Toxic Legacy: Synthetic Toxins in the Food, Water and Air of American Cities

PREFACE

It should be no surprise that synthetic toxic chemicals released into the environment contaminate the human body. After all, the food we eat, the water we drink, and the air we breathe are all contaminated with these man-made chemicals. This is a known condition of our daily lives that the vast majority of us passively accept as a reality of the modern world. Our acceptance of this reality is buffered by the assurances of both the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that there is little health risk from being exposed to low levels of these individual environmental contaminants. When considering the reality of our health and the health of our children and families, however, can we confidently accept the assurances of the EPA and the FDA that some level of allowable pollution does us no harm? The honest answer is that we really do not know. This is because the EPA, the FDA, or any other scientific institution in the United States has the ability to calculate the potential health impact of consuming two or more different chemicals. In other words, in the real world where we are all exposed to mixtures of chemical residues in our food, water, and air, the health risk from these mixtures is totally unknown. An article in Scientific American (May 2006) stated that "With tens of thousands of chemicals in regular use worldwide, assessing which combinations might prove harmful is a gargantuan task. . . . The potential effects of contaminant mixtures on people, aquatic life, and fish-eating wildlife are still poorly understood" (p. 16). Given these uncertainties, most of us would prefer to have no daily intake of chemical residues. Yet, depending on where we live in the United States, the amount and diversity of chemical residues in food, water, and air can vary dramatically. Because of the unknown health risks associated with our exposure

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to residual chemical mixtures, the purpose of this book is to (1) provide extensive information on the occurrence of chemical mixtures in the food, water, and air in cities around the United States, (2) show how consumer preferences for specific food and water products, as well as particular diets, influence exposure to chemical mixtures, (3) discuss the toxicity and risks associated with our exposure to synthetic chemicals, and (4) offer some guidance as to what steps we can all take to limit our exposure to complex chemical mixtures.

xiv

PREFACE

FOREWORD

Since the start of recorded human history, pollution has been understood to be a significant cause of human suffering and disease. Yet today, we have set up a system in which polluters are allowed to discharge massive quantities of chemicals that pollute our food, water, and air. Ancient cultures knew to keep waste away from homes and food sources yet we license polluters to adulterate our food, water, and air. Lead poisoning from food, water, and in the air of Roman cities may have contributed to the ultimate fall of the Roman Empire. Romans preferred wine that was distilled in lead fined pots and kettles, resulting in a sweet flavor that was thought to complement foods, even though they knew that lead was poisoning the populace. Two thousand years later, we have failed to learn the lessons of other civilizations and the network of laws meant to protect us from pollution in our food, water, and air has failed to prevent the daily assault on our bodies. With more than 75,000 regulated synthetic chemicals in use in the United States, the long term impacts from the constant exposure to these chemicals is understood for less than 1% of these chemicals. The synthetic chemicals released by polluters into the environment not only affects our health today, but the health and well being of future generations, including newborns who are bom with a toxic soup of chemicals passed on by their mothers. The time has come to carefully evaluate how we are impacting our children's world with this toxic legacy. Erin Brockovich

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1

CONFRONTING THE UNKNOWN

As a university professor, you are frequently receiving fliers from professional associations and interest groups. So it was not unusual when one day in my mail I found, addressed to Dr. Patrick Sullivan, a glossy, colored postcard from the nuclear power industry. The postcard had a photograph of a nuclear power plant with a small black pellet enclosed in its plastic window. When concerns over the safe disposal of nuclear waste were first raised, a representative of a public utility commented with a straight face that "if every man, woman and child in the United States just ate one gram of nuclear waste there would not be a disposal problem." The postcard was actually designed to illustrate how much electrical power could be generated by this small pellet, but for a moment I thought I had received my personal gram. I think it is safe to assume that anyone asked to consume a gram of nuclear waste would not believe it was a serious request. But what if we were asked to eat only a milligram (one thousandth of a gram)^ or a microgram (one millionth of a gram) of nuclear waste? Would you then give your consent? Although we are not specifically confronted with this decision, many people do make similar decisions when they choose to drink bottled water, eat a salad with organic lettuce, or not live in an industrialized area. Individuals make these choices based more on hearsay than on fact. Why? Because, in reahty, medical scientists cannot yet predict the toxic effects to individual humans from consuming low-level chemical mixtures that permeate our food, water, and air. Being unable to predict if low-level chemical mixtures do us harm, each individual's health faces an uncertain future.

As a point of reference, a common aspirin tablet is 325 milligrams or 0.325 grams.

That is why individual choices that influence the type and amount of synthetic chemicals that a person allows into his or her body need to be understood.^ This means that everyone should have at least some rudimentary knowledge of the synthetic chemicals in our food, water, and air, and the potential threat they may pose if we are to confront the unknown.

1.1 SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN THE HUMAN HABITAT In 1983, I was teaching environmental and soil science courses at Ball State University, Indiana. During the sunmier months, however, I was always faced with having to find other sources of income. Fortunately, along with five other professors from across the nation, I had been selected as an environmental and engineering fellow by the American Association for the Advancement of Science to work at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in Washington, D.C. As part of this program, we attended various seminars that discussed current and future environmental problems that needed to be studied. The speaker at our first seminar asked the six of us if we knew the three most common chemical pollutants in water. We all sat there mute, pondering the question. I remember thinking that they had to be either pesticides or other common industrial chemicals. Before we could reply, our speaker preempted any response by correctly assuming we wouldn't know the answer anyway and blurted out, "Valium, estrogen, and diuretics." Valium (diazepam) was introduced by Roche Labs in 1963 to relieve anxiety, nervousness, and tension. It received a vast amount of media coverage and was popularized as a lifestyle drug. Given the ever-increasing stress load of modem society, it is no wonder that Valium became the first billion-dollar drug. In May 1960, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Searle to sell oral contraceptives (estrogen-type compounds). By 1962, 1.2 million American women were on the "Pill." Sales slowed during the early 1970s, due to safety concerns and Senate hearings but surged to 10 million users by 1973. During this same time period, diuretic compounds (which promote water loss and sodium excretion) were becoming routinely prescribed to treat high blood pressure. Given the popularity and use of these drugs, why wouldn't they be present in water? I wrongly assumed that if pharmaceuticals found their way into one's urine or feces and were flushed to a sewage treatment plant, then these drugs would be destroyed during the treatment process. Based on the speaker's information, this was simply not the case. Clearly, wastewater containing pharmaceuticals was being discharged into creeks, rivers, lakes, and groundwater, and these same waters would eventually become someone's drinking water. Nothing ^ A synthetic chemical is an organic chemical (i.e., a carbon-based compound) that is generated by human activity.

TOXIC LEGACY

has changed since 1983, except for the type and number of different drugs that are currently being found in our water resources. In today's water, we also find drugs like Prozac, aspirin, ibuprofen, cholesterol-lowering drugs, and even chemotherapy chemicals. Thousands of synthetic chemicals could be found in our drinking water sources if we would only analyze for them. However, the water agencies that provide drinking water to our communities routinely check for only 65 known toxic chemicals. This trend also exists for the food we eat and the air we breathe. There are currently 975 different active ingredients (chemicals used for their toxic effects) registered with the EPA, and the EPA allows another 1918 inert ingredients (chemicals not used for their toxic effects) to be mixed into pesticide products. However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) monitoring programs only look for approximately 10% of the synthetic chemicals that could be found in food products. Just as with water, air resources can contain thousands of different synthetic chemicals, but the EPA requires that only 188 toxic chemicals be tracked and their emissions reported. Our bodies are currendy being bombarded with a vast mixture of both known and unknown chemicals, and it is only going to get worse. Our nation's manufacturers produce approximately 87,000 different chemicals with about 2000 new chemicals being added each year. In recognition of our exposure to this mixture of chemicals, in 2001 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began looking for synthetic chemicals in the human body. The chemical data collected by the CDC should not be surprising. The January 2003 CDC study analyzed for 49 synthetic chemicals,^ from a selected group of pesticides and one group of industrial chemicals, known as phthalates,^ in both blood and urine. The CDC reported the following total average concentrations (parts per billion, or ppb) of either pesticides or phthalates in human blood or urine. Age group 6-11 years old 12-19 years old 20-59 years old

Insecticide organophosphates

Insecticide organochlorine

Herbicides

Phthalates

8.4 6.3 4.9

N o data 122 332

2.6 2.4 2.0

177 276 227

In 2005, the Environmental Working Group released a report on chemical contaminants in newborns.^ In this study, an average of 200 industrial chemicals and pollutants were identified in umbilical cord blood from 10 babies bom in U.S. hospitals. The information collected by the CDC and the Environmental Working Group confirms what we all should suspect. Since we are exposed ^ Second National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. ^ Phthalates occur in plastics, detergents, soaps, shampoo, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. ^ The Environmental Working Group report (July 14, 2005) on "Body Burden, the Pollution in Newborns," noted 287 chemicals in umbilical cord blood.

CONFRONTING THE UNKNOWN

to a mixture of chemicals in our water, food, and air, some combination of these same chemicals will be in our bodies, and this combination of chemicals will be passed on to our children. To many, the verification of synthetic chemicals in our bodies is old news and is of little or no concern since state and federal governments regulate how much of a specific chemical is "allowed" in drinking water, in each food product, or in the air. For example, there is a 5.0ppb limit for the chemical trichloroethylene (a common industrial chemical) in drinking water, yet there is no set limit for trichloroethylene in food or air. Although regulations that limit the concentration of individual chemicals are a good idea, they do not provide the consumer with comprehensive protection. For example, a report by the Government Accountability Office in June 2005 concluded that "EPA's reviews of new chemicals provide limited assurance that health and environmental risks are identified before the chemicals enter commerce." In fact, when you consider that we do not know what chemicals we actually consume, coupled with the fact that all of us are exposed to a massive number of chemicals and chemical mixtures that have unknown toxic effects, we really do not know the potential health risks of this exposure.

1.2

DEFINING THE RISK In 1988,1 chose to leave academics and research to work in the emerging field of environmental forensics.^ Of all the potential environmental forensic problems that can occur, the most difficult to prove is the "toxic tort" lawsuit. In this type of lawsuit, individuals who have been exposed to toxic chemicals must prove that the chemicals to which they were exposed actually resulted in damaging their health. This type of lawsuit was portrayed in the movies A Civil Action and Erin Brockovitch. I became involved in a similar case in 1991. I had been retained by the Spence Law Firm in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, and was asked to determine which industries in Casper, Wyoming, were responsible for polluting the residents' drinking water wells, within the Brookhurst subdivision, with a mixture of petroleum products and chlorinated industrial chemicals. Based on the maps and chemical data, I was confident that my expert opinion given at trial would establish which companies were responsible for polluting the residents' wells. My opinion, however, was not enough to prove that the residents had been harmed by drinking and bathing in the chemical soup that had become their tap water. It was also necessary that the medical experts (toxicologist and physician) be able to show a direct connection between drink^ The field of environmental forensics is described in Practical Environmental Forensics, Process and Case Histories, by Patrick Sullivan, Franklin Agardy, and Richard Traub, John Wiley & Sons (2001).

TOXIC LEGACY

ing chemically polluted water and the residents' existing medical problems. Unlike my opinion, which was fairly straightforward, the medical experts had a difficult time establishing this connection since they had no actual data on human health effects from exposure to low levels of the chemicals that were found in the residents' well water. There were animal studies showing toxic effects for individual chemicals, but no human health studies. Because of this major shortcoming, it was practically impossible for medical experts, in this specific case, to technically support the opinion that it was a scientific certainty the residents were harmed or would be harmed. I found this result deeply disturbing because if the basic science used to establish a chemical standard, which was supposed to be protective of human health, was at the same time not necessarily suitable for establishing harm in a court of law, what protection do chemical standards actually provide and what are the real risks associated with consuming low levels of synthetic chemicals?

1.3

DEFINING THE UNKNOWN Everyone should have a reasonable assurance that food, water, and air containing synthetic chemical contaminants do not pose any health effects, but I am not convinced that today's science is capable of providing a reasonable answer any time soon. A case in point is the infamous history of DDT. In the mid-1940s, DDT was heralded as one of the modern miracles of science. There was finally a pesticide that killed a wide range of insects, was relatively cheap, was persistent, and was virtually nontoxic to humans. As a result, DDTs popularity grew rapidly throughout the United States, but by the early 1950s an increasing number of massive fish kills were associated with its use. In 1954, the FDA allowed the use of DDT on food products with a tolerance level of 7000 ppb. Due to continued incidents of DDT poisoning of wildlife in the 1960s, the most widely used pesticide of the time fell under intensive scrutiny. The EPA (formed in 1969) canceled the use of DDT on food crops and its use around beef, sheep, and hogs in 1970. From approximately 1945 through 1970, 1,350,000,000 pounds of DDT were used domestically. Today, DDT and its metabolites (DDE and TDE) are classified as poisonous or deleterious substances in human foods and have established tolerance levels that range from 50 to 500 ppb, depending on the commodity. Even though DDT has not been used on food crops for 35 years, DDT, DDE, and TDE still occur in food crops, milk products, and protein products because these chemicals either persist in the soil or are used on food products imported to the United States. Thus, it should not be surprising that even organic foods may contain these chemicals for decades or centuries to come. When looking at the history of DDT, it should be remembered that it took 35 years before this toxin was banned from food production. Given such a dramatic shift in the understanding of DDT toxicity to humans, what assurances

CONFRONTING THE UNKNOWN

do we have that scientists have any better abiUty to timely predict human health effects for the massive number of pesticide mixtures used in agriculture today? Furthermore, a food tolerance level is only an estimate of a pesticide's concentration that will "unavoidably" occur in a crop during agricultural production using best management practices, instead of a value selected deliberately for its ability to protect the public health. These conditions emphasize the unknown nature of the potential harm synthetic chemicals may present in our food and water, as well as in the air we breathe. As a naive chemistry student in the early 1970s, it was not uncommon to use benzene to clean glassware in the laboratory. Because of this practice, I and other students would routinely breathe concentrated benzene vapors while unaware of their potential harm. By the time I stopped working in the laboratory, around the mid-1980s, benzene was finally recognized in the United States as a carcinogen. In work environments today, individuals are not supposed to be exposed to more than 1600 micrograms (ug) of benzene in one cubic meter of air (ug/m^) during an 8-hour time period. Smokers, however, inhale around 1800ug of benzene a day. In 1987, the state of CaHfomia determined that the maximum level to which an individual could be exposed to benzene in air was 13ug/day or approximately 0.75 ug/m^ for an adult.^ For most nonsmokers, a person's main source of exposure to benzene is from gasoline and automobile exhaust. Outdoor levels of benzene have been reported to range from about 0.2ug/m^ in rural regions to 350ug/m^ in urban areas associated with a high density of automobile traffic. While standing at the gasoline pump, motorists have been known to breathe benzene at levels up to about 20ug/m^. Most of us are being exposed to benzene every day, yet there is no national air exposure limit for benzene outside the work environment. In fact, there are no federal exposure limits for any toxic chemical in the air that occurs outside the work environment. Instead, facilities that release air toxins into the atmosphere are required to limit the amount of their emissions. Motor vehicles, however, are exempt from any limitations on their release of toxic chemicals to the atmosphere. Thus, the quality of the air is affected by toxic emissions in both localized neighborhoods (e.g., as a result of automobile traffic, a landfill, or a chemical plant) and within metropolitan areas. To date, air quality standards have focused on the "criteria pollutants" which the U.S. EPA has recognized as regional problems that contribute to the decline in the health of the environment and reduce the aesthetic value of the environment (i.e., ozone, carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide). However, air quality standards for toxins have yet to be derived. Given the regional nature of pollution, it is important to recognize that we are exposed ^ The State of California's Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986 (Proposition 65) requires the state to develop safe harbor levels — no significant risk levels for carcinogens and maximum allowable dose levels for chemicals that cause reproductive toxicity. These standards were developed for both indoor and outdoor environments.

6

TOXIC LEGACY

to the same chemical from multiple sources (i.e., food, water, and air) as well as from exposure to chemical mixtures. For example, benzene is not only a common air pollutant, but it is routinely found in many different food products as well as in water. However, our exposure to multiple sources of benzene is not being considered by regulatory agencies, nor is it likely to be considered any time soon. There is no food tolerance level nor an ambient air quality standard for benzene,^ yet drinking water has a maximum contaminant level of 0.005 milligrams of benzene per liter of water (mg/L). In fact, there is not a single combined exposure limit for any of the thousands of synthetic chemicals used in the United States, let alone standards for complex chemical mixtures. This lack of exposure limits for both multiple exposures to the same chemical and chemical mixtures is understandable given that toxicologists do not have the necessary information to actually predict the health effects of a known toxic chemical found in the human body at very small concentrations.^ Furthermore, when humans are exposed to a mixture of known chemical toxins, it is not known whether a potential health effect could be additive (for example, 1 + 1 = 2) or potentially worse (for example, 1 + 1 = 20). Because of all these unknowns, can we be certain that drinking water standards, food tolerance levels, and air emission controls truly protect our health?

1,4

CONFRONTING THE UNKNOWN Toxicologists have just begun to address the influence on human health of individual synthetic chemicals at low levels. Yet this knowledge represents only the tip of the iceberg, since a true understanding of the real health effects posed by our exposure to unknown chemicals, chemicals with unknown toxicities, and chemical mixtures remains hidden from our view. Although toxicologists know virtually nothing about the toxic effects of chemical mixtures, toxicologists do know that there can be synergistic effects from multiple chemical exposures. Therefore, it is appropriate and realistic to assume that the greater the number of synthetic chemicals to which a person is exposed, the greater the probability an individual may experience either a synergistic or additive health effect. ^^

^ "Ambient" refers to the air that surrounds us outdoors, as opposed to indoor air in the home or workplace. ^ For example, an acute high-level exposure to benzene in air has been known to cause convulsions, coma, and sudden death from an irregular heartbeat, while chronic low-level workplace exposures to benzene in air are known to cause leukemia, when low levels of benzene occur in the environment (e.g., in food, water, or air) and in the human body, benzene is considered a suspected carcinogen. ^° Such an interaction would be similar to eating two different foods that in combination result in an upset stomach but eaten individually have no effect.

CONFRONTING THE UNKNOWN

Given these possibilities, our exposure to complex mixtures of synthetic chemicals could be responsible for a portion of the background health effects measured in our society. It is this realization that forms the foundation of this book. Because chemical exposures come from multiple sources, any attempt to understand potential health effects must be based on the actual occurrence of synthetic chemicals found in food products, drinking water, and air resources. This necessitates that information be collected in a way that is representative of our exposure to known toxic synthetic chemicals across the country. Given these requirements and the availability of regional data collected by federal, state, and local agencies, this book uses information on the actual synthetic chemicals that are known to be toxic and found in food products, drinking water, and the air resources around the nation. Unfortunately, it is not possible to characterize the occurrence of synthetic chemicals in the food, water, and air for every city in the United States. This is because the availability of information on synthetic chemical contaminants in food is limited. Based on this limitation, the following cities were evaluated: Bakersfield, California Baton Rouge, Louisiana Binghamton, New York Birmingham, Alabama Boise, Idaho Charleston, South Carolina Columbus, Georgia Dayton, Ohio Denver, Colorado Fresno, California Grand Rapids, Michigan Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Jackson, Missouri Lafayette, Louisiana Long Beach, New Jersey Los Angeles, California Milwaukee, Wisconsin New York, New York Ogden, Utah Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Orlando, Florida Peoria, Illinois Phoenix, Arizona Portland, Oregon Providence, Rhode Island

8

TOXIC LEGACY

Pueblo, Colorado Reno, Nevada San Antonio, Texas Savannah, Georgia Sioux Falls, South Dakota Springfield, Illinois Tacoma, Washington Tulsa, Oklahoma Washington, D.C. West Palm Beach, Florida Worcester, Massachusetts These cities represent a cross section of the types of communities present in the United States (small versus large, urban versus rural, high pollution versus low pollution, etc.). The information on synthetic chemicals found in the food, water, and air from each city is used to (1) show which synthetic chemical mixtures in the food, water, and air can be found in each community; (2) evaluate consumer choices relative to food preferences, diets (for example, there will be different chemical mixtures in low-carbohydrate, low-fat, vegetarian, and balanced diets) and menus, drinking tap water versus purified water or bottle water, and where one chooses to live (which can influence the type and amount of chemicals an individual actually consumes by city, region, and nationally); and (3) discuss the potential health effects that may be associated with actual chemical exposures. This chemical information is also summarized to identify those cities and regions of the nation that have the greatest number and concentration of chemical contaminants in food products, drinking water, and air resources.'' Finally, the available methods by which communities and individuals can limit their exposure to chemicals in food, water, and air are also evaluated and discussed. Based on my personal experiences, and in cooperation with my coauthors, the intent of this book is to encourage the student or interested individual to explore the known and the unknown realm of synthetic chemicals in our natural resources, the potential health effects we all face, and the methods available to each individual and society for reducing our exposure to synthetic chemical contaminants. It is also hoped that access to this information will (1) allow each person to make informed decisions about which "synthetic chemicals" they elect to consume and (2) provide toxicologists with current data on the most common chemical mixtures found in our food, water, and air resources with the hope that meaningful multichemical toxicity studies will become a reality.

Comparisons have been made of rural versus urban as well as general geographic regions.

CONFRONTING THE UNKNOWN

The need for this information was addressed in the May 2006 issue of Scientific America. This article (titled "Mixing It Up," p. 16) makes the following conclusions: One chemical alone may do no harm in low doses, but in conjunction with a few of its peers, even in doses that are individually safe, it can inflict serious harm.. .. The potential effects of contaminant mixtures on people, aquatic life and fish-eating wildlife are still poorly understood... . Our results indicate, however, that studies of mixtures should be a high priority.

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TOXIC LEGACY

AN INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN FOOD

The curative powers of chicken soup have been known since it was prescribed as a remedy for the common cold in ancient Egypt. In America today, chicken noodle soup is still a popular comfort food for treating the symptoms of the common cold and the flu. Given its healing powers, we should all be consoled by the fact that of the 240 food products tested by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), chicken noodle soup was one of only five food products that were not contaminated with synthetic chemicals.^ Other popular comfort foods faired much worse. After an exhaustive evaluation of the available FDA data on contaminants in American foods, three things are certain. Every person who eats a balanced diet of fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy, and protein products potentially consumes approximately 32 different types of synthetic pesticides and industrial chemicals. Second, the actual number of different synthetic chemicals a person will consume depends largely on one's diet, the city and region of the country where one lives, and the amount of organic food the person elects to eat. Finally, even those foods defined by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as "organic" will contain multiple pesticides and industrial chemicals unless they have been carefully screened and produced. This is because a food product can be classified as a USDA-certified organic food if the food was produced on land that has not use pesticides for at least 3 years.

The other products were canned pineapple, com, kidney beans, and pinto beans.

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Unfortunately, this length of time is not sufficient to eliminate the occurrence of persistent pesticides that were banned from agricultural use in the late 1970s. Furthermore, the handling and processing of organic foods can and do introduce industrial chemicals into "organic" products. Because the definition of an "organic" food is so important, it is critical for the purposes of this book to understand what a real "organic food" product should be. A true "organic food" should meet the following definition: "Organic Food" is any food product that is (1) produced without pesticides nor grown on land that used DDT and other banned pesticides in the last 51 years, (2) not processed (e.g., handling, sorting, mixing, or packaging) so that known toxic industrial chemicals contaminate a product, and (3) an animal product that has been shown to be free of synthetic chemicals that are known to accumulate in the edible parts of that product (i.e., by chemical analysis or is the progeny of an animal already tested as being free of synthetic chemicals and is given only "organic" feed). In other words, USDA-certified organic foods are not necessarily free of synthetic chemicals. By understanding the difference in definitions, it is possible to conclude from the information presented in the market baskets that Approximately 98% of the foods tested by the FDA and consumed in the United States are contaminated with pesticides and industrial chemicals. Chemical mixtures in food is the norm rather than the exception. Furthermore, synthetic chemical mixtures also occur in USDA-certified "organic" foods. In attempting to meaningfully describe and interpret the massive extent of this contamination, the synthetic chemical data provided in this book have been summarized to (1) determine what is a "safe" food (i.e., in terms of synthetic chemical contamination), (2) show how selected food choices will influence the type and number of synthetic chemicals an individual will consume, (3) provide a picture of how a city or region of the country can influence the magnitude of an individual's exposure to chemical mixtures, and (4) discuss the impact of "organic" foods and other techniques employed to reduce synthetic chemical exposures. The process of understanding these data and their importance and relevance to human health begins with a most critical first step. We must know how these chemical data were collected.

2.1 UNDERSTANDING THE FDA DATA COLLECTION PROCESS The data presented in this chapter were recompiled from the original data sets published in the FDA's Total Diet Studies to focus on synthetic chemical

12

TOXIC LEGACY

mixtures in foods. The original Total Diet Studies are available online at www.fda.gov under Foods. In these studies, the FDA presented its data in a "market basket." The market basket process uses the following approach: • Samples of specific foods (e.g., pizza, chicken, potatoes) are purchased in three different cities. These three cities and the purchased foods make up the market basket for that sampling period. No purchased food products have been identified in the market baskets as being produced organically. • Each food is prepared so that it is ready to eat. For example, a frozen pizza is baked, chicken is roasted or fried, and potatoes are fried, baked, or mashed. This is significant since the cooking process does influence what contaminants may be in the cooked product (e.g., fried chicken will contain cooking oils and flour compared to a roasted chicken). • After each food is prepared, the three individual food samples are mixed together into a composite sample. For example, if oranges were purchased, the three orange samples would be peeled and the flesh combined into one mixture. • It is this composite mixture that is sent to an FDA laboratory to determine the concentration of selected synthetic chemicals. Thus, the FDA sampling method shows that the market basket-composited foods are representative of the selected cities and the region spanned by their location. Market baskets have been collected quarterly since 1982 from the west, north central, south, and northeast geographic areas of the nation. The market baskets available from the FDA begin in the third quarter of 1991 (MB91-3) and currently end with the fourth quarter of 2001 (MBOl-4). During this time period, there have been changes in the types of chemicals that were looked for in the market basket foods. The most significant change occurred in 1996 when industrial chemicals (as opposed to pesticides) were added to the list of compounds looked for in foods. The complete list of chemicals looked for in the market basket food products is given in Appendix 2-1. At this point, it needs to be stressed that a knowledge of chemistry is not necessary to understand the toxicological implications of the presented data. It is more important to recognize the unique differences of the chemicals to which we are all exposed, since the toxicological diversity of a synthetic chemical mixture provides an added opportunity that an individual may experience either a synergistic or additive health effect. However, the toxicity and chemistry (i.e., when necessary to understand a toxicological concept) of the synthetic compounds that occur in the market basket foods will be addressed in greater detail in the discussions on chemical toxicity.

AN INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN FOOD

13

2.2 A LAYMAN'S APPROACH TO MARKET BASKET CHEMISTRY Synthetic pesticide chemicals are toxic by design. We do not need to know the individual chemical properties that make pesticides toxic, but we do need to recognize that different chemical properties cause different toxic effects. That is why there are different classes of pesticides as well as individual pesticides within each class. This is well illustrated in Appendix 2-1. The FDA looks for the following main groups of pesticides in food: • The organochlorine pesticides. This class of organic chemicals (a carbonbased compound) contains chlorine. This class includes 82 chemically unique compounds. For example, the pesticides from this class that most commonly occur in food are DDE (by-product of DDT) and endosulfans. • Organophosphorus pesticides. This class of organic chemicals contains phosphorus but may also contain chlorine in addition to the phosphorus. This class includes 64 chemically unique compounds. For example, the pesticides from this class that most commonly occur in food are chlorpyrifos, and chlorpyrifos by-products, and malathion. • Methylcarbamate pesticides. This class of organic chemicals contains an amide compound. This class includes 15 chemically unique compounds. For example, the pesticide from this class that most commonly occurs in food is carbaryl. • Chlorophenoxy acid pesticides. This class of compounds contains a phenoltype compound with chlorine. This class includes 30 chemically unique compounds. For example, the pesticide from this class that most commonly occurs in food is dicamba. • Pyrethroid pesticides. This class of compounds contains benzene-type compounds with either chlorine or bromine. This class includes 14 chemically unique compounds. For example, the pesticide from this class that most commonly occurs in food is permethrin. • Substituted urea pesticides. This class of compounds contains a phenyl compound with chlorine. This class includes 10 chemically unique compounds. These compounds were not connimonly found in the market basket foods. The FDA also expects that, in addition to pesticides, other known toxic organic industrial chemicals will be found in food products. The primary chemical sources that may contact food products include the following: • Inert chemicals that are combined into pesticide formulations contain a complex mixture of petroleum-based organic chemicals.^ For example, the most common are toluene and xylene.

Inert chemicals are not the active toxic ingredient in a pesticide formulation.

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TOXIC LEGACY

• Many of these same chemicals can occur in petroleum-based cleaning solvents (with and without chlorine) or lubricants that could be used on equipment for handling of food products.^ The most common solvents are trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE). In some cases, these chemicals may be associated with the direct contact with packaging (e.g., TCE with sytrene). • Water that is contaminated with petroleum-based organic chemicals provides direct contact with aquatic food products (fish, shrimp, crab, etc.). The poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) that were banned in 1979 are a good example. • Disinfection by-products contaminate food because chlorine or bromine (i.e., halogens) are used to disinfect food processing equipment. These halogens react with water-soluble organic matter to produce compounds like chloroform. The FDA looks for the following specific classes of petroleum-based organic chemicals in food: • Aromatic hydrocarbons. These are benzene ring-type compounds (e.g., benzene). This class includes 13 chemically unique compounds. • Halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons. These are benzene ring-type compounds with chlorine or bromine. This class includes seven chemically unique compounds (e.g., dichlorobenzene). • Halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons. These are single and branched chaintype compounds (no rings) with chlorine or bromine (e.g., TCE). This class includes 22 chemically unique compounds. In summary, the FDA looks for nine different chemical classes of synthetic compounds and a total of 257 chemically unique compounds in our food products. This means that some combination of these chemicals will occur in most foods. It should be remembered, however, that hundreds of other pesticide and industrial chemicals used in food production are not tested for by the FDA. This omission demonstrates that a true or total picture of our exposure to chemical mixtures in food is still not available. Even with this omission, however, the data from the market basket studies provide critical baseline information on the principal chemical mixtures that are found in food today.

^ The occurrence of known toxic petroleum chemicals in FDA-approved petroleum-based foodgrade grease is not reported.

AN INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN FOOD

15

2.3 THE SELECTED MARKET BASKETS The market baskets discussed in this chapter were selected to (1) provide information across the major geographic regions of the United States with no individual market basket using the same city and (2) provide chemical information on both pesticides and organic industrial compounds in food products. Based on these selection criteria, the market baskets that were chosen are given in Table 2-1. These 12 market baskets span the time period from the first quarter of 1996 through the third quarter of 2001. The selected market baskets tested virtually all of the same food products each year for the same chemicals. A total of 240 food products and 12 beverages were evaluated for each of the 12 selected market baskets. The synthetic chemicals that were detected in any food or beverage of these market baskets are listed in Appendix 2-2, along with their abbreviations (i.e., symbols used in this chapter's data tables), specific chemical class, and chemical formula. In order to present a meaningful summary of the data, each food product was placed into one of the following categories: • Child/infant products (produced/processed specifically for children and infants) • Dairy products • Fruit products • Grain and nut products (the majority of an individual product is a grain or nut) • Mixed products (combination of dairy, fruit, grain, protein, or vegetable products) • Protein products • Vegetable products (includes some products that are technically fruits but are usually consumed in salads) Using these categories, the market basket data have been summarized to illustrate the extent of multiple chemical contamination within (1) food product categories at the city, regional, and national levels and (2) individual food products within each category. By using this information, the consumer can evaluate and choose safer foods.

2.4 CHOOSING SAFER FOODS A safe food contains no detectable synthetic chemical residue. However, given standard agricultural production and processing practices, foods are contaminated with synthetic pesticides and synthetic industrial chemicals. As discussed previously, this also includes foods that receive the USDA "organic" certification. Because a safer food contains no synthetic chemical residues, the more

16

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 2-1

List of Market Basket Cities

Market Baskets 96-1

96-2

97-1

98-1

98-2

98-3

98-4

99-1

99-3

00-1

00-3

03-1

City

State

Bakersfield Ogden Tacoma Charleston Lafayette West Palm Beach Phoenix Fresno San Antonio Boise Los Angeles Pueblo Baton Rouge Savannah Tulsa Long Beach/Asbury Park New York Providence Dayton Peoria Sioux Falls Denver Portland Reno Binghamton Harrisburg Worcester Grand Rapids Milwaukee Springfield Birmingham Columbus Jackson Oklahoma City Orlando Washington, D.C.

California Utah Washington South Carolina Louisiana Florida Arizona California Texas Idaho California Colorado Louisiana * Georgia Oklahoma New Jersey New York Rhode Island Ohio Ilhnois South Dakota Colorado Oregon Nevada New York Pennsylvania Massachusetts Michigan Wisconsin Illinois Alabama Georgia Mississippi Oklahoma Florida

Region West

Southeast

Southwest

West

South Central

Northeast

North Central

West

Northeast

North Central

Southeast

East

chemicals found in a food product, the less safe the product. Therefore, the information provided in this book is designed to do the following: • Illustrate the degree to which individual food products are contaminated • Identify those organic foods that can be expected to contain synthetic chemicals • Identify those chemicals that can be expected to occur in a balanced diet

AN INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN FOOD

17

• Show how low-fat or high-fat, vegetarian, and children's diets will influence the number and type of chemicals consumed Given these objectives, the information provided in the market baskets can be used to choose foods for a specific diet or recipe that have the least number of chemicals. If a food contains moderate, high, or very high levels of contaminants, it is recommended that an organic product be substituted. When selecting an organic food, that specific food should be checked against the food category data to identify the "organic" foods that are the most likely to be contaminated with banned pesticides. This is particularly true for dairy, protein, and vegetable products. If the food product contains banned pesticides, the users should consider substituting a generally equivalent product. For example, substitute a potato without its skin for a baked potato, skim milk for whole milk, or ground pork or turkey for ground beef. Finally, choosing safer foods means that the total diet can be modified to minimize daily chemical exposures. Thus, the market basket data can be used to design a diet that minimizes the number and diversity of chemicals in a specific recipe or a daily diet.

18

TOXIC LEGACY

THE NUMBER OF SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN FOOD

The total number of chemical contaminants varies widely depending on the food product category. For example, Table 3-1 shows the total number of chemicals detected in each food category for every market basket. The averages at the bottom of the table represent the average number of chemicals per food product in each category. Thus, this average makes it clear that the least contaminated food category is the child/infant category, while mixed foods contain the greatest average number of contaminants per food. This would be expected, since child/infant food producers actively strive to reduce the number of pesticides in their products, as opposed to mixed foods that combine multiple sources of pesticides and industrial chemicals from the different food categories. These data also suggest that vegetarians eat food groups (i.e., fruits, grains, nuts, and vegetables) with the greatest number of contaminants. As most of us would anticipate, there should be variations in the number of different chemicals that contaminate the individual food products within each food category. This variation is illustrated for each of the food categories.

3.1

DAIRY PRODUCTS The number of different synthetic chemicals (either pesticides or industrial chemicals) detected in each dairy product for the 12 market baskets is given in Table 3-2. When looking at these data, it would appear that dairy products with high-fat content are more contaminated, with butter being significantly more contaminated than the other dairy products. Because pesticides are known to be soluble in fat and oil, it should be expected that high-fat and oil foods should

19

TABLE 3-11 Market Basket Product Category Comparison MB 96-1 96-2 97-1 98-1 98-2 98-3 98-4 99-1 99-3 00-1 00-3 01-3 Totals Average

Child Number

Protein Number

Dairy Number

Fruit Number

Grain Number

Vegetable Number

Mixed Number

Total Number

40 43 37 23 24 28 43 32 43 31 46 39 429 1.23

51 36 39 35 37 31 48 54 75 79 66 76 627 2.18

47 29 52 46 37 40 53 67 67 85 68 64 655 2.73

90 83 80 71 59 57 67 84 89 70 85 82 917 2.83

121 68 81 106 76 82 98 107 138 123 140 153 1293 2.91

149 121 118 142 114 135 168 150 143 135 146 163 1684 3.12

197 171 197 175 160 173 207 217 268 283 284 311 2643 3.73

695 551 604 598 507 546 684 711 823 806 835 888 8248

have more pesticides. Using the grams of fat per serving and the grams per serving Usted on these dairy products, the data presented in Table 3-3 compare the total number of pesticides detected in each product (i.e., for all market baskets) with the grams of fat in each gram of product. These data generally illustrate that as the fat content of a dairy product increases, the number of pesticides increases. The cheeses tested contain a significant number of pesticides. Thus, consumers should consider selecting low-fat cheeses. Although the consumer is not provided grams of fat per serving information on protein products, we believe that it is safe to conclude that highfat meat products will also be more contaminated.

3.2 PROTEIN PRODUCTS The number of different synthetic chemicals (either pesticides or industrial chemicals) detected in each protein product for the 12 market baskets is given in Table 3-4. These data suggest that processed meats (e.g., hot dogs, bologna, and salami) contain more chemicals than muscle products (e.g., steak or chicken breast). This could be a function of the fat content of these processed meats. In general, beef products are more contaminated than pork products, whereas poultry have very few contaminants. Clearly, there appears to be some correlation between the amount of fat in protein products and the occurrence of synthetic chemicals in a given product. The number of chemical contaminants in fish may also be correlated to the occurrence of fatty acids. For example, salmon and tuna are known to have more fatty acids than haddock. Therefore, it is expected that salmon would contain more contaminants than haddock.

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Dairy Fat and Pesticide Comparison

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Total Number of Pesticides

Grams of Fat per Gram of Dairy Product

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0.79 0.36 0.29 0.26 0.2 0.32 0.1 0.14 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.02 0

Butter Cream cheese Swiss cheese American cheese Sour cream Cheddar cheese Half-and-half cream Vanilla ice cream Whole milk Milk (2%) Evaporated milk Ice cream (light) Cottage cheese (4%) Plain yogurt (low fat) Skim milk

Both hard-boiled and fried eggs have on average one or fewer contaminants. Scrambled eggs, however, have on average 2.1 contaminants. Obviously, how these eggs were prepared (i.e., use of butter or margarine) influenced the number of chemicals detected.

3.3 FRUIT PRODUCTS The number of different synthetic chemicals (either pesticides or industrial chemicals) detected in each fruit product for the 12 market baskets is given in Table 3-5. When reviewing the fruit data, we see several distinctive trends. First, the juice of a fruit generally has fewer contaminants than the parent fruit (e.g., orange juice versus oranges). The only exception seems to be for pineapples versus pineapple juice. In other words, the contaminants are in the flesh or pulp of the fruit. Second, a peeled fruit product has fewer contaminants than the whole fruit (e.g., applesauce and apples). Finally, citrus fruits such as oranges and grapefruits tend to have fewer contaminants than noncitrus tree fruits. For example, apples, cherries, and peaches have more contaminants than oranges and grapefruit, whereas pears and apricots have more contaminants than grapefruit.

3.4 GRAIN AND NUT PRODUCTS The number of different synthetic chemicals (either pesticides or industrial chemicals) detected in each grain and nut product for the 12 market baskets is

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3.5 VEGETABLE PRODUCTS The number of different synthetic chemicals (either pesticides or industrial chemicals) detected in each vegetable product for the 12 market baskets is given in Table 3-7. In general, the dark green and yellow vegetables tend to contain elevated contaminant levels along with salad vegetables (tomato, cucumber, celery, sweet peppers, lettuce). It is also important to note that vegetable oils, margarine, and olives contain elevated contaminant levels (i.e., oils tend to accumulate synthetic chemicals). Furthermore, some of the highest contaminant levels are associated with vegetables cooked in oils (e.g., potato chips and french fries from fast-food restaurants).

3.6 MIXED FOOD PRODUCTS The number of different synthetic chemicals (either pesticides or industrial chemicals) detected in each mixed product for the 12 market baskets is given in Table 3-8. In general, fast-food and carryout products are more contaminated than homemade products (e.g., hamburgers and pizza). It is also clear that foods containing high-fat protein and dairy products tend to have a greater number of contaminants.

THE NUMBER OF SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN FOOD

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3.7 CHILD AND INFANT PRODUCTS The number of different synthetic chemicals (either pesticides or industrial chemicals) detected in each child and infant product for the 12 market baskets is given in Table 3-9. Most of the child and infant food products have either no chemicals or very low chemical levels, yet 50% of all the child/infant products contain multiple chemical contaminants. The food products with low to moderate chemical levels in this category tend to have moderate to very high levels in the other food categories (i.e., the protein, fruit, and vegetable categories). In other words, it would seem that adult foods with high numbers of chemical contaminants will occur in children's food at relatively higher levels. If parents are not satisfied with the level of contaminants in some of the foods tested by the FDA, they have two basic choices. They can either select organic child and infant products or they can prepare child and infant food from organic products.

3.8 SUMMARY OF THE FOOD PRODUCT CATEGORY DATA If our goal is to eat safer foods, then we should choose foods that contain, on average, one or fewer synthetic chemicals and minimize our consumption of foods with more synthetic chemicals. To aid in the selection of safer foods, the following contaminant intervals were defined to illustrate the relative magnitude of the number of synthetic chemicals in individual food products: Average number of contaminants <1.0 1.0-2.99 3.0-4.99 5.0-6.99 >7.0

Contaminant level Very low Low Moderate High Very high

These contaminant levels were used to provide the relative food product rankings illustrated in Figures 3-1 through 3-7. Based on this classification, only those food products that average fewer than 1.0 contaminant (i.e.. No chemicals or Very Low) have the lowest risk of exposing the consumer to multiple synthetic chemicals. All of the food products in the other contaminant levels have an increasing risk of exposing the consumer to multiple synthetic chemicals. When reviewing all of the previous data, the FDA detected synthetic chemicals in virtually all the foods tested. Only com, ham (luncheon), pineapple

32

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FIGURE 3-1 Food contamination summary for the dairy category. All columns (except "No Chemicals") show increasing contamination from top to bottom.

No Chemicals Ham (luncheon meat)

Very Low Chicken breast Veal cutlet Ham Eggs (fried) Turkey breast P < ^ roast

Low Fish (Haddock) Beef liver Beef steak Lamb chop Eggs (scrambled) Tuna (canned) Pork sausage

Moderate

High |ii|p Grourfcl beef Hot dQgs (beef)

Very High Fish (Salmon)

FIGURE 3-2 Food contamination summary for the protein category. All columns (except "No Chemicals") show increasing contamination from top to bottom.

No Chemicals

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Pineapple (canned)

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m^^^^^

FIGURE 3-3 Food contamination summary for the fruit category. All columns (except "No Chemicals") show increasing contamination from top to bottom.

No Chemicals Com Kidney beans Pinto baafis

Very Low Corn grits Wheat cereal

Com flakes O^^ed rice cereal pafmeal 'O^^^B^'OCHU

Low Macaroni Biscuit Oat ring cereal Noodles Cornbread (HM) English muffin Granola Pancake (mix) Pretzels (hard) Shredded wheat Bagel Rye bread Saltine crackers

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FIGURE 3-4 Food contamination summary for the grain and nut category. All columns (except "No Chemicals") show increasing contamination from top to bottom.

No Chemicals None

Very Low Onion Caullffower Oabba^ Sau^raut

Low Tomato juice Stewed tomato Carrot Beets Sweet potato Mixed vegetables (F) Mushrooms Tomato sauce Tomato catsup Avocado Turnip Broccoli Brussels sprouts White potato - no skin Radish Winter squash

Very High

Moderate Green beans

^iiiiii^ii liSliliiiiiwetoii Green pepper Potato chips Gollards

FIGURE 3-5 Food contamination summary for the vegetable category. All columns (except "No Chemicals") show increasing contamination from top to bottom. Note: FF = fast food, F = frozen.

No Chemicals Chick^^n noodle soup

Very Low Bean & bacon soup Tomato soup Spaghetti & tomato

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Low Brown gravy (HM) Spaghetti & meatballs Mayonnaise Popsicle Jelly Clam chowder

Moderate Chili & beans (HM) Stuffed p e f ^ r s w/rice & beef (HM)_ Muffin w/egg/cheese^iam (FF)

High Apple pie

Yellow cake Lasagria & meat (HM) Beef stew itaijan saiad dressing White sauce (HM) Beet chow mein (FF) TuitceycBnfier

iwicb cookies vv^c Feme l i f " " m noodis cassefofe:( Hot dog & bun (HM)

FIGURE 3-6 Food contamination summary for the mixed food category. All columns (except "No Chemicals") show increasing contamination from top to bottom. Note: FF = fast food, F = frozen, HM = home made.

No Chemicals Bananas & tapioca Creamed corn ^strained) Custard pudding (strained)

Very Low Peas (strained) Orange juice (strained) Milk-based formula Chicken (strained) Macaronl/tomato/beef Chbken nooc^ dinner Rice cereal (Infant) Soy-I^e^dformuia

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Low Carrots (strained) Spinach (strained) Green beans (strained) Squash (strained) Vegetables and ham Vegetables and chicken Apple juice (strained) Teething biscuits Fruit pudding (strained) Beef (strained) Pears (strained)

Moderate

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^ m ^ ^ T ^ ^ ~ : ^ ^ ^ .

FIGURE 3-7 Food contamination summary for the child/infant category. All columns (except "No Chemicals") show increasing contamination from top to bottom.

(canned), pinto beans, kidney beans, and chicken noodle soup were shown not to be contaminated. The fact that virtually every food we eat has been shown to be contaminated raises the following question: What synthetic chemicals are we most likely going to be exposed to if we consume a balanced diet of dairy, fruits, grains, protein, and vegetable products?

36

TOXIC LEGACY

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN A BALANCED DIET

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Guide Pyramid (www.usda. gov/cnpp/pyramid) recommends that "no one food group is more important than another — for good health you need them all." Most people are well aware of the USDA recommendations, but individual choices obviously dictate the degree to which these recommendations are actually followed. Individuals who attempt to maintain a balanced diet must also realize that they will consume a mixture of chemicals that is unique to each food group. Therefore, the chemical diversity of an individual's diet is dictated by the foods that person consumes. To evaluate an individual's exposure to chemical mixtures, it was necessary to determine how frequently pesticide and industrial chemicals were found in each food product. The results of this determination are discussed for the basic food categories (i.e., dairy, protein, vegetable, fruit, and grain) as well as for the mixed-food and child/infant food categories.

4,1

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN DAIRY PRODUCTS The pesticides found in dairy products are given in Table 4-1. To highlight the occurrence of any banned pesticide in a food, all detected occurrences have been shaded gray. This will be done in all the food groups. The industrial chemicals in dairy products are given in Table 4-2. Each table provides the following information: 1. The number of times a specific chemical was found in a market basket (e.g., there were 12 market baskets). For example in Exhibit 1, DDE was

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found all 12 times or 100% of the time, whereas HE was found in butter 6 out of 12 times or 50% of the time. 2. The top-10 chemicals (or most frequently found chemicals in a food category) are also identified. For example, DDE was found in dairy products 65.4% of the time. The top-10 synthetic chemicals in dairy products are summarized in Figure 4-1. When reviewing Table 4-1, observe that every dairy product had detectable levels of at least one banned pesticide, whereas 13 dairy products had at least two or more detected banned pesticides. Clearly, the higher the fat content of the dairy products, the greater the number of the banned pesticides. Also common in dairy products are the endosulfan pesticides. Because endosulfan pesticides are common contaminants in most agricultural products, their occurrence in dairy products (i.e., found in 10 out of 19 products) is expected. Of all the food categories, dairy products also contain one of the higher frequencies of industrial chemicals (see Table 4-2). This is expected because these industrial chemicals tend to accumulate in the fat of dairy products. The diversity of the chemicals found in dairy products, however, occurs for several reasons. Because chloroform is a by-product of using a chlorine disinfectant, it would appear that a significant number of dairy producers in the United States either do not rinse or do not completely rinse their equipment after disinfection.^ Another source of disinfection by-products is from water that may be used in a dairy. Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylenes, and the other detected ^ Also note that at least five dairy products were contaminated with both chloroform and bromodichloromethane (i.e., associated with both bromine and chlorine disinfection).

40

TOXIC LEGACY

chlorinated petroleum solvents (e.g., CBZ, DCE, PCE, TCA, and TCE) occur in dairy foods because (1) these chemicals were in products used to lubricate or clean machinery that contacted the dairy products or (2) these chemicals were in the ambient air of the dairy. Plastic packaging is another source of chemical contaminants in dairy products. Styrene is a basic building block of various plastics. However, some of the styrene that is in plastic is not linked or bound into the plastic but is free to leach out of this seemingly solid product. Furthermore, styrene commonly carries its own chemical contaminants, such as ethyl benzene, benzene, and TCE. These data suggest that the occurrence of styrene, ethyl benzene, benzene, and TCE is not unexpected in dairy products that come into contact with plastic containers.^ This is consistent with the chemical contaminants detected in dairy products (e.g., styrene is detected when benzene and TCE are detected). Another unique industrial chemical that has only been reported in butter is polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). This industrial chemical was banned in 1979 but is still a widespread contaminant in soil, sediment, and water resources. In addition to the previously summarized data, specific synthetic chemical concentrations in dairy products for all market baskets are given in Appendixes 4-1 through 4-7.

4.2 SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN PROTEIN PRODUCTS The pesticides found in protein products are given in Table 4-3, and the industrial chemicals are given in Table 4-4. Relative to the distribution of chemicals in protein products, the top-10 synthetic chemicals are summarized in Figure 4-2. As the tables show, protein products have contaminant patterns similar to those of dairy products. In other words, protein products with a higher fat content contain the greatest number of pesticides and industrial chemicals. Thus, the food products containing the greatest number of pesticides and industrial chemicals are hot dogs, salmon, ground beef, bologna, salami, bacon, roast beef, and pork sausage. Another similarity with dairy products is the occurrence of the same four banned pesticides (i.e., DDE, dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene, and heptachlor epoxide) in almost all of the protein. Only ham luncheon meat contained none of these chemicals. Furthermore, the vast majority of beef, veal, pork, and lamb is not imported. This demonstrates that the occurrence of banned pesticides in protein products is from past agricultural practices in the United States. Once again, these data demonstrate that USDA-certified organic protein products do contain multiple organochlorine pesticides and industrial

^ The occurrence of toluene and xylene contaminants in food products could also be associated with styrene plastics.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN A BALANCED DIET

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chemicals and that only low-fat protein products are less likely to contain multiple synthetic chemicals, yet low-fat products will most likely contain DDE. There are yet more similarities between protein and dairy products. For example, highly processed protein products (e.g., ground, mixed, and canned) also contain disinfection by-products. Thus, hot dogs, ground beef, bologna, salami, and canned tuna are contaminated with chloroform and sometimes with bromodichloromethane. Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylenes, as well as the other detected chlorinated petroleum solvents (e.g., PCE, TCA, and TCE), also occur in protein products because these chemicals were in products used to lubricate or clean machinery that contacted the dairy products or because these chemicals were in the ambient air of the meatpacking plant. Protein products also contain styrene from contact with plastics. Finally, PCB (a banned industrial chemical) was found to occur in every market basket sample of salmon. In addition to the previously summarized data, specific synthetic chemical concentrations in protein products for all market baskets are given in Appendixes 4-8 through 4-12.

4.3 SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN FRUIT PRODUCTS The pesticides found in fruit products are given in Table 4-5, and the industrial chemicals are given in Table 4-6. Relative to the distribution of synthetic chemicals in fruit products, the top-10 synthetic chemicals are summarized in Figure 4-3. Fruit products are contaminated with a significant number of diverse insecticides and fungicides. However, several of these pesticides are responsible for the majority of the contamination. Iprodione and its metabolite make up 44.6% of the pesticides detected, whereas endosulfan and its by-product

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Industrial Chemistry Frequency for Fruit Products (All Market Baskets)

Product

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Apples Strawberries Cherries Peaches Raisins Plums Cantaloupe Grapes Oranges Pears Prunes Apricots Bananas Applesauce Orange juice Apple juice Fruit cocktail Grapefruit Grape juice Peaches (canned) Prune juice Pineapple juice Watermelon Grapefruit juice Lemonade Pears (canned) Pineapple (canned) Totals Frequency (top 10) Total number of analyses : 332

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(endosulfan sulfate) make up an additional 24.4% of the detected pesticides, for a total of 69%. The remaining five pesticides are distributed throughout the fruit products. Toluene and the other industrial chemicals are associated primarily with apples, oranges and orange juice, bananas, and raisins. It is assumed that the occurrence of benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylene compounds in these fruit products may be associated with the inactive portion of pesticide formulations or is the result of contacting process equipment. The most frequent occurrence of styrene is in strawberries. This occurrence would be consistent with the ubiquitous plastic wrap or baskets associated with packaging strawberries. Note that several fruit products contain banned pesticides. These data suggest that raisins, cantaloupe, and strawberries have the greatest probability of being contaminated with banned pesticides, while some grape, peach, cherry, and prune samples have reported DDE contamination. The vast majority of these fruits was also produced domestically. This means that these pesticides occurred in these products because of past agricultural practices. Citrus fruits do not tend to be as contaminated with pesticides as are noncitrus fruits. Specifically, all of the citrus fruits and fruit juices are essentially free of endosulfan and iprodione contaminants, yet they are contaminated with ethion, which does not occur in noncitrus fruits. Another interesting characteristic of the fruit category is that juices tend to be far less contaminated than their parent fruit (except for pineapple). This suggests that synthetic chemicals remain in the rind or peel of the parent fruit. This is also consistent with canned peaches and pears that have far fewer contaminants than the whole fruit. In addition to the previously summarized data, specific synthetic chemical concentrations in fruit products for all market baskets are given in Appendixes 4-13 through 4-23.

4.4

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN GRAIN AND NUT PRODUCTS The pesticides found in grain and nut products are given in Table 4-7, and the industrial chemicals are given in Table 4-8. Relative to the distribution of synthetic chemicals in grain and nut products, the top-10 synthetic chemicals are summarized in Figure 4-4. Unlike the previous food categories, many grain and nut food products are mixtures of other food category products and were produced commercially (except com bread, which was homemade). The grain and nut food products in this category were selected for this group if the dominant ingredient was a grain or nut product; otherwise the food product was placed in the mixed food category. Because of these mixtures, some products may exhibit chemical contaminant patterns associated with dairy, protein (i.e., eggs), or fruit products.

48

TOXIC LEGACY

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Industrial Chemical Frequency for Grain Products (All Market Baskets)

Product

Tol

Xyl

Sty

Peanut butter Mixed nuts (no peanuts) Roasted peanuts Graham crackers White bread Sweet roll Butter crackers Fruit-flavored cereal Popcorn Com chips Cracked-wheat bread Whole-wheat bread White roll Flour tortilla Saltine crackers Rye bread Bagel Shredded wheat Pretzels Pancake mix Granola English muffin Com bread (HM) Noodles Oat ring cereal Biscuit Macaroni White rice Creamed com Oatmeal Crisped rice cereal Comflakes Wheat cereal Com grits Pinto beans Kidney beans Com Totals Frequency (top 10) Total number of analyses = 444

TBZ

BZ

EBZ

PBZ

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11 1 12

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24

14

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Note: HM = homemade.

The first six organophosphorus and chlorinated organophosphorus pesticides dominate wheat-based products. Table 4-7 shows that virtually all wheat-based products are, at a minimum, contaminated with malathion and chlorpyrifosmethyl. These data also suggest that although corn-based products can contain malathion and chlorpyrifos-methyl, they are much less likely to be contami-

52

TOXIC LEGACY

Product Peanut butter Mixed nuts (no peanuts) Roasted peanuts Graham crackers White bread Sweet roll Butter crackers Fruit-flavored cereal Popcorn Com chips Cracked-wheat bread Whole-wheat bread White roll Flour tortilla Saltine crackers Rye bread Bagel Shredded wheat Pretzels Pancake mix Granola English muffin Com bread (HM) Noodles Oat ring cereal Biscuit Macaroni White rice Creamed com Oatmeal Crisped rice cereal Cornflakes Wheat cereal Com grits Pinto beans Kidney beans Com Totals Frequency (top 10)

TCA

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Total number of analyses = 444

nated by the first six organophosphorus and chlorinated organophosphoms pesticides. Theoretically, the organophosphorus pesticides are not persistent. This means that USDA-certified organic wheat-based and corn-based products should be relatively free of pesticides. Just like the previous categories, some

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN A BALANCED DIET

53

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TBZ

Chemical Compound

FIGURE 4-4

Frequency of top-10 chemicals in grain products.

USDA-certified organic grain and nut products will, however, be contaminated with banned pesticides. These data show that peanut products (peanut butter and dry-roasted peanuts) are contaminated with at least three banned pesticides, while mixed nuts, butter crackers, popcorn, sweet roll, pancake mix, and com bread were reported to contain banned pesticides. Given the low percentage of imports for these products, the occurrence of these pesticides can be said to be the result of past U.S. agricultural practices. Once again, this suggests that even USDAcertified organic peanut products will contain a mixture of banned pesticides. The occurrence of banned pesticides in the other grain-based products may be associated with the occurrence of butter or oils in these mixed products. Grain products with a high oil content or prepared with butter or margarine may have contacted processing equipment and plastics containing industrial chemicals. As a result, several of the grain products were contaminated with a significant number of industrial chemicals. These products were graham crackers, white bread, sweet rolls, butter crackers, and fruit-flavored cereal. In addition to the previously summarized data, specific synthetic chemical concentrations in grain and nut products for all market baskets are given in Appendixes 4-24 through 4-33.

4.5 SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN VEGETABLE PRODUCTS The pesticides found in vegetable products are given in Table 4-9, and the industrial chemicals are given in Table 4-10. Relative to the distribution of synthetic chemicals in vegetable products, the top-10 synthetic chemicals are summarized in Figure 4-5. Compared to both dairy and protein products, the

54

TOXIC LEGACY

vegetable foods contain far fewer industrial chemicals except for those foods that are (1) oils (i.e., olive/safflower oil and margarine) or fried in oils (i.e., french fries and potato chips) and (2) mechanically handled or sorted (i.e., tomatoes and avocados). Vegetables are, however, contaminated with a significant number of diverse insecticides and herbicides. The chlorinated endosulfan insecticides contaminate 75% of all the vegetable products and account for 70% of the detected pesticides. Since 2002, the use of endosulfan insecticides on succulent beans and peas, spinach, and grapes has been discontinued. Even with this discontinuation, however, the majority of vegetable products are still expected to be contaminated with endosulfan pesticides. Also note that the endosulfan pesticides are moderately persistent in soil. As a result, these pesticides could possibly still be detected in succulent beans and peas, spinach, and grapes today. Table 4-9 shows that many of the vegetable products contain banned pesticides. These data show that 33 vegetable products are contaminated with banned pesticides, whereas 21% or 47% of the vegetable products are contaminated with multiple banned pesticides. This widespread contamination transcends the five recommended vegetable groups that are included in a balanced diet: • • • •

Dark green vegetables: spinach, coUards, and broccoli Deep yellow vegetables: carrots, sweet potatoes, and winter squash Beans and peas: lima beans Starchy vegetables: potatoes (white potatoes, french fries, potato chips, and mashed potatoes) 40 35 30 > 25 o c
3 20 ^ 15 10 5 EnS

FIGURE 4-5

DDE

Ell

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Frequency of top-10 chemicals in vegetable products.

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• Other vegetables: summer squash, pickles, turnips, beets, cucumbers, celery, olives, oils, brussels sprouts, iceberg lettuce, green peppers, mixed vegetables, asparagus, green beans, sauerkraut, and onions When a fairly high percentage of a vegetable are imported (e.g., squash, cucumbers, olives), that vegetable may contain banned pesticides from foreign sources. The remaining vegetables were grown mostly in the United States. These data demonstrate that the majority of both USDA-certified organic vegetables and nonorganic products may contain at least one banned pesticide, while at least 47% are likely to be contaminated with multiple banned organochlorine pesticides. Clearly, the vegetables with the greatest probability of being contaminated with multiple banned pesticides are spinach, coUards, squash, pickles, cucumber, radish, turnip, potatoes with skin, broccoli, and beets. These data suggest that those vegetable products most likely to be contaminated with a mix of pesticides are green peppers, celery, tomato, spinach, mixed vegetables, lima beans, coUards, green beans, brussels sprouts, potatoes with skin, and iceberg lettuce. All of these products purchased as USDAcertified organic foods would not be expected to contain these pesticides. In addition to the previously summarized data, specific synthetic chemical concentrations in vegetable products for all market baskets are given in Appendixes 4-34 through 4-42.

4.6 SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN MIXED PRODUCTS The pesticides found in mixed products are given in Table 4-11, and the industrial chemicals are given in Table 4-12. Relative to the distribution of synthetic chemicals in mixed products, the top-10 synthetic chemicals are sunamarized in Figure 4-6. A review of the mixed food products in these two exhibits shows 45 40 35 30

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FIGURE 4-6 Frequency of top-10 chemicals in mixed products.

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that the composition of these food products is dominated by grain, dairy, and meat products. Therefore, it is not unexpected that the most common pesticides and industrial chemicals in the mixed foods are essentially the same ones that dominate the grain, dairy, and meat product chemicals. In general, these data show that those food products that contain cheese, butter or margarine, milk, high-fat meat products, and oils (or cooked in oils) are contaminated with the greatest number of pesticides and industrial chemicals. Furthermore, the majority of the mixed food products is contaminated with a mixture of banned pesticides. Once again, those products containing dairy or protein products are contaminated with the greatest number of banned pesticides. It also appears that fewer industrial chemicals are found in homemade mixed products than in commercially prepared mixed products. These data also show a consistent lack of styrene in homemade products, suggesting that homemade products have less contact with plastics during their preparation (as opposed to for storage). In addition to the previously summarized data, specific synthetic chemical concentrations in mixed products for all market baskets are given in Appendixes 4-43 through 4-47. 4.7

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN CHILD AND INFANT PRODUCTS The pesticides found in child and infant products are given in Table 4-13, and the industrial chemicals are given in Table 4-14. Relative to the distribution of synthetic chemicals in child and infant products, the top-10 synthetic chemicals are summarized in Figure 4-7. In general, the type and distribution of pesticides and industrial chemicals in child/infant products are somewhat similar to the basic food categories (i.e., dairy, protein, fruit, grain, and vegetable), but It

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Average Number of Contaminants for All Foods with Low to Very High Ranking

Food Category

Average Number of Contaminants

Child/infant products Protein products Fruit products Vegetable products Grain and nut products Dairy products Mixed products

2.1 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.4

their concentrations are significantly lower. This is illustrated in a comparison of child and infant products with all foods, by category, with a low to very high contaminant ranking (see Table 4-15). On average, 45% of the child/infant products contain multiple contaminants as well as banned or discontinued pesticides. These data also show that banned pesticides also occur in child/infant products. These data are consistent with the occurrence of banned pesticides in protein and vegetable products. The only apparent inconsistency is that milk-based formula did not contain any of these pesticides. In reality, however, there should be little or no banned or discontinued pesticides in milkbased formulas since commercially available products have removed the butterfat. In addition to the previously sunmiarized data, specific synthetic chemical concentrations in child and infant products for all market baskets are given in Appendixes 4-48 through 4-58.

4.8

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN A BALANCED DIET When we examine all of the chemical contaminants in each food category (except the child/infant category since it represents a specialized group), we see that a balanced diet will expose an individual to a complex mixture of synthetic chemicals. Although each food category had multiple contaminants, only the top-10 most frequently detected synthetic chemicals (i.e., see Figures 4-1 through 4-6) were used to illustrate the chemical diversity of a balanced diet.^ This chemical exposure is summarized in Table 4-16.

^ This percentage was determined by dividing the number of times a chemical was detected by the total number of chemical analyses in a food category. For example, in the dairy category, DDE was detected in 149 samples of the 228 samples tested, or 65.4% of the samples were contaminated with DDE.

80

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 4-16

Chemical Frequency for All Market Baskets -— Balanced Diet Exposure as a Percentage

Pesticides Acephate (Ace) Azinphos-methyl (Azi) Carbaryl (Car) Chloroethyl linoleate (Cno) Chlorpropham (Cam) Chlorpyrifos (Cpy) Chlorpyrifos-methyl (Cpm) DDE Dicofol (Die) Dieldrin (Die) Diphenyl-2-ethylhexyl phosphate (Dip) Endosulfan I (Enl) Endosulfan II (Ell) Endosulfan sulfate (EnS) Heptachlor epoxide (HE) Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) Iprodione (Ipr) Iprodione metabolite (Ipm) Malathion (Mai) Methamidophos (Mos) Methoxychlor (Mxy) Permethrin (P) Pirimiphos-methyl (Pri) Thiabendazole (Thi)

Dairy

Fruits

Grains

Protein

Vegetables

Mixed

Average*

%

%

%

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10.2 65.4 36.8 0.9

10.1 10.1 9.2 0.4 1.3 3.1 2.2

5.7 10 2.7 0.9 7.8 9.3 15.1

27.1 17.5 3.6 1.8 2.7 2.7

10.7

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4.3 1.2 0.7

1.9 2.6 13.9 12.4

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15.9 3.7

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0.9 48.2

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7.4 14.7 28.1 15.3 3.3

2.9 3.7 11.6 1.4 1.3 1.8

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Industrial Chemicals Benzene (BZ) Chloroform (Cfo) Ethyl benzene (EBZ) Perchloroethylene (PCE) Styrene (Sty) Trimethylbenzene (TBZ) Toluene (Tol) Xylenes (Xyl) Total number of analyses

7 38.5 3.9 4.8 10.1 5.3 29.4 21.5 228

6.6 3 0.6 0.6 4.2 9 8.1 322

7.2 2.7 6.5 0.7 12.2 10.1 20.5 14.9 444

17.8 4.7 6.5 6.2 13.8 3.6 33.7 14.9 276

5 3.1 3.5 2 5.9 2.6 9.3 5 540

Average if chemical detected infiveor more food categories.

The frequency of each top-10 chemical within a food category is given in priorfigures."^The frequency of all top-10 chemicals is also displayed in each food category. For example, acephate was a top-10 chemical in the vegetable category (10.7%) but was only detected in the fruit category (0.3%, this com-

"^ The chemical class of each compound is given in Appendix 2-2.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN A BALANCED DIET

81

pound is not a top-10 chemical in the fruit category). Thus, if you look at acephate from left to right, the dairy column is blank (i.e., no chemicals detected), the fruit column shows 0.3, followed by the grain and protein columns, which are also blank, the vegetable column shows 10.7, and the mixed column is blank. The overall frequency of chemical occurrence in all of the food products is summarized in Figure 4-8. When looking at the five basic food categories (i.e., dairy, fruit, grain, protein, and vegetable), anyone who eats a balanced diet can be exposed to a complex chemical mixture of 24 pesticides and 8 industrial chemicals. This exposure can be reduced, however, by limiting the intake of high-fat foods or eating USDA-certified organic products. For example, substituting margarine and oil for butter provides a significant reduction in the number of chemicals. This comparison is given in Table 4-17. For example, 27 different chemicals have been found in butter as compared to 14 in margarine. Furthermore, it is important to remember that USDA-certified organic butter will provide little reduction in the number of contaminants since at least five banned or discontinued pesticides will most likely occur in butter. Margarine, however, had no detectable levels of banned pesticides. The information in Table 4-16 has also been used to determine the makeup of the most common chemical mixture associated with eating a balanced diet. If a chemical occurs in at least five of the six food categories, it was selected as a common dietary contaminant, and its average frequency in food products was determined. This complex chemical mixture is represented by two banned organochlorine pesticides, two chlorinated organophosphorus pesticides, four organochlorine pesticides, two organophosphorus pesticides, six aromatic petroleum hydrocarbons, and two chlorinated petroleum hydrocarbons (see Figure 4-8).

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Basic Foods with Banned Pesticides Number of Market Baskets with Detected Pesticides

Food Products

DDE

DDT

Dieldrin

HCB

PCB

Toxaphene

Perecentage Imported*

Dairy Milk (2%) Sherbet Chocolate milk shake Evaporated milk Half-and-half Whole milk Ice cream — light Vanilla ice cream Swiss cheese Cheddar cheese American cheese Butter

6 6 7 10 11 7 7 10 10 8 12 12

11 9 8 10

2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

11

Protein Bacon Beef steak Lamb chop Pork sausage Roast beef Salami Bologna Ground beef Fish — salmon Hot dogs Fruit

6 6 10 7 7 9 8 10 9 10

Raisins Grain and Nuts

10

Peanut butter Dry-roasted peanuts Vegetables

8 8

Turnip Broccoli Radish Winter squash Black olives White potato with skin Summer squash Celery Dill pickles Sweet pickles Collards Spinach

7 9 9

3.9 9.2 29.5 3.9 9.2

9.2 42.7

5 11 9

6 7 7 10 10 11 12

11

12 12

2.7 3.4

4.8 21.8 33.5 43.6 6.2 33.5 3.7 40.1 40.1 0.6 2.2

Child and Infant Beef (strained) Vegetables and beef Spinach (strained) * The lower the percentage of imports, the greater the probability that the pesticides in these products originated from past agricultural practices.

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There are also two fairly special chemical categories that need to be summarized to illustrate their common distribution in a large number of our food products. The first category is composed of the banned pesticides. Their distribution is given in Table 4-18. This table also includes a summary of the average percentage of imported food products collected by the FDA Residue Monitoring program from 1996 through 2001 (the same period as that used for the Total Diet Study data presented in this book). These percentages demonstrate that the vast majority of foods consumed in the United States is grown in the United States. Thus, the occurrence of banned pesticides is from past agricultural practices. The second category of compounds are the industrial chemicals. The distribution of these common chemicals in the basic food groups is given in Table 4-19. These data demonstrate that although pesticides are a primary concern in foods, industrial chemicals also contaminate a significant number of foods.

4.9 OPTIONS FOR CHOOSING SAFER FOODS Because so many foods are contaminated with multiple chemicals, the information in this book can be used to choose foods with the minimum number of different synthetic chemicals or to identify those foods that should be purchased as USDA-certified organic products. However, even an organic product can contain banned pesticides and industrial chemicals unless it is carefully produced. Therefore, it is important to remember that organic food producers do not analyze their products and inform the consumer as to the chemical mixtures in their products (both pesticides and industrial chemicals). Because the consumer is not provided with this information, individuals have two basic choices: 1. Purchase an organic product and be confident that this product will most likely contain fewer pesticides, but not necessarily fewer industrial chemicals, than nonorganic products. 2. Limit or eliminate specific high-fat dairy and protein products and DDEcontaminated vegetable products from one's diet as well as purchase organic products. These choices are not always easy to make nor are they convenient. They are also expensive. This means that individuals with a limited income need to select foods carefully if they are unable to purchase organic products. The previous discussion has focused on an individual's exposure to synthetic chemicals in a balanced diet, yet many individuals choose to eat only specific foods that fit their lifestyle preferences. Thus, it is important to look at how specific diets can affect an individual's exposure to chemical mixtures.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS IN A BALANCED DIET

87

DIETS AND CHEMICAL MIXTURES

All of the previous data show that an individual's diet will dictate the number of different chemicals he or she will consume on a daily basis. This chapter gives examples of how individual food choices influence a person's chemical exposure. With these examples, the consumer can utilize this guide to determine the chemical mixtures that may occur in a specific meal or daily diet. For example, using the chemical exposure data given in the appendixes, examples of how specific food choices can influence a person's exposure to synthetic chemicals are shown for low-fat and high-fat diets, vegetarian diets, children's lunches, and comfort foods. Specific synthetic chemicals are listed for a food product if a chemical occurred in at least 7 out of 12 market baskets (i.e., approximately 60% of the time). Otherwise, the chemical was not listed even if was detected in that food. The first example compares the daily chemical exposure of a balanced highfat and low-fat diet using individual food products (i.e., no mixed products) that are nonorganic. The selected high-fat and low-fat menus with the most probable chemical exposures are given in Table 5-1. This comparison shows that the low-fat diet has 19 different chemicals (22 total detected chemicals), whereas the high-fat diet has only 17 different chemicals (39 total detected chemicals);^ yet the high-fat diet has a greater number of banned chemicals that occur in multiple foods. For example, DDE occurs in butter, bologna, American cheese, ground beef, baked potato, and sour cream. These data also show that both diets

^ It is also important to note that a low-carbohydrate diet has the potential to have similar contaminant characteristics as a high-fat diet.

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share eight pesticides (carbaryl, chlorpyrifos-methyl, DDE, diphenyl-2ethylhexyl phosphate, endosulfan sulfate, malathion, permethrin, and thiabendazole), but that the low-fat diet has no industrial chemicals (i.e., benzene, chloroform, styrene, toluene, trimethlybenzene, and xylene). This comparison shows that (1) both diets have a significant number of individual chemical contaminants and (2) the high-fat diet has a greater number and occurrence of banned pesticides. The number of chemicals in either diet can be significantly reduced by purchasing organic products. However, the lowfat diet (i.e., fewer banned pesticides) will ultimately contain fewer multiple sources of specific chemicals as well as fewer synthetic chemicals. The second example looks at chemical exposures that can occur in a vegetarian diet. In this example, a strict vegetarian diet (i.e., no dairy, meat, eggs, or fish) is compared to a vegetarian diet that does include eggs and dairy products. The selected vegetarian menus with the most probable chemical exposures are given in Table 5-2. This comparison shows that the strict vegetarian diet has 27 different chemicals (39 total detected chemicals), while the vegetarian diet with dairy and eggs has only 21 different chemicals (36 total detected chemicals). Furthermore, just like the high-fat and low-fat diets, the vegetarian diets contain multiple exposures to the same chemical from different foods. Clearly, vegetarian diets that do not substitute organic food products for nonorganic foods will probably contain at least 20 to 30 different synthetic chemicals per day. Vegetarian diets will generally contain much fewer banned pesticides than diets that include protein and dairy products. This suggests that substituting organic foods for nonorganic foods will significantly reduce the number of chemicals in a vegetarian diet (e.g., this assumes that vegetables like spinach or collards are avoided or minimized unless the consumer can find spinach or collards that do not contain these chemicals). Another good example of a chemical-exposure comparison is for foods that go into a child's lunch box. Given the morning or evening rush to put together a child's lunch, many of the foods are prepackaged or easy to assemble. For example, simple lunches often include individually packaged snacks (e.g., cookies, cakes, chips, chocolate candy, nuts, pudding) and individual fruits (e.g., box of raisins, orange, banana, apple, pear). Many of these products have a substantial number of chemical contaminants. In addition to snacks and fruits, common sandwiches may also contain a significant number of synthetic chemicals. A comparison of the chemicals that may be expected to be in different sandwiches is given in Table 5-3. Because so many lunch box foods contain numerous synthetic chemicals, it is important to at least estimate the number of different synthetic chemicals that can occur under worst- and best-case lunch box scenarios. The worst-case lunch box example (Table 5-4) includes a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, potato chips, an apple, and chocolate chip cookies. This single meal would contain 21 different synthetic chemicals. The best-case lunch box example (Table 5-5) includes a turkey sandwich (on rye with mayonnaise), com chips, a banana.

92

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A Lunch Box with Worst-Case Food Products

Peanut Butter and Jelly on White Bread

Potato Chips

Apple

Chocolate Chip Cookies

Lunch Box Chemical Summary

Cpm

Azinphos-methyl Chlorpropham Chlorpyrifos Chlorpyrifos-methyl (2)

Azi Cam Cpy Cpm DDE Die

Dip Enl Ell EnS Lin Mai

Mai Mxy Pal PBZ Sty

Sty Thi

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Note: () indicates the number of food products with the same chemical.

TABLE 5-5

Lunch Box with Best-Case Food Products Sandwich Cookies

Lunch Box Chemical Summary

Cpm

Cpm

Mai

Mai Sty

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Thi Tol

Tol

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and sandwich cookies. This single meal would contain six different synthetic chemicals. A child's school lunch may include both homemade and commercially prepared products. When considering the number of chemicals that occurs in the mixed food category (i.e., commercially available and fast-food products), parents should seriously consider using fewer prepackaged products and switch to homemade lunch box foods made from organic products.

96

TOXIC LEGACY

The previous examples illustrate the chemical diversity associated with individual food preferences. Because the examples cannot be comprehensive, individuals who wish to regulate the number and type of chemicals they consume can use the chemical information from the appendixes to evaluate their own food choices.

5.1 SUMMARY Based on the data collected by the Food and Drug Administration, no diet is free of synthetic chemical mixtures and banned pesticides. This even includes organic-b^SQd diets. Therefore, the data in this book are meant to provide chemical information to those individuals who wish to make informed decisions about the chemical mixtures they choose to allow in their own daily diets and the diets of their children. All of the data provided in this book have been summarized to evaluate, at a national level, the trends of pesticide and industrial chemical contamination in food products. In addition to this type of analysis, these data also reflect contaminant trends in different cities and regions around the United States.

DIETS AND CHEMICAL MIXTURES

97

FOOD CONTAMINATION AT THE CITY AND REGIONAL LEVELS

Based on the market basket sampling method, it is not possible to identify which city within a specific market basket is the most or least contaminated. This shortcoming aside, the total number of chemical contaminants found in all of the food products within each market basket was determined. As Table 6-1 shows, it is possible to identify those cities with the highest and lowest number of chemical contaminants in their food products that occurs within a given market basket. The greater the number of detected chemical contaminants, the greater one's potential exposure to chemical mixtures. Table 61 shows that the greater the market basket ranking (i.e., number 12), the poorer the quality of the food products. Obviously, these rankings also reflect the total contaminant contributions from each food category. For example, in a given market basket, the greatest number of synthetic chemicals may originate from the grain and vegetable products categories as opposed to the dairy and mixed products categories. The differences within each market basket are presented in Figures 6-1 through 612 by a relative contaminant rank (as given in Table 6-1). These figures illustrate which food categories have the greatest number of contaminants in a region's market basket. This means that the product category figures can be used to identify those categories of food that contain elevated numbers of synthetic chemicals. For example, Figure 6-2, market basket 98-3 for the Long Beach/New York/ Providence region, shows that consumers should be aware that vegetables are the only food category with elevated numbers of synthetic chemicals. In addition to the total number of contaminants found in a market basket, each market basket also has a unique number of chemical compounds or

99

TABLE 6-1 Total Number of Detected Chemicals 835 823 806 711 695 684 604 598 551 546 507

Market Basket and City Ranking by the Total Number of Chemical Contaminants Market Baskets

Market Basket Cities

Total Number of Different Chemicals in a Market Basket

01-3 00-3 99-3 00-1 99-1 96-1 98-4 97-1 98-1 96-2 98-3 98-2

Oklahoma City — Orlando — Washington Birmingham — Columbus — Jackson Binghamton — Harrisburg — Worcester Grand Rapids — Milwaukee — Springfield Denver — Portland — Reno Bakersfield — Ogden — Tacoma Dayton — Peoria — Sioux Falls Phoenix — Fresno — San Antonio Boise — Los Angeles — Pueblo Charleston — Lafayette — Palm Beach Long Beach — New York — Providence Baton Rouge — Savannah — Tulsa

84 83 82 78 76 76 75 72 77 73 80 66

Contaminant Levels Very High Very High High Higii IVIoderately High IVIoderate IVIoderate l\/loderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

FIGURE 6-1

Child Rank

Dairy Rank

Fruit Rank

Grain Rank

11

11

11

11

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Vegetable Rank

12

12

9

Market basket 98-2 for Baton Rouge, LA, Savannah, GA, and Tulsa, OK.

Contaminant Levels Very High Very High High High Moderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

FIGURE 6-2

Protein Panic

Vegetable Rank

Grain Rank

Child Rank

Dairy Rank

Mixed Rank

10

10

10

Market basket 98-3 for Long Beach, NJ, New York, NY, and Providence, RL

Fruit Rank

Protein Rank

12

12

Contaminant Levels Very High Very Higli Higli High IVIoderately High l\/loderate l\/loderate IVIoderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low FIGURE 6-3

Fruit Rank

Protein Vegetable Rank Rank

Mixed Rank

Very High Very High High High IVIoderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

Grain Rank

12

12

2

5

10

10 11

Vegetable Rank

Grain Rank

7

7

Fruit Rank

Dairy Rank

Mixed Rank

9

9

Protein Rank

Child Rank

8

11 12

Market basket 98-1 for Boise, ID, Los Angeles, CA, and Pueblo, CO.

Contaminant Levels

Child Rank

Dairy Rank

Fruit Rank

Mixed Rank

Protein Rank

Very High Very High High High Moderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low FIGURE 6-5

Dairy Rank

Market basket 96-2 for Charleston, SC, Lafayette, LA, and West Palm Beach, FL.

Contaminant Levels

FIGURE 6-4

Child Rank

Market basket 97-1 for Phoenix, AZ, Fresno, CA, and San Antonio, TX.

Grain Rank

Vegetable Rank

10 11

FIGURE 6-6

Contaminant Levels

Vegetable Rank

Very High Very High High High l\1oderately High l\/loderate IVIoderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

1

^^H

FIGURE 6-7

Very High Very High ^ High High Moderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

Mixed Rank

6

6

Protein Rank

Grain Rank

Fruit Rank

3

7 8 10

Fruit Rank

Vegetable Rank

Child Rank

Grain Rank

5

5

Protein Rank

Mixed Rank

Dairy Rank

1

4 6 7 8

Market basket 96-1 for Bakersfield, CA, Ogclen, UT, and Tacoma, WA.

Contaminant Levels Very High Very High High High Moderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

FIGURE 6-8

Dairy Rank

Market basket 98-4 for Dayton, OH, Peoria, IL, and Sioux Falls, SD.

Contaminant Levels

^B^^l

Child Rank

Vegetable Rank

Dairy Rank

3

3

Fruit Rank

Mixed Rank

Protein Rank

5

5

Grain Rank

Child Rank

4

Market basket 99-1 for Denver, CO, Portland, OR, and Reno, NV.

6 8

FIGURE 6-9

Contaminant Levels

Dairy Rank

Protein Rank

Very High Very High High High Moderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

1

1

Very High Very High High High Moderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

Vegetable Rank

Child Rank

9

9

9

3 4

Fruit Rank

Grain Rank

Protein Rank

3

3

Child Rank

Dairy Rank

Mixed Rank

4

4

4

Vegetable Rank

2

6

Contaminant Levels

Child Rank

Very High Very High High High Moderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

1

1

FIGURE 6-11

Fruit Rank

Market basket 99-3 for Binghamton, NY, Harrisburg, PA, and Worcester, MA.

A #

Grain Rank

Market basket 00-1 for Grand Rapids, MI, Milwaukee, WI, and Springfield, IL.

Contaminant Levels

FIGURE 6-10

Mixed Rank

Dairy Rank

Grain Rank

Mixed Rank

2

2

2

Fruit Rank

Protein Vegetable Rank Rank

3

Market basket 00-3 for Birminigham, AL, Columbus, GA, and Jackson, MS.

4 5

FIGURE 6-12

TABLE 6-2 Market Baskets 01-3 00-3 99-3 00-1 99-1 96-1 98-3 98-1 98-4 97-1 96-2 98-2

Contaminant Levels

Grain Rank

Mixed Rank

Very High Very High High High Moderately High Moderate Moderate Moderately Low Low Low Very Low Very Low

1

1

Protein Vegetable Rank Rank

2

Dairy Rank

Child Rank

Fruit Rank

6

6

2

5

Market basket 01-3 for Oklahoma City, OK, Orlando, FL, and Washington, D.C.

Food Quality Ranking

Rank Total Number of Chemicals

Rank Chemical Diversity

Totals

12 11 10 9 8 7 2 4 6 5 3 1

12 11 10 8 6 5 9 7 4 2 3 1

24 22 20 17 14 12 11 11 10 7 6 2

Combined Rank Oklahoma City — Orlando — Washington Birmingham — Columbus — Jackson Binghamton — Harrisburg — Worcester Grand Rapids — Milwaukee — Springfield Denver — Portland — Reno Bakersfield — Ogden — Tacoma Long Beach — New York — Providence Boise — Los Angeles — Pueblo Dayton — Peoria — Sioux Falls Phoenix — Fresno — San Antonio Charleston — Lafayette — Palm Beach Baton Rouge — Savannah — Tulsa

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

chemical diversity. In other words, the chemical diversity within a market basket can be expressed by determining the number of different pesticides and industrial chemicals that actually contaminate foods within a given market basket. The number of these chemicals is also given in Table 2-35. Given both the total number of chemicals and the chemical diversity, each market basket was ranked to determine the best food quality (i.e., a number 1 ranking) versus the worst food quality of the 12 market baskets evaluated. This combined ranking is illustrated in Table 6-2. Clearly, a market basket with a high total number of contaminants and chemical diversity will expose the consumer in that market basket region to a more complex chemical mixture than will a market basket with fewer chemical contaminants with less chemical diversity.

104

TOXIC LEGACY

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A map illustrating this ranking is given in Figure 6-13. The previous sections of this text have only focused on regional food products and not beverages. The FDA Total Diet Studies also evaluated a limited number of beverages, as well as tap water, around the nation. These data are presented in the following section.

6.1 BEVERAGES AND DRINKING WATER Based on all the market basket data, the following beverages reported no detected chemicals: coffee, tea, canned fruit drinks, martinis, beer, and whiskey. A summary of the market basket data on beverages that did contain synthetic chemicals is given in Table 6-3. Of the beverages that are contaminated, the dominant chemicals are petroleum hydrocarbons and disinfection by-products. The exception to this trend was white wine, which was contaminated by a number of pesticides. The data in Table 6-3 show that white wine can be expected to contain at least two pesticides (carbaryl and iprodione). For the most part, drinking water samples were not contaminated. The samples taken in the Total Diet Study, however, do not represent the broad range of water resources available to consumers in the cities sampled. This deficiency, however, is addressed in Chapter 7 on water quality where the contamination of drinking water for each market basket city is critically evaluated.

FOOD CONTAMINATION AT THE CITY AND REGIONAL LEVELS

107

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

Is drinking water in the United States safe? This simple question does not have a simple answer. However, the behavior of the American public is a good indicator of their perception of our nation's drinking water quality. For example, an article published by the American Water Works Association characterized customer expectations and behavior:^ 1. Eighty-six percent of Americans are concerned about their tap water. 2. Forty-eight percent of the American public either treat/filter their tap water or use bottled water. 3. In 1993, the per capita consumption of bottled water in the United States was a little over 10 gallons. By 2003, it had increased to about 22 gallons. 4. Safety was the primary motivator for those who drank home-filtered water, while those who drank bottled water cited taste, safety, or healthiness as motivation for drinking this product. Clearly, the American pubhc is concerned for their safety, but is this concern justified?

^ Means, Spina, and R. Patrick. 2005. The primary trends and their imphcations for water utiHties. Journal of the American Water Works Association 97 (7).

109

7.1 WHAT IS SAFE DRINKING WATER? Water at the earth's surface comes into contact with biological organisms, soil, rock, and the works of humans. As a result, water can be polluted by hazardous microorganisms, dissolved toxic metals, or radioactive elements from rock and pick up poisonous synthetic chemicals from human activities. Of all these hazards, a microbial infection can result in illness or death within days of contact. This means that safe drinking water must be free of hazardous microorganisms or treated (see Appendix 7-1) to ensure that microbial levels pose no risk to human health. Water that contains no biological threat, however, can still be polluted with chemical toxins. When dealing with chemical toxins, the dose makes the poison. In other words, a high concentration of a specific chemical can result in an immediate illness or death, while a long-term chemical exposure to low-level concentrations may also cause an illness, death, or have no discemable effect. Because dose is important, both federal and state governments establish maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for drinking water (Table 7-1). Drinking water that does not exceed these dose levels is not anticipated to have an adverse health effect. Thus, according to the federal government, drinking water that meets all of the microbial treatment criteria given in Appendix 7-1 and does not exceed any of the chemical concentrations listed in Table 7-1 is safe to drink. The vast majority of the tap water in the United States meets these criteria. Yet the American public is still concerned with the safety of this product. There just seems to be an uneasiness or basic mistrust that drinking water is safe. Although consumers may not be able to define their uneasiness, there is reason why we should all be concerned. This is because the vast majority of Americans consumes a mixture of synthetic chemicals in their drinking water. This mixture of chemicals is made up of compounds with concentrations that are usually below established MCLs (i.e., "safe" levels) and with chemicals that do not have defined MCLs (i.e., unregulated chemicals^). Consuming these mixtures should give Americans pause for concern because, as discussed in Chapter 1, scientists do not know the impact on human health from consuming chemical mixtures.^ Because the true impact of consuming mixtures of synthetic chemicals is unknown, individuals should have some understanding of the chemical mixtures in drinking water so they can choose safer water products. ^ A chemical is unregulated because it is known to be nontoxic or the chemical's toxic characteristics or impact on individual human health is unknown. ^ Approximately 70,000 synthetic organic chemicals are produced or used in the United States. Yet the federal government has established MCLs for only 63 of these synthetic chemicals. For a complete evaluation of this subject, refer to "The Environmental Science of Drinking Water," by Sullivan, Agardy, and Clark (2005).

110

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 7-1

Federal Drinking Water Standards

National Primary Drinking Water Standards for Chemicals. These are the legally enforceable standards that apply to public water systems (as of June, 2001).

Contaminant

Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) (Micrograms per Liter)

Inorganic Compounds Antimony Arsenic Barium Beryllium Bromate Cadmium Chlorine gas (as CI2) Chlorine dioxide (as CIO2) Chlorite Chromium (total) Copper Cyanide Fluoride Lead Mercury Nitrate Nitrite Selenium Thallium

6.0 50.0 2000.0 4.0 10.0 5.0 4000.0 800.0 1000.0 100.0 1300.0 200.0 4000.0 15.0 2.0 10000.0 1000.0 50.0 2.0

Organic Compounds Acrylamide Alachlor Atrazine Benzene Benzo(a)pyrene Carbofuran Carbon tetrachloride Chloramines (as CI2) Chlordane Chlorobenzene Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) Dalapon DBCP o-Dichlorobenzene p-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1 -Dichloroethylene cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene Trans-1,2-dichloroethylene Dichloromethane 1,2-Dichloropropane Di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Dinoseb 2,3,7,8-dioxin(TCDD) Diaquat

1000.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 0.2 40.0 5.0 4000.0 2.0 100.0 70.0 200.0 0.2 600.0 75.0 5.0 7.0 70.0 100.0 5.0 5.0 400.0 6.0 7.0 0.00003 20.0

TABLE 7-1 Continued

Contaminant

Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) (Micrograms per Liter)

Organic Compounds Endothall Endrin Epichlorohydrin Ethylbenzene Ethylene dibromide Glyphosate Haloacetic acids (HAA5)* Heptachlor Heptachlor epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Lindane Methoxychlor Oxamyl(Vydate) Poly chlorinated biphenyls Pentachlorophenol Picloram Simazine Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Total Trihalomethanes (TTHM)** Toxaphene 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 1,1,1 -Trichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Trichloroethy lene Vinyl chloride Xylenes (total) National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations

100.0 2.0 20,000.0 700.0 0.05 700.0 60.0 0.4 0.2 1.0 50.0 0.2 40.0 200.0 0.5 1.0 500.0 4.0 100.0 5.0 1000.0 100.0 0.003 50.0 70.0 200.0 5.0 5.0 2.0 10,000.0

These standards are nonenforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may cause cosmetic effects or aesthetic effects in drinking water. The EPA recommends secondary standards to water systems but does not require systems to comply. However, individual states may choose to adopt them as enforceable standards. Secondary Standard Contaminant (Micrograms per Liter) Aluminum Chloride Copper Fluoride Iron Manganese Silver Sulfate Total dissolved solids Zinc

0.05 250 1.0 2.0 0.3 0.05 0.1 250 500 5^0

* The HAA5 compounds are dibromoacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, monobromacetic acid, monochloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid. ** The TTHM compounds are bromodichloromethane, bromoform, chloroform, and dibromochloromethane.

7.2

CHOOSING A SAFER DRINKING WATER In reality, a safer drinking water product would meet all federal or state MCLs for biological radioactive, inorganic, and organic constituents but also contain no more than one detected synthetic organic chemical (i.e., no synthetic chemical mixtures). For some drinking water resources in the United States, this is in fact a reaUty. Whether or not this is your reaUty largely depends on where you live and the degree to which your source of drinking water is protected from synthetic chemical pollution. Given these major variables, the ability to make informed decisions about the water you choose to drink requires three basic types of information. 1. If the provider of the water product (e.g., a water utility or bottled water company) has identified and eliminated all potential sources of synthetic chemicals in the watershed"^ and has protected its equipment from leaching synthetic chemicals into its product, the consumer can be confident that their water will most likely not contain synthetic chemicals. The process of eliminating or limiting all chemicals (i.e., both organic and inorganic) in drinking water is called source water protection. As expected, the degree of protection offered by a provider varies greatly depending on the watershed and groundwater resource and the ability to control pollutant sources. 2. If the provider uses chlorine or bromine (i.e., halogens), your drinking water has an extremely high probability of being contaminated with halogenated organic compounds that are the by-product of the disinfection process. 3. If the provider of the water product analyzes for all anticipated synthetic chemicals (based on its watershed assessment) that might occur in its product and publishes this information on a regular basis, the consumer can also be confident that the product will be most likely not contain synthetic chemicals. This process is called comprehensive water quality monitoring. Unfortunately, the providers of drinking water furnish only a fraction of this important information. Furthermore, source water protection is a process that is just beginning to be investigated and applied to drinking water resources in the United States, and water quality monitoring is far from comprehensive. So what is the consumer to do? The first step is to understand how drinking water resources are polluted by synthetic chemicals so that consumers can generally

"^ A watershed is usually defined as a geographic landform that accumulates and transports surface water resources within a valley basin. This definition can be applied to groundwater resources as well (i.e., a defined aquifer as opposed to a valley).

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

113

assess the potential threats to their primary source of drinking water (e.g., from a water utiUty or private well). Second, consumers who are serviced by a water utility should review the utility's annual water quaUty report. With this information, each consumer can determine if he or she feels in-home treatment or bottled water to be a safer alternative. With this goal in mind, the objectives of this chapter are to (1) provide an explanation and examples of how drinking water sources are polluted, (2) explain the importance and shortcomings of chemical monitoring, (3) discuss the synthetic chemical monitoring data collected for the cities evaluated in Chapter 2 to illustrate how regional environmental characteristics influence drinking water quality (to help consumers understand their own drinking water pollution issues), (4) determine which of the 36 cities have the safest drinking water, and (5) discuss what options the consumer has for choosing safer drinking water.

7.3 SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER Supplies of drinking water are obtained from bodies of surface water such as creeks, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs and groundwater aquifers. It is important to remember that surface water percolates into groundwater aquifers and that groundwater moving in aquifers can emerge naturally at the earth's surface as a spring or discharge unseen into a river, lake, or ocean. The diversion of surface water resources by individuals and communities can be a very convenient source of drinking water. This assumes, however, that the surface water occurs throughout the year in sufficient quantities to serve the users' needs and that they also have a legal right to the amount of water they are diverting. This is usually not a problem in the humid climatic regions of the world. In the United States, these regions generally lie east of the Mississippi River and in the Pacific Northwest. When the demand for water resources exceeds surface water supplies, groundwater supplies can usually be obtained by installing groundwater supply wells. In today's industrialized societies, the users must usually have a permit to install a groundwater extraction well. Depending on an aquifer's capability to produce a usable amount of water, a user may need multiple wells. Therefore, any given community may utilize surface water, groundwater, or a mixture of both.

7.4 SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL POLLUTION OF DRINKING WATER The synthetic chemicals that are known to pollute water resources are pesticides, organic industrial chemicals and petroleum products, pharmaceuticals, and disinfection by-products. These chemicals can occur in both urban and rural

114

TOXIC LEGACY

environments and are released into both surface water and groundwater in the following ways.

7.4.1

Pesticides Because pesticides are applied at and above the soil surface, rainfall can transport pesticide residues into ponds, lakes, creeks, and rivers. Pesticides are also injected into the root zone. Thus, pesticides at the soil surface can be leached downward into groundwater resources. Once in groundwater, pesticides can be sorbed onto the porous media, and, as a result, groundwater can be purified as it travels through underground aquifers. In general, this means that when dealing with diffuse pollution from pesticide applications (as opposed to pollution from a leaking underground tank), surface water has a higher probability of being polluted than groundwater. This is true even for remote wilderness areas where airborne pesticides have polluted surface water. Although pesticide use in urban environments is ubiquitous, its magnitude and concentrations in agricultural areas are much greater. Therefore, both surface water and groundwater have a much greater probability of being polluted in rural agricultural areas. This means that surface waters taken for drinking water supplies in rural agricultural areas have the greatest probability of being polluted with pesticides than other water resources (i.e., groundwater and surface water in urban areas).

7.4.2 Organic Industrial Chemicals and Petroleum Products These chemicals are used in virtually every home and business in America. This means that the only area that would not be expected to have potential pollution from organic industrial chemicals and petroleum products would be a designated wilderness. In general, this means that any of a vast number of synthetic chemicals that have been leaked, dripped, or spilled on soil and impervious surfaces can be picked up in rainfall runoff and transported to bodies of surface water or percolate into the groundwater. The major threat posed by organic industrial chemicals and petroleum products is usually associated with their release from storage facilities and their disposal. For example, organic chemicals or petroleum fuels that leak from aboveground or underground storage tanks at industrial facilities and gas stations can pollute vast areas of groundwater. Industrial sites, large commercial parks (e.g., metal finishing and auto repair), and dry cleaning facilities have been shown to dispose of chemicals onto the bare ground or into lagoons, ponds, and sewers. In all of these cases, groundwater resources can be polluted. Solid waste and recycHng facilities can also be a source of groundwater pollution. In other

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

115

words, urban and industrialized areas tend to have some degree of groundwater contamination from industrial chemicals and petroleum products.

7.4.3

Pharmaceuticals The vast majority of over-the-counter and prescription drugs are not metabolized and pass through the body into urine and feces that discharge to sewage treatment plants or a rural septic system. In some cases, unused pharmaceuticals are dumped down a drain or into a toilet. These synthetic chemicals are not completely destroyed in municipal sewage treatment plants and remain in the discharged wastewater. When this wastewater is released into an adjacent river or lake, it can become the drinking water source of another community. It should also be remembered that sewage discharges also contain industrial chemicals. Clearly, wastewater containing pharmaceuticals that discharge to a septic system or leaking cesspool will pollute groundwater. This is a particular threat to adjacent home owners who obtain the same groundwater for their drinking water. In some communities, treated wastewater that still contains dissolved pharmaceuticals or other unregulated industrial chemicals is injected into groundwater resources. When wastewater is injected into groundwater aquifers, it is assumed that the porous media of the aquifer will "purify" the water so that trace chemicals will not pollute drinking water sources. In summary, surface water resources that are used for drinking water should be considered as being polluted until demonstrated otherwise. Groundwater resources should contain less pollution than surface water if there are no sources of pollution into the groundwater (e.g., leaking sewer lines above or in groundwater; chemical spills and leaks from industrial sites or commercial facilities like dry cleaners and fueling facilities, leaching of pesticides through soil in agricultural areas, leakage from land disposal facilities, pollution from septic systems and cesspools, pollution from mining and metallurgy operations), there is no direct recharge of treated wastewater into the groundwater, and there is no polluted surface water that is recharging back into groundwater. Because biological pollution of our water resources is likely, most communities in the industrial nations provide basic water treatment for drinking water. For the most part, the collection, treatment, and distribution of drinking water are provided by local governmental agencies (city or regional governments or private utilities). However, the disinfection process creates its own synthetic chemical pollution.

7.4.4

Disinfection By-Products Water in contact with the earth's surface will dissolve natural organic matter. When water containing dissolved organic matter is disinfected with chlorine or

116

TOXIC LEGACY

bromine, some of these organic compounds are chemically altered. The common disinfection by-products are given in Table 7-1 (e.g., trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids). Surface water tends to have higher concentrations of dissolved organic matter than groundwater. Therefore, surface water tends to have high concentrations of disinfection by-products. Virtually all utilities that provide drinking water that is disinfected with chlorine or bromine are polluted with disinfection by-products. Water products that do not contain disinfection by-products are bottled waters (which are not required to be disinfected) or waters that are disinfected with ultraviolet light or ozone. The vast majority of drinking water provided by a community or private water utilities in the United States should be assumed to polluted with disinfection by-products. This is a great concern given the following statements from the World Health Organization:^ Disinfected drinking water is a very complex mixture of chemicals, most of which have not been identified. Studies on individual DBFs [disinfection byproducts] may not represent the risk posed by the mixture. Studies of simple combinations of chemicals provided positive results, but only at concentrations so much greater than those that occur in drinking water as to be irrelevant. Studies utilizing complex mixtures of chemicals as they could be isolated from water or produced by chlorinating high concentrations of humic or fulvic acids produce little convincing evidence of adverse effect. A variety of methodological issues prevent our being too comfortable with that conclusion. In other words, the risk to human health is unknown.

7.4.5 Consumer Unknowns Numerous cities or communities in the United States obtain their water from protected watersheds (i.e., minimal human impact), for example, Seattle and San Francisco. Cities and communities that have a protected watershed tend to advertize these characteristics in their federally mandated annual water quality reports. It is highly recommended that consumers obtain a current copy of their water provider's annual water quality report and determine the degree to which their source water is protected (both surface water and groundwater resources). When a well-thought-out and implemented source water protection plan is in

^ United Nations environment program, Environmental Health Criteria 216 on disinfectants and disinfectant by-products (2000).

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

117

place, the only contaminants that are anticipated to be in drinking water are disinfection by-products. Because most water utilities do not have (1) a truly protected source water (e.g., water originates in a wilderness area with no human impacts), (2) a fully implemented comprehensive source water protection plan, or (3) monitoring programs that look for all potential contaminants (e.g., pharmaceuticals), the consumer is really left in the dark as to degree of synthetic chemical pollution that may actually be impacting the drinking water.

7.5 MONITORING FOR SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS Water utilities in the United States consistently analyze their product for the primary^ and secondary drinking water chemicals listed in Table 7-1. They occasionally monitor for a handful of chemicals that may eventually find their way onto the primary drinking water fist (i.e., unregulated chemicals). The results of this monitoring are reported in the water utility's annual water quality report. However, the vast majority of industrial chemicals and pesticides as well as all of the pharmaceuticals is not looked for in drinking water. This means that consumers have no real assurance that their drinking water does not contain complex chemical mixtures. With this major shortcoming in mind, chemical monitoring data have been collected for the 36 cities that were evaluated in Chapter 2 and are summarized in the following sections. In reviewing the monitoring data, it is important to note that relative to the disinfection by-products that occur in treated drinking water, two general parameters reflect the sum of several individual contaminants: • The concentration of the total trihalomethanes (TTHM) are the sum of the concentrations of bromodichloromethane, bromoform, chloroform, and dibromochloromethane. • The concentration of the haloacetic acids (HAA) is the sum of the concentrations of dibromoacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, monobromacetic acid, monochloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid. This means that for some water quality reports, the individual disinfection byproducts may be reported along with the total parameters (TTHMs and HAAs). Some utilities also report the detection of the following infrequently monitored disinfection by-products: haloketones, halonitriles, and total halogenated organic compounds.

These chemicals are usually referred to as "regulated" compounds.

118

TOXIC LEGACY

7.6

COLLECTION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE WATER DATA The drinking water data summarized for each city was obtained by (1) a Freedom of Information Act request to each state for all available data (2000 to 2005) on synthetic organic chemicals detected in community water systems or (2) from the most recent annual water quality reports available from the individual cities. Because each state administers its own collection program under the Clean Water Act, the data provided by each state varied widely. Thus, some city data are much more extensive than others.^ For example, since it is against Colorado's policy to release its data, the information for both Denver and Pueblo can only come from annual water quality reports, which means that the data collected for each city are not directly comparable. Therefore, the objective of the data analysis is to provide a snapshot of the synthetic chemical contaminant mixtures found in community water systems that have reported detected synthetic chemicals in a region's drinking water. Using this information, the water quality for each city is given in the following sections. The vast majority of the reported concentrations (part per billion, or ppb) is averages, but in some cases the value reported is a single sample.

7.7

BAKERSFIELD, CALIFORNIA The city of Bakersfield is located in the southern portion of the San Joaquin Valley of California and has a population of approximately 406,000. The region surrounding the city is dominated by irrigated agriculture, while industry in the area is dominated by food processing and oil production. Drinking water resources for the city come from both groundwater and surface water. For the city of Bakersfield, the state of California provided data on 85 active community water systems that derive their water from groundwater resources. Both groundwater and surface water systems serve approximately the same number of customers. The data for these community water systems that had detected synthetic chemicals are given in Appendix 7-2. A total of 26 different synthetic compounds were found in the groundwater (see Table 7-2). Given that irrigated agricultural in this region of the United States requires soils to be constantly leached in order to minimize salt accumulations, it is understandable that groundwater contains pesticides (e.g., 2,4-D, aldicarb, aldrin). This is particularly a problem with pesticides injected into a below-theroot zone, which would include dibromochloropropane (DBCP), ethylene dibromide, and 1,2,3-trichloropropane (e.g., a contaminant in DBCP). These

^ In some case sampling, frequency is so great that many chemical compounds were tested for hundreds of times. Thus, when more than 100 samples were tested for the same chemical, only the average will be reported along with the sample frequency.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

119

TABLE 7-2

Bakersfield Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

2,4-D Acenaphthene Acenaphthylene Acetone Aldicarb sulfone Aldrin Atrazine Benzene Bromobenzene Bromomethane Chloromethane Dichloromethane Dichlorobenzene Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) Diuron Ethylbenzene Ethylene dibromide Tetrachloroethylene Trichloroethylene Trichloropropane Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 30 Haloacetic acids Dibromoacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Monobromoacetic acid Monochloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromodichlormethane Bromoform Chloroform Dibromochloromethane

Groundwater Raw Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

65 99.1 98.8 2 86 100.6 1.4 0.67 83 0.6 0.81 1.1 0.08

11.1 0.6

1.03

0.02 3

0.83 0.04 3.9 0.6 0.09 13.1

3.2 1.9 1.4 1.1 1 5.4 1.91 2.35 1.49 2.14

0.08

0.01

26 6.28 10.5 2.4 5 12.7 47.3 7.17 6.92 37.9 7.35

lype of Chemical Compound Pesticide Petroleum Petroleum Industrial chemical Pesticide Pesticide Pesticide Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Pesticide Pesticide Petroleum Pesticide Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Pesticide Industrial chemical

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by- product by- product by- product by- product by- product by- product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Possible disinfection by-product.

data also show that even treating the groundwater to remove dibromochloropropane and ethylene dibromide does not completely remove these pesticides from drinking water. In addition, water treatment did not remove a range of petroleum compounds and industrial chemicals. The largest number of detected synthetic chemicals is the disinfection by-products.

120

TOXIC LEGACY

The water quality data for surface water sources of drinking water are given in Appendix 7-3. A total of 15 different synthetic compounds were found in the surface water resources (see Table 7-2). The surface water quality data show that the major contaminants are disinfection by-products with several pesticides. When comparing the groundwater with the surface water contamination, it is clear that the concentration of disinfection products is significantly higher in the surface water. This concentration difference was expected since surface water usually has higher concentrations of dissolved organic matter. When combining both groundwater and surface water data, drinking water resources in Bakersfield have a total of 29 different synthetic chemicals as well as the combined disinfection by-product constituents measured as total trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids.

7.8 BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA The city of Baton Rouge is located along the Mississippi River and has a population of approximately 230,000 with the greater Baton Rouge area having a population of about 600,000. The city is a mixture of industrial, commercial, and residential areas surrounded by agricultural land use. The state of Louisiana provided no data for the city of Baton Rouge. As a result, the available 2004 annual water quality monitoring reports for the three Baton Rouge community water systems (Baton Rouge, Parish, and Ascension) were sumerized. The source waters come from groundwater resources. The water quality summary for these systems is given in Table 7-3. All of the detected contaminants were disinfection by-products.

TABLE 7-3

Baton Rouge Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Type of Chemical Compound

Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes*

4 3.23

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.9 BINGHAMTON, NEW YORK The city of Binghamton is located in a wooded river valley at the confluence of the Chenango and Susquehanna rivers and has a population of approximately 47,000. The region surrounding the city is dominated by recreational

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

121

and agriculture land uses and some light industry. Drinking water resources for the city come from both groundwater and surface water. For the city of Binghamton, the state of New York provided data on six groundwater systems and one surface water system. The surface water system serves the vast majority of the city's customers. All of these systems reported at least one contaminant during the record of sampling. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-4, while data for the surface water system are given in Appendix 7-5. No annual water quality reports were available for the city. Using the state data alone, six different synthetic compounds were found in all of the community water systems (see Table 7-4). The detected chemicals in the city's drinking water are fairly evenly distributed between petroleum compounds (toluene), chlorinated solvents (trichloroethylene), and the remaining disinfection by-products.

TABLE 7-4

Binghamton Water Data

Chemical Compound Bromomethane Dichloroethane Dichloromethane Methyl tert butyl ether (MTBE) Toluene Trichloroethylene Total reported individual chemicals — 6 No haloacetic acid or total trihalomethane data avilable

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

2.46 0.6 1.55 1 1.65

1.4 0.7

Type of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical

* Possible disinfection by-product.

7.10

BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA The city of Birmingham is located in a valley of Appalachian foothills and is drained by several small creeks that flow into the Black Warrior River. Birmingham's population is approximately 240,000 with the surrounding metropolitan area exceeding 1 million. The urban sprawl contains a mixture of light industry and commercial centers and is bisected by a major railroad corridor. There are also several water supply reservoirs in the region. For the city of Birmingham, the state of Alabama provided data on one groundwater systems and one surface water system. The surface water system serves the majority of the city. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-6, while the data for the

122

TOXIC LEGACY

surface water system are given in Appendix 7-7. Seven different disinfection by-products and one industrial chemical were found in all of the community water systems (see Table 7-5). As expected, the concentration of disinfection by-products was, in general, greater in surface water sources (which serve most of the population).

TABLE 7-5 Birmingham Water Data Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Chemical Compound Chlorodibromomethane Dichloromethane Dichlorodifluoromethane Total reported individual chemicals — 3 Total haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes Chloroform Bromodichloromethane Bromoform

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical*

1.05 1.59 0.89 24.1 34.1 19.5 3.93

Type of Chemical Compound

0.7 3.45 1.79 1.45 1.18

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

Possible disinfection by-product. * Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.11

BOISE, IDAHO The city of Boise is located against the Sawtooth Mountain Range in a broad valley dissected by the Boise River and has a population of approximately 185,000. The region is surrounded by ranching/agricultural and recreational areas with some light industry and commercial centers. For the city of Boise, the state of Idaho provided data on 10 groundwater systems and one surface water system. The surface water system serves the majority of the city. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-8, while data for the surface water system are given in Appendix 7-9. Most of the synthetic chemicals found in both surface water and groundwater community water systems (see Table 7-6) were industrial chemicals. Given the type of industrial chemicals found in both resources, the groundwater was expected to contain more and higher concentrations of these chemicals. Surprisingly, the state data showed the lack of disinfection by-products. Thus, the 2004 and 2005 Annual Water Quality Reports for United Water of Idaho were reviewed for additional compounds not reported by the state of Idaho. These data are also summarized in Table 7-5. This example demonstrates the variability in reporting and administering state data.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

123

TABLE 7-6

Boise Water Data

Chemical Compound

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Atrazine Carbon tetrachloride Dichloroethylene Cis-dichloroethylene Di(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Methyl tert butyl ether (MTBE) Tetrachloroethlyene Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 11 Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform Dibromochloromethane

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

0.54

9.8 0.09 0.5 3.12 0.5

6.7 12.2 6.9 4.1 16.9 3.8

1.6 7.49 3.48 1.71

1.62 14.9 27.3 3.45

Type of Chemical Compound Pesticide Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.12 CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA Charleston is a harbor city located in the coastal plain. This developed urban area of business complexes and industry is surrounded by agricultural and forested regions. The drinking water supply comes from the Edisto River and the Bushy Park Reservoir and serves approximately 350,000 people. The state of South Carolina provided no water quality data for this city. Therefore, the water quality data were taken from the available annual reports (2004-2001). These averaged data are given in Table 7-7. The regulated chemicals of concern were disinfection by-products with several unregulated chemicals.

7.13 COLUMBUS, GEORGIA The Columbus metropolitan area is surrounded by agricultural and recreational areas (numerous lakes) and has a population of approximately 187,000. For the city of Columbus, the state of Georgia provided data on one surface water system. Water from this system is from Lake Oliver, which is fed by the

124

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 7-7 Charleston Water Data Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Chemical Compound

6.4 0.6 3.7 2.1

Bromoacetic acid Chloropicrin Haloacetonitriles Haloketones Total reported individual chemicals — 4 Haloacetic acids* Total organic halides Total trihalomethanes*

35.6 203 59.3

lype of Chemical Compound Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

TABLE 7-8 Columbus Water Data

Chemical Compound

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Haloacetic acids Dibromoacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Monochloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes B romodichloromethane Chloroform

36 1.65 18.4 4.35 11.1 65 7.65 31.2

Type of Chemical Compound Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

Chattahoochee River. The synthetic chemical data for this community water system are given in Appendix 7-10. Because no summary was given for haloacetic acids or total trihalomethanes, the 2004 annual water quality report was reviewed. All of the synthetic chemicals detected in the surface water are given in Table 7-8. All of these chemicals are disinfection by-products.

7.14 DAYTON, OHIO The city of Dayton is located in the Miami Valley at the confluence of the Miami, Stillwater, and Mad rivers. The greater Dayton area encompasses a number of contiguous communities and has a population of approximately 850,000. Outside the metropolitan area the region is primarily agricultural.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

125

For the city of Dayton, the state of Ohio provided data on two groundwater systems and one surface water system. Both surface water and groundwater systems serve approximately the same number of consumers. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-11, while data for the surface water system are given in Appendix 7-12. Because there was a lack of reported haloacetic acids and total trihalomethanes, the 2005 annual water quality report was also reviewed. The annual report specifically indicates that the groundwater is influenced by surface water recharge. The majority of the synthetic chemicals found in both surface water and groundwater community water systems (see Table 7-9) was disinfection byproducts with several industrial chemicals and pesticides in the groundwater resources.

TABLE 7-9

Dayton Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Atrazine Carbon tetrachloride Chloromethane Cis-dichloroethene Metolachlor Naphthalene Simazine Trichloroethene Trichlorofluoromethane Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 10 Haloacetic acids Dibromoacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Monochloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform Dibromochloromethane * Possible disinfection by-product.

126

TOXIC LEGACY

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Pesticide Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Pesticide Petroleum Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum

1.21 2.26 0.65 0.45 0.9 0.28 0.84 0.32 0.75 0.5

6 2.25 2.27 4.09 1.42 22 2.17 2.5 7.9 10

Type of Chemical Compound

2 4.4 1.25

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

7.15

DENVER, COLORADO The city of Denver is located along the front range of the Rocky Mountains and has a population of approximately 560,000. The downtown area is surrounded by business centers, industrial parks, and commercial and residential land use. The state of Colorado did not provide any water quality data. Therefore, the data from Denver's annual water quality reports of 2004, 2003, and 2002 were averaged and are listed in Table 7-10. Denver's drinking water comes from rivers, lakes, streams, and reservoirs and springs fed by mountain runoff. As expected, drinking water contaminants are dominated by disinfection by-products.

TABLE 7-10 Denver Water Data

Chemical Compound Chlorodibromomethane Chloropicrin Haloacetonitriles Haloketones Total reported individual chemicals — 4 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform Total organic halides

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Type of Chemical Compound

2.4 0.66 2.4 172

Industrial chemical* Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

2.6 22 7.6 1.9 23.4 26.3

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Possible disinfection by-product. ** Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.16

FRESNO, CALIFORNIA The city of Fresno is located in the central San Joaquin Valley of California with a population of approximately 470,000. The region surrounding the city is dominated by irrigated agriculture. Drinking water resources for the city come from both groundwater and surface water. For the city of Fresno, the state of California provided data on four community water systems that derive their water from groundwater resources, which serve the majority of the population, and four community water systems that derive their product from surface water resources. The groundwater data are provided in Appendix 7-13. It should be noted that for some compounds

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

127

(e.g., DBCP) there were so many analyses that only the average concentration was provided. The surface water data are provided in Appendix 7-14. Because only data on trihalomethanes were provided, the 2004 annual water quality report was also reviewed. The summary of detected synthetic compounds found in community drinking water is given in Table 7-11. Given that irrigated agriculture in this region of the United States requires soils to be constantly leached in order to minimize salt accumulations, it is understandable that groundwater contains pesticides (e.g., DBCP). These data also show that even treating the groundwater to remove DBCP, dichloroethylene, dichlorodifluoromethane, ethylene dibromide, trichloroethylene, and trichloropropane does not completely remove these synthetic chemicals from drinking water. Once again, the concentration of the disinfection by-products was greater in surface water sources.

7.17 GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN The city of Grand Rapids sits on the banks of the Grand River and has a population of approximately 200,000. The city's mix of commercial and residential land use also incorporates major furniture and automobile manufacturing. For the city of Grand Rapids, the state of Michigan provided data on four community water systems that derive their water from groundwater resources and one conmiunity water system that derives its water from surface water resources. The surface water system serves the majority of the city's population. The groundwater data are provided in Appendix 7-15, while the surface water data are given in Appendix 7-16. Because there was a lack of reported haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes, the 2002 through 2004 annual water quality reports were also reviewed. The detected synthetic compounds found in community drinking water are given in Table 7-12. All of the industrial and petroleum chemicals were found in the groundwater sources. Both systems reported disinfection by-products with synthetic chemical concentrations being higher in the surface water sources.

7.18 HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA The city of Harrisburg sits against the Susquehanna River north of the Blue Ridge chain of the Appalachian Mountains and has a population of approximately 620,000. The city's metropolitan area is a mixture of commercial, industrial, and residential land use. For the city of Harrisburg, the state of Pennsylvania provided data on four community water systems that derive their water from groundwater resources and one community water system that derives its water from surface water resources. The surface water system serves

128

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 7-11

Fresno Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Bromomethane Butylbenzene Chloroethane Chloromethane DCPA Diazinon Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) Dichloroethylene Cis-dichloroethylene Dichlorodifluoromethane Dichloromethane 1,2-Dichloropropane 2,2-Dichloropropane Ethylene dibromide Methyl tert butyl ether (MTBE) Molinate Monochlorobenzene Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Thiobencarb Toluene Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene Trichloropropane Trimethylbenzene Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 26 Haloacetic acids Dibromacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform Dibromochloromethane Possible disinfection by-product.

1 0.9 0.63 1.46 4.7 507 0.34 6.31 1.78 9.8 0.66 1.28 35 0.08 5 5.7 0.52 0.52 1.43 7.2 0.88 0.88 15.2 0.09 1 0.89

Treated Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

1.17

0.08

0.56 1.48 2.8

0.04

Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Pesticide Pesticide Pesticide

2.06 0.12

5.3 12

chemical* chemical chemical* chemical*

Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Pesticide Petroleum Pesticide Industrial Industrial Industrial Pesticide Industrial Industrial Industrial Pesticide Industrial Industrial

20.3 7.26 7.7

2.4 4.5 2.6 3.2

Type of Chemical Compound

chemical chemical chemical chemical chemical chemical chemical chemical

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

TABLE 7-12

Grand Rapid:s Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Bromochloroacetic acid Chlorodibromomethane 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,3-Dichlorobenzene 1,4-Dichlorobenzene Dichlorobromomethane Tetrahydrofuran Total reported individual chemicals — 7 Haloacetic acids Dichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromoform Chloroform Total organic halogens

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

1 2.56 0.78 0.55 0.61 1.55 0.59

5.92

26.5 11.8

5.18

40.3 2.1 8.48 110

Type of Chemical Compound Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Petroleum

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Possible disinfection by-product.

the majority of the city's population. The groundwater data are provided in Appendix 7-17, while the surface water data are given in Appendix 7-18. Because the surface water data reported no disinfection by-products, the available annual reports for 2003 and 2004 were also reviewed. All of the monitoring data are summarized in Table 7-13. These data show that the detection of industrial chemicals was in the groundwater sources, while the primary conTABLE 7-13

Harrisburg Water Data

Chemical Compound Atrazine Dichloromethane Styrene Trichloroethylene Toluene Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 6 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes**

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

0.2 1.2 1.98 0.65 0.5 0.62

0.2

* Possible disinfection by-product. ** Concentration of individual compounds not reported.

130

TOXIC LEGACY

50.1 35.2

Type of Chemical Compound Pesticides Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

taminants in the surface water sources were disinfection by-products. Given the nature of the data omissions, the groundwater systems are also assumed to contain disinfection by-products.

7.19 JACKSON, MISSISSIPPI The city of Jackson is located on the Pearl River and has a population of approximately 185,000. The city's metropolitan area is a mixture of commercial and residential land use surrounded by agricultural areas. The state of Mississippi provided no data for the city of Jackson. The city of Jackson has one groundwater and one surface water community water system. The monitoring data for these systems (2004) are given in Table 7-14. For both systems, the only reported contaminants are disinfection by-products. These data are unusual in that the treated groundwater has higher concentrations of disinfection by-products. These values also exceed the primary drinking water standards (Table 7-1). TABLE 7-14 Jackson Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Type of Chemical Compound

Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes*

85.8 65.5

53.3 62

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

* Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.20 LAFAYETTE, LOUISIANA The city of Lafayette is located on the Vermillion River and has a population of approximately 110,000. The city's metropolitan area is a mixture of commercial and residential land use surrounded by agricultural areas. The state of Louisiana provided no data for the city of Lafayette. The city of Lafayette has one groundwater community water system that serves the majority of the city. The average chemical concentrations for the monitoring data from the annual water quality reports (2000 through 2004) are given in Table 7-15. The only reported contaminants are disinfection by-products.

7.21 LONG BEACH, NEW JERSEY Long Beach is located on one of New Jersey's outer islands (Long Beach Island) and has a population of approximately 3300. The township is made up

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

131

TABLE 7-15

Lafayette Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Haloacetilenitriles Total number of individual chemicals — 1 Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes*

Type of Chemical Compound

1.2

Disinfection by-product

5.5 10.5

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

* Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

of commercial and residential areas. The state of New Jersey provided no water quality data for the township. Long Beach Island has five groundwater conmiunity water systems that serve the majority of the island. The monitoring data from the annual water quality reports (2002 through 2004) indicate that there are no detected synthetic chemicals (including disinfection by-products).

7.22 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA The city of Los Angeles and associated urban sprawl is located between the San Gabriel Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. The city of Los Angeles has an approximate population of 3.6 million, while the Los Angeles metropolitan area has a population of about 18 million. The entire area is dominated by residential, commercial, and industrial land use. For the city of Los Angeles, the state of California provided data on a community water system that utilized both surface water (California, Los Angeles, Colorado aqueducts, and reservoirs) and groundwater sources. Surface water sources provide approximately 85% of the drinking water. The chemical data are provided in Appendix 7-19. If the number of samples was more than a hundred, only the average has been reported. Because of the lack of monitoring data on disinfection by-products, the annual water quality reports from 2003 and 2004 were used to determine the detection of these types of chemicals. A total of 22 different synthetic compounds was detected in the water system (see Table 7-16). These chemicals include pesticides, industrial chemicals, petroleum products, and disinfection by-products.

7.23 MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN The city of Milwaukee sits at the shore of Lake Michigan at the confluence of the Menomonee, Kinnickinnic, and Milwaukee rivers and has a population of

132

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 7-16

Los Angeles Water Data

Chemical Compound

Average Concentration (ppb)

Type of Chemical Compound

0.92 0.83 2.77 2.2 2.72 0.87 1.18 4 0.87 0.02 0.05 2.2 2.5 0.004 4.59 2.56 10.7 1.73 8.76 17.4

Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Pesticide Petroleum Pesticide Petroleum Industrial chemical Petroleum Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical

52 52.5 19.4 7.2 17.4 23.3

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

1,1 -Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1 -Dichloroethylene Cis-dichloroethylene Dichlorodifluoromethane Dichloromethane 1,2-Dichloropropane Diquat Ethylbenzene Ethylene dibromide Indeno( 1,2,3-CD)pyrene Methyl isobutyl ketone Methyl tert butyl ether (MTBE) Nitrosodimethylamine Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Trichloroethylene 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane Trichlorofluoromethane Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 20 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform Dibromochloromethane

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

Possible disinfection by-product. * Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

approximately 592,000 (1.7 million in the Milwaukee metropolitan area). Outside the urban sprawl, agricultural land uses dominate the region. For the city of Milwaukee, the state of Wisconsin provided data on 24 groundwater systems and four surface water systems. The surface water systems serve the majority of the community. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-20, while data for the surface water systems are given in Appendix 7-21. The majority of the synthetic chemicals was found in the groundwater systems (see Table 7-17). However, both groundwater and surface water systems detected a large number of industrial chemicals and disinfection by-products.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

133

TABLE 7-17

Milwaukee Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

0.13 0.23 0.43 0.12 0.56 0.48 0.72 0.29 4.48 0.83 0.27

0.63

1,1,1 -Trichloroethane 1,1 -Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloropropane 2,2-Dichloropropane Bromomethane Carbon tetrachloride Methylchloride Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Dichloromethane Dichlorobenzene Ethylbenzene Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Triazine Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 17 Haloacetic acids Dibromoacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Monochloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform Dibromochloromethane

0.3

0.1 0.63 1.02 0.4

0.33 0.08 4.54 0.1 37.3

10.4 3.85 15.6 1.33 2.03 0.56 0.5 1.66 0.69

0.3 1.1 1.03

4.69 1.05 2.51

14.10 0.43 7.82 2.44

Type of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Petroleum Pesticide Petroleum

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

Possible disinfection by-product.

7.24 NEW YORK, NEW YORK The city of New York is situated on the three major islands of Manhattan, Staten Island, and western Long Island while the Bronx is the only borough that is part of the mainland United States. The city is dominated by commercial and residential land use and has a population of approximately 8.1 million, while the metropolitan area has a population of 22 million. For the city of New York, the state of New York provided data on two small groundwater systems. These data are given in Appendix 7-22. The only contaminant reported by either system was methyl tert butyl ether (MTBE), which

134

TOXIC LEGACY

is derived from gasoline. Because no other data were provided, the New York water quality monitoring data were taken from the annual water quality reports. The annual reports show that 99% of New York's drinking water comes from surface water sources (i.e., the Catskill/Delaware System and the Croton System in Putnam, Westchester, and Dutchess counties). The data from the annual water quahty reports are given in Table 7-18. TABLE 7-18

New York Water Data Year of Annual Report 2004

Compound Acetone Bromochloroacetic acid Bromomethane Butylbenzene Carbon tetrachloride Chloromethane Chloropicrin Dalapon DCPA Dibromochloropropane Dichlorofluoromethane Dieldrin Haloacetonitriles Halogenated ketones Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachlorocylopentadiene Methyl tert butyl ether Phenanthrene Propylbenzene Simazine Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Trichlorobenzene Trichloroethylene Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 26 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes** Total organic halogens

2003

1.33

1.66

0.6

0.5

0.55

0.35 1.9

2002

2001

2000

22 1.66 0.6 0.6 0.6

12 1.9 0.9

1.1

0.45

0.5 0.43

0.95

0.77 1.8

0.06 2.3

4.45 4.1

3.9 2.45

1

1 0.02

2.2 0.7 5 3.6

1.3

0.4

0.9

1

3.4 2.87

2.95 2.3 1

0.08 14

10.4

0.6 0.05 2.6

17.3

1.1

0.8 1.2

49.7 42 176

42 36 145

0.6 4.7 1.9 0.7 1.7 4.3

3.4 0.8 0.6 1.3 2.2

32.3 32.3 136

36.7 37.3 154

3 1 2

24.6 33 161

Type of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Disinfection by-product Pesticide Pesticide Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Pesticide Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Petroleum Petroleum Petroleum Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

Possible disinfection by-product. * Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

Because various unregulated chemicals were not consistently monitored over the 2000-2004 period, the data for each year are summarized in Table 7-18. The data for the disinfection by-products are averages for all the

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

135

community water systems, while the data reported for the pesticides, industrial chemicals, and petroleum products are the highest reported values. Most of the chemical analysis detected disinfection by-products, while the pesticides, petroleum products, and industrial chemicals occurred less frequently.

7.25 OGDEN, UTAH The city of Ogden is located against the western slope of the Wasatch Mountains and east of the Great Salt Lake and has a population of approximately 77,000. The city is a mixture of commercial and residential areas surrounded by recreational and ranching land uses. The state of Utah provided no data for the city of Ogden. As a result, the available annual water quality monitoring reports for Ogden and North Ogden (2003 and 2002) were reviewed. Ogden obtains its water from both surface and groundwater sources, while North Ogden only utilizes groundwater. For both systems, the only reported contaminants were disinfection byproducts as measured by total trihalomethanes (15.9ppb).

7.26 OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLAHOMA Oklahoma City is located approximately in the center of the state with an estimated population of 530,000. The city is a complex mixture of residential, commercial, and industrial land uses. The state of Oklahoma provided data on three groundwater systems and one surface water system. The surface water system serves the vast majority of the city. The surface water resources come from the North Canadian River (i.e., northwestern and north central Oklahoma) to feed two reservoirs. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-23, while data for the surface water system are given in Appendix 7-24. The majority of the synthetic chemicals found in both surface water and groundwater community water systems (see Table 7-19) was disinfection by-products. The 2003 annual water quality report data are also included in Table 7-19. These data show that the number and concentration of disinfection by-products were significantly greater in the surface water source.

7.27 ORLANDO, FLORIDA The city of Orlando occupies a generally low-lying area with numerous natural lakes and sand hills and has a population of approximately 186,000 (1.6 miUion in the Orlando metropolitan area). The urban areas are generally a mix of commercial and residential land use.

136

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TABLE 7-19

Oklahoma City Water Data

Chemical Compound Benzene Chlorodibromomethane Toluene Total reported individual chemicals — 3 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Chloroform

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

1.2 2.75 0.7

14.5

Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical

43.2 41.9 21.9 45.6

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

3.8 2.49

Type of Chemical Compound

by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Possible disinfection by-product. ** Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

For the city of Orlando, the state of Florida provided data on two groundwater systems. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-25. Because of the lack of detected disinfection by-products, the annual water quality reports from 2000 through 2004 were also reviewed and summarized. The source waters in the annual reports were from groundwater resources. All of the summarized data on detected synthetic organic chemicals are given in Table 7-20. The majority of the detected synthetic chemicals was disinfection by-products. This result is in spite of the fact that Orlando also uses ozone as a disinfectant.

7.28

PEORIA, ILLINOIS The city of Peoria is located against the Illinois River with a population of approximately 112,000. The city is a mixture of commercial and residential areas surrounded by agricultural land use. The state of Illinois provided no data for the city of Peoria. As a result, the available annual water quality monitoring report (2003) for Peoria was reviewed. The source water comes from both groundwater wells and surface resources. The water quahty summary is given in Table 7-21. All of the detected contaminants were disinfection by-products.

7.29

PHOENIX, ARIZONA The city of Phoenix is located in the Phoenix Valley and surrounded by the McDowell, White Tank, and Superstition mountains and the Sierra Estrella. The

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

137

TABLE 7-20

Orlando Water Data

Chemical Compound Bromochloroacetic acid Bromochloroacetonitrile Chlorodibromomethane Chloropicrin Dibromochloroacetic acid Dibromoacetonitrile Dichlorobromomethane Dichloroacetonitrile Cis-dichloroethylene Dichloropropanone Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Trichloropropanone Total reported individual chemicals — 12 Haloacetic acids Dichloracetic acid Monobromoacetic acid Monochloracetic acid Trichloracetic acid Total trihalomethanes Chloroform Total organic halides

TABLE 7-21

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Type of Chemical Compound

5.1 1.43 3 0.07 0.24 0.44 8.1 2.29 0.38 0.18 0.49 1.75

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical Disinfection by-product

32 8.4 0.49 3.82 4.9 55.6 21.8 92

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

Peoria Water Data

Chemical Compound

Average Concentration (ppb)

Chlorodibromomethane

8.2

Total reported individual chemicals — 1 Haloacetic acids Dibromochloroacetic acid Dichloracetic acid Trichloracetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform * Possible disinfection by-product.

10.1 1.9 3.4 4.4 31.6 10.7 2.1 10.7

Type of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical*

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

Salt River runs through the city and is normally dry except during rainfall, when water releases from the upriver dams. The city is a mixture of commercial, residential, and industrial areas with a population of approximately 3.2 million. For the city of Phoenix, the state of Arizona provided data on six groundwater systems and one surface water system. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-26, and the surface water community water system data are given in Appendix 7-27. Because of the lack of detected disinfection by-products, the annual water quality reports from 2000 through 2004 were also reviewed and summarized. The source waters in the annual reports indicated that 98% of the drinking water came from surface water resources. All of the summarized data on detected synthetic organic chemicals are given in Table 7-22. For the surface water system, the majority of the detected synthetic chemicals was disinfection by-products. The drinking water from groundwater sources contained detected levels of industrial chemicals and petroleum products.

TABLE 7-22

Phoenix Water Data

Chemical Compound 2,4-D Chlorodibromomethane Chloromethane Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Dichloroethylene Ethylbenzene Trichlorobenzene Toluene Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 9 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes B romodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Type of Chemical Compound

0.2 14.4 0.1 1.1

Pesticide Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum

24 54 20.3 2.1 14.7

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

3.3 1.7 0.94 1.2 2.96

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Possible disinfection by-product. ** Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.30 PORTLAND, OREGON The city of Portland straddles the Willamette River south of its confluence with the Columbia River. The city is a mixture of commercial, residential, and

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

139

industrial areas and has a population of approximately 550,000 with a metropolitan population of 2.1 million. For the city of Portland, the state of Oregon provided limited data on two groundwater systems and one surface water system. However, the surface water system appears to be associated with groundwater sources. Therefore, all the synthetic chemical data for all the community water systems are given in Appendix 7-28. Because of the lack of detected disinfection by-products, the annual water quality reports from 2004 and 2005 were also reviewed and summarized. Based on the annual reports, the majority of the city's water comes from the protected Bull Run watershed in the Mount Hood National Forest. All of the summarized data on detected synthetic organic chemicals are given in Table 7-23. For the surface water system, the majority of the detected synthetic chemicals was disinfection by-products. The drinking water from groundwater sources contained detected levels of industrial chemicals and a pesticide. TABLE 7-23

Portland Water Data

Chemical Compound Dichlorobenzene Dichloroethylene Diquat Tetrachloroethylene Total reported individual chemicals — 4 Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes*

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

0.8 0.63 0.4 4.19

Type of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Pesticide Industrial chemical

35 25

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

* Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.31

PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND The city of Providence is located at the head of Narragansett Bay, with the Providence River running into the bay through the center of the city. Providence has a population of approximately 180,000 with a metropolitan population of about 1.2 million. The city is a mixture of conmiercial, residential, and industrial areas. The state of Rhode Island provided no data for the city of Providence. As a result, the available annual water quality monitoring reports (2004 and 2005) for Providence were reviewed. The source water comes from the Scituate Reservoir, which obtains runoff from a predominately forested area, but there is also a considerable amount of urban development in the watershed. The water quality summary is given in Table 7-24. All of the detected contaminants were disinfection by-products.

140

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 7-24

Providence Water Data

Chemical Compound

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

l^pe of Chemical Compound

Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes*

16 35.4

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.32

PUEBLO, COLORADO The city of Pueblo is situated along the front range of the Colorado Rockies on the confluence of the Arkansas River and Fountain Creek with a population of approximately 100,000. The city is a mixture of commercial and residential areas surrounded by ranching and agriculture. The state of Colorado provided no data for the city of Pueblo. As a result, the available annual water quality monitoring reports (2003, 2004, and 2005) for Pueblo were reviewed. The source water comes from the Arkansas River, which flows into the Pueblo Reservoir. The reservoir water quality summary is given in Table 7-25. All of the detected contaminants were disinfection by-products. TABLE 7-25

Pueblo Water Data

Chemical Compound Bromochloroacetic acid Bromochloroacetonitrile Chlorodibromomethane Dichloroacetonitrile Dichloropropanone Trichloropropanone Total reported individual chemicals — 6 Haloacetic acids Dibromoacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Monochloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Chloroform Dibromochloromethane

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

Type of Chemical Compound

1.51 0.41 1.5 0.49 1.2 0.26

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical* Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

15 0.46 9.3 1.97 2.25 7.5 1.66 4.23 0.4

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

Possible disinfection by-product.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

141

7.33 RENO, NEVADA The city of Reno lies near the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada along the Truckee River with an approximate population of 180,000. For the city of Reno, the state of Nevada provided data on 18 groundwater systems and two surface water system. The vast majority of the city's drinking water comes from the surface water systems. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-29, and the surface water community water system data are given in Appendix 7-30. Given the lack of other disinfection byproducts reported in the state data, the available chemical data from the 2004 annual report were also reviewed. All of the summarized data on detected synthetic organic chemicals are given in Table 7-26. Besides the anticipated disinfection by-products, industrial chlorinated solvents were detected in this surface water.

TABLE 7-26

Reno Water Data

Chemical Compound Chlorodibromomethane Tetrachloroethylene Trichloroethylene Total reported individual chemicals — 3 Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb)

2.28

2.51 0.99 0.84

3.45

28.9 32.2 6.91

Type of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

* Possible disinfection by-product. ** Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.34 SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS The city of San Antonio is situated along the San Antonio River and has a population of approximately 1.1 million. The city is a mixture of commercial, residential, and industrial areas. For the city of San Antonio, the state of Texas provided data on 40 groundwater systems and one surface water system. The majority of the city's drinking water is provided from groundwater resources. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-31, and the surface water community system data are given in Appendix 7-32. Given the lack of trihalomethane and haloacetic acid

142

TOXIC LEGACY

data reported by the state, the available chemical data from the 2004 and 2005 annual reports were also reviewed. All of the summarized data on detected synthetic organic chemicals are given in Table 7-27. The detected compounds included pesticides, petroleum products, industrial chemicals, and disinfection by-products.

7.35

SAVANNAH, GEORGIA The city of Savannah is situated along the Savannah River and the U.S. Intracoastal Waterway and has a population of approximately 130,000. The city is a mixture of commercial, residential, and industrial areas. For the city of Savannah, the state of Georgia provided data on 70 groundwater systems. All of the city's drinking water is provided from groundwater resources. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater community water systems are given in Appendix 7-33. Given the lack of specific trihalomethane and haloacetic acid summaries reported by the state, the available chemical data from the 2004 annual reports (i.e., six different systems) were also reviewed. All of the summarized data on detected synthetic organic chemicals are given in Table 7-28. The groundwater contaminants were dominated by disinfection by-products and petroleum compounds.

7,36

SIOUX FALLS, SOUTH DAKOTA The city of Sioux Falls is situated along the banks of the Big Sioux River and has a population of approximately 140,000. The city is a mixture of commercial and residential areas surrounded by ranching and agricultural land uses. For the city of Sioux Falls, the state of North Dakota provided data on surface water sampling, but the community water system derives its water from both surface and groundwater resources. The synthetic chemical data for this system are given in Appendix 7-34. Given the lack of specific trihalomethane and haloacetic acid summaries reported by the state, the available chemical data from the 2004 annual report were also reviewed. All of the summarized data on detected synthetic organic chemicals are given in Table 7-29. The detected chemical contaminants were dominated by the disinfection by-products.

7.37

SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS The city of Springfield is located in the Sangamon River Valley and has a population of approximately 120,000. The city is a mixture of commercial and residential areas surrounded by agricultural land uses. For the city of Springfield,

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

143

TABLE 7-27

San Antonio Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Acetone Atrazine Bromochloroacetic acid Butanone (MEK) Butylbenzylphthalate Carbon disulfide Carbon tetrachloride Chloroacetic acid Chlorobenzene Chlorodimethylbenzene Dibromomethane Dichlorobenzene Dichlorobromomethane Dichloromethane Di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Diethylphthalate Ethylbenzene Fluorene Hexachlorobutadiene Methyl methacrylate Methylpentanone (MIBK) Phenanthrene Styrene Tetrachloroethylene Tetrahydrofuran Toluene Trichloroethylene Trimethylbenzene Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 30 Haloacetic acids Dibromoacetic acid Dichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform Dibromochloromethane * Possible disinfection by-product.

29.3 0.59 5.3 6 26.4 2.25 0.59 7 0.7 2.75 2.1 0.5 2.9 2.16 2.59 4.19 2.2 1.46 0.13 1.3 4.4 9.4 0.16 0.6 0.94 21.6 4.8 0.6 1.6 3.58

16.2 8.7 7.4 18.3 4.52 1.1 5.7 4.23

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb) 3.3

0.5

8.46

7

Type of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical Pesticide Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Petroleum

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

TABLE 7-28

Savannah Water Data

Chemical Compound Chlorodibromomethane Dichloromethane Ethylbenzene Methyl ethyl ketone Toluene Trimethylbenzene Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 7 Haloacetic acids Dichloroacetic acid Monochloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

lype of Chemical Compound

1.47 1.18 1.2 2.4 1.63 2.18 5.16

Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial

chemical* chemical* chemical chemical chemical chemical chemical

2.07 3.78 1.95 1.8 1.46 1.28 1.53

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

Possible disinfection by-product.

TABLE 7-29

Sioux Falls Water Data

Chemical Compound 2,4-D Total reported individual chemicals — 1 Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Chloroform Dibromochloromethane

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb) 0.6

10.8 33.1 12 3 8 13

Type of Chemical Compound Pesticide

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

the state of Illinois provided data on one surface water system that derives its water from Lake Springfield. The synthetic chemical data for this system are given in Appendix 7-35. Given the lack of specific trihalomethane and haloacetic acid summaries reported by the state, the available chemical data from the 2004 annual report were also reviewed. All of the summarized data on detected synthetic organic

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

145

chemicals are given in Table 7-30. The detected chemical contaminants were dominated by pesticides and disinfection by-products. Because agricultural runoff discharges to Lake Springfield, the raw water is treated with granulated activated carbon, to specifically remove atrazine. The atrazine MCL of three parts-per-billion has not been exceeded, yet the contaminant remains in the water supply.

TABLE 7-30

Springfield Water Data

Chemical Compound Atrazine Dichloroacetic acid Simazine Total reported individual chemicals — 3 Haloacetic acids Monochloroacetic acid Trichloroacetic acid Total trihalomethanes*

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Type of Chemical Compound

0.63 17.2 1.2

Pesticide Disinfection by-product Pesticide

21 0.7 2.63 49

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.38 TACOMA, WASHINGTON The city of Tacoma is situated on Puget Sound's Commencement Bay, Tacoma Narrows, and the estuary of the Puyallup River and has a population of approximately 197,000 (the metropolitan population is about 750,000). The city is a mixture of commercial, residential, and industrial areas. The state of Washington provided no data for the city of Tacoma. As a result, the available annual water quality monitoring report of 2004 was reviewed. The source water for the community system is derived from both surface water (a protected forested watershed) and groundwater resources. The water quality summary is given in Table 7-31. The groundwater supplies reported numerous industrial chemical contaminants with surface water supplies only reporting disinfection by-products.

7.39 TULSA, OKLAHOMA The city of Tulsa is situated along the Arkansas River and has a population of approximately 390,000 (the metropolitan population is about 930,000). The city

146

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 7-31

Tacoma Water Data

Chemical Compound

Average Concentration (ppb)

Dichlorodifluoromethane Dichloromethane Fluorotrichloromethane Total reported individual chemicals — 3 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes Chloroform Bromodichloromethane

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb) 1 0.88 2.5

46.5 67.4 23.5 2.09

Type of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical* Industrial chemical*

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product

Possible disinfection by-product. * Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

TABLE 7-32

Tulsa Water Data

Chemical Compound Atrazine Chlorodibromomethane Xylenes Total reported individual chemicals — 5 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Chloroform

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb) 0.16 4.48 1.82

24 32.0 6.74 11.1

Type of Chemical Compound Pesticide Industrial chemical* Petroleum

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

* Possible disinfection by-product. ** Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

is a mixture of commercial, residential, and industrial areas. For the city of Tulsa, the state of Oklahoma provided data on one community surface water system. The source water for the city comes from Oologah Lake. The synthetic chemical data for the community water system are given in Appendix 7-36. Given the lack of specific data on haloacetic acids, the available chemical data from the 2004 annual report of cities that purchase water from the Tulsa system were also reviewed. The water quality summary is given in Table 7-32. The contaminants reported in the drinking water supplies were dominated by disinfection by-products.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

147

7.40 WASHINGTON, D.C. The city of Washington is situated on the Potomac River and has a population of approximately 550,000 (the metropolitan population is about 4.8 million). The city is a mixture of commercial/governmental and residential areas. The District of Columbia provided no data for the city of Washington. As a result, the available annual water quahty monitoring reports (2000 through 2004) were reviewed. The source water for the community system is derived solely from the Potomac River. The water quality summary is given in Table 7-33. The contaminants detected in the water supply were dominated by pesticides and disinfection by-products.

TABLE 7-33

Washington Water Data

Chemical Compound 2,4-D Atrazine Chloropicrin Di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Dalpon Haloacetonitriles Haloketones Metolachlor Phenanthrene Simazine Total reported individual chemicals — 11 Haloacetic acids* Total organic halides Total trihalomethanes*

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb) 0.3 0.29 0.8 0.68 3.5 3.2 9.25 3.65 0.06 0.03 0.1

38.1 283 56.6

Type of Chemical Compound Pesticide Pesticide Disinfection by-product Industrial chemical Industrial chemical Pesticide Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Pesticide Petroleum Pesticide

Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

* Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

7.41 WEST PALM BEACH, FLORIDA The city of West Palm Beach is situated along the Atlantic-Intracoalstal Waterway and has a population of approximately 82,000. The city is a mixture of conmiercial and residential areas. For the city of West Palm Beach, the state of Florida provided data on one surface water system and one groundwater system. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater system are given in Appendix 7-37, and the data for the surface water system are given in Appendix 7-38. Given the lack of specific data on trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, the

148

TOXIC LEGACY

TABLE 7-34

West Palm Beach Water Data

Chemical Compound

Average Concentration (ppb)

Atrazine Dalapon Total reported individual chemicals — 2 Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes*

0.18 2.6 53.1 62.3

lype of Chemical Compound Pesticide Pesticide Disinfection by-product Disinfection by-product

Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

available chemical data from the 2004 annual report for Jupiter (the city's water utility, which serves the local region) was reviewed. The vast majority of the drinking water in the region is from groundwater resources and is treated using reverse osmosis to remove excess salts. The water quality summary is given in Table 7-34. The contaminants detected in the water supply were dominated by pesticides and disinfection by-products.

7.42

WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS The city of Worcester is split by the Blackstone River and has a population of approximately 175,000. The city is a mixture of commercial, residential, and industrial areas. For the city of Worcester, the state of Massachusetts provided data on one surface water system and one groundwater system. The synthetic chemical data for the groundwater system are given in Appendix 7-39, and the data for the surface water system are given in Appendix 7-40. Given the lack of specific data on trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, the available chemical data from the 2004 annual report was reviewed. The vast majority of the drinking water in the region is from surface water resources that come from a network of reservoirs. The water quality summary is given in Table 7-35. The contaminants detected in the water supply were dominated by disinfection by-products.

7.43

DATA SUMMARY The synthetic chemical data reported by each state and the water utility annual water quality reports establish that consumers in individual cities are exposed to a unique chemical mixture. This exposure may be continuous or fluctuate with seasonal pollution patterns and resource utilization (e.g., supplementing a primary surface water source with groundwater). Ultimately, this means that

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

149

TABLE 7-35

Worcester Water Data

Chemical Compound

Groundwater Average Concentration (ppb)

Chlorodibromomethane Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) Total reported individual chemicals — 2 Haloacetic acids** Total trihalomethanes Bromodichloromethane Chloroform

Surface Water Average Concentration (ppb) 0.7

2.8

23.7 36.8 7.78 17.2

lype of Chemical Compound Industrial chemical* Petroleum

Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection

by-product by-product by-product by-product

* Possible disinfection by-product. ** Concentrations of individual compounds not reported.

the consumer has the potential to be exposed to the chemical mixture that has been characterized for each city. From approximately 2000 through 2005, each community water system monitored for both regulated and unregulated chemical contaminants. However, it should be remembered that the regulated chemicals are looked for much more frequently then unregulated chemicals. Therefore, it should be no surprise that the vast majority of the databases reports more frequently on disinfection by-products.

7.43.1

Disinfection By-Products When reviewing the water quality for each city, it is abundantly clear that anyone who drinks water from a community water system in the United States will most likely consume a mixture of disinfection by-products. In other words, we are all exposed to a baseline number of synthetic chemicals in our drinking water independent of any other environmental contaminants. This complex mixture of specifically identified chlorinated, bromated, and fluoridated methanes, ethanes, ketones, nitriles, and acetic acids are almost always in our drinking water This does not even include a whole range of other ''unidentified'' halogenated (i.e., primarily chlorine and bromine) compounds that are measured as ''total organic halogens." For example, the New York City data (Table 7-18) shows that in 2004 the combined concentration of total trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids was 91.7 ppb; there was an additional 10.4 ppb of other disinfection by-products and 6.1 ppb of chlorinated industrial chemicals for a total of 108.1 ppb while the concentration for "total organic halogens" was 176ppb. This means that there

150

TOXIC LEGACY

were an additional 67.8 ppb of and unknown number of "unidentified" halogenated chemicals in New York City's drinking water. Should the consumer be concerned? You be the judge. According to the New York City 2004 Drinking Water Supply and Quality Report, which was discussing a system violation for exceeding haloacetic acids, "Some studies ofpeople who drink chlorinated drinking water for 20 to 30 years show that long-term exposure to disinfection by-products (possibly including haloacetic acids) is associated with an increased risk for certain types of cancer However, how long and how frequently people actually drank the water as well as how much haloacetic acids the water contained is not known for certain.'' Given that the mass consumption of bottled water (which is usually not chlorinated or bromated) is a relatively recent occurrence and that community water systems in the United States have been chlorinating water since before the 1900s, who hasn't frequently drank water containing disinfection by-products? Thus, when looking at drinking water quality in each city, it is necessary to segregate the regularly monitored disinfection by-products (total trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids) from the other chemical monitoring data to determine the extent of other environmental contaminants in drinking water. Thus, those chemicals that occur in addition to the regularly monitored disinfection by-products define the diversity of the synthetic chemical contamination due to pollutant sources. Clearly, the chemical contaminant diversity in a drinking water resource is largely dependent on the makeup of the source waters.

7.43.2 Groundwater and Surface Water Resources When reviewing the drinking water pollution of the 36 cities that were evaluated, it is clear that both groundwater resources and surface water resources can contain a significant number chemicals. For example, Fresno and Bakersfield are located in a physical environment that is conducive to the chemical transport of contaminants through the soil and into groundwater. Thus, when chemicals from commercial/industrial facilities and agricultural lands in the Central Valley of California are released into soil, the contamination of groundwater resources is not surprising. In a similar way, large watersheds that include both urban and agricultural land use can contribute a significant number of chemicals to surface water resources. This is well illustrated by the drinking water quality of both New York City and Washington, D.C. In all cases, the degree of pollution found in each drinking water supply is highly dependent on region-specific releases of synthetic chemicals to the surface water and groundwater resources. This emphasizes the need for consumers to review chemical data from their own water utility to determine the extent to which their drinking water is polluted. It is also important to note that

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

151

even when drinking water resources were specifically treated to remove compounds like DBCP, atrazine, ethylene dibromide, tetrachloroethylene, and trichloroethylene, not all of the contaminants were removed (see Fresno, Bakersfield, and Springfield). This means that once polluted, most drinking water will still contain low levels of contaminants. This is particularly true for groundwater resources. Yet large watersheds can have fairly continuous sources of pollution that are being discharged to drinking water resources.

7.43.3 Watershed Protection A truly protected watershed would not allow any man-made activities. Large watersheds that are all located in designated wilderness areas are a rare occurrence. Because the human habitat is polluted, there are multiple sources of synthetic chemicals discharged into both surface and groundwater resources. For example, surface runoff from both urban and rural areas will routinely be polluted with petroleum chemicals, industrial chemicals, and pesticides. In many rural areas, runoff from farm/dairy/feedlot areas can also be contaminated with pharmaceuticals and hormones from animal waste. The discharge of treated wastewater from municipal sewage treatment plants will contain pharmaceuticals as well as low levels of petroleum compounds, pesticides, and industrial chemicals that are below state discharge standards. Septic systems, sewers, landfills, and underground storage tanks can and do pollute groundwater resources. Given these varied sources of chemical pollution, water utilities attempt to protect their water sources by diverting urban surface runoff into recharge basins (it is assumed that polluted surface water recharged to groundwater will be purified by the soil media) instead of letting the runoff into a river or lake (this is sometimes also attempted for runoff from agricultural lands and feedlots), reminding people not to dump waste into storm drains, imposing lower and lower limits on chemical concentrations allowed to be discharged by an industry or municipal sewage treatment plant, and by purchasing land in a watershed and eliminating all human activities on this land. Beginning in 2003, many communities began the process of conducting and publishing source water assessments to determine those steps that would be necessary to protect their source waters. The assessment process will identify those sources of chemical pollution in a watershed, and consumers should be aware of the chemical discharges to their drinking water resources. This is particularly true if sewage treatment plants discharge to a drinking water resource, since pharmaceuticals that occur in wastewater are almost never removed prior to discharge. Therefore if a water utility provides water from a watershed that has human activities, it can generally be assumed that some synthetic chemicals (i.e., pharmaceuticals, unregulated industrial chemicals, pesticides, and disinfection by-products) will be in the drinking water.

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7.44

WATER QUALITY RANKING Every drinking water in this study was contaminated with disinfection byproducts except the drinking water in Long Beach, New Jersey. The drinking water in the Long Beach area also did not report the detection of any routinely monitored chemical.^ However, it should be remembered that there could be chemical contaminants in this drinking water, but the monitoring program did not look for them. Because the existing monitoring program did not detect any contaminants, drinking water from this area is ranked number 1 (i.e., differentiate quality of the 36 cities). With Long Beach, New Jersey, ranked number 1, the water quality of the remaining 35 cities was ranked solely on the number of different synthetic chemicals that was detected in the water of any community water system. This ranking, however, does not include the occurrence of disinfection by-products, trihalomethanes, and haloacetic acids, since they occur in the drinking water of all of these 35 cities. The final ranking is presented in Table 7-36 and Figure 7-1. As this table shows, each city was ranked from 1 to 12 with the 12th-ranked cities reporting the greatest number of detected chemicals. The drinking water contaminants found in the 36 cities do not represent a statistical presentation of water quality for all cities across the United States. These data do, however, represent trends in water quality for cities that obtain their drinking water from similar geographic regions and levels of industrial development. When looking at the synthetic chemicals that were detected most frequently, the chemicals that occurred in at least 25% or more of the drinking water of all the cities (see Table 7-37 for the complete list) were as follows: Haloacetic acids (disinfection by-product) Total trihalomethanes (disinfection by-product) Chlorodibromomethane (disinfection by-product) Xylenes (petroleum chemcial) Atrazine (pesticide) Dichloromethane (disinfection by-product) Trichloroethylene (industrial chemical) Tetrachloroethylene (industrial chemical) Toluene (petroleum chemical)

97.2% 97.2% 33.3% 33.3% 27.8% 27.8% 27.8% 25% 25%

Clearly, drinking water across the United States is contaminated with disinfection by-products. Furthermore, the high frequency of detection of atrazine (one of the most extensively used agricultural chemicals in the United States),

^ Depending on the size of the water utiHty, the number of different chemicals monitored and the frequency of chemical testing will vary from city to city.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

153

TABLE 7-36

Water Quality Ranking

Cities Long Beach, New Jersey Ogden, Utah Baton Rouge, Louisiana Columbus, Georgia Jackson, Mississippi Providence, Rhode Island Peoria, Illinois Lafayette, Louisiana Sioux Falls, South Dakota West Palm Beach, Florida Worcester, Massachusetts Birmingham, Alabama Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Reno, Nevada Springfield, lUinois Tacoma, Washington Charleston, South Carolina Denver, Colorado Portland, Oregon Tulsa, Oklahoma Binghamton, New York Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Pueblo, Colorado Grand Rapids, Michigan Savannah, Georgia Phoenix, Arizona Dayton, Ohio Boise, Idaho Washington, D.C. Orlando, Florida Milwaukee, Wisconsin Los Angeles, CaUfomia Fresno, California New York, New York Bakersfield, California San Antonio, Texas

Baseline* Disinfection By-Products

Number of Chemicals above Baseline

Relative** Contaminant Ranking

No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

None None None None None None 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 9 10 11 11 12 17 20 26 26 30 30

1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 10 11 11 12 12

* Reported concentration of total trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids. ** As the rank increases, there is an increasing risk of exposure to a more diverse group of chemicals.

xylenes, and toluene (water-soluble components of gasoline), and tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene (two of the most widely used chlorinated solvents used in the United States) is not unexpected. These data show that almost everyone in the United States who drinks water provided by water utilities consumes a very large number of disinfection

154

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TABLE 7-37

Chemicals Detected Most Frequently in Drinking Water

Synthetic Chemicals Haloacetic acids Total trihalomethanes Chlorodibromomethane Xylenes Atrazine Dichloromethane Trichloroethylene Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Dichloroethylene Chloromethane Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Ethylbenzene Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) Bromochloroacetic acid Bromomethane Carbon tetrachloride Chloropicrin Dichlorobenzene Dichlorodifluoromethane Haloacetonitriles Styrene 2,4-D Haloketones Simazine Trimethylbenzene Acetone Dalapon Dichlorobromomethane Dichloroethane Dichloropropane Ethylene dibromide Dibromochloropropane Phenanthrene Trichloroethane Benzene Butylbenzene Dcpa Di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate Dichloroacetonitrile Dichloropropanone Diquat Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachlorocy lopentadiene Methyl ethyl ketone Methylpentanone (MIBK) Metolachlor Tetrahydrofuran Trichloropropane

Frequency of Detection (%)* 97.2 97.2 33.3 33.3 27.8 27.8 27.8 25 25 19.4 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.1 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6

TABLE 7-37

Continued

Synthetic Chemicals

Frequency of Detection (%)*

Trichloropropanone Trichlorotrifluoroethane Bromochloroacetonitrile Acenaphthene Acenaphthylene Aldicarb sulfone Aldrin Bromoacetic acid Butylbenzylphthalate Bromobenzene Chlorobenzene Propylbenzene Carbon disulfide Chloroacetic acid Chlorodimethylbenzene Chloroethane Diazinon Dibromoacetonitrile Dibromochloroacetic acid Dibromomethane Dieldrin Diethylphthalate Diuron Fluorene Fluorotrichloromethane Indeno( 1,2,3-CD)pyrene Methyl methacrylate Molinate Monochlorobenzene Naphthalene Nitrosodimethylamine Thiobencarb Trichlorobenzene

5.6 5.6 5.6 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8

Trichlorofluoromethane

2.8

* Percentage is based on the number of cities that detected each chemical in their drinking water (1 city = 2.8%).

by-products.^ Many others also have the potential to consume various industrial chemicals, pesticides, and petroleum chemicals. Because of the extent of the chemical contamination illustrated by the data collected for the 36 cities, what alternatives do consumers have if they do not want synthetic chemicals in the water they drink? ^ The EPA estimates that there can be in excess of 100 different disinfection by-products in drinking water. Only nine are routinely monitored for in drinking water.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN DRINKING WATER

157

7.45 CONSUMER ALTERNATIVES Some water utilities that exclusively derive their drinking water from groundwater resources do not disinfect their product with chlorine or bromine. This is also true for many individuals who produce drinking water from their own private wells. For most consumers, however, the water they drink has been disinfected with chlorine or bromine. As a result, most drinking water in the United States is contaminated with a complex mixture of disinfection by-products (as demonstrated by all but one city's monitoring data). This contamination is independent of the same drinking water potentially containing other industrial chemicals, pesticides, petroleum products, and hormones/pharmaceuticals. For consumers who wish not to partake of this complex mixture of synthetic chemicals, there are several alternatives.

7.45.1

Drink Bottled Water Derived from a Protected Source The first and best alternative is to drink a bottled water that is derived from a truly protected source. Many providers of bottled water advertise a protected source, yet there is no governmental oversight that regulates these claims. In general, consumers should just avoid any bottled water that either (1) does not make any claims of a protected source or (2) simply claims to be spring, artisan, or mountain water without a detailed explanation (this information is usually available from the provider's website). The reason this is the first and best alternative is that drinking water can and does contain unregulated chemicals, hormones, and pharmaceuticals (i.e., water utilities only test for a minuscule number of synthetic chemicals of the tens of thousands of synthetic organic chemicals used in the United States today), and treating drinking water does not remove all the chemicals of concern (e.g., see the Fresno and Bakersfield data). Bottled water is, however, not always free of contaminants. If a bottled water does not come from a protected source (either a highmountain/wildemess area or a deep protected groundwater aquifer), it may contain contaminants. It is also possible that the handling of the product may also introduce contaminants. For example, a study by the Natural Resources Defense Counsel found that one third of the 103 brands of bottled water tested contained elevated levels of bacteria, inorganic chemicals, or organic chemicals. In this study, the specific chemicals that were tested for varied widely between laboratories. However, in general these researchers looked for chemicals with established primary drinking water standards. The chemicals found in bottled water included acetone, butylbenzene, chlorotoluene, dichloroethane, ethylbenzene, isopropyltoluene, methylene chloride, styrene, trichloroethylene, toluene, and xylene. Most of these compounds were also found in the drinking water of the cities we evaluated. The Natural Resources Defense Counsel report

158

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concluded that bottled water was not necessarily safer than tap water. Clearly, one reason for contaminants in bottled water is that both government and industry estimate that between 25% and as high as 40% of all bottled water is actually tap water. This means that the buyer must do some minimal homework to determine which bottled water offered in their region of the United States provides the best possible product at a cost they are willing to pay. It is also important to note that the bottled water industry has not established the concentration of water-soluble contaminants that occur in their products from plastic bottles. Currently, FDA regulations require that these plastics do not produce a chloroform-soluble extract value greater than 0.5 mg/in^ of plastic for distilled water with a contact time of 2 hours at 250 °F. Thus, a prudent consumer would purchase water in glass bottles; if plastic containers cannot be avoided, the consumer should use a disposal carbon filter that is specifically designed for plastic bottles.^' Here are some general guidelines for selecting a bottled water whose product has the least probability of containing chemical pollutants: • Do not drink bottled water whose source is from a "community" or "municipal" water utility. • Do not drink bottled water whose source is from an artesian well, spring, or groundwater well unless it can be determined from the provider that the source water originates from a deep aquifer and that the landscape of the recharge zone is dominated by wilderness or a land use having a minimum of human development.^^ An example of a water source that originates from a deep aquifer and wilderness landscape would be the bottled water sold by Mountain Valley in Arkansas. Another example would be Voss, which comes from glacial meltwater and is sold in a glass bottle. Drinking bottled water that is not contaminated is one step toward limiting a person's exposure to pollutants. However, for those individuals who wish to minimize their exposure and their family's exposure to chemical pollutants in their household water, the only real alternative is to treat the water prior to its consumption in the home.

^^ If a carbon filter is used, the consumer should make sure that the manufacturer's recommendations on the volume of water that can be treated per filter are followed. ^^ The recharge zone is the area at the earth's surface where surface water (i.e., rivers, lakes, rainfall) infiltrates through the soil and percolates downward until it flows into or "recharges" an aquifer. The longer the travel time of the water (i.e., the time between recharge and the water's exit at the spring), the better.

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159

7.45.2

Treat Household Water The only remaining alternative to is to treat household water to remove disinfection by-products and any additional chemicals that my be in a source of drinking water. When treating drinking water, consumers have two basic choices. Home purification systems fall into two broad categories: point-of-use systems and point-of-entry systems. A point-of-use system is installed at the location of the water's use, while a point-of-entry system is installed to treat all water entering the house. Since point-of-use systems only provide a means of supplying chemically pure water to one location in a household, they are not universally recommended as they do not treat shower or bath water, dishwasher water, or water used for the washing machine. However, if space limitations or economic considerations do not allow the use of a point-of-entry system, a point-of-use system can be used. Although there are various methods of removing pollutants from water, the two most commonly used techniques employed by in-home water treatment systems are reverse osmosis (RO) and granulated activated carbon (GAC). RO technologies use fine, porous membranes to separate inorganic and organic chemicals from water. These units are effective at removing dissolved salts, suspended matter, and a wide variety of dissolved organic chemicals as well as bacteria and viruses. GAC filters can reduce chlorine, many man-made synthetic chemicals, some radiological constituents, fluoride, radon, and some metals. Depending on the odor, taste, bacterial levels, chlorine, or chloramine levels, and the amount of suspended sediment in a water, there are additional treatment methods that can be employed. The number and type of water treatment methods needed to provide a pure, good-tasting water depend largely on the source of the water supply. Water from a community water supply will usually require less treatment than water from a private well. This means that each consumer should consult with a local provider of water treatment equipment and services to determine what basic water treatment methods need to be used to maximize contaminant removal. Those who want a simple solution with the lowest economic cost (and who realize that this simple solution may be inadequate but is better than nothing) can install a point-of-use GAC filter at their primary drinking water tap. It is important to follow the manufacturer's recommended schedule for changing GAC filters. Consumers who install point-of-entry systems also assume the responsibility for maintaining them. Failure to do so will result in either decreased pollutant removal efficiency or no pollutant removal at all. Home owners who do not want to assume these very important responsibilities should engage a water purification service company to provide routine monitoring surveillance and maintenance activities.

160

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8

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN AIR

Air pollution does not recognize political boundaries, nor does exposure to toxic chemicals necessarily occur near their source of release. The inherent complexity of the atmosphere and the difficulty of monitoring and assessing chemical exposures require the close cooperation of federal, state, and regional air pollution agencies to control air toxins. Because of these complexities, emissions of toxic compounds to the atmosphere from stationary sources (e.g., industries and disposal sites) are controlled by placing limits on the amount of specific chemicals that can be released to the atmosphere and then requiring the discharger to report their releases. Thus, toxic emissions are controlled but they are not eliminated. This means that although the air that surrounds us appears to be "crystal clear" (except in those instances when smog is apparent), our air resources actually contains chemical mixtures. Considering that each individual takes in approximately 3400 gallons of air every day, the pollutant content and chemical diversity of the hazardous compounds in the air we breathe should be a primary concern.

8.1

HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS As discussed in previous chapters, the United States uses or manufactures about 72,000 chemicals. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified 188 of these chemicals as hazardous (Appendix 8-1). The EPA has placed emission limits on these 188 hazardous chemicals and requires that industry report the amount each facility releases. Some of these chemicals can also be

161

released from mobile sources (automobiles, boats, lawnmowers, aircraft, etc.) as well as from small businesses (e.g., vapors from service stations, exhaust from wood-burning heaters, vapors from dry cleaning or spray painting operations). Given these multiple sources, the EPA monitors and tracks toxic air emissions under the National Air Toxics Control Program, which was implemented in 1990. Under this program, state air pollution control agencies actually determine the concentration of selected hazardous chemicals in the environment through 264 state-maintained monitoring stations. This program focuses on monitoring 33 urban hazardous air pollutants that represent the most hazardous threat to public health in urban environments. In addition to air monitoring, this program also tracks the amount of hazardous air emissions released by industrial sources using the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI). The TRI program compiles air pollution discharges specifically from industrial sources. The TRI program dates back to 1988 and has been refined over time to include more chemicals, bringing today's total to 188. It should also be noted that, just like for food and water, numerous other chemicals occur in air emissions that are not reported. Since 1994, federal facilities have had to report their releases as part of the program. Industry and federal facilities present these data to the EPA on an annual basis (this information is often based on industry estimates regarding both the composition of and the amount of each chemical released). Once compiled, these data are made available to the public on the EPA TRI website. In any given conmiunity, there can be multiple sources of specific chemicals being discharged from stationary industrial facilities. This is illustrated using data collected by the EPA on four common air contaminants. For example, four common chemical sources are given for tetrachloroethylene, ethylene oxide, benzene, and acetaldehyde (Tables 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, and 8-4). This type of information is available for all 188 hazardous chemicals. Clearly, these data demonstrate that the greater the number of source areas in a community, the greater the diversity of chemicals discharged into the air.

TABLE 8-1

Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Emissions (1999)

Source Halogenated solvent cleaners Dry cleaning Consumer and commercial products Municipal landfills Other categories

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Percentage 11 63 12 2 12

TABLE 8-2

Ethylene Oxide Emissions (1999) Percentage

Source Consumer and commercial product use Hospital sterilizers Commercial sterilization facilities Organic chemical production Pharmaceuticals production Cellulose products manufacturing Industrial gases Miscellaneous organic chemicals manufacturing Other categories

TABLE 8-3

Benzene Emissions (1999)

Source

Percentage

Mobile on road Mobile nonroad Open burning Residential wood burning Oil and natural gas production Gasoline distribution Other categories

TABLE 8-4

49 19 14 6 2 1 9

Acetaldehyde Emissions (1999)

Source

Percentage

Mobile on road Mobile nonroad Open burning Residential wood heating Pulp and paper production Other categories

8.2

34 26 11 4 4 2 2 2 15

32 26 19 3 7 13

DATA SOURCE AND LIMITATIONS The purpose in this study of evaluating toxic releases to air is to define the chemical mixtures to which a community may be exposed. Because of this objective, the actual chemical monitoring data on the 33 hazardous air pollutants collected by various states around the nation were not used because the number of chemicals included in this program is so Hmited. Thus, to evaluate the chemical diversity of air contaminants in a given city, the data available from the TRI were used. This database, however, also has some limitations. First of all, virtually all nongovernment releases are most often based on estimates rather than on direct measurements. Furthermore, there is no way to

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN AIR

163

verify the quality of self-reported industrial discharges. The problem with industrial discharge estimates is typical of the problems encountered by Thermatrix Corporation located in Santa Clara County, CaUfomia. During the 1990s, Thermatrix manufactured thermal oxidizers that were specifically designed to destroy complex organic chemical emissions from industrial sources. Unfortunately for Thermatrix, units that were designed using plant-specific information failed to operate properly because the industries' reported emissions were underestimated. It should also be remembered that the TRI database does not have any data on mobile source emissions or emissions from small business. Given these limitations, the TRI data should only be considered qualitative and viewed with caution. For example, the EPA explains the basis for its data reporting through the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) program as follows: Users of TRI information should be aware that TRI data reflect releases and other waste management activities of chemicals, not whether (or to what degree) the public has been exposed to those chemicals. Release estimates alone are not sufficient to determine exposure or to calculate potential adverse effects on human health and the environment. TRI data, in conjunction with other information, can be used as a starting point in evaluating exposures that may result from releases and other waste management activities which involve toxic chemicals. The determination of potential risk depends upon many factors, including the toxicity of the chemical, the fate of the chemical, and the amount and duration of human or other exposure to the chemical after it is released. These data, however, do indicate the chemical mixtures to which a community is exposed.

8.3

TOXIC CHEMICAL RELEASES BY CITY The toxic chemical emissions for each of the 36 cities were compiled for 1996 through 2001. All facilities reporting toxic emissions within a 5-mile radius of each city were included in this evaluation. Of the 36 cities, only one had no reported toxic air emissions. That city was Long Beach, New Jersey. This result was not surprising because this is a resort city located on a small island off the New Jersey coast. Other cities were not as fortunate. A summary of toxic air emissions for each city can be found in the following appendixes: Appendix 8-2 for Bakersfield, California Appendix 8-3 for Baton Rouge, Louisiana Appendix 8-4 for Binghamton, New York

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Append IX 5 for Birmingham, Alabama Appendix8- 6 for Boise, Idaho Appendix8 7 for Charleston, South Carolina Append1x8- 8 for Columbus, Georgia Appendix8- 9 for Dayton, Ohio 0 for Denver, Colorado Appendix 1 for Fresno, California Append 2 for Grand Rapids, Michigan Appendix Append IX 8- 3 for Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Append ix8- 4 for Jackson, Missouri Append1x8- 5 for Lafayette, Louisiana Appendix8- 6 for Los Angeles, California Append ix8- 7 for Milwaukee, Wisconsin Appendix 8 for New York, New York Append ix8- 9 for Ogden, Utah Append ix8- 20 for Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Append ix8- 21 for Orlando, Florida Append ix8- 22 for Peoria, Illinois Appendix8- 23 for Phoenix, Arizona Appendix8- 24 for Portland, Oregon Appendix8- 25 for Providence, Rhode Island Appendix 26 for Pueblo, Colorado Append ix8 27 for Reno, Nevada Append1x8- 28 for San Antonio, Texas Appendix8- 29 for Savannah, Georgia Appendix8- 30 for Sioux Falls, South Dakota Appendix 31 for Springfield, Illinois Appendix 32 for Tacoma, Washington Appendix8- 33 for Tulsa, Oklahoma Appendix 34 for Washington, D.C. Appendix 35 for West Palm Beach, Florida Append IX 8-36 for Worcester, Massachusetts

By reviewing the data in these appendixes, the extent to which each community may be impacted by complex mixtures is directly related to the number of individual chemicals released. Thus, each city has been ranked according to the number of individual chemicals reported for each city. This ranking is provided in Table 8-5 and illustrated in Figure 8-1. Based on the TRI database, Washington, D.C, ranks as having the least number of reported chemicals in its air for those cities having industries reporting emissions. The other top tier (or best cities) having the least number of chemical mixtures are Binghamton, New York City, and Lafayette. Among the cities with the greatest number of different chemicals are Baton Rouge, Los Angeles, Birmingham, Portland, and Denver.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN AIR

165

TABLE 8-5

Air Contaminant Ranking

City Long Beach Washington Binghamton New York Lafayette Harrisburg Reno Sioux Falls Worcester Fresno West Palm Beach Boise Peoria Pueblo Ogden Bakersfield Orlando Jackson Springfield Oklahoma City Providence San Antonio Grand Rapids Savannah Tacoma Columbus Tulsa Milwaukee Phoenix Charleston Dayton Denver Portland Birmingham Los Angeles Baton Rouge

Number of Different Chemicals

Relative Rank

0 1 2 3 4 8 9 9 12 13 13 14 14 15 18 22 23 24 26 27 29 29 33 34 37 39 40 41 41 42 43 45 45 47 51 108

1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 12

Although this might come as a surprise, these results parallel the lack of manufacturing in the core areas of the best cities. Generally, one does not find concentrated manufacturing activity in the center of major cities composed of dense residential and white-collar commercial land use (e.g., Washington, D.C., and New York City). On the other hand, cities with dense urban areas like Los Angeles do have large pockets of industrial areas surrounded by residential and commercial land use. Baton Rouge, on the other hand, simply has a large number of chemical and petroleum facilities located within the area.

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Looking at each city in terms of just how much total organic pollutant emissions (in pounds per year) are released to the atmosphere reveals patterns similar to the number of pollutants identified. Release rankings by city are found in Table 8-6. These rankings show the total pounds of pollutants released between 1996 and 2001. On a weight basis it should come as no surprise that Washington shows the least pounds of chemicals released. New York and Binghamton also have low releases. However, a different pattern appears when

TABLE 8-6

Ranking of Toxic Chemical Releases to the Atmosphere

City Long Beach/Asbury Park, NJ Washington, D.C. New York, NY Binghamton, NY Lafayette, LA West Palm Beach, FL Harrisburg, PA Pueblo, CO Ogden, UT Fresno, CA Bakersfield, CA Worcester, MA Boise, ID Columbus, GA Jackson, MS Sioux Falls, SD Los Angeles, CA Denver, CO Reno, NV Providence, RI San Antonio, TX Springfield, MO Dayton, OH Peoria, IL Tulsa, OK Orlando, FL Milwaukee, WI Oklahoma City, OK Phoenix, AZ Portland, OR Tacoma, WA Birmingham, AL Grand Rapids, MI Savannah, GA Charleston, SC Baton Rouge, LA

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TOXIC LEGACY

Pounds Released 1996-2001 0 0.2 8 90 4556 117,401 179,541 183,246 309,813 580,224 662,469 886,540 1,027,187 1,379,532 1,536,094 1,773,877 2,444,398 2,555,455 2,593,630 2,883,357 2,996,834 3,294,011 3,539,301 3,566,512 5,173,647 5,824,689 6,545,885 7,070,523 7,179,764 7,467,609 8,093,819 11,270,988 14,835,516 17,878,197 19,943,561 32,051,286

Ranked Minimum to Maximum 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

reviewing the largest contributors of chemicals to the atmosphere This list includes Baton Rouge, Charleston, Savannah, Grand Rapids, Birmingham, and Tacoma. One can conclude that although there is a close correlation between the number of chemicals and pounds of chemicals among the least polluted cities, such a correlation does not necessarily exist within the dirtiest cities. The only cities with the largest releases and largest number of chemicals are Baton Rouge and Birmingham. By way of prospective, Table 8-7 shows the total pounds of toxic air pollutants discharged by year and in total during 1996 through 2001 by each city. At the "quality" end of the scale, Washington released only 0.2 pounds of toxic pollutants in the 6-year period, while Baton Rouge released more than 32 million pounds of organic toxic pollutants. When looking across all the cities in the United States, the most frequently detected chemicals (i.e., the number of cities where the chemical was discharged) are summarized in Table 8-8. Chemicals such as xylene, glycol ethers, ethyl benzene, methanol, methyl ethyl ketone, styrene, and toluene are most prominent. The frequency of occurrence is found in Table 8-8. The highest reported frequency values were for xylenes (86%), toluene (81%), and glycol ethers (81%). Based on the TRI data, this would be the most common mixture of chemicals individuals could be exposed to due to industrial releases. When looking at the actual monitoring data collected around the United States, many of the most frequently reported chemicals that were released (Table 8-8) are also detected by over a quarter of the urban monitoring locations (Table 8-9). For example, the most common compounds are the singlering aromatics like toluene, xylene, benzene, and styrene. This is significant, because this includes all sources that would be monitored. Therefore, this suggests that in many urban areas, individuals are exposed primarily to the singlering aromatic compounds. The concentration, however, would appear to be decreasing.

8.4

CONCENTRATION TRENDS Based on a review of the total amount of organic toxic pollutants released by all the cities in the study, on a year-to-year basis, one can conclude that significant gains have been made in reducing toxic emissions to the atmosphere (Table 8-10). This table shows that each year there has been a reduction in total emissions. As a result, there was an overall reduction of 42%. When looking at all of the available data and based on the fact that both benzene and toluene appear prominently in the TRI and monitoring databases, a review of the reported data was made to determine if there were reductions in the discharges of these chemicals over the 6-year study period. The results of this analysis are summarized in Table 8-11 for benzene and Table 8-12 for toluene. In both cases there have been considerable reductions.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN AIR

169

TABLE 8-7

Total Pounds of Toxic Air Pollutants Discharged

City Bakersfield, CA Baton Rouge, LA Binghamton, NY Birmingham, AL Boise, ID Charleston, SC Columbus, GA Dayton, OH Denver, CO Fresno, CA Grand Rapids, MI Harrisburg, PA Jackson, MS Lafayette, LA Long Beach/ Asbury Park, NJ Los Angeles, CA Milwaukee, WI New York, NY Ogden, UT Oklahoma City, OK Orlando, FL Peoria, IL Phoenix, AZ Portland, OR Providence, RI Pueblo, CO Reno, NV San Antonio, TX Savannah, GA Sioux Falls, SD Springfield, MO Tacoma, WA Tulsa, OK Washington, D.C. West Palm Beach, FL Worcester, MA Total

1996

1997

1998

1999

90,913 5,535,130

100,054 5,177,948

272,591 5,965,773

67,422 5,423,043

68,067 5,390,553

63,422 4,558,839

662,469 32,051,286

10 1,882,540 18,508 4,394,446 564,117 1,344,321 638,323 63,623 3,411,470

0 2,102,089 75,303 3,723,656 326,465 609,517 539,395 61,785 3,069,578

0 2,073,151 257,556 3,114,007 166,683 579,138 467,011 206,012 3,423,973

20 1,963,761 242,266 3,245,741 124,289 487,775 375,988 130,612 2,194,909

20 1,914,295 243,434 2,952,239 120,028 270,658 271,085 70,095 2,006,523

10 1,335,152 190,120 2,513,472 78,273 247,892 263,654 48,097 729,063

60 11,270,988 1,027,187 19,943,561 1,379,855 3,539,301 2,555,456 580,224 14,835,516

59,710 301,786 2053 0

30,181 143,966 2280 0

79,025 70,696 223 0

3747 541,671 0 0

3501 210,638 0 0

3377 267,337 0 0

179,541 1,536,094 4556 0

795,466 1,014,831 0 45,046 1,321,135

565,160 1,037,842 0 60,705 1,329,945

395,551 1,121,479 0 59,449 1,328,225

228,100 968,997 0 52,321 1,245,288

238,652 661,729 1 43,232 1,417,046

221,469 592,672 6 49,060 428,884

2,444,398 5,397,550 7 309,813 7,070,523

972,063 116,047 1,059,090 1,804,543 948,924 75,900 324,288 738,217 2,967,969 346,783 933,582 1,498,447 1,059,164 0 28,718

879,420 172,301 1,713,149 1,467,299 700,987 45,000 649,197 914,562 3,649,565 303,341 1,023,915 1,737,870 1,072,419 0 24,567

832,059 158,058 1,179,588 1,290,996 324,105 21,188 576,430 428,141 3,330,116 373,487 218,775 1,461,725 1,091,760 0 13,398

1,208,543 1,156,127 1,146,309 1,314,142 351,714 15,745 478,460 358,133 2,599,317 273,061 475,468 1,248,572 592,118 0 14,603

1,146,609 1,269,796 1,127,504 920,127 328,833 10,654 329,906 287,030 2,883,264 265,083 373,992 1,079,504 925,806 0.1 13,214

785,995 694,184 954,124 670,502 228,794 14,758 235,349 270,751 2,447,955 212,122 268,279 1,067,701 432,381 0.1 22,901

5,824,689 3,566,513 7,179,764 7,467,609 2,883,357 183,245 2,593,630 2,996,834 17,878,186 1,773,877 3,294,011 8,093,819 5,173,648 0.2 117,401

148,543 34,505,706

174,634 33,484,095

180,455 31,060,824

182,161 28,710,423

152,476 26,995,594

48,281 19,944,876

886,550 174,701,518

2000

2001

Total

TABLE 8-8

Frequency of Occurence of Air Contaminants

Air Contaminant

Number of Cities with Detected Contaminant

Frequency of Occurrence

31 29 29 27 27 25 25 24 24 24 24 22 21 21 21 20 20 19 19 18

86 81 81 35 75 69 69 66 66 66 66 61 58 58 58 55 55 53 53 50

Xylenes Toluene Glycol ethers Ethylbenzene Methyl ethyl ketone Methanol Styrene Ethylene glycol Methyl isobutyl ketone PAHs Trimethylbenzene Hexane Benzene Butyl alcohol Dioxins Dichloromethane Trichloroethylene Napthalene Methyl pyrrolidone Diisocyanates

TABLE 8-9

Organic Pollutant Frequency of Occurrence in Urban Areas Percentage*

Pollutant Benzene Toluene Perchloroethylene Chloroform Methylene chloride Trichloroethylene 1,3-Butadiene Styrene Ethylene dichloride Carbon tetrachloride Vinyl chloride

31 30 28 28 27 25 23 22 21 21 20

* Percentage of monitoring sites with detected levels of pollutant.

TABLE 8-10

Comparison of Total Pollutants Discharged Year to Year

Year

Total Pounds

Delta

Percentage Change

Overall Reduction

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

34,505,706 33,484,095 31,060,824 28,710,423 26,995,594 19,944,876

1,154,007 2,423,271 2,350,401 1,714,829 7,050,718

3.34 7.24 7.57 5.97 26.1

42.2%

TABLE 8-11

Total Pounds of Benzene Discharged

City Bakersfield, CA Baton Rouge, LA Binghamton, NY Birmingham, AL Boise, ID Charleston, SC Columbus, GA Dayton, OH Denver, CO Fresno, CA Grand Rapids, MI Harrisburg, PA Jackson, MS Lafayette, LA Long Beach/Asbury Park, NJ Los Angeles, CA Milwaukee, WI New York, NY Ogden, UT Oklahoma City, OK Orlando, FL Peoria, IL Phoenix, AZ Portland, OR Providence, RI Pueblo, CO Reno, NV San Antonio, TX Savannah, GA Sioux Falls, SD Springfield, MO Tacoma, WA Tulsa, OK Washington, D.C. West Palm Beach, FL Worcester, MA Total Percentage reduction

1996

1997

4969 167,329 0 26,412 0 117,000 0 260 15,421 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 54,414 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 5976 0 0 0 0 0 0 845 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 296 0 0 180 6354 0 0 0 310 1262 0 0 9132 22,034 0 500 0 371,459

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 54,414

0 714 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2319 3579 0 0 604 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14,037

1998

2000

2001

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 33,210 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2760 81,947 0 63,419 12,706 17,233 0 1770 7793 0 0 608 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 2569 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 0 3069

0 0 0 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33,710

0 330 0 0 0 0 790 2199 23,206 3670 3122 0 3966 0 0 0 3301 20,210 0 0 0 249,030

1999

Gain/loss 2001-1996

-122,429 32.60%

TABLE 8-12

Total Pounds of Toluene Discharged

City

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Bakersfield, CA Baton Rouge, LA Binghamton, NY Birmingham, AL Boise, ID Charleston, SC Columbus, GA Dayton, OH Denver, CO Fresno, CA Grand Rapids, MI Harrisburg, PA Jackson, MS Lafayette, LA Long Beach/Asbury Park, NJ Los Angeles, CA Milwaukee, WI New York, NY Ogden, UT Oklahoma City, OK Orlando, FL Peoria, IL Phoenix, AZ Portland, OR Providence, RI Pueblo, CO Reno, NV San Antonio, TX Savannah, GA Sioux Falls, SD Springfield, MO Tacoma, WA Tulsa, OK Washington, D.C. West Palm Beach, FL Worcester, MA Total Percentage reduction

7097 214,972 0 133,356

6319 156,351 0 208,739

50,577

49,626

4087 183,385 0 324,172 8616 45,583

3410 135,021 0 153,448 7874 66,715

18,695 166,106 0 684,479

13,268 114,103 0 710,915

46,307 571 0

3557 850 0

27,734 106,039 0 673,151 1276 4791 0 0

32,320 92,085 0 554,538 1173 4902 0 0

3847 147,976 0 180,527 5299 56,142 138 23,615 79,824 0 334,713 1097 5548 0 0

4464 166,446 0 229,521 15,840 13,986 137 26,388 73,296 0 67,188 1022 7728 0 0

131,115 14,604 0 20,893 52,695 6330 10,700 66,285 316,916 647,565 12,000 299,324 249,387 274,912 27,476 324,558 105,410 174,008 0 500 18,062 4,074,900

108,564 13,077 0 22,032 46,198 3030 12,350 78,135 235,601 438,851 12,000 619,855 278,627 331,320 0 371,245 114,875 225,655 0 0 23,727 4,198,870

61,525 73,976 0 0 52,473 21,131 8856 59,045 210,703 51,756 284 555,859 186,937 308,047 0 44,240 43,880 265,315 0 500 20,655 3,344,016

49,823 79,875 0 96 0 18,176 5076 50,102 207,564 65,830 284 471,286 116,380 290,965 0 139,110 42,071 134,009 0 500 21,277 2,743,910

66,901 76,726 0 0 81,403 3426 0 47,547 88,852 86,815 282 319,721 73,339 294,885 17,967 137,280 75,741 198,747 0 0 15,085 2,423,443

49,307 68,812 0 0 26,097 2310 0 46,892 53,781 47,175 0 235,337 51,916 282,785 25,994 129,892 72,148 86,103 0 0 3474 1,788,039

Gain/Loss 2001-1996

-2,286,861 56.10%

8.5 THE OCCURRENCE OF SINGLE-RING AROMATICS Virtually all databases support the observation that toxic chemicals such as the single-ring aromatics (i.e., benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, styrene, and xylene) and chlorinated solvents (i.e., trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene) are pervasive across the 35 reporting cities. There is merit in examining just why there is such of a preponderance of these chemicals being released into the atmosphere. Among the most common chemicals are the BTEX (benzene toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene) compounds. The sources, manufacturing, and uses of these chemicals shed light on just why they appear in so many air emissions. Benzene is a colorless liquid that evaporates very quickly. Benzene ranks in the top 20 chemicals produced for production of other chemicals. Benzene is employed in the manufacture of plastics, resins, synthetic fibers, rubber, lubricants, dyes, detergents, drugs, styrene, phenol, and pesticides. Some of the specific chemicals produced from benzene include ethylbenzene, cumene cyclohexane, chlorobenzene, and nitrobenzene. The annual production of benzene is in excess of 3 billion gallons. Not to be overlooked, benzene also occurs naturally with sources being volcanoes, forest fires, and cigarette smoke. It is therefore no surprise that benzene is so often found in the air. Similar to benzene, toluene is also a liquid and has found many uses including the production of polyurethanes, solvents, gasoline, and explosives. The annual production capacity approaches 2 billion gallons. To add further prospective, it is estimated that there are in excess of 3000 facilities that produce or process toluene in the United States. Every state where we have identified one of our study cities has at least two (Nevada) or more (208 in Texas) plants producing or processing toluene. Produced from benzene, ethylbenzene has many uses including being a precursor in the production of styrene. In fact, the major use of ethylbenzene is for the manufacture of styrene, taking up about 90% of the total ethylbenzene production. Additional uses of this chemical include incorporation into asphalt and naphtha. Ethylbenzene is also found in fuels. The chemical is also produced in each of the states where we have identified study cities. The estimated annual production volume is in excess of 12 billion pounds. Xylene, another of the BTEX compounds, is also produced in high volume; is incorporated into most pesticides, weed killers, and insecticides; and is a common component of petroleum fuels. Xylenes are also used in the manufacture of dyes as well as other organic chemicals.

8.6 CONCLUSIONS The massive amount of available data relative to each study city has been tabulated, discussed, and analyzed. Based on this summary, the following conclusions can be made:

174

TOXIC LEGACY

1. The EPA has been reporting information, city by city, in its TRI program; however, as stated eariier, the information is quaUtative not quantitative. 2. The greater the industrial base in any given city, the greater the number and quantity of chemicals released to the air environment. 3. On an overall basis, chemicals such as the single-ring aromatics group (e.g., the BTEX compounds) as well as trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene are common to most if not all cities. 4. Multiple chemical releases are reported for most of the cities. 5. The actual exposure to the TRI chemicals cannot be directly correlated to the reported releases. 6. The ranking of the study cities, best to worst, does represent a reasonable "safety guide." 7. The comparison of the amount of chemicals released between 1996 and 2001 demonstrates significant gains in the reduction of air toxic releases across the spectrum of the cities in this study. Wider-reaching studies demonstrate that this trend (reduction in air pollutant discharges) has been ongoing since the 1970s and continued through 2004. It is clear that many different chemicals are routinely discharged to the atmosphere and that in certain locations the amounts discharged appear to be large. However, these data do show that in the face of population increases and continued economic growth, there has been a substantial improvement in air quality across the 36-city study as well as across the nation. This demonstrates that federal and state air quality control programs are having a positive effect on reducing air pollution.

SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN AIR

175

TOXICITY AND SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL MIXTURES

So why are we worried about the presence of synthetic chemical mixtures in our food, water, and air? In short, the reasons have to do with our current health, our future health, and the health of future generations. While the types of reactions that are possible from exposure to chemicals are varied and complex, the primary reasons for evaluating chemicals in food, water, and air are simple: 1. Toxicological and epidemiological data have clearly demonstrated that the presence of synthetic chemicals in food, water, and air result in adverse health effects and will be a significant driver in health care costs. 2. Federal and state legislation requiring that food and water be unadulterated. 3. Exposures in the real world are not "neat," therefore the basis for the previous toxicological studies (and the predicted public health outcomes) are limited in their ability to predict disease outcomes in the general population. 4. The toxic outcome (e.g., cancer in a specific organ) becomes less specific with exposure to more toxins (i.e., a greater number of cancers will occur that are less specific to any one contaminant). 5. Exposure to toxins early in the development of a biological system causes irreversible damage that is expressed later. Given these reasons, it is important to understand how individual synthetic chemicals and mixtures of synthetic chemicals in the environment can have such a far-reaching impact on our lives.

177

For example, for individuals with compromised immune systems, exposure to chemicals in our environment can lead to serious consequences (e.g., increased incidence of allergic reactions, inamuno-suppression, and autoimmunity). For women of childbearing age or those who will be of childbearing age exposure to synthetic compounds in the environment can impact their immediate and future health as well as affect their potential to have children or to alter the development of their children. Exposure to trihalomethanes (disinfection by-products in drinking water) can result in fetotoxicity including miscarriage/spontaneous abortion, and/or stillbirths. Males are also not immune to the reproductive disorders. Exposure of men to dibromochloropropane (DBCP) (involved in applying or formulating the pesticide) resulted in sterility. Children may develop hyperactivity. Attention Deficit Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, decreased IQ, mental retardation, and developmental delays following exposure to poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) as well as chloracne, cirrhosis of the liver, and cancer. The cumulative effects of exposure to all of these compounds simultaneously have yet to be comprehensively studied, nor do toxicologists know which chemical mixtures that contaminate the environment should be studied. This major shortcoming emphasizes the need to appreciate how single chemical toxicity influences human health.

9.1 SINGLE CHEMICAL TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS While Paracelsus (1493-1541) is generally credited with the adage "All substances are poisons; there is none that is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy," it is Mathieu Orfila who is generally considered to be the father of modem toxicology, since he was the first to write about it in 1813 in his Trait des Poisons, also called Toxicologic Generate. Orfila, who was renowed in courts across Europe for his expertise in the toxicity of arsenic, the poison of choice during the 1800s, moved toxicology as a forensic science forward. Modem toxicology is an applied science that is coupled with biological sciences (physiology, biochemistry, pathology, pharmacology, and chemistry), medical sciences (general medicine, occupational medicine, and pathology), and public health (environmental sciences, epidemiology, and biostatistics) to determine a cause-and-effect relationship between exposure to chemicals and health outcomes. Since Orfila's time, toxicology has moved away from death as the only adverse health outcome to an understanding that the "sentinel" events at a cellular level ultimately lead to adverse health outcomes. For example, halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., methyl chloride, vinyl chloride, trichloroethylene, and perchloroethylene), commonly used as solvents, aerosol propellants, chemical intermediates, refrigerants, and dry cleaning agents, suppress the central nervous system resulting in anesthetic properties. Exposure to halogenated hydrocarbons can lead to altered mental states

178

TOXIC LEGACY

F FIGURE 9-1 Chemical structure of halothane.

(vapor/fume intoxication), tremors, blurred vision, nausea, and speech difficulties. Longer-term health effects such as Central Nervous System depression, liver and kidney damage, cardiac arrythmias, cardiac arrest, cancer, or death are possible since the detoxification process for halogenated hydrocarbons may result in the activation of toxic by-products. An example of the signficant toxicity of halogenated hydrocarbons is demonstrated in 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1 -trifluoroethane. Halothane (2-bromo-2chloro-l,l,l-trifluoroethane) is a general anaesthetic delivered via inhalation that is still used in veterinary medicine and outside the United States because its is relatively inexpensive. Once widely used as a general anaesthetic, it has largely been replaced by sevoflurane and desflurane because of its toxicity. Figure 9-1 provides a diagram of the structure of halothane. Multiple exposures to halothane increase the risk of developing two types of liver damage. Type I hepatotoxicity is benign and self-limiting. Type I hepatotoxicity is relatively common (up to 25% to 30% incidence) and characterized by mild, transient increases in serum transaminase and glutathione ^-transferase concentrations and by altered postoperative drug metabolism. It is assumed that Type I results from reductive (anaerobic) biotransformation of halothane rather than the normal oxidative pathway. Type II hepatotoxicity is characterized by massive centrilobular liver cell necrosis that leads to fulminant liver failure. Clinical features of Type II hepatotoxicity include fever, jaundice, and grossly elevated serum transaminase levels. Type II hepatotoxicity is immune mediated and is initiated by oxidative halothane metabolism to an intermediate compound. This intermediate compound then binds to trifluoroacetylate proteins in the hepatic endoplasmic reticulum. Halothane can also cause malignant hyperthermia. The understanding that the cellular necrosis is the sentinel event leading to liver failure, and ultimately the death of the individual with exposure to halothane, has resulted in the minimization of the use of the compound. Other halogenated compounds, such as PCE, TCE, and vinyl chloride, are more ubiquitous in the environment and are likely to follow similar detoxification pathways. Figure 9-2 provides a clear example of how dexotification may end up leading to activation of a chemical in the body. Occupational medicine predates modem toxicology and is a significant contributor to our understanding of the adverse health effects from exposure to chemicals. Bernardino Ramazzini first described systematically occupational

TOXICITY AND SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL MIXTURES

179

CI

GST pathway

TCE Oxidative metabolism

"^ Cytochrome \ P450 CH ALDH

TCA

ci^c ADH (Cytochrome P450?)

TCOH

p, OH

Cl^CCH^OH

Activation

Detoxification

0 11 CljCCHjO-gJujc

DCA FIGURE 9-2

TCOH glucuronide Metabolic pathways for detoxification and activation of TCE.

diseases according to their causes in the 17th century.^ In 1700, Ramazzini published the first edition of his most famous book, De Morbis Artificum Diatriba (Diseases of Workers), the first comprehensive work on occupational diseases, outlining the health hazards of irritating chemicals, dust, metals, and other abrasive agents encountered by workers in 52 occupations. De Morbis is based on Ramizzini's personal interviews of workers to discuss their illnesses, observations of their workplaces and activities, and in-depth analyses of the problems. Ramizzini was the first to report blindness in sewage workers and postulated that the effects were due to the continual exposure of workers to ammonia vapors present in the sewers. Ramizzini was unique in his assessments in that he also offered remedies for the health hazards.

9.2 CAUSATION OF DISEASES: EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Assigning a causal relationship to chemical exposures is a complex process that is fraught with uncertainty. Epidemiological data from occupational exposures and public health studies of affected communities (affected by synthetic chem^ Ramazzini B. 1700. De Morbis Artificum Diatribe. (Mutinae: Typis Antonii Capponi.)

180

TOXIC LEGACY

ical releases) provide clear evidence that adverse health effects do occur following exposure to synthetic chemicals. What is less clear is the number of diseases/adverse health effects that may be expressed in a community. Communities such as Wobum, Massachusetts, Seviso, Italy, Minamata, Japan, and Times Beach, Missouri, provide clear evidence that multiple disease expressions are likely from chemical mixtures. Table 9-1 shows the known health effects of exposure to "neat," or pure, doses of three chemicals commonly found in the market basket. Exposure to each of the compounds is heavily regulated in the work environment, as well TABLE 9-1

Toxicity Characteristics of Benzene, Chlorpyrifos, and Trichloroethylene

Chemical

Carcinogen

Organs/Systems Affected

Benzene Aromatic hydrocarbon found in gasoline

A: Known human carcinogen

• • • • • •

Immune Nervous Hematological Hepatic Cardiovascular Autoimmune antibodies • Developmental disorders • Renal

Chlorpyrifos Primary agent in flea bombs and most frequently detected chemical in human blood Trichloroethylene Agent used in degreasing operations; less toxic substitute for Perchloroethy lene; one of the primary chemicals found at superfund sites

C: Possbile human carcinogen

• Immune • Nervous

No classification at this time (under reevalation by USEPA); Likely a human carcinogen

• • • • •

Hematological Nervous Hepatic Renal Immune

Health Effect «• Adult-onset leukemias •• Aplastic anemia '• Childhood leukemias *• Multiple myeloma •' Myelodysplastic syndrome •» Porphyria •» Arrhythmias '• Non-Hodgkin's lymphomas *• Preterm deliveries • Renal cancer » Scleroderma '* Immune suppression •• Psychiatric disturbances • Attention deficit disorder » Hyperactivity » Autoimmune antibodies » Developmental delays

*» Acute hepatocellular injury (hepatitis) *» Cardiac congenital malformations *» Childhood leukemias i» Cirrhosis 4» Decreased coordination/ dysequilibrium 4 » Fetotoxicity * Hepatocellular cancer • Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma » Psychiatric disturbances » Renal cancer • Scleroderma i

4

4

4

4

TOXICITY AND SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL MIXTURES

181

as in air and drinking water supplies, yet significant exposures still occur among the general population.

9.2.1 The Case for Leukemia The following section details the expression of diseases from exposure to synthetic chemicals. Hematopoietic diseases (leukemias) represent one of the most frequently expressed diseases following exposure to synthetic chemicals. Two chemicals frequently associated with leukemias are PCE and benzene. The epidemiology showing the variety of disease expression by these compounds is summarized in the following sections. Leukemia is a type of cancer involving the hematopoietic system. Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells. Each year, nearly 27,000 adults and more than 2000 children in the United States learn that they have leukemia. The blood is made up of a fluid called plasma and three types of cells. Each type has special functions: • White blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes) help the body fight infections and other diseases. • Red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes) carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and take carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs. The red blood cells give blood its color. • Platelets (also called thrombocytes) help form blood clots that control bleeding. Blood cells are formed in the bone marrow, the soft, spongy center of bones. New (inmiature) blood cells are called blasts. Some blasts stay in the marrow to mature. Some travel to other parts of the body to mature. Normally, blood cells are produced in an orderly, controlled way as the body needs them. There are several types of leukemia. They are grouped in two ways. One way is by how quickly the disease develops and gets worse. The other way is by the type of blood cell that is affected. Leukemia is either acute or chronic. In acute leukemia, the abnormal blood cells are blasts that remain very immature and cannot carry out their normal functions. The number of blasts increases rapidly, and the disease becomes worse quickly. In chronic leukemia, some blast cells are present, but in general, these cells are more mature and can carry out some of their normal functions. Also, the number of blasts increases less rapidly than in acute leukemia. As a result, chronic leukemia worsens gradually. Leukemia can arise in either of the two main types of white blood cells: lymphoid cells or myeloid cells. When leukemia affects lymphoid cells, it is called lymphocytic leukemia. When myeloid cells are affected, the disease is called myeloid or myelogenous leukemia.

182

TOXIC LEGACY

These are the most common types of leukemia: 1. Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of leukemia in young children. This disease also affects adults, especially those age 65 and older. 2. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) occurs in both adults and children. This type of leukemia is sometimes called acute nonlymphocytic leukemia (ANLL). 3. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) most often affects adults over the age of 55. It sometimes occurs in younger adults, but it almost never affects children. 4. Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) occurs mainly in adults. A very small number of children also develop this disease. 5. Hairy cell leukemia is an uncommon type of chronic leukemia.

9.2.2

PCE A number of occupational cohort studies have examined the relationship between exposure to PCE and various cancer types.^ The most significant tumor types that emerged from the epidemiological studies are lymphohematopoietic, esophageal, and female genital cancers. Cancers of the bladder, liver, kidney, lung, and breast have also been associated with PCE exposure in at least one study. The majority of occupational studies with relevance to PCE exposure concern the dry cleaning industry in the United States (most recent updates^"^) or laundry and dry cleaning occupations in Nordic countries.^ A cohort of chemical industry workers,^ air force base employees,^ and a study of Finnish workers in a variety of occupations have also provided important information.^

^ OEHHA. 2001. Public Health Goal for Tetrachloroethylene in Drinking Water, pp 31-34. ^ Blair A, Stewart PA, Tolbert PE, Grauman D. 1990. Cancer and other causes of death among a cohort of dry cleaners. Brit J Indust Med 47:162-168. "^ Ruder AM, Ward EM, Brown DP. 1994. Cancer mortality in female and male dry-cleaning workers. J Occup Med 36(8):867-874. ^ Lynge E, Thygesen L. 1990. Primary liver cancer among women in laundry and dry-cleaning work in Denmark. Scand J Work Environ Health 16(2): 108-112. ^ Olsen GW, Heam S, Cook RR, Currier MP, Allen S. 1989. Mortality experience of a cohort of Louisiana U.S.A. chemical workers, 31:1. ^ Spirtas R, Stewart PA, Lee JS, Marano DE, Forbes CD, Grauman DJ, et al. 1991. Retrospective cohort mortality study of workers at an aircraft maintenance facility. I. Epidemiological results. Brit J Indust Med 49:515-530. ^ Anttila A, Pukkala E, Sallmen M, Hemberg S, Hemminki K. 1995. Cancer incidence among Finnish workers exposed to halogenated hydrocarbons. J Occup Environ Med 37(7):797-806.

TOXICITY AND SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL MIXTURES

183

An increased risk of lymphohematopoietic cancers in humans has been observed for individuals exposed to PCE. This class of cancers is of particular interest in light of the increased leukemia rate in rats exposed to PCE. Olsen and colleagues^ reported an elevated standard mortality ratio (SMR) for leukemia/aleukemia in a cohort of chemical workers; the SMR was statistically significant when local cancer rates were used for comparison. However, there were only 11 total cancer deaths in the cohort of 2,610 subjects, and exposure was not limited to PCE. A drinking water study also reported increased relative risk of leukemia in the group with the highest exposure to PCE (90th percentile of exposure); however, the result was based on only two cases.^^ Elevated risks of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) have been reported in three cohort studies.^^'^^'^^ In contrast, a case-control study and a mortality study did not find any association between PCE and NHL.^"*'^^ A second case-control study of NHL found an increased odds ratio (OR) of 2.0 for employment in laundry or dry cleaning establishments, after adjustment for smoking, although the association was not statistically significant. The New Jersey Department of Health conducted a study of 18 organic chemicals in drinking water in 75 towns.^^ Incidence rates of high-grade lymphoma were elevated in females from the towns with the highest concentrations of PCE in drinking water. After stratifying towns into 0, 0.1-5.0, and >5.0ppb exposure levels, the relative risk of highgrade NHL was significantly higher in the highest exposure stratum compared to controls. However, PCE levels in drinking water were also highly correlated with trichloroethylene levels, so whether the lymphoma risk was due to PCE is not clear.

^ Olsen GW, Heam S, Cook RR, Currier MF, Allen S. 1989. Mortality experience of a cohort of Louisiana U.S.A. chemical workers, 31:1. ^^ Aschengrau A, Ozonoff D, Paulu C, Coogan P, Vezina R, Heeren T, et al. 1993. Cancer risk and tetrachloroethylene-contaminated drinking water in Massachusetts. Arch Environ Health 48(5):284-292. ^^ Blair A, Stewart PA, Tolbert PE, Grauman D. 1990. Cancer and other causes of death among a cohort of dry cleaners. Brit J Indust Med 47:162-168. ^^ Anttila A, Pukkala E, Sallmen M, Hemberg S, Hemminki K. 1995. Cancer incidence among Finnish workers exposed to halogenated hydrocarbons. J Occup Environ Med 37(7):797-806. ^^ Spirtas R, Stewart PA, Lee JS, Marano DE, Forbes CD, Grauman DJ, et al. 1991. Retrospective cohort mortality study of workers at an aircraft maintenance facility. L Epidemiological results. Brit J Indust Med 49:515-530. ^"^ Siemiatycki J, ed. 1991. Risk Factors for Cancer in the Workplace. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ^^ Walker J, Burnett C, Lalich N, Sestito J, Halperin W. 1997. Cancer mortality among laundry and dry cleaning workers. Amer J Indust Med 32(6):614-619. ^^ Cohn P, Bove F, Klotz J, Berkowitz M, Faghano J. 1994. Drinking water contamination and the incidence of leukemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Environ Health Perspect 102(6-7):556-561.

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Both of the major U.S. dry cleaner cohorts^^'^^ reported an increased risk of bladder cancer. One study defined a subcohort of workers whose exposures were primarily to PCE; the bladder cancer risk was not elevated in the subcohort. Two Nordic laundry/dry cleaning cohorts did not experience excess bladder cancer.^^ Malker and Weiner,^^ reported in two proportionate mortality studies of laundry and dry cleaning workers some increases in bladder cancer risk,^^ as did a study of a population in Massachusetts exposed via drinking water.^^ A significant increased risk of bladder cancer was reported in nonwhites employed 6 months or longer in dry cleaning establishments.^^ An occupational surveillance study in Canada concluded that the elevated odds ratio for bladder cancer observed in laundry/dry cleaning workers (after adjustment for smoking, coffee drinking, and other possible risk factors) merited further surveillance foUow-up.^"^ Whether smoking or exposure to other solvents could play a key role in the bladder cancer observed in these studies is not clear.^^ lARC concluded that the risk for cancer of the bladder "may be increased by employment in dry-cleaning," but also that "little or no information was available" about the specific relation to PCE from the majority of bladder cancer studies.^^ Epidemiological studies provide evidence that PCE is possibly carcinogenic in humans. Especially important tumor sites are the esophagus and lymphatic system, but available data are quite limited in terms of the ability to quantify these cancer risks. This is particularly the case for risks associated with oral

^^ Ruder AM, Ward EM, Brown DP. 1994. Cancer mortality in female and male dry-cleaning workers. J Occup Med 36(8):867-874. ^^ Blair A, Stewart PA, Tolbert PE, Grauman D. 1990. Cancer and other causes of death among a cohort of dry cleaners. Brit J Indust Med 47:162-168. ^^ Lynge E, Thygesen L. 1990. Primary liver cancer among women in laundry and dry-cleaning work in Denmark. Scand J Work Environ Health 16(2): 108-112. ^^ Malker HS, Weiner JA, McLaughlin JK. 1990. Register epidemiology studies of recent cancer trends in selected workers. Ann NY Acad Sci 609:322-332. ^^ Katz RM, Jowett D. 1981. Female laundry and dry cleaning workers in Wisconsin: A mortality analysis. Amer J Pub Health 71(3):305-307. ^^ Aschengrau A, Ozonoff D, Paulu C, Coogan P, Vezina R, Heeren T, et al. 1993. Cancer risk and tetrachloroethylene-contaminated drinking water in Massachusetts. Arch Environ Health 48(5):284-292. ^^ Silverman DT, Levin LI, Hoover RN. 1989. Occupational risks of bladder cancer in the United States: II. Nonwhite men. J Natl Cancer Inst 81:1480-1483. ^^ Teschke K, Morgan MS, Checkoway H, Franklin G, SpinelH JJ, Van Belle G, et al. 1997. Surveillance of nasal and bladder cancer to locate sources of exposure to occupational carcinogens. Occup Environ Med 54(6):443^51. ^^ Weiss NS. 1995. Cancer in relation to occupational exposure to perchloroethylene. Cancer Causes Control 6(3):257-266. ^^ lARC. 1995. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Tetrachloroethylene. lARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans 63:159-221.

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exposure to PCE, since the majority of the human data, and the most quantitatively informative studies, concerns occupational exposure by the inhalation route. Most of the evidence for human carcinogenicity is based on solvent exposures in the dry cleaning industry, of which PCE is a major but not exclusive component. Studies of solvent exposures in other industries also implicate PCE as a possible risk factor for human cancer, but these typically involve exposure to multiple solvents and other potentially carcinogenic agents. Epidemiology studies of dry cleaning and laundry workers have demonstrated excesses in mortality due to various types of cancer, including liver cancer, but the data are regarded as inconclusive because of various confounding factors.^^'^^ The chemical also induced mononuclear cell leukemia and renal tubular cell tumors in rats. PCE was negative for tumor initiation in a dermal study and for tumor induction in a pulmonary tumor assay.^^'^°

9.2.3 Benzene There is general agreement within the scientific community that benzene causes a host of diseases including aplastic anemia, adult-onset leukemias, aplastic anemia, childhood leukemias, multiple myeloma, myelodysplastic syndrome, porphyria, arrhythmias, non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, preterm deliveries, renal cancer, and scleroderma. Human epidemiological and toxicological study data have characterized minimal exposures that result in significant increased incident rates of aplastic anemia and AML. There is strong evidence that exposure to benzene significantly increases the risk of developing aplastic anemia and AML. Yin et al. examined more than 500,000 workers in China who had been exposed to benzene or benzene mixtures.^^ Benzene toxicity was found in workers exposed to concentrations above approximately 29ppm. In shoe factory workers exposed to benzene, the incidence of aplastic anemia was 5.8 times greater than in the general population.

^^ Lynge E, Thygesen L. 1990. Primary liver cancer among women in laundry and dry-cleaning work in Denmark. Scand J Work Environ Health 16(2): 108-112. ^^ U.S. EPA. 1988. Updated Health Effects Assessment for Tetrachloroethylene. Final draft. Prepared for Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, OH. ECAO-CIN-H009a. ^^ Van Duuren BL, Goldschmidt BM, Loewengart G, Smith AC, Melchionne S, Seidman I. 1979. Carcinogenicity of halogenated olefinic and aliphatic hydrocarbons in mice. J Nat Cancer Inst 63:1433-1439. ^° Theiss JC, Stoner GD, Shimkin MB, Weisberger EK. 1977. Tests for carcinogenicity of organic contaminants of United States drinking waters by pulmonary tumor response in Strain A mice. Cancer Res 37:2717-2720. ^^ Yin S-N, Li Q, Liu Y, Tian F, Du C, Jin C. 1987. Occupational exposure to benzene in China. Brit J Ind Med 44:192-195.

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Another study by Yin et al.^^ used an expanded cohort study design to evaluate cancer in more than 100,000 workers (approximately 75% had been exposed to benzene). The incidence of aplastic anemia in this study was significantly increased in exposed individuals. Other studies that established a link between benzene exposure and aplastic anemia include those by lARC,^^ Aksoy,^^'^^ Young and Alter,^^ Aksoy et al.,^^ Yin et al.,^^'^^ Aksoy and Erdem,^^ and Paci et al."^^ AML risk from benzene exposure is documented in numerous studies, including two that related increasing levels of benzene exposure to increased risk of AML, strengthening the conclusion that the observed effects were due to the benzene exposure. Rinsky et al."^^ examined 1,165 workers who were exposed from 1935 to 1965 to benzene at a natural rubber manufacturing facility in the United States. The risk of death from AML in the workers was increased significantly in exposed workers (SMR = 3.37) and followed a dosedependent pattern. Wong et al."^^ examined the Pliofilm data and estimated the workers' exposure, finding extremely significant increases in risk for AML among workers. Workers with 200 to 400 and >400ppm-years of exposure

^^ Yin SN, Hayes RB, Linet MS, Li GL, Dosemeci M, Travis LB, Shang ZN, Li DG, Chow WH, Wacholder S, Blot WJ. 1996. An expanded cohort study of cancer among benzene exposed workers in China. Environ Health Perspect 104(Supp 6): 1339-1341. ^^ lARC. 1982. Benzene. lARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans: some industrial chemicals and dyestuffs. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, pp 93-148. ^^ Aksoy M. 1988. Benzene Hematotoxicity. In: Aksoy M, Editor. Benzene Carcinogenicity. Boca Raton: CRC Press, pp 59-104. ^^ Aksoy M. 1989. Hematotoxicity and carcinogenicity of benzene. Environ Health Perspect 82:193-197. ^^ Young N, Alter BP. 1994. Aplastic Anemia, Acquired and Inherited. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. ^^ Aksoy M, Dincol K, Akgun T, Erdem S, Dincol G. 1971. Haematological effects of chronic benzene poisoning in 217 workers. Brit J Ind Med 28:296-302. '^ Yin SN, Li G, Tain F, Fu Z, Jin C, Chen Y, Luo S, Ye P, Zhang J, Wang G, Zhang X, Wu H, Zhong Q. 1987. Leukaemia in benzene workers: a retrospective cohort study. Brit J Ind Med 44:124-128. ^'^ Yin SN, Hayes RB, Linet MS, Li GL, Dosemeci M, Travis LB, Shang ZN, Li DG, Chow WH, Wacholder S, Blot WJ. 1996. An expanded cohort study of cancer among benzene exposed workers in China. Environ Health Perspect 104(Supp 6): 1339-1341. ^^ Aksoy M, Erdem S. 1978. Foliowup study on the mortality and the development of leukemia in 44 pancytopenic patients with chronic exposure to benzene. Blood 52:285-292. ^' Paci E, Buiatti E, Costantini AS, MiUgi L, Pucci N, Scarpelli A, PetrioU G, Simonato L, Winkelmann R, Kaldor JM. 1989. Aplastic anemia, leukemia and other cancer mortality in a cohort of shoe workers exposed to benzene. Scand J Work Environ Health 15:313-318. "^^ Rinsky RA, Smith AB, Homung R, Filloon TG, Young RJ, Okun AH, Landrigan PJ. 1987. Benzene and leukemia: an epidemiologic risk assessment. N Engl J Med 316:1044-1050. ^^ Wong O. 1995. Risk of acute myeloid leukaemia and multiple myeloma in workers exposed to benzene. Occup Environ Med 52:380-384.

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were, respectively, 27 and 98 times more likely to develop AML than unexposed individuals. In a study by Hayes et al.,"^ more than 74,000 benzene-exposed Chinese workers were examined for toxicity. The relative risk for AML in exposed workers was 3.0 based on 21 exposed cases. This study demonstrated an increase in AML risk at exposure levels below 200ppm-years. Additional studies that demonstrate risk of AML in benzene exposed individuals include those by lARC,"^^ Aksoy,^^ McCraw et al.,"^^ Bond et al.,"^^ Rinsky et al.,"^^ Wong,^^'^^ Yin et al.,^^ Hayes et al.,^^ Rushton and Romaniuk,^'* Austin et al.,^^ and Swaen and Meijers.^^ Peer-reviewed studies by Glass, et al.^^ have demonstrated by logistic regression analysis increased rates of leukemia among benzene-exposed workers with as low as 1 to 2ppm-year exposures. The current National Institute for Occu-

^ Hayes RB, Yin SN, Dosemeci M, Li GL, Wacholder S, Travis LB, Li CY, Rothman N, Hoover RN, Linet MS. 1997. Benzene and the dose related incidence of hematologic neoplasms in China. J Natl Cancer Inst 89:1065-1071. ^^ lARC. 1982. Benzene. lARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans: some industrial chemicals and dyestuffs. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, pp 93-148. "^^ Aksoy M. 1985. Benzene as a leukemogenic and carcinogenic agent. Am J Ind Med 8:9-20. "^^ McCraw DS, Joyner RE, Cole R 1985. Excess leukemia in a refinery population. J Occup Environ Med 27:220-222. ^^ Bond GG, McLaren EA, Baldwin CL, Cook RR. 1986. An update of mortaUty among chemical workers exposed to benzene. Brit J Ind Med 43:685-691. ^^ Rinsky RA, Smith AB, Homung R, Filloon TG, Young RJ, Okun AH, Landrigan PJ. 1987. Benzene and leukemia: an epidemiologic risk assessment. N Engl J Med 316:1044-1050. ^^ Wong O. 1987. An industry wide mortality study of chemical workers occupationally exposed to benzene. II. Dose response analyses. Brit J Ind Med 44:382-395. ^^ Wong O. 1987. An industry wide mortality study of chemical workers occupationally exposed to benzene. I. General results. Brit J Ind Med 44:365-381. ^^ Yin SN, Hayes RB, Linet MS, Li GL, Dosemeci M, Travis LB, Shang ZN, Li DG, Chow WH, Wacholder S, Blot WJ. 1996. An expanded cohort study of cancer among benzene exposed workers in China. Environ Health Perspect 104(Supp 6): 1339-1341. ^^ Hayes RB, Yin SN, Dosemeci M, Li GL, Wacholder S, Travis LB, Li CY, Rothman N, Hoover RN, Linet MS. 1997. Benzene and the dose related incidence of hematologic neoplasms in China. J Nad Cancer Inst 89:1065-1071. ^^ Rushton L, Romaniuk H. 1997. A case-control study to investigate the risk of leukaemia associated with exposure to benzene in petroleum marketing and distribution workers in the United Kingdom. Occup Environ Med 54:152-166. ^^ Austin H, Delzell E, Cole P. 1988. Benzene and leukemia. A review of the literature and a risk assessment. Am J Epidemiol 127:419-439. ^^ Swaen GMH, Meijers JMM. 1989. Risk assessment of leukemia and occupational exposure to benzene. Brit J Ind Med 46:826-830. ^^ Glass DC, Gray CN, Jolley DJ, Gibbons C, Sim MR, Fritschi L, Adams GC, Bisby JA, Manuell R. 2003. Leukemia risk associated with low-level benzene exposure. Epidemiology 14(5):569-577.

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pational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended exposure limit (REL) is 0.1 ppm, while the legally enforceable OSHA standard is 1.0 ppm. The diagnosis of aplastic anemia is highly consistent with benzene exposures. Lower-level benzene exposures (Ippm) are associated with a significantly elevated risk of leukemia and chromosomal breakage, while an elevated risk of leukopenia has been associated with levels of 3 ppm and less. Several additional hematological indicators, including severe pancytopenia, are highly consistent with previous benzene exposure occurring several months prior to the acute onset. Dozens of human epidemiologic studies have confirmed the causal relationship between benzene exposure and induction of AML as diagnosed. Data of benzene-induced leukemia indicate the onset of leukemia as brief — 0.8 years from initial exposure to benzene and up to 49 years after initial exposure. The NIOSH cohort mortality study of benzene-exposed workers^^ based on 15 leukemia deaths indicates an average latency period of 24.9 years with a range of 2 years (a death from CML) to 45 years (a death from ALL). Aksoy^^ revealed an average latency period of 11 years between initial exposure and clinical detection of leukemia. Vigliani^^ revealed a median latency of 9 years between initial exposure and diagnosis with leukemia. In the Vigliani case series, the latency period ranged from 3 to 24 years. The study by Yin et al.^^ revealed an average latency period (start of exposure to diagnosis of leukemia) of 11.4 years (minimum 0.8 years, maximum 49.5 years) for cases of leukemia.

9.3 FEDERAL AND STATE LEGISLATION REQUIRING THAT FOOD AND WATER BE UNADULTERATED Laws governing water quality and public health date back to the 1800s. The first public health service (PHS), known as the Marine Hospital Service, was created following the passage of an act in 1798 that provided for the care and relief of sick and injured merchant seamen.^^ The scope of activities of the Marine Hospital Service also began to expand well beyond the care of merchant seamen beginning with the control of infectious disease and expanding to regulating the food and drug supply. ^^ Paxon et al. 1994. Leukemia risk associated with benzene exposure in the Pliofilm cohort: mortality update and exposure distribution. Risk Anal 14:147-154. ^^ Aksoy. 1977. Leukemia in workers due to occupational exposure to benzene. New Istabbul Contrib Clin Sci 12:3-14. ^" Vighani. 1976. Leukemia associated with benzene exposure. NY Acad Sci 271:143-151. ^^ Yin et al. 1989. A retrospective cohort study of leukemia and other cancers in benzene workers. Environ Health Perspect 207-213. ^^ USPHSCC. 2003. The History of the Commissioned Corps. United States PubUc Health Service Commissioned Corps, www.usphs.gov/html/history.html.

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By 1904, water pollution laws in the United States prohibited poUution.^^ As a consequence, there appeared to be no immediate need for water pollution standards. National water quality standards were first published in 1925.^ The objective of the U.S. PubUc Health Service (USPHS) in pubUshing drinking water standards^^ was to "safeguard the health of the public" against the most seriously recognized dangers, namely "that of drinking water contamination by disease such as typhoid fever and other illnesses of similar origin and transmission." The standards did, however, warn that "to state that a water supply is 'safe' does not necessarily signify that absolutely no risk is ever incurred in drinking it." Few federal laws dealing with the health and safety or directly with the environment were promulgated prior to the passage of the National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) in 1970. The Pure Food and Drugs Act (1906) and the Meat Inspection Act (1906) covered food safety and tolerances for pesticides in food. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947, set guidelines for pesticide registration, classification (general versus restricted), and use, as well as applicator certification. The Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act (FHLSA) and the Delaney Act (1959) were intended to prevent the introduction of carcinogens into foodstuffs. Nearly 40 years later, the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) amended the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) and the FIFRA by doing the following: • Replacing the Delaney Clause with the standard of "reasonable certainty that no harm will result from aggregate exposure to pesticide residue" • Providing uniformity of state regulations on pesticide tolerances unless a state has successfully petitioned the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for a different tolerance level or can demonstrate that pesticide residues pose unreasonable dietary risks to the state's residents • Imposing civil penalties of up to $50,000 for individuals and up to $250,000 for companies that introduce pesticide-adultered food into the marketplace The act changed FIFRA by doing the foUowng: • Defining the term "nitrogen stabilizer" • Providing for uses of existing stocks of suspended or canceled pesticides • Providing for a review of pesticide registrations at least every 15 years

^^ Goodell, EB. 1904. A review of the laws forbidding pollution of inland waters in the United States, U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 103. ^ Given that surface and groundwater resources cross state boundaries, a national water quahty poHcy was necessary. ^^ U.S. Public Health Service. 1925. Report of advisory committee on official water standards, Public Health Rep 40(15):April 10.

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• Adding definitions and minimum requirements for training of maintenance applicators and service technicians • Providing for coordination between federal and state officials on pesticide issues • Addressing pesticide labeling issues • Expediting registration of reduced-risk pesticides • Increasing data collection to ensure the health of infants and children • Promoting the use of integrated pest-management practices Following the passage of the NEPA in 1970, a safety net of legislation was promulgated dealing with safety or the environment including the following: Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1955, reauthorized in 1963 and 1982 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1966, 1970, 1982, and 1990 Occupational Safety Health Act (OSHA) Poison Prevention Packaging Act (PPPA) Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA) Consumer Product Safety Act (CPSA) Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) Clean Water Act (CWA) Ports and Waterways Safety Act (PWA) Endangered Species Act (ESA) Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (HMTA) Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Hazard Communication Standard Act (HCSA) Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act (SARA) To supplement federal regulations, states have created a host of regulations, typically driven by federal statues (such as the CAA or SDWA), requiring polluters to meet discharge standards, notify the public, and to minimize toxic impacts. In 1986, California approved the Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act or Proposition 65. Proposition 65 requires the state to publish a list of chemicals known to cause cancer or birth defects or other reproductive harm. This list, which must be updated at least once a year by the Office of Environmental Health and Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), has grown to include approximately 750 chemicals since it was first published in 1987. Since numerous chemicals identified by the FDA in food products and by EPA-mandated monitoring in drinking water are on the Proposition 65 lists, it

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is important to consider labeling food and bottled water products that meet Proposition 65 labeling requirements.

9.4 THE NEED FOR WARNING LABELS IN THE SUPERMARKET The Proposition 65 list contains a wide range of naturally occurring and synthetic chemicals that are known to cause cancer or birth defects or other reproductive harm. These chemicals include additives or ingredients in pesticides, common household products, food, drugs, dyes, or solvents. Listed chemicals may also be used in manufacturing and construction, or they may be byproducts of chemical processes, such as motor vehicle exhaust. If a warning is placed on a product label or posted or distributed at the workplace, a business, or in rental housing, the business issuing the warning is aware or believes that one or more listed chemicals are present. By law, a warning must be given for listed chemicals unless exposure is low enough to pose no significant risk of cancer or is significantly below levels observed to cause birth defects or other reproductive harm. For a chemical that causes cancer, the "no significant risk level," or NSRL, is defined as the level of exposure that would result in not more than one excess case of cancer in 100,000 individuals exposed to the chemical over a 70-year lifetime. In other words, a person exposed to the chemical at the "no significant risk level" for 70 years would not have more than a "one in 100,000" chance of developing cancer as a result of that exposure. For chemicals that are listed as causing birth defects or reproductive harm, the "no observable effect level," or NOEL, is determined by identifying the level of exposure that has been shown to not pose any harm to humans or laboratory animals. Proposition 65 then requires this no observable effect level to be divided by 1000 in order to provide an ample margin of safety. Businesses subject to Proposition 65 are required to provide a warning if they cause exposures to chemicals listed as causing birth defects or reproductive harm that exceed 1/lOOOth of the no observable effect level. OEHHA has developed guidance levels, known as "safe harbor numbers" for determining whether a warning is necessary or whether discharges of a chemical into drinking water sources are prohibited. The safe harbor numbers consist of no significant risk levels for chemicals listed as causing cancer and maximum allowable dose levels for chemicals listed as causing birth defects or other reproductive harm. OEHHA has established safe harbor numbers for the chemicals given in Appendix 9-1. Although the objective of this text is to illustrate the complexity and diversity of chemical mixtures in the environment independent of chemical concentrations, the concentrations listed for synthetic chemicals found in both food and drinking water are a great concern. Thus, it is important to discuss the toxicity and occurrence of these compounds in our food and water. Although

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acrylamide (this compound is also used to treat drinking water) is not monitored by the FDA in its Total Diet Studies, it is an important synthetic chemical that occurs in the environment.

9.4.1 Acrylamide Acrylamide was listed as a chemical known to cause cancer under Proposition 65 on January 1, 1990. At the time that acrylamide was initially Usted under Proposition 65, the state of California's Environmental Health and Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) determined that the NSRL for exposure to acrylamide was 0.2 micrograms per day (ug/day). The NSRL is typically derived assuming a human body weight of 70 kilograms. Sensitive subpopulations such as infants (10 kg body weight), children (20kg body weight), and adolescents (40 kg body weight) may be considered when appropriate. For the acrylamide NSRL, these subpopulations have not been specifically considered. In 2002, it was widely reported that acrylamide is formed during hightemperature cooking of starchy foods.^^ Many plant-based foods that are baked or fried at high temperatures were found to contain acrylamide. Acrylamide forms in starchy foods through Maillard reaction products,^^ and it is influenced by the raw food's storage temperature, sugar content, moisture content, cooking temperature, pH, and the presence of asparaginase. A study by Svensson found acrylamide in potato products, bread, breakfast cereals, biscuits, cookies, snacks, and coffee in Sweden and estimated daily intake rates of 9.1, 27, and 62 ug/day for the 5th, 50th, and 95th percentiles, respectively.^^ Food agencies in Europe and the United States have also established the presence of acrylamide in foodstuffs.^^ Reports of acrylamide in prepared foodstuffs led to an evaluation of the potential health impacts from the consumption of acrylamide in average diets.^^

^^ Biedermann M, Noti A, Biedermann-Brem S, Mozzetti V, Grob K. 2002. Experiments on acrylamide formation and possibilities to decrease the potential of acrylamide formation in potatoes. (Mitteilungen aus Lebensmitteluntersuchung und Hygiene) 93:668-687, and Biedermann M, Biedermann-Brem S, Noti A, Grob K. 2002. Methods for determining the potential of acrylamide formation and its elimination in raw materials for food preparation, such as potatoes. (Mitteilungen aus Lebensmitteluntersuchung und Hygiene) 93:653-667. ^^ Stadler RH, Blank I, Varga N, Robert F, Hau J, Guy PA, Robery MC, Riediker S. 2002. Acrylamide from Maillard reaction products. Nature 419:448-449. ^^ Svennson K, Abramsson L, Becker W, Glynn A, Hellenas KE, Lind Y, Rosen J. 2003. Dietary intake of acrylamide in Sweden. Food Chem Toxicol 41:1581-1586. ^'^ Svennson K, Abramsson L, Becker W, Glynn A, Hellenas KE, Lind Y, Rosen J. 2003. Dietary intake of acrylamide in Sweden. Food Chem Toxicol 41:1581-1586. ^^ European Commission. 2003. Note of the Meeting of Experts on Industrial Contaminants in Food: Acrylamide Workshop. In: Information on Ways to Lower the Levels of Acrylamide Formed in Food European Commission (EU) Acrylamide Workshop October 20-21, 2003.

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After lobbying by industry groups, in August 2003, OEHHA drafted a work plan to address regulatory options for acrylamide in the environment. The final work plan, released March 2005, proposed an NSRL of l.Oug/day. The new NSRL took into consideration data showing the dose-response relationship of acrylamide and the formation of cancer in animals. The NSRL decision used data from key animal cancer studies and took into consideration differences between humans and animals in absorbing, distributing, and metabolizing acrylamide. The revised NSRL for acrylamide has been widely criticized by industry groups as being overly protective and flawed. Written comments from industry groups have advocated NSRLs in the range of 50 to 226ug/day. The U.S. EPA considers acrylamide a B-2 carcinogen or probable human carcinogen in light of animal data. In a 2-year carcinogenesis bioassay, acrylamide (>98% purity) was administered in drinking water to F344 rats (60/sex/dose) at doses of 0, 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, or 2.0mg/kg/day.^^ A maximum tolerated dose (MTD) was determined based on decreased body weight gain, decreased survival, and the observance of several toxic effects in the high-dose group. There were transient symptoms of a viral infection (sialodacryoadenitis virus) in some rats beginning on day 210 of the study; however, all animal groups were equally affected. This viral infection did not significantly affect the body weight, survival, or tumor incidences of F344 rats.^^ Acrylamide induced statistically significant increases in the incidences of several tumor types in test rats of both sexes when compared with control animals. In males, significantly increased incidences of tumors included the following: scrotal mesotheliomas in the two highest doses (11/53 and 10/54 at the two highest doses versus 3/57 in the control), adrenal pheochromocytomas in the high dose (10/54 versus 3/57), and thyroid adenomas in the high dose (7/54 versus 1/57). In high-dose females, gliomas and astrocytomas of the central nervous system (9/61 high dose versus 1/60 control), adenomas and adenocarcinomas of the mammary gland (28/60 versus 10/60), adenomas and adenocarcinomas of the thyroid gland (5/50 versus 1/54), adenocarcinomas of the uterus (5/49 versus 1/56), and papillomas and carcinomas of the oral cavity (8/60 versus 0/60) were significantly increased. A series of mouse skin papilloma and lung adenoma assays showed that acrylamide initiated skin tumorigenesis in both SENCAR and Swiss-ICR mice and induced lung tumors in SENCAR, Swiss-ICR, and A/J mouse

^^ Johnson KA, Gorzinski SJ, Bodner KM, Campbell RA, Wolf CH, Friedman MA, et al. 1986. Chronic toxicity and oncogenicity study on acrylamide incorporated in the drinking water of Fischer 344 rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 85(2): 154-168. ^^ Rao ON, Edmondson J, Haseman J. 1988. Influence of viral infection on tumor incidences, body weight and survival of Fischer 344 rats. Toxicologist 8:166.

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strains^^ A 1984 study by BulP administered a total of 0, 75, 150, or 300mg acrylamide/kg body weight during six applications over a 2-week period via gavage, intraperitoneal injection (i.p.), or dermal application to groups of female SENCAR mice, followed by triweekly applications of 1 ug TPA (12-otetradecanoyl-phorbal-13-acetate) for 20 weeks. Acrylamide initiated skin tumorigenesis in Swiss-ICR mice (by gavage) and induced lung neoplasms in Swiss-ICR mice (by gavage) and A/J mice (by gavage and i.p.). A doseresponse increase in skin tumors was observed in the mice. Other studies by Buir^ found that skin tumor development was dependent on promotion by TPA whereas lung tumor induction was not. Robinson^^ noted significant increases of skin and lung tumors in SENCAR mice administered 50mg/kg of acrylamide by a single i.p. injection followed by treatment with TPA. Acrylamide has also been shown to be a clastogenic agent, inducing chromosomal aberrations, dominant lethality, sister-chromatid exchanges, and unscheduled DNA synthesis in various in vivo and in vitro systems. Acrylamide produces cell transformation in vitro and causes amplification of SV40 DNA inserts of SV40-transformed Chinese hamster cells. Furthermore, there is evidence that C^'^-acrylamide binds covalently to DNA and protein in rodents.^^ It should be noted that acrylamide is structurally analogous to vinyl carbamate and acrylonitrile; these compounds contain a vinyl group, which may interact with cellular macromolecules via activation to an epoxide. The upper-bound cancer potency estimate of 2.8 (mg/kg-d)"\ derived from the occupational cohort study for exposure of the general population to acrylamide over a lifetime,^^ is higher than the upper-bound cancer potencies

^^ Bull R, Robinson M, Laurie R, Stoner G, Greisiger E, Meier J, Stober J. 1984. Carcinogenic effects of acrylamide in Senear and A/J mice. Cancer Res 44:107-111; Bull R, Robinson M, Stober J. 1984. Carcinogenic activity of acrylamide in the skin and lung of Swiss-ICR mice. Cancer Lett 24:209-212; and Robinson M, Bull RJ, Knutsen GL, Shields RP, Stober J. 1986. A combined carcinogen bioassay utilizing both the lung adenoma and skin papilloma protocols. Environ Health Perspect 68:141-145. ^"^ Bull R, Robinson M, Laurie R, Stoner G, Greisiger E, Meier J, Stober J. 1984. Carcinogenic effects of acrylamide in Senear and A/J mice. Cancer Res 44:107-111. ^^ Bull R, Robinson M, Laurie R, Stoner G, Greisiger E, Meier J, Stober J. 1984. Carcinogenic effects of acrylamide in Senear and A/J mice. Cancer Res 44:107-111, and Bull R, Robinson M, Stober J. 1984. Carcinogenic activity of acrylamide in the skin and lung of Swiss-ICR mice. Cancer Lett 24:209-212. ^^ Robinson M, Bull RJ, Knutsen GL, Shields RP, Stober J. 1986. A combined carcinogen bioassay utilizing both the lung adenoma and skin papilloma protocols. Environ Health Perspect 68:141-145. ^^ Dearfield KL, Abemathy CO, Ottley MS, Brantner JH, Hayes PR 1988. Acrylamide: its metabolism, developmental and reproductive effects, genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Mutat Res 195:45-77. ^^ Marsh GM, Lucas LJ, Youk AO, Schall LC. 1999. Mortality patterns among workers exposed to acrylamide: 1994 follow up. Occup Environ Med 56(3): 181-190.

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estimated from the long-term rat drinking water studies, which ranged from 0.69 to 1.5 (mg/kg-d)"^ This comparison illustrates that, if humans are equally or less sensitive to acrylamide-induced cancer as rats, then the expected relative risk estimates in the worker study would have been small. If the animal cancer studies are predictive of human risk, one would not expect to observe a statistically significant increase in cancer rates from the exposures experienced by the workers, a conclusion also reached by other researchers.^^ Thus, the available human cancer data on acrylamide do not reduce OEHHA's concern regarding the potential induction of cancers by acrylamide. A cancer potency estimate of 0.70 (mg/kg-day)~^ was derived from the geometric means of combined distributions of cancer potency estimates for all acrylamide-related tumor sites across four studies in rats. This is associated with a dose^^ of 0.014 ug/kg-day at a lifetime cancer risk of 10"^ Neurotoxicity is a sensitive noncancer endpoint of acrylamide toxicity where primate studies (oral and subcutaneous) and a human occupational study support a NOEL for acrylamide neuropathy of 0.5 mg/kg body weight per day.^^ In addition, acrylamide has been shown to adversely affect reproduction and fetal development and induce heritable DNA damage. In a draft report by the Expert Panel on Acrylamide of the National Toxicology Program's Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction, the lowest observed effect level (LOEL) for both developmental and male reproductive toxicity was reported to be 5 mg/kg-day. Dividing this level by a standard uncertainty factory of 10 for LOEL to no observable effect level (NOEL) extrapolation results in a NOEL estimate of 0.5 mg/kg-day, approximating the NOEL determined by the World Health Organization (WHO) for neurotoxic effects. The U.S. EPA estabhshed a NOEL of 0.2 mg/kg-day (200ug/kg-day) and a corresponding reference dose (RfD) of 0.2 ug/kg-day for noncancer effects based on experimental neurotoxicity data. The daily dose level posing a 10"^ lifetime risk of cancer of 0.014ug/kg-day (= l.Oug/day - 70kg) is more than 10,000 times lower than the NOELs of 200 or 500 ug/kg-day for noncancer (reproductive, developmental, or neurotoxic)

^^ Calleman C. 1996. The metabolism and pharmacokinetics of acrylamide: implications for mechanisms of toxicity and human risk estimation. Drug Metab Rev 28(4):527-590; Dybing E, Sanner T. 2003. Risk assessment of acrylamide in foods. Toxicol Sci 75(1):7-15; Erdreich LS, Friedman MA. 2004. Epidemiologic evidence for assessing the carcinogenicity of acrylamide. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 39(2): 150-157; and Granath F, Ehrenberg L, Paulsson B, Tomqvist M. 2001. Cancer risk from exposure to occupational acrylamide. Occup Environ Med 58(9):608-609. ^^ OEHHA, 2005. Characterization of Acrylamide Intake from Certain Foods. Sacramento, CA: California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. ^^ OEHHA, 2005. Characterization of Acrylamide Intake from Certain Foods. Sacramento, CA: California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment.

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endpoints and more than 10 times lower than the U.S. EPA RfD. This suggests that cancer is the most sensitive health endpoint for acrylamide.^^ The NSRL for Proposition 65 is the intake associated with a lifetime cancer risk of 10"^ The combined cancer potency estimate for all acrylamide-related tumor sites, 0.70 (mg/kg-day)"', derived earlier, was used to calculate the l.Oug/day NSRL for acrylamide. In an experiment by Rosenfeld and Clark, a total of 12 different potato chip products from four brands were purchased for acrylamide analysis. The results of the laboratory analyses demonstrated that the acrylamide content in the chips dramatically exceeded the proposed Proposition 65 NSRL (Figure 9-3). The variance in the products could be due to a variety of factors, but it is apparent that the concentration of acrylamide in potato chips can be influenced by handling processes. Based on the health impacts on humans for acrylamide consumption via potato chips, the daily dose of acrylamide was calculated using several studies estimating various daily food consumption rates, including potato chips.^^'^"^ The estimated daily consumption rates for potato chips ranged from 4 to 41 grams ^^ OEHHA, 2005. Characterization of Acrylamide Intake from Certain Foods. Sacramento, CA: California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. ^^ Smiciklas-Wright H, Mitchell DC, Mickle SJ, Goldman JD, Cook A. 2002. Foods Commonly Eaten in the United States, Quantities Consumed per Eating Occasion in a Day, 1994-96. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) NFS Report Number: 96-5. ^^ Robie D, DiNovi M. 2003. The Exposure Assessment for Acrylamide. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Food Additive Safety presentation to the JIFSAN workshop. Chicago, IL.

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per day. In this study, the potato chip daily consumption rates were multiplied by the average acrylamide concentration determined by the laboratory to calculate the amount of acrylamide consumed per day. This was used to determine which potato chips, if consumed at the estimated rates, would exceed the proposed l.Oug/day NSRL. All 12 varieties of potato chip products contained enough acrylamide to exceed the NSRL for all consumption rate estimates. The manufacturers' recoromended serving sizes were also considered when calculating the potential acrylamide exposure from the potato chips. Ten of the 12 products have a recommended serving size of 28 grams; the Pringles Original Snack Stack and the Pringles Pizzalicious Snack Stack have recommended serving sizes of 23 grams. These manufacturers' recommended serving sizes are similar to the 26.6 grams used by Robie and DiNovi^^ in their calculation to determine daily acrylamide consumption. When considering serving size, all 12 products contain enough acrylamide to exceed the l.Oug/day NSRL. Consumption of 12 different commercially available potato chip products at the manufacturers' recommended serving size will result in exposure to acrylamide above the NSRL for adults. Based on the body weights of sensitive subpopulations, equivalent servings of potato chips would result in doses that are 1.5 to 7 times higher in adolescents, children, and infants. Therefore, the lifetime risk from exposure to acrylamide in food products is likely to be much higher than initially estimated. Under the guidance established by Proposition 65 potato chips therefore require warning labels informing consumers of the potential hazards of ingesting the products. Potato chips are not the only food requiring labeling though.

9.4.2 Market Basket Foods When reviewing the market basket data and the listed Proposition 65 chemicals, the synthetic compounds that most frequently contaminate our food are given in Table 9-2. This means that food products that are contaminated with these chemicals may require a warning label. By using the pesticide and industrial chemical concentration data for the various food product categories (i.e., dairy, protein, fruit, grain and nuts, vegetables, and child/infant products) that are given in Appendixes 4-1 through 4-58, those foods with multiple contaminants that could exceed Proposition 65's Safe Harbor concentrations are listed in Table 9-3. Given that an individual daily diet can contain a mixture of the foods listed in Table 9-3, all of these foods could contribute to an individual exceeding safe harbor levels. On an individual basis, 16 adult food products

^^ Robie D, DiNovi M. 2003. The Exposure Assessment for Acrylamide. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Office of Food Additive Safety presentation to the JIFSAN workshop. Chicago, IL.

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TABLE 9-2

Reproductive Toxins and Carcinogens in Market Basket Foods

Toxicological Hazard

Food

Chemicals known to cause cancer

Chemicals known to cause reproductive toxicity

Benzene Chlordane Chloroform Dieldrin DDE DDT Heptachlor epoxide Hexachlorobenzene Iprodine PCB Propargite Tetrachloroethlyene Trichloroethylene Toxaphene Benomyl Benzene 2,4-D DDT PCB Toluene Vinclozolin

and one child/infant product exceed recommended safe harbor levels for dieldrin, toxaphene, and/or PCBs. A list of these foods, their serving sizes, and calculated daily exposure based on one serving are given in Table 9-4. The data used for this analysis were based on mean chemical concentrations determined for all food analyses by the FDA.^^ Based on the serving size, all of these foods should have a warning label. This includes butter since an individual's daily exposures can exceed one tablespoon. Furthermore, when considering that these products are just a small portion of a balanced diet, a significant number of individuals will exceed safe harbor levels for dieldrin considering its distribution throughout numerous food products. Furthermore, the data provided in Appendixes 4-1 through 4-58 show that food products contain DDE, dieldrin, and toxaphene. This means that even if they are classified as "organic" foods they will still contain pesticides. This means that diets high in butter, cheese, and certain vegetables (see Table 9-4) that substitute organic products will most probably exceed Proposition 65's Safe Harbor numbers.

^^ Food and Drug Administration Total Diet Study, Summary of Residues Found Ordered by Pesticide, Market Baskets 91-3-01-4, June 2003.

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DRINKING WATER AND WARNING LABELS Two of the most common disinfection by-products measured in drinking water in the 36 cities studied were bromodichloromethane and chloroform. However, only a third of the cities routinely monitored for these compounds since most cities only reported total trihalomethanes (both bromodichloromethane and chloroform are counted as part of the trihalomethane measurement). For those cities that reported these compounds, the average concentration of bromodichloromethane in drinking water was 7.6, ug/L while the average concentration of chloroform was 16.1 ug/L. It is recommended that a person should drinking 64 fluid ounces of water a day. Since a liter is approximately 33.8 fluid ounces, a person following this recommendation would consume about 2 liters of water a day. Given the averages noted previously, this means that a significant number of people in the 36 cities studied were drinking tap water that would exceed Proposition 65's safe harbor number of 5 ug per day for bromodichloromethane and 20 ug per day for chloroform. For the three cities in California, the drinking water taps in the cities of Bakersfield (see Table 7-2) and Los Angeles (see Table 7-16) should have a Proposition 65 warning label. Furthermore, based on the Los Angeles data, a resident only needs a little more than one 8-ounce glass of water to exceed the bromodichloromethane Safe Harbor number. Clearly, California's Proposition 65 is not the law of the land. However, California's reliance on the numbers presented in Proposition 65 as they relate to protecting human health should give everyone cause for concern. This is especially true when you consider our total daily exposure to the Proposition 65 chemicals that can be found in our food and water. This problem is further expressed in the occurrence of chemical mixtures in human breast milk.

9.6 BREAST MILK AS AN INDICATOR OF WHAT IS WRONG IN THE ENVIRONMENT Bioaccumulation is the process by which chemicals are stored in the bodies of exposed individuals, increasing in concentration over time. The effects of bioaccumulation in the environment have been reported repeatedly with the cases of mercury levels in fish and the well-demonstrated impacts of DDT exposure to raptor populations (egg shell thinning accelerated the rapid decline in bald eagle populations in the United States). In most biological systems (including humans), under periods of stress, pregnancy, and fasting, for example, chemicals stored in the body are released into the bloodstream when fat stores are tapped, increasing the amount of toxins circulating in the body. The continued accumulation of synthetic chemicals in the body can therefore be very significant in determining the overall health of the individual or the person's offspring.

202

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Breast milk contains essential nutrients that are specifically designed for developing babies and provide essential building blocks for the immune system and growth.^^ Proteins, white blood cells, nucleotides, enzymes, and antibodies are each important components of breast milk. Breast milk also contains docosahexaenoic acid, which is responsible for growth of the brain and retina and myelinization of nervous tissue; cholesterol, which enhances myelinization of nervous tissue; taurine, which is important for bile acid function; choHne, which enhances memory; lactoferrin, which binds to iron transporting it to the baby; inositol, which enhances synthesis of surfactant in immature lung tissue; and polysaccharides, which inhibit bacterial binding to intestinal surfaces. While breast milk is the most important food for newborns and infants during critical periods of development, it may also be the primary route of exposure to many unsafe environmental contaminants. Fat-soluble chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), dioxins, and DDT are commonly found in maternal adipose tissue and are excreted via lipid-rich breast milk. Although mothers can limit contaminants in their breast milk by avoiding foods that may contain high concentrations of these compounds, many of these chemicals are already stored in the body from prior exposures and will be excreted in maternal milk.^^ Babies and children are much more susceptible to the effects of contaminants than are adults. The rapid growth and development of sensitive systems make chemical exposure particularly hazardous to babies.^^ The immature and porous blood-brain barrier allows chemicals to gain access to the brain.^^ In addition, systems that detoxify compounds in adults are not fully developed in infants.^^ The risk associated with children's chemical exposures is greater, pound for pound, than the risk for adults.^^ The synthetic chemicals most commonly found in breast milk are PCBs, DDT and its metabolites, dioxins, dibenzofurans, and PBDEs.^^ Other ^^ Bates CJ, Prentice A. 1994. Breast milk as a source of vitamins, essential minerals and trace elements. Pharmacol Ther 62(1-2): 193-220. ^^ Solomon GM, Weiss PM. 2002. Chemical contaminants in breast milk: time trends and regional variability. Environ Health Perspect 110(6):A339-A347. ^^ Landrigan PJ, Sonawane B, Mattison D, McCally M, Garg A. 2002. Chemical contaminants in breast milk and their impacts on children's health: an overview. Environ Health Perspect 110(6):A313-A315. ^" Landrigan PJ. 1999. Risk assessment for children and other sensitive populations. Ann NY Acad Sci 895:1-9. ^^ Landrigan PJ, Garg A. 2002. Chronic effects of toxic environmental exposures on children's Health. J Toxicol 40(4):449-456. '^^ EWG (Environmental Working Group). 2005. Body burden: the pollution in newborns. Available at www.ewg.org/reports/bodyburden2/execsumm.php [accessed March 23, 2006]. "^^ Landrigan PJ, Sonawane B, Mattison D, McCally M, Garg A. 2002. Chemical contaminants in breast milk and their impacts on children's health: an overview. Environ Health Perspect 110(6):A313-A315.

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synthetic chemicals detected include chlordane, dieldrin and aldrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH).^"^ The levels of these compounds in breast milk can even exceed the drinking water standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Contamination of breast milk is not unique to the United States, and studies of breast milk in China, Spain, the Netherlands, Ukraine, Canada, and Sweden revealed concentrations of pesticides, heavy metals, industrial compounds, and other harmful compounds.^^"^^ The characteristics of some of the most common compounds are described next. Since there are no standards for many of these compounds, comparisons will be made to the U.S. EPA's preliminary remediation goals (PRGs) for drinking water. PRGs are risk-based tools that standardize the cleanup of contaminant sites.

9.6.1 PBDEs (Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers) PDBE's are one of the most prevalent chemicals found in maternal milk.^^^'^^^ They are used in flame retardants in furniture foams, computers, and televisions. ^^^ PBDEs are persistent in the environment, resisting breakdown and bioaccumulating in animals. As a result, PBDEs build up in their tissues. These chemicals accumulate in fatty tissues and fluids like breast milk because they are lipophilic or "fat loving." Consequences of high exposure to PBDEs

^"^ Solomon GM, Weiss PM. 2002. Chemical contaminants in breast milk: time trends and regional variability. Environ Health Perspect 110(6):A339-A347. ^^ Ip HMH. 1983. Breast milk contaminants in Hong Kong. (The Bulletin of the Hong Kong Medical Association) 35:1-16. ^^ Hernandez LM, Fernandez MA, Hoy as E, Gonzalez MJ, Garcia JF. 1993. Organochlorine insecticide and poly chlorinated biphenyl residues in human breast milk in Madrid (Spain). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 50(2):308-315. ^^ Soechitram D, Chan SM, Nelson EAS, Brouwer A, Sauer PJJ. 2003. Comparison of dioxin and PCB concentrations in human breast milk samples from Hong Kong and the Netherlands. Food Addit Contam 20(l):65-69. ^^ Gladen BC, Monaghan SC, Lukyanova EM, Hulchiy OP, Shkyryak-Nyzhnyk ZA, Sericano JL, Little RE. 1999. Organochlorines in breast milk from two cities in Ukraine. Environ Health Perspect 107(6):459-462. ^^ Craan AG, Haines DA. Twenty-five years of surveillance for contaminants in human breast milk. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 355:702-710. ^^ Hooper K, McDonald TA. 2000. The PBDEs: an emerging environmental challenge and another reason for breast-milk monitoring programs. Environ Health Perspect 108:387-392. ^^^ Schecter A, Pavuk M, Papke O, Ryan JJ, Bimbaum L, Rosen R. 2003. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in U.S. mother's milk. Environ Health Perspect 111(14):1723-1729. ^^^ Solomon GM, Weiss PM. 2002. Chemical contaminants in breast milk: time trends and regional variabiHty. Environ Health Perspect 110(6):A339-A347.

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TOXIC LEGACY

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FIGURE 9-4 PBDEs in breast milk and fat samples around the world. From NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council). 2005. Healthy Milk, Healthy Baby. Available at www.nrdc.org/breastmilk [accessed March 23, 2006].

can include impaired development of the brain and thyroid, hearing deficits, delayed puberty, decreased sperm count, fetal malformations, and possibly cancer.^^^ Unlike levels of PCBs, dioxins, and DDT, PBDE concentrations in breast milk are actually increasing over time.^^"^'^^^ Figures 9-4 and 9-5, respectively, show concentrations of PBDEs around the world and in Swedish women, where the concentration is increasing. The United States has the highest levels of PBDE at 73.9ppb,^^^ which is approximately 10,000 times higher than the U.S. EPA's Region 9 2005 PBDE preliminary remediation goal (PRG) of 7.6E03 ppb for polybrominated phenols in drinking water. ^^^ Schecter A, Pavuk M, Papke O, Ryan JJ, Bimbaum L, Rosen R. 2003. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in U.S. mother's milk. Environ Health Perspect 111(14):1723-1729. ^' "^ Noren K, Meironyte D. 1998. Contaminants in Swedish human milk: decreasing levels of organochlorine and increasing levels of organobromine compounds. (Organohalogen Compounds) 38:1-4. '"^ Noren K, Meironyte D. 2000. Certain organochlorine and organobromine contaminants in Swedish human milk in perspective of past 20-30 years. Chemosphere 40:1111-1123. '^^ Schecter A, Pavuk M, Papke O, Ryan JJ, Bimbaum L, Rosen R. 2003. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in U.S. mother's milk. Environ Health Perspect 111(14): 1723-1729.

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9.6.2

PCBs PCBs, persistent and bioaccumulative compounds often found in breast milk, were used in industrial insulators and lubricants and have been banned since 1976. PCBs are known by the U.S. EPA to cause cancer and nervous system problems.^^^ They can also cause infant death, birth defects, and brain damage. PCB exposure in the womb or during lactation is associated with decreased IQ, impaired psychomotor development, decreased inmiune function, and skin disease. They are probable human carcinogens, and concentrations of PCBs in breast milk can exceed those of PBDEs (Figure 9-6). The 2005 Region 9 PRO for PCBs is 3.4E-02ppb in drinking water.

^^^ United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. Health effects of PCBs. Available at www.epa.gov/pcb/pubs/effects.html [accessed March 24, 2006].

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9.6.3 Dioxins These compounds can be found in flame retardants from plastics and are a byproduct of incineration. They are very toxic to the developing endocrine system, cause birth defects in animals, disrupt reproductive development, and affect immune and hormonal systems.'^^ They are also a known human carcinogen. Although the concentrations of dioxin found in breast milk may seem small compared to other chemicals drinking water (concentrations are less than 1 ppb), dioxin is potently more toxic. Dioxins' PRG is 4.5E-07ppb. Figure 9-7 shows various concentrations of dioxins around the world. Countries all over the world have concentrations with risks that range in the tens of thousands.

^°^ Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 1998. Toxicological profile for chlorinated dibenzo-/?-dioxins. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

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9.6.4

DDT and DDE DDT was used as a pesticide and enters the body through fruits, vegetables, fatty meat, fish, poultry, and contaminated drinking water. In the environment, DDT degrades into DDE and DDD. This pesticide is known as a possible human carcinogen and may cause decreased fertility, kidney and liver dysfunction, and immune system dysfunction. ^^^ DDT in breast milk is prevalent worldwide (Figure 9-8). Even after DDT was banned in 1972, it remains at a concentration of 264.45 ppb in breast milk. DDE is found at an even higher concentration, 790.3 ppb. The PRG for both DDE and DDT is 2.0E-01 ppb. The reason DDE concentrations are still high after being banned is related to the compound's high fat solubility and resistance to degradation. In developing

^^ Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2002. Toxicological profile for DDT, DDE, and DDD. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

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countries, DDT use has increased in agriculture and for malaria control. It is still used today in Africa, Asia, and Latin America for vector control.

9.6.5

Exceeding Standards Maternal milk is the main pathway through which fat-soluble toxic substances are eliminated from the body. As a result, concentrations are extremely high and can even surpass the FDA's standards for cow's milk set for adults (Figure 9-9). They can also exceed the federal drinking water standards (Table 9-5). The increased use of synthetic compounds and their release to the environment, along with their persistence in the environment following their release, and the bioaccumulation of the compounds in biological systems (foodstuffs and humans), means that impacts from these contaminants will be present for generations. A study conducted by the National Academy of Sciences suggests that 28% of childhood disabilities can be attributed to environmental

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TABLE 9-5

Contaminant

Human breast milk exceeds federal drinking water standards EPA Drinking Water Standard (ug/L) (EPA Region 9 PRGs)

Human Breast Milk Contaminant Levels (ug/L)

54 0.034 PCBs^^^ 73.9 0.07 PBDEs^^^ 0.0156 0.00000004 Dioxin*^^ 0.2 790.3 DDT/DDE/DDD^^' 1.7 1.2 Mercury"'* ^^° Van Leeuween, FXR, Malish, R. 2002. Results of the third round of WHO-coordinated exposure study on the levels of PCBs, PCDDs, and PCDFs in human milk. Organohologen Compounds 56:311-316. "^ Kalantzi O.L, Martin EL., Thomas CO., Alcock R.E., Tang H.R., Drury S.C, Carmichael RL., Nicholson J.K., and Jones K.C., 2004. Different levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and chlorinated compounds in breast milk from two U.K. regions. Environ. Health Perspectives, 112, 1085-1091 ^^^ LaKind, J., CM. BerUn, D. Naiman. 2001. Infant Exposure to Chemicals in Breast Milk in the United States: What We Need to Learn From a Breast Milk Monitoring Program. Environmental Health Perspectives. 109:1 ^^^ Jaga, K. and C Dharmani. 2003. Global Surveillance of DDT and DDE Levels in Human Tissues. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. 16(l):7-20. ^^"^ Abadin, H.C, B.F. Hibbs, and H.R. Pohl. 1997. Breast-feeding Exposure of Infants to Cadmium, Lead, Mercury: A Public Health Viewpoint. Toxicol. Ind. Health. 13(4):495-517.

factors.^^^ Since the 1980s there has been an increase in numerous childhood cancers.^^^ Autism has increased by a factor of 10, male birth defects and childhood asthma by a factor of 2, acute lymphocytic leukemia by 62%, and childhood brain cancer by 40%. Although pollutants may not be the sole cause of these increases, they may have contributed to the growing problem. As discussed previously, breast milk is a very good measure of the multiple contaminants to which humans are exposed. Thus, when evaluating the true toxic nature of synthetic chemicals in the environment, the degree to which chemical mixtures impact our health needs to be known.

9.7 MULTIPLE CONTAMINANTS AND INCREASING TOXIC RESPONSES A basic simplifying assumption in toxicology has been to study one compound at a time to determine the effect of exposure. Exposures in the real world are not "neat," therefore the basis for the previous toxicological studies (and the predicted public health outcomes) are limited in their ability to predict disease outcomes in the general population. Contaminants are absorbed and utilized in the body via pathways in which a number of compounds can/are detoxified. If the specific detoxification pathway is overwhelmed (saturated with contaminants) the body pushes the remaining contaminant through other pathways, leading to the toxic outcomes. It is therefore logical that exposure to multiple contaminants could/will lead to the saturation of detoxification pathways, increasing toxic responses. Put another way, the exposure to an increasing number of toxins (no matter what the concentration) will lead to greater and greater toxicity (a lower dose to elicit a response). In 2005, the Environmental Working Group (EWG) released the results of a biomonitoring program that confirmed that synthetic compounds were making their way into the bodies of newborns even before their birth. The cord blood from 10 infants bom in August 2004 and September 2004 in the United States as analyzed for synthetic compounds and metals. A total of 287 different chemicals were detected in the cord blood, with an average of 200 different compounds being detected in the 10 newborns. Compounds detected included organochlorine pesticides, perfluorochemicals, PDBEs, PCBs, polychlorinated naphthalenes, polychlorinated and polybrominated dibenzodioxins and furans (PCDD/F and PBDD/F), and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). According to EWG, 180 of the chemicals detected are carcinogens in animals or humans,

^^^ National Academy of Sciences. 2000. Scientific frontiers in developmental toxicology and risk assessment. Committee on Developmental Toxicology. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. ^^^ National Cancer Institute. 2002. National Cancer Institute Research on childhood cancers: fact sheet. Available at www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/NCI-childhood-cancers-research [accessed March 23, 2006].

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217 are known to be toxic to the brain and nervous system, and 208 cause birth defects or abnormal development in animal tests. The EWG study noted that significant impacts (adverse health/diseases) likely to be expressed in the newborns tested were as follows: • Because of a child's small body mass, chemical exposures are greater pound for pound than those of adults. • The undeveloped blood-brain barrier in the infant allows greater chemical exposures to the developing brain. • Children have fewer chemical-binding proteins allowing more of the chemical to reach "target organs." • Because a baby's organs and systems are still developing, they are more susceptible to chemical damage. • The systems that detoxify and excrete chemicals in adults are not fully developed in babies. The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976 mandated that manufacturers ensure that high production volume compounds be monitored from "cradle to grave." This term was meant to signify that the manufacturers and users could account for chemicals from the moment they were created to the moment that they were disposed of in a safe manner. The TSCA did not envision the accumulation of compounds in populations, nor the passage of those compounds from parent to child. Based on the results of the EWG study, this phrase should now be updated to "cradle to grave to cradle."

9.8 CHEMICAL MIXTURES AND TOXIC OUTCOMES Exposure to a complete carcinogen or a procarcinogen will cause the toxic response from exposure to less "carcinogenic" contaminants to increase. According to the state of California, environmental tobacco smoke is a carcinogen that will cause adolescent females to have increased rates of breast cancer. Carcinogens in the smoke, including benzene, a known cause of breast cancer, damage the immune system of the adolescent, allowing other contaminants to express their toxicity at a later date. A number of target organs affected by the chemicals of concern include the alimentary system, the development of a fetus, the endocrine system, the ocular system, the hematopoietic system, the immune system, the nervous system, the reproductive system, the respiratory system, and the dermal system. The impact to each system by synthetic chemicals must be accounted for when evaluating the toxicity of chemicals. A number of toxic agents may affect similar organ systems or create the opportunity for adverse reactions. In the case of environments that may expose an individual to multiple synthetic compounds at the same time, the effects can be wide ranging. For example (Table 9-6), in an environment that may contain PCBs, poly chlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs which are combustion products

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TABLE 9-6

Target Organs Affected by Toxic Air Contaminants (Chronic Toxicity)* Contaminant

Organ system Alimentary Cardiovascular Developmental Endocrine Ocular Hematological Nervous system Reproductive Respiratory

PCB

Dioxin-Like Compounds PCDF

X

X

X

X

X

X

Benzene

Formaldehyde

X

X

X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Potential Outcome

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

* Adapted from Table 10a of SCAQMD, 2005. Risk Assessment Procedures for Rules 1401 and 212, Version 7.0 (Latest Version), Procedures, Equations, and Assumptions Effective on or After July 1, 2005. See Attachment L, www.aqmd.gov/prdas/Risk%20Assessment/RiskAssessment.html.

of PCBs), benzene, and formaldehyde, the known affected target organs/systems include the alimentary system, the development of fetuses, the endocrine system, the ocular system, the nervous system, the reproductive system, and the respiratory system. The time at which a chemical is delivered is extremely important in the outcome. For agents that cause developmental delays or dysfunction (e.g., PCBs and PCDFs or other dioxin-like compounds), exposure to the compounds prior to conception may lead to the dysfunction of necessary germ cells (abnormal development of sperm or eggs). Silva et al. (2002)^^^ demonstrated that when eight weak estrogenic compounds (including PCBs) were combined below their individual no-observable effect concentration (NOEC), significant effects were measured in the experimental system. In a practical sense, this means that the threshold for adverse health outcomes was lowered when exposures to multiple synthetic chemicals occurred. The U.S. EPA has noted that the time in development at which an exposure occurs plays a significant role in the outcome of the exposure. For exposure to individuals who are less than 2 years of age, a multiplier of 10 should be used in the assessment; for individuals between the age of 2 and 16, a multiplier of 3 is used; and for individuals above the age of 16, no multiplier is used. The implications are that much lower environmental concentrations can lead to significant outcomes for the exposed populations. Children exposed to benzene in foods and air between the ages of 0 and 2 will receive a much greater impact than for exposures occurring after age 16. ^'^ Silva E, Rajapakse N, Kortenkamp A. 2002. Something from "nothing" — eight weak estrogenic chemicals combined at concentrations below NOEC's produce significant mixture effects. Environ Sci Technol 36(9):179A-180A.

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In summary, when dealing with chemical mixtures, a toxic outcome (e.g., cancer in a specific organ) becomes less specific with exposure to more toxins. In other words, a greater number of cancers will occur that are less specific to any one contaminant. Such outcomes are not amiable to the current regulatory reliance on single toxicity chemical standards. 9.9

WHAT DOSE IS SAFE? For most chemicals in the environment, the greater the concentration, the more toxic the outcome will be. However, this is not necessarily true for chemical mixtures. For chemical mixtures in the environment, it is logical that, given the totality of exposure from compounds to which an individual is exposed, a lower dose is necessary to elicit a response. Thus, exposure assessments that take into account potential chemical interactions will be necessary for estimating the toxic dose of single and multiple chemical mixtures in the real world. This is a necessary step in biological systems that are already understood to be very dynamic. As our understanding of the effects of chemicals on biological systems evolves, so does our understanding of what is "safe." As evidenced by Figure 9-10, it is clear that low doses of chemicals exert an effect on the system that 100

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may not be expressed at higher doses. In the case of the compound above very low doses result in suppression of the endocrine system. Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDC) express these effects in mammals by the inhibition of androgen receptors and the induction of aromatase, the enzyme that converts androgen to estrogen in mammals, amphibians, and potentially reptiles. This has been described as the demasculization of subject populations (the so-called "crossdressing carp"). Many endocrine-disrupting chemicals do not have a definable toxicological threshold level below which effects do not exist. This is in contrast to classic toxins that are assumed to have a monotonic (linear) dose response. A study on the survivorship pattern of larval amphibians' exposure to low concentrations of atrazine (a known EDC) shows that atrazine exhibits a nonmonotonic dose-response curve (NMDRC) similar to an inverted U. The result is that at low doses, survival was lower than at high doses.

9.10 IT IS NOT JUST THE DOSE THAT MAKES THE POISON Clearly the results of the water, air, and market basket studies cited earlier demonstrate that the environments of the cities evaluated are severely impacted by many synthetic chemicals. Individually, each chemical may not exceed a safe harbor level in one medium within a city (e.g, benzene may be below the MCL in drinking water), but when combined with the other media (e.g., benzene in food and air), the chemicals exceed the cumulative safe harbor level. The frequency with which the chemical insults occur, the variety of chemicals providing the insults, and the multiple pathways through which the insults occur make it evident that the cumulative dose of synthetic chemicals taken in daily by most Americans (the mixture of synthetic chemicals absorbed on a daily basis) will exceed any reasonable measure of what could be considered acceptable. Biomonitoring of newborns and adults has clearly demonstrated that the cumulative body burden of synthetic compounds in residents of the United States is significant, yet the cumulative effects of exposure to all of these compounds simultaneously has yet to be comprehensively studied. Based on the existing information, which demonstrates that from birth, the synthetic chemical body burden is significant and the knowledge that the threshold for toxicity is lower for chemical mixtures than for single chemicals, the paradigm by which standards or acceptable levels are derived must be revised to include the totality of exposures and the interaction between chemicals.

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10

THE BODY'S SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL BURDEN

In 1962, Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring on the hazards of synthetic pesticides. In this book she contends that "We have subjected enormous numbers of people to contact with these poisons, without their consent and often without their knowledge . . . we have allowed these chemicals to be used with little or no advance investigation of their effect on soil, water, wildlife, and man himself." There have been remarkable advances in understanding the toxicity and fate of individual pesticides in the environment, which continues to evolve since Carson's book was published. Yet most individuals are still unaware of the chemical mixtures to which they are exposed, and there is still "no advance investigation of their effect" as to how chemical mixtures impact human health. Rachel Carson also surmised that "They [pesticides] occur in mother's milk and probably in the tissues of the unborn child. . . . This situation also means that today the average individual almost certainly starts life with the first deposit of the growing load of chemicals in his body. . . . There has been no such parallel situation in medical history. No one yet knows what the ultimate consequences may be." Today, we know that the blood of newborn babies is contaminated with more than 287 different chemicals,^ and we still do not know the ultimate consequences of the growing chemical burden on our bodies. The increase in childhood disabilities, childhood cancers, and autism with the increased use of synthetic chemicals maybe more than a coincidence.

^ The Environmental Working Group report (2005) titled "Body Burden, the Pollution in Newborns."

217

Carson also observed that "The common salad bowl may easily present a combination of organic phosphate insecticides. Residues well within the legally permissible limits may interact. The full scope of the dangerous interaction of chemicals is as yet little known." Once again, this surmised "dangerous interaction" is still unknown. Since the potential for dangerous interactions of chemical mixtures was raised, there have been little or no advances in the medical sciences to address this issue. However, we do have more data on those chemicals to which we are exposed (as shown in Chapters 2 through 8) and have started to characterize the body's chemical burden.

10.1 THE BODY'S TOXIC BURDEN The most recent study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), published in July 2005, reported on the concentration of selected synthetic organic chemicals in blood and urine for the periods 1999-2000 and 2001-2002. The CDC evaluated the following basic types of chemicals (a list of the chemicals monitored is given in Appendix 10-1): • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are distributed throughout the environment because they are manufactured, occur in petroleum fuels, and are also generated by the incomplete burning of organic materials (e.g., coal, wood, petroleum fuels, tobacco, and charcoal-broiled meat). PAHs can occur in air, water, and food. Vehicle exhaust and smoke (e.g., tobacco and fires) are the most common sources of air pollution. Water can be contaminated (1) by coming in contact with petroleum fuels or petroleum wastes and (2) by atmospheric deposition. Food is most commonly contaminated by PAHs from the method of preparation (i.e., smoking, charcoal broiling, or roasting, which are not monitored for by the Food and Drug Administration [FDA]) as well as possibly being contaminated by air or water that contains PAHs. It is important to note that PAH contamination occurs as a mixture of PAH chemicals. • Dioxins, dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are all byproducts of industrial processes or chemical syntheses. Dioxins can also be created by incineration of waste and bleaching. PCBs (banned in 1979) were also extensively used in electrical/heat-exchange liquids. Individuals are primarily exposed to these chemicals in food as they accumulate in high-fat foods and fish with a high oil content. • Phthalates are industrial chemicals that are added to plastics to enhance flexibility. Individuals are usually exposed through direct contact with plastic products, through food that has come into contact with plastics, and through water (e.g., phthalates are common in industrial wastewater discharges).

218

TOXIC LEGACY

• Organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides are manufactured to be toxic. These compounds are distributed throughout the environment because they were directly apphed to land and crops, occur in runoff from cropland, and are released from manufacturing and waste disposal facilities. These compounds primarily contaminate food and sometimes water. When reviewing the list of chemicals monitored by the CDC in the blood and urine of individuals older than the age of 6, many of these chemicals are not looked for in our food and water. For example, although PAHs can occur in heated/charred foods, the FDA does not include these compounds in the Total Diet Study list of analyzed chemicals (see Appendix 2-1) and only benzo(a)pyrene is routinely monitored in drinking water (see Table 7-1). Furthermore, only the metabolites of PAHs are monitored because of the body's ability to break down these compounds. This also illustrates that the original synthetic chemical yields multiple chemical contaminants from the original compound.^ The FDA also does not look for phthalates in foods and only looks for one phthalate in drinking water. Many of the chemicals monitored in food and water are not analyzed by the CDC in their blood and urine chemical investigations. This is particularly true for industrial chemicals. A summary of the chemicals most frequently detected by the CDC is given in Table 10-1.^ When reviewing this table, note that (1) the concentration of the indicated PAHs was determined from the levels of detected breakdown byproducts and (2) the CDC could only characterize, for the most part, the metabolites of the organophosphate pesticides. Clearly, when trying to characterize the body's chemical burden, the CDC may have to look for not only the original chemical of interest but its associated by-products as well. Because the chemical monitoring of blood and urine is both difficult (i.e., establishing analytical methods for very low detection limits) and very expensive, the CDC cannot monitor for all of the chemicals that are likely to be in the human body. This is clearly evident in its most recent study (2005) where only a limited number of chemical compounds were examined. Furthermore, most of the common industrial chemicals (i.e., single-ring aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated aromatic and aliphatic compounds) that occur in food, water, and air are not even monitored by the CDC. As a result, we will most likely never know the true nature of the chemical mixtures (i.e., the original chemical and its by-products) that really exist in the human body. This means that the chemical contaminant data collected in our food, water, and air resources are even more important if we are going to try to forecast the likely chemical mixtures that occur in our bodies. Yet even these monitoring programs only analyze for a fraction of the 72,000 chemicals used in the United

^ Just because a chemical is degraded does not mean the resulting compounds are harmless. ^ The CDC was able to determine a mean concentration for the complete population sampled.

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TABLE 10-1

Chemicals Detected in Humans (CDC, 2005)

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Fluoranthene Fluorene Phenanthrene Pyrene Naphthalene

1999-2000 ng/L 13.4 611 379.3 79.8

2001-2002 ng/L 671 394.80 49.6 2050

Dioxins, Furans, and PCBs OCDD HpCDD HxCDD HpCDF PCB 126 PCB 138 & 158 PCB 153 PCB 169 PCB 180

346 39 34.6 9.64 22.7 19.9 27.2 17.9 19.2

Phthalates Dimethyl phthalate Diethyl phthalate Butyl phthalates Benzylbutyl phthalates Diethylhexyl phthalate Dioctyl phthalate Pesticides Hexachlorocylcohexane (HCB) Trichlorophenol DDE Chlordane Organophoshphate metabolites Dimethylthiophosphate Diethylphosphate Diethylthiophosphate Chlorpyrifos and chlorpyrifos-methyl 2,4-D Permethrin/cypermethrin Phenylphenol Dichlorobenzene ng/L = nanograms per liter (in blood or urine).

179 24.6 15.3 3.43

9.68 2.85 260

1.15 178 21.6 15.1 37.8 2.75

295 11.4

1.82 1.03 1.77 1.11

0.46 1.76 0.32

0.49 6.01

States today."^ Thus, it would appear that we will probably never be able to identify the true nature of the chemical mixtures in our bodies. In the meantime, the existing chemical monitoring data will have to serve as our only indicator of humankind's toxic legacy.

10.2 OUR TOXIC LEGACY The synthetic chemical mixtures that have been identified in food, water, and air resources of the 36 cities do not represent an individual's actual exposure to specific chemicals. The amount of sampling and chemical analyses that would have to be completed to provide a statistically meaningful indication of our exposure to chemical mixtures in food, water, and air is beyond any cost a foundation, state agency, or the federal government would be willing to pay. The current data only provide an indication of what chemical mixtures individuals in the cities that were studied may have been exposed to during the time period over which the data were collected. This being said, the data clearly show that where you live will significantly influence the number of different synthetic chemicals that will be in your food, water, and air. The data presented in the previous chapters show that each resource (food, water, or air) is contaminated with a unique set of different chemicals. Given this condition. Table 10-2 compares the most frequently encountered synthetic chemicals in each media. This comparison shows that the most frequently detected compounds in all three media include 11 pesticides, 24 industrial chemicalSy and 5 disinfection by-products. The synthetic chemicals that make up this mixture contribute to the total number of different compounds that may contaminate our bodies. When reviewing this list, note that two groups of chemicals occur in two or three of the media. The first group is made up of the single-ring aromatic compounds (benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylenes, styrene, and trimethylbenzene). The second group is composed of chlorinated industrial chemicals (tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene, and dichloromethane). Exposure to these compounds is associated typically with depressed immune responses, neurological disorders, and cancers. This result is important for several reasons. First of all, it is important to remember that there are other environmental sources of chemicals that contribute to the chemical body burden that are not routinely monitored by the federal government (i.e., as defined in the previous chapters). These sources include the following: • The home environment provides multiple sources of exposure to synthetic chemicals. For example, volatile chemicals from building materials, carpets, ^ National Research Council, Identifying Future Drinking Water Contaminants, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1999.

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TABLE 10-2

Comparison of Chemical Frequencies for All Resources

Most Frequent Synthetic Chemicals

Food

Water

Air

Pesticides (11) Atrazine Chlorpyrifos Chlorpyrifos-methyl DDE Dieldrin Diphenyl-2-ethylhexyl phosphate Endosulfan sulfate Iprodione Malathion Methoxychlor Permethrin

X X X X X X X X X X X

Industrial Chemicals (24) Benzene Butyl alcohol Dichloroethylene Dichloromethane Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Diisocyanates Dioxins* Ethyl benzene Ethylene glycol Glycol ethers Hexane Methanol Methyl ethyl ketone Methyl isobutyl ketone Methyl pyrrolidone Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) Napthalene PAHs* Perchloroethylene Styrene Trichloroethylene Trimethylbenzene Toluene Xylenes Disinfection By-Product (5)

X

Chloroform Chloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Haloacetic acids* Totat trihalomethanes*

X

* Mixture of chemicals.

X X X X X

X

X

X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X

X X

X X X

X X

X X X X

X X X X X

drapes, and furniture; the use of pesticides, paints, solvents and cleaning agents; emissions/particulates from a fireplace or furnace; dry cleaned garments; and personal care products like cosmetics. • A work environment provides similar sources of synthetic chemicals as a home environment with the addition of particulates from printers and copy machines and direct contact with chemicals or chemical emissions that result from daily operations. • Both urban and rural settings have vehicular traffic and associated fueling facilities that release both particulates (containing PAHs) and aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene). The urban environment, however, would be expected to have more particulate matter and single-ring aromatics due to more vehicular traffic/emissions and the occurrence of more diesel trucks and buses. • Individuals in agricultural areas (but not involved with agricultural operations) can also be exposed to pesticides during periods of application. Because there are multiple sources of chemicals throughout the environment, there is the potential for unexpected interactions. For example, as discussed in Chapter 9, if the detoxification pathway for benzene (a known human carcinogen) is saturated with other single benzene ring compounds (most probably toluene and xylene) benzene will not be destroyed and instead will be pushed through a secondary pathway that could lead to a toxic outcome. Furthermore, with the body potentially saturated with the single-ring aromatics (i.e., including benzene) from food (see Table 4-19), water, or industrial air sources, a small dose of benzene from automobiles while one is walking along a congested downtown street or filling his or her fuel tank could elicit a toxic response. This same discussion could also be relevant to the occurrence of both tetrachloroethlyene and trichloroethylene (chemically, very similar compounds) in food, water, and air. Yet there is not another widespread source of these compounds in the environment like there is for the single-ring aromatics. However, individuals with a number of chlorinated industrial chemicals already in their bodies could possibly have a toxic response from receiving a small dose of tetrachloroethylene while picking up their dry cleaning. Second, it is also important to remember that there are no governmental standards that limit the amount of single-ring aromatics that can occur in food or, for that matter, any industrial chemical. Furthermore, when considering the number and single-ring aromatics that occur in food along with the other sources of these chemicals in water, industrial air emissions, and vehicular sources, maybe the impact of single-ring aromatics on human health is more important than the occurrence of pesticide residues in food products. This may be particularly true in an urban environment. When reviewing all the data summarized in Tables 4-16, 7-37, 8-2, and 10-2, it is certain that the synthetic chemical mixture found in our food, water,

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223

TABLE 10-3 and Air)

Basic Synthetic Chemical Mixture (Food, Water,

Pesticides Chlorpyrifos Chlorpyrifos-methyl DDE Dieldrin Diphenyl-2-ethylhexyl phosphate Endosulfan sulfate Iprodione Malathion Methoxychlor Permethrin Single-Ring Aromatics Benzene Ethylbenzene Styrene Trimethylbenzene Toluene Xylenes Disinfection By-Products Chloroform Chloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Haloacetic acids* Total trihalomethanes* * Several dozen to hundreds of compounds.

and industrial air emissions will include a combination of at least 10 pesticides (mostly banned organochlorine compounds and organophosphate compounds), dozens of disinfection by-products, and at least two single-ring aromatic hydrocarbons (xylenes and toluene). This basic chemical mixture (Table 10-3) should be the subject of future toxicity studies to evaluate the potential human health impact of our chronic exposure to these chemicals. This mixture is the toxic legacy of environmental policies that allow our environment to be polluted by low levels of individual compounds. As demonstrated in the previous chapters, the magnitude to which an individual is exposed to our chemical legacy depends on where you live.

10.3 A NATIONAL CONTAMINANT RANKING When evaluating which factors influence the total number of different chemical contaminants that occur in a given city, toxic air emission from industrial facilities is very important. This is obvious because the absence or limited occurrence of industrial facihties and waste disposal sites in a city will

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TOXIC LEGACY

determine the number of different toxic air pollutants that will be emitted. Thus, it would be expected that cities with numerous industrial facilities (e.g., Baton Rouge and Los Angeles) will have a significant number of toxic air contaminants as compared to a dense residential/commercial area (e.g.. New York) or rural areas (e.g., Lafayette). This situation is well illustrated in Table 8-3. Chemical contamination of water resources that are utilized for drinking water is highly dependent on surface watershed characteristics that are usually outside city limits (i.e., area of rural versus urban land use and industrial/municipal discharges) and groundwater aquifer characteristics near sources of chemical releases. Therefore, even areas that are generally agricultural with relatively little industrial development (e.g., Fresno) can have water resources that are as contaminated as dense urban/industrial areas such as Los Angeles. Yet Baton Rouge has a significant amount of industrial development, but drinking water quality is very good. In other words, it is not easy to predict drinking water quality based on land use. This issue aside, one thing is certain: the occurrence of disinfection byproducts in tap water Considering the fact that cities that monitored for bromodichloromethane and chloroform had average concentrations greater than California's safe harbor levels, it would behoove all water utilities to monitor for these chemicals. The chances are good that a significant portion of the population has been and continues to be consuming at least two carcinogens in their tap water above safe harbor levels. The extent of chemical contamination in food is also difficult to predict based on city characteristics^ and because food processing facilities distribute products nationally. However, dairy products and to a more limited degree protein products tend to be produced in regions closer to their points of distribution. Therefore, the chemical diversity found in dairy and protein products generally reflects regional pollution characteristics. This is significant because dairy products contain the greatest number of toxic compounds that exceed the state of California safe harbor standards. It should also be noted that market basket 00-1 (Grand Rapids, Milwaukee, and Springfield) had the greatest number of contaminants in both dairy and protein products (see Figure 6-9). As a result of the chemical diversity in both dairy and protein products, it is possible that dairy and protein products are indicators of regional pollution characteristics. Given the complexity of the human environment, it is not easy to determine how regional land use and city characteristics may influence the chemical diversity found in each city. The contaminant profile of a city (i.e., extent of chemical mixtures in each media) is unique to that city and can only truly be

^ For example, population, percentage of industrial, agricultural, commercial, or recreational land use areas, climate, and topography.

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characterized by evaluating chemical data that have been collected for a specific city or region. The final city rankings were based on the individual food, water, and air rankings given in Tables 6-2, 7-36, and 8-1. The final city ranking that incorporates all of the individual rankings is given in Table 10-4 and illustrated in Figure 10-1. In reviewing the city rankings, there is some indication that cities TABLE 10-4

Total Chemical Contaminant Ranking

Final Ranking*

Cities

1 Lafayette, Louisiana 2 West Palm Beach, Florida 2 Sioux Falls, South Dakota 2 Long Beach, New Jersey 2 Peoria, Illinois 2 Ogden, Utah 3 Reno, Nevada 4 Baton Rouge, Louisiana 4 Charleston, South Carolina 4 Savannah, Georgia 4 Tulsa, Oklahoma 5 Binghamton, New York 5 Pueblo, Colorado 5 Worcester, Massachusetts 6 Fresno, CaUfomia 6 Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 6 Providence, Rhode Island 6 Tacoma, Washington 7 Boise, Idaho 7 Phoenix, Arizona 7 Springfield, Illinois 8 Dayton, Ohio 8 Denver, Colorado 8 Jackson, Mississippi 8 Portland, Oregon 9 Washington, D.C. 9 Grand Rapids, Michigan 9 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 9 New York, New York 9 San Antonio, Texas 10 Bakersfield, California 10 Columbus, Georgia 11 Orlando, Florida 11 Birmingham, Alabama 11 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 12 Los Angeles, California * As the rank increases, there is an increasing risk

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Total Points

Food Quality Contaminant Ranking

Water Quality Contaminant Ranking

7 2 3 2 9 3 4 10 3 9 11 1 4 11 3 12 2 5 13 4 6 1 2 15 4 2 15 1 15 6 15 5 1 10 17 5 7 17 6 17 10 3 3 18 11 10 18 5 2 18 9 4 5 18 8 7 19 7 3 19 4 8 19 7 4 20 4 6 20 2 12 20 4 6 20 21 8 11 6 8 22 4 22 11 9 22 11 12 22 3 12 5 23 2 12 23 8 11 25 4 12 26 9 8 26 10 7 28 of exposureto a more diverse group of chemicals.

Air Quality Contaminant Ranking 2 4 3 1 4 5 3 12 9 8 9 2 4 4 4 3 7 9 4 9 7 9 10 6 10 2 8 7 2 7 6 9 6 10 9 11

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with less industrial development (as measured by toxic industrial air emissions) do have less complex chemical mixtures contaminating their food, water, and air.

10.4 SUMMARY Chemical mixtures in the environment are a reality and should not be ignored. The chemical mixtures characterized for the 36 cities are a reality, and residents of these areas should be aware of the degree to which synthetic chemical toxins permeate their environments. The relative magnitude of the chemical diversity found in other cities in the United States, however, can only be determined by using chemical data collected specifically for that city or region. For those individuals who live outside the 36 cities that have been characterized, it can be generally assumed that they are exposed, at a minimum, to the previously defined basic chemical mixture given in Table 10-3. Fortunately, the freedom of personal choice allows individuals to limit their exposure to chemical mixtures by choosing safer foods and drinking bottled water (as well as treating their tap water). Minimizing our exposure to chemical mixtures in food and water, however, comes with an added economic cost. Thus, those unfortunate individuals or families who cannot afford to reduce their chemical exposure in food and water have few alternatives (i.e., they can avoid foods with a large number of individual chemical contaminants) but must continue to drink water contaminated with disinfection by-products and other potential chemical contaminants. Limiting one's exposure to toxic air emissions from industrial sources is not easy. Also, the closer a home is to a toxic air source, the greater chance of exposure. Any individuals or families that want to limit their exposure to toxic industrial air emissions have only one effective choice — move to a city with little or no industrial development or move to another area of the same city that is farther away from industrial sources. Both choices may not be practical nor economically possible. Since about the 1920s, federal and state laws have allowed industry and commercial businesses to pollute the environment with small amounts of individual chemical contaminants instead of bearing the cost of not polluting (i.e., to the degree technically possible). Because jobs are important, and given the competitive nature of a global economy, industries and commercial businesses will be allowed to continue to release low levels of known toxic compounds into the environment. This means that the cost of controlling the contamination of our bodies is the responsibility of the individual. Given this ultimate responsibility, we believe that the information provided in this text will help individuals understand some of the chemical complexities associated with living in a man-made environment and assist individuals in making informed decisions.

228

TOXIC LEGACY

APPENDIX

APPENDIX 2-1 MARKET BASKET CHEMICALS Organochlorine Pesticides 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 2,3,5,6-tetrachloroaniline 2,3,5,6-tetrachloroanisidine 2,4-dichloro-6-nitrobenzenamine 2-chloroethyl caprate 2-chloroethyllaurate 2-chloroethyl linoleate 2-chloroethyl myristate 2-chloroethyl palmitate 2-chloroethyl stearate alpha-cypermethrin anilazine atrazine BHC, alph BHC, beta BHC, delta bifenthrin captan chlordane, cis chlordane, trans chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyrifos

229

chlorpyrifos-methyl cyfluthrin cypermethrin DCPA DDE, p,p' DDT, o,p' DDT, p,p' deltamethrin dicloran dicofol, o,p' dicofol, p,p' dieldrin endosulfan I endosulfan II endosulfan sulfate endrin endrin ketone esfenvalerate fenarimol fenhexamid fenvalerate fluvalinate folpet heptachlor heptachlor epoxide hexachlorobenzene iprodione iprodione metabolite isomer isopropyl(3-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl)carbamate lambda-cyhalothrin lindane methoxychlor olefin methoxychlor, o,p' methoxychlor, p,p' metolachlor nonachlor, cis nonachlor, trans octachlor epoxide oxyfluorfen pentachloroaniline pentachlorobenzene pentachlorophenyl methyl ether pentachlorophenyl methyl sulfide permethrin, cis

230

APPENDIX

permethrin, trans polychlorinated biphenyls procymidone propiconazole quintozene simazine IDE, o,p' TDE, p,p' TDE, p,p'-olefin tecnazene tetradifon toxaphene tridiphane vinclozolin

Organophosphorus Pesticides acephate azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl bromophos bromophos-ethyl carbophenothion carbophenothion oxygen analog sulfone carbophenothion sulfone carbophenothion sulfoxide chlorfenvinphos, alpha chlorfenvinphos, beta chlorpyrifos chlorpyrifos-methyl coumaphos crotoxyphos cyanophos demeton-S demeton-S sulfone diazinon dichlofenthion dichlorvos dicrotophos dimethoate diphenyl 2-ethylhexyl phosphate disulfoton sulfone EPN

APPENDIX

231

ethion ethion oxygen analog fenamiphos fenitrothion fenthion fonofos gardona isofenphos malathion mecarbam metasystox thiol methidathion mevinphos, (e) mevinphos, (z) monocrotophos omethoate parathion parathion-methyl phorate sulfone phorate sulfoxide phosalone phosmet phosphamidon piperonyl butoxide pirimiphos-ethyl pirimiphos-methyl propetamphos ronnel terbufos tii(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate tri(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate tribufos tributyl phosphate trichlorfon triphenyl phosphate tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate tris(beta-chloroethyl) phosphate tris(chloropropyl) phosphate

N-Methylcarbamate Pesticides 3-hydroxycarbofuran aldicarb

232

APPENDIX

aldoxycarb BPMC bufencarb butocarboxim carbaryl carbofuran dioxacarb isoprocarb methiocarb methomyl metolcarb oxamyl promecarb

Chlorophenoxy Acid Pesticides 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,6-TBA 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-TB 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-DB 2,4-dichlorophenol 4-CPA acifluorfen bentazon bromoxynil chloramben clopyralid dicamba dichlorooctadecanoic acids dichlorprop fenac fluroxypyr haloxyfop MCPA MCPB mecoprop pentachlorophenol picloram quinclorac

APPENDIX

233

silvex triclopyr

Pyrethroid Pesticides alpha cypermethrin bifenthrin cypermethrin cyfluthrin deltamethrin esfenvalerate fenpropathrin fenvalerate fluvaUnate lambda-cyhalothrin permethrin, cis- and transtetramethrin tralomethrin zeta-cypermethrin

Substituted Urea Pesticides chlorbromuron chloroxuron diuron fenuron Hnuron metobromuron metoxuron monoHnuron monuron neburon

Volatile Organic Compounds/Industrial Chemicals 1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane 1,1,1 -trichloroethane 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane 1,1,2-trichloroethane 1,1-dichloroethane

234

APPENDIX

1,1 -dichloropropene 1,2,3-trichloropropane 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1,2-dichloroethene, cis 1,2-dichloroethene, trans 1,2-dichloropropane 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,3-dichloropropene, cis 1,3-dichloropropene, trans benzene bromobenzene bromochloromethane bromodichloromethane bromoform butylbenzene, n butylbenzene, sec butylbenzene, tert carbon tetrachloride chlorobenzene chloroform chlorotoluene, o chlorotoluene, p-(4-chlorotoluene) cumene (isopropyl benzene) dichlorobenzene, o dichlorobenzene, p ethyl benzene ethylene dibromide ethylene dichloride methylene bromide (dibromomethane) propylbenzene, n polychlorinated biphenyls styrene tetrachloroethylene toluene trichloroethylene xylene, m- and/or p xylene, o

APPENDIX

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APPENDIX

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241

APPENDIX 4-2

Dairy Products — Yogurts

Product Chemical Class MB 96-1 96-2 97-1 98-1 98-2 98-3 98-4 99-1 99-3 00-1 00-3 01-3 Totals

242

APPENDIX

Plain Yogurt (Low Fat) Num

ppb

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244

APPENDIX

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APPENDIX 4-48

Child/Infant Products — No Chemical Contaminants

96-1 96-2 97-1 98-1 98-2 98-3 98-4 99-1 99-3 00-1 00-3 01-3 Totals

Custard Pudding (Strained)

Creamed Corn (Strained)

Bananas and Tapioca

Product Chemical Class MB

Num

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Num

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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ND 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ND 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ND = No Data

APPENDIX 4-49 Product Chemical Class MB 96-1 96-2 97-1 98-1 98-2 98-3 98-4 99-1 99-3 00-1 00-3 01-3 Totals Average Probably in product

Child/Infant Products — Strained Vegetabl es with Very Low Contaminants

IC Num ppb Xyl 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

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APPENDIX

351

352

APPENDIX

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APPENDIX 4-51 Product Chemical Class MB 96-1 96-2 97-1 98-1 98-2 98-3 98-4 99-1 99-3 00-1 00-3 01-3 Totals

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APPENDIX 7-40

Worcester Surface Water Data Constituent

State

PWSJD

Source

POE

MA MA MA MA MA

MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000

DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water

Filtration Filtration Filtration Filtration Filtration

Chloroform Chloroform Chloroform Chloroform Chloroform

MA MA MA MA MA

MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000

DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water

Filtration Filtration Filtration Filtration Filtration

Bromodichloromethane Bromodichloromethane Bromodichloromethane Bromodichloromethane Bromodichloromethane

MA MA MA MA MA

MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000 MA2348000

DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water DPW, Water

Filtration Filtration Filtration Filtration Filtration

Chlorodibromomethane Chlorodibromomethane Chlorodibromomethane Chlorodibromomethane Chlorodibromomethane

LeveLNO

Unit

23 19 15 14 15 17.2 4.7 5.6 5.6 3.9 4.1 4.78 0.8 0.9 0.67 0.6 0.5 0.7

ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L

APPENDIX

ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L ug/L

485

APPENDIX 8-1

EPA-Regulated Air Toxic List: Synthetic Organic Chemicals

Acetaldehyde Acetamide Acetonitrile Acetophenone 2-Acetylaniinofluorene Acrolein Acrylamide Acrylic acid Acrylonitrile AUyl chloride 4-Aminobiphenyl Aniline o-Anisidine Benzene (including benzene from gasoline) Benzidine Benzotrichloride Benzyl chloride Biphenyl Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate Bis(chloromethyl)ether Bromoform 1,3-Butadiene Calcium cyanamide Caprolactam Captan Carbaryl Carbon disulfide Carbon tetrachloride Carbonyl sulfide Catechol Chloramben Chlordane Chlorine Chloroacetic acid 2-Chloroacetophenone Chlorobenzene Chlorobenzilate Chloroform Chloromethyl ether Chloroprene Cresols/cresylic acid (isomers and mixture) o-Cresol m-Cresol p-Cresol Cumene 2,4-D, salts and esters DDE Diazomethane Dibenzofurans 1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane Dibutylphthalate

486

APPENDIX

1,4-Dichlorobenzene(p) 3,3-Dichlorobenzidene Dichloroethyl ether (Bis(2-chloroethyl)ether) 1,3-Dichloropropene Dichlorvos Diethanolamine N,N-Diethyl aniline (N,N-DimethylaniHne) Diethyl sulfate 3, 3-Dimethoxybenzidine Dimethyl aminoazobenzene 3,3'-Dimethyl benzidine Dimethyl carbamoyl chloride Dimethyl formamide 1,1-Dimethyl hydrazine Dimethyl phthalate Dimethyl sulfate 4,6-Dinitro-o-cresol, and salts 2,4-Dinitrophenol 2,4-Dinitrotoluene 1,4-Dioxane (1,4-diethyleneoxide) 1,2-Diphenylhydrazine Epichlorohydrin (I-Chloro-2,3-epoxypropane) 1,2-Epoxybutane Ethyl acrylate Ethyl benzene Ethyl carbamate (urethane) Ethyl chloride (chloroethane) Ethylene dibromide (dibromoethane) Ethylene dichloride (1,2-dichloroethane) Ethylene glycol Ethylene imine (aziridine) Ethylene oxide Ethylene thiourea Ethylidene dichloride (1,1-dichloroethane) Formaldehyde Heptachlor Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachlorocyclopentadiene Hexachloroethane Hexamethylene-1,6-diisocyanate Hexamethylphosphoramide Hexane hydrazine Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen fluoride (hydrofluoric acid) Hydrogen sulfide Hydroquinone Isophorone Lindane (all isomers)

APPENDIX 8-1

Continued

Maleic anhydride Methanol Methoxychlor Methyl bromide (bromomethane) Methyl chloride (chloromethane) Methyl chloroform (1,1,1-trichloroethane) Methyl ethyl ketone (2-butanone) Methyl hydrazine Methyl iodide (lodomethane) Methyl isobutyl ketone (hexone) Methyl isocyanate Methyl methacrylate Methyl tert butyl ether 4,4-Methylene bis(2-chloroaniUne) Methylene chloride (dichloromethane) Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) 4,4-Methylenedianiline Naphthalene Nitrobenzene 4-Nitrobiphenyl 4-Nitrophenol 2-Nitropropane N-Nitroso-N-methylurea N-Nitrosodimethylamine N-Nitrosomorpholine Parathion Pentachloronitrobenzene (quintobenzene) Pentachlorophenol Phenol p-Phenylenediamine Phosgene Phosphine Phosphorus Phthalic anhydride Polychlorinated biphenyls (aroclors)

1,3-Propane sultone beta-Propiolactone Propionaldehyde Propoxur(baygon) Propylene dichloride (1,2-dichloropropane) Propylene oxide 1,2-Propylenimine (2-methyl aziridine) Quinoline Quinone Styrene Styrene oxide 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene) Toluene 2,4-Toluene diamine 2,4-Toluene diisocyanate o-Toluidine Toxaphene (chlorinated camphene) 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Trichloroethylene 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Triethylamine TrifluraHn 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane Vinyl acetate Vinyl bromide Vinyl chloride VinyUdene chloride (1,1-dichloroethylene) Xylenes (isomers and mixture) o-Xylenes m-Xylenes p-Xylenes

APPENDIX

487

APPENDIX 8-2

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Bakersfield, CA Pounds/Year 1999

2000

2001

Total

365 2,369 0 0 0 0 1,000 0

376 2,879 255 505 0 0 1,700 0

1,196 2,010 255 505 0 0 2,000 6.8

1,553 2,760 255 505 250 0 1,819 0

7,645 19,827 765 1,515 250 2,366 12,969 6.8

1,950 1,435 32,250 9,150 6,755 500 0 5,150 0

1,000 1,153 20,616 6,910 2,610 500 0 1,950 0

1,158 0 19,317 4,000 2,505 500 0 1,750 0

1,000 1,010 20,151 2,700 2,915 87 10 1,750 13

1,000 1,500 18,786 3,600 2,850 83 10 1,750 141

8,658 6,634 140,370 33,410 23,035 1,757 20 19,500 154

15,283 6,319 9,243 100,054

223,852 4,087 6,179 272,591

23,100 3,410 5,967 67,422

21,110 3,847 7,501 68,066.8

14,110 4,464 7,986 63,422

308,565 29,224 45,798 662,468.8

1997

Chemical

1996

1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Benzene Carbon disulfide Carbonyl sulfide Chlorobenzene Creosote Cyclohexane Dioxin and dioxin-like compounds Ethylene Ethylbenzene Methanol Methyl tert butyl ether N-hexane N-methyl-2-pyrroHdone Naphthalene Propylene Polycyclic aromatic compounds Styrene Toluene Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

1,655 4,969 0 0 0 1,337 2,800 0

2,500 4,840 0 0 0 1,029 3,650 0

2,550 1,536 29,250 7,050 5,400 87 0 7,150 0 11,110 7,097 8,922 90,913

488

APPENDIX

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX 8-4

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Binghamton, NY Pounds/Year

Chemical Certain glycol ethers Diethanolamine Total

492

APPENDIX

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

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APPENDIX 8-6

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Boise, ID Pounds/Year

Chemical 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Benzene Certain glycol ethers Ethylbenzene Ethylene glycol Methyl ethyl keytone Methyl tert butyl ether N-butyl alcohol N-hexane N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone Styrene Toluene Toluene-2,6-diisocyanate Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

0 0 250 0 0 16,400 0 0 0 1,800 58 0 0 0 18,508

0 0 250 0 5 10,700 0 0 0 1,005 63,343 0 0 0 75,303

155 5,976 255 576 260 19,300 907 10,780 0 1,010 189,566 8,616 0 20,155 257,556

144 5,214 255 506 255 16,700 764 0 9,580 1,010 193,880 7,874 1,738 4,346 242,266

118 3,534 255 357 260 16,200 629 0 6,640 1,010 206,560 5,299 0 2,572 243,434

117 12,706 255 1,083 265 14,000 636 0 21,260 786 117,460 15,840 0 5,712 190,120

534 27,430 1,520 2,522 1,045 93,300 2,936 10,780 37,480 6,621 770,867 37,629 1,738 32,785 1,027,187

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W W P-l

APPENDIX

503

APPENDIX 8-11

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Fresno, CA Pounds/Year

Chemical 1,1 -Dichloro-1 -fluoroethane Chlorodifluoromethane Diethanolamine Diisocyanates Dichloromethane Maneb Malathion Methyl ethyl keytone Napthalene Styrene Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Thiobencarb Trifluralin Total

504

APPENDIX

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

8,550 10,647 5 115 0 0 250 0 0 43,556 0 500 0 63,623

10,833 10,776 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 39,676 0 500 0 61,785

13,380 13,031 0 0 50 0 0 11,500 0 167,801 0 250 0 206,012

9,827 9,221 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 111,309 250 0 0 130,612

7,368 6,723 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 56,000 0 0 4 70,095

5,345 5,285 0 0 0 6 0 0 4 37,455 0 0 2 48,097

55,303 55,683 5 120 50 6 250 11,500 4 455,797 250 1,250 6 580,224

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX 8-13

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Harrisburg, PA PoundsAfear

Chemical 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Benzene Certain glycol ethers Cumene Ethylbenzene N-hexane Toluene Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

506

APPENDIX

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

0 0 59,710 0 0 0 0 0 59,710

0 0 30,181 0 0 0 0 0 30,181

0 845 74,800 5 163 1,196 1,276 740 79,025

0 829 0 6 141 952 1,173 646 3,747

0 782 0 6 135 870 1,097 611 3,501

75 608 0 0 126 1,006 1,022 540 3,377

75 3,064 164,691 17 565 4,024 4,568 2,537 179,541

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APPENDIX

507

APPENDIX 8-15

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Lafayette, LA Pounds/Year

508

Chemical

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

Certain glycol ethers Sec-butyl alcohol Toluene Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

0 143 571 1339 2053

800 0 850 630 2280

0 0 0 223 223

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

800 143 1421 2192 4556

APPENDIX

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APPENDIX 8-18

Total Toxic Air Emissions — New York, NY PoundsAfear

Chemical Benzo(g,h,i) perylene Dioxin and dioxin-like compounds Polycylic aromatic compounds Total

APPENDIX 8-19

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 0.41 0 1.41

1 0.4885 5 6.4885

2 0.8985 5 7.8985

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Ogden, UT Pounds/Year

Chemical

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Certain glycol ethers Diethanolamine Dichloromethane Ethylbenzene Ethylene glycol Methanol Methyl ethyl keytone Methyl isobutyl keytone N-butyl alcohol Naphthalene Phosgene Phenol Propylene Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Toluene Trichloroethylene (TCE) Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

1,559

2,942

2,446 577 4 114

2,652 8 2 134

6,233

2,268

33

10,971 1,000 3,308

35 830 26 11,750 2,878

42 17,000 2,847

1,010 11,994 4,300 5,083

450 27 1,301 11,474 7,300 1,810

5,400

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5,200

4,800

5,400

250

750

9,562 43,232

16,080 2,200 49,060

18,100 585 6 248 450 95 3,141 34,507 42,350 17,397 936 25,800 5,400 1,000 10,973 43,021 62,075 43,729 309,813

1,000 1,471 936 5,400

10,973 20,893 10,443 3,344 45,046

22,032 12,960 2,092 60,705

11,800 13,016 59,449

96 10,792 13,515 52,321

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APPENDIX 8-25

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Providence, RI PoundsAfear

Chemical 1,1 -Dichloro-1 -fluoroethane 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 1,1,1 -Trichloroethane Benzene Certain glycol ethers Chlorobenzene Chlorohexane Cyclohexane Dibutylphthalate Diethanolamine Dichloromethane Ethylbenzene Ethylene glycol Formaldehyde Methanol Methyl ethyl keytone Methyl isobutyl keytone Methyl tert butyl ether N-butyl alcohol N-hexane N,N-dimethylformamide Naphthalene Polycyclic aromatic compounds Styrene Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Toluene Trichloroethylene (TCE) Triethylamine Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

1997

1996

1998

1999

2000

2001

2,455 102

85

760

848

2,319 25,815 18

1,909 28,977 4 160

2,363 17,561

3,670 13,426

10,518 29,651 15

22,807 16

709

151 1 1,384 1 1 171 158,914

1 1 2,295 26 1 2 108 168,620 12,000

584 520 2 2 166 200,998

101 445 10 1 144 215,956 25,502

34,187

1

4,341 3 500

1 3,256 5

438,851

8 400 51,756

8 500 65,830

56,253 700,987

2,233 324,105

8,820 351,714

7

5

647,565 14,250 83,991 948,924

250 184 997 1 138 175,671 28,292 6 3,832 3 5 7 7 500 86,815

10,732 328,833

117 1,347 10 1 94 121,120 32,035 5 4,249

8 4 500 47,175 40 4,145 228,794

Total 2,455 1,795 10,518 10,261 138,237 53 869 151 1 252 4,665 3,335 24 8 821 1,041,279 37,502 94,514 12 15,678 12 505 15 39 1,900 1,337,992 14,250 40 166,174 2,883,357

APPENDIX

521

APPENDIX 8-26

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Pueblo, CO PoundsAfear

Chemical 1,3-Butadiene Benzene Chlorofluoromethane Creosote Diisocyanates Dioxin and dioxin-like compounds Dichloromethane Ethylene Ethylene glycol Methanol Naphthalene Polycylic aromatic compounds Propylene Toluene Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

APPENDIX 8-27

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

0 0 53,000 0 0 0

0 0 25,000 0 0 0

72 3,579 2,500 0 0 0

72 3,579 2,500 22 29 0

60 2,491 2,900 0 27 0.34

64 3,122 8,400 0 0 0.34

268 12,771 94,300 22 56 0.68

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1,538 676 2 731 1,682 13

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0 12,000 8,000 45,000

255 284 9,100 21,188

255 284 4,700 15,745

252 282 0 10,654.34

253 0 0 14,758.34

5,400 2,168 6 2,922 6,743 24 1,015 24,850 32,700 183,245.7

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Reno, NV Pounds/Year

Chemical 1,1 -Dichloro-1 -fluoroethane 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Dichloromethane Certain glycol ethers Diisocyanates Dimethylamine Ethylbenzene Toluene Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

522

APPENDIX

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

10,756 0 0 14,148 0 38 5 299,324 17 324,288

9,719 8,191 0 11,346 0 50 7 619,855 29 649,197

10,171 7,058 0 3,300 30 0 0 555,859 12 576,430

0 0 7,160 0 0 0 0 471,286 14 478,460

0 0 8,984 0 0 0 1,188 319,721 13 329,906

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 235,337 12 235,349

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APPENDIX 8-30

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Sioux Falls, SE) Pounds/Year

Chemical 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Certain glycol ethers Ethylbenzene Methyl ethyl keytone Methyl isobutyl keytone PolycycUc aromatic compounds Styrene Toluene Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

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16,862 0 13,394 19,352 0 0 48,000 0 205,733 303,341

15,740 0 12,201 0 0 0 146,375 0 199,171 373,487

0 3,120 0 0 0 0 122,344 0 147,597 273,061

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0 0 0 0 0 0 41,473 25,994 144,655 212,122

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APPENDIX

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APPENDIX 8-34

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Washington, D.C. PoundsAfear

Chemical Dioxin and dioxin-like compounds Total

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0.12 0.12

0.1 0.1

0.22 0.22

APPENDIX

531

532

APPENDIX

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APPENDIX 8-36

Total Toxic Air Emissions — Worcester, MA Pounds/Year

Chemical Benzo(g,h,i) perylene Certain glycol ethers Ethylene glycol Formaldehyde Methanol Methyl ethyl keytone Methyl isobutyl keytone Phenol Polycylic aromatic compounds Toluene Trichloroethylene (TCE) Xylene (mixed isomers) Total

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Total

0 9,157 1,500 250 40,983 47,213 0 7,600 0 18,062 22,026 1,752 148,543

0 10,183 7,740 0 50,164 51,282 0 8,966 0 23,727 20,169 2,403 174,634

0 10,706 6,548 0 67,620 46,997 695 8,024 0 20,655 16,170 3,030 180,445

0 9,788 6,704 0 64,288 54,544 748 5,223 0 21,277 18,099 1,490 182,161

16 9,524 6,420 0 48,578 45,902 589 4,417 1,507 15,085 17,662 2,776 152,476

0 9,193 5,865 0 10,559 11,575 0 6,481 32 3,474 0 1,102 48,281

16 58,551 34,777 250 282,192 257,513 2,032 40,711 1,539 102,280 94,126 12,553 886,540

APPENDIX

533

APPENDIX 9-1 Proposition 65 Safe Harbor Levels for No Significant Carcinogens (2005) Carcinogen A-alpha-C (2-aniino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole) Acetaldehyde Acetamide 2-Acetylaniinofluorene Acrylamide Acrylonitrile Actinomycin D AF-2 [2-(2-furyl)-3(5-nitro-2-furyl)acrylamide] Aldrin 2-Aminoanthraquinone o-Aminoazotoluene 4-Aniinobiphenyl 3-Aniino-9-ethylcarbazole hydrochloride 1 - Amino-2-methylanthraquinone 2-Aniino-5-(5-nitro-2-furyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole Amitrole Aniline o-Anisidine o-Anisidine hydrochloride Aramite Arsenic Asbestos Auramine Azaserine Azathioprine Azobenzene Benz [a] anthracene Benzene Benzidine B enzo [b] fluoranthene B enzo [j ] fluoranthene Benzofuran Benzo[a]pyrene Benzyl chloride Benzyl violet 4B Beryllium Beryllium oxide Beryllium sulfate Bis(2-chloroethyl)ether Bis(chloromethyl)ether Bromodichloromethane Bromoform 1,3-Butadiene Butylated hydroxyanisole beta-Butyrolactone Cadmium

534

APPENDIX

Risk —

ug/day 90 (inhalation) 10 0.2 0.2 0.7 0.00008 3 0.04 20 0.2 0.03 9 5 0.04 0.7 100 5 7 20 0.06 (inhalation) 10 (except inhalation) 100 fibers/day (inhalation) 0.8 0.06 0.4 6 0.033 (oral) 6.4 (oral) 13 (inhalation) 0.001 0.096 (oral) 0.11 (oral) 1.1 0.06 4 30 0.1 0.1 0.0002 0.3 0.02 5 64 0.4 4000 0 0.05 (inhalation)

APPENDIX 9-1

Continued

Carcinogen Captafol Captan Carbazole Carbon tetrachloride N-Carboxymethyl-N-nitrosourea Chlorambucil Chlordane Chlordecone (kepone) Chlorendic acid Chlorinated paraffins Chloroethane (ethyl chloride) Chloroform Chloromethyl ether (technical grade) 3-Chloro-2-methylpropene 4-Chloro-ortho-phenylenediamine Chlorothalonil p-Chloro-ortho-toluidine p-Chloro-o-toluidine, hydrochloride Chlorozotocin Chromium (hexavalent) Chrysene C.I. Basic Red 9 monohydrochloride Cinnamyl anthranilate Coke oven emissions p-Cresidine Cupferron Cyclophosphamide (anhydrous) Cyclophosphamide (hydrated) D&C Red No. Dacarbazine Daminozide Dantron (chrysazin; 1,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone) DDT, DDE, DDD (in combination) DDVP (Dichlorvos) 2,4-Diaminoanisole 2,4-Diaminoanisole sulfate 4,4'-Diaminodiphenyl ether (4,4'-oxydianiline) 2,4-Diaminotoluene Dibenz [a,h] anthracene 7H-Dibenzo[c,g]carbazole Dibenzo[a,h]pyrene Dibenzo[a,i]pyrene 1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane p-Dichorobenzene 3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine 1,1 -Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride) Dichloromethane (methylene chloride)

ug/day 5 300 4.1 5 0.70 0.002 0.5 0.04 8 8 150 20 (oral) 40 (inhalation) 0.3 5 40 200 3 3.3 0.003 0.001 (inhalation) 0.35 (oral) 3 200 0.3 5 3 1 1 9100 0.01 40 9 2 2 30 50 5 0.2 0.2 0.0030 (oral) 0.0054 (oral) 0.0050 (oral) 0.1 20 0.6 100 10 200 (inhalation)

APPENDIX

535

APPENDIX 9-1

Continued

Carcinogen 1,2-Dichloropropane Dieldrin Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) Diethylstilbesterol Diglycidyl resorcinol ether (DGRE) Dihydrosafrole 3,3'-Dimethoxybenzidine (o-Dianisidine) 3,3'-Diniethoxybenzidine dihydrochloride 4-Dimethylaminoazobenzene trans-2-[(Dimethylamino)methyliniino]-5 [2-(5-nitro-2-furyl)vinyl]-1,3,4-oxadiazole 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene 3,3'-Diniethylbenzidine (o-Tolidine) 3,3 '-DimethyIbenzidine dihydrochloride Dimethylcarbamoyl chloride 1,2-Dimethylhydrazine Dimethylvinyl chloride 2,4-Dinitrotoluene 1,4-Dioxane Direct Black 38 (technical grade) Direct Blue 6 (technical grade) Direct Brown 95 (technical grade) Disperse Blue 1 Epichlorohydrin Estradiol 17b Ethyl-4,4'-dichlorobenzilate (chlorobenzilate) Ethylene dibromide Ethylene oxide Ethylene thiourea Ethyleneimine Folpet Formaldehyde (gas) 2-(2-Formylhydrazino)-4-(5-nitro-2-furyl)thiazole Furmecyclox GIu-P-1 (2-Amino-6-methyldipyrido[l,2-a:3',2'-d]imidazole) Glu-P-2 (2-Aminodipyrido[ 1,2-a:3',2'-d]-iniidazole) Gyromitrin (acetaldehyde methylformylhydrazone) HC Blue 1 Heptachlor Heptachlorepoxide Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorocyclohexane alpha isomer beta isomer gamma isomer technical grade Hexachlorodibenzodioxin Hexachloroethane Hydrazine

536

APPENDIX

ug/day 9.7 0.04 310 0.002 0.4 20 0.15 0.19 0.2 2 0.003 0.044 0.059 0.05 0.001 20 2 30 0.09 0.09 0.1 200 9 0.02 7 0.2 (oral) 3 (inhalation) 2 20 0.01 200 40 0.3 20 0.1 0.5 0.07 10 0.2 0.08 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.0002 20 0.04

APPENDIX 9-1

Continued ug/day

Carcinogen Hydrazine sulfate Hydrazobenzene (1,2-diphenylhydrazine) IQ (2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline) Isobutyl nitrite Lasiocarpine Lead Lead acetate Lead phosphate Lead subacetate Me-A-alpha-C (2-amino-3-methyl-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole) MelQ (2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo-[4,5 f]quinoline) MelQx (2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo-[4,5 f]quinoxaline) Melphalan 2-Methylaziridine (propyleneimine) Methyl carbamate 3-Methy Icholanthrene 5-Methylchrysene 4,4'-Methylene bis(2-chloroaniline) 4,4'-Methylene bis(N,N-dimethyl)benzeneamine 4,4'-Methylene bis(2-methylaniline) 4,4'-Methylenedianiline 4,4'-Methylenedianiline dihydrochloride Methylhydrazine Methylhydrazine sulfate Methyl methane sulfonate 2-Methyl-l-nitroanthraquinone N-Methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine Methylthiouracil Michler's ketone Mirex Mitomycin C Monocrotaline 5-(Morphohnomethyl)-3-[(5-nitrofurfuryUdene)-amino] -2-oxazolidinone MX (3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5M-furanone) Nalidixic acid Naphthalene 2-Naphthylamine Nickel refinery dust Nickel subsulfide Nitrilotriacetic acid Nitrilotriacetic acid, trisodium salt monohydrate 5 -Nitroacenaphthene 5-Nitro-o-anisidine Nitrofen (technical grade) Nitrofurazone l-[(5-NitrofurfuryUdene)-amino]-2-imidazolidinone N-[4-(5-Nitro-2-furyl)-2-thiazolyl] acetamide N-Nitrosodi-n-butylamine

0.2 0.8 0.5 7.4 0.09 15 (oral) 23 (oral) 58 (oral) 41 (oral) 0.6 0.46 0.41 0.005 0.028 160 0.03 0.0084 (oral) 0.5 20 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.058 (oral) 0.090 (inhalation) 0.18 7 0.2 0.08 2 0.8 0.04 0.00009 0.07 0.18 0.11 28 5.8 0.4 0.8 0.4 100 70 6 10 9 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.06

APPENDIX

537

APPENDIX 9-1

Continued

Carcinogen N-Nitrosodiethanolamine N-Nitrosodiethylamine N-Nitrosodimethylamine p-Nitrosodiphenylamine N-Nitrosodiphenylamine N-Nitrosodi-n-propylamine N-Nitroso-N-ethylurea 4-(N-Nitrosomethylamino)-1 -(3-pyridyl)-i-butanone N-Nitrosomethylethylamine N-Nitroso-N-methylurea N-Nitroso-N-methylurethane N-Nitrosomorpholine N-Nitrosonomicotine N-Nitrosopiperidine N-Nitrosopyrrolidine Pentachlorophenol Phenacetin Phenazopyridine Phenazopyridine hydrochloride Phenesterin Phenobarbital Phenoxybenzamine Phenoxybenzamine hydrochloride o-Phenylenediamine o-Phenylenediamine dihydrochloride Phenyl glycidyl ether Phenylhydrazine Phenylhydrazine hydrochloride o-Phenylphenate, sodium Polybrominated biphenyls Polychlorinated biphenyls Polygeenan Ponceau MX Ponceau 3R Potassium bromate Procarbazine Procarbazine hydrochloride 1,3-Propane sultone beta-Propiolactone Propylthiouracil Reserpine Safrole Sterigmatocystin Streptozotocin Styrene oxide Sulfallate 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzop-dioxin 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Tetrachloroethylene

538

APPENDIX

ug/day 0.3 0.02 0.04 30 80 0.1 0.03 0.014 0.03 0.006 0.006 0.1 0.5 0.07 0.3 40 300 4 5 0.005 2 0.2 0.3 26 44 5.0 1.0 1.4 200 0.02 0.09 1200 200 40 1 0.05 0.06 0.3 0.05 0.7 0.06 3 0.02 0.006 4 4 0.000005 3 14

APPENDIX 9-1

Continued

Carcinogen Tetranitromethane Thioacetamide 4,4'-Thiodianiline Thiourea Toluene diisocyanate ortho-Toluidine ortho-Toluidine hydrochloride Toxaphene Trichloroethylene 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Trimethyl phosphate Tris(l-aziridinyl)phosphine sulfide (thiotepa) Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate Trp-P-1 (tryptophan-P-1) Trp-P-2 (tryptophan-P-2) Urethane (ethyl carbamate) Vinyl chloride Vinyl trichloride (1,1,2-trichloroethane) 2,6-Xylidine

ug/day 0.059 0.1 0.05 10 20 4 5 0.6 50 (oral) 80 (inhalation) 10 24 0.06 0.3 0.03 0.2 0.7 3 10 110

APPENDIX

539

APPENDIX 10-1

Organic Chemicals Monitored by the CDC

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1 -Hydroxybenz[a] anthracene 3-Hydroxybenz [a] anthracene 9-Hy droxybenz [a] anthracene 1 -Hydroxybenzo [c]phenanthrene 2-Hydroxybenzo[c]phenanthrene 3-Hydroxybenzo[c]phenanthrene 1 -Hydroxychry sene 2-Hydroxychrysene 3-Hydroxychry sene 4-Hydroxychrysene 6-Hydroxychrysene 3 -Hydroxy fluoranthene 2-Hydroxyfluorene 3 -Hydroxy fluorene 9-Hydroxyfluorene 1 -Hydroxyphenanthrene 2-Hydroxyphenanthrene 3 -Hydroxyphenanthrene 4-Hydroxyphenanthrene 9-Hydroxyphenanthrene 1-Hydroxypyrene 1 -Hydroxynaphthalene 2-Hydroxynaphthalene Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins, Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans, and Polychlorinated Biphenyls 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachlorodibenzo p-dioxin (OCDD) 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Heptachlorodibenzo p-dioxin (HpCDD) 1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzo p-dioxin (HxCDD) 1,2,3,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzo p-dioxin (HxCDD) 1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexachlorodibenzo p-dioxin (HxCDD) 1,2,3,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (PeCDD) 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin(TCDD) 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachlorodibenzofuran (OCDF) 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Heptachlorodibenzofuran (HpCDF) 1,2,3,4,7,8,9-Heptachlorodibenzofuran (HpCDF) 1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran (HxCDF) 1,2,3,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran (HxCDF) 1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexachlorodibenzofuran (HxCDF) 1,2,3,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran (PeCDF) 2,3,4,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran (HxCDF) 2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran (PeCDF) 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzofuran(TCDF) 2,4,4'-Trichlorobiphenyl (PCB 28) 2,3',4,4'-Tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB 66) 2,4,4',5-Tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB 74) 3,4,4',5-Tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB 81) 2,3,3',4,4'-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 105) 2,3',4,4',5-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 118) 3,3',4,4',5-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 126) 2,3,3',4,4',5-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 156)

540

APPENDIX

APPENDIX 10-1

Continued

Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins, Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans, and Polychlorinated Biphenyls 2,3,3',4,4',5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 157) 2,3',4,4',5,5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 167) 3,3',4,4',5,5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 169) 2,3,3',4,4',5,5'-Heptachlorobiphenyl (PCB 189) 2,2',5,5'-Tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB 52) 2,2',3,4,5'-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 87) 2,2',4,4',5-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 99) 2,2',4,5,5'-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 101) 2,3,3',4',6-Pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 110) 2,r,3,3',4,4'-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 128) 2,2',3,4,4',5' and 2,3,3',4,4',6-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 138 and 158) 2,2',3,4',5,5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 146) 2,2',3,4',5',6-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 149) 2,r,3,5,5',6-l-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 151) 2,2',4,4',5,5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 153) 2,2',3,3',4,4',5-Heptachlorobiphenyl (PCB 170) 2,2',3,3',4,5,5'-Heptachlorobiphenyl (PCB 172) 2,2',3,3',4,5',6'-Heptachlorobiphenyl (PCB 177) 2,2',3,3',5,5',6-Heptachlorobiphenyl (PCB 178) 2,2',3,4,4',5,5'-Heptachlorobiphenyl (PCB 180) 2,2',3,4,4',5',6-Heptachlorobiphenyl (PCB 183) 2,2',3,4',5,5',6-Heptachlorobiphenyl (PCB 187) 2,r,3,3',4,4',5,5'-Octachlorobiphenyl (PCB 194) 2,2',3,3',4,4',5,6-Octachlorobiphenyl (PCB 195) 2,2',3,3',4,4',5,6' and 2,2',3,4,4',5,5',6-Octachlorobiphenyl (PCB 196 and 203) 2,2',3,3',4,5,5',6'-Octachlorobiphenyl (PCB 199) 2,2',3,3',4,4',5,5',6-Nonachlorobiphenyl (PCB 206) Phthalates Mono-methyl phthalate Mono-ethyl phthalate Mono-n-butyl phthalate Mono-isobutyl phthalate Mono-benzyl phthalate Mono-cyclohexyl phthalate Mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate Mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate Mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate Mono-3-carboxypropyl phthalate Mono-n-octyl phthalate Mono-isononyl phthalate Organochlorine Pesticides Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorocyclohexane beta Hexachlorocyclohexane gamma Hexachlorocyclohexane Pentachlorophenol 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol

APPENDIX

541

APPENDIX 10-1

Continued

Organochlorine Pesticides Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane p,p'-DDT p,p'-DDE n,p'-DDT Chlordane Oxychlordane trans-Nonachlor Heptachlor Heptachlor epoxide Mirex Aldrin Dieldrin Ealdrin Organophosphate Pesticides Dimethylphosphate Dimethylthiophosphate Dimethyldithiophosphate Diethylphosphate Diethyldithiophosphate Malathion dicarboxylic acid para-Nitrophenol 3,5,6-Trichloro-2-pyridinol 2-Isopropyl-4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine 2-(Diethylamino)-6-methylpyrimidin-4-ouone 3-Chloro-7-hydroxy-4-methyl-2H-chromen-2-one/ol Herbicides 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 2,4-Dichlorophenol Atrazine mercapturate Alachlor mercapturate Acetochlor mercapturate Metolachlor mercapturate Pyrethroids Pesticides 4-Fluoro-3-phenoxybenzoic acid cis-3-(2,2-Dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid trans-3-(2,2-Dichlorovinyl)-2,2dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid cis-3-(2,2-Dibromovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid 3-Phenoxybenzoic acid Other Pesticides N,N-Diethyl-3-methylbenzamide ortho-Phenylphenol 2,5-Dichlorophenol Carbamate Insecticides 2-Isopropoxyphenol Carbofuranphenol

542

APPENDIX

GLOSSARY

AA — Aplastic anemia ADD — Attention deficit disorder ADHD — Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder AL — Adult-onset leukemias ALL — Acute lymphocytic leukemia is the most common type of leukemia in young children. AML — Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) occurs in both adults and children. This type of leukemia is sometimes called acute nonlymphocytic leukemia (ANLL). CAA — Clean Air Act of 1955, reauthorized in 1963 and 1982 CAAA — Clean Air Act Amendments of 1966, 1970, 1982, and 1990 CERCLA — Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act CL — Childhood leukemias CLL — Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) most often affects adults over the age of 55. It sometimes occurs in younger adults, but it almost never affects children. CML — Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) occurs mainly in adults. A very small number of children also develop this disease. CNS — Central nervous system CPSA — Consumer Product Safety Act CWA — Clean Water Act DBCP — Dibromochloropropane DDT — 4,4'-(2,2,2-trichloroethane-l,l-cliyl)bis(chlorobenzene) ESA — Endangered Species Act FDA — Food and Drug Administration FEPCA — Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act

543

FIFRA — Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act FQPA — Food Quality Protection Act amended the FDCA and the FIFRA Halothane (2-Bromo-2-chloro-l,l,l-trifluoroethane) is a general anaesthetic delivered via inhalation that is still used in veterinary medicine and outside the United States because its is relatively inexpensive. HCB — Hexachlorobenzene HCH — Hexachlorocyclohexane HCSA — Hazard Communication Standard Act Hepatotoxicity — Toxic to liver lARC — International Agency for Research on Cancer IQ — Intelligence quotient kg — Kilogram LOEL — Lowest observed effect level ug/day — Micrograms per day MM — Multiple myeloma MPRSA — Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act NEPA — National Environmental Protection Act NIOSH — National Institute of Occupational Safety Health NHL — Non-hodgkin's lymphomas NOEL — The "no observable effect level" is determined by identifying the level of exposure that has been shown to not pose any harm to humans or laboratory animals. Prop 65 then requires this "no observable effect level" to be divided by 1000 in order to provide an ample margin of safety. Businesses subject to Proposition 65 are required to provide a warning if they cause exposures to chemicals listed as causing birth defects or reproductive harm that exceeds 1/lOOOth of the "no observable effect level." NRDC — Natural Resource Defense Council NSRL — No significant risk level. The level of exposure that would result in not more than one excess case of cancer in 100,000 individuals exposed to the chemical over a 70-year lifetime. In other words, a person exposed to the chemical at the "no significant risk level" for 70 years would not have more than a "one in 100,000" chance of developing cancer as a result of that exposure. OR — Odds ratio OSHA — Occupational Safety Health Act OSHA — Occupational Safety Health Administration PBDEs — Polybrominated diphenyl ethers PCB — Polychlorinated biphenyls PCE — Perchloroethylene PHS — Public Health Service PPM — Parts per million PPPA — Poison Prevention Packaging Act

544

GLOSSARY

PRGs — Preliminary Remediation Goals Prop 65 — Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act or Proposition 65 or Prop 65. OEHHA — Office of Environmental Health and Hazard Assessment PWA — Ports and Waterways Safety Act RBC — Red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes) carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and take carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs. The red blood cells give blood its color. RCRA — Resource Conservation and Recovery Act RfD — reference dose SARA — Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act SDWA — Safe Drinking Water Act SMCRA — Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act SMR — standard mortality ratio (SMR) TCE — trichloroethylene Trihalolmethanes — disifection byproducts created in drinking water after chlorination of the raw water. TSCA — Toxic Substances Control Act WBC — White blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes) help the body fight infections and other diseases. USPHS — U. S. Pubhc Health Service USEPA — United States Environmental Protection Agency PFCs — perfluorochemicals PCDD — polychlorinated dibenzodioxins PCDF — polychlorinated dibenzofurans PBDD — polybrominated dibenzodioxins PBDF — polybrominated dibenzofurans PAHs — polyaromatic hydrocarbons EWG — Environmental Working Group TSCA — Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 COC — Chemical of concern AL — alimentary system (liver or DEV — development of a fetus END — endocrine system EYE — ocular system HEM — hematopoietic system IMM — the immune system NS — nervous system REP — reproductive system RESP — respiratory system SKIN — the dermal system NOEC — no-observable effect concentration EDC — Endocrine-disrupting compounds

GLOSSARY

545

NMDRC — nonmonotonic dose-response curve MCL — maximum contaminant level Safe Harbor Level — consist of no significant risk levels for chemicals listed as causing cancer and maximum allowable dose levels for chemicals listed as causing birth defects or other reproductive harm.

546

GLOSSARY

INDEX

Abortion 178 Air toxics 161, 162 Alabama 8, 122, 165 Allergic reaction 178 American cheese 21, 22, 38, 39, 84, 85, 89, 91, 95 Aplastic anemia 186, 187, 188 Apple juice 22, 24, 34, 45, 46, 47, 90, 93 Apple juice (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77,79 Apple pie 31,35,65,68,71, 85 Apples 22, 24, 34, 45, 46, 47, 94, 96 Applesauce (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77,79 Applesauce 22, 24, 34, 45, 46, 47,91 Apricot 22, 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Aromatic hydrocarbons 15, 211, 218, 222, 223 Arsenic 178 Asparagus 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63, 64,91 Asphalt 174 Aspirin 1, 3 Atrazine 146, 152, 153, 214 Autism 210, 216 Avocado 27, 35, 55, 57, 59, 61, 63, 85, 93

Bacon 23, 34, 41, 42, 43, 84, 85, 91 Bagel 26, 34, 49-53, 94 Bakersfield 8, 119, 121, 151, 152, 158, 164, 201 Balanced diet 11, 17, 36, 37, 55, 80, 82, 87, 198 Ball State University 2 Bananas and tapioca 33, 35, 76, 78,79 Bananas 24, 34, 45, 46, 47, 91, 93,96 Banned pesticides 12, 18, 40, 41, 48, 54, 55, 64, 74, 80, 82, 87, 92, 97 Baton Rouge 121, 164, 165, 166, 169 Bean and bacon soup 29, 35, 67, 70,73 Beef stew 29, 35, 67 Beef chow mein 29, 35, 66, 69, 72 Beef stroganoff 30, 35, 66, 69, 72 Beef liver 23, 34, 42, 43 Beef (strained) 33, 34, 75, 77, 79, 84 Beef steak 23, 34, 42, 43, 84 Beets 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Benzene 6, 7, 14, 15, 40, 41, 44, 48, 92, 158, 162, 169, 174, 182, 186, 187, 188, 189,203, 211,212,214

Binghamton 8, 121, 122, 164, 165, 168 Bioaccumulation 202, 208 Birmingham 8, 122, 165, 169 Biscuit 26, 34, 49-53, 91 Black olives 28, 34, 56, 58, 60, 84 Bladder cancer 185 Blood 2, 3, 182, 187, 202, 203, 211 Blueberry muffin 31, 35, 65, 68, 71,85 Boise 8, 123, 165 Bologna 23, 34, 42, 43, 84, 85, 91,95 Bottled water 1, 109, 113, 114, 117, 151, 158, 159, 191, 227 Breast milk 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 210 BroccoU 27, 34, 57, 61, 63, 84 Bromine 14, 15,40, 113, 116, 117, 150, 158,204 Brown gravy 29, 35, 67, 70, 73 Brownies 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Brussels sprouts 27, 34, 56, 58, 60,63 Butter 21, 22, 34, 38, 39, 83, 84, 85,91 Butter crackers 26, 34, 39-53

547

Cabbage 27, 34, 57, 59, 61, 63 California 6, 8, 119, 127, 132, 151, 164, 165, 191, 193, 202, 212 Cancer 151, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 204, 205, 210, 212, 213 Cantaloupe 24, 34, 45, 46, 47, Caramel candy 30, 35, 66, 69, 72 Carbon monoxide 6 Carbonated fruit flavored beverage 106 Carrots (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77, 79 Carrots 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63, 90 Cauliflower 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 CDC 3, 217, 218 Celery 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 84, 90 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 3, 217 Charleston 8, 124, 165, 169 Cheddar cheese 21, 22, 34, 38, 39, 84, 85, 94 Cheese pizza 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Cheese and pepperoni pizza 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Cheeseburger and bun 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Chemical mixtures 1, 4, 7, 9, 12, 15, 37, 87, 89, 97, 99, 110, 113, 118, 161, 163, 164, 177, 178, 181, 192, 202, 210, 211, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218, 220, 224, 227 Chemical spills 116 Chemical plant 6 Chemical exposue 7, 8, 9, 12, 18, 80,89,92, 110, 161, 180, 203,211,227 Chemicals known to cause cancer 191 Cherries 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Chicken potpie 30, 35, 66, 69, 72 Chicken noodle soup 29, 35, 67, 70,73 Chicken (strained) 33, 35, 76, 78, 79 Chicken nuggets 31, 35, 65, 68, 71,85 Chicken breast 23, 34, 42, 43

548

INDEX

Chicken noodle dinner 33, 35, 76, 78, 79 Child's lunch box 92 Chile and beans 30, 35, 66, 69, 72 Chlorinated petroleum solvents 41,44 Chlorine 3, 14, 15, 40, 41, 64, 82, 113, 116, 150, 158, 160, 211 Chloroform 15, 40, 44, 92, 118, 159, 201 Chocolate cake 31, 35, 65, 68, 71,85 Chocolate milk shake 21, 34, 38, 39,84 Chocolate milk 21, 34, 38, 39 Chocolate snack cake 30, 35, 66, 69, 72, 85 Chocolate pudding 29, 35, 67, 70,73 Chocolate chip cookies 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85, 96 Cirrhosis 178 Clam chowder 29, 35, 67, 70, 73 Clean Air Act 190 Cola 106 Coleslaw and dressing 30, 35, 66, 69,72 Collards 28, 34, 56, 58, 60, 84 Colorado 8, 9, 119, 127, 132, 141, 165 Columbus 8, 124, 165 Commercially prepared products 96 Contaminant mixtures 10,119 Contaminants 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13, 19, 20, 22, 25, 32, 41, 48, 80, 82, 92, 99, 118, 121, 127, 131, 136, 137, 140, 141, 143, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 153, 159, 161, 198, 202, 208,210,211,212 Cookies 92, 96, 193 Cord blood 3,211 Com 26, 34, 49-53 Com chips 26, 34, 49-53, 93, 96 Com flakes 26, 34, 49-53 Combread 26, 34, 49-53 Comgrits 26, 34, 49-53 Cottage cheese 21, 22, 34, 38, 39

Cracked wheat bread 26, 34, 49-53, 90, 93 Cream cheese 21, 22, 34, 38, 39 Creamed com 26, 34, 49-53 Creamed com (strained) 33, 35, 49-53, 76, 78, 79 Crisped rice cereal 26, 34, 49-53 Criteria pollutants 6 Cucumber 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 94 Custard pudding (strained) 33, 35, 76, 78, 79 Dayton 8, 125, 126, 165 DDE 5, 14, 37, 40, 41, 44, 48, 80, 87, 89, 92, 198, 207 DDT 5, 12, 14, 202, 203, 204, 207, 208 DelaneyAct 190 Denver 8, 119, 127, 165 Depressed immune responses 220 Depression 179 Detergents 3, 174 Dieldrin 41, 198, 203 Dill cucumber pickles 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 84 Disinfection 40, 113, 116 Disinfection by-products 15, 40, 44, 107, 114, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158, 160, 178, 201 Diuretics 2 DNA 195, 196 Doughnut-cake and icing 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Drinking water 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 107, 109, 110, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 131, 132, 135, 139, 140, ,142, 143, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 159, 160, 178, 182, 184, 185, 189, 191, 192, 193, 195, 201, 203, 204, 205, 207, 208, 214 Dmgs 2, 3, 116, 174, 189 Dry cleaning agents 178 Dry-roasted nuts 26, 34, 84 Dyes 174, 192

Eggplant 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Eggs 23,34,42,43,91,94,95 Endangered Species Act 191 English muffin 26, 34, 49-53 Environmental Working Group 3, 210 Environmental Protection Agency 2, 190, 203, 205 Environmental forensics 4 EPA 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 161, 162, 164, 175, 179, 186, 190, 191, 193, 196, 203, 204, 205, 212 Epidemiological studies 183, 185 Epidemiology 178, 182, 186 Estrogen 2, 212, 214 Ethyl benzene 40, 41, 44, 169, 174 Evaporated milk 21, 22, 34, 38, 39,84 Explosives 174 Exposure 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 15, 18, 37, 80, 82, 87, 89, 92,99, 110, 149, 151, 159, 161, 164, 175, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 195, 197, 198, 202, 203, 204, 205,210,211, 121,213,214 FDA 2 , 3 , 5 , 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 25, 32, 87, 97, 107, 159, 191, 192, 198, 208 Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act 190 Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act 190 Federal Drinking Water Standards 208 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 189 Fever 179, 189 FHLSA 189 FIFRA 189, 190 Fish 5, 10, 15, 20, 34, 42, 43, 92, 202, 207, 218 Fish sticks 31,35,65,68,71,85 Fish (haddock) 23, 34, 42, 43 Fish (salmon) 23, 34, 42, 43, 84 Fish and bun 30,35,65,68,71 Florida 8, 9, 136, 137, 148, 165 Flour tortilla 26, 35, 49-53

Food and Drug Administration 2, 3, 11, 197, 198 Food guide pyramid 37 Food contamination 99 French fries 28, 34, 56, 58, 60, 85 French salad dressing 30, 35, 66, 69,72 Fresno 8, 127, 151, 152, 158, 165, 224 Fried chicken 29, 30, 35, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 85 Fruit cocktail 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Fruit pudding (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77, 79 Fruit yogurt 21,34,38,39 Fruit-flavored cereal 26, 34, 49-53 Gasoline 6, 135, 154, 174 Georgia 8, 9, 124, 143, 165 Glycol ethers 169 Graham crackers 26, 34, 49-53, 85 Grand Rapids 8, 128, 165 Granola 26, 34, 49-53, 93 Granulated activated carbon 160 Grape juice 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Grapefruit juice 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Grapefruit 24, 34, 45, 46, 47, 90 Grapes 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Green peppers 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 93 Green beans 28, 35, 56, 58, 60 Green beans (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77,79 Green peas 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Ground beef 23, 34, 42, 43, 84, 85,91 Groundwater pollution 165 Groundwater 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 140, 142, 143, 146, 148, 149, 151, 152, 158, 159 Half-and-half 21, 22, 34, 38, 39, 84 Ham (luncheon meat) 23, 34, 42, 43,95

Ham 23, 34, 42, 43, 90 Hamburger and bun 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Harrisburg 8, 128, 165 Health effects 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 177, 179, 181, 206 Herbicides 3, 55 High-fat 91 Hot dog and bun 31, 35, 65, 68, 71 Hot dogs 23, 34, 42, 43, 84, 85 Human carcinogens 205 Ibuprofen 3 Ice cream (Ught) 21, 22, 34, 38, 39,84 Iceberg lettuce 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 90, 93, 94, 95 Idaho 8, 123, 165 Illinois 8, 9, 137, 143, 145, 165 Immune system 187, 202, 207, 211,212 Industrial chemicals 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19 ,20, 22, 25, 32, 37, 40, 41, 44, 48, 54, 55, 64, 74, 82, 87, 92, 104, 114, 115, 116, 118, 120, 123, 126, 130, 132, 133, 136, 139, 140, 143, 150, 152, 157, 158, 187, 188, 218, 221, 222 Industrial development 153, 224, 227 Inert chemicals 14 Infant products 16, 32, 74, 80 Insecticides 44, 55, 174, 217 Irrigated agriculture 119, 127 Itahan salad dressing 29, 35, 66, 93 Jackson 8, 131, 165 Jaundice 179 Jelly 29, 35, 67, 70, 73, 94, 95 Kidney beans 26, 34, 49-53, 90 Lafayette 8, 131, 165 Lamb chop 23, 34, 42, 43, 84 Landfill 6, 152 Lasagna and meat 29, 35, 67, 70, 73 Lead 6

INDEX

549

Leaking sewer lines 116 Lemonade 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Leukemia 7, 182, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189, 210 Lima beans 28, 35, 56, 58, 60 Liver Cancer 183, 185, 186 Liver and kidney damage 179 Long Beach 8, 99, 131, 132, 153, 164 Los Angeles 8, 132, 165, 166, 201, 224 Louisiana 8, 121, 131, 164, 165 Low-carbohydrate diet 89 Low-carbohydrate 106 Low-fat 90 Lubricants 15, 174, 205 MCL 110, 113, 146, 188,214 Macaroni 26, 34, 49-53, 94 Macaroni and cheese 30, 35, 66, 69,72 Macaroni/tomato/beef 33, 35, 76, 78,79 Malathion 14,52,92 Margarine 22, 25, 28, 35, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60, 74, 82, 83, 85 Market basket 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 25, 32, 37, 41, 44, 48, 54, 64, 74, 80, 89, 014, 107, 198, 214 Mashed potatoes 28, 34, 55, 56, 58,60 Massachusetts 9, 149, 165, 181, 184, 185 Maximum Contaminant Level 7, 110 Mayonnaise 29, 35, 67, 70, 73, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96 Meat Inspection Act 189 Meatloaf 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Mental retardation 178 Mercury 1, 202 Michigan 8, 128, 132, 165 Milk 9, 18, 21, 25, 34, 38, 39, 74, 80, 84, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206 Milk chocolate candy bar 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Milk-based formula 33, 34, 76, 78, 79, 80 Milwaukee 8, 132, 133, 165, 224 Miscarriage 178

550

INDEX

Missouri 8, 165, 181 Mixed vegetables (strained) 33, 35, 76, 78, 79 Mixed nuts 26, 34, 49-53, 85, 93 Mixed vegetables 27, 35, 57, 59, 61,63 Mobile source emissions 164 Mobile sources 162 Monitoring stations 162 Muffin with egg/cheese/ham 30, 35, 66, 69, 72 Multiple contaminants 80, 198, 210 Municipal sewage treatment plants 116, 152 Mushroom soup 29, 35, 67, 70, 73 Mushrooms 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Mustard 30, 35, 66, 69, 72, 90, 95 National Air Toxics Control Program 162 Natural Resources Defense Counsel 158 Neurological disorders 220 Nevada 9, 142, 165, 174 New Jersey 8, 131, 132, 153, 164, 184 New Jersey Department of Health 184 New York 8, 99, 121, 122, 134, 135, 150, 151, 164, 165, 166, 168, 224 NIOSH 188, 189 NOEL 192, 196 No significant risk level 6, 192 Noodles 26, 34, 49-53 OSHA 188, 190 Oat ring cereal 26, 34, 49-53 Oatmeal 26, 34, 49-53, 90 Ogden 8, 136, 165 Ohio 8, 125, 126, 165 Oklahoma 8, 9, 136, 146, 147, 165 Oklahoma City 8, 136, 165 Okra 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Olive/safflower oil 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 83, 85, 94 Onion 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63, 64

Orange juice 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Orange juice (strained) 33, 35, 76, 78, 79 Oranges 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Oregon 8, 139, 140, 165 Organic food 5, 11, 12, 17, 18, 64, 87, 92 Organic phosphate insecticides 217 Organic food 5, 11, 12, 17, 18, 64, 87, 92 Organic product 18, 32, 64, 82, 87, 92, 96, 198 Organic pollutant emissions 168 Organophosphate pesticides 218 Orlando 8, 136, 137, 165 Ozone 6, 117, 137 PAH 211, 217, 218, 222 Pancake mix 26, 34, 49-53 Particulate matter 6, 222 PCB 15, 41, 44, 178, 198, 202, 203,204,205,211,212 Peach (canned) 24, 34, 35, 46, 47 Peaches (canned) 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Peaches (straianed) 33, 35, 76, 77,79 Peaches 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Peanut butter and jelly 26, 34, 35, 95, 96 Peanut butter 26, 34, 49-53, 84, 85,93 Pears (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77, 79 Pears (canned) 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Pears 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Peas (dried) 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Peas (strained) 33, 35, 76, 78, 79 Pennsylvania 8, 128, 165 Peoria 8, 137, 165 Peppers with rice and beef 30, 35, 66, 69, 72 Pesticides 2, 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 26, 18, 19, 20, 22, 25, 32, 37, 40, 41, 44, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 64, 74, 80, 82, 87, 92, 97, 104, 107, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 126, 128, 132, 136, 143, 146, 148, 149, 152, 157, 158, 174, 189, 190,

191,203,211,216,218,220, 222, 223 Pharmaceuticals 2, 114, 116, 118, 152, 158 Phenol 14, 174 PHS 189 Pineapple juice 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Pineapple (canned) 24, 34, 45, 46,47 Pinto beans 26, 34, 49-53 Plain yogurt 21, 22, 34, 38, 39, 94 Plastic packaging 41 Plastics 3, 41, 44, 54, 74, 159, 174, 206 Plums 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Point-of-entry system 160 Point-of-use system 160 Poison 5, 110, 178, 190, 187, 214, 216 Pollution 3,6,9, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118, 149, 151, 152, 161, 162, 175, 189, 203 Polychlorinated biphenyls 15, 41, 178, 202, 211, 212, 217, 218 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 217 Polyurethanes 174 Popcorn 26, 34, 49-53, 85 Popsicle 29, 35, 67, 70, 73 Pork and beans 29, 35, 67, 70, 73 Pork roast 23, 34, 42, 43 Pork chop 23, 34, 42, 43 Pork sausage 23, 34, 42, 43, 84 Portland 8, 139, 140, 165 Potato chips 28, 34, 56, 58, 60, 85, 94, 96 Potential risk 164 Powered fruit drink 106 Pregnancy 202 Prepackaged products 96 Prescription drugs 116 Pretzels 26, 34, 49-53 Proposition 65 6, 191, 192, 196 Protein products 5, 11, 16, 20, 34, 41, 44, 54, 74, 87, 224 Providence 8, 99, 140, 165 Prozac 3 Prune juice 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Prunes 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Public Health Service 189 Pueblo 9, 119, 141, 165

Pumpkin pie 31, 35, 65, 68, 71 Pure Food and Drugs Act 189 Radish 27, 35, 56, 58, 60, 84 Raisin bran 30, 34, 66, 69, 72 Raisins 24, 34, 45, 46, 47, 84, 90, 93 Recommended exposure limit 188 Reno 9, 142, 165 Resins 174 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 191 Reverse osmosis 149, 160 Rhode Island 8, 140, 165 Rice with apple cereal (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77, 79 Rice cereal (infant) 33, 35, 76, 78,79 Roast beef 23, 34, 42, 43, 84, 85 Roasted peanuts 26, 34, 49-53 Rubber 174, 187 Rye bread 26, 34, 49-53, 95, 96 Safe drinking water 6, 110, 191 Safe harbor numbers 192, 198 Safe food 16 Salami 23, 34, 42, 43, 84, 85 Salisbury steak and gravy 30, 35, 66, 69, 72 Salmon 23, 34 Saltine crackers 26, 34, 49-53 San Antonio 9, 142, 165 Sandwich cookies 30, 35, 65, 68, 71,85,96 Sauerkraut 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Savannah 9, 143, 165 Scalloped potatoes 30, 35, 66, 69, 72 Scientific America 10 Septic systems 116, 152 Sherbet 21, 34, 38, 39, 84 Shredded wheat 26, 34, 49-53 Shrimp 23, 34, 42, 43 Silent Spring 216 Sioux Falls 9, 143,165 Skim milk 18, 21, 34, 38, 39, 90 Small businesses 162 Solvents 15, 41, 44, 122, 142, 154, 174, 178, 185, 186, 191, 222 Sour cream 21, 22, 34, 38, 39, 91

South Dakota 9, 143, 165 South Carolina 8, 124, 165 Soy-based formula 33, 35, 76, 78,79 Spaghetti and meatballs 29, 67, 70,73 Spaghetti and tomato 29, 35, 67, 70,73 Spinach (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77, 79,84 Spinach 28, 35, 56, 58, 60 Springfield 9, 143, 145, 146, 152, 165, 224 Squash (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77, 79 Stationary sources 161 Sterility 178 Stewed tomatoes 27, 35, 57, 59, 61,63 Stillbirth 178 Strawberries 24, 34, 45, 46, 47, 94 Styrene 41, 44, 48, 74, 92, 158, 169, 174, 220 Suckers 29, 35, 67, 70, 73 Sugar cookies 31, 35, 65, 68, 71, 85 Sulfur dioxide 6 Summer squash 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 84 Surface water 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 139, 140, 142, 143, 145, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 159 Sweet potatoes (strained) 33, 35, 75, 77, 79 Sweet roll 26, 34, 49-53, 85 Sweet potatoes 27, 35, 57, 59, 61,63 Sweet cucumber pickles 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 84 Swiss cheese 21, 22, 34, 38, 39, 84, 85, 95 Synergistic 7, 13 Synthetic fibers 174 Synthetic pesticides 11, 16, 216 Taco/tostada 31, 35, 85 Tacoma 9, 146, 165, 169 Teething biscuits 33, 35, 75, 77, 79

INDEX

551

Texas 7, 142, 165, 174 Toluene 14, 40, 41, 44, 48, 92, 122, 153, 154, 158, 169, 174, 220, 222, 223 Tomato soup 29, 35, 67, 70, 73 Tomato juice 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Tomato catsup 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Tomato sauce 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63 Tomato 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 90, 93, 94, 95 Total diet study 87, 107, 198, 218 Toxic chemicals 3, 4, 6, 161, 164, 174 Toxic outcome 177, 210, 211, 213, 222 Toxic agents 212 Toxic air emissions 162, 164, 227 Toxic emissions 6, 161, 164, 169 Toxic compounds 161, 224, 227 Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) 162 Toxic tort 4 Toxic 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 110, 161, 162, 163, 164, 169, 174, 175, 177, 179, 191, 196, 203,206,210,211,212,213 Toxicology 178, 179, 193, 196, 203, 210 Toxin 5, 6, 7, 110, 177, 202, 210, 213, 214, 227 Tumor 183, 185, 186, 194, 195, 196 Tuna noodle casserole 31, 35, 65, 68,71 Tuna (canned) 23, 34, 42, 43, 85, 95

552

INDEX

Turkey breast 23, 34, 42, 43, 90, 96 Turkey dinner 29, 35, 66, 69, 72 Turkey and rice 33, 35, 76, 78, 79 Turnip 27, 35, 57, 59, 61, 63, 84 U.S. Department of Agriculture 196 Urban environment 115,162, 222, 223 USDA 11, 12, 16, 37, 41, 53, 54, 64, 82, 87, 196 USPHS 189 Utah 8, 136, 165 Valium 2 Vanilla ice cream 21, 22, 34, 38, 39,84 Veal cutlet 23, 34, 42, 43 Vegetable beef soup 29, 35, 67, 70,73 Vegetables and chicken 33, 35, 75, 77, 79 Vegetables and ham 33, 35, 75, 77,79 Vegetables and beef 33, 35, 76, 78, 79, 84 Vegetarian 93, 94 Vinyl chloride 178, 179 Volatile chemicals 221 World Health Organization 117 Washington 2, 9, 146, 148, 151, 165, 166, 168, 169, 210 Wastewater 2, 116, 152, 218 Water resources 3,41, 107, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 121, 122, 126, 127, 128, 136, 137,

139, 142, 143, 146, 149, 151, 152, 158 Water quality reports 117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 127, 128, 131, 132, 135, 137, 139, 140, 149 Watermelon 24, 34, 45, 46, 47 Weedkillers 174 West Palm Beach 9, 148, 165 Wheat bread 26, 34, 49-53, 91, 95 Wheat cereal 26, 34, 49-53 White bread 26, 34, 49-53, 95, 96 White sauce 29, 35, 66 White potato without skin 27, 35, 56, 58, 60 White roll 26, 34, 49-53, 93 White potato with skin 28, 35, 56, 58, 60, 84, 91 White wine 106 White rice 26, 34, 49-53 Whole-wheat bread 26, 34, 49-53, 94 Winter squash 27, 35, 56, 58, 60, 84 Wisconsin 8, 132, 133, 165, 185 Worcester 9, 149, 165 World Health Organization 117 Xylene 14, 40, 41, 44, 48, 92, 253, 154, 159, 169, 220, 222, 223 Yellow cake 29, 35, 67, 70, 73