Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History

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RICHARD GOMBRICH OSKAR VON HINUBER . RICHARD GOMBRICH • OSKAR VON HINUBER KATSUMI TSUMI MIMAKI MIMAKI • ARVIND SHARMA KA ARVIND SHARMA •

•

VOLUME 16 VOLUME 16

VIOLENCE DENIED DENIED VIOLENCE Violence) Non- Violence and the Rationalization rif qf Violence in South Asian Cultural History EDITED BY BY EDITED

JAN JAN E.M. E.M. HOUBEN HOUBEN

AND AND

KAREL KOOI] KAREL R. VAN KOOIj

7" ,... ""'

..: r" ?o(" . I

68' .

c,Cl.

BRILL LEIDEN .. BOSTON· BOSTON' KOLN KOLN LEIDEN 1999 1999

This book book is is printed printed on on acid-free acid-free paper. paper. This

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Violence Violence denied: denied: violence, violence, non-violence non-violence and and the the rationalization rationalization of of

violence in in South South Asian Asian cultural cultural history history // edited edited by by Jan Jan E.M. E.M. Houben Houben violence

and Karel Karel R. Van Kooij. Kooij. and R. Van p. p.

ill. :: ill.

v. 16) 16) . v.

;; cm. em. - (Brill's (Brill's Indologicailibrary,.ISSN Indologicallibrary,ISSN 0925-2916 0925-2916 ;;

Includes bibliographical bibliographical references references and and index. index. Includes ISBN ISBN 9004113444 9004113444 (cloth) (cloth)

1. Violence-South Asia-History. Asia-History. I. Violence-South

Asia-History. Asia-History.

2. 2. Political Political violence-South violence-South

3. Terrorism-South Terrorism-South Asia-History. Asia-History. 3.

-Religious aspects-South aspects-South Asia-History. Asia-History. -Religious 19601960-.

.

II. Kooij, Kooij, K.R. KR. Van. Van. II.

HN690.Z9V5748 HN690.Z9V5748

1999 1999

4. Violence­ Violence4.

1. Houben, Houben, Jan Jan E.M., E.M., I.

III.. Series. Series. III

99-29169 99-29169

303.6'0954--dc21 303.6'0954-dc21

eIP

elP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnalnne CIP-Einheitsaufnalune

denied:: violence, violence, non non violence violence and and the the rationalization rationalization of of Violence denied

violence in South South Asian Asian cultural cultural history history // ed. ed. by by Jan Jan E.M. E.M. Houben Houben violence in

and and Karel Karel R. R. Van Van Kooij. Kooij. -- Leiden Leiden ;; Boston; Boston; Koln Kaln :: Brill, Brill, 1999 1999 (Brill's indological library;; vol. vol. 16) 16) (Brill's indological library ISBN ISBN 90-04-11344-4 90-04-11344-4

ISSN lSSN

ISBN ISBN

0925-2916 0925-2916

90 04 04 11344 ]]344 44 90

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CONTENTS CONTENTS Preface Preface

vii vii

Introduction: Introduction: violence, violence, non-violence non-violence and and the the rationalization rationalization of violence violence in in South South Asian Asian cultural cultural history history . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. of 11 Hindu ahimsa ahirhsa and and its its roots, roots, 22.. Hindu Henk W. W. Bodewitz Bodewitz . . . . ... . . ... . . . . 17 Henk 17 Aspects of of the the Buddhist Buddhist attitude attitude towards towards war, war, . 33.. Aspects Lambert L. Schmithausen . .. .. . . .. , .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Lambert L. Schmithausen 45 4.. Ral).ayajiia: RanayajfJ.a: the the Mahabharata Mahabharata War War as as.aa Sacrifice, Sacrifice, 4 Danielle Feller latavallabhula Jatavallabhula . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . 69 Danielle Feller (yajiia-pasu)? To kill kill or or not not to to -kill 'kill the the sacrificial sacrificial animal animal (yajfia-pasu)? 55.. To Arguments perspectives in philosophy, Arguments and and perspectives in Brahminical Brahminical ethical ethical philosophy, Jan E.M. E.M. Houben Houben .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ,. .. .. .. . . . 105 1 05 Ian as the the religion religion oinon-violence, ornon-violence, Jainism as 66.. lainism Robert 1. J. Zydenbos Zydenbos . . . .. ... . . . . .. . . . .. .. . ,. . 185 . . . .. . .. .. Robert 185 7. "seen from from the the east," east," 7. Construction Construction sacrifice sacrifice in in India, India, "seen Roy E. Jordaan & RobertI. Robert J. Wessing Wessing . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Roy E. 10rdaan 2211 11 of the the battlefield: battlefield: the the case case of of Chinnamasta, Chinnamasta, Iconography of 88.. Iconography Karel R. R. van van Kooij Kooij .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. , .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. 249 Karel 249 Expressions of of violence violence in in Buddhist Buddhist Tantric Tantric mantras, mantras, 99.. Expressions Pieter C. C. Verhagen Verhagen .. . .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . .... .. . .. . . . 275 275 Pieter 10. The embarrassment embarrassment of of political violence in in Europe Europe and and political violence 1 0 . The South Asia, c. c. 1100-1800, 1 1 00- 1800, South Asia, los Gommans . .. .. .. . Jos Gommans . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . 287 287 11. Nationalism and and violence violence in in colonial colonial India: India: 1880-1910, 1880- 1 9 1 0, 1 1 . Nationalism VictorA.vanBijlert Victor A. van Bijlert .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . . 317 3 17 12 . Violent AjfJ.eya and and violence, violence, 12. Violent heroines: heroines: Ajiieya Theo Damsteegt . . .. .. . . . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . .... .. . . .. 341 . . .. 341 Theo Damsteegt . .. .

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Index Index

373 373

of Contributors· Contributors . List of List

385 385

List List of of Plates Plates and and Acknowledgements Acknowledgements .

Plates Plates

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387 387

389 389

PREFACE

du�ran:z hin:zsayan:z, "evil "evil in the case of violence . " This This brief du~ran:z in the case of violence." brief Brahmin. statement refers to an evil B rahmin. II It is not meritorious to offer such a Brahmin food, the commentary further explains. explains . B rahmins are called c alled wicked? Brahmins Which Brahmins wicked? The answer is that Brahmins are wicked when they use violence (hin:zsa). (hin:zsa) . The text thus denounces Brahmins using violence rather than violence itself. obligatory , for Violence is permitted, indeed, even obligatory, for instance instance in of �atriyas ~atriyas.. the case of The statement quoted above was discussed at a seminar on the ," of "Violence in in South-Asian cultural traditions traditions," the theme theme of Institute , Leiden which was was organized organized by by Indologists of the Kern Institute, University. The discussion was opened by one of the editors of this volume, volum e , Karel R. van Kooij, Kooij , who argued that in the epic tradition-the Bhagavad-GTtii. included-the tradition-the included-the use use of of violence violence is not condemned. On the contrary, it is glorified. glorified . The greatest heroes ppractice ractice the most extreme forms of violence on the battlefield· and and are praised praised nevertheless nevertheless.. Furthermore Furthermore,, Hindu and Buddhist iconography seem to reflect a positive attitude towards violence which at first sight s ight is not expected in a culture which is usually associated with with non-violence non-violence.. These viewpoints viewpoints aroused lively reactions reactions.. time , other views In the course of of time, views were presented presented during seminars , and furthermore at a symposium on similar small-scale seminars, 1 996, jointly "Religions and and War, War,"" which was was held held 12 april 1996, jointly organized NWS and the CNWS the Leiden organized by by the the Research School C Institute for the Study of Religions. Religions . At this symposium Lambert aper which is included included in this this Schmithausen presented presented aa ppaper II Vaise~ika-Siitra Vaise�ika-Siitra 6.1.10. 6 . 1 . 1 0 . Problems in the int~rpretation int�rpretation of this and conj oining siitras (contextually du.rram seems to conjoining to refer to to 'a bad Brahmin' Brahmin' and is explained thus by commentators, commentators , though one would expect du.rraf;. in that case) have been discussed in Harunaga Isaacson's "Materials for the Vaise�ika system," system, " Dissertation 1 995 , p. Dissertation Leiden University 1995, p. 87 study of the Vaise~ika and 31. and note 31.

viii VI11

volume. In In order to to do do justice justice to to the the complexity of this this theme:, themE:, it volume. was decided to bbroaden roaden its sCope scope and to focus on "violence, " violenc e , violence." non-violence and the rationalization ooff violence . " Colleagues took interest in the theme and from outside the Kern Institute took. project. The volume presented here was taking shape. jjoined oined the proj ect . The shap e . This book is not about violence as such. such . It is rather the rrationalization ationalization of violence and the sometimes straightforward denial of of it it which which is is the the basic basic thread thread running running through through the the papers papers denial included.. Mechanisms which could expose the intricate ways included violence is transformed into seemingly positive categories are investigated. South-Asian cultural history is a particularly fasciinvestigated: fasci­ nating field field of of research research with with regard regard to to this this subject as it it includes includes nating subj ect as important religious religious streams like Hinduism, Hinduism, Buddhism Buddhism and and important streams like Iainism J ainism in in which which strong strong traditions traditions of of non-violence non-violence existed existed side side by side side with with all all sorts of rationalizations rationalizations and and legitimations legitimations of by sorts of of violence violence.. To To make make violence violence acceptable acceptable,, literature literature and and art art created created aa whole whole set set of of paradoxes paradoxes and and modifications modifications that that gained gained currency currency,, in long run becoming the in the the long run becoming the cliches cliches of of India's India's cultural cultural legacy. legacy. The papers papers of of this this book book are are arranged arranged according to aa rrather The according to ather arbitrary chronological chronological order order of of the the main main periods periods under under discus­ discusarbitrary sion. E Each presents general general views views next next to to aa case case study study of of the the sion. ach presents phenomenon phenomenon under under study study.. The The general general statements statements in in each each paper paper unavoidably reflect reflect aa difference difference of of opinion opinion among among the the vvarious unavoidably arious authors authors on on the the existence existence of of violence violence and and the the meaning meaning of of non­ noncontext.. The editors made no violence in an Indian cultural context attempt to to harmonize harmonize these these views views.. 22 If the the differences differences were were attempt streamlined this this would would weaken weaken substantia] substantial parts parts of of each each ppaper. streamlined aper . 22 While the Chicago Manual of Style ((14th ed.,, Univ Univ.. of Chicago Chicago,, 1 4th ed. 1 993) served served us 1993) us as as aa general general guide guide in in editorial editorial matters matters,, some some freedom freedom has has been to the the authors authors (several (several of of whom whom wrote wrote their their paper paper before before the the been allowed allowed to project of the book had started) with regard to stylistic and certain spelling preferences, from the as well well as as with with regard regard to to divergences divergences resulting resulting from the preferences, as backgrounds.. Thus, different disciplinary backgrounds Thus , geographical and proper names may in aa 'historical' 'historical' or or 'anthropological' 'anthropological' paper, may appear appear in in Anglicized Anglicized form form in paper, and in Sanskritic 'philologically'' oriented one. S anskritic spelling in a 'philologically one . Similarly, S imilarly, 'in quotations spelling and quotations and and references references deviating deviating spelling and transliteration transliteration have have usually usually to mark mark been maintained. maintained. Single quotation marks marks have have been been applied been Single quotation applied to meanings,, concepts, appended (lexical) word meanings concepts , and words/expressions in usage.. Double quotes indicate direct quotations and translations special usage (also of contextualized (also of contextualized single single words) words)..

ix NevertheThe theme simply is too complex to be generalized. generalized . Neverthe­ less,· editors·· hope that this volume may contribute to a better les s , · the editors the ways violence violence has has been enwrapped in the the understanding of the Values'' of one of the great civilizations of the ''Words Words and Values world.. world This volume would not have been realized without the help of a great many many persons persons.. Apart from from those those who contributed a T.E. who,, as the then paper, pape r , we are grateful to Professor T . E. Vetter who Institute , did the research research group of the the Kern Kern Institute, did much chairman of the to get the above-mentioned seminars organized, organized , and stimulated theme.. We would like to thank and encouraged us to pursue this theme Mrs r . Roy E van Westrienen Westrienen and and D Dr. E.. Jordaan for their Mrs.. Drs Drs.. L. van valuable assistance with proofreading. The editors

1. INTRODUCTION: VIOLENCE VIOLENCE,, NON-VIOLENCE NON-VIOLENCE AND AND 1 . INTRODUCTION: THE OF VIOLENCE THE RATIONALIZATION RATIONALIZATION OF VIOLENCE IN IN SOUTH SOUTH ASIAN CULTURAL HISTORY ASIAN JAN . M . HOUBEN R. VAN JAN E E.M. HOUBEN AND AND KAREL KAREL R. VAN KOOIJ KOOIJ

.. .. .. as Nathalie Davis has observed sixteenthof Catholic-Protestant violence in sixteenth­ century France and as we saw in the case of the Hyderabad riots, so long as rioters maintain a given religious commitment they rarely display guilt or shame for their acts of violence. Kakar,, The Colours of Violence, p: 249) 249) (Sudhir Kakar

1.1 1 . 1 'Violence' ' Violence' would be a good example of a 'thick ' thick concept' (Williams 198 5 , 1995) carrying (Williams 1985, carrying aa descriptive as well well as evaluative evaluative component too wide compone nt inextricably intertwined. In a slightly too. definition, violence has been said to bbee ""action action that injures or destroys ackburn 1994:394). 1994 : 3 94). An destroys that that to to which which it it is is applied applied"" (Bl (Blackburn An overview of of what what the the term term is is generally generally considered considered to to denote overview centrally and secondarily is given in Ruddick 1992a, where we instance:: "In central cases, damaged.. read, for instance cases , it is people who are damaged possible,, and some believe equally serious serious,, to However, it is also possible act violently violently toward toward non-human non-human animals animals and and the the natural natural world world." act ." M oreover, "Violence Moreover, "Violence is is typically typically inflicted inflicted by by one one person person upon upon an­ anconsent.. But it is possible to inflict other without the other's consent violence upon oneself-suicide and protracted hunger strikes are clear . . ."" (p. 1273). About 'evil ' character character of of violviol­ clear examples examples.. (p. 1273). About the the 'evil' e nce , the ence, the author writes writes:: "Although many people people act act violently violently without moral qualms, qualms , violence-the deliberate or predictable harming,, injuring injuring,, mutilating mutilating,, or or killing of of others without without harming paracompensatory benefit to them-is also often taken to be para­ digmatic of evil. facie evil . .. .. .. At the least, violent acts are prima jacie wrong"" (Ruddick 1992a:1274). wrong 1992a: 1274). Further, in typical cases "people charged ith violence charged w with violence will will redescribe redescribe their their act act so so that that its 'violent' 'violent' disappears"" (ibid (ibid.), character disappears .), while "In the most problematic cases, .

22

• 1. 1 . INTRODUCTION •

people simultaneously acknowledge the violence of their acts, acts , apap­ preciate the evil of violence, violence , and continue to act violently. violently . They must then account for and justify . apparently immoral actions" actions " (ibid.). . (ibid . ) . Violence, Violenc e , then, is hardly ever presented as a direct aim of huhu­ man activity. activity . Usually it is considered an undesirable but for some reason necessary or under circumstances unavoidable 'evil'; ' evil ' ; and even if violence is glorified-in the beginning of this century for instance in the work of George SoreJl-there are generally implicit or explicit justifications for it e.g. e . g . in the form of aims to be reached (even if these aims may be considered unrealistic or o r utouto­ pian). It It is easy enough to advise advis e individuals and societies to avoid employing violence completely, completely , but both may be' confronted with situations in which they have to manage persons tending to, to , or o r acac­ tively acts . For both s ituations tively involved in, violent violent acts. both there are also situations in which applying app lying 'a little violence' may seem justified or required in the light of the greater 'evil' 'evil ' (e.g. (e . g . violence on a larger scale) which would ensue without w ithout intervention. universally , to societies , to apply universally, to societies, These general remarks remarks seem to religions and ethical ethical systems 'east ' e ast and west' (and probably, p robably , though we are here not dealing with indigenous African or Australian ethics, ethics , 'north and south'). south ' ) . Universality can also be claimed for the Even for a social theorist like George Sorel (1847-1922), ( 1 847- 1 922) , famous or or rather infamous for praising and even glorifying it it,, violence w was a s no more than a means towards establishing better social and political conditions (cf. his statement "it " it is to violence that socialism owes the high moral values by which it brings salvation s alvation to the modern world," world , " Sorel 1976:226 1 976:226 [1908]), [ 1 90 8] ) , just as the violence recommended by Macchiavelli (and, (and , in ancient South Asia, "the Arthasastra) was a means towards maintaining and strengthening the order . established social and political order. If violence is desirable desirable,, and if it is the norm within certain groups and war-time,, revolutionaries under certain circumstances (e.g. (e . g . among warriors in war-time in a self-proclaimed revolution, etc.), etc . ) , a larger group is still presupposed (which is to be protected or which is to be established in a utopian future) where violence is basically rejected Moreover,, within the warrior rej ected or avoided. avoide d . Moreover or revolutionary group, group , norms of mutual help, help , non-betraying, non-betraying , etc. etc . are , generally required. 'exotically ' required . Ritualized violence and .strangely , or 'exotically' sarhsara' who were rationalized violence (such as that of the 'liberators from sarhsara' 'exotic'' also also- to South thinkers,, cf. Halbfass 1991:9lff), 'exotic S outh Asian thinkers 1 99 1 :9 l ff) , are still restricted forms of violence which presuppose a (quite large) area and group d. where the violence is to be avoide avoided.

1. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 1.

33

tension general wish to avoid avoid violence, violence, and and its its acceptaccept­ tension between between the the general wish to ance as as aa means means to to prevent ' greater evil' evil' (or, (or , conversely, conversely , to to bring prevent aa 'greater bring ance about ' greater good'). good ' ) . But in the interpretatio n of crucial about a 'greater the specific interpretation variables in this picture, cultures differ widely. widely . Since violence in general is basically reprehensible and cultural variables are interinter­ nalized from an early age, age , there there may to notice notice the nalized from an early may be be aa tendency tendency to the violence one ' s eyes to that one ' s that in one's violence in in another culture and to shut one's own culture (in and personal daily practice, own culture (in governmental governmental and personal daily practice, iinn litera­ literaprograms).. ture and, art, nowadays also in television programs) South Asia has gone gone aa way way of of its its own own in in the the course course of of millennia millennia South Asia has of of violence, violence, its its avoidance avoidance and and managemanage­ of dealing dealing with with problems problems of ment. Even for those not not having having aa direct direct involvement ment. Even for those involvement with with the the area, there can be several reasons to take an interest in South Asian ways about and dealing with with violence, under­ to the the underways of of thinking thinking about and dealing violence, to which the the present volume volume wants wants standing or at least least awareness of which to make a modest contribution. contribution . 22 One reason may be a curiosity to spe­ see how the the universal problems referred referred to are dealt with with in a speimcific cultural area, perhaps with the the hope to find suggestions to im­ prove offered . Another prove the the (make-shift) solutions which which are usually offered. reason can be that that some complex ideas with with deep roots in South Asian cultural history history have have already already become globalized: here here we we Asian cultural become globalized: m ay think especially of the ' non-violence ' as it was given the notion of 'non-violence' may concrete shape shape by Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi (who was inspired inspired by different concrete by Mahatma (who was by different Hinduism , Buddhism, Jainism, but also by some Western strands in Hinduism, 2 Of other relatively recent publications dealing with problems of 2 violence and non-violence in South Asia we mention the following: following : Stietencron S tietencron (ed.) 1 97 9 , with chapters on the "Biologie " Biologie der Angst" and about the (ed . ) 1979, psychoanalytic relations between fear and violence before a number of (inc l . Hinduism); contributions on 'fear' 'fear ' and 'violence' 'violence ' in several religions (incl. Vidal et al al.. 1994, 1994 , with a number of anthropological and sociological, and a few historical-textual contributions dealing with the contrast between nonnon­ violent ideals and violent practices; Chapple 1993, 1 993, dealing with subjects subj ects ahirhsa , " to "The " The Jaina " Origins and traditional articulations of ahirhsa," ranging from "Origins path of nonresistant death"; 1 997 , dealing with media representations death" ; Brass 1997, quasiof collective violence and arguing against a structural linking (and quasi­ justification) of such violence with 'age-old' ethnic or religious hostilities. The last two publications came to our notion only when the present volume was this volume (often with further references) on largely finalized. finalize d . Discussions D iscuss ions in this on m o r e specific subjects such as 'war', 'war ' , 'human sacrifice', sacrifice ' , 'suicide' 'suicide ' c a n be found more can through the index.

44

1. INTRODUCTION

ideas,, and especially by the Russian author Tolstoy-the latter ideas l atter being in turn ppartly artly inspired by South Asian ideas e.g. e . g . as expressed in Tibetan Buddhism) Buddhis m) and taken up far outside South Asia by persons M artin Luther King. King . 33 . A persons like Martin A third third reason presents presents itself now: necessary for countries all all over over the world world to be be now : So far it was necessary well aware of Western ideas on violence, non-violence non-violence and jjustifications ustifications of of violence violence because because of of the powerful means (military the powerful means (military and economic) at the disposal of the U.S.A. U . S . A . and other Western countries to force their view (e.g. (e . g . on human rights and free trade) on , o thers . The The atomic atomic bomb bomb testing last year countries in in on .others. testing last year by by two two countries South Asia, Asia, India India and and Pakistan, Pakistan, has made made it more clear than ever is not just that understanding South Asian ideas on these subjects is ' stress management' in this of great great importance importance for a succesful 'stress this area e ns ue area,, but but also also for avoiding world-wide world-wide calamities which which may may ensue if this management is not entirely succesful. succesful . Decisions taken in both countries are are not not only guided by by 'Western' rationalities but but both also by rationalities which are, are , especially in India, well entrenched in South Asia's ast . 44 Asia's cultural cultural ppast. in South 1.2 1 . 2 South Asia's cultural history stands out iinn that iitt not only (inpresents and elaborates the ideal of a total avoidance of all (in­ cluding defensive) defensive) violence violence (this (this we we also also find e.g. in Christianity's e . g . in Christianity ' S 'turning ' turning the other cheek'): cheek' ) : iitt even provides 'non-violent' ' non-violent ' methods beings . for protection protection against against the the violence from from other other living living beings. Buddhists advocated the cultivation of 'friendliness ' friendliness towards all living beings beings'' as a protective measure (in which psychology and Even if there are cases of abuse of the term as w well e l l as the notion, the recommendations of Schwab 1994 1 994 to restrict and preferably avoid the use of of the (French) 'non-violence' 'non-vio lence ' and replace it with a paraphrase (p. (p . 281; 2 8 1 ; the author aut hor continues: continues : "1st " 1st der Sprachbenutzer dazu nich in der Lage, Lage , handelt es es urn leere,, ideologiebedingte Formel"; aass iiff ssich ich bei 'non-violence' 'non-violence ' u rn eine leere ideological connotations were nnot o t unavoidable and frequently even intended in discussions on this subject subj ect .. .. .. ) are preposterous and testify both to an overestimation of a scholar's scholar ' s ability to modify language use, use , and to an nonunderestimation of the ideological strength of current philosophies of o f non­ violence violence.. 4 4 In addition, of course, important but less easily determinable determinabl e Asia ass elsewhere. 'irrationalities' 'irrationalities ' influence decisions in South S outh A sia a elsewhere . As for South Asia, these too have a long history of antecedents in its cultural past, as would ( 1 995). appear from an essay like Sudhir Kakar's Kakar ' s The Colours of Violence (1995).

1 . INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

55

'magic' border on each other) other) against against attacks attacks from from others, ' magic ' border on ,each others , including wild wild animals animals and snakes (cf. (cf. Schmithause Schmithausen including n 1997). 1997) . Similarly the followers claimed that that in Similarly,, the followers of of the the Yoga-system Yoga-system have have claimed in the presence presence of of aa Yoga-practitio Yoga-practitioner whose mind mind is is well-established well-established the ner whose in ''non-violence' or ''non-injury' the (ahirhsa) , enmity-even enmity-even' the non-violence ' or non-injury ' (ahimsi.i), eenmity nmity between between natural enemies like like mouse cat-subsides natural enemies mouse and and cat-subsides (Yoga-Sutra 2.35 and and commentaries).5 (Yoga-SUtra 2.35 commentaries) . 5 Success these methods methods seems seems to have been been vvariable and gen­ genSuccess in in these to have ariable and erally in addition addition to the recommendation of erally difficult difficult to to attain, attain, since since in to the recommendation of these methods methods,, South Asian traditions traditions offer offer numerous numerous arguments arguments these South Asian for under certain certain circumstances Also the for justifying justifying violence violence under circumstances.. Also the system system of ''non-violence' which was was in in more more recent recent years years developed developed and and of non-violence ' which put put into into practice practice by by Mahatma Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi,, and and which which played played aa vital vital and and renowned ' s struggle renowned part part in in India India's struggle for for independence independence,, has has gradually gradually receded into into the the background background after after his his assassination assassination in in 1948, with receded 194 8 , with as aa most most unequivocal unequivocal contrapunto contrapunto India' India'ss atomic atomic bomb bomb testings testings,, as now years later later.. Indeed, already in time there now fifty fifty years Indeed, already in Gandhi's Gandhi ' s time there were were numerous doubts the large-scale large-scale viability viability and and effectiveness effectiveness numerous doubts about about the of current: Lokamanya Lokamanya Tilak, Tilak, of his his methods methods.. Alternative Alternative views views were were current: Gandhi's contemporary, saw saw in in the the Bhagavad-Glta-some­ Bhagavad-GWi-someGandhi ' s elder elder contemporary, times regarded the 'Bible of the the Hindu Hindu'' -encouragements times regarded as as the 'Bible of -encouragements to to rere­ stricted violence violence under under certain circumstances (unlike (unlike Gandhi who stricted certain circumstances Gandhi who read amounting to read it it as as aa 'message message amounting to ahirhsa) ahirhsa).. just as as the the Christianity Christianity of ''turning one's other cheek' cheek' IInn short, just turning one ' s other , st war 'just war,66 (drawing on on was supplemented with an ideology of the 'ju Basic ttoo the methods advocated iiss that ''enmity' ann absolute enmity' iiss not a character trait of a person or community which can only be eliminated by

community: on the contrary, the 'enemy 'enemy'' is an eliminating that person or community: opponent who can change into into a friend friend or ally: an idea which can be

theories of non-violence as well well,, and which, in the recognized in modern theories 's one's Christian tradition, can perhaps be linked to the injunction to 'love' one

enemy (cf. Ruddick 1992a: 1 992a: 1275). 1 275) . 66 An overview of current ideas on ""war peace" war and peac e " and on "just war theorie s " is given in Ruddick 1992b. 1 9 92b . Even if one holds that under the modern theories" conditions of the availability of weapons destroying the entire world (10 ( 1 0 times over and more) more),, states have no more a "right bellum),, " right to wage war" (ius ad bellum) but only a duty to maintain peace (cf. Kimminich 1976:1235: 1 97 6 : 1 23 5 : "Damit ist das Recht zum K[rieg] vollstandig beseitigt. Vielmehr obliegt den Staaten eine Friedenspflicht")) , much of the violence-problem remains as it shifts algemeine Friedenspjlicht" to national and international 'police' functions of military forces, forces , and of the

66

1. 1 . INTRODUCTION

theju~tum bellum of Cicero and other classics,7 w:arthe ju�tum bellum class ics/ as well as oonn �ar­

in the Hebrew B BibleS), ideologies iN ible 8 ) , strands in South Asian cultural comhistory which recommend perfect abstention from violence com­ bined and and intertwined intertwined with with strands 'accepting accepting violence violence.. As As in the bined i n the West, the the violence violence generally generally required required justification justification either either in West, i n advance advance or after after the the fact fact,, especially especially in in confrontations confrontations with with small small groups groups or which ect it completely . In acts of of vviolence iolence which tried tried to to rej reject it completely. In various various ways ways acts were reconciled reconciled with with or or directly directly linked linked to to the the ideal ideal of avoidance of of were of avoidance violence, as in in the the case case of of those those with with aa 'blind 'blind faith' faith' iinn the the violenc e , uunless, nless , as tradition, this ideal was not accepted as generally vvalid alid at all; but to justify justify this this faith. faith. The The arguments arguments then an an argument argument was was needed needed to then and rationalizations rationalizations given given in this this context context are are intriguing intriguing in their their and specificity,, but at the same time they are of wider rele­ relecultural specificity vance ssince set of of crucial crucial parameters parameters are are involved involved as as iinn vance ince aa similar set the Western Western tradition tradition:: degrees degrees ooff violence violence;; hierarchies hierarchies of of subj subjects the e cts perpetrating or perpetrating and and objects objects undergoing undergoing violence violence;; the the body body,, soul soul or other entity entity (or (or no no entity entity at at all) all) as as locus locus of of identity identity of of living living other beings;; 'goods 'goods'' and prevented ''evils' beings evils ' which may jjustify ustify degrees of violence ility to violence,, etc etc.. Rationality Rationality and and its its applicab applicability to all all cases cases of of violence ect of outh violence have have themselves themselves become become subj subject of discussion discussion iinn the the SSouth Asian tradition. tradition. Even Even when when aa rationalization rationalization is is offered offered as as jjustiAsian usti­ fication of of acts acts of of vviolence, it never never stands stands on on its its own own,, but but is fication iolence , it is embedded in in presuppositions presuppositions (in (in philosophical philosophical works works often often identi­ identiembedded fiable as as the the traditionally traditionally accepted accepted tenets tenets of of aa school) school) and and uunfiable n­ realities.. Take for instance the kkilling discussed perceptions of realities illing iinn sacrifice,, oorr in in aa war war for for aa 'just' 'just' oorr even even 'holy 'holy'cause (as the the one one sacrifice ' cause (as described ahabharata) : Where Mahabharata): Where the the one one perceives perceives only only viol­ violdescribed iinn the the M ence ence against against aa living living being being,, the the other other perceives perceives aa careful careful and and perfectly permissible permissible operation operation which which transfers transfers aa soul soul fro from the perfectly m the earthly to to aa heavenly heavenly abode abode.. earthly While any any serious serious and more or less consistent consistent rationalization rationalization of­ ofWhile and more or less fered iinn justificatio justificationn of of vviolence deserves to to be be taken taken seriously seriously,, it it fered iolence deserves may very very well well be be that that the the rationalization rationalization is is an an invention invention or or second­ secondmay ary construction construction rather rather than than aa statement statement of of actual actual basic basic motives motives.. ary right of minorities to combat real or imagined injustices. 7

7

classical St.t . The Class ical theories were introduced into Christian thought by S

Augustine ""to lQ find justification for Christian participation iin n the wars of the

empire"" (Elfstrom and Potion Roman empire Fotion 1992:807; 1 992 : 807 ; cf. Kimminich 1976). 1 976).

88

On which see now Niditch 1993. 1 993 .

1. INTRODUCTION

77

The term 'rationalization' has aa career of its in ppsychoanalytic sychoanalytic The term 'rationalization' has career of its own own in theory, where where itwas it was introduced introduced in by E E.. Jones Jones,, aa disciple of theory, in 1908 1908 by disciple of Freud, soon also adopted by Freud came Freud, and and soon also adopted by Freud Freud himself. himself. Freud came to to regard rationalization' as which covers up regard ''rationalization' as aa preconscious preconscious process process which covers up " and misrepresents for aa certain (cf. and misrepresents the the It' It'ss real real motives motives for certain action action (cf. Gorlich 1992) . In in the of religions Gorlich & & Butzer Butzer 1992). In studies studies in the history history of religions and and ritual vviolence, the term term ''rationalization' was given given an important ritual iolence, the rationalization' was an important place by Jonathan Smith (cf. Smith 1982, 1982, and and introductory introductory sec­ place by Jonathan Z Z.. Smith (cf. Smith section of of van van Kooij Kooij's contribution).. A A gap gap and and conflict conflict between between tion ' s contribution) are pre­ ''accepted' accepted' and for aa violent and 'underlying 'underlying'' motives motives for violent act act are presupposed in Smith' s use as much in Jones supposed in Smith's use of of the the term term as much as as in Jones'' and and Freud' 'psychoanalytic ' gap many Freud'ss use use.. Such Such aa 'psychoanalytic' gap may may be be present present in in many actors,, also also beyond beyond Western Western and westernized societies, but need need actors and westernized societies , but not cultures and not be be accepted accepted beforehand beforehand for for actors actors of of all all cultures and periods periods.. The term in quite different conceptual The term 'rationalization' 'rationalization' appears appears in quite aa different conceptual framework avidson, where ration­ framework in in the the philosophy philosophy of of Donald Donald D Davidson, where ""rationalizations of of intentional intentional actions actions are are genuine genuine explanations in terms terms alizations explanations in agents'' reasons reasons"" (Mele 1995:675). agent's of agents 1995 : 675) . An agent ' s reasons for an action are are unavoidably unavoidably based based on on perceptions perceptions,, beliefs beliefs and and exaction ex­ In the the case case of, of, for for instanc instance, economic acts acts such such as as buy­ buyppectations. ectations . In e , economic ing an an obj object which is is expected expected to to be be instrumental instrumental in in attaining attaining aa ing ect which valued aim aim,, the perceptions,, beliefs beliefs and expectations may be valued the perceptions and expectations may be which pertain pertain regarded as as generally generally verifiable verifiable.. In In the the case case of regarded of acts acts which to tl).e the death death and and life life of of animals animals and and people people (including to (including oneself), oneself), however, doubt, and and beliefs however, perceptions perceptions may may be be open open to to serious serious doubt, beliefs and eexpectations xpectations art:: act leading and are basically basically unverifiable unverifiable.. If aa violent violent act leading to ' s death fully intentional, intentional, one to aa person's person's or or animal animal's death is is fully one may may expect expect it rationalizable ' as act of it to to be be as as much much ''rationalizable' as an an act of buying buying an an object, object, but but its acceptance acceptance or or rejection rejection by by others others as as 'justified' will its 'justified' or or ''desirable' desirable ' will to aa great great extent extent depend depend on on their their pperceptions and complex complex systems to erceptions and systems of beliefs beliefs and and expectations regarding life life and and death. of expectations regarding death . The senseless and and self-defeating character which which violent violent acts The senseless self-defeating character acts often of weak or unconvincing often have have in in the the light light of weak or unconvincing rationalizations rationalizations in aa 'Davidsonian' sense),, finds (whether in in aa ''psychoanalytic' (whether psychoanalytic ' or or in 'Davidsonian' sense) finds climax in in the the religious religious (or (or political) political) suicide suicide,, in which aa pparadoxical aradoxical climax in which the oone perpetrating the the act act and seeing some some benefit the ne perpetrating and supposedly supposedly seeing benefit of of it is is also also the the fatal fatal victi victim. The unavoidability unavoidability of of the the pparadox in aa it m . The aradox in sense' perspective (based (based on general and natural ''common common sens e ' perspective on the the general and natural instinct of of living living beings beings to to maintain maintain one one's makes such instinct ' s life) life) makes such acts acts both shocking shocking and and intriguing intriguing in in their their incomprehensibility incomprehensibility.. With With the the both

88

1. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

acceptance that aa different different perspective perspective may be valid valid at least least for the the acceptance perpetrator of the act who apparently expects it to yield a benefit b enefit which greatly greatly outweighs and and transcends transcends that that of his his own life life,, the the which pparadox aradox somewhat somewhat subsides. subsides . Whetlier should allow allow or or dis­ Whetlier others others should discourage suicides and courage or or actively actively try try to to prevent prevent such such suicides and self-sacrifices self-sacrifices for some aim ' is is again again aa different and extremely for some 'higher 'higher aim' different and extremely intricate intricate problem problem..

1 . 3 While groups in in aa society able to live 1.3 While small small groups society may may have have been been able to live complete up to the high and theoretically attractive ideal of comp lete of abstention from violent acts against living being beings, a practice s, violence has has continued continued from the the remotest remotest ppast till the the present present.. The The violence ast till practice of violence against humans and other living beings seems ineradicable,, and and this this may may be be another another universal universal as ineradicable as it it applies applies elsewhere �s much Theorists have all much as as in in South South Asia. Asia. Theorists have blamed blamed it it all elsewhere a.s on the ''animal animal past' of humans (cf. Ruddick 1992: 1 992 : 1273) 1 273) which should be suppressed or overcome by morality morality;; conversely conversely,, the zoologist and specialist in in primate primate behaviour behaviour Frans Frans de Waal Waal has has rere­ cently argued that 'the animal' animal ' in humans may just as well bbee at the basis of cooperate and for others (Waal the basis of their their tendencies tendencies to to cooperate and care care for others (Waal 11996). 996) . Whatever the background of the tendency to violence, attempts .. to connect the high ideal with practicalities seem jjustified ustified and understandable.. It is also understandable that overly idealistic understandable interpretations or or definitions of violence violence (as (as a 'thick ter term' with interpretations m ' �ith practice.. But there is a evaluative connotations) are adapted to the practice non-violence'' danger that this opens the way to 'rhetorics of non-violence covering up acts which according to all normal interpretations are clearly employing clearly and and reprehensibly reprehensibly violent violent.. The The motivation motivation for for employing such ary from from the alleviate such rhetorics rhetorics may may vvary the need need to to prevent prevent or or alleviate personal doubts doubts and and feelings feelings of guilt, to to attempts attempts to to defend defend oneself personal of guilt, oneself against critics. While it it seems seems reasonable reasonable to against critics . While exclude from to exclude from the the definition of violence inj urious actions in violence injurious actions which which are are ultimately ultimately or or in definition of some respect respect beneficial beneficial to to a consenting consenting living being being undergoing undergoing it it some (as in in aa medical medical treatment treatment of a human or animal-this is why (as .B wide),, it Blackburn's l ackburn' s definition quoted at the beginning is too wide) becomes if this iving being in the this lliving being is is to to die die in the becomes more more problematic problematic if animal):: is there any soul process (as in the sacrifice of a human or animal) or It is is or entity entity which which benefitted benefitted from from undergoing undergoing the the violent violent act? act? It very well possible that those perpetrating the act seriously believe

1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

9 9

.even on a victim (or its soul or spirit), spirit) , but in its beneficial effects .even we are dangerously close to a great ruse to get a thirst for violence (whether regarded as basically innate in the human animal or as pathological) satisfied at the expense of innocent living beings and under a cover of praiseworthy morals. If the Manu-Sm:rti says in an ooft-quoted ft-quoted verse (5.39) that slaughtering at a sacrifice is no slaughtering, slaughtering , it can hardly be denied that the act of which it is repre­ speaking is indeed violence violence,, whatever its acceptability or reprehensibility from different viewpoints. viewpoints . It is violence, violence , and it IS violence denied. Ajfieya's denied . And if the revolutionary heroine in Aj fieya's short sto:r:y sto:r:y "Vipathga" " Vipathga" (written in 1931), 1 93 1) , looking at the blood-stained sword with which she has just killed a police officer, says: say s : "there " there is no blood on it," it, " we recognize a theme with a long history in South Asian cultural history history.. One may have different opinions on the justifiability of the act of the heroine heroine,, which followed her· colleague,, a request request to the police to release a revolutionary colleague answered positively on the condition that she would have sex with inter­ police.. But the act, according to all normal interthe head of the police pretations of the term, is an instance of violence. And it is violence denied. denied . 2.1 2 . 1 After this brief introduction ooff the problematic which forms the main theme and thread of this volume, volume , an overview may be given of the essays of this volume, volume , which have been a~ranged a �ranged according to the chronological sequence of their main topics topics.. It is hoped and expected that the range of topics and the diversity of approaches adopted by the different authors will stimulate further reflection and discussion on this most intricate problem area of "violence, violence." " violence, non-violence and the rationalization of violence ." In "Hindu W.. Bodewitz searches ahirhsa and its roots," roots , " Henk W " Hindu ahirhsa ahirhsii, the term for the Smith Asian origins of the concept of ahirhsii, which is nowadays usually taken as the equivalent of 'non'non­ violence', texts,, remains concepviolence ' , but which, in the older Vedic texts concep­ tually quite distant from this concept as it usually refers to one's one ' s own (or the sacrificer's sacrificer 's own) 'safety'. 'safety ' . Bodewitz discusses the most important previous contributions to the discussion, and argues that a straight Vedic origin of the concept is quite unlikely. unlikely . The origin is to be sought not among Vedic ritualists but rather in ascetic circles which mayor may or may not have maintained some links with Vedism. ahirhsa [as non-injury of Vedism . In any case, "the concept of ahirhsa

10 10

1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

playaa role only in a late phase of Vedism. Vedism."" others] started to play Lambert L. L . Schmithausen's Schmithausen ' s "Aspects " Aspects of the Buddhist AttitUde towards War" deals with one of the two religions originating in ascetiC circles and non- or anti-Vedic ascetic ahd according a high place to the ahirhsa, namely B uddhism . The major issues are illustrated ideal of ahirhsii, Buddhism. with references ranging from the Buddha (several centuries B.C.E.) B . C . E. ) to the Aum Shinrikyo-sect responsible for a poison-gas attack in the Tokyo subway, subway , March 1995. 1 995 . Attempts to harmonize political realism with Buddhist ethics (e.g. (e . g . by tacitly allowing defensive wars) are found in some texts texts,, as also relativizations of the norm not to kill (e . g . in a war which should defend the Buddhist (e.g. religion) religion).. Some (Mahayana and Vajrayana) texts also justify killing out of compassIon, in order. to 'liberate' ' liberate ' creatures from an un­ unviolence, fortunate existence existence.. Still, Still , "the old principle that all violenc e , let bad"" has generally remained the alone killing and waging war, is bad norm norm.. In the next paper paper,, Danielle Feller Jatavallabhula J atavallabhula discusses the frequent identifications and parallels of the "war as a sacrifice" s acrifice" as found in a major Hindu epic, epic , the Mahabharata. It is argued that metaphor , but that "the Mahabharata this is not just a pervasive metaphor, war is a full-fledged, albeit peculiar sacrifice, sacrifice , designed to meeJ meet and solve the peculiar problems posed by a specific time of crisis." crisis . " Some of the analogies between the war and regular Vedic sacrifice are the acceptability of violence and killing humans, humans , the validity of rules and expiations, the two-fold aim of "obtainment " obtainment of the earth" e arth" e and "maintenance of the cosmic world-order," "maint nance world-order, " and the involveinvolve­ ment of deities war/sacrifice.. dei ties to be propitiated by the war/sacrifice Jan E.M. E. M . Houben Houben discusses discusses reflections found found iinn ancient ancient South South Asian philosophical literature on on the whether or or not not Asian philosophical literature the ethical ethical problem problem whether a sacrificial s acrificial animal should be killed in a Vedic sacrifice. sacrifice . Special emphasis is placed on Sarhkhya and pre-Sarhkhya, Yoga and Vedanta (covering a period from the first centuries to the 17th). 1 7th) . It argued that in addressing the much-discussed issue whether is argued. humans were ever. offered in sacrifice a distinction is to to be made between periods in which this was generally acceptable in Brahminical circles, circles , and periods in which it was mainly rejected. rej ected . For the the proper evaluation of of an an argument in aa philosophical For proper evaluation argument used used in philosophical text on this ethical problem, the background, pr'esuppositiems, presuppositions , and environment of the author play a considerable role role.. Robert J. 1. Zydenbos deals with another religion arisen, like

1. INTRODUCTION

11 11

neglecting or opposing Vedic Buddhism, in ascetic circles neglecting ritualism, J ainism. Special Special attention attention is is paid paid to some ritualism, namely namely Jainism. to some historical events relating to the dynasty of the Gangas (Karnataka, rej ection of from 4th century onwards) onwards),, in which the Jainas Jainas'' strong rejection all sorts of violence is confronted with the exigencies of practical politics.. Under circumstances, Jaina kings were pragmatic enough politics to adopt violenc e . From the point of view of the JJaina karma­ violence. aina karmadoctrine, spiritual progress amounts to getting rid of all sorts of karma. This is a graded development, and it is accepted that lay people (including kings) "cannot avoid a certain degree of hirhsa life." in daily life . " Non-violence "has become a key concept in Jaina thought and preaching preaching"" which is also used to justify all kinds of other beliefs and practices, sometimes in a rather far-fetched way. way . Roy E. Jordaan and Robert Wessing discuss indications that the practice of construction sacrifice to ensure stable and safe constructs (from buildings to cities and states) was current in South Saiva Asia and neighbouring areas. areas . Findings in a 9th century Saiva temple complex in Prambanan, Central Java, form their starting point. They try to find an answer to the question whether these have any connections with Indian practices of human construction sacrifice. sacrifice . Textual sources such as the silpasastras (on architecture and art) give only very little and often equivocal indications for such a practice practice.. It is argued that in addition to the texts of the main religious traditions traditions,, general anthropological evidence concerning South and Southeast Asia must be taken into account as well. well . They conclude that construction sacrifice with human victims was not as absent in South Asian history as has sometimes been suggested in secondary literature on this matter matter.. IInn "Iconography " Iconography ooff the battlefield: the case ooff Chinnamasta," Chinnamasta, " Karel R R.. van Kooij discusses an eighteenth century miniature " the gruesome goddess Chinnamasta" who beheads painting of "the herself with a scimitar. Scholars have often written about this image in 'rationalizing' ' rationalizing ' terms which cover up the violence which is undeniably present in it. it . The image, image , produced in the Kangra painting,, "continues school of painting " continues a long tradition of sacrificial violence in Indian Iconography:" Iconography;" Its main motifs, motifs , drinking blood, trampling one's one ' s enemy, enemy , and self-immolation by severing one's head, all have a background in battlefield behaviour as represented esp . the in earlier iconography and in literature (the Mahabharata, esp. Tamil version) version).. The image was to be watched by the king. king . There

12

1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

is no basis to regard it as an object used in Tantric practices. practices . In its self­ original context, it primarily represented "the warrior ideal of selfsacrifice. s acrifice . " While expressions of terror and violence in the Tibetan Buddhist B uddhist lesservisual arts are well known, Pieter C. Verhagen deals with lesser­ known linguistic expressions of violence in Tantric mantras of Tibetan Bllddhism. Buddhism . The author discusses a mantra supposed to have a mundane goal, bne regarded as conducive to the goal , as well as one liberation from the mundane mundane.. Both mantras contain incitations to violence . In the case of the latter mantra this violence is presented violence. as conducive to the lliberation iberation not only of the agent but also of the victim. The broad and basic problem of possible differences in the exex­ perience and valuation of violence in Europe and South Asia are Jos Gommans in a somewhat taken up for discussion by los provocative essay "The " The Embarrassment of political violence in Europe and South 1 100- 1800," which draws inter alia on South Asia, cc.. 1100-1800," discussions and ideas of two two philosophers of culture, culture , the historian Kakar.. Gommans starts Norbert Elias and the psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar with the young Indian sultan Abu' Hasan ' s reactions to a Dutch Abu'll Hasan's painted scene of a cavalry battle. battl e . It is argued that his dislike of the scene was incidental incidental,, but at the same time rooted in South Asian cultural antecedents antecedents.. While "Indian " Indian paintings and sculpture display displ ay countless scenes full of conspicuous violence with all the conventional acts of killing, killing , dismembering, dismembering , disembowelling and destruction, " these generally appear in a other forms of gruesome destruction," mythical and/or religious context, and the sultan may have been by' "the especially shocked by " the more realistic and direct representation in the European painting." painting . " " Nationalism and Violence in Colonial India, 1880-1910," In "Nationalism 1880- 19 10 , " Victor A A.. van Bijlert deals with the Janus-like face of the modern nation-state nation-state,, "the most imitated modern political. and social institution,"" which "is institution, " is benign and aggressive at the same time," time , " especially in the context of the emerging anti-colonial Hindu nationalism of ca. 1880-1910. 1880- 19 10 . Here, Here , a distinction can be made between "a more radically Hindu mode which sought to sharply define and defend the Hindu identity"-represented identity " -represented e.g. e . g . by Bailkimcandra universaB ailkimcandra Ca!!opadhyay (Chatterjee)-and "a more universa­ listic and secular mode" mode " defining the Hindu identity with less explicit exclusion of "other " other cultural identies such as the Islamic or

1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION

13 13

one"" -represented e.g. Christian one e . g . by Rabindranath Tagore. Tagore . IItt was especially in the mentioned period that there was aa: transition from a cultural definition of the nationalists ideals to "political " political activism violence." including violenc e. " In the paper, Theo short story story In the concluding concluding paper, Theo Damsteegt Damsteegt discusses discusses aa short ofthe Ajfieya, of the Hindi author Aj iieya, namely ""Vipathga," Vipathga, " written in 1931. 1 931. There similarities between expressed in in this There are are some some similarities between the the ideas ideas expressed this story and those propounded several decades earlier by Lokamanya Tilak, in different modes , also Tilak, and and,, in different modes, also by by Bailkimcandra Bankimcandra Ca!!opadhyay Cat!opadhyay V.D. and V . D. Savarkar, but there does not seem to be a direct link. Ajfieya was rather influenced by a new phase in Indian revol­ revolAjiieya thinking,, in which socialist ideals had acquired a pro­ proutionary thinking minent place. place . Violent revolution is defended and even glorified, reand although religion is less central than in the preceding phase re­ presented by Tilak and others others,, religious metaphors like "sacrifices " s acrifices made at the altar of the common Goddess" Goddess " (calling to mind B ailkimcandra ' s personification personification of of the Indian Indian nation state as Bailkimcandra's Goddess) persist. Damsteegt further analyzes the narrative techniques used by Ajiieya Ajfieya to express his ideas ideas,, and to impress them on the reader. 2.2 More than in the situations and positions discussed in the preceding papers, Ajfieya's papers , violence is quite broadly permitted in Ajiieya 's story ahabharata equal story.. Perhaps only some ooff the episodes in the M Mahabharata this story in the atmosphere of general permissiveness to violence. Rev,olutionary cheque'' of legit­ legitRev, o lutionary violence receives almost a 'blanco cheque imization when the heroine makes it clear that in her view "non" non­ violence will only help the rulers rulers"" and that "Revolution " Revolution does not medicine which which aim at specific changes aim changes,, but it removes evil, like aa medicine drives away a disease but does not in itself lead to health health." . " But here,, with all the glorification of violence as if for its own even here sake (as in the work of Sorel and other thinkers in Europe of the justisame period),, violence is from the outset provided with a justi­ s ame period) fication which, in the view of the perpetrators, perpetrators , disqualifies it it as as full,, descriptive and (negatively) evaluative sense ''violence' violence ' in the full 'non-violof the term (and which, for them, turns 'violence' ' violence ' into 'non-viol­ ence'): ultience ' ) : it is an instrument contributing to a revolution, and ulti­ mately this revolution is to bring about better social and political conditions conditions..

1. INTRODUCTION

14

References Blackburn, Simon S imon 11994 994

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15

Smith, Jonathan Z Z.. Univ.. 11982 98 2 Imagining religionjrom Babylon to Jonestown. Chicago: Chicago Univ Press.. Press (ed.) .) Stietencron, H. von (ed Bewiiltigunglf iinn den 11979 97 9 Angst und Gewalt: Ihre Priisenz und ihre Bewiiltigun Religionen.. Dusseldorf: Patmos Verlag Verlag.. Religionen Sorel, S o rel, Georges 1 97 6 From Georges Sorel: Essays in Socialism and Philosophy ith an 1976 Philosophy.. Ed Ed.. w with C.. Stanley. introd. J.L. Stanley, trans!.. by J. intro d . by J,L. Stanley , transl J . and C Stanley . New York: Univ. Press.. Oxford Uni v . Press E.. Meyer Vidal, D., G. Tarabout and E 1 6 . Paris: 11994 994 Violences et Non-violences en Inde. Collection Purusartha, 16. E ditions de ll'Ecole ' Ecole des Hautes E Etudes Editions tudes en Sciences Sociales. S � ciales . Waal, Frans de 11996 99 6 Good natured: the origins of oj right and wrong in humans and other animals.. Cambridge, Mass Mass.:. : Harvard Univ Univ.. Press. animals Williams, Bernard 11985 9 8 5 Ethics and the Limits of oj Philosophy. London: Fontana Press // Collins. oj humanity and other philosophical papers. Cambridge: 11995 99 5 Making sense of Press.. Cambridge C ambridge Univ. Press

22.. HINDU AHIMSA AHIMSA AND ITS ROOTS

HENK W. BODEWITZ 11.. Before discussing the problem of the possible ongm of the ahirhsa doctrine it may be useful first to define the exact nature of

the concept and to establish its correct translation. In English translations the term is mostly rendered with 'non'non­ violence',, but this word is missing in the older English dictioviolence' dictio­ naries naries..11 Actually the term non-violence is closely connected with rejecting Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi . 22 Its modern interpretation 'policy ' policy of rej ecting objective,3 violent means .. .. .. to gain a political or social obj ective ' 3 has nothing to do with the classical meaning of ahirhsa. ahirhsa . A more neutral non-injury term like e.g. e . g, . non-, injury is preferable. preferabl e . Some scholars have misinterpreted ahirhsa aass 'the wish not to kill',' , ii.e. nekill' or 'the absence of the wish to kill . e. they take it as the ne­ kill'.' . 44 This gation of a desiderative derived from the root han 'to kill jiis obviously untenable since the real desiderative of that root is ji­ ective *hirhsu (or *ahirhsu) is gharhsati and a corresponding adj adjective 1I The word does not occur for for instance in A A New New English English Dictionary Dictionary on on historical principles, principles, ed. by James A A.H. Murray,, Volume VI VI,, L to N, Part II II,, historical . H . Murray

Press, Oxford:: Clarendon Pres Oxford s , 1908. 1908. be noted, however however,, that iinn his understanding of ahirizsa, 22 It iiss ttoo be ahimsa, Gandhi was greatly inspired by the Russian author Tolstoy. Tolstoy . Cf. Schwab 1984:45lf: 1 984 : 45lf: ""It It was the Slavic shaping of 'ahllhsa' ' ahllhsa ' that would afterward impress impress the cus­ cus-

Gandhi sought his own personal inspiration in todians of the faith: in return, Gandl:li Tolstoy and through him rediscovered his path toward the law of love and passivity.. " passivity Oxford Advanced 1 974, 33 Oxford Advanced Learner's Learner's Dictionary Dictionary of of Current Current English; English, ed. 1974, 1987, p.. 5571. 1987, p 71. 44 For older literature ssee e e Mayrhofer 1976:595. 1 976 : 5 95 . The outdated etymology ff. (referring on pp.. 190 to publications by is still found in Dumont 1966: 1 966: 1188 8 8 ff. Caillat M. Biardeau), Schreiner 1979:287 1 97 9 : 287 and OguiMnine 1993:81. 1 993 : 8 1 . C aillat 1993: 1 993: 235, observes:: ""The HIl~fS is clear clear:: there can 23 5 , n. 91 rightly observes The definite aspect of RIMS evidence." be little doubt that the result (not the intention) is in evidence . " For the correct analysis now see also Schmidt 1997:207f. 1997 : 207f.

HENK W. W. BO:DEWITZ BOOEWITZ

18

missing. missing . . The verb originally was hinasti hinasti rather than hirhsati. hirhsati. Moreover ahirhsil ahirhsa in prepre-Upani�adic tex:ts means 'security, ' security, Upani~adic texts safeness ' , which cannot be connected with the desiderative. desiderative . For the safeness', (a)-hirhs-a see Wackernagel-Debrunner II,2 1954:246; 1 954 : 246; formation (a)-hirhs-il 248.. 248 true , however, that in most contexts the non-injury implies It iiss true, the absence of killing, 55 though sometimes the violence is extended to mental or verbal injury. injury . 66 One has has also also tried take the term ahirhsil ahirhsa not not quite quite literally, literally, One tried to to take the term ii.e. . e . as the absence of the use of violence or injury, injury , and then one arrives at definitions like 'love ' love towards all living beings' beings ' or 'posi' posi­ tive attitude'. attitude ' . This is especially the case with modern Hindu authors.. Radhakrishnan 1947:202 authors 1 947 :202 says: "Non-violence is not a phyphy­ love , " and elsewhere sical condition, but a mental attitude of love," (1940: ( 1 940 : 46) he also observes that "the marks of genuine religion are abhaya or freedom from fear, expressing itself in harmony, harmony , bal­ abhaya balance, perfect agreement between body and soul, between the hands and the brain, and ahirhsil ahirhsa or love. love . Abhaya Abhaya and ahirhsil, ahirhsa, awareness and sympathy, sympathy , freedom and love, love , are the two features, features , theoretical and practical, practical , of religion. " I am afraid that Radhakrishnan here stretches the meaning of the term, that connotations start to eclipse the basic meaning and that the author, author , driven by idealism, exaggerates the positive aspects of religion. After all, all , the negative term ahirhsil ahirhsa should not be disdis­ asteyam ('not ( ' not stealsteal­ sociated from other negative terms like e.g. e . g . asteyam ing'). ing ' ) . The latter l atter cannot be taken otherwise than as the prohibition of theft. ahirhsa On such terms Gonda wrote an article entitled "Why " Why are ahirhsil and similar concepts often expressed in a negative form" which forms a chapter of Gonda 1959 1 959 (namely 95-117). 95-1 1 7) . Here he interinter­ adroha (literally meaning 'non-injury') 'non-injury ') as "bene"bene­ prets a term like adroha volence ... . . . towards all creatures" creatures " (p. 102) 1 02) and he refers to other negative terms with a primarily positive meaning. meaning . He concludes: concludes : " The opposite of injuring . . .. and so on was a condition eagerly "The 55

han by hilhs hirhs and vice versa in Jain texts see han 1993:220. 1 993:220 . 66 See BaudhDhS 2.6.23 2 . 6 .23 "He (Le. (i . e . the ascetic) .shall not injure creatures with words words,, thoughts and acts." Here,, however, the term adrohin adrohin is found acts . " Here ahirhsti. and not ahirhsti. On the replacement of

Caillat

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desired and difficult to bbee obtained obtained oorr preserved. preserved . Thus Thus words like like ahirhsa . .. .. may may be considered not only to express that which is ahirhsil .

logically opposed ttoo the ideas of injuring ... . . . but also that what is to,, or inconsistent with thes thesee notions notions". emotionally opposed to " . (p.

103). 1 03 ) . This sounds interesting, but if we would replace injury (hirhsti) (hirhsa) desirby smoking and consider its opposite as "a " a condition eagerly desir­ ed and difficult to be obtained or preserved," then still we have preserved, " then to indicate this opposite by the term non-smoking and nothing else and we are not entitled to use high-falutin paraphrases like "to be a human being who has reached his balance and a perfect agreeagree­ ment between body and soul, soul , between the hands and the brains brains"" etc.. 77 etc 2 . 0 If we restrict the term to actual non-violence in the sense of 2.0

non-killing attention, especially non-killing three three modern modern concepts concepts require require our our attention, especially in connection with the problem of the origin of ahirhsti: ahirhsa : pacifism, hunting,, and vegetarianism vegetarianism.. rejection the rej ection of hunting 2.1 2 . 1 The first item hardly plays a role in the Hindu concept of aa­ hirhsa antihirhsa and its development. Hinduism misses a tradition of anti­ militarism.. Basham (1954: ( 1954 : 123) states that "positive " positive condemnations militarism literature"" and that "the doctrine of non:­ nonof war are rare in Indian literature violence, influential,, and violence , which in medieval India had become very influential had made most of the respectable classes vegetarian, was never at this time taken to forbid war or capital punishment." punishment. " He even India." speaks of ""the the intense militarism of ancient India ." It is true that Arjuna refuses to fight iinn the Bhagavadglta, but relatives.. his refusal was prompted by the fear of killing killing his own relatives Elsewhere in the Mahabharata epic he even states that ahirhsa ahirhsa is impossible. 88 In post-Vedic hirhsa is personified as pos t-Vedic lliterature iterature the female term hirhsa ahirhsa as the wife the wife of Adharma (('Umighteousness') ' Unrighteousness') and ahirhsa of Dharma, and so we might be induced to take ahirhsa ahirhsa as the law everybody. (dharma) prescribed for everyb disti nction to the �dy . However, in distinction

77 However, it has to be admitted that even ancient texts sometimes expand the compound in the meaning meaning of of the the negative negative compound in such such aa way way that that it it comes comes to to designate something like compassion with all beings (Caillat 1993:224). 1 993 : 224) . 88 MBh 12. pasyami jivantam jrvantarh loke loke kamcid karhcid ahimsayti. ahirhsaya. 1 2 . 15.20 1 5 . 20 na na hi hi pasyami

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uniChristian Ten Commandments the rules of Dharma are not uni­ versal . Killing in war was a prescript for the relevant social class versal. and and therefore pacifism can be ruled out as a decisive factor in the ahirizsa.. development of at least the Hindu concept of ahirhsti Even in modern Hinduism after Gandhi war and violence are not not principally rejected as such. such . As Radhakrishnan (1947:202) ( 1 947 : 202) states it: "Non-violence as a mental state is different from non-re­ non-resistance . . . We cannot say s ay that sistance.. It is absence of malice and hatred ... . . . Where non�iolence possible , violence is evil in itself. ... non-violence is not possible, violence is permitted." permitted. " Gandhi himself supported the British in 1 9 14 in their just war 1914 war.. 2 . 2 No more than the violence of war did the violence of hunting 2.2

play a role playa role.. It It is true that professional hunters are despised, which may partly be based on their social s()cial status status,, though their cruelty cruelty is mentioned.. The hunting of kings, critialso mentioned kings , however, is sseldom eldom criti­ epics. cized in the Indian epic s . In his forthcoming article on the subject, subj ect, Brinkhaus shows that Brahmins sometimes were (actively or pasB.rinkhaus pas­ sively) shooting-parties . Too sively) involved involved in in shooting-parties. Too much much hunting hunting,, just just like like too much drinking drinking,, gambling and sex, formed the traditional vices of the kings, kings , but hunting as such was not categorically rej ected (cf. rejected Wilhelm 1991). 1 99 1 ) . It It is remarkable that especially the meaningless Wilbelm killing in the shooting-parties was not condemned. 2.3 2 . 3 Vegetarianism and ahirizsa ahirhsti are sometimes so closely associated by scholars and Hindus that the two terms seem to bbee interchangeable interchangeable.. Not every Hindu, however, iiss a vegetarian and in the oldest period period the eating of of meat was quite acceptable acceptable (cf. (cf. Mitra India"). 1881:354-388 1 8 8 1 : 354-3 8 8 on "Beef " Beef in ancient India" ) . Vegetarianism misses ahirizsa the authority of the Veda. Moreover it is a consequence of ahirhsti rather than being entirely identical with it. 3 . 1 The 3.1 The heretic heretic religions religions of of Buddhism Buddhism and and J ainism ainism which which reacted reacted rule, against Vedism, had a rather strict application of the ahirizsa ahirhsti rul e, especially for the monks monks.. Since Vedism is dominated bbyy the ritual and in several sacrifices animals are killed as victims, victims , one might ahirhsti doctrine had its roots in the rej ection of rejection suppose that the ahirizsa rejection the bloody sacrifices of Vedism rather than merely in a rej ection of the eating of meat in ancient ancient Iran meat.. A reformer like Zarathustra in also protested against the bloody sacrifices sacrifices.. The ahirhsti ahirizsa might have

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a heretical background. On the other hand Hinduism itself also exceptions) . And the replaced the bloody rituals (be it not without exceptions). me the Brahmins Brahmins,, the authorities of Vedism and its ritual ritual,, beca became champions of vegetarianism. ' So the question remains whether new developments like the propagation . of ahirhsii ahirhsa took place within the continuum of Vedism and Hinduism or outside it. A formulation like ''inin- or outside Vedism' depends on the exact Vedism.. On the basis of a number of indications one definition of Vedism may assume besides the ritualistic mainstream several alternative movements movements,, which unfortunately did not get much attention in thesee alternative literature.. 99 There are some references to thes Vedic literature Vedists,, but these refer to their way of life rather than to their Vedists religious aims aims.. Therefore it is difficult to use terms like heterodox lO Anyhow, there seem to have been circles.. lO and orthodox Vedic circles groups outside the ritualistic mainstream which were not necessarily non-Vedic. Outside this Vedism we find heretical lainism, which are represented by movements like Buddhism and Jainism, an enormous literature literature,, but also less successful 'sects 'sects'' or movements,, ''religions'. religions ' . The differences between Vedic alternative movements Buddhism, 1Jainism ainism and less well-known other heretical groups are Bronkhorst 1993 Vedic from non-Vedic non-Vedic asceticism and assumes 99 Bronkhorst 1 993 discerns Vedic two different different roots roots or or sources sources for for them. them. Vedic Vedic asceticism asceticism would would have have two developed from "ascetic " ascetic restrictions in connection with the execution of the sacrifice . . . The normally confined confined to duration of of aa The Vedic Vedic restrictions restrictions,, normally to the the duration sacrifice ... sacrifice make of life , and were in in any case sacrifice,, inspired inspired some some to to make of them them aa way way of of life, and were any case believed to lead lead the the practitioner practitioner to to the the same same aims aims as as those those which which others others tried tried believed to sacrifices"" (p. 92).. Apparently Bronkhorst equates to reach reach by by performing performing sacrifices to (p . 92) Vedic with sacrificial sacrificial.. People permanently staying outside the village after having finished study of Veda and of the the Veda and continuing continuing to to recite recite their their mantras mantras having finished their their study would belong belong to to the the non-Vedic non-Vedic current current of of asceticism. asceticism. This This labeling labeling of of Vedic Vedic would convince.. See also Olivelle 1995:162-164. and non-Vedic does not convince 1 995 : 1 62- 1 6 4 . 10 10 See Olivelle 1993:69: 1 993 : 69 : "In the absence of an adequate definition of orthodoxy within within the the BrahmllI,lical Brahmalfical tradition tradition .. .. .. the the division of of these these conflic­ conflicorthodoxy ting and life styles into orthodox' and heterodox' is is not very ting theologies theologies and life styles into ''orthodox' and ''heterodox' not very useful ... . . . for historical purposes or for a phenomenological description of the data. traditional vedic view are are found across aa broad to the the traditional vedic view found across broad data. The The challenges challenges to spectrum of of religious some of of the authoritative texts spectrum religious literature literature,, including including some the most most authoritative texts n to accepted views of a tradition, after all, of BriihmllI,lism. Brahmalfism. Oppositio Opposition of all , can and often does does come come from from within within that that tradition. tradition. "" often

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. rather vague with regard to issues like ahirhsii. ahirhsa . We simply do not ' know. know . It is also not quite fruitful to connect this controversial' controversial point with the distinction between Aryans and non-Aryans, non-Aryans , since this distinction had already become blurred at the time when ideas ahirhsa as a way of life became developed (see e.g. e . g . Olivelle about ahirhsii 1993 : 6 8) . 1993:68). 3 . 2 IIn n spite ooff the probability ooff heretical oorr at least alternative 3.2 ahirhsa some scholars still have opted for a purely Vedic · roots for ahirhsii origin. Of Of course course the bloody sacrifices sacrifices of of Vedic Vedic ritualism ritualism create create aa the bloody origin. .44) the violence of (e . g . Manu 55.44) problem. In post-Vedic literature (e.g. Vedic ritual is said to be non-violence. non-violence . Denying the actual injury, however, does not solve the problem. Yaska, Nirukta 1.16 1 . 16 commenting on the impossibility of cutting a tree without injuring Maitrayal).l it (see M aitrayal.11 Sarhhita Sarilhita 3.9.3) 3 . 9 . 3) simply states that the authority of (ahirhsa) . This the Veda should explain this injury as non-injury (ahirhsii). late Vedic evidence (of which the date is uncertain) does not prove ahirhsa doctrine. doctrine . It is merely anything on the existence of a Vedic ahirhsii rejection a rej ection of a possible criticism which is based on the infallibiiity infallibi iity of the Veda ' doctrine ' (or rather dogma) can hardly have Veda.. Such a 'doctrine' inspired JJains ahirhsa occurs in ains and Buddhists. Buddhists . On the other hand ahirhsii the Dharmasutras ar­ Dharmasiitras and these texts being Vedic provided an argument. However, the absolute date of these texts is uncertain and gumertt. consequently also their relative date with regard to Jain and B uddhist material. material . Buddhist In the period before these Vedic Dharma texts ahirhsii, ahirhsa , in the sense of an aim in life or as an imperative rule of conduct, hardly played a role in Vedism. It is true that the term ahirhsii ahirhsa is used more frequently frequently in Vedic ritualistic prose texts than in the whole literature of the following five centuries. centuries . However, However , the word is only used in the dative in these texts and then it denotes "for " for the 195 9 : 1 16) . It is evident of" , "for " for the security of" (Gonda 1959:116). safety of", that here no ethical rule is concerned. In the further, further , early UpaUpa­ ni�adic missing . These texts indeed do not ni~adic literature the word is missing. deal with rules of conduct, but since these Upani~ads Upani�ads represent the turning-point in the development from Vedism to Hinduism, one might expect e xpect at least some references references to this innovative term which also played an importarit role in the new religions of Buddhism and Jainism.~ Jainism.� ahirhsa is associated with asceticism and renunciation. Mostly ahirhsii

HINDU AHIMSA AHIMSA 22.. HINDU

23

All concepts are in Jainism lainism and and Buddhism Buddhism but All these these three three concepts are found found in but also in the i . e . Hinduism Hinduism and its Vedic also in the so-called so-called Brahmanism, Brahmanism, i.e. and its Vedic roots.. There There has has been been aa tendency tendency in India and and in early Western Western roots in India in early Indology to to attribute attribute aa chronological chronological priority priority to to Brahmanism Brahmanism in this Indology in this respect. 111 1 Then Then the the problem problem remains remains that that aJzifhsa ahitizsa as as aa rule rule of life respect. of life occurs two passages in the Chandogya-Upani~ad,, occurs (apart (apart from from two passages in the Chandogya-Upani�ad which for the some which may may be be late late additions) additions) for the first first time time only only in in some relatively late late texts texts like like the the Dharmasiitras Dharmasutras.. relatively

4.11 The first Western Western Indologist Indologist who tried to to derive 4. The first who tried derive ahifizsa ahithsa from from

the orthodox orthodox mainstream mainstream of of Vedism Vedism and and its its ritual ritualism rather than than the ism rather from some Vedic movements movements,, was was H. P.. from some alternative, alternative, ascetic ascetic Vedic H.P Schmidt ((1968:625-655). After having having shown shown iinn his his treatment treatment of Schmidt 1 968 : 625-65 5) . After of the material material that that in in Vedic Vedic and and post-Vedic post-Vedic Dharma Dharma texts texts ahifizsa was ahithsa was the especially associated associated with with Saqmyasins or at at least with B Brahmins especially Saqmyasins or least with rahmins having similar ideals and practising similar similar observances, he having similar ideals and practising observances , he observed:: "From casual survey the material material collected collected in in the the observed " From aa casual survey of of the preceding idea of of ahirhsa preceding paragraphs paragraphs it it might might appear appear that that the the idea ahimsa . originated was gradually gradually adopted adopted by originated among among the the world-renouncers world-renouncers,, was by the BrahmaI).as Brahmanas and finally considered to be be aa rule rule for for the the and was was finally considered to the whole soCiety society whose whose values values were were determined determined by by the the precedent precedent of of whole the BrahmaI).as BrahmaI!as"" (p (p.. 642). However,, to to him this plaus plausible 642) . However him this ible sketch sketch of of the the development development seemed seemed too too simple simple.. He He also the the also considered considered the possibility of of connecting connecting the the ahithsa ahimsa doctrine doctrine with with the the A Atman possibility tman doctrine states that tman in living beings doctrine which which states that there there is is an an A Atman in all all living beings.. Killing aa living living being being would would mean mean kill killing the A Atman. Here it has Killing ing the tman . Here it has to tman doctrine doctrine is texts to be be observed observed that that the the A Atman is found found in in Upani�adic Upani~adic texts ahithsa and according to in the which and that that according to Krishna Krishna in the which do do not not mention mention ahimsa BhagavadgTta only the body not the the A Atman be killed killed.. Bhagavadglta only the body and and not tman can can be Schmidt'ss rejection rejection of the association association of of the the A Atman the ahithsa ahimsiJ. Schmidt' of the tman and and the doctrines him such such aa reconstruction doctrines is is different different.. According According to to him reconstruction would be be "a fallacy not explain the ssignificance of would "a fall acy ssince ince it it does does not explain the ignificance of ahimsa in in the the animistic animistic and and pluralistic pluralistic religion religion of the JJ ainas" ainas " (p. (p . ahirhsa of the 643).. There There would would be more agreement between early Vedism and 643) be more agreement between early Vedism and JJ ainism in this this respect. ainism in respect. 11

II Jacobi 1884:XXIII observed on on ahirhsa and and other other ascetic ascetic rules rules ""that 1 884 : XXIII observed that neither Buddhists nor regard any any claim claim to neither the the Buddhists nor the the Jainas Jainas have have in in this this regard to originality,, but but that that both only adopted adopted the the five vows of the Brahmanic Brahmanic originality both have have only five vows of the ascetics." further Bronkhorst Bronkhorst 1993:3. ascetics . " See further 1 993 : 3 . See also Sprockhoff 1976:4-5. 1 97 6 : 4-5 .

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There or two in the There are are indeed indeed one one or two passages passages in the Vedic Vedic prose prose texts texts is expressed that in yonder world the animals in which the fear fear is in which the expressed that in yonder world the animals may eat eat in in return return the the human human beings beings by by whom whom they they had had been been eaten. may eate n . Schmidt then Schmidt then observes observes:: "Killing and hurting hurting creatures had " KiIl ing and creatures had undesirable consequences which which must must be be eliminated" undesirable consequences eliminated " (p. (p . 645). 645) . II am, that this is relatively am, however, however, under under the the impression impression that this topic topic is relatively isolated iterature and isolated in in Vedic Vedic lliterature and that that it it rather rather deals deals with with the the reversal reversal of of everything everything in in yonder yonder world world.. Schmidt also also draws draws attention attention to to the the fact Vedic texts texts use use Schmidt fact that that Vedic euphemisms is not not euphemisms in in denoting denoting the the actual actual killing killing,, but but this this is exceptional s ince in all cultures living beings exceptional,, since in all cultures the the killing killing of of living beings is is not not 1 2 AIl All sorts of expiations may be be prescribed prescribed and affair.. 12 sorts of expiations may aa ssimple imple affair used her� incidentaIly used here../ And And in in this this context context the the term term ahirhsa ahirhsa may may incidentally occur fo r the occur,, but but then then it it is is only only used used in in the the dative dative,, meaning meaning ''for the security dangers for security of of so.mebody somebody'.' . One One is is always always afraid afraid of of dangers for the the weIl-being ' s offspring sometimes even even of of of oneself, oneself, one one's offspring,, and and sometimes well-being of one ' s cattle ahirhsa theory which forbids one's cattle,, but but this this is is not not an an ahirhsa theory which forbids the the killing Schmidt, however speaks of of "a "a ritual killing of of animals animals.. Schmidt, however,, speaks ritual ahirhsaahirhsa- . theory"" .. theory II have . 1 3 The of hithsa hirhsa have my my doubts doubts here hereY The fear fear of of whatever whatever kind kind of mostly has has no no relation relation to to the the hirhsa hithsa one one has has committed committed oneself. mostly oneself. There ' s own There is is often often no no expiation expiation for for one one's own hirhsa hirhsa and and consequently consequently aa real real ritual ritual ahirhsa-theory ahirhsa-theory is is missing missing.. Moreover Moreover the the assumption of assumption of such aa rritual ahirhsa-theory is is not not supported supported by by aa widespread widespread such itual ahirhsa-theory occurrence of the the term term ahirhsa ahirhsa in in all all the the Vedic Vedic ritual ritualistic texts.. In In occurrence of istic texts S ailkhB) it some . g . JB Brahmal!as (e (e.g. JB and and SailkhB) it is is even even totaIly totally missing missing.. some BrahmaI).as And as observed the term in the the dative And,, as observed before before,, the term ahirhsa ahirhsa used used in dative means means the safety safety of' of' and and therefore therefore cannot cannot refer refer to to an an ethical ethical theory theory.. ''for for the Schmidt, however, however, observes observes that the animistic animistic view view of life of the Schmidt, that the of life of the 1122 See See Doniger Doniger & & Smith XXXII,, n. n. 39: all this this is part and and Smith 1991 1 9 9 1 ::XXXII 39: "" .. .. .. all is part of sacrificial sacrificial ideologies ideologies everywhere everywhere." A typical typical Vedic Vedic argument is that that parcel of parcel ." A argument is ritual See e.g: e.g: ritual killing killing is is no no killing killing since since the the victim victim lives lives on on in in heaven. heaven. See not really really die here, nor nor are are you injured.. Rgvedasarphitil 1.162.21 �gvedasarphita 1 . 1 62 . 2 1 "You " You ddoo not die here, you injured go to to the the gods gods on paths pleasant pleasant to on" (nd va v6 u etdn mriyase nd na You go You on paths to go go on" devalif id 1 96 8 : 646 . This This ri�asi ri~asi devam fd e�i esi pathfbhifJ. pathfbhih sugebhifJ.) sugebhih).. See See Schmidt Schmidt 1968:646. textplace undoubtedly precedes the ahirhsa doctrine, but hardly forms a starting-point for for this this theory starting-point theory.. 1133 See also Halbfass 1991:87-129, 1 99 1 : 87-129, especially pp.. 113: 1 1 3 : ""Was Was there really a 'ritual ' ? " and 1 993 : 6-7 . ahirilsil-theory'?" and Bronkhorst Bronkhorst 1993:6-7. 'ritual ahiIDsa-theory

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Jains resembles resembles that that of of the the Vedic Vedic people people and and he he states states:: ""The Jains The conclusion suggests suggests itself itself that that the the ritual ritual ahirhsa-theory ahimsa:-theory is is the the conclusion ultimate of the later renunciatory is the the ultimate source source of the later renunciatory ahirhsa-doctrine ahimsa-doctrine.. It is Vedic ritual ritual which which makes makes us us understand understand the the magico-ritual magico-ritualistic Vedic istic ' background of of the the ahirhsa-movement ahimsa-movement"" (p. (p. 649-50) 649-50).. background Some ve accepted Some German German Indologists Indologists na have accepted this this view view without without question have regarded regarded "the 1 976 : 5 ) . Others Others have " the question (e.g. (e . g . Sprockhoff Sprockhoff 1976:5). magico-ritualistic dread of of destroying destroying life life in any form form"" of of the the Veda Veda magico-ritual istic dread in any as only only one one of of the the possible for one think that that th this as possible explanations. explanations . 14 14 II for one think is so-called " magico-ritual istic dread destroy ing llife" i fe " in so-called "magico-ritualistic dread of of destroying in the the Veda Veda should lot of ing in should not not be be overestimated. overestimated. There There was was aa lot of kill killing in Vedic Vedic ritual and and often often the the texts texts do do not not regard regard this this as problem.. ritual as aa problem Schmidt is realistic Schmidt is realistic enough enough to to admit admit that that the the actual actual abstention abstention from all all kinds kinds of of kill killing in the the classical classical ahilhsa ahilnsa theory theory is is aa far cry far cry from ing in from Vedic practice practice in which cattle cattle were were kil killed this cruelty from the the Vedic in which led and and this cruelty was expiated expiated by by magical magical strategics strategics.. He even states: ahimsawas He even states : "The " The ahirhsa­ doctrine' of the the renouncer in fact, complete reversal of the doctrine of renouncer is, is, in fact, aa complete reversal of the ritual view "the " the reform-rel igions of of the the ritual theory theory"" (p (p.. 650) 650).. In In his his view reform-religions the Buddha Buddha cannot cannot have have initiated initiated this JJina ina and and the this development" development" (p. (p . 650), this is either aa truism truism,, since since indeed indeed Buddhists Jains 650) , but but this is either Buddhists and and Jains did sacrifices and consequently could did not not have have bloody bloody sacrifices and consequently could not not make make this reversal reversal,, or misrepresentation of of the the actual actual situation: situation: Why Why this or aa misrepresentation could not not Jains Jains and and Buddhists Buddhists replace replace the the bloody bloody sacrifices could sacrifices of of Vedism by by their their own own ahimsa? Schmidt tries tries to to find starting-points Vedism ahirhsa? Schmidt find starting-points for the the development development of of ahirhsa ahimsa in the hirhsa-cum-regret-and-expi­ himsa-cum-regret-and-expifor in the ations of of Vedism Vedism.. ations This supposition implies that Buddhist and Jain views views on This supposition implies that Buddhist and Jain on ahimsa ahirhsa should have Vedic approach approach of of the should have developed developed out out of of this this Vedic the problem problem.. Here may have since Buddhism and Jainism Here one one may have doubts doubts,, since Buddhism and Jainism hardly hardly 15 Moreover consulted ike the Moreover these Brahma1)as.. 15 these texts texts consulted Vedic Vedic texts texts llike the Brahmal).as 1144 E E.g. 252.. See also Halbfass 1991:113: . g . Wezler 1978:87, 1 97 8 : 87 , n. 252 1991 : 11 3 : "But does this mean that the origin of ahirpsa has been identified, and that the Vedic ahirhsa?". Thire ritualistic world-view world-view itself itself constitutes constitutes the the one one true true source source of ritualistic of ahirhsa? " . Thite 1975 1 975 appears to be unaware of Schmidt's publication. He is rather cautious in " Even in animal his his evaluation evaluation of of the the ahirhsa references references in in the the BrahmaI).as Brahmanas:: "Even in the the animal (p . 151). 1 5 1 ) . For sacrifice remote sacrifice remote traces traces of of ahirhsa are are seen" seen" (p. For aa reaction reaction on on the the criticisms see Schmidt 1 997 : 2 1 9ff. criticisms expressed expressed about about his his article article see Schmidt 1997:219ff. 15 See Horsch 1966:462: 15 1 96 6 : 462 : "Auch " Auch geht aus dem Buddhistischen Kanon hervor, dass die Anhanger Gotamas keine Beziehung zum hieratischen

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did not not actually actually deal deal with with ahifhsa itself, but but rather rather with with hirhsa hithsa and and did ahithsa itself, its i ation. The earliest Vedic on real its exp expiation. The earliest Vedic texts texts on real ahitizsa, ahifiJsa, the the as observed. observed before before,, and give Dharmasutras,, are are rather rather late late,, as Dharmasutras and do do not not give much on this much argumentation argumentation on this issue issue.. One One can can hardly hardly expect expect them them to to of the the heretical heretical views views on have been been the the sources sources of ahirhsa . have on ahithsa. According doctrine was " s i nce its its earliest earl iest According to to Schmidt Schmidt the the ahithsa alzifhsa doctrine was "since occurrenc;e ... connected with with the the belief belief in in metempsychosis metempsychosis"" (p (p.. occurrenc;e . . . connected 650) put in in the 650).. This This statement statement should should be be put the right right perspective perspective.. The The earliest occurrence occurrence is is in in two in the earliest two passages passages in the Chandogya-Upani�ad Chandogya-Upani~ad,, probably strata ooff the the rest probably belonging belonging to to late late strata the text text.. IInn the rest ooff the the older older Upani�ads can be examined in in its Upani~ads,, where where the the transmigration transmigration theory theory can be examined its // reference at at all to ahithsa. developments,, there there is eearliest arliest developments is not not any any reference all to ahithsa . In ChU last paragraph paragraph of of this this text text and consequently aa In Ch U 88.15, . 1 5 , the the last and consequently possibly late addition, there is indeed aa reference reference to to rebi rebirth or poss ibly late addition, there is indeed rth or rather to to its its avoidanc avoidance, but ahiriIsa is not not advocated advocated on on account of ahitizsa is account of rathec e , but the fact that killing killing living beings like like animals animals might might imply imply killing killing the fact that living beings one's own deceased deceased and reborn relatives·, relatives', as as is case with with one ' s own and reborn is the the case Eskimos and and the Greek Pythagoreans pythagoreans.. 1166 Eskimos the Greek In U 33.17.4 there is no reference reference to to rebi rebirth at all In Ch Ch U . 1 7 .4 there is no rth at all and and Schmidt Schmidt (p.. 653) has has to to admit admit that position of teacher (p that the the exact exact position of the the teacher mentioned in in this this context is not not quite his words words it it mentioned context is quite clear: clear : "From " From his seems to to appear appear that that he he did not yet yet know know the the karman-doctrine karman-doctrine and and seems did not the A Atman-theory." so one why Schmidt Schmidt holds holds the tman-theory . " This This being being so one wonders wonders why that ""since its earliest earliest occurrence occurrence the the ahirhsa-doctrine is connected that si nce its ahirhsa-doctrine is connected w ith the is . " with the belief belief in in metempsychos metempsychosis." Apparently Schmidt situates the the earl earliest of the the . Apparently Schmidt situates iest occurrence occurrence of ahithsa theory theory in the pre-Upani�adic pre-Upani~adic texts texts and and he he even states that that ahirhsa in the even states "the transmigration was was gradually developed in the " the conception conception of of transmigration gradually developed in the time the Brahmajfa-texts BrahmaJ.1a-texts"" (p. 650).. As As II have have tried to show show time of of the (p . 650) tried to elsewhere (Bodewitz this assumption assumption is highly debatable. 1 992) , this is highly debatable . elsewhere (Bodewitz 1992), Moreover one one may ask how this statement statement can can be brought into Moreover may ask how this be brought into line line w ith his observation that that the the author of aa later ike ChU own observation author of later text text llike Ch U with his own 33.17 . 1 7 apparently doctrine of apparently still still did did not not know know the the doctrine of karman. karman. The The of the the origin ahithsa as sketched by by Schmidt as sketched Schmidt hhistorical istorical setting setting of origin of of ahirhsa does convince . does not not convince. Indeed Schmidt deny that that the ahithsa and and Indeed Schmidt cannot cannot deny the association association of of ahirhsa Vedismus besassen. besassen."" Some rituals were were known known (see Falk 1988), but references references Vedismus Some rituals (see Falk 1 988) , but to esoteric commentaries commentaries in are missing to the the esoteric in the the Brahmalfas BrahmaI)as are missing.. 16 16 See Obeyesekere 1996:15. 1 996 : 1 5 .

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b vious . In renouncer is is oobvious. In order to save the continuity from Vedism renouncer order to save the continuity from Vedism to Hinduis Hinduism he now tries to discover preliminary stages of to he now tries to discover preliminary stages of � renunciation and in the the Vedic Vedic ritual ritual,, bas basing on renunciation and asceticism asceticism in ing himself himself on 17 He aa publication publication by by Heesterman. Heesterman. 17 tries to to show that the the Vedic He tries show that Vedic pupil of the pupil,, the the brahmacarin brahmacarin,, would would have have been been aa predecessor predecessor of the sarhnyilsin some striking striking resemblances smhnyasin.. There There are are indeed indeed some resemblances between between the two two,, but but resemblance resemblance does does not not imply imply that that the the one one originated originated the from the less so so since institution of from the other other,, the the less since the the institution of pupilage pupilage continued to exist. exist. Therefore Therefore remarks remarks like like "Sannyasa thus be continued to "Sannyasa can can thus be regarded as as aa return return to to brahmacarya brahmacarya"" (p. hardly carry carry regarded (p . 652) 652) hardly conviction.. conviction It is doubtful its roots in the It is doubtful whether whether renouncement renouncement had had its roots in the orthodox The so-called orthodox Vedic Vedic tradition tradition characterized characterized by by rituals rituals.. I188 The so-called ilsrama system formed asrama system formed aa rather rather late late development development.. Originally Originally renouncement of life life but an alternative renouncement was was not not the the last last period period of but an alternative to to the way way of of life life of of the the householder householder and the oldest oldest ee.g. . g . the and in in the Dharmasiltras (Olivelle Dharmasiltras this this institution institution was was not not favourably favourably judged judged (OliveUe 1993:73). 1 993 : 73) . According to to Schmidt, Schmidt, however however,, renunciation renunciation developed developed out out of According of Vedic ritual ritual by by way way of of the the interiorisation interiorisation of of Vedic Vedic sacrifices sacrifices:: "The Vedic " The step from certainly preceded step from external external to to internal internal sacrifice sacrifice certainly preceded the the emergence of of absolute absolute renunciation" renunciation" (p. In Schmidt's view 652) . In Schmidt ' s view emergence (p . 652). this stage , in only the also the this intermediary intermediary stage, in which which not not only the priests priests but but also the in sacrificial superfluous and some sort of ahirhsil sacrificial victims victims became became superfluous and some sort of ahirizsa in the sense came came into into being the classical classical,, renunciatory renunciatory sense being,, would would coincide coincide with with the the metaritualism metaritualism of of the the Upani�ads Upani~ads.. Again Again we we have have to to observe observe that Upani~ads the the term term ahirhsil ahiJizsa and and the the concept concept that in in these these Upani�ads represented emergence of of represented by by it it are are flatly flatly missing missing.. Moreover Moreover the the emergence 1 7 Heesterman 1964: 17 develop1 964: 1-31 1-3 1 who speaks of an "orthogenetic, internal develop­ of Vedic Vedic thought" thought" (p (p.. 24) 24).. See See also also Heesterman Heesterman 1982:251-271, ment of ment 1 982 : 25 1 -27 1 , espec. espec . 253:: ""Whatever pp.. 253 Whatever additional outside stimuli there may have been, the renunciatory tendency tendency can be seen to arise arise orthogenetically orthogenetically from within vedic vedic renunciatory can be seen to from within itself."" For For cautious cautious criticism criticism see see Olivelle Olivelle 1992:21, 70 and and sacrificial tradition tradition itself. sacrificial 1 992 : 2 1 , 70 Bronkhorst 1 993 : 6 . Bronkhorst 1993:6. 1 8 Otherwise Bronkhorst 1993, 18 1 993 , who assumes that sacrificing Vanaprasthas at the the end end of of their their lives lives and renouncers renouncers who who interiorized interiorized the the sacrifices sacrifices at and represent of ascetics. ascetics . Rather Rather than than the represent the the two two Vedic Vedic types types of the temporary temporary as­ asc eticism of of the the Vedic Vedic rituals rituals (Bronkhorst, 92) the the example by other other ceticism (Bronkhorst, p. p. 92) example set set by types of of renouncers renouncers was was decisive. types decisive.

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renuncIatIOn has to be situated before renuncIatIOn has to be situated before the the period of these Upani�ads , especially especially as Upani~ads, far as as far as circles circles outside Vedic orthodoxy are concerned And last last but but not concerned.. And not least we should take into account that least we should take Hindu (safhnyasa) iri iri the Hindu renunciation renunciation (safhnyasa) the Brahminical Brahminical theory the theory meant meant the giving up of Vedic giving up of Vedic ritual ritual (Olivelle While the heretics (Ol ivel le 1992:58-71). 1 992 : 5 8-7 1 ). While rejected Vedic ritual , the rejected Vedic ritual, the Vedic-Hinduistic Vedic-Hinduistic tradition tradition interiorized it. However, as soon the ritual ritual,, one to fulfil Howeve r , as soon as as one one interiorizes interiorizes the one stops stops to fulfi l the ritual ritual duties duties.. The the The one one who who does does ssoo calmot cal mot live oonn in society. society . This ritual before before This implies impl ies that that there there was was not not aa period period of of interiorized interiorized ritual the emergence the emergence of of Sarpnyasa, Sarpnyasa, since since internalizing internalizing the the sacred sacred fires fi res is is leaving leaving society. society . Indeed,, the the oldest oldest Vedic the term term ahithsa Indeed Vedic textplace textplace in in which which the ahithsa is is explicitly rule of the explicitly mentioned mentioned as as aa rule of life life (ChU (ChU 3.17.4), 3 . 1 7. 4) , occurs occurs in in the context of aa symbolic symbol ic sacrifice, sacrifice , which however , is is not same context of which,, however, not the the same as an an interiorized interiorized ritual as such such is is equated equated with with aa sacrifice. sacrifice . as ritual.. Life Life as Apparently this has has prompted prompted Schmidt Schmidt to to arrive arrive at at the fol l owing Apparently this the following lline i ne of of development: sacrifice -- interiorized interiorized csacrifice cs acrifice -- renunciation. renunciatio n . development: sacrifice context" however, wee ssee Examining the context" Examining the however, w e e i.a. i . a . aa homology homology of of aalll l kinds of profane items items with sacrificial items items in in whiCh ideal istic kinds of profane with sacrificial whiCh nnoo idealistic substitution of ritual by different ideal rol e : the songs and and substitution of ritual by aa different ideal plays plays aa role: the songs S astras) of with recitations of the the Veda Veda are are equated equated with recitations (Stotras (Stotras and and Sastras) joking l aughing and and sex. sex . 19 19 joking,, laughing

4.22 Heesterman, Heesterman, whose to have have inspired 4. whose ideas ideas seem seem to inspired Schmidt, Schmidt, did did

not agree and and wrote wrote another to the the discuss"ion not entirely entirely agree another contribution contribution to discuss"ion . (1984:119-127). this article rejected the ( 1 984 : 1 1 9- 1 27) . In In this article he he rej ected the the solution solution of of the problem the conflict conflict between between the of Vedic Vedic sacrifice sacrifice and and problem of of the the violence violence of the non-violence non-violence of of llater ater Dharma Dharma texts, texts , suggested suggested by in his his the by Alsdorf Alsdorf in well-known monograph monograph of of 1962 Indian vegetarianis vegetarianism. Alsdorf's well-known 1 962 on Indian m . Alsdorf's argumentation was based on argumentation was based on aa historical, historical , chronological chronological sketch. sketc h . First, meat w a s eaten eaten in in the the framework framework ooff ritual ritual and and even even outside outside First, meat was ahithsa came relegated the eating of of meat exclusively thi s ; then this; then ahithsa came and and relegated the eating meat exclusively to the the ritual sphere and and ultimately ultimately vegetarianism vegetarianism became became universal universal to ritual sphere .

1 9 For aa more serious symbolic sacrifice (denoted as kratu mtinasa) see 19 patience , Vasi~!ha-Dharma-Siltra 30.8, truthfulness,, patience, 3 0 . 8 , where meditation, truthfulness Vasi�!ha-Dharma-Siltra modesty, the purely ascetic modesty , ahirhsti, contentment and abhaya represent the of substitutes of sacrificial entities. entities . Is this, however, really the interiorisation of substi­ an actual, ritual,, or should not one rather interpret this this as the the substiactual , specific ritual renouncement? th~ ritualistic religious way of life by asceticism and renouncement? tution of th�

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and sacrifice problematic observes : and the the bloody bloody sacrifice problematic.. Heesterman Heesterman observes: ""However, However, thi us why why and and thiss chronological chronological layering layering does does not not tel telll us from where ahirhsa and vegetarianism came" came" (p. This remark remark and vegetarianism (p . 120). 1 20) . This from where ahirhsa. is not not completely fair , since did mention is completely fair, since Alsdorf Alsdorf did mention aa possible possible origin origin n an of ahirhsa ahirhsa,, namely namely in in the the pre-Aryan pre-Aryan Indus Indus culture, but Heesten Heestennan culture , but of is rIght in in observing that referring referring to to aa culture which we we do observing that culture about about which do is right nnot have any documentation amounts to transferring transferring the problem ot have any documentation amounts to the problem (p. 1 20- 1 2 1 ) . (p . 120-121). He agrees agrees with with Alsdorf' Alsdorf'ss conclusion conclusion ""that ahitizsa was was not not aa He that ahirhsa monopoly and Buddhists on the of Jains Jains and Buddhists but, but, on the contrary contrary,, was was aa monopoly of common in which rahmanism, Buddhism and common Indian Indian movement movement in which B Brahmanism, Buddhism and conjectural Jainism equally equally shared. spares us us the the cumbersome lainism shared . This This spares cumbersome conj ectural history that that supposes supposes the the over-clever over-clever Brahmins Brahmins to to have have saved theirr history saved thei position position by by simply simply taking taking over over the the idea idea from from their their competitors competitors in in an ''if-you-cannot-beat-them-join-them' move"" (p (p.. 121). an i f-you-cannot-beat-them-join-them ' move 121). is doubtful doubtful,, however, however, whether whether this this historical historical sketch assumed IItt is sketch assumed .- by by some some scholars scholars should should be be ''cumbersome' and purely purely 'conjectural'. cumbersome ' and 'conjectural ' . Adaptation external developments developments is characteristic of Vedic­ Adaptation to to external is characteristic of the the VedicHinduistic Hinduistic tradition tradition and and without without this this versatility versatility the the Brahmins Brahmins could could not ition. One even say say that One may may even that not have have maintained maintained their their pos position. Heesterman ' s own own hypothesis will discuss discuss here, here , is is more Heesterman's hypothesis,, which which we we will more than the the one criticized by by him. that ''conjectural' conjectural ' than one criticized him . Therefore Therefore II think think that Dumont 1 966 : 192) 1 92) rightly Dumont ((1966: rightly assumed assumed that that the the Brahmin Brahmin became became vegetarian pour ne que vegetarian ""pour ne pas pas etre etre surclasse surclasse par par Ie Ie renon<;ant renon(fant en en tant tant que chef spirituel spiritueL" Renunciation and and its rules of life seem seem to to be be based based chef . " Renunciation its rules of life on against orthodox on aa reaction reaction against orthodox Vedism Vedism rather rather than than to to have have develo­ developed out of it. At least least one may assume assume that that its its roots roots were were outside outside out of it. At one may ped rather than than inside inside ritualistic ritualistic Vedism Vedism.. rather The characterisation of ahirhsa as as "a common Indian Indian movement movement " a common The characterisation of ahirhsa in which Brahmanism, Brahmanism, Buddhism Buddhism and Jainism equally equally shared" in which and lainism shared " also also How should one imagine this oecumenic oecumenic apraises questions questions.. How raises should one imagine this ap­ pproach, roach , if starting-point is is supposed supposed to ie "in if the the starting-point to llie in Vedic Vedic ritualism? ritualism? The All-India All-India movement movement of renunciation found found in in lainism, Jainism, Bud­ BudThe of renunciation dhism and the the Upani�ads Upani~ads goes goes hand hand in in hand hand with with aa rej rejection or at at dhism and ection or depreciation of Vedic Vedic rituaFO rituaFo and sometimes this this renuncirenuncileast depreci least ation of and sometimes 20

is iLa. found in in the the passages passages on on the the two two ways ways after after . a . found This depreciation is (Chandogya Up 55.10 parallels).. Sprockhoff (1981: espec.. 53death (Chiindogya . 1 0 and par�llels) ( 1 98 1 : 19-90, 1 9-90, espec 5354, arafJya with 54, 6688 ff. ft.)) rightly rightly rejects rejects the the equation equation of of the the people people in in the the aranya with the the so­ socalled Viinaprasthas Vanaprasthas,, but but does does not not sufficiently realize realize that that some some sort sort of called 20

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ation is is criticized criticized by by Vedic Vedic and and even Hindu If abili1sa al;ililSti ation even H i ndu orthodoxy. orthodoxy . If should be be connected connected with with this this spread renunciation, the Vedic Vedic,, should spread of of renunc iation, the the ritualistic origin origin becomes becomes questionable questionable.. But situation of ritualistic But the the situation of the ahimsa doctrine is even universal than than assumed assumed,, ssince the ahirhsa doctrine is even less less universal i nce the Brahmanical ahimsa developed developed so late and and hesitantly hesitantly that that it it hardly hardly so late B rahmanical ahirhsa formed of the the Jain Jain and and Buddhist Buddhist representatives representatives,, formed an an equal equal partner partner of let let alone alone that have inspired them as that it it could could have inspired them as aa source. source . In this is interesting that the In this connection connection it it is interesting that the wel1-known well-known topic topic of of the (leading to iding the pitryana (leading to rebirth) rebirth) and and the the devaytina devayana (prov (providing rebirths) (see n. 20) became became associated liberation from from the the cycle cycle of associated liberationof rebirths) (see n. with ahirhsa ahimsa only only in in aa very very late late stage. the opposition opposition stage . Originally Original1y the with was between between the the man man in in the the village village who who earned earned merits merits by by sacrifices sacrifices was and .l.liberality and the the man man in in the the wilderness wilderness who who was was dedicated dedicated to to and iberality and asceticism and and truth truth.. In In MUJ!.�aka-Upani�ad Mun9aka-Upani~ad 1.2.11 the man man in the 1 . 2. 1 1 the in the asceticism wilderness is is described described as as peaceful peaceful,, passionles passionless, and begging begging.. wilderness s , wise wise and In Prasna-Upani�ad 1 . 1 0 ssimilar imilar rules life are are associated with In Prasna-Upani~ad 1.10 rules of of life associated with In Nirukta 1 4 . 8-9 (i .e. the is qualified the man man who who is qualified for for the the devayana devayana.. In Nirukta 14.8-9 (i.e. iinn aa late late addendum addendum to to this this text) text) the the opposition opposition iiss between between those those who adopting adopting violence violence and up wisdom wisdom perform perform Vedic Vedic rites rites who and giving giving up (atha ye hirhsam himsam asritya vidyam utsrjya .... vedoktani ... . karmtifJ.i karmani and those those who who adopting adopting wisdom wisdom and and giving up violence violence giving up kurvanti) and carry out out actions actions (rituals?) (rituals?) which which are are prescribed prescribed by by knowledge knowledge . . . jfiii n oktani ... . . . karm­ (atha ye hirhsam himsam utsljya vidyam asritya ... jiiilnoktani karmaf}i kurvantz) kurvanti).. Here Vedic sacrifice and ahirhsti ahimsa obviously afJ.i Here Vedic sacrifice and obviously form form an an 2 1 The of the the man man in the wilderness wilderness in all opposition.21 The qualifications qualifications of opposition. in the in all the passages passages on on the the two two paths paths together together clearly clearly refer refer to to ascetics ascetics the (speaking the truth, truth, observing observing chastity chastity and and non-injury non-injury,, begging) begging).. (sp'e aking the Heesterman elaborates elaborates Schmidt's theory of Vedic origin but Heesterman Schmidt' s theory of the the Vedic origin but modifies modifies it. it. According According to to Heesterman Heesterman violence violence was was already already eliminated in in Vedic Vedic ritual ritual itself, itself, at at least least "the violent eliminated " the originally originally violent Parivraj Parivrajakas akas are are meant meant here here.. They They are are not not old old people people leaving leaving the the world world but but alternative lookers lookers for for bliss bliss after after life life.. Sprockhoff's that "die alternative Sprockhoff' s observation observation that " die Zeugnisse der der Zwei-Wege-Lehre Zwei-Wege-Lehre nichts nichts fUr fijr das das Vorhandensein Vorhandensein von Zeugnisse von Vanaprastha und und Sarhnyasin beweisen" therefore therefore is is only only partly partly correct. correct. Vanaprastha Sarhnyasin beweisen" 21 21 Cf. Mahabharata Mahabharata 14.48.21 are devoted devoted to to non-injury non-injury (ahirhsa) 1 4 . 48 . 2 1 "Some " Some are (ahimsti) and others others to to injury injury.. Some Some claim claim that that one one attains through good and attains glory glory through good deeds. deeds . while deny it" Olivelle 1 993 :70, who who observes observes in in aa note " This it" (tr. (tr. Olive lIe 1993:70, note:: "This while others others deny may wel welll be be aa reference reference to to the the sacrificial killing of of animals, practice sacrificial killing animal s , aa practice may condemned ascetic traditions "). condemned by by the the ascetic traditions").

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pattern sacrifice was of ritualism pattern of of sacrifice was replaced replaced by by aa·' system system of ritualism that that minimized violence violence"" (p (p.. 122). may doubt, however, whether whether 1 22) . One One may doubt, however, minimized the substitution of decapitation decapitation of of the the victim victim by by strangling formed the substitution of strangl ing formed aa long is also also observed observed by Schm idt ahirnsa (as (as is by Schmidt long step step towards towards true true ahirhsa 1997:224). 1 997: 224) . He also nts out out that that some sort of of vegetarianism vegetarianism is is found found in in He also poi points some sort Vedic ritual ritual.. The The consecrated consecrated sacrificer drk0ita) has has to to behave behave Vedic sacrificer (the (the drk�ita) samnyasin.. He He abstain� abstains from meat and and sexual sexual contacts till the the from meat contacts till llike ike aa samnyasin day of of the the actual actual sacrifice sacrifice.. Schmidt Schmidt had had already that the the day al ready observed observed that Vedic pupil (the (the brahmacarin) should of life life Vedic pupil should observe observe some some rules rules of Schmidt and and which are similar of the which are similar to to those those of the sarhnyasin sarnnyasin.. Both Both Schmidt Heesterman seem to interpret interpret these these temporary temporary observations Heesterman seem to observations practised in in Vedism as the the predecessors predecessors of swhnyasa;; they they.. are are practised Vedism as of sQlhnyasa partly followed by by Bronkhorst Bronkhorst ((1993). We should should,, however, however, take take partly followed 1 993 ) . We ahitnsa of of the the renouncers renouncers was was not not temporary temporary,, into account account that that the the ahimsa into although in the it became the final final although in the Brahmanical Brahmanical systematisation systematisation it became the period of of llife. Moreover, this this ahifhsa ahitnsa was was (especially the case case (especially in in the period ife . Moreover, 21 How of the the heretics) heretics) connected connected with with aa special special view view of of life life.Y How could of could the ai ns and red by the heterodox heterodox JJains and Buddhists Buddhists have have been been inspi inspired by Vedic Vedic ritual ists who ing of of ritualists who postponed postponed the the kill killing of animals animals for for aa short short period period of purification? Ultimately Ultimately these these sacrificers sacrificers ate ate the the meat meat of victims purification? of victims which explicitly explicitly were were killed killed by by their their orders. which orders . More interesting interesting but stilll l very very conjectural conjectural is Heesterman's More but sti is Heesterman ' s exex­ of the the origin the temporary temporary vegetarianism vegetarianism of the con­ conpplanation lanation of origin of of the of the secrated season of of the the cattle one secrated sacrificer sacrificer.. During During the the violent violent season cattle raids raids one had cattle , to l ives and and not to eat them . had to to fight fight for for cattle, to spare spare their their lives not to eat them. After the return return there there was was aa sacrifice and the the victims victims were were eaten. After the sacrifice and eaten. In classical Vedic sacrifice the In the the classical Vedic sacrifice the raider raider was was replaced replaced by by the the . innocent sacrificer sacrificer who had to to undergo undergo aa short vegetarian con­ coninnocent who had short vegetarian secration as the the replica of the the vegetarian season . The actual secration as replica of vegetarian raiding raiding season. The actual violence of the raids disappeared combination of violence of the raids disappeared and and the the original original combination of 22 22 Schmidt 11997:221 observes:: "Following some of of the the renouncer' renouncer'ss vows 997 : 22 1 observes " Following some to free free oneself from for aa limited limited time time was was obviously considered aa means means to for obviously considered oneself from minor sins . Entering all sins ." minor sins. Entering the the order order of of samnyiisa samnyasa is is the the means means to to remove remove all sins." However, part-time vegetarianism, chastity and teetotalism are rather different from strict observances and Schmidt 1997 : 227 , criticizing from the the relevant relevant strict observances and Schmidt 1997:227, criticizing Heesterman 1984, remarks that "it " it seems improbable that the temporary sense of old ritual vegetarianism vegetarianism of of the the dik�ita diksita in in the the sense of the the old ritual order order was was the the model model for ." for the the vegetarian vegetarian brahmins brahmins."

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hirhsa (violence) and been repl aced by himsa (violence) and vegetarianism vegetarianism would would have have been replaced by ahililsa and and vegetarianis vegetarianism. may as ask, however, whether whether there there ahilizsa m . One One may k, however, are ndications that raiding season season was characterized are any any iindications that the the raiding was really really characterized by all the by vegetarianism vegetarianism and and whether whether all the participants participants maintained maintained this this If the the llatter was the the case (and this this seems seems to to be be the the observance.. If observance atter was case (and foundation of of the the hypothesis) hypothesis),, then then the the initiated initiated sacrificer sacrificer (the foundation (the dlK�ita) drksita) would would be be the the single single representative representative ·of of these these raiding raiding groups groups of of the sacrifice may of vegetarians vegetarians,, since since the the other other participants participants of the sacrifice may eat eat of meat meat including including beef. beef. all kinds kinds of all Heesterman ; s conclusion all the ikely that Heesterman;s conclusion:: "This "This makes makes it it all the more more llikely that the typical fusion of ahilhsa and vegetarianism arose from the typical fusion of ahilizsa and vegetarianism arose from bbrahmanical rahmanical ritual le Buddhists ritual thought, thought, whi while Buddhists and and Jains J ains,, though though stressing non-violence non-violence,, originally originally had had no no particular particular use use for for stressing vegetarianism"" (p. does not not convince me.. Indeed, Alsdorf has has 1 26) does convince me Indeed , Alsdorf vegetarianism (p . 126) shown that old Jain Jain and shown that in in old and Buddhist Buddhist literature literature sometimes sometimes vegetarianism was was not not strictly strictly observed even by by the the monks monks,, though though vegetarianism observed even other give evidence other texts texts give evidence to to the the contrary contrary.. Whether Whether or or not not the the strictness rules was original , even less strict strict application strictness of of the the rules was original, even the the less application does one may kill animals to does not not imply imply that that one may kill animals oneself oneself or or order order them them to be or be co-offender. This different from be killed killed or be an an implicit implicit co-offender. This is is rather rather different from the afterwards eats the Vedic Vedic ritual ritual in in which which the the remporary temporary vegetarian vegetarian afterwards eats the victim victim killed killed by by his order. the his orde r. Even Heesterman cannot cannot explain this incongruity and hhee hhas to E v e n Heesterman explain this incongruity and a s to admit: However marginalized and bloodless actual immolation admit: ""However marginalized and bloodless the the actual immolation may and however it may may have have been been made made,, and however much much it may have have been been hedged hedged in by the the 'ritual theory', remained aa kill killing all the the same. in by ' ritual ahirhsa theory ' , it it remained i ng all same . The that pitted The unresolved unresolved tension tension led led to to an an irreversible irreversible bifurcation bifurcation that pitted the world renouncer against the householder and the world renouncer against the worldly worldly householder and s acrificer " (p. (p . 126). 1 26) . The The article article concludes mystifying story story sacrificer" concludes with with aa mystifying about ''unresolved tensions', 'paradoxes'' and All about unresolved tensions ' , 'paradoxes and 'contradictions'. 'contradictions ' . All these paradoxes paradoxes,, however however,, need need not not be be attributed attributed to to Vedism these Vedism and and H i ndu is m . They are produced approach of of the Hinduism. They are produced by by the the wrong wrong approach the researcher problem which researcher to to the the problem which predictably predictably could could not not but but lead lead to to such such aa confusion. confusion. 4 1 994 Oguibenine contribution on on the . 3 In 4.3 In 1994 Oguibenine wrote wrote aa contribution the Veda Veda iinn aa

volume on violence and non-violence in which unfortunatel unfortunatelyy volume. on violence and non-violence in India, India, which not yield yield new new perspectives perspectives,, aass it it repeated repeated Schmidt's article on on ddid i d not Schmidt ' s article the main main issues issues.. Heesterman Heesterman's more recent recent pub publication was the ' s more lication was completely completely overlooked overlooked..

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4.4 Recently ((1996: 223-244) Tull Tull publ published paper on on the the 1 996 : 223-244) ished aa paper 4 . 4 Recently subject. He He follows Schmidt and and Heesterman, ects the subject. follows Schmidt Heesterman, rej rejects the pre-Aryan pre-Aryan origin as well as the idea i.a. i . a . put origin of of ahirhsa ahirizsa assumed assumed by by Alsdorf Alsdorf as well as the idea put sramal'}a tradition forward forward by by Dumont Dumont that that the the so-called so-called sramafJa tradition of of., the the ascetic renouncers would would have have formed formed the the starting-point starting-point of the ascetic renouncers of the ahimsa doctrine doctrine and states that that "though "though it it is is consonant consonant With with the their ahirhsti and states ir characteristic renunciatory renunciatory behavior behavior .. .. .. ,, they they seem to have have characteristic see m to adopted non-violence non-violence from from BrahmaI.1ic adopted circles " (p. (p . 223 ) . It is Brahma,!ic circles" 223). It is especially even now such rather u nded conclusions especially the the fact fact that that even now such rather unfo' unfounded conclusions are uncritically uncritically repeated repeated that that has has induced induced me me to to make make the the present present are survey of origin of of the ahilhsti theory survey of publications publications on on the the Vedic Vedic origin the ahilhsa theory.. Against Schmidt ' s view that the Against Schmidt's view that the interiorised interiorised ritual ritual would would make make the animals superfluous Tull rightly even in in the killing killing of of animals superfluous,, Tull rightly holds holds that that even Manu ' s days of the still was Manu's days the the problem problem of the bloody bloody sacrifice sacrifice still was not not solved and consequently consequently he he is is more more inclined inclined to to follow follow Heesterman Heesterman solved and who places places the the ahifhsa ahithsa al already ready in in Vedism Vedism and and its its rituals rituals,, where where the the who impression is created was not impression is created that that the the actually actually killed killed victim victim was not really really killed And , thus ust assume sac rificial performance killed:: ""And, thus,, we we m must assume that that the the sacrificial performance was actually performed was perceived, if if not not actually performed,, as as aa non-violent non-violent act" act" (( pp.. 226).. The The consistency consistency iinn Tull Tull's not very very obvious, 226) 's argumentation argumentation iiss not obvious , since the objection against Schmidt's view view equally since the objection against Schmidt's equal ly applies applies to to Heesterman's: problem would would have have been been solved, would Heesterman ' s : if if the the problem solved , why why would Manu still have to to solve this problem problem.. The The killing killing did not stop by Manu still have solve this did not stop by saying that it it was was not not kiWng killing.. s aying that In order to to add something new to the the discussion Tull points points out out In order add something new to discussion Tull that the the initiated initiated sacrificer sacrificer (the (the d[k�ita) drk~ita) is is not not allowed to eat allowed to eat beef, beef, that because,, as as the the texts texts state state,, this this would amount to to killing killing an embryo.. because would amount an embryo As the d[k�ita himself is also an embryo, embryo , this himself is also considered considered to to be be an this As the drksita would apply to the the equation of the the sacrificer and the the pprohibition rohibition would apply to equation of sacrificer and sacrificial victim, victim, which also stated in the the texts. sacrificial which is is also stated in texts . Now Tull Tull wonders wonders why why the texts specifically specifically forbid forbid the Now the texts the eating eating of cattle and and he which comes of cattle he concludes concludes that that the the cow cow is is the the animal animal which comes nearest to to human human beings beings.. The The virtual virtual victim victim should should have have been been the the nearest sacrificer, who and therefore is replaced sacrificer, who cannot cannot be be killed killed and therefore is replaced by by his his nearest relative relative animal animal,, the the cow, which also also cannot cannot be be killed killed.. In In nearest cow , which Tull's words:: "Although the representation representation of of cattle cattle as as having Tull ' s own own words " Although the having human characteristics characteristics makes makes them them an ritual substitute for man man human an ideal ideal ritual substitute for .. .. .. ,, the the establishment establishment of resemblance between between men and of aa close close resemblance men and cattle easily becomes becomes aa self-defeating proposition" (p (p.. 232) 232).. cattle easily self-defeating proposition" would like like to to observe observe here here that horse rather rather thaI! thaI1 the cow II would that the the horse the cow

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has the the closest closest resemblance resemblance to to man man in literature and has in Vedic Vedic literature and directly directly of the the domesticated domesticated living living beings beings comes after after man man in in the the hierarchy hierarchy of comes . 2 3 Moreover, (the (the pasavas) pasavas).D Moreover, the the eating eating of of the the cow cow is is only only forbidden forbidden (dik~a) of of the the sacrifice sacrificer. There is no obj objection during the the initiation initiation (dfk.rti) during r . There is no ection of principle principle to to the the kill killing and eating eating of of cows cows and and consequently the of ing and consequently the relation with with the the ahirhsti ahithsa still remains unclear unclear.. relation still remains Tull also also wants wants to to involve involve Schmidt's on interiorisation interiorisation in in Tull Schmidt ' s ideas ideas on his Through the of interiorization interiorization his approach approach and and he he states states:: ""Through the process process of man (as victim) effectively merged in­ man (as (as sacrificer) sacrificer) and and cattle cattle (as victim) are are effectively merged into single figure . . . The The convergence convergence of man and and cattle into the to aa single figure ... of man cattle into the s i ngle figure stand as as the of single figure of of the the yajamtina yajamana may may stand the beginning beginning point point of an extensive extensive complex complex of of non-kil non-killing toward cattle an l ing directed directed first first toward cattle ... then by by extension extension to to other other animal animals" (p.. 238) 238).. This This medley medley . . . and and then s " (p of Schmidt's and Heesterman' Heesterman'ss views views to to which which the the special special position position of Schmidt ' s and of cattle cattle is is added added fails fails to to convince convince me me.. In In which which period period would of would ahirhsa have have been been extended to other other animal animalss and when was was this this ex­ exahirhsti extended to and when tended of the adopted by tended version version of the ahirhsti ahirhsa doctrine doctrine adopted by Jains Jains and and Buddhists? ieve that Buddhists? Do Do we we really really have have to to bel believe that the the heretic heretic religions religions and especially especially their their ascetic ascetic traditions traditions were were influenced influenced by by Vedic Vedic and subtil ities on ling , on subtilities on killing killing that that is is not not kil killing, on vegetarianism vegetarianism followed followed by equations of of man man by banquets banquets abounding abounding in in meat meat and and on on symbolic symbolic equations and ly consult and cow? cow? Did Did those those Jains Jains and and Buddhists Buddhists real really consult texts texts like like the the B rahmaI).a.s? What so-called Brahmapa,s? What was was the the real real influence influence of of the the so-called interiorized interiorized rituals rituals as as long long as as the the actual actual performance performance of of Vedic Vedic bloody bloody sacrifices sacrifices continued? continued? 4 . 5 In 4.5 In 1997 returned to to the the subj subject ahithsa.. Though 1 997 Schmidt Schmidt returned ect of of ahirhsti Though

stating "In the following following II am am giving giving aa shortened shortened version of my my stating " In the version of earlier and "1 earlier paper paper with with some some changes changes and and additions additions"" and "1 discuss discuss some of the the work work publ published on the the subject and advance some some of ished on subj ect and advance some thesis"" (p (p.. 208), arguments which which m may my original original thesis arguments ay support support my 208) , Schmidt is less emphatic his assumption Vedic Schmidt is now now less emphatic in in his assumption of of aa Vedic ritualistic origin. He now now lays lays more more stress stress on on the the connection with ritualistic origin. He connection with asceticism. The relationship between brahinactirin brahmacarin and samnyasin asceticism . The relationship between and samnytisin is almost up.. What What remains remains is is a rather rather vague vague preference preference for for is almost given given up aa Vedic n. Vedic origi origin. 2233 SSee 1 976 : 30 . Kathaka-Sarilhita 6.2 Bodewitz 1976:30. 6 . 2 translated iinn Bodewitz . g . Kathaka-Sarhhita e e ee.g.

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55.1 . 1 If If now asceticism and now we we connect connect ahirhsa ahimsd with with asceticism and renouncement renouncement

rather developments starting rather than than with with developments starting in in Vedic Vedic ritualism ritualism,, we we have have rguments . The to rovide some some aarguments. to pprovide The concept concept of of ahirhsa ahirizsd indeed indeed mostly mostly occurs occurs in in association association with with other other rules rules of of life life which which pertaill pertain to to 24 renouncers,, at least in in the the earliest earliest literature literature.. 24 renouncers at least Jainism five so-called so-called great great observances J ainism knows knows five observances prescribed prescribed for for the (abstention from the monks monks:: ahirhsa ahimsd (non-injury) (non-injury),, asteyam asteyam (abstention from stealing) , satyam (the (the speaking speaking of of truth) stealing), truth),, brahmacaryam (chastity (chastity,, celibacy) and (non-accumulation of property,, the vow celibacy) and aparigraha (non-accumulation of property the vow of also apply of poverty) poverty).. These These rules rules also apply to to the the lay lay people people,, be be it it less less strictly originally these strictly.. One One may may assume assume that that originally these rules rules were were prescribed for for the the monks monks,25 relaxation for for laymen prescribed , 2 5 since since relaxation laymen (the (the majority) more probable probable than than tightening tightening up up for for the the ascetics (the maj ority) is is more ascetics (the minority).. Moreover Moreover Jainism Jainism had had its its roots roots in in asceticism asceticism and and similar minority) similar rules are found . g . Christianity) rules for for monks monks are found in in other other religions religions (e (e.g. Christianity).. The original The original connection connection with with asceticism asceticism and and renouncement renouncement especially (aparigraha) , of chastity especially applies applies to to the the vows vows of of poverty poverty (aparigraha), of chastity of non-injury (ahirhsa) . Here the relaxation (brahmacaryam) and and of non-injury (ahimsd). Here the relaxation for aymen is other two vows or for the the llaymen is almost almost unavoidable unavoidable.. The The other two vows or rules rules are rather rather general general.. are The same same five five rules rules are to Y Yogins by Pataiij Patafijali his The are applied applied to ogins by ali in in his Y ogasfitra, aa relatively lists of Yogasutra, relatively late late Hindu Hindu text text.. Similar Similar lists of rules rules are are found The SSaJ!.9ilya-Upani~ad aI!<;lilya-Upani �ad mentions 10 found in in other other late late sources sources.. The mentions 10 instead ooff 5 Yamas Yamas,, but but leaves leaves out out the the vow vow ooff poverty poverty (aparigraha) instead and ion is is found iiavalkya-Smrti . 3 12) and the the same same omiss omission found in in the the Yaj Yajfiavalkya-Smrti (3.312) . (3 (7.100; ascetics). . and iin the SSiva-Upani~ad � etics) . and n the iva-Upani�ad (7 . 1 00 ; for as B uddhism also or 10 1 0 rules In the the series of five Buddhism also knows knows 55 or rules.. In series of five aparigraha (the (the vow vow of of poverty) poverty) is is remarkably remarkably miss missing; ing ; instead instead the the prohibition alcohol is is found found (Schmithausen 1 993 : 37) . prohibition of of alcohol (Schmithausen 1993:37). Of these or restrictions are expressed expressed with with the Of these observances observances or restrictions three three are the negative prefix phenomenon which we have have discussed discussed above which we above negative prefix a-, aa phenomenon ahimsd.. Its Its absence in the the prohibition of lying lying in connection with with ahirhsa in connection absence in prohibition of is quite understandable, understandable, since this concept itself is mostly already is quite since this concept itself is mostly already expressed with with aa negatio negation speaking the the truth) truth) and therefore the the expressed n (not (not speaking and therefore 2244 See also also Sprockhoff 1976: the prohibition prohibition of eating meat meat being being 1 976 : 131 1 3 1 on the originally ""schlechthin nur Bestandteil Bestandteil asketischer asketischer Lebensweise Lebensweise". originally schlechthin nur ". 2255 See Caillat 1993: householder'ss 1 993 : 2212 1 2 on pariggaha characterizing "the " the householder' unrestrained life"" .. unrestrained way way ooff life

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two result in e . Chastity Chastity (brahmacaryam) (brahmacary.al11) two negations negations result in one one positive positive rul rule. was originaIIy identical with of life l ife was originally identical with the the term term denoting denoting the the period period of before marriage marriage in which one the Veda Veda with with a Guru Guru.. The before in which one studied studied the The fact chastity of fact that that this this term term was was transferred transferred to to the the vow vow of of chastity of the the ascetic renouncers renouncers and and monks monks of of course does not not imply imply that that ascetic course does as aa way way of life developed from the the state of aa religious religious renunciation as renunciation of life developed from state of student. 5 . 2 Commandments C ommandments mostly amount to 5.2 mostly amount to bans bans and and prohibitions prohibitions and and consequently with aa paraIIel parallel set set of The major consequently are are associated associated with of sins. sins . The major and minor observances observances presuppose presuppose major major and and minor minor si sins. and minor ns . Indeed Indeed these are found found in in the the texts texts.. Al Already in the the Chandogya-Upanisad these are ready in Chandogya-Upani�ad (5.10.9) capital sins sins are enumerated.. The number of (5 . 1 0 . 9) five five capital are enumerated The expected expected number of five could five could only only be be reached reached by by regarding regarding contact contact with with those those who who have committed committed the the specified specified four four sins sins as the fifth fifth.. These four sins have as the These four si ns are of gold of aa Brahmin, are:: the the stealing stealing of gold,, the the killing killing of Brahmin, the the drinking drinking of of alcohol and and sexual with the the wife wife of the Guru. alcohol sexual contact contact with of the Guru . In set of of sins s ins we an adaptation adaptation of of the the four or In this this strange strange set we see see an four or five rules of of life mentioned before before.. The prohibition of five rules life mentioned The prohibition of stealing stealing gold gold llooks ooks like s ince of the the general general rule rule of of asteyam asteyam,, since like aa Vedic Vedic restriction restriction of to be be an an acceptable acceptable pastime pastime in stealing used to stealing cattle cattle in in aa cattle-raid cattle-raid used in the Vedic Vedic period period and and property property mainly mainly consisted of gold gold and and cattle cattle.. the consisted of The term term brahmacaryam was was taken taken too too literally literally and and associated associated with with The the pupil (brahmacarin) who who was the house house of the pupil was living liv ing in in the of the the Guru Guru and whose whose only only chance of sexual sexual intercourse intercourse was was with with the the Guru's and chance of Guru ' s wife seems to appl ication of of wife.. The The killing killing ooff aa Brahmin Brahmin seems to bbee aa strange strange application capital the of ahirhsa. It the rule rule of It may may refer refer to to murder, murder, but but also also to to capital punishment from from which which indeed indeed the the B Brahmins exempted.. The punishment rahmins were were exempted The drinking of of alcohol alcohol (forbidden by the the Buddhists) Buddhists) can hardly be be drinking (forbidden by can hardly regarded as as aa capital capital sin of all the classes classes.. The whole series makes regarded sin of all the The whole series makes the impression impression of of aa B Brahminical adaptation of the rules rules of the rahminical adaptation of the of life life of of ascetics.. 2266 the ascetics 55.3 . 3 Returning ascetical rules now discuss Returning to to these these ascetical rules II will will now discuss the the com­ commandments occurring in texts texts earlier earlier than than the the mentioned mentioned llate Hindu mandments occurring in ate Hindu xts . See 2266 A similar list list is is.found texts. See e.g. Gautama-DhS 221.1e . g . Gautama-DhS 1 . 1found in the Dharma te 33;; A 1.7 . 2 1 . 8 ; Manu-Smrti 1 1 .55 . From From these pastamba-DhS 1.7.21.8; Apastamba-DhS Manu-Smrti 11.55. these textplaces textplaces and and not the the their contexts contexts one one sometimes sometimes gets the impression impression that that the the Guru their gets the Guru is is not teacher and and that that incest the mother meant. teacher incest with with the mother is is meant.

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scriptures scriptures.. The The post-Vedic post-Vedic Dharmasastra Dharmasastra of of Manu Manu,, which which consists consists of of several current editions, editions , prescribes in several layers layers iri in the the current prescribes ten ten rules rules in . common 6 . 92 . Here common for for laymen laymen and and ascetics ascetics in in 6.92. Here the the three three typically typically ascetic vows vows of of poverty poverty (aparigraha), chastity (brahmacaryam) ascetic (aparigraha) , chastity (brahmacaryam) and and (ahirhsd) are which supports supports my on the non-injury non-injury (ahimsa) are missing, missing, which my view view on the . 75 ahirhsa icitly prescribed nature and origin of ahithsa ahili1sa.. In In 66.75 ahimsa is is expl explicitly prescribed nature and origin of for list of of rules for for Sarhnyasins Sarhnyasins.. On On the the other other hand hand aa much much shorter shorter list rules for alll the so-called Asramas world and ascetics) al the so-cal led A sramas (i.e. (i . e . for for men men in in the the world and ascetics) in 10.63 mentions ahilizsa ahili1sa together together with with speaking the truth truth speaking the in 1 0 . 63 mentions (satyam),, abstention abstention from from stealing purity (Saucarn) and (satyam) steal ing (asteyam), (asteyam) , purity (saucarn) and restraint of of the the senses perhaps here restraint senses (indriyanigraha, perhaps here substituting substituting brahmacaryam,, chastity chastity,, or or for for the the man man in in the the worl world: restraint in brahmacaryam d : restraint in sexual life).. The The aparigraha (originally (originally the the vow vow of of poverty poverty of ascesexual life) of asce­ tics) apparently apparently could could not not be be included included for for all all the the categories of men. men. tics) categories of It of the ahilizsa It is is therefore therefore remarkable remarkable that that in in this this layer layer of the text text the the ahili1sa had already already become become prescribed prescribed for for other other people people than had than the the Sarhnyasins Sarhnyasins.. The ( 1 . 3 . 1 3 ) likewise ahirhsa The Arthasastra Arthasastra of of Kau�ilya Kau~ilya (1.3.13) likewise prescribes prescribes ahimsa for all all people people and and all all classes (together with with ii.. aa.. satyam and for classes (together and saucam) saucam);; brahmacaryam and and aparigraha are are missing missing.. Again Again an an that unlike the ascetic vows of of poverty poverty and the iindication ndication that unlike the ascetic vows and chastity chastity the rule of of ahirhsa ahimsa had had reached reached aa larger larger appl application. ication. rule In In the the BhagavadgTta Bhagavadgita (a (a text text which which does does not not favour favour renouncement renouncement and pleads pleads the the necessity necessity of of innerworldly innerworldly asceticism) asceticism) ahirhsa ahimsa occurs occurs and in aa list of rules rules for for all human beings beings in In 13.7-11 ahimsa in list of all human in 16.1-2. 1 6 . 1 -2 . In 1 3 . 7- 1 1 ahirhsa is in aa different not seem seem to to aim at the the is found found in different list list which which does does not aim at ordinary men in the the world world.. In In the the list virtues prescribed prescribed for ordinary men in list of of virtues for Brahmins ahimsa is missing.. So there are traces of the B rahmins in in 18.42 1 8 . 42 ahirhsa is missing So there are traces of the this concept concept as as well well as its more more general general ascetic background of ascetic background of this as of of its application application in in this this text. text. 55.4 . 4 The oldest Dharma The situation situation in in the the oldest Dharma texts texts,, the the Vedic Vedic the origin Dharmasutras,, offers offers the the best best illustration Dharmasiitras illustration of of the origin and and spread spread of rule of of ahirhsa ahimsa.. The The term term does not often these texts texts.. does not often occur occur in in these of the the rule Gautama,, we In the probably probably oldest oldest Sutra, that of In the Siitra, that of Gautama we find find aa list list of of rules or virtues of excellent Brahmins Brahmins in which eeight ight rules or virtues of excellent in 8.23, 8 . 23 , in in which' ahimsa is is missing missing.. Perhaps Perhaps daya ('compassion all creatures') ahirhsa ( ' compassion on on all creature s ' )

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denotes similar concept, concept,27 but this this is uncertain.. In In Baudhayanadenotes aa similar 2 7 but is uncertain Baudhayana­ Dharmasiltra 22.10.18.2-3 (probably aa late this early early Dharmasiitra . 1 0 . 1 8 . 2-3 (probably late interpolation interpolation in in this Sutra as observed observed by by Ol Olivelle five rules rules and and secondary secondary Siltra as ivelle 1993:87) 1 993 : 87) five 2R rules (vratas and upavratas) upavratas) for Sarimyasins enumerated.. "8 rules ( vratas and for Sarhnyas ins are are enumerated The maj major rules resemble resemble the the Mahavratas Mahavratas of of the Jains and the The or rules the Jains and the maithu­ Yamas of Yamas of later later Hindu Hindu texts texts:: ahilhsti, ahifnsa, satyam, astainyam, maithunasya var janam ((= brahmacaryam) and ( aparigraha) varjanam and tytiga tyaga (= aparigraha).. A. Apastamba Dharmasutra 0.8.23.6) has aa rather rather different different set set of of pastamba Dharmaslitra ( 1 . 8 . 23 . 6) has prescripts (i (intended for renouncers renouncers and and men men in in the the world) world) in which prescripts ntended for in which ' the term term ahirhsa ahimsa is is actuaJly actuaJIy missing, missing, but but seems to have have been been repla­ replathe seems to ced ced by by adroha. 2299 One the latest latest Slitras Sutras,, Vasi�tha-DhS Vasistha-DhS.. 44.4 preOne of of the . 4 pre­ scribes ahilhsti, ahifnsa, together together with with satyam, akrodha, dtinam danam and and praja­ prajascribes . 5-9 th is text ing nanam for for all all men, men, but but in in 44.5-9 this text accepts accepts the the ritual ritual kill killing of and in in 14.14 1 4 . 1 4 it is said that food food given of animals animals and it is said that given by by aa hunter hunter who who uses the the bow bow must must not not be be rejected rejected.. uses So we see that that the the number and contents of the of presc ripts _ So we see number and contents of the lists lists of prescripts. still were not entirely fixed fixed and and that the term term ahilhsti ahitnsa as as member member of of still were not entirely that the the well-known well-known five rules is is only only found found in Baudhayana's the five rules in Baudhayana 's (interpolated) list ooff prescripts prescripts for for renouncers renouncers which which seems seems ttoo have have (i nterpolated) list been adopted adopted from from the the Jains Jains and and to to have have been been adapted adapted in in its its been terminology.. The The fact fact that that the the (later) (later) Hindu Hindu texts texts sometimes sometimes have terminology have four and sometimes items in in common common may ing may point point to to borrow borrowing four and sometimes five five items from as well The single of from Jain Jain as well as as Buddhist Buddhist sources sources.. The single occurrence occurrence of the fivefold lists chronology the two two fivefold lists of of Baudhayana Baudhayana and and the the uncertain uncertain chronology speak against taking taking the the Vedic Vedic Dharmaslitras Dharmasutras as as the the starting-point speak against starting-point for lists in in Jainism Jainism3JO0 and Buddhism. It is possible that the for similar s imilar lists and Buddhis m . It is possible that the =

=

2277 Schmidt Schmidt 1968:634. However, Ch. Ch. l7 of this this Satra Sutra (on eating and 1 968 : 634. However, 17 of (on eating and on on Visl!uforbidden food) food) does does not not prescribe prescribe vegetarianism vegetarianism.. In other texts texts (e (e.g. forbidden In other . g . Vi��u­ DhS . 1 6) daya as as ahimsa seems to ind icate DhS.. 22.16) as well well as ahirizsa occur occur together, together, which which seems to indicate that that they they are are not not identical identical.. 2288 Baudhayana-DhS Baudhayana-DhS.. 33,, 10, 1 0 , 13 1 3 gives a similar, but not entirely identical list of penances penances in in which which the the first first three three items items (non-injury, the truth truth and of (non�injury , speaking speaking the and abstention from theft) occur, but brahmacaryam and and apadgraha aparigraha are missing.. abstention from theft) occur, but are missing 2299 Cf. Manusmrti 44.148 adrohei1a ca bhutanam . 148 adrohel'}a bhatanam "and " and [by] non-injury to beings"" (Schmidt (Schmidt 1968:634); However, A A.pastamba-DhS does not not living beings living 1968 : 634)c However, pastamba-DhS 1l.5.l7 . 5 . 1 7 does vegetarianism. but it may belong to an earlier layer text.prescribe vegetarianism, l ayer of the text 3300 Caillat Caillat 1993:224 observes that that "there little doubt doubt that that the the seniors 1 993 : 224 observes " there iiss little seniors ooff the canons canons insist insist on on ''non-injury' (ahirizsa) so so consistently that from the start the non-injury ' (ahimsa) consistently that from the start lainism can be be termed termed aa doctrine of non-violence non-violence"" and that "from the lainism can doctrine of and that " from the it was was central central in in the the Jaina Jaina system." beginning it beginning system . "

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rules rules of of conduct conduct·· of the renouncers renouncers fDund found in the Vedic of the Dhartnasutras " were taken Dhartnasutras "were taken from from ascetic ascetic codes codes"" (Olivelle (Ol ivelle 1992: 1 992 : 15151 6) , but assumedly Brahmaifical 16), but the the assumedly BrahmaI}ical bhik�u-sutras bhik~u-sutras tto which Paifini PaI}ini o which refers refers (Olivelle have not not been been transmitted transmitted and the (Olivelle 1992: 1 992 : 13), 1 3 ) , have r ant unfixed unfixed status status of of these these rules rules in in the the Dharmasutras Dharmasutras does not war warrant does not the the assumption assumption of strong B Brahmanical tradition in this respect. respect. of aa strong rahmaifical tradition in this Anyhow it Anyhow it is is clear clear that that originally originally ahilhsa ahililSllwas prescribed for was only only prescribed a minority (especially ascetics).3! ascetics) . 3 ! 55.5 . 5 The The two two incidental in older incidental references references to to non-injury non-Injury in older Upani�adic roblematic . In Upani~adic literature literature remain remain pproblematic. In Chandogya-Upani�ad Chandogya-Upanisad five virtues virtues or prescripts are with the the sacrificial fees 33.17.4 . 1 7 . 4 five or prescripts are equated equated with sacrificial fees given to to the the priests priests (the (the dak�if}as) daksinas):: tapas, danam, aarjavam, given rjavam, ahithsa and satyavacanam satyavacanam.. On On account the occurrence occurrence of of danam and account of of the these items items cannot cannot refer refer to to Sarpnyasins ((,liberality') , l iberality ' ) these Sarymyasins (a (a category category which probably probably still still did did not not form form an established Asrama). which an establ ished A §rama) . This This fivefold is not not identical identical with with the the well-known well-known five five items items of fivefold series series is of Jainism, Buddhism, the the Baudhayana Baudhayana Dharmasutra Dharmasutra and and later later Hindu Hindu Jaini s m , Buddhism, texts,, though though ahirhsa ahilhsa and and satyavacanam do do agree with the them. texts agree with m. Perhaps danam should should be be regarded regarded aass the the householder householder's ' s adaptation adaptation Perhaps of of aparigraha aparigraha (by (by Baudhayana Baudhayana called called tyaga tyaga,, aa term term which which outside outside of renunciation renunciation may may also also denote denote aa donation). the sphere sphere of the donation) . In Chandogya-Upani~ad 8.15 again the the householder householder is In Chandogya-Upani�ad 8 . 1 5 again is associated associated with ahimsa. ahirhsa. His virtues or prescripts are are the the study the Veda, Veda, His virtues or prescripts study of of the with procreation of concentration on on the the A Atman and being being procreation of offspring, offspring , concentration tman and harmless (ahimsant) (ahirhsant) towards towards all beings except Vedic sacrifices. all beings except at at Vedic sacrifices . harmless man obtains obtains the world of Brahman and will not born Such aa man Such the world of Brahman and will not be be born 32 It again. It is is obvious obvious that that this this passage passage at at the the end end of the Upani�ad Upani~ad agai nY of the

33!! From ascetics ascetics the the rule rule of ahirhsa extended to to special persons persons and ahirhsa extended concluded that situations. Alsdorf 1962:578, ahirhsa situations . Alsdorf 1 962 : 57 8 , n. n. 11 already already concluded that originally originally ahirhsa concerned the the ascetics ascetics.. See also Gautama-DhS prescribing for for the concerned See also Gautama-DhS 99.73 . 73 prescribing the excellent Brahmin that he shall never hurt hurt (nityam excel lent Brahmin that he shall never (nityam ahirhsro) ahirhsro) any any creature, creature , ahirhsa and which need not imply vegetarianism. The connection between ahirhsa explicitly made by the the late Visnu-DhS (actually vegetarianism, however, however, is vegetarianism, is explicitly made by late Vi�lfu-DhS (actually aa S~ti) 5 51. 70-72.. In In 52.17 injuring wealth wealth causes heavier sin. sin. According According to to SIIl{ti) 1 . 70-72 52 . 17 injuring causes aa heavier Baudhayana-DhS 1.5.2 and 33.1.26 internal purification purification is is obtained obtained by by ahirhsa ahirhsa.. Baudhayana-DhS 1 . 5 . 2 and . 1 . 26 internal 3322 Cf. Cf. Vi�lfu-DhS Vi~nu-DhS 28 28.47 Brahmana who who passes passes thus ... the time time of of his his . 47 ""A A Brahmalfa . . . the studentship attain to to the the most most exalted abode (that (that of his studentship will will attain exalted abode of Brahman) Brahman) after after his death,, and and will not be be born born again" again" (tr. (tr. Jolly, Jolly, SEE SEE VIII) VIII).. death will not

40

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forms aa late addition in in which which some some sort sort of of non-renunci~tory non-renunc i9tory forms late addition claimed for in the the world The liberation (mok�a) liberation (mok~a) is is claimed for the the man man in world.. The Upani�ad the aspirations aspirations of of the ists and and Upani~ad here here presupposes presupposes the the non-ritual non-ritualists tries to to incorporate in the own view of life life of of the the Vedic Vedic tries incorporate them them in the own view of householder way similar to the the approach the Glta householder in in aa way similar to approach of of the GTtii which which also reacts against renouncers renouncers.33 . 33 5 . 6 The The list list of of Chai1dogya-Upani~ad Chai1dogya-Upani �ad 3.17.4 3 . 1 7 . 4 (tapas, danam, 5.6 arjavam, ar javam, ahirhsa and and satyavacanam) contains contains items items which which in in all all kinds of combinations combi nations are also found found in in other other Upani~ads Upani�ads and the kinds of are also and the Glta and and even in older the Chandogya-Upani Chandogya-Upani~ad, Glta even in older Vedic Vedic texts. texts . In In the �ad , however, ahithsa which with them them for the first however, iitt iiss ahilhsa which occurs occurs together together with for the fi rst time.. Apparently the older Vedic texts not know time Apparently the older orthodox o rthodox Vedic texts stilI stiII did did not know the concept, at at least least did did not not regard regard it it as as one one of of the the rules rules of of life life or or the concept, aims in life was stiIl aims in life and and iitt was stiII exclusively exclusively associated associated with with nonnon­ ritualistic with ascetics have belonged ritualistic circles circles and and with ascetics who who may may have belonged to to groups.. heterodox groups 6 . Gandhi, Gandhi , whose wiIl always always remain connected with with the the 6. whose name name wiIl remain connected modern interpretation of ahirhsa, adopted adopted the ascetic prescripts In modern interpretation of the ascetic prescripts.. In 1 92 1 he he mentions mentions besides besides ahirhsa also also satyam, his credo his credo of of 1921 and aparigraha, the four four old brahmacaryam and aparigraha , the old rules rules of of ascetics ascetics and and is miss ing . However, However , for Satyagrah Yogins . Here Here asteyam is Yogins. missing. for his his Satyagrah Ashram he he pprescribed including asteyam (RoIl and Ashram rescribed six six observances, observances , including (RoIl and 1924:89-90). These rules rules had had to strictly applied by the teachers, 1 924 : 8 9-90) . These to be be strictly applied by the teacher s, people.. So wee whereas aa less whereas less strict strict application application concerned concerned the the other other people So w the earliest earliest period period tiII till modern and the the ssee e e that that from from the modern times times ahirhsa and other prescripts primarily primarily refer refer to to ascetics monks and that by by other prescripts ascetics and and monks and that extension aa weakened version was was prescribed and men extension weakened version prescribed for for laymen laymen and men in the world. in the world. Asceticism formed formed the the starting-point and though though it it Asceticism starting-point of of ahirhsa and

33 33 One may compare this passage in which procreation and Vedic ritual are associated the A Atman with release from rebirth associated with with the tman doctrine doctrine and and with release from rebirth with with BrhadBrhad­ A rallyaka-Upani�ad 4.4.22, 4. 4 . 22 , where creating offspring offspring and and obtaining obtaining release are AraI.J.yaka-Upani~ad where creating release are opposed. living in the world having sons the opposed . The The opposition opposition between between living in the world and and having sons on on the one hand .and the the life mendicant is is already already treated treated in in Aitareya-BrahmaJ).a one hand .and life of of the the mendicant Aitareya-BdihmaI.J.a that the the renouncer renouncer (ahirhsa; (ahimsa; concentration 77.13-15. . 1 3 - 1 5 . The The fact fact that the ideals ideals of of the concentration on on A tman; release the Atman; release from rebirth) are the householder the from rebirth) are claimed claimed for for the householder in in ChU ChU 8.15 8. 15 betrays the this passage passage.. betrays the lateness lateness ooff this

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cannot asceticism was cannot be be definitely definitely proved proved that that this this asceticism was non-Vedic non-Vedic,, its its association of the is out out of association with with the the bloody bloody rituals rituals of the Vedic Vedic priests priests is of the the assume that ahilhsa originally originally belonged question. question. One One ma mayy rather rather assume that ahithsa belonged to the the ascetic ascetic antiritualism antiritualism,, which which was was especially especially represented represented by by .the to the heretics (Buddhists and and only itantly obtai ned aa heretics (Buddhists and Jains) lains) and only hes hesitantly obtained foothold in the the older it was foothold in older Vedic Vedic Upani�ads Upani~ads,, where where,, however however,, it was never associated associated with with ahirhsa ahirhsa.. It It is is only only in in Ni Nirukta (i.e. never rukta 14.8-9 1 4 . 8-9 (i . e . in in late addendum addendum to to this this late late text) text) that that the the opposition opposition between between the the aa late ritualists hilhsa and ritualists and and the the ascetics ascetics is is connected connected with with hilhsa and ahilhsa, ahilizsa, which is is again again an an indication indication that that the the concept ahithsa started started to to which concept of of ahilhsa play role only only in late phase phase of of Vedism playaa role in aa late Vedism..

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Abbreviations BauDhS BauDhS ChU ChU DhS DhS JB JB Manu Manu SSailkhB ailkhB

Baudhayana-Dharma-Sutra Baudhayana-Dharma-Sutra Chandogya-Upani~ad Chandogya-Upani�ad Dharma-Sutra'' Dharma-Sutra Jaiminlya-BrahmaI;la Jaiminlya-BrahmaI;la Manu-Smfti Manu-Smfti SSailkhayana-BrahmaI;la ailkhayana-BrahmaI;la

Bibliographical references Alsdorf, Ludwig Beitriige zur zur Geschichte von Vegetarismus und Rinder-verelzrung Rinder-verelzrung in in Vegetarismus und Geschichte von 962 Beitriige 11962 Indien.. Wiesbaden: Wiesbaden: Steiner. Steiner. Indien Basham, A. A. L. Basham, 1954 that was was India India.. London: London: Sidgwick and Jackson. Jackson. Sidgwick and Wonder that The Wonder 1 954 The Bodewitz,, H H.W. .W. Bodewitz the according ttoo the (Agnihotra) according Offering (Agnihotra) and Morning 1 976 The The Daily 1976 Daily Evening Evening and Morning Offering Brill.. Brahmanas.. Leiden: Leiden: Brill Brahmanas 1992 Indisclze wedergeboorteleer. (Royal wedergeboorteleer. (Royal van de Indisclze achtergrond vande en achtergrond Oorsprong en 1 992 Oorsprong Netherlands Academy) Academy).. Amsterdam Amsterdam:: Noord-Hollandsche English, [An English, Noord-Hollandsche [An Netherlands forthcoming] . is forthcoming]. elaborated version elaborated version is Brinkhaus,, Horst Horst Brinkhaus forthc. on volume on [in aa volume Hamburg [in Epos . " Hamburg altindischen Epos." im altindischen Ahirhsa im " Jagd und Ahirhsa forthc . "Jagd Non-violence]. Non-violence] . Bronkhorst, Johannes 1993 Two Sources Sources of Indian Asceticism Asceticism.. Bern: Lang . Peter Lang. Bern: Peter of Indian The Two 1 993 The Caillat, Colette Caillat, Colette 1993 Studies lain Studies Canon . " lain Jaina Canon." the Jaina of the ' seniors ' of the 'seniors' in the violence in for violence " Words for 1 993 "Words Watanabe) : 207-236 . Kenj i Watanabe):207-236. and Kenji Smet and Rudy Smet (ed . Rudy in Deleu (ed. lozef Deleu of lozef Honour of in Honour Tokyo. Tokyo . Doniger, Smith K. Smith Brian K. & Brian Wendy & Doniger, Wendy 1991 Books) . (Penguin Books). York (Penguin New York Manu . New of Manu. Laws of The Laws 1 9 9 1 The Dumont, Louis Dumont, Louis 1966 Homo hierarchicus. Gallimard Paris : Gallimard hierarchicus . Paris: 1 966 Homo Falk, Harry Falk, Harry 6 : 225-25 4 . Indiennes 6:225-254. d 'Etudes Indiennes Bulletin d'Etudes Pali-kanon. " Bulletin im Pali-kanon." Opfer im " Vedische Opfer 1 9 8 8 "Vedische 1988 Gonda, Jan Gonda, Jan 1959 Language of Mouton. Hague : Mouton. The Hague: Veda . The the Veda. of the the Language in the Studies in Four Studies 1 95 9 Four Halbfass, Wilhelm Halbfas s , .Wilhelm . 1991 Albany : Thought. Albany: Indian Thought. in Indian Explorations in Reflection. Explorations and Reflection. Tradition and 1 9 9 1 Tradition SUNY. SUNY.

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Heesterman, J.C. J.C. Zeitschrijt far fUr die 1964 1 964 "Brahmin, Ritual and Renouncer." Renouncer. ·· Wiener Wiener Zeitsclzrijt die Kunde Kunde Sildasiens 8 : 1-3'1 . Siidasiens 8:1-3"1. 1 982 "Householder "Householder and Way of of Life. King, Householder, 1982 and Wanderer. Wanderer."" .. Way Life. King, Householder, Renouncer. in honour (ed . T.N. T. N . Madan). Madan) . Delhi: Delhi : honour of of Louis Louis Dumont Dumont (ed. Renouncer. Essays Essays in Vikas.. Vikas 1984 Indologica Taurinensia 1 984 "Non-violence " Non-violence and sacrifice." sacrifice . " Indologica Taurinensia 12:119-127. 1 2 : 1 1 9- 1 27 . Horsch, Paul Gtithl'i- und Francke . 1 966 Die 1966 Die vedische vedische Gathtiund Sloka-Literatur. Sloka-Literatur. Bern Bern:: Francke. _ Jacobi,, Hermann Jacobi 1884 Jaina Satras I. Oxford: 1 884- Jaina Sutras I. Oxford : Clarendon Press. Mayrhofer, Manfred 1976 Kurzgefasstes etymologisches etymologisches Worterbuch Worterbuclz des des A Altindischen ltindisclzen III. III . 1 976 Kurzgefasstes Heidelberg:: Carl Winter. Heidelberg Mitra, .Rajendralal . Rajendralal 1881 Indo-Aryans: contributions contributions towards elucidation of Ancient and 188 1 Indo-Aryans: towards the the elucidation of their their Ancient and Mediaeval Vol . 1. 1 . Calcutta: Calcutta: 1881. 1 88 1 . Reprint: Reprint: Delhi Indological Mediaeval History History.. Vol. Delhi:: Indological Book House, House , 1969. 1 969 . Murray .H. Murray,, James A A.H. 1908 A New New English English Dictionary Dictionary oonn historical historical principles principles.. Vol Vol.. VI VI:: L to N. 1 908 A N . Part . II. Oxford:: Clarendon Clarendon Press Press.. II . Oxford Obeyesekere,, Gananath Obeyesekere 1 996 Amerindian and Buddhist 's 1996 Amerindian Rebinh Rebirth and Buddhist Karma: Karma: An An Anthropologist Anthropologist's Reflections on Comparative Comparative Religious Religious Ethics Gonda Lecture. Lecture . Reflections on Ethics.. Third Third Gonda Academy.. Amsterdam Amsterdam.. Royal Netherlands Academy Oguibenine,, Boris Oguibenine violence." Purusartha 16:81-95. 1994 1 6 : 8 1 -95 . 1 994 "De " De la rMtorique rhetorique de la violence . " Puru�·tirtlza Olivelle, Patrick Olivelle, Patrick 1992 Upani~ads.. New York York:: Oxford Univ Univ.. Press. 1 992 Samnyasa Samnytisa Upanisads The Asrama System. New York/Oxford : Oxford Univ. Press . 1 993 The 1993 Asrama System. New York/Oxford: Univ. Press. 1995 Journal of American Oriental of the the American Oriental Society Society 1 995 Review of Bronkhorst 1993, 1 993 , in Journal Vol.. 115:162-164. Vol 1 1 5 : 1 62- 164. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli 1 940 Eastern Western Thought. Thought. London: London: Oxford Oxford Univ. Univ. Press 1940 Eastern Religions Religions and and Western Press.. 1947 Religion and and Society. Society . London. 1 947 Religion Rolland, Romain Rolland, 1924 Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi. Paris. Paris . 1 924 Mahatma Sdup.idt, Sc�idt, Hanns-Peter 1968 ahimsa.. "" Melanges Melanges d d'Indianisme la memoire Louis 'Indianisme a ii la memo ire de de Louis 1 968 "The " The Origin of ahimsti Paris : Boccard. Boccard . Renou Renou.. Paris: 1997 and Rebirth. Rebirth."" In: Inside Inside the Texts -- Beyond New the Texts Beyond the the Texts: Texts: New 1 9 97 "Ahimsa "Ahirilsa and Approaches the Study Study of the Veda: Veda: Proceedings of the the International Approaches to to the of the Proceedings of International Vedic Harvard University, June 1989 Vedic Workshop, Workshop, Harvard University, June 1 989 (Ed. by Michael Witzel) : 207-234. Cambridge, Cambridge , Mass.: Mass . : Dep. Dep . of Sanskrit and Indian Witzel):207-234. Studies , Harvard University Studies, University.. ..

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Schmithausen, Lambert Lambert Schmithausen, Studia Philologica Occasional Paper Paper 1 993 Buddhism 1993 Buddhism and and Nature. Nature. Studia Philologica Buddhica. Buddhica. Occasional VII.. Toky Tokyo: International Institute Institute for Buddhist Studies. Series Series VII o : International for Buddhist Studies . . Schreiner, Peter unci Gewalt. Gewalt. 1 979 "Gewaltlosigkeit " Gewaltlosigkeit und 1979 und Totungsverbot T6tungsverbot im im Hinduismus Hinduismus.. " Angst Angst und Ihre ihre Bewaltigung in den Prasenz und und ihre Bewaltigung in den Religionen Religionen (ed (ed.. Heinrich Heinrich von von Ihre Priisenz Stietencron, Diisseldorf) : 287-308 . Diisseldorf: Stietencron, Dtisseldorf):287-308. Dusseldorf: Patmos Patmos Verlag Verlag.. Schwab, Raymond Raymond Schwab, 's Rediscovery and the 1 984 The 1984 The Oriental Oriental Renaissance: Renaissance: Europe Europe's Rediscovery of of India India and the East, East, 11680-1880. 680- 1 880. Translated Gene Patterson-Black Translated by by Gene Patterson-Black and and Victor Victor Reinking Reinking.. Univ. Press.. [Eng. Laa Renaissance Renaissance New York York:: Columbia New Columb ia Uni v . Press [Eng . tr. tr. of of L 1 95 0 . J orientale, orientale, Paris Paris:: Payot, Payot, 1950.] Sprockhoff, Joachim Joachim Friedrich Friedrich Sprockhoff, 1976 Sariznyasa.. Wiesbaden: Wiesbaden: Steiner. Steiner. 1 976 Sarhnyasa 1981 und Vanaprastha Vanaprastha in in der der vedischen vedischen Literatur. Literatur."" Wiener Wiener , 1 9 8 1 "A.ranyaka " A ra\lyaka und fur die die Kunde Kunde Sudasiens Sudasiens 25 25:: 19-90. Zeitschrift fur Zeitschrift 1 9-90 . Thite,, Ganesh Ganesh Umakant Umakant Thite 11975 975 Sacrifice in the Sacrifice in the Brahmana-Texts Brahmana-Texts.. Poona Poona:: Univ. Univ. of of Poona Poona.. Tull,, Herman Herman W W.. TuII killing that that iiss not not killing killing:: men, men, cattle the origin origin of of nonnon- , 1996 1 996 "The " The killing cattle and and the' violence (ahirhsa) (ahirizsa) in in the the Vedic Vedic sacrifice sacrifice." Journal 339:223. " Indo-Iranian Indo-Iranian Journal 9 : 223violence 244 244.. Wackernagel-Debrunner: Jacob Jacob Wackernagel Wackernagel & Albert Debrunner Debrunner Wackernagel-Debrunner: & Albert 11954 954 A ltindische Grammatik Grammatik II , 2 . Gbttingen: G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Altindische n,2. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.. Wezler, Wezler, Albrecht Albrecht Die wahren wahren 'Speiseresteesser'. Wiesbaden: Steiner. 'Speiseresteesser '. Wiesbaden: Steiner. 11978 978 Die Wilhelm, Friedrich Wilhelm, Friedrich and the the concept concept of Dharma." Panels of 1991 1 9 9 1 "Hunting " Hunting and of Dharma . " Panels of the the VIlth VIIth World World 1987) , vol. Sanskrit Conference (Kern 23-29, 1987), vol. Sanskrit Conference (Kern Institute, Institute, Leiden Leiden:: August August 23-29. IX: Rules Rules and and Remedies Remedies in Classical Indian Indian Law Law (ed (ed.. by by Julia Julia Leslie):7Leslie) :7IX: in Classical 16. Leiden: 16. Leiden: Brill BrilL. ..

33.. ASPECTS ASPECTS OF THE THE BUDDHIST BUDDHIST ATTITUDE ATTITUDE TOWARDS TOWARDS WAR* WARLAMBERT SCHMITHAUSEN SCHMITHAUSEN LAMBERT Introduction

If II have understood rightly rightly,, this investiIf have understood this symposium symposium aims aims at at an an investi­ gation of of the the attitude of religions religions towards towards war war in in the the context context of the gation attitude of of the tension between values or norms on on the the one one hand hand,, and, on the the between values or norms and, on other, the the constraints constraints of of ordinary ordinary life or worldly worldly aims leading to to other, l ife or aims leading their circumvention or or even even alteration. alteration. It It may their non-observation, non-observation, circumvention may prove expedient, then, then, to to begin with an an examination examination of of the the perti­ pertiprove expedient, begin with nent norms norms in in Buddhism Buddhism as as they they appear in its its earliest earliest accessible nent appear in accessible form, older llayers ayers of and the cor­ form, documented documented in in the the older of the the Pali Pali canon canon and the corresponding corpora corpora of of other other schools far as they have have survived survived.. responding schools as as far as they simple , for the first first precept At first ssight, ight, the At first the . matte matterr looks looks quite quite simple, for the precept · to be observed by by every every Buddhist-monk Buddhist-monk or nun as well as lay to be observed or nun as well as lay person-is to to abstain killing lliving beings (palJtitipata (Ptif}titiptitti person-is abstain from from killing iving beings Since war war normally other people veramaf}i) veramalJi).1. l Since normally involves involves killing killing other people,, par­ participation in in it it appears appears incompatible with keeping keeping this this precept. precept. ticipation incompatible with Strictly speaking speaking,, this this would would seem to hold hold good good even even for Strictly seem to for defensive war, at at least if the the killing killing of of aggressors aggressors is is involved involved.. War War of of war, least if conquest, second conquest, pillaging pillaging,, and and rape rape would, would, besides besides,, violate violate the the second and third Buddhist Buddhist precept, precept, respectively respectively,, viz viz.. refraining refraining from and the the third from The present paper is a condensation and re-arrangement (with some supplements) Glaubenskriege (= (= of my my German German article article Buddhismus Buddhismus und und Glaubenskriege supplements) of Schm ithausen 1996), 1 996) , to Schmithausen to which which the the reader reader iiss referred referred for for further further details details,, am indebted indebted to to Anne Anne MacDonald MacDonald and SS.A. documentation, and references references.. 11 am documentation, .A. Srinivasan Srinivasan for for kindly kindly suggesting suggesting improvements improvements to to m myy English. English. Note editors editors:: This This paper paper was was presented presented at at the the symposium symposium "Religions Note " Religions and and Wars , " Leiden 12 April 1 996 . Wars," Leiden University University,, 12 April 1996. 11 Monks . g . DN DN 1:63 1 : 63 "" T 1:83c14f 1 : 83c 14f "" "" 272c l l - 1 3 "" Sailghabh Sailghabh Monks:: ee.g. ""T 272cll-13 II:232,10-12 (cp.. Meisig 1987: II : 232 , 10- 12 (cp 1 987 : 196f); 1 960 ; MN 1:179 1 : 179 "" T 1:657a14-16; 1 : 657a 1 4- 1 6 ; cpo cp o Vin III:71 III : 7 1 and 73 (killing a human being as the third of the four offences entailing lay followers followers:: e.g. MN 1:287; II:51 T expulsion from from the the Order); expulsion Order) ; lay e . g . MN 1 : 287 ; II : 5 1 "" T 1 : 6 1 6b 1 5 - 1 9 . 1 : 50 1 b 1 3- 1 5 ; AN AN 11:58; II : 5 8 ; III : 2 1 l f "" T 1:50Ib13-15; III:21lf T 1:616b15-19. z

z

z

z

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..LAMBERT LAMBERT SCHMITI-IAUSEN SCHMITHAUSEN

appropriating others others'' property property unless one is it by by the the owner, appropriating unless one is given given it owne r , and from sexual or and from sexual misconduct misconduct.. The The question question is is,, however however,, whether whether or not such, consequences consequences following following from not such from the the precepts precepts with with regardregard to to war stated from from the the outset outset (or least drawn later war were were explicitly stated (or at at least drawn later on),, or or rather rather considered considered as as self-evident; further,, it needs to to be be on) self-evident; further it needs asked to to what what extent extent such such consequences consequences influenced influenced actual practice, asked and and to to what what extent extent they they continued continued to to be be accepted accepted or or presupposed presupposed as valid valid in in the the course course of history.. as of history In the the following shall deal of war In following,, II shall deal with with the the problem problem of war (and (and com­ comparable forms of of violence) parable forms violence) in in Buddhism Buddhism under under the the following following as­ aspects:: pects 1 . the the question of the the explicitness of sources regarding the 1. question of of the the sources regarding the of the the norm norm of not killing killing to to war; war; applicability applicabil ity of of not 2. violations of of the the norm norm in in actual life,, with with special special regard regard to to actual life violations that were, somehow, understood as such, and to violations that were , somehow , understood as such , and to methods of of atoning atoning or or compensating compensating for such violations violations;; methods for such to harmonjze harmonize politics politics and take 3. attempts to 3 . attempts and ethics, ethics , ii.e., . e . , to to take recourse to to force force and and even even war war while the same recourse while at at the same time time observing observing . the norm norm of of not not killing killing;; the explicit attempts attempts to to qualify or relativize the the norm norm.. 44.. explicit or relativize 1 . Explicitness of the sources regarding the applicability of the 1. norm to war

We should not lose sight ancient India war was was We should not lose sight of of the the fact fact that that in in ancient India war the social group group or caste , that �atri­ the business business of of aa special special social or caste, that of of the the Ki!atriwhich normally normally also the kings kings who who are repreyyas, as , which also iincluded ncluded the are often often repre­ sented as as waging waging war war and and actively actively participating participating iinn it it in in person. person. sented However, it it was was possible possible for member of caste to to eenter the However, for aa member of any any caste nter the ascetic -way way of of life life,, and and with with this this one one renounced renounced one one's ascetic ' s former former social position and and obligations obligations.. Thus Thus,, aa warrior warrior who who became became an social position an ascetic was was no no longer longer aa warrior warrior,, 22 and ascetic and hence hence was was no no longer longer exex­ pected tq to participate participate in in wars wars.. On On the the contrary contrary,, ascetics ascetics were were pected and enj enjoined, to keep keep the the precepts precepts,, including that of of not not eexpected, xp ected, and oined , to including that killing any any ... living living being, an especially killing being , 111 in an especially strict strict and and exemplary exemplary 'ssa Cpoo MN II II:89: ya hi pubbe khattiyo ti samafifia, samafifia, sa sa 'ssa khattiyo ti . . . pubbe 'ssa ... hi 'ssa : 89 : ya Cp antarahita; samano eva salikharh safzkharh gacchati gacchati.. samaf}o tt'' eva antarahita;

BUDDHIST ATTITUDE ATTITUDE TOWARDS TOWARDS WAR WAR 33.. BUDDHIST

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manner. specify , ee.g., . g . , that that they manner. Hence Hence,, there there was was more more reason reason to to specify, they should only themselves ing but should also re­ should not not only themselves abstain abstain from from kill killing but should also refrain from from encouraging-even encouraging-even out compassion33 -other -other people people to to frain out of of compassion kill ,4 and that they they should should not even drink or pour kill themselves themselves,4 and that not even drink or pour out out destroy seeds or plan plants,6 water containing containing tiny tiny animal animals,s ts , 6 water s , 5 or or even even destroy seeds or than ttoo expressly expressly prohibit prohibit them them from from actively participating iinn war war., than actively participating iincluding ncluding defensive for such such non-participation of defensive war; war; for non-participation was was aa matter matter of course for for them them (if (if they nevertheless decided to take part in war, course they nevertheless decided to take part in war, to state that they they disrobing was mandatory) mandatory).. But But there there was reason reason to dis robing was state that not even watch military military parades parades or manoeuvres,, or sshould hould not even watch or manoeuvres or stay stay with an army army beyond beyond need need,, because because doing doing so might have have created created with an so might the of unbecoming interest or or even aroused sussus­ the impression impression of unbecoming interest even have have aroused picion espionage . 77 On other hand, ad­ picion of of espionage. On the the other hand, the the monks monks were were admonished prove their courage in in the monished to to prove their courage the fight fight against against the the unwholesome unwholesome psychi" psychic factors factors impeding impeding liberation liberation from from ever-re­ ever-recurring birth-and-death birth-and-death (sarnstira)-a which is curring (sathstira)-a ' spiritual struggle struggle which is often or war against Mara Evil and often mythologized mythologized as as the the fight fight or war against Mara the the Evil and army.8 his army .8 In the the case of lay standard characterization the In case of lay followers followers,, the the standard characterization of of the wrong behaviour behaviour that contradistinction to to abstention abstention from wrong that stands starids in in contradistinction from killing habitual as cruel cruel (ludda) (ludda),, bloody bloody (lohitaptifJ.i) (lohitaptini) and and merciless merciless habitual killing as killing (ptifJ.titiptitr (ptif!.titiptitr hoti ... nivittho)99 might, might, but but need need killing ' " hatapahate nivi(tho) not, of soldiers soldiers or or war-waging war-waging kings kings;; it it may may not, allude allude to to the the activities activities of as well have been been so so phrased phrased to to refer refer to to the the actions actions of as well primarily primarily have of dacoits or or outlaw outlaw killers killers,lo of hunters hunters (another meaning of dacoits , lo or or of (another meaning of ludda!) and butchers butchers.. Actually, Actually, another of passages passages,ll when ludda ! ) and another set set of , " when identifying persons persons who who ""torture expressly identifying torture others" others " (parantapa), (parantapa) , expressly

4

Vin III III:79. Yin :79. Vin III III:71-74; Cpoo Rosen 1959:56. Yin : 7 1 -74; 76. Cp 1 959 : 5 6 . Cpoo Schmithausen 1991a:53 ns.. 3311 Vin IV:49 1 9 9 1 a :53 (with ns 1 1 and Y i n IV : 49 and 125. 125 . Cp

3312). 12) . 6

6 Vin IV: IV:34; etc.. (bljagama-bhatagama-samarambha pativirato Yin 34; DN 1:64 1 : 64 etc (bijagama-bhatagama-samarambhO. pa(ivirato Schmithausen 1991a:5ff. 1 9 9 1 a : 5ff. hoti) p o Sclunithausen Cpo hoti).. C

77 Vin IV IV:: 105-107 48-50);; Rosen 1959:168f 1 05- 1 07 (Pacittiya 48-50) 1 959 : 168f (Patayantika 45Cpo Schlingloff Schlingloff 1963:547. 47).. Cpo 1 963 : 547 . 47) 88 Schmithausen Sclunithausen 1996:65 1996 : 65 (with n. 12). 12) . 9 E E.g., III:203 V:264 . g . , MN 1I:286; : 28 6 ; III : 203 "" T 1:705a4-6; 1 : 705a4- 6 ; AN V : 264 "" T 2:271b20-23. 2 : 27 1 b20-23 . IO 10 Cp Cpoo MN II II:97f to the habitual habitual killer killer Ailgulimlila. AiJ.gulimaJa. : 97f where it refers to " MN 1:343f; 11 II:207f; (IV.44; 1 : 343f; AN II: 207f; Sang 1: 1 : 122f (IV . 44; T 26:406b 26: 406b 13ff). 1 3 ff) . ""

""

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enumerates enumerates butchers butchers,, fowlers fowlers,, hunters hunters,, fishermen, robbers oorr fishermen, robber� dacoits (cora), as e l l as dacoits (cora), as w well as those those whose whose jjob it is ob it is ttoo kkill i l l dacoits (coraghataka) , and (coraghiltaka), and prison-keepers prison-keepers,, but but not not soldiers; according soldiers ; and and according to the same same passages to the passages another another category category of of people people who who (besides tor(besides tor­ turing themselves turing themselves through through ascetic restrictions) torture torture others conascetic restrictions) others con­ ssists, ists , to be sure, sure , of of kings or rich to be kings or rich people people,, but only insofar but only insofar as as they they have cattle cattle sacrificed sacrificed in in Vedic rituals.. have Vedic rituals One might might thus thus be tempted to to consider consider the the possibil possibility that the One be tempted ity that the Buddha (or early early Buddhism) for granted Buddha (or Buddhism) somehow somehow took took for granted the the unre­ unrelated as the of lated co-existence co-existence of of private private non-injury non-injury and and warfare warfare as the duty duty of kings and and warriors warriors.. There There is is,, however, however, one one set three almost almost kings set of of three identical sermons sermons l122 in which military military leaders leaders (gilmafJi)IJ the (gamaf}i) I J ask ask the in which identical Buddha his opinion on on the the (already (already Vedic) Vedic) belief belief that that aa warrior warrior Buddha his opinion who ' s death death goes goes to The Buddha who dies dies aa hero hero's to heaven. heaven. The Buddha hesitates hesitates to to answer the the question, question, but but on on being being urged urged,, he he fimlHy replies that that on answer finMly replies on the contrary contrary such such aa warrior warrior goes goes to to aa special hell, because because at the at the the special hell, moment his mind is in state since since he wish moment of of dying dying his mind is in an an evil evil state he has has the the wish that lliving beings-the enemies-be enemies-be killed killed.. This This text, thus,, unam�­ unam-~ that iving beings-the text, thus biguously applies applies the the precept precept not not to to kill kill to to participation participation in in war war,, biguously stating it does that not not only but even the mere stating as as it does that only actual actual killing killing but even the mere in...: intention to to do the wish wish that enemies be be killed, killed, is bad tention do sso, o , or or the that the the enemies is bad karma (dukkata).14 Further, these these sermons do not not confine their (ditkka!a) . 1 4 Further, sermons do confine their karma to offensive offensive war war only only but but rather rather suggest suggest its its applicability jjudgement udgement to appl icability to war, including including defens ive war as II can uch an an to any any war, defensive war.. As As far far as can see, see, ssuch interpretation is is not not contradicted contradicted by by any any canonical evidence evidence,15 interpretation , 15 and Abhihi­ it explicitly confirmed confirmed by by aa later later systematic systematic treatis treatise, the Ab it is is explicitly e , the dharmako§abhil~ya, 1166 where where it it is stated that that aa soldier, soldier, even even if dharmakosabha�ya, is stated if concon1 2 SN 12 1V : 3 08-3 1 1 ""T = T 22:227b-228a. : 227b-228a. S N 1V:308-311 1 J Cp 13 Cpoo P P.. Thieme Thieme,, Kleine Kleine Schriften Schriften.. Ed Ed.. G. Buddruss (Wiesbaden: G . Buddruss (Wiesbaden: Steiner Steiner

1971):1:307. 1 97 1 ) : 1 : 307 . Saratthappakasinf III III:: 103. 1144 Thus with Siiratthappakiisinr 1 03 . 1 5 I myself fail to see how Yin 1:73f 15 (Mahavagga 1.40) I : 73 f (Mahlivagga 1 . 40) can be taken, as in Lingat 1 9 8 9 : 1 1 3 , as allowing recourse war in in Lingat 1989:113, as allowing recourse to to war in order order to to protect protect communities.. The The text text merely merely states states that that ordination soldiers (who (who thereby thereby communities ordination of of soldiers wanted evade the as wanted to to ..evade the bad bad karma karma incurred incurred in in warfare) warfare) was was interdicted interdicted.. But But as is perfectly perfectly clear clear from from the the text text,, the the reason reason is simply to to avoid avoid trouble trouble w with the is is simply ith the king has anything w ith the the king.. There There is is no no indication indication that that the the prohibition prohibition has anything to to do do with fact appears to given case (cp . fact that that the the war war appears to be be,, in in the the given case,, aa defensive defensive one one (cp. paccanta ita hati) paccanto kup kupito hoti).. 1 6 AKB 16 AKBh 243,8f. 27:617c14-18 (Mahavibha~asastra),, discarding h 243 , 8f. See also T 27 : 6 17c14- 1 8 (Mahavibhli�asastra)

BUDDHIST ATTITUDE ATTITUDE TOWARDS TOWARDS WAR WAR 33.. BUDDHIST

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scripted, is guilty guilty of of kiIIing killing unless unless he he makes makes the the firm resolve that that scripted , is firm resolve he even for sake of saving his of saving his he will will definitely definitely not not kill kill anybody anybody,, even for the the sake own life life.. According According to to the the same text,17 killing is is bad bad karma karma even even own same text, 1 7 killing in case case of of self-defence or or when when done done for for the the sake sake of of defending in According to to aa legend,18 such aa radically radically pacifist pacifist position position friends.. According legend , 1 8 such friends was adopted by the the Buddha's Buddha's kinsmen, kinsmen, the the Sakyas Sakyas oorr Sakiyas (Skt.. was adopted by Sakiyas (Skt SSakyas), when furious furious King King Vi9il9abha Vidu~abha (Skt (Skt.. Viril9haka) Viru~haka) attacked akyas) , when attacked them with with his army.. They They are are said said to to have have offered them his army offered only only symbolic symbolic preferred being being massacred massacred to to breaking breaking the the resistance and and to to have have preferred resistance Buddhist precept precept of of not not ki killing. And aa passage passage of the YogacaraBuddhist lling . And of the Yogtictira­ bhami l99 is is explicit in condemning condemning what what looks looks like like religious religious funda­ fundabhumi1 expl icit in mental ism (albeit idea that that violence mentalism (albeit Hindu Hindu,, not not Buddhist) Buddhist),, viz viz.. the the idea violence (kill ing , pillage against those the (killing, pillage,, rape) rape) against those who who are are inimical inimical to to the Brahmins, (i.e., Veda?)20 and gods (deva) is B rahmins , the the brahman (i . e . , the the Veda?)20 and the the gods is not on the the contrary (tatonidtinmn pUl}yam not baleful baleful but, but, on contrary,, meritorious meritorious (tatonidanath pUf}yam papam).. eva bhavati, na papam) The The participation participation of of merchants-among rnerchants-among whom whom Buddhism Buddhism appears appears to have have had had many many supporters supporters in in the the early early period-in period-in war war was was rather rather to an indirect one one.. In In this this connection, connection, it is of of considerable considerable interest interest that that an indirect it is one prohibits lay least those l ay followers followers (upasaka: (uptisaka : at at least those who who one sermon sermon2211 prohibits take the the precepts precepts seriously) from dealing weapons.. take serious ly) from dealing in in weapons If, thus,, killing killing in war,, and and even to it, it, is If, thus in war even contributing contributing to is doubtless doubtless against the the precept, precept, one one would would expect expect the the Buddha Buddha to to have have stig­ stigagainst matized war war as such such,, and and to to have have stressed the incompatibility of matized stressed the incompatibility of waging war war,, above above all offensive war war,, with with Buddhist Buddhist ethics, waging all offensive ethics , eess­ pecially in his dialogues dialogues with with kings kings.. pecially in his But, as as has has already already been been noted noted by by A A.. Bareau Bareau,22 Buddha But, , 22 the the Buddha seems to been remarkably In the seems to have have been remarkably reserved reserved in in this this regard regard.. In the aa different according to is forced against his different view view according to which which aa soldier soldier who who is forced to to kill kill against his is not not gUilty guilty.. Cpo Demieville 1957:349. own intention intention is own Cpo Demieville 1 9 5 7 : 349 . 1177 AKBh 240 240.19f: tatra lobhaja lobhaja < f;h > p pranatipato yatha . 1 9f: tatra raf}atipato yathti O ) ca taccharfravayavartham taccharrravayavartham arthtirtharh arthartharh kriqartharh krrdartharh (ed (ed.:. : krrta krrtaO) ca prafJinarh praninarh jrvittid vyaparopayati, vyaparopayati, atma-su�t-paritraI)aya atma-suhrt-paritranaya va va (ms.; om. va) va).. (ms . ; ed. ed. om. jrvittid 1188 Dhammapadanhakatha Dhammapadatthakathii (PTS ed.) Cpoo Bareau 1981, ed . ) 1:358. 1 : 3 5 8 . Cp 1 98 1 , esp. esp . 55-57. 55-5 7 . 1199 Yogacarabhrlmi Calcutta 1957) 1 957) 189.8-11. 1 89 . 8- 1 1 . Yogacarabhumi (ed (ed.. V V.. Bhattacharya Bhattacharya.. Calcutta 20 20 Less probably probably:: the god Brahman. 2211 AN III: III:208; Arthaviniscayasutra (ed. N N.H. . H. Samtani, Patna 1971) 1 97 1 ) 208; cpo ArthaviniScayasutra 40 , 1 0- 1 2 . 40,10-12. 22 22 Bareau 1993:38. 1 993 : 3 8 .

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beginning of of the the canonical canonical Mahaparinibbdnasutta Mahaparinibbanasutta,23 King Aj Ajatabeginning , 23 King ata­ sattu ' s minister asks the an attack sattu's minister asks the Buddha Buddha whether whether an attack on on the the'' clan clan confederation of of the the Vajj Vajjis (Skt.. Vrj Vrjis) will be be successful not.. confederation is (Skt is) will successful or or not The Buddha Buddha merely merely states states that it will will not be successful successful as The that it not be as long long as as the ajj is keep attitudes and organiz­ the V Vajjis keep to to their their traditional traditional attitudes and forms forms of of organization, but but he he does does not not declare declare offensive war,, let alone allY any war, to war, to ation, offensive war let alone be immoral immoraL. 24 24 To To be be sure, the episode may be be aa fi fiction with aa pribe sure, the episode may c tion with pri­ marily literary literary function (serving as it does how the the marily function (serving as it does as as aa simile simile for for how Order should behave).25 But in in aa sense sense it it is typical of Buddhist Order Buddhist should behave) . 25 But is typical of the Buddha's Buddha's procedure procedure in in this this matter. matter. For For also when directly the also when directly preaching itant and aggressive King atasattu preaching to to the the extremely extremely mil militant and aggressive King Aj Ajatasattu Ajatasatru, the Buddha merely teaches him, among other things things,, // Aj atasatru , the Buddha merely teaches him, among other the usual,, general general principles principles of Buddhist ethics,26 though only the usual of Buddh ist ethics , 26 though only in in the context context of of the the path path to to liberation liberation (described (described as presupposing the as presupposing one's becoming aa monk monk!), and does does not them to to the the one ' s becoming ! ) , and not expressly expressly apply apply them of aa ki king, to the issue of of war war.. The specific specific situation situation of ng , let let alone alone to the issue The same same is true true of of the-more the-more numerous-conversations numerous-conversations of of the the Buddha Buddha with with is Pasenadi (Skt. Prasenajit), the king king of He too usually Pasenadi (Skt. Prasenaj it) , the of Kosala. Kosal a . He too is is usually just taught taught the the general general principles principles of of Buddhist Buddhist ethics, but it it is left to to just ethics , but is left him to decide to extent, or him to decide to what what extent, or whether whether at at all all,, they they are are to to be be politics, to public public viol violence (warfare,, applied to to the the domain domain of applied of pol itics , ij.e. . e . to ence (warfare capital punishment, punishment, etc etc.) the specific king,27 , 27 at at capital . ) aass the specific functions functions ooff aa king individual. In least insofar responsible for for · them least insofar as as he he is is responsible them as as an an individual. In Pasenadi's case, the Buddha' Buddha'ss teaching teaching may may have have had had some some effect; effect; Pasenadi ' s cas e , the

2233 DN DN I1 II:72-76; MahCiparinirvanasiltra (ed (ed.. E. E. Waldschmidt, Waldschmidt, Berlin: Berlin: : 72-76 ; Mahiiparinirvanasutra Akademie-Verlag 1950-51) Akademie-Verlag 1 950-5 1 ) 102-119. 1 02- 1 1 9 . 2244 II ddoo not not perceive perceive any clue for McFarlane's assertion that that iinn this this episode any clue for McFarlane ' s assertion episode Buddha is averting aa major major military military contlict, he ""the the Buddha is described described effectively effectively averting confl ict, as as he actually is is reported reported (by to have have done in aa conflict irrigation actually (by later later sources) sources) to done in conflict over over irrigation S akyas and rights Koliyas " (1986:99; ( 1 98 6 : 9 9 ; cp cp Malalasekera 1 : 690) . and the the Koliyas" Malalasekera 1:690). rights between between the the Sakyas 2255 Cp Cpo. Bareau 1993:36. 1 993 : 3 6 . 2266 DN DN no no.. 22 (Samaiiiiaphalasutta), DN 1:63; Sailghabh II:216ff, (Samafzfzaphalasutta) , esp, esp , DN 1 : 6 3 ; Sailghabh I1 : 2 1 6ff, esp. esp . 232f. 1 987 , esp 96-20l . 232f. Cp Cpoo Meisig Meisig 1987, esp.. 1196-201. 2277 Bareau Bareau 1993:26. The verses verses of (no.. 33.9: favour ooff 1 993 :26 . The of SN SN II:75f : 75 f (no . 9 : in in favour unbloody sacrifices) sacrifices) and and II:76f (no.. 33.10: the really really tight tight bond bond is is not not material material unbloody : 76f (no . 1 0 : the fetters and fetters but but attachment) attachment) are are uttered uttered on on the the occasion occasion of of aa bloody bloody sacrifice sacrifice and mass imprisonments imprisonments on on the the part part of of King King Pasenadi Pasenadi but but are not directly mass are not directly addressed to him him.. addressed to

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spared the ife of for in in one one sermon2 sermon288 he he is is reported reported to to have have spared the llife of his his for opponent captured opponent Ajatasattu Ajatasattu who who had had attacked attacked him him and and had had been been captured alive.. But But according according to to the the text text Pasenadi Pasenadi is is motivated motivated to to do do so not alive so not out wish to observe the (in fact con­ of aa wish to observe the Buddhist Buddhist precepts precepts (in fact he he conout of fiscates Ajatasattu Ajatasattu's army) but but because Ajatasattu is his his nephew nephew.. fiscates ' s army) because Aj atasattu is Further, he had had caught the aggressor aggressor only had coun­ Further, he caught the only because because he he had countered tered his his attack attack with with aa strong strong army army,, and and the the text text reports reports this this defensive military military measure measure as as aa matter matter of of cours course, without any defensive e , without any critical comment. comment. critical If our our texts texts have have faithfully faithfully transmitted transmitted the the attitude attitude of Buddha If of the the Buddha in this this regard regard,, he he .did did not not expressly expressly apply, apply, or or perhaps perhaps even deliberin even del iber­ ately avoided avoided applying applying,, his his ethical ethical principles to the the issue of war war ately principles to issue of (likewise for for death death penalty penalty or or corporal corporal punishment) punishment) on on the the political political (likewise level A. Bareau , 2 9 he level.. As As suggested suggested by by A. Bareau,29 he may may have have considered considered in­ interference in in political political matters matters futile futile,, and and even even may may have have viewed viewed it it terference as potentially potentially detrimental detrimental to to the the prosperity prosperity of of the the Order. Order. He He may may as well have realized realized that that in in the the pol political situation of of his his day-with day-with aa well have itical situation number of of competing competing polities polities,, some some of of them them quite quite aggressive aggressive and and number eager for expansion-complete expansion-complete abstention abstention from from mil military force,, even even eager for itary force for e , would for defens defense, would have have been been tantamount tantamount to to self-abandonment self-abandonment and and hence hardly hardly acceptable acceptable to to aa ruler ruler.. The The Buddha Buddha's main aim aim was was in in hence ' s main any case case not not social social or or political political change change but but the the spiritual spiritual self­ selfany perfection of individuals,, and for this this purpose purpose that that he he had had perfection of individuals and it it was was for founded founded the the Order Order.. Nevertheless, strict appl application of the the Buddhist Buddhist ethical ethical principle principle Nevertheles s , aa strict ication of of ead to of not not killing killing cannot cannot but but llead to the the rejection rejection of of all all kinds kinds of of war war,, including are in in fact fact some some stories stories in in the including defensive defensive war war.. There There are the lataka (and its commentary) commentary),, aa more more popular popular collection depicting Jataka (and its collection depicting former lives of the the Buddha, Buddha, where where this this consequence former lives of consequence is is actually actually drawn. e . g . , the of Prince is so so Here we we find, find, e.g., the story story of Prince Temiya Temiya who who is drawn. Here horrified connected with horrified at at the the violence violence connected with kingship kingship that that he he prefers prefers instead or that that of of King King MahasIlavant Mahasllavant who who,, instead to to become become an an ascetic ascetic 3300 ;; or being attacked attacked,, refrains refrains from defending himself himself by military being from defending by military 28 28 29 29 3300

SN II:84f : 3 3 8c2 l ff and 395c17ff. : 84f == T 22:338c21ff Bareau 1993:38. 1 9 93 : 3 8 . VI:1ff Mugapakkhajataka. Cp Cpoo Gombrich 1988:70. Ilaa VI : l ff (no. (no . 5538): 3 8 ) : Miigapakkhajataka. 1988 : 70 . =

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3 2 quotes force.. 3311 And And P. Demievillee 32 quotes the the warning warning,, directed force P. DemieviIl directed at at aa Turkish that "Buddhism " Buddhism makes good and and weak Turkish chieftain, chieftain, that makes people people good weak and principles, opposed to to war violent confl conflicts." and iis, s , in in its its principle s , opposed war and and violent icts . " 2 2.. Violations of the norm and methods of compensation

Norms are not not necessarily necessarily invalidated invalidated by by the the fact fact that that they ocNorms are they are are oc­ casionally ated by certain individual casionally or or even even constantly constantly viol violated by certain individualss or or groups.. Greed for power power or fear of of invaders invaders,, or disgust groups Greed for or goods, good s , fear or disgust with intruders may with foreign foreign intruders may incite incite Buddhists Buddhists,, especially especially kings kings and and of the other other political political leaders leaders,, to to wage wage war war in spite of the norm norm,, and and this this has l , Buddhist has happened happened in in most, most, if ifnot all, Buddhist countries countries.. In some some of of . not al them, especially especially in in medieval medieval Tibet Tibet and and Japan, Japan, even even monks monks were were them, " often involved in mil military particularly in in such such as often involved in itary struggles, struggles , particularly as ococ­ 33 These curred between between different different Buddhist Buddhist 'sects' monasteries.. 33 curred 'sects ' or or monasteries These cases expl anation in in view of the cases may may,, to to be be sure sure,, require require additional additional explanation view of the fact of Buddhism fact that that in in these these countries countries the the prevailing prevailing forms forms of Buddhism are are Mahayana and Vaj Vajrayana. But even in Southeast Asia, where M ahayana and rayana . But even in Southeast Asi a , where conservative Theravada Theravada Buddhism Buddhism became became predominant, predominant, Buddhist Buddhist conservative kings offens ive war against one another (though it is kings waged waged offensive war against one another (though here here,, it is true,, monks monks wer� were less less often often actively involved).34 true actively involved) . 34 Human imperfection imperfection apart, one of reasons for for the Human apart, one of the the reasons the frequency frequency of war even Theravada Buddhist Buddhist countries countries seems seems to to have have been of war even iinn Theravada been that in these continued to be that in these countries countries government government and and politics politics continued to be guided large extent by their their own own system system of values, which,, extent by of value s , which guided t,too a large being derived derived from, at least influenced bby, ancient being from, or or at least strongly strongly influenced y , ancient of law law,, politics politics and focussed on Indian manuals manuals of Indian and administration,35 administration, 35 focussed on maintaining maintaining and and extending extending power power and and were were thus thus quite quite different different 36 The from the the Buddhist Buddhist system system of of values values.. 36 The Buddhist Buddhist values values of of from 3311 Ja 1:262ff (no.51): MahasTIava-jataka.. Cp Cpoo Schmidt-Leukel 1991:13f. I : 262ff (no . 5 1 ) : MahasTIava-jataka 1 99 1 : 1 3f. 3322 Demieville 1952:223. 1952: 223 . 33 Cp 33 Cpo., Schmithausen 1996:80-86 references).. For monk-soldiers in 1 99 6 : 80-8 6 (with references) Korea,see Ahn 1989:7. Korea, 'see Ahn 1 9 89 : 7 . 34 34 Cp Cpoo Schmithausen 1996:73-74 references).. 1996: 73-74 (with references) 35 Bechert 1966:24. 35 1966 : 24 . his incompatibility is clearly expressed in the BGUVVS (the 6th ch. 36 36 T This ch . of which is of treatise treatise on Buddhist political political ethics) when it states that that of which is aa kind kind of on Buddhist ethics) when it states arthasastras, forgeries forgeries of the the good good law law (*saddharmathere are are ""so-caJled there s o-called arthaSClstras, ( *saddharma-

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non-violence others ' property non-violence and and respect respect for for others' property must must have have been been quite quite hence there there was was good good welcome as as aa code for the the subjects (and welcome code for (and hence reason leaders ' reason for for kings kings to to support support Buddhism) Buddhism),, but but not not for for the the leaders' own pol political activity which which included included execution execution and and the own itical activity the employment employment of military force for defense as as well conquest. A of military force for defense well as as conquest. A possible possible result result of this artmentalization of s ; as of this was was aa kind kind Of of comp compartmentalization of value values, as,, perhaps perhaps,, general (senapati) STha Slha who who,, in context of in case of in the the case of the the general in the the context of meat-eating declares that intentionally kill meat-eating,, declares that he he would would by by no no ineans means intentionally kill 37 He to save save his his own own life life.. 37 He is is ob­ obliving being being,, not not even even in in order order to aa living viously is no indication that viously thinking thinking of of animals animals here here,, but but there there is no indication that he he had job as as aa general general incompatible incompatible with with the the Buddhist Buddhist pre­ prehad found found his his job cept.. In In aa similar case (of (of aa commander commander who who carries top of of his cept s imilar case carries on on top his bow strainer for drinking water bow aa strainer for filtering filtering drinking water in in order order to to prevent prevent minute animals being killed) killed),, the the contradiction explicitly minute animals from from being contradiction is is explicitly reflected answer is is that, reflected upon, upon, and and the the answer that, in in contrast contrast to to human enemies animals have revolted against ' s lord lord (i . e . ,. enemies,, animals have not not revolted against the the warrior warrior's (i.e., the king) and deserve punishment. sense , the the the king) and hence hence do do not not deserve punishment. 3388 In In aa sense, warrior is conceived conceived as as observing norms wherever warrior is observing the the Buddhist Buddhist norms wherever as aa warrior. warrior. they do do not not conflict with his his specific duties as they conflict with specific duties Nevertheless, at least gross military Nevertheles s , at least in in the the case case of of gross military atrocities, atroc ities , aa strict partitioning or compartmentalization of the the contradictory strict partitioning or compartmentalization of contradictory of politics politics and and Buddhist Buddhist ethics ethics was was difficult difficult and and alvalue systems systems of value al­ most schizoid The dominant most schizoid.. Hence Hence the the need need for for compensation compensation.. The dominant method, amply amply used used by by Ceylonese and Southeast Southeast Asian Asian Buddhist Buddhist method, Ceylonese and rulers ' making merit ' , especially rulers,, was was 'making merit', especially by by means means of of supporting supporting Buddhist institutions with lavish donations Order, building Buddhist institutions with lavish donations to to the the Order, building 39 Another pagodas,, etc etc.. 39 Another solution, solution, available available also to ordinary also to ordinary pagodas soldiers Japanese Pure master Honen: soldiers,, is is offered offered by by the the Japanese Pure Land Land master Honen: A A warrior in order not to the honour of his warrior who who,, in order not to pollute pollute the honour of his family family,, pratlrupaka),, connected connected with with what amounts to to injury injury,, produced produced by by bad people pratirupaka) what amounts bad people in times times of of struggle struggle"" (60b (60b6: don gyi gyi bsran beos su su ming mlng brags brags pa pa II gnod gnod par par in 6 : don bsran beos 'gyur ba dang dang ldan pa II dam dam pa pa 'i'I ehos ehos ltar ltar beos pa II mod mod pa pa 'j'i dus dus na na skyes skyes 'gyur ba ldan pa beos pa . . ;; cp : 33 3 a l l - 1 3 ) . bu bu dam dam pa pa ma ma lags lags pas pas bgyis bgyls pa pa ... cpoo T T 99:333all-13). 37 Yin AN cpoo i n 1:237 1 : 237 = A N IIV: V : 187f. 1 87f. For parallels in other Vlnayas Vinayas cp 37 V .

=

Frauwallner 1 956 : 96 . Frauwallner 1956:96. 38 38 T vol 23 23:58a8-20 Sarvastivadins);; Rosen 1959: : 5 8a8-20 (Vinaya ooff the Sarvastivadins) 1 9 5 9 : 120. Cpo also Demieville Demieville 1957:348 (n. 3). also 1 957 : 348 (n. 3). 39 39 Cp Cp., III.4:522. . , ee.g., . g . , Lingat 1989:72-75; 1 9 89 : 72-75 ; EncB III . 4 : 522 .

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cannot c annot avoid fighting need not forfeit the Pure Land if only ' he 40 ' trusts in Amida and repeats his name during the battle. battle .40

3. Attempts 3. Attempts to harmonize politics politics and ethics ethics A kind of compromise compromise can can be found in in the 'just' king king who who uses uses A kind of be found the 'just' people,41 force only against violent and wicked people ,41 but still more in consonance with the Buddhist norms-though perhaps less realistic-is counters violence wickedness with realistic-is the the king king who who counters violence and and wickedness with 42 In the Bodhisattvabh such aa kindness.. 42 Bodhisattvabhumi,43 umi , 43 such calmness and kindness righteous and and non-violent non-violent (adar;tjena (adaf}rjena asastrer;a) asastref}a) form form of of governgovern­ righteous ment ment is explicitly explicitly stated stated to exclude offensive war, but defensive war war , but 44 mentioned and and hence tolerated , as as another another source source44 is not mentioned is hence perhaps perhaps tolerated, puts it, it, as the last Actual ly , precisely precisely this was codified codified as as puts as the last resort. resort. Actually, this was the con­ the position position of of Mahayana Buddhism Buddhism (in contrast to that of conservative Theravada Buddhism) at at aa Buddhist conference at at Tokyo Tokyo servative Theravada Buddhism) Buddhist conference 45 A i n 1959. 1 95 9 .45 subj ects was for­ A similar compromise compromise at the the level of subjects was forin mulated in in the the Five precepts for lay people by the the Korean Korean monk 40 40

Coates & & Ishizuka 1930:475-477. 1 93 0 : 475-477 .

4 1 Cpo also Bodhisattvabhami 41 Bodhisattvabhami (BoBh) 97,21-22 97 , 2 1 -22 and, and , especially, especially , 123,18-20, 1 23 , 1 8-20, stating that it is an offence for a Bodhisattva (ruler?) not to censure, censure , punish or exile S ince the sequence appears appears to to imply imply aa climax cl imax or exile those those who who deserve deserve it. it. Since the sequence (as is_ expressly stated in Sagaramegha's Sligaramegha ' s commentary ad BoBh 97,21-22: 97 , 2 1 -22 : to be excluded. Derge Tanjur Tanjur Yi 154a6f), the death penalty penalty seems to 1 54a6f) , the excluded . This is confirmed by BGUVVS 61b6ff 6 1b6ff and 65a3ff, esp. esp . 6f (cp. (cp . T 9: 333b22ff; 3 3 3b22ff; 334a20ff; (dgum pa, pa, srog srog gcad gcad 3 3 4a20ff; 336b24ff, 3 36b24ff, esp. esp . c2f) where capital capi t al punishment (dgum pa) and mutilation mutilation (dbang (dbang po nyams par bgyid pa are po nyams par bgyid pa dang dang ii yan yan lag lag grub gtub pa) pa) are pa) and expressly excluded on account of being -irreversible irreversible and incompatible with the spirit of benevolence and compassion. On the other hand, Milindapaiiha hand , the Milindapaiiha (PTS ed.: to be ed. : 186,4ff) 1 86 , 4ff) includes the death penalty among the punishments to app l ied to thieves , but but tries tries to to overcome overcome the conflict wit!I wit!1- Buddhist Buddhist ethics ethics by by applied to thieves, the conflict asserting that the thief incurs this punishment not because it is prescribed or or approved (anumata) by i s oown w n karma. approved of (anumata) by the Buddha Buddha but but because of hhis 42 Jli 42 Ja II:2-5 II: 2-5 (no. (no . 151: 1 5 1 : Rajovadajataka). Rlijovlidajlitaka) . Cpo Cp o Schmidt-LeukeI1991:12. Schmidt-Leukel 1 99 1 : 1 2 . 4433 BoBh 249,19-24, parara~!rarh sahasa sahasa balenakramati. 249 , 1 9-24 , esp. esp . 21: 2 1 : nnaa parara�!rarh balenakramati. 44 44 BGUVVS 67a3-68al 67a3-68a1 (T 9:337cl-338aI7); 9 : 3 37c l-33 8a17) ; cpo cp o Schmidt-LeukeI1991: Schmidt-LeukeI 1 99 1 : 14; 14; Cpoo also Rennyo Rennyo's Thurman 1988: 1 9 8 8 : 158f. 1 5 8f. Cp ' s vview iew (Rogers and Rogers 1991:76 1 9 9 1 : 76 and 83f) . 83f). 45 Bechert 1966: 45 1 966: 186. 1 86 .

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Won'gwang Won'gwang (?-630) (?-630):: ""First, serve the king with loyalty loyalty,, First, serve do not fourth; not retreat retreat in battle, and fourth; do in battle, and fifth, fifth , do do not not kill indiscriminaindiscrimina­ tely. tely . "46 "4 6 A somewhat different and and largely largely utopian utopian attempt attempt is the-buddhiA somewhat different is the-buddhi­ cized-ideal of of the the universal universal monarch monarch (cakravartin),47 who (cakravartin) , 47 who cized-ideal conquers earth by following , with conquers the the whole whole earth by following, with his his army army,, aa thousand­ thousandspoked wheel which rolls in in front front of him, and and to to whom whom all all the the spoked wheel which rolls of him, local subrp.it without local rulers rulers submit without fighting fighting.. After After having having conquered conquered the the univ'ersal monarch rules rules justly justly and and whole world world in this way way,, the the univ' whole in this e rsal monarch without Since everybody everybody observes observes the without force force.. Since the Buddhist Buddhist precepts precepts,, there are no crimes crimes and hence no no punishment,4 punishment,488 and for want want of of there are no and hence and for external enemies is to external enemies there there is is no no war war either either.. It It is to be be noted noted that that this this ideal affairs is ideal state state of of affairs is achieved achieved by by force force (the (the cakravartin conquers conquers 49 the world with his army!) but without killing because the the world w ith his army ! ) but killing49 because the potential opponents submit without offering resistance (according potential opponents submit without offering resistance (according may happen to the Abhidharmakosa,50 this may happen before before his his arrival arrival,, but but to the Abhidharmakosa ,50 this in cases takes ' s army army has in some some cases takes place place only only after after the the cakravartin cakravartin's has already threatened threatened to to make make use use of of weapons) weapons).. already other of of this this ideal with the Asoka, Some connection connection or Some or other ideal with the emperor emperor Asoka, who in the who ruled ruled over over almost almost the the entire entire Indian Indian sub-continent sub-continent in the middle middle of century B . C . , appears appears highly of the the third third century B.C., highly probable probable.. Asoka Asoka became became Buddhist follower 5l and and in fact tried to rule rule his country with with aa B uddhist lay lay follower5! in fact tried to his country as llittle violence as as possible possible,, in with moral principles as ittle violence in accordance accordance with moral principles quite close close to to Buddhist Buddhist ethics ethics.. 5522 However, However, that that part part of of his his empire empire quite which he inherited he he had conquered by brutal which he had had not not inherited had conquered by extremely extremely brutal military force kings in and Southeast military force Y SSimilarly, imilarly , those those kings in Ceylon Ceylon and Southeast mine);; Vas 1977:65. 4466 Ahn 11989:19 9 89 : 1 9 ((italics italics mine) 1 977 : 65 . 47 D DN III:59ff esp.. 40a7ff. 40a7ff.;; cpo 47 N III : 59ff "" T 1:39b4ff, 1 : 39b4ff, esp cp o also T 1: 1 : 119c10ff, 1 1 9c l 0ff, BGUVVS 559a4ff, esp.. 60al-6. For secular secular and and 3372b28ff; 3317blOff 1 7b l 0ff and 72b28ff; BGUVVS 9a4ff, esp 60a l - 6 . For and Hindu Hindu sources cp cpoo Kane 1.1:227 III:63ff; 1 . 1 : 227 and III : 63ff; for Jainism: Glasenapp 1925:225ff. 1 925 : 225ff. 4488 Cp Cpoo BGUVVS 60a7-b2 (T 9:332c14ff). 9 : 332c 1 4ff) . 49 49 Thus explicitly AKBh 186,4-7. 1 86 ,4-7 . 50 AKBh 185,22-186,4. 50 1 85 , 22- 1 86 , 4 . Cpoo Lingat 11989:20ff. 5511 Minor Rock Edict Il:B-D. : B-D . Cp 9 8 9 :20ff. Cp., IV:C, IX:G XI:C . , ee.g., . g . , Rock Edict IV : C , IX: G or XI : C with the first Buddhist 5522 Cp with Cpoo (Sigtilovtidasutta) . Cp precept (see above w ith n. 1) and DN III 180-193 1 80- 1 9 3 (Sigiilovadasutta). Gombrich 1 9 8 8 : 7 9 and and 130; 1 3 0 ; Lingat 1 989 : 29f. Gombrich 1988:79 Lingat 1989:29f. XIII.. 5533 Rock Edict XIII ""

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Asia who took the cakravartin idea! their modeJ54 modeJ54 (or, (or, for for that that Asia who took the idea! as as their 'about 55 had no scruples 'about matter,, declared themselves Bodhisattvas) Bodhisattvas)55 matter cOI;1quering cOI;1quering their their neighbours by bloody they were were not not neighbours by bloody force force if if they willing confor!TI to of conduct conduct described described in in the the willing to to confor!TI to the the pattern pattern of canonical canonical texts and submit spontaneously. spontaneously . Another nteresting case case iinn this connection, though though legendary, legendary , is is Another iinteresting this connection, the the story of the the North-Indian North-Indian king king Pu~yamitra who is reported reported to Pu�yamitra who have persecuted Buddhis Buddhism. m . According to the legend,56 legend ,56 the resist by by force, Buddhists Buddhists themselves did did not not resist force , and and thus thus kept kept their their destroyed the the hostile along precepts hostile king king along precepts,, but but aa protective protective demon destroyed with his army. army . In In some some sources, sources , the the demon too , being with his demon too, being aa Buddhist Buddhist lay follower, refrains from violence leaves the of killing killing to lay follower, refrains from violence and and leaves the job job of to aa non-Buddhist fellow-demon. This This pattern, viz. that Buddhism or or non-Buddhist fellow-demon. pattern, viz. that Buddhism pious Buddhists are forcefully protected demons or or (semi-) (sem i-) pious Buddhists are forcefully protected by by demons divine beings , 57 is quite wide-spread wide-spread in in many many Buddhist countries . divine beings,57 is quite Buddhist countries. It would seem to the aspiration aspiration of of people to be be effectively effectively would seem to express express the people to protected enemies without break their their protected against against thei theirr enemies without having having to to break precepts. But since it affirms violence and even killing, albeit for precepts . killing , the rotection of Buddhism and on a mythological level only , it the pprotection of Buddhism and on a mythological level only, it comes close last point, norm of of not not comes close to to my my last point, viz viz.. relativizing relativizing the the norm killing.. killing 4. Attempts to explicitly relativize the norm not to kill 4.

A famous case case is is the war against against the Tamils led led by the Sinhalese Sinhalese A famous the war the Tamils by the king Du!!hagamaI,l1,588 or the ideologized king Du!!hagamaI,l1,5 or at at least least the ideologized 'description' 'description' of of 5544 Cp., Cp . , e.g., e . g . , Lingat 1989:146-150; 1 9 8 9 : 146- 1 5 0 ; McFarlane 1986:99. 1986 : 99 . 5555 Cp., Cp . , e.g., e . g . , Bechert 1970:766; 1 970:766; Gombrich 1988:161; 1988 : 1 6 1 ; Tambiah 1976:73; 1 976 : 7 3 ; 8 1 ; 186; 1 8 6 ; 226 81; 226;; 482 482.. 5566 Lamotte 1958:424ff. 1 9 5 8 :424ff. 57 Cp e . g . , DN II1 : 203f (Atanatiyasutta: (Atanatiyasutta: evil demons harassing Buddhist 57 Cp.,. , e.g., II1:203f monks monks,, nuns nuns or lay lay followers are threatened with with punishment or even with Saddharmapu'!4arika­ having demons ; Saddharmapu'!4arikahaving their heads split by other, protective demons; (ed. Kern Kern and and Nanj io) 402 (Rak�asIs threaten demons molesting molesting the siltra (ed. Nanjio) 402 (Rak~asIs threaten demons the dharmabhlifJaka with splitting their heads). heads) . In this connection mention should also be made of DN I 94f and MN I 231, 23 1 , where an interlocutor is cautioned by the Buddha Buddha not not to to refuse refuse to to answer answer his question lest lest his head might split his question his head might be be split by the into seven parts by the demon Vajrapal)i. Vaj rapal)i . Cpo Cp o also Witzel 1987:363ff. 1 9 87 : 363ff. 58 Bechert 1966:120-122; 58 1 966 : 120- 1 22 ; Gombrich 1988:141; 1 9 88 : 1 4 1 ; EncB IV.4:704-706; IV . 4 : 704-706;

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it iinn the the Ceylonese Ceylonese chronicle chronicle Mahavamsa Mahiivamsa,, probably probably written written at at the the it of the the fifth fifth century century A A.D. 59 In In this this text, text, Dughagama!f! Dunhagamal}l is is exend of end . D . 59 ex­ pressly the war agai nst the Tamils for pressly described described to to have have waged waged the war against the Tamils for the the sake although the Tamil king is sake of of the the Buddhist Buddhist religion religion,, although the Tamil king is characterized as as aa just just king king who who did not at Buddhism. characterized did not at all al l suppress suppress BuddhIsm. Thus an Thus it it seems seems that that Buddhism Buddhism was was rather rather instrumentalized instrumentalized as as an element culture in Hindu cul­ element of of Sinhalese Sinhalese culture in aa confrontation confrontation with with the the Hindu culture foreign intruders. intruders . It It seems seems ture of of the the Tamils Tamils who who were were viewed viewed as as foreign that parts parts of of the the Order Order (which, under Tamil Tamil rule, rule, may may after all that (which , under after all have less donations lost some influence) supported have received received less donations and and lost some influence) supported the the trend to only was Mahanaman, the author of of the trend to violence violence;; for for not not only was Mahanaman, the author the chronicle, group of of eight holy monks (Arhats ! ) , chronicle, himself himself aa monk, monk, aa group eight holy monks (Arhats!), hhee records assuaged Dunhagama!fl' later remorse records,, assuaged Du!!hagamal}l'ss later remorse bbyy telling telling him him that illing evil kill ing that k killing evil unbelievers unbelievers carries carries no no more more weight weight than than killing animals (forgetting, should not not kill kill animals (forgetting, obviously obviously,, that that aa good good Buddhist Buddhist should animals either!). animals either !). IInn m argument ooff the myy opinion opinion iitt iiss not not improbable improbable that that the the argument the D ughagamal)! story story in stimulated by ideas do­ Dughagamal).l in the the Mahavmhsa Mahavatizsa was was stimulated by ideas documented, one one or or two two centuries centuries earlier, in some some M Mahayana texts.. cumented, earl ier, in ahay ana texts Here in Vaj rayana sources, sources , transgression Here,, as as well well as as later later on on in Vajrayana transgression of of the the precepts,, including including the the precept precept not not to to kill beings,, is declared precepts kill living living beings is declared to be be all allowed or even even required required in in certain certain exceptional exceptional situations. to owed or situations . In some some of or war is in In of these these texts texts,, the the reason reason justifying justifying killing killing or war is in fact or of of the fact the the defense defense of of the the Buddhist Buddhist religion religion or the true true form form of of Buddhism, vviz. Mahayana, and its its adherents adherents.. For For this this purpose purpose,, lay Buddhism, iz. M ahayana, and lay followers,, and especially the king,, should, should, according according to to the Mahiifollowers and especiaIly the king the Maha­ 60 even parinirviifJ.asatra Mahayana,60 even make make use of weapons weapons and parinirva �asatra of of Mahayana, use of and · Lingat Lingat 1989: 1989 : 110-116; 1 1 0- 1 1 6 ; Schmithausen Schmithausen 1996:71-72 1 996 : 7 1 -72 (with (with n. n. 50). 50) . A A modern modern case case DughagamanI'ss remorse is that comparable to that of the monks who assuaged Du!1hagiimaI.lI' of the preaching that communists should should be of the Thai Thai monk monk Kittivuddho Kittivuddho preaching that communists be killed killed because (McFarlane because they they destroy destroy religion religion and and are are not not complete complete persons persons (McFarlane 1 9 86 : 1 00) . Cpo Cp o also also Demieville 1 95 7 : 289 h. 2. For complex issue issue Demieville 1957:289 n. 2. For the the more more complex 1986:100). see,, ee.g., of the connection between Zen and militarism in pre-war Japan see . g . , Ives 1 992:'64f. 1992:64f. 59 v v.. Hiniiber 1996:9l. 59 1 996 : 9 l . 6600 MMPSt 47b2f 47b2f[sTog: =205)61] cpoo 3383b22[sTog : Wa: 103a( 1 03a( = 205)6f] ((~T "" T 12:866c2-4; 1 2 : 866c2-4; cp 83b2224):: ..... dam dampa'i ba'j'i dge bsnyen gyis ni bslab pa pa'i'i gzhi pa 'i (P: (P : das) chos srung ba 24) '0 iI iI dge bsnyen gyi 'dul ba yang spyad par mi bya '0 '0 lnga blang bar mi bya '0 iI iI tshul khrims khrjms .... mda'' . . dang ldan pa 'j'i dge slong rnams bsrung ba 'j'i phyir mda '0 Ii); gzhu dang iI ral gri dang iI mdung thung kha leb lag tu thogs par bya '0 I I ); .

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fight. O One passage,61 to be be sure, states that that although although llay fight. ne passage , 6 1 to sure , states ay followers followers should use use weapons weapons in in order order to to defend defend pure pure monks monks from from per­ pershould secution, defending should secution, those those thus thus defending should not kill anybody anybody.. But But another another passage acks such such aa call call for for restraint restraint and and states states that that the the killing killing passage 6622 llacks of icchantikas,, ii.e., persons who Mahayana and who of icchantikas . e . , persons who discard discard the the Mahayana and who promulgate unwholesome unwholesome doctrines doctrines,, is is even even less grave than than the the promulgate less grave killing of of an an animal animal.. Killing Killing such such people people is is'' rather rather jjust killing ust llike ike felling-insentient ! -trees , mowing s , or dissecting aa corpse felling-insentient!-trees, mowing gras grass, or dissecting corpse,, and hence not at not to sim ilar of the the precept precept not to kill kill.. A A similar and hence not at all all aa violation violation of view is is also also found found in in Vajrayana Vajrayana texts texts,, ee,g.: who hate hate the the view . g . : "Those " Those who Three Jewels,, those those who who have have aa wrong wrong attitude attitude with with regard regard to to the the Three Jewels Buddha's teaching or or disparage disparage the the [Vajrayana] masters:: such such Buddh a ' s teaching [Vaj rayana] masters The people aa discerning discerning [person] [person] should should kill kill wherever wherever he he can can.. "63 people "63 The K Kalacakratantra alacakratantra ((10th l Oth century?)64 century?) 64 even describes a kind of c hatological war eschatological war in in which which the the army army of the Bodhisattva Bodhisattva king es of the king of of Sambhala (allied, by the the way way,, with with the the Hindu Hindu gods gods!) conSambhala (allied, by ! ) finally finally con­ quers and and annihilates annihilates the the Muslim Muslim forces forces (mlecchan hanan hanan,, etc.) in etc . ) in quers order (mleccha-dharmam order to to destroy destroy their their barbarian barbarian religion religion (mleccha-dharmarh chedayitva,, etc chedayitva etc.:166a; . : 1 66a; 167b; 1 67b ; 169b) 1 69b) and and to to re-establish re-establish Buddhism Buddhism (buddha-dharma: (buddha-dharma : 169c). 1 69c) . · Another rayana texts Another reason reason adduced adduced by by some some Mahayana Mahayana and and Vaj Vajrayana texts MMPSt 48b4-49a1 48b4-49a1 (=:: T 12:867al-9; MMPStt 49a7f [sTog: MMPSt ( T 1 2 : 867a 1-9; cp, cp o 384al-12); 3 84a 1 - 1 2) ; MMPS [sTo g : W theg ppaa chen chen po po 'di la Wa:lOSb(=21O)3f] (cp,. T 12:867aI8f; 'di la a : 1 05b( = 2 10)3t] (cp 1 2 : 867a1 8f; 384a22-26): 3 84a22-26) : .'". . theg ni dge bsnyen bsnyen gyis gyis (sTog: gyi) gyi) bslab bslab pa pa'i'i gzhi gzhi lnga lnga blang bar mi mi bya bya ste ste II ni dge blang bar dam chos bsrung bsrung (P: srung) ba mtshon cha thogs shing dge dam pa pa 'i'i chos (P: srung) ba 'i'i phyir phyir lag lag na na mtshon cha thogs shing dge slang 'o I I), D . Cp, mams bsrung bsrung bar bar bya bya'ol Cpo Shimoda Shimoda 1993:249f 1 993 : 249f. slong rnams 6611 M MMPSt 49bSf ((=:: T 12:384b8-11): dge bsnyen bsnyen rnams mams .,,'. . ky kyis dge slang slong 1 2 : 3 84b8- 1 1 ) : dge is dge MPSt 49b5f tshul bsrung ba ba de tshul khrims khrims dang dang ldan ldan pa pa bsrung ba 'i'i phyir phyir mtshon mtshon cha cha 'chang 'chang ba de yang yang tshul te II 'on bya 'o II II dgag dgag 'on kyang kyang gsad gsad par par ni ni mi mi bya'o tshul khrims khrims yin yin zhes zhes nga nga zer zer te pa cp o Shimoda Shimoda 1993:2S0, 1 993 :250 . pa'i'i phyir phyir mtshon mtshon cha cha bcang bcang bar bar bya bya ste ste II ".;; cp, 6622 T 12:460blS-21 no,. 376 and Tibetan, 702c20-25 . Not in T no Tibetan. 1 2 : 460b 1 5-2 1 = 702c20-2S, 63 63 Sarvadurgatiparisodhanatantra Sarvadurgatiparisodhanatantra (ed (ed,. T. T, Skorupski, Skorupski , Delhi 1983) 1 983) 66 and (SkL, 1 7 , 34-2 1 9 , 1 (Tib,), (Tib . ) . Cp, Cp o Snellgrove 2218, 1 8 , If 1 f (Skt . , somewhat problematic) =:: 2217,34-219,1 1 9 87 : 1 7 5 . 1987:17S. 6644 Ktilacakratantra Kalacakratantra (in: Vimalaprabhatika, VimalaprabhtitlKti, ed. Jagannatha Upadhyaya, Muslims,, cp cp,o especially SSarnath arnath 1986) 1 9 86) 1,149 1 . 149 and 1IS9ft; 59f[; as for reference to the Muslims Cp,o Newman 1985:78f; Cp. also Griinbold 1L1S4. . 1 5 4 . Cp 1 985 :7 8f; 1987:S76ff 1 987 : 576ff. Cpo Gr5nbold 1996, 1 996 . - It should, however, be added that in the Buddhist tradition this final battle has also an allegorical, allegorical , i.e" i . e . , spiritual sense spiritual and and soteriological soteriological sense also been been interpreted interpreted in in an (cp,. Newman 1985:80), (cp 1 985 : 80) . �

�

. . .

=

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-

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59 59

to justify justify violence violence and and even even killing killing is is compassion compassion.. Whereas Whereas in conto in con­ servative Buddhism Buddhism compassion compassion only very rarely rarely,, if if ever, appears servative only very ever, appears to have have been been accepted accepted as an excuse for killing killing,65 Mahayana the the to as an excuse for , 6 5 in in Mahayana tendency is is to to allot compassion more weight than than non-injury non-injury tendency allot compassion more weight (ahirhsii) when come into conflict. Thus dacoit is, is , (ahirhsa) when the the two two come into conflict. Thus,, when when aa dacoit out of greed, about about to to murder murder aa group group of travellers,, aa out of greed, of travellers Bodhisattva-obviously not aa monk but an an armed armed lay-person, lay-person, most Bodhisattva-obviously not monk but most probably advised to probably aa warrior-is warrior-is entitled entitled and and even even advised to kill kill him him out out of of compassion upadaya).66 Incidentally:: the the compassion (anukampacittam (anukampiicittam . . .. .. upiidiiya) . 66 Incidentally compassion directed less is directed less compassion inducing inducing the the Bodhisatta' Bodhisatta'ss violence violence is toward the the travellers travellers than than toward toward the the potential potential murderer, who is is toward murderer, who about to to commit commit aa heinous heinous crime that would would lead lead him him to to hell hell.. about crime that Further, the Bodhisattva him when . e . , the Further, the Bodhisattva should should kill kill him when his his (i (i.e., the mur­ murderer's) mind happens happens to to be be in or at at least least neutral neutral state dere r ' s) mind in aa wholesome wholesome or state 67 for for aa moment, moment,67 for should should he he die wicked state state of for die in in aa wicked of mind mind he he would still go to to hell hell.. The The Bodhisattva Bodhisattva is well aware that by by killing killing would still go is well aware that the dacoit dacoit he he himself himself commits commits the the offence offence of of murder, murder, but but the the text text the hastens to to add add that that because because he he kills kills him out of hastens him out of compassion compassion he he will will not not suffer suffer punishment punishment in in hell hell but, but, on on the the contrary contrary,, acquires acquires aa mass mass of of merit. merit. An interesting issue issue in this connection connection is ritual of An interesting in this is the the ritual of "liberation " l iberation [by killing] killing]"" (sgrol, mok~a) taught taught by by aa strand strand of Vajrayana [by (sgroi, mok�a) of Vaj rayana Buddhism (especially Buddhism (especially the the rNying-ma-pa rNying-ma-pa tradition tradition of of Tibetan Tibetan 69 has Buddhism).68 As R. M ayer69 has shown, background is the · Buddhism) . 68 As R. Mayer shown, its its background is the S iva) by Mahesvara (i.e., by the myth of myth of the the subjugation SUbjugation of of Mahesvara (i . e . , Siva) the BodhiBodhi­ sattva V Vajrapal}i, who by by means means of and reviving reviving him him trans­ transsattva ajrapal).i , who of killing killing and forms him enlightened follower of the the Buddha-a Buddha-a pattern pattern forms him into into an an enlightened follower of borrowed from from Hindu Hindu mythology mythology.. The ritual of which itself, borrowed The ritual of sgroI, sgroi, which itself, 65 65 An exception is T 22 22:9a9f MalUsasakas). : 9a9f (Vinaya of the MahISii s akas) . Since this is part part of of the the aniipatti anapatti formula formula of of the the third third piirii parajika, was mistaken passage is jika, II was passage in taking taking it it to to refer refer to to animals only (Schmithausen (Schmithausen 1991b:46) in animals only 1 9 9 1 b : 46) 66 66 BoBh 1113,18ff. Cpoo Demieville 1957:379f; 1 3 , 1 8ff. Cp 1 957 : 379f; Fujita 1995 1 995 (with additional materials) materials) .. 6677 BoBh 113,24 kusalacittam avyakrtacittam va with Wogihara' Wogihara'ss 1 1 3 , 24 (read kuSalacittam avyiikrtacittam vii mss.. C and and K; K; ccpo Tola and and Dragonetti Dragonetti 1993:48). mss p o Tola 1993 : 48) . 68 68 For similar rituals in the New Tantras, see Mayer 1996:62 1 9 96 : 62 n. 7; 7; Snellgrove 236-239; Fujita references oonn pp.. . Snellgrove 1987:170-176; 1 9 87 : 170- 1 7 6 ; 236-23 9 ; Fuj ita 1995:142 1 995 : 1 42 (with (with references 1 37) . 137). 69 69 Mayer 11996:59ff. 996 : 5 9ff.

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S ivaite antecedent, 70 consists, too,, has has aa Sivaite antecedent,70 to the the myth myth,, too consists , in in analogy analogy to in immolation, ii.e., ritual killing killing of of aa hostile hostile force force represented represented in the the immolation, . e . , ritual by an an effigy effigy,, and and in in the the transfer transfer of of the the victim victim to to aa salutary salutary mode by mode of e . In of existenc existence. In Buddhism Buddhism this this ritual ritual has has for for the the most most part part been been by interpreting interpreting the the hostile hostile forces forces as as the the unwholesome unwholesome ''spiritualized' spiritual ized ' by psychic tendencies of himselr,7!1 There however,, psy chic tendencies of the the sacrificer sacrificer himselC There are, are , however also the original, more realistic realistic form the rite rite,, iinn also iinstances nstances ooff the original , more form ooff the which the the hostile hostile force force iiss an an external demon, or even aa which external enemy: enemy : aa demon, or even human e . g . , aa person or reviling adept, human being, being, e.g., person harassing harassing or reviling aa Tantric Tantric adept, or aa political cons idered to endanger the or political enemy enemy considered to endanger the Buddhist Buddhist re­ re72 The ligion.72 rite may also be used for for the The rite may also be used the sake sake of of ''liberating' l iberating ' ligioI1. creatures (including animals) from from unfortunate unfortunate,, inauspicious creatures (including animals) inauspicious forms forms of existence, as related related in biography of the rNying-ma-pa rNying-ma-pa of existence, as in the the biography of the master Guru Guru Chos-dbang Chos-dbang,73 who,, however, however, stresses stresses that that the the master , 73 who practice is allowed only to are definitely practice is allowed only to perfected perfected persons persons who who are definitely capable of securing securing the the liberation of the the victim. capable of liberation of victi m . Finally Finally,, the the Mahayana Mahayana teaching teaching ooff emptiness also also contributed contributed to to aa relativization of values values which could easily easily come relativization of which could come to to have have the the effect of of reducing reducing inhibitions inhibitions against against violence violence and and killing killing.. effect Originally,, the practical purport purport of this teaching teaching was was surely quite Originally the practical of this surely quite different. Realizing that that in in reality reality there there is neither good good conduct nor different. Realizing is neither conduct nor misconduct, neither neither keeping keeping nor nor breaking breaking of of the the precepts precepts,, was was,, misconduct, ee.g., . g . , intended from becoming of his intended to to prevent prevent aa Bodhisattva Bodhisattva from becoming proud proud of his own good good conduct conduct and and from from despising despising others others on on account account of theirr own of thei misconduct/ 4 or or ttoo relieve relieve aa person person (like (like King King Aj Ajatasatru who misconduct,74 atasatru who had from fruitless him had murdered murdered his his father) father) from fruitless remorse remorse and and to to exhort exhort him 75 But to for his e . 75 to energetic energetic effort effort for his spiritual spiritual advanc advance. But it it could could of of 7700 Mayer 1996:70f. 1 996: 70f. 7711 Stein 11957:201; 957 : 20 1 ; 2219-221; 1 9-22 1 ; Mayer 1996:70; 1996 : 70 ; 72. 72 .

72 Stein 1957:20lf; 72 1 95 i 20 l f; 2219ff; 1 9ff; Mayer 1996:70f; 1 996 : 70f; Dudjom 1991 1 9 9 1 1:603-605 I : 603-605 and 6610-612; 1 0- 6 1 2·; Cantwell 1 9 97 : 107 1 07 (the gTsang forces dGe-Iugs-pas saw saw Cantwell 1997: (the gTsang forces whom whom the the dGe-lugs-pas as enemies of ) ; 107f 1 07f nn.5; . 5 ; 110 communists) . The as ''enemies of the the Dharma' Dharma'); 110 (the (the Chinese Chinese communists). The is of of course course the the ''liberation' the ''anti-Buddhist' king classical example example is classical l iberation' of of the anti-Buddhist' king Glang-dar-ma . g . , Seyfort 1 98 1 : 223) . Glang-dar-ma (cp (cp.,. , ee.g., Seyfort Ruegg Ruegg 1981:223). 73 Dudjom 1991 Cpoo Cantwell 1997:108 73 1 9 9 1 II:767. : 76 7 . Cp 1 997 : 108 n. 8; 8 ; cp. cp o also 107 1 07 n. 3. 3. 74 74 E E.g. 25:: 164a23-28 II:864). . g . T 25 1 64a23-28 (Lamotte 1949-1980 1 949- 1 980 II : 864) . 75 Ajatasatru-kaukrtya-vinodana-sutra,, quoted in Demieville 1957:380 75 Ajiitasatru-kaukrtYa-vinodana-sutra 1 957 : 3 80 (with nn.. 2) 2).. See Kj Kj,, mDo mDo,, vol voL. Tsu Tsu:260a2ff, 263blff 267alff; : 260a2ff, esp. esp . 263b l ff and 267a1 ff; 269a4ff, esp esp.. b8ff. b8ff 269a4ff,

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course (especially by or course also also be be misused misused (especially by politically politically active active monks monks or priests) increases in priests) as as an an excuse excuse for for war war.. Its Its potential potential for for misuse misuse increases in the of con­ the context context of of Vajrayana Vajrayana Buddhism Buddhism where where the the relativity relativity of conto be realized ritual ventional values values and and their their opposite opposite is ventional is to be real ized in in ritual enactment ray � na enactment and and even even in in everyday everyday behaviour behaviour,. The The perfect perfect Vaj Vajray~na said to above all all conventional and practitione r , the practitioner, the siddha siddha,, is is said to stand stand above conventional and moral horms Even if should slay slay aa hundred rahmins , he moral norms,. ""Even if he he should hundred B Brahmins, he is is not touched touched by by evil evil.. ,,76 Actually, the the Tibetan Tibetan Vaj Vajrayana master not " 76 Actually, rayana master Lama Zhang Zhang ((12th century) is is reported reported to to have have,, on on the the basis basis of his Lama 1 2th century) of his claim to to be be aa Vajrayanic Vajrayanic siddha� siddha, taken taken the the liberty liberty to to force force his his way way claim 77 even by by means means of military measures� measures,77 even of military The possibility of of misusing misusing the the aforementioned aforementioned ideas ideas is is most most The possibility drastically drastically illustrated illustrated by by the the Aum Aum Shinriky6 Shinrikyo founded founded by by Asahara Asahara 78 and ShOk678 in the ShOk6 and notorious notorious for for its its poison-gas poison-gas attack attack in the Tokyo Tokyo March Actually, the movement movement,, though though defining subway in in M subway arch 1995, 1 995 . Actual ly, the defining itself as as Buddhist, Buddhist, is is rather rather eclectic, eclectic, borrowing borrowing as does,, e,g" itself as it it does e.g. , S aivaf 9 and 8 0 traditions from Hindu (especially traditions,. But But from Hindu (especially Saiva?9 and Christian Christian80 among the the doctrinal doctrinal elements elements that that conditioned conditioned and, its eyes, among and , in in its eyes , legitimated the sect'ss resorting resorting to to violence violence are also ideas taken legitimated the sect' are also ideas taken from e . g . , Asahara' view that from Buddhist Buddhist sources sources,, as as,, e,g" Asahara'ss view that the the life life of of people entangled entangled in in the the material material world world is is not not worth worth much much more more people than of ants, ants , and in their interest than the the life life of and that that aa timely timely death death is is in their own own interest 8 1 In since it it prevents prevents them them from from accumulating accumulating further further bad bad karma. karma,81 since In addition, Asahara Asahara expressly expressly resumed resumed the the Kalacakra Kalacakra's idea of of addition, ' s idea 76 Car;.efamahtlro!!ar;.atantra 76 Candamahtirosanatantra (ed. (ed, Chr. ChL S, S. George, New Haven 1974) 1 974) 32 (7,24: yadi brahmasatarh brahmasatarn hanyad hanyiid api api papair papair na na lipyate), (7 . 24 : yadi lipyate) , 79 (trans!.) (trans! . ) and 120 (Tib,), Cp,o SSnellgrove (Tib . ) . Cp nellgrove 1987:174, 1987 : 174. 77 77 Jackson 1994:6lff. 1 994 : 6 l ff. 78 78 My information is mainly based on Reader 1996. to 1 99 6 . I am very grateful to iIV ing drawn Dr. Lucia DL Lucia Dolce Dolce (Leiden) (Leiden) for for hhaving drawn . my my attention this book book at at the the attention on on this symposium in in March March 1996. 1 996 . symposium 79 79 Reader 1996:3 4);; 15; 1 996 : 3 (n. 4) 1 5 ; 30 ("saktipat ( "saktipat initiation"), initiation" ) . 8800 Reader 1996:17f. 1 996 : 1 7f. 81 81 Reader 1996: cpoo also 16 (n.4):: "",., 1 996 : 70; cp 1 6 (nA) . . . the apparent legitimation he found rayiina Buddhist for taking of ''less less spiritually found in in Vaj Vajrayana Buddhist texts texts for taking the the lives lives of spiritually rebirth";; 46: "". advanced'' beings so as to help them to a better rebirth" advanced . . . that he read Vajrayana path of secret initiations] the justification for those into it [sc. [sc . the Vajrayiina at to remove remove evils by disposing disposing of of those those at at lower lower at higher higher stages stages of of development development to evils by of advancement. advancement."" stages of stages "

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S ambhala as qfter aa Sambhala as the the ideal ideal kingdom kingdom on on earth earth,, to to be be established established
12:866c26ff praised for having fought for the 1 2 : 866c26ff and 383c27ff, 3 83c27ff, where a king is praiseq protection protection of of aa pious pious Buddhist Buddhist master master who who had had been been attacked attacked by by bad bad monks monks of property property (servants (servants,, who were were exasperated exasperated at at his his ppreaching abandonment or who reaching abandonment cattl e , etc .). cattle, etc.).

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. g . , the Zen master Soseki Mus6 (1275-1351)85 ( 1 275- 1 35 1 )85 medieval Japan, ee.g., touched touched upon upon the the crucial crucial point point when when he he exhorted exhorted his his fellow fellow monks monks ' by to pprotect themselves by renouncing renouncing possessions possessions rather rather than than by to rotect themse lves by arms.. carrying arms Finally it should out that that religious sake Finaily,, it should be be pointed pointed out religious wars wars for for the the sake of the Buddhist Buddhist religion religion by by force to non-Buddhist non-Buddhist regions regions · of spreading spreading the force to seem occurred very if at at all. all . Even the combative seem to to have have occurred very rarely, rarely, if Even the combative advocated violence violence only Japanese master master Nichiren 1 222- 1 2 82) advocated only in in Japanese Nichiren ((1222-1282) order to to defend defend the the true true Buddhist Buddhist doctrine doctrine in in countries where order countries where adherents of of wrong wrong views (and Nichiren refers to to adherents views (and Nichiren expressly expressly refers misguided Buddhist 'sects') are actively destroying it, it, misguided 'sects ') are actively engaged engaged in in destroying whereas countries countries that that are are just just evi evil,l , ii.e. non-Buddhist countries whereas . e . non-Buddhist countries whose inhabitants inhabitants are are merely merely ignorant ignorant of of Buddhism, Buddhism, should be whose should be 86 The The Burmese Burmese king king Anuruddha Anuruddha is is even even converted peacefully peacefully.. 86 converted reported to to have have waged waged war war not not in in order to spread spread Buddhism Buddhism reported order to abroad abroad but, but, almost almost on on the the contrary contrary,, in in order order to to acquire acquire for for himself himself Buddhist texts texts and and relics relics from from aa more more buddhicized buddhicized neighbouring neighbouring Buddhist country.. 87 87 country

85 85 Renondeau 1957:258 (n.l). 1 95 7 : 25 8 (n. l). 8866 T 84:232a6-15 (KaimokushO);; reference ttoo followers of the nembutsu nembutsu 84: 232a6- 1 5 (KaimokushO) and to the Zen 'sect': 231c4f 232b4-7;; to Tendai and Shingon: 232b7ff. ' sect' : 23 1c4f and 232b4-7 Cpoo Yampolsky Yampolsky 1990: 142ff, esp. Renondeau 1953: 202 Cp 1 990: 142ff, esp , 144; 144; Renondeau 1 95 3 : 188f; 1 8 8f; 199ff, 1 99ff, esp. esp . 202 Demit~ville 1957: n.l). (with nn.. 1); 1 ) ; Demieville 1957 : 378 (with n. l). 87 87 Bechert Bechert 1966: EncB 1.4:582; relics 1 9 66 : 185f; 1 85f; EncB I . 4 : 5 82 ; Gombrich 11988: 98 8 : 138. 1 3 8 . Capturing relics and Buddha images was frequent in Southeast Asia in view of their legitimizing,, protecting protecting and and invigorating power power (cp. EncB II.l and 58; legitimizing (cp . EncB II . 1 :57 : 57 and 58; TerwieI 1994:11; Tambiah 1976:43f; 1 976 : 43 f; 880; 0 ; 85; 85 ; 121; 12 1 ; Terwiel 1 994 : 1 1 ; 331.). 1 .).

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LAMBERT LAMBERT SCHMITHAUSEN SCHMITHAUSEN

Abbreviations Fram;:aise.d'Extn!me-Oriertt, Paris.. BEFEO Bulletin de II'Ecole ' Ecole Fram;:aise . d ' Extn!me-Oriertt , Paris EncB Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Buddhism . Ed Malalasekera . Colombo C olombo EncB Ed.. G. P. Malalasekera. 1961ff. 1 9 6 1 ff. Kj Kanjur (bKa'-'gyur), (bKa' - ' gyur) , in The The Tibetan Tibetan Tripi!akd, Tripi!akd, Peking Kj Peking Edition Edition (repr.). Ed.. D D.T. vols.. Tokyo, (repr. ) . Ed . T . Suzuki. Suzuki . 168 1 68 vols Toky o , Kyoto 1955-1961. 1955- 1 96 1 . T T to vol. Taish6 Shinshu Daiz6ky6. Tokyo 1924ff. 1 924ff. (Quotations acc. acc . to vol . and page) ZDM G Zeitschrift der Deutschen MorgenHindischen GesellschafL ZDMG

Abbreviated Abbreviated titles titles AKBh'' Abhidharmakosabhti~ya of Vasubandhu. Ed.. by P. Pradhan. Patna: AKBh Abhidharmakosabhti�ya of Vasubandhu . Ed Patna : e arch Institute K . P . Jayaswal Res K.P. Research Institute,, 1967. AN AN Aliguttaranikaya. Ed. E.. Hardy. Aliguttaranikaya. Ed . by R. R . Morris and E Hardy . London: PTS, PTS , 1910. 1910. Bodhisattvagocaropayavi�ayavikurva,!asatra : Kj mDo , vol. BGUVVS Bodhisattvagocaropayavi~ayavikurva,!asatra: Kj,, mDo, Nu:37a8-101b8; missing!) Nu : 37a8- 1 0 1 b 8 ; T 9 no. no . 271 27 1 (ch. (ch . 6 missing ! ) and no. no . 272. 272 . DN Dfghaniktiya Ed. DN Dfghaniktiya Ed . T. T . W. W . Rhys Davids and J. E. Carpenter. London: London : PTS,, 1890-1911. PTS 1 890- 1 9 1 1 . lataka, together with with its its Commentary. Ed.. V. Fausb0ll. PTS,, Ja lataka, together Commentary . Ed Fausb0l l . London: PTS 1877-1896. 1 877- 1 89 6 . MMPSt (Arya-)Mahtiparinirvar,za-nama-mahtiyanasatra: vol.. (Arya-)Mahtiparinirvar,za-nama-mahtiyanasatra : Kj, Kj , mDo, mDo , vol Tu:1a1-158b8. Tu : 1 a 1 - 1 5 8b8 . MN Majjhimanikaya.. Ed Ed.. V. Trenckner and R. MN Majjhimanikaya R . Chalmers. Chalmers . London: PTS, PTS , 1 888- 1 89 9 . 1888-1899. S ang Saligrtiparytiya. Saligrtiparytiya . V. Stache-Rosen, Dogmatische im Sang Dogmatische Begriffsreihen Begriffsreihen im alteren Buddhismus alteren Buddhismus II: Das Das Saligrtisatra Saligrtisatra und und sein sein Kommentar Kommentar Sangftiparyaya.. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag 1968. Sangftiparyaya 1 96 8 . Sanghabh Raniero Gnoli, Manuscript of Gnoli , The The Gilgit Gilgit Manuscript of the the Salighabhedavastu. Salighabhedavastu . Rome: Rome : Is.M.E.O., Is .M . E. O . , 1977-78. 1 977-7 8 . SSN N Samyuttaniktiya. Ed. L. Feer. London: PTS PTS,, 1884-1898. Samyuttaniktiya. 1 884- 1 89 8 . Yin Yin Vinayapi(aka. Vinayapi(aka . Ed. Ed . H. OIdenberg. OIdenberg . London: PTS, PTS , 1879-1883. 1 879- 1 883 .

Other works referred to Ahn, Kye-hyon 1 9 89 A A Short History of of Ancient Ancient Korean in Introduction of 1989 Short History Korean Buddhism Buddhism,, in Introduction of Buddhism to Korea: Cultural Patterns Ed . by Lewis R. Lancaster Buddhism to Korea: New New Cultural Patterns.. Ed. aand nd C.S. C . S . Yu. (Berkeley: (Berkeley : Asian Humanities Press): Press) : 1~27. 1 �27 . Bareau, Andre S aky a : essai d'interpretation." 1 9 8 1 .oLe .o Le massacre des Sakya: 1981 d ' interpretation. " BEFEO 69:45-73. 69 : 45-7 3 .

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1993 rois." 80:15-39. 1 993 "Le "Le Bouddha et les rois . " BEFEO 80: 15-39. Heinz Bechert, Heinz 11966-7 966-7 Buddhismus, Buddhismus, Staat in den Liindern des Theravtida­ den Uindern des TherawldaStaat und und Gesellschaft Gesellschaft in Buddhismus.. Vo! Vol.. I-II I-II.. Wiesbaden: Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Harrassowitz. Buddhismus 1970 Buddhist Sangha: Sangha: Some Some General General Observations Observations on on Historical Historical 1 970 "Theravada " Theravada Buddhist e lopment . The and Political Political Factors Factors in in its its Dev Development." Journal of Asian Studies The Journal of Asian Studies and 29.4:761-778. 29 . 4 : 76 1 -778 . Cantwell, Cathy Cathy Cantwell, 1997 Meditate upon upon Consciousness Consciousness as vajra vajra:: Ritual Ritual " 'Killing 'Killing and 1 997 ""To To Meditate Liberation' . " Tibetan Liberation' in in the the rNying-ma-pa rNying-ma-pa Tradition Tradition." Tibetan Studies. Studies. of the the 7th Seminar of of the the International Association for for Proceedings of Proceedings 7th Seminar International Association Tibetan Studies Studies Graz Graz 1995 aL):1:107-118. 1 995 (ed. (ed . H. Krasser et aL ) : I : 1 07- 1 1 8 . Wien: Tibetan Osterr. Wissenschaft{!n Verlag d. O sterr. Akademie dd.. Wissenschaft-en Coates, H H.. H H.,. , and Ishizuka Coates, and R. R. Ishizuka 1930 Honen ed. Tokyo: 1930 Honen the the Buddhist Buddhist Saint. Saint. 2nd 2nd ed. Tokyo: Kodokaku Kodokaku.. Paul Demieville, Paul Demieville, 1 952 Le 1952 Le concile concile de de Lhasa Lhasa.. Paris Paris:: Imprimerie Imprimerie Nationale Nationale.. bouddhisme et et la la guerre guerre." Postscript to to Renondeau Renondeau 1957: Le bouddhisme . " Postscript 1 95 7 : 347-385. 347-3 85 . 11957 957 ""Le (Repr. in: in: P P.. Demh!ville Demieville,, Choix d 'etudes bouddhiques.. Leiden: (Repr. Choix d 'erudes bouddhiques Leiden : Brill Brill 11973:261-299). 973 : 2 6 1 -299) . Dudjom Dudjom Rinpoche Rinpoche Nyingma School School of of Tibetan Tibetan Buddhism Buddhism.. Trans Transl.! . and ilnd ed. The Nyingma ed . bbyy Gyurme 11991 99 1 The Dmje with with the the collaboration collaboration of of Matthew Matthew Kapstein. Kapstein. Boston: DOije Boston: Wisdom Wisdom Publications.. Publications Frauwallner, Erich Erich Frauwallner, Buddhist Literature Literature.. Roma: 1956 The The Earliest Earliest Vinaya the Beginnings Beginnings of Vinaya and and the of Buddhist Is.M.E.O. Is .M.E.O. Fujita, Kokan Fuj ita, K6kan 1995 Life'' in the SSIla-patala of the the na-pa�ala of 1 995 "On " On the so-called 'Taking Life Bodhisattvabhumi."" (in Mikky6 Bunka Bunka (Koyasan) Bodhisattvabhumi. (in Japanese) Japanese) Mikky6 (Koyasan) 191:1521 9 1 : 1 52138. 138. Glasenapp,, Helmuth Helmuth von von Glasenapp Der lainismus lainismus.. Berlin. Reprographic reprint Hildesheim: Olms 1964. 11925 925 Der Gombrich, Richard Richard Gombrich, 1988 Theravtida Theravilda Buddhism Buddhism.. London London and and New New York: Routledge & & Kegan Kegan 1988 York: Routledge Pau Paul.l . Grbnbold, Gunter Gunter Gronbold, Tantra."" Festschrift Festschrift filr filr D D.. 1996 in einem buddhistischen Tantra. 1 996 ""Kriegsmaschinen Kriegsmaschinen in einem buddhistischen Schlingloff(ed. F.. Wilhelm) Wilhelm):63-97. Reinbek: 1I.. Wezler Wezler Schlingloff (ed . bbyy F : 63-97 . Reinbek: Hinuber, Oskar von von Hiniiber, Oskar A Handbook Handbook of of Ptili Pilli Literature. Literature. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter. 11996 996 A Ives Christopher Ives,. Christopher Zen Awakening Awakening and and Society Society.. Honolulu Honolulu:: University University of 11992 992 Zen of Hawaii Hawaii Press. Press. ..

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Jackson, David ' 11994 994 Enlightenment sterr. Akademie d. O Enlightenment by by aa Single Single Means. Means. Wien: Wien: Verlag Verlag d. Osterr. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Kane, P. V. Kane, of Dharmasastra. Dharmasastra. Poona. History of 11930-62 93 0-62 History Lamotte,, E Etienne Lamotte tienne Traite de de Nagar juna 11949-1980 949- 1 980 Le Le Traite de la la grande grande vertu vertu de de sagesse sagesse de Nagarjuna n : Institut Vols.. I-V I-V.. Louvai Louvain: Institut Orientaliste Orientaliste.. (Mahtiprajfiaparamitasastra) (Mahiiprajnaparamitasastra).. Vols 11958 95 8 Histoire Histoire du indien . Louvain du bouddhisme bouddhisme indien. Louvain:: Institut Institut Orientaliste Orientaliste.. Lingat, Lingat, Robert Robert 1989 Royautes Royautes bouddhiques bouddhiques.. Ed Ed.. by by G G.. . Fussman Fussman and and E. Meyer. Ed.. 1989 Meyer.' Paris: Paris : Ed de Il'Ecole ' EcoIe des des Hautes Etudes en en Sciences Sociales. Hautes Etudes Sciences Sociales. de P.. Malalasekera,, G. Malalasekera G. P Luzac . 11960 960 Dictionary Dictionary of of Pali Pali Proper Proper Names Names.. London: London: Luzac. Mayer, M ayer, Robert 1 996 "The "The Phur-pa Phur-pa bcu-gnyis bcu-gnyis.. A A Scripture Scripture from from the the rNying-mai rNying-mai rgyud­ rgyud1996 'bum." Dissertation, Leiden. Leiden. ' bum . " Dissertation, McFarlane,, Stewart McFarlane Stewart Encyclopedia of of Peace Peace (ed (ed.. by by E. Laszlo and and Jong 1986 World Encyclopedia 1 986 ""Buddhism." Buddhism. " World . Youl Yoo) Yoo):I:97-103. Oxford:: Pergamon : I : 97-103 . Oxford Meisig,, Konrad Konrad Meisig Sramanyaphala-sutra.. Wiesbaden Wiesbaden:: Harrassowitz Harrassowitz.. 1 987 Das 1987 Das SramafJyaphala-sutra R. Newman, John John R Newman, 1 985 ""A A Brief of the The Wheel Wheel of Time-The 1985 Brief History History of the Kalachakra. Kalachakra."" The of Time-The Kalachakra in Context (ed (ed.. Geshe Lhundup Sopa et aL al.):51-90. ) : 5 1 -90 . Ithaca: Ithac a : Kalachakra in Context SSnow now Lion. Lion. The outer Time: Vajrayana Vajrayana Buddhist the 1 987 The 1987 outer Wheel Wheel of of Time: Buddhist cosmology cosmology in in the of Wisconsin. Kalacakra Wisconsin. Kalacakra tantra tantra.. Diss Diss.. Univ Univ.. of Reader, Ian Ian Reader, 11996 996 A Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Studies . A Poisonous Poisonous Cocktail Cocktail?? Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Asian Studies. G.. Renondeau, G Renondeau, Laa doctrine doctrine de de Nichiren Nichiren.. Paris Paris:: Imprimerie Nationale Nationale.. 11953 953 L Melanges publiees 11957 957 ""Histoire Histoire des des moines . " Melanges moines guerriers guerriers du du Japon Japon." publiees par par l/'Institut 'Institut des des Hautes Hautes Etudes Etudes chinoises chinoises.. VoL Vol. 1. Paris Paris:: Presses Presses Universitaires de France. France. Universitaires de L.,. , and and Ann Ann T T.. Rogers Rogers Rogers Rogers,, Minor Minor L Rennyo.. Berkeley Berkeley:: Asian Humanities Humanities Press Press.. 11991 9 9 1 Rennyo Rosen, Rosen, Valentina Valentina Der Vinayavibhaizga zum Bhik�upratimoksa Bhiksupratimoksa der der Sarvastivtidins Sarvastivadins.. Berlin: Berlin: Vinayavibhatiga zum 11959 95 9 Der Akademie-Verlag Akademie-Verlag.. Dieter Schlingloff, D ieter 1 963 ""Zur 2ur Interpretation Interpretation des 1 1 3 : 536-551. 5 3 6-55 l . des Pratimok�asi1tra. Pratimoksasutra."" ZDMG ZDMG 113: 1963 Schmidt Schmidt-Leukel -Leukel Problem vvon Gewalt und und Krieg Krieg in in der der buddhistischen buddhistischen Ethik Ethik." 1991 1 9 9 1 "Da.s "Da� Problem o n Gewalt ." Rundbriefe "Buddhismus heute" no.. 55:: 1-17. Rundbriefe "Buddhismus he' ute " no 1-17.

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Schmithausen, Lambert Lambert Schrnithausen, 1 9 9 1 a The The Problem oj Plants 1991a Problem oj oj the the Sentience Sentience oj Plants in in Earliest Earliest Buddhism Buddhism.. (Studia (Studia Philologica Series VI . ) Toky o : The Philologica Buddhica, Buddhica, Monograph Monograph Series VI.) Tokyo: The International International Institute for Buddhist Studies. Studies . 1 9 9 1 b Buddhism Buddhism and and Nature ) . (Stadia 1991b Nature (Enlarged (Enlarged Version Version with with Notes Notes). (Studia Philologica Occasional Paper . ) Tokyo: Tokyo : The The Philologica Buddhica, Buddhica, Occasional Paper Series Series VII VII.) International Institute for Buddhist Buddhist Studies Studies.. International Institute for 1 996 "Buddhismus "Buddhismus und Glaubenskriege . " Glaubenskriege 1996 und Glaubenskriege." Glaubenskriege in in Vergangenheit Vergangenheit und P. Herrmann) : 63-92 . Gbttingen: Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & (ed.. P. Herrmann):63-92. Vandenhoeck & und Gegenwart Gegenwart (ed . Ruprecht. Ruprecht. Seyfort !l vid Seyfort Ruegg, Ruegg, DDavid probJ(:mes dd'exegese de pratique pratique tantriques tantriques."' and 1981 Tantrik and Deux problemes 'exegese eett de . " Tantrik 1 9 8 1 ""Deux in honour oj . R R.A. Stein (Melanges Taoist Studies Studies in (Melanges chinois chinois et et Taoist honour oj . A . Stein bouddhiques 20) 1:212-226. 1 : 2 1 2-226. Shimoda, Masahiro Masahiro Shimoda, Version oj 1 993 An 1993 An Annotated Annotated Japanese Japanese Translation Translation oj oj the the Tibetan Tibetan Version oj the the Mahayana MahaparinirvaIfasiitra. Mahaparinirval!asutra. Vol Vol.. 1. Tokyo: Mahayana I. Toky o : Sankibo. Sankibo . S nellgrove , David Snellgrove, David don: Serindia Indo-Tibetan Buddhism Buddhism.. Lon London: Serindia Publications Publications.. 11987 987 Indo-Tibetan Stein, Rolf Rolf A. A. Stein, 1957 Linga des danses masques lamaiques lamalques et la theorie des ames." Sino1 957 "Le .o Le LiIfga ames . " Sino­ Indian Studies, Studies, SSantiniketan, (Liebenthal Festschrift) Festschrift):200-234. Indian antiniketan, 55 (Liebenthal : 200-234. Tambiah, S. Tambiah, S. JJ.. 1976 and World Renouncer. Cambridge: Cambridge World Conqueror Conqueror and World Renouncer. Cambridge : Cambridge 1 976 World Press.. University Press University Terwiel,, B B.. JJ.. Terwiel Monks and and Magic. Magic. 33rd rev.. ed. White Lotus. rd rev ed . Bangkok: Bangkok: White Lotus . 11994 994 Monks Thurman, Thurman, Robert Robert A A.. F F.. Cultural Rights Rights iinn Buddhism Buddhism." Human Rights Rights and and the the 1988 1 988 "Social " Social and and Cultural . " Human Rouner):: 148-163. Notre Dame: Univ.. World's Religions (ed. World 's Religions (ed. Leroy Leroy SS.. Rouner) 148- 1 63 . Notre Dame : Univ of Notre Notre Dame Dame Press Press.. of Tola, Fernando Fernando and and Carmen Carmen Dragonetti Dragonetti Tola, 1993 India." 1 993 "Buddhism in face of justification of violence in ancient India . " The The Maha Bodhi Bodhi 1101.2:41-50. Maha 0 1 . 2 : 4 1 -50 . Vos,, Fritz Fritz Vos Religionen Koreas Koreas.. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Die Religionen 11977 977 Die Witzel, Witzel, Michael Michael Case of of the the Shattered Head." Studien zur zur Indologie Indologie und Iranistik 1987 1 9 87 ""The The Case Shattered Head . " Studien und Iranistik 1 3 - 1 4 : 363-4 1 5 . 13-14:363-415. Philip B B.. Yampolsky,, Philip Yampoisky 1990 Selected Writings oj Nichiren Nichiren.. New York York:: Columbia University Press Press.. 1 990 Selected Writings oj

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JAN E.M. HOUBEN JAN E . M . HOUBEN En :v aurait En morale morale comme comme en en art, art, if il nn:v aurait de solution solution pour pour celui celui qui d'abord pas de pas qui veut veut d 'abord sa marche, rester aa tout juste assurer assurer sa marche, rester tout instant instant juste et maitre maitre absolu absofu de de soi-meme. soi-meme. et le mouvement mouvement Nous nn 'aurions d 'autre' 'autre recours recours que que Ie Nous 'aurions d spontane aux autres lieaux autres pour pour Ie Ie malheur mafheur et et spontane qui qui nous nous lie le bonheur, bonheur, dans dans lI 'egoisme dans la fa generosite. generosite. pour Ie pour 'egofsme et et dans (Maurice Merleau-Ponty Merleau-Ponty,, Sens Sens et Non-Sens, p. 9) et Non-Sens,

PART PART

A. INTRODUCTION A. INTROD UCTION

1 . Killing animals in Vedic rituals as an ethical problem: Scope 1. and methodology of this study

1 . 0 For ing of of animals in Vedic rituals has has 1.0 For many many centuries centuries the the kill killing animals in Vedic rituals been an an ethicaF ethical l problem problem quite peculiar to to South Asia and and to to the been quite peculiar South Asia the tradition.. Nevertheless Nevertheless,, there there are Vedic Sanskritic-Prakritic tradition Vedic and and Sanskritic-Prakritic are inin­ deed several more more universal universal ssides to it. it. While While it is to to be be studied studied iinn deed several ides to it is iits t s pparticular articular South context, one one may e e reflected South Asian Asian historical historical context, may ssee reflected it the the universal universal problematic problematic themes themes of of life and death death,, of right iin n it l ife and of right of selfishness selfishness and and altruism altruism:: themes themes which which are are also and wrong,, and and wrong and of also reflected in major of modern societies all all over reflected in major ethical ethical problems problems of modern societies over the the 11 Both Both the the word word 'moral' and the the word word 'ethical' back to to aa word word which ' moral ' and 'ethical ' go go back which means ''habit', the Latin Latin mos, mos, moris moris in in the the former the means habit ' , 'custom', ' custom' , viz. viz. the former case case and and the ethos in in the the latter. latter. Since created the the term term moralis moralis,, the the terms terms Greek �thos Greek Since Cicero Cicero created philosophia lis and at least least till till philosophia mora moralis and ethica ethica have have been been practically practically synonymous synonymous at ddle a,ges the mi middle ages (Jiissen (Jtissen 1984: Nowadays, it it is usual to to attempt attempt to to the 1 9 8 4 : 149). 149) . Nowadays, is usual distinguish between between 'moral' and 'ethical', for instance instance by by saying that "An distinguish ' moral ' and ' ethical ' , for saying that "An rstood as ethical viewpoint viewpoint may may be be unde understood as aa more more or or less less systematic systematic attempt attempt to to ethical such as as ''right' right' and and 'wrong' ' wrong' provide of the of moral moral terms the meaning meaning of terms:� such provide an an account account of [,[, whereas] whereas] aa moral viewpoint .. .. .. consists the application term moral viewpoint consists in in the application of of the the term 'right' or ''wrong' to aa given given instance instance of human conduct" conduct" (Garvin ' right' or wrong ' to of human (Garvin 1956:309). 1 95 6 : 309) . It has It also been been said that ''morals' suits more more aa Kantian Kantian philosophy philosophy and has also said that morals ' suits and 'ethics' ' ethic s ' On both both accounts will be an Aristotelian Aristotelian (Blackburn (Blackburn 11994 an 9 9 4 s.v. s . v . 'morality'). ' morality ' ) . On accounts II w i l l be more concerned concerned with with 'ethics' than with with 'morals' in this this paper paper (although, (although, at at more ' ethics ' than ' morals ' in least quantitatively quantitatively,, the the Sanskrit sources probably probably deal deal more more with with ''morals'). least Sanskrit sources morals ' ) . The philosophy ' II will that iitt may may The term term ''philosophy' will take take iinn aa rather rather broad broad sense, sense, ssoo that include at at least least the the ethical thinking of of the the well-known well-known Brahminical Brahminical,, Buddhist include ethical thinking Buddhist and systems , as as well well as some precursors as some precursors.. and Jaina Jaina systems,

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(including South world world (including South Asia) Asia):: killing killing for a (political or religious) ' , suiCide, suieide , euthanasia, ''higher higher goal euthanasia, etc. goal', The problem of the kill killing etc . The ing of animals has occupied of animals iinn Vedic Vedic rituals rituals has occupied the the authors of numerous philosophical epical , poetical philosophical,, legal legal,, epical, poetical and and other other works in the SansSans­ kritic-Prakritic kritic-Prakritic tradition tradition up up to to the the present present day day.. 22 This tradition tradition,, therefore of aa rich rich variety of phenomena therefore,, gives gives not not only only evidence evidence of in field of of human in the the field human habits habits and and customs customs (ethos) which may be confronted confronted with with modern modern social and ethical ethical theories theories,, it also offers social arid reflections reflections and and theodzations theorizations of its own own on on the the basis basis of these phe­ pheof its nomena. 33 nomena. 1 . 1 In In this essay II will adopt aa special angle of approach and 1.1 this essay will adopt special angle of approach and limit limit my subject subject in in several ways.. To with the the latter, latter, one limitation my several ways To start start with one limitation in the is that especially interested in how is that II will will be be especially interested in how philosophers in the to the the 16th South Asian Asian classical classical philosophical philosophical systems systems (mainly up to South (mainly up 1 6th century) have have dealt with this this problem problem.. What What ancient ancient Vedic authors,, century) dealt with Vedic authors and non-philosophical or less philosophically philosophically incl inclined authors,, have have and non-philosophical or less ined authors said about this this subject subject has has already already been been frequently frequently studied said about studied and and disdis­ cussed by by several several scholars scholars.. II think think of the monumental monumental studies studies by by cussed of the P.. V V.. Kane Kane ((1930-62), and of the studies by Ludwig Ludwig Alsdorf Alsdorf P 1 930-62) , and of the studies by Hanns-Peter Schmidt now also also 1997), Jan C C.. Hees­ Hees((1962), 1 962) , Hanns-Peter Schmidt ((1968, 1 96 8 , now 1 997) , Jan terman ((1966, also 1993:34, Boris Oguibenine terman 1 96 6 , 1984; 1 984; also 1 993 : 3 4 , 881t), 1 t) , Boris Oguibenine (1994), ( 1 994) , Herman W W.. Tull Tull ((1996), most recently recently Henk Henk Bodewitz Bodewitz in the Herman 1 996) , and and most in the present been dealing present volume volume;; these these scholars scholars have have been dealing mainly mainly with with Vedic lliterature with Dharmasastric Dharmasastric authors. Here,, we will Vedic iterature and and with authors . Here we will have have to to pay pay some some attention attention to to these these sources sources as as wel well,l , but but only only to to prepare the the stage stage for for the the philosophers philosophers and and their their arguments perprepare arguments and and per­ spectives . spectives. 1 . 2 Another imitation is is that, that, among among the the philosophical philosophical systems systems,, II 1.2 Another llimitation will focus mainly on Sarhkhya The position will focus mainly on Samkhya and and Vedanta. Vedanta. The position taken taken by by Mlmarhsa ith regard of killing animal s , iinn opMfmamsa w with regard to to the the problem problem of killing animals, opModern discussions discussions on on this this topic ropic are are not not only held in English and and the the only held in English 22 Modem regional languages languages (e (e.g. in national national and and local local newspapers) newspapers),, but but also also in regional . g . in S astrin' s Pasv-alambha-mfmarhsa (n. d . ) Sanskrit, . g . SSrTnagesa rTnagesa Sastrin's Sanskrit, as as testified testified by by ee.g. Pasv-tilambha-mrmamsa (n.d.) Pasv-alambhana-ni~edhah Yajiiesu Srouty's and Viswanatha Srouty ' s Pasv-alambhana-ni�edhaf} Yaji'ie�u (Srouty 1993/94), 1 993/94) , the defence of of the offering of ghee (clarified the latter latter being being aa 'sastric 'sastric'' defence the offering of ghee (clarified butter butter,, in Vedic Vedic sacrifices sacrifices instead instead of of aa goat goat (aja). ajya) in (aja) . 33 Cf. also Schreiner 1979:294-295. 1 979 : 294-295 .

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pos ition mainly position mainly with with Buddhists Buddhists and and Jainas Jainas,, has has been been discussed quite extensively Wilhelm Halbfass extensively by by Wilhelm Halbfass (esp (esp.. 1991), 1 99 1 ) , who also tried to m e general spell out so spell out some general implications implications for for Hinduism Hinduism.. (See for this also Halbfass 1 98 8 : 3 1 0-348 on Halbfass 1988:310-348 on dharma; and and Gune to which we Gune 1994, 1 994 , to will sectio n . ) The will return return in in the the next next section.) The Mlmamsakas Mlmarhsakas adopted adopted aa posi­ position of extreme extreme reliance reliance on on traditional traditional texts texts,, and and fully fully rejected rejected the the tion of iindependent ndependent validity validity of of rational rationality with regard regard to to matters matters of ity with dharma dharma.. This This position position is is to to be be understood understood against against the the background background of the the B rahminical ritualism of Brahminical ritualism to to which which Mlmamsa Mlmarhsa is is so strongly comso strongly com­ mitted mitted.. But But not not all all Brahmins Brahmins took took the the same Mlmarhsa posi­ posisame extreme extreme Mlmamsa u pplement the tion is both both in in order order to to ssupplement the discussion by Halbfas Halbfass, tion.. It It is discussion by s, and own intrinsic intrinsic interest, and on on account account ooff their their own interest, that that II focus the focus iinn the present essay on on Sarhkhya Vedanta, taking taking into into account also present essay Samkhya and and Vedanta, Samkhya ' s sister-system Sarhkhya's Yoga.. In the relationship relationship between these sister-system Yoga In the systems systems and and Mlmamsa Mrmarhsa we we see see some some of of the the strongest dynamical strongest dynamical contrasts within within B Brahminical Hinduism.. However, However, these these are very contrasts rahminical Hinduism are very much overshadowed overshadowed by the even even stronger stronger contrasts between MI­ Mrmuch by the contrasts between mamsa and the and Jainas mamsa and the Buddhists Buddhists and J ainas.. Philosophers Philosophers of of the the remaining remaining two rahminical systems and Nyaya, to Vaise~ika and Nyaya, seem seem to two orthodox orthodox B Brahminical systems,, Vai§e�ika have been been caught caught in the Mlmamsa Mrmarhsa vs vs.. Buddhist Buddhist and Jaina con­ conhave in the and Jaina troversy and sided as far far as as the the problem problem of of killing killing sacrificial sacrificial ani­ anitroversy and sided,, as mals is is concerned concerned,, mainly mainly with with Mlmamsa. Mlmarhsa. 44 Early Early Vai§e�ika Vai§e~ika did mals did considerable attention attention to to ethical ethical problems problems,, but, but, as as far far as as II ppay ay considerable could discern, discern, the the problem problem of killing animals animals in Vedic rituals rituals is not could of killing in Vedic is not these.. 55 prominent among these Halbfass 1991:89; Handiqui 1949:389-390. 1991 : 89 ; Handiqui 1 949 : 3 89-3 90. 44 Halbfass Problems involved involved in in killing killing (but not at at aa regular regular Vedic Vedic sacrifice) are 55 Problems (but not sacrifice) are VaisS chapter chapter 6, where-as II wrote wrote elsewhere briefly discussed in VaisS briefly discussed in 6, where-as elsewhere (Houben (Houben 1994:741)-"results taking'' and ''killing dharma of ''giving giving and taking kill ing 1 9 94 : 74 1 );-" results in the field of dharma lled ' are made dependent upon the socio-religious status of the and being being ki killed' and other other person person (with (with reference reference to to oneself oneself as as actor) actor) involved involved in in the the act act (Va (Va isS isS the other other person person may may be be equal equal,, lower, lower, or or viSi�ra visista 'distinguished' 'distinguished' or or 66.l.4-18; . 1 . 4- 1 8 ; the atmatyaga used in this context is not equivalent to ''superior')." superior ' ) . " The term atmatyaga ''suicide' suicide ' (as . Halbfass 1991:115 1 99 1 : 1 1 5 note 5 suggests) but to 'letting ' letting oneself be killed'' (thUS (thus,, commenting commenting on on VaisS VaisS 6.l.18, writes:: atmano atman o killed 6 . 1 . 1 8 , Candrananda writes satruna praptasyatmana praptasytitmana eva eva ripuprayukto ripuprayukto vadho vadho 'ngrkaryah). 'dhikagurzena 'dhikagufJena satrufJa 'fzglkaryal.z) . According to to VaisS VaisS 6.1.10, following Candrananda' Candrananda'ss interpretation, Brahmin According 6 . 1 . 10 , following interpretation, aa Brahmin is employs violence is bad bad if if he he , employs violence which which inflicts inflicts bodily bodily and and mental mental pain. pain. VaisS VaisS enumerates the the means means to to produce produce an an invisible invisible effect effect (adrsta) which 66.2.2 . 2 . 2 enumerates (adrs!a) which to the the preceding preceding sutra sutra 6.2.1) to the (he ''elevation' should contribute (according (according to should contribute 6 . 2 . 1 ) to elevation'

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1.3 to approach the complexities of thi thiss problem 1 . 3 In order to p roblem in a historical fruitful fru itful way, way , it it will be be essential essential to to distinguish distinguish different different historical periods as well as contrasts contrasts between concurrent perspectives perspectives with­ periods,, as well as between concurrent withperiod.. A review of discussions of the problem in texts of MTMT­ in a period marhsakas Sarhkhyas , followers followers of of Yoga Yoga and and grammargrammar­ marhsakas,, Vedantins Vedantins,, Sarhkhyas, ians can be found found in a recent recent article by by Jayashree Gune (1994). ( 1 994) . This article article is is quite quite valuable as aa first first orientation, orientation, but but remains remains unun­ This valuable as satisfactory in in as as much much as as the material is is presented and discussed discussed satisfactory the material presented and without any sharp historical distinction (except for the large one between Vedic Vedic and post-Vedic) post-Vedic).. Gune's Gune ' s article can be considered cons idered typical for for the the South i\sian .e.. s ian doxographic doxographic approach approach to to philosophical philosophical diversity, diversity , which works with standard sets of doctrinal perspectives. perspectives . This approach allowed the continuation and conservation of much quite diverse philosophical philosophical material, material , but the historical dimension has almost entirely got out of sight. sight . A approach to to South South Asian Asian philosophy philosophy has has A rigorous rigorous historical historical approach been advocated advocated and and developed developed by by Erich Erich FrauwaIIner. Frauwal lner. FrauwaIIner's Frauwallner ' s been focus was was very the history history ooff ideas; ideas ; any any extra-philoextra-philo­ focus very much much oonn the sophical the statements sophical factors factors which which might might influence influence the statements of of phiphi­ losophers were relegated to a ,distant distant background. In the field of South Asian logic, was quite quite succesful and and led to logi c , this method was several convincing convincing results, results , among among them establishment of of hishis­ seve'ral them the the establishment torically clearly clearly identifiable landmarks and and turning points points in the the detorically de­ velopment velopment of of South South Asian Asian logic. logic . However, However , philosophers philosophers usually usually deal with more more than than logic alone, and logic was not the the only field alone , and within philosophy philosophy and science in in which has made re­ within and science which South South Asia Asia has made remarkable achievements. achievements . 66 markable

(abhyudaya) of the actor. ac tor. Among these means is yajfia yajfia 'sacrifice'. 'sacrifice ' . (abhyudaya) Candrananda's commentary, commentary , the oldest available one, explains it with pakayajfiadaya� S ince pakayajfias pakayajfiadayafJ.. Since ptikayajfias are are simple Vedic house house rituals which which usually do not include the sacrifice of an animal, animal , Vaise~ika Vaise�ika stays here again outside the problem area of the present essay. essay . 66 One may think e.g. e . g . of linguistics (cf. e.g. e . g . Cardona 1976), 1 976) , epistemology (e.g. (e . g . Vetter 1964), 1 964) , and philosophical semantics (cf. recently Rouben Houben 1997 1 997 and forthc.). Abhidharmastudies forthc . ) . In his Abhidharma studies (now also in English: Frauwallner 1995), 1 995) , Frauwallner's Frauwallner' s focus is not on logic any more but on Buddhist doctrinal systems . systems.

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In of philosophy In most most areas areas of philosophy,,· in South Asia Asia as well well as elsewhere, in South it easy to is not not that that easy to exclude exclude all all factors factors external external to to purely purely theo theoretiit is reti­ cal applies especially cal developments developments.. This This applies especially to to ethics and its considerethics and its consider­ ations Here,, it would not be . ations on on human human habits habits and and customs customs (ethos). (ethos) . Here of much ourselves to of much value value to to limit limit ourselves to the the mere mere arguments arguments taken taken at face value used in discussions (anuface value.. Apart Apart from from (1) ( 1 ) the the arguments arguments used (anu­ mana, mana, tarka) tarka),, we we have have to to take take into into account account (2) the philosophical commitments arguments and commitments which which precede precede the the arguments and which which in in the the SansSans­ krit krit tradition tradition are are usually usually attributable attributable to to aa number number of of traditionally traditionally established,, though though in in the the course time not not entirely entirely unchangeable unchangeable,, established course of of time to commitments of the the major schools of commitments of major schools of philosophy philosophy (agama, here here to some to Kuhn Kuhn's some extent extent comparable comparable to ' s 'paradigm', 'paradigm ' , Lakatos' Lakato s ' ''research research or Quine's scheme',' , cf. Aklujkar 1989); and pprogram', rogram ' , or Quine ' s 'conceptual ' conceptual scheme cf. Aklujkar 1 98 9) ; and (3) in spite (3) the the perception perception of of reality reality (pratyak�a) (pratyak~a) which which,, in spite of of its its relative objectivity ' , is is in relative independence independence and and ''objectivity', in some some respects respects strongly strongly influenced by by the the philosophical philosophical commitments commitments.. The philosophical influenced The philosophical (agama, 2), which a thinker usually is unwilling to to commitments commitments (agama , 2) , which a thinker usually is unwilling subj ect to argumentative discussion, and the perception of reality subject to argumentative discussion, and the perception of reality (pratyak�a ) , which is usually usually so is not (pratyaksa,, 33), which is so spontaneous spontaneous that that this this too too is not willingly subjected to argumentative argumentative discussion, these two two together together wiUingly subjected to discussion, these . of aa specific thinker'ss philosophical philosophical perspective perspective on form the the basis basis of form specifi c thinker' on reality. real i ty . A fourth factor, final ly , is is to into account the environenv iron­ A fourth factor, finally, to be be taken taken into account:: the ment-physical,, social social and and philosophical-and philosophical-and the the changes therein ment-physical changes therein over continue over time time.. A A philosopher philosopher or or aa school school of of philosophers philosophers may may continue to to maintain maintain aa similar yet the the perspective perspective resulting resulting from from s imilar position, position, yet this this position position may may change change when when philosophers philosophers or or schools schools occupying occupying neighbouring positions positions change change their their views views and and attitudes attitudes.. In the case neighbouring In the case of ethical ethical philosophy i n the of philosophy,, also also changes changes in the social social practice practice (ethos) and the the schoo school's orientation in these changes changes will will greatly greatly affect affect the and l ' s orientation in these the perspective of of aa school school even if the the position position remains remains similar perspective even if similar iin n wording wording.. Because crucial importance importance of perspectives resulting resulting B ecause of of the the crucial of the the perspectives school's position and and the the environment, environment, aa comfrom one's from one ' s own own school ' s position com­ prehensive of South South Asian prehensive history history of Asian philosophy philosophy including including ethics ethics,, can­ cannot not afford to look at the the hhistory of ideas ideas and and arguments arguments:: it afford to look only only at istory of it sshould hould pay considerable attention attention ttoo these and how pay considerable these perspectives perspectives and how they are historically ithin thi approach one one may ndeed they are historically situated. situated. W Within thiss approach may iindeed be confronted confronted w with more specific problems which which deserve deserve to to be be ith more specific problems be studied the ssingle dimension of the hhistory of ideas ideas.. Although Although studied iinn the ingle dimension of the istory of

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the one may of aa per­ the name name does does not not matter matter that that much, much, one may speak speak of perspectivistic-historical approach, spectivistic-historical approach, which which does does not not oppose oppose but but under­ underlies aa history-of-ideas scope . lies history-of-ideas approach approach with with its its more more restricted restricted scope. Also in other areas than and the of ideas it is is ideas it Also in other areas than philosophy philosophy and the history history of important linear developments developments and of ssyny n­ important to to be be aware aware both both of of linear and of chronic relations particular interest Of particular interest to to us us here here is is the the discussion discussion chronic relations.. Of on the the origin origin of of asceticism, asceticism, which which is is · to to be be sought, sought, according to on according to to others in aa some,, in in the the Vedic Vedic sacrificial tradition, according some sacrificial tradition, according to others in non-Vedic milieu milieu.. Against Against the the two alternative proposals proposals for for com­ comnon-Vedic two alternative paratively linear linear developments developments,, Bronkhorst Bronkhorst elaborated elaborated aa hypothesis hypothesis paratively according South Asian according to to which which South Asian asceticism asceticism would would have have two two distinct distinct sources milieu (Bronkhorst 1 993b) , sources,, each each belonging belonging to to aa different different milieu (Bronkhorst 1993b), or, as II would two different or, as would say say,, to to two different contemporaneous contemporaneous perspectives perspectives (each ori­ On the the parallel parallel problem problem of of the the ori(each with with further further subdivisions) subdivisions).. On In gin of gin of the the notion notion of of ahirhsa ahirizsa see see Bodewitz Bodewitz in in the the present present volume volume.. In of Alsdorf' Alsdorf'ss 1962 to the the history history of of "Vegehis review review of his 1 962 contribution contribution to " Vege­ tarismus 1 966) justly tarismus und und Rinderverehrung Rinderverehrung in in Indien, Indien,"" Heesterman Heesterman ((1966) justly of aa strictly strictly chronological chronological ap­ apdraws attention attention to to the the llimitations draws imitations of proach, and thinks it more fruitful fruitful to to focus on aa search for the the proach, and thinks it more focus on search for meaning of ahirhsa on an an acceptance meaning of ahirizsa,, and and to to base base oneself oneself on acceptance of of the the juxtaposition of the irreconcilable irreconcilable opposites opposites." In the the ""persistent persistent juxtaposition of the . " In present essay , it ntention to present essay, it is is my my iintention to provide provide aa sketch sketch of of how how aa per­ perspectivistic-historical approach approach can be developed developed on spectivistic-historical can be on aa chosen chosen problem.77 problem. 1 . 4 The roblem to be discussed, in Vedic of animals animals in Vedic 1.4 The pproblem to be discussed, the the killing killing of of ethics ethics.. And And this this term term brings brings rituals,, places places us us firmly in the the field rituals firmly in field of set of of much-discussed much-discussed comparative issues in in the the dialogue iin n aa set comparative issues dialogue between Europe and South Asia. Asia. About About aa century ago Richard Richard between Europe and South century ago Garbe said that ethics ethics was was hardly hardly attended to in the Indian Indian (South Garbe said that attended to in the (South Asian) philosophical philosophical schools schools.. g8 Also Also more recently it it has been said said more recently has been Asian) that ethics ""was was not subj ect that systematically pursued" in that ethics not aa subject that was was systematically pursued" in 77 SStrong trong and weak points of Frauwallner's approach ttoo the history of South Asian philosophy were pointed out by G. Oberhammer ((1992), 1992) , who drew attention to the importance of the ""Sitz. S itz . im Leben" of the philosophical systems . Cf. 1 994 and forthc . , bb (on (on Frauwallner Cf. also also Houben Rouben 1994 and forthc., Frauwallner on on early early systems. Vaise~ika and and on on early early Sarhkhya Sarhkhya respectively) respectively).. Vaisel?ika 8 Ethics is ""in unberuckg in der schulmaBigen schulmafiigen indischen Philosophie fast unberiick­ sichtigt gebJieben, geblieben,"" Garbe Garbe 1917:147. sichtigt 1 9 1 7 : 1 47 .

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ancient and and classical c lassical South South Asia (John Taber 1992, ancient 1 992 , in the EncycloEncyrlo­ pedia is true true that that we find in the Sanskrit pedia of of Ethics) Ethics).. It is Sanskri t tradition ~ei­ nei­ ther comprehensive comprehensive ethical ethical systems systems in the foundation and elabother elabo­ ration of which which rationality rationality would would be of major importance, ration of importanc e , as it is, is , for instanc e , in in Aristotle ' s ethics ethics (e.g. for instance, Aristotle's (e . g . in his Nicomachean Ethics) and Spinoza' s Ethica more geometrico demonstrata and Spinoza's demonstrata;; nor do we find investigations of ethics like l ike Hume's Hume ' s Enquiry Concerning the Prininvestigations of ethics Prin­ orals , in which rationality plays a more limited, cip les of M ciples Morals, l imited , ' Humean' role. rol e . 99 Even Even in Buddhism, Buddhism, a religion with much attention 'Humean' for ethical problems (Tachibana 1926, 1 926, "schayer 1938, for ethical problems (Tachibana 1 93 8 , Saddhatissa S addhatissa 1 970, Chappell Chappell 1995), 1 995) , there there is, in accordance with the Buddha's 1970, Buddh a ' s aversion theorizing , nnoo strong strong interest in philosophical or theoraversion ttoo theorizing, theor­ etical general theories etical ethics ethics:: general theories can be found only if one searches hard and is ready to infer and hard and is ready to infer and reconstruct reconstruct them them (cf. recently Hallisey 1995). 1 995) . It can certainly not be said that ethical problems Hallisey were neglected were neglected in in the the Sanskrit tradition, tradition , especially the HowBrahminical/Hindu tradition which interests us here most. How­ ever, Dhareve r , on the basis of the transmitted sources-the numerous Dhar­ ma-Sutras , the com­ ma-Sutras, the later lawbooks like the the one one of Manu, their commentaries, and eclectical compendialO-it compendia l O- it would seem that the most important instrument i nstrument in ethical and moral dilemmas was not a rationality which seeks to attain a solid basis in human reason or in i n generally accepted axioms and their logical elaboration, but the authoritative, authoritative , sacred· sacred · texts. texts . One may speak here of a 'tradi' tradi­ tionalistic' tionalisti c ' ethics of BrahmaI).ism-Hinduism-Hacker's B rahmaI).ism-Hinduism-Hacker ' s 'empirical ' empirical ethics' ethics ' terminology is to be rejectedll-for rejected l l -for which rationality is 99 Cf. Blackburn 1994:319 1 994: 3 1 9 s.v. s . v . 'rationality': ' rationality ' : "Some, " S o me , such as Hume, Hume , limit the scope of rationality severely, severely , allowing it to characterize mathematical mathematical and e rlie normal empirical processes of belieflogical reasoning reasoning,, but not to und underlie belief­ formation, nQr to play an important role in practical reasoning or ethical or deliberation. " Although rationality could therefore not be at the aesthetical deliberation." ethics,, it was important in the investigation and elaboration basis of Hume's Hume ' s ethics of p rincip les . of its principles. 1 0 Compendia like the SIITfty-Arthasara and the SIITfti-Candrika (all ca. 10 10th Kalivarjyas 1 0th or 11th. 1 1th. century?), are among the first to give lists of Kalivarj yas (Kane III:968). below,, section 5.0. III : 968) . Cf. below 5 . 0 . For the subordination of reason to tradition, and the negative view on those overemphasizing reasoning, reasoning , Halbfass 1988:278f{ 1 9 8 8 : 278f{ That the criticism was there shows that there were also ' rationalists' to be criticized. to be criticized. 'rationalists' · 1 1 Paul· 11 Paul Hacker (1965:99, ( 1 965 : 99 , 105 1 05 [1978:502, [ 1 97 8 : 502 , 508]; 508] ; cited by Halbfass

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mainly the iirrationally rrationally given i . e . the the trad i­ mainly an an instrument instrument to to protect protect the given ((i.e. tradi-

tionallaws) rational criticism. as much much as European laws) against against rational critic i s m . 1122 IIn n as as European tional philosophy nspi rati o n , century after century, c e ntury , iin n Socrates_and philosophy found found iinspiration, century after Socratesand

his critical and rational rational rather rather than than trad traditionalistic approach to to h is c r itical and itio nal istic approach not ccause that Euroethical and moral pproblems, ethical and moral roblems , 1133 it it need need not ause surprise surprise that Euro1 9 88 : 3 1 3-3 14) introduced context the empirische Ethik' 1988:313-314) introduced in in this this context the terms terms,, ''empirische Ethik' and and ''empiricism'; empiricism ' ; Hacker' e . g . by 1 979 : 295 ; Hacker'ss terminology terminology was was used used e.g. by Schreiner Schreiner 1979:295; he Halbfass 1988:333 accepts the the term term ''empiricism' without criticism criticism,, though Halbfass 1988 : 3 3 3 accepts empiricism' without though he places it it between between quotation quotation marks marks.. These These terms terms,, however, however, are are not not very very places of the the laws by no no means means felicitous, even even highly highly misleading misleading:: the the contents contents of felicitous, laws are are by established on on empirical empirical ground grounds. That the the laws are learned learned either either from from 'good 'good established s . That laws are is aa matter matter men' (who follow the the Vedas) Vedas) or or from from the the Vedas Vedas (Hacker men' (who follow (Hacker 1965: 1 965 : 100) 100) is Vedas'' 'authorlessness' of 'traditionalism', ' traditionalism ' , which is, if the Vedas ' authorlessness ' is emphasized, a ''traditionalism' traditionalism ' based on 'transcendentalism'; ' transcendentalism' ; but in no way can this be termed if we we take take into into account what the the term termusually the ''empiricism' empiricism ' if account what usually stands stands for: for : cf. cf. the Dictionary of of Religion Religion and and Ethics Ethics ss.v. philosophical or Dictionary . v. ''empiricism': empiricism ' : "A "A philosophical or scientific method method requiring requiring all all theories theories to to be be tested tested by by or or derived derived from from scientific experience all forms forms of 1 92 1 ) . is thus thus opposed opposed to to all of aa priori priori authority authority"" (Smith (Smith 1921). experience.. It It is And the the Lexicon Lexicon der der Ethik Ethik ss.. vv.. Empirismus Empirismus:: "1m Bereich der der normativen normativen And " 1m Bereich Ethik ... fiihrt die Ablehnung Ablehnung der der M5glichkeit Miiglichkeit nichtempirischer nichtempirischer Erkenntnis Erkenntnis Ethik . . . fii hrt die ' zu einer spezifischen Position beziiglich der 'Ziele Ziele sittlichen Handelns .. .. .. Praktische Vernunft Vernunft ... gewinnt ihre Zwecke Zwecke aus den den empirisch empirisch gege gegebenen Praktische . . . gewinnt benen Bediirfnissen, Interessen, Interessen, Wiinschen, Wiinschen, Gefii Gefiihlen etc.,. , die sie sie dann dann als als gut gut oder Bediirfnissen, h len etc (Forschner 1977:43). All this this clearly clearly does not apply schlecht qualifiziert qualifiziert ... apply schlecht . . . "" (Forschner 1 977 : 43 ) . All does not to Brahminical-Hindu Brahminical-Hindu ethics ethics of of dharmasastric dharmasastric texts texts which which Hacker Hacker wanted wanted to to to call Was Hacker Hacker in in the the choice of his his term term perhaps perhaps int1uenced by call ''empirical'. empirical ' . Was choice of influenced by dharma by Ortega y Gasset (1925:401), ( 1 925 : 40 1 ) , in a brief, loosely written essay on dharma which this philosopher writes writes:: ""No la idea dharma un un sublime sublime which this philosopher " iNo significa significa la idea del del dharma empirismo de de la la moral? moral? Lo Lo que que yo yo sostengo sostengo es es que no hay hay acto acto . alguno alguno empirismo que no bueno en en un un hombre hombre es es malo malo en otro.. ""?? indiferente,, yy que que 10 bueno indiferente en otro h the Western concepts of ''morality' 1 2 Several studies 12 studies,, some starting wit with morality ' and Hopkins 1924), others with with the the Sanskrit and ''ethics' ethics ' (McKenzie (McKenzie 1922, 1 922, Hopkins 1 924) , others Sanskrit notion notion of dharma dharma (Hacker, (Hacker, Halbfass Halbfass 1988:310-348), confirm the the importance importance of such 1988 : 3 10-348 ) , confirm of such of traditionalistic ethics ethics in in SSouth Asia. Further Further confirmation confirmation can be found found in in aa traditionalistic outh Asia. can be studies of more more specific specific 'ethical' notions and problems:: Alsdorf for studies of ' ethical ' notions and problems Alsdorf 1962, 1 962, for instance,, in in his his study study of 'cow worship worship'' and and vegetarianism, vegetarianism, says we should not instance of 'cow says we should not expect to to find find ethics ethics in in our our sense sense of of the the term term ("Ethik unserem Sinne"). expect ( "Ethik in in unserem Sinne " ) . 1133 A Ass early aass in Hellenistic times Socrates was seen aass the founder of philosophy also pre-socratics is clear clear that that also pre-socratics · and and thinkers thinkers philosophy,, although although it it is contemporaneous with Socrates Socrates have contemporaneous with have had had an an important important influence influence on on the the Greek Greek and European European philosophical philosophical tradition tradition (cf. Kranz Kranz 1989:573). notions of of and 1 9 89 : 573 ) . The notions ''philosophy' philosophy' and philosopher' in senses known to us us owe owe much much to to the the and ''philosopher' in the the senses known to Platonic Socrates, cf. cf. Plato' Plato'ss Apologia Apologia 20d-e, 20d-e, Symposion 203-204 203-204,, Lysis Lysis 2218: Platonic 18;

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pean scholars scholars did did not recognize the the Hindu-B Hindu-Brahminical ways of pean not recognize rahminical ways of dealing and ethical ethical problems contributi ons dealing with with moral moral and problems as as important important contributions to " freedom to to philosophical philosophical ethics ethics.. In In Europe Europe?, the the "freedom to criticize criticize,, to to e self" (Halbfass 1988: to think think for for on oneself" think rationally,, and and to thi nk rationally 1 98 8 : 157) 1 57) has been been seen as indispensable indispensable for for ''real philosophy',' , and and "every type seen as real philosophy " every type of came to even of traditionalism traditionalism came to be be viewed viewed as as unphilosophical unphilosophical or or even anti-philosophical"" (Halbfass (Halbfass,, ib ib.). Hence, not not only only large large chapters chapters anti-philosophical . ) . Hence, in the the Western Western history history of of thought thought (esp (esp.. the the Middle Middle Ages) Ages) were were re­ rein garded as as rather rather unimportant, unimportant, also Asian and and other other Oriental garded also South South Asian Oriental systems came to to be be looked looked upon upon as as hardly hardly deserving the name name systems came deserving the 'philosophy'' (Halbfass 1988: Arguments agai against Western 'philosophy 1 98 8 : 145ft). 1 45ft) . Arguments nst Western claims on on the the prerogative prerogative of of scientific scientific thinking thinking and and rational rationality have claims ity have been ( 1 988) . While ity would been put put forward forward by by Staal Staal (1988). While rational rationality would be be the the same in India and in in the same in India (South (South Asia) Asia) and the West, West, the the development development of of science in in the the West West would would have have followed followed the the paradigm paradigm of of the the science mathematician whereas India mathematician Euclid, Euclid, whereas India followed followed that that of of the the gram­ grammarian PaI!ini Pal).ini (Staal (Staal 1965, cf. Ingalls Ingalls 1954).14 As we we will will see see marian 1 965 , cf. 1 954) . 14 As below,, in in South South Asian Asian philosophy philosophy those those emphasizing rationality are below emphas izing rational ity are not entirely entirely absent absent,, though though they they often often appear appear in in the the secondary role not secondary role of objectors objectors who who are are refuted refuted by by defenders defenders of of the the dogmas dogmas of of the the of major systems (Halbfass (Halbfass 1988:278ft). And even if one one does does not not maj o r systems 1 98 8 : 278ff) . And even if subscribe views and ' s and subscribe to to all all of of their their views and commitments commitments,, Kumarila Kumarila's and SSarhkara's arhkara' s rational well as rational criticism criticism of of rationality rationality as as well as their their rational rational defences of of the the irrationality irrationality of of the the given given tradition tradition are are themselves themselves defences not not without without philosophical philosophical interest interest.. 15 15 For For the the following following review review of of and and Kranz Kranz 1989:576: 1989:576: ""Gegen Gegen die die Auffassung Auffassung der Sophisten, Sophisten, Ph[ilosophie] Ph[ilosophie] oder oder Sophia als als verfUgbares verfugbares Wissen Wissen wie wie Ware Ware fUr fur Geld Geld an Schiiler weitergeben weitergeben zu zu Sophia an Schiiler kannen, als ein ein ''Sich-Bemtihen' S ich-Bemiihen' urn kiinnen, versteht versteht Platon Platon Ph[ilosophie] Ph[ilosophie] als urn Wissen. Wissen."" The anecdote, in antiquity The anecdote, already already popular popular in antiquity,, according according to to which which Pythagoras Pythagoras would have been the one to use the term 'philosopher' for the first time in the Oberweg 1953: specific seeker for 1 9 5 3 : 1:2). 1 : 2) . specific sense sense of of aa seeker for wisdom, wisdom, is is to to be be distrusted distrusted C(Uberweg 1 4 Mention may also bbee made ooff a remark ooff R 14 R.G. . G . Bhandarkar iinn 1873, 1 873 , to my attention: attention: "Sanskrit which Prof. Prof. Dr. Dr. SS.D. Laddu (Pune) kindly drew drew my which . D . Laddu (Pune) kindly " S anskrit Grammar has has thus thus become become aa science science at at [Panini's and other grammarians'] Grammar [PliJ;lini ' s and other grammarians '] hands and its study possesses kind aass that hands,, and its study possesses aann educational educational value value ooff the the same same kind that of Euclid Euclid and and not much much inferior inferior to to it in in degree" (Bhandarkar, preface preface to to the the third edition edition [1873] of his Second Second Book Book of Sanskrit, Sanskrit, 1919:xi). third [ 1 873] of 1 9 1 9 : xi) . 1155 Cf. Halbfass 1991:32 1 99 1 : 32 on Kumarila: "The " The Veda . . .. .. is invoked and projected as aa response response to to fundamental fundamental problems problems of of epistemology epistemology,, semantics, proj ected as semantics , ethics,, etc etc., ethics . , and ttoo questions concerning concerriing the llimits imits of rationality and

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material concerning concerning the the problem problem of killing in Vedic rituals rituals,, these these material of killing in Vedic issues are of of fundamental fundamental importance importance throughout, throughout, even even if if this this can­ canissues are be explicitized explicitized " at at each each point point.. On On some some aspects aspects,, however however,, we we not be not will briefly briefly touch touch agai againn in, in, the the concluding will concluding section. section.

2. Historical context of the problem of killing animals in Vedic 2. rituals What exactly is here the problem? problem? In In many many Vedic Vedic rituals rituals,, es22.0 . 0 What exactly is here the es­ pecially the larger ones, the killing of one or more victims pecially the larger ones , the killing of one or more victims (mostly (mostly non-human animal animals, occasionally humans) is is prescribed. prescribed. The The Vedic Vedic non-human s , occas ionally humans) ritual istic system, system , as as we ancient sources sources such as ritualistic we know know it it from from the the ancient such as S rauta-Siitras , shows BrahmaJ}as and Srauta-Sutras, certain ambivalence ambivalence in the B the rahmaI).as and shows aa certain in this regard regard:: on on the the one one hand, hand, killing killing is is important, important, and even this and it it is is even central sacrifice ; on of violence central in in the the sacrifice; on the the other other hand hand,, acts acts of violence are are avoided, arises when avoided, concealed concealed,, and and denied denied.. A A real real problem problem arises when the the two so strong two poles poles of of this this ambivalence ambivalence become become so strong that that they they become become " irreconcilable.. irreconcilable weak " form form w wee see see the the problem problem already early 22.1 . 1 IInn aa weak already iinn aann early Upani�ad . 1 5) , which Upani~ad,, the the Chandogya-Upani�ad Cbandogya-Upani~ad (8 (8.15), which emphasizes emphasizes that that no makes an an exex­ no living living beings beings should should be be injured injured or or killed, killed, but but " makes ception for for the the killing killing in Vedic sacrifices: ception in Vedic sacrifices : does not living being being,, except except at at sacred sacred (sa­ (sa(He,, who) who) ... (He . . . does not harm harm any any living crificial) laces ... . . . he crificial) pplaces he who who behaves behaves thus thus throughout throughout his his life. life attains attains 16 Brahma the world of B rahma ... 16 .

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In some ccircumstances ircumstances (at In this this statement statement it is is admitted admitted that that under under some (at sacred, sacrificial places) inflicted on sacred, sacrificial places) harm harm is is inflicted on living living beings beings.. philosophy itself" 1 99 1 : 13ff 1 3 ff on "Human " Human reason and Vedic revelation itself";; Halbfass 1991: Vedanta";; and Gellner 1992: in Advaita Vedanta" 1 992 : 179: 1 79 : ""The The Impotence of Reason is itself an independent truth of reason. " 16 16 .. . . ahirhsan sarvabhutany anyatra anyalra tii1hebhyal; trrthebhyah . .. .. sa khalv evarh ayusarh brahmalokam abhisarhpadyate .. . .. vartayan yavad tiyu�arh On the word tfrtha see Venkateswaran 1966, ~gveda 10.114.7 1 966, and �gveda 1 0 . 1 14 . 7 with Geldner' 3 .1.4-6, . 1 . 4-6, Kau�Itaki-Brahmal).a 18.9. .'?a~viri1sa-Brahmana 3 Kau~naki-Brahmal,la 18.9. Geldner'ss note note,, �a<:lvirhsa-Brahmal).a .

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A mild. mild repudiation repudiation of of this this may very well be at the background A may very of another statement statement in the same 17 according same Upani�ad, of another in the Upani~ad, 17 which acco rding to w hich those relying relying on on rituals rituals and and prescribed those prescribed acts will after their thei r death i ch means they will at one time follow the ' w ay of of the fathers ' , wh which follow the 'way the fathers', return the earth. earth . They They go go to return to to the to the the world world of the fathers, fathers , and then further the moon moon where where they remain for some time. further to to the time . On their way they become become wind, way back back they wind, mist and rain, and are eventually born herbs , trees, as rice rice,, barley barley,, herbs, born as trees , sesame plants and beans. beans . When these are eaten and and emitted emitted as semen these are eaten semen they can be born as a human being Here , aa further further distinction distinction has being.. Here, has been been made: made : they attain either aa good good and and beautiful beautiful womb (ramalJfya (ramarpya yoni) and become a B rahmin, K�atriya K~atriya or Vaisya Vaisya if their conduct in their Brahmin, thei r former exex­ istence and beautiful istence was was good good and beautiful;; or a stinking womb (kapuya (kapilya yoni) yon i) and dog , swine or outcast (calJqiila) and become become aa dog, (cafJejala) if they were of stinking conduct. Those on knowledge knowledge and faith , however will follow follow aa Those relying relying on and faith, however,, will quite way , the 'way of the gods': gods ' : they quite different way, they reach reach the world world of Brahman ApB rahman and attain full liberation from earthly existence. existence . Ap­ parently and faith faith (leading (leading to full liberation) liberation) are are valuvalu­ parently,, knowledge knowledge and to full ated higher than the rituals (which can at the most lead to a 'high ' high birth' birth ' on earth). earth) . Although, Although , as we will see below, below , it is emphatically S arhkara's commentary and rejected rejected in in Sarhkara's and some some other commentaries (though not all) on Brahma-Siitra Brahma-Sutra 3.1.25, na3 . 1 . 25 , a possible and quite na­ tural conclusion would be that the rituals are connected with some form of demerit or lack of merit (presumably on account of the prescribed killings) from which knowledge and faith are free. free . IS I8 Finally,, the same Chandogya-Upani~ad Finally Chandogya-Upani�ad mentions ahirhsa 'non' nonA rUp 6.2; 1 7 ChandUp 5.3-10; 17 BfhadArUp 6 . 2 ; JaimB 1.18. 1 . 1 8 . For these and other 5 . 3- 1 0 ; cf. B�had Doctrine',' , see also passages dealing with the so-called 'Five-Fire Doctrine 1 99 1 , 1994, 1 994, 1995; 1 995 ; and 1 992 , 1996 and forthc. forthc . Schmithausen 1991, and Bodewitz Bodewitz 1992, S ari1kara, those who attain the way of the gods (CharidUp 1IS8 According to Sari1kara, (ChandUp ya itiham vidulJ) include include the the householders (who perform prescribed 5 . 1 0 . 1 , ya 5.10.1, ittham vidul}) householders (who perform the the prescribed rituals).. It is true that the knowledge which qualifies rituals) qu a lifies for the way of the gods is stated stated in ritualistic ritualistic terms, but it should be added added that that the the knowledge consists is terms , but he rain-cloud, the earth, of homologizations (yonder world, tthe earth , man, and woman to make it are sacrifiCial fires) which point beyond ritualism and seem to superfluous (ChandUp 55.3-9). . 3-9) . This knowledge was moreover propounded not by K�atriya . The author/composer of of the ChandUp is is by aa Brahmin Brahmin but but by by aa K~atriya. The author/composer the ChandUp therefore therefore definitely definitely less positive positive about about Vedic sacrifices than suggested by by S ari1kara (ef. (ef. Bodewitz 1 992 : 17, and forthc . section 3). 3). Sari1kara Bodewitz 1992:17, and forthc.

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harming virtues (3 (3.17.4), which seem meant not asharming'' in list of in aa list of virtues . 1 7 . 4) , which seem meant not for for as­ the cetics but but for for householders householders (the (the list includes danam " 'liberality'; cetics list includes liberal ity ' ; the non­ equivalent expected for for ascetics ascetics would equivalent virtue virtue expected would be be aparigraha ''non1 9) . acceptance of gifts '>19). 22.2 . 2 The of kill ing in The importance importance as as well well as as embarassment embarassment of killing in ritual ritual may some examples. examples . The The ritualistic avoid may be be illustrated illustrated by by some ritualistic way way to to avoid is to to replace replace the the victim by another another inflicting violence on on aa victim victim is infl icting violence victim by mere obj object, the killing killing or destruction of which seems seems victim or victim or aa mere ect, the or destruction of which S B 1.2.3.5-9 less problematic.. Thus, Thus, from we understand understand that that the the less problematic from SB 1 . 2 . 3 . 5-9 we ricecake and full-moon is aa sub­ subricecake to to be be offered offered at at the the newnew- and full-moon sacrifices sacrifices is stitute Now it an animal animal victim victim that stitute for for an an animal animal victim victim:: ""Now it is is as as an that " 20 this sacrificial cake is offered. "20 The killing in takes place place,, is conThe killing in aa sacrifice, sacrifice , if if it it takes is relatively relatively con­ cealed: When When in horse-sacrifice (Asvamedha) (Asvamedha),, or cealed: in the the horse-sacrifice or in in aa simple simple animal sacrifice sacrifice (Pasubandha) the victim victim is is to to be be killed killed,, the the sacrianimal (Pasubandha) the sacri­ ficer and and the the other other priests priests bring bring it it in in aa solemn solemn procession procession to to aa sepa­ sepaficer rate spot outside (north (north of) Altar Space Space.. There There it killed rate spot outside of) the the Great Great Altar it is is killed S amitr, by the the priest priest who who is is appointed appointed for for this this purpose purpose:: the the Samitf, by or, more more literally, literally, 'quietener'. But before before this this hap­ hap''slaughterer', s l aughterer' , or, ' quietener ' . But pens and the other priests pens the the sacrificer sacrificer and the other priests have have turned turned away away from from the the horse and have gone gone back back to to the the Great Great Altar Altar Space. horse and have Spac e . The The killing killing is is not only only visually visually concealed concealed by by placing placing it the Great Great Altar Altar not it outside outside the Space and by by having having the the sacrificer sacrificer and and priests priests (except (except for for the the Space and SSamit~) amitr) turn it, it also auditively concealed by turn away away from from it, it is is also auditively concealed by killing killing 1 9 The 19 The llist is tapas, dana, arjava, ahirhsa, satyavacana satyavacana.. The The item dana ist is tapas, dana, arjava, ahimsa, dana would suit a list of virtues of a householder rather than a renouncer. ' liberality ' occurs . 1 0 . 1 8 . 2 tyaga Nevertheless, in in Baudhayana Baudhayana DhS DhS 22.10.18.2 tyaga 'liberality' occurs in in aa list list Nevertheless, of virtues virtues of of an an ascetic ascetic.. See further Bodewitz, Bodewitz, present present volume volume (section of See further (section 55.1-6), . 1 -6) , who also other early pastamba- , who also discusses discusses some some other early Brahminical Brahminical (Gautama(Gautama-,, A Apastamba-, Vasis!ha-Dharma-Sutra) and and non-Brahminical non-Brahminical (Jaina (Jaina and and Buddhist) Buddhist) sources sources in in Vasi�fha-Dharma-Siitra) hich ahirhsa ahimsa is w which is mentioned mentioned as as aa virtue virtue.. ahimsa generally not occur in the As out by by Bodewitz, As pointed pointed out Bodewitz, ahirhsa generally does does not occur in the of ''non-injuring, not inflicting inflicting injury injury to to another living being being,, ''active' active ' sense sense of non-injuring , not another living harmlessness'' in early texts such as the TS (where the term does occur in the . harmlessness sense ''non-injury, personal safety'; an early early and and exceptional ''receptive' receptive' sense non-injury , personal safety ' ; an exceptional of the the word word in in an an ''active' sense seems seems to to be be found found in in TB occurrence of occurrence active ' sense TB 33.9.8.3, .9.8.3, note ). and Houben Houben iinn prep prep.,. , bb). note 5577 and 20 20 pasur pasur ha ha va va e�a esa alabhyate alabhyate yat yat puro4asa�, purodasah, SSB B 1.2.3.5. 1 .2 . 3 . 5 .

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it iin it by suffocation or strangulation, that it does n such aa way, way , by ' not ' make a sound. sound . 2211 22 : When The killing killing is is further further also also denied denied22: When the animal is is being being The the animal killed in the Pasubandha, Pasubandha, the the sacdficer, sacdficer, in in turning turning away from the killed i n the animal and and its its slaughterer, slaughterer, says says the the following following mantra: mantra : "You " You do do not not animal really die die here you are hurt; you are going going to the gods gods along along to the really here,, you are not not hurt; you are where those who have have acted the ppaths aths easy easy to to traverse, traverse , where those go go who acted well, well , not not the evil-doers. the god Savitr place you you there there."23 the Asvaevil-doers . May the . " 23 In the Asva­ medha, a similar viz.. �V ~V 1.162.21,24 s imilar mantra, viz 1 . 1 62 . 2 1 , 24 forms part of the recitation of before the brought to to the recitation of the the Hot~-priest Hot�-priest before the horse horse is is brought the place place where it it is is killed denial of of the ing continues continues after after �he suf­ where killed.. The The denial the kill killing ~he suffocation of mantras speaking horse' of the the horse, horse , when when mantras speaking of of aa 'sleeping ' sleeping hors e' accompany pairing ooff the horse (cf. accompany the the pairing the chief chief queen queen with with the the horse (cf. JaJ a­ mison 1996:65ff). 1 99 6 : 65ff) . S B 3.8.2.15; S S 4.6-7 21 BauSS 3 . 8 . 2 . 1 5 ; Bau 4 . 6-7 and 15.28; 1 5 . 28 ; Dumont 1927:175, 1 927 : 175 , 335. 3 3 5 . In the 2 1 Cf. SB Asvamedha suffocated by of aa cloth cloth saturated saturated with Asvamedha the the horse horse was was suffocated by means means of with clarified butter (tarpya), (tarpya) , a device de vice which apparently functioned like a plastic bag preventing the horse from getting fresh air. 22 22 It would be a mistake to assume that this denial was only only a matter of rhetorics,, as Oguibenine 1994 rhetorics 1 994 seems to suggest. The complex structure of texts (mantras and BrahmaJ;la-explanations) and ritual actions justify also a more empathic approach (as adopted e.g. e . g . by Krick 1977) 1 977) which tries to uncover implicit beliefs of the composers of texts and rituals. rituals . The denial is then an expression of what the author (and the later reciter) sincerely thinks (or hopes) to be the case case.. 2233 TB 3.7.7.14: 3 . 7 . 7 . 1 4 : na na va va uv uv etan etan [read accent thus] mriyase mriyase na na risyasi risyasi devafft devafft {d e!fi path{bhilJ sugebhilJ II yatra yanti sUkfto napi dU!fkftalJ dU!fkftalJ tiitra tva devalJ devalJ {d e!fi path{bhilJ sugebhilJ yatra yanti sUkfto napi tiitra tva According to to SayaJ;la's SayaJ;la ' s introductory introductory comments comments on on this this savita dadhtitu II I I According savita dadhtitu (paravrttau) , mantra in the TB, TB , the sacrificer murmers this in turning away (paravrttau), according to A Apss 7 . 16.7 1 6 . 7 however just before he turns away from the animal." animal . " p s s 7. 24 na na va va u u etan etan mriyase na ri!fyasi ri!fyasi devam devam {d {d e!fi e!fi pathfbhilJ sugebhilJ II harf harf 24 mriyase na pathfbhilJ sugebhilJ I I The The first first line line is is te yUJija pfsatf abhatam abhatam upasthtld upasthtld vajt vajt dhurf dhurf rasabhasya rasabhasya II te yUJija pfsatf practically identical with TB 3.7.7.14. 3 . 7 . 7 . 1 4 . As a literary whole the J..{g-Veda J..{g -Veda is older older than than the Taittirlya-BrahmaJ;la. But But from the point point of view view of the ritual " one does not expect the extraordinary Asvamedha to be older "than than the simple animal sacrifice . Therefore, Therefore , if if one allows for some variation variation over over time, time , the the one allows for some animal sacrifice. TB-mantra for the animal sacrifice may be at least as old if not older than the J..{V 1.162.21 1 . 1 62 . 2 1 (as it seems to be the mantra for the horse sacrifice according to J..{V case more often, the author of the hymn may have incorporated (part of) an existing mantra mantra into into his hymn) hymn)..

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The important is now now that, if we we take take the the ritual of the the The important point point · is that, if ritual of S rauta-Sutras as BrahmaI).as and Srauta-Sutras as our our starting starting point, we see see the Brahmal!as and point, we the traces of an earlier which violence concealed . The The traces of an earlier stage stage in in which violence was was less less concealed. �g-Vedic according to ~g-Vedic hymn hymn which which contains contains the the mantra mantra according to which which the the ssacrificed acrificed horse horse does contains some some incidental, does not not really really die die,, contains incidental, but but for reason not less interesting, interesting , references practice of of the to the the practice the for that that reason not less references to ritual for instance That part [0 horse ! ] which which is sticking ritual,, for instance:: ""That part of of you you [0 horse!] is sticking to axe , [that [that part of you] which [is [is or to to the the axe, part of you] which to the the sacrificial sacrificial post, post, or sticking] to or nails of the slaughterer, all all that that too should sticking] to the the hands hands or nails of the slaughterer, too should In the the past, past, therefore, therefore, the the horse horse was not be among among the the gods. be gods . ""25 25 In was not discretely suffocated at it was discretely suffocated at aa separate separate spot, spot, but but it was killed killed with with an an axe at at the the ssacrificial post on on the the altar altar space space.. Similarly Similarly,, in the axe acrificial post in the classical ritual ritual the the victim of the the simple simple animal animal sacrifice is bound bound to to classical victim of sacrifice is makes sense sense if we the post in in aa peculiar the sacrificial sacrificial post peculiar way way whiCh which only only makes if we assume that that it was formerly formerly not not strangled but s]. slaughtered with aa assume it was strangled but a ughtered with knife.. 2266 knife While the motivation for victims is to re­ reWhile the motivation for offering offering victims is not not so so difficult difficult to of the the ''guest-reception' showconstruct e.g. in the the light light of construct e . g . in guest-reception' symbolism symbolism show­ ing in several and even Indo­ ing through through in several details details of of the the Vedic Vedic,, and even of of the the Indo27 it it is easy to to spell the motivation for the the Iranian, ritual ritual,, 27 Iranian, is less less easy spell out out the motivation for increasing embarassment about ritual ritual violence violence.. But But there no increasing embarassment about there is is no iindication ndication that s imilar to of modern non-violenc e ' that an an ideal ideal similar to that that of modern ''non-violence' played show aa motivation played aa direct direct role role.. IIff the the ritual ritual texts texts show motivation for for avoiding, al l , it is aa avoiding, concealing concealing,, and and denying denying the the violence violence at at all, it is 'magico-ritualistic' the sacrificer sacrificer and priests fear bad ef­ ef' magico-ritualistic ' one: one : the and priests fear the the bad fects on themselves which which the the violence violence afflicted to the victim may may fects on themselves afflicted to the victim have:: "The "The Adhvaryu-priest Adhvaryu-priest turns turns away away from from the the animal as it have animal as it is is 25 .. .. .. yad yad va va svarau svarau svadhitau swidhitau riptam riptam asti asti II yad yad dhdstayoh samitur yan yan 25 dhdstayolJ samitur 1 . l 62 . 9bcd . nakhe:fu te api I I l3-V nakhe~u sarva sarva ta ta te api deve:fv devesv astu astu II ~V 1.162.9bcd.

2266 Cf. Heesterman 1962: 1 9 62 : 18. 1 8 . Schmidt ((1997:225) 1 997 : 225) is unwilling to accept that ractice (esp. the ritual ppractice (esp . in horse sacrifice) an increasing in the the horse sacrifice) points points to to an increasing the change change in in ritual embarassment with with violence. violence. He He suggests suggests the the change change results results from from a shift in in the the embarassment of Vedic Vedic people to blood blood.. For For this this,, as as Schmidt Schmidt in in fact fact admits, there relation relation of people to admits , there is is no no indication indication at at all all.. 27 Thieme 11957; 27 9 5 7 ; Heesterman 1993:35-40. 1 993 : 35-40. While a pattern ooff ''guestguest­ reception' is clearly in Vedic sacrifice, this this does not lead lead to an clearly present present in Vedic sacrifice, does not to an reception' is its structure structure and and internal internal semantics semantics.. In Heesterman'ss exhaustive explanation explanation of exhaustive of its In Heesterman' pre-classical sacrifice, the the 'guestpartly speculative speculative reconstructions reconstructions ooff pre-classical partly ' guest­ reception' pervasive agonistic agonistic structure. structure . reception' is is one one form form or or one one aspect aspect of of aa more more pervasive

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slaughtered; he conceals himself from from the the animals, in order to rereanimal s , in ,, 28 main uninj uninjured ured himself. ,,28 S atapatha-BrahmaI}a indirectly gives a geneNevertheless, the Satapatha-Brahmal).a Nevertheles s , the gene­ violencee ral-non-magico-ritualistic-ethical judgement when the violenc concerns the human animal aass victim. When the description of the Puru�amedha reaches the the point victims are are to be Puru~amedha reaches point that that the the human human victims to be narrative mode mode ("Now, victims killed, the author author switches to a narrative kille d , the ( " Now , the victims had had the fire carried round them, but they were not yet slaughtered") slaughtered" ) and lets a mysterious voice say to the sacrificer and priests Puru�a, do do not consummate (these (these human human victims): victims ) : if if thou priests:: ""Puru~a, not consummate thou ert to consummate them, man (puru�a) would eat man " ; next, the 'Yert to consummate them, man (puru~a) would eat man"; next, the \;V Satapatha-Brahmal).a S atapatha-BrahmaI}a continues: continues : "Accordingly, " Accordingly , as soon as fire had I ed round been carr round them, he set set them them free, free, and offered oblations oblations been carried them, he and offered "" (SB to the the same <;livinities to divinities (SB 13.6.2.12-13,l9 1 3 . 6 . 2 . 1 2- 1 3 , "9 tr. tr . Eggeling). Eggel ing) . •

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28 28 TS 6.3.8.3: 'dhvaryu~l paso~l saJi!}napyamantit, paso�l saJizjnapyamanat, 6 . 3 . 8 . 3 : paran aa vartate 'dhvaryu� pasubhya eva tan n[ ni hnute, titmano armano 'navraskaya; 'navraskaya ; pasub/rya pasub/zya . . . n[ ni Imute !mute A.pSS perhaps also "he makes excuses to the animals," animals , .. cf. Caland on A p S S 7.16.7. 7. 16.7. O the fear cf. further further Schmidt Schmidt 1968:645, 1968 : 645 , 1997:214-215,and 1 997 : 2 1 4-2 1 5 , and Onn the fear for for bad bad results results cf. Bodewitz,, present volume volume,, section 44.1. Bodewitz . 1 . For a contemporaneous version of the fear fear of bad bad results results of of killing and ritualistic means means of averting them them cf. Dimock cited O ' Flaherty 1987: 1987 : 176 176 (also (also referred by Schmidt 1 997 : 2 1 5 ) . cited by by Doniger O'Flaherty referred to to by Schmidt 1997:215). pt:0blems ofthe belief·system and its The pr:oblems the nature of the 'magico-ritualistic' 'magico-ritualistic ' belief-system relation S outh relation with with rationality-not rationality-not just just our our rationality rationality,, but but also . that that of the South Asian scientific and and philosophical philosophical tradition-can only be hinted hinted at here here.. On the first, the ''magico-ritualistic' magico-ritualistic' belief-system, one may compare e.g. e . g . Henry 1 904 , Oldenberg 1 9 1 9 , Schayer Schayer 1925a 1 925a and and 1925b, 1 925b , Schmithausen Schmithausen 1997 1 997 (all (all 1904, Oldenberg 1919, Asia),, and Tambiah 1990 focusing on ancient South Asia) 1 990 and Lewis 1994. 1 994 . Its relation with (forms of) rationality in the South Asian tradition poses important unaware,, as problems of which scholars so far seem to have remained largely unaware they were more interested in the contrast with 'Western' rationality. rationality . 29 paryagnikl:tafJ pasavo babhavur asarhjnaptah iI atha hainarh vag 2 9 tat paryagnik!ta� babhuvur asarhjfzapta� v ag abhyuvtida iI puru~a puru�a ma ma sarhtisthipo puru�a eva abhyuvada sarhti~?hipo yddi yadi sarhsthtipayi�asi, sarhsthapayiryasi, puru~a ahutfr ajuhot puru�am atsyathi iI tan tan paryagnik!fan evodasljat iI taddevatya ahutfr puru~am atsyatCti paryagnikl:ran evodasTjat iI .... It is difficult to fully dissociate the increasing embarassment with killing (and eating) humans from a progress in the direction of ahirhsa as Schmidt 1997:212wants 1 997 : 2 12 wants to do (contra Witzel 1987). 1 987) . Even in most elaborate doctrines ' not to to be of ahirhsa (such as that of the Jainas) there is a hierarchy of beings 'not killed'' (killing the lowest elemental ones is less problematic than killing higher killed hierarchy.. If killing humans is ones), ones) , and one has to start somewhere in this hierarchy not problematic , killing other animals must be so . not problematic, be still still less so. .

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A similar embarassment about human sacrifice we we find find iinn the the A similar embarassment about human sacrifice S unaJ:1sepa, whose well-known story story of of Sunal:Isepa, whose father father not not only only sold sold him him to well-known to serve as the serve as the victim victim at at aa sacrifice sacrifice (to (to replace replace king king Hariscandra's Hariscand ra ' s son son who an old who had had to to be be sacrificed sacrificed to to VaruI.la VaruI)a according according to to an old promise promise by by his father) , but subsequently also also volunteered volunteered to function as his father), but who who subsequently to function as the son managed managed to escape from from the sacri­ the slaughterer; slaughterer; then, then, his his son to escape the sacrific ial post adv ice and rec itation of of ficial post thanks thanks to to Visvamitra' Visvamitra'ss good good advice and the the recitation some hymns sacrificial post, about to to some hymns when when he he,, bound bound to to the the sacrificial post, was was about . 3) . 3 0 be slaughtered by his father (AiB 77.3).30 Whether the embarassment embarassment shown shown .at at these an Whether the these places places concerns concerns an earlier or just earlier actual actual practice practice of of human human sacrifice sacrifice or just aa theoretical theoretical pos­ posssibility ibility is controvers ial . 3 l The is controversialY The �~ctual occurrence of human sacrictual occurrence of aa human sacri3300 It is to be noted that the story expresses more the embarassment about and next next being being willing to to slaughter his his son, than about the the father first first selling aa father sell ing and ritual slaughter of of aa human such ; that is an an extreme extreme but but acceptable acceptable ritual slaughter human as as such; that the the latter latter is option is rather the underlying presupposition of the story throughout, from the very very moment moment king king Hariscandra, Hariscandra, desparate desparate for for male male progeny, progeny , promises promises the Varul)a VaruI.la to offer him his son if he gets one (cf. also Mitra 1881:75). 1 8 8 1 : 75 ) . One Mlmarhsa-tradition would consider this further notes that, although the later MTmarhsa-tradition arthavtida 'proclamation of the purpose (of a rite)', and hence hence story a mere arthavada rite) ' , and not necessarily a true record of actual events, events , the story is more than a quickly invented tale to encourage the performance of specific ritual acts. acts . The story is (esp . during the RajasUya) , and the is to be be recited in certain contexts (esp. the Rajasiiya), the very very is expected expected to to produce produce certain positive results results.. recitation and listening to it is recitation This makes makes it it an an early early instance instance of of South South Asian Asian epic epic literature story This literature.. While While the the story need not be (was certainly not in all details) an account of actual events, events , it says much much about what was was regarded normal , what what as as exceptional, exceptional , and and what says about what regarded as as normal, what as unacceptable (: ( : not the slaughter of a human as such) by the author(s) and the public. 3 1 Thus, when Gonda (1975) 31 ( 1 975) comes to speak of the human sacrifice (p. (p . that it was probably 292,, 330, 292 3 3 0 , 351, 3 5 1 , 354, 395) he emphasizes at each place -that never actually performed (e.g. never (e . g . p. 351· 35 1 · note 69: 6 9 : "This " This sacrifice, as it is described in some siitras, was in all probability never performed. H). " ) . According to Halbfass Halbfass 1991:94: 1 99 1 : 94 : "There is no evidence that ... . . . human sacrifices played an actual role in in the Vedic ritual ritual tradition." tradition. " Handiqui 1 949 : 3 82f does does not not think an actual role the Vedic Handiqui 1949:382f think that classical PUI'W?amedha Puru�amedha was was ever ever actually actually performed. performed. The The places will that the the classical places II will mention below in section 2.3 2 . 3 show that these judgments are not valid in at periods.. In a long article-in fact two articles least some milieus and in some periods in one one,, one on the NarayaI.la-bali Narayal)a-bali (pp. (pp . 71-91 7 1-9 1 and 126-141) 126- 1 4 1 ) and the other on t}1e t}Ie Puru~asi.lkta (pp. Puru�asUkta (pp . 91-126)-Hertha 9 1 - 126)-Hertha Krick briefly mentions that the SB 13.6.2.13 ~V 1 3 . 6. 2 . 1 3 rejects the killing of the human victims, victims , but that in the AV and �V schools their death is actually brought about (1977:93 ( 1 977 : 93 note 94); 94) ; she further

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fice will probably always remain difficult to prove or o r disprove, disprove , bebe­ cause relevant pieces of evidence would be small in number numb e r and open to diverging interpretations interpretations.. But there there is something else which which is perhaps of even greater importance in South' South ' Asian social hishis­ sacrifice . Our sources tory tory,, and and that that is the the acceptability of human sacrifice. give us more direct information on precisely this acceptability, acceptability , occurrences . The combined evidence ooff the rather than th a n oonn actual occurrences. embarassment embarassment shown her.e and and of of texts texts of two two Vedic schools which do laconic yet yet sufficiently sufficiently clear clear prescriptions prescriptions for for aa real real do conserve conserve laconic (SankhSS 16.10-14, 1 6 . 1 0- 1 4 , VaitS 3 7 . 1 0-3 8 . 93322), ) , suggest human VaitS 37.10-38.9 human sacrifice (SankhSS that at one time a human sacrifice was indeed acceptable to even wider circles than the groups associated with these two schools. school s . In addition there is is the the anthropological evidence for real real human human sacrisacri­ fices in in South South Asia areas and in Indo-European Indo-European fices Asia and and neighbouring neighbouring areas and in points out that in the Puru~amedhasacrificial Puru�amedha sacrificial death is important in two aspects:: as the actual death of the human victim victim,, and as the own death aspects anticipated by the sacrificer (1977:93), ( 1 977 : 93) , The AV and ~V �V schools mentioned by S ail S S 16.10 Krick must refer refer to to Vaitana-Siitra Vaitana-Siitra 37.10-38.9 3 7 . 1 0-3 8 . 9 and and SailSS 1 6 . 1 0 respectively Krick must respectively.. Krick, speaking speaking about about an an indeterminate early period also points out that that death death Krick, indeterminate early period,, also points out at is seen seen as as aa way way to to heaven heaven or or liberation liberation (1977:93, ( 1 977 : 93 , 102 1 02 and and note note at aa sacrifice sacrifice is 1 1 5 (b» 115 (b».. ( hh.s.): . s . ) : Weber 1864 1 864 (discussing several Vedic Further on human sacrifice (= indications for for hh.s.), (whose texts and and translations translations are not not indications . s . ) , Mitra 1881b:49-113 1 8 8 1 b : 49- 1 1 3 (whose reliable) , Hillebrandt 1 897 : 1 5 3 (argues that the . s . is in the always reliable), Hillebrandt 1897:153 the real real hh.s. course of of time suppressed ; the the mention mention of of aa non-transmitted course time suppressed; non-transmitted Puru�amedha­ Puru~amedha­ Ka�haka-Sari1hita, Weber 1 864 : 7 1 , also section as part of the the contents of the the Ka~haka-Sari1hita, Weber 1864:71, direction),, Eggeling 1900:xxxiii-xlvi points in this direction) 1 900 : xxxiii-xlvi (cannot imagine that h.s,. h . s,. ' occurred),, 'Oldenberg (Puru~amedha is product of priestly fantasy, occurred) Oldenberg 1917:362ff 1 9 1 7 : 3 62ff (Puru�amedha fantasy , ) , Kirfel 1 9 5 1 (with but human sacrifice may have occurred nevertheless nevertheless), Kirfel 1951 hypothesis that an early form of Puru~amedha Puru�amedha must have preceded the ha) , Schlingloff 1969 Asvamed 1 969 (refutes the claim that Asvamedha), that the KausambT KausambT site was that of of a Puru�amedha, Puru~amedha, G.R. to older G . R . Sharma 1960), 1 960) , Thakur 1978 1 97 8 (refers to sources on h.s., h . s . , sometimes sometimes without without the required precision), precision) , Obeyesekere Obeyesekere 1997 1 997 sources on the required (on ancient Sri Lankan Pali sources and surviving oral myths on construction sacrifice). sacrifice) . On the five heads-those of a human, a horse, a cow, a goat and a sheep-to sheep-to be inserted into into the the brick altar altar in the the Agnicayana (also part of Asvamedha) cf. cf. Heesterman 1985. 1 985 . See finally in the present volume Feller lataval1abhula on the'Mahabharata the' Mahabharata war as sacrifice, and 10rdaan & & Wessing on sacrifice . on the the construction construction sacrifice. 32 Garbe Garbe's 32 ' s forced interpretation bf bf VaitS 37.23 37 . 23 according to which the Adhvaryu-priest has an animal bound to the sacrificial stake instead of the human victim victim is to be rejected rej ected (cf. (cf. Eggeling 1900:xliv 1 900: xliv and note). note) . =

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cultures,33 which suggests human sacrifice was not just aa cultures ,JJ which suggests that that the the human sacrifice was not just theoretical of ritualists but aa 'real ' real option' option' which, in one theoretical construct construct of ritualists,, but which, in one form or or the the other; may very put to form other; may very well well have have been been occasionally occasionally put to practice classical system acrifice also practice.. We We note note that that the the classical system of of VediC Vedic ssacrifice also to seek his own own death death by by means means of special per­ perallows aa sacrificer sacrificer to allows seek his of special formances such as the unaskarl).a Agni��oma, formances such as the SSunaskan)a Agni~foma, which which is is aa relatively relatively s imple modification standard Soma-sacrifice Soma-sacrifice (Agni �!oma) . simple modification of of the the standard (Agni~~oma). Technical in this discussed in Technical problems problems in this remarkable remarkable sacrifice sacrifice were were discussed in the SSrauta-Sutras, in early MTmarnsa and and by by Bhartrhari Bhartrhari,, but but it did the rauta-Sutras , in early Mimamsa it did not give give rise rise to to any any ethical ethical discussions discussions.. 34 not J4 In short: short: we we see an earlier in which is rela­ In see here here an earlier period period in which there there is relatively little little embarassment embarassment about violence in ritual,, and tively about violence in ritual and aa subsequent subsequent period, reflected reflected in most of BrahmaI!-as and period, in most of the the Brahmal).as and SSrauta-Sutras, rauta-Sutras , in in which this this embarassment embarassment increases increases.. This This increasing increasing embarassment which embarassment can be seen in the of avoiding can also also be seen as as aa development development in the direction direction of avoiding viol­ violence.. Positive Positive statements statements on on ''non-violence' are rare rare in in the the early ence non-v iolence ' are early Brahminical literature literature,, but but w wee saw saw one one in in the the cited place of of the the Brahminical cited place 33J Cf. Cf. the the encyclopedic overviews overviews in in Westermarck Westermarck 1912:434-476 and in the the J 1 9 1 2 : 434-476 and oj religion and ethics ethics,, ed ed.. by by J. Hastings,, Edinburg Edinburg 1913, Encyclopaedia of J. Hastings 1 9 1 3 , s.v. s.v. (Indian)"); ""Human Human Sacrifice" Sacrifice " (with Gait 1913 1 9 1 3 oonn "Human Sacrifice (Indian) " ) ; and cf. to older older anthropological anthropological research research in in Thakur also Feller Feller the references references to the Thakur 1978; 1978; also & Wessing Wessing,, present present volume volume.. Jatavallabhula and and Jordaan Jordaan & Jatavallabhula 34 The The main main problem problem is is whether whether the the priests priests should continue the the should continue 34 has died died.. The The answer provided by by both both performance even even after after the the sacrificer sacrificer has performance answer provided S abara and Sabara and Bhartrhari Bhartrhari is is positive positive,, though though they they argue argue for their their position position in quite S abara-Bha�ya 10.2.57-61, 4:6.11-12; different ways ((Sabara-Bhasya 1 0 . 2 . 57-6 1 , Bhartrhari MBhD 4 : 6 . 1 1 - 1 2 ; cf. Bronkhorst 1 9 89 : 107f 1 07f [1994:377-378]). [ 1 994 : 377-378]) . Kumarila, Bronkhorst 1989: Kumarila, in in his his rup-�Ika, Tup-tlka, had had nothing nothing to say say on on the the relevant relevant passage passage in in the the SSabara-Bhasya. In the the light light of of the the to abara-Bhli�ya. In of support support for for this this scenario scenario in in the the older older Brahminical Brahminical literature literature complete lack complete lack of S S 18.48, S S 8.8.1-42), (JB 2 2.167-169, BauSS Apss 22.7.20-25, LatySS p S S 22 . 7 . 20-25 , Llity 8 . 8 . 1-42) , (JB . 1 67- 1 6 9 , PB 17.12, 1 7 . 1 2 , Bau 1 8 .48, A abara-Bha�ya ((10.2.57) 1 0 . 2 . 5 7) m the statements statements which which our text of the the SSabara-Bhasya makes about the the the akes about sacrificer' down next it) is is of of doubtful doubtful of lying lying down next to to it) sacrificer'ss entering entering the the fire fire (instead (instead of reliability.. The sacrificer's death is brought about ''magically' reliability magically ' by certain details in in the the performance performance (the (the Samavedins Samavedins emphasize emphasize the the special way of of details special way m ance) ; if singing the the tonal tonal accents accents in in this this perfor perfonTIance); if the the sacrificer sacrificer does not find find singing does not he may may fast fast to to death death after after the the ceremony ceremony,, or up his his the death death he he desires desires he the or give give up S S 8.8.40-41). project of dying dying (cf. (cf. LliW La~ySS Another performance performance which which should proj ect of 8 . 8 . 40-4 1 ) . Another should Dr~advatI-Sattra (PB 25 25.13: end with the death of the sacrificer is the Dr�advatI-Sattra . 13 : the sacrificer should should disappear disappear from from the the world world of of men men during during the the concluding bath sacrificer concluding bath in the the Yamuna) Yamuna).. On these these sacrifices sacrifices and the the theme of "self-sacrifice Vedic " self-sacrifice in Vedic ritual 1 987 . ritual"" cf. cf. also also Heesterman Heesterman 1987.

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Chandogya-Upani�ad-w Chiindogya-Upanisad-which, Upani~ad,, is of course not so hich , as as an an Upani�ad strongly committed strongly committed to to ritualism ritualism.. The Vedic ritual ritualists, anyy case, The Vedic ists , in an cas e , though though we we can can perceive perceive aann increase increase iinn the the embarassment embarassment about vvii­ olenc e , seem seem not front runners runners iinn the the development. If olence, not ttoo have have been been front there there were were front front runners runners,, they they were were to to be be found found among the ascetics among the and anti-ritualists , whether and the the anti-ritualists, whether they they had had aa Vedic Vedic oorr non-Vedic non-Vedic background background.. But But especially especially among among the the non�Vedic non-Vedic ascetics ascetics and anti­ antiritual ists who organized around around two ritualists who organized two historical historical figures, the Maha­ Mahiifigure s , the vlra vlra and and the the Buddha Buddha (ca (ca.. 4th 4th century century B B.C.E.), the ideal ideal of of ''non. C . E . ) , the non­ 35 violence' found fertile soi1.. 35 violenc e ' found fertile soil 3S Cf. Cf. the the textplaces textplaces discussed by by Alsdorf Alsdorf (1962:47-49), who concludes ( 1 962 : 47-49) , who c o ncludes 35 this section with the the remark: remark: "Das kann doch nur bedeuten, bedeuten, daB nicht etwa this section with " Das kann doch nur daB nicht etwa der der linismus-und Gleiches gilt a forteriori vom Buddhismus-die eigentliche eigentl iche Quelle die, wie den Reformreligionen Quelle der der Ahirilsa Ahirhsa war, war, die, wie oft oft angenommen, angenommen, von von den Reformreligionen daB auf die die brahmanische brahmanische Religion Religion iibergegriffen iibergegriffen hatte hatte;; vielmehr vielmehr ist deutlich,, daB auf ist deutlich Buddhismus an einer Buddhismus und und linismus linismus nur nur teilnehmen teilnehmen an einer gemeinindischen gemeinindischen Geistesbewegung,, die freil freilich besondersgiinstige Geistesbewegung ich bei ihnen besonders giinstige Vorbedingungen traf und daher von ihnen mit besonderem Eifer aufgegriffen und mitgemacht wurde." This well-argued well-argued intermediate intermediate judgment judgment should should apply to aa different different wurde . " This apply to period than than the the not not quite quite convincing hypothesis elaborated elaborated in the final period convincing hypothesis in the final 16 16 Alsdorf'ss article, viz viz.. that ooff a (predominantly) 'pre- oorr non-Aryan' pages ooff Alsdorf' (in Alsdorf'ss argument argument apparently apparently but but contestably contestably meaning meaning non-Brahminical non-Brahminical,, (in Alsdorf' of ahirhsil ahirhsa and and vegetarianism vegetarianism (and (and,, at the non-Jaina and and non-Buddhi non-Buddhist) source of at the st) source non-Jaina of the the bloody offerings offerings (!) to KalI) Kali) (Alsdorf 1962:53-69). same time time,, of ( ! ) to 1 9 62 : 53-69) . gment may The may suggest suggest an an 'orthogenetic' . orthogenetic ' development development within The former former jud judgment within the the Vedic sacrificial system as one of the theoretical options (Heesterman 1984), 1 9 84), ' but although its serious investigation is legitimate legitimate,, this should not be based to aa large on Brahminical large extent extent on Brahminical texts texts clearly clearly posterior posterior to to the the time time this this common common to manifest manifest itself itself (such as the the laina-Buddhist-Brahminical development development started started to Iaina-Buddhist-Brahminical Mahabharata 1 96 8 (to Mahabharata and and the the Manu-S�ti) Manu-Smrti),, as as is is done done by by Schmidt Schmidt 1968 (to whom whom Heesterman aligns aligns himself) himself) and and Tull Tull 1996. The idea idea of of aa common common Heesterrilan 1 996 . The development, if if due due emphasis emphasis is is laid laid on on the the different roles played played in in it it by by non­ nondevelopment, different roles ritualist followers , is, is, for the period period concerned, concerned, in in ritualist fore-runners fore-runners and and ritualist ritualist followers, for the of Bodewitz Bodewitz (this (this volume), volume), to to whom whom the the role role harmony with with the the main main findings of harmony of as he focuses on on the ideal of the the ritualists ritualists appears appears even even more more passive, passive, as he focuses the positive positive ideal is in in his his 1997 this respect respect as as and explicit explicit notion notion of ahirhsil . Schmidt Schmidt is 1 997 article article in in this and of ahirhsa. unconvincing as as twenty twenty nine nine years years before before.. Unsupported Unsupported,, apodictic statements unconvincing apodictic statements is obvious obvious that that the the emancipation emancipation from from the the magical magical approach has has to to be be llike ike "It "It is circle"" and and,, on the theory of rebirth and sought in the ritualists ritualists's ' s own circle liberation, "This doctrine was was developed developed in ritualistic circles circles"" (Schmidt liberation, "This doctrine in ritualistic, (Schmidt Schmidt ((1997:228) observes:: "My main 1997:221) beg the the question. question. When When Schmidt 1 997 : 22 1 ) beg 1 997 : 228) observes " My main argument argument was was and and is is that that the the Vedic Vedic sources sources do do allow allow us us to to reconstruct reconstruct aa .

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That there there was indeed aa broader broader South Asian development 22.3 . 3 That was indeed South Asian development in in the non-violence' , also of ''non-violence', also reflected reflected in in Brahmanism, Brahmanism, is is the ditection direction of confirmed century B . C . E . , which confirmed by by the the Edicts Edicts of of Asoka, Asoka, 3d 3d century B.C.E., which seem seem to .Buddhist, but South to appeal appeal not not to to exclusively exclusively 13uddhist, but rather rather to to broader broader South Asian were certainly in Asian ideals ideals.. 3366 While While the the Buddhists Buddhists and and Jainas Jainas were certainly in the anguard, and rahmins , including nkers , the vvanguard, and the the B Brahmins, including the the Upani�adic Upani~adic thi thinkers, often all went in the often remained remained far far behind behind,, they they nevertheless nevertheless all went mainly mainly in the same importance of an an increasing increasing importance same direction, direction, namely namely in in the the direction direction of being attributed attributed to to ''non-violence' in the the sense of avoidance avoidance of of in­ inbeing non-violence ' in sense of jury to to living living beings beings.. jury This changes changes as as soon as the between Brahminical Brahminical and This soon as the contrasts contrasts between and non-Brahminical become sharper. sharpe r . A non-Brahminical groups groups,, especially especially Buddhists Buddhists,, become A tangible is the the fall the Maurya�dynasty (the one to tangible turning turning point point is fall of of the Mauryacdynasty (the one to which Asoka Asoka belonged) belonged) in the second second century century B B.C-E., the which in the . C . E . , and and the coming did not of Pu�yamitra Pu~yamitra,, who who certainly certainly did not shrink shrink from from coming to to power power of 37 While having having bloody bloody Vedic Vedic sacrifices sacrifices performed performed.. 37 While the the Buddhists Buddhists culture," development within the Vedic culture , " one may answer: It may be possible to.. do so, exercise called for:: we know that intens intensive to s o , but the exerc ise is not cal led for ive and ic groups even non-Vedic dynamic relationships existed between Vedic and non-Ved before the development under discussion became noticeable noticeable.. before 36 36 Cf. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum lndicarum 1961 1 96 1 as referred to and discussed d iscussed durfen wir abschliellend 1 962 : 49-5 3 ) , who concludes "So diirfen abschl ieBend wohl by Alsdorf ((1962:49-53), dall auch Asokas Ahirhsa und Vegetarismus nicht buddhistischen sagen, daB Ursprungs, religioser sind,, dal3 dall sie Ursprung s , sondern Teil gemeinindischer rel igioser Entwicklimg sind begunstigt und besHirkt bestarkt werden werden.. " aber allerdings durch seinem Buddhismus begiinstigt 37 37 The general Pu�yamitra Pusyamitra who usurped the Maurya-empire is credited w with ith the performance of the first Asvamedha · (horse sacrifice of exclusive royal time.. Cf. Kulke & & Rothermund 1990:71, status) after a long time 1990 : 7 1 , 73f. The authors s ite near Kausambf KausambI would contain the remains of a add that an archeological site 1 960) , Puru�amedha . R . Sharma S harma 1960), Puru~amedha (human sacrifice) celebrated by Pu�yamitra Pu~yamitra (G (G.R. ingloff 1969). 1 969) . For Pu�yamitra 's (Schlingloff Pu~yamitra's but this is since long disproven (Schl off the ASvamedha Asvamedha,, oonn the other hand hand,, there iiss sufficient performance o inscriptional and literary evidence (cf. Ramachandran 1952:26; 1 952 :26; Pathak 1960; 1 960; MBh 3.2.123). Pu~yamitra is the Patafijali's Patafij al i ' s M B h under P 3 . 2 . 1 23 ) . As far as I could see, Pu�yamitra available. earliest performer for whom inscriptional evidence is availab l e . In the A§vamedha may have been out of vogue vogue,, which would Maurya-dynasty the Asvamedha justify the claim that Pu�yamitra Pu~yamitra was the first after a long interruption at least for to have become independent for the the Mauryan empire (of which parts seem to A§vamedha may have been performed Asoka's death).. Before Asoka the Asvamedha after Asoka ' s death) by sufficiently strong kings (if they were not too much influenced by Jainism or Buddhism) Buddhism).. That a horse sacrifice in some respects similar to the classical

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generally continued to to adhere to the the universalized universalized ideal of ''non-vigenerally conti'nued adhere to ideal of non-vi­ olence'' in in this this new new period period,38 the earlier earlier B Brahminical tendency to to olence , 3 8 the rahminical tendency changed into into its its counterpart: counterpart: aa cultivation of ritual ritual ''non-violence' non-violence ' changed cultivation of violence.. 3399 Violent Violent rituals rituals are are now now being being positively defended violence positively defended 4o Violent against the the claims claims of of aa universal universal ideal ideal of non-violence.. 4o Violent against of non-violence rituals are actually performed performed:: they symbolize the victory and and rituals are also also actually they symbolize the victory success of also of of the social system success of aa ruler, ruler, but but also the Brahminical Brahminical social system.. 4411 In In d from one from J.3.V 1 . 1 62- 1 63 and one occurred occurred in in J.3.gvedic Rgvedic times times can can be be inferre inferred RV 1.162-163 and 33.53.11. . 5 3 . 1 1 . Buddhist Buddhist canonical canonical texts texts mention mention the the Asvamedha, Asvamedha, together together with with Purusamedha, Vaj Vajapeya, and two problematic ones ones,, called called sammapasam and Puru�amedha, apeya, and two problematic and Pali, among among the the royal royal Vedic Vedic sacrifices sacrifices which which are to be be rejected rejected niraggala in in Pali, are to as being being ineffective ineffective (Falk as (Falk 1988:230-231). 1 9 8 8 : 230-23 1 ) . exceptions,, some of which rather spectacular (e (e.g. 3388 Apart from a few exceptions .g. Nepal who who officiate at Hevajra and other other tantric tantric schools; Buddhist priests priests iinn Nepal Hevaj ra and schools ; Buddhist officiate at animal sacrifices which are are avoided by Hindu Hindu priests priests,, A A.. W. van den Hoek,, animal sacrifices which avoided by W . van den HoeK pers . ) , the several centuries pers.), the Buddhists Buddhists have have for for several centuries emphasized emphasized aatt least least iinn theory theory to kill kill living beings.. For theoretical the Buddha' Buddha'ss prescription prescription not the not to living beings For the the theoretical of this this prescription prescription and the possible possible conflicts in the the practice practice of acceptance of acceptance and the conflicts in of Theravada see ee.g. . g . Gombrich 1 97 1 :255-258. : 255-25 8 . On ethics in in Mahayana Theravada Buddhists Buddhists see Gombrich 1971 On ethics Mahayana cf. Williams 1989: good Buddhist tries to to cf. Chappell Chappell 1995, 1 995 , and and Williams 1 9 8 9 : 6: 6: "a " a good Buddhist . . .. .. tries adhere firmly and to aa renunciation renunciation of killing,, stealing stealing,, sexual adhere firmly and strictly strictly to of killing sexual immorality,, lying, and taking taking alcohol Thus in spite of the considerable immorality lying , and alcohol ... . . . Thus in spite of the considerable is aa relative relative unity unity and and stability of the the moral code diversity in in Buddhism Buddhism there there is diversity stability of moral code of monks monks (and, Mahayana countries countries,, nuns)." and in in particular particular in in the the order order of and (and , in in Mahayana nuns) . " 3399 It It is is noteworthy noteworthy,, however, however, that that the the non-injury non-injury of of aa cow cow has has in in this this period become become so so important important that that Bhartrhari Bhartrhari (5th C.E.) records that that the the period (5th cent. cent. C . R ) records killing at aa sacrifice of aa cow cow at sacrifice (gavam alambha!j) alambhah) ,, just just as as drinking drinking wine wine killing of (madyapanam) at has become outdated in in his his times (MBhD at aa sacrifice, sacrifice, has become outdated times (MBhD The Asokan Asokan edicts edicts,, reflecting reflecting aa much much earlier earlier period period (3rd 33.12.28). . 1 2 . 28) . The (3rd century century ted more B.C.), still do do not not contain contain any indication that that the the cow is to to be be protec protected more B . C . ) , still any indication cow is against violence violence than than other other animals animals (cf. (cf. Alsdorf Alsdorf 1962:59). In Panini's against 1 962 : 59) . In Pa�ini ' s grammar (4th (4th century century B B.C.), there rule to to derive derive the the word word goghna, the the grammar . C . ) , tlf ere iiss aa rule meaning of which may explicitized as: as : ""he he for is slaughtered: meaning of which may be be explicitized for whom whom aa cow cow is slaughtered: a guest" (Panini (P�ini 3.4.73); 3 . 4. 73 ) ; the practice of slaughtering a cow for a respected guest literature . Cf. proper is accepted accepted in in the the earlier earlier Dharmasastric Dharmasastric literature. Cf. also also the the proper guest is name slaying cows is drawn drawn by by Tull Tul1 name Atithigva Atithigva ''slaying cows for for aa guest' guest' to to which which attention attention is 11996:229. 996 : 229 . 40 The complex of ideas underlying the argued defences of e.g. 40 e . g . Kumarila (see "Just as is (see below) below) is is already already reflected reflected in in Bhartrhari' Bhartrhari'ss statement statement "Just as violence violence is nothing but but aa means means for for dharma ('righteousness, religious duty duty') ( ' righteousness , religious ' ) in in (sacrifices) (sacrifices) nothing as the the Asvamedha" Asvamedha" (yathasvamedhadi�v (yathtisvamedhtidisv abhyupaya eva hirhsa hirizsa dhannasya, dharmasya, such such as MBhD :3 1 .6). MBhD 11 :31.6). 41 Pu�yamitra' Pusyamitra'ss sacrifice became the subject ooff a grammatical example - 41 _

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B rahminical circles period , even of human human beings beings Brahminical circles of of this this period, even the the killing killing of is seen as istic possibility as is is clear state­ is again again seen as a:a: real realistic possibility,, as clear from from some some statements (MBhD 1 1 :31.21 : 3 1 . 2 1 sarvamedhe brtihmanavadhah) ments by by Bharqhari Bhart~hari (MBhD bnihmanavadhah) tti �ptati-Vr and and commentaries commentaries on on the the Sarhkhya-Karika Samkhya-Karika (Sarhkhya-S (Samkhya-S~ptatiVrtti asvamedhe mtinu�avadho mlinu~avadho 'pi).42 'pi) . 42 These references are ad 22,, aSvamedhe evidence evidence that that there there were were in in this this new new period period Brahminical Brahminical circles circles which even human acceptable . In which found found even human sacrifice sacrifice (again) (again) quite quite acceptable. In the the even more more direct direct than (when the present evidence is present case case the the evidence is even than before before (when the sources did not point point ' to to aa contemporaneous acceptance but but to sources did not contemporaneous acceptance to an an acceptance in in aa period preceding the the sources) sources).. The The combination combination of of acceptance period preceding highly esteemed and sources giving highly esteemed and authoritative, authoritative, inherited inherited sources giving pre­ prescriptions sacrifice , and existence of circles scriptions for for aa human human sacrifice, and the the existence of certain certain circles in which which these these sacrifices sacrifices are are considered considered acceptable acceptable,, create situin create aa situ­ ation in in which occas ional occurrence occurrence of ation which an an occasional of this this sacrifice sacrifice is is not not un­ unlikely.. likely Inscriptions in which kings kings proudly proudly claim claim to to have have performed performed aa Inscriptions in which Puru~amedha (or (or aa Sarvamedha Sarvamedha which which includes includes aa Puru�amedha) Puru~amedha) are are Puru�amedha indeed found found,, but but on on their their basis alone one one cannot cannot decide whether indeed basis alone decide whether S atapatha-Brahmal).a (with (with the human sacrifice was performed aa la Satapatha-Brahmal)a (much discussed discussed by by scholars scholars for for its its historical historical significance) in an an important text (much significance) in important text of the the (Brahminical) (Brahminical) paJ.1inian Paninian tradition, tradition, viz. viz. the the Mahabhasya (Cardona of Mahabha�ya (Cardona 1976:263-266). 1 976: 263-266) . l-vrtti 42 and the author of of the 42 Note Note that that Bharq'hari Bhartrhari and the author the Sarilkhya-sap,tat Sarhkhya-saptatl-vrtti explicitly speak of the killing of a human; they do not use the ritualistic a-labh,, sarh-jiiapayati, sarh-jfiapayati, etc etc., . , of which especially the former is not euphemisms a-labh description of of the the Puru�amedha, Puru~amedha, for for instance, B description instance, entirely unambiguous (in the SSB SB the human victims are set free after their formal tilambha tllambha 'taking ' taking hold of': of' : SB 1 3 . 6 . 2) . Also on account of the hirhsavidhtlntlt 13.6.2). Also the the Yukti-DTpika, Yukti-Dlpika, on account of the expression expression hirhsavidhtintit employed in in this this context, context, seems to refer refer to to aa real real and and not not just just aa symbolic symbolic employed seems to impurity in rituals because because killing,, when when it it supports supports its statement that that there killing its statement there is is impurity in rituals Brahmana:: "Let they prescribe injury with a quotation from a BrahmaJ.1a " Let him sacrifice Brahmin" (cf. TB 33.4.1), further to to be be noted noted that that Bhartrhari, (a-labh) aa Brahmin" (cf. TB . 4 . 1 ) . It is is further Bhartrhari, as a grammarian, is writing for a general Brahminical public (sometimes accommodating even even Buddhist Buddhist viewpoints viewpoints in in theoretical theoretical reflections reflections on on accommodating grammar) shows awareness grammar).. He He shows awareness of of changing changing ritual ritual practice practice where where the the sacrifice sacrifice (MBhD 33:: 12,28), 1 2 . 28) , but presents the sacrifice of a human of a cow is concerned c oncerned (MBhD possibility.. Finally Finally,, Bhartrhari is generally quite loyal to Brahminical as a real possibility ritualism, Sarilkhya-authors ritualism, and and the the same same applies applies to to aa great great extent extent also also to to the the Sarhkhya-authors better without without actually actually rejecting rejecting the the sacrificial sacrificial (who say that their their method method is (who say that is better system reference to to system as as such) such).. Hence, Hence, there there is is no no reason reason to to assume assume that that their their reference 'real killings'' would result from a strong anti-Brahmin or anti-ritualistic bias. ' real killings

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S ailkhayana- S rauta-Siitra and release of human release of human victims), victims) , or or a a la la Sailkhayana-Srauta-Siltra and (l ater) Bhartfhari B hartrhari (with (with actual kill ing) . Even Even more more frequent frequent are are inin­ (later) actual killing). scriptions testifying to performance of an A§vamedha. Here scriptions testifying to the the performance of an Asvamedha . Here there is no reason reason to that aa horse was actually actually killed killed in in the there is no to doubt doubt that horse was the s acrifice . Coins Coins with with on on one one side side the image of of the sacrificial horse horse sacrifice. the image the sacrificial further illustrate illustrate that the Asvamedha A§vamedha in in the the period period of these these further inscriptions was was not not just just aa priestly but aa powerful powerful symbol .inscriptions priestly construct construct but symbol with, An illustration this w ith , in in aa double double sense, sens e , wide wide currency. currency . An illustration of of this 'currency' ' currency ' is presented in Plate II, which shows the front and reverse of commemorating an reverse of aa coin coin commemorating an A§vamedha Asvamedha celebrated celebrated by by Samudragupta, mid 4th century C C.E. . E . The front shows the horse and, probably,, the the sacrificial the reverse and , probably sacrificial pole pole (yupa); (yupa) ; the reverse may may be be interpreted as the the queen queen with a chowrie chowrie (vidhavana) for fanning the dead horse horse,, and the queen's dead and aa pointed pointed instrument instrument (possibly (poss ibly the queen ' s golden golden 4 3 The the word word asvamedhapanikrama. suer ''needle'), needl e ' ) , as well as the asvamedhapanikrama . 43 A§vamedha is is reported to have have been been performed performed as Asvamedha reported to as recently recently as as the the first half of the first half of the 18th 1 8th century century (by (by Sawai Sawai laisingh laisingh of of laipur).44 laipur) .44

43 The main queen dead horse with aa golden go lden fanning fanning inin­ 43 The main queen (mahi�i) (mahi~i) fans fans the the dead horse with S S 15.29 BauSS 233.15ff) (vidhavana) , d. cf. Bau 1 5 . 29 (p. (p . 233 . 1 5f0 and Dumont 1927:337. 1 927 : 3 3 7 . strument (vidhavana), BauSS Bau S S prescribes the production ooff a golden vidhavana and three golden dhadha­ vitriifJi. vitrafJi . The cloth in the queen's left hand may be the cloth which covered the dead horse, and the pointed object may represent the main qtieen's qtieen' s golden suer 'needle' ' needle ' (decorated), (decorated) , with which the way of the knife in it was indicated by BauS S her and and her her one hundred hundred companions who who also have golden needles (cf. BauSS Ramaya~a (Balak. 13.26) 15.30, 1 5 . 30 , p. p . 235.9f, 235 . 9f, and Dumont 1927:182, 1 927 : 1 82 , 339). 339) . The Ramayal)a 1 3 . 26) speaks of krpiifJas k(pafJas (swords or daggers) being used by the main queen. The vestiges of a nimbus around the head of the queen (on other coins the king Samudragupta S amudragupta appears with nimbus) may suggest that she is idealized or even S rI (or the figure represents SrI S rI directly: deified, perhaps as an incarnation of SrI directly : AsvaRaven 1994b:45-46). 1 994b :45-46) . For a previous discussion of Gupta coins of the Asva­ 1 994b : 43-46; Altekar medha-type similar to the one shown in Plate II: II : Raven 1994b:43-46; 1954:38-49, 1 954 : 3 8-49 , and cf. Plates IV and V in the same work. The historical reality of Samudragupta' s Asvamedhas Asvamedhas is is borne our by several pieces pieces of of evidence. evidence. cf. cf. of Samudragupta's borne out by several Bh:;mdarkar 1981:35-42 1 9 8 1 : 35-42 and and Raven 1 994a : 3 8 with with note 2 . 95 . The The AsvamedhaAsvamedha­ Bhandarkar Raven 1994a:38 note 2.95. images form part of a series of Gupta coin images where "[i]t " [i] t is not religion ... that sets sets the the tone tone"" (Raven 1994b:55). 1 994b : 5 5 ) . . . . but sovereignty that 44 44 Ramachandran 1952:28. 1 95 2 : 2 8 . On further evidence for Vedic rituals in earlier periods see, apart from the previous note on Samudragupta's Asvamedhas,, Samudragupta' s Asvamedhas III: 1 028f, Pathak 1960, e.g. Kashikar 1964, e . g . Kane III:1028f, 1 960, Kashikar 1 964 , and Kashikar and Parpola Parp ola . 1983. 1 9 83 . · · .

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2 . 4 From the preceding preceding it it will clear that that with with regard the 2.4 From the will be be clear regard to to the development of th� ideal of of 'non-violence' ' non-violence ' and and the the real ity versus th~ ideal reality versus development of theoreticality of of human sacrifices in in Brahminical B rahminical circles, circles , some some imim­ theoreticality human sacrifices portant historical distinctions distinctions are be made so far far have portant historical are to to be made which which so have been mostly neglected find indications of two distinct periods periods We find indications of two distinct been mostly neglected:: We with relatively relatively llittle ittle embarassment embarassment about violence, in even with about violence, in which which even human sacrifices were acceptable (even (even though human sacrifices were acceptable though perhaps perhaps rarely rarely per­ perS rauta­ formed) the period of the the pre-classical (�g-Vedic?) pre-classical (~gVedic?) Srautaformed):: A A,, the period of ritual , and and C, C , that of the the post-classical post-classical period period (after (after lainism lainism and and ritual, that of py Buddhism had two periods had become become strong). strong) . These These two periods are are separated separated py an period B, there was an iintermediate ntermediate period B , in in which which there was an an increased increased emem­ human sacribarassment about and aa stronger stronger rej rejection barassment about violence violence and ection of of human sacri­ fices . Period Period B is reflected in the ority of of classical classical ritualistic ritual istic fices. B is reflected in the maj majority S rauta-Sutras , and and Srauta-Sutras, and early Upani~ads.. In texts, texts , Brahma:gas BdihmaI).as and early Upani�ads In the the course of this period and Buddhism Buddhism originate originate and and gain gain in in course of this period,, lainism lainism and strength. strength . To this broad refinement and To make make this broad periodization periodization open open to to refinement and amendamend­ ment to social, and subperiodic ment (according (according to social , religious, religious , geographical, geographical , and subperiodic variations),, aa connection connection with with datable variations) datable 'landmarks' ' landmarks ' is is important. important. For For now,, reference reference may may bbee made made to to the the already mentioned Asokan Asokan now already mentioned edicts (3d cent. which mark mark the the end edicts (3d cent. B.C.E.), B . C . E . ) , which end or or final final phase phase (in (in terms of the rej rejection of violence: the culmination) B,, terms of the ection of violence : the culmination) of of period period B and and Bhart:rhari ' s and and Kumarila's Kumarila's statements statements (5th (5th and and 7th 7th cent. cent. Bhart~hari's C.E.), which are are to to be be situated period C. C . E . ) , which s ituated in in period C.

Schematically: Schematically :

Diagram Acceptability of violence (SV), D iagram I: I : Acceptability of sacrificial sacrificial violence (SV) , human human sacrifice sacrifice (HS) (HS) in in Brahminical circles circles (main (main tendencies): tendencies) : Brahrninical SV SV

period period

HS HS

ii texts, texts ,

ee.g. .g.

datable event event ii datable

A A

yes yes

yes yes

ii

�V ,some5S J3.V,some5S

B B

partly partly avoided avoided

no no

ii

ending some some time time after after 5 B , most 5S 5S ii ending 5B,most II Asokan edicts C.E. edicts -3 C .E. ChandUp ChlindUp II Asokan

defended defended

yes yes

i Bhartrhari, Bhartrhari , I Siirilkhya-c. SliIhkhya-c . I Kumarila Kumlirila

C C

ii II II II II

II II

ii Bhart Bhart.. i!

+5 C .E. , +5 C.E.,

ii Kumlirila Kumarila

+7 C.E. C.E. +7

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JAN E.M. HOUBEN JAN E . M . HOUBEN

22.5 . 5 The The earliest earliest serious serious Brahminical Brahminical objections objections to to the the kill killing ing of of animals ituals can can now assigned to animals in in Vedic Vedic rrituals now be be assigned to the the middle middle period period mentioned is the of the ical ri­ mentioned above above,, period period B B.. This This is the period period of the class classical ritualistic texts texts,, aa period period which which one one may may call late-Vedic and and which which tualistic call late-Vedic partly partly overlaps overlaps with with early early Jainism Jainism and and Buddhis Buddhism. objections m . The The obj ections are and the are here here not not very very strong strong,, and the problems problems involved involved in in this this killing killing are philosophically not yet are philosophically not yet elaborated elaborated.. We We find find them them reflected reflected in in the the already already mentioned mentioned Chandogya-Upani�ad, Chandogya-Upani~ad, in in which which non-violence non-violence or or non-harming non-harming is is referred referred to to as general,, though though not not ex­ exas aa general ceptionies s , norm (ChandUp 33.18.4 . 1 8 . 4 and 8 . 1 5) , and seems to ceptionless, norm (ChandUp and 8.1S), and which which seems to valuate rituals rituals lower lower than than 'the way of knowledge'' (ChandUp valuate 'the way of knowledge (ChandUp S.lO). 5 . 1 0) . IInn this older Dharma­ this period period w wee may may also also have have to to place place the the older DharmaSutras: which,, like like the the ChandUp, give lists lists with with virtues virtues including Sl1tras�55 which ChandUp , give including Apastamba-DhS and Vas Vasi~tha-DhS (4.4) ''non-harming'. non-harming ' . A pastamba-DhS (1.8.23.6) ( 1 . 8 . 23 . 6) and i�rha-DhS (4 . 4) give (the term in A give aa list list for for all all classes classes with with non-harming non-harming (the term used used in Apapa­ stamba is is adroha 'non-aggression') at a (non-prominent) (non-prominent) later later place place stamba ' non-aggression') at or adroha . 23 ) in list. Gautama Gautama has no ahirhsa ahirhsa or adroha but but mentions mentions (8 (8.23) in the the list. has no compass ion ttoo aalll l lliving iving beillgs (daya sarvabhatqu) sarvabhatesu) and and for­ forcompassion beings (daya bearance (ksanti) as the the first first two two items items in in aa list list of of good qualities of bearance (k�anti) as good qualities of the soul soul.. Baudhayana-DhS Baudhayana-DhS (2 (2.10.18.2-3) places ahirhsa first first in the : 1 0 . 1 8 . 2-3) places in aa it gives list of vows for the the ascetic vows for ascetic (sarhnyasin) (sarhnyasin).. In In addition addition it gives aa list list list of 46 of minor minor VOWS VOWS.. 46 of 4455 On the date of the Dharma-Sutras see now Olivelle 1993:101' 1 993 : 1 0 1 : "Unfortunately no scholarly scholarly consensus regarding their their relative relative or or " Unfortunately there there is is no consensus regarding absolute , " and discussions given given in chronology," and the the references references to to the the discussions in his his note note absolute chronology 881. 1 . Olivelle considers Gautama, to be be the the older older Olivelle considers Gautama, Baudhayana Baudhayana and and A.pastamba A.pastamba to ones.. With With regard regard to to the the latter latter two two,, which which are are placed placed at at ca. ca. 500-200 B.C.E. ones 500-200 B . C . E. and . C . E. res and 450-35 450-3500 B B.C.E. respectively by Kane, thinks that shall not Kane , Olivelle Olivelle thinks that "we " we shall not p ectively by these documents documents must must have have be far wrong wrong in concluding that at at least least one one of these been of the B. C. E . " (1993: ( 1 993 : 102). 1 02) . been com composed by the the beginning beginning of the fourth fourth century century B.C.E." p osed by Olivelle further thinks and O livelle further thinks that that Gautama Gautama is is older older than than Baudhayana Baudhayana ((1993:83) 1 993 : 83) and .4, where adduce any refers section 33.4, refers to to his his section where,, however, however, he he does does not not adduce any evidence evidence (cL Kangle 1968), this. sophisticated sutra-style of Gautama (cf. for thi s . The more so 1 968) , and p histicated siitra-style his heavier de his dependence on Mlmarhsa-like Mlmarilsa-like principles principles of interpretation of inter p retation (cf. p endence on Olivelle and his his note note 339), rather speak for aa later later formulation of O l ivelle 1993:83-86, 1 993 : 83-86 , and 9) , rather speak for formulation of Gautama'ss " Dharma-Sutra Dharma-Sutra than than Baudhayana' Baudhayana'ss or or A. A.pastamba's. Gautama' p astamba' s . ahirhsa, satya, astainya, 4466 The two llists ists iinn BauDhS 22.10.18.2-3 . 1 0 . 1 8 . 2-3 are: ahirhsti, varjana, tyaga �five (five vratas) vratas);; and akrodha, gurususrusti, guru§u§rusa, maithunasya var jana, tytiga apramtida, (five upavratas) apramada, sauca, §auca, tihtirasuddhi aMrasuddhi (five upavratas)..

55.. TO KILL OR TO KILL TO KILL OR NOT NOT TO KILL

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Moreover in aa preceding Moreover,, in preceding passage passage in Baudhayana (BauDhS division into 22.6.11.9-29) we find find aa division into four orders: . 6 . 1 1 . 9-29) we orders : the student, the ouseholder , the the hermit hermit and and the the ascetic ascetic (brahmacarin, hhouseholder, (brahmaciirin, grhastha, jaka) . The viinaprastha, vanaprastha, parivrii parivrajaka). The passage passage is introducedd and con­ conis introduce cluded cluded with with statements statements which which show the disagreement disagreement of the author show the auDhS with In this of B BauDhS with this this division. division. In this passage, passage, much much attention is of paid paid to to the the hermit hermit (he (he should should follow follow the the Vaikhanasa Vaikhanasa rules) rules),, and even more to to the the ascetic ascetic.. One of the rules for the ascetic is that he even more should abstain from injuring lliving beings in word,, thought thought and should abstain from injuring iving beings in word and deed (2.6.11.23). The doctrine doctrine of the division division into four orders orders is deed (2 . 6 . 1 1 . 23 ) . The of the into four is h o is attributed to to aa Kapila, Kapila, son PrahIada, w who is further to be be attributed son of of Prahlada, further ssaid aid to Asura or or A Asura (2.6.11.28). older Vedic Vedic texts texts asura means means 'di­ 'diAsura sura (2 . 6 . 1 1 . 28) . In In older vine or spiritual (cf. Ahura later vine or spiritual being being'' (cf. Ahura Mazda Mazda of of the the Avesta) Avesta),, but but later on, from ' demon, enemy enemy of on, from the the Brahma�a-texts BrahmaIJa-texts onward onward,, it it means means 'demon, of A sura has the gods gods'.' . Kapila' Kapila'ss epithet epithet Asura/ Asura/Asura has here here probably probably somethe some­ thing ith the ection of division into into four orders by thing to to do do w with the rej rejection of the the division four orders by the the is also also strongly with author, although the name name Kapila Kapila is author, although the strongly associated associated with S veUp 5.2). the of aa special 5 . 2) . While in the the the notion notion of special,, spiritual spiritual being being ((SveUp While in Baudhayana-DhS Gautama-DhS the the division division into four orders orders B audhayana�DhS and and Gautama-DhS into four as rightly rightly pointed pointed out out by by Olivelle not yet yet in­ iniis, s , as Olivelle ((1993:83-94), 1 993 : 83 -94) , not tegrated nto the ition of of Dharma, so in later Dharma­ tegrated iinto the expos exposition Dharma, it it is is so in later DharmaSiitras such pastamba and The of Kapila Sutras such as as A Apastamba and Vasi?tha. Vasi~tha. 47 47 The name name of Kapila recurs audhayana-Grhya-Siitra, in the large part called recurs iinn the the B Baudhayana-Grhya-Sutra, in the large part called ' S e�a-Sutra (cf. G~hya-Se~a-Sutra (cf. Gonda Gonda' 1977:589). Here,, aa section section is is found found G�hya1 977 : 5 89) . Here which is is called kapila-sarhnyasa-vidhi 'Kapila's rules for for re­ rewhich called kapila-sarhnyiisa-vidhi ' Kapil a ' s rules One of the mantras mantras to to be be pronounced pronounced by by the the nunciation' (4.16). nunciation' (4 . 1 6) . One of the candidate is is:: "Fearlessness to all living beings beings from my sside, candidate " Fearlessness to all living from my ide , svaha!" sarvabhutebhyo mattas sviihii, svahti, B BauGSS svaha ! " (abhayarh sarvabhatebhyo auGS S 44.16.4). . 1 6 . 4) . It iis, of cours course, difficult to to decide whether the the section s , of e , difficult decide whether section itself itself iiss old old or association of for renunciation any or just just the the association of rules rules for renunciation and and Kapila. Kapila. In In any case, there is no indication indication of or influence cas e , there is no of aa dependence dependence upon upon or influence from from 47 Though Olivelle Olive lie is right in maintaining that "Contrary 47 " Contrary to what many scholars assume assume,, the the structure structure of works shows that the the tlsrama asrama scholars of Gautama's Gautama' s works shows that system was not yet integrated into into the exposition of dharma" ((1993:86), 1 993 : 8 6) , it is not likely likely that that Gautama Gautama has has given the the long long discussion of of the the division division into into four four orders in in chapter chapter 3 3 only only as something to last line The as something to be be rejected rejected in in the the last line.. The orders author opposes some aspects of the exposition, but adopts it apparently for the sake of of completeness. forthc.. bb note note 37. completeness . Cf. Houben forthc 37.

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Buddhist or 1Jaina ideals, that the the terminus terminus post post quem B uddhist or aina ascetic ascetic ideal s , so so that quem of of these ascetic ascetic rules rules in in the the margins margins of Vedic ritualism ritualism may may be be just just these of Vedic before B Buddhism and lainism Jainism originated originated or or at at least least before before they they before uddhism and 48 strong.. 48 became strong

48 precise relation relation between between Brahminical Brahminical,, Jain Jainaa and and Buddhist Buddhist asceticism asceticism 48 The The precise has been been aa matter matter of of dispute dispute for for more more than than aa century. After having having shown shown the the has century . After asceticism,, Jacobi (1884:xxix-xxx) similarities between these three forms of asceticism ( 1 884: xxix-xxx) gave ikely that it is is unl unlikely that the the Brahmins Brahmins borrowed borrowed their their rules rules gave three three reasons reasons why why it from the the Jaina Jaina and/or and/or Buddhists Buddhists.. from The first ascetic , Sarhnyasin, " makes The first reason, reason, that that the the order order of of the the Brahmin Brahmin ascetic, Samnyasin, "makes part of of the the system system of of the the four four stages stages,, or or A Asramas, which, if not so so old as part sramas ; which, if not old as Brahmanism itself, itself, is is at at least least much much older than both both Buddhism Buddhism and and Jainism Jainism," Brahmanism older than , ,. is ected in formulated in view of of Ol ivelle ' s is to to be be rej rejected in the the way way it it has has been been formulated in view Olivelle's research full integration srama­ research which which points points ttoo aa comparatively comparatively late late full integration of of the the A Asramasystem ive lie 1993). 1 993 ) . The system in in Brahmanism Brahmanism (Ol (Olivelle The Baudhayana-Dharma-Satra Baudhayana-Dharma-Sutra rules rules for to aa large large extent extent predate predate for ascetics ascetics,, on on which which Jacobi Jacobi bases bases himself, himself, may may still still to do not nOl testify testify to to an Buddhism and and Jainism, even if if they they do aa developed developed Buddhism Jainism, even an Asrama-system . established fourfour-Asrama-system. established The second reason-" reason-"the Brahmanic ascetics were scattered India, The second the Brahmanic ascetics were scattered all all over over India, in the the first first two two centuries of their their while the the Buddhists Buddhists were were confined, confined, at at least least in while centuries of to aa small small part part of the country country,, and and therefore therefore could could not not have have been been church, to church, of the Sarhnyasins"" -seems -seems still still plausible plausible (if one reads reads "all over imitated by by all all the the Sarhnyasins imitated (if one " all over the North of the Indian subcontinent" subcontinent " instead of "all " all over India ") " ) in the light of the mobil mobility of students students and teachers of Vedas and Upani~ads and more of the ity of and teachers of Vedas and Upani�ads and of of more to which which early Brahminical sources testify groups like like the the Vratyas Vratyas,, to ''marginal' marginal ' groups early Brahminical sources testify (cf. Heesterman Heesterman 1962, Falk 1986, Witzel 1989). (cf. 1 962 , Falk 1986, Witzel 1 989) . third reasonreason-"Gautama, the [Brahminical) lawgiver,, was certainly JJacobi's acobi �s third " Gautama, the [Brahminical] lawgiver was certainly older is hardly of Buddhism Buddhism"" -has -has not not much much value value as as this this thesis thesis is hardly older than than the the rise rise of is followed followed by by aa more more valuable valuable observation which takes takes as as provable. But But this this is provable. observation which starting older than starting point point the the possibility possibility that that the the available available Dharma-texts Dharma-texts are are not older than lawgivers are are not not likely to have have Buddhism: in in that that case case ""those Buddhism: those [Brahminical) [Brahminical] lawgivers likely to They would would certainly not have have largely borrowed from the the Buddhists Buddhists . largely borro, w ed from . .. .. They certainly not regarded s . On On regarded laws laws as as sacred sacred which which were were evidently evidently appropriated appropriated from from heretic heretics. the the other other hand hand the the Buddhists Buddhists had had nnoo reason reason not not ttoo borrow borrow from from the the Brahmans Brahmans,, Hence the the Jainas Jainas and and Buddhists Buddhists because they greatly respected respected the the latter latter ... because they greatly . . . Hence as an an honorific honorific title title ... (Jacobi 1884:xxx). use the the word word BrahmaI,la Brahmana as use . . . "" (Jacobi 1 884: xxx) . already Both early early Jaina Jaina and and early early Buddhist Buddhist texts suggest the the presence presence of Both texts suggest of already established forms of asceticism in of, or in opposition opposition of asceticism in the the margins margins of, or in established ideals ideals and and forms to,, Vedic ritualism (cf. Bronkhorst 1993a b).. These forms and ideals are to 1 99 3 a and b) generally not invented but redefined by MahavTra and and the the generally speaking speaking not invented but redefined by the the Mahiivlra . Buddha. Buddha.

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2 . 6 The The next in which which we find serious serious Brahminical ob­ 2.6 next period period in we find Brahminical objjections ections to of animals, animal s , is the period period of of the to the the killing killing of is precisely precisely the the B rahminical reaction, reaction, and of sacrificial sacrificial violence Brahminical and the the defence defence of violence by by B rahmins , period The six six orthodox B rahminical systems of of Brahmins, period C C.. The orthodox Brahminicalsystems philosophy-and their classical classical formulations-originated formulations-originated philosophy-and certainly certainly their mainly only in in the the first first phase phase of from the Asokan mainly only of this this period period,, from the Asokan edicts till around around Bharq-hari' Bharq-hari ' ss time. time . The The emerging emerging systems systems reflect, reflect, edicts till among on the valid knowledge among other other things things,, on the sources sources of of valid knowledge (pramal}as) which they they recognize recognize and on their their mutual mutual relations Sarhkhya which and on relations.. Sarhkhya thinkers attributed attributed much much value to anumana or or inference, inference , which which acac­ thinkers value to cording them could transcendental matters cording to to them could give give knowledge knowledge on on transcendental matters which the Vedas not provide provide.. The which even even the Vedas could could not The lost lost Sarhkhya-work S arhkhya-work the �a�titantra seems to have attributed attributed an an even even more more important important the ~a~titantra seems to have Isvarak��I)a place to later classical than the the later class ical system system of of Isvarak~~I)a place to anumana than (FrauwallllE!r 1958). 1 95 8) . MTmarhsa, MTmarhsa, on on the the other other hand emphasizes the (FrauwallllE!r hand,, emphasizes the exclusive the Veda Veda with with regard to matters matters of dharma . exclusive validity validity of of the regard to of dharma. We We find find the the strongest strongest defence defence of of Vedic Vedic orthodoxy, orthodoxy , including including the the s acrificial system system and and the the rejection rejection of of the the universal universal ideal ideal of of ''non-vi~ non-vi� sacrificial olence', late-classical the works works olence ' , iinn late-class ical MTmarhsa, MTmarhsa , 7th 7th century century C.E., C . E . , in in the of and Prabhakara. This has has been been discussed most recently recently of Kumarila Kumarila and Prabhakara. This discussed most by Wilhelm Wilhelm Halbfass,49 who suggested, that Kumarila's by Halbfass ,49 who suggested , however, however , that Kumaril a ' s defence the Vedic Vedic Dharma Dharma against philodefence ooff the against the the claims claims ooff philo­ sophical-that argumentative and and universalizing-thinking, sophical-that is, i s , argumentative universalizing-thinking , 5o In would be no the real real sense sense of of the the word. word . 5o In the the 8th 8th would be no philosophy philosophy iinn the

49 Cf. Halbfass 49 Halbfass,, 1988:325, 1 9 8 8 : 3 25 , 1991:32, 1 99 1 : 32 , 87ff, 111ff. 1 1 1 ff. 5500 See Halbfass 1988:325: PilrvamTmamsa's] 1 9 8 8 : 3 25 : "In a sense, sense , its [i.e., [i . e . , PilrvamTmams a ' s] major ' philosophical ' achievement achievement is is its of shielding shielding the Vedic dharma dharma from from 'philosophical' its method method of the Vedic the claims of philosophical, ii.. e., e. , argumentative and universalizing thought .. .. .. " and note the quotation marks around 'philosophical'. ' philosophical ' . On pp.. 32 of .. Halbfass 1991 1 99 1 the author asks: asks : "Does " Does Kumarila's Kumarila ' s philosophy playa play a merely secondary , instrumental the Veda and and the the dharma, or secondary, instrumental role role for for the defense defense of the is his Vedic apologetics just an arena for the pursuit of truly philosophical questions ? " but questions?" but he he does not want to take take a decision: "A nonambiguous nonambiguous answer answer may neither be possible nor called for in this case." case . " Nevertheless, he does not mention the himsti in in Vedic sacrifices among the possible possible mention the the defence defence of the "genuine contributions"" to philosophy (he mentions only some "genuine " genuine contributions " genuine contributions" contributions " to Epistemology and Philosophy oflanguage, of language , Halbfass 1991:321 99 1 : 3233). 33).

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or 9th century century,, we find arguments arguments similar to to those of Mimarhsa S arhkara and against the criticism the Veda Veda in the works works of and later against the criticism of of the in the of Sarhkara later 51 Vedantins. Vedantins . 5 1 PART B KILLING THE I CTI M : B R A H M I N ICAL OBJECTIONS OBJECTIONS AND AND PART B.. KILLING THE V VICTIM: BRAHMINICAL

APOLOGETICS APOLOGETICS

3. A 3. A current of Brahminical objections: Mr.ihiibhiirata, early Sarizkhya and Yoga 3 . 0 In this period of reaction reaction and and of of the the apologetics apologetics of of ritual 3.0 In this period of ritual viol­ violence (till 8th and 9th century), also (or still) still) Brah(til l ca. c a . the 8th century) , we find also B rah­ minical voices which which criticize, take distance from, violence violence and criticize , or take especially the killing of of animals animals in Vedic sacrifices. sacrifices . We find these in Vedic We find these especially the killing voices mainly mainly in three sources: voices sources : (1) philosophical parts parts of the Mahabharata, the important ( 1 ) some philosophical South Asian Epic which which one one often often thinks to have have arisen arisen between between South Asian Epic thinks to 200 before and 400 after the beginning of the C.E.52 C . E . 52 Isvarakf�l).a ' S Sarhkhya-Kiirikii, (2) classical Siirhkhya: Isvarakf~l).a'S Sarhkhya-Kiirikii , probably probably (2) classical Siirhkhya: originating century C.E., its early originating ca. ca. 4th 4th century C . E . , and and most most of of its early comcom­ mentaries mentaries;; (3) the the Yoga-Bhii~ya, Yoga-Bhii�ya, often often ascribed ascribed to some Vyas a , possibly (3) to some Vyasa, possibly written w ritten around 500 C.E.; C . E . ; and later l ater commmentaries on the YogaYoga­ S utra . Sutra. 3 . 1 In In the the Mahiibhiirata, especially in in the the part part called called Moksadharma 3.1 Mahiibhiirata, especially Moksadharma · S iinti-parvan) , there· (chapters 174-365 1 74-3 65 of the 12th 1 2th or Siinti-parvan), there are disdis­ cussions and and stories stories iinn whicli whicli it it is asked to to what extent cussions extent violence and killing in Vedic rituals rituals are are good good or or bad bad.. The The philosophical philosophical and killing in Vedic Mok~adharma-section have have already been been studied and and pparts arts of the Mok�adharma-section S aIhkara is in this respect not directly indebted to 5511 Halbfass thinks that SaIhkara

Kumarila-though he was probably familiar with his work-but rather continues a "tradition " tradition already well-established in UttaramlmaIhsa [Vedanta] 1 99 1 :93). : 93 ) . itself" (Halbfass (Halbfass 1991 itself" 52 Cf. Nakamura 1983:298: 52 1 983 : 298 : "it " it iiss supposed that iitt finally attained its ppresent resent form .D. " A.D." form around around 200-400 A

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translated ( 1 906) almost almost aa century after translated bbyy Paul Paul Deussen Deussen (1906) century ago ago,, and and after thi several times now also also in in an an article article thiss they they have have been been discussed discussed several times,, now by Schreine r (1979) ( 1 979) on by Peter Peter Schreiner on non-violence non-violence and and the the prohibition prohibition to to 53 In kill stories of i� aa,, In the the moral moral stories of these these parts parts there there is kill in in Hinduism. Hinduism. 53 for us us,, very very inter,esting interesting character whose name name is Kapila, and who for character whose is Kapila, and who criticizes of violence (MBhar criticizes the the Vedas Vedas because because they they incite incite to to acts acts of violence (MBhar 12.260-263). This Kapila Kapila emphasizes that he he does does not not censure censure the the 1 2 . 260-263) . This emphasizes that Vedas Vedas,, but but he he explains explains extensively extensively that that non-harming non-harming is is higher higher than than sacrificial 1 2 . 26 1 ) , sacrificial violence violence.. He He praises praises world world renunciation renunciation (MBhar (MBhar 12.261), but ife iinn the but also also allows allows aa spiritual spiritual llife the order order ooff the the householder, householder, sug­ suggesting sac rifices which gesting that that one one should should perform perform only only those those sacrifices which do do not not 54 The entail the the killing killing of of aa lliving being.. 54 The section also contains contains aa entail iving being section also more sacrificial violence in an an more general general argument argument against against sacrificial violence,, namely namely in earlier placed in mouth of BhI~ma:: one earlier statement statement placed in the the mouth of Bhl�ma one should should not not do do to someone what he he himself himself would would not not like like to to experience to someone else else what experience from from others.. The The statement statement is is equivalent the well-known well-known 'Golden others equivalent to to the ' Golden Rule one form or the so many cultures Rule'' which which occurs occurs in in one form or the other other in in so many cultures Singer 1992 and references) references):: (cf. Singer (cf: 1 992 and yad anyair any air vihitarh necched atmanarh purusah titmanarh karma paru�af} paresu kurvrta janann apriyam atmanaf} atmanah II na tat pare!fu II That do to (does not That deed deed which which aa man man does does not not wish wish others others to to do to him him (does not to be be done done by by others others to to him) him),, that that he he should not do do to to others others,, wish to wish should not is disagreeable disagreeable to to himself. himself. (MBhar knowing that knowing that it it is (MBhar 12.251.19) 1 2 . 25 1 . 1 9)

This is explicitly the problem of killing This is explicitly applied applied to to the problem of killing:: jrviturh praghatayet II j iviturh yah yaf} svayarh cecchet katharh so 'nyarh praghi'itayet I I yad yad atmana iccheta tat parasyapi cintayet II And he he who who himself himself likes likes to to live, how could he kill kill someone else? And live, how could he someone else? Whatever one one would would wish wish for oneself, one one should should take take care care of of that that Whatever for oneself, very same same thing for the (MBhar 12.251.21) 1 2 . 25 1 .2 1 ) very thing also also for the other. other. (MBhar

53 53 Also Alsdorf 1962 sections;; Frauwallner 1992 1 962 discusses some relevant sections 1 992 of the the Mo�adharma Moksadharma not not directly directly relevant relevant to to our our deals with with other other sections deals sections of theme. theme. 54 1 2 . 26 1 . 1 9 . The are the and Pau�amasa 54 MBhar MBhar 12.261.19. The rituals rituals mentioned mentioned are the Darsa Darsa and Paurnamasa,, Agnihotra,, and and the the Caturmasyas. Caturmasyas. Agnihotra

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3.2 now turn turn to which claims 3 . 2 II now to classical classical Sarhkhya, Sarhkhya, which claims aa certain certain K,apila K.apila as its founder. 55 In the first line of the verse of as its founder Y the first l ine of the second second verse of the the SarhSarh­ khya-Karika it is said: khya-Karika it is said : d(stavad dr~?avad tinusravikam anusravikarh sa hy avisuddhi-k!faya-atisaya-yuktmh avisuddhi~k~aya-atisaya-yuktalh II

What is prescribed the sacred tradition What is prescribed in in the tradition is like l ike the perceptible [means to suffering] : for it is [likewise] [means to overcome overcome suffering]: [likewise 1 connected with impurity,, decay [of the results] results 1 and gradation ... impurity . . . . (Sarhkhya-Karika 2ab)

words , the the Vedic Vedic tradition is said said to be lacking lacking in in good good inin­ . In other other words, tradition is to be struments to to fully fully and and definitively definitively overcome overcome the threefold suffering suffering struments the threefold of life. life .5566 The reason reason for for this this is is that that these in:" of The these traditional traditional instruments-namel y , the sacrifices-are connected connected with struments-namely, the Vedic Vedic sacrifices-are with avisuddhi ' i mpurity ' , k~aya k!faya 'decay', 'decay ' , and and atisaya ' gradation ' . This This avisuddhi 'impurity', atisaya 'gradation'. of the the Vedic Vedic sacrifices should highlight the value value of criticism of criticism sacrifices should highl ight the of the the Sarhkhya-doctrine overcomes the the threefold threefold suffering Sarhkhya-doctrine which which overcomes suffering of of life life without having having these drawbacks attached attached to to it. it. At present, the without these drawbacks At present, the avisuddhi, the impurity of the the Vedic Vedic sacrifices sacrifices is is of of interest interest to to us. us . avisuddhi, the impurity of The Sarhkhya-Saptati-V S arhkhya-Saptati-Vrtti estimated to one of of the the oldest oldest comcom­ The ftti,, estimated to be be one explains that that the the Vedic mentaries on the Sarhkhya-Karika, mentaries on the S arhkhya-Karika, explains Vedic sacrisacri­ fices are are based on the kill ing of of animals animals fices are impure impure because because they they are based on the killing and humans:: and humans avisuddhi- ,. .. . . iti II katham iti eet: tiryagyoni-mtinu!favadhttsraytit tiryagyoni-manu~avadhtisrayat II 57 . . . [agni~?omeJ [agni!ftomeJ tavat ttivat pasuvadho 'svamedhe manu~avadho mtinu!favadho 'pi 'p i 11 57 ... [On the word] "impurity " impurity ... . . . " [in Sarhkhya-Karika 2]: 2] : If someone asks:: "why asks " why [is there impurity in the sacrifice]?" sacrifice] ? " the answer is: is : On acac­ . . . . First, there of animals and humans humans .... there is the count of of the the killing killing of

55 55 On Kapila cf. Larson & & Bhattacharya 1987: 1 987 : 107ff 1 07ff (plus further references), references) , and recently Bronkhorst 1993: 1 993 : 66ff. 56 56 Commentaries explain this as tidhyatmika 'internal ' internal (both bodily and , mental) ' natural ' suffering (e.g. (e . g . caused by mental), suffering; tidhibhautika by men and tidhibhautika 'natural' ' divine ' suffering (e.g. (e. g . caused by animals) animals);; and and adhidaivika 'divine' by forces of nature such as wind and thunder, or by possession by spirits). spirits) . 57 This is followed by a partly quite corrupt passage with citations 57 pertaining to the the killing of humans humans and and animals animals (Solomon 1973a:7.15-8.13). pertaining 1 97 3 a : 7 . 1 5-8 . 1 3 ) . S ome ooff these Slirilkhya-commentaries (e.g. (e . g . these citations are are also found iinn other Siirilkhya-commentaries Some Siirilkhya-vrtti, below).. Slirhkhya-vrtti , see below)

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killing of animals animals [in [in the the Asvamedha is killing of the Agni��oma] Agnis~oma];; and and in in the Asvamedha there there is also the the killing killing of human. 55R8 also of aa human. (Sarilkhya-Saptati-Vftti on on karika karika 2) 2) (Sarhkhya-Saptati,Vrtti

Other similar explanations explanations of of the avisuddhi Other old old commentaries commentaries give give similar the avifuddhi which stick to the Vedic as instruments which would would stick to the Vedic sacrifices sacrifices as instruments to to over­ overcome suffering suffering;; the the Sarhkhya-Vrtti Sarhkhya-Vrtti first cites aa verse cited in in come first cites verse (also (also cited the Sarhkhya-Sa.ptati-V Sarhkhya-Saptati-Vrtti) according to to which which 597 597 animal animalss are are the rtti) according killed on t�e the middle middle offering offering day the Asvamedha Asvamedha (Solomtm (Solomon killed on day of of the 1973b:5.21-23), and next next aa (textually (textually problematic) problematic) verse verse which which 1 973b : 5 . 2 1 -23) , and should illustrate that that the the prescripts prescripts of of the the Veda Veda are are mixed mixed with with bad bad should illustrate acts and hence stained stained by by impurity impurity (papakarmana acts and hence (pilpakannaJ'!il mifrrbhdvat misnohiivilt Solomon 1973b:6.4); 1 973b : 6 . 4) ; the SuvarI!a­ avisuddhiyuktaf} veda vedavidhif} avifuddhiyuktaf} vidh if} ,; Solomon the SuvarI!aSSaptati, aptati , preserved lation, mentions preserved only only in in aa Chinese Chinese trans translation, mentions among among other things the great at an an Asva­ of animals animals to to be be killed killed at A§vaother things the great number number of medha (Sastri 1944:4); 1 944 : 4) ; the medha (Sastri the Gau9apada-Bha�ya Gau~apada-Bha~ya says says that that the the Veda Veda has it on on account account of ing of of animals of the the kill killing animals has impurity impurity attached attached to to it 58 58 This This early early statement statement that that aa human human being being is is offered offered at the Asvamedha Asvamedha at the does probably probably not not refer refer to to Weber' Weber'ss descendant descendant of Atri on whosee head head aa does of Atri on whos libation is to be poured at the concluding bath of the Asvamedha (Weber to do with the the mention mention of human victims victims 1864:62-64). It has has rather rather something something to 1 864 : 62-64) . It do with of human (purusf, explained by the the commentators commentators as an elliptic man and (puru�r, explained by as an elliptic dual: dual : 'a 'a man and aa woman',' , not 'two human females females'' as Eggeling understands) among the Woman to be be offered (apart from from the the main victim,, the the horse) horse) in the domestic animals animals to domestic offered (apart main victim in the Asvamedha (TS have been unwilling to to accept accept what what this this Asvamedha (TS 5.6.21). 5 . 6 . 2 1 ) . Scholars Scholars have been unwilling TS 55.6.21; Eggeling 1900:xxviii note passage obviously obviously implies implies (e (e.g. Keith on on TS passage . g . Keith . 6 . 2 1 ; Eggeling 1 900 : xxviii note TB 33.9.8.3 to set free the the man man and and the the wild wild though the the adhortation in TB 11), ) , even even though adhortation in . 9 . 8 . 3 to set free animals 3 . 9 . 8 . 1 -2) to the the preceding preceding statement statement (TB (TB 3.9.8.1-2) animals makes makes only only sense sense if if it it refers refers to that latter as is offered; offered; SayaJ?a Sayal)a takes takes the the latter as aa reference reference precisely precisely to to the the that aa man man is enumeration of of TS TS 55.6.21. The TB-passage TB-passage urging urging to to set set free free the the man man and and the the enumeration . 6 . 2 1 . The ahirhsa in a late ''active' wild animals (which contains ahirhsa active ' sense) may be suspected to be be aa later later (but pre-Sayal)a) addition, will argue argue elsewhere (Bouben in in to (but pre-SayaJ?a) addition, as as II will elsewhere (Rouben prep ince the contains the prep.,. , b) b).. SSince the classical classical Asvamedha Asvamedha contains the Agnicayana Agnicayana which which originally sacrifice as originally may may have have involved involved aa human human sacrifice as well well,, the the reference reference toto the the to this yet, this is not not so human the Asvamedha Asvamedha could could be be to human sacrifice sacrifice in in the this one; one ; yet, this is so likely in that case the author would have mentioned likely because because in that case the author would probably probably have mentioned the the Agnicayana Agnicayana directly directly..

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(pasughi"itat) , and and cites cites the the verse verse (similar to the the one one in in the the S Sarh(pasughtitat) (similar to arh­ V�tti 5 97 animals animals to khyakhya-V ~tti am and� Sarhkhya-Saptati-V Samkhya-Saptati-V�tti) ~tti) on on the the 597 to be be (Mainkar 1972:40). killed at at the the A§vamedha Asvamedha (Mainkar 1 972 : 40) . Somewhat Somewhat later later than than these these commentaries commentaries,, the the Sarhkhya-TattvaSarhkhya-Tattva­ KaumudI of Vacaspati Vacaspati Misra Misra (9th more sophistiKaumudl of (9th century) century) gives gives aa more s ophisti­ cated of the the alleged alleged impurity impurity of the sacrifice. anticated discussion discussion of of the sacrifice . It anti­ ccipates ipates the the obj objection that the the general general rule rule not to kill any living ection that being set aside specific rule being is is set aside by by the the specific rule that that one one should should immolate immolate the the sacrificial is denied denied,, however, however, that that this this applies sacrificial animal animal.. It It is applies in this I de aa general cas e : aa specific case: specific rule rule sets sets aS aside rule only only when when there there is a general rule nfl ict between co the two and with conflict between the two,, and with regard regard to to the the infliction infliction of of injury injury is no no conflict conflict at at all all:: the the rule rule that that one one should not at aa sacrifice sacrifice there there is at should not kill decl declares that killing killing has has a bad bad effect; the rule rule that that one should effect; the one should kill ares that immolate the the victim victim only only states states that that the the immolation immolation helps helps in in the the immolate realization of the sacrifice sacrifice,, but but it it does not deny deny at at the the same realization of the does not same time time that it it has has aa bad bad effect effect,, as as otherwise otherwise the the statement statement would would express that express two different different thi things. 59 Quite Quite different are the the very two ngs . 59 different are very sophisticated sophisticated arguments of the Yukti-Dlpika Yukti-Dlpika (6th (6th century?) century?),which occupies aa arguments of the , which occupies special place among among the we will will return return to to it special place the older older commentaries; commentaries ; we it llater ater on on (section (section 44.4). . 4) . From on the shortcomings of of Vedic sacrifices From these these statements statements on the shortcomings Vedic sacrifices it killing of occasion is is cons idered is clear clear that that the the killing of animals animals at at this this occasion considered it is something bad (cf. papakarmar;a " miSrrbhtivat misrrbhi"ivat of of the the SarhkhyaS arhkhya­ something bad (cf. papakarmaf}a V�tti) of this ection in entire system, system , in in V~tti).. With With this this the the place place of this rej rejection in the the entire which final iberation is on an an insight in reality is based based on insight in reality (as (as under­ underwhich final lliberation stood Sarhkhya-thinkers) , is clear . Nor it become stood by by the the Sarhkhya-thinkers), is not not yet yet clear. Nor has has it become is attributed attributed in in the the system system to to the the clear,, more more generally generally,, which which place place is clear performance of of good good or or bad bad deeds deeds (and (and to to dharma 'virtue, ' v i rtue , performance rrighteousness' ighteousnes s ' iin n contradistinction contradistinction to unrighteousness ''). ). to adharma adharma ''unrighteousness When the the commentaries commentaries explain explain dharma dharma at another place place (SK When at another (SK 23), 23 ) , ' abstentions ' beginning they they give give aa list list ooff yamas yamas 'abstentions' beginning with with ahirhsa, ahirhsa, and and aa list list of of niyamas ''observances' anger, obedience to observances ' (abstention (abstention of of anger, obedience to 6 the the teacher teacher,, etc.).60 The YD-author gives gives here here his his view view on the The YD-author on the e tc ) . 0 .

59 59 According According to to the the Mlmamsa Mlmamsa rules rules of interpretation, interpretation, a single statement " should have single meaning or intention; not, the statement splits should have aa single meaning or intention; if if not, the statement splits:.: there there s ingle are two two or or more more statements; but an an interpretation which accepts are statements ; but interpretation which accepts aa single statement is generally preferable (cf. MS 2, commentaries).. 2 . 1.46f 1 . 46f and commentaries) 60 60 Thus Thus,,. SSV SSV and and SV SV on on SK SK 23 23 mention mention ahirhsti, ahirhsa, asteya, brahmacarya, and avyavahtira avyavahara as as yamas yamas,, and gurususrusa, sauca, and akrodha, gurususra�ti, satya and .

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place the entire entire system. of dharma place of dharma iinn the system. Having Having made made aa distinction distinction e n dharma betwe between dharma as as the the performance performance of prescribed acts acts (namely of prescribed {namely the abstentions abstentions and and observances) observances),, and and dharma as as aa disposition disposition which ul for both both gives gives experiences experiences in in B Brahma's heaven etc. and is helpful rahma' s. heaven etc . and is helpf knowledge etc etc.,. , he knowledge he says:61 says : 6 1 On the On the basis basis of practice of these (namely, of the the practice of these (namely , the abstentions and obob­ servances) servances) without without interruption, interruption, the the sattva-dharma of the ascetic, when when it it is is enhanced such aa way way ,,becomes enhanced in in such becomes a disposition, and it creates creates an an increase increase of of knowledge knowledge and forms.. This is the first and other forms limb-a (in aa staircase staircase or limb-a step step (in series of steps)-of elevation and the or series of steps)-of supreme besupreme aim aim.. And And that that ascetic who is established in this [limb], ascetic who [limb] , be­ comes qualified qualified for for the the practice practice of of the the other other limbs limbs.. comes

Although one one may may perceive perceive aa contrast between aa poss possible Although contrast between ible concern concern with and the the ultimate ultimate aim aim of in w ith ''non-harming' non-harming ' and of Sarhkhya Sarhkhya consisting consisting in personal liberation liberation through through insight, insight, the the prominent prominent place place of of 'nonpersonal ' non­ harmi ng ' at at least first limb of the ob­ harming' least in in the the first limb of the Sarhkhyan Sarhkhyan system system is is obvious.. vious The Sarhkhya-commentaries Sarh khya-commentaries place ' non-harming ' (ahirizsa) The place 'non-harming' (ahirhsa) concon­ a rma­ just as Dharmaat the first place place in ssistently istently at the first in the the list, list, just as some some of of the the Dh Sutras lists of and observances in Sutras (see (see above). above) . The The lists of abstentions abstentions and observances are are in fact quite quite ssimilar to the the list list of of vows vows and and the the list list of of minor minor vows vows re­ refact imilar to spectively for for the the ascetic ascetic as as given given iinn Baudhayana-DhS Baudhayana-DhS (see (see above) above).. spectively goes well well with with aa statement SSarhkhya's arhkhy a ' s emphasis emphasis on on ''non-harming' non-harming ' goes statement n the laina-text A Avasyakaniryukti to which which ""compassion iin the Jaina-text vasyakaniryukti according according to compassion aharataghava and apramtida apramada as niyamas niyamas.. YD has the same niyamas, bULgives tihiiraltighava niyamas , but. gives a slightly different list of yamas yamas:: ahirhsti, ahirizsa, satya, asteya, akalkaiti, akalkata, . 30 : ahirizsa, ahimsti, satya, brahmacarya. The different lists of the Yoga-Siltra (2 (2.30: aparigraha;; and 32: sauca, sauca,sariztosa, svadhyaya, asteya, brahmacarya, aparigraha . samto�a, tapas, svtidhytiya, fsvarapranidhiina) are adopted in later Sarhkhya commentaries such as the fsvarapra1J.idhiina) Gau9-apada-Bha~ya and Jayamangala JayamangaIa (cf. Solomon 1974: Gau<:lapada-Bha�ya 1 974 : 146f). 146f) . 6611 ete�tim etesam avilopentinu�?hiintid avilopenanus!hanad yater evamvidhottaralJe evarizvidhottarane sattvadharma asayatariz pratipadyate, yo jntintidintim jiianiidfnariz rupti1J.tim rupanam apyiiyanariz .. tisayattim tipytiyanam karoti Ii etad abhyudaya-nil}sreyasayol} soptiyanabhutam abhyudaya-nihsreyasayoh sopayanabhatam prathamam prathamariz parva Ii yatrtiyam yatrayam itare�tim parvanam parva1J.tim anu�?hiine 95 . 3-6 // anusthiine yogyo bhavati II YD 95.3-6 avasthito yatir itare~am 192.2-6. 1 9 2 . 2-6. Note: Only when most of this article had already been written the & Motegi edition became available to me me.. The first group of digits Wezler & to that of Wezler refers to page and lline-no. ine-no . of Pandeya's edition, the second to and Motegi Motegi..

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towards (piifJifJa!h dayii) towards animals animals (pa!}iJJ.atiz daya) has has been been the the quintessence of Kap i l a ' s doctrine Kapila's doctrine"" (Garbe (Garbe 1892:X,note 1 892 : X , note 1).62 1 ) 62 In this emphasis it does does not that In spite spite of of this emphas is on on ''non~harming', non�harming ' , it not seem seem that Vedic Vedic rituals rituals are are in Sarhkhya for for that that reason reason entirely discarded (ex­ (exin Sarhkhya entirely discarded cept by renouncer).. They They are by the better cept by the the renouncer) are only only ''superseded' superseded ' by the better in mean life (cf. meanss of of transcending transcending the the three-fold three-fold suffering suffering of of life (cf. sreyiin sreyan in SK 2) SK 2).. In In Vacaspati Vacaspati Misra Misra's on SK ' s Sarhkhya-Tattva-KaumudT Sarhkhya-Tattva-KaumudT on SK 22,, wee find find aa quotation quotation attributed attributed to to the the early early Sarhkhya�teacher Sarhkhya-teacher Paiica­ Pai'icaw sikha (Larson (Larson & Bhattacharya 1987: which,, according according to to sikha & Bhattacharya 1 987 : 113-123), 1 1 3 - 1 23 ) , which Vacaspati's interpretation, admits admits that that there there is is some some demerit conVacaspati ' s interpretation, demerit con­ much smaller than the the nected with Vedic ritual ritual.. But But this this demerit demerit is nected with Vedic is much smaller than merit resulting resulting from from it it (STK on SK 2).. merit (STK on SK 2) .

33.3 . 3 Also in the the Yoga-Bha�ya against living is concon­ Yoga-Bha?ya violence violence against living beings beings is Also in rejected. Commenting on Yoga-Sutra 22.34, the author ssistently istently rej ected. Commenting on Yoga-Sutra . 34 , the author of of the of violence is the Bha�ya Bha?ya distinguishes distinguishes different different kinds kinds of violence on on the the bas basis of actor . Apart of the the motivation motivation of of the the actor. Apart from from greed greed and and anger anger he he mentions delusion, delusion, and and ilillustrates it with with the the conviction: mentions lustrates it convictio n : "There " There will be be (religious) merit for me": will (religious) merit for me ": tatm himsti hirhsa ttivat (avat - ... marhsacarmarthena, krodhenc1pa­ krodhenL7patatra . . . lobhena [obhena mtimsacarmtirthena, bhavisyatrti krtam aneneti, mohena dharmo me bhavi�yatrti Here first first inj injury being explained in in the sUtra sutra and and further by by us us:: I1 Here ury [is being on account [for instance instance if if one .. .. .. [injury [injury takes takes place] place] on account of of greed greed:: [for one on account account of of anger: anger: inflicts injury] injury] for for the the sake sake of of meat meat and and skin; skin; on inflicts [for instance instance if if one one says says:]"I have been been ill-treated ill-treated by by this this person" person";; on on [for : ] " I have if one one thinks thinks:]: ] "There "There will will be be (reli­ (reliaccount of of delusion: delusion: [for instance instance if account me." gious) merit for me . " (YBh on YS 22.34) . 34)

6622 Mention may may here here also also be be made made of of chapter chapter 88 in in the the Utt Uttaradhyayana�radhyayana­

Sutra which consists of series of of verses attributed to certain Kapila and SUlra which consists of aa series verses attributed to aa certain Kapila and praising praising renunciation renunciation and and ' harmlessness harmlessness.. Except Except for for the the renunciation renunciation and and harmlessness there there is is nothing nothing that that hints hints at at the the later later Samkhya-doctrines. at harmlessness Samkhya-doctrine s . If If at all we same person one claimed claimed as of the the same person as as the the one as founder founder all we have have here here aa reflection reflection of of Samkhya, it is is aa very very vague vague one one.. See Larson & Bhattacharya 1987: for of Sari1khya, it See Larson & Bhattacharya 1 9 87 : 108f 108f for this this and and other other (vague (vague and/or and/or late) late) references references to to Kapila. Kapila. SSamkara made aa ari1kara made distinction two Kapila ' s : the founder of of the Samkhya-system the Samkhya-system distinction between between at at least least two Kapila's: the founder and another Kapila, viz. the Sagara and and had and ""another Kapila, viz. the one one who who burned burned the the sons sons of of Sagara had the the Vasudeva" (anyasya ca kapi/asya kapilasya sagaraputranam surname sagaraputrCmtim prataptur surname Vasudeva" on BrS BrS 22.1.1, Thibaut).. vasudevanamnah,, SSarhkara vtisudevantimna� arhkara on . 1 . 1 , tr. Thibaut)

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Non-harming appears aass aa quite positive value in the Yoga-system. Non-harming appears quite positive value in the Yoga-system. The Yoga-Sutra even clearly noticeable noticeable effect effect if someone even predicts predicts aa clearly if someone The Yoga-Sutra reaches perfectio perfectionn in reaches in 'non-harming': ' non-harming ' : "When "When he he (the (the yogayoga� practitioner) is well-established in non-harming enmity is is given giveQ up up practitioner) is well-established in non-harming,, enmity in his tat-smhnidhau vairavaira­ in his environment" environment" (ahimsa-prati�rhtiyalh (ahirhsti-prati~rhaytirh tat-sathnidhau . 3 5) . According the Yoga-Bha�ya affect tyagalJ , YS tytigaf}, YS 22.35). According to to the Yoga-Bha~ya this this would would affect all and later that even all living living beings, beings , and later commentaries commentaries explain explain that even per-. per- , manent enemies enemies like the mouse and the the cat cat give give up up their their enmity. enmity . manent like the mouse and Poetical l ike the the Raghuvarhsa Raghuvarhsa and and Kira~arjunlya Kira!arjunlya picture picture Poetical works works like scenes with with wild animals sitting sitting at at peace peace near sages and and in in their their scenes wild animals near sages 63 which hermitages 63 which call mind the Bibl ical predictions of the ad­ hermitages call to to mind the Biblical predictions of the advent of vent of the the Messias Messias (Jesaja (Jesaj a 11 1 1 and and 65: 65 : the the wolf wolf and and the the lamb lamb grazing together). together) . In any case case it it is is clear clear that that the is expected expected to to In any the Yoga-practitioner Yoga-practitioner is avoid under all avoid inflicting infl icting injury injury under al l circumstances. circumstances . Nevertheless, Nevertheles s , the the author of of the oga-Bha�ya does does not, that reason, reason, fuIly fully reject rej ect author the Y Yoga-Bha~ya not, for for that the long-term the Vedic Vedic rituals. when explaining the rituals . Thus, Thus , when explainin g YS YS 2.13 2 . 1 3 on on the long-term workings of Yoga-Bha~ya (karma) , the the Yoga-Bha�ya workings of the the dispositions dispositions of of actions actions (karma), gives aa quotation seems aa more more complete complete version of the gives quotation which which seems version of the (later) (later) quotation quotation in in the the Sarhkhya-Tattva-Kaumudl Slirhkhya-Tattva-Kaumudl mentioned mentioned above above (section 3.2). 3 . 2) . Vacaspati Vacaspati Misra Misra attributes attributes the again (section the quoted quoted passage passage again to is admitted some demerit demerit connected connected to Pancasikha. Paiicasikha. It It is admitted that that there there is is some with Vedic ritual demerit is is said said to much smaller smaller than to be be much than with Vedic ritual,, but but this this demerit 64 the merit resulting from from iL i1, 64 the merit resulting 6633 Cf. KiriHarjunTya KiratarjunTya 22.55: . 5 5 : "Calming " Calming even the wild animals by his gentle looks , spreading a blazing radiance around which burns away guilt, (but yet) looks, can be gazed at [the sage, sage , viz. the son of Parasara, was seen by the king, king , viz. Yudhi~~hira]"" (translation and interpretation following Roodbergen 1984: Yudhi��ira] 1 984 : 143); 143) ; also cf. Raghuvarhsa Raghuvamsa 13.50, 1 3 . 50 , 14.79. 14.79. 64 The fu 64 fulll l quotation iinn the Yoga-Bha~ya YSS 2.13 Yoga-Bha�ya on Y 2 . 1 3 is: is : a ra!} saparihtirah yatredam uktam -- sytit svalpa!} svalpa~ sarhk saThkara~ saparihtira~ sapratyavamar�a!}, sapratyavamar~a~, kusalasya ntipakar~ttytilam ntipakar�tiytilam Ii kasmtit kasmtit?? kusalarh kusalam hi me bahv anyad asti yatrtiyam alpam kari�yati kari~yati iii. tivtipam gata/} svarge 'py apakar~am tivtiparh gata!} apakar�am alparh said : There may indeed be a slight "With regard to which it has been said: admixture [of demerit, in a sacrifice], sacrifice] , [but] it has a remedy and there is endurance for it: it is not capable of taking away the happiness. Why? Much side , in which happiness which that [admixture of happiness I have indeed on on the the other side, demerit] when inserted will bring about only a small detraction even in heaven . " For heaven." For this this and and other (alleged) quotations from Paficasikha Paiicasikha see Larson & 1 987 : 1 17- 1 2 1 and references given there. there . & Bhattacharya 1987:117-121

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Yoga is Yoga is traditionally traditionally considered considered to to be be aa separate separate philosophical philosophical system which is is closely closely related related to to Sarhkhya Sarhkhya.. It It is good to to be be aware aware system which is good how close this s . The The quotation from, presumably Sarhkhya­ how close this tie tie iis. quotation from, presumably,, aa Sarhkhyateacher or not not he is correctly correctly identified as Paficasikha) is teacher (whether (whether or he is identified as Paficasikha) is one indication indication of of the the closeness this relation relation which which approaches an one closeness of of this approaches an indistinguishable identity identity.. Another indication indication:: HeH Helaraja (ca.. 10th iraj a (ca 1 0th century) evidence for the Sarhkhya-view certain topic topic century) cites cites as as evidence for the Sarhkhya-view on on aa certain aa passage on YS passage which which is is identical identical with with part part of of the the Yoga-Bha�ya Yoga-Bha~ya on YS 65 And 22.19. . 1 9 . 65 And further, further, commenting commenting on siitra which which discusses the on aa sutra discusses the omniscience of God (Isvara) (Isvara) (YS 1.25), 1 .25) , the Yoga-Bha~ya Yoga-Bha�ya quotes a line according according to to which which "The First Knower, assuming aa created line "The First Knower, assuming created mind through through compassion, compassion, the Exalted, the unto mind the Exalted, the Supreme Supreme Sage, S age , unto A Asuri to know know,, declared declared this this doctrine doctrine"" (tr. suri who who desired desired to (tr . adapted adapted b uted to from line,, again again attri attributed to P Paficasikha from Woods Woods 1914:56). 1 9 1 4 : 5 6) . This This line aficasikha by by Vacaspati Misra, apparently refers refers to to Kapila, Kapila, the founder Vacaspati Misra, apparently the reputed reputed founder of the the Sarhkhya-system, as can can be be inferred inferred from of Sarhkhya-system, as from "Supreme " Supreme Sage" Sage " (paramar-?i), frequent epithet of Sarhkhya-teachers (paramar�i) , aa frequent epithet of Sarhkhya-teachers and and especially especially Kapila; and and from the the name name of of his his pupil pupil,, A Asuri, who is is the the wellKapila; sur i , who weIl­ 70).66 known pupil of Kapila (cf. SK 70) . 66 33.4 .4 What" the three mentioned sources sources have offer in in terms terms of Whatthe three mentioned have to to offer of aa criticism of of Vedic Vedic rituals rituals is certainly meagre meagre,, when when they they are are con­ concriticism is certainly in isolation isolation.. Taken Taken together, together, however, however, they they point point to to aa not not ssidered idered in entirely closely connected connected with entirely insignificant insignificant current-apparently current-apparently closely with protoclassical Sarhkhya-which allowed aa qualified qualified criticism criticism proto- and and classical Sarhkhya-which allowed on on the on Vedic Vedic rituals rituals on the basis basis of of rational rational arguments arguments,, but but which which was was nevertheless closely related (or eager eager to accepted by) by) B rah­ nevertheless closely related to to (or to be be accepted Brahminism of our our observations minism.. In the the light light of observations on on the the preceding. preceding periods periods (A and current continues o r is is (A and B) B),, it it can can now now be be said· said that that this this current continues or with an earlier and broader broader South Asian tendency tendency to to non­ nonllinked i nked w ith an earlier and South Asian which was was also also reflected reflected in in early early B Brahminism, vviolence, iolenc e , which rahminism, especially especially in rahminical asceticism asceticism connected in B Brahminical connected with with the the name name of of Kapila. Kapila. Scholars have have searched searched for basic continuity continuity in in Sarhkhya, which Scholars for aa basic Sfuhkhya, which would connect connect the the classical classical system system w with manifestations and and would ith earlier manifestations HeJaraja on VP 3.1.34, IIIa:42SlO. 3 . 1 . 34 , VP IIIa: 42 . 5 � 1 O . Vacaspati Misra in his commentary on the Yoga-Bha�ya Yoga-Bhasya considers thi this, s, again, a fragment of the SaIhkhya-teacher Pancasikha; hhee also identifies the First Knower Kapila (cf. note 22 and ref. to to Garbe given First Knower with with Kapila (cf. Woods Woods 1914:56 1 9 1 4 : 5 6 note and ref. Garbe given there) 1 970 and 1 985 . On this this line line cf. cf. also also Wezler Wezler 1970 and Bronkhorst Bronkhorst 1985. there).. On

6655 66 66

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traces of Sarhkhya. SaIhkhya . They searched for continuity in in theoretical theoretical They searched for this this continuity traces of doctrines (cosmogonic and and psychological) but did not find find it it doctrines (cosmogonic psychological),, but did not ilV e found there we hhilVe found such continuity , not in theoretical there.. 6677 Here Here we such aa continuity, not in theoretical doctri ne , but in ethical doctrine or or ethical attitude . Paral lel with ethical attitude. Parallel with doctrine, but in ethical doctrine his are tthis are the the rreferences eferences to the status status of of tthe he to aa Kapila Kapila defending defending the renouncer (who should ' non-violent') in in B rahminical circles. circles . renouncer (who should be be 'non-violent') Brahminical These not only the preceding These indications indications link link not only later later SaIhkhya Sarhkhya with with the preceding preand proto�SaIhkhya pre- and proto~Sarhkhya (from (from Mahabharata Mahabharata to to Baudhayana­ BaudhayanaDharma-Sutra resp . section section 33.1 . 1 and . 5) , but also SSarhkhya aIhkhya Dharma-Sutra,, cf. cf.resp. and 22.5), but also with Yoga. Yoga. Traces of theoretical sophistication (and basis with Traces of theoretical sophistication (and hence hence aa basis to speak of the the beginnings beginnings of of aa philosophy) philosophy) appear appear only only at at a later later to speak of stage in . g . the stage in the the development development (reflected (reflected in in ee.g. the Mahabharata) Mahabharata)..

There is addition some dispersed material material,, which which was far 33.5 . 5 There is in in addition some dispersed was so so far difficult to to attribute attribute to to the other philosophical philosophical school school or or difficult the One One or or the the other o­ Bhart~hari's VakyapadTya we we find, for instance, procurrent.. In In Bhartfhari current ' s Vakyapadlya find, for instance, aa pr blematic verse verse which which is back later work of Kumablematic is found found back later on on in in the the work of Kuma­ rila and and Jay Jayanta Bhana. These two authors authors ascribe ascribe it, however, to to rila anta Bhana. These two it, however, as ara, resp the Parasara, resp.. Vyasa. Vyasa. 6688 The verse can be The verse can now now be the descendant descendant of of Par associated very well associated very well with with the the current current mentioned mentioned above above.. idam pU1Jyam punyam idam papam ity etasmin padadvaye :I idarh idarh ptipam acandalamanusyanam alparh a/pam stistraprayojanam sastraprayojanam :I :I tica1JcJ.tilamanu�ytintim With regard regard to to these these two two topics topics:: "this is good good"" [and] "this is bad bad," With " this is " this is ," the traditional traditional texts texts are are but but of little use to to people, people, including 'outcasts'. ' outcasts ' (VP 1.40) 1 . 40)

.

6677 One may cf. the (somewhat exaggerated) comment of Larson & & reconstructions:: "Dasgupta, F Frauwallner, Bhattacharya 1987: 1 987 : 116-117 1 1 6- 1 17 on some reconstructions rauwallner, · nen, and others Johnston, [0 outline various various Johnston, van van Buite Buitenen, others have have all all attempted to historic stages in Proto-Sarhkhya and and Proto-Yoga Proto-Yoga material material .. .. .. All All such such historic stages in this this Proto-Sarhkhya to delineate delineate aa precise precise historical historical sequence, must efforts to efforts sequence , although ingenious, ingenious , must nevertheless failed ... . . . " be judged judged to to have have failed nevertheless be S loka-Varttika on the Autpattika­ 68 68 Kumarila, in the second verse of his Sloka-Varttika AutpattikasUtra (Mlmamsa-SUtra 1.1.5) announces aa verse verse of of Parasarya Parasarya and and gives then then 1 . 1 . 5 ) announces siltra (Mlmamsa-SUtra a ' s commentator Parthasarathi Kumarila' 1 .40 . Kumaril the verse which is identical to VP 1.40. or ' s name as Vyasa. Jayanta Bhaga author's Bhaqa (we don't know Misra explains the auth whether he had a different source apart from Kumarila) cites the verse as from Vyasa (NM pp.. 6612). Abhinavagupta cites cites the the verse verse as as from from ')\1uni', which Vyasa 1 2) . Abhinavagupta ';Muni ' , which & Limaye 1965:204). may also refer to Vyasa (Abhyankar & 1 965 : 204) . "

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A precise interpretation A precise interpretation of the verse verse is is difficult, because we dq not of the know c ontext (since (since there know its its original original "context there are are reasons reasons to to believe that believe that al so Bhartfhari from some some source). source) . It can be also Bhart~hari quoted quoted it it from It can be said, howsaid , how­ ever, that ever, that the the verse verse emphasizes emphasizes that that with with regard regard to to questions questions of what is to what iiss good good and and what what is is bad bad,, that that is to say, with regard to moral moral say , with regard to and and ethical ethical questions questions,, the the traditional traditional texts texts are are but but of use ttoo of little little use peopl e , including people, including outcasts outcasts.. In In any any case case it it seems to express reseems to express aa re­ striction authority of striction of of the the authority of the the Vedas Vedas with with regard regard to to ethical ethical questions among the rahminical is endorsed endorsed among the B Brahminical questions,, aa restriction restriction which which is schools especially in of humanity schools especially in Sarhkhya Sarhkhya and and Yoga. Yoga. 6699 The The unity unity of humanity which we find find expressed expressed in in this is hardly or which we this verse verse is hardly ever ever mentioned mentioned or 70 Both emphasized in in ancient ancient texts texts,, except Both "the desemphasized except in in Sarhkhya. Sarhkhya. 70 " the des­ cendant of of Parasara" Parasara" and and ""Vyasa" as author author of of this this verse verse would would cendant Vyasa" as link it it with with the the above-mentioned above-mentioned sources sources.. 77l1 link 6699 According According to to the the context context in in the the VakyapadTya VakyapadTya (and the Vftti Vrtti on it),, this this (and the on it) in sllch such away, that people people like like to to follow follow the the verse should be interpreted interpreted in verse should be a way , that example for this reason do books of great great personalities personalities and and for this reason do not not need need the the sacred sacred books example of so also find Mahabharata we we also find other other places places where where the the importance importance so much. much. In In the the Mahabharata of the the example of great great personalities personalities as the limited limited value value of of the the Vedas of example of as well well as as the Vedas . 42-46 ; 33.21), . 2 1 ) , aa text is is emphasized emphasized,, namely namely in in the the Bhagavad-GTta Bhagavad-GYta (BhG (BhG 22.42-46; text is quite quite important important for for proto-Sarhkhya. proto-Sarilkhya. which which is . 70 70 SK SK 53: astavikalpo daivas tairyagyonas paiicadha bhavati iI 5 3 : asravikalpo rairyagyonas ca paflcadha manusyas caikavidhah "The divine divine [creationJ (the mtmu0'as caikavidhalJ. samasato bhautikah sargah. "The [creation] (the gods) is animal [creation] [creation] (the (the animals) animals) is is of of eight eight kinds kinds;; the the animal is fivefold; fivefold; the the gods) human [creation] humanity) is is unitary unitary;; briefly, briet1y, [this the exposition exposition ot] human [creation] (men, (men, humanity) [this is is the ot] the material material creation. creation."" The The Sarhkhya-Saptati-Vrtti Sarilkhya-Saptati-Vrtti (Solomon the (Solomon 1973a:68) 1 973 a : 68) or caf}4ala) candala) who who was was also mentioned explicitly includes the the 'outcast' expl icitly includes ' outcast' (candala or also mentioned in rulyalirigatvad in the the verse verse attributed attributed to to Vyasa/Parasara Vyasa/Parasara:: manu�yas manusyas caikavidhas tulyaliizgatvad brahmanadis caf!.4alantalJ. candalantah.. YD YD ((137.27) that humanity is unitary unitary brahmaf!.tidiS 1 3 7 . 27) explains explains that humanity is "because no other other ''class' (jati) is is feasible"; but later later on on ((137.31) feasible " ; but 1 37 . 3 1 ) it it mentions mentions " because no class ' (jati) brahmaf!.a, subdivisions (bheda) brahmana, k�atriya, ksatriya, vir viI and and sudra as as subdivisions (bheda).. Other texts (MTmarilsa,, Dharma-Sutras Dharrna-Siitras,, . Lawbooks) Lawbooks) usually usually seem to Other texts (MTmarhsa seem to predicts emphasize division division rather unity.. Chandogya-Upanisad emphasize rather than than unity Chandogya-Upani�ad 5.10.7 5 . 1 0 . 7 predicts birth as as aa Brahmin, Brahmin, K�atriya, Ksatriya, or Vaisya to to those those of good conduct, conduct, and birth birth or Vaisya of good and birth as aa dog dog,, swine swine or or candala to those of bad conduct. According to Kumarila to those of bad conduct. According to Kumarila as ' SIV would never never'have the heart" heart" in in doing any action action ((SIV mlecchas would have an an "outcry " outcry of of the doing any on MS MS 1.1.2, 2470,, i.e. they would would have have nnoo protesting protesting "voice on 1 . 1 . 2 , 247f) i . e . they " voice of of conscience" conscience " when doing doing some some bad (Halbfass 1991:96). when bad deed deed (Halbfass 1 99 1 : 96) . 7711 Vyasa Vyasa is considered to to be be aa descendant descendant of Parasara, and Jayanta may is considered of Parasara, and Jayanta may as Kumarila, Kumarila, namely namely the the reputed reputed author the have intended intended the the same same author author as have author of of the Mahabharata (and/or (and/or the the reputed reputed author author of of the the Yoga-Bha�ya?) Yoga-Bha!?ya?).. There is also also Mahabharata There is

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4. Rejection of the objections: Mfmarhsa Mfmtimsa and Vedanta 44.0 . 0 Finally three mentioned and Finally there there is is,, apart apart from from the the three mentioned sources sources and the in section .5, as the the verse verse discussed discussed in section 33.5, the dispersed dispersed material material such such as yet re yet another another reason reason to to believe believe that that the the current current about about which which we we aare speaking was was not not entirely entirely insignificant insignificant in in early Brahmanism: speaking early Brahmanis m: namely, the the vehemence vehemence with with which which authors authors like like Kumaril Kumarila, Prabhanamely, a , Prabha­ kara, amkara tried amkhyas and kara, and and SSamkara tried to to refute refute the the SSamkhyas and their their relatively relatively independent stance stance vis-a-vis vis-a-vis the the Vedas Vedas.. independent S abara who 44.1 . 1 Kumarila ike Sabara who commented on MS MS 1.1.2 1 . 1 .2 Kumarila Bhatta, Bhatta, commented on · llike � before rs sacrifices sacrifices such such as yena which consid~rs as the the SSyena which aim aim at at the the before him, him, consid death of of an an enemy, enemy, as as demeritorious demeritorious (adharma). Kumarila pays pays death (adharma) . But But Kumarila much entirely neglected his pre­ much more more attention attention to to aa problem problem entirely neglected by by his preSabara: the decessor Sabara: the killing killing of of an animal in in aa sacrifice which as decessor an animal sacrifice which as aa whole not aim aim at the death any lliving iving being whole does does not at the death of of any being.. Among Among the the major in Kumaril a ' s discussion7 his rej ection of of the major points points in Kumarila's discussionn2 are are his rejection the of the the slaughtered slaughtered animal to the the view that that the the pain view pain of animal would would revert revert to slaughterer ; and his rej ection of of any any argumentative slaughterer; and more more generally generally his rejection argumentative as having having aa valid bearing on reasoning or or appeal to perception reasoning appeal to perception as valid bearing on which Mlmamsa defines as which is is matters matters of of dharma, which Mlmamsa defines as that that which 7J Specifically, prescribed Specificall y , the view that giving prescribed in in the the Veda Veda.. 73 the view that giving and causing is adharma is pleasure is dharma and pleasure to to others others is causing pain pain is is rej ected . After sexual intercourse one ' s rejected. After all all,, this this would would make make sexual intercourse with with one's guru' (severely censured act guru'ss wife wife (severely censured in in Brahminical Brahminical dharma-texts) dharma-texts) aann act of dharma dharma.. Such Such aa definition also not not do do with with regard regard to to acts acts definition would. would. also of such as recitation recitation and and drinking alcohol,, in no 'beneficiary' such as drinking alcohol in which which no 'beneficiary ' or directly identified, identified, but which are or 'victim' ' victim' can can be be directly but which are generally generally acknowledged to be be meritorious meritorious and and demeritorious demeritorious respectively respectively (v (v.. acknowledged to 236f, 244t) 244f).. Moreover, Moreover, no no act itor adharma in in and and by by it­ 236f, act is is dharma or self, but but it it all all depends depends upon upon the the circumstances under which which the the act self, c ircumstances under act another Sarhkhya-oriented author who is considered to be a descendant of Parasara, 1 987 : 1 1 3) . Parasara, namely namely Paiicasikha Paficasikha (Larson & & Bhattacharya Bhattacharya 1987:113). 72 72 S SIVon VV. 20l 201ff; lY on MS 1.1.2, 1 . 1 . 2 , vv. ff; Halbfass 1991:89ff 1 9 9 1 : 89ff. 73 MS 1.1.2: codana-laksarzo 'rtho dharma!} dharmah "dharma 73 1 . 1 . 2 : codanti-lak�aJ,!o " dharma is the purpose S abara and injunction." (human aim or good) which is indicated by a (Vedic) injunction . " Sabara sutra which need not concern Kumarila consider certain ways of reading the siitra us us here. here.

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is performed performed (and (and which which are specified in the Vedic Vedic injunctions). is are specified in the inj unctions) . a lthy Just aass the the act has quite different capacities capacities for for he he~lthy Just act ooff eating eating has quite different and unhealthy people people,, like like that that an act of of violence violence,, even even if and unhealthy an act if it it is is similar in form, form, is is quite is part part similar in quite different different Cidepending epending on on whether whether it is S abara , Kumarila of aa sacrifice s acrifice or 74 Following of or not not.. 74 Following Sabara, Kumarila regards regards the the S I nstance employment yena sacrifice sacrifice to employment of of the the Syena to kill kill aa person person as as an an instance of account of of adharma, but but emphasizes emphasizes that that this this is is not not on on account of some some generally valid valid moral moral principle, principle, but but merely merely because because authoritative generally authoritative texts give give aa general general prohibition prohibition against others.. 7755 The texts against injuring injuring others The general rule set aside aside (and (and hence in no appl icable) in in the general rule is is set hence in no way way applicable) the specific 'intra-sacrificial'' situations situations where where the the authoritative texts specific 'intra-sacrificial authoritative texts enjoin the killing killing of of an an animal animal.. 7766 Although Although Kumarila Kumarila does not enj oin the does not been identified identified mention his his opponents opponents by by name name,, they they have have here here been mention 77 primarily as as Sarhkhyas Sarhkhyas.. 77 primarily 74 74 S SIV IV vv. 257f; a similar idea was already briefly expressed by Bhart{hari,, MBhD MBhD 1:31.6 (cf. above above,, section section 22.3 MBhD 1.31.21). Bhart\,hari 1 : 3 1 . 6 (cf. . 3 on on MBhD 1 . 31 .21). 75 IItt iiss generally generally accepted bbyy Kumarila Kumarila and his his partners partners iinn discussion discussion that that 75 is aa Vedic Vedic prohibition prohibition to to injure injure others others.. The The expression expression which which there is there of Vedic Vedic authority authority for for this this prohibition prohibition is is na or mii mti substantiates the the claim claim of substantiates hirhsyat sarvabhutani (or (or sarva bhutani bhUtani,, with with Vedic Vedic nn.pl. . pl . ending ending in in sarva) S arhkara (e.g. on SK Urhveka on on SSIV 229-230 on on MS MS 1.1.2, (e . g . STK STK on SK 2; 2; Urhveka IV 229-230 1 . 1 . 2 , 249ft; 249ff; Sarhkara on 3 . 1 . 25) . It symptomatic that must have on BS BS 3.1.25). It is is symptomatic that even even those those authors authors who who must have been been quite eager eager to to find find it it (viz. Sarhkhya and and Yoga Yoga authors authors rejecting rejecting sacrificial sacrificial quite (viz. Sarhkhya violence),, did did not not come corne accross any other authoritative quotation. quotation. Apparently, violence) accross any other authoritative Apparently , not only only modern scholars have have had finding ideas ideas corresponding corresponding in finding not modern scholars had difficulty difficulty in to the the later ideal of in older Vedic sources. What is is more more,, the the to later ideal of ahirhsa in older Vedic sources . What is accepted accepted as as Vedic not found found in in that that form stereotyped phrase which stereotyped phrase which is Vedic is is not form in in any any available Vedic text. In In fact, fact, it it may may be be nothing nothing but but aa (syntactically (syntactically defensible) defensible) available Vedic text. the well-known well-known and already discussed discussed phrase phrase in the Chand Up adaptation of adaptation of the and already in the ChandUp 8. sarvabhUtani . . .. This This would would confirm the key key position position which which 8 . 15: 1 5 : ahirhsan sarvabhatani confirm the ChandUp seems to occupy occupy within within period period B: was one the last texts still still the ChandUp the seems to B: it it was one of of the last texts generally accepted accepted as as Vedic Vedic (authoritative (authoritative sruti) sruti),, and and at the same same time time the the first first at the generally and only only one one already already clearly clearly reflecting reflecting the the emerging and emerging ideal ideal of of ahirhsa. 7766 Although Although Kumarila Kumarila does does not mention the the principle principle of the specific specific rule rule not mention of the (apaviida) setting aside the the general general one one (utsarga) explicitly explicitly,, this this is is implied by (apavtida) setting aside implied by the two two references references in in vv vv.. 23 231-232 unidentified reference reference and and one one to the 1 -232 (one (one unidentified to MS MS 66.6.2) . 6 . 2) according according to to Kumarila' Kumarila'ss commentators commentators (Urhveka (Urhveka and and Parthasarathi Parthasarathi Misra). M isra) . 77 Halbfass 77 Halbfass 1991: to be the main main target target 1 99 1 : 116 1 1 6 note. note 11: 1 1 : "Sarhkhya " Sarhkhya ideas ideas seem seem to be the S IV on n this section. " Urhveka on SIV MS 1.1.2, 1 . 1 .2, of of Kumarila' Kumarila'ss argumentation argumentation iin this section." Urhveka on on MS 23lf; the objection objection iinn 249ff 249ff Urhveka Urhveka attributes attributes specifically specifically ttoo the the Sarhkhya23 1 f; the .

.

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Another Mlmarhsa-teacher, Mimamsa-teacher, Prabhakara-most Prabhakara-most probably probably 44.2 . 2 Another Kumarila' elder contemporary-dealt problem in contemporary-dealt with with the the problem in aa Kumarila'ss elder· different Why does does the the injunction one should not kill living different way way.. Why injunction ""one should not kill living beings the performance beings"" prohibit prohibit the performance of of aa Vedic Vedic sacrifice sacrifice which which aims aims at killing killing an an enemy enemy,, whereas whereas it it does does not not prohibit prohibit the the killing killing of an at of im animal at the of heaven heaven animal during during aa sacrifice sacrifice which which aims aims at the obtainment obtainment of 'yam prati�edhalJ. by sacrificer? adhikaragato by the the sacrificer? adhiktiragato'yam pratisedhaIJ puru�arthas purusarthas ca; ksamah, na tasmad abhicarasyanarthatam pratipadayitum k�amalJ., agni�omi'yadelJ., (B fhatI on on MS 1 . 1 . 2) . This This may be agni~omryadeIJ, kratvarthatvat kratvarthatvat (BrhaU MS 1.1.2). may be paraphrased as as:: The The prohibition prohibition applies to the the sacrificing paraphrased applies to sacrificing man man and and his free choice is able express that his free choice;; hence hence,, it it is able to to express that abhicara (performing which aims aims at at the the killi killing enemy) is (performing aa sacrifice sacrifice which ng of of an an enemy) is but it it cannot cannot express the sacricial sacricial animal animal serves no good good bbad, ad , but express that that the serves no goal,, since the latter latter is is there there for for completing completing the goal since the the sacrifice. sacrifice . This of reasoning was echoed by later authors such such as as This way way of reasoning was echoed by later authors Vacaspati Misra Misra in Bhamatl on Brahma-Sutra Vacaspati in his his commentary commentary BbamatI on Brahma-Sutra more general general and attacked attacked and rejected in in favour favour of 33.1.25, . 1 . 2 5 , and and rejected of aa more application one should should not l " by application of of the the prohibition prohibition"" one not kil kill" by the the Vedantin Vedantin Appayya-DTk~ita (16th-17th century) and and the the grammarian Nagesa Appayya-DIk�ita ( 1 6th- 1 7th century) grammarian Nagesa century).78 ((17th-18th 1 7th- 1 8th century) . 78 arhkara (born 4.3 Like Kumarila Kumarila and Prabhakara, SSari:1kara (born in in Kerala Kerala,, 8th 8th 4 . 3 Like and Prabhakara, century(?)) ects the Vedic ritual would be impure on on century(?» rej rejects the view view that that Vedic ritual would be impure in it, it, by account of account of the the infliction infliction of of injury injury (himsa) prescribed prescribed in by is enjoined enjoined by by the the sacred texts simply pointing out out that that what what is pointing sacred texts simply cannot cannot S arhkara ' s way be arguing is be impure impure or or wrong wrong.. Samkara's way of of arguing is closest closest to to that that of defends the animal sacrifice sacrifice under of Kumarila Kumarila.. He He defends the animal under Brahma-Sutra Brahma-Sutra The BS-passage BS-passage to to which which this this sutra sutra belongs belongs is 33.1.25. . 1 .2 5 . The is aa discussion discussion of authoritative authoritative passages as ChandUp ChandUp 55.10, . 1 0 , which describe of passages such such as which describe the rise of the the souls to the the world world of the fathers fathers,, and and thei theirr the rise of souls to of the ay in subsequent descent descent after their time time ttoo st stay in the the world the subsequent after their world of of the fathers on the moon is is over BS 33.1.24 . 1 . 24 emphasizes fathers and and on the moon over.. BS emphasizes that that the the returning souls do not not really really incarnate incarnate as but merely merely get returning souls do as rice rice etc. etc . but get associated According to statement by associated with with these these.. According to the the next next sutra sutra aa statement by an objector on 'impurity' is answered answered with with aa reference reference to to scriptural an obj ector on ' impurity ' is scriptural authority authority:: teacher Madhava (cf. Halbfass 1991: 1 9 9 1 : 1116 1 6 note 116). 6) . 7788 For some relevant quotations see Gune 1994:154-156. 1 994 : 1 5 4- 1 5 6 .

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asuddham iti cen: na, sabdat. If it is is said said "it is impure impure"" [we say]:: no no,, on on account the verbal verbal If it " i t is [we say] account of of the (BS 3.1. 25) testimony (of (of the the sacred sacred texts) texts).. (BS testimony 3 . 1 . 25)

S arhkara the According According to to Sarhkara the statement statement intended intended in in "it " it is is impure" impure " is is on account account of of the the infliction infliction of of that sacrifices would be be impure impure on that sacrifices would injury injury;; this this infliction injury in in sacrifices sacrifices leads leads to to demerit, demerit, and and infl iction of of injury for for this this reason the souls souls of of those those who who performed performed rituals go through through reason the rituals go phase in in which which they rice etc . , so experience the aa phase they are are rice etc., so that that they they can can experience the unpleasant results results which the bad bad aspect aspect of the killing killing of of unpleasant which suit suit the of the S arhkara, to animals.. The The answer to be be given, given, according according to to Sarhkara, animals answer to to such such aa statement is is:: statement On the the basis of the sacred text that the On basis of the sacred text itit is is ascertained ascertained that the Jyoti��oma, Jyoti~toma, which accepts accepts injuring injuring etc etc.,. , is is dharma; [then] how can can one one say say that that which [then] how [this Jyoti~toma and and other other sacrifices sacrifices involving involving injuring injuring an animal] is is [this Jyoti��oma an animal] impure?79

The is specifically The principle principle indirectly indirectly referred referred to to by by Kumarila Kumarila is specifically mentioned by by S Sarhkara: the general general rule rule not not to to injure aside mentioned arhkara: the injure iiss set set aside (and hence n no specific ''intrai ntra­ (and hence iin no way way applicable) applicable) with with regard regard to to the the specific sacrificial'' slaughter of an an animal. 80 sacrificial s laughter of animal . 80 The same ition is is defended defended in in aa different in the the The same pos position different way way in commentary 5. 10.6: commentary on on the the Chandogya-Upani�ad Chandogya-Upani~ad 5.10.6: And are the cause ooff both [merit And iitt cannot cannot bbee inferred inferred that that Vedic Vedic rites rites are the cause both [merit and demerit] demerit] on on the the ground ground that that they they involve involve inflicting since and inflicting injury, injury , since the infl infliction the iction of oined by basis of of of injury injury is is enj enjoined by the the sacred sacred texts texts.. On On the the basis the revealed revealed text text (sruti) (sruti):: ""(He, who) ... not harm harm any living the (H e , who) . . . does does not any living being,, except except at at sacred (sacrificial) places places ... ," it is is accepted accepted that that being sacred (sacrificial) . , " it of injury injury which which is is enjoined by the the sacred texts does does not not the infliction the infliction of enjoined by sacred texts lead to demerit. 8811 .

.

7 9 sastrac ccaa hirhsanugrahtidyatmako 79 himsanugrahCidylltmako jyoti�!omo jyotistomo dharma iity avadhCiritam, ty avadhtiritarh, 3 .l.25. . 1 . 25 . sa katham asuddha iti sakyate vaktum ?? BSBh on 3 80 80 The applicability of this principle on the problem of the killing of a sacrificial animal is denied by Vacaspati Misra (9th cent.), cent. ) , as we have seen above (section 33.2). . 2) . But the llatter's atter' s view that a prescript in a sacred text would lead to evil is not likely to have found wide acceptance among Mfmamsakas, Vedantists Vedantists,, and orthodox Brahmins in general general.. Mlmamsakas, 81 81 na ca vaidikanarh vaidikanam karmar;arh karmanam hirhsayuktatvenobhayahetutvarh himsayuktatvenobhayahetutvam sakyam

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S arhkara next Sarhkara next accepts accepts,, for the discussion, discussion, the view that that for the the sake sake of of the the view inflicting ury in in Vedic does lead demerit; but but then, then, he he Vedic rites rites does lead to to demerit; inflicting inj injury emphasizes, it can can be be removed removed:: emphas izes , it to demerit: demerit: because because itit ' is Even if if one would accept that itit leads Even one would accept that leads to is possible [demerit] by of mantras-just as poison possible to to remove remove this this [demerit] by means means of mantras-just as poison etc etc.. [is [is removed removed by by mantras]-the mantras]-the Vedic Vedic rites rites need need not not produce produce the the effect need not as swallowing swallowing poison poison with with aa mantra mantra IIneed not effect of of suffering suffering;; just just as R2 produce the effect of suffering]. suffering] . K2

Again i ke Kumarila, arhkara does opponents Again llike Kumarila, SSarhkara does not not identify identify his his opponents explicitly eeither ChandUpBh on BSBh on explicitly ither in in ChandUpBh on 55.10.6 . 1 0 . 6 or or in in BSBh on 3.1.25. 3 . 1 . 25 . Elsewhere , however, with reference to bas ic tenets of Vedan, ta Elsewhere, however, with reference to basic tenets of Vedanta (such the rej ection of of aa plurality of selves and acceptance of the (such as as the rejection plurality of selves and acceptance of the single universal Self Self which which is is Brahman) Brahman) he he is explicit single universal is very very expl icit about about · them they are are the the Sarhkhyas 2 . 1 the them:: they Sarhkhyas.. According According to to Brah�a-Siitra Brahma-Sutra 2.1 the position room for composed texts of V Vedanta leaves no no room for the the composed texts (sfm:ty­ (smrtyposition of � danta leaves anavakasa).. Sarhkara Sarhkara explains explains that that the the sfm:ti smrti 'composed text' 'for anavakasa) ' composed text' for room is (because it it contradicts contradicts the the sruti ''revealed which no no room which is left left (because revealed S arhkara, and text' principles text' as as interpreted interpreted by by Sarhkara, and because because it it assumes assumes principles which either in in the or in daily which are are not not perceived perceived either the revealed revealed texts texts or in daily life), n the rahma-Siitra 2.3 2 . 3 says says life), is is iin the first first pJ:i.ce place Kapila's Kapila's Sarhkhya. Sarhkhya. B Brahma-Sutra further that "with this [also] Yoga is refuted" (etena yogah further that " with this [also] Yoga is refuted" S aI).kara this means that arguments by pratyuktaf}) pratyuktah);; according according to to Sankara this means that the the arguments by which the the composed composed texts texts of of Sarhkhya refuted . apply apply also to the the which Sarhkhya are are refuted also to of Yoga Yoga (yoga-smrti). 83 composed texts texts of composed (yoga-smrti) . 83 44.4 . 4 In In thei and indirect of the the Sarhkhya-position Sarhkhya-pos ition theirr direct direct and indirect criticism criticism of S arhkara seem on the the impurity impurity of of Vedic Vedic ritual rituals, Kumarila and and Sarhkara to on s , Kumarila seem to anumatum, hirhsaya!} hirhsayah sastracoditatvat · Ii 'ahirhsan sarvabhutany anyatra tirthebhyah'' iti srute!} sruteh sastracoditaya hirhsaya tfrthebhya!} hirhstlya na adharmahetutvam . 10.6. abhyupagamyate Ii ChiindUpBh ChandUpBh on 55.10.6. 8822 abhyupagate 'py adharmahetutve mantrair vi�adivat visadivat tadapanayopapattely. tadapanayopapatteh duhkhakaryarambhanopapattih vaidikanarh karmanam -.- mantrer;eva mantreneva na duly.khakaryarambhanopapatti!} karmarplm -:vi�abhak�ar; asyeti Ii ChiindUpBh . 1 0 . 6. visabhaksanasyeti ChandUpBh on 55.10.6 . 8833 Although Alth~ugh SSailkara aiJ.kara admits that there are portions ooff Sarhkhya Samkhya and Yoga to other which do not contradict the sruti and are acceptable, the approach to doctrines is here quite different from the "hierarchical " hierarchical form of treating other doctrines"" (Halbfass 1988:355) 1 98 8 : 355) which becomes typical for later l ater Vedanta doctrines (Vijii.anabhik�u ater) . (Vijiianabhiksu and llater).

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ignore or viz. the the Yuktiignore o r neglect neglect one one important important Sarhkhya-text, Sarhkhya-text, viz. Yukti­ DTpika. The YD on its part, part, takes takes into into account MTmarhsaDlpika. The YD on its account several several Mlmarhsa­ (parvapak�a) . llike ike arguments employed in in aa challenging challenging obj ection (purvapak!fa). arguments employed objection This is answered in a statement statement of of the fi nal position This objection objection is answered ina the final position (uttarapak!fa) seems to have been neglected not not only (uttarapak�a) which which seems to have been largely largely neglected o nly by by opponents of Sarhkhya, opponents of Sarhkhya, but but also also by by later later thinkers thinkers of of the the same same schoo l . The of the s ixth century century has has usually been accepted accepted school. The middle middle of the sixth usually been as probable date of the the YD YD (Frauwallner (Frauwallner 1953:287; 1 95 3 : 2 8 7 ; Solomon Solomon as the the probable date of 1 974 : 170, 1 70 , 179; 1 79 ; cf. Halbfass 1991: 1 99 1 : 118 1 1 8 note note 29); 29) ; it it has poi nted 1974: cf. Halbfass has been been pointed S abara , · Vasubandhu out that that the the YD out YD quotes quotes authors authors like like Sabara, Vasubandhu and and Diimaga, but but not not Kumarila Kumarila (Solomon 1974: 1 974 : 170)-nor 1 70)-nor is DharmakTrti quoted where we we would would expect a reference to to him him Dharmaklrti (Pandeyaa 1967:xiii). 1 967 : xi ii) . Halbfass however, felt felt that parvapak�a (Pandey Halbfass,, however, that the the purvapak!fa of the YD is is very similar to Kumarila ' s argument argument on on this topic, so so of the YD very similar to Kumarila's this topic, much so that that this YD might be aa response response to (and much so this passage passage in in the the YD might be to (and hence ater than) (Halbfass 1991:94). 1 99 1 : 94) . On On aa different different basis hence llater than) Kumarila Kumarila (Halbfass basis (a quotation (a from the the Kasika), Wezler and and Motegi Motegi have have now now quotation from Kasika) , Wezler arrived the conclusion conclusion that was written written between between the end arrived at at the that the the YD YD was the end of the 7th and the beginning beginning of the 8th century (Wezler & Motegi 1998:XXXVIIf).84 1 998 : XXXVIIt) . 84 Here we are confronted with with a problem in the history of ideas iinn the sense of of this expression : is is the YD earlier eatlier or or later later the narrower narrower sense this expression: the YD than Kumarila; did the YD take Kumarila's work into than Kumarila; did the the author author of of the YD take Kumarila ' s work i nto account or not? If Wezler Wezler & Motegi's account Motegi ' s later date is accepted, accepted , the same problem is there with regard regard to to the rel relation between the YDs ame problem ation between YD­ S arhkara . Since author and Sarhkara. the focus author and Since the focus of of this this essay essay lies l ies elsewhere, elsewhere , will not not address address this important problem here in in detail, detail , but but restrict II will this important problem here restrict myself to pointing pointing out that that (focusing the relation relation with with Kumarila) (focusi ng on the the treatment of of the topic in YD's not really parvapak�a seems seems not really the treatment the topic in the the YD ' s purvapak!fa dependent o n Kumarila's discussion. Thus, Thus , Kumarila illustrated his his dependent on Kumarila's discussion. Kumarila illustrated the view to others rejection rej ection of of the view that that giving giving pleasure pleasure to others is is dharma dharma and and causing pain pain is adharma with with the the example example of of sexual sexual intercourse intercourse is adharma causing w ith one's one ' s guru's guru' s wife (severely censured censured in in Brahrriinical B rahniinical dharmadharma­ with wife (severely texts), the YD YD has texts) , but but the has in in addition addition to to this this 'negative' ' negative ' example example also also 84 O 84 Onn the earlier view that Vlicaspati Vacaspati Misra (who also wrote STK) was the author of the YD-thus, YD-thus , Dasgupta 1922, 1 922 , 1I:45 lI: 45 note 11 mentions the YuktiYukti­ Dlpika among the works of ofVacaspati Dlpikli Vlicaspati Misra-see Pandeya Pandey a 1967:xiiifand 1 967 : xiiif and now also Wezler Wezler & & Motegi Motegi 1998:XXVI 1 9 9 8 : XXVI note note 67. 67 . Wezler Wezler & & Motegi Motegi 1998:XXVIf 1998 : XXVIf also found evidence for "Gopalaka " Goplilaka Rlijlina" Rajana" as name of the author.

TO KILL KILL OR NOT TO KILL 55.. TO OR NOT TO KILL

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the 'positive 'positive'' example example of of aa student who iiss made made to to suffer suffer the the the student who. hardships of of celibacy celibacy,, study, begging,, etc etc.:. : this this would would be be adharma adhanna hardships study , begging according (it causes it is according to to the the rejected rejected view view (it causes suffering) suffering),, though though it is generally as being 1 5 .20t) . generally recognized recognized as being very very meritorious meritorious (YD (YD IS.20f). Moreover, i s rather in his Moreover, Kumarila Kumarila is rather vague vague in his references references to to his his opponents ection of of aa view opponents.. One One might might see see an an implicit implicit rej rejection view similar similar to to the ' s final on this in Kumarila's the YD YD's final view view on this topic topic in Kumarila's statement statement that that doubt (vicikitsii) (vicikitsa) (i . e . doubt doubt on on good good or or wrong only doubt (i.e. wrong action) action) arises arises only from (conflicting statements sacred texts ( S IV 233-234 233-234 on on from (conflicting statements in) in) the the sacred texts (SIV MS 1 . 1 .2) . This idity is is MS 1.1.2). This would would apparently apparently imply imply that that no no val validity attributed to to any any independent independent human human jjudgment or feeling feeling of attributed udgment or of compassion . Whatever compassion. Whatever the the mutual mutual relation relation between between these these two two important texts texts,, the the YD YD gives purvapaksa with with sophisticated important gives aa purvapaksa s o phisticated S lY, Mimarhsa-like arguments arguments which which presuppose, presuppose, if not Kumari Kumarila's MTmarhsa-like i f not l a ' s SlY, in any any case case other Mimarhsa-texts apart apart from from laimini's in other MTmarhsa-texts laimini ' s Sutra Sutra and and SSabara's 85 Perhaps abara' s Bha�ya. Bhasya. 85 the apparent mutual disregard of the Perhaps the apparent mutual disregard of the two something to do with two authors authors writing writing on on similar similar problems problems has has something to do with their geographic geographic range range:: while while Kumarila Kumarila has strong connections with their has strong connections with S amkara) , the South (the to Sarhkara), the YD seems to to have have the the South (the same same applies applies to YD seems been written in the cas e , "knowledge " knowledge of of the YD been written in the North North;; in in any any case, the YD seems to have have been been confined confined to to Kashmir Kashmir and some parts parts of of seems to and some Northern India India"" (Wezler (Wezler & Motegi 1998:XXXVI). Northern & Motegi 1 99 8 : XXXVI) . More interesting interesting for for us YD,, uttarapak�a given given in in the the YD More us now now is is the the uttarapaksa iinn which the author the MTmamsa which the author goes goes aa long long . way way to to meet meet the MTmarhsa objector Sarhkhya-commentators , the objector.. Unlike Unlike other other Sarhkhya-commentators, the YD-author YD-author does does not regard regard the the killing killing of of an animal·· in Vedic ritual ritual as something not an animal in aa Vedic as something bad of an impurity of bad.. So So why why did did the the Sarhkhya-Karika Sarhkhya-Karika speak speak of an impurity of the the Vedic sacrifice? sacrifice? Not iction of of injury inj ury would would Vedic Not because because the the enjoined enjoined infl infliction be in itself, itself, but ion be an an impurity impurity in but because because this this would would lead lead to to compass compassion and grief. grief. The The impurity impurity mentioned mentioned in the karika karika would would thus thus merely merely and in the be this this grief caused by by the the enj enjoined of inj injury. be grief caused oined infliction infliction of ury . In the the passage of the the final In passage immediately immediately preceding preceding this this statement statement of final position, the the YD-author YD-author says says he he does not think think that that someone someone position, does not

85 These arguments include a reference to the so-called takra-kauf}tj.inya­ 85 takra-kaundinyanyiiya in the in detail in Bhart�hari 's nyaya (already (already found found in the MBh. MBh. but but it it is is discussed discussed in detail in Bhartrhari's Mahabhasya-DIpika; the the Y YD cites elsewhere Bhartrhari's Vakyapadlya) Mahabha�ya-DIpika; D cites elsewhere from from Bhartrhari ' s Vakyapad"iya) to illustrate illustrate the the relation relation between general rule rule and and specific Also to between general specific exception. exception. Also S abara Mfmamsa-sources BhartJ;hari familiar with and nonnon-Sabara Mlmamsa-sources Bhartrhari was was familiar with pre-Kumarila pre-Kumarila and which are now lost (Bronkhorst 1989). 1 989) .

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iinflicting nflicting Injury IllJury in in accordance accordance with with sacred sacred prescripts prescripts would would get get � t even undesirable results results (YD (YD 16.1-2/34.11-12, quoted in in 85); undesirable 1 6 . 1 -2 / 34 . 1 1 - 1 2 , quoted 85) ; bbut even when h�aven heaven is is reached reached through through acts acts enjoined by the the Veda Veda,, they they when enjoined by cannot be performed performed without without inflicting inflicting injury injury to beings.. Then Then cannot be to other other beings he refers refers to to aa versified versified ''Golden he Golden Rule': Rule ' : na tat parasya sarhdadhytit titmanafJ. iI samdadhyat pratikalarh pratikalam yad atmanah e�a e:fa sarhk�epato samksepato dharmafJ. dharmah ktimtid ktimad anyafJ. anyaf} pravartate iI iI Let another that [would be] Let him him not not do do unto unto another that which which [would be] disagreeable disagreeable to to himself. This is, is, briefly briefly [stated], the dharma dharma.. It It proceeds proceeds as himself. [stated] , the something different different from from desire. something desire . (YD 16.5-6/ 1 6 . 5-6 / 34.16-17; 3 4 . 1 6- 1 7 ; = MBhar 1 3 . 1 1 4 . 8 ; padas abd = MBhar (YD MBhar 13.114.8; pad as abd MBhar 5 . 3 9 . 57abd ; cf. cf. other other MBhar-quotations in section 3 . 1) 5.39.57abd; MBhar-quotations in section 3.1) =

=

It is not entirely what the the status status of this formulation formulation of It is not entirely clear clear what of this of the the rule' be in the final final view the Y YD,86 but it it is in ''Golden Golden rul e ' would would be in the view of of the D , 8 6 but is in any case case more more the the psychological psychological effect effect of of inflicting inflicting inj injury than the the any ury than inj ury itself which is final solution is considered considered undesirable undesirable.. The The final solution injury itself which arrived at at here here is is clea:rIy clearly distinct distinct from the one presented in in other other arrived from the one presented Sarhkhya-commentaries such as as Viicaspati Vacaspati Misra Misra's Siirhkhya-commentaries such ' s Sarhkhya-TattvaS iirhkhya-Tattva­ Kaumudl to to which which we we referred referred ea:rIier earlier (section KaumudI (section 3.2). 3 . 2) . Samkara Vedanta and the eventual rehabilitation of 5. PostPost-Samkara Samkhya and its objections

55.0 . 0 In In the centuries after after SSarhkara, the centuries Asia witnessed witnessed -great -great arhkara, South South Asia political,, social and cultural cultural transitions transitions.. Especially Especially the the northern northern political social and part of of the the subcontinent subcontinent was was subjected subjected to to raids raids and by part and conquests coriquests by Islamic rulers rulers,, culminating culminating in in the the establishment establishment of the Delhi Delhi Islamic of the sultanate 1 206 . While rahmi nical and sultanate iinn 1206. While B Brahminical and Buddhist Buddhist philosophers philosophers were were refining refining thei theirr doctrines doctrines and and polemical polemical arguments arguments,, popular popular movements cultivating cultivating devotion devotion to to SSiva, Vi~l).u and and various various local local movements iva, Vi�I).u gods nd of first of the the first gods became became strong strong iinn South South India India towards towards the the eend 86 86 etan" etan in yady etan ntibhyupagamyate nabhyupagamyate (YD 16.7 1 6 . 7 / 334.20) 4 . 20) probably does not refer back to this golden rule (which would imply its full rejection) rejection),, but to the somewhat further removed statement no khalv api brumaJ;. brumah sastracodita­ stistracoditapravartamtinasyanistaphalasarhbandho bhavati (YD 16.1-2 yam hirhsliyarh himsdyam pravartami1nasyani�taphalasambandho 1 6 . 1 -2 / 34. 1 1 - 1 2) . 34.11-12).

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millennium, and strongly influenced influenced the the great great trans trans regional regional move­ movemillennium, and strongly ments of of the the next next millennium millennium.. Focusing Focusing on on the the internal philoments internal philo­ sophical has emphas ized the great sophical developments developments,, Frauwallner Frauwallner has emphasized the great contrast between systems of lennium , contrast between the the philosophical philosophical systems of the the first first mil millennium, a lly which are mainly in character generate philosophic which are mainly atheistic atheistic in character and and generate philosophically significant thoughts,, and and the the systems systems of the second millennium,, of the second millennium s ignificant thoughts which are primarily which are primarily theistic theistic and and mainly mainly borrow borrow their their supporting supporting philosophical from their philosophical doctrines doctrines and and techniques techniques from their predecessors predecessors.. The increasing of popular is reflected The increasing influence influence of popular religious religious forms forms is reflected of ethics ethics as as well well.. In In in (non-phi (non-philosophical) works in in the the field in losophical) works field of Dharmasastric and and related related texts texts from from the the 10th onwards we we Dharmasastric 1 0th century century onwards find additions to find additions to the the traditional traditional prescripts prescripts and and proscripts proscripts in in the the form l ists of " things not form of of the the so-called so-called Kalivarjyas Kalivarjyas,, lists of "things not to to be be done done in in the (present) Kali-age though they they are in authori­ authorithe (present) Kal i-age (even (even though are prescribed prescribed in tative sources)" (Kane III:926-968). are of of great great value tative sources) " (Kane III : 926-968) . These These lists lists are value as witnesses witnesses for for the the social and rel religious practices which which had had be­ beas social and igious practices come or were time they composed, were becoming becoming obsolete obsolete in in the the time they were were composed, come or as · well well as as for for those those which which had had become become acceptable. as acceptable . 8877 Thus the mention of the in these lists (Kane Thus,, the mention of the Puru�amedha Puru~amedha in these lists (Kane III:928f) in the the first first place place shows that this this sacrifice with aa human human III : 928f) in shows that sacrifice with being as victim had had become obsolete.. But it also also shows shows that that at the being as victim become obsolete But it at the these lists lists were composed it was considered considered aa real time time when when these were composed it was real sacrisacri­ fice which people past ages ages had had actuaIIy actually performed; performed; and we fice which people of of past and if if we take irito into account account the the cited cited evidence evidence for for its its acceptability an take acceptability in in an earlier period (section (section 22.2), the past was an earlier period .2) , the past in in which which it it was an acceptable acceptable few centuries it ritualistic option was apparently apparently just ritualistic option was just aa few centuries earlier. earlier . If it was,, as has been been suggested, suggested, generally accepted as just aa symbolical was as has generally accepted as just symbolical 88 from offering 88 from which which the the h human victim is is released released unhurt, unhurt, there offering uman victim there would have been no good to adopt it in the list list of of Kaliwould have been no good reason reason to adopt it in the Kali­ varjyas.. Also Also the the offering offering of cow and the animal varjyas of aa cow and the animal saciifice sacrifice in in

7 Cf. Cf. YlijSm YajSm 11.156cd asvargyam lokavidviHam lokavidvi~!arh dharmyam apy (icaren na . 1 5 6cd asvargyam dharmyam apy (icaren na

8 87

tu:: ""That svarga and is detested by the people should tu That which does not lead to svarga not be even if if it in accordance with dharma , " which quoted be done done,, even it is is in accordance with dharma," which is is often often quoted not Vijiianesvara Mitaksara on YlijfiaSm YajiiaSm (e.g. in this context (e . g . by Vijiiii n esvara in his commentary MitaIq;arli 1.109. V:1270 20711 and Alsdorf 1962:45), 1 . 10 9, cf. also Kane V : 1270 note 207 1 962 : 45 ) , and which I recently heard heard cited cited in India India (Pune) in aa discussion discussion on killing killing or not killing aa recently sacrificial victim sacrificial victim.. 88 88 As is the view of Kane III III:96lf : 96 l f and others, cf. note 331. 1.

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general occur among the items in Kalivarjya-lists I~I:939, Kal ivarjya-lists (Kane I�I : 93 9 , 964). 964) . Ramanuja,born 5.1 5 . 1 The intellectual and social environment of Ramanuj a , born in the first half of the 11th 1 1 th century in a Brahminical B rahminical family not far S ri Vaiglavism and of from modern Madras Madras,, and from modern and the the founder founder of of Sri the doctrine of Visista-Advaita, thus entirely entirely different different from from the doctrine of Visista-Advaita, was was thus S arhkara, th~ that of Sarhkara, Advaita Vedanta Vedanta.. To that of th� great exponent of Advaita demonstrate that his doctrine suits the ancient anc ient Vedanta-system even S arhkara's Advaita-doctrine, better than Sarhkara's better Advaita-doctrine , Ramanuja Ramanuj a wrote w rote a S ri-Bha�y a . 89 89 commentary on the B Brahma-Sutra, rahma-Sutra, the Sri-Bha~ya. As far as his ethical ethical doctrine concerned, he As far as his doctrine is is concerned, he recommended recommended adherence to the the established established Brahminical and varf}a and adhe rence to B rahminical system of varf}a 90 But ilsrama and their their respective respective duties. But he was was also able to set ilsrama and duties . 90 to Vi�l).u Vi~l).u,, if we go aside cast-boundaries in the the name of devotion to by some annecdotes about his his life (cf. Esnoul Esnoul 1964:65). by 1 964 : 65) . In the light l ight of modern Vai�l).ava in the light of of adhortations adhortations to to give give of modern Vai~l).ava practice practice and and in the light up in important texts such as the the up meat-eating meat-eating and and killing killing in important Vai�l).ava Vai~l).ava texts such as 9 Bhagavata-Purana (11th cent?),91 it may come as a surprise 1 that Bhagav ata-Purana ( 1 1 th cent?) , · S arhkara, defends the animal sacrifice Ramanuja, like· Sarhkara, under Ramanuj a , like s ac rifice under Brahma-Sutra 3.1.25. 3 . 1 .25 . It no no doubt doubt spared spared him him fierce fierce pprotests rotests from from Brahma-Sutra S amkara mentions the the B Brahminical While Samkara the authority authority the rahminical orthodoxy. orthodoxy . While of the the sacred sacred texts as the only jjustification for the ki-lling of texts as the only ustification for the ki-ll i ng of of the the sacrificial victi m , Ramanuja Ramanuj a gave slightly different different justification: gave aa slightly justification: sacrificial victim, Making in its death (sarhjfiapana) M aking the sacrificial s a crificial animal assent in (sarhjfiapana) is not of iinflicting nfl icting injury at all: all : the the animal animal will will go go to heaven� not aa matter matter of injury at to heaven~ 89 Ramanuja became famous for his commentaries on the Brahma-Siitra 89 and on the Bhagavad-GIta. On the third item of the 'three-fold basis'' ' three-fold basis (prastMnatrayi) of Vedanta, the Upani�ads, Upani~ads, no commentaries of his hand are known. Cf. Carman Carman 1974:49ff 1 974 : 49ff on the Sanskrit writings (nine in number) attributed to to Ramanuj a. Ramanuja. attributed S rI-Bha�ya on BS 90 C 90 Cf. Ramanuja's f . Kumarappa 1934:287 1934: 287 who refers ttoo Ramanuj a ' s SrI-Bha~ya 33.4.32 . 4 . 3 2 and on 18.41. 18.41. and his his GIta-Bha�ya GIta-Bha~ya on 9 1 Cf. Kane 1946: 91 Vai~I).avism tended ttoo wean people from 1 946 : "The " The spread ooff Vai�I).avism flesh as required by the Bhagavata-PuraI).a 7.15.7-8." 7 . 1 5 . 7-8 . " The text cited is: na dadyad ami�arh ami~arh sraddhe na cadyad dharmatattvavit II munyannailJ. syat para pasuhirhsaya.. But cf. Schmidt's prrtis tatM na pasuhirhsaya Schmidt' s observations (1997:228): ( 1 997 : 228) : "in " in the BhP 4.2.6 4 . 2 . 6 the killing of game for the ancestor worship is still mentioned as permitted or required" though "The " The guilty King Puraiijara Puraiij ara is chopped up (4 . 2 8 . 26) . " in yonder world world by by the the murdered murdered animals animals (4.28.26)."

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For supporting statements, statements , even even from from the For this this,, Ramanuj Ramanujaa can can cite cite supporting the mantra-portion of of the the Veda: " You do really die die here, here , not not are are Veda: "You do not not really mantra-portion hurt ... . . . "" (TB (TB 3.7.7.14, 3 . 7 . 7 . 1 4 , see see above, above , section section 2.2 2 . 2 and and notes notes 2323you hurt you 25). This way, Ramanujaa remains remains entirely the sacred 25) . This way , Ramanuj entirely faithful faithful to to the sacred Vedic texts and and rituals, time he he implicitly the Vedic texts ritual s , but but at at the the same same time implicitly meets meets the general,, non-ritual non-ritualistic requirement that one should general istic requirement that one should not not cause cause suffering to others. others . 9922 Ramanuj a ' s argument argument is Ramanuja's view that the is based based on on the the ancient ancient view sacrificial to heaven. heaven. In the past past it to have sacrificial victim victim goes goes to In the it seems seems to have given given rise to and anti-ritualistic rise to sarcastic sarcastic answers answers of of anti-Brahminical anti-Brahminical and anti-ritual istic groups.. Halbfass Halbfass (1991 mentions "an argument attributed groups ( 1 99 1 :94) : 94) mentions " an old old argument attributed i ieves m aterialists and to the Carvaka rationalists: person who who be beiieves to the Carvaka materialists and rational ists : A A person that ritual ritual kill killing is not meritorious for for the the sacrificer, but also that ing is no t only only meritorious sacrificer, but also beneficial for for the the sacrificial victim, should not hesitate to slaughter beneficial sacrificial victim, should not hesitate to s l aughter his Further, according to Halbfass, Kumarila his own own father." father . " Further, according to Halbfass , Kumarila does explain away s laughter of of animals an i m als to explain away the the ritual ritual slaughter does not not try try to (pasuhirhsa), (pasuhirhsa) , or to justify it by reconciling reconc i ling it with the ideal of ahirhsa. ahirhsa . Hee does not rely oonn the old argument that the sacrificial animal itself H benefits from its role, role, and and that that its ritual death secures secures its residence in benefits heaven. By the time of Kumarila, this argument was widely discredited discredited;; it it had had been ridiculed ridiculed by the the Carvaka materialists materialists and other opponents of the Vedic tradition. (Halbfass 1991: 1 99 1 : 113)93 1 1 3)93

If we we assume assume that that Halbfas Halbfass's s ' s jjudgment udgment is is indeed indeed applicable applicable to to Kumarila's situation, how should we understand fact that that Kumarila's situation, how should we understand the the fact Ramanuj a takes same old old argument argument of of beneficial beneficial slaughtering slaughtering Ramanuja takes the the same again out out of of the the mothballs? mothballs? Has Has Ramanuj Ramanujaa overseen the the drawbacks drawbac k s of this argument'? Is Is it it aa lack l ack of of theoretical theoretical acumen acumen on on the the part part of of of this argument'? Ramanuja? Orr is reactionary tendency? Ramanuj a? O is it aa sign sign of of aa reactionary tendency? Here should be be aware of the different perspectives persp ectives of of Here we we should aware of the quite quite different those employing neglecting the place, the the those employ ing or or neglecting the argument. argument. In In the the first first place, argument was still there there in in seed-form seed-form in in the argument was still the transmitted transmitted Vedic Vedic texts· texts· which contain contain the mantras denying denying actual actual killing killing of of the the victim, and which the mantras victim, and 9 2 '�'~Not 92 Not causing the suffering of others" (paradu~khtihetutvam) (paradu�khtihetutvam) is the GIta-Bha�ya on BhG 10.5 1 0 . 5 (cf. definition of ahimsa given by Ramanuja in the GIta-Bha~ya van Buitenen Buitenen 1956:248 with note note 425). van 1 9 5 6 : 248 with 425 ) . 9933 Halbfass (1991: ( 1 99 1 : 128 note 117) 1 17) refers ttoo the Carvaka-chapter ooff MadhavaMadhava­ Vidyaral).ya's S arvadarsana-Samgraha, and and to Alsdorf 1962:35f. 1 962 : 35f. Vidyaral).ya's Sarvadarsana-Samgraha, to Alsdorf

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in sense the in that that sense the argument argument of beneficial slaughtering was !lot yet ' dead ' . In In the the second second place 'dead'. place,, Ramanuja's Ramanuj a ' s public (first of all his readers fol lowers and and opponents; readers:: followers opponents ; or, if we want to use these terms environment and 'literary terms,, his his inteIIectual inteIIectual environment ' l iterary field') field ' ) was quite different from from that of Kumarila. different that of Kumarila. Kumarila was opposing fierce anti- .. B rahminical criticism of Buddhists and others. Brahminical criticism of others . Although Buddhists were stiII present South Asia were stiII present in in South Asia in in Ramanuja's Ramanuj a ' s time, time , they did not form first target target of of criticism. criticism . He He rather form his his first rather directed his arguments S arhkara . With his Sansto Vedanta teachers, teachers , especially especially Sarhkara. to previous previous Vedanta Sans­ krit writings writings he krit he sought sought acceptance acceptance not not only in Vedantic circles, c i rcles , but also in in circles circles of of Brahminical B rahminical Vai�Ifavas also Vai~Ifavas.. To both groups, group s , the argument that argument that the the victim victim goes to heaven must have been quite acceptable On the the other other hand, hand , while while there was for Ramanuj acceptable.. On Ramanujaa no to refer·to the scriptural support for a human sacrifice, reason to refer · to the s acrifice , he S arhkara Advaitins also needed not fear, from from the side of of the also needed not fear, the side the Sarhkara Advaitins and and Vai~Ifavas,, a 'reductio the B Brahminical the rahminical Vai�Ifavas ' reductio ad absurdum' argument against the the entire Veda based on the the Vedic prescripts against prescr ipts for human sacrifice rational or rejection sacrifice and and aa rational or at at least l east anti-traditionalistic anti-traditionalistic rej ection of of this. this . 5 . 2 To To another another Vedanta and Vai~Ifava Vai�Ifava theologician, 5.2 Vedanta philosopher philosopher and theologician, namely Madhva (13th ( 1 3th century), century) , one ascribes the introduction of of the the namely Madhva one ascribes the introduction pi�?a-pasu, an animal of dough, dough , as as aa general general substitute substitute for for pi~?a-pasu, an animal made made of the real sacrificial sacrificial animal. animal . A A 'dough-animal' ' dough-animal ' is is already already mentioned mentioned the real Manu-Smrti in the M anu-Smrti (5.37), (5 . 37) , but there it does not seem to to be intended i ntended 94 M Madhva's as aa general general substitute for the the sacrificial victim. as substitute for sacrificial victi m . 94 adhv a ' s 94 Nor iiss iitt ssoo intended iinn other early occurrences: 94 occurrences : the effigies of a ram and an ewe in the Varul)apraghlisa (cf. Hillebrandt 1897: 1 897 : 116, 1 1 6 , and ApSS Ap S S 8.5.42f, 8 . 5 . 42f, MaiS 1.10.12 1 . 1 0 . 12 and KlithS 36.6); 3 6 . 6) ; the dough-animals mentioned in S linGS 4 ciS 2. 2 . 10. Iff I ff (at the end of a series of househouse­ . 1 9 , cf. also MlinavaSlinGS 4.19, Mlinava-ciS rituals to be performed when one redescends from sleeping in high bedsteads) bedsteads).. IInn general I would ani­ would agree here here with with Schmidt's judgement judgement regarding these ani(pi~!a) and other material as mal-images (1997:214): ( 1 997 : 2 14) : "Figures " Figures made of flour (pi�!a) substitutes for animal victims occur in the Veda only in very specific cases which can hardly be considered to be at the root of an incipient vegetarian movement. evidence , vegetal movement. To To judge judge from from the the known evidence, vegetal substitutes for for animals became current only rather late when a vegetarian movement unrelated to to the emerged. " As old ritual ritual had had emerged." As far far as I can see, however, this judgement judgement does not lend support to Schmidt's Schmidt' s "main " main argument" that "the " the Vedic sources do allow us to reconstruct a development [of ahirhsa and vegetarianism] within

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grapher Narayajfa records that biographer NarayaI)a records with his that Madhva, Madhva , together together with bio as Hotr-p unger brother brother as riest, performed younger Hotf-priest, performed aa pi�!a-pasu-sacrifice pi~ta-pa§u-sacrifice,, yo s harp criticism m ins . 95 to very criticism by 95 Madhva' other Brah which led led to very sharp by other Brahmins. Madhva'ss which wers offer offer even even today today only only with with these followers these dough dough substitutes follo substitutes for for the the . animals: . anima ls : The Madhvas Madhvas of of Karnataka and southern southern Maharashtra Maharashtra have, have, for for the the Karnataka and The last years,, substituted pi~{apasu or or animal animal made made of of dough. dough. They They last 600 600 years substituted aa pi�!apasu have gone thin flour have gone to to the the [extreme] [extreme] of of placing placing aa special special thin t10ur omentum omentum (vapa) over them onto over dough dough organs organs (arigas), (migas) , [pasting] [pasting] them onto aa specially specially prepared or papier mache frame frame (i.e. (i . e . the skeleton) , and and prepared wooden wooden or papier mache the skeleton), [binding] it to the the sacrificial sacrificial post. It is is then then suffocated suffocated in in aa mock [binding] it to post. It mock manner. Thus Thus,, the retained uninjured. manner. the sacrificial sacrificial structure structure is is retained uninjured. (Smith (Smith 1987:74.) 1 987 : 74 . )

In the the light preceding iitt will will again In l ight ooff the the preceding again come come aass aa surprise surprise that that even century) still even Madhva M adhva (13th ( 1 3 th century) still defends defends the the animal animal sacrifice sacrifice under under the samesiitra asuddham iti cen na, na, sabdiit sabdat (in his text text BS BS no no.. the same siitra asuddham iti cen (in his 3.1.27): 3 . 1 . 27) :

hirhsarupatvtltpapasyapi sambhavad dulJ.kharh hirhsarupatvatpapasyapi du�kharh ca bhavatv iti cen: na, sabdavihitatvtlt. (BSBhM) sabdavihitatvat. (BSBhM) Since is viol~nt, possibility that Since [the [the sacrifice] sacrifice] is viol�nt, there there is is aa possibility that there there is is badness (demerit) as as wel and there there must must be be suffering suffering [for [for the the badness (demerit) well,l , and sacrificer] . If If [someone [someone says says this answer is : ] No No [it [it is not like· like· sacrificer]. this,, the the answer is:] is not that],, since violence] is is prescribed 9(, that] since [the [the violence] prescribed by by the the sacred sacred texts. texts . 96 the Vedic culture" (1997:228). ( 1 997 : 228) . 95 See Narayalfa' 95 NarayaJ,la'ss Madhva-vijaya Madhva-vij aya 9.44-50, 9 . 44-5 0 , to which Glasenapp 1923:82, 1 923 : 82 , reference.. The work was not note 1, 1 , and Sharma 1960:106-107 1 960 : 1 06- 1 07 make reference accessible to me in a proper edition (e.g. (e . g . Bombay 1883; 1 883 ; I could only' only· make & Parpola use of a popular edition in Kannada-script) Kannada-script).. Cf. also Kashikar & NarayaJ,la'ss biography. 1983:247f. 1 983 : 247f. Schmidt 1997:228, 1997 : 22 8 , apparently not aware of Narayalfa' biography . writes: "Substitute " Substitute animals were only introduced by his [Madhva's] followers as is apparent from an interpolation in the Kumbhakona edition of the Mahabharata (in the crit. ed: 806* after 12.123.15)." 1 2 . 123 . 1 5) . " Since S ince there there is nnoo 806*806*­ passage after 12.123.15 1 2 . 1 23 . 15 or anywhere near this verse, the latter l atter reference must be a mistake for 12.323.16 1 2 . 323 . 1 6 after which the critical edition (part III, III , Mok�adharma, 1 828f) mentions a 806*-passage from the Kumbhakona Mok~adharma, B, p p.. 1828f) Bfhaspati is angry with king Vasu who edition. According to this passage, Brhaspati pi!!!apasu instead of a real animal. animal . offers a pi~tapasu 96 Kashikar's 96 Kashikar' s statement (1964:85) ( 1 964 : 85) that Madhva "maintained that the animal

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Madhva further further supports supports his his statement, statement, as as usual, usual , with some Madhva with.. some quotation, in in this this case case from the Varaha-PuraIfa. Varaha-PuraIfa . It worthwhile noting noting in this.. context It is is worthwhile in this context that that Madhva Madhva often often gives gives quotations which are are not only unknown to us, quotations from from sources sources which not only unknown to us , but but which were were already al ready unknown unknown (or (or allegedly allegedly 'lost') ' lost') in in his his own own time. time . which Recently,, R R.. Mesquita Recently Mesquita (1997) ( 1 997) has has re-studied re-studied the the relevant relevant material material and and arrived arrived at the conclusion the 'lost' works mentioned by at the conclusion that that the ' lost' works mentioned by Madhva fictitious,, and that the the quotations works Madhva are are fictitious and that quotations from from these these wo rks have only It is is clear that this this way have only Madhva Madhva as as author. author . It clear that way of of acting, acting , already severely attacked attacked by early cridcs cridcs such such as as Veilkatanatha already severely by early Veilkatanatha ((13th 13th century) century) and and Appayya-DTI<~ita Appayya-DTI<� ita (16th-17th ( 1 6th-1 7th century) century) (Mesquita (Mesquita 1997:23-27), 1 997 : 23 -27) , was for Madhva a badly needed device to bridge the gap between his the nature nature of gap between his convictions convictions (regarding (regarding the of God, God , God's God ' s relation to to people people's his religious religious relation ' s souls, souls , etc.) etc . ) aass they suited his (sectarian) preferences preferences,, and the traditional B Brahminical rahminical authoritative sources (especially (especially the the Brahma-Sutras Brahma-Sutras and and Upani�ads) Upani~ads).. It is is all all the the sources more remarkable remarkable that that even even with with this this flexible flexible attitude attitude towards the more towards the tradition, Madhva still defended the animal sacrifice. sacrifice . Again, by way of partial explanation, it can be said that this spared him fierce protests from the rahminical orthodoxy protests from the B Brahminical orthodoxy at at least least on on this this point. point.

commentaries and and subcommentaries on the the Brahma­ Brahma55.3 . 3 Several Several commentaries subcommentaries on Slitra have been written in the first first few centuries of of the Slitra have been written in the few centuries the second second millennium, and possible to to review review all millennium, and it it is is not not possible all of of them them in in the the present essay essay.. It may suffice out that that in present It may suffice to to point point out in their thei r comments comments on on S arhkara, BS they mostly the footsteps BS 33.1.25 . 1 . 25 they mostly follow follow in in the footsteps of of Sarhkara, 9 7 and speak of a general inj Ramanujaa and Madhva, Madhva,97 injunction Ramanuj unction prescribed in the Veda as an offering is not the living animal, animal , but one made out of flour (pi�!apa.su) (pi~!apa.su)"" must be based on some confusion, as the place to which he he refers support of of it, it, "Madhvacharya's " Madhvachary a ' s bha~ya bha�ya on on Badaraya~a's Badaraya�a' s which refers in in support Sutra III III.2.4" . 2 . 4 " (Kashikar 1964:85 1 964 : 85 note 14) does not ssay a y anything about the animal dreams) . He animal sacrifice and and the pi�!apa.su pi~!apa.su (it deals with the the reality reality of dreams). probably meant to refer to Brahma-Sutra 3.1.27, 3 . 1 . 27 , or to the passage 3.1.24-27, 3 . 1 . 24-27 , where however, the the animal animal sacrifice sacrifice is is defended defended (as (as we see from from the the where,, however, we see quotation) quotation) .. 97 Cf. Nimbarka (13th 97 ( 1 3 th cent.) cent . ) in his Vedanta-Parijata-Saurabha and S rlnivasa (14th Srlnivasa VPS);; Sudarsana ( 1 4th cent.) cent . ) in his Vedanta-Kaustubha (Abb. (Abb . under VPS) S rutaprakasika on S rIkara-Bha�ya on Ramanuja's Ramanuj a ' s SSrIbha~ya. rIbha�ya. The SrIkara-Bha~ya (14th ( 1 4th cent.) cent . ) in Srutaprakasika (c . 1400?) 1400?) under 3 . 1 . 25 first first permits permits the offering of of aa real (c. under BS BS 3.1.25 the offering real pa.su pa.su,, and and defends it very very much much like like Ramanuja. defends Ramanuj a . The author concludes his comments on

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against and the the acceptabil ity of sacrificial killing in spite spite of against killing, killing, and acceptability of sacrificial killing in of 98 this. 9 this . 8 One author comes with One author,, however however,, comes with aa remarkable remarkable explanation explanation of of this devotee of Vallabha­ this siitra sutra:: the the Vaiglava Vai~l!ava theologian theologian and and devotee of KmJ.a, Kr~I!a, Vallabhadirya (15thl16th ( l 5th! 1 6th century), century) , who carya who wrote wrote no nott only only aa commentary commentary on on the S , but also another work ighly by the B BS,but also one one on on another work esteemed esteemed very very h highly by him, . 1 . 25 rej ects him, the the Bhagavata-Pura�a. Bhagavata-Purana. According According to to him, him, BS BS 33.1.25 rejects S arhkara and objectio~ than assumed by Sarhkara others.. quite aa different different obj quite ection than assumed by and others The obj ection would be that that food food (rice, (rice , etc.) etc . ) would impure if if The objection would be would be be impure souls associated with souls of of the the deceased deceased were were to to be be associated with it; it; the the answer answer would of an food in would be be that that the the sacred sacred texts texts speak speak of an offering offering of of food in the the ChandUp 55.7), on account of this food becomes pure.. fire (cf. (cf. ChandUp fire . 7) , and and on account of this food becomes pure Although way of of meeting the objection obj ection may may not not seem seem Although Vallabha's Vallabha's way meeting the very ection is very convincing convincing,, it it is is to to be be admitted admitted that that his his obj objection is closer closer to to the . 1 discusses discusses here the passage passage which which the the whole whole pada pada BS BS 33.1 here as as proble­ problemati c , 99 namely description of of the matic,99 namely the the ChandUp ChandUp description the descent descent of of the the S arhkara's bringing souls of of ritualists ritualists from from the the moon moon to to the the earth. bringing souls earth . Sarhkara's in of the topic of the the sacrificial sacrificial kill ing under BS 33.1.25 . 1 . 25 is is in in fact fact in of the topic of killing under BS somewhat far-fetched, as as it it is is only ith respect an somewhat far-fetched, only justified justified w with respect to to an S arhkara's purvapakSa not element in Sarhkara's not hinted at in in the the previous element in hinted at previous sutras . In e , for advantage of of his his siltras. In any any cas case, for Vallabha Vallabha the the great great advantage explanation must led him must have have been been that that it it led him beyond beyond the the difficult difficult explanation topic of the sacrificial sacrificial killing killing,, accepted by orthodox orthodox B Brahmins topic of the accepted by rahmins and and previous B Brahma-Sutra commentators,, but but rej rejected by the by most by most previous rahma-Siitra commentators ected by the pasu as in this sutra with the intriguing statement that the offering of a real paSu solemn rituals (srautakarma), such as the human human (!) and the the horse horse sacrifice sacrifice,, (srautakarma) , such as the ( ! ) and solemn rituals or the offering offering of dough animal ceremonies (pia:medha) (pitrmedha) of aa dough animal as as in in funeral funeral ceremonies or (va) the is right (yuktam) 3 . 1 . 26 the is right (yuktam).. Under Under the the next next sUtra sutra 3.1.26 the picture picture changes changes completely completely,, as that only dough animal be. taken taken because as he he argues argues that only aa dough animal (P4!apasu) (p~rapasu) is is to to be because both both in the authoritative texts aa prohibition for hirhsa is prohibition and and aa non-prohibition non-prohibition for is found found in the authoritative texts (srutisu hirhsani�edMni�edhavyapadesat, hirhsani~edhani~edhavyapadeSat, pi�tapasuparigrahatvam pi~tapasuparigrahatvam artMd arthad (sruti�u upadi�ate) upadi~ate).. 98 98 This even applies to the 20th-century Vedanta philosopher as follows follows:: ""If it be be said that Radhakrishnan, who who briefly briefly comments comments on on 3.l.25 Radhakrishnan, 3 . 1 . 25 as If it said that the Scripture states that that we we should not hurt hurt any any creature creature,, it it is said in the Scripture also also states should not is said in nctions give answer and other answer · that that it it is is aa general general rule rule and other scriptural scriptural inju injunctions give the the :4411 ). exceptions"" (Radhakrishnan (Radhakrishnan 1960 exceptions 1 960:44 ). 9999 After all all,, the BS iiss in the first place a mfmarhsa, aann investigation of difficult passages passages in in the the sacred sacred texts texts (cf. (cf. Thibaut Thibaut 1904:xlv). difficult 1 904: xlv) .

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for him important Bhagavata-PuraI!a Bhagavata-Pura1!a (cf. above,, note note 9911 for for the the for him so so important (cf. above BhP).. tendency to reject meat as sacrificial substance in the BhP) 5.4 meantime,, Sarhkhya, Samkhya, which which was only very very poorly poorly re­ re5 . 4 In In the the meantime was only S presented in the centuries after Samkara, experienced a 'come presented in the ce nturies after arhkara, experienced a 'come in the the 1lSthl16th when aa Sarhkhya-Siitra Samkhya-Sutra appeared bback' ack ' in 5thl 1 6th century, century , when appeared on on earliest source source of the Samkhyathe scene rather suddenly. the scene rather suddenly . 100 loo Our Our earliest of the Sarhkhya­ Sutra,, Aniruddha Aniruddha's commentary (Vftti) it (ca. (ca. 1lS00), remains Sutra 's commentary (V�tti) on on it 500) , remains silent the problem problem of of sacrificial sacrificial killing killing at at the the place place where where we we s ilent on on the to mention mention it: it: immediately immediately after after the the rej rejection of would expect expect him him to would ection of the adequacy adequacy of of 'visible' 'visible' means means (medicines, to overthe (medicine s , gems, gems , etc.) etc . ) to over­ come suffering suffering (SS come (SS 1.2-S). 1 . 2-5) . The next next important important commentary commentary on the SS SamkhyaThe on the SS is is the the S arhkhya­ Pravacana-Bha�ya fianabhik�u ((16th 1 6th century). century) . SUtra Siitra 1.6 1 .6 Pravacana-Bha~ya by by Vij Vijfianabhik~u " non-distinction for "non-distinction for both both"" (avise�as (avisesas cobhayof;) cobhayoh) which which Ani Aniruddha ruddha as aa reference reference to to aa rule rule of iinterpreted nterpreted as of disputation disputation ("an ( " an opponent opponent can point point out out aa defect defect in in another's view only if his his own own view can another ' s view only if view is is established" ) , is fianabhik�u as an assertion established"), is interpreted interpreted by by Vij Vijfianabhik~u as an assertion according to to which which there there is is no no difference difference between between 'visible' means according 'visibl e ' means etc.) sacrifices).lol (medicines etc . ) and ''invisible' invisibl e ' means (Vedic sacrifices) . 101 Vijfianabhik~u cites Sarhkhya-Karika Samkhya-Karika 1.2 support of of his his interV ij fianabhik�u cites 1 .2 in in support inter­ pretation, says that an admixture of pretation, and and says that Vedic Vedic sacrifices sacrifices have have an admixture of on account of the the infliction of injury injury.. He He also mentions iimpurity mpurity on account of infliction of also mentions the ection that the obj objection that the the Vedic Vedic injunction injunction to to kill kill at at aa sacrifice sacrifice cannot cannot have effect. have any any bad bad effect. 1 00 100 The earlier commentary Yukti-DTpika explicitly presents the Sarhkhya­ SarilkhyaKarika comments as as Siitra-text. on which which it it comments Sutra-text. For For some some observations observations on on the the Karika on of the the Sarilkhya-Slitra place which which the the comparatively late appearance place comparatively late appearance of Sarhkhya-Siitra occupies occupies iin n aa larger in South South Asian larger context context of of literary literary production production in Asian philosophy philosophy,. see see Rouben 1 997b : 2 8 9 , 29 304f notes 2911 and and 304f notes 60f. 60f. Bouben 1997b:289, 101 101 This This distinction distinction between between Vijfianabhik�u Vijfianabhik~u and and Aniruddha, Aniruddha, thOl.�gh though not not very very big sufficient to disprove that " Vijfianabhik�u is dependent throughout on is sufficient to disprove that "Vijfianabhiksu is dependent throughout on big,, is both ' s reading and his of the siitra collection" collection" the sutra both Aniruddha Aniruddha's reading and his interpretation interpretation of Bhattacharya 1987:327, referring to to Garbe). But if if it it is is accepted accepted ((Larson Larson & Bhattacharya 1 987 : 327 , referring Garbe) . But that ijfianabhik�u' s comments 1 . 6 better sutra 1.6 better than than Aniruddha' Aniruddha'ss that V Vijfianabhiksu's comments suit suit siitra comments,, this this would would imply imply that that there there iiss indeed indeed some for improvement comments some scope scope for improvement on Aniruddha' and hence that the Sarhkhya-Siitra is is aa text on Aniruddha'ss comments comments,, and hence that the Sarilkhya-Slitra text not not In any any case, case, Vijfianabhik�u' Vijfianabhik~u'ss comments comments are written by by Aniruddha Aniruddha himself. himself. In written are on on this point closer closer to this point to the the exposition exposition in in the the Sarhkhya-Karika Sarilkhya-Karika..

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T support his ection ooff the only killing Too support his rej rejection the view view that that only killing which which is is not demerit, Vij fianabhik�u refers not prescribed prescribed leads leads to to demerit, Vijfianabhik~u refers to to the the ahabharata according and the the others Mahabharata according to to which which Yudhi��hira Yudhi~thira and others have have M to demerit resulting from the to carry carry out out expiations expiations to to remove remove the the demerit resulting from the killings in accordance killings at at the the battlefield, battlefield, even even when when the the killing killing was was in accordance with ' s 'own ' own dharma' further cites 'statement of with the the warrior warrior's dharma'.. He He further cites aa 'statement of M arkaJ;ufeya(-Pural!a) ' according of the MarkaI!¢eya(-PuraI!a)' according to to which which the the dharma of the three three [Vedas?] is rich in in adharma adharma.. The The much-discussed much-discussed sentence sentence of of [Vedas?] is rich ChandUp . 1 5 according ChandUp 88.15 according to to which which one one should should be be someone someone who who " does not iving being, (sacrificial) "does not harm harm any any lliving being, except except at at sacred sacred (sacrificial) places (section 22.1 . 1 above) above) is is interpreted interpreted by fianabhik�u as places"" (section by Vij Vijfianabhik~u as implying inflicting injury given . implying merely merely that that good good results results follow follow if if inflicting injury is is given up outside outside the sacrifice.. It It does does not imply in that bad bad up the sacrifice not imply in addition addition that results are absent if injury is inflicted within aa sacrifice. are absent if inj ury is infl icted within sacrifice . 102 tOl results Finally he his own own commentary commentary on on the Finally he refers refers to to his the Yoga-Sutra, Yoga-Sutra, where where 03 extensively.. 1103 he discussed the same problem more extensively

5.5 While SSarhkara knocked down down the the Sarhkhya-system Sarhkhya-system on the arhkara knocked on the 5 . 5 While

basis fianabhik�u gave system again basis of of aa Vedil;nta Vedanta position, position, Vij Vijfianabhik~u gave the the system again respectable place place on on the the basis basis of of aa Vedanta Vedanta pos position. For Vi­ Viaa respectable ition. For jjfianabhik~u, fianabhik�u, Sarhkhya in aa whole system Sarhkhya occupied occupied aa definite definite place place in whole system of philosophical philosophical systems systems,, the the top top of of which was formed by Vij Vijfiaof which was formed by fia­ nabhiksu's own theistic theistic Vedanta, Vedanta, which which was was opposed opposed to to the the views views nabhiksu ' s own S arhk ara . V ij fianabhik�u also own commentary on the of of Sarhkara. Vijfianabhik~u also wrote wrote his his own commentary on the B rahma-Sutra, the ij fianamrta . Commenting on 33.1.25 . 1 . 25 he differs Brahma-Sutra, the V Vijfianamrta. Commenting on he differs considerably arhkara �~nd nd other other predecessors considerably from from SSarhkara predecessors:: the group group of beings that have But [it objected:]: ] the But [it may may be be objected of bad bad living living beings that have descended to to hell etc etc.,. , is is impure impure:: it it is is not not appropriate that that the descended says this, this, the the supreme Lord Lord should should supervise supervise these these.. If If [someone says answer [it is on account [authority of] is not not like like that] that],, on account of of the the [authority otl answer is is:]: ] No No [it sacred texts;; for for to to something which has has been been established by the the sacred texts something which established by sacred texts there there can can be be no no opposition-which opposition-which would be aa defilement defilement sacred texts would be 04 reasoning.. This is the meaning meaning.. 1104 (of these sacred texts)-by reasoning 102 102 SPBh ahirizsan sarvabhatany sarvabhutany anyatra tfrthebhya trrthebhya SPBh 99:21-23 : 2 1 -23 (on (on SS SS 1.6): 1 . 6) : ahirhsan vaidhatiriktahirizsanivrtter istasadhanatvam eva vakti, na tu iti srutis tu vaidhatiriktahirhsanivr:tter vaidhahirhsaya vaidhahirizsaya ani�!asadhanatvabhavam anistasadhanatvabhavam api api.. 103 103 See Yoga-Varttika on 2 2.34. . 34 . 104 104 nanu, asuddharh asuddhariz narakadyavarohipapijfvajl1tarh narakadyavarohipapijfvajatariz tatra paramesvaradhi-

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Under the the previous sutra he he explains explains that that the the descent to the the earth earth Under previous sutra descent to also refers is is supervised supervised (adhi�(hita) (adhi~rhita) by by the the Lord Lord.. He He also refers to to an an inter­ interpretation by by 'modern' commentators which which is is very very similar to the pretation ' modern' commentators s imilar to the rice·' etc. would have been inhabited one provided provided by by SSarhkara: one arhkara : rice etc . would have been inhabited (adhi~rhita) by by other other souls souls (different from the the descending descending ones, (adhi�(hita) (different from ones , which are only in conjunction conjunction with . ) . Vij iUi.nabhik�u ' s which are only in with rice rice etc etc.). Vijnanabhik~u's bringing God at at this is hardly bringing iinn ooff aa reference reference to to God this place place is hardly acceptable acceptable in in the the llight of the the ChandUp-passage ChandUp-passage ultimately ultimately discussed discussed;; his his ight of as such, however,, is in the of the Brahma-Sutra theism as theism such, however is in the light light of the B rahma-Siltra as as aa 05 Mere whole not entirely entirely indefensibl e . 1l05 whole not indefensible. More important in important is is that, that, as as in of VaIl Vallabhacarya, his deviation the earlier major the case case of the abhacarya, his deviation from from the earl ier maj or commentators allows allows him avoid an commentators him ttoo avoid an interpretation interpretation according according to to which the would defend lead to to which the BS BS would defend that that sacrificial sacrificial killing killing does does not not lead bad results results.. bad From the it seems Vedantic authors authors From the 16th 1 6th century century onward, onward , it seems that that Vedantic (subcommentators on on the in whichever (subcommentators the Brahma-Sutra, Brahma-Sutra, in whichever way way they they interpret S 33.1.25) . 1 .25) such such as as Appayya-DTk�ita left out interpret B BS Appayya-DTk~ita generally generally left out sacrificial killing from from the the general general prohibition prohibition to to kil kill, while sacrificial killing l , while especially I)avas but like KauI)9a':' especially (Vedantic) (Vedantic) Vai� Vai~l!avas but also also grammarians grammarians like Kaul!~a­ Bhaqa and and N Nagesa century),, both with VedanBhana agesa (l7th ( 1 7th and and 17th-18th 1 7th- 1 8th century) both with Vedan­ tic sacrifice tic and and Sarhkhya-sympathies Sarhkhya-sympathies,, would would reject reject aa real real animal animal sacrifice 1 06 altogether.. 106 altogether �rhti.narh nocitam iti cen: na, sabdat; na hi sabdasiddhe 'rthe tarkavirodho sthanarh diisanam ity artha� arthah.. (BSBhV (BSBhV pp.. 429) 429) da�al'}am 1 05 A extensive consideration of the parallels and differences of SSankara's 105 ailkara ' s and Riimiinuj Ramanuja's BS-commentaries,, the the B BSS and and the the Upani�ads Upani~ads led led Thibaut Thibaut to to and a ' s BS-commentaries the character of Ramanuja and and his his emphasis emphasis on on the the personal personal character of the conclusion conclusion that that Riimiinuja S ailkara' s view more in in harmony harmony with with the the BS BS,, whereas whereas Sailkara's view in in God would be more in harmony down would the role role of of aa personal personal God God is is played played down would be be more more in harmony which the with older Upani�ads 1 904 : lxxxv-cxxviii) . with the the older Upanisads (Thibaut (Thibaut 1904:lxxxv-cxxviii). 1 0 6 Cf. passages cited by Gune 1994:156-162. 106 1 994 : 1 56- 162.

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PART C . DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION' CONCLUSION · PART C. DISCUSSION AND

6. Periods in the acceptability of violence in the sacrifice 6 . 0 Although on the the problem problem of of sacrificial sacrificial killing killing 6.0 Although the the controversies controversies on continue after after Vij fianabhik�u, we have come come at at the the end end of of the Vijfianabhik~u, we have the continue c onclude with period to in the essay . We with period to be be reviewed reviewed in the present present essay. We may may conclude aa brief brief discussion discussion of of the results obtained the results obtained (sections (sections 6-8). 6-8) .

6 . 1 Above we gave gave aa diagram diagram of of the different periods periods to to be be the different 6.1 Above we disti nguished with with regard to the the acceptability acceptabil ity of of sacrificial sacrificial violence violence distinguished regard to and the human sacrifice, sacrifice, in in order order to to provide provide aa background the and the human background for for the philosophical discussions. now in position to philosophical discuss ions . We We are are now in aa position to extend extend and' and' refine this this diagram. refine diagram . Diagram Acceptability of Diagram II: II : Acceptability of sacrificial sacrificial violence violence (SV), (SV) , human human sacrifice sacrifice (HS) (HS) in Brahminical Brahminical circles cirdes (main (main tendencies), in tendencies) , expanded: expanded : SV, accep t . ? Ii HS, HS, accept.? accept. ? accept.? period Ii SV, period II II

A A

yes II yes

B B

I partly partly

C C

D D

texts , Ii texts,

ee.g, .g,

II II

Ii datable event (centuries datable event (centuries CE) CE) I I

yes yes

,some 5S 5S I Ii B-V ~V ,some

no no

ending some some time time after after , most 5S Ii 5B SB,most 5S,, Ii ending

I defended defended I and and II criticized criticized

yes yes

red . c2 CE CE from ca ca "2 II major major red. II from MBhr, emer- IIII II MBhr,emerI Sys t . II gmg gmg Syst. I II Bhartrhari +55 C CE Bharq-hari . I Bhart. E Bhart . + I Samkhya-c . I Ii Samkhya-c. I Kumarila Kumarila + 7 CE CE II Kumarila Kumarila

Ii increasingly increasingly

no no

Ii Kalivarjyas Kalivarjyas II Madhvavij Madhvavij,. . bhikliu II Vij Vij.bhi~u on B rahmSii Ii on BrahmSu

I I

I I I I

avoided avoided

II II II II II II II II

II II II II II II

II

rejected rej ected

II II

ChandUp ChandUp

II II

Asokan edicts edicts -3 CE Asokan CE

'dough Ii Madhva's Madhva's 'dough l 3 CE CE animal sacr.', sacr . ' , + l3 II animal II century century.. Vijfianabhikliu + 16 16 CE CE II Vijiianabhi~u

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�ss the periods 7. Diverging perspectives w within accross ithin and accr

7.1 Whilee this this diagram brings out most clearly clearly the diachronic 7 . 1 Whil diagram brings O\.1t most the diachronic to another, it variations in in general general tendencies tendencies from period to variations from one one period another, it should be should be noted noted that that there there are are also also strong strong variations variations synchronical synchronically, ly , basis of the textual textual evidence evidence within one period.. On ii.e. . e . within one period On the the basis of the reviewed, it has become become clear clear that that Brahmins Brahmins defending reviewed, it has defending sacrificial sacrificial violence in in period period C C were were cautiously cautiously but but unmistakably unmistakably criticized by violence criticized by Sarhkhya and Yoga-authors.. We We have have here here,, within within the the circles circles of of Sarhkhya and Yoga-authors Brahmins (including B Brahminical two clearly clearly opposed opposed B rahmins (including rahminical ascetics), ascetics) , two perspectives sacrificial violence sacrificial perspectives on on the the problem problem of of sacrificial violence,, sacrificial violence and criticized criticized." Similarly,, the the expression violence was was ""defended defended and . " Similarly expression ""increasingly increasingly rejected dynamic rejected"" in in column column 22 row row D D,, implies implies aa dynamic relationship relationship between between opposed opposed perspectives perspectives,, the the one one accepting accepting and and defending ecting it. it. For defending sacrificial sacrificial violence violence,, the the other other rej rejecting For periods periods A A of evidence evidence for for aa strong strong opposition opposition of and B,, II am am not aware of and B not aware of perspectives rahminical perspectives on on sacrificial sacrificial violence violence in in general general within within B Brahminical of course course strong strong contrasts contrasts of of Brahmins Brahmins vs vs.. circles (there (there were were of circles Buddhists).lo7 B,, both ascetics and Jainas and Buddhists) . 1 07 As for period B householders seem to former householders seem to have have generally generally accepted accepted that that the the former i ctly than should avoid avoid violence violence more more str strictly than the the latter latter.. A A closer should closer study study of and D enable us of material material pertaining pertaining to to the the periods periods C C and D may may enable us to to 1 07 Whether 107 Whether in in period A there there were were any any t1uctuations t1uctuations in in the the acceptabil acceptability" period A ity" of of sacrificial violence and especially of human sacrifice, it is difficult to say .. . Wilson ((1852) and Colebrooke Colebrooke (as to by by Wilson) Wilson) conclude on the the 1 852) and (as referred referred to conclude on Wilson basis of far too little l ittle evidence human sacrifice was not accepted in in the basis of far too evidence that that the the human sacrifice was not accepted the Veda, but but was introduced by by later of Brahmanas Brahmanas (Wilson) (Wilson) or Pural!as Veda, was introduced later authors authors of or Puranas the Kalika Kalika (Colebrooke) (Colebrooke).. This This conclusion is echoed by Westerma Westermarck llike ike the conclusion is e � hoed by �ck Already Weber Weber 1864 had collected more Vedic Vedic textplaces textplaces pointing pointing 11912:437. 9 1 2 : 4 3 7 . Already 1 864 had collected more to human human sacrifice. With regard regard to to the the sacred sacred text text of of the the people people which which are are to sacrifice . With linguistically South Asians viz . the to the the Vedic Vedic South Asians,, viz. the linguistically and and culturally culturally most most akin akin to ancient Iranians'' Avesta, Avesta, it it has has been observed that that it no suggestion ancient Iranians been observed it "contains "contains no suggestion of as having at any of that that custom custom [viz [viz.. the the human human sacrifice] sacrifice] as having been been practiced practiced at any time time"" (Edwards 1 9 1 3 : 854) . Hence have been (Edwards 1913:854). Hence,, the the ancient ancient Iranians Iranians have been mentioned mentioned as as the the only not following following the human sacrifice sacrifice of human only Indo�European Indo-European people people not the custom custom of (Edwards 9 1 3 : 853) . However, about the no certain certain statement statement can can be be made made about the (Edwards 11913:853). However, no more as the are "but " but the available available texts texts,, even even admitting admitting that that they they are more remote remote past, past, as windows windows onto onto aa much much larger larger tradition tradition that that had had already already been been developing developing for for r iginated in centuries"" (Skjaervo have to to a a large extent ooriginated in centuries (Skj aervo 1997:108), 1 997 : 1 08) , have large extent reformative (esp . 'Zarathustra ' Zarathustra and and his lowers ' ) , and reformative circles circles (esp. his fol followers'), and have have been been filtered of Zarathustrian Zarathustrian transmitters transmitters.. filtered by by generations generations of

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make distinction between major make aa further further distinction between sub-periods sub-periods within within these these major ones , perhaps also between . g . social social or or geographic) geographic) ones, perhaps also between synchronic synchronic (e (e.g. variations situation of of the variations.. The The precise precise historical historical situation the Yukti-Dipika Yukti-Dlpika deserves same applies applies to deserves further further investigation. investigation. The The same to the the relation relation om between iianabhik�u ' s and deviation fr Vijfianabhik~u's and Vallabhacarya's Vallabhacarya's deviation from between Vij centuries of established establ ished exegesis of BS BS 3.1.25, 3 . 1 . 2 5 , and especially to the centuries of exegesis of and especially to the their innovative to be be more context of context of their innovative interpretations interpretations (claimed (claimed to more much material material (Vedanta, Mlmarhsa, original). There is original) . There is still still much (Vedanta, MTmarhsa, Sarhkhya grammarians'' texts) to be be studied period from Sarhkhya and and grammarians texts) to studied for for the the period from the 16th periods A A and B,, on the other hand,, the 1 6th century century onwards. onwards . For For periods and B on the other hand there is probably insufficient even even just material for for there is probably insufficient just roughly roughly datable datable material further distinctions.. further distinctions 77.2 . 2 The "yes's" " yes ' s " and "no's" " no ' s " regarding regardi ng the acceptability of the human sacrifice (column 3) 3) refer In al human sacrifice (column refer to to major major tendencies tendencies.. In alll periods periods except A there there is is evidence evidence for for aa simultaneous perspective except A simultaneous opposite opposite perspective S rauta-Sutras were as well as well.. Even Even though though the the Srauta-Sutras were not not written written simultaneously at the the same same place place,, they they may may be be taken taken as simultaneously and and at as testifying to to the the existence of two two perspectives perspectives on on human human sacrifice testifying existence of sacrifice of SSrauta-Sutras indicating aa pre­ prein period B B.. The The limited limited number number of in period rauta-Sutras indicating S Srauta-Sutra of the the human human sacrifice sacrifice (mentioned (mentioned in in rauta-Siitra acceptance acceptance of to continue continue older older attitudes attitudes,, but but as as texts texts column row A) A) are are taken taken to column 44 row' � e of S atapatha-BrahmaI).a and they aare course not not older older than than the the Satapatha-Brahmana they o f course and other other sources (Srauta-Sutras) bearing an sources (Srauta-Sutras) bearing witness witness to to its its rejection rejecti~n or or to to an embarassment ith it. For now evidence regarding the embarassment w with it. For now,, the the indirect indirect evidence regarding the S rauta-Siitra or acceptabil ity of of human sacrifice in in the or B-gB-g­ human sacrifice the prepre-Srauta-Sutra acceptability Vedic (and pre-B-g-Vedic) period period (A) does not not allow sharp Vedic (and pre-B-g-Vedic) (A) does allow aa sharp 08 ddistinction istinction between opposed perspectives between opposed perspectives.. ll08

1108 0 8 It may be doubted whether a closer study of the �gvedic Rgvedic material will enable us to to distinguish distinguish with with sufficient sufficient clarity clarity distinct distinct perspectives perspectives on on human human enable us sacrifice or even on Thus, aa �gvedic sacrifice or even on sacrificial sacrificial violence violence in in general general.. Thus, B-gvedic verse verse,, A§vGS 1.1.3-4, speaks of words words of praise praise which which are equivalent to a cited in AsvGS 1 . 1 . 3-4, speaks cited havfr hrda tastam ta�tam bharamasi sacrifice of of oxen, cows : Iia te agna rca havir sacrifice oxen, bulls bulls and and cows: aso vas II te te te bhavantak�a.f}a bhavantuksana r�abh rsabhaso vasaa uta (B-V 66.16.47). be . 1 6 . 47) . This This could could indeed indeed be uta. (�V used to substitution of used to justify justify the the substitution of an an animal animal sacrifice sacrifice by by mere mere praise; praise; nevertheless, ection of as such expressed . Rather, nevertheless, aa rej rejection of these these sacrifices sacrifices as such is is not not expressed. Rather, the sincere poetical an rc) is of sincere poetical praise praise (with (with an is here here the importance importance and and value value of emphasized. emphasized.

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A rguments and perspectives regarding the problem of killing Arguments

88.0 . 0 With and 7 7 we With the the observations observations and and diagram diagram under under 66 and we have have summarized the storical-perspectivistic background summarized the hi historical-perspectivistic background.. We We may may now now take aa closer look at the arguments and the the perspectives in the the take closer look at the arguments and perspectives in narrower the presuppositions presuppositions and perceptions of of the the different different narrower sense: sense : the and perceptions authors.. We We start start with with:: authors 8. 8.11 Observations on the arguments used in the discussions

(a) ity and is reflected in (a) A A tension tension between between traditional traditionality and rationality rationality is reflected in the arguments from time of of the emergence of sys­ the arguments from the the time the emergence of philosophical philosophical systems ical systems) systems) tems (as (as reflected reflected in in the the Mahabharata Mahabharata and and pre-class pre-classical onwards.. From From then then on on,, rational rationality is manifestly manifestly present present in in each each onwards ity is i n momentum period and and subperiod subperiod.. But But it it does does not not ga gain momentum.. On On the the period other of references other hand hand,, traditionality traditionality,, in in the the form form of references to to authoritative authoritative texts of tradition texts and and defences defences of of the the validity validity of tradition,, is is strengthened and strengthened and reinforced,, and and it it pushes subsequent forms forms of of rational rational criticism to reinforced pushes subsequent criticism to aa non-chaIlenging role in in support support of secondary (parvapak�a) non-challenging,, secondary (purvapak~a) role of the the traditionally (and (and irrationally) irrationally) given. given. traditionally It see the of transmission It is is tempting tempting to to see the method method of transmission of of knowledge knowledge as as an important important correlative, if not not causal causal factor factor in this situation. situation. This This an correlat i ve , if in this method, method, as as is is weIl well known, known, is is itself itself fully fully dependent dependent on on traditional traditionalii­ ty,, iin the sense sense that that it it requires requires considerable considerable effort (learning by by effort (learning ty n the heart heart,, teaching teaching,, copying copying of of generally generally rapidly rapidly deteriorating deteriorating manuscripts) of of persons persons devoted devoted to to the the tradition. tradition. Hence Hence,, in the manuscripts) in the course of time time,, traditionality traditionality is is unavoidably unavoidably strengthened course of strengthened and and natural selection: those ideas ideas which which reinforced by by some some sort sort of reinforced of natural selection: those hhave ave the the strongest strongest bond bond with with traditionalism traditionalism have have the the best best chances chances is marginalized marginalized,, and for survival. By the the same same process process,, rationality rationality is for survival . By and can survive in submission maIl scale: scal e : can survive only only in submission to to traditionality traditionality (on (on aa ssmall purvapak~as introducing introducing the the siddhanta; on on aa larger larger scale, aass parvapak�as scale , aass aa 1 09 neo-Samkhya subordinated to Vedantic Vedantic systems) systems).. 109 neo-Sarhkhya subordinated to But we also see see that, that, iinn the process,, the the tradition tradition gains But we also the process gains iinn breadth and and 'wisdom 'wisdom'. Points of of criticism criticism are are absorbed absorbed and become breadth ' . Points and become 1109 0 9 Cf. Rouben Houben forthc forthc.. bband Houben in prep prep.. for further reflections and and Rouben considerations considerations regarding regarding this this point point..

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new traditionalized (often hierarchically options . Devices new traditionalized (often hierarchically ordered) ordered) options. Devices llike ike references of the or other lost' authoritative to lost lost parts parts of the Veda Veda or other ''lost' authoritative references to entation of texts,110 presentation new interpretation interpretation as of aa new as aa more oriori­ texts , 1 1 0 the pres ginal . , bring some flexibility he ginal one one,, etc etc., bring in in some flexibility with with regard regard to to." tthe guidelines and at at the guidelines offered offered by by tradition, tradition, and the same same time time aa greater greater necessity ity on on aa secondary secondary plane necessity of of using using rational rationality plane.. (b) In In South South Asia, in Europe, of discussions discussions on on ethical ethical Asia, as as in Europe, centuries centuries of (b) problems of most sophisticated argu­ most sophisticated arguproblems allowed allowed for for the the development development of mentations mentations.. In In Europe, Europe, some some of of the the more more remarkable remarkable and and conse­ consequential sophistications sophistications took took place place along along the the lines of aa very very quential lines of successful paradigmatic branch branch of viz.. mathematics mathematics.. successful and and paradigmatic of learning, learning , viz Two cases cases which which may may be be considered symptomatic Two cons ide red sy mptomatic are are Spinoza's Spinoza' s demonstrata,, and Ethica more geometrico demonstrata and Th. Th . Hobbes' Hobbes ' explicit explicit pronouncements of geo­ geopronouncements that that ethics ethics should should base base itself itself on on the the method method of metry and and physics physics in in order order to to be be able able to to make make aa solid solid contribution contribution metry to truth truth (Ritter (Ritter 1972:770). to 1 972 : 770) . In South South Asia, sophistications are are made along the the lines In Asia, sophistications made mainly mainly along lines of successful linguistic s , grammar and of the the paradigm paradigm of of the the successful linguistic science sciences, grammar and c al Mlmarhsa, techni use of of established " ge­ technical Mlmarilsa, and and make make use established principles principles of of "general rule rule and and exception, exception,"" "contradiction and its its conditions and neral " contradiction and conditions and i ttle in­ countermeasures , " etc. etc . There There seems have been been very countermeasures," seems to to have very llIttle inaxioms.. centive to to search search for for generally generally valid valid ethical centive ethical principles principles or o r axioms Formulations of the ' Golden Rul e ' did (as attested attested by Formulations of the 'Golden Rule' did exist exist (as by the the Mahabharata), but it it did not have have aa generally generally accepted high M ahabharata) , but did not accepted high authority as as it it was was not not found found in in the the ancient ancient traditional traditional texts texts.. authority Two B Brahminical philosophical systems particular accorded accorded Two rahminical philosophical systems in in particular relatively high high status status to to rationality rationality (anumana, inference) and and aa relatively (anumana , inference) would pprobably robably have de­ would have offered offered the the best best opportunities opportunities for for aa ". development favouring favouring aa rational rational ethical Sarilkhya and and Vai­ Vaivelopment ethical system: system : Sarhkhya se~ika. But But they they seem seem to to have have stagnated stagnated as rational systems and·" se�ika. as rational systems and survived only as sets of dogmas (partly system survived only as sets of dogmas (partly on on account account of of the the system of knowledge-transmission?) knowledge-transmission?).. of

One of oldest passages passages generally generally acknowledged acknowledged as authori(c) One (c) of the the oldest as authori­ o n of tative sruti and and iinterpretable mild repudiati repudiation of sacrificial sacrificial vivinterpretable as as aa mild tative 1110 1 0 Cf. with this the concept of the oral Torah in the Hebrew exegetical tradition, a l . 1997:298f. 1 997 : 298f. tradition, van van Bekkum Bekkum et. et. aI.

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olence is is Chandogya-Upani�ad Chandogya-Upani~ad 8 8.15, ahirhsan sarvabhiltan( sarvabhatan( (this olence . 1 5 , ahirizsan (this often echoed echoed or or reformulated reformulated in philosophical and and ethical ppart art often in philosophical ethical llitit­ erature erature as as na hirizsyat himsyat sarva bhiltani) bhatani),, anyatra trrthebhyal} trrthebhyah.. From From this systematic inter­ this Upani�adic Upani~adic statement, statement, one one has has derived derived,, by by systematic inter1 1 1 - i . e . the reasoningill-Le. the kind kind of of reasoning reasoning which which accepts accepts its pretive reasoning pretive its subordinate position vis-a.-vis the the tradition-both tradition-both the the admissability subordinate position vis-a.-vis admissability of sacrificial violence (e (e.g. Kumarila, SSarhkara) and its reprehenof sacrificial violence . g . Kumarila, arhkara) and its reprehen­ sibility (e . g . Vij fianabhik�u) . Vijfianabhik~u). sibility (e.g.

8.22 Undiscussed presuppositions 8. It can be be said said that Sarhkhya system, at least least in in its its class ical for­ It can that the the Sarhkhya system, at classical formulation, emphasizes the relative relative importance importance of of rationality rationality (in mulation, emphasizes the (in its its own own categories categories:: tarka or or anumana) vis-a.-vis vis-a.-vis tradition tradition (agama) right right from from the the outset. outset. The Vedanta Vedanta system, however, originating originating as as aa hermeneutical hermeneutical The system, however, of the the Vedas Vedas,, especially its Upani�adic Upani~adic sections, naturally discipline of discipline especially its sections , naturally accords priority authority of texts . Since Since Vedanta accords priority to to the the authority of the the texts. Vedanta leaves leaves the door door open, not for rational criticism criticism straightaway straightaway,, at at least least for the open, if if not for rational for later, post-Vedic post-Vedic and strictly B Brahminical later, and less less strictly rahminical influences influences · by by accepting for instance instance the the Bhagavad-GTta Bhagavad-Gita as as part of its threefold accepting for part of its threefold basis (prasthanatrayz) (prasthanatrayi),, there there is moderation of the staunch staunch is some some moderation of the basis B rahminical traditionalism and thi Brahminical traditionalism with with regard regard to to ritual ritual matters matters,, and thiss is is increasingly in the of theistic increasingly felt felt in the later later forms forms of theistic (Vai�I.J.ava) (Vai~I.lava) Vedanta Vedanta.. there in case of of No scope moderating influence influence is No scope for for such such aa moderating is there in the the case Mlmarhsa,, since this system system iiss entirely entirely focused focused on the iinterpetation on the nterpetation Mlmamsa since this of rahminical ritualistic of the the B Brahminical ritualistic parts parts of of the the Vedas Vedas.. Also Also some some other other divergent systems underly divergent fundamental fundamental choices choices of of the the different different systems underly the the discussion to kill kill or kill the " : whereas discussion on on ""to or not not to to kill the sacrificial sacrificial animal animal": whereas Mlmamsa is is devoted devoted to to the the lifestyle lifestyle of of the the sacrificing sacrificing householder householder Mlmamsa (often ncompatible w ith universal (often seen seen as as iincompatible with universal non-violence) non-violence),, both both early early Samkhya and early early Vedanta Vedanta are are closely closely related related to to the the renunci renunciatory Samkhya and atory style of life life (just as,, incidentally, incidentally, the the Jainas Jainas and and Buddhists) Buddhists).. style of Gust as

li IIII The textplaces themselves and the meaning they express effortlessly would come come under under direct direct perception perception in in Mlmamsa Mlmamsa (as (as science of of interpretive interpretive would reasoning),, the reasoning proper (anumiina, (anumana , inference) starts from this directly rea�oning) perceived meaning. meaning. perceived

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8.33 Varying perceptions of reality 8. The perception considerably for for the the different different The perception of reality reality differs differs considerably n the discussions. discussions . The adherent of Sarhkhya perceives participants iinthe aa suffering animal, animal , which he sees as a living l iving being l ike himself. being like Among those who the animal animal sacrifice sacrifice there are some some Among those who defend defend the there are S arhkara) who are entirely unwilling to give (Kumarila, (Kumarila, Sarhkara) g ive any rational argument whatsoever whatsoever:: they only say that the sacrificial s acrificial texts.. killing must be good because it is prescribed by by the sacred texts On this therefore , they they display something which approaches On this point, point, therefore, display something which approaches a ''blind b lind faith' in the texts, texts , in as much as the perception perception of the victim ' s suffering and victim'ss going to to victim's and the the non-perception non-perception of the victim' heaven are entirely Others , ee.g. . g . Ramanuj a , do do try to heaven are entirely neglected neglected.. Others, Ramanuja, try to come with additional arguments apart from the sacred texts, texts , but thesee are based on an entirely different perception of the act of thes killing it is is seen, seen, not of the not as as real real killing killing but but as as aa transferral transferral of the killing:: it animal to heaven. Rhetorical and ritual means to promote precisely this perception of the act of killing were employed, as we have seen, in the Vedic ritual system, and it was further further confirmed in Manu's Manu ' s statement that "in " in sacrifice killing is no killing" killing " (Manu 5 . 3 9) . Among the, the . two perceptions , it is the Sarhkhya two mentioned perceptions, 5.39). perception which accords more with normal sensory perception aided by common sense. sense . In the case of the alternative perception, one ' s perception based on an adherence to to one can can speak of of a believer believer's texts,, and to a late-Vedic 'magico-ritualistic' the sacred texts ' magico-ritualisti c ' world v iew . view.

9. Conclusion ,, With some generalization-hence unavoidably with some distortion -it can be said that in i n the text material reviewed sacrificial s acrificial initially criticized criticized by by appeals to to reason reason and and references violence is initially to extra-Vedic principles (e.g. (e . g . the 'Golden Rule'), Rule ' ) , and defended by traditionali s m, ii.. e., e . , by by references to authoritative texts texts and traditionalism, 'rational the irrational validity of tradition tradition.. 'rational'' defences of the In I n the course of time, even the Brahminical-Hindu criticism is absorbed within with w ithin the fold of traditionalism, and supported w ith the help of authoritative references and interpretive reasoning. reasoning . The

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denial or non-perception of violence is justified moroe moroe by traditradi­ tionalization (the 'rational' ' rational ' defence of the irrational authority and ratioonalization. validity of the tradition) than by ratio o nalization. Put differently: differently : the rationalization of sacrificial violence is on closer study a traditiontradition­ alization which tries to keep this violence outside the jjurisdiction u risdiction of rationality However , the tradition is is able able to absorb contrasting contrasting of rationality.. However, the tradition to absorb and diverging diverging options makes rationality rationality on on aa secondary secondary and options,, and and this this makes .make a choice between to .make between the the traditional traditional level quite quite necessary to options options.. In aa traditionalistic society or environment an alternative other , for the to compete more more seriously with with other, the one option can can start to o r the other ones , if some traditional support or other reason reason less desirable ones, is be , created) for is found (or, if need need be, for it. This was was already well well understood by Madhva. Although the scope of this essay was limited l imited by its focus on jjust ust (viz . Brahminical of all all possibly possibly relevant relevant sources (viz. Brahminical philo­ philoa part part of sophers, sophers , especially Sarhkhya and Vedanta)~ Vedanta) � the material reviewed was ap­ that neither a one-dimensional historical historical apwas sufficient to show that proach, nor an ahistorical perspectivist approach can do jjustice ustice to it. An argument is neither to be understood only in an 'ortho' o rtho­ geneti c ' relation arguments , nor with previous previous and and later arguments, nor only in the genetic' relation with context of an ahistorical system of philosophical perspectives. perspectives . The· The · pre-classical,, as far as it is reflected in value of the classical (and pre-classical e.g. e . g . the Mahabharata) Sarhkhya argument against sacrificial violviol­ ence is quite different different from from the the,, in outer outer appearance similar, ar­ arence is gument subjugated' Sarhkhya of Vij fianabhik� u . Moreover, Moreove r , of the the ''subjugated' Vijfianabhik~u. gument of the classical Sarhkhya position appears different depending on o n how at the oone ne evaluates the that the sacrificed sacrificed animal goes to to the ancient view view th heaven:: Sarhkhya heaven S arhkhya is eeither ither rational and progressive vis-a.-vis the irir­ rationality emorationality and and conservatism conservatism of of the the tradition, tradition, or it it fosters fosters an an emo­ tionalism vis-a.-vis the knowledge of reality imbued in the tradi­ traditional s . Again, Bhart~­ tional ritual rituals. Again, the the contrast between between the the grammarian Bhart�­ hari's Nahari ' s acceptance of sacrificial violence and the grammarian Na­ ges a ' s rej ection of thei r gesa's rejection of it, is to to be be seen against the background of their quite different philosophical and cultural surroundings surroundings.. Whatever one's one ' s own position in i n these matters may be-the urgency urgency of of modern modern ecological ecological and and social problems problems will prevent

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anyone from advocating advocating the continuation ooff behavioral anyone from the thoughtless thoughtless continuation behavioral ' ns stemming l 2-if stemming from Stone Age patterns from the the Stone Age 1l12 one wants wants to under-if one to underpatter stand the position of others, others , including former authors authors on on the the stand the position of including former subject, the the framework framework of of aa perspectivistic-historicaI subject, perspectivistic-historicaI approach approach recommends itself the complex­ recommends itself for for dealing dealing in in aa balanced balanced way way with with the complexities involved involved.. ities

1 1 2 This 112 This is implicitly accepted accepted in in modern modern debates, debates, where where not not only those op­ opis implicitly only those posing posing the the Vedic Vedic sacrificial sacrificial system system use use arguments arguments referring referring to to the the modern modern eco­ ecoIndia (waste of scarce scarce resources resources,, confirmation confirmation logical and and social social situation logical situation in in India (waste of of , ) , also of low low position position of of women women and and outcasts outcasts,, etc etc.), also the the defenders defenders try try to to tind find modern ''scientific' by claiming, instance, positive positive effects modern scientific' arguments arguments by claiming , for for instance, effects from from sacrifices on the ecology and life-as in in Agnihotra - process of puri­ purisacrifices on the ecology and on on social social life-as Institute for (Shivpuri : Institute for StuStu­ fication of the atmosphere - scientific perspective (Shivpuri: dies in in Vedic Vedic sciences, sciences, 1990) by. Madan Deshpande and and Manohar Manohar M.Pordar, 1 990) by, Madan Deshpande M . Potdar, ' dies to mention mention aa single single example example.. to

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Abbreviated Titles Abbreviated Titles Note:: Generally used editions and translations (for the Vedic texts cf. Gonda Note 1975 1 975 and 1977) 1 977) are here not mentioned. ""except except for some oft-quoted ones or if confusions are likely to arise. AiB AiB

1 879; tr. A.B. Aitareya-BrahmaI;la Ed.. Th. Aufrecht, Aufrecht, Bonn 1879; tr. A.B. Aitareya-BrahmaI;la.. Ed �igveda Brtihmaf}as, 1920. 1 920. Keith iinn ~igveda ApDhS A ApDhS Apastamba-Dhatma-Siitra. pastamba-Dhatma-Siitra . Ap S S A pastamba- S rauta-Siitra . ApSS Apastamba-Srauta-Siitra. A svGS AsvGS AsvaIayana-G�hya-Siitra. AsvaIayana-G~hya-Siitra. BauDhS Baudhayana-Dharma-Siitra. BauSS Bau S S Baudhayana-Srauta-Siitra. Baudhayana- S rauta-Siitra. A rUp A raI;lyaka-Upani�ad . B� BrhadB~ArUp Brhad-AraI;lyaka-Upani~ad. S rIBh. BS Brahma-Siitra. Cf. Cf. BSBh, BSBh, SrIBh. Brahma-Siitra. S ailkaracary a . Ed. BSBh Brahma-Siitra-Bha�ya Ed . Madras: Madras : Samata Samata Brahma-Siitra-Bha~ya of of Sailkaracarya. Books 1 983 (Complete (Complete works of Sri S ri Sankaracharya, Sankaracharya, vol. vol . 7). 7) . Books 1983 works of Tr. Thibaut 1904. 1 904 . BSBhM Brahma-Siitra-Bha�ya of Madhvacarya, Madhvacarya, with with comm. comm . TattvaTattva­ Brahma-Siitra-Bha~ya of prakasika Raghavendraprakas ika of JayatTrtha and gloss Bhavadlpa of Raghavendra­ R.S. tIrtha. Ed. Ed . R . S . Panchamukhi. Panchamukhi . Dharwad 1981. 1 98 1 . BSBhV BSBhV Brahma-Siitra-Bha~ya Ed.. Pdt. Mukunda Brahma-Siitra-Bha�ya of Vijiianabhik~u. Vijiianabhik�u . Ed Shastri. 1 900. Shastri . Benares 1900. ChandUp Chandogya-Upani�ad Chandogya-Upani~ad.. ChandUpBh Chandogya-Upani�ad-Bha�ya. Madras : Samata Books ChandUpBh Chandogya-Upani~ad-Bha~ya. Ed Ed.. Madras: vol.. 9). 1983 1 983 (Complete works of Sri Sankaracharya, vol 9) . ill JaiminTya-Upani~ad. JaiminTya-Upani�ad . KathS Ka~haka-Sarhhita. Ka�haka-Sarhh i ta . iy S S U U~yayana-Srauta-Siitra. U�yayana- S rauta-Siitra. UiySS MaiS MaiS MaitrayaI;lIya-Sarhhita.. MaitrayaI;lIya-Sarhhita Manu Manu-Srnrti . Manu-Srnrti. Mahabha~ya. Ed.. F. MBh Mahabha�y a . Ed F . Kielhorn, 1880-1885, 1 880- 1 885 , 3d ed. Pune 19621 9621972. 1 972 . MBhar Mahabharata. Ed Ed.. Pune 1933-i966. MBhar 1933- i 966 . MBhD Mahabha�ya-DIpika of Bhartrhari. Ed . Pune 1985-1991. 1 985- 1 99 1 . MBhD Mahabha~ya-DIpika Bhartrhari. Ed. MS MImarhsa-Siitra. MImarhsa-Siitra . PB PB Paiicavirhsa-BrahmaJ;la. RV RV Rg-Veda. Sailkhayana-Grhya-Siitra. S ailkhayana-Grhya-Siitra. S ailGS SailGS S ailS S S ailkhayana-S rauta-Siitra. Sailkhayana-Srauta-Siitra. SailSS S atapatha-BrahmaI;la (Madhyandina-sakha). SB Satapatha-BrahmaI;la Ed.. A. Weber, (Madhyandina-sakha) . Ed SB 1 85 5 ; transl. London, 1855; transl. JJ.. Eggeling Eggeling,, Sacred Books Books of the the East, 1 882- 1 900 . 1882-1900. SK Sarhkhya-Karika. S arhkhya-Karika .

5. TO OR NOT TO KILL 5. TO KILL KILL OR NOT TO KILL S lY SIV SPBh SPBh S rTBh SrTBh S rkBh SrkBh

SSV SS SV SV TB TB TK TK TS TV TV

VaitS VaitS

VP VPS VPS YajSm YB YB

YD YS YV

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S Ioka-Varttika of Kumarila Bhaga, Bhaga, with with TatparyaFka TatparyaFka of of Sloka-Varttika of Kumarila Urhveka Bhaga. 1 97 1 . Bha��a . Ed. Ed . R. Sastri 1971. Sarhkhya-Pravacana-Bha~ya by Vijiianabhik~u. Ed.. R R.. Garbe, Sarhkhya-Pravacana-Bha�ya Vijiianabhik�u. Ed Garbe , Cambridge:: Harvard Univ. Cambridge Univ . 1895. 1 895 . SSrT-Bha~ya S rutiprakasika of rT-Bha�ya of of Ramanuja, and Srutiprakasika of Sudarsana; Sudarsana, ' ed. ed . Ramanuja, and Viraraghavacarya,, Madras 1967. 1 967 . Uttamurti Viraraghavacarya SSrTkara-Bha~ya S rTpati Pal!�itacarya. rTkara-Bha�ya of of SrTpati Pal!~iitacarya. Ed Ed.. by by Hayavadana Hayavadana Rao,, Bangalore 1936. . Rao Sarhkhya-Saptati-Vrtti. Ed. Ed . E.A. Solomon 1973a. 1 973a. Sarhkhya-Siitra. Aniruddha'ss Sarhkhya-Siitra-Vrtti by S arhkhya-Siitra. Ed. Ed . with Aniruddha' R. Garbe, Calcutta 1888. 1 888 . S arhkhya-Vrtti . Ed. Ed . E . A . Solomon 1973b. 1 973b . Sarhkhya-Vrtti. E.A. TaittirTya-Brahmal!a. TaittirTya-Brahmana. Tattva-KaumudT (on SK) of Vacaspati Misra. Ed.. S.A. Misra . Ed S .A. Srinivasan, Hamburg,, 1967. S rinivasan, Hamburg 1 967. . . TaittirTya-Sarhhita. Tattva-VaisaradT of Vacaspati Misra, Ed Ed.. in:Pataiijalayogain: Patafijalayoga­ darSanam, Vacaspatimisraviracita-TattvavaisaradT-Vijiianadad anam , Vacaspatimisraviracita-TattvavaisaradT-Vij fiana­ bhi�ukrta-Yogavartikavibhii� ita-Vyasabhli�yasametam, ed. ed. by bhik~ukrta-Yogavartikavibhii~ita-Vyasabha~yasametam; by Narayal!a-Misra 1 98 1 . Tr. Woods 1914. Narayal!a-Misra,, Varal!asI, Varal)asf, 1981. Woods 1914. Tr. R.. Garbe, Vaitana-Siitra. Vaitana-Siitra . Ed. Ed . and T r. R Garbe , Strassburg: Strassburg : Trobner, Triibner, 1878; Caland,, Amsterdam: 1 87 8 ; Tr. W. Caland Amsterdam : 1910. 1910. Vakyapadfya ooff Bhartrhari Bhartrhari.. Ed. Rau,, Wiesbaden: 1977. VakyapadTya Ed . W. Rau 1 977 . VedantaVedanta-Parijata-Saurabha of Nimbarka, and Vedanta­ S rTnivasa . Tr. by Roma Bose Bose,, Calcutta, 1940. 1 940. Kaustubha of Srfnivasa. Yaj fiavalkya-Smrti , with comm . Mitak~ara Mitak�ara of Vijfianesvara. Yajiiavalkya-Smrti, with the comm. Vijiianesvara. Hindi-comm . Prakash . C . Pandey. Pandey . Varanasi, Varanasi , Ed. with Hindi-comm. Prakash by by U U.C. A nandasrama, 1904. Yoga-Bha~ya.. Ed Ed.. H H.N. 1 904. Tr. Yoga-Bhli�ya . N . Apte, Apte , Pune: Pune : Anandasrama, Woods 1914. 1914. Yukti-DIpikil. R.C. Pandeya,, Delhi Delhi:: Motilal Banarsidass Banarsidass,, Yukti-DTpika. Ed. Ed . R . C . Pandeya Motegi,, Stuttgart: 1967. 1 967 . Now also ed. ed . by Wezler and Motegi Stuttgart : Franz Steiner, 1998. 1 998 . Steiner, Yoga-Siitra. Ed Ed.. Tr. Woods 1914. Yoga-Sutra. 1914. ofVijiliinabhik~u. Ed.. and T Tr. Yoga-Varttika of Vijfianabhi�u . Ed r . T.S. T . S . Rukmani (4 vols.), Delhi:: Munshiram Manoharlal, vols . ) , Delhi Manoharlal , 1981-89; 1 9 8 1 -89; and see under TV TV..

Other works referred to Abhyankar, K K.V. V.P. . V . and V . P . Limaye rf Bhart�hari. 1965 Srf Bhart!,hari. Poona: Poona: Univ Univ.. of Poona. 1 965 Vakyapadi'ya Vakyapadfya of oj S Akluj kar, Ashok Ashok N Aklujkar, N.. 1989 1 989 "Pramal!ya "Prama�ya in the philosophy ooff the grammarians." grammarians . " IIn: n : Studies in Indology: Prof Rasik Vihari Felicitation Volume (ed. (ed . Avanindra Avanindra Kumar Kumar et aI., Delhi:: Shree Publishing House) House):: 15-28. 1 5-28 . aI . , New Delhi

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Buitenen, J.A.B. van Buitenen, I . A . B . van 1 95 6 Ramanuja 's Vedarthasarhgraha. [Reprint 1956 Ramanuja's Poona:: Deccan College [Reprint 1992.] 1 992 . ] Poona Postgraduate and and Research Research Institute Institute.. Postgraduate Cannan, John Braisted Carman, John Braisted 1 974 The Theology of Ramanuja: An Essay in Interreligious Understanding. 1974 New New Haven Haven and and London: London: Yale Yale Univ Univ.. Press Press.. Chappell, David David W. W. Chappell, Journal of Buddhist Ethics. 1 995 ""Are Are there Seventeen Mahayana 1995 there Seventeen Mahayana Ethics? Ethics'?"" lournal (http://www. psu.edu/jbe/chappeIL (http : //www . psu . edu/jbe/chappel l . html) Dasgupta, Surendranath Surendranath Dasgupta, 1 922 A Indian Philosophy Cambridge . Reprint: of Indian Philosophy.. 55 Vols Vois.. Cambridge. Reprint: Delhi Delhi:: 1922 A History History of Motilal 1 99 1 . Motilal Banarsidass, Banarsidass, 1991. Deussen, Deussen, Paul Paul (with (with O O.. Strauss) Strauss) 1 906 Vier philosophische Texte des Mahtibhtirata 1906 Mahabharata.. Leipzig Leipzig:: Brockhaus Brockhaus.. O'Flaherty, Doniger O ' Fl aherty , Wendy 1 987 "The " The Good Good and Evil Shepherd In: Gilgul, . . dedicated to and Evil Shepherd.". " In: Gi/gul, essays .. .. 1987 (ed . M . J . Sharpe, Sharpe, R .J.Z. R. J. Zwi Werblowsky (ed. RJ M.. Heerma Heerma van van Voss Voss,, E E.J. KJ.Z. Werblowsky):169-191. Leiden: Bril BrilLl . Werblowsky) : 169- 1 9 1 . Leiden: Dumont,, P P.-E. Dumont . -E . 1927 1 927 L 'Asvamedha: Description du sacrifice solennel du cheval dans IIee culte .vvedique, edique, d 'apres les textes du Yajurveda blanc (VajasaneyisaJizhita, (VajasaneyisaJilhita, d'apres S Satapathabrahmana, Karyayanasrautasiitra).. Paris Paris:: Paul Paul Geuthner. Geuthner. atapathabrahmalJa, Katyayanasrautasiitra) Edwards,, E E.. Edwards 1 9 1 3 "Human " Human Sacrifice Sacrifice (Iranian)." (Iranian) . " Encyclopaedia of religion and ethics, vol voL. 1913 Edinburgh:: Clark. Clark. 66:853-855. : 853-855 . Edinburgh Eggeling,, Julius Julius Eggeling 1900 Satapatha-Brahmarza. VoL. 55.. Sacred Books of the East, 44.. Oxford Oxford.. atapatha-BrahmalJa . Vol Sacred Books of the East, 44 1 900 S Reprint: Delhi Delhi:: Motilal Motilal Banarsidass Banarsidass.. Reprint: A.-M. Esnoul,l , A Esnou .-M. 1964 Ramanuja eett la la mystique mystique vishnouite vishnouite.. Paris Paris:: Editions Editions dduu Seuil SeuiL. 1 964 Ramanuja Falk, Harry 1986 Bruderschaft u�d und Wiirjelspiel: Untersuchungen zur Entwicklungs­ Entwicklungs1 986 Bruderschajt Freiburg:: Falk. Falk. geschichte des vedischen Opfers. Freiburg 'Etudes indiennes 6:2256 : 2251988 "Vedische 1988 "Vedische Opfer Opfer im im Pali-Kanon. Pali-Kanon."" Bulletin d d'Etudes 254.. 254 Forschner, Maximilian Maximilian Forschner, CoR. Beck'sche 1977 . H . Beck' sche 1 977 ""Empirismus." Empirismus . " Lexicon der Ethik. Munchen: C VerJagsbuchhandlung.. Verlagsbuchhandlung Frauwallner, Erich Frauwall ner, Erich 1 953 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie. 1. 1. Band. Die Philosophie des 1953 Stirhkhya Veda und des Epos; der Buddha und der linG; Jina; das Sii rhkhya und das Muller Verlag Verlag.. Salzburg : Otto Otto Muller klassische Yoga-system. Salzburg: 1958 " D ie Erkenntnislehre des klassischen Sarhkhya-systems . " Wiener 1958 "Die Erkenntnislehre des klassischen Sarilkhya-systems." SchriJten ZeitschriJt fUrr die Kunde Siid- und Ostasiens 22:: 84-139. 84- 1 3 9 . [Kleine Schriften Zeitschriftfii (ed.. G G.. Oberhammer Oberhammer and and·E. Steinkellner):223-278. Wiesbaden: 1982.] (ed E . Steinkellner) : 223-27 8 . Wiesbaden: 1982 . ]

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1992 1 992 Nachgelassene Werke II: Philosophische Texte des des Hinduismus (ed. (ed . G. G. O sterreichi ;chen Oberhammer and C.H. C . H . Werba). Werba) . Wien: Verlag der Osterreichi;chen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 1995 1 995 Studies in Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist from the German by S.F. S . F . Kidd under the Philosophical Systems. Transl. from superv. superv . of E. Steinkellner. Albany: Albany : SUNY-press. SUNY-press . Gait, E.A. Gait, E.A. 1913 vol.. 1 9 1 3 "Human " Human sacrifice (Indian)." (Indian) . " Encyclopaedia of religion and ethics, vol 6:849-853. 6 : 849-853 . Edinburgh: Clark. Garbe, Richard 1892 Aniruddha's 1 892 Aniruddha 's Commentary and the Original Parts of Vedtintin Mahtideva's Transl.l . with an Mahtideva 's Commentary on the Stilhkhya Sutras. Trans introduction etc. etc . Calcutta: Calcutta : Baptist Mission Press. 1917 1 9 1 7 Die Stirhkhya-Philosophie: eine Darste[[ung des indischen Rationalismus. 2 . umgearbeitete Auflage ( 1 . Auflage 1894) 1 894) Leipzig: Leipzig : H 2. Auflage.. (1. H.. Haessel Verlag. Verlag . Garvin, Lucius 1 95 6 "Major " Major Ethical Viewpoints . " Encyclopedia of Morals (ed. (ed . by Vergilius Viewpoints." 1956 Fern):: 309-322. Press,, 1969.] Fern) 3 09-322 . [Reprint: New York: Greenwood Press 1 969 . ] Gellner, Ernest 1 992 Reason and Culture: The Historic Role of Rationality and Rationalism. Rationalism . 1992 Oxford : Blackwell Oxford: Blackwell.. Glasenapp,, Helmuth Glasenapp 1923 Madhva's 1 923 Madhva 's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens: Vishnu- Glaubens: Mit einer Einleitung uber Madhva und seine Schule. Ein Beitrag zur Sektengeschichte des smus. Bonn und Leipzig:. Hinduismus. Hindui Leipzig: . Kurt Schroeder. Gombrich, Richard F. 1971 Precept and Practice: Traditional Buddhism in the Rural Highlands of Ceylon. Ceylon . Oxford: Oxford : Clarendon Press. Press . . . Gonda, Jan 1975 Literature.. (A History of Indian Literature, vol vol.. 1.1.) Wiesbaden:: 1 975 Vedic Literature 1 . 1 . ) Wiesbaden Harassowitz. Harassowitz . 1 977 The Ritual Sutras. A Literature , 1.2. 1 . 2 . Wiesbaden: 1977 A History History of Indian Literature, Harassowitz . Harassowitz. Gune, Gune , Jayashree 1994 1 994 "Pasu-sacrifice in the Siltras." Siltras . " Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 74:153-167. 74 : 1 5 3 - 1 67 . Hacker, Paul 1958 1 95 8 "Der " Der Dharmabegriff des Neuhinduismus." Neuhinduismus . " Zeitschrift fur Missionswissenschajt 42: 42 : 1-15 1 - 1 5 . .[1978:510-524] .[ 1 978 : 5 1 0-524] 1965 Hinduismus." 1 965 "Dharma " D harma im Hinduismus . " Zeitschrift fUr Missionswissenschajt 49:9349: 931 06 . [1978:496-509] [ 1 97 8 : 496-509] 106. 1978 Schriften.. Ed Ed.. by Lambert Schmithausen. (Glasenapp-Stiftung, 1 97 8 Kleine Schriften (Glasenapp-Stiftung , 1 5 , ) Wiesbaden: Wiesbaden: Steiner. Steiner. B d . 15,) Bd.

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Halbfass,, Wilhelm Halbfass 1 988 India and Europe: an Essay in Understanding. Albany 1988 Albany:: State State University University of [Indian Edition, Delhi 1990, 1 990, with of New New York York Press. Press. [Indian Edition, Delhi with undertitle undertitle:: An Essay in Philosophical Understanding.] Understanding. ] 1991 Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought. Albany 1991 Albany:: State State Press.. University of New York Press Hallisey,, Charles Charles Hallisey 11995 995 ""Ethical Ethical Particularism . " Journal of Buddhist Particularism in in Theravaada Theravaada Buddhism Buddhism." (http://www.psu.edu/jbe/hallisey.html) Ethics. (http : //www . psu . edu/jbe/hall isey . html) Handiqui, K.K. K.K. 11949 949 Yasastilaka and Indian Culture Sholapur: Jaina Samrak�aiJa Culture.. Sholapur: Jaina Samskfti Sarhskrti Sarhraksana Sangha. S angha. Heesterman, JJ.C. Heesterman, .C. 1962 and Sacrifice Sacrifice." 1 962 ""Vratya VriHya and . " Indo-Iranian Journal 66:1-37. : 1-3 7 . 1966 Review ooff Alsdorf Alsdorf 1962. Indo-Iranian Journal 9:147-149. 1 966 Review 1962. Indo-Iranian 9 : 147- 149 . 1984 and Sacrifice." 1 2 : 1 1 9-127 . 1 984 "Non-violence " Non-violence and Sacrifice. " Indologica Taurinensia 12:119-127. 1985 Head." 1 985 ""The The Case ooff the Severed Head . The Inner Conflict of Tradition: Society:45-58, 14-2 1 8 . Chicago: Chicago: Essays in Indian Ritual, Kingship and Society : 45-5 8 , 2214-218. Univ.. of Chicago Press Press.. [Slightly revised from earlier article in Wiener Univ fur die Kunde SiidSud- und Ostasiens 11 Zeitschrift fiir 1 1 (1967):22-43.) ( 1 967) : 22-43 . ] Vedic Ritual Ritual." In: Gi/gul, 1987 Gilgul, essays .. .. . . dedicated to ' . 1 987 "Self-sacrifice " Self-sacrifice iinn Vedic . " In: R.J. (ed.. M M.. Heerma Heerma van van Voss Voss,, E E.l. Sharpe, R.J.Z. R. J. Zwi Werblowsky Werblowsky (ed . J . Sharpe, R.J.Z. Werblowsky):91-106. Leiden: Bril Brill.l . Werblowsky) : 9 1 -1 06 . Leiden: ent Indian Ritual. Ancient 11993 993 The Broken World of Sacrifice: An Essay iinn Anci Chicago:: Univ. Univ. of of Chicago Chicago Press Press.. Chicago Henry,, Victor Victor Henry Paris.. 11904 904 La magie dans l['Inde 'Inde antique. Paris Hopkins .W. Hopkins,, E E.W. India.. New New Haven. Haven. 11924 924 Ethics of India Houben, Jan Jan E E.M. Houben, .M. and Natural Natural Philosophy Philosophy iinn Early Vaise�ika Vaise~ika:: Some 1994 1 994 ""Liberation Liberation and methodological : " Asiatische Studien // Etudes Asiatiques methodological problems problems." 48 . 2 : 7 1 1 -748 . 48.2:711-748. 1997a Tradition."" The Emergence of Semantics in Four 1 997a "The " The Sanskrit Sanskrit Tradition. Arabic W.. van Linguistic Traditions: Hebrew, Sanskrit, Greek, A rabic (ed. (ed . by W van Bekkum, . E . M . Houben, K. Versteegh) : 5 1 - 1 45 . Bekkum, JJ.E.M. Houben, 1. Sluiter Sluiter and and K. Versteegh):51-145. Amsterdam: John Benj amins . Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 11997b"Satra 997b " Sutra and bhii.ryasutra in ' s Mahabha�ya ika: On On the and bhiisyasutra in Bhart�hari Bhartfhari's Mahabha~ya DIp DIpika: the Practice of of aa Scientific Scientific and and Philosophical Philosophical Genre Genre." Theory and Practice Theory and . " India and Beyond: aspects of literature, meaning, ritual and thought: essays in (ed.. by by D. van van der der Meij Meij):271-305. London: Kegan ) : 27 1 -305 . London: Kegan honour of Frits Staal (ed Paul Paul International International.. the history history of South South Asian Asian thought: thought: Three observa­ observaforthc.,. , aa ""Semantics forthc Semantics in the tions on on the the emergence emergence of of Semantics in the the SSanskrit tradition."" Felici­ Felicitions Semantics in anskrit tradition. tation Volume Professor Dr. George Cardona. , .

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forthc.,. , bb "Why did rational rationality thrive,, but but hardly hardly survive in Kapil Kapila's forthc " Why did ity thrive survive in a's Onn the the pramiif}as pramanas,, rationality rationality and in Sarhkhya and irrationality irrationality in Sarhkhya ''system''? system ' ? O (Part . " Proceedings of the and Yoga, I)." Proceedings of the Conference Conference on on Sarhkhya Sarhkhya and Yoga, (Part I) Lausanne,, November November 5-7 1998 in Asiatisclze Studien // E Etudes Lausanne 1 99� in tudes Asiatiques. in prep prep.,. , aa ""Why rationality thrive, thrive, but but hardly hardly survive survive in in Kapila Kapila's in Why did did rationality 's Onn the the pramiif}as pramanas,, rational rationality and irrationality ity and irrationality iinn Sarhkhya Sarhkhya ''system''? system ' ? O II)." (Part II) ." in prep prep., the horse-sacrifice horse-sacrifice and and the the changing changing notion notion of of ahirizsii ahirizsa." in . , bb "On " On the ." Ingalls, H.H. Ingall s , Daniel H .H. 11953 95 3 ·'''The " The comparison and Western . " Journal of comparison ooff Indian Indian and Western philosophy philosophy." vol.. 22 22:: 1-11. Oriental Research, Madras, vol I-I I . Jacobi,, Hermann Hermann . Jacobi 1884 SlUras. Translated from Priikrit. Pnikrit. Part I: The A Acarariga Sutra, the 1 884 Jaina Satras. Translatedfrom ciiriiriga Satra, Kalpa Satra Sutra.. Sacred Books of the East East,, vol vol.. 22 22.. Reprint: Delhi:: Motilal Reprint : Delhi ass, 1989. Banarsidass, 1 98 9 . Banarsid Jamison, Stephanie Stephanie W W.. Jamison, Sacrificer's 11996 996 Sacrificed Wife // Sacrificer 's Wife: Women, Ritual, and Hospitality in India.. New York:: Oxford University Press Press.. New York Oxford University Ancient India G.. Hissen, G Jiissen, 1 984 "Moral, " Moral , moralisch, 1984 moralisch, Moralphilosophie. Moralphilosophie."" Historisches Worterbuch der (hrsg. v. Joachim Ritter Ritter und und Karlfried Karlfried .G Griinder), Band v. Joachim runder) , Band Philosophie (hrsg. 6:Mo-O: Darmstadt: W Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.. 6: Mo- O : 149-15l. 1 49- 1 5 1 . Darmstadt: issenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Kane,, P P.V. Kane .V. Dharmasastra.. Pune Pune:: Bhandarkar Bhandarkar Oriental Oriental Research Research 11930-62 93 0-62 History of Dharmasiistra Institute.. Vols. Vols. II ((1930), II pt. 1 930) , II pt. ii and and iiii ((1941), 1 94 1 ) , III III ((1946), 1 946) , IV IV ((1953), 1 95 3 ) , V V Institute only to to vol vol.. no. +page] pt. ii ((1958), and V V pt. pt. iiii (1962). 1 958) , and ( 1 962) . [Ref. [Ref. only no . + p age] pt. R.P.. Kangle, R:P Kangle, 1 96 8 "The " The relative age of of the Gautamadharmasatra . " Melanges d 'Indianisme 1968 relative age the Gautamadharmasutra." d'Indianisme fa memoire de Louis Renou Renou:415-425. Paris:: E. aa la : 4 1 5-425 . Paris E. de de Boccard. Boccard . G.. Kashikar, C C.. G Kashikar, 1964 Vedic sacrificial sacrificial rituals rituals through through the the ages." 1 964 "The " The Vedic ages . " Indian Antiquary (Bombay),, 1:77-89. (Bombay) 1 : 77-89 . Kashikar, C C.G. . G . and Asko Parpola S rauta traditions 1983 traditions in in recent recent times times." Agni:' the Vedic ritual of the fire . " Agni:· 1 983 ""Srauta vol.. II II (ed. (ed. by by F F.. Staal Staal.. with with the the assistance assistance of of Pamela Pamela altar, vol MacFarland) 1 93 -25 1 . MacFarland):: 193-251. Kirfel, Kirfel, Willibald Willibald Asvamedha und und der der Puru�amedha. Puru~amedha."" Beitriige Beitrdge zur indischen 1951 1 95 1 "Der " Der Asvamedha (ed.. by by Seminar Seminar fur fur Kultur Kultur und und Philoiogie und Altertumskunde (ed Phi/oiogle Hamburg:: Cram, Cram, de Geschichte Indiens, Indiens, Univ. Univ. Hamburg) Hamburg):: 39-50. Hamburg de Geschichte Gruyter. Gruyter. Kranz, M. Kranz, M. 1989 Antike;; B B:: Platon. Platon."" Hlstorisches Historisches Worterbuch der 1 989 ""Philosophie: Philosophie : II:: Antike (hrsg.. v. Joachim Ritter und Karlfried Grunder), Philosophie (hrsg Grunder) . Band 7:P7 : P-

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Q Q:: 576-583 576-583.. Darmstadt: Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Wissenschaftl iche Buchgesellschaft. Buchgesellschaft. Krick, Hertha 1 977 ""Narayanabali NarayaI).abali und Opfertod . " Wiener Zeitschrijt filr und Opfertod." fur die Kunde Sild­ Sud1977 und Ostasiens 221:71-142. 1 : 7 1 - 1 42 . Kulke,, Hermann, Hermann, and Dietmar Rothermund Rothermund Kulke and Dietmar Routledge . [1st [ 1 st ed. ed . London: London: 1 990 A History of India 1990 India.. Rev Rev.. ed ed.. London: London: Routledge. Croom Helm, Helm, 1986.] Croom 1 98 6 . ] Kumarappa, Bharatan Bharatan Kumarappa, 11934 934 The Hindu Conception of the Deity as culminating in Ramanuja Ramanuja.. London: Luzac Luzac.. London: Larson, G G.J., R.S. Bhattacharya Larson, . J . , and and R . S . Bhattacharya 1987 Samkhya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy Philosophy.. Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of of 1 987 Sarhkhya: Indian Philosophies,, Vol Vol.. IV IV.. Delhi Delhi:: Motilal Motilal Banarsidass Banarsidass.. Indian Philosophies Lewis,, Gilbert Lewis Gilbert Belief."" In: Companion 1994 1 994 ""Magic, Magic, Religion and the Rationality of Belief. Anthropology:: Humanity, Culture and Social Life (ed (ed.. Encyclopedia of Anthropology T.. Ingold) Ingold):563-590. London: Routledge Routledge.. T : 563-590 . London: McKenzie, McKenzie, John John 1922 essay.. London: Oxford 1 922 Hindu Ethics: a historical and critical essay University Press Press.. University Merleau-Ponty,; Maurice Merleau-Ponty 1948 Non-Sens. Pari Paris: s : Nagel. 1 948 Sens et Non-Si!ns. Mesquita, Roque 11997 997 Madhva und seine unbekannten Quellen: QueLlen: Einige Beobachtungen Beobachtungen.. Wien: Wien: fUr Indologie Indologie der der Universitat Universitat Wien. Wien. Institut fiir Institut Mitra, Rajendralal 1 8 8 1 Indo-Aryans: Contributions towards the elucidation of their ancient and 1881 mediaeval history VoIs. Reprint: Reprint: Delhi Delhi:: Indological IndologicaJ Bookhouse, Bookhouse, history.. 22 Vols. 1969. 1969. Nakamura, Hajime 1983 Philosophy.. Delhi Delhi:: Motilal Banarsidass. 1983 A History of early Vedanta Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass. Oberhammer, Gerhard Gerhard Oberhammer, 1 992 ""Nachgetragene N achgetragene Gedanken E. Frauwallners Geschichte der der indischen Gedanken zu zu E. Frauwallners ''Geschichte indischen 1992 Philosophie'." In Frauwallner Frauwallner 11992:225-234. Philosophie ' . " In 992: 225-234. Oguibenine,, Boris Oguibenine 1994 Ia RRhetorique de la la Violence Violence." 1 994 "De "De la hetorique de . " Violences et Non-violences en Inde (ed.. Vidal Vidal et al.):81-95. Paris:: E Ecole Hautes E Etudes (ed et al . ) : 8 1 -95 . Paris cole des des Hautes tudes en en Sciences Sciences Sociales Sociales.. Oldenberg,, Hermann Hermann Oldenberg Stuttgart: Gotta. Magnus,, Gotta. (Repr. (Repr. Stuttgart: Stuttgart: Magnus 11917 9 1 7 Die Religion des Veda. Stuttgart: 1983.) 1 983 . ) Brahmana11919 9 1 9 Vorwissenschaftliche Wissenschaft. Die Weltanschauung der Brahmarza­ G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Ruprecht. Vandenhoeck & texte. G6ttingen: Olivelle, Patrick Olivelle, Patrick Smnnyasa Upanisads: Upani�ads: Hindu scriptures on asceticism and renunciation. 11992 992 Sarhnyasa

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Transl Trans!.. with with introduction introduction and and notes notes.. New New York: York: Oxford Oxford Univ Univ.ersity ; rsity Press.. Press srama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious 11993 993 The A Asrama New York York:: Oxford Oxford University University Press Press.. Institution. New Ortega y Gasset, Jose 1925 Especrador IV, 1 925 ""Conversaci6n Conversaci6n en el ''golf' golf' 00 la idea del 'dharma'." 'dharma ' . " El Espectador 1 925 . Reprinted Gasset: 395-40 1 . 1925. Reprinted in: in: Obras Completas de Jose Onega Ortega y Gasset:395-401. Madrid:: Revista Revista de de Occidente Occidente,, 1946. Madrid 1 946 . Pathak, .S. Pathak, V V.S. 1 960 ""Vedic Vedic rituals Epigraphic Study . " Annals 1960 rituals in in early early medieval medieval period period:: An An Epigraphic Study." : 2 1 8-230 . of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol Vol.. 40 40:218-230. Radhakrishnan, S. S. 11960 960 The Brahma Sutra: The Philosophy of Spiritual Life. Translated Translated with with aann introduction and and notes notes.. London: London: George George Allen Allen & & Unwin. Unwin. introduction Ramachandran, T T.N. Ramachandran, .N. near Kalsi Kalsi." 1952 1 952 ""A§vamedha Asvamedha site near . " Journal of Oriental Research - Madras, [Additional note in the the same journal vol vol.. 22 22 (1952-53):100.] 221:1-31. 1 : 1 -3 1 . [Additional note in same journal ( 1 952-5 3 ) : 1 00 . ] Raven,, Ellen Ellen Raven 1994a Garuda-Banner: Samudragupta 1 994a Gupta Gold Coins with a Garuqa-Banner: Skandagupta. Vol 1 . Groningen Vol.. 1. Groningen:: Egbert Egbert Forsten. Forsten. 1 994b ""Invention Invention and Gupta Gold Gold Coins." Coins . " A Treasury of and Innovation: Innovation: Royal Royal Gupta 1994b (ed.. M M.L. Carter):39-56. Bombay:: Marg Marg.. Indian Coins (ed . L . Carter) : 3 9-56 . Bombay Ritter, Ritter, Joachim Joachim 1972 Philosophie, Band 2: D1 972 "Ethik, " Ethik, I-VI." I-VI . " Historisches Wdrterbuch Worterbuch der PhiIosophie , Ba,nd 2: D­ F:759-795. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Buchgesellschaft.. F : 759-795 . Darmstadt: Roodbergen, L J.A.F. Roodbergen, A.F. 11984 984 Mallinatha 's GhalJ[apatha juni'ya, I-VI. Part one: one : Mallintitha's Ghanttipatha oonn the Kiratar Kirtittirjunfya, . J . Bril Introduction, translation and notes. Leiden: Leiden: E E.J. Brill.l . H.. SSaddhatissa, addhatissa, H London:: George George Allen Allen & & 11970 970 Buddhist Ethics: Essence of Buddhism. London Unwin. Unwin. Sastri, Aiyaswami Sastri , Aiyaswami lSvara Kr�r; astra: Sarhkhya 1 944 Suvarr;asaptati 1944 Suvarnasaptati SStistra: Siilfzkhya karika ktirikti saptati of lSvara Krsnaa with a Tirupati:: commentary reconstructed from the Chinese translation. translation . Tirupati Tirumalai -- Tirupati Tirupati Devasthanam Devasthanam Press Press.. Tirumalai Sastri, Ramanatha S astri , Ramanatha lokavanikavyakhya Tatparya[ika Urhveka Bha[[a 1 97 1 S Ramanatha 1971 Slokavartikavydkhyd Ttitparyatfkti of Umveka Bhana.. Ed Ed.. by by Ramanatha by K. Kunjunni Raja Raja and University SSastri, astri , Revised Revised by K. Kunjunni and R. R. Thangaswamy. Thangaswamy . University of adras . of M Madras. Schayer, Stanislaw Schayer, Stanislaw 1925a der Brahma�a-Texte. Brahmal).a-Texte."" Repr. Repr. in in 0 0 Jilozofowaniu jilozofowaniu " D ie Weltanschauung der 1 925a "Die Hindus6w: anykuly artykuly wybrane (ed. M. Mejor) Mejor):325-331. Warszawa:: : 325-33 1 . Warszawa Hindusow: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Naukowe. Paftstwowe 1 925b Die Struktur der magischen Weltanschauung nach dem Atharva-Veda 1925b Brdhmana-Texten. und den Brahmar; a-Texten. (Sonderdruck aus der Zeitschrift fur

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Buddhismus . ) Munchen-Neubiberg SchloB . Buddhismus.) Munchen-Neubiberg:: Oskar Oskar Schloll. kult ii etyka buddyzmu." Repr.. iinn 0 0 filozofowaniu jilozofowaniu Hindus6w: Hindusow: 11938 9 3 8 ""Mit, Mit, kult etyka buddyzmu . " Repr artykuly wybrane (ed (ed.. M. Mejor):189-219. Warszawa: Panstwowe PafIstwowe M. Mejor) : 1 89-2 1 9 . Warszawa: anykuly we . Wydawnictwo Nauko Naukowe. Schlingloff, Dieter Dieter Schlingloff, 1 1 : 175-189. 1 75- 1 8 9 . 1 969 ""Menschenopfer Menschenopfer in in Kausambf? KausambP"" Indo-Iranian Journal 11: 1969 of G G.R. [Discussion . R . Sharma Sharma 1960.] 1960 . ] [Discussion of Schmidt, Hanns-Peter Hanns-Peter Schmidt, . " Melanges d 'Indianisme aa la mel/wire mbnoire de Louis 1 96 8 ""The The Origin 1968 Origin of of ahirhsa ahirhsii." d'Indianisl7le Paris:: E E.. de de Boccard Boccard.. Renou:625-655. : 625-655 . Paris Renou 1 997 ""Ahirhsa Ahirhsa and . " Inside the Texts - Beyond the Texts: New and Rebirth Rebirth." 1997 Approaches to the Study of the Veda (ed. (ed . by : 207-234. by M M.. Witzel) Witzel):207-234. Cambridge,, Mass Mass.:. : Dep Dep.. of and Indian Indian Studies Studies,, Harvard Harvard Cambridge of Sanskrit Sanskrit and University. University . Schmithausen, Lambert Schmithausen, Lambert Problem of Sentience of Plants in the Earliest Buddhism Buddhism.. Tokyo: Toky o : 11991 9 9 1 The -Problem International Institute Institute for for Buddhist Buddhist Studies Studies.. International Textgeschichte der paficiignividyii." fur die 1994 . " Wiener Zeitschrift flir 1 994 "Zur " Zur Textgeschichte der pancagnividya 8 : 43-60. Kunde des Sudasiens Sildasiens 338:43-60. 1995 "Man,, Animals Animals and and Plants Plants in in the the Rebirth Rebirth Passages Passages of of the the Early Early 1 995 "Man' Upani�ads . " Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka, New New Upani~ads." Series, vo!.. 338: Series , vol 8 : 141-162. 1 4 1 - 1 62 . 11997 997 Maitrr and Magic: Aspects of the Buddhist Attitude Toward the Wien: Verlag Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Nature.. Wien: Dangerous in Nature der O sterreichischen Akademie der W issenschaften. Wissenschaften. Peter Schreiner, Peter Schreiner, id 1 979 ""Gewaltlosigkeit Gewaltlosigkeit und . " Angst mwid 1979 und T6tllngsverbot Tdtungsverbot im im Hinduismus Hinduismus." Prasenz und ihre Bewiiltigung Bewdltigung in den Religionen (hrsg. (lmg. v v.. Gewalt: Ihre Priisenz H.. von von Stietencron): 287-308.. Dusseldorf: Patmos Verlag Verlag.. H Stietencron) : 287-308 Dusseldorf: Patmos Sharma, G G.R. Sharma, .R. 1960 Kausiimbr (1 (1957-1959), 95 7- 1 959) , The Defences and the 1 960 The Excavations aatt Kausambr Syenaciti Purusamedha.. Institute Institute of Archeology,, Allahabad Allahabad Sy enaciti of the Puru�amedha of Archeology University 1 . Allahabad: Inst . of Pub!.. No. No.1. Allahabad: Inst. of Archeology Archeology,, Allahabad Allahabad University,, Publ Univ Univ.. N ..K. Sharma, Sharma, N K. 1: 1 960 A History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and its Literature, Vol. 1: 1960 A.D.). From the earliest beginnings to the Age of Jayatrrtha (c. (C. 1400 A .D.). ing . Bombay:: Bookseller Bookseller's Publishing. Bombay ' s Publish Marcus G G.. SSinger, inger, Marcus 1 992 ""Golden Golden Rule . " Encyclopedia of Ethics (ed. (ed . L.C L . C . Becker and C .B. 1992 Rule." Becker and C.B. Becker) 1 :405-40 8 . New ishing . New York: York: Garland Garland Publ Publishing. Becker),, vol vol.. 1:405-408. Skjaerv0, P.. Oktor Oktor Skj aerv0, P 1997 State of of Old Old Avestan Avestan Scholarship Scholarship." 1 997 ""The The State . " Journal of the American Oriental Society, 117: 1 17 : 103-114. 1 03 -1 14 .

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Smith, Gerald Gerald Birney Birney Smith, 1921 by SS.. Mathews Mathews 1 92 1 ""Empiricism." Empiricism . " Dictionary of Religion and Ethics (ed. (ed . by and G G.B. Smith):: 146-147. London: Waverley Waverley Book 1 46- 1 47 . London: Book Company. Company . and . B . Smith) Smith, Frederick Smith, Frederick 1987 Studv of the 1 987 The Vedic Sacrifice in Transition: Transition: A Translation and Study Misra.. Poona Poona:: Bhandarkar Bhandarkar Oriental Oriental Triktil'}cjamal'}cjana of Bhtiskara Misra Triktindamandana Institute.. Research Institute Solomon, Esther Esther A A.. Solomon, 1 973a Stirhkhya-SaptatiVr:tti (VI) arat University SMlkhya-Saptati-Vrtti (Vl).. Ed Ed.. Ahmedabad Ahmedabad:: Guj Gujarat University.. 1973a 1 973b StirhkhyaV!tti (V2) Gujarat University Stirhkhya-Vrtti (V2).. Ed Ed.. Ahmedabad Ahmedabad:: Gujarat University.. 1973b Study.. Ahmedabad Ahmedabad:: 11974 974 The Commentaries of the Stirhkhya Ktirikti - A Study Gujarat University.. Guj arat University SSrlnage§a rlnagesa SSastrin astrin (n. d . ) Pasv-tilambha-mrmtirhsti 132. nandasrama-Sarhskrta-GranthamaIa 132. (n.d.) Pasv-tilambha-mD'Iltirhsti.. A Anandasrama-Sarhskrta-Granthamala Pune Pune:: Anandasrama Anandasrama Sarhstha Sarhstha.. . Srouty, Visvanatha Srouty , Visvanatha 1993/94 Pasv-tilambhana-nisedhah yajfie:ju yajiiesu.. Pune Pune:: Vaidika Sarhsodhana 1 993/94 Pasv-tilambhana-ni:jedhafJ Sarhs odhana S aka era Mandala, Saka era 1915. MaIf4ala, 1915. Staal, Staal , JJ.F. .F. " Euclides and . ·' Philosophy East and West 15:99-116. 1 5 : 99- 1 1 6 . [Also [Also in in 1965 and paIfini panini." 1 965 "Euclides Staal 1988.] Staal 1 988 . ] 1988 Chicago/London: 1 988 Universals: Studies iinn Indian Logic and Linguistics. Chicago/London: Univ Univ... of of Chicago Chicago Press Press.. Taber, John John Taber, 1992 L.C. Becker and Becker),, 1 992 ""India." India . " Encyclopedia of Ethics (ed. (ed. L. C . Becker and C.B. C . B . Becker) York:: Garland Garland Publ Publishing. vol. 1:601-606. voL 1 : 60 1 -606 . New New York ishing . Tachibana, SS.. Tachibana, 1926 Buddhism.. Oxford: Press.. 1 926 The Ethics of Buddhism Oxford : Clarendon Clarendon Press ridra Thakur, upe Upendra Thakur, 1963 Introduction.. Delhi Delhi:: Munshiram 1 963 The History of Suicide in India: An Introduction Munshiram Manoharlal.. Manoharlal 1 978 An Introduction to 1978 to Homicide in India (ancient and early-medieval New Delhi Delhi:: Abhinav Publications.. period).. New period) Abhinav Publications Tambiah, Stanley Stanley Jeyaraj Jeyarajaa Tambiah, 1990 rationality.. Cambridge: 1 990 Magic, science, religion, and the scope of rationality Cambridge : Cambridge Press.. Cambridge University University Press Thibaut, George George Thibaut, Satikartictirya. 11904 904 The Vedtinta-SUtras Vedtinta-Sutras with the commentary by S arikaractirya . Sacred S acred of the the East, East, voL vol. 34, 338. Reprint: Delhi Delhi:: Motilal Banarsidass, Books of 8 . Reprint: Motilal Banarsidas s, Books 11988. 988 . Thieme,, Paul Paul Thieme 1 957 "Vorzarathustrisches " Vorzarathustrisches bei den Zarathustriern bei Zarathustra . '· 1957 bei den Zarathustriern und und bei Zarathustra.'· Zeitschrijt der Deutschen Morgenliindischen Gesellschajt Gesellschaft 107:67-104. 1 07 : 67- 1 04 . Tull,l , Herman Herman W W.. Tul 1 996 ""The The killing cattle , and the origins of nOil1996 killing that that is is not not killing killing:: men, men, cattle, and the origins of non-

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violence . " Inrlo-Iranian : 223violence (ahirhsa) in in the the Vedic Vedic sacrifice sacrifice." Indo-Iranian Journal 29 29:223244.. 244 U Uberweg, Friedrich berweg , Friedrich 1953 Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie. Erster Teil. Die Philosophie 1953 des Altertums. Herausgegeben 1 3 . Auflage Praechter. 13. Auflage.. Basel Basel:: Herausgegeben von von Karl Karl Praechter. Benna Benna Schwabe Schwabe.. C.. S .. Venkateswaran, C Venkateswaran, 1966 Vedic conception conception ooff 't1rtha'." 1 966 "The " The Vedic ' t1rtha ' . " Proceedings of the 21st All-India Oriental Conference, 22(1)14-18. ( 1 ) 1 4- 1 8 . Weber, Albrecht 1864 Menschenopfer bei bei den vedischen Zeit. Zeit."" Zeitschrijt 1 864 "Uber "Uber Menschenopfer den Indern Indern der der vedischen d der Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft 18:262-287. Reprint: 1 8 : 262-287 . Reprirtt: er Deutschen Morgenliindischen Indische Streifen Streifen,, Band Band 1:54-89. 1 : 5 4- 8 9 . Berl Berlin: in: N Nicolaische icola ische Verlagsbuchhandlung,, 1868. reprinL] Verlagsbuchhandlung 1 8 6 8 . [Cited after reprint . .] Westermarck, Westermarck, Edward Edward 1912 Vol.. 1. London: 1 . London: 1 9 1 2 The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Vol MacMillan. Reprint: Reprint: New New York York:: Johnson Johnson Reprint Reprint Corporation, MacMillan. Corporation, 1971. 1 97 1. W ezler, Albrecht Wezler, Albrecht Gott des des Slirhkhya: Sarilkhya: Zu Zu NyayakusumanjaU Nyayakusumanjali 1.3." 1970 1 970 ""Der Der Gott 1 . 3 . " Indo-Iranian Journal 12:255-262. 1 2 : 255-262 . Williams,, Paul Paul Williams 1989 Routledge.. 1 989 Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. London: Routledge Wilson, Wilson, Horace Horace Hayman Hayman 1852 India." 1 852 ""On On Human SSacrifices acrifices in the Ancient Religion of Ind ia . " Journal of the 1 852) : 96- 1 07 . Repr in: Works by the Royal Asiatic Society Society,, Vol Vol.. VIII VIII ((1852):96-107. Repr.. in: Vol.. II II (1862):247-269. ( 1 862) : 247-269 . London: London: Triibner. Triibner. late Horace Hayman Wilson, Wilson , Vol [Cited after reprint reprint.]. ] [Cited Witzel, Michael Head." 1987 1 9 87 ""The The Case of the Shattered Head . " Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik 113-14:363-415. 3 - 1 4 : 363-4 1 5 . 1989 Dialects." 1 989 ""Tracing Tracing the Vedic Dialects . " Dialectes dans les Litteratures lndoIndo­ (ed.. by by C. Caillat):97-264. Edition-Diffusion C . Caillat) : 97-264 . Paris: Pari s : E dition-Diffusion de de Aryennes (ed Boccard. Boccard. Woods, James James Haughton Haughton Woods, 1914 Harvard Oriental Oriental Series Series,, vol vol.. 17. 17. 1 9 1 4 The Yoga-System of Patanjali. Harvard Reprint 1 992 . Reprint:: Delhi Delhi:: Motilal Motilal Banarsidass, Banarsidass, 1992.

6. 6 . JAINISM AS THE RELIGION OF NON-VIOLENCE ROBERTJ.ZYDENBOS ROBERT J . ZYDENBOS 1.1 world's religions,, no other claims abstinence from 1 . 1 Among the world ' s religions violence as its its main main characteristic characteristic so so emphatically emphatically as as Jainism Jainism does. does . violence as The Jainas present themselves themselves as as the the adherents adherents of of the the 'religion ' religion of of The Jainas present ahirhsa or non-violence ahirhsa non-violence',' , and and in conversation with Jaina people today is practically impossible to convince them fol­ practically impossible to convince them that that the the foltoday it it is lowers of any other religious tradition may have notions of nonnon­ vviolence iolence that are comparable to, to , or in some respects perhaps even notions . Ahirhsa con­ Ahirhsa is an ethical consuperior to to,, corresponding Jaina notions. cept cept which which determines determines the character of nearly nearly all Jaina J aina religious practice more than any other: other : it is considered central to the whole of Jaina J aina ethical thought, and JJaina aina authors have occasionally argued that it it lies also at the base of the distinctive J aina ontology and its dharma�, "non" non­ s ystem of logic. logic . Ahirhsa Ahirhsa paramo paramo dharmar;, corresponding system violence is the highest religion," religion, " is an often-heard slogan among the Jainas , who Jai nism enshrines this principle the Jainas, who are in no doubt that Jainism M any outsiders, outsiders , more perfectly than any other religious tradition. Many academics , have difficulties in understanding also academics, understanding the implications of ahirhsa ahirhsa in Jainism, Jainism , and misconceptions about Jainism are quite common . common. T h e centrality of ahirhsa ahirhsa is very conspicuous, conspicuous , in i n older Jaina llii­ The well terature as w e l l as iin n contemporary writing and· and · conversation. 11 In puja by the Jaina worship worship,, the the early adoption of the non-Aryan non-Aryan puja the non-Vedic JJainas ainas was surely in part inspired by considerations of 11 Tatia n n.d. . d . :265: : 265 : "The whole Jaina code of moral and spiritual virtues is inspired by the one great principle of non-violence." non-violence . " About Parsva, Pars va, the TIrthailkara, it has been said, "various ethical themes in Jain twenty-third TIrthaiJkara, teaching come together in the figure of this fordmaker: fordmaker : compassion, nonnon­ violence,, fellowship violence fel lowship with all living creatures" creatures " (Dundas 1992:29). 1 992 : 2 9) . "Violence " Violence is a cause of irreligion, because it is a cause of suffering to a living being" being " (in the commentary Sukhabodha by Bhaskaranandi with Tattvarthasl1tra Tattvarthaslltra 7:13, 7 : 1 3 , p. p. 1 6 1 : ssaa himsa adharmahetulJ) . 161: hirhsa praTJino duJ;khahetutvtid adharmahetuJ:z).

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ahirhsa. ahirhsa . 22 In India, the Jainas are weIl -known, if not notorious, notorious , for of social social activism activism which is prompted by the the importance impo rtance which is prompted by aa kind kind of which they give to non-violence. non-violence . The mother of Mahatma Gandhi was ackno wledged the formative influence was a Jaina, and and Gandhi Gandhi has acknowledged of thought . In the of aa Jaina Jaina guru guru in his his thought. the past, past, Jaina kings have been known to ban ban animal animal slaughter on on Jaina festive days days,, just as still known to today vegetari­ today Jainas continuously continuously campaign for the the spread of vegetariani s m , which is considered considered a dietary first requisite towards towards an anism, which is improvement qual ity of upl iftment. of life life,, including spiritual upliftment. improvement in in the the quality Charity lives : that lives: Charity is extended not only to human beings but to all that to medical medical initiatives which benefit benefit apart from financial support to humans insti­ all over India for their typical instihumans,, the the Jainas are known known all hospitals,, where a variety of animals are nursed tution of animal hospitals to or sheltered sheltered until overtakes them. them . In In recent to health health or until death death overtakes recent years years overseas,, mainly to Anglo-Saxon numerous Jainas have migrated overseas countries,, and also in their new social environment many of them countries the m associations,, or have jjoined have begun associations oined already existing ones, ones , for the vegetarianism and for for the protection protection of of animal the advancement advancement of vegetarianism rights.. Although in rights i n earlier times Jaiilism was an actively mismis­ sionary sionary religion religion in the the Indian Indian subcontinent and has had had an Hinduism, enormous influence i nfluence on the development of later l ater Hindui s m , JJainas ainas today apparently try little more to influence their surroundings than animals.. 33 J aina concern for even the to propagate kindness towards animals smallest life-forms has regularly led to ridicule by non-Jainas, non-Jainas , who unfamiliar were unfami li ar with the underlying doctrines and found Jaina In this this non­ nonrepulsive. ethics impractical, impractical , exaggerated, or plainly repuls ive . 44 In acceptance of the Jaina view we see how notions about what con-

22 Cf. J.C. J . C . Jain 1992: 1 992 : 174.

33 Dundas 1992:30: 1 992 : 3 0 : "lainism can today be said to be an actively proselytising proselytising religion only in that that it it advocates the the universal universal practice practice of vegetarianism and non-violence." non-violence . " See also Laidlaw 1995:99: 1 995 : 9 9 : "As " As it is presented for external consumption, Jainism is more or less a campaign for vegetarianism. "" vegetarianism. 44 A good example of total unWillingness to even try to understand Jainism Mrs.. Sinclair is found in Mrs S inclair Stevenson's Stevenson ' s well-known book The Hean of lainism. Stevenson was a a Christian missionary in northern India, and in her book she gives .examples of extreme extreme ahirhsii practices practices which which are frankly hard hard to to believe believe.. Her conclusion was that the 'heart of Jainism' was empty. empty . Quite amazingly, amazingly , the book has been several times. the book has been reprinted reprinted several times.

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stitutes violence ' differ differ from one Weltanschauung Weltans chauung to another , and and stitutes ''violence' from one to another, this is surely surely what some authors to prefer other English this is what motivated motivated some authors to prefer other English transl ations for for the as ''nonharming' nonharming' and non­ translations the term term ahirhsa, ahirhsa, such such as and ''noninjury ' .5 In course of of our discussion, we see that such injury'.5 In the the course our discussion, we will will see that such alternative ations may time alternative transl translations may be be more more appropriate appropriate,, but but for for the the time as ''violence' v iolence ' and ahirhsa being we being we will will continue continue to to translate translate hirhsa hirhsa as and ahirhsa as ''non-violence', with popular popular usage usage.. as non-violence ' , in agreement with 1 . 2 If the Jaina attitude towards for other lives and the exex­ 1.2 If the Jaina attitude towards respect respect for other lives and the pressions are difficult difficult for pressions of of this this respect respect are for outsiders outsiders to to understand understand,, certain and practices the attitude certain beliefs beliefs and practices concerning concerning the attitude which which aa believ­ believer one ' s self cause still and , er takes takes with with regard regard to to one's self cause still more more wonder wonder and, sometime s , uncomprehending for life advocating sometimes, uncomprehending horror. horror. Respect Respect for life,, advocating non-violence suffering living non-violence,, and and charity charity towards towards suffering living beings beings,, do do not not imply an unmistakably imply Epicurism Epicurism.. Jaina Jaina doctrine doctrine has has an unmistakably ascetic ascetic ten­ tendency, would not most ascetic ascetic dency, and and it it would not be be wrong wrong to to say say that that it it is is the the most among the the world world's organised religions religions today today,, if if not not in in world world his­ hisamong ' s organised tory (parti­ tory.. The The life life which which Jaina Jaina renunciants renunciants,, the the monks monks and and nuns nuns (particularly igambara tradition) cularly of of the the D Digambara tradition) are are expected expected to to lead lead,, is is known known for strictness and is also also expected expected ooff lay lay folk folk for its its strictness and austerity austerity,, and and it it is that that they they will will impose impose certain certain restrictions restrictions on on themselves themselves and and period­ periodically milder ascetic ascetic ically engage engage in in fasts fasts and and other other exercises exercises of of a milder character These exercises exercises serve character than than those those of of the the renunciants renunciants.. These serve to to strengthen one ' s will and to cultivate aa sense of detachment detachment from strengthen one's will and to cultivate sense of from the eexternal world,, in agreement with with an an ontology in which which what xternal world is material is totalIy aiien alien to to the the soul soul.. The ultimate goal goal of is material is seen seen as as totally The ultimate of spiritual development aina path is to soul of spiritual development along along the the JJ aina path is to purify purify the the soul of all attachment attachment to to what what is is the the non-soul, non-soul, which which is is the the source source of all alI all suffering . suffering. The non-soul does not begin begin with with the physical body body of The non-soul does not the physical of aa living living being, but with aa composite composite subtle subtle body body which which forms forms the link being, but with the link between the soul soul and and the the physical and which is formed between the physical body body and which is formed ac­ according to to the the soul soul's karma, which non-soul.. In In aa most cording ' s karma, which is is also also non-soul most concon­ manner, Jainism Jainism asserts that the the ideal (which is ssistent istent manner, asserts that ideal death death (which is aa sseparation ep aration of of the soul from is the the soul from its its temporal temporal physical physical body) body) is the renouncing of oone's body,, known as sallekhana sallekhand or or samiidhi­ samadhirenounci ng of ne ' s body known as who dies an mara1'}a. maralJ.a. The The person person who dies through through sallekhanii sallekhana becomes becomes an 55 For instance, laini Jaini 11979:8 979 : 8 and 53. 53.

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object very high high reverence reverence in in the the JJaina aina community community,, already obj ect of of very al ready been'' combefore death death takes takes place, place, and and such such persons persons have have been before com­ memorated in literature,, inscriptions small monuments monuments.. 66 memorated in literature inscriptions and and small Practices such such aass sallekhana and and the the fasts and other other restrictions restrictions fasts and Practices may may seem seem harsh harsh to to non-Jainas non-Jainas,, and and the the question question may may arise arise whether whether such inherently violent is inherently violent (violence (violence such an an attitude attitude towards towards the the body body is here being being inflicted inflicted on on oneself) oneself) and and whether whether it place in here it deserves deserves aa place in aa religion religion which which claims claims ahirhsa as as its its cardinal cardinal ethical ethical value value.. Other historical historical facts become puzzling puzzling in this 22.1 . 1 Other facts become in the the llight ight of of th is strong Jaina Jaina insistence insistence on on not not harming harming living beings:: for for instanc instance, strong living beings e, the fact mentioned above, that there there were were Jaina Jaina kings kings in in Ind India. the fact mentioned above, that ia. Some of of the the best-known best-known royal royal dynasties dynasties,, mainly mainly in in southern southern India, India, Some had several members who who are are known known to to have have been been staunch staunch had several members supporters of Jainism, Jainism, such such as the Gangas Gangas,, the the Rashtrakutas Rashtrakutas and and the the supporters of as the Hoysalas.. Some royal families families were were JJaina before they they converted converted to to Hoysalas Some royal aina before other If we it means other faiths faiths.. If we think think about about what what it means to to be be aa king king,, par­ particularly in earlier times times,, then then we we wonder wonder how how kingship kingship could harticularly in earlier could har­ monise with with Jaina ethics, that kingship iinvolved ethics , considering that nvolved violent actions such as as warfare warfare and punishment of criminals. actions such and the the punishment of criminal s. Nevertheless, Jainism had many royal royal adherents adherents in Nevertheles s , Jainism had many in the the Indian Indian middle ages ages.. The The dynasty dynasty which which left left us us the the most most impressive middle impress ive concon­ tribution to to Jaina Jaina culture culture is is arguably arguably that that of the Gangas Gangas,, who who ruled ruled tribution of the in state of of Karnataka in what what today today is is the the state Karnataka and and are are the the longest-lasting longest-lasting dynasty in Indian history history.. Their reign has has given us the the worlddynasty i n Indian Their reign given us world­ S ra­ famous image of better known known as as Gomma!eSvara GommateSvara,, at famous image of Bahubali, B ahubali , better at SraHassan district, the largest largest monolithic monolithic statue the vvaI!abe!agoJa al!abe!ago!a in in Hassan district, the statue in i n the worl d , carved out of of the iving rock hill which is variously variously world, carved out the lliving rock of of the the hill which is Do(;l<:Iabena.7 The Gangas had known as as Vindhyagiri Vindhyagiri,, Indragiri and Do��abena known Indragiri and . 7 The Gangas had constructed, and numerous numerous JJaina aina temples temples or or basadis basadis constructed, and they they also also writers in Kannada, Sanskrit This was was the ppatronised atronised writers i n Kannada, Sanskrit and and Prakrit. Prakrit. This the period which Jinasena and his his disciple period in i n which J inasena and disciple GUI!abhadra GUl!abhadra composed composed MahapuraI!a, which which has has ever remained aa highly highly the maj majestic the estic Mahapural!a, ever since s ince remained authoritative text text in Digambara Jainism.. Nemicandra Nemicandra Siddhantaauthoritative in D igambara Jainism S iddhanta­ S ravaJ!abe!ago!a 'matha, cakravartin,, who who was was head head of of the the Sraval!abeJago!a ma[ha, cakravartin For aa detailed detailed sIDdy smdy of of such such monuments monuments at at SSrava~abe!ago!a, location 66 For rava�abe!ago!a, a location

ar 1986. which is is particularly particularly rich rich in in them, them, see see Sett Settar which 1 986. 77 DocJcJabe[[a Doddabe[ta literally literally means means 'the large hill hill', the town town being being situated next ' the large ' , the situated next to to two two hills hills..

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composed important important doctrinal doctrinal works Prakrit such composed works in in Prakrit such as as the the Gomniarasara. The patronised some Gomnia!asara. The Gangas Gangas patronised some of of the the authors authors whose whose writings o ldest works works of of Kannada Kannada literature literature which writings are are among among the the oldest which have in their entirety . There There are are indications indications that have been been preserved preserved in their entirety. that the the . Gangas significant role role in in stopping stopping the the growth of Gangas played played aa significant growth· of Buddhism iin n southern supported Buddhism southern India India because because they they actively actively supported while also extending some to various JJ ainism ainism while also extending some support support to various forms forms of of Hinduism. Through literature literature and inscriptions we we know know aa good Hinduism. 88 Through and inscriptions good deal about about the the Gangas, may consider consider them them aa good deal Gangas , and and we we may good illusillus­ tration of what what it it meant to be a Jaina king king.. tration 2 . 2 The The first first ruler ruler of of the the Ganga Ganga dynasty dynasty known know n to to us us was was 2.2 Madhava and aa legend legend about CE) , and about the the establishing establishing of of M adhava II (350-370 CE), the dynasty dynasty includes with his brother Da<;liga and aa Jaina the includes him him with his brother Da�iga and Jaina ascetic named Sirhhanandi . In several inscriptions inscriptions referring referring to ascetic named Sirhhanandi. In several to the the origin the Gangas, Gangas , Sirhhanandi Sirhhanandi is is said said to advised the origin of of the to have have advised the brothers about how how to to go about founding founding aa kingdom, kingdo m , and and he he also also brothers about go about procured for them aa boon boon from the goddess goddess Padmavatl} which inprocured for them from the PadmavatT, 9 which in­ cluded magical sword sword with with which which Madhava M adhava struck struck at at aa stone stone cluded aa magical pillar two ; Sirhhanandi Sirhhl!-nandi took this as as aa good good omen, omen , pillar,, cleaving cleaving it it in in two; took this provided the brothers with an an army army and and bestowed bestowed kingly on provided the brothers with kingly powers powers on them.l0 dynasty continued rule for them . lO The The dynasty continued to to rule for some some seven seven hundred hundred years,, maintaining position vis-a.-vis powerful neighbours neighbours years maintaining its its position vis-a.-vis powerful through warfare and subversive activities activities in in the the neighneigh­ through diplomacy, diplomacy, warfare and subversive bouring states . bouring states. Perhaps the most colourful colourful of Ganga kings kings was S ivamara II II Perhaps the most of the the Ganga was Sivamara (788-812 who ascended the the throne throne after a war of succession (78 8- 8 1 2 CE), CE) , who against his younger brother.. Thereafter his mighty neighagainst his younger brother Thereafter he he defied defied his mighty neigh­ bours,, the and interfered their internal he bours the Rashtrakutas, Rashtrakutas , and interfered iinn their i nternal politics; politics ; he was imprisoned for several and was released by the Rashtra­ Rashtrawas imprisoned for several years years and was released by the kuta king Govinda that Sivamara kuta king Govi nda III III when when the the latter l atter thought thought that S ivamara would would be him in war,, but but Sivamara S ivamara be grateful grateful and and support support him in aa fratricidal fratricidal war turned against Govinda Govinda and the side the other turned against and fought fought on on the s ide of of the other brother. brother . This too backfired, was imprisoned This adventure adve nture too backfired, and and Sivamara S ivamara was imprisoned again; again; 88 Sheik Ali 1976: 1 976 : 13l. 13 1 . 99 The goddess PadmavatI Padmavatr is also associated with legends about the

lI oysalas . founding of other dynasties dynasties,, such as as the the Santaras and the fIoysalas. 10 10 Sheik Ali 1976:3. 1 976 : 3 .

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S ivamara was but iin time,, the the wily wily Sivamara was again again on good terms terms with with but n time on good Govinda, who of pol political expediency released released him him,, restored restored Govinda, who out out of itical expediency the whole whole of of the the Ganga kingdom to to him him and personally crowned the Ganga kingdom and personally crowned him. It seems seems that that soon soon afterwards afterwards,, when when Govinda Govinda was was on on aa distant distant him. It campaign, S Sivamara waged aa successful war of of revenge revenge against campaign, ivamara waged successful war against aa rival the Chalukya Chalukya Balavarman had been instru­ rival feudatory, feudatory, the Balavarman,, ' who who had been instrumental iin causing his his earlier misfortunes with with the the Rashtrakutas Rashtrakutas.. mental n causing earlier misfortunes SSivamara remained loyal loyal to to Govinda afterwards and helped the the ivamara remained Govinda afterwards and helped Rashtrakutas in in wars wars against the Eastern Eastern Chalukyas Chalukyas and and aa Kerala­ KeralaRashtrakutas against the Chola-Pandya-Pallava confederacy confederacy,, which which they they successfully successfully deChola-Pandya-Pallava de­ 1 1 He feated. ll He is is described described as as aa pious pious Jaina, Jaina feated. Jaina, aa "bulwark " bulwark of of Jaina Dharma",12 himself aa scholar scholar of philosophy and who was was himself of logic, logic , philosophy and Dharma" , 1 2 who literature.. He He provided provided the the royal royal support that helped Jaina literature support that helped famous famous Jaina teachers inasena II and MahavTra­ teachers like like JJinasena and II, II, Vidyanandi, Vidyanandi, Devanand Devanandi,i , MahavTracarya and and others others successfully spread the the religion religion throughout throughout carya successfully spread southern India. The The Rashtrakuta Rashtrakuta Govinda appointed Jinasena Jinasena II as southern India. Gov inda appointed as tutor of tutor (also known as Nrpatuilga) of his his successor successor Amoghavar�a Amoghavar~a (also known as N~patunga),, who of the and whose daughter later l ater who became became aa follower follower of the religion religion and whose daughter married aa Ganga Ganga prince prince.. married The most famous famous person person of part of of India India and that period period,, The most of that that part and that however,, is CavuJ!,