Tourism and hospitality management in the Caribbean

ISSN 0959-6119

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Volume 15, Number 3, 2003

Tourism and hospitality management in the Caribbean Guest Editor: Chandana Jayawardena

Contents

134 Access this journal online 135 Abstracts & keywords

Research in brief 176 Performance of tourism analysis: a Caribbean perspective Chandana Jayawardena and Diaram Ramajeesingh

138 Editorial 140 Developing indigenous tourism: challenges for the Guianas Donald Sinclair

Research in brief 180 The state and tourism: a Caribbean perspective Hilton McDavid and Diaram Ramajeesingh

147 Towards an alternative tourism for Belize Ian Boxill

151 Cuba: hero of the Caribbean? A profile of its tourism education strategy Pat Wood and Chandana Jayawardena

156 The future of hospitality education in Grenada Michelle L. McDonald and Royston O. Hopkin

161 Internal marketing of attitudes in Caribbean tourism

Viewpoint 184 Tourism, linkages, and economic development in Jamaica Nikolaos Karagiannis

Viewpoint 188 Policy coherence and sustainable tourism in the Caribbean Anthony Clayton

Viewpoint 192 Terrorism and tourism: Bahamas and Jamaica fight back Godfrey Pratt

Anne P. Crick

167 The ‘‘all-inclusive’’ concept in the Caribbean

Viewpoint 195 International hotel managers and key Caribbean challenges Chandana Jayawardena and K. Michael Haywood

John J. Issa and Chandana Jayawardena

Research in brief 172 The feasibility of Sabbath-keeping in the Caribbean hospitality industry

199 Book reviews

Eritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid

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Abstracts & keywords

Developing indigenous tourism: challenges for the Guianas

Cuba: hero of the Caribbean? A profile of its tourism education strategy

Donald Sinclair

Pat Wood and Chandana Jayawardena

Keywords Tourism, Comparative costs, Cultural synergy, Innovation, Guyana, Suriname

Keywords Cuba, Hospitality industry, Tourism, Workforce, Education, Vocational training

As emergent tourism destinations, the Guianas are new players in a game in which rules have been agreed, strategies defined and competition has been intense. New players succeed by demonstrating creativity and innovation and by seizing comparative advantage. The possession of unique natural attractions, the presence of indigenous communities or rare cultural forms are all precious resources commanding comparative advantage for the Guianas. However, because of the special character of indigenous tourism, development of that form of tourism is not possible without the articulation and implementation of appropriate policy measures. In the absence of that policy infrastructure the possibilities for error and conflict are immense. This paper explores the key challenges in the path of the development of indigenous tourism and suggests clear policy guidelines that should inform the development of indigenous tourism in the pursuit of comparative advantage.

Towards an alternative tourism for Belize Ian Boxill Keywords Development, Tourism, Culture, Location, Education, Belize

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] Abstracts & keywords # MCB UP Limited [ISSN 0959-6119]

This paper argues that tourism development in Belize should avoid going the traditional mass tourism route of most Caribbean destinations. Instead, it suggests that Belize is at the appropriate stage in its development to forge an alternative model, which draws and builds on its geographical location, history, culture and ecology. In making this case, the paper identifies a number of limiting and facilitating factors to tourism development. These facilitating factors recommend the alternative model. Specifically, the alternative model includes nature, education and community tourism; and a type of cruise tourism that is linked to education and culture. For this effort to succeed, the paper recommends that government and civil society work together to develop the country’s human resources and to structure a strategy to achieve the goals.

Features a realistic perspective of the current hospitality and tourism paradigm in Cuba. Previews the newly released hospitality and tourism education strategy to be rolled out in 2003. Provides an evaluation of the tourism and hospitality industry environment, education environment, workforce and change in policy. The authors made three research trips to Cuba in 1997, 2001 and 2002. A series of elite interviews were conducted in Cuba, Jamaica and the UK with senior Cuban policy makers. Current data and views from Cuban partners and practitioners are used to inform the discussion. Cuba continues to be one of the most mystical tourist destinations in the world with a phenomenal growth rate during recent years. The new tourism education strategy is a key for Cuba to once again become the number one destination in the Caribbean.

The future of hospitality education in Grenada Michelle L. McDonald and Royston O. Hopkin Keywords Grenada, Hospitality management, Human resource development, Tourism, Stakeholders, Curriculum The quality of hospitality education is a topical issue. It is being increasingly realised that the education level of tourism employees impacts on the quality of a country’s tourism industry. As the most tourism-oriented region globally, the Caribbean is slowly awakening to the realisation that, unless its tourism employees are highly educated and skilled, the region will continue to account for an insignificant percentage of world tourism arrivals. In Grenada, hospitality education courses are limited, given the small tourism plant and comparatively low visitor arrivals. Research was undertaken by one of the authors, to explore the opinions of the accommodation sector about current education provisions and the future direction that courses should take. Integration of all stakeholders in the implementation of the broad education policy outlined by the government is crucial to improving hospitality education in Grenada to ensure a competitive tourism industry.

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Abstracts & keywords International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 135-137

Internal marketing of attitudes in Caribbean tourism Anne P. Crick Keywords Tourism, Attitudes, Caribbean, Internal marketing, Market share Tourism is the mainstay of the Caribbean and the attitude of the people in the region may have a significant impact on the success of the industry. This paper analyzes the way in which tourism authorities of three Caribbean destinations have internally marketed tourism to their host populations in order to encourage the desired attitudinal expressions. A matrix of five possible responses to tourism was developed and each of the three countries was found to occupy different positions in the matrix. An analysis of the internal marketing strategies determined that the countries adopted different approaches based on their particular challenges but none of the approaches had achieved lasting success. The study concludes with recommendations for future research.

The ‘‘all-inclusive’’ concept in the Caribbean John J. Issa and Chandana Jayawardena Keywords Holiday industry, Tourism, Quality, Caribbean, Hotels, Hospitality industry Seeks to review the all-inclusive concept in the context of the Caribbean. The origin of all-inclusives in the world and the Caribbean is analysed. The concept was first introduced in holiday camps in Britain during the 1930s. Club Med is credited for popularizing the concept globally in the 1950s. However, the credit of introducing a luxury version of the all-inclusive concept goes to a Jamaican hotelier and co-author of this article. In defining the concept of all-inclusives, one cannot ignore the significant role Jamaica has played. Currently, Jamaica has 17 of the best 100 all-inclusive resorts in the world. Even though all-inclusives are occasionally criticized, they are seen as a necessary evil. Concludes by predicting that all-inclusives are here to stay in the Caribbean and will play a major role in tourism for the foreseeable future.

The feasibility of Sabbath-keeping in the Caribbean hospitality industry Eritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid Keywords Tourism, Hospitality, Religion, Hospitality industry, Hotels, Holiday industry This article addresses religious tolerance for Sabbath-keepers in the hospitality industry. The authors approach this issue by assessing

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the perception of managers in the Jamaican tourism industry on this topic. A major finding was that managers are reluctant to employ persons who have a strong desire to observe the Sabbath. The researchers also discovered that the law does not provide specific provisions to protect the rights of Sabbath-keepers. Managers are, however, willing to make arrangements to facilitate these individuals whenever possible. This augurs well for students of hospitality management who desire to observe the Sabbath. More research on this topic is needed since this study is by no means exhaustive.

Performance of tourism analysis: a Caribbean perspective Chandana Jayawardena and Diaram Ramajeesingh Keywords Analysis, Foreign exchange, Growth, Tourism, Financial performance, Revenue Introduces a new concept, performance of tourism (POT) analysis as a tool for measuring the performance of tourist destinations. Comments on the Caribbean region’s overdependence on tourism, and examines the scope of foreign exchange leakage. Tourism in the Caribbean generally grows faster than the world average. Often the success of tourism is measured from the gross figures rather than the net figures. Presents data from four Caribbean countries, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Jamaica and St Lucia to explain the concept. Key findings reflect surprising results. Based on the analysis done, a relatively new tourism destination in the Caribbean, Aruba, has outperformed mature tourist destination, Jamaica, by 16 to one.

The state and tourism: a Caribbean perspective Hilton McDavid and Diaram Ramajeesingh Keywords Tourism, Developing countries, Economic conditions, Regional development, Government, Economic growth Tourism, today, has not only emerged as the engine of growth but also become the largest and the fastest growing sector in the Caribbean. For this reason the industry is now viewed as one of the leading instruments of development in the region. Given the importance of the industry, it is incumbent on governments to orient tourism growth towards meeting the socioeconomic needs and environmental requirements of the region. To meet these objectives, however, regional governments are required to play a greater role in directing and shaping the

Abstracts & keywords International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 135-137

future development of the industry. This paper strongly argues in favour of a greater role in the industry, both through direct and indirect market intervention, by governments of the region.

Tourism, linkages, and economic development in Jamaica Nikolaos Karagiannis Keywords Development, Strategic planning, Jamaica, Tourism, Industrial performance, Economic indicators This article offers, briefly, a production-oriented development framework for Jamaica, based on growth-promoting linkages between tourism, commodity production sectors, and complementary and related service industries. These linkages can boost the Jamaican endogenous competency and industrial competitiveness, while improving the country’s macroeconomic performance. Alternative development policy considerations are also within the scope of this article.

Policy coherence and sustainable tourism in the Caribbean Anthony Clayton Keywords Sustainable development, Tourism, Policy management, Growth, Economic conditions, Environmental risk assessment The common failure to give due weight to environmental and social factors creates a risk that that short-term economic growth objectives may be traded off against long-term objectives, such as environmental quality. This potential policy conflict may be exacerbated in the developing countries that are undergoing structural adjustment, as the associated trimming of non-core public expenditure will typically include measures designed to manage the environment. Thus the long-term future of the vital tourist industry might be compromised in the process of meeting short-term public expenditure reduction targets. The solution lies partly in improved policy coherence; micro-level prescriptions are more likely to be sustainable per se and also help to underpin a wider process of sustainable development if the appropriate policy framework is analysed and evolved integrally, as part of a coherent national plan. The need, therefore, is for an appropriate, flexible structure that could capture the business, environmental and developmental aspects of tourism.

Terrorism and tourism: Bahamas and Jamaica fight back Godfrey Pratt Keywords Tourism, Competitive advantage, Terrorism, Economic growth, Bahamas, Jamaica This study highlights the fragility of the tourism industry in developing countries. The overdependence of the Bahamas on the tourism industry, for economic development, is brought into focus here. The adroit efforts of the directors of tourism for both the Bahamas and Jamaica are highlighted. Both governments saw the need to immediately fund a revised marketing and advertising campaign, in the aftermath of 9/11. An important factor in the recovery of both destinations is the extent to which a coalition of public and private sector tourism stakeholders in both countries committed themselves to resolving the crisis quickly at hand. The commitment of the public and private sector in these countries, to safeguarding and promoting this industry probably positively correlated to the importance of the industry to the economy of the countries, as evidenced by tourism’s contribution to their GDP.

International hotel managers and key Caribbean challenges Chandana Jayawardena and K. Michael Haywood Keywords Hotels, Management styles, Tourism, Managers, Ethnic groups, International trade Broadly categorises hotel managers. Uses lessons learnt by managing hotels in the Caribbean. Presents two recent models in the context of the Caribbean. States that clear awareness of the ‘‘ABC’’ related to the host community is a key step in public relations. Presents the ideal attributes and prerequisites for success in international hotel management in a nutshell. Categorises Caribbean countries based on the ethnic mix and historic reasons for negative attitude towards tourism. Expresses views on key challenges that expatriate hotel managers face in the Caribbean. In conclusion, makes brief recommendations to international hotel managers planning to work in the Caribbean.

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Editorial

About the Guest Editor Chandana Jayawardena is Academic Director – MSc in Tourism and Hospitality Management, Senior Lecturer in Tourism Management and Research Fellow of the University of the West Indies, Jamaica. He has also held Visiting Professorships in Canada, the USA, Guyana, the UK, Switzerland and Sri Lanka. Among Chandi’s publications and work accepted for publication are nine books, ten book chapters and 30 articles. In an international career spanning 31 years, Chandi has held a variety of senior management/senior academic positions in Asia, Europe, the Middle East, South America, the Caribbean and North America.

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 138-139 # MCB UP Limited [ISSN 0959-6119]

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I am delighted to welcome Associate Editor Dr Chandana Jayawardena as Guest Editor of this unique collection of articles on ‘‘Tourism and Hospitality Management in the Caribbean’’. In keeping with our goals, Chandi has assembled an outstanding team of practitioners and academics and together they provide a rich array of insights on the challenges facing tourism in the region. I should like to thank Chandi for the many months of planning that he devoted to this issue and the team of contributors who have made it possible. Richard Teare Editor This issue is dedicated to the Caribbean, arguably the most tourism dependent region in the world. The Caribbean is a fascinating and unique region. An archipelago of tropical islands naturally decorated with exotic flora and fauna, surrounded by blue sea water and gentle breezes, and blessed with 365 days of sunshine is the general impression of the region in the minds of many. This image made the Caribbean the most sought after region for romantic holidays and honeymoons in the world. But the Caribbean has much more to offer to the millions of tourists and cruise passengers it attracts (Jayawardena, 2002). For convenience, the term ‘‘Caribbean’’ is used in this special issue to identify 33 destinations that are members of the umbrella organization of the region’s tourism industry, the Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO). In this definition, the Caribbean region includes a few countries/regions on the mainland in South America and Central America. The area between the south of Florida in the USA, Cancun in Mexico, Belize in Central America, Venezuela, and Suriname in South America, is now referred to as the Caribbean. although in the Atlantic Ocean, the Islands of Bahamas and Bermuda too are treated as Caribbean countries by the CTO. Tourist arrivals to the 33 CTO member states increased by approximately 59 per cent from 1990 to 2000, or at an average of 4.7 per cent. This compares favorably to 4.3 per cent growth rate of world tourist arrivals over the same period. Tourism receipts in the Caribbean during the year 2000 were just under US$20 billion, and the latest CTO forecast predicts that this should rise to some US$35 billion by the year 2112. The past,

present and future of Caribbean tourism in a nutshell looks like that shown in Table I. To external observers, the Caribbean is always full of surprises. As an example, many will be surprised to note that the four Hispanic Caribbean states: Cuba, Dominican Republic, Cancun and Puerto Rico record the highest growth rates in the Caribbean, and currently control around half of total arrivals to the region. In 2000, only six Caribbean countries attracted over one million tourists and the arrival figures (in millions) in these countries for 2000 were: 1 Cancun – 3.04; 2 Dominican Republic – 2.97; 3 Cuba – 1.77; 4 Bahamas – 1.60; 5 Jamaica – 1.32; and 6 Puerto Rico – 1.17 (CTO, 2002). These six countries attracted 58 per cent of the arrivals, reflecting something of an imbalance in the distribution of tourism wealth across the Caribbean. Overdependence on one major market is another problem in Caribbean tourism. With the exception of a few countries, such as Cuba, tourism in the Caribbean is overdependent on the US feeder market. The tourist arrival figures in the year 2000 indicate the six main feeder markets to the Caribbean as: 1 USA – 50 per cent; 2 France – 8 per cent; 3 The Caribbean – 7 per cent; 4 Canada – 6 per cent; 5 UK – 6 per cent; and 6 Germany – 4 per cent. The 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the USA and the reactions by US travellers posed the biggest challenge to Caribbean tourism since the Second World War. At a regional summit of the heads of government of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) held in December 2001, the future of tourism was a major item in the agenda. A vision for Caribbean tourism to the year 2012 was evolved at this summit. This vision speaks to: The further development of a Caribbean tourism industry that is fully understood and embraced by the peoples of the region and which, through co-operative action among governments and with the private sector, makes a significant and sustainable contribution to development in both mature and emerging destinations (CARICOM/CTO, 2002).

Editorial

Table I

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 138-139

Year Tourist arrivals (in millions) Cruise passenger arrivals (in millions) Total arrivals (in millions) Room stock

1990

2000

2112

12.8 7.8 20.6 152,000

20.3 14.5 34.8 252,000

33 27 60 342,000

The vision is predicated on the development of a set of core strategies related to sustainable development, investment, marketing and access transport arrangements which in turn will be complemented by a set of support strategies regarding human resource development, organization and funding. In the 13 articles selected for this special issue, 16 authors address some of the current issues that are relevant and significant to the future development of tourism and hospitality industry in the Caribbean. Donald Sinclair examines the challenges facing indigenous tourism in the emerging destination of the Guianas. He argues that great care is needed to preserve its cultural heritage – one of the reasons for its attractiveness to tourists. Ian Boxill develops a similar theme as he reviews the tourism potential for Belize. He argues for an alternative to the mass tourism route, founded on nature, education and community tourism and an approach that will help to sustain the history, culture and ecology of Belize. In order to research their article on Cuba’s tourism education strategy, Patricia Wood and Chandana Jayawardena undertook three field visits and among others, they interviewed senior Cuban policymakers. The outcomes reveal some surprising insights on Cuba’s strategy for tourism education, notably its determination to ‘‘professionalize’’ its industry, given the rapidly growing number of tourism arrivals. In the second of two articles dealing with educational issues, Michelle McDonald and Royston O. Hopkin consider the challenges facing Grenada and the need to modernize and expand the training and educational support for tourism development. In a study of three Caribbean destinations, Anne P. Crick analyzes the provisions made for the internal marketing of tourism to host populations. The Caribbean is generally known for the warmth and friendliness of its people and yet attitudes to tourists vary between locations and more could and should be done to promote the benefits of tourism to local Caribbean communities. John J. Issa, chairman of Super Clubs and pioneer of the ‘‘all-inclusive’’ Caribbean resort concept, writing with Chandana Jayawardena,

reviews its past, present and future significance. They conclude that all-inclusive resort holidays will continue to play a significant role in tourism development. In the first of three ‘‘Research in brief’’ articles, Eritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid examine the growing tension between religion and work scheduling, with reference to Jamaica’s hospitality industry. Chandana Jayawardena and Diaram Ramajeesingh review the performance of Caribbean tourism from an economic perspective and among other findings, reveal that Aruba strongly outperforms the more mature tourism destination of Jamaica. To conclude this section, Hilton McDavid and Diaram Ramajeesingh consider the balance between government and industry leadership of tourism policy and present the case for stronger industry representation. This issue contains four ‘‘Viewpoints’’ and the first, from Nikolaos Karagiannis, considers ways in which the linkages with tourism might be strengthened with the aim of assisting Jamaica’s economic development. Anthony Clayton focuses on sustainable tourism in the Caribbean and the improvements needed in tourism policy planning and implementation to maintain this focus. Godfrey A. Pratt considers the impact of terrorism on two Caribbean destinations and the on-going work needed to persuade tourists to travel and, finally, Chandana Jayawardena and K. Michael Haywood profile the skills needed to successfully manage international hotels in the Caribbean. I sincerely hope that you will enjoy this thought-provoking collection of articles from the Caribbean. Chandana Jayawardena Guest Editor

References CARICOM/CTO (2002), Report on Caribbean Tourism Strategic Plan, Caribbean Tourism Organisation, Barbados, pp. 4, 34. CTO (2002), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report 2000-2001, Caribbean Tourism Organisation, Barbados, pp. iv, v. Jayawardena, C. (2002), ‘‘Future challenges for tourism in the Caribbean’’, Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 51 No. l, pp. 1-23.

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Developing indigenous tourism: challenges for the Guianas

Donald Sinclair Division of Caribbean and Tourism Studies, University of Guyana, Queenstown, Georgetown, Guyana

Keywords Tourism, Comparative costs, Cultural synergy, Innovation, Guyana, Suriname

Abstract As emergent tourism destinations, the Guianas are new players in a game in which rules have been agreed, strategies defined and competition has been intense. New players succeed by demonstrating creativity and innovation and by seizing comparative advantage. The possession of unique natural attractions, the presence of indigenous communities or rare cultural forms are all precious resources commanding comparative advantage for the Guianas. However, because of the special character of indigenous tourism, development of that form of tourism is not possible without the articulation and implementation of appropriate policy measures. In the absence of that policy infrastructure the possibilities for error and conflict are immense. This paper explores the key challenges in the path of the development of indigenous tourism and suggests clear policy guidelines that should inform the development of indigenous tourism in the pursuit of comparative advantage.

Introduction The Guianas comprise three territories – Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana – on the north-eastern shoulder of the South American continent. Although much similarity in demographics, topography and economic condition exists among these three territories, the paper will focus primarily on the development of indigenous tourism in two of the Guianas, which are part of the Caricom (Caribbean Community and Common Market) grouping – Guyana and Suriname. French Guiana is still an overseas department of France and does not, at the moment, envision a Caribbean destiny. In view of the political reality of the Caricom status of Guyana and Suriname, there are distinct merits in the discussion of tourism development methodologies for Guyana and Suriname within a Caricom framework, especially with technical assistance from the Caribbean Tourism Organisation (CTO). The other imperative which justifies (or certainly makes urgent) a bi-lateral initiative on tourism development for Guyana and Suriname is the growing need to define fruitful and constructive areas of cooperation to counterbalance and defuse tensions issuing from unresolved territorial questions between the two countries. Cooperation in areas such as tourism development and sustainable uses of the environment will do much to strengthen goodwill and enhance the sense of shared destiny between both populations.

The appropriate tourism International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 140-146 # MCB UP Limited [ISSN 0959-6119] [DOI 10.1108/09596110310470158]

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Guyana and Suriname are both former European colonies on the continent of South America. Both countries possess vast, The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

sparsely inhabited interiors that are rich in natural resources, and both are seeking alternatives to the, now declining, extractive industries that dominated their economies for many decades. Both regard tourism as bearing the potential to introduce handsome economic rewards and both Guyana and Suriname recognize the resources of their interiors – the diversity of flora, fauna and ancient indigenous cultures – as the base of that development. Although the form of tourism commonly known as eco-tourism features as a priority in tourism development in both Guyana and Suriname, the main focus of this paper will be on what may be regarded as a sub-set of eco-tourism – indigenous tourism. The flora and fauna, rapids, waterfalls, which both countries possess, are promoted as the context for a unique experience of nature. Regardless of the intense debates in tourism circles in both countries regarding the suitability or appropriateness of the ‘‘eco’’ label, there is consensus on what should comprise the essence of that unique experience of nature that is the sought-after prize of much modern travel. Indigenous tourism forms part of that now copiously referenced cluster of tourism alternatives (Smith and Eadington, 1992). Hinch and Butler (1996) define indigenous tourism as: . . . tourism activity in which indigenous people are directly involved either through control and/or by having their culture serve as the essence of the attraction.

Smith (1996) perceives indigenous tourism as: . . . that segment of the visitor industry which directly involves native peoples whose ethnicity is a tourist attraction. The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

Donald Sinclair Developing indigenous tourism: challenges for the Guianas International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 140-146

Smith’s definition immediately introduces a complexity, one that has to be squarely and comprehensively addressed by those emergent tourism destinations anxious to maximize earnings from the development of indigenous tourism. Essentially, that complexity revolves around the operationalisation of ethnicity as a tourist attraction without inducing behaviours and postures that are demeaning on the part of tourists. Forte (1993) is very sensitive to this possibility in her assertion that Amerindian peoples in Guyana should not be the tourism attraction per se, but that visits should offer tourists an understanding and appreciation of the lifestyles of the Amerindians. The attraction in that sense would not be Amerindians but ‘‘Amerindian-ness’’. Therein lies one of the key challenges for indigenous tourism in the Guianas – to structure the indigenous tourism experience in such a manner as to guarantee the greatest integrity to the indigenous people and their lifestyles, even as the demands of the tourists are being satisfied. The last two decades of the twentieth century have witnessed a very sharp focus on the interests and rights of indigenous peoples. 1982 saw the constitution of the Working Group on Indigenous Peoples. In 1992, 500 years after Columbus was discovered by indigenous peoples, a chorus of voices gave expression to the modern plight of indigenous peoples. In 1993, designated as the United Nations International Year of Indigenous Peoples, the Declaration of Indigenous Peoples Rights was drafted. This ferment of deliberation and even protest, centring on indigenous peoples, now constitutes a formidable moral and ideological backdrop against which any national enterprise that is based on indigenous peoples, their lands, cultures, traditions and lifestyles will be judged. In this first decade of the twenty-first century there now exist not only indigenous populations and advocates that are more informed and militant, but also more protocols, checks and safeguards governing activity that impinges on the lives of indigenous peoples. It is in this supra-national context that the development of indigenous tourism in Guyana and Suriname will be occurring. There are almost generic complexities and challenges that attend this development. In that circumstance, policies and protocols that enjoy the commitment of all stakeholders will be vital instruments in guaranteeing development of a form of

tourism that will enhance the welfare of indigenous peoples in Guyana and Suriname.

Comparative advantage For emergent tourism destinations, especially in the Caribbean, sun, sand and sea tourism would hardly be a major source of comparative advantage. The more mature destinations in the Caribbean – the Bahamas, Jamaica, Antigua and Barbados – have long since refined that form of tourism and are even now challenged to retain market share (Holder, 1996). The reality of this market challenge has impelled traditional sun-sand-sea destinations in the Caribbean to consider and propose alternative resources and experiences to drive product differentiation. The growth of the now copiously referenced ‘‘alternative tourism’’ market has been characterised by a desire on the part of travellers to enjoy experiences that are more rounded than has been the traditional reward of mass tourism. A growing segment of the tourism market has shown an interest in going beyond (sometimes well beyond) the beach; in pursuing attractions and experiences that are available only in the deep interior recesses of distant lands. Those countries that possess rare and abundant biodiversity and can point to remote or indigenous communities practising cultural forms that are different from the dominant, Westernised traditions are in a position to exploit comparative advantage in the tourism market. Strong economic stimulus exists in Guyana and Suriname for the exploitation of comparative advantage in tourism. Both countries have been experiencing declines in foreign exchange earnings deriving from traditional export commodities. In Guyana, reduced earnings from sugar, rice and bauxite have contributed to a precarious balance of payments situation. In Suriname, a similar scenario exists where declines in earnings have led to an unfavourable balance of payment equation, which has in turn led to the precipitous depreciation in the value of the local currency – the Suriname guilder – against most major currencies. The fact that both Guyana and Suriname postponed the embrace of tourism for a number of decades can possibly be explained in two ways. First, both countries possessed a significant stock of natural resources that could be exploited for economic development. Guyana embarked on export-led development with sugar, rice, bauxite, timber and minerals as the leading lights. For Suriname,

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bauxite, gold and timber were the flagship industries. Second, during more than four decades of the dominance of traditional blue waters Caribbean tourism both Guyana and Suriname found themselves, for reasons geographic, outside (or farther south of) this blue waters sorority. The days of black waters tourism would come later, when tourism itself would move beyond the beach.

The product – Suriname What do Guyana and Suriname possess that would be a key attraction to a growing segment of the tourism market and would serve as the basis of comparative advantage? The focus of this paper will be on those communities and cultural resources that are being described as indigenous and that will be cited as the resource for the development of indigenous tourism. Bush Negroes (or Maroons as referred to by some sources) comprise 10 per cent of the population of Suriname; Amerindians 3 per cent. The lifestyles and cultural forms of both peoples reflect, in varying degrees, their strong ancestral base and corresponding distance from and resistance to European cultural influences. Although many Surinamese of either Bush Negro or Amerindian origin speak fluent Dutch – the official language – as well as Sranantong – the most widely used vernacular – the majority speak their traditional ancestral language and live in traditional communities. These communities are usually in remote districts and boast a complex form of social organisation. The relative remoteness of these communities reflects the historical imperative to be independent of the reaches of the plantation system. Apart from language, the cultural distinctness of these communities is manifested in a number of other visible ways. Dwelling in the communities is along communal lines. In the Bush Negro community of Santigron, for example, thatched roof huts belonging to several families are clustered together. Endogamy is practised and is the traditional expectation. Deviations from that norm do occur but are frowned on, and considerable communal pressure is visited on the deviants. Religion is central to life in both Amerindian and Bush Negro villages. Visitors are often shown a public space, regarded by the community with great reverence because of its association with ritual activity. Not all Bush Negro rituals are accessible to tourists. Some are exclusive to the practitioners themselves and often entail

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communion with ancestors of the villagers. Burial spaces, for example, are off-limits to visitors to the Bush Negro village. The role of the village chief, as chief officiant in these rituals, is pivotal. The Chief (or Deputy Chief if the latter is absent) is the resident authority who settles disputes in the village, advises on matters pertaining to the welfare of the village, and sanctions or refuses visits and tours to the community. Indigenous tourism in Suriname therefore involves visits and tours to the Bush Negro and Amerindian communities. Bush Negro communities tend to receive more visits than Amerindian villages. That fact is by no means a judgement upon the appeal or authenticity of Amerindian cultural practices; it is simply a statement of the more advanced development and organised nature of Bush Negro tourism in Suriname. Arinze tours, Kumalu Island Adventure and Mena Reizen are the foremost Bush Negro-managed tour operations in Suriname.

The product – Guyana Guyana has no Bush Negro population, but its indigenous or Amerindian population comprises 7 per cent of the population and is the third largest racial grouping. Writers often draw attention to the difficult history of Amerindians in Guyana. Fox and Danns (1993) assert: Amerindians in Guyana have historically existed under conditions of continuous threat.

Amerindians have also been described as being: . . . the poorest and most neglected stratum of Guyanese society (Forte, 1995).

Rendall (1995) comments on their having: . . . suffered a long history of marginalisation, both before and since independence.

The majority of Amerindians live a traditional lifestyle in coastal or remote interior districts, but (as in the case of the Bush Negroes of Suriname) numbers of Amerindian residents live and work in coastal and urban areas, practising lifestyles that are no different from those of the urbanised Guyanese of any other race. Traditional life for Amerindians in the interior: . . . is a very laborious one, due to their subsistence on the slash and burn (shifting) cultivation of traditional crops, most importantly, bitter cassava (manioc), corn, yams, peanuts and sweet cassava, supplemented by wild fruits when in season.

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Hunting and fishing are still practised to varying degrees with bows, firearms, fish poisons and nets (Rendall, 1995).

Today, a more complex economy has placed at the disposal of the Amerindian a wider variety of pursuits and means of earning a livelihood. Timber, balata and gold production have lured many (especially male) Amerindians into those economic activities, thereby creating a more complex picture of the Amerindian condition than the traditional perspective suggests. In summary, there exists in both Guyana and Suriname communities of indigenous peoples who practise lifestyles that are strongly traditional and in many cases bearing strong allegiance to ancestral traditions. The lifestyles, cultural forms and practices of these peoples have stimulated the curiosity of visitors and tourism now integral to the lives and economic well-being of these communities. In an article appearing in Time magazine Foroohar (2002), discussing this new vogue in travel, writes: A new kind of travel is in vogue now. Savvier tourists are abandoning the mock-European high-rises for more authentic experiences, like horseback riding through the bush (Foroohar, 2002).

The author continues: In many ways, this off-the-beaten path vacation represents the future of global tourism – an industry on the verge of tremendous growth and change (Foroohar, 2002).

The operation of tourism in these communities presents a number of very urgent challenges that require responses at the level of policy intervention and regulation if tourism is to succeed in a sustainable way, safeguarding and enhancing the interests and welfare of the visited, indigenous communities. These challenges need first to be understood, then faced and addressed squarely, with the appropriate principles and guidelines informing policy formulation and implementation.

Challenges The discussion of the challenges facing indigenous tourism in some ways revisits an earlier proposition advanced by Smith (1996). Consciously departing from the ‘‘four S’’ (sun/sand/sea/sex) structure of mass tourism that is pervasive in tourism literature, Smith offers a ‘‘four H’’ structure. Smith (1996) asserts:

The tourism literature has adopted the four S acronym to describe beach resort tourism, a lifestyle often associated with charter mass tourism, tropical cruises, and ‘‘drifter’’ tourism. The four Hs – habitat, heritage, history and handicrafts – similarly describe the indigenous tourism phenomenon, as a culture-bounded visitor experience which, quite literally, is a micro-study of man-land relationships.

Smith’s (1996) perception of the indigenous tourism phenomenon as ‘‘culture-bounded’’ is accurate, and her identification of heritage, history, habitat and handicraft lends support (albeit with some overlap) to that perception. However, Smith’s perspective on ‘‘history’’ as referring ‘‘specifically to post-contact relations between Aboriginal peoples and Westerners who later occupied the lands and established the present governments’’ (Smith, 1996) abbreviates the sweep of indigenous history and limits its expression in tourism. Conceiving of, and presenting, indigenous history as ‘‘post-contact’’ history locates indigenous tourism within the time-frame of post-contact acculturation. The first challenge for indigenous tourism is therefore conceptual – defining its temporal parameters. That definition will determine not only the concept of indigenous history and tourism, but also the construction of the indigenous tourist stage – what is selected for ‘‘consumption’’ and what remains hidden and unacknowledged. This challenge has strong implications for cultural, particularly museum, policy. The Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology in Guyana, with artefacts dating way before ‘‘contact’’ history, is inspired by (and presents to the visitor) a much more inclusive view of indigenous history.

Refining the product If Foroohar (2002) is right in asserting that off-the-beaten-track tourism represents a new trend in travel, then indigenous tourism in the two Guianas is being developed at an auspicious time. If growing numbers of travellers are in fact seeking more authentic experiences, then the marketing of this brand of tourism – always a key challenge – will have been favoured. The next imperative will be to refine the product (understood simply as the integration of accommodations, attractions and services) and commence effective marketing. Visiting communities that reside in remote or deep-interior regions requires a commitment on the part of a tour

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establishment to compliance with the most scrupulous and professional operational standards. These apply across the spectrum and include the following: . Safe, reliable, efficient and appropriate modes of transportation – the jet-boat may roar its passengers swiftly through narrow streams en route to the remote community, but are there negative human and environmental consequences created by the huge swells of the jet-boat? . The quality of tour-guiding services at the disposal of the visitor. . Standards in accommodation facilities available for visitors. . Professional interpretation and presentation of indigenous cultural forms and traditions through the judicious employment of knowledge-bearing materials and artefacts.

Product integrity Great care needs to be exercised in the refinement and presentation of the indigenous tourism product. Product refinement and presentation that introduce styles and ‘‘modernisations’’ that are inappropriate to and incongruous with an authentic indigenous tourism experience run the risk of inducing suspicion in the minds of the visitors that they may have been duped. Worse, such presentations may be an affront to the dignity of the community itself. A debate has begun, for example, about the ‘‘eco-tourism casinos’’ of the Philippines. Also, the not uncommon practice in Suriname where tour operators take into indigenous communities boxed lunches purchased in the city certainly limits opportunity for the visitor to appreciate indigenous cuisine. On the other hand, product integrity is maintained, for example, in the Bush Negro community of Santigron in Northern Suriname when visitors are put to sleep communally in hammocks under one thatched-roof hut, villager style. Satisfaction of the quest for the authentic must be the paramount imperative in the provision of an experience of indigenous tourism. That objective is sometimes more challenging than it appears, and the process of adaptation to tourism on the part of remote communities is often a very complex undertaking that sometimes results in the falsification of its own cultural identity (Nunez, 1989) or the dilution of local culture (Greenwood, 1989). Alarms have also been sounded regarding threats from a ‘‘tourist monoculture around

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the world’’ (Pera and McLaren, 2002) as well as from biopiracy that occurs under the cloak of ecotourism where numerous: . . . scientists, students, tourists and researchers enter into forests to collect information about local plants and ecosystems, stealing bio-diversity and, in some cases attempting to patent life and the stealing of knowledge developed over centuries (Pera and McLaren, 2002).

Marketing Appropriate and effective marketing is a vital ingredient in the enterprise of indigenous tourism in Guyana and Suriname, if it is to be economically viable and produce rewards for local communities. This is one area for direct policy intervention. The tendency has been noted in both countries for remote, indigenous communities to be visited as the ‘‘add-on’’ experience, while visitors are already in the country. This practice may derive from a number of factors, key among those being the inadequacy of a marketing policy that does not stress the tourism value of that order of experience. The marketing of indigenous tourism is a matter of some delicacy and sensitivity. Over a decade ago in Guyana, a prominent resort, located in an Amerindian area, caused considerable offence through the publication of an advertisement inviting visitors to ‘‘see the exotic Amerindians’’. The furore generated prompted the company to withdraw the offending newspaper advertisement. An important challenge in marketing indigenous tourism as well as in the definition of the product is to avoid the suspicion that people are being commodified, or presented as inanimate curios. The marketing of indigenous tourism in Guyana is sometimes made more thorny by the hypersensitivities of some indigenous advocates who sense and scream exploitation at the mere sighting of any icon or representation of anything even remotely associated with the Amerindian way of life. Policy intervention is therefore appropriate and necessary. Policy confers legitimacy on the development and marketing of indigenous tourism, defines the parameters within which such activity should occur, sanctions the use of Amerindian icons and motifs in promotion and pronounces on the behaviours and practices that would be appropriate for both the entrepreneur and the visitor. Policy intervention must be understood as the responsibility not only of the public sector

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directorate (ministry or other agency responsible for tourism administration), but also of those private sector agencies and corporate bodies that have direct responsibility for the management of the tourism operation.

Community involvement The management of indigenous tourism on the ground must be driven by the principle of indigenous sovereignty over natural and cultural resources that are the basis of the tourism experience, and that principle should under-gird all aspects of the tourism operation. The community should be involved in decisions concerning the number, duration, frequency and schedules of visits, locations to be visited, the payment of visitor fees, the location of visitor accommodations. Meaningful indigenous involvement in every stage of the tourism enterprise ensures the greater possibility that the tourism enterprise would be on the community’s terms and developed at a pace and character endorsed by the villagers. The seminal importance of this prescription was made painfully clear to some tourism consultants in Guyana, in 2001, when they played a conciliatory role in what was shaping up to be an ugly encounter between residents of the Amerindian village of Whyaka and the management of a nearby resort. A complete breakdown in the community/resort relationship had occurred, leading to a considerable degree of mutual antagonism and distrust. Tourism enterprises not based on this model of indigenous sovereignty can lay the foundation for visitor behaviours that are unacceptable and inappropriate, or for tourism enterprises that may be perceived as exploitative, even ‘‘imperialistic’’ (Nash, 1989).

Conclusion Indigenous tourism, once recognised as a basis for comparative advantage in Guyana and Suriname, will require development that is sensitive and enlightened if unfortunate experiences are to be avoided. Piore (2002) reports that the rush to develop alternative forms of indigenous tourism sometimes results in dislocation of indigenous peoples. Unless there are clear policy prescriptions that recognise, respect and safeguard indigenous sovereignty over the resource that is the basis of indigenous tourism, an

important infrastructure will be missing. Indigenous sovereignty must take precedence over any other imperative that drives indigenous tourism operations. If indigenous tourism development is propelled by the logic of the market to the exclusion of other holistic considerations, conflict scenarios will result, similar to the one that threatened to disturb the peace in the village of Whyaka in Guyana. Indigenous sovereignty must take precedence over any other imperative that drives the development of indigenous tourism. In the absence of policy prescriptions that ensure at least the greatest possibility for such sovereignty, an important infrastructure will be missing. Ultimately, tourism will have contributed, unwittingly and inadvertently, to the perpetuation of the historical theme of indigenous exploitation. A simple road map for Guyana and Suriname to move forward could be the following: . Joint Declaration by Guyana and Suriname of the importance assigned to the development of indigenous tourism and of their commitment to cooperation especially in the area of marketing. . Convening of a stakeholder consultation in order to generate consensus on precepts, operational guidelines and protocols. . Design of or amendment to appropriate policy document or drafting of appropriate regulations to govern the management of indigenous tourism enterprises. . Strict enforcement of protocols (through licensing and sanction arrangements) governing forms of indigenous tourism.

References Foroohar, R. (2002), ‘‘Getting off the beaten track’’, Time, 22-29 July, pp. 34-8. Forte, J. (1993), Amerindians and Tourism in Guyana, ARU, University of Guyana, Georgetown. Forte, J. (1995), Amerindians and Poverty in Guyana, background paper, ARU, University of Guyana, Georgetown. Fox, D. and Danns, G. (1993), The Indigenous Condition in Guyana: A Field Report on the Amerindians of Mabura, ARU, University of Guyana, Georgetown. Greenwood, D. (1989), ‘‘Culture by the pound: an anthropological perspective on tourism as cultural commoditisation’’, in Smith, V. (Ed.), Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

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Hinch, T. and Butler, R. (1996), ‘‘Indigenous tourism: a common ground for discussion’’, in Hinch, T. and Butler, R. (Eds), Tourism and Indigenous Peoples, International Thomson Business Press, London. Holder, J. (1996), ‘‘Maintaining competitiveness in a new world order: regional solutions to Caribbean tourism sustainability problems’’, in Harrison, L. and Husbands, W. (Eds), Practicing Responsible Tourism, Wiley, New York, NY. Nash, D. (1989), ‘‘Tourism as a form of imperialism’’ in Smith, V. (Ed.), Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA. Nunez, T. (1989), ‘‘Touristic studies in anthropological perspective’’, in Smith, V.

(Ed.), Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA. Pera, L. and McLaren, D. (2002), Globalization, Tourism and Indigenous Peoples: What You Should Know about the World’s Largest Industry, available at: www.planeta.com/ ecotravel/resources/rtp/globalization.html Piore, A. (2002), ‘‘Trouble in Paradise’’, Time, 22-29 July, pp. 42-4. Rendall, C. (1995), ‘‘Tourism and indigenous participation in Guyana’’, unpublished MA dissertation, Roehampton Institute, London. Smith, V. (Ed.) (1996), Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA. Smith, V. and Eadington W.R. (1992), Tourism Alternatives, Wiley, Chichester.

Towards an alternative tourism for Belize

Ian Boxill Department of Sociology, The University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica

Keywords Development, Tourism, Culture, Location, Education, Belize

Tourism in the Caribbean and Belize

There is enough evidence to indicate that tourism is the world’s largest industry and that it makes a significant contribution to the GDP of Caribbean countries (Jayawardena, 2002). Tourism is growing in its importance to the Caribbean and Central American nation of Belize. For the Caribbean, tourism’s contribution ranges between 5 per cent and 80 per cent. Estimates for Belize are about 20 per cent of GDP (Belize Travel and Tourism Statistics, 2001). While stay-over arrivals to Belize are not as high as destinations such as Cancun, the Dominican Republic, Barbados, Puerto Rico, The Bahamas and Jamaica, Belize compares favourably with countries such as Antigua and the Cayman islands. However, Belize has one of the lowest cruise ship arrivals in the entire region (Belize Travel and Tourism Statistics, 2001); although this year’s (2002) arrivals have increased dramatically. Belize is still a moderate to low density destination, even though revenues earned from the industry are relatively high (see Table I). Still there has been growth in the industry. Tourism has grown in its importance to the This paper was originally a Belize economy over the last ten years. keynote address delivered at a national symposium on Between 1987 and 1999 stay-over tourist tourism by the University of arrivals to Belize grew by more than 200 per Belize (UB) and the Ministry cent, from 99,300 to 326,600 (Caribbean of Tourism in Belize City, 15 Tourism Statistical Report 1999-2000). November 2002. During the past five years, arrivals by cruise ships have grown significantly. Three years of remarkable growth ended with a 17.2 per cent decrease in 2001 (Belize Travel and Tourism Statistics, 2001). However, it should be noted that this year (2002) has seen a significant recovery from previous years – over 300 per cent increase over last year. International Journal of Even though the arrival numbers are Contemporary Hospitality relatively small compared with the more Management

Abstract

This paper argues that tourism development in Belize should avoid going the traditional mass tourism route of most Caribbean destinations. Instead, it suggests that Belize is at the appropriate stage in its development to forge an alternative model, which draws and builds on its geographical location, history, culture and ecology. In making this case, the paper identifies a number of limiting and facilitating factors to tourism development. These facilitating factors recommend the alternative model. Specifically, the alternative model includes nature, education and community tourism; and a type of cruise tourism that is linked to education and culture. For this effort to succeed, the paper recommends that government and civil society work together to develop the country’s human resources and to structure a strategy to achieve the goals.

established destinations, the dramatic increase in tourist arrivals for a country that has recently started to market itself as a low density/nature-based tourism destination has resulted in some important social impacts. These impacts are visible in larger resort areas, such as San Pedro, and to a lesser extent, in the smaller communities such as Hopkins and Dangriga (Boxill and Castillo, 2002). There is much that can be learned about how not to develop tourism from the examples of countries throughout the Caribbean. From Cancun to Jamaica to Barbados, there are studies that show the social and environmental impacts of unmonitored mass tourism on the ecology and the lives of the people (Patullo, 1996; Maerk and Boxill, 2000; Periera et al., 2002). Therefore, Belize should be careful about the way in which it develops its tourism industry. It should eschew the sudden embrace of the traditional sea, sand and mass cruise ship model that most countries of the Caribbean are pursuing. Belize should place greater emphasis on the quality of the visitor rather than the quantity. It should also bring more stakeholders into the process, including the communities and educational institutions. In other words, Belize should adopt an alternative path to that pursued by the majority of the major Caribbean destinations.

Alternatives for Belize Now, obviously, there are both limiting and facilitating factors to any type of development. These variables are not necessarily inherent, but are contingent on a broad philosophical orientation of development.

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Table I Key socio-cultural and socio-economic indicators for Barbados, The Bahamas and Jamaica and Belize (1999) Indicator

Barbados

The Bahamas

Jamaica

Belize

Tourist arrivals per thousand of the population Rooms per thousand population Visitor expenditure per capita (US dollars) Tourism penetration ratio Visitor expenditure as a percentage of GDP

1,936 21 2,490 54 32.20

5,205 49 (1998) 5,224 77 32.87 (1998)

484 9 496 14 21.40

1,344 16 459 25a 16.19

Note: aestimated Source: Caribbean Tourism Organization Statistical Report 1999-2000 (2000) Tourism development is simply one dimension of a set of development policies that may be pursued by a country. Belize would be better off with a development process, or a tourism development policy, which respects people’s ways of life, engages them in a way that is psychologically, intellectually and economically beneficial; and sustains ecological systems without which we cannot hope to survive for very long. Of course, this type of tourism should ideally help to bring about economic transformation and must be sustainable. Given its stage of development and its assets, Belize is the one country in the Caribbean region that is best suited to undertake this type of tourism development. What are the reasons for this? In other words, what are the facilitating factors? They are as follows: . Belize is a low density tourism destination. Both the land to visitor density and the tourism penetration ratios are relatively low. . Belize is a country with an abundance of natural beauty, and has an ecological system that is the envy of most of the Caribbean. . Belize is located strategically in Central America but is also washed by the Caribbean Sea and therefore enjoys the best of both worlds. Proximity to the USA may also be seen as an advantage. . Belize has a diverse culture which incorporates the major cultures of the Americas: indigenous (Maya, Garifuna), African/Creole, European (Spanish and English), Hispanic and Asian. Nonetheless, one must be mindful of some limiting factors. These include: . Competition from other destinations in the region in the mass market; especially now from the rise of Cuban tourism, which is the fastest growing in the region. . Social and cultural conflicts, which are likely to arise from significant growths in arrivals – particularly as it relates to mass tourism.

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.

.

.

The relative softening of traditional destinations of the USA and Europe, due to rising local crime and the threat of global terrorism. Potential environmental problems associated with all types of tourism, especially mass and cruise tourism. Many of these impacts have been detailed in the studies of the Anglophone Caribbean and Cancun. The present and potential problem of airlift due to the financial difficulties associated with airline industry.

Belize should continue on a path of low to moderate density tourism, with some minor elements of sea and sand/mass variety where possible. The country should adopt a well planned, highly regulated tourism with a strong focus on developing the cultural and ecological gifts of the country. Belize should try to differentiate itself from the pack by focusing on high end tourism and by being more adventurous and courageous. Thinking out of the box is what we need at this moment. But, what are some of the elements of this alternative?

Elements of the alternative Education and cultural tourism With the imminence of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), there is a great deal of potential for training in languages and cultures across the region. As a member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Belize should develop institutions to train English speakers in Spanish and, Spanish speakers in English. The University of Belize (UB), along with the University of the West Indies (UWI) could spearhead an initiative aimed at the development of institutions to train people in languages, both short-term and long-term. These should be well run, well marketed and well organized bodies which will attract some of the brightest and the best minds in the country.

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The Cubans have been developing an education tourism sector, with little competition from other Caribbean destinations (see Jayawardena, 2003, forthcoming). In the case of Belize it should be possible to link the established educational institutions to those aimed at the study of Creole languages in the Caribbean. The target market should be Latin Americans, Caribbean people and US and European colleges and education institutions. There are millions of Caribbean people inside and outside of the Caribbean who look for places to go on vacation, to study and to explore every year. There is a critical mass of Caribbean people with a substantial amount of disposable income. Relatedly, there is the possibility for the development of a festival type tourism, which draws on the culture of the country. The Belize annual Garifuna festival on 19 November is an example of festival tourism, but there are many others that can draw on the history of all peoples in the country. These festivals should be carefully managed or they can backfire, leading to the commercialization of sensitive aspects of people’s cultures. There is the possibility to link these festivals to the educational institutions, thereby consolidating their presence and preserving their authenticity. The Mundo Maya project of Central America is in this tradition, but it needs to incorporate more aspects of the educational type tourism, thus bringing in a different segment of the tourism market.

Cruise tourism In relation to cruise tourism, there are questions about its long-term benefits to the Caribbean as currently constituted. Cruise tourism often results in a considerable amount of environmental problems for the income that is earned (Patullo, 1996; Periera et al., 2002). Still it remains an option, that may be pursued, but only if properly managed. However, there is an alternative or complement to the status quo of cruise tourism. This approach to tourism, which is based on collaboration of regional countries rather than competition among them, is well suited for CARICOM, especially in light of the FTAA. This new approach is based on a paper presented by Ian Boxill to the Caribbean Maritime Institute and the University of the West Indies (UWI) in March 2002. The project, entitled the Caribbean World (CW), is an attempt to build on the rich cultural history of the region, using the sea as a mode of transportation, to create a new tourism industry in the region. More

specifically, the CW is an idea that draws on the rich history and human resources of the Caribbean region to integrate and further enhance the development of the region by the promotion of alternative education opportunities, alternative tourism and training. This can be accomplished by using ships to sail around the region and calling at ports according to the objectives of the particular journey. The basic idea is to develop a cruise ship experience that involves people travelling throughout the Caribbean and learning about the history and culture of the Caribbean. These ships should be owned and operated by organizations in the region, in the interest of the region. Four important aspects of our history are critical here: 1 Amerindian settlement and history; 2 European colonization; 3 slavery; and 4 East Indian indentureship. The specific objectives of this type of tourism should include: . the development of a destination for regional and international tourists similar to the ‘‘Mundo Maya’’ project in Central America; . to link the islands and landmasses of the Caribbean through travel; . to generate revenue for the good of the countries; . to provide an alternative educational experience for regional and international students; and . to foster closer regional cooperation and integration. Here is another way of picturing this proposal. Imagine sailing to the Caribbean in a ship with the comforts of a medium-size cruise liner, manned by staff and students of the Caribbean Maritime Institute, beginning in Belize taking in Maya ruins then on to Jamaica, stopping at Port Royal, then to Haiti for two days to see the Citadel and then in St Kitts to tour one of the region’s greatest military forts. On board are staff and students of the hospitality programme of the UWI and the UB, managing the cuisine and provision of services that are second to none offered in a five-star hotel. Or imagine being on board a ship, with a group/class comprising students from the UWI and other institutions across the world. Students who filter in and out of the large library on board; students who would not only learn about the Maroons of Jamaica or the Caribs of Dominica, but also get a chance to interact with them, and help in one of the many excavations being run by the UWI’s archaeological department. On the way, they

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will get a glimpse of the famous Bussa Statue in Barbados and learn about his slave rebellion. Later they will stop at one of the famous markets in St Vincent and take in a lecture on the history of the steel pan in Trinidad and Tobago, as part of an assignment in cultural studies. This is an option that could be spearheaded by Belize. Belize could use its knowledge and infrastructure from the Mundo Maya project and lead this process. This type of tourism is consistent with the low density, eco/heritage tourism which the country is well known for.

should be at the centre of this type of tourism development. But, tourism should not be left up to governments or investors; this is a mistake that Caribbean societies are now realizing (Hayle, 2000). Tourism cannot survive in an environment of uncertainty, high crime, poor management and local resentment. On the other hand, people must be made to feel as though they benefit from the industry (Hayle, 2000). Belize is at a stage of its development where it can fashion a new tourism, and not make the mistakes of the more mature Caribbean destinations.

Community tourism

References

Then, of course, there is community tourism. Here is where communities can gain greater control and benefit from tourism by having more cooperative ventures. The community organizations need to play an integral role in the development of properties and the creation of regulations which protect the communities from exploitation by foreign investors. There is need for the training of community members in management and entrepreneurial skills. Government officials need to provide incentives for locals to get involved in the industry as owners of properties rather than as suppliers of cheap labour. Above all, there is the need for a healthy respect for the way of life in communities, in view of the changes that will most certainly come with an expansion of tourism. The only way this will happen is if the community leaders take a proactive role in the development of tourism in their communities.

Belize Travel and Tourism Statistics (2001), The Belize Tourist Board, Belize City. Boxill, I. (2000), ‘‘Overcoming social problems in the Jamaican tourism industry’’, in Maerk, J. and Boxill, I. (Eds), Tourism in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City. Boxill, I. (2002), ‘‘Caribbean world’’, paper prepared for the University of the West Indies and The Caribbean Maritime Institute. Boxill, I. and Castillo, P. (2002), ‘‘Socio-economic impact of tourism in Dangriga and Hopkins, Belize’’, in Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J. (Eds), Tourism, Development and Natural Resources in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City. Caribbean Tourism Organization Statistical Report 1999-2000 (2000), Caribbean Tourism Organization, Barbados. Hayle, C. (2000), ‘‘Community tourism in Jamaica’’, in Maerk, J. and Boxill, I. (Eds), Tourism in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City. Jayawardena, C. (2002), ‘‘Community development and Caribbean tourism’’ in Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J. (Eds), Tourism, Development and Natural Resources in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City. Jayawardena, C. (2003), ‘‘Cuba: crown princess of Caribbean tourism’’, IDEAZ, Vol. 2 No. 1, forthcoming. Maerk, J. and Boxill, I. (Eds) (2000), Tourism in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City. Patullo, P. (1996), Last Resorts, Cassell, London. Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J. (Eds) (2002), Tourism, Development and Natural Resources in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.

Conclusion What is needed for this alternative to succeed? To succeed, tourism planners in Belize need vision, will and confidence. Tourism is a serious business which requires careful planning, evaluation and administration. The model which I propose means that governments would have to invest seriously in education at all levels. The UB and other educational institutions

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Cuba: hero of the Caribbean? A profile of its tourism education strategy

Pat Wood International Hospitality Management, London Metropolitan University, London, UK Chandana Jayawardena Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Jamaica

Keywords Cuba, Hospitality industry, Tourism, Workforce, Education, Vocational training

Abstract Features a realistic perspective of the current hospitality and tourism paradigm in Cuba. Previews the newly released hospitality and tourism education strategy to be rolled out in 2003. Provides an evaluation of the tourism and hospitality industry environment, education environment, workforce and change in policy. The authors made three research trips to Cuba in 1997, 2001 and 2002. A series of elite interviews were conducted in Cuba, Jamaica and the UK with senior Cuban policymakers. Current data and views from Cuban partners and practitioners are used to inform the discussion. Cuba continues to be one of the most mystical tourist destinations in the world with a phenomenal growth rate during recent years. The new tourism education strategy is a key for Cuba to once again become the number one destination in the Caribbean.

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Introduction During the last decade, Cuba has recorded phenomenal growth in tourism receipts. By the mid-1990s Cuba ranked sixth in the Caribbean tourism league. At the eve of the last century, Cuba graduated to fourth position, surpassing the Bahamas and Jamaica. The new wave of success in Cuban tourism has been the result of a well-planned, optimistic development strategy. The current tourism environment is summed up in the words of Ibrahim Ferradaz Garcia (2002), Minister of Tourism for Cuba: Cuba is an archipelago of great natural attractions – including more than 300 natural beaches and a very pleasant climate – together with the people’s warm hospitality, rich historic and cultural heritage.

The current situation of tourism in Cuba was narrated at a recent conference in the USA as: The people are warm, the sand is like silk, the food is spicy and the drink is sweet. The sun always shines and the music never stops. The doors are opening and the walls are coming down (Jayawardena et al., 2002a).

Cuba integrates a breadth and depth of heritage, educational and cultural experiences with its unique selling point (USP) – the element of mystique. Add to that an extraordinary and rare eco environment, a naturally hospitable well-educated people, value for money, a safe destination and a unique experience – Cuba has it all. It is a multifunctional destination with a strong identity. The hotel stock is not always sophisticated and the destination makes no pretence at offering a perfect paradigm. The strength of its offer now demands to be underpinned by the development of the hospitality and tourism education strategy in partnership with the management of the The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

workforce. There is no doubt that Cuba is a unique and leading tourism case study for the first decade of this century.

The industry environment During recent years Cuba has achieved the highest growth rates in tourism within the Caribbean (see Figure 1). All tourism-dependent Caribbean nations anxiously watch the steady, rapid growth in Cuban market share. It is commonly understood that eventual lifting of the US embargo on Cuba will be detrimental for some top Caribbean tourist destinations. Certain analysts take comfort by falsely forecasting that a post-US embargo tourism-boom in Cuba will be a fast fading novelty. Based on the current trend, it is not difficult to predict that by 2010, Cuba will be elevated to the number one position in Caribbean tourism, irrespective of changes in the US Cuban policy (Jayawardena, 2003). Currently, Cuba is the least US market-dependent tourist destination in the Caribbean. Based on the recent published statistics (CTO, 2001), the approximate share of the key feeder markets are: Europe – 54 per cent; Canada – 17 per cent; Caribbean – 10 per cent; South America – 7 per cent; USA – 4 per cent; and Other – 8 per cent. Cuban tourism has evolved with strong links to other industries including tobacco, sugar and coffee. A conference in the fields of medicine, science, environment, arts, tourism and culture annually attracts a host of internationally prestigious business, academic and leisure visitors. The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

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Pat Wood and Chandana Jayawardena Cuba: hero of the Caribbean? A profile of its tourism education strategy

Figure 1 Arrivals from all countries to Cuba 1995-2001 (thousands)

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Negatively, the critics often raise the issues of the alliance between tourism and prostitution, yet these are the familiar ugly sisters of this ‘‘Cinderella’’ industry in most tourist destinations. The economy has been growing steadily since 1995 at an average annual growth rate of 4.8 per cent. Tourism is the economic activity, which brings in the most income, 44 per cent of the total (Cuba Travel, 2002). Cuba has 240 hotels with new bed stock continually being released. In total, 22 per cent are foreign management contracts. Notable external investors/operators include Sol Melia (Spain), SuperClubs (Jamaica), Sandals (Jamaica), Accor (France), IWI (Germany), Senador (Canada). Cubanacan, the government agency, represents a number of Cuban brands. There is no external property ownership. The foreign hotel groups operate with 50/50 management contracts and an approximate 60/40 financial loading. The current bedroom stock can be analysed as: . 37,225 rooms; . 69 per cent rooms at beaches; . 26 per cent rooms in cities; . 68 per cent rooms in four- and five-star hotels; and . 40 per cent four- and five-star hotels (Cuba Travel, 2002). A regeneration initiative under the banner of Habaguanex hotels, a state-backed tourist company, is behind most of the main restorations in Old Havana, a UNESCO-listed world heritage site. It has just opened one chic art deco hotel and more will follow shortly. The profits from these hotels are expected to be used to continue work on

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further restoration of old buildings into hotel projects.

Education environment Identifying and analysing current and future needs, trends and challenges of the hospitality industry of the respective country is essential to ensure success (Jayawardena, 2001a). The vocational education and training (VET), which has grown up around the tourism and hospitality industry, is integral to that success. The hospitality and tourism VET is, arguably, inspired by key models: . Switzerland using hotel schools; . Britain with college-based programmes; . Germany establishing the dual system; and . the USA with industry-inspired provision. The commitment in developing the human resources needed for Cuba’s tourism sector has laid a strong foundation for the future success of the sector. For example, Cuba’s 19 hospitality schools, with over 1,000 professors, issue some 20,000 certificates annually. With the most educated population within the Caribbean, Cuba is using that significant strength to choose and train employees for tourism. Informal discussion undertaken with Cubans suggests that, in many instances, managers from other sectors, with excellent academic qualifications and professional experiences, are attracted to the tourism sector, particularly the hotel industry, to quickly attain much sought-after US dollars and higher income than in other sectors. Accordingly, Formatur, the national training and education agency for the tourism and

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hospitality sector in Cuba, established a one-year VET conversion programme for managers from other professions. The following extract from the Cuban information service underlines the sophisticated contribution education makes to the Cuban economy and its human resource: Education in Cuba is free at all levels, including the university. Illiteracy was wiped out in Cuba in 1961, when a national literacy campaign was waged. All of the provinces have centres of specialized training, polytechnic institutes, universities and other centres of higher education. Education has been revolutionized with the introduction of audio-visual means (Cuba Travel, 2002).

Public, medical and educational services are significant systems introduced by Castro’s government over four decades ago. The following figures reflect the importance placed on education for a population of 11 million, a total of: . 8,868 elementary schools; . 1,837 junior and senior high schools; . 49 universities (with 686,027 university graduates between 1959 and 2001); . 13 students per teacher; . 8 per cent of the GDP is spent on education; . 96 per cent literacy rate among the population 10 years old and over; and . 98 per cent of all children between six and 14 years old attend school.

The workforce In 2001, there were 838,000 tourism related jobs with 18 per cent of the Cuban workforce employed in tourism (WTTC, 2001). By the end of 2001, the Cuban hotel industry provided direct employment for 90,007 persons (63 per cent male and 37 per cent female). Of hotel employees, 20 per cent have university degrees in medicine, science, teaching, etc. Over 75 per cent of the hospitality and tourism workforce are qualified to technician level and above (Annuario Estadistico de Cuba, 2002). However, the hospitality and tourism workforce in Cuba still requires new training initiatives to effectively handle the volume, demands and expectations of international travellers. The training associated with productivity, quality and control benchmarks belonging to the leading global hotel systems have not been adequately addressed to date. A lack of empowerment and motivation is apparent among the hotel workforce, in particular the housekeeping, food and beverage areas.

The Cuban hotel industry management teams consist of a mix of foreigners and Cubans. International hotel corporations operate with expatriate general managers and heads of department, known locally as ‘‘assessors’’. Historically the hotel work environment has been an attractive alternative for the highly educated Cuban population. This is mainly due to the equality of pay structures maintained throughout the country. As an example, recent research indicated that a general doctor earns approximately 350 Cuban pesos (US$20) per month. A restaurant waiter on the other hand also earns 350 pesos per month plus an average US$17 in tips per day. Cuban general managers receive, in the region of, 700 pesos (US$40) per month. The expatriate hotel general managers in Cuba earn in the region of US$5,000-7,000 (Wood, 2002).

Vocational education and training (VET) provision In addition to Formatur providing VET to the industry at technician level and postgraduate conversion programmes, Cubanacan, the state tourism agency, has its own technical school. With the focus on the environment being key to the region, the environmental agency has developed a one-year eco tourism specialist VET programme, which 330 tourist guides have undertaken. The programme has two sections, the first of which comprises two parts: general VET and nature topics including bio diversity, sustainability, tourism loading, species and habitat. The second section concentrates on the specific work environment. In addition the programme develops language knowledge. The current programme has a cohort of 158 trainees (Alonso, 2002). Currently a new programme to educate the tourist in environmental awareness is under development. To date there has been no hospitality and tourism degree provision even though there is evidence of tourism and hospitality related research being undertaken at colleges and universities. In July 2002 the new tourism education strategy for Cuba was released. It is designed to address the issues of a rapid tourism industry growth. It will establish four university centres of hospitality and tourism education throughout Cuba to provide, in the first stage, undergraduate degree education. The key aims are to address the management competencies required to move the labour force forward, within the indigenous population, and to enable it to have a parallel professional academic standing to that of

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other Cuban industries. The strategy will serve to boost Cuba’s human resource standing in a highly competitive global tourism industry market. To further inform the development of the strategy, in 2002, a senior delegation of Cuban First ViceMinisters of Education and Tourism undertook a study of hospitality and tourism VET provision within a selection of European centres of hospitality education. Potential outcomes of the strategy are to: . develop strong, competent core Cuban leadership in key hotel management positions; . establish a dedicated human resource structure and development strategy for the industry; . place the hospitality industry qualifications, on a par with other professional qualifications in Cuba; . encourage robust international exchanges of university students and faculty; . promote partnership in joint research between international universities to enable shared views; . build tourist education programmes with tourist operators to manage the education of tourists; . harness the established eco tourism education to the undergraduate provision; . decrease the reliance on conversion courses; and . raise the status of the industry as a career and profession of choice. The Vice-Minister of Tourism (Commerce) recently stated, at an international forum in London, that: Cuba has a recognition of the development needs, education and human resource development, planning and management effort required to capitalise on the tourism potential (Rodriguez de la Vega, 2002).

The new undergraduate degrees will be built on that system whilst using the opportunity to integrate appealing features from other national models.

Change of policy In April 2001, Formatur, in association with the Pan-American Confederation of Hospitality and Tourism Schools (CONPEHT), organised a conference with the theme ‘‘The role of the professor of the hotel and tourism schools’’ in Havana. The keynote address focused on recent initiatives in tourism and hospitality education and training in various Caribbean countries (Jayawardena, 2001b). The questions after the keynote address from hospitality educators in Cuba reflected noteworthy keenness in

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obtaining more information on case studies and experiences in the English-speaking Caribbean. The Cuban Ministry of Education has studied the current and projected rates of growth in the tourism industry while appraising themselves of the hospitality and tourism education systems of other countries. The new master plan for hospitality and tourism undergraduate provision will be gradually integrated into the existing system in partnership with the interested parties and in discussion with senior external educators. Nevertheless, the change in hospitality and tourism educational policy raises a number of issues for discussion: . Will doctors and schoolteachers continue to retrain on conversion courses to compete with school leavers undertaking specialist undergraduate programmes? . Will less of the population enter the professions they were previously trained and educated for in favour of tourism and hospitality business degrees? . Will the introduction of the hospitality and tourism undergraduate programme sit comfortably in the workplace with the current well-educated, but non-specialist, workforce? . What role will the hotel companies play in the phasing in of the strategy? . After the development of the undergraduate programme, should masters and doctoral programmes be developed? . Operationally what will the model look like? Will it incorporate languages, a partial delivery in English, a training restaurant and industry work experience opportunities? . How closely will the provision follow the current Cuban university undergraduate model? . Is this an opportunity to establish further strategic alliances? A number of successful industry-led VET models exist in the international hotel business. Accor for example has its own hotel school in France and operates in Cuba. Cross fertilisation could be beneficial to all parties.

Conclusion Cuba is enthusiastically and strategically embracing the opportunities and challenges that its tourism industry is facing. It has managed to survive and sustain the tourism industry within an increasingly isolated political system over 44 years. During the last ten years it has recorded phenomenal tourism growth rates. Cuba has well

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established its position in the global tourism arena as one of the most mystical tourism products in the world. In the words of the Tourism Minister for Cuba: Tourism is the economic activity in our country which brings in the most income. We are applying a policy of promoting tourism with the introduction of new technologies, greater efficiency and competitiveness. In return, the development of tourism in Cuba has contributed to the formation of and advances in many other fields. We will continue to further the sustainable diversification of tourism. Tourism plays a very important role in promoting friendship and peace among the peoples. If another million tourists visit us in the next five years, they will return home with a clearer understanding of our country and culture – and of the Cuban people’s warm hospitality and friendliness.

Will tourism education strategies be a lever for change as the new tourism graduates move into the industry for a professional career rather than a job with inherent benefits? Certainly the new developments provide an opportunity, for Cuba, to devise a model of global ‘‘best practice’’ in hospitality and tourism education.

References Alonso, G. (2002), ‘‘Eco tourism resources in Cuba’’, Tourism in Cuba: An Update, Cuban Ministry of Tourism Seminar, London, November. Annuario Estadistico de Cuba (2002), Oficina Nacional de Estadisticas, Cuba. CTO (2001), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report 1999-2000, Caribbean Tourism Organisation, Barbados. Cuba Travel (2002), available at: www.cubatravel.cu Direccio´n Nacional de Inmigracio´n y Extranjerı´a (2002), Cuba. Ferradaz, G.I. (2002), ‘‘Minister of Tourism, Cuba, Interview’’, 2nd Iberian American Conference

of Ministers of Tourism, March, Hosteltur, Ideas y Publicidad T, Spain. Garcia, A.L. (2002), ‘‘Eco tourism resources in Cuba’’, Tourism in Cuba: An Update, seminar proceedings, Cuban Ministry of Tourism Seminar, London, November. Jayawardena, C. (2001a), ‘‘Creating hospitality management educational programmes in developing countries’’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 259-66. Jayawardena, C. (2001b), ‘‘Tourism and hospitality education and training in the Caribbean: an analysis of recent initiatives’’, Paper presented as the Keynote Speaker at the Role of the Professor of the Hotel and Tourism School Conference organised by the Pan-American Confederation of Hospitality and Tourism Schools (CONPEHT), Cuba, April. Jayawardena, C. (2003), ‘‘Revolution to revolution: why is tourism booming in Cuba?’’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 52-8. Jayawardena, C. (2002b), ‘‘Cuba: crown princess of Caribbean tourism?’’, Paper presented at the 27th Annual Conference of the Caribbean Studies Association, The Bahamas, May. Jayawardena, C., Jones, A.N. and Boger, E.P. (2002a), ‘‘Destination Cuba! Once and future Caribbean king: implications for African-American heritage tourism’’, Paper presented at the 57th Annual Conference of the Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education (CHRIE), Florida, USA, August. Rodriguez de la Vega, E. (2002), Tourism in Cuba: An Update, Cuban Ministry of Tourism Seminar, London, November. Wood, P. (2002), ‘‘Relationship of culture with tourist accommodation in the Caribbean’’, Pilot Study, International Institute for Culture, Tourism and Development (IICTD), London Metropolitan University, London. WTTC (2001), Destination Report on Cuba, World Travel and Tourism Council, London.

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The future of hospitality education in Grenada

Michelle L. McDonald Student, Beeston, Nottingham, UK Royston O. Hopkin Spice Island Beach Resort, St George’s, Grenada

Keywords Grenada, Hospitality management, Human resource development, Tourism, Stakeholders, Curriculum

Abstract The quality of hospitality education is a topical issue. It is being increasingly realised that the education level of tourism employees impacts on the quality of a country’s tourism industry. As the most tourism-oriented region globally, the Caribbean is slowly awakening to the realisation that, unless its tourism employees are highly educated and skilled, the region will continue to account for an insignificant percentage of world tourism arrivals. In Grenada, hospitality education courses are limited, given the small tourism plant and comparatively low visitor arrivals. Research was undertaken by one of the authors, to explore the opinions of the accommodation sector about current education provisions and the future direction that courses should take. Integration of all stakeholders in the implementation of the broad education policy outlined by the government is crucial to improving hospitality education in Grenada to ensure a competitive tourism industry.

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Introduction The importance of human resources to the tourism industry cannot be disregarded. The labour intensiveness of the industry implies that: . . . the human factor is fundamental to development of the tourism sector since it constitutes the very essence of quality in tourism supply (Amoah and Baum, 1997).

influential western hemispheric grouping with 35 member states from the Americas and the Caribbean – the sector felt that the college does not provide adequately skilled graduates (OAS, 1997). With stay-over visitor arrivals numbering 128,864 in 2002 (CTO, 2002), this tri-island state’s tourism industry has the potential for growth. The government declared that tourism should be a major part of its economic development strategy (OAS, 1997). Given that thrust, the island must examine its existing programmes and policy for hospitality education, in order to ensure that developmental aims and the needs of industry stakeholder groups are being met. It is against this background that the research was carried out in 2002, and one of the main objectives was to explore the opinions of the accommodation sector in Grenada about current and future tourism education programmes, focusing on the principal post-compulsory institution. The research also sought to ascertain the Grenada government’s education policy for development of human resources for the island’s tourism industry.

The Caribbean is the most tourism-oriented region in the world (Hall et al., 2002). Estimates indicate that in 2000, 3.1 million persons were either directly or indirectly employed in tourism in the Caribbean, representing 13.5 per cent of total employment (ILO, 2001). As hospitality education is a vehicle for improving the quality of employees in the industry, it is difficult to comprehend the apparent lack of emphasis on developing human resources for the Caribbean tourism industry. This is mostly exhibited through inadequate funding of institutions (Ramdeen-Joseph, 2003) that are responsible for educating students to a level that is acceptable internationally and for local industry stakeholders. With Caribbean economies so highly dependent on the economic benefits of tourism, attention needs to be given to hospitality education. However, unlike in wealthier nations where more interest is likely to be shown in human resource concerns (Baum, 1994) the investment required for education in tourism is more of a burden for developing countries (Amoah and Baum, 1997). In the Eastern Caribbean island of Grenada, stakeholders in the accommodation sector have levelled criticism at the main post-compulsory institution providing hospitality courses. According to the tourism master plan compiled in 1997 by the Organization of American States – an

Tourism in Grenada is still untapped. From the early journeys made by adventurous travellers in the 1960s, through the period of political instability in the 1970s and 1980s, Grenada was slow to get on the tourism bandwagon, as so many of the other islands in the region did. Government officials say that Grenada is not a mass tourist destination. Indeed, with fewer than 2,000 rooms in the accommodation sector, as well as lack of airlift, it is the very determined, and those who know of the charm of the island that make the effort to travel as far south as they do. When they arrive, they find

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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

The tourism industry in Grenada

Michelle L. McDonald and Royston O. Hopkin The future of hospitality education in Grenada International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 156-160

an unspoilt, picturesque, diverse destination. Being relatively expensive due to its southerly location in the Windward Islands chain, holidays taken in Grenada can be quite costly. This suggests that it is the higher income traveller who can afford to come to Grenada, and therefore, expectations are high. The charm, hospitality and near-perfect attitudes of the Grenadian workers can mask skill and education deficiencies. With Grenada competing for its share of a shrinking market, as new tourist destinations are developed, these deficiencies have to be addressed since the quality of tourism employees determine to a great extent, the growth levels of visitor arrivals. A solid, comprehensive education programme is therefore vital to keep human resource development in stride with future planned growth of the tourism sector.

Current hospitality education programmes New Life Organisation (NEWLO) is a vocational training centre for youth, with its main aim being to provide quality vocational and life skills for disadvantaged young people. Courses last for six months and include an internship period. The T.A. Marryshow Community College (TAMCC) is Grenada’s main post-compulsory institution, where a Department of Hospitality Arts was established in 1988. The two certificate programmes offered are aimed at providing multi-skilled personnel for the local hospitality industry. These are: . Food and beverage operations – duration of one year, targeted at providing skilled waiters/waitresses, basic cooks and tour guides. The programme targets students who did not gain entry to secondary school, but have completed the primary ‘‘school leaving’’ examination. Average class size is 15. . Hotel and catering – duration is two years, targeted at providing skilled employees to any department in the hospitality industry, except maintenance. It is aimed at secondary school graduates with at least two GCE ‘‘O’’ Level/Caribbean Examination Council passes and average class size is also 15. Grenada does not have any hospitality management degree programmes. The St George’s University, a US off-shore institution, has sought to develop a hospitality management programme for many years, however, this has not yet been established. In January 2002 however, the

university offered a three-credit course lasting 16 weeks entitled ‘‘Introduction to Hospitality Management’’. There were also plans to offer a ‘‘Travel and Tourism’’ course in Autumn 2002. Those aspiring to management positions must therefore pursue their undergraduate degrees overseas. In 1997, feedback from the accommodation sector indicated that the hospitality graduates of both TAMCC and NEWLO were below the standards required for entry-level personnel in the hospitality sector. The graduates were described as being deficient in both conceptual knowledge and practical skills. The limited academic background of these students was also described as a constraint, in that it hindered their abilities to progress to supervisory and managerial levels (OAS, 1997). Five years on, this was the same feedback received during the research undertaken in 2002. Hoteliers indicated that TAMCC graduates do not have any advantages over other applicants when it comes to employment and salary. In fact, only 33 per cent of hoteliers interviewed seek TAMCC graduates first when a vacancy arises (McDonald, 2002). What direction, therefore, must hospitality education take in the future to ensure that graduates meet the needs of employers in the industry?

Education policy The Ministry of Education (2002) states that one of the ‘‘significant shortcomings’’ of the education system in Grenada is insufficient links to national training needs and the world of work. In the Strategic Plan for Educational Enhancement and Development 2002-2010 (SPEED), the government acknowledges that: Education is the key to progress. It follows that education is a principal contributor to the development of human resources for national economic and social improvement (Ministry of Education, 2002).

SPEED has, as a core strategic objective, to ‘‘develop a coherent human resource development (HRD) framework with special focus on post-secondary career training’’. A sub-strategic objective is to ‘‘develop a comprehensive HRD policy’’ with a target date of 2003 and ‘‘develop the capacity of TAMCC to offer a wide range of training to up to the post-graduate level’’. The priority rating on this sub-objective is ‘‘high’’ and the plan recognizes the need to provide training of trainers and other support by 2006. One of the activities to be undertaken is ‘‘provide adequate institutional capacity to develop relevant curricula with stakeholder

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participation’’. An output of this activity will be ‘‘revised curricula’’ and the means for monitoring this activity will be ‘‘employer surveys’’.

Future direction of hospitality education The relevance of the curriculum of the two-year course at TAMCC was questioned by the accommodation sector during the employer survey undertaken in 2002. Grenada does not have many large hotels, which usually have extensive resources for training and development. Consequently, an ineffective TAMCC programme presents a challenge to small hotels. Improving hospitality education in Grenada must, therefore, commence with the TAMCC programmes. Before setting a course of action however, it is necessary to identify the area of greatest need. Figure 1 identifies the four levels of employment that are generally considered to exist in the tourism industry. Jayawardena (2001) recommends that the structure of any programme should take into account medium term and current needs first. Research findings indicated that the accommodation sub-sector has most difficulty filling positions at the craft/skilled level. Grenada’s accommodation sector comprises many locally owned family-run units. The result is that there are less managerial positions available. Also, the size of the majority of the properties diminishes the need for a large number of management personnel. Although some respondents felt that there is a skills gap in all levels, the majority believe that improvements need to be made to the current education programmes for the craft/skilled level (McDonald, 2002).

Figure 1 Levels of employment in the tourism industry

Hoteliers felt that they should be involved in the design of curricula and 62 per cent of respondents would make significant changes to the two-year course to make it more relevant. The majority felt that there should be more tourism- and hospitality-specific subjects on the curriculum, which should include more practical than theory (McDonald, 2002). Any curriculum review will need to further explore these stakeholder opinions. St George’s University is keen to develop its beachfront property into a hotel school. At the time of writing, some preliminary preparatory work had been undertaken in this regard. The university would only be interested in offering the third and fourth years of a baccalaureate degree. Therefore, collaboration with TAMCC would possibly entail students undertaking a two-year Associate Degree run by TAMCC, then progressing to the degree programme, if so desired. At the moment, the courses offered by the Hospitality Arts department at TAMCC are not accredited so they are not recognized, neither locally nor internationally. A draft paper for submission to government by TAMCC states that no significant attempts have been made by governments in the past to have recognition granted for its courses (TAMCC, 2002). This campaign is in its infancy. Support will be hinged on employers’ opinions of graduates of the college. This is a ‘‘chicken and egg’’ situation since employers’ opinions may not change unless the programmes are upgraded, but the programmes may not be upgraded unless employers commit to supporting them by giving its graduates preference when recruiting (McDonald, 2002). With an upgrade of TAMCC’s courses, the need for qualified educators will arise. Development of the existing faculty must go hand-in-hand with any curriculum changes so that hospitality education ‘‘leads the industry rather than follows it’’ (Jayawardena, 2001a). This development must not only be in the area of knowledge enhancement, but also in updating the faculty in modern up-to-date techniques and innovations which allow for a student-centred approach to teaching and learning. Faculty internships in high quality hotels are also recommended. The Caribbean Tourism Organization’s (CTO) Caribbean Tourism Human Resource Council (CTHRC) is playing an important role in human resource development for the regional tourism industry. Established in 1997, CTHRC has as its mission statement: To develop and promote a systematic and coordinated approach to human resources

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planning, research, education and training in Caribbean tourism, to meet the demands of a globally competitive tourism environment (CTHRC, 2002a).

In a recent initiative, the CTHRC began collaborating with the Education Reform Unit (OERU) of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) on the Caribbean Tourism Learning System (CTLS) project (CTHRC, 2002b). This project is funded by the Canadian government and is patterned after a similar project in Canada. The main objective of the project is to develop a core curriculum for associate degrees, which will be used in 15 institutions in the region and TAMCC will be one of these. The college must ensure that there is integration of efforts, and work closely with CTHRC. In order to produce highly skilled graduates, TAMCC will need to attract the brightest and the best and this will necessitate changes to the admission requirements. Currently, the image of the industry is poor. ‘‘Pots and pan’’ and ‘‘last resort’’ are some of the expressions used to describe it. The society unfortunately sees the industry as making its employees subservient. It is recommended that successful tourism entrepreneurs and tourism employees be used as role models in order to make young people gravitate towards a career in tourism. Those who are critical of it do not understand it, so the perception of the Grenadian people will have to be changed through effective public awareness campaigns. The linkages that tourism has with other sectors have to be highlighted, and it is suggested that awareness programmes be implemented from the primary school level.

Conclusion For the first quarter of 2002, after the aftermath of 11 September, Grenada was one of only five CTO member countries to register an increase over a similar period in 2001 (CTO, 2002). This is significant as it demonstrates the potential that Grenada has as a tourist destination. One theme regarding education for the tourism industry rings like a recurring symbol throughout Caribbean nations. Baum (1995) quotes John Bell’s opinion that: Despite the labour intensive nature of the hotel and tourism sector, and many technical and practical skills involved, those hotel training schools, invariably government owned, that do exist within the region are horribly under-funded, under-established and in general treated like low grade technical

schools for students who cannot make it into other careers (Baum, 1995).

Grenada can distance itself from comments like this by allocating sufficient financial resources to TAMCC in order for its programmes to make an impact on the local labour market by providing highly qualified, competent graduates. The proposed St George’s University/TAMCC hotel school project, if realised, should be private-sector-led, with a substantial subsidy provided by the government initially. Without this government support, hospitality education in Grenada will continue to maintain the ‘‘step-sister’’ image it now holds. The ‘‘monopoly’’ on hospitality education which TAMCC holds, implies that its curriculum content should satisfy the needs of the stakeholders it is intended to serve, since they have little choice of programmes from which to recruit employees. The mistake that is generally made in developing countries is that overseas consultants are allowed to develop curriculum that are not relevant to the local needs. Where success has been achieved, it has involved stakeholder participation helping to shape the kind of curriculum which would account for the local context and be beneficial to the local tourism sector. This should be a focal point for TAMCC in order to improve current provisions. The Grenadian government needs to be bold and discontinue the ‘‘lip-service’’ that some stakeholders feel it has been paying to the importance of tourism. A tangible demonstration of this would be the implementation of SPEED and in particular, the development a comprehensive human resource development policy by the end of 2003 with emphasis on a policy specific to the tourism industry. SPEED’s success would impact positively on future hospitality education in Grenada. An essential ingredient is the integration of all stakeholders of hospitality education in its implementation. The dialogue is long overdue.

References Amoah, V.A. and Baum, T. (1997), ‘‘Tourism education: policy versus practice’’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 5-12. Baum, T. (1994), ‘‘National tourism policies: implementing the human resource dimension’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 15, pp. 259-66. Baum, T. (1995), ‘‘The role of the public sector in the development and implementation of human resource policies in tourism’’,

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Tourism Recreation Research, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 25-31. CTHRC (2002a), Building a Competitive Caribbean Tourism Workforce: CTHRC 2002-2004 Strategic Plan (Revised Draft May 2002), Caribbean Tourism Human Resource Council, Barbados. CTHRC (2002b), Results of the Caribbean Core Curriculum Technical Workshop and Recommendations, Caribbean Tourism Human Resource Council, Barbados. CTO (2002), Tourism Statistics 2001, Caribbean Tourism Organization, Barbados. Hall, K.O., Holder, J.S. and Jayawardena, C. (2002), ‘‘Caribbean tourism and the role of UWI in tourism and hospitality education’’, Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 145-65. ILO (2001), Human Resources Development, Employment and Globalization in the Hotel, Catering and Tourism Sector, International Labour Organization, Geneva. Jayawardena, C. (2001), ‘‘Creating hospitality management educational programmes in developing countries’’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 259-66. Jayawardena, C. (2001a), ‘‘Challenges in international hospitality management

education’’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 13 No. 6, pp. 310-15. McDonald, M.L. (2002), ‘‘Stakeholders’ opinions of tourism education in Grenada’’, unpublished MSc dissertation, University of Surrey, Guildford. Ministry of Education (2002), Strategic Plan for Educational Enhancement and Development 2002-2010, Government of Grenada, Grenada. OAS (1997), Master Plan for the Tourism Sector: Grenada, Carriacou, Petite Martinique, Organization of American States, Grenada. Ramdeen-Joseph, N. (2003), ‘‘Past, present and future role of institutions offering hospitality education in Grenada’’, in Jayawardena, C. (Ed.), Tourism and Hospitality Education and Training in the Caribbean, University of the West Indies Press, Jamaica. TAMCC (2002), Recognition of TAMCC Associate Degree and Certificates: Draft Paper, T.A. Marryshow Community College, Tanteen, Grenada. Westlake, J. (1997), ‘‘Hotel and tourism training: case studies from the University of Surrey’’, in Human Capital in the Tourism Industry of the 21st Century, WTO, Madrid, pp. 269-81.

Internal marketing of attitudes in Caribbean tourism

Anne P. Crick Department of Management Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica

Keywords Tourism, Attitudes, Caribbean, Internal marketing, Market share

Abstract Tourism is the mainstay of the Caribbean and the attitude of the people in the region may have a significant impact on the success of the industry. This paper analyzes the way in which tourism authorities of three Caribbean destinations have internally marketed tourism to their host populations in order to encourage the desired attitudinal expressions. A matrix of five possible responses to tourism was developed and each of the three countries was found to occupy different positions in the matrix. An analysis of the internal marketing strategies determined that the countries adopted different approaches based on their particular challenges but none of the approaches had achieved lasting success. The study concludes with recommendations for future research.

Internal marketing is the promoting of the firm and its product(s) or product lines to the firm’s employees (Greene et al., 1994). It uses marketing analysis and techniques aimed at the internal market of the company to make the changes necessary for the external strategy to be effective (Piercy, 1992). When successfully done, internal marketing aligns, educates and motivates staff towards the achievement of organizational objectives and

helps them to understand their role in the achievement of those objectives (Rafiq and Ahmed, 2000). Successful implementation of a tourism programme depends on the internal marketing of tourism to the community. The community is informed of the benefits of tourism with the goal of helping it to better understand tourists and their motives for journeying to the destination. This is critical, because it is so important that all the people of the country support the industry. Tourism may, in fact, be unique in that when visitors come to a destination they encounter not only specifically designated service employees, but also members of the general population. These individuals are not paid for their role in enhancing the tourist’s experience but must behave appropriately because they form such an integral part of it. Indeed, many tourist promotions promise tourists that the entire population is willing to extend a friendly welcome to them. Internal marketing in tourism is based on the assumption that, if the host population understands and benefits from tourism then it will welcome it. There is, therefore, a focus on the benefits of tourism such as foreign exchange earnings, employment and infrastructural development. Internal marketing often ignores the costs associated with tourism. These costs include environmental degradation, the disruption of everyday lives and changes in the destination’s cultural values and norms (McIntosh and Goeldner, 1986; Patullo, 1996; Brown, 2000). They may affect the way in which the internal marketing promotion is received by the target market. Tourism internal marketing is usually directed at creating an acceptance of tourism despite these problems. The goal is to influence the attitudes that the host population holds towards tourists and to

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Introduction Tourism is critical to the Caribbean, providing substantial foreign exchange earnings and jobs. A vital pillar underpinning the industry is the friendliness and warmth of the Caribbean people. Despite the importance of these attitudes in tourism, few studies have examined the subject and there has been little, if any, analysis of the structures and systems used to create and enhance the appropriate attitudes. This paper attempts to fill that gap by critically analyzing how three Caribbean destinations have internally marketed tourism to their populations, specifically in the area of attitudes. The paper begins by defining internal marketing and describing its role in tourism. The second section of the paper highlights the importance of emotions and attitudes in tourism and develops a matrix of attitudinal responses towards tourists. Section three of the paper analyzes the internal marketing strategies of three Caribbean destinations, especially as they relate to the creation and maintenance of the requisite emotions and attitudes in their host populations. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of this study and areas for future research.

Internal marketing in tourism

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ultimately influence the way that they interact with tourists. The next section examines the role of emotions and attitudes in tourism.

Figure 1 Tourism attitude matrix

Emotions and attitudes in tourism Tourist destinations make extensive use of emotions in their promotions. Vacationers are always seen to be happy and relaxed and are often depicted as being served by equally happy locals (Wheeler, 1995). Promotions also make specific claims that suggest to potential visitors that the host population in general is not only hospitable, but also anxious to share their hospitality with the visitor. Further, pictures frequently depict visitors and locals interacting in friendly ways. While the attitudes and emotions that are actually held by locals may not always be the same as those that are depicted, promotions usually do not give any indication that locals may feel resentful about the encroachment of tourists (Wheeler, 1995). In fact, where such feelings do exist, promoters of tourism have to be concerned about either reducing them, or encouraging hosts to display positive emotions irrespective of internally held feelings. Promoters also have to address harmful behaviours such as tourist harassment that would impact negatively on tourism. Tourism promoters are therefore faced with the daunting challenge of managing the emotions and attitudes of an entire population. While in a commercial setting, individual managers can contractually obligate their employees to comply with their emotional requirements; this is not possible when dealing with the general population of a country where no contract exists. Tourism officials can therefore only attempt to persuade the host population to display the appropriate attitudes. In the focus of this paper – tourism, there are at least five situations that authorities may face in their attempts to persuade. These are depicted in Figure 1. First, the host population may genuinely have the desired attitudes towards tourists. That is they may really want to welcome them to the country and befriend them (Position A). A second possibility is that they may not have the desired attitudes but are willing to act as if they did (Position B). The host population may, for example, resent tourists and the changes that they bring but may be willing to hide these feelings and pretend to have positive feelings. The third possibility is that the host population does not have the desired attitudes and fails to conceal the fact

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(Position C). A fourth possibility is that the host population holds negative feelings towards tourists and shows these negative feelings (Position D). Finally, there may be a neutral position where the host population is essentially indifferent to tourism (Position E). Position A is clearly the most favourable position for tourism authorities and would logically be the thrust of internal marketing campaigns. If the host population already holds and expresses positive feelings towards tourists then the goal would be to maintain these feelings. If the host population does not hold these feelings then the goal is to get them there. Position B is less desirable but also acceptable because it still results in the display of the right attitudes. It may also be a more realistic position considering the sizeable target population. The neutral position (E) may not be desirable because neutrality towards tourists may change very readily to a more negative position. Tourism authorities would therefore want to work on those in Position E to move them to the more favourable Positions of A or B. Positions C and D are both undesirable positions because the visitor may be the target of negative emotional displays and attitudes. Position D is particularly dangerous because people in that position may threaten visitors physically or verbally, resulting in negative word of mouth and ultimately a downturn in the industry. Position C is also serious because if visitors have been promised a friendly and warm welcome and receive the opposite they may feel cheated. The third section of this paper describes how three Caribbean tourist destinations have gone about trying to get their host populations to display the appropriate attitudes to tourists.

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Method The three countries represent a convenience sample rather than a representative sample of the region. Nonetheless, they do display some of the variation in the region in terms of stage of tourist development, size and social and economic development. The study involved three phases: 1 literature review – review of brochures and relevant tourism documents; 2 interviews of two key tourism officials involved in internal marketing in each destination; and 3 visits to the destinations.

The Caribbean In this paper the term ‘‘Caribbean’’’ refers to the 34 countries that are members of the Caribbean Tourism Organization. Most of the countries in the Caribbean are former plantation economies and colonies with a population predominantly made up of descendants of slaves. Tourism, with its quick injections of foreign exchange and opportunities for development and employment, has been seen as critical to the survival of most of the countries in the region. The three countries selected for this study have fully embraced tourism and have dedicated significant resources to its promotion and development.

Jamaica Jamaica – the third largest English speaking country in the Caribbean – has pursued tourism seriously since the 1950s. As traditional sources of earning such as agriculture and mining have declined, tourism has become more important as a source of foreign exchange and employment. The country was and continues to be a sand, sea and sun destination, but has long ago diversified and today is also known for its vibrant music festivals, heritage and culture. Promotions have always tried to portray the diversity of the culture and as early as 1968 the Jamaica Tourist Board described its promotional strategy as being: To present Jamaica as it is – a country with its own character, cultural development and idiosyncrasies.

This strategy meant that the Jamaican people were as much on show as were the island’s natural attributes. Bob Marley’s signature tune ‘‘One Love’’ has featured prominently in advertisements that also invite visitors to ‘‘Come to Jamaica and feel alright’’. Despite these inviting pictures, Jamaicans are not uniformly seen as welcoming to

visitors. In fact as many as 43 per cent of visitors say that they have been harassed while on vacation (JTB Report on Harassment, 1999). In a 2000 survey of eight warm weather destinations, visitors described their perception of Jamaicans as being ‘‘the most lazy, dishonest, unresponsive, unreliable, threatening, surly and hostile’’ people among those of the eight warm weather destinations (Alexander, 2000). For their part, many Jamaicans feel excluded from the industry. A recent study found further that tourism was considered to be the domain of the ‘‘big man’’ (Dunn and Dunn, 2002). The same study found that there was a simmering resentment about the exclusion from the industry – particularly from those who lived in areas close to the resorts. It is perhaps for this reason that Jamaica has a very sophisticated internal marketing programme. The most consistent strategy has been to emphasize the financial benefits that derive from tourism through radio, television and print campaigns aimed at the general public with the general theme ‘‘tourism is our business’’ – a reminder that the country needs tourism in order to survive. The focus would appear to be on moving the population to Quadrant B. In other words, tourism authorities are focusing on encouraging the host population to display the requisite feelings and emotions irrespective of personal feelings. This is not a uniform strategy, however, since tourism officials appear to be trying to move direct tourism employees and school children into Quadrant A – that is to the point where they hold positive feelings about tourism. Jamaica has recently launched its ‘‘tourism infusion’’ programme which is intended to introduce and teach tourism concepts to students through inclusion in other subjects. Its stated goals are to promote more positive and caring attitudes towards tourism and to encourage young people to prepare themselves for careers in tourism. Other school programmes include partnerships with hotels and tourism debates and quizzes. Another significant Quadrant A activity involves the ‘‘Team Jamaica’’ programme. This programme is mandatory for all tourism-related workers including craft vendors and taxi drivers. It aims to, among other things, train tourism employees in the appropriate behaviours and attitudes by developing their own self-esteem and knowledge about the industry.

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St Lucia St Lucia was, until recently, highly dependent on the banana industry as a source of employment and foreign exchange earnings. The loss of preferential markets has meant that the country has turned more fully towards tourism and today it is the number one industry in the country in terms of GDP, foreign exchange earnings and it also accounts for a large percentage of jobs. Originally a sand, sea and sun destination, St Lucia has attempted to diversify into cultural and environmental tourism. The people of St Lucia remain central to the promotions, however, since St Lucia has also sought to highlight the diversity of its heritage. One brochure describes the island as being ‘‘rich in history, a perfect blend of French, British and African cultures’’. It continues, explaining that ‘‘the colourful nature of history, culture and race makes the locals unique and ideal for discovery’’. Surveys indicate that St Lucians see tourism as important with more than half of the respondents believing that tourism had a positive effect on their lives and provided employment and financial benefits. This belief tended to vary with the involvement in tourism (Public Awareness and Attitudinal Survey, 2001). Two potential problems are, however, that the people of St Lucia see tourism as being owned and managed by foreigners and that more than half of the respondents did not believe that St Lucia had benefitted culturally from tourism (Coathrup, 2002). There is also evidence from the Public Awareness and Attitudinal Survey (2001) that while tourism is seen as important to the financial wellbeing of the country it has not been fully accepted as a replacement for agriculture – formerly the country’s main foreign exchange earner. St Lucian authorities also admit to some concern about the level of harassment of tourists and the relative indifference that some St Lucians hold towards the industry. Statistics indicate that while those directly involved in tourism can attest to its benefits, those who are not directly involved are less likely to see it as beneficial, suggesting that a large number of St Lucians do not appear to be strongly supportive of the industry. St Lucia would therefore appear to have much of its population in Quadrant E – not hostile to tourism but not particularly warm to it either. This would be in keeping with the fact that St Lucia can be described as being in transition – only recently having to depend so fully on tourism as a source of foreign exchange and jobs. The fragility of Position E would be of concern to the authorities however, because it can so easily move to the

less favourable positions in Quadrants C or D. The key challenge for St Lucian authorities is therefore to move people from the neutral position to Positions A or B, where there are positive feelings about tourism. St Lucian authorities have attempted to do so by emphasizing the financial benefits of tourism to the average St Lucian. They have used radio, television and popular theatre to promote the stories of everyday St Lucians who earn their living from tourism. The authorities have also invested significant amounts of time in visiting schools and communities to share their message. There is also an ‘‘adopt a school’’ programme and a plan to get hoteliers to commit to giving at least one lecture a year to students. The St Lucian authorities have gone further however. One tourism official describes the keywords of their internal marketing strategy as being ‘‘ownership and partnership’’. Part of the internal marketing strategy is therefore to make sure that communities benefit directly from tourism. Weekly street festivals are community sponsored with the role of the tourism authorities being merely to promote them and give guidance where necessary. Similarly, the government has made sure that community groups have been involved and have taken ownership of many of the heritage projects. The St Lucian strategy appears, therefore, to be an effort to persuade the host population to move into quadrant A by helping them to reap financial and other benefits from tourism.

The Bahamas Like Jamaica, The Bahamas has a relatively developed tourist product having been seriously involved in tourism since the 1950s. It is an archipelago of islands and is highly dependent on tourism with four out of ten jobs and 75 per cent of foreign exchange earnings coming from the industry. Like the other countries in this study, The Bahamas has primarily sun, sand and sea tourism but has recently tried to diversify by encouraging visitors to come to explore the natural delights of the family or ‘‘out’’ islands. The ‘‘out’’ islands are portrayed as being exceptionally friendly and welcoming to tourists. The most recent advertising strategy geared towards the USA is to emphasize the closeness in distance as well as friendship between the two countries (Capron, 2001). According to Bahamian officials, tourism has been highly regarded by most Bahamians because it is so central to the economy. Despite this there are serious concerns about two factors. The first is the fact that tourism

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still continues to be seen as an industry of last resort for job seekers. Related to that is the concern that those involved in tourism see it merely as a job rather than as a profession requiring their full attention and effort. Bahamian officials are also concerned about recent slippages in their ratings. The 2001 National Tourism Quality Assurance survey revealed that 14 per cent of visitors said that it was ‘‘somewhat unlikely’’ or ‘‘unlikely’’ that they would recommend The Bahamas to their friends and relatives. Reasons included bad attitudes (Gilbert, 2002). The survey also indicated that 13 per cent of tourists surveyed were unhappy with the bad attitudes and behaviour among the Bahamian people. In The Bahamas, the problem appears to be mainly in Quadrant C where Bahamians, perhaps used to tourism after such a long exposure to it, may have become jaded by it and may even resent some of the changes that it engenders. There is also evidence of problems in Quadrant D with the level of harassment becoming of some concern to officials. Bahamian authorities appear to be concerned about moving people to Quadrant A and to do this they use the financial benefits of tourism to encourage Bahamians to hold positive attitudes towards tourism. They remind them, for example, that because of the parity of their dollar with the US dollar Bahamians enjoy a much stronger purchasing power than their Caribbean counterparts and that 65 per cent of government revenue comes primarily from customs duties – a direct result of tourism. The Bahamian way of life is therefore demonstrated to be highly dependent on tourism. Like Jamaica, The Bahamas also focuses on its schoolchildren. Two programmes – Hospitality Opportunities through Experiential Learning (HOTEL) and Tourism Education Awareness Module (TEAM) have been specifically developed for the schools. There are also summer fairs, debates and mentoring programmes targeted towards schoolchildren. Again, in common with Jamaica, The Bahamas has a mandatory training programme for all tourist employees. The ‘‘Bahamahost’’ programme that was the model for Jamaica’s ‘‘Team Jamaica’’ programme, attempts to build self-esteem in tourist employees by increasing their knowledge of the industry. While this programme is a cornerstone of the Tourism Ministry’s efforts, officials are concerned about its ability to effect long lasting change. They are therefore in the process of

introducing a new programme – ‘‘Bahamahost Gold’’, which will be directed at the high performers in the industry. The idea is to target this smaller group for more intensive training than would be possible with a larger group. The Bahamas has also introduced ‘‘Adventures with Attitude’’ – a programme that has started with employees of the Ministry of Tourism and will eventually be spread to the wider industry. The programme does not focus on interactions with tourists but rather interactions with other Bahamians. The philosophy is steeped in the thinking of internal customer service – that is, if people treat each other better, then that will eventually flow into the way that they interact with customers (see, for example, Heskett et al., 1997). A final aspect of the Bahamian internal marketing strategy is the National Tourism Quality Assurance Programme which is currently producing a special training module that is intended to address negative behaviour patterns or trends and to promote friendly and courteous service. This programme involves the services of a psychiatrist who will be used to help to identify cultural barriers and areas of receptiveness to the training (Gilbert, 2001). Again this indicates the intention to move towards Quadrant A – positive feelings and acceptance of tourism.

Conclusion The three countries examined have built their tourism promotions on, among other factors, the warmth and friendliness of their people. Their internal marketing strategies are therefore focused on trying to make sure that when tourists come to the country they do in fact experience this warmth and friendliness. The study has shown that the three countries are starting at different points in the tourist attitude matrix with Jamaica facing problems with the expression and non-concealment of negative feelings, The Bahamas, with the non-concealment of negative feelings; and St Lucia, primarily with a neutral or indifferent feeling to tourism. Strategies used by The Bahamas and St Lucia seem to be concerned about getting their host populations to both hold and express positive feelings while Jamaica has shown a more segmented approach. Despite significant expenditure in all three countries, the internal marketing campaign continues to be essential, indicating that it has not been successful in creating the desired attitudes. In fact, all three countries have indicated that they intend to step up

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their campaigns because they are concerned about slippages in attitude. This paper merely sought to introduce the topic and reasons for the lack of success are therefore beyond its scope; but the study does introduce some interesting areas for research that might explain it. Future research should examine, for example, whether the host population believes the message of the internal marketing campaign. Surveys from Jamaica and St Lucia suggest that the message of financial benefits may not be fully accepted by the wider population. Therefore, while tourism authorities have tried to vary the way in which the message has been delivered, perhaps they should examine the way in which the message is perceived. Future research should also examine the ‘‘noise’’ that may be affecting the message. There may be some deep-seated feelings, such as preference for the more independent agricultural base in St Lucia, that create some resistance to the message. A final issue has to do with the external message and its depiction of the people of the country. Research should examine whether the message is one that remains appropriate and acceptable to the host populations and if not, how would they like to be portrayed?

References Alexander, D. (2000), ‘‘US tourists finds locals hostile, lazy, unreliable’’, The Sunday Gleaner, 30 January, p. 1A. Brown, K.L.A. (2000), ‘‘Physical and socio-economic impacts of tourist recreational activities in Montego Bay, Ocho Rios and Port Antonio’’, in Maerk, J. and Boxill, I. (Eds), Tourism in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdes, Mexico, pp. 93-116. Capron, A. (2001), ‘‘Survey findings concern tourism sector’’, The Nassau Guardian (on line edition), 18 December.

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Coathrup, D.C. (2002), ‘‘Situational analysis and overview: the tourism sector in St Lucia’’, a discussion paper. Dunn, H.S. and Dunn, L. (2002), People and Tourism: Issues and Attitudes in the Jamaican Hospitality Industry, Arawak Publications, Kingston, Jamaica. Gilbert, L. (2001), ‘‘Tourists have last say’’, The Nassau Guardian (on line edition), 18 December. Gilbert, L. (2002), ‘‘Hotelier calls for changed attitudes’’, The Nassau Guardian (on line edition), 4 March. Greene, W.E., Walls, G.D. and Schrest, L.J. (1994), ‘‘Internal marketing: the key to external marketing success’’, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 5-13. Heskett, J.L., Sasser, W.E. and Schlesinger, L.A. (1997), The Service Profit Chain, Free Press, New York, NY. Jamaica Tourist Board Survey on Harassment (1999). McIntosh, R.W. and Goeldner, C.R. (1986), Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Patullo, P. (1996), Last Resorts: The Cost of Tourism in the Caribbean, Ian Randle Publishers, Kingston, Jamaica. Piercy, N.F. (1992), ‘‘Customer satisfaction and the internal market: marketing our customers to our employees’’, Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 22-44. Public Awareness and Attitudinal Survey of St Lucians to the Tourism Industry and Tourism Development (2001), Prepared by Research and Information Systems Department, St Lucia Tourist Board, November. Rafiq, M. and Ahmed, P.K. (2000), ‘‘Advances in the internal marketing concept: definition, synthesis and extension’’, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 6, pp. 449-62. Wheeler, M. (1995), ‘‘Tourism marketing ethics: an introduction’’, International Marketing Review, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 38-49.

The ‘‘all-inclusive’’ concept in the Caribbean

John J. Issa SuperClubs, Kingston, Jamaica Chandana Jayawardena Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Jamaica

Keywords Holiday industry, Tourism, Quality, Caribbean, Hotels, Hospitality industry

Abstract Seeks to review the all-inclusive concept in the context of the Caribbean. The origin of allinclusives in the world and the Caribbean is analysed. The concept was first introduced in holiday camps in Britain during the 1930s. Club Med is credited for popularizing the concept globally in the 1950s. However, the credit of introducing a luxury version of the all-inclusive concept goes to a Jamaican hotelier and co-author of this article. In defining the concept of all-inclusives, one cannot ignore the significant role Jamaica has played. Currently, Jamaica has 17 of the best 100 all-inclusive resorts in the world. Even though all-inclusives are occasionally criticized, they are seen as a necessary evil. Concludes by predicting that allinclusives are here to stay in the Caribbean and will play a major role in tourism for the foreseeable future.

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The concept

prices. During its growth phase, it was the aim of the club camp to provide a holiday experience for the low-income vacationer. By the middle of the 1960s, the company had established itself as the leader of Club Holiday, targeted initially at young singles destined for a fun loving, adventurous vacation. Club Med gained fame as a free-wheeling venue for singles. Its popularly spurred imitators and competitors. Over time, Club Med shifted from its ‘‘swinging singles’’ image to a broader family market. Since its inception, the Club Med holiday concept has taken off in Europe, Asia, Africa and of course, the Caribbean. Although the cruise industry offers a similar package concept to the all-inclusive vacation, payment is still made for such extras as alcoholic beverages and some activities, much like the Club Med vacation. Clark (2000) investigated deals at three Caribbean all-inclusive resorts and on three cruise lines and concluded: . the land-based resorts generally offered more amenities in the base price, but they also cost 12 per cent more to twice as much as cruises; . as cruise pricing tends to be more volatile than resort pricing, travelers with some flexibility can take advantage of deep discounts offered; . once on board a cruise ship, such extras as drinks, shore excursions, tips and, on newer ships, premium foods and activities can add hundreds of extra dollars to the tab; and . at many all-inclusive resorts, rates typically include all food, land and water activities, equipment with instruction, drinks and tips.

It is generally accepted that the all-inclusive and cruise businesses are the most vibrant, dynamic and fastest growing sub-sectors in the tourism industry in the Caribbean. According to Paris and Zona-Paris (1999), the all-inclusive philosophy espouses no surprises (unless surprise is part of the program), especially unexpected costs. It promises consistency and quality – good beverages and fare, safe and comfortable accommodations, caring staff, and plenty of accessible activities. Poon (1998) states that the original all-inclusive concept has been around for a long time and was first introduced in the holiday camps (Butlins, Pontins) in Britain during the 1930s. However, they were not totally all-inclusive because they were not cashless. Drinks, tips and other services were paid for in some form of currency. In the 1950s, Club Meditarranee, the French company popularly known as ‘‘Club Med’’, started to expand the concept of the holiday camp around the globe. Club Med was the first different hotel product created for warm weather beach destinations. According to Clark (2000), the product was designed to eliminate extra charges that can sour the sweetest of vacations. Club Med must be given the credit for having invented the club holiday and successfully expanding the concept around the world. However, again, they were not all-inclusive by today’s definition of the word, as one still had to use plastic beads as currency to purchase drinks and other services. The Club Med type of vacation was successful during the early post-war years in setting different standards in comfort and providing new, continuous entertainment for all ages at reasonable

Poon (1998) describes the all-inclusive concept as an important product innovation

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in the international tourism market place, as it packages various elements of the tourism product. They introduce some degree of product differentiation to the traditional Caribbean hotel product. She describes the sector as a: . . . logical progression from independent group package travel, half board, full board and ultimately full service.

All-inclusives have revolutionised and have made a major impact on the concept of hospitality service in most Caribbean countries. It was a fundamentally different holiday where a visitor had to carry no form of currency, paper, coin or plastic. In the Caribbean today, generally the all-inclusive concept goes much further and covers practically everything a hotel or resort has to offer, including all drinks, taxes, transfers from and to airport to hotel and sports, with tipping being prohibited. A result of such a price package, in most cases, is money being eliminated from the holiday experience and the visitor knowing in advance what their holiday is likely to cost, except for personal expenses, such as telephone calls, laundry, car hire, dining off-property and shopping. Some resorts’ rates also include airport transfers, snacks, scuba diving, weddings, horseback riding, spa treatments, golf and more. As almost everything is paid for before leaving home, guests can relax without worrying about currency exchange rates, local tipping customs, running out of cash or exceeding their budget. According to Poon (1998), the all-inclusive concept and the idea of being protected in a closed resort was particularly appealing to many visitors. Not only that, but all-inclusive resorts are becoming a fixture of the vacation landscape in a growing number of destinations as consumer demand fuels their expansion and the product evolves to meet the needs of today’s travelers.

Developments in the Caribbean It was out of adversity that the Jamaican and Caribbean’s all-inclusive industry was born. This at a time when Jamaica’s tourism industry at the time did not need any more rooms unless the rooms were different or offered a different holiday. The concept practiced by Club Med and the cruise industry, both of which were somewhat inclusive, which appeared to be doing very well at the time was, however, seen as a direction. In 1976, Hedonism II, then called Negril Beach Village, was conceived and

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opened in Jamaica by John Issa. The young singles image of the all-inclusive concept continued until 1978 when Issa again influenced the industry by opening Couples in Ocho Rios, Jamaica, which was for couples only and included drinks as well as tours. Issa went on in 1987 to launch the first all-inclusive resort for families. The success of these resorts were soon noted by the travel industry. This led to many companies copying the various concepts. Major international hotel companies are now investing in the expansion of the all-inclusive business in the Caribbean. US tour operators were not at all optimistic of the potential of all-inclusives when Issa ventured into this business in 1976. In spite of this he decided to go ahead with his gut feeling. The risk and gamble worked in his favour and many followers have benefited from his initiatives. During the oil embargo-caused recession in the early 1970s, he recognized that the only two areas of tourism that were not suffering were Club Med and cruise ships. While differing in image, they shared one thing in common – they were both somewhat inclusive. Issa took the concept and customized it, adding extras and amenities not found in other inclusive vacation packages. He later elevated it to ‘‘super-inclusive’’ to distinguish SuperClubs from all-inclusives catering to ‘‘budget’’ segments of the market. Critics of all-inclusives resorts sometimes charge that they interfere with the ‘‘trickle down’’ benefits of tourism by importing provisions and discouraging guests from leaving the property. SuperClubs and Sandals on the other hand, supports indigenous businesses by buying food provisions from local farmers and markets, and hard goods from local manufacturers. In addition, by including excursions, as well as visits to crafts markets and local shops, these market leaders promote meaningful contact between guests and inhabitants. Local artists and vendors are also invited on to properties, and given space on the beach to set up a stall and sell their wares. Today, SuperClubs operates 17 resorts in Jamaica, Cuba, The Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Curac¸ao and Brazil. The SuperClubs resorts are divided into product brands such as Grand Lido, Breezes, Hedonism, Starfish and Puntarena. Five years after the introduction of Negril Beach Village by John Issa, Gordon ‘‘Butch’’ Stewart, chairman of Sandals Resort International, opened his first all-inclusive hotel at Montego Bay, Jamaica. Today Sandals operates hotels in Jamaica, Cuba, St Lucia, Antigua, The Bahamas and the

John J. Issa and Chandana Jayawardena The ‘‘all-inclusive’’ concept in the Caribbean International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 167-171

Turks and Caicos islands. According to Henry (2001), 17 resorts later, Sandals has become a world class success story with one of the most recognizable brand names in the international hospitality industry Sandals has a second brand – Beaches, which caters to the family market. With the acquisition of the Plantation Inn in Jamaica and the subsequent heavy investment, Sandals appears to have created another category of luxury brand. Unlike SuperClubs, Sandals owns most of the hotels it manages with the exception being the hotels in Cuba. Both SuperClubs and Sandals have successfully imported the concept to the rest of the Caribbean. It differs significantly from most of the European-managed resorts operating in the Caribbean where guests pay for drinks and tipping and at times lack the real ‘‘Caribbean charm’’. Franchising is an option both Issa and Stewart do not believe in, in spite of many offers. At the same time, in the 1980s, when the Sandals empire was beginning and SuperClubs continuing to expand, Jack Tar Village Resorts, a US company, was setting up operations in several Caribbean islands. By 1985, there were Jack Tar Villages in Jamaica, Dominican Republic, The Bahamas and St Kitts. Other companies also emerged during this period, although the majority focused their growth in their respective territories, like Maeva in Mexico. Initially, some destinations have resisted the introduction of the all-inclusive concept. But, today, in addition to operations of the major chains, the all-inclusive package has been introduced in many of the Caribbean destinations. Besides SuperClubs and Sandals, the all-inclusive concept was adopted by many other resorts and the 1980s witnessed ‘‘an all-inclusive fever among hoteliers’’. In addition to the SuperClubs and Sandals companies, another all-inclusive giant has emerged within the region, Allegro Resorts Corporation, which is based in the Dominican Republic, as ‘‘one of the world’s largest operators of all-inclusive resorts’’. The Allegro has over 20 all-inclusive resorts located in Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Mexico, Turks and Caicos, Venezuela as well as in Tunisia and Morocco. Similar to SuperClubs it also markets multiple brands: Royal Hideaway, Jack Tar Village Resorts, Allegro Resorts and Caribbean Villages. Two of the Caribbean-based all-inclusive chains have been placed in the top five major all-inclusive chains world wide, with Allegro Resorts being the newest entry to the fold. The Dominican Republic has the largest hotel bedroom stock in the Caribbean. Out of its

50,000 rooms more than one third are allinclusive hotel rooms. The Organisation of American States carried out a study of the economic impact of the performance of the tourism industry in 1992 and 1997 in Jamaica. The study of 1992 concluded: . the all-inclusives generate the largest amount of revenue, but their impact on the economy is smaller per dollar of revenue than other accommodation sub-sectors; . the non all-inclusive accommodation import less and employ more people per dollar revenue than the all-inclusives; . the all-inclusives generate negative foreign exchange earnings due to high levels of imports; . in terms of direct impact, the all-inclusive hotels make the largest contribution to GDP with the largest non all-inclusives second; and . all-inclusives generate a significant proportion (52.6 per cent) of total foreign exchange earnings generated by the accommodation sector in Jamaica. Sandals is currently designated as the official resort of West Indies Cricket, with the Sandals particular brand of color and fun introduced to matches across the UK. SuperClubs and Sandals are arch rivals, but the fact remains that these two competing companies have contributed significantly to the economies of Jamaica, as well as to other countries in which they operate. The contributions of these two companies to the Jamaican economy, in particular, are unprecedented by any other business organisation.

Recent research Paris and Zona-Paris (1999) considers any hotel that may have an all-inclusive package for all the guests or only a segment of the guests as an all-inclusive resort. As a result of this criterion, they were able to list 663 hotels in the world as all-inclusive hotels in 1999. Among these hotels, they then selected 100 of the best all-inclusives in the world. According to the all-inclusive ratings by Paris and Zona-Paris (1999), 48 of the 100 best all-inclusive resorts in the world are in the Caribbean. The country breakdown of these 48 resorts is provided in Table I. It is not surprising that Jamaica, with 17 of these resorts, has: . 17 per cent of the world’s best; and . 35 per cent of the Caribbean’s best all-inclusive resorts.

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John J. Issa and Chandana Jayawardena The ‘‘all-inclusive’’ concept in the Caribbean

Table I Best all-inclusive resorts in the Caribbean

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Country Jamaica Bahamas Antigua and Barbuda British Virgin Islands St Lucia Barbados Dominican Republic Anguilla Aruba Bermuda Cayman Islands Grenada Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands Total

No. of resorts

%

17 6 4 4 4 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 48

35.4 12.5 8.3 8.3 8.3 6.2 6.2 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 100.0

Recently, a group of graduate students of the University of the West Indies, embarked on research on the all-inclusive business. Brown et al. (2000) investigated the trends and impact of the all-inclusive hotel sector on national economies, namely those of Jamaica and the Dominican Republic. The all-inclusive concept is based on continuous improvement and innovation. Key issues identified which needed to be addressed, were human resources development and greater levels of collaboration between this sub-sector and regional governments. Subsequent research by these graduate students evaluates and assesses the viability of the all-inclusive concept in small hotels in Antigua. The researchers reveal that the concept is already present in hotels but many problems were experienced, such as lack of working capital, high utility cost and lack of effective marketing. Essential success factors identified included location, innovative management and quality. There is, however, a need for closer collaboration between hotels, NTOs and government to salvage the small hotel sector. One of these students examined resorts in St Kitts and Nevis and Antigua and Barbuda, revealing that there is a high rate of turnover in the resort in Antigua because of lack of trust between employees and management. In the main resort in St Kitts, human resources for management positions are imported because of a shortage of skill on island. The researchers recommend a changing of the service culture in the Antiguan resorts and the developing of closer working

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relationships with training institutions in St Kitts to train and prepare persons to fill vacancies that exist with the sector. Another student in this group carried out research of three up-market all-inclusives in Jamaica. Quality strategies in three allinclusive resorts were identified and compared with those of European plan hotels. Findings reveal that though there were strategies, challenges existed in implementing them because of the low levels of management commitment and low levels of employee job satisfaction.

Conclusions Based on the current research, the following are foresighted: . All-inclusives will continue to grow in the Caribbean with a major influence on customer service in the entire hospitality sector in the Caribbean. . All-inclusives (along with cruise business) will play a lead role in creativity, innovations in new product and service development and aggressive marketing. . Luxuries of the all-inclusives in the past, such as 24-hour room service, adjoining golf courses, spas, valet service, fine dining, and the choice of 5-6 restaurants in one hotel will become common features in most all-inclusive resorts in the Caribbean. . All-inclusives will help in sustaining the Caribbean’s image as the ‘‘most romantic region for tourism’’. The wedding/honeymoon segment within all-inclusives will grow further. . Facilities for children and childcare within ‘‘family’’ all-inclusives will become more sophisticated and age bracket (under 5, 5-8, 9-12, young teen, etc.) segment-specific facilities will be developed. . The element of ‘‘nudeness’’ as a natural aspect of life will become more popular in adult all-inclusive resorts. The trend set by SuperClubs on ‘‘nude weddings’’ on Valentine’s day in 2001 will grow, in spite of serious criticisms. . The importance of the quality and variety of the Entertainment element will grow further in all-inclusives and will be used as the benchmark by most of the other categories of resorts in the Caribbean.

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The all-inclusive concept, in spite of occasional criticisms, is here to stay in the Caribbean for a long time, and will continue to play a major role in tourism development in the region.

References Brown, D., Elmes, L. and Medina, G.Y. (2000), A Study of the All-inclusive Sector in the Caribbean with Emphasis on Dominican Republic and Jamaica, Graduate Paper, The University of the West Indies, Jamaica.

Clark, J. (2000), ‘‘The art of all-inclusive vacation deals: a Caribbean comparison of resorts vs cruises’’, USA Today, 7 January. Henry, B. (2001), ‘‘The role of training and development in the Sandals success story’’, Conference Paper, Pan-American Confederation of Hospitality and Tourism Schools, Cuba, April. Paris, J. and Zona-Paris, C. (1999), 100 Best All-Inclusive Resorts of the World, The Globe Pequot Press, Guilford, CT. Poon, A. (1998), All-Inclusive Resorts, Economic Intelligence Unit, Travel & Tourism Analyst, 6 November.

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Research in brief The feasibility of Sabbath-keeping in the Caribbean hospitality industry

Eritha Huntley Tourism and Hospitality Management, University of Technology, Jamaica Carol Barnes-Reid Department of Nutrition, Tourism and Hospitality Management, Northern Caribbean University, Mandeville, Jamaica

Keywords Tourism, Hospitality, Religion, Hospitality industry, Hotels, Holiday industry

Abstract This article addresses religious tolerance for Sabbath-keepers in the hospitality industry. The authors approach this issue by assessing the perception of managers in the Jamaican tourism industry on this topic. A major finding was that managers are reluctant to employ persons who have a strong desire to observe the Sabbath. The researchers also discovered that the law does not provide specific provisions to protect the rights of Sabbathkeepers. Managers are, however, willing to make arrangements to facilitate these individuals whenever possible. This augurs well for students of hospitality management who desire to observe the Sabbath. More research on this topic is needed since this study is by no means exhaustive.

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Introduction The hospitality sector is the most visible and labour-intensive sector in the tourism industry. As a result, the demand for employment is constantly increasing as more hotels are being developed across the world. The industry is characterised as having very flexible working hours and a shift system that requires some employees to work at hours and on days that would be considered unusual in traditional businesses. The decision to pursue a career in the fields of tourism and hospitality management, for an individual who observes the Sabbath, is therefore, one that requires deep contemplation because of the possible ramifications of such a decision. Foremost, is the obvious impact that the required working hours within the industry will have on an individual’s desire to keep their Sabbath. Observing the Sabbath is based on the instructions of the Ten Commandments given to the children of Israel. This custom is practiced not only by Jews, but by other Protestant religions including Seventh-day Adventists and Seventh-day Baptist. Generally, most Sabbath-keepers consider the period between sundown on Friday to sundown on Saturday as holy hours. Likewise, Sunday is considered to be a ‘‘holy day’’ by some Protestants’ religions such as Pentecostals. Muslims, Hindus and other religious groups do not prescribe to this religious thinking, but may consider other days in the week as holy. This article will, therefore, seek to identify the hospitality industry’s position on employing Sabbath-keepers. The authors bring a unique perspective to this research since at the time of this research they were both lecturers in the Nutrition, Tourism and Hospitality Department of Northern The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

Caribbean University (NCU), a private Seventh-day Adventist institution in Manchester, Jamaica.

Research objectives 1 To determine the availability of degree programmes in hospitality management by Sabbath-keeping religious institutions. 2 To investigate the attitude of the industry towards these individuals. 3 To investigate the feasibility of individuals who worship on Saturday pursuing a career in the hospitality industry.

Degrees in hospitality management A review of programme offerings from universities around the world revealed that only a few Sabbath-based, religious schools offer programmes in Tourism and/or Hospitality Management. In Israel, for example, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev seemed to be the only Jewish University offering a Bachelor of Arts in Hotel and Tourism Management[1]. Likewise, Northern Caribbean University is, currently, the only Seventh-day Adventist institution that offers a degree in hospitality management. The apparent reluctance by religious institutions to train men and women for the hospitality industry has its roots in the religious doctrines that govern them. NCU has, however, accepted a role in preparing men and women to contribute to the development of the Caribbean tourism industry. Even though the majority of the students enrolled in the Hospitality programme are not Sabbath-keepers, those associated with the Seventh-day Adventist church do have major The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

Eritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid The feasibility of Sabbathkeeping in the Caribbean hospitality industry International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 172-175

concerns regarding level of religious tolerance and acceptance that exists within this sector.

Religious tolerance in the workplace Very little research regarding religious tolerance in the hospitality industry, as it relates specifically to Sabbath-keepers, has been done. Misek (2002) points out in her report on this issue, however, that addressing religion in the workplace is a delicate challenge. Managers interviewed for her study held the similar view that for religious diversity in the workplace they had to be flexible, try to accommodate all beliefs when possible, learn about different religions, and foster respect for all religious and cultural traditions. However, the bottom line is that for the lodging industry – a 24-hours-a-day, seven-days-a-week enterprise, granting employee requests for time off, even if for religious reasons, may not always be possible. Misek interviewed Marian Babieri, Vice-President of human resources for New Castle Hotels who stated the following: If someone makes a request for time off and business conditions allow us to accommodate it, we do.

The question to ask therefore is: What happens when business conditions do not allow for time off? The obvious answer is that the time will not be given. According to Misek’s report, Wyndham International tries to be flexible in granting time off by the process of holiday swapping, and allows employees to use personal days for religious observance. Personal and sick days are combined and then referred to as paid off days; the employee is then free to use these days for whatever reason they may choose.

Protection from religious discrimination Laws governing religious freedom in democratic societies protect employees. However, there are instances when the law will not provide this protection. In the law books of the USA, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (CRA) of 1964 prohibits harassment because of religious preferences as well as discrimination in disciplining and hiring (Byer, 2001). Furthermore, it requires that employers accommodate employees’ religious observances and practices if the beliefs are sincerely held. However, the employer does not have to grant religious accommodation if it would violate seniority

rights of co-workers or a collective bargaining agreement, exceed ordinary administrative costs, or deny the shift and job preference of some employees, but not others. An employer can also choose its own methods of accommodation (as long as it is reasonable) over a plan suggested by the employee (Byer, 2001). On the contrary, there are no specific laws in Jamaica governing religious freedom in the workplace. Instead, the Jamaican Constitution makes general provisions for freedom of religion and freedom to worship. The proposed Bill of Rights tabled before parliament should however, give special focus to issues of religious intolerance and human rights.

Communicating expectations and beliefs Communication is the key. A prospective employee should remember that it is pertinent to be open about his/her religious observance with regard to the work schedule. It is unethical to hide religious preference in order to get a job, and then later refuse to work on any day that is considered a day of worship. Additionally, such a practice would most likely result in religious intolerance. By the same token, human resources managers have to present to potential employees an honest assessment of what their job will require of them so that they can make an informed choice. This sentiment is share by Kathryn Davanza, President of the Society for Human Resource Management in St Petersburg, Florida, who stated that: Sometimes a person will self-eliminate when they know the nature of the work (quoted in Meinhardt, 2002).

Methodology The population for this study was selected from areas in Jamaica such as Kingston, Trelawny, St Elizabeth, Ocho Rios, Montego Bay and Negril. The researchers conducted interviews with 12 individuals who held well-articulated views on the research topic. The list of interviewees comprises: . human resource managers; . resident managers; . general managers; and . administrative assistants. They have an average of over nine years’ experience in the tourism and hospitality industry. The research instrument comprised a number of questions that was administered to members of the study population. The

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findings from this instrument were tabulated and analysed to inform the research findings and the discussion that will ensue.

Findings and discussion Of the persons interviewed for this research, two of the respondents were unaware of the fact that the Northern Caribbean University offered an associates degree in Hospitality Management. They unanimously agreed, however, that their organisations supported religious diversity with 83.3 per cent stating that they did and 16.7 per cent stating they did not support religious diversity in their organisation. When asked if they were equal opportunity employers of Sabbath-keepers, there was a noticeable shift in the responses: 66.7 per cent said ‘‘yes’’ while 33.3 per cent said ‘‘no’’. Their primary concern was that it is often difficult to guarantee days off to employees, particularly Friday night and Saturdays, since those were the busiest times at the hotels. On the question of making scheduling changes to accommodate the Sabbathkeeping members of staff, the respondents were given options ranging from ‘‘very good’’ feelings to ‘‘very bad’’ feelings. The responses were varied, with 33.3 per cent stating that they felt ‘‘very good’’ about making schedule changes; 50 per cent felt ‘‘good’’ about this; 8.3 per cent felt ‘‘very bad’’; while 8.3 per cent was somewhat indifferent by feeling ‘‘not good’’. These responses are shown in Figure 1. It is obvious that managers make the effort to give Saturdays (and in some cases Sundays) off for religious reasons. This is dependent on the employee providing a suggested plan of action as stated earlier. For example, an individual who observes Friday sundown till Saturday sundown as holy hours may suggest working until a reasonable time on Friday afternoon (one

Figure 1 How do you feel about making schedule changes to accommodate Sabbath-keepers?

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hour before sundown) and returning to work on Saturday night (immediately following sunset). Furthermore, if this employee is able to make a ‘‘deal’’ with an individual who wishes to observe Sunday as his/her day of worship, and thus work on Sundays for such individuals, then it becomes much easier for the employer to grant the wish. The respondents were then asked if they would recommend a career in the hospitality industry to a Sabbath-keeper. Again, the responses varied, as shown in Figure 2 with, 33.3 per cent stating that they would recommend a career; 58.3 per cent undecided; and 8.3 per cent saying they would not recommend this career to a Sabbath-keeper. When asked to give reasons for their answers, the respondents overwhelmingly stated that a person’s ability to keep the Sabbath and work in the hospitality industry is dependent on their commitment to their religion and to their job. If the commitment to their religion was greater than their commitment to their job, they might be forced to make difficult choices about their chosen profession and vice-versa. The researchers found it interesting that one of the respondents, who stated that they would not recommend a career in the hospitality industry, was actually a Sabbath-keeper. The reasons given are shown in Table I. The respondents also expressed the view that there would be less conflict between an employee’s religious persuasion and job commitment if the individual were not assigned to departments such as food and beverage and rooms. Paradoxically, this can limit the employee’s ability to be promoted to top management since it has been proven that persons employed in food and beverage and rooms divisions have better chances for promotion in the hospitality industry.

Figure 2 Would you recommend a career in the hospitality industry to a Sabbath-keeper?

Eritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid The feasibility of Sabbathkeeping in the Caribbean hospitality industry International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 172-175

Table I Would you recommend a career in the hospitality industry to a Sabbath-keeper? Percentage of respondents

Responses It depends on the department and entry level of the individual It depends on the person’s commitment to their religion and their job Being a Sabbath-keeper limits the employee’s scope for performance and advancement There is no guarantee that time off will be given on the Sabbath The shift system facilitates all employees From experience, Sabbath-keeping employees have performed very well

Conclusion It is apparent that there are challenges here for persons who desire both employment in the hospitality industry and a commitment to their religion. Communication of expectations and beliefs is critical to this process. Sabbath-keepers may also consider alternative sources of employment such as becoming entrepreneurs. This would allow them to provide services that would not conflict with their beliefs, and at the same time become a source of employment for others with similar beliefs. Society is changing and with it, the views on ‘‘holy days’’ should change. Flexi-week might be the answer, where persons are given the opportunity to work any five or six days a week instead of the traditional Monday to Friday/Saturday. It is evident that the Jamaican government is concerned about this issue, since they are currently enacting legislation to provide greater protection for individuals who may have diverse religious persuasions. This would

25.0 33.3 8.3 8.3 16.7 8.3

enhance the employment process for Sabbath-keepers. More research on the issue of religious tolerance specifically, within the field of tourism and hospitality management, is needed. The findings of these studies could be used by Sabbath-keepers to determine if this field is appropriate for them, and also to identify their career options.

Note 1 For more information see www.bgu.ac.il

References Byer, A. (2001), ‘‘Religious accommodation increasingly important issue’’, South Florida Business Journal, Vol. 21 No. 145, p. 3. Meinhardt, J. (2002), ‘‘Religion more of an issue for human resource managers’’, American City Business Journals, available at: www.bizjournal.com Misek, M. (2002), ‘‘In theory and in practice: especially now, religious tolerance is important’’, Lodging Magazine, available at: www.lodgingnews.com

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Research in brief Performance of tourism analysis: a Caribbean perspective

Chandana Jayawardena Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Jamaica Diaram Ramajeesingh Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Jamaica

Keywords Analysis, Foreign exchange, Growth, Tourism, Financial performance, Revenue

Abstract Introduces a new concept, performance of tourism (POT) analysis as a tool for measuring the performance of tourist destinations. Comments on the Caribbean region’s overdependence on tourism, and examines the scope of foreign exchange leakage. Tourism in the Caribbean generally grows faster than the world average. Often the success of tourism is measured from the gross figures rather than the net figures. Presents data from four Caribbean countries, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Jamaica and St Lucia to explain the concept. Key findings reflect surprising results. Based on the analysis done, a relatively new tourism destination in the Caribbean, Aruba, has outperformed mature tourist destination, Jamaica, by 16 to one.

Tourism has emerged as the engine of growth in many island states within the Caribbean region. The promotion of tourism as a growth sector resides in its perceived potential: to accelerate growth in gross domestic product (GDP); to create employment; to increase foreign exchange earnings; and to attract capital investment.

In 2002, Caribbean tourism was expected to contribute some 17 per cent to regional GDP, 14.1 per cent in overall employment, 18.5 per cent in total foreign exchange earnings and 21.3 per cent in regional capital investment (World Travel and Tourism Council, 2002). In 2002, the role of tourism continued to be significantly high for the four island states, which are the focus of this study. On an average, the key contributions from tourism in these four countries were recorded as: GDP – 15 per cent; employment – 32 per cent; foreign exchange earnings – 47 per cent; and capital investment – 53 per cent. These indicators bear testimony to the proposition that these island states have, over the years, come to rely on tourism as the major growth sector. This reliance, however, seems to be more intense among the smaller states where the projected impact of the industry in all four key areas of the economy is quite evident (Table I). The largest contributions, however, are expected in the areas of foreign exchange earnings, employment and capital investment. According to UNEP (2002) the emergence of such excessive dependence in the smaller economies correlates directly with their size and limited human resource potential. Together, both of these factors served to inhibit the development of viable industries outside of tourism. The larger island states, however, do not have these constraints. Yet, tourism has assumed greater prominence in national development as it has become the fastest and single largest sector in these economies. The industry was catapulted into this role because traditional sectors, such as agriculture and mining, continued to stagnate over the last few decades. Tourism was seen, therefore, as an effective and efficient engine of growth. Most Caribbean island states are overdependent on tourism for economic growth. Wilkinson (1987)

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

Introduction The Caribbean currently ranks sixth in the world in terms of tourism receipts and attracts a little over 3 per cent of tourist arrivals in the world. For many years now, the key benefits and performance indicators in the region have increased faster than all other regions of the world. Particularly in terms of tourism investment, visitor arrivals, tourism receipts and direct and indirect employment, the Caribbean has outperformed other regions (Jayawardena, 2002). These indicators also suggest that the Caribbean, in general terms, is overdependent on the tourism sector. Success of tourism cannot be judged from gross figures. A more meaningful measurement will be to look at the net tourism receipts and, then, analyze the per capita net tourism receipts. Most governments, national tourism organizations and trade associations in the Caribbean tend to focus on tourist arrival figures and total tourist receipts to communicate success of tourism to the general public. This is similar to judging the success of a large corporation purely from the revenue figures, while ignoring gross profits, net profits and return on investment. This paper attempts to assess the impact of tourism on four countries in the Caribbean, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Jamaica, and St Lucia, by developing a performance schedule that include both gross and net measurements.

Dependence on tourism

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Chandana Jayawardena and Diaram Ramajeesingh Performance of tourism analysis: a Caribbean perspective

Table I Contribution from tourism in 2002: estimated economic indicator percentages

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Gross domestic product Employment Foreign exchange earnings Capital investment

Antigua and Barbuda

Aruba

Jamaica

St Lucia

Rounded average

21.0 34.6 61.2 74.3

13.8 38.0 31.0 62.7

7.7 19.1 36.8 31.1

16.8 35.4 60.5 43.3

15 32 47 53

Source: WTTC (2002)

argued that tourism specialization is not an effective development strategy for small island states because the opportunity cost to the economy is very high. However, Grassel (2002) argued to the contrary. Using pooled cross-sectional data for some 29 Caribbean countries, the researcher found very significant correlation between growth in tourism and economic growth. In particular, it was established that small economies, which specialized in tourism, experienced exceptional growth when compared with their larger counterparts. As articulated by Wint (2002) the ratio of tourist arrivals to a country’s population is a critical factor and one that has some influence over the industry’s contribution to the economy. One could also argue that a higher ratio of tourist nights to host population would have a negative impact on the environmental sustainability.

Foreign exchange leakage Caribbean island states have been characterized as open, dependent economies in which most of the important economic activities are geared towards the production and export of a few commodities (Witter and Ramjee Singh, 1986). The export orientation focus of these economies had served to limit both the scope of economic diversification and the development of strong, inter-sectoral linkages, between tourism and the rest of the economy. It was predominantly for this reason that the industry, in many of these countries, has become highly import dependent. Although tourism has been the fastest growing sector in the Caribbean, the high import content of the industry meant that a significant portion of foreign exchange earnings from tourism is accrued abroad. Belisle (1984), for instance, pointed to the high import content of food, which in some countries was as high 62 per cent, as one of the main sources of foreign exchange leakage. Food imports, however, is not the only avenue of foreign exchange leakage from these economies. A UNEP study in 2002 lists five major areas of expenditure that are responsible for the

high import content of the tourism sector. These include: imports for construction; imports of consumer goods; repatriation of profits; overseas promotional expenditures; and amortization of external debt incurred by the industry. Undoubtedly, the level of leakage will vary from country to country. The extent of the outflow is determined by the inability/ability of the domestic economy to meet the diverse needs of the industry. It is suggested by UNEP (2002), that foreign exchange outflows from the industry are expected to be higher among the smaller island states because of major resource constraints. In contrast, it is argued that the larger island states do not face these resource constraints and should develop stronger inter-sectoral linkages with tourism. As a consequence, they are likely to benefit more from better inter-sectoral effects relative to the smaller islands. The net effect is that a greater portion of the industry’s foreign exchange earnings should be retained in the local economy. The leakage rates for the four countries under study, however, do not seem to support this kind of characterization in foreign exchange outflows between large and small island states. Foreign exchange outflows in these four countries are around the following percentages: Antigua and Barbuda – 25 per cent; Jamaica – 40 per cent; Aruba – 41 per cent; and St Lucia – 56 per cent (UN, 1996). For most developed economies, the average outflow of foreign exchange from tourism is estimated to vary between 10 to 20 per cent (UNEP, 2002). A quick comparison with the data given above would clearly indicate that the outflow of tourism receipts from this small subset of states within the region is quite high. Even the 25 per cent leakage rate attained by Antigua and Barbuda, which is the lowest among the four islands, falls outside the range specified for developed economies. For the other states, if the upper limit of 20 per cent were to be used as a guide, the leakage rate would be two to three times higher.

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Net tourism receipts Quite often, the success of tourism is judged on the basis of tourist arrivals, average guest nights spent or gross tourist expenditures. As argued by Jayawardena (2002) the success of tourism is better assessed using net tourism receipts and its attendant per capita measurement. Net tourism receipts represent that portion of the industry earnings which is retained within the domestic economy after all foreign exchange leakages are taken into account. The per capita measure, on the other hand, translates the net earnings on a per person level. The magnitude of the per capita estimate is determined by the size of the population. For this reason it is not unusual for small states with small populations to have large net per capita earnings while larger states with sizeable populations have low per capita earnings. The methodology used to derive both of these estimates is set out in Table II. The calculations are fairly straightforward and need no explanation. However, it should be noted that data on ‘‘expenditure per tourist night’’ is not published for Caribbean countries, and therefore, had to be estimated.

Performance analysis In analysing the performance schedules of the four countries, the most striking feature of the data to emerge put Jamaica as the best performer in five out of nine areas considered in the performance of tourism (POT) analysis. Tourist arrivals among the states varied quite significantly. Of the four, however, Jamaica was by far the single largest destination with arrivals of 1.2 million in 1998. In contrast, total arrivals for the three smaller states were roughly 1.1 million. Therefore, Jamaica had more arrivals than the other islands combined. As in the case of tourist arrivals, there were variations in

tourist nights among the island states, as well. As could be expected, in some instances, variations between countries were sizable, while in other cases they were not. Jamaica emerged as the leader with an average of 10.9 tourist nights. Given the large number of tourist arrivals and the highest average tourist nights, it was not unexpected for Jamaica to emerge as the best performer in the total tourist nights category, as well. Given the size of the tourism industry in Jamaica, the huge differences in the amount of total tourist nights between Jamaica and the rest of the islands were not unexpected either. The data revealed that the total in tourist nights for Jamaica was nearly three times that of Aruba, more than six times that of St Lucia and nearly eight times that of Antigua and Barbuda. In the areas of gross and net foreign exchange earnings, Jamaica continued to outperform the other island states. The performance of Jamaica’s gross earnings from tourism was over five times that of Antigua and Barbuda, four times that of St Lucia and twice that of Aruba. The performance in net receipts was almost a repeat of Jamaica’s gross receipt performance. For this reason it would be unnecessary to replicate the analysis. Suffice to say that the net receipt figures were buoyed by the relatively low leakage rate from the industry. In spite of its dominance in several areas, Jamaica’s overall tourism performance fell short in the areas of expenditure per tourist and expenditure per tourist night. Generally, the smaller islands did better in these areas. The final and the most important item in the performance schedule placed Aruba at the top of the list. With a per capita net receipt of US$4,649, Aruba’s performance could be characterized as exceptional when compared

Table II Performance of tourism (POT) analysis

Tourist arrivals Average tourist nights Total tourist nights Expenditure per tourist stay (US$) Expenditure per tourist night (US$) Gross tourist receipts (US$) Foreign exchange leakage (%) Net tourism receipts (US$) Population Per capita net tourist receipts (US$) Best performances Overall ranking Note: Based on 1998 data [ 178 ]

Antigua and Barbuda

Aruba

Jamaica

St Lucia

Best performer

Worst performer

234,300 7.3 1,710,390 1,020 140 239,454,600 25 179,590,950 65,366 2,747 2 Second

647,400 7.6 4,920,240 873 110 541,226,400 41 319,323,576 68,683 4,649 1 First

1,225,300 10.9 13,355,770 1,000 92 1,228,730,840 40 737,238,504 2,624,419 281 5 Fourth

252,200 8.7 2,194,140 1,159 133 291,820,620 56 128,401,073 152,530 842 1 Third

Jamaica Jamaica Jamaica St Lucia Antigua and Barbuda Jamaica Antigua and Barbuda Jamaica – Aruba – –

Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda Aruba Jamaica Antigua and Barbuda St Lucia St Lucia – Jamaica – –

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with the other states, specially compared with Jamaica’s shockingly low US$281. Without any doubt the smaller states had performed reasonably well at the per capita level. Jamaica, the largest of the four islands as well as the most mature and well-established tourist destination among the four islands had the lowest per capita net receipts. In this analysis, the three small countries outperformed Jamaica in the following ratios: St Lucia by three to one; Antigua and Barbuda by ten to one; and Aruba by 16 to one.

Conclusions The statistical analysis outlined, earlier, make it possible to draw some tentative conclusions about the role and importance of tourism to island states within the Caribbean region. There is no doubt that there are differences in tourism performance among the island states. One of the sharp differences lies in the arrival and gross revenue figures of these countries. On the surface, these figures would seem to suggest that the smaller states benefited less from tourism activities than their larger counterpart. Apparently, the size of the industry and the volume of tourist arrivals are not the determining factors of tourism contribution to any given economy. Jamaica, which recorded the lowest per capita net receipts, attracted less than one tourist per citizen. In fact each of the three smaller states hosted more tourists per capita compared with Jamaica and also commanded higher revenue per tourist night. These results, therefore, do suggest that there is a strong link between per capita net receipts and tourist per capita. There is no doubt the smaller states have come to rely on tourism as the main engine of economic growth. This position is supported by the data given in Table I which show that the industry in the three smaller islands, on the average, is projected to generate one in every three jobs, around half of their foreign exchange inflows and between 43 per cent and 74 per cent of capital investment. This overt reliance raises the all-important question as to whether specialization/ dependence on a single industry is compatible with economic growth. Finally, although it is not possible to state with any degree of certainty, it would seem that population size has some influence on the industry per capita contribution to the national economy. This is noted against the background that the three smaller states had populations ranging between 65,000 to 152,000 persons. The issue as to whether population size and tourism contribution to the national economy is correlated needs further

examination before any definitive conclusion can be drawn. Admittedly, a sample of four states is small and does not provide a strong basis for drawing a firm conclusion. For this reason there is need to engage in further study. The difficulty confronting such research efforts, however, is the paucity of information on foreign exchange outflows for these island states. It is recommended that the policy makers of various tourist destinations in the Caribbean and elsewhere, consider using POT analysis to measure the effectiveness of tourism performance in a meaningful fashion. In this context it is recommended that tourists take the following steps: . Develop systems to record and analyze foreign exchange leakages from tourism. . Take appropriate action to minimize foreign exchange leakage. . Use ‘‘POT’’ analysis to measure per capita net tourist receipts, as the key tool for measuring success of tourism. . Focus on increasing receipts per tourist night. . Focus on increasing average length of stay. . Promote the destination to increase tourist arrivals, in keeping with generally accepted guidelines in sustainable tourism development.

References Belisle, F.J. (1984), ‘‘Tourism and food imports: the case of Jamaica’’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 32 No. 4. CTO (2002), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report 2002-2001 Edition, Caribbean Tourism Organization, Barbados. Grassel, W. (2002), ‘‘Small countries and specialization: services as growth engines’’, Paper presented at a Forum, The University of the West Indies, Jamaica. Jayawardena, C. (2002), ‘‘Future challenges for tourism in the Caribbean’’, Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 1-23. UN (1996), Caribbean Voice, United Nations, Geneva. UNEP (2002), Tourism, United Nations Environment Programme, Paris. Wilkinson, P.F. (1987), ‘‘Tourism in small island nations: a fragile dependency’’, Leisure Studies, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 127-46. Wint, A. (2002), ‘‘Competitive disadvantages and advantages of small nations: an analysis of inter-nation economic performance’’, Journal of Eastern Caribbean Studies, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 1-25. Witter, M. and Ramjee Singh, D. (1986), ‘‘An analysis of the internal structure of the Jamaican economy: 1969-1974’’, Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 35 No. 1. WTTC (2002), The Impact of Travel and Tourism on Jobs and the Economy, TSA Research

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Research in brief The state and tourism: a Caribbean perspective

Hilton McDavid Department of Management Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica Diaram Ramajeesingh Department of Management Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica

Keywords Tourism, Developing countries, Economic conditions, Regional development, Government, Economic growth

Abstract Tourism, today, has not only emerged as the engine of growth but also become the largest and the fastest growing sector in the Caribbean. For this reason the industry is now viewed as one of the leading instruments of development in the region. Given the importance of the industry, it is incumbent on governments to orient tourism growth towards meeting the socioeconomic needs and environmental requirements of the region. To meet these objectives, however, regional governments are required to play a greater role in directing and shaping the future development of the industry. This paper strongly argues in favour of a greater role in the industry, both through direct and indirect market intervention, by governments of the region.

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Introduction Caribbean states have long been characterized as open, dependent economies with their export focus limited to few primary products in areas of agriculture and mining. These industries, which were the mainstay of regional economies for many decades, have failed to provide the economic stimuli needed to engender growth and development. For some time now, tourism has replaced these stagnating industries as the engine of growth and has become one of the fastest growing sectors in many of the island state economies. The industry’s key indicators have outperformed, on a worldwide comparison, those in other regions of the world. Jayawardena (2002) argued that this success was not due to any consorted effort in planning nor strategic posturing by regional governments. The industry, it is argued, simply drifted into prominence because of the failure of the traditional sectors to perform adequately. It is argued, here, that the sustainability of the industry requires regional governments to be more proactive in planning its growth and development. The enabling role of the state is critical in this process because the industry provides both positive and negative externalities which conflict with each other. Arguably, the state, through good governance, intelligent regulatory policies and planning can minimize or even mitigate some of these inherent conflicts. This paper begins with an examination of the economic importance of tourism to Caribbean economies. The discussion continues by looking at the potential roles of government in tourism development. The final section provides a summary of the The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

salient points with a view to identifying the future direction of the industry.

The economic importance of tourism to Caribbean economies Tourism has, for many years, been a major foreign exchange earner in the region. In 1996, the industry gross foreign exchange receipts totalled some US$15,149.2 millions. Between 1996 and 2000, the industry gross earnings grew by approximately 32 per cent or reaching US$19,881.1 millions in 2000 (Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2000). The size of the inflows would suggest that the industry is very important to the region and, in particular, to those economies that are characterized as tourism dependent states. The tourist industry, however, is not only a source of new income. It also promotes the development of a wide range of enterprises that are allied to the industry. In this sense, it becomes a stimulus for indirect job creation, a support for poor regions within countries and a replacement for declining or lost industries. These allied industries, usually, represent an important source of indirect job creation. The impact of tourism activities, however, is not limited to job creation and foreign exchange inflows only. It also generates spinoffs in various areas within the economy. Projections by the World Travel and Tourism Council showed that the regional industry is expected, by the end of 2002, to stimulate some US$34.3 billion in economic activities, contribute approximately US$7 billion to GDP, account for US$17.3 billion of total exports and provide US$7 billion in total capital investment (WTTC, 2002). The size and diversity of the industry’s contribution to regional economies suggest that the industry has now assumed greater The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

Hilton McDavid and Diaram Ramajeesingh The state and tourism: a Caribbean perspective International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 180-183

importance and could be regarded as a leading instrument of development in the region. This is particularly so, in light of the imminent dismantling of the region’s preferential trading arrangements in sugar and bananas, and the deterioration in the terms of trade for bauxite and other primary products produced by the region.

Egypt, where the overdevelopment of the tourist supply resulted in a price war that drove down prices of tourist services to a minimum. This would suggest that state involvement in the regulation and control of the industry may be a prerequisite to achieve a derived and not market driven growth rate.

State ownership and entrepreneurship

The role of government The case for direct market intervention While it is true that tourism can contribute positively to the socioeconomic and cultural identity of the region, it can also cause the degradation of the environment and a loss of local identity. The negative attributes of tourism can be mitigated by means of good governance and intelligent regulatory policies for the various sectors that impact on tourism. In the Caribbean, the role of government in the industry would be defined by developmental issues, such as macroeconomic stability, good governance, international competitiveness and their strategic objectives. These notwithstanding, there are several important reasons why governments in the region have to intervene in the market. First, tourism products in the Caribbean, broadly speaking, are public goods. So, it is either technically infeasible or very costly to exclude any one group from consuming these goods. It is in the best interest of society for both locals and tourists to enjoy the consumption of these public goods. To achieve this objective, it is more feasible for government to intervene in the market and provide spending closer to the social optimum to deal with environmental, cultural and social pollution of the industry. Second, because of the negative externalities of the industry, government has to intervene in order to achieve some degree of distributive equity. This involves educating and training people so that they can participate in the industry. This kind of intervention serves to reduce conflicts between equity and efficiency goals. And, third, the nature of tourism to some degree determines the pattern of growth. The free play of the market does lead to severe pressure being placed on capacity limits and, hence, a lack of sustainability in volume and quality of services being offered. Thus, more attention has to be given to market imperfections and to specific interventions that are needed to correct market distortions. Wahab and Pigram (1997) pointed to the example of Hurghada, on the Red Sea, in

In many countries, governments have intervened in the marketplace through the ownership and operations of tourist ventures. In Jamaica, the acquisition of hotel properties came through government’s intervention in the financial sector, which was on the verge of imploding in the mid-1990s. In other countries, however, state ownership of hotel properties was necessitated by the desire to save jobs and to prevent the unemployment rates from climbing to levels that were politically untenable. The entrepreneurial role of government in tourism, however, has been changing. Since the early 1990s the industry has been operating in an economic environment in which state ownership declined dramatically. In spite of this, there are several areas which may continue to remain in the domain of the state. These include natural parks, heritage sites and beaches.

Economic well-being and market failure Tourism, to some extent like infrastructure, has important network effects. If properly exploited, it can have a major impact on the economic well-being of the region. Traditionally, the tourism industry, in each country, has been and continues to operate as separate entities. No effort had been made to use the regional industry as a stimulus to develop intraregional economic linkages. The tremendous potential which exists for the creation of economic linkages in areas of agriculture and agribusiness, remain untapped. As a consequence, both at the country and regional levels, the industry has continued to exhibit excessive reliance on extra regional imports to meet its basic needs. This myopic approach to the development of the industry can have disastrous consequences for economic growth within the region. The scope of ‘‘all-inclusive offerings’’ has also significantly reduced the network effects of tourism within the region. In particular, there has been a significant reduction in the demand for services offered by allied industries. This has both an economic and social cost, which the economy has to absorb. Somehow, government needs to intervene in the market in order to reduce some of the

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negative effects of ‘‘all-inclusive offerings’’ on the wider economy. As pointed out by Jeffries (2001) unrestricted operation of the market can conflict with the broader objectives of the state. Bodlender (2001), further, observed that: . . . in areas where a tourist industry is developing, the unfettered operation of the market may lead to results contrary to what are desired.

The suggestion is to have a more controlled expansion. This should yield better economic results as the market would respond quite differently.

Non-market intervention In general, the role of the government in tourism is motivated by the sector’s potential to contribute significantly to the enhancement of human and economic development. The non-interventionist role of the government, which can assist in achieving these objectives, should be limited to legislation and regulation, planning and coordination and stimulation.

Legislation and regulation Most of the direct legislation affecting the tourism sector relates to the establishment of National Tourism Organisations and their roles in the industry. However, the sector could be significantly affected by the general laws of the land. Hall (2000) pointed out that government has a number of legislative and regulative powers which, directly and indirectly, impinge on tourism. However, substantial issues of tourism often emerged because of the extent to which tourism policy needs to be integrated with other policy areas. Referring to regulation specifically, he concluded that while the sector recognizes that government has a significant role to play, particularly when it comes to the provision of infrastructure, the predominant argument is that the sector must be increasingly deregulated. However, this contradicts the fact that government is increasingly being asked to regulate in order to protect the environment and to establish and maintain quality and safety standards. McKercher (1993) pointed out that, as a predominantly private sector driven industry, development decisions by tourism enterprises are profit-oriented, resulting in preference for investments only in profit centers. He concluded that mitigation protection programmes will receive lower priorities, unless there is a legislative imperative to force such investments.

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Planning and coordination Various government ministries have significant relationships with tourism on matters such as immigration, labour, transportation, building and construction permits, etc. which can greatly impact on the growth of tourism. Jeffries (2001) concluded that because of the great complexity of the industry and of its products, it requires coordination and cooperation, which arguably only governments have the capacity to organize. As Hall (2000) noted, coordination is necessary both within and between government tourism bodies and the private sector in order to develop effective tourism strategies. Public planning for tourism occurs in a number of forms, mainly because of the multi-sectional nature of the industry, which carries a wide group of associated sections, ranging from infrastructure to the related trade. Perhaps there is an argument for government to play a greater role in the planning of tourism as this generally tends to be an amalgamation of economic, social, political, cultural, and environmental considerations, which reflect the diversity of factors that influence tourism development.

Stimulation Tourism contribution to GDP means that any induced effects by government, in this sector, would produce a significant impact on the entire economy. According to Mill and Morrison (1985), governments can stimulate tourism in three ways: 1 provide financial incentives; 2 sponsor research; and 3 engage in marketing and promotion. Financial incentives can take many forms and can include low interest loans, duty exemption and/or the granting of tax-free holidays to the industry. In situations where there is scarcity of domestic investment funds, government can provide tax exemptions on profits and guarantee the repatriation of funds. To enhance human development it would be more appropriate if governments were to target small hotels, great houses and small communities with a view to providing financial and other forms of support. The limited degree of excludability and the high externalities make government an ideal agent to sponsor tourism research. In the Caribbean, there is the need for research to move away from beach tourists to other groups that yield benefit to a wider cross-section of society and provide a greater depth to the tourism product, so that it

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becomes less vulnerable to external economic and political events. Government’s promotion and marketing should be based on research and be directed at those areas that can be most beneficial. Obviously, the size of the advertising elasticity would determine how government would redirect its promotional and marketing dollars.

and bi-lateral funding agencies and other supranational organisations, as the region is still dependent on international aid and structural adjustment programmes. Policies pursued by governments in the region will continue to be circumscribed by the influences of external organisations. Such influences are expected to determine the nature and direction of the regional industry.

References Summary and observations Because of the importance of tourism to the region, it is incumbent on governments to orient tourism growth towards meeting the socio-economic objectives and environmental needs of the region. According to Wahab and Pigram (1997), it must coincide with the destination’s value system, cultural integrity, and satisfy the needs of the local population. There is, however, an innate contradiction with the optimization of tourist visits, and the mitigation of undesirable externalities. Solution to this problem should be state and not private sector driven. Such intervention can be justified by the economic and social needs of the region. In the Caribbean, governments have been providing subsidies to counteract external and internal shocks. They, also, have been providing guarantees and assuming risks. The scope of public actions continues to be massive, even though they are articulated and coordinated in different and new ways. In spite of this, it can be argued that the regional industry will be controlled and shaped, to some extent, by the multi-lateral

Bodlender, J.A. (2001), in Jeffries, D. (Ed.), Governments and Tourism, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Caribbean Tourism Organization (2000), Caribbean Tourism Statistics, Bridgetown, Barbados. Hall, M.C. (2000), Tourism Planning: Policies, Processes and Relationships, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow. Jayawardena, C. (2002), ‘‘Cuba: crown princess of Caribbean tourism?’’, Paper presented at the 27th Annual Conference of the Caribbean Studies Association, Nassau, The Bahamas. Jeffries, D. (2001), Governments and Tourism, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. McKercher, B. (1993), ‘‘The unrecognized threat of tourism: can tourism survive sustainability’’, Tourism Management, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 131-6. Mill, R. and Morrison, A. (1985), The Tourism System, Tourism Planning, Policies, Processes and Relationships, Prentice-Hall International, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Wahab, S. and Pigram, J.J. (Eds) (1997), Tourism Development and Growth: The Challenge of Sustainability, Routledge, London. World Travel and Tourism Council (2002), The Impact of Travel and Tourism on Jobs and the Economy, WTTC, London.

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Viewpoint Tourism, linkages, and economic development in Jamaica

Nikolaos Karagiannis Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica

Keywords Development, Strategic planning, Jamaica, Tourism, Industrial performance, Economic indicators

Abstract This article offers, briefly, a production-oriented development framework for Jamaica, based on growth-promoting linkages between tourism, commodity production sectors, and complementary and related service industries. These linkages can boost the Jamaican endogenous competency and industrial competitiveness, while improving the country’s macroeconomic performance. Alternative development policy considerations are also within the scope of this article.

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Introduction The direction in which the Jamaican economy is pointed, at present, seems to be somewhat random, depending on the current state and vagaries of the global market rather than based on long-term development planning. The impact of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attack on the travel industry shows the danger of heavy reliance on an industry that is changing and is also subject to volatile factors, particularly the transport industry and developments in the oil market. Attention will have to be drawn to the part played by tourism in the Jamaican economy, as the lack of an overall integrated policy has limited the contribution of tourism growth to the country’s socio-economic development. In formulating policies for economic restructuring and diversification, it is imperative, therefore, to recognise the critical elements of the system in terms of deriving a long-term strategy, and to show the relative position of endogenous strategic components. Failure to do so can easily lead not only to short-run, highly partial considerations, and short-term measures, dictated by pressing problems (e.g. national debt, stagflation) but also to the adoption of an ad hoc approach to development which may be in conflict with the goal of a stronger economic fabric. This article considers the potential for development-promoting linkages between tourism, commodity production sectors, and complementary and related services in Jamaica, while charting a developmental state framework for the country’s industrial rejuvenation and competitiveness. The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

Charting the Jamaican developmental state framework Prospects for future growth in Jamaica have been frustrated and lowered significantly, due to foreign exploitation and under utilisation of existing resources, as well as the severe economic difficulties the country has repeatedly faced. As the Jamaican economy operates at below its level of physical and human capacity, policies to increase aggregate demand can yield substantial economic gains. Thus, a first requirement of a thorough development strategy is that aggregate demand must be sufficient enough to stimulate production up to the adequate rate of capacity utilisation. However, growth of local production must go hand in hand with special consideration of the country’s external trade (even though the competitiveness of the Jamaican economy must come to the fore). In addition, the expansion of tourism must represent a net addition to the effective use of resources. In order to expand industrial production and employment, firms must have the financial means to invest in the necessary machinery, capital equipment, critical kinds of science and technology initiatives. Skills training and upgrading, and short-run bottlenecks (e.g. a lack of the necessary resources and skills, difficulties in obtaining finance, and a lack of business confidence), preventing a fuller utilisation of capacities, have to be taken care of. Likewise, the renewal of tourism in Jamaica requires investment in tourism plant, facilities and supporting infrastructure. Hence, a second requirement of the proposed development strategy is that selective economic policies should provide The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

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the resources and stimuli to carry out the investment in both working and fixed capital, infrastructure, and the modern factors of development necessary to raise output and to improve the production and commercial conditions of firms. Active fiscal policy ought to carry out the investments necessary to improve the supply conditions of businesses and to support the other expenditures associated with the selective policy. Monetary policy ought to ensure that sufficient financial resources are channelled to firms and to intermediary agencies at reasonable interest rates. Besides, it should be considered that the increase in output would translate into higher profits and savings (Lopez, 1998). However, bottlenecks at the firm or macro level often hamper a more efficient capacity utilisation. These bottlenecks must be seriously considered, would require addressing a number of issues simultaneously, and accordingly a medium and long-term development strategy should have as a basic requirement a close link with a deliberate industrial strategy. Such a directed state action should: 1 consolidate and improve existing production; 2 select and give priority to investment in new and technically promising activities; and 3 adjust quickly in anticipation of, and in response to, global changes in demand and technological innovation (Karagiannis, 2002). Indeed, industrial targeting should single out areas of emphasis in selected fields (such as food processing, beverages, and organic farming), and be directed towards strengthening the national industrial core and upgrading competitiveness. It should be concentrated on a few focal areas having favourable prospects for development, and be selectively designed so as to support a small group of key dynamic firms managed by modern entrepreneurs. Even a small group of key propulsive industries can be instrumental in emphasising the ‘‘accelerators’’ of growth and endogenous competency, exert pressure to adapt on other supply firms, and introduce modern concepts of policy-making and labour relations. The various spheres of policy should be directed towards consolidating these focal areas, correcting the imbalances which continually emerge in the wake of restructuring and/or repositioning, reconciling contradictory elements therein, and smoothing the path for industrial growth.

What has been asserted should not be taken to imply a rejection of the problems that could arise with the proposed development strategy. But to face them, a sound economic approach ought to complement short-run measures with a thorough plan for the future, which includes a long-term industrial or structural change strategy aimed at diversifying local production, strengthening technological capabilities, and promoting innovation. Greater levels of production, employment, and profits that would be achieved in the short term owing to the fuller use of available resources, would actually spur a transition to a more structurally efficient economy. Part of this increased production and income in Jamaica would go to higher spending on the accelerators of endogenous competency and lead to faster development of skills of the labour force. Higher profits would allow not only additional investment spending but also a greater proportion of income growth to be channelled towards investment. Hence, in the future, it would be relatively easier to incorporate more modern technology and increase productivity, while at the same time raising accumulation rates (Lopez, 1998). In addition, as it is very difficult – perhaps impossible – to repay the debt and to finance economic development at the same time in Jamaica, the approach to the management of the national debt should be designed in the context of the long-term strategy for overall development. Yet, to find the appropriate role for foreign investment in the development process is a necessary complement to the strategy for managing the national debt. For purposes of designing endogenous competency strategies to achieve the development of productive forces, and the transformation and diversification of the structure of Jamaican production, technically-proficient strategic planning is absolutely necessary, and should be directed towards the creation of new conditions and processes to be effectively and directly determined by the planning authorities. Strategic planning is a pragmatic attempt to increase the country’s long-run capacity to transform itself by building up the infrastructure and the requisite skills. In the development of these strategies, a developmental state not only generates the capacity to spread the use of modern knowledge and industrial techniques into all elements of the economic transformation so as to spur local industrial activities, but also creates a dynamic basis for engagement in the world economy through higher levels of exports. Only under such a national strategic planning system and well-conceived and

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vigorously executed development programmes will trade serve a different function, because the Jamaican economy itself will be reoriented to serve different purposes (Karagiannis, 2002). Arguably, domestic production should be oriented towards satisfying domestic demand in the first instance with export specialisation occurring as an extension of this. Besides, stopover visitors expand the domestic market. The aim should be to bring about a general improvement in the competency and efficiency of the Jamaican economy, in the level of technological infrastructure it relies on, and in the quality of workmanship and service, so that more and more activities may become increasingly competitive. Modern production techniques, precisely because of their flexibility, make it possible to manufacture in small series on a viable basis. Targeting and flexibility are possible, especially if they can draw on modern industrial planning. Assuming predominance of clear focal areas and initiatives carried out by both a competent administrative machine and dynamic local businesses, demand for imported capital and goods could decline and exports of local products expand. Given the recovery of production of local industries and the improvement of national competitiveness, a large part of the additional goods produced will be devoted to exports. Consequently, the country would make a greater and better use of its productive resources and capacity, while at the same time easing the constraints on its balance of payments. In addition, as indigenous technology is the basis for an organic integration of domestic production and demand structures, investment priorities and the choice of technique are determined by the strategies of transformation and diversification, and by the product choices to which these strategies give rise. The overall purpose is to increase the capacity of the Jamaican economy to respond at the level of the government, firms, and the population as a whole (Karagiannis, 2002). In order to assure realisation of these national development goals, an economically active state must play a significant role (it is argued here that, even under the current conditions of globalisation and the pressures from international organisations such as WTO and IMF, governments still have room for developmental state policies). However, thorough development strategies assume a much better state action, and would require an efficient and competent administrative machine. The government provides the

‘‘national purpose’’ framework, and well-educated, well-trained and efficient technocrats supply planning and overview. This ‘‘national purpose’’ proves possible to bring together social and political forces in the interests of a socially-defined agenda (Karagiannis, 2002). Moreover, this growth-oriented transformation must lead in a corporatist direction and strategic partnership between a developmental state, forward-looking businesses, and various social segments. A broad-based consensus is also required and could afford scope for national strategic planning. Furthermore, if such thorough alternative strategies are to solve such problems, they presuppose participation. Indeed, participation is a vital element ensuring that sufficient motivation, creativity, and human effort is forthcoming to guarantee that such technically proficient strategies can be successfully carried out in Jamaica. Lastly, the adjustment of its social and political conditions to the country’s urgent social and developmental needs cannot be avoided. Therefore, it would be necessary to adopt a number of measures to remodel the key social, economic, and institutional factors that will be required to provide the necessary underpinning in Jamaica. But so does any thorough strategy capable of overcoming barriers and laying down the basis of growth and endogenous competency in any developing country. Devising the necessary action to stimulate tourism growth and industrial regeneration, while raising the quantity and quality of productive investment necessary to allow the fullest and most efficient utilisation of existing resources, seems to be a more sensible way to confront the future. Such an approach seems, certainly, a better option for the endogenous development and competency of the Jamaican economy, than a frantic search for accelerated ‘‘western-style’’ modernisation and free-market antidote – a ‘‘vision’’ that decision and policy-makers in Jamaica aspire to (Lopez, 1998). The alternative and more realistic development paradigm would require the pursuit of developmental state policies and strategies. This is what the Jamaican economy needs.

Conclusion The current conditions in the world economy may increase the potential advantages of pursuing ‘‘governed-market’’ policies. In the Jamaican case, such an approach will utilise and maximise productive resources available

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for the development of tourism; promote cross-sectoral links, and create economies of scale across a range of industries and firms; aggregate demand for services and the accelerators of development; and, finally, identify inefficiencies and gaps to develop and use new products and processes adequately – enabling both state and private policy-making to be better targeted. However, while the implementation of the necessary measures is far from straightforward, there is much that can be done. The Jamaican economy could have a better future, should these issues be tackled soon and successfully.

References Karagiannis, N. (2002), Developmental Policy and the State: The European Union, the East Asia and the Caribbean, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD. Karagiannis, N. and Salvaris, C.D. (2003), ‘‘Economic development and tourism growth in Jamaica: the challenges of the strategic approach’’, in Jayawardena, C. (Ed.), Caribbean Tourism: Visions, Missions and Challenges, Ian Randle Publishers, Kingston, Jamaica. Lopez, J. (1998), ‘‘Growth resumption and long-run growth in Latin American economies: a modest proposal’’, International Papers in Political Economy, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1-22.

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Viewpoint Policy coherence and sustainable tourism in the Caribbean

Anthony Clayton Sir Arthur Lewis Institute for Social and Economic Studies, The University of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica

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Many have argued that the macro level of economic and development policy must

incorporate social and environmental factors at the outset of planning if it is to achieve integrated and sustainable development, but this idea has still not been extensively taken up in the preparation of national or corporate strategies for development and growth. There is growing evidence, for example, from analyses carried out by organizations such as the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank, the World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Union that national policy at sectoral level (for agriculture, transport infrastructure, tourism and so on) not only usually fails to incorporate social and environmental factors, but frequently fails to take account of other current macroeconomic policies or even to relate to other economic sectors which may be directly important to the success of the sectoral activity in question. This is, of course, a problem in developed nations as well as developing nations, and there are numerous examples of policy conflicts (where one government policy contradicts another, or the work of one Ministry undermines the work of another), but the consequences tend to be more severe in developing nations which have little margin to absorb the costs of serious policy mistakes. The threatened demise of the sugar and banana industries in the Caribbean region offers a number of examples of such policy conflicts; these industries might have been modernised and thereby saved, but modernisation would have entailed significant reductions in the workforce. Proposals to modernise therefore met political resistance. The effect, unfortunately, was to render these industries

# MCB UP Limited [ISSN 0959-6119] [DOI 10.1108/09596110310470266]

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Keywords Sustainable development, Tourism, Policy management, Growth, Economic conditions, Environmental risk assessment

Abstract The common failure to give due weight to environmental and social factors creates a risk that that short-term economic growth objectives may be traded off against long-term objectives, such as environmental quality. This potential policy conflict may be exacerbated in the developing countries that are undergoing structural adjustment, as the associated trimming of non-core public expenditure will typically include measures designed to manage the environment. Thus the long-term future of the vital tourist industry might be compromised in the process of meeting short-term public expenditure reduction targets. The solution lies partly in improved policy coherence; microlevel prescriptions are more likely to be sustainable per se and also help to underpin a wider process of sustainable development if the appropriate policy framework is analysed and evolved integrally, as part of a coherent national plan. The need, therefore, is for an appropriate, flexible structure that could capture the business, environmental and developmental aspects of tourism.

Economic growth and environmental quality There is now widespread concern about sustainable development, and there are many examples of positive action. Most of these, however, are at the micro or community level, and hence relatively limited in scope; there has been relatively little significant change at the key macro and sectoral levels. Even in the current rounds of macroeconomic reform and structural adjustment (both nationally and internationally), the primary focus is on the pursuit of economic growth. This is not necessarily wrong; most environmental problems become both a higher priority and more tractable as countries become wealthier. As a general rule, however, the majority of governments and corporations still treat social and environmental costs and benefits as externalities. Non-economic benefits are rarely factored into basic economic analysis, and non-economic costs (in terms of, for example, unemployment and environmental damage) still tend to show up post facto as areas that need additional compensatory investment to alleviate any damage done. In principle, of course, given better planning and management, and the use of advanced management concepts such as cleaner production, it should be possible to shift the point of trade-off between economic and environmental objectives (Clayton and Radcliffe, 1996; Clayton et al., 1999; Clayton, 2002a).

Policy conflicts

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uncompetitive, as their production costs are now two or three times those of modern, efficient producers elsewhere. The situation has been maintained, to date, by European subsidy, but the transition to open world trading conditions will end commercial sugar and banana production in a number of countries in the region, thus creating even more serious unemployment than would otherwise have been the case. The net effect of government policy, therefore, has been to postpone the pain of restructuring, but in this way contribute directly to the demise of these industries (Clayton, 2001).

Budgetary constraints and long-term risks The urgently needed but difficult macroeconomic reforms and structural adjustment programmes currently being carried out in many countries, provide additional contemporary examples of policy conflicts. These programmes usually require governments to get their budgets back under control. In a situation where external shocks, mismanagement, corruption or some combination of these factors has led to significant, unproductive over-spending, without commensurate benefits or growth, the measures required to rebalance budgets will usually be harsh, and be accompanied by pegging or reductions (in real terms) in those areas of public expenditure defined as non-core. This will typically include measures designed to manage the environment and natural resources. However, these reductions in public funding and managerial capacity can occur at a time when resource-dependent sectors – such as tourism – are actually expanding, driven by the sustained long-term growth in the global pattern of demand for travel and tourism services. There is, therefore, a significantly increased risk of environmental damage as a result of the pursuit of short-term and purely economic growth objectives, however necessary these might be. The failure to give due weight to environmental and social factors also creates a risk that short-term objectives are being, perhaps unknowingly, traded off against long-term objectives, and that the long-term future of the vital tourist industry – for example – might be compromised in the process of meeting short-term public expenditure reduction targets.

Social and institutional factors Part of the problem relates to the established pattern of institutional arrangements and decision-making procedures. Economic reform programmes are, in general, designed by a relatively small group of policy makers, who tend not to accord significant weight to the impact of economic reforms on social sectors and the environment. The prevailing assumption of such policy makers tends to be that improved aggregate economic indicators (e.g. rising GDP) will automatically translate into poverty alleviation, social equity and improved environmental stewardship. Experience of growing social and economic polarisation, distorted and unbalanced growth and extensive, costly and unnecessary environmental degradation has, in some cases, indicated that the prevailing assumption is too simplistic, and that it is necessary to look much more carefully at the management of the process of reform and transition. Experience in a number of nations now suggests, for example, that it is possible for particular sections of the community to remain socially excluded and isolated, trapped by a lack of marketable skills and knowledge of the modern workplace, even when the country as a whole is experiencing positive economic growth.

The implications for tourism Tourism as an economic sector is extremely pervasive in that it both affects and is affected by many other sectors, ranging from construction and engineering to a wide range of services, and thereby involves or has implications for the livelihood of many people at almost all levels of society. Thus the tourism sector is particularly vulnerable to the policy deficiencies noted above. Success or failure, whether economic, social or environmental, depends not only on effective and efficient action at the micro level (hotel, resort, community) but also on action at the macro (national) and sectoral levels (Clayton, 2000; 2001; 2002b). At the macro level, regulation or perverse incentives can have a strong impact on the success or failure of tourism at the micro level. Fiscal policy, on issues such as reduced state ownership, subsidies, reform of the tax structure, credit and reorientation of public investment, have a major impact on the conditions within which tourism operates. Other macroeconomic policy areas, such as

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monetary policy (particularly with regard to interest rates), exchange rate policy, labour/wage policy and trade policy, are similarly relevant. In countries such as Jamaica, the most important constraint to the future development of the tourism industry is now the level of violent crime; tourists are far less likely to be affected than residents, but the perception of risk has become a significant deterrent. Thus the development of the industry now depends more on the Government’s policies on social inclusion, crime and justice than it does on the Government’s policies for tourism per se. There is frequently a lack of inter-sectoral connection at the sectoral level as well. The provision of the necessary infrastructure, for example, is critically important for the long-term viability of the tourism industry. If national policies do not facilitate the necessary credit and investment for the right type and spread of infrastructure, therefore, any initiatives to promote tourism will be negatively affected; resulting in either environmental damage, or declining visitor levels, or both. Even good sectoral policy often fails to deliver the intended results, as sectoral polices are rarely derived from or supported by a broader, national macroeconomic framework (Haley and Clayton, 2003). The failure to take an inclusive approach to policy and practice in tourism creates the situation we see today, in which there is a strong tendency to pursue short-term gains in economic growth with inadequate regard for the long-term economic, social and resource sustainability of the activity. Indeed, without an integrated approach, there is a serious risk (already evident in certain locations) that the natural resource capital on which tourism depends will provide for a short period of high profit, but will then be followed by the degradation or exhaustion of those same natural resources. This is why current systems of national accounts generally fail to capture the full input and impact of tourism in any given economy and can, therefore, lead to incorrect or erroneous decisions on, for example, policy and investment in that sector. One possible solution is to establish satellite accounts, in which other variables (such as social and environmental factors) can be tracked, but there is as yet no agreed common framework for choosing variables and assessing the import of particular social and environmental changes (Clayton and Radcliffe, 1996).

The solution: factoring in interdependence The fundamental issue, however, is that the three levels (macro, sectoral and micro) are highly interdependent. Micro-level prescriptions are therefore more likely to be sustainable per se and also help to underpin a wider process of sustainable development if the appropriate policy framework is analysed and evolved integrally as part of a coherent national plan. The need, therefore, is for an appropriate, flexible structure (broadly similar perhaps to the National Environmental Policy Plan of The Netherlands) which could capture the business, environmental and developmental aspects of tourism (Clayton et al., 1999). This would allow the social and environmental costs of economic development within the tourism sector to be internalised (or at least recognised), which would then make it possible to identify the sort of practical policies and reforms that would facilitate the achievement of the social, economic/business and environmental objectives of sustainable development. The cross-sectoral, multi-level focus of this type of policy framework would require broad-based participation by the business sector, the government, civil society and others concerned with or impacted by tourism, and the policies and reforms that result have to be implemented if the active involvement of this broader constituency is to be maintained. It is important, therefore, to build in a development and dissemination process that significantly strengthens the local capacity for addressing the needs of the tourism industry and developing its role in a wider process of sustainable development. This will then maximise the existing positive initiatives coming from the industry itself, such as those promoted by the World Travel and Tourism Council.

References Clayton, A. (2000), ‘‘Sustainable tourism: the agenda for the Caribbean’’, Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Trends Journal, Vol. 1, pp. 60-78. Clayton, A. (2001), ‘‘Developing a bioindustry cluster in Jamaica: a step towards building a skill-based economy’’, Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 50 No. 2. Clayton, A. (2002a), ‘‘Cleaner technologies: the implications for developing nations’’, in Pantin, D. (Ed.), The Economics of Natural Resources, the Environment and Sustainable Development. Clayton, A. (2002b), ‘‘Strategies for sustainable tourism development: the role of the concept

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of carrying capacity’’, Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 61-98. Clayton, A. and Radcliffe, N.J. (1996), Sustainability: A Systems Approach, Earthscan, London. Clayton, A., Spinardi, G. and Williams, R. (1999), Strategies for Cleaner Technology: A New Agenda for Government and Industry, Earthscan, London. Haley, M. and Clayton, A. (2003), ‘‘The role of NGOs in environmental policy failures in a developing country: the mismanagement of

Jamaica’s coral reefs’’, Environmental Values, Vol. 12 No. 1, February, pp. 29-54.

Further reading Clayton, A. (2003), ‘‘Sustainable tourism: the agenda for tourism professionals in the Caribbean’’, in Jayawardena, C. (Ed.), Tourism and Hospitality Education and Training in the Caribbean, The University of the West Indies Press, Jamaica.

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Viewpoint Terrorism and tourism: Bahamas and Jamaica fight back

Godfrey Pratt Morgan State University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

Keywords Tourism, Competitive advantage, Terrorism, Economic growth, Bahamas, Jamaica

Abstract This study highlights the fragility of the tourism industry in developing countries. The overdependence of the Bahamas on the tourism industry, for economic development, is brought into focus here. The adroit efforts of the directors of tourism for both the Bahamas and Jamaica are highlighted. Both governments saw the need to immediately fund a revised marketing and advertising campaign, in the aftermath of 9/11. An important factor in the recovery of both destinations is the extent to which a coalition of public and private sector tourism stakeholders in both countries committed themselves to resolving the crisis quickly at hand. The commitment of the public and private sector in these countries, to safeguarding and promoting this industry probably positively correlated to the importance of the industry to the economy of the countries, as evidenced by tourism’s contribution to their GDP.

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Introduction The terrorist attack in the USA on 11 September sent a shock wave throughout the tourism industry in the Caribbean. The complete cessation of flights between the USA and the Bahamas occurred for the first time in history, in the days following this event. Hotels in the Bahamas emptied as soon as their US-bound guests arranged their return transportation home. Conventions, business meetings and pleasure travel were cancelled en masse, as paranoia about the security of air travel set in. At the same time, total air arrivals to Jamaica fell by 41 per cent. In subsequent weeks this decline narrowed to a recorded 23 per cent, and was estimated even later to be about 16 per cent. Tourism accounted for over 70 per cent of the Bahamas GDP, and about 65 per cent of direct and indirect employment, according to the Bahamas Chamber of Commerce. About 80 per cent of tourists visiting the Bahamas came from its major market, the USA. Although the Bahamas was a popular cruise destination the lions’ share of revenue generation came from visitors who flew down and stayed in hotels. This industry, however, contributed under 8 per cent to Jamaica’s GDP and produced an estimated 160,000 direct and indirect jobs for Jamaicans. Although Jamaica’s dependence on tourism was not as crucial as that of its neighbor to the north, the situation was still very grim. With 72 per cent of Jamaica’s air arrivals coming from the USA, both countries were obliged to direct their attention toward the reluctance of their major travel market to fly, following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The task of the Bahamas Director General of Tourism, Vincent Vanderpool-Wallace was clear cut. He needed to direct aggressively The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister

the efforts of the Bahamas tourism industry leaders to avert a potential economic disaster and immediately recapture the tourist traffic lost from the US market, in the wake of the 9/11 terrorist incidents. Vanderpool-Wallace requested and easily obtained emergency funding to redesign immediately the Bahamas public relations, advertising and marketing campaigns in the USA. Fay Pickersgill, the former Director of Tourism for Jamaica had a similar but somewhat less urgent charge. Both directors had the full support of their tourism, and other government ministers, industry officials, and partners. Both tourism directors led the charge head on. Pickersgill was provided with an additional US$13 million of emergency funding to redesign quickly Jamaica’s image in its overseas markets while simultaneously gathering information aimed at enabling Jamaica to recover from the travel fallout following 9/11.

Background Prior to 9/11, both the Bahamas and Jamaica had embarked on aggressive sales and marketing strategies, designed to capture significant portions of the tourism market for the Caribbean area. Because of historical ties, proximity, and accessibility, the USA was the major tourism market for both countries. The bulk of the US visitors to both countries originated from the South Florida, and the New York/New Jersey markets.

Synopsis Both the Bahamas and Jamaica had the advantage of being very close to the USA, both geographically and in terms of accessibility. The Bahamas was between The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

Godfrey Pratt Terrorism and tourism: Bahamas and Jamaica fight back International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 192-194

25-45 minutes away from the major south Florida markets by air, or two and a half hours away from its primary New York/New Jersey markets. Jamaica was just an hour and 40 minutes away from the south Florida market, while being only about three and a half hours away from the New York/New Jersey markets. Major airlines, as well as Air Jamaica, Bahamasair, and other scheduled and charter carriers provided adequate airlift into the Bahamas and Jamaica from across the USA. Both the Bahamas and Jamaica shared a common language (English) with the USA, which made marketing toward the USA simpler. The Bahamas had two competitive advantages over Jamaica in that its currency was equivalent to that of the USA, which gave prospective visitors there one less thing to worry about when visiting that foreign destination. Another advantage that suddenly loomed important, post 9/11, was the existence of US pre-clearance facilities in major ports of entry in the Bahamas. This both eliminated the prospect of returning US residents having to face the long lines and increased security, primarily of the Miami and New York airports. Ideologically, the Bahamas was close to the USA, empathizing with them whenever they faced challenging political issues. US visitors could feel that they were in an exotic foreign destination in the Bahamas, while, for the most part, feeling safe and welcome. Prior to 9/11, local unrest in West Kingston, Jamaica prompted the Jamaica Tourist Board to take steps to bolster the eroding confidence of both consumers and the travel trade in selecting Jamaica as a tourism destination. This was done through a multi-faceted marketing program dubbed, ‘‘operation grow’’, which had a local product improvement component, and an international research, advertising, and public relations component. Some measure of success was reported, prior to 9/11. In terms of a quality visitor experience the Bahamas had spent over three billion dollars a few years prior to 9/11, to upgrade and renovate existing tourism facilities and clean up the public areas. This gave Bahamians increased pride in their country and increased the positive visitor comments collected by the Visitor Relations Unit of the Bahamas Ministry of Tourism. The proficiency of the stable of tourism industry experts from the Bahamas somewhat overshadowed the talent base from elsewhere in the Caribbean. However, in terms of tourism industry expertise both the Bahamas and Jamaica had an impressive reserve of industry talent capable of

propelling these nations forward in the face of significant threats to the industry.

Actions of the directors Vincent Vanderpool-Wallace coalesced the industry partners from the hotels, promotion boards, the government and non-government organizations to participate in an emergency action plan to address the immediate issues. Ads in major markets, especially in geographic areas close to ground zero, were pulled immediately. Emergency funds for a revised media campaign, were obtained from the treasury. Sympathetic and empathetic messages were placed on behalf of the Bahamas in major media markets, especially those close to ground zero. New media tools, e.g. in cable TV markets, that had not been used before, now received ad placement and public relations exposure. Fay Pickersgill also commanded the charge for Jamaica’s tourism industry. Her actions mirrored those of Vanderpool-Wallace. Initially she withdrew all advertising from the US market, with a phased return to an advertising campaign using a modified approach. In addition, as the engineer of ‘‘Operation Grow’’, Pickersgill accelerated the marketing efforts of this program, infusing additional funding into this project to handle the new challenge. The goal of this program was to maintain a strong presence in the US market, in terms of sales and public relations activities. Advertising efforts from this program would range from a message of solidarity with the American people to a sensitive and appropriate invitation to consumers to ‘‘revive your spirit and renew your soul’’ in Jamaica. Operation Grow continued to focus on research and intelligence gathering activities, to understand the travel market, as events unfolded, and to implement strategies designed to recover the lost ground in Jamaican tourism. The employment situation was quite critical in the Bahamas, with such a large percentage of the population directly employed in the industry; massive layoffs loomed as a result of 9/11, and empty hotel rooms. Vanderpool-Wallace persuaded the hoteliers to modify proposed layoffs. The industry agreed to hold the line, coming up with creative ways to share work schedules, and avert massive layoffs, which could have sent the economy into a tailspin, although the hotels themselves were losing money. This approach was not taken in Jamaica, and therefore significant layoffs occurred there in the short term.

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The industry one year later

The report for the Bahamas showed almost total recovery in visitor arrivals from a year International Journal of ago. Positive bookings have been reported for Contemporary Hospitality Management all areas in the Bahamas. Air arrivals in 15/3 [2003] 192-194 some areas show a slight decline, but this is balanced by an increase in average room occupancy. In Jamaica, the first half of 2002 shows stopover arrivals were 11 per cent below those of 2001, indicating that there is still some work to be done in order for the country to achieve pre 9/11 visitor arrival levels. The Jamaican Tourist Bureau plans to diversify and expand Jamaica’s tourism client base, particularly in Europe, which has the potential to make a significant contribution to the economy. Jamaica is also directing its marketing focus toward the Latin American market, which presents a huge potential for Jamaica. Both the Special thanks are given to Bahamas and Jamaica are expecting to be in the Director General of a marketing position to achieve real growth Tourism for the Bahamas, Mr Vincent Vanderpoolin 2003, after recovering from the tourism Wallace, The Bahamas Hotel debacle brought on by the terrorist incident Association, and the of 11 September 2001. Research Department of the Bahamas Ministry of Tourism. Special thanks are also due to Ms Fay Conclusions Pickersgill, the former Director of Tourism for the Suppose the response by both tourism Jamaica Tourist Board, and directors was less than swift, comprehensive the Corporate Planning and Research Department of the and collaborative? What could have happened if they failed to galvanize the Jamaica Tourist Board.

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support of government ministers, and substantial amounts of industry support behind their efforts to combat the effects of the terrorist actions in the major tourist market for these countries? With a country as heavily dependent on tourism as the Bahamas one could surmise that Wallace had no choice but to follow the course of action that he took. If he failed to direct immediately the efforts of the public and private sector toward ameliorating the situation, the crush of subsequent events like an avalanche or a runaway train would inevitably have decimated the Bahamas tourism industry as well as the country’s economy. The Bahamas, because of several competitive advantages, coupled with the awareness of key stakeholders in the industry, seems to have recovered from the 9/11 debacle better than Jamaica, to date. However, an important lesson to be learned by the Bahamas from this incident is that the overdependence on a single industry could spell disaster for the economy of a region or country at any time. Economic diversification should be seriously pursued by developing countries, seriously dependent on one industry. Although the economy in Jamaica is not as heavily dependent on tourism as the Bahamas, their proposed marketing thrust into the Latin American market is a good effort in at least diversifying their tourism market.

Viewpoint International hotel managers and key Caribbean challenges

Chandana Jayawardena Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Jamaica K. Michael Haywood School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada

Keywords Hotels, Management styles, Tourism, Managers, Ethnic groups, International trade

Abstract Broadly categorises hotel managers. Uses lessons learnt by managing hotels in the Caribbean. Presents two recent models in the context of the Caribbean. States that clear awareness of the ‘‘ABC’’ related to the host community is a key step in public relations. Presents the ideal attributes and prerequisites for success in international hotel management in a nutshell. Categorises Caribbean countries based on the ethnic mix and historic reasons for negative attitude towards tourism. Expresses views on key challenges that expatriate hotel managers face in the Caribbean. In conclusion, makes brief recommendations to international hotel managers planning to work in the Caribbean.

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The international hotel managers usually face the most rewarding as well as the most challenging tasks. The initial and most common challenge for an expatriate hotel manager in a new country is overcoming the culture shock. Pre-visit Web site searches and reading books are helpful in understanding certain aspects of a host country. However, getting accepted by the local community usually needs more work and a lot of public relations. A quick analysis, a quick understanding and quick acceptance of: (A) attitudes and aspirations; (B) beliefs and behavior; and (C) culture and customs of

the host community is the key to success for an international hotel manager. Jayawardena (2001) developed a model, which has helped him tremendously to fit in to the relevant communities of the different countries he has worked during his international career in hotel management. This model is provided in Figure 1. Researching, understanding and respecting the ABCs of a region, country or local community must be done by any international hotel manager working in a foreign country. This model was used for productive interactions in regions such as Asia, Europe, the Middle East, South America and the Caribbean. A foreigner may not fully agree with certain policies, beliefs and customs in a host country. But, it is of utmost importance for the foreigner to respect these and to avoid totally commenting on sensitive religious and political issues relevant to the local population. Fully understanding the ABCs of the host population quickly provides the foreigner with a better opportunity to settle in a new job comfortably. In addition to getting accepted quickly by the local community, expatriate hotel managers face another major challenge of balancing and satisfying needs of customers, owning and operating companies and hotel employees. Without a good working understanding of key areas, such as technical or operational, human resource management, finance and marketing, hotel managers will find it is difficult to be successful in the hotel industry. As shown in Figure 2, all hotel managers face the needs versus knowledge challenge. However, it is the international hotel managers who face the most difficult challenges. There are no formulae for success in international hotel management. To be successful as an expatriate hotel general

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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm

Introduction The Caribbean has always attracted foreigners. History records adventurous encounters of famous visitors such as Christopher Columbus, Lord Nelson and Captain Morgan. During the twentieth century, the Caribbean attracted many well-known expatriate writers, actors and musicians of the likes of Ernest Hemingway, Ian Fleming, Errol Flynn and Harry Belafonte to name a few. In addition, the Caribbean has an impressive record of attracting millions of tourists, thousands of international hotel managers, hundreds of major hotel investors and most of the international hotel corporations during the last 50 years.

International hotel managers Hotel managers can be broadly categorized as: . local; . national; . regional; and . international (Jayawardena, 2000).

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manager one should ideally have many attributes and prerequisites. In a nutshell, these include: . qualifications (minimum a diploma), skills and knowledge (technical, human resources, finance and marketing); . action learned experience (minimum of 15 years in at least three countries), efficiency, dedication and creativity; . management ability, leadership qualities and ambition to succeed; . adaptability – ability to learn quickly from ‘‘CSCSO’’ (customers, superiors, colleagues, subordinates and others) in different countries; and . sociability – ability to establish useful international contacts and mobility (free to move from one country to another at short notice) (Jayawardena, 2000).

The Caribbean hotel industry The Caribbean now has around 275,000 hotel rooms. In terms of room stock, leading destinations in the region and the approximate number of rooms in 2000 were:

Figure 1 ABC X 2 model for international hotel managers

Figure 2 Needs versus knowledge pyramid (NKP model) in hotel management

. . . . . . .

Dominican Republic – 50,000; Cuba – 37,000; Venezuela – 33,000; Cancun – 25,000; Jamaica – 23,000; The Bahamas – 14,000; and Puerto Rico – 12,000.

The above seven (out of 35) countries/ destinations have 70 per cent of the total room stock in the Caribbean while the remaining 30 per cent of the rooms are located in the other 28 Caribbean countries. This reflects somewhat of an imbalance of accommodation capacity in the region, as 20 per cent of the countries have more than 70 per cent of the rooms. On the other hand, however, with the exception of the Bahamas and Cancun, the other five countries in this list are the larger countries in the region in terms of population and size. Except for a few mainland Caribbean countries and Haiti, the other Caribbean countries are very small in size and population. According to the Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO, 2001), in most Caribbean countries, the relatively small number of larger hotels account for the bulk of the region’s output. The Caribbean has various types of hotels. From the best to worst all-inclusive hotels in the world, from Atlantis Hotel (with 2,400 rooms and 6,000 employees) in the Paradise Island of the Bahamas to Le Meridien’s Timberhead eco-resort (with six rooms and six employees) in the rainforest of Guyana, from large conference hotels in Cancun to small inns of Jamaica; the Caribbean has it all. Today locals manage an increasing number of hotels, which is a welcome sign. However, most of the international hotel corporations continue to employ expatriate general managers, food and beverage managers, executive chefs and specialty chefs. In some Caribbean countries, which are relatively new to tourism, it is indeed advisable to bring in well-seasoned expatriate hotel managers. Their experience will continue to help in professionalising the hospitality services and management in such Caribbean countries. Most expatriate hospitality executives working in the Caribbean are from European countries.

Challenges There are various types of challenges faced by international hotel managers operating in the Caribbean. These challenges can vary from destination to destination depending on the historic background of the country and the current ethnic mix of the population in the respective Caribbean nation. Based on

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the ethnic mix and the predominant ethnic group, countries in the Caribbean can be broadly categorised as: . predominantly decedents of indigenous people and mixed (indigenous and European) Mestizo – such as Belize; . predominantly decedents of colonial masters and mixed (European and African) Mulattos – such as Cuba; . predominantly decedents of African slaves – such as Jamaica; and . predominantly decedents of indented laborers from East India – such as Guyana. The warmth and charm of most people in the Caribbean is an important facet of tourism product in the region. However, it is noted that employees and local communities of these different categories tend to react differently in terms of: . level of hospitality; . acceptance of ‘‘white’’ tourists; . quality of service; . working for foreign hotel companies operating in the Caribbean; and . dealing with expatriate hotel managers. The negative attitude towards service, owing to unpleasant memories from the colonial past, is evident in some developing countries. In the Caribbean, where the forefathers of many citizens have been captured and forcibly shipped from Africa as slaves, the negative feeling still runs deep. Hospitality service is at times seen as going back to ‘‘the plantation era’’ in the Caribbean. As an example, a former president of Guyana frequently reminded his people of the negative ‘‘colonial’’ elements of tourism. The result of this is the difficulty in attracting higher quality staff to tourism and hospitality sector jobs and students to hospitality management programmes in the Caribbean. This situation is different in some of the other developing countries unexposed to the slave trade. Notably, in most Asian countries, the hospitality and service seems far more culturally deep-rooted compared with the Caribbean. Terms common in the global hospitality business such as ‘‘bus boy’’, ‘‘bell boy’’, or ‘‘room maid’’ are considered bad words in most Caribbean countries as these terms reflected a bad taste in the context of Caribbean history. One of the authors, while functioning as the general manager of the largest business hotel in Jamaica, faced an unusual problem. He was told by a union leader that some members of his staff had refused to wear certain types of uniforms. These were designed by a top French designer for employees of Le Meridien hotels worldwide

to maintain uniformity and general standards. The reason given by the union leader and employees for this refusal was ‘‘these uniforms remind us of the colonial past’’. Instead of considering this as an act of insubordination, the manager changed the uniform design (in spite of objections from the corporate office in Paris) in order to improve industrial relations. Expatriate hotel managers operating in the Caribbean have to be sensitive to such common and highly sensitive feelings. From time to time, certain adjustments have to be made to practices that seem normal in other parts of the world. Various other factors influence the behavioral patterns of host populations and their attitudes towards tourists and the hospitality industry. These factors include the political landscape, diversification of the economy, percentage of single parent families, drug trafficking and literacy rate. Most Caribbean countries record 90-98 per cent adult literacy rate. A few countries have it around 80 per cent. The lowest adult literacy rates in the Caribbean are recorded in Jamaica at 75 per cent and Haiti at 65 per cent (Skogstad, 1998). The industry is at times faced with major challenges, such as crime and tourist harassment. This is mainly arising from the lack of community involvement and the low level of direct benefits from tourism to local communities (Jayawardena, 2002). The other common challenges (in some of the countries) faced by expatriate hotel managers in the Caribbean include the following: . poor environmental management systems; . lack of quality assurance management systems in individual hotels; . food poisoning in some countries; . poor return on investment; . high foreign exchange leakage; . very strong unions and ever rising labor costs; . low productivity levels; . over-powered police force and related corruption; . inconsistent quality and high prices of local produce; . red tape, delays and ‘‘soon come’’ attitude; . attracting and retaining good employees; . pilferage and thefts; and . hurricanes.

Conclusion Different regions in the world pose different management challenges. The Caribbean, by

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any means, is not the best or the worse, but it is important for any expatriate manager to be aware of unique challenges in the Caribbean. Three key recommendations for such managers are as follows: 1 Do the homework and research well in advance, before arriving in the Caribbean. 2 Use the ABC62 model in laying a solid and positive foundation in the host community. 3 Be armed with the four key areas of knowledge bases, and be prepared to be flexible in satisfying the needs of the three main groups. Key is to balance this in the most appropriate way, as there is no formulae. One needs all ingredients, but should be able to change the recipe as and when required to suit the hotel, environment and destination.

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References CTO (2001), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report 1999-2000, Caribbean Tourism Organisation, Barbados. Jayawardena, C. (2000), ‘‘International hotel manager’’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 67-9. Jayawardena, C. (2001), ‘‘Challenges in international hospitality management education’’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 13 No. 6, pp. 310-15. Jayawardena, C. (2002), ‘‘Mastering Caribbean tourism’’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 88-93. Skogstad III, S. (Ed.) (1998), Caribbean Basin Profile, Caribbean Publishing Company Ltd, Cayman Islands.

Book reviews

Tourism and Hospitality Education and Training in the Caribbean Chandana Jayawardena (Editor) The University of the West Indies Press, Kingston, Jamaica Available in Europe through Eurospan University Press Group, London ([email protected]) 374 pp. ISBN: 976 640 119 5 US$30

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/3 [2003] 199-200 # MCB UP Limited [ISSN 0959-6119]

It is easy to recognize the internationality of the hospitality and tourism sectors, but more difficult to be aware of the richness, complexity and diversity of the product offerings and education in the Caribbean region. This is compounded by the scarcity of literature on this subject. This book, however, gives a series of case study snapshots providing an interesting mosaic of training needs and tourism which both informs and illuminates. The editor, Chandana Jayawardena, has sourced chapter input from an impressive range of academics, consultants, tourism consultants and operators, many of who are former students of the University of the West Indies (UWI). This may seem somewhat insular, but it reflects a realistic blend of the academic and practical while emphasizing the central role of the university in influencing tourism and educational development. These points are emphasized by the inclusion of a wide range of preliminary ‘‘messages’’ from senior figures which outline the context. For example, Professor the Honourable Rex Nettleford (Vice-Chancellor of UWI) declares in the Foreword that the region ‘‘is no longer the backwater of ‘primitive in innocence’, but a new Caribbean in all its complexity’’. The book is divided into three sections, each of eight chapters. The first section gives a series of institutional and special project case studies which give the historical background and context to tourism and hospitality education in the Caribbean. These chapters range from developing training to graduate and postgraduate courses, especially at UWI. The final chapter of this section, written by Kwame Charles addressed the future human resource development needs of Caribbean tourism. Section two offers country case studies which show the diversity of contexts in the West Indies. The countries include Bahamas, Belize, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago,

Turks and Caicos Islands. Such names conjure images of exotic locations, but also show the universality of tourism and hospitality education problems, notably in reconciling demand and supply. The third section considers present and future challenges, including customer relations, customizing training, issues in smaller hotels and academic research. It culminates in a final chapter by Carolyn Hayle, which uses a gap analysis approach to suggest a new way forward for Caribbean tourism and hospitality human resource development. The editor has done well to patch together this complexity and diversity in such a coherent way from such an eclectic selection of contributors. This adds up to a rich and definitive record of tourism and hospitality issues which both addresses a gap in the literature and lays the groundwork for the future in the Caribbean. Hadyn Ingram

People and Tourism: Issues and Attitudes in the Jamaican Hospitality Industry Hopeton S. Dunn and Leith L. Dunn Arawak Publications, Kingston, Jamaica 160 pp. ISBN: 976 8189 03 7 The central message that comes across from the (rather pleasantly pink) pages of this book is that tourism is important to Jamaica and it must be better understood. In fact, tourism is the Caribbean’s biggest earner, accounting for one third of total output and a quarter of all jobs. While the growth forecast for the Caribbean is healthy, Jamaica has experienced sluggish growth from 1995 to 2000, perhaps reflecting issues such as rising levels of crime, drugs and visitor harassment. The authors use a national research study to map Jamaican attitudes, and a case study in Negril, Jamaica to analyse visitor harassment. This book is the result of community effort. For example, the Foreword is written by the chairman of the Jamaica Tourist Board and the Introduction by James Samuels, a Jamaican hotelier. Similarly, the Dunns represent both academia and practice: Hopeton is a consultant and lecturer, while Leith is a sociologist and development consultant. There is a rich source of research data here including community meetings and

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focus groups, more importantly with some reflective and interesting interpretation from the main authors. The final interpretation is neatly supplied by Chandana Jayawardena, who reinforces the link between residential communities and tourism. He points out that some communities receive few direct or indirect benefits from tourism, and may harbour a resentment in which tourism is ‘‘a necessary evil’’. In summary, there is a rich vein of research evidence in this book which takes a fascinating look at the role of attitudes of both residents and visitors as determinants of the future of the tourism industry. Hadyn Ingram

Turismo, Desarollo y Recursos Naturales en el Caribe (Tourism, Development and Natural Resources in the Caribbean) Alberto Pereira, Ian Boxill and Joannes Maerk Plaza Y Valdes, Mexico 265 pp. ISBN: 970 722 068 6 £6 (approximately) This book is the result of cooperation between researchers at the Universities of the West Indies (Jamaica) and of Quintana Roo (Mexico). The aim of the project called ‘‘Knowledge construction in Latin America and the Caribbean’’ is to begin to form a research base of knowledge from a southern perspective. This collection forms the second volume on tourism in the Caribbean and

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there are 18 chapters, 11 in Spanish and seven in English. This reviewer can, unfortunately, only comment on the chapters written in English! There is a broad range of topics from the scientific, such as climate change (Marlene Attz) and energy (Oliver St Headley and L. Leo Moseley), but most chapters address the social aspects of tourism. One of the most interesting is written by Noel M. Cowell and Anne P. Crick which explores service and servility in the contemporary Caribbean. This is an emotive subject which, for some, means that tourism is a new form of slavery. There is a perception that tourism is creating jobs that are menial and degrading and which lead to ‘‘a general cheapening of values and undermining the dignity and self respect of Jamaican youth’’. Research by the authors of this chapter suggests that this perception is expressed by ‘‘the elite in Caribbean tourism’’ but not shared by the workers themselves, who are proud of their industry. As with many of these types of issues, poor management plays a large part. It must be annoying for some readers of this book (like this reviewer) to be unable to understand some chapters, because only the Preface is presented in both languages. This is unusual, but the book does have a consistency of approach, with useful conclusions. For those unable to read one or the other language, this does limit the value of the book, but perhaps it enables greater participation and may be a way of reaching a, hitherto, inaccessible readership. Hadyn Ingram