Using German: A Guide to Contemporary Usage

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Using German A guide to contemporary usage Second edition

MARTIN DURRELL

H

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A catalogue recordfor this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Durrell, Martin. Using German: a guide to contemporary usage / Martin Durrell. - 2nd edition p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 521 53000 8 (paperback) 1. German language - Grammar. 2. German language - Textbooks for foreign speakers - English. I. Title. PF3112.D78 2003 438.2'421 - dc21 2002041692 ISBN 0 521 53000 8 paperback

Contents

Introduction page xi Acknowledgements xiii References xv Glossary of linguistic terms xxi Abbreviations and conventions xxix 1

Varieties of language

1

1.1 Varieties according to use: register 1.1.1 Medium 4 1.1.2 Subject matter 5 1.1.3 Situation 5 1.1.4 Register and regionalism 1.1.5 Indicating register 7 1.2

3

7

Varieties according to user: regionalism 10 1.2.1 Regionalism and standard German 11 1.2.2 Regionalism and spoken German 11 1.2.3 Indicating regional variation 12

1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation 13 1.3.1 Regional variation in pronunciation 1.3.2 Register variation in pronunciation

15 16

1.4 Examples of variation: grammar 18 1.4.1 Regional variation in grammar 19 1.4.2 Register variation in grammar 20 1.5

Examples of variation: vocabulary 23 1.5.1 Regional variation in vocabulary 23 1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words 26 1.5.3 Register variation in vocabulary 29

1.6 Passages illustrating levels of register 35 1.6.1 Telephone conversation (informal colloquial speech) 35 1.6.2 Radio discussion (unprepared speech in a formal context) 38 1.6.3 Literary prose (Günter Grass, Die Blechtrommel) 41 1.6.4 Non-literary prose {Fachsprache) 43 45 1.6.5 Serious newspaper report (Die Welt) 48 1.6.6 Tabloid newspaper report {Bild)

2 2.1

Words and meanings

52

Problems of meaning 52 2.1.1 Problems of meaning: English-German examples 2.1.2 Problems of meaning: German-English examples

52 88

2.2

Easily confused words 93 93 2.2.1 Easily confused words: similar form - different meaning 2.2.2 Easily confused words: different gender - different meaning 102 2.2.3 Easily confused words: different plural - different meaning 104 2.2.4 Easily confused words: different form - same meaning 105

2.3

Word formation 107 2.3.1 Forming nouns 107 2.3.2 Forming adjectives 109 2.3.3 Forming verbs - prefixes 111 2.3.4 Inseparable verb prefixes 111 2.3.5 Separable verb prefixes 114 2.3.6 Verb prefixes which can be separable or inseparable

115

2.4

Idioms

2.5

Prepositions 123 2.5.1 German prepositions with the accusative case 124 2.5.2 German prepositions with the dative case 127 2.5.3 German prepositions with the dative or the accusative cases 132 2.5.4 German prepositions with the genitive case 139 2.5.5 English prepositions 140

2.6

Modal particles 155 2.6.1 Modal particles in statements 156 2.6.2 Modal particles in questions 160 2.6.3 Modal particles in commands 161 2.6.4 Modal particles in exclamations 163

2.7

Greetings and forms of address 2.7.1 Greetings 164 2.7.2 du and Sie 166

2.8

Letters

3 3.1

119

164

168

Words and forms

171

Nouns: genders and plurals 171 3.1.1 Suffixes as indicators of gender and plural 171 3.1.2 Suffixes or prefixes as clues to gender and plural 3.1.3 Plurals in-5 176

173

3.1.4 Nouns with alternative plurals 177 3.1.5 Foreign words with unusual plurals 178 3.1.6 Differences in plural usage between German and English 178 3.1.7 Nouns with variable gender 180 3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

4

Nouns: case 181 3.2.1 'Weak' masculine nouns 182 3.2.2 'Mixed' nouns 183 3.2.3 The dative ending -e 184 3.2.4 The genitive singular ending ~(e)s

184

Verbs: strong and weak 186 3.3.1 Strong verb classes 186 3.3.2 Deceptive weak verbs 189 3.3.3 Irregular weak verbs 190 3.3.4 Verbs with strong and weak forms

190

Determiners and adjectives 192 3.4.1 Basic determiner endings 192 3.4.2 Basic adjective endings 193 3.4.3 Uncertainties and variation in current usage 3.4.4 Adjectives as nouns 196 Other words that decline: forms and uses 3.5.1 Demonstratives 198 3.5.2 Relative pronouns 200 3.5.3 Possessive pronouns 202 3.5.4 Interrogatives 202 3.5.5 man, einer, jemand 203 3.5.6 Some indefinites 204 Grammar: cases, tenses and moods

194

198

207

4.1

Verbs and cases: valency 207 4.1.1 Verbs governing the dative case 209 4.1.2 Verbs governing the dative and the accusative cases 211 4.1.3 Verbs governing the genitive case 213 4.1.4 Verbs governing a prepositional object 214 4.1.5 Infinitive clauses and idtfs-clauses with verbs governing a prepositional object 219 4.1.6 Verbs with varying constructions 220

4.2

Cases: dative and genitive 224 4.2.1 Possessive dative 224 4.2.2 Genitive or von} 225 4.2.3 The position of genitive phrases 4.2.4 Measurement phrases 228

227

4.3

Tenses 229 4.3.1 Present and future 229 4.3.2 Past and perfect 230 4.3.3 haben or sein in the perfect?

231

4.4

The passive 233 4.4.1 werden- or $m-passive? 234 4.4.2 The impersonal ('subjectless') passive 235 4.4.3 The passive with dative objects 236 4.4.4 von or durch with the passive? 236 4.4.5 Alternative passive constructions 237

4.5

The subjunctive 239 4.5.1 Forms of the subjunctive 239 4.5.2 The use of the past subjunctive and conditional forms 4.5.3 Indirect speech 242 4.5.4 Conditional sentences 245 4.5.5 Other uses of the subjunctive 246

4.6

5

The modal auxiliaries 248 4.6.1 The German modal auxiliaries 4.6.2 The English modal auxiliaries Syntax and word order

240

249 253

262

5.1 Word order 262 5.1.1 The verbal bracket 262 5.1.2 The closing bracket 263 5.1.3 The initial element in a main clause 264 5.1.4 The use of initial position in German 265 5.1.5 The central section of German clauses 267 5.1.6 Can anything follow the closing bracket? 271 5.2

Alternatives to subordinate clauses 274 5.2.1 Alternatives to relative clauses 274 5.2.2 Alternatives to noun clauses with dass or wie and infinitive clauses 275 5.2.3 Alternatives to other subordinate clauses 276 5.2.4 Adverbials rather than clauses 279 5.2.5 Other alternatives to subordinate clauses 281

5.3

The present participle in German and English 282 5.3.1 The use of the German present participle 282 5.3.2 German equivalents of English ing-form constructions

6 6.1

Spelling and punctuation

289

Spelling 290 6.1.1 Capital letters 290 6.1.2 One word or two? 292

284

6.1.3 The use o f ß and ss 296 6.1A Miscellaneous spelling changes Punctuation 297 6.2.1 The use of the comma 297 6.2.2 Other punctuation marks 299 Index

300

Introduction

The primary intention of this book is to provide information on German as it is actually used nowadays, especially on points where conventional grammars and surveys of vocabulary are silent. It aims to help English-speaking learners to communicate effectively and accurately by developing an awareness of the subtleties of the language. It is thus directed at those who have mastered the basics of German, typically after three or four years at school or an intensive introductory course and are venturing into the complexities and subtleties of the language. It is not a comprehensive grammar, but it deals with those aspects of German grammar and usage about which such advanced learners may have questions, and it attempts to answer as many of those questions as possible. The areas treated in this book can be grouped under two headings. First, there are those which result from variation within the German language itself. Learners can often be confused because everyday conversational German is often quite different from written German and from what they have been taught. German, just like English, has many alternatives and varieties - in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. One purpose of this book is to explain for the English-speaking learner how modern German usage can differ widely, depending, for instance, on the formality or informality of the situation or on where the speaker or writer comes from. This kind of variation in usage can be puzzling for foreign learners, and standard reference works often give insufficient detail or contradictory (or even misleading) information on such points. In this book, the most common variations in current usage which stem from regional differences or differences depending on the degree of formality are shown as fully as possible. It will be made clear, for example, that the use of the present subjunctive is not a matter of grammatical rule, but of register (see 4.5.3). Chapter 1 provides an introduction, with examples and commented texts, to the range of variation in modern German. The reader is advised to study this chapter closely before consulting the other chapters, which are intended to be used for reference and give extensive detail on selected points concerning vocabulary (chapter 2), declensions (chapter 3), grammar (chapter 4), syntax and word order (chapter 5), and spelling and punctuation (chapter 6), where the changes in German spelling and

punctuation rules which were introduced in the late 1990s are explained in detail. Secondly, the book covers those aspects of German which for one reason or another seem to be difficult for English-speaking learners, although the difficulties are often more apparent than real. This may be because German expresses things in a different way to English, as when English uses present participles and German does not (see 5.3), where there is a lack of one-to-one correspondence between the vocabulary of the two languages (see 2.1) or in the various uses of prepositions (see 2.5). In such cases the differences between the languages are shown in as much detail as possible. There are other aspects of German, such as gender and plural of nouns (see 3.1), which have to be coped with in their own terms, as there is little comparable in English.

Second edition In this second edition the major change is that the revised spelling of German has been implemented throughout, with the exception of one text (1.6.3) which was originally published before the introduction of the new spelling and whose author is a well-known opponent of the changes (indeed, he has insisted on his most recent books being published using the old spellings). This is in itself a reflection of the current situation, since, as explained in more detail in chapter 6, it now seems likely that the two spelling systems will continue to co-exist in the German-speaking countries for some considerable time beyond 2005, despite the fact that the old spellings are supposed to cease to be used after this date. Apart from this, the opportunity has been taken to revise the whole text and the language material of the book, eliminating errors, inconsistencies and ambiguities as far as possible. In particular, all the explanatory material has been recast with the aim of making it clearer and more explicit. For example, German words in lists are now systematically glossed in English, and the account of the modal particles in 2.6 has been reshaped to show how they are used in statements, questions, commands and exclamations, with the intention of helping the learner to see how they are used in actual communicative situations. More than half the texts in 1.6 have been replaced to bring them up to date and to reflect the variety of register in modern German more consistently and systematically. In particular, contrastive examples are now given from the 'serious' and 'popular' press.

Acknowledgements

No book such as this can be the unaided work of a single individual, and I must acknowledge a debt of gratitude to Wini Davies, Dr Karen Herrmann, Professor R. E. Keller and Paul Webster for their many helpful suggestions which have been incorporated in the text. The remaining inadequacies are my own, especially where I have been foolish enough to ignore their sound advice. I am also grateful for much information, advice and encouragement to Stephen Barbour, Friedrich Dehmel, Julie Flynn, Anna Hochsieder, Derek McCulloch, Herbert Meyer, Manfred Prokop, Margaret Rogers, Jon West and Ellen Wilhelmi, all of whom provided me with data or were kind enough to read particular chapters. My thanks are due, too, to all colleagues at the Institut fur Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim, especially Dr Karl-Heinz Bausch, Tobias Bruckner, Professor Alan Kirkness, Professor Gerhard Stickel and Eva Teubert. I was able to collect or check much of the material in the book during a stay in Mannheim which was generously funded by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst. The great bulk of the initial work for the first edition was completed in the academic year 1983/84, which I spent as an exchange professor at the University of Alberta, and I must give special thanks to all my colleagues in Edmonton for their help and encouragement during a thoroughly enjoyable and productive stay in Canada. Particular mention must be made of the superb library facilities at the University of Alberta. I should also like to thank Rosemary Davidson, Amanda Ogden, Annie Cave and Julia Harding for their invaluable editorial advice and much encouragement, Debbie Carlisle for her skill in coping with a difficult manuscript and, last but not least, all my past and present students in London, Manchester and Edmonton, whose queries and problems furnished much of the raw material. For the second edition I must acknowledge a special debt of gratitude to all those who have been kind enough since the appearance of the first edition to write to me with questions and suggestions for improvement. I hope that I have been able to incorporate the most important of these. I continue to be immensely grateful to my colleagues in Manchester, in particular Dr Wiebke Brockhaus, for their continued help, assistance and support, and to the English and German students in Manchester whose questions have provided constant stimulation. I must again thank all colleagues at the Institut fur

Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim where in the course of several visits over the years I have been able to check the material and verify the linguistic data on the basis of their incomparable collections of modern German usage. Dr Kate Brett at Cambridge University Press deserves especial thanks for her continued patience, encouragement and practical advice whilst this edition was in preparation.

References

General reference books The following reference works were consulted at all stages of preparing this book. Agricola, E. et al. (eds.). 1977. Wörter und Wendungen. Wörterbuch zum deutschen Sprachgebrauch. 8th edn. Leipzig. Barbour, J. S. and P. Stevenson. 1990. Variation in German. A Critical Approach to German Sociolinguistics. Cambridge. Beaton, K. B. 1996. A Practical Dictionary of German Usage. Oxford. Braun, P. 1993. Tendenzen in der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Sprachvarietäten. 3rd edn. Stuttgart. Clyne, M. 1995. The German Language in a Changing Europe. Cambridge. Duckert, J. and G. Kempcke (eds.). 1984. Wörterbuch der Sprachschwierigkeiten. Zweifelsßlle, Normen und Varianten. Leipzig. Duden. 1998. Grammatik der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. 6th edn. Mannheim, etc. Duden. 2000a. Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. 3rd edn. 10 vols on CD-ROM. Mannheim, etc. Duden. 2000b. Rechtschreibung der deutschen Sprache und Fremdwörter. 22nd edn. Mannheim, etc. Durreil, M. 2000. Using German Synonyms. Cambridge. Eisenberg, P. 1998-9. Grundriß der deutschen Grammatik. 2 vols. Stuttgart/Weimar. Engel, U. 1991. Deutsche Grammatik. 2nd edn. Heidelberg. Farrell, R. B. 1977. Dictionary of German Synonyms. 3rd edn. Cambridge. Freund, F. and B. Sundqvist. 1988. Tysk grammatik. Stockholm. Glück, H. and W. Sauer. 1997. Gegenwartsdeutsch. 2nd edn. Stuttgart. Götz, D. et al. (eds.). 2000. Langenscheidts Großwörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache. 3rd edn. Berlin, etc. Fox, A. 1990. The Structure of German. Oxford. Heidolph, K. E. et al. (eds.). 1981. Grundzüge einer deutschen Grammatik. Berlin. Heibig, G. and J. Buscha. 1995. Deutsche Grammatik. Ein Handbuch fur den Ausländerunterricht. 13th edn. Leipzig. Heibig, G. and W. Schenkel. 1991. Wörterbuch zur Valenz und Distribution deutscher Verben. 8th edn. Tübingen. Hermann, U. 1996. Die (NEUE) deutsche Rechtschreibung. Revised by L. Götze with an introduction by K. Heller. Gütersloh. Keller, R. E. 1978. The German Language. London. Lamprecht, A. 1977. Grammatik der englischen Sprache. 5th edn. Berlin. Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London/New York.

Schanen, F. and J.-P. Confais. 1986. Grammaire de Vallemand. Formes et fonctions. Paris. Schwitalla, J. 1997. Gesprochenes Deutsch. Eine Einfuhrung. Berlin. Sommerfeldt, K.-E. (ed.). 1988. Entwicklungstendenzen in der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen. Stevenson, P. 1997. The German-speaking World. A Practical Introduction to Sociolinguistic Issues. London/New York. Terrell, P. et al. (eds.). 1999. Collins German-English English-German Dictionary. 4th edn. Glasgow. Wahrig, G. 2000. Deutsches Wörterbuch. 2nd edn. Gütersloh. West, J. 1992-4. Progressive Grammar of German. 6 vols. Dublin. Zifonun, G. et al. 1997. Grammatik der Deutschen Sprache. 3 vols. Berlin/New York.

Specific references Where the books listed above give more information than could be encompassed in this book, or where I have made particular use of their material or presentation, they are listed below in abbreviated form, giving the author and the year of publication. Specialized works relevant to individual sections are also listed below.

1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation This section was prepared with reference to C. Hall, Modern German Pronunciation. An Introduction for Speakers ofEnglish (Manchester/New York, 1992) and the following standard works of reference: Duden, Band 6: Aussprachewörterbuch, 3rd edn (Mannheim, etc., 1990) and T. Siebs, Reine und gemäßigte Hochlautung mit Aussprachewörterbuch, 19th edn, revised by H. de Boor, H. Moser and C. Winkler (Berlin, 1969). The latter both give details on acceptable (and unacceptable) colloquial and regional usage as well as on the received standard pronunciation of German.

1.5.1

Regional variation in vocabulary The major sources for the material in this section were: J. Eichhoff, Wortatlas der deutschen Umgangssprachen, vols. 1-2 (Bern/Munich, 1977-8), vols. 3-4 (Munich, 1998-2000) and W. Seibicke, Wie sagt man anderswo? Landschaftliche Unterschiede im deutschen Wortgebrauch (Mannheim, 1972).

1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words This section was compiled with assistance from the following works, which give much more detail on Austrian and Swiss lexical peculiarities: J. Ebner, Wie sagt man in Osterreich? Wörterbuch der österreichischen Besonderheiten, 2nd edn (Mannheim, etc., 1980) and K. Meyer, Wie sagt man in der Schweiz? Wörterbuch der schweizerischen Besonderheiten (Mannheim, etc., 1989).

2.1 Problems of meaning Much more detail on English-German lexical correspondences is to be found in Beaton (1996) and Farrell (1977), to which this section is indebted at many points, and I also consulted E. Leisi, Der Wortinhalt. Seine Struktur im Deutschen und Englischen^ 5th edn (Heidelberg, 1975), which is still unequalled as a comparative study of the vocabulary of the two languages. Much of the new and revised material in this section is based on the work undertaken in the preparation of Durrell (2000), which contains more information on word-fields in German.

2.3 Word formation For this section the following standard textbooks provided much information: L. M Eichinger, Deutsche Wortbildung. Eine Einfiihrung (Tübingen, 1999), W. Fleischer and I. Barz, Wortbildung der deutschen Gegenwartssprache, 2nd rev. edn (Tübingen, 1995) and B. Naumann, Einfiihrung in die Wortbildungslehre des Deutschen, 3rd edn (Tübingen, 2000).

2.5

Prepositions The compilation of this section was particularly assisted by reference to Lamprecht (1977), pp. 309-31, W. Schmitz, Der Gebrauch der deutschen Präpositionen, 9th edn (Munich, 1981) and J. Schröder, Lexikon deutscher Präpositionen, 2nd edn (Leipzig, 1990).

2.6 Modal particles This section has benefited greatly from the account of the German particles in G. Helbig and A. Helbig, Deutsche Partikeln - Richtig gebraucht? (Leipzig, etc., 1995) and H. Weydt et al., Kleine deutsche Partikellehre (Stuttgart, 1983).

3.1

Nouns: genders and plurals The statistics in 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 are taken from G. Augst, Untersuchungen zum Morpheminventar der deutschen Gegenwartssprache (Tübingen, 1975), pp. 5-70.

4.1 Verbs and cases Duden (1998), pp. 650-81, and Helbig and Schenkel (1991) give extensive surveys of verb government and sentence patterns in German and were of considerable assistance in the compilation of this chapter.

4.3.2 Past and perfect K. Dieling and F. Kempter, Die Tempora, 2nd edn (Leipzig, 1989) and R. Thieroff, DasfiniteVerb im Deutschen. Tempus - Modus - Distanz (Tübingen, 1992) give good accounts of tense usage in modern German. The use of the past and perfect tenses is comprehensively documented in S. Latzel, Die deutschen Tempora Perfekt und Präteritum (Munich, 1977).

4.4 The passive This section draws in particular on the account of German passive constructions in Zifonun et al. (1997), pp. 1788-858.

4.5 The subjunctive This account of the subjunctive in modern German is based in large measure on the survey by K.-H. Bausch, Modalität und Konjunktivgebrauch in der gesprochenen deutschen Standardsprache, Teil I

(Munich, 1979). I am most grateful to Dr Bausch for allowing me to consult the unpublished second part of his work. S. Jäger, Empfehlungen zum Gebrauch des Konjunktivs (Düsseldorf, 1970) can still be recommended as a very sane survey of the uses of the subjunctive in modern German.

4.6 The modal auxiliaries The following works were particularly valuable in the compilation of this section: G. Diewald, Die Modalverben im Deutschen. Grammatikalisierung und Polyfunktionalität (Tübingen, 1999), Lamprecht (1977), pp. 163-75, and F. R. Palmer, Modality and the English Modais (London, 1979).

5.1 Word order This explanation of German word order draws in particular on the accounts in Engel (1991), pp. 303^4, Heidolph et al. (1981), pp. 702-64; U. Hoberg, Die Wortstellung in der geschriebenen deutschen Gegenwartssprache (Munich, 1981), H. W. Kirkwood, 'Aspects of Word Order and its Communicative Function in English and German', Journal of Linguistics 5 (1969), pp. 85-106, and Zifonun et al. (1997), pp. 1495-680.

5.2 Spelling and punctuation I am grateful to my colleague Dr Sally Johnson of Lancaster University, and to colleagues at the Institut für Deutsche Sprache for information about the controversies surrounding the introduction of the revised orthography. G. Äugst et al., Zur Neuregelung der Deutschen Orthographie. Begründung und Kritik (Tübingen, 1997) contains a useful selection of critical articles, although the debate has subsequently progressed further. Hermann (1996) includes full details on the new rules, and the account here is based on this. In addition, occasional examples and data were drawn from many sources, in particular from the Mannheim corpus of modern spoken and written German at the Institut fur Deutsche Sprache, from the works of Alfred Andersch, Thomas Bernhard, Heinrich Boll, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Max Frisch, Max von der Grün, Herrmann Kant, Siegfried Lenz, Bernhard Schlink, Erwin Strittmatter, Patrick Süskind

and from the following newspapers and periodicals: Bild, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Frankfurter Rundschau, Neues Deutschland, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Die Presse, Der Spiegel, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Die Zeit. In order not to overburden the text unnecessarily, specific sources for such occasional data are only given where the source is particularly relevant or in the case of longer extracts.

Glossary of linguistic terms

In order to talk about language we need to use some special terms. Although I have tried in this book not to introduce a large number of technical terms, some are necessary both for the sake of clarity and to avoid lengthy and tedious repetitions. As far as possible, I have kept to the more usual grammatical terms. Some, such as 'noun', 'verb' and 'adjective', need no explanation, but the less familiar ones commonly used for German and English are explained below. Not all of them are found in this book, but are included to help the reader consult other works. For similar reasons German equivalents are given where they exist. Terms used in these definitions which are themselves explained in the glossary have been given an asterisk. Ablaut The vowel changes in the *past tense and *past participle of German * strong verbs, e.g. singen, sang, gesungen, see 3.3.1. accusative {der Akkusativ) see case. adverbial {die Adverbiale) A word or phrase used to indicate, for instance, how, where, why or when something happens or is done, e.g. heute, aus diesem Grunde, in der Stadt, see 5.1.5. apposition {die Apposition) A descriptive phrase added to a noun phrase without any connecting preposition, e.g. Kaiser Wilhelm II, der letzte deutsche Kaiser, starb im Exil in Holland. article {der Artikel) *Determiners which give a noun specific reference. German has a 'definite' article {der, die, das, etc.) and an 'indefinite' article {ein, eine, einem, etc.), see 3.4. assimilation {die Assimilation) The pronunciation of a particular sound may be affected by ('assimilated to') neighbouring sounds, e.g. in colloquial German gebm, er hap mir (for geben, er hat mir). Ausklammerung Excluding a phrase from the verbal "bracket, i.e. putting it after the *past participle, * separable prefix, etc. which is usually last in the clause, e.g. Ich rufe an aus London, see 5.1.6. auxiliary verb {das Hilfsverb) A verb used with another verb to make tenses, the passive voice, etc. The main German auxiliaries are haben, sein, werden and the * modal auxiliaries dürfen, müssen, etc., see 4.6.

(verbal) bracket (die Klammer) The characteristic sentence construction of German whereby most elements of the sentence (or clause) are enclosed between the two parts of the verb, e.g. Ich habe sie gestern in Ulm gesehen, see 5.1.1. case (der Fall) The indication of the role played by a noun in the sentence by * inflection, i.e. by changing its form or the form of the *determiners or adjectives used with it. German has four cases: the nominative (mainly for the *subject of the verb), the accusative (mainly for the * direct object), the dative (mainly for the *indirect object) and the genitive (mainly to show possession or to link nouns together), see 3.2,4.1 and 4.2. cleft sentence A typically English construction, little used in German, by which part of the sentence is emphasized by placing it at the beginning in a clause introduced by it, e.g. It was yesterday that she came, see 5.1.4. (adjective) comparison (die Steigerung) The relative qualities of persons or things may be compared by using the comparative or superlative 'degree' of adjectives, usually formed in German by the suffixes -er and -(e)st respectively, e.g. schnell - schneller (comparative degree) - (der) schnellste (superlative degree), complement (die Ergänzung) A part of the sentence which is closely linked to the verb and 'completes' its meaning in some way, e.g. the *direct and *indirect objects, *prepositional objects, direction phrases with verbs of motion, etc., see 5.1.5. compound (die Zusammensetzung) A word formed by joining two (or more) words together, e.g. das Rathaus, die Aktiengesellschaft, brustschwimmen. conditional A conditional sentence (der Konditionalsatz) is one which contains or implies a condition. In German, they often contain the conjunctions wenn or falls and the verb is often in the past or pluperfect *subjunctive (Konjunktiv //, see 4.5.4), e.g. Wenn ich das Fenster aufmachte, würden wir alle frieren. The würde form of Konjunktiv II is often called 'the conditional tense' in English grammars of German, conjugation (die Konjugation) see inflection, conjunction (die Konjunktion) A word used to join clauses together, e.g. und, aber, wenn, nachdem. dative (der Dativ) see case, declension (die Deklination) see inflection, demonstrative (das Demonstrative) A word used to point to something specific, e.g. English this, that, German dieser, jener. Demonstratives can appear as *determiners or pronouns, see 3.5.1. derivation (die Wortbildung) Forming a word on the basis of another, usually with the help of ^prefixes and/or * suffixes, e.g. verbessern ('derived' from besser), Bildung ('derived' from bilden), see 2.3.

determiner (das Artikelwort, das Determinativ) One of a small group of function words used at the beginning of a noun phrase. They include the definite and indefinite * articles, demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives (mein, sein, etc.), the indefinites (einige, jeder, mancher,; etc.), and so on; see 3.4 and 3.5. With a few exceptions, only one determiner can be used in a single noun phrase, see 3.4.3. dialect (der Dialekt, die Mundart) A language * variety restricted to a particular geographical area, see 1.2. In the German speech area they are often strikingly different from * Hochdeutsch in phonetics and grammar. Compare Zürich German Er isch i mys Huus choo, or Westphalian (Münster) He is in mien Huus kuemmen for standard German Er ist in mein Haus gekommen. direct object (das direkte Objekt) The person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb. In German it is in the accusative case, e.g. Er stellte den Stuhl in die Ecke. doublet (die Dublette, die Formvariante) An alternative form of the same word, e.g. benutzen/benützen, see 2.2.4. elision (die Elision) The omission of a sound, as characteristically occurs in rapid colloquial speech. For example, in a word like Hauptbahnhof the t is often 'elided5 in spoken German so that it sounds like Haupbahnhof. ellipsis (die Ellipse) Omitting words, typically in colloquial speech where their meaning can be deduced from the context. In spoken German, for instance, we often find ellipsis of pronouns, e.g. Geht nicht for Das geht nicht, or Komm gleich for Ich komme gleich. extended epithet (das erweiterte Attribut) An adjective, particularly a *participle, which is expanded into a clause-like construction, e.g. die in dem Park spielenden Kinder. Such constructions are characteristic of formal written German, figurative meaning (die übertragene Bedeutung) A word may have an 'extended' or 'figurative' meaning besides its 'literal' meaning. For example, blass, besides its literal meaning 'pale', can have afigurativesense 'vague, faint', e.g. eine blasse Ahnung, 'a vague suspicion', filler A conventionalized word or phrase used in conversation to give the speaker time to think or express a reaction, e.g. selbstverständlich, das gibt's doch gar nicht. finite verb (dasfiniteVerb) A verb form used with a subject and agreeing with it through the ending, e.g. er machte, ihr kommt an, er hat es gesagt. Finite forms of the verb are distinguished in this way from the 'non-finite' forms, i.e. the *participles and the "infinitive. gender (das Genus) A grammatical classification system of nouns indicated in German by the different forms of the * determiners used with a particular noun, e.g. der Tisch, die Luft,

das Heft. German has three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter, see 3.1. genitive {der Genitiv) see case. government {die Rektion) The requirement that a particular verb or preposition should be followed by a noun phrase in a particular case. Thus, in German, we say that ohne 'governs' a noun phrase in the accusative and helfen 'governs' a noun phrase in the dative. Hochdeutsch The codified, official *variety of German as used in all the German-speaking countries, see 1.2. idiom {die Redewendung) A set phrase with a special meaning which cannot be understood by taking the words individually, e.g. schwer auf Draht ('on the ball'), see 2.4. imperative mood {der Imperativ) The form of the verb used to give commands, e.g. Bleib da! Stellen Sie sich das vor! imperfect tense see past tense. indicative mood {der Indikativ) The form of the verb used to make statements, ask questions, etc., e.g. Sie kam aus dem Haus, Bringen Sie es mir morgen? indirect object {das indirekte Objekt) A verb Complement which typically refers to a person indirectly affected by the action of the verb in some way, for instance by receiving the direct object, e.g. Ich gab ihrem Bruder das Geld. In German the indirect object is in the dative case, whilst in English it either precedes the direct object or is in a phrase introduced by to, e.g. / gave her brother the money or I gave the money to her brother. indirect speech {die indirekte Rede) Also called 'reported speech': a construction in which what someone said is incorporated into our own sentence rather than quoted directly. Compare 'direct speech' Er sagte: „Ich bin krank" with 'indirect speech' Er sagte, dass er krank sei, see 4.5.3. infinitive {der Infinitiv) The base form of a verb (as typically listed in dictionaries). In German it ends in -en or -n, e.g. schlagen, ziehen, verhandeln. When used with another verb it is usually preceded by zu in the so-called 'infinitive clause' {der Infinitivsatz), e.g. Er hat mir empfohlen, den Wagen in die Werkstatt zu bringen. inflection {die Flexion) Changing the form of a word to show different grammatical categories, e.g. for case and plural with nouns, or tense, mood, person and number with verbs. Traditionally the 'inflection' of nouns and adjectives is referred to as 'declension', the 'inflection' of verbs as 'conjugation', inseparable verb {das untrennbare Verb) A prefixed verb whose * prefix is not stressed and remains attached to the verb in all types of sentence construction. The main inseparable verb prefixes of German are: be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, ver- and zer-y see 2.3.4.

interjection (die Interjektion) A part of speech such as ah! oh! ach! etc. expressing a reaction or response, intransitive verb (das intransitive Verb) A verb which does not govern a "direct object in the accusative case, e.g. bleiben, fallen, see 4.1. inversion (die Inversion) We speak of 'inversion' or 'inverted word order' in German if the verb precedes the subject, for instance in a question, or in a statement where something other than the subject occupies the initial position, e.g. Gestern habe ich ihn nicht gesehen, see 5.1. Konjunktiv see subjunctive. modal auxiliary verb (das Modalverb) In German, the six verbs dürfen, können, mögen, müssen, sollen and wollen are known as 'modal auxiliary verbs'. They are used to express possibility, permission, obligation, etc., see 4.6. modal particle (die Modalpartikel) Short words such as aber, auch, doch, ja, nur, etc. which are very characteristic of spoken German and express the speaker's attitude to what is being said, see 2.6. nominative (der Nominativ) see case, number (der Numerus) A grammatical category for indicating the difference between singular and plural. The difference between Haus and Häuser or between ich komme and wir kommen is one of'number', object (das Objekt) see direct object and indirect object, participle (das Partizip) see past participle and present participle. partitive (der Partitiv) An expression of measurement or quantity, e.g. ein Stück Brot, zwei Flaschen Wein, see 4.2.4. passive voice (das Passiv) A verb form using the "auxiliary verbs werden or sein with the *past participle. The subject of the verb in the passive voice is normally the "direct object of the equivalent active construction, e.g. active: Sie lobte mich ~ passive: Ich wurde (von ihr) gelobt, see 4.4. past participle (das zweite Partizip) A non-finite verb form used as an adjective or with an "auxiliary verb to form the "perfect tense or the "passive, e.g. gemacht, gestanden, zerbrochen. past tense (das Präteritum) A simple tense (i.e. one formed without an "auxiliary verb) mainly used to relate events which occurred before the present moment, e.g. es machte, es brach, es zerfiel, see 4.3.2. This tense is sometimes called the 'imperfect tense' in English grammars of German, but this is a misleading term which is best avoided, perfect tense (das Perfekt) A tense formed with the present tense of the "auxiliary verbs haben or sein and the "past participle, e.g. Ich habe gegessen, Sie ist angekommen. It is used to relate past

events to the moment of speaking and, especially in spoken German, to report past events, see 4.3.2. person (die Person) A grammatical category of the verb by which we show the difference between the person(s) speaking ('first' person, i.e. ich, wir), the person(s) spoken to ('second' person, i.e. du, ihr,; Sie) and other person(s) or thing(s) spoken about ('third' person, i.e. er, sie, es). personal pronoun (das Personalpronomen) Simple words referring to persons or things such as ich, du, ihm. phrasal verb (das Funktionsverbgefiige) A combination of a noun derived from a verb and a common verb such as bringen, kommen or nehmen, e.g. etrv zum Abschluss bringen ('to finish sth'), in Betracht kommen ('to be considered'), pluperfect tense (das Plusquamperfekt) A tense formed with the *past tense of the *auxiliaries haben or sein and the *past participle, e.g. Ich hatte geschlafen, Ich war gegangen. prefix (das Präfix) An element added to the beginning of a word or root, e.g. Anfall, gestanden, unglaublich. prepositional adverb (das Präpositionaladverb) Words formed by the combination of da(r)~ with a preposition, e.g. dabei, darin, damit, see 4.1.5. prepositional object (das Präpositionalobjekt) A * complement of the verb, linked to it by means of a preposition, e.g. Ich warte auf dich, Er glaubt an ein Wunder, see 4.1.4. present participle (das erste Partizip) A non-finite verb form made by suffixing -d to the form of the *infinitive, e.g. spielend, verbessernd. Unlike the corresponding English ing-form (e.g. playing), the German present participle is mainly used as an adjective, see 5.3. principal parts (die Stammformen des Verbs) The three main inflectional forms of each verb, i.e. the form of the "Infinitive, the *past tense (first person singular) and the *past participle, e.g. machen - machte - gemacht', sinken - sank - gesunken, see 3.3. progressive tenses In English, the tenses formed with the *auxiliary verb to be and the ing-form of the verb, e.g. She is going, We shall be sailing. There are no direct equivalents to these in German. reflexive verb (das reflexive Verb) A verb used in combination with the reflexive pronoun, i.e. sich in the third person and the pronoun corresponding to the subject in the first and second persons, e.g. sich verabreden. register (die Textsorte) A language * variety determined by use and influenced by such factors as medium (i.e. speech or writing), subject matter and situation, see 1.1. relative pronoun (das Relativpronomen) A word which introduces a subordinate clause describing a noun, for instance

English who,, which, that, German der, die, das, etc., e.g. Die Frau, Hut trägt, kenne ich nicht, see 3.5.2. rhetorical question (dfe rhetorische Frage) A question which is really a statement, as the answer is assumed to be obvious, e.g. kennt ihn nicht? Schachtelsatz A German sentence construction where a number of clauses are contained within each other, e.g. Der Autor, der ein Buch, das dieses Problem behandelt, geschrieben hat, hat in der Nazizeit sehr gelitten. As such sentences can be confusing, they tend to be avoided in modern German, see 5.1.6. semantic (semantisch) Having to do with meaning, separable verb (das trennbare Verb) A verb with a stressed "prefix which is detached from the verb in some sentence types (e.g. in statements) and forms the second part of the verbal "bracket, e.g. ankommen: Wir kommen heute um fünf Uhr an, see 2.3.5. stress (die Betonung) In all words of more than one syllable in English and German, one syllable, known as the 'stressed' syllable, is pronounced with more force than the others. This is indicated in this book by the symbol1 before the stressed syllable, e.g. Beltonung, 'Anfang,, lebendig. strong verb (das starke Verb) A verb whose "principal parts are made by altering the vowel (i.e. by *Ablaut) and which has the suffix -en in the "past participle, e.g. schwimmen - schwamm geschwommen, see 3.3. subject (das Subjekt) The noun or pronoun (in the nominative case) which determines the ending of the verb, i.e. with which the verb 'agrees' in "person and "number. In statements in the active voice the subject is typically the person or thing performing an action, e.g. Der Stein fiel mir aufden Kopf. subjunctive mood (der Konjunktiv) A verb category mainly used in German to show "indirect speech or in "conditional sentences, see 4.5. subordinate clause (der Nebensatz) Also called 'dependent clause'. A clause, usually introduced by a "conjunction, which functions as part of another clause (e.g. as subject, object, adjective, adverbial) on which it depends. In German subordinate clauses the "finite verb is typically the second part of the verbal "bracket, e.g. Die Frau, die sehr klein war,; konnte es nicht erreichen (the subordinate clause has the function of an adjective qualifying Frau); Als er ankam, waren ihre Brüder schon fort (the subordinate clause plays the role of an "adverbial of time), suffix (das Suffix) An element added to the end of a word or root, e.g. Bedeutung, gelblich, machte. A grammatical suffix, as in machte, is often termed an 'ending', superlative (der Superlativ) see comparison.

tag question In English, the short questions with an auxiliary verb at the end of the sentence, e.g. He's coming, isn't he? topic (das Thema) Also called 'theme'. The first stressed element in a sentence typically refers to something 'given' (having been mentioned previously) or 'known' to both speaker and listener. This is the 'topic' of the sentence and some 'new' or 'unknown' information (known as the 'comment' or 'rheme') is given about it. In German main clause statements the topic typically occurs in first position before the "finite verb, see 5.1. Thus the sentence Dieses Buch hat sie in Ulm gekauft starts with an element (dieses Buch) which has just been referred to (the 'topic'), and says something about it. transitive verb (das transitive Verb) A verb "governing a "direct object (in the accusative case), e.g. schlagen, verbessern, see 4.1. Umgangssprache The "register of everyday speech in modern German, often coloured with regionalisms, see 1.1 and 1.2. variant (die Variante) A word, sound or grammatical form typical of a particular "variety, see chapter 1. variety (die Varietät) A particular form of language with differences characteristic of a particular region, social group, speech situation or medium, etc. * Hochdeutsch, "dialects, *Umgangssprache, "registers are all 'varieties' of German, see chapter 1. valency/valence (die Valenz) A term often used to refer to the types of "complement found with a particular verb or the kinds of object it "governs, see 4.1. verbal noun (das Verbalsubstantiv) A noun formed from a verb, either the "infinitive used as a noun, e.g. das Kommen, or some other form of "derivation, e.g. die Bedeutung (from bedeuten) or der Bruch (from brechen). weak masculine noun (das schwache Maskulinum) A masculine noun which forms its genitive case with the ending -en, e.g. des Menschen, des Franzosen, see 3.2.1. weak verb (das schwache Verb) A verb which forms its "past tense and "past participle with the ending -t, e.g. machen machte - gemacht, see 3.3.

Abbreviations and conventions

acc adj AU CH conj dat demon Engl esp etw fem Fr fut gen Ger intr id jdn jdm jds masc N NE NW neut nom occ perf pi pluperf prep pres pron R1 Rl* R2 R3 R3a

accusative case adjective Austrian usage, see 1.2.3 Swiss usage, see 1.2.3 conjunction dative case demonstrative English especially etwas feminine gender French future tense genitive case German intransitive verb jemand jemanden jemandem jemandes masculine gender North German, see 1.2.3 Northeast German, see 1.2.3 Northwest German, see 1.2.3 neuter gender nominative case occasionally perfect tense plural pluperfect tense preposition present tense pronounced; pronoun spoken colloquial register, see 1.1.5 vulgar, see 1.1.5 neutral register, see 1.1.5 formal written register, see 1.1.5 literary register, see 1.1.5

R3b S sb SE sing sth subj SW tr /

non-literary written register, see 1.1.5 South German, see 1.2.3 somebody Southeast German, see 1.2.3 singular something subject Southwest German, see 1.2.3 transitive verb or

Where necessary, a stressed syllable is indicated by 1 before the syllable, e.g. der Maf or, das Kontinent, übersetzen,'umziehen. Where appropriate the plural of a noun is indicated in brackets after the noun, e.g. der Vater ( "), die Frau (-en), der Lehrer (-), der Stuhl ( "e). If the genitive singular of a noun does not end in ~(e)s it is given with the plural in the following way (see 3.2): der Bube (-n-n), der Mensch (-en, -en), der Name (-ns, n). Adjectives used as nouns (see 3.4.4) are indicated in the following way: der Beamte(r), der Fremde(r), dasAußere(s).

1 Varieties of language

German is spoken as a native language by about 100 million people in at least fifteen European countries. This constitutes by far the largest speech community in Western and Central Europe. It is an official state language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. It has recognized regional status in areas of Belgium, Denmark, Italy and Romania and, even after the expulsion and resettlement of large numbers of German speakers after the Second World War, it still accounts for sizeable long-established minorities in France, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Russia. It also has a vast range in terms of possible uses: for everyday conversation, formal speech, technical writing, journalism, literature (in the widest sense), and so on. Given this broad geographic spread and the number of uses to which it is put, it is quite natural that it is subject to considerable variation. Different words, grammatical constructions and sentence types are used depending on who is speaking or writing, to whom, on what topic, in what circumstances, in what region. Most people can choose to speak formally or informally as they feel appropriate in a given situation. Students, for instance, express themselves in very different ways when discussing politics or sport with friends in a cafe, talking to their parents or a lecturer, writing a seminar paper or a letter of application for a job. The spoken language also differs markedly from Berlin to Cologne, Munich, Zürich or Vienna. There can be substantial differences between the written German of a modern novel, a serious newspaper, a history book and a travel guide. All these different forms are varieties of German, and we can identify those characteristic features, the variants, which go to make up each variety. In the process of learning their own language native speakers develop an awareness of the variants available to them and a degree of competence in using those which are appropriate to a given situation. They also develop a keen sensitivity towards such variation, so that when they hear or read a particular variant in an inappropriate context it will sound out of place, and possibly comical, affected, pompous, slipshod - or even rude. Clearly, this presents problems, and potential traps, for foreign learners. In order to communicate effectively in German they have to go through a much more conscious process of acquiring the ability to recognize and use those forms which are right for each particular situation. This is not always straightforward because

there are no hard and fast rules - it is not a matter of grammar - and the language is most often presented to foreign learners, certainly in the early stages, in a uniform variety which can be rather artificial and removed from actual everyday usage. Initial confrontation with German as it is used in day-to-day situations, with all its variation, can be confusing or frustrating - for example when learners find that laboriously learnt grammatical constructions amuse native speakers if they are used in everyday conversation, or when they are told that a particular word or expression is 'not used here', possibly with the implication that it is not very good German. But developing competence in handling variation appropriately is an essential aspect of mastering the language fully, as much for the foreign learner as for the native speaker. Within the scope of this book it would be impossible to give a detailed account of all the varieties of modern German. They are in any case not clearly defined; distinctions between individual varieties are not clear-cut and each one tends to shade into the next. This book identifies some of the most frequent variants which native speakers have at their command and which the advanced foreign learner is most likely to encounter. This is done by explaining in detail the major factors which affect choice between variants. These factors can be usefully divided into two categories: those relating to the uses which the language serves and those relating to the users of the language, in particular to the social groups to which they belong. More extensive information on variation in German can be found in Barbour & Stevenson (1990), Clyne (1995) and Stevenson (1997). The account here draws on these works and has also benefited from the analysis of register in French in R. E. Batchelor and M. H. Offord, Using French, 3rd edn (Cambridge 2000), on which the numbering in 1.1.5 is based.

NOTE:

1.1 Varieties according to use: register The forms used by native speakers are influenced by factors like subject matter (i.e. what they are talking about), medium (i.e. are they speaking or writing?) and situation (i.e. where they are saying it and who they are talking to). Variation of this kind, which depends on the use to which the language is being put, is commonly known as register variation. A register is a type, or stylistic level of language (e.g. colloquial, informal, formal, technical, etc.), which is influenced by factors of this kind.

1.1.1

Medium The first crucial distinction affecting register is that between spoken and written language. When we are writing we have more time to consider what we are saying and how we are saying it, to be precise in expression, and to formulate more carefully than in the flow of speech. As a result written language tends to be more elaborate and complex than spoken language. And because there is no direct contact with the person being addressed, more detailed explanation and more formal coherence are necessary than, for example, in a conversation with a close friend, when we can leave words out, break sentences off and be less precise in our use of words and still be perfectly well understood. As a result, written language is structured more formally and precisely and exhibits a greater degree of organization in every aspect. It has a more extensive vocabulary, with distinctions of meaning which are often ignored in the spoken language. There are grammatical forms, such as, in German, the present subjunctive, the genitive case and the past tense, which are used more sparingly (if at all) in everyday spoken German than in writing. Sentences tend to be longer, with a more complex structure. Regionalisms are very limited and are largely restricted to a few items of vocabulary, principally those characteristic of the different German-speaking countries. Spoken German, on the other hand, is characterized in general by considerable deviation from the formal norms of sentence construction which are adhered to in writing. Sentences are often incomplete (often just nouns or phrases without a verb), there are many broken or elliptical constructions, repetitions and phrases added or inserted as afterthoughts without linking them properly to the rest of the sentence. There are fewer subordinate clauses, and main-clause constructions are the rule. Filler words, like the modal particles (aber, doch, denn, etc., see 2.6), hesitation markers (öh, mhm, etc.), interjections and comment clauses (sehen Sie, weißt du, etc.), are very common. Regionalisms are almost inevitably present to some degree, and these become more marked the further south one goes (see 1.2.2). Despite the apparent paradox, not all writing is in the 'written' register as described above, and not all speech is in the 'spoken' register. We can imitate natural speech in writing, and many modern popular novelists and the popular press use a variety which is close to it. However, in practice this is restricted to certain characteristic words and expressions, and possibly some phonetic contractions such as sehense for sehen Sie. The lax sentence constructions which are typical of spontaneous informal speech (see the examples in 1.4.2) are rarely found in any form of writing, not least because they are conventionally felt to be 'incorrect'. Similarly, characteristic written forms may be spoken, often in the most formal situations, e.g. a sermon, a public lecture, a parliamentary speech or a news broadcast; as often as not

these are given from a prepared text. It is also broadly true that written German has been moving closer to speech in many ways over the last fifty years. This is a development which is typical of English and other languages, too, and it is generally seen as a result of the increasing importance of the spoken medium in the modern world, especially in radio and television. In German, though, it is also probably due in part to the more widespread use of standard German (Hochdeutsch), rather than the dialects, in the everyday speech of most German speakers (see 1.2.2).

1.1.2 Subject matter What is being talked or written about can influence the way it is expressed. A discussion of politics calls for a whole range of vocabulary and forms which would be inappropriate in other areas. Every activity and field of study has its own special terminology and expressions, and these are used irrespective of situation: the same characteristic forms may be used by a politician in a television interview, in a newspaper article or between friends. But this is not always so: an electric light bulb is, in the everyday spoken register of German, die (Glüh)birne, but in the specialist register of electricians it is die (Glüh)lampe. Similarly, doctors regularly use different terms for diseases or conditions when talking to other doctors from those they use to their patients. Although subject matter most obviously influences the choice of vocabulary, it is important to realize that, in modern German, it also affects grammar and sentence construction. Much non-literary writing in German favours forms and constructions which are found less often, for instance, in a modern novel. The passage in 1.6.4 gives many characteristic examples of these. Thus, there are forms which are generally regarded as more appropriate to talk or (especially) write about a particular range of subject matter.

1.1.3

Situation The term situation refers to the whole context in which the language is being used - especially in speech, as there is naturally little inherent variation in written situations. With the important exception of letter-writing, which is a special case, a writer does not have a personal relationship to the reader. As a consequence, the most formal register variants are typically selected in writing, as was shown in 1.1.1. On the other hand, situation is the most important factor underlying register variation in speech, and it appears typically in the degree of formality in the words, expressions and constructions used. This variation depends, first, on the context in which people are speaking. Some contexts are inherently more structured and formal

than others and may be taken as requiring a correspondingly high register level. Some typical cases were mentioned at the end of 1.1.2, but colleagues in an office, for example, often employ a greater degree of formality in a meeting with set procedures than they would in the normal course of everyday business. However, the notion of'speech situation' is usually defined more widely, to include the relationship between the people talking, and this plays a crucial part in the selection of a particular register. In general, the use of more formal language when we speak is considered a mark of deference to the person addressed, and this forms part of social conventions of politeness. Conversely, the use of an inappropriately casual form may be interpreted as showing a lack of respect. Most of the factors which affect the choice of register are linked to norms of social behaviour in this way. This is certainly the case with gender differences. For example, many German men feel it appropriate to adopt a more formal mode of speech when addressing a woman than a man. Although this is less true than it was a hundred years ago, it is by no means unusual, particularly in the higher social classes, when the man in question does not know the woman personally, or among older people or in certain areas, like in Austria. More generally, though, there are numerous forms (especially vulgarisms such as Arschloch, Scheiße, vögeln, see 1.1.5) which are avoided by many Germans in mixed company, although they can be used fairly freely in exclusively male or female gatherings. The role of age is similar. It is still taken as a mark of respect to use a more formal register when speaking to people older than oneself. This is perhaps more widely expected by adults from children and young people in the German-speaking countries than is the case in Britain or the USA, and failure to observe these conventions may be resented. On the other hand, a different form of speech, with simpler grammar and special words, is often used towards young (especially pre-school age) children. In general, too, a less formal tone is adopted towards all children up to the age of fourteen or so, with the universal use of du towards them, although this may be determined less by their age per se than by their social status as dependants. In conversations between adults, the relative social status of the participants is often the crucial factor in setting the register level. People in a subordinate social situation, such as a shopkeeper to a customer, an employee to a boss, a student to a professor, often signal this more deferential relationship by the use of a more formal speech style than is normal between equals. Failure to do so may indeed have serious social consequences, e.g. Ich kaufe nicht mehr bei Meyer, der redet einen so grob an, as with the transgression of any other social conventions. How someone wishes to be seen by the person he or she is addressing is also relevant here. People in a subordinate position, like those just mentioned, sometimes express themselves in a particular manner in

order to confirm their position to the person they are speaking to. Alternatively, by using different, more casual forms, they may assert a measure of equality, like an employee to a boss in the course of an industrial dispute. In this way, we can adopt roles and present ourselves in a particular manner through our speech. It has been noticed that some German politicians choose an especially earthy or racy casual register, very marked by regionalisms, when talking to rural constituents in order to appeal to them as equals. This is likely to be very different from the one they habitually use in the Bundestag. Some people signal their contempt for all social conventions by ignoring linguistic ones as well. They deliberately use the least formal register to everybody, including those who might be seen as their superiors. This attitude was particularly noticeable after 1968 among radical student groups in West Germany, and it may still be encountered. In general, though, the use of a less formal register most often marks a measure of equality and intimacy with the person addressed. One clear indicator of this in German is the switch from Sie to du.

1.1.4 Register and regionalism There is a strong correlation between these varieties which depend on variations in usage and varieties which depend on variation in the users, which are explained in 1.2. As a rule, the extent of regionalisms in a German native speaker's speech increases in proportion to the degree of informality in the register. The most formal register, especially when written, is fairly uniform over the whole of the German speech area, with regional variation limited to a few items of vocabulary. The casual register of everyday speech, on the other hand, is widely characterized by regionalisms in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.

1.1.5 Indicating register There are no absolute, clear-cut divisions between different registers of German. However, for the practical purposes of giving information about register in this book it is useful to divide up the scale of register into three main types. We can describe these roughly as 'informal colloquial', 'neutral' and 'formal written', although the latter needs to be subdivided into 'literary' and 'non-literary'. In the rest of the book words and forms whose use is typically restricted to one of these registers are marked by using the labels Rl, R2 and R3 (if necessary split into R3a and R3b) to indicate these restrictions in register-dependent usage: Rl: The typical register of everyday colloquial speech, usually referred to as Umgangssprache or Alltagssprache in German. It is used between equals in informal situations to discuss everyday topics, and it

is the natural mode of speech for most native speakers of German, irrespective of the degree of education. Articulation is rather careless, and unstressed syllables and words tend to be reduced or elided. Some grammatical forms, like the genitive case or the present subjunctive, are not found in this register, and there is some simplification in inflectional forms, as with the -en ending of weak masculine nouns, which is often dropped in this register (e.g. dem Polizist rather than dem Polizisten). Sentence construction is typically rather loose compared with the formal structures of writing. In spontaneous speech we hesitate, correct ourselves, have afterthoughts, repeat ourselves and break off sentences to go off along another track. Sentences are very often incomplete because much is understood by implication; we can rely on the person we are talking to to supply what is not said. In matters of vocabulary there is a fondness for exaggeration, and many words, like kriegen or klappen, are effectively restricted to this register because they are considered too 'casual' or 'colloquial' for writing. There may also be a lack of precision in the vocabulary, with all-purpose words being used when the speaker cannot think of an exact term. Informal speech usually has substantial regional colouring. In its characteristic form it is rarely written, although some writing (e.g. modern novels and the popular press) may imitate certain features of it. This register has a wide range, from a normal conversational style which is socially quite acceptable to gross vulgarisms. The latter mainly concern items of vocabulary which correspond to the notorious four-letter words of English and which are indicated here by the label Rl*. Words designated like this are generally thought of as offensive. They tend to sound particularly objectionable when used with a foreign accent, and the foreign learner is best advised simply to note them and to avoid using them. R2: This label indicates words, forms and expressions which are neutral in respect of register, i.e. those which are not specific to either informal colloquial speech or formal writing, and which can be used equally in all registers. In practice, most words, forms and expressions of German fall into this category, so that any form not specifically marked for register in this book is to be taken as belonging to it. Most modern introductory material for foreign learners tends to use a type of language which falls under this heading and is neither colloquial nor formal. However, there are a fair number of words, forms and expressions whose use is best defined negatively, i.e. they are typically used over a range of register except in colloquial speech, or except in formal writing. Such usage is indicated in this book by the labels R2/3 or R l / 2 respectively. Other forms may be not absolutely restricted in their usage to a single register, but if they are particularly common in Rl or R3 this is indicated as 'esp. Rl' or 'esp. R3\ R3: By this label we indicate the register of modern written German, with the complex sentence structures and elaborate vocabulary typical

of the written medium. Regionalism is minimal and is usually limited to a few items of vocabulary. It is spoken only in the most formal situations, and then typically from a prepared text. In this case, the pronunciation is much more careful and clear than in Rl. In grammar, the formal requirements of standard Hochdeutsch, as set out in the recognized authorities, is adhered to with very little deviation. The choice of words is more careful (because we have time to think about the best word for the context), and fine distinctions of meaning are observed which may be ignored in everyday usage. It is useful to distinguish two major types of this register, basically differentiated in terms of subject matter, as follows. R3a: The literary language as established and codified from the late eighteenth century on, and still used in much formal writing, especially works of literature and the serious press. It may have a rather archaic or scholarly ring to it, but it enjoys great prestige through formal education, and it is still widely regarded as the only 'good' or 'correct' form of German, with deviations from it in other registers (even R3b) considered as deficiencies. R3b: Modern non-literary prose of all kinds, as found in business letters, official documents, instruction manuals, popular scholarship, writing in science, philosophy, economics, etc. Its most striking feature is the preference for noun constructions over verb constructions; main clauses prevail as contrasted to the complex sentences with dependent clauses characteristic of R3a. Such features of R3b have been widely criticized by purists (who think that old-fashioned R3a is the only kind of German which ought to be used in writing) as Papierdeutsch or Beamtendeutsch, and at its worst this register can be ludicrously pompous and impenetrable. However, at its best it has a notable conciseness, and most Germans consider it appropriate for non-fictional writing of all kinds. It must be stressed that these categories are a considerable simplification. The scale of register is continuous, and there are no natural divisions. Each of the categories above covers a wide range of often very different types of German. Rl, for example, ranges from wholly acceptable conversational language, as used every day by most German speakers, to the kind of gross vulgarisms indicated by Rl* in this book which are avoided except in very special cases. The other registers have no less wide a range: R3b includes, for instance, the very precise and considered expression of an editorial in Die Zeit and the unnecessary verbosity of an official pronouncement. But there is still enough similarity in some essential features to make these broad categorizations useful, whilst to try to identify a larger number of categories would simply be confusing. Equally, these labels are only a very rough guide to usage. The scale of register is continuous; there are no natural divisions and language users are rarely consistent. However, the labels are handy and easy to

operate with, and they are useful in giving an initial indication of the restrictions on the use of particular forms. Much speech or writing cannot be assigned as a whole to one of the above categories, and more than anything it is a question of the greater or lesser use of those variants which are typical of one register or another. For example, a political discussion between friends in a cafe might drift between R2 and R1 (with more of the latter as the evening wears on), but with certain features of R3b if they use words and phrasing typical of the way their subject matter is treated in newspapers and in television broadcasts by practising politicians. Some modern novelists, like Günter Grass, use the lexical and syntactic elaborateness which is typical of R3a, but with a fair leavening of Rl, often vulgar, variants. Other recent writers try to avoid the complexity of R3a and aim at a more informal register level, using variants which are predominantly neutral R2.

1.2 Varieties according to user: regionalism

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

Other varieties of language relate to the social group(s) to which people belong. We can frequently observe people, quite unconsciously, using forms and expressions which indicate their membership of a particular group. Small groups of young people, say, at a particular school or college, often have a range of slang forms and expressions which are peculiar to the group; the use of these excludes outsiders and signals membership of this 'in' group. Variation according to user is equally typical of very much larger social groups. Within the German speech area we come across linguistic variation which is related to the social class of a speaker and to the region which he or she comes from. Sometimes the two factors are linked, as is typically the case in England: Eliza Doolittle, in George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, is marked by her speech as a lower-class Londoner. This is less frequent in Germany, where, especially in the South, regional variants are used by members of all social classes. In fact, in the German-speaking countries the influence of social class is most often seen in the ability (or willingness) to use a particular register, as we saw earlier, and less educated speakers may characteristically be less competent in more formal registers. Given the correlation between more colloquial registers and the degree of regionalism, this may have the secondary effect that such speakers use more regional varieties. However, it is important for English learners of German to be aware that, as a general rule, such local varieties, accents or dialects may be widely accepted and used by all sections of society in a way that is not found in England or some of the other English-speaking countries.The kind of social stigmatism which in England is commonly attached to broad accents like Eliza Doolittle's is much less usual in the German

speech area, although it is not unknown and may be increasing, especially in the large northern industrial conurbations like the Ruhrgebiet or Berlin. On the other hand, a standard German pronunciation lacks the clear association with prestigious social groups which is so characteristic of Received Pronunciation in Britain.

1.2.1 Regionalism and standard German Regional variation is an important feature of German and the learner will encounter it at a much earlier stage and to a much greater degree than, say, in French. We need first to look at it in relation to the standard German which is taught to foreign learners. This variety (Hochdeutsch, die deutsche Hochsprache) arose from the time of Luther onwards as a written standard language for the whole of the German speech area. In the terms we are using, it was restricted to R3; even nowadays, it is still frequently referred to as Schriftdeutsch. In its modern form, which is labelled R3 in this book, it has a uniform spelling, which has been recently revised (see 6.1) and for which the Duden Rechtschreibung (2000) is regarded as authoritative. Its grammar also has a uniform codification of what is considered to be 'correct' German, and the Duden Grammatik (1998) is usually accepted as the standard authority for this. In these aspects of language, accepted regional variation is limited. There is more such variation in the realm of vocabulary, where there is no universally recognized authority. In particular there is considerable variation here between the various German-speaking countries, with different words being in current use in Austria and Switzerland from those in Germany. The most important of these are given in 1.5.2. Divergences also emerged between the DDR and the other German-speaking countries. Although these were mainly in the field of political and state institutions, a few, like Broiler for Brathähnchen and Plaste for Plastik, remain in common everyday use in the 'new' Bundesländer, even after unification. Only time will tell if these will ultimately survive as regional variants. However, there are many instances where no single word has ever gained full acceptance over the whole of the German speech area. The case of Northern Sonnabend and Southern Samstag is well known, but there are numerous others, although it is noticeable that they are more prevalent in areas of everyday life, such as food and drink and traditional trades, where the influence of the standard language may have made itself felt less strongly.

1.2.2 Regionalism and spoken German Certainly until 1800, and in many parts of Germany until 1900, standard German (Hochdeutsch) was used for writing only. What people

spoke was their dialect, a language variety peculiar to a particular locality. In German this often differs from the standard language in so many respects - in pronunciation and grammar as well as in vocabulary - as to be all but incomprehensible to a speaker from another region, and certainly to the foreigner who has learnt only standard German. By the end of the eighteenth century, though, a spoken form of Hochdeutsch had arisen, based on a North German pronunciation of the written language, initially for very formal public speech, as in stage declamation, rather than for everyday purposes. This came to be used more widely in the course of the nineteenth century. It was eventually accepted for teaching in schools in all the German-speaking countries and codified for use on the stage in 1898. Largely because of its use in education, some form of this spoken supraregional standard was adopted in the course of the twentieth century by most Germans for everyday use, but the extent to which this is the case still varies considerably with region and register. The foreign learner is still most likely to encounter in Rl anywhere a variety of German coloured to a greater or lesser degree by regional features, and it must be emphasized again that the correlation between the degree of regional variation and social class is much less marked than in England and some other English-speaking countries. As a general, if not invariable rule, such regionalism becomes stronger and the difference from standard German more marked as one proceeds from north to south. From Saxony, Hesse and the Rhineland southwards, and especially in Swabia, Bavaria and Austria, much natural everyday (Rl) speech is in dialect or a variety very close to dialect, especially outside the larger conurbations. In German-speaking Switzerland, the local dialects are used by all social classes in all speech situations except the most formal. Standard German is used almost only in writing or when talking to people who are not Swiss German. In conclusion the close link between the degree of regionalism and the degree of formality in register must be stressed again. This means that an individual's speech often shows more local features in more casual speech, for instance at home or in the pub, than in formal situations. Many speakers have command over a considerable range in this way, from broad dialect to a slightly accented form of standard German.

1.2.3 Indicating regional variation Regional variation in language can be extremely confusing for foreign learners, who may, for instance, encounter three or four apparently synonymous equivalents for a single English word and be uncertain which one to use because they are not initially aware that they are dealing with regional variants. In the main, they need merely to be aware which words and forms are regionally restricted and which are

standard. In practice, learners are probably best advised to avoid regional variants in their own usage, given the associations which might be evoked. Outside the area in which such regionalisms are used they can sound comical, whilst inside it they could sound patronizing or condescending if used by a stranger or a foreigner. Regional forms will be specified in terms of the following large areas (see map on page 2). These are intended mainly to give a rough general indication of where a particular form is current, rather than be absolutely precise: N: North of the river Main. If necessary, this area is split into NW and NE along the border of the new (post-1990) Bundesländer. S: South of the river Main. If necessary, this area is split into SW and SE along the western borders of Bavaria and Austria. Forms specified as S, SW, SE are also current in Switzerland and/or Austria unless a separate form is given, indicated as follows: AU Austria CH Switzerland It must be stressed that the above are very broad indicators. It would be impossible to give exact information about the regional distribution of many words without overburdening such a book as this with detail. It is also the case, in this age of mass communication, that words and forms which have been typical of a particular area become more widely known and often become fashionable in other areas. Over the last twenty or thirty years, for instance, N tschüss 'goodbye' has been spreading rapidly into southern Germany, displacing older regional variants like SW ade, especially among the younger generation in towns and cities.

1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation In this section we give some of the most frequently encountered variants in the pronunciation of modern German which are linked to register and regionalism, with the reservations explained in 1.1 and 1.2 that these cannot always be distinguished clearly.

Phonetic alphabet The spelling of standard German gives a pretty clear guide to pronunciation (unlike English), at least for careful, standard speech. However, there are times when we need to indicate the sometimes very different sounds of colloquial or regional speech. As far as possible, such forms are given in this section in an adapted version of standard German spelling rather than in phonetic transcription, so that we

write, for example, kommdn to represent the pronunciation of standard German kommenden as it is often heard in fast colloquial speech. Spellings like these are never usually found in print, but they are used here for the sake of convenience and ease of recognition. However, there are occasions when we have to use the special alphabet of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) to make it quite clear exactly what sounds we are dealing with. The following table gives all the IPA symbols used here, with examples from German, (British) English or French. Phonetic symbols are always given between square brackets, e.g. Mann, pronounced [man]. 1» i

e: e e:

a a: o 0

o: Ü

u:

CONSONANTS

Rl = spoken colloquial RL* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

Ger biVten, Engl heat Ger bitten, Engl bit Ger b^ten, Fr ^couter Ger Betty Engl bed Ger wäre, Fr seme Ger Band, Fr passer Ger Vater, Engl father Engl hot Ger kommen, Engl caught Ger Booty Fr eau Ger Butter, Engl butcher Ger Kuh, Fr trow

Ger fassen, Engl^ass Ger bitte, Engl bit Ger fun, Engl ton Ger dumm, Engl dumb Ger kommen, Engl come g Ger gut, Engl good f Ger faul, Engl foul V Ger ipann, Engl van s Ger lassen, Engl sat z Ger saß, Engl zero X Ger l i e ß e n , Engl sheet

P b t d k

Y y* ce

0i ai au ceY 3 B e

a 0

Ger Fülle Ger Mühle, Fr mur Ger Hölle Ger Höhle, Fr peu Ger fein, Engl fine Ger Maus, Engl mouse Ger Mäuse Ger bitte, Engl china Ger bitter Ger Pension, Fr pain Ger Restaurant, Fr en Ger Balkon, Fr on

Ger Genie, Engl leisure X Ger Buch, Scots loch 9 Ger mich, Engl Hugh h Ger holen, Engl Aole m Ger mich, Engl mine n Ger neun, Engl nine Ger hing, Engl hung 1 Ger /aut, Engl /oud K Ger rot Ger ja, Engl year j Y A sound between [x] and [g], the voiced ch often heard in the N pronunciation of Wagen. 3

(i) A subscript dot, e.g. [m], [n], indicates that the consonant forms a syllable, e.g. in Ger bitten [bitn], geben [geibm], Engl button [bAtn]. (ii) Stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark, e.g. ver'stehen (in phonetic transcription: |TA' Jteian]).

NOTES:

1.3.1 Regional variation in pronunciation (a) The following pronunciations are used almost universally in the areas indicated, irrespective of register: Regional

Hochdeutsch

-g- pronounced as voiced -ch- [y] between vowels

Waghen [vaiyan]

Wagen

initial^)/- pronounced as f-

Fund

Pfund

Hoffnunk

Hoffnung

long vowels pronounced short in words of one syllable

Ratt, gropp, Tach

Rat, grob, Tag

-g pronounced as -ch at end of words or before consonants

taucht, Zeuch

taugt, Zeug

Area NORTH

-ung pronounced as -unk

long ä [e:] wehre, speht pronounced as eh [e:] SOUTH

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark -

wäre, spät

-ig pron as -ik

dreißik

dreißig [draisi9]

initial ch- pron as k-

Kina

China [91: na]

some long vowels pronounced short, especially before [K]+ consonant

Art [aKt], wird [viKt]

Art [aiBt], wird [viiKt]

nasal vowels pronounced as simple vowel + n unstressed -e pronounced as [e]

Balkon [balkorn], Pension [pensjo:n]

Balkon [balko], Pension [pensjo]

gute [gurte]

gute [guita]

different stress in some words

Tun'nel, Kaffee, Ta'bak

'Tunnel, 'Kaffee, 'Tabak

(b) The following pronunciations are mainly confined to Rl. They are not necessarily found in the whole of the areas indicated, and major exceptions and restrictions are noted: Regional

Hochdeutsch

initial sp-, stpronounced with [s] (especially Hanover, Hamburg)

S-tein [stain], S-prung [sprorj]

Stein [Jtain], Sprung [Jprurj]

initial g- pron. as j(NE, Rhineland)

jut, jemacht

gut, gemacht

pronunciation of nicht

nich

nicht

-nd- pron as -nn-

anners, Kinner

anders, Kinder

ich-Laut [9] pronounced as sch

Teppisch, siebzisch

Teppich, siebzig

word-final -en pronounced as -e

komme, g(e)bliebe

kommen, geblieben

medial and final st and sp pronounced as seht, schp

beschte, Weschpe, du bischt

beste, Wespe, du bist

p, t, k pronounced as by dy g (also Saxony)

Abodehge, dodal

Apotheke, total

Area NORTH

SOUTH-WEST

SOUTH

w, ö pronounced as i, e Brieder, scheen (also Saxony)

Brüder, schön

a pronounced as 0 [0] or a [D]

Wässer, schlafen

Wasser, schlafen

unstressed -e dropped in all words

heut, Leut

heute, Leute

pronunciation of nicht

net/nit

nicht

ge-, be-, pronounced as g-,b-

gmacht, bstellt

gemacht, bestellt

1.3.2 Register variation in pronunciation Rl speech is characterized by less careful articulation. However, even rather more formal spoken language tends to simplification, especially of unstressed syllables. There is thus a gradual progression from the

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

most casual speech style, Rl, to the most formal, spoken R3, where every letter is given its full value. R3 is, of course, primarily a written register, and the extremely precise and distinct articulation it represents is only found in rather special situations, like reading a written text aloud in public or giving a lecture. Some German speakers may insist that foreign learners ought only to use and be taught this style of speech, as only it is 'correct'. But it can sound very stilted and artificial in any but the most formal situations. The table below gives the two extremes of pronunciation variation, but numerous intermediate forms exist which are used depending on the level of relative formality.

Rl

R3

unstressed -en reduced and assimilated to preceding consonant

gebm [geibm] kommdn [komdn] fahrn [faien] eigng'n [aigrjn] sinkng [zirjkrj]

geben kommenden fahren eigenen sinken

simplification and assimilation of consonant groups, especially at the beginning and end of words, and where compound words are joined

Norpol [noBpoil] Herbsflanse [heepsflansa] scho m a [Joma] m a tu doch [matudox]

Nordpol Herbstpflanze schon mal man tut doch fünfzig da habe ich gewartet und er ist er hat mir

reduction of pronouns in conjunction with verbs

f u f f z i g [fuftsi9]

dabbich [dabi£] gewart [gavaet] u n a i s [ u n B?IS] a hap mir [e hap

hammer simmer

[hame] [simu]

haben wir sind wir wissen Sie kommst du ist sie muss ich

wissnse [visnsa] kommste [komsta] isse

[is3]

mussich

reduction of articles, pronouns and other determiners

mi:e]

[musig]

da [dB], di [di], (d)s

(d)n, (d)m n,ne(N)/e(S),n'n nem/eim, ner

meim, unsem

[nn]

der, die, das den, dem ein, eine, einen einem, einer meinem, unserem

Rl contd

R3 contd

articles fused with all common prepositions

ausn, bein mitn, in'n nachn, von'n mim, minnem minner durchn, durchn'n ausm, hinnem nachm

aus den, bei den mit den, in den nach den, von den mit dem, mit einem mit einer durch den, durch einen aus dem, hinter dem nach dem

unstressed -e dropped in verb endings

ich geh, ich komm ich tu, ich könnt ich sollt

ich gehe, ich komme ich tue, ich könnte ich sollte

unstressed -e dropped in basic form of some adjectives

blöd, feig, mild, trüb, zäh

blöde, feige, milde, trübe, zähe

unstressed -e added in some numerals and other words when stressed

fünfe, sechse, neune, elfe, alleine, vorne fünf, sechs, neun, elf, allein, vorn

foreign words given German pronunciation denn reduced and suffixed to verb

Schenie [Jeni:] Restaurang [restorarj]

Genie feeni:] Restaurant [restora]

Was machs'n du hier?

Was machst du denn hier?

wiä [vfe], Eäde [eeda] bessä [bese]

wir, Erde, besser

r pronounced as [B] (similar to the vowel of S. English but) after vowels and in the ending -er

1.4 Examples of variation: grammar In this section we give some common examples of how the grammar of German varies depending on region and register.

1.4.1

Regional variation in grammar Regionalism is perhaps less significant in grammar than in pronunciation and vocabulary. However, the following variant uses are widespread and are sometimes found in writing (especially in the case of S variants in Austrian and Swiss usage), although the foreign learner is advised to keep to standard forms. Some of them (indicated with an asterisk below) are beginning to be used outside their original geographical limits and are now found more generally in Rl. Regional

Hochdeutsch

sein in perfect of anfangen and beginnen

ich bin angefangen ich bin begonnen

ich habe angefangen ich habe begonnen

splitting da + preposition*

Da weiß ich nichts von

Davon weiß ich nichts

confusion of accusative and dative

Er hat mir gesehen

Er hat mich gesehen

am + infinitive to express continuous action*

Mein Vater ist a m Schreiben

Mein Vater schreibt gerade

more nouns have a plural in -s (see 3.1.3)

die Doktors, die Onkels

die Doktoren, die Onkel

nach used for zu

Ich fahre nach dem Zoo

Ich fahre zum Zoo

wo used as relative pronoun

das Auto, wo da kommt

das Auto, das da kommt

deviant verb forms

gedenkt, gewunken, bräuchte

gedacht, gewinkt, brauchte/würde brauchen

Area NORTH

SOUTH

nachdem used to mean nachdem sie erst später kommen 'as', 'since', 'because' kann,...

da sie erst später kommen kann

sein used in perfect of liegen, sitzen and stehen (see 4.3.3)

Ich bin gelegen, gesessen, gestanden

Ich habe gelegen, gesessen, gestanden

no -n in dative plural of nouns*

mit den Bücher

mit den Büchern

Regional contd

Hochdeutsch contd

different plural forms used with some nouns

die Stiefeln die Stücker die Wägen

die Stiefel die Stücke die Wagen

some nouns used with different genders

die Bach der Butter der Gewalt der Kartoffel der Radio der Schokolad

der Bach die Butter die Gewalt die Kartoffel das Radio die Schokolade

no umlaut in present tense

er schlaft, lasst

er schläft, lässt

dative used to mark possession

Das ist mir

Das ist mein(e)s

definite article used with names*

der Peter, die Monika

Peter, Monika

double auxiliary in pluperfect tense*

Sie hat meinen Vater gesehen gehabt

Sie hatte meinen Vater gesehen

Area contd

es hat in place of es gibt Hat es einen Apotheke hier in (SW) der Stadt? different verb valencies (see 4.1.4)

Er hat auf das Geld vergessen (SE) Sie hat mir angerufen (SW) Sie hat darauf gedacht

Gibt es einen Apotheke hier in der Stadt? Er hat das Geld vergessen Sie hat mich angerufen Sie hat daran gedacht

1.4.2 Register variation in grammar

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Usage isflexiblewith a number of these variants, but most German speakers take care to avoid specifically Rl forms in writing, and, in general, less casual spoken German (i.e. R2) tends to follow R3 norms. The table below gives the two extremes of Rl and R3, with variations and exceptions indicated.

Rl

R3

no ending -en in singular of weak masculine nouns in Rl

den Mensch dem Mensch

den Menschen dem Menschen

genitive case rarely used in spoken German (R1/R2) (see 4.2.2)

meinem Vater sein Hut (Rl)/der Hut von meinem Vater (R1/R2) trotz dem Regen (also R3 in CH) Ich erinnere mich an den Vorfall (R2)

der Hut meines Vaters

no vowel change in imperative of strong verbs in Rl

Ess deine Möhren! Nehm's doch! Geb's her!

Iss deine Möhren! Nimm's doch! Gib's her!

demonstrative der used for personal pronoun in Rl

Ich habe den gesehen Die kommt heute nicht

Ich habe ihn gesehen Sie kommt heute nicht

das... hier or das... da used as demonstratives in Rl

das Buch hier die Stadt da

dieses Buch diese Stadt / (R3 only) jene Stadt

wer used for jemand in Rl

Es hat wer angerufen

Es hat jemand angerufen

solch not used in Rl

so 'ne Farbe so Ansichten (wie die)

eine solche Farbe solche Ansichten

was used with prepositions in Rl

An was denkst du? Von was lebt er?

Woran denkst du? Wovon lebt er?

wie and als confused in Rl

Die ist größer wie (die) Petra Die ist anders wie du

Sie ist größer als Petra Sie ist anders als du

double negatives used in Rl

Der hat nie nix gesagt Wir haben nirgends keinen Vogel gesehen

Er hat nie etwas gesagt Wir haben nirgends einen Vogel gesehen

tun used as an auxiliary verb in Rl

Sie tut gerade schreiben Ich tät's nicht machen

Sie schreibt gerade Ich würde es nicht machen

zu omitted after brauchen in Rl

Wir brauchen nicht so schwer arbeiten

Wir brauchen nicht so schwer zu arbeiten

trotz des Regens Ich erinnere mich des Vorfalls

Rl contd

R3 contd

weil and obwohl followed by main clause word order in Rl

. . . , weil der kann kein richtiges Deutsch sprechen

. . . , weil er kein richtiges Deutsch sprechen kann

extended adjectives and participles only used in R3

die Sitzung, die auf Januar verschoben wurde (R2) die Zahlung, die vor Jahresende geleistet werden muss (R2)

die auf Januar verschobene Sitzung die vor Jahresende zu leistende Zahlung

main clauses used rather than relative clauses in Rl

Es gibt Leute, die freuen sich über die Fahrt

Es gibt Leute, die sich über die Fahrt freuen

wo + preposition used in Rl for preposition + relative pronoun

der Tisch, wo die Blumen drauf stehen

der Tisch, auf dem die Blumen stehen

da often used to begin sentences in Rl

Da kann man in dem Fall einfach nix machen

In diesem Fall kann man einfach nichts machen

elements are often placed after final verb in Rl

Sie hat Post bekommen von zu Hause

Sie hat von zu Hause Post bekommen

Pronouns and auxiliary verbs are often omitted in Rl

Hab' ich ihm schon gesagt Mal schauen, was da los ist

Das habe ich ihm schon gesagt Wir wollen mal schauen, was da los ist Willst du mit uns kommen?

dislocated repetitions used for highlighting in Rl

Der Peter, den kann sie nicht leiden Den hatt ich schon, den Wunsch

Peter kann sie nicht leiden

past tense less frequent in Rl (especially in S) (see 4.3.2)

Dann sind sie nach Hause gegangen Ich hab nicht gewusst, was sie gesagt hat

Dann gingen sie nach Hause

the subjunctive is used in indirect speech only in R3 (see 4.5.3)

Sie hat gesagt, sie weiß es schon Er hat erklärt, dass er zu neuen Verhandlungen bereit ist

Sie sagte, sie wisse es schon Er erklärte, dass er zu neuen Verhandlungen bereit sei

Willst mit uns kommen?

Den Wunsch hatte ich schon

Ich wusste nicht, was sie sagte

1.5 Examples of variation: vocabulary 1.5.1 Regional variation in vocabulary

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

As with pronunciation, it is not always simple to disentangle regionalism from register in matters of vocabulary, and many regional words are limited to Rl. Others, including the familiar case of Sonnabend and Samstag, are used freely in all registers. This is especially true of Austria and Switzerland, where a South German (SE or SW) variant is often used, even in writing (R3). The table below gives some of the most frequent regional variants, together with their more generally used equivalent(s). None are wholly restricted to Rl; although some are commoner there than in more formal registers it is difficult to give hard and fast rules. Standard German has sometimes adopted more than one regional variant, often with a distinction in meaning. For example, Pferd, Gaul and Ross were originally all regionally restricted words for 'horse'. But in standard German (Hochdeutsch) the general word is Pferd, whereas Gaul and Ross have the more specific meanings 'nag' and 'steed'. What were originally regional variants have also sometimes become register variants in general usage. For example, in much of South Germany, and especially in Austria, schauen is the everyday word for 'to see'. But for a majority of Germans it is a more formal (R3) word compared to sehen.

Area

Regional

Hochdeutsch

NORTH

das Abendbrot abwaschen die Apfelsine belämmern buddeln denn doof der Eierkuchen der Fahrstuhl Gehacktes

das Abendessen evening meal spülen to wash up die Orange orange belästigen to pester graben to dig dann then dumm stupid der Pfannkuchen pancake der Aufzug lift das Hackfleisch minced/ground meat die Kinder children die Ferse heel die Schublade drawer plaudern to chat schlagen to hit sehen to look

die Gören die Hacke der Kasten klönen kloppen kucken, kieken

Area contd

Regional contd

Hochdeutsch contd

[NORTH]

langskommen der Pott die Pulle der Schlachter, Schlächter der Schlips

vorbeikommen to drop in der Topf pot die Flasche bottle der Fleischer butcher die Krawatte tie

NORTH-WEST

extra flöten malochen die Pinte es schellt (also SW) die Wurzel

absichtlich on purpose pfeifen to whistle schwer arbeiten to work hard die Kneipe pub es klingelt the doorbell's ringing die Mohrrübe, die Karotte carrot

NORTH-EAST

die Brause der Broiler die Fahrerlaubnis das Kompott plätten Sonnabend die Stulle

die Limonade fizzy drink das Brathähnchen roast chicken der Führerschein driving licence der Nachtisch dessert bügeln to iron Samstag Saturday das belegte Brot sandwich

SOUTH

arg aufdrehen der Bub der Christbaum

sehr very anmachen to switch on der Junge boy der Weihnachtsbaum Christmas tree zu Hause at home natürlich of course der (Haus)flur (entrance) hall die Ziege goat die Mohrrübe, die Karotte carrot nicht wahr? isn 't it? intelligent clever schnell quick(ly) der Topf pot eben just nach Hause home der Schornstein chimney der Schrank cupboard fegen sweep der Briefumschlag envelope fassen, greifen to reach (for sth) es klingelt the doorbell's ringing das Mädchen girl die Aktentasche briefcase

daheim freilich der Gang (not AU) die Geiß die gelbe Rübe (not AU or CH) gell? gescheit geschwind der Hafen halt heim der Kamin der Kasten kehren das Kuvert langen es läutet das Mädel, das Mädle die Mappe (not AU)

Area

Regional

Hochdeutsch

[SOUTH]

der Metzger (not AU) pressieren der Rahm der Randstein schauen die Schnake (not AU) die Schnur sieden die Stiege sich verkälten (not AU) der Zahnweh der Zins

der Fleischer butcher Eile haben be in a hurry die Sahne cream der Bordstein kerb sehen to see, to look die Stechmücke midge der Bindfaden string kochen to boil die Treppe stairs, steps sich erkälten catch cold die Zahnschmerzen toothache die Miete rent

SOUTH-EAST

all(e)weil Brösel deppert das Dirndl eh der Erdapfel finster (also Saxony) die Gasse der Gehsteig die Gösch gschert heuer (also CH) heute in der Frühe/ heute früh (also Saxony) der Knödel die Nachspeise der Schwamm die Semmel (also Saxony) sperren stad

immer always Brotkrümel breadcrumbs dumm stupid das Mädchen girl sowieso anyway die Kartoffel potato dunkel dark die Straße street der Bürgersteig pavement der Mund mouth dumm stupid dieses Jahr this year heute Morgen this morning

als Brosamen das Gaul (not CH) der Gehweg, das Trottoir der Lauch die Mücke das Nachtessen schaffen schmecken springen der Weck(en)

immer always Brotkrümel breadcrumbs das Pferd horse der Bürgersteig pavement der Porree leek die Fliege fly das Abendessen evening meal arbeiten to work riechen to smell laufen to run das Brötchen bread roll

SOUTH-WEST

derKloss dumpling der Nachtisch dessert der Pilz mushroom das Brötchen bread roll schließen, zumachen to shut still quiet

1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words Usage in Austria and Switzerland is a rather special case, and it is in many ways quite distinct from Germany. In the spoken register, dialect is widely used - in Switzerland exclusively, in Austria still predominantly, at least in informal registers outside the larger cities. In writing, standard German is used, but over the centuries of political separation from Germany independent traditions have grown up in these two countries, especially in matters of vocabulary. Thus, the regional words and grammatical forms (see 1.4.1 and 1.5.1) which are widespread in speech in southern Germany are in these countries commonly used in writing. Also, unlike in Germany, there has been no movement to eliminate foreign words, so that, in Switzerland, for example, we buy a Billett for the Tram, not a Fahrkarte or Fahrschein for the Straßenbahn. In addition, each country has a stock of words peculiar to itself which are almost always used in writing within the country and are not always familiar even to Germans. The following tables list of some of the most common. There are many more, though - Duden (2000b) lists over 900 words which are specific to High German as used in Switzerland. In some instances the Austrian or Swiss word can have the meaning it usually has in Germany as well as a specifically Austrian or Swiss meaning. For example, Mist can be used to mean 'dung' or 'rubbish' in Austria, whereas in Germany it only means 'dung'. In these cases only the specifically Austrian or Swiss meaning is given below. AUSTRIA Austria

Germany

Austria

Germany

die Abwasch

der Spülbecken sink

allfällig (also CH)

gelegentlich now and again der Sessel armchair

fesch(Rl) die Gelse der Gendarm

außen das Beisel

gegebenenfalls if necessary der Anlieger neighbour vorkommen to appear aussehen to look (as i f ) draußen outside die Kneipe pub

fallweise (also CH) der Fauteuil

der Beistrich der Corner (also CH) da

das Komma comma der Eckball corner (soccer) hier here

in Hinkunft innen

schick chic die Stechmücke midge der Landpolizist rural policeman das Tor goal (soccer) der Hausbesitzer home-owner in Zukunft in future drinnen inside

entlehnen

entleihen to borrow

Jänner

der Anrainer aufscheinen ausschauen

das Goal der Hausherr

inskribieren

sich immatrikulieren to register Januar January

Austria

Germany

Austria

Germany

diejause

der Imbiss snack

der Polster

kampieren

zelten to camp

der Professor

der Karfiol

raunzen

die Kassa

der Blumenkohl cauliflower die Kasse cash desk, till

der Kerker

das Zuchthaus prison

komplett

(voll) besetzt full

die Marille

die Aprikose apricot

das Kissen cushion, pillow der Studienrat high school teacher nörgeln to grumble, to whinge die Rückfahrkarte return ticket die Johannisbeere blackcurrant das Karousell roundabout die Tasche pocket

die Matura

das Abitur school certificate der Straßenzoll road toll der Nachtisch dessert der Milchkaffee white coffee die Aubergine aubergine

die Maut die Mehlspeise die Melange die Melanzane der Mist

der Paradeiser

der Müll rubbish, garbage übernachten spend the night das Abendessen evening meal die Sahne cream ohne weiteres without further ado der Pfannkuchen pancake die Tomate tomato

der Parteienverkehr der Pensionist

die Bürostunden office hours der Rentner pensioner

der Plafond

die Decke ceiling

nächtigen (also CH) das Nachtmahl das Obers ohneweiters die Palatschinke

die Retourfahrkarte die Ribisel das Ringelspiel der Sack (also CH) das Sackerl die Schale die Schnalle das Schuhband selchen der Sessel

die Tüte (paper) bag die Tasse cup die Klinke door-handle der Schnürsenkel shoelace räuchern to smoke (meat) der Stuhl chair

skoren (also CH) der Spagat

ein Tor schießen to score

der Spezi das Spital (also CH) der Sturm

der Kumpel friend, mate das Krankenhaus hospital der neue Wein new wine

der Turnus (also CH) der Vorrang

die Arbeitsschicht shift

die Umfahrung sich verkühlen das Zündholz

der Bindfaden string

die Vorfahrt priority (traffic) die Umgehungsstraße by-pass sich erkälten catch cold das Streichholz match

SWITZERLAND NB: in Switzerland, unlike Germany or Austria, the letterß is not used, only ss> see 6.1.3. Switzerland

Germany

Switzerland

Germany

der Abwart

die Extrafahrt

glätten

die Sonderfahrt special trip der Führerschein driving licence die Klinke door-handle der Rechtsanwalt lawyer bügeln to iron

das Grosskind

der Enkel grandchild

grüezi! (Rl)

hallo! hello

hässig

verdrießlich morose

das Billett

der Hausmeister caretaker der Anlieger neighbour das Penthaus penthouse sich empören to protest Himmelfahrt Ascension Day zusammenbringen to collect der Autofahrer car driver auf beiden Seiten on both sides die Fahrkarte ticket

die Identitätskarte

bis anhin

bisher until now

innert

bis und mit

inskünftig

erst noch der Estrich

bis einschließlich up to and including die Geldstrafe fine der Lastwagen lorry, truck der Reisebus bus der Fahrer driver der Friseur hairdresser das Ministerium ministry eingehend thorough (ly) jenseits on the other side of obendrein moreover der Dachboden attic

der Personalausweis identity card innerhalb inside, within in Zukunft in future

etwelche

einige some

das Motorfahrzeug

der Anstösser die Attikawohnung aufbegehren Auffahrt äufnen der Automobilist beidseitig

die Busse der Camion der Car der Chauffeur der Coiffeur das Departement einlässlich ennet

der Fahrausweis die Falle der Fürsprech

das Kleid der Kondukteur die Konfitüre lärmig das Lavabo leid es macht kalt manche merci! (Rl) das Morgenessen

der Anzug suit der Schaffner conductor die Marmelade jam laut noisy der Waschbecken wash-basin unangenehm unpleasant es ist kalt it is cold (weather) viele many danke! thank you das Frühstück breakfast das Kraftfahrzeug motor vehicle

Switzerland

Germany

Switzerland

Germany

nachten

Nacht werden grow dark außerdem in addition parken to park die Parkuhr parking meter der Bahnsteig platform der Reifen tyre

die Ständerlampe

die Stehlampe standard lamp anstrengend strenuous die Straßenbahn tram urwüchsig original, native das Fahrrad bicycle

das Brathähnchen roast chicken die Grundschule primary school der Redakteur editor

vorab

die Rückfahrkarte return ticket das Verzeichnis list, register die Bratkartoffeln fried potatoes das Gehalt salary die Kellnerin waitress

währschaft

nebstdem parkieren der Parkingmeter der Perron der Pneu das Poulet die Primarschule der Redaktor das Retourbillett der Rodel die Rösti das Salär die Serviertochter

streng das Tram urchig das Velo verunfallen

zum vornherein der Vortritt

der Wartsaal weissein wischen zügeln

verunglücken to have an accident besonders especially von vornherein from the outset die Vorfahrt priority (traffic) tüchtig solid, reliable, genuine der Wartesaal waiting-room tünchen to whitewash fegen to sweep umziehen to move (house)

1.5.3 Register variation in vocabulary The effect of register is perhaps most obvious to the foreign learner in respect of vocabulary. Many words are restricted to informal speech (Rl) or formal writing (R3), and when these are used they signal very clearly the degree of formality which the speaker or writer wishes to give the text. There are also words (indicated as R2/R3) which are characteristically rarely used in the most informal register, but are widely encountered outside that. Similarly, there are words which are widely used in all but the most formal written German (R1/R2). On the other hand, there is a large core vocabulary of neutral (R2) words which can be used equally in informal speech or formal writing and have no such characteristic effect. The following list, which is arranged in alphabetical order of the R2 words, gives some common examples of this register variation in vocabulary.

Some of the equivalents given are not absolutely identical in meaning. For example, the Rl word pumpen is used for 'to lend', 'to borrow', i.e. = leihen (R2) or borgen (R3), only in the context of money. Indications of such distinctions are given in some instances below, but not all details can be covered in a summary of this kind. Rl

R2

R3

das Abi

das Abitur school leaving certificate

die Hochschulreifeprüfung

losgehen

anfangen (R1/R2), beginnen (R2/R3) to begin, to start

anheben (R3a)

protzen

angeben (R1/R2) to boast

prahlen, sich rühmen

Schiss haben (Rl*)

sich furchten Angst haben (R1/R2) to be afraid (R2/R3)

schuften

(schwer) arbeiten to work (hard)

sich fuchsen

sich ärgern to get annoyed

pleite broke

a r m poor

mittellos, bedürftig

die Puste

der Atem breath

der Odem (poetic R3a)

sich aufhalten to stay (in a place)

weilen

aufmachen to open

öffnen

cool, dufte, fantastisch, geil, prima, spitze, super

ausgezeichnet excellent

die Fisimatenten

die Ausreden excuses

hinhauen, langen (S)

ausreichen to be enough

genügen

unheimlich

äußerst extremely

extrem

die Backe cheek

die Wange (R2 in AU)

begraben to bury

beisetzen, bestatten

verscharren

Rl

R2

R3

kriegen

bekommen to receive

empfangen, erhalten

eingeschnappt, verschnupft

beleidigt offended, hurt

gekränkt

der Sprit

das Benzin petrol

der Treibstofffuel

anstänkern

beschimpfen to abuse

schmähen

meckern

sich beschweren to complain

schmieren

bestechen to bribe

bescheißen (Rl*), mogeln, schummeln

betrügen to cheat

besoffen (Rl*), blau, voll

betrunken drunk

der Kahn, die Klappe

das Bett bed

korrumpieren

berauscht

die Bitte request

das Gesuch

anhauen

bitten to ask, to request

ersuchen

käsig

blass pale

bleich (R2/R3)

bleiben to remain, to verweilen stay brauchen to need

bedürfen, benötigen

dauern to last

währen (R3a)

blöd (R1/R2), dämlich, doof

d u m m stupid

einfältig, töricht

der Blödmann, der Dussel, der Depp (SE)

der Dummkopf (Rl/R2)fool

der Tor

dunkel dark

düster, finster (R2 in S)

dürftig wretched

armselig

erfrischen to refresh

erquicken

miserabel

Rl contd

R2 contd

R3 contd

erlauben to allow, to gestatten, zulassen permit essen to eat

speisen

die Fahrkarte ticket

der Fahrausweis

türmen, verduften

flüchten to flee

fliehen (R2/R3)

der Kumpel

der Freund friend

futtern, knabbern, mampfen, naschen

das Frühjahr spring

der Frühling

die Kneipe

die Gaststätte pub

das Kittchen, der Knast

das Gefängnis prison

die Strafanstalt, das Zuchthaus

gehen to go

sich begeben

latschen, laufen (NE, SW)

gehen to walk

der Kies, die Kohle, die Moneten, das Zaster

das Geld money

klappen

gelingen to succeed

die Fratze, die Fresse, die Visage

das Gesicht face

das Angesicht (R3a), das Antlitz (R3a)

der Mief

der Gestank smell

der üble Geruch

Schwein haben

Glück haben be lucky

die Pfote

die Hand hand

der Arsch (Rl*)

der Hintern backside das Gesäß

die Klamotten

die Kleider clothes

die Birne, der De(e)z

der Kopf head

der Krach

der Lärm noise

der Pauker

der Lehrer teacher

der Studienrat (Gymnasium)

pumpen (of money)

leihen to lend, to borrow

borgen

das Haupt

Rl

R2

büffeln, pauken

lernen to learn, to study

die Biene, die Mieze, die Puppe, die Tussi

das Mädchen girl

der Alte

der Mann husband

der Ehemann, der Gatte, der Gemahl

schief gehen

misslingen to be unsuccessful

scheitern (R2/R3)

erschossen, fertig

müde tired

ermattet

die Fresse, die Klappe, das Maul (Rl*), die Schnauze

der Mund mouth

bloß

nur only

der Löffel

das Ohr ear

die Polente

die Polizei police

piesacken

quälen to torment

peinigen

schicken to send

senden

pennen, ratzen

schlafen to sleep

ruhen, schlummern

hauen

schlagen to hit

mies

schlecht bad

Übel (R2/R3)

schmecken to taste

munden

R3

lediglich

zumachen (R1/R2)

schließen (R2/R3) to close, to shut

dreckig, schmuddelig

schmutzig dirty

unsauber

die Penne

die Schule school

die Bildungsanstalt (R3b)

dichthalten, den Mund halten, das Maul halten (Rl*)

schweigen (R2/R3) to be silent

gucken

sehen to see, to look schauen (R2 in S)

Rl contd

R2 contd

R3 contd

enorm, echt, unheimlich, verdammt (Rl*), verflucht (Rl*)

sehr very

höchst, überaus

klauen, mausen, mitgehen lassen, mopsen, stibitzen

stehlen to steal

entwenden

abkratzen, krepieren, verrecken, den Arsch zukneifen (Rl*)

sterben to die

abieben, entschlafen, verscheiden, versterben

der Schwof

der Tanz dance

saufen (R1/R2)

(Alkohol) trinken to drink (alcohol)

kotzen (Rl*), brechen (R1/R2)

trotzdem, dennoch nevertheless

gleichwohl, nichtsdestoweniger

sich übergeben to vomit

(sich) erbrechen

überlegen to consider erwägen baff, verdattert, verdutzt (R1/R2)

überrascht surprised

befremdet

das Pech

das Unglück bad luck, misfortune

das Missgeschick (R2/R3)

der Käse (N), der Quatsch

der Unsinn nonsense verbieten to forbid

verpatzen, verpfuschen, versauen (Rl*)

untersagen

verderben to spoil

vergessen to forget

entfallen

losschlagen, verkloppen, verscheuern

verkaufen to sell

veräußern

versohlen

verprügeln to thrash

züchtigen

Rl=spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North N E = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Rl

R2

R3

behämmert, bescheuert, meschugge, plemplem, übergeschnappt

verrückt mad

geistesgestört (R2/R3)

verschwenden to waste

vergeuden

checken, kapieren, mitkriegen, schnallen

verstehen to understand

erfassen (R2/R3)

lauern (N), passen (S)

warten to wait

harren (R3a)

wieso?

warum? why?

weshalb?

abhauen, sich verpissen (Rl*)

weggehen to go away, to leave

sich entfernen

wehtun to hurt

schmerzen

schmeißen

werfen to throw

blechen, löhnen

zahlen to pay

fackeln

zeigen to show

weisen

zögern to hesitate

zaudern

1.6 Passages illustrating levels of register In this section a selection of passages is given to show the reader how the differences in register outlined in earlier sections are reflected in longer texts. The progression is initially from least formal (Rl) to most formal (R3), concluding with contrasting passages from a serious and a popular newspaper. The most characteristic features are indicated briefly after each passage.

1.6.1 Telephone conversation (informal colloquial speech) This passage illustrates characteristic features of spontaneous informal speech in private conversation between friends. Its specific linguistic features all belong to this register (Rl).

Frau A:

Frau Frau Frau Frau

B: A: B: A:

Frau B: FrauA:

Frau Frau Frau Frau

B: A: B: A:

Frau Frau Frau Frau

B: A: B: A:

Frau Frau Frau Frau

B: A: B: A:

Frau B:

Ach so! U n d die Wohnung, em. Der Typ hat sich no nich entschieden, morgen r u / ruft wohl noch jemand an, an dem er noch mehr Interesse hat als als an uns, ne. Ah so. Aber wir sind ziemlich . . . , w e i l . . . Naja, immerhin etwas. Ich nehm auch an, wenn en Typ so auf morgen verschiebt, ne, hat der au nich so'n großes Interesse, oder? Wenn er das auf morgen ver/ ja, kann sein! Guck ma, wenn ich ne Wohnung unheimig gut finde, dann/ da geh ich doch das Risiko nich ein, dass der die Wohnung jemand anders gibt, ne? Jaja. Naja, jedenfalls isses 110 Quadratmeter. 110! Is ja irre! Wir ham nur 90! In nem gepflegten . . . Altbau, ganz toll. Müssen wer allerdings selber renovieren, ne, aber sie is nich in nem scheußlichen Zustand, sondern zwar nich/ also die is bewohnt, ne. Alles scheußliche Tapeten und so, aber sauber, ne, nich irgendwie in nem ekeligen Zustand. Naja, bin ma gespannt! Also, den Quadratmeterpreis, den gibts überhaupt nich ansonsten, ne. Toll, ja! U n das immerhin . . . doch direkt in der Innenstadt, ne? Hm, günstig! Na schön, ja! U n es is, wie gesagt, für mich auch günstig nach Gummersbach, ne. Muss ja ab 1.2. nach Gummersbach. Ja. Freust dich drauf, oder findsdes schlimm? Och, hab ich jetz noch keine Meinung zu. Ja. Ich mein, die erzählen immer viel von dieser Referendarzeit, ne. Am Anfang soils wohl gemütlich sein, hinterher sehr anstrengend, ich mach mir da jetz keine Gedanken. Naja. (Ruth Brons-Albert, Gesprochenes Standarddeutsch: Telefondialoge, Tübingen: Narr, 1984, pp. 59-60)

Pronunciation

much ellipsis and elision

no nich ich nehm en Typ au nich ne Wohnung isses is

wir h a m in nem bin m a un findsdes jetz soils

Grammar

Sentence construction

verb forms

only present and perfect tenses; no subjunctive

case

genitive case not used

demonstratives for personal pronouns

hat der au nich die is bewohnt

repetitions

mehr Interesse hat als als an uns

highlighting

den Quadratmeterpreis, den gibts überhaupt nich ansonsten

subordination

Over 80% of clauses are main clauses

initial da

da geh ich doch das Risiko nich ein

sentences beginning with und

Und die Wohnung, em

ellipsis of pronouns, etc.

(das) Müssen wer allerdings freust (du) dich drauf (ich) bin ma gespannt

In general, sentence units are brief and emotive in tone ansonsten anywhere else hinterher afterwards bin m a gespannt I can't wait irgendwie somehow gemütlich relaxed irre fantastic toll fantastic

Vocabulary

der Typ bloke ziemlich fairly so'n like that guck m a look unheimig very, very scheußlich awful ekelig awful

Interjections, particles and fillers

Extensive use of these is very typical of this register. allerdings ach so zwar em überhaupt ne immer naja wohl oder? kann sein also guck m a hm jedenfalls och und so wohl noch immerhin günstig schön auch wie gesagt au nich ich mein doch

Regionalisms

The speakers are from Cologne, which is in NW. nich (N) cf: net, nit (S) und so typical filler in NW wir, wer (N) cf: mir (S) (da) hab ich noch keine splitting da + prep (N) Meinung zu jemand anders (N) cf: jemand anderer (S)

1.6.2 Radio discussion (unprepared speech in a formal context) This passage illustrates unprepared speech in the formal situation of a radio discussion where the participants do not know one another. It shows fairly careful pronunciation, relatively elaborate sentence structures and a choice of vocabulary which is almost exclusively R2 or R3. Nevertheless, there are still several features which are typical of informal German Rl. Herr A:

Ich wollte ganz gerne, Herr L., wenn es gestattet ist, noch eine Anmerkung zu dem machen, was Herr Doktor S. sagte. Ich habe vor kurzem mit Wissenschaftlern der Technischen Universität Karlsruhe (die hier vor der Tür liegt) gesprochen, und die haben mir erzählt, dass sie solche Modellversuche zur Zeit in der Schweiz und auch im Lande Hessen, wo diese Richtgeschwindigkeiten etwa von achtzig bis einhundertzwanzig Kilometer - (Sie sehen das auf der Autobahn ja in der NordSüd-Richtung, wenn Sie da fahren) durchfuhren. Die sind also der Meinung, man brauche einen bestimmten Zeitraum, um überhaupt erst Erkenntnisse endgültig sammeln zu können, ob sich das bewährt hat. Wenn Sie mich als praktischen Verkehrsteilnehmer fragen würden, würde ich Ihnen sagen, ich habe immer den Eindruck, dass sich zumindest auf der Bundesautobahn an diesen Richtgeschwindigkeiten achtzig bis einhundertzwanzig meiner Meinung nach kaum jemand richtig hält.

Herr B:

Ja also, wenn ich was sagen darf, ich halt von den Richtsatzgeschwindigkeiten auch nichts, oder (ich möchte es noch deutlicher sagen) gar nichts, denn es muss immer noch der Autofahrer eigenverantwortlich entscheiden, wie schnell er fahren k a n n , . . . wie ü b e r h a u p t . . . So ist es auch nicht die objektive, absolute, gefahrene Geschwindigkeit, die eigentliche Unfallursache ist, sondern die relativ zu hohe Geschwindigkeit in dem konkreten Fall, und wenn man die Unfälle zusammenaddieren würde, die sich zum Beispiel bei höheren Geschwindigkeiten, als zum Beispiel hundertzwanzig ereignen, dann werden die sehr selten sein, (die liegen alle darunter),

und das zeigt eben, dass im konkreten Fall bei der Situation, (sagen wir), bei der Sicht, bei dem Abstand zu schnell gefahren wird, das können schon achtzig sein, wo s zu schnell is, was er nicht mehr sollte. (Charles van Os (ed.), Texte gesprochener deutscher Standardsprache, Munich: Hueber, Düsseldorf: Schwann, 1974, vol. 2, pp. 54—5)

Pronunciation

Grammar

little ellipsis or elision - just three instances

was ich halt wo s zu schnell is

most often no ellipsis

ich habe, ich wollte, etc.

tense

mainly present and perfect tenses

Sie sehen das die haben mir erzählt

one past tense

was Herr Dr. S. sagte

one future tense

dann werden die sehr selten sein

Konjunktiv II

mainly forms with würde except for modal verbs (möchte, sollte, wollte)

Wenn Sie mich . . . fragen würden, würde ich Ihnen sagen,...

indirect speech

mainly in indicative

ob sich das bewährt hat

Konjunktiv I used once

man brauche einen bestimmten Zeitraum

case

genitive case used occasionally

mit Wissenschaftlern der Technischen Universität

demonstratives widely used for personal pronouns

die haben mir erzählt Die sind also der Meinung dann werden die sehr selten sein

Sentence construction

afterthoughts inserted in the middle of the sentence (parenthesis)

(Sie sehen das auf der Autobahn . . . , wenn Sie da fahren)

strings of words or phrases

die objektive, absolute, gefahrene Geschwindigkeit,... bei der Situation . . . , bei der Sicht, bei dem Abstand

extensive use of subordinate clauses

over 50% of all clauses in the text are subordinate

a few broken, incomplete or truncated clauses

. . . , wo diese Richtgeschwindigkeiten etwa von achtzig bis einhundertzwanzig Kilometer [speaker forgets to add a verb] wie schnell er fahren kann,... wie überhaupt...

It is very noticeable in general that, although sentences are complete in the main, they are extremely long - Herr B's contribution consists of a single sentence! The sentences are also very loosely strung together, as the speakers expand what they have already said with afterthoughts and qualifications. Vocabulary

The vocabulary is characteristically technical and formal, with several compounds and many words typical of R3b. There are no Rl words at all. gestattet relativ Zeitraum solche objektiv bewährt sich ereignen Modellversuche eigenverantwortlich Verkehrteilnehmer Anmerkung Richt(satz)geschwindigkeit Erkenntnisse

Interjections, particles, and fillers

There are no interjections and noticeably few particles.

also ja auch überhaupt

Each speaker defers to the other participants by starting with a polite, formal filler.

wenn es gestattet ist wenn ich was sagen darf

Regionalisms

These are lacking entirely, although the speakers are from SW.

1.6.3 Literary prose (Günter Grass, Die Blechtrommel) Günter Grass's novel Die Blechtrommel was a best-seller in Germany and many other countries and is one of the most famous German post-war novels. This passage begins with the main character, Oskar, in a psychiatric unit after the war, and continues in the second and third paragraphs with recollections of his childhood in pre-war Danzig. The whole passage has the typically rich vocabulary and complex sentence structure of modern literary prose (R3a). Fräulein Dr. Hornstetter, die fast jeden Tag auf eine Zigarettenlänge in mein Zimmer kommt, als Arztin mich behandeln sollte, doch jedesmal von mir behandelt weniger nervös das Zimmer verläßt, sie, die so scheu ist und eigentlich nur mit ihren Zigaretten näheren Umgang pflegt, behauptet immer wieder: ich sei in meiner Jugend kontaktarm gewesen, habe zu wenig mit anderen Kindern gespielt. Nun, was die anderen Kinder betrifft, mag sie nicht ganz unrecht haben. War ich doch so durch Gretchen Schefflers Lehrbetrieb beansprucht, so zwischen Goethe und Rasputin hin und her gerissen, daß ich selbst beim besten Willen keine Zeit für Ringelreihn und Abzählspiele fand. Sooft ich aber gleich einem Gelehrten die Bücher mied, sogar als Buchstabengräber verfluchte und auf Kontakt mit dem einfachen Volk aus war, stieß ich auf die Gören unseres Mietshauses, durfte froh sein, wenn es mir nach einiger Berührung mit jenen Kannibalen gelang, heil zu meiner Lektüre zurückzufinden. Oskar konnte die Wohnung seiner Eltern entweder durch den Laden verlassen, dann stand er auf dem Labesweg, oder er schlug die Wohnungstür hinter sich zu, befand sich im Treppenhaus, hatte links die Möglichkeit zur Straße geradeaus, die vier Treppen hoch zum Dachboden, wo der Musiker Meyn die Trompete blies, und als letzte Wahl bot sich der Hof des Mietshauses. Die Straße, das war Kopfsteinpflaster. Auf dem gestampften Sand des Hofes vermehrten sich Kaninchen und wurden Teppiche geklopft. Der Dachboden bot, außer gelegentlichen Debatten mit dem betrunkenen Herrn Meyn, Ausblick, Fernsicht und jenes hübsche aber trügerische Freiheitsgefuhl, das alle Turmbesteiger suchen, das Mansardenbewohner zu Schwärmern macht. (Danziger Trilogiey Darmstadt: Luchterhand, 1980, pp. 79-80)

Grammar

tense

The narrative in the second and third paragraph is exclusively in the past tense, but the first paragraph is in the present tense to refer to the time of narration.

indirect speech

Konjunktiv I used

ich sei... kontaktarm gewesen, habe zu wenig... gespielt

case

genitive case used freely

unseres Mietshauses des Hofes

demonstratives

Sentence construction

Vocabulary

the typically R3a demonstrative jener is used

mit jenen Kannibalen jenes... Freiheitsgefiihl

war... doch used in the sense 'but then...'

War ich doch so durch Gretchen Schefflers Lehrbetrieb beansprucht,...

use of phrases with a participle

von mir behandelt

extensive use of subordinate clauses

over 50% of all clauses in the text are subordinate

sentence length

There are 32 clauses in 8 sentences. Most of the sentences have three or more clauses, and some are extremely complex, e.g. the single sentence of the first paragraph and the last sentence of the second.

The sheer range of vocabulary is striking. The first paragraph has some rather technical and formal terms such as the psychiatrist Dr. Hornstetter would use: kontaktarm näheren Umgang pflegen The second paragraph has much rather lofty typically R3a diction. In the mouth of this narrator, and linked to the very elaborate sentence construction, this gives it a pompous ring which does not sound wholly serious: betreffen Gelehrten Berührung mag meiden Lektüre gleich einem nach einiger heil zurückfinden The vocabulary of the third paragraph of third-person narrative is rather less lofty, although it is all still characteristic of formal literary writing: sich befinden Ausblick jenes trügerische sich bieten Fernsicht Freiheitsgefuhl sich vermehren Schwärmer A last noticeable feature is the extensive use of imaginative compounds, some of which will be the author's invention: Zigarettenlänge Buchstabengräber Turmbesteiger Mansardenbewohner

1.6

Passages illustrating levels of register

43

Interjections, particles and fillers

The use of these is very limited: typically the few that occur (nun, doch, aber) are in the second paragraph where a first-person narrator is 'speaking'.

Regionalisms

Only Gören (N) children used deliberately to emphasize that these are rough brats.

1.6.4 Non-literary prose {Fachsprache) This passage is a characteristic piece of modern specialist writing (Fachsprache) dealing with the situation of German as a minority language in Italy (South Tyrol). It has many features typical of this register (R3b); its complexity derives from the extensive use of noun constructions rather than from subordination. In der autonomen Provinz Bozen-Südtirol im Norden Italiens ist Deutsch gleichberechtigte Amtssprache neben Italienisch. Im ladinischen Teil ist zudem seit einigen Jahren Ladinisch dritte Amtssprache. Die Gleichberechtigung von Deutsch und Italienisch ist garantiert im Autonomiestatut von 1972, das eine Reihe von Bedingungen dafür festlegt, insbesondere (1) den Proporz der beiden Sprachgruppen in der öffentlichen Verwaltung. Binnen 30 Jahren (ausgehend von 1972) sollen die öffentlichen Verwaltungsstellen proportional zur zahlenmäßigen Stärke der Sprachgruppen besetzt werden. (2) Verwaltungsbeamte müssen zweisprachig sein in Italienisch und Deutsch, in den ladinischen Tälern dreisprachig. (3) Deutsch und Italienisch werden in den Ämtern gleichberechtigt verwendet. Bei Sitzungen der Organe der Provinz sowie der Gemeinden und öffentlichen Körperschaften ist auch die Verwendung von Deutsch allein zulässig. (4) Die Gleichberechtigung von Deutsch und Italienisch in den Schulen. Die Sprachgruppen haben jeweils getrennte Schulen; die ladinische Gruppe hat ein mehrsprachiges Schulsystem. Im zweiten Grundschuljahr kommt in den italienischsprachigen Schulen Deutsch und in den deutschsprachigen Schulen Italienisch als Pflichtfach hinzu und bleibt es bis zum Ende der Sekundarstufe. Hierdurch soll die generelle Zweisprachigkeit der Bevölkerung erreicht werden. Südtirol war bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkriegs Teil Tirols und damit Österreichs. Es war seit dem späten Mittelalter (1363) in Habsburgischem Besitz, mit nur kurzer Unterbrechung während der napoleonischen Zeit. Erst im Jahre 1919 wurde es von Österreich abgetrennt und - ohne Volksabstimmung und sicher gegen den Willen der Bevölkerungsmehrheit Italien zugesprochen, gewissermaßen als Belohnung für Italiens Eintritt in den Krieg gegen die Mittelmächte. In der Zeit des italienischen Faschismus (1922-1943) war die öffendiche Verwendung der deutschen Sprache verboten. Durch repressive Sprachenpolitik gegenüber dem Deutschen und durch

gezielte Ansiedlung italienischsprachiger Bevölkerungsgruppen sollte das Gebiet italianisiert werden. Zur Ergänzung dieser Maßnahmen sollte das Geheimabkommen zwischen Hitler und Mussolini vom 23. Juni 1939 dienen, das die deutschsprachigen Südtiroler vor die Entscheidung stellte, entweder Südtirol zu verlassen oder die italienische Sprache anzunehmen. (Ulrich Ammon, Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Osterreich und der Schweiz. Das Problem der nationalen Varietäten, Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1995, p. 405)

Grammar

Sentence construction

tense

exclusively the present and (in the final paragraph dealing with the history of the region) the past tense

passive

extensive use of the passive voice suits the impersonal tone

Konjunktiv II

two instances of the simple form of Konjunktiv II of the modal verb sollen, i.e. sollte. No other subjunctive forms are used.

case

genitive case used extensively (more genitives than accusatives)

constructions with verbal nouns

Die öffentliche Verwendung der deutschen Sprache Zur Ergänzung dieser Maßnahmen

'blocks' of noun phrases linked by the genitive or by prepositions

den Proporz der beiden Sprachgruppen in der öffentlichen Verwaltung als Belohnung für Italiens Eintritt in den Krieg gegen die Mittelmächte

Ausklammerung of long phrases

. . . wurde es . . . Italien zugesprochen, gewissermaßen als Belohnung für Italiens Eintritt in den Krieg

use of phrasal verbs

das die deutschsprachigen Südtiroler vor die Entscheidung stellte

sollte das Gebiet italianisiert werden

Bei Sitzungen der Organe der Provinz im Norden Italiens

The preference for noun constructions rather than verbs and subordinate clauses is very typical of this register (there are only two subordinate clauses). As a consequence, very few full verbs are used, and sein and haben make up a third of the verbs in the passage. The effect is to reinforce the factual, impersonal tone and give an impression of preciseness.

Vocabulary

T h e vocabulary is highly specialized and abstract, consisting exclusively o f words w h i c h are R 2 or R3.

Gleichberechtigung Körperschaften in Habsburgischem Besitz Verwaltung

Zweisprachigkeit zahlenmäßig zusprechen Ansiedlung

T h e r e are many words o f foreign origin, o f t e n with specialized meanings:

autonom Proporz generell

Provinz proportional repressiv

garantieren Organe italianisieren

T h e r e are m a n y c o m p o u n d words, o f t e n w i t h foreign elements. T h e s e , too, o f t e n b e l o n g to specialist terminology:

Amtssprache Verwaltungsstelle Grundschuljahr Sekundarstufe Sprachenpolitik Autonomiestatut Verwaltungsbeamte italienischsprachig

Volksabstimmung Bevölkerungsgruppen Sprachgruppe Schulsystem Pflichtfach Bevölkerungsmehrheit Geheimabkommen

A s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d in this very formal written register, interjections, fillers and particles are entirely absent, and there are n o regionalisms o f any kind.

1.6.5

Serious newspaper report: Die Welt T h i s passage and the following o n e (1.6.6) provide contrasting examples o f the register o f journalism in the form o f reports o f the same incident f r o m a 'broadsheet' newspaper (Die Welt) and a 'tabloid'

(Bild). After the striking headlines, w h i c h are designed to catch the eye, the account in Die Welt maintains the serious and objective t o n e o f a factual report, w i t h the aim o f i n f o r m i n g the reader fully about the event and its causes as k n o w n at the t i m e o f writing. T h e register shares characteristics o f R3a and R 3 b (although t e n d i n g m o r e to the latter), and m a n y o f the linguistic features are comparable to those f o u n d in the factual writing o f 1.6.4, w i t h relatively simple sentence construction, blocks o f n o u n phrases and w i d e use o f technical terminology.

Beide Triebwerke ausgefallen: Todesangst im Urlauberjet Flug 3378 musste mit 150 Menschen an Bord notlanden - Elf Verletzte - Osterreichische Behörde vermutet Pilotenfehler Die Rückkehr aus dem Urlaub wurde am Mittwoch fur 142 deutsche Touristen zum Albtraum: Nur knapp konnte die achtköpfige Crew ihres Airbus A310-300 mit der Flugnummer H F 3378 mit einer Notlandung in Wien-Schwechat eine Katastrophe abwenden. Als die Maschine um 13 Uhr auf Rückweg von Kreta nach Hannover gerade die ungarische Hauptstadt Budapest überflog, meldete der Pilot Treibstoffverlust und Probleme mit beiden Triebwerken. Schon beim Start hatten die Piloten Sorgen mit dem Fahrwerk. Es ließ sich nicht einfahren. U m 13.10 Uhr ersuchte der Pilot um Erlaubnis zur Notlandung in Wien-Schwechat. Zu spät, wie die österreichischen Behörden meinen. Sie fuhren die Bruchlandung des Airbus 310 auf einen Pilotenfehler zurück. Der Pilot habe sich zu spät zu einer Notlandung entschlossen, nachdem er das Fahrwerk nach dem Start nicht mehr habe zurückfahren können, sagte der Sprecher des zuständigen Verkehrsministeriums. Die Maschine sei auf Grund des dadurch höheren Luftwiderstandes der Treibstoff ausgegangen. „Der Pilot hatte den höheren Verbrauch ausrechnen können", sagte der Sprecher. Es sei daher unklar, warum der Pilot nicht schon in Zagreb oder Graz eine Notlandung versucht habe. Denn um 13.31 Uhr ging die Maschine, die den letzten Tropfen Treibstoff verbraucht hat und mit ausgefallenen Triebwerken unterwegs ist, im Gleitflug zur Notlandung in Wien-Schwechat über. Der Pilot setzte aus Sicherheitsgründen neben der Landepiste auf. Der Airbus drehte sich um die eigene Achse, verlor das Fahrgestell, die linke Tragfläche bricht. Die Maschine kam auf einer Wiese neben der Landebahn 34 zum Stillstand. Feuerwehr und Rettungswagen rasten zum Unglücksort knapp drei Kilometer vom Hauptgebäude des Flughafens entfernt. Der Flugbetrieb wurde für eine halbe Stunde zur Gänze eingestellt. Über aufgeblasene Notrutschen verließen die schwer geschockten und großteils unverletzten Passagiere das Flugzeug. Sie wurden medizinisch untersucht, elf von ihnen mussten zur Beobachtung in Krankenhäuser der Umgebung gebracht werden. Die wenigen Augenzeugen sagten im österreichischen Rundfunk, die Maschine sei ungewöhnlich niedrig und geräuschlos geflogen. Sie habe buchstäblich mit letzter Kraft die Umzäunung des Flughafens überflogen. Dies wurde als Beweis dafür gewertet, dass beide Triebwerke bereits ausgefallen waren. (Die Welt, 13 July 2000, p. 36)

Grammar

formal and correct in all respects tense

The report is predominantly in the past tense. pluperfect used to indicate remoter past time

ausgefallen waren

passive

The 'historic' present or perfect tenses give an effect of immediacy at the dramatic highpoint of the event.

unterwegs ist verbraucht hat die linke Tragfläche bricht

complex verbal forms used

nachdem er das Fahrwerk . . . nicht mehr habe zurückfahren können

wide use of the werden-passive in the last paragraph, giving an impersonal tone

Der Flugbetrieb wurde eingestellt Sie wurden medizinisch untersucht

passive equivalent Es ließ sich nicht with sich lassen used einfahren

Sentence construction

indirect speech

consistent use of Konjunktiv I

Der Pilot habe sich... entschlossen die Maschine s e i . . . niedrig und geräuschlos geflogen

case

genitive case used freely (similar proportion to passage 1.6.3)

der Sprecher des zuständigen Verkehrsministeriums Krankenhäuser der Umgebung

sentence length

Sentences are not unduly long (about 14 words per sentence on average, with the longest having 28 words). This corresponds to the norm in R3b.

Subordination

relatively little subordination (about 20% of all the clauses are subordinate)

strings of main clauses

characteristic use of strings of main clauses placed side by side without any linking conjunctions - the succession of short main clauses at the highpoint of the event enhance the dramatic effect of the presentation

Vocabulary

constructions with verbal nouns

Der Pilot habe sich zu spät zu einer Notlandung entschlossen . . . meldete der Pilot Treibstoffverlust

phrasal verbs (compare 1.6.4)

. . . ging die Maschine . . . zur N o t l a n d u n g . . . über Die Maschine kam auf einer Wiese . . . zum Stillstand

extended adjective constructions

auf Grund des dadurch höheren Luftwiderstandes die schwer geschockten und großteils unverletzten Passagiere

The vocabulary is relatively formal, with a high proportion of words and phrases which are used exclusively in R3. eine Katastrophe abwenden u m Erlaubnis ersuchen sich zu einer Notlandung das zuständige entschließen Verkehrsministerium der höhere Verbrauch aus Sicherheitsgründen sich u m die eigene Achse drehen Unglücksort zur Gänze einstellen schwer geschockt großteils unverletzt medizinisch untersuchen zur Beobachtung geräuschlos Umzäunung als Beweis fur etwas werten Several specialist terms relating to air travel are used, as appropriate to the subject matter of the report. A significant number of these are foreign words or compounds: Flugnummer Crew Notlandung Treibstoffverlust Triebwerk Start Fahrwerk einfahren Bruchlandung Pilotenfehler Luftwiderstand Treibstoff Gleitflug Fahrgestell Landepiste Tragfläche Notrutsche Flugbetrieb As in other formal varieties of German, interjections, fillers and particles are entirely absent, and there are no regionalisms of any kind.

1.6.6 Tabloid newspaper report: Bild This report in Bild of the same incident as that dealt with in Die Welt in 1.6.5 is significantly different in tone and register. It is presented in a much more dramatic, sensational and less objective fashion, to make the readers feel as if they are experiencing the incident directly. The emphasis is on the emotional responses as much as on the factual event.

Ferien-Airbus: Kein Sprit mehr, Triebwerkausfall Pilot rettet 142 Urlauber Notlandung! Triebwerkausfall! Die Passagiere an Bord waren wie gelähmt. Stewardessen halfen, die Gurte fest anzuziehen, trösteten zitternde Urlauber. Auf dem Flug HF3378 von Chania (Kreta) nach Hannover fielen in 9000 Meter Höhe beide Triebwerke aus. 142 Urlauber litten Todesangst - und feiern jetzt den Piloten wie einen Helden.

Er brachte den 122-Tonnen-Airbus A310 im Gleitflug runter! U m 11.55 Uhr war das Flugzeug gestartet, Minuten später die erste Alarmmeldung: Das Fahrwerk ließ sich nicht einfahren. Der erfahrene Pilot Wolfgang Arminger (55, Münchner, 20 000 Flugstunden) und Flugsicherung entschieden: Weiterflug, aber außerplanmäßige Zwischenlandung in Wien-Schwechat. 13.12 Uhr im Landeanflug, 25 Kilometer vor dem Wiener Airport, der Notruf: „Flug H S 3378,9000 Meter, short on fuel!" Das heißt: kein Sprit mehr! Eine Minute später: beide Triebwerke fielen aus! „Austro Control, wir gehen in Gleitflug", funkte der Pilot. Die Fluglotsen antworteten: „Wir räumen alles frei. Wir sind bei euch!" Großalarm auf dem Boden, Feuerwehr und Krankenwagen fuhren auf. Fluglotsen beobachteten auf dem Radarschirm, wie die deutsche Maschine immer mehr an Höhe verlor. 13.32 Uhr, die Notlandung auf Piste 34: „Der Jet flog sehr tief an, unheimlich leise, wie ein Segelflugzeug. Wackelte mit dem Heck. Er setzte vor der Piste im Gras auf, kam gerade so über den Zaun", sagte die Flughafenangestellte Anita Arshay. Ein Feuerwehrmann: „Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine drehte sich um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras." „Als er stand, sind meine Leute hingestürmt. Wir hörten die Passagiere rufen. Dann schössen die Luftkissen der Notrutschen hervor. Innerhalb von drei Minuten hatten wir alle Passagiere raus. Ein Glück, dass es nicht gebrannt hat", sagte Dr. Bernhard Sigall, Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte. BILANZ: Nur elf Passagiere verletzt, doch die meisten standen unter Schock. (Bild, 13 July 2000, p. 3)

A significant characteristic of this text is that, although most of its features are still predominantly those of written German (R3, especially R3b), a significant number are more typical of less formal Rl, so that a deliberate impression is given of a kind of language much closer to spontaneous colloquial speech (and thus to the everyday usage of the intended readership). We have indicated the relevant register of all the features listed below. Grammar

tense

The report is exclusively in the past (or pluperfect) tense, as would be expected in R3. Present and perfect tenses only used in quoted speech: Wir räumen alles frei Ein Glück, dass es nicht gebrannt hat

The past tense is also used in much of the quoted speech. This would not be the case in actual spoken Rl, esp. in AU. Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine drehte sich um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras passive

No passives with werden are used; the event is not being presented in an impersonal, objective fashion (Rl). Passive equivalent with sich lassen (typically R3b) used once: Das Fahrwerk ließ sich nicht einfahren

Sentence construction

quoted speech

There is no indirect speech, and thus no Konjunktiv I (this mood is restricted to formal R3). All quotations are given in direct speech (although, as the past tense is used, these cannot be the actual words and forms employed by the people being reported).

case

The genitive case is used sparingly (Rl) - only twice: die Luftkissen der Notrutschen Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte

incomplete sentences

Many 'sentences' are simply nouns or phrases without a verb. This is typical of Rl, and here it gives a breathless, urgent tone to the report, emphasizing the drama of the situation.

sentence length

All sentences are very short, as in Rl (about 8 words per sentence on average; the longest has 20 words).

subordination

The text consists chiefly (over 90%) of main clauses, with only two subordinate clauses and one infinitive clause. This is typical of both Rl and R3b: . . . , wie die deutsche Maschine immer mehr an Höhe verlor Als er stand, sind . . . Stewardessen halfen, die Gurte fest anzuziehen

strings of main clauses

As in 1.6.5, there are several strings of main clauses placed side by side without any linking conjunction (Rl and R3b): Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine drehte sich um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras

ellipsis of pronoun

This is typical of Rl (see 1.6.1): . . . Wackelte mit dem Heck

Some typical R3b constructions found in 1.6.5 are lacking entirely. There are no constructions with verbal nouns, phrasal verbs or extended adjective constructions. Vocabulary

The vocabulary is predominantly neutral (i.e. R2); typically, the R2 word Flügel is used, for example, rather than R3b Tragfläche as found in 1.6.5. However, there are several colloquial (Rl) words and phrases. These are often expressive or have a high emotional content: . . . wie gelähmt schliddern brachte . . . runter hervorschießen Großalarm feiern . . . wie einen Helden wackeln Wir sind bei euch hinstürmen kam gerade so über den Zaun Todesangst übers Gras kein Sprit mehr . . . hatten wir alle . . . raus unheimlich leise Some specialist R3b terminology is employed, as in 1.6.5, with some of the typical anglicisms used in aviation. It will be assumed that the paper's readership is familiar with these (or would like to think they are). Notlandung Airport starten Austro Control einfahren Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte Gleitflug Landeanflug short on fuel Fahrwerk außerplanmäßige Zwischenlandung Notrutsche Notruf Triebwerkausfall Fluglotsen Alarmmeldung Weiterflug There are no interjections, fillers and particles, and no regionalisms.

Punctuation

The exclamation mark is used liberally, both after single words and sentences. This serves to heighten the sense of urgency and the emotional, subjective tone of the report.

2 Words and meanings

2.1

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

2.1.1

Problems of meaning M o r e than two-thirds o f errors m a d e by advanced English-speaking learners o f G e r m a n involve matters o f vocabulary. T h e central problem is that different languages reflect a different perspective o f the world in their vocabulary. E a c h language divides u p things, ideas, events, etc. in terms o f words from a quite different viewpoint, categorizing and drawing distinctions in an individual way. T h e result is not just that there are words in G e r m a n w h i c h are 'untranslatable', s u c h as gemütlich, but that for m u c h o f the vocabulary w e d o not find any o n e - t o - o n e correspondences b e t w e e n an E n g l i s h word and a G e r m a n word. Cases o f exact equivalence, s u c h as Baum/tree or Tisch/table are relatively rare. L e a r n i n g G e r m a n involves learning h o w to break out o f the E n g l i s h framework o f m e a n i n g and operate in the framework peculiar to G e r m a n . A s w e are dealing w i t h individual words, there are n o rules; each word has to be taken o n its o w n terms and there may be c o n t e x t s w h e r e m o r e than o n e will serve equally for a particular E n g l i s h word. T h e following sections aim to explain s o m e o f the m o s t c o n f u s i n g cases where the range o f m e a n i n g o f a word or group o f words in o n e o f the languages does not correspond to that o f the nearest equivalents in the other.

Problems of meaning: English-German examples T h i s section gives, in alphabetical order, a selection o f c o m m o n E n g l i s h words w h i c h have a n u m b e r o f G e r m a n equivalents because they cover a wider area o f m e a n i n g than any single word in G e r m a n . It aims to help English-speaking learners to c h o o s e the word w h i c h best suits what they want to say by explaining briefly the differences in m e a n i n g b e t w e e n the possible G e r m a n equivalents. T h e r e are, o f course, m a n y m o r e s u c h words than can b e dealt w i t h here - more information is to b e f o u n d in the c o m p a n i o n v o l u m e Using German Synonyms (Durrell 2 0 0 0 ) - but the examples given will help learners w i t h other g r o u p s o f words by s h o w i n g the kind o f information w h i c h n e e d s to b e looked for w h e n using a dictionary.

2.1

ACCEPT

etw akzeptieren jdn akzeptieren etw annehmen jdn [in etw] aufnehmen

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

ACCIDENT

etw einsehen etw gelten lassen etw hinnehmen etw über' nehmen ) etw auf sich nehmen J der Unfall

to take sth on (e.g. task)

das Missgeschick (R2/R3) versehentlich) aus Versehen)

inadvertently

zufallig

by chance

die Durchführung (R3b) die Fertigkeit die Leistung die Vollendung (R3b)

execution, implementation skill (learned or acquired) achievement, performance completion

das Malheur (Rl)

ACCOMPLISHMENT

to accept, agree with sth (e.g. suggestion) to accept sb (e.g. as a friend) to accept sth (i.e. take sth offered) to admit sb [to sth] (e.g. to a club) to recognize, realize sth to take sth as valid (e.g. excuses) to put up with sth

less serious, not necessarily fatal fairly major, disaster (e.g. rail, plane) minor mishap (possibly embarrassing) mishap, misfortune

das Unglück

ACCIDENTALLY

53

Problems of meaning

ACTUALLY see really ADMIT

etw zugeben to confess (to) sth jdn (zu etw) zulassen j to admit sb to sth, let sb in jdn (in etw) hin-/hereinlassen i

ADVISE

jdm von etw abraten jdn beraten jdm raten jdn von etw in Kenntnis \ setzen (R3b) jdn von etw verständigen / jdm zuraten, etw zu tun 1

to advise sb against sth to advise sb at length (esp professionally) to advise sb (general sense) to inform sb of sth to advise sb in favour of doing sth

ADVERTISING/ ADVERTISEMENT

die Annonce \ die Anzeige > das Inserat )

small ad

das Plakat die Reklame

poster, bill, placard commercial advertisement

der Werbespot

television commercial

die Werbung

advertising (general sense)

noch einmal nochmals | wiederum)

one more time

wieder

once more as before

AGE

das Alter das Zeitalter

length, stage of life; old age (historical) period

AGREE

etw (mit jdm) abmachen (Rl) ) etw (mit jdm) ausmachen (Rl)) sich (zu etw) bereit erklären etw billigen (R3) (sich) (mit jdm) einig/ einverstanden sein mit etw einverstanden sein sich (mit jdm) einigen in etw einwilligen übereinkommen

to agree (on) sth (with sb)

AFRAID see fear AGAIN

(mit jdm/etw) übereinstimmen etw verabreden (R1/R2) 1 etw vereinbaren (R2/R3)J jdm/etw zustimmen

zugeben, dass . . . ALTER see change

once again, stressing repetition

to be prepared (to do sth) to approve (of) sth to be of the same opinion as sb not to object to sth to reach an agreement (with sb) to consent to sth to reach an agreement on a course of action to agree with sb/sth (i.e. to concur with sb, to tally with sth) to agree (on) sth (e.g. dates, plan) to be in agreement with sb's opinion or with a proposed course of action to admit t h a t . . .

APPEARANCE

der Anschein (R2/R3) der Auftritt das Aussehen

das Erscheinen die Erscheinung

outward appearance (e.g. clothes, face) action of becoming visible appearance, phenomenon, vision (i.e. what is seen, referring to persons or events)

der Schein

outward look (often false)

das Äußere(s)

ASK

jdn/etw anfordern (R2/R3) (bei jdm/CH: jdn) anfragen jdn (zu etw) auffordern jdn ausfragen jdn befragen jdn (um etw) bitten | jdn (um etw) ersuchen (R3) J jdn einladen etw erfordern (R3) sich nach jdm/etw \ erkundigen (R3) / nach jdm/etw fragen J (um etw) flehen (R3a) etw fordern jdn fragen (jdm) eine Frage stellen (bei jdm) nachfragen etw verlangen

AVOID

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

impression (judged to be true) entrance, appearance (e.g. on stage, TV) general look of sb or sth

jdm/etw ausweichen sich jdm/etw entziehen (R3a) jdn/etw meiden (R3) 1 jdm/etw aus dem Weg gehen ) etwum 1 gehen etw vermeiden

to request, require sb/sth (to be provided) to enquire (of sb) (simple enquiry) to challenge, require sb (to do sth) to interrogate sb to question sb (fully) to request (sth) of sb, ask sb (for sth) to invite sb to require, call for sth (of a thing) to enquire about sb/sth to plead (for sth) to demand, require sth (with insistence) to ask sb (a question) to ask (sb) a question to enquire (of sb) (repeated questioning) to demand, require, want sth to steer clear of sth (e.g. danger) to elude, evade sb/sth to keep clear of sb/sth to find a way round sth (e.g. obstacle) to manage not to do sth \\\\\ V 77/7/r

56

2 Words and meanings

BAD

arg(R3;S) böse schlecht schlimm

BANK

BEHAVE

übel der Abhang die Bank der D a m m die Sandbank, Wolkenbank das Ufer sich aufführen (R1/R2)

sich benehmen sich betragen (R3) sich verhalten

bad (possibly with serious consequences) evil, wicked, nasty not good, of sth which can possibly be good given other conditions inherently bad, of sth which cannot possibly ever be good (accident, serious illness) bad, nasty, repulsive, sick slope financial establishment embankment sandbank, cloudbank shore of river, lake, etc. to behave (making a particular good or bad impression on others) to behave well, observe accepted standards to conduct oneself to behave (act in a particular way in response to sb or sth)

BELONG

etw angehören jdm gehören zu etw gehören

to be a member of sth (e.g. club) to be the possession of sb to be a part of sth, be one of sth

BLAME

jdn beschuldigen jdm die Schuld (an etw) geben jdn tadeln (R3a) jdm etw vorwerfen

to accuse sb, fix the blame on sb to blame sb (for sth) to censure sb to reproach sb with sth, accuse sb of sth

BOX

die Büchse

can, tin, box (with lid) (less common than Dose, except in CH) small box; tin can cardboard box small wooden box, casket (e.g. for jewels)

die Dose der Karton das Kästchen

der Kasten die Kiste die Schachtel BREAK

ein Ei aufschlagen (etw) brechen kaputt sein (Rl) kaputtgehen (itr) (Rl) etw kaputtmachen (Rl) (etw) reißen

etw unterbrechen (etw) zerbrechen (etw) zerreißen etw zerschlagen jdn/etw zerschmettern BRIGHT

glänzend heiter hell intelligent leuchtend strahlend

BRUSH

der Besen die Bürste der Pinsel

solid, fair-sized box or case; crate (for bottles) (S also: cupboard) wooden packing-case or chest (e.g. for tea, cigars) flat,flimsybox, packet (e.g. for matches, chocolates) to break an egg to break cleanly, of solid objects (e.g. arm, mast, branch) to be broken to break (almost anything) to break sth (almost anything) to snap (sth), of non-hard things (e.g. string); to rip or tear (e.g. cloth) to interrupt sth (e.g. journey) to break (sth) into fragments (e.g. window) to tear (sth) into little pieces (non-hard things) to smash sth into fragments (esp deliberately) to smash, shatter, crush sb/sth gleaming (e.g. of metal, prospects) cheerful (e.g. of weather, day, person) not dark (of light) clever glowing (of colours) shining (e.g. of sun, eyes, jewel) broom, for sweeping stiff brush, for cleaning (e.g. hair, shoes) soft brush for applying sth (e.g. paint)

58

2

Words and meanings

CALL

jdn/etw abholen jdn (CH: jdm) anrufen jdn besuchen | bei jdm vorbeikommen (Rl) J

to call for sb, pick sb up to call sb on the telephone

heißen jdn/etw herbeirufen jdn etw nennen (etw) rufen jdm etw zurufen

to be called to summon sb/sth (e.g. doctor, taxi) to call, name sb sth to shout (sth) out to call sth out to sb (from a distance)

CARE

die Fürsorge (R3b) die Obhut (R3) die Pflege die Sorge die Sorgfalt die Vorsicht

care (of a sick or elderly person) care, safe keeping looking after sb/sth worry, anxiety attentiveness, carefulness attention, caution, prudence

CAREFUL

behutsam (R2/R3) sorgfaltig umsichtig vorsichtig

cautious, careful, considerate painstaking, taking care in doing sth circumspect, prudent cautious, avoiding mishaps

CARELESS

leichtsinnig nachlässig sorglos unvorsichtig

foolishly thoughtless negligent (opposite of sorgfältig) carefree, unworried not paying attention

CASTLE

die Burg das Schloss

medieval fortress stately home, palace

CATHEDRAL

der Dom die Kathedrale das Münster

within German-speaking countries outside German-speaking countries in a few specific cities mainly in SW (e.g. Strasbourg, Basle, Freiburg, Ulm, Essen)

CAUSE

der Anlass

cause, occasion (immediate cause or trigger for sth) reason, motivation sth producing an effect (i.e. Wirkung)

to call on sb, visit sb

CASE see box

der Grund die Ursache

CHANGE

sich/etw ändern sich/etw verändern

etw tauschen 'umsteigen etw 'umtauschen sich 'umziehen jdn/etw verwandeln etw wechseln

to change (sth) a lot, typically quickly and producing a striking difference to alter (sth) less radically, esp in gradual process - typically a person's appearance to swap sth for one of the same value to change (trains, buses, planes, etc.) to exchange sth (e.g. goods in a shop, money) to get changed (clothes) to transform sb/sth completely (e.g. magic) to substitute sth for another of the same kind (e.g. job, topic, money)

CLEVER

begabt clever (esp Rl) gescheit (esp S) geschickt intelligent klug schlau

gifted smart, sharp shrewd, quick-witted skilful, dexterous mentally gifted, bright sensible, clear-headed astute, ingenious

CLIMB

etw besteigen

to climb, ascend sth (not necessarily right to the top) to reach the top of sth (e.g. mountain) to climb, clamber up/over sth, using hands to climb, ascend (intr) climb up (onto) sth, ascend sth

etw ersteigen auf/über etw klettern steigen auf etw steigen CLOSE

etw dichtmachen (Rl) etw schließen (R2/R3) ) etw zumachen (R1/R2)J

to shut sth (esp shop)

etw sperren

to close sth off (e.g. road); (SE): to shut sth to shut

zugehen (Rl) COAT see jacket

to shut, close sth

COLLECT

jdn/etw abholen etw ansammeln sich ansammeln etw aufsammeln etw einnehmen ) etw kassieren (R1)J etw einsammeln

sich/etw häufen etw sammeln

sich sammeln sich versammeln | zusammenkommen) COMPLAIN

sich (über jdn/etw) beklagen sich (über etw) beschweren) (etw) reklamieren ) (über etw) klagen (R2/R3) meckern (Rl)) nörgeln J

CONTENT(S)

der Gehalt der Inhalt

CONTINUE

to pick sb/sth up (e.g. at station, airport) to accumulate, amass sth (indiscriminately) to gather (crowds) to collect sth up (things lying around) to collect sth (money, taxes) to collect sth up/ in (things lying around, or one thing from each person in a group) to pile (sth) up to collect things to keep (e.g. stamps) or for use (e.g. berries, mushrooms, wood) to collect (of things, or of people assembling casually in a place) to assemble in a place (of people, for a specific purpose) to express annoyance about sb/sth to make a complaint (about sth) to express concern, dissatisfaction (about sb/sth) to moan, grouse content in terms of ideas; proportion of sth in sth contents, what is physically in sth

fortfahren, etw zu tun etw fortsetzen (R3)J etw weiterfuhren J

to continue to do sth

weitermachen (Rl)

to carry on (intr)

to continue sth

the most natural German equivalent of'to continue', 'to carry on doing sth' is most often weiter with an appropriate verb, see 5.2.4.

NOTE:

COPY

die Kopie das Exemplar

replica, exact copy one of a number (e.g. book)

COW/CATTLE

die Kuh das Rind das Rindvieh das Vieh

cow, i.e. the female animal head of cattle (Rl also: beef) cattle as species (Rl*: term of abuse) livestock, esp, but not only, cattle

CROSS

NOTE:

CRY

the most idiomatic R2 equivalent of'to cross' used transitively is über etw gehen, fahren, etc.; used intransitively it is hinübergehen, hinüberfahren, etc. etw durch 1 queren (R3) sich kreuzen etw passieren etw über 1 queren (R3) etw überschreiten (R3)

to go across sth of wide area (e.g. desert) to pass one another (e.g. trains, letters) to pass through or over sth (e.g. frontier) to go from one side of sth to the other to step over sth (esp a line, e.g. railway)

(etw) brüllen (esp Rl)

to yell, roar (sth), esp in excitement or rage to bawl, howl (esp children) to call (sth), usually articulate to sob to shout, scream, yell (sth), often inarticulate (e.g. in fear) to weep, cry

heulen (Rl) (etw) rufen schluchzen (etw) schreien weinen DAMAGE

etw beschädigen jdm/etw schaden jdn/etw schädigen

to cause actual physical damage to sth to be bad for sb/sth to be to the disadvantage of sb/sth (e.g. reputation, business)

DARK

dunkel düster (R3)

not bright (opposite of hell) gloomy, with little light and thus unpleasant pitch black, with no light and thus sinister; S: dark, not bright dull, dim (e.g. of light), murky (e.g. of water)

finster (R3) trübe

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

62

2

Words and meanings

DECIDE

etw beschließen etw bestimmen sich (fur etw) entscheiden sich zu etw entschließen jdn veranlassen etw zu tun

to reach a decision to do sth to fix, determine sth (e.g. time, place) to decide (on sth) by choosing from the available alternatives to reach a firm decision to do sth after due consideration to make sb decide to do sth

DEMAND see ask DENY

etw ableugnen (R2/R3)

etw in Abrede stellen (R3b) etw bestreiten etw dementieren (R3b) (etw) leugnen

jdn/etw verleugnen etw verneinen jdm etw verweigern

to deny sth forcefully (with the implication that the denial is not credible) to deny, dispute sth (accusation) to deny, dispute, contest sth to deny sth officially to declare sth to be untrue (with the implication that the denial is not credible) to disclaim a connection with sb/sth to answer a question in the negative to refuse sb sth

DIE

abkratzen (Rl) ) den Arsch zukneifen (Rl*) l to croak, kick the bucket, ins Gras beißen (Rl) ( snuff it krepieren (Rl) / entschlafen (R3)) to pass away (euphemistic) verscheiden (R3) f to die (general sense) sterben 'umkommen (R2/R3)l to be killed (e.g. in an accident) ums Leben kommen i

DIFFERENT

ander unterschiedlich verschieden

not the same as before, another varied not the same as each other, various

DOUBT

etw anzweifeln etw bezweifeln

to cast doubt on sth (e.g. sb's honesty) to doubt sth which has been taken to be true or accurate to have doubts about sb/sth

an jdm/etw zweifeln

2.1

63

Problems of meaning

ENTRY/ ENTRANCE

die Aufnahme der Auftritt die Einfahrt der Eingang die Einreise der Eintrag der Eintritt der Zugang der Zutritt

admittance (e.g. to a club) as a member entrance on stage way in for vehicles way in (on foot) entry to a country entry in book (e.g. dictionary, ledger) act of entering, admission (point of) access right of entry, admittance

EVENT

die Begebenheit (R3) das Ereignis

chance occurrence, esp extraordinary event, incident (i.e. significant ocurrence) case (cf. im Falle eines Krieges) events, happenings (esp sequence of events) organized function unexpected incident event seen as process (pi Vorgänge = sequence of events) occurrence (e.g. precious metals minerals, etc.) single occurrence, often unpleasant incident, esp political or diplomatic

der Fall das Geschehen die Veranstaltung der Vorfall der Vorgang das Vorkommen das Vorkommnis (R3) der Zwischenfall (R3) EXAMINE

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

etw kontrollieren etw prüfen jdn prüfen jdn/etw untersuchen

to check, scrutinize sth (e.g. passport) to test sth for genuineness or accuracy to subject sb (e.g. candidate) to an examination to subject sb/sth to careful scrutiny, investigate sb/sth

EXPERIENCE

die Erfahrung das Erlebnis

knowledge, skills acquired over time event, sensation which one has experienced

FALL

fallen stürzen

to fall (general sense) to fall violently, usually causing injury or damage (e.g. from height, off bicycle)

64

2

FAT

dick fett

Words and meanings

fettig FEAR/ FRIGHTEN

Angst haben (R1/R2)

to be rather afraid, uneasy (fairly weak)

jdm Angst machen ) jdn in Angst versetzen (R3)J

to scare, frighten sb

etw befürchten

to be afraid that sth unpleasant will happen to be physically frightened (suddenly) to startle sb, frighten sb suddenly

(vor jdm/etw) erschrecken (R3) strong verb, see 3.3.4 jdn erschrecken NOTE: weak verb, see 3.3.4 furchten, dass . . . (R1/R2)

NOTE:

jdn/etw furchten (R2/R3) sich (vor jdm/etw) furchten (es) graut jdm (vor jdm/etw) (R3) es tut mir Leid(, dass . . . ) FEEL

sich + adj anfühlen etw betasten etw empfinden (R2/R3)

etw fühlen sich + adj fühlen meinen(, dass . . . ) etw spüren (nach etw) tasten FIGHT

corpulent, large, hefty (of people) containing fat (Rl also = fat - of people in pejorative sense) greasy, covered in fat

etw bekämpfen boxen fechten

to be afraid that (sth unpleasant will happen) to be in awe, dread of sb/sth to be frightened of sb/sth (fairly strong) sb has a dread (of sb/sth) I am sorry, I regret (that...) (of things) to feel + adj, e.g. hard, hot, damp (to the touch) to feel sth to test quality to be sensitive to sth (e.g. cold); feel emotions (e.g. joy, sorrow, respect) to perceive sth through the senses (of people) to feel + adj, e.g. well, sick, tired to feel, be of the opinion (that...) to be aware of sth, notice, sense sth to grope, feel (for sth) searchingly to combat sth (e.g. disease, fascism) to box to fence

2.1

sich hauen (Rl)] sich prügeln ? sich schlagen ) (gegen jdn/etw) kämpfen sich (mit jdm) streiten

FINALLY

im Endeffekt (Rl) endgültig endlich letztendlich ) letzten Endes J

FIRE

to have a fight to fight (sb/sth), esp prolonged struggle to argue, quarrel (with sb), possibly, but not necessarily, physically; (R3) to fight in the end, in the final analysis for ever, definitive(ly) at last, after a long time (often impatient) ultimately, in the final analysis

schließlich zum Schluss zuletzt

eventually, after all in the end, in conclusion finally, in the end (last of a series of events)

der Brand

a fire, causing damage (e.g. house, forest) fire as element

das Feuer (AT) FIRST

65

Problems of meaning

erst erst mal (Rl)) zunächst ) erstens

first (followed by dann in series) initially, for the moment first(ly) - in list, followed by zweitens, drittens, etc.

erstmals ) zum ersten Malf zuerst

before the rest

FLOW

fließen strömen

toflow(general senses) to pour out,flowin large masses, stream

FOLLOW

etw befolgen

for the first time

to act in accordance with sth (e.g. orders) etw besuchen to attend sth (e.g. course) (jdm/etw) folgen (R2/R3) to follow (sb/sth) NOTE: in the neutral sense of'to follow' an appropriate verb of motion prefixed by nach- or hinterhere.g. jdm nachlaufen, hinterherlaufen, is the most frequent equivalent in Rl and R2

66

2

Words and meanings

[FOLLOW]

auf jdn/etw folgen aus etw folgen (jdm/etw) nachfolgen jdn verfolgen etw verfolgen jdn/etw verstehen

FOOD

to succeed sb/sth in chronological sequence to follow from sth (logically) to come after/behind sb/sth (i.e. come on later); to succeed sb to pursue sb (e.g. thief); persecute sb to follow sth keenly (e.g. aims, TV series) to understand sb/sth (e.g. 'Do you follow me?')

das Essen der Fraß das Futter das Gericht die Kost (R2/R3) die Lebensmittel (pl) ) die Nahrungsmittel (pl) f

food (i.e. what is eaten for a meal) animal food; (Rl) (lousy) grub food for animals; (Rl) grub dish

die Nahrung die Speise

nourishment, sustenance dish (usually in compound, e.g. Süßspeise; in R3 and S also = nourishment)

FORCE

jdm etw aufzwingen jdn/etw bezwingen etw (von jdm) erzwingen jdn (zu etw) zwingen

to force sth on sb to overcome sb/sth (e.g. enemy, fear) to force sth (from sb) to force, compel sb (to sth)

FREEZE

einfrieren

to freeze up (e.g. pipes), freeze in (ships) to freeze sth (e.g. food, post in institution) to freeze to death there is a frost, it is freezing

etw einfrieren erfrieren es friert ich friere (N) ) mich friert (es) (R3; S) 1 frieren ) gefrieren (R3)) zufrieren FRUIT

die Frucht das Obst

fare, type of food foodstuffs, comestibles

I am cold to turn to ice to freeze over (e.g. of lake) fruit (general sense) edible fruit (e.g. apples, pears)

2.1

GARAGE

Problems of meaning

67

die Garage die Tankstelle die Werkstatt

place to store cars, etc. petrol station, gas station repair shop for cars, etc.

etw begreifen ) etw erfassen (R2/R3) j

to comprehend sth

GATHER see collect GRASP

sich jds/etw (gen) bemächtigen (R3) jdn/etw ergreifen (R3)

jdn/etw fassen nach etw grapschen (Rl) \ nach etw greifen ? nach etw langen (Rl) ' jdn/etw greifen (R3, S) jdn/etw packen (R1/R2) jdn/etw schnappen (Rl) GREET

jdn/etw begrüßen (jdn) grüßen jdn willkommen heißen (R3)

GRIN

feixen (Rl) grinsen lächeln schmunzeln

GROW (UP)

etw anbauen aufwachsen (R2/R3) erwachsen werden groß werden (R1/R2) heranwachsen (R3) wachsen adj + werden

to seize hold of sb/sth (e.g. radio station) to grasp, take hold of sb/sth in sudden movement (also: opportunity, power, etc.) to take hold of sb/sth (also of ideas, usually in negative)

to grasp, snatch at sth to seize, grasp, take hold of sb/sth to grab (hold of), seize, catch sb/sth to grab sb/sth quickly, to catch sb (esp of police) to greet, welcome sb/sth to say hello (to sb); give one's regards to sb to welcome sb to smirk to grin, smirk, esp scornfully or unpleasantly to smile (can be pleasant or unpleasant) to grin in a friendly or pleasant way to grow, cultivate sth (agriculture) to grow up, spend one's childhood to become adult to grow (of children) to grow up, stressing development to grow (general sense) to grow, get, become + adj (e.g. large, red)

[GROW (UP)]

etw ziehen zunehmen etw züchten

to grow sth (plants) to increase in size or quantity to cultivate sth (plants)

GUESS

etw erraten (etw) raten etw schätzen auf etw tippen (Rl) etw vermuten

to guess sth correctly to have a guess (at sth) to estimate sth (e.g. weight) have a guess at sth, predict sth to suppose sth

HAPPEN/ OCCUR

ausbleiben ausfallen sich begeben (R3a)

to fail to happen (against expectations) not to take place, to be cancelled to happen, come to pass (significant event) to happen (unusual or remarkable event) to take place (as a result, or in the normal course of events), ensue to happen, occur (to sb) to happen, occur (to sb) (typically sth unpleasant or harmful) to take place (organized event) to happen (rather unexpectedly) to be going on to occur (i.e. be found); take place (often repeatedly)

sich ereignen erfolgen (jdm) geschehen (jdm) passieren (R1/R2) stattfinden vorfallen (R2/R3) vorgehen vorkommen 1

stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

jdm wider* fahren (R3a)) jdm zustoßen (R3) f sich zutragen (R3a)

to befall sb

der Feiertag die Ferien (pi) der Urlaub

public, bank holiday institutional break (e.g. from school) leave (from work), vacation

to take place, occur (noteworthy event)

HARM see damage HILL see mountain HIRE see rent HOLIDAY(S)

the distinction between Urlaub and Ferien is not always maintained in Rl, and both are frequently used in the sense of 'vacation'.

NOTE:

2.1

IDEA

IMAGINE

IMPROVE

69

Problems of meaning

die Absicht die Ahnung der Begriff der Einfall der Gedanke die Idee die Meinung die Schnapsidee (Rl) die Vorstellung

intention, plan of action inkling, suspicion concept, generic idea idea, plan which occurs to one suddenly thought notion, thought; philosophical idea opinion nutty idea image in the mind, idea one has of sth

sich etw denken (R1/R2) | sich etw vorstellen j

to make oneself a mental picture of sth, possibly correct, possibly not

sich etw einbilden

merely to imagine sth which is quite illusory

jdn/etw bessern (R3)

to make sb/sth rather better (in a limited way; of people often in a moral sense, 'reform') to become rather better (esp. health, morals, social conditions, situation in life, etc.) to put (sb/sth) right, correct (sb/sth) to correct sth, bring sth nearer to ideal, improve on sth (e.g. quality of product) to better oneself (in career); do better (in sport); correct oneself

sich bessern

(jdn/etw) korrigieren etw verbessern

sich verbessern INCIDENT see event INHABITANT(S)

die Bevölkerung der Bewohner

der Eingeborene(r) der Einheimische(r) der Einwohner

inhabitants of a city, etc. seen as a collective whole inhabitant, occupier, sb who happens to live in a particular place, road, house primitive, aboriginal native native, sb who belongs to a place resident, permanent inhabitant (e.g. of a city) with some legal or official status

70

2 Words and meanings

JACKET

dasJäckchen die Jacke das Jackett j der Rock (S)) der Mantel der (AU das) Sakko

jacket (short, esp woman's) jacket (general sense)

die Anstellung

(position of) employment, appointment work in general (esp manual), piece of work specific task set sb order, commission, specific piece of work relating to one's trade or profession profession, employment of a professional nature, (skilled) trade

JOB

die Arbeit die Aufgabe der Auftrag

der Beruf

die Berufstätigkeit (R3b) j die Erwerbstätigkeit (R3b) S der Job (Rl) der Posten die Stelle die Stellung etw aufbewahren (R3) etw aufheben jdn/etw behalten

KEEP

etw beibehalten etw bewahren (R2/R3) etw einhalten (R2/R3)

jdn/etw erhalten t

jdn/etw halten

jacket, coat (man's, also of suit) (over-)coat jacket (man's, separate)

(gainful) employment casual or part-time job specific post, esp in administration or commerce paid job, position of employment situation in general to keep sth safe to keep, look after sth not to give sth away, not to allow sb to go retain sth (rather emphatic) to preserve, maintain sth (esp sth abstract, in difficult conditions) to keep, adhere to, observe sth (appointment, promise, rules, etc.) to keep, maintain, preserve sb/sth (i.e. prevent deterioration or loss) to keep sb/sth (i.e. not allow to move or change), to observe, stick to sth

sich halten

etw unter 1 halten 1

stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

jdn versorgen jdn/etw zurückhalten

to remain in good condition (e.g. food), maintain a course or position to keep sth going, maintain sth (e.g. building) to provide for sb (e.g. family) to keep sb/sth back, detain sb, withhold sth

KNOW

bekannt sein jdn/etw kennen eine Sprache können (etw) wissen

to be known to be familiar with sb/sth to be able to speak a language to have knowledge (of sth)

KNOWLEDGE

die Erkenntnis

knowledge, recognition, realization (knowledge with clear understanding) specific (piece of) knowledge specialized knowledge in a certain field knowledge in general, total knowledge which a person possesses

die Kenntnis die Kenntnisse (pi) das Wissen

LEARN

etw erfahren etw erlernen (etw) lernen

LEAVE

abfahren | losfahren (Rl)j jdn/etw dalassen (Rl) jdn/etw hinterlassen

etw lassen

etw liegen lassen losgehen (Rl)) (weg)gehen )

to learn sth by chance, find sth out to learn sth completely (e.g. language, skill) to learn (sth) by effort, through study to depart (in vehicle, by train, etc.) not to take sb/sth with one, leave sb/sth behind to leave sb/sth behind (after death; for sb, as sign that one has been there) to allow sth to remain (in a particular place or in a certain condition) to leave sth behind (inadvertently) to depart

72

2

[LEAVE]

jdn/etw stehen lassen

Words and meanings

jdm etw über'lassen etw verlassen jdn/etw weglassen (Rl) jdn/etw zurücklassen

to leave sb/sth behind (usually intentionally) to leave sth in sb's care, entrust sth to sb to go away from sb/sth to leave sth out, let sb go leave sb/sth behind (intentionally, or leave a trace, or on death)

(AT) LAST see finally LIFT

jdn/etw aufheben etw erheben (R3) etw erhöhen jdn/etw heben etw hochheben

LIKE

etw gefallt jdm (see 4.1.1) jdn/etw gern haben jdn/etw nicht leiden können jdn/etw lieben jdn lieb haben jdn/etw mögen (see 4.6.1) etw schmeckt jdm

to pick sb/sth up (off the ground) to raise sth up high (e.g. hand, glass) to make sth higher (e.g. wall, prices) to move sb/sth higher to lift sb/sth up (in the air) sb likes sth (esp on the basis of a first impression) to like sb/sth (esp an established affection) not to be able to stand sb/sth to love sb/sth to be fond of sb to like sb/sth (esp people or food) sb likes sth (food)

referring to people and food, gern haben and mögen are very similar in meaning. With verbs, e.g. 'to like doing sth', German most often uses gern with an appropriate verb, see 5.2.4, e.g. Ich reite gern 'I like horse-riding'.

NOTE:

LITTLE see small LIVE

leben wohnen

LOCK

(etw) abschließen ) (etw) absperren (SE) S jdn/etw einschließen \ jdn einsperren I etw wegschließen ) etw verschließen

to be alive, have a certain lifestyle to dwell to lock (e.g. house, car, door) to lock sb up, lock sth away to lock sth (small, e.g. case, box)

LOVE see like MAN

der Mann der Mensch

MARRY

heiraten jdn heiraten jdn trauen sich (mit jdm) verheiraten \ (R2/R3) [ sich (mit jdm) vermählen (R3) / verheiratet sein

MEAN

etw bedeuten etw besagen etw heißen jdn/etw meinen

etw vorhaben MEET

jdn abholen jdm begegnen (R3) jdn kennen lernen jdn sehen jdn treffen auf jdn/etw treffen sich (mit jdm) treffen (R1/R2) (mit jdm) zusammenkommen (R3) (mit jdm) zusammentreffen (R3) zusammentreten

male human, as opposed to woman man as species, as opposed to animals to get married to marry sb to marry sb (i.e. perform the ceremony) get married (to sb) to be married to signify sth to make sth clear, express sth to have a certain meaning (e.g. foreign word) to have sb/sth in mind, intend sb/sth (esp in questions, e.g. 'Who/What do you mean?') to mean to do sth to pick sb up to meet, encounter sb (by chance) to meet sb for the first time to see, meet sb (frequent equivalent in Rl) to meet sb (by chance or arrangement) to come across sb/sth to meet (sb) by arrangement to collect, assemble, meet (in a previously agreed place for a specific purppose) to have a meeting (with sb) (often important people) to meet, convene (public bodies, etc.)

74

2

MEMORY

das Andenken

Words and meanings

die Erinnerung das Gedächtnis der Speicher MISS

etw auslassen fehlen etw über'hören etw über'sehen etw verfehlen jdn/etw vermissen etw verpassen etw versäumen (R2/R3)

souvenir; (R3) remembrance, memory (solemn, e.g. of deceased) remembrance, recollection faculty of remembering memory of computer or calculator to miss sth out to be missing not hear sth (deliberately or not) not see sth (deliberately or not) not to get the right sth (e.g. path, purpose) to notice, regret the absence of sb/sth to come too late for sth (e.g. train), let sth slip (e.g. opportunity) not to do sth one ought to have done (e.g. miss an opportunity)

in R1/R2 the German equivalent of English 'miss' is often daneben with an appropriate verb, e.g. er hat daneben geschossen. NOTE:

MISTAKE

der der der der der

Fehler Fehlgriff Irrtum Patzer (Rl) j Schnitzer (Rl) i

error, fault, defect mistake (esp wrong choice or judgement) mistaken belief or judgement boob, goof, blunder

MOUNTAIN

der Berg der Hang der Hügel (esp N) das Gebirge der Gipfel

mountain, hill slope, incline rather small hill, often solitary mountains, hills (range) summit

NARROW

eng

constricted, difficult to get through (opposite of weit) of small width or breadth (opposite of breit)

schmal NECK

das Genick ) der Nacken i der Hals die Kehle

nape, back of neck whole neck or throat, also of bottles throat (front of throat, inside or outside)

2.1

Problems of meaning

75

NOISE see sound NOTICE

jdn/etw bemerken etw merken etw spüren

NUMBER

die Anzahl die Nummer die Zahl die Ziffer

to become aware of sth to perceive, realize sth abstract (e.g. intention, deceit) to sense, feel sth (e.g. smell, pain, cold) rather vague, indefinite number numbers in series applied to sth (e.g. house, car, telephone) quite specific number actual digit (e.g. 4, 7)

OCCUR see happen/occur OCCURRENCE see event ODD

absonderlich (R3) eigenartig eigentümlich (R2/R3) fremd fremdartig komisch (R1/R2) merkwürdig (R2/R3) seltsam sonderbar ungerade (Zahl) unheimlich wunderlich (R2/R3)

peculiar, abnormal peculiar, difficult to comprehend peculiar, unusual unfamiliar, strange, foreign, alien strange, unfamiliar, exotic funny, peculiar strange, strikingly out of the ordinary odd, peculiar, unusual strange, odd, disconcerting odd (number) uncanny, weird strange, odd, very peculiar

OFFER

jdm etw anbieten (jdm) etw bieten

to hand sth to sb for acceptance to afford sth, make sth available (to sb) (usually sth abstract, e.g. opportunity)

OFFICER

der Beamte(r)

civilian official (incl e.g. policeman), civil servant (officer of the state) military officer

der Offizier

76

2

ONLY

bloß (R1/R2)) lediglich (R3) f nur ' erst

limiting (i.e. that number and no more, at that time and only then, see also 2.6) indicating more to follow, that there is time left, or that sth is not happening before a certain time (see also 2.6)

OPEN

aufgehen aufhaben (Rl) etw aufmachen (R1/R2) etw aufschlagen

to open, come open to be open (shops, etc.) to open sth to crack sth open (egg, nut), to open sth (book, newspaper, (R3a) eyes) to unlock sth to perform the opening of sth (e.g. school, exhibition, proceedings) to open (sth)

Words and meanings

etw aufschließen etw eröffnen sich/etw öffnen (R3) ORDER

etw anordnen

jdm (etw) befehlen | (jdm) etw gebieten (R3a) j etw bestellen

ORGAN

etw ordnen das Organ die Orgel

PACKET

das Päckchen

die Packung das Paket PAINT

etw (an)streichen (jdn/etw) malen

PATH see street

to decree, instruct sth (esp of official); to arrange sth according to a system to command, order sb (e.g. to do sth) to make an order to be provided with sth (e.g. in shop) to sort sth into order, organize sth part of body, etc. musical instrument packet, pack, package (of goods, quite small); small postal parcel (under 2 kilos) small package or packet (e.g. for tea, cigarettes) large package, packet; large postal parcel to put paint on sth (e.g. house, fence) to paint a picture (of sb/sth)

PAY

etw begleichen (R3b) (jdn/etw) bezahlen (etw) blechen (Rl)| etw löhnen (Rl) }

settle, pay sth (bill, invoice, debt)

etw entrichten (R3b) bei jdm zahlen

to pay sth (fees, dues, taxes, etc.) to pay sb (i.e. waiter, bus conductor) to pay (sth - i.e. a sum of money for sth)

(etw für etw) zahlen

to pay (sb/for sth) to fork (sth) out (excessive sum of money)

the distinction between etw bezahlen 'pay for sth' and etw fur etw zahlen 'pay sth (i.e. a sum of money) for sth' is no longer consistently upheld, esp in Rl, and the two verbs are used almost interchangeably. NOTE:

PEOPLE

die Leute (pl) die Menschen (pl) das Volk

people (seen as making up a specific group) people as a number of individuals people as a nation or community; the 'common' people

in Rl the distinction between Leute and Menschen is blurred, and Leute is used more generally. Neither Leute nor Menschen is used as widely as English 'people', which often corresponds to man (e.g. Man sagt... 'People say . . . ' , see also 3.5.5 and 4.4.5). NOTE:

PERSUADE

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

PLACE

jdn (dazu) bewegen, etw zu tun (R3) jdn (zu etw) breitschlagen (Rl) jdm etw einreden jdn über'reden, etw zu tun jdn von etw über'zeugen

to induce sb to do sth

der Ort

place, spot, locality, location in general, not precise village, settlement place to do sth specific (e.g. to sit down, to play sth, etc.); square (in town); room, space (of sufficient size to do sth) precise spot, usually with a certain relevance or in relation to surroundings

die Ortschaft der Platz

die Stelle

talk sb round (to sth) to talk sb into believing sth to talk sb into doing sth to convince sb of sth

POUR

(jdm etw) einschenken (R2/R3) sich ergießen (R3) (etw) gießen etw schütten etw streuen strömen

POWER

die Gewalt die Kraft die Macht die Stärke

to pour (sb sth, i.e. a drink) to pour (out) (largeflow,also of people) to pour (sth) (only liquids) to pour sth in large quantities to pour, strew sth (having grains, e.g. sand) to pour (out), stream, flow (large quantities of liquid; also air, light, people) power exercised, force, violence, might physical strength power, ability to control (esp latent) measurable strength, size, intensity

anwesend augenblicklich derzeitig (R3) gegenwärtig vorhanden

topical, current, relating to the present in attendance current, existing at the moment current, of the present time of/at the present moment existing in a place, available

PREVENT

jdn von etw abhalten jdn/etw behindern jdn an etw hindern etw verhindern etw verhüten

to stop, prevent sb doing sth to obstruct, hinder sb/sth to stop, impede sb in sth to make sth impossible to prevent, stop sth (undesirable)

PUSH

(jdn/sich) drängeln (Rl)| (jdn/sich) drängen j

to push, shove, jostle (sb) (of people, esp in a crowd)

(jdn/etw) drücken

to apply pressure (to sb/sth, e.g. door, button) to move (sb/sth) by pushing (esp along a surface) to shove, push, nudge sb to give a short, violent shove (to sb/sth); CH also to push (doors,

PRESENT

aktuell

(jdn/etw) schieben jdn schubsen (Rl) (jdn/etw) stoßen

2.1

PUT

79

Problems of meaning

etw hängen etw in etw (hinein)geben jdn/etw legen jdn/etw setzen jdn/etw stellen

jdn/etw stecken

NOTE:

to put sth so that it then hangs (i.e. hängt; e.g. picture on wall) to add sth to sth (e.g. salt to cooking pot) to put sb/sth so that it then lies (i.e. liegt; e.g. book on table, person on couch) to put sb/sth so that it then sits (i.e. sitzt; e.g. child on chair, pot on stove) to put sb/sth so that it then stands (i.e. steht; e.g. chair in corner, bottle, plate on table) to put sb/sth so that it is then hidden from view (i.e. steckt; e.g. hand in pocket, letter in mailbox)

in Rl, tun commonly replaces these more specific words.

leise ruhig still

not loud calm (of people or things), undisturbed silent, not talkative

READY

bereit fertig

prepared, willing finished, completed (and ready to go)

REALIZE

jdm aufgehen etw begreifen etw (be)merken etw einsehen etw erkennen etw feststellen jdm klar werden etw verwirklichen

to become apparent to sb to comprehend sth to notice sth (see NOTICE) to acknowledge, accept, see sth to recognize sth to discover sth, find sth out to become clear to sb to make sth real (e.g. plans, aims)

REALLY/ ACTUALLY

echt

real, genuine, not faked; esp Rl: really, very actual(ly), real(ly) (in actual fact, possibly despite the appearances) in actual fact, in reality (as opposed to imagination or illusion)

QUIET

RAISE see Lift

eigentlich tatsächlich | in der Tat J wahrhaftig (R2/R3) wirklich

really, truly; (as adjective, R3 only) truthful real(ly) (actually in existence)

80

2

Words and meanings

REFUSE

etw ablehnen (jdm) etw versagen (R3)j (jdm) etw verweigern )

to decline sth, turn sth down

sich weigern (, etw zu tun) etw nicht (tun) wollen

to refuse (to do sth - of people) to refuse (to do sth - of things)

RENT

etw mieten etw vermieten

to rent, hire sth (from sb) to rent, hire sth (to sb)

RISE

aufstehen ) sich erheben (R3) J

to get up, rise

steigen

to rise upwards, ascend

das Gemach (R3a) die Kammer der Raum

chamber, apartment (e.g. in palace) box-room; (R3a, S) chamber, bedroom space (in most senses, e.g. for sth to fit into); room (in public building) very large room, hall (e.g. for concerts) room (esp living-room, parlour) room in private house

to refuse, not to grant (sb) sth

ROAD see street ROOM

der Saal die Stube (R3a, S) das Zimmer ROPE

das Seil der Strick das Tau

rope thin rope, esp for tying things (also hangman's rope) thick rope, hawser (esp on ships)

SAME

der gleiche another identical one derselbe the very same one NOTE: in Rl derselbe and der gleiche are used interchangeably.

SATISFY

jdn/etw befriedigen etw entsprechen (R3) etw erfüllen

to fulfil sb's wishes, needs, desires, etc. to fulfil, meet, comply with sth to satisfy, meet, fulfil sth (e.g. condition, requirement, equation)

jdm/etw genügen (R2/R3) gesättigt sein (R3)j satt sein f jdn (von etw) überzeugen sich mit etw zufrieden geben (mit jdm/etw) zufrieden sein jdn zufrieden stellen

to comply with sth; be enough for sb to have had enough to eat to convince sb (of sth) to (have to) be content, satisfied with sth to be satisfied, happy (with sb/sth) to make sb contented (e.g. customer)

SAVE

etw aufsparen etw ersparen jdm etw ersparen sich etw ersparen jdn (vor etw) retten etw schonen etw sparen

SECRET

to put sth to one side for later to save (money) to save sb sth (esp unpleasant details) to avoid sth (e.g. trouble) to save sb (from sth, e.g. danger) to go easy on sth (e.g. eyes, clothes) not to use sth (e.g. money, time)

geheim heimlich

deliberately kept from public view (kept) hidden, invisible, clandestine

glänzen

to reflect light, gleam, sparkle (esp of things which do not give out their own light) to give out or reflect light (esp in dark surroundings) to give out light (of sun, moon, lamps)

SEIZE see grasp SHINE

leuchten scheinen SHUT see close SHY

scheu

schüchtern SIMPLE

SKIN

timorous, esp used of animals or expressions of emotion (smile, glance, etc.) of a reserved, introverted nature (of people)

einfach einfältig) simpel ) leicht schlicht

simple, plain

das Fell die Haut die Schale

animal skin with fur skin of human or animal (no fur) skin, peel, rind (e.g. fruit, vegetable)

simple-minded uncomplicated, easy plain, straightforward (not negative sense)

SMALL

gering klein

slight, low, small in value or importance small in size

SMELL

der Duft der Geruch ) der Geschmack (SW)J

pleasant smell, fragrance

der Gestank

unpleasant smell, stench

das Geräusch

any indistinct sound or noise (general sense) resonant, musical sound crashing noise (in Rl also used for Lärm) loud, unpleasant noise sound made by humans or animals (e.g. speech sound) sound as a physical phenomenon (e.g. Schallgeschwindigkeit); (R3) clear and distinct sound (e.g. bell) single musical note; tone (of voice)

SOUND

der der der der

Klang Krach Lärm Laut

der Schall

der Ton SPACE see room and place SPEND

SPREAD

smell (general sense)

Geld ausgeben etw verbrauchen

to spend money to use sth up, consume sth (e.g. strength, energy)

etw verbringen) etw zubringen i

to pass sth (e.g. time)

sich/etw ausbreiten

to spread (sth) (out), extend sth (evenly in all directions, e.g. wings, map on floor) to expand, extend (sth), stretch (sth) out (in time or space, esp over a wide area) to expand, spread, extend (sth) (esp increasing in significance, e.g. riots, plague) to stretch, lengthen, extend (sth) to extend, stretch over an area (without movement, e.g. forest to horizon) to expand, enlarge, widen (sth) (i.e. make larger in area; also of abstract things) spread out from centre (esp of pernicious things, e.g. disease, fire, trouble)

sich/etw ausdehnen sich/etw ausweiten

sich/etw dehnen sich erstrecken sich/etw erweitern um sich greifen

2.1

Problems of meaning

etw (auf etw) schmieren | etw (auf etw) streichen J sich/etw verbreiten

sich/etw verteilen STEP

STOP

83

to spread sth (on sth, e.g. butter on bread) to disseminate sth, i.e. spread sth patchily over wide area (e.g. disease, panic) to distribute sth (e.g. forces, payments, cushions round room)

der (Fuß)tritt der Schritt die Stiege (S, esp AU)) die Treppe i

sound of human step pace (of person); stride

die Stufe

individual step or stair

jdn von etw abhalten etw abstellen

to stop sb from (doing) sth to switch sth off (e.g. motor, machine) to stop (sb/sth) (person or vehicle in motion, esp temporarily or unexpectedly) to prevent sb/sth from continuing to cease (sth, e.g. an activity) to suspend sth (e.g. work, payment, production) to come to a halt (esp of scheduled stop for vehicles; also of people) to come to a halt (people, machines, vehicles) to come to/be at a standstill, stop working to stop (sb/sth) (most senses)

(jdn/etw) anhalten

jdn/etw aufhalten (mit etw) aufhören etw einstellen halten stehen bleiben stillstehen (jdn/etw) stoppen (R1/R2)

stairs, staircase, flight of steps

STRANGE see odd STREET

die Gasse der Pfad die Straße der Weg

lane, alley; (AU) street in town path, track (narrow, not for vehicles) surfaced street or road way, path, track (unsurfaced, but well-defined)

84

2

Words and meanings

STRENGTH see power STRING

SUSPICIOUS

der Bindfaden (N) \ die Schnur (S) \ der Spagat (AU) J

string (for tying things)

die Saite

string (of musical instrument)

argwöhnisch (R3a)

inclined to have suspicions, distrustful suspicious, distrustful suspicious (as a reaction to sth)

misstrauisch stutzig (only used with sein or werden) suspekt ) verdächtig) TAKE

etw brauchen jdn/etw wohin bringen

jdn/etw nehmen TALL

THEN

tall (of people)

hoch

tall (of things, e.g. tree, tower)

damals dann

then (i.e. at that time in the past) then (for sequences of events, or referring to present or future) then (in questions, i.e. 'What are you doing, then?')

dicht dick

THING

to take sth (of time, e.g. to take two hours to do sth) to convey, accompany sb/sth to a place (e.g. cases upstairs, sb to station) to remove, take hold of, receive sb/sth

groß ) lang(Rl)/

denn (see also 2.6.2) THICK

arousing suspicion

das Ding

das Dings/Dingsbums/ Dingsda (Rl) der Gegenstand

packed together, dense (e.g. trees, hair, traffic); not leaky measuring a long way through (e.g. book, layer, wall); also of soup in sing: concrete object; in pi: concrete objects; matters of a serious nature thingummy, whatsit object

[THING]

die Sache

das Zeug/Zeugs (Rl)

in sing: matter, affair, business; in pl: personal belongings; matters, affairs of a rather nebulous, less serious kind things, stuff, gear (often pejorative)

the German equivalent of thing(s) is often an adjective used as a noun, e.g. das Wichtige 'important things', see 3.4.4.

NOTE:

THINK

jdn/etw als jdn/etw \ betrachten (R3) / jdn/etw fur jdn/etw halten/ (etw) denken sich (dat) etw denken ) sich (dat) etw vorstellen) (etw) glauben viel (usw) von jdm/etw halten (etw) meinen

to take sb/sth for sb/sth; think that sb/sth is sb/sth to form (sth) in the mind, have (sth) in the mind as an idea to imagine sth to believe (sth) to think a lot (etc.) of sb/sth to hold (sth) as an opinion

glauben and meinen are closein meaning and interchangeable in many contexts. (über jdn/etw) nachdenken to reflect (on sb/sth), consider (sb/sth) sich (etw) über'legen to consider, deliberate sth (e.g. decision)

NOTE:

THREATEN

(jdm) etw androhen (jdm mit etw) drohen

jdn (mit etw) bedrohen

to threaten (sb with) sth abstract (e.g. punishment, revenge) to warn, threaten (sb with sth) in general way, not necessarily involving force to threaten sb/sth (with sth), involving direct, physical force; endanger sb/sth

TIME

das Mal die Zeit

occasion time as duration, fourth dimension

TOUCH

jdn/etw anfassen | jdn/etw angreifen (S)j

to touch (and get hold of) sb/sth with the hand

jdn/etw nicht anrühren (usually in the negative)

not to touch sb/sth (e.g. me, food, money)

86

2

Words and meanings

[TOUCH]

jdn/etw berühren jdn bewegen (R3)| jdn rühren j

TURN

to make contact with sth (slightly)

abbiegen

to turn off (e.g. from one road into another) to turn (sth) away (from sb/sth)

wohin (ein)biegen sich/etw herumdrehen etw wohin kehren (R3) sich/jdn/etw 'umdrehen

'umdrehen 'umkehren (etw) 'umkippen sich/jdn/etw wenden (R2/R3) 1

UNDERSTANDING

to move sb emotionally

an etw rühren (R3)

sich/etw (von jdn/etw) abwenden sich/etw drehen

stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

to come into (slight) contact with sb/sth

wenden die Einsicht das Einverständnis die Vernunft der Verstand die Verständigung

to spin, revolve (sth) (e.g. knob, key, wheel) to turn off straight course in new direction turn (sth) (right) round/over turn sth (esp part of the body) in a particular direction to turn (sb/sth) (over/round/upside down - esp on its own axis or round a centre) to turn round, back to turn round and go back to turn (sth) upside down (e.g. car, plate) to turn (sth) onto the other side or to face in another direction (e.g. steak, page, car, glance, head) to turn (vehicles) insight, realization, understanding of sth specific consent good sense, reasonableness ability to understand, wit(s), intellect, reason mutual understanding, agreement

USE

etw (auf etw) anwenden to apply sth (to sth) etw (aus)nutzen (N), to make full use of sth, exploit sth (aus)nützen (S) sich jds/etw bedienen (R3) 1 to make use of sb/sth etw benutzen (N), benützen (S) f to find a use for sth in accordance with its intended purpose to use sth up, consume sth etw verbrauchen to utilize sth, often for a purpose etw verwenden for which it was not intended N O T E : benutzen, gebrauchen and verwenden are very close in meaning; in Rl and R2 they are often used interchangeably.

etw gebrauchen

VIEW

etw verwerten (R3)

to find a use for sth (e.g. left-overs, ideas)

der Anblick

sight (i.e. sth seen, often with reference to the reaction of the person seeing it) view of sb/sth; opinion outlook from a place, perhaps restricted (panoramic) view from a place, prospect look, glance, view (in general) opinion range of vision (e.g. in Sicht kommen)

die Ansicht der Ausblick die Aussicht der Blick die Meinung die Sicht WAKE (UP)

aufwachen \ erwachen (R3) > wach werden (R1/R2) j jdn (auf)wecken j jdn erwecken (R3)J etw erwecken (R3) wachen

WALL

die Mauer der Wall (R3) die Wand

to wake up (become wide awake)

to wake sb up to awaken, arouse sth (e.g. emotions) to stay awake, be awake, keep watch outside wall of brick, stone, etc. rampart, fortification wall of building, inside or outside

88

2

Words and meanings

WASH (UP)

(etw) abwaschen (etw) spülen (NW, SW) etw wohin spülen sich/jdn/etw waschen

to wash (sth) off, down; (N, AU) to wash (sth) up (i.e. dishes) to wash sth (up) (i.e. dishes) to wash sth up in a place (of waves, river) to wash (sb/sth) (general sense)

WELCOME see greet

2.1.2 Problems of meaning: German-English examples Mark Twain wrote that the word Zug had so many meanings you could always use it in German if you didn't know the right word for the context. This is something of an exaggeration, but many German words have two or more quite distinct English equivalents. Such words are called homonyms, like English bank (e.g. bank of a river, or bank which deals in money, see 2.1.1). They can be confusing if you only know one of the meanings and this section gives a selection of common homonyms in German to help you to sort them out. With some of these words, you can use a compound if the simple word is ambiguous. If this is so, the appropriate compound is given below in italics. However, in all registers - and especially Rl - the simple word is often preferred where there is no chance of ambiguity in the context.

NOTE:

der Absatz

heel (i.e. of shoe: Schuhabsatz) paragraph half-landing (i.e. on stairs: Treppenabsatz) (R3b) sales (i.e. of goods or services)

etw annehmen anziehen

etw bemerken das Blatt

to accept sth to presume, assume sth etw anziehen sich anziehen jdn/etw anziehen

to put sth on (clothes) to get dressed to attract sb/sth to notice sth to remark on sth leaf sheet (of paper) hand (of cards)

2.1

89

Problems of meaning

der Boden

ground, soil floor (Fußboden) bottom (e.g. of cup, sea) (N) loft (Dachboden)

die Decke

ceiling blanket (Wolldecke) quilt, duvet (Steppdecke) covering (e.g. surface of road: Straßendecke) dense (e.g. trees, fog) thick (e.g. hair, feathers) heavy (e.g. traffic) close (to sth = an etw) (water-, air-) tight (wasserdicht, luftdicht) (Rl) shut (e.g. of shop)

dicht

dick

einfallen

fat (of people) thick (e.g. tree-trunk, wall, soup) (Rl) big (e.g. car, business, wallet) einfallen (intr)

in etw einfallen jdm einfallen etw erklären erst

das Fach

der Fall die Farbe fertig

to join in (e.g. singing) to cave in (R3a) to fall (e.g. night, winter) to invade sth (e.g. country) to occur to sb to explain sth to declare sth first (if followed by dann, see 2.1.1) only (see 2.1.1) (also used as modal particle, see 2.6) compartment (e.g. in bag) pigeon-hole subject (e.g. at school: Schulfach, Studienfach) fall case, instance colour paint finished ready (Rl) tired out

fremd

strange foreign someone else's

der Gang

corridor, passage gait, way of walking course (e.g. of events, of meal) gear (in car) operation (e.g. of machine)

die Geschichte

story history (Rl) matter, affair, business

gleich

same equal(ly) immediately, at once

der Grund

reason bottom (e.g. of sea) ground

der Hahn

cock, rooster tap, faucet (e.g.: Wasserhahn, Gashahn)

hell

bright (of light) light, pale (of colours)

der Himmel

sky (am Himmel — in the sky) heaven (im Himmel = in heaven)

die Kapelle

chapel band

die Karte

card (Spielkarte) ticket (Fahrkarte, Eintrittskarte, etc.) map (Landkarte) menu (Speisekarte)

das Kissen kosten das Kreuz das Land

cushion pillow kosten (etw) kosten

to cost to taste (sth) cross small of the back country (as opposed to town) country (i.e. a state or nation) land (as opposed to water) German province (Bundesland)

die Landschaft

countryside landscape scenery

der, die, das Letzte meinen

the last the latest meinen, (dass...) jdn/etw meinen

der, die, das Nächste

packen

the next the nearest the shortest, quickest (e.g. way) jdn packen (Rl) etw packen

die Politik

price prize

der Rat

reichen

advice council (e.g. of town: Stadtrat) councillor, official jdm raten (etw) raten

to advise sb to guess (sth)

reichen (itr)

to extend, stretch to be enough to pass sb sth

jdm etw reichen der Schein

scheinen das Schloss sicher

to grab, grip sb to pack sth (e.g. suitcase) (Rl) to manage (to do) sth politics policy

der Preis

raten

to think, be of the opinion (that...) to mean sb/sth

appearance certificate banknote (Geldschein) light, glow (e.g. of sun: Sonnenschein) (esp R3b) ticket (Fahrschein) to seem, appear to shine (see 2.1.1) castle, mansion, stately home lock safe, secure sure, certain

2

92

Words and meanings

voice vote

die Stimme der Stock

stick storey, floor (in building = das Stockwerk)

der Stoff

material, fabric substance subject, topic (e.g. of discussion)

tragen

jdn/etw tragen etw tragen

treffen jdn treffen jdn/etw treffen 'umziehen unter'halten

wählen

jdn/etw unterhalten jdn unterhalten sich unterhalten

to maintain, support sb/sth to entertain sb to have a talk, to enjoy oneself try, attempt experiment, test

sich etw vorstellen jdn (jdm) vorstellen

to imagine sth to introduce sb (to sb)

jdn/etw wählen (jdn) wählen jdn wählen wählen

to choose sb/sth to vote (for sb) to elect sb to dial (on telephone) wide, broad long (e.g. way, journey) far away (weit entfernt) economy pub (Gastwirtschaft)

die Wirtschaft

der Zug

2.1.1)

to move (house) to get changed (clothes)

weit

zeigen

to meet sb (see to hit sb/sth

umziehen sich umziehen

der Versuch vorstellen

to carry sb/sth to wear sth (clothes) to bear sth (e.g. name, costs)

jdm etw zeigen auf jdn/etw zeigen

to show sb sth to point at sb/sth train draught (Luftzug) procession (Straßenzug) feature, trait (Charakterzug)

2.2 Easily confused words 2.2.1

Easily confused words: similar form - different meaning Some German words are easily confused because they look so much alike. A selection of such words is given in this section, grouped into pairs or sets. A number of these words are similar because they are built up from the same root, often using the prefixes and suffixes explained in 2.3. To help you recognize these sets more easily, some of them are arranged according to the root, rather than in alphabetical order; it is important to look at and learn each group of words as a whole.

R l = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

die Achsel shoulder

die Achse axle

der Akt act; nude (painting);(AU also = file)

die Akte file

der Antrag application etw beantragen to apply for sth

der Auftrag order jdn (mit etw) beauftragen (= jdm etw auftragen (R3) to instruct sb to do sth

die Auffuhrung performance

die Ausfuhrung carrying out (task, etc.)

die Aufgabe task

die Ausgabe issue; edition

aufrüsten to arm (i.e. get weapons)

jdn/etw ausrüsten to equip sb/sth

jdm etw ausrichten to tell sb sth

etw einrichten to furnish sth etw verrichten to perform sth (e.g. task)

der Ball ball

der Ballen bale

der Band (see 2.2.2) volume das Band ribbon die Bande gang der Verband bandage; association die Verbindung connection

der Bund (see 2.2.2) confederation das Bund bundle, bunch das Bündnis alliance die Verbundenheit solidarity die Verbindlichkeit obligingness

bedingungslos unconditional

unbedingt absolute

der Beruf profession

die Berufung calling; vocation; (legal) appeal

etw beurteilen to judge sth

jdn verurteilen to condemn sb

etw bezeichnen to indicate, mean sth

etw verzeichnen to record, note sth

das Bild picture, image

jdn ausbilden to train sb

die Bildung education; formation die Ausbildung training etw herausbilden to form, develop sth

jdn um etw bitten (bat - gebeten) to ask sb for sth jdm etw bieten (bot - geboten) to offer sb sth

beten (betete - gebetet) to pray betteln (bettelte - gebettelt) to beg

blinken (Rl) to indicate (in car)

blinzeln to blink jdn blenden to blind sb

böse wicked, bad; angry

boshaft spiteful böswillig malicious

etw brauchen to need sth der Brauch custom etw verbrauchen to consume sth der Verbraucher consumer

etw gebrauchen to use sth der Gebrauch use gebraucht used; second-hand gebräuchlich customary

der Busch bush

die Böschung slope

das Cafe cafe

der 'Kaffee (SE der Kaffee) coffee

der Dank thanks

der Gedanke thought

dauern to last; (R3) to pity bedauerlich regrettable

etw/jdn bedauern to regret sth; to feel pity for sb bedauernswert pitiful (R3)

die Decke ceiling; blanket (see 2.1.2) die Deckung cover (to hide in)

der Deckel cover; lid das Gedeck place (laid at table)

denken to think

durch etw dringen to penetrate sth auf etw dringen to insist on sth

etw drücken to press sth etw ausdrücken to express sth ' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

der Ausdruck expression

etw bedenken to consider sth jds/etw gedenken (R3) to remember sb/sth jdn drängen to push sb (in crowd) auf etw drängen to press for sth jdn bedrängen to put pressure on sb etw drucken to print sth etw eindrücken to push sth in jdn beeindrucken to impress sb der Eindruck impression

die Ehre honour

ehrbar (R3) respectable ehrlich honest

die Ehrfurcht (R3) reverence der Ehrgeiz ambition ehrenhaft honourable ehrwürdig venerable

die Eigenschaft quality; feature das Eigentum property

die Eigenart individuality die Eigentümlichkeit peculiarity

einfach simple einheitlich uniform einsam lonely einzeln single; individual

einfaltig simple (-minded) einig in agreement einzig only (adjective) vereinzelt occasional, sporadic

jdm einfallen to occur to sb

auf jdn/etw hereinfallen (Rl) to be taken in by sb/sth

empfanglich receptive; susceptible

empfindlich sensitive

endlos endless

endlich at last; finally unendlich infinite

der Entschluss decision

die Entschlossenheit determination

erst (see 2.1.1) first; only zuerst at first

erstens first(ly) erstmals for the first time

die Etikette etiquette (AU, CH also: label)

das Etikett label

der Fahrer driver

der Führer leader; guide

etw fordern to demand sth etw erfordern (R3) to necessitate sth die Forderung demand; claim

jdn/etw fördern to support sb/sth jdn/etw befördern to promote sb; to transport sth die Förderung support; encouragement; promotion

der Fotograf photographer

die Fotografie photograph, photography

geistig intellectual; mental

geistlich spiritual geistreich witty

die Gelegenheit opportunity

die Angelegenheit matter; affair

die Gemeinheit meanness

die Gemeinschaft community die Gemeinsamkeit common ground

etw gewohnt sein to be used to sth

sich an etw gewöhnen to get used to sth

der Gläubige(r) believer

der Gläubiger creditor

gleich same; immediately (see 2.1.2) zugleich at the same time gleichgültig indifferent

gleichfalls likewise gleichmäßig even; regular gleichviel (R3) none the less, all the same

das Grab grave (etw) graben to dig (sth)

der Graben ditch jdn begraben to bury sb

grausam cruel

grauenhaft atrocious, appalling

gründlich thorough

grundsätzlich fundamental

jdn grüßen to say hello to sb, salute sb der Hahn cock, rooster; tap, faucet

jdn begrüßen to welcome sb die Henne hen (i.e. female chicken) das Huhn chicken

der Handel trade

die Handlung action, plot

das Herd stove (for cooking)

die Herde herd

die Höhe height

die Anhöhe high point, hilltop

der Inder Indian

der Indianer Native American (Red Indian)

der Kegel skittle; cone

die Kugel ball; sphere

kostbar precious die Kost (R3) food, fare

köstlich exquisite die Kosten (pi) cost(s)

jdm kündigen etw verkünden (R3) to give notice to sb, fire sb to announce sth sich erkundigen to inquire künstlich artificial

künstlerisch artistic

lebendig live, living, alive

lebhaft lively, vivacious; vivid

etw legen (legte - gelegt) liegen (lag - gelegen) to put, lay sth to lie, be lying (down) lügen (log - gelogen) to tell lies das Leid sorrow, grief

das Leiden suffering; illness die Leidenschaft passion; enthusiasm

die Lerche lark das Mahl (R3a) meal, repast

die Lärche larch die Mahlzeit meal der Gemahl (R3a) husband

etw mieten to rent, hire sth (from sb)

etw vermieten to rent, hire sth (to sb)

der Muskel muscle

die Muschel (sea-)shell

namentlich by name; in particular

nämlich namely; because namhaft renowned

offiziell official

offiziös (R3b) semi-official

ein paar a few

ein Paar a pair

der Pfeil arrow

der Pfeiler pillar

die Post der Posten post (i.e. mail), post office post (i.e. job) der Pfosten post (i.e. upright) der Rahmen frame

der Rahm (esp S) cream

rascheln to rustle rauschen to roar (of water)

rasseln to rattle rasen to race; to rave

rau rough

roh raw

das Recht right, law die Rechtfertigung justification

die Berechtigung entitlement die Gerechtigkeit justice

reisen to travel

etw reißen to tear, break sth

römisch Roman

romanisch Romanesque, Romance

die Sammlung collection

die Versammlung assembly

schadhaft faulty, defective

schädlich harmful

der Schal shawl

die Schale bowl; peel; (AU) cup

der Schlager hit (record)

der Schläger tennis racket

schlecht bad

schlicht simple

die Seite side; page

die Saite string (violin, guitar, etc.)

sonderbar peculiar

sonderlich particularly

springen to jump

etw sprengen to blow sth up; to break sth apart

das Stadium stage (in development)

das Stadion stadium (sports)

jdn/etw stützen to support sb/sth

etw stutzen to trim sth stutzen (intr) to hesitate

stürzen (intr) to fall heavily; to rush

jdn/etw stürzen to fling sb/sth

das Tablett tray

die Tablette tablet

etw tauschen to change sth

jdn täuschen to deceive sb

2.2

Easily confused words

jdm/etw trauen to trust sb/sth

101

jdm (or auf jdn) vertrauen to have confidence in sb jdm etw anvertrauen to confide, entrust sth to sb

der Tropfen drop

der Tropf (Rl) dope; rascal

übrigens by the way

im Übrigen otherwise

ungewöhnlich unusual

außergewöhnlich out of the ordinary

unglaublich unbelievable

unglaubwürdig implausible; unreliable (of person)

das Verhalten behaviour

das Verhältnis relationship

jdn/etw verschonen (R3) to spare sb/sth

etw verschönen to improve sth (appearance)

der Versuch attempt

die Versuchung temptation

vorher previously; beforehand

vorhin just now

der Wagen car, cart, carriage

der Waggon goods truck (railway)

etw wahren (R3) to preserve sth jdn vor etw bewahren to protect sb from sth etw gewahren (R3) to notice sth etw aufbewahren to keep, store sth

währen (R3) to last sich bewähren to prove one's worth jdm etw gewähren (R3) to grant sb sth sich wehren to defend oneself

wieder again

wider (R3) against

wunderbar wonderful

wunderlich strange; odd verwunderlich astonishing

sich wundern to be amazed, astonished jdn/etw bewundern to admire sb/sth

jdn verwundern to astonish sb jdn verwunden to wound sb

2.2.2 Easily confused words: different gender - different meaning A number of words in German have two meanings which are differentiated by gender. For example, the masculine der See means 'lake', but the feminine die See means 'sea'. The following is a selection of the most common of these: der Band volume

das Band (ribbon (pi "er) (see 2.2.3) \bond (R3, pi -e)

die Band [bend] band, (pop) group der Bulle bull (Rl also = cop)

die Bulle (papal) bull

der Bund confederation

das Bund bundle (e.g. twigs); bunch (e.g. radishes)

der Erbe heir

das Erbe inheritance

der Flur (N) entrance hall (in house)

die Flur (R3a) meadow

der Gang corridor; gait (see 2.1.2) die Gang [gerj] (Rl) gang (e.g. robbers) der Gefallen favour

das Gefallen (R3) pleasure

der Gehalt content; (AU also = salary)

das Gehalt salary

der Golf gulf (on coast)

das Golf golf

der Gummi rubber (eraser)

das Gummi rubber (material)

das Harz resin

der Harz Harz mountains

der Heide heathen

die Heide heath

2.2

Easily confused words

103

der Hut hat

die Hut guard (in the R3 phrase auf der Hut sein)

der Junge (N) boy

das Junge young (of animals)

der Kiefer jaw

die Kiefer (N) pine

der Kunde customer

die Kunde (R3) news

der Laster (Rl) lorry; truck

das Laster vice

der Leiter leader

die Leiter ladder

der Mangel lack; fault

die Mangel mangle

die Mark Mark (currency)

das Mark (bone-)marrow

die Marsch (N) fen

der Marsch march

das Maß measure

die Maß (SE) litre (of beer)

der Mensch human being

das Mensch (Rl*) woman (pejorative)

der Messer surveyor

das Messer knife

der Moment moment

das Moment (R3b) factor; element

der Otter otter (also: Fischotter)

die Otter adder (also: Kreuzotter)

der Pack pile; pack

das Pack rabble

das Pony pony

der Pony fringe (hair)

der Schild shield

das Schild sign; (number-)plate

der See lake

die See sea

der Single single (unmarried) person

die Single single (record)

die Steuer tax

das Steuer steering wheel; tiller

der Stift pen; pencil; peg

das Stift foundation; institution (esp religious)

der Tau dew

das Tau rope; (ship's) cable

das Single singles (tennis)

m\

v

///// r

der Tor (R3) fool

das Tor gate

der Verdienst earnings

das Verdienst merit

das Wehr weir

die Wehr defence (mostly in compounds, e.g. Feuerwehr, and phrases, e.g. sich zur Wehr setzen)

2.2.3 Easily confused words: different plural - different meaning A few words which have more than one meaning have different plural forms for each meaning. These are some of the most common: der Abdruck

offprint impression

die Abdrucke offprints die Abdrücke impressions

das Band (see 2.2.2)

ribbon (R3a) bond

die Bänder ribbons die Bande bonds

die Bank

bench bank

die Bänke benches die Banken banks

das Land

country (R3) region

die Länder countries die Lande (R3) regions

die Mutter

mother nut (for bolt)

die Mütter mothers die Muttern nuts

der Rat

council, official advice

die Räte councils, officials die Ratschläge pieces of advice

der Stock

stick storey

die Stöcke sticks die Stockwerke storeys

der Strauß

bunch (of flowers) ostrich

die Sträuße bunches die Strauße ostriches

das Wort

word

die Wörter words (in isolation) die Worte words (connected, e.g. in phrase)

NOTE:

in Rl the distinction between Wörter and Worte is often ignored and only Wörter is used.

2.2.4 Easily confused words: different form - same meaning Several German words appear to have two distinct forms, so that, for example, the learner often receives confusing answers from native speakers or reference books as to whether the German for 'toe' is der Zeh or die Zehe. These are called 'doublets', i.e. words with alternative forms. However, few German doublets are totally interchangeable. Often there are regional or register variations involved, and sometimes the forms may replace one another freely in one meaning but not in another. In all cases the most frequent variant is given on the left.

die Backe (-n)

der Backen (-) (S)

cheek

die Ecke (-n)

das Eck (-e; AU -en) (S)

corner

NOTE:

das Eck is used generally in compounds, e.g. das Dreieck, das Viereck.

der Felsen (-)

der Fels (-en) (R3)

rock

in general R2 use a difference is usually made between der Fels 'rock as a substance' and der Felsen 'individual rock'.

NOTE:

der Fleck (-e)

der Flecken (-)

stain, spot

in practice, der Fleck is the commonest form in the singular and die Flecken in the plural. In R3a der Flecken can also mean 'market town'.

NOTE:

der Karren (-) (S)

die Karre (-n) (N)

cart (Rl also: old crock)

der Korken (-)

der Kork (-e) (N)

cork

der Kork is generally used to refer to 'cork' as a substance, whereas der Korken always refers to an individual cork in a bottle.

NOTE:

der Nutzen

der Nutz (R3a)

use

der Nutz is only found nowadays in set phrases, e.g. zu Nutz und Frommen ('to the greater good of).

NOTE:

nutzen

nützen

to be of use

nützen was originally S and nutzen N, but the forms with and without umlaut are both widespread (also in derived verbs like benutzen/benützen).

NOTE:

106

2

Words and meanings

der Pack ("e or -e)

der Packen (-)

pile, stack

die Ritze (-n)

der Ritz (-e) (S)

crack

das Rohr (-e)

die Röhre (-n)

pipe, tube

das Rohr and die Röhre are interchangeable in the most general sense, but for specific types of'pipe' or 'tube', usage has become fixed, e.g.: -rohr: Gas-, Wasser-, Seh-, Fern-, Blas-, Kanonen-röhre: Back- (= oven), Fernseh-, Röntgen-, Glas-, Luft-, Harn-,

NOTE:

die Ruine (-n) NOTE:

ruin

die Ruine is used to refer to a building, der Ruin for economic ruin.

der Schreck NOTE:

der Ruin

der Schrecken (S)

scare, fright

in the meaning 'terror', only der Schrecken is used. to chatter

schwätzen (S)

schwatzen (Rl)

die Socke (-n)

der Socken (-) (S)

sock

der Spalt (-e)

die Spalte (-n)

gap, opening

only der Spalt is used in the phrase einen Spalt offen (= ajar); die Spalte also = 'column' (in newspaper).

NOTE:

das (CH der) Taxi

die Taxe (-n) (Rl)

taxi

der Trupp (-s)

troop

(-S)

die Truppe (-n)

die Truppe usually refers to a large company of soldiers, etc.; der Trupp is usually smaller, e.g. a squad of soldiers or group of people.

NOTE:

die Tür (-en)

die Türe (-n) (CH, AU)

door

der Typ (-en)

die Type (-n)

type, character (Rl also bloke, guy)

die Type is mainly used in the sense of'(printers') type' or '(odd) character', or in AU in the meaning 'model' (of car, aeroplane, etc.).

NOTE:

der Zeh (-en)

die Zehe (-n) (R3; N)

toe

2.3 Word formation An understanding of German word formation can help you to expand your vocabulary because the meaning of a German word can often be understood from the sum of its parts. This is more true of German than of English. For example, the relationship of Frage to fragen or Dankbarkeit to Dank is quite clear, unlike that of question to ask or gratitude to thanks. Complex German words can be made up by adding suffixes at the end of a word, e.g. gesund 'healthy' —• die Gesundheit 'health'), or prefixes at the beginning, e.g. besser 'better' -> verbessern 'to make better, improve'. Sometimes the vowel is changed, especially by umlaut, e.g. der Hammer 'hammer' —> hämmern 'to hammer'. This section shows you more of the common ways in which words are constructed in modern German.

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

2.3.1 (a)

Forming nouns By adding suffixes

-chen, -lein (esp R3a)

diminutives (from nouns) (umlaut is usually added), e.g.: die Stadt —> das Städtchen little town das Auge —> das Äuglein (poetic R3a) little eye

-e

(i) an action or an instrument (from verbs), e.g.: pflegen —• die Pflege care bremsen —• die Bremse brake (ii) a quality (from adjectives) (with umlaut), e.g.: groß -> die Größe size stark —> die Stärke strength

-er

(i) a person who does sth, or an instrument (from verbs), e.g.: lehren —> der Lehrer teacher bohren -> der Bohrer drill (ii) the inhabitant (from town names), e.g.: Wien —• der Wiener Viennese Zürich —• der Zürcher person from Zurich

-erei (esp Rl), Ge... e

repeated, irritating action (from verbs), e.g. fragen die Fragerei, das Gefrage lots ofannoying questions

-heit, -(ig)keit

a quality (from adjectives), e.g.: bitter —• die Bitterkeit bitterness geschwind die Geschwindigkeit heftig -> die Heftigkeit violence

speed

-in

forms the feminine (from nouns) (with umlaut), e.g.: der Arzt —> die Arztin lady doctor

-ler

a practitioner (from nouns), e.g.: die Kunst —> der Künstler artist -ler can have a pejorative sense, e.g.: der Kriegsgewinnler profiteer

war

-ling

(i) the person sth is done to (from verbs), e.g.: prüfen -» der Prüfling examinee strafen der Sträfling prisoner (ii) person of that quality, sometimes derogatory (from adjectives), e.g.: feige -> der Feigling coward fremd —> der Fremdling stranger

-mittel, -stoff, -zeug

things used for sth (from verbs), e.g.: heilen —• das Heilmittel cure waschen -> das Waschmittel detergent brennen -> der Brennstoff fuel kleben —• der Klebstoff glue fahren —> das Fahrzeug vehicle rasieren das Rasierzeug shaving tackle

-schaft, -tum

collective or quality (from nouns), e.g.: der Beamte -> das Beamtentum civil servants der Freund -> die Freundschaft friendship der Student die Studentenschaft student body

-ung

action or process (from verbs), e.g.: bilden —• die Bildung formation verwarnen —> die Verwarnung warning

-wesen

collective organization of sth (from nouns), e.g.: die Erziehung das Erziehungswesen education system (b)

Erz- (Rl), Riesen- (Rl)

By adding prefixes augmentative, intensive, e.g.: der Reaktionär —• der Erzreaktionär dyed-in-the-wool reactionary der Erfolg —> der Riesenerfolg enormous success NOTE: Rl is very rich in other augmentative and intensive prefixes, e.g.: Bombengeschäft, Heidenlärm, Höllendurst, Mordsapparat, Scheißapparat (Rl*), Spitzengehalt, Superhit, Topmanager

Fehl-, Miss-

opposite, negative, e.g.: die Einschätzung —> die Fehleinschätzung (R3b) der Erfolg -> der Misserfolg failure

Grund- (R3b) HauptNicht-

false estimation

basic, essential, e.g.: die Tendenz —• die Grundtendenz

basic tendency

main, e.g.: der Bahnhof -> der Hauptbahnhof

main station

non-, e.g.: der Raucher

der Nichtraucher non-smoker

Un-

opposite, abnormal, e.g.: die Ruhe -> die Unruhe unrest das Wetter —• das Unwetter bad weather

Ur-

original, e.g.: die Sprache —> die Ursprache

original language

2.3.2 Forming adjectives (a) -bar

By adding suffixes -able (from verbs), e.g.: brauchen —• brauchbar

usable

-(e)n, -era

made of sth (from nouns), e.g.: das Gold -> golden golden das Holz -> hölzern wooden

-haft

like sth (from nouns), e.g.: der Held —> heldenhaft heroic

-ig (sometimes with umlaut)

(i) having sth (from nouns), e.g.: das Haar —> haarig hairy (ii) like sth (from nouns), e.g.: der Riese riesig giant (iii) duration (from time expressions), e.g.: zwei Stunden zweistündig lasting two hours

-isch

(i) having that quality (from nouns), e.g.: das Kind —> kindisch childish (ii) origin (from geographical names), e.g.: England —• englisch English (iii) relating to sth (from foreign nouns), e.g.: die Biologie -> biologisch biological

-lich (often with umlaut)

(i) relating to a person or a thing, e.g.: der Arzt —• ärztlich medical der Preis preislich in respect of price (ii) having that quality (from nouns), e.g.: der Fürst —> fürstlich princely (iii) frequency (from time expressions), e.g.: zwei Stunden —• zweistündlich every two hours (iv) -able (from verbs), e.g.: begreifen —> begreiflich understandable (v) rather (from adjectives), e.g.: rot rötlich reddish

-(s)los

lacking in sth (from nouns), e.g.: die Hoffnung —• hoffnungslos hopeless

-mäßig (esp R3b)

(i) according to sth, e.g.: der Instinkt —• instinktmäßig instinctive (ii) with regard to sth, e.g.: der Verkehr —> verkehrsmäßig relating to traffic (iii) like sth, e.g.: der Fürst —• furstenmäßig like a prince Especially in R3, a large number of suffixes which were originally separate words are now in common use, e.g.:

having sth: -haltig -reich -stark -(s)voll

koffeinhaltig erlebnisreich charakterstark rücksichtsvoll

protected from sth: -dicht -echt -fest -sicher

schalldicht kussecht hitzefest kugelsicher

lacking sth: -arm -frei -leer

nikotinarm alkoholfrei gedankenleer

similar to sth: -artig -förmig -gleich

kugelartig plattenförmig maskengleich

capable of sth: -fähig

strapazierfähig

needing sth: -bedürftig

korrekturbedürftig

worth(y of) sth: -wert -würdig

lesenswert nachahmenswürdig (b)

unur-

By adding prefixes opposite, e.g.: wahrscheinlich —> unwahrscheinlich improbable original, e.g.: deutsch —> urdeutsch typically German

many more intensifying adjective prefixes are found, especially in Rl. Most of these come from separate words, e.g. erzkonservativ, extralang, hochintelligent, saudumm (Rl*), scheißklug (Rl*), superklug, tiefernst, todunglücklich, vollautomatisch.

NOTE:

2.3.3 Forming verbs - prefixes The prefixes used to form verbs in German fall into two groups. Most prefixes are 'separable'; they detach from the verb and go the end of the clause, e.g.: ankommen 'to arrive': Ich komme heute an 'I am arriving today' 'Inseparable' prefixes, on the other hand, always stay with the verb, e.g.: erwarten 'to expect': Ich erwarte sie morgen 'I expect her tomorrow' The prefixes be-, emp-, ent-, erge-, ver- and zer- are always inseparable, and they are explained in section 2.3.4. Separable prefixes are dealt with in section 2.3.5, and those few prefixes which are sometimes separable and sometimes inseparable are treated in section 2.3.6.

2.3.4 Inseparable verb prefixes The seven prefixes be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, ver- and zer- are always inseparable, emp- is a form of ent- used before roots in f-, e.g. empfinden, empfehlen. ge- is now rare and only found with a few verbs, e.g. gefallen, geschehen. The others are very widely used, and their main senses are detailed below (although not all verbs with these prefixes fall into these patterns). Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added. be-

(a)

used with a verb, be- makes an intransitive verb transitive or converts a prepositional object into an accusative object (see 4.1). The meaning often changes slightly: Er dient dem König Er bedient den König Er drohte mir Er bedrohte mich Er hat auf meinen Brief nicht Er hat meinen Brief nicht geantwortet beantwortet Sie kämpfen gegen das Unrecht Sie bekämpfen das Unrecht

(b)

used with a noun, be- makes a verb with the idea of providing something. Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added: etw beklecksen (Rl) to splatter sth (i.e. to provide with spots) to expose sth (e.g. film) (i.e. to etw belichten provide with light)

etw bewässern jdn benachrichtigen

ent-

er-

to irrigate sth (i.e. to provide with water) to notify sb (i.e. to provide with news)

(c)

used with an adjective, be- makes a verb with the idea of providing a quality. Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added: etw befeuchten to moisten sth (i.e. to make sth moist) jdn befreien to liberate sb (i.e. to make sb free) jdn beunruhigen to disturb sb (i.e. to make sb uneasy) etw begradigen to straighten sth (i.e. to make sth straight)

(a)

with verbs of motion, ent- gives the idea of 'going away' or 'escaping from sb/sth': to slip away from sb (e.g. vase from jdm entgleiten hands) jdm/etw entlaufen to run away, escape from sb/sth to snatch sth from sb jdm etw entreißen (R3a) etw entsteigen (R3) to get /ie climb] out ofsth (e.g. car, train)

(b)

with nouns, adjective or verbs, ent- has the sense of removing something (cf. English de-, dis-): etw entgiften to decontaminate sth (i.e. to take poison away) to discourage sb (i.e. to take jdn entmutigen courage away) etw entschärfen to defuse sth (e.g. situation), (i.e. to make not sharp) jdn/etw entspannen to relax sb, slacken sth (i.e. to make not tense)

(a)

with verbs and nouns, the sense of er- is often of getting something or finishing something off. The root vowel often has umlaut: etw erarbeiten to acquire sth by working for it (i.e. to gain by work) etw erbitten to ask for sth (i.e. to gain by asking) etw erkämpfen to win sth (i.e. to gain through struggle) jdn erschießen to shoot sb dead (i.e. to finish off by shooting)

(b)

ver-

(a)

with adjectives, er- has the sense of becoming sth, or giving sth a certain quality. The root vowel often has umlaut: erblinden to lose one 's sight (i.e. to become blind) erröten to blush (i.e. to become red) jdn ermuntern to liven sb up (i.e. to make sb cheerful) etw erwärmen to heat sth (i.e. to make sth warm) This is the most frequent inseparable prefix. It has a wide range of meanings, but it very often carries the idea of a change of state or of the end of a process. with verbs, ver- often gives the idea of finishing or going away: verblühen to fade (of flowers) (i.e. to finish blooming) etw verbrauchen to use sth up, consume sth (i.e. to finish using) jdn/etw verdrängen to oust, replace sb/sth (i.e. to press away) verklingen to fade away (of sounds) (i.e. to finish sounding)

(b)

with some verbs ver- expresses the idea of'wrongly' or 'to excess': etw verbiegen to bend sth out ofshape etw verlernen to forget (how to do) sth (i.e. to un-learn it) etw versalzen to oversalt sth (i.e. to put in excess salt) sich verwählen to misdial (i.e. to dial wrongly)

(c)

with nouns and adjectives ver- has the sense of becoming sth, or giving sth a certain quality: verarmen to become poor to become isolated vereinsamen etw verlängern to lengthen sth (i.e. to make it longer) to enslave sb (i.e. to make sb into a jdn versklaven slave)

(d)

with many nouns ver- gives the idea of providing with something: etw verglasen to glaze sth (i.e. to provide with glass) etw vergolden to gild sth (i.e. to provide with gold) jdn verwunden to wound sb (i.e. to provide with wounds) jdn verzaubern to enchant sb (i.e. to provide with magic)

zer-

zer- (usually with verbs) always has the idea of'into pieces': etw zerbeißen to crunch sth (i.e. to bite into pieces) to disintegrate (i.e. to fall into zerfallen pieces) etw zerstreuen to scatter, disperse sth (i.e. to strew pieces about)

2.3.5

Separable verb prefixes Most separable verb prefixes derive from prepositions or adjectives and their meanings are quite transparent. A selection of the most common is given below.

ab-

usually has the idea of'away', 'down' or 'off' - finishing sth in the widest sense: etw abdrehen to switch sth off sich/etw abkühlen to cool (sth) down Schuhe ablaufen to wear shoes out jdm etw ablisten to trick sb out ofsth

an-

beginning sth, or doing sth partially: anbrennen to catchfire,get scorched etw andrehen to turn sth on anfaulen to begin to go rotten etw anfressen to nibble at sth

auf-

'up' or 'on', or a sudden start: etw aufessen auflachen aufleuchten etw aufpolieren

to eat sth up to burst out laughing to light up polish sth up

expresses completion: (etw) ausbrennen ausdorren ausreifen

to burn (sth) out to dry up to ripen, mature

getting used to sth: sich einarbeiten etw einfahren sich einleben

to get used to the work to run sth in (e.g. car) to get settled in a place

aus-

ein-

starting off or releasing sth: losgehen etw loslassen losquatschen (Rl)

los-

to set o f f , start to let go ofsth to prattle away

vor-

demonstrating (i.e. doing sth for sb to copy), performing: vorbeten to lead the prayers etw vorführen, vormachen to demonstrate sth etw vorlesen to read sth out

zusammen-

'up' or 'together': etw zusammenfalten jdn zusammenhauen (Rl) sich zusammenrollen zusammenrücken

to fold sth up to beat sb up to curl up to move closer together

2.3.6 Verb prefixes which can be separable or inseparable. A few prefixes can be used separably or inseparably, usually with a clear distinction in meaning. The prefix is stressed in pronunciation if the verb is separable, but unstressed if it is inseparable - this is the way the difference is indicated here, as in most reference books and dictionaries of German. durch-

always has the idea of'through', whether separable or inseparable.

separable or inseparable

Many verbs form separable or inseparable compounds with durch-. The meaning of the separable verbs is always 'right the way through', whilst the inseparable verbs express penetration into sth, rather than stressing coming out the other side. But the distinction in meaning is often barely noticeable, e.g.: Er ritt durch den Wald durch He crossed the forest on horseback He rode through the forest Er durchritt den Wald He cut the loaf in two Er schnitt das Brot durch The river cuts through the plain Der Fluss durchschneidet die Ebene

separable

Many verbs form compounds with durch- which are only separable: 'durchblicken to look through 'durchkommen to get through, to succeed 'durchfallen to fall through; to 'durchkriechen to crawl through fail 'durchfuhren to carry out 'durchrosten to rust through 'durchhalten to hold out, to 'durchsehen to look through survive

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

inseparable

A very small number of verbs form compounds with durch- which are only inseparable: durchdenken think through durch 1 leben experience durch 1 löchern make holes in

hinter-

Verbs with hinter- are normally inseparable. Separable verbs are restricted to S: hinterlassen to leave, bequeathe hinter'gehen to deceive hinterlegen to deposit hinter'fragen to analyse

inseparable

'hintergehen (S) to go to the back

separable

'hinterbringen (S) to take to the back

miss-

miss- is normally inseparable except in the infinitive form of missverstehen to understand: misszuverstehen.

überinseparable

Many verbs only form inseparable compounds with über-, with the following meanings: über'arbeiten to rework repetition über'prüfen to check überfordern to overtax (ability, more than enough strength) übertreiben to exaggerate über'hören to fail to hear failing to notice über1 sehen to overlook über 1 denken to think over über 1 fallen to attack

separable

Very few verbs only form separable compounds with über-. They are all intransitive verbs, with the literal meaning 'over': 'überhängen to overhang 'überkippen to keel over 'überkochen to overcook

separable or inseparable

Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with über-, the separable verbs are mainly intransitive, with the meaning 'over', and the inseparable verbs are transitive and have a more figurative meaning similar to that with verbs which only form inseparable compounds:

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

überfahren überfuhren übergehen überlaufen überlegen

separable to cross over to transfer to turn into sth to overflow; desert to put sth over sb

inseparable to knock sb down to convict sb (R3) to leave sth out to overrun sb to consider sth

uminseparable

übersetzen überspringen übertreten

to ferry across to jump over to change over

überziehen

to put sth on

to translate sth to skip sth to infringe sth (i.e. law) to cover sth

Inseparable verbs with urn- have the meaning of'encircling' or 'surrounding': um 1 armen to embrace um 1 ringen to surround 1 um fassen to embrace, encircle um 1 segeln to sail round, circumnavigate um'zingeln to surround, encircle um 1 geben to surround

separable

Separable verbs with urn- have the meaning of'turning round', 'turning over', 'changing' or 'switching': 'umfallen fall over 'umblicken look round ' umbringen kill ' umschalten switch 'umdrehen turn round 'umsteigen change (trains, etc.)

separable or inseparable

Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with um-, the difference in meaning usually corresponds to that given above, i.e. the inseparable verbs express 'surrounding' and the separable verbs 'changing' or 'switching', etc.: separable inseparable umbauen to rebuild to enclose umfahren to run down to travel round umgehen to circulate to avoid umreißen to tear down to outline umschreiben to rewrite to paraphrase umstellen to rearrange to surround (R3a)

unterinseparable

Many verbs only form inseparable compounds with unter-, with the following meanings: unter'bieten to undercut less than enough unterschätzen to underestimate unterschreiten to fall short 'under' unterdrücken to suppress unter'liegen to be defeated unterschreiben to sign unter'stützend support miscellaneous figurative meanings unterbleiben (R3) to cease unterbrechen to interrupt unter'richten (R3) to teach unter'suchen to investigate

separable

Many verbs form separable compounds with unter-, all with the literal meaning 'under': 'unterkriegen to bring down 'unterbringen to accommodate 'untergehen to sink, decline 'untersetzen to put underneath 'unterkommen tofindaccommodation

separable or inseparable

Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with unter-, the separable verbs are mainly intransitive, with the meaning 'under'. The inseparable verbs have more figurative meanings similar to that with verbs which only form inseparable compounds. inseparable separable to prevent (R3) unterbinden to tie underneath to undermine untergraben to dig in to entertain unterhalten to hold underneath to underlay unterlegen to put underneath to insinuate (Rl) unterschieben to foist sth on sb to embezzle (R3) to cross (i.e. legs) unterschlagen to assume (R3) to keep, store unterstellen to put on underneath to undergo unterziehen

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

vollseparable

The many separable verbs with the prefix voll- all express the meaning 'full': 'vollbekommen to manage to fill 'vollstopfen to cram full 'vollschreiben tofillwith writing 'volltanken tofillup (car with fuel)

inseparable

Inseparable verbs with voll- all mean 'complete' or 'accomplish' and are restricted to R3: voll'bringen to achieve, voll'strecken to execute, carry out accomplish voll'ziehen to execute, carry out voll'enden to complete

widerinseparable separable

Most verbs with wider- are inseparable: wider'stehen to resist wider'legen to refute ! Only two verbs with wider- are separable: 'widerspiegeln to reflect 'widerhallen (R3) to echo, reverberate Almost all verbs with wieder- are separable: 'wiedersehen to see again 'wiederkehren to return

wiederseparable inseparable

Only one verb with wieder- is inseparable: wieder'holen to repeat

2.4

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Idioms Idiomatic expressions are a notorious pitfall for foreign learners because their overall meaning cannot be understood from their individual parts. The learner has no way of knowing that when Germans say, for instance, schwer auf Draht (literally: 'heavy on wire'), they mean 'on the ball'. The use of expressive idioms is most characteristic of Rl, but some are restricted to more formal registers. Even in serious newspapers idioms and what would normally be regarded as Rl expressions can be used to enliven an argument or a factual account, and much of the colloquial tone of popular newspapers derives from their wide use of idiomatic expressions. Given below is a selection of some frequent current idioms which differ markedly in phrasing from their English equivalents, or which have no simple English equivalent. They are arranged in alphabetical order of the key word.

A mit Ach und Krach bei jdm gut/schlecht angeschrieben sein den Anschluss verpassen sich schwarz ärgern jdn auf den Arm nehmen (N) jdm unter die Arme greifen etw aus dem Ärmel schütteln beide Augen zudrücken unter vier Augen

by the skin of your teeth to be in sb's good/bad books to miss the boat to get really mad to pull sb's leg to help sb out to produce sth from nowhere to turn a blind eye in confidence

B etw auf die lange Bank schieben Ich fresse einen Besen in die Binsen gehen den Bock zum Gärtner machen Das sind für mich böhmische Dörfer Ich habe ein Brett vor dem Kopf ein dicker Brocken

to put sth off I'll eat my hat to go down the pan to choose someone totally unsuitable I can't make head or tail of it I can't think straight a tough nut

D jdm aufs Dach steigen etw unter Dach und Fach bringen die Daumen drucken an die Decke gehen mit jdm unter einer Decke stecken auf gut Deutsch (gesagt) Das geht nicht mit rechten Dingen zu schwer auf Draht

to have a go at sb to get sth all wrapped up and finished to keep one's fingers crossed to hit the roof to be hand in glove with sb in plain English (i.e. bluntly) That's a bit odd on the ball

E etw aus dem Effeff können im Eimer jdn/etw zum alten Eisen werfen

to be able to do sth standing on one's head gone west, broken to throw sb/sth on the scrap-heap

F Das ist nicht mein Fall Es passt wie die Faust aufs Auge Dann ist Feierabend ins Fettnäpfchen treten Du bist eine Flasche zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe schlagen die Flinte ins Korn werfen Sei doch kein Frosch G

It's not my cup of tea It's totally out of place Then it's all over to put one's foot in it You're a dead loss to kill two birds with one stone to throw in the towel Be a sport, join in

hinter schwedischen Gardinen Darauf kannst du Gift nehmen Der Groschen ist gefallen

behind bars You can bet your life on it The penny's dropped

H Haare lassen an den Haaren herbeigezogen der Hahn im Korbe sein fur jdn die Hand ins Feuer legen Da liegt der Hase im Pfeffer etw über den Haufen werfen gleich mit der Tür ins Haus fallen aus dem Häuschen sein aus der Haut fahren etw auf dem Herzen haben Mir fallt ein Stein vom Herzen auf dem Holzweg mit jdm (noch) ein Hühnchen zu rupfen haben Da liegt der Hund begraben wie Hund und Katze leben Das ist ein dicker Hund Das kannst du dir an den Hut stecken

to come off badly far-fetched to be the only man in female company to vouch for sb There's the catch to throw sth out to say sth straight out to be out of one's mind to hit the roof to have sth on one's mind That's a load off my mind on the wrong track still to have a bone to pick with sb That's the snag, the trouble to lead a cat and dog life It's a bit much You can keep it

K Das war für die Katz' die Katze aus dem Sack lassen Die Katze lässt das Mausen nicht eine Katze im Sack kaufen

It was a waste of time to let the cat out of the bag The leopard doesn't change its spots to buy a pig in a poke

wie die Katze u m den heißen Brei herumgehen Nachts sind alle Katzen grau etw auf dem Kerbholz haben das Kind beim Namen nennen Mit dem ist nicht gut Kirschen essen wie auf glühenden Kohlen sitzen jdn vor den Kopf stoßen sich den Kopf zerbrechen jdm einen Korb geben jdn/etw aufs Korn nehmen Jetzt geht's ihm an den Kragen Dagegen ist kein Kraut gewachsen in Teufels Küche kommen Was macht die Kunst?

to beat about the bush All cats are grey in the dark to have done sth wrong to call a spade a spade It's best to stay out of his way to be like a cat on a hot tin roof to antagonize sb to rack one's brains to turn sb down to hit out at sb/sth Now he's for it There's no cure for that to get into a mess How's things?

L Ich kann auch ein Lied davon singen mit dem linken Bein zuerst aufstehen Das mache ich mit der linken Hand auf dem letzten Loch pfeifen wie ein Loch saufen Er geht gleich in die Luft etw unter die Lupe nehmen (R2/R3)

I can tell you a few things about that to get out of bed the wrong side I can do that with my eyes shut to be on one's last legs to drink like a fish He's on a short fuse to look closely at sth

M Das ging mir durch Mark und Bein eine Mattscheibe kriegen Er hat eine Meise in den Mond gucken jdm mit gleicher Münze heimzahlen

It went right through me not to be able to think straight He's crackers to go empty-handed to pay sb back in his own coin

N die Nase (gestrichen) voll haben der Nase nachgehen jdn mit der Nase auf etw stoßen gelb vor Neid Der ist eine Niete Null-Acht-Fuffzehn

to be fed up to follow one's nose to make sth crystal clear to sb green with envy He's a dead loss run of the mill, bog standard

O bis über die Ohren verliebt sich (dat) etw hinter die Ohren schreiben es faustdick hinter den Ohren haben jdm einen Floh ins Ohr setzen Der ist schwer in Ordnung

head over heels in love to be sure to remember sth to be fly to put an idea into sb's head He's OK

P Ich kenne meine Pappenheimer Es ist keinen Pappenstiel wert in der Patsche/Tinte sitzen jdm den schwarzen Peter zuschieben nach seiner Pfeife tanzen Ich pfeife darauf Er hat die Pfoten überall drin Bei dir piepst's wohl wie ein begossener Pudel dastehen Er hat das Pulver nicht erfunden

I know what those people are like It's not worth a bean to be in the soup to leave sb holding the baby to dance to his tune I couldn't care less He's got a finger in every pie You're off your head to stand there looking pathetic He won't set the Thames on fire

R das fünfte Rad a m Wagen sein jdm einen Strich durch die Rechnung machen aus der Rolle fallen Rosinen im Kopf haben jdm in den Rücken fallen

to be out of place to spoil sb's plans to act out of character to have big ideas to stab sb in the back

S mit Sack und Pack jdn mit Samthandschuhen anfassen sein Schäfchen ins Trockene bringen sein Scherflein zu etw beitragen Das ist zum Schießen jdn auf die Schippe nehmen (S) aus dem Schneider sein etw in den Schornstein schreiben vom alten Schrot und Korn jdm etw in die Schuhe schieben Wo drückt der Schuh? schwarzarbeiten ins Schwarze treffen aus dem Stegreif reden den Stier bei den Hörnern packen sich an einen Strohhalm klammern sich zwischen zwei Stühle setzen (R2/R3)

with bag and baggage to handle sb with kid gloves to see oneself all right to do one's bit towards sth That's hilarious to pull sb's leg to be out of the wood to write sth off of the old school to put the blame for sth on sb What's the matter? to moonlight to hit the bull's-eye to speak impromptu to take the bull by the horns to clutch at a straw to fall between two stools

T Er hat nicht alle Tassen im Schrank Hier geht's zu wie im Taubenschlag auf Teufel komm raus den Teufel an die Wand malen

He's a few short of a full set It's like a madhouse here Come hell or high water to tempt fate

unter den Tisch fallen vom Regen in die Traufe kommen zwischen Tür und Angel

to go by the board to fall out of the frying-pan into the fire in passing

W jdm auf den Wecker fallen Die Weichen sind gestellt (R2/R3) Unter Wölfen muss man heulen (R2/R3) aus allen Wolken fallen jdm die Würmer aus der Nase ziehen Jetzt geht's u m die Wurst

to drive sb up the wall The course is set When in Rome do as the Romans do to be taken aback to extract information from sb This is the crunch

Z jdm auf den Zahn fühlen jdn in die Zange nehmen Zier dich nicht! auf keinen grünen Zweig kommen

2.5

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

to sound sb out, grill sb to put the screws on sb Don't be shy! to get nowhere

Prepositions Being able to use prepositions confidently is a real marker of competence in a foreign language, and time spent working on them is always worthwhile. Some German prepositions, like hinter 'behind' or ohne 'without' are pretty straightforward and have a clear normal English equivalent, but the meaning and use of many of the common ones often seems very difficult to pin down. Apart from this, each German preposition is followed by (i.e. 'governs') a noun in a particular case, and this can sometimes vary according to context or register. For these reasons, it is essential to memorize prepositions in contexts, learning phrases and sentences in which they occur. In sections 2.5.1 to 2.5.4 the German prepositions are explained according to the cases they govern, giving details of their most typical meanings. Section 2.5.5 lists the commonest English prepositions in alphabetical order and gives the German equivalents for their most frequent meanings. For each German and English preposition a selection of widely used expressions is given where the choice of a particular preposition is idiomatic and there is no parallel between the two languages. The use of prepositions with verbs, so-called 'prepositional objects', e.g. warten auf jdn 'to wait for sb', is treated separately in 4.1.4. Since German prepositions govern particular cases, some familiar English constructions are not possible in German, for instance: (a) The same noun cannot be governed by two prepositions, as it can in English. In German, the sentence has to be split into separate phrases, e.g.:

I was rather astonished by and Ich war von dieser plötzlichen pleased at this sudden turn of Wende etwas überrascht und events freute mich sehr darüber (b) In general, two prepositions cannot be used with a single noun in German. The commonest alternative to this in German is to replace one of the English prepositions with a directional adverb (i.e. a compound of hin- or her- plus preposition), e.g.: Er schaute zu mir herüber He looked across at me Das Wasser strömte durch das The water poured down through the hole Loch hinunter Er zog es unter dem Bett hervor He pulled it from under the bed She looked in at the window Sie schaute zum Fenster herein

2.5.1

German prepositions with the accusative case The common prepositions which govern the accusative case are: bis, durch, fur, gegen, ohne, u m Less widely used, but worth noting, are: per, pro, wider

BIS

bis is never followed by an article or any other determiner. It is used on its own only with names, adverbs and some time words. Otherwise it always has another preposition with it, and it is this preposition which determines the case of the following noun. (a) bis expressing place = as far as, (up) to bis (nach) Rostock as far as Rostock bis dorthin (to) there, as far as that bis zu meinem Hausl up to, as far as my house bis an mein Haus ] bis aufs Dach right onto the roof (b) bis expressing time = until, by from Monday to Friday von Montag bis Freitag until tomorrow, by tomorrow bis morgen by then, between now and then bis dahin until further notice, for the present bis auf weiteres children up to the age of ten Kinder bis zu zehn Jahren bis auf can express exclusion = but for, down to (this can be ambiguous, (C) as the example shows) The bus was full down to the last seat Der Bus war bis auf den letzten The bus was full but for the last Platz besetzt seat NOTE:

DURCH

(a)

(b)

(c)

FÜR

(a)

GEGEN

(a)

durch expressing place = through durch das Feuer through the fire durch die ganze Stadt throughout the town mitten durch den Park through the middle of the park durchs Examen fallen (Rl) to fail the exam durch expressing means, cause = by, through (for the use of durch in the passive, see 4.4.4) die Erfindung des the invention of the internal comVerbrennungsmotors durch bustion engine by Benz and Benz und Daimler Daimler Ich lernte ihn durch eine I got to know him through a friend Freundin kennen durch Betätigung des by activating the mechanism Mechanismus (R3b) durch expressing time = throughout (often reinforced by adding hindurch) throughout one's whole life durch das ganze Leben (hindurch) das ganze Jahr durch (Rl) throughout the year

für in most senses = for für meine kranke Schwester for my sick sister für sein Alter for his age für den Fall, dass . . . in case . . . ein Sinn, ein Beispiel fur etw a sense, an example of sth (b) fur expressing time = for (i.e. a period of time from 'now') Ich habe das Haus fur sechs I've rented the house for six Monate gemietet months Tag für Tag day after day Schritt für Schritt step by step gegen expressing place = against, into Möbel gegen die Wand stellen to put furniture against the wall gegen den Strom schwimmen to swim against the current (also fig) etw gegen das Licht halten to hold sth up to the light gegen den Tisch stoßen to bump into the table (b) gegen expressing opposition = against, for, compared with against my wishes gegen meinen Willen a medicine for asthma ein Mittel gegen Asthma Gegen deinen Bruder ist er He is small compared with your klein brother (c) gegen expressing approximation = towards, about towards/about four o'clock gegen vier Uhr There were about 50,000 Es waren gegen 50 000 Zuschauer im Stadion spectators in the ground

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2

OHNE

ohne = without ohne mein Wissen without my knowing ohne Mantel without a coat, without his coat Ohne mich! (Rl) Count me out! NOTE: ohne is used mainly without any following indefinite article or possessive.

UM

Words and meanings

urn expressing place = round um die Ecke round the corner (rund/rings) um die Kirche (right) round the church um die Stadt (herum) (right) round the town (b) u m expressing time = at (with clock times), about (with other time phrases) um zwanzig nach sechs at twenty past/after six ungefähr um sieben at/about seven (o'clock) around Christmas um Weihnachten (herum) einen Tag um den anderen one day after another (c) u m expressing measurement = by um die Hälfte teurer dearer by half um nichts besser no better (d) u m in the sense of'concerning' = for; about ein Streit um etw a quarrel about sth (es ist) schade um etw (it's a) pity about sth um nichts in der Welt for nothing in the world

(a)

A few less widely used prepositions govern the accusative case. PER

per = by (mainly commercial R3b; often followed by the dative case) per Einschreiben by registered mail by, for 31 December per 31. Dezember It has come to be widely used in Rl in some phrases, e.g.: per Auto, per Bahn by car, by train mit jdm per du sein to call sb 'du' per Anhalter fahren to hitch-hike

PRO

pro = per (originally commercial R3b, but now widely used in Rl; often used with a dative) 50 Cent pro Stück 50 cents each 5 Euro pro Person 5 euros per person

WIDER

wider = against (R3a, now rarely used except in a few set phrases) wider alles Erwarten against all expectations wider Willen against my (his, her, etc.) will wider besseres Wissen against my (his, her, etc.) better judgement

2.5.2

German prepositions with the dative case The common prepositions taking the dative are: aus, außer, bei, gegenüber, mit, nach, seit, von, zu Less widely used, but worth knowing, are: ab, binnen, gemäss, laut, zufolge

aus expressing place = out of, from She came out of the house Sie kommt aus dem Haus He comes from Saxony (i.e. that is Er kommt aus Sachsen his native region) to drink out of the bottle aus der Flasche trinken from close by aus der Nähe at first hand aus erster Hand to get out of practice aus der Übung kommen You'll never come to anything Aus dir wird nichts werden (Rl) (b) aus expressing material = (made) of made of wood, steel, iron aus Holz, Stahl, Eisen (c) aus expressing cause, motive = for, from, out of aus Furcht vor etw for fear of sth aus diesem Grund for this reason aus Überzeugung from conviction aus Mitleid out of pity

AUS

(a)

AUSSER

(a)

außer expressing restriction = except (for), but for, besides, apart from Außer dem Gehalt bekommt Apart from/Besides his salary he receives an allowance er noch einen Zuschuss Nobody saw her except (for) me Niemand hat sie gesehen außer (b) außer expressing place = out of In modern usage außer is mainly used in this meaning in set phrases with no article. In some the noun is in the genitive case, or, after verbs of motion, in the accusative case. außer Betrieb out of order außer Dienst (a.D.) retired/not in active service to disregard sth etw außer Acht lassen out of the country außer Landes (R3) I was beside myself Ich war außer mir (R2/R3) It is beyond all doubt Es steht außer jedem Zweifel etw außer jeden Zweifel stellen to put sth beyond all doubt

BEI

(a)

(b)

(c)

GEGENUBER

(a)

MIT

bei expressing place, etc = by, at Pinneberg liegt bei Hamburg Pinneberg is by /near Hamburg bei meinen Eltern at my parents' (house) (dicht) bei der Kirche (right) by the church die Schlacht bei Hastings the battle of Hastings bei Günter Grass in Günter Grass's works Er ist bei der Bahn He works for the railways Wir haben Englisch bei Frau Frau Henne teaches us English Henne bei expressing time = at, by beim Frühstück at breakfast bei Gelegenheit when the opportunity arises bei schönem Wetter if/when the weather is fine bei diesen vielen Problemen with/given these many problems das Schönste bei der ganzen the best thing about the whole Sache business bei with verbal nouns = on This usage is particularly frequent in modern R3b, though it is by no means restricted to it, see 5.2.3 and 5.3.2. bei der Ankunft des Zuges (R3) on the arrival of the train bei näherer Betrachtung (R3) on closer observation beim Schlafen, Essen whilst sleeping, eating bei der Arbeit when working This can come before or after the noun. It tends to follow words for persons and always follows pronouns, otherwise it is commoner before the noun. In Rl it is often followed by von rather than being used on its own. gegenüber expressing place = opposite mir gegenüber 1 opposite me gegenüber von mir (R1)J gegenüber (von Rl) der Kirchel church der Kirche gegenüber (R3) j °PPosite the

(b)

gegenüber expressing comparison = compared with, towards ein Fortschritt gegenüber den an advance compared with previous Jahren davor years eine neue Politik gegenüber dem Irak a new policy towards Iraq

(a)

mit in most senses = with mit dem Schlüssel mit meinem Freund zusammen etw mit dem Fuß stoßen mit den Achseln zucken mit anderen Worten

with the key together with my friend to kick sth to shrug one's shoulders in other words

(b)

NACH

SEIT

mit leiser Stimme mit 20 Jahren mit der Zeit etw mit Absicht tun mit expressing means of transport = by mit dem Flugzeug, Schiff, Zug

in a quiet voice at the age of 20 in (the course of) time to do sth on purpose

by aeroplane, boat, train

nach expressing place = to (only with names and place adverbs except in N) nach Genf to Geneva nach Süden (hin) to the south nach Finnland to Finland nach innen, außen, oben, unten to go inside, outside, up, down gehen to go (to the) right, left nach rechts, links gehen nach Hause gehen to go home nach allen Seiten in all directions Er geht nach dem Bahnhof (N) He is going to the station (b) nach expressing time = after, past afterfiveyears,fiveyears later nach fünf Jahren ten past seven zehn nach sieben Ich bin nach ihm dran It's my turn after him nach in the sense of'according' = according to, judging by (c) N O T E : in this sense nach can follow the noun, especially in some set phrases, in R3 and in the meaning 'judging by'. nach dem Gesetz/ (R3) dem according to the law Gesetz nach meiner Meinung nach/nach in my opinion meiner Meinung der Reihe nach in turns allem Anschein nach to all appearances in the French manner nach französischer Art Ihrer Sprache nach ist sie Judging by the way she speaks, she Schweizerin is Swiss nach allem, was er gesagt hat from all he said etw nach dem Gewicht to sell sth by weight verkaufen

(a)

seit = for (a period of time up to now), since (a point in time) Seit drei Jahrhunderten gehört This house has belonged to the dieses Haus der königlichen royal family for three centuries Familie since the beginning of the year seit Anfang des Jahres erst seit kurzem not for long, only for a little while

VON

(a)

ZU

(a)

von expressing place = from. Aus is added after the noun to stress the point of origin, and in some set phrases; her can be added after the noun to stress movement away from a point. Er kommt von seiner Mutter He's comin%from his mother's Sie fahrt von Aachen nach Köln She's going from Aachen to Cologne Von meinem Fenster (aus) kann From (out of) the window I can see ich die Schule sehen the school von mir aus (Rl) as far as I'm concerned von Natur aus by nature Die Stimme kam von oben The voice came from above (her) (b) von expressing time = from. It can be strengthened by adding an after the noun. von Montag (an) from Monday von alters her (R3) from time immemorial von Zeit zu Zeit from time to time, occasionally (c) von expressing possession, etc. = of. For the use of von or the genitive case, see 4.2.2. ein Stab von dieser Länge a bar of this length der Verkauf von Diamanten the sale of diamonds Das war nett von dir That was nice of you (d) von in passive constructions = by (see 4.4.4) eine Oper von Verdi an opera by Verdi Das wird von ihm behauptet That is claimed by him

(b)

zu expressing place = to Dieser Bus fahrt zum Rathaus Er geht zu seiner Nichte zur Decke (hin) blicken zur Schule gehen zu Hause zu beiden Seiten Setz dich zu uns zu expressing time = at zur Zeit des letzten deutschen Kaisers zu Ende zu Weihnachten die Nacht zum Dienstag Zu meinem Geburtstag hat sie mir ein Computerspiel geschenkt zum Schluss zu Mittag essen

This bus goes to the town hall He is going to his niece's to glance towards the ceiling to go to school/attend school at home on either side Sit down with us at the time of the last German emperor at an end at/for Christmas in the night from Monday to Tuesday She gave me a computer game for my birthday finally to eat lunch

zu expressing purpose = for zu diesem Zweck for this purpose zu früh zum Aufstehen too early for getting up/to get up der Stoff zu einem Kleid the material for a dress zum Spaß for fun,for a joke zum Glück fortunately zu Fuß on foot zur Not if need be, at a pinch (d) zu expressing change zu nichts werden to become nothing jdn zum Präsidenten wählen to elect sb president Das ist zum Sprichwort That has become proverbial geworden (e) zu expressing quantity zehn Stück Seife zu je zwei Euro ten pieces of soap at two euros each zur Hälfte fertig half finished zum Teil partially drei zu zwei gewinnen to win three to two

(c)

A few less widely used prepositions govern the dative. AB

ab = from Originally ab was a typical R3b word, but it is now widely used in other registers for von... an. In time phrases it can be followed by the accusative case, especially in Rl. ab allen deutschen Bahnhöfen from all stations in Germany ab nächste(r) Woche from next week ab Dienstag, dem/den 19. Mai from Tuesday, 19 May

BINNEN

binnen = within is restricted to R3. It can occur with the genitive in old-fashioned R3a. binnen einem Jahr ) . ,. ,. . „v> within a year binnen eines Jahres (R3a))

GEMÄß

gemäß = in accordance with, according to. It can come before or (more commonly) after the noun. It is mainly used in R3; if it is used in R2 or Rl it sometimes takes the genitive. gemäß den Anweisungen I accordance with the instructions den Anweisungen gemäß )

LAUT

laut = according to (i.e. verbatim). In R3 it is often used with the genitive case if the following noun has an article, another determiner or an adjective with it.

132

2

Words and meanings

laut unserem Bericht aus \ Berlin 1 laut unseres Berichtes aus [ Berlin (R3) ) Laut Hans-Joachim will er nicht ZUFOLGE

zufolge = according to unbestätigten Berichten zufolge einem Regierungssprecher zufolge

2.5.3

according to our report from Berlin

According to Hans-Joachim (i.e. what Hans-Joachim says is:), he doesn't want to according to unconfirmed reports according to a government spokesman

German prepositions with the dative or the accusative cases Ten German prepositions can be followed by a noun in the dative or the accusative case, with a difference in meaning depending on which case is used. These prepositions are: an, auf, entlang, hinter, in, neben, über, unter, vor, zwischen These prepositions are followed by a noun in the dative case if they express 'rest', e.g. being 'in' or 'at' a particular place, but by a noun in the accusative case if they express 'movement', or, more accurately, the 'direction' in which someone is moving or something is being put. Compare: Wir stehen an der Grenze

We are standing on the border

(DATIVE)

Wir fahren an die Grenze

We are driving to the border

(ACCUSATIVE)

Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch

The book is lying on the table

(DATIVE)

Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch (ACCUSATIVE)

I am putting the book on the table

Obviously, this rule cannot apply if these prepositions are used to express time or some other meaning which doesn't refer to place or direction, and in these other meanings they tend to be used all the time with a single case, i.e. either the dative or the accusative. For most of them this is the dative case, but with auf and über the accusative is usual.

The following survey explains the common uses of these prepositions, separating those with the accusative and those with the dative to show the distinctive meanings. A N (DAT)

(a)

an (dat) expressing position = on, at, by (i.e. on, at or by the side of someone or something) an der Grenze on/at the border an der Universität Marburg at the University of Marburg Er stand an der Wand He was standing by the wall Das Bild hängt an der Wand The picture is hanging on the wall am Rathaus at/by the town hall nahe am Hotel near (to) the hotel unten am Fluss down by the river an einem Buch arbeiten to be working on a book

(b)

an (dat) expressing time = on (esp with nouns denoting days or parts of the day) am 31. Oktober on 31 October on Sunday(s) am Sonntag the next day/the following day am nächsten Tag/am Tag darauf am Anfang in the beginning finally am Ende an (dat) in other expressions arm/reich an Bodenschätzen poor/rich in mineral resources Es ist was dran There's something to it Jetzt ist's an ihm It's up to him now sieben an der Zahl seven in number

(c)

AN(ACC)

A U F (DAT)

an expressing direction = to, on an die Grenze fahren ein Bild an die Wand hängen eine Bitte an seinen Onkel an das Klavier heran

to go, drive to the border to hang a picture on the wall a request to his uncle (right) up to the piano

auf (dat) expressing position = on (i.e. on top of); at (with public buildings, events) Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch The book is on the table auf dem Mond landen to land on the moon auf dem Feld in the field auf dem Rathaus at the town hall auf dem Land(e) in the country auf einer Tagung at a conference auf dem Weg nach Erfurt on the way to Erfurt blind auf einem Auge blind in one eye

AUF (ACC)

(a)

(b)

(c)

ENTLANG

auf (acc) expressing movement = on (to); to (with public buildings, events) Sie legte das Buch auf den She put the book on the table Tisch Er kletterte auf die Mauer He climbed (up) on to the wall Ich gehe auf das Rathaus I'm going to the town hall Ich gehe auf eine Tagung I'm going to a conference auf die Tür zu towards the door auf (acc) expressing time = for (i.e. for a length of time from now. This usage is now chiefly R3 except in set phrases) Sie will auf ein paar Tage She's going away for a few days verreisen von heute auf morgen from one day to the next, at a moment's notice Das Taxi ist auf acht bestellt The taxi has been ordered for eight auf unbestimmte Zeit indefinitely auf (acc) in other expressions auf Deutsch, auf Englisch, auf in German, in English, in Russian Russisch aufs angenehmste/ most pleasantly Angenehmste (R3) auf meinen Brief hin following my letter auf diese Weise in this way auf den ersten Blick at first sight ««/keinen Fall on no account auf eigene Kosten at one's own expense auf den Gedanken kommen to get an/the idea Auf Ihr Wohl! Your health! etw ««/Raten kaufen to buy sth by instalments Es kommt darauf an It all depends entlang = along (often shortened to lang in Rl) The commonest usage with entlang is as follows: (i) expressing 'rest': entlang comes before a noun in the dative case (R3 also often the genitive case) (ii) expressing movement: entlang comes after a noun in the accusative case (iii) an (dat) entlang is a common alternative for either rest or movement, but it is not used in the sense of'along the middle of sth' (e.g. roads, rivers, etc.) Wir flogen die Küste entlang ] Wir flogen an der Küste / Weflewalong the coast entlang >

Entlang der Küste wachsen ' hohe Palmen An der Küste entlang wachsen hohe Palmen Wir kamen die Straße entlang

Tall palm-trees grow along the coast We came along/up/down the street

HINTER (DAT)

hinter (dat) expressing position == behind He was standing behind the garage Er stand hinter der Garage 20 Kilometer hinter der Grenze 20 kilometres beyond the border He was walking behind me/ Er ging hinter mir her following me behind my back hinter meinem Rücken

HINTER (ACC)

hinter (acc) expressing movement = behind He ran behind the garage Er lief hinter die Garage to get to the truth hinter die Wahrheit kommen

IN

(DAT)

in (dat) expressing position = in(side) in the refrigerator im Kühlschrank in(side) the hut in der Hütte in the north im Norden in Switzerland in der Schweiz near by in der Nähe abroad im Ausland (b) in (dat) expressing time = in (i.e. within a period of time, or after a period of time) in a week ('in a week's time' or in einer Woche 'inside a week') a week today heute in acht Tagen in (the) winter im Winter in the night in der Nacht (during) the following week in der nächsten Woche last year im vergangenen Jahr in the time after the war in der Zeit nach dem Krieg in advance im voraus at the last moment im letzten Augenblick

(a)

(c)

in (DAT) in other expressions nicht im Geringsten/ Entferntesten im Durchschnitt in dieser Weise in gewissem Maße im höchsten Grad im Allgemeinen in dieser Hinsicht

not in the slightest on average in this way to a certain extent extremely in general in this respect

IN

in (acc) expressing movement = in(to), to Sie hat es in den Ofen gestellt She put it in (to) the oven Wir gehen ins Theater We're going to the theatre in die Schweiz fahren to go to Switzerland etw ins Deutsche übersetzen to translate sth into German in die Arbeit vertieft engrossed in one's work in einen weißen Anzug dressed in a white suit gekleidet to begin to move, start sich in Bewegung setzen moving to drag sth out, prolong sth etw in die Länge ziehen

(ACC)

NEBEN (DAT)

(a)

(b)

(c)

neben (dat) expressing position = next to, beside Er saß neben mir He was sitting next to/beside me Das Buch steht neben dem The book is next to the radio Radio Er ging neben ihr her He was walking beside her neben (dat) expressing exclusion = besides, apart from Neben einigen Deutschen Apart from a few Germans most of kommen die meisten the tourists come from Japan Touristen aus Japan neben (dat) expressing comparison = compared with Neben seinem Bruder ist er He is tall compared with his groß brother

NEBEN (ACC)

neben (acc) expressing movement = next to, beside Er setzte sich neben mich (hin) He sat down next to/beside me Er stellte das Buch neben das He put the book next to the radio Radio

ÜBER (DAT)

über (dat) expressing position = over, above, across, beyond Das Bild hängt über dem The picture is hanging over/above Schreibtisch the desk Die Sonne ging über den Bergen The sun rose over the mountains auf 3000 Meter über dem 3000 metres above sea-level Meeresspiegel Es lag (quer) über dem Weg It lay across the path Er wohnt über der Grenze He lives over/across/beyond the border

ÜBER (ACC)

(a)

über (acc) expressing movement =: over, across, via, beyond Er hing das Bild über den He hung the picture over the desk Schreibtisch die Gänse flogen über das Watt The geeseflewover the mud-flats (hin) Er ging über die Straße He went across the road/he crossed the road Er ist über die Grenze He swam across/over the border geschwommen Der Baum fiel uns (quer) über The tree fell across our path den Weg einen Pullover über die Bluse to put a sweater on over one's ziehen blouse Wir sind über Calais We came via Calais gekommen Es lief mir kalt über den Rücken A cold shiver went down my spine über etw hinwegsehen to ignore sth over über (acc) expressing time = (b) über Nacht overnight over the weekend übers Wochenende über kurz oder lang sooner or later (c) über (acc) expressing quantity = over Es kostet über 1000 Euro It costs more than 1000 euros ein Scheck über 100 Euro a cheque for 100 euros über alle Maßen (R3a) beyond measure (d) über (acc) in the sense of'concerning' = about ein Buch über den a book about the Black Forest Schwarzwald über deine Mutter sprechen to talk about your mother my delight at her success meine Freude über ihren Erfolg

UNTER (DAT)

(a)

unter (dat) expressing position = under(neath)y below, beneath, among(st) Der Hund liegt unter dem Tisch The dog is lying under the table unter der Erde beneath the ground unter der Herrschaft der under the rule of the Empress Kaiserin Augusta Augusta Es gab Streit unter den Kindern There was quarrelling among the children unter uns (gesagt) between ourselves unter vier Augen privately unter anderem among (st) other things

[UNTER (DAT)]

(b)

(c)

unter (acc) expressing movement = Der Hund kroch unter den Tisch Er ging unter die Erde Er lief unter die Kinder

UNTER (ACC)

VOR

(DAT)

(a)

(b)

(c)

VOR

unter (dat) expressing circumstances = with, on, in, amid unter größten Schwierigkeiten with the greatest difficulty unter diesen Umständen in these circumstances unter diesen Bedingungen on these conditions unter tosendem Beifall amid thunderous applause Sie gestand unter Tränen She confessed amid tears unter (dat) expressing quantity = under, below ein Fahrrad unter 500 Euro a bicycle under/for less than 500 euros below -20 degrees (Celsius) unter 20 Grad Kälte

(ACC)

ZWISCHEN (DAT)

under, below, among The dog crawled under the table He went below the ground He ran among(st) the children

vor (dat) expressing position = in front of ahead of Er wartet vor dem Kino He is waiting in front of/ by the cinema Der Pazifik lag vor uns The Pacific lay before us vor mir in der Dunkelheit ahead of me in the darkness Er schlenderte vor mir her He was strolling ahead of me Es liegt vor der Küste It isojf the coast vor (dat) expressing time = before, ago zwei Tage vor ihrer Ankunft two days before their arrival zehn Minuten vor fünf ten minutes to five heute vor acht Tagen a week ago today erst vor einer Woche not until a week ago vor (dat) expressing a cause or reason for sth (typically involuntary) NOTE: in this sense vor is used without a following article. blass vor Furcht pale with fear aus Furcht vor jdm/etw for fear of sb/sth Vor Nebel war nichts zu sehen Nothing could be seen for the fog Vor ihm ist keiner sicher Nobody is safe from him vor (acc) expressing movement = in front of Sie fuhr vor das Kino She drove up in front of/by the cinema vor sich hin to oneself zwischen (dat) expressing position = between, among Sie saß zwischen mir und She was sitting between me and my meiner Frau wife between three and half-past zwischen drei und halb vier

ZWISCHEN (ACC)

zwischen (acc) expressing direction = between, among Sie setzte sich zwischen mich She sat down between me and my und meine Frau wife Sie pflanzte Schneeglöckchen She planted snowdrops among the zwischen die Sträucher bushes

2.5.4 German prepositions with the genitive case There are four frequent prepositions which take the genitive case: (an)statt, trotz, während, wegen However, in Rl and CH they commonly take the dative case, and the dative case is used in all registers if the following noun is plural and has no article, e.g. wegen Unföllen. Other prepositions which take the genitive are given below. (AN)STATT

(an)statt = instead of. The longer alternative anstatt is mainly used in R3. (an)statt eines Radios . , r v (R2/R3)\ . „ '( instead of a radio statt einem nRadio mix (Rl) J instead of pictures statt Bildern

TROTZ

trotz = despite; in spite of trotz des Regens (R2/R3) \ trotz dem Regen (Rl) J trotz Einwänden

despite the rain in spite of objections

the dative is used with trotz in a few set phrases. trotz allem/trotz alledem in spite of everything//^ all that

NOTE:

WAHREND

während = during während meines Urlaubs \ during my holiday (R2/R3) während meinem Urlaub (Rl) J während zweier Tage (R3) ) for two (whole) days während zwei Tagen (R1/R2) j N O T E : während, unlike during} is not normally used with nouns such as Tag, Abend, Nacht, Jahr, etc. in the singular, see 2.5.5.

WEGEN

wegen = because of (Rl often von wegen) In R3 wegen occasionally follows the noun, but it is much more usual for it to come first.

140

2

[WEGEN]

wegen des schlechten Wetters (R2/R3) des schlechten Wetters wegen (R3a) (von) wegen dem schlechten Wetter (Rl) wegen Unfällen wegen Umbau(s) geschlossen meinetwegen

Words and meanings

wegen mir (Rl) ) wegen meiner (SE) j (a)

(

because of the bad weather

because of accidents closed for alterations because of me (R2/R3)/ I don't mind (Rl) because ofme

A number of specific place prepositions are used with a following genitive case. außerhalb outside innerhalb inside oberhalb above unterhalb below

diesseits on this side of jenseits on that side of beid(er)seits on both sides of unweit not far from

If these prepositions are used in R2 or Rl, they are most often followed by von, e.g.: innerhalb dreier Tage (R3) \ within three days innerhalb von drei Tagen > (R1/R2) ) (b)

Other prepositions with the genitive There are very many of these; they are mainly typical of R3b, e.g.: angesichts dieser Schwierigkeiten anlässlich seines siebzigsten Geburtstages hinsichtlich dieses Briefes kraft seines Amtes mittels eines speziell konstruierten Unterwasserstudios

2.5.5

in view of these difficulties on the occasion of his seventieth birthday with regard to this letter by virtue of his office by means of a specially constructed underwater studio

English prepositions In this section the most common German equivalent of each frequent English preposition is given first, with one or more examples (even if the equivalent is not a preposition in German). Further examples are then given of some idiomatic or less usual equivalents.

ABOUT

(a)

about in the sense of 'concerning^ über (acc) a book about the war ein Buch über den Krieg Er weiß darüber Bescheid He knows all about it She doesn't understand anything Sie versteht nichts davon about it (b) about in the sense of'approximately' = etwa, ungefähr about fifty people etwa!ungefähr fünfzig Leute Sie ist etwa/ungefähr dreißig/ She is about thirty um die dreißig herum (at) about seven gegen sieben/so um sieben (Rl) (c) about expressing place = . . . herum im Garten umher-/herumgehen to walk about the garden im Haus herumsitzen to sit about the house

ABOVE

above= über (dat), oberhalb (R3) über dem Dorf above the village der Rhein oberhalb der Stadt the Rhine above the city of Basle Basel (R3) vor allem above all

ACCORDING TO

1

according to =

nach - may follow noun in R3 laut - direct quotation ,entsprechend, gemäß, zufolge - all these are typically R3b and follow or, less k commonly, precede the noun

nach den Vorschriften laut Polizeiberichten den Erwartungen entsprechend (R3b) according to our principles unseren Prinzipien gemäß/zufolge (R3b) according to foreign press reports ausländischen Pressemeldungen zufolge (R3b)

according to the regulations according to police reports according to expectations

ACROSS

across = to walk across the bridge A tree lay across the path to go across the meadows She lives across the street

über (dat) - indicating rest über (acc) - indicating direction über die Brücke gehen Ein Baum lag (quer) über dem Weg durch die Wiesen gehen Sie wohnt gegenüber

142

AFTER

2

(a)

(b)

AGAINST

Words and meanings

after expressing time = nach after the party nach dem Fest übernächste Woche the week after next übermorgen the day after tomorrow Tag fur/um Tag day after day after expressing place = hinter (dat) Sie machte die Tür hinter ihr zu She shut the door after her Sie lief hinter ihm her She ran after him hinter jdm herrufen to shout after sb fgegen 1 wider (R3, or in a few idioms) gegen unseren Beschluss gegen den Wind segeln wider Erwarten an der Wand lehnen etw an die Wand lehnen

against == against our decision to sail against the wind against expectations to be leaning against the wall to lean sth against the wall

ALONG

AMONG(ST)

1

entlang followed by a noun in the dative (R3 genitive) case, indicating rest entlang preceded by a noun in the along = accusative case, indicating direction an (dat) entlang indicating rest or ; direction f Wir fliegen die Küste entlang We are flying along the coast [ Wir fliegen an der Küste entlang [ Bäume standen entlang dem Ufer 1 (R3: des Ufers) Trees stood along the bank | Bäume standen am Ufer \ entlang Along the coast the weather is An der Küste ist das Wetter schön fine along the floor am Boden hin (unter (acc/dat) among(st) = \ zwischen (acc/dat) unter der Menge among the crowd unter anderem among other things Sie fand sie unter/zwischen den She found them among(st) Bäumen the trees Er ging unter die Kinder He went among the children Sie gehört zu den Besten She is among the best

AT

(a) at expressing place = at the corner at the station

an (dat) bei - esp 'vaguely in the vicinity of, 'at sb's house' auf (dat) - with public buildings an der Ecke/ bei der Ecke am Bahnhof/ auf dem Bahnhof

(R3) at the town hall at the butcher's at our house at university at the office at the bank, the post office at home at school at a distance of400 metres (b)

at expressing time = at five (o'clock) at 7.20 pm at about seven

(c)

at the weekend at present, at the moment at the same time at the end of April at Christmas at night at this time tomorrow at in other expressions at a speed of 100 kilometres per hour at -40 degrees (Celsius) at any rate at two euros a pound at all costs at first sight at bottom to begin at the beginning at his expense

auf dem Rathaus beim Metzger bei uns an (R3 auf) der Universität im Büro auf der Bank, auf der Post zu Hause/ (S) daheim in der Schule in einer Entfernung von 400 Metern u m - with precise clock times an (dat) - in most other contexts um fünf (Uhr) um 19.20 Uhr gegen sieben/ungefähr um sieben/so um sieben (Rl) am Wochenende zurzeit zu gleich/ zur gleichen Zeit Ende April zu (Rl an, AU auf) Weihnachten in der Nacht morgen um diese Zeit mit einer Geschwindigkeit von 100 Stundenkilometern bei 40 Grad Kälte auf alle Fälle zu zwei Euro das Pfund um jeden Preis auf den/beim ersten Blick im Grunde (genommen) von vorn(e) anfangen auf seine Kosten

BEYOND

(a)

beyond expressing place =

{ j j ^ j j ^

beyond the hills

BY

(b)

über den Bergen, jenseits der Berge (R3) 20 kilometres beyond Frankfurt 20 Kilometer hinter Frankfurt meaning 'surpassing' = über (acc)... hinaus beyond human understanding über den Menschenverstand hinaus nothing beyond that nichts außerdem/sonst nichts beyond doubt außer Zweifel

(a)

by expressing place = by the window by my side to sit by sb to take sb by the hand to lead sb by the hand We went by his house

(b) by expressing time = bis by Friday by then (in future) by then (in past), by now (c) by expressing measure = u m taller by a head by the hour, metre by far (d) by expressing means = mit by train, bus, car

(e)

( an (dat) 'right by' \ bei 'in the vicinity of am Fenster/ beim Fenster an meiner Seite neben jdm sitzen jdn an die Hand/ bei der Hand nehmen jdn an der Hand führen Wir gingen an seinem Haus vorbei bis Freitag bis dann, bis dahin inzwischen um einen Kopf größer stundenweise, meterweise bei weitem

mit dem Zug, dem Bus, dem Auto to pay by cheque mit (einem) Scheck (be)zahlen by expressing cause = durch (for by in passive constructions see 4.4.4) the discovery of America by the die Entdeckung Amerikas Vikings durch die Wikinger by pressure on the button durch einen Druck auf den Knopf durch Zufall, zufallig by accident, by chance aus Versehen by mistake ein Stück von Frisch a play by Frisch

2.5

[BY]

(f)

Prepositions

by in other expressions one by one to know sb by sight side by side by heart by request not by any means

DOWN down =

We went down the street She came down the street He lives down the street down the side of the house down the centuries Tears rolled down her cheeks DURING

einer nach dem anderen jdn vom Sehen her kennen nebeneinander auswendig aw/Wunsch keineswegs / noch lange nicht (Rl) . . . hinab (R2/R3),... hinunter - 'away from one' 1 . . . herab (R2/R3),... herunter - 'towards one' . . . runter (Rl) - 'away from one' k or 'towards one' Wir gingen die Straße hinab/hinunter Sie kam die Straße herab/herunter Er wohnt etwas weiter (unten) seitlich a m Haus entlang durch die Jahrhunderte (hindurch) Tränen rollten ihr über die Wangen

during = während during the war during the day during the night

EXCEPT (FOR) except (for) = except for me The flat is finished except for the kitchen except for a few little things FOR

145

( wahrend des Krieges (R2/R3) | während dem Krieg (Rl) l im Krieg am Tag in der Nacht { außer ( bis auf (acc) l abgesehen von außer mir Bis auf die Küche ist die Wohnung fertig außer/bis auf/abgesehen von ein paar Kleinigkeiten

(a) for expressing benefit = fur room for us Platz fur uns a present for her husband ein Geschenk fur ihren Mann a reward for sth eine Belohnung fur etw NOTE: with verbs, the person benefiting may be in the dative, but a phrase with fur can also be used, especially in Rl (see 4.1.2), e.g.: ^

[FOR]

He bought a book for me (b) for expressing purpose = zu for this purpose What's it for, then? for pleasure for breakfast (c)

Er hat mir ein Buch gekauft Er hat ein Buch fur mich gekauft

I

zu diesem Zweck Wozu dient es denn? zum Vergnügen zum Frühstück

seit - 'for' a period of time up to now f ü r / (R3) auf (acc) - 'for' a period of time from 'now' for expressing time = accusative noun (often with lang) - 'for' any length of time entirely in the past or future (Rl also a period from 'now') I have been sitting here for three Ich sitze seit drei Stunden hier hours I had been sitting there for three Ich saß seit drei Stunden dort hours I am going to Kiel for three weeks Ich fahre für drei Wochen/(R3) auf drei Wochen/ (Rl) drei Wochen nach Kiel Ich habe zwei Stunden (lang) I sat there for two hours dort gesessen He won't be back for a month Erst in einem Monat ist er wieder da I'll do it for Monday Ich mache es bis Montag fertig for years on end jahrelang/(R3) Jahre hindurch for the first time zum ersten Mal for hours on end stundenlang for expressing place (d) change for Dortmund nach Dortmund umsteigen leave for Bochum nach Bochum abfahren bends for 5 kilometres ahead Kurven auf 5 Kilometer for in other expressions (e) not see anything/or fog vor Nebel nichts sehen the thirst for knowledge der Drang nach Wissen for example zum Beispiel as for me was mich angeht ein Scheck über 100 Euro a cheque for 100 euros etw aus Liebe tun to do sth for love aus diesem Grund for this reason

FROM

(a)

from expressing place =

von - coming from a place one has been 'at', with the idea of direction from (the opposite of zu) aus - coming from, or out of a place one has been 'in', with the idea of origin (the opposite of in i (acc))

She comes from Ireland (i.e. that is Sie kommt aus Irland her native land) She is commgfrom Ireland (i.e. she Sie kommt von Irland is travelling from there) der Zug aus Bern the train from Berne the train from Berne to Basle der Zug von Bern nach Basel 20 kilometres from the coast 20 Kilometer von der Küste entfernt to drink from a glass aus einem Glas trinken from top to bottom von oben bis unten Where did you get that from ? Wo hast du das her? (Rl) (b) from expressing time =

IN

' v o n . . . an ; ab (esp R3b) - with precise times

from today from 1 May from the start from (last) January from (next) January from morning till night from childhood (c) from in other expressions from 50 euros from experience from what F ve heard from the outset She was trembling from the cold

von heute an, ab heute (R3b) vom 1. Mai an/ab 1. Mai (R3b) von Anfang an seit Januar von Januar an, Januar (R3b) von morgens bis abends von Kind auf/an, von klein auf

(a)

in (dat) - position in in (acc) - movement into Es ist in seiner Tasche Er steckte es in die Tasche in Braunschweig zu Braunschweig (R3a) in der Stadt auf dem Lande auf dem Bild am Himmel

in expressing place = It is in his pocket He put it in his pocket in Brunswick in town in the country in the picture in the sky

ab 50 Euro aus (der) Erfahrung nach dem, was ich gehört habe von vornherein Sie zitterte vor Kälte

[IN]

in heaven im Himmel in the direction of the station (in) Richtung Bahnhof to go in that direction in diese(r) Richtung gehen NOTE: both accusative and dative cases are used but the dative is more frequent. in the field auf dem Feld/auf der Wiese in (among) the trees unter den Bäumen wounded in the arm am Arm verletzt in your place an deiner Stelle in expressing time = in (dat) (b) im Herbst in autumn im Mai in May Mitte Mai in mid May in zehn Tagen in ten days in früheren Zeiten in earlier times 2001, im Jahre 2001 in 2001 am Abend/abends in the evening(s) später am Tag later in the day in the days when . . . zu der Zeit, wo (Rl/R2)/als (R2/R3)... auf die Dauer in the long run im voraus in advance (C) in used in other expressions in any case auf jeden Fall in that case in dem Fall just in case für alle Falle in German ««/Deutsch j meiner Meinung nach in my opinion \ meines Erachtens (R3) mit lauter Stimme in a loud voice umsonst, vergeblich in vain auf diese Weise/ in dieser in this way Weise in jeder Hinsicht in all respects vier an der Zahl four in number alles in allem all in all nicht im Geringsten not in the least

INSIDE inside =

inside the house

in (dat)j innerhalb (R3) expressing place in (acc) - expressing direction in (dat)y innerhalb (R2/R3), binnen (R3) - expressing time { im Haus/im Haus drin (Rl)/ \ innerhalb des Hauses (R3)

He went inside the house

Er ging ins Haus (hinein) in einem Monat innerhalb eines Monats (R3) binnen einem Monat (R3) innerhalb von einem Monat (R2)

inside a month

INSTEAD OF

instead of = statt, anstatt (R3), anstelle von j statt/(83) anstatt Blumen instead ö/flowers 1 anstelle von Blumen statt seines Bruders (R2/R3) instead of his brother statt seinem Bruder (Rl) anstelle von seinem Bruder .statt meiner (R3) instead of me statt mir (Rl) an meiner Stelle

{

I

into = in (acc) She went into the room to translate into Spanish to drive into a tree

INTO

OF

Sie ging ins Zimmer (hinein) ins Spanische übersetzen gegen einen Baum fahren

(a)

of expressing possession, etc. : genitive case or von (see 4.2.2) ( das Dach des Hauses (R2/R3) the roof of the house 1 das Dach vom Haus (R1/R2) the danger of an earthquake die Gefahr eines Erdbebens the discovery of America die Entdeckung von Amerika

(b)

of expressing quantity = apposition, genitive case or von (see 4.2.2) a cup of coffee eine Tasse Kaffee zwei Gruppen junger Arbeiter (R2/R3) two groups ofyoung workers zwei Gruppen von jungen Arbeitern (R1/R2) all of them the fi\tof us a friend of mine

of with names = apposition the city of Cologne the month of February the University of London (d) of expressing material = aus a house of straw a table of beechwood

sie alle wir fünf ein Freund von mir

(c)

die Stadt Köln der Monat Februar die Universität London ein Haus aus Stroh ein Tisch aus Buchenholz

[OF]

(e)

OFF

of used in other expressions of course of its own accord today of all days to die of hunger north of Kassel the battle of Lützen an example of sth typical, characteristic of sb/sth off = von . . . (her-/hinunter) He jumped off the train He took it off the shelf 10 kilometres off the main road off the south coast of England

ON

(a)

on expressing place =

The book is on the table He put the book on (to) the table The picture hung on the wall He hung the picture on the wall on the river We are sitting on the floor on the ceiling on (the) stage on top of the mountain to kiss sb on the mouth on the piano on the way on the left on the wall on the coast on the telephone

selbstverständlich, natürlich von selbst ausgerechnet heute vor Hunger sterben nördlich von Kassel die Schlacht bei Lützen ein Beispiel für etw typisch, charakteristisch für jdn/etw Er sprang vom Zug (hinunter) Er nahm es vom Regal (herunter) 10 Kilometer von der Hauptstraße weg vor der englischen Südküste auf (dat) - 'on (top of)' - position auf (acc) - 'on/onto (the top of)' - direction an (dat) - 'on (the side of)' position an (acc) - 'on/onto (the side of)' - direction Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch Er legte das Buch auf den Tisch Das Bild hing an der Wand Er hängte das Bild an die Wand ( auf dem Fluss (on it, e.g. in a boat) 1 am Fluss (beside it) Wir sitzen am Boden/auf dem Boden an der Decke auf der Bühne oben auf dem Berg jdn auf den Mund küssen am Klavier auf dem Weg/unterwegs auf der linken Seite/links an der Wand/auf der Mauer an der Küste am Telefon

a house on the main road on board on the train to go on the train on his face on the second floor it says on the poster t h a t . . . (b) on expressing time =

ein Haus an der Hauptstraße an Bord im Zug mit dem Zug fahren im Gesicht im zweiten Stock ... auf dem Plakat steht, dass... / an (dat) | bei 'on the occasion of (especially I with nouns from verbs)

on Sunday am Sonntag on Sundays sonntags/am Sonntag on weekdays an Wochentagen on the morning of 4 July am Morgen des 4. Juli on the following evening am Abend darauf on this occasion bei dieser Gelegenheit bei seiner Ankunft on his arrival (c) on in the sense of'concerning' = über (acc) a book on German history ein Buch über deutsche Geschichte (d) on used in other expressions auf eine Reise gehen to go on a journey on the radio, the television im Radio, im Fernsehen «K/keinen Fall on no account on average im Durchschnitt on purpose mit Absicht/absichtlich unter einer Bedingung on one condition It was improved on her suggestion Es wurde auf ihren Vorschlag hin verbessert OPPOSITE

opposite = gegenüber opposite me

opposite the hospital OUT OF, OUTSIDE

( m i r gegenüber (R2/R3) 1 gegenüber von mir (Rl) / gegenüber dem Rathaus | dem Rathaus gegenüber (R3) l gegenüber vom Rathaus (Rl)

(nicht in (dat), außerhalb | (R2/R3) - position l aus - direction to be out of town nicht in der Stadt sein außerhalb der Stadt sein (R3) The car pulled up outside the house Das Auto hielt vor dem Haus aus dem Zimmer to go out of the room (hinaus)gehen out of, outside =

[OUT OF, OUTSIDE]

She looked out of the window out of breath, danger, sight out of control outside office hours

OVER

over = Clouds hung over the city Weflewover the city the bridge over the Neckar children over ten years old over and above that over a year ago over dinner over the years

PAST

(a) past expressing place = We drove past the house just past the barn (b) past expressing time = nach twenty past seven

ROUND

round = u m round the corner right round the lake all round the house all round Belgium

THROUGH

through = durch through the tunnel through the city to go through a red light cancelled through illness all through her life all through the night all through/throughout the city

Sie sah zur Tür hinaus außer Atem, außer Gefahr, außer Sicht außer Kontrolle außerhalb der Dienstzeit ( über (dat) - position 1 über (acc) - direction Wolken hingen über der Stadt Wir flogen über die Stadt (hin) die Brücke über den Neckar Kinder über zehn Jahre alt darüber hinaus gut ein Jahr her/ vor gut einem Jahr beim Abendessen im Laufe der Jahre j an (dat)... vorbei \ hinter (dat) - 'beyond' Wir fuhren am Haus vorbei gleich hinter der Scheune zwanzig nach sieben um die Ecke j um den ganzen See herum 1 rings/rund um den See ( um das Haus herum (outside) \ im ganzen Haus (inside) durch ganz Belgien durch den Tunnel durch die Stadt bei Rot durchfahren wegen Krankheit ausgefallen ihr ganzes Leben lang die ganze Nacht hindurch {in der ganzen Stadt 1 überall in der Stadt

TO

(a)

to expressing direction has three main equivalents, depending on the context, region or register: (i) an (acc), auf (acc), in (acc) - movement to a particular place; the preposition chosen depends on 'where' you will be when you arrive (i.e. an, auf or in the place). I am going to university (i.e. to study there) She walked (up) to the window They went to the station She went (up) to her room to the Isle of Wight They are going to town I am going to the office We are going to Switzerland to go to bed close to sth a visit to my (girl-)friend

Ich gehe an die Universität Sie trat an das Fenster ' Sie fuhren auf den Bahnhof (R2/R3)/ zum Bahnhof (Rl)/ nach dem Bahnhof (N) Sie ging auf ihr Zimmer auf die Insel Wight Sie fahren in die Stadt Ich gehe ins Büro Wir fahren in die Schweiz ins Bett (R3 zu Bett) gehen nahe bei/an etw ein Besuch bei meiner Freundin

(ii) zu - general direction towards a place - the opposite of von. Also used with people. Often used in Rl instead of an or auf Ich gehe zur Universität I am going to the university (i.e. that is my destination) Fährt dieser Bus zum Bahnhof? Does this bus go to the station? zum Metzger to the butcher's die Tür zum Hof (hin) the door to the yard parallel zur Mauer parallel to the wall (iii) nach - 'to'with neuter names of towns or countries, or with some adverbs. Often used in N instead of an, auf, in or zu. Wir fahren nach Italien, nach We are going to Italy, to Rostock Rostock nach Süden to the south nach rechts to the right nach vorn(e) to the front dative case (b) to expressing indirect object = He gave the case to me She has been a good friend to me I wrote to her

I

an (acc) - if the notion of direction is stressed Er hat mir den Koffer gegeben Sie ist mir eine gute Freundin gewesen Ich habe ihr/an sie geschrieben

[TO]

TOWARDS

UNDER

der Alkoholausschank an Jugendliche (R3b) Das hat er seinem Freund He told that to his friend gesagt (c) to expressing time = vor (dat) - in telling time zehn vor sechs ten to six pünktlich auf die Minute punctual to the minute (d) to used in other expressions Was geht dich das an} What's that to you? Leverkusen hat drei zu eins Leverkusen won three to one gewonnen zu meiner Freude to my delight 200 Einwohner pro 200 inhabitants to the square Quadratkilometer kilometre to my knowledge meines Wissens nach Vorschrift arbeiten to work to rule in hohem Grad, in hohem to a great extent Maße eine Antwort auf Ihre Frage an answer to your question etw gegen das Licht halten to hold sth to the light serving drinks to minors

towards expressing direction = auf (acc)... zu auf die Tür zu towards the door Sie kam auf mich zu/ mir She came towards me entgegen nach Oldenburg hin towards Oldenburg nach Norden hin/zu towards the north (b) towards expressing time = gegen towards the end of the last century gegen Ende des vorigen Jahrhunderts

(a)

( unter (dat) - position \ unter (acc) - direction He parked the car under the bridge Er hat den Wagen unter der Brücke geparkt Sie hat das Geld unter She put the money under the die Matratze gesteckt mattress Kinder unter 12 Jahren children under 12 years old im Bau under construction undpr ——

MffM'Cr

UNTIL/TILL until/till = until 2009 until then until the end of the month

bis - in positive sentence erst + appropriate preposition -

I

in negative sentence bis 2009 bis dahin Monatsende bis (zum)

until his death until after his death not until tomorrow not until three hours ago not until the 20th century not until the late evening not until after his death UP up = They went up the street They came up the street We live up the street He lives up the mountain up one's nose further up this page WITH

with = mit with a hammer with his girlfriend with a trembling hand He lives with his mother She lives with her boyfriend I've no money with me 35 years with the firm Do you want to go with us? Put it with the others to tremble with cold with a hat and coat on

bis zu seinem Tod bis nach seinem Tod erst morgen erst vor drei Stunden erst im 20. Jahrhundert erst am späten Abend erst nach seinem Tod . . . hinauf - away from one . . . herauf - towards one . . . 'rauf (Rl) - away from or towards one Sie gingen die Straße hinauf/ (Rl Yrauf Sie kamen die Straße herauf/ (Rl Yrauf Wir wohnen etwas weiter die Straße entlang Er wohnt (oben) auf dem Berg in der Nase weiter oben auf dieser Seite mit einem Hammer mit seiner Freundin mit zitternder Hand Er wohnt bei seiner Mutter Sie wohnt mit ihrem Freund (zusammen) Ich habe kein Geld bei mir 35 Jahre bei der Firma Willst du mit? Leg es zu den anderen vor Kälte zittern in Hut und Mantel

2.6 Modal particles Modal particles are small words like aber, doch Ja, mal, schon, etc. which express the speaker's attitude to what is being said. They alter the tone of what is being said and make sure that the speaker's intentions and attitudes are clearly understood They can typically appeal for agreement, express surprise or annoyance, tone down a blunt question or statement, or help you to sound reassuring. They are very characteristic of informal spoken German (Rl), but their meanings are elusive and their use is difficult to paraphrase or explain concisely.

R l = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

2.6.1

ABER

In English we obtain these effects in other ways, typically through changes in tone of voice or intonation, which are difficult to describe, or through so-called 'tags', like don't you? or isn't it? The best way to learn how to use them is to become familiar with as many examples as possible and try to judge the meaning as they are used, and to help you a number of typical examples of usage are given in this section. It is helpful to separate out the use of particles in different types of sentence (i.e. statements, questions, commands and exclamations), not least because most of the particles are typically used in one of these types or because, if they can be used in more than one, their meanings can be slightly different in each. To help you get some idea of their effect, we have given an indication of possible English equivalents - i.e. how you might get a similar effect in English. However, these should not be understood as standard translations; their purpose is only to convey some idea of the force of the German particles. Many words which are used as modal particles in German have other uses, often (but not always) with related meanings. For example, aber is used as a conjunction meaning 'but', and vielleicht as an adverb meaning 'perhaps'. In this section we concentrate on their use as particles.

Modal particles in statements

expresses contradiction or insistence (it is rather weaker thm jedoch). Possible English equivalents: but, though. Mein Freund kam aber nicht Sie muss uns aber gesehen haben

AUCH

confirms the case and may give reasons for a contradiction. Possible English equivalents: too, you know, after all. Er ist auch fleißig Wir können's auch lassen

DOCH

My friend didn't come, though But she must have seen us

He does work hard, you know After all, we can drop it

contradicts (if heavily stressed) or appeals for agreement (if more lightly stressed). In this way, it can turn a statement into a question expecting a positive answer. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (possibly do form), though, after all, negative tag, initial but. Es hat 'doch geschneit Ich habe 'doch recht gehabt Wir müssen doch morgen nach Trier Er hat doch gesagt, dass er kommt

It 'did snow, though I 'was right after all, wasn't I? We've got to go to Trier tomorrow, though But he did say he was coming

Das musst du doch zugeben Den Wagen kann ich doch morgen früh abholen? Er ist doch nicht krank?

You've got to admit it, though I'll be able to collect the car tomorrow morning, won't I? He's not ill, is he?

EBEN

emphasizes an inescapable conclusion. Possible English equivalents: well,... just... Du musst eben zu Hause Well, you'll just have to stay at bleiben home Dann müssen wir eben den We'll just have to take the train, Zug nehmen then NOTE: eben is mainly used in N. In S halt is used, with the same meaning.

EIGENTLICH

tones down a refusal, an objection or a contradiction. Possible English equivalents: well, actually/really, strictly speaking. Wir haben eigentlich schon zu Ich wollte eigentlich bloß eine neue Bluse Eigentlich darfst du das nicht Wir haben eigentlich schon verloren

ERST

(a)

implies that something is the absolute limit. It is often strengthened by adding recht. Possible English equivalents: really, simply. Dann ging's erst recht los Das konnte sie erst recht nicht Das macht es erst recht schlimm

(b)

Then things really got going She simply couldn't manage that That really does make it bad

Referring to time, erst suggests that it is earlier than expected or desired. In this sense it is also used in other sentence types. Possible English equivalents: only, not before/until, as late as. Wir kommen erst recht spät in München an Sie können den Film leider erst morgen abholen Es ist erst halb fünf

(c)

Well, really, we're already closed Well, actually, I only wanted a new blouse Strictly speaking, you are not allowed to We've already lost, really

We shan't get to Munich till very late I'm afraid you won't be able to collect the film before tomorrow It's only half past four

Referring to quantities, erst suggests that more is to follow. In this sense it is also used in other sentence types. Possible English equivalent: only... (asyet). Ich habe erst zehn Seiten geschrieben Sie ist erst sieben Jahre alt

I've only written ten pages (as yet) She's only seven years old

ETWA

in negative sentences, intensifies the negation. Possible English equivalent: really (not). Sie müssen nicht etwa denken, dass ich ihn verteidigen will

appeals for agreement, with the speaker insisting that what he or she says is correct. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (do-form), really, you know, of course.

JA

Gestern hat's ja geregnet Das ist ja eine Gemeinheit Er ist ja schon längst im Ruhestand Sie wissen ja, dass es keiner geschafft hat Ich komme ja schon

It did rain yesterday, you know That really is mean He's been retired for a long time now, you know You do know, of course, that nobody's managed it I really am on my way

in requests, especially with können, gives a reassuring tone. Possible English equivalents: I don 7 mind, don't disturb yourself etc.

RUHIG

Sie können ruhig Ihre Jacke ausziehen Sie können mir ruhig die Wahrheit sagen SCHON

You really musn't think that I want to defend him

(a)

You can take your jacket off, it's OK by me You can tell me the truth, I don't mind

Referring to time, schon suggests that sth is earlier than expected or desired, or that sth has happened on occasions. In this sense it is also used in other sentence types. Possible English equivalents: already, as early as, sometimes. Have you finished already? They're coming tonight (I know we hadn't expected them so soon) I've sometimes seen him at the cinema, too I suspected that as early as 2001 Have you ever been there? There she is again (I know we didn't want to see her so soon) With the future tense, schon expresses reasonable expectation that sth will happen. Possible English equivalents: all right, don't worry.

Bist du schon fertig? Sie kommen schon heute Abend Ich habe ihn auch schon im Kino gesehen Das habe ich schon 2001 geahnt Warst du schon mal dort? Da ist sie schon wieder (b)

(c)

Ich werde schon aufpassen I'll watch out all right Er wird's schon hinkriegen He'll manage it, don't worry Dir werde ich's schon zeigen I'll (soon) show you all right Expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often followed by aber...). zwar and, esp. in N, wohl, are used in the same sense. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (Jo-form), well,

Paris ist schon eine schöne Stadt(, aber . . . ) Ich wollte schon kommen(, aber . . . ) Das schon, aber . . .

Paris is a lovely city(, b u t . . . ) Well, I did want to come(, b u t . . . ) Well, may be, b u t . . .

UBERHAUPT

makes statements more general. Possible English equivalents: anyhow, anyway,... at all, all in all, in any case. London is überhaupt eine London is a dreadful city anyhow grässliche Stadt Er sagt überhaupt sehr wenig He says very little anyway

WOHL

expresses probability or supposition. It has a similar force to the future tenses (see 4.3.1), and it is often used in conjunction with them. Possible English equivalents: future tense (see 4.3.1), probably, I suppose /presume . . . , positive statement with negative tag, no doubt. Franz ist wohl schon wieder Franz will be ill again, I suppose krank/wird wohl schon wieder krank sein Sabine ist wohl gestern Abend Sabine will have arrived last night, no doubt angekommen I presume you're the last Sie sind wohl der Letzte You must be mad, mustn't you? Du bist wohl verrückt geworden The combination ja wohl sounds more certain, cf English certain(ly). Sie wird ja wohl noch in Essen She's pretty certainly still in sein Essen The combination doch wohl sounds rather less certain, but the speaker hopes it is the case, cf English surely... with a negative tag. Er hat doch wohl noch einen Surely, he's got another key, Schlüssel hasn't he? In N, expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often followed by aber...). This sense is the same as that of schon or zwar. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (iö-form), may, well, Er ist wohl mein Freund, aber Well, he may be my friend, but I can't help him ich kann ihm nicht helfen Anja did go to Kiel, but only for a Anja ist wohl nach Kiel few days gefahren, aber nur fur ein paar Tage

ZWAR

expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often followed by aber...). This sense is the same as that of schon or, esp in N, wohl. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (do-form), may, well,... Er ist zwar krank, aber er Well, he may be ill, but he's still kommt heute Abend noch coming with us tonight mit

2.6.2 Modal particles in questions AUCH

(a)

In yes/no questions, auch asks for confirmation of something which the speaker thinks should be taken for granted. Possible English equivalents: positive statement followed by negative tag, are you sure that... ?. Hast du auch die Rechnung You have paid the bill, haven't you? bezahlt? Haben Sie's auch verstanden? You did understand it, didn't you? (b) In B?A-questions, auch expects a negative answer. Possible English equivalent: well,... Was kann man auch dazu Well, what can you say to that? sagen? Warum musste er auch Well, why did he have to go away? wegfahren?

DENN

tones down the question, making it sound less blunt. It is often added almost as a matter of course, especially in zpA-questions. Possible English equivalent: then (at end of sentence). Hast du denn Renate gesehen? Did you see Renate, then? Willst du sie denn fragen? Are you going to ask her, then? Wie bist du denn gekommen? How did you get here, then? Wie lang fahrt man denn nach How long does it take to get to Ulm? Ulm, then? NOTE: in informal Rl denn is often shortened to n and placed straight after the verb, e.g.: Hast'n du die Renate gesehen?

EIGENTLICH

tones down questions and makes them sound casual. It is often used together with denn. Possible English equivalents: actually, tell me... Kommt er eigentlich oft zu Tell me, does he visit you often? Besuch? Wie spät ist es (denn) What time is it, actually? eigentlich?

ETWA

in yes/no questions, implies that something is undesirable and that the answer ought to be nein. Possible English equivalents: negative statement with positive tag, don *t tell me. Habt ihr etwa geschlafen? You haven't been asleep, have you? Ist das etwa dein Wagen? That's not your car, is it? Hast du es etwa gelesen? Don't tell me you've read it?

NUR

in zpA-questions, stresses the importance of sth. bloß is often used in this sense in place of nur in Rl. Possible English equivalents: -ever,... on earth.

NOTE:

Wo bleibt er nur (Rl: bloß)? Wie kann er sich nur so einen Wagen leisten? Was ist nur mit ihm los?

Where on earth is he? How on earth can he afford a car like that? What ever's up with him?

SCHON

in ^-questions, expects a negative answer. Possible English equivalent: negative statement, positive tag. Wer wird ihm schon helfen? Nobody's going to help him, are they? Was heißt das schon? That's not supposed to mean anything, is it?

UBERHAUPT

casts doubts on a basic assumption. Possible English equivalent:... at all. Trinkt er denn überhaupt Does he drink wine at all, then? Wein? Kann er überhaupt Deutsch Can he speak German at all? sprechen?

VIELLEICHT

in yes/no questions, expects a negative answer. Possible English equivalents: negative statement with positive tag, really. Willst du mir vielleicht You don't mean to tell me erzählen, dass . . ? t h a t . . . , do you? Soll ich vielleicht bis abends Am I really supposed to work till u m sieben arbeiten? seven at night?

WOHL

signals uncertainty on the part of the speaker. Possible English equivalents: possibly, I wonder. Wer hat den Brief wohl Who can possibly have written that geschrieben? letter? Wie spät ist es wohl? I wonder what time it is

2.6.3 Modal particles in commands ABER

qualifies a previous statement. Possible English equivalents: but, though. Du kannst ruhig etwas weiter Don't worry, you can go a bit nach links gehen Pass further to the l e f t . . . Look out aber an der Tür auf! by the door, though!

AUCH

reinforces a command. Possible English equivalent: Make sure... Aber schreib ihm auch But make sure you write to him morgen! tomorrow Sei auch schön brav! Make sure you behave!

DOCH

can sound impatient or encouraging. Possible English equivalents: stressed do, negative tag, why not... ? Hör doch auf! Do stop it Mach doch nicht immer so ein Don't keep on making a face like Gesicht! that Leg dich doch zwei Stunden Why not go and lie down for a hin! couple of hours? Kommen Sie doch morgen Do call in tomorrow, won't you? vorbei

EBEN

stresses the lack of an alternative (halt is used for eben in S). Possible English alternatives: well, just... then. Bleib eben dort sitzen! Well, just stay sitting there, then Fahr eben durch die Well, just drive through the city Stadtmitte! centre, then

JA

expresses a threat (usually stressed). Possible English equivalents: stressed pronoun, just..., or else. Sei ja vorsichtig! You just be careful(, or else) Mach mir ja keine Just don't do anything silly(, or Dummheiten! else)

MAL

tones down commands, making them sound less blunt or peremptory. Possible English equivalents: just, won't you, etc. Lies den Brief mal durch! Just read the letter through Gib mir mal das Buch her! Just give me the book, would you? Hol mal schnell die Milch! Just go and fetch the milk, would you? Komm mal Montag vorbei! Just pop in on Monday, won't you? The combination doch mal softens the tone of a command even more. Possible English equivaent: Why don't you...?, Why not... ? N i m m doch mal ein neues Why don't you just take another Blatt! sheet of paper? Komm doch mal mit ins Kino! Why not come to the cinema with us?

NUR

when unstressed, makes a command sound more tentative. Possible English equivalent: just. Kommen Sie nur herein! Do just come in Lass mich nur machen! Just let me get on with it Sagen Sie nur! Just say the word When stressed, especially in negative commands, expresses a warning. Possible English equivalents: you added to command, just, better.

Komm »nur nicht zu spät!

( J ^ 0 " ' * be late I You d better not come too late

d i v e 80 f 1 ; f (£st ^ ( Don t you drive so fast NOTE: In Rl, bloß is often used for nur to express a warning in commands.

Fahr 'nur nicht so schnell!

RUHIG

gives a reassuring tone. Possible English equivalents: I don't mind, don't disturb yourself etc. Bleib ruhig sitzen! Don't get up for me Mach ruhig weiter! Carry on, don't disturb yourself

SCHON

gives commands a tone of urgency and emphasis, or, especially if the sentence starts with Nun..., impatience. Possible English equivalents: do... please). Beeile dich schon! Do hurry up(, please) Sag mir schon, was du Do tell me what you think. I shan't denkst! Ich werde dir's nicht take offence übelnehmen Nun, gib's schon her! Well, give it to me, then Nun, fahr schon! Well, get a move on, then

WOHL

makes a command sound more urgent, insistent or abrupt (often with werden or wollen). Possible English equivalents: once andfor all! right away! Hebst du wohl das Buch wieder Pick that book up again right away! auf! Wirst du wohl sofort wieder ins Will you go straight back to bed! Bett gehen! Wollt ihr wohl endlich still Once and for all, will you be quiet! sein!

2.6.4 Modal particles in exclamations aber, doch Ja and vielleicht all convert statements into exclamations expressing surprise. ABER

possible English equivalents: OA/, rhetorical question, negative tag. Das Bier ist aber kalt! Oh! This beer is cold! Der Film war aber gut! Wasn't that a good film? Das war aber eine Reise! That was quite a journey, wasn't it?

164

2

DOCH

possible English equivalents: initial but, negative tag. Die Milch ist doch sauer! Oh, but the milk is sour! Heute ist es doch kalt! It is cold today, isn't it?

JA

possible English equivalents: initial but, negative tag. Die Milch ist ja sauer! Oh, but the milk is sour! Heute ist es ja kalt! It is cold today, isn't it?

VIELLEICHT

possible English equivalents: OA/, rhetorical question, negative tag. Das Bier ist vielleicht kalt! Oh! This beer is cold! Der Film war vielleicht Wasn't that a bad film? schlecht! Das war vielleicht eine Reise! That was quite a journey, wasn't it? NOTE: In exclamations of this kind, aber and vielleicht signal surprise due to a difference in degree, whereas doch and ja signal surprise due to a difference in kind, i.e. that something is the case at all. Compare: Die Milch ist doch/ja kalt! But the milk is cold! (you hadn't expected it to be cold at all) Die Milch ist aber/vielleicht How cold the milk is! (much kalt! colder than you had expected)

2.7 2.7.1

Words and meanings

Greetings and forms of address Greetings The choice of formula for greeting and leave-taking is a matter of register, determined by the relationship between the people involved. It is important in an area of usage governed so much by social convention that the English-speaking learner should be aware that more conventional greetings are used in Germany than is now usual in Britain or some other English-speaking countries. Not only are there in German greetings such as Mahlzeit and Feierabend which have no equivalent in English, but other standard forms of greeting are used more frequently. It would, for instance, be considered impolite to enter or leave a small shop in Germany without the customary Guten Tag! and Auf Wiedersehen! The following table shows a progression from informal greetings (used to friends) to formal ones (showing respect to the person addressed).

Situation

Rl

R1/R2

R2

meeting

Hallo! Grüß dich! Moin! (NW) Servus (SE) <-

(Gu'n) Morgen! (Gu'n) Tag! (Gu'n) Ahmt!

Guten Morgen! Guten Tag! Guten Abend!

Grüß Gott (SE) 4leave-taking

Tschüss! (N)

(uf) Wiedersehn! (uf) Wiederschaung! (SE) (uf) Wiederluege! (CH)

Ade! (SW) Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North N E = North East N W = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Grüezi (CH)

Salü! Tschau!

Auf Wiedersehen! Auf Wiederschauen! (SE)

Adjö! (CH) Servus! Pfiati! (SE) Mach's gut! Bis gleich! Bis bald! NOTE:

(i) Recently, auf Wiederschauen has become rather fashionable in Germany, whilst in Austria auf Wiedersehen is often regarded as more refined, especially in larger towns and cities. (ii) Tschüs (also spelled tschüss) is now spreading into S, but it is considered typically 'German' in Austria and Switzerland. In the last few years it has increasingly come to be used in more formal situations (i.e. R1/R2), especially among younger people.

Situation

Rl

R2

at table

Lass es dir schmecken!

Guten Appetit!

4

lunchtime

4

end of week

•

Schönen Sonntag!

4

•

Schönes Wochenende!

4

end of work

Mahlzeit!

Feierabend!

Good luck!

Toi toi toi! Hals- und Beinbruch!

Viel Glück! Viel Erfolg!

Have a good time!

Viel Spaß!

Viel Vergnügen!

• •

Situation contd

Rl contd

R2 contd

bedtime

Schlaf gut!

Angenehme Ruhe! (very formal)

4

journey going home

Komm gut nach Hause!

Gute Reise!

•

Gute Heimfahrt!

2.7.2 du and Sie German makes a difference between the so-called 'informal' pronouns of address, the singular du and plural ihr, and the so-called 'formal' Sie, which is used for both singular and plural. Sie and its forms (Ihnen, Ihr, etc.) are always spelled with a capital letter to distinguish them from the forms of sie 'they'. When Sie is used as the subject of a verb, it always has the ending (most often -en) of the third person plural. This distinction is unknown in modern English, and this section gives a brief description of modern usage in German. If you know another European language, you should be aware that the use of the 'informal' and 'formal' pronouns in those languages can be different to that in German. In particular, 'informal' French tu and (especially) Spanish tu are used more widely than 'informal' German du. Broadly speaking, du (and its plural ihr) are used (a)

(b)

when speaking to . . . • children (up to about the age of 15; in schools to the end of the tenth school year) • animals and inanimate objects • oneself • God between . . . • family members and close relatives • close friends • all schoolchildren and students • workmates (blue collar) • non-commissioned soldiers • members of some clubs, interest groups and (especially left-wing) political parties Sie is used in all other situations. This is especially the case with adult strangers and generally in white-collar employment (e.g. to colleagues in an office). However, matters are often less clear-cut. With changing social attitudes and conventions the usage of du and Sie has come to be in a state of flux, so that many Germans nowadays feel insecure about which one to use in unfamiliar surroundings. Nevertheless,

consciousness of the need to use the 'right' one is as strong as ever. In the 'wrong' situation du sounds too familiar, condescending, patronizing and can signal contempt and a lack of respect verging on rudeness, whilst Sie in the 'wrong' situation sounds stand-offish, pompous, haughty, with a hint of arrogance verging on rudeness. du signals intimacy, affection and solidarity. People who use du to one another are conscious of belonging to the same group or standing together. The modern move towards du, especially among young people, reflects this clearly, du has become much more frequent since the late sixties, and the old ceremony of Brüderschaft trinken associated with the switch from Sie to du between acquaintances and friends is practised less. It has been reported recently that the conventional shift from du to Sie at the end of the tenth school year, on entry to the Oberstufe, is no longer observed as rigorously as it once was. Certainly, the use of du is more widespread among younger people than thirty years ago, and it has definitely always been used more readily in S (especially in Switzerland) than N. Nevertheless, the trend towards du has shown signs of slowing down and current practice can be quite variable. It is very important for English-speaking learners to be aware that the use of du is still much less widespread and acceptable than the use of first names in Britain or North America. It can often signal a lack of respect rather than the friendliness typically associated with using first names there. In a bank or a shop, with a fairly formal, professional atmosphere, people who work together every day can be on Sie terms for thirty years or more without feeling in any way distant or uncollegial. A recent survey reported that 67% of skilled workers, 59% of unskilled workers, 49% of lower-level professional workers and 35% of more senior professionals normally used du to colleagues of similar rank. The example of a well-known Swedish furniture company which has decreed that all its staff in its German branches should use du and first names to each other, whatever their rank, is still very much the exception. Finally, there is a very clear tendency for du to be used more readily between people of the same sex than between the sexes. In general, Sie is associated with using formal titles, e.g., Herr Meyer, Frau Wimmer, etc., and the shift to du involves the corresponding shift to the use of the first name. But the use of Sie with the first name may be an intermediate stage before moving to du. It is common, for example, when parents are speaking to their (older) children's friends. It is also the norm in some television chat shows and interviews with media or sports personalities, and it is reported to be widespread in 'trendy' circles (e.g. in the media), in these cases possibly in imitation of American usage. Finally, ihr deserves special mention, as its use is wider than simply as the plural of du - i.e. to address more than one person all of whom you would call du. It is quite common when speaking to any group of

people even if one might address individuals among them by Sie (although less common if you would call all of them Sie). In this way, ihr can sometimes function as a kind of neutral compromise to mask the speaker's uncertainty about whether to use du or Sie.

2.8

Letters The layout of letters in the German-speaking countries differs in several respects from English conventions.

(a)

N a m e and address on the envelope Herrn Prof. Dr. Albert Schröder Waldstraße 27

Frau Angelika Trautmann Korinthstraße 39

35037 Marburg/Lahn

04103 Leipzig To a family with children:

To a couple: Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

Herrn und Frau Manfred und Ute Schwenk Josefgasse 5

Fam. Andreas Christmann Am Kronberg 87

31787 Hameln

53181 Leverkusen

Note the position of titles, the lack of indentation and, in printed addresses, the space left before the name of the town or village. The house number comes after the street name, and the postcode before the name of the town or village. If writing from outside the countries concerned, an international indicator, i.e. A (Austria), CH (Switzerland), D (Germany) is placed before the postcode, e.g.:

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North N E = North East N W = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

A-1080 Wien

CH-3010 Bern

D-35037 Marburg/Lahn

Fräulein is now used, if at all, only to address young girls. Any adult woman, irrespective of whether she is married or single, is addressed as Frau.

NOTE:

(b)

The sender's n a m e and address On personal letters, these are written as one line on the back of the envelope, preceded by Abs. (— Absender), e.g.: Abs.: Susana Hofmann, Bismarckplatz 19, 68165 Mannheim

In personal letters this information is not usually repeated at the top of the letter, where just the place and date are given, e.g.:

In commercial or official correspondence the sender's address is normally given at the top of the letter, above that of the addressee. The latter is given in a form similar to that on the envelope, e.g.: Susana Hofmann Bismarckplatz 19 68165 Mannheim Mannheim, 7. September 2001 Firma Eugen Spengler Rossgasse 17-21 07973 Greiz

(c)

Openings

Opening and closing formulae The choice of these depends on your relationship to the person you are writing to. The following table shows the most common. The most important thing to remember is that, unlike English Dear, German Liebe (r) is not used in business correspondence to strangers, or to anyone whose relationship to you is formal. Sehr geehrte Damen und Herren, Sehr geehrte Herren, Sehr geehrte gnädige Frau, Sehr geehrter Herr Professor Dr. Schröder, Sehr geehrter Herr Ahrens, Lieber Herr Pedersen, (less formal) Liebe Frau Havemann, R2 (least formal) Lieber Wolfgang, Liebe Uschi, Liebe Mutti, Lieber Opa, NOTE: if you are writing to more than one person the adjective has to be repeated, e.g.:

R3 (most formal)

Lieber Wolfgang, liebe Uschi, Older practice was to follow these with an exclamation mark (e.g. Sehr geehrter Herr Hartmann!), but it is now usual to use a comma, in which case the first word of the letter should not start with a capital letter. Closings

R3 (very formal)

R3 (most common)

Hochachtungsvoll followed by Ihr(e) [sehr ergebene(r)] before the signature Mit freundlichen Grüßen optionally followed by Ihr(e) before the signature

R2 (less formal)

Mit besten Grüßen Herzliche Grüße optionally followed by Ihr(e) or Dein(e) before the signature R2 (least formal) (Viele) liebe Grüße Herzlich/Herzlichst optionally followed by Dein(e) before the signature The least formal phrases are only used to a person addressed as du. In correspondence, du (dich, dein, etc.) and ihr (euch, etc.) are no longer to be written with capital letters according to the reformed spelling. However, at the moment very few people appear to be following this ruling.

3 Words and forms

3.1

Nouns: genders and plurals For English speakers learning German, one of the most striking differences between the languages is the way German nouns and other words used with nouns have endings and other changes to show gender, number and case. These inflections seem difficult at first, but they are central to the way German works as a language. An important stage in learning German is realizing the system which underlies them and the role they play in showing how sentences fit together. It is vital, first, to know the gender of any nouns you need to use and how they form their plurals in order to be able to express yourself properly and understand written and spoken German easily. In fact, gender and plural formation in German is not as varied and unsystematic as would appear from many books, and in this section we show you how you can master it more easily. It is easy to think that every German noun has an arbitrary gender and an arbitrary way of forming the plural, and that both of these must be learnt separately for every noun in the language. The meaning of a noun, aside from the tendency for names of male beings to be masculine and those of female beings to be feminine, rarely gives any indication of gender. In practice, though, there are many helpful regularities. To start with, the gender of 80% of German nouns can be immediately recognized from their suffixes (or, less often, prefixes), and the plural ending is also always predictable from the suffix. This leaves a relatively small number of nouns with no suffix whose gender has to be learned individually. But even then, there is usually a link between the plural of a noun and its gender, so that if you know the one, then you have a good chance of being able to pick the other correctly.

3.1.1

Suffixes as indicators of gender and plural Most suffixes are almost invariably linked to a particular gender and a particular plural, with a few common exceptions.

(a) Masculines

Suffix

Plural

Examples Tischler, der Redner, {der der Lehrer, der Bäcker

-ler, -ner, j -er (from verbs)) -an, -än, -är, -eur, \ -ich, -ig, -ling, > -or (stressed) )

-e

-and, -ant, -ent, -et,] -graph, -ist, -krat, -loge, -nom )

-en, -n

Suffix

Plural

der Kapitän, der Friseur, der König, der Lehrling, der Maj'or

I

der Komödiant, der Student, der Athlet, der Komponist, der Demokrat, k der Astrologe, der Gastronom -or (unstressed) -s, -en der Professor NOTE: the stress shifts in the plural: die Profess'oren. -ismus -ismen der Organismus Exceptions: das Labor, das Organ, das Restaurant

(b) Feminines

Examples

-anz, -ei, -enz, ' die Bücherei, die Residenz, -heit, -ie, -ik, -ion, die Panik, die Revolution, -en -keit, -schaft, -tät, die Eitelkeit, die Mannschaft, -ung, -ur k die Bedeutung, die Natur -in -nen die Freundin Exceptions: das Abitur, der Atlantik, der Pazifik (c) Neuters

Suffix

Plural

Examples

-chen, -lein, -sei, -tel das Mädchen, das Viertel -tum "er das Eigentum -at, -ett, -il, -ment -e das Format, das Ventil, das Dokument -um -en das Datum NOTE: -um is replaced by en in the plural, e.g. die Daten. Exceptions: der Automat, der Irrtum, der Reichtum, der Salat (d) Masculine if persons, neuter if things

Suffix

Plural

Examples

-al, -ar, -ier, -e der General, das Regal -on (stressed) -e der Bar' on, das Mikro' phon -on (unstressed) -en, -en der 'Dämon, das E'lektron NOTE: the stress shifts in the plural: die Dä'monen, Elek'tronen. Exceptions: der Kanal, die Moral, die Person

3.1.2

Suffixes or prefixes as clues to gender and plural With other nouns, the link between gender, suffix (or, in one case, prefix) and plural is less regular. However, it is worth knowing these regularities, even if there are more exceptions.

(a)

(b)

Nouns in -nis and -sal (pi: -nisse, -sale) Nouns in -nis and -sal are predominantly (70%) neuter

das Ergebnis, das Hindernis, das Zeugnis, das Scheusal (R3a), das Schicksal, etc.

A minority of nouns in -nis and sal (30%) are feminine

die Besorgnis, die Erkenntnis, die Erlaubnis, die Finsternis, die Kenntnis, die Wildnis, die Trübsal (R3)

Nouns in GeNouns in Ge- usually have the plural -e if they have no suffix, e.g. das Gebet 'prayer', die Gebete, but they have no ending in the plural if they end in -e, e.g. das Gebäude 'building', die Gebäude. Nouns in Ge- are predominantly das Gebet, das Gebot, das Gebiet, das Gebirge, das Gehör, das Gesetz, neuter (90%) das Gesindel, das Getriebe, etc. A few feminines (plural -en or -n)

die Gebühr, die Geburt, die Geduld, die Gefahr, die Gemeinde, die Geschichte, die Gestalt, die Gewalt

A few masculines (plural "e except where indicated)

der Gebrauch, der Gedanke (-ns,-n), der Gefallen (-), der Gehorsam, der Genosse, der Genuss, der Geruch, der Gesang, der Geschmack, der Gewinn

Six neuters form the plural in "er das Gehalt, das Gemüt (R3), das Geschlecht, das Gesicht, das Gespenst, das Gewand (R3)

Nouns in -el, -en,-er Nouns with these suffixes are predominantly masculine. Nouns in -erfrom verbs are all masculine

der Bäcker, der Bettler, der Bohrer, der Fahrer, der Lehrer, der Redner, der Sprecher, der Unternehmer, etc.

Other nouns in -el, -en, -er are predominantly (60%) masculine: They are endingless in the plural

der Flügel, der Kümmel, der Löffel, der Pegel, der Kragen, der Schatten, der Schuppen, der Wagen, der Adler, der Fehler, der Weiher, etc.

A quarter (25%) ofnouns in -el and -er are feminine and have the plural -n

die Formel, die Gabel, die Kugel, die Regel, die Butter, die Kiefer, die Schwester, die Ziffer, etc.

A small proportion (15%) of nouns in -el, -en and -er are neuter and are endingless in the plural

das Kabel, das Segel, das Kissen, das Zeichen, das Fenster, das Messer, das Zimmer, etc.

There are some common exceptions to these regularities: About twenty masculines in -el, -en, -er have the plurali.e. no ending is added but the vowel has umlaut, e.g.: der Vogeldie Vögel

der Apfel, der Boden, der Bogen, der Bruder, der Faden, der Garten, der Graben, der Hafen, der Hammer, der Kasten, der Laden, der Mantel, der Nagel, der Ofen, der Schaden, der Vater, der Vogel

A few masculines in -el and -er have the plural -n

der Bauer (-n, -n), der Muskel, der Pantoffel, der Stachel, der Vetter

Two feminines in -er have the plural"

die Mutter, die Tochter

Two neuters in -er have the plural"

das Abwasser, das Kloster

(d)

Nouns in -e (all have plural -n) Nouns in -e are predominantly (90%) feminine

die Biene, die Blume, die Bühne, die Fichte, die Gabe, die Garage, die Lampe, die Liebe, die Reise, etc.

Some nouns in -e denoting male der Affe, der Bote, der Chinese, der beings are masculine. They are Franzose, der Gatte (R3), der Kunde, der Riese, etc. all weak nouns (-n, see 3.2.1;

There are a few masculine nounsder Buchstabe, der Friede, der in -e with the ending -ns in the Funke, der Gedanke, der Glaube, genitive der Name, der Wille One or two other nouns in -e are der Charme, der Käse masculine A very few nouns in -e are neuter das Auge, das Ende, das Erbe, das Image, das Interesse, das Prestige, das Regime (e)

Other nouns Most of the remaining nouns of German are words of one syllable. In practice, the gender of these is best learned by heart, but it is always worth remembering how these nouns divide up between the three genders, i.e.: • 60% masculine • 25% neuter • 15% feminine The way the plural is usually formed with these remaining nouns differs between the genders. It is helpful particularly to learn those whose plural goes against the normal rule for their gender, e.g. the masculine nouns with the 'typically neuter' plural" er, or the neuters with the 'typically feminine' plural -en:

Masculine

der Arzt - die Ärtze Most ofthese masculine nouns form der Bach - die Bäche their plural by adding der Fuß - die Füße -e, with umlaut if possible

der Gast - die Gäste der Stuhl - die Stühle der Tisch - die Tische

A significant number der Arm - die Arme ofcommon nouns takeder Besuch - die Besuche the ending -e, with no der Hund - die Hunde umlaut (even ifthe vowel could have umlaut)

der Monat die Monate der Schuh die Schuhe der Tag - die Tage

Some names ofmale der Bär - des Bären - die Bären humans and animals der Mensch - des Menschen - die Menschen are 'weak9nouns, with -en, -en A dozen or sohave a der Geist - die Geister der Rand - die Ränder der Mann -- die Männer der Wald - die Wälder plural in 'er A dozen or sohave a der Dorn - die Dornen der Staat - die Staaten plural in -en der Nerv - die Nerven der Strahl -die Strahlen Most of these feminine die Arbeit die Frau - die Frauen nouns (75%) form die Arbeiten die Last - die Lasten their plural by die Form - die Formen die Pacht - die Pachten adding -en die Flut - die Fluten

Feminine

A quarter (25%) have a plural in "e Neuter

die Gans - die Gänse die Hand - die Hände die Kuh - die Kühe

die Luft - die Lüfte die Maus - die Mäuse die Stadt - die Städte

Most of these neuter das Bein - die Beine das Brot - die Brote nouns (75%) form das Gas - die Gase their plural by adding -e

das Jahr - die Jahre das Schaf - die Schafe das Stück - die Stücke

A quarter (25%) have a plural in "er

das Bad - die Bäder das Buch - die Bücher das Ei - die Eier

das Haus - die Häuser das Kind - die Kinder das Tal - die Täler

A few have a plural in -en

das Bett - die Betten das Hemd die Hemden

das Insekt die Insekten das Ohr - die Ohren

One has the plural "e das Floß - die Flöße

3.1.3

Plurals in -s A large and increasing number of nouns of all genders have a plural in -s. It is of relatively recent or regional (i.e. N) origin, and it has been looked down on in the past by purists, especially in R3a. It is found principally in new words, especially those loaned from French and English, and it is current with the following groups of nouns:

• •

Words ending in a vowel other than -e Abbreviations, names of letters, shortened words

das Auto -> die Autos die Mutti —• die Muttis der LKW —• die LKWs das L -> die Ls, etc. die Lok die Loks (Rl)

•

Other parts ofspeech (esp in Rl)

•

Some N nautical words

•

To refer to families

•

With words for persons (Rl in N only)

•

In French words pronounced in (semi-) French way

•

In words recently adopted from English

das Aber -> die Abers das Blau die Blaus, etc. das Deck -> die Decks das Dock —• die Docks der Kai die Kais das Wrack die Wracks die Müllers, Schmidts, Werners, etc. der Bengel -> die Bengels das Fräulein die Fräuleins der Onkel —> die Onkels der Junge die Jungs, etc. das Atelier die Ateliers das Amendement die Amendements, etc. das Baby die Babys (!) die Band -> die Bands der/das Essay die Essays, etc.

With the following words, the plural in -s is now the most frequent. Other plural forms (e.g. die Balkone, die Ballone, die Parke), are restricted to very traditional R3a: das Karussell das Kotelett das Labor das Parfüm der Park

der Balkon der Ballon das Etikett das Kabarett der Karton

das Porträt der Schal der Scheck der Streik

3.1.4 Nouns with alternative plurals A number of other words have alternative ways of forming the plural. These are often associated with regional or register differences.The most usual plural is given first, then the less frequent one, with notes where necessary: der Admiral der Bogen das Ding der Erlass der Fasan der General der Geschmack die Kartoffel der Kragen

-e ••

-e -e -en -e -e -n -

(also "e) (N-) (Rl -er) (AU "e) (also -e) (also "e) (Rl "er) (RH (S )

der Kran der Laden das Lager das Mädel der Magnet der Pastor das Ross der Stiefel das Stück der Wagen

3.1.5

"e -

-en, -en -en -e -

-e -

(also -e) (N - 'shutters') (S, R3b ") (N -s; S -n) (also -e) (N"e) (S "er) (S-n) (S-er) (S")

Foreign words with unusual plurals Many words taken from the classical (or some other) languages have an unusual plural, although in some instances this is only used in R3. Some of the commonest are given below, with variant forms where theyexist: das Album die Alben (Rl -s) der Atlas ->• die Atlanten (Rl Atlasse) das Cello die Celli (R1/R2 Cellos) das Drama —> die Dramen der Espresso —> die Espressi (Rl Espressos) das Examen —> die Examina (R1/R2 Examen) die Firma —• die Firmen das Fossil ->» die Fossilien der Kaktus die Kakteen (Rl Kaktusse) das Komma —> die Kommata (R1/R2 Kommas) das Konto —> die Konten (Rl Kontos) das Lexikon die Lexika (Rl Lexiken)

3.1.6 (a)

das Material • die Materialien das Mineral - * die Mineralien (rare: Minerale) das Museum die Museen der Mythos - • die Mythen das Prinzip - • die Prinzipien das Privileg - • die Privilegien das Reptil —• die Reptilien der Rhythmus die Rhythmen das Risiko die Risiken (also: -s) das Schema —• die Schemata (Rl -men/-s) die Villa —• die Villen das Virus —• die Viren das Visum —• die Visen (also Visa) das Zentrum —• die Zentren

Differences in plural usage between German and English In some instances German uses a singular word where English has a plural:

der Anfang beginning(s) der Arbeitsanzug overalls das Archiv archives die Asche ashes das Aussehen looks das Benehmen manners der Besitz possessions der Bodensatz dregs die Brille glasses, spectacles der Dank thanks der Darm intestines, guts das Einkommen earnings die Eisenbahn railways das Fernglas binoculars das Feuerwerk fireworks die Gebrauchsanweisung instructions der Gewinn winnings der Hafer oats das Hauptquartier headquarters das schottische Hochland the Highlands der Hopfen hops die Hose trousers, pants der Inhalt contents die Kaserne barracks der Kehrricht sweepings die Kundschaft customers der Lohn wages

die Lunge lungs das Mittel means das Mittelalter the Middle Ages die Mühe pains die Pension lodgings die Physik physics die Politik politics das Protokoll minutes der Pyjama pyjamas der Reichtum riches der Schadenersatz (legal) damages die Schere scissors das Schilf reeds der Schlüpfer knickers die Schutzbrille goggles der Stadtrand outskirts die Statistik statistics die Stehleiter stepladder die Treppe stairs, steps die Umgebung surroundings das Unkraut weeds die Unterhose underpants die Waage scales die Wahl election(s) der Wald wood(s) die Zange pliers, tongs der Ziegenpeter mumps der Zirkel compasses der Zoll customs

All the above nouns must of course be used with a verb in the singular, e.g.: Meine Brille ist kaputt My glasses are broken The same applies to singular collective nouns, which are often used with a plural verb in English, but never in German, e.g.: Die Polizei kommt The police are coming Similarly with die Mannschaft, das Publikum, die Regierung, das Volk, etc. In a few instances German uses a plural word for an English singular: die Flitterwochen honeymoon die Ränke (R3) intrigue die Kosten cost(s) die Trümmer rubble die Lebensmittel food die Wirren turmoil die Möbel furniture die Zinsen interest die Pocken smallpox

(c)

(d)

Incertain instances English and German differ as to whether certain nouns can have a plural: Singular

Plural

der Atem breath die Auskunft (piece of) information der Blitz (flash of) lightning das Brot bread, loaf das Essen meal der Fortschritt advance die Hausaufgabe (piece of) homework die Kenntnis (piece of) knowledge die Nachricht (piece of) news das Obst fruit der Rasen lawn der Schaden damage die See sea das Spielzeug toy der Sport sport der Tod death das Versprechen promise

die Atemzüge breaths die Auskünfte information die Blitzeflashesof lightning die Brote loaves die Mahlzeiten meals die Fortschritte progress die Hausaufgaben homework die Kenntnisse knowledge die Nachrichten news die Obstsorten fruits die Rasenflächen lawns die Schäden instances ofdamage die Meere seas die Spielwaren toys die Sportarten sports die Todesfälle deaths die Versprechungen promises

Other instances of difference in the use of singular and plural: Masculine and neuter nouns of measurement used with numerals keep their singular form: vier Pfund Rindfleisch sechs Paar Schuhe zwei Glas Bier With words denoting clothes, parts of the body, etc., the singular is used if each person has one of each: Alle hoben die rechte Hand . . . their right hands Sie redete die Leute nie mit dem Namen an . . . by their names Manche haben ein leichtes Leben Some people have easy lives

3.1.7

Nouns with variable gender The gender of a number of nouns is not fullyfixedand a sample of these is given below. The variation is often linked to regional and register differences.

der (CH das) Aperitif der (also das) Barock der (S das) Bonbon die (S der) Butter das (occ der) Dossier der (also das) Dotter der (occ das) Dschungel der or das Fakt das (CH die) Foto das (occ der) Gulasch der (Rl das) Gummi der (also das, Rl die) Joghurt

die (S der) Kartoffel der (AU das) Keks das (also der) Knäuel das (CH, Rl der) Liter das (AU, CH der) Match der (also das) Meteor das (AU der) Polster der (CH das) Pyjama das (S der) Radio der (also das) Sims das (CH der) Taxi das (Rl der) Virus

A few words have more complex variation: Meter

Mut

Teil

der/das Blackout der/das Break der/das Cartoon

is nowadays usually masculine (i.e. der Meter), but, especially in R3a, is quite commonly neuter (i.e. das Meter). Most compounds have the same variation, but there are exceptions: always masc: der Kilometer, der Gasometer always neuter, das Barometer, das Thermometer is masculine, but some of its compounds are feminine: masc: Freimut, Gleichmut, Hochmut, Kleinmut, Ubermut, Unmut fem: Anmut, Armut, Demut, Großmut, Sanftmut, Schwermut, Wehmut is nowadays always masculine in all its meanings, except in a few set phrases where it is neuter, i.e.: ich für mein (or: meinen) Teil Er hat sein (or: seinen) Teil getan It is neuter, too, in the sense of'detached part', esp in technical R3b: jedes einzelne Teil Its compounds are also usually masculine, except for the following: das Abteil, das Einzelteil, das Ersatzteil, das Gegenteil, das Urteil das (also der) Oberteil; das (legal R3b der) Erbteil With many recent loan-words from English, no gender has yet become established. The majority (over 60 per cent) are masculine and most of the rest are neuter, but many show variation, e.g.: der/das Deal der/das Ketchup der/das Plaid der/die Forehand der/das Looping der/das Radar der/das Go-slow der/die Parka die/das Soda

3.2 Nouns: case The grammatical category of case relates to endings on nouns, pronouns, adjectives and determiners which indicate the role played by

a noun phrase in the sentence. In English this is usually shown by the position of the noun phrase before or after the verb, and English learners need to be aware of this crucial difference between the languages and, when they are reading or listening to German, get used to paying attention to these endings rather than the position of the noun phrase. Case in German is most often shown through the endings of determiners (especially the definite and indefinite articles) and adjectives rather than endings on the noun itself. For most nouns the only endings in modern German are:

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

(i) Masculine and neuter nouns add in the genitive singular. (ii) is added in the dative plural if possible (i.e. if the plural does not end in -n or -s).

nominative accusative genitive dative

singular der Vater den Vater des Vaters dem Vater

plural die Väter die Väter der Väter den Vätern

singular das Kind das Kind des Kind(e)s dem Kind

plural die Kinder die Kinder der Kinder den Kindern

There are a few exceptions to this pattern, and these are outlined in 3.2.1-4.

3.2.1

'Weak' masculine nouns About 10 per cent of masculine nouns (mostly denoting living beings) have the ending -(e)n in the plural and in the genitive, dative and accusative singular.

•

Most of these nouns end in -e. der Kollege die Kollegen des Kollegen der Kollegen dem Kollegen den Kollegen den Kollegen die Kollegen

•

Those that do not end in -e often decline regularly in the singular in spoken Rl, although this is regarded as 'incorrect' in written R2 and R3. Rl R2/R3 der Bär der Bär des Bärs des Bären dem Bär dem Bären den Bär den Bären

Similarly: der Automat, der Bauer, der Bunch, der Fürst, der Graf, der Held, der Hirt, der Kamerad, der Mensch, der Planet, der Prinz, der Soldat, der Typ and many nouns ending in -ant, -ent, -ist like der Student and der Komponist. NOTE: der Nachbar and der Oberst always have -n in the genitive singular in all registers, e.g. des Nachbarn, but often lack it in the dative and accusative singular, especially in Rl, e.g. dem, den Nachbar (for R2/R3 dem, den Nachbarn). The singular endings are omitted in R2 and R3 if the noun has no article or adjective with it: die Gemeinsamkeit zwischen Mensch (not Menschen) und Tier eine Herde ohne Hirt (not Hirten) Some nouns have now switched entirely to a regular singular in all registers, though older R3a may use weak endings, i.e.: der Nerv,, der Papagei, der Pfau, der Spatz, der Vetter, e.g.: der Vetter, des Vetters (R3a: des Vettern), die Vettern der Herr has the ending -n in the singular, but -en in the plural: der Herr die Herren den Herrn die Herren des Herrn der Herren dem Herrn den Herren

3.2.2

'Mixed' nouns Eight masculine nouns have a mixture of weak and regular endings and are known as 'mixed' nouns, e.g.: der Name des Namens dem Namen den Namen

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North N E = North East N W = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

die Namen der Namen den Namen die Namen

The other nouns of this type are: der Buchstabe, der Friede, der Funke, der Gedanke, der Glaube, der Same, der Wille. However, with some of these nouns, forms with a final -n in the nominative singular (e.g. der Frieden rather than der Friede) are now more frequent in all registers than the forms without -n. This applies to der Frieden, der Funken and der Samen. The neuter noun Herz has a similar irregular pattern: das Herz des Herzens dem Herzen das Herz

die Herzen der Herzen den Herzen die Herzen

3.2.3

The dative ending -e Masculine and neuter nouns of one syllable sometimes add the ending -ie in dative singular, e.g.: dem Manne, dem Kinde, dem Bilde, dem Tische This ending -e is restricted to R3a and it has become rather unusual even there since the 1930s. However, it is still normal in a few set phrases and idioms, e.g.:

•

•

Always -e: im Grunde genommen bei Lichte betrachtet am Rande bemerkt jdn zu Rate ziehen

unter Tage arbeiten zu Werke gehen im Zuge sein

Usually -e in R2/R3, but often no -e in Rl: auf dem Lande im Falle bis zu einem gewissen Grade im Laufe des Tages im Lichte in hohem Grade in gewissem Maße zum Halse heraushängen im Sande verlaufen nach Hause, zu Hause im Schwünge sein von Hause aus in diesem Sinne aus dem Jahre 1897 zum Zuge kommen im Jahre 2005

3.2.4 The genitive singular ending -(e)s (a) -es or -s?

•

The genitive singular of regular masculine and neuter nouns has the ending -s or -es. The following general rules apply for this: Nouns ending in -s, -ß, -sch or -z always add -es, e.g.: des Hauses, des Fußes, des Tisches, des Netzes

•

Nouns of more than one syllable or those ending in a vowel usually add e.g.: des Königs, des Bürgertums, des Lehrers, der Autos, des Baus

•

Nouns of one syllable ending in a consonant can have -es or -s, e.g.: des Kinds/des Kindes des Tags/des Tages The choice between these often depends on register, with the ending -es usually felt to be more formal (and thus preferred in R3a, even, sometimes, with nouns of two or more syllables). But -es is often used more widely for reasons of rhythm or ease of pronunciation.

Omission of the genitive singular ending In certain instances, the ending -(e)s is often dropped, i.e.: with foreign nouns ending in -s, e.g.: des Organismus, des Atlas (but always: des Busses, des Kongresses) with abbreviations and other parts of speech used as nouns, although with these the ending -s is sometimes found in R3, e.g.: des Ich, des Aber, des LKW, des EKG (R3: des Ichs, des LKWs, etc.) with many foreign nouns, especially in R3b with technical terms, words seen as specific names, and names of artistic styles and epochs, e.g.: des britischen Establishment, die Werke des Barock, der Gebrauch des Dativ with foreign geographical names, e.g.: die Berge des High Peak with names of the days of the week, seasons and months (although the months in -er often retain the -5), e.g.: des Montag, des Mittwoch, des Januar, des Herbst, des Mai, des Oktober(s) with prepositions if there is no article with the noun (however, the ending is preferred in R3a in these contexts): wegen Geldmangel (R3a: wegen Geldmangels) with names preceded by article (R2 increasingly has -s here), e.g.: des modernen Deutschland (R2: des modernen Deutschlands) Usage with personal n a m e s Personal names have the ending -s and come first, e.g.: Sabines Fahrrad, Vatis Auto With multiple names, the last one has the ending -s and the genitive phrase can come before or after, e.g.: Helmut Kohls Politik OR die Politik Helmut Kohls If the name has a noun preceding it, the name has -s and the genitive phrase can come before or after, e.g.: der Sieg Kaiser Wilhelms OR Kaiser Wilhelms Sieg When Herr is used with a surname, both decline, e.g.: Herrn Paulis Einladung In the combination article, noun and name, the noun and the article decline, e.g.: der Sieg des Kaisers Wilhelm In the combination of a name with an article and an adjective, all three decline, e.g.: der Sieg Wilhelms des Zweiten

3.3

Verbs: strong and weak There are two main classes of verb in German, the 'weak' verbs, which have a -t- suffix in the past tense and the past participle, like machen machte - gemacht, and 'strong' verbs, which have vowel changes in the past tense and often in the past participle, like singen - sang-gesungen. The weak verbs are far more numerous, but the strong verbs include many really common verbs.

3.3.1

Strong verb classes Although there is no way of telling from the infinitive whether a verb is strong or weak, and so no real alternative to learning which verbs are strong, the strong verbs with their principal parts (i.e. the infinitive, the past tense and the past participle) fall into recognizable groups which can help you to remember them.

(a)

Present tense in -eiblieb bleiben to stay beißen to bite biss (i) Like bleiben are: leihen to lend meiden to avoid preisen to praise reiben to rub schreiben to write schreien to cry out (ii) Like beißen are: erbleichen to turn pale gleiten to glide greifen to seize kneifen to pinch pfeifen to whistle reißen to tear reiten to ride scheißen (Rl*) to shit

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

geblieben gebissen schweigen (R3) to be silent steigen to climb treiben to drive verzeihen to excuse weisen to show

schleichen to creep schleifen to sharpen schmeißen (Rl) to throw schreiten (R3) to stride streichen to stroke streiten to argue vergleichen to compare weichen to yield

With slight variations on these patterns: litt gelitten leiden to suffer hieß geheißen heißen to be called schneiden to cut schnitt geschnitten

(b)

Present tense in -ibinden to bind schwimmen to swim (i) Like binden are: dringen to penetrate finden to find gelingen to succeed klingen to sound ringen to wrestle singen to sing

band schwamm

(ii) Like schwimmen are: beginnen to begin gewinnen to win rinnen to runf flow

gebunden geschwommen

sinken to sink springen to jump stinken to stink trinken to drink verschwinden to disappear zwingen to force sinnen (R3) to think spinnen to spin

With a slight variation on these patterns: gesessen sitzen to sit saß (c)

Present tense in -iebog biegen to bend Like biegen are: bieten to offer fliegen to fly fliehen (R2/R3) to run away fließen to flow frieren to freeze gießen to pour kriechen to creep

gebogen riechen to smell schieben to push schießen to shoot schließen (R2/R3) to shut verlieren to lose wiegen to weigh

With slight variations on this pattern: gelegen liegen to lie lag gezogen zog ziehen to pull (d) Present tense in -ehalf helfen to help gab geben to give fechten to fence focht AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

(i) Like helfen are: befehlen to order bergen to hide bersten (R3) to burst brechen to break empfehlen to recommend erschrecken (R3) to be frightened gelten to be valid sprechen to speak

geholfen gegeben gefochten stechen to prick, sting stehlen to steal sterben to die treffen to meet, hit verderben to spoil werben to advertise werfen to throw

(ii) Like geben are: fressen to eat (of animals) genesen* to get better geschehen to happen lesen to read (iii) Like fechten are: bewegen* (R3) to move flechten to plait heben* to raise scheren* to shave

messen to measure sehen to see treten to step vergessen to forget schmelzen to melt schwellen to swell weben to weave

With slight variations on these patterns: aß essen to eat nahm nehmen to take wurde (R3a: ward) werden to become

gegessen genommen geworden

All strong verbs in -e-, except those marked*, change the vowel in the second and third person singular of the present tense (i.e. the du and er/sie/es-forms) and the singular (i.e. the du-form) of the imperative. In most cases the vowel is -i-, e.g.: helfen: du hilfst; er/sie/es hilft; hilf! geben: du gibst; er/sie/es gibt; gib! With variation on this: nehmen: du nimmst; er/sie/es nimmt; nimm! werden: du wirst; er/sie/es wird; werde! treten: du trittst; er/sie/es tritt; tritt! Most verbs with a long -e- [ex] change this to long -ie- [i:], e.g.: lesen: du liest; er/sie/es liest; lies! sehen: du siehst; er/sie/es sieht; sieh! NOTE: In Rl, there is often no vowel change in the imperative of these verbs, e.g. geb! Present tense in -afuhr fahren to go, drive fallen to fall fiel (i) Like fahren are: backen to bake graben to dig laden to load schaffen to create (ii) Like fallen are: blasen to blow braten to roast, fry halten to hold

gefahren gefallen

tragen to carry wachsen to grow waschen to wash

lassen to leave, let raten to advise schlafen to sleep

With a slight variation on these patterns: fing gefangen fangen to catch All these verbs, with the exception of schaffen, have umlaut in the second and third person singular (i.e. the du and er/sie/es- forms) of the present tense, e.g.: fahren: du fahrst; er/sie/es fahrt fallen: du fällst; er/sie/es fallt With slight variation on this pattern (i.e. no ending in the third person singular): halten: er/sie/es hält laden: er/sie/es lädt raten: er/sie/es rät NOTE: In S, umlaut is often missing with these verbs, e.g. er/sie/es schlaft, etc. (f)

Other strong verbs These do not fit into any of the above patterns: betrügen to deceive betrog betrogen erlosch erloschen erlöschen (R3) to go out (fire, light) gegangen gehen to go ging gehangen hängen to hang hing gekommen kommen to come kam laufen to run gelaufen lief lügen to tell lies gelogen log rufen to call gerufen rief saufen (Rl) to booze gesoffen soff schwören to smear geschworen schwor stehen to stand gestanden stand stoßen to push gestoßen stieß tun to do getan tat

(er erlischt)

(er läuft)

(er säuft)

(er stößt)

3.2 Deceptive weak verbs All compounds and derivatives of strong or irregular verbs follow the same pattern of changes as the simple verb, so that, for example, bekommen 'to get, receive' has the forms bekam and bekommen. However, a few verbs look as if they are derived from strong verbs, but they are not, and their forms are weak. The following are common:

beantragen to apply for begleiten to accompany beinhalten (R3) to comprise fehlen to lack handhaben to manipulate veranlassen to cause verleiden to spoil

3.3.3

beantragte begleitete beinhaltete fehlte handhabte veranlasste verleidete

beantragt begleitet beinhaltet gefehlt gehandhabt veranlasst verleidet

Irregular weak verbs A few verbs have the typical endings of weak verbs, but have vowel changes, too: brennen to burn brannte gebrannt kennen to know kannte gekannt nennen to name nannte genannt rennen to run rannte gerannt senden (R3) to send sandte/sendete gesandt/gesendet (see 3.3.4) wenden to turn wandte/wendete gewandt/gewendet (see 3.3.4) bringen to bring brachte gebracht denken to think dachte gedacht wissen to know wusste gewusst The present tense of wissen is irregular in the singular: ich weiß wir wissen du weißt ihr wisst er weiß sie wissen Some verbs usually have a regular past tense, but a strong past participle: mahlen to grind mahlte gemahlen salzen to salt salzte gesalzen spaltete gespalten spalten to divide

3.3.4 Verbs with strong and weak forms Some verbs have both strong (or irregular) and weak forms. With most of these there is no difference in meaning, although there are then usually register or regional restrictions in usage. With several verbs, though, the weak and strong forms have different meanings.

(a) Strong and weak forms with no difference in meaning backen to bake fragen to ask hauen to hit melken to milk saugen to suck

schmelzen to melt stecken to be stuck weben to weave wenden to turn

(b) bewegen (R3) bewegen hängen hängen erlöschen (R3) loschen erschrecken (R3) erschrecken schaffen schaffen scheren scheren schleifen schleifen senden (R3) senden weichen weichen

buk (R3) backte frug (N, R3) fragte hieb (R3) haute molk (R3a) melkte sog saugte

gebacken

schmolz schmelzte (R3a) stak (R3a) steckte wob (R3) webte wandte (R3) wendete

geschmolzen geschmelzt (R3a) gesteckt

gefragt gehauen gehaut (S) gemolken gemelkt (Rl) gesogen gesaugt

er bäckt er backt (Rl, S) er frägt (Rl, S) er fragt

(weak and strong forms are equally frequent; weak forms esp in Rl and R3b)

(stak only in intransitive uses)

gewoben (R3) gewebt gewandt (R3) gewendet

Strong and weak forms with a difference in meaning bewog bewogen to induce bewegte bewegt to move hing gehangen to hang (intr) hängte gehängt to hang (tr) erlosch erloschen to go out (e.g. fire, light) löschte gelöscht to put sth out (e.g. fire, light) erschrak erschrocken to be frightened (intr) erschreckte erschreckt to frighten sb (tr) schuf geschaffen to create schaffte geschafft to manage (SW also: to work) schor geschoren to shear, shave scherte geschert to concern schliff geschliffen to sharpen schleifte geschleift to drag sandte gesandt to send sendete gesendet to broadcast wich gewichen to yield weichte geweicht to soak

3.4 Determiners and adjectives

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East N W = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

3.4.1

In German it is above all the endings of determiners and adjectives to indicate case, gender and number which show the role of a noun phrase in the sentence. In this way, they are central to the way in which German works, and learning to use them and recognize their function is a crucial aspect of mastering the language. Until you do this, you will not find it easy to express yourself properly or to understand spoken or written German fully. These endings are in no way as daunting as they might appear at first sight. There is a clear system to them, and grasping this makes it much simpler to acquire confidence in using them. In this section the emphasis is on explaining this system, with notes on those aspects which you need to pay most attention to and where usage is uncertain. However, it must be emphasized that you can only learn them properly through practice in real phrases and sentences, not through tables. The endings of the articles in particular are absolutely vital, because, more than any other endings, they show gender, case and number fully and so provide the clues as to how the sentence is constructed and what it means. The determiner is typically the first word in a noun phrase, and the underlying principle of German inflections is that if it has an ending which shows gender, case and number clearly, then the following adjective can have a less distinctive, 'weaker' ending (i.e. -e or -en). On the other hand, if there is no determiner, or the determiner has no ending, then the adjective has to have more distinctive ('strong') endings, which are very like those of the definite article. Determiners and adjectives thus back each other up in making it clear what gender, case and number we are dealing with in any noun phrase.

Basic determiner endings The endings of the demonstrative dieser show the basic set of distinctive endings clearly.

Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Plural

dieser diesen dieses diesem

diese diese dieser dieser

dieses dieses dieses diesem

diese diese dieser diesen

All German determiners have endings which are related to this basic set. Many decline like dieser, i.e.:

aller all einiger some etlicher some folgender the following irgendwelcher some... or other jeder each

jener that mancher some sämtlicher all solcher such welcher which

A few are only used in the plural: viele many beide both mehrere several wenige a few The endings of the definite article are like those of dieser, with slight variations:

Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Plural

der den des dem

die die der der

das das des dem

die die der den

The indefinite articles ein and kein and the possessives mein, dein, sein, unser, euer and ihr decline like dieser except that they have no ending in the nominative singular masculine and neuter, and the accusative singular neuter, e.g.:

Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Plural

mein meinen meines meinem

meine meine meiner meiner

mein mein meines meinem

meine meine meiner meinen

3.4.2 Basic adjective endings The basic principles are as follows: (i)

If an adjective is used alone with a noun (i.e. it is not following a determiner), then it has endings like dieser. These are called the 'strong' adjective endings: Masculine

Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

guter guten guten gutem

Feminine

Wein gute Wein gute Weines guter Wein guter

Suppe Suppe Suppe Suppe

Neuter gutes gutes guten gutem

Plural Brot Brot Brotes Brot

gute gute guter guten

Weine Weine Weine Weinen

(ii)

(iii)

Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

The only difference between these 'strong' adjective endings and those of dieser is in the genitive singular masculine and neuter, which is -en rather than -es. In practice, this only occurs in R3. Adjectives preceded by a determiner which has no ending also have these 'strong' endings, e.g.: mit viel kaltem Wasser manch braver Mann solch hartes Los This applies particularly to the endingless forms of the indefinite articles ein and kein, and the possessives mein, unser, etc.: ein runder Tisch ein kleines Schiff kein neues Haus mein neuer Mantel dein langes Ohr sein krankes Herz unser treuer Hund euer altes Auto ihr rotes Kleid On the other hand, when the adjective follows a determiner with an ending, it has the less distinctive ('weak') endings -e (in the nominative singular and the accusative singular feminine and neuter) or -en (in all other cases). Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Plural

der neue Tag den neuen Tag des neuen Tages dem neuen Tag

die blaue Luft die blaue Luft der blauen Luft der blauen Luft

das weite Tal das weite Tal des weiten Tals dem weiten Tal

die weiten Täler die weiten Täler der weiten Täler der weiten Tälern

3.4.3 Uncertainties and variation in current usage There is some variation in current usage in a few contexts: •

aller, mancher, solcher, welcher nowadays usually have the ending -en in the genitive singular masculine and neuter if the noun has the ending -(e)s. In practice this only occurs in written R3, e.g.: trotz allen Eifers Er erinnerte sich manchen Tages solchen Gedankens welchen Fortschritts jeder is tending to follow the same pattern, if not always, i.e.: am Ende jeden Abschnitts OR am Ende jedes Abschnitts

•

When there is more than one adjective before a noun they all have the same ending, e.g.: bei nachhaltender, andauernder Wirkung However, in the dative singular masculine and neuter, a second adjective sometimes has -en in R3, e.g.: mit unverantwortlichem individuellem Fehlverhalten (more usual) mit unverantwortlichem individuellen Fehlverhalten (frequent R3)

•

After a pronoun the strong endings are the rule, e.g.: du armer Bursch mit mir jungem Kerl

However, the ending -en is usual after wir and ihr, e.g.: wir fremden Leute ihr lieben Kinder An adjective after uns and euch usually has the ending -e, e.g.: das geht uns Deutsche an gegen euch arme Leute Colour adjectives ending in a full vowel are not usually declined in R2 and R3, e.g.: ein rosa Kleid ein lila Hemd But they often are declined in Rl, usually with an -n- after the vowel, e.g.: ein rosanes Kleid ein lilanes Hemd Adjectives in -er from city names are never declined, e.g.: die Frankfurter Messe die Berliner Autobahn The declension of adjectives after some indefinites is subject to variation and uncertainty in all registers. Current usage in the plural, where these words are most often found, is as follows: alle, beide, sämtliche are usually followed by adjectives with weak endings, e.g.: alle fremden Truppen aller fremden Truppen allen fremden Truppen In R3 the genitive plural occasionally has the strong ending -er, e.g.: aller fremder Truppen solche and irgendwelche can be followed by weak or strong endings. The weak endings are more common, e.g.: solche guten (gute) Freunde solcher guten (guter) Freunde solchen guten Freunden manche can be followed by weak or strong endings. The strong endings are more common, e.g.: manche gute (guten) Freunde mancher guter (guten) Freunde manchen guten Freunden einige, etliche, folgende, mehrere, viele, wenige are usually followed by strong endings, e.g.: viele gute Freunde vieler guter Freunde vielen guten Freunden In R3 the genitive plural is occasionally weak, e.g.: vieler guten Freunde Some determiners can be used in combination with others. In this case the second of them normally declines like an adjective. The following such combinations are common:

die beiden . . . both ... ,the two ... die folgende . . . the following... ein jeder (...) any (.. .) (see 3.5.6) der meine, etc. mine, etc. (see 3.5.3) der sämtliche . . . all the... ein solcher . . . such a . . . (see 3.5.6) viele solche . . . many such ... die vielen . . . the many... die wenigen . . . the few... einige wenige . . . a few...

die beiden Postkarten diese beiden Postkarten die folgende Erläuterung die folgenden Worte eines jeden Pastors einer jeden Mutter das meine, dem deinen der Ihre, den unseren das sämtliche Geld mein sämtliches Geld ein solches Wetter einem solchen Beträger viele solche Menschen vieler solcher Versuche die vielen Anwesenden dieser vielen Reisen die wenigen Besucher der wenigen Schallplatten einiger weniger Großstädte einigen wenigen Stunden

With declined alle, however, the second word keeps its own declension (see 3.5.6): alle die . . . alle die Bände all the... alle diese Operationen alle meine . . . , etc. alle meine Freunde all my... , etc. allen Ihren Träumen

.4 Adjectives as nouns In German almost any adjective can be used as a noun. This is not possible in English, where we have to use adjectives with 'dummy' nouns such as man, woman, person, people, one, things to express the same idea, e.g.: der Alte the old man Abwesende people absent die Alte the old woman die Zuhörenden the people listening das Wichtige the important thing ein Singender someone singing Wichtiges important things das Grüne the green one All adjectives used as nouns keep their adjective endings. It is important to realize the difference between these and 'weak' masculine nouns (see 3.2.1). Compare the endings for der Fremde 'the stranger', ein Fremder 'a stranger' with those of der Kollege 'the colleague' and ein Kollege 'a colleague':

Singular der Fremde den Fremden des Fremden dem Fremden

Plural die Fremden die Fremden der Fremden den Fremden

Singular der Kollege den Kollegen des Kollegen dem Kollegen

Plural die Kollegen die Kollegen der Kollegen den Kollegen

ein Fremder

Fremde strangers Fremde Fremder Fremden

ein Kollege

Kollegen colleagues Kollegen Kollegen Kollegen

einen Fremden eines Fremden einem Fremden

einen Kollegen eines Kollegen einem Kollegen

Similarly: einige Fremde 'some strangers', alle Fremden 'all (the) strangers', solche Fremde(n) 'strangers like that', etc. Many of these adjectives used as nouns are the equivalent of ordinary nouns in English, and the following are very frequent. In most instances they can be used as masculine or feminine with an appropriate article, e.g.: der Fremde, 'the (male) stranger', die Fremde, 'the (female) stranger'. The exception to this is die Beamtin, 'the (female) civil servant'. der/die Abgeordnete representative Angestellte employee Arbeitslose unemployed person Bekannte acquaintance Deutsche German Einheimische local person Erwachsene adult Freiwillige volunteer Gefangene prisoner Geistliche clergyman Gelehrte scholar

der/die Gesandte (R3) emissary Geschworene jury member Heilige saint Industrielle industrialist Jugendliche (R3b) young person Reisende traveller Verlobte fiance(e) Verwandte relative Vorbeigehende passer-by Vorgesetzte superior Vorsitzende chair (of meeting)

A few adjectival nouns are always feminine: die Linke the left (side), (political) left die Rechte the right (side), (political ) right die Illustrierte 'the magazine' is most often treated as a feminine adjectival noun, e.g. in dieser Illustrierten. In the plural, though, it can have the endings of an adjective or of a regular feminine noun, e.g. Wir haben zwei Illustrierte/Illustrierten gekauft. A few adjectival nouns are always neuter: das Außere/ das Innere the outside/inside das Freie the open (air) Gehacktes mince In Rl, the names of German regions are often given by using a neuter adjective: das Bayerische Bavaria im Hessischen in Hesse

An adjective after the indefinites alles, etwas, viel and nichts is treated as an adjectival noun (with the appropriate endings) and spelled with a capital letter: alles Gute all good things dative: allem Guten dative: etwas Gutem etwas Gutes something good dative: viel Gutem viel Gutes many good things dative: nichts Gutem nichts Gutes nothing good Names of languages usually appear in the form of a neuter adjective. In most cases this is not declined, e.g.: Wir lernen Spanisch, Französisch, Russisch, Englisch In Hannover soll man das beste Deutsch sprechen der Unterschied zum heutigen Deutsch die Aussprache des modernen Deutsch If it is used with a definite article and no other adjective, names of languages are declined, e.g.: Das Englische ist dem Deutschen verwandt eine Ubersetzung aus dem Italienischen Names of colours are dealt with similarly and do not usually decline, e.g.: das Grün der Wiesen von einem glänzenden Rot in Blau gekleidet ein hässliches Gelb Only in a few set phrases with the definite article are these colour adjectives declined, e.g.: ins Grüne fahren ins Schwarze treffen das Blaue vom Himmel herunter versprechen Es ist das Gelbe vom Ei

3.5 3.5.1

Other words that decline: forms and uses Demonstratives The most frequent common demonstrative pronoun and determiner in spoken Rl and R2 is der, i.e. a stressed form of the definite article. As a determiner (i.e. when it is used with a following noun) it declines like the definite article (see 3.4.1). As a pronoun (i.e. when it is used on its own to refer back to a previously mentioned noun) it declines as follows. Note the highlighted differences to the declension of the definite article:

Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Plural

der den dessen dem

die die deren/derer der

das das dessen dem

die die deren/derer denen

•

In spoken Rl der is used as the equivalent of both English this and that, e.g.: der Tisch this table OR that table Den mag ich nicht I don *t like this one/that one

•

In Rl da and hier are often added for clarity or emphasis, e.g.: der Tisch hier this table der Tisch da that table der da, der hier that one, this one

•

In Rl der is often used instead of a personal pronoun, e.g.: Die kommt heute nicht (R2: Sie kommt heute nicht)

•

In Rl the genitives dessen or deren can be used instead of a possessive, e.g.: deren Kleid (R2: ihr Kleid) dessen Frau (R2: seine Frau)

•

In R3, the genitive can be used to replace an ambiguous possessive, e.g.: Manfreds Freund und dessen Bruder (i.e. the friend*s brother, NOT Manfred's brother)

•

The genitive plural derer is normally used (in R3) only before a following relative pronoun (but see 3.5.2): die Ansichten derer, die nicht anwesend waren Otherwise deren is normal, e.g.: ihre Freunde und deren Kinder

•

In written German (R2/R3) the determiner der could be confused with the definite article, and so it is used less, although it is not unknown. In these registers the usual demonstrative is dieser (see 3.4.1), which is used for both this and that, e.g.: dieser Tisch this table OR that table

•

jener, 'that', is restricted to R3, and is not common even there. It is mainly used only: (i) to contrast with dieser, e.g.: Herr Schröder wollte nicht dieses alte Buch kaufen, sondern jenes (ii) for something well known, especially if a relative pronoun follows, e.g.: die Ruinen jener Paläste, welche die deutschen Kaiser bauten

•

For emphatic that, derjenige is increasingly frequent, especially in R3b, either as a pronoun or an adjective. Both parts decline, e.g. denjenigen, dasjenige, etc. It is used most when a relative clause follows, e.g.: diejenigen, die ich traf einige von denjenigen Büchern, die ich in der Schule lesen musste

•

Usage with a following relative pronoun (= that which, etc.) is as follows: (i) Demonstrative der followed by the relative pronoun der is common in R2 and R3, despite the repetition: die, die ich kaufen wollte einige von denen, die gekommen sind (ii) Demonstrative der followed by the relative pronoun welcher is restricted to old-fashioned R3a die, welche ich kaufen wollte (iii) Frequent in R3b (and not uncommon in spoken Rl) is derjenige followed by the relative pronoun der, e.g.: diejenigen, die ich kaufen wollte

3.5.2 Relative pronouns Relative pronouns introduce subordinate clauses (called 'relative clauses') which describe or qualify nouns, e.g. die Frau, die heute kommt 'the woman who is coming today'; das Buch, das ich gerade lese 'the book which/that I am just reading'. NOTE: In English, we often drop a relative pronoun, especially in speech (The book (which) I am just reading), but in German it can never be left out like this. The common relative pronoun in German in all registers is der, which has exactly the same forms as the demonstrative pronoun (see 3.5.1). It takes the gender and number of the noun it refers to: der Mann, der in die Stadt geht (masculine) die Frau, die in die Stadt geht (feminine) das Kind, das in die Stadt geht (neuter) die Leute, die in die Stadt gehen (plural) The case indicates the role the relative pronoun plays in the relative clause: der Mann, der in die Stadt geht (nominative subject of geht) der Mann, den ich kenne (accusative object of kennen) der Mann, dem ich helfen musste (dative object of helfen) der Mann, dessen Buch ich geliehen habe (genitive indicating possession [= whose])

Further information on relative clauses and relative pronouns: welcher is occasionally used as a relative pronoun in R3a, but it can sound old-fashioned: usual R3: der Herr, der gestorben ist less frequent R3a: der Herr, welcher gestorben ist In the genitive plural and genitive singular feminine, deren is in practice less common than derer, which purists consider incorrect, e.g.: Correct R3: die Autorität, deren sich die Bischöfe in Polen erfreuen More frequent R3: die Autorität, derer sich die Bischöfe in Polen erfreuen was is used as a relative pronoun after alles, etwas, nichts, viel, das, neuter adjectives used as nouns and to refer to whole clauses, e.g.: alles, was er hörte etwas, was ihm fehlte das Beste, was sie gesehen hatte Er sah mich nie direkt an, was ich nicht leiden konnte In Rl das and was are often used interchangeably, e.g.: das Zeug, was (R2: das) man da kriegt etwas, das (R2: was) nicht stimmt der is now the usual relative in all registers after prepositions when referring to things. Using the compound wo + preposition in such contexts is now restricted to old-fashioned R3a, e.g.: usual: das Haus, in dem wir wohnten der Tisch, auf dem das Buch lag older R3a: das Haus, worin wir wohnten der Tisch, worauf das Buch lag In these contexts Rl often uses wo with the prepositional adverb, e.g.: der Tisch, wo die Blumen drauf stehen The compound wo + preposition is used in those contexts where the simple relative pronoun would be was (i.e. to replace preposition + was), e.g.: alles, worüber sie sprach etwas, womit er uns schlagen konnte wo is commonly used after time and place words in Rl and R2, although R3a may prefer other possibilities, especially a preposition plus a relative pronoun, or da, e.g.: das Land, wo (R3a in dem) wir wohnen am Tag, wo (R3a da OR an dem) er gekommen ist zu einer Zeit, wo (R3a zu der OR da) der Kaiser noch mächtig war jetzt, wo (R3a da) er fort ist

•

As the equivalent to English what after a preposition, German needs to insert an appropriate form of the demonstrative das, e.g.: Er wusste nichts von dem, was mich dorthin geführt hatte. He knew nothing of what had led me there.

3.5.3 Possessive pronouns There are a number of possibilities corresponding to English mine, yours, hers, etc., depending on register: R1/R2: meiner mine; deiner yours; seiner hisf its; ihrer hers, theirs; unserer ours; eu(e)rer yours; Ihrer yours R3 der meine, der deine, etc. der meinige, der deinige, etc. meiner, etc. decline like dieser (see 3.4.1). This means that, unlike the possessive determiner (see 3.4.1), they have the ending -er in the nominative singular masculine and -es in the nominative and accusative singular neuter, e.g.: Das ist nicht mein Koffer, sondern seiner Ist das Ihr Fahrrad oder sein(e)s? Wollen wir mit eurem Wagen fahren oder mit unserem? The second parts of der meine, der meinige, etc. decline like adjectives, e.g.: mit der ihrigen durch das meine von den unseren

3.5.4

Interrogatives Interrogative words are used to ask questions:

WER?

wer? 'who?' declines for case: Nominative wer? who? Wer ist gekommen? Accusative wen? whom? Wen hat sie gesehen? Genitive wessen? whose? Wessen Buch hat sie geliehen? Dative wem? to whom? Wem hat sie das Buch gegeben? In practice wessen is limited to R3 and is scarcely used even there, e.g.: R3 (rare): Wessen Bücher sind das? R2: Von wem sind diese Bücher? common in all registers: Wem gehören diese Bücher?

WO + preposition?

is normally used in R2 and R3 for English preposition + what? In Rl a preposition is often used with was, e.g.: womit? (Rl mit was?) with what? worin? (Rl in was?) in what? NOTE: WOZU? (Rl zu was?) what.. .for?

WO?

For English where?, German always distinguishes place (wo?) from direction. to (wohin?) and direction from (woher?), wohin? and woher? are often split in Rl. Place: Wo wohnen Müllers? Direction towards: Wohin muss ich es stellen? (Rl Wo muss ich es hinstellen?) Direction from: Woher kann ich es nehmen? (Rl Wo kann ich es hernehmen?)

WOHIN? WOHER?

WAS FÜR EIN?

The equivalent of what sort of?, e.g.: Er hat einen neuen Wagen. Was fur einer ist es? Mit was fur einem Zug ist er gekommen? The case of ein in was für ein? does not depend on fur (i.e. it is not automatically accusative), but on the role of the phrase with was fiir ein? in the sentence. In Rl was is often separated f r o m ß r ein, e.g.: Was hat sie fur einen Mantel gekauft? In Rl was fur? and welcher? are used interchangeably, e.g.: Was fur ein Hemd ziehst du an? (which?; R2 welches) Welcher Vogel ist das? (what sort of?; R2 was fur ein?)

3.5.5

MAN

mariy einer, jemand man, 'one', unlike its English equivalent, is common in all registers. It does not decline, and einem and einen are used in the dative and accusative, e.g.: Man weiß nie, ob sie es gut mit einem meint As a possessive, sein is used, e.g.: Man kann sein Schicksal nicht ändern It is never referred back to by er, but always repeated, e.g.: Man dürfte meinen, dass m a n (not er) jetzt weiterkommen sollte

204

3

Words and forms

EINER KEINER

einer, 'one', and keiner, 'none', used as pronouns (i.e. without a noun following), decline like dieser (see 3.4.1). They thus have an ending in the nominative singular masculine and nominative/accusative singular neuter, unlike the indefinite article, e.g.: eines von diesen wenigen modernen Häusern einer der schnellsten Züge mit keinem ihrer Freunde They are often used to mean 'somebody' and 'nobody', especially in Rl and S, e.g.: Sie hat wohl keinen gesehen (R2 niemand) Es wird schon einer kommen (R2 jemand)

JEMAND NIEMAND

jemand, 'somebody', and niemand, 'nobody', have dative and accusative forms jemandem/niemandem and jemanden/niemanden. However, these do not have to be used. The endingless forms are more common in the dative and accusative in all registers, e.g.: Ich habe niemand gesehen (less common niemanden) Sie wird jemand geholfen haben (less common jemandem) The declension ofjemand (niemand) anders, 'somebody (nobody) else' varies regionally: N jemand anders jemand(en) anders jemand(em) anders S

jemand anderer

jemand(en) anderen

() e m a n < j anderem l jemandem anderen

einer and keiner are commonly used in S and Rl to mean 'somebody' and 'nobody'. In Rl, wer is a frequent alternative to jemand, e.g.: Es ist wer an der Tür

3.5.6 ALL-

Some indefinites The basic meanings are 'all', 'everybody' or 'everything'.

• • • •

alle = 'everybody', e.g. Alle sind gekommen alle also means 'all gone' in Rl, e.g. Mein Geld ist alle alles = 'everything', e.g. Wir wollen alles wissen in Rl, with wer or was, alles emphasizes quantity, e.g.: Wer will denn alles mit? Was will er alles gesehen haben?

•

das alles OR alles das = 'all that', e.g. Das alles/alles das geht uns nichts an In the dative we find dem allen, all(em) dem or (R3) allem, e.g. Von dem allen/all(em) dem wissen wir ja gar nichts

•

aller is used for 'all' in the singular in R3. It declines like dieser (see 3.4.1), e.g. ein Hotel mit allem modernen Komfort

•

all der = 'all the'; all does not normally have any endings in the singular, e.g.: all das Geschwätz nach all der Mühe It can be used with dieser and the possessives, e.g.: nach all dieser Mühe nach all meiner Mühe In the plural alle, all die or (esp Rl) alle die are common in the sense of 'all the'. There is no distinction in meaning between these: alle Kinder all die Kinder (Rl) alle die Kinder

•

alle can also be used with dieser or the possessives, e.g.: alle diese Kinder alle meine Kinder NOTE: in Rl die ganzen is used for 'all the': die ganzen Kinder

EINIGE ETLICHE

einige and etliche both correspond to 'some' or 'any'. They decline like dieser and are used most often in the plural. •

einige refers to a limited number, like English unstressed 'some' (or 'a few'). It is very close in meaning to ein paar. Ich wolte einige Ansichtskarten kaufen Der Zug war voll und einige mussten stehen

•

etliche typically implies more than the expected number. In this sense it is similar in meaning to English 'several' or 'a fair number of. It is quite frequent in all registers: Den Schülern gelang es, etliche nette Bilder zu machen Etliche dieser Stücke sind relativ leicht

JEDER

jeder = 'everybody', 'anybody', e.g. Das weiß doch jeder In Rl and R2 ein jeder is a more emphatic alternative in the sense of 'anybody', e.g. Da kann doch ein jeder lernen

MANCH

mancher declines like dieser (see 3.4.1). It always has the meaning of stressed 'some', i.e. 'a fair number, but by no means all'. This can be close to English 'many a' or, in certain contexts, 'several', e.g.: Mancher will es nicht wahrhaben manche Arbeitslose Undeclined manch, with ein or an adjective, is used in R3a, e.g.: Manch einer hätte Mühe manch reiches Land

SOLCH

The German equivalents of English Singular Rl: so ein (so'n): so ein Wetter R2: (ein) solcher: (ein) solches Wetter R3: solch ein: solch ein Wetter

'such (a)' vary with register. Plural Rl: so: so Gerüchte R2/R3: solche: solche Gerüchte

solcher used on its own declines like dieser (see 3.4.1); after ein it declines like an adjective, e.g. bei einem solchen Wetter VIEL/WENIG

WELCH

•

These do not usually have endings in the singular, e.g.: viel Lärm, viel Wasser wenig Mühe, wenig Geld

•

These are not usually declined in the plural, e.g.: viele Bauern, wenige Politiker

•

Declined forms are found in the singular: (i) in older R3a, in the nominative and accusative feminine and neuter, e.g. vieles Rauchen, viele Hoffnung (ii) in a few idioms and phrases, e.g. vielen Dank, mit vielem Fleiß

•

Undeclined welch occurs in exclamations in R3 (for Rl Was fiir ein... /), e.g. Welch fürchterlicher Tag! Declined welcher is used as an interrogative pronoun or determiner, e.g.: Welches Buch nimmst du? Da sind die Bucher. Welches willst du nehmen?

•

In Rl it is used as an indefinite pronoun (i.e. = 'some', 'any'), e.g.: Ich habe schon welche Soll ich dir Brot reichen? - Danke, ich habe welches

4 Grammar: cases, tenses and moods

4.1 Verbs and cases: valency In German, the link between the verb and the other parts of the sentence is provided mainly through the use of cases. In English, we can tell who is doing what to whom from the order of the various elements: first the subject, then the verb, and then the objects (in the order indirect object - direct object). In a sentence like My sister gave her friend Monika the tickets yesterday we cannot move the elements round without saying something quite different, e.g.: Her friend gave my sister that book yesterday. In German, though, we can move the various elements around in the sentence (mainly for reasons of emphasis, as explained in 5.1) without changing the essential meaning:

R l = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

Meine Schwester hat gestern ihrer Freundin Monika die Karten gegeben (ü) Ihrer Freundin Monika hat meine Schwester gestern die Karten gegeben (iü) Die Karten hat meine Schwester gestern ihrer Freundin Monika gegeben (iv) Meine Schwester hat die Karten gestern ihrer Freundin Monika gegeben (i)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East N W = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Realizing how the cases work to form the framework of a sentence is an important step in being able to use German effectively. With different verbs we find different ways of expressing these links to the rest of the sentence. Some verbs, like schlagen, have an accusative object, others, like dienen, have a dative object, whilst some, likz geben in the example above, have both an accusative (direct) object and a dative (indirect) object. Finally, a large number of verbs, like warten, have a construction with a preposition rather than a case. We can usefully classify verbs in German in terms of what cases, etc. they 'govern' (i.e. how sentences with them are constructed). This is called the 'valency' of the verb. The valency of a verb is often related to its meaning, but this is no sure guide. German provides many examples of verbs which

have very similar meanings but govern different cases or constructions, e.g.: to impress sb jdn beeindrucken jdm imponieren jdn beglückwünschen to congratulate sb jdm gratulieren to damage sth etw (dat) schaden etw beschädigen jdn auslachen to laugh at sb über jdn lachen As German uses cases to make the connections between the various parts of the sentence clear, German verbs are often lessflexiblethan their English counterparts and restricted in the constructions which they can be used in. It is not unusual to find that an English verb can be used either transitively or intransitively, or with a person or a thing as object, but that this is not always possible with the verb which appears to have the same meaning in German. We often find that we have to use different verbs or different sentence constructions for the different uses of a single English verb. The following common examples illustrate this: answer

She answered her friend She answered the letter

climb cut drop feel force grow keep leave

open

The plane climbed (intr) We climbed the mountain He cut the meat The paper cuts easily (intr) I dropped the pencil The stone dropped (intr) She felt the pain She feels ill He forced us to do that He forced it from us The child is growing (intr) He grows flowers We kept the book These apples will keep (intr) He left today (intr) He left the town They opened the door The door opened (intr)

Sie antwortete ihrem Freund Sie beantwortete den Brief Sie antwortete auf den Brief Das Flugzeug stieg Wir bestiegen den Berg Er schnitt das Fleisch Das Papier lässt sich leicht schneiden Ich ließ den Beistift fallen Der Stein fiel Sie fühlte den Schmerz Sie fühlt sich krank Er zwang uns das zu tun Er erzwang es von uns Das Kind wächst Er züchtet Blumen Wir behielten das Buch Diese Apfel halten sich gut Er fuhr heute ab Er verließ die Stadt Sie machten die Tür auf (R1/R2) Sie öffneten die Tür (R2/R3) Die Tür ging auf (R1/R2) Die Tür öffnete sich (R2/R3)

sell sink stand wake up walk

wash

We sold the books quickly The books sold quickly (intr) The ship sank (intr) We sank the ship It is standing in the corner She stood it in the corner We woke up (intr) He woke us up We walked home (intr) He walked her home I washed at seven (intr) I washed the dog

Wir verkauften die Bücher schnell Die Bücher verkauften sich schnell Das Schiff sank Wir versenkten das Schiff Es steht in der Ecke Sie stellte es in die Ecke Wir wachten auf/(R3) erwachten Er weckte uns/(R3) erweckte uns Wir gingen nach Hause Er brachte (R3 begleitete) sie nach Hause Ich habe mich um sieben gewaschen Ich habe den Hund gewaschen

Many further similar examples may be found in 2.1.1. In many instances a transitive verb can be formed from an intransitive verb with the prefix be- (see 2.3.4). In the rest of this section we give lists of common verbs classified according to the cases or prepositions they govern, concentrating particularly on those which show differences from their usual English equivalents, and on those which have different constructions with different meanings. This means that you should always remember German verbs in typical constructions (e.g. einem etwas mitteilen, auf meinen Freund warten, etc). To help you, German verbs in this book are usually given with an indication of their valency, i.e. the sentence construction they are used in.

4.1.1

Verbs governing the dative case Many German verbs have an object in the dative case, but no accusative object. There is no direct equivalent to these in English, and you have to learn which verbs 'govern' the dative case. With many of these verbs, the dative object is a person who in some way benefits from the action expressed in the verb (or is disadvantaged by it). The following are the most typical common verbs which are used with a dative, and you should make sure that you know them: antworten to answer begegnen (R3) to meet danken to thank dienen to serve drohen to threaten

Der Junge hat mir auf meine Frage geantwortet Sie ist einem älteren Herrn begegnet Ich danke Ihnen sehr fur Ihre Mühe Er dient dem König von Schweden Er drohte dem kleinen Jungen mit einem Stock

einfallen to occur to sb folgen to follow gehorchen to obey gehören to belong to gratulieren to congratulate helfen to help nutzen to be of use passen to suit passieren to happen raten to advise schaden to harm schmeicheln to flatter trauen to trust

Zu diesem Thema fiel dem Mädchen nichts ein Er folgte ihr ins Exil Sie gehorcht ihrem Vater Dieser Wagen gehört dir doch nicht Sie wollte ihrer Freundin zum Geburtstag gratulieren Er hilft seiner Mutter bei der Arbeit Das nutzt ihnen doch gar nichts Das neue Kleid passt dir gut Was ist dir denn passiert? Er wollte seinem Sohn raten lieber in Gießen zu studieren Rauchen schadet der Gesundheit Damit hat sie dem Professor schmeicheln wollen Ich konnte meinen Augen nicht trauen

Apart from these, it is a general rule that verbs with the prefixes bei-, ent-, entgegen-, nach-, wider- and zu- have an object in the dative case (though some have an object in the accusative as well, see 4.1.2, and there are a few exceptions). For example: jdm beistehen (R3) to stand by sb etw (dat) entsprechen to correspond to sth jdm entgegenkommen to come to meet sb

jdm nachschauen to follow sb with one's eyes jdm widerfahren (R3) to befall sb jdm/etw zuhören to listen to sb/sth

In a few verbs the German phrase in the dative case corresponds to the subject of the closest equivalent verb in English: etw gelingt mir I succeed in sth etw entfallt mir I forget sth etw reicht mir I have had es fallt mir leicht I find sth enough of sth easy etw schmeckt mir I like sth etw fehlt/mangelt mir \ es fehlt/mangelt mir > / lack sth (food) an etw ) etw tut mir Leid / am sorry etw gefallt mir I like sth about sth etw geht mir auf / realize sth With the following impersonal verbs, the phrase in the dative case corresponds to an English subject. With the one exception indicated below, these verbs are restricted to R3a.

mir bangt vor etw / am afraid of sth mir (OR mich) ekelt vor etw / am disgusted by sth mir (OR mich) graut vor etw I am terrified by sth mir (OR mich) schaudert vor etw I tremble at sth mir schwindelt (R2) / feel dizzy

4.1.2 Verbs governing the dative and the accusative cases Many German verbs, typically verbs of giving and taking, have an accusative ('direct') object (usually a thing) and a dative ('indirect') object (usually a person), e.g. Ergab seinem Onkel (dat) das Geld (acc). It is always helpful to remember them as einem etwas verbs. With one or two rare exceptions (i.e. the verbs kosten and lehren), if there are two objects with a verb in German, one will be in the accusative and one in the dative, i.e. you should never have two accusatives in the same clause. The German dative often corresponds to an English prepositional phrase with to, e.g. He gave the money to his uncle. In German the indirect object is indicated simply by the dative case, and no preposition is needed, i.e. you do not say * Er gab das Geld zu seinem Onkel in German. •

•

There are too many einem etwas verbs in German to list in full here, and you should consult your dictionary if you are uncertain. Here are some common examples: anbieten to offer Die Firma hat mir eine Stelle angeboten empfehlen to recommend Ich kann dir diesen Film sehr empfehlen Er hat seinem Freund das Buch geben to give gegeben Mein Bruder hat ihr sein Fahrrad leihen to lend geliehen Ich habe Ihnen meine neue Adresse mitteilen to inform mitgeteilt Wir haben ihr die Tasche genommen nehmen to take Ich kann dir diese Bitte nicht verweigern to refuse verweigern With some verbs the German dative and accusative construction is different from that of the nearest English equivalent: jdm etw ermöglichen to make sth possible for sb jdm etw erschweren to make sth difficult for sb jdm etw mitteilen to inform sb ofsth jdm etw nachmachen to copy sth from sb jdm etw umbinden to tie sth round sb jdm etw verschweigen not to tell sb about sth

Where the German phrase in the dative case is some kind of beneficiary (i.e. = English for) it is increasingly common in German in all registers to use a phrase with fur rather than a dative, e.g.: Sie will ihr/für sie Blumen kaufen Er hat uns/für uns die Tür aufgemacht Die Mutter hat ihm/fur ihn eine Wurst gekocht This is especially the case if there is ambiguity. The following sentence could mean He wrote a letter to his father or for his father: Er hat seinem Vater einen Brief geschrieben But the following is quite clear: Er hat für seinen Vater einen Brief geschrieben With some verbs of sending, etc. a phrase with an (acc) can be used rather than a phrase in the dative case. The effect is to emphasize the person on the receiving end, e.g.: Er schickte das Manuskript an die Universität Passau Er verkaufte sein altes Fahrrad an meinen Freund Peter Er schrieb einen Brief an seinen Vater As you can see, using an can also resolve the kind of ambiguity mentioned above. Many verbs governing dative and accusative can be used with a dative reflexive pronoun, e.g.: Ich will mir Ruhe gönnen Du erlaubst dir aber viel Das hat er sich aber nicht verweigern wollen With the following verbs a dative reflexive pronoun with an accusative object is the usual construction in the meaning given: sich (dat) etw aneignen to acquire sth sich (dat) etw anmaßen (R3) to claim sth sich (dat) etw einbilden to imagine sth sich (dat) etw verbitten to refuse to tolerate sth sich (dat) etw vornehmen to intend to do sth sich (dat) jdn vornehmen (Rl) to have a word with sb sich (dat) etw vorstellen to imagine sth With some other verbs the reflexive pronoun is in the accusative case, and there is an additional dative object in the given meanings: sich jdm/etw anpassen to adapt to sb/sth sich jdm/etw anschließen to join sb/sth sich jdm/etw ergeben to give in to sb/sth sich jdm/etw fugen (R3) to bow to sb/sth sich jdm/etw nähern to approach sb/sth sich jdm/etw widersetzen (R3) to oppose sb/sth

4.1.3

Verbs governing the genitive case The use of a genitive object with verbs, e.g.: Sie erinnerte sich dieses Tages 'She remembered that day', is quite rare in modern German. In general such constructions are only found in R3, and many such verbs are peculiar to legal R3b. Below you find a list of the verbs which are still used with a genitive object in R3, together with the equivalent constructions which are used in their place in R2. R3

R2

Verbs with a genitive object alone

jds/etw (gen) bedürfen to need sb/sth jdn/etw brauchen jds/etw (gen) gedenken to think of an jdn/etw denken sb/sth auf jdn/etw warten jds/etw (gen) harren to wait for sb/sth

Verbs with a genitive object and an accusative object

jdn etw (gen) anklagen to accuse sb of jdn wegen etw anklagen sth jdn etw (gen) berauben to rob sb ofsth jdm etw rauben jdn etw (gen) versichern to assure sb jdm etw versichern ofsth

Reflexive verbs with a genitive object

sich jds/etw (gen) annehmen to look after sb/sth sich etw (gen) bedienen to make use ofsth sich jds/etw (gen) bemächtigen to take hold ofsb/sth sich jds/etw (gen) entsinnen to remember sb/sth sich etw (gen) erfreuen to enjoy sth sich jds/etw (gen) erinnern to remember sb/sth sich etw (gen) rühmen to pride oneself on sth sich jds/etw (gen) schämen to be ashamed ofsth

sich um jdn kümmern etw benutzen jdn/etw in seine Gewalt bringen sich an jdn/etw erinnern etw genießen sich an jdn/etw erinnern auf etw stolz sein sich wegen jds/etw schämen

A few other verb constructions with the genitive are found in set phrases. They are mainly restricted to R3, e.g.: der Gefahr nicht achten to pay no heed to danger jemanden eines Besseren belehren to teach someone better sich eines Besseren besinnen to think better ofsomething jeder Beschreibung spotten to beggar description jemanden des Landes verweisen to expel someone from a country seines Amtes walten to discharge one's duties jemanden keines Blickes würdigen not to deign to look at someone

4.1.4 Verbs governing a prepositional object Very many German verbs are followed by an object introduced by a preposition, e.g. Sie hat auf mich gewartet 'She waited for me'. These are quite different from usual prepositional phrases, as the preposition involved loses its full meaning, and the choice of preposition depends simply on the individual verb. It is always best for you to learn the combination of verb and preposition as a whole. In this section we give some of the commonest examples of German verbs used with prepositional objects. •

•

•

Some common prepositions are sometimes followed by the accusative case and sometimes by the dative case, depending on their meaning (see 2.5.3). However, only one of these cases usually occurs when these prepositions are used in prepositional objects. For example, auf is almost always used with a following accusative case in prepositional objects, and vor with a following dative case. Many verbs are used with an accusative or dative object in addition to a prepositional object, e.g. Sie hat ihn an seinem langen Bart erkannt 'She recognized him by his long beard'. These verbs are clearly indicated in the following lists, e.g.: jdn an etw erkennen 'to recognize sb by sth'. For the use of the prepositional adverb (i.e. da(r)-\- preposition) when these verbs are followed by an infinitive phrase or arfass-clause,see 4.1.5.

AN (+ dative)

an is most often followed by the dative case in prepositional objects, often with the idea of'in respect of, 'in connection with': to work at sth an etw arbeiten to recognize sb by sth jdn/etw an etw erkennen to fall ill with sth an etw erkranken to lack sth an etw fehlen (see 4.1.1) to take pleasure in sb/sth sich an jdm/etw freuen to prevent sb from (doing) sth jdn an etw hindern to interest sb in sth jdn an etw interessieren to suffer from sth an etw leiden to orientate o.s. by sth sich an etw orientieren to smell at sth an etw riechen to die ofsth an etw sterben to take part in sth an etw teilnehmen to doubt sth an etw zweifeln

AN (+ accusative)

an is used in a prepositional object with the accusative case after a few verbs, which mainly denote mental processes: an jdn/etw denken to think ofsb/sth jdn an jdn/etw erinnern to remind sb ofsb/sth sich an jdn/etw erinnern to remember sb/sth

sich an jdn/etw gewöhnen an jdn/etw glauben sich an jdn/etw halten

to get used to sb/sth to believe in sb/sth to stick to sth

AUF (+ dative)

The dative case is used in prepositional objects with auf with a very small number of verbs. They all express very clearly the idea of not moving: to be based on sth auf etw basieren (R3) auf etw beharren (R3) to insist on sth auf etw beruhen to be based on sth auf etw bestehen to insist on sth auf etw fußen (R3) to be based on sth

AUF (+ accusative)

auf with the accusative case is the most frequent preposition used in prepositional objects: auf jdn/etw achten to pay attention to sb/sth to keep an eye on sb/sth auf jdn/etw aufpassen to restrict sth to sth etw auf etw beschränken to refer to sb/sth sich auf jdn/etw beziehen to press for sth auf etw drängen to succeed sb/sth auf jdn/etw folgen to look forward to sth sich auf etw freuen to hope for sth auf etw hoffen to concentrate on sth sich auf etw konzentrieren to react to sth auf etw reagieren to count on sb/sth auf jdn/etw rechnen to specialize in sth sich auf etw spezialisieren to lean, count on sb/sth sich auf jdn/etw stützen to rely on sb/sth sich auf jdn/etw verlassen to do without sth auf etw verzichten to wait for sb/sth auf jdn/etw warten to count on sb/sth auf jdn/etw zählen to put sth down to sth etw auf etw zurückfuhren

AUS

aus usually has the meaning 'of or 'from' in prepositional objects: aus etw bestehen to consist ofsth etw aus etw entnehmen (R3) to infer sth from sth sich aus etw ergeben to result from sth etw aus etw folgern/schließen to conclude sth from sth

FÜR

fur usually has the meaning 'for' in prepositional objects: to say thank you for sth sich für etw bedanken sich für etw begeistern to be enthusiastic about sth jdm für etw danken to thank sb for sth sich fur etw eignen to be suitable for sth

[FÜR]

sich fur etw entscheiden jdn/etw für etw halten sich fur jdn/etw interessieren

IN (+ dative)

in with the dative case is used in very few prepositional objects: in etw bestehen to consist in sth sich in jdm/etw täuschen to be mistaken about sb/sth

IN (+ accusative)

in is used with the prepositional object of a number of verbs with the accusative case. Its meaning is very varied. jdn in etw einfuhren to introduce sb to sth in etw einwilligen to agree to sth sich in etw ergeben (R3) to submit to sth sich in jdn verlieben to fall in love with sb sich in etw vertiefen to become engrossed in sth

MIT

mit usually has the meaning 'with' in prepositional objects: sich mit etw abfinden to be satisfied with sth mit etw anfangen/beginnen to begin/start (with) sth to stop sth mit etw aufhören sich mit jdm/etw befassen to deal with sb/sth sich mit etw begnügen to be satisfied with sth sich mit jdm/etw beschäftigen to occupy o.s. with sth jdm mit etw drohen to threaten sb with sth mit jdm/etw rechnen to count on sb/sth mit jdm telefonieren to telephone sb to agree with sth mit etw übereinstimmen to converse with sb sich mit jdm unterhalten to compare sb/sth to/with sb/sth jdn/etw mit jdm/etw vergleichen sich mit jdm verheiraten to get married to sb jdn/etw mit etw versehen to provide sb/sth with sth to collide with sth mit etw zusammenstoßen

NACH

In prepositional objects, nach often has the sense of'for' with verbs of calling, asking, longing or seeking: to enquire after sb/sth sich nach jdm/etw erkundigen to ask sb for sth jdn nach etw fragen to grab for sth nach etw greifen to callfor sb/sth nach jdm/etw rufen to shout for sb/sth nach jdm/etw schreien to yearn for sb/sth sich nach jdm/etw sehnen (R3) to strive for sth nach etw streben to search for sb/sth nach jdm/etw suchen to long for sb/sth nach jdm/etw verlangen

to decide on sth to consider sb/sth to be sth to be interested in sb/sth

With verbs of smelling, etc., nach has the sense of'of nach etw aussehen to look like sth nach etw duften to smell (nicely) ofsth nach etw riechen to smell ofsth nach etw schmecken to taste ofsth ÜBER (+ accusative)

über is always used with the accusative case in prepositional objects. It is most often used with verbs of saying, etc. in the meaning 'about': to be annoyed about sb/sth sich über jdn/etw ärgern to be pleased at/about sb/sth sich über jdn/etw freuen to inform sb of/about sth jdn über etw informieren über jdn/etw lachen to laugh at sb/sth über jdn/etw nachdenken to think about sb/sth to mock sb/sth über jdn/etw spotten to talk about sb/sth über jdn/etw sprechen sich über etw streiten to argue about sth über jdn/etw urteilen to judge sth über etw verfugen to have sth at one's disposal sich über jdn/etw wundern to be surprised at/about sb/sth

UM

um commonly means 'concerning' or 'in respect of in prepositional objects: sich u m jdn ängstigen to be worried about sb sich u m etw bemühen to take trouble over sth jdn u m etw beneiden to envy sb sth jdn u m etw betrügen to cheat sb out ofsth to ask sb for sth jdn u m etw bitten to make sb lose sth jdn u m etw bringen It is a matter ofsth Es geht u m etw to be a question ofsth sich u m etw handeln u m jdn/etw kämpfen tofightabout sth sich u m jdn/etw kümmern to take care ofsb/sth to be worried about sb/sth sich u m jdn/etw sorgen to argue about/over sth sich u m etw streiten

VON

von usually has the meaning 'of or 'from' in prepositional objects: von jdm/etw abhängen to depend on sb/sth to advise sb against sth jdm von etw abraten von etw absehen to refrain from sth jdn von etw befreien to liberate sb from sth sich von etw erholen to recover from sth von jdm/etw herrühren to stem, originate from sth jdn von etw informieren to inform sb ofsth von jdm/etw sprechen to talk ofsb/sth von jdm/etw träumen to dream ofsb/sth jdn von etw überzeugen to convince sb ofsth jdn von etw verständigen to inform sb ofsth

VOR (+ dative)

vor is always used with the dative case in prepositional objects. It has the meaning 'of with verbs of fearing, etc.: Angst vor jdm/etw haben to be afraid ofsb/sth sich vor etw drücken (Rl) to dodge sth vor jdm/etw ekeln to have a horror ofsb/sth vor jdm/etw erschrecken (R3) to be scared by sb/sth sich vor jdm/etw fürchten to be afraid ofsb/sth sich vor jdm/etw hüten to beware ofsb/sth sich vor jdm schämen to feel ashamed in front ofsb sich vor etw scheuen to shrink from sth jdn vor jdm/etw warnen to warn sb against sb/sth vor often has the meaning 'from' with verbs of protecting, etc.: jdn vor jdm/etw beschützen to protect sb from sb/sth vor jdm/etw fliehen (R3) tofleefrom sb/sth jdn vor etw retten to save sb from sth

ZU

zu has the meaning 'to' with verbs of empowering, leading, persuading, etc.: jdn zu etw berechtigen to entitle sb to (do) sth jdn zu etw einladen to invite sb to (do) sth jdn zu etw ermächtigen to empower sb to (do) sth jdn zu etw ermutigen to encourage sb to (do) sth jdn zu etw herausfordern to challenge sb to (do) sth jdm zu etw raten to advise sb to (do) sth jdn zu etw treiben to drive sb to (do) sth jdn zu etw überreden to persuade sb to (do) sth jdn zu etw veranlassen to cause sb to (do) sth jdn zu etw verfuhren to seduce sb into (doing) sth jdn zu etw zwingen to force sb to (do) sth zu with other verbs has a variety of meanings: etw zu etw beitragen to contribute sth to sth zu etw dienen to serve as sth sich zu etw eignen to be suitable as sth sich zu etw entschließen to decide (to do) sth zu etw führen to lead to sth zu etw gehören to be one ofsth, be part ofsth jdm zu etw gratulieren to congratulate sb on sth zu etw neigen to tend to sth zu jdm/etw passen to suit sb/sth jdn/etw zu etw rechnen to count sb/sth as one ofsth sich zu jdm/etw verhalten stand in a relationship to sb/sth jdn/etw zu etw zählen to count sb/sth as one ofsth

4.1.5

Infinitive phrases and //^-clauses with verbs governing a prepositional object Verbs with a prepositional object are often followed by an infinitive phrase or a rf^-clause. This is often anticipated in German by the prepositional adverb (i.e. da(r) + preposition), e.g.: Wir bestanden darauf, dass er die Rechnung sofort bezahlte We insisted on his paying the bill immediately Ich verlasse mich darauf, ihn morgen sprechen zu können I am relying on being able to speak to him tomorrow As you see from these examples, German puts things in a very different way to how we do it in English (often with the -ing form of the verb, see 5.3), and you need to learn how to recognize and use constructions like this. With some verbs, the prepositional adverb can be left out in sentences like this, e.g.: Sie hat sich nicht (davor) gescheut, ihm die Wahrheit zu sagen Sie haben sich (darüber) gefreut, dass er gekommen ist There are no precise rules about when the prepositional adverb is used or not, and it is often left out with some common verbs. If it is used, it tends to emphasize the following clause more strongly. In general, it is more commonly included in R3, whilst it tends to be dropped more often in Rl. The following list gives some of the most common verbs with which the prepositional adverb is often omitted: abhalten von abraten von Acht geben auf anfangen mit (sich) ärgern über aufhören mit aufpassen auf beginnen mit sich beklagen über sich bemühen u m sich beschweren über bitten u m

sich ekeln vor sich entscheiden für sich entschließen zu (sich) erinnern an fragen nach sich freuen auf/über sich furchten vor glauben an hindern an hoffen auf sich hüten vor klagen über

raten zu sich scheuen vor sich schämen über sich sehnen nach sorgen für sich sorgen u m sich streiten über träumen von überzeugen von urteilen über sich wundern über zweifeln an

In addition, the prepositional adverb can be omitted with all the transitive verbs used with zu, like jdn zu etw ermutigen, which are listed in 4.1.4.

4.1.6 Verbs with varying constructions Many verbs can be used in more than one construction, most often with a clear difference in meaning, register or usage, and some common ones are given below in sentences illustrating the different constructions. absehen

jdn etw absehen von etw absehen es auf jdn absehen (Rl)

achten

etw achten auf jdn/etw achten

angeben

etw angeben angeben (Rl)

angehen

angehen etw angehen jdn um etw angehen jdn angehen (Rl)

ankommen

ankommen mit etw ankommen

auf etw ankommen bestehen

bestehen etw bestehen aus etw bestehen

Er hat mir diesen Kunstgriff abgesehen He copied that trick from me Ich sehe von etwas ab I am refraining from sth Sie hat es auf mich abgesehen She 's got it in for me Ich achte ihre Leistungen I respect their achievements Wir haben auf ihn geachtet We paid attention to him Sie müssen den Grund angeben You must state the reason Er hat gewaltig angegeben He boasted dreadfully Das Licht ging an The light came on Wie sollen wir diese Aufgabe angehen? How are we to tackle this task? Er ging mich um Unterstützung an He asked me for support Das geht dich nichts an That's none of your business Wir kommen gleich in Münster an We shall shortly be arriving in Münster Mit so einer Bitte kommst du bei mir nicht an (Rl) You won't get anywhere with me with a request like that Es kommt sehr auf das Wetter an It depends a lot on the weather Das Schloss besteht nicht mehr The castle doesn 't exist any more Er muss die Prüfung bestehen He has got to pass the examination Der Teller bestand aus reinem Gold The plate was made ofpure gold

in etw bestehen

auf etw bestehen bringen

jdm etw bringen jdn auf etw bringen es auf etw bringen jdn um etw bringen es zu etw bringen jdn zu etw bringen

drängen

jdn drängen auf etw drängen jdn zu etw drängen

sich eignen

sich fur jdn eignen sich zu etw eignen

Das Problem besteht darin, dass wir es nicht beweisen können The problem lies in the fact that we can't prove it Sie besteht auf ihrem Recht She is insisting on her right Er hat mir die Äpfel gebracht He brought me the apples Sie hat mich auf diese Idee gebracht She put this idea into my head Er hat es auf 10 Punkte gebracht He managed to get 10 points Das hat mich heute um den Schlaf gebracht That made me lose my sleep today Sie haben es im Leben zu nichts gebracht They achieved nothing in their lifetime Das wird mich noch zur Verzweiflung bringen That will drive me to despair Die Polizei drängte sie vorwärts The police pushed them forward Sie drängen auf Zahlung They are pressing for payment Sie drängte ihn zu dieser Entscheidung She urged him to (take) this decision Der Film eignet sich nicht fur Kinder Thefilmis not suitable for children Er eignet sich nicht zum Lehrer He is not suitable as a teacher

Er hat sich mir ergeben He gave in to me sich in etw ergeben (R3) Sie haben sich in ihr Schicksal ergeben They submitted to their fate sich aus etw ergeben Das eine ergibt sich aus dem anderen The one follows from the other

sich ergeben

sich jdm ergeben

folgen

jdm folgen aufjdn/etw folgen aus etw folgen

Sie ist ihm heimlich gefolgt She followed him secretly Auf Karl II. folgte Jakob II. James II succeeded Charles II Aus diesem Brief folgt, dass . . . It follows from this letter that.. .

sich freuen

sich über jdn/etw freuen sich auf etw freuen sich an jdm/etw freuen

gelten

gelten als etw gelten jdm gelten es gilt etw zu tun

halten

halten jdn/etw halten auf etw halten von jdm/etw halten zu jdm halten jdn/etw für etw halten

kommen

kommen auf etw kommen hinter etw kommen um etw kommen

liegen

liegen

Ich habe mich über seinen Erfolg gefreut I was pleased about his success Sie freut sich auf Ihren Besuch She is looking forward to your visit Er freut sich sehr an seinen Kindern He gets a lot ofpleasure from his children Diese Fahrkarte gilt nicht mehr This ticket is no longer valid Es darf als sicher gelten, dass . . . It may be regarded as certain that.. . Diese Bemerkung galt mir That comment was meant for me Jetzt gilt es einen Entschluss zu fassen Now it is necessary to reach a decision Der Wagen hält nicht The car is not stopping Er hielt das Kind im Arm He was holding the child in his arms Ich halte sehr auf seine Meinung I attach a lot of importance to his opinion Ich halte viel von ihm I think a lot of him Du hast immer zu ihm gehalten You 've always stood by him Ich halte sie für eine Freundin I consider her a friend Heute kommt sie nicht She 's not coming today Wie bist du auf diese Idee gekommen? How did you get that idea? Ich bin hinter sein Geheimnis gekommen Ifound out his secret Er ist um ein Vermögen gekommen He lost a fortune

Das Kind lag auf dem Boden The child was lying on the floor viel/wenig an etw liegen Es lag ihm viel an diesem Beruf This job was very important to him jdm liegen Diese Arbeit liegt mir nicht I don yt like this work an jdm liegen An mir soll es nicht liegen It shouldn 't be up to me

passen

passen jdm passen zu etw passen

passieren

etw passieren passieren

rechnen

aufjdn/etw rechnen mit etw rechnen zu etw rechnen

reichen

wohin reichen jdn etw reichen jdm reichen

Ich passe I pass (at cards) Das Kleid passt dir gut The dressfits/suitsyou Er passt nicht zum Lehrer He 's not suited to be a teacher Wir passierten die deutsche Grenze We crossed the German border Was ist dir gestern passiert? What happened to you yesterday? Ich rechne auf dich I'm counting on you Du musst mit dem Schlimmsten rechnen You have to reckon with the worst Sie rechnet ihn zu ihren Freunden She counts him as her friend Die Felder reichen bis zum Wald Thefieldsextend to the forest Sie hat mir den Teller gereicht She handed me the plate Das Geld reicht mir nicht I haven *t got enough money

sich schämen

sich wegen etw schämen Er schämte sich wegen seiner Feigheit He was ashamed ofhis cowardice Du sollst dich nicht vor ihm schämen sich vor jdm schämen You don yt need to feel ashamed in front ofhim Sie schämte sich für ihn sich fur jdn schämen She was ashamedfor him

schließen

etw schließen etw aus etw schließen

stimmen

stimmen fiir etw stimmen etw stimmen

Ich habe die Tür geschlossen I have shut the door Aus seinem Verhalten kann man auf seinen Charakter schließen You can deduce his character from his behaviour Stimmt das, was er sagt? Is what he says correct? Für diese Partei habe ich nicht gestimmt I didn yt vote for that party Ich muss die Gitarre stimmen I've got to tune the guitar

4.2

Cases: dative and genitive German has four cases, nominative, accusative, genitive and dative. Their most important role is to show the relationship of noun phrases to the verb, and this has been explained in 4.1. German prepositions are also always followed by a noun phrase in a particular case as detailed in 2.5. The dative and genitive cases, though, have other uses, and these are dealt with in this section.

4.2.1

Possessive dative The dative has the widest range of all of the German cases, with many idiomatic uses. One of the most important (which is quite different to any English construction) is to mark possession.

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

To indicate possession with parts of the body, clothing, etc. German often uses a dative of the person(s) concerned. The body-part, etc. then has a definite article, not a possessive construction, e.g.: She ran her fingers through the Sie fuhr dem Jungen über das boy's hair Haar He looked into her eyes Er sah ihr in die Augen The patient's appendix was Dem Kranken wurde der operated on Blinddarm operiert Especially in R3 this dative phrase can appear a long way from the noun it refers to, e.g.: The image of his father pressed Dem in seiner Zelle itself into the memory of the man Eingeschlossenen drang sich shut up in his cell das Bild des Vaters in die Erinnerung When more than one person is involved, the singular of the noun will be used if each person has one of each (see 3.1.6), e.g.: Their hearts were beating Ihnen klopfte das Herz Er hat uns das Leben gerettet He saved our lives In most cases a construction with the genitive (at least in R3) or with a possessive is possible in such contexts, e.g.: Ich verband dem Kind die Hand j I bandaged the child's hand Ich verband die Hand des Kindes J Ich verband ihm die Hand 1 I bandaged his hand Ich verband seine Hand ) However, the construction with the dative case stresses that the whole person is directly affected as well as the body-part specifically mentioned, and it is usually preferred. In some contexts there may

be a clear difference in meaning. Compare the following pairs of examples: Regen tropfte ihm auf den Hut (i.e. he was getting wet) (here it is not clear whether he was Regen tropfte auf seinen Hut actually wearing it at the time) (i.e. they startled me) Rehe liefen mir über den Weg (i.e. across my path - not someone Rehe liefen über meinen Weg else's) With some verbs an accusative of the person involved is used rather than a dative, e.g.: Er hat mich/mir auf die Schulter He tapped me on the shoulder geklopft Die Biene hat ihn/ihm in den The bee stung his finger Finger gestochen Sie hat ihn/ihm ins Gesicht She laughed in his face gelacht It has been claimed that there is a distinction between the accusative and the dative in such contexts, with the accusative emphasizing more strongly that the person is directly affected. This is rarely adhered to and in practice the two cases are used interchangeably with these verbs, although the dative is usual in Rl. In R2 and R3 the accusative is common with the following verbs: beißen, küssen, stechen, stoßen With the following verbs the accusative is sometimes found in R2 and R3 but the dative is more frequent: hauen, klopfen, schießen, schlagen, schneiden, treten

4.2.2

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Genitive or van} This section deals only with the use of the genitive case to link nouns; its use with prepositions is covered in 2.5.4, with verbs in 4.1.3. The use of the genitive case is very much dependent on register: the more formal the register, the more it occurs, as the texts in 1.6 illustrate. It is widely used in R3 and it is particularly frequent in R3b, but it is avoided entirely in Rl, except with names, e.g.: Alfreds Tasche, Monikas Schwester, Angelikas Handschuhe, Vatis Schuhe, Frau Mayers Bluse A common alternative to the genitive is a phrase with the preposition von, e.g.: Rl: das Dach vom Haus R2/R3: das Dach des Hauses Although the genitive is used regularly in R3 and commonly in R2, there are constructions where a construction with von must be used even in the more formal registers, and others where it is quite frequent.

(a)

von must be used, even in R3: • if a noun stands by itself, without any article or adjective which declines

• with personal pronouns • after viel, wenig

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East N W = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

der Geruch von Benzin die Wirkung von wenig Wein eine Mutter von sechs Kindern der Tod von Tausenden der Vater von zwei Töchtern (R3a also: der Vater zweier Töchter) jeder von uns eine Tante von mir viel von dem, was sie sagte wenig von dem guten Wein

(b)

von is more usual than the genitive, even in R3: to avoid consecutive die Tür von dem Haus meines genitives in -s, Bruders especially with names die Ubersetzung von Goethes Taust' die Antwort von Martins Freund if a noun has an der Bau von modernen Kraftwerken adjective, but no ein Erzeugnis von höchster Qualität article die Produktion von reinem Stahl der Preis von sechs neuen Fahrrädern with indefinite eine Dauer von mehreren Jahren pronouns in der Gesellschaft von einigen Freunden die Ansicht von vielen Wissenschaftlern

(c)

von is often found in R2 and R3, although more formal registers often prefer the genitive: • with words of quantity die Hälfte von diesem Buch in partitive eines von diesen neuen Häusern constructions drei von unseren Nachbarn ein Teil von den Zuschauern viele von den Maßnahmen • with geographical die Zerstörung von Dresden names die Hauptstadt von Deutschland das Alpengebiet von Kärnten die Straßen von Frankfurt

(d)

In other contexts R3 always has, and R2 usually has, a genitive, but in Rl von is normally used: Rl R2+R3 die Adresse von meiner Tante in der Nähe vom Rathaus das Dach von der alten Kirche das Benehmen von den Kindern die Abfahrt vom Zug

die Adresse meiner Tante in der Nähe des Rathauses das Dach der alten Kirche das Benehmen der Kinder die Abfahrt des Zuges

(e)

von is even commonly used with names in Rl: das Buch von (der) Petra das Haus von (der) Frau Müller

(f)

To express possession with persons, the most casual Rl often uses a paraphrase with the dative. This construction is never used in higher registers. (S: dem) Jürgen seine Tasche (S: der) Mutter ihr Schlüssel meinen Freunden ihre Fahrräder • The genitive case also occurs in a number of set phrases. Some of these are used in less formal registers, as indicated: when all is said and done letzten Endes (R2/R3) allen Ernstes (R3) in all seriousness meines Erachtens (R3) in my view stehenden Fußes (R3) immediately with his head held high erhobenen Hauptes (R3) erster Klasse fahren (R2/R3) to travelfirstclass ich bin deiner Meinung (R2/R3) I agree with you frohen Mutes (R3) in good spirits er ging seines Weges (R3) he went his way meines Wissens (R2/R3) to my knowledge • The genitive also occurs in some time expressions which are used in all registers: eines Tages, Abends, Nachts, etc. one day, evening,, night, etc. eines schönen Sommers onefinesummer

4.2.3

The position of genitive phrases In modern German, a phrase in the genitive case follows the noun it qualifies, e.g.: die Gefahr eines Erdbebens die Hälfte meines Vermögens die Kultur des Ostens die Auswirkungen dieser schweren Krise

The only exception is with names, e.g.: Manfreds Stereoanlage) n o n m l b a „ r e ^ s t e r s Antjes neue Bluse ) Frau Müllers Sohn Rl also: der Sohn von (S: der) Frau Müller R2-R3 also: der Sohn der Frau Müller Goethes Werke R3 also: die Werke Goethes R1-R3 also: die Werke von Goethe Frankfurts Straßen R3 also: die Straßen Frankfurts R1-R3 also: die Straßen von Frankfurt In R3a other genitives can come first. However, this construction is rare and usually sounds rather old-fashioned (or facetious), e.g.: des Mannes Ehre des kühnen Helden blankes Schwert des Postministers Kabelpläne

4.2.4 Measurement phrases (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

The most common usage in all registers is for the nouns to be in the same case, e.g.: eine Menge Fehler ein Glas badischer Wein ein Kilo italienische Tomaten Er trank eine Tasse schwarzen Tee (accusative) mit einem Zentner polnischer Kohle (dative) In R3a the genitive case can be used if an adjective is present. This has an archaic flavour, especially in the singular, e.g.: ein Glas badischen Weines ein Becher frischer Milch ein Dutzend erbaulicher Bücher von is often used with vague quantity words such as Anzahl, Haufen, Menge, especially if they are plural, e.g.: eine Menge von Fehlern eine Anzahl von Touristen zwei Gruppen von Schulkindern vier Kategorien von Ausnahmen eine ganze Reihe von Beispielen With these vague quantity words, the genitive is quite frequent in R3 if an adjective follows, e.g.: ein Haufen alter Zeitschriften eine Anzahl deutscher Touristen Millionen hungernder Menschen

4.3

Tenses German has six tenses, as the table below shows:

PRESENT PAST PERFECT PLUPERFECT FUTURE FUTURE PERFECT

ich kaufe ich kaufte ich habe gekauft ich hatte gekauft ich werde kaufen ich werde gekauft haben

I buy I bought I have bought I had bought I shall/will buy I shall/will have bought

These German tenses are very similar in form to the English tenses, with two simple tenses of a single word, i.e. the present tense and the past tense, and four compound tenses, formed with the auxiliary verbs haben, sein and/or werden and the past participle and/or the infinitive, i.e. the perfect, pluperfect, future and future perfect tenses. In general, the uses of the corresponding tenses in German and English are also very similar. This section explains the most important contexts where there are significant differences between the two languages.

4.3.1

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Present and future The future tense is used much less in German than in English, particularly in Rl. As long as there is no real risk of ambiguity, German can use the present tense where the future tense must be used in English (whether the future tense with will/shall/ 7/ is used in English or the construction with to be going to, which has no equivalent in German), e.g.: In zwei Stunden bin ich wieder da Fll be back in two hours Weitere Einzelheiten erteilt Our specialist staff will give you Ihnen unser Fachpersonal further information Ich erwarte, dass sie kommt I expect that she will come Sie findet es nie She '11 neverfindit Wir sagen es ihm morgen We're going to tell him tomorrow Only if the future meaning is not clear is it absolutely necessary to use the future tense in German, e.g.: Er wird wieder als Ingenieur He will be working as an engineer arbeiten again (Er arbeitet wieder als Ingenieur could only mean: He is working as an engineer again)

The future tense often expresses a prediction or a probability. This is similar to English, and it is frequently strengthened by wohl in German (see 2.6), e.g.: Er wird den Zug (wohl) noch erreichen Dagmar wird (wohl) auch kommen wollen Die Vorstellung wird (wohl) gegen 11 Uhr zu Ende sein Schalke wird (wohl) auch in München verlieren The future tense can also stress determination to do something, e.g.: Ich werde es heute Abend noch erledigen Wir werden es schon schaffen The future perfect tense is uncommon in any register, and the perfect tense is often used in its place. It often expresses a supposition in the past, e.g.: Bald wird er es geschafft haben = Bald hat er es geschafft Er wird (wohl) nicht ohne = Er ist wohl nicht ohne Absicht Absicht gekommen sein gekommen Er wird (wohl) seinen Schlüssel = Er hat wohl seinen Schlüssel verloren haben verloren

4.3.2 Past and perfect The term 'imperfect tense', which is sometimes used to refer to the German past tense, is better avoided as it is misleading. Unlike the French or Spanish imperfect tenses, the past tense in German and English does not express any idea of uncompleted or continuing action.

NOTE:

(a)

In modern German there is little real difference in meaning between the past and perfect tenses. Both ich kam and ich bin gekommen can express much the same idea and both can be used to translate I came or I have come. Which one is used depends largely on region and register. Broadly speaking, written registers (R2/R3) prefer the past tense, whereas spoken German Rl prefers the perfect, especially in S, e.g.: Rl: spoken German R2/R3: written German Sein Bruder Robert ist gestern Sein Bruder Robert fuhr gestern mit ein paar Freunden nach mit ein paar Freunden nach Hamm gefahren, wo sie Uwe Hamm, wo sie Uwe Fuhrmann Fuhrmann besucht haben besuchten The past tense is not used at all in speech in S. In N, however, it does occur, especially: • in als- and wie-chuses: Als ich sie sah, hat sie mich nicht erkannt Ich habe gehört, wie er die Treppe herunterkam • in the passive, with modal auxiliary verbs, with verbs of saying, hearing and feeling and many very common verbs, such as sein, haben, bleiben, gehen, kommen, stehen, etc.:

(b)

(c)

4.3.3

Da blieb ich stehen und sagte nichts Ich konnte auch nichts sagen Ich war vor ihm dran Sie hatte nichts dagegen Er wurde schlecht behandelt The perfect tense is normally used in written German R2/R3 to stress a result, to express the immediate past or actions which have continued up to now. In all these contexts English typically also uses a perfect, e.g.: • stressing result: Es hat geschneit (i.e. I can see the snow) Wir sind gelandet (i.e. we're on the ground) Man sieht, dass er schwer gearbeitet hat • immediate past: Jetzt hat Kahn den Ball eingeworfen Damit haben wir unsere kurze Einleitung beendet In diesem Augenblick ist der Zug abgefahren • events continuing up to now: Seit dem Sommer hat sie zwanzig Bücher gelesen Das habe ich wiederholt gesagt Bis jetzt hat alles geklappt The past tense is not unknown in R3 in the contexts listed under (b), especially in R3b (newspaper headlines, etc.). However, it is much less frequent than the perfect, e.g.: • stressing result: Das ist der erste solche Bericht, der uns erreichte • immediate past: Sie hörten soeben eine Sendung des österreichischen Rundfunks • events continuing up to now: Noch nie wurde ein Auto so oft gebaut

haben or sein in the perfect? The German perfect tenses can be formed with the auxiliaries haben or sein, e.g.: perfect pluperfect future perfect

Sie hat es gekauft Sie ist schnell gelaufen Sie hatte es gekauft Sie war schnell gelaufen Sie wird es gekauft Sie wird schnell haben gelaufen sein With most verbs the choice between haben and sein is quite straightforward.

(a)

(b)

The following verbs form their perfect tenses with sein: • intransitive verbs which express a change of place, e.g.: Sie ist geflogen/geflohen/gegangen/gelaufen, etc. • intransitive verbs expressing a change of state, e.g.: Es ist geworden/gestorben/verblüht, etc. • verbs meaning 'to happen', 'to fail', 'to succeed', e.g.: Es ist geschehen/passiert/vorgekommen/zugestoßen, etc. Es ist gelungen/misslungen/geglückt, etc. [NOTE: es hat geklappt (Rl)] • the verbs sein and bleiben, e.g.: Er ist gewesen/geblieben • some other verbs in certain regions only, i.e.: N: anfangen/beginnen S: liegen/sitzen/stehen (In standard German these always form their perfect tenses with haben.) The following verbs form the perfect with haben: • transitive verbs, i.e. those which have an accusative object, e.g.: Sie hat ihn geschlagen/gesehen/getragen/gewaschen, etc. • reflexive verbs, e.g.: Er hat sich beeilt/gefreut/verabschiedet, etc. • intransitive verbs which express a continuous action, e.g.: Wir haben gewartet/gearbeitet/geholfen, etc. • impersonal verbs, e.g.: Es hat geregnet/geschneit/gedämmert, etc. The choice between haben and sein is not linked to the particular verb in German, but depends on the meaning as given above. Several verbs can fall into more than one of the categories above if their meaning varies, or if they can be used transitively or intransitively. In this case they sometimes take haben and sometimes take sein. The following examples show the effect of this with some common verbs: The cat jumped up at him Die Katze hat ihn angesprungen Der Motor ist angesprungen The motor started Ich habe das Geschenk I received the present bekommen The shellfish didn ft agree with her Die Muscheln sind ihr nicht bekommen Er hat die Röhre gebogen He bent the tube Wir sind um die Ecke gebogen We turned round the corner Er hat das Rohr gebrochen He broke the pipe Das Rohr ist gebrochen The pipe broke Sie hat auf Zahlung gedrungen She pressed for payment Wasser ist in das Haus gedrungen Water penetrated into the house Er hat einen Audi gefahren He drove an Audi

Er ist nach Gießen gefahren He drove to Gießen Sie hat ihm gefolgt She obeyed him Sie ist ihm gefolgt She followed him Es hat in der Nacht gefroren It froze during the night The lake froze Der See ist gefroren You were mistaken Da haben Sie sich geirrt We strayed through the forest Da sind wir durch den Wald geirrt He ran into town Er ist in die Stadt gelaufen He got sore feet from running Er hat sich die Füße wund gelaufen She tore a hole in her dress Sie hat sich ein Loch ins Kleid gerissen The rope broke Der Strick ist gerissen He shot him in the head Er hat ihn in den Kopf geschossen The weeds shot out of the ground Das Unkraut ist aus dem Boden geschossen She pushed him to one side Sie hat ihn zur Seite gestoßen Ich bin an den Schrank gestoßen I bumped into the cupboard He kicked it by accident Er hat es aus Versehen getreten He stepped into the water Er ist in das Wasser getreten She pulled on the string Sie hat am Strick gezogen She moved to Emden Sie ist nach Emden gezogen A rather special case concerns some verbs of motion which can take sein if they express movement from one spot to another, but haben if they just refer to the activity as such, e.g. Er hat den ganzen Tag gebummelt/ gefahren/ geflogen/ geritten/ gerudert/ geschwommen/ gesegelt/ getanzt Er ist durch die Stadt gebummelt/ gefahren/ geflogen/ geritten/ gerudert/ geschwommen/ gesegelt/ getanzt The tendency in Rl is to use sein with all these verbs in both meanings, and this usage is also well established in R2 and R3. Only with rudern, segeln and tanzen is the distinction kept at all consistently.

4.4 The passive We typically express actions by using the active voice, both in English and in German. This tells us what is happening and who or what is doing it, e.g. Der Bürgermeister eröffnete gestern die Ausstellung. But we can present a different perspective on an action by using the passive voice, which places the emphasis simply on what is happening, without necessarily mentioning who or what is doing it, e.g. Die Ausstellung wurde gestern eröffnet.

4.4.1

werden- or s^m-passive? German has two forms of the passive voice, using the auxiliary verbs werden or sein together with the past participle of the main verb: The werden-passive (e.g. die Stadt wurde zerstört) expresses a process (in German it is called the Vorgangspassiv). It is closely related to the corresponding active voice. The ^m-passive (e.g. die Stadt war zerstört) expresses a state (in German it is called the Zustandspassiv). Its use is more restricted than that of the werden-pzssive. The werden-p&ssive is formed from the appropriate tense of the verb werden with the past participle of a verb indicating the action: Present Die Ausstellung wird eröffnet Past Die Ausstellung wurde eröffnet Perfect Die Austeilung ist eröffnet worden (NOTE: worden is used as the past participle of werden in the passive voice) Future Die Ausstellung wird eröffnet werden

Rl = spoken colloquial RL* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

A U = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North N E = North East N W = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

The ^/«-passive is much less frequent than the werden-passive. It is formed with the present or past tense of sein (other tenses are rarely used) and the past participle, and it is essentially descriptive, with the past participle being equivalent in meaning to an adjective, e.g.: Die Tür ist geöffnet = Die Tür ist offen (i.e. somebody has opened it) Der Brief ist geschrieben = Der Brief ist fertig (i.e. somebody has written it) Die Stadt war zerstört = Die Stadt war kaputt (i.e. somebody had destroyed it) Compare these examples with sentences with the werden-passive: Die Tür wird geöffnet (somebody is in the process of opening it) Der Brief wird geschrieben (somebody is in the process of writing it) Die Stadt wurde zerstört (somebody carried out the action of destroying it) For this reason the sm-passive is often the equivalent of an English perfect or pluperfect tense, e.g.: The letter has been written Der Brief ist geschrieben Die Stadt war zerstört The town had been destroyed In practice, the difference in meaning may be very slight between the German ^'«-passive and the perfect or pluperfect tenses of the wrcfew-passive, e.g.: Der Brief ist geschrieben / Der Brief ist geschrieben worden Die Stadt war zerstört / Die Stadt war zerstört worden

On the other hand, the werden-passive, especially in the present, often corresponds to an English progressive tense because it indicates an action in progress, e.g.: The letter is being written Der Brief wird geschrieben The application is being dealt with Der Antrag wird bearbeitet As the sm-passive expresses a state resulting from a previous action, it is only ever used with verbs which have some tangible result, like verletzen, e.g.: Meine Hand ist verletzt i.e. you can see the resulting injury Der Wagen ist beschädigt i.e. you can see the resulting damage Verbs which do not express a clear result cannot be used in the i m passive at all, e.g.: Das Mädchen wurde bewundert The girl was admired war bewundert is quite impossible, as admiring does not produce a result which can be seen. Other common verbs which similarly cannot be used in the sein-passive are: anbieten bemerken erwarten schmeicheln befragen brauchen hindern schulden begrüßen erblicken loben zeigen In N and CH the sew-passive may be more widely used to refer to an action, e.g.: Die Anwesenden sind aufgefordert, ihre Plätze einzunehmen (In standard German, only werden is acceptable here.) Only in a very few cases is the distinction between werden and sein unimportant in standard German, most commonly when we are dealing with a general truth or a permanent state of some kind, usually referring to things, e.g.: Die Stadt wird/ist von etwa eine Million Menschen bewohnt Das Zentrum wird/ist durch die Ringstraße von den Außenbezirken getrennt

4.4.2

The impersonal ('subjectless') passive A characteristic and frequent use of the passive in German is in an impersonal construction to refer, in general terms, to an action or activity going on. It is particularly common in written German (especially R3b), but it is by no means restricted to that register. The following examples illustrate this construction: Es wird wieder getanzt The dancing is starting up again Es wurde abgestimmt A vote was taken Es wurde noch lange diskutiert The discussion still continued for a long time

If another part of speech is in initial position in a main clause statement, or in questions and subordinate clauses, the es is dropped (though the verb still agrees with it), giving the so-called 'subjectless' passive, e.g.: Jetzt wird wieder getanzt The dancing is starting up again now Nachmittags wurde Karten People played cards in the afternoons gespielt Er langweilte sich, weil noch He was bored because the discussion lange diskutiert wurde still continued for a long time Wurde noch lange diskutiert? Did the discussion still continue for a long time?

4.4.3 The passive with dative objects In German, only the accusative object of a transitive verb can become the subject of the passive, e.g.: Herr Altmann baut das Haus Das Haus wird von Herrn Altmann gebaut Der Feind zerstörte die Stadt Die Stadt wurde vom Feind zerstört This means that dative objects and prepositional objects can never become the subject of a passive sentence; they remain as datives or prepositional phrases in the passive. This is quite different in English, e.g.: Sie schenkte dem Mädchen eine Puppe Er antwortete dem König nicht Sie sorgten für die Kinder

Dem Mädchen wurde eine Puppe geschenkt The girl was given a doll Dem König wurde nicht geantwortet The king was not answered Für die Kinder wurde gesorgt The children were looked after

4.4.4 von or durch with the passive? The equivalent of English by in the passive can be von or durch in German, von is much more frequent and is used for the agent, i.e. the 'doer' or the cause of an action. This is most often a person, but it can sometimes be some natural agency, e.g.: Holger wurde von seiner Schwester informiert Diese Zeitschrift wird eher von anspruchsvollen Menschen gelesen Sie wurden von einer Lawine mitgerissen

durch refers to the means of doing an action, which is commonly a thing, or to an intermediary, e.g.: Die Stadt wurde durch Bomben verwüstet Die Fähigkeit des Fahrers wurde durch Alkohol erheblich gemindert Die Katastrophe wurde durch die ungewöhnliche Kälte herbeigeführt However, this distinction between von and durch is not always strictly adhered to, especially in Rl. In particular, there are many instances where it is not clear whether one is dealing with a 'doer' or the means of doing an action, and either von or durch can be used, e.g.: Die Stadt wurde durch/von Bomben verwüstet Alle unsere Erzeugnisse werden durch/von Fachexperten geprüft NOTE: In general, von/durch phrases are only used with the werden-passive, not with the sm-passive.

4.4.5

(a)

(b)

Alternative passive constructions It is rather misleading to say, as some books do, that the passive is used less in German than in English. If it is true to any extent it is because German can use an active construction with something other than the subject in initial position in a way which is not possible in English (see 5.1.4). However, the German passive is widely used, if rather more in R3 (especially R3b) than Rl, and it is certainly not to be 'avoided' almost as a matter of course. Nevertheless, German is rich in alternative means of expressing passives, and it is worthwhile knowing these constructions. They are very frequent, and they can provide useful variation and differences in emphasis. man can be used if the subject is truly indefinite. It is much more used in all registers than English 'one': Man sagt = Es wird gesagt Das tut man nicht = Das wird nicht getan Man schloss die Sitzung = Die Sitzung wurde geschlossen bekommen, erhalten (R3) or kriegen (Rl) can be used to emphasize the person receiving something, e.g.: Ich bekam den Weg von einem = Mir wurde der Weg von einem Passanten beschrieben Passanten beschrieben Er erhielt das Geld ausgezahlt = Ihm wurde das Geld (R3) ausgezahlt Die Kleine hat eine Puppe = Der Kleinen wurde eine Puppe geschenkt gekriegt (Rl) geschenkt

gehören (S) has the force of müssen or sollen, e.g.: Das gehört doch bestraft = Das muss/soll doch bestraft werden Dem gehört das deutlich gesagt = Ihm muss/soll das deutlich gesagt werden Phrasal verbs, especially with kommen, are frequent in R3b, e.g.: (d) Es kommt demnächst zur = Darüber wird demnächst entschieden Entschiedung (R3b) = Die Verhandlungen werden Die Verhandlungen kommen heute abgeschlossen heute zum Abschluss (R3b) = Die Angelegenheit soll Die Angelegenheit soll einer gründlich uberprüft werden gründlichen Überprüfung unterliegen (R3b) (e) Reflexive constructions are often used instead of passives in all registers, e.g.: Sie nennt sich Hildegard = Sie wird Hildegard genannt Der Schlüssel wird sich sicher = Der Schlüssel wird sicher noch finden noch gefunden werden Das Buch liest sich schnell = Das Buch kann schnell gelesen werden The natural German equivalent of many English passive (or passive-like) constructions is a reflexive verb, e.g.: sich ärgern to be annoyed sich schämen to be ashamed sich freuen to be pleased sich verbinden to be associated (f) sich lassen, with an impersonal subject, has the force of können, e.g.: = Das kann noch gemacht Das lässt sich noch machen werden Der Apparat lässt sich nicht = Der Apparat kann nicht mehr mehr reparieren repariert werden Dieser Satz lässt sich nur = Dieser Satz kann nur schwer schwer übersetzen übersetzt werden (g) sein with an infinitive phrase (the so-called 'modal infinitive' construction) has the force of können, müssen or sollen (and may then be ambiguous), e.g.: Die Arbeit ist bis morgen zu = Die Arbeit muss bis morgen erledigen erledigt werden Diese Säulen sind an jeder = Diese Säulen können an jeder Straßenecke zu finden Straßenecke gefunden werden Diese Ausdrücke sind tunlichst = Diese Ausdrücke sollen zu vermeiden tunlichst vermieden werden This construction can be converted into an extended adjective based on the present participle. This is very typical of R3b: Diese tunlichst zu vermeidenden Ausdrücke . . .

(i)

4.5

= Das Ergebnis muss Das Ergebnis bleibt abgewartet werden abzuwarten = Das Radio kann noch Das Radio geht noch zu repariert werden reparieren (Rl) Adjectives in -bar (and some in -lich) have the force of passives with können, e.g.: Die Pfirsiche sind kaum essbar = Die Pfirsiche können kaum gegessen werden = Solche Wörter können Solche Wörter sind jederzeit jederzeit gebildet werden bildbar = Seine Antwort konnte nicht Seine Antwort war verstanden werden unverständlich

The subjunctive The use of the subjunctive in German is subject to considerable variation dependent on register. 'Rules' which are given in many grammar books are only kept to strictly in R3. Everyday Rl usage can be very different, particularly in the area of indirect speech.

4.5.1

Konjunktiv I

Konjunktiv II

The forms of Konjunktiv I

Forms of the subjunctive In English, we usually call the main forms of the German subjunctive the present subjunctive and past subjunctive. However, the difference in meaning between these has nothing to do with time differences, and it is common practice in books on German nowadays to refer to them as Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv //, as follows: er schlafe present subjunctive er habe geschlafen perfect subjunctive er werde schlafen future subjunctive er schliefe past subjunctive er hätte geschlafen pluperfect subjunctive er würde schlafen conditional The terms Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv II are used in this section as they are less misleading and make it simpler to explain the use of the subjunctive in modern German. Konjunktiv I only has a distinct form in the third person singular, except for the verb sein, and this is formed simply by dropping the -n of the infinitive. There are no irregularities or vowel changes with any other verbs. er mache er solle er habe er nehme er werde

Other forms sometimes found in grammar books, e.g. du machest, ihr machet, are artificial and never used in practice, even in R3. The verb sein has distinct forms for all persons: ich sei wir seien du sei(e)st ihr seiet er sei sie seien In practice only the third person singular and plural are at all frequent. The other tenses of Konjunktiv I are formed with auxiliary verbs, i.e.: perfect subjunctive the present subjunctive of haben or sein (see 4.3.3) with the past participle of the main verb: er habe geschlafen er sei gekommen future subjunctive the present subjunctive of werden with the infinitive: er werde schlafen The forms of Konjunktiv II

Rl = spoken colloquial RL* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

There are three tenses of Konjunktiv II: a one-word form based on the forms of the past tense. (a) past For weak verbs it is identical with the past tense; for subjunctive strong (and some irregular) verbs it is formed by umlauting the vowel of the past tense, if possible, and adding -e, if possible, e.g.: können gehen kommen machen ich ginge ich könnte ich käme ich machte du machtest du kämest du gingest du könntest er ginge er könnte er käme er machte wir machten wir kämen wir gingen wir könnten ihr machtet ihr kämet ihr ginget ihr könntet sie machten sie kämen sie gingen sie könnten (b) pluperfect the past subjunctive of haben or sein (see 4.3.3) with the past participle of the main verb: subjunctive er hätte geschlafen er wäre gekommen (c) conditional the past subjunctive of werden with the infinitive: er würde schlafen A few strong verbs have an irregular past subjunctive, with a different vowel, sometimes as an alternative. Only the following are used nowadays, even in literary R3a:

NOTE:

helfen: ich hülfe (less common: hälfe) stehen: er standi (less common: standi)

4.5.2 The use of the past subjunctive and conditional forms The compound conditional form is often used instead of the simple past subjunctive, in exactly the same meanings and contexts, so that,

for example, people often say or write ich würde kommen or ich würde wissen rather than ich käme or ich wüsste. The one which is used depends on the individual verb involved and on register. German school-teachers and stylists have often tried to encourage the use of the simple forms as a mark of good style, but in practice they often sound stilted or archaic, and most people avoid using them in any register. Modern usage can be summarized as follows.: (a)

(b)

(c)

Rl, R2 & R3: R2 & R3: (d)

With weak verbs the one-word form is sometimes used in R3, if the meaning is otherwise clear from the context, i.e. from a distinct subjunctive form in the other half of a conditional sentence, e.g.: Wenn er noch lebte, würde ich diese Frage nicht beantworten Wenn wir das Fenster aufmachten, hätten wir ein bisschen frische Luft hier im Zimmer However, the conditional form with würde is always preferred in Rl, and it is used quite commonly in R2, and often in R3, e.g.: Wenn er noch leben würde, würde ich diese Frage nicht beantworten Wenn wir das Fenster aufmachen würden, hätten wir ein bisschen frische Luft hier im Zimmer With very common irregular verbs (i.e. sein, werden, haben and the modal auxiliaries) the one-word past subjunctive is almost always preferred in all registers, so that: wäre dürfte müsste hätte könnte sollte würde möchte wollte are almost always preferred to würde sein, würde haben, würde können, etc. This also means that the forms of the pluperfect subjunctive always have hätte and wäre, e.g.: Ich hätte es getan Wir wären gefahren Forms like Ich würde es getan haben for English 'I would have done it' are very rare. With a few other common strong or irregular verbs the one-word past subjunctive forms are about as frequent as conditional forms with würde in the registers indicated: kommen: käme tun: täte wissen: wüsste brauchen: (S) bräuchte finden: fände gehen: ginge heißen: hieße stehen: stünde geben: gäbe halten: hielte lassen: ließe With a limited number of other strong or irregular verbs the one-word past subjunctive forms are found in R3 only, and even there they are less frequent than conditional forms with würde. The following are still not unusual in R3:

bleiben: bliebe bringen: brächte denken: dächte fallen: fiele fahren: führe gelingen: gelänge geschehen: geschähe hängen: hinge

helfen: hülfe kennen: kennte laufen: liefe liegen: läge nehmen: nähme scheinen: schiene schlafen: schliefe schlagen: schlüge

schreiben: schriebe sehen: sähe treffen: träfe tragen: trüge verschwinden: verschwände ziehen: zöge

(e)

With the remaining strong and irregular verbs, the one-word past subjunctive forms are still very occasionally found in R3a, but the conditional forms with würde are far more usual. These one-word forms, especially irregular ones in -o- and -ü- (e.g. begönne, hübe, würbe, etc.) sound pompous and comical nowadays and are best avoided entirely.

(f)

The one context where the one-word past subjunctive forms and the conditional forms are not interchangeable is where the sense is of a 'future-in-the-past', i.e. where the speaker or writer is looking forward within a past-tense narrative, and there is no sense of it being a supposition or merely a possibility, e.g.: Manfred wusste, dass sein Freund es nie so weit bringen würde Ich beschloss das Buch zu lesen, sobald ich groß sein würde The conditional is always used in these contexts, never the one-word past subjunctive.

4.5.3 Indirect speech In indirect speech (sometimes called 'reported speech') we report what someone said by putting it into a sentence of our own, typically introduced by that. This contrasts with direct speech, where we quote what someone said in the original spoken form. Compare the following English examples: Direct speech: He said, 'She knows it' Indirect speech: He said that she knew it In German the subjunctive is regularly used to indicate indirect speech. However, usage is highly variable and determined mainly by register. Grammatical 'rules' are widely ignored and those given in many reference works are misleading, inaccurate or unrepresentative of actual usage. A basic starting point is that whereas the most formal R3 uses Konjunktiv I wherever possible, informal Rl avoids it almost entirely. Typical R3 usage

• Konjunktiv I is used to indicate indirect speech, as long as there is a distinct subjunctive form. In practice, this means in the third person singular, or with the verb sein. The same tense is kept as in the original direct speech, although if this was the past tense, the perfect subjunctive is used:

PRESENT

original tense : PA s T :

direct speech „Sie weiß es" „Sie wusste es"

PERFECT:

„Sie hat es gewusst"

FUTURE:

„Sie wird es wissen"

indirect speech Er sagte, sie wisse es Er sagte, sie habe es gewusst Er sagte, sie habe es gewusst Er sagte, sie werde es wissen

• However, if there is no clear Konjunktiv I form (typically in the third person plural of all verbs except sein), the corresponding Konjunktiv II forms are used: original tense direct speech indirect speech PRESENT: „Sie wissen es" Er sagte, sie wüssten es PAST: „Sie wussten es" Er sagte, sie hätten es gewusst PERFECT: „Sie haben es gewusst" Er sagte, sie hätten es gewusst FUTURE: „Sie werden es wissen" Er sagte, sie würden es wissen • If the one-word Konjunktiv II form is unusual (see 4.5.2) then the würde-form is used, e.g.: Direct speech: „Diese Bäche fließen alle in den Neckar" Indirect speech: Sie sagte, diese Bäche würden alle in den Neckar fließen (the one-word formflössenis no longer used) This pattern is most closely adhered to in the R3b of newspaper reports, where the subjunctive provides a handy means of indicating reported speech, for example (from Die Zeit): Der iranische Parlamentspräsident Rafsanjani ist mit dem äußeren Erscheinungsbild der schiitischen Revolutionäre unzufrieden. D i e fundamentalistischen Moslems w ü r d e n immer mehr mit Begriffen wie „ungewaschen, unrasiert und unordentlich gekleidet" g l e i c h g e s e t z t . Außerdem sei es an der Zeit, den revolutionären Eifer etwas zu zügeln. [ . . . ] Im übrigen s o l l e man den Personenkult um den Ajatollah Chomeini nicht übertreiben. Etwas weniger Porträts des Imam t ä t e n es auch.

Note the alternation of Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv II forms and the lack of any explicit verb of saying; only the subjunctive shows us that this is reported speech.

There are one or two common deviations from this pattern in R3, as follows: (a)

(b)

(c)

R2 usage

If the conjunction dass is used, the indicative is as frequently used as Konjunktiv I (but normally still in the tense of the original direct speech), e.g.: Er sagte, dass er schon länger hier wohnt However, if dass is omitted, then Konjunktiv I is essential, e.g.: Er sagte, er wohne schon länger hier The indicative is often used even if the Konjunktiv I form is not clear (i.e. in the third person plural), e.g.: Sie sagten, sie arbeiten schon in der Schweiz If the indicative is used in indirect speech, there is no difference in meaning to the subjunctive, i.e. it does not represent 'fact' as opposed to 'mere report'. Konjunktiv II is common even when a clear Konjunktiv I form is available (i.e. in the third person singular), e.g.: Er hat gefragt, ob sie schon lange in Göttingen wäre Er behauptete, er hätte ihn nicht geschlagen If Konjunktiv II is used, there is no difference in meaning to Konjunktiv /, i.e. it does not imply 'doubt' as opposed to 'mere report'. R2 usage differs from R3 mainly in that Konjunktiv I forms are less frequent:

(a)

Konjunktiv II forms are used rather than Konjunktiv /, with the exception of sein and haben: Sie sagte, sie wüsste es schon Sie sagte, sie würde es versuchen Sie sagte, sie sei müde geworden

(b)

One-word Konjunktiv II forms are used only with a few common verbs (see 4.5.2), e.g.: Er sagte, er käme heute nicht Sie meinte, sie könnte es schon machen Otherwise, würde-forms or the indicative are used, e.g.: Der Schaffner sagte, dass unsere Rückfahrkarten nicht mehr gelten/gelten würden Viele behaupten, sie lesen keine Tageszeitung mehr/ . . . sie würden keine Tageszeitung mehr lesen

(c)

In Rl, Konjunktiv I is not used at all (except in SW).

Rl usage (a)

The indicative and Konjunktiv II are used interchangeably, with the indicative predominating, e.g.: Sie hat gesagt, sie weiß es schon / sie wüsste es schon Sie hat gesagt, sie hat es verstanden / sie hätte es verstanden Sie hat gesagt, sie wird es versuchen / würde es versuchen

(b)

If Konjunktiv II is used, it is in the würde- form except with a few common verbs (see 4.5.2), e.g.: Sie sagt, sie würde auf dem Land leben Er hat gesagt, er käme heute nicht

(c)

Konjunktiv II is used mainly if there is a longer stretch of reported speech covering more than one sentence, e.g.: Der sagt, dass er 'nen neuen Wagen gekauft hat. Der hätte über 30 000 Euro gekostet und hätte eine Klimaanlage

4.5.4 •

Conditional sentences Typical conditional sentences consist of a subordinate clause, introduced by the conjunction wenn (= English i f ) , expressing a condition, and a main clause, expressing the consequence. There are other kinds, with the condition expressed in other ways, e.g. through an adverbial. Konjunktiv II is used in all registers in German in conditional sentences which express a possibility, e.g.: Wenn wir Zeit hätten, könnten wir einen Ausflug machen Die Europäer wären erleichtert, wenn England wieder austreten würde Wir würden es begrüßen, wenn du uns besuchen könntest Ich würde mich freuen, wenn sie es schaffen würde (R3: schaffte) Wenn sie auf der Autobahn gefahren wären, hätten sie die Fähre auch rechtzeitig erreicht Bei dem Wetter wäre ich nicht in Urlaub gefahren Ich würde sonst das Fenster aufmachen Ich hätte schon an sie geschrieben, nur habe ich ihre Adresse nicht gewusst The choice of the one-word past subjunctive form or conditional würde-form depends on the individual verb or on register, see 4.5.2. Either can be used in either part of the sentence, as the examples show. This is different to English, where we typically always use a past tense in the if-clause, and a conditional with would in the main clause.

•

A common variant in conditional sentences in all registers, but very frequent in Rl, is the combination of sollte in the wenn-clause and a future (or present) tense in the main clause. This is similar to the use of should or were to in English, e.g.: Wenn er sich dazu entschließen sollte, werden wir zusammenarbeiten können Wenn sich die Umstände nun ändern sollten, wird die Situation wohl etwas besser aussehen Sollte ich die Vase fallen lassen, zerbricht sie sicher wollte is also a frequent alternative, especially (though not only) in R3 with wenn omitted, e.g.: Es würde uns zu lange aufhalten, wollten wir alle diese Probleme ausfuhrlich behandeln

•

For 'real' or 'open' conditions, where the present and future tenses are used in English, German uses the indicative, e.g.: Wenn ich Zeit habe, komme ich mit

I f l have time, 77/ come with you

Contrast: Wenn ich Zeit hätte, käme ich mit I f l had timey I would come with you

4.5.5 (a)

Other uses of the subjunctive In comparative clauses with als ob and other conjunctions with the meaning 'as if, Konjunktiv II is commonly used in all registers, e.g.: als ob sie sich amüsierte als ob er nicht einverstanden wäre als ob sie nicht kämen als ob sie nicht bezahlt hätten In R3, Konjunktiv I is sometimes found, if there is a distinct form. However, it is less frequent than Konjunktiv 77. There is no difference in meaning, e.g.: als ob sie sich amüsiere als ob er nicht einverstanden sei In R2 and Rl, würde-forms are frequent in appropriate cases (see 4.5.2), e.g.: als ob sie sich amüsieren würde In Rl, the indicative is equally common, especially in N, without any distinction in meaning, e.g.: als ob sie sich amüsiert als ob er nicht einverstanden ist als ob sie nicht kommen als ob sie nicht bezahlt haben

For English 'as if, als ob is possible in all registers. In written R3, it is at least as usual for ob to be dropped and the verb to be brought forward to a position immediately after als, e.g.: als amüsierte sie sich als wäre er nicht einverstanden As alternatives to als ob, als wenn is used in R3, e.g.: als wenn sie nicht kämen, and wie wenn, usually with the indicative, is frequent in Rl, e.g. wie wenn sich nicht kommen. (b)

Consecutive clauses with als dass, ohne dass Konjunktiv II is fairly regular with these in R3, e.g.: Diese Hi-Fi-Anlage ist viel zu teuer, als dass ich sie mir leisten könnte Diese Mannschaft ist seit Jahren in der Bundesliga, ohne dass sie je deutscher Meister geworden wäre The indicative is used in other registers (and, in practice, main clause constructions are often preferred in Rl, see 5.2) and is not unknown in R3, e.g.: Diese Hi-Fi-Anlage ist zu teuer, als dass ich es mir leisten kann Diese Mannschaft ist seit Jahren in der Bundesliga, ohne dass sie je deutscher Meister geworden ist

(c)

Purpose clauses with damit Konjunktiv II (or Konjunktiv /, if there is a clear form) is occasionally found in R3a, e.g.: Er zog sich zurück, damit wir ihn nicht sähen Er gab ihr Geld, damit sie einen neuen Mantel kaufe Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie repariere However, even in R3, the indicative is now more usual, i.e.: Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie repariert Nevertheless, the most natural construction in these sentences in all registers is to use können or sollen, i.e.: Er zog sich zurück, damit wir ihn nicht sehen konnten/sollten Er gab ihr Geld, damit sie einen neuen Mantel kaufen konnte/sollte Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie reparieren kann/soll

(d)

Idiomatic uses Konjunktiv II is very common, especially in spoken Rl and R2, and particularly in S, to moderate the tone of an assertion, a statement, a request or a question and make it sound more polite, e.g.: Das wäre eigentlich alles, was ich dazu zu sagen hätte Ich würde auch meinen, dass es jetzt viel zu spät ist Das dürfte Peter gewesen sein Das wäre nun das Letzte Somit hätten wir es geschafft Könnten Sie mir bitte sagen, wo hier die Paulskirche ist? Würden Sie mir bitte das Salz reichen?

Konjunktiv /, in particular of the ^m-passive, is frequent in technical R3b to express a proposition, e.g.: In diesem Zusammenhang sei nur darauf verwiesen, dass diese Hypothese auf Humboldt zurückgeht Hier sei nur vermerkt, dass ihm dieses Experiment nie einwandfrei gelungen ist

4.6 The modal auxiliaries

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Tense present present future past perfect past subjunctive past subjunctive pluperf subjunctive

The verbs dürfen, können, mögen, müssen, sollen and wollen are known as 'modal auxiliary' verbs. They typically express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the sentence, expressing volition, possibility, necessity, permission, etc. They are very common, and the English-speaking learner needs to pay particular attention to them, not least because they all have a wide range of meanings which shade into one another, because they have a number of idiomatic uses, and because the English verbs to which they are deceptively similar are themselves irregular and elusive in meaning. It is good practice to treat each possible combination of modal auxiliary and main verb, in the various tenses and moods, separately and to know the possible equivalent(s) for each in the other language. In this section these major correspondences are illustrated as fully as possible. A significant initial difference between these verbs in English and German is that, whereas the English modals have at most only a present tense and a past tense (often with conditional meaning), the German modals have a full range of moods and tenses. The following forms, illustrated here with können, are the most common and they have to be learned for all the verbs: Construction

Example

+ infinitive + past infinitive + infinitive + infinitive 4- infinitive + infinitive + past infinitive + infinitive

sie kann es machen sie kann es gemacht haben sie wird es machen können sie konnte es machen sie hat es machen können sie könnte es machen sie könnte es gemacht haben sie hätte es machen können

There is no real difference in meaning between the past and perfect tenses of these verbs (see 4.3.2). In general usage, the past tense is commoner with most of them, even in Rl (except in S). Only with können and müssen is the perfect equally frequent.

NOTE:

4.6.1 DÜRFEN

The German modal auxiliaries dürfen expresses permission or, in Konjunktiv //, probability, e.g.: They may/can come in/ III let Sie dürfen hereinkommen them come in

KÖNNEN

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

I

They are allowed to come in f They mustn 7 come in I They aren't allowed to come in Das darf als Vorteil betrachtet That can/may be seen as an werden advantage Das darf doch nicht wahr sein But that can 7 be true Wir freuen uns, Ihnen mitteilen zu are pleased to be able to We dürfen, dass . . . (R3b) inform you that... Sie werden spielen dürfen They will be allowed to play Er durfte diese Reise machen He was allowed to go on that journey Endlich durfte er die Augen last he could open his eyes At aufmachen again Dürfte ich das Fenster aufmachen? Would you mind if I opened the window? Das dürfte sie doch gar nicht She ought not to know that wissen (i.e. it shouldn't be allowed) Sie dürfte krank sein She will be ill/ She is probably ill Sie dürfte krank gewesen sein She will have been ill/ She was probably ill Das hätten Sie nicht You ought not to have signed unterschreiben dürfen that (i.e. it shouldn't have been allowed) können expresses ability. In some contexts it can express possibility and, in Rl, permission, e.g.: He can swim well Er kann gut schwimmen She can 7 do it/ She isn7 able Sie kann es nicht machen to do it (You can/may play football Du kannst Fußball spielen (Rl) 1/7/ let you play football Er kann jeden Augenblick kommen He may come at any moment Sie kann es (auch) verloren haben She may (well) have lost it Er kann es (auch) gesehen haben He may (well) have seen it Er kann es nicht gesehen haben He can 7 have seen it Er kann es auch 'nicht gesehen He may not have seen it haben Er kann Spanisch He can speak Spanish Du wirst es schon finden können You 7/ be able to find it Sie dürfen nicht hereinkommen

(/ couldn 9t help him 1/ wasn yt able to help him I could run just as fast I would be able to run just as fast Das könnte schwierig sein That could/might be difficult Er könnte (wenigstens) seine He could/might (at least) pay Schulden bezahlen his debts Könnten Sie ihn darum bitten? Could you ask him for it? Er könnte uns belauscht haben He could have eavesdropped on us (i.e. it is possible that he did) Er hätte uns belauschen können He could have eavesdropped on us (i.e. he would have been able to, but he didn't) Sie könnte den Brief nicht She couldn yt have written the geschrieben haben letter (i.e. it wasn't possible that she did) Sie hätte den Brief nicht schreiben She couldn't have written the können letter (i.e. she wouldn't have been able to) You might have been rather Sie hätten etwas höflicher sein können more polite NOTE: the use of können to express possibility (= English may, see 4.6.2) is limited to cases where it is not ambiguous (i.e. where it could not be interpreted as expressing ability = English be able to). It is most frequent with a past infinitive, but even then, especially in the negative, auch is usually added to resolve the possible ambiguity.

[KÖNNEN]

Ich konnte ihm nicht helfen ) Ich habe ihm nicht helfen können) I Ich könnte genau so schnell laufen

MÖGEN

mögen expresses liking or desire, normally in the present or Konjunktiv IL In R3, and some more generally used set phrases, it can express possibility (like English 'may'). In this case, it often has a concessive sense, with the force of'although'. Sie mag keinen Kaffee She doesn ft like coffee Wir mögen den Lehrer nicht We don 9t like the teacher Das mag (wohl) sein That may well be Wie dem auch sein mag However that may be Er mag etwa dreißig (gewesen) sein He is (was) perhaps about thirty (R3)

Wie schwierig es auch sein mag/(R3) möge Das mag deutschen Ohren etwas fremd klingen, aber . . . (R3) Das mag vielen nicht einleuchten, aber . . . (R3)

However difficult it may be That may sound rather strange to German ears, but... That may not be clear to many, but...

Er sagte ihr, sie möge unten warten (R3) Das Zeichen x möge ein Winkel von 30° bezeichnen (R3b) Die Herren mögen sich beim Direktor melden (R3) Er mochte etwa dreißig sein (R3) Er hat sie auch nicht gemocht Er möchte nach Wien fahren Möchten Sie noch Wein? Ich möchte Sie nicht langer aufhalten Sagen Sie ihr, sie möchte (R3 möge) zu mir kommen Ich möchte, dass sie sofort weggeht Ich möchte dein Gesicht gesehen haben MÜSSEN

He asked her to kindly wait downstairs (indirect command) Let x be an angle of3(P Would the gentlemen be good enough to go and see the principal He was probably about thirty He didn't like her; either He would like to go to Vienna Would you like some more wine? I wouldn 9t want to keep you any longer Ask her to be kind enough to come and see me (indirect command) I want her to leave immediately I would like to have seen your face

müssen expresses necessity, compulsion or certainty, e.g.: (We must go now Wir müssen jetzt gehen I We have (got) to go now We needn 9t/ don 9t have to go Wir müssen noch nicht gehen yet That must be the right one Das muss das Richtige sein Something must have happened Etwas muss passiert sein (i.e. just now) Sie wird sich beeilen müssen Shell have to hurry Ich musste zu Hause arbeiten \ I had to work at home Ich habe zu Hause arbeiten \ müssen ) I couldn't help laughing Ich musste einfach lachen Something must have happened Etwas müsste passiert sein (i.e. a long time ago) You would have to ask the boss Du müsstest den Chef fragen He really ought to/should know Er müsste es eigentlich besser better wissen He should/ought to be there by Er müsste schon dort sein now He should/ought to have Er müsste langst angekommen sein arrived long ago (i.e. we can assume that he has arrived) Er hätte heute ankommen müssen He should/ought to have arrived today (i.e. he ought to have done, but he hasn't)

SOLLEN

sollen most commonly expresses an obligation, occasionally an assertion, a supposition or a condition, e.g.: {I'm supposed/meant to stay here Ich soll hier bleiben (I've got to stay here Du sollst die Tür zumachen I want you to shut the door {He is to/has got to come at once Er soll sofort kommen I Tell him to come at once {I'm not supposed to stay here Ich soll nicht hier bleiben \I mustn91 stay here Er hat gesagt, ich soll unten warten He told me to wait downstairs (indirect command) Hier soll das neue Rathaus gebaut The new town hall is to be built werden here Sollen wir uns die Stadt ansehen? Shall we look round the town? Sie soll sehr ehrgeizig sein She's supposed/said to be very ambitious Sie soll sehr ehrgeizig gewesen sein She 's supposed/said to have been very ambitious Wir sollten uns dort treffen It was agreed that we should meet there It was meant to be a surprise Es sollte eine Überraschung sein Everyone should/ought to read Jeder sollte das Buch lesen the book Das solltest du mal probieren You should/ought to try that Sollte das wahr sein? Could that be true? Er sollte den Freund nie He was (destined) never to see wiedersehen his friend again Wenn/Falls es morgen regnen If it should/ were to rain sollte tomorrow Ich trat zurück, damit sie mich I stepped back, so that they nicht sehen sollten shouldn't see me Jeder sollte das Buch bis Freitag Everyone should/ought to have gelesen haben read the book by Friday (i.e. I would expect it of everyone) Jeder hätte das Buch voriges Jahr Everyone should/ought to have lesen sollen read the book last year (i.e. it was expected of everyone, but they didn't) She should/ought to have Das sollte ihr inzwischen klar realized that by now (i.e. I geworden sein would expect she has) Er hätte es mir doch gleich sagen He should/ought to have told sollen me right away (i.e. I would have expected it, but he didn't)

the form sollte is potentially ambiguous, as there is nothing to show the difference between indicative and subjunctive. Er sollte mitkommen could mean 'He was supposed to come with us' or 'He ought to come with us', depending on the context.

NOTE:

WOLLEN

wollen most often expresses desire or intention, occasionally a claim or necessity, e.g.: (7 want to/will sell the piano Ich will das Klavier verkaufen lI'm going to sell the piano Won't you help us? Willst du uns nicht helfen? The rain isn't going to stop Der Regen will nicht aufhören He wants you to read it Er will, dass du es liest Shall we look round the town Wollen wir uns die Stadt ansehen? That needs to be practised Das will geübt sein Ein solcher Wagen will gut gepflegt A car like that needs looking after well werden He claims/says he is ill Er will krank sein He claims/says he was ill Er will krank gewesen sein She won9t want to work there Sie wird dort nicht arbeiten wollen Sie wollte ihn darum bitten She wanted to ask him for it Sie hat ihm darum bitten wollen She was going to ask him for it (Rl) (The window wouldn 9t shut Das Fenster wollte nicht zugehen I The window refused to shut I wish I didn 't have to do it Ich wollte, ich müsste es nicht tun Wenn er es nur zugeben wollte,... If he would only admit it... If we were to ask him, he would Wenn wir ihn fragen wollten, deny it würde er es bestreiten It looked as if he was going to Es sah aus, als wollte er jeden fall asleep at any moment Augenblick einschlafen I wouldn 9t have wanted to do it Ich hätte es auch nicht machen either wollen

4.6.2 The English modal auxiliaries In this section we take the various forms of the English modal auxiliary verbs and give their most common German equivalents. CAN

• can most often expresses ability or possibility, and können is the usual German equivalent. However, können is ambiguous, and if the context permits, it is naturally interpreted as expressing ability (i.e. = 'be able to'), vielleicht or a paraphrase has to be used in such sentences, rather than können, to make it clear that possibility is meant.

1

stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

She can play tennis Pigs can't fly

Sie kann Tennis spielen Schweine können nicht fliegen Ich kann morgen nicht I can't come tomorrow kommen Er kann auch 1nicht kommen He can 'not come Repariert er den Wagen vielleicht? Can he be mending the car? Kann es sein, dass er den Wagen repariert? Ist es möglich, dass er den Wagen repariert? NOTE: Kann er den Wagen reparieren? = Can he mend the car? He can't be mending the car

Es ist unmöglich, dass er den Wagen repariert NOTE : Er kann den Wagen nicht reparieren = He can't mend the car. Can they have missed the connection? The road can be blocked

Können sie den Anschluss verpasst haben? Haben sie vielleicht den Anschluss verpasst? Die Straße kann gesperrt werden

• In all but the most formal English, can expresses permission. This is usually expressed by dürfen in German, although können is quite common in Rl, or where there is a sense of possibility, e.g.: Can I go to the cinema? Darf (Rl: Kann) ich ins Kino gehen? Das darf/kann als This can be regarded as a valid berechtigter Einwand objection angesehen werden • With verbs of sensation (e.g. see, hear,; smell, feel) can is often used in English with no real idea of ability. In these contexts können is not used in German, e.g.: We can hear the music Wir hören die Musik I can see him quite well Ich sehe ihn ganz gut COULD

• could can be used as the past tense of can in the senses given above (i.e. = was able to). In such cases appropriate past or perfect tense forms will be found in German, e.g.:

I could swim well then

' Ich konnte damals gut schwimmen Ich habe damals gut schwimmen können

I couldn't come yesterday She could go out whenever she liked They could see the church

Ich konnte gestern nicht kommen Ich habe gestern nicht kommen können Sie durfte (Rl: konnte) ausgehen, wenn sie wollte Sie sahen die Kirche Sie haben die Kirche l gesehen

• could frequently has a conditional sense (i.e. = would be able to). The German equivalent is könnte (or dürfte, if permission is involved). As with can, it may be preferable in some contexts to use vielleicht or a paraphrase with es ist möglich to avoid ambiguity. Ich würde mich freuen, wenn I would be pleased if you could Sie kommen könnten come Dürfte/Könnte ich das Could I open the window? Fenster aufmachen? Sie könnten Recht haben You could be right Das könnte schwierig sein That could be difficult ' Könnte der Zug Verspätung haben? Hat der Zug vielleicht Could the train be late? Verspätung? Wäre es möglich, dass der Zug Verspätung hat? Repariert er den Wagen vielleicht? Could he be mending the car? Wäre es möglich, dass er den Wagen repariert? NOTE: Könnte er den Wagen reparieren? could mean Would he be able to mend the car? • could have is ambiguous and has two possible equivalents in German depending on the sense of the English: Er könnte es getan haben He could have done it (i.e. it is possible that he did it) Er hätte es tun können He could have done it (i.e. he would have been able to, but he didn't)

• There are a number of German equivalents for couldn't help: Sie musste einfach lachen Sie konnte nicht anders, als zu lachen Sie konnte nicht umhin zu She couldn't help laughing lachen (R3) Sie konnte nichts dafür, sie musste lachen (Rl) MAY

• may expresses permission in rather formal English (for more usual can). The equivalents are dürfen or können (see can above). You may go now Sie dürfen (Rl: können) jetzt gehen We may take it as our starting point Wir dürfen/können davon that. .. ausgehen, dass . . . • The commonest use of may is to express possibility. The usual German equivalent is vielleicht or a phrase with möglich (see can above). können can be used, often in the past subjunctive form könnte, but only if it cannot possibly be misunderstood in another sense (i.e. 'be able to'). mögen is restricted to R3 or S, apart from a few set phrases, and most often expects or implies a concessive qualification, e.g. that may well be, (but...). Vielleicht stimmt diese Umfrage Es ist möglich, dass diese Umfrage stimmt This survey may be correct Diese Umfrage kann/könnte stimmen Diese Umfrage mag , stimmen(, aber . . . ) (R3) Vielleicht stimmt diese Umfrage nicht Es ist möglich, dass diese This survey may not be correct Umfrage nicht stimmt Diese Umfrage kann auch t nicht stimmen NOTE: . . . kann nicht stimmen would m e a n ' . . . cannot be correct' I Es kann sein, dass er im Garten arbeitet Vielleicht arbeitet He may be working in the garden er im Garten Es ist möglich, dass er im i Garten arbeitet NOTE: Er kann im Garten arbeiten means 'He is able to work in the garden'. Er könnte im Garten arbeiten means 'He would be able to work in the garden'.

Die Straße ist vielleicht gesperrt The road may be blocked Die Straße kann/könnte k gesperrt sein Er kann/könnte den Bären gesehen haben He may have seen the bear Vielleicht hat er den Bären gesehen Er kann den Bären auch nicht gesehen haben He may not have seen the bear Vielleicht hat er den Bären nicht gesehen • may after verbs of hoping, fearing, wishing, etc. and after so that, has no equivalent in German: I hope that he may recover Ich hoffe, dass er sich bald erholt I am telling you this so that you Ich sage Ihnen das, damit may know exactly what I am going Sie genau wissen, was ich to do vorhabe MIGHT

• might is sometimes used to ask permission (= dürfte), e.g.: Might I ask you a favour? Dürfte ich Sie u m einen Gefallen bitten? • The most frequent use of might is to express possibility. This is close to could (see under could above) and the usual German equivalent is könnte, unless this is ambiguous, as explained above under can and may. Sie könnte jetzt in Berlin sein She might be in Berlin now Die Straße könnte gesperrt The road might be blocked sein Du könntest die Tür You might shut the door zumachen (reproachful) I Er kommt möglicherweise nicht Er kommt vielleicht nicht He might not come Es wäre möglich, dass er ' nicht kommt NOTE: Er könnte nicht kommen = 'He wouldn't be able to come' • might have, like could have, is ambiguous in English and the two senses have different German equivalents: Er könnte umgekommen sein Er ist vielleicht umgekommen He might have been killed (i.e. it is Er hätte umkommen können possible, but he wasn't)

I

He might have toldUrsula (i.e. it is possible that he did) He might have told Ursula (i.e. possible, but he didn't)

He might not have received it

MUST

Er könnte es Ursula gesagt haben Vielleicht hat er es Ursula gesagt Er hätte es Ursula (doch) sagen können Er hat es vielleicht nicht bekommen Er hat es möglicherweise nicht bekommen Es wäre/ist möglich, dass er es nicht bekommen hat

• must expresses necessity or compulsion; müssen is the usual German equivalent, e.g.: I must talk to him today Ich muss ihn heute sprechen They must leave at seven Sie müssen u m sieben abfahren Sabine must be mad Sabine muss verrückt sein They must have left at seven Sie müssen u m sieben abgefahren sein I must have lost it Ich muss es verloren haben • mustn V is usually nicht dürfen. nicht müssen (see under müssen above) = English don't have to or needn 't (although it is sometimes heard for mustn 7 in N): You mustn't play football here Ihr dürft hier keinen Fußball spielen I mustn't forget that Das darf ich nicht vergessen Sie hat den Brief wohl nicht

(

SHALL

gesehen • The use of shall is much restricted inSie modern Apart from its kann English. den Brief nicht use to form the future tense (see under will below), its usual German gesehen haben equivalent is sollen: Shall I bring you the flowers? Soll ich dir die Blumen bringen? He shall pay for this Er soll mir dafür büßen Thou shalt not steal Du sollst nicht stehlen • Shall we... ? often corresponds to Wollen wir... ? rather than Sollen wir . . . which has more the sense of'do you want us to . . . ?', e.g.: Now what shall we do? Nun, was wollen wir machen? Shall we have lunch here? Wollen wir hier zu Mittag essen?

SHOULD/ OUGHT TO

• In English, should is usually interchangeable with ought to in its commonest sense of expressing obligation or probability. The German equivalents are sollte or müsste, which are close in meaning but not always interchangeable: sollte carries more the sense of being obliged, whereas müsste has rather the idea of probability or necessity. We should/ought to try that Das sollten/müssten wir mal probieren Sie sollte heute im Büro sein She should/ought to be in the office today (i.e. it is her duty) She should/ought to be in the Sie müsste heute im Büro office today (i.e. it is most likely) sein Wir sollten uns beeilen We ought to hurry (i.e. we are obliged to) The letters ought to be on my desk Die Briefe müssten auf (i.e. it is probable) meinem Schreibtisch liegen • For negative shouldn V or ought not to, sollte nicht is the usual equivalent, but dürfte nicht emphasizes the idea that something ought not to be or have been allowed, e.g.: She ought not to know that Das dürfte/sollte sie eigentlich nicht wissen Sales shouldn't/ought not to have So viel dürfte/sollte der fallen off so much Absatz nicht nachgelassen haben • Simple dürfte can also express the idea of probability, and in this meaning it is very close to that of the future tense (see 4.3.1), e.g.: That should/ought to be enough Das dürfte/müsste reichen That should/ought to be right Das dürfte/müsste stimmen • should have/ought to have is ambiguous in English, but the ambiguity is resolved in German by using sollte/müsste with a past infinitive or hätte... sollen/müssen, e.g.: He should/ought to have grasped Das sollte er nun begriffen that now (i.e. it is an obligation on haben him) You should/ought to have told me Das hätten Sie mir gestern that yesterday (i.e. it was an sagen sollen obligation on you, but you didn't) He should/ought to have written Er müsste den Brief schon the letter by now (i.e. it is probable geschrieben haben that he has) He should/ought to have written Er hätte den Brief schon the letter yesterday (i.e. it was most gestern schreiben müssen likely, but he seems not to have done)

[SHOULD/ OUGHT T O ]

WILL

• should is used in some subordinate clauses in English as a kind of subjunctive substitute. In most cases this has no equivalent in German, although sollte is found in damit-clauses in R2 and R3 (see 4.5.4). I am pleased that she should have Ich freue mich, dass sie gekommen ist come It is surprising that he should have Es ist erstaunlich, dass er durchgefallen ist failed • should is sometimes used rather than would (see under would below) in the first person conditional, but it is frequent, alongside were to, in other conditional sentences, where German uses sollte (see 4.5.3), e.g.: If you should/were to change your Sollten Sie es sich anders mind, please let me know überlegen, dann sagen Sie mir bitte Bescheid Wenn er schon a m If he should/were to arrive in the Vormittag ankommen morning, I can pick him up from sollte, dann kann ich ihn the station a m Bahnhof abholen • will (often simply '//) is in its most familiar use the auxiliary verb for the future tense. This may correspond to a present or a future in German (see 4.3.1). However, if will has a sense of desire or intention, then wollen is quite possible as an equivalent in German, e.g.: He will do everything in his power Er will alles tun, was in seiner Macht steht Die Tür will nicht zugehen The door won't close Wollt ihr heute Abend Will you come with us tonight? mitkommen? Er will nicht hören He won't listen • If the future tense expresses probability, German, too, can use a future, often with wohl (see 2.6). Common alternatives are dürfte or, especially in Rl, simply wohL i Das wird (wohl) der Briefträger sein Das dürfte der Briefträger That'll be the postman sein 1 Das ist wohl der Briefträger ' Er wird (wohl) gestern von Hamburg abgefahren sein He'll have left from Hamburg Er dürfte gestern von yesterday Hamburg abgefahren sein Er ist wohl gestern von t Hamburg abgefahren • will can also express a characteristic or habitual activity. This has a variety of possible equivalents in German, depending on the context, e.g.:

Pigs will eat anything Boys will be boys She will sit there for hours doing nothing WOULD

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

Schweine fressen nun einmal alles Jungen sind nun einmal so Oft sitzt sie stundenlang da und macht nichts

• would (often simply *d) is characteristically used for the English conditional (= Konjunktiv //, see 4.5.4). However, it can occur for the past tense of will in the other senses given above: She wouldn't come when I called Sie wollte nicht kommen, als her ich sie rief The lift wouldn't come Der Aufzug wollte nicht kommen Every evening he would go for a Jeden Abend ging er a m walk by the river Fluss spazieren Sie stand gewöhnlich She would get up early in the morgens früh auf morning Sie pflegte morgens früh aufzustehen (R3) It 'would rain today Ausgerechnet heute musste es regnen Natürlich hat er das gesagt He 'would say that Von ihm war ja nichts anders zu erwarten

{

5 Syntax and word order

5.1 Word order German word order is much moreflexiblethan English word order. Apart from the basic framework, it is rarely a matter of'rules' and 'exceptions' because the order can often be varied for emphasis. This section gives some simple basic guidelines to help you construct sentences in German.

5.1.1

The verbal bracket The basic framework for any German sentence (or clause - the distinction is unhelpful in this context, and both are called Satz in German) can be seen as a pair of'brackets' which is made up of the verb and certain other elements linked to the verb. The position of these is fixed and most of the rest of the sentence is contained between these brackets. There are three main types of'bracket' construction in German:

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

Initial element

Opening bracket [

Central elements

Closing bracket ]

(a) (b) (a)

hat hat Hat Hören weil statt

er früh damit er gestern früh damit er schon damit Sie sofort damit er gestern damit sofort damit

aufgehört aufgehört? aufgehört? aufl aufgehört hat aufzuhören

(b) (a) (b)

Gestern Warum

The three types of bracket construction in German are as follows: Type 1: finite verb SECOND

The opening bracket is formed by the finite verb, which is always in second place after a single initial element (see 5.1.3). The closing bracket is usually another part of the verb, i.e. a separable prefix, an infinitive or a past participle, although this is of course lacking in the simple tenses of simple verbs. This type is found:

(a) in statements, including those where clauses are joined by und, aber, denn, oder and sondern (b) in ß?A-questions: the initial element is always a question word such as was, wer, warum, welcher, etc. Type 2: finite verb FIRST

The opening and closing brackets are formed by the same elements as in type 1, but the finite verb is the first element in the sentence. This type is found: (a) in yes/no questions (b) in commands The verb is also first in conditional clauses if the conjunction wenn is left out, see 4.5.4.

Type 3: finite verb LAST

The opening bracket is formed by a conjunction or preposition and the closing bracket is formed by all parts of the verb. This type is found: (a) in subordinate clauses: here the opening bracket is a conjunction (b) in infinitive clauses: the opening bracket may be one of the prepositions ohne, (an)statt or urn but otherwise there is no word in this position. This basic framework covers all German sentences in all registers; the only exception is that, especially in Rl, some element may follow the closing bracket (see 5.1.6).

5.1.2 The closing bracket The closing bracket may be formed by more than one element. The order is then as follows: R l = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Full verb Er hat es mir nicht Das ist mir doch Er wird es bald . . . , ohne es mir

Closing bracket Auxiliary verb

sagen gesagt geschrieben gesagt

wollen worden haben zu haben

In subordinate clauses the finite verb usually follows all infinitives and participles:

Full verb ..., ..., ..., ..., ...,

weil er es mir nicht weil er es mir nicht weil es mir nicht weil es mir nicht weil er es bald

Closing bracket Auxiliary verb Finite verb

gesagt sagen gesagt worden gesagt werden geschrieben haben

hat will ist kann wird

There is one exception to this rule. If there are two infinitives at the end of the clause (e.g. in the compound tenses of modal verbs), then the finite verb comes before them: Finite verb . . . , weil er es mir . . . , weil er es mir

hat wird

Closing bracket Full verb Auxiliary verb sagen sagen

wollen müssen

5.1.3 The initial element in a main clause It is an invariable rule of German that in main clause statements (i.e. type la clauses) one and only one element can occur before the finite verb which forms the opening bracket. This initial element can be a single word, a phrase or a subordinate clause:

Initial element

Finite verb t

Central elements

]

Gestern Vor drei Tagen Als ich klein war,

haben sind habe

wir hitzefrei wir nach Ulm ich in Berlin

gehabt gefahren gewohnt

Sometimes an interjection, a name or certain adverbs are placed before the initial element, usually separated by a comma. These are not really exceptions to the basic rule that the verb is the second element; they are simply too loosely linked to the rest of the sentence to be thought of as part of it. The most common of these apparent exceptions are: (a)

Interjections, exclamations, names, etc. e.g. ach, ja, nein, du liebe Zeit, Herr Kollege', Ach, dort kommt sie! M e n s c h , das ist doch nicht wahr! Karl, du spielst auch, oder? Gut, das machen wir!

(b)

Some linking adverbs or phrases, e.g. das heißt, weißt du, kurz (gesagt), mit anderen Worten: K u r z u m , er hat unrecht Wissen Sie, das hätte er mir doch gestern sagen können

(c)

A few adverbs can occur initially with another element or be placed in their usual position in the clause. The commonest are: aber, also, allerdings, freilich, höchstens, immerhin, sozusagen, übrigens, wenigstens, e.g.: EITHER: Sonntag also kannst du nicht kommen OR: Also kannst du Sonntag nicht kommen OR: Sonntag kannst du also nicht kommen

(d)

Two elements can precede the verb if one simply extends the other. This is commonest with adverbs of time or place, e.g.: D o r t in der k l e i n e n D o r f s c h u l e hat der Junge wenig gelernt M o r g e n u m zwei U h r kommt ihr Zug an

(e)

Main clauses which begin with two or more elements are common in English. Apart from the few cases explained above, in the corresponding German sentences all but one of these elements will be shifted into a position between the brackets (with no commas), e.g.: Dann ist er jedoch eingeschlafen Er ist dann jedoch eingeschlafen Jedoch ist er dann eingeschlafen

I

5.1.4 The use of initial position in German In German main clause statements (type la in the table in 5.1.1), almost any element can occupy initial position. It is thereby given prominence as the 'topic' of the clause, about which some new information is given later on in the sentence. Very often it refers back to something just mentioned or is something well known to both speaker and listener. Time phrases are particularly common in this position. This facility in German of using the initial position whilst keeping the basic construction of the clause intact is not shared by English, where the subject must come before the verb. In English the position of the subject is the only way we can tell that it is the subject, because, unlike German, the subject is not distinguished by having special endings (i.e. for the nominative case). As a result, things are often put in a different way in German compared to English; we have to use complicated constructions in order to manoeuvre an element into initial position to make it the topic of the clause if it is not the subject of the verb. The following examples show how German can cope with such shifts in emphasis within the basic bracket construction and has no need for the complex constructions which we often use in English.

Subject there/es In both English and German the subject can be moved out of initial position to give it more emphasis later in the clause, in which case it is replaced by there in English and es (or in Rl, da) in German, e.g.: There was no-one waiting for her

( Es hat niemand auf sie gewartet l Da hat niemand auf sie gewartet (Rl)

On the other hand, German does not need to use this construction if there is another element which can be placed in initial position, e.g.: There was no one waiting for her There are some pages missing in this book There's no one there, though

Auf sie hat niemand gewartet In diesem Buch fehlen ein paar Seiten Da ist doch niemand

have + participle In English we can shift something into initial position by making it the subject of to have; the 'real' verb of the sentence then becomes a participle. There is no need for this construction in German, where the elements are simply shifted within the basic construction, e.g.: This book has some pages missing In diesem Buch fehlen ein paar Seiten They've had their windows Ihnen wurden die Fenster smashed eingeworfen The room next door has a student Im Zimmer nebenan wohnt ein living in it Student

Passive A common reason for preferring a passive construction in English is to put what would normally be the object of the verb into initial position. This is usually unnecessary in German, where we can simply move the object and the subject round within the basic construction, e.g.: These words must now be followed by deeds They were being helped by the gipsies

Auf diese Worte müssen nun Taten folgen Ihnen haben die Zigeuner geholfen

Cleft sentences An element can be shifted into initial position in English by putting it into a clause of its own, usually with it and the verb to be. These so-called 'cleft sentence' constructions are unnecessary in German; the relevant element simply goes into the initial position of the basic construction, e.g.:

It was only yesterday that I saw him It's that television I wanted to complain about It's what you do that counts

Erst gestern habe ich ihn gesehen Über diesen Fernseher habe ich mich beschweren wollen Was man tut, zählt

There are many variations on this construction, all of which have simpler equivalents in German, e.g.: That's the book I'm supposed to read This is where she lives That's the sort of man he is Autumn is when it's lovely here

5.1.5

Das Buch da soll ich lesen Dort wohnt sie So einer ist er Im Herbst ist es hier schön

The central section of German clauses Except for the initial element in type 1 clauses, all the words in a German clause come inside the bracket explained in 5.1.1, i.e. between the various parts of the verb. The relative order of these central elements is exactly the same for all clause types. The table on page 269 gives a rough guide to the most usual order of these elements. A more detailed explanation is given in (a)-(e) below.

(a)

Pronouns We must distinguish: (i) the personal pronouns: ich, dir, Ihnen, ihm, etc. (ii) the demonstratives: der, dieser, etc. used without a noun following. The order is then: (i) Personal pronouns come before demonstratives, e.g.:

Gestern

[VERB1

pronoun

demonstrative

hat Möchten Hat

mich Sie er

der diese die

VERB2] nicht gleich wohl

erkannt mitnehmen? gesehen?

(ii) Personal pronouns have the order: nominative-accusative-dative, e.g.:

Wann

....,

[VERB1

nom

acc

dat

VERB2]

werden Wenn statt

Sie er

es sie es

ihm Ihnen mir

geben? bringt,... zu sagen

However, in Rl an unstressed 's can follow a dative pronoun, e.g.: Er will mir's nicht sagen The only exception to the rule that pronouns are always found immediately after the opening bracket is that a subject noun in the nominative can come before a pronoun, e.g.: EITHER: Gestern hat mein Mann ihn in der Stadt gesehen OR: Gestern hat ihn mein Mann in der Stadt gesehen However, it is common in all registers for the pronoun to come first. Adverbials and subject/object noun phrases Within the bracket, adverbials and subject/object noun phrases come immediately after the pronouns and before the complements. The table on page 269 shows the order in which they most commonly occur in relation to one another. It must be stressed, though, that this order is not an absolute rule of German grammar; much variation is permitted for reasons of emphasis. Basically, the more we want to stress one of these elements, the later it will come. Conversely, an element may be given less prominence by being placed earlier, e.g.: Das hat er dann seinem \ Vorgesetzten nach langem In the second sentence who he Zögern mitgeteilt I told is seen a more important than the hesitation, and the Das hat er dann nach langem dative object follows the adverb. Zögern seinem Vorgesetzten mitgeteilt When the action took place is less Der Lehrer hat nach der Pause dem Jungen das Heft gegeben important, and the adverbial precedes both objects. Die Tatsache, dass der EG What will run out is by far the unausweichlich 2004 das Geld most important piece of new ausgeht information, and thus the subject comes last. , . . , , Ich habe mir diesen neuen \ T . . rr , , ~ In each case it is the second Anzug im Herbst gekauft I , ,., . . f i / phrase which is given the , , , . . Ich habe mir im THerbst diesen greater emphasis. neuen Anzug gekauft Adverbials An adverbial is an optional element giving additional information about the circumstances of an action, i.e. how, when, where, etc. it took place. It is not dependent on the verb in the way that complements are. Adverbials can be: (i) single words: schlecht, trotzdem, vorhin, gründlich, etc. (ii) noun phrases: den ganzen Tag, eines Abends, eine Weile, etc. (iii) preposition phrases: in der Kirche, zum Glück, ohne Zögern, am Ende, etc.

s

U ü £ § c •5 'S « ^ h « bß bO bD £ bObON c*

•8 2 =3 o eGi Ä<> l cS3 c Ö > a.»*« §

*-<

Ö g

PQ C

oOJ a

) SO a>

ip.

3 JD

o

jo

CA 53

Öß ^ 03

N c O a

tH

PQ c0> TJ

c« PQ g -a

C CA P 3 > 6 bß bfi N£ b^ > S -c 73 _g J- 4> 1 £ N w . T3 O C < L > E g .S > 8 Cft • 8 - S . s c

JH

ä PQ

H

W "O bo
ao t ^ £ «

-a a s a> £ S ^ 8M .S g g 8

8-§ •S Ö J 03 ED 1E> < "O T3 .5 c « &

£

n i2

E

H3 U 8i *-« 3C I PQ o> -3

* 'S § 8 T3 .a -c T3 T3 a> ^ rS

CO

55

Ö

I s l l ä i ä i l u ft £ JU 'S K^ E h-1 ^ ^

JH o

I I I

These differences in form do not affect word order in any way. The same form can have different functions, though, and its position changes accordingly, e.g.: Verb complement dependent on the verb. It cannot be left out and is always the last element before the closing bracket (see (e) below): Er wohnt seit drei Jahren in Frankfurt Phrase qualifying the preceding noun and placed immediately after it: Im Römer in Frankfurt wurden die deutschen Kaiser gekrönt Adverbial giving extra information. It is in the usual position for adverbials: Er möchte in Frankfurt Jura studieren The table on page 269 shows that most adverbials - with the exception of adverbials of manner, which invariably come immediately before the complements - tend to come between the dative object and the accusative object, whether the adverbial is a single word such as trotzdem or a phrase such as voriges Jahr or in der Stadt. If there is more than one adverbial, they will most often appear in the order given in the table on page 272. However, this order, too, can be varied for emphasis; an adverbial can be stressed more or less by being placed later or earlier, e.g.: Wir sollten zehn Minuten vor dem Bahnhof auf sie warten Wir sollten vor dem Bahnhof zehn Minuten auf sie warten Er hat ihr trotzdem gestern geschrieben Er hat ihr gestern trotzdem geschrieben Sie hat sehr lange dort gewartet Sie hat dort sehr lange gewartet The position of nicht In general, nicht (and all other negatives, such as nie and kaum) comes after all adverbials except those of manner and after the accusative object, but before adverbials of manner and all complements, e.g.: after place and time adverbials but before manner adverbials: Die Berliner haben gestern in Frankfurt nicht schlecht gespielt Sie haben sich seit langem nicht mehr ausführlich unterhalten after the accusative object: Er will mir das Kleid nicht kaufen Sie hat die Vase nicht zerbrochen before all complements: Wir fahren morgen nicht ans Meer Er ist sicher nicht groß The above guideline applies if nicht is understood to refer to the whole clause. With a change in emphasis, though, i.e. if a particular element

in the sentence is to be negated, then nicht precedes it. In such instances there is usually an implied contrast with sondern, e.g.: Er will mir nicht 'das Buch geben Ich war nicht a m 'Sonntag in der Stadt Ich fahre nicht mit meinen 'Eltern nach Italien

1

stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

(e)

not on Sunday, but some other time not with my parents, but perhaps with someone else

Complements Complements are those elements which are most closely linked with the verb in a sentence (or 'governed' by it, see 4.1) and 'complete' its action in some way. With the exception of the subject and the accusative and dative objects, which have their own place in the clause (see above), they invariably come last, immediately before the closing bracket. The following list gives all the types of complement to which this rule applies: (i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

5.1.6

not that book, but a different one

Genitive object (restricted to R3, see 4.1.3), e.g.: Das Gericht hat den Hausierer zu Unrecht des Diebstahls beschuldigt Prepositional object (see 4.1.4), e.g.: . . . , weil sich die Mutter nun u m ihre beiden Kinder kümmern wird Phrases of place after verbs expressing position, e.g. bleiben, wohnen, sitzen, stehen, liegen, sich befinden (R3), sich aufhalten (R3), e.g.: Warum willst du unter keinen Umständen in Würzburg wohnen? Direction phrases after verbs of motion, e.g.: Dann hat Peter den Stein in den Bach geworfen Ich will schnell mit dem Auto in die Stadt fahren Nominative noun phrases and adjectives after the verbs sein, werden, bleiben, scheinen, heißen, e.g.: Immerhin ist Hans-Jürgen längere Zeit der beste Schüler gewesen Hedwig ist in den letzten Jahren sehr groß geworden The noun portion of phrasal verbs, e.g.: Der Betriebsrat hat uns gestern davon in Kenntnis gesetzt

Can anything follow the closing bracket? It is by no means an absolute rule of German that the verb has to go right to the end of the clause, i.e. that a sentence (or clause) must end with the closing bracket. This has never been the case in Rl, but so-called Ausklammerung (i.e. putting some element after the

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Some elements are rarely enclosed within the bracket in any register. These include: (i) Subordinate clauses. In particular, constructions where a number of clauses are enclosed within one another (the so-called Schachtelsatz), with a cluster of verbs at the end, are now avoided, even in R3a: NOT: Mein Vater, der selten, obwohl er immer zeitig aufstand, frühstückte, aß an dem Tag vier Butterbrote RATHER: Mein Vater, der selten frühstückte, obwohl er immer zeitig aufstand, aß an dem Tag vier Butterbrote To achieve this, even a relative clause can be separated from the noun it refers to: NOT: Else hatte dem Fremden, dem sie am Tag vorher mittellos auf dem Paradeplatz begegnet war, geholfen RATHER: Else hatte dem Fremden geholfen, dem sie am Tag vorher mittellos auf dem Paradeplatz begegnet war (ii) Infinitive clauses are not enclosed unless they consist merely of the simple zu + infinitive, and even this is only common in R3: Er fing zu weinen an (R3) Er fing an zu weinen NOT: Er hat eine kleine Atempause zu machen beschlossen RATHER: Er hat beschlossen, eine kleine Atempause zu machen (iii) Comparative phrases with als or wie are never enclosed, e.g.: . . . , wo wir uns bewegten wie Tiere auf der Wildbahn Gestern hat es mehr geschneit als heute

(b)

Less regular, but still common, is the postponement of prepositional phrases of any kind or, in Rl only, of any adverbial. (i) In Rl, a prepositional phrase or an adverbial may follow the closing bracket, either as an afterthought or to emphasize it, e.g.: Du hast ihn doch gestern gesehen in der Stadt (Rl) Der wird doch nix lernen bei dem Lehrer da (Rl) (ii) Especially in written R3, a long prepositional phrase may be postponed in order not to make the bracket construction too long, or if a further clause depends on it, e.g.: Diese Aufgabe kann nun gelöst werden auf der Grundlage eines einheitlichen Systems des Bildungswesens (R3b) Von dieser Höhe aus konnte er wenig sehen von der kleinen Stadt, die am anderen Ufer im Dunst lag (R3a)

5.2 Alternatives to subordinate clauses

Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5) AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

5.2.1

A characteristic feature of modern German is a tendency not to use subordinating constructions if alternatives are available. This varies from register to register, i.e.: Rl: main clauses used predominantly. R2: some subordination, but each main clause will rarely have more than one subordinate clause dependent on it. R3a: fairly free use of subordinate clauses, but complex sentences with numerous such clauses are still less frequent than in English. R3b: little subordination and a clear preference for phrases with verbal nouns instead. The texts in 1.6 illustrate how the extent of subordination varies with register, but English uses subordinate clauses in all registers much more readily than German. This means that, if English learners of German express themselves in German using the main and subordinate clause constructions which sound most natural in English, their German can sound rather forced, artificial and foreign. It is difficult to give any hard and fast rules for this. Subordinate clauses are not ungrammatical in German; they are simply used less, and other constructions often sound much more natural. For this reason it is important for English-speaking learners to be aware of possibilities of expressing themselves in German through main clauses or noun phrases - rather than through the subordinate clauses which may often appear to be the nearest equivalent to the corresponding English sentence. Examples of these possibilities are given in the following sections. However, the possibilities are endless and the list cannot hope to be exhaustive.

Alternatives to relative clauses The main alternatives to relative clauses include the use of extended epithets (esp R3b), compounds (esp R3b) and simple main clauses (esp Rl). Subordinate clause construction das Gebiet, das an Bodenschätzen reich i s t , . . .

Alternative das an Bodenschätzen reiche G e b i e t . . . (R3b) das Gebiet, an Bodenschätzen r e i c h , . . . (R3)

Subordinate clause construction

Alternative

ein Ereignis, das das Leben bedroht,...

ein lebensbedrohendes Ereignis . . . (R3b)

Die Stahlarbeiter, die um ihre eigenen Arbeitsplätze fürchten, wollen nicht streiken

Die u m ihre eigenen Arbeitsplätze fürchtenden Stahlarbeiter wollen nicht streiken (R3b)

Ich bemerkte den Mann, der neben meiner Frau saß

Ich habe den Mann bemerkt, der hat neben meiner Frau gesessen (Rl)

Techniken, durch die Abgase gereinigt werden,

Abgasreinigungstechniken... (R3b) Techniken zur Reinigung von Abgasen . . . (R3b)

ein Formular, in dem ein Auftrag bestätigt wird

ein Auftragsbestätigungsformular (R3b)

5.2.2 Alternatives to noun clauses with dass or wie and infinitive clauses Especially in R3b, verbal nouns (often compounded) are used as an alternative to noun clauses with dass or wie and infinitive phrases. Rl often uses main clause constructions if possible. Subordinate clause construction

Alternative

Vorschläge, wie das herkömmliche Jurastudium neu gestaltet werden kann

Vorschläge zur Neugestaltung des herkömmlichen Jurastudiums (R3b)

Sie haben dagegen protestiert, dass zwanzig Zechen stillgelegt werden sollen

Sie haben gegen die geplante Stilllegung von zwanzig Zechen protestiert (R3b) Zwanzig Zechen sollen stillgelegt werden, und dagegen haben sie protestiert (Rl)

Subordinate clause construction contd Er bestreitet, an dieser Demonstration teilgenommen zu haben Er bestreitet, dass er an dieser Demonstration teilgenommen habe

Alternative contd Er bestreitet die Teilnahme an dieser Demonstration (R3b)

5.2.3 Alternatives to other subordinate clauses It is worth knowing some common alternatives to subordinating constructions with other conjunctions: Subordinate clause construction

Alternative

als

Als sie hinausging, bemerkte sie einen roten Schein in der Ferne

Beim Hinausgehen bemerkte sie einen roten Schein in der Ferne (R3) Sie ging hinaus, und da bemerkte sie einen roten Schein in der Ferne (R1/R2)

als dass

Das Wasser ist zu kalt, als dass man da baden könnte (R3)

Das Wasser ist zu kalt, da kann man nicht baden (R1/R2)

als ob (see 4.5.5)

Es sieht aus, als ob es in der Nacht geschneit hätte

Es sieht aus, als hätte es in der Nacht geschneit (R2/R3)

außer wenn

Ich gehe spazieren, außer wenn es stark regnet

Ich gehe spazieren, außer es regnet stark (Rl)

bevor

Bevor er einschlief, hat er den Brief gelesen

Er hat den Brief vor dem Einschlafen gelesen Er schlief ein, aber vorher hatte er noch den Brief gelesen

d a m i t / u m . . . zu

Wir machen es immer so, damit Missverständnisse vermieden werden

Zur Vermeidung von Missverständnissen machen wir es immer so (R3b)

Wir machen es immer so, um Missverständnisse zu vermeiden

Wir machen es immer so; so können wir auch Missverständnisse vermeiden

5.2

Alternatives to subordinate clauses

Subordinate clause construction

277

Alternative

dadurch,... dass/indem

Sie verrieten ihre Ziele dadurch, dass sie die demokratischen Institutionen missachteten (R3) Sie verrieten ihre Ziele, indem sie die demokratischen Institutionen missachteten (R3)

nachdem

Nachdem er Monate lang gewartet Nach monatelangem Warten hatte, erhielt er die Nachricht von erhielt er die Nachricht von seinem Erfolg seinem Erfolg (R3)

Sie verrieten ihre Ziele durch ihre Missachtung der demokratischen Institutionen (R3b)

Nachdem ich den Brief geschrieben hatte, ging ich im Park spazieren

Ich schrieb den Brief und ging dann im Park spazieren

obwohl

Obwohl er alt ist, geht er jeden Sonntag im Wald spazieren

Trotz seines Alters geht er jeden Sonntag im Wald spazieren (R3) Er ist zwar alt, aber er geht jeden Sonntag im Wald spazieren Er ist schon alt, trotzdem geht er jeden Sonntag im Wald spazieren

ohne dass/ o h n e . . . zu

Er hat jahrelang studiert, ohne dass er jemals ein Hauptseminar belegt hätte (R3)

Er hat jahrelang studiert und hat nie ein Hauptseminar belegt (Rl)

Er hat jahrelang studiert, ohne jemals ein Hauptseminar belegt zu haben Sie ging in die Stadt, ohne dass er es wüsste (R3)

seit(dem)

Er hinkt, seitdem er vom Fahrrad gestürzt ist

Sie ging ohne sein Wissen in die Stadt Sie ist in die Stadt gegangen, und er hat nichts davon gewusst (Rl) Er hinkt seit seinem Sturz vom Fahrrad Er ist vom Fahrrad gestürzt, und seitdem hinkt er (Rl)

278

5

Syntax and word order

Subordinate clause construction contd

Alternative contd

so dass

Er stand mitten im Gang, so dass keiner vorbeikommen konnte

Er stand mitten im Gang, also konnte keiner vorbeikommen (Rl)

während

Während er in Marburg studierte, hat er immer den evangelischen Gottesdienst besucht

Während seines Studiums in Marburg hat er immer den evangelischen Gottesdienst besucht (R3)

weil

Hier gibt es eine Umleitung, weil die Marienkirche restauriert wird

Hier gibt es eine Umleitung, die Marienkirche wird nämlich restauriert (Rl) Wegen der Restaurierung der Marienkirche gibt es hier eine Umleitung (R3b) Hier gibt es eine Umleitung, denn die Marienkirche wird restauriert (R2/R3) Die Marienkirche wird restauriert, deshalb gibt es hier eine Umleitung

wenn

Wenn man diese Zeitschrift regelmäßig bezieht, erhält man viele Sonderangebote

Beim regelmäßigen Bezug dieser Zeitschrift erhält man viele Sonderangebote (R3b) Bezieht m a n diese Zeitschrift regelmäßig, dann erhält man viele Sonderangebote (R3)

Wenn der Dollar nochmals aufgewertet würde, so würde das zu einer schweren Krise fuhren

Eine nochmalige Aufwertung des Dollars würde zu einer schweren Krise fuhren (R3b)

Wir werden es schon schaffen, wenn wir auch wenig Hilfe erwarten können

Wir werden es schon schaffen, allerdings können wir wenig Hilfe erwarten (Rl) Wir werden es zwar schaffen, aber wir können wenig Hilfe erwarten Wir können wenig Hilfe erwarten, aber wir werden es trotzdem schaffen

5.2.4 Adverbials rather than clauses (a)

In many cases German can use an adverbial construction or a subordinate clause where English generally uses a clause. In general the German constructions on the left, with adverbials, sound more idiomatic. Das ist allerdings richtig

Ich muss zugeben, dass das richtig ist I have to admit that this is correct

Er wird allmählich (Rl Er beginnt ungeduldig zu werden langsam) ungeduldig He is beginning to get impatient Er ist angeblich krank

Er behauptet, dass er krank ist He claims to be ill

Er ist anscheinend nicht Es scheint, dass er nicht gekommen gekommen ist He seems not to have come Hast du auch deine Socken Bist du sicher, dass du deine eingepackt? Socken eingepackt hast? Are you sure you *ve packed your socks? Wir können Ihnen Wir bedauern, dass wir Ihnen bedauerlicherweise nicht nicht weiter behilflich sein weiter behilflich sein (R3b) können We regret that we can be of no further assistance to you Er ist bekanntlich ein Es ist bekannt, dass er ein hervorragender Physiker hervorragender Physiker ist Everyone knows that he is an outstanding physicist Hier können Sie beliebig lange Hier können Sie so lange bleiben, bleiben wie Sie wollen You can stay here as long as you wish Thomas kommt bestimmt mit

Ich bin sicher, dass Thomas mitkommt Vm sure Thomas is coming with us

Es ist freilich nicht einfach

Man muss zugeben, dass es nicht einfach ist It must be admitted that it isn yt easy

Gegebenenfalls kann man auch eine andere Taste wählen

Wenn es nötig sein sollte, kann man auch eine andere Taste wählen If the need should arise, another key may be chosen

Hoffentlich erreicht er die Ich hoffe, dass er die Hütte vor Hütte vor Sonnenuntergang Sonnenuntergang erreicht I hope he reaches the cabin before sunset Sie kann leider nicht kommen

Ich furchte, dass sie nicht kommen kann I'm afraid she can't come

Meiner Meinung nach ist er Ich meine, dass er dazu kaum dazu kaum fähig fähig ist I think that he is hardly capable of it Er kommt möglicherweise noch Es ist möglich, dass er noch vor vor dem Abendessen dem Abendessen kommt It is possible that he will come before dinner Die Firma stellt diese Ersatzteile Die Firma hat aufgehört, diese nicht mehr her Ersatzteile herzustellen Thefirmhas ceased/stopped making these spare parts Alle Passagiere sind vermutlich ums Leben gekommen

Man vermutet, dass alle Passagiere ums Leben gekommen sind It is presumed that all the passengers lost their lives

Er hat wohl keine Lust dazu

Ich nehme an, dass er keine Lust dazu hat I imagine/suppose he doesn *t want to

Zweifellos ist dieses Jahr die Ernte besser als letztes Jahr

Es besteht kein Zweifel darüber, dass dieses Jahr die Ernte besser ist als letztes Jahr There is no doubt that the harvest is better this year than last

In some cases a German adverbial is the only natural idiomatic equivalent for an English verb. Er hat andauernd gelacht Es wird bestimmt regnen Sie stört mich dauernd Im Sommer spielt er gern Tennis Sind Sie mit dem Lesen fertig? Er hat früher im Garten gearbeitet Sie zieht sich gern/oft extravagant an Er arbeitet abends gewöhnlich im Garten Jetzt sehe ich ein, dass ich mich geirrt habe

He kept on laughing It is sure to rain She keeps (on) disturbing me He likes playing tennis in the summer Have youfinishedreading? He used to work in the garden She tends to dress extravagantly He tends to work in the garden in the evenings I have come to realize I was wrong

Im Winter spielt er lieber Handball Er kam nicht rechtzeitig an Sei ja/nur pünktlich! Nimm dir ruhig noch etwas zu trinken Er las weiter Ich habe sie zufallig in der Straßenbahn gesehen

5.2.5 (a)

Other alternatives to subordinate clauses Some modal verb constructions correspond to more elaborate constructions in English (see also 4.6), e.g.: Wir dürfen hier nicht so viel Lärm machen Man muss nicht so fest ziehen Ich soll den Brief morgen schreiben Er soll bleich geworden sein Dieses Zeugnis soll uns helfen Sie soll eine Fünf in Latein gekriegt haben Du sollst das Licht ausmachen Es sollte ein Geschenk sein Er will es ihr erzählt haben

(b)

He prefers playing handball in the winter He failed to arrive on time Mind you're on time! Don 9t be afraid to help yourselfto another drink He continued to read I happened/chanced to see her in the tram

We're not allowed to make so much noise here It is not necessary to pull so hard I'm supposed to write the letter tomorrow People say that he went quite pale This certificate is intended to help us I've heard that she got a five in Latin I want you to switch off the light It was meant to be a present He claims to have told her

Especially in R3, German often uses adjectives and participles as nouns where a full clause is needed in English. Die Farbe dieser Vögel war das für mich Interessante Er hat sich über das Gesagte aufgeregt

The colour of these birds was what interested me He got annoyed about what had been said

Sie hat das Übrige kaum beachtet Er wollte die Ankommenden begrüßen Das Erschreckende an diesem Vorfall war seine scheinbare Unabwendbarkeit

She hardly paid attention to what remained He wanted to welcome the people who were arriving What was terrifying about this occurrence was its apparent inevitability

Where emphasis can be given in English by the use of cleft sentences with two clauses, German almost always prefers a single main clause construction, using the initial position to give emphasis (see 5.1.4 for further details), e.g.: Dort sind wir uns begegnet In diesem Haus wohnt sie Klar will er nicht mitmachen

It was there that we met This is the house (which) she lives in It's obvious that he won yt join in

(d) English often uses to do to repeat the idea of a previous verb. German does not use tun in this way but prefers constructions without a verb at all. Ein Gebiet, das alle Tiere meiden, nur die Vogel nicht Ich schreibe genau wie meine Mutter Er fühlt sich jetzt besser als gestern

An area which all animals avoid and only the birds do not I write just like my mother does He feels better now than he did yesterday

5.3 The present participle in German and English The English ing-iovm (sometimes called 'present participle' or 'gerund') appears to correspond to the German present participle in -end, e.g. lachend, lesend, sterbend, etc. However, it is used far less often than the English ing-form, and English-speaking learners of German need to know when present participles can occur in German and when German prefers to use other constructions.

5.3.1 •

The use of the German present participle The German present participle is used most often simply as an adjective or an adverb; this is found in all registers, e.g.: die schreienden Vögel die streikenden Arbeiter überraschend schnell

•

das kochende Wasser das laufende Jahr überzeugend dargestellt

Like all adjectives, it can be used as a noun (mainly R3), e.g.: der Hinkende

etwas Erschreckendes

It can be used with zu to make an adjective from an infinitive (typically R3b), e.g.: das abzufertigende Gepäck die zu schreibenden Briefe It can be compounded with a noun (most often in R3), e.g.: von atemberaubender die fußballspielenden Jungen Schönheit die Arbeitssuchenden die Zuspätkommenden The use of extended adjectives with a present participle is characteristic of R3b, e.g.: diese von den vorgeschriebenen Normen abweichende Aufmachung A few present participles have become true adjectives and can even be used after sein, sometimes with a change in meaning. The most common are: Rl = spoken colloquial Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

abstoßend abwesend ansteckend anstrengend anwesend auffallend aufregend bedeutend

beruhigend dringend drückend einleuchtend empörend entscheidend glühend reizend

rührend spannend überzeugend umfassend verblüffend verlockend zwingend

Note that there are very few of these. English speakers must beware of confusing them with the ing-forms of the progressive tenses. Only the above are real adjectives and can be used after the verb sein, e.g.: ein überzeugendes Argument das Argument ist überzeugend

a convincing argument the argument is convincing

Compare the above with: die fehlenden Seiten die Seiten fehlen

the missing pages the pages are missing

A sentence like *die Seiten sind fehlend is not possible, since fehlend is not an adjective and present participles are not used in German to form progressive tenses. A present participle can be used in isolation, most commonly in R3: Er antwortete mir lachend Die Kinder strömten singend durch die Gassen Phrases with present participles are sometimes to be found, e.g.: Ich saß, meine Puppe auf den Knien haltend, zwischen meinen Eltern am großen Tisch

Using present participles in German like this is limited to R3a and, although it is not uncommon there, there are complex restrictions on when it can be used, and English students are best advised not to imitate it but instead to use one of the alternative constructions detailed in 5.3.2.

5.3.2 German equivalents of English in^-form constructions As the German present participle is used almost exclusively as an adjective or an adverb (see 5.3.1), the German equivalents for the many constructions possible with the English wg-form need to be mastered. The possibilities are almost endless, and only the most common are illustrated below. In many instances, some registers of German may prefer alternatives without subordinate clauses, the details of which are given in 5.2. (a)

ing-form qualifying a noun German usually uses a relative clause or, especially in R3b, an extended adjective: Die Reisenden, die auf Einlass The passengers waiting to be admitted were becoming warteten, wurden ungeduldig impatient The steel-workers, fearing for Die um ihre eigenen their own jobs, did not want to Arbeitsplätze fürchtenden strike Stahlarbeiter wollten nicht streiken (R3b)

(b)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

mg-form expressing simultaneous actions or attendant circumstances The commonest German equivalent in all registers is simple main clauses joined by und, possibly with dabei to stress the link. Note that in modern German a clause with indem is not found in these contexts. He gazed into the book, biting his Er starrte in das Buch und biss sich (dabei) auf die Lippe up Er saß oft stundenlang da und He would sit watching her for sah ihr zu hours Sie drehte sich um, und dabei She turned round, her heart klopfte ihr das Herz vor Freude beating with joy

If the English sentence begins with a phrase with an wg-form, a clause with als or wenn may be possible in German if the actions are simultaneous: Als wir zum Fenster hinausschauten, sahen wir Looking out ofthe window, we saw den Polizisten the policeman Wir schauten zum Fenster hinaus und sahen den Polizisten Depending on the sense of the English phrase, other conjunctions may be appropriate in German: It being late, they decided to take Da es schon spät war, a taxi beschlossen sie, ein Taxi zu nehmen Standing on top of the tower you Wenn man oben auf dem Turm can see both the streets steht, kann man die beiden Straßen sehen Having changed the wheel, he set Nachdem er das Rad gewechselt hatte, fuhr er los off Obwohl ich die Tür offen fand, Finding the door open, I klingelte ich nevertheless rang the bell ing-iovms used as nouns The German equivalent for these is most commonly a dto-clause, an infinitive clause with zu or, especially in R3b (see 5.2), a verbal noun: Es ist wichtig aufmerksam zuzuhören Es ist wichtig, dass man Attentive listening is important aufmerksam zuhört Aufmerksames Zuhören k ist wichtig (R3b) Er gab zu, dass er das Fenster zerbrochen hatte He admitted having broken the Er gab zu das Fenster window zerbrochen zu haben Entering the operating-theatre is Das Betreten des Operationsaals forbidden ist verboten (R3b) I can't imagine her selling her ring Ich kann es mir nicht vorstellen, dass sie ihren Ring verkauft the art ofwriting die Kunst des Schreibens

Where a verb (or noun or adjective) takes a preposition, the same options are available in German, but therf^ss-clauseor infinitive clause will usually be anticipated by the adverb da(r) + preposition. (More details about this construction are given in 4.1.5.) Ich erinnere mich nicht (daran), ihr begegnet zu sein I don't remember having met her Ich erinnere mich nicht (daran), dass ich ihr \ begegnet bin (ihr Einwand dagegen, die Tempelhalle zu betreten their objection to entering the hall ]ihr Einwand gegen das of the temple Betreten der Tempelhalle (d)

iwg-form after prepositions

by

by + wg-form: a common equivalent is a clause with dadurch .. ., dass or indem, or durch followed by a verbal noun, e.g.: Wir konnten ihr dadurch helfen, dass wir den Termin verschoben Wir konnten ihr helfen, indem We were able to help her by wir den Termin verschoben postponing the deadline Wir konnten ihr durch eine Verschiebung des Termins helfen

on

on + ing-form: a common equivalent is a clause with als or wenn, or beim followed by a verbal noun, e.g.: (Als sie den Brief las, wurde sie rot On reading the letter she {Beim Lesen des Briefes wurde sie blushed l rot

for

for + wg-form: a common equivalent is (um)... zu, or zu followed by a verbal noun, e.g.: (Sie hat keine Zeit mehr, (um) zu She no longer has any time \ üben for practising VSie hat keine Zeit mehr zum Üben Sie benutzen sie, um daraus Bier zu They use them for drinking trinken beer out of

with

with + ing-form: there are various possible types of equivalent for this, e.g.: Sie stand im Flur, und Tränen liefen She stood in the hall with tears Streaming down her ibr (dabei) über das Gesicht face

The proposal was accepted Der Vorschlag wurde akzeptiert, with France voting against wobei Frankreich dagegen stimmte Wir sahen die alte Stadt, über die das We could see the old town with the castle towering over Schloss emporragte it Mit dem Anstieg der Arbeitslosigkeit auch in Deutschland können wir wenig Verbesserung in den With unemployment übrigen europäischen Ländern increasing even in erwarten Germany, we can expect Da die Arbeitslosigkeit auch in little improvement in the Deutschland gestiegen ist, können other European countries wir wir wenig Verbesserung in den übrigen europäischen Ländern i erwarten It's lovely here in autumn, Es ist im Herbst hier schön, wenn die with the leaves turning Blätter sich verfärben With enemy troops Jetzt, wo sich die feindlichen Truppen approaching from the East, von Osten nähern, ist die Lage the position is hopeless hoffnungslos (e) see, hear, feel

Other miscellaneous instances with verbs We saw them approaching He felt his heart beating wildly

They heard the boys crying for help

fWir sahen, wie sie näher kamen | tWir sahen sie näher kommen (R3) [Er fühlte, wie sein Herz heftig J1 schlug ]| Er fühlte sein Herz heftig schlagen 1 (R3) Sie hörten, wie die Jungen u m Hilfe schrieen Sie hörten die Jungen u m Hilfe k schreien (R3)

keep

We were kept waiting

Man ließ uns warten

leave

She left her things lying about

Sie ließ ihre Sachen herumliegen

288

5

have

I have a coat hanging in the closet

Ich habe einen Mantel im Schrank hängen

go

We went sailing

Wir sind segeln gegangen

come

They came running towards Sie kamen auf uns zugelaufen us

Syntax and word order

6 Spelling and punctuation

German spelling and punctuation are markedly more consistent than English, but some of the rules are quite different, and the most important differences are explained in this chapter. An important distinction from English is that spelling and punctuation are set down officially for the German-speaking countries on the basis of agreements between the countries involved, and not simply left to the compilers of dictionaries and guides to style, and these official rulings (including those for the placement of commas) are taught systematically in schools, with considerable attention paid to correctness in all respects. A uniform official spelling for German was only finally established just over a hundred years ago, and many people came to feel that the rulings made then still left some unnecessary inconsistencies and anomalies. For this reason, the countries where German is used as an official language agreed in 1994/95 on a set of reforms which began to be introduced in 1996. For a transitional period the old and the new spellings are permitted, but from 2005 only the new spellings will be regarded as correct. This spelling reform has been immensely controversial and generated much vociferous opposition. Although most books and newspapers now published have gone over to the new rules, not all are using them fully and consistently, and it is by no means certain whether the target date of 2005 for the abandonment of the old rules will be held to. Most people who grew up with the old rules are still keeping to them for private and business correspondence, and there seems to be considerable variation in practice even in schools. In late 2002 opinion polls reported that only 10 per cent of German speakers accepted the new rulings and used them consistently. It is quite possible that both systems (and mixtures of them) will continue to co-exist for many years yet. In this book, the new rulings have been adhered to consistently throughout, with the exception of certain texts in 1.6 which were published before the new rules were introduced. Foreign learners of German (and their teachers) are best advised to adopt the new rulings consistently for their own usage (they are in many ways much simpler, particularly in respect of punctuation). In this section we set out the main features of the new rulings, pointing out the most important differences to previous practice.

6.1 6.1.1

Spelling Capital letters It is a basic rule of German that every noun is written with an initial capital letter. However, there are a few areas of uncertainty and variation, although the intention of the revised spelling rules is to extend the use of capitals to all cases where there may have been doubt.

(a)

Other parts of speech used as nouns have a capital letter, e.g.: das Entweder-Oder das Ich eine Fünf das Warten das Für und Wider das Zögern This is in particular the case with adjectives used as nouns (see 3.4.4), e.g.: das schon Gesagte der Alte etwas Neues alles Angenehme nichts Schlimmes ein Bekannter There are a few (mainly apparent) exceptions to this rule: (i) A small letter is used for an adjective if a preceding or following noun is understood, e.g.: Die grüne Bluse gefällt mir nicht, ich nehme die rote Es ist sicher das schnellste von diesen drei Autos (ii) Superlatives with am have a small letter, e.g. am schnellsten. In the revised spelling superlatives with aufs can be spelled with a small or a capital letter, e.g. aufs heftigste or aufs Heftigste. (iii) ander and beide always have small letters, even where it would appear that they are being used as nouns, e.g. etwas anderes, diese beiden. Under the old spelling rules there were many occasional exceptions to the rule that all nouns should have capital letters, in particular in respect of set phrases like im allgemeinen 'in general' or im voraus 'in advance', and number words like das erste, das nächste, das letzte, etc. Most of these exceptions have been eliminated under the revised spelling, and capitals are to be used consistently, e.g.: im Allgemeinen im Klaren sein des Öfteren das Erste das Letzte im Voraus als Erstes das Nächste However, small letters are still to be used in a number of idiomatic expressions where we are not dealing with distinct nouns. The most frequent are:

bei weitem by far durch dick und dünn through thick and thin gegen bar for cash ohne weiteres without thinking schwarz auf weiß in black and white seit langem for a long time über kurz oder lang sooner or later von klein auf from childhood von nah und fern from near and far von weitem from afar (b)

A few nouns in set phrases have small letters, in particular in the following indefinite expressions of number: ein bisschen ein paar (see 2.2.1) The number of these has been much reduced in the revised spelling, and most nouns in set phrases are now spelled with a capital, e.g.: außer Acht lassen, Recht haben. In practice, a small letter is now to be used only in very few instances, i.e. the above expressions of number and nouns in phrases with the verb sein, e.g.: ihr ist angst er ist schuld daran das ist schade ich bin es leid

(c)

Nouns used as time adverbs generally have small letters, e.g.: abends morgens vormittags anfangs sonntags zurzeit beizeiten tagsüber zuzeiten derzeit von morgens bis abends However, under the revised spelling rules: (i) nouns indicating periods of the day used with gestern, heute and morgen are spelled with a capital letter, e.g.: gestern Morgen heute Vormittag morgen Abend (ii) nouns indicating a period of the day have a small letter when used with days of the week (or can be written together with them), e.g.: Dienstag mittag OR Dienstagmittag (iii) -mal can be compounded with numerals, e.g. einmal 'once', dreimal 'three times', hundertmal 'a hundred times' and in two or three other phrases, i.e. diesmal 'this time', ein paarmal 'a few times', ein andermal 'another time'. In all other contexts Mai is written as a separate word and given a capital letter, e.g.: das erste Mal jedes Mal zum ersten Mal Compounds like das erstemal, jedesmal are no longer used.

(d)

Adjectives of nationality are spelled with a small letter when they are used as adjectives or adverbs. This contrasts with usage in English, e.g.:

das deutsche Volk the German people ein britisches Schiff a British ship italienische Weine Italian wines russische Lieder Russian songs Der Minister hat mit ihr deutsch gesprochen Redet sie jetzt deutsch oder niederländisch? However, they have capital letters when used as nouns to refer to the language, e.g.: Er kann kein Wort Deutsch Das ist (kein) gutes Deutsch Sie spricht / kann / liest (kein) Deutsch Das Buch ist in Deutsch und Englisch erschienen Under the revised spelling rules this also applies to usage after the preposition auf, e.g.: auf Deutsch, auf Englisch in German, in English (e)

Nouns which have become prepositions have small letters, e.g.: angesichts kraft mittels statt trotz

(f)

As in English, capitals are used for titles and proper names, e.g.: das Deutsche Eck die Olympischen Spiele der Heilige Abend der Rote Milan Karl der Fünfte das Schwarze Meer die Lange Gasse der Stille Ozean die Letzte Ölung However, adjectives in idiomatic combinations which are not names of unique things are spelled with a small letter, e.g.: die erste Hilfefirstaid die goldene Hochzeit golden wedding das schwarze Brett the notice board der schwarze Markt the black market Adjectives from proper names ending in -sch or -sch are written with small letters under the revised spelling rules: das elisabethanische Drama das ohmsche Gesetz

(g)

The pronoun Sie and its forms (Ihr, Ihnen, etc.) always have capitals. In letters, the pronouns du, ihr and their forms (dich, euch, dein, etc.) are no longer to be written with capitals under the revised spelling. This ruling is being widely ignored.

6.1.2 One word or two? The general principle of German spelling is that compound words are written as a single word if they are felt to express a single idea (even if

the resulting words can be quite long). If, on the other hand, the individual words are still felt to retain full meaning, they are written separately. The word stress often gives a clue to this, as a true compound only has one main stress, whereas separate words are still stressed independently. Compare the following: 'gutschreiben to credit 'gut 'schreiben to write well 'so 'weit so far 'soweit on the whole There has always been considerable uncertainty about how to apply this principle, and the revised spelling rules have attempted (not always successfully) to eliminate some of the more troublesome inconsistencies. The general principle of the revised spelling rules is to prefer spelling as separate words in cases of uncertainty. The rest of this section gives details on some of the main areas of difficulty and the major changes prescribed by the revised spelling rules.

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

(a)

Separable and other compound verbs Separable verbs are normally written as a single word when the prefix is not at the end of the clause, e.g. ankommen, angekommen, anzukommen, wenn sie ankommt. However, there are some exceptions and uncertainties in respect of this ruling.

•

Combinations of a noun with a verb are written consistently as separate words. The noun has a capital letter: Acht geben to pay attention Not tun to be necessary Eis laufen to skate Rad fahren to cycle Halt machen to stop Ski laufen to ski Leid tun to be sorry Weh tun to hurt Maß halten to be moderate However, some nouns are taken to have lost their full meaning in combination with a verb, i.e.: heim- irre- preis- stand- statt- teil- wett- wunderThese are seen as separable prefixes and written together with the verb, e.g.: heimgehen to go home stattfinden to take place teilnehmen to participate irreführen to mislead preisgeben to expose wettmachen to make up for standhalten to stand firm wundernehmen to surprise Combinations of an adjective, an adverb, an infinitive or a participle with a verb are normally written as separate words, e.g.: anheim fallen to fall victim to liegen bleiben to remain lying durcheinander bringen to muddle up nahe legen to suggest fallen lassen to drop spazieren gehen to go for a walk gefangen nehmen to take captive stehen bleiben to stop kennen lernen to get to know übrig bleiben to be left over leicht machen to make sth easy verloren gehen to be lost

However, adjectives and adverbs are seen as forming fixed idiomatic combinations with the verb and written together with it if they cannot be used in the comparative or with sehr without changing the meaning. For example, fernsehen 'to watch television' is regarded as a single idea, because ich sehe sehr fern can only have the literal meaning of 'I am looking a long way'. Similarly: gutschreiben to credit bereithalten to have ready bloßstellen to show up schwarzarbeiten to moonlight festsetzen to fix totschlagen to kill Combinations with the verb sein are always written as separate words, e.g.: da sein to be there inne sein to be conscious of los sein to be up vorbei sein to be past zufrieden sein to be satisfied zurück sein to be back Compound verbs which are only used in the form of the infinitive and/or the past participle, like brustschwimmen 'to swim breast-stroke' and seiltanzen 'to walk the tightrope' are always written as a single word. These verbs tend to have specialized meanings and are especially frequent in R3b. Combinations of prepositions with a noun These form adverbs or prepositions and they are written separately if the individual words are still felt to retain independent meanings. The noun has a capital letter, e.g.: mit Bezug auf with reference to zu Ende gehen to come to an end nach Hause gehen to go home in Kraft treten to come into effect Such combinations are written as single words if they are considered to be single entities, e.g.: beiseite to/on one side infolge as a result of inmitten in the middle of vonnöten necessary vorderhand for the present zurzeit at present Alternative forms are accepted in some set phrases where it is questionable whether the words involved retain their separate meanings or not, e.g.: anhand/an Hand on the basis of anstelle/an Stelle instead of

aufgrund/auf Grund on the basis of imstande/im Stande sein to be capable infrage/in Frage stellen to call into question mithilfe/mit Hilfe with the aid of zugrunde/zu Grunde gehen to perish zugunsten/zu Gunsten in favour of zumute/zu Mute sein to feel zustande/zu Stande bringen to manage zuwege/zu Wege bringen to manage (c) •

•

•

(d) •

•

Combinations of a noun or an adverb with an adjective or participle In principle these are written as separate words, with the noun being given a capital letter, e.g.: ein Aufsehen erregendes Ereignis die weit gehende Ubereinstimmung ein schwer beschädigter Wagen die Eisen verarbeitende Industrie die dicht bevölkerte Stadt ein hoch gelegener Ort Idiomatic combinations with an adjective (i.e. those where the meaning is not literally the sum of the parts) are written as a single word, e.g.: altmodisch old-fashioned schwerwiegend serious zeitraubend time-consuming Combinations with a noun which come from a phrase are written as a single word, e.g.: das bahnbrechende Werk (from: sich eine Bahn brechend) die staubbedeckten Bücher (from: mit Staub bedeckt) Other common forms ( i r g e n d s o - , wie-, -viel, -wenig) All compounds with irgend are spelled as one word under the revised spelling rules, e.g.: irgendetwas something irgendjemand somebody irgendwo somewhere However, if another word intervenes, all are spelled separately, e.g. irgend so etwas. Combinations with so or wie are spelled as one word if they have a distinctive meaning, but separately if each word retains its own meaning, e.g.: sobald as soon as so bald so soon solange as long as so lange so long sooft as often as so oft so often

wieweit? to what extent? wie weit? how far, what distance? woanders elsewhere wo anders? where else? womöglich possibly wo möglich if possible NOTE: The conjunction sodass 'SO that' can alternatively be spelled as two words, i.e. so dass. •

Combinations with viel and wenig are all spelled with two words under the revised spelling, e.g. so viel, wie viel?, zu wenig, etc. However, as a conjunction, soviel is spelled as a single word, e.g. soviel ich weiß 'as far as I know'.

6.1.3 The use o f ß and ss The letter ß (usually called scharfes s or eszet) is used universally, both in handwriting and printing, throughout Germany and Austria. However, it is not normally used in Switzerland, where only ss is usual and one sees, for example, Bahnhofstrasse rather than Bahnhofstraße. It is advisable for foreign learners to follow the majority practice and use ß where appropriate. Originally,^ was only used as a small letter and not used in capitals, e.g. Straße, but STRASSE. However, it has become increasingly common to useß in capitals, too, e.g. STRAßE. The ruling on the use o f ß and ss is probably the most obvious change brought about by the revised spelling rules, affecting the largest number of common words. The new rule is that, in the middle or at the end of a word: (a) ß is used after a long vowel or diphthong: beißen der Fuß, die Füße groß, größer der Maß, die Maße (b) ss is used after a short vowel: dass müssen, ich muss, ich musste der Fluss, die Flüsse das Wasser lassen, er lässt wissen, ich wusste This ruling extends the principle of German spelling that short vowels are indicated by being followed by double consonants, long vowels by a single consonant. It means that there is no longer the confusing alternation between ss and ß in the declension of many common words.

6.1.4 Miscellaneous spelling changes •

The spelling of a few other words has been revised in the new spelling rules. The aim is to achieve greater consistency. Some of the most noteworthy are:

new spelling

old spelling

aufwändig costly belämmert sheepish die Gämse chamois nummerieren to number die Rohheit roughness sich schnäuzen to blow one's nose der Stängel stem, stalk überschwänglich effusive der Zierrat decoration

aufwendig belemmert Gemse numerieren Roheit sich schneuzen Stengel überschwenglich Zierat

Some words borrowed from other languages have an alternative spelling which corresponds more closely to their pronunciation in German. In all these cases either spelling is permissible, although the one given first is preferred: die/der Chicoree/Schikoree der Fotograf/Photograph die Fotografie/Photographie das Getto/Ghetto der/das Joghurt/Jogurt die Majonäse/Mayonnaise das Mikrofon/Mikrophon das Portmonee/Portemonnaie potenziell/potentiell die Soße/Sauce der Spaghetti/Spagetti das Telefon/Telephon

6.2 6.2.1

chicory photographer photography ghetto yoghurt mayonnaise microphone purse potential sauce spaghetti telephone

Punctuation The use of the comma The comma in German is not used to mark a pause in speaking but to show the beginning and end of a grammatical unit (especially clauses). English learners should be aware that Germans regard the placing of commas as part of correct spelling, and mistakes in comma placement are penalized in German schools in the same way as spelling words incorrectly. The previous rules for the placement of commas were full of exceptions and inconsistencies, and the new rules represent a considerable (and very welcome) simplification. The basic principle is

that all clauses within a sentence should begin and end with a comma, e.g.: Der Bauer, der dabei war, seinen dicken Wintermantel anzuziehen, war der Meinung, dass man in den nächsten Tagen Schnee erwarten dürfte Among other things, this means that, unlike typical English usage, adverbials within a clause are never surrounded by commas, e.g.: Sie hat jedoch recht gehabt She was, however, correct Nach dem Krieg ging er However; after the war; he returned jedoch nach Köln zurück to Cologne There are a few exceptions to this basic rule: (a)

No comma is required before a clause beginning with und or oder, e.g.: Der junge Mann öffnete ihm die Tür und er ging mit ihm hinein Almut rief an und er erzählte ihr, was passiert war Gehst du morgen ins Theater oder bleibst du zu Hause? However, a comma can be used if the writer feels the need to make the sentence clearer or avoid ambiguity: Jürgen fotografierte die Berge(,) und seine Frau lag in der Sonne Leaving the comma out might lead you to think, on first reading, that Jürgen took a photograph of the mountains and his wife.

(b)

No comma is required before clauses with an infinitive with zu or a participle: Sie beschloss den Betrag von €2000 möglichst bald zu überweisen Ich brauche heute nicht nach Mannheim zu fahren Ich konnte nichts tun um sie zu beruhigen Er verließ ihr Haus ohne gesehen zu werden Aus vollem Halse lachend nahm er das Geschenk entgegen Er sank zu Tode getroffen auf das Bett However, a comma may be used if the writer feels it necessary to avoid ambiguity or make the sense clear. Compare the following pair of sentences, where the placing of the comma shows which clause heute belongs to: Das Kind versprach heute, nichts mehr von dem Kuchen zu essen Das Kind versprach, heute nichts mehr von dem Kuchen zu essen

(c)

A comma is always required before infinitive clauses which are anticipated by es or a prepositional adverb with da(r) in the preceding clause, e.g.: Ihm steht es nicht zu, ein Urteil zu fällen Wichtig ist es vor allem, den Satz richtig zu verstehen Wir sind dazu bereit, Ihnen darüber Auskunft zu geben Sie erinnerte sich daran, ihn in der Stadt gesehen zu haben

(d)

Insertions, exclamations, interjections, explanatory phrases, phrases in apposition and the like usually have commas, e.g.:

Fleisch, insbesondere Rindfleisch, war jetzt sehr knapp geworden Er war, wie schon gesagt, durch den Tod seines Freundes bestürzt Wir wurden durch Herrn Meißner, den Direktor des Instituts, in der Eingangshalle empfangen Petra, komm bitte schnell in die Küche!

6.2.2

Other punctuation marks

(a)

Quotation marks are used much as in English, though it is normal practice to place the first set on the line rather than above it, and foreign learners should follow this, e.g.: Er sagte: „Vater will, dass ich Jura studiere." NOTE: a colon is used to introduce direct speech.

(b)

The exclamation mark is normally used with commands, e.g.: Komm bitte sofort in den Garten! Geben Sie mir diese beiden Schachteln! This rule is not adhered to consistently, and a full stop is now sometimes preferred. For the use of the exclamation mark in letters, see 2.8.

Index

The index gives all the German and English words, and the grammatical and linguistic topics about which specific information is given in this book. Individual words in lists illustrating points of grammar or usage are not included. To facilitate finding particular entries, German words are given in regular type, English words in italics and grammatical (and other general) topics in SMALL CAPITALS (with any German terms ITALICISED). Prefixes and suffixes are indicated with a hyphen, e.g. an-, -lich, etc. Phrases are listed under the head-word, e.g. zum Schluss under Schluss. ab 131,147 ab-114 abbiegen 86

(sich) abwenden 86 abwesend 283

ABBREVIATIONS 176, 185

accept 53 accident 53 accidentally 53 accomplishment 53 according to 141

Abdruck, der 104 aber (conjunction) 158, 159,263,265 aber (particle) 156,161, 163 abfahren 71 sich abfinden 216 Abgeordente(r), der 197 abgesehen von 145 abhalten 78,83,219 Abhang, der 56 abhängen 217 abholen 58,60,73 abkratzen 62 ablehnen 80 ableugnen 62 abmachen 54 about 141,217 above 141 abraten 53,217,219 in Abrede stellen 62 Absatz, der 88 abschließen 72 absehen 217,220 Absender, der 168 Absicht, die 69 absonderlich 75 absperren 72 abstellen 83 abstoßend 283 abwaschen 88 Abwasser, das 174

ACCENT 10

ACCUSATIVE CASE 19,

146,211,225\ see also accusative object, preposition ACCUSATIVE OBJECT

207,211,213,214, 232,236,270; see also word order Achse, die 93 Achsel, die 93 Acht geben 219,293 achten 213, 215, 220 across 141 ACTIVE VOICE 233

actually 53,79 ADDRESSES 168 ADJECTIVE AFTER PRONOUN 194 COMBINED WITH NOUN OR ADVERB

295 DECLENSION 1 9 3 - 6 FROM NAMES 195,

292 OF COLOUR 195 OF NATIONALITY 291 STRONG DECLENSION

193,194

USED AS NOUN 85,

196-8,201,281,282, 290 WEAK DECLENSION

194 WITH SEIN 271

see also extended epithet, word formation Admiral, der 177 admit 53, 279 ADVERB/ADVERBIAL 264,

273,279-81,298 DIRECTIONAL 124 OF ATTITUDE 272 OF MANNER 270, 272 OF PLACE 2 6 5 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 2 OF REASON 272

OF TIME 265,270,272, 291 see also prepositional adverb, word order advertisement 54 advertising 54 advise 53 afraid 54, 280,281 after 142 again 54 against 142 age 54 AGE (effect on register) 6 AGENT 236

agree 54 Ahnung, die 69 Akt, der 93 Akte, die 93

aktuell 78 akzeptieren 53 -al 172 Album, das 178 all-/alles/alle 193-6,198, 201,204-6 allerdings 265, 279 im Allgemeinen 290 allmählich 279 allow 281 ALLTAGSSPRACHE 1\ See also spoken German along 142 als 'than' 21, 273 als 'when' 230,276,285, 286 als dass 247,276 als ob 246,276 als wenn 247 also 265 Alter, das 54 alter 54 although 250 among(st) 142 an 133, 143,144,150, 151, 153,212,214-15 an-114 -an 172 -än 172 an . . . entlang 142 an . . . vorbei 152 anbauen 67 anbieten 7 5 , 2 1 1 , 2 3 5 Anblick, der 87 -and 172 andauernd 280 Andenken, das 74 ander 6 2 - 3 , 2 9 0 (sich) ändern 59 androhen 85 sich aneignen 212 Anfang, der 179 anfangen 1 9 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 9 , 2 3 2 anfassen 85 anfordern 55 anfragen 55 sich anfühlen 64 angeben 220 angeblich 279 angehen 220 angehören 56 Angelegenheit, die 97 angesichts 292 Angestellte(r), der 197 angreifen 85 angst sein 291

Angst haben 64,218 Angst machen 64 in Angst versetzen 64 sich ängstigen 217 anhalten 83 anhand/an Hand 294 anheim fallen 293 Anhöhe, die 98 anklagen 213 ankommen 220 Anlass, der 58 sich anmaßen 212 (sich) annehmen 53,88, 213 Annonce, die 54 anordnen 76 sich anpassen 212 anrufen 58 anrühren 85 (sich) ansammeln 60 Anschein, der 55 anscheinend 279 sich anschließen 212 Ansicht, die 87 anspringen 232 (an)statt 139,149,292 (an)statt... zu 263 ansteckend 283 anstelle/an Stelle von 149, 294 Anstellung, die 70 anstreichen 76 anstrengend 283 answer 208 -ant 172,183 Antrag, der 93 antworten 209 anvertrauen 101 anwenden 87 anwesend 78,283 -anz 172 Anzahl, die 75, 228 Anzeige, die 54 (sich) anziehen 88 anzweifeln 62 Aperitif, der/das 181 appearance 55 APPOSITION 149,298 -ar 172 -är 172 Arbeit, die 70 arbeiten 214 Arbeitsanzug, der 179 Arbeitslose(r), der 197 Archiv, das 179 arg 56

(sich) ärgern 217, 219 argwöhnisch 84 -arm 110 den Arsch zukneifen 62 ARTICLE 17-18,226; see also definite article, determiner, indefinite article -artig 110 as if 246 Asche, die 179 ask 55 ASSIMILATION 17

at 143 -at 172 at last 72 Atem, der 180 Atlas, der 178 auch 156,160,161,250, 279 auf 133—4,143,146,150, 153,214—15,292 auf- 114 a u f . . . zu 154 auf Wiederschauen 165 auf Wiedersehen 165 aufbewahren 70,101 auffallend 283 auffordern 55 sich auffuhren 56 Aufführung, die 93 Aufgabe, die 7 0 , 9 3 aufgehen 76,79, 210 aufgrund / auf Grund 294 aufhaben 76 aufhalten 83 aufheben 7 0 , 7 2 aufhören 8 3 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 9 aufmachen 76 Aufnahme, die 63 aufnehmen 53 aufpassen 215, 219 aufregend 283 aufrüsten 93 aufsammeln 60 aufschlagen 57, 76 aufschließen 76 aufsparen 81 aufstehen 80 Auftrag, der 7 0 , 9 3 auftragen 93 Auftritt, der 55,63 aufwachen 87 aufwachsen 67 aufwändig 297 aufwecken 87

aufzwingen 66 augenblicklich 78 aus 127,147, 149, 151 aus- 114 ausbilden 94 Ausbildung, die 94 ausbleiben 68 Ausblick, der 87 (sich) ausbreiten 82 (sich) ausdehnen 82 Ausdruck, der 95 ausdrücken 95 ausfallen 68 ausfragen 55 Ausfuhrung, die 93 Ausgabe, die 93 ausgeben 82 AUSKLAMMERUNG 22, 271 Auskunft, die 180 auslassen 74 ausmachen 54 ausnutzen/ausnützen 87 ausrichten 93 ausrüsten 93 aussehen 217 Aussehen, das 55,179 außer 127,145 außer wenn 276 Äußere(s), das 55,197 außergewöhnlich 101 außerhalb 140,151 Aussicht, die 87 AUSTRIA 1 3 , 2 3 , 2 6 - 7 ausweichen 55 (sich) ausweiten 82 Automat, der 183 AUXILIARY VERB 2 0 , 21,

229,231-4,240,263; see also modal auxiliary verb avoid 55 Backe, die 105 Backen, der 105 backen 188,191 bad 56 Balkon, der 177 Ball, der 93 Ballen, der 93 Ballon, der 177 Band, der 9 4 , 1 0 2 Band, die 102 Band, das 9 4 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 4 Bande, die 94 bangen 211

bank 56 Bank, die 56,104 -bar 109,239 Barock, der/das 181 basieren 215 Bauer, der 183 be-111-12,209 be able to 250 be going to 229 be intended to 281 be meant to 281 be supposed to 281 Beamte(r), der 75 BEAMTENDEUTSCH 9 beantragen 93,190 beauftragen 93 (sich) bedanken 215 bedauerlich 95 bedauerlicherweise 279 bedauern 95 bedauernswert 95 bedenken 95 bedeuten 73 bedeutend 283 sich bedienen 87,213 bedingungslos 94 bedrängen 95 bedrohen 85 bedürfen 213 -bedürftig 110 beeindrucken 95 sich befassen 216 befehlen 76,187 befolgen 65 befördern 97 befragen 55,235 befreien 217 befriedigen 80 befurchten 64 begabt 59 sich begeben 68 Begebenheit, die 63 begegnen 73,209 sich begeistern 215 begin 279 beginnen 19,187,216, 219,232 begleichen 77 begleiten 190 sich begnügen 216 begraben 97 begreifen 67,79 Begriff, der 69 begrüßen 6 7 , 9 8 , 2 3 5 behalten 70 beharren 215

behave 56 behindern 78 behutsam 58 bei 128, 143,144,151,286 bei weitem 291 bei-210 beibehalten 70 beide 193,195,196,290 beid(er)seits 140 beinhalten 190 beiseite 294 beißen 186,225 beitragen 218 bekämpfen 64 bekannt 71 Bekannte(r), der 197 bekanntlich 279 sich beklagen 60,219 bekommen 232,237 belämmert 297 belehren 213 beliebig 279 belong 56 sich bemächtigen 67,213 bemerken 7 5 , 7 9 , 8 8 , 2 3 5 sich bemühen 217,219 sich benehmen 56 Benehmen, das 179 beneiden 217 benutzen/benützen 87 beraten 53 berauben 213 berechtigen 218 Berechtigung, die bereit 79 sich bereit erklären 54 bereithalten 294 Berg, der 74 bergen 187 bersten 187 Beruf, der 7 0 , 9 4 Berufstätigkeit, die 70 Berufung, die 94 beruhen 215 beruhigend 283 berühren 86 besagen 73 beschädigen 61 sich beschäftigen 216 beschließen 62 beschränken 215 beschuldigen 56 beschützen 218 sich beschweren 60,219 Besen, der 57 sich besinnen 213

Besitz, der 179 (sich) bessern 69 bestehen 215,216,220 besteigen 59 bestellen 76 bestimmen 62 bestimmt 279,280 bestreiten 62 besuchen 58,65 betasten 64 beten 94 betrachten 85 sich betragen 56 betrügen 189,217 betteln 94 beurteilen 94 Bevölkerung, die 69 bevor 276 bewahren 70,101 bewähren 101 bewegen 77,86, 188, 191 Bewohner, der 69 bewundern 102,235 beyond 144 bezahlen 77 bezeichnen 94 sich beziehen 215 bezweifeln 62 bezwingen 66 biegen 8 6 , 1 8 7 , 2 3 2 bieten 75,94, 187 Bild, das 94 Bildung, die 94 billigen 54 binden 187 Bindfaden, der 84 binnen 131,148 bis 124, 144,154 bis auf 124,145 bitten 5 5 , 9 4 , 2 1 7 , 2 1 9 blame 56 blasen 188 Blatt, das 88 blechen 77 bleiben 186,230,232,239, 242,271 blenden 94 Blick, der 87 blinken 94 blinzeln 94 Blitz, der 180 blöde 18 bloß 7 6 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 3 bloßstellen 294 Boden, der 89

Bodensatz, der 179 Bogen, der 177 Bonbon, der 181 Böschung, die 95 böse 5 6 , 9 4 boshaft 94 böswillig 94 box 56 boxen 64 BRACKET CONSTRUCTION see word order Brand, der 65 braten 188 Brauch, der 95 brauchen 21, 8 4 , 9 5 , 2 3 5 , 241 break 57 brechen 57, 187, 232 breit 74 breitschlagen 77 brennen 190 bright 57 Brille, die 179 bringen 84, 190,217,221, 242 Broiler, der 11 Brot, das 180 brüllen 61 brush 57 Büchse, die 56 Buchstabe, der 183 Bulle, der 102 Bulle, die 102 bummeln 233 Bund, der 9 4 , 1 0 2 Bund, das 9 4 , 1 0 2 Bündnis, das Burg, die 58 Bursch, der 183 Bürste, die 57 Busch, der 95 Butter, die 181 by 1 4 4 - 5 , 2 3 6 , 2 8 6 Cafe, das 95 call 58 can 238 CAPITAL LETTERS 166, 290-2 care 58 careful 58 careless 58 case 58 CASE 181-5,192,207, 224—8; see also

accusative case, dative case, genitive case, nominative case, valency castle 58 cathedral 58 cattle 61 cause 58 cease 280 Cello, das 178 chance 281 change 59 Charme, der 175 -chen 107,172 Chicoree/Schikoree, die 297 claim 279, 281 CLAUSE 262; see also comparative clause, conditional clause, itfss-clause, infinitive clause, main clause, purpose clause, relative clause, subordinate clause CLEFT SENTENCE 266, 282 clever 59 clever 59 climb 59,208 close 59 CLOSING BRACKET see verbal bracket CLOTHING, ARTICLES OF 180,224 coat 59 collect 60 COLLECTIVE NOUNS see nouns COLLOQUIAL SPEECH see spoken German come 280,288 COMMA 169,264,265, 297-9 COMMANDS 161-3, 263, 299 COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE 169 COMPARATIVE CLAUSES 246 COMPARATIVE PHRASES 273 complain 60 COMPLEMENT 268,270; see also word order

COMPOUND TENSE see

tense COMPOUND WORD see

word formation CONDITIONAL see

subjunctive

DATIVE OBJECT 2 0 7 ,

209-12,214,236; also word order dauern 95 dauernd 280 DAYS OF THE WEEK 185,

291

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE 2 4 5 - 6 ,

decide 6 2

263

Decke, die 89,95 Deckel, der 95 Deckung, die 95

WITH 'OPEN' CONDITIONS 2 4 6 congratulate

208

CONJUNCTION 2 6 3 content (s) 6 0 continue

60,281

CONTINUOUS ACTION

19

formation Ding, das 84,177 Dings, das 84 Dingsbums, das 84 Dingsda, das 84 DIRECT OBJECT see

accusative object DIRECT SPEECH 242

DEFINITE ARTICLE 20,

DIRECTION PHRASES

182,193,199,224 (sich) dehnen 82

do

(DETERMINER/

271 282 doch 156,162, 164 doch mal 162 doch wohl 159 Dom, der 58

PRONOUN) 2 1 , 1 9 2 ,

don ft have to 236

demand

62

could 196

DEMONSTRATIVE

61

62

DIMINUTIVES see word

adjective, noun

dementieren 62

cow

different

DECLENSION see

copy 61 couldn't help 196

dieser 192, 199,267; see also demonstrative diesseits 140

da 22,201,266 da sein 294

198-200,267 (sich) denken 69,85,95, 190,214,242 denn (conjunction) 263 denn (particle) 18,84, 160-2

doubt (noun) 280 doubt (verb) 62

DA (R) + PREPOSITION

deny 6 2

down 145

see prepositional adverb dabei 284 dadurch . . . , dass 277, 286 dalassen 71 damage 61,208 damals 84 damit 247,276 Damm, der 56 daneben 74 Dank, der 95,179 danken 209,215 dann 84

DEPENDENT CLAUSE see

subordinate clause der see definite article der (demonstrative) 198, 267 der (relative pronoun) 200 der . . . da/hier 199 derer 201

Drama, das 178 (sich) drängeln 78 (sich) drängen 78,95,215, 221 (sich) drehen 86 dringen 95,187,232 dringend 283 drohen 85,209,216

DERIVATION see word

drop 2 0 8

formation derjenige 200 derselbe 80 derzeitig 78

dicht 84,89 -dicht 110 dichtmachen 59 dick 64,84,89

drucken 95 (sich) drücken 78,95,218 drückend 283 Dschungel, der/das 181 du 166-8,292 Duft, der 82 duften 217 dunkel 61 durch 125,144,152,236, 272,286 durch- 115-16 durch dick und dünn 291 durcheinander bringen 293 Durchführung, die 53 durchqueren 61 dürfen 249,281

die 62

during 145

dienen 209,218

düster 61

cross 61

61 cut 208 cry

Darm, der 179 das (demonstrative) 199-200 dass 244 DASS-CLAUSE

DETERMINER 1 7 , 1 8 2 ,

192-206

dark 61

219,275,

285 DATIVE CASE 19, 153,

209 EXPRESSING POSSESSION 20,

224-5,227 see also dative object, noun, preposition

DECLENSION 1 9 2 - 6

see also definite article, demonstrative, indefinite article, possessive Deutsche(r), der 197 DIALECT 1 0 , 1 2

Dose, die 56 Dossier, das/der 181 Dotter, der/das 181 DOUBLET 1 0 5 - 6

-e (noun suffix) 107, 175, 182 eben 157,160-2 echt 79 -echt 110 Eck, das 105 Ecke, die 105 ehrbar 96 Ehre, die 96 ehrenhaft 96 Ehrfurcht, die 96 Ehrgeiz, der 96 ehrlich 96 ehrwürdig 96 -ei 172 Eigenart, die 96 eigenartig 75 Eigenschaft, die 96 eigentlich 79, 157, 160 Eigentum, das 96 eigentümlich 75 Eigentümlichkeit, die 96 sich eignen 215,218,221 ein- 114 ein bisschen 291 ein paar 99,205-6,291 einbiegen 86 sich einbilden 69, 212 Eindruck, der 95 eindrücken 95 einer 203,204 einfach 81,96 Einfahrt, die 63 Einfall, der 69 einfallen 89,96,210 einfältig 81,96 einfrieren 66 einfuhren 216 Eingang, der 63 Eingeborene(r), der 69 einhalten 70 Einheimische(r), der 69, 197 einheitlich 96 einig (sein) 54,96 einige(r) 193,195-6, 205 sich einigen 54 Einkommen, das 179 einladen 55,218 einleuchtend 283 einnehmen 60 einreden 77 Einreise, die 63 einrichten 93 einsam 96

einsammeln 60 einschenken 78 einschließen 72 einsehen 53,79 Einsicht, die 86 einsperren 72 einstellen 83 Eintrag, der 63 Eintritt, der 63 einverstanden sein 54 Einverständnis, das 86 einwilligen 54,216 Einwohner, der 69 einzeln 96 einzig 96 Eis laufen 293 Eisenbahn, die 179 (sich) ekeln 211, 218,219 -el 174 empfänglich 96 empfehlen 187,211 empfinden 64 empfindlich 96 empörend 283 -en (adjective suffix) 109 -en (noun suffix) 174 im Endeffekt 65 endgültig 65 ENDING see adjective,

noun, verb endlich 65,96 endlos 96 eng 74 ent-112,210 -ent172,183 entfallen 210 entgegen- 210 entlang 134,142 entnehmen 215 entrance 63

entrichten 77 entry 63

sich entscheiden 62, 216, 219 entscheidend 283 entschlafen 62 sich entschließen 62,218, 219 Entschlossenheit, die 96 Entschluss, der 96 sich entsinnen 213 entsprechen 80 entsprechend 141 sich entziehen 55 -enz 172 -er (adjective suffix) 195

-er (noun suffix) 107,172, 174 er- (verb prefix) 112-13 Erbe, der 102 Erbe, das 102 erbleichen 186 erblicken 235 -erei 107 sich ereignen 68 Ereignis, das 63 erfahren 71 Erfahrung, die 63 erfassen 67 erfolgen 68 erfordern 55,97 sich erfreuen 213 erfrieren 66 erfüllen 80 sich ergeben 212,215,216, 221 sich ergießen 78 ergreifen 67 erhalten 70, 237 (sich) erheben 72, 80 erhöhen 72 sich erholen 217 (sich) erinnern 213, 214, 219 Erinnerung, die 74 erkennen Erkenntnis, die erklären 89 erkranken 214 sich erkundigen 55,98, 216 Erlass, der/das 177 Erlebnis, das 63 erlernen 71 erlöschen 189,191 ermächtigen 218 ermöglichen 211 ermutigen 218 -ern 109 eröffnen 76 erraten 68 Erscheinen, das 55 Erscheinung, die 55 erschrecken 64, 187, 191, 218 erschweren 211 (sich) ersparen 81 erst 65,76,89,96,154,157 erst mal 65 erst recht 157 das Erste 290 als Erstes 290

ersteigen 59 zum ersten Mal 65 erstens 6 5 , 9 6 erstmals 6 5 , 9 6 sich erstrecken 82 ersuchen 55 erwachen 87 erwachsen 67 Erwachsene(r), der 197 erwarten 235 erwecken 87 (sich) erweitern 82 Erwerbstätigkeit, die 70 Erz- 108 erzwingen 66 es 266, 298; see also pronoun, personal Espresso, der 178 essen 188 Essen, das 66,180 -et 172 Etikett, das 96,177 Etikette, die 96 etliche(r) 193,195,205 -ett 172 etwa 141,158,160 etwas 198,201 -eur 172 event 63 Examen, das 178 examine 63 except (for) 145 EXCLAMATION 264,298 EXCLAMATION MARK 169,299 Exemplar, das 61 experience 63 EXTENDED EPITHET 22, 238,274,283,284 Fach, das 89 FACHSPRACHE 7, 4 3 - 5 -fähig 110 fahren 1 8 8 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 2 4 2 Fahrer, der 96 fail 281 Fakt, der/das 181 Fall, der 6 3 , 8 9 fall 63 fallen 63, 188,242 fallen lassen 293 fangen 189 Farbe, die 89 Fasan, der 177 fassen 67 fat 64

fear (A fechten 64,187 feel 64,208,287 Fehl- 109 fehlen 7 4 , 1 9 0 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 4 Fehler, der 74 Fehlgriff, der 74 Feiertag, der 68 feige 18 feixen 67 Fell, das 81 Fels, der 105 Felsen, der 105 FEMININE see gender Ferien, die 68 Fernglas, das 179 fernsehen 294 fertig 7 9 , 8 9 , 2 8 0 Fertigkeit, die 53 -fest 110 festsetzen 294 feststellen 79 fett 64 fettig 64 Feuer, das 65 Feuerwerk, das 179 fight 64 finally 65 finden 187,241 finish 280 FINITE VERB see verb finster 61 fire 65 Firma, die 178 (at) first 65 Fischotter, der 103 flechten 188 Fleck, der 105 Flecken, der 105 flehen 55 fliegen 187, 233 fliehen 187, 218 fließen 65,187 Flitterwochen, die 179 flow 65 Flur, der 102 Flur, die 102 folgen 6 5 , 6 6 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 5 , 221,233 folgende(r) 193,195, 196 folgern 215 follow 65 food 66 for 1 4 5 - 6 , 2 1 2 , 2 8 6 force 66,208

fordern 55,97 fördern 97 Forderung, die 97 Förderung, die 97 FOREIGN WORDS 18, 177,178,185 FORMAL SPEECH 38-40 FORMAL WRITING see written German -förmig 110 fortfahren 60 Fortschritt, der 180 fortsetzen 60 Fossil, das 178 Foto, das 181 Fotograf/Photograph, der 97, 297 Fotografie/Photographie, die 97,297 eine Frage stellen 55 fragen 5 5 , 1 9 1 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 9 Fraß, der 66 Frau, die 168 Fräulein, das 168 freeze 66 -frei 110 Freie(s), das 197 freilich 265, 279 Freiwillige(r), der 197 fremd 7 5 , 9 0 fremdartig 75 fressen 188 sich freuen 214,215, 217, 219,222 Friede(n), der 183 frieren 6 6 , 1 8 7 , 2 3 3 frighten 64 from 147 Frucht, die 66 früher 280 fruit 66 sich fugen 212 (sich) fühlen 64 führen 218 Führer, der 96 Funke(n), der 183 für 125,145,146,212 (sich) furchten 64, 218, 219 Fürsorge, die 58 Fürst, der 183 fußen 215 Fußtritt, der 83 Futter, das 66 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE see tense

FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE

see subjunctive FUTURE TENSE see tense Gämse, die 297 Gang, der 90,102 Gang, die 102 ganz 205 Garage, die 67 garage 67 Gasse, die 83 gather 67 G D R (GERMAN

gelten 187,222 gelten lassen 53 Gemach, das 80 Gemahl, der 99 gemäß 131,141 Gemeinheit, die 97 Gemeinsamkeit, die 97 Gemeinschaft, die 97 GENDER (effect on register) 6 GENDER (of noun) 20, 171-81,195 DOUBLE 1 0 2 - 4

DEMOCRATIC

FEMININE 1 7 2 - 6

REPUBLIC) 11

MASCULINE 172-5, 180,182,184 NEUTER 172-6, 180, 182,184

Ge- / G e - . . . -e 107,173 geben 7 9 , 1 8 7 , 2 1 1 , 2 4 1 gebieten 76 Gebirge, das 74 Gebrauch, der 95 gebrauchen 87,95 gebräuchlich 95 Gebrauchsanweisung, die 179 gebraucht 95 Gedächtnis, das 74 Gedanke, der 6 9 , 9 5 , 1 8 3 Gedeck, das 95 gedenken 95,213 gefallen 72,210 Gefallen, der 102 Gefallen, das 102 gefangen nehmen 293 Gefangene(r), der 197 gefrieren 66 gegebenenfalls 279 gegen 125,142,154 gegen bar 291 Gegenstand, der 84 gegenüber 128 gegenwärtig 78 Gehacktes 197 Gehalt, der 60,102 Gehalt, das 102 geheim 81 gehen 189,217,230,239, 241 gehorchen 210 gehören 5 6 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 8 , 2 3 8 geistig 97 geistlich 97 Geistliche(r), der 197 geistreich 97 Gelegenheit, die 97 Gelehrte(r), der 197 gelingen 187,210, 242

VARIABLE 1 8 0 - 1

General, der 177 genesen 188 Genick, das 74 GENITIVE CASE 21, 149,

213,224-8 IN MEASUREMENT PHRASES 2 2 8 POSITION OF GENITIVE PHRASES

227 IN TIME EXPRESSIONS

227 see also genitive object, preposition GENITIVE OBJECT 213,

271 genügen 80 Geräusch, das 82 Gerechtigkeit, die 99 Gericht, das 66 gering 82 gern 72,280 gern haben 72 Geruch, der 82 GERUND 2 8 2

Gesandte(r), der 197 gesättigt 80 geschehen 6 8 , 1 8 8 , 2 4 2 Geschehen, das 63 gescheit 59 Geschichte, die 90 geschickt 59 Geschmack, der 82,177 Geschworene(r), der 197 Gestank, der 82 gestern 291 Getto/Ghetto, das 297

gewahren 101 gewähren 101 Gewalt, die 78 Gewinn, der 179 gewinnen 187 sich gewöhnen 97, 215 gewöhnlich 280 gewohnt 97 (es) gibt 20 gießen 78,187 Gipfel, der 74 glänzen 81 glänzend 57 Glaube, der 183 glauben 8 5 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 9 Gläubige(r), der 97 Gläubiger, der 97 gleich 8 0 , 9 0 , 9 7 -gleich 110 gleichfalls 97 gleichgültig 97 gleichmäßig 97 gleichviel 97 gleiten 186 glühend 283 go 288 Golf, der 102 Golf, das 102 Grab, das 97 graben 97,188 Graben, der 97 Graf, der 183 -graph 172 grapschen 67 ins Gras beißen 62 grasp 67 gratulieren 210,218 grauen 64, 211 grauenhaft 97 grausam 97 greet 67 GREETINGS 1 6 4 - 6

greifen 67, 8 2 , 1 8 6 , 2 1 6 grin 67 grinsen 67 groß 84 groß werden 67 grow (up) 67,208 Grund, der 5 8 , 9 0 Grund-109 gründlich 97 grundsätzlich 97 grüßen 6 7 , 9 8 guess 196 Gulasch, der/das 181 Gummi, der 102

Gummi, das 102,181 gutschreiben 294 haben 230-3,241 Hafer, der 179 -haft 109 Hahn, der 9 0 , 9 8 Hals, der 74 halt 157 Halt machen 293 (sich) halten 7 0 , 7 1 , 8 3 , 8 5 , 188,189,215,216, 222,241 -haltig 110 Handel, der 98 sich handeln 217 handhaben 190 Handlung, die 98 Hang, der 74 hängen 79, 189, 191, 242 happen 68,281 harm 68 harren 213 Harz, der 102 Harz, das 102 (es) hat 20 (sich) hauen 65, 191,225 Haufen, der 228 (sich) häufen 60 Haupt- 109 Hauptquartier, das 179 Hausaufgabe, die 180 Haut, die 81 have 288 have + PARTICIPLE 266 hear 281, 287 heben 72,188 Heide, der 102 Heide, die 102 Heilige(r), der 197 heim- 293 heimlich 81 heiraten 73 heißen 5 8 , 7 3 , 1 8 6 , 2 4 1 , 271 -heit 107,172 heiter 57 Held, der 183 helfen 1 8 7 , 2 1 0 , 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 hell 5 7 , 9 0 Henne, die 98 her- 124 herab 145 heranwachsen 67 herauf 155 herausbilden 94

herausfordern 218 herbeirufen 58 Herd, das 98 Herde, die 98 hereinfallen 96 Herr, der 183,185 herrühren 217 herum 141 (sich) herumdrehen 86 herunter 145 Herz, das 183 heulen 61 heute 291 HIGHLIGHTING 22 hill 68 Himmel, der 90 hin- 124 hin-/hereinlassen 53 hinab 145 hinauf 155 hindern 7 8 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 , 2 3 5 hindurch 125 hineingeben 79 hinnehmen 53 hinter 142,152 hinter- 116 hinterher- 65 hinterlassen 71 hinüber- 61 hinunter 145 hire 68 Hirt, der 183 hoch 84 HOCHDEUTSCH see Standard German hochheben 72 höchstens 265 hoffen 215,219 hoffentlich 280 Höhe, die 98 holiday (s) 68 HOMONYMS 88 hope 280 Hopfen, der 179 Hose, die 179 Hügel, der 74 Huhn, das 98 Hut, der 103 Hut, die 103 sich hüten 218,219 -ich 172 idea 69 Idee, die 69 IDIOMS 119-23 -ie 172

-ier 172 */245 -ig (adjective suffix) 109 -ig (noun suffix) 172 ihr (second-person pronoun) 166,292 -ik 172 -il 172 Illustrierte, die 197 imagine 69, 280 immerhin 265 IMPERATIVE 21,188 IMPERFECT TENSE see tense IMPERSONAL PASSIVE see passive IMPERSONAL VERB see verb impress 208 improve 69 imstande / im Stande sein 295 in (German preposition) 135-6,147-9,151, 153,216 in (English preposition) 147-8 -in (noun suffix) 108,172 incident 69 INDEFINITE (DETERMINER / PRONOUN) 195, 204-6 INDEFINITE ARTICLE 182,193,194 indem 111, 284,286 Inder, der 98 Indianer, der 98 INDIRECT OBJECT see dative object INDIRECT SPEECH 22, 242-5 Industrielle(r), der 197 INFINITIVE 186,229,248, 262,283 MODAL INFINITIVE 238 PAST INFINITIVE 248 WITH AM 19 see also infinitive clause INFINITIVE CLAUSE 21, 219,263,273,275, 285,286,298 INFLECTION see adjective, noun,verb infolge 294

INFORMAL SPEECH see spoken German informieren 217 infrage / in Frage stellen 295 ING-FORM 282-8; see also participle inhabitant(s) 69 Inhalt, der 60,179 INITIAL ELEMENT/INITIAL POSITION see word order inmitten 294 inne sein 294 Innere(s), das 197 innerhalb 140,148 INSEPARABLE VERB see prefix, verb Inserat, das 54 inside 148 instead of 149 intelligent 57, 59 (sich) interessieren 214, 216 INTERJECTION 264, 298 INTERROGATIVE 202-3, 263 into 149 INTRANSITIVE VERB see verb -ion 172 irgend- 295 irgendwelcher 193,195 irre- 293 irren 233 Irrtum, der 74 -isch 109 -ismus 172 -ist 172 ja 158,162,164,281 ja wohl 159 Jäckchen, das 70 Jacke, die 70 jacket 70 Jackett, das 70 jeder 193,194,196, 205 jedoch 156 jemand 21,204 jener 193,199 jenseits 140,144 jetzt 280 job 70 Job, der 70

Joghurt/Jogurt, der/das 181,297 JOURNALISM 45-51,231, 243 Jugendliche(r), der 197 Junge, der 103 Junge, das 103 Kabarett, das 177 Kaffee, der 95 Kaktus, der 178 Kamerad, der 183 Kammer, die 80 kämpfen 65,217 Kapelle, die 90 kaputt sein 57 kaputtgehen 57 kaputtmachen 57 Karre, die 105 Karren, der 105 Karte, die 90 Kartoffel, die 177,181 Karton, der 56,177 Karussell, das 177 Käse, der 175 Kaserne, die 179 kassieren 60 Kästchen, das 56 Kasten, der 57 Kathedrale, die 58 kaum 270 keep 70,208, 287 keep on 280 Kegel, der 98 Kehle, die 74 kehren 86 Kehrricht, der 179 kein 193,194 keiner 204 -keit 107,172 Keks, der/das 181 kennen 71, 190,242 kennen lernen 73, 293 Kenntnis, die 71,180 (in) Kenntnis setzen 53 Kenntnisse, die 71,180 Kiefer, der 103 Kiefer, die 103 Kissen, das 90 Kiste, die 57 klagen 60,219 Klang, der 82 klar werden 79 im Klaren 290 klein 82 klettern 59

klingen 187 klopfen 225 Kloster, das 174 klug 59 Knäuel, der/das 181 kneifen 186 know 11, 279 knowledge 71 komisch 75 Komma, das 178 kommen 189,222,230, 241 KONJUNKTIV i/nsee subjunctive können 7 1 , 2 3 8 , 2 3 9 , 247-50,257 Konto, das 178 kontrollieren 63 sich konzentrieren 215 Kopie, die 61 Kork, der 105 Korken, der 105 korrigieren 69 Kost, die 6 6 , 9 8 kostbar 98 kosten 90,211 Kosten, die 9 8 , 1 7 9 köstlich 98 Kotelett, das 177 Krach, der 82 kraft 292 Kraft, die 78 Kragen, der 177 Kran, der 178 -krat 172 krepieren 62 Kreuz, das 90 Kreuzotter, die 103 sich kreuzen 61 kriechen 187 kriegen 237 Kugel, die 98 Kuh, die 61 sich kümmern 217 Kunde, der 103 Kunde, die 103 kündigen 98 Kundschaft, die 179 künstlerisch 98 künstlich 98 küssen 225 Labor, das 177 lächeln 67 lachen 217 laden 188,189

Laden, der 178 Lager, das 178 Land, das 90,104 Landschaft, die 91 lang 84,146 langen 67 langsam 279 Lärche, die 99 Lärm, der 82 (sich) lassen 71, 188,238, 241 Laster, der 103 Laster, das 103 laufen 189,233,242 laut (preposition) 131,141 Laut, der 82

Letzte, der/die/das 91, 290 letzten Endes 65 letztendlich 65 leuchten 81 leuchtend 57 leugnen 62 Leute, die 77 Lexikon, das 178 -lieh 110,239 lieb haben 72 lieben 72 lieber 281 liegen 19,98, 187,222, 232,242 liegen bleiben 293 liegen lassen 71

learn 71

lift 11

leave 71,72,208,287

like 72,280 -ling 108,172 Linke, die 197 Liter, der/das 181

laugh 2 0 8

LEAVE-TAKING 165

leben 72 ums Leben kommen 62 lebendig 98 Lebensmittel, die 66, 179 lebhaft 98 lediglich 76 -leer 110 legen 79,98 lehren 211 leicht 81 leicht fallen 210 leicht machen 293 leichtsinnig 58 Leid, das 98 leid sein 291 Leid tun 64,210,293 leiden 186,214 nicht leiden können 72 Leiden, das 98 Leidenschaft, die 98 leider 280 leihen 186-90,211 -lein 107,172 leise 79 Leistung, die 53 Leiter, der 103 Leiter, die 103 -ler 108,172 Lerche, die 99 lernen 71 lesen 188 LETTERS OF ALPHABET

176 LETTER-WRITING

168-70

LITERARY REGISTER 7,

mancher 193-5,205 Mangel, der 103 Mangel, die 103 mangeln 210 Mann, der 73 Mantel, der 70 Mark, die 103 Mark, das 103 marry 73

Marsch, der 103 Marsch, die 103 MASCULINE see gender

Maß, die 103 Maß, das 103 Maß halten 293 -mäßig 110 Match, der/das 181 Material, das 178 Mauer, die 87 may 250 mean 7 3 MEANING 5 2 - 1 7 0 MEASUREMENT

9,41-3

PHRASES 1 8 0 , 2 2 8

little 12

meckern 60

live 12

MEDIUM (effect o n

loben 235

register) 4

lock 12

meet 7 3

-löge 172 Lohn, der 179 löhnen 77 -los 110 los- 115 los sein 294 löschen 191 losfahren 71 losgehen 71

mehrere 193,195 meiden 55,186 meinen 64,73,85,91 Meinung, die 69,87 meiner Meinung nach 280 melken 191

love 7 3

lügen 98,189 Lunge, die 179

memory

-ment

Macht, die 78 Mädel, das 178 Magnet, der 178 Mahl, das 99 mahlen 190 Mahlzeit, die 99 Majonäse/Mayonnaise, die 297 mal (particle) 162 -mal 291 Mal, das 85 malen 76 Malheur, das 53 man 77,203,237 man 73

74

Menge, die 228 Mensch, der 73, 103,183 Mensch, das 103 Menschen, die 77 172

merken 75,79 merkwürdig 75 messen 188 Messer, der 103 Messer, das 103 Meteor, der/das 181 Meter, der/das 181 mieten 80,99 might 196

Mikrofon/Mikrophon, das 297 milde 18 mind (verb) 281 Mineral, das 178 Miss- (noun prefix) 109

mit 128-9, 144, 155, 164, 216,272 mithilfe / mit Hilfe 295 mitteilen 211 -mittel 108 Mittel, das 179 Mittelalter, das 179 mittels 292 Möbel, die 179

nachdenken 85,217 nachfolgen 66 nachfragen 55 nachlässig 58 nachmachen 211 Nachricht, die 180 Nächste, der/die/das 91, 290 Nacken, der 74 nahe legen 293 sich nähern 212 Nahrung, die 66 Nahrungsmittel, die 66 Name, der 183 namendich 99

MODAL AUXILIARY

NAMES 185

miss- (verb prefix) 116 miss 7 4

Missgeschick, das 53 misstrauisch 84 missverstehen 116 mistake 7 4

VERB 230, 241,

248-61 ENGLISH MODAL AUXILIARIES 2 5 3 - 6 1 MODAL INFINITIVE See

infinitive MODAL PARTICLES 155,

GEOGRAPHICAL 185,

226 OF ARTISTIC STYLES

185 OF CITIES 195 OF COLOURS 198 OF GERMAN REGIONS

197

272 IN COMMANDS 1 6 1 - 3 IN EXCLAMATIONS

163^4 IN QUESTIONS 1 6 0 - 1 IN STATEMENTS 1 5 6 - 9

mögen 72,250-1 möglich 196 möglicherweise 280 Moment, der 103 Moment, das 103

OF LANGUAGES 198,

292 PERSONAL AND PROPER NAMES 20,

185,226-8,264,292 namhaft 99 nämlich 99 narrow 7 4

neben 136 necessary 281

MONTHS 185

neck 7 4

MOOD see imperative,

needn't

subjunctive morgen 291

NEGATIVE 21 \ see also

mountain

74

Mühe, die 179 Münster, das 58 Muschel, die 99 Museum, das 178 Muskel, der 99 müssen 238,248,251,258, 281 must 2 5 8

Mut, der 181 Mutter, die 104,174 Mythos, der 178 nach 19,129,141,142, 152, 153,216 nach- 65,210 Nachbar, der 183 nachdem 19,277

196

nicht nehmen 53,84, 188,211, 242 neigen 218 nennen 58,190 -ner 172 Nerv, der 183

noch einmal 54 nochmals 54 noise 75

-nom 172 NOMINATIVE CASE 2 6 5 ,

271 NON-LITERARY REGISTER 7, 9,

43-51 nörgeln 60 NORTH GERMAN 13, 15,

16,19,23-* Not tun 293 notice 75 NOUN COLLECTIVE 108, 179 DATIVE SINGULAR IN -E

184

DECLENSION 1 7 1 - 8 5 FROM OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH 177, 185,

290 GENITIVE SINGULAR

IN -(E)S 182,184-5 MIXED 1 7 5 , 1 8 3 USE OF SINGULAR

179,180,224 VERBAL NOUN 128,

274,275,285,286 WEAK MASCULINE 21,

172, 175, 176, 182-3, 196 see also adjective, capital letter, doublet, gender, measurement phrases, plural, umlaut, word formation NOUN CLAUSE see dass-chwst NOUN PHRASE 192 NUMBER 192; see also

plural number 75

NEUTER see gender

NUMERALS 1 8 , 1 8 0

NEUTRAL REGISTER 7 - 8 ,

Nummer, die 75 nummerieren 297 nun 163 nur 76, 160, 162,281 Nutz, der 105 nutzen/nützen 87, 105, 210 Nutzen, der 105

29 NEWSPAPER REPORT

45-51 nicht 16,270-1,281 Nicht- 109 nicht mehr 280 nichts 198,201 nie 270 niemand 204-5 -nis 173

oberhalb 140,141 Oberst, der 183

Obhut, die 58

Papagei, der 183

OBJECT see accusative

PAPIERDEUTSCH

object, dative object, genitive object, prepositional object Obst, das 66,180 obwohl 22, 111 occur 68,75

Parfüm, das 177 Park, der 177

occurrence 15 odd IS

oder 263,298 of 149-50 off 150

9

PARTICIPLE 2 2 , 2 9 8 PAST PARTICIPLE 186,

229,262 PRESENT PARTICIPLE

282-4 see also extended epithet, have + participle, ing-form PARTITIVE

Pfad, der 83 Pfau, der 183 pfeifen 186 Pfeil, das 99 Pfeiler, der 99 Pferd, das 23 Pflege, die 58 Pfosten, der 99 PHONETIC ALPHABET

13-14 PHRASAL VERBS see verbs

Physik, die 179 Pinsel, der 57

offer IS

CONSTRUCTIONS

place 11

officer IS

226

Plakat, das 54 Planet, der 183 Plaste, die 11 Platz, der 77

offiziell 99 Offizier, der 75 offiziös 99 (sich) öffnen 76 oft 280 des Öfteren 290 ohne 126,272 o h n e . . . zu 263,277 ohne dass 247,277 ohne weiteres 291 on 150-1,286 -on 172 only 76

open 76,208 opposite 151

PARTS OF THE BODY

180,224 passen 210,218,223 passieren 61,68,210,223 PASSIVE 2 3 3 - 9 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 2 ALTERNATIVE

PLUPERFECT TENSE see

tense PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE see

PASSIVE

subjunctive

CONSTRUCTIONS

237-9

PLURAL, OF NOUNS 19,

IMPERSONAL PASSIVE

235-6

20,171-80 ALTERNATIVE

SE/N-PASSIVE 2 3 4 - 5 ,

248

PLURAL 177 DATIVE PLURAL 19,

SUBJECTLESS PASSIVE

235-6

-or 172

TENSE USE 230

order 76

VORGANGSPASSIV

ordnen 76 Organ, das 76

WERDEN-PASSWE

organ 7 6

WITH DATIVE

182 DIFFERENT USAGE IN ENGLISH AND

234

GERMAN 1 7 8 - 8 0 DOUBLE PLURAL 104

outside 151

Pastor, der 178

IN —5 176-7 see also noun, umlaut Pocken, die 179 Politik, die 91,179 Polizei, die 179 Polster, das/der 181 Pony, der 103 Pony, das 103 Portmonee/Portemonnaie, die 297 Porträt, das 177

over 152

path 76

POSSESSIVE (DETER-

Orgel, die 76 sich orientieren 214 Ort, der 77 Ortschaft, die 77 Otter, der 103 Otter, die 103 ought to 196 out of 151

Paar, das 99 Pack, der 103,106 Pack, das 103 Päckchen, das 76 packen 67,91 Packen, der 106 packet 7 6

Packung, die 76 paint 7 6

Paket, das 76

234-5 OBJECTS 236 ZUSTANDSPASSIV

234

past 152 PAST PARTICIPLE see

participle PAST SUBJUNCTIVE see

subjunctive PAST TENSE see tense

Patzer, der 74

MINER/PRONOUN)

pay 11

193, 194, 196, 199, 202,224

Pension, die 179 people 11

possible 2 8 0

per 126

Post, die 99 postcode 168 Posten, der 70,99 potenziell/potentiell 297

PERFECT TENSE see tense PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE

see subjunctive PERSONAL PRONOUN see

pronouns persuade

11

pour 78 power 78 prefer 281

PREFIX

PERSONAL PRONOUN

21,199,226,267

INSEPARABLE VERB PREFIX 1 1 1 - 1 4 ,

PRONOUNS OF

115-18

ADDRESS 1 6 6 - 8

N O U N , SHOWING

REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

212 see also demonstrative, indefinite, possessive, relative pronoun

GENDER 171, 173 SEPARABLE VERB PREFIX 1 1 4 - 1 8 , 2 6 2 ,

293 see also word formation preis- 293 Preis, der 91 preisen 186 PREPOSITION 18,

PRONUNCIATION 1 3 - 1 8

Protokoll, das 179 prüfen 63 sich prügeln 65 PUNCTUATION 289,

123-55,214 COMBINED WITH A NOUN 2 9 4 ENGLISH 1 4 0 - 5 5 PREPOSITIONAL

297-9 PURPOSE CLAUSE 247 pushlü

79 Pyjama, der/das 179,181

put

PHRASES 273 USED WITHOUT ARTICLE 185 WITH ACCUSATIVE CASE 1 2 4 - 6 WITH ACCUSATIVE OR DATIVE CASE 1 3 1 - 9

WITH GENITIVE CASE

139-40 see also prepositional object, relative pronoun PREPOSITIONAL ADVERB 19, 22, 201,

203,219,286,298 PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT 1 1 1 , 2 0 7 ,

214-19,236,271 present 7 8 PRESENT PARTICIPLE see

participle PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

see subjunctive

QUESTIONS see

interrogatives, jpA-questions, yes/«ö-questions

REGISTER 3 - 1 0 , 1 6 - 1 8 ,

20-2,29-51 regret 2 7 9

reiben 186 -reich 110 reichen 91,210,223 Reichtum, der 179 reisen 100 Reisende(r), der 197 reißen 57, 100, 186,233 reiten 186,233 reizend 283 Reklame, die 54 reklamieren 60 RELATIVE CLAUSE 22,

200,273,274,284 200-2 AFTER PREPOSITION

201 rennen 190

quiet 7 9

rent 80

QUOTATION MARKS 2 9 9

REPORTED SPEECH see

Rad fahren 293 Radio der/das 181 Rahm, der 99 Rahmen, der 99 raise 80

Ränke, die 179 rascheln 99 rasen 99 Rasen, der 180 rasseln 99 Rat, der 91,104 raten 53,68,91,188,189, 210,218,219 rau 99 'rauf 155 Raum, der 80 rauschen 99

PRESENT TENSE see tense

ready 79

presume 2 8 0

reagieren 215

prevent

realize

78

13,15-16,19-20, 23-9

RELATIVE PRONOUN 19,

WITH DATIVE CASE

127-32

REGIONAL VARIATION 7,

79

indirect speech Reptil, das 178 retten 81,218 Rhythmus, der 178 riechen 187,214,217 Riesen- 108 Rind, das 61 Rindvieh, das 61 ringen 187 rinnen 187 rise 80

Risiko, das 178 Ritz, der 106 Ritze, die 106 road 8 0

Rock, der 70 roh 99 Rohheit, die 297 Rohr, das 106 Röhre, die 106 romanisch 100 römisch 100

PRINCIPAL PARTS see

really 7 9

verb Prinz, der 183 Prinzip, das 178 Privileg, das 178 pro 126

rechnen 215,216,218,223 Recht, das 99 Rechte, die 197 Rechtfertigung, die 99

room 80

REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

rudern 233 rufen 58,61,189,216 ruhig 79, 158,163,281 sich rühmen 213

PROGRESSIVE TENSE see

tense PRONOUN 1 7 , 2 2

see pronoun REFLEXIVE VERB see verb refuse 80

rope 80

Ross, das 178 round 152

rühren 86 rührend 283 Ruin, der 106 Ruine, die 106 'runter 145 Saal, der 80 Sache, die 85 Saite, die 84,100 Sakko, der/das 70 -sal 173 salzen 190 Same(n), der 183 same 80

(sich) sammeln 60 Sammlung, die 100 sämtliche(r) 193,195,196 Sandbank, die 56 satisfy 80

satt 80 saufen 189 saugen 191 save 81 say 281

Schachtel, die 57 SCHACHTELSATZ

273

schade sein 291 schaden 61,210 Schaden, der 180 Schadenersatz, der 179 schadhaft 100 schädigen 61 schädlich 100 schaffen 188, 189,191 -schaft 108,172 Schal, der 100,177 Schale, die 81,100 Schall, der 82 sich schämen 213,218, 219,223 schätzen 68 schaudern 211 Scheck, der 177 Schein, der 55,91 scheinen 81,91,242, 271 scheißen 186 Schema, das 178 Schere, die 179 scheren 188,191 scheu 81 sich scheuen 218,219 schieben 78,187 schießen 187,225,233 Schild, der 103 Schild, das 103 Schilf, das 179

schlafen 188,242 (sich) schlagen 65,225, 242 Schlager, der 100 Schläger, der 100 schlau 59 schlecht 56,100 schleichen 186 schleifen 186,191 schlicht 81,100 schließen 59, 187,215,223 schließlich 65 schlimm 56 Schloss, das 58,91 schluchzen 61 Schlüpfer, der 179 zum Schluss 65 schmal 74 schmecken 72,210, 217 schmeicheln 210,235 schmeißen 186 schmelzen 188,191 schmieren 83 schmunzeln 67 schnappen 67 Schnapsidee, der 69 sich schnäuzen 297 schneiden 186,225 Schnitzer, der 74 Schnur, die 84 schon 158-9,161,163 schonen 81 schottische Hochland, das 179 Schreck, der 106 Schrecken, der 106 schreiben 186,242 schreien 61,186, 216 schreiten 186 SCHRIFTDEUTSCH

11

Schritt, der 83 schubsen 78 schüchtern 81 schuld sein 291 die Schuld geben 56 schulden 235 schütten 78 Schutzbrille, die 179 schwarz auf weiß 291 schwarzarbeiten 294 schwatzen 106 schwätzen 106 schweigen 186 schwellen 188 schwimmen 187, 233 schwindeln 211

schwören 189 secret 81

see 279,287 See, der 103 See, die 103,180 seem 279

segeln 233 sehen 73,188,242 sich sehnen 216,219 Seil, das 80 sein (possessive) see possessive sein (verb) 19,230-4,238, 239,241,271,283, 291,294 5£/N-PASSIVE see passive

seit (preposition) 129,146 seit(dem) (conjunction)

111 seit langem 291 Seite, die 100 seize 81

-sei 172 seil 209

seltsam 75 senden 190,191 SEPARABLE VERB SEE

prefix, verb setzen 79 shall 229 shine 81 should 246 shut 81 shy 81

sicher 91 -sicher 110 Sicht, die 87 Sie 166-8,292 simpel 81 simple 81

Sims, der/das 181 singen 187 Single, der 103 Single, die 103 Single, das 103 sink 209

sinken 187 sinnen 187 SITUATION (effect on

register) 5 sitzen 19,187, 232 Ski laufen 293 skin 81 small 82 smell 82

so-295

so dass / sodass 278,296 so (ein) 206 sobald 295 SOCIAL STATUS 6

Socke, die 106 Socken, der 106 solange 295 solch/solche(r) 21,193-6, 206 Soldat, der 183 sollen 238,246,247,248, 252-3,281 sonderbar 75,100 sonderlich 100 sondern 263,271 sooft 295 Sorge, die 58 (sich) sorgen 217, 219 Sorgfalt, die 58 sorgfältig 58 sorglos 58 Soße/Sauce, die 297 sound 82 SOUTH GERMAN 13, 15,

16, 19-20,24-5 soviel 296 sozusagen 265 space 8 2

Spagat, der 84 Spaghetti/Spagetti, die 297 Spalt, der 106 Spalte, die 106 spalten 190 spannend 283 sparen 81 Spatz, der 183 spazieren gehen 293 Speicher, der 74 Speise, die 66 SPELLING 2 8 9 - 9 7 spend 8 2

sperren 59 sich spezialisieren 215 Spielzeug, das 180 spinnen 187 SPOKEN GERMAN 4, 29,

35-40 Sport, der 180 spotten 213, 217 spread 8 2

sprechen 187,217 sprengen 100 springen 100,187 spülen 88 spüren 64,75

ß (letter) 28,296 Stadion, das 100 Stadium, das 100 Stadtrand, der 179

Streik, der 177 (sich) streiten 65,186,217, 219 strength 8 4

stand- 293

streuen 78 Strick, der 80

STANDARD GERMAN 9,

string 8 4

11-12,23 Stängel, der 297 -stark 110 Stärke, die 78

strömen 65, 78

STATEMENTS 2 6 3

STRONG VERB see verb

Statistik, die 179 statt see anstatt statt- 293 stattfinden 68 stechen 187, 225 stecken 79,191 stehen 19, 189,230,232, 240,241 stehen bleiben 83, 293 stehen lassen 72 Stehleiter, der 179 stehlen 187 steigen 59, 80,186 Stelle, die 70,77 stellen 79 Stellung, die 70

Stube, die 80 Stück, das 178 Stufe, die 83 stürzen 63,100 stutzen 100 (sich) stützen 100, 215 stutzig 84

stand 2 0 9

step 83

sterben 62, 187, 214 Steuer, die 103 Steuer, das 103 Stiefel, der 178 Stiege, die 83 Stift, der 103 Stift, das 103 still 79 stillstehen 83 Stimme, die 92 stimmen 223 stinken 187 Stock, der 92,104 -stoff 108 Stoff, der 92 stop 83,280 stoppen 83 stoßen 78, 189,225, 233 strahlend 57 strange 83

Straße, die 83 Strauß, der 104 streben 216

STRONG ADJECTIVE DECLENSION see

adjective

SUBJECT 2 6 5 , 2 6 8 ; see also

agent, nominative case, word order SUBJECT MATTER (effect

on register) 5 SUBJECTLESS PASSIVE

see passive SUBJUNCTIVE 22,

239-48 CONDITIONAL 2 3 9 - 4 2 ,

245-6 FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE 239,

240 KONJUNKTIV

I

239-40,242-8 KONJUNKTIV

II

239-47,249 PAST SUBJUNCTIVE

239-42,245 PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE 2 3 9 ,

240 PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE 239,

240 PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE 2 3 9

WÜRDE-FORM 240-2 SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

263,273-82 such (a) 2 0 6

suchen 216 SUFFIX

street 83

OF NOUN, SHOWING

streichen 76, 83, 186

see also word formation

GENDER 1 7 1 - 5

SUPERLATIVE WITH AM 2 9 0 WITH AUFS 2 9 0

PROGRESSIVE TENSE

283 then 8 4

suppose 2 8 0

there 2 6 6

sure 279, 2 8 0

thick 8 4

suspekt 84

thing 8 4

suspicious 8 4

think 85,280

SWITZERLAND 12, 1 3 , 2 3 ,

threaten

26,28-9

85

through 152

till see until Tablett, das 100 Tablette, die 100 tadeln 56 TAG QUESTIONS 156 take 8 4 tall 8 4

Tankstelle, die 67 tanzen 233 tasten 64 in der Tat 79 -tat 172 tatsächlich 79 Tau, der 103 Tau, das 80,103 tauschen 59,100 (sich) täuschen 100, 216 Taxe, die 106 Taxi, der/das 106,181 Teil, der/das 181 teil-293 teilnehmen 214 -tel 172 Telefon/Telephon, das 297 telefonieren 216 tend to 2 8 0 TENSE 2 2 9 - 3 3 COMPOUND TENSE

229 FUTURE-INTHE-PAST 2 4 2 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 2 2 9 - 3 1 FUTURE TENSE 158,

159,229-30,246 IMPERFECT TENSE

230 PAST TENSE 22, 186,

time 85

tippen 68 TITLES 292

to 153-4,211 Tochter, die 174 Tod, der 180 Ton, der 82 TOPIC 265

Tor, der 104 Tor, das 104 totschlagen 294 touch 85 towards

154

tragen 92, 188,242 TRANSITIVE VERB see

verb trauen 73,101,210 träumen 217,219 (sich) trefTen 73,92, 187, 242 treiben 186,218 Treppe, die 83,179 treten 188,225,233 trinken 187 Tritt, der 83 Tropf, der 101 Tropfen, der 101 trotz 139,272,292 trübe 18,61 Trümmer, die 179 Trupp, der 106 Truppe, die 106 tschüs(s) 165 -tum 108,172 tun 21,79, 189,241,282 Tür(e), die 106 turn 86

Typ, der 106,183 Type, die 106

229-31,248 PERFECT TENSE 19,

229-33,248 PLUPERFECT TENSE

20,229,231 PRESENT TENSE 20,

229,246

übel 56 über 61,136-7,141,144, 151,152,217 über- 116-17 über... hinaus 144 über kurz oder lang 291

übereinkommen 54 übereinstimmen 54,216 überhaupt 159,161 überhören 74 überlassen 72 sich überlegen 85 übernehmen 53 überqueren 61 überreden 77,218 überschreiten 61 überschwänglich 297 übersehen 74 überzeugen 77,80,217, 219 überzeugend 283 übrig bleiben 293 im Übrigen 101 übrigens 101,265 Ufer, das 56 um 126, 143,144,152,217 um-117 -um 172 um . . . zu 263,276,286 umbinden 211 (sich) umdrehen 86 umfassend 283 UMGANGSSPRACHE

1 see

also spoken German Umgebung, die 179 umgehen 55 umkehren 86 umkippen 86 umkommen 62 UMLAUT IN NOUN PLURAL

174-6,177-8 IN PAST SUBJUNCTIVE 2 4 0 IN PRESENT TENSE OF VERBS 20, 189 IN WORD FORMATION

107-10,112,113 umsichtig 58 umsteigen 59 umtauschen 59 (sich) umziehen 59,92 un- (adjective prefix) 110 Un- (noun prefix) 109 unbedingt 94 und 263,284,298 under 154 understanding

86

unendlich 96 Unfall, der 53 -ung 15,108,172 ungefähr 141

ungerade 75 ungewöhnlich 101 unglaublich 101 unglaubwürdig 101 Unglück, das 53 unheimlich 75 Unkraut, das 179 unter 137-8,142,154 unter- 117-18 unterbrechen 57 unterhalb 140 (sich) unterhalten 71,92, 216 Unterhose, die 179 unterschiedlich 62 untersuchen 63

PHRASAL VERB 2 3 8

until 154

VERBS OF SENDING

unvorsichtig 58 unweit 140 up 155 ur- (adjective prefix) 110 Ur- (noun prefix) 109 -ur (noun sufüx) 172 Urlaub, der 68 Ursache, die 58 urteilen 217,219 use 81 used to 2 8 0 VALENCY (verb) 20,

207-23 VARIANT 1 VARIATION 1 - 5 1 VARIETY 1

ver-113 verabreden 54 (sich) verändern 59 veranlassen 62,190,218 Veranstaltung, die 63 VERB AGREEMENT IN SINGULAR 179 CONJUGATION 18,

186-91 EINEM ETWAS VERB

211-12 FINITE VERB 2 6 2 - 5

GOVERNMENT 207-19 IMPERSONAL VERB

232 INSEPARABLE VERB

111-14,115-18 INTRANSITIVE VERB

111,208,232 IRREGULAR VERB

186-91,240-2

PRINCIPAL PARTS 186 REFLEXIVE VERB 211,

213,232,238 SEPARABLE VERB

114-18,293-4 STRONG VERB 21,

186-91,240-2 TRANSITIVE VERB

111,208,232,236 VERBS OF GIVING AND TAKING 211 VERBS OF MOTION

112,232,233 VERBS OF SAYING, HEARING 2 3 0

212 VOWEL CHANGE IN PAST TENSE 1 8 6 - 9 VOWEL CHANGE IN PRESENT TENSE

188, 189 WEAK VERB 186,

189-91,240,241 see also auxiliary verb, imperative, modal auxiliary verb, subjunctive, tense, valency, word formation, word order VERBAL BRACKET see

word order VERBAL NOUN see n o u n

Verband, der 94 (sich) verbessern 69 Verbindlichkeit, die 94 Verbindung, die 94 sich verbitten 212 verblüffend 283 verbrauchen 82,87,95 Verbraucher, der 95 (sich) verbreiten 83 verbringen 82 Verbundenheit, die 94 verdächtig 84 verderben 187 Verdienst, der 104 Verdienst, das 104 vereinbaren 54 vereinzelt 96 verfehlen 74 verfolgen 66 verfugen 217 verführen 218

vergessen 188 vergleichen 186,216 sich verhalten 56,218 Verhalten, das 101 Verhältnis, das 101 sich verheiraten 73,216 verheiratet 73 verhindern 78 verhüten 78 verkünden 98 verlangen 55, 216 (sich) verlassen 72, 215 verleiden 190 verleugnen 62 sich verlieben 216 verlieren 187 Verlobte(r), der 197 verlockend 283 verloren gehen 293 sich vermählen 73 vermeiden 55 vermieten 80,99 vermissen 74 vermuten 68 vermutlich 280 verneinen 62 Vernunft, die 86 verpassen 74 verrichten 93 versagen 80 sich versammeln 60 Versammlung, die 100 versäumen 74 verscheiden 62 verschieden 62 verschließen 72 verschonen 101 verschönen 101 verschweigen 211 verschwinden 187,242 versehen 216 aus Versehen 53 versehentlich 53 versichern 213 versorgen 71 Versprechen, das 180 Verstand, der 86 verständigen 54, 217 Verständigung, die 86 Verständnis, das 86 verstehen 66 Versuch, der 92,101 Versuchung, die 101 (sich) verteilen 83 sich vertiefen 216 vertrauen 101

verurteilen 94 verwandeln 59 Verwandte(r), der 197 verweigern 62, 80,211 verweisen 213 verwenden 87 verwerten 87 verwirklichen 79 verwunden 102 verwunderlich 101 verwundern 102 verzeichnen 94 verzeihen 186 verzichten 215 Vetter, der 183 Vieh, das 61 viel 198,201,206,226,296 viele 193, 195,196,206 vielleicht 161,164 view 87

Villa, die 178 Virus, der/das 178,181 Visum, das 178 VOCABULARY 2 3 - 3 5 ,

52-170 VOICE see passive

Volk, das 77 voll- 118 -voll 110 Vollendung, die 53 von 130, 147, 149,217, 225-8,236,272 v o n . . . an 131,139,147 von . . . her-/hinunter 150 von klein auf 291 von nah und fern 291 von weitem 291 vonnöten 294 vor 138,154,214,218 vor- 115 im Voraus 290 vorbei sein 294 Vorbeigehende(r), der 197 vorbeikommen 58 vorderhand 294 Vorfall, der 63 vorfallen 68 Vorgang, der 63 VORGANGSPASSIV

See

passive vorgehen 68 Vörgesetzte(r), der 197 vorhaben 73 vorhanden 78 vorher 101 vorhin 101

vorkommen 68 Vorkommen, das 63 Vorkommnis, das 63 sich vornehmen 212 Vorsicht, die 58 vorsichtig 58 Vorsitzende(r), der 197 (sich) vorstellen 69,92, 212 Vorstellung, die 69 vorwerfen 56 VULGARISM 8

Waage, die 179 wach werden 87 wachen 87 wachsen 67,188 Wagen, der 101,178 Waggon, der 101 Wahl, die 179 wählen 92 wahren 101 währen 101 während (conjunction) 278 während (preposition) 139,145 wahrhaftig 79 wake (up) 87,209 Wald, der 179 walk

im

Wall, der 87 wall 87

walten 213 Wand, die 87 want 281

weglassen 72 wegschließen 72 Weh tun 293 Wehr, die 104 Wehr, das 104 sich wehren 101 weichen 186,191 sich weigern 80 weil 22,278 weinen 61 weisen 186 weit 74,92 weiter 60,281 weiterfuhren 60 weitermachen 60 welcher (interrogative) 193,194,203, 205-206 welcher (relative pronoun) 200,201 welcome 88

wenden 86,190, 191 wenig 206,226,296 wenige 193,195,196,206 wenigstens 265 wenn 245,263,278,285, 286 wer 21,202,206 werben 187 Werbespot, der 54 Werbung, die 54 werden 67,188,234,241, 271 WERDEN-PASSIVE

See

passive

warnen 218 warten 215 was (interrogative) 21, 203-206 was (relative pronoun) 201 was für ein 203,205-206 waschen 88,188 wash (up) 88,209

werfen 187 Werkstatt, die 67 -wert 110 -wesen 108 wessen 202 wett- 293

WEAK ADJECTIVE

WH-Q UESTIONS 1 6 0 - 1 ,

DECLENSION see

adjective WEAK MASCULINE NOUN see n o u n WEAK VERB see verb

weben 188,191 wechseln 59 wecken 87 Weg, der 83 aus dem Weg gehen 55 wegen 139,272 weggehen 71

were to 2 4 6

what 2 0 2

202-3,263 wider 101,126,142 wider-118,210 widerfahren 68 widerhallen 118 sich widersetzen 212 widerspiegeln 118 wie 21,230,273,275 wie- 295 wie wenn 247 wieder 54,101 wieder- 118

wiederholen 118 wiederum 54 wiegen 187 wieweit 296 will 229

Wille, der 183 willkommen heißen 67 wirklich 79 Wirren, die 179 Wirtschaft, die 92 wissen 71, 190,241 Wissen, das 71 with 155,286 wo 19,201,203

Wort, das 104 would 245

wozu 203 WRITTEN GERMAN 4,

7-9,29,41-51 wunder- 293 wunderbar 101 wunderlich 75,101 sich wundern 102,217, 219 WÜRDE-FORM

see

subjunctive -würdig 110 würdigen 213

WO + PREPOSITION see

prepositional adverb woanders 296 woher 203 wohin 203 wohl 158,159,161, 163, 230,280 wohnen 72 Wolkenbank, die 56 wollen 80,246,253,281 womöglich 296 WORD FORMATION

107-18 ADJECTIVES 1 0 9 - 1 1 BY PREFIXES 1 0 8 - 1 8 BY SUFFIXES 1 0 7 - 1 0 COMPOUND WORD 17,

274,283,292,294 DIMINUTIVES 107 NOUNS 1 0 7 - 9 VERBS 1 1 1 - 1 8 VOWEL CHANGES 107

see also umlaut WORD ORDER 2 6 2 - 7 3 ADVERBIALS 2 6 8 - 7 0 ,

272 AFTER THE CLOSING BRACKET 2 7 1 - 3 CENTRAL SECTION

267-71 COMPLEMENTS 271 INITIAL POSITION

262,264,282 OBJECTS 268 PRONOUNS 267 SUBJECT 268 VERBAL BRACKET

262-4

YES/NO

QUESTIONS

160-1,263 zähe 18 Zahl, die 75 zahlen 77 zählen 215,218 Zange, die 179 Zeh, der 106 Zehe, die 106 zeigen 92,235 Zeit, die 85 Zeitalter, das 54 Zentrum, das 178 zer- 113 zerbrechen 57 zerreißen 57 zerschlagen 57 zerschmettern 57 -zeug 108 Zeug, das 85 Zeugs, das 85 Ziegenpeter, der 179 ziehen 68,187,233, 242 Zierrat, der 297 Ziffer, die 75 Zimmer, das 80 Zinsen, die 179 Zirkel, der 179 Zoll, der 179 zu 19, 130-1, 146, 153-4, 218,286 zu-210 zubringen 82 züchten 68 zuerst 65,96

zufällig 53,281 zufolge 132,141 sich zufrieden geben 80 zufrieden sein 80,294 zufrieden stellen 80 zufrieren 66 Zug, der 92 Zugang, der 63 zugeben 53, 54 zugehen 59 zugleich 97 zugrunde / zu Grunde gehen 295 zugunsten / zu Gunsten 295 zulassen 53 zuletzt 65 zumachen 59 zumute / zu Mute sein 295 zunächst 65 zunehmen 68 zuraten 54 zurück sein 294 zurückfuhren 215 zurückhalten 71 zurücklassen 72 zurufen 58 zurzeit 294 zusammen- 115 zusammenkommen 60, 73 zusammenstoßen 216 zusammentreffen 73 zusammentreten 73 zustande / zu Stande bringen 295 ZUSTANDSPASSIV

See

passive zustimmen 54 zustoßen 68 sich zutragen 68 Zutritt, der 62-3 zuwege / zu Wege bringen 295 zwar 158,159 zweifellos 280 zweifeln 62,214,219 zwingen 66,187,218 zwingend 283 zwischen 138,142 Zwischenfall, der 63