RETURN LATER
$ISPLAYS THAT COMBINE IMAGES AND SOUND ALLOW THE BRAIN TO SEARCH ALONG TWO hPATHSv AS IT ATTEMPTS TO UNDERSTAND INFORMATION WITH THE SEARCH ALONG THE BEST PATH ENDING lRST AND MAXIMIZING RESPONSE TIME 4HE PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION IN TWO FORMS MAY INCREASE USER PER FORMANCE &OR EXAMPLE USERS MAY RECOGNIZE THE SOUND ASSOCIATED WITH AN ICON OR EVENT BUT NOT ITS VISUAL REPRESENTATION !MBIGUITY CAN BE RESOLVED IN THIS WAY .ONSPEECH SOUNDS CAN BE UNIVERSAL JUST LIKE ICONS !S DESCRIBED EARLIER SOUNDS CAN MANIFEST THEMSELVES AS SIGNALS OR SYMBOLS AND CER TAIN MATERIALS AND OBJECTS PRODUCE SPECIlC SOUNDS ! MORE OR LESS UNIVERSAL UNDERSTANDING OF SUCH SOUNDS NATURALLY REQUIRES A SHARED CODE THAT EVOKES THE SAME ASSOCIATIONS AND YIELDS THE SAME INTERPRE TATIONS AMONG USERS /FTEN SUCH CODES ARE LARGELY DEPENDENT ON CUL TURES OR EVEN SUBCULTURES "UT THERE ARE ALSO SOUNDS WITH ARCHETYPAL QUALITIES AND SOUNDS THAT ARE SO WELL ESTABLISHED ON A GLOBAL SCALE THAT THEY MAY WORK WELL AS UNIVERSAL INFORMATION SOURCES IN INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS
) 0ITT AND ! %DWARDS h.AVIGATING THE )NTERFACE BY 3OUND FOR "LIND 5SERS v IN 0EOPLE AND #OMPUTERS 6) 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE #() t #ONFERENCE ED $ $IAPER AND . (AMMOND #AMBRIDGE n 7 'AVER h4HE 3ONICFINDER !N )NTERFACE 4HAT 5SES !UDITORY )CONS v (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION n !LAIN * $IX ET AL (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION ND EDITION (ARLOW
5SUALLY THE MEANING OF A NONSPEECH SOUND MUST BE LEARNED (OWEVER THIS LEARNING PROCESS CAN BE VERY SHORT IF DESIGN TAKES ACOUS TIC COMMUNICATION INTO ACCOUNT /FTEN VISUAL ICONS ARE SO COMMON THAT THEIR MEANING IS IMMEDIATELY CLEAR TO VIEWERS 4HE SAME IS CON CEIVABLE FOR SOUNDS BUT WITH SOME LIMITATIONS AS THEY ARE MUCH MORE DEPENDENT ON THE ACOUSTIC CONTEXT $IX ET AL HAVE SUGGESTED A NUMBER OF USES OF SOUND IN INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS 3OUNDS CAN CONVEY INFORMATION ABOUT TRANSITORY PROCESSES SUCH AS CHANGES OR ERRORS IN THE NETWORK OR SYSTEM 5SERS OF OLD COMPUTERS WITH NOISY POWER SUPPLIES PRINTERS AND SPINNING DISKS WERE OFTEN ABLE TO RECOGNIZE A PROCESS STAGE BY THE CHARACTERISTIC SOUND IT MADE 3UCH SOUNDS CAN BE USED MORE BROADLY TO PROVIDE STATUS INFORMATION ON BACKGROUND PROCESSES &OR EXAMPLE AN ONGOING PROCESS COULD BE ACCOMPANIED BY A STATIC SOUND THAT USERS WOULD QUICKLY GET USED TO AND IGNORE #HANGES IN THE PROCESS WOULD RESULT IN CHANGES IN THE SOUND WHICH THEN WOULD BE NOTICED AUTO MATICALLY 2ESEARCH ALSO SHOWS THAT NAVIGATION BY AUDITORY CUES IS POSSIBLE !CCORDING TO 0ITT AND %DWARDS UP TO EIGHT TARGETS ON A SCREEN CAN BE LOCATED WITH REASONABLE SPEED AND ACCURACY !S INTERFACES BREAK OUT OF THE TWO DIMENSIONAL SPACE OF THE SCREEN SOUNDS CAN PROVIDE SUP PORT FOR NAVIGATION AND ORIENTATION
/NE WAY OF USING SOUNDS IN INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS IS THROUGH THE USE OF hNATURALv SOUNDS SINCE PEOPLE CAN RECOGNIZE THE ORIGINAL SOURCE OF A RECORDED SOUND AND INTERPRET ITS MEANING IN AN INTERACTIVE CONTEXT 4HESE SOUNDS ARE COMMONLY CALLED hAUDITORY ICONS v ONE EXAMPLE OF WHICH IS THE 3ONIC&INDER BY 7 'AVER (ERE A FOLDER IS REPRESENTED BY A PAPERY NOISE )F A lLE IS DRAGGED TO THE BASKET WE HEAR A SMASHING SOUND "UT THIS KIND OF INTERFACING IS SOMEWHAT LIMITED AS SOME PRO CESSES DO NOT HAVE SOUNDS THAT ARE DIRECTLY ASSOCIATED WITH THEM EG COPYING 3TILL ONCE A SOUND IS LEARNED IT CAN QUICKLY AND INTUITIVELY TRANSPORT THE INFORMATION ABOUT THE PROCESS IT REPRESENTS $IX ET AL WRITE h.ONSPEECH SOUND CAN CONVEY VAST AMOUNTS OF MEANING VERY ECONOMICALLY A lLE ARRIVES IN A MAILBOX AND BEING A LARGE lLE IT MAKES A WEIGHTY SOUND )F IT IS A TEXT lLE IT MAKES A RUSTLING NOISE WHEREAS A COMPILED PROGRAM MAY MAKE A METALLIC CLANG 4HE SOUND CAN BE MUFmED OR CLEAR INDICATING WHETHER THE MAILBOX IS HIDDEN BY OTHER WINDOWS OR NOT WHILE THE DIRECTION OF THE SOUND WOULD INDICATE THE POSITION ON THE SCREEN )F THE SOUND THEN ECHOES AS IT WOULD IN A LARGE EMPTY ROOM THE SYSTEM LOAD IS LOW !LL THIS INFORMATION CAN BE PRE SENTED IN A SECOND OR SOv
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
7 'AVER 2 " 3MITH AND 4 /3HEA h%FFECTIVE 3OUNDS IN #OMPLEX 3ITUATIONS 4HE !2+OLA 3IMULA TION v IN 2EACHING THROUGH 4ECHNOLOGY n #() #ONFERENCE 0ROCEEDINGS ED 3 0 2OBERTSON ' - /LSON AND * 3 /LSON .EW 9ORK n 5RS "EYELER OPEN*AZZ n +OOPERATIVE ,ERN UND !R BEITSUMGEBUNG IM +ONTEXT ELEKTRONISCHER -USIK MASTERS THESIS (YPER7ERK "ASEL
!T THIS POINT ) WILL BRIEmY DESCRIBE !2+OLA A BOTTLING PLANT SIMU LATION AS AN EXAMPLE OF A COMPLEX APPLICATION THAT USES THE POWER OF AUDITORY ICONS )N THIS SIMULATION TWO USERS OPERATE A SOFT DRINKS FACTORY 4HEY TRY TO OPTIMIZE ITS OUTPUT AND lND AND lX PROBLEMS 4HE USERS WORK REMOTELY CONNECTED THROUGH AUDIO AND VIDEO CHAN NELS 4HE SIMULATION CONSISTS OF SEVERAL MACHINES %ACH HAS AN ON OFF SWITCH AND A RATE CONTROL AND EACH PRODUCES SOUNDS TO INDICATE STATUS &OR EXAMPLE THE BOTTLE DISPENSER MAKES THE SOUND OF CLINKING GLASS WITH A RHYTHM THAT INDICATES ITS OPERATING SPEED 3PLASHING SOUNDS IN DICATE SPILLED LIQUIDS AND THE SOUND OF BREAKING GLASS IS HEARD WHEN BOTTLES ARE LOST 4HE AUDITORY CLUES PROVIDED BY THE SYSTEM ARE OF GREAT HELP TO USERS AS THEY MONITOR THEIR OWN MACHINES AND THE ENTIRE SYS TEM SINCE BY LISTENING TO THE SYSTEMS SOUNDSCAPE THEY OBTAIN AN IM MEDIATE OVERVIEW OF THE STATUS OF ITS INDIVIDUAL PARTS !NOTHER EXAMPLE OF AN APPLICATION THAT USES AUDITORY ICONS IS OPEN*AZZ A COLLABORATIVE LEARNING AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT FOR ELEC TRONIC MUSIC 4HE OPEN*AZZ ENVIRONMENT ALLOWS PEOPLE TO SHARE DOCUMENTS IMAGES HYPERLINKS SOUND CLIPS ETC IN A TIME BASED FRAMEWORK THUS CREATING A KIND OF COLLECTIVE MEMORY THAT MIRRORS THE CREATIVE PROCESS OF A COLLABORATIVE GROUP /NE SPECIAL FEATURE OF THIS GROUPWARE IS AN AWARENESS MECHANISM THAT CONVEYS TO USERS A SENSE OF THEIR VIRTUAL TEAM MEMBERS PRESENCE 4HIS IS ACHIEVED THROUGH USE OF ACOUSTIC ICONS THAT CONVEY INFORMATION ABOUT THEIR DISTANCE LOCATION AND IDENTITY USING VOLUME BALANCE AND TIMBRE )N ADDITION METADATA ABOUT THE OBJECTS SHARED IN OPEN*AZZ GENERATE MEANINGFUL SOUND SE QUENCES THAT HELP USERS IDENTIFY AND REMEMBER CONTENT
)N ADDITION TO THE TRADITIONAL DISCIPLINE OF (#) GAME DESIGN IS AN EXCELLENT SOURCE OF EXPERTISE FOR THE USE OF SOUND IN INTERACTIVE CON TEXTS 'AMES WERE PROBABLY THE lRST INTERACTIVE COMPUTER BASED AP PLICATIONS TO MAKE EXTENSIVE USE OF SOUND 4HEY ARE ALSO OF INTEREST DUE TO THEIR STRONG NARRATIVE COMPONENT .ATURALLY GAMES ARE hONLYv COMPUTER BASED AND GENERALLY DO NOT EXIST OUTSIDE THE BOUNDARIES OF THE PERSONAL COMPUTER WITH THE EXCEPTION OF A FEW SPECIALIZED INTER ACTION DEVICES 4HEY ARE THEREFORE LIMITED IN THEIR CAPACITY TO INmU ENCE INTERACTION DESIGN IN GENERAL SINCE OVER THE LAST FEW YEARS THE DIS CIPLINE HAS MOVED BEYOND THE 0# INTO A MORE GENERAL ENVIRONMENT "UT WITHIN THE lELD OF COMPUTER BASED INTERACTION COMPUTER GAMES DElNITELY REPRESENT THE CUTTING EDGE OF INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS 'AME SOUNDS ARE THEREFORE A SOURCE OF INSPIRATION AND A MEANS OF UNDER STANDING THE POTENTIAL AND IMPORTANCE OF MORE GENERAL SOUNDS IN AN INTERACTIVE CONTEXT &OR THIS REASON ) WOULD LIKE TO DISCUSS THE WORLD OF GAME DESIGN IN GREATER DETAIL AND ANALYZE THE USE OF SOUND IN EXISTING GAMES &IRST OF ALL SOUNDS IN GAMES OFTEN FULlLL FUNCTIONS SIMILAR TO THOSE ) HAVE SKETCHED OUT IN THE CONTEXT OF (#) RESEARCH THEY PROVIDE STATUS INFORMATION INDICATING FOR EXAMPLE WHEN A DOOR IS LOCKED OR OPEN THEY GIVE PLAYERS INFORMATION WHEN THEIR VISUAL FOCUS IS ELSEWHERE EG THE PICKUP NOISE IN *UMPN2UNS ACTION SHOOTERS AND THEY PRO VIDE INFORMATION ON HIDDEN OR INVISIBLE PROCESSES
(OWEVER IT IS ALSO CRUCIAL TO CONSIDER IMMERSION IN THE CONTEXT OF GAMES )N THE CONTEXT OF INTERACTIVE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS THIS QUALITY IS MORE PRONOUNCED THAN IN LINEAR MEDIA SUCH AS MOVIES 4HE TERM hIMMERSIONv IS DERIVED FROM THE ,ATIN WORD hIMMERSIOv AND EVOKES THE IMAGE OF DIVING UNDERWATER 4HE ENTIRE SENSORY ENVIRONMENT IS ALTERED ALLOWING US FORGET THE WORLD WE HAVE COME FROM 4HIS IS NEC ESSARY IF WE ARE TO ACCEPT AND TRUST THE VIRTUAL WORLD IF WE ARE TO ENTER THE STORY LINE AND ADOPT THE POSITION OF OUR VIRTUAL SELVES OR OF AN AVATAR /UR SENSE OF HEARING PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THIS PROCESS !S DESCRIBED EARLIER HEARING PROVIDES US WITH CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION ABOUT OUR ENVIRONMENT AS WELL AS AN INSTANTANEOUS ACOUSTIC hIMAGEv OF THE THINGS AND EVENTS AROUND US 3INCE WE ARE CONSTANTLY IMMERSED IN SOUND IN REAL LIFE SOUND IS ESSENTIAL TO MAKING THE WORLDS CREATED BY GAMES CREDIBLE 3OUND PROMOTES THE SUSPENSION OF DISBELIEF THAT IS SO CRUCIAL FOR PLAYERS 4HE SENSE OF IMMERSION CREATED BY A GAME IS COMPLETE WHEN OUR AUDITORY CHANNEL IS COMPLETELY APPROPRIATED AND THE SOUNDSCAPE OF THE REAL WORLD IS BLOCKED OUT 4HIS DOES NOT NECESSARILY REQUIRE THE PHYSICAL ISOLATION OF HEARING THROUGH HEADPHONES OR A DEDICATED ACOUSTICALLY ISOLATED ROOM )T CAN BE ACHIEVED BY PSYCHOLOGICAL MEANS BY A MENTAL FOCUS ON THE GAMES SOUNDSCAPE (OWEVER THIS REQUIRES A SOUNDSCAPE THAT IS COMPLETE CONTINUOUS AND ADAPTIVE ) WILL EXPLAIN THESE TERMS HERE h#OMPLETEv /NE OBJECTIVE OF GAME DESIGN IS TO SIMULATE A VIRTUAL WORLD IN SUCH GREAT DETAIL THAT IT WILL BE ACCEPTED BY THE PLAYER AS REAL )T MUST ALSO WORK LOGICALLY AND NATURALLY WITHIN ITS OWN BOUNDARIES 4O ACHIEVE THIS END SOUND MUST PLAY A ROLE SIMILAR TO THAT IN MOVIES IT MUST GIVE PHYSICALITY BACK TO THE DISEMBODIED VIRTUAL WORLD )F THE ILLUSION OF A LIVING ENVIRONMENT IS TO BE CREATED OUR VIRTUAL STEPS SHOULD MAKE SOUNDS DOORS SHOULD CLOSE WITH A THUD AND WIND SHOULD hBLOWv ALL AROUND US 4HIS SIMULATION DOESNT NECESSARILY HAVE TO BE REALISTIC )N 0ONG THE GRANDDADDY OF ALL ARCADE GAMES A SIMPLE BEEP MAKES THE ACT OF HITTING THE DOT WITH PADDLES CONVINCING /F COURSE COMPLETENESS
MEANS MORE THAN THE MERE CREATION OF THE ILLUSION OF PHYSICALITY )N AN IDEAL SCENARIO EVERYTHING THAT WE EXPECT TO MAKE A SOUND WILL MAKE A SOUND IN THE VIRTUAL WORLD !ND BECAUSE GAMES TAKE PLACE IN lCTITIOUS VIRTUAL WORLDS SOMETIMES THINGS SHOULD MAKE SOUNDS EVEN IF WE DONT KNOW WHAT KINDS OF SOUNDS THEY WOULD MAKE IN OUR WORLD !ND THEY SHOULD MAKE SOUNDS EVEN IF WE DO NOT EXPECT THEM TO DO SO h#ONTINUOUSv )N ORDER TO MAINTAIN THE ILLUSION OF A SIMULATED WORLD AND TO FA CILITATE IMMERSION IN IT WE MUST ALSO CONSIDER THE CONTINUITY OF THE SOUNDSCAPE 4HE ACOUSTIC ASPECTS OF THE VIRTUAL SOUNDSCAPE SHOULD AL WAYS FOLLOW THE RULES AND LOGIC ESTABLISHED FOR A CERTAIN CONTEXT 4HIS SOUNDS TRIVIAL BUT IS VERY TRICKY IN THE PRODUCTION PROCESS )T BEGINS WITH SUCH THINGS AS IDENTICAL RECORDING CONDITIONS INCLUDING RECORD ING EQUIPMENT THE POSITIONING OF MICROPHONES ETC AND ENDS WITH THE GENERAL QUALITY OF THE ENTIRE SOUNDSCAPE /F COURSE THE LEVEL OF CONTINUITY CAN VARY SOME ELEMENTS OF THE VIRTUAL SOUNDSCAPE MAY RE MAIN THE SAME THROUGHOUT THE GAME WHILE OTHERS MAY CHANGE WITH THE CHARACTER OF A LEVEL "UT THE BASIC RULE STILL APPLIES THE SAME THINGS SHOULD SOUND THE SAME AND NEW THINGS SHOULD SOUND DIFFERENT 4HIS CONSISTENCY CREATES A SENSE OF ROUTINE AND FAMILIARITY ON THE ONE HAND AND CURIOSITY AND SURPRISE ON THE OTHER n AND ALL ARE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF GAME PLAYING h!DAPTIVEv 3OUND DESIGN FOR GAMES IS A CHALLENGING lELD SINCE IT CONFRONTS DE SIGNERS WITH A HIGHLY COMPLEX AND INTERACTIVE PRODUCT 4HE SEQUENCE OF SCENES SHOTS AND IMAGES IN MOVIES ALWAYS REMAINS THE SAME NO MAT TER HOW MANY TIMES A MOVIE IS VIEWED )N GAMES THOUGH THE STORY IS FRAGMENTED AND HIGHLY DEPENDENT ON THE USERS INPUT 4HE CHALLENGES BEGIN AT THE RELATIVELY BASIC LEVEL OF THE GENERAL SOUNDSCAPE /NE PLAYER MAY RUN THROUGH A LEVEL RELATIVELY QUICKLY WHILE ANOTHER MAY INVESTIGATE EVERY VIRTUAL STONE IN SEARCH OF BONUS POINTS )F WE STAY AT THE SAME PLACE IN THE REAL WORLD THE SOUNDSCAPE IS ALSO FAIRLY CONSTANT BUT THERE ARE ALWAYS SLIGHT CHANGES AND MODIlCATIONS THAT GIVE IT LIFE
(EAR -E )NTERACT $ANIEL (UG
'UY 7HITMORE h$ESIGN 7ITH -USIC )N -IND ! 'UIDE TO !DAPTIVE !UDIO FOR 'AME $ESIGNER v 'AMA SUTRA -AY WWWGAMASUTRACOM
)F WE STAY AT THE SAME PLACE IN A GAME THAT USES A SET SECOND SOUND SAMPLE PLAYED IN A LOOP WE WILL NO LONGER BELIEVE IN THE ILLUSION OF A LIVING ENVIRONMENT &URTHERMORE MANY GAMES HAVE SCRIPTED STORY ELEMENTS THAT ARE TRIGGERED BY CERTAIN USER ACTIONS AND THESE STORY ELE MENTS MUST BE ACCOMPANIED BY THE APPROPRIATE SOUNDS !ND AS GAMES BECOME MORE INTERACTIVE AND THEIR STORY LINES MORE OPEN IT BECOMES MORE DIFlCULT TO PREDICT THE WHOLE SETTING INTO WHICH THE SOUNDSCAPE SHOULD lT 4O ENHANCE THE EXPERIENCE GENERATED BY THE GAME OR TO MAKE ANY SORT OF EXPERIENCE POSSIBLE AT ALL DESIGNERS MUST CREATE A SOUNDSCAPE THAT SUITS AND ADAPTS TO ANY GIVEN SITUATION )F THE SCORE AND THE VIRTUAL SOUNDSCAPE ARE NOT OPTIMALLY LINKED TO EACH STAGE OF THE GAME THE SITUATION AND CONTEXT IN WHICH THE PLAYERS ARE LOCATED AT ANY GIVEN MOMENT WILL BE DISRUPTED ALONG WITH THEIR SENSE OF IM MERSION 4HIS IS WHY hADAPTIVE AUDIOv HAS BECOME A KEY ISSUE IN THE GAME DESIGN COMMUNITY )T HAS INSPIRED THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADVANCED AND COMPLEX METHODS FOR DESIGNING A SOUND ENVIRONMENT THAT SUP PORTS THE INTERACTIVE NATURE OF GAMES (OWEVER INTERACTIVE AUDIO GOES BEYOND THE INTELLIGENT USE OF LOOPS CROSS FADING AND $ SOUND 7ITH ADAPTIVE AUDIO ACOUSTIC COMPONENTS ARE ASSEMBLED BY THE GAME AS IT IS PLAYED 4HE SOUNDS BECOME PART OF THE ACTUAL GAME ENGINE AND ARE hRENDEREDv IN REAL TIME 2ELATED TECHNICAL TOOLS AND METHODS HAVE ALREADY BEEN PARTIALLY DEVELOPED (OWEVER THERE IS STILL MUCH DEVEL OPMENTAL WORK TO BE DONE 4HIS SHOWS WHY SOUND DESIGN IN THE CONTEXT OF GAMES AND OTHER INTERACTIVE MEDIA IS ESSENTIALLY DIFFERENT FROM SOUND DESIGN FOR lLMS AND MOST MULTIMEDIA PRODUCTS WHICH OFTEN ARE NOT TRULY INTERACTIVE BUT MERELY OFFER MANY CHOICES 4HE FUTURE OF MEDIA AND OF HUMAN ARTIFACTS IN GENERAL WILL BE INTERACTIVE PROCESS ORIENTED AND CONTEXT AWARE AND THE KNOWLEDGE AND METHODS DEVELOPED IN THE lELD OF GAME DESIGN WILL BE OF GREAT IMPORTANCE TO THE DESIGN OF THESE ARTIFACTS
#ONCLUSION 3OUND IS A POWERFUL AND EXCITING ELEMENT IN THE lELD OF DESIGN )T EVEN HAS SOME CONCRETE BENElTS IT DOES NOT HAVE THE SAME RESTRICTIONS AS SIGHT IT IS AN EFFECTIVE WAY OF ALERTING AND GIVING FEEDBACK ON HID DEN PROCESSES AND IT HAS THE CAPACITY TO ELICIT EMOTIONAL RESPONSES AND MODULATE MEANING )T IS A RICH SOURCE OF INFORMATION AND AN ESSENTIAL ASPECT OF COMMUNICATION PROCESSES .ATURALLY DESIGNERS ALSO FACE SPE CIlC DIFlCULTIES WHEN WORKING WITH SOUND 4HESE INCLUDE THE ANNOY ANCE IT CAN CAUSE THE POTENTIAL INTERFERENCE WITH THE EXISTING SOUND SCAPE OR SPEECH ITS VOLATILITY AND LACK OF ABSOLUTE VALUES AT LEAST FOR PEOPLE WITHOUT PERFECT PITCH (OWEVER AS MANY EXAMPLES FROM IN DUSTRIAL DESIGN MOVIES AND INTERACTIVE MEDIA INCLUDING GAMES SHOW GOOD SOUND DESIGN CAN SUBSTANTIALLY ENRICH THE QUALITY OF AN ARTIFACT 4HE DEBATE ON INTERACTIVITY IS STIRRING UP THE DESIGN COMMUNITY BUT INTERACTION IS NOT NEW OR UNIQUE 2ATHER IT IS AN INTRINSIC PART OF EVERYDAY LIFE %VEN SO WE ARE ONLY SLOWLY BEGINNING TO RECOGNIZE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERACTIVITY AND WITH THE ADVANCES IN TECHNOL OGY IT IS INCREASINGLY PERMEATING OUR WORLD )T HAS BECOME POSSIBLE TO CREATE TRULY INTERACTIVE ARTIFACTS AND WE NOW HAVE TOOLS THAT ALLOW US TO SUBLIMINALLY SIMULATE RE PRODUCE RE ENGINEER AND RE THINK THE THINGS THAT EXIST AROUND US !S A RESULT OF THIS PROCESS A NEW INTRINSI CALLY MULTIDISCIPLINARY lELD IS EMERGING n INTERACTION DESIGN /FTEN A TRADITIONAL DESIGN MINDSET SEEMS TO PREVAIL YET ) BELIEVE THAT THE DESIGN DISCIPLINES MUST INCREASINGLY LEAVE THEIR SEPARATE DOMAINS FROM WHICH THEY ONCE OBSERVED THE OTHER DISCIPLINES PITYING THEM FOR BEING IMPRISONED WITHOUT RECOGNIZING THAT THEY SHARED THE SAME FATE *UST AS THE TERM hINTERACTION DESIGNv DESCRIBES AN INCREASINGLY MULTIDISCIPLINARY AND HYBRID lELD WHERE COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ART CODE AND PENCIL MEET SO TOO SHOULD WE CONSIDER THE HOLISTIC SENSORY DIMENSION OF OUR ARTIFACTS 4HIS ARTICLE HAS FOCUSED ON ONE OF THESE DIMENSIONS SOUND /THER DIMENSIONS EXIST AND AN INTERESTING CHAL LENGE LIES IN EXAMINING AND COMBINING THESE AREAS WHICH ALTHOUGH INTRINSICALLY CONNECTED AND RELATED IN OUR MULTIMODAL EXISTENCE HAVE BECOME SEPARATED DUE TO PROFESSIONAL DIVERSIlCATION
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)NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS n 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN #HRISTIAN 7EBER
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)NTRODUCTION .O SOONER DO COMPUTERS DISAPPEAR THAN THEY RETURN TO US IN THE FORM OF ADDITIONAL ELECTRONIC GADGETRY INCLUDING GAME CONSOLES MO BILE PHONES 0$!S SUB NOTEBOOKS LAPTOPS AND SO CALLED WEARABLES )N THIS PAPER WE WOULD LIKE TO DESCRIBE A FEW CENTRAL ISSUES CONFRONTING DESIGN IN THE lELD OF WEARABLE COMPUTING !FTER AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC WE WILL lRST DISCUSS AN EXAMPLE OF A WEARABLE THAT OUR OFlCE CREATED IN COLLABORATION WITH )NlNEON 4ECHNOLOGIES !' AND THEN DE SCRIBE THE EXHIBITION THAT WE DEVELOPED FOR &ORUM 3CHLOSSPLATZ !ARAU IN
4HREE $IMENSIONS OF 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS
VIA AN INTEGRATED MICROPHONE OR OTHER EXTERNAL AUDIO DEVICES 4HE FIRST MASS PRODUCED 7ALKMAN WAS THE -ODEL 403 , DEVELOPED BY THE *APANESE MEDIA GIANT 3ONY )T WAS LAUNCHED ON THE *APANESE MARKET ON *ULY IN PRODUCT LINES WITH RATHER SIMPLE TECHNOLOGICAL FEATURES AND LATER DUE TO INCREASING COMPETITION FROM OTHER AUDIO TECHNOLOGY MANUFACTURERS WITH AN EVER GROWING ARRAY OF COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS MICRO PHONE RADIO STATION KEYS WITH FREQUENCY MEMORY LOUD SPEAKERS ADDITIONAL HEADPHONE JACK DIGITAL INPUT OUT PUT RECORDING FUNCTION AUTO REVERSE RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES NOISE SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS A hHOT LINEv BUT TON FOR EXTERNAL NOISES ETC !LL TOLD THE DEVICES CAN BE SEEN AS THE hRESULT OF WORLDWIDE COMPETITION OVER
$ElNITION ! WEARABLE IS A MOBILE NONSTATIONARY COMPUTER THAT IS WORN ON THE BODY )T IS DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT FROM A HANDHELD DEVICE IN THAT IT IS INTEGRATED INTO CLOTHING OR OBJECTS CLOSE TO THE BODY WATCHES CELL PHONES ETC 7EARABLES PROVIDE USERS WITH NEW INTERACTION COMMU NICATION AND INFORMATION GATHERING OPPORTUNITIES /PERATION OF THE WEARABLE SHOULD NOT IMPEDE USERS IN THEIR EVERYDAY ACTIVITIES 7EAR ABLE RESEARCH CURRENTLY FOCUSES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF NETWORKED MOBILE UBIQUITOUS INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION ENVIRONMENTS 7EARABLES x ARE ALWAYS IN OPERATION EXPAND OUR SENSORY AND COMMUNICATIVE CAPACITIES ARE MODULARLY STRUCTURED AND NETWORK ENABLED CAN COMMUNICATE WITH EACH OTHER ARE USED IN PARALLEL TO OTHER ACTIVITIES SUPPORT INFORMATION FROM THE REAL WORLD AUGMENTATION
MINIATURIZATIONv (OWEVER AS FAR AS HI FI ELECTRONICS ARE CONCERNED THE 7ALKMAN CAN ALSO BE INTERPRETED ALSO AS A hFUNCTIONAL REDUCTION A STEP BACKWARD FOR TECHNOLOGY v OR AS A hKIND OF @DEVOLUTIONv &ROM &RANK 3CHØTZLEIN h-OBILE + LANGKUNST â BER DEN 7ALKMAN ALS 7AHRNEHMUNGSMASCHINE v HTTPWWWAKUSTISCHE MEDIENDETEXTEMOBILEHTM HTTPWWWDESIGNPHILIPSCOMVOFTOCHOMEHTM )NTELLIGENCE AMPLIFIER A TERM COINED BY * # 2 ,ICKLIDER IN THE S 3EE ALSO THE ESSAY BY -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD
7E ARE CURRENTLY SEEKING CONCEPTS FOR NETWORKED DECENTRALIZED MOBILE ACCESSORIES TO SUPPLEMENT HYPERFUNCTIONAL COMPUTERS 4HE MOST APPROPRIATE METAPHOR FOR THIS VISION OF THE FUTURE IS NO LONGER THE DESKTOP BUT RATHER A PERSONAL ELECTRONIC CLOUD SURROUNDING THE USER 4HIS CLOUD EXCHANGES COORDINATES AND SUPPLEMENTS INFORMA TION FROM NEIGHBORING CLOUDS 7EARABLES CAN SPONTANEOUSLY CONNECT TO FORM ADAPTIVE AD HOC NETWORKS THAT EXCHANGE INFORMATION EXTEND COMPUTING POWER AND PERMIT MULTI USER GAMING 4HE FOLLOWING lELDS ARE AT THE FOCUS OF WEARABLE RESEARCH UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING WIRELESS COMPUTING FUNCTIONAL FABRIC DISPLAY TECHNOLOGY ENERGY TECHNOLOGY MINIATURIZATION PERCEPTION RECEPTION RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGY USABILITY ETC )NNOVATIVE PRODUCTS AND PRODUCT STRATEGIES WILL ONLY EMERGE IF WE JOINTLY CONSIDER AND BRING TOGETHER THE TECHNOLOGICAL POTENTIAL IN ALL THESE lELDS 7EARABLE COMPUTING CONSTITUTES AN INTER AND TRANSDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH lELD STUDIED BY INTERNATIONAL COMPANIES UNIVERSITIES AND RESEARCH LABORATORIES )T IS A TRANSDISCIPLINARY DISCIPLINE SPAN NING BOTH THE PURE AND THE APPLIED SCIENCES ,AST BUT NOT LEAST IT IS A HIGHLY POPULAR SUBJECT REGULARLY FEATURED IN INTERNATIONAL LIFESTYLE MAGAZINES 4HIS POPULARIZATION BEGAN WHEN 3ONY MARKETED THE lRST 7ALKMAN IN THE LATE S n NOT ONLY VISUALIZING THE hMINIATURIZATION AND MOBILITY IN CONSUMER ELECTRONICSv BUT ALSO SHAPING THE LIFESTYLE OF ENTIRE GENERATIONS UP TO THE PRESENT DAY 4HE DESIGN DEPARTMENT AT 0HILIPS TOOK THE NEXT STEP BREAKING NEW GROUND WITH CONCEPT STUD IES )N ITS h6ISION OF THE &UTUREv PROJECT 0HILIPS DESIGNED AN ENTIRE RANGE OF DIGITAL PRODUCTS THAT ANTICIPATED DIGITALLY SUPPORTED LIFE IN THE TWENTY lRST CENTURY )T ALSO DEVELOPED SCENARIOS FOR THE EXPANDED USE OF TECHNOLOGY INCLUDING AMBIENT INTERFACES INTELLIGENT SPACES AND MINIATURIZED WEARABLE hINTELLIGENCE AMPLIlERSv THAT DEMON STRATED HOW PEOPLE WOULD DEPLOY TECHNOLOGICAL INTELLIGENCE IN THEIR EVERYDAY LIVES IN THE TWENTY lRST CENTURY
)NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS n 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN #HRISTIAN 7EBER
3EE HTTPWWWXYBERNAUTCOM 3EE ALSO )NFINEON 4ECHNOLOGIES -UNICH HTTPWWWINFINEONCOMWEAR ABLE ELECTRONICS /F IMPORTANCE IN THE 3WISS MARKET IS 0ROFESSOR 'ERHARD 4RSTERS )NSTITUTE FOR 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS AT THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUTE OF 4ECHNOLOGY IN :URICH 3EE HTTPWWWWEARABLEETHZCH 3EE HTTPWWWDISAPPEARING COMPUTERNETINDEX HTML h7ALKMANv DESCRIBES A MOBILE DEVICE WITH RELATIVELY SMALL SIMPLE HEADPHONES THAT NOT ONLY PLAYS MUSIC CASSETTES COMPACT DISCS $ISCMAN AND MINI DISCS BUT ALSO STORES COMPUTER DATA -0 PLAYER )T OFTEN FEATURES FUNCTIONS SUCH AS RADIO RECEPTION AND RADIO RECORDING
3EE HTTPWWWSTELARCVACOMAU 3EE HTTPWWWVERICHIPCOM 0 "ORSCHEID $AS 4EMPO 6IRUS EINE +ULTURGESCHICHTE DER "ESCHLEUNIGUNG &RANKFURT A -
!RTISTS HAVE CONTINUED TO RElNE THIS VISION OF A NETWORKED MO BILE WORLD OF INFORMATION !CCORDING TO 3TELARC THE BODY ITSELF WILL BECOME PART OF A VIRTUAL REALITY THAT EVOLVES IN AN ENTIRELY NEW WAY PARALLEL TO TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS )F WE COULD ENGINEER A SYNTHETIC SKIN WHICH COULD ABSORB OXY GEN DIRECTLY THROUGH ITS PORES AND COULD EFlCIENTLY CONVERT LIGHT INTO CHEMICAL NUTRIENTS WE COULD RADICALLY REDESIGN THE BODY ELIMINATING MANY OF ITS REDUNDANT SYSTEMS AND MALFUNCTIONING ORGANS &ULL BODY SUITS THAT ARE USED IN VIRTUAL REALITY CAN BE SEEN AS SIMULATIONS OF AN ALTERED SKIN n AS A SYNTHETIC SKIN THAT HOLLOWS OUT THE BODY IN ORDER TO MAKE IT A BETTER HOST FOR IMPLANTED CIRCUITS !ND THAT SIMULTANE OUSLY IMPROVES ITS INTERFACE WITH THE TECHNOLOGICAL SPACE THAT IT NOW INHABITS !S A lNAL STEP WE WILL UPGRADE OUR BODIES WITH ELECTRONIC EQUIP MENT )N CONTRAST TO MANY OTHER NO LESS VISIONARY TOPICS HERE OUR DESIRE FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT CALIBRATED WITH BOTH OUR NEEDS AND THE TECHNOLOGICAL POTENTIAL HAS TAKEN ON CONCRETE AND EMBLEMATIC FORM 7EARABLES ARE A HIGHLY COMPACT EXPRESSION OF OUR YEARNING FOR ENTERTAINMENT PERMANENT CONNECTION AND INTEGRATION INTO A DIGITAL DATA COSMOS 4HEY ARE SYMBOLS OF TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS AND EMBLEMS OF TECHNOLOGY USE AS IT EFFECTS BOTH INDIVIDUALS AND ALL OF SOCIETY 7E RECOGNIZE THESE DEVICES TO BE A SIGN OF OUR TIMES A SIGN OF THE FURTHER ACCELERATION OF PARALLEL EXPERIENCES OF TIME AND BOTH A MODE ENABLING AND A WAY OF UTILIZING THESE PARALLEL EXPERIENCES OF TIME
)NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS n 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN #HRISTIAN 7EBER
!CCORDING TO -ANN ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF WEARABLES IS THAT THEY ARE CONSTANTLY IN OPERATION 3EE HTTPWEARCAMORG 3EE ALSO HTTPWWWEYEGAZECOM
$ESIGN 1UESTIONS 4HE PLANNING AND PRESENTATION OF USAGE OPTIONS RELATING TO WEAR ABLES AS WELL AS OUR ATTITUDES TOWARD SUCH SYMBOLIC OBJECTS TAKE US TO OTHER CONCEPTS AND SOLUTION DOMAINS 6IA A WEARABLE USERS ENTER INTO A PERMANENT NEW RELATIONSHIP WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENT AND ARE GIVEN TWO NEW CAPABILITIES IE THEY CAN EITHER IMMERSE THEMSELVES IN ABSOLUTE SECLUSION OR ENTER A STATE OF ABSOLUTE CONNECTEDNESS )N ADDI TION TO OUR PRESENCE IN THE REAL WORLD WE RECEIVE AN ADDITIONAL LEVEL OF REPRESENTATION ACTION AND EXPERIENCE (OWEVER WE DO NOT MAP THIS OUT IN CONCRETE TERMS 2ATHER AN INVISIBLE TECHNOLOGY INDUCES US TO GESTICULATE SPEAK ACT AND SHOW 7ITH THIS TECHNOLOGY WE MOVE OB JECTS CONTROL OR DOCUMENT INDISCERNIBLE PROCESSES PRODUCE ENERGY OR TRIGGER DISTANT EVENTS !N INDISCERNIBLE TELEMATIC GESTURE IS ALL THAT IS NEEDED TO OPERATE THE MOST COMPLEX TECHNOLOGY (OWEVER THIS INVISI BLE TECHNOLOGY AND THESE UNSEEN DEVICES PRODUCE FALSE INTERPRETATIONS PERCEPTUAL MISTAKES AND OBJECTIVE DYSFUNCTIONALITIES IN OUR ENVIRON MENTS 7ITH THESE OBSERVATIONS WE LEAVE THE TRADITIONAL CATEGORIES OF DESIGN AND DElNE A RANGE OF TASKS FOR INTERACTION DESIGN WHICH MUST DEVELOP A SYSTEMIC PICTURE OF HUMAN BEINGS THEIR TECHNOLOGIES AND ENVIRONMENT 4HE REACH OF OUR REAL VIRTUAL SIMULTANEITY REQUIRES EF FECTIVE ACTION SPACE MODELS NEW FORMS OF TECHNOLOGY USE NEW SIGNS AND NEW ORIENTATION SYSTEMS (OW CAN WE ACT SIMULTANEOUSLY IN TWO WORLDS n THAT IS IN DATA REALMS AND REAL SPACE (OW CAN WE SIGNAL THAT WE ARE CONNECTED 7HAT ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS WILL EMERGE IN THE FUTURE FOR INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE TECHNOLOGICALLY COMPATIBLE AND CAN THUS DEPLOY THEIR WEARABLES IN AN INVISIBLE NETWORK (OW WILL THEY IDENTIFY THEMSELVES 4ELEMATIC SERVICES NETWORK ENABLED ENTERTAINMENT AS WELL AS INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION FEATURES WILL BE OPERATED VIA MULTIMODAL AMBIENT AND TANGIBLE INTERFACES /NE THING IS CERTAIN WE CANNOT MEET THE NEW CHALLENGES WITH THE DISCRETE KNOWLEDGE OF VISUAL PRODUCT OR INTERFACE DESIGN
7HAT IS THE SIGNIlCANCE OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES THAT MIMIC THE SHAPE AND COLOR OF FASHIONABLE TEXTILES ARTICLES OF CLOTHING AND ACCES SORIES THUS BLURRING THEIR TRADITIONAL BORDERS AS GADGETS 4HE BLEND ING OF DESIGN GENRES n FASHION AND EQUIPMENT n REQUIRES NEW SIGNS NEW FORMS OF EXPRESSION AND USE 4HUS DESIGN WORK IN THIS lELD MUST GRAPPLE WITH THE PROTOTYPICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INTERACTIVE EXPERIENTIAL MODELS &IELDS SUCH AS SPEECH CONTROL MULTIMODAL INTERACTION EYE OPERATION EYE GAZE AS WELL AS CONTEXT ADAPTATION AND SUPPORT AUGMENTED REALITY REPRESENT AN ENTIRELY OBVIOUS SET OF SOLUTIONS 4HE GOAL IS TO PERCEIVE THIS TECHNO LOGICAL POTENTIAL AS A NEW RAW MATERIAL FOR DESIGN 3ELECTION IS NO LON GER BASED ON THE CATEGORICAL BOUNDARIES OF TRADITIONAL DESIGN BUT ON HOW WE PLAN WHAT IS TECHNOLOGICALLY FEASIBLE AND HOW WE ALLOW OTHERS TO EXPERIENCE IT 4O MEET THIS END DESIGN REQUIRES NEW WORKSHOPS AND PROCESSES )T REQUIRES A DIRECT LINK TO THE SCIENCES SINCE EVEN THE SCI ENCES CAN ONLY MAKE HEADWAY IF THEY CONSIDER THE AESTHETIC AND UTILI ZATION ASPECTS OF THEIR INVENTIONS FROM THE START !NOTHER ISSUE IS HOW WE CAN IDENTIFY OURSELVES AND THUS MAKE VIS IBLE THE DIVERSE TECHNICAL FEATURES THAT WE HAVE INCORPORATED INTO OUR FAMILIAR ONCE LIFELESS OBJECTS OR HAVE APPROPRIATED FOR OURSELVES )NTER ACTION DESIGN MUST CHOREOGRAPH THESE INVISIBLE NEW TECHNO CULTURES THEIR GADGETRY AND ACCESSORIES ! lNAL GOAL LIES IN DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGIES FOR POSSIBLE MAN MACHINE INTERACTION IN THE FORM OF MODELS AND IN MAKING SPECIlC IS SUES VISIBLE AND EXAMINABLE INCLUDING SENSUOUSNESS SECURITY INTU ITION MOTIVATION AND SURPRISE -OST OF ALL THE MODELING OF CONCEIV ABLE SOLUTIONS REQUIRES AN AESTHETIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SPHERES THE BEAUTY OF ANONYMITY OF GESTURES AS FUNCTIONAL SIGNS AND IN GENERAL OF MEANS ENDS RELATIONS
HTTPWWWWEARABLE ELECTRONICSDEDEFOTOS? ONEILLASP HTTPWWWONEILLCOM
4OTALE /.EILLS FIRST WEARABLE ELECTRONICS PRODUCT COMING &ALL WITH A COMBINATION OF -0 AND CELLULAR FUNCTIONALITY $ETAIL 5SER )NTERFACE $ETAIL (ARDWARE $OCKING 3TATION
4HE (UB )N COLLABORATION WITH )NlNEON 4ECHNOLOGIES !' 0LASMADESIGN DEVELOPED AN IMPLEMENTABLE CONCEPT FOR AN INTEGRATED WEARABLE COM PUTER 4HIS CONCEPT ILLUSTRATES THE POSSIBLE FORM THAT A FUNCTIONING MARKETABLE PRODUCT CAN TAKE IN (ARDWARE COMPONENTS CONTINUE TO EXIST n WHAT IS CHARACTERISTIC ABOUT THIS PRODUCT IS THAT ITS KEY SUR FACES AND SYMBOLS ARE FABRIC INTERFACES AND THEIR TEXTUALIZED MARK INGS ON THE JACKET 4HE HARDWARE ITSELF REMAINS INVISIBLE IN THE JACKETS INSIDE LINING /.EILL RELEASED THIS PRODUCT WITH THE PITCH h4HE (UB THE WORLDS lRST MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS AND ENTERTAINMENT JACKET BY /.EILL /.EILL %UROPE UNVEILS THEIR LATEST CREATION BY BLENDING AN -0 PLAYER A "LUETOOTH MOBILE PHONE MODULE AND A SUPER FUNCTIONAL SNOWBOARD JACKET INTO ONEv
)NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS n 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN #HRISTIAN 7EBER
3KETCHES FROM THE h!RTS &ILM AND ,ITERATUREv h$ESIGN 3TUDIES AND !PPLICATION 3CENARIOSv h6IEW )NTO #URRENT 3TATE /F 2ESEARCHv
4HE %XHIBITION 4O LAUNCH THE TOPIC FOR OUR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM WE DEVELOPED AN EXHIBITION IN THAT FOCUSED ON FOUR IMPORTANT ISSUES "ASED ON EXAMPLES FROM FOUR THEMATIC lELDS THE EXHIBITION TOOK VISITORS TO THE WORLD OF hWEARABLE COMPUTINGv 4EXTS SUPPLIED EXPLANATIONS AND ANALYSES WHILE ILLUSTRATIONS GRAPHICS AND ORIGINAL OBJECTS PROVIDED A WEALTH OF VISUAL INFORMATION 2 )N 2OOM VISITORS WERE CONFRONTED WITH VISIONARY IDEAS FROM ART lLM AND LITERATURE 4HE WHOLE RANGE OF HUMAN FANTASY IS REmECTED IN ART PARTICULARLY IN SCIENCE lCTION AS ONE OF ITS MOST POPULAR GENRES 3INCE TIME IMMEMORIAL THE HUMAN IMAGINATION HAS BEEN lRED BY THE IDEA OF MAN AND MACHINES NOT ONLY BECOMING SIMILAR BUT FUSING /VER THE LAST FEW YEARS lLM HAS EXPLORED THESE IDEAS WITH INCREASING REAL ISM 4HE CONCEIVABLE TAKES ON GRANDIOSE AND HORRIlC FORM IN lLMS IN THE PERFORMING ARTS AND IN LITERATURE 2 2OOM EXAMINED HUMAN BEINGS THEIR NEEDS AND DESIRES )T FO CUSED ON DESIGN STUDIES AND APPLICATION SCENARIOS FROM VARIOUS LABO RATORIES DESIGN STUDIOS AND FACTORIES )N CONTRAST TO THE TECHNOLOGI CAL VISIONS PRESENTED IN THE PREVIOUS ROOMS THESE EXHIBITS ILLUSTRATED BOTH THE LIMITS AND THE POTENTIAL OF CURRENT TECHNOLOGY 2 2OOM SUPPLEMENTED THESE FANTASTIC AND UTOPIAN IDEAS WITH A PRESENTATION OF THE CURRENT STATE OF RESEARCH )T NOT ONLY SHOWED BUT ALSO EXPLAINED RESEARCH RESULTS AND CONCEPTS 4HE OBJECTS IN THIS SEC OND ROOM WERE INTENDED TO PROVIDE INSPIRATION FOR ONGOING REmECTION ON THE TOPIC AND ITS POTENTIAL
)NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS n 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN #HRISTIAN 7EBER
' 3CHULZE $IE "ESTE ALLER 7ELTEN WOHIN BEWEGT SICH DIE 'ESELLSCHAFT IM *AHRHUNDERT -ÓNCHEN
%XAMPLES /F 7EARABLE %LECTRONICS IN %VERYDAY 5SE %XAMPLES /F 7EARABLE %LECTRONICS IN %VERYDAY 5SE
2 )N THE FOURTH AND LAST ROOM WE DISPLAYED TRADITIONAL PROSTHETIC hWEARABLESv SUCH AS CARDIAC PACEMAKERS AND HEARING AIDS /UR INTENT WAS TO DEMONSTRATE THAT HUMAN BEINGS STARTED DOWN THE PATH OF MIN IATURIZATION MOBILIZATION AND SUBSTITUTION AUGMENTATION SOME YEARS AGO #ONCLUSION 7EARABLE COMPUTING IS AN INTERDISCIPLINARY lELD STUDIED BY SCIEN TISTS DESIGNERS TEXTILE PROFESSIONALS AND OTHER SPECIALISTS 7ORKING TO GETHER WE CAN TEST REAL WORLDS OF EXPERIENCE AND MEET THE NEW DESIGN CHALLENGES POSED BY THE FACT THAT ONE CAN ONLY TRULY RECOGNIZE A QUALITY WHEN IT IS EXPERIENCED )N CONCLUSION WE WOULD LIKE TO CITE 'ERHARD 3CHULZE WHO RECOGNIZES IN THESE TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES THE TREND TO WARD hRETAINING THE EXISTING POSSIBILITIES AND MASTERING THEIR USEv /UR GOAL IS TO PERFECT AND AESTHETICIZE THESE NEW FORMS OF TECHNOLOGY USE
)NTERACTIVE 3YSTEMS n 7EARABLE #OMPUTERS 'ERHARD - "UURMAN #HRISTIAN 7EBER
"ETWEEN -AN AND -ACHINE 2APHAEL 0ERRET
)NTRODUCTION /UR SENSES ENABLE US TO ORIENT OURSELVES IN THE WORLD 2EGARDLESS OF WHETHER WE PLACE THE EMPHASIS ON OUR SENSE OF SIGHT OR NOT WE FORM A hPICTUREv OF OUR ENVIRONMENT AND ACT ACCORDING TO OUR IMPRES SIONS #LEARLY THERE ARE DIFFERENCES IN THE PERCEPTUAL CAPACITY OF THE HUMAN SENSES BY WHICH ) MEAN THE lVE TRADITIONAL SENSES OF SIGHT HEARING TOUCH SMELL AND TASTE 7ITH THE HELP OF SENSORS IT IS POSSIBLE FOR MACHINES TO hPERCEIVEv EVENTS TO EVALUATE THEM AND REACT TO THEM )N THIS WAY A PROCESS OF EX CHANGE EMERGES BETWEEN MACHINE AND ENVIRONMENT ONE THAT CAN AS SUME DIVERSE FORMS AND LEAD TO CONSEQUENCES WHICH CAN BE DIFlCULT TO PREDICT 4HE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH WE lND OURSELVES INVOLVED IN SUCH PROCESSES IN OUR HIGHLY TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD HAS INCREASED SHARPLY IN RECENT HISTORY AND IN VIEW OF CONTINUING TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT WILL PROBABLY CONTINUE TO DO SO IN THE FUTURE -ECHANICAL SENSORS CAN GENERATE A MIRROR IMAGE THAT INFORMS THE WAY WE UNDERSTAND OURSELVES (OWEVER IT IS WE HUMANS WHO MUST INTERPRET THE IMAGES WHICH ARE GENERATED -ACHINES CAN ALSO EVALUATE IMAGES AND REACT TO THEM n EITHER AS THE RESULT OF A PREDETERMINED REACTIVE PROCESS OR AS PART OF AN INTERACTIVE PROCESS THAT INCORPORATES ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE n A PROCEDURE IN WHICH MAN AND MACHINE ENTER INTO A RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP AND WHICH ALLOWS FOR SPONTANEOUS COM MUNICATION 7HATEVER THE CASE WE ARE DEALING HERE WITH A PROCESS OF EXCHANGE THAT GIVEN ITS INCREASING PERVASIVENESS AND EXTENSIVE POTEN TIAL REQUIRES DETAILED DESIGN )N THIS TEXT ) WOULD LIKE TO EXAMINE HOW MACHINES PERCEIVE US AND INVESTIGATE THEIR CAPACITY TO REACT TO THE hIMAGEv OF US WHICH IS GENER ATED ) WILL THEN CONSIDER HOW WE OURSELVES ENCOUNTER THE REACTIONS OF MACHINES AND THE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS THAT CAN BE GENERATED IN THIS PROCESS
"%47%%. -!. !.$ -!#().% 2APHAEL 0ERRET
7ILLIAM 'IBSON .EUROMANCER ,ONDON
3!-S WORKPLACE %-0! 3T 'ALLEN 0HOTOGRAPHY %LIAS 5LLI
3IMULATION OF 2EALITY 2EPRESENTATION OF )NFORMATION h#YBERSPACE ! CONSENSUAL HALLUCINATION EXPERIENCED DAILY BY BIL LIONS OF LEGITIMATE OPERATORS IN EVERY NATION BY CHILDREN BEING TAUGHT MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS x ! GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF DATA ABSTRACTED FROM THE BANKS OF EVERY COMPUTER IN THE HUMAN SYSTEM 5NTHINKABLE COMPLEXITY ,INES OF LIGHT RANGED IN THE NONSPACE OF THE MIND CLUSTERS AND CONSTELLATIONS OF DATA ,IKE CITY LIGHTS RECEDING xv )N HIS NOVEL .EUROMANCER PUBLISHED IN 7ILLIAM 'IBSON DElNES THE CONCEPTS OF CYBERSPACE AND VIRTUAL REALITY )N THE ABOVE EXCERPT CYBERSPACE IS DESCRIBED AS A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF DATA INFORMATION lLED IN COMPUTER DATA BANKS AND RENDERED LEGIBLE VISUAL FOR US HUMANS )T IS A DESCRIPTION THAT CORRESPONDS PRECISELY TO THE )N TERNET AS WE KNOW IT TODAY (OWEVER A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF DATA IS NOT LIMITED TO THE )NTERNET %VERY TYPE OF ELECTRONIC DATA CAN BE REP RESENTED VISUALLY OR IN ANOTHER FORM JUST AS EVERY ELECTRONIC MEDIUM CAN IN PRINCIPLE TRANSMIT EVERY TYPE OF DATA
3ENSORS 5SING TECHNOLOGICAL SENSORS WE CAN DEPICT PHYSICAL REALITY AND THE EVENTS TAKING PLACE WITHIN IT n IN OTHER WORDS WE CAN PRODUCE A REAL TIME SIMULATION OF THIS REALITY )NITIALLY SUCH TECHNOLOGICALLY GENERATED DEPICTIONS WERE THE PRODUCT OF ANALOG INVENTIONS SUCH AS CHEMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE PHONOGRAPH 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPUTER SAW THE EMERGENCE OF A hSUPER MACHINE v FOR ANALOG RECORDING )N THIS SENSE EVERY COMPUTER IS A POTENTIAL RECORDING DEVICE THAT IN SO FAR AS IT IS EQUIPPED WITH THE APPROPRIATE SENSORS CAN PERCEIVE ITS ENVIRON MENT FORM AN ELECTRICAL SIMULATION OF IT AND REPRESENT IT !SSUMING THAT ANY TYPE OF DATA ENTRY INTO A COMPUTER CAN TAKE ON A FORM COM PREHENSIBLE TO THE HUMAN EYE THE OBJECT SPACE WE NOW lND OURSELVES IN CAN IN THEORY BE COMPLETELY MIRRORED ON STORAGE MEDIA THE VIRTUAL IMAGE SPACE /NE REMARKABLE ASPECT OF THIS IS THE COMPUTER MEDIUMS CAPACITY TO STORE AND REPRODUCE IMAGES IRRESPECTIVE OF LOCATION )N THEORY DIGITAL MEMORIES EXTEND FROM THE BEGINNING OF RECORDING TO THE PRESENT MOMENT GIVEN THAT THEY HAVE BEEN TRANSFERRED TO A STORAGE MEDIUM ! LARGE PART OF THE COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE TAKES PLACE VIA THE HUMAN EYE !S A RESULT THE INPUT AND OUTPUT OF COMMANDS ARE COMMONLY REPRESENTED USING SCREENS 4HE SENSORS CONNECTED TO THE COMPUTER CAN FUNCTION AS COPIES OF HUMAN SENSORY ORGANS OR ACT IN WAYS QUITE FOREIGN TO THE ACTIVITY OF THE HUMAN SENS ES &OR INSTANCE IN TECHNICAL AND FUNCTIONAL TERMS A VIDEO CAMERA IS COMPARABLE TO THE HUMAN EYE !N ULTRASOUND DEVICE PROVIDES US WITH INSIGHTS INTO WORKINGS OF THE BODY THAT CANNOT BE PERCEIVED BY THE HUMAN SENSES 7ITH THE HELP OF A SOUND EMITTER AND A SOUND SENSOR THE EYE IS ABLE TO LOOK INTO THE BODY WHILE A VIDEO CAMERA PROVIDES THE OBSERVER WITH EXTERNAL VIEWS WHICH ARE NORMALLY HIDDEN
"ETWEEN -AN AND -ACHINE 2APHAEL 0ERRET
-ARSHALL -C,UHAN h$IE -AGISCHEN + ANØLE v IN -ARTIN "ALTES &RITZ "HLER 2AINER (LTSCHL *ÓRGEN 2EUSS EDS -EDIEN VERSTEHEN $ER -C,UHAN 2EADER -ANNHEIM
3!-S INTERFACE %-0! 3T 'ALLEN 0HOTOGRAPHY %LIAS 5LLI
3IMULATION DATA CAN ALSO DERIVE FROM VARIOUS INDEPENDENT SEN SOR SOURCES FOR INSTANCE WHEN OUR PURCHASES VIA A CUSTOMER CARD ARE PERSONIlED AND STORED OR THE COORDINATES OF A MOBILE TELEPHONE ARE RETAINED OVER A PERIOD OF TIME %VEN THIS TEXT WHICH ) AM WRITING ON A COMPUTER KEYBOARD COMPOSED OF PRESSURE SENSORS IS GENERATED BY AN IMAGE MADE UP OF LETTERS ON A SCREEN WHICH IN TURN CAN BE TRACED BACK TO THE MOVEMENTS OF MY lNGERS 4HE MULTIFUNCTIONAL CHARACTER OF THE COMPUTER MAKES IT POSSIBLE NOT ONLY TO REGISTER VISUAL DATA BUT TO PRO CESS ANY ELECTRICAL INFORMATION 4HE PATTERN RECORDED BY THE SENSOR IS THUS ONE PIECE OF A POTENTIALLY MULTIDIMENSIONAL SIMULATION IN WHICH EVERY INDIVIDUAL ELEMENT CARRIES WITHIN IT THE INFORMATION MAKING UP THE SIMULATION AS A WHOLE %ACH INDIVIDUAL ELEMENT IS THEREBY A FACET OF THE OVERALL IMAGE )N THE ABOVE MENTIONED EXAMPLES OF IMAGES THE OBSERVER OF THE SIMULATION IS CONFRONTED WITH THE hMEDIAL EXTENSION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM v AS -ARSHALL -C,UHAN PUTS IT IN h4HE -AGIC #HANNELSv 4HESE EXTENSIONS OF THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE RESULTING IN TERNAL AND EXTERNAL VIEWPOINTS HAVE MADE IT POSSIBLE TO CREATE SIMULA TIONS THAT ARE INDEPENDENT OF TIME AND PLACE AND THAT WOULD OTHERWISE BE BEYOND THE PERCEPTIVE CAPACITIES OF THE HUMAN SENSES 4HEY CAN THEREBY FORM A COMPREHENSIBLE BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING FACTS WHICH ARE NOT OBVIOUSLY PERCEPTIBLE AND FOR GRASPING THE CONNECTIONS WHICH ARISE FROM THEM
#OMMUNICATION WITH -ACHINES $O YOU LIKE MY PROlLE 7HETHER CONSCIOUSLY OR NOT WE ARE SURROUNDED BY A MULTITUDE OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES )N ORDER TO RESPOND TO COMMANDS AND TO BE ABLE TO RESPOND TO OUR NEEDS SUCH DEVICES MUST POSSESS A SENSORY APPARATUS 4HIS APPARATUS IS CONSTITUTED IN SUCH A WAY THAT IT ACTS AS A lLTER THAT ONLY PERCEIVES THE EVENTS RELEVANT TO IT 4HIS SENSORY PERCEPTION YIELDS A COLLECTION OF DATA THAT REmECTS ONE OF MANY POSSIBLE VIEWS OF REALITY AND THUS FORMS A PARTIAL REPRESENTATION OF THE EVENT 3EEN IN THIS WAY EVERY DATA TRACE LEFT BEHIND IN VIRTUAL SPACE IS A PARTIAL SIMULATION AS WELL AS A NEW ELEMENT AND A DOCUMENTED HISTORY OF THE PERSONALITY OF THE CAUSATIVE AGENT 4HE MACHINES PERCEPTION BECOMES THE POINT OF DEPARTURE FOR THE EXCHANGE PROCESS BETWEEN HUMAN AND MACHINE 4HE FORM THIS TAKES IS ALL THE MORE AGREEABLE THE MORE PRECISELY OUR WISHES ARE RECOGNIZED )N MOST CASES A MACHINE HAS ACCESS TO A PREPROGRAMMED NUMBER OF POSSIBLE ANSWERS FROM WHICH ONE CAN BE SELECTED 4HIS RESULTS IN A FURTHER RANGE OF OPTIONS 2EPRESENTED PICTORIALLY EACH SELECTION LEVEL IS ATTACHED TO SEVERAL BRANCHES AND THE USER THUS PROCEEDS ALONG A PRESCRIBED hDECISION TREEv 4HE EXCHANGE PROCESS FOLLOWS THE USER PRO lLE PERCEIVED BY THE MACHINE 7HEN A QUESTION IS PUT TO THE MACHINE IT RESPONDS WITH A RANGE OF ANSWERS THE ANSWER WHICH IS THEN SELECTED BECOMES A FURTHER PIECE OF THE PROlLE 4HIS MEANS THAT THE PROlLE CAN BE ALTERED DURING USE n A PROCESS DESCRIBED IN MANY SOFTWARE APPLI CATIONS AS INTERACTION (OWEVER WHAT IS OF FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE HERE ARE PREPROGRAMMED ACTIONS BY BOTH MACHINE AND HUMAN 4HE REACTIONS OF THE USER TO THE INTERFACES OF THE MACHINES AND THEIR DY NAMIC REACTIONS TO THE USER GENERATE A CIRCUIT 4HE MACHINES PROGRAM SNEAKS AS IT WERE INTO THE USERS PHYSICAL REALITY n IN THE SENSE THAT THE ENSUING REACTION AND ITS EFFECT ON THE PHYSICAL SPACE ARE AN ELEMENT OF THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF ALL POSSIBILITIES CONTAINED IN THE MACHINES PRO GRAM 4HE USER THUS COMPILES A TWO PART PROGRAM IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS NEEDS 4HE lRST PART IS PLAYED OUT AS A SIMULATION IN VIRTUAL SPACE WHILE THE SECOND IS EXECUTED IN PHYSICAL SPACE
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-ARSHALL -C,UHAN WITH 7ILFRED 7ATSON &ROM #LICH£ 4O !RCHETYPE .EW 9ORK -ARIO 3IXTUS h:EITGEIST 3PHØREN UND "URSTS 'OOGLE UND DIE DUNKLE 3EITE DER -ACHT n 4EIL v $%"5' !UGUST
3!-S SWEAT %-0! 3T 'ALLEN 0HOTOGRAPHY %LIAS 5LLI
/NE POSSIBLE REACTION TO DEPICTIONS OF OURSELVES IN VIRTUAL SPACE IS THE CONFRONTATION WITH THE ENSUING CONSEQUENCES 3UCH A CONFRONTA TION CAN BE VERY SURPRISING IN CASES WHERE WE ARE NOT AWARE THAT WE HAVE BEEN hCAPTUREDv n AS IS THE CASE WHEN A SPEEDING TICKET MAKES US AWARE WE HAVE BEEN DRIVING TOO FAST ! MORE SUBTLE INSTANCE IS THAT OF ENCOUNTERS WITH )NTERNET BOOK RETAILERS WHO ANALYZE THE CLICK AND PURCHASING BEHAVIOR OF THEIR CUS TOMERS AND MAKE OFFERS BASED ON ASSOCIATED THEMES 4HE SAME APPLIES TO SUPERMARKETS THAT ESTABLISH CUSTOMER PROlLES BY WAY OF CUSTOMER CARDS IN ORDER TO ADAPT RETAIL OUTLETS TO CUSTOMER NEEDS )N THE CASE OF THE SUPERMARKET IT MAY BE THAT INDIVIDUAL CUSTOMERS ARE TARGETED WITH A SPECIAL OFFER FOR THEIR FAVORITE PRODUCT $UE TO THE FACT THAT THE RETAIL OUTLET AND THE EXCHANGE PROCESS ARE IN THE PUBLIC SPHERE THE VISITORS EXPERIENCE IS THE SAME FOR ALL CONSUMERS 4HE PERSONALIZED OFFER BY THE )NTERNET BOOK RETAILER IS DIFFERENT )T IS NOT POSSIBLE TO CHECK HOW GOOD THE OFFER IS IN COMPARISON WITH THOSE FOR OTHER CUSTOMERS HOW IT CAME ABOUT AND WHICH TITLES ARE NOT BEING INCLUDED IN THE OFFER 0ER HAPS THE SAME ARTICLE IS BEING OFFERED TO ANOTHER CUSTOMER AT THE SAME TIME FOR A BETTER PRICE 7HATEVER THE CASE PERSONALIZED OFFERS THAT ARE INDEPENDENT OF LOCATION HAVE ADVANTAGES 4HERE IS A GREATER POSSIBIL ITY THAT THE OFFER CORRESPONDS EXACTLY TO CONSUMER INTERESTS AND IT IS EASIER FOR THE SUPPLIER TO BUILD UP AN EFFECTIVE INVENTORY SYSTEM
3MILE PLEASE h)T IS JUST WHEN PEOPLE ARE ALL ENGAGED IN SNOOPING ON THEMSELVES AND ONE ANOTHER THAT THEY BECOME ANESTHETIZED TO THE WHOLE PROCESS 4RANQUILIZERS AND ANESTHETICS PRIVATE AND CORPORATE BECOME THE LARG EST BUSINESS IN THE WORLD JUST AS THE WORLD IS ATTEMPTING TO MAXIMIZE EVERY FORM OF ALERT 3OUND LIGHT SHOWS AS NEW CLICH£ ARE IN EFFECT MERGERS RETRIEVERS OF THE TRIBAL CONDITION )T IS A STATE THAT HAS ALREADY OVERTAKEN PRIVATE ENTERPRISE AS INDIVIDUAL BUSINESSES FORM INTO MAS SIVE CONGLOMERATES !S INFORMATION ITSELF BECOMES THE LARGEST BUSINESS IN THE WORLD DATA BANKS KNOW MORE ABOUT INDIVIDUAL PEOPLE THAN THE PEOPLE DO THEMSELVES 4HE MORE THE DATABANKS RECORD ABOUT EACH ONE OF US THE LESS WE EXISTv )N THIS GLOOMY PREDICTION -C,UHAN REFERS TO THE POWER THAT AC CRUES FROM KNOWLEDGE OF SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL 7HETHER INTEN TIONALLY OR NOT THIS KNOWLEDGE IS A BYPRODUCT OF THE ELECTRIC LIFESTYLE AND ENTAILS A HIGH DEGREE OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR THOSE WHO POSSESS IT SINCE THE USE OF SUCH DATA CAN EASILY IMPINGE ON ETHICAL AND MORAL BOUNDARIES (OWEVER THIS DOES NOT EXCLUDE THE POSSIBILITY OF APPRO PRIATE USE !CCORDING TO AN ARTICLE IN THE MONTHLY JOURNAL $E"UG THE POPULAR AND FUNCTIONALLY SUPERIOR SEARCH ENGINE 'OOGLE RUNS SOME TO PERCENT OF )NTERNET SEARCHES 'OOGLE WHICH HAS BUILT ITS SUCCESS ON THE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF LINK STRUCTURES IS FAR AHEAD OF THE COMPETITION IN TERMS OF PROVIDING PRECISE HITS 2ECENTLY 'OOGLE ACQUIRED THE lRM 0YRA AND ITS 7EBLOG SYSTEM h"LOGGERv 7EBLOGS OR BLOGS ARE UNCENSORED PERSONAL AND REGULARLY UPDATED 7EB SITES FEATURING TEXTS AND LINKS RELATING TO CURRENT EVENTS 4HE 7EBLOG PROVIDES A DETAILED REmECTION OF THE PREVAILING :EITGEIST FROM THE SUBJECTIVE VIEWPOINT OF ITS EDITOR ! RElNED PICTURE OF THE MOST CURRENT TOPICS ON THE .ET IS OFFERED BY SO CALLED BLOG INDICES SUCH AS BLOGDEXNET DAYPOPCOM OR BLOGOSPHEREUS 4HESE SEARCH THROUGH THE HUGE NUMBER OF BLOGS AND THE SITES THEY ARE LINKED TO
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"URNED HAND %-0! 3T 'ALLEN 0HOTOGRAPHY %LIAS 5LLI
4HE MOST CURRENT THEMES AND THE MOST COMMONLY LINKED 7EB SITES ARE THEN PRESENTED ON THE BLOG INDICES )N THE FUTURE USING ITS SEARCH ENGINE AND INNUMERABLE 7EBLOGS 'OOGLE WILL BE IN A POSITION TO OF FER PRECISE hSNAPSHOTSv OF THE NETWORKED SOCIETY A SERVICE THAT WILL CERTAINLY BE TAKEN ADVANTAGE OF BY JOURNALISTS IN SEARCH OF EXCITING SUBJECTS n WHICH WILL IN TURN HAVE AN EFFECT ON THE 7EBLOGS 7EBLOG SERVICES GATHER INFORMATION IN PART THROUGH OTHER BLOGS AND IN PART THROUGH MEDIA REPORTS 4HIS CAN LEAD TO A THEMATIC SHORT CIRCUIT !CCORDING TO $E"UG 'OOGLE IS ACTIVELY COLLECTING DATA ON ITS US ERS 7ITH THE HELP OF A COOKIE WHICH WILL OPERATE UNTIL AND WHICH IS LOADED ONTO THE COMPUTER WHEN THE SEARCH ENGINE IS USED THE COM PANY HUNTS DOWN DATA 4HE )NTERNET %XPLORER ON 7INDOWS SYSTEMS INCLUDES AN ADDITIONAL 'OOGLE TOOLBAR "OTH ARE DESIGNED TO SEND THE )0 ADDRESSES TIME DATE BROWSER CONlGURATION AND LANGUAGE OF EACH SEARCH INQUIRY TO THE COMPANY &URTHERMORE A PARTNERSHIP EXISTS BE TWEEN 'OOGLE AND !LEXA AN ENTERPRISE BELONGING TO THE ONLINE RETAILER !MAZONCOM WHICH HAS SPECIALIZED IN THE COLLECTION OF USER INFORMA TION 4O MEET THE DEMAND FOR KNOWLEDGE !LEXA ALSO OFFERS A TOOLBAR THE TECHNOLOGY FOR WHICH IS A STANDARD INCLUSION IN THE )NTERNET %X PLORER AND THE 7INDOWS 80 OPERATING SYSTEM 4HERE ARE ADVANTAGES TO HAVING ACCESS TO THE DEPICTIONS OF CUR RENT EVENTS PROVIDED BY BLOGS 4HE INFORMATION PUBLISHED IN THIS WAY IS MORE CURRENT THAN SEARCH ENGINE RESULTS 3INCE THE LATTER RE INDEX THEMSELVES EVERY FEW WEEKS IT IS ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE TO TRACK DOWN CUR RENT EVENTS ON THEM )N THEIR CAPACITY TO COMMENT ON THE NEWS AS IT BREAKS BLOGS FORM A .ET WIDE FEEDBACK SYSTEM FOR PEOPLE IN THE PUB LIC EYE AND INSTITUTIONS WHICH SHAPE PUBLIC OPINION !S A RESULT THE IN FORMATION AND IMAGERY PRESENTED PLAYS A MEDIATING ROLE BETWEEN IN TERACTING PARTIES FORMING AN INFORMATION CIRCUIT WHICH AFFORDS EQUAL RIGHTS TO ALL PARTIES INVOLVED
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HTTPWWWSODELI
DRESSCODE 4HREE PICTURES OUT OF A SEQUENCE 'ENERATED DURING THE USE OF THE INSTALLATION -ARCH 4OP LEFT SQUARE LEFT HALF 3IGHT OF THE INSTALLATIONS TWO CAMERAS ON USERS 4OP LEFT SQUARE RIGHT HALF 3AME SIGHT WITH THE USERS TRACES VISUALISED UPON 4OP RIGHT SQUARE 0ATTERN OF THE TWO USERS AND THE COM PUTERS TRACES "OTTOM RIGHT #OMPUTER CALCULATED AVERAGE OF THE TWO USERS POSITIONS "OTTOM LEFT 0ATTERN MIRRORED FOUR TIMES
$RESSCODE -Y INSTALLATION $RESSCODE IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE EXCHANGE PROCESS AMONG EQUAL PARTNERS 4HE POINT OF DEPARTURE WAS THE QUESTION OF HOW DATA TRACES AND THE PATTERNS EMERGING FROM THEM COULD RETURN TO THE REAL SPACE IN RECOGNIZABLE FORM 4HE INSTALLATION ALLOWS TWO PEOPLE TO CREATE AND VISUALIZE VIRTUAL PATTERNS WITH A COMPUTER $RESSCODE CONSISTS OF TWO CAMERAS CONNECTED TO A COMPUTER EACH OF WHICH IS AIMED AT A lELD ON THE mOOR 7HEN TWO PEOPLE ENTER THE VISUAL lELDS OF THE CAMERAS THE COMPUTER VISUALIZES THEIR POSITIONS IN hREAL TIMEv )N THIS PROCESS THEIR MOVEMENT PATTERNS BECOME VIRTUAL PATTERNS )N OR DER TO SHIFT THE LATTER INTO REAL SPACE ) USED TEXTILES THAT WERE MADE INTO GARMENTS THAT COULD BE WORN BY THE ORIGINATORS OF THE PATTERNS 4EXTILES CONSIST OF A MATRIX OF THREADS WHICH FORM A DIGITAL PATTERN COMPARABLE TO THAT USED IN COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY ,IKE THE DATA TRACES IN VIRTUAL SPACE OUR CLOTHES PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT OUR PERSONALITY 4HE AIM OF THIS WORK IS TO RETURN THE DATA GENERATED IN A SURVEIL LANCE SITUATION TO ITS ORIGINATORS IN AN INDEPENDENT DESIGN PROCESS )N A JOINTLY EXECUTED INTERACTIVE PROCESS TWO EQUAL PARTNERS GENERATE A PATTERN THAT REmECTS THE EXECUTED ACTIONS AS VISUALIZED DATA (OWEVER THERE IS NO POSSIBILITY OF RETROSPECTIVE CORRECTION 4HIS MEANS THAT THE COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR OF THOSE USING THE INSTALLATION TAKES ON A CEN TRAL SIGNIlCANCE 7HEN PROCESSED IN THE FORM OF TEXTILES THE INTERAC TION PROCESS CAN BE EXPERIENCED PHYSICALLY 4HE PATTERNS THUS BECOME A REMINDER OF A JOINTLY DESIGNED PROCESS AND A NEW REALITY 2EmECTIONS )N MEDICINE BIO OR NEURO FEEDBACK THERAPIES INVOLVE THE AP PLICATION OF A FEEDBACK LOOP FOR THERAPEUTIC PURPOSES 4HE BASIC AIM HERE IS TO MEASURE ELECTRICAL CHARGES IN THE BRAIN OR THE MUSCLES 5S ING A VISUAL OR ACOUSTIC SIMULATION OF THE RELEVANT VOLTAGE THE PATIENT CAN LEARN TO NORMALIZE THE ABNORMAL FREQUENCIES THROUGH A PROCESS OF TRAINING -OREOVER HE OR SHE CAN ALSO DEVELOP AN AWARENESS OF A NORMAL STATE /F COURSE TO ESTABLISH THE MEASURE OF A NORMAL STATE AND TO DIAGNOSE THE NEED FOR THERAPY A DATA BASE OF COMPARATIVE VALUES IS REQUIRED 4HE POTENTIAL RISK HERE IS THAT THE COMPARISON WITH MEAN
VALUES CAN RESULT IN A hNORMALIZATIONv OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS 4HIS USE OF THE FEEDBACK LOOP INVOLVES A TYPE OF SYMBIOSIS BETWEEN HUMAN AND MACHINE AND ILLUSTRATES HOW A DIRECT CONNECTION BETWEEN PARTS OF THE BODY CAN BE ESTABLISHED THROUGH THE TRANSFORMATION OF ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE )N THIS WAY THE SIMULATION IS GIVEN A COMPREHENSIBLE FORM AND TRANSFORMED INTO PHYSICAL EXPERIENCE n A TRUE EXTENSION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM )T IS CONCEIVABLE THAT THE IMAGES GENERATED BY SUCH INTERACTIVE PROCESSES COULD ALSO LEAD TO A DEGREE OF SELF AWARENESS IN THE NONMED ICAL AREA )T WOULD BE VERY INTERESTING TO KNOW WHAT WAS PURCHASED AND WHERE IT WAS PURCHASED IN THE COURSE OF A MONTH 7E WOULD l NALLY KNOW IN DETAIL WHAT WE ARE EATING AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COSTS CALORIES AND THE BUSINESSES WE SUPPORT !CCESS TO THE SIMULA TION WOULD COMPLETE THE CIRCUIT OF INFORMATION )F WE LET DOWN OUR MASK THEN IT SHOULD BE APPARENT IN RETROSPECT HOW WE ARE PERCEIVED 4HE RESULTING INCREASE IN OUR SELF PERCEPTION WOULD POTENTIALLY EXTEND OUR PREPROGRAMMED RADIUS OF ACTION )N ORDER TO BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE DIGITAL MIRROR IMAGE A COMPARISON OF PERSONAL DATA WITH MEAN VALUES WOULD BE INDISPENSABLE SINCE IT IS ONLY IN CONTEXT THAT A MEANINGFUL ASSESSMENT BECOMES POSSIBLE )NTER RELATIONS NOT DIRECTLY SELF EVIDENT IN OUR LIFESTYLE WOULD BECOME AP PARENT 7E WOULD BE ABLE TO OBSERVE A RECORD OF OUR CONNECTIONS AND ENTANGLEMENTS n A DEPICTION OF THE CONSUMED GOODS A COUNTERPART TO lNANCIAL ACCOUNTING A PERSONALIZED PIECE OF GLOBALIZATION THAT ONLY WE COULD ACCOUNT FOR #AUSE AND EFFECT WOULD BE BROUGHT INTO DIRECT CONFRONTATION .OT ONLY THE INFORMATION AS TO hWHATv WE CONSUME BUT ALSO THE POSSIBILITY OF ANSWERING hWHYv COULD GENERATE THE KNOWLEDGE THAT COULD IN TURN PROMOTE A SELF CORRECTION
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HTTPWORLDHONDACOM!3)-/ 7ILLIAM 'IBSON .EUROMANCER ,ONDON (ARPER #OLLINS 0UBLISHERS +NIGHT 2IDER n 46 53! -#! 5NIVERSAL #ITY 3TUDIO 0HILIP + $ICK $O !NDROIDS $REAM OF %LECTRIC 3HEEP ,ONDON /RION "OOKS ,TD 2IDLEY 3COTT "LADE 2UNNER
0AGE DRESSCODE ,ISA WEARING THE PATTERN SHE CREATED WITH 4OM *ANUARY &ABRICDESIGN !NNETTE $OUGLAS &ABRICPRODUCTION 7EIS BROD :ÓRRER !' &ASHIONDESIGN 2OSA 0RESEDO 0HOTOG RAPHY #HRISTIAN + NRR 3TYLING 2UTH "UGMANN 0AGE DRESSCODE 4OM WEARING THE PAT TERN HE CREATED WITH ,ISA *ANUARY &ABRICDESIGN !NNETTE $OUGLAS &ABRICPRODUCTION 7EIS BROD :ÓRRER !' &ASHIONDESIGN 2OSA 0RESEDO 0HOTOG RAPHY #HRISTIAN + NRR 3TYLING 2UTH "UGMANN
-ACHINES AS 0ARTNERS (AVING MACHINES IN OUR VICINITY IS NOT UNUSUAL IN ITSELF &OR THE MOST PART COMMUNICATION WITH THEM PROCEEDS VIA NONINTUITIVE IN TERFACES $UE TO A LACK OF ADEQUATE DEPLOYMENT OR A TECHNOLOGICALLY hBACKWARDv SENSORY APPARATUS WHAT WE WANT MACHINES TO DO MUST USUALLY BE ABSTRACTED AND TYPED IN 7ERE WE ABLE TO COMMUNICATE WITH MACHINES AS WITH PEOPLE WE WOULD PROBABLY ACCORD THEM A CERTAIN EQUALITY AS ARTIFACTS OR PARTNERS &URTHERMORE IT WOULD BE POSSIBLE TO DESIGN THE INTERACTIVE PROCESS ITSELF IN A WAY FAR BETTER ADAPTED TO HU MAN BEINGS 4HE CLOSER MACHINES COME TO OUR APPEARANCE AND OUR SENSORY WORLD THE MORE THEY COME TO REmECT HUMAN NATURE /NE EXAMPLE IS THE LATEST VERSION OF THE HUMANOID ROBOT !3)-/ DEVEL OPED BY (ONDA )T MOVES ON TWO LEGS HAS TWO ARMS AND HANDS AND LOOKS A LITTLE LIKE AN ASTRONAUT )TS LIMBS ARE LARGELY MODELED ON HU MAN EXTREMITIES AND DUE TO ITS CAPACITY TO RECOGNIZE SPEECH SOUNDS GESTURES POSTURES AND FACES IT IS ABLE TO FORM A MULTIFACETED IMAGE OF ITS ENVIRONMENT )TS PERCEPTIVE APPARATUS IS EQUIPPED WITH INTELLIGENT EVALUATIVE AND REACTIVE MECHANISMS 4HESE MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO FREELY INTERACT WITH THE ROBOT )T CAN FOR EXAMPLE SHAKE HANDS CONDUCT A CONVERSATION AND MOVE IN AN INDICATED DIRECTION !3)-/ OFFERS THE POTENTIAL FOR INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATION IN THE SENSE THAT ITS ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE ALLOWS FOR THE EMERGENCE OF A SPON TANEOUS SELF REFERENTIAL INTERCHANGE n A MUTUAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE WHICH IS NOT ENCOUNTERED IN ALL SYSTEMS DESCRIBED AS hINTERACTIVEv )T IS OFTEN THE CASE THAT COMMUNICATION WITH MACHINES IS hREACTIVEv )F THE MACHINE IS TO BE AN ACTIVE PARTNER AND NOT MERELY A MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN HUMAN BEINGS IT REQUIRES MORE THAN A PREPROGRAMMED INPUT AND OUTPUT 2ESEARCHERS REFER TO GENU INELY INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS AS ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS OR ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE BASED ON LEARNED CRITERIA OF ASSESSMENT SUCH SYSTEMS REACT hSPONTANE OUSLYv OR MORE APTLY EXPRESSED ENTER INTO AN INTERACTIVE RELATIONSHIP WITH THE USER 4HE SENSORS WHICH FEED INFORMATION INTO THE SYSTEM PLAY A CENTRAL ROLE HERE 4HEY GENERATE SENSORY IMPRESSIONS WHICH TOGETHER PROVIDE THE MACHINE WITH A VIEW OF THE WORLD 4HESE SENSORY IMPRESSIONS PRO
VIDE THE MATERIAL FOR THE ASSESSMENT AND INTERPRETATION ON WHICH A REACTION CAN BE BASED -ANY OF !3)-/S CAPABILITIES ARE BASED ON THE ASSESSMENT OF CAMERA IMAGES AND THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN VOICES AND NOISES n WHICH ARE ULTIMATELY ALSO HUMAN CAPABILITIES %XAMPLES h@-OTIVE THE CONSTRUCT SAID @2EAL MOTIVE PROBLEM WITH AN !) .OT HUMAN SEE @7ELL YEAH OBVIOUSLY @.OPE ) MEAN ITS NOT HUMAN !ND YOU CANT GET A HANDLE ON IT -E ) AM NOT HUMAN EITHER BUT ) RESPOND LIKE ONE 3EE @7AIT A SEC #ASE SAID @!RE YOU SENTIENT OR NOT @7ELL IT FEELS LIKE ) AM KID BUT )M REALLY JUST A BUNCH OF 2/- )TS ONE OF THEM AH PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS ) GUESS xv 4HE CO EXISTENCE OF MAN AND MACHINE IS AN INTEGRAL ELEMENT OF MANY SCIENCE lCTION NOVELS (OWEVER UNREALISTIC THESE MIGHT BE THEY OFFER GOOD ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL AND DEAL WITH THEMES THAT MAY IN THE FUTURE TAKE ON GREATER RELEVANCE FOR US )N ORDER TO ILLUSTRATE THE POS SIBLE CO EXISTENCE OF MAN AND MACHINE ) WOULD LIKE TO FOCUS ON THE 46 SERIES +NIGHT 2IDER AS WELL AS THE NOVEL $O !NDROIDS $REAM OF %LECTRIC 3HEEP AND ITS lLM VERSION "LADE 2UNNER +NIGHT 2IDER 4HE PROTAGONISTS IN +NIGHT 2IDER ARE THE + NIGHT ALIAS + )44 THE INTELLIGENT INDESTRUCTIBLE CAR EQUIPPED WITH SPECIAL SEN SORS AS WELL AS ACTIVE COMPONENTS AND -ICHAEL + NIGHT ITS DRIVER !S MEMBERS OF THE h&OUNDATION v THEY HUNT DOWN EVILDOERS AND lGHT FOR JUSTICE !LTHOUGH VERY DIFFERENT THEY COMPLEMENT EACH OTHER AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP IS A VERY LOYAL ONE + )44 IS PROGRAMMED NEVER TO ENDANGER A HUMAN LIFE AND AS A CONSEQUENCE IS CAUTIOUS AND RATIONAL -ICHAEL + NIGHT WHO IS BY NATURE DARING AND INSTINCTIVE IN HIS ACTIONS COMPLEMENTS HIS PARTNER BY PROTECTING ANY ENDANGERED HUMAN LIFE AT ALL COST + )44S SOLICITOUS WARNINGS TO HIS ADVENTUROUS AND IRRATIONAL PARTNER OFTEN FALL ON DEAF EARS 9ES THE TWO DO SPEAK WITH ONE ANOTHER )F HE CHOOSES TO DO SO -ICHAEL + NIGHT CAN STEER + )44 USING VOICE
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COMMANDS OR BY HAND n A SIGNIlCANT FACTOR THAT UNDERLIES THE WAY THEY CONVERSE AND THE RELATIONSHIP THAT DEVELOPS FROM THIS + )44 HAS A GOOD SENSE OF HUMOR AND IS VERY INTERESTED IN HUMAN EMOTIONS WHICH IT SEEMS TO LEARN OVER TIME )N PARTICULAR WHEN -ICHAEL IS AT TRACTED TO A WOMAN THE MACHINE SEEMS TO ABANDON ITS RATIONAL WORLD VIEW AND BECOMES UNPREDICTABLE 4HE INTELLIGENT AUTOMOBILE IS GIVEN A CERTAIN DEGREE OF AUTONOMY WHICH ENABLES IT TO NAVIGATE INDEPEN DENTLY )N ADDITION IT IS EQUIPPED WITH COMPREHENSIVE KNOWLEDGE IN MANY AREAS OF SCIENCE )F NECESSARY IT CAN LINK INTO COMPUTER SYSTEMS IN ORDER TO GAIN FURTHER INFORMATION WHICH IT DISPLAYS AND REVIEWS ON TWO SCREENS )NFRA RED 8 RAY AND A RANGE OF OTHER SENSORS ENABLE + )44 AND -ICHAEL TO FORM A PRECISE IMAGE OF THEIR PREVAILING SITUA TION AND PLAN THEIR NEXT MOVE 4HERE ARE SEVERAL MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO HEROES IE ON THE ONE HAND THEIR SPECIlC SKILLS AND ON THE OTHER THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF FEELINGS AND INSTINCT -ICHAEL APPROACHES HIS PARTNER ON A VERY INTUITIVE LEVEL (IS INSTINCTIVE WAY OF NAVIGATING THE CAR IS MATCHED BY HIS UNINHIBITED COMMUNICATION WITH THE ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE THAT HAS BEEN BUILT INTO IT 4HE PHYSICAL EXTENSION OF THE DRIVER THROUGH THE MECHANICAL NAVIGATION OF THE CAR FUSES WITH THE EXTENSION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ACHIEVED VIA THE VEHICLES ELECTRONIC CAPABILITIES 4HE TWO BECOME A SINGLE OBJECT WHEREBY THE MECHANICAL ACTIONS CAN BE AS SUMED BY THE ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE WHICH IN THIS CASE ONLY RESEMBLES A HUMAN IN TERMS OF ITS VOICE 4HE HUMAN LIVES IN AND WITH THE MOBILE ELECTRICAL AND INTELLIGENT EGO SPHERE AN ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE THAT EX TENDS THE SENSORY APPARATUS OF THE HUMAN BEING AND hHOUSESv HIM -ICHAEL + NIGHT LIVES IN A COMPUTER WHICH IS SIMULTANEOUSLY A CAR $O !NDROIDS $REAM OF %LECTRIC 3HEEP AND "LADE 2UNNER 4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMANS AND THEIR MECHANICAL NEIGH BORS IS CAST IN A DIFFERENT LIGHT IN 0HILIP + $ICKS NOVEL $O !N DROIDS $REAM OF %LECTRIC 3HEEP AND 2IDLEY 3COTTS lLM VERSION "LADE 2UNNER )N A HIGHLY DEVELOPED TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD HUMANS HAVE CREATED ANDROIDS FOR MILITARY PURPOSES 4HESE ARE USED AS SLAVE LABOR IN THE
COLONIZATION OF SPACE 0LANET %ARTH HAS BEEN DEPOPULATED FOLLOW ING A NUCLEAR WAR AND ONLY THOSE WHO CANNOT EMIGRATE REMAIN 4HE ANDROIDS ARE SUCH PERFECT COPIES THAT THEY CAN ONLY BE DISTINGUISHED FROM HUMAN BEINGS BY MEANS OF A SPECIAL TESTING APPARATUS 4HEY ARE ORGANIC ROBOTS AND THE LATEST SERIES POSSESS AN INTELLIGENCE SUPERIOR TO THAT OF HUMANS 4HE ONLY THING DISTINGUISHING THEM FROM THEIR CRE ATORS IS THEIR INABILITY TO FEEL GENUINE EMOTIONS (OWEVER THE QUES TION OF HOW GENUINE HUMAN FEELINGS ACTUALLY ARE BECOMES A PROBLEM FOR THE ANDROID HUNTER 2ICK $ECKARD 3IX ANDROIDS HAVE mED TO EARTH AND IT IS $ECKARDS TASK TO HUNT THEM DOWN AND LIQUIDATE THEM IN OR DER TO PRESERVE THE HUMAN ANDROID DISTINCTION AND BALANCE OF POWER !NDROIDS CAN ADAPT TO SITUATIONS AND PRODUCE APPROPRIATE REACTIONS BUT THEY ARE NOT EMOTIONALLY AFFECTED 4HEY ARE INCAPABLE OF FEELING COMPASSION 4HEY ARE LONERS WHO DO NOT PARTICIPATE IN THE COLLECTIVE EMOTIONAL ILLUSIONS OF THE SOCIETY 4HIS IS ULTIMATELY THE REASON WHY THEIR PRESENCE ON EARTH CANNOT BE TOLERATED 4HE COLLECTIVELY EXPERI ENCED ILLUSION OF EMOTIONS IS BASED ON A TOTAL MEDIAZATION OF SOCIETY -OOD CONTROLLING DEVICES DETERMINE THE FEELINGS AND STATE OF MIND OF HUMAN BEINGS AND AN hEMPATHY BOXv PROVIDES ITS USER WITH TOTAL IMMERSION IN THE REPEATED COLLECTIVE EXPERIENCE OF THE RISE AND FALL OF -ERCER A 3ISYPHUS LIKE lGURE WHO HAS ASSUMED RELIGIOUS PROPORTIONS 4HE EMPATHY BOX CONNECTS THE USERS EMOTIONALLY AND ENABLES THEM TO EXCHANGE THEIR FEELINGS )N THIS WAY A POSITIVE EXPERIENCE IS CONTRIB UTED TO THE EMPATHY BOX 7HILE THIS REPRESENTS A GAIN FOR THE COM MUNITY THE USERS OWN CAPACITY TO FEEL IS THEREBY REDUCED /N 46 THE ANDROIDS h"USTER &RIENDLY AND HIS FRIENDLY FRIENDSv PRESENT A TWENTY THREE HOUR MEDIA SPECTACLE DAILY .O ONE QUESTIONS THE HUMANITY OF "USTER AND HIS FRIENDS ALTHOUGH THE FACT THAT THEY ALWAYS LOOK GOOD ARE IN A GOOD MOOD AND ARE PERMANENTLY ON SCREEN APPEARS SOMEWHAT SUSPECT )N THIS WORLD DEVOID OF FEELINGS AND SENSES A SOCIETY THAT IS BOTH SELF PROGRAMMED AND EXTERNALLY DESIGNED THE CAPACITY FOR EM PATHY HAS BECOME THE MOST IMPORTANT HUMAN QUALITY !NDROIDS ARE HUNTERS AND MUST BE DESTROYED SINCE ACCORDING TO ANDROID HUNTER 2ICK $ECKARD HUNTER AND PREY DO NOT FEEL ANY EMPATHY IN NATURE
)T IS ONLY EMPATHY THAT DISTINGUISHES MAN FROM MACHINES 5LTIMATELY ALL HUMAN BEINGS ARE INmUENCED BY FEELINGS AND MORAL VALUES )N PART DISSEMINATED BY THE MEDIA THESE FEELINGS CAUSE THE INDIVIDUAL TO FEEL PART OF A WHOLE CALM HIM OR MOBILIZE HIM 4HE PROCESS OF INTERACTION WITH MACHINES CAN NO LONGER BE DIS TINGUISHED FROM THAT BETWEEN HUMANS -ACHINES HAVE A SIMILAR SEN SORY APPARATUS TO HUMANS AND CAN PERFORM HUMAN TASKS IF REQUIRED )T IS CRUCIAL THAT h"LADE 2UNNERv 2ICK $ECKARD IS ABLE TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE ORIGINAL AND THE SIMULATION !S THE INTELLIGENCE OF THE ANDROIDS IS ALREADY SUPERIOR TO THAT OF HUMANS THE ONLY SMALL DIF FERENCE IS IN THE REALM OF FEELINGS AND THIS CAN ONLY BE DETECTED BY A TESTING MACHINE ! SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT IS NOT POSSIBLE 4HE FACT THAT $ECKARD FEELS HIMSELF ATTRACTED TO A REPLICANT PLACES HIM IN A DIFlCULT SITUATION (E RECOGNIZES HIMSELF AND HIS INHUMAN CALLOUSNESS IN THE MACHINE (IS DOUBTS AS TO THE AUTHENTICITY OF HIS FEELINGS CHALLENGE HIS BELIEF IN HIS OWN HUMANITY 4HE ONLY SMALL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ORIGINAL AND ITS SIMULATION APPEARS TO DISSOLVE 7HEREAS + )44 AS A MULTIFUNCTIONAL hTOOLv WITH LIMITED AU TONOMY ACTS AS A PARTNER FOR THE HUMAN HERO IN "LADE 2UNNER THE MACHINE HAS BECOME THE TURNING POINT OF THE SOCIETY n A HORROR SCE NARIO IN WHICH MACHINES CAN NO LONGER BE DISTINGUISHED FROM HUMAN BEINGS 4HE SENSORS AND LIMBS OF THE ANDROIDS CORRESPOND EXACTLY TO HUMAN ONES &OR THEIR PART HUMANS PROGRAM THEIR FEELINGS AND ARE DEPENDENT ON THE MEDIA EXTENSIONS OF THEIR SENSES )T IS AN EXAGGER ATED DEPICTION OF THE POWER OF ELECTRONIC MEDIA THAT DOES NOT SEEM COMPLETELY UNFAMILIAR TO US A MEDIA SATURATED SOCIETY IN WHICH UN FEELING HUMAN BEINGS ARE THREATENED BY THE INTEGRITY OF MACHINES !L THOUGH THE ANDROIDS CAN REFER TO STORED EXPERIENCE AND THEREBY CALCU LATE A CORRECT BEHAVIOR IN NEARLY ALL SITUATIONS THEY REMAIN DEPRIVED OF A PERSONALLY EMOTIONAL RELATIONSHIP TO THE WORLD 7HERE 7E -AY 'O 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF NONHUMAN SENSORS HAS RESULTED IN AN EXTEN SION OF THE SPECTRUM OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE )T HAS ALSO OPENED UP THE POSSIBILITY OF BUILDING MACHINES THAT CAN REACT TO AND EVEN INTERACT
WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENT 4HE DESIGN OF THESE DYNAMIC ARTIFACTS DE MANDS AN EXTENSION OF QUALITATIVE REQUIREMENTS WHICH NO LONGER COR RESPOND TO CONVENTIONAL PRODUCT CRITERIA 7HAT WE UNDERSTAND TODAY AS PRODUCT DESIGN WILL INCREASINGLY CHANGE INTO PROCESS DESIGN 7HILE CONVENTIONAL PRODUCT DESIGN IS ORIENTED TO INDUSTRY LEADERS AND AT TEMPTS TO DRAW NOTICE WITHOUT CONFRONTING CUSTOMERS WITH ANYTHING UNFAMILIAR INNOVATION IS BLOCKED BY A TYPE OF CONFORMITY )F A TACTILE OR VIRTUAL PRODUCT IS NOT DISTINGUISHED FROM ITS COMPETITION IN EITHER AESTHETIC OR CONCEPTUAL TERMS THE DESIGN OF THE INTERACTIVE PROCESS BE TWEEN THE CUSTOMER AND HER PRODUCT WILL BECOME A DECISIVE DESIGN FACTOR 0RACTICING PROCESS DESIGN AS A DISCIPLINE WILL PROVIDE THE AES THETIC ASPECT WITH NEW IMPULSES AND CHANGE THE CONCEPTUAL REQUIRE MENTS !SPECTS SUCH AS THE USER FRIENDLINESS OF THE INTERFACE AND THE TECHNOLOGY IT IS BASED ON WILL HAVE A DIRECT INmUENCE ON THE USE OF THE PRODUCT 1UESTIONS SUCH AS HOW QUICKLY A USER CAN CALL UP FUNCTIONS HOW mEXIBLE AND MODULAR THE TECHNOLOGY IS HOW PRECISELY THE PRODUCT RESPONDS TO A SET TASK AND HOW THE MANUFACTURER DEALS WITH PERSONAL DATA WILL BECOME IMPORTANT ,EAVING ASIDE HORROR SCENARIOS AND SCI ENCE lCTION THE AUTONOMY AND CHARACTERISTICS GIVEN TO TECHNOLOGY WILL ALSO BECOME AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN PROCESS DESIGN AS WILL THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE PRODUCT CAN BE CONVERTED AND EXTENDED 3OFTWARE IS MORE COMPARABLE TO A CONTINUAL mOW THAN TO AN OBJECT THAT IS DIVIS IBLE INTO UNITS 4HIS WILL BE A hPROCESS DESIGNv THAT IS NO LONGER TIED TO THE FOR MAL CONCEPT OF BEAUTY .ATURALLY SENSORY EXPERIENCE WILL CONTINUE TO PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE 4HE VISUAL DESIGN OF ELECTRONIC MEDIA HAS ES TABLISHED ITSELF WITH A WIDE RANGE OF FORMS OF EXPRESSION STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS "UILDING ON THIS OUR FOCUS IN THE FUTURE WILL BE ON WELL FORMULATED PROCESSES AND THEIR CONTENT ON DESIGN THAT EXPRESSES EXCHANGE BETWEEN PEOPLE AS WELL AS WITH AUTONOMOUS MACHINES AND THAT ADEQUATELY DEPLOYS CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION IN THE PRIVATE OR PUBLIC SPHERE )N THIS CONTEXT EXTERNAL FACTORS SUCH AS COST EFFECTIVE NESS MUST ALSO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT 7E WILL HAVE TO PRACTICE ASK ING TECHNOLOGY THE hCORRECTv AND RELEVANT QUESTIONS IN ORDER TO RECEIVE PROPER ANSWERS n PROVIDED THERE IS ELECTRICITY AVAILABLE
"ETWEEN -AN AND -ACHINE 2APHAEL 0ERRET
DRESSCODE + NITTED FABRIC AFTER PERFORMANCE AT 0LUG?IN "ASEL + NITTING #HRISTA -ICHEL 4HREAD 4RAXLER !'
2EGARDING THE PICTURES 4HE SERIES OF LARGE FORMAT PICTURES FEATURE THE ROBOT 3!- 3WEAT !RTICULATED -ANIKIN 3!- WAS DEVELOPED IN THE #LOTHING 0HYSIOL OGY $EPARTMENT OF %-0! 3WISS &EDERAL -ATERIALS 4ESTING AND 2E SEARCH )NSTITUTE IN 3T 'ALLEN 4HE ROBOTS MAIN TASK IS TO WEAR PIECES OF CLOTHING AND TO TEST THEIR MATERIALS 3!- NOT ONLY LOOKS LIKE A HU MAN BEING BUT ALSO HAS TWO DISTINCTIVE SKILLS HE CAN hWALKv AND HE CAN SENSE THE HEAT STORED BY THE CLOTHING HE IS WEARING 4HIS ALLOWS HIM TO SWEAT LIKE A PERSON 3!- THUS REPRESENTS A HIGHLY INTERESTING DEVELOPMENT (E hWORKSv UNQUESTIONINGLY IN THE EXTREMELY ADVERSE CONDITIONS OF THE CLIMATIC CABINET AND AT THE SAME TIME SIMULATES THE MOST DISTINGUISHING ASPECT OF A HUMAN BEING INVOLVED IN PHYSICAL LABOR IE HE SWEATS AND DOES SO UNTIL HIS CLOTHES ARE WET 4HANKS ! VERY WARM THANK YOU TO ALL WHO MADE DRESSCODE POSSIBLE AND SUPPORTED ME DURING THE WRITING OF THIS ARTICLE 3PECIAL THANKS GO TO !NNETTE $OUGLAS #HRISTA -ICHEL #HRISTIAN + NRR #LAUDE (ID BER #ORDULA "ECKER %LIAS 5LLI %-0! 3T'ALLEN ,ISA "ESSET -ARIANNA 7ILDERMUTH 2EGINE (ALTER 2OSA 0RESEDO 2UTH "UGMANN 3ABINE + IEFER 3AMUEL 0ERRET AND THE 0ERRET FAMILY 3ARA "ELLAMY 3EBASTIAN 3CHNORF 3IBYLLE 3CHNEIDER 3ILVIO 6IERA 4OM 7ÓTHRICH 4RAXLER !' AND 7EISBROD :ÓRRER !'
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
'%.%2!4)6% $%3)'. -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN )NTRODUCTION 4HIS ARTICLE DESCRIBES A SEMINAR HELD AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH IN THE $EPARTMENT OF )NTERACTION $ESIGN )!$ ('+ : 4HE PURPOSE OF THIS SEMINAR WAS TO INTRODUCE STUDENTS TO GENERATIVE GRAPHIC PROGRAMMING TAKING EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM MING PROCEDURES INTO CONSIDERATION )TS GOAL WAS NOT TO ACHIEVE PER FECT COMMAND OF THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE RATHER THE POSSIBILITIES OF GENERATIVE GRAPHIC PROGRAMMING AND VARIATIONS WITH RESPECT TO TRADITIONAL DESIGN METHODS WERE TO BE POINTED OUT AND INSIGHT INTO THE POSSIBILITIES OF THE SOFTWARE ITSELF WAS TO BE PROVIDED 4HE TERM hGENERATIVE DESIGNv IS TO BE UNDERSTOOD AS DESIGN WHICH IS CREATED ON THE BASIS OF PROGRAMS OR THEIR ALGORITHMS
#LUSTERING OF A CELLULAR AUTOMAT WITH PROJEC TORS 0ROG -AX 2HEINER #LUSTERING OF A VISUALISATION WITH PROJECTORS 0ROG -AX 2HEINER
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
3UMMARY /VER THE LAST FEW YEARS THE COMPUTER HAS BECOME A TOOL TODAYS DESIGNER CANNOT IMAGINE WORKING WITHOUT )T MAKES IT POSSIBLE FOR DESIGNERS TO CONCENTRATE ON THE IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF THEIR WORK AND LEAVE REPETITIVE WORKmOW TO THE COMPUTER 4HROUGH THIS NEW WAYS OF WORKING ARE OPENED UP 4HE KEY WORDS hCOPY v hPASTEv AND hUNDOv REP RESENT ONLY A SMALL SAMPLE OF THESE NEW OPPORTUNITIES TODAY THEY HAVE BECOME AN INDISPENSABLE ELEMENT OF THE WORKADAY WORLD 4RADITIONAL WAYS OF WORKING BECOME OBSOLETE AND NEW ONES TAKE THEIR PLACE A DY NAMIC WHICH IS REmECTED IN DESIGNS MEANS OF EXPRESSION (OWEVER WE CAN ALREADY SEE THE DICTATORSHIP OF PLUG INS AND lLTERS ON THE HORIZON 7E ARE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE THE SOFTWARE THE TOOL WITH WHICH A DESIGN WAS MADE 4HE ADVANTAGES OF THE MEDIUM THUS REVEAL THEIR NEGATIVE SIDE THE PROGRAM OFFERS SIMPLE SOLUTIONS HOWEVER ALONG WITH THIS THE INDIVIDUALITY THE AUTHORSHIP OF THE DESIGNER BECOMES DISPLACED ONTO THE SOFTWARE THAT IS SHIFTED TO THE SOFTWARE DEVELOPER 3OME DESIGN ERS SPEND THE MAJORITY OF THEIR TIME AND EFFORT MAKING IT IMPOSSIBLE TO RECOGNIZE THE PROGRAMS THEY WORK WITH 4HEY RUN UP AGAINST THE LIMITS OF THEIR PROGRAM OR WANT TO DEVELOP ASPECTS NOT COVERED BY THIS SOFTWARE 0ROGRAMS OFFER SOLUTIONS BUT IN SOME CASES THEY MAY LEAD AWAY FROM THE GOAL TO BE DEVELOPED %SPECIALLY IN AN INTERACTIVE CON TEXT PROGRAMS LIMIT THE IMAGINABLE POSSIBILITIES
4HUS MANY DESIGNERS ARE FORCED TO BECOME PROGRAMMERS CREAT ING THEIR OWN TOOLS OR PROGRAMS (OWEVER THIS IS NOT NECESSARILY THE ONLY WAY TOWARD GENERATIVE DESIGN !S MENTIONED ABOVE METHODS OF WORKING ARE CHANGING LEAD ING TO A TRANSFORMATION OVER TIME IN THE APPROACH TO THE WORK ITSELF )DEAS FOR SOLUTIONS WHICH USED TO BE REJECTED DUE TO TIME CONSTRAINTS OR SIMPLY BECAUSE THEY COULD NOT BE IMPLEMENTED MANUALLY CAN BE PURSUED TODAY THANKS TO PROGRAMMING AND THE INCREASED CAPACITY OF TODAYS COMPUTERS
HTTPDEWIKIPEDIAORGWIKI'ENERATOR
!SPECTS OF 'ENERATIVE $ESIGN )N hTRADITIONALv DESIGN THE RESULT IS GENERATED DURING THE PROCESS OF DESIGNING AND IS RELATED TO A CONCRETE SITUATION WHICH MANIFESTS IT SELF AT THAT POINT IN TIME 'ENERATIVE DESIGN CAN REACT DYNAMICALLY TO A SITUATION 4HE DElNITION OF THE WORD hGENERATORv FOUND IN DEWIKIPEDIA ORG h! GENERATOR LAT GENERARE BRING FORTH CREATE OR GENERATOR BREED ER CREATOR SOMETIMES ALSO DYNAMO IS A DEVICE THAT CREATES ELECTRICAL ENERGY FROM KINETIC ENERGY xv !S THE DElNITION OF THE WORD hGENERATORv SHOWS GENERATION HAS TO DO WITH THE CONVERSION OF ENERGY !PPLIED TO GENERATIVE DESIGN GEN ERATIVE GRAPHICS IT CAN BE CONCLUDED THAT THE DESIGNER HAS NO DIRECT INmUENCE ON THE RESULT 4HE RESULT IS INSTEAD THE PRODUCT OF THE REGULA TOR A SYSTEM OF RULES OF THE GENERATOR AS THE SOURCE OF ENERGY WHICH HAS BEEN PUT IN PLACE BY THE DESIGNER !LTHOUGH DESIGNERS NO LONGER DIRECTLY MANIPULATE THE RESULT THEY ARE ABLE TO DEVELOP AN INDIVIDUAL AND RECOGNIZABLE GRAPHIC STYLE 4HROUGH THEIR DIRECT MANIPULATION OF AND INmUENCE ON THE REGULATOR THE MACHINE IE THE ALGORITHMS OF COLOR AND SHAPE GENERATION AND GRAPHIC OUTPUT THEY CAN ADD A PER SONAL NOTE /N THE RECIPIENTS SIDE AS WELL THE PICTURE OF THE WORK CHANGES IN COMPARISON TO STATIC WORKS $UE TO THE DYNAMIC GENERATIVE PROCESS OF THE APPLICATION THE RECIPIENT BECOMES INVOLVED IN THE DESIGN PROCESS HAS AN INmUENCE ON THE RESULT AS WELL AND IN A CERTAIN SENSE BECOMES A CO AUTHOR
/NE EXAMPLE OF AN AREA OF PRACTICAL APPLICATION FOR GENERATIVE DESIGN WOULD BE THAT OF PROCEDURAL TEXTURES IN $ WORLDS WHICH ARE SUBJECTED TO AGING THROUGH AUTOMATED PROCESSES 4EXTURES THAT ARE RE PEATED SEVERAL TIMES IN ONE SCENE CAN BE hAGEDv DIFFERENTLY USING DIF FERENT TYPES OF PARAMETERIZATION OF THE PROCEDURAL MANIPULATION AND RANDOMLY INmUENCING THE PROGRAM SEQUENCE 3HAPING THIS PROCESS BY HAND USUALLY TAKES MORE EFFORT THAN WRITING THE PROGRAM ONCE AND AP PLYING IT REPEATEDLY TO THE TEXTURES !NOTHER EXAMPLE OF A GENERATIVE DESIGN APPLICATION IS PHYSICAL SIMULATIONS WHICH CONTROL OBJECTS USING CONlGURATIONS OF THEIR PHYSI CAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ATTRIBUTES THUS EMPLOYING FOR EXAMPLE THE EF FECT OF PHYSICAL FORCE ON OBJECTS AS A DESIGN PRINCIPLE ! FURTHER EXAMPLE IS GRAPHS BAR GRAPHS PIE CHARTS ETC THAT HAVE BEEN DERIVED FROM DATA SETS AND OTHER SOURCES SUCH AS STOCK MARKET DATA AND SURVEY RESULTS WHICH GENERATE DIFFERENT TYPES OF VISUALIZATION THROUGH AN IMAGE MATRIX A B
B ! VISUALIZATION GENERATED BY THE VALUES OF SEN SORIC DATA !N AUTOMATED DESIGN PROCESS IS ALSO USED FOR SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL VISUALIZATIONS 3OURCE 0ROCESS AND EQUIPMENT SIMULATION OF COPPER CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION USING #U HFAC VTMS 4ECHNISCHE 5NIVERSITAT #HEMNITZ :ENTRUM FÓR -IKROTECHNOLOGIEN ,EHRSTUHL -IKROTECHNOLOGIE $ #HEMNITZ 'ERMANY HTTPWWWPBIZMFHGDEMDAEGENERATORFCG 349,% ,/# ,!.' $%543#(
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
A (IGHLIGHTED ZONES HAVE BEEN SUPERIMPOSED ON A SATELLITE PHOTOGRAPH WHICH IS AUTOMATICALLY GENERATED FROM MULTIPLE IMAGES TO REPRESENT AND VISUALIZE SPECIFIC INFORMATION 4HIS IS ONE EXAMPLE OF THE MANY POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF AUTOMATED INFORMATION DESIGN
A
B
! GENERAL LIST OF THE ELEMENTS OF A GENERATIVE PROGRAM IS PRESENTED BELOW #HANCE /NE OF THE POSSIBILITIES DIGITAL ELECTRONICS OFFERS US IS THE RAN DOM GENERATOR 4HESE ARE OFTEN APPLIED ON THE LEVEL OF DIGITAL GRAPH ICS ESPECIALLY GENERATIVE DIGITAL GRAPHICS 2ANDOM GENERATORS ARE A PERMANENT PART OF THIS lELD 7HEN A REGULATOR EXISTS THAT SPECIlES A NEW PATH ACCORDING TO THE STATUS OF A CONDITION THE ELEMENT OF CHANCE BRINGS THE UNPREDICTABLE INTO PLAY SO THAT THE RESULT IS ALWAYS DIFFERENT AND NO STRUCTURAL REPETITION CAN OCCUR $ESIGNERS THEMSELVES CAN BECOME NONMECHANICAL RANDOM GEN ERATORS IF UNWANTED MISTAKES SLIP IN TO THEIR PROGRAMMING )NTERACTION 4HE TERM hINTERACTIONv CAN BE UNDERSTOOD TO MEAN BOTH THE RECIP ROCAL INmUENCE BETWEEN THE RECIPIENT AND THE PROGRAM AND BETWEEN THE PROGRAMMER AND THE PROGRAM )N THIS SENSE THE COMPUTER FUNC TIONS AS INTERMEDIARY BETWEEN THE PROGRAMMER AND THE RECIPIENT !LGORITHMS !N ALGORITHM IS A PROCEDURAL OR PROCESSING RULE !LGORITHMS ARE USUALLY IMPLEMENTED IN THE FORM OF A COMPUTER PROGRAM )MPLEMEN TATION AS AN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT OR IMPLEMENTATION BY PEOPLE PER HAND IS ALSO POSSIBLE ! COOKING RECIPE IS ALSO AN ALGORITHM 0ARAMETERIZATION 7ITHIN THE CONTEXT OF GENERATIVE DESIGN WE UNDERSTAND THIS TO MEAN THE INDEPENDENCE FROM EXTERNAL PROPERTIES SUCH AS USER INTERAC TION THROUGH INPUT DEVICES LIKE THE MOUSE THE KEYBOARD THE JOYSTICK ETC
!LTERNATIVELY IT CAN ALSO BE A WAY OF ABSTRACTING THE DATA MODEL WHICH MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO MODIFY DATA AND VISUALS IN THE COURSE OF THE PROGRAM AND THUS TO MANIPULATE THE mOW THE FUNCTIONING OF THE PROGRAM ,INKS 'ENERATIVE 2EPRESENTATIONS FOR $ESIGN !UTOMATION HTTPICARCNASAGOVPEOPLEHORNBYGENREGENREHTML 'ENERATIVE #ODES AND !RCHITECTURE HTTPWWWARCHKTHSEPOIESISGENERATIVEMEDIAHTM 0OINT OF $EPARTURE 4HE MAJORITY OF THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE SEMINAR HAD NEVER PREVI OUSLY USED 0YTHON THE SELECTED PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE "ECAUSE THE COURSE OF STUDIES PLACES EMPHASIS ON DESIGN AND CREATIVITY WE WANTED TO AVOID AN ALL TOO TECHNICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC )N TODAYS WORLD WHERE MOST OF US WORK WITH GRAPHIC INTERFACE OPERATING SYSTEMS IT IS UNDERSTANDABLY DIFlCULT FOR STUDENTS TO GET EXCITED ABOUT SIMPLE TER MINAL OUTPUT ONLY MONITOR TEXT ESPECIALLY BECAUSE THIS IS THE TYPICAL INTRODUCTION TO A COURSE IN PROGRAMMING 3OME EVEN REMEMBER THEIR lRST h(ELLO WORLDv )N ORDER TO MAINTAIN A HIGH DEGREE OF MOTIVATION FOR THE PRO GRAMMING MATERIAL WE ATTEMPTED TO PRESENT AS MANY OF THE STEPS IN THE LEARNING PROCESS AS POSSIBLE IN THE FORM OF GRAPHIC RESULTS 4HE INTRODUCTIONS TO THE INDIVIDUAL FACETS OF PROGRAMMING WERE ALWAYS COUPLED WITH TASKS DESIGNED TO GENERATE FEEDBACK IN GRAPHIC FORM
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
4HE #REATION OF ,IFE BY 2OBERTO #RIPPA PRIVATE COLLECTION "ERGAMO !LTHOUGH THESE IMAGES WERE NOT PRODUCED BY A BINARY MACHINE THE PRODUCTION PRO CESS APPEARS TO BE BASED ON A SYSTEM OF SPECIFIC RULES (ORIZON :ENITH AND !TMOSPHERE BY 0AUL + LEE 3OLOMON 2 'UGGENHEIM -USEUM .EW 9ORK !LTHOUGH THESE IMAGES WERE NOT PRODUCED BY A BINARY MACHINE THE PRODUCTION PROCESS APPEARS TO BE BASED ON A SYSTEM OF SPECIFIC RULES
3EE HTTPWWWPYTHONORG 3EE HTTPWWWOPENSOURCEORG 'RAPHICAL 5SER )NTERFACE
'OALS 4HE STUDENTS WERE TO GAIN THE SKILLS NEEDED TO WRITE THEIR OWN GRAPHIC AND INTERACTIVE PROGRAMS 4HE AIM WAS FOR THEM TO ACQUIRE THE ABILITY TO CREATE VECTORAL $ $ GRAPHICS CAPABLE OF REACTING TO SIMPLE INPUT FROM THE MOUSE OR KEYBOARD /UR WAY OF WORKING WITH THE SEMINAR PARTICIPANTS WAS TO ENCOUR AGE THEM TO COPY EXCHANGE AND MODIFY CODES FROM ONE ANOTHER )T WAS IMPORTANT TO US THAT THE STUDENTS GAIN INSIGHT INTO THE PROGRAM ING STYLE OF OTHERS TO BECOME USED TO THINKING IN SOURCE CODES FROM OTHER PEOPLE 4HIS TECHNIQUE PROlLED A COMMON PRACTICE IN THE DAILY ROUTINE OF PROGRAMMING AND DESIGN THE SO CALLED hCOPY AND PASTEv METHOD )N ADDITION WE EXPRESSLY INSTRUCTED STUDENTS TO ARCHIVE CODES WITH MISTAKES WHICH RETURNED SURPRISING RESULTS 4HESE CODES COULD BE ANALYZED AND DEVELOPED FURTHER AT A LATER POINT IN TIME )N CONTRAST TO GRAPHIC AUTHORING TOOLS WHICH CREATE GRAPHICS AND ANIMATIONS WITH DIRECT VISUAL FEEDBACK HERE THE RESULTS WERE TO BE ACHIEVED THROUGH A PROCESS OF LOGICAL CONSIDERATION AND WORK WITH CODES 4HE PROGRAMMED DESIGN WAS NOT ONLY TO SERVE AS AN ENHANCEMENT OF THE TOOLS FOR CREATING GRAPHICS BUT ALSO TO SOUND OUT THE POSSIBILI TIES OFFERED BY THE MACHINE AS A GRAPHIC FEEDBACK SYSTEM AND TO LEAD TO NEW TYPES OF SOLUTIONS h#ONTEMPORARYv DESIGN KNOWLEDGE AND EXPE RIENCE ARE JUST AS IMPORTANT IN THIS PROCESS AS THE ABILITY TO TRANSFORM IDEAS INTO PROGRAM CODE ,EARNING GOALS &ORMULATION OF GRAPHIC INTERACTIVE PROGRAMS 5NDERSTANDING OF THE PROBLEMS OF INTERACTIVE PROGRAMMING )NSIGHT INTO THE POSSIBILITIES OF GRAPHIC PROGRAMMING RASTER VECTOR $ $
0ROGRAMMING ,ANGUAGE 4AKING THE PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED POINT OF DEPARTURE INTO CONSID ERATION WE DECIDED TO WORK WITH AN INTERPRETER LANGUAGE AS THE PRO GRAMMING LANGUAGE /UR CHOICE WAS 0YTHON AND THE ARGUMENTS IN ITS FAVOR WERE THE FOLLOWING 3IMPLE SYNTAX IN COMPARISON TO OTHER MODERN PROGRAMMING LAN GUAGES # # 0ASCAL *AVA 0ORTABILITY SUPPORT BY MANY PLATFORMS 7INDOWS -AC 5NIX 3HORTER WAITING TIMES TO TEST CODES BECAUSE NO COMPILER IS NEEDED %DITING OF CODES WITH A TEXT EDITOR /PENSOURCE THE SOURCE CODE OF THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE IN AND OF ITSELF IS OPEN TO ALL USERS WHO ADDITIONALLY CONSTITUTE A LARGE AND ACTIVE COMMUNITY GUARANTEEING INDEPENDENCE FROM MANUFACTURER DICTATED UPDATES COMPULSORY UPDATES ETC )N ADDITION /PENSOURCE MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO MAINTAIN PROGRAMS OVER A LONG PERIOD OF TIME EVEN BEYOND NEW OPERATING SYSTEM VERSIONS &REE ACCESS TO MANY SOFTWARE LIBRARIES FOR $ $ GRAPHICS GAMES '5) NETWORK PROGRAMMING ETC 4HE LANGUAGE CAN BE SUPPLEMENTED WITH ITS OWN SPECIlC LIBRARIES
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
3EE HTTPWWWOPENGLORG 3EE HTTPPYOPENGLSOURCEFORGENET 3EE HTTPWWWLIBSDLORG 3EE HTTPWWWPYGAMEORG
$ESPITE ALL THE ARGUMENTS LISTED THE INTRODUCTION TO A PROGRAM MING LANGUAGE IS ANYTHING BUT EASY ESPECIALLY DUE TO THE STATED GOAL OF BEING ABLE TO PROGRAM ANIMATED AND INTERACTIVE GRAPHICS )N ORDER TO MAINTAIN RELATIVE EASE IN THE PROCESSES OF INITIALIZING AND OPENING A WINDOW DEPICTING GRAPHIC ELEMENTS SUCH AS POINTS LINES AND POLYGONS AND ANIMATING AND MAKING INTERACTIVITY POSSIBLE THROUGH THE USE OF INPUT DEVICES LIKE THE MOUSE AND THE KEYBOARD WE DECIDED TO PROVIDE A hFRAMEWORKv 4HIS FRAMEWORK TAKES CARE OF BASIC FUNCTIONS LIKE GRAPHIC CONTEXT TIME MANAGEMENT INPUT AND WINDOW MANAGEMENT &RAMEWORK 4HE FRAMEWORK WAS REALIZED IN THE FORM OF A SOFTWARE LIBRARY FOR 0YTHON )T IS BUILT ON SEVERAL OTHER EXISTING LIBRARIES %XISTING ,IBRARIES /PEN', IS A LIBRARY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF $ AND $ GRAPH ICS )T IS PORTED ON SEVERAL DIFFERENT PLATFORMS AND IS THE DE FACTO IN DUSTRY STANDARD FOR GRAPHIC PROGRAMMING )N ADDITION IT HAS THE AD VANTAGE THAT TODAY MANY GRAPHIC CARDS ACCELERATE /PEN', BY MEANS OF THE HARDWARE BENElTTING THE PERFORMANCE AND THE RICHNESS OF DE TAIL OF THE GRAPHIC 0Y/PEN', THIS LIBRARY LINKS UP TO 0YTHON AND IS USED IN OUR FRAMEWORK 3$, 3IMPLE $IRECT-EDIA ,AYER OFFERS FUNCTIONS WHICH ARE CONCEIVED ESPECIALLY FOR THE CREATION OF COMPUTER GAMES 4HESE IN CLUDE WINDOW MANAGEMENT TIME FUNCTIONS FOR ACCURATE TIMING AUDIO OUTPUT AND EVENT MANAGEMENT FOR INTERACTIVE EVENTS SUCH AS MOUSE MOVEMENT JOYSTICK OR KEYBOARD INPUT 0Y'AME IS THE 0YTHON COUNTERPART TO THIS 4HE FRAMEWORK ABSTRACTS BOTH OF THESE LIBRARIES TO THE POINT THAT A GRAPHIC APPLICATION CAN BE CREATED USING A MINIMUM OF COMMANDS
#OORDINATE 3YSTEMS AND $RAWING 0OINTS LINES AND POLYGONS CAN BE DRAWN WITH THE DRAWING FUNC TION 4HE TRANSFORMATION FUNCTIONS SCALING ROTATING SHIFTING ARE USED TO MANIPULATE THE COORDINATE SYSTEM AND TO DEPICT THE POINTS LINES AND POLYGONS TO BE DRAWN AT THE CURRENT POSITION OF THE COORDI NATE SYSTEM 4HIS PRINCIPLE OF DRAWING IS VECTOR BASED )N CONTRAST TO PIXEL RASTER ORIENTED GRAPHICS VECTOR GRAPHICS DONT WORK WITH A lXED SYSTEM OF COORDINATES BUT RATHER WITH THE ABOVE MENTIONED TECHNIQUE OF TRANSFORMING THE COORDINATE SYSTEM AND THEN PLACING THE ELEMENTS FROM THIS POSITION ONTO THEIR LOCAL COORDINATES &OR EXAMPLE IN ORDER TO DEPICT SEVERAL SQUARES WHICH HAVE THE SAME CENTER BUT DIFFERENT SIZES THE INDIVIDUAL CORNER POINTS ONLY HAVE TO BE DElNED ONCE 4HESE WILL THEN BE DRAWN IN THE CURRENT COORDINATE SYSTEM )N ORDER TO DEPICT THE LARGER SQUARE THE COORDINATE SYSTEM MUST BE SCALED LARGER AND THE SQUARE MUST BE DRAWN ONCE AGAIN 4HE GROUPING AND SEQUENCE OF THE TRANSFORMATIONS HAVE A DIRECT EFFECT ON THE RESULTS ! SHIFT BEFORE A ROTATION PRODUCES A DIFFERENT PO SITION THAN THE REVERSE ORDER ROTATION THEN SHIFT 4HIS PRINCIPLE HOLDS TRUE FOR ALL VECTOR BASED SYSTEMS AND APPLICA TIONS SUCH AS $ DRAWING OR $ MODELING PROGRAMS 4HE COORDINATE SYSTEM ORIENTED TOWARD THREE DIMENSIONS MAKES CLASSICAL TWO DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICS POSSIBLE THROUGH AN ORTHOGONAL VIEW BUT ALLOWS ORTHOGONAL OR PERSPECTIVISTIC DEPICTIONS IN THE THIRD DIMENSION WITHOUT ANY NEED FOR RESTRUCTURING
4HE TECHNIQUE OF GEOMETRICAL TRANSFORMATION AS USED IN VECTOR GRAPHICS 4OP 3TARTING FROM THE CENTER POSITION AT BOTTOM LEFT A TRANSLATION SHIFT IS CARRIED OUT ! LOCAL COOR DINATE SYSTEM IS DEFINED THAT USES THE CENTRAL POSITION OF THE TRANSLATION ! FIGURE A COLLECTION OF FOUR POINTS CONNECTED BY LINES IS DRAWN IN THIS LOCAL SYSTEM &ROM HERE AS MANY TRANSFORMATIONS AS NEEDED MAY BE MADE )T IS POSSIBLE TO STORE THE TRANSFORMATIONS TEMPORARILY AND REACTIVATE THEM AT ANY TIME IN ORDER TO RETURN TO THE LOCAL COORDINATE SYSTEM INCLUDING ORIENTATION AND SCALE 4HESE EXAMPLES ALSO ILLUSTRATE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER IN WHICH THE TRANSFORMATIONS TAKE PLACE
-IDDLE 4RANSLATION BEFORE ROTATION "OTTOM 2OTATION BEFORE TRANSLATION 4HE SAME AMOUNT OF TRANSLATION ENDS AT ANOTHER POSITION IF IT IS EXECUTED AFTER ROTATION #ONSIDER WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF THE FINAL SCALE WERE USED AT THE BEGINNING
!PPLICATION IN THE &RAMEWORK $RAWING &UNCTION DEF $RAW 4RANSLATEX Y Z 2OTATEDEGREE X AXIS Y AXIS Z AXIS 3CALEX Y Z 0OLYGON ; ;X Y Z= ;X Y Z= x ;XN YN ZN= = /PENING A 7INDOW #REATE7INDOWWIDTH HEIGHT 3TART7INDOW
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
#OLOR AND &ORM ! DRAWING ELEMENT BASICALLY CONSISTS OF ONE OR MORE X Y Z COORDI NATES WHICH DElNE THE POSITION AND IN THE CASE OF SEVERAL COORDINATES THE FORM POINT ONE COORDINATE LINE TWO COORDINATES POLYGON SEVERAL COORDINATES #OORDINATES CAN APPEAR IN LISTS SEQUENCES PACKED INTO VARIABLES OR DRAWN DIRECTLY AS POINTS PLANES OR LINES ! COLOR VALUE IS DElNED BY ITS RED GREEN AND BLUE COMPONENT AND ALPHA OPACITY VALUE TRANSPARENCY #OLORS CAN BE DElNED DIRECTLY BE FORE DRAWING BEGINS OR THEY CAN BE ASSIGNED TO THE INDIVIDUAL COORDI NATES OF THE DRAWN OBJECT 4HE FRAMEWORK CALCULATES A SMOOTH mOW BETWEEN THE COLOR VALUES OF THE INDIVIDUAL COORDINATES !PPLICATION IN THE &RAMEWORK OBJ ; ;X Y Z= ;X Y Z= x ;XN YN ZN= = OBJ#OLOR ; ;R G B A= ;R G B A= x ;RN GN BN AN= = DEF $RAW 0OLYGON OBJ OBJ#OLOR 3ET#OLORR G B A ,INES OBJ 3ET#OLORR G B A 0OINTS OBJ
!NIMATION "ECAUSE THE DRAWING FUNCTION IS CALLED UPON IN INTERVALS TRANS FORMATIONS COLOR PREFERENCES OR THE FORMS THEMSELVES CAN BE ALTERED EACH TIME THE FUNCTION IS APPLIED MAKING ANIMATION POSSIBLE !PPLICATION IN THE &RAMEWORK OBJ ; ;X Y Z= ;X Y Z= x ;XN YN ZN= = ROTATION COLOR ; = DEF $RAW 2OTATEROTATION 3ET#OLORCOLOR 0OLYGON OBJ ROTATION ROTATION COLOR;= COLOR;= )NTERACTION 7TIH THE hEVENTv FUNCTION INPUT FROM THE KEYBOARD OR MOUSE CAN BE RECORDED AND PROCESSED 4HE PROGRAMS CAN THUS BE DESIGNED DY NAMICALLY IE AN ANIMATION DOESNT HAVE TO BE THE SAME EVERY TIME IT RUNS 0RESSING AND RELEASING KEYBOARD AND MOUSE KEYS THE TYPE OF KEY KEY SYMBOL LEFT MIDDLE RIGHT MOUSE KEY MOVEMENT OF THE MOUSE AND THE POSITION OF THE MOUSE CAN ALL BE RECORDED /N THE BASIS OF THESE BASIC ELEMENTS OF GRAPHIC PROGRAMMING THE STUDENTS WERE MADE CAPABLE OF DEVELOPING THEIR OWN PROGRAMS OR BUILDING ON READY MADE EXAMPLES 7ITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE SEMINAR WE OUTLINED THE SUBJECT AREAS AND ASSISTED THE STUDENTS WITH THEIR PRACTICAL APPLICATION
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
'ROWING AND DYING ON A VIRTUAL MEADOW -ONIKA 2OHNER )!$('+ : STUDENT 3ARAH 3CHNI )!$('+ : STUDENT h&LOWERING -EADOWv
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
2OTATING STARS !NJA 'UNTEN )!$('+ : STUDENT #HRISTIAN )TEN )!$('+ : STUDENT h0OLAR3TAR v 4RANSPARENT CIRCLES FOLLOW THE MOUSE $ANIEL ,UETHI )!$('+ : STUDENT + ERSTIN ,ANDIS )!$('+ : STUDENT !LAN 'ANGUILLET )!$('+ : STUDENT h4RANSPARENT #IRCLESv
%XPERIMENTS IN COLOR THEORY 0HILLIP &ONBERG )!$('+ : STUDENT h0ENTAROSEv
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
2OTATING CIRCLES PARAMETERIZED BY THE MOVEMENT OF THE MOUSE ,UKAS 3CHWITTER )!$('+ : STUDENT h#IRCLE 4ESTv
0ARTICLE WORMS IN THE DILEMMA OF THE CURSOR POSITION 0ATRICK 6UARNOZ )!$('+ : STUDENT h3NAIL4RAILSv
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
! ONE DIMENSIONAL CELLULAR AUTOMAT IN WHICH THE REGULATOR CAN BE CHANGED WHILE IT IS IN OPERATION -ONIKA 2OHNER )!$('+ : STUDENT HTTPIADHGKZCHMONIKAPYTHONPYTHONHTML
#ELLULAR 3EQUENCES #ELLULAR AUTOMATS ARE COMMONLY THOUGHT OF AS SYSTEMS CONSIST ING OF A CERTAIN NUMBER OF IDENTICAL CELLS WHICH CHANGE ACCORDING TO A DElNED REGULATOR 7ITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE SEMINARS WE EXAMINED DIFFERENT FORMS OF CELLULAR AUTOMATS "ASED ON AN ASSIGNED TASK THE STUDENTS DEVELOPED SEVERAL VARIATIONS ON THIS THEME
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
4HE SYSTEM OF RULES OF THIS CELLULAR AUTOMAT IS DEPENDENT ON THE COLOR VALUES OF THE NEIGHBORING CELLS %ACH CELL HAS SIX NEIGHBOR CELLS AND ATTEMPTS TO ADAPT TO THE COLOR VALUE OF THE RESPECTIVE NEIGHBOR CELL )N ADDITION THE COLOR INTENSITY OF THE CELL IS DEPICTED ACCORDING TO THE HEIGHT OF THE GROUND LEVEL 0ATRICK 6UARNOZ )!$('+ : STUDENT HTTPIADHGKZCHPATRICKCODEDESIGN
'ENERATIVE $ESIGN -AX 2HEINER &ELIX %GGMANN
7ITH THE REGULATOR OF THE h'AME OF ,IFEv AS THE STARTING POINT RASTERED LETTERS WERE USED AS AN INPUT VALUE TO VISUALIZE THE AGEING THE DECAY OF TEXTS 3ARAH 3CHNI )!$('+ : STUDENT HTTPIADHGKZCHSARAHPYTHON
)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILLIP !CKERMANN
).4%2!#4)6% 3)-5,!4)/.3 0 HILLIP ! CKERMANN ,EARNING BY 3IMULATING /VER THE PAST FEW YEARS MULTIMEDIA RESEARCH HAS SEEN GREAT AD VANCES IN THE DIGITAL REPRESENTATION AND PROCESSING OF TEXT GRAPHICS AND SOUND .EVERTHELESS THE FULL POTENTIAL OF MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS HAS NOT YET BEEN REALIZED IN OUR DAILY LIVES 4ODAYS USER INTERFACES n IN 7EB BROWSERS DESKTOP APPLICATIONS AND #$ 2/-S n DO NOT TYPI CALLY ILLUSTRATE THE POWER OF MULTIMEDIA &OR THE CURRENT SITUATION TO BE REMEDIED THERE MUST BE A MAJOR SHIFT IN THE MULTIMEDIA CONTEXT FROM THE RENDERING OF PREPARED MULTIMEDIA STREAMS TO REAL TIME IN TERACTION IN SIMULATED WORLDS /NCE MULTIMEDIA IS ACCEPTED AS A BASE TECHNOLOGY ITS APPLICATION WILL GAIN MOMENTUM IN AN EMBEDDED CONTEXT EG IN THE NETWORKED ECONOMY E LEARNING AND E GOVERNMENT 4HE GENERATION OF SEMANTIC FEEDBACK BY MULTIMEDIA DEPENDS LARGELY ON THE MODELING POWER OF THE UNDERLYING INFORMATION SPACE 4ODAYS USER INTERFACES ARE UNSATISFAC TORY BECAUSE THEY TYPICALLY REmECT ON A ONE TO ONE BASIS THE UNDER LYING INFORMATION STRUCTURE OF DATA BASES AND %20 SYSTEMS TABLES AS OPTION LISTS AND TRANSACTIONS AS DIALOG MASKS )F PROGRESS IS TO BE MADE INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITIES MUST FOCUS ON MODELING INFORMATION SPACES THAT TRANSFORM FORMAL DATA INTO DYNAMIC SIMULATIONS 4HESE SIMULATED WORLDS CAN THEN BE CONVERTED INTO COMPREHENSIBLE MULTI MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS THAT ARE INTERACTIVELY ACCESSIBLE BY DIRECT MA NIPULATION IN REAL TIME 4HE GOAL OF INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA SIMULATION IS THEREFORE A USER EXPERIENCE THAT FACILITATES KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION VIA A hLEARNING BY SIMULATINGv APPROACH
0ROGRAMMING )S -ODELING 4HE COMPUTER IS A CULTURAL TECHNOLOGY THAT ALLOWS US TO BRING TOGETHER ISSUES THAT ARE BOTH PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT 4HE COMPUTER IS AN EMPIRICAL TEST BED FOR THE INTERPENETRA TION OF THEORY AND EXPERIMENT OF SIMULATION MODELS AND OUR OWN OBSERVATIONS + NOWLEDGE IS GENERATED THROUGH THE CREATION OF EXPLICIT EXECUTABLE COMPUTER MODELS THAT PROVE THEIR SOUNDNESS IN THE PRAG MATIC FEEDBACK LOOP OF MODEL INTERACTION AND OBSERVABLE MULTIMEDIA ARTIFACTS -ODEL CREATION GOES BEYOND THE MERE DESIGNATION OF TERMS AND NOTIONS AS STATIC SYMBOLS 4HE MEANING OF SYMBOLS IS DETERMINED BY THEIR USE AND DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR WHEN PEOPLE INTERACT WITH THEM %XECUTABLE COMPUTER PROGRAMS SHOULD THEREFORE BE REGARDED AS MAN IFESTATIONS OF MODELS AS ARTIFACTS THAT COMMUNICATE IDEAS AND CON CEPTS )N THIS SENSE PROGRAMMING IS MODELING 4O ACHIEVE MEANINGFUL MULTIMEDIA INTERACTION WE MUST CONSIDER NOT ONLY DATA STRUCTURES AND THEIR MULTIMEDIA REPRESENTATIONS BUT ALSO THE UNDERLYING MODELING METHODOLOGY AND THE ALGORITHMIC SIM ULATION OF THE MODELED WORLD 4HE EXPLORATION OF ACTIVITIES AND APPLI CATIONS AT THE INTERSECTION OF SIMULATED DIGITAL WORLDS AND COMPUTER MEDIATED INTERACTION INVOLVES A NUMBER OF AREAS IN WHICH hINTERACTIVE SIMULATIONSv WILL CONTRIBUTE TO A NEW VISION OF INTERACTION DESIGN AND MULTIMEDIA COMPUTING 4HESE AREAS INCLUDE 6ISUAL &RONT %NDS TO %20 SYSTEMS "USINESS PROCESSES AND THEIR REmECTION IN CORPORATE )4 INFRASTRUC TURES ARE BECOMING INCREASINGLY COMPLEX AND POWERFUL WITHIN THE NET WORKED ECONOMY 0OWERFUL INTERACTIVE TOOLS THAT ARE BOTH VISUALLY AT TRACTIVE AND EASY TO USE ARE REQUIRED TO MANAGE THIS GROWING COMPLEX ITY 6ISUAL FRONT ENDS HAVE BECOME ESSENTIAL FOR PROTECTING INVESTMENT AND ACHIEVING THE REQUIRED EFlCIENCY IN ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING %20 SYSTEMS WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS AS WELL AS IN RELATIONS WITH PART NERS AND CUSTOMERS 7EB ENABLED DIALOG SYSTEMS SUPPORTING TABLES AND FORMS HAVE BEEN THE FOCUS OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN %20 USER INTERFACES 4HE NEXT STEP WILL BRING A MORE FUNDAMENTAL SHIFT VISUAL FRONT ENDS WILL BE ATTACHED TO THE %20 BACKBONE AND TRANSFORM THE
HUGE AMOUNT OF DATA IN REAL TIME INTO INTERACTIVE SIMULATION WORLDS 0,- )NTEGRATED #24HE KEY PROCESSES OF PRODUCT MANUFACTURING CENTER ON INNO VATION PRODUCTION AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION 4HE INNOVATION AND PRODUCTION PROCESSES ARE OPTIMALLY SUPPORTED BY )4 TOOLS SUCH AS COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN #!$ PRODUCT DATA MANAGEMENT 0$- PRODUCTION PLANNING SYSTEMS 003 IN %20 AND SUPPLY CHAIN MAN AGEMENT 3#- 4O LEVERAGE BUSINESS EFlCIENCY AND SIMULTANEOUSLY COORDINATE 2$ PRODUCTION ENGINEERING AS WELL AS MARKETING AND SALES PROCESSES COMPANIES REQUIRE A UNIlED VIEW OF PRODUCT KNOWL EDGE IN ORDER TO BETTER SUPPORT AND SYNCHRONIZE CONCURRENT ACTIVI TIES 4ODAYS ENTERPRISES ARE MOVING AWAY FROM ENGINEERING ORIENTED PRODUCT DATA MANAGEMENT TOWARD ENTERPRISE WIDE COLLABORATIVE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT 0,- /NE OF THE CHALLENGES LIES IN USING PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE AT THE TOUCH POINTS OF CUSTOMER INTERACTION ESPECIALLY IN SALES AND SERVICE SCENARIOS 0,- INTEGRATED CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT #2- IS THE PREREQUISITE FOR SYMMETRIC BI DIRECTIONAL #2- IN WHICH COMPANIES DEAL WITH CUSTOMERS IN A MUCH MORE INTELLIGENT FASHION THAN IN THE PAST AND CUSTOMERS TOO ARE SAVVIER IN THEIR DEALINGS WITH COMPANIES AND PRODUCT OFFERINGS 4WO MAIN ISSUES NEED TO BE ADDRESSED ! PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE BASE MUST COMBINE THE TABLE BASED COM MERCIAL PRODUCT DATA FROM %20 WITH THE GEOMETRIC PHYSICAL PRODUCT DATA FROM #!$ )T MUST ALSO MODEL THE INTERDEPENDENCIES OF THE IN VOLVED ENTITIES INTO A DYNAMIC SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT 4HE FACTORS LEADING TO THE SUCCESS OF #!$ SYSTEMS INCLUDING THE USE OF VISUAL FRONT ENDS TO MANAGE THE COMPLEXITY OF VIRTUAL PRODUCT MODELS NEED TO BE TRANSFORMED INTO VISUAL INTERACTION METAPHORS IN SALES AND SERVICE TOOLS
6ARIANTENVIELFALT IN 0RODUKTEN UND 0ROZESSEN %RFAHRUNGEN -ETHODEN UND )NSTRUMENTE $ÓSSELDORF 0ERSPECTIX !' 3EE COMPANY AND PRODUCT DESCRIP TIONS AT HTTPWWWPERSPECTIXCOM 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !' 3EE HTTPWWWUSMCOM 4HE 53- PRODUCT LINE h(ALLER 3YSTEMv HAS BEEN ACQUIRED BY THE -USEUM OF -ODERN !RT -O-! FOR ITS ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN COLLECTION
)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILLIP !CKERMANN
" 0INE -ASS #USTOMIZATION 4HE .EW &RONTIER IN "USINESS #OMPETITION "OSTON &RANK 4 0ILLER +UNDENINDIVIDUELLE -ASSENPRODUK TION $IE 7ETTBEWERBSSTRATEGIE DER :UKUNFT -UNICH !SKO 2IITAHUHTA AND !NTTI 0ULKKINEN ED $ESIGN FOR #ONFIGURATION "ERLIN 3PRINGER (ANS *OACHIM &RANKE ET AL 6ARIANTENMANAGEMENT IN DER %INZEL UND +LEINSERIENFERTIGUNG -UNICH
-ASS #USTOMIZATION 0ERSONALIZATION AND #ONlGURATION OF 0ROD UCTS AND 3ERVICES -ARKETS ARE SHIFTING FROM INmEXIBLE MASS PRODUCTION AND UNPROF ITABLE DESIGN TO ORDER MODELS TO INDIVIDUALLY CONlGURABLE PRODUCT SYSTEMS BASED ON ASSEMBLE TO ORDER FULlLLMENT 4HANKS TO SOPHISTI CATED ON DEMAND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND )4 ENABLED PRODUC TION PLANNING COMPANIES CAN MASS CUSTOMIZE THEIR OFFERINGS IN ORDER TO MEET INDIVIDUAL CUSTOMER NEEDS 0RODUCT INDIVIDUALIZATION EXISTS IN MANY DOMAINS MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS MACHINE CAR COMPUTER FURNITURE NETWORKS TELECOMMUNICATIONS ELECTRONICS TRANSPORTA TION SYSTEMS SERVICE BANKING INSURANCE TRAVEL AND SOFTWARE 37 COMPONENTS )N MASS CUSTOMIZATION CUSTOMERS MAY HAVE DIFl CULTY TAKING ADVANTAGE OF CUSTOMIZABLE PRODUCTS AND SERVICES BECAUSE THEIR PREFERENCES AND PRIORITIES ARE UNCLEAR IN THE lRST PLACE OR BECAUSE THESE CHANGE DURING EXPLORATIVE SOLUTION lNDING #USTOMER DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS MUST COMMUNICATE THE MODULAR PRODUCT PORTFOLIO AND PROVIDE A CONlGURATOR THAT HELPS CUSTOMERS TO INTERACTIVELY EX PLORE THE SOLUTION SPACE 3IMULATING 0RODUCTS VIA A #ONlGURATOR 0RODUCT CONlGURATORS USE MODELING TECHNIQUES SUCH AS DECLAR ATIVE PRODUCT DESCRIPTIONS COMPATIBILITY MATRICES CONSTRAINT SOLVING LOGIC PROGRAMMING AND RULE BASED SYSTEMS 4HEY WORK WITHIN A SET OF WELL DElNED RULES RESTRICTING PRODUCT AND SERVICE COMPONENT COM BINATIONS 4OGETHER WITH EMOTIONAL BRANDING THE CLOSE CUSTOMER IN VOLVEMENT WITH THE VISUAL AND INTERACTIVE CONlGURATOR IS FUNDAMENTAL FOR SUCCESSFULLY REALIZING THE hEXPERIENCE ECONOMYv 0ROACTIVE CUS TOMERS EXPECT SELF DESIGN OPTIONS IN PRODUCT OFFERINGS AS WELL AS SELF SERVICE IN PRODUCT OPERATION #ONlGURATORS THAT TRANSFORM PRODUCT INFORMATION INTO A VIVID INTERACTIVE USER EXPERIENCE MUST THEREFORE BE ADAPTED TO SEVERAL CONTEXTS AND SUPPORT HYBRID MULTI CHANNELING STRATEGIES SUCH AS SELF SERVICE SALES ON THE )NTERNET POINT OF SALE KIOSK SYSTEMS FOR TRADITIONAL SALES CHANNELS MOBILE CONlGURATORS FOR lELD SALES AFTER SALES SUPPORT AND SPARE PART CONlGURATION ON 0$!S FOR lELD SERVICE 4HE MANAGEMENT OF PRODUCT COMPLEXITY AND PRODUCT VA
RIETY BECOMES ALL THE MORE IMPORTANT WHEN OFFERINGS CONSIST OF AN INDIVIDUALIZED PRODUCT SERVICE MIX )NTERACTION WITH THE DYNAMIC SIMULATION OF DIGITAL PRODUCTS GENERATES SEMANTIC REAL TIME MULTI MEDIA FEEDBACK BASED ON PRODUCT LOGIC AND DYNAMIC CONSTRAINTS "Y INTERACTIVELY SIMULATING THE PRODUCT THE VISUAL FRONT END PROVIDES MUCH MORE THAN DOCUMENT MANAGEMENT HYPERLINKING AND IMAGES )T GENERATES AN ATTRACTIVE SALES AND SERVICE EXPERIENCE -ULTIMEDIA INTERACTION WITHIN CONlGURATION SYSTEMS CONSTITUTES AN EFFECTIVE USE OF SIMULATED PRODUCT WORLDS AND IS OF GREAT RELE VANCE TO THE DIFFERENT INDUSTRIES THAT TAILOR PRODUCT AND SERVICE OFFER INGS TO INDIVIDUAL CUSTOMER PREFERENCES )N THE NEXT SECTIONS OF THIS ESSAY ) WOULD LIKE TO ILLUSTRATE THE CONCEPT OF hINTERACTIVE SIMULATIONv ON THE BASIS OF THE 08 SOFTWARE SUITE BY 0ERSPECTIX 4HE FOLLOWING 08 APPLICATIONS WERE REALIZED FOR 53- n A 3WISS FURNITURE MANU FACTURER RENOWNED FOR ITS DESIGN ORIENTED MODULAR BUILDING SYSTEMS 4HEY DEMONSTRATE THE INTERPLAY OF INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE MODEL SIMULATION AND INTERACTION DESIGN IN THE CONTEXT OF PRODUCT CONlGU RATION 4HE PRINCIPLES ) WILL DESCRIBE HAVE DEMONSTRATED THEIR SOUND NESS IN REAL WORLD APPLICATIONS &IGURE AND MAY BE USED IN OTHER DOMAINS AS WELL 0RODUCT )NFORMATION !RCHITECTURE 0RODUCT INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE DESCRIBES THE TASK OF ORGANIZING PRODUCT INFORMATION IN A STRUCTURED WAY &IGURE /N A VERY BASIC LEVEL IT REPRESENTS A UNIlED PRODUCT DATA MODEL THAT IS VALID FROM SEV ERAL PERSPECTIVES DIMENSIONS VIEWS AND INCLUDES TECHNOLOGY CONSID ERATIONS RELATING TO DATA MANAGEMENT 4O GENERATE INFORMATION FROM DATA A PRODUCT INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE MUST DElNE ROLE BASED DATA ACCESS STRATEGIES THAT TRANSFORM DATA STRUCTURES INTO VIVID PRODUCT REP RESENTATIONS DYNAMIC MODEL SIMULATION AND MEANINGFUL USER INTERAC TION /N A META LEVEL THE SEMANTICS OF THE MODELED PROBLEM DOMAIN ARE DEPICTED BY BACKGROUND THEORY EXPLICIT CONCEPTUALIZATION DESIGN PRINCIPLES AS WELL AS A COMMON VOCABULARY
6ISUAL PRODUCT CONFIGURATOR Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !'
)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILLIP !CKERMANN
!N INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE FOR SIMULATED WORLDS COMBINES A DATA MODEL DATA ACCESS AND MODELING METHODOLOGY TO FORM AN INTERACTIVE INFORMATION SPACE
0RODUCT $ATA -ODEL 4HE GOAL OF AN EXPLICIT PRODUCT DATA MODEL IS TO REPRESENT PROD UCTS DIGITALLY AND TO EXCHANGE PRODUCT INFORMATION UNIFORMLY AND EFlCIENTLY 0RODUCT DATA ARE TYPICALLY GENERATED IN A DECENTRALIZED FASHION WITHIN A HETEROGENEOUS )4 INFRASTRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SEV ERAL APPLICATIONS SUCH AS #!$ 0$- 003 %20 AND EVEN SPREADSHEETS 4HE MERGING AND LINKAGE OF SUCH FEDERATED DATA VIA THE STANDARD 8-, FORMAT IS A PROVEN TECHNOLOGY 4HE SELF DESCRIPTIVE FEATURES OF 8-, AND ITS CAPACITY TO ADD SEMANTICS VIA METADATA DElNITIONS SUPPORT THE CENTRAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION OF DECENTRALIZED PRODUCT DATA !N EXAMPLE OF AN 8-, BASED MODELING AND INTEGRATION PLAT FORM IS 6#-, VISUAL CONlGURATION MODELING LANGUAGE 6#-, IS A LANGUAGE FOR EXPRESSING PRODUCT INFORMATION IN A FORM THAT CAN BE UNDERSTOOD BY A MACHINE )T EXTENDS THE SYNTACTIC INTEROPERABILITY OF 8-, TO A SEMANTIC LEVEL BY PRECISELY DElNING TERMS RELEVANT TO THE DOMAIN OF PRODUCT MODELING AND PRODUCT CONlGURATION 0RODUCT CONlGURATION IS A CENTRAL PROBLEM IN THE PRODUCT MODEL ING DOMAIN BECAUSE IT NOT ONLY DEALS WITH lXED CONlGURED PRODUCT STRUCTURES BUT ALSO THE POTENTIAL STRUCTURES OF CONlGURABLE PRODUCTS 4HE PRODUCT DATA MODEL MUST THEREFORE REmECT THE DYNAMICS AND OPENNESS OF MODULAR PRODUCTS ! PRODUCT MODEL AND ITS SEMANTIC METAMODEL MUST PROMOTE THE EXCHANGE OF DATA BY PROVIDING META DATA ON THE DATA AND THEY MUST ALSO FACILITATE MACHINE PROCESSING OF DATA
0RODUCT 3IMULATION 0RODUCTS EXPRESSED AS 6#-, MODELS ARE NOT ABSTRACT hDEADv DE SCRIPTIONS BUT VALUABLE ASSETS 4HANKS TO SIMULATION BY 08 SOFTWARE 6#-, MODELS ARE EXECUTABLE AND THEREFORE COMPREHENSIBLE TO HU MANS BECAUSE OF THE INTERACTIVE RESPONSIVENESS OF THE PRODUCT MODELS 4HE 08 PRODUCT SIMULATOR INTERPRETS THE 6#-, DESCRIPTIONS AND GENERATES A VIRTUAL PRODUCT REPRESENTATION WITH ALL THE CORRESPONDING FEATURES .O PROCEDURAL PROGRAMMING IS NEEDED IN 6#-, MODELING n THE PRODUCT SIMULATOR DERIVES DYNAMICS AND CONSTRAINTS FROM THE FOR MAL 6#-, DECLARATIONS 08 SOFTWARE EXECUTES ALGORITHMS ON THE 6#-, DATA SPACE SUCH AS EXPRESSION CALCULATION RULE BASED REASONING WITH BACKTRACKING AND CONSTRAINT SOLVING OF LOGICAL AND GEOMETRIC AS SOCIATIONS "Y COMBINING THE DYNAMICS OF THE PRODUCT SIMULATION WITH INTER ACTIVE ACCESS 08 SOFTWARE SERVES AS AN INTERACTIVE PRODUCT CONlGURA TOR 5SERS OF 08 SOFTWARE CAN BUILD THEIR OWN PRODUCT ACCORDING TO THEIR INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS AND ALL THE CONSTRAINTS OF THE 6#-, PRODUCT META MODEL REMAIN VALID 0RODUCT -ODELING /NTOLOGY !N ONTOLOGY CONSTITUTES A SHARED CONCEPTUALIZATION OF A SPECIlC DOMAIN )T EMBODIES A CERTAIN WORLD VIEW OF A DOMAIN AND PORTRAYS A COMMON UNDERSTANDING THAT CAN BE COMMUNICATED BETWEEN PEOPLE )F THE ONTOLOGY IS EXPRESSED IN A FORMAL MANNER IT CAN EVEN BE PRO CESSED BY HETEROGENEOUS AND DISTRIBUTED SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS 6#-, REPRESENTS SUCH A FORMAL ONTOLOGY )T IS A SYNTHESIS OF OBJECT ORIENTED CONNECTION AND RULE BASED PRODUCT MODELING AP PROACHES "ECAUSE THE PRODUCT COMPONENT IS THE CENTRAL CONCEPT 6#-, IS SOMETIMES CALLED A COMPONENT ORIENTED MODELING LANGUAGE )N 6#-, THE PRODUCT MODELING DOMAIN IS CONCEIVED AS A HIERARCHI CAL DESCRIPTION OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN A TYPE OR CLASS HIERARCHY AS A SET OF CRUCIAL CONCEPTUAL PROPERTIES AND AS INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CONCEPTS
4HE ONTOLOGY AND CONTENT OF 6#-, IDENTIFY THE RELEVANT CON CEPTS OF THE REAL WORLD PHENOMENA OF A PRODUCT 4O CREATE A PRODUCT MODEL ACCORDING TO A SPECIlC ONTOLOGY A CONSENSUAL PROCESS AMONG SEVERAL PEOPLE FROM DIFFERENT BACKGROUNDS IS REQUIRED 4HE PURPOSE OF AN EXPLICIT PRODUCT MODELING ONTOLOGY IS TO FACILITATE A COMMON UNDERSTANDING AMONG DIFFERENT PEOPLE SUCH AS ENGINEERS WITH THEIR #!$ #!- EXPERIENCE PRODUCTION PLANERS WITH A 003 %20 BACK GROUND MARKETING AND SALES PEOPLE USING #2- TOOLS )4 ENGINEERS ETC )F ALL THESE PEOPLE AGREE TO ACCEPT AN ONTOLOGY THEY CAN CONTRIBUTE TO A UNIlED PRODUCT MODEL 6ISUAL #ONlGURATION -ODELING ,ANGUAGE 4HE VISUAL CONlGURATION MODELING LANGUAGE 6#-, IS A DE CLARATIVE MODELING LANGUAGE THAT EXPRESSES GENERIC PRODUCT STRUCTURES DEPENDENCIES AND BEHAVIOR )T SERVES AS A 8-, BASED INTEGRATION MIDDLEWARE FOR PRODUCT DATA 6#-, APPLIES DESCRIPTIVE REPRESENTA TION FORMALISMS THAT CORRESPOND TO 3EMANTIC 7EB LANGUAGES 4HE 3E MANTIC 7EB INITIATED BY THE 7ORLD 7IDE 7EB #ONSORTIUM 7# IS BASED ON OPEN STANDARDS SUCH AS 8-, 2$& AND /7, &IGURE DEPICTS THE REPRESENTATION LAYERS OF 6#-, /N THE SYNTAX LEVEL THE EXTENSIBLE MARKUP LANGUAGE 8-, PRO VIDES A SYNTACTIC REPRESENTATION OF SELF DESCRIBING DATA STRUCTURES 8-, 3CHEMA IS A LANGUAGE FOR RESTRICTING 8-, DATA STRUCTURES !LL 6#-, LANGUAGE EXPRESSIONS ARE DElNED BY 8-, SCHEMAS 4HE DATA LAYER IS BASED ON THE RESOURCE DESCRIPTION FRAMEWORK 2$& 2$& IS A SIMPLE DATA MODEL ON TOP OF 8-, FOR RESOURCES OB JECTS AND THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THEM 2$& IS ITSELF EXPRESSED IN 8-, 2$& 3CHEMA 2$&3 IS A DATA MODEL FOR DESCRIBING CLASSES AND PROP ERTIES OF 2$& RESOURCES AND HAS THE CAPACITY TO REPRESENT INHERITANCE ALONG GENERALIZATION HIERARCHIES WITH hSUB#LASS/F v ASSOCIATIONS AND RANGE DOMAIN CONSTRAINTS ON PROPERTIES 4HE VOCABULARY OF A PROB LEM DOMAIN IS EXPRESSED WITHIN 2$&3
)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILLIP !CKERMANN
2EPRESENTATION LAYERS
)N ADDITION TO 2$&3 THE /7, 7EB /NTOLOGY ,ANGUAGE PROVIDES FORMAL SEMANTICS SO THAT COMPUTERS CAN PROCESS 8-, BASED CONTENT /7, DElNES THE RESTRICTIONS ON PROPERTY CARDINALITY PROPERTY DO MAINS AND PROPERTY TYPES EG TRANSITIVE SYMMETRIC !DDITIONALLY /7, DIVIDES THE 2$& PROPERTY INTO TWO DISPARATE PARTS THE OBJECT DOMAIN AND THE DATA TYPE DOMAIN 4HE OBJECT DOMAIN OF h/BJECT 0ROPERTYv EXPRESSES THE ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN TWO OBJECTS 4HE DATA TYPE DOMAIN OF h$ATATYPE0ROPERTYv RELATES OBJECTS TO ATTRIBUTE VALUES THAT BELONG TO THE 8-, 3CHEMA DATA TYPES 7HEREAS /7, IS A META MODEL FOR GENERIC ABSTRACTIONS 6#-, IS DOMAIN SPECIlC AND REmECTS DESCRIPTIVE LOGIC FOR GENERIC PRODUCT MODELS 4HE ONTOLOGY OF 6#-, IS SHOWN AS AN /7, LIKE DIAGRAM IN &IGURE 4HE MAIN CONCEPTUAL ENTITIES OF 6#-, ARE #OMPONENT AN ATOMIC PRODUCT ELEMENT !SSEMBLY AN AGGREGATION ELEMENT USED TO GROUP COMPONENTS AND AS SEMBLIES 0ART PRODUCT ELEMENT AS A SUPER TYPE OF COMPONENT AND ASSEMBLY 0ROPERTY AN ATTRIBUTE WITH A DOMAIN $OCK A GEOMETRIC INTERFACE OR AN ATTACHMENT POINT FOR ANOTHER DOCK ! PRODUCT MODEL CONSISTS OF A STRUCTURED BREAKDOWN OF A REAL WORLD PRODUCT LINE INTO CORRESPONDING ENTITIES THAT ARE CLASSIlED BY TYPE SYSTEMS 4HE COUPLING OF SUCH ENTITIES IS EXPRESSED BY ASSOCIA TIONS 3PECIlCATIONAL ASSOCIATION HAS0ROPERTY 3PATIAL ASSOCIATION HAS$OCK
#LASSIlCATIONAL ASSOCIATION SUB#LASS/F #OMPOSITIONAL ASSOCIATIONS CONNECTED4O AND PARTNER/F !GGREGATIONAL ASSOCIATION HAS0ART 2EPRESENTATIONAL ASSOCIATION REPRESENTATION/F /N THE BASIS OF THE 6#-, EXPRESSIVENESS PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE BASES COMBINE FORMAL AND SPATIAL DATA SUCH AS PRODUCT ELEMENTS CLAS SIlCATIONS ASSEMBLY STRUCTURES BILLS OF MATERIAL "O- ARTICLES LABEL ING PRICING COLORS GEOMETRY lTTING CONDITIONS ETC
4HE MODELING LAYERS OF A 6#-, PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE BASE
)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILLIP !CKERMANN
4HE CATALOG IS HIERARCHICALLY STRUCTURED AND CAN BE NAVIGATED DYNAMICALLY Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !'
0RODUCT 2EPRESENTATIONS )N 6#-, THE PRODUCT MODEL REMAINS ABSTRACT AND IS THEREFORE CLEARLY SEPARATED FROM THE REPRESENTATIONAL STRUCTURE USED TO DISPLAY A MODEL 7ITH THIS DISTINCT SEPARATION BETWEEN MODEL AND VIEW IT IS POSSIBLE TO REPRESENT THE SAME PRODUCT MODEL IN SEVERAL DISPARATE REP RESENTATIONS SUCH AS SCHEMATIC $ REALISTIC $ SALES ORIENTED ARTICLE LIST PRODUCTION ORIENTED BILL OF MATERIAL "/- ETC %ACH REPRESENTATION TYPE HAS ITS OWN VIEWER TYPE 4HESE VIEW ERS DIFFER NOT ONLY IN THE WAY THEY REPRESENT PRODUCT INFORMATION THROUGH SPECIlC STRUCTURES AND VISUALIZATIONS BUT ALSO IN THEIR DIS TINCT INTERACTION MODES &IGURE SHOWS A CATALOG VIEWER )T DISPLAYS THE NUMBER OF AVAIL ABLE PRODUCT COMPONENTS IN A CLASSIlCATION HIERARCHY ! DRAG AND DROP ACTION FROM THE CATALOG TO AN ORDER LIST OR A $ SCENE WILL CREATE A CATALOG ITEM WHICH CAN REPRESENT A SINGLE PRODUCT COMPONENT OR A PRE BUILT ASSEMBLY PROTOTYPE )N THE CONlGURATOR PRODUCT ELEMENTS FROM THE CATALOG CAN BE AS SEMBLED ACCORDING TO THE MODULAR BUILDING SYSTEM ! $ VIEW IS EX CELLENTLY SUITED TO SPATIALLY ARRANGING PRODUCT ELEMENTS COMPONENTS ARE POSITIONED PRECISELY BY A DRAG AND DROP ACTION &IGURE 7HEN DRAGGED OVER AN EXISTING CONlGURATION THE PRODUCT ELEMENTS AUTO MATICALLY SNAP INTO THE POSSIBLE JOINTS )F THE ELEMENT IS DROPPED IT BECOMES lXED TO THE SNAPPED JOINT 4HE SNAP POINTS ARE DESIGNATED AS hDOCKv ELEMENTS IN THE PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE BASE $OCKS MAY DElNE A DEGREE OF FREEDOM $/& IN A TRANSLATION DIRECTION OR AROUND A ROTA TIONAL AXIS IN ORDER TO REmECT SIMPLE KINEMATICS IN MULTIBODY COMPO SITIONS 4YPICAL ANIMATIONS ON DOCKS WITH DEGREES OF FREEDOM ARE SLID ING AND ROTATING PARTS $UE TO THE DECLARATIVE DESCRIPTION IN 6#-, THE USER CAN INTERACTIVELY EXPLORE THE PRODUCTS FUNCTIONALITY IE OPEN AND CLOSE DOORS AND DRAWERS BY DRAGGING ITEMS WITH THE MOUSE )N THE $ VIEW THE USER CAN FREELY NAVIGATE THROUGH SPACE AND EXAMINE THE PRODUCT FROM ANY ANGLE 4HE RESULTS OF SUCH INTERACTIVE PRODUCT CON lGURATION CAN ALSO BE DISPLAYED AS A $ DIAGRAM
4HE PROPERTY VIEWER IN &IGURE SHOWS FEATURES OF PRODUCT ELE MENTS THAT ARE SELECTED BY DRILL DOWN NAVIGATION ALONG THE PRODUCT STRUCTURE 4HE PROPERTY VIEWER IS CONTEXT SENSITIVE AND DYNAMICALLY COLLECTS ALL FEATURES OF ALL SELECTED PRODUCT ELEMENTS 0RODUCT LABELS ARTICLE NUMBERS AND PRICES ARE TREATED AS COM MERCIAL REPRESENTATIONS OF A PRODUCT COMPONENT OR PRODUCT ASSEM BLY #OMMERCIAL REPRESENTATIONS ARE USED BY THE ARTICLE VIEWER &IG URE WHICH CAN BE CUSTOMIZED TO BRING TOGETHER SUMMARIZE AND DISPLAY PRODUCT RANGES !RTICLES MAY REPRESENT A ONE TO ONE MAPPING OF PRODUCT COMPONENTS COMPONENT ARTICLE IDENTITY OR CONSIST OF A SEPARATE AGGREGATION STRUCTURE 5SERS CAN DRAG PRODUCT ELEMENTS FROM THE CATALOG DIRECTLY INTO THE ARTICLE LIST ! BILL OF MATERIAL "/- IS GENERATED TO TRIGGER THE PRODUCTION PROCESS &IGURE SHOWS THE "/- TREE CORRESPONDING TO THE VISUAL IZED $ PRODUCT CONlGURATION )F A PRODUCT CONlGURATION DEPENDS ON CONTEXT A LAYOUT PLAN HELPS TO SHOW THE SPATIAL RESTRICTIONS &IGURE 5SERS CAN IMPORT mOOR PLANS FROM ARCHITECTURAL #!$ SYSTEMS TO THE $ SCENE OF THE CONlGU RATOR 4HE mOOR PLAN MAY BE ORGANIZED BY ZONES WHICH GROUP PRODUCT ARRANGEMENTS AND CORRESPONDING REFERENCE COPIES
)NTERACTION (ANDLES )N COMPLEX CONlGURATIONS IT DOES NOT MAKE MUCH SENSE TO MAN AGE LARGE PRODUCT STRUCTURES VIA THE OPTIONS IN A FEATURE VIEWER )T IS OF TEN BETTER TO REPRESENT OPTIONS BY INTERACTION HANDLES ATTACHED DIRECT LY TO THE CORRESPONDING OBJECTS &IGURE "Y CLICKING OR DRAGGING SUCH INTERACTION HANDLES USERS CAN MOVE ROTATE AND COPY PRODUCT ELEMENTS 4HEY CAN ALSO CHANGE THEIR SIZE SNAP THEM INTO PLACE ETC )NTERACTION HANDLES CAN ALSO TRIGGER OPERATORS /PERATORS VIOLATE THE PURE DECLARATIVE NATURE OF 6#-, 4YPICAL OPERATOR ACTIONS ARE CRE ATE REMOVE EXCHANGE CLONE MOVE ROTATE CONNECT AND DISCONNECT 3UCH ACTIONS DO NOT SPECIFY A PRODUCT MODEL BUT PROVIDE SUPPORT FOR INTERACTION WITH THE PRODUCT MODEL /PERATORS AND ACTIONS MAY BE COMBINED TO FORM SEQUENTIAL PROCEDURES THAT CREATE AUTOMATISMS FOR COMPLEX AND TEDIOUS BUILDING ACTIVITIES &OR EXAMPLE BY A SIMPLE CLICK AN ASSEMBLY SUCH AS A PARTITION IN A SHELF SYSTEM CAN BE COP IED UPWARD OR SIDEWISE WHILE ALL SUBPARTS ARE CORRECTLY COPIED AND SNAPPED INTO THEIR NEW POSITION 6ISUALIZATION &ILTERS )N ORDER TO FOCUS AND EMPHASIZE ELEMENTS IN A VIEW VISUALIZATION lLTERS AS SEEN IN &IGURE CAN BE USED &ILTERS SELECT PARTS OF A SCENE BY TYPE SYSTEM CLASSIlCATION BY ATTRIBUTE VALUES AND BY STRUCTURAL CONDITIONS /N PARTS THAT ARE SELECTED BY THE lLTER SPECIlC RENDERING MODES SUCH AS SHADING STYLES WIREFRAME GOURAUD PHONG OUTLINE STYLE WITH HIDDEN LINE REMOVAL AND TRANSPARENCY MAY BE EMPLOYED 3UCH lLTERING CAN BE USED TO VISUALIZE INTERNAL PRODUCT ELEMENTS EG ELECTRICAL WIRES AND INSTALLATION ELEMENTS FOR ASSEMBLY PLANS &IGURE 6ISUALIZATION lLTERS ARE ALSO USED TO DIFFERENTIATE THE RENDERING QUALITY FOR SCREEN DISPLAY AND FOR COLOR OR BLACK AND WHITE PAPER PRINTOUTS
)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILLIP !CKERMANN
3YMBOLIC $ FRONT VIEW AND REALISTIC $ VIEW OF THE SAME PRODUCT CONFIGURATION Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !' 4HE PROPERTY VIEWER Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !'
!N AUTOMATICALLY COMPUTED OFFER CONSISTING OF ARTICLE LABELS NUMBERS AND PRICES Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !' $ISPLAY OF AN ASSEMBLY STRUCTURE AS A HIERARCHICAL "/- TREE Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !' 0RODUCT CONFIGURATION IN THE SPATIAL CONTEXT OF LAYOUT PLANNING Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !'
)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILLIP !CKERMANN
2ENDERING STYLE SUCH AS SHADING AND TRANSPARENCY EMPHASIZES CERTAIN PARTS Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !' /UTLINING AND FILTERING FOR ASSEMBLY PRINTOUTS Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !'
)NTERACTION HANDLES Ú 0ERSPECTIX !' 53- 5 3CHØRER 3HNE !'
"LENDING 0HYSICAL AND 6IRTUAL 7ORLDS n "LENDING 0HYSICAL AND 6IR TUAL )NTERFACES 4HE CORRELATION OF DIGITAL MODELS AND SIMULATIONS WITH EXPERI ENCES IN THE PHYSICAL WORLD TRANSFORMS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INTO AN ATTRACTIVE TOOL FOR hEMPIRICALv SCIENCE 4HE QUALITY OF MODELING AND ITS DYNAMIC ASPECTS WITHIN A SIMULATION CAN BE TESTED AGAINST PER CEIVED REAL WORLD BEHAVIOR /NCE THE MODEL IS STABLE AND ADEQUATE REAL WORLD DATA GATHERED BY SENSORS FROM A MACHINE MAY TRIGGER PROCESSING STEPS IN THE DIGITAL SIMULATION THAT CONTROL THE MACHINE VIA A FEEDBACK LOOP $IGITAL SIMULATION MODELS WITH INTERACTIVE VI SUALIZATION CAN SERVE AS TEST BEDS FOR !) PROCESSING EG IN ROBOTICS CONlGURATION ASSEMBLING OR HANDLING )N ORDER TO ACCELERATE PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT BY PARALLEL PROCESSES EMBEDDED SOFTWARE AND ITS CONTROL BEHAVIOR CAN BE TESTED IN VIRTUAL PRODUCT MODELS BEFORE THE REAL MA CHINE IS BUILT 4HE INTERPLAY BETWEEN PHYSICAL ARTIFACTS AND VIRTUAL MODELS IS ALSO IMPORTANT FOR PRODUCTS THAT ARE EQUIPPED WITH PHYSICAL INTERAC TION ELEMENTS SUCH AS BUTTONS KNOBS SLIDERS SPACE MICE AS WELL AS OTHER SENSORS COMBINED WITH VIRTUAL '5) ELEMENTS ON SCREENS $IGITAL AUDIO DEVICES EG MIXING DESKS OR DIGITAL MUSIC INSTRUMENTS SYN THESIZERS ARE EXAMPLES OF MIXED INTERFACES #OMPUTER GAMES THAT ARE CONTROLLED BY DEVICES SUCH AS $ JOYSTICKS STEERING WHEELS AND PEDALS ARE WELL KNOWN EXAMPLES THAT DEMONSTRATE THE POTENTIAL OF MULTIME DIA INTERACTION WITH SIMULATED WORLDS 4HE DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF MULTIMEDIA FEEDBACK IN SUCH MIXED INTERFACES RAISE INTERESTING QUES TIONS ABOUT SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGY REAL TIME INTERACTION AND USABILITY
)NTERACTIVE 3IMULATIONS 0HILLIP !CKERMANN
3TUART + #ARD *OCK $ -AC+ INLAY AND "EN 3HNEIDERMAN 2EADINGS IN )NFORMATION 6ISUALIZATION n 5SING 6ISION TO 4HINK 3AN &RANCISCO 4HOMAS 3TROTHOTTE #OMPUTATIONAL 6ISUALIZATION n 'RAPHICS !BSTRACTION AND )NTERACTIVITY "ERLIN 2 3 7URMAN )NFORMATION !RCHITECTS .EW 9ORK
)NTERACTIVE )NFORMATION 6ISUALIZATION )NFORMATION VISUALIZATION IS TYPICALLY VIEWED AS A THREE STEP MAP PING OF WORKmOW FROM A PROBLEM DOMAIN TO A DATA DOMAIN AND THEN TO A GRAPHICAL DOMAIN )F INTERACTION EXPLORING NAVIGATING MANIPULATING IS ADDED TO INFORMATION VISUALIZATION THE DATA DOMAIN MUST NOT ONLY BE ABLE TO HANDLE ABSTRACTION STRUCTURE AND ORDER IT MUST ALSO EVOLVE INTO A SIMULATION SPACE WITH DYNAMIC ASSOCIATIONS REAL TIME BEHAVIOR AND ON THE mY EMPHASIZING lLTERING CLUSTERING CONDENSING 4HE GRAPHICAL DOMAIN LINKS THE ARTIFACTS OF THE SIMULA TION SPACE TO VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS AND A SPATIAL LAYOUT 4O FOSTER SEMANTIC INFORMATION VISUALIZATION WITH DIRECT MANIPULATION OF SIMU LATION ARTIFACTS THE PROCESS OF MAPPING INTERACTING AND EMPHASIZING MUST BE METHODOLOGICALLY AND TECHNOLOGICALLY ADAPTED TO VISUALIZA TION METAPHORS FOR REAL TIME INTERACTION ! FEW APPLICATIONS THAT COULD PROlT FROM INTERACTIVE INFORMATION VISUALIZATION ARE VISUAL DATA MINING VISUALIZATION OF THE 3EMANTIC 7EB MEDICAL DATA EXPLORATIONS AND E LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (ERE TOO MULTIMEDIA INTERFACES CREATE REAL BENElTS IF THEY ARE CLOSELY LINKED TO DATA MODELS THAT SIMULATE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR AND IF THEY ALLOW USERS TO IMMERSE THEMSELVES IN VIRTUAL WORLDS THAT GENERATE SEMANTIC FEEDBACK THROUGH INTERACTION 4HE 2ETURN OF THE 2ICH #LIENT 4HE )NTERNET HYPE OF RECENT YEARS HAS SHIFTED APPLICATION DEVELOP ERS ATTENTION TO 7EB BROWSER BASED CLIENTS THAT SOLVE PORTABILITY AND DEPLOYMENT PROBLEMS 4HIS TRADE OFF HAS RESULTED IN THE LOSS OF HIGHLY GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES WITH INTENSIVE DATA ENTRY DIRECT MANIPULA TION AND REAL TIME CALCULATION CAPABILITIES )NDEED WE HAVE ENDED UP WITH (4-, BASED USER INTERFACES THAT ARE SIMILAR TO THE VT TERMI NALS OF THE S BUT WITH MORE COLOR 4ODAY THE INTERACTION BETWEEN 7EB BROWSER BASED CLIENTS IS TYPICALLY BOUND TO TRANSACTIONAL TABLE BASED DIALOGS WITH TEDIOUS CLIENT SERVER ROUND TRIPS
!S REGARDS hINTERACTIVE SIMULATION v WE WILL SEE THE RETURN OF RICH NON BROWSER CLIENTS IN THE FUTURE )N CONTRAST TO THE SERVER SIDE *AVA TECHNOLOGY HAS NOT BEEN SUCCESSFUL AS A RICH DESKTOP CLIENT OR AS AN APPLET ADD ON TO 7EB BROWSERS 7E WILL SEE A GREAT DEMAND FOR SOFT WARE FRAMEWORKS THAT INTEGRATE SIMULATION MODELING AND REAL TIME MULTIMEDIA INTERACTION 4HE CHALLENGE WILL LIE IN DEVELOPING CONCEPTS AND BASE SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGY FOR RICH NON BROWSER CLIENTS IN FUTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS !CKNOWLEDGEMENTS ) WOULD LIKE TO EXPRESS MY GRATITUDE TO MY COLLEAGUES AT 0ERSPECTIX FOR PROVIDING AN INNOVATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENT 3PECIAL THANKS GO TO MY FRIEND $OMINIK %ICHELBERG WHO TRANSFORMS IDEAS INTO SOFTWARE SOMETIMES FASTER THAN INTO WRITTEN WORDS
"IO3ONICS )NTERACTIVE 'ROWTH 3YSTEM $ANIEL "ISIG
")/3/.)#3 ).4%2!#4)6% '2/74( 3934%$ANIEL "ISIG !BSTRACT "IOSONICS IS AN INTERACTIVE ART INSTALLATION THAT TRANSFORMS HUMAN INTERACTION INTO SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL PATTERNS !S A DYNAMIC SELF ORGANIZING SYSTEM IT EXAMINES THE AESTHETIC QUALITIES OF PATTERN FOR MATION AND EXPLORES METHODS FOR INTUITIVE INTERACTION WITH COMPLEX SYSTEMS "IO3ONICS ALLOWS USERS TO INTERACT WITH THE GROWTH PROCESSES OF AN ORGANISM 4HESE PROCESSES ARE CONTROLLED BY A CHEMICAL REACTION NETWORK WHOSE UNDERLYING DYNAMICS EVENTUALLY BRING ABOUT CHANGES IN THE ORGANISMS APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOR "IO3ONICS PRODUCES BOTH VISUAL AND ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK %ACH CHEMICAL IN THE SYSTEM CONTROLS ITS OWN SOUND SYNTHESIS ENGINE WHOSE ACOUSTIC OUTPUT DEPENDS ON THE CHEMICALS CHARACTERISTICS CONCENTRATION AND SPATIAL POSITION 5S ERS INTERACT WITH THE ORGANISM VIA SEVERAL MICROPHONES 4HE SOUNDS PICKED UP BY THE MICROPHONES ARE CONVERTED INTO CHEMICALS AND LEAD TO CHANGES IN THE DYNAMICS OF THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND THE GROWTH PROCESSES THEY CONTROL !N ACOUSTIC INTERFACE EMBEDS THE USERS INmU ENCE WITHIN THE ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF THE ENVIRONMENT OF WHICH THE INTERACTIVE SYSTEM AS WELL AS OTHER USERS ARE A PART )NTERACTION THERE FORE BECOMES A COLLABORATIVE ENDEAVOR TO WHICH THE GROWING ORGANISM CONTINUALLY RESPONDS BY CHANGING ITS APPEARANCE AND BY MODIFYING ITS ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK AND SENSITIVITY
0ETER #OVENEY AND 2OGER (IGHFIELD &RONTIERS OF #OMPLEXITY ,ONDON #HRISTA 3OMMERER AND ,AURENT -IGNONNEAU h-ODELING #OMPLEX 3YSTEMS FOR )NTERACTIVE !RT v IN !PPLIED #OMPLEXITY n &ROM .EURAL .ETS TO -ANAGED ,ANDSCAPES #HRISTCHURCH n 0ETER $ITTRICH *ENS :IEGLER AND 7OLFGANG "ANZHAF h!RTIFICIAL #HEMISTRIES n ! 2EVIEW v IN !RTIFICIAL ,IFE NO n
"EN 3HNEIDERMAN h$IRECT -ANIPULATION FOR #OM PREHENSIBLE 0REDICTABLE AND #ONTROLLABLE 5SER )NTER FACES v IN )NTELLIGENT 5SER )NTERFACES n !LEX 7AIBEL -INH 4UE 6O 0AUL $UCHNOWSKI AND 3TEFAN -ANKE h-ULTIMODAL )NTERFACES v !RTIFICIAL )NTEL LIGENCE 2EVIEW NO n n ,YNNE % "ERNSTEIN AND #HRISTIAN "ENO¦T h&OR 3PEECH 0ERCEPTION BY (UMANS OR -ACHINES 4HREE 3ENSE !RE "ETTER THAN /NE v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE )N TERNATIONAL #ONFERENCE ON 3POKEN ,ANGUAGE 0ROCESSING n
*URRIAAN $ -ULDER *ARKE * VAN 7IJK AND 2OBERT VAN ,IERE h! 3URVEY OF #OMPUTATIONAL 3TEERING %NVI RONMENTS v IN &UTURE 'ENERATION #OMPUTER 3YSTEMS !MSTERDAM n
)NTRODUCTION #OMPLEXITY THEORY HAS BEEN ONE OF THE MOST INmUENTIAL SCIENTIlC DISCIPLINES SINCE THE LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY 4ODAY COMPLEX SYSTEM RESEARCH PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN MANY SCIENTIlC lELDS 2ECENTLY THIS RESEARCH HAS BEEN EXERTING AN INmUENCE ON APPLICATION ORIENTED lELDS SUCH AS ENGINEERING ENTERTAINMENT AND ART /F PARTICULAR INTEREST TO ART AND ENTERTAINMENT IS THE CAPACITY OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS TO CREATE PATTERNS ON A VARIETY OF SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SCALES THAT CONSTANTLY CHANGE ADAPT AND EVOLVE 4HE HIGHLY DYNAMIC AESTHETICS OF THESE PATTERNS ARE AN IMPORTANT SOURCE OF INSPIRATION FOR ARTISTIC EXPLORA TIONS #OMPLEX SYSTEMS RESPOND TO EXTERNAL INmUENCES IN A VARIETY OF WAYS RANGING FROM AN IMMEDIATE RETURN TO THE PREVIOUS STATE TO A DRIFT INTO A QUALITATIVELY DIFFERENT REGIME )N AN INTERACTIVE SETUP COMPLEX SYSTEMS THEREFORE TEND TO RESPOND IN NONTRIVIAL AND SURPRISING WAYS TO USER INPUT 4HIS FEATURE RENDERS INTERACTIVE COMPLEX SYSTEMS BOTH ATTRACTIVE AND PROBLEMATIC AT THE SAME TIME )NTERACTION CAN QUICKLY BECOME FRUSTRATING AND BORING FOR AN INEXPERIENCED USER IF HE OR SHE SEES NO CAUSALITY BETWEEN INPUT AND FEEDBACK #ONSEQUENTLY ONE OF THE MAJOR CHALLENGES IN APPLYING COMPLEX SYSTEMS TO INTERACTIVE ART AND ENTERTAINMENT LIES IN DEVELOPING A SUITABLE COMBINATION OF FEED BACK AND INTERACTION 4HE "IO3ONICS SYSTEM PRESENTED IN THIS PAPER SEEKS TO RESOLVE THESE ISSUES
#ONCEPT "IO3ONICS EXPLORES BOTH THE AESTHETICS OF A PARTICULAR COMPLEX SYSTEM AND THE POSSIBILITIES OF INTUITIVE INTERACTION WITH SUCH A SYS TEM )T DRAWS INSPIRATION FROM BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS IN HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION (#) 4HANKS TO THEIR mEXIBILITY ROBUSTNESS ADAPTABILITY AND THEIR WIDE RANGE OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS ARE AMONG THE MOST INTERESTING COMPLEX SYSTEMS !LL BIOLOGICAL ORGAN ISMS GROW IN A PROCESS THAT INVOLVES SEVERAL COMPLEX SYSTEMS ACTING IN PARALLEL ON DIFFERENT ORGANIZATIONAL LEVELS MOLECULAR CELLULAR TISSUE 3OME OF THESE PROCESSES ARE SENSITIVE TO ENVIRONMENTAL INmUENCES 4HIS SENSITIVITY RESULTS IN THE FORMATION OF A COMPLEX ADULT MORPHOLOGY
WHICH IS ADAPTED TO HABITAT PROPERTIES "IO3ONICS IMPLEMENTS AN AB STRACT FORM OF A GROWTH PROCESS BY COMBINING AN ARTIlCIAL CHEMISTRY WITH A SIMPLE PHYSICAL SIMULATION OF A BODY MORPHOLOGY 'ROWTH IS THE RESULT OF THE MUTUAL INmUENCE BETWEEN THESE TWO ORGANIZATIONAL LEVELS 4HE CHEMICAL SYSTEM IS SENSITIVE TO USER INPUT 4HEREFORE USER ACTIVITY FORMS PART OF THE DYNAMICS WHICH ULTIMATELY CONTROL SHAPE 4HERE IS A BODY OF (#) LITERATURE THAT INVESTIGATES ISSUES OF INTER ACTION WITH ARTIlCIAL SYSTEMS 4HE EXPLORATION OF ADEQUATE FORMS OF SENSORY FEEDBACK CONSTITUTES AN IMPORTANT ASPECT OF (#) RESEARCH 4HE CONCEPTS OF DIRECT MANIPULATION AND MULTIMODAL INTERACTION ATTEMPT TO TRANSFORM ABSTRACT REPRESENTATIONS INTO DIRECT SENSA TIONS )N MANY SITUATIONS THE INTERACTIVE EXPERIENCE IS ENHANCED BY THE COMBINATION OF SEVERAL COMPLEMENTARY SENSORY MODALITIES $YNAMIC VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTATIONAL STEERING CONCEPTS AD DRESS ISSUES OF REAL TIME INTERACTION WITH COMPUTER PROGRAMS THAT GENERATE A LARGE NUMBER OF TEMPORALLY CHANGING DATA "IO3ONICS EN DEAVORS TO COMBINE SOME OF THESE (#) CONCEPTS BY SIMULTANEOUSLY PROVIDING VISUAL AND ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK ON THE ONGOING GROWTH PRO CESS 7HEREAS THE ARTIlCIAL CHEMICAL SYSTEM IS TRANSFORMED INTO SOUND THE ORGANISMS MORPHOLOGY IS VISUALIZED USING $ GRAPHICS 4HESE TWO MODALITIES COMPLEMENT EACH OTHER VISION EXCELS AT DISCRIMINATING SPATIAL DETAILS WHILE AUDITION IS PARTICULARLY GOOD AT DETECTING TEMPO RAL PATTERNS )NTERACTION WITH THE SYSTEM PROCEEDS IN REAL TIME AND RE LIES UPON INPUT FROM SEVERAL MICROPHONES 4HIS INPUT DIRECTLY AFFECTS THE CHEMICAL SYSTEM )N THIS WAY ACOUSTICS ARE USED AS THE SAME MODAL ITY FOR BOTH INTERACTION AND FEEDBACK
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"IO3ONICS INSTALLATION HERE THE VERSION SHOWN AT THE EXHIBITION h!BSTRACTION .OWv IN 6IENNA
)MPLEMENTATION 4HE "IO3ONICS SYSTEM CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING COMPONENTS INSTALLATION HARDWARE A MORPHOLOGICAL MODEL A CHEMICAL MODEL GROWTH VISUAL AND ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK AS WELL AS INTERACTION
)NSTALLATION (ARDWARE "IO3ONICS WAS DEVELOPED AS AN INTERACTIVE ART INSTALLATION !S CAN BE SEEN IN &IGURE THE INSTALLATION CONSISTS OF A HORIZONTAL 0LEXI GLAS PLATE HELD IN POSITION BY FOUR ALUMINUM RODS AND A BLACK CUBE 4HE PLATE IS POSITIONED AT A HEIGHT OF ABOUT METERS AND MEASURES ONE SQUARE METER 4HE CUBE CONTAINS ALL THE ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS INCLUDING A COMPUTER A BEAMER AND TWO ACOUSTIC MIXERS /NE SET OF SPEAKERS IS INTEGRATED INTO EACH VERTICAL FACE OF THE CUBE 4HESE FOUR SPEAKERS ARE PART OF A QUADRAPHONIC SOUND SYSTEM SEE 4HE COMPUTER GENERATED IMAGE IS BACK PROJECTED ONTO THE 0LEXIGLAS PLATE THROUGH A CIRCULAR HOLE IN THE CUBES TOP FACE 3INCE THE 0LEXIGLAS PLATE IS SLIGHTLY TRANSPARENT THE DISPLAYED IMAGE SEEMS TO HOVER IN SPACE 4HIS GIVES VIEWERS THE IMPRESSION THAT THEY ARE LOOKING DOWN INTO A POND CONTAINING A GROWING ORGANISM ! MICROPHONE PROTRUDES FROM THE UPPER END OF EACH ALUMINUM ROD 4HESE FOUR MICROPHONES SERVE AS ACOUSTIC INPUT DEVICES FOR INTERACTION WITH THE GROWING ORGANISM SEE
%XTENDED MASS SPRING SYSTEM -ASS POINTS ARE INDICATED BY FILLED CIRCLES 4HE LINES BETWEEN THESE CIRCLES REPRESENT SPRINGS 4HE FOLLOWING FORCES ARE SHOWN IN THE FIGURE SPRING FORCE ANGULAR FORCE "ROWNIAN FORCE CHEMOTACTIC FORCE
-ORPHOLOGICAL -ODEL 4HE STRUCTURE OF THE ARTIlCIAL ORGANISM IS BASED ON AN EXTENDED MASS SPRING SYSTEM &IGURE )N ADDITION TO THE SPRING AND DAMP ING FORCES MODELED IN STANDARD MASS SPRING SYSTEMS "IO3ONICS MAKES USE OF ANGULAR "ROWNIAN AND CHEMOTACTIC FORCES 4HE ANGULAR FORCE CAUSES TWO SUCCESSIVE SPRINGS TO ASSUME A PREFERRED RELATIVE ORIENTA TION 4HE "ROWNIAN FORCE CONTRIBUTES A RANDOM COMPONENT TO THE OVERALL FORCE VECTOR 4HE CHEMOTACTIC FORCE POINTS IN THE DIRECTION OF A CHEMICAL GRADIENT SEE 4HE MORPHOLOGICAL MODEL IS SIMULATED ON THE BASIS OF A SIMPLE %ULERIAN INTEGRATION SCHEME
#HEMICAL -ODEL "IO3ONICS EMPLOYS A VERY SIMPLE ARTIlCIAL CHEMISTRY CONSISTING OF A TOTAL OF SIX DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHEMICALS 4HESE TYPES DIFFER IN TERMS OF THEIR DIFFUSION COEFlCIENTS THEIR INITIAL CONCENTRATION AT THE BEGIN NING OF THE SIMULATION THEIR CURRENT CONCENTRATION AND THE REACTIONS IN WHICH THEY PARTICIPATE 2EACTIONS ARE ALWAYS OF THE FOLLOWING TYPES 2EACTIONS ARE UNIDIRECTIONAL 4HE DIRECTION OF THE REACTION DE PENDS ON THE SIGN OF THE REACTION RATE 4HE THREE REACTION PARTNERS CAN BE THE SAME CHEMICAL A DIFFERENT CHEMICAL OR A NULL CHEMICAL EG NO CHEMICAL 4HEREFORE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING REACTIONS CAN BE REPRE SENTED %ACH REACTION IS SPECIlED BY THE THREE CHEMICALS INVOLVED AS WELL AS BY ITS RATE YIELD THRESHOLD AND SATURATION #HEMICAL CONCENTRA TIONS AND REACTION PARAMETERS ARE IN ARBITRARY UNITS AND ALWAYS RANGE EITHER BETWEEN AND CONCENTRATION YIELD THRESHOLD SATURATION OR BETWEEN AND RATE #HEMICAL CONCENTRATION CHANGES ARE CALCU LATED AS FOLLOWS
!LAN 4URING h4HE #HEMICAL "ASIS OF -ORPHOGEN ESIS v 0HILOSOPHICAL 4RANSACTIONS OF THE 2OYAL 3OCIETY n
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#HEMICAL SYSTEM 0ART ! DEPICTS REACTIONS AMONG CHEMICALS #IRCLES REPRESENT THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHEMICALS 0OSITIVE REACTION RATES ARE REPRESENTED BY SOLID ARROWS NEGATIVE RATES BY OUTLINED ARROWS )N 0ART " CHEMICAL COMPARTMENTS ARE SHOWN BY SMALL OUTLINED CIRCLES CONTAINING A SET OF SIX CHEMICALS EACH !RROWS BETWEEN CHEMICAL COMPARTMENTS INDICATE THE DIFFUSION OF CHEMICALS 0ART # SUGGESTS HOW THE ARRANGEMENT OF CHEMICAL COMPARTMENTS IN 0ART " FORMS A SMALL SUBSET OF ALL THE CHEMICAL COMPARTMENTS THAT ARE EMBEDDED IN THE ENTIRE STRUCTURE
%ACH STRUCTURAL ELEMENT CONTAINS EITHER ONE SPRING OR THREE MASS POINT CHEMICAL COMPARTMENTS %ACH COMPARTMENT STORES ITS OWN SET OF CHEMICALS #HEMICALS CAN BE EXCHANGED BETWEEN NEIGHBOR ING COMPARTMENTS THROUGH DIFFUSION &IGURE 2EACTIONS BETWEEN CHEMICALS OCCUR WITHIN THESE COMPARTMENTS 4HIS CHEMICAL SYSTEM REPRESENTS A SOPHISTICATED VARIANT OF REACTION DIFFUSION SYSTEMS IN WHICH THE ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISM MORPHOLOGY DETERMINES THE SHAPE AND NEIGHBORHOOD RELATIONSHIPS OF THE CHEMICAL DISH GRID
'ROWTH 'ROWTH OF THE SIMULATED ORGANISM IS THE RESULT OF THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ITS ARTIlCIAL CHEMICAL SYSTEM AND ITS BODY MORPHOLOGY 4HESE INTERACTIONS CONSTITUTE A SPECIAL KIND OF REACTION IN WHICH BOTH CHEMI CALS AND STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS FORM THE REACTION PARTNERS %SSEN TIALLY ANY CHEMICAL PARAMETER CAN CONTROL ANY STRUCTURAL PARAMETER AND VICE VERSA )N THIS WAY THE STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICALS FORM A RE ACTION NETWORK &IGURE 0OSSIBLE REACTIONS ARE CREATION AND DELE TION OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS CONSUMPTION OF CHEMICALS IN ORDER TO SUS TAIN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS MODIlCATION OF STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS AND FUSION OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS DUE TO THEIR PROXIMITY 'ROWTH ALWAYS STARTS FROM A SINGLE MASS POINT CONTAINING A SET OF INITIAL CHEMICAL CONCENTRATIONS )N THE ABSENCE OF ANY USER INPUT THE INTERNAL DYNAM ICS OF THESE CHEMICALS LEADS TO A MOSTLY DETERMINISTIC GROWTH PROCESS &IGURE &OR THE MOMENT ALL REACTIONS ARE HARD CODED AND SOME WHAT ARBITRARY /UR INTENTION IN DESIGNING THE REACTIONS HAS BEEN TO CREATE A SYSTEM THAT IS HIGHLY RESPONSIVE TO USER INPUT WHILE EXHIBITING A FAIRLY INTERESTING BEHAVIOR WHEN LEFT ON ITS OWN "IO3ONCIS DISPLAYS THE STRUCTURE OF THE GROWING ORGANISM GRAPHI CALLY AS A COLLECTION OF SIMPLE $ SHAPES SUCH AS RECTANGLES FOR MASS POINTS AND LINES FOR SPRINGS )N ADDITION TO ITS PHYSICAL PARAMETERS EACH MASS POINT AND SPRING POSSESSES A SET OF VALUES CONTROLLING ITS DISPLAY CHARACTERISTICS COLOR HUE COLOR SATURATION COLOR ALPHA DI AMETER AND LINE WIDTH 4HESE CHARACTERISTICS ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED ON THE REACTIONS THAT TAKE PLACE BETWEEN CHEMICALS AND STRUC TURAL PARAMETERS &IGURE 4HE CORRESPONDING MASS POINTS BETWEEN CONSECUTIVE TIME FRAMES ARE CONNECTED BY LINES TO CONVEY THE SPATIAL DYNAMICS OF THE GROWING STRUCTURE 4HE LENGTH AND DIRECTION OF THESE LINES ILLUSTRATE THE DIRECTION AND MAGNITUDE OF THE STRUCTURES MO TIONS !T THE SAME TIME SUCCESSIVE IMAGES REPRESENTING CONSECUTIVE STRUCTURAL STATES ARE DISPLAYED ON TOP OF EACH OTHER WITH THE OLDER IM AGES GRADUALLY FADING INTO THE BACKGROUND $EPENDING ON THE AMOUNT OF FADING USED "IO3ONICS DISPLAYS A MORE OR LESS DENSELY ENTANGLED MESHWORK OF POINTS AND LINES 4HIS MESHWORK CREATES THE ILLUSION OF A HIGHLY COMPLEX MORPHOLOGY EVEN THOUGH n DUE TO COMPUTATIONAL
PERFORMANCE ISSUES n THE ACTUAL MORPHOLOGY IS NEVER LARGER THAN ABOUT MASS POINTS AND SPRINGS $URING VISUALIZATION THE SIMULA TION AUTOMATICALLY SWITCHES BETWEEN DIFFERENT FADING VALUES )N COM BINATION WITH THE STRUCTURES CHANGING DISPLAY CHARACTERISTICS THESE FADING VALUES CREATE A WIDE VARIETY OF GRAPHICAL PATTERNS &IGURE
'ROWTH PROCESS (ERE A TIME SEQUENCE WITH THE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE STRUCTURE TOP AND THE SPATIALLY AVERAGED CHEMICAL CONCENTRATIONS BOTTOM 4IME RUNS FROM LEFT TO RIGHT .UMBERS INDICATE CORRE SPONDING POSITIONS IN SIMULATION TIME &OR INFORMATION CONCERNING THE VISUALIZATION OF THE STRUCTURE PLEASE SEE
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2EACTION NETWORK %ACH COMPARTMENT CONTAINS THE SAME REACTION NETWORK #IRCLES REPRESENT THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHEMICALS 3TRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ARE DEPICTED AS ROUNDED RECTANGLES !RROWS REPRESENT REACTIONS SOLID ARROWS INDICATE POSITIVE EFFECTS EMPTY ARROWS NEGATIVE EFFECTS
6ISUAL REPRESENTATIONS OF THE GROWING ORGANISM $URING THE GROWTH PROCESS IT IS NOT ONLY THE BODY STRUC TURE OF THE ORGANISM THAT CHANGES BUT ALSO ITS GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
6ISUAL FEEDBACK
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#URTIS 2OADS 4HE #OMPUTER -USIC 4UTORIAL #AM BRIDGE -ASS
!COUSTIC &EEDBACK "IO3ONICS RELIES ON ACOUSTICS IN ORDER TO RENDER THE DYNAMICS OF THE SIMULATED CHEMICAL PROCESSES PERCEIVABLE 4HE ACOUSTIC OUTPUT IS GENERATED BY MEANS OF ADDITIVE SYNTHESIS 4HE FREQUENCIES AND AM PLITUDES OF THE COMBINED SINE WAVES ARE CHARACTERISTIC OF EACH TYPE OF CHEMICAL %ACH VISIBLE CHEMICAL COMPARTMENT CONTINUOUSLY PLAYS ALL SIX CHEMICAL SOUNDS AT AN AMPLITUDE WHICH IS PROPORTIONATE TO THE CONCENTRATION OF THESE CHEMICALS WITHIN THE COMPARTMENT )N THE CUR RENT SETUP SEE A QUADRAPHONIC SOUND SYSTEM IS INTEGRATED INTO THE INSTALLATION #HEMICAL SOUNDS ARE POSITIONED WITHIN THE QUAD RAPHONIC SOUND SPACE BASED ON THE RELATIVE SCREEN POSITION OF THE CORRESPONDING COMPARTMENTS #OMPARTMENTS AT THE CENTER OF THE SCREEN PLAY THEIR CHEMICAL SOUNDS AT EQUAL LOUDNESS ON ALL FOUR SPEAK ERS 3HIFTING A COMPARTMENT AWAY FROM THE SCREEN CENTER RESULTS IN AN EQUALLY ASYMMETRIC SPATIAL AUDIO OUTPUT )N THIS WAY THE TEMPORALLY AND SPATIALLY CHANGING SOUND PATTERNS DIRECTLY REmECT CHANGES IN THE CHEMICAL SYSTEM
)NTERACTIVITY )NTERACTION WITH A COMPLEX SYSTEM CONSTITUTES ONE OF THE KEY AS PECTS OF "IO3ONICS 3INCE "IO3ONICS RELIES ON SOUND BOTH AS A MEANS OF PROVIDING FEEDBACK AND AS A MODALITY OF INTERACTION IT MAKES USE OF A UNIQUE FORM OF THE DIRECT MANIPULATION CONCEPT )N THE CURRENT SETUP FOUR MICROPHONES PICK UP ALL THE SOUNDS MADE BY USERS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 4HE FREQUENCY SPECTRA OF THE RECORDED SOUNDS ARE COM PARED WITH THE SOUNDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE VARIOUS CHEMICALS )F THERE IS A SUFlCIENTLY HIGH DEGREE OF SIMILARITY A SPECIlC AMOUNT OF THE COR RESPONDING CHEMICAL IS FED INTO THE ORGANISM CHANGING THE STATE OF THE CHEMICAL SYSTEM &IGURE 4HE DYNAMICS OF THE CHEMICAL SYSTEM ARE THUS BASED ON BOTH ITS INTERNAL REACTION NETWORK AND THE ACTIVITY OF THE USERS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 4HE AMOUNT OF THE CHEMICAL THAT IS INFUSED INTO A PARTICULAR COMPARTMENT DEPENDS ON SOUND SIMILARITY AMPLITUDE AND THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE COMPARTMENT AND THE SOUND SOURCE %ACH MICROPHONE ACTS AS A CHEMICAL SOURCE AND HAS ITS OWN POSITION IN SCREEN COORDINATES 4HE DISTANCE IS CALCULATED USING THE FOLLOWING FORMULA !LL NEGATIVE VALUES ARE SET TO ZERO POSITIVE VALUES REMAIN UN CHANGED )N THIS EQUATION #0 IS THE POSITION OF THE CHEMICAL COMPART MENT #- IS THE CENTER OF MASS OF THE ORGANISM AND 3 IS THE POSITION OF THE CHEMICAL SOURCE 4HE CHEMICAL CONCENTRATION INFUSED INTO THE CHEMICAL COMPARTMENT IS MULTIPLIED BY THE SQUARED INVERSE OF THIS DIS TANCE 4HE EFFECT OF INTERACTION ON THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES IS STRONGEST WITHIN THOSE COMPARTMENTS THAT ARE CLOSEST TO THE INTERACTING USER )N CHOOSING A PARTICULAR MICROPHONE USERS DECIDE WHICH PARTS OF THE ORGANISM ARE EXPOSED MOST STRONGLY TO INTERACTIVITY RELATED CHANGES 7HEN INTERACTING WITH "IO3ONICS USERS NOT ONLY INFUSE CHEMICALS INTO THE GROWING ORGANISM BUT ALSO CREATE CHEMICAL GRADIENTS WITHIN THE ORGANISMS SIMULATED ENVIRONMENT 4HESE GRADIENTS RESULT FROM THE
DIFFERING AMOUNTS OF CHEMICALS THAT ARE PRODUCED BY EACH CHEMICAL SOURCE 4HE ORGANISM EXHIBITS CHEMOTACTIC BEHAVIOR WITHIN THESE GRA DIENTS %ACH TYPE OF CHEMICAL POSSESSES A CERTAIN ATTRACTIVENESS FOR THE ORGANISM #HEMICALS THAT LEAD TO AN INCREASE IN THE GROWTH RATE OF THE ORGANISM HAVE A POSITIVE ATTRACTION VALUE /N THE OTHER HAND CHEMI CALS THAT IMPEDE GROWTH OR REDUCE THE SIZE OF THE ORGANISM HAVE NEGA TIVE ATTRACTION VALUES $EPENDING ON THIS ATTRACTIVENESS A FORCE VEC TOR POINTING TOWARDS OR AWAY FROM THE STEEPEST GRADIENT SLOPE ACTS ON ALL MASS POINTS OF THE ORGANISMS STRUCTURE &IGURE 4HE RESULTING CHEMOTACTIC FORCE MAKES THE ORGANISM MOVE TOWARDS THE USERS WHO CAUSE ATTRACTIVE CHEMICALS TO BE PRODUCED !PART FROM EXERTING INmUENCE ON THE DYNAMICS OF THE CHEMICAL SYSTEM INTERACTIVITY ALSO AFFECTS THE ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF THE CHEMI CALS 7HENEVER THE SYSTEM EVALUATES THE SPECTRAL SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE RECORDED SOUNDS AND THE CHEMICAL SOUNDS IT ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE UPON THE BEST MATCH BY SLIGHTLY CHANGING THE ADDITIVE SYNTHESIS PA RAMETERS OF THE CORRESPONDING CHEMICAL SOUND /VER AN EXTENDED PERIOD OF TIME THIS MECHANISM HARMONIZES THE ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK OF "IO3ONICS WITH THE ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF ITS ENVIRONMENT !S A RESULT THE GROWTH PROCESS BECOMES INCREASINGLY SENSITIVE TO FREQUENT ENVI RONMENTAL SOUNDS
#HEMOTAXIS 4HIS FIGURE ILLUSTRATES THE CONCEPT OF CHEMOTAXIS USED BY "IO3ONICS 4HE FOUR MICROPHONES THAT ACT AS CHEMICAL SOURCES ARE SHOWN BY LARGE CIRCLES )N THE EXTREME SITUATION DEPICTED HERE EACH MICROPHONE PRODUCES EXACTLY ONE CHEMICAL AT MAXIMUM CONCENTRA TION 4HE ORGANISM IS HIGHLY ATTRACTED TO THE CHEMICAL PRODUCED BY THE TOP LEFT MICROPHONE IT DISLIKES THE CHEMICAL PRODUCED BY THE BOTTOM RIGHT MICROPHONE AND IT IS INDIFFERENT TO THE CHEMICALS PRODUCED BY THE OTHER TWO MICROPHONES &OR THIS REASON THE OVERALL MO TION OF THE ORGANISM IS TOWARDS THE TOP LEFT MICROPHONE
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)NTERACTION (ERE A TIME SEQUENCE WITH THE GRAPH ICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE STRUCTURE TOP THE SPATIALLY AVERAGED CHEMICAL CONCENTRATIONS MIDDLE AND THE INTERACTIVELY PRODUCED CHEMICALS BOTTOM 4IME RUNS FROM LEFT TO RIGHT .UMBERS INDICATE CORRESPONDING POSITIONS IN SIMULATION TIME
h-ALEWITSCHS %RBEN IM $IGITALZEITALTER @!BSTRACTION .OW IN 7IEN v IN 7ESTDEUTSCHE :EITUNG $ÓSSELDORF
2ESULTS AND $ISCUSSION 4HE PROJECT "IO3ONICS HAS BEEN PRESENTED TO VARIOUS PEOPLE AT THE !RTIlCIAL )NTELLIGENCE ,AB OF THE 5NIVERSITY OF :URICH )T WAS ALSO FEA TURED AT THE EXHIBITION h!BSTRACTION .OW v WHICH RAN FROM !UGUST TO 3EPTEMBER AT THE + ÓNSTLERHAUS IN 6IENNA $URING THESE PRESEN TATIONS WE WERE MAINLY INTERESTED IN INFORMAL FEEDBACK ON THE AESTHET ICS AND INTERACTIVITY OF THE SYSTEM 4HE VISUAL AESTHETICS WERE VERY WELL RECEIVED 4HE SOMEWHAT UN ORTHODOX DISPLAY SYSTEM AND THE ABSTRACT NATURE OF THE VISUALS CON TRIBUTED TO THIS POSITIVE RESPONSE ! NEWSPAPER ARTICLE DESCRIBES THE VISUAL PRESENTATION AS BEING ALMOST PICTORIAL IN APPEARANCE 6IEWERS ALSO RESPONDED POSITIVELY TO THE SMOOTH MOTIONS OF THE CONTINUOUSLY CHANGING STRUCTURE )T WAS PRIMARILY THIS CONSTANT METAMORPHOSIS THAT REMINDED THEM OF LIVING SYSTEMS 3URPRISINGLY NOBODY CONSIDERED THE COMBINATION OF ABSTRACT GRAPHIC ELEMENTS AND SMOOTH LIFELIKE MO TIONS TO BE AESTHETICALLY JARRING 4HE ACOUSTIC QUALITIES OF THE SYSTEM DREW GREATER CRITICISM 3OME PEOPLE APPRECIATED THE SLOWLY CHANGING TIMBRE OF SOUND BUT OTHERS FOUND THIS SOUND QUALITY MONOTONOUS AND BORING 2EGARDLESS OF MUSI CAL TASTES WE BELIEVE THAT THE ACOUSTIC OUTPUT OF THE CURRENT INSTALLATION IS mAWED FOR TWO REASONS &IRST OF ALL HUNDREDS OF CHEMICAL COMPART MENTS THAT PRODUCE CHEMICAL SOUNDS OF IDENTICAL TIMBRE BUT SLIGHTLY DIF FERENT DYNAMICS RESULT IN A BLURRING OF THE ACOUSTIC OUTPUT 4HIS EFFECT BECOMES MORE PRONOUNCED AS THE ORGANISM GROWS LARGER 3ECOND THE AESTHETICS OF TEMPORAL CHANGE ARE NOT NECESSARILY THE SAME FOR VISUAL AND ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK )N "IO3ONICS THE TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ACOUSTICS AND VISUALS ARE VERY SIMILAR BECAUSE BOTH THE CHEMICAL SYSTEM AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE ORGANISM ARE CLOSELY LINKED )F A SLOWLY CHANGING VISUAL APPEARANCE IS TO BE PRODUCED THE ACCOMPANYING ACOUSTIC OUTPUT WILL NECESSARILY HAVE TO CHANGE SLOWLY AS WELL 7E MIGHT BE ABLE TO SOLVE THIS PROBLEM BY CREATING A MORE INDIRECT AND COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHEMICAL PROCESSES AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES (OWEVER LARGELY INDIRECT CHEMICAL EFFECTS WILL IMPAIR THE INTERACTIVITY OF THE SYSTEM SINCE THEY WILL DIMINISH THE SYSTEMS RESPONSIVENESS AND PREDICTABILITY 4HE CHALLENGE LIES IN STRIKING A PROPER BALANCE BETWEEN THESE TWO CONmICTING GOALS
/UR EVALUATION OF INTERACTIVITY IS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA THE SYSTEMS ABILITY TO ATTRACT USERS INTEREST ITS ABILITY TO MAINTAIN THEIR INTEREST THROUGH ENGAGING INTERACTION AND ITS ABILITY TO GIVE USERS AN INTUITIVE UNDERSTANDING OF THE PROCESSES DISPLAYED &OR OBVIOUS REA SONS WE WERE PRIMARILY INTERESTED IN FEEDBACK FROM USERS WHO WERE ENCOUNTERING THE SYSTEM FOR THE lRST TIME AND WHO DID NOT POSSESS ANY PRIOR KNOWLEDGE OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS 4HE CHANGING FEEDBACK PROVIDED BY THE SYSTEM AS WELL AS THE DELAYED NATURE OF THESE CHANGES GENERATED INITIAL INTEREST 4HIS WAS HEIGHTENED BY THE PERCEIVED DEGREE OF SYNCHRONIZATION BETWEEN ACOUS TIC AND VISUAL OUTPUT 4HE FACT THAT SYNCHRONIZATION WAS NEITHER TOTAL NOR TOTALLY ABSENT GAVE USERS THE IMPRESSION THAT BOTH TYPES OF OUTPUT WERE LINKED BY A NONTRIVIAL ALGORITHM )NTERACTIVITY PLAYED AN IMPOR TANT ROLE IN ENSURING THAT USERS REMAINED INTERESTED IN THE INSTALLATION )T BECAME CLEAR THAT USERS HAD TO OVERCOME TWO OBSTACLES BEFORE THEY COULD INTERACT WITH THE SYSTEM &IRST OF ALL THEY WERE NOT USED TO INTER ACTING WITH AN INSTALLATION THROUGH SOUND PARTICULARLY IN A MUSEUM SETTING 4HE DEFAULT FORM OF EXPERIENCING ARTWORK IS THROUGH SIGHT WE GAZE AT IT IN SILENT ASTONISHMENT 3ECOND DESPITE PICTOGRAPHIC LABELING MOST USERS DID NOT RECOGNIZE THE MICROPHONES FUNCTION &OR THESE TWO REASONS WE EXPLICITLY HAD TO TELL USERS TO MAKE SOUNDS OTHERWISE THEY WOULD NOT HAVE REALIZED THAT THE SYSTEM RESPONDED TO ACOUSTIC INPUT )T QUICKLY BECAME CLEAR TO US THAT DIFFERENT USERS INTERACTED WITH THE SYSTEM IN DIFFERENT WAYS 3OME USERS WERE CONTENT TO MAKE VERY LOUD NOISES WHICH USUALLY RESULTED IN LARGE BURSTS OF GROWTH (OWEVER IN ORDER TO CAUSE SMALLER AND MORE DIFFERENTIATED CHANGES IN THE GROWTH PROCESS USERS HAD TO PRODUCE A SOUND THAT CONTAINED A DOMINANT FREQUENCY AS OPPOSED TO PURE NOISE )F THEY DID SO THE SOUND INPUT MATCHED ONLY ONE OR TWO CHEMICALS WHICH WERE CONSEQUENTLY INFUSED INTO THE SYSTEM 4HE USERS WHO INTERACTED IN THIS WAY QUICKLY REALIZED THAT THEY COULD RECREATE STRUCTURAL CHANGES PREVIOUSLY OBSERVED IF THEY MIMICKED THE ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK THAT THE SYSTEM PROVIDED 4HIS TYPE OF INTERACTION WAS NECESSARY TO CREATE ENDURING INTEREST IN THE SYSTEM AND TO PROMOTE AN INTUITIVE UNDERSTANDING OF THE SYSTEMS BEHAVIOR
"IO3ONICS )NTERACTIVE 'ROWTH 3YSTEM $ANIEL "ISIG
#ONCLUSION AND /UTLOOK "IO3ONICS WAS CONCEIVED AND DESIGNED AS AN INTERACTIVE ART INSTAL LATION THAT NOT ONLY EXPLORES THE AESTHETICS OF PATTERN FORMATION IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS BUT ALSO INVESTIGATES INTUITIVE INTERACTION WITH SUCH SYSTEMS )N ITS CURRENT VERSION IT ALLOWS USERS TO INTERACT IN A PLAYFUL AND EXPLORATORY WAY WITH AN ARTIlCIAL GROWTH SYSTEM THAT PROVIDES BOTH ACOUSTIC AND VISUAL FEEDBACK &OR THE MOST PART USERS HAVE RE SPONDED POSITIVELY TO THE AESTHETICS OF THE SYSTEMS FEEDBACK AND ITS INTERACTIVITY &OR THIS REASON WE BELIEVE THAT OUR CURRENT APPROACH TO DESIGNING INTERACTIVE COMPLEX SYSTEMS FOR ART AND ENTERTAINMENT IS SUFlCIENTLY PROMISING TO JUSTIFY FURTHER RESEARCH 4HIS RESEARCH WILL MAINLY CON CENTRATE ON IMPROVING THE SYSTEMS ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK AND INTERACTIV ITY 4HE MOSTLY MONOTONOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK ARE POSSIBLY THE RESULT OF AN INADEQUATE ACOUSTIC SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUE AND AN OVERLY SIMPLISTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHEMICAL DYNAMICS AND STRUCTURAL EFFECTS )F THE UNDERLYING CHEMICAL SYSTEM IS MADE MORE COMPLEX IT SHOULD BE POSSIBLE TO PRODUCE A WIDER VARIETY OF TEMPO RAL PATTERNS 4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CHEMICAL SYSTEM AND THE MORPHOLOGY NEEDS TO BE CAREFULLY REDESIGNED IF THE SLOW PACED LIFELIKE METAMORPHOSIS OF THE ORGANISM IS TO BE PRESERVED )N AN IMPROVED VERSION OF "IO3ONICS THE NUMBER OF CHEMICAL COMPARTMENTS WHOSE CHEMICALS PRODUCE SOUND SHOULD BE REDUCED 3UCH A SUBSET OF SOUND PRODUCING COMPARTMENTS COULD EITHER BE INTERACTIVELY SELECTED BY THE USER OR SPECIlED AUTOMATICALLY BASED ON THE COMPARTMENTS PROXIMITY TO THE MICROPHONES )N THIS CASE THE COMPARTMENTS THAT ARE MOST LIKELY TO BE AFFECTED BY THE USERS INTERACTION WILL BE THE ONES TO PROVIDE ACOUSTIC FEEDBACK &INALLY ACOUSTIC OUTPUT COULD BE MADE MORE IN TERESTING BY A DIFFERENT METHOD OF SOUND SYNTHESIS )T IS NOT NECESSARY FOR EACH CHEMICAL TO PRODUCE ITS OWN SOUND 2ATHER EACH COULD ACT IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER CHEMICALS TO CONTROL SOUND SYNTHESIS )NTERACTIVITY COULD BE IMPROVED BY GIVING USERS A MEANS OF NAVI GATING WITHIN THE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE )NSTEAD OF VIEWING THE EN TIRE STRUCTURE AT A CONSTANT MAGNIlCATION USERS COULD CHOOSE TO ZOOM
IN ON PARTICULAR DETAILS OF THE GROWING ORGANISM 4HIS SORT OF CONTROL COULD BE ACHIEVED IF THE USERS HANDS WERE TRACKED ON TOP OF THE DIS PLAY &INALLY WE WOULD LIKE TO MOVE TO $ GRAPHICS AS A WAY OF REPRE SENTING THE ORGANISMS STRUCTURE 4HE ADDED DIMENSION WOULD ALLOW FOR THE DISPLAY OF A WIDER VARIETY OF STRUCTURES AND ENHANCE THE USERS SENSE OF BEING IMMERSED IN THE INTERACTIVE EXPERIENCE PARTICULARLY WHEN COMBINED WITH $ SPATIAL SOUND
!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7E ARE GRATEFUL FOR THE INTERESTING TECHNICAL AND CONCEPTUAL DIS CUSSIONS WE HAD WITH $ALE 4HOMAS 4HIS RESEARCH IS PART OF THE h%M BODIED !RTIlCIAL )NTELLIGENCEv PROJECT WHICH HAS BEEN FUNDED BY THE 3WISS .ATIONAL 3CIENCE &OUNDATION
4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI
4!.')",% 53%2 ).4%2&!#%3 &/2 %$5#!4)/.!, 53% "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI
!BSTRACT 4HIS ARTICLE REPORTS ON THE MANY WAYS THAT TANGIBLE INTERACTION CAN BENElT CHEMISTRY EDUCATION )T DESCRIBES THE DEVELOPMENT OF A TANGIBLE USER INTERFACE 45) CALLED h!UGMENTED #HEMISTRYv !# GIVES DETAILS OF THE SYSTEMS BASIC AND SPECIALIZED INTERACTIVE TOOLS AND OUTLINES ITS EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT 7ITH THESE BASIC TOOLS USERS CAN CHOOSE ELEMENTS FROM A BOOKLET MENU AND CONSTRUCT $ MOLECULAR MODELS 4HE SYSTEM CAN CURRENTLY BE USED TO TEACH CERTAIN ASPECTS OF ORGANIC MOLECULAR CHEMISTRY SUCH AS THE OCTET RULE %XPERTISE FROM OPTICS MATHEMATICS MOLECULAR CHEMISTRY SOFTWARE ENGINEERING AND $ PROGRAMMING PLAYED A ROLE IN THE DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM MAKING IT A TRULY INTERDISCIPLINARY PROJECT 7E ARE CURRENTLY PLANNING TO EVALU ATE !#S CAPACITY TO SUPPORT EFFECTIVE USER FRIENDLY CHEMISTRY EDUCA TION AT A VOCATIONAL SCHOOL FOR TRAINEES IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 7E WILL COMPARE THE SYSTEMS EDUCATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS WITH THAT OF THE INSTITUTIONS ESTABLISHED TEACHING METHODS
' &ITZMAURICE ( )SHII AND 7 "UXTON h"RICKS ,AYING THE &OUNDATIONS FOR 'RASPABLE 5SER )NTERFACES v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE #() !#- 0RESS n " 5LLMER AND ( )SHII h4HE META$%3+ -ODELS AND 0ROTOTYPES FOR 4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES v IN 0ROCEEDINGS /F 5)34 !#- 0RESS n 6 #OLELLA 2 "OROVOY AND - 2ESNICK h0ARTICIPA TORY 3IMULATIONS 5SING #OMPUTATIONAL /BJECTS TO ,EARN ABOUT $YNAMIC 3YSTEMS $EMONSTRATIONS )NTERAC TION VIA 0LAY v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF !#- #() #ONFERENCE ON (UMAN &ACTORS IN #OMPUTING 3YSTEMS !#- 0RESS n * 'OSLIN HTTPSPACECUBEJEREMYGOSLINCOM
- &JELD & 6OORHORST - "ICHSEL ( + RUEGER AND - 2AUTERBERG h.AVIGATION -ETHODS FOR AN !UGMENTED 2EALITY 3YSTEM v IN 6IDEO PROGRAMEXTENDED ABSTRACTS OF #() !#- 0RESS n * 0ATTEN ( )SHII * (INES AND ' 0ANGARO h3ENSE TABLE ! 7IRELESS /BJECT 4RACKING 0LATFORM FOR 4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF !#- #() #ON FERENCE ON (UMAN &ACTORS IN #OMPUTING 3YSTEMS .EW 9ORK AO n ( + AUFMANN $ 3CHMALSTIEG AND - 7AGNER h#ONSTRUCT$ ! 6IRTUAL 2EALITY !PPLICATION FOR -ATH EMATICS AND 'EOMETRY %DUCATION v IN 6IRTUAL 2EALITY IN %DUCATION A SPECIAL ISSUE OF %DUCATION AND )NFORMATION 4ECHNOLOGIES NO n
)NTRODUCTION 4HIS ARTICLE SHOWS THE MANY WAYS TANGIBLE INTERACTION CAN BENElT CHEMISTRY EDUCATION )T PRESENTS AN INTERACTIVE APPLICATION WITH WHICH USERS CAN BUILD $ MOLECULAR MODELS ONE THAT DRAWS ON AN AUGMENT ED REALITY !2 CONCEPT 4HE APPLICATION FEATURES A TANGIBLE USER IN TERFACE 45) THAT WE HAVE CALLED h!UGMENTED #HEMISTRYv !# 4HE lRST SECTION OF THIS ARTICLE DISCUSSES ALTERNATIVE MOLECULAR MODELING APPLICATIONS 3ECTION DESCRIBES THE !# SYSTEM IN RELATION TO COMPA RABLE RESEARCH PROJECTS AND PRODUCTS 3ECTION OUTLINES THE FEATURES AND USE OF !# INCLUDING THE MIRROR METAPHOR THE SYSTEMS INTERACTIVE FORM SETUP BASIC AND SPECIALIZED INTERACTIVE TOOLS 3ECTION PRESENTS THE EDUCATIONAL CONTENT OF !# DISCUSSING THE OCTET RULE GRAPHIC REP RESENTATION AND SPOKEN INFORMATION 3ECTION PRESENTS AN EMPIRICAL IN PROGRESS EVALUATION THAT COMPARES THE EDUCATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS AND USER SATISFACTION OF !# WITH TWO ALTERNATIVE METHODS 3ECTION PROVIDES A SUMMARY AND PRESENTS POSSIBLE DIRECTIONS THAT THE !# RE SEARCH PROJECT MAY TAKE IN THE FUTURE 3CHEMATIC AND COMPUTER BASED MOLECULAR MODELS USED IN CHEM ISTRY ARE FOR THE MOST PART SYNTHETIC AND HIGHLY ABSTRACT SEE &IGURE 4HEY MAY REPRESENT A PHYSICAL IDEA OR A MATHEMATICAL FORMULA 3UCH MODELS ILLUSTRATE CONCEPTS AND HELP US UNDERSTAND THE UNDER LYING STRUCTURES AND DYNAMICS OF ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY %ACH TYPE OF MODEL IS DESIGNED TO SHOW A DIFFERENT ASPECT OF CHEMISTRY AND IS CHOSEN IN LINE WITH EDUCATIONAL GOALS 4HERE IS NO IDEAL MODEL FOR CHEMISTRY EDUCATION 2ATHER DIFFERENT MODELS ARE COMBINED TO MEET CHANGING EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS AND NEEDS 7E HAVE CHOSEN THE BALL STICK MODEL FOR REASONS OF CODING AND BECAUSE IT BEST SUITS THE GRAPHICS AND EDUCATIONAL GOALS OF THE PROJECT (OWEVER USERS CAN SE LECT A WIREFRAME VIEWING MODE WITH ONE OF THE SYSTEMS SPECIALIZED TOOLS
( + OIKE 9 3ATO 9 + OBAYASHI ( 4OBITA AND - + OBAYASHI h)NTERACTIVE 4EXTBOOK AND )NTERACTIVE 6ENN $IAGRAM .ATURAL AND )NTUITIVE )NTERFACES ON !UGMENT ED $ESK 3YSTEM 4ANGIBLE 5) 3YSTEMS v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF !#- #() #ONFERENCE ON (UMAN &ACTORS IN #OM PUTING 3YSTEMS !#- 0RESS n - "ILLINGHURST ( + ATO AND ) 0OUPYREV h4HE -AGIC "OOK n -OVING 3EAMLESSLY BETWEEN 2EALITY AND 6IRTUALITY v IN )%%% #OMPUTER 'RAPHICS AND !PPLICATIONS NO n * 2EKIMOTO h-ATRIX ! 2EALTIME /BJECT )DENTIFICA TION AND 2EGISTRATION -ETHOD FOR !UGMENTED 2EALITY v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF !SIA 0ACIFIC #OMPUTER (UMAN )NTERACTION !0#() t n
2 ( 0ETRUCCI 73 (ARWOOD AND ' (ERRING IN 'ENERAL #HEMISTRY 0RINCIPLES AND -ODERN !PPLICATIONS E .EW *ERSEY " 3HELTON h!UGMENTED 2EALITY AND %DUCATION v .EW (ORIZONS HTTPWWWNEWHORIZONSORG STRATEGIESTECHNOLOGYSHELTONHTM " 7INN h,EARNING 4HROUGH 6IRTUAL 2EALITY v IN .EW (ORIZONS WWWNEWHORIZONSORGSTRATEGIES TECHNOLOGYWINNHTM " % 3HELTON AND . 2 (EDLEY h5SING !UGMENTED 2EALITY FOR 4EACHING %ARTH 3UN 2ELATIONSHIPS TO 5NDER GRADUATE 'EOGRAPHY 3TUDENTS v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF )%%% !24OOLKIT 7ORKSHOP
2ELATED 2ESEARCH AND 0RODUCTS 4HIS SECTION VIEWS THE !# PROJECT AND SYSTEM IN A BROADER CON TEXT !FTER PRESENTING AND DISCUSSING COMPARABLE RESEARCH IT PROVIDES INFORMATION ON RELATED PRODUCTS
2ELATED 2ESEARCH 7HILE SOME 45)S SUCH AS 4ANGIBLE "RICKS AND -ETA$ESK OFFER PLANAR INTERACTION OTHER SYSTEMS SUCH AS #UBES FEATURE $ INTERACTION 4HE WIRELESS TRACKING OF INTERACTION HANDLES MAY BE EITHER OPTICAL OR ELECTROMAGNETIC 4HIS ARTICLE REPORTS ON A 45) THAT PERFORMS $ OPTICAL TRACKING OF INTERACTION HANDLES 3UCH INTERFACES CAN ENHANCE $ INTERACTION BY MORE ACCURATELY MIMICKING THE USE OF hACTUALv PHYSICAL ARTIFACTS AND TOOLS 45)S FOR $ INTERACTION ENABLE US ERS TO MOVE THEIR HANDS AND BODIES IN A MORE NATURAL WAY 3UCH MOVE MENTS MAY BE INCORPORATED INTO THE USERS INTERACTION WITH DIGITAL INFORMATION THEREBY ACHIEVING A MORE mUENT HANDLING OF $ MODELS )N THE DRAG AND DROP OPERATION COMMON TO GRAPHICAL USER INTER FACES lLES ARE SELECTED AND PLACED IN A NEW FOLDER 7ITH A 45) DIGI TAL INFORMATION IS REPRESENTED AND MANIPULATED BY MEANS OF PHYSICAL HANDLES 7HEN INTERACTING WITH $ MODELS VIA A 45) USERS CAN LITER ALLY hGRASPv AND INSPECT THESE MODELS FROM ALL SIDES WHICH REPRESENTS A SIGNIlCANT IMPROVEMENT OVER THE DRAG AND DROP PRINCIPLE 4HIS EXTENSION OF THE TRADITIONAL USER INTERFACE IS ADVANTAGEOUS NOT ONLY FOR $ MOLECULAR MODELS BUT ALSO FOR $ FURNITURE ROBOT AND VEHICLE MODELS /NE PROJECT THAT MAKES USE OF !2 TECHNOLOGIES FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES IS #ONSTRUCT$ A $ GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION TOOL BASED ON THE COLLABORATIVE APPLICATION 3TUDIERSTUBE $ MODEL INTERACTION IN THIS TOOL IS BASED ON A COMBINATION OF HEAD MOUNTED DISPLAYS AND A PERSONAL INTERACTION PANEL A $ INTERACTIVE TOOL FOR TWO HANDED USE 4HREE ADDITIONAL PROJECTS FOCUS ON HIGHLY INTERACTIVE !2 TECHNOLO GIES AND OFFER ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR GIVING STUDENTS A MORE CONCRETE EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE 0ARTICIPATORY 3IMULATIONS )NTERACTIVE 4EXT BOOKS AND -AGIC"OOK ! COMBINATION OF lDUCIAL MARKERS AND CHEMISTRY MODELS WAS STUDIED IN -ATRIX
- &JELD AND " 6OEGTLI h!UGMENTED #HEMISTRY !N )NTERACTIVE %DUCATIONAL 7ORKBENCH v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF )NTERNATIONAL 3YMPOSIUM ON -IXED AND !UGMENTED 2EALITY n ( + ATO - "ILLINGHURST ) 0OUPYREV + )MAMOTO AND + 4ACHIBANA h6IRTUAL /BJECT -ANIPULATION ON A 4ABLE 4OP !2 %NVIRONMENTv IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE )%%% AND !#- )NTERNATIONAL 3YMPOSIUM ON !UGMENTED 2EAL ITY n " 6OEGTLI !UGMENTED #OLLABORATION 4HESIS BY "ENEDIKT 6OEGTLI (YPER7ERK &("" -ARCH
4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI
% , (UTCHINS * $ (OLLAND AND $ ! .ORMAN h$IRECT -ANIPULATION )NTERFACES v IN 5SER #ENTERED 3YS TEM $ESIGN ED .ORMAN $RAPER (ILLSDALE .* n - &JELD . )RONMONGER 3 'UTTORMSEN 3CHØR AND ( + RUEGER h$ESIGN AND %VALUATION OF &OUR !2 .AVIGA TION 4OOLS 5SING 3CENE AND 6IEWPOINT (ANDLING v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF ).4%2!#4 n - &JELD + ,AUCHE - "ICHSEL & 6OORHORST ( + RUEGER AND - 2AUTERBERG h0HYSICAL AND 6IRTUAL 4OOLS !CTIVITY 4HEORY !PPLIED TO THE $ESIGN OF 'ROUPWARE v IN #OMPUTER 3UPPORTED #OOPERATIVE 7ORK #3#7 VOL NO n ED " ! .ARDI AND $ & 2EDMILES + LUWER 0RESS n
5SER INTERACTION WITH $ VIRTUAL MODELS IS MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN IT IS PERCEIVED AS BEING DIRECT 4HERE HAVE BEEN A NUMBER OF STUDIES OF HOW THIS DIRECTNESS CAN BE ACHIEVED IN CONVENTIONAL KEYBOARD SCREEN MOUSE INTERFACES THROUGH THE USE OF METAPHORS 3UCH METAPHORS IN SPIRED EARLY 45)S AMONG THEM -ETA$ESK 4HE WRITERS OF THIS PAPER HAVE ALREADY EXPLORED SEVERAL INTERACTIVE USABILITY AND NAVIGATIONAL ASPECTS OF 45)S SEE &OOTNOTE 4HE RESEARCH COMMUNITY HAS TAKEN A GREATER INTEREST IN THE USE OF 45)S IN EDUCATION BECAUSE THEIR VISUAL COMPONENT MAKES ABSTRACT CHEMISTRY MORE CONCRETE &OR INSTANCE ONE APPLICATION UNDER DEVELOPMENT AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF 7ASHINGTON ALLOWS USERS TO PICK UP A SECTION OF A MAP OR HOLD IN THEIR HANDS $ MODELS OF TOPOGRAPHY SUBSURFACE STRUCTURES LAND COVER AND SIMULATED WATER mOW OVER AND UNDER THE EARTHS SURFACE !2 IS AN EXCELLENT WAY TO HELP STUDENTS RELATE ABSTRACTIONS TO REAL ENVIRONMENTS 5NDER THE SCIENTIlC SUPERVISION OF THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUTE OF 4ECHNOLOGY %4( (YPER7ERK &("" DEVELOPED A 45) FOR CHEMISTRY EDUCATION CALLED !UGMENTED #HEMISTRY !# 4HE FORM OF IN TERACTION WE CHOSE INCORPORATES THE !2 4OOLKIT LIBRARY SEE &OOTNOTE 4HE SYSTEM OPTICALLY TRACKS INTERACTION HANDLES AND IS A NOVEL COMBINATION OF A 45) AND A MOLECULE BUILDER !#S TWO KEY CHARAC TERISTICS ARE FEEDBACK TO THE USER ON THE CORRECT CONSTRUCTION OF MOLE CULES AND PRINTED INFORMATION WITH VIRTUALLY SUPERIMPOSED ANIMATED MODELS 4HE !# SYSTEM SUPPORTS A NONLINEAR STYLE OF INTERACTION AND ENCOURAGES EXPLORATIVE USER BEHAVIOR 4O THE BEST OF OUR KNOWLEDGE THESE FEATURES HAVE NOT BEEN BROUGHT TOGETHER IN ANY OTHER PROJECT
$IFFERENT MOLECULAR MODELS CONSTITUTION FORMULA STRUCTURE FORMULA BALL STICK SPACEFILL AND WIREFRAME
+ )RGUM #HEMISTRY 4EACHING 2ESOURCES WWWANACHEMUMUSECGI BINPOINTEREXE 3OFTWARE 7 3 (ARWOOD 0ERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS WITH 0ROFESSOR 7 3 (ARWOOD )NDIANA 5NIVERSITY EMAIL # 7ARE AND * 2OSE h2OTATING 6IRTUAL /BJECTS WITH 2EAL (ANDLES v IN !#- 4RANSACTIONS ON #OMPUTER (UMAN )NTERACTION 4/#() VOL NO n
( 3AWADA 9 + AWAI AND ( -ORITANI h'ESTURAL -ANIPULATION OF )NTUITION DRIVEN -ONITOR WITH THE $ETECTION OF (UMAN 3ENSORY &ACTORS v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF )%%% )%#/. SPECIAL SESSION ON (UMAN 3ENSORY &AC TORS IN 4OTAL 0RODUCTION ,IFE #YCLE
2ELATED 0RODUCTS 3TATE OF THE ART COMPUTER BASED PRODUCTS FOR CHEMISTRY EDU CATION STILL RELY HEAVILY ON TRADITIONAL COMPUTER INTERACTION WITH A KEYBOARD MOUSE SCREEN SYSTEM !N ONLINE COMPILATION OF CHEMISTRY TEACHING RESOURCES MENTIONS SOME SOFTWARE PRODUCTS FOR CHEM ISTRY 3OME ARE AVAILABLE WITH FREE SOURCE CODE MOST FEATURE $ MODEL RENDERING AND ALMOST ALL ARE RESTRICTED TO INDIVIDUAL USE ON A -AC OR 0# .ONE OF THE PRODUCTS THAT WE LOOKED AT INCORPORATED A 45) OR HAD AN AUTOMATIC MOLECULE RECOGNITION MECHANISM COMBINED WITH MULTIMEDIA FEEDBACK ON CONSTRUCTED MOLECULES AS FEATURED IN !# (OWEVER MANY OF THE COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE PRODUCTS OFFER MORE ACCURATE MOLECULAR MODELS AS WELL AS A BROADER EDUCATIONAL CONTENT $UE TO THESE FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES A DIRECT COMPARISON WITH THESE PRODUCTS DOES NOT APPEAR FEASIBLE 7E ONLY FOUND ONE PRODUCT THAT WAS EVALUATED FOR USABILITY OR EDUCATIONAL EFFECT RESEARCHERS AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF .ORTHERN #OLORADO EXAMINED A $ VERSION OF (YPER#HEM IN RELATION TO MODEL KITS 4HE USE OF BOTH METHODS IN A GENERAL CHEMISTRY CLASS ON PROPER NAMING CALLED 6ALENCE 3HELL %LECTRON 0AIR 2EPULSION 63%02 WAS EVALUATED 4HE RESULTS INDICATE THAT THE COMPUTER PROGRAM WASNT ANY MORE EF FECTIVE THAN CLAY MODELS 5SERS DID NOT lND THE COMPUTER PROGRAM INTUITIVE AS IT PROVIDED $ REPRESENTATION ONLY
$ESCRIPTION AND 5SE OF THE !# 3YSTEM 4HIS SECTION DESCRIBES HOW THE MIRROR METAPHOR WAS INCORPO RATED INTO THE SYSTEMS DESIGN )T NOT ONLY IDENTIlES ONE SOURCE OF IN SPIRATION FOR OUR CONCEPTION OF TANGIBLE INTERACTION n SELF ASSEMBLE TOYS n BUT ALSO REPORTS ON SYSTEM ASSEMBLY AND THE DESIGN AND USE OF !#S FOUR BASIC INTERACTIVE TOOLS IE THE BOOKLET GRIPPER PLATFORM AND CUBE &INALLY IT PRESENTS THE SYSTEMS lVE SPECIALIZED TOOLS IE THE BROWSER TAG TOGGLE CLEANER BENZENE TEMPLATE AND DIPOLE
&ROM 7INDOWS TO -IRRORS 7HEN WORKING WITH $ VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS USERS FACE THE COG NITIVE CHALLENGE OF lGURING OUT HOW THEIR ACTIONS AFFECT MODELS 4HIS APPLIES TO MODEL POSITIONING MODEL ROTATION AND NAVIGATION OF THE SCENE 3UCH CHALLENGES HAVE LED TO THE DESIGN OF FREELY MOV ABLE 7EB PADS AND TABLETS BOTH OF WHICH DRAW ON THE METAPHOR OF A WINDOW WITH A VIRTUAL CAMERA LOCATED ON THE REAR OF THE SCREEN 4HIS CAMERA IS MORE OR LESS ALIGNED WITH THE USERS LINE OF VIEW ! MORE RECENTLY DEVELOPED SYSTEM THAT ILLUSTRATES HOW A VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT CAN BE EXPLORED TACTUALLY FEATURES AN ,#$ DISPLAY A mEXIBLE ARM ANGLE SENSORS AND A ##$ CAMERA 4HE MIRROR IS AN ALTERNATIVE METAPHOR THAT IS CLOSELY RELATED TO THE WINDOW METAPHOR (ERE A PHYSICAL CAMERA RECORDS WHAT IS TAKING PLACE IN FRONT OF THE SCREEN AND PROJECTS THIS ACTION ONTO THE SCREEN #ONSEQUENTLY USERS HAVE THE IMPRESSION THAT THEY ARE LOOKING INTO A MIRROR 4HE MIRROR IMAGE OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD IS THEN AUGMENTED WITH THE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT n IN OTHER WORDS THE INTERACTION HAN DLES ARE AUGMENTED WITH THE MODELS OF THE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT 4HIS TYPE OF INTERFACE CAN FACILITATE A SEAMLESS INTEGRATION OF THE PHYSICAL AND DIGITAL REALMS (OWEVER THE USER MAY HAVE DIFlCULTIES WITH THE DIRECTNESS OF THIS INTERFACE
!N EARLY SKETCH OF THE SYSTEM )N THE VERSION IN &IGURE WE USED A CAMERA WITH A DIFFERENT FIELD OF VIEW POSITIONED CLOSER TO THE USER
4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI
4 0OSTON AND , 3ERRA h4HE 6IRTUAL 7ORKBENCH $EXTROUS 62 v IN 0ROCEEDINGS !#- 6234 7ORLD 3CIENTIFIC n 2EACHIN HTTPWWWREACHINSE
4HE 6IRTUAL 7ORKBENCH ALSO EMPLOYS A MIRROR BUT IN A DIFFER ENT WAY )N THIS SYSTEM THERE IS A PHYSICAL MIRROR BETWEEN THE SCREEN AND THE USERS HAND 4HIS MEANS $ VIRTUAL IMAGES LOOK AS IF THEY ARE CO LOCATED WITH THE USERS HAND $EXTROSCOPE A SECOND GENERATION DE SIGN OF 6IRTUAL 7ORKBENCH PROVIDES $ PATIENT SPECIlC MEDICAL DATA MANIPULATION ENHANCED BY SOUND ! RELATED SYSTEM 2EACHIN EXPLOITS THE ADVANTAGES OF HAPTIC FEEDBACK
)NTERACTIVE &ORM !# IS A WORKBENCH THAT OFFERS STUDENTS THE OPPORTUNITY TO USE AND DIRECTLY INTERACT WITH VIRTUAL $ MOLECULAR MODELS 4HE SYSTEM ALSO PROVIDES TOOLS WITH WHICH STUDENTS CAN BUILD COMPOSITE MOLECULAR MODELS /NE OF OUR INSPIRATIONS FOR THIS SYSTEM WAS ,EGO ,IKE CHIL DREN PLAYING WITH ,EGO USERS OF !# EMPLOY PHYSICAL HANDLES TO BUILD COMPOSITE $ MODELS !TOMIC AND MOLECULAR MODELS n LIKE ,EGO n INHERENTLY OFFER A WIDE RANGE OF COMBINATIONS )N ADDITION SEVERAL LEARNERS CAN USE THE INTERACTIVE TOOLS AT THE SAME TIME 7ITH THE USE OF THE !2 4OOLKIT AS AN OPTICAL TRACKING TECHNOLOGY AN INTERACTIVE TOOL WITH ONE OR MORE lDUCIAL MARKERS CONNECTS THE TOOL TO AN ANIMATED $ MODEL SO THAT BOTH THE TOOL AND THE MODEL CAN BE SEEN IN THE MIR ROR IMAGE 5SING THE SELECTED TOOL LEARNERS CAN PICK UP POSITION AND ASSEMBLE SINGLE ATOMS INTO COMPLETE MOLECULES #HEMICAL RULES CAN BE FORMULATED AND INTEGRATED INTO THE APPLICATION MEANING BASIC STRUC TURES CAN BE CONSTRUCTED AS THEY APPEAR IN NATURE
4HE SYSTEM AND ITS USE 4HE CAMERA IS POSITIONED BELOW THE REAR PROJECTION SCREEN 4HE BASIC INTERACTIVE TOOLS ARE PLACED AND USED WITHIN THE WORKSPACE 4HEY ARE ACTIVATED MOST OF THE TIME 4HE SPECIALIZED INTERACTIVE TOOLS REMAIN AT THE EDGE OF THE WORKSPACE AND ARE ONLY ACTIVATED WHEN THE USER PLACES THEM WITHIN THE WORK SPACE
3YSTEM !PPARATUS 4HE !# SYSTEM IS A WORKBENCH CONSISTING OF A TABLE AND A REAR PROJECTION SCREEN SEE &IGURE ! CAMERA BELOW THE SCREEN RELAYS TO THE DISPLAY ALL ACTIONS TAKING PLACE UPON AND ABOVE THE TABLETOP 4HE SYSTEM HAS BEEN DESIGNED TO GIVE USERS THE IMPRESSION THAT THEY ARE LOOKING IN A MIRROR 4HIS MIRROR IMAGE IS THEN ENHANCED WITH A VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT ,EARNERS INTERACT WITH MODELS IN THIS VIRTUAL ENVIRON MENT USING THE BOOKLET GRIPPER PLATFORM AND CUBE %ACH PAGE IN THE BOOKLET IDENTIlES AN ELEMENT OF THE 0ERIODIC 4ABLE 4HE BOOKLET THE PLATFORM AND THE GRIPPER CARRY A lDUCIAL MARKER THE CUBE CARRIES SIX MARKERS ONE PER SURFACE ! $ MODEL AUGMENTS THE MIRROR IMAGE OF THE BOOKLET PAGE THE PLATFORM THE CUBE SURFACE AND THE GRIPPER 5SERS CAN INmUENCE THE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT BY SELECTING POSITIONING ROTAT ING AND DESELECTING $ MODELS )N THE ASSEMBLED SYSTEM SEE &IGURES THE SCREEN IS MADE OF ,UMIN ACRYLIC GLASS WHICH IS PARTICULARLY WELL SUITED FOR REAR PRO JECTION AND ALSO WORKS WELL UNDER DAYLIGHT CONDITIONS 7E SELECTED A STANDARD PROJECTOR OFFERING !.3) LUMENS 4HE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE SCREEN AND THE PROJECTOR IS ABOUT METERS 4HE CAMERA IS A h ##$ COLOR BOARD WITH LUX LIGHT SENSITIVITY 46 LINES .43# AND 3 6IDEO OUTPUT 7E USED THE 3 6IDEO OUTPUT 4HE COMPUTER HAS A '(Z 0ENTIUM -" 2!- A .VIDIA 'E&ORCE GRAPHICS CARD AND A (AUPPAUGE 7INT46 FRAME GRABBER 6IRTUAL MODELS ARE /PEN', WELL SUITED FOR THE ,INUX OPERATING SYSTEM 7E HAVE NOT ENCOUNTERED ANY PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS WITH THESE HARDWARE COMPONENTS 4HE ANIMATION IS SMOOTH $UE TO THE .43# CAMERA OUTPUT RATE FRAMES PER SECOND FPS ARE AROUND ! BRIEF VIDEO DOCUMENTING THE !# SYSTEM IS AVAILABLE
0ICTURE BOOKLET WITH ONE ATOM PER PAGE EACH ATOM WITH AN ANIMATED $ "OHR MODEL CORE AND VALENCE ELECTRONS 0ICTURE USERS LOAD THE GRIPPER BY MOVING IT TO THE BOOKLET SHOWN BY AN ARROW 3UCCESS FUL LOADING IS INDICATED BY SOUND FEEDBACK 0ICTURE BY GUIDING THE GRIPPER TO THE PLATFORM AND PUSHING ITS BUTTON USERS PLACE A COPY OF THE GRIPPER@S ATOM ONTO THE PLATFORM ! WIREFRAME TETRAHEDRON SURROUNDS THE POSITIONED ATOM AND A RED DOT INDICATES WHERE THE NEXT BOND CAN BE MADE "Y ROTATING THE MOLECULE WITH THE CUBE USERS AFFECT WHERE THE NEXT BOND CAN BE MADE 0ICTURE WHEN THE CONSTRUCTED #/ MOLECULE HAS BEEN FOUND IN THE !# LIBRARY ITS NAME n CARBON DIOXIDE n IS SHOWN AND AN EDUCATIONAL TEXT IS SPOKEN
"ASIC )NTERACTIVE 4OOLS ! BOOKLET CONTAINS A PRINTED PICTURE WITH THE NAME OF THE ELE MENT SEE &IGURE 7ITH ONE HAND USERS BROWSE THROUGH THE BOOK LET WHICH FEATURES ONE ELEMENT PER PAGE 5SING A GRIPPER SEE &IGURE USERS PICK UP ELEMENTS FROM THE BOOKLET h'RIPPERv IS A ROBOTICS TERM THAT DESCRIBES A TOOL WITH JAWS BUT INSTEAD OF JAWS OUR GRIPPER HAS A BUTTON THAT AFlXES AN ATOM TO THE MOLECULAR MODEL "Y MOVING THE GRIPPER IN THE PROXIMITY OF A BOOKLET ELEMENT USERS LOAD THE GRIP PER WITH THAT ELEMENT 4HE NEXT STEP IS TO MOVE THE GRIPPER TO A PLAT FORM SEE &IGURE 4HE PLATFORM IS A KIND OF CONSTRUCTION SITE FOR THE MOLECULE UNDER ASSEMBLY 5SERS CAN DETERMINE WHERE AND HOW AN ELEMENT IS CONNECTED TO THE MOLECULE BY ROTATING A CUBE MOST EASILY PERFORMED WITH THEIR DOMINANT HANDSEE &IGURE 4HE PRECEDING ELEMENTS ARE ALL PART OF A TYPICAL INTERACTIVE SEQUENCE SEE &IGURE
4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI
"OOKLET WITH ONE ELEMENT PER PAGE HERE .A n SODIUM ! MARKER REPRESENTS EACH ELEMENT 'RIPPER WITH A BUTTON RED AND A DISTINCT MARKER 0LATFORM WITH A DISTINCT MARKER #UBE WITH A DISTINCT MARKER FOR EACH SURFACE
3PECIALIZED TOOLS BROWSER FRONT TAG TOGGLE RIGHT CLEANER REAR AND BENZENE TEMPLATE LEFT 0LATFORM WITH THE BROWSER AND DIPOLE AT WORK 4HE DIPOLE CARD MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO VISUALIZE ELECTRO NEGATIVITY AND THE DIPOLE MOMENT OF PHENYLACETALDE HYDE 3T (YACINTHE
3PECIALIZED )NTERACTIVE 4OOLS 7HEN WE BUILT THE SYSTEM WE SAW A NEED FOR SEVERAL SPECIAL IZED FUNCTIONS &OR EXAMPLE THERE WAS A NEED TO PROVIDE USERS WITH A BROWSER SO THEY COULD QUICKLY LOOK UP ALL THE PREDElNED MOLECULES AND LISTEN TO SPOKEN INFORMATION )N ADDITION WE SAW THE NEED FOR A TAG TOGGLE TO SWITCH FROM A COLOR CODED BALL STICK TO A LETTER CODED WIREFRAME REPRESENTATION 7E CREATED THESE AND TWO ADDITIONAL FUNC TIONS USING DEDICATED SYMBOLIC MARKER CARDS SEE &IGURE 4HESE CARDS ARE ACTIVATED WHEN DRAWN ONTO THE PLATFORM AND EACH TRIGGERS ONE OF THE FOLLOWING TOOLS "ROWSER BY CLICKING THE GRIPPER BUTTON USERS CAN VIEW ALL THE PRE DElNED MOLECULES SEQUENTIALLY 4AG TOGGLE ACTIVATES AN ALTERNATE VIEWING MODE IN WHICH ATOMS CAN BE VIEWED BY NAMES #LEANER CLEARS THE PLATFORM ENABLING USERS TO CONSTRUCT A NEW MOL ECULE "ENZENE TEMPLATE ACTIVATES THE CONSTRUCTION OF NEW MODELS BASED ON A BENZENE RING OF SIX # ATOMS SEE &IGURE !DDITIONAL TEMPLATES FOR DIFFERENT RING STRUCTURES COULD BE INCORPORATED IN THE FUTURE !N ADDITIONAL SPECIALIZED TOOL CALLED A DIPOLE WAS RECENTLY ADDED TO THE !# SYSTEM BY %4( 4HIS CARD ACTIVATES A VIEWING MODE THAT VI SUALIZES ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND THE DIPOLE MOMENT OF THE SELECTED MOL ECULE SEE &IGURE 2ED ATOMS ARE POSITIVE BLUE NEGATIVE ! SCALED ARROW WITH THE SAME COLOR CODING INDICATES THE DIRECTION AND STRENGTH OF THE DIPOLE MOMENT 4HE DIPOLE IS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL FOR THE ENTIRE CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE OF A MOLECULE 7E EXPECT THAT IT WILL SUBSTAN TIALLY HELP USERS UNDERSTAND REACTIVITY IN ORGANIC MOLECULES
4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI
3OME ELEMENTS FROM THE 0ERIODIC 4ABLE $IFFERENT BONDS BETWEEN TWO ATOMS HERE SINGLE DOUBLE AND TRIPLE BONDS TOP TO DOWN
%DUCATIONAL #ONTENT OF THE !# 3YSTEM 4HIS SECTION DISCUSSES THE EDUCATIONAL CONTENT OF THE !# SYSTEM WHICH CENTERS ON THE OCTET RULE )T ALSO COMMENTS ON THE FORM OF GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION WHICH CORRESPONDS TO THE "OHR MOLECULAR MODEL &INALLY IT EXPLAINS OUR USE OF AURAL AUGMENTATION WITH SPOKEN INFORMATION EXPLAINING A MOLECULAR MODELS CONSTRUCTION
/CTET 2ULE ! MAJOR EDUCATIONAL AIM OF !# IS TO TEACH STUDENTS THE OCTET RULE 4HIS RULE IS DERIVED FROM THE OBSERVATION THAT SINCE ATOMS STRIVE FOR THE STRUCTURE OF A NOBLE GAS AND ALL NOBLE GASES HAVE EIGHT ELECTRONS IN THEIR VALENCE SHELL ATOMS TEND TO HAVE EIGHT ELECTRONS IN THEIR VALENCE SHELL 4HEY ACHIEVE THIS STATE BY BONDING WITH OTHER ATOMS !TOMS FROM THE 0ERIODIC 4ABLE OF %LEMENTS THAT COMMONLY OBEY THE OCTET RULE ARE # n #ARBON . n .ITROGEN / n /XYGEN AND & n &LUORINE %ACH OF THESE ATOMS WILL EVENTUALLY HAVE A MOLECULAR CONlGURATION OF EIGHT ELECTRONS AROUND ITS VALENCE SHELL 4HE ATOMS IN THE SECOND PE RIOD SEE &IGURE ALSO ALWAYS FOLLOW THIS RULE 4HE OCTET RULE IS ONLY VALID FOR SOME OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD AND HIGHER PERIODS )N !# WE FOCUS ON THE ATOMS LISTED IN THE SECOND AND THIRD PERI ODS AS WELL AS A FEW IN THE FOURTH PERIOD SEE &IGURE 4HESE ATOMS PREFER TO HAVE FOUR PAIRS OF ELECTRONS IN THEIR VALENCE SHELL 4HE VALENCE OF AN ATOM INDICATES HOW MANY OF THESE ARE UNPAIRED FREE 7ITH EACH FREE ELECTRON PAIR AN ATOM CAN CONNECT TO ANOTHER ATOM 3INCE THE TWO ELECTRONS IN A BOND ATTEMPT TO MAXIMIZE DISTANCE EACH OF THE ATOMS CAN BE VIEWED AS A TETRAHEDRON SEE &IGURE !TOMS WITH A VALENCE OF TWO OR HIGHER EG / . AND # CAN CONNECT WITH TWO OR THREE FREE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS 4HESE ARE CALLED DOUBLE AND TRIPLE BONDS 7HEN THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TWO ELECTRONS IS SMALL THE BOND IS STRONG A B C
A B C
)N A TYPICAL USE OF !# SEE &IGURE A NEW ATOM IS ADDED TO AN EXISTING MOLECULE 4HE ATOM IS SELECTED FROM THE BOOKLET WITH THE GRIPPER 4HE PLATFORM HOLDS THE MOLECULE UNDER CONSTRUCTION AND THE CUBE ROTATES IT .EW ATOMS CAN CONNECT TO THE MOLECULE IN THREE DIFFER ENT WAYS VIA A SINGLE DOUBLE OR TRIPLE BOND SEE &IGURE 7HEN THE ATOM IS MOVED TO THE MOLECULE AUXILIARY LINES REPRESENTING A TETRAHE DRON ARE SHOWN ON THE DISPLAYED MOLECULE 4HESE LINES APPEAR ON THE ATOM INSIDE THE MOLECULE THAT IS CLOSEST TO THE APPROACHING ATOM 4HIS ENABLES THE USER TO CHOOSE THE LOCATION WHICH ATOM INSIDE THE MOL ECULE AND TYPE OF BOND SINGLE DOUBLE OR TRIPLE 4HE TWO CONNECT AS SOON AS THE USER CLICKS THE BUTTON ON THE GRIPPER SEE &IGURE !D DITIONALLY THE NAMES OF THE ELEMENTS INVOLVED AND THE CORRESPONDING BOND APPEAR RIGHT BELOW THE MOLECULAR MODEL ON THE WORKBENCH 4HE TETRAHEDRON IS LARGE ENOUGH TO COVER THE UNDERLYING ATOM SPHERE $EPENDING ON THE ROTATION OF THE MOLECULE A CORNER SINGLE BOND AN EDGE DOUBLE BOND OR THE WHOLE SIDE TRIPLE BOND IS HIGHLIGHTED WITH A RED DOT )N THE CASE OF DOUBLE AND TRIPLE BONDS THE ATOMS ARE ALWAYS CONNECTED IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CORNERS 4HE COMPARED DISTANC ES OF THE CORNERS TO THE BONDING ATOM DETERMINE THE TYPE OF BOND SEE &IGURE 7HEN AN ATOM APPROACHES A MOLECULE WHOSE CLOSEST ATOM HAS A VALENCE OF THREE THERE ARE SEVEN DISTINCT PLACES FOR THE NEW ATOM TO BE CONNECTED TO THE MOLECULE AT ONE OF THE THREE CORNERS AT ONE OF THE THREE EDGES OR ALONG AN ENTIRE SIDE 4HE USER MAY ROTATE THE MOLECULAR MODEL UNTIL THE PREFERRED BOND IS INDICATED 4O ACTIVATE THE SELECTED BOND THE USERS PUSHES THE BUTTON ON THE GRIPPER
'RAPHICAL 2EPRESENTATION &ROM THE START TO THE CONCLUSION OF A CONSTRUCTION SESSION !# EMPLOYS A BALL STICK REPRESENTATION TO VISUALIZE MOLECULAR MODELS SEE &IGURE (OWEVER THE USER CAN AT ANY TIME TOGGLE TO A WIREFRAME REPRESENTATION BY ACTIVATING THE TAG TOGGLE CARD SEE &IGURE )N AD DITION AN ATOMS VALENCE ELECTRONS ARE SHOWN IN THE BOOKLET 6IEWING THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN THE VALENCE SHELL USERS CAN DETERMINE THE ATOMS VALENCE SEE &IGURE 4HE VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ATOMS IS DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF MOLECULES )NSTEAD OF SHOWING AT
OMS AS COLORED BALLS THE SYSTEM PORTRAYS THEM WITH A NUCLEUS AND THE OUTERMOST VALENCE SHELL IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE "OHR MODEL
!URAL !UGMENTATION 5SING THE ATOMS AND BONDS DESCRIBED SO FAR USERS CAN CONSTRUCT A LARGE NUMBER OF MOLECULES )N THE CURRENT VERSION OF !# WE FOCUSED ON SPECIlC MOLECULES THAT ARE TYPICALLY FOUND IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS ENVIRONMENTAL AGENTS POISONS AND EXPLOSIVES 4HE SYSTEM PROVIDES SPOKEN INFORMATION ON EACH CONSTRUCTED MOLECULE 4HIS FEEDBACK CAN BE CONSIDERED AURAL AUGMENTATION &OR EXAMPLE WHEN A MOLECULE REACHES ITS SATURATED LEVEL IE THE STATE IN WHICH NO MORE BONDING CAN TAKE PLACE SOUND FEEDBACK IS TRIGGERED )F THE MOLECULE IS ON A PRE DElNED LIST THE SYSTEM PROVIDES ADDITIONAL INFORMATION EG hWATER COVERS OF THE EARTHS SURFACEv 3OUND FEEDBACK IS ALSO PROVIDED DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A MOLECULE
7ORK IN 0ROGRESS %DUCATIONAL %VALUATION OF !# ! LONG TERM AIM OF THIS PROJECT IS TO DEVELOP A LOW COST OPEN SOURCE 45) THAT INTERMEDIATE STUDENTS OF CHEMISTRY CAN EASILY OPERATE )TS EDUCATIONAL CONTENT WILL CONSIST OF A WELL DElNED BODY OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY KNOWLEDGE 4O ACHIEVE THIS AIM WE FEEL IT IS CRUCIAL TO EXAM INE HOW WELL USERS INTERACT WITH !# AND HOW MUCH THEY UNDERSTAND AND REMEMBER ITS CONTENT 7E PLAN TO STUDY INTERACTION BY COMPARING THE EDUCATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS AND USER SATISFACTION OF !# WITH TWO AL TERNATIVE TOOLS /UR HYPOTHESIS IS THAT !# WILL OUTPERFORM THESE TOOLS IN MOST OR ALL CATEGORIES 4ABLE )) 4HIS SECTION DESCRIBES WHO WILL PARTICIPATE IN THE EVALUATION AS WELL AS THE APPARATUS THAT WILL BE EM PLOYED )T ALSO DISCUSSES THE REQUIREMENTS THAT THESE TASKS MUST FUL lLL IN ORDER TO BE USED IN THE EVALUATION OF THE !# SYSTEM &INALLY IT SHOWS HOW OUR SET OF HYPOTHESES HAS BEEN TRANSLATED INTO MEASURABLE STATEMENTS AND PRESENTS A FEW DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENT
4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI
! USER ROTATING THE BALL STICK REPRESENTATION OF AN ASSEMBLED MOLECULE WITH THE CUBE
0ARTICIPANTS AND !PPARATUS 4HE PARTICIPANTS WILL BE INTERMEDIATE CHEMISTRY TRAINEES FROM THE PROJECTS INDUSTRIAL PARTNER n BOTH MALES AND FEMALES IN THEIR LATE TEENS OR EARLY TWENTIES !LL PARTICIPANTS WILL SPEAK 'ERMAN AND NO PARTICIPANTS WILL BE PAID 4HE ALTERNATIVE TOOLS WILL BE PHYSICAL BALL STICK MODELS EG :EPTER AND A 0# PROGRAM EG #HEM3ITE SEE 4ABLE ) 4HE 0# PROGRAM DIFFERS FROM !# AND BALL STICK MODELS IN THAT IT CANNOT BE VIEWED AS A COLLABORATIVE TOOL )N ORDER TO ASSURE THAT EACH TOOL WILL BE TESTED UNDER SIMILAR CONDITIONS WE WILL NOT LOOK AT COLLABORATIVE USE IN THIS EVALUATION
4ASK $ESIGN 4HERE WILL BE A SET OF TASKS WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF DIFlCULTY %ACH TASK REFERRED TO AS A STIMULUS WILL REQUIRE THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN OR GANIC MOLECULE /NE ISSUE IS HOW THIS STIMULUS IS PRESENTED TO THE PAR TICIPANTS EITHER BY NAME OR BY GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 4ASKS MUST FULlLL THE FOLLOWING FOUR REQUIREMENTS ALL OF WHICH HAVE BEEN DERIVED FROM !# FUNCTIONALITY &IRST MOLECULE REPRESENTATIONS MUST EITHER BE BALL STICK OR WIREFRAME REPRESENTATIONS HENCE TESTING THE !# TAG TOG GLE SIMILAR REPRESENTATIONS MUST BE OFFERED IN THE ALTERNATIVE TOOLS 3ECOND USERS MUST CONSTRUCT MOLECULES BY PUTTING TOGETHER SINGLE ATOMS OR BY USING A BENZENE RING HENCE TESTING THE !# BENZENE TEM PLATE SIMILAR BENZENE RINGS MUST BE OFFERED IN THE ALTERNATIVE TOOLS 4HIRD REACTIVITY WILL BE TAUGHT THROUGH THE REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRO NEGATIVITY AND THE DIPOLE MOMENT HENCE TESTING THE !# DIPOLE SO FAR WE KNOW OF NO SIMILAR REPRESENTATIONS IN THE ALTERNATIVE TOOLS &I NALLY AS SOON AS A MOLECULE IS CONSTRUCTED !# DISPLAYS THE MOLECULE NAME AND OFFERS SPOKEN INFORMATION 4O ENSURE FAIR COMPARISON THE ALTERNATIVE TOOLS SHOULD OFFER THE SAME KIND OF FEEDBACK
3 (ART h"ACKGROUND $ESCRIPTION AND !PPLICATION OF THE .!3! 4ASK ,OAD )NDEX 4,8 v IN $EPARTMENT OF $EFENSE (UMAN %NGINEERING 4ECHNICAL !DVISORY 'ROUP 7ORKSHOP ON 7ORKLOAD .EWPORT 2) ! 4ANG # /WEN & "IOCCA AND 7 -OU h%XPERIMENTAL %VALUATION OF !UGMENTED 2EALITY IN /BJECT !SSEMBLY 4ASK v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF !#- )%%% )3-!2 n
(YPOTHESES AND /PERATIONALIZATION )N THE CURRENT PHASE OF THIS PROJECT HYPOTHESES CAN BE VIEWED AS CONJECTURES CONCERNING THE EXPECTED RESULTS OF OUR EVALUATIONS 4ABLE )) )N ORDER TO VERIFY OR REJECT THE HYPOTHESES WE MUST lRST OPERATION ALIZE THEM THAT IS WE MUST FORMULATE EACH HYPOTHESIS IN TERMS OF ONE OR A FEW MEASURABLE QUANTITIES 4ABLE )) (YPOTHESES ( n ( COMPARING !#S EXPECTED PERFOR MANCE TO THAT OF ALTERNATIVE TOOLS (YPOTHESIS ( !# USERS LEARN BETTER THAN USERS OF ALTERNATIVE TOOLS ( !# USERS WORK BETTER THAN USERS OF ALTERNATIVE TOOLS ( !# USERS DO NOT LEARN ANY MISLEADING CONCEPTS ( !# OFFERS LESS HAPTIC SUPPORT THAN BALL STICK ( !# USERS ARE MORE SATISlED THAN USERS OF ALTERNATIVE TOOLS ( !# PLACES LESS MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEMANDS ON USERS THAN ALTERNA TIVE TOOLS WORKLOAD &OR ( RETENTION OF LEARNED CONTENT WILL BE MEASURED AS A PARTIC IPANT@S SCORE ON AN EXAMINATION 4HIS WILL BE A BROADER EXAMINATION AND ONLY SOME OF THE RESULTS WILL BE USED IN THIS EVALUATION &OR ( TASK SOLVING TIME AND THE CORRECTNESS OF THE RESULTS WILL BE MEASURED 4ASK SOLVING TIME IS THE TIME PARTICIPANTS NEED TO CONSTRUCT A MOL ECULE )F THE REQUIRED MOLECULE IS NOT CONSTRUCTED WITHIN A PREDElNED TIME LIMIT THIS TIME LIMIT WILL BE ENTERED INSTEAD &OR ( ERROR FRE QUENCY AND SEVERITY WILL BE MEASURED %RRORS ARE WRONGLY CONSTRUCTED MOLECULES SEVERITY IS THE EXTENT TO WHICH THEY DIFFER FROM THE REQUIRED MOLECULE 4O EXAMINE POTENTIALLY UNWANTED EDUCATIONAL EFFECTS CAUSED BY !# WE MAY HOLD INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS &OR ( WE WILL MEASURE THE TIME RATIO OF PHYSICAL OPERATION TO PAUSES SINCE HAPTIC SUPPORT GENER ALLY IMPLIES MORE DOING AND LESS THINKING &OR ( A QUESTIONNAIRE WILL MEASURE SUBJECTIVE TIME USED BORING VS ENTERTAINING AND EXPERI MENTAL FREEDOM LOW VS HIGH CONlDENCE IN USE &OR ( WE PLAN TO USE THE .!3! 4ASK ,OAD )NDEX .!3! 4,8 WHICH HAS BEEN SUC CESSFULLY DEPLOYED IN AN EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF !2 IN AN OBJECT
ASSEMBLY TASK .!3! 4,8 IS A MULTIDIMENSIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE THAT PROVIDES AN OVERALL WORKLOAD SCORE BASED ON A WEIGHTED AVERAGE OF RATINGS ALONG SIX SUBSCALES MENTAL DEMANDS PHYSICAL DEMANDS TEM PORAL DEMANDS PERFORMANCE EFFORT AND FRUSTRATION 4HREE SUBSCALES PERTAIN TO THE DEMANDS IMPOSED ON THE SUBJECT MENTAL PHYSICAL AND TEMPORAL DEMANDS AND THREE TO THE INTERACTION OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE TASK EFFORT FRUSTRATION AND PERFORMANCE !N OVERALL WEIGHTED MEASURE OF TASK LOAD IS COMPUTED BASED ON THE SCALES %XPERIMENTAL $ETAILS 3INCE THE PARTICIPANTS WILL ONLY WORK WITH ONE TOOL THIS WILL BE A SO CALLED INTERGROUP STUDY 0RIOR TO TASK SOLVING THE PARTICIPANTS WILL BE GIVEN INSTRUCTION SOME OF WHICH WILL INVOLVE ALL PARTICIPANTS AND SOME OF WHICH WILL BE TOOL SPECIlC !FTERWARD THERE WILL BE AIDED TASK SOLVING WHICH WILL NOT BE EVALUATED FOLLOWED BY UNAIDED TASK SOLVING WHICH WILL BE ASSESSED ! FEW WEEKS AFTER TASK SOLVING ALL THE PARTICI PANTS WILL BE GIVEN THE SAME EXAMINATION 0ART OF THE EXAMINATION WILL COVER THE CONTENT OF THE EXPERIMENT !# IS INSTRUMENTED TO TRACK USER ACTIONS ON A REAL TIME BASIS AND TO RECORD BOTH THE INTERACTIVE TOOL IN USE SUCH AS THE GRIPPER CUBE TAG TOGGLE BENZENE TEMPLATE AND THE VIRTUAL MODEL UNDER CONSTRUC TION 4HIS INFORMATION MAY HELP US INTERPRET THE RESULTS OF THE EVALU ATION 7E WILL CONSIDER CREATING SIMILAR PROTOCOLS FOR THE ALTERNATIVE TOOLS (OWEVER SUCH PROTOCOLS WILL PROBABLY HAVE TO BE GENERATED AND INTERPRETED MANUALLY WHICH MAY GO BEYOND THE SCOPE OF THIS PROJECT )N ADDITION EACH TASK SOLVING SESSION WITH !# WILL BE VIDEOTAPED 3UMMARY AND &UTURE 7ORK 7ITH !UGMENTED #HEMISTRY STUDENTS CAN BUILD $ MOLECULAR MODELS IN A NOVEL WAY USING A TANGIBLE USER INTERFACE 7E HAVE PUB LISHED THE SOURCE CODE OF THIS APPLICATION ALONG WITH ADDITIONAL DOCU MENTATION ON THE )NTERNET /UR FUTURE WORK ON THE !# SYSTEM WILL ADDRESS A NUMBER OF TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIlC PROBLEMS AS WELL AS US ABILITY FACTORS &IRST IN THE TESTING CONDUCTED SO FAR WE HAVE FOUND THAT THE MIR
4ANGIBLE 5SER )NTERFACES FOR %DUCATIONAL 5SE "ENEDIKT - 6OEGTLI -ORTEN &JELD 0ATRICK *UCHLI
2 "ALAKRISHNAN AND ' + URTENBACH h%XPLORING "IMANUAL #AMERA #ONTROL AND /BJECT -ANIPULATION IN $ 'RAPHICS )NTERFACES v IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE #() !#- 0RESS n # 7ISNESKI ( )SHII ! $AHLEY - 'ORBET 3 "RAVE " 5LLMER AND 0 9ARIN h!MBIENT $ISPLAYS 4URNING !RCHITECTURAL 3PACE INTO AN )NTERFACE BETWEEN 0EOPLE AND $IGITAL )NFORMATION v IN #OOPERATIVE "UILDINGS 3PRINGER ,.#3 ED . ! 3TREITZ 3 + ONOMI AND ( * "URKHARDT (EIDELBERG n
ROR IMAGE SOMETIMES CAUSES PERCEPTUAL DIFlCULTIES ! FEW USERS HAVE REPORTED THAT IT TOOK THEM SOME TIME TO GET USED TO THE MIRROR IMAGE OF BOTH THE REAL AND THE VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT 4HIS MUST BE LOOKED INTO !DDITIONAL PERCEPTUAL AND UTILIZATION STUDIES WILL DEAL WITH DOM INANT AND NONDOMINANT HAND USE .ORMALLY USERS WILL HOLD A TOOL IN THEIR DOMINANT HAND MOSTLY THE RIGHT AND AN OBJECT IN THEIR NON DOMINANT HAND MOSTLY THE LEFT !#S GRIPPER MAY BE VIEWED AS A TOOL AND THE CUBE AS AN OBJECT 4HE DESIGN OF EFFECTIVE TWO HANDED INTERAC TION IS ONE OF THE PROJECTS FUTURE GOALS 3ECOND AURAL AUGMENTATION HAS PROVED TO BE AN IMPORTANT FAC TOR )T MAY TAKE THE FORM OF AMBIENT MEDIA TYPICALLY A BACKGROUND SOUND OR A SPOKEN VOICE THAT PROVIDES IMPORTANT TASK RELATED IN FORMATION 3OUND IN PARTICULAR SPOKEN INFORMATION ON USE AND INTER ACTION OPTIONS CAN ALSO IMPROVE THE USABILITY OF A 45) )N THE CASE OF AN EDUCATIONAL WORKBENCH SUCH AS !# WE BELIEVE THAT THE COMBINA TION OF AURAL AND HAPTIC AUGMENTATION WILL PREVENT OVERUSE OF ONE PERCEPTUAL CHANNEL (OWEVER WE ALSO SEE THE POTENTIAL DANGER OF OVER EMPHASIZING SOUND WHICH SOME USERS PERCEIVE AS INTRUSIVE 4HIRD WE HAVE ENCOUNTERED A NUMBER OF TECHNICAL CHALLENGES AS A RESULT OF OUR DECISION TO USE COMPOSITE MOLECULAR MODELS /NE CHALLENGE STEMS FROM SO CALLED ISOMERISM WHICH DESCRIBES MOLECULES OF THE SAME SUM FORMULA BUT OF DIFFERENT CONSTITUTION IE BONDS 3TEREOISOMERES ARE MOLECULES OF THE SAME CONSTITUTION BUT DIFFERENT GEOMETRIES DIASTEREOMERES OR TOPOGRAPHIES ENANTIOMERES !# CANNOT DISTINGUISH STEREOISOMERES 'IVEN THE EDUCATIONAL GOALS OF THE APPLICATION IT IS OF CRUCIAL IMPORTANCE TO KEEP TRACK OF A USERS ACTIONS AND TO IDENTIFY THE RESULTING MOLECULE IN ORDER TO PROVIDE APPROPRIATE INFORMATION ON IT &UTURE RESEARCH EFFORTS WILL FOCUS ON DEVELOPING A GENERAL METHOD FOR COMPARING SUCH COMPLEX STRUCTURES 4HE SYSTEM IS ALREADY ABLE TO DISTINGUISH CONSTITUTIONAL ISOMERES &INALLY TO EXPAND THE USER BASE OF !# WE PLAN TO RELEASE -AC /3 8 AND 7INDOWS VERSIONS OF THE PROGRAM WITH ONLY MINIMAL HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS AND A LIMITED 45)
!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS )RENA + ULKA AND #£LINE 3TUDER HELPED DEVELOP THE EDUCATIONAL CONTENT OF !# 4ILMAN 3CHILDHAUER *AN + ULKA AND (ANSPETER (UBER PROVIDED ASSISTANCE IN THE lELD OF CHEMISTRY EDUCATION AND -ARTIN 3UNDIN IN HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION "RETT 3HELTON MADE USEFUL COMMENTS ON EDUCATIONAL MATTERS %DOUARD "ANNWART HELPED DESIGN THE !# SYSTEM SETUP $ANIEL (OBI AND ,UKAS 7INTERTHALER REALIZED THE DIPOLE FUNCTIONALITY ,UIS 3ERRA PROVIDED USEFUL INFORMATION ON THE 6IRTUAL 7ORKBENCH PROJECT NOW $EXTROSCOPE 7ENDY &RANKS AND 3COTT 0EDIGO WERE OF GREAT HELP IN PUTTING THIS PAPER IN THE APPRO PRIATE SCIENTIlC FORM ,AST BUT NOT LEAST "RUNO 0ANETH OF APRENTAS PROVED A HIGHLY COMPETENT DISCUSSION PARTNER FOR CHEMISTRY EDUCA TION AND MADE A SUBSTANTIAL CONTRIBUTION TO KEEPING THE !# PROJECT ON A PRODUCTIVE TRACK
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
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%DUCATION AND TRAINING ARE CRUCIAL PREREQUISITES FOR THE FUTURE SUCCESS OF ANY COMPANY 4HIS APPLIES PARTICULARLY TO KEY TECHNOLO GIES SUCH AS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING 9ET INTEREST IN TECHNICAL VOCATIONS HAS STEADILY DECREASED IN RECENT YEARS LEADING TO A SHORTAGE OF YOUNG TALENT 4O ASSURE A BRIGHTER FUTURE WE MUST lND WAYS TO STIMULATE AND PROMOTE INTEREST IN TECHNICAL VOCATIONS WHILE GEARING TRAINING AND FURTHER TRAINING MEASURES TOWARDS A LIFETIME OF LEARNING #ONSTRUCTION KITS FOR THE DESIGN AND PROGRAMMING OF ROBOTS SUCH AS THE ,%'/ -INDSTORMS 2OBOTICS )NVENTION 3YSTEM PROVIDE AN APT WAY TO INTRODUCE PEOPLE TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING AND ROBOTICS 2OBOTS ARE ENTICING FOR PEOPLE OF ALL AGES AND EDUCA TIONAL BACKGROUNDS 4HEY CAN BE USED TO STIMULATE INTEREST PROMOTE UNDERSTANDING OF TECHNICAL SYSTEMS AND IMPART THE RELEVANT KNOWL EDGE AND SKILLS 2OBOT CONSTRUCTION KITS SUCH AS ,%'/ -INDSTORMS ARE BECOMING INCREASINGLY POPULAR 4HE CONSTRUCTION KITS PERMIT COMPLEX SYSTEMS n INDIVIDUAL ROBOTS AND GROUPS OF ROBOTS COMMUNICATING WITH EACH OTHER n TO BE BUILT AND PROGRAMMED WITH SIMPLE MEANS 4HEY PROVIDE A GREAT WAY TO REACH OUT TO PEOPLE WHO DO NOT READILY DEAL WITH ENGI NEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY )N CONTRAST TO THE )NTERNET ROBOTS OFFER A TECHNICAL APPROACH TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 4HE BROAD SPECTRUM OF ROBOTIC DEVELOPMENT FACILITATES AN INTRODUCTION TO MANY lELDS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY MECHATRONICS AND ROBOTICS 2OBOTS CAN BE USED TO ADDRESS SOFT WARE ENGINEERING COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE THE )NTERNET WORK ORGANIZATION PROJECT PLANNING AND CRUCIAL FOUNDATIONS IN MATHEMATICS AND PHYS ICS 4HEY CAN BE USED TO IMPART MEDIA OR NONSPECIALIZED SKILLS SUCH AS THE ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE AND WORK IN TEAMS 2OBOTS CAN HELP TO PROMOTE PRESENTATION AND DOCUMENTATION SKILLS AND TO IDENTIFY INDI VIDUAL STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
4WO ,%'/ ROBOTS A #$ CHANGER TO THE LEFT AND TOP A h2UBIKS #UBE SOLVERv TO THE BOTTOM
4HE -INDSTORM 0ROJECT )S IT JUST ME OR HASNT EVERYBODY BEEN FASCINATED AT ONE TIME OR ANOTHER BY ROBOTS BUILT BY SOME WILD !MERICAN OR *APANESE STUDENTS 2OBOTS WITH SIX OR EIGHT LEGS THAT CLIMB STEPS PLAY FOOTBALL OR LOOK LIKE PEOPLE !ND WHO WOULDNT BE CONTENT TO BUILD SUCH A WONDER OF MODERN ENGINEERING 4HIS FASCINATION MOTIVATED ME TO INITIATE THE h-INDSTORM 0ROJ ECTv AT THE :URICH 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES 7INTERTHUR 2OBOTS HAVE NOW BEEN EMERGING UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THIS PROJECT SINCE $URING THIS ELECTIVE COURSE COMMUNICATIONS AND )4 MAJORS DEVELOP AUTONOMOUS AND SEMI AUTONOMOUS ROBOTS .EW IDEAS ARE GENERATED EACH SEMESTER n TASKS FOR STUDENTS WHO THEN BUILD ROBOTS INDEPEN DENTLY IN GROUPS WORKING OUT THE BASIC THEORETICAL CONCEPTS SUCH AS ALGORITHMS FOR NAVIGATION AND ORIENTATION ROBOTIC KINETICS ETC /NE SPECIlC PROJECT WAS AIMED AT COLLECTING BATTERIES LAYING RAN DOMLY ON A TABLE WITH THE AID OF AN AUTONOMOUS ROBOT 4HREE TEAMS EACH CREATED A SIMPLE ROBOT WHICH ROAMED OVER A DElNED PLAYING lELD CARRYING AWAY EVERYTHING THEY FOUND $UE TO TIME CONSTRAINTS IT WAS IMPOSSIBLE FOR THE TEAMS TO EQUIP THEIR ROBOTS WITH CAMERAS OR OTHER HIGH TECH COMPONENTS !S EXPECTED NONE OF THE ROBOTS CONSTRUCTED FOUND ALL OF THE BAT TERIES WITHIN A REASONABLE PERIOD OF TIME EVEN THOUGH THEY USED DIF FERENT SHORTEST PATH ALGORITHMS /NE TEAM ATTEMPTED WITH ITS ROBOT TO SYSTEMATICALLY TRAVERSE THE ENTIRE RECTANGULAR PLAYING AREA 4HIS AT TEMPT FAILED DUE TO THE SYSTEMS LACK OF PRECISION 4HE SECOND GROUP HAD A SIMILAR IDEA USING NOT ONE BUT TWO LIGHT SENSORS TO DETECT THE LIMITS OF THE PLAYING AREA THUS ENABLING THE ROBOT TO RE ORIENT ITSELF AT EACH EDGE 4HIS ALTERNATIVE TOO PROVED UNSATISFACTORY BECAUSE THE ROBOT DROVE SO IMPRECISELY BEFORE REACHING THE LIMITS OF THE PLAYING lELD THAT IT COULD NO LONGER BE EXPEDIENTLY SET STRAIGHT
)N ONE CONTEST THE ROBOTS WERE SUPPOSED TO PERFORM BOTH ALONE AND TOGETHER 4HOUGH THE THIRD TEAM HAD REQUIRED THE MOST TIME TO COLLECT THE BATTERIES WITH ITS ROBOT THE CONTEST PROVED THAT IT HAD CHO SEN THE MOST STABLE AND STRAIGHTFORWARD SOLUTION /NCE THE TEAMS ROBOT BUMPED THE EDGE OF THE PLAYING lELD IT WOULD GO BACK AGAIN IN A RANDOMLY SELECTED DIRECTION !DMITTEDLY A LITTLE HELP WAS NEEDED TO PRESERVE THE RANDOMNESS IN THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE PLAYING lELD THOUGH THIS SNAG WAS ELEGANTLY SOLVED BY THE GROUP THAT IS BECAUSE OF THE CONSTANT CHANGE IN DIRECTION THE ROBOT WAS MODIlED TO COLLECT THE BATTERIES WHEN RUNNING BOTH FORWARDS AND BACKWARDS 4HE STUDENTS WERE CLEARLY INSTRUCTED IN THE RULES OF THE COMPETI TION THAT ALL INTERACTION AND COMMUNICATION WAS FORBIDDEN 4HE RO BOTS COULD THEREFORE NOT EXCHANGE ANY DATA WITH A STATIONARY HIGH POWER COMPUTER $ESPITE THESE CONSTRAINTS IT WAS SOMETIMES NECES SARY FOR TEAM MEMBERS TO INTERVENE THOUGH THIS WAS PENALIZED WITH NEGATIVE POINTS $URING AND AFTER THE COMPETITION THERE WERE STIMULATING DISCUS SIONS ABOUT WHETHER THE PROJECT SHOULD BE CONTINUED AND OR WHICH DIRECTION IT SHOULD TAKE .EW CONCEPTS WERE NORMALLY DEVELOPED EACH SEMESTER THOUGH THE ORIGINALLY DElNED CONCEPT WAS DESTINED TO BE RE lNED AND OPTIMIZED .O ROBOT WAS ABLE TO lND AND COLLECT ALL THE BATTERIES IN THE GIVEN TIME FRAME ,IKEWISE THE ATTEMPT TO SEND TWO OR EVEN ALL THREE ROBOTS OUT HARDLY BROUGHT BETTER RESULTS 4O THE CONTRARY TWO hBLINDv ROBOTS WOULD OCCASIONALLY COLLIDE AND HAVE TO BE SEPARATED MANUALLY 4HE NEXT LOGICAL STEP WAS THEREFORE TO EXPAND THE STRUCTURE TO IN CLUDE AN INTELLIGENT COMPONENT WITH VISION AND TO TOLERATE INTERACTION BETWEEN THIS hMASTERv AND THE INDIVIDUAL ROBOTS SO AS TO ENABLE CO OPERATION AMONG THE PARTICIPATING SUBSYSTEMS 4HIS RESULTED IN A NEW PROJECT WHICH ENDED UP DRASTICALLY LOWERING THE SEARCH TIMES OF THE OVERALL SYSTEM WHILE INCREASING ITS RELIABILITY
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
2OBOTS COLLECTING BATTERIES
4HE )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM h)-!3v 4HE SPECIlC IDEA BEHIND THE PROJECT WAS AS FOLLOWS 4HE SURFACE OF A TABLE REPRESENTED A PLAYING lELD A WORLD WITH A MASTER SLAVES SO CALLED hAGENTSv IN THE FORM OF SEMI AUTONOMOUS ,%'/ ROBOTS AND hFOODv IN THE FORM OF BATTERIES 4HE MASTER TOOK THE FORM OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM AND DIGITAL VIDEO CAMERA 4HANKS TO THE CAMERA WHICH WATCHED THE PLAYING lELD THE MASTER KNEW THE POSITION OF ALL AGENTS AND FOOD SOURCES 4HE MASTERS TASK WAS TO GUIDE ALL SLAVES TO ONE OF THE FOOD STATIONS THROUGH DIRECTIONAL COMMANDS SUCH AS hGO LEFT v WHICH WERE TRANSMITTED ENCODED VIA AN INFRARED LINK FROM THE MASTER TO THE SLAVES !S AN ADDITIONAL IMPEDIMENT THE SLAVES WERE NOT SUPPOSED TO KNOW AT THE START WHAT THE MASTERS DIRECTIONS MEANT OR HOW THEY WERE TO DEAL WITH THEM 4HEY lRST HAD TO LEARN HOW TO MOVE TO THE LEFT WHEN THE MASTER GAVE THE ORDER hGO LEFTv 4HE AGENTS WERE REALIZED USING !R TIlCIAL .EURAL .ETWORKS !..S h,EARNINGv FOR THEM MEANT TO RE STRUCTURE THE MASTERS SIGNALS AS INPUTS FOR THE !.. SO THAT THE SLAVES MOVEMENTS OUTPUTS WOULD ULTIMATELY LEAD TO THE DESIRED OBJECTIVE 4HE ,%'/ -INDSTORMS 2OBOTICS )NVENTION 3YSTEM 7E REALIZED THE PROJECT USING THE WELL KNOWN ,%'/ BRICKS MO TORS SENSORS TYPES TACTILE SENSORS ACTIVE LIGHT SENSORS ROTATING SEN SORS AND THE PROGRAMMABLE 2OBOTICS #OMMAND %XPLORER 2#8 BRICK 4HE 2#8 CONTAINED A (ITACHI ( MICROPROCESSOR TO EX ECUTE PROGRAMS INTERNAL MEMORY + 2/- AND + 2!- TO STORE PROGRAMS A TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER FOR INFRARED SIGNALS AND A LOUD SPEAKER 4HE 2#8 CONTROLLED THREE ANALOG INPUTS TEN BIT ! $ CON VERTER TO WHICH THE SENSORS WERE CONNECTED AND THREE PULSE WIDE MODULATED OUTPUTS THROUGH WHICH THE MOTORS AND LAMPS COULD BE CONTROLLED )NTERNAL VALUES EG FROM COUNTERS AND TIMERS WERE REN DERED VISIBLE VIA AN ,#$ DISPLAY 4HE PROGRAMS CREATED ON THE 0# WERE LOADED USING AN INFRARED TRANSMITTER TO THE 53" TOWER ON THE 2#8
6ARIOUS ENVIRONMENTS ARE AVAILABLE FOR PROGRAMMING AND CAN BE SELECTED AS NEEDED FROM A SIMPLE GRAPHIC PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT TO THE POWER OF A 5.)8 LIKE SYSTEM WITH A RANGE OF # OR # 3TAN DARD IS THE 2#8 CODE ENVIRONMENT A VERY SIMPLE GRAPHIC PROGRAM MING LANGUAGE DEVELOPED ESPECIALLY FOR ,%'/ !DDITIONAL RESOURCES ARE AVAILABLE ON THE )NTERNET INCLUDING THE # LIKE LANGUAGE h.OT 1UITE #v OR h.1#v FOR SHORT WITH THE VERY SOLID PROGRAMMING ENVIRON MENTS 2#8 #OMMAND #ONTROL #ENTER AND "2)#8 #OMMAND #ENTER 4HE PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT 2/"/,!" IS OFFERED BY THE ,%'/ %DUCATIONAL $IVISION 4HE BASIS FOR THIS WAS THE ,AB6IEW PROGRAM MING ENVIRONMENT FROM .ATIONAL )NSTRUMENTS WHICH IS USED FOR MEA SURING AND CONTROL ENGINEERING 4HE 2#8 CAN ALSO BE PROGRAMMED IN *AVA OR &ORTH 4HE 2#8 CODE OF THE -INDSTORMS CONSTRUCTION KIT ,AB 6)%7 2OBOLAB AND .1# ALL WORK WITH STANDARD lRMWARE 4O USE PB&ORTH # OR # AND *AVA OTHER lRMWARE MUST BE LOADED ONTO THE PROCESSOR 4HUS PB&ORTH lRMWARE CONTAINS THE TRANSLATION PROGRAM FOR PB&ORTH INSTRUCTIONS AND WORKS AS AN INTERPRETER LEG/3 IS USED AS OPERATING SYSTEM lRMWARE FOR # AND # AND A hSCALED DOWNv *AVA 6IRTUAL -ACHINE *6- IS USED AS lRMWARE FOR *AVA 4HE VARIOUS PROGRAMMING ALTERNATIVES FOR THE 2#8 CAN BE BRO KEN DOWN INTO THE CATEGORIES SHOWN 4HE LOWER PORTION OF THE lGURE SHOWS PROGRAM VARIANTS BASED ON TEXT lLES THE UPPER PORTION VARIANTS THAT FUNCTION WITH A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CONTROL ALGORITHMS ! FURTHER DISTINCTION IS MADE BETWEEN APPROACHES FOR PROCESS CODING LEFT HALF AND OBJECT OR MODEL ORIENTED APPROACHES RIGHT HALF
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
4WO SIDED MOTHERBOARD OF THE 2OBOTICS #OMMAND %XPLORER
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-ERRIAM 7EBSTER HTTPWWWM WCOM DICTIONARYHTM 4 7 $ICTIONARY HTTPELZALPIRU - 0 3INGH !GENT #OMMUNICATION ,ANGUAGES 2ETHINKING THE 0RINCIPLES .ORTH #AROLINA " OF 2URAL 3CIENCES HTTPWWWBRSGOVAU GREENHSEKYOTOHOODHTML
!GENTS 7HAT IS AN AGENT 4HE -ERRIAM 7EBSTER /NLINE $ICTIONARY DElNES AN AGENT AS hA MEANS OR INSTRUMENT BY WHICH A GUIDING INTELLIGENCE ACHIEVES A RESULTv AND hONE WHO IS AUTHORIZED TO ACT FOR OR IN THE PLACE OF AN OTHER x A BUSINESS REPRESENTATIVE x v 4HE 7EBSTER $ICTIONARY DElNES THE TERM AS FOLLOWS h!N AGENT IS A COMPONENT WHICH WORKS FOR OR INSTEAD OF ANOTHER AUTHORITY POSSESSING COMPONENTv "ELOW THE MORE SPECIlC TERM hHARDWARE AGENTv IS USED FOR A ROBOT THAT CAN COMMUNICATE VIA A DElNED LANGUAGE WITH OTHER ROBOTS IN OR DER TO EXCHANGE INFORMATION AND ACT
4HE KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF AN AGENT ARE !UTONOMY AN AGENT CAN BE SET UP AS DESIRED DESIGN AUTONOMY AND CAN ITSELF SELECT THE ACTIONS IT WILL EXECUTE EXECUTION AUTONOMY 2EACTIVITY EVERY AGENT MUST BE ABLE TO REACT TO CHANGES IN ITS ENVIRON MENT 4HIS DOES NOT HAVE TO SIGNIFY AN IMMEDIATELY DETECTABLE OUT WARD REACTION BUT PERHAPS ONLY AN INTERNAL CHANGE OF CONDITIONS OR GOALS )NTEROPERABILITY AGENTS MUST BE ABLE TO EXCHANGE INFORMATION WITH OTHER COMPONENTS AGENTS PROGRAMS PEOPLE )NTELLIGENCE AN AGENT CAN lND THE BEST SOLUTION IN A PARTICULAR SITUA TION !DAPTIVITY mEXIBILITY AN AGENT ADAPTS ITS BEHAVIOR BASED ON ITS PAST EXPERIENCE 'OAL ORIENTATION AN AGENT WORKS ACTIVELY TO ACHIEVE A GOAL #HARACTER AN AGENT POSSESSES A hPERSONALITYv AND AN EMOTIONAL STATE 4HE CHARACTER OF AN INTELLIGENT AGENT DETERMINES WHETHER THE AGENTS INDIVIDUAL MENTAL STATE OR THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION WILL BE EMPHASIZED !CCORDING TO - 0 3INGH A MENTAL STATE IS MOST EASILY DESCRIBED BY hBELIEFSv AND hINTENTIONSv THAT DETERMINE ALL OF THE AGENTS ACTIONS /F PARTICULAR SIGNIlCANCE IS THE BELIEF DESIRE INTENTION "$) MODEL !S IS EVIDENT IN NOTE THE INTERNAL STATE OF AN AGENT IS PRESENT ED AS A CONSTRUCT OF BELIEFS RESULTING DESIRES AND INTENTIONS !N AGENT HAS GOALS AND DESIRES AND SEEKS WAYS TO ACHIEVE THEM WITH THE AID OF ITS KNOWLEDGE "ASED ON NEWLY ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE THE AGENT CAN CHANGE EITHER ITS PATH OR GOAL
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
3CHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF AN AGENT
# 2ANZE AND * -UELLER h5EBER DEN %INSATZ VON !GENTEN IN 5MWELTANWENDUNGEN v HTTPWWWINFORMATIKUNI BREMENDE KCRPAPER5) VERSIONHTML ' - 0 /(ARE AND . 2 *ENNINGS &OUNDATIONS OF $ISTRIBUTED !RTIFICIAL )NTELLIGENCE .EW 9ORK
%XAMPLE OF $ISTRIBUTED 0ROBLEM 3OLVING
-ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM -!3 /NE WAY TO SOLVE INCREASINGLY COMPLEX PROBLEMS IS TO DISTRIBUTE THEM AMONG SEVERAL AGENTS WORKING TOGETHER 4HIS RESEARCH lELD IS KNOWN AS h$ISTRIBUTED !RTIlCIAL )NTELLIGENCEv $!) $!) IS DIVIDED INTO TWO AREAS $ISTRIBUTED 0ROBLEM 3OLVING $03 AND -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEMS -!3 $03 DEALS WITH HOW A TASK CAN BE DISTRIBUTED AMONG VARIOUS SYS TEMS BY COOPERATING TO EXCHANGE INFORMATION ABOUT A PROBLEM AND THE PROGRESS OF ITS SOLUTION !CTIONS BETWEEN THE SYSTEMS ARE THEREBY lRMLY INTEGRATED INTO THE $03 SYSTEM )N AN -!3 TASKS ARE ASSIGNED TO VARIOUS AUTONOMOUS AGENTS WHICH MUST THEMSELVES PROVIDE FOR COMMUNICATIONS AND A JOINT SO LUTION TO THE PROBLEM !N -!3 CAN THEREFORE BE VIEWED AS A hLOOSELY LINKED NETWORK OF PROBLEM SOLVERS THE AGENTS WHO CANNOT SOLVE A PROBLEM ALONEv 4HE KEY ADVANTAGES OF AN -!3 ARE FASTER PROBLEM SOLVING BASED ON PARALLEL PROBLEM SOLVING BY THE AGENTS A LOWER VOLUME OF COMMU NICATIONS BECAUSE ONLY MATERIAL INFORMATION IS TRANSMITTED DIRECTLY TO THE OTHER AGENTS GREATER mEXIBILITY VARIOUS AGENTS CAN HAVE DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GREATER RELIABILITY IF ONE ALLOWS AGENTS TO REVOKE TASKS FROM OTHER AGENTS WHO FAIL TO SOLVE THEM )N THE )-!3 PROJECT HOWEVER WE FORWENT THE LAST MENTIONED OPTION
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
/RGANIZATION IN -!3 4O SUCCESSFULLY SOLVE A PROBLEM THE FOLLOWING ITEMS MUST BE AS SURED IN AN -!3 %VERY EXISTING SUBPROBLEM MUST BE SOLVABLE BY AT LEAST ONE AGENT !GENTS MUST COMMUNICATE SO AS TO FACILITATE THE SOLUTION OF THEIR SUB PROBLEMS AND ALLOW THEM TO BE INTEGRATED INTO A COMMON SOLUTION 4HE ABOVE MENTIONED ITEMS MUST BE ACHIEVABLE WITH THE AVAILABLE RE SOURCES 4O CONSTRUCT A VIABLE -!3 THE FOLLOWING ITEMS MUST BE INVESTI GATED #OORDINATION COOPERATION PLANNING AND COMMUNICATION #OORDINATION #OORDINATION REFERS TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCARCE RESOURCES AND THE NOTIlCATION OF INTERIM RESULTS )N THE SIMPLEST SCENARIOS RESOURCES ARE USED JOINTLY BY AGENTS WITH A COMMON GOAL MUTUAL ADJUSTMENT )F ONE AGENT HAS CONTROL OVER THE DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES THIS IS CALLED hDIRECT SUPERVISIONv 4HIS SUPERVISOR AGENT NORMALLY FOLLOWS CERTAIN RULES FOR DISTRIBUTING RE SOURCES 7ITH THE DIRECT SUPERVISION METHOD ONE CAN BUILD A SOUND HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE WITH A SMALL -!3 )N LARGER -!3S HOWEVER THE EFFORTS NEEDED TO ESTABLISH COMMUNICATION ARE TOO GREAT 7ITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF OUR PROJECT THE PLAYING lELD WAS A RE SOURCE JOINTLY USED BY THE SLAVES !LL SLAVES HAD THE RIGHT TO REMAIN ON THE TABLE SPACE AT ALL TIMES 4HE MASTER ATTEMPTED WITH A COUPLE OF SIMPLE ALGORITHMS TO CALCULATE ROUTES FOR THE INDIVIDUAL SLAVES THAT DID NOT CROSS EACH OTHER 7E DID WITHOUT ANY NOTIlCATION OF INTERIM RESULTS ,%'/ SUPPORTS ONLY ONE WAY TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS FROM THE 53" TOWER TO THE 2#8 OR FROM THE MASTER TO THE SLAVE !DDITIONAL HARDWARE WOULD HAVE BEEN NECESSARY FOR BIDIRECTIONAL DATA EXCHANGE
4HOUGH BIDIRECTIONAL COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL 2#8 MODULES IS POSSIBLE WE DID NOT NEED IT IN OUR PROJECT #OORDINATION IS A CRITICAL ISSUE AS EACH AGENT ONLY HAS A MICRO PERSPECTIVE OF THE PROBLEM 4O PREVENT EACH AGENT FROM TACKLING JUST ANY PROBLEM IT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE AGENTS TO HAVE AN IDEA OF THE hBE LIEFS AND INTENTIONSv OF OTHER AGENTS SOCIAL AGENTS #OOPERATION 'OALS FOR COOPERATION INCLUDE 3PEEDING UP PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH PARALLELITY )NCREASING THE NUMBER OF PROBLEMS SOLVABLE AT THE SAME TIME THROUGH RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION %LIMINATING MULTIPLE SOLUTIONS TO THE SAME PROBLEMS !VERTING DISRUPTIVE INTERACTION BETWEEN AGENTS %FFECTIVE COOPERATION IS BASED ON A BALANCED USE OF COMMUNI CATION AND RESOURCES 4HE RANGE OF COOPERATION STRETCHES FROM TOTAL COOPERATION TO ANTAGONISM )N TOTAL COOPERATION AGENTS OFTEN RECEIVE INDEPENDENT PROBLEMS THUS LEADING TO HIGH COMMUNICATION COSTS !NTAGONISTIC AGENTS IN CONTRAST ARE UNABLE TO SOLVE PROBLEMS AS SOLU TIONS CAN ONLY BE ACHIEVED THROUGH COOPERATIVE DISTRIBUTED PROBLEM SOLVING "ECAUSE UP TO THREE ROBOTS WERE ABLE TO MOVE SIMULTANEOUSLY ON THE PLAYING lELD A HIGH DEGREE OF PARALLELITY WAS ACHIEVED THOUGH DIS RUPTIVE INCIDENTS COULD NOT BE AVOIDED COMPLETELY #OLLISIONS TENDED TO OCCUR WHEN TWO ROBOTS REPORTED TO THE MASTER AT THE SAME TIME TO RECEIVE FURTHER INSTRUCTIONS
, 0 + AELBLING AND - , ,ITTMAN 2EINFORCEMENT ,EARNING ! 3URVEY HTTPWWWCSWASHINGTONEDU RESEARCHJAIRVOLUMEKAELBLINGA HTMLRL SURVEY HTML
&LOW OF SIGNALS BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS
0LANNING h0LANNINGv REFERS TO THE CONTROLLED SEQUENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL AGENTS IN AN -!3 4HERE ARE VARIOUS PLANNING APPROACHES )N CENTRAL IZED PLANNING AN AGENT WITH AN OVERVIEW OF ALL OTHER AGENTS IS SELECTED WHEN CREATING A MULTI AGENT PLAN $ISTRIBUTED PLANNING IS USED WHEN NO SUCH OVERVIEW CAN BE WARRANTED (ENCE A SINGLE PROBLEM IS ALWAYS DIVIDED INTO ALLOCATED SUBPROBLEMS TASK DRIVEN PLANNING /R IF EACH AGENT ALREADY HAS ITS OWN PROBLEMS TO SOLVE AN ATTEMPT IS MADE TO CO ORDINATE THESE TASKS WITH EACH OTHER PLAN COORDINATION )N PRINCIPLE MULTI AGENT PLANNING REQUIRES SYNCHRONIZATION 4HIS CAN BE ACHIEVED EITHER BY A SINGLE AGENT COORDINATOR OR MEDIATOR OR THROUGH NEGOTIA TIONS IN THE -!3 ,EARNING "EHAVIOR 4HERE ARE TWO POTENTIAL APPROACHES TO THE LEARNING OF SLAVES SU PERVISED LEARNING AND REINFORCEMENT LEARNING 3UPERVISED LEARNING CAN BE APPLIED WHEN THE DESIRED OUTPUT OF THE !.. IS ALREADY KNOWN 4HE !.. IS THEN RESTRUCTURED BASED ON THE DISCREPANCY WITH THE AC TUAL OUTPUT 4HIS WOULD HAVE BEEN FEASIBLE IN OUR PROJECT BY HAVING THE SLAVE FOLLOW THE MASTER THE MASTERS MOVEMENTS REPRESENTING THE DESIRED OUTPUT 7ITH REINFORCEMENT LEARNING THE !.. RECEIVES SO CALLED hRE IN FORCEMENT SIGNALSv 4HESE SIGNALS REPRESENT AN EVALUATION OF THE OUT PUTS 4HE !.. IS THEN RESTRUCTURED BASED ON THIS EVALUATION , 0 + AELBLING AND - , ,ITTMAN DElNE THIS AS FOLLOWS h2EINFORCEMENT LEARNINGv DEALS WITH THE PROBLEM OF AN AGENT HAVING TO LEARN TO ACT WHICH TRANSPIRES THROUGH TRIAL AND ERROR BASED INTERACTION WITH A DY NAMIC ENVIRONMENT 7E OPTED FOR REINFORCEMENT LEARNING IN OUR PROJECT WHICH MEANT THAT THE SLAVES WERE hREMOTE CONTROLLEDv BY THE MASTER )T FOLLOWS THEN THAT THE OUTPUT WAS NOT DIRECTLY EVIDENT FOR THE !.. 4HE SLAVE WAS MERELY hPUNISHEDv AS SOON AS IT DID SOMETHING WRONG OR hREWARDEDv WHEN IT DID SOMETHING RIGHT 4HE SLAVE RECEIVED THESE EVALUATIONS FROM THE MASTER
#OMMUNICATION )NTERACTION #OMMUNICATION BETWEEN MASTER AND SLAVES CAN BE UNIDIRECTIONAL OR BIDIRECTIONAL )N BOTH CASES THE MASTER SENDS SIGNALS TO THE SLAVES )N BIDIRECTIONAL COMMUNICATION THE SLAVES SEND THE MASTER THEIR NEW POSITIONS AFTER THEY HAVE BEEN EVALUATED WHILE IN UNIDIRECTIONAL COM MUNICATION THE MASTER KEEPS AN OVERVIEW OF ALL SLAVES AND THEIR POSI TIONS "ECAUSE WE IMPLEMENTED REINFORCEMENT LEARNING IN OUR PROJECT THE SLAVES THUS LEARNING INDEPENDENTLY NO COMMUNICATION FROM THE SLAVES TO THE MASTER WAS NECESSARY 7E THEREFORE OPTED FOR UNIDIREC TIONAL COMMUNICATION
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
4HE #OMPONENTS 3LAVE 4HEORETICAL #HARACTERISTICS 4HE DETAILS OF THE SLAVE AS AGENT AND ITS THEORETICAL STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS WILL BE DISCUSSED BELOW 4HE SLAVE POSSESSED ALL THE CRIT ICAL CHARACTERISTICS DESCRIBED IN 3ECTION !UTONOMY BASED ON THE POSSIBILITY FOR hDESIGN AUTONOMYv AND THE REQUIREMENTS PLACED ON IT THE SLAVE WAS REALIZED USING AN !.. 4HE hEXECUTION AUTONOMYv CONSISTED IN THE INDEPENDENT ALTERATION OF THE WEIGHTS IN THE !.. CONCERNING THE SLAVES RIGHT AND WRONG REAC TIONS 2EACTIVITY THIS IS OBVIOUSLY ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTER ISTICS OF A SLAVE AS IT IS ONE OF THE SLAVES TASKS TO LISTEN TO THE MASTERS INSTRUCTIONS AND EXECUTE THEM AS BEST AS IT CAN !S PREVIOUSLY MEN TIONED hREACTIVITYv REFERS NOT ONLY TO IMMEDIATELY DETECTABLE OUTWARD REACTIONS SUCH AS A CHANGE IN DIRECTION BUT ALSO TO THE SLAVES LEARNING CURVE WHICH SIGNIlES THE AGENTS INTERNAL CHANGE IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE !.. CONSTITUTING IT )NTEROPERABILITY BECAUSE THE SLAVE HAD TO KNOW THE DIRECTION IN WHICH TO MOVE IT WAS OF COURSE ALSO NECESSARY TO COMMUNICATE WITH THE MASTER EVEN IF ONLY IN A UNIDIRECTIONAL FASHION 7E DEVELOPED A SIMPLE COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL FOR THIS PURPOSE )NTELLIGENCE THE SLAVES hINTELLIGENCEv WAS INDISPENSABLE FOR OUR PROJECT AND WAS MAINLY EXPRESSED BY THE FACT THAT THE AGENT WAS CA PABLE OF LEARNING WHICH LEADS US TO THE NEXT ISSUE hADAPTIVITYv !DAPTIVITY mEXIBILITY hAN AGENT ADAPTS ITS BEHAVIOR BASED ON ITS PAST EXPERIENCEv "ECAUSE THE SLAVE DID NOT UNDERSTAND AND MISINTER PRETED THE MEANING OF THE MASTERS INSTRUCTIONS AT THE START THE AGENT WAS VERY LIKELY TO MOVE IN THE WRONG DIRECTION IN REACTION TO THE MAS TERS INSTRUCTIONS /NLY LITTLE BY LITTLE COULD THE !.. BE ADAPTED TO ENABLE THE SLAVE TO EXECUTE THE DESIRED ACTION IE MOVE IN THE DESIRED DIRECTION 'OAL ORIENTATION THE GOAL OF THE SLAVE WAS TO lND ITS FOOD THE BATTERIES STREWN ABOUT 4O ACCOMPLISH THIS THE SLAVE HAD TO RESTRUC TURE THE !.. CONSTITUTING IT AS DESCRIBED ABOVE 4HIS MEANS THAT THE
SLAVE HAD TO ALTER THE WEIGHTS IN THE !..S STRUCTURE "UT HOW COULD THESE CHANGES BE TRIGGERED AND CALCULATED (OW DID THE AGENT KNOW WHETHER IT HAD TRAVELED IN THE RIGHT OR WRONG DIRECTION !S EXPLAINED IN 3ECTION WE COULD CHOOSE FROM THE TWO LEARN ING APPROACHES AND OPTED FOR REINFORCEMENT LEARNING 4WO POTENTIAL REINFORCEMENT SIGNALS WERE AVAILABLE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE )F IN REAC TION TO THE MASTERS DIRECTIONS A SLAVE ATTEMPTED TO MOVE BASED ON ITS OUTPUT OVER A TABLE EDGE THE SLAVE RECEIVED A NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT SIGNAL )F IT MOVED TOWARDS A FOOD SOURCE IT RECEIVED A POSITIVE RE INFORCEMENT SIGNAL 7ITH A NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT SIGNAL THE WEIGHTS TRIGGERING THE OUTPUT WERE REDUCED AND THE OTHERS INCREASED n THE SLAVE WAS PUNISHED 7ITH A POSITIVE SIGNAL ONLY THE TRIGGERING WEIGHTS WERE INCREASED n THE SLAVE WAS REWARDED !S AN ADDED FEATURE THE SLAVE HAD A LIMITED LIFE %ACH SLAVE WAS ABLE TO TAKE A CERTAIN NUMBER OF STEPS AT THE START )F A SLAVE DID NOT LEARN TO DEAL WITH THE MASTERS INSTRUCTIONS IN TIME IT WOULD hSTARVEv "UT IF IT REACHED THE FOOD SOURCE IN TIME IT WOULD RECEIVE ENOUGH EN ERGY FOR AN ADDITIONAL STEPS 4HE SLAVES CURRENT EMOTIONAL STATUS WAS ASSIGNED AS A FURTHER VARIABLE !N AVERAGE DEFAULT VALUE WAS USED AT THE START ! SLAVE WAS MORE LIKELY TO REACT FALSELY TO THE MASTERS INSTRUCTIONS DURING ITS INITIAL STEPS )F THIS WAS THE CASE THE SLAVE WOULD BE PUNISHED BY THE MASTER BY HAVING ITS EMOTIONAL STATUS REDUCED BY $ELTA $ )N ADDITION TO THE PRIMARY GOAL OF lNDING ITS FOOD THE SLAVE ALSO SOUGHT SATISFAC TION )T WOULD RECOGNIZE A MISTAKEN REACTION AS WRONG AND ADJUST THE WEIGHTING OF THE !.. ACCORDINGLY IN ORDER TO ACT BETTER THE NEXT TIME ,ITTLE BY LITTLE THE SLAVE LEARNED TO REACT PROPERLY TO THE INSTRUCTIONS 7HEN IT DID SO IT WAS REWARDED BY THE MASTER 4HE SLAVE THUS KNEW THAT ITS ACTIONS WERE RIGHT AND COULD AIM TO EXECUTE THEM MORE PER FECTLY )NSTEAD OF A HAPPINESS VARIABLE HOWEVER WE OPTED FOR DIRECT EVALUATION OF THE SLAVES REACTIONS AND THE !..S RELATED RESTRUCTUR ING AS DESCRIBED ABOVE
3OFTWARE 4HE 2#8 FORMS A KEY COMPONENT OF THE ROBOT 4HE lRMWARE CON TROLLING THE MOTOR AND SENSOR SIGNALS IS INSTALLED THERE 4HE 2#8 IS NORMALLY PROGRAMMED WITH .1# n A TRIMMED DOWN VERSION OF THE # 0ROGRAMMING ,ANGUAGE !LL THREE GROUPS OPTED HOWEVER TO PROGRAM THE 2#8 WITH *AVA 4HEY NEEDED hLE*OSv TO DO THIS A VIRTUAL MACHINE FOR THE 2#8 THAT INTERPRETS THE COMPILED *AVA CLASSES 4HIS OPENED A WIDE ARRAY OF PROGRAMMING OPPORTUNITIES AS THE TEAMS COULD WORK ON A HIGHER LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION WITH A SMALL LIBRARY OF VARIOUS INTER FACES AND CLASSES *AVA SOURCE CODE MUST BE COMPILED WITH THE LE*OS COMPILER IN STEAD OF THE COMMON *AVA COMPILER 4HE GROUPS THUS EXCHANGED THE ORIGINAL OPERATING SYSTEM IN THE 2#8 FOR LE*OS 4HIS VIRTUAL MACHINE IS AMAZINGLY SMALL + " BECAUSE THE 2#8 ITSELF ALREADY CONTAINS A NATIVE BYTE CODE INTERPRETER
-ECHANICS !LL THREE TEAMS ADOPTED THE MECHANICAL STRUCTURE FROM THE PREVI OUS SEMESTERS PROJECT UNCHANGED 4HE MAXIMUM SIZE OF THE ROBOTS WAS SET AT CM X CM &OR LOCOMOTION ALL THE GROUPS ULTIMATELY OPTED FOR TREADS 4HE REST OF THE STRUCTURAL AND OPERATIONAL FEATURES OF THE ROBOTS WERE VERY DIFFERENT HOWEVER 7E WILL THEREFORE ONLY DE SCRIBE ONE MODEL IN DETAIL BELOW 4HE ROBOT WAS BUILT ON A FRAME WITH FOUR PRESSURE SENSORS ATTACHED 4HE SENSORS HAD CONTACT TO THE BEARING SURFACE OF THE ROBOT VIA AN EXTENSION 4HE ADVANTAGE OF THE FOUR SENSORS WAS THAT THE ROBOT COULD MOVE IN BOTH DIRECTIONS )F IT DROVE BEYOND THE EDGE OF THE TABLE IT DID NOT HAVE TO ROTATE SHARPLY IN ORDER TO MOVE FORWARD AGAIN BUT COULD SIM PLY DRIVE AWAY IN REVERSE 4HIS WAS ESPECIALLY HELPFUL WHEN THE ROBOT WAS STUCK IN A CORNER OF THE TABLE 4HIS DESIGN OPTION OF COURSE MEANT THAT IT HAD TO BE POSSIBLE TO PICK UP BATTERIES ON BOTH SIDES OF THE CART 4WO hTRAP DOORSv WERE INSTALLED AT THE FRONT AND BACK FOR THIS PURPOSE 4HESE DOORS RETAINED WITHIN THE FRAME THE BATTERIES THAT HAD BEEN RUN OVER *OSTLED ABOUT FROM THE RIDE THE BATTERIES WERE CONVEYED TO THE MIDDLE OF THE ROBOT WHERE THEY WERE PLACED IN A CONTAINER USING A SPOOL OF MAGNETS 4HE ROBOTS FROM THE TWO OTHER GROUPS MERELY SCHLEPPED THE BAT TERIES ALONG ON THE mOOR SLOWING THE CARTS MORE AND MORE AS A RESULT OF THE INCREASING WEIGHT
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
0RESSURE SENSOR WITH LEVER ARM #ARDBOARD STRIPS TO CONVEY THE BATTERIES 3POOL OF MAGNETS WITH GEARS FOR COLLECTING BATTERIES 4HE TOOTHPICKS KEPT THE BATTERIES FROM ROLLING PERMANENTLY OVER THE MAGNETS 4HE FINAL EMBODIMENT OF ONE OF THE THREE ROBOTS
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,OGITECH 1UICKCAM
-ASTER 4HEORETICAL #HARACTERISTICS 3LAVES ARE AGENTS TO THE MASTER 4HE MASTERS STRUCTURE IS FUNDA MENTALLY DIFFERENT TO THAT OF A SLAVE .O DEMANDS CAN BE PLACED ON THE LEARNING SKILLS OF THE MASTER FOR EXAMPLE 4HE MASTER CANNOT FOR MULATE ITS INSTRUCTIONS DIFFERENTLY TO HELP THE SLAVE LEARN FASTER AS THIS WOULD LIKELY HAVE THE REVERSE EFFECT !UTONOMY THE hEXECUTION AUTONOMY v HOWEVER WAS MUCH MORE ELABORATE WITH THE MASTER THAN WITH THE SLAVE !S THE SLAVE WAS ONLY THE EXECUTING AGENT WITHOUT ANY NOTABLE RESPONSIBILITY OF ITS OWN IT WAS THE MASTER WHO DECIDED THE DIRECTION TO SEND THE SLAVE AND THE ACTIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT 2EACTIVITY THE MASTER HAD TO BE ABLE TO REACT TO THE SLAVES ACTIONS 4HE MASTER REACTED BY GIVING THE SLAVE A FURTHER INSTRUCTION AS SOON AS A SLAVE WAS DONE WITH ITS ACTION )NTEROPERABILITY THIS REFERS TO THE COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE TWO AGENTS (ERE THERE WAS NO MAJOR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MASTER AND SLAVE )NTELLIGENCE AS WITH THE SLAVE hINTELLIGENCEv WITH RESPECT TO THE MASTER MEANT lNDING THE BEST SOLUTION )N CONTRAST TO THE SLAVE HOW EVER THE MASTER HAD NO LEARNING CURVE AS EXPLAINED ABOVE )NSTEAD THE MASTER HAD TO DECIDE WHICH ROUTE WAS THE BEST AND SHORTEST POTEN TIAL WAY TO LEAD THE SLAVE TO ITS GOAL
4ECHNICAL 3TRUCTURE 4O ENABLE THE PLAYING lELD TO BE hSEENv BY THE MASTER IT WAS lLMED BY A STATIONARY ,OGITECH 1UICKCAM 4HE CAMERA HAD A MAXIMUM RESOLUTION OF X PIXELS AND WAS CONNECTED TO THE 53" PORT OF THE COMPUTER VIA AN APPROXIMATELY lVE METER LONG CABLE 7E WERE UNFORTUNATELY ONLY ABLE TO ADJUST THE FOCUS MANUALLY THROUGH A RING ON THE CAMERA 4HE POOR IMAGE QUALITY WAS A FURTHER DISADVANTAGE IE THE PICTURES WERE FADED AND HAD TO BE FURTHER PROCESSED WITH SOFT WARE *AVA 4WAIN &RAMEWORK WAS USED TO PROCESS AND ANALYZE THE IMAGES IN A *AVA APPLICATION !S A RESULT THE IMAGES COULD BE READ AS NORMAL IMAGES BY THE 4WAIN SOURCE "ECAUSE THE PLAYING AREA ENCOMPASSED SEVERAL SQUARE METERS AND THE AVAILABLE CAMERA PROVIDED ONLY A RELATIVELY LOW RESOLUTION IMAGE THE BATTERIES WERE DEPICTED AS BEING VERY SMALL AND COULD THEREFORE NOT ALWAYS BE DETECTED ! FURTHER DIFlCULTY WAS THAT THE CAMERA ADJUSTED AND PRESENTED THE IMAGES AUTOMATICALLY UNNECESSARILY COMPLICATING THE IMAGE ANALYSIS
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
&EED 3OURCE 7E USED APPROXIMATELY TYPE !! BATTERIES AS FOOD SOURCES FOR OUR PROJECT 4HOUGH WE STOOD THE BATTERIES UP ON THE TABLE AT THE START THEY WERE SOMETIMES KNOCKED DOWN BY THE ROBOTS IN THE COURSE OF PLAY 4HE VIDEO CAMERA WAS ABLE TO ACCURATELY DETECT BATTERIES WHETHER LYING DOWN OR STANDING UP "ECAUSE THE BATTERIES WERE NOT AUTOMATICALLY REPLACED ONCE FOUND AND COLLECTED THE SLAVES LEARNING PROCESS WAS LIMITED IN TIME $E PENDING ON THE STARTING POSITIONS SOME AGENTS LEARNED NEXT TO NOTH ING BECAUSE OTHER AGENTS COULD LEARN FASTER AND THUS COLLECT PRACTICALLY ALL THE BATTERIES 4HE DENSITY OF THE FOOD SOURCES OBVIOUSLY HAD A DIRECT INmUENCE ON THE SLAVES CHANCES FOR SURVIVAL
4HE !RTIlCIAL .EURAL .ETWORK 7E WILL NOW DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF A SLAVES !.. 4HE MASTERS DIRECTIONS SERVED AS INPUT FOR THE hFEED FORWARD !.. v CONSISTING OF A CLEAR FOUR BIT CODE FOR THE CORRESPONDING DIREC TIONS ! SIMPLE EXAMPLE OF A CODE MEANS hUPv MEANS hRIGHTv MEANS hDOWNv MEANS hLEFTv !T THE START OF THE PROGRAM EACH !.. WAS ASSIGNED RANDOM VAL UES IN THE RANGE ; = !LL POSSIBLE LINKS OF INPUT TO OUTPUT NODES WERE EVALUATED USING WEIGHTS 4HE VALUE FOR THE OUTPUT NODE hUP v FOR EXAMPLE WAS ATTAINED BY MULTIPLYING THE INDIVIDUAL INPUT VALUES BY THE WEIGHTS OF THE LINKS LEADING TO THIS NODE AND ADDING THEM UP 4HE TOTAL OUTPUT WAS CALCULATED IN ACCORDANCE WITH A hWINNER TAKE ALLv PRINCIPLE WHICH MEANT THAT ONLY THE LARGEST OUTPUT VALUE WAS ACTUALLY USED AS AN OUTPUT &IGURE ILLUSTRATES SUCH AN ASSIGNMENT THE BOLD LINES SYMBOL IZING THE STRONGEST OUTPUT TO AN INPUT )F THE MASTER SENDS THE SLAVE UP AND THE PATTERN IS ENTERED AS AN INPUT THE SLAVE CORRESPOND INGLY MOVES UPWARD BECAUSE THE OUTPUT CORRESPONDS TO THE PATTERN WHICH INDEED MEANS hUPv ! hDOWNv INPUT HOWEVER WOULD LEAD TO THE FALSE OUTPUT hLEFTv JUST AS THE DIRECTIONS hRIGHTv AND hLEFTv WOULD BE MISUNDERSTOOD BY THE SLAVE
2ANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF A SLAVES !.. $ESIRED !.. STRUCTURE OF A SLAVE
/N ITS WAY TO THE FOOD THE SLAVE WOULD SOMETIMES INITIALLY AT TEMPT TO MOVE BEYOND THE TABLE EDGES "ECAUSE THE SLAVE IMPLICITLY KNEW THAT THE MASTER WAS ALWAYS RIGHT THE SLAVE RECOGNIZED THAT IT HAD MADE A MISTAKE IE THE LINK OF THE CURRENT INPUT TO THE CORRESPONDING OUTPUT COULD NOT BE RIGHT 4HE !.. WOULD BE RESTRUCTURED AS A RESULT THE LINK LEADING TO THE FALSE OUTPUT BEING REDUCED BY A USER ADJUSTABLE FACTOR ? AND THE THREE OTHER LINKS INCREASED EACH BY A FACTOR OF ? (OWEVER IF THE SLAVE REACHED A FOOD SOURCE ITS LAST STEP WAS EVALU ATED AS CORRECT AND THE WEIGHT OF THE CORRESPONDING LINK WAS INCREASED BY A FACTOR OF ? /NCE THIS PROCEDURE WAS REPEATED SEVERAL TIMES THE !.. STRUCTURE SHOWN IN &IGURE ULTIMATELY AROSE PROVIDING THE CORRECT OUTPUT FOR EACH OF THE FOUR POTENTIAL INPUTS &OR EXAMPLE THE MASTER SENT A SLAVE WITH THE !.. DISPLAYED IN &IGURE TO THE RIGHT 4HE !.. ASSIGNMENT LED TO THE FALSE OUTPUT hUP v CAUSING THE SLAVE TO ATTEMPT TO MOVE UPWARD "ECAUSE A TABLE EDGE WAS AT THIS POSITION HOWEVER THE LINK hRIGHT UPv WAS WEAKENED AND THE THREE OTHER POSSIBILITIES n ONE OF WHICH HAD TO CONTAIN THE RIGHT LINK n WERE STRENGTHENED (ENCE UPON THE NEXT INPUT hRIGHT v THE CHANCE THAT hRIGHT RIGHT v hRIGHT DOWNv AND hRIGHT LEFTv WOULD GENERATE A PROPER OUTPUT SIGNAL WAS GREATER
2OBOTS IN %DUCATION AND 4RAINING 4HE #ASE OF AN )NTERACTIVE -ULTI !GENT 3YSTEM 0ETER 4ROXLER
!VERAGE VALUES FROM SEVERAL PROGRAM RUNS
#ONCLUSIONS %FFECT OF THE ,IMITS OF THE 0LAYING &IELD 4HE LIMITS OF THE PLAYING lELD DID NOT HAVE ANY GREAT EFFECT ON THE SLAVES SURVIVAL RATE 4HIS CAN BE EXPLAINED AS FOLLOWS 7ITH SIMPLE RECT ANGULAR LIMITS TO THE PLAYING lELD THE FOOD COULD NORMALLY BE REACHED DIRECTLY THOUGH IF THE ORDERS WERE MISINTERPRETED IT TOOK MUCH LONGER FOR A SLAVE TO REACH THE EDGE OF THE TABLE AND RECEIVE THE CORRESPONDING NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT SIGNAL 7HEN THE LIMITS WERE MADE MORE COM PLEX BY PLACING SEVERAL TABLES TOGETHER IT BECAME MUCH MORE DIFlCULT TO REACH THE FOOD THOUGH THE LEARNING CURVE WAS MUCH HIGHER %FFECT OF THE $ELTAS $ AND ? 4HE SIZE OF THE DELTAS HAD NO GENERAL SIGNIlCANCE AS THE AMOUNT OF THE INCREASE OR DECREASE IN THE WEIGHTS OF THE !..S WAS IMMATERIAL -ATERIAL WAS ONLY 4(!4 THE WEIGHTS WERE INCREASED OR DECREASED /N THE OTHER HAND THE INITIAL WEIGHTS OF THE !..S DID TAKE ON MEANING IF THEY WERE TOO LARGE IN RELATION TO THE DELTAS AND THE SLAVES INITIAL EN ERGY TOO LOW THE SLAVES WITH THE hLUCKIERv INITIAL WEIGHTS WHOSE OUT PUT CORRESPONDED MORE TO THE DESIRED OUTPUT HAD THE BETTER CHANCES OF SURVIVAL 4HIS DID NOT HAVE ANY STATISTICAL EFFECT ON THE SURVIVAL RATE HOWEVER %FFECT OF 6ARYING !.. )NPUT 0ATTERNS $UE TO THE FUNCTIONAL DESIGN OF OUR SLAVES !..S IT WAS ALSO POS SIBLE TO CHANGE THE FOUR BIT CODE OF THE MASTERS DIRECTIONS WITHOUT THIS HAVING ANY INmUENCE ON A SLAVES LEARNING CAPACITY &IGURE SHOWS THE SURVIVAL RATE OF THE SLAVES IN RELATION TO VARI OUS INPUT CODES 7HEN WE ASSOCIATE THE SURVIVAL RATE WITH THE LEARNING BEHAVIOR WE SEE THAT A CHANGE IN THE CODING HAD NO INmUENCE ON THE SLAVES LEARNING CAPACITY
)NTERACTION $ESIGN $EFINITION AND 4ASKS #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER
$EFINITION OF COMPUTER A PROGRAM BASED ELEC TRONIC DIGITAL DATA PROCESSING MACHINE THAT CONSISTS OF A CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT #05 MEMORY EG HARD DRIVE INPUT DEVICES EG KEYBOARD AND OUTPUT UNITS MONITOR AND PRINTER !LL OF THESE COMPONENTS ARE SUBSUMED UNDER THE TERM hHARDWAREv 3OFTWARE THE COMPUTERS SECOND MAJOR COMPONENT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR PROGRAM CONTROL AND INCLUDES BOTH APPLICATION PROGRAMS AND THE OPERATING SYSTEM 3EE ( 3CHANZE ED -ETZLER ,EXIKON -EDIENTHEORIE -EDIENWISSENSCHAFT 3TUTTGART
).4%2!#4)/. $%3)'. $%&).)4)/. !.$ 4!3+3 #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER )NTRODUCTION 4O MANAGE THE EVER INCREASING mOW OF INFORMATION IN SOCIETY WE REQUIRE A TOOL THAT MAKES POSSIBLE A TWO WAY EXCHANGE OF DATA BETWEEN PEOPLE AND MACHINES )NTERACTIVE MEDIA ARE SUCH A TOOL )N ADDITION TO COMMUNICATING AND EXCHANGING MEANING WITH PEOPLE COMPUTERS ARE ABLE TO CHANNEL AND STORE VAST AMOUNTS OF DATA 3INCE COMPUTERS WORK WITH A SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE THAT IS DIFlCULT FOR PEOPLE TO UNDERSTAND A TRANSLATOR IS REQUIRED n AN INTERFACE THAT MEDIATES BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE 3PECIALISTS ARE NEEDED TO CONCEP TUALIZE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENT THESE INTERFACES n AND HERE INTERACTION DESIGN COMES INTO PLAY 4HIS RELATIVELY NEW PROFESSION SEEKS TO RECON CILE HUMAN NEEDS AND IDIOSYNCRASIES WITH COMPUTER CAPABILITIES 7ITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF A MASTERS THESIS AN ANTHOLOGY OF CUR RENT LITERATURE ON INTERACTION DESIGN HAS BEEN COMPILED &IRST THE TERM hINTERACTION DESIGNv SHALL BE DElNED n VIEWING THE DISCIPLINE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES 4HE SECOND TASK IS TO DESCRIBE ITS lELDS OF ACTIVITY AND ITS VARIOUS FOCUSES 4HIS ESSAY PRES ENTS THE RESULTS OF THE THESIS
$EFINITION OF DATA #ONSTRUCTS CONSISTING OF SIGNS OR CONTINUAL FUNCTIONS THAT REPRESENT INFORMATION BASED ON FAMILIAR OR IMPUTED CONVENTIONS 4HE PRIMARY PUR POSE OF THIS REPRESENTATION IS FOR INFORMATION PROCESSING OR THE DISPLAY OF ITS RESULTS 3EE * 3CHNEIDER ED ,EXIKON )NFORMATIK UND $ATENVERARBEITUNG 6ERSON -UNICH $EFINITION OF INFORMATION h! MESSAGE RELATING TO FACTS EVENTS OR PROCESSES THAT IS TRANSMITTED FROM ONE OBJECT SENDER TO ANOTHER RECEIVER %VERY MESSAGE IS TRANSMITTED BY A MEDIUM AND IS FORWARDED OR STOREDv - 2HEM ,EXIKON "UCH "IBLIOTHEK .EUE -EDIEN -UNICH
3EE . .EGROPONTE 4OTAL DIGITAL -UNICH 3EE & (AASE -EDIEN n #ODES n -ENSCHMASCHINEN -EDIENTHEORETISCHE 3TUDIEN ZUM UND *AHRHUNDERT /PLANDEN 7IESBADEN $ 7EINBERGER 3MALL 0IECES ,OOSELY *OINED (OW THE 7EB 3HOWS 5S 7HO 7E 2EALLY !RE /XFORD 3EE .EGROPONTE 4URING TRIED TO DETERMINE WHETHER MACHINES ARE ABLE TO THINK (E DID NOT ATTEMPT TO DEFINE INTELLIGENCE OR THOUGHT BUT PROPOSED AN EMPIRICAL TEST BASED ON THE FOLLOWING CONCEPT !N EVALUATOR IS LINKED TO A COM PUTER AND A HUMAN BEING VIA SEPARATE COMMUNICATION CHANNELS 4HE EVALUATORS TASK IS TO DETERMINE WHICH
3IGN 3YSTEMS 3INCE THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY TECHNICAL MEDIA SUCH AS lLM RADIO AND TELEVISION HAVE PRODUCED ENTIRELY NEW SIGN WORLDS AND TRIG GERED AN EXPLOSION IN MEDIA BASED SIGN PROCESSES 4HE INVENTION OF THE COMPUTER WAS AN INEVITABLE CONSEQUENCE OF THESE DEVELOPMENTS SINCE IT MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO CHANNEL AND MANAGE THE GROWING NUMBER OF DATA RECORDS 7ITH THE HELP OF POWERFUL STORAGE MEDIA AND SEARCH ENGINES WE CAN NOW STORE AND ADMINISTER VAST AMOUNTS OF INFORMA TION )NTEREST HAS SHIFTED FROM TANGIBLE ARTIFACTS TO THEIR DIGITAL REP RESENTATION 4HE COMPUTER HAS MADE IT POSSIBLE TO DIGITIZE DIFFERENT TYPES OF INFORMATION AND TO TRANSLATE THEM INTO A STRING OF ZEROS AND ONES $ATA HAS MULTIPLIED AT INCREDIBLE RATES AND INFORMATION HAS ASSUMED A CENTRAL ROLE IN SOCIETY 4HIS DELUGE OF DATA HAS ASSUMED SUCH OVERWHELMING PROPORTIONS THAT HUMAN BEINGS AS A KIND OF hINTERME DIATE MEMORY v ARE HOPELESSLY INUNDATED AND HAMPERED IN THEIR EF FORTS TO PROCESS SIGNS AND MAKE SENSE OF THEIR EXISTENCE 4RADITIONAL TOOLS ARE NOT CAPABLE OF MANAGING THIS DATA EITHER /NE DIFlCULTY IS THAT RELEVANT INFORMATION DOES NOT GRAB US BY THE SCRUFF OF THE NECK AND SHOUT h(ERE ) AM )M RELEVANTv 4HE BRAVE NEW WORLD OF TOTAL INFORMATION HAS A DOWNSIDE AND DATA OVERLOAD HAS MADE NECESSARY NEW ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES 4HE INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE ABLE TO ACCESS KNOWLEDGE AND ADMINISTER INFORMATION POSSESS CAPITAL AND POWER ! NEW SOCIAL DIVISION HAS OPENED UP BETWEEN THE INFORMATION RICH AND THE INFORMATION POOR 7ITH THE COMPUTERS ENTRY INTO OUR PRIVATE AND PROFESSIONAL LIVES NEW MEANS OF COMMUNICATION HAVE EMERGED AND NEW COMMUNITIES HAVE FORMED 0EOPLE ARE NO LONGER JOINED BY LOCAL TIES BUT BY COMMON INTERESTS INDEPENDENT OF WHERE THEY LIVE 7HEREAS WE ONCE FEARED ISO LATION AND ALIENATION THE )NTERNET EMAIL AND MOBILE TELEPHONY HAVE MADE IT POSSIBLE FOR US TO COME TOGETHER AND COEXIST IN ENTIRELY NEW WAYS 4HANKS TO THESE NEW TECHNOLOGIES IT IS EASIER TO ACCESS DATA THAN EVER BEFORE + NOWLEDGE IS NO LONGER STORED IN THICK BOOKS AND MAM MOTH LIBRARIES BUT CAN BE RETRIEVED SIMPLY AND WITHOUT FORMALITY FROM EVERY DESKTOP /UR UNDERSTANDING AND PERCEPTION OF INFORMA TION IS CHANGING 7HEREAS INFORMATION WAS ONCE PRESENTED IN A LINEAR
IS THE PERSON AND WHICH IS THE COMPUTER BASED ON HIS DIALOG WITH THEM !CCORDING TO 4URING IF THE EVALU ATOR IS UNABLE TO DECIDE OR IF HE MAKES THE WRONG DECI SION THE MACHINE CAN BE DEEMED hINTELLIGENTv 3EE ( 3CHELHOWE $AS -EDIUM AUS DER -ASCHINE :UR -ETAMORPHOSE DES #OMPUTERS &RANKFURT A - n 3EE 3CHELHOWE
FORM THAT WE EXPERIENCED FROM BEGINNING TO END TODAY WE HAVE DATA SPACES THAT WE SURF BROWSE AND NAVIGATE 7E HAVE MOVED FROM hLOOK ING ATv TO hBEING INv 4HIS NEW FORM OF PRESENTING KNOWLEDGE IS CALLED INFORMATION SPACE 4HE BASIS OF ALL THESE SIGNS THAT ARE PRODUCED AND STORED BY MAN AND MACHINE IS THE HUMAN NEED TO COMMUNICATE )N ORDER TO UN DERSTAND THE INFORMATION SOCIETY WE MUST UNDERSTAND THE STRUCTURE UPON WHICH IT IS BASED PEOPLE AS SOCIAL BEINGS WHO SEEK TO INVEST THEIR WORLD WITH MEANING )NTERACTION 3YSTEMS !LTHOUGH ARTIFACTS ARE CAPABLE OF TRANSPORTING MESSAGES IN A VA RIETY OF WAYS THEY HAVE TRADITIONALLY NOT BEEN ABLE TO RESPOND TO US ERS (OWEVER THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES HAS CHANGED THIS ONE SIDED MAN ARTIFACT RELATIONSHIP %XCHANGE PROCESSES ARE NO LONGER RESTRICTED TO THOSE BETWEEN HUMAN BEINGS ! COMPUTER PROGRAM HAS THE CAPACITY TO EXCHANGE MEANING WITH USERS 7E ENTER COMMANDS IT EXECUTES THEM AND PROVIDES US WITH FEEDBACK 4HIS IS A BASIC CHARAC TERISTIC OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA 4HE EXTENT TO WHICH COMPUTERS CAN BE VIEWED AS A MEDIUM AND WHETHER THEY DESERVE THE LABEL hINTERACTIVEv SHALL BE DISCUSSED HERE ) WILL ALSO SHOW HOW THE SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA EVOLVED )N ITS EARLY DAYS THE COMPUTER WAS USED AS A CALCULATING MACHINE )N THE MID S THE 'ERMAN ENGINEER + ONRAD :USE DEVELOPED A MA CHINE THAT PERFORMED COMPUTATIONS BASED ON THE BINARY NUMBER SYS TEM )N THE SAME PERIOD !LAN 4URING STUDIED THE COMPUTABILITY OF HU MAN THOUGHT WHICH HE HOPED TO SIMULATE WITH THE HELP OF A MACHINE AND COMPLEX ALGORITHMS 4HE WORK OF THESE TWO PIONEERS LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF TODAYS MULTIFUNCTIONAL COMPUTERS WHICH SERVE NOT ONLY AS COMPLEX COMPUTING SYSTEMS BUT ALSO AS STORAGE MEDIA &ROM THE VERY START THE SEEDS FOR BOTH LINES OF DEVELOPMENT WERE PLANT ED IE THE COMPUTER AS AN INSTRUMENT THAT MODIlED DATA AND THE COMPUTER AS A MEDIUM THAT STORED PORTRAYED AND TRANSMITTED IT 4HIS IS WHY TODAYS USERS CAN EXPERIENCE THE COMPUTER BOTH AS AN IN STRUMENT IE AS A MACHINE AND TOOL AND AS A MEDIUM
)NTERACTION $ESIGN $EFINITION AND 4ASKS #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER
3EE 3CHELHOWE n 3EE 3CHELHOWE "ROCKHAUS VOLUME 3AXER IN "URKART 3EE "URKART n 3EE %SPOSITO IN 3CHELHOWE
#OMPUTERS ARE INSTRUMENTS THEY SERVE AS MACHINES OR TOOLS -ACHINES AUTOMATE AND REPLACE WORK DONE BY HUMAN HANDS 4HEY PROCESS AND ALTER MATERIALS ACCORDING TO lXED STANDARDIZED PROCESSES 4HROUGH THIS WORK ENERGY IS TRANSLATED FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER #OMPUTERS OPERATE ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL LAWS AND THEIR BEHAVIOR IS REGARDED AS PREDICTABLE AND PREDETERMINED 4OOLS ARE GUIDED BY HUMAN HANDS WE USE OR OPERATE THEM IN ORDER TO PRODUCE OR PROCESS OBJECTS 7HEREAS TRADITIONAL INSTRUMENTS WERE EMPLOYED TO MANUFAC TURE MATERIAL OBJECTS THE COMPUTER PROCESSES AND EDITS SIGNS 4HE COMPUTER IS AN INSTRUMENT 4HE COMPUTER AS A MACHINE AND A TOOL MODIlES MATERIALS ! MEDIUM IS USED TO STORE REPRODUCE AND COMMUNICATE INFOR MATION !CCORDING TO THE "ROCKHAUS %NZYKLOPØDIE hMEDIUMv RE FERS BOTH TO A COMMUNICATION PATH OR CHANNEL AND TO A PRESS lLM RADIO OR 46 ORGANIZATION ENGAGED IN THE PUBLIC EXCHANGE OF TOPI CAL KNOWLEDGE 4HIS hDOUBLE NATURE OF THE MEDIUM SYSTEMv IS ON THE ONE HAND TIED TO A CERTAIN COMMUNICATIVE TECHNOLOGICAL POTENTIAL AND ON THE OTHER TO THE SOCIAL SYSTEMS THAT FORM AROUND THIS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY /F IMPORTANCE HERE IS THE PERCEPTION OF hMEDIUMv AS A TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS OF COMMUNICATION THAT ENABLES US TO PERCEIVE AND REPRODUCE VERBAL AND VISUAL INFORMATION ! MEDIUM AND AN INSTRUMENT PERFORM VERY DIFFERENT TASKS )N THE CASE OF A MACHINE OR A TOOL AS DElNED BY 3CHELHOWE INPUT MUST BE DIFFERENT FROM OUTPUT OR ELSE THE MACHINE WILL HAVE NO REAL PURPOSE 4HE EXACT OPPOSITE IS TRUE OF A MEDIUM IE IT MUST ALTER WHAT IT CON VEYS AS LITTLE AS POSSIBLE OR ELSE IT WILL BE A POOR OR hNOISYv MEDIUM )NPUT MUST BE AS SIMILAR AS POSSIBLE TO OUTPUT OR ELSE THE MEDIUM WILL HAVE DEFEATED ITS PURPOSE
3EE 3CHELHOWE 3EE 'RAUMANN IN -ALETZKE 7 - .EWMAN AND - ' ,AMMING )NTERACTIVE 3YSTEM $ESIGN (ARLOW !DDISON 7ESLEY 3EE 3CHELHOWE 3EE .AKE A IN IBID 3EE IBID 3EE 3CHELHOWE
3EE 2 7 0ICARD !FFECTIVE #OMPUTING #AMBRIDGE -ASS 3EE ! $ .ORMAN 4HE )NVISIBLE #OMPUTER #AMBRIDGE -ASS $ENNING $ARGAN IN "RINGING $ESIGN TO 3OFTWARE ED 7INOGRAD "OSTON 3EE .ORMAN
4HE MASS MEDIA PRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE INFORMATION PRESENT ING THE VIEW OF ONE AUTHORITY 4HEY OFFER NO FEEDBACK OPTION 4WO WAY MEDIA ON THE OTHER HAND ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE EXISTENCE OF A HUMAN COUNTERPART AND PERMIT RECIPROCITY THAT IS A TWO WAY TRANS MISSION AND RECEPTION OF INFORMATION 4HEY MAKE THE RECIPIENT INTO A PARTICIPANT )F WE TAKE A CLOSER LOOK AT THE COMPUTER WE SEE THAT IT TOO CAN BE CONSIDERED A TWO WAY MEDIUM THAT SENDS AND RECEIVES INFORMATION 4HE COMPUTER IS A MEDIUM )T STORES INFORMATION 4HE COMPUTER IS A TWO WAY MEDIUM THAT ALLOWS FOR AN EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE )NTERACTION OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE ESTABLISH CONTACT WITH EACH OTHER h)NTERACTIONv DESCRIBES THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN TWO OR MORE ENTITIES 4HE PARTICIPANTS BASE THEIR EXCHANGE ON COMPLEMENTARY EXPECTA TIONS BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS AND ACTIONS )N THE CASE OF A COMPUTER US ERS ENTER COMMANDS THAT THE COMPUTER OR MORE APTLY THE SOFTWARE UNDERSTANDS 4HE COMPUTER PROCESSES THE COMMANDS AND RESPONDS ACCORDINGLY )F A SYSTEM IS ABLE TO ADAPT IN THIS WAY IF IT POSSESSES THE CAPACITY TO EXCHANGE INFORMATION IT POSSESSES A SPECIAL FEATURE THAT DISTINGUISHES IT FROM ALL OTHER SIGN SYSTEMS IE IT IS INTERACTIVE !S 3CHELHOWE WRITES h!N INTERACTIVE SYSTEM SUPPORTS COMMUNICATION IN BOTH DIREC TIONS FROM USER TO COMPUTER AND BACK x 4HE SYSTEM REACTS ACCORD INGLY PERHAPS BY DISPLAYING INFORMATION PERHAPS BY ACTIVATING MA CHINERY OR PERFORMING SOME OTHER USEFUL SERVICEv 4HE OUTCOME OF ALL INTERACTION IS OPEN ENDED 4HIS DISTINGUISHES IT FROM INSTRUMENT BASED ACTION WHICH IS ORIENTED TO A SPECIlC GOAL !LTHOUGH THE COMPUTER IS A SELF CONTAINED SYSTEM ANY INTERACTION WITH IT MUST GIVE THE USER THE IMPRESSION THAT THE COMMUNICATIVE SITU ATION IS BASICALLY OPEN ENDED )N FACT THE CONDITIONS FOR INTERACTIV
ITY ARE NEVER REALLY FULlLLED WITH A COMPUTER BUT USERS CAN BE MADE TO FEEL THEY ARE ENGAGING IN AN EXCHANGE -AN MACHINE INTERACTION MUST THUS BE SEEN AS THE INTERPLAY OF TWO LINKED PROCESSES THAT FROM THE US ERS VIEWPOINT APPEAR TO BE ONE SINGLE PROCESS &OR THE USER THE PRO CESS THAT UNFOLDS IS A SIGN PROCESS IN ITS FULL MEANING 5SERS WORK WITH THE COMPUTER AND PRODUCE SIGNS 4HE INFORMATION THAT THEY ENTER VIA THE KEYBOARD OR SEE ON THE SCREEN HAS A MEANING FOR THEM (OWEVER ONCE THE SIGNS PASS THROUGH THE COMPUTERS INTERFACE MEANING IS NO LONGER IMPORTANT 4HE CONTEXT IS LOST AND THE SIGN IS MERELY ALLOTTED A PLACE IN THE COMPUTERS MEMORY 7HAT THE USER PREVIOUSLY SAW AS A MEANIGNFUL SIGN IS CONVERTED TO A NUMERICAL VALUE CONSISTING OF A LONG SERIES OF ONES AND ZEROS h4HE CONCEPT OF INTER ACTIVITY DElNED AS A PROPERTY OF THE COMPUTER OBSCURES THE FACT THAT THIS INTERACTIVITY MUST BE THE USERS @FEELING OR INTERPRETATION 4HE USER IS NO LONGER CONSCIOUS THAT HE IS USING A DEVICE AND THAT THIS DEVICE IS PROCESSING SOMETHING AS A MACHINEv 0UT DIFFERENTLY WHEREAS PEOPLE HAVE QUALITATIVE ABILITIES COMPUT ERS POSSESS ONLY QUANTITATIVE CAPACITIES .ORMAN WRITES THAT MOD ERN TECHNOLOGY IS DIGITAL AND MECHANICAL IN CONTRAST TO HUMAN BEINGS WHO ARE ANALOG AND BIOLOGICAL (UMANS DO NOT NEED PRECISE INFOR MATION 4HEY CAN lLTER OUT MEANING EVEN IF THERE ARE ERRORS OR DIS RUPTIONS IN THE MESSAGE 4HE RECOGNITION THAT MACHINES FUNCTION IN FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT WAYS FROM HUMAN BEINGS HAS LED TO A DEMAND FOR A NEW GENERATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS h! HUMAN CENTERED DESIGN PROCESS LEAVES TO HUMANS THE ACTION THAT HUMANS DO WELL IT LEAVES TO MACHINES WHAT HUMANS DO NOT DO WELL SUCH AS PERFORMING REPETITIVE ACTIONS WITHOUT ERROR SEARCHING THROUGH LARGE DATA SETS AND CARRYING OUT ACCURATE CALCULATIONS v WRITE $ENNING $ARGAN 4HIS MEANS THAT SPECIALISTS ARE REQUIRED TO ADAPT MACHINES TO PEOPLE AND THEIR ABILITIES n THAT IS TO PERFORM THE TRANSLATION WORK BETWEEN HUMANS AND MACHINES
"Y INTERACTIVE PRODUCTS SYSTEMS PROGRAMS SOFT WARE OR MEDIA ) MEAN PRODUCTS n PARTICULARLY SOFTWARE BASED SYSTEMS n THAT GIVE USERS THE IMPRESSION THEY ARE ENGAGED IN AN EXCHANGE PROCESS 3EE * 0REECE ET AL )NTERACTION $ESIGN "EYOND HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION .EW 9ORK AND " 3HNEIDERMAN $ESIGNING THE 5SER )NTERFACE 3TRATEGIES FOR %FFECTIVE (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION RD EDITION -ASSACHUSETTS 3EE 7INOGRAD XVI .EWMAN ,AMMING
3EE 3 *OHNSON )NTERFACE #ULTURE 7IE NEUE 4ECHNOLOGIEN +REATIVITØT UND +OMMUNIKATION VERØNDERN 3TUTTGART AND * 2ASKIN $AS INTELLIGENTE )NTERFACE -UNICH 3EE * 4 (ACKOS AND * # 2EDISH 5SER 4ASK !NALYSIS FOR )NTERFACE $ESIGN .EW 9ORK 3EE + APOR IN 7INOGRAD
)NTERACTION $ESIGN $EFINITION AND 4ASKS #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER
3EE 3CHELHOWE )BID 3EE #RAMPTON 3MITH 4ABOR IN 7INOGRAD )NTERACTION DESIGN ENCOMPASSES THE PLANNING AND DESIGN OF BOTH SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE 4HE DESIGNER MUST FIND A SITUATION SPECIFIC SOLUTION THAT MEETS PRODUCT AND SERVICE REQUIREMENTS 4HIS SOLUTION CAN TAKE THE FORM OF A TWO OR THREE DIMENSIONAL INTERFACE 4HE LITERATURE UNDER STUDY HERE PRIMARILY INVESTIGATE SOFTWARE BASED PRODUCTS WHICH IS THE REASON THIS AREA IS GIVEN GREATER WEIGHT IN THIS PAPER
)NTERACTION 0LANNERS (OW CAN A MACHINE MADE OF PLASTIC AND SILICON BE TRANSFORMED INTO A hTHINKINGv PARTNER WITH WHOM WE CAN CONVERSE (OW CAN WE BE FOOLED INTO BELIEVING THAT WE ARE PARTICIPATING IN A MEANINGFUL EX CHANGE WHEN IN FACT WE ARE ONLY COMMUNICATING WITH NUMERICAL VAL UES 7HEN A COMPUTER IS TURNED ON TWO INCOMPATIBLE LANGUAGES COME TOGETHER n THAT OF HUMAN BEINGS AND THAT OF THE COMPUTER 4HIS LINKUP OCCURS WHEN THE COMPUTERS SIGNAL PROCESS HAS BEEN MODIlED TO DIS PLAY NUMERICAL VALUES ON THE SCREEN AS MEANINGFUL SIGNS THAT USERS CAN UNDERSTAND 4HIS MEANS THAT ALL INTERACTION SCENARIOS MUST BE PLANNED DE SIGNED AND PROGRAMMED BEFORE USERS BEGIN STORING OR EDITING INFOR MATION ON THE COMPUTER )T ALSO MEANS THAT WHEN WE ARE WORKING WITH A COMPUTER SYSTEM WE ARE ACTUALLY COMMUNICATING WITH THE PRODUCTS DESIGNERS 4HEIR GOAL IS TO DESIGN THE SYSTEM IN SUCH A WAY THAT HUMAN ACTION AND MACHINE OPERATION ARE OPTIMALLY LINKED 7ITH THE DISSEMINATION OF THE COMPUTER BROADER CROSS SECTIONS OF THE POPULATION GAINED ACCESS TO DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY 4HE COMPUTER STOPPED BEING AN EXCLUSIVE PRODUCT FOR A LIMITED NUMBER OF EXPERTS AND NOW HAD TO BE DESIGNED SO THAT NONSPECIALISTS COULD USE IT TOO )NTEREST SHIFTED FROM ITS TECHNICAL STRUCTURE TO THE OTHER HALF OF THE MAN MACHINE SYSTEM HOW CAN DESIGNERS CREATE THE RIGHT USER EXPE RIENCE 4HIS IS A QUESTION THAT HAS NOT ONLY TECHNICAL BUT ALSO SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS )T IS ONLY THE PROGRAMMER WHO HAS DIRECT CONTACT WITH THE MACHINE 5SERS INTERACT WITH THE COMPUTER VIA A MAN MACHINE INTERFACE AND SPECIAL ATTENTION MUST BE PAID TO ITS DESIGN 4HIS MARKED THE BIRTH OF INTERACTION DESIGN A SPECIALIST PRO FESSION THAT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR ORGANIZING PLANNING AND DESIGNING THIS INTERMEDIATING TOOL 4HE TASK OF INTERACTION DESIGN IS TO DESIGN HOW PEOPLE USE OBJECTS AND SYSTEMS PARTICULARLY COMPUTER SOFTWARE 4HE PROFESSION AIMS TO CREATE INTERACTIVE PRODUCTS THAT ARE EASY TO USE EFlCIENT AND WHICH SUPPORT PEOPLE IN THEIR DAILY LIVES AND WORK h! GOOD DE SIGN PRODUCT IS AN OBJECT THAT WORKS FOR PEOPLE IN A CONTEXT OF VALUES
AND NEEDS TO PRODUCE QUALITY RESULTS AND SATISFYING EXPERIENCE v WRITES 7INOGRAD .EWMAN ,AMMING DESCRIBE THE AIMS OF AN INTERACTIVE PRODUCT AS FOLLOWS h!N INTERACTIVE SYSTEM SUPPORTS COMMUNICATION IN BOTH DIRECTIONS FROM USER TO COMPUTER AND BACK x 4HE SYSTEM REACTS ACCORDINGLY PERHAPS BY DISPLAYING INFORMATION PERHAPS BY AC TIVATING MACHINERY OR PERFORMING SOME OTHER USEFUL SERVICES x !LL OF THIS TAKES PLACE VIA A SYSTEMS USER INTERFACE THE PART OF THE SYSTEM THAT PROVIDES ACCESS TO THE COMPUTERS INTERNAL RESOURCESv !N INTERFACE IS A LINK BETWEEN HUMAN BEINGS AND THE COMPUTER )T MEDIATES BETWEEN THESE TWO PARTIES MAKING ONE COMPREHENSIBLE TO THE OTHER !N INTERFACE CAN BE SEEN AS THE BRIDGE BETWEEN THE WORLD OF THE PRODUCT OR SYSTEM AND THE WORLD OF THE USERS )T IS THE MEANS BY WHICH USERS INTERACT WITH THE PRODUCT TO ACHIEVE THEIR GOALS )T IS THE MEANS BY WHICH THE SYSTEM REVEALS ITSELF TO THE USERS AND BEHAVES IN RELATION TO THE USERS NEEDS 3INCE PEOPLE EXPERIENCE THE WORLD AS AN AESTHETIC AFFECTIVE AND EMOTIONAL PHENOMENON THEY REQUIRE DESIGNERS TO TRANSLATE TECHNO LOGICAL LANGUAGE INTO SIGNS THAT THEY CAN READ AND UNDERSTAND 4ECHNI CAL EXPERTISE IS A MUST FOR INTERACTION DESIGNERS #RAMPTON 3MITH 4A BOR COMPARE THE WORK OF INTERACTION DESIGNERS WITH THAT OF ARCHITECTS WHO ARE NOT ONLY DESIGNERS BUT WHO ALSO UNDERSTAND THE LAWS OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING AS WELL AS BUILDING MATERIAL PROPERTIES !CCORD ING TO + APOR INTERACTION DESIGNERS MUST THEREFORE BE FAMILIAR WITH PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE ON THE ONE HAND AND SOCIO SCIENTIlC THEORY AND HUMAN NEEDS MODES OF BEHAVIOR ON THE OTHER
3EE 7INOGRAD XXII 3EE 0REECE ET AL V AND #RAMPTON 3MITH 4ABOR IN 7INOGRAD + APOR IN 7INOGRAD 3EE ! #OOPER !BOUT &ACE "OSTON 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE *OHNSON AND 3HNEIDERMAN
3EE 7INOGRAD )BID FOR 'ERMANY SINCE I& )NTERACTION $ESIGN !WARD &OR THE 53! SINCE )NTERACTION $ESIGN !WARD OF THE !SSOCIATION FOR #OMPUTING -ACHINERY 3EE 0REECE ET AL 3EE + APOR IN 7INOGRAD 3EE #RAMPTON 3MITH 4ABOR IN 7INOGRAD AND 3HNEIDERMAN
+ APOR IN 7INOGRAD 3EE 3TALBAUM IN NETART n .EUE -ATERIALIEN ZUR .ETZKUNST 4 "AUMGØRTEL .UREMBERG *OHNSON
)NTERACTION DESIGN IS TAUGHT AT ART COLLEGES WHICH SHOWS THAT IT IS NOT AN EXACT SCIENCE BASED ON STRUCTURED PROCESSES AND TESTABLE METH ODS $ESIGN MUST BE VIEWED AS AN APPLIED SCIENCE THAT CREATES AND TESTS FORMS OF BEHAVIOR USING METHODS FROM A VARIETY OF SCIENTIlC DIS CIPLINES 4HE WORK OF INTERACTION DESIGN MUST BE OBJECTIVELY VERIlABLE AND EVALUATED ON THE BASIS OF USABILITY CRITERIA n IN CONTRAST TO INTERFACE DESIGN SCREEN DESIGN AND 7EB DESIGN WHICH MERELY ILLUSTRATE SPECI lED CONCEPTS $ESIGNING THESE INTERFACES REQUIRES DIVERSE KNOWLEDGE FROM DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES 0SYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY PROVIDE KNOWL EDGE OF HUMAN PERCEPTION AND INTERACTION COMPUTER SCIENCE MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO PROGRAM CONCEPTS AND MARKETING IDENTIlES NEEDS h4ODAY THE SOFTWARE DESIGNER LEADS A GUERILLA EXISTENCE FORMALLY UNRECOGNIZED AND OFTEN UNAPPRECIATED 4HERES NO SPOT ON THE COR PORATE ORGANIZATION CHART OR CAREER LADDER FOR SUCH AN INDIVIDUALv !S THIS QUOTE EMPHASIZES THE PROFESSION OF SOFTWARE DESIGNER IS HARDLY APPRECIATED THESE DAYS 4HE SAME HOLDS TRUE FOR INTERACTION DESIGN )NTERACTION DESIGN HAS A RELATIVELY SHORT HISTORY AND A THEORY OF THE INTERACTION DESIGN IS ONLY JUST CRYSTALLIZING 4HE DISCIPLINE IS IN THE PROCESS OF DElNING ITSELF AND FORMULATING A SPECIlC VOCABULARY )T IS ONLY JUST DElNING THE CHARACTERISTICS THAT DISTINGUISH IT FROM OTHER lELDS 5NIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES ARE NOW INCLUDING INTERACTION DESIGN IN THEIR EDUCATIONAL OFFERINGS WHICH MEANS THIS SITUATION WILL CHANGE QUICKLY )NTERACTION DESIGN COMPETITIONS ARE ALSO PROMOTING THE AC CEPTANCE OF THE PROFESSION )N THE CONTEXT OF HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE DESIGN THERE IS OF TEN TALK OF HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION (#) (#) DEALS WITH THE DESIGN EVALUATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERACTIVE COMPUTER SYS TEMS FOR HUMAN USE "Y CONTRAST INTERACTION DESIGN IS A BROADER DISCIPLINE THAT DRAWS UPON A RANGE OF SOCIAL FACTORS IN DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES 3OFTWARE DESIGNERS ARE PRIMARILY CONCERNED WITH THE OVERALL STRUCTURE OF THEIR PRODUCTS "OTH DISCIPLINES CREATE DIGITAL SYSTEMS THAT MEET HUMAN NEEDS BUT EACH HAS DIFFERENT FOCUSES AND METHOD OLOGIES
!CCORDING TO #RAMPTON 3MITH 4ABOR THE DESIGNER PURSUES lVE PRINCIPAL TASKS 5NDERSTANDING GRASPING WHAT PROBLEMS MUST BE SOLVED AND WHAT REQUIREMENTS FULlLLED !BSTRACTING DETERMINING THE ELEMENTS THAT MUST BE TAKEN INTO AC COUNT FOR THE DESIGN AND IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS THAT ARE IRRELEVANT 3TRUCTURING DECIDING HOW THE ELEMENTS ARE TO BE CONNECTED OR GANIZED AND STRUCTURED 2EPRESENTING PORTRAYING THE INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS AND THE ENTIRE SOLUTION THROUGH VISUAL ACOUSTIC AND TACTILE DESIGN $ETAILING DECIDING THE COLOR THE NUMBER OF PIXELS AND THE ANI MATION SOLUTION FOR EACH INDIVIDUAL INTERACTIVE ELEMENT /FTEN DESIGN IS NOT A RATIONAL PROCESS BUT A MATTER OF FEEL )T NOT ONLY SERVES FUNCTIONAL PURPOSES SUCH AS PROBLEM SOLVING BUT IMPACTS THE USER ON AN EMOTIONAL LEVEL + APOR WRITES h)NTERACTION DESIGN IS MORE OF AN ART THAN A SCIENCE )TS ULTIMATE SUBJECT MATTER n HUMAN EXPERIENCE AND SUBJECTIVE RESPONSE n IS INHERENTLY AS CHANGEABLE AND UNFATHOMABLE AS THE OCEANv )N THEIR ROLE AS ARTISTS DESIGNERS ARE CURRENTLY DEVELOPING THIS MEDIUM DISCOVERING UNKNOWN AESTHETIC REALMS AND PROVIDING NEW EXPERIENCES FOR THEIR AUDIENCES !S *OHNSON WRITES h7E WILL VIEW INTERFACE DESIGN AS AN ART FORM n PERHAPS AS THE ART FORM OF THE TWENTY lRST CENTURY )T WILL CHANGE OUR LITERARY TASTE OUR FEEL FOR SPACE OUR TASTE IN MUSIC THE APPEARANCE OF OUR CITIESv
3EE -AGLIO -ATLOCK IN 3OCIAL .AVIGATION OF )NFOR MATION 3PACE ED -UNRO ET AL ,ONDON 3EE ,AUREL !N ICONIC SYMBOL IS ALWAYS BASED ON A SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE OBJECT AND THE SIGN 3YMBOLS IN 0EIRCES SENSE ARE ALSO ALWAYS ASSOCIATED WITH AN OBJECT HOW EVER IN CONTRAST TO ICONS THIS RELATIONSHIP IS ARBITRARY AND UNMOTIVATED 3EE # 3 0EIRCE h.EUE %LEMENTE v IN :EICHEN ÓBER :EICHEN ED $ -ERSCH -UNICH
3EE ' % 4HALLER )NTERFACE $ESIGN $IE -ENSCH -ASCHINE 3CHNITTSTELLE GESTALTEN +ONZEPTE FÓR 0ROGRAMM UND 7EB /BERFLØCHEN &RANKFURT 3EE ,AUREL n 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH n 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE *OHNSON 3EE 2ASKIN 3EE .ELSON n IN ,AUREL 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN
)NTERACTION $ESIGN $EFINITION AND 4ASKS #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER
#OOPER 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH 3EE 0REECE ET AL )BID AND .ORMAN 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN AND *OHNSON 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH 3EE .ORMAN 3EE 0REECE ET AL AND (ACKOS 2EDISH 3EE " ,AUREL #OMPUTERS AS 4HEATRE "OSTON
)NTERACTION 0LANNING $ESIGN -ODELS $ESIGN MUST FOCUS ON USERS NOT TECHNOLOGY 7HATEVER BOOK ONE OPENS THESE DAYS THIS IS THE MESSAGE 4HE AIM OF INTERACTION DESIGN IS TO CREATE TROUBLE FREE EXCHANGE PROCESSES BETWEEN MAN AND MACHINE )F THE INTERFACE RECEDES INTO THE BACKGROUND IF USERS CAN CONCENTRATE SOLELY ON THEIR WORK n THEN DESIGNERS HAVE ACHIEVED ONE CENTRAL GOAL CREATING A USER FRIENDLY PRODUCT h'OOD INTERFACES ARE INVISIBLEv 3TUDIES ARE CONDUCTED TO IDENTIFY USER NEEDS AND DESCRIBE hMENTAL MODELSv -ENTAL MODELS PERMIT US TO ASSESS NEW SITUATIONS ON THE BASIS OF PAST EXPERIENCES 4HEY ENABLE US TO IDENTIFY WHAT IS NEW AND SELECT STRATEGIES FOR ACTION )F INTERACTION DESIGNERS ARE FAMILIAR WITH THE MENTAL MODELS THAT DETERMINE THE BEHAVIOR OF POTENTIAL USERS IF THEY ARE AWARE OF THE FACTORS THAT NEW EXPERIENCES WILL BE LINKED TO THEN THEY CAN DEVELOP A DESIGN MODEL THAT MAKES NEW FUNCTIONAL AND DE SIGN ELEMENTS COMPREHENSIBLE WITH THE HELP OF ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE 4HIS PRODUCT OR SERVICE SCENARIO WHICH IS DESCRIBED IN THE LITERATURE AS A hCONCEPT MODEL v IS REALLY NOTHING MORE THAN A KIND OF ACTION PLAN )T IS A DESCRIPTION OF THE OBJECTS OR ACTION OPTIONS RELATED TO AN ARTIFACT AND A DElNITION OF THE BEHAVIORAL FUNCTIONS AND BEHAVIORAL MODES OF THE SYSTEM AND ITS USERS /NCE THE CONCEPT MODEL HAS BEEN DElNED INTERACTION DESIGNERS MUST NEXT lND A SUITABLE WAY OF REPRESENTING IT 4HIS IS A CONTROVERSIAL PROCESS 4ODAYS SOFTWARE SYSTEMS FOR THE MOST PART MAKE USE OF AN INTERFACE METAPHOR WHEN TRANSLATING AN ABSTRACT CONCEPT MODEL INTO AN INTERFACE EASILY COMPREHENSIBLE TO USERS 4HE TERM hMETAPHORv DESCRIBES A SUPERORDINATE CONCEPT THAT ORGANIZES ALL OBJECTS AND AC TIONS INTO A COHERENT WHOLE &ACING NEW SITUATIONS PEOPLE LOOK FOR FAMILIAR PATTERNS THAT WILL SHOW THEM THE WAY FORWARD )NTERFACE METAPHORS DRAW UPON THIS CHARACTERISTIC OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR 4HEY ARE DEPLOYED WHEN ABSTRACT CONCEPTS THAT ARE DIFlCULT TO IMAGINE OR ARTICULATE MUST BE REPRESENTED IN A CONCRETE FASHION 7ITH THEIR HELP USERS CAN BE MADE TO ASSOCIATE DIGITAL OBJECTS WITH THE OBJECTS THEY ARE FAMILIAR WITH FROM THEIR EVERYDAY LIVES &OR INSTANCE DESIGN ERS CAN CREATE ICONS WINDOWS IMAGES OF SMALL HANDS lLING CABINETS
LASSOS AND COLORED BUCKETS AS A KIND OF SIGN CODE THAT BOTH PEOPLE AND MACHINES CAN DECIPHER 4HE BEST KNOWN INTERFACE METAPHOR IS THAT OF THE DESKTOP )T DEPICTS THE COLLECTION OF OBJECTS FOUND ON OUR DESKS IN REAL LIFE !LL THE ELEMENTS OF THE DESKTOP lT TOGETHER NATURALLY $OCUMENTS ARE STORED IN FOLDERS AND FOLDERS ARE PLACED ON THE DESKTOP (OWEVER WHILE IT IS TRUE THAT METAPHORS CAN RENDER COMPLEX PHENOMENA MORE EASILY COMPREHENSIBLE AND THAT THEY FORGE A LINK BETWEEN THE NEW AND THE FAMILIAR THUS FACILITATING LEARNING AND REMEMBERING THEY DO HAVE THEIR LIMITATIONS 7HAT HAPPENS IF USERS LOOK FOR ADDITIONAL ITEMS THAT THEY ARE FAMILIAR WITH FROM THEIR DESKS SUCH AS TELEPHONES CALCU LATORS ETC !ND HOW CAN WE PORTRAY ACTIONS OBJECTS AND FUNCTIONS FOR WHICH WE HAVE NO ABSTRACTIONS &OR EXAMPLE THERE IS NO SPELL CHECK SYMBOL THAT COULD BE EASILY TRANSLATED INTO AN ICON 4HE THREE LET TERS h!"#v HAVE CAUGHT ON "RENDA ,AUREL WRITES THAT INTERFACE METAPHORS ARE SIMILAR TO AND YET DIFFERENT FROM REALITY 4HE PROBLEM IS THAT WE DONT KNOW EXACTLY HOW AND WHERE THEY DIFFER ! GOOD METAPHOR IS NOT AN EXACT REPRESENTATION OF THE REAL WORLD #REATING A REALISTIC METAPHOR MIGHT EVEN POSE A DANGER SINCE IT CAN AWAKEN THE WRONG EXPECTATIONS ACCORDING TO (ACKOS 2EDISH /NE FOCUS OF THE INTERFACE DESIGN DEBATE IS THE SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVE METH ODS FOR REPRESENTING DATA IN A USER FRIENDLY WAY 4HE AUTHORS CON TRIBUTING TO THIS DEBATE HAVE PRESENTED A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS TOGETHER WITH THEIR LIMITATIONS *OHNSON BELIEVES THAT DATA SHOULD BE ADMINISTERED BY INTELLIGENT AGENTS 2ASKIN PRESENTS A ZOOM INTER FACE PARADIGM :)0 THAT ENVISIONS USERS MOVING ABOUT A DATA SPACE WITH THE HELP OF A ZOOM TOOL 4HERE ARE NO lLE NAMES OR FOLDERS HERE THE ENTIRE TEXT BECOMES A SEARCH lELD .ELSON SUGGESTS PLANNING IN VIRTUAL SPACES AS OPPOSED TO USING METAPHORS 4HESE SPACES SHOULD BE DERIVED FROM A PURE CONCEPT STRUCTURE RATHER THAN REAL PHENOM ENA 3HNEIDERMAN ON THE OTHER HAND DISCUSSES SYSTEMS THAT HAVE ALREADY BEEN DEVELOPED AND EXIST ON THE MARKET BUT HAVENT CAUGHT ON SO FAR
3EE 3HNEIDERMAN )BID 0REECE ET AL n 2ASKIN 4HALLER n .ORMAN (ACKOS 2EDISH n 3EE 4HALLER AND 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN )BID )BID )BID 3EE 4HALLER )BID AND 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE 4HALLER 3HNEIDERMAN 2ASKIN
3EE 0REECE ET AL 7INOGRAD XXI 4HALLER 3EE 4HALLER (ACKOS 2EDISH XVII .ORMAN 3EE 2 3CHULMEISTER 'RUNDLAGEN HYPERMEDIALER ,ERNSYSTEME -UNICH AND 7INOGRAD 3EE .ORMAN IN 3HNEIDERMAN .ORMAN (ACKOS 2EDISH 0REECE ET AL n -YERSON .ORMAN 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH XIV 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN
3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH )BID 3HNEIDERMAN 0REECE ET AL n 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH 0REECE ET AL 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE 0REECE ET AL )BID )BID SEE ALSO (ACKOS 2EDISH n 3EE 4HALLER AND (ACKOS 2EDISH 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH 3EE .ORMAN (ACKOS 2EDISH 0REECE ET AL n
$ESIGN 0RINCIPLES 3INCE TECHNOLOGY IS CONSTANTLY CHANGING WE WILL NEVER HAVE A COMPLETE SET OF DESIGN GUIDELINES %VEN SO A FEW SPECIlC PRINCIPLES HAVE EMERGED WHICH ENSURE THE USABILITY OF MAN MACHINE INTERFACES -OST OF THE AUTHORS WHO CONCERN THEMSELVES WITH INTERACTION DESIGN AS A PRACTICAL DISCIPLINE DESCRIBE THESE PRINCIPLES IN GREAT DETAIL )N WHAT FOLLOWS A FEW COMMON FACTORS SHALL BE PORTRAYED THAT APPLY LESS TO THE CONCRETE DESIGN OF INTERFACES THAN TO THE CONCEPTUAL PLANNING OF SOFTWARE SYSTEMS AS ONE OF THE MAIN TASKS OF INTERACTION DESIGNERS /NE CENTRAL TASK IS THE DIFFERENTIATED DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM USERS -ANY AUTHORS BREAK DOWN USER GROUPS AND SUMMARIZE THE DIFFERENT GROUPS OBJECTIVES 4HE ROUGH BREAKDOWN INTO BEGINNERS INTERMEDIATE USERS ADVANCED USERS AND EXPERTS IS COMMON )N ADDITION TO CATEGORIZ ING USERS BY PROlCIENCY IT IS ALSO COMMON TO DISTINGUISH VARIOUS USER NEEDS #ULTURAL DISTINCTIONS MUST ALSO BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION WHEN AN INTERFACE IS DEVELOPED $IFFERENT CULTURAL GROUPS MAY HAVE THEIR OWN SPECIAL SIGNS UNITS OF MEASUREMENT SECURITY REGULATIONS OR WAYS OF WRITING DATES 3OCIAL CODES AGE CATEGORIES AND EDUCATIONAL DIFFERENCES MUST ALSO BE CONSIDERED )T IS NOTEWORTHY THAT NO CLEAR GENDER SPECIlC DIFFERENCES HAVE BEEN DOCUMENTED TO DATE 4HE AUTHORS UNDER STUDY PRESENT A NUMBER OF SCALES WITH MORE DETAILED USER CHARACTERISTICS 3HNEIDERMAN INCLUDES PSYCHOLOGICAL SCALES WITH THE FULL RANGE OF POTENTIAL USER CHARACTERISTICS AS WELL AS A CATALOG OF BODY MASSES FOR DIFFERENT CULTURES 4HALLER MENTIONS PROPERTIES OF HUMAN MEMORY )T MUST BE NOTED THAT SOFTWARE USERS DO NOT REPRESENT A HOMOGE NEOUS GROUP 4HIS MAKES THE DESIGN OF UNIFORM PROGRAMS DIFlCULT IF NOT IMPOSSIBLE AS MANY AUTHORS HAVE NOTED $ESIGN 0ROCESS $UE TO ITS COMPLEXITY THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SOFTWARE SYSTEM IS AN ITERATIVE PROCESS THAT REQUIRES EXPERTISE FROM VARIOUS PROFESSIONS #OMPUTER SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS MAY BE JOINED BY PSYCHOLOGISTS SOCIOLOGISTS LINGUISTS ANTHROPOLOGISTS GRAPHIC DESIGNERS lLMMAKERS AND SOUND DESIGNERS )N THE LITERATURE THE AUTHORS DESCRIBE THE DE
VELOPMENTAL PROCESS OF A SOFTWARE SYSTEM WITH THEIR OWN SPECIAL FOCI AND SPECIlC DIFFERENTIATION 4HREE FUNDAMENTAL AREAS CAN BE IDEN TIlED AND WILL BE DESCRIBED IN WHAT FOLLOWS $ElNING 5SERS h"EING lRST BEING BEST AND EVEN BEING RIGHT DOES NOT MATTER WHAT MATTERS IS WHAT THE CUSTOMERS THINKv 4HE ACCURATE EVALUATION OF THE END USER IS A MUST FOR EVERY MAN MACHINE INTERFACE SINCE USERS ARE THE ONES WHO WILL ULTIMATELY WORK WITH THE SOFTWARE 4HE RISE IN THE NUMBER OF USABILITY TESTING LABO RATORIES REmECTS THE IMPORTANCE OF USER FRIENDLY PRODUCT DESIGN 4HE PRIMARY SUBJECTS IN STUDIES OF USER REQUIREMENTS ARE THUS THE US ERS THEMSELVES THEIR WORKING HABITS AS WELL AS THEIR SOCIAL AND PHYSI CAL WORKING AND LIVING ENVIRONMENTS 4HERE ARE A VARIETY OF METHODS FOR GATHERING INFORMATION ON USER CHARACTERISTICS AND ENVIRONMENTS 7HEN DEALING DIRECTLY WITH US ERS RESEARCHERS DRAW UPON QUESTIONNAIRES INTERVIEWS DISCUSSION GROUPS WORKSHOPS AND PARTICIPATORY DESIGN )N THEIR OBSERVATIONAL WORK THE AUTHORS DESCRIBE PROCESSES IN REAL WORKING ENVIRONMENTS OR IN CONTROLLED LABORATORY SITUATIONS $EVELOPING $ESIGN /NCE THE NEEDS AND SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A POTENTIAL USER GROUP ARE KNOWN THE NEXT STEP IS TO PRODUCE A DESIGN h#ONCEP TUAL DESIGN DEVELOPS A MODEL OF WHAT THE PRODUCT WILL DO AND HOW IT WILL BEHAVE WHILE PHYSICAL DESIGN SPECIlES THE DETAILS OF THE DESIGN SUCH AS SCREEN LAYOUT AND MENU STRUCTUREv 4HE DESIGNER CREATES A STORYBOARD WHICH PORTRAYS THE USERS ACTIONS WHEN WORKING WITH THE SOFTWARE ! STORYBOARD CONTAINS DESCRIPTIONS OF USER SCENARIOS AND WORK PROCESSES AS WELL AS SKETCHES OF POSSIBLE SCREEN DESIGNS TO ILLUS TRATE THESE SCENARIOS 4HE STORYBOARDS GENERATE TWO DIMENSIONAL OR SOFTWARE BASED PROTOTYPES THAT POTENTIAL USERS CAN TEST FOR THEIR US ABILITY AND COMPREHENSIBILITY AT AN EARLY STAGE OF THE DESIGN PROCESS
3EE + AKU AND 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE + AKU 3EE 2 "ROOKS -ENSCHMASCHINEN 7IE UNS DIE :U KUNFTSTECHNOLOGIEN NEU ERSCHAFFEN &RANKFURT 3EE 7EINBERGER 3EE 6ISIONS OF THE &UTURE ED 0HILIPS #ORPORATE $ESIGN "USSUM
)NTERACTION $ESIGN $EFINITION AND 4ASKS #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER
3EE 4HALLER )BID 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN 0REECE ET AL 2ASKIN n 3EE 0REECE ET AL 3EE 2ASKIN n 3HNEIDERMAN 0REECE ET AL 3EE 2ASKIN 3EE 0REECE ET AL 3EE 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE - + AKU :UKUNFTSVISIONEN 7IE 7ISSENSCHAFT UND 4ECHNIK DES *AHRHUNDERTS UNSER ,EBEN REVOLUTION IEREN -UNICH
%VALUATION )S THE FUNCTION OF THE DEVICE ABSOLUTELY CLEAR #AN USERS RECOGNIZE WHAT TASKS ARE POSSIBLE $O THEY KNOW THE STATUS OF THE DEVICE AT ALL TIMES )S IT CLEAR TO THEM HOW THEY MUST EXECUTE AN ACTION OR A FUNC TION 4HESE QUESTIONS HELP DETERMINE WHETHER AN INTERFACE IS UNDER STOOD BY ITS USERS %VALUATION IS AN IMPORTANT STEP IN DEVELOPING A MAN MACHINE IN TERFACE 4HE ACTIVITIES LINKED TO SOFTWARE TESTING MAKE UP ROUGHLY TO PERCENT OF PROJECT WORK WRITES 4HALLER 4HERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS FOR THE QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF INTER FACES ! COMMON PRACTICE IS TO MEASURE THE TIME REQUIRED TO EXECUTE A POINTING ACTION THAT IS TO MOVE THE CURSOR FROM ONE OBJECT TO THE ANOTHER &ITTS ,AW !CCORDING TO 0REECE ET AL THIS HELPS THE DESIGNER DECIDE WHERE TO PLACE AN ICON ON THE SCREEN WHAT SIZE IT SHOULD BE AND HOW CLOSE IT SHOULD BE TO OTHER OBJECTS ON THE SCREEN ! POPULAR MODEL FOR QUALITATIVELY ASSESSING AN INTERFACE IS '/-3 GOALS OBJECT METHOD AND SELECTION RULES '/-3 REVEALS THE FEATURES THAT MAKE AN INTERFACE SLOW OR QUICK /NLY THE INTERFACES PRACTICAL FUNCTIONS ARE EXAMINED 2ESEARCH ERS ANALYZE WHETHER THE CONCEPTUAL BASIS OF A SOFTWARE SYSTEM IS UN DERSTOOD AND WHETHER ETHICAL ISSUES HAVE BEEN HANDLED CORRECTLY /NE PROBLEM IN THE EVALUATIVE WORK IS THAT EVEN AFTER THESE TESTS ARE CONDUCTED UNCERTAINTIES MAY EXIST DUE TO USER GROUP HETEROGENEITY !NOTHER DIFlCULTY IS THAT THE LONG TERM BEHAVIOR CAUSED BY AN INTER FACE IS NOT TESTED AS THIS WOULD BE TOO COSTLY 0LANNING THE &UTURE #OMPUTERS WILL MOVE LIKE PEOPLE #OMPUTERS WILL THINK LIKE PEO PLE #OMPUTERS WILL MERGE WITH PEOPLE THE MAN MACHINE IS BORN 4ECHNOLOGY IS PAVING THE WAY FOR HITHERTO UNKNOWN POSSIBILITIES 4HE AUTHORS UNDER STUDY HERE PRESENT VIEWS OF A NEW WORLD ONE THAT WILL BE REALIZED IN THE NEAR OR DISTANT FUTURE 4HIS ESSAY BEGAN BY OUTLINING THE NATURE OF OUR SOCIETY n THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 4HIS LAST SECTION WILL SHOW THE DIRECTION THAT TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY ARE HEADING IN )T WILL ALSO CHART THE PATH THAT INTERACTION IS LIKELY TO TAKE
4HE FUTURE LOOKS BRIGHT BY MICROPROCESSORS WILL PROBABLY BE AS CHEAP AND WIDESPREAD AS NOTEPAPER 4HE BLIND WILL USE WALK ING STICKS WITH INTEGRATED '03 SENSORS /UR CARS AND STREETS WILL SEE HEAR FEEL AND ACT /UR CLOTHES WILL STORE INFORMATION POWERED BY THE WARMTH OF OUR BODIES #URRENTLY COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY HAS ALREADY DEVELOPED INTO A GLOB AL INFRASTRUCTURE THAT SPANS EVERY COUNTRY ON EARTH AND WILL SOON REACH INTO THE LIVES OF EVERY INDIVIDUAL )N THE FUTURE WRITES + AKU OUR DAILY LIVES WILL BE CHANGED IRREVOCABLY BY MICROCHIPS SO WIDESPREAD THEY WILL MAKE POSSIBLE MILLIONS OF INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS IN ALL AREAS OF LIFE "ROOKS GOES SO FAR AS TO POSIT THE MERGER OF THE HUMAN BODY WITH THE MACHINE IN THE NEAR FUTURE 2EGARDLESS OF WHETHER THE POSTINFORMATION AGE IS PEOPLED BY SUCH HUMAN MACHINES NEW WORLDS WILL SURELY CREATE NEW PEOPLE 4HIS HAS ALWAYS BEEN THE CASE BECAUSE HOW WE LIVE IN OUR WORLD IS THE SAME AS WHO WE ARE ! NUMBER OF AUTHORS EXAMINE THE ROLE HUMANS WILL PLAY IN A WORLD DOMINATED BY TECHNOLOGY 4ODAY VARIOUS AREAS OF SOCIETY SUCH AS POLITICS SCIENCE ENVIRON MENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AND YOUTH CLUBS ARE SEEKING NEW RULES AND REGU LATIONS 7E CAN ONLY PROVIDE A ROUGH SKETCH OF A WORLD IN WHICH PEOPLE WILL ZAP TO FARAWAY PLACES IN REAL TIME IN WHICH THEY WILL EX CHANGE ROLES AT SHORT NOTICE IN WHICH THE MANY OPPORTUNITIES FOR MO BILITY WILL ERODE OUR SENSE OF COMMUNITY -ACHINES ARE BECOMING EVER SMALLER AND SOON THEY WILL BE LOST TO SIGHT 4HE MAN MACHINE INTERFACE IS OFTEN NOT A DOMINANT FEATURE OF THESE AUTHORS VISIONS 7ILL INTERACTION DESIGN BECOME IRRELEVANT WHEN MAN AND MACHINE ARE ONE )N THIS CONTEXT INTERACTION DESIGNERS MUST NOT BE SEEN AS TRADI TIONAL PLANNERS AND DESIGNERS OF INTERFACES BUT AS CREATORS OF NEW SO CIAL WORLDS )N THE FUTURE THEIR DESIGNS WILL SERVE TO PROMOTE IDENTITY
WWWINTERACTION IVREAIT WWWDHUMUSE WWW CRDRCAACUK WWWHCISTANFORDEDU WWWCMUEDU CFA DE SIGN HTTPINTERACTIONHGKZCH *OHNSON .EGROPONTE 0REECE ET AL 2ASKIN 3CHULMEISTER 3HNEIDERMAN AND 7INOGRAD *OHNSON + AKU -UNRO ET AL .EGROPONTE .ORMAN 0REECE ET AL 2ASKIN 3HNEIDERMAN 4HALLER 4UFTE AND 7INOGRAD 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH .ORMAN 0REECE ET AL 2ASKIN 3HNEIDERMAN 4HALLER AND 7INOGRAD
3HNEIDERMAN 3EE ALSO (ACKOS 2EDISH -UNRO ET AL .ORMAN 0ICARD 3EE &RIELING *OHNSON .EGROPONTE .ORMAN 0HILIPS -UNRO ET AL 3CHRAGE IN 7INO GRAD 3EE ALSO .EGROPONTE CONCERNING DEVICE DEVELOPMENT /R 3HNEIDERMAN CON CERNING ERGONOMIC GENDER DISTINCTIONS $ISCUSSED IN 7INOGRAD AND 3HNEIDERMAN MEN TIONED IN (ACKOS 2EDISH 0REECE ET AL AND 3CHULMEISTER
3EE 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE 2HALFF ET AL IN -UNRO ET AL -YERSON .ORMAN 3CHRAGE IN 7INOGRAD 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH -UNRO ET AL .ORMAN 0ICARD 3HNEIDERMAN 3EE (ACKOS 2EDISH .ORMAN 0REECE ET AL V 4HALLER 3EE .EGROPONTE .ORMAN 0HILIPS 3HNEIDERMAN
!LL OF THE AUTHORS WHO PROVIDE GUIDELINES ON EFFEC TIVE INTERACTION DESIGN EMPHASIZE THE FACT THAT TODAYS DESIGNERS MUST FOCUS ON THE USER h-AKE USERS THE CENTER OF ATTENTIONv
-ETHODS 4HE GOAL OF THIS STUDY HAS BEEN TO COMPILE AN ANTHOLOGY OF CURRENT LITERATURE ON INTERACTION DESIGN )T HAS SOUGHT TO DElNE A KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURE THAT WILL MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO PORTRAY AND SYSTEMATIZE THIS THEMATIC lELD 4O THIS END ) ASSIGNED THE DIFFERENT AUTHORS CENTRAL POSITIONS TO A THEMATIC GRID THAT EVOLVED DURING THE WORK ) DREW UPON THREE DIFFERENT SOURCES IN ORDER TO ASSEMBLE A PRELIMINARY COLLECTION OF RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS 7ITH THE HELP OF BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION FROM UNIVERSITIES ONE EXPERT AND THE ONLINE BOOKSHOP !MAZON ) COMPILED A LIST OF TITLES ) THEN DElNED lLTERING CRITERIA TO SELECT THE MOST IMPORTANT WORKS 9EAR OF PUBLICATION
/NLY BOOKS PUBLISHED AFTER WERE CHOSEN SO AS TO ENSURE TOPICALITY
/PINION LEADERS
!UTHORS WERE SELECTED THAT WERE NAMED IN VARIOUS SOURCES
0LACE OF PUBLICATION
0UBLICATIONS FROM 53! AND %UROPE WERE REPRE SENTED IN EQUAL MEASURE
)NTRODUCTORY WORKS
)NTRODUCTORY WORKS PROVIDED AN OVERVIEW
3OCIETY
%DUCATION
2ESEARCH
4ECHNOLOGY IS THE DOMINANT TOPIC IN THE lELD OF RESEARCH 4HE AUTHORS STRESS THE FACT THAT IN ADDITION TO INSTITUTES OF RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY A GROWING NUMBER OF USABILITY TESTING LABORATORIES ARE BEING FOUNDED IN ORDER TO CARRY OUT USER STUDIES ON SOFT WARE DESIGN
%CONOMY
-ANY AUTHORS DEMAND THAT COMPANIES RESTRUCTURE THEIR ORGANIZATIONS TO REmECT THE SHIFT IN COM PUTER TECHNOLOGY FROM A FOCUS ON TECHNOLOGY TO A FOCUS ON THE USER 4ODAY THE PRODUCTION OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE SYSTEMS IS AN INTERDIS CIPLINARY AND ITERATIVE PROCESS THAT REQUIRES A HORIZONTAL RATHER THAN A HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION
0OLITICS
4HE AUTHORS WERE GUARDED IN THEIR STATEMENTS ABOUT POLITICS 4HE OUTDATED CONCEPT OF NATIONAL BORDERS IS DESCRIBED 4HE AUTHORS DEMAND INTERNATION ALLY BINDING STANDARDS AND THESE APPEAR TO BE IN THE MAKING &URTHERMORE THE AUTHORS HIGHLIGHT THE GREAT SIGNIlCANCE OF MILITARY ACTIVITIES IN THE DEVEL OPMENT OF MANY TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS RELATED TO THE COMPUTER
!UTHORS
/RIGINS %UROPEANS WROTE TWELVE OF THE WORKS UNDER STUDY
!NALYSIS 4HE LITERATURE UNDER STUDY PRESENTS VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT AND INCLUDES NOT ONLY HANDBOOKS WITH INTERFACE DESIGN GUIDELINES BUT ALSO SOCIO SCIENTIlC AND PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS ON THE NATURE OF INTERACTION DESIGN AND NEW MEDIA 4HIS BROAD SPECTRUM HAS MADE IT POSSIBLE TO SHOW AND DESCRIBE THE BASIC ISSUES AND DISCOURSES IN THE DISCIPLINE OF INTERACTION DESIGN $ESIGN
'IVEN ITS BRIEF EXISTENCE IT IS EASY TO UNDERSTAND WHY MANY WRITERS CHOOSE TO DISCUSS THE DISCIPLINES HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT %IGHT AUTHORS MENTION %NGELBART THE DEVELOPER OF THE COMPUTER MOUSE %LEVEN DESCRIBE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE -ACINTOSH DESKTOP
)N THE SOCIAL SPHERE THE WRITERS PRIMARILY DOCUMENT THE INNOVATIONS AWAITING US IN THE FUTURE AND THE EFFECTS THEY WILL HAVE ON TODAYS SOCIAL STRUCTURES 'ENDER IS RARELY AN ISSUE IN THE LITERATURE !LTHOUGH MORE THAN HALF THE AUTHORS WORK IN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM THEY DEVOTE LITTLE ENERGY TO EDUCA TIONAL CONTENT AND PROFESSIONAL ROLE lNDING
)NTERACTION $ESIGN $EFINITION AND 4ASKS #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER
3HNEIDERMAN 3EE ALSO *OHNSON .ORMAN 2ASKIN 3CHULMEISTER 7INOGRAD XIX 3EE "ROOKS (AASE ,AUREL .EGROPONTE &RIELING 4HALLER (ACKOS 2EDISH ,AUREL 0REECE ET AL AND 0ICARD !UTHORS ARE REFERRED TO NOT SPECIFIC WORKS 3OURCE SEE "ÓHLER 3OURCE 3TEFFEN 3OURCE 3CHELHOWE
'ENDER RATIO 7OMEN WROTE FOUR OF THE PUBLICA TIONS 0ROFESSIONAL BACKGROUND ! LARGE PERCENTAGE OF THE AUTHORS COME FROM THE NATURAL SCIENCES 4WELVE OF ARE ACTIVE IN THIS lELD PRIMARILY IN COMPUTER SCIENCE 3IX OF THE AUTHORS COME FROM THE SOCIAL SCI ENCES AND PHILOSOPHY 4WO AUTHORS STUDIED PSYCHOL OGY IN ADDITION TO COMPU TER SCIENCE AND ENGINEER ING &OUR COME FROM THE ARTS AND ART STUDIES #ROSS REFERENCES 3INCE INTERACTION DESIGN IS DOMI NATED BY A FEW BIG NAMES THE LARGE NUMBER OF CROSS REFERENCES SHOULD COME AS NO SURPRISE 4HE LEADERS OF THE PACK ARE .ORMAN WHO IS CITED IN TWELVE OF BOOKS AND ,AUREL AND 3HNEIDERMAN WHO ARE CITED IN SEVEN
3UMMARY )NFORMATION IS AT THE HEART OF TODAYS WORLD 4HE INCREASING AMOUNT OF DATA TOGETHER WITH DIGITAL ACCESS TO INFORMATION IS CHANG ING BOTH SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL .EW SOCIAL GROUPS ARE EMERGING ONLINE COMMUNITIES -5$S AND WE NOW PERCEIVE INFORMATION AS SPATIAL INFORMATION SPACE RATHER THAN LINEAR )N ORDER TO MANAGE THIS DELUGE OF INFORMATION WE REQUIRE AN AID THE COMPUTER 4HE COMPUTER ON THE ONE HAND SERVES AS A TOOL FOR PROCESSING AND EDITING INFORMA TION ON THE OTHER AS A MEDIUM THAT STORES AND TRANSPORTS IT 0EOPLE ARE SOCIAL BEINGS WHO SEARCH FOR MEANING IN THEIR LIVES AND ENGAGE IN AN EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION )N ORDER TO COMMUNICATE WITH OTHERS THEY NEED A TOOL NAMELY SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE 3YMBOLIC LAN GUAGE IS FAMILIAR TO ALL OF US IN THE FORM OF ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 9ET ARTIFACTS TOO CAN TRANSPORT MEANING VIA SIGNS (OWEVER PRODUCT LANGUAGE IS ONE SIDED AND GREATLY LIMITED )N ORDER TO DEAL WITH THE EVER INCREASING mOOD OF SIGNS ARTIFACTS MUST HAVE THE CAPACITY TO COM MUNICATE 4HIS HAS LED TO THE EMERGENCE OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA
4ECHNOLOGY ENABLES MACHINES TO RESPOND TO HUMAN SIGN COM MANDS AND TO GIVE USERS THE IMPRESSION THAT THEY ARE INTERACTING AND INVOLVED IN AN EXCHANGE PROCESS )N TRUTH THOUGH COMPUTERS AND HUMANS SPEAK DIFFERENT LANGUAGES 3PECIALISTS ARE REQUIRED TO RECON CILE THESE TWO SYSTEMS THROUGH MAN MACHINE INTERFACES )NTERACTION DESIGNERS PLAN AND DESIGN THIS PROCESS 4HE PROFESSION OF THE INTERAC TION DESIGNER CAN BE COMPARED TO THAT OF AN ARCHITECT IE TECHNICAL EXPERTISE IS JUST AS IMPORTANT AS KNOWLEDGE OF THE END USERS NEEDS !LTHOUGH THERE ARE GUIDELINES AND EVALUATION METHODS FOR INTERAC TIVE DESIGN ITS PRACTITIONERS MUST ALSO CONSIDER AESTHETIC FACTORS THAT ARE NOT RATIONALLY VERIlABLE /NLY THEN WILL THEY DO JUSTICE TO HUMAN BEINGS IN ALL THEIR COMPLEXITY #ULTURAL AGE RELATED EDUCATIONAL AND CLASS SPECIlC CHARACTERISTICS MUST BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT AS WELL 7E CAN IDENTIFY THREE FUNDAMENTAL AREAS OF WORK 4HE DESCRIPTION OF THE END USER AND THE DElNITION OF SYSTEMS CONTENT FUNCTIONALITY PAVE THE WAY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF WORK SCENARIOS AND THE IMPLE MENTATION OF THE ELABORATED CONCEPT $ESIGNERS MUST CONSTANTLY EVAL UATE AND ADAPT THESE TWO STEPS NEVER LOSING SIGHT OF THE POTENTIAL USERS 4HE FUTURE WILL BRING NEW FORMS OF ARTIFACTS AND SERVICES 4HE GOAL OF INTERACTION DESIGN IS NOT ONLY TO DESIGN THEM IN A USER FRIENDLY WAY BUT ALSO TO CREATE SUSTAINED AND MEANINGFUL SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTS
")/'2!0()%3
0HILIPP !CKERMANN 0HILIPP !CKERMANN STUDIED INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL ETHICS AT THE 5NI VERSITY OF :URICH %4( (E TOOK HIS DOCTORAL DEGREE AFTER WORKING AS A RESEARCH ASSISTANT UNDER 0ROFESSOR 0 3TUCKI 0H $ AT THE -ULTI-EDIA ,ABORATORY -R !CKERMANN HAS A SPECIAL INTEREST IN PRODUCT INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE INTERACTIVE SIMULATION AND INTERACTION DESIGN (E IS A LECTURER AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : -R !CKERMANN CO FOUNDED 0ERSPECTIX !' WHICH SPECIALIZES IN PRODUCT INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND PRODUCT CONlGURATION 4HE COMPANYS INNOVATIVE SOFTWARE SOLUTIONS HAVE WON A VARIETY OF AWARDS INCLUDING THE I& $ESIGN !WARD THE 3WISS 4ECHNOLOGY !WARD AND THE $ESIGN 0REIS 3CHWEIZ $ANIEL "ISIG $ANIEL "ISIG WAS BORN IN IN :URICH 3WITZERLAND (E STUDIED BIOLOGY AT THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUTE OF 4ECHNOLOGY IN :URICH AND RECEIVED A 0H$ IN PROTEIN CRYSTALLOGRAPHY IN &OR TWO YEARS AFTER THAT HE WORKED AS A 7EB DESIGNER AND TAUGHT 7EB DESIGN AND NEW MEDIA AT THE %" 7OLFBACH ADULT EDUCATION CENTER IN :URICH )N HE JOINED THE !RTIlCIAL )NTELLIGENCE ,ABORATORY AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF :URICH AS SENIOR RESEARCHER )N LATE HE CO FOUNDED THE h/KTOPUSv RESEARCH GROUP WITH INDUSTRIAL DESIGNER !NDREAS &ISCHER /KTOPUS EXPLORES THE INTERSECTION BETWEEN ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE ARTIlCIAL LIFE AND ART DESIGN !S PART OF THIS WORK -R "ISIG TEACHES A UNIVERSITY COURSE ON ART AND ARTIlCIAL INTELLIGENCE (E HAS BEEN COLLABORATING WITH THE ARTIST *ILL 3COTT ON hE3KIN v A MEDIA ART PROJECT SINCE EARLY
'ERHARD - "UURMAN 'ERHARD - "UURMAN STUDIED INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF %SSEN FROM TO EARNING HIS MASTERS DEGREE UNDER 0ROFESSOR 3TEFAN ,ENGYEL WITH THE THEORETICAL WORK h$ESIGN ALS DIALOGISCHES (ANDLUNGSFELDv $ESIGN AS A $IALOGIC &IELD OF !CTION )N HE COMPLETED A DISSERTATION ON ONLINE TECHNOLOGIES IN AUTOMOBILE DESIGN AT THE SAME UNIVERSITY !S A 0H $ CANDIDATE -R "UURMAN WORKED AS A RESEARCH ASSISTANT UNDER 0ROFESSOR (ORST -ERU AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF $ESIGN IN ,INZ !USTRIA WHERE IN HE WAS AWARDED A GUEST PROFESSORSHIP IN MEDIA TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN )N -R "UURMAN BEGAN LECTURING AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AND IN HE ESTABLISHED ITS INTERACTION DESIGN PROGRAM (E SET UP AN ADDITIONAL PROGRAM FOR GAME DESIGN IN n THE lRST OF ITS KIND IN THE 'ERMAN SPEAKING WORLD )N ADDITION TO PUBLISHING A BOOK NUMEROUS ESSAYS ARTICLES REVIEWS AND COMMENTARIES -R "UURMAN HAS HAS BEEN A GUEST LECTURE AT A VARIETY OF UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES IN 3WITZERLAND AND ABROAD (E IS A PARTNER AT 0,!3-!$%3)'. WHERE HE WORKS IN THE lELD OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA AND INDUSTRIAL DESIGN -R "UURMAN WAS BORN IN (AMBURG IN AND LIVES WITH HIS WIFE AND THREE CHILDREN IN #ONSTANCE 'ERMANY &ELIX %GGMANN &ELIX %GGMAN GRADUATED FROM THE &( $ESIGN IN WITH A CONCENTRATION IN NEW MEDIA )N INTERDISCIPLINARY PROJECTS %GGMANN DEVELOPED AND STAGED SOCIOCRITICAL COMPUTER GAMES AS PLAYABLE INSTALLATIONS THAT TRANS FORM VISITORS INTO TEST SUBJECTS AND GAMES INTO ARTIFACTS %XHIBITIONS h,OVE(EROES 'OTTA ,OVEt EM ALL v !NALOG $IGITAL &ESTIVAL 7INTERTHUR h,OVE (EROES 4AKE#AREv SIDE EVENT 4RANSMEDIALE "ERLIN + UNSTFABRIK "ERLIN h(ELLO 3HITTY 7ORLD v WITH -ICKRY 'RRRR -ARK $IVO h+ /%") -3UPER MAKET ,IVING THE -ACHINE v WITH -ICKRY 'RRRR -ARK $IVO 3AMMLUNG (AUSER AND 7IRTH 3T 'ALLEN h&!8"//4&/2#% "ECOME AN %NGINE OF /NE 2EACH 9OUR ,IMITS v WITH -AX 2HEINER !RS #AMPUS + UNSTUNIVERSITØT ,INZ h,OVE(ER OES 0ERSISTANT ,OVE v -ETAWORX TRAVELING EXHIBITION "ASLE 'ENEVA :URICH
*ÓRGEN &RITZ *ÓRGEN &RITZ IS A PROFESSOR AT #OLOGNE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCE $EPARTMENT OF !PPLIED 3OCIAL 3CIENCES AND DIRECTOR OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT h4HE %FFECTS OF 6IRTUAL 7ORLDSv (IS TEACHING lELDS ARE IN THE PEDAGOGY OF GAMES AND INTERACTION AND COMPLEX COMMUNICATION UNIVERSITY ADDRESS -AINZER 3TR #OLOGNE 7EBSITE WWWSWFH KOELNDEWVW -R &RITZS AREAS OF CONCENTRATION INCLUDE THE THEORY OF GAMES AND VIRTUAL GAMING WORLDS GAME PROCESSES IN GROUPS THE ANALYSIS OF COMPUTER GAMES FROM THE USERS PERSPECTIVE THE DEVELOPMENT OF GAMES FOR SOCIAL GROUPS AND TEAM PROCESSES AND TEAM DEVELOPMENT .ADIA 'ISLER .ADIA 'ISLER STUDIED ART EDUCATION AND COMPUTER ART AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : AND IN EARNED A DEGREE FROM THE 3CHOOL OF 6ISUAL !RT IN .EW 9ORK 3HE HAS LECTURED ON INTERACTIVE TIME BASED MEDIA AT THE ('+ : SINCE AND IS CURRENTLY WORKING ON A VARIETY OF DESIGN AND ART PROJECTS 3HEER CURIOSITY ABOUT A THEORETICAL PHYSICISTS PERCEPTION OF THE WORLD INDUCED HER TO COLLABORATE WITH !DRIAN -ÓLLER 2EGINE (ALTER 2EGINE (ALTER 0H $ STUDIED MEDIA PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF #OLOGNE !CTIVE AS A PLAYWRIGHT 3CHAUSPIEL &RANKFURT 46 AUTHOR AND JOURNALIST SHE IS ALSO A LECTURER AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF &RANKFURT A - NATIONAL DIRECTOR AND PROJECT DIRECTOR FOR $EUTSCHER 7ERKBUND E6 $7" &RANKFURT A - AND COLLABORATOR AUTHOR IN %UROPEAN RESEARCH PROJECTS 3INCE -S (ALTER HAS WORKED AT (YPER7ERK IN "ASEL IN THE PROGRAM FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF INTERACTIVE MEDIA IN WORK AND EDUCATION WHERE SHE IS A MEMBER OF THE PROGRAM COMMITTEE DIRECTOR OF PROGRAM PROJECTS AND LECTURER IN MEDIA THEORY 3HE CONTINUES TO LECTURE AND TEACH AT HOME AND ABROAD
"IOGRAPHIES
-ORTEN &JELD -ORTEN &JELD IS AN ASSISTANT PROFESSOR AT THE -AN -ACHINE )NTERACTION 'ROUP OF THE )NSTITUTE FOR (YGIENE AND !PPLIED 0HYSIOLOGY )(! WHICH IS PART OF THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUTE OF 4ECHNOLOGY %4( IN :URICH 3TARTING IN SPRING HE WILL SERVE AS ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR IN THE COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF #HALMERS 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY IN 'OTHENBURG 3WEDEN (E HAS WORKED AS AN ADJUNCT ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR AT THE INFORMATION SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF THE 5NIVERSITY OF "ERGEN .ORWAY (IS DISSERTATION n h$ESIGNING FOR 4ANGIBLE )NTERACTIONv n WON AN %4( -EDAL (IS RESEARCH WORK FOCUSES ON THE DESIGN AND USABILITY OF TANGIBLE USER INTERFACES COUPLED WITH AUGMENTED REALITY TECHNOLOGIES (E IS CURRENTLY GUEST EDITING A SPECIAL ISSUE OF THE )NTERNATIONAL *OURNAL OF (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION WHICH FOCUSES ON AUGMENTED REALITY USABILITY AND COLLABORATION (E TEACHES AND ADVISES GRADUATE STUDENTS AT SEVERAL UNIVERSITIES (IS WORK CAN BE VIEWED AT HTTPWWWFJELDCH -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD -ICHAEL &RIEDEWALD 0H $ STUDIED ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ECONOMICS AND THE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY AT 274( 5NIVERSITY IN !ACHEN )N HE EARNED HIS DOCTORATE WITH A DISSERTATION ON THE TECHNOLOGICAL AND INTELLECTUAL ROOTS OF PERSONAL COMPUTING AND MAN COMPUTER INTERACTION (IS DISSERTATION WON THE 2UDOLF + ELLERMANN !WARD PRESENTED BY THE !SSOCIATION OF 'ERMAN %NGINEERS FOR OUTSTANDING WORK IN THE lELD OF TECHNOLOGICAL HISTORY 3INCE &RIEDEWALD HAS SERVED AS A PROJECT DIRECTOR AT THE &RAUNHOFER )NSTITUTE FOR 3YSTEMS AND )NNOVATION 2ESEARCH IN + ARLSRUHE (IS RESEARCH FOCUSES ON MEDIA USE AND TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT IN PARTICULAR THE EVALUATION OF NEW MOBILE MULTIMEDIA SERVICES AND INTELLIGENT ENVIRONMENTS AMBIENT INTELLIGENCE
$ANIEL (UG $ANIEL (UG HAS AN EXTENSIVE BACKGROUND IN MUSIC SPECIALIZED IN CLASSICAL JAZZ DANCE AND LIVE ELECTRONICS (E GRADUATED FROM (YPER7ERK IN "ASEL IN AND IN HIS MASTERS THESIS h7ALLBRATION v HE SOUGHT TO CONNECT THE SPATIAL TEMPORAL AND SOCIAL DIMENSION OF SOUND IN AN INTERACTIVE CONTEXT h7ALLBRATIONv IS A SOUND INSTALLATION THAT ACOUSTICALLY LINKS TWO DISTANT ROOMS CREATING A VIRTUAL SOUNDSCAPE THAT EXISTS PARALLEL TO THE hREALv ONE 6IEWERS CAN MAKE THEIR OWN SOUNDS PART OF THE INSTALLATION AND LEAVE ACOUSTIC FOOTPRINTS #URRENTLY -R (UG IS WORKING AS A RESEARCH DIRECTOR IN THE %5 FUNDED PROJECT h3HOP,ABv WWWSHOPLAB INFO (E IS ALSO AN ASSISTANT AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : AND CO EDITOR OF 4OTAL )NTERACTION (E HAS GIVEN SEVERAL LECTURES ON THE TOPIC OF SOUND IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERACTION DESIGN IN 4AMPERE AND 2OVANIEMI &INLAND AND HAS TAUGHT A SEMINAR ENTITLED h-ANAGING THE $ESIGN 0ROCESSv AT (YPER7ERK "ASEL 0ATRICK *UCHLI 0ATRICK *UCHLI WORKS AS AN INTERACTION DESIGNER IN "ASEL 3WITZERLAND !FTER A TWO YEAR STINT STUDYING PHILOSOPHY AND 'ERMAN LITERATURE AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF "ASEL HE TRANSFERRED TO (YPER7ERK WHERE HE TOOK A DEGREE IN (IS WORK SPANS GRAPHIC DESIGN SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FOR COMMERCIAL SCIENTIlC AND ARTISTIC APPLICATIONS LIVE VIDEO PERFORMANCES DOCUMENTARIES SHORT MOVIES AS WELL AS INTERACTIVE INSTALLATIONS &OR FURTHER INFORMATION PLEASE VISIT HTTPWWWRESURFACETNET
"ERND +ERSTEN "ERND + ERSTEN IS A PERCEPTUAL PSYCHOLOGIST WHO HAS BEEN LIVING AND WORKING IN 3WITZERLAND SINCE (IS DISSERTATION EXAMINED THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PHYSICAL AND PHENOMENAL WORLD ON THE BASIS OF GEOMETRIC OPTICAL ILLUSIONS 5NIVERSITY OF &RANKFURT A - 'ERMANY )N HIS SYSTEMATIC STUDIES OF EYE MOVEMENT AND ATTENTION CONTROL HE HAS SOUGHT TO ANSWER SUCH QUESTIONS AS WHETHER WE ARE ABLE TO PERCEIVE THE WORLD ACCORDING TO OUR SEARCH INTENTION 5NIVERSITY OF "ERN 3WITZERLAND &OR SOME TIME NOW HE HAS BEEN INTERESTED IN THE HUMAN PERCEPTION OF BEAUTY AND ART (E TEACHES PERCEPTUAL PSYCHOLOGY AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF "ERN THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : AND THE )NTERNATIONAL #OLLEGE OF !RT 4HERAPY AND #REATIVE 0EDAGOGY IN #ALW 'ERMANY
2APHAEL 0ERRET 2APHAEL 0ERRET COMPLETED A DIPLOMA IN INTERACTION DESIGN AT THE (YPER7ERK IN "ASEL IN 3INCE THEN HE HAS WORKED ON VARIOUS PROJECTS INVOLVING THE DESIGN OF HARD AND SOFTWARE AS WELL AS PHYSICAL OBJECTS 4HE FOCUS OF HIS WORK IS ON THE CONNECTION BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL SPACE WITH A THEMATIC EMPHASIS ON THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN OF COMMUNICATION PROCESSES AND THEIR TECHNICAL REALIZATION (IS INSTALLATION $RESSCODE RECEIVED A COMMENDATION IN IN THE 3WISS &EDERAL $ESIGN #OMPETITION (E SPENT SIX MONTHS IN .EW 9ORK AND WAS A TRAINEE IN THE DESIGN DEPARTMENT OF 6ISIONARE AN ASSISTANT TO THE ELECTRONICS ARTIST *OHN + LIMA AND WORKED FOR THE AVANT GARDE FASHION DESIGNERS !S &OUR !T PRESENT HE IS AN ASSISTANT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERACTION DESIGN AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : &OR MORE INFORMATION SEE HTTPWWWSODELI -AX 2HEINER -AX 2HEINER STUDIED NEW MEDIA AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : BETWEEN AND (E IS CURRENTLY WORKING AS A RESEARCH ASSOCIATE IN THE INTERACTION DESIGN PROGRAM IN :URICH
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,EV -ANOVICH ,EV -ANOVICH WWWMANOVICHNET IS AN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR IN THE VISUAL ARTS DEPARTMENT OF THE 5NIVERSITY OF #ALIFORNIA 3AN $IEGO WHERE HE TEACHES NEW MEDIA ART AND THEORY (E IS THE AUTHOR OF 4HE ,ANGUAGE OF .EW -EDIA 4HE -)4 0RESS 4EKSTURA 2USSIAN %SSAYS ON 6ISUAL #ULTURE #HICAGO 5NIVERSITY 0RESS AS WELL AS A WIDE VARIETY OF ARTICLES THAT HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED IN COUNTRIES -R -ANOVICH WAS BORN AND STUDIED lNE ARTS ARCHITECTURE AND COMPUTER SCIENCE IN -OSCOW (E MOVED TO .EW 9ORK IN AND RECEIVED AN - ! IN COGNITIVE SCIENCE FROM .EW 9ORK 5NIVERSITY IN AND A 0H $ IN VISUAL AND CULTURAL STUDIES FROM THE 5NIVERSITY OF 2OCHESTER IN (IS 0H$ DISSERTATION h4HE %NGINEERING OF 6ISION FROM #ONSTRUCTIVISM TO #OMPUTERS v TRACES THE ORIGINS OF COMPUTER MEDIA RELATING IT TO THE S AVANT GARDE -ANOVICH HAS BEEN WORKING WITH COMPUTER MEDIA AS AN ARTIST COMPUTER ANIMATOR DESIGNER AND PROGRAMMER SINCE (IS ART PROJECTS INCLUDE SHORT lLMS THE lRST DIGITAL lLM PROJECT DESIGNED FOR THE 7EB CONCEPTUAL SOFTWARE FOR NAVIGATING TWENTIETH CENTURY HISTORY THE &REUD ,ISSITZKY .AVI GATOR AS WELL AS !NNA AND !NDY A STREAMING NOVEL (IS WORK HAS BEEN FEATURED AT MANY KEY INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS OF NEW MEDIA ART -ANOVICH HAS BEEN TEACHING NEW MEDIA ART SINCE (E HAS SERVED AS A GUEST PROFESSOR AT THE #ALIFORNIA )NSTITUTE OF THE !RTS 5#,! THE 5NIVERSITY OF !MSTERDAM 3TOCKHOLM 5NIVERSITY AND THE 5NIVERSITY OF !RT AND $ESIGN (ELSINKI !DRIAN -ÓLLER !DRIAN -ÓLLER HOLDS A DOCTORAL DEGREE IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS AND IS CURRENTLY EMPLOYED AT THE #ENTER FOR %NERGY 0OLICY AND %CONOMICS AT THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUTE OF 4ECHNOLOGY IN :URICH (E WORKS ON ISSUES RELATING TO ENERGY AND POVERTY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AS WELL AS ELECTRICITY MARKET DEREGULATION (IS BROAD INTEREST IN PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS INSPIRED HIM TO COLLABORATE WITH .ADIA 'ISLER ON THIS EXPERIMENT WHICH DOCUMENTS THE INTERACTION BETWEEN AN ARTIST AND A SCIENTIST
.ORBERT - 3CHMITZ .ORBERT - 3CHMITZ 0H $ 0ROFESSOR OF !ESTHETICS AT THE -UTHESIUS #OLLEGE OF !RT AND $ESIGN IN + IEL IS A SCHOLAR OF AESTHETICS AND THE MEDIA (E HOLDS TEACHING POSITIONS AT UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF ART IN 7UPPERTAL "OCHUM ,INZ AND :URICH -R 3CHMITZS lELDS OF INQUIRY INCLUDE THE INTERMEDIALITY OF THE lNE ARTS AND lLM ICONOLOGY OF OLD AND NEW MEDIA DISCOURSE HISTORY OF THE AESTHETIC SYSTEM AND METHODOLOGY OF MODERN "ILDWISSENSCHAFT 0UBLICATIONS +UNST UND 7ISSENSCHAFT IM :EICHEN DER -ODERNE 7EIMAR -OST RECENTLY h"EWEGUNG ALS SYMBOLISCHE &ORM v IN âBER "ILDER 3PRECHEN 0OSITIONEN UND 0ERSPEKTIVEN DER -EDIENWISSENSCHAFTEN ED ( " (ELLER ET AL -ARBURG P n h$ER &ILM DER KLASSISCHEN !VANTGARDE ODER DIE GESCHEITERTE !UTONOMIE DES + INOS v IN !UFBRUCH INS *AHRHUNDERT âBER !VANTGARDEN 3ONDERBAND 4EXT + RITIK )8 ED ( , !RNOLD -UNICH "OORBERG P n h-EDIALITØT ALS ØSTHETISCHE 3TRATEGIE DER -ODERNE n :UR $ISKURSGESCHICHTE DER -EDIENKUNSTv IN &ORMEN INTERAKTIVER -EDIENKUNST ED 0 'ENDOLLA . - 3CHMITZ ) 3CHNEIDER 0 3PANGENBERG &RANKFURT 3UHRKAMP P n h$IE "IOLOGIE DER -IMESIS ALS $ISKURS DER -ODERNE n %VOLUTIONSTHEORETISCHE 6ORAUSSETZUNGEN GEGENSTØNDLICHER 7AHRNEHMUNGv IN &ILM UND 0SYCHOLOGIE n NACH DER KOGNITIVEN 0HASE ED * 3ELLMER AND ( * 7ULFF 3CHRIFTENREIHE DER '&- -ARBURG 3CHÓREN #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER #AROLINE 3CHUBIGER MAJORED IN MEDIA AND COMMUN ICATION SCIENCES AND ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE $EPARTMENT OF 3OCIAL 3CIENCES AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF &RIBOURG 3WITZERLAND 3HE ALSO EARNED A DEGREE IN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : -S 3CHUBIGER IS A JOURNALIST FOR SEVERAL MAGAZINES FOR INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AND DESIGN THEORY AND IS CURRENTLY WORKING ON DIFFERENT PROJECTS IN THE lELD OF CONTEXTUALIZED DESIGN STRATEGIES EXAMINING GLOBAL AND REGIONAL TENDENCIES IN PRODUCT DESIGN
*ÓRGEN 3PØTH *ÓRGEN 3PØTH STUDIED VISUAL DESIGN AT THE 3CHWØBISCH 'MÓND 5NIVERSITY OF $ESIGN !FTER SEMESTERS ABROAD IN *APAN AND THE 53! HE EARNED HIS DEGREE WITH THE THESIS h+ RYPTHØSTHESIE IN VERNETZTEN 3YSTEMENv )N HE CO FOUNDED THE DESIGN STUDIO 0ROJEKTTRIANGLE )NFORMATIONDESIGN TOGETHER WITH $ANIJELA $JOKIC AND -ARTIN 'ROTHMAAK 4HE STUDIO DEVELOPS NEW FORMS OF CULTURAL EXPRESSION AND COMMUNICATION FOCUSING ON ANALOG AND DIGITAL MEDIA )TS MEMBERS HAVE WON MANY AWARDS AND CONTRIBUTED TO A VARIETY OF MAGAZINES AND BOOKS 3PØTH HAS SERVED AS A GUEST LECTURER AT DIFFERENT UNIVERSITIES AND GIVEN TALKS AT MANY CONFERENCES )N HE WAS APPOINTED ASSISTANT PROFESSOR AT THE )!$ )NTERACTION $ESIGN PROGRAM AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : (E IS RESPONSIBLE FOR BASIC DESIGN THEORY AND CREATIVE ASPECTS OF PROJECT STUDIES (IS WORK CAN BE VIEWED AT HTTPWWWPROJEKTTRIANGLECOM 0ETER 4ROXLER 0ETER 4ROXLER IS A -EMBER OF THE TEACHING STAFF AT :URICH 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES 7INTERTHUR TEACHING lELDS DATA STRUCTURES ALGORITHMS AND ROBOTICS CO FOUNDED THE CORPORATION BRAINS TO VENTURES WITH FOUR PARTNERS MEMBER OF THE BOARD n CO FOUNDED AND ORGANIZED THE 34!24BIOTECH FORUM AT THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUTE OF 4ECHNOLOGY %4( IN :URICH 4HE FORUM PROVIDES INFORMATION ON STARTUPS IN THE BIOTECHNOLOGY SECTOR n RESEARCH ASSOCIATE AT THE )NSTITUTE OF %NGINEERING AND #ONSTRUCTION )NSTITUT FÓR + ONSTRUKTION UND "AUWEISEN AT THE %4( IN :URICH ESTABLISHED THE ALUMNI ORGANIZATION 'ESELLSCHAFT EHEMALIGER *UNGFORSCHER n 3TUDIES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE %4( IN :URICH 4ERM PAPERS AT THE )NSTITUTE OF 2OBOTICS AND THE !UTOMATIC #ONTROL ,ABORATORY MASTERS THESIS ENTITLED 4EMPLATEBASIERENDES $ETEKTIONSMODUL ZUR !USWERTUNG VON -2 4AGGING !UFNAHMEN 4EMPLATE "ASED $ETECTION -ODULE FOR THE %VALUATION OF -2 4AGGING )MAGES AT THE )NSTITUTE OF "IOMEDICAL %NGINEERING AFlLIATED WITH THE 5NIVERSITY OF :URICH AND THE %4( IN :URICH
#HRISTIAN 7EBER #HRISTIAN 7EBER WAS BORN IN IN :URICH 3WITZERLAND (E STUDIED INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH ('+ : )N HE BEGAN WORKING PART TIME AS ASSISTANT RESEARCHER IN THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUT OF 4ECHNOLOGY :URICH %4(: IN THE lELD OF 2EHABILITATION 2OBOTICS AND 7EARABLE #OMPUTING 3INCE -R 7EBER HAS BEEN TEACHING AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH IN THE )NTERACTION $ESIGN 0ROGRAM (E IS LIKEWISE A PARTNER AT 0,!3-!$%3)'. :URICH 4HE COMPANY SPEZIALIZES IN WEARABLE COMPUTING AND HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION SOLUTIONS 7ORK EXAMPLES CAN BE VIEWED AT HTTPWWWPLASMADESIGNCH
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"ENEDIKT 6OEGTLI "ENEDIKT 6OEGTLI WORKS AS A SCIENTIlC ENGINEER FOR -#,AB 'MB( WHERE HE IS CURRENTLY INVOLVED IN TWO %UROPEAN RESEARCH PROJECTS ON NEW )NTERNET TECHNOLOGIES AND QUALITY OF SERVICE ISSUES (E EARNED A DEGREE IN INTERACTION MANAGEMENT FROM THE 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES "ASEL AND CONTRIBUTED TO A NUMBER OF INTERDISCIPLINARY PROJECTS DURING HIS STUDIES )N HIS WORK ON INTERACTIVE )NTERNET BASED COMMUNITY RADIO WAS NOMINATED FOR THE %UROPRIX HTTPWWWEUROPRIXORG )N HIS MASTERS THESIS -R 6OEGTLI DEVELOPED A SYSTEM THAT USES $ TANGIBLE USER INTERFACES FOR CHEMISTRY EDUCATION !UGMENTED #HEMISTRY (E IS CURRENTLY CONDUCTING USABILITY STUDIES FOR !UGMENTED #HEMISTRY IN AN APPLIED RESEARCH PROJECT 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ 3TEFFEN 0 7ALZ IS A QUALITATIVE SOCIAL SCIENTIST MUSICIAN AND GAME DESIGN THEORIST PRACTITIONER WHO HOLDS AN - ! IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY FROM THE 5NIVERSITY OF 4ÓBINGEN 'ERMANY (E IS A DOCTORAL CANDIDATE AT THE 3WISS &EDERAL )NSTITUTE OF 4ECHNOLOGY :URICH %4( $EPARTMENT OF !RCHITECTURE WHERE HE INVESTIGATES THE RHETORIC OF DIGITAL GAMES AS WELL AS THE HISTORY OF TECHNOLUDIC SPACE TIME -R 7ALZ IS A FELLOW OF THE !#4,AB 5NIVERSITY OF 4EXAS IN !USTIN 53! &ORMERLY A CREATIVE DIRECTOR IN A SUCCESSFUL NEW MEDIA AGENCY -R 7ALZ NOW WORKS AS A LECTURER RESEARCHER IN THE lELD OF GAME DESIGN AT A NUMBER OF SCHOOLS INCLUDING THE 5NIVERSITY OF 3TUTTGART 'ERMANY AND 5NIVERSITY FOR !PPLIED 3CIENCES 7INTERTHUR 3WITZERLAND -R 7ALZ IS CO INITIATOR AND COFOUNDER OF THE 'AME $ESIGN " ! STUDY PROGRAM AT ('+ : (E RUNS THE CONVERGENT MEDIA CONSULTING lRM PLAYBE WHICH SERVES INTERACTIVE ENTERTAINMENT DEVELOPERS AND PUBLISHERS WORLDWIDE
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,INKS AND )NFORMATIONS ABOUT )NTERACTION $ESIGN AND RELATED TOPICS 4HE SUBSEQUENT LINKS LEAD TO RELEVANT SUBJECT AREAS AND ARE ORIENTED TO THE LOGICS OF THE OVERVIEW ELABORATED ON IN THE INTRODUCTION 4HESE LINKS FORM A SELF CONTAINED CONTRIBUTION TO THE PRESENT BOOK )N THE FOLLOWING CHAPTERS FURTHER INFORMATION AND LINKS CAN BE FOUND %DUCATION HTTPINTERACTIONHGKZCH )NTERACTION $ESIGN ('+ :URICH )NTERACTION $ESIGN 0ROGRAM HTTPGAMEDESIGNHGKZCH )NTERACTION $ESIGN ('+ :URICH 'AME $ESIGN 0ROGRAM HTTPWWWSNM HGKZCH .EW -EDIA ('+ :URICH HTTPWWWHYPERWERKCH (YPER7ERK &( BEIDER "ASEL HTTPWWWFHBBCHVIS?COM &( BEIDER "ASEL 6ISUAL #OMMUNICATION HTTPWWWCULTTPUFI 4AMPERE 0OLYTECHNIC 3CHOOL OF !RT AND -EDIA HTTPWWWDHUMUSE 5MEA )NSTITUTE OF $ESIGN HTTPWWWUIAHFI 5NIVERSITY OF !RT AND $ESIGN (ELSINKI HTTPWWWINTERACTION IVREAIT )NTERACTION $ESIGN )NSTITUTE )VREA HTTPWWWMEDIAMITEDU -)4 \ -EDIA ,ABORATORY HTTPWWWHCIICSCMUEDU (UMAN #OMPUTER )NTERACTION )NSTITUTE #ARNEGIE -ELLON HTTPWWWINTERACTIONDESIGNQUTEDUAU !USTRALASIAN #ENTRE FOR )NTERACTION $ESIGN HTTPWWWHYPERISLANDSE (YPER )SLAND 3CHOOL /F .EW -EDIA $ESIGN 3WEDEN HTTPWWWINTERACTIONRCAACUK )NTERACTION $ESIGN THE 2OYAL #OLLEGE OF !RT 5+ HTTPWWWIEDIT )STITUTO %UROPEO DI $ESIGN HTTPWWWDESIGNFH POTSDAMDE &( 0OTSDAM )NTERFACE $ESIGN ,ABORATORIES HTTPWWWKURZWEILAINET (OME OF 2AY + URZWEIL|S !).ET HTTPWWWMEDIALABASIAORG -EDIA ,AB !SIA HTTPGUIRBERKELEYEDU "ERKELEY 'ROUP FOR 5SER )NTERFACE 2ESEARCH HTTPWWWHITLWASHINGTONEDU (UMAN )NTERFACE 4ECHNOLOGY ,AB 7ASHINGTON HTTPWWWHITLABNZORG (UMAN )NTERFACE 4ECHNOLOGY ,AB .EW :EALAND HTTPACGMEDIAMITEDU -)4 !ESTHETICS #OMPUTATION 'ROUP HTTPINTERACTIVITYSTANFORDEDU 3TANFORD )NTERACTIVITY ,AB HTTPWWWDESIGNPHILIPSCOM 0HILIPS $ESIGN ,AB HTTPWWWCSLSONYCOJP), 3ONY )NTERACTION ,AB HTTPWWWMEDIALABEUROPEORG -EDIA ,AB %UROPE HTTPMLABUIAHFI 5)!( -EDIA ,AB (ELSINKI HTTPWWWAECAT !23 %LECTRONICA &5452%,!" HTTPWTIISE )NTERACTIVE )NSTITUTE 3WEDEN HTTPPLAYTIISE 0,!9 2ESEARCH 3TUDIO HTTPWWWIMKFRAUNHOFERDE &RAUNHOFER )NSTITUTE FOR -EDIA #OMMUNICATION HTTPWWWSMARTLABCENTRECOM 3-!24LAB #ENTRE
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ACCESSIBILITY ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION ACOUSTIC SIGNALS AMBIENT INTERFACES ANIMATION APPLIED SCIENCE ART AUGMENTED REALITY BEAUTY BODY LANGUAGE CALCULATING MACHINE COMMUNICATION DESIGN COGNITION COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY COMPLEX SYSTEM COMPLEXITY COMPUTER GAMES COMPUTER SCIENCE COMPUTER SIMULATION CODIFICATION OF IMAGES NUM£ROTISATION CONCEPT MODEL CONFIDENCE DADA DESIGN COMPETITIONS DESIGN GUIDELINES DETERMINISM DIDACTIC DIGITAL MEDIA DISTANT PROXIMITY
EDUCATION ELECTRONIC GADGETRY EMOTIONAL INTERACTIONS ENGINEERING ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING %20 EVALUATION EVERYDAY LIFE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMMING FEEDBACK FORGETTING FRAMING COMPETENCE GAME CONSOLES GAME DESIGN GENERATIVE ART GENERATIVE DESIGN GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE GRAPHIC PROGRAMMING HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION HUMAN NEEDS HYBRID REALITY HYPERTEXT INDUSTRIAL DESIGN )NFINEON 4ECHNOLOGIES !' INFORMATION SOCIETY INSTRUMENT INTELLIGENT AGENTS
)NDEX
% & ' ( )
, -
INTERACTION INTERACTION DESIGN INTERACTIVE MEDIA INTERACTIVE SYSTEM INTERFACE DESIGN INTERFACE METAPHOR INTERACTIVE SIMULATION ,EGO -INDSTORM LIFELESS OBJECTS MASS CUSTOMIZATION MASS MEDIA MEANING MEDIA DESIGN MEDIA THEORY MEDIUM METAPHOR MENTAL MODEL MECHATRONICS MEMORY MINIATURIZATION MOBILE GAMING
MOBILE PHONES MOBILITY MOVING SIGNS MULTIMODAL INTERACTION MULTI PLAYER MULTI USER GAMING NARRATIVE NON LINEARITY /.EILL PARALLELISM PERCEPTION 0HILIPS PRINT POTENTIALITY PRODUCTION PROCESSES PROTOTYPING PROXIMATE DISTANCE QUALITATIVE SOCIAL SCIENCES REALITY CONSTRUCTION REAL WORLD REDUNDANCY REMEMBERING REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE REPRODUCIBILITY
)NDEX
. / 0 1 2
3 4
RESISTANCE ROBOTS ROBOTICS SCHEMATA SCRIPT SELF ORGANIZATION SENSORS SIGN SIGN STRUCTURE SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT SOCIAL INTERACTION SOCIAL FACTOR SOUND SOUNDSCAPE SONIFICATION 3TELARC STORAGE MEDIA SYMBOLIC OBJECTS SYNTHESIZER SYSTEM THEORY TANGIBLE ARTIFACTS TANGIBLE USER INTERFACES TECHNICIZED SENSORY APPARATUS TECHNO CULTURES TELEMATIC GESTURE 4HE (UB THE RETURN OF THE RICH CLIENT TRANSFER TRANSFER LEVEL TRANSFORMATION
UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING USER EXPERIENCE USER MODEL VIRTUAL AGENTS VIRTUAL SPACE VIRTUAL WORLD VISION OF THE FUTURE VISUAL CULTURE VISUAL DESIGN VISUAL PERCEPTION WALKMAN WEARABLE COMPUTING
)NDEX
5 6 7
4HIS PUBLICATION WAS KINDLY SUPPORTED BY 5NIVERSITY OF !PPLIED 3CIENCES AND !RTS :URICH $EPARTMENT OF $ESIGN 4RANSLATION INTO %NGLISH !DAM "LAUHUT "ERLIN WITH + ATHRYN !BBOTT "ERLIN *OSEPH /$ONNELL "ERLIN $ONNELL 2EED "ERLIN 3USAN % 2ICHTER "ERLIN -ARK 7ALZ -ALLORCA "OOK $ESIGN *ÓRGEN 3PØTH 0ROJEKTTRIANGLE 3TUTTGART $ESPITE INTENSIVE RESEARCH THE EDITORS HAVE BEEN UNABLE TO lND ALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNERS BUT UPON RECEIVING THE APPROPRIATE INFORMATION ARE PREPARED TO SETTLE LEGAL CLAIMS WITHIN THE USUAL LIMITS ! #)0 CATALOGUE RECORD FOR THIS BOOK IS AVAILABLE FROM THE ,IBRARY OF #ONGRESS 7ASHINGTON $# 53! "IBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION PUBLISHED BY $IE $EUTSCHE "IBLIOTHEK $IE $EUTSCHE "IBLIOTHEK LISTS THIS PUBLICATION IN THE $EUTSCHE .ATIONALBIBLIOGRAlE DETAILED BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA IS AVAILABLE ON THE )NTERNET AT HTTPDNBDDBDE 4HIS WORK IS SUBJECT TO COPYRIGHT !LL RIGHTS ARE RESERVED WHETHER THE WHOLE OR PART OF THE MATERIAL IS CONCERNED SPECIlCALLY THE RIGHTS OF TRANSLATION REPRINTING RE USE OF ILLUSTRATIONS RECITATION BROADCASTING REPRODUCTION ON MICROlLMS OR IN OTHER WAYS AND STORAGE IN DATA BASES &OR ANY KIND OF USE PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER MUST BE OBTAINED Ú "IRKHØUSER n 0UBLISHERS FOR !RCHITECTURE 0/ "OX #( "ASEL 3WITZERLAND 0ART OF 3PRINGER 3CIENCE "USINESS -EDIA 0UBLISHING 'ROUP 0RINTED ON ACID FREE PAPER PRODUCED OF CHLORINE FREE PULP 4#& 0RINTED IN 'ERMANY )3". )3".
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