Waterfields Guide to Computer Software ™
Edited by
Arthur L. Delcher, Ph.D. Professor, Computer Science Department Loyola College in Maryland
Just the information you need. ™
Waterfields Press, Inc., Box 2377, Ellicott City, Maryland 21041-2377 1-800-318-9229 www.waterfieldspress.com © 2000 by Waterfields Press, Inc. Protected under the Berne Convention All rights reserved Published January, 2000 Printed in the United States of America 05 04 03 02 01 00 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of Waterfields Press, Inc. Waterfields Press, Inc. has striven to make this book as accurate as possible. However, this book is sold and distributed without warranty, either expressed or implied, including but not limited to warranty of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The author, the editors, the publisher, and any dealers selling this book will not be liable for any loss or damage resulting from the use of or reliance upon this book. All company names, trademarks, service marks, and product names are the property of their respective organizations and are used in this book for illustration and discussion purposes only. The following companies and names used in this book are fictional: Boole’s Best Computers; Wild Wings Whirligigs; Wiley N. Rich; Ida Rich; and Ken Count, CPA. Other names of persons and companies used to illustrate the working of software also are fictional. Any resemblance to actual companies or to persons, living or dead, is entirely coincidental. This book was produced on a Micron Millennia computer with a Pentium II processor. The software used was Adobe FrameMaker 5.5, Adobe Type Manager Deluxe, CorelDRAW! 8, Corel Photo-Paint 8, Micrografx Designer 7, and HiJaak 95 Capture. The main text typeface is Adobe Garamond, and the sans serif typeface for headings and sideheads is Adobe Garrison Sans. The fonts used for both typefaces are PostScript Type 1. ISBN: 1-886271-05-4 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 95-61674
Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Main Parts of Desktop Computers . . . . . . . 6 How a Computer Operates . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Introduction to Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Part I: Files and Disaster Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing The
m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Files and File Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saving Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common File Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22 30 36 46
Chapter 2: Disaster Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Skills for Surviving Disasters . . . . . . . . . . 56 Preparing for Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Disaster-Avoiding Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Part II: Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Introduction to Operating Systems . . . . . 71
Chapter 3: DOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Introduction to DOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Batch and System Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Using DOS: Basic Commands . . . . . . . . . 84
Chapter 4: Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Using Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Windows 3.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Using Windows 3.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Windows 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Using Windows 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Windows 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Windows NT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
v
Chapter 5: OS/2, Unix, and Apple Operating Systems . . . . . . . . 193 OS/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Unix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Apple Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Part III: Networks and the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Introduction to Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Chapter 6: Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Network Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Network Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Chapter 7: The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Using the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intranets and VPNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online Information Services . . . . . . . . .
276 290 301 303
Part IV: Application and Utilities Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Chapter 8: Buying and Using Application Software . . . . . . . . . . 313 Which Software? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Buying Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Chapter 9: Word Processin .g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Using Word Processing Programs . . . . . 335
Chapter 10: Spreadsheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Using Spreadsheet Programs . . . . . . . . . 381
Chapter 11: Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Database Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Using Database Programs . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Chapter 12: Design and Publishin g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Design Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Publishing Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Chapter 13: Utilities and Miscellaneous Applications . . . . . . . . . 507 Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 Miscellaneous Applications . . . . . . . . . . 525
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Appendix 1: Programming Languages and Technology . . . . . . 543 Low-Level Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 High-Level Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Object Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Appendix 2: Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 Digital Computers and Binary Code . . . 577
Appendix 3: Uses of Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
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Introduction This book has been designed with an eye to what computers are becoming. It also has been written with an understanding that most people do not want to read a lot about computers: they just want to use them. Computers are finally becoming useful tools for everyday chores performed by everyday people. Certainly, computers have been commonplace for some time. They are important in the operations of most businesses and government agencies, play a key role in nearly all educational settings, and can be found in tens of millions of households in the United States. Despite the ubiquity of computers, they have often seemed to be an end in themselves instead of a means to accomplish something. Esoteric features of one operating system over another are touted by experts in the field with little regard as to how those features affect the general user. Volumes are written on the intricacies of using a particular word processing or spreadsheet program when all most people want to do is write a report or develop a budget. Millions of people are not interested in becoming computer experts, but they still want to use the machines. Most businesses look for employees with expertise in areas other than computer software and hope computers will help their workers perform their jobs well. A goal of the computer industry should be to make their machines common tools. Computers will reach this status when any user can sit down at any computer
1
computers as tools and successfully use it no matter which make of software is loaded on the machine. This means software on one computer should share the same commands and procedures and perform the same core set of functions as software found on any other computer. And these commands, procedures, and functions should be easy enough for most people to use after some basic instruction. Much software finally seems to be evolving to this common tool status. The news media has widely reported that more than 90% of desktop computers use one of the Microsoft Windows operating systems. People find Windows’ graphical interfaces with icons to launch programs easy to use. The second most popular operating systems—those used by Apple computers— also use graphical interfaces. Word processing programs—software that is widely used at work and home—now share common features and methods. Corel WordPerfect and Microsoft Word share most of the market. Once you know how to use one of these programs, using the other is easy. The same holds true for the three leading spreadsheet programs on the market. The point is that you as a computer user can start concentrating on how to use a type of program rather than becoming an expert in, say, Lotus 1-2-3 versus Corel Quattro Pro. Once you learn spreadsheet techniques, you can sit down at any computer that has one of the three major spreadsheet programs and be productive immediately. The computer industry must continue to evolve toward this common tool ideal if computers are to be used with such everyday ease as, say, automobiles. Learning to drive is a challenge for most persons. Once
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design of this book you’ve learned, however, getting behind the wheel of a Buick is not that different from doing so with a Ford. This evolution should bring common, easy-to-use commands and interfaces among all widely used software. With such industry standards, the true productive potential of computer hardware and software can be fully realized. Though the computer industry is well on the way toward making hardware and software common tools for the masses, the software field is a complex one: there is a wide variety of available software, software technology is ever evolving, and there are many arcane software acronyms and terms. Waterfields Guide to Computer Software is designed with this breadth and evolution of computer software in mind. It is written to give you an understanding of those basic concepts needed for using the most widespread types of computer software. Reading the chapters on Windows, word processing, spreadsheets, and databases will give you the foundation to comfortably use these types of programs. It also covers the Internet and has a comprehensive chapter on networks. This book also covers nearly every other aspect of computer software you are likely to encounter. The information is presented in a format that enables you to quickly get just the information you need without wading through a lot of unwanted material. It has several features that make it an excellent reference. This book is logically organized. It covers all key areas of computer software, including files (especially managing and protecting them), operating systems, networks and the Internet, utilities, and applications.
Introduction
Design of this book
3
design of this book
4
Running heads at the top of most pages and side heads help you quickly find the subject you need. They allow you to pass over material you are not interested in. An extensive glossary defines hundreds of terms. You can start reading any section in the body of the book and use the glossary as your guide to unfamiliar terms. A section on acronyms provides the full spelling for each term and a page reference to where the term is explained. Throughout the text, there are cross references to page numbers where relevant subjects are discussed. You can start reading anywhere knowing you can easily refer to another section for more information. This book has many illustrations and tables to help you understand the material. A complete index helps you find the topics you want. Many tables list software available at the time of publication by type and with an approximate price. Of course, this information will change over time. The products listed have proven to have staying power, however. In most cases, they will continue to be available with only version numbers—and perhaps manufacturers— changing. These tables give you good information on the leading products in a category and the prices you can expect to pay. Students and faculty may be able to buy software at deeply discounted academic prices.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using this book Whether you are a novice or an experienced com- Using this book puter user, you will find this book has much to offer. Newcomers will appreciate the solid foundation it offers for learning to operate computers well. Those who have used computers extensively will like the breadth of software information it covers. They will find it an excellent reference for the more arcane subjects, such as programming languages and concepts like symmetric multiprocessing and multithreads. If you are new to computers, there are several sections you should read first. The parts on the basics of hardware, computer operations, and software later in this Introduction will give you a good foundation for the rest of the material in this book. You then should read Chapter 1 on files, Chapter 2 on avoiding problems, and Chapter 4 on the Windows operating systems. After this material, read Chapter 8, Buying and Using Applications, and the chapter or chapters on the software you plan to use. If you do not know what software you want to use, you should browse through all the chapters in Part IV to get some ideas. You also will find Chapter 7 on the Internet useful. If you are an experienced computer user, you may want to read the chapters on subjects with which you do not have much experience. It might be one of the application chapters in Part IV or Chapter 6 on networks. Or you may want to use this book purely as a reference and jump from subject to subject. If you use spreadsheets or word processing programs daily, still consider reading the chapters on these applications. They contain information and tips that even veteran users may find useful. Although you may have much computer experience, you should consider reading Chapter 2, Disaster
Introduction
5
parts of desktop computers Control. It will serve as a checklist of ideas for protecting important computer data.
Main Parts of Desktop Computers There are surprisingly few parts of computers you need to know about to learn to effectively use them. Figure I.1 shows you the basic components and parts.
Clip art by Micrografx, Inc. and Waterfields Press, Inc.
Figure I.1 The basic parts of a desktop computer.
Keyboard, monitor, printer
6
When you use a computer, the equipment you interact with most are the monitor, the keyboard, the mouse, and the printer. You use the keyboard for typing in information, the monitor (like a television) for seeing the results of the computing, and the printer for printing out the finished product on paper.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
parts of desktop computers A mouse is a device for giving commands to the computer by moving the mouse on a surface such as a desk and clicking a mouse button. Every computer needs a keyboard and monitor for you to be able to use it. A printer makes a computer much more practical for most uses, and a mouse is nearly indispensable with today’s computers. See Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8 for an introduction to using a mouse.
Mouse
Next is the CPU, or central processing unit. In a microcomputer or desktop computer, another name for the CPU is microprocessor. The CPU is the “brains” of the computer. It is the part that actually adds, subtracts, compares items, and draws pictures. The CPU also controls all the other parts of the computer with the help of software known as an operating system.
CPU
Software, also called a program, is a set of instructions telling the CPU how to do things. The most important software in a computer is the operating system. An operating system tells the CPU how to manage other pieces of hardware, such as floppy disk drives and hard disk drives, or how to handle other software, such as word processing programs or computer games.
Software, hardware, operating system
Software translates all information into binary numbers because that is all the CPU can work with. As a matter of fact, the only thing the CPU does is process binary numbers. The binary number system consists of only two digits: 0 and 1. In computers, transistors, which are like tiny switches, represent 0s and 1s by allowing or not
Binary numbers
Introduction
7
parts of desktop computers
Mouse Operation and Commands You give many Windows, OS/2, and Mac OS commands with a mouse. The mouse rests on a flat surface, such as a desk; and you give commands by holding the mouse under your palm, sliding it across the surface, and pressing one of its buttons with your fingertips. You will find the easiest way to control a mouse is by keeping the heel of your hand on the surface as you move the mouse. Most commands are entered with the left mouse button; but Windows 95/98, and the applications written for these operating systems, make extensive use of the right button for shortcuts. As you move the mouse, a pointer moves on the monitor’s screen. If you are working with text in a word processing program, the pointer—which normally looks like an arrow—will turn into a vertical I-beam when you move it over text. If you move this text pointer to where you want to start typing and click the left mouse button, the pointer will turn into a cursor—a vertical blinking line—and you can start entering text. The following are the basic mouse commands you should know. Point and clickby moving the mouse on the desk until the pointer is on the desired object, and click the left mouse button once. Double clickby moving the mouse until the pointer is on the desired object, and rapidly click the left mouse button twice. Block text by moving the pointer to the beginning of the text you want to block, hold the left mouse button down, move the pointer to the end of the text you want to block, and release the left mouse button. The blocked text will remain highlighted until you press a key or until you click a mouse button while the pointer is over the working area of the screen. You also can block text in Windows by clicking once where you want to start the block, holding down the Shift key, and clicking once where you want the block to end. Drag and dropobjects by moving the pointer to the object, click and hold the left mouse button to select the object, move the mouse—and, therefore, the object—to the new location on the screen, and release the left mouse button. There is another type of mouse called a track ball. Track balls have a ball you roll with your thumb to move the pointer on the screen and buttons you push to give commands.
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parts of desktop computers allowing electrical current to flow. A pulse of current is a 1, and lack of current is a 0. The newest CPUs contain millions of transistors. All numbers and letters, and even lines, colors, sound, and drawings, can be represented by binary numbers. This means the CPU can process numbers, letters, colors, drawings, and sound; and since the CPU is so fast, it can do so at incredibly fast speeds. The smallest binary number is one binary digit (one 1 or 0) called a bit. If a piece of hardware is a sixteen-bit something-or-other, that means it can handle sixteen binary digits at once. When you type a character by pressing a key on a computer’s keyboard, you are entering data eight bits at a time; and eight bits are a byte. This is because it takes eight bits to represent a character or a space between characters. One letter, such as A, is one byte. If something is a kilobyte (KB), it’s equivalent to about a thousand letters and spaces between letters. A megabyte (MB) is about a million.
Bits and bytes
If you look at Figure I.1, you will see the motherboard has RAM on it. The CPU cannot hold much of the information it is processing. Instead, all the data the CPU is working with is held in another piece of hardware called RAM, or random access memory. The software, including the operating system, that is giving instructions to the CPU is in RAM. The memo to your boss that you are typing is held in RAM as you are working on it. Everything the CPU works with comes from RAM. RAM’s capacity is measured in bytes, and modern computers have at least 8 MB of
RAM
Introduction
9
parts of desktop computers RAM. Most new computers have a minimum of 16 MB with 32–64 MB the norm. ROM
RAM is not permanent storage, however. When a computer’s power is turned off, everything in RAM is lost. In computer terms, RAM is volatile. So there need to be other types of storage for a computer to be practical. One type of storage is ROM, or read-only memory. ROM is a small amount of permanent storage that holds basic instructions for the CPU—especially initial instructions for when you first turn on a computer.
Drives
Another type of permanent storage is drives. Floppy disk drives, hard disk drives, CD-ROM drives, and tape drives are all hardware components that store information with which the CPU can work. Drives contain permanent storage, and all, except CD-ROM drives, can be erased so new information can be stored in them. Their capacity is measured in bytes, and they can have capacities from 720 KB to many billion bytes (gigabytes).
Busses
All of these pieces of hardware are connected to the CPU by busses. A bus is a pathway for data. Think of a bus as wires that bits travel along on their way to and from the CPU. The RAM is connected to the CPU by busses. So are the drives. The RAM is connected with a data bus and an address bus, but other pieces of equipment are connected by an expansion bus. An expansion bus is one that allows you to attach additional equipment to the CPU. You attach disk drives through the expansion bus. If you buy an internal
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parts of desktop computers modem (a device that allows two computers to communicate over telephone lines), it will be connected through the expansion bus, as will be your monitor. Parts of the expansion bus are long sockets called slots. Into the slots go internal modems and expansion cards. Expansion cards, also called adapters or controllers, allow you to add equipment. Expansion cards actually are circuit boards with electronics to help the CPU control different pieces of equipment. They often include sockets, called ports, for plugging in cables to attach equipment. A CPU cannot be designed to control every piece of equipment that will ever be made, so adapters and controllers act as gobetweens. Modems are devices that translate a computer’s digital signal into an analog one for transmission over telephone lines. When a modem receives an analog signal, it converts it back into a digital one to be used by the computer.
Slots, cards, modems, adapters, and controllers
Computers also have built-in sockets, or ports, for attaching equipment. A built-in parallel port is where you plug in the cable to your printer. Computers also come with built-in serial ports; and you can attach a mouse, printer, or modem to these ports. Today’s computers also may have special ports to which you can connect multiple pieces of equipment. Universal Serial Bus (USB) and Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) are two standards for this kind of port.
Ports
Introduction
11
how a computer operates Motherboard
The CPU, ROM, RAM, slots, and expansion bus are on a large circuit board, called a motherboard, inside the computer’s case. Find the largest circuit board in the case, and you’ve found the motherboard.
How a Computer Operates It may be helpful for you to see how all these pieces of equipment work together to perform tasks. Figure I.2 shows the key pieces of hardware attached by the pathways called busses. The CPU sends and receives data through these busses. You may want to refer to this illustration during the following discussion of how a computer operates. Starting a computer: the boot
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When you turn on a computer’s power, the CPU gets its first instructions from the ROM. These instructions include self tests and directions to find the operating system. This operation of starting a computer is called a boot. The term comes from the saying “pulling yourself up by your bootstraps.” When you boot a computer, the computer must do just that since no instructions are retained in the CPU or RAM—instead it relies on ROM. The CPU, following the instructions in ROM, searches the disk drives to find the operating system which enables it to operate. It does this by sending and receiving signals over the expansion bus. It will search the floppy drive first and then the hard drive. If you ever have used a computer and left a floppy disk in the drive when you turn on the power, you know the computer will beep at you, tell you there is a nonsystem disk error, and ask you to replace the disk. That Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
how a computer operates
Clip art by Micrografx, Inc. and Waterfields Press, Inc.
Figure I.2 Data flows to the principal parts of a computer over busses. Data and address busses connect the CPU to the RAM and ROM, and expansion busses connect everything else. All of the busses connect to the CPU because the CPU controls all parts of the computer, and all data flows through the CPU.
happens because the CPU could not find the operating system on the floppy, and it is asking you to put the correct floppy in. When you remove the floppy, the CPU keeps searching the disk drives until it finds the operating system. It then loads the operating system into RAM where the CPU can use it. Once the operating system is loaded into RAM, the CPU is able to use it, and you are able to give the Introduction
Loading software 13
how a computer operates computer instructions. Suppose you want to type a report. You give the CPU instructions to load the word processing software. The instructions you give are actually part of a set of commands found in the operating system that the CPU loaded into RAM. CPU uses data in RAM
You should remember that the CPU acts only on information held in RAM. This communication with the CPU, then, is actually a process of sending information back and forth between RAM and the CPU through the data and address busses. The data bus carries the information back and forth, and the address bus helps the CPU find the information in RAM. When the CPU finds the word processing program and loads it, it does so the same way it loaded the operating system.
Swapping data between RAM and disks
Suppose you have been working on your report, and it has become quite long—too long for it all to fit in RAM along with the software. When this happens, the CPU usually will store some of the report in a file it creates on a hard disk. The CPU then will retrieve this data when needed. This file is called a swap file or virtual memory. This disk swapping allows the CPU to keep working as if it has enough RAM to handle the load.
Saving data
As you are writing your report, you need to save it on a disk. This is because it is being held in RAM, and everything in RAM is lost when the power is turned off. The information in RAM is lost because RAM needs electricity to hold data.
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software You save your work by giving a command to the word processing program. The CPU then saves it by taking the report held in RAM and sending it through the expansion bus to the disk drive you specify. All the time you are working on a computer, the progress is displayed on a monitor. The CPU sends signals through the expansion bus and a video adapter card to the monitor so you can see the results. Similarly, when you print your work, the CPU sends the data to be printed through the parallel port and printer cable to the printer, and you get the printed results.
Monitor and printer
Introduction to Software There are three broad categories of software: operating systems, utilities, and application programs. Operating systems control the operations of the computer; utilities help you manage the computer’s operating system, hardware, and files; and applications help you accomplish something with the computer. Software is written by programmers in a language. There are three types of languages: machine, assembly, and high-level. As mentioned before, operating systems enable computers to function. In other words, without an operating system, a computer will not do much of anything except use power and tell you it can’t find the operating system. For desktop computers, there are several operating systems in use: DOS (disk operating system), Windows Introduction
Operating systems
15
software 3.x used as an operating environment (an enhancement) with DOS, Windows 95/98, Windows NT, OS/2, Unix (including several varieties such as Solaris, Linux, and SCO UnixWare), and Apple’s operating systems, such as Mac OS. To some extent, you can switch operating systems on the computer you have. If, for example, you bought a computer with DOS/Windows installed, you can switch to OS/2, Windows 95/98, or Unix. For most people, however, the operating system they buy with the computer is the one they stay with. Utilities
Utilities are sold as separate software packages and also are included with operating systems. They allow you to manage the computer’s files (collections of data used by the computer), guard against viruses (programs that destroy computer data), and keep the computer operating efficiently. Most utilities are designed to be user-friendly to make using a computer easier.
Application programs
Application programs are called applications, or apps for short. If an application is widely used and sold in stores, it may be called an off-the-shelf or shrinkwrapped app. By contrast, some businesses and government agencies hire experts to develop applications specifically tailored to their needs. In the old days, most applications fell into three broad categories: word processing (composing, manipulating, editing, and printing text), spreadsheet (tracking and calculating numbers in a table format of columns and rows), and database (organizing and managing information such as inventory and addresses, also in a table format).
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software Soon other types of applications became widely available. Design and illustration programs now allow computer users to draw a picture or design a building; accounting software replaces green visors and ledger sheets; presentation programs allow anyone to create charts, graphs, and transparencies for overhead projectors that previously came from the art department; desktop publishing programs specialize in page layout and organization to produce newsletters, advertisements, or books; and PIMs (personal information managers) keep track of addresses, schedule meetings, create prioritized to-do lists, and remember details of client contacts. Applications are written to run under specific operating systems. Some applications written for one operating system may be able to run under another. This is done with a program called an emulator, but emulators can slow the performance of an application. It is best to choose an operating system that has the software you want written for it. Software programs usually have version numbers after their names. Technology changes and improvements occur so rapidly that software developers need some method to tell the consumer how advanced their current software is over previous releases. The integer place in the version number indicates significant upgrades. Windows 3.0 is significantly improved over version 2.0, for example. The first decimal place indicates improved versions, but not as significantly improved as the integer upgrade. So version 3.1 is an improvement over 3.0, but not as big an improvement as 3.0 was over 2.0. The second decimal place indicates improvements in the form of bug fixes—that is, working out problems, but not
Introduction
Version Numbers for Software
17
software adding significant new features. Version 2.11 of a program will do the same things as version 2.1, only it will do them with fewer problems. The latest trend is to use the year of release as a version number. Windows 95 was released in 1995 and Windows 98 in 1998. Manufacturers take poetic license with this method to jump the market, however: both Corel WordPerfect Office 2000 and Microsoft Office 2000 were released in the spring of 1999. Programming languages
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Software is written in a programming language, which is a set of terms and rules used by the person writing the computer instructions. Machine language is instructions the computer can understand directly without translation—it is binary numbers. Assembly language uses arcane terms for instructions, and an assembler (another program) translates the terms into binary numbers. Machine language and assembly language are called low-level languages. High-level languages make writing programs easier than with low-level languages. The easiest to use is BASIC. Some of the other high-level languages commonly used are C, C++, Ada, FORTRAN, Pascal, COBOL, PILOT, PROLOG, and LISP. Several of these languages are general-purpose ones, and others are used to develop specific types of software, such as artificial intelligence programs.
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Part I Files and Disaster Control
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Chapter 1 Files—Using and Storing Them Files are essential in computer operations. Computers will not run without software, and software is stored in files. If you understand files and how to store and organize them, using computers will be much easier. A computer’s operating system—that is, the software that controls the operations of the computer—is stored in files. The software programs you use to write letters, balance checkbooks, keep track of addresses, and manage your company’s finances are all stored in files. And you must save your work in a file if you do not want to lose it when you turn off the computer. Not understanding the basics about files and directories probably causes more problems and calls for technical assistance for computer users than anything else. The computer user may lose hours’ or days’ worth of work by not saving and backing up files. Frequently the user does not understand disk organization and directories: “I went to save it, and it just disappeared—I can’t find it anywhere,” is a common lament. Many persons, even very experienced computer users, are afraid to install or remove software because they do not understand files, directories, and folders. This chapter will give you a solid understanding of files and how to manage them. It includes examples of directories and file-naming plans, illustrations of the
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files and file names Windows file management utilities, and some common file management mistakes.
Files and File Names A file is a collection of data that has been defined as a file when someone names it and saves it to a disk. You can type one word on a computer and save it as a file. Or you can save fifty pages you’ve typed as a file. You define what a file is. It can be the program written in BASIC found on page 547, or it can be all your checkbook transactions and balances for the last year. Creating and naming files
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You create a file when you save information you have produced with a computer and give the saved information a name. With DOS and Windows 3.x, file names may have eight characters before a dot and a three-character file extension after the dot (see Figure 1.1). You can use any letter or number and most special characters in the file name and extension. You do not need to use a file extension if you do not want to; and with certain files Figure 1.1 such as those for graphics, Structure of DOS file names spreadsheets, and databases, it is better to not use the extension. This is because the programs used to create these files use the extensions to identify files that are compatible with the software.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
files and file names Also, you can use fewer than the maximum number of characters in the file name and extension. So you may save the memo you wrote to your boss as: BOSS and the one you wrote to the IRS as: TAXDEVIL . BAD However, the picture you drew of the IRS auditor should be saved without an extension. The graphics program will add its own. Windows 95/98 and Apple operating systems allow for long file names so you can use more descriptive names than is possible with DOS or Windows 3.x. If you are using DOS or Windows 3.x, however, eight characters are enough to name a large number of files for a project while allowing you to easily manage them and quickly find the ones you need. The key is to plan the file-naming scheme ahead of time. For example, suppose you work for a national appliance and electronics retailer, and you need to keep track of sales figures regularly using a spreadsheet program. Your company has four regions—north, south, east, and west—and four categories of products you want to track—stereos, computers, appliances, and cameras. You need to track sales by month and fiscal year. You decide that the first character of the file name will be for the region: N=north; S=south; E=east; and W=west. The next two characters of the file name will be for the product category: ST=stereos; PC=computers; AP=appliances; and CA=cameras. The next two characters are for the month: JA=January; FE=February; MR=March; and so forth. The final two characters are for the fiscal year. Table 1.1 shows a few examples of what your file names will be for the sales tracking project.
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files and file names Table 1.1 Examples of file names for sales data
Sales data
File name
Western region camera sales for July 1994
WCAJL94
Eastern region computer sales for January 1995
EPCJA95
Southern region stereo sales for June 1993
SSTJN93
Northern region appliance sales for November 1992
NAPNO92
Note that you still have one character to use in the file names. You can save this space for when you want to change the data and save it as a separate file. For example, if you want to project what the northern camera sales for December 1994 would have been if you added another store, you could do the projections with the spreadsheet and save the file as NCADE94A. ✯ ✯ ✯ File name extensions
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The file name extension is often used to identify the type of file. Most programs automatically add an extension to file names when a file is created, and these extensions identify the files as being compatible with the software. (See File compatibility on page 28.) With word processing software, you can use the extension of your own file name without creating any problem. With spreadsheet, database, and graphics software, the programs may not recognize the file unless it has the proper extension. Even with word processing programs, however, there is an advantage to letting the software add its own extension. Such a file becomes associated with the application, and double clicking (see Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8) on the file name in File Manager, Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
files and file names a Windows 3.x file management utility, or Explorer, a Windows 95/98 file management utility, will start the application and open the file. In Explorer when you double click on a file with an extension not associated with an application, a dialog box opens. You then have the opportunity to link the file with an application. After making this link, double clicking on the file name will start the application and load the file. In DOS, Windows, and OS/2 (Operating System/2), files with the extension .EXE are executable files. If you are at the DOS prompt while in the directory containing the file, you can type the file name without typing the .EXE extension and press the Enter key, and a program will start running. If you are in Windows, double clicking (see Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8) on a file name with an .EXE extension will accomplish the same thing. For example, if you have Quat- Executable tro Pro for Windows (a spreadsheet files are program), the executable file that programs that starts the program running is will run when QPW . EXE. If you are using activated. Explorer, you could go to the folder containing the Quattro Pro program files and find the file QPW.EXE. Then if you double click on the file name with the mouse, Quattro Pro will start running. You also can click on the file name and choose Open from the file menu in Explorer (see Figure 1.2). If you are using Windows 3.x, you can double click on the file in File Manager or choose Run in the File menu of File Manager.
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
.EXE files
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files and file names
Figure 1.2 Executable files are programs that will run when activated. This is a screen from the file management utility Explorer in Windows 98. The file QPW.EXE is an executable file for the spreadsheet application Corel Quattro Pro. You can start the program by double clicking on the file name on the right side of the screen or by clicking once on the file and selecting Run in the File menu of Explorer.
.BAT, .COM, and .SYS files
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Some other file extensions used by DOS and Windows are .BAT for batch files, .COM for command files, and .SYS for system files. A batch file is one containing a series of commands that are executed automatically as the computer starts (as in AUTOEXEC.BAT) or when you type a command. A command file in DOS contains a program that is executed when the file name is typed (similar to an .EXE file) or is executed automatically when the computer starts (as in COMMAND.COM). The COM-
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
files and file names MAND. COM file must be present for a computer using DOS to operate. System files (as in CONFIG.SYS) also contain information needed by the operating system. Windows 3.x uses . INI .INI files initialize files. These files are used to ini- Windows 3.x and tialize Windows (get it ready) to help software and work with the computer’s soft- hardware work with the operatware and hardware. When you load new Win- ing system. dows software, such as a word processing program, the new software will modify the WIN.INI file as you are installing it on your computer. Then the new software will be able to operate as the software designers intended it to operate. SYSTEM.INI files similarly initialize Windows to work with hardware installed on your computer system.
.INI files
Wi ndows 95/98 replaces the .INI file system Windows 95/98 replacwith the registry. The Win- es the .INI file system with the Windows dows 95/98 registry conregistry. The registry is tains operating system a database of hardware configuration information. and software configuraIt also contains information tion settings. about software and hardware configuration. Windows 95/98 stores configuration data in two files. SYSTEM.DAT contains information about hardware and computer settings. USER.DAT contains information about how you have configured the operating system and your preferences.
Windows 95/98 registry
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
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files and file names .DLL files
Windows and OS/2 also rely on .DLL (dynamic link library) files. .DLL files contain instructions used by application programs when they run under Windows or OS/2. Applications use these .DLL files to perform common functions. This allows programs to be smaller, and the common functions can be updated easily for all applications by updating the .DLL files. ✯ ✯ ✯
File compatibility
Files must be compatible with operating systems and applications to work. Most files used with a Windows operating system will not work with the Mac OS (an operating system used with Macintosh computers). The trend for the future, however, is toward total interoperability among hardware and software. (See Components on page 563 for more on this trend.) Even within operating systems, file compatibility can be a problem. A file created with one brand of Windows word processing program probably will not work with another without a utility program to convert it. Word processing applications come with such programs, called filters, for the major word processing formats.
File formats
Most programs save files in their own formats, and they identify the formats with file extensions. A WordPerfect file will have the extension .WPD while one created in Microsoft Word will end in .DOC. When you try to open a file that ends in .DOC with WordPerfect, the program will recognize it as a Word document and ask you if you would like to convert it to WordPerfect format. Spreadsheet and illustration programs are not so friendly about different formats. With these programs,
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files and file names if you try to open a file with the wrong extension— indicating an improper format—the software may not even allow you to view the file name in the dialog box. All you’ll see is a blank window. With spreadsheet and database files, standard formats have Avoid using the extensions with evolved based on the leading pro- spreadsheet, grams in the field. Most spread- illustration, and sheet programs can open and save database files. in Lotus 1-2-3 format (. WK). Similarly, most database programs can handle dBase files (.DBF). Illustration programs usually have extensive filters to open files created in other programs. There also are several common graphics formats. TIFF (Tagged Information File Format) files have the extension .TIF and can be opened by nearly all illustration programs running under any operating system. Windows metafiles (.WMF) and Windows bitmap files (.BMP) can be used by nearly any Windows program. Similarly, Encapsulated PostScript (.EPS) can be used by many programs operating under Windows and Mac OS. See File formats on page 462 for a more extensive listing of design and publishing file formats.
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saving files
Saving Files Once you know how to name files, you need to be able to save the files with the names you choose. Any computer program you use will have a way to save your work as a file. One of the first things you should do when you are learning a new program is figure out how to save files. Saving files in Windows
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If you are using Microsoft Windows, saving files is easy. Every Windows program has a command called Save As in the File menu. First you click with a mouse (see Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8) on the word File on the menu bar (a horizontal bar at the top of the screen) in the application you are using. Then you click on the words Save As in the pull-down menu (a vertical bar with words that appears below the menu bar). Figure 1.3 shows the File menu for a Windows 95/98 application. Windows 3.x applications have similar File menus. When you click on Save As in a Windows 3.x application, a dialog box like the one found in Figure 1.4 appears. You type the file name in the Filename box found in the upper left corner. You click in the box to get a cursor (a vertical blinking line to the right of which the next typed character will appear), then you type the name you are giving the file. Windows 95/98 applications have Save As dialog boxes that look a bit different from those in Windows 3.x applications. Figure 1.5 shows the Save As dialog box from WordPerfect 8 for Windows 95/98.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
saving files
Click here to activate the pull-down menu.
Click here to activate the Save As dialog box.
Figure 1.3 Activating the Save As dialog box from the File pull-down menu in the Windows 95/98 application, Corel WordPerfect 8.
It is impossible to overemphasize the importance of saving your work early and backing up (making extra copies of) the work you’ve saved, no matter what you are doing with a computer. Remember that what you work on with a computer will be held in RAM and will be lost when the computer loses power either because you turn off the power switch or because a power failure occurs. Your work will also be lost if the computer crashes (stops responding) because of hardware or software problems. These situations are not uncommon.
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
Saving and backing up files
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saving files
File name
Disk drive, directory, and subdirectory
Figure 1.4 The Save As dialog box found in the Windows 3.x application, WordPerfect for Windows 6.0.
Also remember to save your work frequently as you are working. Most good Windows programs have automatic save features that will save your work at intervals you specify—every ten minutes, for example. You can set the time interval and the place to save when you start using the program. These programs also give you the option of backing up the previous version of a file when you save it. This helps avoid the problem of saving a file after extensive changes and meaning to save it under a new name to preserve the old file but forgetting. This common mistake leads even experienced computer users to tears. Backing up files
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Backing up files means making a second copy of your files on a disk or tape separate from the one holding your original file. Hard disks may fail, although Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
saving files
Figure 1.5 This is the Save As dialog box found in Corel WordPerfect 8 for Windows 95/98. You choose the drives and folders from a drop-down window in the upper part of the dialog box.
infrequently compared to the old days. More likely, you or someone else may inadvertently erase files you need from the hard disk. Or someone may steal your laptop computer with a year’s worth of work on the hard disk. Backing up your files to a second disk or tape is wise. Tape drives used to back up hard disks are inexpensive, and software is available to automatically back up your hard disk to tape at the times you specify. Optical, magneto-optical, Zip, and Jaz disks and removable hard drives also are useful for backing up fixed disks.
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
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saving files If you save much of your work on floppy disks, definitely make second copies. Floppies fail relatively frequently. Storing back-up files
If your files are vital to your livelihood—say you are a consultant or have a business for which the financial and business information is stored electronically— do not store your back-up files in the same place as your original files. It is preferable to not store them in the same building. If there is a fire, earthquake, flood, theft, or other catastrophe, your business may have a difficult time recovering if you lose all your files. A safe deposit box for tapes and disks can give you peace of mind.
UPS
There also are devices to guard against sudden power loss that would result in lost data. Such a device is called a UPS for uninterruptible power supply. Businesses that cannot afford to lose data will invest in highquality UPSs. When there is a power failure, backup batteries give the computer user several minutes of continuous power, which is enough time to properly save the data and close down the computer.
Confidence in using computers
You may have noticed that some experienced computer users seem to have no fear when it comes to working with computers. They’ll launch into software they have never seen before, brazenly change computer system files like CONFIG.SYS, and sit down and figure out how to do the fancy spreadsheet formatting you
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Knowing how and when to save and back up files is one of the most important computer skills you can have.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
saving files were afraid to try for fear of destroying everything you had accomplished. The reason experienced computer users often are so cavalier is they have mastered the practice of saving and backing up files. They know that no matter what mistake they make—and experienced computer users make lots of mistakes—nothing very bad will ever happen. Nothing bad will happen because they have saved all necessary information in files and backed up those files. When they start working with your spreadsheet, they give it a new name so their mistakes will not affect what you have accomplished so far. They save the working AUTOEXEC.BAT file as AUTOEXEC.BAK just in case their changes really mess up the operation of the computer. Then they copy this and other system files onto a floppy disk for starting the computer in case their mistake is really a doozy. Competent computer users could have a year’s worth of work as well as all their application programs stored on a hard drive and by mistake erase it all. They may curse and go around with dark clouds over their heads for awhile. But at most they will have lost a couple days in time as they load everything back onto their hard disk. They will have saved everything on other disks and tapes.
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
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managing files
Managing Files Directories and Folders
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A desktop computer may have thousands of files on its hard disk. To organize these files, they are saved in directories and subdirectories, or folders. (Directories and subdirectories are called folders on Apple Macintosh computers and in the Windows 95/98 and NT operating systems). Directories, subdirectories, Directories and and folders are structures used folders hold by operating systems to help the files—they are computer user organize and keep like drawers and track of files. A subdirectory is dividers in a file cabinet. simply a directory within a directory. Think of a hard disk or floppy disk as a file cabinet (Figure 1.6). The root directory is the overall structure of the disk similar to an entire file cabinet, and the other directories are the drawers in the cabinet. Nearly all the files are (or should be) stored in directories other than the root directory. For example, you may have a directory called WP for word processing, and in WP you keep the documents created with the word processing program you use. One of those documents may be a memo you wrote to your boss that you saved in a file you named BOSSMEMO. The directory or folder structure you create to store your files doesn’t have to be fancy. It just needs to make sense to you and allow you to organize and find your work quickly. A little bit of time thinking through a directory or folder structure will save you time and headaches later. Figure 1.7 on page 38 shows an exam-
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
managing files
Database
Root directory BOSSMEMO.
Spreadsheet
File
Word Processing
Directory Figure 1.6 In DOS, Windows, OS/2, and UNIX operating systems, files are stored in subdirectories of directories. Directories on the Macintosh are called folders.
ple of a simple directory or folder structure, also known as a directory or folder tree. Why use directories and subdirectories? Because without them, managing software and files would be almost impossible. A moderate-size hard disk holding 400 MB could have well over 4,000 files after several application programs and work files are loaded on the disk, and still the disk could have plenty of room for additional files. Suppose the computer user wants to remove from the disk a program that is not being used. If the program is not in its own subdirectory, the computer user Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
Why directories and folders are used
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managing files
C:\ Win95
Programs
JAN_MR97 APR_JN97
Betsy WPROC Sam
JLY_SP97
SPREADSH
TAXES
1995 1996 1997
Figure 1.7 The directory or folder structure should allow you to quickly and efficiently manage your work and other files on your computer. A simple directory or folder structure of this sort might be found on a typical home computer.
would have to scroll through thousands of files to try to figure out which ones should be erased—a nearly impossible task. If instead, the program is in its own subdirectory, the computer user can simply change to that subdirectory and tell the operating system to erase everything in it—a procedure that takes maybe fifteen seconds.
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managing files Another reason for using directories and folders is they help you find files quickly. It’s a lot easier to find that letter to dad if you’ve filed it away in a directory structure similar to the one in Figure 1.7 on page 38. Directories and folders also make it easier to clean off all the old files that will accumulate on your hard drive. You can move entire directories and folders to removable disks to free up space. If you are using DOS, managing files is more cumbersome than doing so in Windows or Mac OS. This section gives an example of managing files in DOS, which uses text commands. Figure 1.8 on page 40 shows the directories and files of a floppy disk on which part of a book was stored. The first line on the simulated monitor screen shows that DOS is surveying the root directory of the floppy. You can tell this because the user has set the prompt to always show the current directory, and the root directory is represented by a backslash (\) before the greater-than sign (>). The drive letter and colon (A:), the directory (in this case the backslash), and the greater-than sign make up the prompt. A prompt is a symbol that indicates the computer is ready to accept a command which, when typed, will appear beside the prompt. The user then types in DIR beside the prompt. DIR is a command that tells DOS to display a list of a directory’s files and subdirectories. The user presses the Enter key after each command, but the Enter key simply executes the command and does not show on the monitor. After the computer operator presses the enter key, DOS displays the volume label (name) given to the disk and lists two subdirectories of the root directory. You know they are subdirectories because each has
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
Managing files in DOS
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managing files You ask for a listing of the directory of drive A by typing “dir” and pressing the Enter key DOS gives the label (volume) of drive A and the two directories found on drive A You change the directory to MAKER by entering “cd\maker” and then ask for the listing of the directory by entering “dir” DOS gives the files found in MAKER, the date and time they were saved, and their size DOS also gives the number of free bytes remaining on the disk
A:\>dir Volume in Directory MAKER DES 2
drive A is BIOGRAPHY of A:\ 04-12-93 6:33p 04-12-93 6:34p file(s) 0 bytes 827904 bytes free A:\>cd\maker A:\MAKER>dir Volume in drive A is BIOGRAPHY Directory of A:\MAKER
. .. CHAP7 CHAP6
70656 558080 4 file(s)
04-12-93 6:33p 04-12-93 6:33p 06-07-93 12:16p 05-16-93 5:47p 628736 bytes 827904 bytes free
A:\MAKER>
This is what a monitor’s screen may show when you check the contents of a floppy disk in drive A by using DOS commands.
A:\ MAKER
CHAP7
DES
CHAP6
This is what the file structure of the floppy looks like depicted in a tree format.
Figure 1.8 Checking the contents of a floppy disk using DOS.
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Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
managing files after it. DOS also shows when the subdirectories were created and how many unused bytes are on the disk. The computer user then tells DOS to switch to the subdirectory named MAKER by typing CD\MAKER. After this command is entered, you know DOS is surveying the subdirectory called MAKER because the prompt says A:\MAKER>. You can create many levels of directories and subdirectories, similar to dividers and subdividers within a file cabinet’s drawers. The computer user then asks for the listing of the directory MAKER by typing in DIR and pressing the enter key. DOS displays the contents by listing two files. The single and double dots followed by refer to the current directory and the parent directory (the one containing the current directory) respectively. The contents of the directory named MAKER are a file named CHAP7 and one named CHAP6. CHAP7, which was saved on 6/7/93 at 12:16 P.M., contains 70,656 bytes, and CHAP6, saved on 5/16/93 at 5:47 P.M. contains 558,080 bytes. DOS also shows there are 827,904 free bytes remaining on the floppy. Path names are used to tell the computer where to find files. The path is the route the operating system must take to find a file, and it consists of the directory and subdirectories in which the file is located. The path for CHAP7 is \MAKER\CHAP7 in DOS and OS/2 and /MAKER/CHAP7 in UNIX. If you are on C drive and you want to tell the computer where to find CHAP7 on the floppy, you must first specify the drive, then the path: A:\MAKER\CHAP7.
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
Path names
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managing files Creating directories in DOS
From the DOS prompt, you may create a directory by typing MD (for Make Directory), followed by a space, followed by the directory’s name, followed by pressing the Enter key. Directories may have no more than eight characters with a three-character extension in DOS and Windows 3.x. Once you create the directories, you may copy files there using the Copy command. (See Using DOS: Basic Commands on page 84.)
File Manager in Windows 3.x
You can manage your files with a utility program called File Manager that comes with Windows 3.x. Figure 1.9 shows how files, directories, and subdirectories are displayed by File Manager. On the left there is a window File Manager and that shows all the directories, subExplorer are directories, and files in the root handy Windows directory on the chosen drive. You utilities to help you manage files. can choose the drive with which to work by clicking on one of the drive icons shown on the bar across the top. In this case, there are five drives: a, b, c, d, and e. Windows 3.x applications have a method similar to File Manager for choosing drives and directories when saving files. Figure 1.4 on page 32 shows how drives, directories, and files are displayed in the Save As dialog box of a Windows 3.x application. Windows 95/98 applications have a drop down window for choosing drives and folders in the Save As dialog boxes (Figure 1.5 on page 33). Once you have chosen a drive, you can click on one of the directories in the left window, and File Manager will show all the subdirectories and files contained in that directory. If you double click (click the left mouse button twice rapidly) on one of the directories in
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managing files Name of directory selected Drive icons
Files
Directories and subdirectories
Directories
File and directory names
File sizes
Dates files and directories were created
Times files and directories were created
Figure 1.9 Files, directories, and subdirectories as shown by File Manager in Windows 3.1.
the left window, File Manager will show you the next level of subdirectory. Notice there are at least three levels of subdirectories under the directory MAKER4.
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
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managing files Explorer in Windows 95/98
Managing files and folders (directories) in Windows 95/98 is even easier than in Windows 3.x. Windows 95/98 replaces File Manager with a utility called Explorer. With Explorer, all drives can be displayed at once,
Drives and folders
Name of folder selected
File and folder names
Description of object File sizes
Times and dates files and folders were created
Figure 1.10 Windows 95/98 has a utility similar to File Manager called Explorer. Explorer is easier to use than File Manager and gives you more information about your files and folders.
making it easier to move and copy files among them. Also, Explorer gives you more information about your files and folders. Figure 1.10 shows the Explorer window.
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managing files You can create folders in Windows from File Manager or Explorer. In the File pull-down menu in Windows 3.x, there is a command called Create Directory. Click on Create Directory, and File Manager will give you a box in which to type the directory’s name you wish to create. In Windows 95/98’s Explorer, you click on the File pull-down menu and select New, then Folder. An icon for a folder will appear on the drive and folder you’ve selected, and a blue square with the flashing words New Folder will appear beside the icon. As you type, the name you choose replaces the words New Folder. If you already have a lot of files on your computer and would like to organize them better, File Manager and Explorer can help. Create the new directories or folders you would like. Then drag the files to them. A dialog box will open in File Manager asking you if you want to move the file to the new location. Click OK to do so. If you drag files to another drive, File Manager will copy them there instead of moving them. In Explorer, drag the files while holding down the right mouse button instead of the left. A pull-down menu will appear when you release the button and will give you several options, including moving the file.
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
Creating folders and managing files in Windows
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common file mistakes
Common File Mistakes There are some common mistakes that many people have made but which you can avoid. These mistakes are not just made by computer novices, but by old hands as well. Following are some of the most common mistakes made by both inexperienced and experienced computer users. Mistake: Losing files
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Losing files happens to most new computer users—and many experienced ones—at one time or another. To avoid this problem, get in the habit of always checking the directory where the file will be saved when you first use a Save As command. The directory will be shown in the Save As dialog box (see Figure 1.3 on page 31 and Figure 1.5 on page 33). Many programs allow you to specify a default directory where your work files automatically will be saved unless you specify a different directory. Take advantage of this feature when you first start using a program. The function probably will be found in a menu item called Preferences. Just pull down all the menus until you find it. If you have lost a file, Windows 95/98 and Windows 3.x have utilities to help you find files on any drive. In Windows 3.x the tool is called Search and is found in File Manager in the File menu. In Windows 95/98 it is called Find and is found in the Start menu and the Tools menu in Explorer (see Figure 1.11). To use these utilities, select the drive or directory/folder where you want to search, and enter the file name in the dialog box.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
common file mistakes If you do not remember the file name, you can use wild cards. Wild cards are characters that replace some or all of the file name characters you are not sure of. A question mark (?) replaces a single character, and an asterisk (*) replaces many or all. So if you have saved a file with an extension .BAD, *.BAD entered in the Find or Search dialog box will turn up all files with that extension. If you remember most of the letters, ? may be of help. Suppose you remember the extension and the first three letters. TAX*.BAD is what you would use in this circumstance. On the other hand, you could use
Figure 1.11 The Find utility in Explorer
???JA95.* to find all sales data files for January 1995
that were named with the scheme shown in Table 1.1 on page 24. Many people save all their work to the root directory on a hard or floppy disk. Before they know it, they have a floppy with dozens of files, and they can’t find the one they need. If they save their files to the hard Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
Mistake: Not saving files in directories and folders
47
common file mistakes drive’s root directory, they create a headache for anyone who is trying to maintain the computer by making it very difficult to find system files. The solution is to always create and use directories and folders that make sense to you. Figure 1.7 on page 38 shows an example of a simple directory or folder structure. Mistake: Not backing up your files
Anyone who has talked for five minutes with people knowledgeable about computers has heard the admonition to always back up files. Yet not doing so is one of the most common mistakes for new and experienced computer users alike. Perhaps people get lulled into false security because everything always seems to work fine with the computer. Whatever the reason for the complacency, computer hard drives fail or get erased, floppies fail frequently, and laptop computers get stolen. Replacing months’ or years’ worth of work is a lot more difficult— if not impossible—than replacing the hardware and applications themselves. People lose their jobs and companies lose business over not backing up files. The solution is to develop the habit of routinely backing up your work to separate disks and tapes. Some of the newer auxiliary drives—such as Zip, Jaz, magneto-optical, and tape drives—make backing up your files easy.
Mistake: overwriting files with unwanted changes
You have a file with twenty pages of names, addresses, and other information about your best customers and decide to print out the customers from North Carolina. You remove the customers who do not live in North Carolina, print the list, and—because you have developed the excellent habit of saving your work
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common file mistakes early and often—press Ctrl+S (the Windows shortcut key for saving your work). You have just overwritten, and lost, your list of best customers. You cry. When you want to make changes to a file but want to keep the original file as well, you should get in the habit of saving the master file under a new name as soon as you open it. That way your changes will be saved in the new file but not the old. Also, remember to back up your files. A backup copy of your customer file would save you all the time you would have to spend trying to recreate the information. Go into any office and you will find secretaries who have used computers every day for years who, despite their experience, spend much time—maybe hours—looking for files on computer disks. They probably save everything in one directory instead of organizing their disks like filing cabinets. Perhaps they also haven’t developed a good, consistent file-naming plan. The solution is to develop and use a good directory or folder structure. Figure 1.7 on page 38 is an example of a very simple one that uses chronological directories to organize files. What you set up depends on the type of work you are saving. You should also spend some time thinking through a file-naming scheme. If you have a lot of files, the names should be concise. Even though Windows 95/98 allows for long files names, sifting through hundreds of long names to find a file is trying.
Chapter 1: Files—Using and Storing Them
Mistake: Not being able to find the right file among hundreds
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common file mistakes Problem: Loading new software in Windows 3.x, having the system go down, and not being able to recover
Windows 3.x may crash after you install new software, and it is difficult to avoid this situation. You can take steps to protect yourself, however. Windows 95/98 is more stable than Windows 3.x, and adding software usually does not crash the system. In Windows 3.x you can expect it to happen as you increase your library of applications. The best solution is preparation for the computer freeze. First, keep the DOS boot disk that came with your computer in a safe place. You may need to put it in the floppy drive and restart the computer to get it operating again. Second, create a directory called backups on your hard and floppy disks. Copy your AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, COMMAND.COM. WIN.INI, and SYSTEM.INI files to these directories. Do this immediately when you buy a new computer, and do it now if the computer you are using is working properly. Make additional copies under new names before you load any new software. If your system won’t function, use the most recent functioning backup copies of these files to replace the corrupted ones in use. Do this by copying them to the root and Windows directories and renaming them to the correct name (e.g., AUTOEXEC.BAK gets renamed AUTOEXEC.BAT). You probably will need to do all of this entirely with DOS commands, so you should keep your DOS manual handy. You also may want to refer to Using DOS: Basic Commands on page 84. The DOS rename command is: REN OLDFILE.NME NEWFILE.NME
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common file mistakes Although this mistake is not catastrophic and is easy to fix, it still baffles many experienced computer users. Generally what happens is a user starts running out of ideas for naming, say, spreadsheet files and starts employing the extension to help. When the user goes to open the file, the program can’t find it. This is because spreadsheet, database, and graphics programs rely on the extensions to tell if a file is compatible. The best solution is to not use the extension but let the program add its own extension when you save your work. If you already have used the extension when you saved a file, you can rename it. In Windows 3.x, the Rename command is under File in File Manager, and in Windows 95/98, it is under File in Explorer. With DOS, the command is:
Mistake: Using file extensions when naming spreadsheet, database, or graphics files
REN OLDFILE.NME NEWFILE.NME
Some programs will tolerate use of the extension and will load the file after you tell the software where it is. However, many programs will not tolerate file extensions that are foreign.
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Chapter 2 Disaster Control Computers are complex tools, and many things can go wrong when using them. Software and hardware can conflict with each other, creating mysterious problems that may be difficult to diagnose. Browsing the Web and sharing work files can attract viruses that can disable your computer or wipe out all the program and work files on your hard drive. Hardware can fail, causing performance problems or lost data. If you have a fairly simple computer setup with only basic software loaded, you may rarely or never encounter conflicts. The more complex the hardware and software, however, the more likely you will eventually run into problems. A simple hardware setup is a computer, keyboard, mouse, monitor, floppy drive, CD-ROM drive, modem, and printer. Basic software is the operating system, an office suite (page 321), an anti-virus program (page 508), a Web browser (page 276), and software supplied by an Internet Service Provider. The more hardware and software you add beyond these basics, the more likely conflicts will occur. The conflict may be caused by two pieces of hardware sharing the same interrupt (see glossary) request line. Or it may be two programs trying to use the same memory. There are many different ways hardware and software can conflict with each other or otherwise perform improper procedures due to faulty design or flawed programming.
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what can go wrong The conflicts may manifest themselves as a keyboard or mouse that does not respond to your commands, a screen that goes blank or displays an error message, or a computer that restarts on its own. Any one of these or other symptoms can cause lost data, and they can be time consuming and frustrating. Computer viruses are prevTens of thousands alent. Tens of thousands of of viruses have viruses have been written, and been written, and many are circulating many are circulating on the on the Internet and Internet and floppy disks. A virus may be relatively harmfloppy disks. less, perhaps displaying a message or picture on the screen when activated. The viruses to be most concerned about are those that destroy the contents of your hard drive or make your system inoperable. Viruses also can bring a network to a halt by doing things such as flooding it with unwanted e-mail. Computer hardware failure usually occurs soon after the device is put into use—generally within the first few days of operation. Once you get past this initial period with a new computer or hard drive, you will likely go a long time problem free. This is the case most of the time, but you should remember that hardware can still fail. Hard drives go bad—although they are much more reliable than in the early days of desktop computing—and other hardware components fail. Accidents also happen, such as children or adults putting or spilling things into computer hardware that do not belong. And theft and fire are possibilities to prepare for.
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what can go wrong Because today’s hardIt is impossible for ware systems and software you to know how to applications are so complex, solve all the different many things can go wrong. It things that can go is impossible for you to know wrong with today’s how to solve all, or even many, computer software of the problems you may and hardware. come across. Even hardware and software technical support staff rely on extensive databases of information to solve problems they get calls about. When you call technical support (page 325), they start asking a series of questions. Each of your answers takes them to a new branch in a problem-solving tree until the cause of the problem is isolated. If your problem is so unique that it is not in the database, the technical support staff may eventually refer you to hardware or software engineers—people educated in hardware and software design. Be aware that technical support staff may not always be able to help you through a problem. It may be that despite their best efforts, they cannot correct the glitch, only offer a way to work around it. Also, as in any field, there will be those technical support staff who make very questionable suggestions. Your best defense against poor advice is a basic understanding of computers and software and a good measure of common sense. What follows are several suggestions for minimizing computing problems and maximizing the possibility of solving them should they occur. First are basic skills and knowledge you should have to help you through a disaster. Next are preparations you can make to minimize problems and data loss. Finally, there are several problem-avoiding habits you should acquire.
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survival skills Since most people use Windows, these suggestions focus on the Windows operating systems. However, nearly all of these suggestions apply to other operating systems as well.
Skills for Surviving Disasters You may not be happy if things start to go wrong, but the solutions will be reached more quickly and easily if you have some basic computer skills. These skills will help you minimize problems and downtime. They also will shorten the time spent on the phone with technical support, should that prove necessary. Understand folders and directories
Make a habit of using folders and directories in the most efficient way possible. (See Directories and Folders on page 36. Directories and folders are the same, so just the term folder will be used from here on.) Files are lost less often, work is easier to back up, system files are easier to protect, and recovery is easier to engineer if you have a solid understanding of folders— the file drawers of computer software. Not only should you learn how they work, you should spend some time thinking through how to organize your files using folders.
Know basic DOS commands
Even if you use only Windows—and most computer users do—a solid understanding of basic DOS commands will pay off when problems arise. (See Using DOS: Basic Commands on page 84.) Should a problem arise with the operating system, you may need to copy, rename, and move files around in the MS-DOS mode.
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survival skills This will be easier and quicker for you if you already are comfortable using the commands. If you have used only Basics, such as experWindows, never DOS, you tise with directories should practice the com- and folders and commands in the DOS mode fort with DOS comof Windows. Copy a few mands, go a long way files onto a floppy disk, toward helping you then switch to DOS mode. through a disaster. You can do this by shutting down Windows if you are using version 3.x or by going to Shut Down in the Start menu and choosing Restart in MS-DOS Mode if you are using Windows 95/98. Once you are in DOS mode, use the files on the floppy to practice creating folders, copying and renaming files, and using the other commands listed starting on page 84. You do not need to memorize all the commands, but you should keep them handy in case disaster strikes. When problems arise, you will fix those problems Spend time exploring through the operating system. and getting to know your operating sysIndeed, the operating system tem. You likely will be itself may be creating the fixing problems by problems. Time invested in using its tools. learning the various aspects and tools in the operating system is well spent. Set aside a few minutes each day for a while just to explore the different functions available in the operating system. In Windows 95/98, for example, explore the tools in Control Panel, the Accessories in the Start menu, the System Properties dialog box, and so forth.
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survival skills Be proficient at using file management tools
Windows has tools that enable you to easily create folders; copy, rename, and delete files; and search for missing files anywhere on your computer. Become proficient at using File Manager in Windows 3.x and Windows Explorer in Windows 95/98. Search in Windows 3.x and Find in Windows 95/98 are tools that can help you quickly locate missing files. Using these along with the other file management tools will give you a lot of control over your computer. When you are working with files, know that erased files are not necessarily removed from the disk drive. When a file is erased, the address of the location of the file becomes available for use by files to be saved in the future. When the address is used by a new file, the old file will be overwritten. Some disk maintenance utilities (page 511) will help you recover erased files. Windows 95/98’s Recycle Bin (page 160) also allows you to recover erased files until the bin is emptied.
Learn to observe
You should develop good observation skills when using computers. What were the exact conditions when the problem started? What applications were open? What hardware was on and what was off? Were there TSRs running in the background? What keystrokes or commands did you give just before the problem? Did dialog boxes and error messages appear? What were they?
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Good observation will help you solve computer problems.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
survival skills This is a lot to keep in Know the mind, especially when you are conditions under absorbed by the task you are which problems trying to accomplish. When a occur, and write problem first appears, try to down the error remember as much about the messages. circumstances as possible. Then, either heighten your observation when you approach the same circumstances again, or try to recreate the problem. Recreating the problem is the best way to get to its root if you are able to do so. Open and close applications, turn hardware on and off, and otherwise isolate the cause of the trouble. It may take some time to recreate the problem. For example, screen savers that are activated by timers often cause mysterious problems. If your screen saver is on a long timer—forty-five minutes, say—you may experience the problem only sporadically, especially if your work sessions are shorter than the screen saver activation time. One option is to set the timer for five minutes to replicate the difficulty; another option is to disable the screen saver to see if the difficulty disappears. Good observation may help you fix the problem yourself. For instance, if a particular program is the culprit, the manufacturer may offer a solution. Just as important, good observation will help technical support assist you much more quickly and effectively.
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preparation
Preparing for Problems There are several actions you can take to prepare for difficulties. Some measures will help you avoid certain problems. However, you probably will not be able to avoid all problems, but there are measures you can take to minimize losses. Surge protection
Power outages and thunderstorms can destroy computer hardware. If the power goes out, there may be a surge in voltage when it comes back on that can be far above the level the electronics are engineered to handle. Similarly, a lightning strike on a building or power line can permanently damage electronic equipment that is not protected. Surge suppressors are Every piece of designed to stop voltage spikes computer hardbefore they reach equipment. ware should be Every piece of computer equipprotected by a ment should be protected by one. surge suppressor. You can buy surge suppressors in electronics and hardware stores. Look for one that is rated to protect sensitive electronics. Many surge suppressors include a jack for a phone line. You can plug your modem’s line into the jack to protect it. There will be a another jack on the surge suppressor for the phone line to the wall jack.
Antivirus software
Antivirus programs (page 508) are just as important as surge suppressors in protecting computers. Even if you don’t surf the Internet and you never share floppies with anyone, your machine still can pick up a virus
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preparation from the disks containing new software. It’s a rare occurrence, but it happens. When you install antivirus software, choose the Every computer should standard installation with have an antivirus program installed and operthe default options. This ating automatically. will enable the program to Learn how to manually start automatically and scan files and floppies operate in the background with the program. when the computer starts. That way it always will be protecting against viruses. Learn how to manually scan files and drives for viruses with the program. When you are given a floppy or receive a file by e-mail or over the Internet, scan it. You may encounter a problem that makes your computer inoperable. It could crash and be unable to restart on its own because of a corrupted or missing operating system file, for example. A start-up disk may be the only salvation short of reloading the operating system and all other software. A start-up disk contains key system files that will allow you to operate the computer in DOS mode. With Windows 95/98, the operating system will copy key system and diagnostic files when you create the disk. If your system becomes A start-up disk inoperable, place the start-up may be your only disk in the floppy drive and salvation short of restart the computer. The comreloading your puter will load the system files operating system and diagnostic software from and applications. the floppy. You then will have control over your computer again, giving you a chance to fix the problem. Even if Chapter 2: Disaster Control
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preparation you don’t think you will be able to fix the problem on your own, technical support staff will have a much better chance of helping you if you have a start-up disk. In Windows 95/98, you can create a start-up disk by choosing Add/Remove Programs in the Control Panel, then Create Startup Disk. Figure 2.1 shows the window for creating the disk. When you format a floppy disk in Windows 3.x, you can create a systems disk that you can use to boot the computer. In File
Figure 2.1 Windows 95/98 allows you to easily create a start-up disk to use in the event of trouble.
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preparation Manager, choose Format from the Edit menu, then Create System Disk. You’ve probably heard this a million times, and it is true. There is nothing more important in computer operation than backing up your work files. Hardware can be replaced, disk drives reformatted, operating systems and applications reloaded. But weeks, months, or years worth of work is difficult, if not impossible, to replace. People lose their livelihoods from not backing up key data. You can back up your There is nothing work on floppy disks, but this more important in becomes tedious as your files computer operaaccumulate. Also, if your work tion than backing involves graphic files, floppies up your work files. may not be large enough to hold them. Tape drives are a reasonable solution for backing up entire hard drives or multiple folders.Tape drives have a history of being temperamental, however, so read reviews and ask others who have used them before you buy one. An excellent option for backing up a lot of data is removable mass storage devices such as Zip and Jaz drives. Zip disks and drives, made by Iomega Corporation, hold 100–250 MB of files. They have become almost as standard as floppies, and many computer manufacturers include them or offer them as an option with new equipment. Jaz drives, also by Iomega, hold up to 2 GB of data. Zip and Jaz drives are as easy to use as floppies. They appear as another disk drive in file management utilities once the drivers are installed. Iomega includes
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preparation with the hardware special tools for copying disks and backing up files. There are other brands of removable mass storage devices that also are of excellent quality. The point is to find removable storage that is so easy to use that you will back up your work every day. Once you back up your work, store the disks or tapes someplace safe. You need to protect your work from fire and theft, so a fireproof safe or safe-deposit box is a good idea. You may want to work out a routine using several disks or tapes in which you back up data every day but rotate one copy of the media through the safe storage weekly. That way you are not opening the safe or running to the bank daily. You want your data safe, but you do not want to make safety so burdensome that you never back up your work. Work file storage
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Consider storing all your work files in a separate folder on your hard drive with subfolders to organize the categories. Doing so makes it a lot easier to back up your work. You could, for example, open Windows Explorer and drag the entire folder Work onto a Zip or Jaz drive. Go open your snail mail, and when you come back, your work is backed up. Likewise, if you have more than one disk drive or a disk drive that has been partitioned (divided into multiple virtual drives), consider assigning an entire drive to nothing but work files. Again, this makes it easier to back up and affords a little extra protection against accidental erasure. Experienced users who produce much work with their computers will add hard drives for the Store all your work files in a separate folder or on a separate hard drive.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
preparation sole purpose of storing work. Adding a second hard drive is actually quite easy. Once you decide to store your work in separate folders or drives, you should set up your applications so they will save in the new locations by default. The procedures for the various applications are different, so you should check the applications’ manuals or online help. Unfortunately, there are a few applications that do not allow you to set your own location for work files. You must use the program’s default setting. In those cases, be conscious when you first save a file to specify the correct location. Although not as important as storing your work files in a safe Keep your original software disks place, consider a safe location for and registration the disks containing your operat- numbers in a safe ing system and applications. You place. will likely need to reinstall the software at some time—probably when you buy a replacement computer—so keep the disks safe from heat, smoke, theft, and water damage. If you use applications that are no longer available, or if you have a lot of archived work created with those applications, consider storing the programs in a safe or safe-deposit box. Wherever you store your software, store the registration numbers with it. You probably will need those numbers to reload the programs.
Original software storage
This suggestion is not critical and not for everyone. However, if your computer’s hard drive has loads of space that you do not expect to use, consider copying the operating system installation CD or disks onto the hard drive in a separate directory.
Store a spare set of operating system files on the hard drive
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preparation There are two reasons for this. First, when you perform routine maintenance or add hardware requiring new drivers, having the contents of the operating system installation disks on the hard drive is convenient. You will not have to go find the CD or floppies—perhaps a burdensome task since you have stored them in a safe place. The second reason has to do with disaster control. If something goes wrong and you have to start the computer from the start-up disk, you are more assured of being able to access the files from the hard drive than from a CD-ROM. Windows 95/98 includes CD-ROM drivers when it makes the start-up disk, but accessing the CD-ROM drive still may be difficult. You almost certainly will be able to access the hard drive, however. Then you will be able to replace missing or damaged operating system files. Ask, “What if?”
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Ask yourself what would happen if disaster struck—your hard drive crashed, a virus or friend deleted all the files on your hard drive, or Windows couldn’t start. What would you do? Once you have thought through the steps you would take to recover, practice them. Start your computer using the start-up disk (page61) . Practice copying and renaming files in MS-DOS mode. While you are in MS-DOS mode, access the spare set of operating system files you stored on the hard drive (page 65), or access the files on the installation CD-ROM or floppies. Remove and reinstall some applications using Windows 95/98 Add/Remove Programs utility found in Control Panel. Your goal is to get comfortable operating your computer under adverse conditions. Then when prob-
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disaster-avoiding habits lems arise, you will be able to recover as quickly and painlessly as possible.
Disaster-Avoiding Habits There are several habits you can develop that will help you avoid losing important work or having your computer become inoperable. Some of these were covered earlier but bear repeating. Whenever you receive a floppy—or any removable disk—that has been used in another computer, scan it for viruses. It only takes about a minute. Scanning not only will protect your computer, but perhaps the person’s computer from whom you received the floppy. If the floppy contains a Scan foreign virus, your virus software should floppies. Remove be able to disable it. Then sug- floppies from gest to the person who gave you drives before the disk that his or her com- turning on or off puter be scanned for viruses. the computer. Always remove a floppy from the floppy drive before you shut down or boot up a computer. Some viruses are written to be activated on computer start up when the boot sequence searches the floppy drive for an operating system (see Starting a computer: the boot on page 12). The computer reads the virus, and the virus takes control of the operations, disabling the computer—or worse, destroying the contents of the hard drive.
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disaster-avoiding habits E-mail safety
Be suspicious of e-mail attachments. When you receive a message with a file attached, save the file to your disk drive and scan it for viruses before you open it. Be especially suspicious of eBe suspicious of mail with executable files attached e-mail attachments and Inter- (those with the extension .EXE). Again, save the file to disk and scan net downloads. it before activating it. Scan them. Files posted for downloading from the Internet also should be treated with caution. Again, save them to disk and scan them with an antivirus program before you open them.
Work file sense
Good habits concerning work files can protect days of labor. The first good habit is to back up your work. The more critical your work, the more frequently you should back it up. No matter what goes wrong, you always will have the backup copy. The most you can lose is what you produced since you last backed up your work. The second good work file Save work frequently, but rename work habit is to save your work frequently as you use an applicayou are changing tion. If you use Windows, get in before you start if the habit of periodically pressyou want to keep the original file. ing Ctrl+S (see Table 4.2 on page 109) to save your work. Some applications have an autosave feature that you can set to save your work periodically—every ten minutes, say. Computers freeze and crash, and what you are working on will be lost unless saved to a disk. This second good habit can lead to disaster, however, so there is a third good habit for work files that you
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disaster-avoiding habits should practice religiously. When you have a work file that you want to change but you want to keep the original file unaltered, save the file in a new name before you make any changes. Even if you think you will make just a quick change, print the file, and close without saving, don’t do it! It is much easier to delete an unwanted file than to try to reconstruct one that has been radically altered. Many tears have been shed when someone, say, opens a mailing list file, removes all the entries except those with last names beginning with S and T, prints the file, and out of habit, presses Ctrl+S. When you install software using Windows 95/98, Installing and use the Add/Remove Programs utility (see Figure 13.2 uninstalling on page 513) found in Control Panel. This allows Win- software dows to fully track what system files are being altered so the program can be properly removed in the future. Similarly, use the Windows Follow Windows 95/98 Add/Remove utility to procedures for remove software. Never just go installing and to the folder containing the pro- uninstalling softgram and delete all the files. ware and for Doing this will fail to remove the shutting down. changes that were made to system files, and strange problems may crop up that will be hard to correct. Shut down Windows properly before you turn off your computer. With Windows 3.x, this means closing Windows and turning off the power only after you see the DOS prompt. With Windows 95/98, you choose Shut Down in the Start menu.
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disaster-avoiding habits Shutting down Windows properly allows the operating system to remove temporary files. If these files are not deleted, they could cause conflicts in the future that result in performance problems. If your system crashes and the operating system did not have an opportunity to remove the temporary files, you may need to take action. In Windows 3.x, you can delete them manually (see Temporary files on page 131). With Windows 95, run ScanDisk by going to the Start menu and choosing Programs, then Accessories, then System Tools, then ScanDisk. When you restart Windows 98 after a crash, it will scold you for not shutting down properly and then start ScanDisk automatically. Maintain your hard disk
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Your computer will run better if routine disk maintenance is performed periodically. If you use Windows 95/98, take advantage of the disk maintenance utilities that come with the operating system. There also are good third party programs for disk maintenance. See Disk maintenance on page 511.
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Part II Operating Systems Introduction to Operating Systems Operating systems (OSs) are the programs that make computers work. An operating system is software that controls the operations of the computer. It controls input/output operations, including disk and other secondary storage access, sets parameters for using RAM, and provides a structure in which other software works. Your computer’s operating system is the most important software in the machine. More than any other software, the operating system determines how useful the machine is to you. Programmers write operating systems for specific CPUs. For example, DOS and OS/2 are written for IBM-compatible computers using Intel-designed CPUs. Applications then are written for the operating system.
Operating systems and CPUs
An operating environment is a program that makes it easier for the computer user to communicate with the operating system and that enhances and
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introduction to operating systems expands the operating system’s capabilities. An operating environment needs an operating system to function. Choosing an operating system
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The largest number of application programs are written for the DOS and Windows operating systems. However, many persons who do graphics and desktop publishing on computers swear by the Macintosh computer by Apple Computer and the software written for the Mac’s operating system. When you are considering what type of computer to buy, you need to consider the type of operating system it uses. What you are looking for is first how many applications are written for the operating system and second how good is the operating system itself. An operating system is of little use if it doesn’t have the application software you need written for it. The lack of interest on the part of software developers to write programs for an operating system can sentence the system to marginal usefulness or death. Before you decide on a new operating system, try to find out the industry’s response to its release. The leading computer magazines, such as PC World or PC Magazine, will have in-depth articles on new operating systems. These articles often include predictions on whether software manufacturers will be interested in developing applications for the new product.
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Chapter 3 DOS DOS (Disk Operating System) is an operating system designed for IBM-compatible computers. Nearly all such computers now use Windows as an operating system, particularly Windows 95/98. DOS, however, maintains a presence even today. IBM claims there are more than 100 million DOS users worldwide. Windows 3.x, although eclipsed by Windows 95/98, still is used by many; and Windows 3.x can run only if DOS also is running on the machine. Windows 95/98 itself is built on DOS and is capable of being run in DOS mode. If you are using Windows 3.x or 95/98, you should become comfortable executing some basic DOS commands. If you have operating system problems, you may need to use the DOS mode to get your computer running again (see page 56). DOS programs continue to be used, and some manufacturers, such as Corel Corporation, still sell and support DOS applications. The hardware requirements for DOS are very modest by today’s standards. For example, an old computer not capable of running any version of Windows can be put to excellent use running Corel WordPerfect and Quattro Pro for DOS.
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introduction to DOS
Introduction to DOS DOS was first written in 1981 by Microsoft Corporation for IBM to replace an earlier operating system known as CP/M. There are two types of DOS: PC DOS sold by IBM and MS-DOS sold by Microsoft. There is little difference between the two, and you can consider the two operating systems totally interchangeable. The current IBM version is PC DOS 2000, and the current Microsoft version is 6.22. (See Version Numbers for Software on page 17.) Advantages and disadvantages of DOS
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The present versions of DOS are much improved over earlier versions. They not only manage RAM better, they have handy utilities such as disk compression programs (so you can fit more data on a hard disk), antivirus programs to detect and kill viruses, and backup programs to back up your data to floppies or tapes. The IBM version of DOS, PC DOS 2000, is Y2K compliant. That means the operating system will not have trouble recognizing dates from the year 2000 on. Even though many computThere are many ers use DOS as an operating syscomputers runtem, many computers with DOS ning DOS alone installed also have Windows 3.x and DOS with installed. On these computers, it Windows 3.x. is likely that the users primarily run Windows applications. Though Windows applications are popular and generally more powerful than their DOS counterparts, there are several reasons DOS applications still are used. The principal reasons are these: the hardware on which
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introduction to DOS the applications are installed is not powerful enough to run Windows 3.1; the applications used are available only in DOS; or the users have files created in DOS applications, and the files cannot be used by Windows versions of those applications. Many persons use DOS on modern, powerful computers simply because they feel DOS is faster than Windows and the applications are less cluttered with bells and whistles. However, new DOS applications are as rare as a dragon’s tooth. There are considerable disadvantages to DOS largely because it is an old operating system, and technology has advanced a lot since its introduction. Not only is the operating system itself not as sophisticated as Windows, the major software manufacturers are not very interested in spending resources to significantly improve the DOS versions of their products when all trends are toward Windows. One of the biggest limitations of DOS is its limited capability for The number of DOS applihandling large amounts of RAM. cations for sale DOS directly supports only 640KB is dwindling. of RAM, and computer programmers have to jump through hoops to get large amounts of RAM available to application programs. Currently, the only satisfactory way to address large amounts of RAM with a DOS computer is by using Windows along with DOS. DOS is a character-based operating system. This means the user types in commands to do everything from starting applications to changing configuration settings. You type in commands on a blank screen next to a DOS prompt—a letter representing a disk drive folChapter 3: DOS
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introduction to DOS lowed by a colon and other characters (e.g., C:\>). You only type at the DOS prompt while you are giving commands to the operating system. Once you start an application, you use that application’s interface and command structure. Many DOS applications have friendly, graphical-based command structures with menus of commands. When you use a character-based operating system, a good understanding of files and directories is important. You also will find it helpful to keep a DOS manual nearby to look up the more arcane commands. Many persons feel the DOS command structure and syntax are awkward to use and prefer a graphical user interface (GUI) such as Windows instead. A GUI is simpler in the sense that you do not have to look up commands to, say, copy a disk. However, even those who use graphical-based operating systems such as Windows exclusively should learn at least the basics of files and directories or folders to use a computer effectively. Advocates of DOS argue that it is faster to type in a DOS command than to go through a number of graphical menus until you get to what you want to do. Figure 3.1 shows a monitor screen with DOS commands and responses. Advantages of DOS
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Once you become familiar with DOS, it gives you a lot of control over your computer. Writing batch files is relatively easy, and you have much say in configuring your system with DOS. (A batch file is a series of DOS commands that are executed in the order you write them, enabling you to automate many routine tasks.) Perhaps the biggest advantage of DOS is the modest hardware requirements. You can take an old 80286 computer, add Corel WordPerfect Suite for DOS, and have a capable machine for most business applications. Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
introduction to DOS AUTOEXEC BAT 53 file(s)
568 01-14-94 11:23a 314684 bytes 226885632 bytes free
C:\>d: D:\>dir Volume in drive D is STEPH Volume Serial Number is 4220-1800 Directory of D:\ JONATHAN 12-04-93 4:58p JOSHUA 12-04-93 4:58p REFER 12-04-93 4:58p DES 12-11-93 7:10p MYSTERY 12-09-93 5:59p PZP 12-10-93 5:32p SCAN 12-27-93 3:42p 7 file(s) 0 bytes 180584448 bytes free D:\>c: C:\>edit autoexec.bat
Figure 3.1 This is a monitor screen showing DOS commands and responses. DOS uses a character-based command structure.
This office suite includes WordPerfect 6.2 for word processing, Quattro Pro 5.6 spreadsheet program, and Corel Presentations for presentation graphics (page 500). Many millions of computers run DOS either as a stand-alone operating system or with Windows 3.x. Not only do people have a lot invested in the applications and work files on these computers, a significant portion of these computers are not powerful enough to use the more advanced operating systems even if the owners
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batch and system files wanted to switch. DOS most likely will be used as an operating system for some time.
Batch and System Files You should be aware of two special types of DOS files. Batch files—or more correctly, batch programs—contain DOS commands that are executed when the file name without the extension is typed. Batch files have the extension .BAT. System files contain information the operating system uses to control the computer system’s hardware. System files usually have the extension .SYS. CONFIG.SYS
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The CONFIG.SYS file is a system file that DOS looks for when you start the computer. CONFIG . SYS tells DOS the devices to install and the device drivers to use with the devices. A device driver is a program that enables DOS to control a device such as a tape or CDROM drive, RAM, or an adapter for speakers to improve the sound from the computer. Device drivers allow DOS-based computers to use a wide array of auxiliary equipment. In addition to loading device drivers, CONFIG. SYS contains configuration commands. These commands help configure how the RAM is used, load device drivers, specify how many letters can be used by drives, and set other important details. Figure 3.2 shows the contents of a typical CONFIG.SYS file. System files enable the operating system to control hardware.
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batch and system files C:\>type config.sys DEVICE=C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS DEVICEHIGH=C:\DOS\POWER.EXE DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS X=F000-F7FF DEVICEHIGH=C:\SCSI\ASPI8DOS.SYS /D DEVICEHIGH=C:\DOS\SETVER.EXE DEVICEHIGH=C:\WINDOWS\IFSHLP.SYS DOS=HIGH,UMB STACKS=9,256 FILES=50 BUFFERS=10 LASTDRIVE=K: DEVICEHIGH=C:\CDROM\TSYCDROM.SYS /D:TSYCD1 /P:SM DEVICEHIGH=C:\VIBRA16\DRV\VIBRA16.SYS /BLASTER=A:220 DEVICEHIGH=C:\VIBRA16\DRV\CTMMSYS.SYS C:\>
Figure 3.2 An example of the contents of a CONFIG.SYS file.
The first line is the command given to display the contents of the CONFIG.SYS file on the screen, and the following lines show the file’s contents. For example, the second line begins with the command DEVICE . This is a command that loads a device driver into the operating system. The device the command is loading is a memory (RAM) manager called HIMEM. SYS. HIMEM. SYS is found in the DOS directory on drive C. If you have a computer running DOS and are curious about the contents of its CONFIG.SYS file, go to the root directory (page 36) on C drive and type the command TYPE CONFIG.SYS. The first line in Figure Chapter 3: DOS
Viewing system and batch files
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batch and system files 3.2 shows this command. You will not hurt anything by doing so. The TYPE command can be used to display the contents of any system or batch file. Editing system and batch files
You can change the contents of the CONFIG.SYS file from the DOS prompt with the EDIT utility. The EDIT utility allows you to make and save changes to any system or batch file you specify. EDIT CONFIG.SYS will bring up a screen that will enable you to make and save changes to CONFIG.SYS. Your DOS manual should explain all the configuration commands that can be used in editing the file. Save your old CONFIG.SYS file by copying it to a different directory, however, in case you make a mistake. Once you change a CONFIG . SYS or AUTOEXEC.BAT file, the changes will not have an effect until you restart the computer.
AUTOEXEC.BAT
The AUTOEXEC. BAT file is a batch file that DOS looks for after carrying out the commands in the CONFIG . SYS fi le. When DOS fi nds the AUTOEXEC.BAT file, it automatically executes the commands contained in the batch file. Like the CONFIG.SYS file, the AUTOEXEC.BAT file configures your computer when you boot it. Figure 3.3 is an example of an AUTOEXEC.BAT file. The computer will go line-by-line in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file and execute the commands in the order they appear. For example, the fifth and fourth command lines from the bottom enable a mouse to be used. The SET command sets environmental variables. In this case, a variable named MSINPUT is using the
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The EDIT utility allows you to change CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files.
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batch and system files C:\>type autoexec.bat @ECHO OFF SET SOUND=C:\VIBRA16 SET BLASTER=A220 I5 D1 H5 P330 T6 SET MIDI=SYNTH:1 MAP:E C:\VIBRA16\DIAGNOSE /S C:\VIBRA16\MIXERSET /P /Q LH C:\DOS\MSCDEX.EXE /D:TSYCD1 /M:20 PROMPT $P$G LH C:\DOS\SMARTDRV.EXE 2048 128 SET MSINPUT=C:\MSINPUT C:\MSINPUT\MOUSE\MOUSE.EXE PATH=C:\;C:\DOS;C:\WINDOWS;C:\MACH64; SET TEMP=C:\TEMP rem WIN C:\>
Figure 3.3 An example of the contents of an AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
directory C:\MSINPUT. The next line points to the subdirectory where the program that operates the mouse is found and gets the mouse operational with MOUSE.EXE. The PATH command The AUTOEXEC.BAT tells DOS to search the file contains comspecified directories when- mands that DOS exeever you type a command. cutes after the This saves you the trouble CONFIG.SYS file. of always specifying the path (page 41) whenever you want to enter a command. Without the command PATH=C:\DOS in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file, for examChapter 3: DOS
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batch and system files ple, you would have to switch to the DOS directory to carry out many routine commands such as COPY. Notice that the line with the PATH command also tells DOS to search the WINDOWS directory. This is so you can start Windows without switching to that directory by simply typing the command WIN. Now look at the last line. This line is disabled by the REM command (page 546). Without the REM before WIN, the computer would automatically start Windows just as if you typed the command yourself. Impress your coworkers and have fun
If you want to impress your coworkers, you can have the AUTOEXEC.BAT file type a special message on the screen when the computer starts. First type the message in a word processing program. When you save the message, save it in ASCII (or DOS) text—an option with all word processing software. Then add the following line at the end of the AUTOEXEC.BAT file: TYPE PATH/FILENAME where filename is the name you gave the file and path (page 41) is its location. This will work effectively only if the command WIN to automatically launch Windows is disabled.
A tip before you load new software
Here is a final note on AUTOEXEC . BAT and CONFIG. SYS files. When you buy a new computer, and before you load new software onto any DOS computer, you should create a directory called BACKUP or some similar name. You then should copy the existing AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files into the
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Create a backup directory, and store copies of CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT before installing software.
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batch and system files directory as well as the WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI files from the Windows directory if the machine has Windows 3.x. The reason for doing this is that when you load new software (including software that comes with new hardware you add to your system), it frequently will change the AUTOEXEC. BAT and CONFIG. SYS files—and the WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI files if it is Windows software. The new software may create backup copies of these files, but it is easy to lose track of the original and last working copies of these files unless you do it yourself. You want backup copies of these files because it is not unusual for a new program to change these files to the point that your computer system becomes inoperable. It could be that the new changes conflict with changes made by software you previously loaded or with certain hardware you’ve installed. If you keep copies of the originals and the most recent working versions of these files, you will always be able to start your computer from the floppy containing DOS that came with the computer. Then you can replace the bad system files with the ones you know work. You replace the files by copying the good files to the directory containing the corrupted files (the root directory for the AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files and the WINDOWS directory for the WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI files). DOS will ask you if you want to replace the existing files, and you type Y for yes. Then you will be able to use your computer until you can contact the manufacturer of the errant software to figure out what went wrong.
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DOS commands
Using DOS: Basic Commands If you have DOS, Windows 3.x, or Windows 95/98 as an operating system, you should know the basics of using DOS commands. Most DOS commands are logical and fairly easy to look up in a DOS manual and use. However, keep to the basic commands, such as those for managing files and changing directories, until you have a good understanding of the operating system or until you have explicit instructions. The commands in this Even Windows chapter are for communicating users should directly with the operating sysbecome comforttem only. Applications will have able looking up their own command structure. and using the basic When you buy a DOS applicaDOS commands. tion, the first few pages of the manual will tell you how to install the application and start it running. Starting applications
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Each DOS application will start with a different command from the DOS prompt. If you don’t remember the command and can’t find the manual, look at the application’s files and find one with an .EXE extension. The file name letters before the dot are probably what you type to start the application. In general, you switch to the directory containing the program and type in command letters to start the application. For example, WordPerfect 5.0 may be contained in the directory WP50, and you start the application with the command WP. To start WordPerfect, therefore, you would switch to the WordPerfect directory by typing CD\WP50 and
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
DOS commands pressing E NTER. Then you would type WP and press ENTER. WordPerfect then would start. Before you start copying and erasing files, you should set the prompt to display the drive and path (page 41). That way you will know if you are about to erase all the files on the hard drive or just the ones in the directory you have specified. If your prompt displays the drive letter followed by a backslash (e.g., C:\), then it is set correctly. If it does not display a backslash, you need to put a command in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file (page 80). The command you insert Setting the prompt is PROMPT $P. Your DOS manto display the direcual will give more options for tory helps you keep displaying information, such as track of where you the time and date, at the are and may head prompt. Use the EDIT com- off a disaster. mand (page 80) in DOS to make and save the change. Remember that the new prompt will not appear until you reboot the computer or until you type AUTOEXEC and press the enter key.
Setting a safe prompt
To execute any of the following commands, you press the enter key (which also may be marked as Return or may simply have ↵ on it) after you type in the command. You do not have to worry about whether you type the command in capitals or lower case—either will do. Unless you are saving a file from an application, you do need to make certain you are at the DOS prompt and not in an application such as a word processing program. Remember that syntax (page 548)—
How to execute DOS commands
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DOS commands the precise spelling, punctuation, and order of the command—is very important. Get online help with DOS commands
Get help with DOS commands by typing the command name followed by /?. Thus, DISKCOPY /?
will display instructions on how to use the diskcopy command. Drive letters and changing drives
Change the drivethe computer is using by typing the drive letter followed by a colon. To change to C drive, type C:
and type A:
to change to A drive. Each of the drives (floppy, hard, and CD-ROM) on a computer is given a letter to identify it. The hard disk almost always will be C; the first floppy drive will be A; the next floppy drive B; the next hard disk, CD-ROM, or floppy drive D; the next hard disk, CD-ROM, or floppy drive E; and so forth. Saving and naming a file
Save a file within an application by giving it a file name and telling the program where to save it. The command in the application will be SAVE. You will need to pay attention to DOS file-naming conventions which dictate that the maximum file name length cannot be more than eight characters. These characters may be followed by a period and up to three characters in the extension. You can use any letter, any number, and certain symbols (your DOS manual will have a list of the
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DOS commands symbols). However, there are certain combinations of letters you should not use, and your DOS manual will list them. As an example, BOSSMEMO.001 is a proper file name. So is CHAP7.
Copy a fileby typing the command COPY, followed by a space, followed by the drive letter and directory (also called the path) where the file is located, followed by the file name, followed by a space, followed by the drive and directory to where you want the file copied. Thus, to copy the chapter 7 file (illustrated in Figure 1.8 on page 40) that is found on A drive to a directory called WP found on a floppy disk in drive B, type the following:
Making copies of files
COPY A:\MAKER\CHAP7 B:\WP
Copy an entire diskto another disk by typing the command DISKCOPY, followed by a space, followed by the drive where the disk you want to copy is located, followed by a space, followed by the drive where the disk you want to copy the files onto is located. For example,
Making copies of disks
DISKCOPY A: B:
copies the contents of the disk in drive A onto the disk in drive B. If you have only one floppy drive and you want to make a duplicate copy of a floppy disk, enter DISKCOPY A: A:
and DOS will prompt you to swap the disks in and out of drive A at the proper times. CAUTION: when you use diskcopy, everything on the target disk is erased and replaced by everything on the source disk. Chapter 3: DOS
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DOS commands Wild cards are shortcuts
Use wild cardsto include a number of files in a command without naming them. The asterisk (*) indicates any number of characters of any type before or after the period in a file name. The question mark means a single character in a particular position. Thus, COPY A:\MAKER\*.* B:\WP
copies all the files found in directory MAKER on drive A to directory WP on drive B; COPY [DRIVE][PATH]*.COM [DRIVE][PATH]
copies all files with the extension com; and
COPY [DRIVE]\MAKER\CHAP?.* [DRIVE][PATH
copies both chapters illustrated in Figure 1.8 on page 40. Deleting files
Erase files by using the delete or erase command. Use either DEL or ERASE, followed by a space, followed by the drive and path, followed by the file(s) you want to erase. The command DEL A:\MAKER\CHAP7
erases the file named chap7. Also, ERASE A:\MAKER\CHAP6
does the same for the file named chap6. If you are at the prompt A:\MAKER> and you type DEL *.* , everything in the directory named MAKER will be erased. CAUTION: Be careful when you use wild cards to erase files. Many persons have erased entire disks by mistake. (Make sure you back up all your files onto another disk or tape just in case you make a mistake. See Confidence in using computers on page 34.) Renaming files
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Renaming a fileis a procedure you may need to use should problems crop up with your computer. In Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
DOS commands such cases, the technical support staff may ask you to rename some operating system files. The command simply is REN or RENAME, followed by the drive and directory (if different from the one you are in), followed by the current file name, followed by the new file name. For example, you can rename an AUTOEXEC.BAT file as AUTOEXEC.OLD with the following command: REN [DRIVE] [PATH] AUTOEXEC.BAT AUTOEXEC.OLD
Create a directorywith the make-directory command. Type MD, followed by a backslash, followed by the name of the new directory. So,
Making directories
MD \CARLOAN
creates the directory CARLOAN. You create a subdirectory by including the parent directory in the name: MD \CARLOAN\FORD
creates a subdirectory of CARLOAN that is called FORD. You can create a directory on a different drive by including the drive letter in the command: MD B:\EDUCLOAN\HARVARD
can be entered from C drive. (The same process can be used for most DOS commands.)
Change to a directoryby using the change-directory command. Type CD, followed by a backslash (space optional), followed by the directory’s name. Typing
Moving around directories
CD\MORTGAGE
changes to the directory called MORTGAGE.
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DOS commands Listing directory contents
List all the filescontained in a directory by switching to the directory and typing DIR. (See Figure 1.8 on page 40). If there are many files, DIR/P
will pause after each screenful until you press a key, and DIR/W
will display the directory’s contents across the entire width of the screen. Removing directories
Remove a directoryby using the remove-directory command with an empty directory (you cannot remove a directory that has files in it). Type RD, followed by the directory you wish to remove preceded by a backslash. Thus RD \MORTGAGE
will remove the directory named MORTGAGE if it is empty. But A:\>CD \MAKER[ENTER] ERASE*.*[ENTER] CD \[ENTER] RD \MAKER
is necessary to remove the MAKER directory in Figure 1.8 on page 40. Preparing a disk for use
Format a diskwith the format command. All of the disks used by a computer must be prepared for use by its operating system. When a disk is formatted, it is divided into tracks and sectors magnetically. Once the disk is formatted, you can store data on it. You format a disk by typing the command FORMAT, followed by a space, followed by the drive
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DOS commands where the disk is located. To format a floppy in A, type the following: FORMAT A:
CAUTION: When you format a disk, everything on the disk will be erased. Be certain you are formatting the correct disk on the correct drive.
Clear the screen of all your mistakes with the clear-screen command. To use this command, type cls at the prompt, then press the enter key. The utility of this command is obvious.
Removing the evidence
Suppose you are in your office sitting at your computer trying to get the darned thing to work with DOS commands. Your monitor’s screen is now filled with messages such as “Invalid switch - /c,” “Bad command or file name,” “Invalid drive specification,” “Not reading drive B Abort, retry, fail?,” and other such insults. To make matters worse, the one coworker you really want to impress with your new computer skills is headed your way. What do you do? Type CLS
and press the enter key. Your screen is cleared of all the evidence, leaving you with only a DOS prompt in the upper left corner. Then you lean back and say to your coworker, “Just taking a break before I reformat my hard drive and load my apps the way I like them. You just can’t leave this sort of job to those clowns in Office Systems Division.”
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DOS commands Backing up your files is critical
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Finally, it is easy to make mistakes and accidentally erase files you need, and it is possible to lose files through some sort of electronic catastrophe or because of a bad disk. (A bad disk is one that records data incorrectly or stops recording data entirely.) For these reasons, always back up your work. (See Backing up files beginning on page 32.)
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DOS at a glance DOS At A Glance What it is—DOS is an operating system first developed in 1981 by Microsoft Corporation for IBM to use on its personal computers. An operating system is software that controls the operations of the computer. It controls input/output operations, including access to disk drives and other secondary storage devices, sets parameters for using RAM, and provides the structure in which other software works. Pluses—Computer users who prefer to exercise maximum control over their machines and their operating systems may like DOS. It allows you to tweak, fix, modify, and write automatic routines enough to warm most novice hackers’ hearts. A good DOS application, such as a word processor or database, is the answer for what to do with those old computers that cannot run Windows. Teamed with a capable printer loaded with several good, scalable typefaces, a program such as WordPerfect for DOS could easily handle most of the word processing needs of a busy office. Minuses—DOS is a text-based operating system with limited RAM-handling capability. A text-based operating system is one in which you must type in commands in text form to do everything, including starting applications. The limited ability to handle memory means applications are not as powerful as those written for more sophisticated operating systems such as Windows. This lack of power will show in the lack of true WYSIWYG (what-you-see-is-what-you-get) in applications, lack of graphical user interfaces, and inability to multitask or have multiple screens open at once. DOS-based applications are disappearing fast because of the popularity of Windows. Do not invest much in DOSbased computing unless you really like the operating system. System requirements—DOS will run on any computer with an Intel-designed microprocessor (8086, 80286, etc.) and just about any memory configuration. DOS applications cannot take advantage of more than 640 KB of RAM unless they are designed to use expanded memory and you install an expanded memory board. Most DOS applications are small, so a modest hard drive will do unless you plan to store a lot of work files on it. Major brands—Microsoft manufactures MS-DOS and IBM produces PCDOS. Current versions are MS-DOS 6.22 and PC DOS 2000. Street prices—Upgrades to MS-DOS 6.22 are about $50, and the full version of PC-DOS sells for about $60. Chapter 3: DOS
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Chapter 4 Windows Before Windows, DOS was used as the operating system on IBM-compatible computers. Microsoft Corporation first developed Windows in 1985 as a prelude to OS/2, the operating system that IBM and Microsoft were jointly developing at that time to replace DOS. IBM and Microsoft ended their partnership, and Microsoft started developing Windows as an operating system of the future while IBM continued to develop OS/2. Microsoft Windows 3.0 was the first version of Windows that offered any real utility to users, and version 3.1 added significant improvements and worked out many of 3.0’s bugs. Windows 3.11 and Windows for Workgroups 3.11 (WFW 3.11) were the latest versions before Windows 95 was introduced as their successor. (See Version Numbers for Software on page 17.) Windows NT is the operating system of the future that Microsoft envisioned when it ended its relationship with IBM. Windows 3.x (Windows 3.x refers to all versions beginning with a 3) is an operating environment that works only if the operating system DOS is installed and running. Windows 95 and 98 (Windows 95/98) are stand-alone operating systems that were built on DOS. Windows NT was built from the ground up as a sophisticated, industrial-strength operating system for high-end and corporate use. Most computers with Windows now use Windows 95 or Windows 98. There are many computers still 95
introduction to Windows running Windows 3.x, however. Windows NT is found mostly in businesses and government. Windows popularity
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Windows operating systems are extremely widespread. It has been widely reported in the press that more than 90% of computers use Windows operating systems. The popularity of Windows means there is a very large number of applications available for Windows operating systems. The number of new applications for Windows presently available far exceeds those of any other operating system. Most of the new applications sold today are designed to be used with Windows 95/98, and most of these also can be used with Windows NT. There still are many Windows 3.x applications available, also. The popularity of WinThe popularity dows and the wide variety of and uniform comapplications available make mand structure of these operating systems very Windows and Windows applicaattractive to businesses. The tions are pluses for widespread use of Windows businesses. means that most employees will have some familiarity with the uniform command structure of the operating systems and applications written for them. This cuts down on training while assuring that a variety of applications will be available to meet businesses’ performance and price needs.
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using Windows
Using Windows All versions of Windows share several common features. They all have graphical user interfaces, use windows, are WYSIWYG environments, have OLE (Object Linking and Embedding), and are capable of multitasking. The similarity in operation from one version of Windows to the next coupled with the huge number of computers using Windows and Windows applications make these operating systems the virtual standard for computing. Windows gets its name from the windows, or screens, you work in when using programs or the operating system itself. A window is a rectangular screen displaying a program or a file within a program. You can have several programs open at once—each within its own window—or several files within a program open— again, each within its own window. Or you can have multiple programs with multiple files open—all with their own windows.
Windows has windows
Graphical user interfaces have significant advantages over text-based commands—like those used in DOS—in operating systems. They use symbols called icons and pull-down menus that are easier to use than text-based commands. They tend to have a similar structure from one Windows operating system and program to the next. This cuts down on learning and training time.
Graphical user interface (GUI)
Figure 4.1 shows four typical Windows 95/98 icons. Two of the icons are for utilities that come with
Icons
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using Windows the operating systems, and two are for applications loaded on the computer. Icons may be found on the Windows desktop (the main screen that appears when you start Windows), in pull-down menus, or on menu bars. Putting the mouse pointer over an icon and double clicking starts a program or gives a command. This simple procedure is intuitive and universally accepted.
Figure 4.1 These are four icons from a computer using Windows 98. Notice the mouse pointer is over the icon for a utility called Control Panel. If the person using the mouse double clicks, Control Panel will start.
Title, menu, and icon bars
All Windows applications have at least a Title Bar and a Menu Bar. Some also have Icon Bars with icons for frequently used functions (see Icon bars on page 115). Figure 4.2 shows Title, Menu, and Icon bars for the Windows 95/98 spreadsheet application, Microsoft Excel.
Title bar
The window title bar shows the name of the application you are using and the name of any file you have
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using Windows Title Bar
Menu Bar
Icon Bar
Figure 4.2 This is the left side of the top of the screen of the Windows 95/98 spreadsheet application, Microsoft Excel.
open. If you have several files open in an application, the window title bar will show you the active file. The menu bar has words identifying the pull-down menus available in the program. When you first start using a Windows application, spend time clicking on the menu titles to see what functions are in each. All applications will have a File menu, which contains commands for opening and saving files as well as commands for other functions, such as printing. Figure 1.3 on page 31 shows a pull-down menu for the Windows 95/98 word processing application, Corel WordPerfect 8. Menus may have submenus, or nested menus. A submenu is indicated by a little arrowhead pointing to the right. Clicking on a menu item with one of these arrowheads opens another menu as shown in Figure 4.3.
Menu bar and pull-down menus
Dialog boxes are windows in which you enter commands. They are used when a command, such as Save As, requires that you enter additional information such as a file name. They also are used to group commands for a similar function in one place. A menu item with ellipsis points (…) after it opens a dialog box. Figure 4.4 shows a dialog box from the Windows 95/98 page layout program FrameMaker 5.5.
Dialog boxes
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using Windows
Figure 4.3 Windows programs have pull-down menus, some of which are nested (a menu within a menu). These nested pull-down menus are found in the Windows 3.x page layout program FrameMaker 4.
Scroll bars
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In most Windows programs, you will find yourself using the scroll bars frequently. The scroll bars are found on the right side and bottom of the window (see Figure 4.5). You use scroll bars to move the window image. You do this by clicking one of the scroll arrows with a mouse or by dragging a scroll box. Pressing on the scroll arrow that points down moves your view lower on the page or document, which means the image in the window moves up until it moves off the screen. Pressing on the right scroll arrow moves your view to the right and the image to the left.
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using Windows
Figure 4.4 A dialog box gives you another way to enter commands. This dialog box is found in FrameMaker 5.5, a page layout program written for Windows 95/98.
As you scroll an image, the scroll boxes move relative to your position in the entire document. If your document has one page, when the vertical scroll box is halfway down the scroll bar, your view is halfway down the page. If the document has one hundred pages, when the scroll box is halfway down the bar, you will be about at page fifty. If you have a long document, you can quickly move through it by dragging the scroll box about to where you think you want to be. Resizing objects and windows is relatively easy in Windows. Graphic objects in Windows have handles— little black squares—that are revealed when you click on the objects with a mouse (see Figure 4.5). Many windows and nongraphic objects in Windows have sides and corners that also act as handles. Each graphic object will have eight handles—one for each corner and one for each side.
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Resizing objects and windows
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using Windows
Figure 4.5 Screens in most Windows programs—this one is from the Windows 95/98 program CorelDraw 8—have scroll bars you use to move the screen image. You do this by clicking one of the scroll arrows with a mouse or by dragging the scroll boxes. When you click on a graphic object in Windows applications, eight handles will appear. You then can resize the object by dragging a handle (see Figure 4.6 on page 103), or you can move the entire object by placing the mouse pointer over it—but not on a handle— and dragging it to a new location. You can resize most windows and many nongraphic objects also. You know you can resize a window or nongraphic object if, when you move the mouse pointer over its edge, the pointer turns into a double-headed arrow as shown in Figure 4.6. To move a window, place the pointer on the title bar and drag the window to the new location.
When you put the mouse pointer over one of the handles—or a side or corner of a window or nongraphic object that can be resized—the pointer turns into a double-headed arrow. If you drag the handle, or drag the window or nongraphic object edge, you will change the appearance of the object or window.
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using Windows
The mouse pointer becomes a double arrow when over a handle or window edge. This pointer allows you to drag the object’s handle or the window’s edge horizontally, compressingorstretchingtheobject in the direction you drag, as in the image above.
This pointer allows you to make the object or window proportionally larger or smaller, as in this shrunken tiger.
This pointer allows you to drag a handle vertically, as in this view of the tiger.
Figure 4.6 By dragging one of the handles shown in Figure 4.5, you can change an object’s appearance. The sides and corners of many windows also act as handles, allowing you to similarly change the window’s proportions and size.
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using Windows The handles on either side of the object or window will turn into horizontal double arrows and stretch or compress it horizontally. The handles on the top or the bottom of the object or window will turn into vertical double arrows and stretch or compress it vertically. The handles at any of the four corners will turn into diagonal double arrows and will shrink or enlarge the object or window proportionally—that is, without distorting the dimensions. Figure 4.6 shows the results of dragging the handles of the tiger in Figure 4.5. Moving objects and windows
Moving an object or window also is easy. Click on the object so the handles appear, place the mouse pointer over the object but not on a handle, and drag the object to the location you choose. With a window (including dialog boxes), place the pointer on the window’s title bar, and drag the window to the new location.
Cascade and Tile
When you have more than one file open, you can have them all displayed on the screen at once and control how they are displayed. The commands for doing this are found in the Window pull-down menu of nearly all Windows programs. The commands are Cascade and Tile. Figure 4.7 shows multiple windows in both cascade and tile view. The Window pull-down menu also will show the names of all the files open. If you are in either cascade or tile view and want a full-screen view of one window, click on the file name of the file in the Window menu.
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Figure 4.7 The Window menu (top) in Windows applications has a list of all files that are open and commands for cascading and tiling windows containing the open files. The application used in these screens is the database program Microsoft Access 97. The middle screen shows several windows that are displayed in the tile view. The bottom screen shows these same windows displayed in the cascade view. Clicking on the title bar of one of these cascaded windows will bring it to the front and make it active.
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using Windows Minimize, maximize, restore, and close icons
Every window has icons in the upper right corner (and upper left in Windows 3.x) that you can click on to change its size or to close it. If you have a file open in an application, there will be two sets of icons: the lower set is for the open file’s window, and the upper set is for the application. Table 4.1 shows the icons for Windows 95/98 and Windows 3.x. Table 4.1: Minimize, maximize, restore, and close icons
Command
Windows 3.x
Minimize
▼
Maximize
▲
Restore
▲ ▼
Windows 95/98
Close
When you click on the minimize icon, the window shrinks to an icon, and you can click (or double click in Windows 3.x) on the icon to restore the window to the size it was before you minimized it. The maximize icon enlarges the window to its maximum size (usually filling the entire screen). The restore icon changes the window to its normal size—large enough to work in but less than the maximum size. The close icon closes the window and the file or application it contains. The close icons are found in the upper left corner in Windows 3.x programs and the 106
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using Windows upper right in Windows 95/98. You have to double click the close icon in Windows 3.x but only single click it in Windows 95/98. You can switch between open programs in Windows by using the hot key. To activate the hot key, you press and release the Tab key while keeping the Alt key depressed. Each time you press and release Tab while holding down Alt, a little window will appear in the center of the screen with the name or icon of program that is open. When you get to the program you want to use, release the Alt key and it will appear on the screen in full view. The hot key is an easy and The Alt-Tab hot quick way to switch between key enables you applications. Perhaps you may to quickly switch want to switch between a word between open processing program and a spread- programs. sheet to write a sales report with tables of numbers and graphs. Or you can keep Explorer or File Manager open in the background and switch to it to manage files while working in another application.
Hot key
✯ ✯ ✯ After you have used Windows for a while, you may want to accomplish routine tasks quicker than pulldown menus allow. That is where shortcut keys come in. Most Windows applications allow you to use keystrokes to accomplish tasks you may perform frequently in your work. Some of these keystrokes are the same for nearly all applications. You can tell what the shortcut keys are for the program you are using by opening the pull-down menus. Chapter 4: Windows
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using Windows You even can open the pull-down menus using keystrokes alone without a mouse—a good thing to remember in case your mouse stops working one day, and you need to save and exit what you are doing. In fact, you can enter most commands in Windows without a mouse. The way you activate pull-down menus without a mouse is by holding down the Alt key and pressing the key for the letter underlined in the menu name—F for the File menu or E for the Edit menu, for example. You then can scroll down the menu with the cursor keys— the keys with arrows on them—until you get to your selection. When you get to your selection, pressing Enter executes the command or opens the next level menu or dialog box. Or you can press the key for the letter underlined in the submenu or key name without pressing Alt first. To leave a menu without executing a command, press the Escape (Esc) or Alt key. Shortcut keys
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To know which shortcut keys the program you are using allows, open the pull-down menus and look for commands with keys identified after them. You can see these in the pull-down menus shown in Figure 4.3 on page 100. For example, Figure 4.3 has Ctrl+B after Bold. If you have text blocked and you press Ctrl+B, the text will be changed to bold letters. There are several shortcut keys that you can use in nearly every Windows program. Table 4.2 shows most of these universal shortcuts. You should learn as many of these as possible as they will make using Windows easier for you. Especially get in the habit of using Ctrl+S to save your work frequently.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using Windows Table 4.2: Shortcut Keys Keystroke
Function
Ctrl+S
Save
Ctrl+C
Copy
Ctrl+X
Cut
Ctrl+V
Paste
Ctrl+P
Print
Ctrl+O
Open
Ctrl+W
Close
Ctrl+S saves your work. This is the most important shortcut key for you to know. Windows crashes now and again, and the easiest way to keep from losing too much of your work when this happens is to press Ctrl+S frequently.
Save
Ctrl+C copies to a special memory space called the Clipboard (see Clipboard on page 110) the text you have blocked (see Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8) or an object, such as an illustration, you have selected by clicking on it. You then can paste the text or object into any Windows application.
Copy
Ctrl+X cuts (removes) text you have blocked or an object you have selected and places it in the Clipboard for pasting later.
Cut
Ctrl+V pastes the contents of the Clipboard where you have placed the cursor.
Paste
Ctrl+P opens the Print dialog box for printing.
Print
Ctrl+O opens the Open File dialog box.
Open
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using Windows Close
Ctrl+W closes the file in which you are working. Shortcut keys are real time savers. Every Windows user should know the basic ones.
The most timesaving shortcut keys are those for saving your work and for cutting, copying, and pasting text and objects. As mentioned before, you should use the Save key shortcut regularly. (See Work file sense on page
68.) Cutting, copying, and pasting
Cutting, copying, and pasting (see page 109 for an explanation of these functions) harness the computer’s power to allow you to quickly and efficiently craft documents using text, tables, and illustrations from a variety of sources. Cutting, copying, and pasting data are done in Windows through a special memory space called the Clipboard. You can cut, copy and paste with shortcut keys or by using the commands found in the Edit menu of programs.
Clipboard
Every time you cut or copy data, Windows puts it in Clipboard. Clipboard will hold only one set of data at a time, and its contents will be replaced when you cut or copy something new. The information will remain there for as long you are working with the application in which you created it. When you leave the application, Windows will ask you if you want to leave data in the clipboard. If you tell Windows yes, the data will remain until you replace it or exit Windows. Cutting, copying, and pasting text, whether with keystrokes or with the commands in the Edit menu, are how people commonly move information between
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using Windows applications or within an application. Blocking and cutting or copying words, sentences, paragraphs, or pages and pasting them in a new location means you can quickly edit documents no matter how extensive the changes. A more powerful way to move information between applications is Object Linking and Embedding, or OLE. You use OLE when you want to take an illustration, spreadsheet, or table created in one application and bring it into another application, such as a word processor. The information created OLE enables you to in the first application is bring illustrations, called an object, the applica- graphs, or spreadtion and document from sheets made in one which you take the object is application into documents made in called the source document, another. and the application and document into which you bring the object is called the destination document. OLE is easy to use. You copy the object by selecting it (pointing and clicking or blocking it) and choosing Copy from the Edit menu or pressing Ctrl+C. Then you paste the object in its new location by placing the cursor where you want to paste it and pressing Ctrl+V or choosing Paste (or another paste command) from the Edit menu. If you simply paste the object with Ctrl+V or Paste, it will be embedded. If you wish to link the object, you will use a special paste command, such as Paste Link or Paste Special, which will vary depending on the application.
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using Windows Embedded objects
The difference between linking an object and embedding an object is subtle. An embedded object is one that is actually placed in the destination document. Editing an embedded object changes only the version in the destination document. It does not change the original version from the source document.
Linked objects
A linked object does not actually reside in the destination document—only a reference (link) to it does. When you edit a linked object, you are editing the original object in the source document. Once edited, the changes will occur wherever the links are found in destination documents. Linked objects are good to use when you want to use the same information in several places consistently. You may, for example, be preparing your company’s annual report, which traditionally has a picture of the CEO appearing several times throughout. The trouble is rumors are rampant the CEO is heading for the door. Not to worry! Just link the current CEO’s picture to all the places it should be and replace it with the new CEO’s picture in the source document once the new leadership is in place. Once you have brought the object into the destination document, double clicking on the object with a mouse opens the source application and document, and you can edit the object. If you have linked the object to several parts of the destination document, editing the object once will update it in all those other locations. If you have embedded the object, changes will be made only to the object in the destination document and only at the location you double clicked. To make
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An embedded object is placed in a document while a linked object only has a reference link there.
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using Windows changes to the original object, you must save the changes in the original document’s file name, thus overwriting it. Keep in mind that even doing this will not change the object in other locations you have embedded it. One final note on OLE: there is a little known trick you may enjoy using. Pressing the Print Screen key when you are using Windows will copy an image of the entire screen to Clipboard. You then can paste this image the same as any other you have copied. You also can view and save this image using the accessories Clipboard Viewer or Paint. Clipboard Viewer is found in the Main group in Windows 3.x (it is called ClipBook Viewer in Windows for Workgroups) and under Programs, then Accessories, then System Tools in the Start menu of Windows 95/98.
Copying an entire screen
Windows comes packaged with miniapplications called Accessories, which you may find useful. In Windows 95/98, Accessories is found in Programs in the Start menu. See Accessories in Windows 3.x on page 127 for the location In Windows 3.x. Some of the Accessories are WordPad (Write in Windows 3.x), a basic word processor; Paint (Paintbrush in 3.x), a simple and fun illustration program; Calculator, a standard or scientific calculator you use with your computer’s keyboard; and Character Map, a utility that helps you find special text characters. Figure 4.8 shows the Calculator and Character Map accessories.
Accessories
The character map helps you find special characters—such as § or £—to insert into your work. When
Character map
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using Windows
Figure 4.8 These are two of the accessories found in Windows. You can operate the calculator (top) entirely from the numeric keypad on your keyboard. The character map (above) helps you find special characters included in font sets and tells you the keystrokes to insert the character in your work.
you click on the character you want, the keystrokes to insert it in text are given in the lower right corner of the dialog box. You also can copy the characters and paste them into text or illustrations. Calculator
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The calculator can be operated almost entirely from the numeric keypad on your keyboard (make cer-
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using Windows tain the Num Lock key is on). When using the calculator, / is for dividing, * is for multiplying, and the Enter key is for Equals (=). You can use a scientific calculator for advanced calculations by choosing Scientific under the View pull-down menu of the calculator. Many applications have extensive icon bars designed to make it easy for you to enter routine commands. These icon bars are called Button Bars, Power Bars, QuickAccess Bars, SpeedBars, floating tool kits, or other such names by their manufacturers. Some applications—WordPerfect, for example—give you great flexibility in designing these icon bars yourself. Figure 4.9 shows icon bars called SpeedBars found in Quattro Pro for Windows.
Icon bars
Figure 4.9 Icon bars allow you to enter frequently used commands by clicking on an icon. These icon bars are found in a Windows 3.x spreadsheet program called Quattro Pro for Windows and are called SpeedBars.
Icon bars can be useful for some routine commands, but unfortunately, many icon bars are so cluttered that you spend most of your time figuring out which icon it is you need. Some Windows applications
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using Windows will tell you what an icon does when you move the mouse pointer over it—a helpful feature. Also, icon bars with lots of Icon bars may be icons are graphically complex and helpful to many, use RAM to display which could but they use slow down the application you are RAM and can be confusing. using. If the application allows you to design the icon bar, only include icons you use frequently. If you cannot design your own icon bar and are not using the icons on the application’s bar frequently, you should consider closing it if you can and using key shortcuts or pull-down menus. This is especially true for word processing where you spend most of your time typing in text. You can open the icon bar when you know it will be useful, such as when formatting a spreadsheet or adjusting the layout of a document. WYSIWYG
Programs written for Windows have WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) capability. WYSIWYG (pronounced WIZZY-wig) means the image on the screen is an accurate representation of what will be printed.
Multitasking
Windows operating systems are capable of multitasking. Multitasking is when you have more than one program operating at the same time. For example, you may write a report with a word processing program while a database sorts data in the background. Windows 3.x is able to multitask to some extent, but it is not as capable at this chore as is Windows 95/98 or NT.
Help
Windows and Windows applications have online help in case you run into difficulty or just want to learn
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using Windows about a function. In Windows 95/98, Help for the operating system is found in the Start menu and in the Help pull-down menu for programs. In Windows 3.x, it is found in the Help pull-down menu. With all Windows, pressing the F1 key brings up help for applications or the operating system. Online help allows you to learn about a topic of your choosing. You can search the help index for a topic to solve the problem you are facing, and many programs include context-sensitive help to give you instructions on a task you are trying to accomplish.
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Windows 3.x
Windows 3.x Windows 3.x operating systems gained widespread use in the early 1990s. Although Macintosh had a graphical user interface before Windows was introduced, it was Windows 3.1 that popularized the paradigm. Most new computers sold since late 1994 use Windows 95 or 98 as the operating system, and most new applications are for Windows 95/98. Also, many computers with 80486 or early Pentium CPUs that were sold with Windows 3.11 have been upgraded to Windows 95/98. Windows 3.x is not available for retail purchase anymore. The principal reason Windows 3.x is still used has to do with the hardware requirements of the later versions of Windows. Windows 95 requires a minimum of an 80486 CPU, 16 MB of RAM, and at least 400 MB of hard disk space. Although you can use Windows 95 on computers with an 80486 CPU, those with a Pentium will give much better performance. Computers with 80386 CPUs should use Windows 3.x instead of Windows 95/98, and computers with earlier CPUs should use DOS. Bargain computers
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If you have an older computer that does not run Windows 95/98 well or at all, it still is worth keeping as an extra machine for running Windows 3.x or even DOS applications. By the same token, if someone in your household needs their own computer, you can buy an older computer that uses Windows 3.x for very little money and load Windows 3.x applications on it. There are still many Windows 3.x word processing, database, and spreadsheet programs available, and they are very
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Windows 3.x good. If you buy a used Windows 3.x computer, make certain it comes with the DOS and Windows 3.x installation disks. Many persons are updating computers to be Y2K compliant. If you have an older computer that will run after December 31, 1999, you should be able to use Windows 3.x with a minor adjustment. Microsoft says Windows 3.x has trouble tracking file dates of 2000 and later. They are offering an updated version of File Manager (page 42) on their Web site:
Year 2000 compliance
http://support.microsoft.com/
Windows 3.x actually is an operating environment. An operating environment cannot function as a stand-alone operating system. Instead, it works with a separate operating system—DOS—and provides an interface between the operating system and the user. Windows 3.x not only functions as an operating environment with its graphical user interface (GUI), it is capable of multitasking and can take advantage of large amounts of extended memory.
Operating environment
Early versions of Windows Its improved use were interesting but not much of the computvalue to anyone. With version er’s RAM helped 3.0, Windows became useful to Windows millions of people because it become successdelivered on its promises of good ful. memory management and multitasking. Good memory management meant the computer and software could use much more RAM than was previously possible. This allowed software manufacturers to
Memory management, multitasking
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Windows 3.x develop more powerful applications. Multitasking is running more than one application at a time. Hardware required to run Windows 3.x
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To effectively run Windows 3.x, you need at least an 80386 CPU and 8 MB of RAM configured as extended memory, preferably 16 MB or more for powerful applications. You can get away with 4 MB of RAM if you run one undemanding program at a time; and you can run Windows in standard mode with an 80286 CPU, but you may wonder why you bothered. You do not need as sizeHardware requireable a hard disk as for Winments for Windows dows 95/98 applications. 3.x are much highHowever, you still will need a er than for DOS but fair amount of space. Many lower than for WinWindows 3.x applications take dows 95/98. 10 MB or 20 MB of space for minimal installation, and you will have an easy time filling an 80 MB or 120 MB hard drive. Plus, you will need disk space for virtual memory. (Virtual memory is the use of hard disk space for temporarily storing data not able to be stored in RAM.) This means you should use a computer with at least 400 MB of hard drive space for Windows 3.x.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using Windows 3.x
Using Windows 3.x Using Windows 3.x—and most applications written for it—is fairly easy once you have learned a few basics. Using Windows beginning on page 97 will give you the basics of Windows. This section will tell you what you need to know that is specific to Windows 3.x. Figure 4.10 shows a screen called Program Manager. This is the screen you see when you first start Windows 3.x. Notice the many icons on the screen. These are called group icons, and Windows 3.x can display up to forty of these. When you install an application in Windows 3.x, the application’s installation utility will create a new group icon on the desktop. Double clicking on a group icon opens a group window containing program-item icons. Double clicking a program-item icon starts an application. All Windows 3.x screens will have a similar structure to the Program Manager screen you see here. They all will have at least one control-menu box, a menu bar, a window title, at least one maximize button, and at least one minimize button.
Program Manager, group icons, group windows, and program-item icons
The control-menu box is for basic commands such as switching between applications, minimizing or maximizing the window, and closing an application or ending a Windows 3.x session. There are quicker ways to perform most of these functions, so the main use of the control-menu box is to close an application or end a Windows session.
Control-menu box
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using Windows 3.x
Figure 4.10 This is the Program Manager, the main window you normally see when you start Windows. The icons are group icons, and double clicking on one will open a program group window (see Figure 4.11). Clicking on the control-menu box or a word in the menu bar will open pull-down menus. Clicking on the minimize button will shrink the Program Manager to an icon. The window title tells you what program you are using and what, if any, file you have open in that program. Double clicking a control-menu box closes the program you are using or exits Windows.
You activate the control-menu (Figure 4.12) by single clicking on the control-menu box. You then can click on one of the commands to execute it. You do not have to use the menu to close an application or leave Windows 3.x, however. Double clicking on the controlmenu box will do so. Many applications have two control menus: one for the application and one for the active file with which you are working. If you look at the upper left-hand cor-
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using Windows 3.x Main group window
Group icon
File Manager icon Program-item icons
\QPW directory
Double clicking here will start Quattro Pro for Windows
Figure 4.11 The top screen shows Program Manager—the main screen in Windows from which you can start programs. Programs are arranged in groups, and double clicking a group icon opens a group window. If you double click a program-item icon, a program starts. The bottom screen shows what appears when you double click the File Manager icon in the Main group. Not only can you start a program from Program Manager, in File Manager if you double click a file name with an .EXE extension on the right, a program will start.
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using Windows 3.x
Figure 4.12 This control menu is activated by single clicking on the control-menu box (a double click will close the file, application, or Windows). The control menu is for basic commands— especially for closing an application or ending a Windows session.
ner of the screen shown in Figure 4.3 on page 100, you will see two control-menu boxes. The lower one is for the active file shown on the screen entitled MEASURES.GAP (the file name is shown on the title bar). Double clicking on the file control-menu box will close the active file while leaving the application open. Getting lost in Windows 3.x
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People sometimes get lost in Windows 3.x by accidently hitting the minimize button (see Minimize, maximize, restore, and close icons on page 106). The screen then shrinks to an icon and hides behind another window. Where they were merrily working away at, say, typing a letter, they now are faced with a befuddling blank screen or the Program Manager window. They invariably panic, assume they erased the application from the computer, and call a friend or Many users get lost in Windows 3.x by minimizing windows off the screen by mistake.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using Windows 3.x technical support. If this happens to you, the easiest way to find your lost window is with the hot key (see Hot key on page 107). Windows 3.x symbolizes programs, directories, and files with icons, as do all versions of Windows. There are several types of icons used in Windows 3.x, and each represents a different type of object. (See Figure 4.13.)
Icons
Figure 4.13 The different types of icons used in Windows 3.x represent different types of objects. The file icons are found in the Windows 3.x utility program called File Manager (page 42). The group icons and program-item icons are found in the main Windows screen called Program Manager (Figure 4.10 on page 122 and Figure 4.11 on page 123).
The file icons are found in the Windows 3.x utility called File Manager. The directory icon symbolizes directories and subdirectories as explained in Chapter 1 beginning on page 36. The program and batch file icon symbolizes executable files (Chapter 1, page 24). Double clicking on this icon will start an application or a batch routine. The document file icon indicates a file that is associated with an application. When you double click on Chapter 4: Windows
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using Windows 3.x one of these icons, the application will start and the file will open. The file names next to document file icons will have extensions associated with the application, such as .WPD for a WordPerfect document. Standard graphics format extensions, such as .TIF for Tagged Information File Format files or .WMF for Windows Metafile files, will have document file icons next to them. Double clicking on the file name will open the first application Windows finds that can use the format and will open the file. The other files icon is for most other files. If when naming files you use an extension that is not associated with a standard format, this icon will appear next to your file names. The system or hidden files icon symbolizes files that are important to the operations of your computer and that you should not tinker with unless you are an expert. Normally File Manager hides these files from view by default. Do not delete one of these files. Starting applications
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You start applications and utilities with group icons and program-item icons. If you double click on one of the group icons, a group window opens. Figure 4.14 shows the Micrografx group window that opened after the Micrografx group icon was double clicked. (The Micrografx group icon disappears when the group window opens, but you can see it highlighted in the second row from the bottom in Figure 4.10 on page 122.) If you double click on the program-item icon named Designer 3.1 in the upper left corner of the window, Micrografx Designer 3.1 will start. The top screen in Figure 4.15 on page 128 shows what you will see when you start this illustration program. To open a file containing a drawing saved earlier, you click once on the word File in the menu bar and a Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using Windows 3.x
Figure 4.14 When you double click on a group icon, a group window containing program-item icons opens.
pull-down menu will open. Click on the word Open in the pull-down menu to open the dialog box shown in Figure 4.16 on page 129. Once the dialog box is open, you may type the filename or scroll down the window on the left side until you find the file and click on the name. (If you can’t find the file name, you probably are in the wrong directory.) Then click the OK button to open the file. You also can double click on the file name to open the file without clicking on the OK button. Windows 3.x comes packaged with miniapplications called accessories that you may find useful. Figure 4.17 shows the Accessories group and its program-item
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Accessories in Windows 3.x
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using Windows 3.x
Figure 4.15 Opening a file in an illustration program called Micrografx Designer 3.1.
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using Windows 3.x
Figure 4.16 Opening a file in an illustration program called Micrografx Designer 3.1.
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using Windows 3.x icons. The accessory Write is a basic word processor; Paintbrush is an illustration program; Clock puts a clock with the current time on the screen; Cardfile helps you keep track of lists, addresses, and projects; and Notepad allows you to edit short text files and is useful for editing CONFIG.SYS or AUTOEXEC.BAT files.
Figure 4.17 The Accessories group contains several mini applications you may find handy. Write is a basic word processor; Paintbrush is a simple illustration program; Notepad is a text editor you can use to edit files such as AUTOEXEC.BAT; and cardfile helps you keep track of lists, addresses, and projects.
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using Windows 3.x The final thing you Always exit should know about Windows Windows before you 3.x is how to exit it. More to turn off your comthe point, you should know puter. Otherwise, how not to exit. Do not exit mysterious probWindows by simply turning lems may start off the computer. Exit by cropping up. choosing Exit from the File menu, Close from the control-menu box, or by double clicking on the control-menu box.
Exiting Windows 3.x
The reason you should not exit Windows by turning off the computer is that Windows creates temporary files that should be deleted at the end of a Windows session. Windows does this automatically when you exit properly but cannot do so when the computer is turned off while Windows is running. An accumulation of old temporary files could cause erratic operation in Windows and waste disk space. You also should set up your computer so these temporary files are stored in their own directory. You do this by adding a line in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file that says SET TEMP=C:\TEMP. This line tells Windows 3.x to store temporary files in a directory that has been created for this purpose called TEMP. If someone exits improperly or if Windows 3.x crashes, you can easily go to this directory and delete all the files there.
Temporary files
Here is one other tip for exiting Windows 3.x. In Program Manager and File Manager in the Options menus, you are given the option of Save Settings on Exit. If you click on this and exit File Manager or Windows 3.x, your settings will be retained the next time you start Windows 3.x or File Manager.
Save Settings on Exit
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using Windows 3.x This is useful for assuring that the arrangement of icons and settings in File Manager are not lost by someone else using your computer or by your own mistakes. Once you have arranged the icons or made the settings in File Manager you prefer, click on Save Settings on Exit so there is a check mark next to it. Then exit and restart Windows 3.x properly. Once Windows 3.x has restarted, click off the check mark next to Save Settings on Exit and your settings will remain. Then, no matter how jumbled your icons and windows in Windows 3.x become, you can always recover your settings by restarting Windows. Knowing how to use Save Settings on Exit is protection against others changing your settings.
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Windows 3.x has its faults. The most significant is the GPFs (general protection faults) that pop up unexpectedly. (In Windows 3.0, GPFs were called UAEs— unrecoverable application errors.) GPFs are system crashes. All Crashes and operating systems can crash— GPFs are not stop responding, producing frounusual with zen applications and black Windows 3.x. screens—but Windows 3.x is Save your work frequently. remarkably adept at it. You may be busily working on your computer, and the screen goes black. Or a message appears that a fatal error has occurred (at least the programmers had a flair for the dramatic). What you should do next is warm boot by pressing the Ctrl, Alt, and Delete keys simultaneously. If you’re lucky, Windows 3.x then will give you the option of closing the offending application, if there is one. If not,
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using Windows 3.x your computer will reboot from DOS. Either way, you will lose data you have not saved to disk. Windows 3.x crashes have to do with the way it handles memory (RAM). There are two principal conditions under which your system may crash. One condition is through memory leak. Many Windows 3.x applications don’t just use memory to perform their duties, they eat a little along the way. For example, when you close an application, the application may not give back all the memory it used when it was open. Opening and closing an application many times in Windows 3.x will eventually crash your computer, no matter how much memory you have. Similarly, if you are working on a document with several illustrations, scrolling through those illustrations on the screen uses memory. But if you have scrolled forward through your document and used a lot of memory to bring the illustrations on the screen, scrolling backwards and bringing them up again will use even more. Experienced Windows Experienced users 3.x users who place heavy find that periodicaldemands on their systems have ly closing applicalearned to periodically close tions and Windows Windows 3.x and restart from and restarting them the DOS prompt to refresh replenishes drained the system’s resources. This memory. may take a couple extra minutes, but it is better than system freeze ups and data loss. A second condition that frequently causes crashes is when a poorly written application misbehaves and brings the entire computer to a halt. Windows 3.x runs all applications and Windows 3.x itself in one big chunk of memory. If an application executes a command that
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using Windows 3.x conflicts with another application, or with the system itself, the system could crash. Virtual machines, or VMs
Windows NT and OS/2 do not have this problem. The reason is these operating systems run programs simultaneously in their own space called virtual machines, or VMs. A virtual machine is a simulated computer in an isolated and protected memory space. If one of the applications starts creating problems, the operating system can close that application without affecting the others. Windows 3.x operates everything in one VM.
TSRs
A crash caused by conflicts with another program can be difficult to diagnose. This is because the offending program can be operating in the background as a TSR—a terminate-and-stay-resident program. TSRs open when you start your computer, but you don’t see them until they are needed. A good example of a TSR is an antivirus program. You don’t know it’s there until it detects a virus, at which point sirens go off and a dialog box pops up on the screen. A TSR may conflict with an application you are using even if both applications are operating properly on their own. Since both are in the same VM, the conflict can crash the computer. They best way to detect this type of conflict is to disable your TSRs one by one until your system stops crashing. You do this by putting a semicolon or the command REM at the beginning of the line that starts the TSR in your AUTOEXEC.BAT file (page 80). Then restart your computer and Windows and see if the crashes continue.
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Windows 3.x At A Glance Window 3.x At A Glance What it is—Windows 3.x is used with DOS as an operating system and environment. An operating system is software that controls the operations of the computer. It controls input/output operations, including access to disk drives and other secondary storage devices, sets parameters for using RAM, and provides the structure in which other software works. An operating environment is a program that makes it easier for the computer user to communicate with the operating system and that enhances and expands the operating system’s capabilities. Pluses—Windows 3.x has a graphical user interface (GUI) that many find easier to use than DOS alone. The GUI also means that Windows applications share many commands, making it easy to learn new applications. Windows 3.x can use much more memory than DOS alone and therefore can run much more powerful applications than can DOS. Windows 3.x also is capable of multitasking (i.e., running more than one application at a time). Minuses—Windows 3.x does not handle RAM as well as more modern operating systems. The result often is system crashes, called GPFs. Also, it does not have the capabilities of a 32-bit operating system such as Windows 95/98 or Windows NT. Windows 3.x is no longer available for sale but is often found on older computers. Windows 3.x applications are still available but are not as plentiful as those for Windows 95/98. System requirements—Windows 3.x requires an 80386 CPU or better and at least 4 MB of RAM. The operating system will run best with 16 MB of RAM, but 8 MB will give you satisfactory performance in most cases. Windows 3.x applications are large, so it is best if you have 400 MB or more of hard disk space for the operating system and applications. Major brands—There is only one brand: Microsoft Windows. The last versions were Windows 3.11 and Windows for Workgroups 3.11. Street prices—Windows 3.11 and Windows for Workgroups 3.11 are not sold in the retail market anymore. They often are found on older computers. If you buy a used computer that operates with Windows 3.x, make certain you get the Windows and DOS installation disks in the deal.
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Windows 95
Windows 95 Microsoft Windows 95 was developed as the successor to Windows 3.x. It is more than just an upgrade in that it is a full operating system—it does not need DOS to run—and it is a 32-bit operating system whereas Windows 3.x/DOS is a 16-bit one. Windows 98 is an upgrade to Windows 95. Features
Windows 95 has several advantages and features that make it much better than Windows 3.x. These advantages include improved memory handling, better protection against crashes, a smart new application program interface (API), Plug and Play capability, preemptive multitasking, improved utilities, and built-in networking support.
API
An API is the operating system’s framework for the user to interact with the computer and the application to interact with the operating system. The API for Windows 3.x includes pull-down menus, icons, and windows. Windows 95 includes these same features but packages them more efficiently with a screen that is less cluttered.
New utilities
Windows 95 utilities for managing your computer and its files are much improved over Windows 3.x. Windows Explorer replaces File Manager, and a window called My Computer makes it easy to see and manage what is on your computer system.
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Windows 95 Windows 95 strives for Plug and Play hardware compatibility. Plug and Play capability makes it easier to install new hardware, such as a modem or sound card (a card is an adapter—or circuit board—that plugs into a slot inside the computer’s case to increase its capability). With Plug and Play, you Plug and Play plug the card into a slot, close makes adding the computer’s case, start the hardware easier if computer, and tell Windows 95 Windows 95 recto add hardware. Windows 95 ognizes the equipwill then sense the new hardware ment. and configure the computer to use it. Without Plug and Play, setting up new hardware often is more involved. You may have to manually change settings in the operating system to get the hardware to work properly. Plug and Play works fine if Windows 95 recognizes the hardware. The trouble is that Windows 95 doesn’t recognize all the hardware on the market. This should improve over time, however.
Plug and Play for adding hardware
Windows 95 offers built-in networking support. This means it recognizes most network software, adapters, and protocols and works well with them. Good network support is important in business use since more and more business computers are becoming networked.
Network capable
Handling RAM better than Windows 3.x is another plus of Windows 95. With Windows 95, you can open and run more applications at the same time before you run out of memory.
Improved memory handling
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Windows 95 Stability
Although Windows 95 is not crash proof, it is a lot better in this area than Windows 3.x. Both Windows 3.x and Windows 95 run everything in one virtual machine, or VM (page 134). This means one misbehaving application can cause the whole computer to crash. However, Windows 95 runs applications within private memory address spaces, whereas Windows 3.x runs them in shared address spaces. This means an application running under Windows 95 that starts getting into trouble will be less likely to bring everything to a stop. Windows NT and OS/2 are more crash proof than Windows 95 or Windows 3.x because the first two operating systems run each application in a separate VM. The reason Windows 95 does not run applications in separate VMs is that to do so would mean it could run fewer older applications. When an application crashes in Windows 95, it is much easier to recover than in Windows 3.x. When you press Ctrl-Alt-Delete simultaneously, a dialog box appears, listing the active applications and telling you which one has stopped responding. It then allows you to close the problem application without shutting down the whole system—a big improvement over Windows 3.x.
32 bits
Windows 95 is a 32-bit operating system, as is OS/2 and Windows NT. Windows 3.x is a 16-bit one. Although Windows 3.x can run some 32-bit applications (known as Win32s), there are few such applications on the market. As a 32-bit operating system, Windows 95 has several advantages over Windows 3.x.
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Windows 95 is much more stable—crashes less—than Windows 3.x.
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Windows 95 The advantages of 32 bits are preemptive multitasking, Windows 95 is a 32-bit OS, which multiple threads, long file means it has severnames, and perhaps faster per- al performance formance. Whether Windows advantages over 95 is faster than Windows 3.x 16-bit OSs. depends on the applications used. When running 16-bit applications, Windows 95 will not necessarily be faster than Windows 3.x. There are two potential speed advantages of 32-bit operating systems and applications over 16-bit ones. The first is their ability to manipulate larger numbers at one time, and the second is their efficiency in handling larger quantities of data. The Intel 80386, 80486, and Pentium microprocessors are 32-bit CPUs, which means they can process 32-bit binary numbers at a time. The Intel 8088 and 80286 CPUs can handle only 16 bits at once. Windows 3.x, along with most applications written for it, allows the CPU to process only 16-bit numbers at a time. This means a 32-bit number has to be broken down into two 16-bit groups, with each group processed separately. The result is that in some Whether you see circumstances, the CPU needs to faster perforexecute twice as many instruc- mance with Wintions to accomplish a task. Pro- dows 95 depends cessing more instructions takes on the applications more time. However, a 32-bit you are using. operating system will be no faster at processing 16-bit numbers than a 16-bit operating system. The second speed advantage of 32-bit software and hardware is the ability of the CPU to address a larger Chapter 4: Windows
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Windows 95 amount of memory at once. Windows 95 can use up to 4 GB—far more than Windows 3.x is capable of using. This in turn allows it to handle larger quantities of data simultaneously. Multitasking
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Windows 95 and Windows 3.x handle multitasking very differently.
Multitasking is the running of several programs or operations at once—perhaps printing a report in the background as you work on a spreadsheet. Windows 3.x and Windows 95 multitask quite differently.
With 16-bit operating systems like Windows 3.x, an operation performed by an application is considered a task by the operating system. If you want to open a second program and do something with it, the first program yields the CPU to the new one and becomes idle in the background. The second program then is carrying out a task. The first program will remain idle—or from your perspective, unresponsive—until the second program yields back the CPU. This is called cooperative multitasking. Printing is a good examCooperative multiple of how cooperative multitasking can slow tasking, as in Windows 3.x, you down when can slow you down. When you your computer is give a command to print doing something in the background, something, a separate Winsuch as printing. dows 3.x program—Print Manager—starts and sends the material to the printer for printing. If what you are printing is small in size (a few bytes), you will be able to use your keyboard and mouse Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Windows 95 soon after you give the print command. However, printing a large file will incapacitate your keyboard and mouse for some time or at least make them seem sluggish. The reason is the operating system has turned the CPU over to Print Manager to get the print job to the printer. You can change how much CPU time is allocated to Print Manager by changing its setting under the Options menu to low priority, but that means it will take a long time to print your document. This is because Print Manager will be blocked from operating until the application you are using yields processor time. With 32-bit operating systems, tasks are called processes, and processes can be broken down into smaller units called threads. When you open a program, it is assigned one thread by the operating system similar to the way an active program is considered to be performing a task in Windows 3.x. As the application performs more operations, it branches off additional threads from its core thread to accomplish the chores. In other words, it breaks its duties down into smaller jobs. This is called multithreading.
Threads and multithreads
Each thread in a multiPreemptive multithreaded application can tasking allows tasks demand and get processor time to be carried out to accomplish its goal. The in the background operating system switches the without disturbing CPU’s ti me ver y qui ckl y your work. between the threads that demand its services. To you, it appears as if the com-
Preemptive multitasking
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Windows 95 puter is doing several things simultaneously. This is called preemptive multitasking. Windows 95 uses preemptive multitasking when running 32-bit applications. However, it uses cooperative multitasking with older 16-bit applications. Windows NT and OS/2 Warp—two other 32-bit operating systems—use preemptive multitasking for both 32-bit and 16-bit applications. Cooperative multitasking, as used by 16-bit software, will not seem as if the CPU is doing several things at once. Since the entire operation of a program is considered a task demanding the CPU’s time, an all-or-nothing situation occurs. Either you click away at the keyboard while Print Manager sits idle, or your document gets printed while your keyboard is unresponsive. Long file names
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Windows 95 allows you to save your work using long file names. The names you assign can have up to 250 characters. Instead of trying to decide how to describe your work in eight letters before the dot—and perhaps three after it—as with DOS and Windows 3.x, you can type out more complete descriptions as names. For example, rather than naming the letter you sent to the IRS TAXDEVIL.BAD, you can call it something like I’M NOT GIVING THOSE GUYS ANY MORE OF MY HARD-EARNED MONEY THAN I HAVE TO! If you use long file names, Long file names remember that they don’t work may be helpful to with Windows 3.x applications. you, but they are no substitute for a If you are running Windows 3.x applications in Windows 95, good folder and file-name plan. they may be able to open documents with long file names, but Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Windows 95 they will not be able to save them with long names. The applications will truncate the names to eight characters. Also, when opening a document having a long file name with a 16-bit program, the program will truncate the long file names to eight characters in the Open dialog box. If all your long file names begin with “A letter to…,” you may have problems. Many persons will find long file names helpful. However, you can lose a file with a long name about as easily as one with an eight-character name. A good file name plan and folder structure still is important. See Chapter 1 for more on folders and naming files. Windows 95 supports OLE 2.0 (page 566) and DCOM (page 569). These are object technology standards—a technology that is defining the future of computing. (See Object Technology beginning on page 560.) OLE’s principal competition is OpenDoc (page 565) and CORBA (page 568). OpenDoc and CORBA are supported by several operating systems, including OS/2, Mac OS, and a number of versions of Unix. Microsoft is working very hard to make OLE/DCOM available on many operating systems, including OS/2, Mac OS, and many versions of Unix. Windows 3.x uses .INI files (page 27) to configure the operating system to work with software and hardware. It also relies on AUTOEXEC.BAT (page 80) and CONFIG.SYS (page 78) files since it is a DOS-based operating system.
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Windows 95 Windows 95 uses the Windows registry instead of these files to configure hardware and Windows 95 applications. The registry is a database of configuration information that applications can access and that contains user-preference information. User-preference information includes such things as the color of the desktop, preference settings for applications, and the sounds the operating system makes when certain events occur such as start up. Older applications may still rely on CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files. For this reason, Windows 95 maintains these files but moves much of their configuration information into the registry when possible. Windows 95 replaces WIN.INI, SYSTEM.INI, AUTOEXEC.BAT, and CONFIG.SYS with Windows registry.
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Using Windows 95 Windows 95 is easy and intuitive to use. However, if you have never used any Windows, you should read Using Windows beginning on page 97 before you read this section. If you have never used a mouse, you also should read Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8. The first thing you see when you start Windows 95 is the desktop (Figure 4.18). Compared to the Program Manager in Windows 3.x (see Figure 4.10 on page 122), the desktop, as the main screen is called in Windows 95, is refreshingly simple and clean. On the left side of the screen are four or five icons, depending on the options installed when Windows 95 was set up. These icons start major utilities found in Windows 95. You can add icons for your applications called shortcuts as shown in Figure 4.19. (See Creating a shortcut on page 153.) In the lower left-hand corner of the desktop is the Start button. You can launch utilities and all applications with this.
The desktop
Customizing the desktop is easily done by pointing at the main screen, clicking the right mouse button (Windows 95 makes extensive use of the right mouse button—a nice feature), and choosing Properties. Doing so activates the Display Properties window, which allows you to change the screen’s background colors and add background patterns. In the Display Properties window, you can activate a screen saver and change the resolution and settings of the monitor as your video equipment allows. This Dis-
Display properties
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Figure 4.18 The main screen in Windows 95–called the desktop–is uncluttered. You launch most applications and utilities with the Start button, but you also can create shortcuts and place icons for your apps on the desktop as shown in Figure 4.19 on page 147.
play Properties window also can be activated from the Control Panel window discussed later. Figure 4.42 on page 179 shows the Display Properties window for Windows 98. The one for Windows 95 looks the same except it does not have a tab for the Web. Taskbar
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A very useful Windows 95 command tool is the taskbar. The taskbar always is in view unless you tell Windows 95 to hide it. When you open a program, Windows 95 puts a button for it on the taskbar. The button for the active program appears depressed, and those for programs
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using Windows 95 open in the background appear raised. Notice the buttons on the taskbar in Figure 4.19. The taskbar makes it very easy to switch between programs—between, say, word processing, presentation, and spreadsheet programs when you are preparing a report. You just click on the button in the taskbar for the program in which you want to work, and Windows 95 instantly switches you there. The more programs you open, the more buttons Windows 95 adds to the taskbar. The buttons get
Figure 4.19 You can create shortcuts and place icons for your applications on the desktop. Double clicking one of these icons will start the program. The taskbar is convenient feature in Windows 95. It has a clock and buttons for open programs. A depressed button indicates the active application, and a raised one shows a program open in the background. In this case, Microsoft Office is active, although it has been minimized and appears as a depressed button on the taskbar. Clicking on a button will switch to that program.
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using Windows 95 smaller to fit on the taskbar, but you can drag the top edge of the taskbar to double its size if you’d like. There is a clock on the right side of the taskbar, a thoughtful convenience. You also can drag the taskbar up to the right side of the screen if you want it to be vertical instead of horizontal. And right clicking a blank section of the taskbar allows you to open the Properties menu. In the Properties menu is the Auto hide option. If you choose Auto hide, the taskbar disappears until you move the mouse pointer to the extreme bottom or side of the screen where the taskbar is hidden. Once you move off of the taskbar, it disappears again, giving you less screen clutter and a larger work space. Starting with an icon
If an application or utility has an icon on the desktop, double clicking it with the left mouse button will launch it. For example, the top left icon on the desktop is My Computer. Double clicking this icon opens the My Computer window. (See Figure 4.20.)
Minimize, maximize, and close buttons
One thing you will see when the My Computer window opens is the minimize, maximize, and close buttons. See Minimize, maximize, restore, and close icons on page 106.
Start button
To the left of the taskbar is the Start button, which you can use to launch any application and most utilities. When you move the mouse pointer on Start and click the left button, a menu appears, as shown in Figure 4.21.
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Figure 4.20 The My Computer window has icons for all the drives installed on the computer and for some utilities. Note the minimize and maximize buttons have a new look, and there is a close button—much more convenient than double clicking the minus sign in Windows 3.x.
Suppose you want to open an illustration, and you have Micrografx Designer installed on your computer. After you click on the Start button, move the pointer— you do not have to hold down a button when doing so—until it points to Programs. Then move it to the right until it points to Micrografx and right again until it points to Designer 3.1. When the pointer is on Designer 3.1, click the left button once and the application will start. Figure 4.22 illustrates this procedure.
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Figure 4.21 The Start menu pops up when you click on the Start button.
Opening the illustration file is the same as in other versions of Windows: choose Open from the File menu and select the file you want. Figure 4.23 shows Designer 3.1 open with the same drawing of the memory chips shown in Figure 4.16 on page 129. Note, however, that Windows 95 gives this old Windows 3.x version of Designer new buttons for maximizing, minimizing, and closing. With Windows 95, menus stay open and submenus open by clicking once on the menu title and moving the mouse pointer without holding down buttons. Click elsewhere on the screen to close the menus. Documents menu for starting apps
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When you click the Start button, you have the option of activating the Documents menu. The Documents menu contains names of a number of files (up to
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Figure 4.22 Starting an application in Windows 95 is quick and easy.
fifteen) that have been opened by and associated with an application (Figure 4.24). When you click on the file name, the application starts and the file opens. You can launch programs from Windows 95 by using the Run command found in the Start menu. When you click on Run, a dialog box opens allowing you to specify the name of the program you wish to start. You may specify the path and the file name of the program in the dialog box. However, you may find it easier to use the Browse function to locate the program. Then clicking on OK will launch it. Windows 95 will Chapter 4: Windows
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Figure 4.23 This is a Windows 3.x application, Micrografx Designer 3.1, that has been opened with Windows 95.
remember the path and name of the program from one session to the next. Managing files and folders
Windows 95 gives you two convenient ways to manage your files and folders. You can manage your files using either My Computer or Explorer, two utilities included in Windows 95.
My Computer utility
The My Computer window contains icons for all the drives installed on the computer and for some utilities that come with Windows 95 (see Figure 4.20 on page 149). It also has an icon to open a window showing the installed printers.
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Figure 4.24 You may start applications and open files from the Documents menu.
If you double click on a drive icon, a new window opens showing the contents of the drive as illustrated in Figure 4.25. If you double click on one of the folder icons, another window opens and shows its contents (also Figure 4.25). You can copy, delete, and create shortcuts to files and folders in these windows by using the right mouse button. You even can fax a file from here if you have a fax/modem installed. For frequently used applications and utilities, you can add more icons to the desktop (see Figure 4.19 on page 147). These icons are called shortcuts and are very easy to create.
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Figure 4.25 Top: Clicking on a drive icon in the My Computer window opens another window showing the contents of the drive. The Recycled icon allows you to see the files that have been deleted from the drive but are still held in a utility called the Recycled Bin. Bottom: Clicking on a folder opens a new window showing the folder’s contents. Different icons are used to signify the type of object. If Windows 95 has linked a file to an application, double clicking the icon will start the app and open the file.
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using Windows 95 To create a shortcut, drag the icon representing the program onto the desktop using the right mouse button. You can drag the icon from Programs in the Start menu or from either the Explorer (page 157) or the My Computer window. When you release the button, a menu will appear that allows you to create a shortcut there. (Do not drag an icon out of the Programs menu using the left button because the icon will be removed from the menu and placed on the desktop.) When you create a shortcut, a new icon will appear as shown in Figure 4.19 on page 147. Double clicking the icon then will start the program. You even can create shortcuts to a file if the file has an extension associated with an application. Then when you click on the icon, the application will open and load the file. If the file is not associated with an application, Windows 95 will allow you to create a link when you try to use the icon the first time. If you wish to create a new folder in a My Computer or Explorer (page 157) window, you first click on the drive or folder in which you want the new folder to be. Then click on the File pull-down menu, click on New, and click on Folder. (See Figure 4.26.) A new folder icon will appear with a blinking cursor underneath, waiting for you to type a name. Right clicking on a file icon gives you the option of opening the Properties window that is shown in Figure 4.27. This window gives useful information about the file and is helpful for locating the one you want.
Creating a new folder
Clicking on a file or folder with the right mouse button activates a pull-down menu that allows you to copy the object to another drive, such as a floppy. You
Copying files and folders
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Figure 4.26 You create a new folder with the commands found in the File pull-down menu.
choose Send To in the menu to make the copy and place the copy on the drive you choose. You also can right click on a folder or file and choose Copy. Doing so moves a copy of the file or folder to the Clipboard. You then can open another folder and paste the object there by right clicking and choosing Paste or by choosing Paste in the Edit menu. Drag and drop
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Dragging and dropping files and folders is the quickest and easiest way to copy them. If you drag a file or folder using the left button, it will be copied to where the icon lies when you release the button. This could be the desktop, another folder, or another drive. Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
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Figure 4.27 Opening the properties window for a file gives you useful information.
If you drag the file or folder using the right button, a menu appears giving you more options than just copying it there. The menu allows you to move or copy the object or to create a shortcut. Explorer is another utility that allows you to easily manage files and folders. When you open Explorer, a split window appears. Figure 4.28 shows Explorer displaying the contents of a folder named DES on drive E. The Explorer window is similar in appearance to File Manager in Windows 3.x (see Figure 1.9 on page 43). One difference between File Manager and Explorer is File Manager has one or more smaller windows, each
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Figure 4.28 Explorer is a utility in Windows 95 that makes it easy to manage files.
displaying only one drive, while Explorer has one large window displaying all drives. You can drag files between My Computer windows to copy them or move them (see Drag and drop on page 156). However, Explorer’s single window allows you to drag files and folders anywhere in your computer’s system without having multiple windows open. You may find this feature is quicker and easier than using My Computer windows for copying and moving files and folders. The left side of Explorer’s window shows drive letters and folders. Note that beside many icons on the left side are little boxes with plus or minus signs on them.
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using Windows 95 If an icon has one of these boxes, it means there are additional folders within that drive or folder. A plus sign means that for the object highlighted, the folders immediately below the object are not displayed in the left section of the screen. Clicking a plus sign beside an icon displays the folders under the icon and put a minus sign in the box. You can click all the minus signs on the left until you have a very compact view of your computer system, as shown in Figure 4.29. On the right side of the window is a view of the files and folders contained in the drive or folder selected on the left side of the window. The view in Figure 4.28 gives extensive file details, but you can customize this information to fit your needs. Right clicking in the window of either Explorer or My Computer gives you the options of viewing files and folders as large icons, small icons, lists, or details. The view in Figure 4.28 shows details. You can drag files and folders with the right or left button in Explorer just as in My Computer: a left-button drag-and-drop copies and a right-button drag-and-drop copies, moves, or creates a shortcut. You also can create or rename folders in Explorer and generally do anything necessary to maintain the files on your computer. Formatting a floppy disk is easy in Windows 95. With either the My Computer or the Explorer window open, select the drive containing the floppy disk you want to format, and press the right mouse button. Select Format from the menu that opens, and a dialog box will appear giving you options for formatting the disk.
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Figure 4.29 You may collapse the icons on the left side of Explorer to give a very compact view of your computer system.
Recycle Bin—a safety feature
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Another utility you may find useful when working with files is the Recycle Bin. When you delete a file from a hard drive on your computer, it is placed in a temporary storage area called the Recycle Bin. The deleted file is not actually removed from the hard drive until you empty the Recycle Bin. This means you easily can recover files you delete by mistake. This also means you will not free up hard disk space until you empty the Recycle Bin. When you empty the Recycle Bin, the files actually are deleted from the disk. You access Recycle Bin by double clicking its icon on the desktop. Figure 4.30 shows the window that opens when you call up Recycle Bin.
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Figure 4.30 The Recycle Bin is a temporary storage area for deleted files.
In the Start menu is a powerful utility for locating files you may have misplaced on your system. Find allows you to search for files by name, type, date modified, text contained in the file, or any combination of these factors. For example, you can tell it to find allWordPerfect document files containing the characters DAD in their file names that were created or modified within the last three weeks and that mention, “please send me $100,” in the text. You can specify the drive for Find to search, or you can tell it to search all drives.
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using Windows 95 Settings menu
There are several more utilities and programs included in Windows 95 to help you manage your computer and to communicate with others. Some of these are found in the Settings menu under the Start menu. The Settings menu allows you to activate the Control Panel window, Printers window, and Taskbar dialog box. The Printers window shows the printers installed on you system and allows you to install new printers. The Taskbar dialog box was mentioned earlier. You also can open this dialog box by right clicking a blank area of the Taskbar.
Control Panel
The Control Panel window contains many utilities for configuring the computer and adding applications. Note in Figure 4.20 on page 149 that the My Computer window also has an icon that you can double click to activate the Control Panel window. Figure 4.31 shows the Control Panel window. Some of the utilities in Control Panel that you may find useful are utilities to add new software and hardware, controls for adjusting the properties of the mouse and for setting the time and date, and a utility to give you essential information about your system, including adapters and drivers that are installed. The utility you will probably use most often is the one for adding and removing software.
Installing software
Installing software in Windows 95 is especially easy. First you put the CD/ROM or the Install/Setup floppy disk in a drive. Then double click Add/Remove Programs in the Control Panel window, click Install in the Add/Remove Programs Properties dialog box, and click Next once Windows 95 has found the disk con-
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using Windows 95
Figure 4.31 The Control Panel window has icons for utilities to help manage your computer.
taining the software to be installed. Then Click Finish to start the installation process, and follow any instructions on the screen. Double clicking the Inbox icon on the desktop opens Microsoft Exchange (Figure 4.32). Microsoft Exchange gives you an interface for communicating using Microsoft Fax, Microsoft Mail, and Microsoft Network online information service if you subscribe to Microsoft Network. From Microsoft Exchange you can send and receive faxes and electronic mail if you have a fax/modem installed. Most computers sold today come equipped with a fax/modem. If yours doesn’t have one,
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using Windows 95 you can easily install a good internal one for less than $200.
Figure 4.32 The Microsoft Exchange allows you to fax and send e-mail with a fax/modem.
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The System Properties utility gives you a wealth of information about your computer and its health. You activate System Properties by right clicking on the My computer icon and choosing Properties from the menu that appears. You also can start it by choosing System in Control Panel. A window like the one in Figure 4.33 will appear. You use this utility to see whether hardware devices are installed properly, to check for interrupt conflicts between devices, and to change the virtual memory settings. You may not be interested in these tasks unless you are an advanced user, and you should not change Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using Windows 95
Figure 4.33 The System Properties utility gives you a wealth of information about your computer.
the settings unless you really understand what you are doing. If you are having trouble with your computer, technical support may ask you to open this utility. Windows 95 does not come with an extensive printed manual—it has only about 110 pages, including index and introduction. You can purchase the more extensive Windows 95 Resource Kit in bookstores. You also can download this document from CompuServe, America Online, The Microsoft Network, and the Internet. See Windows 95 and 98 At A Glance on page 182 for the online support addresses. Chapter 4: Windows
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using Windows 95
Figure 4.34 Microsoft uses online help in lieu of extensive printed manuals.
Instead of extensive printed manuals, Microsoft relies upon online help that is included in Windows 95 to answer questions. You can access Help from the Start menu or from the Help pull-down menu found in most windows. The Help window has a table of contents, an index, and a search function to locate topics for key words you type. Figure 4.34 shows the Help window. Shut Down
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As with other versions of Windows, you should follow proper procedures to shut down Windows 95 (see Exit Windows properly on page 69). In the Start menu is the Shut Down command. Clicking on Shut Down darkens the screen and brings up the dialog box shown in Figure 4.35. Choosing “Shut down the comWaterfields Guide to Computer Software
using Windows 95 puter?” will erase Windows 95’s temporary files and tell you when it is safe to turn off the power.
Figure 4.35 Choose Shut Down in Windows 95’s start menu to bring up the options shown above. As with all versions of Windows, you should follow proper procedures for shutting down and never simply turn off the power.
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Windows 98
Windows 98 Windows 98 is a significant upgrade to Windows 95. If you are familiar with Windows 95, you will have no trouble using Windows 98. The difference between the two versions is that Windows 98 offers some significant improvements without changing the basic structure of the operating system. These improvements fall into three areas: expanded hardware support, improved system management utilities, and ease of use. Several features added to Windows 98 make it easier to use. Microsoft has included more options to make it easier to move among applications and to get on the Internet (page 275). They also have included new accessibility adjustments for persons with disabilities. The new utilities help make it easier to maintain the operating system, make more efficient use of disk space, and include the latest power management features. The new hardware support in Windows 98 includes support for Universal Serial Bus (USB) and IEEE 1394 devices and for multiple monitors. Easier use and Internet access
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Windows 98 adds new features that make it easier to move among applications and between applications and the Internet. Two of these features are the expansion of the Start menu and the addition of a new Channel Bar. (See Figure 4.36.) In the Start menu, a Favorites folder has been added. This folder contains links to the Internet using Microsoft Internet Explorer, which is included with Windows 98.
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Windows 98
Figure 4.36 Windows 98 adds a Favorites folder to the Start menu. This folder stores Internet addresses for quick links to the Web using Microsoft Internet Explorer (page 276). Similarly, the Channel Bar links your computer to specific Web sites called channels, again using Internet Explorer. Multiple users can set individual desktop preferences for displaying shortcut icons (page 153), Internet links, and background colors with Windows 98. In this case, preferences for George Boole are being used. Clicking “Log Off George Boole” will close down the settings and allow another user to start his or her preferences without restarting Windows.
The Channel Bar gives you quick access to channels. A channel is a link to a specific Web site on the Internet that will deliver information to your computer. When you subscribe to a channel, you can specify that information be delivered to your computer on a schedule you choose. You then can read the information offline (without being connected to the Internet) at your
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Windows 98 leisure. You must use Microsoft’s Internet Explorer to take advantage of channels and the Channel Bar. Windows 98 includes more options for the taskbar (page 146) than are available with Windows 95. The taskbar still shows icons for open programs, but it gives you the option of adding one or more of four different toolbars. Figure 4.37 shows the four toolbar choices. To add or remove a toolbar, right click in a blank area of the taskbar and choose Toolbars.
Figure 4.37 You can add one or more of four toolbars to theTaskbar in Windows 98. The TSR (terminate-and-stay-resident programs—programs that work out of sight until needed) and time display is present on Windows 95 also.
Perhaps the handiest of these toolbars is the Quick Launch. It is present by default and has icons you click on once to start programs. Windows 98 includes several icons by default in the Quick Launch Toolbar. It includes an icon for your Internet connection, one for the Channel Bar, one for the e-mail application named Outlook Express included with Internet Explorer, an icon for viewing TV for computers that have a TV tuner card, and one called Show 170
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Windows 98 Desktop. Clicking once on the Show Desktop icon minimizes all open applications so the desktop will be in full view. You can add other icons to the Quick Launch Toolbar. To do so, right drag icons for other programs onto the Quick Launch Toolbar—either from the desktop or the Start menu—and select Create Shortcut(s) Here. You also can remove icons by right clicking them and choosing Delete. Two of the other three toolbars provide quick access to the Internet. The Address Toolbar contains a space where you can type in an Internet address. The Links Toolbar contains icons for Web sites. The third toolbar—the Desktop Toolbar—has the icons found on your computer’s desktop. There are other ways Windows 98 provides easier access to the Internet. The best way to learn all the options is by exploring the topics listed under Internet in Windows 98’s online help. Help is one of the choices in the Start menu. Microsoft added several new features in Windows 98 to make it easier for people with disabilities to use computers. The options include three ways to make the keyboard easier to use, two improvements for those with hearing impairments, help for those who have difficulty using a mouse, and ways to make the monitor easier to view for persons with visual impairments. The best way to set up the accessibility options is with the Accessibility Wizard. To start the Accessibility Wizard, choose Programs in the Start menu, then Accessories, then Accessibility, then Accessibility Wizard. Figure 4.38 shows the Accessibility Wizard with the magnifier turned on for persons with visual impairments. Chapter 4: Windows
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Windows 98
Figure 4.38 Windows 98 includes several ways to adapt a computer for use by someone with a disability. You set up the computer with the Accessibility Wizard shown here. One of the options is a screen magnifier. Note the magnified text under the pointer that appears at the top of the screen.
The accessibility options are not included by default when Windows 98 is installed. You must manually add the components by choosing the custom install option, then selecting the accessibility components. If your computer has Windows 98 installed without the accessibility components, get the CD/ROM or floppies containing Windows 98, select Settings in the Start menu, then Control Panel, then Add/Remove Programs, then Windows Setup. Click next to Accessibility, then Have Disk and OK. Follow the instructions that appear. 172
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Windows 98 Your computer will store data more efficiently and start programs quicker if you change your hard disk to FAT32. FAT32 is a scheme the operating system uses to keep track of what is stored on disk drives. Computers divide hard and floppy disks into sections called clusters. It is in these clusters that data is stored. A file allocation table, or FAT, keeps track of these clusters and what is stored in them. A file allocation table can track only a finite number of clusters. Since the number of clusters is limited, the larger a hard disk, the larger the size of its clusters. For example, if a 100MB disk had four clusters, each one would contain 25MB. The same number of clusters on a 200MB drive would mean each one would store 50MB of data. The problem is that a cluster is used to store all or part of a file. If the file is smaller than the size of the cluster, the remaining space in the cluster is wasted. The way to reduce the size of the clusters is to have more of them on a disk. FAT16, which is used by DOS, Windows 3.x, and Windows 95, can keep track of 65,536 clusters on a disk. FAT32 can manage 4,294,967,296 of them. Windows 98 allows you to reconfigure your hard disk to FAT32. By doing so, Microsoft claims that you not only will be able to store more data on a disk—28% more on average—but programs will start about 36% quicker. Much of the improved performance depends on the size of the hard drive and what is stored on it. Figure 4.39 shows the improvement in storage achieved by converting a 514MB hard drive primarily used to hold an operating system from FAT16 to FAT32. Even with this relatively small hard drive, the space savings are significant.
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Windows 98
Figure 4.39 This shows the capacity of a hard disk before conversion to FAT32—that is, when it is FAT16—and after it has been converted to FAT32. Note the Compression tab disappeared after conversion to FAT32. That is because disk drives converted to FAT32 cannot be compressed.
There are a few considerations to keep in mind before you convert a hard drive to FAT32. FAT32 does not work with hard drives smaller than 512MB. You cannot convert a disk back to FAT16 or compress a FAT32 disk unless you buy a utility such as PartitionMagic to do so. 174
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Windows 98 (Both FAT32 and file compression allow you to fit more data in the same disk space. However, if you are running out of disk space, you may free up more room by compressing the files using the Windows 98 compression utility called DriveSpace 3. To start DriveSpace 3, choose Programs from the Start menu, then Accessories, then System Tools, then Compression Agent.) If you convert a removable drive such as a Jaz, the disk will work only with an operating system that supports FAT32. If you are running more than one operating system on the computer, they both must support FAT32. You cannot uninstall Windows 98 if you convert to FAT32. In spite of these caveats, most persons will find it beneficial to convert their disk drives to FAT32. To configure a drive for FAT32, choose Programs in the Start menu, then Accessories, then System Tools, and finally Drive Converter (FAT32). You may want to do this at the end of the day in that the whole process can take several hours. Windows 98 makes it easy to maintain your computer with the Maintenance wizard. The Maintenance wizard automatically runs disk drive maintenance utilities, deletes unnecessary files, and configures the operating system to run frequently used programs faster (see Figure 4.40). The maintenance tasks performed by the Maintenance wizard can take a long time to complete. One of the nice features of this tool is that you can schedule it
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Windows 98
Figure 4.40 The Maintenance wizard in Windows 98 performs routine maintenance to help your computer run better.
to run automatically when you will not be using the computer—midnight to 3:00 A.M., for example. More utilities
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Windows 98 includes several other utilities that make it easier to maintain your computer. DriveSpace 3 compresses and uncompresses files on a hard drive to save disk space—if you haven’t converted to FAT32, that is (see FAT32 on page 173). System Information contains tools for finding and replacing missing or damaged system files and for diagnosing problems. These utilities and others are found under System Tools (Start menu, then Programs, then Accessories, then System Tools.)
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Windows 98 OnNow is a power management utility found in Windows 98 that is useful if you have newer computer equipment. With OnNow, your monitor will shut off and your computer will go into low power standby until you press a key or move the mouse. Only recently made equipment can use this feature—check your hardware’s manual. To set up this power saving feature, choose Settings in the Start menu, then Control Panel, then Power Management. Figure 4.41 shows the window that appears so you can make settings.
Power management
Figure 4.41 The OnNow power utility in Windows 98 works with recently made hardware that supports the feature.
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Windows 98 Multiple Monitors
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You can use more than one monitor on your computer with Windows 98. This may be useful if you frequently work with more than one program at once, and switching back and forth among them on one monitor is cumbersome. It also would be useful if, say, you are doing research on the Internet: You can have one monitor showing a Web site while you work with an application displayed on another monitor. Two drawbacks to using more than one monitor are the amount of office space it takes and the cost of the hardware. When thinking about the hardware cost, keep in mind that you will need a video adapter for each monitor. You cannot hook two monitors into one video card. To add a second monitor with Windows 98, install a video adapter in an available slot, and hook up the second monitor. When you restart the computer, Windows will detect the adapter and monitor and either install drivers or ask you to insert the disks that came with the adapter and monitor. To start using the second monitor, right click on a blank section of the desktop and choose Properties from the menu that appears. Click on the Settings tab, and a dialog box as shown in Figure 4.42 will appear. (You also can select Display in Control Panel instead of right clicking the desktop.) When using two monitors, the second one becomes an extension of the desktop. It is as if you had a monitor with a very wide screen. To put an application on the second monitor, open the application, put the application in the normal window mode (neither maximized nor minimized), and drag the window to the second monitor. Once there, you can maximize the window.
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Windows 98
Figure 4.42 This is the dialog box you use to activate a second monitor. You click on the icon for the second monitor, select the second monitor from the Display drop-down list, check Extend my Windows desktop onto this monitor, and click Apply. The second monitor will become active, and you can drag open applications to it. You then can work with two open applications at once, each on a separate monitor, and move between them simply by moving the mouse pointer from one monitor to the other. To deactivate the second monitor, uncheck Extend my Windows desktop onto this monitor, and click Apply.
Not all applications work well with two or more monitors running—you will have to experiment to see which ones you can use. Once you have determined the programs that can be used with multiple monitors, your best bet is to schedule work sessions using only those apps when you have multiple monitors running. Opening and closing other less compatible programs can
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Windows 98 make your system unstable, necessitating closing everything and restarting Windows. Expanded hardware support—USB and IEEE 1394
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Windows 98 supports the new USB standard. A USB, or Universal Serial Bus, is used to connect external pieces of equipment to computers. Up until recently, most computers had two ways to connect external devices such as printers, scanners, and external disk drives: a parallel port for printers and several serial ports. Being limited to two or three serial ports and one parallel port limited the number of pieces of external hardware you could add. Also, serial ports have very slow data transmission, resulting in slow responses from the devices connected to them. One alternative has been SCSI (Small Computer System Interface, pronounced “scuzzy”) adapters, which you can use to connect seven to fifteen internal and external pieces of equipment. SCSI cards and cables, often found on high-end computers and servers, have very fast data transmission. Another alternative is USB ports and equipment. USB ports are now regular features on new computers. Each USB port can handle up to 127 pieces of equipment that support USB connections. And USB connections are much faster than serial ports: A serial port can transfer 115 thousand bits per second (Kbps); a USB port can handle 12 million bits per second (Mbps). It is not as fast as a SCSI, which can handle 40–80 million bytes per second (MBps), but it costs less than SCSI. IEEE 1394 is another data-transfer standard supported by Windows 98. Also known as FireWire, this type of port allows data to be transferred at 100–400 Mbps and supports up to sixty-three devices. Although Windows 98 supports FireWire connections, most Windows computers sold do not have IEEE Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Windows 98 1394 ports, and it is not clear when they will be widely available. You can, however, buy a FireWire adapter to put in an available slot in your computer.
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Windows 95/98 At A Glance Windows 95 and 98 At A Glance What it is—Windows 95 is a 32-bit operating system designed as a replacement for the Windows 3.x/DOS operating system and environment. An operating system is software that controls the operations of the computer. It controls input/output operations, including access to disk drives and other secondary storage devices, sets parameters for using RAM, and provides the structure in which other software works. Windows 98 is a significant upgrade of Windows 95. Pluses—Windows 95/98 has a graphical user interface (GUI) that is attractive, quick, and easy to use. It is more stable than Windows 3.x (i.e., it doesn’t crash as much), and it handles RAM much better than its predecessor. For 32-bit programs, it has efficient preemptive multitasking with the help of multithreading. Windows 95/98 also features Plug and Play, a utility that makes it easy to add hardware, such as sound cards and modems, and several other new utilities that make managing your computer and files fairly easy and fun. Its many new features and better performance make it a significant improvement over Windows 3.x. Windows 98 includes better utilities for managing your computer and expanded hardware support. Minuses—Windows 95/98 crashes more than infrequently since it runs all programs in one virtual machine. It also does not run some Windows 3.x software well. Windows 95/98 allows preemptive multitasking only for 32-bit applications—not 16-bit ones. System requirements—An 80486 CPU or better with 16 MB of RAM is recommended. Windows 95/98 does best with 32 MB of RAM, and more RAM will improve its performance. A large hard disk is a must—at least 2 GB to hold the operating system and applications. Many new computers come with at least 6 GB drives. Major brands—Microsoft Corporation is the sole manufacturer. Online support—America Online: Use keyword WINNEWS; CompuServe: GO WINDOWS or GO WINNEWS; The Microsoft Network: choose Go To Other Location from Edit menu and type Windows; Internet: http://www.microsoft.com/windows. Street price for Windows 98—$180–$210; $90–$95 to upgrade from a previous version of Windows.
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Windows NT
Windows NT Microsoft Corporation first developed Windows in 1985 as a prelude to OS/2, the operating system that IBM and Microsoft were jointly developing to replace DOS. Windows was developed to run with DOS at that time as an interim step until OS/2 was released as a full operating system. Microsoft and IBM ended their partnership, and Microsoft decided to develop its own version of OS/2 as a next-generation operating system. It wanted to develop a complete operating system using GUIs that would be much more powerful than the DOS/Windows combination, would have 32-bit capability, and could serve networks. The operating system Windows NT was Microsoft developed is developed by called Windows NT, and it Microsoft as a took a team of 200 software next-generation operating system to developers years to make at replace DOS. Wina cost of $150 million. Windows 3.x was an dows NT 4.0, the most interim step. recent version and the one discussed here, is a sophisticated operating system that is more stable than either Windows 3.x or Windows 95/98. The version that will replace Windows NT 4.0 is Windows 2000. You may wonder why Microsoft has two stand-alone 32-bit Windows operating systems—Windows 95/98 and Windows NT. At first Microsoft intended that there be one operating system. They eventually decided, however, to design a high-end oper-
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Windows NT ating system targeted at the corporate user and a second one for the mass-market consumer. Windows 95/98 became the consumer operating system and Windows NT the high-end corporate one. Windows 95/98 can run older applications quite well. It also does not require huge amounts of disk space and RAM—an important consideration in keeping the real cost of the operating system down and within reach of most computer users. Windows NT disadvantages
NT Workstation and NT Server
Windows NT, on the other hand, requires large amounts of RAM (16 MB is the minimum and 32 MB is recommended) and disk space (110 MB). And although it runs many 16-bit Windows and DOS applications, it does not do so as extensively as Windows 95/98. However, Windows NT excels in other important areas.
Windows NT is a powerful, stable, and sophisticated 32-bit OS that comes in network and stand-alone versions.
There are two versions of Windows NT: Windows NT Workstation and Windows NT Server. The Workstation version is for use on individual computers. The Server version is for network servers and can function as a network
operating system. Windows NT advantages
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Windows NT is exceptionally stable, making system crashes virtually obsolete. If your work requires security, Windows NT allows you to lock your system with passwords. It also is a true 32-bit operating system, which brings several advantages (see True 32 below).
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Windows NT For businesses, Windows NT Server offers the advantage of being a capable server and network operating system that supports computers running Unix, OS/2, and Macintosh operating systems and applications. And both Windows NT Workstation and Windows NT Server support multiprocessing—computing with machines having more than one CPU. Windows NT was designed primarily to run 32-bit applications. Windows 95 was designed to run 32-bit applications also, but some design compromises were made to assure that it would run older Windows and DOS programs. The result is that Windows NT takes full advantage of the extra speed potential of advanced CPUs, such as the Pentium II, but Windows 95 does not. In other words, Windows NT applications will show a greater increase in speed going from a Pentium to a Pentium II CPU than will Windows 95 applications. What this means to you in real performance depends on the applications you use. Your best bet is to read performance comparisons in the leading computer magazines. Magazines such as PC Magazine and PC World have such articles.
True 32
Window NT is famous for its Windows NT is rock-solid stability. It rarely, if ever, known for its crashes. Its stability is due to the rock-solid stabiliway it uses memory. ty—it rarely, if Both Windows 3.x and Win- ever, crashes. dows 95/98 run everything in one chunk of memory called a virtual machine, or VM (page 134). This means one unruly application can cause the whole computer to crash.
Ultimate stability
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Windows NT Windows 95 is more stable than Windows 3.x. This is because it runs applications within private memory address spaces within the VM while Windows 3.x runs them in shared address spaces. Windows NT runs each application in physically separate chunks of memory—in separate VMs. This means each application is isolated from the other applications running at the same time. Also, Windows NT isolates the core operating system functions from the applications. The result is that if an application starts performing an operation that causes problems, you can close down the errant application without affecting other computer operations. This makes Windows NT much more stable than either Windows 3.x or Windows 95/98. Multithreading and preemptive multitasking
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Windows NT supports multithreading in applications just as Windows 95 does (see Threads and multithreads on page 141). Multithreading is when an application’s tasks are broken down into small units called threads. The CPU then processes these threads by switching quickly among them. This process, called preemptive multitasking (page 141), gives the impression the computer is doing several things at once. The result is you can have the computer doing something in the background—say searching and compiling a list of names in a database— while you continue to work on something else with the computer. Windows NT allows preemptive multitasking with both 16-bit and 32-bit applications. This is an advanMultithreading and preemptive multitasking found in Windows NT can increase your productivity.
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Windows NT tage over Windows 95, which allows preemptive multitasking only with 32-bit apps. Wi ndows NT takes Symmetric multiproadvantage of multithreading cessing allows the in another way. If a computer OS to run on comhas more than one CPU— puters having more these computers are called than one CPU with multiprocessor or parallel a resulting increase processor computers—each in speed. CPU can process a thread simultaneously if the operating system allows. This is called symmetric multiprocessing, or SMP. Currently, Windows NT and Unix support multiprocessors. The advantage of SMP is obvious. Chores can be accomplished more quickly and more smoothly because threads can be processed more quickly by a CPU. If the computer has two CPUs, two threads can be processed at once. Having four CPUs means four threads can be processed simultaneously. Windows NT 4.0 supports up to thirty-two processors.
Symmetric multiprocessing
A network is a number of computers connected so they can communicate and work together. (Networks are covered extensively in Chapter 6.) Many networks are client/server ones. The server is a computer that provides services—such as a central database, file and software storage, and network printing—to the other computers on the network. The clients are the individual users’ computers that receive services from the server. Servers usually are more powerful and have larger storage capacity than client computers.
Clients and servers
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Windows NT Network operating systems (NOS)
Each client computer on a network has its own operating system, as does the server. In addition to client operating systems and server operating systems, there are network operating systems (NOS). NOSs are loaded on the server and the client. NOSs control the communications among the computers within the network. This includes e-mail, sharing files, security, getting data from and giving data to databases on the network, sending print jobs to the network printer, and other chores related to computers communicating with each other. There is more on NOSs beginning on page 250. In the past, most NOSs were sold separately from client and server operating systems. Today, most of the prominent server operating systems include NOSs. Windows NT is one of those.
Windows NT Server
Windows NT Server 4.0 is a capable operating system for network servers and functions as a full NOS. It supports client computers running operating systems as diverse as Unix, Mac OS, and OS/2 in addition to Windows NT Workstation, Windows 95/98, and Windows 3.x. Other operating systems do not offer this extensive support.
Security
Security is an important consideration when you have a network. One of the functions of the NOS is to prevent unauthorized people from using the network or snooping in files to which they should not have access. Remember that all the computers on a network are connected. The NOS must guard against, say, that sopho-
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Windows NT Server is a capable OS for networks and functions as a full network operating system.
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Windows NT more computer wiz from upgrading her last term’s American Literature grade by breaking into the registrar’s files on the university network. Windows NT has advanced Windows NT security features that have earned contains securiit a C2-level security status from ty features that the National Security Agency, are important and it meets requirements for for computers Department of Defense work. on networks. The Class C2 rating means it meets rather stringent standards for controlling computer and file use and for tracking access and attempted access to the computer system. All of this means Windows NT should meet the everyday security requirements of businesses. It restricts who uses the network. It controls what authorized users do when they are connected. And it allows the persons who manage the network to monitor the network’s activities. This last item is important in identifying when someone is attempting to break into the network, so the network managers can take protective action. Windows NT supports OLE 2.0 (page 566) and DCOM (page 569). These are object technology standards—a technology that is defining the future of computing. (See Object Technology beginning on page 560.) OLE’s main competition is OpenDoc (page 565) and CORBA (page 568). OpenDoc and CORBA are supported by several operating systems, including OS/2, Mac OS, and a number of versions of Unix. Microsoft is striving to make OLE/DCOM available on many operating systems. They intend to have it available on OS/2, Mac OS, and many versions of Unix.
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Windows NT Using Windows NT 4.0
Using Windows NT 4.0 is almost exactly the same as using Windows 95/98. Both Windows 95/98 and Windows NT have the same easy-to-use user interface (UI). If you learn one, you will know how to use the other. The section on using Windows 95 begins on page 145, and instructions on using any Windows operating system begin on page 97. There are differences in how some of the utilities included with the operating systems appear on the screen. For example, the System Properties utility (see Figure 4.33 on page 165 for the Windows 95 version) in Windows NT gives you more options than in Windows 95/98. However, the closest thing to Device Manager in Windows 95/98 is NT Diagnostics in Windows NT. Beyond these types of differences, the two operating systems look like twins.
Windows 2000
Microsoft is planning to come out with Windows 2000 (formerly Windows NT 5.0) in the last half of 1999. The new version will strengthen NT in several areas, especially its network capabilities. It will have the Windows 95/98 interface, but Microsoft promises it will be easier to use. Windows 2000 Professional is the new name for Windows NT Workstation 5.0, and Windows 2000 Server replaces the name Windows NT Server 5.0.
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Using Windows NT 4.0 is almost exactly the same as using Windows 95.
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Windows NT At A Glance Windows NT At A Glance What it is—Windows NT is a 32-bit operating system designed for highend and corporate users. An operating system is software that controls the operations of the computer. It controls input/output operations, including access to disk drives and other secondary storage devices sets parameters for using RAM, and provides the structure in which other software works. Pluses—Windows NT probably is one of the most stable operating system you can get (i.e., it doesn’t crash). This, along with its good security features, makes it favored by business users for whom keeping the computers running and the data safe is critical. Windows NT 4.0 has the same new graphical user interface (GUI) as Windows 95/98. The GUI is attractive, quick, and easy to use. This could mean lower employee training cost and better productivity. Windows NT features efficient preemptive multitasking for 16-bit and 32-bit applications with the help of multithreading. It also supports multiprocessing—computers operating with more than one CPU. It comes in two versions: Windows NT Workstation for standalone computers and Windows NT Server for network servers. NT Server includes a network operating system (NOS). Windows NT supports applications written for other operating systems. Minuses—Windows NT does not run some Windows 3.1 and DOS applications well. It also requires a lot of RAM and disk space. System requirements—Windows NT needs a Pentium CPU or better with a recommended minimum of 16 MB of RAM—32 MB or more is better. Windows NT requires 90 to 110 MB of disk space. Major brands—Microsoft Corporation is the sole manufacturer. Online support—America Online: Use keyword WINNEWS; CompuServe: GO WINNT, GO NTSERVER, GO NTWORK, or GO WINNEWS; The Microsoft Network: choose Go To Other Location from Edit menu and type Wi ndows; Internet: http://www.microsoft.com/windows. Street price—Windows NT Workstation costs about $275–$320 on CDROM or $130–$150 for an upgrade. Windows NT Server is about $700 for a five-client license or $375 for a five-client license upgrade. A ten-client license upgrade costs about $480. Windows NT will be replaced by Windows 2000 in 1999 or 2000.
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Chapter 5 OS/2, Unix, and Apple Operating Systems There are several operating systems that are not so widespread as DOS or Windows that nevertheless deserve mention. OS/2, Unix, and Mac OS are important operating systems for microcomputers. Two of these operating systems—OS/2 and Unix—you will see mainly in business and professional environments. Mac OS is used on Apple computers, which are found in many homes and education settings.
OS/2 OS/2 is a powerful 32-bit operating system. IBM and Microsoft released the first version of OS/2 in 1987. They developed OS/2 jointly as a replacement for DOS, and it was a big improvement over that operating system. Microsoft and IBM ended their partnership, and IBM continued to develop OS/2. Microsoft had developed Windows in 1985 as a prelude to OS/2. After the breakup, Microsoft put its energies into improving Windows and developing Windows NT. 193
OS/2 Businesses began using OS/2 partly because it was a powerful and stable operating system. Just as important to its acceptance, however, was that many corporate customers had an excellent relationship with IBM. IBM was the supplier of their mainframe, personal, and minicomputers and frequently their primary computer consultant. Acceptance of OS/2 outside of business was not so strong, though. Businesses often ran IBM-developed business applications with OS/2. But the general public did not have many OS/2 applications to choose from because software developers had been slow to write applications for it. To make its product as competitive as possible, IBM designed OS/2 to run most Windows 3.x, DOS, and OS/2 apps. OS/2 is a powerful 32-bit operating system which is found primarily on corporate computers.
Versions of OS/2
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OS/2 comes in two current versions: OS/2 Warp Client 4.0 for individual computers and OS/2 Warp Server 4 for network servers. (OS/2 Warp Server comes in two variations: OS/2 Warp Server Advanced for up to 1,000 clients on a single server and OS/2 Warp Server for networks with up to 120 clients per server.) OS/2 Warp 4.0 competes with Windows NT Workstation, and OS/2 Warp Server 4 competes with Windows NT Server.
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OS/2 There are several advanOS/2 offers OOUI, tages offered by the new ver- preemptive multisions of OS/2. It offers an tasking, Java supobject-oriented user interface port, voice (OOUI), preemptive multi- recognition, network tasking, support for Java capability, SMP, and applications and applets, CORBA support. voice recognition technology, support for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), extensive network capability, support for OpenDoc/CORBA, and excellent stability. It also runs OS/2, DOS, and most Windows applications.
Advantages
With OOUIs, programs, files, communication links, and tasks such as printing are represented by icons. You can drag or click these icons to accomplish many tasks. For example, dragging an icon representing a word processor file onto another icon representing a word processor application starts the application and opens the file. Similarly, dragging the same file icon onto the printer icon prints the file. OOUI (pronounced OOUIs—which are “OO-ee”) is different from the found on OS/2, graphical user interface (GUI, Windows NT, Mac pronounced “GOO-ee”) found OS, and Windows on Windows 3.x. Windows 95—allow you to 3.x’s GUI makes extensive use work intuitively and of pull-down menus and dia- efficiently. log boxes to accomplish tasks. But the icons in Windows 3.x serve only as a place to click your mouse when you want to start an application. OS/2, Mac OS, Windows NT 4.0, and to a large extent, Windows 95 have OOUIs. With OS/2’s network capabilities, you can drag an icon representing a
Objectoriented user interface, or OOUI
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OS/2 file on one computer onto an icon representing a different computer to send the file over the network. Working with OOUIs is easy and very intuitive. Soon, OOUIs will be the expectation of most computer users. Preemptive multitasking
OS/2 uses preemptive multitasking when running 32-bit and 16-bit applications. Preemptive multitasking is a very desirable feature to have with an operating system as it allows you to work more efficiently. You can read more about preemptive multitasking beginning on page 141.
Java capable
IBM has included the Java run-time environment with OS/2 Warp 4. (See the section starting on page 555 for more about Java.) The Java programming language has become increasingly important over time. This is because applications written in Java are well suited for network computing—especially for the Internet. Java applications also have become important because they can run on any type of computer using any type of operating system. All that is necessary is the addition of the Java run-time environment (page 555). Any computer that has a Web browser—software that helps you get around the World Wide Web on the Internet—can run Java applets. Java applets are small applications with limited functions. OS/2 Warp 4, by including the run-time environment, can run full Java applications.
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Java applications can run on any type of computer using any operating system if the run-time environment is installed.
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OS/2 In the future, probably all operating systems will have the capability to run Java apps. Then a programmer can write an application once in Java, and it will run on all types of microcomputers. OS/2 Warp 4 is the first oper- OS/2 is the first ating system to integrate voice-rec- operating sysognition technology. IBM calls tem to integrate their voice-recognition system voice-recogniVoiceType. With it, you can give tion technology. verbal commands to your computer or dictate a memo that you can bring into your word processing application. Warp 4 comes with a headset for VoiceType. Your computer also needs a sound card (a circuit board that plugs into a slot in your computer’s motherboard) supported by OS/2. VoiceType comes in six languages, and the English version has a base vocabulary of about 22,000 words. You can get specialty dictionaries such as emergency medicine with 19,000 words total, journalism with 32,000, or legal with 25,000.
Voice recognition
OS/2 Warp 4 supports OpenDoc (page 565) and CORBA (page 568), which are object technology standards. Object technology is a method of developing applications that is shaping the future of computing. (See Object Technology beginning on page 560.) By comparison, Windows NT and 95 support OLE 2.0 (page 566) and DCOM (page 569)—two competing object technology standards. Both OpenDoc/CORBA and OLE/DCOM will be supported by most operating systems.
OpenDoc and CORBA
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OS/2 Although you may find it interesting to follow the debate about which of these object technology standards is superior, it should not be the basis for choosing an operating system. These two standards, if both continue to exist, should eventually become compatible with each other. OS/2 supports OpenDoc/CORBA object technology standards while Windows supports OLE/DCOM.
Networking
Both OS/2 Warp 4 and OS/2 Warp Server have good network capabilities. OS/2 Warp 4 comes with a built-in web browser (page 276), and it also has peer-topeer networking capability (page 226). OS/2 Warp Server is an operating system for servers that has complete network operating system (page 250) capabilities. It includes system management software (page 239)—Tivoli system management tools (page 244) are built in. Warp Server can serve clients running Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows NT, Mac OS, OS/2, and DOS operating systems. OS/2 Warp Server Advanced has the same features as OS/2 Warp Server but is designed to serve up to 1,000 clients.
Symmetric multiprocessing
Warp Server Advanced SMP offers symmetric multiprocessing (page 187) capability. The trend today is toward using computers with more than one CPU as servers for networks. SMP allows OS/2 to take advantage of these more powerful computers. According to IBM, OS/2 Warp Server is optimized for four CPUs but can handle up to sixty-four.
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OS/2 OS/2 Warp offers good OS/2 is a very stastability for an operating sys- ble operating system. Each application opened tem, but it uses a in OS/2 Warp operates in sep- lot of hardware arate, protected address space. resources and runs If one of the applications only with Intelstarts to create problems, it designed CPUs. can be shut down without affecting the other programs and without crashing the computer. In Windows 3.x and Windows 95/98, everything runs in one address space, and a problem with one application can bring everything to a halt.
Stability
The drawbacks of OS/2 Warp are that it runs only on computers with Intel CPUs, it uses a lot of hardware resources, and there are a limited number of OS/2 applications. The CPU limitation may not make any difference in most circumstances since there is an excellent selection of very fast and powerful computers using CPUs based on Intel designs. OS/2 Warp uses a lot of computer resources, especially hard disk space. You should have a computer with an 80486 or better CPU, 12–24 MB of RAM, and 100–300 MB of hard disk space. Although there are not a lot of applications written for OS/2 Warp, it will run DOS and Windows 3.x applications well. However, it will not run Windows 95/98 or NT applications. This could be a significant drawback for many persons considering the large number of applications available for Windows 95/98.
Disadvantages
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OS/2 at a glance OS/2 At A Glance What it is—OS/2 Warp is a 32-bit operating system for Intel-based computers. It is designed for high-end and corporate users. An operating system is software that controls the operations of the computer. It controls input/output operations, including access to disk drives and other secondary storage devices, sets parameters for using RAM, and provides the structure in which other software works. Pluses—OS/2 Warp is a stable operating system that will reliably run OS/2, DOS, and Windows 3.x applications. It has an object-oriented user interface that is powerful and intuitive. This interface is efficient and very easy to use. Warp has built-in support for Java (page 555), which means it can run Java applications and applets without the need to add a Java run-time environment (page 555). OS/2 Warp also includes voice-recognition technology named VoiceType. This OS has preemptive multitasking through multithreading. It also supports symmetric multiprocessing—computers operating with more than one CPU. OS/2 Warp Client 4.0 is for stand-alone workstations, and OS/2 Warp Server is for networks. In addition to being an OS for the server, Warp Server includes a network operating system (NOS) and system management software. Warp Server supports clients running DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows NT, OS/2, and Mac OS. Minuses—OS/2 runs only on computers with Intel-designed CPUs. It doe not run Windows 95/98/NT applications, and it requires a lot of RAM and disk space. System requirements—OS/2 needs an 80486 CPU or better with a recommended minimum of 12–16 MB of RAM—24 MB and a Pentium is needed for voice recognition. OS/2 requires 100–300 MB of disk space. Major brands—IBM Corporation is the sole manufacturer. Online support—Internet: http://www.ibm.com; CompuServe: GO IBM Street price—OS/2 Warp 4 costs $259 on CD-ROM from IBM or $165 for an upgrade. OS/2 Warp Server is about $549 from IBM ($749 for ten users), and Warp Server Advanced (up to 1,000 users) runs $1,179.
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Unix
Unix Unix is an operating system that is highly regarded by many computer experts. It can be used on multiple platforms, supports multitasking, has been designed from its beginning to serve multiple users at once, and is well suited for demanding applications. Unix enthusiasts are rabidly loyal to their operating system and will be happy to explain why it is superior to all others. There are many advan- Unix is popular in the tages to Unix, but the ones academic and most frequently cited are reli- research communiability, security, scalability, and ties and is well suited performance. Unix also has for demanding busisignificant disadvantages that ness applications and get in the way of its becoming Internet servers. more popular. These are difficulty of use, cost, limited off-the-shelf applications, and lack of a single Unix standard—there are many derivatives of Unix, most of which are not entirely compatible with the others. Unix was developed in 1971 at AT&T Bell Laboratories. The goal was to create an operating system that could serve multiple users, would be capable of multitasking, and could be used on a variety of platforms from mainframes to desktop computers. Unix was written mostly using the C programming language (page 554). The scientific and academic communities embraced Unix, and today it maintains a strong presence in universities and research facilities. It also is used widely by large businesses and for Internet services.
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Unix Reliability
Reliability frequently is cited by Unix users as an advantage of the operating system. With Unix, the entire computer system won’t go down when an application or file starts creating problems—an important consideration when your business depends on computers. Both Windows NT and OS/2 also are excellent in this regard.
Security
Unix had basic security features designed into the operating system from the beginning. When Unix was created, the idea was to have an operating system that could serve multiple users at once—a system that would work on network servers as well as stand-alone computers. Such an OS should verify that persons are authorized to use the system and control which files they may use. Most Unix derivatives come with these and other key security features built in.
Performance
A principal reason businesses use Unix today is its performance. Unix is well suited for demanding tasks such as managing very large databases and data warehouses (page 260) and handling online analytical processing (page 262). Obtaining and using large amounts of data is important for many businesses today. Unix also offers outstanding performance for individual users with tough jobs to perform. It often is used with RISC processors—CPUs that can carry out certain instructions very fast. RISC processors are found in workstations used for demanding graphics chores and computer-aided design and engineering. Many of the special effects for the sensational movie Jurassic Park
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Unix offers good reliability, security, scalability, and performance.
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Unix were created on workstations using a Unix operating system. The term scalability refers to the ability to increase the capacity of hardware or software. When business computers face arduous tasks, scalability is an important consideration. With operating systems, scalability refers to the range of applications and platforms supported and the number of CPUs on a computer the software can effectively use (see Symmetric multi-processing on page 187). Windows NT handles a Solaris—a leadbroader range of applications than ing Unix operatthe Unix derivatives. Some Unix ing system—can operating systems—such as effectively use Solaris—can effectively use more sixty-four CPUs. CPUs than Windows NT. Windows NT can use only about eight CPUs on a server, but Solaris can use sixty-four. IBM says OS/2 Warp Server is “optimized” for four CPUs but can handle up to sixty-four.
Scalability
From its inception, Unix was designed with multitasking—carrying out more than one task at once—in mind. Unix is used as a server operating system on mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers. It also is used to carry out demanding applications for single users on powerful workstations. In both of these roles, its ability to perform multitasking efficiently is important.
Multitasking
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Unix Using Unixes
The long-standing complaint about Unix operating systems has been that they are difficult to set up and use. From the early days of Unix, users interacted with the operating systems through an interface called the shell. There actually are three shells in common use—the Bourne shell, the Berkeley shell, and the Korn shell—and they all require an arcane set of text-based commands from the user. Recently, graphical user interfaces (GUI) have emerged to make life easier for users of several Unix operating systems. For example, Sun Microsystems’ Solaris incorporates the Common Desktop Environment (CDE) GUI to make their Unix derivative user-friendly. Compaq Computer Corporation and SCO (Santa Cruz Operation, Inc.) also have adopted GUIs on their Unixes, and Compaq’s Digital Unix claims very easy installation. In addition to CDE, there is another GUI standard for Unix derivatives called the X Window System.
Many Unixes
Perhaps the biggest stumbling block to Unix becoming more widespread is that there are so many Unixes in use, and the industry has been slow to embrace uniform standards. There are dozens of Unix derivatives running on computers. Table 5.1 shows the major Unix derivatives likely to be encountered today. The problem with so many Unix derivatives is their lack of compatibility with each other. A lack of compatibility makes it very difficult to write an application for one Unix and have it work with another.
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The long-standing complaint about Unix operating systems is they are difficult to set up and use. That may be changing.
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Unix Table 5.1: Unix Derivatives
Unix Derivative
Company
AIX
IBM
BSD/OS
Berkeley Software Design, Inc.
DG/UX
Data General
Digital UNIX
Compaq Computer Corporation
HP/UX
Hewlett Packard
IRIX
Silicon Graphics Computer Systems
Linux
Free on the Internet
SCO OpenServer SCO UnixWare
The Santa Cruz Operation, Inc.
Solaris SunOS
Sun Microsystems
True64 UNIX
Compaq Computer Corporation
UNICOS
Cray Research/Silicon Graphics
UNIX SVR4 MPRAS
NCR Corporation
One Unix operating system has gained much attention recently in both the press and the computer community. Linux is available free on the Internet, and the code is open. That means it is available for any programmer who wishes to try to improve it. The popularity of Linux is growing rapidly. Many in the field feel it has the potential to overtake Windows as the most popular operating system. However, there are not many applications available for it, and installing and maintaining it can be chores best left to experienced computer users. Chapter 5: OS/2, Unix, and Apple Operating Systems
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Unix Limited applications
The result of having so many Unixes has been that the number of applications on the market for the operating systems has lagged well behind those for Windows with its uniform standards. Having limited applications available has the snowball effect of discouraging people from using the operating system, which further discourages developers from writing applications. The Unix industry has responded with standards for the Application Program Interface (API). The API is what you use to interact with the computer and what applications use to interact with the operating system. For example, the Windows APIs include pull-down menus and icons to give commands to the operating system and applications. Consistent APIs make it much easier for software developers to write applications for an operating system. The absence of a consistent API will discourage programmers. There are Unix standards upon which to build a consistent API. They include X/Open, POSIX, CDE, and X Window System.
Cost
Cost has been a reason many businesses have been reluctant to switch to or stay with Unix as an operating system. The concern is the cost of both the hardware and the software. Up until recently, most Unixes Using Unix may have been written to run on mainbring higher frames or workstations with RISC costs for both processors. Most Unix operating software and systems cost about the same as you hardware. might pay for OS/2 or Windows NT, and the operating system is included when you buy RISC workstations from the manufacturers. However,
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Unix the RISC workstations themselves cost substantially more than their Intel CPU counterparts. In addition to the hardware cost, many applications cost more in the Unix version than in Windows. For example, the suggested retail price of Adobe Illustrator, an illustration program, is $400 more in the Unix version. Similarly, the desktop publishing program FrameMaker is $600 more in Unix. These comparisons are for programs that come in Unix versions—most of the top selling Windows programs don’t. That means you may end up paying even more of a premium for an application developed specifically for Unix by a low-volume publisher. The Unix industry is Unix publishers are beginning to respond to these responding to cost concerns. One response has concerns by releasbeen to release Unix operating Unix OSs that run on Intel CPUs ing systems that run on Intel and that work with CPUs. Solaris, Digital Unix, Windows NT. and SCO UnixWare all come in versions that run on computers with 80486 CPUs or better. Several companies also are making certain their Unix operating systems work well with Windows NT. This enables Unix to be used on servers and for demanding tasks—chores for which it is well suited— while assuring that Unix customers can have the cost efficiency and ease of use offered by Windows applications and hardware.
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Unix at a glance Unix At A Glance What it is—There are many Unix operating systems—32-bit and 64-bit— for different platforms from mainframes to PCs. The operating systems are used in the academic community as well as for research, demanding applications, networks, and Internet servers. An operating system is software that controls the operations of the computer. It controls input/output operations, including access to disk drives and other secondary storage devices, sets parameters for using RAM, and provides the structure in which other software works. Pluses—Unix operating systems are stable, capable of multitasking, capable of serving multiple users, and suited for demanding applications. They have basic security measures built in. Unix operating systems are most valuable for running very demanding applications—such as huge databases and graphics workstations—and as operating systems for network and Internet servers. Minuses—There are many different Unix operating systems, most of which are not entirely compatible with the others. You also may expect higher costs and fewer available applications than with other operating systems. In the past, Unix operating systems have not been user-friendly, but the new GUIs should make them more so. System requirements—The system requirements vary depending on the specific Unix operating system. Most Unixes are designed to run on computers with RISC CPUs. Major brands—There are several Unix operating systems in use as listed in Table 5.1 on page 205. Online support—You can join Unix users groups on the Internet and CompuServe. Some Unix manufacturers may offer support, but expect to pay for support contracts. Street price—Prices vary according to the Unix derivative. Solaris costs as little as $125 for a single computer. When you buy a workstation, the Unix operating system probably will be included in the price. Linux, a Unix derivative gaining in popularity, is free for download on the Internet but costs about $70 on CD-ROM from Red Hat Software.
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Apple operating systems
Apple Operating Systems The founders of Apple Computer, Inc., Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, envisioned their product as a computer for the masses, and their operating system reflected this philosophy. Apple Computer was the first to develop and use a graphical user interface (GUI) in an operating system. Since then, their operating systems have been the paragon of ease of use. Because Apple’s operating systems have been so easy to use, the Apple Macintosh model of computer became popular in homes and schools. The CPU Apple currently uses in its computers—the PowerPC RISC processor jointly developed by Apple, IBM, and Motorola—is competitive with Intel CPUs in performance. Apple Computer also offers other quality hardware components, such as its LaserWriter printers. The hardware capabilities Apple computers along with quality applications are popular for have given Apple Computer the education, lead in the desktop publishing desktop publishand graphics industry. It has ing, and graphics been only recently that comput- uses. ers using Microsoft operating systems and Intel CPUs have gained a solid foothold in this market. As of the fall of 1998, Apple had sold more than 30 million Macintosh computers, its principal product line. Although there are more Wintel computers (Windows/Intel) in use, Apple Computer has a significant share of the microcomputer market.
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Apple operating systems The current desktop computers sold by Apple are the Power Macintosh and iMac computers, ranging in price from about $1,300 to $6,000—prices that are comparable to Intel-based computers with similar configurations. The current operating system is Mac OS 9, and the current version is Mac OS 8.5. Apple is planning to release a high-end operating system, named Mac OS X, in 1999. Mac OS 9’s market niche is similar to that of Windows 95/98, and Mac OS X’s will be similar to Windows NT’s. ✯ ✯ ✯ Mac OS
Mac OS 9 was released in late 1999—too late to be included in this book—and it is an upgrade to Mac 8.5. Mac 8.5’s most notable features are its ease of use, a powerful search feature named Sherlock, integration of Internet technology, compatibility with Windows and DOS files, and full support for Java.
Using Mac OS
The GUI of Mac OS is intuitive and easy to use. Apple was first with the icons and pull-down menus that Windows users find so user-friendly. Most people, even those new to computers, find they can sit down at a Macintosh and start using it in no time. Figure 5.1 shows the MAC OS 8.5 desktop with several windows open. Mac OS 8.5 includes an online help utility called Apple Help. This feature not only answers questions about Mac OS 8.5, it gives advice on solving problems and being more productive. Apple operating systems have been reliable. And Mac OS 8.5 is less prone to crashes than previous Apple operating systems.
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Apple operating systems
Courtesy of Apple Computer, Inc.
Figure 5.1 Mac OS 8.5 includes several features that improve its legendary ease of use. Sherlock is a powerful search tool that enables you to search for text in documents stored on your computer’s disk drives. Sherlock also allows you to search the Internet and can perform the search using several search engines (page 277) at once. Mac OS 8.5 has improved Internet access, including the ability to save favorite Web sites as icons with the Internet Aliases feature.
Web browsers (page 276), including Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator, are included with Mac OS 8.5. The operating system also includes an e-mail application, help with configuring your computer for hook up with an Internet service provider (page 294), and software that enables you to set up a personal Web site.
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Apple operating systems Mac OS 8.5 allows you to use Internet aliases. Internet aliases are icons representing Web sites—click on the icon and your Internet connection will start and take you to the site. Sherlock
Sherlock is a powerful search tool included in Mac OS 8.5. With Sherlock, you can search for information on the Internet by using several search engines (page 277) at once. You can save the search criteria and results for later use or to update at a later time. Sherlock also allows you to search for text in documents stored on your hard drive. Figure 5.2 shows two windows from Sherlock performing a search.
Compatibility with Windows and DOS
Apple Computer has included in its operating system a utility that allows users to open and view Windows and DOS files. It also has filters to translate between Mac OS and Windows or DOS files. This may make potential buyers more comfortable with an Apple computer since the vast majority of applications in use are for DOS and Windows operating systems.
Viewing other Mac files
Mac OS 8.x also allows you to open and view other Mac OS files without using the application in which they were created. This could be very useful for distributing documents for others to review.
Java
Any computer that has a Web browser can run Java applets. Java applets are small applications with limited
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Mac OS 8.5 features ease of use, improved Internet access, Java support, and compatibility with Windows and DOS files.
Apple operating systems
Courtesy of Apple Computer, Inc.
Figure 5.2 Sherlock is a search tool included in Mac OS 8.5. It can search the Internet and the text in files on your hard drive.
functions. (See the section starting on page 555 for more about Java.) Apple has included the Java run-time environment (page 555) with Mac OS 8.x. The Java run-time environment enables the operating system to run full Java applications.
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Apple operating systems Disadvantages
The biggest disadvantage of Mac OS 8 is it does not have nearly as many applications available as Windows operating systems. For some this may not be much of a disadvantage. For others, however, it is significant. If you want a computer The biggest disadfor general use and are not cervantage of Mac OS tain what you may use it for in is it does not have the future, a Macintosh may nearly as many not be for you. You may applications availbecome very frustrated when able as Windows. you go shopping for new applications. On the other hand, if you are buying a computer for a specific purpose and you know there are good Macintosh applications to handle your chores, a Mac may be your best bet. An example may be that you need a computer mainly for desktop publishing and graphics. You may want to buy a Macintosh with the desktop publishing applications. You then could get a high-quality application suite, such as Microsoft Office 98 for Macintosh, to handle word processing, spreadsheet, and database tasks. ✯ ✯ ✯
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Mac OS X is Apple Computer’s advanced operating system just as Windows NT is Microsoft’s. Apple is planning to release Mac OS X for desktop computers and Mac OS X Server (code named Rhapsody) for servers. The company plans to ship Mac OS X and Mac OS X Server to software developers in 1999. Apple intends Mac OS X to be an operating system for servers and high-end desktop computers. It will feature preemptive multitasking through multithreading, support symmetric multiprocessing, incorporate Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Apple operating systems object technology, encourage software developers to write applications for it, be very stable, and run on computers with Intel Pentium CPUs. It also will have the same user-friendly interface that has made Apple operating systems famous. Mac OS X will bring full Mac OS X is a multithreading and preemptive high-end operatmultitasking (performing more ing system that will than one task at a time—see offer advanced feapage 141) to an Apple operat- tures on par with ing system for the first time. Windows NT. This capability is important if an operating system is to be powerful enough for use on a Web server (page 296) or for running demanding applications.
Multitasking and multithreading
Symmetric multiprocessing (page 187) is using more than one CPU on a single computer. Network servers and computers running demanding applications, such as large database or complex graphics applications, benefit from the extra power of having more than one CPU. Advanced operating systems need to support SMP to be competitive. Mac OS X will be the first Apple operating system that supports SMP.
Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
Apple is trying to expand its market with Mac OS X. It will run on computers with Intel Pentium CPUs. This move greatly expands the available hardware selection for consumers interested in the operating system. With the help of Apple-supplied software called Yellow Box, software developers will be able to write applications that will run on both Mac OS X and Win-
PC market incentives
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Apple operating systems dows 95/98/NT with little additional effort and investment. Apple hopes that if developers can easily write programs for both operating system platforms at the same time, more applications will become available for Mac OS X than are now on the market for Mac OS. Object oriented
Steve Jobs, cofounder of Apple, left the company in the mid eighties and started NeXT Computer. NeXT started developing advanced computer technologies that relied heavily on objects (page 560) and components (page 563). Apple Computer bought NeXT and Steve Jobs rejoined Apple. Mac OS X integrates the advances NeXT developed in component technology.
Stability
Apple promises that Mac OS X will be an extremely stable operating system. An operating system that is used on servers must be stable to minimize crashes that could be costly to businesses.
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Apple operating systems at a glance Apple Operating Systems At A Glance What it is—Apple offers one operating system now, Mac OS 8.x, and plans to offer a second, new system named Mac OS X in 1999. Mac OS 8.x is for desktop computers, and Mac OS X will be an industrial-strength OS for servers and desktop computers running demanding applications. An operating system is software that controls the operations of the computer. It controls input/output operations, including access to disk drives and other secondary storage devices, sets parameters for using RAM, and provides the structure in which other software works. Pluses—The biggest advantage of Mac OS 8.x is its ease of use—it and its predecessors define the term user-friendly. Macintosh computers, on which Mac OS 8.x runs, have a strong place in the desktop publishing and graphics fields. Mac OS X, due to be released in 1999, features preemptive multitasking, symmetric multiprocessing support, object technology, and good stability. It will be able to run on Macintosh computers and those with Intel CPUs. It also will make it easier and more worthwhile for developers to write applications for it. This could help correct the thin selection of applications that plagues Mac OS. Minuses—Mac OS 8.x has far fewer applications available than Windows. System requirements—Mac OS 8.5 runs on Macintosh computers with PowerPC CPUs; at least 16 MB of RAM with virtual memory set to 24 MB is needed. Mac OS X will run on computers with PowerPC or Intel Pentium CPUs. Major brands—Apple Computer is the sole manufacturer. Online support—Internet: http://www.apple.com. Telephone support is available at 1-800-SOS-APPL. Street price—Mac OS 9 costs $99, but it is only $20 if you bought Mac OS 8.5 since October 5, 1999. Mac OS operating systems are included on Macintosh computers. The Mac OS X price will be known upon release.
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Part III Networks and the Internet Introduction to Networks Networks enable two or more computers and their users to communicate. The software to make this happen includes network operating systems for local area networks (LANs); software for negotiating the Internet; groupware, which allows persons to share files, send electronic messages (email), and coordinate schedules; and communication software for sending facsimiles and files between computers. The networking of computers is perhaps as much a revolution as the invention of computers themselves. On an organization level, businesses have a way to keep key staff up-to-the-minute with critical sales and trend information, and staff have the means to communicate and work together quickly and easily without regard to distance. With network software, small, local companies can compete effectively with large, multinational ones. Globally, the networking of computers by way of the Internet has democratized knowledge and commerce. Never has so much information been available to any individual with a computer and modem. And never have small enterprises been able to reach millions of people in a global market so easily.
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Chapter 6 Networks At first, people used computers as stand-alone tools to make calculations or keep track of information. One of the first computers, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was used to calculate the trajectory of artillery shells for the Army during World War II. Later, computers kept track of information, such as invoices and addresses, entered with punch cards. Well into the 1970s, key punch operators used typewriter-like machines to punch holes in cardboard cards. These cards were then given to computer operators who would use them to enter data into mainframe computers. A helpful advance was the dumb terminal. This was a keyboard and monitor connected by a cable to a central computer. A person could enter data using the keyboard and get the results displayed on the screen. The terminals had little or no computing ability themselves—they were simply devices for remotely entering data into the main computer. When microcomputers came along, a new revolution in computers began. These desktop computers had complete, and eventually powerful, self-contained computing ability. No longer did people have to give their data processing requests to “keypunch” and then wait hours or days for the job to be completed. At first, desktop computers were used primarily as stand-alone calculating and data-sorting devices. Later, 221
introduction to networks word processing became the principal use of microcomputers, but these machines still were used primarily as individual computational tools, not communication devices. Early networks for desktop computers were set up because disk storage devices were too expensive to buy for everyone. Connecting microcomputers to other computers called disk servers helped solve the problem. Users were assigned space, called volumes, on central disk drives. To the users, it was like having hard disks on their machines. Public volumes could be set up to share files among users. Soon many businesses set up networks to share computer equipment and files. File servers, as disk servers came to be known, and print servers for sharing expensive computer printers were popular. Database servers also emerged as tools to manage companies’ critical information, such as customer information, inventory, and sales. Later, networks took on a new role—they became a new medium for direct communication among people. Instead of typing a letter on a computer, printing it out, and sending it to the recipient, networks allowed the letter to be sent electronically as a file. E-mail, as this function has become known, is increasingly becoming the routine way to send written communication in the United States and around the world. This is so for business and also for individuals, thanks to the Internet, the largest network on earth. Today, networks serve all these functions—file servers, database servers, print servers, and e-mail. You not only can send a letter around the world electronically, you can attach an electronic version of a picture of yourself and other files, such as the latest sales figures for your company.
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introduction to networks A network is two or more computers connected together so they can exchange data and share resources. A computer is a machine capable of processing data. Note that this definition of network does not include dumb terminals connected to mainframes. Instead, networks consist of smart terminals—computers that have the hardware and software capability to function as computers by themselves—linked together. Some networks are very dependent on one central computer. The central computer may hold most of the applications and data for the network. Even though smart terminals are attached, if the central computer goes down, the individual computers attached lose much of their usefulness.
What is a network
The trend for the last several years has been toward distributed computing. Distributed computing is a term for stand-alone computers that are attached to a network and that have extensive independent computing capability. The individual computers go beyond smart terminals in that they do not rely on central computers for resources. The network serves the function of data sharing and communications. With distributed computing, the individual computers may be at remote locations far from the main computer and dial into the network when services are needed. In highly distributed computing environments, the network hardware and software must be able to allow computers using different operating systems to communicate. The Internet is an example of a highly distributed computing environment.
Distributed computing
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introduction to networks Common network acronyms
One thing you will discover about network software and hardware is there are more acronyms than ants at a picnic. Trying to remember them all probably is not a good use of your time. Table 6.1 lists the acronyms you are likely to encounter regularly in reading and conversation. Table 6.1: Common NetworkAcronyms
Acronym
Meaning
Page
BLOB
binary large object
page 258
CORBA
Common Object Request Broker Architecture
page 257
DCOM
distributed version of Component Object Model
page 257
HTML
Hypertext Markup Language
page 290
LAN
local area network
page 225
ODBC
Open Database Connectivity
page 264
OLAP
online analytical processing
page 262
ORB
object request broker
page 569
RDBMS
relational database management system
page 258
SQL
Structured Query Language
page 264
URL
Uniform Resource Locator
page 292
WAN
wide area network
page 225
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network hardware
Network Hardware Just as individual computers have hardware and software components, so do networks. A general understanding of what goes into the hardware side of the network equation will help you understand network software. There are two broad categories of networks. Local area networks, or LANs, have computers that are fairly close together. The computers usually are connected by cables, but they could communicate with each other by radio frequency also. A LAN is the typical type of network found in most businesses.
LAN
Wide area networks, or WANs, cover long distances—hundreds or thousands of miles. A WAN can be two or more widely separated LANs linked by telephone lines or radio waves. It also can be many widely separated computers communicating with one or more servers or LANs, as in airline reservation systems or the Internet.
WAN
When two or more LANs are connected, they may be called enterprise networks. The LANs forming the enterprise networks may be located close together or at considerable distance.
Enterprise networks
Most networks are client/server ones. The clients are the computers that receive services from one or more
Client/server
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network hardware server computers. Generally, the clients are the computers on the users’ desktops. The servers in client/server networks usually are powerful machines that have large storage and processing capacity. The server controls communication on the network. It also controls access to the files in its storage and to the services it provides according to criteria set by the network administrators. Figure 6.1 illustrates a client/server LAN. Peer-to-peer
A network can be set up without a server controlling the communication, however. In peer-to-peer networks, all computers communicate as equals. Peer-topeer networks are useful in small offices where e-mail and printer and file sharing are needed. You can set up a peer-to-peer network by connecting individual users’ computers. You can have on the network a powerful computer with a large capacity for storing files and applications, and other computers on the network can access the resources on the powerful computer. Such a computer will not control the network, however. It will communicate with the other computers on the network as an equal.
LAN architecture
LANs have physical architectures that determine how the computers are wired together and how they communicate. The design of the connections among the computers is called the topology. Figure 6.2 shows the three most common LAN topologies.
Ring topology
On a ring network, the signals among computers travel around the network in a loop. Ring architecture is used with peer-to-peer networks (page 226).
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Clip art by Micrografx, Inc. and Waterfields Press, Inc.
Figure 6.1 A client/server network has a number of client computers that receive services from one or more server computers. The clients are connected by cables to the server computer. The hub is a device that takes the cable from the server and splits it into separate cables going directly to each client.
Ring networks today are logically connected in a loop, but not necessarily physically. One problem with physically connecting computers in a loop is that you must shut down the entire network when adding or removing a computer. One way to avoid this problem is to physically connect the computers in the ring network with a star Chapter 6: Networks
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network hardware
Clip art by Micrografx, Inc.
Figure 6.2 The three main LAN architectures.
configuration by using a device called a multistation access unit (MAU). The token (page 231) still travels around the computers as if there were a ring (a logical ring), but the cables are easier to manage. (See Figure 6.3.) FDDI
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Ring networks are well-suited for using fiber-optic cables. One hardware standard is FDDI, Fiber Distributed Data Interface, developed by ANSI, the American National Standards Institute. FDDI allows data trans-
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Clip art by Micrografx, Inc. and Waterfields Press, Inc.
Figure 6.3 A ring network can be physically wired in a star topology with the help of a multistation access unit (MAU).
mission rates of up to 200 megabits per second over distances of up to sixty-two miles. Another ANSI standard for fiber-optic data transmission is SONET—Synchronous Optical Network. SONET allows transmission rates of up to 2.4 gigabits per second, and 10 gigabits per second is in the works.
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network hardware Star topology
The star topology for LANs is the oldest, most widely used, and easiest to maintain. Client computers on a star-configured LAN are wired straight to the server or through a hub to the server. Figure 6.1 on page 227 shows a star-configured LAN. A hub is a device that routes signals from many cables through a single cable. The single cable may go from the hub to the server. The hub has many ports into which cables to the individual clients on the network are plugged. The hub then allocates access to the server’s cable among the many clients. With a star network, every communication from any computer on the network first goes through a central hub before traveling on. This makes network management and control easier. This also avoids the possibility of signal collision, something that can happen with bus and ring topologies.
Bus topology
Computers on a bus network are connected on one continuous cable. Each device on a bus network can communicate directly with any other device on the network. The bus topology is a good way to save on cable cost when you have a long run of computers to connect. If the run becomes very long, a repeater—like an amplifier—is put along the run to boost the signal strength. ✯ ✯ ✯
Network standards
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Networks comply with standards that enable the different devices on networks to work together. Protocols are standards for exchanging data between computers—for how computers “talk” to each other. Within LANs, access protocols dictate how computers can transmit data without having their signals Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
network hardware collide. Token Ring and CSMA/CD are the two common LAN access protocols. In addition to these access protocols, there are network standards for hardware and for internetwork communication. The hardware standards define the technology for physically connecting computers together. The network communication protocols govern communications within and between networks. The widest-used access protocol for ring networks is the Token Ring protocol. IBM developed it in the early 1980s and released it commercially in 1985. With this protocol, the computers on a network avoid traffic problems by using tokens. The token is a signal that constantly travels around the network like a horse on a merry-go-round. When one computer wants to use the data path, it grabs the token and attaches its information to it. The token then continues around the ring until it reaches the address of the device to which the information is being sent. The same process is used when a computer requests information from another. Token protocols can be used on bus networks also. However, the more common access protocol for bus networks is CSMA/CD used in Ethernet networks.
Token Ring
Ethernet is a set of LAN standards introduced in 1981 by Xerox. Ethernet standards include the CSMA/CD access protocol and hardware standards such as 10 Base and 100 Base cables.
Ethernet
CSMA/CD stands for carrier sense multiple access with collision detection. With CSMA/CD, all comput-
CSMA/CD
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network hardware ers on the network wait and “listen” to see if the coast is clear before they transmit data. If two computers transmit at the same time, they detect a collision and transmission shuts down. Both computers wait a random amount of time before trying to transmit again. Ethernet hardware standards
There are several Ethernet cable standards for connecting computers. One uses coaxial cable about .4 inch thick that can carry signals 1,640 feet. This cable is know as 10 Base 5 and is used for bus networks with long cable runs. Another standard, known as 10 Base 2 and sometimes called Cheapernet or Thinnet, uses thinner coaxial cable, which is easier to handle and less expensive. The 10 Base 2 cable is also used for bus networks but does not carry signals as far. A newer standard is the 10 Base T cable. This cable has twisted-pair wires inside plastic sheathing and is easy to install. It is used to wire networks in star configurations where cable runs are short. The 10 Base cables can carry data transmitted at up to 10 megabits per second. A new standard for Ethernet data transmission is called Fast Ethernet. Hardware complying with the Fast Ethernet standard can carry data transmitted at 100 megabits per second. The Fast Ethernet cables and related equipment is called 100 Base.
IEEE
When you read computer literature, you may come across a term such as IEEE 802.3. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) adopts standards for networks to assure compatibility of equipment produced by different manufacturers. The Ethernet standards are included in IEEE standard 802.3. Section
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network hardware 802 covers networks with 802.5 covering Token Ring, 802.11 wireless networks, and 802.4 token bus. Once a computer gains access to a network using an access protocol such as a token or CSMA/CD, transport protocols come into play. Transport protocols—or transport stacks—are software that define how data is transmitted. They assure that the data sent by one computer is reliably received by others. Data sent on networks is broken into units called packets. Transport protocols handle breaking data into packets on the sending end and reassembling the packets properly on the receiving end. LAN software manufacturers have developed their own transport protocols. Table 6.2 shows the common transport protocols and the networks on which you will find them.
Transport protocols
Table 6.2: Common Network Transport Protocols
Transport Protocol
Network
SPX/IPX
Novell NetWare networks
NetBEUI and NetBIOS
IBM PC networks Windows NT networks
SNA/APPN
IBM—originally mainframes, now more distributed (page 223)
AppleTalk
Apple Computer networks
DECnet
Digital Equipment Corporation networks
TCP/IP
Internet, Unix networks
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network hardware ✯ ✯ ✯ WAN hardware
When connecting two or more LANs to form a WAN, you need special hardware to make certain the data is correct when it gets to its destination. (See Figure 6.4.) There are two reasons for this.
Clip art by Corel Corporation, Micrografx, Inc., and Waterfields Press, Inc.
Figure 6.4 WANs consist of two or more LANS—and perhaps individual computers—connected. Various pieces of hardware are necessary to make the different transport protocols work together.
First, the medium over which the data is transmitted may not support the transport protocol. The data may need to be put in a different form, transmitted, 234
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network hardware received, and returned to the proper transport protocol form. Second, the data may come from a network with one transport protocol but go to a network with a different one. Bridges, routers, and gateways are hardware devices Bridges, that perform transport protocol translations. A bridge routers, and receives data from another LAN, converts the data to gateways the transport protocol, and transmits the data across the LAN it is serving. With bridges, the two networks communicating must use the same transport protocol. In Figure 6.4, the NetBEUI protocol ring network would need to be calling another network using NetBEUI for the data to be transmitted properly. Routers perform the same function as bridges with the added feature of being able to handle multiple protocols. They can translate one protocol into another. Today, combination bridge/router units are popular. Gateways are devices—often actual computers— that translate many different transport protocols into single ones used on the networks they serve. Gateways are used on networks that support only one transport protocol. The computers in WANs need to be connected in some way for them to exchange data. They mostly are connected by technologies using wires, although satellite connections are possible. The technologies used to connect WANs are expanding rapidly. There are more than a dozen connection technologies either ready now or in development from which to choose. Table 6.3 shows some of the technologies available now.
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network hardware Table 6.3: Technologies for Connecting LANs and WANs (Part 1 of 2)
Technology
Speed
Comments
Analog modem and existing telephone line
28.8 Kbps– 56 Kbps*
Modem cost: $70–$100+ for a 56K fax/modem Monthly cost: $10–$30 Easy hook up
ISDN BRI (Integrated Services Digital Network, Basic Rate Interface)
128 Kbps*
T1/T3
T1: 1.54 Mbps T3: 44.7 Mbps*
CSU/DSU (channel service unit/data service unit) cost: $1,300+ Monthly cost: $1,000–$8,000+ Dedicated line Widely used Point-to-point connection
Frame Relay
1.5 Mbps+*
FRAD (Frame Relay Assembler/Disassembler) cost: $1,500+ Monthly cost: varies widely— $5,000+ Point-to-point connection
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
1 Gbps+*
ATM adapters cost: $200+ Installation charges high Monthly cost: $5,000+ but will probably drop dramatically Good for multimedia and video
HDSL/ADSL (High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line/Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)
640 Kbps to 7.1 Mbps*
ISDN terminal adapter: $300+ Monthly cost: $25+ plus time Variable availability Possibly tricky hook ups
Adapter cost: $325 (may be less through promotions) Monthly cost: $50–$190 Uses existing telephone line ADSL outgoing transmission is slower than incoming signals—up to 7.1 Mbps incoming but 640 Kbps outgoing
*Kbps: kilobits/second; Mbps: megabits/second; Gbps: Gigabits/second
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network hardware Table 6.3: Technologies for Connecting LANs and WANs (Part 2 of 2)
Technology
Speed
Comments
Cable modem
10 Mbps*
Setup cost depends on promotions—$150 is typical Requires Ethernet adapter and cable modem—often included in monthly cost Monthly cost: $40–$50 with unlimited usage Some areas have high-speed twoway service (receive and send), and other areas have high-speed receive and low-speed send—check with your cable TV vendor
*Kbps: kilobits/second; Mbps: megabits/second; Gbps: Gigabits/second
The costs shown in Table 6.3 are rough estimates and are meant to give you an idea of comparative costs. The technology and demand are changing so rapidly, the costs are difficult to predict from one month to the next. Your local telephone company, long distance carrier, and cable TV company may be selling these technologies. You should call them for current costs. You also may want to check in theYellow Pages under “Data Communications Equipment & Systems.”
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network software
Network Software Middleware
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Once computers get on the network using a network access protocol, such as CSMA/CD or a token, they need to be able to interoperate (communicate by exchanging data with each other). That is the job of software known as middleware. The term middleware has not been clearly defined in the computer field. It is more a general concept than a specific package of software. Middleware functions may be included in a variety of software packages, such as operating systems or database applications. They also may be sold as stand-alone middleware packages, although not necessarily covering all middleware chores. The following is a simple definition of middleware. Middleware is software that enables client and server hardware and software to work together transparently. It provides transport protocols (discussed on page 233), system operation services, system management services, and application services. The transport protocol and application services terms are included in this chapter should you come across them and need to nod intelligently when they are mentioned. Otherwise, the people who set up networks and applications are the ones worrying about them. The system management and system operations services may be more relevant to you. They include functions you are likely to encounter when using a network.
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network software ✯ ✯ ✯ Application services help applications perform their functions across networks. They help client computers get information from database files stored on another computer. They help people send and retrieve text and graphics across the Internet. Applications services make certain your checking account balance is properly updated when you withdraw money from an automated teller machine at your bank. Table 6.4 shows the most prevalent application services middleware and what each type does. HTTP may look familiar to you if you have ever used the Internet or seen Internet addresses. Addresses for the Internet begin http://. For databases, ODBC and SQL are terms you are likely to encounter frequently. ORBs are mentioned often in popular computer literature because object technology (page 560) is defining the future of computing. TP monitors are used in applications where integrity of data is important. They will keep your account balance accurate when you use the automated teller machine, for example.
Application services
✯ ✯ ✯ Keeping an individual computer running properly is sometimes a challenge. An application may conflict with another, or a system file may not be properly configured, and suddenly a $2,000 tool is about as useful as a milk bucket under a bull. Networks may have hundreds or thousands of computers and peripherals, making it a daunting task to keep things running. That’s where middleware for sysChapter 6: Networks
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network software Table 6.4: Application Services Middleware
Type
Function
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
HTTP is a protocol for sending and receiving data on the Internet.
MOM (message-oriented middleware)
MOM is a method of sending data in which messages are put in storage queues and later retrieved. A queue is FIFO storage—first in, first out.
ODBC (Open Database Connectivity)
ODBC is a Microsoft standard for retrieving information from databases.
ORB (object request brokers)
ORBs handle communication between objects—see page 569.
RPC (remote procedure call)
An RPC is when a client computer requests data or action from a server and waits until the results are received.
TP monitors (transaction processing monitors)
TP monitors track and manage computer interactions called transactions. A transaction is a set of actions by a computer. All the actions in the set must be completed successfully for the transaction to be successful. Otherwise, the transaction is aborted.
SQL (Structured Query Language— pronounced “sequel”)
SQL is a standard language for manipulating data and retrieving information from databases.
tem management comes in. System management software is middleware for managing applications and devices attached to a network. Managing system elements
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Some system management software manage specific devices attached to networks—such as routers, hubs, and servers—or manage single LANs. The pro-
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network software grams monitor what happens with those devices or the LAN and report problems as they arise. Monitoring the elements of networks in this way is not ideal. In managing enterprise networks (page 225) in which two or more LANs are connected, or in managing a network with several devices, each having its own management software, the administrator may end up watching many different computer screens. IBM in the 1980s addressed the problem of having several different programs monitor separate devices and LANs on an enterprise network with its NetView software. NetView is integrated enterprise system management software. It can manage an enterprise network and all the devices on the network through a single program.
Enterprise system management
NetView was designed for mainframe-based enterprise networks. Next in the evolution of system management was distributed system management. Distributed system management addresses the problem of managing networks that are more decentralized. The trend in distributed system management is toward open platforms. This means that the system management software will work with devices and applications from any manufacturer as long as those devices and applications comply with industry protocols (page 230).
Distributed system management
The industry has developed many system management protocols that you may come across in computer literature or when talking with computer specialists. Three of these protocols stand out: DMI (Desktop Management Interface), SNMP (Simple Network Man-
Protocols: DMI, SNMP, DME OMF
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network software agement Protocol), and DME OMF (Distributed Management Environment’s Object Management Framework). SNMP is the principal system management protocol for the Internet. The use of DMI is proliferating rapidly and may become a very significant standard. DME OMF builds on object technology (page 560). Agents
System management programs that comply with management protocols use agents to get the job done. With distributed system management, agents are mini programs that reside in devices and applications and report back to the system management software on their status. Agents can even execute commands sent by the management software. Agents can be used for more than managing devices and applications on a network. In the future, you may have personal agents that roam the Internet. The agents may look for information you specify and send it back to your computer when found.
Functions of system management software
Most system management programs perform a variety of functions. As mentioned earlier, they monitor the system to detect problems and troubleshoot. They also can install software on client machines from a remote point and can meter the use of applications to ensure that the number of users does not exceed the licensed capacity. System management software may allow the network administrator to take command of a client machine to fix problems and configure system files. In doing so, the administrator may converse with the user of the client machine and answer questions.
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network software Inventory control is another important function that system management software may perform. In performing this duty, the software creates a database of system configurations and hardware and software on the network. Most of these programs scan client computers’ hard drives to determine the applications loaded. System management software may come with utilities for day-to-day operations. The utilities may include virus protection, hard drive backup, and printer resource management. The software also should have security features. These features may include data encryption and limitation of access to resources and files on the network according to assigned privilege levels. The system management software on the market is evolving rapidly. Table 6.5 shows some of the leading software available and their manufacturers. The prices for these programs vary from several hundred dollars to several thousand. The prices are based on the number of nodes (devices) on the network.
Available system management software
One other network management product deserves mention. Network General Corporation introduced the Sniffer Network Analyzer in 1989, and it has become a widely used tool to detect network problems. The Sniffer is software that tracks network activities and builds a database with the information it captures. It then can analyze network problems and report them to the network administrator. Although the Sniffer is a trademark name for Network General’s software, the term sniffer has come to mean any software that records network activities. Sniffers can be planted on networks to snoop out confiden-
Sniffer
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network software Table 6.5: Leading System Management Software
Software Name
Manufacturer
BrightWorks
McAfee Associates
LANDesk Management Suite
Intel
ManageWise
Novell
NetView
IBM
Norton Administrator for Networks
Symantec
OpenView
Hewlett Packard
Spectrum
Cabletron Systems
SunNet Manager
Sun Microsystems
Systems Management Server
Microsoft
System View
IBM
TME/Tivoli
IBM
Unicenter
Computer Associates
tial information such, as passwords or financial information. ✯ ✯ ✯ System operations services
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Middleware for system operations performs several functions. It enables client computers to use files on remote computers. It may synchronize the clocks on client computers to coordinate events. It prevents unauthorized access to the system or parts of the system. And it performs its functions as transparently as possible from the user’s perspective. Two very important functions—security and directory services—will be examined here.
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network software Getting around on a network is a complicated task. There may be hundreds or more of client computers and several servers. Clients may be added and removed daily and new servers brought on line. Files on the system are being created, deleted, and moved constantly. Printers and storage devices may change regularly, and the actual layout—which client is connected through which server—also may be in flux. Yet e-mail must get to its proper destination, and you need to access the latest sales data file no matter where it happens to be today. Directory services make it possible to located any device, application, or file on the network. Directory services also support other middleware functions, such as inventory.
Directory services
The standard for directory services, also called name-management services, is X.500. X.500 provides the technology for keeping track of files, applications, and devices on any network—no matter how large or complex.
X.500
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is a lightweight version of the X.500 Directory Access Protocol (DAP). LDAP was developed for the Internet and is being incorporated by leading middleware vendors.
LDAP
The directory services for the Internet are provided through the Domain Name System (DNS). There is more on DNS beginning on page 290.
Internet
Security services for networks are receiving much attention today, and for good reason. With many businesses keeping critical information on networks and
Network security
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network software with many networks attached to the Internet, there is a lot that can be lost to corporate spies, vandals, and thieves. Viruses
Authorized users of a network can unwittingly introduce viruses when they decide to load their own software, such as a screen saver with pictures of the newborn. The viruses can reproduce themselves and spread throughout the network. Viruses can have any purpose—from annoying messages that pop up on the screen to total destruction of all data on hard drives. Good antivirus software and strict rules go far in minimizing these types of problems.
Worms, Trojan horses, bombs, sniffers
Attacks on a network can come from outside, however. Sniffers (page 243) can gain information for network access. Trojan horses, files that seem desirable but are destructive programs in disguise, may be downloaded from the Internet. Bombs may be introduced that sit quietly for months or years until they release their destruction at a certain time or event. Worms, programs that A worm invaded roam networks exploiting weak the Internet in 1988 links, can bring systems down. and brought 6,000 In 1988 the Internet was computers to a i nvaded by a worm that halt, causing $100 million in damage. brought more than 6,000 computers to a halt and caused $100 million in damage. Worms can be introduced with a profit motive—to transfer money or gain valuable information. There are several things you can do to protect networks. Good antivirus programs and rules about intro-
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network software ducing outside software and files are helpful. However, more measures should be taken. Two additional measures for security are middleware security services and firewalls. Middleware for security services is usually packaged with the operating system for the network. Firewalls are a combination of hardware and software to filter what goes into and out of a network. Security services middleware controls access to resources on the network. This means that when a computer signs onto the network, the security middleware must verify its identity. Once the identity is verified, the security middleware controls which resources the client may use according to assigned access rights. As a network user, the only evidence you have of security measures is the requirement to give your password during the log on process. Or your computer screen flashing “Access denied!” when you try to gain access to a file that is off limits.
Security services middleware
The leading system for security is Kerberos, developed at MIT in the mid 1980s. Kerberos provides a high level of security through a process of mutually authenticating both of the communicating computers. Several operating systems for servers use security methods based on Kerberos.
Kerberos
The U.S. government has a security standard for operating systems. C2 is a standard developed by the Department of Defense. With operating systems meeting C2 standards, users and applications must prove their identity before gaining access to the operating sys-
C2
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network software tem. C2 has become a benchmark against which to judge network operating systems. Firewalls
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Firewalls provide important security for networks attached to the Internet. Two firewall methods are in use today: packet screening and proxy firewalls. Networks may combine these two methods for extra security. Packet screening uses hardware—routers (page 235)—to filter out unauthorized packets (page 233) from getting on the network. They do this by checking source and destination IP addresses (page 291). The trouble with packet screening is it is vulnerable to IP address spoofing—to a clever programmer imitating the proper IP addresses when sending the packet. Proxy firewalls use software to screen incoming traffic. Proxies are applications loaded on a separate computer called a bastion host that receives incoming information from the Internet and passes appropriate information on to the network. Outgoing traffic also passes through the bastion host. Proxies do not allow the original packets to enter the network, and they translate requests for information based on security rules you establish. This makes proxy firewalls more secure against outside attack than packet screening alone. Some firewalls use a combination of these two methods for extra security. Incoming Internet traffic first passes through a router for packet screening. The packets that pass this level are forwarded to the proxy firewall for further screening. There are many companies producing firewall software, and new companies enter the market almost daily.
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network software Table 6.6 shows some of the leading programs and their manufacturers. Table 6.6: Firewall Software
Product
Company
AltaVista Firewall 97
Compaq Computer Corporation
Centri Firewall
Global Internet
CheckPoint Firewall-1
CheckPoint Software Technologies
Eagle NT
Raptor Systems, Inc.
Firewall for NT
Secure Computing
Guardian
LanOptics
IBM Firewall
IBM
Microsoft Proxy Server
Microsoft
On Guard
On Technologies
PrivateNet Secure Firewall Server
NEC Technologies
WatchGuard
Seattle Software
Since the market is in such flux, this information may not be current when you read this—it is provided to give you an idea of what may be available. If you are looking for a firewall, check the leading computer magazines for reviews. You also may want to search the Internet using the search word “firewall.” The prices for these firewalls range from $3,000 to $7,000 or more for fifty users. Some packages include both the software and computers.
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network software ✯ ✯ ✯ Operating systems
A network operating system (NOS) is the middleware that works with the client and server operating systems (OS) to enable the computers on a network to communicate. It includes the system operations, application, and management services covered earlier as well as the necessary protocols for transporting data on the network. NOSs also allow network users to share printers and files. The NOS actually is installed on both client and server computers, and the OS for the server may be a different package from the NOS. No matter what the configuration, a good NOS will be able to manage a network with different client OSs.
DCE
The Open Software Foundation (OSF) created a model NOS called DCE (Distributed Computing Environment). DCE is a comprehensive and highly regarded NOS designed for today’s trend toward highly distributed computing (page 223). OSF licenses DCE to operating system manufacturers. You will find some or all of DCE incorporated in most of the major server OSs.
Server OS
Today, most NOSs are part of server OSs. The total package runs the server hardware and provides the NOS middleware for network communications. The packages are priced according to how many clients are connected to the network. A good server OS is one that is strong in basic operations services, especially directory and security services. It also should be capable of multithreading (page 141) and support symmetric multiprocessing (page 187).
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network software Most server OSs support different client platforms—clients running different OSs. If you have an office in which all the computers are running one OS— Windows, for example—it may make sense for you to choose a server with the same OS—Windows NT Server, for example. Otherwise, make certain the server OS you choose can handle the different client OSs well—not all live up to their claims in this area. Finally, you should make certain the server OS has the applications you need written for it. Most have networking applications such as e-mail either included or readily available. However, if you are going to keep applications used in your business on the server and have the clients access them from there, make certain the applications you need are written for the OS. You can check with the major software resellers and publishers that advertise in magazines and trade journals. Some of these companies offer extensive inventories and will be happy to tell you what they have for different OSs. An OS claiming to be able to run applications written for another OS may not be good enough. Some do a sorry job of it, and you should check reviews in computer magazines and journals before you buy. Table 6.7 gives information about the leading NOSs. The competition is great in network software, which means products are updated frequently to remain competitive. The best way to get current information is to look for magazine reviews or visit the manufacturer’s Internet Web site. Their URLs (page 292) will have the company name as the second level domain, as in http://www.sun.com.
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network software Table 6.7: Network Operating Systems (Part 1 of 2)
NOS
Manufacturer
LANtastic
Artisoft
peer-to-peer network environment for linking DOS, Windows 3.x, Windows 95 computers inexpensive: $330 for ten users
NetWare
Novell
largest installed NOS base, but Windows NT gaining fast supports DOS, all Windows, Mac OS, and OS/2 clients runs on 80386+ CPU servers $1,320 for ten clients
OS/2 Warp Server
IBM
connects DOS, all Windows, some Unix, OS/2, and Mac OS clients runs OS/2, Windows, and DOS apps runs on 80486+ CPU servers has gotten good reviews, and IBM seems serious about constantly improving with latest technology $700 for ten clients
Solaris
Sun Microsystems
excellent NOS for Unix clients; may take some add-ons to network non-Unix clients runs mainly on SPARC but also on 80486+ CPU servers may not run non-Unix applications well
Vines
Banyan Systems
has been used extensively by corporations for large networks $2,995 for ten clients, $9,995 for 100
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network software Table 6.7: Network Operating Systems (Part 2 of 2)
NOS
Manufacturer
Comments
Windows NT Server
Microsoft
well reviewed and growing in popularity supports DOS, all Windows, OS/2, Mac OS clients runs on 80486+ and PowerPC CPU servers Windows applications are largest in number by far Windows 2000 Server, due 1999–2000, improves security (to C2 level) and directory services (will have LDAP) over 4.0 $950 for ten clients Enterprise Edition is for large networks
Today, desktop operating systems, such as Windows 95/98, Windows for Workgroups 3.11, OS/2 Warp, and Mac OS, have basic networking features for peer-to-peer (page 226) networks. They also come with multiple network transport protocols (page 233)—all seem to come with TCP/IP as a minimum. As an example, Windows 95/98 has the capability to communicate with other computers on a peer-topeer basis for file and printer sharing and e-mail. To connect computers, you first install a network interface card (NIC), also called a network adapter, into free slots in the computers to be connected. (Slots are long sockets inside the computer case into which circuit boards called adapters are plugged.) The NICs have ports for plugging in the cable that will connect the computers. If you use an Ethernet NIC, you may be connecting the computers with 10 Chapter 6: Networks
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network software Base T cable (see Ethernet hardware standards on page 232). Once you have the computers physically connected, you follow the operating system’s instructions for configuring the network. In the case of Windows 95/98, the preferred method is to set up the network with the Setup utility when installing Windows 95/98. If Windows 95/98 is already installed, you use the dialog box shown in Figure 6.5 to set up the network on each computer.
Figure 6.5 A dialog box for setting up a peer-to-peer network in Windows 95.
If you are connecting computers with different operating systems, they need to have at least one net254
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network software work transport protocol in common to communicate. Since almost all desktop OSs come with TCP/IP, this should not be a problem. ✯ ✯ ✯ There are several types of servers in client/server networks. File servers and print servers allow computers on the network to share common printers and files. All NOSs (page 250) include print and file server capabilities. In addition to file and print servers, there are database servers, groupware servers, object servers, transaction servers, and Internet servers. These different types of servers refer to the software functions provided, and one computer may provide more than one server function. The Internet and Internet servers are covered in Chapter 7.
Types of servers
Transaction servers are Servers used when it is critical that data • Transaction be communicated accurately. • Object An example of such applica• Database tions—also called mission-criti• Groupware cal applications—is automatic • Internet teller machine networks. With these bank card networks, a withdrawal must be registered accurately and the customer’s balance updated immediately. A customer would be quite upset if a $100 withdrawal resulted in a $1,000 debit. Transaction servers perform their duties using transactions. A transaction is a set of actions by a computer. All the actions in the set must be completed successfully for the transaction to be successful.
Transaction servers
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network software Transaction processing (TP) monitors track transactions from beginning to end to make certain all actions are completed successfully. If they are not, the TP monitor aborts the transaction. An example of software in this category is Microsoft’s Transaction Server. ✯ ✯ ✯ Object servers
Servers • • • • •
Components and ORBs
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Transaction Object Database Groupware Internet
Object technology (page 560) and particularly distributed components (page 563) are in the forefront of computing. An object is a software module that contains data and the means to access the data.
An exciting development in object technology is components. Components are objects that do not rely on a single programming language, operating system, or application to function. In object client/server computing, server and client components communicate by using object request brokers (see ORBs on page 569). Suppose you wanted to refinance your mortgage. With components you could contact a mortgage broker on the Internet and request a quote. The broker could send you a spreadsheet, created as a component, with formulas in it. You would click on an icon to open the spreadsheet, add information about your finances and the amount you want to borrow, test different interest rates and terms to see which suited your needs, and when satisfied, return the spreadsheet to the broker. All this could be done regardless of the operating systems and software used by the two computers as long as the component complied with certain standards. And because component standards address security, you can Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
network software send the information confident it will be safe from snooping eyes. Components blur the roles of clients and servers. In the example above, the mortgage broker’s computer was the server when you requested a quote from the broker. However, your computer became the server when you supplied the information the broker needed. Components create an environment in which client/server computing blends into peer-to-peer computing. There are two standards for ORBs for distributed components: Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) and Distributed Common Object Model (DCOM). DCOM is supported by Microsoft products and CORBA by IBM and others. Although these are two competing standards, a middle ground is emerging where the two standards work together.
CORBA and DCOM
You will see ORBs packaged with operating systems in the future just as Java run-time environments (page 555) are packaged with Web browsers. IBM’s SOM (System Object Model) is a leading ORB on the market. Others you may see are Compaq’s ObjectBroker, Iona’s Orbix, Visigenic’s VisiBroker, and Expersoft’s CORBAplus.
ORB software
✯ ✯ ✯ Having a server hold and distribute data was one of the first major uses of networks. The data may have been anything from warehouse inventory and product specifications to legal documents, such as the text from court decisions.
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network software In recent years, there has been an information explosion • Transaction with enormous amounts of data • Object generated by an increasingly • Database complex and information• Groupware sophisticated society. Database • Internet servers store, organize, and distribute this information. Servers
RDBMS
Databases use tables to organize information. A relational database is one that links two or more tables together. For example, there may be a table containing customer information and another containing product inventory. A relational database would link these two tables when filling an order. RDBMS is the acronym for relational database management system. Databases are covered in Chapter 11, and Figure 6.6 also gives some information about databases.
ORDBMS
RDBMSs deal with data as numbers and characters. Object relational database management systems (ORDBMS) are capable of dealing with data as objects (page 560) and as characters and numbers. How databases handle BLOBs is a good example of the advantages ORDBMSs offer. A BLOB is a binary large object and can be a photograph, formatted memo, video, or other such object. An RDBMS handles complex data like BLOBs through special coding. Key characteristics about the BLOB are entered in a special BLOB field. The actual BLOB is stored as a BLOB file that the BLOB field points to when needed. How the BLOB relates to other data in the database depends on what is entered in the BLOB field.
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network software
Figure 6.6 Databases are made of tables. A flat-file database has a single table while a relational database, shown here, links two or more tables together. Each table in a database consists of columns and rows. A column is called a field and contains one group of information, such as last names. A row is called a record and consists of a collection of information about a particular item—a person or product, for example. The different tables in a relational database are linked together using key fields. In this case, the customer and stock numbers are key fields linking three tables together.
Usually what is entered is the name of the BLOB. If, for example, the BLOB is a photograph of a catalog item,
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network software the stock number may be what is entered in the BLOB field. This type of information clearly limits sorting and comparing the BLOBs. It does not allow for a direct search of the field for all women’s red tweed coats, for example. An ORDBMS is able to better handle complex data such as BLOBs than RDBMS. This is because with an ORDBMS, the object itself may be stored in the database and compared and sorted by much more complex descriptive information. The database then has the capability of sorting, retrieving, and comparing the objects in a much more sophisticated manner. ORDBMSs are very new, and software manufacturers are just beginning to come out with products. IBM, Oracle, Sybase, and Informix have ORDBMSs on the market. Data warehouses
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A hot trend in database servers is data warehouses. A • Transaction data warehouse not only stores • Object information, but automatically • Database retrieves, copies, organizes, • Groupware indexes, and distributes the • Internet data. It also keeps track of multiple data sources and provides directories for users. A data warehouse spends much of its time automatically updating itself from its source databases. Data warehouses are used by companies to gather, analyze, and store information about their areas of business and customers. The information is used to spot market trends, get information for new product lines, market products effectively, and do anything else that may help a company compete. Servers
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network software The mini-version of a data warehouse is a data mart. Data marts focus on one type of information, such as sales data. They are easier to set up than data warehouses since they are not nearly as complex. Data warehouses are complex undertakings that require a high level of expertise to implement. Up until recently, the only way to set up a data warehouse was to adapt existing database programs to data warehouse functions. This meant spending much time programming and getting different applications to work together. Now there are application packages coming on the market specifically designed for data warehousing. Several companies are involved in data warehouses and data marts. They produce data warehouse software or provide consultation and adapt other database software for data warehouses. Some of the leading companies are Sybase, SAS Institute, IBM, Prism Solutions, Apertus Technologies, Oracle Software, and HarteHanks Communications. Data mining is looking for relationships in data that you may never have known existed but could be valuable for your company. A car manufacturer may have been marketing its $65,000 sports car to executives through business magazines such as Forbes and Fortune. When they do a little data mining, they discover that most of those cars are registered to spouses of those executives, leading them to more carefully target their marketing efforts. There are programs on the market that do nothing but look for patterns in data as you wait for the results. In other words, you do not ask the questions but, instead, hand the data mining software a pile of data and see what interesting relationships it finds. Data mining is an emerging technology, and the major dataChapter 6: Networks
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network software base vendors either have products now or will in the near future. OLAP
Online analytical processing (OLAP) is a powerful model for analyzing data. It is particularly suited for delving into the vast stores of information deposited into data warehouses (page 260). Databases organize data into two-dimensional tables of rows and columns. OLAP is a method of integrating complex data comprising multiple tables into a single unit as if the data tables were stacked one on top of another to form a cube. (See Figure 6.7.)
Figure 6.7 OLAP is powerful database analysis software that integrates data in relational databases into multi-dimensional models. These data analysis models give the user much flexibility in exploring various relationships in the data.
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network software This multidimensional model offers much flexibility and power in analyzing relationships in the data. Many of the leading database manufacturers have OLAP software on the market selling in the $4,000– $8,000 range. Most executives and others Servers who use data do not want to • Transaction take the time to learn how to • Object use sophisticated database soft• Database ware. Executive information • Groupware systems and decision support • Internet (EIS/DSS) software provides data analysis tools that are easy to use and capable of providing the information decision makers and other end users need. In the early days, EIS software was programmed to provide packaged reports to executives. If a different report format was needed by an executive, a database programmer would set it up. Today, EIS software is designed to allow end users to easily set up their own reports and gather the information they need. EIS programs frequently are user-friendly OLAP (page 262) software. This category of software is not cheap: packages start in the five figures and go to six.
EIS/DSS
There are many database programs on the market written by different manufacturers and in different programming languages. Because of these differences, standards are needed for two or more databases to work together and exchange information. There are two database standards of which you should be aware: SQL and ODBC.
Database standards
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network software SQL
SQL (pronounced “sequel”) is an acronym for Structured Query Language. A query is asking a question of a database by defining what you want. For example, you may query for all customers from Chattanooga with incomes above $50,000 who bought two new cars within the last two years. SQL provides a standard Servers language for querying data• Transaction bases. All databases that are • Object SQL compliant can be manipu• Database lated and queried with standard • Groupware commands. SQL has become a • Internet widely accepted standard, and most network databases—from mainframes to minis to PCs—use SQL.
ODBC
The Open Database Connectivity standard (ODBC) is an interface for SQL-compliant databases. It allows different databases running on different operating systems to exchange data. It does the same between other applications, say spreadsheets, and databases. You may want to think of OBDC as a way to automate SQL queries. It acts as middleware (page 238) between an application and a database. Suppose you are using an application that has OBDC drivers. (A driver is a mini-program that allows an application to work with hardware or another program or allows two pieces of hardware to work together.) With such a program, you are able to set up routines fairly easily to get information out of a remote database and insert the data into applications. If the application is not ODBC compliant, you would need to do a fair amount of database programming using SQL. That is assuming you could get past
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network software the barriers that different operating systems may present. ODBC was developed by Microsoft as an open standard in 1992. The term open standard means any other software manufacturer may use the code. ODBC drivers increasingly are being included with applications that could benefit from being able to access data in remote databases. Establishing large databases on networks is big business. Virtually all medium to large companies rely on network RDBMS. The databases may contain product inventory, customer data, personnel files, parts inventory, or patient information. There are several vendors that specialize in establishing such databases. Table 6.8 shows the leading database server vendors and some of their products.
Database server vendors
✯ ✯ ✯ Groupware server softServers ware is for collaborating with • Transaction others and performing a variety • Object of office tasks. It can replace real • Database paper with electronic versions. • Groupware Groupware includes software • Internet for e-mail, calendars and scheduling, document management, conferencing, and workflow. Since the term groupware has become a hot buzzword, publishers of software performing any one of these functions may refer to their products as groupware. Groupware in the pure sense, however, is software packaged as a suite that performs most or all of the tasks. Chapter 6: Networks
Groupware servers
265
network software Table 6.8: Database Server Vendors and Products
E-mail
266
Company
Software
Computer Associates
Jasmine OpenIngres
IBM
DB2 IMS
Informix
Informix Universal Server OnLine Extended Parallel Server OnLine Dynamic Server OnLine Workgroup Server
Microsoft
SQL Server
Oracle
Oracle 8 Oracle 7 Workgroup Server
SAS Institute
Custom-designed database solutions
Sybase
SQL Server 11 SQL Server Pro for Windows NT SQL Anywhere
Electronic mail (e-mail) is the most widely used groupware function today. With e-mail, you compose a message on your computer and send the message to another person’s e-mail address. No paper changes hands, although the messages can be printed as hard (paper) copies. There are advantages of using e-mail instead of regular mail or telephone calls. E-mail is fast—you can send your message to the next office or around the world in minutes. The paperless nature of e-mail eliminates paper clutter, and messages can be filed easily and organized electronically. Many e-mail users like the fact that they can communicate with e-mail instead of real-time face-to-face or telephone contact. This advantage allows you to control Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
network software your time by communicating only the information you wish at the time you determine. Telephone voice mail has the same capability, which may account for its rapidly growing popularity. Nearly every LAN has e-mail software installed for communicating within the network even if it does not have a groupware package installed. Also, an increasing number of organizations and individual users are using online information services and the Internet to send their messages. E-mail now is one of the Servers foremost reasons people sub- • Transaction scribe to online information • Object services such as America Online • Database (AOL), CompuServe, and • Groupware Prodigy. You can connect to one • Internet of these services from home with a computer and modem—this is known as dial-up networking—and send e-mail anywhere. Businesses also use these services for quick, low-cost e-mail. Figure 6.8 shows the e-mail composition window for CompuServe. If your goal is a paperless office, then the document management function of groupware could help you accomplish it. Document management software stores, organizes, indexes, and retrieves documents as computer files. The software also allows users to annotate documents with comments and keeps track of revisions to documents. Document management software can store documents as original word processor files or as files created from scanning paper documents. When an original word processor file is created, descriptive information
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network software
Figure 6.8 The window for composing e-mail in CompuServe
about the document is stored in the document management software’s database. This data, called metadata (metadata is data about data), may include information regarding the author, subject, when the document was created, when it was revised, and so forth. The metadata kept in the database then points to the location where the actual document is stored. Documents may be scanned into an electronic file form using scanners connected to client computers. If a document contains text, optical character recognition (OCR) software converts the text into an electronic form that can be edited. In other words, it takes the
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network software shapes of the letters and converts them into a word processor file. OCR technology has improved remarkably over the years, and today the leading OCR software is quite accurate. Table 6.9 shows the two leading OCR products. However, OCR is often included with other software packages and with new scanners. Table 6.9: OCR Software
Software
Publisher
Approx. Price
OmniPage Pro
Caere
$500
TextBridge Pro
Xerox
$270
Once documents are scanned into electronic form, they are indexed using metadata to allow easy retrieval. During the OCR process, the scanned documents can be converted into specific word processor formats, such as WordPerfect or Microsoft Word. Document management software allows you to create document libraries. With such a library, you can check documents in and out, control access to them, run information searches, and manage versions of documents. Some document management software can search the text of documents for key phrases. There are many stand-alone document management software packages on the market, and the major groupware suites (page 273) include document management as part of the package. The stand-alone products are designed for complex business storage and may be too expensive for the small office.
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network software Small-scale document management
If you need to manage documents on a small scale, you may not need a groupware product to do so. A well-thought-out computer file naming system with a good directory/folder structure (page 36) will help you keep organized. Also, the leading word processing programs have utilities that allow you to search for file names and for text in documents. Adding a file-locking utility, such as Symantec’s Norton Your Eyes Only, will give you control over who has access to which files. You will not have the sophisticated indexing function of good groupware document management, but a small operation may not need that. A couple of products on the market are designed for managing paper clutter on a small scale. These programs use scanners to scan paper documents into computer files. They include OCR software for conversion to word processor files and enable you to organize, index, and search all those pieces of paper you’ve accumulated. The two leading programs of this type are Visioneer’s PaperPort Deluxe and Xerox’s Pagis Pro 97. Figure 6.9 shows the main window for PaperPort Deluxe.
Workflow management
Workflow management (WFM) groupware is a young • Transaction category of software that will • Object gain in prominence over the • Database next few years. This type of • Groupware software manages an organiza• Internet tion’s routines. WFM groupware routes work to the correct person at the correct time in a work process and monitors the results of the assignment. After the person completes
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network software
Figure 6.9 Visioneer’s PaperPort Deluxe offers simple document management for scanned paper documents.
the assignment, the software can enter the results on a form or send them on to the next person for more processing. As an example, suppose you go to your bank to refinance your mortgage. You fill out an application that is scanned into a computer to start the application process. The WFM groupware then makes job assignments to be completed by different people. It initiates a credit check, sends a request for an appraisal, assigns the mortgage application to a loan officer, requests that a clerk send you the current disclosure forms and brochures,
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network software and sends verification of employment and salary forms to your employer. The software then monitors responses to the assigned tasks, enters information on your application as tasks are completed, and tells the loan officer the progress of your loan. If any part of the process lags, human managers can intervene to keep things moving. In this example, the benefit from WFM groupware for you is a mortgage application processed very quickly. The benefit for the bank is more efficient use of human resources, resulting in increased work capacity. WFM groupware works best with highly structured tasks. Loan applications, insurance claims processing, and order filling are examples of routines that can benefit most from WFM. Less-structured processes also can use WFM, however. For example, WFM groupware can assign complaints to customer relations personnel with due dates for responses and resolutions. The actual resolution of a complaint cannot be easily predicted and automated, but progress reports and results can be forwarded to managers for supervision. A few software companies offer stand-alone WFM packages in the United States, and several international companies have products. Searching the Internet is the best way to learn what is available. The major groupware suites (page 273) either include WFM software or have it available as an add-on. Calendar and scheduling
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The calendar and scheduling functions of groupware suites help office personnel efficiently manage their time. Integrated with the calendar and scheduling functions are electronic to-do lists that give users the capability of assigning priorities.
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network software The calendar function gives each user of a client computer an on-screen calendar for scheduling individual commitments. The calendar function can include pop-up reminders of imminent meetings or projects due. The scheduling function of groupware suites can automate one of the biggest headaches of everyday office life: finding a time when everyone can meet. The scheduling function can be used to schedule meetings and assign tasks for individuals or groups of people—all area managers, for instance. Conferencing groupware Servers allows you to participate in dis- • Transaction cussions by computer. Discus- • Object sions can be set up in real • Database time—you participate at the • Groupware same time as others—or as a • Internet bulletin board where you type in your comments at the time you choose. The better conferencing groupware allows a chairperson to control the meeting, including who participates and what documents are shared. Some conferencing groupware includes voice and video capability.
Conferencing
Groupware suites have the major groupware functions (see Groupware servers on page 265) included in a single package or have some functions sold separately for adding to a basic package. Table 6.10 lists the three major groupware suites, the companies that produce them, and their approximate street prices.
Groupware suites
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network software Table 6.10: Groupware Suites
Product
Manufacturer
Approximate Price
GroupWise
Novell, Inc.
$1,050 per 10 users
Lotus Notes
IBM Corporation
$760 per 10 users
Microsoft Exchange
Microsoft Corporation
$1,200 per 10 users
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Chapter 7 The Internet The Internet (the Net) is the largest WAN (page 225) in the world. The press calls it the information superhighway, and many businesses see it as a gold rush. No matter what it is called, the Internet is having a farreaching impact on society in the United States and around the world. The Internet is a fascinating and powerful client/server application that has changed the future of computing. It brings many benefits to individual users: global e-mail, unlimited research capability, and hours of entertainment from “surfing the Net.” You can view paintings on display in the Louvre in Paris, do research at the Library of Congress, get the latest census data, buy books, get product information from nearly every major manufacturer, instantly send a letter and pictures to Aunt Hilda in Geneva, and download software. You can earn college degrees through virtual universities on the Net. The different things you can do on the Internet is just about unlimited. As Java (page 555) matures, you may be able to load applications from the Internet as you need them and discard them when you are done. This capability has given rise to the speculation by some in the industry that inexpensive network computers (NCs)—also called thin clients—eventually will replace personal computers (PCs) on the desktop. There likely will be roles for both. Businesses are migrating to the Internet for commerce, and an e-mail address is as good as mandatory 275
using the Internet for even the smallest shop. Company networks are being transformed into Intranets—internal networks that are as easy to use as the Net thanks to the incorporation of Internet technology. Yet with all this jazz, the Internet still is nothing more than a client/server network. It is made up of many WANs and LANs interconnected. The actual content on the Internet—the text and graphics—is supplied by computers and software called Web servers.
Using the Internet The Web, browsers, and URLs
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You negotiate the Internet by using a Web browser. Web is short for the World Wide Web. Originally, negotiating the Internet involved typing text-based commands. In 1993, with the advent of HTML (page 290) and the first browser called Mosaic, the Web began evolving as a graphical interface for users. Now you will find www for World Wide Web in most URLs (Net addresses—see page 292). The evolution of the Web for the Internet was like going from DOS as an operating system to Windows. There are two major Web browsers on the market: Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Both of these browsers have Java run-time environments included (see page 555). You can download Navigator for free from Netscape’s Web site and Internet Explorer for free from Microsoft’s. Navigator and Internet Explorer also are included in many software packages. Figure 7.1 shows
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using the Internet the Microsoft Internet Explorer browser, and Figure 7.2 shows the Netscape Navigator browser.
Figure 7.1 Microsoft’s Internet Explorer Web browser.
Navigator and Internet Explorer are similar in their appearance and use, and the two programs dominate the browser market. Both are used for the illustrations in this chapter. Negotiating the Internet—also known as “surfing the Net”—is easy with a Web browser. If you know the URL (page 292), you type it in and press the Enter key (see Figure 7.1). Your computer then will be linked to the Web site at the address you entered. If you do not Chapter 7: The Internet
Surfing the Net and search engines
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using the Internet
Figure 7.2 This is the Netscape Navigator browser that is included with Comcast @Home cable modem service. Like Microsoft Internet Explorer, it has an icon bar below the menu bar to help with navigating the Web. The Back button takes you to the previous page you were viewing. The Forward button takes you to the next page if you have already viewed it but stepped back from it using the Back button. The Reload button loads a fresh copy of the Web page on the screen.
have an address and want to explore, you can use a search engine. A search engine is software that will search for subjects based on key words you supply. The software is located at different sites on the Internet, and the companies that sponsor the search engines sell advertising that appears at their sites. Navigator and Internet Explorer browsers include search buttons that link you to the search engines. Some of the popular search engines are WebCrawler, Yahoo!, Lycos, HotBot, and AltaVista. 278
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using the Internet Table 7.1 shows a sample of eleven search engines and their addresses. You type the address right after http:// and include www only if it is given in the address. HTTP is found in all Internet addresses and stands for hypertext transport protocol—see Application services on page 239. Table 7.1: A Sample of Internet Search Engines
Search Engine
Internet Address
37.com-37 Search Engines
37.com
AltaVista
www.altavista.com
Ask Jeeves
www.askjeeves.com
DirectHit
www.directhit.com
Excite
www.excite.com
Google
www.google.com
HotBot
www.hotbot.com
iAtlas
216.32.73.6
Lycos
www.lycos.com
WebCrawler
www.webcrawler.com
Yahoo!
www.yahoo.com
Each of the search engines will conduct a search differently from the others. You should experiment with them to see which ones best suit your needs. Figure 7.3 shows the WebCrawler search engine searching the Internet using the keyword “otters.” If you click on one of the site descriptions listed in the search results, you will be connected to a Web site.
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Figure 7.3 The WebCrawler search engine using Microsoft Internet Explorer Web browser.
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using the Internet When you connect to a Web site, a Web page appears on your screen. Web pages can contain text, sound, and graphics. There may be just one page at the site or several. Each page has a separate URL (page 292). Pages vary in length: some have a single screen, but others take a while to scroll to the bottom. If there are several pages at a site, there will be a home page—a main page from which you can access the other pages. Figure 7.4 shows the home page for the Library of Congress and a Web page accessed from the Louvre’s home page in Paris.
Web pages and home pages
Web pages frequently contain hyperlinks, often just called links. A hyperlink is a part of a Web page that, when activated by clicking on it, will open a file or take you to another part of the Web page or to a different Web page. The file that opens could contain sound, a picture or video, or a form, for example. The Web page it takes you to could be at another Web site entirely. You will know that text or a graphic contains a hyperlink if the mouse pointer, when moved over it, turns into a hand. Figure 7.5 shows a mouse pointer over a hyperlink on an Intel Corporation Web site.
Hyperlinks
Frequently, you can probe down several pages using hyperlinks to the point where you are far removed from where you started. Web browsers have Back and Forward buttons on the tool bar in the upper left corner of the screen to help you negotiate among the pages you have visited. Clicking on the Back button will return you to the previous Web page, or part of a Web page, you were
Back and Forward buttons
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Figure 7.4 The Home page from the Library of Congress and a Web page from the Louvre as viewed with the Microsoft Internet Explorer Web browser.
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Figure 7.5 A hyperlink will open a file or take you to another Web page when activated by a mouse click. You will know there is a hyperlink if your mouse pointer turns into a hand as shown here. This hyperlink on Intel Corporation’s Web site will take you to a Web page with more information about their Universal Serial Bus products.
viewing. If you have clicked the Back button, the Forward button takes you forward in the pages you have visited. If the Forward button is grayed out—if it is faint and does not respond to mouse clicks—you are at the last page you opened. Also, many Web pages include a Home button that takes you to the home page. The Go menu lists all the sites you visited during your Web session. Choosing one of the sites in the menu takes you directly there. Figure 7.6 shows the Go menu opened in Netscape Navigator.
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Figure 7.6 The Go menu, like this one in Netscape Navigator, lists the sites you visited during your Web surfing session. The current site is check marked, and clicking on any site name takes you there immediately.
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Bookmarks or favorites are a way for you to easily save the Web addresses of sites you want to visit again. Bookmarks is the term used in Netscape Navigator and Favorites is used in Microsoft Internet Explorer. With Netscape Navigator, when you find a Web page you like that you want to be able to return to easily, you click on the Bookmarks button and choose Add Bookmark. If you are using Microsoft Internet Explorer, you choose Add to Favorites in the Favorites menu. When you want to visit the page again, you click on the Bookmarks or Favorites button and choose the site you want to revisit. Figure 7.7 shows a bookmark being selected in Netscape Navigator. After you have surfed the Web for a while, you probably will have marked so many sites that finding the bookmark or favorite you want becomes tedious. The solution is to organize your bookmarks or favorites
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Figure 7.7 The Bookmarks feature in Netscape Navigator is an easy way for you to return to Web sites you like. Once you have marked a Web page with a bookmark, you select it from the Bookmarks menu to jump to that site. In this case, the Web site for the National Museums and Galleries of Wales is selected.
into folders just as you do your files. (See Directories and Folders starting on page 36.) To set up folders in Netscape Navigator, choose Bookmarks, then Edit Bookmarks, then New Folder from the File menu. To do the same in Microsoft Internet Explorer, you choose Organize Favorites in the Favorites menu, then click on the Create New Folder icon. Once you have set up the folders you want, you can drag the folders to rearrange them or place them within other folders. You also can drag bookmarks or favorites into folders or drag them to change their order.
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using the Internet Figure 7.8 shows the Edit Bookmarks screen in Netscape Navigator.
Figure 7.8 You can create folders to hold bookmarks and drag folders and bookmarks around to organize them the way you like. This is the Edit Bookmark screen in Netscape Navigator.
To save bookmarks in folders, you can choose File Bookmark from the Bookmark menu. You then move the mouse pointer over the folder you want to use and click. To save favorites in folders, choose Add Favorite in the Favorites menu, then click on the Create In button, then choose the folder in the bottom screen of the dialog box, and click OK. Figure 7.9 shows this process for bookmarks. E-mail
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Many persons use the Internet primarily for e-mail (page 266). The use of the e-mail tool included with Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using the Internet
Figure 7.9 Once you have set up folders for your bookmarks, you choose File Bookmark in the Bookmark menu and then select the folder in which you want to store the bookmark.
Web browsers is fairly straightforward. How you open the e-mail window varies according to the browser you are using and whether the browser has been modified by the Internet service provider (ISP—see page 294). If you are not certain how to open the e-mail window, check the browser’s online help or the documentation you received with the service. Once you open the e-mail window, it will look similar to the one shown in Figure 7.10. Make certain you get the correct e-mail address of the person you are contacting. It generally will be an assigned mailbox (for example, the person’s first initial and last name), followed by the @ symbol, followed by the Web address of their ISP or their own Web site if Chapter 7: The Internet
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Figure 7.10 The e-mail composition window in your Web browser will probably look similar to the one shown at top. You type in an address or click on the Address icon and choose one you have saved in the address book. Then you type the subject and the message. If you want to attache a file, clicking on the Attach icon opens a window like the one shown at bottom. Choose the drive and folder in the Look in window, then click on the file you want to send.
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using the Internet they have one. You should store frequently used names and addresses in the address book included with the email program. You also can attach files to your e-mail, as shown in Figure 7.10. When doing so, keep in mind that the recipient may not be able to open the file unless he or she has the application you are using. See page 28 and page 462 for more on file formats and compatibility. Also remember that you can cut, copy, and paste (page 109) text when using e-mail. You could, for example, compose your message in a word processing program and copy and paste it into the e-mail window. Conversely, you can copy e-mail messages and paste the text into other applications. When you get to a site that covers a complicated topic or information that is new to you, search the site for FAQs. FAQ stands for frequently asked questions, and a well-designed site will have FAQs for newcomers.
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Internet details
Internet Details HTML
Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). HTML consists of codes that are placed in text files. These codes are read by Web browsers and can specify the format of the text, link the text to another page, and bring graphics into the text.
Web authoring software
You can insert HTML code in text to prepare it for publication on the Web by using special software. There are several Web authoring software packages on the market that allow you to create HTML documents. You can do so by typing text using the Web authoring software or by importing text created by other software, such as a word processing program. These programs also allow you to insert graphics into your Web pages. Good graphics and attractive page layouts will help attract people to your Web site. Table 12.8 on page 497 shows several of the programs available. Word processing and desktop publishing software manufacturers also routinely include Web publishing tools with their programs.
Internet’s DNS
For people to be able to find different sites on the Internet, sophisticated directory services (page 245) are needed. The directory services for the Internet, known as the Domain Name System (DNS), are managed by Network Solutions in Herndon, Virginia. Network Solutions was previously the sole organization registering domain names. It has registered well over 5,000,000 Web addresses and still handles several hundred thousand new registrations each month. They
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Internet details currently register .com, .net, and .org domains (see URL on page 292). In 1999, the U.S. government allowed additional organizations, such as America Online, to register names in the .com, .net, and .org domains. The new registrars are accredited by Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), a nonprofit organization established by the U.S. Department of Commerce. Also, other companies will be allowed to assign addresses in new top-level domains that will be created. Each computer connected to the Internet is assigned an Internet Protocol (IP) address under a system managed by ICANN. The IP address is a string of numbers that is quite cumbersome to remember, so IP addresses are given domain names. When you apply for an Internet address, you are asked to supply the domain name you want to use—for example, microsoft.com. If you want to establish a Web site with an address in one of the .com, .net, or .org domains, you can register the address with Network Solutions at: www.networksolutions.com You can visit the Web site and search the Whois database for free to see if the name that interests you is available. They update the database of registered names daily. You also can use another registrar approved by ICANN. ICANN has a list of the approved domain name registrars at their Web site: www.icann.org As part of the ICANN program, registrars assign the domain names to the IP address numbers. If you do not have a company or computer selected to host your Chapter 7: The Internet
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Internet details Web site, you can still register the name you want if it is available. You will be given two passwords: one for you, the account holder, and one for the Internet Service Provider (ISP). After you have selected the ISP, it can take care of registering the IP. The cost to reserve an address with Network Solutions is $120 for two years if you do not have an ISP. It is $70 for two years if you have an ISP and know your ISP’s primary and secondary server host name and IP address. Keep in mind that Internet addresses are being reserved by millions of persons around the world. If you want a particular address, you should register it quickly if it is available. URL
Once you have a domain name and a company to host your site, anyone in the world can contact you on the Internet by using the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) protocol. The URL is your Internet address. Figure 7.11 shows the structure of a URL.
Figure 7.11 The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the protocol for assigning Internet addresses.
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Internet details The top-level domains in a URL include .com, .net, .org, .edu, .gov, and country abbreviations, such as . us or . fr. New top-level domains—such as . cc—are being added. The domain name is the top-level and second-level domains separated by a dot. The URL also may include a directory and file name located at the site. These would come after the top-level domain, as in: http://www.internetname.com/pictures/funny If you have an e-mail address that can be reached through the Internet, part of the address may include the domain name of your e-mail provider. For example, if you use the online information service (page 303) provider CompuServe for e-mail, your address might be: [email protected] The Internet consists of Web servers provide a few key elements that make the content of the it work: Internet service pro- Internet. They providers connect to root and vide the Web pages name servers and each other you visit, complete to f orm the high-speed with text, graphics, “backbone” of data transmis- and sound. sion. They are where client computers and Web servers connect to gain access to the Net. Root and name servers hold databases that direct traffic to the correct addresses. Web servers provide the content of the Net, such as Web pages and data. Finally, people use client computers to get on the Net. Figure 7.12 shows the key elements of the Internet, which will be discussed in the following pages.
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Internet details I want the National Gallery of Art
Root name server Where is http://www.nga.gov?
http://www.nga.gov
Ask the .gov root name server
198.41.0.108
Internet Service Provider
Web server 198.41.0.108
.gov root name server
Clip art by Corel Corporation, Micrografx, Inc., and Waterfields Press, Inc.
Where is http://www.nga.gov?
Figure 7.12 The Internet relies on root name servers and Web servers to make it possible for individual computer users to reach any Web site in the world.
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You connect to the Net through an Internet Service Provider (ISP). An ISP is a company that operates one or more computers attached to the Internet. You connect to the ISP computer with a modem or by some other means. (See Table 6.3: Technologies for Connecting LANs and WANs on page 236.) In addition to being the entry point to the Internet for client computers, ISPs usually play a couple other
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Internet details key roles. They usually operate local name servers, and they operate Web servers for their customers. There are thousands of ISPs, but the field is thinning from fierce competition. Some of the big ISPs are UUNet Technologies, PSINet, and Comcast (Comcast@Home and Comcast@Work). Online information services (page 303), such as CompuServe, America Online, Prodigy, and Microsoft Network, also have a huge share of the ISP market. These services specialize in offering a variety of information and services not found on the Internet—at least not for free. Traffic flow on the Net is Name servers managed by name servers. Datamanage the traffic bases of Internet addresses are flow on the Interdistributed among root name net. They take a URL and match it servers and local name servers with an IP. located throughout the Internet. These databases take a URL (page 292) and match it with an IP address (page 291). There are nine root name servers located throughout the Internet that are responsible for the top-level domains. One may hold information for all names with .com, for example. The files containing the databases for the .com, .org, .net, .gov, and .edu top-level domains are updated every week day and sent electronically to these root name servers. The root servers do not have detailed information on each IP address. Instead, they direct queries to local name servers that have this information. The local name servers have databases that match the URLs with IP addresses and direct traffic to the appropriate Web servers and Web pages. Most local
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Internet details name servers are operated by ISPs that have the databases for their customers. When you type in an Internet address on your computer, there is a very good chance that your local name server will not have information on that IP address. When that happens, your local name server contacts a root server, which in turn directs the query to the root name server responsible for that top-level domain. That root name server sends your local name server the information concerning which local name server has the data on the address you want. Your local name server then sends your query to that local name server, and the Web site appears on your computer screen. All of this usually happens in a matter of seconds. Web servers
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The actual content of the Web—the glitzy graphics and limitless information—is provided by Web servers. A Web server is software and a computer that responds to queries about a Web site. It provides the Web page—the graphics, the sound and video, and the text. You can buy the hardware and software to make your own Web server. Small businesses may find it more cost effective to use the services of an ISP if they want to establish a well-done commercial site. Most ISPs will set up a Most ISPs will Web site for you. You can use set up and maintheir hardware and software, and tain a Web site the major ISPs also have design for you—a serstaff you can use. There will be vice called Web hosting. an initial setup fee and a monthly maintenance fee. Online information service vendors, such as CompuServe, will allow you to set up a personal Web page Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Internet details for free when you subscribe to their service. CompuServe also has a program for businesses that want to set up a Web site. For a set-up fee and $25 to $125 per month, businesses can have a Web site to provide information or sell products. They also can arrange for design services at an additional cost. If you want to set up a Web server yourself, you will need a powerful computer and Web server software. You also will need to connect to your ISP using reasonably fast technology. (See Technologies for Connecting LANs and WANs on page 236). Once you have the site set up, you need to budget time and money to maintain the site—to keep the information up-to-date, the links to pages and other sites working, and the look fresh. These chores are often given to Webmasters hired for this purpose. As with other Internet and network software, the field of available Web server programs is changing almost daily. However, the major software publishers, including Microsoft, Novell, and Netscape, have products on the market. The prices run up to $1,000, but Microsoft includes their Internet Information Server as part of the Windows NT Server operating system package. E-commerce is selling prod- E-commerce is ucts and doing other business on one of the fastest the Internet. E-commerce could growing uses of involve simply a Web site with the Internet and product information and a tele- is a multibillion phone number to call. It could be dollar industry. a way to link suppliers, sales, and customers for efficient order processing. Or e-commerce could be used for customer support after sales are made. Chapter 7: The Internet
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Internet details One of the fastest growing uses of e-commerce is making sales directly on the Internet. With a rapidly expanding selection of products available on the Net, consumers find e-commerce fast and convenient. However, security of Web sites and communication with them is a big concern of persons considering making purchases. After all, no one wants to give their credit card number to millions of people. The technology is available to make transactions safe (see Security services middleware on page 247 and encryption in the Glossary), and reputable companies want to take advantage of the technology. Companies planning to do business online can use e-commerce packaged services. These packaged services include software and Web hosting (setting up and maintaining a Web site) that ensure secure transactions and protect customer information. Companies also can buy software to install on their own servers. If you are interested in e-commerce for your business, there is an excellent Web site that lists the various options, has articles on e-commerce, and even gives reviews of products. The site is called internet.com, and the address for the e-commerce section is: http://ecommerce.internet.com It is sponsored by a number of companies involved in ecommerce and offers a wealth of information. Client computers on the Net
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Client computers that people use when they want to explore the Internet do not need any special technology to work. Most computers sold today are more than adequate for this purpose. You should connect with the fastest modem or other technology (page 236) that you can reasonably afford if you don’t want to spend most of your time waiting for Web pages to appear.
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Internet details The software you need is a Web browser, such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer (page 276). Most ISPs include the browser for free when you set up an account. The Internet has brought a gaggle of technical terms that appear in trade literature. It would be commendable for you to remember all those acronyms and arcane words, but you may have other ideas about how you want to spend your mental resources. To help you out, Table 7.2 is a list of the most frequently used Internet technical terms and where they are discussed in this book.
Internet terms
Table 7.2: Internet Technical Terms
Term
What It Is
Page
ActiveX
Microsoft-developed component technology for networks
page 566
CORBA
Consortium-developed component technology for networks
page 568
DCOM (COM)
Microsoft-developed component technology for networks
page 569
HTML
Code inserted into text for publishing on the Web
page 290
HTTP
A protocol for transmitting data on the Internet (see application services, page 239)
page 240
IIOP
A protocol for transmitting components on the Internet
page 569
Java
A cross-platform programming language
page 555
TCP/IP
A transport protocol for the Internet and Unix networks
page 233
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Originally the Internet was a government and university network set up for research and academic purposes. It has become an enormously successful public and commercial computer communication enterprise. However, its speed of data transmission has not kept up with the needs of the academic and research communities. Now, universities and the National Science Foundation have established a new wide area network called Internet2. Internet2 is a superfast network for universities and government institutions only. The backbone of Internet2 can handle data transmissions in the gigabitsper-second range. This is in contrast to speeds in the megabits-per-second range that very well-connected Internet users now experience (see Table 6.3 on page 236). In other words, Internet2 is about a hundred times faster than the Internet. Although Internet2 is for government and universities only, you will see some of the same high-speed technology become available for the Internet. The companies supplying the hardware for Internet2 see it as a testing lab for their products. They will want to use the same products to improve the Internet when possible.
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Intranets and VPNs
Intranets and VPNs Most people marvel at the World Wide Web after they have used it for a short period of time. The attractive pages and depth of information is astonishing. The ease of use—it is very intuitive—quickly makes nearly everyone expert at getting around and finding information. These qualities have gotten the attention of organizations that have been struggling to make their own networks work. They want their networks to not just work by functioning properly, but to work in the sense that employees will happily use the network successfully. Many organizations are now setting up Intranets. An Intranet is a private network that uses Internet technology. In other words, it uses Web servers (page 296), Web browsers (page 276), and distributed components (page 567) when providing network services. Employees can still get the sales figures and have the groupware functions, only they feel more like they are surfing the Net. The staff who run the network will like the ability to develop new applications using component technology.
Intranets
While Intranets use Intranets make Internet technology over priprivate networks vate networks, virtual private look like the Internetwork (VPN) technology net. turns the Internet into a priVPNs use the Intervate network. Data transmisnet as a private netsion over the Internet is not work. normally secure. A technologically sophisticated individual can intercept and read
VPNs
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Intranets and VPNs information that the sender had hoped would be private. Security devices such as firewalls (page 248) help keep unwanted traffic out of private networks connected to the Internet. Once data enters the Net, however, those security measures do not protect confidential data. VPN software use encryption and other security methods to make the data safe from snoops. VPNs are popular because they are an inexpensive way for companies to set up networks. You can connect LANs to LANs, PCs to LANs, or PCs to PCs using VPN software. You can create a network of traveling laptop computers with modems and cellular phones. All you need is the VPN software and ISPs (page 294). It can be much less expensive than LAN/WAN hardware and dedicated lines, such as T1 lines (see Table 6.3 on page 236). VPN software is a product area that is rapidly changing. Most of the firewall vendors (Table 6.6 on page 249) have VPN software. You also may want to search the Internet for available products. The prices range from $500 to several thousands to get started.
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online information services
Online Information Services Long before the World Wide Web became so popular, many people turned to online information services to get information with their computers and exchange email. Online information services offer a variety of services, including news, databases containing information in many areas, business and financial services, forums, shopping and travel arrangements, computer technical assistance and software, and chat rooms. Today there are four major online services: America Online, CompuServe, The Microsoft Network, and Prodigy. America Online is the largest and is oriented toward a mass consumer audience. Prodigy and The Microsoft Network have mass market orientations, also. CompuServe, the second largest, was started in 1969 and is the oldest of the four. Its content attracts a strong customer base of businesses and professionals, including computer professionals. America Online (AOL) bought CompuServe but has kept it a separate service and not changed its focus. Figure 7.13 shows the Table of Contents screen for CompuServe. Online information services offer an impressive amount of information to their subscribers. For example, with CompuServe you can run patent and trademark searches; get current information on businesses, such as key employees, sales, and credit ratings; and search databases on marketing studies. CompuServe customers have a huge number of professional journal and magazine articles at their disposal. Much of the information online services offer can be found on the Internet for free and some cannot. The
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online information services
Figure 7.13 The Table of Contents screen for CompuServe.
advantage of using an online service is that the information is assembled and organized for you. In that online services include Internet access in their monthly fees, you may find using one attractive. Some of the database and article searches have fees in addition to CompuServe’s monthly fee of $10—a monthly fee that is pretty much standard for online services. Businesses may find it worthwhile, however, to have such rich resources at their disposal. One example of these databases is the Thomas Register in CompuServe, a sample record of which is shown in Figure 7.14. Thomas Register is a database of more than 150,000 American and Canadian manufacturers. Businesses find the information in this database 304
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online information services useful when they are looking for suppliers of materials and services.
Figure 7.14 The Thomas Register database in CompuServe.
CompuServe invented forums as a way for people with special interests to get and share the latest information and resources about particular subject matters. The forums are chaired by sysops, who are people with high expertise on the subject being discussed. You can post questions and comments to the sysops and get responses posted back by them or other participants. Most forums also have chat rooms where members can have online conversations with others on the subject matter. The concept has blossomed, and CompuServe
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online information services now has more than 1,500 forums available to those who subscribe to their service. The subject matter of the forums includes accounting, agriculture, aviation, computing, finance, health, cooking, sales, legal, marketing, investments, and much more. CompuServe has adult controls for forums with adult content. CompuServe is very popular with computer professionals because of the extensive forums they have in a variety of computer areas. They also have forums for technical assistance for nonprofessionals, and you can download software updates and drivers (page 264) from the forums. Chat rooms
General chat rooms are not focussed on a particular subject matter, like forums, and their purpose is to allow members to have free-flowing online conversations in real time. Real time means you get immediate responses back and forth instead of waiting for responses to be posted later. Chat rooms often are set up for particular groups of people: adults, teens, preteens, minorities, people with disabilities, etc. Chat rooms have become very popular with the general public. AOL’s strength in this area and their aggressive marketing probably were the biggest factors for their quick rise to the top. If you have children in your home and want to subscribe to an online service, you may want to ask about the service’s adult controls. Chat rooms and forums may have strong adult content.
Internet access
All four online information services are major ISPs (page 294). This means they give you access both to their online information services and to the Internet. They give you a web browser (page 276) for free when
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online information services you sign up. This added service makes them an especially good value for many people, as the millions of AOL members will attest. Online information services allow you to set up personal Web pages (page 281) and even provide some Web page authoring software (page 290) for you to use. CompuServe has started offering businesses extensive space and domain name registration for Web sites. See Web servers on page 296 for more information on CompuServe’s Web site service for businesses. If you have a computer and modem and want to subscribe to an online information service but don’t know which one to choose, all four services offer free trials. Anyone who has even thought about computers during their adult life has received free floppy disks and CD-ROMs from the service providers. Load the software from the disk, and it will configure your modem to dial the service, set up a temporary account, and load a browser and information service interface program. At the end of the trial period, your credit card will start being billed monthly if you continue to use the service. AOL got to be the biggest with these promotions and kept the floppy disk industry healthy in the process. If you don’t like the idea of jumping into a free trial, all four services have Internet sites where you can see more of what they offer.You can go to the library or borrow a friend’s computer to visit the sites if you don’t have an ISP account. Their Internet addresses are shown in Table 7.3.
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online information services Table 7.3: Internet Addresses for Online Information Services
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Service
Internet Address
AOL (America Online)
http://www.aol.com
CompuServe
http://www.compuserve.com
The Microsoft Network
http://www.msn.com
Prodigy
http://www.prodigy.com
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Part IV Application and Utilities Software Application software is used to accomplish a task—to produce something such as a letter or a compilation of information. This is in contrast with operating systems, which control the computer’s operations; network software, which allows computers and their users to communicate and work together; and utilities, which help the user manage and protect the computer and its files. Some applications are developed for a very narrow use. A doctor’s office may have a program that keeps track of patient information, schedules appointments, and bills insurance companies. Specialized applications such as these, though not in the public eye, are very widespread. Computer applications also may be developed for as broad an appeal as possible. The popular word processing and spreadsheet applications are used by millions of persons every day. If you have a specialized application developed for your business, it may cost you tens of thousands to millions of dollars. On the other hand, buying one of the top word processing programs will cost you a couple of hundred.
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introduction to application and utilities software Types of applications
Applications, also known as “apps,” are available for just about every purpose. Word processing programs allow you to produce text documents, such as letters, reports, and newsletters. Spreadsheet programs enable you to organize and analyze numbers and are used mostly for budget preparation and financial analyses. Database software organizes and allows you to analyze and use a wide variety of data. A database can contain national sales trends and demographics, customer information, inventory, or photographs of your company’s products. Using graphics and design software, you can draw pictures, design a house, edit photographs, turn out a sales ad or a book, or produce a multimedia show with motion pictures and sound. There are dozens of other types of applications, from accounting software to personal information managers, and people are coming up with new ideas for applications all the time.
Learning to use applications
Most persons use computers with Windows as an operating system. Windows applications have a uniform command structure and interface that makes it easy for you to start using any application, once you know its basic functions. The same is true for Macintosh applications and operating systems. It is more important for you to learn the tools, commands, and functions of a type of application in general than to spend your time learning the intricacies and bells and whistles of a particular make. Once you understand the core concepts, switching from one make to another usually is fairly easy. For example, you should understand the table function and uses, the concepts of column flow and word wrap, the spell check and thesaurus tools, how to format a paragraph, and when to use tabs instead of
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introduction to application and utilities software spaces in word processing programs. Once you understand these and other basic concepts, it is not difficult to find the commands to use them from one word processor to the next. The same can be said for most other types of applications. This book gives you the basic concepts, tools, and functions of the major types of applications. It also includes some tips to make your life in front of the computer easier. Learning and practicing these concepts and functions will make you a more productive and efficient computer user.
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Chapter 8 Buying and Using Application Software Every computer user needs certain skills to survive at the keyboard. Skills in managing files and folders and in getting around the operating system are the basics. Beyond those skills, being good with computers, for most persons, means being good at accomplishing tasks with them. Many people use their computers mostly for games and surfing the Net. This book doesn’t cover games in any detail (there are several magazines that do), but the chapter on the Internet, beginning on page 275, is a useful introduction to the World Wide Web. If you use your computer to produce something, the applications you need to know probably will depend on whether you use it for home or work. Home computers often are used for a different range of chores than those at work.
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Which Software? Software at work
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No matter what organization you work for, or what your job may be, computers will play an important role in its daily operation. The programs you should be familiar with will depend on what type of position you hold. Most professionals and managers should know how to use word processing applications. Knowing how to use spreadsheet and e-mail programs also may be helpful. Word processing programs are covered in Chapter 9, e-mail programs are covered in Chapters 6 and 7, and spreadsheets are in Chapter 10. Professionals and Professionals and manmanagers also may find it agers should know how helpful to know how to to use word processing use presentation graphics programs. Knowing how to use spreadprograms. Prepari ng sheets, e-mail, and preattractive handouts or sentation graphics overhead transparencies programs also is helpful. for important presentations can help get key messages accepted. Presentation graphics software is found in Chapter 12. Businesses may use other applications beyond these core ones. Many businesses use databases extensively, but most large and complex databases are set up by database programmers. Employees then should be instructed in using the databases. Simple databases are fairly easy to set up, using one of the popular database programs. Chapter 11 covers these programs and how to construct a simple database.
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which software? Other applications found in work settings include publishing programs for newsletters and brochures (Chapter 12) and groupware for networks (page 265). Groupware is fairly intuitive to use, but employers still should offer training in its use. Many companies also use the Internet (page 275) for gathering information. Documents produced with publishing software may be helpful to an organization. However, many desktop publishing jobs require specialized skills, and desktop publishing usually is not needed frequently. Most companies will want to have one or two persons who specialize in this type of application, instead of asking many employees to do their own desktop publishing. Clerical and administrative assistant staff primarily need to know how to use word processing programs. If they learned to type on a typewriter and are just beginning to use a computer, there are habits they need to unlearn. Chapter 9 will help. Administrative assistants also will do well to know how to get around presentation graphics and spreadsheet programs. Presentation graphics programs, especially, can make them invaluable to their bosses. The vast majority of private and public organizations are using Windows as operating systems (OSs). Windows 3.x still is used frequently, but Windows 95/98 and NT are the OSs of choice. Most persons will find that learning Windows operating systems and applications will give them the computer skills needed in almost any work situation. In addition to knowing their way around Windows, employees should know how to manage files and folders and back them up. Employers may not be very understanding if weeks or months of work are lost
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which software? because some files accidentally disappear or a laptop is stolen. Software at home
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If you have a home computer, you likely will use it for a wider variety of tasks than at work. Besides games, many home computers are used to access online information services (page 303) and the Internet (page 275). Home computers also are used for taxes, budgeting, inventory, and word processing. You also may start doing a little desktop publishing to produce your community association’s newsletter or a flier for your son’s lawn mowing business. Some applications are written specifically for home use. Home inventory and home design software are two examples of programs written for running a household. Many of the applications At home, you likely you use at home, however, will will use a wide varibe the same type you use at ety of programs in work. The letters you write addition to word processing and, perand the newsletter you prohaps, spreadsheet duce may be done on a good programs. word processing program. A spreadsheet program may be your best choice for developing a household budget or comparing prices of new cars and their many options. You also can use the spreadsheet for home inventory if you don’t have a special application or database program. A database program may be a good investment for home use. The most popular ones come with a number of pre-made databases for households. It also is fairly easy to custom build a simple database to meet your needs. Chapter 11 will help.
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which software? When you first buy a home computer, you need to decide what platform to buy. Your principal choices are Windows or Apple—most computers and applications are for one of these two platforms. Do not consider a Unix computer unless you are an experienced Unix user and know that the applications you want are written for the operating system. OS/2 is being marketed mainly to businesses. Although it will run Windows applications, you would do best to leave it to work settings. Most computers at home and work use Windows as an operating system. If you buy a new Wintel computer (Windows operating system with Intel-designed CPU), it probably will come with Windows 98. Highend Wintel computers come with Windows NT, and this OS may become dominant in the coming years. The next version will be called Windows 2000. Even though Windows computers are the biggest sellers for both home and business, many persons buy Apple computers for home use. Apple computers have a reputation of being easy to use, and parents are influenced by the fact that many schools use them. The two drawbacks to Apple computers are there are fewer applications written for the operating system, and the files used at home may not be fully compatible with those at work. (See File compatibility on page 28 and Apple Operating Systems on page 209.) If these are not concerns for you, an Apple computer may suit you well. However, if your kids use Apples in school, don’t let that fact overly influence your decision. They will learn Windows quickly and will benefit by knowing how to use Windows computers.
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If you work for a large employer, there is a good chance that software buying decisions are out of your control. Don’t be concerned if you are asked to use a make of application that is different from that to which you are accustomed. If you know how to use a word processor or spreadsheet, learning WordPerfect or Quattro Pro, for example, when you know Microsoft Word or Excel, is easy. Persons who own businesses or otherwise are making buying decisions for work, should keep in mind a few considerations. The first is that every computer should have good antivirus software installed. Chapter 13 covers this type of software as well as other utility programs that may be useful. Businesses that use computers to produce a product should ask their professional staff for their preferences. A graphics design firm may find all their artists want to use Apple computers with Adobe Illustrator illustration software, for instance. The senior partners in an accounting firm may decide the accounting software to use. Beyond these special considerations, your primary decision probably will be which word processor to buy. The two major word processors are Microsoft Word and WordPerfect, and both are equally capable. If everyone is accustomed to one or the other, then your decision is easy. Suppose your employees are split—half cut their computer teeth on WordPerfect, and the other half are Microsoft fans. In this case, you should decide if using only one make of word processing software is impor-
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buying software tant. If your staff will not be sharing files much, then you may as well give everyone a choice. However, if you expect Consider choosing files will be shared regularly— only one make of one person will produce a word processing prodocument that then will be gram if you expect edited by others—you should employees in your choose one word processing office will be sharing program or the other. files frequently. Although WordPerfect and Word will open and save files in each other’s formats, doing so may alter the document layout somewhat, and tables and graphics may need to be reconstructed. This is not a big problem once in awhile, but it will become trying on a regular basis. (See File compatibility on page 28.) Once you decide on the word processing software, you should consider what other applications employees will need. Many of the clerical staff may need only word processing software. Others may need presentation graphics software and, perhaps, spreadsheets if you expect they will be tracking budgets. Some professional staff may need only word processing programs. However, many professional and management staff will benefit from having and using spreadsheet and presentation graphics programs, also. Unless you are sure a person will be using only one application, office suites (page 321) may be the best bargain. Which suite you buy likely will be driven by the word processing program you select. Many persons buy home computers so they can bring work home from the office. If this is your situation, you probably should buy the same applications you use at work. If your spouse also wants to do office Chapter 8: Buying and Using Application Software
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buying software work but uses different applications, don’t worry. The major Windows word processing and spreadsheet applications share files fairly well. Usually, only minimal reformatting is necessary after the translation. (See File compatibility on page 28.) Frequently, computers are sold with applications included as a bundle. Windows computers often come with Microsoft Works. Works includes basic word processing, spreadsheet, database, and illustration applications. If you do not plan to share word processing or spreadsheet files with anyone, and your word processing or spreadsheet needs are undemanding (the word processor does not have nearly the number of features Microsoft Word or Corel WordPerfect have, for example), Microsoft Works may be fine for you. Most people will benefit from having full-featured applications on their home computer, however. Office suites (below) are good choices unless you are certain your family will be using only one application. They do not cost much more than a word processing application alone and include other powerful applications you may find useful in the future. Home computers also should have good antivirus software installed (page 508). Beyond these basics, there is a large selection of Windows applications designed for home use. As your skills and interest grow in an area, you may decide to move on to more powerful applications: you may enjoy the home design application so much that you decide to buy a CAD program (page 482).
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buying software Office suites consist of several applications bundled together and sold as a set. A basic office suite will include word processor, spreadsheet, and presentation graphics programs. Several suites, sometimes called professional suites, add database programs. In addition to these core applications, the manufacturer may include other applications that are popular, or that the manufacturer wants to promote, at the time. They may come with Web publishing software (see Web site design on page 497), illustration programs, or special software for small businesses. Table 8.1 lists the major office suites on the market and their features and approximate prices. If you are buying a new When you buy a new computer directly from the computer, make cermanufacturer, they may tain you receive the include an office suite in the licenses, documentapackage. If not, many will tion, and original offer a suite at a deeply dis- disks for the software counted price, so be sure to loaded on it. ask. Similarly, retail stores may offer discounted suites as part of a promotion when you buy a computer. In either case, be sure you get the license; the original disks (not copies); and complete documentation, including the manual. Insist on receiving the disks. Do not settle for software that is “preloaded” on the hard drive but for which you are not given a CD or floppies. You may need to reload the software later, and you probably will want to keep using the software if you replace your computer in the future.
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buying software Table 8.1: Office Suites (Part 1 of 2)
Suite
Applications Included
Approximate Price
Corel WordPerfect Office 2000 for Windows 95/98
Corel WordPerfect word processor Corel Quattro Pro spreadsheet Corel Presentations presentation graphics Corel Central PIM Web publishing and image editing software
First time: $270
Corel WordPerfect Office 2000 Professional for Windows 95/98
Applications in Corel WordPerfect Office 2000 Paradox database software
First time: $315
Corel WordPerfect Suite 7 for Windows 3.1+
Corel WordPerfect word processor Corel Quattro Pro spreadsheet Corel Presentations presentation graphics Paradox database software
First time: $40
Lotus SmartSuite Millennium Edition 9.5 for Windows 95/98
Lotus Word Pro word processor Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet Lotus Freelance Graphics presentation graphics Lotus Approach database Lotus Organizer PIM Lotus ScreenCam multimedia presentation software
First time: $300
Microsoft Office 2000 Standard Edition for Windows 95/98
Microsoft Word word processor Microsoft Excel spreadsheet Microsoft PowerPoint presentation graphics Microsoft Outlook PIM
First time: $440
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Upgrade: $100
Upgrade: $170
Upgrade: $40
Upgrade: $100
Upgrade: $190
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buying software Table 8.1: Office Suites (Part 2 of 2)
Approximate Price
Suite
Applications Included
Microsoft Office 2000 Professional for Windows 95/98
Applications in Microsoft Office 2000 Standard Edition Microsoft Access database software Microsoft Publisher page layout program Small business tools
First time: $530
Microsoft Office 2000 Premium for Windows 95/98
Applications in Microsoft Office 2000 Professional Edition Microsoft FrontPage Web site design program Microsoft PhotoDraw image editing program
First time: $700
Microsoft Word word processor Microsoft Excel spreadsheet Microsoft PowerPoint presentation graphics Microsoft Outlook PIM
First time: $450
Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition
Even though buying software can be expensive, what you should not do in acquiring software is copy someone else’s copy of a program. You also should not buy one copy of an application and load it on your computer at home and the one you use at work unless the license agreement permits you to do so. These practices are illegal and known as software piracy. There are several reasons to avoid software piracy. First, software piracy is stealing a product of significant value, and software manufacturers are serious about stopping the practice. They use detectives and
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Upgrade: $270
Upgrade: $400
Upgrade: $260
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buying software informants to find offenders, and they prosecute vigorously. Most large businesses are concerned about the problem and assign staff to check employees’ computers for pirated applications. They will check for valid licenses for loaded applications and remove programs that are illegal. Keep in mind that the organization as well as the employee likely will be prosecuted for pirating software. Employers are concerned There are several especially about employees good reasons to avoid software piracy, and it buying applications for home and also loading them on is a significant concern of most compatheir work computers. To nies and government address this problem, some agencies. organizations have a policy that all original disks, manuals, and licenses become the organization’s property and must be surrendered if an application is used on one of their computers. Another reason it is better to buy software than to pirate it is you will have access to the manufacturer’s technical support. Many of the higher-end applications include free technical support for several months or indefinitely. This support is especially helpful in overcoming software bugs or solving conflicts with other software. If you have a license for your applications, you become eligible for special upgrade prices on improved versions. If you look at the prices shown inTable 8.1 on page 322, you will see the price differences can be significant. For expensive applications such as high-end desktop publishing programs, the difference between the upgrade price and that for a new buyer can be $500–$600.
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buying software Being able to inexpensively upgrade applications is especially important when there is a significant operating system upgrade of which you want to take advantage. For example, Windows 95/98 runs most Windows 3.x applications. However, many programs originally written for Windows 3.x have been rewritten for Windows 95/98 with significant improvements in performance and features. Being able to inexpensively upgrade your software library to get significant improvements is a big plus. When you buy high-end software, pay particular attention to the technical assistance the manufacturer offers. Low-end software may not offer technical assistance, but you are not paying much money for the application, either. However, if you are going to pay hundreds of dollars for an application, you should expect some help when the going gets rough. The more sophisticated your application, the more likely it is you will be using it for complex tasks. Sophisticated applications used for complex tasks need technical support available—too many things can go wrong, and some most likely will. Most manufacturers of high-end applications offer free telephone technical support for a period after you buy the program, and some even give you toll-free telephone numbers to call. After the initial period, many companies offer a telephone technical support subscription plan for a fee or will charge you per incident to resolve problems. Some companies offer free telephone technical support indefinitely, but their number is dwindling. Most established companies have Web sites or sites at online information services where you can get free technical support. You type in a description of your probChapter 8: Buying and Using Application Software
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Figure 8.1 This is a screen from the Corel technical support forum in CompuServe. A CompuServe member named Marc has posted a problem he is having with CorelDRAW 8.
lem, and a technical expert will post a possible solution at the Web site or to your e-mail address. Figure 8.1 shows a screen from a technical support site in CompuServe. Figure 8.2 shows a screen from one of Corel Corporation’s technical support pages at their Web site. Many persons contact technical support, expecting to get help in learning how to use the applications or operating systems. As computers have become more popular, this has created a problem for software manufacturers. If you post a question on a Web site about using an application, don’t be surprised if you get a terse, “Read the manual!” as a reply.
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Figure 8.2 Corel Corporation’s Web site includes this page, where you can request technical support information about WordPerfect. Corel also offers telephone help for problems with WordPerfect.
User groups also have sites in online information services and the Internet. A user group consists of others who regularly use the application or operating system. When you connect to a user-group site, there will be an area where you can post your dilemma. Chances are, someone will know the solution and offer it to you. An advantage of joining a user group is the opportunity to talk with others who are trying to accomplish things with the same application you are using. You will be able to pick up tricks and tips on using your software.
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buying software Software manufacturers often have lists of user groups for their products. You also can search the Internet (see page 277) for a user group if you are interested in joining one. Software reviews
If you are not sure which make of a type of application to buy, you should read some reviews in leading computer magazines. These reviews will tell you how well the applications work and how difficult they are to learn how to use. You need to define what “works the best” means for you, however. The reviews will tell you how well they accomplish certain tasks, and it is up to you to choose the software that best accomplishes the tasks you need to perform. For example, some illustration programs are excellent for artists, and their drawing tools reflect it. Others are excellent for technical illustrators and have drawing tools for that market. If you want to do precise drawings, you may not be happy with the program oriented toward artists, even if it got the best reviews.
Where to buy and for how much
Many stores sell software at discounted prices. In addition to chains that specialize in computers, such as CompUSA, electronics and appliance retailers, such as Best Buys, have large selections of software. Some stores also may offer classes in using some of the applications they sell. Buying software and computers by mail is an option you should consider. Computer veterans frequently buy their software and hardware this way. After all, once you know what your technical requirements are and which product fills those requirements best, you
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buying software may as well buy the product as easily and cheaply as possible. That often means by mail. Similarly, consider buying software on the Internet. It also is fast and convenient and may give you the best price. There are several large and reputable mail-order and Internet software resellers. They often advertise in popular computer magazines such as PC Magazine. Their Web sites have complete listings of their inventories. Table 8.2 lists eight large computer software resellers, their telephone numbers, and their Web addresses. You also may be able to buy the application you want directly from the manufacturer. You may not get the best price that way, however. Table 8.2: Selected Mail-Order Computer Software Resellers
Software Reseller
Telephone
Web site
CDW
800-835-4239
www.cdw.com
CompUSA
800-294-4727
www.compusanet.com
Egghead Computer
800-344-4323
www.egghead.com
Insight
800-467-4448
www.insight.com
MicroWarehouse MacWarehouse
800-397-8508
www.warehouse.com
PC Connection
800-800-0009
www.pcconnection.com
SoftwareStreet.com
888-447-4407
www.softwarestreet.com
TigerDirect
800-879-1597
www.tigerdirect.com
Software regularly is discounted deeply from manufacturers’ suggested retail prices. This discounted price is known as the street price. If you are buying an application that costs several hundred dollars, it is worth Chapter 8: Buying and Using Application Software
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buying software your time to call several stores and mail-order houses to get the lowest price possible. Also, many manufacturers and resellers offer even deeper academic discounts. As long as the box is shrink wrapped and the envelope containing the disks is unopened, it doesn’t matter where you buy it. If there are problems with the software, you will need to turn to the manufacturer, not the reseller.
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Chapter 9 Word Processing Word processing is one of the most common uses for computers. Nearly every office has one or more computers that are used primarily to produce letters, reports, and other documents. The typewriters in the office, if you can find them, are relegated to filling out forms and addressing single envelopes. Computers assigned to produce documents containing mostly text use word processing software to accomplish their tasks. Word processing programs can produce fully formatted text documents of almost any length. Today’s word processing programs can do a lot more than produce professional-looking letters. With high-end word processors, you can create multicolumn newsletters with graphics, automatically merge letters with a database of names and addresses for large mailings, design brochures and simple advertisements, address and print envelopes, create Web pages, import illustrations and spreadsheets to make impressive reports, and make paper or electronic business forms. Three leading word processing programs are sold today. Two of these—Corel WordPerfect and Microsoft Word—dominate most of the market. However, the third product—Lotus Word Pro—is very capable and has a loyal following. Table 9.1 shows the leading word processing programs by platform and gives an approximate price. The
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introduction to word processing street prices for Word and WordPerfect have hovered around $250–$300 for a new buyer for several years now. Table 9.1: Leading Word Processing Programs
Program
Platform
Corel WordPerfect 3.5
Apple
Approximate Price First time: $140 Upgrade: $75
Corel WordPerfect 7
Windows 3.1+
Included in WordPerfect Suite 7 (See Table 8.1 on page 322) Suite cost is $40 first time and upgrade
Corel WordPerfect 8
Unix
Unix (including Linux): $300 Unix upgrade: $200 Linux only, one price: $40
Corel WordPerfect 9
Windows 95/98
Included in WordPerfect Office 2000 (See Table 8.1 on page 322) Suite cost is $270 first time and $100 for an upgrade
Lotus Word Pro
Windows 3.x
One price: $60
Lotus Word Pro Millennium Edition 9.5
Windows 95/98
One price: $60
Microsoft Word 6.0
Windows 3.x
First time: $300 Upgrade: $120
Microsoft Word 6.01
Apple
First time: $300 Upgrade: $115
Microsoft Word 2000
Microsoft Word 98
Windows 95/98
First time: $280
Apple
First time: $340
Upgrade: $70
Upgrade: $125
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introduction to word processing For the price of a top word processor, you will get an extremely capable and sophisticated application. These programs will handle nearly any text-document production task short of lengthy manuals or books. As a matter of fact, you could produce a multiple chapter book with one of these—just not nearly as well or easily as with a page layout program designed to do so, such as Adobe FrameMaker. All three word processing Word processors programs are capable of have a variety of design-intensive page layout. sophisticated feaThey include the capability to tures that enable you import graphics, have simple to handle nearly any drawing tools, and allow you document producto position text in many ways, tion task. including wrapping it around illustrations. However, they cannot match page layout programs that specialize in design-intensive page layout, such as Adobe PageMaker or QuarkXPress. Word processing programs allow you to format and manipulate text in several ways. Most people use word processors to create single-column text documents, such as letters and memos. You also can set up documents to have multiple columns on a page, like a newspaper, and you can add boxes of text anywhere on the page outside of the normal text flow. The leading word processing programs have several tools to help you manage demanding tasks. They enable you to create tables of nearly any format, and you can insert text and graphics in the table cells. You can import spreadsheets and data from databases and maintain links to the source spreadsheets and databases to keep your document up-to-date. Two tools that many find valuable are the spelling checker and the thesaurus. Spelling checkers will check
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introduction to word processing the spelling of the text on a single word, sentence, paragraph, or page, or in the entire document. You can add special words and names to the spelling-checker dictionary in all the programs. Corel publishes WordPerfect versions that include medical or legal dictionaries for their spelling checkers. The leading word processors also have spelling-checker dictionaries for foreign languages. Many offices find the mail-merge feature of word processors very useful. With mail merge, you create a form letter that you want to send to many persons. Then you create a mailing list of the recipients. After linking the letter to the mailing list, the program will print out letters with individual addresses and salutations.
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using word processing programs
Using Word Processing Programs There are several basic concepts you should understand to use word processing programs effectively. Once you understand the basics, grasping a few more-advanced features will enable you to tackle nearly any word processing task like an expert. The screen captures used as illustrations in the rest of this chapter are from Corel WordPerfect version 8 and Microsoft Word version 7.0a, both running on Windows 95. Some of the features shown may not be available in earlier versions. Likewise, Microsoft Word 2000 and WordPerfect 9, later versions than used here, may have some enhancements to the features covered in this chapter. However, the concepts are the same for any word processor you may use. If you know standard Windows commands and procedures, you will have no difficulty using Windows word processing applications. If you are not comfortable with using Windows, you should review Using Windows (page 97); Using Windows 95 (page 145) or Using Windows 3.x (page 121); and Mouse Operation and Commands (page 8). The work space in word processors is a large blank Starting to area on the monitor’s screen where you start typing work characters, similar to typing on a blank sheet of paper. A cursor—a blinking vertical line: —appears in the upper left corner, where the left and top margins intersect. The cursor shows you where the next character will be inserted and moves as you type.
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using word processing programs Figure 9.1 shows screens for WordPerfect and Microsoft Word. The work environments for the two programs are very similar. Toolbars
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In Figure 9.1 the Word Toolbars have screen has two toolbars (also icons for frequentcalled icon bars—see Figure 4.9 ly used functions. on page 115) at the top, to WordPerfect’s one. You can add or remove toolbars with both programs, however, by selecting Toolbars in their View drop-down menus. You then click a check mark on or off for the ones you want to display or hide. You can find out the function of each icon using hover help. See Hover help on page 382 for more on this feature, which is found in most Windows applications. Most of the work you will be doing with word processors involves typing and thinking. Editing will be done by cutting and pasting—two chores best done with shortcut keys (page 108). The toolbars are used for formatting the document, working with tables, drawing illustrations and importing graphics, and other special tasks. Because very little of your work time will involve using the toolbars, consider keeping them closed until you need them. There are two advantages to doing this. First, you will have a larger, less cluttered work space. A larger work space means you can see more of your document at one time without scrolling. Second, you will use less of your computer’s resources if it doesn’t have to display the screen graphics representing the toolbar. That said, many persons like toolbars. If you are one of those persons, consider customizing or creating your own toolbar—something you can do fairly easily with word processors. Then you can have all your frequently used commands available with only one toolbar Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
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You start typing here,
and the cursor continues to the right.
Figure 9.1 The WordPerfect and Microsoft Word work spaces.
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using word processing programs open at once. To customize toolbars, refer to the procedures in your program’s help menu. Word wrap
If you have used only a Word wrap autotypewriter and not a word pro- matically continues cessor, the word-wrap function text on the next is the first you should under- line as you type. stand. Word wrap means that as you type, the program will automatically jump to the beginning of the next line down when you get to the end of a line. With a typewriter, you press the return key when you get to the end of a line. A computer keyboard has a return key like a typewriter, but it usually is called the Enter key. Do not press the Enter key when you get to the end of the line with a word processor, however. If you do, you will have difficulty keeping the text formatted properly. You may end up with lines that vary greatly in length, and with large gaps in the text. The word processing program, as it wraps words to the next line, will determine the ideal line length and prevent gaps from appearing in blocks of text.Your documents will be much more attractive and professional looking. Figure 9.2 shows an example of the word-wrap function.
Editing text
Editing text is easy with You can edit text by word processors. Unlike with inserting, deleting, typewriters, you can move, copying, and movdelete, cut, copy, and insert text ing text at will, at will, without retyping the without retyping. document. To edit text, you should be familiar with the basic mouse functions,
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Figure 9.2 This is an example of the word-wrap function found in all word processors. The top block of text was created by allowing the software to automatically wrap text to the next line. The bottom block was created by pressing the Enter key at the end of each line.
including blocking text. If you are not, you should read Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8. You edit text with word processing programs by blocking text you want to cut, copy, or delete, and then giving the appropriate command. Table 4.2 on page 109 shows you the keystrokes for cutting, copying, and pasting; the accompanying text explains what each function does. As in all Windows programs, you also can cut, copy, and paste by using the pull-down Edit menu. Deleting text removes it without saving it in Clipboard (temporary memory) for pasting. You delete text by blocking it and pressing the Delete key on the keyboard. Chapter 9: Word Processing
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using word processing programs In addition to the normal way of blocking text, word processors allow you to block by clicking twice or more. With WordPerfect, if you place the cursor on a word, clicking twice will block the word, three times the sentence, and four times the paragraph. Similarly, with Word, twice blocks the word and three times the paragraph. Figure 9.3 shows a simple text editing process of cutting and pasting. The top screen shows the blocked text to be moved and the Cut command in the pulldown menu for those who prefer that method instead of keystrokes. The bottom screen shows the letter after the sentence was cut and pasted to follow the sentence ending, “graduation from high school.” Spelling checker and thesaurus
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Spelling checkers in word Spelling checkers processors are tools that will scan your docuscan the words in your docu- ment for spelling ment and alert you to possible errors, and thesauri spelling errors. You start the give you synonyms spelling-checker tool by click- for words you ing on it in the Tools menu. The spelling-checker tool will alert you to each word that is possibly misspelled and give you alternative spellings. You then have the options of replacing the word, having the spelling checker ignore the word once or in the rest of the document, or adding the word to a special dictionary so the tool does not flag the spelling again. Spelling checkers do not relieve you of the necessity of proofreading. For example, they will not identify words that are spelled correctly but misused, such as to, too, and two. The thesaurus tools found in word processors are handier to use than the book versions. You block the Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
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To cut and paste, you block the text, give the Cut command, place the cursor where you want the text to reappear, and give the Paste command. The text will be inserted beginning where you placed the cursor.
Figure 9.3 Editing a document by cutting and pasting.
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using word processing programs word you want to look up and then click on the thesaurus in the Tools menu, and a window showing synonyms appears. Figure 9.4 shows spelling-checker and thesaurus tools. Margins
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Margin settings determine the amount of space between Margins, the spaces between text text and the edge of the page. and the edges of Word processors use default the page, usually margin settings of 1–1¼″ on are set at a default the four sides of a page—top, of 1–1¼″ by probottom, right, and left. Before grams. you set margins close to the page edge—say a half inch or less—check to see how close the printer you are using can print to the paper’s edge. You can set margins for an entire document, for a single paragraph, or for all paragraphs after a point you determine. To set margins for an entire document, you should use the Page Setup window. In WordPerfect, you click on Page in the Format menu, then Page Setup and Page Margins. In Word, you click on Page Setup in the File menu, then click on the Margins tab. Figure 9.5 shows the dialog boxes for setting page margins. Another way of setting margins is manually, by using the rulers in the word processors. In the View menu, click on Rulers and slide the tab on the ruler to where you want the margin (see Figure 9.6). Word allows you to set margins for the entire document, for subsequent paragraphs, or for the first-line indent this way. WordPerfect allows you to set margins only for subsequent paragraphs with this method.
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Figure 9.4 At top is the spelling-checker tool for Microsoft Word in action. Recent versions of both programs also will underline words in the text that are potential spelling mistakes. At bottom, above, are the thesaurus tools for Microsoft Word and Corel WordPerfect.
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using word processing programs Setting page margins in Microsoft Word
Setting page margins in WordPerfect
Figure 9.5 Dialog boxes for setting page margins in Word and WordPerfect.
Paragraph format
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You can set the properties The paragraph-forfor the paragraphs in your docmat function ument by using the para- allows you to set graph-format function. The consistent properparagraph properties you can ties for paragraphs. set include the first-line indent, the margins for individual paragraphs, and the spacing between paragraphs. If you are preparing a long document, it is best to use the paragraph-format function instead of formatting each paragraph manually. Formatting manually may
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using word processing programs Sets entire document Sets subsequent paragraphs Sets first line indent
Sets subsequent paragraphs
Figure 9.6 Setting margins manually.
mean pressing Tab at the start of a paragraph to indent the first line, pressing Enter twice at the end of a paragraph to insert a line and start a new paragraph, and manually adjusting margins. It is easy to miss one of these steps and end up with a sloppy document because of inconsistent formatting. To open the paragraph-format dialog box, click on Paragraph in Word’s or WordPerfect’s Format menu. Dialog boxes similar to those shown in Figure 9.7 will appear. In WordPerfect, the paragraph the cursor is in and all paragraphs after the cursor will be affected by the format specified in the paragraph-format dialog box when you click OK. With Word, the paragraph the cursor is in and all new paragraphs after the cursor will be affected. Existing paragraphs will retain their original formats.
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Word
WordPerfect
Figure 9.7 The paragraph format dialog boxes in WordPerfect and Word.
Alignment of text
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The text-alignment function adds spaces to lines of text Text alignment makes one or both so the edges are aligned. There sides of a block of are four ways to align text: justi- text even or centers fied (also called full), left (also text on a page. called ragged right), right, and center. Figure 9.8 shows the four ways to align text. You align text in WordPerfect by placing the cursor where you want the new alignment to begin—or block the text you want to change—and choose Justification in the Format menu. In Word, you do the same and use the alignment commands in the paragraph-format dialog box (see the right side of the Word dialog box in Figure 9.7).
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Justified, or full Left, or ragged right Right
Center
Figure 9.8 Justified text has both the left and right sides even; left aligned has only the left side even; right aligned has only the right side even; and center aligned centers the text on the page, with both sides uneven.
Centering text is useful for headings and for displays where the text block has few words or lines. A display with centered text forces the reader to slow down and notice the words. Reading many lines of centered text is difficult and annoying, however, especially if the lines are long. Right-aligned text also is useful for displays and headings. It not only forces the reader to slow down and take notice; it can be quite attractive in a well-designed page layout. Justified and left alignment should be used in most circumstances where there are many lines of text. Justi-
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using word processing programs fied text is used in books and formal documents and is easiest to read when the lines are long. However, the shorter the lines of text, the more difficult it becomes to space the words and letters without having large white spaces appear. Using left alignment, or ragged right, in these circumstances is an accepted solution. If you have a multicolumn page, such as a newsletter, ragged right may be your best choice. See Figure 9.9 for some examples. Hyphenation
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Automatic hyphenation Hyphenation autoalso helps eliminate large white matically divides spaces and makes the page words at the ends more attractive. Hyphenation of lines to keep text in word processors divides evenly spaced. words at the end of lines in keeping with accepted practice. The word processors actually have hyphenation dictionaries to determine where words should be divided. Figure 9.9 shows the effects of using hyphenation with a narrow column of text in Microsoft Word. You should never manually hyphenate words for line breaks by using the hyphen key in a word processor. The exception is when you want the hyphen to remain no matter what the word’s position, as in a compound adjective before a noun. The reason you should not manually hyphenate word breaks at the ends of lines is that when you add or remove text, the word will move with its hyphen. You will have a hyphenated word in the middle of a line. Automatic hyphenation adds and removes hyphens as words’ positions change. In Microsoft Word, you turn on hyphenation by choosing Hyphenation in the Tools menu. With WordPerfect, you choose Language in the Tools menu, then Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
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Figure 9.9 The top left block of text is justified with no hyphenation; the top right is justified and hyphenated; the bottom left is ragged right with no hyphenation; and the bottom right is ragged right and hyphenated.
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using word processing programs Hyphenation. Both programs allow you to adjust the hyphenation zone—the percentage of a line within which words will be hyphenated. The smaller the percentage, the more words will be hyphenated. Microsoft Word also allows you to control how many consecutive lines can have a hyphenated word. This is an advantage—too many hyphenated words together can be disconcerting. Typefaces, fonts, and related terms
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Word processors allow you Typefaces and to easily change the typeface fonts define the and font of the text you are cre- appearance of the ating. The terms typeface and letters used in text font refer to the appearance of documents. the letters, or type, making up the text of a document. A typeface is a design of type, and a font is a variation of the typeface. For example, the main text of this book is printed in the typeface called Garamond, made by Adobe Systems. Adobe’s version of this typeface comes in several styles, including regular, bold, italic, and bold obliqued (instead of bold italic). Each of these styles is considered a separate font. A font is a complete set of letters, numbers, and punctuation marks for a particular typeface in a particular type style and size. Most fonts sold today are outline fonts, also called scalable fonts. You can change the size of an outline font, often in increments as small as .01 point (seventytwo points equal one inch). In contrast, bit-mapped fonts come in specific sizes that you cannot change. Figure 9.10 illustrates a number of type terms you are likely to encounter.
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Figure 9.10 These are the most common terms for type and typesetting.
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using word processing programs TrueType and PostScript Type 1 fonts
Two major formats of fonts are in use today: TrueType fonts and PostScript Type 1 fonts (also called Adobe Type 1 fonts). Both are outline fonts you can scale. TrueType fonts are widely used in Windows applications but are found in Apple programs, also. The TrueType fonts for Apple computers are not fully compatible with PCs. The PostScript Type 1 fonts are widely used in desktop publishing and illustration programs—on both Apple and Windows computers. To use Type 1 fonts, you need Adobe Type Manager (ATM), available from Adobe Systems. Most of the time, Type 1 fonts will come with the ATM.
Buying, installing, and removing fonts
When you buy a word processing program, it most likely will come with a number of fonts—perhaps thousands. Likewise, desktop publishing and illustration software comes with large selections of fonts. Avoid installing all the fonts, however; you likely never will use most of them, and you will spend a lot of time scrolling down the font list trying to get to the one you want. You can install, remove, and view fonts in Windows 95 by clicking on the Fonts icon in Control Panel (see Figure 4.31 on page 163). A window showing the installed fonts will open. When you click on a font and select Open in the File menu, examples of the font will be displayed. You also can install, remove, and view fonts from Adobe Type Manager (page 352). The standard version of ATM works only with Type 1 fonts. The deluxe version manages TrueType fonts, also. Figure 9.11 shows ATM in action.
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Figure 9.11 The Adobe Type Manager (ATM).
Setting the fonts in Word and WordPerfect is easy. First you block the text you want changed or place the cursor at the point in the document where you want the new font to begin. Then you select Font in the program’s Format menu. A dialog box like those shown in Figure 9.12 will appear. When setting the size, you can click in the Font size area and type in fractions such as 12.75. There are a few commonly accepted rules of thumb in using fonts in documents. For main text, especially in long documents, most people find serif typefaces easier to read. For headings and titles, which usually have few words, sans-serif typefaces work well. Sans-serif also is better when large type is needed.
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Figure 9.12 The Font dialog boxes in Word and WordPerfect.
Although you may have hundreds of fonts at your disposal, avoid using too many on a page. It is best to choose no more than two or three typefaces and assign each a special use: one for text; one for headings and subheadings; and perhaps a third for headers, footers, or some other use. For each of the typefaces you are using, you may have a couple of fonts, such as regular and italic or bold—but again, avoid overdoing it. Too many fonts will make your document look busy and confusing. As an example, look at Figure 9.10 and imagine that page as an advertisement or announcement. You wouldn’t know where to begin reading or how the text in different fonts related to each other. 354
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using word processing programs Two more tips for using fonts will be helpful to you. First, when typing correspondence, you are likely to run into the situation where all the text but the closing phrase (e.g., Yours truly,) fits on the first page. To get it all on one page instead of two, try decreasing the size of the font in quarter-point increments until it fits. Do not decrease it too much, however, or it will be difficult to read. Second, there are shortcut keys for changing the type style. To change between regular and italic, bold, or underline, block the text and press Ctrl+i, Ctrl+b, or Ctrl+u, respectively.
The Table function allows you to present information in an easy-to-understand format. You can use it for page design and to create forms.
The Table function in word processors is a powerful feature that enables you to organize and present information in easy-tounderstand and visually appealing ways. You also can use the table feature for page
Tables
design and to create forms. A table is a structure containing columns and rows of cells. If you think of cells simply as containers in which you can place information and tables as collections of cells, you will begin to see the wide range of uses for tables. Cells can contain text, numbers, and graphics. You can join two or more adjacent cells together to form one, you can shade cells and place lines on one or more sides, and you can align the text and objects in the cells as you can other text (see Alignment of text on page 346). Figure 9.13 shows a table created in WordPerfect. The program allows you to put formulas in the cells to automatically calculate quantities. Chapter 9: Word Processing
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Figure 9.13 This is a table created in WordPerfect. The table feature allows you to insert formulas in the cells to calculate numbers. Note the table formatting toolbar at top that you can display or hide at will.
As another example, Figure 9.14 shows the table feature in Microsoft Word being used to lay out the cover of a product catalog. The layout is done using a table consisting of two columns and thirteen rows. The dotted lines show where the borders of the cells are, but they will not show when the table is printed. In the first, second, third, and thirteenth rows, the cells have been joined to form one. Suppose the president of Boole’s Best Computers decides he wants to add a personal touch to the catalog. He decides that a picture of his smiling face may help sell more computers. He splits the thirteenth row into two cells, adjusts their width, and imports a picture of 356
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Figure 9.14 This shows the table feature inWord being used for laying out a page design.
himself into the right cell. The result is shown in Figure 9.15. You can format the cells in a table in a variety of ways by aligning text, shading cells, changing their height and width, adding or removing borders, adding or removing cells, and generally adjusting the look until it is satisfactory to you. Figure 9.16 shows what the president of Boole’s Best Computers finally came up with for the cover of his catalog. Tables also are useful for creating forms in either paper or electronic versions. As you type text in a cell, the text wraps down and expands the height of the cell until you are finished, making it easy to enter extensive instructions. You then can place blank cells next to the instructions where responses are entered. You also can protect cells from having the text you entered overwritten if the form is to be filled out on a computer. Figure 9.17 shows a form created with WordPerfect. In WordPerfect, you create a table by selecting Table in the Insert menu. A dialog box will appear, askChapter 9: Word Processing
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Clip art by Totem Graphics, Inc. as supplied by Corel Corporation
Figure 9.15 You can bring graphics into the cells of tables.
ing you for the number of rows and columns (see Figure 9.18). If you misjudge the number you need, you easily can add or remove rows and columns later. In Microsoft Word, you choose Insert Table in the Table menu. Again, a dialog box will appear (Figure 9.18). Once you have the basic table format, you enter data by clicking to place the cursor in a cell and typing the information. You move between cells by pressing the Tab key or clicking in the cell you want. If you want to place a graphic in a WordPerfect table, click in the cell, select Graphics in the Insert menu, then the type of graphics (Clipart, From File, TextArt, etc.). In Microsoft Word, select Picture in the
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Clip art by Totem Graphics, Inc. as supplied by Corel Corporation
Figure 9.16 Shading cells, adding or removing rows, and changing the size of cells give you a lot of options for using tables for layouts.
Insert menu. In both programs, you identify the file name of the graphic you are importing. Formatting the table and cells is done with the Tables toolbar in WordPerfect. It will appear when you insert a table, or you can start it by selecting Toolbars in the View menu. In Word, the formatting commands can be found in the Table menu. As an example, Figure 9.19 shows the dialog box for specifying the lines and fill for a cell in WordPerfect. The more you use the table features in word processing programs, the more tricks you will pick up to work quickly and produce impressive results. The table features are very powerful tools. It will be worth your
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Figure 9.17 The table feature in word processing programs can be used to create forms that can be printed or filled out on a computer.
while to spend at least an hour or two experimenting with them to learn their capabilities. Columns— newspaper
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When you first start a Newspaper columns word processing program, the are used for newsletdefault page format will be a ters or when the single column of text. It will be printed page will be set the size of an 8½×11 page very wide. with one inch margins (see page 342) on all sides. As you type, text will be inserted across the full width of the column and wrap to the next line down when you reach the end. You may want more than one column of main text on a page, however. Two or more columns are preferred
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Figure 9.18 These are the dialog boxes that appear when you insert a table in a document.
if you are doing a newsletter or publishing a manual with wide pages (the longer the line of text, the more difficult it is to read). For these situations, word processing programs can produce newspaper columns like those shown in Figure 9.20. You create newspaper columns in Microsoft Word and WordPerfect by choosing Columns in their Format menus. Dialog boxes like those in Figure 9.21 will appear. As you type with newspaper columns, text will flow down the left column first, then move to the top of the next column to the right. Everything you can do with a single column of text, you can do with newspaper columns. You can add graphics and tables, and format the text in a variety of ways. Chapter 9: Word Processing
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Figure 9.19 This is the WordPerfect dialog box for specifying the borders and fill for a table cell. You open it by choosing Borders/Fill in the Table menu on the Table toolbar.
Lists
When you create lists, Lists are used to you align words, numbers, arrange items with or whole paragraphs so their their left sides aligned left sides are even. You prob- like a list. Items in lists ably will have many times often have special forwhen you will want to matting to help them arrange a list of items into a stand out. column. Or you may simply want to align the beginning of a word with a word in a line above it. Lists are created with tabs—usually by placing the cursor at the beginning of the item and pressing the Tab key until it is in the desired position. Most word processors set the default tab stops at every one-half inch; so every time you press Tab, the item will move to the right by that amount. The beginning of the word, num-
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Figure 9.20 Word processing programs can produce newspaper columns, like these, for newsletters or documents with wide pages.
ber, or paragraph will be at the tab stop. You can change the tab settings by choosing Tabs in Word’s Format menu; in WordPerfect’s Format menu, choose Line, then Tab Set. Never try to create lists or align items by pressing the space bar, because most type you will be using probably will be proportionally spaced (see Figure 9.10 on page 351). This means the computer automatically will adjust spaces according to the shapes of the individual letters in a line, making it impossible for you to align items by using the space bar. Even if you use monospaced type (Figure 9.10), your list will go out of alignment every time you change a word.
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Figure 9.21 These are the dialog boxes that will appear when you choose Columns in the Format menus of WordPerfect and Word.
Figure 9.22 shows a list created using tabs and one created by using spaces. The top memo, the one done with tabs, has three columns of perfectly aligned lists. In the bottom memo, the lists were created by pressing the space bar. Note how sloppy and uneven the second and third columns look. The left column is straight in the bottom memo only because there are no letters or numbers before it, so the computer did not adjust any spaces proportionally. Even in this case, it would have been easier to press Tab once, rather than the space bar several times. 364
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Figure 9.22 The lists in the top memo were created by pressing the Tab key. The ones in the bottom memo were done by pressing the space bar. Note how the items in the second and third columns in the bottom memo are not aligned.
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using word processing programs Also note that the words and numbers Jill, Wiley, Special, and 4 are out of alignment in the bottom memo but not in the top. The Tab key was pressed before typing these items in the top memo. Lists with bullets and auto-numbers
You can create lists beginning with bullets or numbers. The software automatically will number each item in sequence or place a bullet at the beginning. Figure 9.23 shows bulleted and numbered lists.
Bulleted list
Numbered list
Figure 9.23 You can create lists that begin with bullets or that are numbered automatically.
In Microsoft Word, you add numbers or bullets by selecting Style in the Format menu. In WordPerfect, you select Outline/Bullets & Numbering in the Insert menu. You also can use keyboard shortcuts for making lists in WordPerfect. You should consult the online help 366
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using word processing programs manual included with the program; look up bulleted lists and numbered lists if you wish to use this feature. You can have the word processor automatically sort Sorting lists the lists you create. The program can sort them alphabetically or numerically, and it can do so in ascending or descending order. You can specify which word in each list item to sort—the second word in each line, for example. When the program sorts the list to a new order, it automatically will renumber the items if you have chosen automatic numbering. Figure 9.24 shows a numbered list sorted by the second word, using Microsoft Word.
Figure 9.24 A list sorted automatically by Word.
Many times lists are needed where the items are paragraphs. You can treat paragraphs as list items and place bullets in front of them or number them (see Lists with bullets and auto-numbers on page 366). You also can align paragraphs as list items, only you do not press the Tab key to do so. Instead, the program will align the paragraph to tab stops once you Chapter 9: Word Processing
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using word processing programs specify the type of paragraph format you want. There are three types: indent, double indent, and hanging indent (Figure 9.25).
Indent
Double indent
Hanging indent
Figure 9.25 Three formats for creating lists of paragraphs.
You may number or place bullets before paragraphs formatted in these ways. Placing a bullet in front of the hanging indent format, however, probably will be overkill. In WordPerfect and Microsoft Word, you create indented, double indented, and hanging indented paragraphs by choosing Paragraph in the Format menus (see Figure 9.7 on page 346). In WordPerfect, you can use preset settings for these formats. The formats appear as choices in the Format menu. In Word, preset formats are available in the Style dialog box found in the Format menu.
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using word processing programs When you are adjusting the layout of a document, you will find it helpful to change the magnification of your work on the screen. The zoom function allows you to magnify a section of your work or view the entire page at once. To use the zoom function, choose Zoom in the View menus of both Word and WordPerfect. Figure 9.26 shows the dialog boxes that will appear. The zoom function allows you to change the view of your work.
Zoom
Figure 9.26 The Zoom dialog boxes in Word and WordPerfect.
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Both WordPerfect and Word have preset formats for paragraphs that you can use by choosing Style in the Format menus. Dialog boxes like those shown in Figure 9.27 will appear.
Styles are preset paragraph formats that you can apply to your work. You also can create and save your own styles.
Microsoft Word WordPerfect
Figure 9.27 These are the Style dialog boxes in Word and WordPerfect.
Word has a much larger selection of preset formats than WordPerfect. With both programs, you can create your own formats and save them for future use. You should consider using styles routinely. Doing so will help assure your documents are formatted consistently throughout.
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using word processing programs Word processing programs allow you to number pages in a document automatically. You should not type in page numbers manually, since they will shift as you add and remove text and format the document, making it very difficult to position the numbers properly. Adding page numbers is simple. Choose Page Numbers in Word’s Insert menu; or choose Page, then Numbering in WordPerfect’s Format menu. Figure 9.28 shows the dialog boxes that will appear. In both cases, you can specify the position of the numbers on the page, the type of numbers—such as Arabic, Roman, or letters—and whether the numbering begins on the first page. Automatic page numbering assures page numbers are consistent in appearance and position throughout the document.
Page numbers
Figure 9.28 The page numbering dialog boxes in Word and WordPerfect.
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When you want text, Headers and footers numbers, or graphics to are text or other appear consistently at the items that appear top or bottom of every page consistently at the top in a document, you should or bottom of every use headers or footers. When page. you create headers and footers, spaces above or below the normal text flow are set aside. You then type information or insert objects such as logos in these spaces (see Figure 9.29). The text and objects you place in these spaces will appear on every page.
Figure 9.29 Creating a header in Microsoft Word.
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using word processing programs In WordPerfect, you create headers and footers by choosing Header/Footer in the Insert menu. With Microsoft Word, you select Header and Footer in the View menu. Footnotes and endnotes are remarks about items in a document. A mark is placed next to the item—usually the mark is a number—and the remark appears at the bottom of the page if it is a footnote or at the end of the document if it is an endnote. With a footer, the same text appears at the bottom of every page; footnote text appears only once for each item marked. Figure 9.30 shows a footnote in WordPerfect. You create footnotes in WordPerfect by placing the cursor after the item you wish to mark and selecting Footnote/Endnote in the Insert menu. You do the same with Word, and select Footnote in the Insert menu.
Footnotes and endnotes
One of the most useful features in word processing programs for correcting text in documents is find and replace. The find and replace feature will search your document for the text you specify and replace it with new text you specify. You also can have the programs find text without replacing it. Figure 9.31 shows the dialog boxes for this feature in Word and WordPerfect.
Find and replace
Footnotes and endnotes are remarks that appear at the bottom of the page or end of the document.
The find and replace feature will search documents for text you specify and replace it with what you tell it.
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The footnote feature marks the item and places the remark at the bottom of the page.
Figure 9.30 Footnotes and endnotes are remarks at the bottom of the page or end of the document. This is the footnote feature in WordPerfect.
You activate find and replace through the Edit menus of both WordPerfect and Word. With both programs, you can make the search case sensitive or not— have the computer pay attention to whether letters are capitalized, or ignore that fact. Inserting graphics, characters, and other objects
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WordPerfect and Word You can insert just allow you to add pictures, about anything, from lines, and special characters pictures to spreadto documents. You can bring sheets, into word proin spreadsheets and links to cessing documents. databases. You can import just about anything into your document.
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Figure 9.31 The find and replace features in Word and WordPerfect.
Most items are imported by placing the cursor at the insertion point and choosing the option in the Insert menu. Figure 9.32 shows the Insert menus for Word and WordPerfect. Most often, you probably will want to insert special characters or symbols. Both programs come with a set of special symbols you can use. Figure 9.33 shows the dialog boxes to use the symbols.
Merge mass produces personalized letters and envelopes for mailing.
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Merge is a powerful word processing feature that allows you to mass produce large numbers of personalized letters or other documents. Those solicitations you
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Figure 9.32 The Insert menus in WordPerfect and Word.
receive in the mail every day with your name and address on the letter were produced with a merge function. When you create a merge, you develop a database of names and addresses in one file, and you link the database to a form letter saved in another file. You do this by defining the names and different parts of the addresses in the database as fields, then inserting these fields into the form letter. Merge even can insert fields into the body of the letter—a company’s name can be mentioned in the text, for instance. When you run the merge, the computer will insert the fields in the proper places in the form letter for the first record (usually, one person will comprise a record), print the letter, and move on to the next record. The result is personalized letters and envelopes that look like they have been typed individually. You can prepare thousands of letters quickly with merge. It takes several steps to prepare a merge. The best way to learn to do one is by reading the manual or the online help instructions. Don’t be discouraged if you 376
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Figure 9.33 Both WordPerfect and Word come with special symbols you can add to documents.
miss getting it right the first time—it takes many persons a couple of tries. WordPerfect has an excellent feature that gives you great control in formatting documents. Reveal Codes is a tool that shows you the formatting codes in a document. When you have been working on a document awhile, or when you copy and paste text from another document, formatting codes often end up in parts of the document that you did not intend. Reveal Codes is excellent for finding out why and where the margins or Chapter 9: Word Processing
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using word processing programs a font changed, for example. Once you have found the errant code, you can delete it to maintain consistent formatting. You start Reveal Codes by choosing it in the View menu. You then can click directly in the Reveal Codes part of the split screen and delete, block, copy, cut, or paste the codes as if you were working with text. Figure 9.34 shows the Reveal Codes window opened in Corel WordPerfect 8.
Figure 9.34 The Reveal Codes function in WordPerfect gives you a great amount of control in correcting document formatting problems. Above, the bottom of the split screen shows the text of the document and any formatting codes inserted into the text. The diamonds between words represent spaces, and the SRt codes stand for soft returns—the end of a line at which point text has been automatically word wrapped to the next line. The HRt is a hard return. A hard return is when you press the Enter or Return key to force the cursor down one line.
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Chapter 10 Spreadsheets Spreadsheet programs are widely used in businesses and government organizations to keep track of and plan finances. They are ideal for setting up and tracking budgets, projecting costs of products and services, and consolidating financial information from a number of sources. They are not accounting programs, however. Accounting programs manage the everyday accounting chores, such as credit and debit entries and the chart of accounts, for an organization. Many persons find that spreadsheets are useful at home, also. They can track household budgets as well as corporate ones; are useful for comparing costs of big ticket purchases, such as cars with their many options; and are easy and fun to use. In addition to crunching numbers, spreadsheet programs can display the results in a variety of graphs for visual presentations. They also have some basic database capabilities that make them useful for setting up a quick inventory of household items for your insurance records. There are three leading spreadsheet programs on the market today. Not surprisingly, the three—Corel Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3, and Microsoft Excel—frequently are purchased as part of an office suite (page 321) package. The leading spreadsheet programs today are 3-D ones. Each file is like a book—called a workbook in
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introduction to spreadsheets Table 10.1: Leading Spreadsheet Programs
Program
Platform
Approximate Price
Corel Quattro Pro 9
Windows 95/98
Included in WordPerfect Office 2000 (See Table 8.1 on page 322) Suite cost is $270 first time and $100 for an upgrade
Lotus 1-2-3 4.0
DOS
First time: $340 Upgrade: $90
Lotus 1-2-3 5.0
Windows 3.x
First time: $290 Upgrade: $90
Lotus 1-2-3 Millennium Edition R9.5
Windows 95/98
Included in Lotus Smart Suite Millennium Edition (See Table 8.1 on page 322) Suite cost is $300 first time and $100 for an upgrade
Microsoft Excel 5.0
Apple
First time: $280 Upgrade: $115
Microsoft Excel 98
Apple
First time: $340 Upgrade: $125
Microsoft Excel 5.0
Windows 3.x
First time: $300 Upgrade: $110
Microsoft Excel 2000
Windows 95/98
First time: $280 Upgrade: $90
Excel and Lotus 1-2-3 and a notebook in Quattro Pro—with multiple pages, called sheets or worksheets, stacked on top of each other. You enter data on the sheets, and you can link any number of sheets together.
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Using Spreadsheet Programs All the leading spreadsheet programs look pretty much the same when you start them. The work space in a spreadsheet program is a matrix of rows and columns of cells. Within these cells, you enter numbers and text. Figure 10.1 through Figure 10.3 show the work spaces for Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3, and Excel.
Figure 10.1 Corel Quattro Pro 8.
The rest of this chapter will show screens from these three programs. All of the programs are running under Windows 95; the versions used are Corel Quattro Pro 8, Lotus 1-2-3 97, and Microsoft Excel 97. There are later versions than the ones used here; however, the features and procedures will be practically the same. All Chapter 10: Spreadsheets
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Figure 10.2 Lotus 1-2-3 97.
three of these spreadsheet programs are remarkably powerful and able to handle nearly any conceivable spreadsheet task. Hover help
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You’ll notice in Figure Hover help tells you 10.1, Figure 10.2, and Figure the function of 10.3, that the programs have icons. very different icon bars for frequently used functions. Since each spreadsheet you create probably will be formatted differently, these programs make extensive use of icons and icon bars for the most common formatting functions. You do not need to memorize the purpose of each icon, however. You can use hover help, instead. With hover help, you hover (place) the mouse pointer over an icon for a few seconds, and a message Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
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Figure 10.3 Microsoft Excel 97.
explaining its function will appear. You do not click a mouse button to use hover help. Figure 10.4 shows an example of hover help. Many Windows applications, not just spreadsheets, have hover help as a feature. When you start a new spreadsheet, the first thing you should do is spend time thinking through its general layout and structure. You easily can add columns and rows as you go along if you think of items for which you did not plan. However, changing the basic structure of a spreadsheet once you are well underway may be difficult. A spreadsheet to compare prices of different items or to track a simple budget should be straightforward. You should first plan the layout of a spreadsheet when you begin a new one.
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Figure 10.4 Hover help is available when you hover the mouse pointer over an icon for a few seconds: a description of the function of the icon—in this case, “Sort Ascending”—will appear.
For example, to compare the prices of different models of cars, you may label the columns with the makes and models of the cars and the rows with the cost categories, such as base price, air conditioning, and automatic transmission. It then is a simple matter of entering the costs and having the software sum and perform other operations on the figures. If the spreadsheet is to determine the cost of a product being manufactured, decide whether all the items contributing to the cost should be on one sheet or separate sheets or even separate files. How frequently the cost components are going to be updated and by whom are important to consider in the spreadsheet structure. Suppose you regularly want to establish the cost of a product that has a number of cost components, many of which originate from different departments in a company. In this case, consider one master spreadsheet that pulls in data from spreadsheets updated in those different departments.
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using spreadsheet programs On the other hand, if you want to do a one-time analysis of a product’s cost, based on historical data, you probably will lay out the spreadsheet differently. You can gather past cost data and assemble it in a single file or perhaps even on a single sheet. For complex spreadsheets, it often will be easier and more convenient to use multiple sheets rather than put all the data on a single sheet. You can link and reference data on multiple sheets as easily as if it were on one sheet. Using multiple sheets makes it easier to organize, locate, and view data. With multiple sheets, you also may find it convenient to format one sheet and copy it, formulas and all, to another. This would be useful, for example, when you want to track the same costs for multiple locations. You would set up a spreadsheet once on a single sheet, copy it to a number of other sheets, and give each sheet a name identifying the location for which the costs apply. You place text, numbers, and formulas in cells on a spreadsheet. A cell is a box defined by the intersection of a row and column. Each cell has an address made from the sheet name, column letter, and row number. For example, the address of the cell located at the intersection of column C and row 22 on a sheet named Yearly would be Y EARLY :C22 in Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3, and YEARLY!C22 in Excel. The programs assign letters or numbers to sheets as defaults. For example, notice at the bottom of Figure 10.3 on page 383 that Excel opens with three sheets You put text, numbers, and formulas in cells. Each cell has an address for reference in formulas.
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using spreadsheet programs named Sheet1, Sheet2, and Sheet3. You can add more sheets and rename them, however. To add sheets in Excel and Quattro Pro, select Worksheet or Sheet, respectively, from their Insert menus. In Lotus 1-2-3, select Sheet in the Create menu. To rename a sheet, right click the sheet tab and select Sheet Properties in Quattro Pro or Lotus 1-2-3, or Rename in Excel. Cell addresses and cell entries are shown in displays in the upper left corners of the spreadsheets’ screens. Figure 10.5 shows these displays in Quattro Pro.
Cell address
Cell entry
Figure 10.5 Two displays in the upper left corners of spreadsheet screens help keep you oriented. The cell address tells you which cell is selected; and the cell entry shows the text, number, or formula entered in the cell. In this case, a formula adding the contents of cells H10 and H11 has been entered in cell B2 on the sheet named Yearly. You do not have to specify the sheet name when you enter an address in a cell if the cell you are referencing is on the same sheet. If cell H10 were on a sheet named Monthly, you would enter +H11+MONTHLY:H10 in Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3, or =H11+MONTHLY!H10 in Excel.
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To enter text, numbers, or formulas in a cell, you click in the cell and start typing. You can move among cells with your mouse, but you probably will find it easier to use the arrow keys if you are entering data in cells that are close together. Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using spreadsheet programs With Quattro Pro and Excel, pressing Enter after you have typed in data moves you down one cell for the next entry. With Lotus 1-2-3, you have to set up the program to do this. To set this up, select User Setup, then 1-2-3 Preferences from the File menu. In the dialog box, select Classic Keys, then click on: “Tab moves right one cell, Enter confirms and moves down.” With all three programs, pressing an arrow key after typing data will enter the data and move to the cell in the direction of the arrow. Also with all three programs, pressing Tab enters data and moves to the cell to the right. When you enter data, all three programs will assume you are entering straight text or numbers, and not formulas, unless you type an operator first. The default operator for beginning a formula is the plus sign (+) in Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3, and the equal sign (=) in Excel. With Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3, you may start a formula with a parenthesis, also. With Excel, formulas always must be started with an equal sign. You may enter data in a cell from another spreadsheet file. To do so, open the spreadsheet from which you want to import the data, click on the cell with the data you want to import, copy the data (Ctrl-C, or select Copy from the Edit menu), open the spreadsheet you’re bringing the data into, and click in the cell where the data is to go. To paste the data into the cell, you select Paste Special from the Edit menu.
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using spreadsheet programs Formulas
The power of spread- Formulas allow you sheets is their ability to use for- to perform simple mulas to perform operations or complex calculaon numbers. You construct tions with spreadformulas using operators and sheets. parentheses. Table 10.2 shows the five symbols used as arithmetic operators to construct formulas. With Excel, you also must use the equal sign (=) at the beginning of a formula. Table 10.2: Symbols Used As Operators in Formulas.
Symbol
Name
Function
+
Plus sign
Addition
-
Hyphen
Subtraction
*
Asterisk
Multiplication
/
Slash
Division
^
Caret
Exponentiation
You can use parentheses to construct formulas. Also, you can create logical formulas with symbols such as < (less than), > (greater than), and = (equal to), as well as with words such as AND, FALSE, IF, NOT, TRUE, and OR. Figure 10.6 shows a formula created in Lotus 1-2-3. It may be helpful for you to see the formulas that go into the construction of a simple spreadsheet. Suppose you are fooling around in your workshop one day, and you make a wonderful whirligig shaped like a pelican. Friends and neighbors start asking you to make
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Figure 10.6 You can construct formulas using operators and parentheses. In this example, the value in cell E12 on sheet B is the sum of cells E7 and E8 multiplied by E9, with the result then divided by E10, and that result divided by 1000.
pelican whirligigs for them, so you decide to go into business. You know how much money you need to get for each bird to make it worthwhile, and you have a good idea of a reasonable retail price. You decide to develop a discount schedule to encourage retail stores to buy large quantities of your creation. The spreadsheet shown in Figure 10.7 is what you start with. The formula in cell D5 calculates a discount for stores buying one or two pelican whirligigs. It multiplies the discount rate in C5 (30%) times the retail price in D4 and subtracts the result from the retail price. The result, $17.50, is shown in cell D5. Once you have established a formula, you may copy it to the remaining cells to save time. The normal way to copy this formula would be to click in cell D5, copy the contents (Ctrl-C or select Copy from the Edit menu), block cells D6 through D9, and paste the contents Copying and pasting allows you to create a formula once and use it in several cells.
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Figure 10.7 This spreadsheet shows a formula to calculate discounts on a product.
(Ctrl-V or select Paste from the Edit menu). Figure 10.8 shows the results from copying this formula this way. Note that when you copy and paste a formula with this method, the addresses of the new formulas are changed to reflect positions relative to the cell in which the formula is pasted. This is useful in many circumstances, but not this one. To keep addresses in formulas from being changed relative to the cells in which they are pasted, insert a dollar sign in the address before the coordinate you want to remain fixed. In this case you would change the formula in cell D5 to D$4-(D$4*C5). Then when you copy and paste the formula in the remaining cells, you will get the correct results. Figure 10.9 shows the spreadsheet with the formula copied with a fixed coordinate. Since you are copying the formula straight down in the same column, you do not need a dollar sign before the letter D. If you were copying the formula to a different column, the formula would be $D$4-($D$4*$C5). 390
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Figure 10.8 When you copy and paste formulas, the programs will paste relative addresses—addresses that change relative to the position of the cell into which they are pasted. In this case, the formula copied from cell D5 was D4-(D4*C5), but the formula pasted in cell D6 was changed to calculate the discount on the value in cell D5. The result is an incorrect formula. Figure 10.9 shows how to prevent this error from happening.
Figure 10.9 Inserting dollar signs in the addresses before the coordinates you want to remain fixed will keep them from changing when being pasted into other cells.
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Instead of writing formulas Functions, or for your spreadsheet, you may be @functions, are able to use functions to perform built-in formulas. the calculations you need. Functions, also called @functions (pronounced, “at functions”), are built-in formulas included with each program. You can use functions by themselves or as part of a larger formula you construct. Figure 10.10 shows a spreadsheet you might construct to estimate the cost of each whirligig you manufacture. Note the formula shown in the cell entry display. The formula consists of the name of a function—SUBTOTAL in this case—and an argument within the parentheses after the function name. The argument consists of the variables you must supply that the function will act upon. In this case, the argument is a range of cells to be added together to produce the subtotal. A range (called a block in Quattro Pro) is a series of adjacent cells identified by a range address. A range can consist of cells in a single row or column, or it can consist of cells in multiple rows and columns. The address of a range is the upper left cell first, followed by two dots in Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3 or a colon in Excel, then followed by the address of the lower right cell. In this case. the range is from cell C3 through cell C5, and the range address is C3..C5. You could use the most common function, SUM, to get the same results in this case. The formula would be @SUM(C3..C5). The SUM function is used so frequently that each program has an icon for it. To use the SUM icon, block the cells to be added, plus one empty cell at the end, where the total should appear. Click on the SUM icon, and the programs will insert the SUM function in the empty cell, with the
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Figure 10.10 The @function SUBTOTAL in Lotus 1-2-3.
range of cells blocked as the argument. In other words, the programs will automatically add the cells you blocked. The SUBTOTAL function is used in Figure 10.10 to make it easier to total all the numbers in the column. Figure 10.11 shows the spreadsheet with the GRANDTOTAL function in cell C19. This function correctly totals all the items in the range C3..C17, even though subtotals appear in the range. If the SUM function had been used to add these numbers together, the subtotals Chapter 10: Spreadsheets
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Figure 10.11 The @function GRANDTOTAL in Lotus 1-2-3.
All three programs come with numerous functions built in. Some of the categories of functions are mathematical, financial, engineering, statistical, database, and logical. The arguments used with the different functions are varied, so you need to consult the instructions that appear as you access each function. To use a function in Quattro Pro, right click in the cell in which the function is to be placed and choose
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using spreadsheet programs Insert Function from the menu that appears. In Lotus 1-2-3, you click in the cell then click on the icon with the @ symbol on it. The icon is next to the cell entry display. With Excel, you click in the cell, then choose Function from the Insert menu. Figure 10.12 shows some of the function list and the dialog box that appear when you use functions in Quattro Pro. You can format the cells in a spreadsheet in a variety of ways. For example, you can have the program automatically format numbers you enter to reflect currency, complete with dollar signs, commas, and two decimal places. Likewise, the program can display numbers as percentages, fractions, scientific notation, and other formats. By adding borders, you can clearly group data to make it easier to read. Spreadsheets allow you to change the fonts and colors of text and numbers, and you can rotate text and numbers in cells with all three leading programs. Text and numbers also can be aligned to the right, left, or center of cells. You can shade cells in many different colors, and it’s easy to change the width of columns and rows. To illustrate some of the formatting options, suppose you are ready to go on the road selling your pelican whirligigs to stores. You have a spreadsheet laying out discounts (Figure 10.9 on page 391) based on the minimum amount you need for each whirligig (Figure 10.11 on page 394). You’ve come up with a name for your company—Wild Winds Whirligigs—and it’s time to print out a price schedule to give to your potential customers. Figure 10.13 shows two examples of how you might format your data to print out. (As with all WinFormatting cells helps you present data clearly and make it visually appealing.
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Figure 10.12 The function list and dialog box in Quattro Pro.
dows applications, Print and Print Setup commands are found in the File menus for the three programs.) The first step in formatting cells is to click in a cell or to block a group of cells that you want to format. You
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Figure 10.13 You can format spreadsheets in a variety of ways. This is the same data shown in Figure 10.9 on page 391. The numbers in the “Price each” column have been formatted for currency, and those in the “Discount” column for percentage. The text and numbers have been put in a variety of fonts, some text has been rotated, and cells have been shaded in the bottom spreadsheet to create a border. The top spreadsheet uses lines as borders to delineate data.
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using spreadsheet programs then right click on your mouse and select Format Cells in Excel, Cell Properties in Quattro Pro, or Range Properties in Lotus 1-2-3. Dialog boxes, as shown in Figure 10.14 will pop open, giving you many formatting options. Clicking on the tabs at the tops of the dialog boxes opens new sets of formatting tools. Adjusting the width of columns or height of rows is equally easy. In Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3, you click in a cell in the row or column, open the formatting dialog box as explained in the previous paragraph, and click the tab for Row/Column in Quattro Pro or Basics in Lotus 1-2-3. In Excel, right click one or more column or row buttons with the letters or numbers on them. They are on the top and left side of the work area. Then choose Column Width or Row Height. Similarly, you can insert, delete, or hide rows and columns. Right click the row or column button in any of the three programs and choose the option you want. Sometimes when you enter numbers in a cell, all that appears is a series of asterisks (*) in Quattro Pro or Lotus 1-2-3 or pound signs (#) in Excel. This happens when there are too many digits or letters for the width of the column. To expand the column automatically to the proper width, double click on the column button in Excel or between the column button and the button to the right in Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3. You also can drag the edges of the column buttons. See Figure 10.15.
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Figure 10.14 The formatting dialog boxes for Excel (top), Lotus 1-2-3 (middle), and Quattro Pro.
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Double click between the column buttons to adjust the width.
Figure 10.15 You double click between the column buttons in Lotus 1-2-3 (shown) and Quattro Pro to automatically adjust the width. With Excel, you double click on the button.
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One of the most powerful Linking sheets and features of today’s spread- files allows you to sheets is the ability to link data better organize and among sheets in a 3-D spread- analyze extensive sheet and among different or complex data. spreadsheet files. Linking data among sheets within a spreadsheet helps you organize data more logically than on a single sheet. It makes it much easier for you to find, use, and update the data. Linking data among spreadsheets is very useful when different persons contribute data to a consolidating spreadsheet. Those different persons can enter data Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using spreadsheet programs on their own spreadsheets. Then when the consolidating spreadsheet is opened, it will search for their spreadsheet files and update its data. For the next series of examples, suppose your company, Wild Winds Whirligigs, is doing famously. You’ve sold tens of thousands of pelican, hummingbird, eagle, duck, and hawk whirligigs. You have several staff and an efficient manufacturing process. You decide you need to track production costs, as shown in Figure 10.11 on page 394, more closely. You plan to have your employees track costs on a series of spreadsheets that will be consolidated on one master sheet. The first thing you need to do is lay out the spreadsheet structure. You decide to have a separate spreadsheet for each cost category (except profit) shown in Figure 10.11. Within each spreadsheet, you set up separate sheets for each month and a consolidating front sheet for the average year-to-date costs per unit. Figure 10.16 shows this structure for the wood-cost category. Setting up this spreadsheet is easy. To name the sheets in the spreadsheet, double click on the sheet tabs and type the names you want. The list of months as shown on the Year-to-date sheet can be entered automatically with all three programs. To automatically fill in the months with Quattro Pro, block the cells in which you want the months, right click the mouse, and choose QuickFill. With Lotus 1-23 and Excel, enter the first month, click in the cell, and When you set up a 3-D spreadsheet, group the data logically on the different sheets. You can use the top sheet as the main, integrating sheet.
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Figure 10.16 A 3-D spreadsheet structure for tracking costs.
drag the cell’s lower right corner down to block the number of cells you want filled. When you release the mouse button, the programs will fill in the months automatically. Creating and copying a template sheet
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The next step in creating the spreadsheet to track costs is to create a template sheet for each month’s data and copy this template to the other months’ sheets. Figure 10.17 shows the template for tracking the monthly wood cost after some data has been entered. The error messages (ERR) in cells I13–I24 occurred because values have not been entered in column E for those rows, resulting in a formula with a Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
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Figure 10.17 This sheet’s layout and formulas (but no data) have been copied to the sheets below, thus creating a template.
divisor of zero. The ERR will be replaced with values once numbers are entered in cells E13 through E24. The cells in column H contain formulas that add the cells in columns F and G. Column H cells will show zero until entries are made in at least one of the other two columns. To create and copy the template in Quattro Pro and Excel, first group the sheets that will contain the template. To do this in Quattro Pro, you choose Name, then Group of Sheets in the Insert menu. To turn the group on and off, you click Group Mode in the View menu. In Excel, you hold down the Ctrl key while clicking on the sheet tabs. To turn off the group, you right click any of the grouped tabs and choose Ungroup Sheets. Chapter 10: Spreadsheets
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using spreadsheet programs Once you have the group turned on in Excel, entering formulas, numbers, and formats on the top sheet in the group will copy the same to others. Make certain you turn off the group before you start entering the data, however, or it, too, will be copied to the other sheets. In Quattro Pro, with the group turned on, you type in the cell entry and press Ctrl+Enter to copy the entry to the other sheets in the group. With both Excel and Quattro Pro, the entries will appear in the exact same position on all sheets. With Lotus 1-2-3, grouping sheets will copy only the formats to the other sheets—not text entries, numbers, or formulas. This shortcoming probably will make it not worth your time to use the group function. You are better off setting up one sheet, blocking the template, copying it, and pasting it onto the other sheets one-by-one. When doing this, make sure you start blocking from cell A1. Then when you paste, select cell A1 on the new sheet to paste onto. This will make certain the formulas, text, and numbers are in the same cells for all sheets. The uniform cell positions make it easier when referencing cell addresses in formulas. The result of setting up template sheets in this manner is you quickly have standard forms, for each month, on which your employees can enter wood delivery information. All they need to do is click on the proper month’s tab, enter data in the next available row, and save the file. Figure 10.18 shows the form for February, with no data entered. Note that employees need to enter text and numbers in columns B through G only. Columns H and I have formulas to automatically calculate results.
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Figure 10.18 A template in which no data has been entered.
One aside about the formula in cell I26 shown in Figure 10.18. You may be wondering why the AVG function, as shown in Figure 10.12 on page 396, is not used. There are two reasons for this. First, most of the time there will be ERR (error) entries in at least some of the cells in column I. The program will not be able to average these cells and therefore will produce an ERR entry where the average should be, even after data for several deliveries has been entered. Second, even without ERR entries, if you use the average function to find the mean of the values in column I, you will be averaging results of calculations that have been rounded. Averaging these results will produce significant rounding errors. The formula shown in Fig-
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using spreadsheet programs ure 10.18 is a more accurate way to get the average cost for the month. Linking sheets in a spreadsheet
The next step in tracking You can link data the production costs is to bring in cells on any each month’s costs onto a consol- sheet to cells on idating spreadsheet for the cost other sheets. category. You then can have the program calculate the average year-to-date unit cost. Figure 10.19 shows the consolidating wood-cost spreadsheet, with each month’s average per-unit cost.
Figure 10.19 This Year-to-date sheet consolidates data from the sheets below it.
There are two ways you can bring forward each month’s average costs onto the consolidating spread406
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using spreadsheet programs sheet. One way is simply to reference the cell on the sheet with the data you want. For example, you would enter +January:I26 in the January row if you are using Quattro Pro. January is the sheet name, and cell I26 on that sheet contains the average cost for the month (see Figure 10.17 on page 403). You would do the same for each month, replacing the January sheet name with the proper one for the month. (See Cells, sheets, and addresses on page 385 for the formats for referencing sheets in the different programs.) The other way to bring the data onto the consolidating sheet is to copy and paste it there. This works if you have fixed the coordinates and used sheet names in the formula you are copying (see Copying formulas on page 389). Otherwise, the programs will assume cell references are for the sheet onto which you are copying the formula and not for the sheet from which you are copying. Figure 10.20 shows the cell entries for both methods of bringing data onto the consolidating sheet.
Figure 10.20 The top screen shows a cell entry that brings in data from a cell on another sheet by simply referencing that cell’s address. The bottom screen shows a formula copied from the other sheet. For the formula to be copied successfully, it must contain sheet names and fixed coordinates.
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using spreadsheet programs Note the formula in cell C18 on the Year-to-date sheet in Figure 10.19. To get the average cost per unit, the formula sums the total cost for all deliveries, divides the results by the total board feet for all deliveries, and multiples that result by 1.2—the amount of wood it takes to make a whirligig. This is the same formula shown in Figure 10.18, except it performs the calculations on the sheets for all the months. When writing this formula, you can enter the range of the sheet names, as in @SUM(JANUARY..DECEMBER:H4..H24). When you do this with Quattro Pro, it automatically inserts the shortcut term Months, since all months are included. Linking spreadsheet files
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Now that you have set up Linking data among spreadsheets to track each cost files allows you to category, you need a consoliimport data that is dating spreadsheet to show created by different the total cost for a whirligig. persons and saved The spreadsheet shown in Figin their separate spreadsheet files. ure 10.11 on page 394 is a good format for showing the total cost—all you need to do is bring in the data from the other spreadsheets your employees are using to track individual cost categories. The easiest way to bring data into one spreadsheet from another is to copy and paste the data with both spreadsheets open. With Quattro Pro, you would open the files shown in Figure 10.11 and Figure 10.19; click in cell C18 on the Year-to-date sheet shown in Figure 10.19; copy the contents; click in cell C3 on the sheet shown in Figure 10.11; and choose Paste Special, then Link from the Edit menu. With Lotus 1-2-3 and Excel, you would copy the contents as with Quattro Pro. When pasting with Lotus Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using spreadsheet programs 1-2-3, you choose Paste Link from the Edit menu. With Excel, choose Paste Special, then Paste Link from the Edit menu. After you have linked the data between the spreadsheets, opening the spreadsheet into which you pasted the data will open a dialog box in Quattro Pro and Excel asking you if you want to update the data. If you tell the programs to update the link, they will import the data that has been saved most recently in the other spreadsheet file. Figure 10.21 shows the screen that appears when you open the linked file in Quattro Pro. The file name containing the linked data appears in brackets in the cell entry display. Quattro Pro has replaced the sheet name “Year to date” with the shorter reference, “A.” With Lotus 1-2-3, the links are updated automatically when you open the file. You also may update the links manually to bring in the most recent data. To do this, you choose Manage Links from the Edit menu. When linking spreadsheets, you must maintain the path relationships among the files. For example, if the files linked are in the same directory, they must remain in the same directory for the program to be able to update the data. You may move the files to another computer as long as you place them in directories with the same names and paths as before. If your consolidating spreadsheet file is in the directory \BUDGET\COSTS, and the file from which you are importing data is in \PURCHASE\97 for example, you must create those directories to store the files on the new computer. The alternative is to reestablish the links. With all programs, you may reestablish missing links fairly easily. When you open a file in Quattro Pro that contains linked data, and the program cannot find
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Figure 10.21 This is the dialog box that appears when you open a file containing linked data in Quattro Pro.
the other file, a dialog box as shown in Figure 10.22 appears. From this dialog box, you can reestablish the link by telling the program where the file is located. In Lotus 1-2-3, you can do the same by choosing Manage Links in the Edit menu. With Excel, you choose Links in the Edit menu. In theory, you can import data from one program, say Quattro Pro, into another, say Excel. In practice, linking files across programs gives uneven results. If the data is important, you are better off linking files among spreadsheets created with the same program.
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Figure 10.22 Opening a file containing missing links in Quattro Pro opens the dialog box above.
You can present data in graph form with spreadsheet programs. All three of the leading programs give you a variety of graph formats from which to choose. You can use line, pie, or bar graphs in two or three dimensions. You can label graph segments with numbers, percentages, or text. Titles and subtitles are within your control, as are colors and shading. Figure 10.23 shows you a graph created with Excel. The process with all three programs involves first blocking the data to be graphed. Dialog boxes in all three programs also allow you to type in the ranges of the data to be graphed. Once the data you want to graph is blocked, you choose Chart from the Insert menus of Excel and Quattro Pro, or Chart from the Create menu in Graphing data allows you to present results of a spreadsheet in ways that are visually easy to understand.
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Figure 10.23 Spreadsheets allow you to create graphs easily to display data. This pie chart was created in Excel by blocking cells B3 to C16 and choosing Chart from the Insert menu.
Lotus 1-2-3. Figure 10.24 shows the dialog box that opens in Excel when you graph data. The data graphed in Figure 10.23 is the same data in the spreadsheet shown in Figure 10.21 on page 410. Note that some rows have been hidden—the subtotal rows and the cost-category-name rows—to avoid having them graphed when the data was blocked. To hide rows in Excel and Quattro Pro, right click the row buttons to the left of column A and choose Hide. In Lotus 1-2-3, you do the same and choose Hide Rows. You also can hide columns in a similar fashion.
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Figure 10.24 This is the Chart Wizard dialog box from Excel.
✯ ✯ ✯ Spreadsheet programs allow you to create flat-file databases quickly and easily. A database is a collection of related data organized in tables of rows and columns. A column is called a field and contains one group of information, such as a product name or telephone number. A row is called a record and contains a collection of information about a particular item, such as person or product. A record may contain the name, product number, description, variations such as sizes and colors, and price of a single product, for example. You can use a spreadsheet program to create a quick database to organize information.
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using spreadsheet programs There are two broad categories of databases: relational and flat-file. A flat-file database has a single table, and a relational database links two or more tables together. Spreadsheet programs are capable of creating flat-file databases only. They can import data from relational databases, however. Setting up a database
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Setting up a database with a Setting up a dataspreadsheet program is straight- base is easy, but forward. First you decide the there are a few data and fields you want to orga- simple rules to nize. Then you type the field keep in mind. names at the top of the columns of the spreadsheet, one field per column. Finally, you enter the records of the database, one record per row. Figure 10.25 shows a home inventory database that was created with Lotus 1-2-3. There are just a few rules you should keep in mind when creating and maintaining a database with a spreadsheet program: The field names must be at the top of the columns in the first row of the database, and all field names must be in the same row.
Data may be entered only in the cells where the fields and records intersect. This means data entered in cells beyond the last defined column or row will not be part of the database.
The rows must be contiguous with no blank records (empty rows). You also should not use the row below the field names as a separator, even if you fill it with lines or shading.
Each field should contain similar data, Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
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Figure 10.25 This is a home inventory database created with Lotus 1-2-3.
such as all numbers or all labels. You can format all the cells in the column before you enter data to assure this. (See Formatting on page 395.)
Field names should not resemble cell addresses, such as “A1.”
Each field name should be different and be a label, not a number.
Punctuation, symbols, or spaces should not be used in field names.
These basics for creating a database apply to all three programs. The individual programs have unique special features for creating and managing databases,
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using spreadsheet programs however. You can learn more about these features by searching the online help in the program you are using. If you are using Excel, know that databases created with Excel are called lists. Sorting data
Once you have entered the When you sort data in the database, you may data, you arrange want to sort it. Sorting is simply it in alphabetical arranging data in ascending or or numerical descending alphabetical or order. numerical order. With spreadsheet databases, you can sort by several fields at once. For example, the database in Figure 10.25 could be sorted first by Owner in descending order, then by Type in ascending order, and then by Item in ascending order. The result of this sort is shown in Figure 10.26. To sort a database, you choose Sort in the Tools menu in Quattro Pro, or Sort in the Data menu in Excel. With Lotus 1-2-3, you first should block the database, then choose Sort in the Range menu. When you choose the Sort commands with these programs, the dialog boxes shown in Figure 10.27 will appear.
Querying data
One of the most useful feaQuerying datatures of any database is the abil- bases allows you ity to quer y the data and to extract data produce reports. When you you need and query a database, you ask it to create reports. extract data and present it in a particular form. As an example, you may want to produce a special report from the inventory database to see if you have the
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Figure 10.26 The databases created with spreadsheet programs can be sorted by multiple fields. This one is sorted by the Owner field first, then by Type, and then by Item.
proper homeowner insurance coverage. Excel is particularly adept at producing such reports, which it calls PivotTables. To produce a report in an Excel database, you choose PivotTable Report in the Data menu. You then drag field buttons onto areas of a report template to extract the data you want. Figure 10.28 shows the dialog box and the report produced. In Lotus 1-2-3, you choose Database in the Create menu, then Report. The dialog box will guide you through several steps to produce the report. In Quattro Pro, you produce reports by choosing Data Tools and then Cross Tabs in the Tools menu. The
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Figure 10.27 The Sort dialog boxes in Quattro Pro (top left), Excel (top right), and Lotus 1-2-3.
dialog box that appears enables you to design a report in a manner similar to that of Excel. With all three programs, you should experiment and produce several different reports to get a feel for the function.
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Figure 10.28 You can query data and produce reports with spreadsheet databases. This report was produced by opening the PivotTable dialog box (top) in Excel and dragging field buttons onto the report form. At bottom is the report that was produced.
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Chapter 11 Databases More than any other computer application, databases keep modern society functioning. A database management program is an application that organizes, manages, sorts, and retrieves information. This chapter focuses on end-user database programs running on desktop computers. Database programs running on networks for larger-scale operations are covered in the chapter on networks (see Database servers beginning on page 257). Your driver’s license is kept in a database, as are your Social Security number and payment history. The FBI keeps its files in databases; and the telephone company uses them to keep track of all the telephone numbers and publish telephone books. The junk mail you receive is the product of computer databases. Companies compile databases of potential customers and either use the information themselves or sell the databases to other companies. These databases can be tailored to target persons with certain buying habits or demographics. Both small and large businesses find databases valuable. Inventory control is a lot easier with specially designed databases. When you go to the supermarket and the clerk scans your purchase at the checkout counter, the price comes from a database that can be updated almost instantly for all the stores in the chain.
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introduction to database programs Information about your purchase is fed back into the computer for inventory control and reordering. On a smaller scale, your doctor may keep your medical and billing histories in a database. Your doctor may then bill your insurance company electronically by modem and print out a bill for you at the end of the month. Individuals may find databases helpful, also. You can have a database to keep track of all your friends, family, and business contacts. The database can print an address book for your pocket and a mailing list for holiday cards. A home inventory is a good chore to give to database software. Such a database can keep track of descriptions, purchase prices, and serial numbers of valuables. You even can store pictures of items by either scanning regular photographs or taking digital ones. The images then can be stored in the database as binary large objects (BLOBs). (See page 258 for more on how databases store BLOBs.) Databases may require expertise to set up
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Databases’ power and usefulness come at a price. The more complicated a database is, the more difficult it can be to set up and maintain. Thankfully, the newer desktop database programs come with many database templates that you easily can start using almost immediately. Several of these programs also have made it relatively easy to construct your own simple databases from scratch. Building a relational database can be a complex undertaking. To make matters worse, the programs on the market do not have a uniform command structure, work space, or even terminology. Microsoft Access 97, which is used as an example in this chapter, does a good
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introduction to database programs job of helping nonprogrammers and novices create relational databases. What this chapter will do is give you the fundamental concepts of databases and how they are constructed. It then will give you examples, using three different programs on the market. The examples will cover using the templates, making flat-file and relational databases from scratch, using databases that have been built, creating forms and reports, and performing queries. There are many database programs on the market. If you are interested in available programs for networks, Table 6.8 on page 266 lists some of them. For end users, Table 11.1 lists most of the available choices. Several of the database programs listed in Table 11.1 are for persons who are using the software to develop applications for others. These are identified as professional versions in the price column.
Programs on the market
Table 11.1: End-User Database Programs (Part 1 of 3)
Program
Manufacturer
4TH Dimension Version 6.5
ACI US
Approximate Price by Platform Windows 95/98: $270 Windows 95/98 professional: $630 Mac: $270 Mac professional: $630
Alpha Five
Alpha Software
CA Clipper Versions 5.2 + 5.3
Computer Associates
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Windows 3.x: $45 DOS: $140 Windows 3.x: $150
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introduction to database programs Table 11.1: End-User Database Programs (Part 2 of 3)
Program
Manufacturer
Corel Paradox 9
Corel
Approximate Price by Platform Windows 95/98: $130 Included in Corel WordPerfect Office 2000 Professional (first time: $315; upgrade: $170)
FileMaker Pro Version 4.1
FileMaker (Formerly Claris)
DB2
IBM
Windows (all): $165 Mac: $165 Windows 95/NT: $310 OS/2: $285
Lotus Approach 3.0
Lotus (IBM)
Windows 3.x: $90
Lotus Approach Millennium Edition 9.5
Lotus (IBM)
Windows 95/98: $95
Mainstay Phyla
Mainstay
Mac: $180
Access 2000
Microsoft
Windows 95/98: $280
Included in Lotus SmartSuite Millennium Edition (first time: $300; upgrade: $100)
Windows 95/98 upgrade: $90 Included in Microsoft Office 2000 Professional (first time: $530; upgrade: $270) Access Version 2.0
Microsoft
Fox Pro Version 2.6
Microsoft
Windows 3.x: $280 Windows 3.x upgrade: $120 DOS: $95 DOS professional: $430 Unix: $790 Windows 3.x: $95 Windows 3.x professional: $425
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introduction to database programs Table 11.1: End-User Database Programs (Part 3 of 3)
Program
Manufacturer
Visual Fox Pro
Microsoft
Approximate Price by Platform Windows 3.x: $180 Windows 3.x professional: $450 Windows 95/NT: $500 Windows 95/NT upgrade: $250 Mac: $450
Oracle 8 Personal Edition
Oracle Software
Windows 95/98: $355
SQL Anywhere Professional 5.5
Sybase
Windows 95/98: $630
SQL Anywhere Studio 6.0
Sybase
Windows 95/98: $300
Several database programs are particularly user friendly, and screens from three of these programs are used in this chapter as examples. These programs are Corel Paradox 8, FileMaker Pro 4.0, and Microsoft Access 97. All three are operating in Windows 98. These programs come in newer versions, but you can expect the look and procedures to be similar. Two of these programs—Corel Paradox and Microsoft Access—are likely to be found in many offices and homes, since they are included in the professional versions of widely used office suites. The third program used here—FileMaker Pro—is popular with Apple computer users.
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database fundamentals
Database Fundamentals Database programs store information in tables consisting of columns and rows. Figure 11.1 shows a database table created with Access 97. Similarly, the database developed with a spreadsheet program shown in Figure 10.25 on page 415 is a table of columns and rows. While spreadsheet programs can perform some basic database functions, they are not nearly as capable as database programs at such tasks.
Figure 11.1 Information in databases is stored in tables consisting of columns and rows. A column is called a field, and a row is a record.
Fields and records
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A column in a database table Columns in datais called a field. Fields contain one base tables are group of information, such as a fields, and rows name or telephone number. are records. A row in a database is called a record. Records contain a collection of information (all the fields) about a particular item—a person or product, for example. In Figure 11.1 the fields are Contact ID, First Name, Last Name, Address, and so forth. Then there are records for Hilary Force, Benjamin Leonard, Kevin Holston, and so on.
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database fundamentals Databases may store all data in a single table. This likely will be the case when the data is for a single purpose. Databases using only one table are flat-file databases. A flat-file database may be all that is needed with an address database that stores names, addresses, and telephone numbers, or a home inventory database with the names, serial numbers, values, and descriptions of household items. To keep track of information efficiently, a database may store information in more than one table and link the tables together. A database consisting of multiple tables linked together is called a relational database. Figure 6.6 on page 259 depicts how tables are linked to form a relational database. As an example, a business may have a relational database set up to manage its sales. One table may contain employee information. Another may track inventory, including descriptions and retail and wholesale prices of items in stock. A third table may contain the names, addresses, telephone numbers, and contact persons for customers. A fourth table may track items sold. By linking these tables together, the business can manage all aspect of its sales operations including preparing invoices, restocking items, mailing catalogs to customers, and awarding commissions to employees.
Relational and flat-file databases
Fields in relational database tables can be indexed. The index specifies the order in which the program accesses the records. The program will access an indexed field in numerical order if it contains numbers, or
Indexes
Databases that use only one table are called flat-file; those that link two or more tables are relational.
Indexing fields helps the database program find data quickly.
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database fundamentals alphabetical order if it is a text field. Each table can have more than one indexed field. A primary index defines the first sort order, and a secondary index the second sort order. One of the purposes of indexing fields is to help the program find data quickly. Every time a new record is entered, the index is updated. However, indexing many fields in a table will slow the program down, since it will need to update all the indexes each time a record is added. Primary and foreign keys/parent and child tables
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A primary key in a table is Keys are indexed an indexed field that has a fields containing unique value for each record. unique identifiers In other words, no two records that can be used to will have the same primary link two or more key. Primary key fields usually tables together. contain automatic numbering. Each time a record is added, the program adds 1 to the previous record’s primary key number and inserts the result for the new record’s primary key. This method ensures the uniqueness of each record’s primary key. Keys are used to link two or more tables together to form a relational database. Normally in a relational database, each table will have a primary key field, and each table’s primary key will have a name different from the other tables’ primary keys. With this arrangement, each record in any table has a unique identifier (the primary key) to which a field in another table can refer. It is as if each record has its own telephone number that can be dialed at any time. When two tables are linked, they form a relationship, with one table referring to a key field in another table. The table containing the primary key is sometimes called the parent, or master, table; the table referWaterfields Guide to Computer Software
database fundamentals ring to the primary key is the child, or detail, table. When the child table is constructed, the parent’s primary key is included as a field in the child table as a foreign, or secondary, key. Figure 11.2 depicts relationships among tables forming an inventory control database constructed with Access 97. Note the linking of the tables through primary and secondary keys. You also may want to look at Figure 6.6 on page 259 for a simpler depiction of how primary and secondary keys link tables in a relational database. In Figure 6.6, Cust# is the primary key in the table containing the customer names, but the secondary key in the table with the primary key field Transac#. If you are using a database and turn to the manual or online help with a question, remember that database terminology is not uniform. One program may refer to key fields as match fields, while another will call them link fields. Key field is the term that has been around the longest. When primary and foreign keys are linked, relational databases use a set of rules to make certain the data being linked are valid. These rules are called referential integrity. Two basic rules will be enforced. First, the field being matched in the parent table must be a primary key, meaning each record has a unique index. Second, the two fields being matched must contain the same type of data—you can’t have one field with text as a data type while the other has numbers (see Field data types, below). Many primary keys will be the autoincrement type (seeTable 11.2). The matching forReferential integrity is used to assure that data being linked between tables is valid data.
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Figure 11.2 This is a depiction of relationships among tables in an inventory database created with Microsoft Access 97. Access includes the template for this database with the program. Each list represents one table, and each item in each list is a field. The first field in each table, shown in bold, is the primary key. The tables are linked by including the primary key field of one table as a foreign, or secondary, key in the linked table. The table with the primary key is sometimes called the parent, or master, table. The child, or detail, table containing the foreign key matches data from the master table. The lines between the tables show the links between primary and foreign keys. The relationship between two tables will be one of four types: one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, or many-to-many. In a one-to-one relationship, one record in the master table will match only one record in the detail table. In one-to-many, one record in the master table may match many records in the detail table, and so on. In this case, each purchase order will contain only one SupplierID, but there may be many purchase orders for each supplier.
eign key will need to be a number (not autoincrement) for the link to work. In addition to these basic rules, different programs may add their own referential integrity rules. Most programs will require both the parent and child tables to be created with the same software, for example. 430
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database fundamentals When fields are created in a database, they are given a data-type property. Each program will have a different set of data types, but there are several common ones you can expect. Table 11.2 shows these common field data types. Different types of data—such as text, numbers, or dates—can be used in fields.
Field data types
Table 11.2: CommonField Data Types
Data Type
Description
Text or alphanumeric
Letters, numbers that will not be calculated, and symbols
Number
Numbers that will be used in calculations or that refer to a primary key field with an autonumber/autoincrement data type
Money or currency
Memo Date and time
Same as numbers, but the field will be formatted with dollar signs and decimal places to show currency Long text, sometimes limited only by the amount of disk storage space Date and time
Autonumber or autoincrement
Numbers that automatically advance as new records are entered—usually used in primary key fields
Graphics, objects, and BLOBs (binary large objects)
Pictures, pasted OLE objects (page 111), and BLOB (page 258)
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database fundamentals Validity checks
Field data types limit the With validity type of data that can be checks, you can entered into a field in a general limit the data that way. You cannot enter text in a can be entered number field, for example. into a field. Validity checks allow you to further restrict what data can be entered into a field. This helps reduce incorrect data being entered in a database. With validity checks, you can require entries in number fields to be a minimum or maximum size, limit the characters that can be entered in a text field and specify whether they are uppercase or lowercase, set a default value for a field, write formulas that specify entries based on the data entered in other fields, and more. You have a broad range of options in specifying validation rules.
Lookup fields
A lookup field is one that A lookup field gets gets its data from a field in a its data from a field different table. When you go to in another table. enter data in the lookup field, the database goes to the table where the lookup data is located, displays the data choices, and copies the data you choose into the field in the first table. (In Microsoft Access 97, you also can create a list of data for a lookup field without creating a separate table.) Lookup fields can serve as a type of validity check. They also can make entering data easier by giving the user items from which to choose.
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database fundamentals Databases store information in tables like the one shown in Figure 11.1 on page 426. You could view the information as a table and even enter new data directly into the table. However, a better way to view and enter data in a database is by using a form. Forms are devices to view data on the monitor’s screen. A form also is used to enter data into one or more tables. Figure 11.3 shows a screen with four forms open for the database shown in Figure 11.2 on page 430. Forms are used to enter information into databases and to view the information already entered.
Forms
Figure 11.3 These are four of the forms created by Microsoft Access 97 for the database depicted in Figure 11.2 on page 430.
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database fundamentals Note that one of the forms, the one entitled “Products,” is used to enter data into three different tables. It enters data into the Products and Inventory Transactions tables directly. By clicking on the button labeled Purchase Orders, in the lower left corner, you can bring up a form to enter data into the Purchase Orders table, also. The leading database programs will create forms for you automatically, once you have created the tables for a database. You also can create forms yourself or modify the forms the programs create automatically. Reports
Reports in databases are Reports are used used to display and print data to display and print in formats you specify. A report information concould be a list of customers, an tained in databases. invoice, mailing labels, a phone book, name badges, an inventory list, or nearly any other format you can think of. Figure 11.4 shows an invoice prepared with FileMaker Pro. Reports and forms are called layouts in FileMaker Pro. Database programs usually will automate report creation for you. You always have the option of modifying the report the program makes. Most programs also include templates for specific brands of mailing labels, such as Avery.
Sort
Sorting allows you to arrange items in alphabetical or numerical order. When you create primary and secondary indexes (page 427), those
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When a database sorts data, it arranges it in alphabetical or numerical order.
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Figure 11.4 Databases create reports to allow you to print data in the format you choose. This report is an invoice created with FileMaker Pro.
indexes determine how the database will be sorted. You also can sort individual fields that have not been indexed. The procedures for sorting are quite different among the programs, and some programs will require you to create a new table for the sort. Microsoft Access 97 has a particularly easy sort procedure in which you click in a field while viewing a table and then click on a sort icon.
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database fundamentals Queries
With queries, you can Queries are quesextract and analyze data from tions you ask a datadatabases in a wide variety of base to get the ways. Queries essentially are information you questions you ask a database, want. and the questions can include calculations and other operations. The most common type of query involves selecting certain fields, or certain types of records within fields, to view. You may want to view the names of all customers located in New Mexico with overdue balances of more than $1,000. Different database programs have different methods for performing queries (queries are called “Find” in FileMaker). Figure 11.5 shows a query performed with Corel Paradox 8 on a sample database included with the program.
Filters
Filters are similar to que- Filters allow you to ries. When you view data from view only the a table, you can apply a filter to records that meet view only certain records. The the criteria you set. principal difference between a filter and a query is that filters provide temporary views of data, without changing the underlying table or creating a new table. Queries do not change the underlying table, either, but they do create a new table and file when you run them.
Crosstabs
Crosstabs are a type of query Crosstab queries in which the data is displayed and present data in a analyzed in a matrix. The col- matrix format. umns will display one field of data and the rows another field or an analysis of data, such as
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Figure 11.5 This is a simple query performed with Corel Paradox 8 on a sample database included with the program. The top screen shows two query bars representing two database tables: Customer.db and Orders.db. The two tables have been joined by linking the fields “Customer No” found in each table. Then, the fields to be displayed are checked and the query run. The result is the table shown in the bottom screen.
sums or averages. Figure 11.6 shows a crosstab analysis performed by Corel Paradox 8. There may be times when you want to import data from or export data to another database. If your database can directly open the file of the other database, you should have little trouble with the data exchange. However, frequently the only way to import and export data is with a delimited text file. You use delimited text to import data from and export data to databases with incompatible formats.
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Figure 11.6 This is a crosstab query performed by Corel Paradox 8 on data included in one of the program’s sample databases.
Delimited text is also called fixed-width text. Each field’s data in the file is separated by delimiters—symbols such as commas, semicolons, double quotation marks, or tabs. The delimiters tell the other program when a field of data and when records begin and end. All database programs can import and export delimited text files (called simply text files in FileMaker Pro). However, the process is not easy and is prone to problems. Try to share data with a program that can directly read your files, if possible.
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Using Database Programs Database programs designed for the end user usually include a number of pre-made databases that you can start to use as soon as you install the software. They also include wizards and experts—tools that ask you questions and create objects in response to your answers— that make it easy to set up forms and reports once tables are created. Using forms to enter data is easy and intuitive. If you want to create a database from scratch, start with a flat-file one first. Once you gain experience, you may want to try establishing a relational database from scratch. In either case, the programs include already defined fields that you can use and modify. Database programs often include databases, premade by experts, that you can start using right away. These databases are either relational or flat-file, and can be modified by you to better suit your needs. To use a pre-made database in Corel Paradox, you choose New from the File menu. Figure 11.7 shows the steps that follow to complete the database. With Microsoft Access, you choose New Database from the File menu, click on the Database tab, and choose the database you wish to create. Then follow the instructions for each step (see Figure 11.8). Access gives you the option of adding fields during the process of constructing the database, and you also The leading programs include pre-made databases. They are professionally written databases for a variety of uses.
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Figure 11.7 These are the steps for using a pre-made database in Corel Paradox 8. The first box opens after you choose New in the File menu.
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using database programs can have the program include sample data as an aid in learning the program. Access will build the tables and relationships and create forms and reports for you.
Figure 11.8 These are two of the dialog boxes that appear when you create a new database from a template in Microsoft Access 97.
Creating a database from a template is similarly easy with FileMaker Pro. You choose New from the File menu, then choose “Create a new file using a template.” FileMaker has three categories of templates: Business, Education, and Home. If you are wondering why there is a category for education, it is because FileMaker started as an application for Apple computers, and Apple computers have been widely used in schools. FileMaker creates the necessary tables, forms, and reports for the database you choose. However, it does not give you the option of adding or removing fields from its pre-made databases. When it is done building the database, it immediately launches a form for data entry (see Figure 11.9).
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Figure 11.9 Like the other databases, FileMaker includes a number of pre-made database templates. The top dialog box appears when you choose New in the File menu. The bottom window shows the form that opens after the program builds the inventory system database from a template.
Creating a database manually
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The first step in creating a database from scratch is to plan the database carefully. You should think through the fields you need and whether you can get what you want in a flat-file or need a relational database. If you need a relational database, you should determine what the tables will be, what fields they will Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
using database programs include, and how the fields will link the tables together. You may want to review Database Fundamentals, starting on page 426, before you begin. Both Corel Paradox and Microsoft Access allow you to create database tables manually by using readymade fields included with the programs. This is a great convenience and makes building the tables go a lot more smoothly. Figure 11.10 shows the process for Corel Paradox. The process for creating a table manually with Microsoft Access is similar to that of Corel Paradox. You choose New Database from the File menu, then Blank Database, then give the database a file name. You will see a dialog box as shown in Figure 11.11. FileMaker Pro does not give you the option of using ready-made fields when creating a database manually. To create a new table, choose New in the file menu, then Create a New Empty File, the give the table a file name. A dialog box as shown in Figure 11.12 will appear. Microsoft Access is the easiest program with which to create a relational database manually, since it automatically adds fields to create links between tables. You can manually create a relational database with Corel Paradox 8, using the Data Model Designer found in the Tools menu; however, it is not as automatic or easy as Access’s method. Similarly, creating a relational database with FileMaker Pro 4.0 is not nearly as easy as doing so with Access. Suppose you sell new cars. You have Microsoft Access on a computer at work and have used it to manually create a flat-file database of your customers’ names, addresses, and phone numbers.
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Figure 11.10 To create a table from scratch in Corel Paradox 8, choose New in the File menu, then choose to create a New Table, then choose the Table Expert. The Table Expert will allow you to choose ready-made fields from a number of templates, as shown in dialog box 1 above. Next you define a key for the table (2), and your best bet is to let Paradox do it for you. Table Expert will allow you to specify which fields to index (3) and ask you for a file name for the table (not shown). When you are finished, you can open the table and type in data or have Paradox create a form for entering data.
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Figure 11.11 To create a table manually with Microsoft Access 97, choose New Database in the File menu, then Blank database, then assign a file name. The dialog box shown at top will appear. Click on the Tables tab, then New, and the bottom dialog box opens. Choose the Table Wizard, and the steps that follow are similar to those for Corel Paradox 8 (see Figure 11.10).
After using the database awhile, you decide it would be useful to keep track of what your customers bought. You decide to create another simple table with fields named Model, ModelYear, New/Used, and Saledate. Once you have laid out the fields, using the Table Wizard (Figure 11.11), Access gives you an opportunity to relate the new table to another table automatically. Figure 11.13 shows this process. Your original table—MyCustomers—had a field named ContactsID as its primary key (page 428), created by Access when the table was created. Access will create a field named ContactsID as a foreign key in the Sales table, set the referential integrity (page 429), and establish the relationship.
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Figure 11.12 When creating a table from scratch with FileMaker Pro, you must manually type in the fields and their properties.
Creating forms
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You can enter data directly into tables, but it is much easier and more efficient to use forms. All three programs can automatically create forms for entering data into one or more tables. FileMaker Pro will make the form and open it as soon as you finish making the table. Making a form with Corel Paradox is very easy. First select New in the File menu, then New Form, then Expert. Figure 11.14 shows the next steps in creating the form. Microsoft Access also makes it very easy to create forms for databases. Select Open Database from the File menu and open the database for which you are creating
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Figure 11.13 When you create a new table with Microsoft Access 97, the Table Wizard gives you an opportunity to relate the new table to one or more existing tables. Clicking the button marked Relationships in the top dialog box opens the second one and gives you the chance to define the relationship. In this case, you specify that one record in the MyCustomers table may match many records in the Sales table. The Table Wizard tells you it will add a field named ContactsID to the sales table and set up the relationship. When you click OK, the bottom dialog box appears, confirming that a relationship exists. You then click Next to finish setting up the database.
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Figure 11.14 After you start the Form Expert in Corel Paradox 8, you choose how many tables you want the form to display data from and enter data into (1). A flat-file database will have only one table; a relational database will have multiple tables, but you probably will want to use a single form to enter data into two or more of those tables. Next choose the fields from the table or tables that you want on the form (2). Then select whether one or more records are to be displayed at once (3). Choose the colors and style of the form, give it a name, and click Finish (not shown). You can start using the finished product (4) immediately.
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using database programs the form. Click on the Forms tab and then click New. Figure 11.15 shows the remaining steps for creating a form. The form being made is for the relational database created in Figure 11.13 on page 447. Entering data in forms is intuitive: click in the field and start typing once you are in the edit mode. When you open a form in Access or a database in FileMaker Pro, you will be in the edit mode and can start entering data immediately. With Paradox, you must press the F9 key to switch in and out of the edit mode. The three programs have different procedures for working with data. You should explore the menus for the commands for adding, deleting, copying, and finding records. Some forms will have scroll bars, subforms, and buttons. You can add drop-down menus for entering data in fields, and you can have forms display pictures of people or products. Figure 11.16 shows the form created in Microsoft Access in Figure 11.15.
Entering data with forms
After you have used your database for a while, you likely will want to query (page 436) the data. The Corel Paradox query shown in Figure 11.5 on page 437 was done by choosing New in the File menu, then New Query. You then select the file you want to query, and the query bar as shown in Figure 11.5 appears. You can add tables by choosing Insert Table in the Edit menu, and you can link the tables for the query by using the Join Tables icon. Click a check mark for the fields you are querying, and choose Run Query in the Query menu. Paradox’s online help will tell you about more options for queries.
Querying data
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Figure 11.15 After you select New Form in Microsoft Access 97, choose the Form Wizard and specify the main table holding the data (1). The Form Wizard allows you to select fields for the form from one or more tables (2). In this case, a relationship between the tables MyCustomers and Sales already has been established (Figure 11.13 on page 447). Next, the Form Wizard gives you two ways to view and enter data: with the sales data displayed as a subform (3) or as a separate form activated by clicking a button (4). The subform version (3) was chosen, so the Forms Wizard asks you to select the layout of the subform (5). The datasheet layout looks like a table; the tabular layout, which is chosen, looks more like a form. Finally, you select the colors and style (6), give the form a name, and click Finish (not shown). The finished form is shown in Figure 11.16.
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Figure 11.16 This is the form created with Microsoft Access 97 in Figure 11.15.
With FileMaker Pro, you use the same form to either enter or query data. Open the database and choose Find in the Mode menu. You then choose categories or enter parameters in the form for your query. Figure 11.17 shows a query on a FileMaker Pro sample file. The query is searching for all expenses for meals costing more than $5.00. You use the Simple Query Wizard with Microsoft Access to perform a basic query. Figure 11.18 shows the process. You easily can filter the results of your query in Microsoft Access by right clicking in a database table cell and selecting Filter By Selection (Figure 11.18). You also can filter this way when viewing data in the form view or table view. Crosstab Queries (page 436) in Microsoft Access are as easy as basic queries. Figure 11.19 shows the process for running crosstab queries. Note that the crosstab Chapter 11: Databases
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Figure 11.17 This is a query run with FileMaker Pro 4.0. After opening the database, choose Find in the Mode menu, then click categories or enter arguments for your query (top screen). This query is for all meals costing more than $5.00. The results will be displayed in the Form View (bottom screen), or you can choose List View by clicking on the button in the upper left corner. List View displays the information as a table.
query is being made by using another query. Since queries create new tables and files when run, you can query queries.
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Figure 11.18 To perform a query with Microsoft Access 97, open the database, click the Queries tab, and click New (1). Choose the Simple Query Wizard (2), select one or more tables and fields, and click Next (3). Decide if you want detail or summary results (4), click Next, and assign a name for the query (not shown). The finished query will appear as a table (5). You can filter (page 436) the data by right-clicking in a database table cell and choosing Filter By Selection. In this case, “Ford Explorer” in the Model field was chosen (arrow). A new table appears, with the filtered results showing all Ford Explorer sales (6).
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Figure 11.19 To run a crosstab query (page 436) in Microsoft Access 97, perform the first two steps shown in Figure 11.18 on page 453, only choose Crosstab Query Wizard. Next, choose the table or query you want to query (1)—in this case, the query run in Figure 11.18 is being queried for the crosstab query (you can query queries). Choose the field you want for the rows (2) and the field for the columns (3). Then decide what you want calculated (4). In this case, the query is to count the number of cars and trucks by model and year that were bought by different persons. (The Dear field contains salutations for customers, such as “Dear Mr. O’Shea.” If the ContactsID field had been used in the original query, it would be better to use that.) The result of the query is shown in screen 5.
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using database programs Reports (page 434) are easy to create with the three database programs covered in this chapter. You can use standard reports, such as mailing labels, or create custom reports to your design. With Corel Paradox, you start creating a report by selecting New in the File menu. The first dialog box shown in Figure 11.7 on page 440 will appear, and you can choose the Report Expert or the Label Expert. The Label Expert includes several templates for Avery labels. It also allows you to define your own labels if you are using a type for which there is no template. FileMaker Pro sets up reports when you use one of its ready-made databases. Figure 11.20 shows two screens from FileMaker Pro for reports included with a sample database.
Reports
Figure 11.20 FileMaker Pro 4.0 includes ready-made reports with its database templates. The top screen shows the report choices when you click the Reports button while using an included sample database. The bottom screen shows the Contact Report for the database. You also can create custom reports with the program.
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using database programs Making a custom report with FileMaker Pro is straightforward. With a database open, click on the Reports button, choose Layout in the Mode menu, then choose New Layout, and select the type of report layout you want. Creating a report with Access is similar to doing so with Paradox. Access includes Wizards for reports, labels, and charts, to enable you to create almost any report you want. It also allows you to design a report from scratch, as do the other two programs. Figure 11.21 shows the process for creating labels with Access. The process is very similar for Corel Paradox. Restructuring tables
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Once you have created a database table, you may decide you want to restructure it—to change its properties. You may want to add or remove fields or change the properties of the fields. The property changes you may want to make to the fields could involve changing the field data types (page 431) or changing the sizes of the fields. The field size is the number of text or number characters allowed in the field. The larger the field, the more text it can hold but the more storage space it takes, also. When you change the size or the type of data in a field, you risk losing data that does not fit the new characteristics. If this will happen, the programs will warn you and save excluded data in a separate table they will create for that purpose. Restructuring tables also allows you to change validity checks (page 432) and referential integrity (page 429). Or the restructuring you want to do may be as simple as changing the name of a field. To restructure a table with Access, click on the Tables tab in the database dialog box (see the first screen
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Figure 11.21 To create labels with Access 97, open the database, click on the Reports tab in the database dialog box, and click the New button (see the first screen in Figure 11.18 on page 453). Select the Label Wizard, and choose the table or query for which you want to create labels. The wizard gives you many standard Avery label formats, or you can create a custom format (1). You choose the font for the label text (2) and add the fields you want to the label (3). When adding fields, click in the line where you want a field before you move the field onto the label. You can type spaces, text, and punctuation onto the label prototype. Decide the field by which to sort the labels (4), and choose a name for the report (not shown). When you click Finish, a preview of the labels appears (5).
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using database programs in Figure 11.18 on page 453). Select the table name and click the Design button. With Corel Paradox, select Open in the File menu, then select Table, and right click on the table name. Choose Restructure, and a table restructuring dialog box will open. With FileMaker Pro 4.0, open the database, choose View as List, and select Layout in the Mode menu. When you click in a field and choose Field Format in the Format menu, a dialog box will open. Figure 11.22 shows the restructure dialog boxes for Corel Paradox and Microsoft Access. Microsoft includes a cute character as its Office Assistant, which is shown in the top screen of this illustration. The character’s name is Clippit. Clippit will answer questions you type and guide you through difficult tasks. It also will tap on the screen, turn into an exclamation point, bug out its eyes, and tell you what you are doing wrong when you make a mistake. Clippit turns into a shovel to dig through files when you open a database and into a box that clamps shut with its eyes inside when you save a file. Not only is Clippit helpful in figuring out tasks for you, it will keep you amused through the trials of working with databases. If you find yourself bored or frustrated and staring at a Microsoft Access screen, right click on Clippit’s box and choose Animate. Clippit will launch into one of its clever routines.
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Figure 11.22 These are the table restructuring dialog boxes for Microsoft Access 97 (top) and Corel Paradox 8. The cute little paper clip in the box on the right side of the Access 97 screen is Clippit, Microsoft’s office assistant that lends help with tasks, scolds you when you make a mistake, and amuses you when you are idle.
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Chapter 12 Design and Publishing There is a wide variety of applications in the broad categories of design and publishing. Design programs enable you to create and edit images. With publishing programs, you prepare information for distribution. You may include images you created with design programs in what you publish, so these two types of programs are closely related. With design programs, you can draw pictures, edit photographs and videos, develop detailed plans for houses or airplanes, or produce tables of organization for work. Publishing applications prepare work for public presentation. They enable you to produce brochures and magazine advertisements; create Web pages for posting on the Internet; publish catalogs, manuals, and books; make slides or overhead transparencies for sales presentations; publish newsletters; or create birthday cards. Design and publishing programs do a wide variety of things. They also have a wide variety of commands and methods for accomplishing those chores, even within a type of application. Someone very experienced in a particular illustration program, for example, may have a struggle moving to new illustration software of a different make. This chapter will not attempt to cover the use of these programs. Instead, it will give an overview of the 461
introduction to design and publishing types of programs available and tell you what they can accomplish. File formats
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When you use design and publishing software, you likely will want to import files created with other programs. You may be putting together a newsletter and want to bring a photograph or drawing into the text. Or you may be using an illustration program and want to import clip art to use in a drawing. File formats become an important consideration when importing files. (See File formats on page 28.) Most programs store files in a proprietary format—a format used only by that program—when you save your work. Adobe Illustrator, for example, will store the file in its own format, with the extension .AI. To open an Adobe Illustrator file in another illustration program, you need to have a filter installed for the format. Nearly all design and illustration programs include filters for opening files saved in other major programs’ proprietary formats. When you install new design and publishing software, consider using the custom install option so you can select the filters to install. You will be given the choice of using custom install in the beginning of the installation routine. Since the filters do not take much disk space, you may want to install most or all of them if you are doing serious design and publishing work. An alternative to using filters for proprietary formats is using common formats. There are several common, or universal, file formats. Most programs have filters for all the common formats, and the translation often is of better quality and more consistent than using a filter for a proprietary format.
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introduction to design and publishing Some common formats can be used across platforms—a file created on a Macintosh and saved in the TIFF format can be used successfully by most Windows programs. Other common formats can be used only within a certain platform. The Windows metafile format can be used by programs running under Windows but, in most cases, not by Macintosh programs. Table 12.1 lists the most common design and publishing file formats. The difference between vector and bitmap images is explained in the next section. Table 12.1: Common File Formats for Design and Publishing (Part 1 of 4)
Extension
Application Used In or Name
.AI
Adobe Illustrator
This is a proprietary vector-image file format used by the design program Adobe Illustrator.
.BMP
Windows Bitmap
Windows bitmap is a common bitmap-image file format used by Windows programs.
.CDR
CorelDRAW!
This is a proprietary vector-image file format used by CorelDRAW!
.CGM
Computer Graphics Metafile
CGM is a common vector-image file format.
.CPT
Corel Photo-Paint
This is a proprietary bitmap-image file format used by the image-editing program Corel Photo-Paint
.DRW
Micrografx Designer
This is a proprietary vector-image file format used by Micrografx Designer.
.DWG
AutoCAD
DWG is a proprietary vector-image file format used by the CAD program AutoCAD.
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introduction to design and publishing Table 12.1: Common File Formats for Design and Publishing (Part 2 of 4)
Extension
Application Used In or Name
.DXF
AutoCAD
DXF is a proprietary vector-image file format used by the CAD program AutoCAD.
.EPS
Encapsulated PostScript
EPS is a common vector-image file format developed by Adobe systems that is widely used with Apple computers but is common with Windows programs, also.
.FPX
Kodak FlashPix Image
This is a common bitmap-image file format developed by Kodak and other companies for photographs.
.GIF
CompuServe Bitmap
GIF is a common bitmap-image file format developed by CompuServe to transfer images over networks. GIF is often used for images sent on the Internet. (See .PNG below.)
.HTM
Hypertext Markup Language
HTML codes are inserted in text to specify the format of the text, link the text to another page, and bring graphics into the text. HTML is especially used for publishing on the Web. See page 290.
.JPG
Joint Photographers’ Expert Group (JPEG)
JPEG is a common bitmap-image file format often used to send photographs on the Internet.
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introduction to design and publishing Table 12.1: Common File Formats for Design and Publishing (Part 3 of 4)
Extension
Application Used In or Name
.PCD
Kodak Photo CD
This is a proprietary bitmap-image file format used by Kodak to store photographs on CDs. When you take your photographic film to be developed and ask that it be stored on a CD, the pictures will be stored in this format.
.PCT
Macintosh PICT
PICT files may be either vector or bitmap, and PICT is the common image format for Apple computers.
.PCX
PaintBrush
This is a proprietary bitmap-image file format developed for the DOS/Windows illustration program PaintBrush.
.PDF
Portable Document Format
PDF is a proprietary document file format used by Adobe Acrobat. PDF files maintain both text and image formatting across platforms when used with Acrobat Reader software.
.PNG
Portable Network Graphic
This is a common bitmap-image file format developed to replace the GIF format.
.PSD
Adobe Photoshop
Files produced by the image editing program Adobe Photoshop use this proprietary bitmap-image format.
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introduction to design and publishing Table 12.1: Common File Formats for Design and Publishing (Part 4 of 4)
Extension
Application Used In or Name
.RTF
Rich Text Format
RTF is a common word processing file format that will preserve most of a document’s text formatting (paragraphs, line spacing, margins, fonts, and so forth). In contrast, text saved as an ASCII file with the .TXT extension (see .TXT below) will not retain its formatting.
.TIF
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)
TIFF is a common bitmap-image format used with both Apple and DOS/Windows programs. TIFF has been widely used and is supported by most programs.
.TXT
ASCII
ASCII is a standard binary code for representing letters and symbols (see page 578). ASCII files— also called DOS text—contain text only, and the files can be read by most programs. Text will lose any formatting when converted to ASCII.
.WMF
Windows Metafile
Windows metafile is a common vector-image format for Windows programs.
.WPG
WordPerfect Graphic
This is a proprietary vector-image format developed for WordPerfect illustration software.
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There are two types of graphics images: vector and bitmap. Vector images, created by most illustration programs, are stored as mathematical formulas. The image is drawn according to these formulas when it is printed Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
introduction to design and publishing or displayed on the monitor. Vector images can be drawn precisely, have a smooth appearance, and can be resized and edited easily. Bitmap images are formed and stored as thousands of tiny dots, called pixels. These dots, viewed together, create the shapes and colors of the picture. Photographs are stored as bitmap images, as are drawings created by paint programs. Very artistic drawings and paintings may be created as bitmap images, but precision drawings will not be. Bitmap drawings are difficult to create with precision and difficult to edit successfully or resize without distortion. Figure 12.1 shows close-ups of sections of vector and bitmap drawings. The vector image has smooth, solid shapes. The bitmap drawings have ragged edges, and some of the shapes are not solid but dots interspersed with blank space. Printer languages tell printers how to print the text and graphics on a page. There are two leading printer languages in common use: Adobe System’s PostScript and Hewlett Packard Corporation’s Printer Control Language (PCL). When you buy a printer, it will come with one or more printer languages installed. The printer also will be rated for a maximum resolution expressed in dots per inch, or DPI. The DPI rating gives the number of dots of ink or toner per horizontal inch by the number per vertical inch that the printer can print. A 600×600 dpi printer (it may be listed simply as 600 dpi) prints 360,000 dots in a square inch. The higher the dpi, the smaller the dots that a printer can print; and the smaller the dots, the sharper the text and image. Chapter 12: Design and Publishing
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Figure12.1 The top drawing is a close-up of a vector image; in the middle, this drawing has been converted to a bitmap image. Note the ragged edges compared with the vector image. The image on the left is a close-up of a bitmap image created with a paint program.
A printer with a 600 dpi resolution prints very sharp text and is acceptable for many graphics. If you are printing photographic images, however, you should consider a printer with a higher resolution. PCL is found on Hewlett Packard printers and also is included on many other brands. The most recent version is PCL 6. Hewlett Packard introduced PCL in 1984 as a way for their laser printers to communicate with IBM-compatible personal computers, and PCL is
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introduction to design and publishing the printer language most commonly used with computers running Windows. PCL printers are capable of producing high resolution, but not as high as Adobe PostScript printers. Hewlett Packard sells a laser printer for around $1,200 that can print at 1,200 dpi (that is 1,440,000 dots in a square inch), and IBM (Lexmark) sells one starting at $1,000. Printers continue to drop in price, so you probably will be able to find a high-resolution printer for less. Adobe introduced PostScript in 1985 as a printer language that could print pages that integrated text and graphics. Adobe PostScript has become the standard printing language in the design and publishing industry and is available on many different types and makes of printers. Adobe PostScript is used on printers capable of very high resolution—2,400 dpi or more—known as imagesetters. Imagesetters are used by professional printing companies and can print on paper, plate, or film. (Plate is a material used in a professional printing process called offset lithographic printing.) Imagesetters cost tens of thousands of dollars. There are reasonably priced (below $2,000) PostScript printers available that can print at 1,200 dpi. There also are PostScript printers available that print at lower resolutions.
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Design Software Design software includes image editing, illustration, computer aided design, flowcharting, home design, and paint programs. These programs enable you to produce and edit images for printing or importing into other software. ✯ ✯ ✯ Image editing programs enable you to alter photographs and other bitmap images. They allow you to adjust color, contrast, sharpness, and brightness. You can remove white specks, called dust, found in scanned photographs; and removing “red eye” caused by camera flashes is easy. These programs allow you to create special effects. You can soften and yellow a photograph to make it look old. You can cut out parts of a photo and paste them on other photos or illustrations. Making a collage is easy, and adding color and text is within these programs’ capabilities. Table 12.2 shows the leading programs on the market.
Image editing
Table 12.2: Image Editing Software (Part 1 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
Adobe After Effects 4.0 (Motion graphics and visual effects)
Adobe Systems
Approximate Price by Platform Macintosh: $995 Mac upgrade: $199 Windows 95: $995 Win 95 upgrade: $199
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design software Table 12.2: Image Editing Software (Part 2 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0
Adobe Systems
Approximate Price by Platform Mac: $50 Win 95: $50
Adobe PhotoDeluxe 2.0 Business Edition
Adobe Systems
Win 95: $80
Adobe Photoshop 5
Adobe Systems
Mac: $610 Mac upgrade: $180 Unix: $810 Win 95: $610 Win 95 upgrade: $180
Adobe Premiere 5.1 (Digital video editing)
Adobe Systems
Mac: $565 Mac upgrade: $180 Win 95: $565 Win 95 upgrade: $180 Unix: $995
Corel Photo-Paint 8
Corel Corporation
Win 95: $495 Win 95 upgrade: $130 Mac: $495 Mac upgrade: $130
HiJaak 95
IMSI
Win 95: $50
MGI PhotoSuite II
MGI Software
Win 95: $45
Micrografx Picture Publisher 8
Micrografx
Win 95: $115
Microsoft PhotoDraw 2000
Microsoft Corporation
Win 95: $130
Microsoft Picture It! 99
Microsoft Corporation
Win 95: $50
ScreenCam 97 (Digital video editing)
Lotus Development
Win 95: $100
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design software Adobe Photoshop frequently is used by professionals and has become an industry standard. Corel PhotoPaint (Figure 12.2) is the other high-end program listed, and both Photoshop and Photo-Paint have impressive capabilities to go along with their high prices.
Figure 12.2 Corel Photo-Paint 8.
The other programs listed in Table 12.2 are very capable, however. Most people will find them more than adequate for their needs. Microsoft Picture It! 99, for example, does an excellent job of correcting and editing photos, is inexpensive at $50 before rebates, and is very easy to use. Some of these programs come packaged with other software or hardware. Hewlett Packard, for example, includes Adobe PhotoDeluxe Business Edition (Figure 12.3) with some of its scanners. 472
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Figure 12.3 Adobe PhotoDeluxe Business Edition.
There are four ways to get photographs into your computer so you can edit and print them. You can scan photographs with a scanner, have a Photo CD made when you have your film developed, take pictures with a digital camera, or use stock photos or ones you download from the Internet.
Getting photos into the programs
The advantages of scanning photographs are several. High resolution scanners are inexpensive and can be used for other chores, such as scanning text documents on paper into electronic form. Photographic equipment that uses film is widely available, and good quality film cameras have more capability and produce higher quality images than digital cameras. If you
Scanners and TWAIN
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design software already have a film camera, as many do, your initial investment for equipment could be less than $200 (some scanners cost less than $100). Most scanners and many design programs are TWAIN compliant. TWAIN is a software interface standard for scanners that enables scanners and applications to communicate. When software is TWAIN compliant, you can choose a command from within the program to scan an image into your work. Photo CDs
Photo CDs are another excellent option for persons who have film cameras. When you have your film developed, you can ask that the images also be put on a Kodak Photo CD. You can use the CD in the CDROM drive on your computer and bring the images into an image editing, illustration, or publishing program. Kodak also offers to put your pictures on a floppy if you don’t have a CD-ROM drive.
Digital cameras
Digital cameras have been increasing in quality and decreasing in price for some time. With one, you can take a picture that is stored in digital form on a hard or floppy disk. The image then can be brought into an image editing program for editing and printing. The advantages of digital cameras are that you do not have the cost of film and processing, and the images are ready almost instantly. The disadvantages are that the equipment is still relatively expensive compared to film cameras (although, now you can buy a decent digital camera for about $400), and film cameras have much greater flexibility and capability. The major high-quality film camera manufacturers—such as Canon, Nikon, Minolta, and Olympus— now have digital camera lines, also. Kodak, Sony, Agfa,
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design software and Toshiba also have come out with models. With so much interest on the part of manufacturers, consumers are certain to have excellent, reasonably priced cameras to choose from in the future. Stock photos are ones taken by professional photographers and sold in electronic form. They usually are available on CD-ROM, but you can buy and download them from the Internet. Most stock photos are royalty free. This means that once you buy them, you can use them for commercial purposes or otherwise publish them without paying royalties. When doing so, you may be asked to give a copyright notice and credit to the company that sold you the pictures. Royalty free means the pictures are for your use—you may not resell the pictures. You can buy stock photos from Eyewire Studios (formerly Adobe studios—www.eyewire.com) and Corel Corporation (www.corel.com). Corel, for example, sells 1,000,000 photos, clip art images, and fonts on CD-ROM for about $130. Other companies sell stock photos, and you may want to search the Internet (page 277) for what is available.
Stock photos
High resolution laser printers do a fairly good job of printing photos in black and white, and some color laser printers are available with high resolution. If you want prints from your computer similar to what you would get with film prints, a photo-quality inkjet printer is your best bet, however. There are several inkjet printers on the market that, when printing on glossy paper, produce prints virtually indistinguishable from a photographic film print. These printers cost less than $500, and some are as low
Printing photos
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design software as $200. To get high-quality photo resolution, special inkjet photo paper stock must be used. The stock is expensive (fifty 8½×11 sheets may cost about $30), but the results are impressive. ✯ ✯ ✯ With illustration programs, you can create precise or artistic drawings and illustrations. Image editing programs, in contrast, allow you to alter bitmap images but are not designed for creating them. Illustration programs include drawing programs with which you can make vector drawings, and paint programs for producing bitmap pictures. (See page 466 for an explanation of the difference between vector and bitmap images.) Table 12.3 lists many of the drawing and paint programs on the market.
Illustration
Table 12.3: Drawing and Paint Software (Part 1 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
Adobe Dimensions 3 (3D rendering)
Adobe Systems
Adobe Illustrator 8
Adobe Systems
Approximate Price by Platform Macintosh: $125 Windows 95: $125 Mac & Win 95: $350 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $120
Canvas 6
Deneba Software
Mac & Win 95: $375 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $200
CorelDRAW! 8
Corel Corporation
Mac & Win 95: $450 Mac upgrade: $150 Win 95 upgrade: $225 Unix (version 3): $350
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design software Table 12.3: Drawing and Paint Software (Part 2 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
FreeHand 8
Macromedia
Approximate Price by Platform Mac & Win 95: $390 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $140
Micrografx Designer (iGrafx Designer)
Micrografx
Painter 5.5 Web Edition
MetaCreations
Painter Classic
MetaCreations
Suite for Win 95: $350 Suite upgrade for Win 95: $140 Mac & Win 95: $295 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $100 Mac & Win 95: $100
Drawing programs include a wide variety of tools to produce vector illustrations. With these programs, you can draw any shape, extrude or blend the objects you draw, mold text around an object, fill a shape with words, add shadows behind text and objects, add colors and textures or make objects transparent, and perform many other feats. Figure 12.4 shows a screen from one of the professional drawing programs, CorelDRAW 8. Most drawing programs allow you to produce both creative illustrations and precise drawings. One program, Micrografx Designer, specializes in making precise drawings easier to construct. It does this through a wide selection of tools for precision drawing. Figure 12.5 shows a screen from Micrografx Designer 7.
Drawing programs
Nearly all drawing programs allow you to draw lines using a bezier tool. A bezier tool gives you a lot of control when drawing and shaping curves. Bezier curves have control points that you drag to determine the shape of the line.
Bezier curves
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Figure 12.4 CorelDRAW 8 is a leading professional drawing program that has a wide variety of tools and great depth. Many of the tools are accessed through floating dialog boxes called “rollups.” Two roll-ups—one opened and one rolled up—are shown on the right side of the screen. On the left is a “flyout” that gives you access to the line drawing tools.
With most programs, you draw a bezier curve by holding down the left button and dragging the mouse. As you are drawing the line, you click the button to set a node—the first line segment will be set between the starting point and the node. You continue dragging and clicking until you get the approximate shape you want. Each node will have two control points that you can drag to change the curve’s shape. By dragging the control points and nodes, you can draw smooth curves of any shape. Bezier curves take some practice to master, but it will be worth the time spent if you plan to do any amount of drawing. Figure 12.6 shows a bezier curve with its nodes and control points. 478
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Figure 12.5 Micrografx Designer is a drawing program that has many tools to help you make precise drawings. This is a screen from Designer 7.
Drawing programs allow you to import clip art and photos. Once you import these images, you can integrate them into a drawing; or you can simply duplicate, resize, and export them in a file format (page 462) that can be used in another program. You resize images by selecting them and dragging their handles (see Resizing objects and windows on page 101). Figure 12.7 shows a clip art image that was imported into CorelDRAW 8, then resized, duplicated, and flipped. Many programs—not just illustration, but word processing and others—come with a large selection of clip art. You also can buy clip art just like any other software. The companies that sell stock photos (page 475) Chapter 12: Design and Publishing
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Figure 12.6 A bezier curve with its nodes and control points in view.
often have a sizable clip art collection available, too. The clip art generally is royalty free, but you may be asked to give recognition to the company that produced it. Make certain you read the license conditions before you use it in a publication. Most drawing programs come with many filters for importing and exporting images. Sometimes you may simply use an illustration program as a tool to convert clip art files for use in a word processing or other program. Paint programs
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Paint programs produce bitmap pictures instead of vector ones (see Vector and bitmap images on page 466). They are not suitable for precise drawings, but with them an artist can make beautiful, highly creative pictures. Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
design software
Figure 12.7 Sometimes you may want to use a drawing program simply to process clip art. Here a piece of Corel clip art (top knight) was imported into CorelDRAW and resized, duplicated, and flipped. Note that the knight on the right is being resized by dragging the handle in the lower left corner. The image can be exported for use in another program.
Two of the leading programs are Painter Classic and Painter 5.5 Web Edition, both by MetaCreations. Windows comes with a simple paint program that is installed by default when the operating system is installed. You may want to use it awhile to see if you like paint software before you buy a fancier program. You access the Windows 95/98 program, called Paint, by choosing Accessories in the Program menu, then Paint. In Windows 3.1+, the program is called Paintbrush and is found in the Accessories group (page 113). Figure 12.8 shows a screen with a picture being created with Paint.
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Figure 12.8 With paint programs, you create bitmap images similar to the way you would paint on a canvas. This program is called Paint and is included with Windows 95/98.
✯ ✯ ✯ Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
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A computer-aided design (CAD) program is a vector drawing program designed to produce highly precise, detailed drawings and plans. Architects, engineers, and draftpersons use CAD software to design everything from buildings to airplanes. What sets CAD programs apart from other vectorbased drawing programs is their extensive set of precision drawing tools and their ability to calculate dimensions, surface areas, and volumes of the objects drawn. Designs produced with CAD software may be printed on plotters—printers that can produce large-size draw-
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design software ings using pens—to produce blueprints and detailed construction plans. CAM software—computer-aided manufacturing—is similar to CAD programs. CAM programs not only are used to develop the design of a product; they can produce detailed, virtual, solid models and then direct the manufacturing process to make the physical product. CAM and professional CAD programs are expensive (AutoCAD release 14 lists for $3,750) and generally purchased only by companies using them for product design and manufacturing. Several CAD programs written for individual consumers come with reasonable price tags. Table 12.4 lists most of these applications. Table 12.4: Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Software for Consumers (Part 1 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
AutoCAD LT 98
Autodesk
Approximate Price by Platform Win 95: $400 Win 95 upgrade: $120
AutoSketch 6
Autodesk
DenebaCAD 1.5
Deneba Software
Win 95: $100 Mac: $800 Mac upgrade: $500
DesignCAD 97
Viagrafix
Win 95: $240
DesignCAD Pro 2000
Viagrafix
Win 95: $270
IntelliCAD 98
Visio Corporation
Win 95: $310 Win 95 upgrade: $140
MiniCAD 7
Diehl Graphsoft
Mac: $570 Win 95: $570
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design software Table 12.4: Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Software for Consumers (Part 2 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
TurboCAD 2D/3D Version 3
IMSI
TurboCAD 5 Professional
IMSI
Approximate Price by Platform Windows 3.1+: $60 Mac: $80 Win 95: $250
AutoCAD LT is a light version of the professional CAD program that is the industry standard— AutoCAD by Autodesk. It is designed to be easier to use but fully compatible with AutoCAD. If you are thinking about trying to design your own house and your architect uses AutoCAD and agrees to work with you, you can buy a copy of AutoCAD LT and go at it. Some of the CAD programs enable you to create and view designs in three dimensions. However, working in 3-D can be tricky and takes a bit of practice. Figure 12.9 shows a 3-D rendering by DesignCAD 97. CAD programs do not have the artistic features of the good drawing programs. You do not have as much control over text, colors, and shading, for example. If you want to make detailed drawings but do not need to produce actual plans and materials lists, a drawing program will probably be a better choice for you. On the other hand, drawing programs will not be able to produce detailed plans that can be used for construction, as CAD programs can. ✯ ✯ ✯ Home design
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Several programs on the market make it easy to create floor plans and generate full house views from those plans. These home design programs basically are Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
design software
Figure 12.9 This is the CAD program DesignCAD 97 with a sample design that is included with the software. The design is in three dimensions, and the three windows on the left show (from top to bottom) the front, top, and side views of the piece of equipment.
specialized CAD programs with specialized tools. Some of the manufacturers also sell programs for landscape and deck designs. Table 12.5 shows the home design programs available. Home design programs come with predesigned plans, or you can create your own from scratch. Figure 12.10 shows a predesigned floor plan and 3-D rendering in the program 3D Home Architect Deluxe. The available home design applications are easy and fun to use. If you know how to use your operating system and a mouse, you probably will be comfortably laying out a floor plan within ten minutes of beginning to use one of these programs. Chapter 12: Design and Publishing
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Figure 12.10 These are two screens from the home design program 3D Home Architect Deluxe by Broderbund. The top shows a predesigned floor plan included with the software, and the bottom is the three dimensional rendering of the exterior of the house based on that floor plan.
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design software Table 12.5: Home Design Programs
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
3D Home Architect Deluxe
Broderbund
Windows 95: $50
Design Your Own Home Architecture 3D
Abracadata
Win 95: $50
Floorplan 3D Deluxe
IMSI
Win 95: $45
Planix Home Designer 3D Deluxe
Autodesk
Win 95: $50
Sierra CompleteHome
Sierra Home
Win 95: $50
This Old House Kitchen and Home Architect
Broderbund
Win 95: $50
Macintosh: $50
✯ ✯ ✯ Flowcharting software enables you to portray processes, designs, and relationships with symbols. They may be used to chart manufacturing processes; organizational structures; or electrical, mechanical, and software designs. Table 12.6 shows many of the flowcharting programs on the market. Frequently, flowcharting programs are used by businesses to visually portray business plans. They also can be used to chart work procedures for implementation or improvement. Flowcharting programs can be used for reengineering and total quality management efforts. One familiar chore within the capability of flowcharting software is creating organizational charts. Fig-
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design software Table 12.6: Flowcharting Programs
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Actrix Technical
Autodesk
Win 95: $300
allCLEAR 4
SPSS, Inc.
Win 95: $400
Clear OrgCharts 2.0
SPSS, Inc.
Win 95: $80
Flow!
IMSI
Win 95: $70
FlowCharter 7
Micrografx
Win 95: $300 Win 95 upgrade: $130
Micrografx ISO Charter 1.0
Micrografx
Win 95: $800
Micrografx Optima! 2.5
Micrografx
Win 95: $700
Org Plus 3
IMSI
Win 95 upgrade: $220 Win 95: $100 Win 95 upgrade: $50
Visio Standard 5.0
Visio Corporation
Win 95: $140 Win 95 upgrade: $100
Visio Technical 5.0
Visio Corporation
Win 95: $300 Win 95 upgrade: $140
Visio Professional 5.0
Visio Corporation
Win 95: $300 Win 95 upgrade: $150
ure 12.11 shows an organizational chart being created with Micrografx FlowCharter 7. Two technical versions of flowcharting programs enable you to draw floor plans and lay out mechanical systems—such as heating-and-cooling duct work— using predrawn symbols. The diagrams then can be overlaid on AutoCAD (page 484) drawings. These tech-
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design software
Figure 12.11 This is a screen from the flowcharting program Micrografx FlowCharter 7. Organizational charts are a simple task such programs can perform. They also handle much more complicated tasks, such as diagraming mechanical and electrical processes and business work flow.
nical flowcharting programs are Actrix Technical and Visio Technical. Most of the flowcharting programs are useful for creating flowcharts for computer programs and mechanical and electrical engineering. Several come with extensive sets of predrawn symbols for these uses.
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publishing software
Publishing Software If you wish to present information to the public, publishing software will enable you to do so in several ways. Publishing software used to be just for paper documents. Today, publishing programs allow you to prepare documents for distribution electronically, such as on the Internet. There are several types of publishing programs. You can use page layout programs to publish long or design-intensive paper documents. With presentation graphics programs, you can prepare slides and overhead transparencies for in-person presentations. You can create Web sites (page 281) with Web-page software. Print-house programs are for making banners, greeting cards, calendars, award certificates, and so forth. ✯ ✯ ✯ Page layout
Page layout applications enable you to publish design-intensive or long documents. Examples of design-intensive documents are advertisements, sales brochures, and newsletters. Long documents may be manuals, catalogs, or books. Table 12.7 shows the page layout programs available. Some of the page layout programs are marketed as programs for both long and design-intensive documents. In reality, the available programs are better suited for one task or the other.
Long documents
Three of the software packages listed in Table 12.7 are well suited to handle long documents: Adobe FrameMaker, Interleaf, and Corel Ventura. Interleaf is not widely available—you may need to get it directly
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publishing software Table 12.7: Page Layout Programs
Program
Manufacturer
Adobe FrameMaker 5.5 (Good for long documents)
Adobe Systems
Approximate Price by Platform Macintosh: $800 Windows 95: $800 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $220 Unix: $1,300 Unix upgrade: $600
Adobe PageMaker 6.5 (Good for design-intensive documents)
Adobe Systems
Corel Ventura 8 (Good for long documents)
Corel Corporation
Interleaf 6 (Good for long documents)
Interleaf, Inc.
Microsoft Publisher 98 (Good for design-intensive documents)
Microsoft Corp.
QuarkXPress 4 (Good for design-intensive documents)
Quark, Inc.
Mac & Win 95: $560 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $125
Win 95: $450 Win 95 upgrade: $180 Win 95: $1,900 Unix: $1,400 Win 95: $90 (May be included with some Microsoft Office suites) Mac & Win 95: $725
from Interleaf, Inc. (www.interleaf.com). FrameMaker and Ventura have long been considered the best programs to use when publishing manuals and books. When publishing long documents, it is important to be able to apply consistent formatting of pages and paragraphs throughout the entire document and to be able to change the format easily and quickly. That usuChapter 12: Design and Publishing
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publishing software ally means applying formats consistently to multiple files, with each file containing a section of the manual or chapter of the book. When the formats are effectively applied, the paragraphs, fonts, line spacing, page and paragraph numbering, and page layout will be consistent throughout. Page layout programs specializing in long documents should give you consistent placement of illustrations and other graphics yet, allow some flexibility in how they are placed on the page. They also must be able to generate accurate indexes, tables of contents, and cross references. Adobe FrameMaker—an industrial-strength page layout program—is especially well suited for long, complex documents. It easily handles tasks involving from one to thousands of pages. It is designed to be able to share documents across Windows, Macintosh, and Unix computers, and especially shines with complex technical documents. A version called FrameMaker+SGML can convert documents to Standard Generalized Markup Language (page 504) for electronic publishing. FrameMaker has excellent word processing capability built in. Page layout programs in the past have been weak in editing text. Instead, they have been designed to work with text files created with separate word processing programs. Many people prefer to use FrameMaker, rather than one of the leading word processing programs, for all their word processing needs. Figure 12.12 shows a screen from Adobe FrameMaker 5.5. Page layout programs can be difficult to learn. If you start using one, you should spend some time understanding the basic concept of how the program works. FrameMaker, for example, has three pages working for
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publishing software
Figure 12.12 Adobe FrameMaker is a page layout program that specializes in long documents and text editing. Consistency throughout a document is achieved largely by defining paragraph formats and saving the formats as paragraph tags. A default format tag called Body will be applied to paragraphs, and you define the characteristics of that and other formats with the paragraph designer dialog box shown in the center of the screen above. You can define as many paragraph formats as you like. When you want a paragraph to use a different format than the default, you click in the paragraph and choose the format from a list as shown on the right. The tools shown to the right of the paragraph tag list are for drawing, creating frames to hold text and graphics, and defining line and frame styles and shading.
every page you see: a body page, a master page, and a reference page. You type and edit text and place graphics mostly in frames (rectangular areas) on the body pages. Body pages will have a default frame layout, but you can add or change frames on each body page as you choose. You will have one body page for each page of your document.
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publishing software The body page sits on top of a master page, like a transparent overlay. A master page contains page numbers, footers, headers, and other items that can be used by many body pages. Each document has at least one master page, but may have more. If you are producing a book, for example, you probably would have right and left master pages and perhaps a third master page for the first page in a chapter. The reference page contains frequently used graphics—such as lines and symbols—you can add to paragraph formats. It also contains special information for generating indexes and lists. There is one set (usually having two or three pages) of reference pages for the entire document contained in a file. The concepts used in FrameMaker, such as frames and paragraph tags, master pages, and formats, are found in other page layout programs. Once you understand the basic concepts, you will find these programs give you a great amount of control over how your document looks. Designintensive documents
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The three page layout programs in Table 12.7 that specialize in design-intensive documents are Adobe PageMaker, Microsoft Publisher, and QuarkXPress. Both PageMaker and QuarkXPress are professional-level programs. PageMaker has long been considered the premiere page layout program for design-intensive work. However, QuarkXPress, which was first released in 1987, currently is enjoying a high level of popularity with design and publishing professionals. QuarkXPress recently improved its text editing and long document capability. Critics agree it still is no match for FrameMaker or Ventura in this area, however.
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publishing software Earlier versions of PageMaker emphasized longdocument capability. When Adobe Systems bought PageMaker and FrameMaker—PageMaker was developed and owned by Aldus, and FrameMaker by Frame Technologies—the new owner began focusing each of these programs on what it does best. Page layout programs that specialize in designintensive documents give you a high level of creative control over how each page looks. This is in contrast to programs specializing in long documents, where consistency from one page to the next is the goal. Designintensive page layout programs have extensive sets of tools for determining how every aspect of a page looks. With these programs, you can import drawings, clip art, and photographs and position these images anywhere on a page. You can create text frames to hold individual words or many paragraphs, and wrap the text around images. The text you add to documents can continuously flow from one column to the next and one page to the next. Or you can have the text from one column on a page flow to any other column on any page you choose. You also can rotate text and accurately control spacing between letters and words. Microsoft Publisher 98 is a reasonably priced page layout program that you can use for producing newsletters, brochures, advertisements, flyers, business cards, and for many other publishing tasks. Publisher 98 is very easy to use. You can start with a blank page if you want to create a document on your own, or you can use its wizards to guide you in using one of its many templates. Figure 12.13 shows two screens from Microsoft Publisher 98.
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Clip art by Corel Corporation
publishing software
Figure 12.13 Microsoft Publisher 98 is an easy-to-use and reasonably priced page layout program for design-intensive work. The top screen shows a newsletter being created from one of its newsletter templates. The bottom screen shows one of its advertisement templates.
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publishing software ✯ ✯ ✯ Many design and publishing programs include tools and utilities to prepare your document or design for publication on the Internet. Web site design programs are used to design, set up, and maintain Web sites. The text content of the Web site may be created entirely with the Web site design software, or images and documents created with other programs can be imported to your Web pages for posting on the Internet. Table 12.8 shows the Web site design programs on the market.
Web site design
Table 12.8: Web Site Design Programs
Program
Manufacturer
Approximate Price by Platform
Adobe GoLive 4.0
Adobe Systems
Macintosh & Windows 95: $295 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $100
Adobe PageMill 3.0
Adobe Systems
Mac & Win 95: $95 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $50
Allaire HomeSite 4.0
Allaire Corp.
Win 95: $90 Win 95 upgrade: $45
Dreamweaver 2
Macromedia
Mac & Win 95: $280 Mac & Win 95 upgrade: $120
FileMaker HomePage 3.0
FileMaker
Mac & Win 95: $90
Microsoft FrontPage 98
Microsoft
Mac & Win 95: $130
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Win 95 upgrade: $55
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publishing software Good Web site design software handles all the HTML (page 290) coding for you. You compose text, design the layout, and import the images and files you want. The software then translates your work into HTML code to get it ready for publishing on the Internet. One of the leading Web site design programs is Microsoft FrontPage 98. FrontPage is fairly easy to use and is able to manage the hyperlinks (page 499) you include in your Web site. It translates your design into HTML code automatically. However, if you prefer to write HTML code directly, FrontPage allows you to do so. Figure 12.14 shows a screen from FrontPage.
Clip art by Corel Corporation
Figure 12.14 Microsoft FrontPage 98 is a program that helps you create and maintain Web sites for posting on the Internet. This page is being created with FrontPage 98.
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publishing software Microsoft FrontPage gives you the capability to get pretty fancy with your Web site. You can add buttons that visitors can click to jump to a different part of the page or another page. The program automates adding banner ads to your site with images and messages that continuously change. If you choose, when someone clicks on the banner ad, they will jump to another site. You can add marquees—messages that scroll across a section of the screen like a theater marquee—and counters to count the number of times your site is visited. FrontPage makes it easy to create hover buttons. Hover buttons are animated buttons that come alive by changing colors or performing some other visual trick when mouse pointers are held over them. Microsoft FrontPage 98 supports adding both Java (page 555) applets and ActiveX (page 566) controls. Both of these are software components (page 563). ActiveX controls and Java applets are mini programs that can animate images and text. They also can be mini applications, such as a spreadsheet, that a Web site visitor can use.
Fancy pages (or “cool sites”)
An important chore FrontPage 98 performs is maintaining hyperlinks. Hyperlinks are connections from one Web page to another Web page or site, or to a file or e-mail address. The hyperlinks may be represented by buttons, images, or highlighted words. When you activate the hyperlink, you jump to the new location or open the file. With an e-mail address, a program opens that allows you to compose a message and send it. Over time, the hyperlinks may become broken because the location of a file or Web page changes or because someone changes the name of the item. FrontPage helps you manage and keep the links up-todate. It does this by surveying the hyperlinks and
Hyperlinks
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publishing software reporting which ones are bad. You then have an opportunity to edit the link to reestablish the connection. ✯ ✯ ✯ Presentation graphics
If you need to make a presentation—a speech, sales pitch, or progress report to the board—you may want to use a presentation graphics program to prepare overhead transparencies, charts, or a slide show. These programs are easy to use and quickly turn out impressive visuals. Table 12.9 shows the leading programs available.
Table 12.9: Presentation Graphics Programs (Part 1 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
Claris Impact 2.0
Apple Computer
Approximate Price by Platform Macintosh: $90 Windows 3.1/95: $90
Corel Presentations
Corel Corporation
Included in Corel WordPerfect Office suite—Win 95: $270 (See Table 8.1 on page 322)
Freelance Graphics 97
Lotus Development
Windows 95: $325 Win 95 upgrade: $100
Harvard Graphics 98
Software Publishing Corp.
Kai’s Power Show
MetaCreations
PowerPoint 4.0
Microsoft
Win 95: $300 Win 95 upgrade: $95 Mac & Win 95: $50 Win 3.1/95: $300 Included with some Microsoft Office suites (See Table 8.1 on page 322)
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publishing software Table 12.9: Presentation Graphics Programs (Part 2 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
PowerPoint 97
Microsoft
Approximate Price by Platform Mac: $370 Mac upgrade: $140 Win 95: $300 Win 95 upgrade: $95
Presentation graphics programs come with templates you can use to prepare your presentation, or you can create your presentation from scratch. One popular presentation graphics program, Microsoft PowerPoint, includes complete outlines for a number of presentations—from selling a product to breaking bad news. Figure 12.15 shows two screens from Microsoft PowerPoint Version 7.0 for Windows 95. Whether you are starting from a blank slide or using a template, presentation graphics programs allow you to add tables, spreadsheets, graphs, text, clip art, and photographs to make your points. They also include basic drawing tools and give you complete control over background and object color, texture, and shading. You can print out your work on paper or transparency film using black and white or color inkjet and laser printers. If you choose to use 35mm slides in your presentation, you can follow the instructions with the programs to “print to file” and then take the file to a service bureau for processing. A popular use of presentation graphics programs is to prepare slide shows to be run from computers. Laptop computers can be connected to special projectors and the slide show projected on screens for audiences to
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Figure 12.15 Top is a single slide in PowerPoint, and bottom is a series being made for a presentation.
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publishing software see easily. The projectors are expensive—over $1,800 each—so it mainly will be businesses that take advantage of this capability. The presentations, however, are very portable (the projectors are compact) and impressive. ✯ ✯ ✯ There are many inexpensive programs for making novelties. They are called print house or print shop programs. With them you can make banners, calendars, Tshirts, and greeting cards. Even National Geographic Society has a print house program called National Geographic Greeting Cards. Print house programs generally cost less than $50 and sometimes are included as free promotions when you buy other software. New programs are released regularly, and there doesn’t seem to be much longevity to any one program. If you would like to try one of these programs, your best bet is to watch the advertisements from stores selling software.
Print house programs
✯ ✯ ✯ Once you create a design or document, you need a way for others to view it. Until recently, your choices were limited to printing the file to produce a hard copy or sharing the file electronically with someone who could open it. To share a file electronically, the person receiving it usually needed the same program used to create it. Another option was to save the file in a common file format or use filters to open the file in another application (see File formats on page 462). With the advent of the Web and Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), documents could be Chapter 12: Design and Publishing
Electronic publishing
503
publishing software shared electronically with millions of persons for viewing. The only software needed by the viewers is a Web browser (page 276). A new language, called Extensible Markup Language (XML), is emerging for the Web and electronic publishing. Another option for electronic publishing is Acrobat software developed by Adobe Systems. Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and Extensible Markup Language (XML)
504
The Web uses a special computer language called HTML to describe the layout and graphics on a page. HTML makes it possible for you to see colors, fonts, and pictures on Web pages. The HTML language grew out of another computer language called Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). SGML has been around for years and is included as an export option in Adobe FrameMaker+SGML (page 492). Documents published in SGML can be opened, viewed, and searched with other SGML-supported programs. The documents will retain the layout, graphics, and page and paragraph formats. SGML has been used mainly by companies as a means to distribute manuals and other critical documents electronically. The newest language to make the sharing of published documents easier is Extensible Markup Language. XML is a subset of SGML. Like SGML, it describes not only the look of a document, but also the contents. One advantage of this added ability is that the actual contents of documents published electronically can be searched and indexed. The advantage of XML over SGML is that XML is a simpler language and easier to implement on the Internet.
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publishing software Adobe Systems developed Acrobat as a way to publish and share documents electronically on the Internet, a private network, or a CD-ROM. Acrobat documents use a file format called Portable Document Format (PDF). The full Acrobat software package has several applications for converting and reading documents. Acrobat PDF Writer can be used with most applications to save documents in PDF. Acrobat Distiller is used when you want to convert PostScript files to PDF. To read PDF files, you need a copy of Acrobat Reader. It is available for free on the Internet. Numerous Web sites now have Acrobat documents for viewing. When you click on a PDF file and you don’t have Acrobat Reader installed, a dialog box usually will appear giving you the option of downloading and installing it on your computer. As an example, the Internal Revenue Service’s Web site has hundreds of forms available for downloading in PDF. When you visit the Web page listing the forms, you have the option to download Acrobat Reader at the same time. This site also has instructions available in SGML. See Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and Extensible Markup Language (XML) on page 504. Adobe Acrobat also is included free with some applications. If you don’t have Acrobat Reader installed on your computer and you use the Internet, you should consider installing it at the next opportunity. Figure 12.16 shows Acrobat reader with a document open for viewing.
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Adobe Acrobat and PDF
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Figure 12.16 Adobe Acrobat Reader is available free on the Web and with many applications. It allows you to view and search documents saved in PDF and distributed electronically.
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Chapter 13 Utilities and Miscellaneous Applications Previous chapters in this section cover the applications most persons encounter regularly at home and at work. Word processing programs are the principal tools used in preparing letters, reports, and memos of everyday work life. Databases have become essential in keeping modern life organized and efficient. Spreadsheets are common at work and home for projecting, budgeting, and tracking costs. And design and publishing programs are behind the newsletters, advertisements, sales presentations, and Web pages you encounter daily. Utilities are those unexciting programs that help keep computers running well. Some, such as anti-virus software, are essential for every computer. This chapter gives an overview of the major types of utilities. In addition to these widely used programs, there are many other types of applications available, ranging from tax preparation to mailing label programs. Most of these miscellaneous applications will be covered briefly in this chapter. This chapter will give you an idea of what is available, so you know what to look for at the software store. There are many software titles listed in this chapter, and you may find it difficult to decide which would 507
utilities be best to buy for a particular task. You may want to see if there are any reviews of the programs in magazines or on the Internet (see Software reviews on page 328). Another option is to go to a large software store, read the boxes, and talk to the staff. The large mailorder software resellers also have toll-free numbers and Web sites. The Web sites have extensive information about the software they sell. See Table 8.2 on page 329 for a list of eight large software resellers, their telephone numbers, and their Web addresses.
Utilities Utilities are programs that help you use and maintain your computer. These programs include anti-virus, to detect and disable viruses; disk maintenance, to keep disks performing well; encryption and security, to make files secure; Web site blocking, to control Internet access; compression, to make files smaller; diagnostics, to identify system problems; communication, to send and receive facsimiles and files; remote computing, to access desktop computers from laptops; voice recognition, to enable you to dictate text into your computer; and screen savers, to protect your monitor from “burn in.” Anti-virus
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If there is one utility that should be on every computer, it is an anti-virus program. Anti-virus software detects and kills viruses (page 246). Viruses are mini programs created by vandals to cause a range of problems with your software and hardware. Your computer can pick up viruses from the Internet, from work files shared on a floppy disk, or from a floppy containing Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
utilities that cute shareware screen saver you got from your neighbor. Viruses can disable your computer and destroy the files on your hard drive (another reason why you should always back up your work). New viruses are being written every day, so the leading anti-virus programs are able to automatically update themselves regularly by connecting to the manufacturers’ Web sites. Table 13.1 shows the leading anti-virus programs. Table 13.1: Anti-virus Software
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Dr. Solomon’s Antivirus
Network Associates
Norton AntiVirus 5.0
Symantec
Virex 5.9
Network Associates
Mac: $70
VirusScan 4.0
Network Associates
Win 95, Win 3.x, DOS, OS2: $60
Windows 95: $60 Macintosh: $70 Win 95, Win 3.x, DOS: $40 Win 95 upgrade: $20
Anti-virus programs that have been installed properly start automatically when you start your computer. They work in the background and only come alive when they detect a virus. You also can set them to periodically do a complete scan of your disk drives, to make certain a virus didn’t slip past their protective barrier. Figure 13.1 shows three windows from one of the leading anti-virus utilities, Norton AntiVirus. One tip on using anti-virus programs to scan floppy disks: If you scan a floppy and the program detects a virus but says it cannot kill it, check to make
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utilities
Figure 13.1 These three windows are from the anti-virus utility, Norton AntiVirus by Symantec. The program loads automatically and runs in the background as a terminate-and-stay-resident (TSR) program. It springs to life when it detects a virus. You can manually scan your disk drives for viruses from the top window shown. Since new viruses are being written every day, you can set the program to automatically connect to Symantec’s Web site and get the latest information on viruses—a LiveUpdate—as shown in the middle window. The middle window also shows the time for an automatic scan of all hard drives. The bottom window shows some of the more than 21,000 viruses the program can detect.
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utilities certain the disk is not write protected. The write-protection tab is in the upper corner of the floppy. When it is in the up position, so you can see through the disk, the write protection is on and the computer cannot change the contents of the disk. This also means the anti-virus program cannot kill the virus. A variety of utilities help maintain your hard drive by detecting errors, defragmenting files, and uninstalling programs you no longer want. If you have Windows 95 or 98, the operating system comes with utilities that do good jobs at these chores. The utilities sold separately claim, not surprisingly, that they do a better job. Table 13.2 shows many of the programs on the market.
Disk maintenance
Table 13.2: Disk Maintenance Programs (Part 1 of 2)
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Aladdin Spring Cleaning 3.0
Aladdin Systems
CleanSweep 4.+
Symantec
Diskeeper
Executive Software
Drivecopy 2.0
PowerQuest Corporation
Win 95: $30
Lost & Found
PowerQuest Corporation
Win 3.x, Win 95, DOS: $70
Norton SystemWorks (Includes Norton Utilities, Norton AntiVirus, Norton CrashGuard, Norton Uninstall, and Norton Web Services)
Symantec
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Macintosh: $50 Mac upgrade: $20 Win 95: $45 Windows NT: $50
Win 95: $80 Win 95 upgrade: $50
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utilities Table 13.2: Disk Maintenance Programs (Part 2 of 2)
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Norton Uninstall
Symantec
Win 95: $40
Norton Utilities
Symantec
Mac: $100 Mac upgrade: $50 Win 95: $70 Win 95 upgrade: $50
PartitionMagic
PowerQuest Corporation
Uninstaller Deluxe
Network Associates
Win 95: $50
Undelete
Executive Software
Win NT: $50
Win 3.x, Win 95, DOS: $60
The disk maintenance utilities included in Windows 98 are Scan Disk, Disk Cleanup, Disk Defragmenter, and Add/Remove Programs. All of these types of utilities are available from third-party manufacturers, also. For example, Norton System Works includes these kinds of utilities. Add/Remove Programs enables you to safely uninstall programs from your computer. When programs are installed in Windows, operating system files are changed, and the new software also may add files to operating system folders. If you tried to uninstall the program by just deleting the main files and folders in which the program was installed, several files would be left behind and references to the program would remain in the system files and folders. This could create problems as the operating system searches for a program that is no longer there. The solution is to use an install/uninstall utility such as Add/Remove Programs. You start Add/Remove
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utilities programs in Windows 95/98 by double clicking on the icon found in Control Panel. A dialog box as shown in Figure 13.2 will appear.
Figure 13.2 The Add/Remove Programs utility found in Windows 95/98 enables you to safely install and uninstall software.
Aladdin Spring Cleaning, Uninstaller Deluxe, and Norton Uninstall also will uninstall software. CleanSweep is an uninstall utility for networks. Disk defragmentation utilities organize files on a disk so the operating system can access them efficiently. As your operating system stores files on the hard drive, they end up getting scattered across the entire disk area over time. This fragmentation can significantly slow the performance of your computer. Defragmentation utili-
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utilities ties move these files to contiguous disk space for more efficient access. Some disk utilities will check for errors on the surface of disk drives and repair the problems. Disk utilities also may search your hard drive for files that are not needed and remove them. The unneeded files may be temporary files that should have been deleted when the computer shut down but were not. They also could be temporary Internet files. Norton Utilities handles defragmentation, disk error repair, and removal of unnecessary files; and Diskeeper defragments drives. You can set up Windows 98 to automatically run Disk Defragmenter, Scan Disk, and Disk Cleanup to perform these chores. Choose Accessories, then System Tools, then Maintenance Wizard in the Programs menu of Windows 98. Figure 13.3 shows tasks scheduled by Maintenance Wizard.
Figure 13.3 Windows 98 contains several disk utilities. Here, Maintenance Wizard in Windows 98 has scheduled three of those utilities to run automatically. The computer must be on during those times for the utilities to operate.
The utilities Undelete and Norton Utilities can recover files that have been deleted by mistake. Lost & Found by PowerQuest can do so, also, and claims to be able to recover data from disk crashes. You also can recover deleted files with the Recycle Bin utility in Win-
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utilities dows 95/98. See Recycle Bin—a safety feature on page 160 for more information. Several utilities diagnose your computer system and either fix problems or report to you problems that should be fixed. Norton CrashGuard, for example, goes into action when your computer is about to crash. It then fixes the problem or closes the program causing the crash. The utilities check both hardware and software as they scan your system. Table 13.3 shows the programs on the market.
Diagnostic utilities
Table 13.3: Diagnostic Utilities
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
CheckIt 98
Touchstone Software
Windows 95: $50
First Aid 98 Deluxe
Network Associates
Win 95: $60
Norton CrashGuard Deluxe
Symantec
Win 95: $50
Nuts & Bolts 98
Network Associates
Win 95: $50
Encryption is the encoding of files to make them Encryption and secure from snooping (see encryption on page 603 in the security Glossary). When you send credit card data over the Internet to buy a product, for example, the e-commerce (page 297) software used by the Web site encrypts the information. Several generally available utilities allow you to encrypt files yourself. You also can use these programs to make files and folders on your hard drive secure from unauthorized persons. Table 13.4 shows these programs.
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utilities Table 13.4: Encryption and Security Programs
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
DiskGuard 1.8
ASD Software
Macintosh: $80
FileGuard 3.1
ASD Software
Mac: $150
Guard Dog Deluxe
Cybermedia
Norton DiskLock 4.0
Symantec
Win 3.x & DOS: $85
Norton Your Eyes Only 4.1
Symantec
Win 95: $80
PGP Disk
Network Associates
Mac: $35 Win 95: $35
Private File
Aladdin Systems
Mac: $50 Win 95: $50
Windows 95: $55
Web site blocking
Many parents are concerned about some of the content available on the Internet. They would like to keep their children from viewing pornography or other Internet sites they consider undesirable. Web site blocking programs enable them to control their children’s access to these sites and to selected software on their computers. Table 13.5 lists Web site blocking programs.
File compression
Sending large files on the Internet can take ages, and graphics files can be too big to fit on a floppy and quickly fill other disk drives. File compression programs were created to help you cope with these situations. File compression software enables you to convert files to a format that takes up less disk space. You then convert the files back to the original format when you are ready to use them. Table 13.6 shows the principal file compression programs.
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utilities Table 13.5: Web Site Blocking
Program
Manufacturer
Cyber Patrol
Learning Company/Softkey
Cyber Sentinel
Security Software Systems
Net Nanny 3.0
Net Nanny Ltd.
Sentinel LockDown
Security Software Systems
Approximate Price by Platform Macintosh: $40 Windows 95: $40 Win 95: $45 Win 3.x & 95: $25 Win 95: $30
Table 13.6: File Compression Programs
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
PKZIP
PKWARE, Inc.
DOS, OS/2, Unix, Windows 3.x + & 95: Free basic version for download on Internet Win 95 full version on disk: $40
WinZip 7.0
Nico Mak Computing
Win 95: Free on Internet
Zip-It 4.0
Quarterdeck Office Systems
ZipMagic 98
Mijenix Corp.
DOS 4.0, Win 3.x & 95: $35 Win 95: $40
One of the original file compression programs was PKZIP, created by Phil Katz in 1986. This program can compress files up to a 6-to-1 ratio. It is a “lossless” compression method meaning, no data is discarded in the process. Lossless methods are preferred when it is critical to maintain all the file’s data, as in database files, or when Chapter 13: Utilities and Miscellaneous Applications
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utilities you do not want to degrade the quality of a photograph or other graphic file with the compression process. “Lossy” methods, on the other hand, discard some data in the compression process. They often are used to compress files containing photographs, where loss of some of the data will not significantly degrade the image for the planned use. Lossy methods often are used to send photos on the Internet. Backup software
518
Backing up your data is highly important. Too many things could go wrong—your hard drive could fail, your computer could be stolen or destroyed in a fire, or your files could be accidentally erased or overwritten—to risk losing days, months, or years of work. You should back up your data regularly (daily or at least weekly) and store the tape or disk in a safe place. If your data is irreplaceable and valuable, consider storing a backup copy off site in a safe deposit box. At minimum, you should store a copy in a fire-proof safe. You can back up your data by simply copying files to a removable disk. Backup software is designed to make the task easier, however. With these programs, you can define the files to back up ahead of time, and the software will automatically do so each time you give a command. Backup software also can be set to copy only those files that have changed since the last backup. If you use a tape drive, backup software is a must. Your computer’s file management utility, such as Windows Explorer, will not recognize the tape drive, but the backup program will. When you buy a tape drive, it likely will come with a backup program. Most backup programs save files in a special format, and you must use the same backup program to restore the files. DataSaver by Software Architects saves your files in their native format. You can open a file Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
utilities backed using DataSaver without going through a special restore process. Table 13.7 shows many of the programs available for individual computers. There also are many programs designed to back up networks. Table 13.7: Backup Programs for Individual Computers
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
BackUp 2.0
Computer Associates
Win 95: $50
Backup Exec 3.0
Seagate Software
OS/2: $70 Win 95: $90
DataSaver
Software Architects, Inc.
Mac: $55 Win 3.x & 95: $55
Drive Image 2.0
PowerQuest
DOS 5.0: $60 OS/2: $60 Win 3.x & 95: $60
FlashBack
Aladdin Systems
Macintosh: $65 Win 3.x & 95: $65
NovaBackup 6.0
NovaStor Corp.
DOS: $50
The trend toward entering information into computers by speaking took off when IBM included VoiceType with its OS/2 Warp operating system. Now several programs on the market will enter text into applications as you speak. The programs are improving all the time. With the original programs, you had to talk like a robot—in a staccato monotone. Now the software allows you to speak naturally to enter text. Most of the programs include a microphone with the package. Table 13.8 shows the leading programs on the market.
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Voice recognition
519
utilities Table 13.8: Voice Recognition Programs
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
ARTrecognition
Advanced Recognition Technologies
Win 95: $60
Dragon NaturallySpeaking Preferred 3
Dragon Systems
Win 95: $130
IBM ViaVoice Executive
IBM
Win 95: $120
L&H Voice Xpress Professional
Lernout and Hauspie
Win 95: $120
Voicecrypt
Veritel
Win 95: $50
Screen savers
520
Screen savers originally were developed to prevent “burn in” on computer monitors—a ghost image of text remaining on the screen due to the same white text on a black background being displayed for long periods. Screen savers display constantly changing geometric patterns, artwork, cartoons, photographs, or other images on the screen. Today, screen savers are used more for entertainment and for keeping the screen’s contents hidden than for protecting the hardware. Most screen savers allow you to use passwords, and the screen saver will stay on until the password is entered. Windows includes screen savers with the operating system. To use them in Windows 95/98, right click anywhere on the desktop and choose Properties. Click on the dialog box tab for Screen Saver, and there will be a pull-down menu of the installed screen savers. Many screen savers are available for free on the Internet. There also are several commercial products available, some of which are shown in Table 13.9. Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
utilities Table 13.9: Screen Savers
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
After Dark Classic
Berkeley Systems
Macintosh: $30 Windows 95: $30
Aquazone Deluxe
The Learning Company
Mac: $30 Win 3.x & 95: $30
Catz II
The Learning Company
Win 95: $20
Desktop Designer
Connectix Corp.
Win 95: $35
Dogz II
The Learning Company
Win 95: $20
Screen savers are terminate-and-stay-resident (TSR) programs. This means they start when the computer starts but remain in the background until activated. They are activated by a keystroke or, more likely, by a period of time passing with no mouse or keyboard activity. Sometimes screen savers may conflict with other programs when they activate. If you are having mysterious problems with your computer, such as freezing or crashing for no apparent reason, try disabling the screen saver to see if the problem clears up. ✯ ✯ ✯ There are multipurpose communication software packages that have fax, file transfer, and telephone functions included. Two well-established multipurpose communication software packages are on the market today: WinFax Pro and ProcommPlus 95. Table 13.10 has information about these software packages. Another type of communication software is remote computing programs. These products enable you to Chapter 13: Utilities and Miscellaneous Applications
Communication software products
521
utilities control other computers remotely. Remote computing programs are discussed on page 523. Table 13.10: Communication Software
Product
Manufacturer
Approximate Price
ProcommPlus 4.7
Symantec
$130
WinFax Pro
Symantec
$50
Fax software
Fax programs allow you to fax documents directly from your hard drive to a fax machine. These same programs can receive faxes and turn them into word-processing files through optical character recognition (OCR) (page 268). Faxing documents from your computer can be quite convenient. You set up a cover page from one of several templates included with the software. When you want to send a fax, a form pops up on the screen so you can fill in information about the recipient and receiving fax number. You can attach text documents to the cover sheet. Fax software allows you to set up groups of recipients to fax to at once. This is a real convenience if you have a newsletter you fax or are coordinating a work group or committee.
File transfer software
The file-transfer function of communication software takes a little more work on your part than the fax program. First, you need to select a file-transfer protocol (see below). Then you need to coordinate the transfer with the operator of the other computer. You click the “send file” menu item and supply the information required. Next, your computer’s modem
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utilities calls the other computer’s modem. Finally, the operator of the other operator clicks on the “receive file” menu option when the connection is made. File-transfer protocols are sets of parameters for transferring files between computers by modem. They include parameters such as timing, the size of the blocks of data that can be transferred (called packet size), and the number of errors allowed before cancelling the transfer. These protocols have names like XMODEM, YMODEM, ZMODEM, Kermit, and CompuServe B. The protocol you use will determine how quickly the file will be transferred, so pick the fastest protocol that both computers can use. Today most computers and modems can transfer at the fast ZMODEM protocol, and that is what you should use if possible.
File-transfer protocols
The telephone function of communication software allows you to set up phone books, autodial and speed dial the phone, and set up voice mail boxes. You can record messages for voice mail using a standard telephone if it is connected through your computer’s modem (which most modems allow). If you set up voice mail, remember you will need to leave your computer running for it to work.
Telephone calling and receiving
There are several programs on the market that enable you to access and control one computer from another. These remote computing programs are useful if, for example, you are traveling with a laptop and want to use files or read e-mail on your desktop computer back at the office.
Remote computing
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utilities With these programs, you can connect to the remote computer by using the Internet; or you can do so by dialing directly, using a modem. You need to install host software on the main computer and remote software on the one that will be dialing in. Table 13.11 shows the available programs. The packages include the software necessary for both the host and the remote computers. Table 13.11: Remote Computing Software
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Carbon Copy 32
Microcom
CoSession Remote 32
Artisoft
LapLink Professional
Traveling Software
Win 3.x & 95: $140
pcANYWHERE32 8.0
Symantec
Win 3.x & 95: $140 Win upgrade: $100
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Windows 95: $130 Win 95: $60
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miscellaneous applications
Miscellaneous Applications There is an assortment of applications on the market designed for specific tasks. The business chores they accomplish range from accounting to personnel management. There are programs to help with children’s education, and new game software seems to appear daily. What follows is not an exhaustive inventory of programs available but rather a look at categories that have endured for some time. Computers have been used to keep companies’ books for a long time. Today it would be rare to find any but the smallest organization keeping its accounting records on paper. Many electronic accounting systems used by large organizations have been custom designed at substantial cost. However, there are several widely available programs that competently handle accounting for even complex operations. Table 13.12 shows the leading ones on the market.
Accounting and personal finance
Table 13.12: Accounting and Personal Finance Programs (Part 1 of 2)
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
ACCPAC (Business)
ACCPAC International
Varies according to modules purchased
Microsoft Money 99 Suite
Microsoft
Windows 95: $50
MYOB Accounting (Business)
BestWare
Macintosh: $160 Win 95: $160
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miscellaneous applications Table 13.12: Accounting and Personal Finance Programs (Part 2 of 2)
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
One Write Plus 7.0 (Business)
Peachtree Software
Win 95: $70
Peachtree Complete Accounting 6.0 (Business)
Peachtree Software
Win 95: $180
QuickBooks Pro 99 (Business)
Intuit
Win 95: $200
Quicken Deluxe
Intuit
Mac: $60 Win 95: $60
Accounting software has migrated to the home in the form of personal finance programs. These programs are designed to help you keep your personal checkbook balanced and your finances within budget. Quicken was the first personal finance program, and today this software can help you manage checking, credit cards, and investments. You can print checks on your computer’s printer, and balancing your checking account is easy. Noting Quicken’s success, Microsoft developed a personal finance program called Microsoft Money 99. Both of these programs are listed in Table 13.12. Intuit, the maker of Quicken, also has a popular accounting program for business. QuickBooks handles all the basic accounting chores, from setting up a chart of accounts to managing payroll. Figure 13.4 shows a couple of screens from QuickBooks Pro. Most of the accounting programs for business listed in Table 13.12 come with at least the basic functions of general ledger, accounts payable, and accounts 526
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
miscellaneous applications
Figure 13.4 QuickBooks Pro is an accounting program for businesses. With it, you can keep books on an accrual or cash basis, set up charts of accounts, prepare invoices, handle payroll, prepare statements for customers, keep track of customers and vendors, keep track of checking accounts and print checks, issue refunds and credit memos, prepare purchase orders, levy finance charges, and do many other chores necessary for running a business. The top screen shows the main control window, called Navigator, and the bottom shows QuickBooks in action with the check register. Other accounting programs, such as Quicken, are designed for personal finance and checking.
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miscellaneous applications receivable. With ACCPAC, however, you purchase these functions separately as modules. Tax preparation
If you prepare your own taxes, once you have used tax preparation software you probably never will want to do them any other way. Tax software is easy to use, accurate, minimizes errors, and allows you to file your return electronically. The more complicated your finances, the more essential tax software is if you are doing your own taxes. Two manufacturers have most of the market: Intuit and Kiplinger Washington Editors, Inc. Both of these companies produce software for preparing federal and state returns for individuals and businesses. Table 13.13 shows some of their products.
Table 13.13: Tax Preparation Software (does not include software for state taxes)
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Kiplinger TaxCut Business
Kiplinger Washington Editors, Inc.
Windows 95: $60
Kiplinger TaxCut Deluxe
Kiplinger Washington Editors, Inc.
Win 95: $40 Macintosh: $40
MacInTax Deluxe
Intuit
Mac: $50
TurboTax Deluxe
Intuit
Win 95: $50
TurboTax for Business
Intuit
Win 95: $80
Intuit has been a leader in tax preparation software for many years. Their TurboTax comes in several versions for personal returns, businesses, and tax preparation professionals. You can import data into TurboTax 528
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miscellaneous applications from Quicken (Table 13.12) if you use that program for personal finance. Using TurboTax to prepare taxes involves a stepby-step interview. You can stop the interview at any time, and the program will pick up where you left off when you start again. TurboTax will print forms for mailing, or you can file electronically through Intuit. Figure 13.5 shows one of the steps of the interview process for TurboTax Deluxe.
Figure 13.5 TurboTax takes you through a comprehensive interview to ensure your taxes are complete and accurate. The program has extensive information and tools to help you legally reduce your taxes.
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529
miscellaneous applications Personal information managers, or PIMs, keep track of contacts and dates with address book and calendar programs. They efficiently organize thousands of addresses and can help you manage your schedule for years to come. Table 13.14 shows the principal PIMs available.
Personal information managers (PIMs)
Table 13.14: Personal Information Managers (PIMs)
Program
Manufacturer
Approximate Price by Platform
Address Book 6.0
The Learning Company
Windows 3.x & 95: $25
Ascend
Franklin Covey Co.
Daytimer Organizer 2000
Kensington
Win 95: $60
GoldMine 4.0
GoldMine Software Corp.
Win 95: $180
InTouch/DateView
Prairie
Key Day Planner
The Learning Company
Janna Contact Personal
Janna Systems
Win 95: $50
Lotus Organizer 5.0
Lotus Development
Mac: $80 Win 95: $80
Microsoft Outlook 98
Microsoft
Win 95: $100
Microsoft Schedule +
Microsoft
Win 3.x & 95: $130
Symantec ACT!
Symantec
Mac: $170 Mac upgrade: $70 Win 95: $170 Win 95 upgrade: $70
530
Macintosh: $80 Win 95: $80
Mac: $75 Win 3.x & 95: $10
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
miscellaneous applications A drawback to PIMs in the past has been that you can’t easily travel with your calendar and address book when it resides on your computer. You can print calendar and address book pages and mailing labels, but many people found they were carrying a paper calendar book even if they had an electronic one on their computer. Personal digital assistants (PDAs)—also called electronic organizers—such as the Palm Pilot, Palm III, and Palm V by 3Com, have become very popular. The Palms and several other PDAs allow you to enter appointments, addresses, notes, and other information on both the hand-held PDA and a PC, using desktop PIM software that is included. Then you can synchronize data between the PC and the PDA. The Palm PDAs come with excellent PIM software for a desktop computer. Synchronizing data between a Palm and a desktop computer is easy and flawless. You put the PDA in a cradle attached to your computer and press a button. The software will synchronize changes made both on the computer and the Palm. Several of the programs in Table 13.14 claim to be able to work with electronic organizers. Figure 13.6 shows two screens from Microsoft Schedule+, a powerful PIM that is designed to be able to work with electronic organizers. If you want to use a PDA with a separate PIM, you should contact the PDA’s manufacturer to learn which PIMs work best. If you are a manager or team leader responsible for making sure complex projects are successfully completed on time, project management software can help. These programs enable you to break projects into components, assign tasks to individuals or teams, and track the progress of tasks. Chapter 13: Utilities and Miscellaneous Applications
Project management
531
miscellaneous applications
Figure 13.6 Microsoft Schedule+ is a powerful PIM. The top screen shows the contacts tool, and the bottom the calendar.
The more powerful programs can track multiple projects and shared resources, as when personnel are assigned to two or more projects. The software allows you to plan projects ahead of time and create charts to visualize the phases and steps to completion. Table 13.15 shows project management programs widely available.
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miscellaneous applications Table 13.15: Project Management Programs
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
FastTrack Schedule 6.0
AEC Software
Microsoft Project 4.0
Microsoft
Mac: $450 Mac upgrade: $140 Win 3.x: $450 Win 3.x upgrade: $140
Microsoft Project 98
Microsoft
Win 95: $400 Win 95 upgrade: $170
On Target 2.0
Franklin Covey Co.
Project Manager Pro
The Learning Company
SureTrak
Primavera Systems
Win 3.x & 95, OS/2: $360
Turbo Project 3.0
IMSI
Win 3.x & 95, OS/2: $90
Turbo Project Pro
IMSI
Win 3.x & 95, OS/2: $270
Macintosh: $190 Windows 95: $190
Win 95: $100 Win 3.x & 95: $30
Business plan software helps you prepare complete business plans, including break-even analyses, cash flow, personnel plans, monthly and annual financial analyses, sales plans, ratios, profit-loss, and more. Marketing plan programs are designed to help you develop a market definition, competition analysis, sales forecast, marketing budget, and marketing strategy. Table 13.16 lists business and marketing plan programs.
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Business and marketing plans
533
miscellaneous applications Table 13.16: Business and Marketing Plan Software
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
BizPlan Builder Interactive
Jian Tools for Sales
Mac: $95 Win 3.x & 95: $95
Business Plan Pro
Palo Alto Software
Win 3.x & 95: $85
Marketing Builder Interactive
Jian Tools for Sales
Win 3.x & 95: $75
Marketing Plus 2.2
Palo Alto Software
Win 3.x & 95: $85
Human resource management
Several applications on the market are designed to help organizations deal with various routine personnel functions. The programs available are designed to produce policy manuals and job descriptions. They can help you with performance reviews and managing personnel files. Table 13.17 shows many of the programs and their functions.
Table 13.17: Human Resource Management Programs (Part 1 of 2)
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Descriptions Now! (job descriptions)
KnowledgePoint Software
Employee Manual Maker (employee handbook)
Jian Tools for Sales
Macintosh: $90 Win 3.x & 95: $90
People Manager (personnel file)
KnowledgePoint Software
Win 3.x & 95: $90
Org Plus 3 (organization chart)
IMSI
Performance Now! (performance reviews)
KnowledgePoint Software
534
Windows 3.x & 95: $90
Win 3.x: $85 Win 3.x & 95: $90
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
miscellaneous applications Table 13.17: Human Resource Management Programs (Part 2 of 2)
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Policies Now! (employee handbook)
KnowledgePoint Software
Win 3.x & 95: $90
Timeslips (time and billing)
Timeslips Corp.
Win 3.x & 95: $180 Win 3.x & 95 upgrades: $90
WinWay Resume (resume preparation)
WinWay Corp.
Win 3.x & 95: 35
There are many applications available that have been written to assist in the running of businesses and other organizations. The programs do everything from helping you with publicity to turning your computer into a cash register. Most of the programs are not found in the inventory of software retailers. To find if there is an application for a specific need, your best bet is to search the Internet with a search engine (page 277). Table 13.18 shows a selection of programs available and their uses.
Organization operations
Table 13.18: Selected Organization Operations Software (Part 1 of 2)
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
Agreement Builder (business contracts and legal agreements)
Jian Tools for Sales
Used with most Windows word processors: $50
Business Basics (documents, forms, and spreadsheets)
Jian Tools for Sales
Used with most Windows word processors and spreadsheets: $50
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miscellaneous applications Table 13.18: Selected Organization Operations Software (Part 2 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
Mail Order Manager (mail order processing and management)
Dydacomp Development Corp.
Publicity Builder (press releases and publicity letters)
Jian Tool for Sales
Retail Edge (cash register and retail management)
High Meadow Business Solutions
Safety Plan Builder (OSHA safety plans)
Jian Tools for Sales
TalkWorks Pro 2 (voice and fax messaging system)
Symantec
Address, telephone, and mailing programs
536
Approximate Price by Platform Windows 3.x: $1,800+
Used with most Windows word processors: $40 Win 95: $280
Win 3.x & 95: $100 Win 95: $170
A number of available applications are designed to help you contact potential customers. Table 13.19 lists phone-book-on-CD and mailing-label programs. The phone-book-on-CD programs have addresses and phone numbers for individuals and businesses across the United States. You can type in a name, telephone number, address, or SIC (Standard Industrial Classification) code, and the software will return one or more listings giving the name, address, and telephone number. You can print a list of the findings, print mailing labels, or export the information into a database or word processing program. Figure 13.7 shows a search performed with Select Phone by infoUSA, Inc. The mailing-label and mailing-lists programs enable you to develop a database of names and print Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
miscellaneous applications
Figure 13.7 Select Phone is a program on several CDs that has phone and address listings for over 100 million individuals and businesses in the United States. Here a search was done for all businesses with names that start with “compu.” Table 13.19: Address, Telephone, and Mailing Programs (Part 1 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
Approximate Price by Platform
Direct Marketing Toolkit
infoUSA
Windows 3.x & 95: $100
LabelPro
Avery Software
Macintosh: $40 Win 3.x & 95: $40
Labels Unlimited 2
The Learning Company
Win 3.x & 95: $40
List Match
infoUSA
Win 3.x & 95: $200
Mailer’s +4
Mailer’s Software
Phone Search USA
DeLorme Mapping
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Windows 3.x & 95: $90 Win 95: $30
537
miscellaneous applications Table 13.19: Address, Telephone, and Mailing Programs (Part 2 of 2)
Program
Manufacturer
Powerfinder Pro
American Business Info.
Select Phone Standard
infoUSA
Approximate Price by Platform Macintosh & Win 95: $110 Macintosh & all Windows: $100
mailing labels in many sizes and formats. Some of the programs will sort the mailing list by ZIP code, as will some of the phone-book-on-CD programs. The mailing-label programs also allow you to custom design mailing labels for your business. Figure 13.8 shows the mailing-label program Labels Unlimited 2 by The Learning Company. Optical character recognition (OCR) and form fillers
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OCR software enables a computer to take text that has been scanned from paper and convert it to a format that can be edited. The software will convert scanned pages of text to a word-processing file format such as those used by Corel WordPerfect or Microsoft Word. Basic OCR software usually is included when you buy a scanner. Table 13.20 shows OCR software on the market. Several of the programs listed in Table 13.20 are not primarily OCR but include OCR capability. A program dedicated primarily to OCR, such as Caere OmniPage Pro, would be the best choice if you plan to convert a lot of scanned pages to text for editing. OmniPage, for example, will keep the original page format, identify text that may not have been properly converted, and translate scanned tables as WordPerfect or Word table objects.
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miscellaneous applications
Figure 13.8 Label programs allow you to manage a database of mailing-list names and print the names on a wide variety of labels. You also can custom design labels and bring clip art into the design. This shows a label designed with the program Labels Unlimited 2, by The Learning Company.
When you scan forms with form-filler programs, the software converts the image to a format that allows you to type in information on the blank spaces and lines. When you are done, you can print the completed form. Form-filler programs are a lot easier to use than trying to fill out a paper form with a typewriter. IMSI’s FormTool also allows you to create your own forms that can be printed or filled out with a computer.
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miscellaneous applications Table 13.20: Optical Character Recognition and Form-Filler Programs
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
CardScan 4.0
Corex Technologies
Windows 95: $70
FormTool 97
IMSI
Win 3.x & 95: $70
FormTool Scan & OCR
IMSI
Win 95: $90
Imaging for Windows Pro (OCR)
Eastman Software
Win 95: $70
OmniForm
Caere Corp.
Macintosh: $150 Win 95: $150
OmniForm Filler 3.0
Caere Corp.
Win 95: $80
OmniPage Pro (OCR)
Caere Corp.
Mac: $500 Mac upgrade: $100 Win 95: $500 Win 95 upgrade: $100
PageKeeper Standard 3.0 (Includes OCR)
Caere Corp.
Win 95: $40
Pagis Pro 2.0 (Includes TextBridge Pro)
Xerox Corp.
Win 95: $100
PaperPort Deluxe (Includes OCR)
Visioneer
Mac: $50 Win 95: $50
PaperPort Scanner Suite (Includes OCR)
Visioneer
Win 95: $80
ProOCR100
Xerox Corp.
Win 95: $50
TextBridge Pro (OCR)
Xerox Corp.
Mac: $60 Win 95: $80
Universal OCR
Language Force
540
Win 3.x & 95: $45
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miscellaneous applications Not long ago, some people were predicting that books on CDs would be the end of printed books. It turned out that not many persons found reading long text on computer screens very enjoyable or convenient. Reference books on CDs, however, have gained good acceptance. They are compact (they can replace many printed volumes with one or two CDs), and you can search the text quickly for specific entries. Dictionaries and encyclopedias seem especially suited for publishing on CDs. Table 13.21 lists several of the leading titles.
Reference CDs
Table 13.21: Reference CDs
Approximate Price by Platform
Program
Manufacturer
American Heritage Dictionary
The Learning Company
Britannica CD 98
Broderbund
Macintosh: $60 Win 3.x & 95: $60
Compton’s 1999 Encyclopedia Deluxe
Broderbund
Win 95: $40
Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe
Microsoft
Win 95: $60
Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia
Grolier Electronic Publishing
Microsoft Bookshelf 98
Microsoft
National Geographic 109 Years
Broderbund
Mac: $150 Win 3.x & 95: $150
Ultimate Children’s Encyclopedia
The Learning Company
Win 3.x + & 95: $30
World Book Encyclopedia Standard Edition
IBM
Chapter 13: Utilities and Miscellaneous Applications
Windows 3.x & 95: $25
Win 3.x & 95: $50 Win 95: $50
Win 95: $40
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miscellaneous applications Educational software
There are many education programs written for children and adults of all ages. New educational software titles are released frequently, so you should check software stores to see what currently is available. The programs for children help with math, reading, problem-solving, and other skills. They are designed to be fun and generally sell for less than $30. The titles for teenagers and adults cover science, history, math, logic, typing skills, and preparation for standard tests such as the SAT. There are even programs that can help you learn a foreign language. Most of these programs also are inexpensive, selling for under $30, with some going to $50.
Games
Computer games are a big business. Many persons have fast computers that they use primarily for entertainment, including games. The range of subjects is broad: you can buy games to simulate science fiction combat, play chess with your computer, simulate playing golf on the finest links in the world, shoot craps, or simulate flying a Boeing 747. The available programs change regularly, and the prices can range from under $10 to $100. The best way to find what is available is to check in stores that sell many computer software titles. There also are magazines devoted to nothing but computer games.
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Appendix 1 Programming Languages and Technology Software is simply a set of instructions that can be understood by the computer. The body of rules and terms in which the instructions are written is called a programming language.
Low-Level Languages The most basic type of instructions for a computer is machine language. Machine language is instructions in binary form that the CPU can use directly. This software, consisting of 0s and 1s, is called a low-level language. Indeed, machine language is the lowest level of computer software there is. However, writing programs in the binary numbers of machine language soon drove programmers to drink, so they developed assembly language.
Machine language
Assembly language is another low-level language— just one level above machine language—but it is easier
Assembly language and assemblers 543
low-level languages to use than machine language. It is easier because a programmer uses short words and mnemonic codes instead of binary numbers to write instructions for the CPU. Programs written in assemAssembly language bly language operate quickly programs are fast and efficiently, and many operand efficient but ating systems have been written difficult to write. with it. Once a programmer writes the program’s instructions in assembly language, another program called an assembler translates the commands into machine language the CPU uses (see Figure A1.1). Assembly language
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Assembly language has its drawbacks. Assembly language programs are written for specific CPUs and are not transferred easily among computers using different types of CPUs—say between a computer with an Intel 80486 CPU and one with a Motorola 68040 CPU. And even though assembly language is not as tedious as machine language, it still is difficult to use. The programmer needs to write out in great detail the steps the computer must take to accomplish even simple tasks.
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high-level languages
High-Level Languages High-level languages are easier to use than machine and assembly languages. A high-level language uses words and abbreviations to write even complex commands in a program. Another program called a compiler (Figure A1.1) then translates these commands into machine language. High-level language commands usually are logical and fairly easy to learn. For example, some commands in the high-level programming language called BASIC are PRINT to display words or numbers on the computer’s monitor, GOTO to go to a different line of instructions in the program, SQR to find the square root of a number, and RANDOMIZE to generate random numbers. Besides BASIC, some of the other high-level languages are COBOL, PILOT, Pascal, FORTRAN, PROLOG, C, Ada, APL, LISP, C++, and Java. Programmers can use C as both a low-level and high-level language.
High-level languages; compilers
Examining the instructions in a program will give you an idea of how software in high-level languages works. Figure A1.2 is an example of a very simple program written in BASIC. BASIC stands for Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. If you take a course in BASIC programming, this may be the first program the instructor asks you to write. The following is a line-by-line explanation of what the program’s instructions mean. Notice that at the beginning of each line there is a number. This line number is important because the CPU will implement the program line by line sequen-
A simple BASIC program
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high-level languages
Figure A1.1 Both high-level and assembly languages must be translated into machine language by compilers and assemblers.
tially. The CPU will first implement line 10, then line 20, then 30, and so forth unless told to do otherwise by a GOTO, THEN, or some other such command. Line 10 has the statement REM at the beginning. This stands for remark and tells the CPU to ignore this line. The purpose of REM is to allow the person who wrote the program to insert explanatory notes in the lines of computer code. In this case it tells the programmer that this is a program called payroll. REM also can be used to disable a line of code. (Code loosely refers to a program instruction, as does command.) Line 20 starts with the command CLS , which means clear the screen of anything that may be on it. In other words, the program will always start with a blank monitor screen. The next command, PRINT, tells the
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high-level languages 10 REM Payroll 20 CLS : PRINT "Please enter employee name"; 30 INPUT N$ 40 CLS : PRINT "Please enter hours worked"; 50 INPUT H 60 CLS : PRINT "Please enter pay rate"; 70 INPUT R 75 CLS 80 IF H > 40 THEN 300 90 P = H * R 100 GOTO 400 300 P = (40 * R) + (((H - 40) * 1.5) * R) 400 PRINT "Employee name: "; N$ 410 PRINT "Hours worked this week: "; H 420 PRINT "Hourly pay rate: $"; R 430 PRINT "Total pay this week: $"; P 500 END
Figure A1.2 A simple program written in BASIC to calculate the weekly pay of an employee.
CPU to print on the screen (not on a printer) the words in quotation marks that follow. The CPU will not print the quotation marks because the quotation marks are actually a command that tells the CPU to act on everything inside the quotes. (See Syntax on page 548 for the importance of precision in writing instructions.) So, the first thing the program does is display the request, Please enter employee name. Line 30 tells the CPU that the information the computer user enters is a word or words that the programmer calls N. The dollar sign ($) tells the CPU that the string of data will be letters and not numbers, and that is how the CPU knows they are words. Another BASIC command is the IF/THEN command on line 80. This command says that if the hours worked (H) are greater than 40, then go to line 300 and execute the instructions there. You can see that line 300 Appendix 1: Programming Languages and Technology
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high-level languages contains a formula for calculating pay (P) that includes overtime. On line 100 is a GOTO comBASIC is an mand. A GOTO command simply easy programtells the CPU to go to a different ming language line. In this case, if the number of to learn. hours worked were fewer than forty—and, therefore, the CPU did not jump to the overtime calculation on line 300—the CPU will skip the overtime calculation and jump to line 400 to start printing the results on the screen. Syntax
A programmer must write the statements on the lines of a program very precisely, not only in terms of commands but also in terms of punctuation and spacing between commands, letters, and numbers. The rules that govern computer programming and giving the computer commands are called syntax. If you try to tell a computer to do something and it will not do it, there is a good chance you have made a syntax error. And if you ask the computer wiz in your office for help, he or she may shake a finger at you and say, “Syntax, syntax!”
Versions of BASIC
BASIC is an easy high-level programming language to learn. BASIC was included with MS-DOS, so if you have a computer with DOS alone or Windows 3.1 (which needs DOS), you can write simple DOS applications yourself. The program in Figure A1.2 on page 547 was written with QuickBASIC, an earlier version of BASIC made by Microsoft that was very popular but, unfortunately, is no longer available. If you are interested in obtaining a version of BASIC, you should search the
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high-level languages Internet for what is available. One Web site that specializes in BASIC and versions that are available is: http://advancedbasic.hypermart.net/index.html A new version of BASIC now is used frequently for Visual Basic writing sophisticated applications for Windows 95/98. Microsoft makes Visual Basic for Windows. Visual Basic allows even beginners to write functional Windows applications. Visual Basic is different from previous versions of BASIC in that it Visual Basic is used for writinvolves event-driven programming. ing Windows In the program shown in Figure A1.2 applications. on page 547, the computer sequentially runs through the instructions line-by-line just as the programmer wrote them. In contrast, with event-driven programs the computer responds to actions of the user, such as clicking a button with a mouse or entering information in a dialog box. Computers using Microsoft Windows and Macintosh computers are event driven. Included with Visual Basic are Visual Basic extensions (VBXs for the .VBX file extensions) that are similar to Windows .DLL files (page 28) but work only with programs written in Visual Basic. These VBXs contain professionally written software components for custom controls—such as scroll bars, buttons, pulldown menus, and other devices—that would be difficult for a novice to write. Including the VBXs makes it easier for you to write a sharp-looking Windows application. You are free to concentrate on the logic behind what you want the application to do and don’t have to spend much time on Appendix 1: Programming Languages and Technology
VBXs and Visual Basic
549
high-level languages the fancy user interface. Visual Basic comes with a library of VBXs, and there also are third-party vendors that sell libraries of custom controls. There are several other high-level languages you may hear about because they either are classic (been around since the beginning) or are actively used today. BASIC is one of the classic languages, and it is still used today. However, Visual Basic is a long way from the BASIC first developed in 1964. FORTRAN
550
FORTRAN was the first high-level programming language—it was developed in the mid-1950s—and it still is frequently used today. FORTRAN stands for formula translation and is used for mathematical, scientific, engineering, and graphics applications. FORTRAN likely will be FORTRAN is used for some time to come. The used for mathereasons are that many FORmatical, scientific, TRAN programs in use, many and graphics programmers prefer to use FORapplications. TRAN, and FORTRAN programs run fast and use memory efficiently. FORTRAN has been used mainly on larger computers—such as minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers—but it is cropping up on personal computers for engineering applications. The current version of this language is FORTRAN 90. Several companies make FORTRAN compilers for various operating systems. These include Unicomp, Hewlett Packard, Lahey Computer Systems, and Absoft Corporation.
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high-level languages COBOL is another high-level language that has been around for awhile—since 1960. COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) has remained the top programming language for corporations, perhaps because there are so many COBOL-written applications on the mainframes of America. COBOL is designed for functions such as accounting, inventory, billing, and payroll. COBOL programs are long and wordy but are easy to read because the instructions resemble plain English. This language likely will be popular for a long time since COBOL applications perform well, and corporate America has such a big investment in them. COBOL has been updated several times since its introduc- COBOL was tion; the current standard is designed for business uses, COBOL 85. Companies that such as accountmake COBOL compilers include ing and payroll. Computer Associates, Amdahl Corporation, IBM, and Acucorp.
COBOL
LISP is a programming language frequently used for artificial intelligence research. LISP (List Processor) was developed at MIT in 1958 and is popular with computer theorists. LISP programs have been slow when running, and there have been few practical applications written in this language. The Department of Defense, however, has adopted it as one of its official programming languages. LISP will continue to have its niche, although probably not a large one.
LISP
If you want to prove the point that computer programs are Greek to the uninitiated, check out APL. It
APL
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high-level languages uses Greek letters and special symbols to write instructions. APL (A Programming Language) was developed in the late 1950s for computer research but is now recognized as a language well suited for mathematical and scientific applications. It has found acceptance in the fields of finance, actuarial analysis, science, and engineering. Pascal
Pascal, C, C++, and BASIC are among the most popular generalpurpose programming languages for personal computers. Pascal was developed in the early 1970s in Europe and continues to be popular today. Pascal is too slow for complex programs but is fine for small to medium-sized applications. Borland International is a leading publisher of Pascal, and Borland’s Delphi is their newest version.
Ada
Ada is named for Lady Augusta Byron, the daughter of Lord Byron, and she was perhaps the first female computer scientist. This and the fact that the Department of Defense (DoD) has adopted Ada as one of its official programming languages are Ada’s main claims to fame. Ada was developed by DoD in 1980, and its use is mainly limited to the defense industry. The DoD controls the specifications for Ada, so if you need to buy a copy, make certain it is licensed by them. There is a Web site dedicated to sharing information about Ada, including current compilers: http://www.adaic.org
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Pascal is a popular generalpurpose language for PCs.
high-level languages PILOT (Programmed Inquiry Learning Or Teaching) is a programming language designed for computerassisted instruction. It is very easy to use, and schools use it to develop on-screen instructional material. PILOT is being supplanted by HyperCard.
PILOT
HyperCard with HyperTalk HyperCard and comprise a powerful programming HyperTalk are language found on Apple Macin- used with Apple tosh Computers. HyperCard is easy Macintosh comfor nonprogrammers to use and puters. enables Macintosh users to create sophisticated applications. It uses object-oriented programming (see C++, page 554) and makes it easy to integrate text, animation, video, and graphics in applications.
HyperCard
PROLOG (Programming in Logic) is a language used in artificial intelligence (like LISP, page 551) that was developed in the early 1970s. PROLOG is frequently used to develop expert systems.
PROLOG
An expert system is computer hardware and software that contain knowledge an expert in a field may have, and it helps professionals and nonprofessionals use the knowledge. For example, an expert system may be designed to help physicians diagnose illnesses. The expert system asks the physician a series of questions and gives a diagnosis. It then gives the reliability of the diagnosis a rating ranging from an educated guess to a sure thing. The concept is similar to the Wizards found in newer popular applications.
Expert system
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high-level languages C
C is a programming language developed in the 1970s that is well regarded for its speed and efficiency. Even though C is a high-level language, it can be used in practice as either a highlevel or low-level language. This dual personality accounts for its speed and efficiency. C is a general-purpose language, like Pascal, and is appropriate for a wide variety of applications. It mostly is used by professionals who write software for major software manufacturers. Many nonprofessionals find C difficult to use.
C++
C++ is a language based on C and perhaps is the most widely used programming language for commercial applications. It has the power of C and supports a wide range of platforms: it can be used for programs that will run under DOS, Windows, OS/2, Mac (Mac OS), PowerPC, and Unix operating systems. Perhaps its strongest advantage is it supports object-oriented programming (OOP).
Objectoriented programming
Object-oriented programming uses independent modules, each of which carries out a function, linked together to form a larger program. These modules are called objects, and they are self-contained and able to be copied and moved around. Since the objects can pass data to each other, they become the building blocks of a larger program, greatly simplifying the programming process. Programmers do not have to rewrite routines that have been successfully used for other applications. Instead, there are libraries of
554
C and C++ are perhaps the most widely used languages for commercial applications.
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high-level languages these subprograms that programmers can use when developing new applications. Not only is C++ an OOP lan- OOP uses guage, so is Visual Basic (page 549) independent and Java, which follows. Companies modules to that sell C++ are Microsoft and Bor- form larger land (Inprise Corp.). Microsoft also programs. sells Visual Basic. Java was developed and is sold by Sun Microsystems. No other programming language has stimulated as much software development activity and as much speculation about the future of computer platforms and languages in so short a time as Java. What is creating the stir is that applications written in Java can run on any computer platform—Windows, Unix, OS/2, Macintosh—without being rewritten or recompiled (page 545) for each operating system and machine. Java is an OOP language derived from C++. Applications written in most programming languages are written for a particular operating system (Figure A1.3 on page 556). Operating systems, in turn, are written to work with one or more types of CPUs. For example, the operating system OS/2 is written to work only with Intel microprocessors.
Java
Java avoids this confinement through its virtual machine, or VM. The Java VM is like a surrogate computer and operating system created in software. It is within the Java VM that Java applications run.
Java VM
The Java VM operates in a larger structure called the Java run-time environment. The Java run-time envi-
Java run-time environment
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high-level languages
Clip art by Corel Corporation.
Figure A1.3 Applications developed in most computer languages run only with the operating systems for which they were written and compiled.
ronment contains the Java VM. It also contains several other software devices that make the VM work with the hardware and operating system on which Java is running. One of the devices in the Java run-time environment is an interpreter. Like a compiler (page 545), an interpreter translates high-level language into code that can be executed by the CPU. However, an interpreter does so one line at a time as the program runs. Many BASIC programs run with interpreters.
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high-level languages The problem with interpreters is that programs executed with them tend to be slow. This is because while a program is running, an interpreter does the work that a compiler might have done ahead of time. One way Sun Microsystems, the developer of Java, is trying to solve this problem is with just-in-time (JIT) compilers. JIT compilers compile the entire application just before it is executed. Java applications executed with JIT compilers run at close to the same speed as applications compiled normally.
JIT compilers
All that is needed to run Java applications on any computer, then, is a Java run-time environment (Figure A1.4). This makes Java especially attractive for use on the Internet’s World Wide Web. Web browsers, such as Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator, come with Java run-time environments built in. Web browsers are programs that help you search for information on the Internet and help you move from one Web site to another. Both Netscape and Microsoft also include JIT Java compilers with their current browsers. With Java, it is possible to send entire applications over the Web and have any computer with a Java runtime environment use them. This capability has spawned attempts to manufacture inexpensive Web computers that can download applications as they are needed and discard them when done.
Java on the Web
Currently flying around the Web are Java applets. Applets are small programs that operate only within a Java-compatible Web browser.
Applets
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high-level languages
Figure A1.4 Java applications and applets can run on any computer that has a Java run-time environment loaded.
An applet may be a simple little spreadsheet that allows you to view sales figures and manipulate them. Or it could be a program to automatically chart your biorhythm once you enter your birth date.
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high-level languages One applet put on the Web Applets are small by NASA allowed the user to track programs that the position of the Space Shuttle operate within on a global map. It even overlaid Java-enabled the latest satellite picture of the Web browsers. weather around the world and showed a constantly updated view of the daylight and night areas of the globe. A Java application, on the other hand, operates like other programs on your computer but does not operate within a Web browser. It is the ability to run full Java applications on any computer equipped with a Java runtime environment that holds the promise for universal computing. Some experts have even pre- Some experts dicted that Java will be the end of have predicted Windows, the most widely used Java will be operating system. What you should Windows’ remember is that Java applications downfall. can run on machines with Windows and on those without. Java coexists with operating systems, so there is no need to replace Windows to use Java applications. As long as Windows and other operating systems offer users value—including applications written to take advantage of an operating system’s special attributes— they will survive. As a matter of fact, Java may help some manufacturers of computers and operating systems, such as Apple. Java may give Macintosh customers many more applications—written in Java—that can run on their machines.
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Universal computing
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object technology
Object Technology Object technology is defining the future of computing. It will break down the barriers between different types of hardware and software. It will allow you to communicate and share data, applets, and applications with other computer users as easily as if you were sharing a video tape of the latest hit movie. Objects
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An object is a software module that contains data and the means to access the data. In containing the means to access data, two objects can exchange data between them. The result is that objects can be linked together easily to form more complex objects or applications. Objects form the basis for Object object-oriented programming technology is (OOP). OOP enables programdefining the mers to develop new applications future of much more quickly and with more computing. certain results than with other methods. This is because common routines and functions of applications can be written once as objects, tested, and linked with other objects to build applications. The most popular OOP language is C++ (page 554). There are some key concepts that make objects and OOP work. Classes and inheritance make objects universal and modular, polymorphism allows different objects to respond to the same type of procedure, and encapsulation adds to their modularity and contributes to object security.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
object technology In OOP, objects are grouped into classes. A class is a group of objects that share some characteristics. An analogy is the class of animals, called vertebrates, that all have backbones. Classes of objects can be Classes and divided into subclasses. Just as the inheritance subclass of vertebrates called birds make objects share the characteristics of warm universal and blood, two legs, feathers, and wings, modular. subclasses of objects have shared traits. In OOP a class of objects could be a window or a pull-down menu. All windows have a certain shape, and a subclass of windows may have scroll bars on the side and bottom. All pull-down menus share the feature of lines of text you click on to activate functions.
Classes
In OOP as in animals, subclasses inherit characteristics of the class above them—the superclass. All birds have backbones. However, inheritance goes only one way—from top down. Not all vertebrates lay eggs and have feathers.
Inheritance
Classes and inheritance give objects universality and modularity in OOP. For objects to be useful to software developers, a class or subclass of objects must share (inherit) certain characteristics that together can be identified as a useful function. Being universal in this way means, for example, that anyone who is building an application and wants to add a window for entering commands can do so with an object called a dialog box. The class or subclass of objects also must inherit behavior and communication traits that are predictable if the objects in the class are to work with other objects.
Classes and inheritance in software
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object technology This makes objects modular and able to be linked to other objects to build larger applications. A software developer can buy a dialog box object and expect it to work with a variety of other objects in many combinations. Programmers can buy class libraries. Some of the standard objects found in such libraries include dialog boxes, pull-down menus, scroll bars, buttons, and other basic tools developers use to build applications. Encapsulation
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Another important concept in object technology is encapsulation. Encapsulation simply means an object is a self-contained unit separate from other objects. An important idea here is that the data in the object is contained also. Encapsulation contributes to Encapsulation objects’ modularity. Just as signifihelps objects be cant, however, is that encapsulasecure for sensitive jobs, such as tion is important for data security. carrying credit Object technology allows objects card numbers. to be sent and received across networks. You could, for example, send an object halfway around the world on the Internet. If the object you are sending contains sensitive data, such as your credit card number, you want to be certain that only the intended recipient can read the data. The programmer can control access to the data through encapsulation. Certain data can be declared public data and accessed by anyone. Other data can be declared private and accessed only with the correct procedures, such as using pass codes.
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object technology Polymorphism is another concept that makes OOP so useful. Polymorphism means different objects can share the same type of procedure. However, each object will carry out the procedure in its own way. An example is the procedure draw. A pull-down menu object will respond to the procedure draw as will a dialog box and a scroll bar. They will be drawn on the screen when the procedure is implemented. However, each of the objects will respond to the procedure in its own unique way. The dialog box will be drawn differently from the pull-down menu or scroll bar.
Polymorphism
A revolution in software and computing is being driven by an object technology concept called components. Components are objects that do not rely on a single programming language, operating system, or application to function. Objects in OOP are written in a specific programming lan- Components are guage and compiled for a specific objects that cross language operating system to work. An and operating object written in C++ for use in system barriers. Windows will not directly communicate with an object written in JAVA for use in Unix. Components comply with universal standards that allow them to communicate with other components even if they are written in different languages running under different operating systems. A component from a Unix machine can be brought into a Windows machine and used. In contrast, Java (page 555) applets may work with many different computer architectures running different operating systems. However, all the applets are written in Java and require the Java run-time environment.
Components
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object technology Plug-and-play, interoperability
Components have several characteristics that make them remarkable. They can plug-and-play—be put together with any other components to build larger applications. They have interoperability—can communicate and exchange data with other components. And as mentioned before, they can function with a variety of operating systems.
Advantages of components
With components, software developers can significantly cut down on the time and expense it takes to bring new applications to market. At the same time, their applications will be more bug free since they will have been assembled with time-tested components. Corporations can assemble With components, critical applications from comyou may be able to ponents using in-house expertise assemble your own instead of expensive consultapplications to your specifications. ants. The amount of time necessary to have new applications custom desi gned for new endeavors can be reduced to days instead of months. End users of applications will benefit from components as application components come on the market. Instead of buying large, complex applications containing many features you may never use, you will be able to buy basic applications. Then you will be able to buy the features you need as you need them. You may, for example, buy a basic word processing program and add a tables feature, spell checker, and thesaurus. These add-on components may not even be manufactured by the company that developed the word processor. There likely will be software companies that specialize in writing particular types of components. Ease of use and universal procedures will become standard. These characteristics are emphasized within
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object technology operating systems—Windows 95/98 and MacOS are two good examples. With applications being developed to run on multiple operating systems, ease of use and uniform procedures will naturally migrate to applications. You no longer will concentrate on learning how to use Quattro Pro spreadsheets as opposed to Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheets. Instead, you will learn how to use spreadsheets generally. You will be able to sit at any computer having any brand spreadsheet and begin work immediately. It will be like being able to drive any make of car and operate the accessories such as the lights, radio, seats, defroster, and so forth. For components to be universal, they must comply with accepted standards. There are two leading component standards for desktop computers: OpenDoc and OLE.
Component standards
OpenDoc is designed to be a true cross-platform (able to be OpenDoc is a used with different operating sys- component standard developed tems) component standard. It was by IBM, Apple, developed in a cooperative and Novell. endeavor among IBM, Apple, and Novell. OpenDoc is based on standards developed by the Object Management Group (OMG), a consortium of more than 600 software manufacturers, vendors, and users. OpenDoc components work on computers using OS/2, Unix, Windows 95, Windows NT, and MacOS operating systems.
OpenDoc
Appendix 1: Programming Languages and Technology
565
object technology OLE 2.0
OLE 2.0 was developed by Microsoft. The acronym OLE used to stand for object linking and embedding—terms Microsoft says are no longer relevant. This is because OLE has progressed into component technology instead of just objects linked between documents. Components complying with OLE 2.0 and OLE standards will work on comActiveX are component puters running Windows—a very technologies substantial number of computers. developed by Microsoft is making their technolMicrosoft. ogy available on Unix, OS/2 and MacOS operating systems.
COM
OLE is based on a standard called the Component Object Model (COM). Like OpenDoc, COM allows interoperability between components written in different languages.
ActiveX
Microsoft has grouped its component technologies under the name ActiveX. Included in ActiveX is COM for interoperability on individual computers and DCOM (page 569) for computers on networks. The standards for ActiveX are controlled by an independent consortium called The Open Group.
The Open Group and The Active Group
The Open Group is an independent consortium of more than 300 member organizations that is dedicated to the development and maintenance of open standards in computing. Open standards are ones that are publicly available to any manufacturer for use. Hardware and software complying with such standards are able to work together. The Open Group formed a subgroup,
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object technology The Active Group, to develop and oversee the ActiveX standards. Networked computers and the Internet will continue to play highly important roles in society. Components will play a significant role in this area also. Object and component technology lends itself to distributed computing. Distributed computing refers to fully functional computers attached to a network. The nature of objects—a self-contained set of data that can be accessed—make them ideal for communication on networks. The goal in the marriage of object technology and distributed computing—sometimes referred to as distributed components—is interoperability. Interoperability means two components can communicate by exchanging data. Distributed components are ones that can interoperate on a network.
Distributed components
Networks exist to exchange data among computers. An office network may be used for e-mail, electronic filing, and access to sales data are the main activities. The Internet is used to access to Web pages, databases, and exchange of graphics and text around the world. Most networks consist of clients—computers that request services—and servers—computers that supply services to client computers. Data is exchanged between clients and servers. The difficulty comes in when you have different types of computers—such as Macintoshes, PCs, and RISC workstations—connected. These computers have different operating systems and even have different hardware architectures (CPUs).
Client/server networks
Appendix 1: Programming Languages and Technology
567
object technology Exchanging data among such disparate computers requires special procedures. Middleware makes the exchange of data possible. Middleware
The term middleware has not been clearly defined in the computer field. It is more a general concept than a specific package of software. Middleware is software that Middleware handles the interactions between enables the difclients and servers. It allows disferent computers parate software and hardware (i.e. on a network to different types of applications work together. written in different languages and running under different operating systems on different types of hardware) to interoperate. Since component technology can offer interoperability that transcends operating systems and hardware architecture, components can serve as middleware. The key is widely accepted component standards for interoperability.
Distributed component interoperability standards
There are two competing standards for interoperability in distributed components: CORBA and DCOM. CORBA was developed by OMG (page 565), and DCOM was developed by Microsoft and turned over to a consortium of software developers called The Open Group.
CORBA
CORBA stands for Common Object Request Broker Architecture. CORBA 3 is the current version, which was adopted in August of 1999.
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object technology Object request brokers ORBs act as (ORBs) serve the function of mid- intermediaries dleware. When a client makes a between comporequest for data or a service, an nents. CORBA is ORB takes the request, finds the the ORB stanobject that can fulfill the request, dard. translates the request to the object, and returns the results to the client. Any object complying with the CORBA standard can communicate with the ORB. That means any CORBA-compliant components can interoperate.
ORBs
An ORB complying with CORBA standards is able to communicate on the Internet. The CORBA standards include IIOP (pronounced “EYE-op”)—the Internet Interoperable ORB Protocol. Currently, most transactions on the Internet comply with Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). IIOP is an alternative to HTTP as a communication protocol for the Internet and probably will be used more frequently as time passes.
IIOP
DCOM originally stood for Distributed Common Object Model. That became confusing since Microsoft also had Component Object Model (COM), so now Microsoft says DCOM is for Distributed Component Object Model. DCOM is one of the OLE/ActiveX technologies developed by Microsoft, and the standards for ActiveX are overseen by The Open Group (page 566). DCOM competes directly with CORBA to be a widely accepted standard for component interoperability on networks. OLE/DCOM acts as an ORB for components on machines complying with OLE. It does so differently
DCOM
Appendix 1: Programming Languages and Technology
569
object technology than CORBA, and there is much debate as to which distributed component standard is best. Component wars
570
The CORBA and DCOM camps have been making strong claims as to why one standard is superior to the other. The stakes are high for each of the groups— products that comply with the most widely accepted standards are the ones that will make the most money. Whichever group convinces the software developers their standards are best will have the most products using them. CORBA standards are farther along than DCOM’s. However, DCOM standards have Microsoft and Windows developers behind them since they were developed for the Windows environment. Windows is by far the most widely used operating system. It is not clear which standard will emerge as the standard. Perhaps both will survive by adopting standards that allow CORBA and DCOM components to interoperate.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Appendix 2 Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles A computer does everything it does by using only two numbers: 0 and 1. It calculates large numbers using only 0 and 1. It types words and produces books by using 0 and 1. It even draws pictures by using 0 and 1. As a matter of fact, the brain of a computer, called the processor, uses nothing but the numbers 0 and 1. Computers process binary numbers by the flow or lack of flow of electricity. At the heart of a computer are many switches with two positions: on and off. These switches actually are transistors. If one of the switches lets electricity through, a 1 is represented. If a switch is off and prevents electricity from flowing, a 0 is represented. Being able to process only binary numbers may seem rather limiting. However, binary numbers can be used to represent just about anything to a computer. They certainly can represent letters, symbols, and decimal numbers, as much of this appendix will explain. Binary numbers also are used to give computers all their instructions through machine language. These instructions may tell it to draw pull-down menus on the monitor’s screen, for example. Appendix 1 gives more information on programming languages and technology, including machine language.
1s, 0s, and transistors
571
binary numbers
Binary Numbers You can learn to use computers well without mastering the binary number system. If you plan to work as a specialist in a computer field, however, you need to have a thorough understanding of binary numbers. Gaining a thorough understanding of binary numbers is not very difficult—just tedious. This section gives the basics. What the binary number system is
The binary number system is based on two. In other words, there are only two digits in the binary system: 0 and 1. Having only two digits is what makes binary numbers work with the computer's basic structure of switches with their two positions of on and off. This link has become so accepted today that many appliances have switches marked 1 for on and 0 for off. It may be helpful to look at how binary numbers are different from the number system you use every day.
Decimal numbers
The number system you use daily is the decimal system, which is based on ten and has ten digits, 0 through 9. You know that 9,283 means nine thousand two hundred eighty-three. To get this number, you multiply the digit in the farthest right position by one, the next digit by ten, the next by one hundred, and the next by one thousand. You then add these products together to produce the number. (See Table A2.1.)
Binary numbers
On the other hand, the binary number system has a base value of two. This means each position in a binary number is a factor of two instead of ten, and you only need the digits 0 and 1 instead of 0–9.
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binary numbers Table A2.1 This table illustrates the values of numeric positions in the decimal number system. The first row shows the digits of the number 9,283, and the next row shows the value of each digit. The bottom row shows the result, and the cell on the right is the total value for the number. 9283➞
9
2
8
3
Value➞
1000
100
10
1
x1
3
x10
3
80
x100
+80
200
x1000
9000
Total➞
9000
+200 +9000
+200
+80
+3
=9283
For example, in the binary number system, the digits 1101 represent the number thirteen. As in the decimal number system, the position of each digit in this number represents a definite value. The farthest right digit has a value of one, the next two, the next four, the next eight, the next sixteen, and so forth. When you add the position values of the binary number 1101, the result is thirteen, as shown in Table A2.2. Most people have heard the term bit applied to computers and software.Bit is the shorthand computer term for binary digit. Each bit in a binary number is given a position number as a way of identifying it, starting with zero for the extreme right bit. The reason for starting with zero is the bit position number also is the power that two is raised to determine the value of the bit. So bit position number zero is 20, or one; bit position number one is 21, or two; bit position number two is 22, or four; and so forth. Table A2.3 illustrates this. Appendix 2: Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles
Bits
573
binary numbers Table A2.2 This table illustrates the values of the numeric positions in the binary number system. The first row shows the binary number 1101, and the second row shows the value of each of the digits of the number. The last row shows the total values, and the last cell on the right is the value of the binary number 1101. Binary Number ➞ Decimal Value➞
1
1
0
1
8
4
2
1
x1
1
x2
1
0
x4
+0
4
x8
8
Total➞
8
+4 +8
+4
+0
+1
=13
Table A2.3 The numeric value of bit numbers 0 through 7. Bit Position Number 7
6
5
4
3
2
Numeric Value 1
0 ➞
➞ ➞ ➞ ➞ ➞ ➞ ➞
574
20 or 1 21 or 2 22 or 4 23 or 8 24 or 16 25 or 32 26 or 64 27 or 128
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
binary numbers A bit, then, is one digit of a binary number and will be either 1 or 0. Several bits are put together to represent other number values, and any number value can be represented with binary numbers if enough bits are used. Table A2.4 shows the equivalent binary numbers for the decimal numbers zero through ten. You may find it helpful to study this table for a few minutes and compare the bit values shown in Table A2.3 to the binary numbers shown in Table A2.4.
Bits / Decimal equivalents to binary numbers
Table A2.4 The equivalent binary numbers for the decimal numbers zero through ten. Binary Number
Decimal Number
0000
0
0001
1
0010
2
0011
3
0100
4
0101
5
0110
6
0111
7
1000
8
1001
9
1010
10
Appendix 2: Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles
575
binary numbers Adding binary numbers
You probably will not encounter a situation where you would need to add two binary numbers together manually. Looking at the following example of how it is done, however, may add to your understanding of binary numbers. Adding binary numbers
Adding binary numbers is similar to adding decimal numbers. With decimal numbers, when the result of the addition in a column is ten, you put a zero for the result of that column. You then carry a one to the next column and add it to the rest of the numbers. With binary numbers, when the result of the addition in a column is two, you put a 0 for that column and carry a 1 to the next column. Thus, thirteen added to five in binary numbers is:
1
576
0 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
1 1 0
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
digital computers and binary code
Digital Computers and Binary Code Binary numbers can be represented by the presence or absence of electricity. A digital computer is one that uses the binary number system of 1s and 0s. At the core of a digital computer are switches called transistors, and these switches have only two states: on or off. A number of these switches can logically represent binary numbers or code by being in the on or off position as electricity flows to them. As an example, suppose there are four switches attached to four lights in a row. The number thirteen could be represented as a binary number (see Figure A2.1) by having the light on the far right on, the next light off, and the remaining two on. Although computers are not this simple, this will give you an idea of the way computers read and process information.
How computers process information
Computers need to be able to work with more than numbers, though, so the computer industry has developed standard binary codes to represent symbols and letters that computers work with. These codes consist of eight bits, and eight bits are called a byte (binary digit eight). The term word means the number of bits a CPU can process at one time. A word would be 16 bits with a 16-bit CPU. The folks in the computer industry, to show that they are not humorless, call half a byte, that is four bits, a nibble.
Bytes, words, and nibbles
Appendix 2: Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles
577
digital computers and binary code
Figure A2.1 A depiction of how light bulbs switched on and off may represent the value thirteen in binary numbers.
ASCII
578
Bytes, in computer code, can represent a digit of a number, such as 7, or a letter, such as J, or a symbol, such as @. The code commonly used in personal computers is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, usually called ASCII and pronounced “ASS-key.” Table A2.5 shows some of the ASCII characters and their equivalent binary codes. The ASCII code is actually a 7-bit code, so only bit numbers zero through six are used. The hexadecimal (hex) number is shown because hex is used in technical work with computers as a shorter way to represent the actual bits the computer is using. Working with long strings of bits is cumbersome, so hex, a number system based on sixteen, is used. The hex number system uses the digits 0–9 for the hex Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
digital computers and binary code values of zero through nine and the letters A–F for the hex values of ten through fifteen. Table A2.5 Selected characters and binary codes for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) Character
Binary
Hex
Character
Binary
Hex
A
0100 0001
41
7
0011 0111
37
B
0100 0010
42
8
0011 1000
38
C
0100 0011
43
9
0011 1001
39
D
0100 0100
44
,
0010 1100
2C
E
0100 0101
45
.
0010 1110
2E
F
0100 0110
46
-
0010 1101
2D
N
0100 1110
4E
(
0010 1000
28
O
0100 1111
4F
)
0010 1001
29
P
0101 0000
50
/
0010 1111
2F
Q
0101 0001
51
'
0010 0111
27
0
0011 0000
30
<
0011 1100
3C
1
0011 0001
31
>
0011 1110
3E
2
0011 0010
32
$
0010 0100
24
3
0011 0011
33
%
0010 0101
25
4
0011 0100
34
@
0100 0000
40
5
0011 0101
35
&
0010 0110
26
6
0011 0110
36
#
0010 0011
23
Appendix 2: Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles
579
digital computers and binary code ASCII / EBCDIC
The ASCII character set contains many more symbols than these. Letters, numbers, and symbols are translated into a binary format that a computer’s on/off switches can work with. All of these symbols together allow the computer to work with virtually any information given to it. ASCII is the code common to personal computers. Another code, the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, or EBCDIC (pronounced “IB-sa-dik”), is also used, especially with larger computers. EBCDIC is an eight-bit code.
Cat has three bytes
A byte, then, contains the smallest piece of information you can enter into a computer. A byte can be a letter, a digit of a number, a symbol, or line. The word cat has three bytes of information; five bytes if there is a space on each side of the word. The computer reads each byte as eight bits together, and each bit tells a switch to be opened or closed depending on whether the bit is a 1 or 0.
Kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes, and terabytes
Finally, most computer specifications are in kilobytes, megabytes, and gigabytes. A kilobyte, abbreviated KB or just K, actually contains 1,024 bytes, not a thousand bytes. This is because they are binary, so a KB is 210, or 1,024. Likewise, a megabyte, abbreviated MB, actually is 220, or 1,048,576 bytes. However, it’s okay if you think of KB as a thousand bytes and MB as a million of them. Most hard disk drives sold today have capacities measured in gigabytes, or GB. A gigabyte is 230 , or 1,073,741,824 bytes—about a billion bytes. Similarly, a terabyte (TB) of storage capacity is about a trillion bytes—240, or 1,099,511,627,776.
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Appendix 3 Uses of Software It seems there is software for almost any conceivable chore. The table below is a guide to many of the duties computers can perform. The Task column lists the jobs you can accomplish with a computer, and the Software column gives the types of programs you can use to carry out the tasks. The Suitability column gives a judgement as to how well suited a type of application is for the task. A 1 beside an item means the software is well suited to the task. A 2 means the program is competent, but the task is not its forte. And a 3 means you can get a passable job done with some sweat. Within these tiers, types of programs are listed in order of suitability. Finally, the Page column directs you the section of the book where the type of software is discussed. Task
Software
Suitability
Page
Accounting—business
Accounting Personal finance
1 3
page 525 page 525
Addresses and phone numbers
PIM Database Word processing
1 1 3
page 530 page 421 page 331
Advertisement
Page layout Illustration Word processing
1 1 2
page 490 page 476 page 331
Architectural design
CAD Home design
1 2
page 482 page 484
Automobile design
CAD CAM
1 1
page 482 page 483
Book or manual (long documents)
Page layout Word processing
1 3
page 490 page 331
581
uses of software Task
Software
Suitability
Page
Budget
Spreadsheet Personal finance
1 1
page 379 page 525
Business plan
Business plan Word processing
1 2
page 533 page 331
Calendar
PIM Groupware
1 1
page 530 page 265
Checking—personal
Personal finance Accounting
1 2
page 525 page 525
Contacts—names, addresses, and telephone numbers of friends and business contacts
PIM Database Word processing
1 1 3
page 530 page 421 page 331
Cost comparison and analysis
Spreadsheet
1
page 379
Designs—buildings, products, or other precise plans
CAD Illustration
1 3
page 482 page 476
Direct mail solicitations
Word processing See Mailing lists— maintaining below
1
page 331
Drawings
Illustration CAD
1 2
page 476 page 482
Employee management
Human resources management
1
page 534
Envelope addressing— single
Word processing Label programs Database
1 2 3
page 331 page 536 page 421
Expense form
Spreadsheet Form design Word processing
1 1 2
page 379 page 540 page 331
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uses of software Task
Software
Suitability
Page
Floor plans
CAD Home design Illustration
1 1 3
page 482 page 484 page 476
Flyers
Word processing Page layout Illustration
1 1 2
page 331 page 490 page 476
Forms
Form design Word processing Page layout
1 2 2
page 540 page 331 page 490
Inventory—business
Database
1
page 421
Inventory—home
Database Spreadsheet Word processing
1 2 3
page 421 page 379 page 331
Landscape design
Home design CAD Illustration
1 1 2
page 484 page 482 page 476
Legal documents
Word processing Reference CD
1 1
page 331 page 541
Letter
Word processing Page layout
1 2
page 331 page 490
Lists
Presentation graphics Page layout Word processing Illustration
1 1 1 2
page 500 page 490 page 331 page 476
Mailing labels
Label programs Word processing Database PIM
1 1 1 2
page 536 page 331 page 421 page 530
Mailing lists— maintaining
Database Word processing Mailing list Telephone CD Label programs
1 1 1 1 2
page 421 page 331 page 536 page 536 page 536
Appendix 3: Uses of Software
583
uses of software Task
Software
Suitability
Page
Marketing plan
Marketing plan Word processing
1 1
page 533 page 331
Mass mailing
Word processing See Mailing lists— maintaining above
1
page 331
Newsletter
Page layout Word processing
1 2
page 490 page 331
Outline—report
Word processing
1
page 331
Photographs—editing and printing
Image editing
1
page 470
Presentations— overhead transparencies, handouts, slides
Presentation graphics Page layout Word processing Illustration
1 2 2 3
page 500 page 490 page 331 page 476
Project management
Project management Workflow management PIM
1 1 3
page 531 page 270 page 530
Report
Word processing Page layout
1 2
page 331 page 490
Research
Internet Reference CD
1 1
page 275 page 541
Restrict Internet access
Web site blocking
1
page 516
Sales presentations
Presentation graphics Page layout Word processing Illustration
1 2 2 3
page 500 page 490 page 331 page 476
Scheduling
Groupware
1
page 265
Tables
Word processing Page layout Spreadsheet
1 1 1
page 331 page 490 page 379
Taxes
Tax preparation
1
page 528
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uses of software Task
Software
Suitability
Page
Telephone numbers— finding
Telephone CD
1
page 536
Thank you note
Pen and paper
1
Virus protection
Anti-virus
1
Appendix 3: Uses of Software
page 508
585
Glossary @function See function. accounting Accounting software is used by organizations to perform programs general ledger, accounts payable, accounts receivable, check printing, payroll, invoicing, statement preparation, and other routine accounting functions. See personal finance software. ActiveX
ActiveX is the name Microsoft has given its component technologies as a group. See component.
Ada
Ada is a high-level programming language developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1980. Its use mainly is limited to the defense industry. See high-level language.
adapter
Adapters are circuit boards that serve as interfaces between the CPU and other pieces of hardware, such as monitors. Adapters enable CPUs to work with many different types and brands of hardware. Adapters also are called cards.
Adobe Acrobat
Acrobat is a suite of applications published by Adobe Systems. Acrobat converts documents to Portable Document Format (PDF) for use in electronic publishing. The documents retain their format and graphics when viewed with Acrobat Reader, an application available for free on the Internet and frequently included with other applications. See electronic publishing, Internet, and Portable Document Format (PDF).
Adobe Type See PostScript Type 1 fonts. 1 fonts
587
Glossary
agent agent
Agents are miniprograms that reside in devices and applications and report information back to the computers that deployed them.
alignment
See text alignment.
antivirus software
Antivirus software detects and disables viruses on computers. See virus.
APL
APL (A Programming Language) is a high-level programming language for mathematical and scientific applications. It has found acceptance in the fields of finance, actuarial analysis, science, and engineering. See high-level language.
app
See application.
Apple System 7.x (versions 7 and 7.5) is an operating system Apple System 7.x used on Apple Macintosh computers. Its forte is its ease of use. It features a graphical user interface (GUI), and excellent desktop publishing and graphics applications are available for it. Apple computers are widely used in education settings. See MacOS 8 and operating system (OS). applet
An applet is a small program written in Java that operates within a Java-compatible Web browser. See Java.
application Applications, also called “apps,” are programs that help you accomplish something with a computer. The most common applications are word processing, spreadsheet, and database programs. ASCII
588
Bytes, in computer code, can represent a digit of a number, such as 7, or a letter, such as J, or a symbol, such as @. All that is needed is a standard specifying the bytes that represent the letters, numbers, and symbols. The standard commonly used in personal computers is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, usually called ASCII and pronounced “ASS-key.” See binary number and byte.
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
backup software An assembler is a program that translates assembly language into machine language. See assembly language and machine language.
assembly language
Assembly language is a low-level language that uses short words and mnemonic codes to write instructions for the CPU. The short words and code are then translated into binary code by an assembler. See assembler and low-level language.
autoincrement
See autonumber.
autonumber
Autonumber, or autoincrement, is a field data type in a database. In an autonumber field, a number that automatically advances by one is inserted for each new record. See database software, field, field data type, and record.
back up
Backing up files is the most important rule in computer operation. When you back up files, you copy them to a removable disk or tape and store them in a safe place. See file.
backbone
A backbone is the major data lines of a network. The backbone has the fastest data transmission capability and determines the maximum data transmission speed of the network. The maximum speed of data transmission a user experiences is the slowest line the data actually passes through. If, for example, you are connected to the Internet through a modem, your maximum speed is the speed of the modem and telephone line.
backup software
Backup programs are utilities that automatically back up files or an entire drive to a tape, floppy disk, or a removable hard disk. See back up, file, floppy disk, hard disk, and tape drive.
Glossary
589
Glossary
assembler
bandwidth
Glossary
bandwidth Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that can be carried by a cable or other means of transmitting data. A cable or telephone line with a low bandwidth transmits data slowly, and one with a high bandwidth transmits data quickly. BASIC
BASIC stands for Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. BASIC is a high-level programming language that is relatively easy to learn and use. See high-level language.
basic inputoutput system (BIOS)
The BIOS is a set of instructions, stored in read-only memory (ROM) and transferred to random access memory (RAM) when the computer starts, that helps the CPU work with other devices, such as the monitor, keyboard, and disk drives. See random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).
batch file
A batch file is one containing a series of commands that are executed automatically when the computer starts or when you type a command. See file.
beta testing A beta test of new software is the final stage of testing before a product hits the market. The testing is done outside of the manufacturing company by a wide range of volunteers. The purpose is to find any bugs that were not uncovered previously. beta version See beta testing. bezier curve Bezier curves are lines with control points that you drag to determine the shape of a curve. Most sophisticated drawing programs have bezier tools for drawing curves, and the tools enable you to precisely draw any curve imaginable. See drawing program. binary large A BLOB is a photograph, formatted memo, video, or other object such object that databases manage differently from other (BLOB) data. Characteristics of the BLOB are entered in a BLOB field in the database while the BLOB itself is stored as a separate file. 590
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boot The binary number system consists of only two digits: 0 and 1. Computers operate by using binary numbers. At the heart of a computer are many switches with two positions: on and off. These switches actually are transistors. When a switch lets electricity through, a 1 is represented. When a switch is off and prevents electricity from flowing, a 0 is represented.
bit
The smallest binary number is one binary digit (one 1 or 0) called a bit. See binary number.
bitmap
The term bitmap refers to drawings, images, or fonts in which the patterns are formed by and stored as tiny dots. This is in contrast to vector drawings, images, and fonts in which the patterns are stored as mathematical formulas and drawn by the CPU when needed. Bitmap images cannot be resized easily without distorting them. This means bitmap fonts are not scalable (you cannot change their size). See vector.
block
You block text to select it and perform some action on it. To block text in Windows, place the cursor at the beginning of the text, hold the left mouse button down, move the cursor to the end of the text you want blocked by using the mouse, and release the mouse button. The blocked text remains highlighted until you give a command to perform an operation or until you click the mouse button again. You also can block text by clicking the mouse where you want the block to begin, holding down the Shift key, and clicking the mouse where you want the block to end.
bomb
Bombs are destructive programs that may sit quietly on hard drives for months or years until they release their destruction at a certain time or event.
boot
To boot a computer is to start a computer.
Glossary
591
Glossary
binary number
Glossary
bridge bridge
A bridge is a device that receives data from another LAN, converts the data to the proper transport protocol, and transmits the data across the LAN it is serving. See local area network (LAN) and transport protocols or stacks.
bug
A bug is a defect in software or hardware. The term bug was coined when a problem occurred with one of the first computers, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), developed in the 1940s. The ENIAC used vacuum tubes, which became very hot in use. The heat attracted insects (bugs), which shorted out the circuits, causing malfunctions.
bus
A bus is a pathway for electronic signals.
bus network
Computers on a bus network are connected on one continuous cable that ends with the last computer in the cable run. See Figure 6.2 on page 228.
byte
A byte is eight bits and can represent any single character. It takes three bytes to represent the word cat. See bit.
C
C is a general-purpose programming language that is widely used. It can be used in practice as either a high-level or lowlevel language. This dual personality can create fast and efficient programs. See high-level language and low-level language.
C++
C++ is a programming language based on C and perhaps is the most widely used programming language for commercial applications. See C, high-level language, and low-level language.
C-2 level security
C-2 level security is a network security standard developed by the U.S. Department of Defense. The purpose of network security is to prevent unauthorized persons from getting on a network or, if they are authorized to use the network, from getting access to resources and files for which they do not have clearance.
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class A card is another term for an adapter. See adapter.
CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for compact disk–read-only memory. CD-ROM drives are data storage devices that store data optically. They have high capacity and are convenient and inexpensive. Once files are stored on CD-ROM disks, they cannot be erased or overwritten. This is because the data is actually burned into the surface of the disk when it is stored.
cell
A cell is the area formed by the intersection of a row and a column in a word processing table or on a spreadsheet. You can place text, numbers, and mathematical formulas in spreadsheet cells and text, numbers, and graphics in table cells. See spreadsheet software, table, and word processing software.
cell address Cells in spreadsheets have addresses. The address consists of the column letter followed by the row number. For example, D12 is the address for the cell at the intersection of column D and row 12. If the spreadsheet program is 3-D (has multiple sheets for each spreadsheet file), the sheet name may be included before the column letter. A:D12 is the cell at the intersection of column D and row 12 on sheet A. See cell, sheet, and spreadsheet software. center alignment
See text alignment.
central The CPU is hardware that is the “brains” of the computer. processing It is the part that actually adds, subtracts, compares items, unit (CPU) and draws pictures. The CPU also controls all the other parts of the computer with the help of the operating system. See operating system (OS). Cheapernet Cheapernet, also called Thinnet, is an informal name for an Ethernet cable standard that uses thin 10 Base 2 cables. See Ethernet. class
Glossary
A class is a group of objects that share some characteristics. See object. 593
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Glossary
click click
Clicking is a procedure in which you place the mouse pointer on an item and click the left mouse button once. See Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8.
client
A client is a computer that is attached to a network and that receives services from another computer called a server. The basic services include file sharing, printing, and communication with other clients.
client/serv- A client/server network is one in which a computer called a er network server controls communication on the network and access to files and services. Client computers are connected to the server and receive the services. The client computers are the individual computers on the users’ desktops. clip art
Clip art is drawings and other images produced by professionals and sold for use by others. Usually clip art is royalty free, which means once you buy the drawings, you can publish them without paying royalties to anyone.
Clipboard
The Clipboard is a temporary memory space found in Windows, Mac OS, and OS/2. When you cut or copy text, illustrations, files, folders, or other items with these operating systems, a copy of the item is moved to the Clipboard. The Clipboard can hold only one item at a time. The item will remain there for pasting to a different location until replaced by another object that is cut or copied or until the computer is shut down. See copy, cut, and paste.
cluster
A cluster is section of a disk in which data is stored.
COBOL
COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is a highlevel programming language developed in 1960. It is designed for functions such as accounting, inventory, billing, and payroll. See high-level language.
code
The term code refers to the lines of instructions that make up software. A sophisticated operating system, for example, can have millions of lines of code.
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complex instruction set computer (CISC) cold boot
To cold boot is to start a computer by turning on the power. To warm boot is to restart a computer by pressing the Ctrl, Alt, and Delete keys simultaneously or by pressing the reset button on the computer’s case.
COM
Component Object Model (COM) is a standard for components and objects developed by Microsoft. See component and object.
compatible The term compatible means that software programs, files, or hardware devices are able to work together. A competitive upgrade is when a software manufacturer offers a discounted price to its competitors’ customers for a new version of a program it is selling. For example, Microsoft may offer a discount to owners of WordPerfect if they buy the new version of Microsoft Word. See upgrade and version number.
compiler
A program that translates a high-level language into machine language is called a compiler. See high-level language and machine language.
complex instruction set computer (CISC)
Instruction sets are the operations a CPU carries out directly. If a CPU does not have an instruction set to perform a task directly, it must combine two or more sets. Complex instruction set computers have CPUs that are able to carry out hundreds of operations directly. Reduced instruction set computers (RISCs) have fewer instruction sets but are able to perform the ones they have more quickly than CISCs. On the other hand, a RISC performs an operation for which it does not have an instruction set more slowly than a CISC with the set.
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Glossary
complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
A CMOS is a tiny integrated circuit with low power consumption and the ability to retain information when the power is switched off. CMOSs are used in a variety of devices, including watches and calculators. See integrated circuit.
complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor random access memory (CMOS RAM)
CMOS RAM is a type of random access memory that can keep track of the time and date with the help of a battery backup. See complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor and random access memory.
component Components are objects that do not rely on a single programming language, operating system, or application to function. See object. compression
Compression is the reduction of the number of bits needed to represent files, such as those containing software, text, or graphics. Compression may be used when a hard disk is filling up and the user does not want to delete programs or install a second hard drive. It also may be used to store large files, such as photographs, on floppy disks or send the files over the Internet. Files sent on the Internet often are compressed in GIF, JPEG, or PKZIP format. See GIF, JPEG and PKZIP.
computeraided design (CAD)
A computer-aided design program is a vector drawing program designed to produce highly precise, detailed drawings and plans. Architects, engineers, and draftpersons use CAD software to design everything from buildings to airplanes. See drawing program and vector.
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copy CAM programs are used to develop the design of a product. After the product is designed, they can produce detailed virtual solid models and then direct the manufacturing process—including automated machinery—to make the physical product.
contact manager
See personal information manager (PIM).
controller
A controller is a circuit that controls input and output devices. This term most often refers to disk drive controllers.
cookie
Cookies are small files that are exchanged between your computer and servers when you visit sites on the Internet. They are used to record simple information about you, such as user identification and preferences, to make it easier for you the next time you visit the site. A cookie may save you from having to type in user identification, or it may take you directly to the Web page you last visited at a site. See Internet.
cooperaWith cooperative multitasking, an open program will give tive multi- up its CPU time when you activate a new program—when tasking you give a command to print, for example. The first program will not get its CPU time back until the second program gives up its CPU time—usually not until it is finished its task. Cooperative multitasking usually makes it difficult to have your computer doing two things at once. Compare with preemptive multitasking. copy
Glossary
When you copy a file, you make a duplicate of it in another location. When you copy an item, such as text or a picture, you place a copy of it in temporary memory space until you paste it somewhere else. See paste.
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computeraided manufacturing (CAM)
Glossary
CORBA CORBA
CORBA stands for Common Object Request Broker Architecture. It is a standard for interoperability in distributed components developed by the Object Management Group (OMG), a consortium of more than 600 software manufacturers. See distributed components and interoperability.
cracker
A cracker is a person who illegally breaks into computer networks, often for the purpose of vandalism or theft.
crash
A crash is when your computer stops operating. It may freeze—not accept key or mouse commands—or it may shut down completely, leaving you with a blank screen. When your computer crashes, you lose anything that has not been saved to a disk.
crosstab
A crosstab is a type of database query in which the data is displayed and analyzed in a matrix. The columns display one field of data and the rows another field. See database software, field, and query.
cursor
A cursor is a symbol on a monitor’s screen that shows where the next character will be placed when a key is pressed. The cursor usually is a vertical blinking line ( | ) in word processing programs and a horizontal blinking line ( _ ) next to a DOS prompt.
cut
When you cut an item, such as text or a picture, you remove it from the document and place it in temporary memory space until you paste it somewhere else. Similarly, you can cut and paste files in Windows 95/98. See paste.
data
Data is information that is stored, processed, and produced by a computer. Data can include numbers, letters, colors, shapes, or any other information. The terms information and data are interchangeable.
database software
A database is a collection of related data. Database software stores, organizes, sorts, and presents data. See flat-file database and relational database.
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desktop publishing DCOM (Distributed Component Object Model) is a distributed component standard developed by Microsoft. See distributed components.
delete
Deleting a file, text, or other data removes it from the disk or document but does not place it in temporary memory space as when you cut a file, text, or other data. Windows 95/98 and NT have a utility called Recycle Bin that holds deleted files until you empty it. If you delete a file by mistake, or if you change your mind, you can go to Recycle Bin and restore the file. See cut.
delimeter
See delimited text file.
delimited text file
A delimited text—also called fixed-width text—file is used to exchange data between database programs with dissimilar formats. Fields and records in the data are separated by delimiters—symbols such as commas, semicolons, tabs, or double quotations marks. The delimiters tell the other database program where fields and records begin and end, allowing it to import the data. See database software, field, file format, and record.
desktop
In Windows, the desktop is the main screen that appears when you first start the computer. It contains icons you click on to start programs and access folders and disk drives. See drive, folder, icon, Windows 3.x, Windows 95/98, Windows NT/2000.
desktop The term desktop publishing broadly refers to preparing text publishing and graphics for publication using a microcomputer. Desktop publishing applications have sophisticated features for text alignment and spacing, page layout, illustration, color and resolution control, pagination, indexing, and so forth. Work can be published in paper form, or it can be published electronically (called electronic publishing), such as on a CD-ROM or the Internet. See CD-ROM and Internet.
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device driver device driver
A device driver is a program that enables an operating system to control a device such as a tape or disk drive, RAM, or a sound card for speakers.
diagnostic utility
A diagnostic utility is a program that detects and either fixes or recommends ways to fix software and hardware problems.
Glossary
dialog box A dialog box is a small window with space to enter commands or give specifications. digital
The term digital refers to the representation of data with binary numbers. Computers are made of millions of transistors which act as on/off switches. When a transistor is on and lets electricity through, the binary number 1 is represented. An off transistor represents the binary number 0. All data processed by a computer—text, numbers, images, and sounds—are represented by binary numbers and, therefore, are in digital form. See binary number.
digital camera
Digital cameras take pictures that are stored in digital form instead of on photographic film. See digital.
directory
Directories are structures used by operating systems to help the computer user organize and keep track of files. Think of a directory as a drawer in a filing cabinet in which you can store files. Directories are called folders in Windows 95/98, Windows NT, and Mac OS.
display adapter
See video adapter.
distributed Distributed components are ones used on a network. See compocomponent and distributed computing. nents distributed Distributed computing is a term for stand-alone computers computing with extensive independent computing capability that are attached to a network.
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driver DOS (disk operating system) is an operating system used on many computers using CPUs based on Intel architecture— 8086, 80286, and 80386. DOS uses text-based commands, such as COPY, DISKCOPY, MD, CD, and DIR. See operating system (OS).
double click
Double click is a procedure in which you place the mouse pointer on an item and rapidly click the left mouse button twice. See Mouse Operation and Commands on page 8.
download
When you download a file, you receive and store a file sent by another computer over a network. When you upload a file, you send it to another computer.
drag
You drag with a mouse when you put the cursor or pointer on an object or at one point on the screen, hold the left button down, and move the mouse. You drag to block text or to move, select, or resize objects.
drawing program
Drawing programs allow you to create vector images. They are the best choice when precise drawings and illustrations are needed. In contrast, paint programs create bitmap pictures. They are good choices for artists who want to compose highly creative, artistic images. See bitmap and vector.
drive
A drive is a hardware device for storing data. Types of drives include floppy disk, hard disk, CD-ROM, and tape drives.
driver
A driver is a file that allows the operating system to use a particular piece of hardware. When you buy a new piece of hardware, such as a printer, it will come with a disk with drivers on it. Before you can use the new hardware, you may need to install the drivers from the disk if the operating system does not already have them. Drivers also may enable two different programs to work together, such as a database and a spreadsheet.
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Glossary
ee-
The letter e followed by a hyphen at the beginning of a word stands for electronic. E-mail is electronic mail, and e-commerce is electronic commerce.
EBCDIC
The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, or EBCDIC (pronounced “IB-sa-dik”), is a standard for representing letters, numbers, and symbols with binary numbers. EBCDIC is used primarily with large computers while ASCII is used with microcomputers. EBCDIC is an eightbit code. See ASCII, binary number, and microcomputer.
e-commerce
E-commerce is selling products and conducting other business on the Internet.
electronic Electronic publishing is publishing documents in electronic publishing form, such as on a CD-ROM or the Internet. See CD-ROM and Internet. e-mail
With e-mail, you compose a message on your computer and send the message over a network to another person. The message is stored, usually on the network server, until the recipient opens and reads it. The recipient may then print, store, reply to, or delete the message.
e-mail address
An e-mail address identifies the location of an e-mail user’s mailbox. The mailbox is not necessarily on the recipient’s computer, but rather is where e-mail is stored until the recipient opens it. If the mail is being sent over a private LAN, the address may be simple, such as the recipient’s last name and first initial: smithb. When messages are sent over the Internet, the address includes the URL for the organization: [email protected]. Addresses will not necessarily follow this format, however. See Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
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expert system encapsula- The principle of encapsulation in object-oriented programtion ming means an object is a self-contained unit that does not depend on other objects to operate. See object and object-oriented programming.
end user
The end user is the person who uses software or hardware regardless of who buys it. For example, a company may buy office suites for its employees, but the employees are the end users. See office suite.
enterprise networks
Enterprise networks are two or more LANs connected. The LANs may be in the same room or across the country.
Ethernet
Ethernet is a set of LAN standards introduced in 1981 by Xerox. See local area network (LAN).
executable file
Executable files are programs that will run when activated and have the extension .EXE.
expert
An expert is a wizard. See wizard.
expert system
An expert system is computer hardware and software that contain knowledge an expert in a field may have, and it helps professionals and nonprofessionals use the knowledge. For example, an expert system may be designed to help physicians diagnose illnesses.
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encryption Encryption is the coding of data for security purposes. It is especially used when sending sensitive data over a network and is the keystone that ensures credit card transactions on the Internet are not compromised. Encryption uses keys— essentially codes—to send and receive data. With the most popular method of securing data, the encryption software inserts what are called private and public keys on the sending and receiving ends of the data transmission. It does this automatically, and the process is transparent to the users. The larger the keys (measured in bits), the more secure the data.
Glossary
Explorer Explorer
Explorer is a utility program found in Windows 95/98 and Windows NT 4.x that helps you copy, move, delete, rename, organize, and generally manage files.
Extensible Markup Language (XML)
XML is an outgrowth of SGML with an important improvement. Whereas SGML simply describes the text layout and formatting of a document, XML also describes its content. This makes XML very useful for documents that may be indexed and searched for content, such as in a database of archived documents or for documents published on the Internet. See Internet and Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML).
field
Databases are made of tables. Each table in a database consists of columns and rows. A column is called a field and contains one group of information, such as last names. A row is called a record and consists of a collection of information about a particular item—a person or product, for example. See database software.
field data type
In database programs, when fields are created, they are given a data-type property. The field data type determines what type of data can be entered into fields, such as text or numbers. See database software and field.
file
A file is a collection of data that has been defined as a file when someone saved it with a name. It can be a single character, a thousand pages of text, or an executable file containing a program that operates when activated.
file Computers divide hard and floppy disks into sections called allocation clusters. It is in these clusters that data is stored. A file allotable (FAT) cation table, or FAT, keeps track of these clusters and what is stored in them. There are two FAT configurations in common use today: FAT16 (or just FAT) and FAT32. FAT32 is more efficient, and generally, more data can be stored on a disk configured for FAT32.
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file-transfer protocols file File compression utilities convert files to a format that compres- makes them smaller. File compression is useful for sending sion utility files over the Internet or for fitting files in limited disk space. See file and Internet. file extension
A file extension is the three characters after the dot in a file name. File extensions identify the type of file, as in .EXE (executable files), or the format of the file, as in .WMF (Windows metafile).
File Manager
File Manager is a utility program found in Windows 3.x that helps you copy, move, delete, rename, organize, and generally manage files.
File Trans- FTP is a protocol used on the Internet that enables one fer Protocol computer to retrieve files from another. The computer from (FTP) which the files are retrieved is called the server or remote computer and the one retrieving the files is the client or local computer. Some FTP servers require a password before a client computer can retrieve files. Computers that do not require passwords are called anonymous FTP servers. See protocol. file-transfer protocols
Glossary
File-transfer protocols are sets of parameters for transferring files between computers by modem.
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file format A file format is a standard for storing data on disk or tape drives. Many applications have their own format, such as .WK? for Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheets, but can also save in widely used formats, such as .TIF for tagged information file format.
Glossary
filter filter
A filter is a utility that converts files from one format to another. For example, the word processing program WordPerfect has filters that allow you to convert and open files created in other word processing programs, such as Microsoft Word. See file format. In database programs, to filter data is to view only certain records according to the criteria you set. When you filter data, the underlying database table is not changed, and a new file is not created. See database software.
firewall
Firewalls are computers with special software and routers that provide security for networks attached to the Internet. See Internet and router.
flat-file database
Databases are made of tables. A flat-file database consist of a single table, but a relational database links two or more tables together. For example, one table may contain customer names and addresses, another product inventory, and a third orders for products. When a customer places an order, these three tables would be linked together in a relational database. Flat-file databases do not link different tables together—they only work with data in a single table. See field and record.
floppy disk Floppy disks and drives are magnetic devices for storing files. The disks are removable and have a relatively low capacity. However, they are convenient for storing and exchanging work files and are useful for backing up work files stored on hard drives. flowcharting programs
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Flowcharting software enables you to portray processes, designs, and relationships with symbols. They may be used to chart manufacturing processes; organizational structures; or electrical, mechanical, and software designs.
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function Folders are structures used by operating systems to help the computer user organize and keep track of files. Think of a folder as a drawer in a filing cabinet in which you can store files. Folders are called directories in DOS, OS/2, Unix, and Windows 3.x.
font
A font is a complete set of letters, numbers, and punctuation marks for a particular typeface in a particular type style and size. For example, the typeface Times Roman may come in a bold, 12-point font. See typeface and type style.
footer
A footer is words, numbers, or graphics that appear at the bottom of the page and are repeated at the bottom of subsequent pages until the footer is discontinued. See header.
foreign key See key. form
A form in a database is a device for displaying and entering data. You can enter and view data directly in tables with databases, but doing so is awkward. Forms present data and fields in a logical format that makes it easy to view and enter data. See database and field.
format
To format a disk is to prepare it to store data by configuring it for your operating system.
FORTRAN FORTRAN was the first high-level programming language—it was developed in the mid-1950s—and it is still frequently used today. FORTRAN stands for formula translation and is used for mathematical, scientific, engineering, and graphics applications. See high-level language. FTP
See File Transfer Protocol.
full alignment
See text alignment.
function
Spreadsheet programs include built-in formulas you can use when you are constructing a spreadsheet. These formulas are called functions or @functions. See spreadsheet software.
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gateway Gateways are devices—often actual computers—that translate many different transport protocols into single ones used on the networks they serve. They are used on networks that support only one transport protocol. See bridge and router.
GIF
GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) is a file format for storing bitmap graphics files. Developed by CompuServe, it uses a lossless data compression technique called LZW (for the developers, Lempel-Ziv-Welsh). Some compression techniques, such as JPEG, are called lossy compression methods because during compression, some data is discarded. Photographs compressed using JPEG may lose some of their quality. JPEG can compress at ratios as high as 100 to 1. Lossless methods will not compress as highly as lossy methods (they compress in a range of 2 to 1 up to 30 to 1), but the quality is better. See bitmap, compression, and JPEG.
gigabyte (GB)
A gigabyte is 230 or about a billion bytes. More exactly, it is 1,073,741,824 bytes.
graphical user interface (GUI)
A GUI, pronounced “GOO-ee” is the part of an operating system or application that has been designed to have icons (symbols used to give commands) and pull-down menus to make it easier to use the software. Microsoft Windows, OS/2, and Mac OS have GUIs.
Glossary
gateway
groupware Groupware is network software for e-mail, calendars and scheduling, document management, conferencing, and work flow. hacker
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A hacker is a computer expert—often an amateur. Originally, the term hacker had a positive connotation as someone with exceptional computer skills. Today, it is often associated with people who break into computer networks and try to do damage or steal information. However, the proper term for such a person is cracker. See cracker.
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high-level language A handle is a little black square that gives you a place to grab with a mouse pointer. Handles are positioned at the corners and midpoint on the sides of graphic items, such as drawings and symbols, that have been selected by clicking on them with a mouse. Placing the pointer on a handle and dragging will resize or reshape the item. Handles also may appear when you select other types of items, such as cells in tables or text frames.
hard copy
A hard copy of something created on a computer (e.g., a letter, an illustration, or a spreadsheet) is a paper copy that has been printed from the electronic version.
hard disk
Also called a fixed disk, a hard disk is a magnetic device for storing computer files. Generally, hard disks are inside the computer’s case and cannot be removed easily.
hardware
Hardware is equipment such as computers, monitors, printers, keyboards, and mice. Software is the instructions that make the hardware work.
header
A header is words, numbers, or graphics that appear at the top of the page and are repeated at the top of subsequent pages until the header is discontinued. See footer.
help
Help utilities are included with most software. They give instructions on using the software and often replace printed manuals.
high-end
A high-end program is one that has been designed for professionals or for demanding use. High-end programs may include many features not found on less-expensive programs or they may be more capable than other programs of the same type.
high-level language
A high-level language is a programming language that uses words and abbreviations to write instructions. Another program called a compiler then translates these commands into machine language. See machine language and programming language.
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home design software home design software
You can use home design programs to create floor plans of houses and then, with most programs, see a 3-D representation of the finished house.
home page A home page is the main Web page for a Web site. The home page should contain an introduction to the site and the means to access other Web pages found there. See Web page, Web site, and World Wide Web (Web).
Glossary
hot key
A hot key is a shortcut key using one or more keystrokes to launch applications or utilities or to switch between open programs. For example, holding down the Alt key and pressing the Tab key will switch between open programs in Windows.
hover help With hover help, you hover (place) the mouse pointer over an icon for a few seconds without clicking, and a message explaining its function will appear. Many applications now have hover help for icons found on their toolbars. See icon and toolbar. hub
A hub is a hardware device used on local area networks that takes a single cable and splits it into several cables. The single cable may be connected to the server and the several cables to client computers. See client, local area network (LAN), and server.
HyperCard HyperCard with HyperTalk comprise a high-level programming language found on Apple Macintosh computers. HyperCard is easy for nonprogrammers to use and enables Macintosh users to create sophisticated applications. See high-level language. hyperlink
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Hyperlinks are connections from one Web page to another Web page or site or to a file or e-mail address. Hyperlinks may be represented by buttons, images, or highlighted words. When you activate the hyperlink, you jump to the new location or open the file. See e-mail, file, Web page, and Web site.
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image editing software Web pages are created using Hypertext Markup Language. HTML consists of codes that are placed in text files. These codes are read by Web browsers and can specify the format of the text, link the text to another page, and bring graphics into the text. See Web browser, Web page, and World Wide Web (Web).
hyphenation
Automatic hyphenation divides a word’s syllables at the end of a line in keeping with convention. Most word processing and some page layout programs have an automatic hyphenation feature that uses a hyphenation dictionary. You can turn hyphenation on or off, but you should use it for a better appearance when typing text in narrow columns. However, never manually hyphenate a word at the end of a line unless the word should always contain a hyphen, as in a compound adjective before a noun. See page layout software and word processing software.
icon
An icon is a graphic symbol that represents a command. When you click or double click on an icon with a mouse, an application or utility starts running. The image to the right is an icon that is used for the Recycle Bin in Windows 95/98.
IEEE 1394 IEEE 1394 is a data-transfer standard for connecting exter(FireWire) nal devices to computers. Also known as FireWire, this type of port allows data to be transferred at 100–400 megabits per second and supports up to sixty-three devices. illustration See drawing program and paint program. program image editing software
Glossary
Image editing software allows you to edit bitmap images, such as photographs. With these programs, you can adjust color, contrast, brightness, and sharpness. You also can erase part of the image, crop the image, or paste one image on top of another. Image editing programs are sometimes called photo editing programs. See bitmap.
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indexed field indexed field
An indexed field in a database is one in which the program can find data quickly, and the data is sorted in numerical or alphabetical order. A field with a primary index will be sorted first, and one with a secondary index will be sorted after the primary index field.
Glossary
inheritance Inheritance is a principle in object-oriented programming in which subclasses inherit the characteristics of the class above them—the superclass. See class, object, and object-oriented programming. input
Putting data and instructions into a computer is called input. Keyboards and mice are input devices.
integrated circuit
An integrated circuit is a complete electronic circuit constructed on a single piece of silicon.
interface
The interface is the part of software with which you interact. It is the commands, the icons, the graphical format, and so forth. See icon.
Internet
The Internet is the largest WAN in the world, encompassing millions of computers.
Internet service provider (ISP)
An ISP is a company that operates one or more computers connected to the Internet. The ISP then sells access to the Internet to subscribers who connect to the ISP computers by modems or some other means. Many ISPs also will give or sell to subscribers space to set upWeb sites. Examples of ISPs are Erols, @Home, AOL, and UUNet. See Internet, modem, and Web site.
Internet2
Internet2 is a very high-speed WAN for universities and government institutions.
interopera- Interoperability means two programs can communicate and bility exchange data with each other. Originally interoperability referred to the exchange of data between components, but today the term is used to refer to communication between hardware and software generally. See component.
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justify interpreter An interpreter, like a compiler, translates high-level programming language into machine language that can be used by CPUs. However, unlike a compiler, an interpreter translates the code one line at a time as it is used. See high-level language and machine language. An interrupt is an instruction for the CPU to temporarily halt current operations so that input/output operations can take place. Interrupts actually are signals from pieces of hardware that travel over interrupt-request (IRQ) lines. If two pieces of hardware share the same IRQ lines, conflicts can result, causing problems.
intranet
A private network that uses Internet Web technology is called an intranet. See Internet.
Java
Java is an object-oriented programming language derived from C++. An advantage of Java is that programs written with it can run on any platform. See C++, object-oriented programming, and platform.
Jaz drive
A Jaz drive is a disk drive made by Iomega Corporation. The removable disks can hold over 1 GB of data.
JPEG
JPEG (Joint Photographers Expert Group) is a standard developed for compressing graphics files—particularly photographs which are large. JPEG can compress at ratios as high as 100 to 1. However, the compressed file may not be perfect. JPEG is called a lossy compression method because during compression, some data is discarded. Photographs compressed using JPEG may lose some of their quality. If you do not want to lose data during compression, look for a lossless method, such as LZ (Lempel-Ziv) or LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch). Lossless methods do not compress as highly as lossy methods (they compress in a range of 2 to 1 up to 30 to 1), but you may be happier with the results if you do not need a lot of compression. See compression.
justify
See text alignment.
Glossary
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interrupt
Glossary
just-in-time (JIT) compiler just-intime (JIT) compiler
A compiler that translates a high-level language into machine language just before the program is used is called a just-in-time (JIT) compiler. See compiler, high-level language, and machine language.
kerning
Kerning is the process of removing space between characters to make type more attractive and easier to read. These letters are kerned: AW, AV, YA. These letters are not kerned: AW, AV, YA.
key
Key fields are used to link two or more database tables together. A primary key is an indexed field that has a unique value for each record. If a table has a primary key, it will be the first field. Primary keys usually are numbers that automatically advance by one as records are added. Secondary keys—also called foreign keys—are fields containing another table’s primary key. Secondary keys are used to refer to records in other tables and do not necessarily have a unique value for every record. See field, indexed field, record, and relational database.
kilobyte (KB)
A kilobyte is 1,024 bytes (210)—about a thousand bytes.
language
See programming language.
laptop computer
A laptop is a small, portable computer that can run on batteries or AC power. Most can easily fit in a briefcase and weigh less than eight pounds.
legacy programs
Legacy programs are old ones that, because of their importance, businesses want to be able to run with newer hardware and software.
link field
A link field is a primary or secondary key field. See key.
Linux
Linux is a Unix operating system that has gained widespread popularity. See operating system (OS) and Unix.
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low-level language LISP (List Processor) is a high-level programming language frequently used for artificial intelligence research. See highlevel language.
local area network (LAN)
Local area networks have computers that are located fairly close together. The computers are usually connected by cables. See network.
log off
Log off is the process of disconnecting from a network. See log on.
log on (logon), log in (login)
Log on (sometimes log in) is the process of identifying yourself when you connect to a network or operating system. Usually, this involves typing in a user ID and a password. Logon as one word is an adjective: “the logon password.” See log off.
lookup field
A lookup field in a relational database is one that gets its data from a field in a different table. When you start to enter data in a lookup field, the database goes to the table where the lookup values are located, displays the values, and copies the value you choose into the field in the first table. See field and relational database.
lossless
Lossless methods of compressing files do not discard data during the compression process. Lossless methods are used in situations where the loss of data is unacceptable, as with database files. See compression.
lossy
Lossy methods of compressing files discard some data in the compression process. Lossy methods often are used to compress files containing photographs where the loss of some data is not critical. See compression.
low-level language
A programming language that writes computer instructions in binary numbers is called a low-level language. See programming language.
Glossary
615
Glossary
LISP
Mac OS 8 Mac OS 8 is an operating system used by Apple Macintosh computers and is the successor of Apple System 7.5. Apple operating systems use graphical commands and have been praised for their ease of use. See Apple System 7.x and operating system (OS).
machine language
Machine language is a programming language in which instructions are written in binary numbers that the CPU can use directly. See programming language.
macro
A macro is an automated keystroke routine that you can execute within an application. A number of applications allow you to write macros and save them as files, and they also may come with prewritten macros. As an example, you could write a macro with a word processor to insert a standard closing for a letter when you execute the macro. See word processing software.
magnetooptical drive
A magneto-optical (MO) drive is a device for storing data that uses magnetic read/write heads and laser beams to store files on special MO disks.
Glossary
Mac OS 8
mail merge See merge. margin
The margin is the space between the body of text (or graphics) and the edge of the page. Nearly all applications allow you to set the right, left, top, and bottom margins for your work.
maximized A maximized window in Windows is one window that is the largest size allowed by the program, often filling the entire screen. You maximize a window by clicking on the maximize icon in the upper right corner of the window. Above right is the icon to click for maximizing a window in Windows 95/98. See minimized window and normal window.
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minimized window A megabyte is 220 or 1,048,576—about a million—bytes.
memo
In database programs, a memo is a field data type that can be lengthy text, sometimes limited only by the amount of disk space. See database software and field data type.
merge
The merge feature found in word processing programs enables you to create a database of names and addresses and automatically insert the names and addresses into standard letters. The result is letters that look as if they were individually prepared. If you were concerned that some hapless clerical staff worked long hours individually typing thousands of letters like the one you just received announcing the latest get-rich scheme, relax. The promoter bought a mailing list from a marketing company and had a word processing program merge the names and addresses into a form letter.
microcomputer
A microcomputer is a small computer that uses a microprocessor. It may be used by one person or as a server on a network. The terms personal computer and microcomputer have become synonymous.
microprocessor
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that contains all the parts of a CPU on a single small chip of silicon.
middleware Middleware is software that enables client and server hardware and software to work together as one integrated system. See client/server network. minimized When you minimize a window in Windows, window it disappears from view and becomes an icon. To minimize a window, click on the minimize icon found in the upper right corner of the window. Above right is the icon for minimizing a window in Windows 95/98. See maximized window and normal window.
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Glossary
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modem A modem is a device that allows one computer to connect to another via telephone lines. It does this by converting a computer’s digital signals to analog signals for transmission over the phone line. When the signals arrive at the other computer, a modem converts the analog signals back to digital ones.
motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer and has the CPU on it. See central processing unit (CPU).
mouse
A mouse is a piece of hardware used to give commands to a computer. It rests on a flat surface and has a ball underneath that moves when you slide the mouse over the surface. The ball transfers your hand movement to movement of a pointer on the monitor screen. When the pointer is in the proper position, you click one of two or three buttons on the mouse to give a command.
Glossary
modem
multimedia Multimedia means combining sound, pictures (still or moving), and text in a computer presentation of information. multitasking
Multitasking is a process that allows more than one program to operate at the same time. For example, you can write a report with a word processing program while a database sorts data in the background.
multithreading
See thread.
Net
See Internet.
network
A network is two or more computers connected together so they can exchange data and share resources.
nibble
A nibble is four bits, or half a byte. No kidding. See bit and byte.
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offline A normal window in Windows is one that is neither maximized nor minimized. It is large enough to work in but usually small enough to not block the view of the desktop and other open windows. You can arrange normal windows so you can work with two or more applications in view. A normal window shows the maximize and minimize icons in the upper right corner. To bring a maximized window to normal size, click on the Restore icon in the upper right corner on the window. Above right is the Restore icon for Windows 95/98. See maximized window and minimized window.
object
Objects are the cutting edge of programming technology. In programming, an object is a software unit that contains data and the means to access the data. Containing the means to access data allows two objects to exchange data between them. The result is that objects can be linked together easily to form more complex objects or applications.
object-ori- OOP uses objects to form complex programs. See object. ented programming (OOP) office suite Office suites are different applications bundled together and sold as a set. They have at least word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation graphics programs and may include other applications. Professional suites include database software. offline
Glossary
When a device is offline, it is not communicating with the computer to which it is connected. For example, a printer that is offline will not respond to print commands. When a computer is offline, it is not communicating with other computers and devices on a network.
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Glossary
OLE 2.0 OLE 2.0
OLE 2.0 is a component standard developed by Microsoft for Windows. Microsoft also is making this technology available on UNIX, OS/2, and MacOS operating systems. See component.
online
The term online means a device is connected, turned on, and available to a computer—such as a printer being online—or that information is available by a computer— such as online help.
online Online information services are network services available informato the public for a monthly fee. They offer a variety of sertion service vices, including e-mail, news, databases containing information in many areas, business and financial services, forums, shopping and travel arrangements, computer technical assistance and software, and chat rooms. America Online, CompuServe, and Microsoft Network are online information services. OpenDoc
OpenDoc is a cross-platform component standard developed in a cooperative endeavor among IBM, Apple, and Novell. See component and platform.
operating environment
An operating environment is a program that makes it easier for the computer user to communicate with the operating system and that enhances and expands the operating system’s capabilities. An operating environment needs an operating system to function. See operating system (OS).
operating system (OS)
An operating system is software that controls the operations of a computer. DOS, Windows 95/98, and OS/2 are examples of operating systems.
optical character recognition (OCR)
OCR software enables a computer to convert text from a scanned paper document to a format that can be edited. The software converts scanned pages of text to a word processing file format, such as those used by Corel WordPerfect or Microsoft Word. See scanner.
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paint program Object Request Brokers (ORBs) serve the function of middleware. When a client makes a request for data or a service, an ORB takes the request, finds the object that can fulfill the request, translates the request to the object, and returns the results to the client. See client, middleware, and object.
OS/2
OS/2 is an operating system developed by IBM for computers using Intel CPUs. It uses graphical commands and can run Windows, OS/2, and DOS applications. OS/2 is more common in corporations than on home computers. See operating system (OS).
outline font An outline font, also called a scalable font, is one that you can resize. For example, if you have a Times-Roman outline font, you can specify the size anywhere from perhaps four points to hundreds. See font, point, typeface, and type style. output
Getting information out of a computer is known as output. Monitors and printers are output devices.
page layout Page layout software is used to design the text position, software graphics, text flow, and typography on single or multiple page documents. Some page layout programs specialize in highly designed documents using graphics, artistically stylized text, and multiple columns and text boxes. Other programs specialize in highly structured documents, such as manuals and books, in which consistent formatting, indexing, illustration tracking, and cross referencing across hundreds or thousands of pages are important. paint program
Glossary
Paint programs allow you to create bitmap pictures. A paint programs is a good choice for artists who want to compose highly creative, artistic images. In contrast, drawing programs allow you to create vector images. A drawing program is the best choice when precise drawings and illustrations are needed. See bitmap and vector.
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Pascal Pascal is a high-level, general-purpose programming language for personal computers. Pascal was developed in the early 1970s in Europe and continues to be popular today. See high-level language.
paste
When you paste, you take an item that has been copied or cut into temporary memory space and place it in a document or new location. See copy and cut.
path
The path is the directory or folder in which a file is located. The path name must show all the directories or folders above the one containing the file, as in \SAM\TAXES\1997 for the directory containing Sam’s 1997 tax files. Path names usually follow drive letters to completely identify the location of files, as in C:\SAM\TAXES\1997.
peer-topeer network
In peer-to-peer networks, all computers communicate as equals. No single computer controls the network communication or resources. Contrast this with client/server networks.
Pentium
A Pentium is a powerful CPU made by Intel Corporation.
personal computer (PC)
A personal computer is any IBM-compatible computer that has an Intel-designed CPU. Sometimes the term is used to refer to any microcomputer, including those with Motorola-designed CPUs, such as the Apple Macintosh. Computer literature generally refers to PCs and Macs separately, though.
personal digital assistant (PDA)
A PDA is a hand-held computer with programs such as a calendar, address book, and to-do list installed. You can buy and install other applications on the PDA. Many PDAs include desktop computer software with the same calendar, address book, and to-do list programs as found on the PDA. You then can synchronize the information on both the PDA and the desktop computer through a special cable.
Glossary
Pascal
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PILOT Personal finance programs are designed to allow individuals to keep track of checking accounts, credit cards, budgets, and investments. They not only balance your checkbook and print checks, they enable you to bank and pay bills electronically. See accounting programs.
personal information manager (PIM)
A personal information manager is an application that helps you schedule appointments and manage contacts. PIMs usually include address books, calendars, and to-do lists. They may dial your phone through your computer’s modem, allow you to fax and e-mail information, help you manage multiple-task projects with time lines, keep track of phone calls, print address labels and lists, record expenses and billable hours, keep track of documents, and allow you to make notes about contacts with customers and colleagues. Contact managers and PIMs are essentially the same.
Photo CD Kodak offers to store your photographs on a Photo CD. You then can use the Kodak Photo CD in the CD-ROM drive of your computer and use the photos in any program that can read the Kodak Photo CD file format (the files have a .PCD extension). See CD-ROM and file format. photo editing software
See image editing software.
pica
A pica is a measurement of type that equals one sixth of an inch, or twelve points. See point.
PILOT
PILOT (Programmed Inquiry Learning Or Teaching) is a high-level programming language designed for computerassisted instruction. It is very easy to use, and schools use it to develop on-screen instructional material. PILOT is being supplanted by HyperCard. See high-level language and HyperCard.
Glossary
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Glossary
piracy piracy
Piracy is the sale or use of software without a license. Software piracy is illegal, and software manufacturers are serious about catching and punishing offenders. You should not load someone else’s copy of an application on your computer. Similarly, you should not load a program you own on both a home computer and one at work unless the software license allows it. With most programs, you are required to buy a second copy or license of the program to do so. Most businesses and government agencies have strict policies and procedures to prevent software piracy.
pitch
Pitch is the number of characters per inch (CPI) in a line of type.
PKZIP
This is a file compression method invented by Phil Katz (PK). PKZIP is widely used with PCs and can compress to a 6 to 1 ratio or greater (6 MB can be compressed to 1 MB). Files compressed using this method have the file extension .ZIP. PKZIP is a lossless compression method, which means it does not discard data during compression. See compression and JPEG (Joint Photographers Expert Group).
platform
A platform is a hardware standard for computer systems based on the design of the CPU. One platform, for example, is the Intel design, which is also called IBM compatible. Another is the Macintosh based on Motorola CPUs. Frequently the principal operating system for a platform will be what is referred to, as in the Windows platform. See central processing unit (CPU) and operating system (OS).
plug-andplay
Plug-and-play means that two hardware devices, two software programs (or objects), or a program and a hardware device can be installed together; and they will automatically configure themselves and work properly.
point
A point is a unit of measurement of the size of type. Seventytwo points equal one inch, so a font with a 36-point size will have letters about a half inch high. See font.
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PostScript Type 1 fonts A pointer is a symbol on a monitor’s screen—usually an arrow—that moves as you move a mouse. You place the pointer over an icon, object, or menu item and click a mouse button to give a command or perform a task.
polymorphism
Polymorphism means different objects can share the same type of procedure. However, each object will carry out the procedure in its own way. See object.
port
Ports are external sockets for connecting pieces of equipment to a computer. Parallel ports are used most often for connecting printers, for example.
Portable Document Format (PDF)
PDF is a file format developed by Adobe Systems that is widely used in electronic publishing (publishing on CDROM or the Internet). You can convert files to PDF using applications found in Adobe’s Acrobat suite of programs. The files then can be opened and viewed using Acrobat Reader, an application widely available for free on the Internet and included with many applications. The documents retain the full formatting and graphics of the original. See electronic publishing and Internet.
PostScript
PostScript is a printer language developed by Adobe Systems. A printer language tells printers how to print text and graphics on a page. The two leading printer languages are PostScript and PCL. See Printer Control Language (PCL).
PostScript Type 1 fonts
PostScript Type 1 is a font format developed by Adobe Systems. PostScript Type 1 fonts (also called Adobe Type 1 fonts) are widely used in Apple Computer programs and desktop publishing. They are scalable fonts, meaning you can change their size when using them in applications. See desktop publishing, font, and TrueType fonts.
Glossary
625
Glossary
pointer
preemptive multitasking
Glossary
preemptive With preemptive multitasking, each task being performed multitask- by a computer gets equal CPU time. The CPU does this by ing switching very quickly among multiple tasks to be performed until the tasks are completed. This makes it seem as if the CPU is processing different instructions simultaneously. Contrast with cooperative multitasking. presentation graphics software
Presentation graphics software is used to develop charts, outlines, titles, graphs, lists, notes, or drawings in paper, 35mm slide, overhead transparency, or electronic format. These programs are useful for a sales presentation, lecture, briefing of the board of directors, and so forth.
primary index
See indexed field.
primary key
See key.
print house Print house or print shop programs are used to produce novsoftware elties with desktop computers. With them you can make banners, calendars, T-shirts, greeting cards, and so forth. print shop See print house software. software printer
A printer is a device that puts on paper the work you have accomplished with a computer.
Printer Control Language (PCL)
PCL is a printer language developed by Hewlett Packard Corporation. A printer language tells printers how to print text and graphics on a page. The two leading printer languages are PostScript and PCL. See PostScript.
process
A process is a task to be performed by an operating system.
program
See software.
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ragged left A programming language is a set of terms and rules for writing computer instructions to create software programs.
project management programs
Project management software is designed to help persons in charge of complex projects complete them successfully and on time. These programs break projects into elements, assign tasks to individuals or teams, and track the progress of tasks.
PROLOG
PROLOG (Programming in Logic) is a high-level programming language used in artificial intelligence. See high-level language.
prompt
A prompt is a symbol or series of characters on a monitor’s screen that indicates the computer is ready to accept a command. A cursor follows the prompt. It is used with DOS, an operating system that uses text commands. See cursor.
protocol
Protocols are standards that enable different hardware and software to work together.
pull-down menu
A pull-down menu is a list of commands that appears when you click on the menu name with a mouse.
push The term push technology refers to software and services that technology will automatically retrieve information that you specify from the Web. Push technology may work in the background while you are connected to the Internet or may gather information while you are off line. See Internet and World Wide Web. query
A query is a question you give a database program to search for a particular type of information. For example, the query may be for the value all items in a database classified as jewelry.
ragged left See text alignment.
Glossary
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Glossary
ragged right ragged right
See text alignment.
random access memory (RAM)
RAM is hardware that temporarily stores data for the CPU to process. When the power to a computer is turned off, RAM loses its contents.
read-only memory (ROM)
ROM is hardware that provides a small amount of permanent storage that holds basic instructions for the CPU— especially initial instructions executed when you first turn on a computer.
real-time
The term real-time refers to computer software and hardware capable of immediately processing input to immediately respond to events as they occur. A computer that controls a robot would need to have real-time capability to be useful, for example.
reboot
To reboot a computer is to restart it by pressing the Ctrl, Alt, and Delete keys simultaneously; pressing the reset button on the computer case; or turning off and on the power. The first two methods also are called warm boots, and the third is a cold boot. When you reboot a computer, all your work that you have not saved to a disk will be lost.
record
Databases are made of tables. Each table in a database consists of columns and rows. A column is called a field and contains one group of information, such as last names. A row is called a record and consists of a collection of information about a particular item—a person or product, for example.
Recycle Bin Windows 95/98 and NT have a utility called Recycle Bin that holds deleted files until you empty it. If you delete a file by mistake or if you change your mind, you can go to Recycle Bin and restore the file. Since deleted files remain in Recycle Bin until you empty it, you must do so if you are trying to free up hard disk space by deleting unwanted files.
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report Instruction sets are the operations a CPU carries out directly. If a CPU does not have an instruction set to perform a task directly, it must combine two or more sets. Complex instruction set computers (CISCs) have CPUs that are able to carry out hundreds of operations directly. RISCs have fewer instruction sets but are able to perform the ones they have more quickly than CISCs. On the other hand, a RISC performs an operation for which it does not have an instruction set more slowly than a CISC with the set.
referential integrity
When primary and secondary keys are linked, relational databases use a set of rules to make certain the data being linked is valid. These rules are called referential integrity. See key and relational database.
relational database
Databases are made of tables. A flat-file database consist of a single table, and relational databases link two or more tables together. For example, one table may contain customer names and addresses, another product inventory, and a third orders for products. When a customer places an order, these three tables would be linked together in a relational database. Flat-file databases do not link different tables together—they only work with data in a single table. See field and record.
remote Remote computing means you can access and control one computing computer from another. Special software is available that enables you to perform remote computing. You could, for example, dial into your desktop computer at the office from a modem attached to a laptop while traveling. Once connected, you can use the files on the desktop machine or read e-mail. report
Reports in databases are used to display and print data in formats you specify. A report could be a list of customers, an invoice, an inventory list, mailing labels, name badges, and so forth.
Glossary
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Glossary
reseller reseller
A reseller is an individual or company that buys software or hardware from manufacturers and resells them to businesses and the public.
ring network
On a ring network, the signals between computers travel around the network in a loop. Computers communicate by attaching messages to a signal called a token. See Figure 6.2 on page 228 and Figure 6.3 on page 229.
root directory
The root directory is the highest-level directory—the main directory—on a disk and contains all the other directories (or folders) and files.
router
Routers perform the same function as bridges with the added feature of being able to handle multiple protocols. They can translate one protocol into another. See bridge.
sans serif
Sans serif is a typeface that does not have serifs. For example, the running headers and side heads in this book are printed in the sans serif typeface called Garrison Sans. Note the letter N has no serifs.
N See serif, typeface, and type style. save
When you save your work, you give it a name and store the data as a file on a disk drive, such as a floppy or hard disk. You only have to give the file a name the first time you save it. After that, saving your work using the same file name replaces the previous version with the newer one. If you wish to keep both the old version and the new, you save either version using a different file name.
scalability
The term scalability refers to the ability to increase the capacity of software or hardware. For example, an operating system that can work on a computer with four CPUs at the most is not as scalable as one that can work on a computer with sixty-four CPUs.
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secondary key See outline font.
scanner
A scanner is a device that converts images on paper into the 1s and 0s a computer can use. This process is called digitizing. The images converted into bits can be photographs, drawings, or text. Once an image is scanned, it becomes a bitmap graphic. Scanned text can be converted into a form that can be edited and searched by using optical character recognition (OCR) software. See bitmap and optical character recognition (OCR).
screen saver Screen savers are utilities that display constantly changing geometric patterns, artwork, cartoons, photographs, or other images on the monitor screen. Originally, they were developed to prevent damage to monitors by having constant white text displayed on black screens. Today, text burn in (text that leaves a ghost image on the screen) is not much of a problem. Screen savers now serve as entertainment and as a way to keep others from seeing what is displayed on your monitor. scroll
To scroll is to move the image on the monitor’s screen up or down. To scroll through a document is to continue scrolling until you get to the beginning or end.
SCSI
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface, pronounced “scuzzy”) adapters allow you to connect seven to fifteen internal and external pieces of equipment to a computer. SCSI cards and cables, often found on high-end computers, have very fast data transmission. A SCSI adapter can transfer 40–80 million bytes of data per second (MBps).
secondary index
See indexed field.
secondary key
See key.
Glossary
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serif serif
Serifs are fine cross-stroke lines projecting from the main strokes of letters. A serif typeface has serifs. For example, the main text of this book is printed in a serif type. Note the cross strokes in the letter N:
N
Glossary
See sans serif, typeface, and type style. server
A server is a computer that is attached to a network and that provides services to other computers called clients. The basic services include file sharing, printing, and communication among clients.
service bureau
A service bureau is a business that offers a variety of computer-related services for publishing. Service bureaus can print your work on an imagesetter at over 2400 DPI, scan images at high resolution, convert files to different text and graphics formats, print color separations, and give training and consultation.
shareware
Shareware is copyrighted software available on a trial basis. If you like the software, you are asked to send a small payment to the developer. You can get shareware on the Internet, and there are catalogs with hundreds of programs selling for less than $10.
sheet
A sheet is a page in a spreadsheet file. The leading spreadsheet programs now are 3-D, meaning they can have multiple sheets, one on top of another. Numbers, formulas, and text can be entered on any sheet; and the cells on any sheet can be linked to those on any other sheet. See cell and spreadsheet software.
shortcut key
A shortcut key is one or more keystrokes used to give a command to an application or the operating system. Shortcut keys are used instead of using mouse commands. In Windows, for example, holding down the Ctrl key and pressing the S key saves your work.
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source code slot
A slot is a long socket on a circuit board in a computer that is used to plug in other circuit boards called adapters or cards. See adapter.
snail mail
Snail mail is paper mail delivered by the postal service. Contrast with e-mail.
sneaker net Sneaker net is exchanging electronic files by saving them on a floppy or other removable disk and carrying the disk to the other computer. The Sniffer is software made by Network General that tracks network activities and builds a database with the information it captures. Although The Sniffer is a trademark name for Network General’s software, the term sniffer has come to mean any software that records network activities.
SNOBOL
SNOBOL (String-Oriented Symbolic Language) is a highlevel programming language used for linguistic and music research and language translation. See high-level language.
software
Software, also called a program, is a set of instructions telling the CPU what to do. See central processing unit (CPU).
sort
Sorting is arranging text or numbers in alphabetical or numerical order. You can sort in databases and spreadsheets, and word processing programs allow you to sort tables and lists.
source code Source code is a set of software instructions that are in highlevel language and have not been compiled into machine language. See compiler, high-level language, and machine language.
Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
spelling checker spelling checker
Spelling checkers are tools found in word processing, spreadsheet, e-mail, desktop publishing, illustration, and other programs. A spelling checker checks the spelling of the words in your work and identifies errors. When it identifies misspelled words, it gives suggestions as to correct spellings. You can add special spellings or words to a user dictionary if the program does not recognize words that are spelled the way you want them. Some spelling checkers found on sophisticated page layout programs also identify errors such as double spaces, spaces before commas and other punctuation errors, unusual capitalization, and so forth.
spreadsheet software
Spreadsheet software is used for financial analysis and modeling. Spreadsheets organize data in columns and rows, and the intersection of a column and row is called a cell. It is in these cells that numbers and formulas are entered. Besides allowing you to write your own mathematical formulas in the cells—to automatically add certain numbers in a column, for example—spreadsheets come with powerful ready-to-use formulas and data analysis capability.
Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)
SGML is a computer language used for describing the format of text, such as the font, layout, margins, and so forth. SGML documents can be read by any program that is SGML compliant. SGML is useful for sharing documents with others who may not be using the same applications but who have SGMLcompliant programs. It also is useful for archiving documents since any future SGML-compliant software will be able to read them. HTML grew out of SGML. See font and Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
star network
Star networks have the cables radiating out from the server to the client computers like a star. See Figure 6.2 on page 228.
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symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) A start-up disk is a floppy disk containing key operating system files. If something goes wrong with your computer and you cannot use it because of a software problem, you place the start-up disk in the floppy drive and reboot to gain control of your machine again. See operating system (OS) and reboot.
stock photos
Stock photographs are ones taken by professional photographers and sold for use in publications. Usually the photos are royalty free, which means once you buy them, you can publish them without paying royalties to anyone.
street price The street price of software or hardware is the discounted price widely available to consumers. Most software and hardware are heavily discounted by resellers. See reseller. subdirectory
A subdirectory is a directory within a directory. See directory.
surge A surge suppressor is an electronic device that is designed to suppressor prevent voltage spikes (momentary high levels of voltage) from reaching sensitive electronic equipment. Voltage spikes can severely damage computers, modems, copiers, and fax machines. These types of equipment should be plugged into a surge suppressor, which in turn is plugged into the wall outlet. You can buy surge suppressors at hardware and electronics stores. swap file
A swap file is one created on a disk drive by the operating system. The CPU uses the swap file as temporary storage to supplement RAM. See central processing unit (CPU) and random access memory (RAM).
symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
Symmetric multiprocessing is when an operating system takes advantage of computers having more than one CPU. The OS uses multiple CPUs by simultaneously assigning different threads of a process to different CPUs. See thread.
Glossary
635
Glossary
start-up disk
syntax syntax
The rules governing writing computer programs and giving computers commands are called syntax. For example, the syntax for copying a file in DOS dictates the command you type, the information you must give regarding the location and destination of the file, the order you type the information, and where you use spaces: COPY A:\MAKER\CHAP7 B:\WP
Glossary
See DOS. system file A system file is one that contains information about a computer’s hardware. An operating system looks to this file when starting, and the information in it enables the operating system to control the various pieces of hardware. table
A table is a structure for organizing information in rows and columns. The intersections of the rows and columns are called cells, and it is in these cells that text, numbers, and graphics are placed. A table can have one row and column, creating one cell, or many rows and columns. This glossary, for example, is organized in a single table containing two columns and more than four hundred rows. Word processing programs have features for creating and formatting tables, as do some page layout programs. Spreadsheet and database programs organize all data in tables.
Tagged Information File Format (TIFF)
TIFF is a universal graphics file format. TIFF files have the extension .TIF. See file format.
tape drive
A tape drive is hardware that allows you to store files on magnetic tape similar to the tape found in audio cassettes but much stronger. Most tape drives use cassettes, but those on mainframes (large computers) use reel tapes. Microcomputers use tape drives as a means to back up large amounts of data, such as one or more hard disks. See files.
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thesaurus The only thing worse than doing your taxes is paying them. Tax preparation programs make the first task a snap. The second still is a problem.
technical support
Technical support is help you can get from trained professionals to solve software or hardware problems. Technical support may be given by telephone, facsimile, or the Internet.
telnet
Telnet is a program widely used on the Internet that enables you to access remote computers. Once connected to the remote computer using telnet, you can open and copy files and otherwise use that computer as if you were sitting at its keyboard. The computer you access is called the host computer and your computer becomes its terminal.
terabyte (TB)
A terabyte is 240 or about a trillion bytes— 1,099,511,627,776 to be exact.
terminateand-stayresident (TSR)
A TSR program is one that operates in the background without you being aware of it. It starts when you start the computer and idles until needed. An example of a TSR is an antivirus program that monitors your computer and swings into protective action when a virus is detected.
text alignment
There are four types of text alignment: right, left, center, and full. Right alignment—also called ragged left—has the ends of the lines of text on the right edge of a paragraph even but the left edge of the paragraph uneven, or ragged. Left alignment, or ragged right, has the left edge even but the right ragged. Center text alignment centers the lines of text down the middle but has both edges ragged. Full text alignment, also called justified text, has both the right and left edges of the paragraph even.
thesaurus
Most word processing programs and some page layout programs contain electronic versions of thesauruses—books that give synonyms and antonyms for words.
Glossary
637
Glossary
tax preparation software
Glossary
Thinnet Thinnet
Thinnet, also called Cheapernet, is an informal name for an Ethernet cable standard that uses thin 10 Base 2 cables. See Ethernet.
thread
A thread is a part of a process. A process is a task to be performed by an operating system, and 32-bit and 64-bit OSes break down processes into subtasks called threads. As more duties need to be performed, the OS spins off more threads in a process called multithreading. This allows the operating system to perform tasks more efficiently using preemptive multitasking and, perhaps, symmetric multiprocessing. See preemptive multitasking and symmetric multiprocessing (SMP).
toolbar
Toolbars contain icons for frequently used commands and tools. They usually are found on the top or side of the screen and can be customized, meaning you can add or remove icons as you choose. See icon.
topology
In local area networks, the topology is the design of the connections among the individual computers. See bus network, ring network, and star network.
transparent Software or hardware is said to be transparent when it works properly in the background without interfering with the operations of other software or hardware. When something works transparently, you do not notice it is working. transport protocols or stacks
Transport protocols—or transport stacks—are software that define how data is transmitted on a network. See network.
Trojan horse
A Trojan horse is software that seems desirable—such as a free utility program—but is a destructive program in disguise.
TrueType fonts
TrueType is a font format, and TrueType fonts are widely used in Windows programs. They are scalable fonts, meaning you can change their size when using them in applications. See font and PostScript Type 1 fonts.
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Unix TWAIN is a software interface standard for scanners that allows programs and scanners to communicate. When a program is TWAIN compliant, you can start the scanner from a command within the program and scan an image for use in the program. See scanner.
type style
A type style is a general characteristic of type, such as bold or italic. Some other type styles are roman (also called serif), oblique, sans serif, script, condensed, and lightface. See font and typeface.
typeface
A design of type, such as Times Roman, Jenson, Arial, or Helvetica, is called a typeface. A typeface may come in several fonts, such as regular, bold, and italic. See font.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
A URL is an Internet address for a Web site, such as: HTTP//WWW.MICROSOFT.COM See Web site and Internet.
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
A USB, or Universal Serial Bus, is used to connect external pieces of equipment to computers. USB ports are now regular features on new computers. Each USB port can handle up to 127 pieces of equipment that supports USB connections. USB connections are much faster than serial ports: A serial port can transfer 115 thousand bits per second (Kbps), while a USB port can handle 12 million bits per second (Mbps). See port.
Unix
Unix is an operating system developed in 1971 that is used for demanding business and scientific applications and for Internet servers. There are dozens of Unix derivatives in use, and most are not completely compatible with the others. See operating system (OS).
Glossary
639
Glossary
TWAIN
Glossary
upgrade upgrade
A software upgrade is a new version of software offered at a discounted price by the manufacturer for owners of previous versions of the software. If you do not own the previous version of the program, you pay full price unless the manufacturer is offering a competitive upgrade. See competitive upgrade.
upload
When you download a file, you receive and store a file sent by another computer over a network. When you upload a file, you send it to another computer. See file and network.
user group User groups consist of people who use a particular software application or operating system. Members of the group share their experience with using the software. Joining a user group is an excellent way to learn tricks and tips and to solve software problems. utility program
Utilities are programs to help you manage your computer and its software. File Manager and Explorer are utilities that come with Windows to help you manage files. Utilities may also provide special functions for hardware and software operations, such as converting files from one format to another. Contrast with applications.
validity checks
Validity checks restrict the type of data that can be entered into fields in databases. They are used to prevent incorrect data from being entered. An example of a validity check is one that allows only whole numbers less than 100 to be entered into a field. See database and field.
vaporware
Software that a manufacturer keeps promising to have ready to put on the market but never does is called vaporware. You can use hardware and software but not vaporware.
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virtual private network (VPN) Vector graphics and fonts are ones the computer draws and stores using mathematical formulas. Vector illustrations can be resized and changed easily and produce the most accurate drawings. Vector fonts also can be resized easily and are called scalable fonts. In contrast, bitmap graphics and fonts are drawn by filling an area with dots until the desired shape is produced. See bitmap.
version number
When software manufacturers improve their programs, the new versions are identified with version numbers. When a new program is released, it will have a low, or no, version number. When the manufacturer releases a new version, it will have a higher version number than earlier versions— FrameMaker 5 is a more recent version than FrameMaker 4, for example. See Version Numbers for Software on page 17.
video adapter
A video adapter allows a computer to communicate with, and therefore use, a monitor. Video adapters fit into slots on computers’ motherboards. Video adapters are also called video cards or display adapters. See adapter and slot.
virtual
The term virtual in computers means simulated.
virtual machine (VM)
A virtual machine is a simulated computer in an isolated and protected memory space. Some operating systems use VMs to run applications. With a VM, one application crashing will not affect others or the operating system. The errant application can be safely shut down.
virtual memory
Virtual memory is the use of hard disk space by the operating system for temporarily storing data and instructions not able to be held in RAM. See random access memory (RAM).
virtual private network (VPN)
VPN products enable you to use the Internet as a private network by making the information you transmit secure from snooping eyes. See Internet and network.
Glossary
641
Glossary
vector
Glossary
virus virus
A virus is a program that duplicates itself and spreads from one computer to another with the purposes of damaging software and files on the computers and disrupting their operation.
voice recognition software
There are several programs available that allow you to speak into a microphone attached to your computer, and your words will be transcribed into text for applications or translated as computer commands. These programs are called voice recognition software.
warm boot To warm boot is to restart a computer by pressing the Ctrl, Alt, and Delete keys simultaneously or by pressing the reset button on the computer case. To cold boot is to start a computer by turning on the power. Web
See World Wide Web.
Web browser
A Web browser is a program that enables you to explore the World Wide Web. See World Wide Web.
Web hosting
Web hosting is when an Internet service provider (ISP) sets up and maintains a Web site for you. The ISP may design the site for you or provide software so you can do it yourself. The hosting could include e-commerce to enable companies to sell products on the Internet. See Internet service provider and Web site.
Web page
A Web page is one that appears on your computer screen when you reach an Internet Web site. Web pages can contain text, sound, and graphics. They vary in length: some may fill a single monitor screen, while you may have to scroll down others. See World Wide Web.
Web site
A Web site is a location with a URL address on the Internet that has one or more Web pages. See Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and World Wide Web.
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Windows 3.x Web site blocking software allows you to control access to certain sites on the Internet. Although businesses sometimes use this type of software, parents find it of most interest to control visits to Web sites unsuitable for children.
wide area network (WAN)
Wide area networks are computer networks that cover long distances—hundreds or thousands of miles. A WAN can be two or more widely separated LANs linked by telephone lines or radio waves. It also can be many widely separated computers communicating with one or more servers or LANs, as in airline reservation systems or the Internet. See Internet and local area network (LAN).
wild card
Wild cards are characters used to represent unknown characters in file names. A question mark (?) represents one character, and an asterisk (*) represents several or all. If, for example, you save your tax return files with the year in the extension, TAXYEAR.9? represents all files for the 1990s. Similarly, TAXYEAR.* represents all years, not just the 1990s. See file.
window
A window is a rectangular screen displaying a program or a particular file within a program. There may be one window on the monitor screen, or there may be several displayed at once.
Windows
The term Windows refers to any of the Windows operating systems manufactured by Microsoft Corporation and includes Windows 3.x, Windows 95/98, and Windows NT/2000. See operating system (OS), Windows 3.x, Windows 95/98, and Windows NT/2000.
Windows 3.x
Windows 3.x (versions 3.0, 3.1, 3.11, and WFW 3.11) is an operating environment that runs with DOS. It uses graphical, instead of text, commands and can make use of more RAM than DOS alone. Because it can use more RAM, the applications written for Windows are often more powerful than those for DOS. See DOS and random access memory (RAM).
Glossary
643
Glossary
Web site blocking software
Glossary
Windows 95/98 Windows 95/98
Windows 95 is an operating system that uses graphical commands, takes advantage of large amounts of RAM, and can run more powerful applications than Windows 3.x. It is the successor to Windows 3.x. Windows 98 is an upgrade to Windows 95. See operating system (OS), random access memory (RAM), and Windows 3.x.
Windows Metafile
Windows Metafiles are Windows graphics file formats. Windows Metafiles have the extension .WMF. See file format and Windows.
Windows NT/2000
Windows NT is a powerful, 32-bit operating system. It uses graphical commands and is a step up from Windows 95/98. Windows 2000 is version 5 of Windows NT. See operating system (OS) and Windows 95/98.
Wintel
The term Wintel—an acronym made from the names Windows and Intel—refers to computers using Windows operating systems and CPUs designed by Intel Corporation. See central processing unit (CPU) and Windows.
wizard
A wizard is a tool found in some applications that asks you questions and creates things in response to your answers. For example, the database program Microsoft Access has wizards to help you create queries, reports, and forms. See database software, form, query, and report.
word
A word is the number of bits a CPU can process at one time. In a 16-bit CPU, a word is 16 bits; in a 32-bit CPU, it is 32 bits. See bit, byte, and nibble.
word Word processing software is used to create, format, edit, and processing print documents containing primarily text, such as letters software and reports. word wrap Word processing programs have a function called word wrap. As you type in text and get to the end of a line, the program automatically will jump to the next line down and continue. See word processing software.
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year 2000 (Y2K) Workstations are powerful microcomputers that are used for graphics, engineering, computer-aided design, desktop publishing, and other demanding applications. In the past, the term workstation referred to computers with powerful RISC processors using Unix operating systems. Now the term may also refer to computers with powerful Pentium CPUs using Windows NT as the OS. See central processing unit (CPU), operating system (OS), reduced instruction set computer (RISC), and Windows NT/2000.
World Wide Web (Web)
The Web is a graphical interface for the Internet. It allows users to view graphics and use graphical user interface commands instead of giving text-based commands and receiving only text-based information in return. See Internet.
worm
A worm is software that roams a network exploiting its weak points with the possible purpose of bringing the system to a halt. A worm is like a virus, but it does not reproduce as viruses do.
WYSIWYSIWYG (pronounced “WIZZY-wig) means the image WYG on the screen is an accurate representation of what will be (what you printed. see is what you get) year 2000 (Y2K)
Glossary
Year 2000, or Y2K, refers to a problem facing many computers in the new millennium. Until recently, software and hardware used two digits to represent a particular year, such as 89 for 1989. Programming computers this way saved storage space on disks and in RAM. The trouble is that computers and software that are not Y2K compliant will interpret 00 as being 1900, creating a myriad of problems. Much time and money has been spent to reprogram computers to recognize the full four digits of a year, such as 2000 and 2001. See random access memory (RAM).
645
Glossary
workstation
Zip drive A Zip drive is a disk drive made by Iomega Corporation. The removable disks can hold 100–200 MB of data.
zoom
The zoom feature found in many applications enlarges or reduces the size of what is displayed on the monitor.
Glossary
Zip drive
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Acronyms Acronym
Meaning
ANSI
American National Standards Institute
page 228
API
application program interface
page 136 page 206
APL
A Programming Language
page 551
app
application software
page 310
APPN
Advanced Peer-to-Peer Network
page 233
ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange
page 578
ATM
Adobe Type Manager
page 352
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
page 236
BASIC
Page
Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code page 545
BIOS
basic input-output system
page 590
bit
binary digit
page 573
BLOB
binary large object
page 258
byte
binary digit eight
page 577
CAD
computer-aided design
page 482
CAM
computer-aided manufacturing
page 483
CD-ROM
compact disk—read-only memory
page 10
CGM
Computer Graphics Metafile
page 463
CISC
complex instruction set computer
page 595
647
Meaning
CMOS
complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor
page 596
CMOS RAM
complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor random access memory
page 596
COBOL
Common Business Oriented Language
page 551
COM
Component Object Model
page 566
CORBA
Common Object Request Broker Architecture
page 568 page 257
CPI
characters per inch
page 351
CPU
central processing unit
CSMA/CD
carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
page 231
CSU/DSU
channel service unit/data service unit
page 236
DAP
Directory Access Protocol
page 245
Acronyms
Acronym
DCOM
Page
page 7
distributed version of Component Object Model page 569 page 257
DME OMF
Distributed Management Environment’s Object Management Framework
page 241
DMI
Desktop Management Interface
page 241
DNS
Domain Name System
page 290
DOS
Disk Operating System
page 73
DPI
dots per inch
page 467
DSS
decision support
page 263
EBCDIC
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
page 580
EIS
executive information systems
page 263
ENIAC
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
page 592
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Meaning
EPS
Encapsulated PostScript
page 464
FAQ
frequently asked questions
page 289
FAT
file allocation table
page 173
FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface
page 228
FORTRAN
formula translation
page 550
FRAD
Frame Relay Assembler/Disassembler
page 236
FTP
File Transfer Protocol
page 605
GB
gigabyte
page 580
GIF
Graphics Interchange Format
page 464
GPF
general protection fault
page 132
GUI
graphical user interface
page 76 page 97
HDSL
High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line
page 236
HTML
Hypertext Markup Language
page 290
HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
page 240
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
page 232
IIOP
Internet Interoperable ORB Protocol
page 569
IPX
Internet Packet Exchange
page 233
IRQ
interrupt request
page 613
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network
page 236
JIT
just in time
page 557
JPEG
Joint Photographers Expert Group
page 464
KB
kilobyte
page 580
LAN
local area network
page 225
Acronyms
Page
649
Acronyms
Acronym
Meaning
LDAP
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
page 245
LISP
List Processor
page 551
MB
megabyte
page 580
MOM
message-oriented middleware
page 240
MS-DOS
DOS made by Microsoft
page 74
MAU
multistation access unit
page 228
NC
network computer
page 275
NIC
network interface card
page 253
NOS
network operating system
page 250
OCR
optical character recognition
page 268 page 538
ODBC
Open Database Connectivity
page 264
OLAP
online analytical processing
page 262
OLE
object linking and embedding
page 566 page 111
OMG
Object Management Group
page 565
OOP
object-oriented programming
page 554
OOUI
object-oriented user interface
page 195
ORB
object request broker
page 569
ORDBMS
object relational database management systems
page 258
OS
operating system
page 71
PC
personal computer
page 622
PC-DOS
DOS made by IBM
page 74
PCL
Printer Control Language
page 467
PDA
personal digital assistant
page 531
Acronyms
Acronym
650
Page
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Meaning
PDF
Portable Document Format
page 465 page 505
PILOT
Programmed Inquiry Learning Or Teaching
page 553
PIM
personal information manager
page 530
PNG
Portable Network Graphic
page 465
PROLOG
Programming in Logic
page 553
RAM
random access memory
page 9
RDBMS
relational database management system
page 258
RISC
reduced instruction set computer
page 629
ROM
read-only memory
page 10
RPC
remote procedure call
page 240
SCSI
Small Computer System Interface
page 180
SGML
Standard Generalized Markup Language
page 504
SMP
symmetric multiprocessing
page 187
SNA
System Network Architecture
page 233
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol
page 241
SNOBOL
String-Oriented Symbolic Language
page 633
SOM
System Object Model
page 257
SONET
Synchronous Optical Network
page 229
SPX
Sequenced Packet Exchange
page 233
SQL
Structured Query Language
page 264
TB
terabyte
page 580
TCP/IP
Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
page 233
TIFF
Tagged Image File Format
page 466
Acronyms
Page
651
Acronyms
Acronym
Meaning
TME
Tivoli Management Environment
page 244
TP Monitors
transaction processing monitors
page 240
TSR
terminate and stay resident
page 134
UAE
unrecoverable application error
page 132
UPS
uninterruptible power supply
page 34
URL
Uniform Resource Locator
page 292
USB
Universal Serial Bus
page 180
VBX
Visual Basic extensions
page 549
VM
virtual machine
page 555 page 134
VPN
virtual private network
page 301
WAN
wide area network
page 225
WFM
workflow management
page 270
WFW
Windows for Workgroups
page 95
WMF
Windows Metafile
page 466
WYSIWYG
what you see is what you get
page 116
XML
Extensible Markup Language
page 504
Y2K
year 2000
page 645
Acronyms
Acronym
652
Page
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Index A Abracadata, 487 Access, 105, 323, 423–425, 430,
433, 439–459 Accessibility wizard, 168, 171–172 Accessories, 113 accounting software, 525–528 ACCPAC, 525 ACCPAC International, 525 ACI US, 423 Acrobat, 503–505 ACT!, 530 ActiveX, 299, 499, 566–567 Actrix Technical, 488, 489 Ada, 18, 545, 552 adapter, 11 Add/Remove Programs, 69, 512–
514 Address Book, 530 address bus, 10 address software, 536–538 Address Toolbar, 171 Adobe FrameMaker, 100, 101, 333,
491, 492–494 Adobe Illustrator, 476 Adobe PageMaker, 333, 491, 494 Adobe PageMill, 497 Adobe PhotoDeluxe, 471 Adobe Photoshop, 471 Adobe Premiere, 471 Adobe Systems, 467–469, 470, 471,
476, 491, 495, 497, 503 Adobe Type 1 fonts (See PostScript Type 1 fonts)
Adobe Type Manager (ATM), 352 ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line), 236 Advanced Recognition Technologies, 520 AEC Software, 533 After Dark, 521 After Effects, 470 agents, 242 Agreement Buider, 535 AIX, 205 Aladdin Systems, 511, 516, 519 Aldus Corporation, 495 alignment of text, 346–348 Allaire, 497 allCLEAR, 488 Alpha Five, 423 Alpha Software, 423 alphanumeric data, 431 AltaVista, 279 AltaVista Firewall, 249 American Business Information, 538 American Heritage Dictionary, 541 ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 228, 229 anti-virus programs, 53, 60–61,
508–511 installing, 61 using, 61 AOL (America Online), 267, 295,
303, 306–308 Apertus Technologies, 261 API (application program interface), 136, 206 APL, 545, 551–552
653
Index
B Apple Computer, 2, 72, 209, 500,
553 iMac, 210 LaserWriter, 209 Macintosh, 209 Power Macintosh, 210 PowerPC, 209 products, 209–210 Apple operating systems, 209–217 (See also Mac OS and Mac OS X) At A Glance, 217 GUI (graphical user interface), 209 Mac OS, 210–214 Mac OS X, 214–216 applets, 557–559 application software, 16–17, 71,
309–542 buying, 318–330 where to buy, 328–330 discounts, 329–330 for home, 316–317 buying, 319–320 introduction, 309–311 learning to use, 310–311 Macintosh, 310 Windows, 310 office suites, 321–323 Corel WordPerfect Office, 322 Lotus SmartSuite, 322 Microsoft Office, 322–323 types, 310 for work, 314–316 buying, 318–319 Approach, 322, 424 Aquazone, 521 Artisoft, 252, 524 ARTrecognition, 520 Ascend, 530 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 578–580 ASCII text file, 82
654
ASD Software, 516 Ask Jeeves, 279 assembler, 544 assembly language, 15, 543–544 @functions, 392–395 @ symbol, 287 AT&T Bell Laboratories, 201 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), 236 AutoCAD, 483, 484, 489 Autodesk, 483, 484, 487, 488 AUTOEXEC.BAT, 80–82, 131,
143–144 AutoSketch, 483 Avery Software, 537
B Back button, 281–283 backing up files, 31, 32–34, 48, 63–
64, 92 BackUp, 519 Backup Exec, 519 backup software, 518–519 banner ads, 499 Banyan Systems, 252 BASIC, 545, 548–550, 552 program example, 545–548 batch file, 76 Berkeley shell, 204 Berkeley Software Design, 205 Berkeley Systems, 521 BestWare, 525 Bezier curves, 477–478 binary numbers, 7, 571–580 adding, 576 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 578–580 bit, 573 byte, 577–580 decimal equivalents, 575 digit values, 572–573
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
C
bit, 9, 573 bitmap images, 466–467 BizPlan Builder Interactive, 534 BLOB (binary large object), 258–
260, 431 bombs, 246 Bookmarks, 284–286 organizing, 285–286 boot, 12 Borland, 555 Bourne shell, 204 bridge, 235 BrightWorks, 244 Britannica CD, 541 Broderbund, 487, 541 BSD/OS, 205 bus, 10 bus networks, 230 Business Basics, 535 Business Plan Pro, 534 business plan software, 533 Byron, Lady Augusta, 552 Byron, Lord, 552 byte, 9, 577–580
CAM (computer-aided manufacturing), 483 Canon, 474 Canvas, 476 Carbon Copy, 524 CardScan, 540 cascade, 104 Catz, 521 .cc, 293 CDE (Common Desktop Environment), 204 CD-ROM drive, 10, 53 CDW, 329 center-aligned text, 346–348 central processing unit (See CPU) Centri Firewall, 249 Channel Bar, 168–170 Character Map, 113–114 chat rooms, 306 adult controls, 306 CheckIt, 515 CheckPoint Firewall, 249 CheckPoint Software Technologies, 249 Claris, 424 Claris Impact, 500 classes, 561–562 CleanSweep, 511 client/server networks, 187, 225–
226, 275, 567–568
C C, 18, 545, 552, 554 C++, 18, 545, 552, 554, 555 C2, 247–248 CA Clipper, 423 cable modem, 237 Cabletron Systems, 244 CAD (computer-aided design), 482–
484 Caere, 269, 540 Calculator, 113, 114–115
Index
clip art, 479–480 Clipboard, 110–111, 113 Clipboard Viewer, 113 ClipBook Viewer, 113 Clippit, 458 close, 106–107 closing applications Windows, 106–107 Windows 95/98, 148–149 clusters, 173 COBOL, 18, 545 columns, word processing, 360–361
655
Index
GB (gigabyte), 580 KB (kilobyte), 580 MB (megabyte), 580 nibble, 577 TB (terabyte), 580 word, 577
Index
C .com, 293 COM (Component Object Model), 566 Comcast @Home, 278, 295 communication software, 521–524 Compaq Computer Corporation, 204, 205,
249, 257 compiler, 545 components, 256–257, 563–570 CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture), 568, 570 DCOM (Distributed Common Object Model), 569–
570 distributed, 567 IIOP (Internet Interoperability ORB Protocol), 569 interoperability, 564 middleware, 568–570 ORBs (Object Request Brokers), 569 plug-and-play, 564 standards, 565–567 ActiveX, 566–567 COM (Component Object Model), 566 OLE 2.0, 566 OpenDoc, 565 Compton’s 1999 Encyclopedia Deluxe, 541 CompUSA, 328, 329 CompuServe, 267, 295, 303–308,
326 Thomas Register, 304 CompuServe B, 523 Computer Associates, 244, 266, 423,
519 conferencing, 273 confidence in using computers, 34–35 CONFIG.SYS, 78–79, 143–144
656
conflicts, hardware and software, 53 Control Panel, 69, 162, 163 controller, 11 cooperative multitasking, 140–141 copying, 110, 339–341 CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture), 189,
195, 197–198, 257, 299, 568, 570 CORBAplus, 257 Corel Central, 322 Corel Corporation, 326, 424, 471, 476, 491, 500 Corel Paradox, 322, 423–425, 437, 438, 439–459 Corel Photo-Paint, 471 Corel Presentations, 77, 322, 500 Corel Quattro Pro, 2, 73, 77, 322, 379–419 Corel WordPerfect, 2, 73, 76, 93, 99, 126, 269, 322, 331– 332, 335–378 Reveal Codes, 377–378 Corel WordPerfect Office, 322 CorelDRAW!, 102, 476, 477, 478, 479, 481 Corex Technologies, 540 CoSession, 524 CP/M, 74 CPU (central processing unit), 7, 13– 14, 15 Cray Research, 205 crosstab queries, 436 CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detect), 231–232 cursor, 30, 335 cutting, 110, 339–341 Cyber Patrol, 517 Cyber Sentinel, 517 Cybermedia, 516
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
D data bus, 10 Data General, 205 data mining, 261–262 data warehouses, 260–261 database (See also database software) database fundamentals, 426–438 standards, 263–265 ODBC (Open Database Connectivity), 264–
265 SQL (Structured Query Language), 264 database servers, 222, 257–265 database software, 421–459 creating a database, 442–443 creating a relational database, 443–445 crosstab queries, 436 database fundamentals, 426–438 delimited text, 437–438 entering data, 449 field data types, 431 alphanumeric, 431 autoincrement, 431 BLOB (binary large object), 431 currency, 431 date and time, 431 graphic, 431 memo, 431 number, 431 fields, 426 filters, 436 flat-file database, 427 foreign keys, 428–429 forms, 433–434, 446–449 entering data, 449 indexes, 427–428 keys, 428–429 lookup fields, 432
Index
pre-made databases, 439–442 primary keys, 428–429 programs on market, 423–425 queries, 436–437, 449–452 crosstab, 436 records, 426 referential integrity, 429–430 relational database, 427 reports, 434, 455–456 tables, 426, 456–458 restructuring, 456–458 uses, 421–422 using, 439–459 validity checks, 432 DataSaver, 519 Daytimer Organizer, 530 DB2, 266, 424 DCE (Distributed Computing Environment), 250 DCOM (Distributed Common Object Model), 143, 189, 197,
257, 299, 569–570 Defense, Department of, 552 delimited text, 437–438 DeLorme Mapping, 537 Deneba Software, 476, 483 DenebaCAD, 483 Descriptions Now!, 534 design and publishing software, 461–
506 design software, 470–489 Design Your Own Home Architecture, 487 DesignCAD, 483, 485 Designer, 477, 479 desktop, 145 desktop computer, 6 Desktop Designer, 521 Desktop Toolbar, 171 DEVICE command, 79 DG/UX, 205 diagnostic software, 515 dialog boxes, 99
657
Index
D
Index
D Diehl Graphsoft, 483 digital cameras, 474–475 Digital Unix, 204, 205 Dimensions, 476 Direct Marketing Toolkit, 537 DirectHit, 279 directories and subdirectories, 36–39,
56 creating in DOS, 42, 89 creating in Windows, 45 directory services, 245 DNS (Domain Name System), 245 LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol), 245 X.500, 245 disaster control, 53–70 e-mail, 68 floppy disk handling, 67 good habits, 67–70 observation, 58–59 preparation, 60–67 skills, 56–59 discounts on software, 329–330 Disk Cleanup, 512–514 Disk Defragmenter, 512–514 disk maintenance software, 511–515 Disk Operating System (See DOS) disk servers, 222 Diskeeper, 511 DiskGuard, 516 Display Properties, 145–146 distributed components, 567 distributed computing, 223 DME OMF (Distributed Management Environment’s Object Management Framework), 241–242 DMI (Desktop Management Interface), 241–242 DNS (Domain Name System), 245,
290–292
658
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), 290–292 Network Solutions, 290–292 document management, 267–270 Documents menu, 150 Dogz, 521 domain names, 292–293 second level, 292–293 top level, 292–293 DOS, 15, 71, 72, 73–93, 95, 554 advantages and disadvantages, 74–
78 applications, 74 At A Glance, 93 AUTOEXEC.BAT, 80–82, 131,
143–144 batch and system files, 76, 78–83 editing, 80 viewing, 79–80 character-based commands, 75–76 commands, 56, 84–92 changing directories, 89 changing drives, 86 clearing the screen, 91 copying disks, 87 copying files, 87 creating directories, 42, 89 erasing files, 88 formatting disks, 90 help, 86 listing files, 90 practicing, 57 removing directories, 90 renaming files, 88 saving files, 86 wild cards, 88 CONFIG.SYS, 78–79, 143–144 DEVICE command, 79 EDIT command, 80 executing commands, 85 future, 77 hardware requirements, 76, 93
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
E
E Eagle NT, 249 Eastman Software, 540
Index
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code), 580 e-commerce, 275, 297–298 Web hosting, 298 .edu, 293 education software, 542 Egghead Computer, 329 EIS/DSS (executive information systems and decision support), 263 electronic publishing, 503–506 e-mail, 222, 266–267, 275, 286–
289 safety, 68 using, 286–289 embedded objects, 112 Employee Manual Maker, 534 Encapsulated PostScript (.EPS), 29 encapsulation, 562 Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe, 541 encryption and security software, 515–516 endnotes, 373 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), 221 enterprise network, 225 Ethernet, 231, 232 10 Base, 232 100 Base, 232 Fast Ethernet, 232 evolution of software, 1–3 Excel, 99, 322, 379–419 Excite, 279 Executive Software, 511, 512 exiting Windows, 69–70 Windows 3.x, 131 Windows 95/98, 166–167 expansion bus, 10 expansion card, 11 Expersoft, 257
659
Index
HIMEM.SYS, 79 managing files, 39–42 MS-DOS, 74, 93 PATH command, 81 PC DOS, 74, 93 REM command, 82 SET command, 80, 131 setting the prompt, 85 starting applications, 84 Y2K, 74 DPI (dots per inch), 467–469 Dr. Solomon’s Antivirus, 509 drag and drop, 156–157 Dragon NaturallySpeaking, 520 Dragon Systems, 520 drawing software, 477 Dreamweaver, 497 Drive Converter, 175 Drive Image, 519 Drivecopy, 511 drives CD-ROM, 10, 53 floppy, 10, 12, 34, 53 handling disks, 67 hard, 10, 12, 33 adding, 65 failure, 54 maintaining, 70 Jaz, 33, 63, 175 magneto-optical, 33 optical, 33 tape, 10, 33, 63 Zip, 33, 63 DriveSpace 3, 175, 176 DSL (See ADSL and HDSL) dumb terminal, 221
Index
F expert system, 553 Explorer, 25, 26, 44, 58, 64, 157–
159, 160 Find, 46, 47, 58, 161
F FAQ (frequently-asked questions), 289 FastTrack Schedule, 533 FAT (file allocation table), 173 FAT32, 173–175 Favorites, 284–286 organizing, 285–286 fax software, 522 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface), 228–229 field data types, 431 alphanumeric, 431 autoincrement, 431 BLOB (binary large object), 431 currency, 431 date and time, 431 graphic, 431 memo, 431 number, 431 fields, 426 file compression software, 516–518 lossless compression, 517–518 lossy compression, 517–518 File Manager, 24, 42, 43, 58, 123,
125, 126, 131, 157 Search, 46, 58 file servers, 222 file transfer software, 522–523 FileGuard, 516 FileMaker, 424, 497 FileMaker Pro, 423–425, 435, 439–
459 files, 21–51 ASCII text, 82 automatic save, 32
660
backing up, 31, 32–34, 48, 63–
64 storing, 34 batch (.BAT), 26–27 command (.COM), 26–27 compatibility, 28 copying, 155–157 copying in DOS, 87 copying in Windows, 45 creating, 22 directories and subdirectories, 36–
39, 56 creating in DOS, 42 creating in Windows, 45 drag and drop, 156–157 dynamic link library (.DLL), 28 executable (.EXE), 25 file name extensions, 22, 24–28,
51 finding, 46, 161 folders, 36–39, 56 creating, 45 formats, 28–29, 462–466 Adobe Illustrator (.AI), 463 Adobe Photoshop (.PSD), 465 ASCII (.TXT), 466 AutoCAD (.DWG & .DXF), 463 common, 462 CompuServe Bitmap (.GIF), 464 Computer Graphics Metafile (.CGM), 463 Corel Photo-Paint (.CPT), 463 CorelDRAW! (.CDR), 463 Encapsulated PostScript (.EPS), 29, 464 filters, 462 Hypertext Markup Language (.HTM), 464
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
F
465 Windows Bitmap (.BMP), 29, 463 Windows Metafile (.WMF), 29, 126, 466 WordPerfect Graphic (.WPG), 466 losing, 46–47 managing, 36–45, 152–161 DOS, 39–42 Windows, 42–45 Windows 95/98, 152–161 mistakes, 46–51 moving in Windows, 45 naming, 22–24 overwriting by mistake, 32, 48 root directory, 36 saving, 30–35 backing up, 31 Windows, 30 system (.SYS), 26–27 SYSTEM.DAT, 27 SYSTEM.INI, 27
Index
USER.DAT, 27 using and storing, 21–51 wild cards, 47 WIN.INI, 27 work good habits, 68–69 saving, 68 storing, 64–65 work held in RAM, 31 file-transfer protocols, 523 filters for file formats, 462 filters in databases, 436 Find, 46, 47, 58, 161 find and replace, 373–374 finding files, 46, 161 Firewall for NT, 249 firewalls packet screening, 248–249 proxy, 248–249 FireWire, 168, 180–181 First Aid, 515 FlashBack, 519 flat-file database, 427 Floorplan 3D Deluxe, 487 floppy disk drive, 10, 12 failure, 34 handling, 67 Flow!, 488 FlowCharter, 488, 489 flowcharting software, 487–489 folders, 36–39, 56 copying, 155–157 creating, 45, 155 drag and drop, 156–157 managing, 152–161 fonts, 350–355 buying,installing,removing, 352 using, 353–355 footers, 372 footnotes, 373 foreign keys, 428–429 form filler software, 538–539
661
Index
Joint Photographers’ Expert Group (.JPG), 464 Kodak FlashPix Image (.FPX), 464 Kodak Photo CD (.PCD), 464 Macintosh PICT (.PCT), 465 Micrografx Designer (.DRW), 463 PaintBrush (.PCX), 465 Portable Document Format (.PDF), 465, 505 Portable Network Graphic (.PNG), 465 proprietary, 462 Rich Text Format (.RTF), 465 Tagged Information File Format (.TIF), 29, 126,
Index
G formatting disks DOS, 90 Windows 95/98, 159 forms in databases, 433–434, 446–
449 FormTool, 540 FORTRAN, 18, 545, 550, 551 forums, 305–306 Forward button, 281–283 4TH Dimension, 423 Fox Pro, 424 Frame Relay, 236 Frame Technologies, 495 FrameMaker, 100, 101, 333, 491,
492–494 Franklin Covey Co., 530, 533 FreeHand, 477 Freelance Graphics, 322, 500 FrontPage, 323, 497, 498–500 functions, 392–395
G game software, 542 gateway, 235 GB (gigabyte), 580 Global Internet, 249 Go menu, 283 GoldMine, 530 GoldMine Software, 530 GoLive, 497 Google, 279 GOTO command, 548 .gov, 293 GPF (general protection fault), 132–
133 Grolier Electronic Publishing, 541 Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, 541 groupware servers, 265–274 calendar and scheduling, 272–273 conferencing, 273 document management, 267–270
662
e-mail, 266–267 suites, 273–274 workflow management, 270–272 GroupWise, 274 Guard Dog, 516 Guardian, 249 GUI (graphical user interface), 76, 97,
195, 209
H handles, 101–104 hard disk drive, 10, 12, 33 adding, 65 failure, 54 maintaining, 70 hardware basic setup, 53 failure, 54 Harte-Hanks Communications, 261 Harvard Graphics, 500 HDSL (High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line), 236 headers, 372 help DOS, 86 Windows, 116 Windows 95/98, 165–166, 171 Hewlett Packard, 205, 244, 467 High Meadow Business Solutions, 536 high-level language, 15, 545–559 HiJaak, 471 HIMEM.SYS, 79 home design software, 484–485 HomePage, 497 HomeSite, 497 hot key, 107 HotBot, 279 hover buttons, 499 hover help, 382–383 HP/UX, 205
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
I
498, 503–505 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), 240, 299 human resource management software, 534 HyperCard, 553 hyperlinks, 281, 283, 499 HyperTalk, 553 hyphenation, 348–349
I iAtlas, 279 IBM, 71, 73, 74, 93, 95, 183, 193–
194, 203, 205, 244, 249, 257, 261, 266, 274, 424, 469, 519, 520 IBM Firewall, 249 ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), 290–292 icon bars, 115–116 icons, 2 IEEE 1394 (FireWire), 168, 180–
181 IEEE 802, 232–233 IF/THEN command, 547 iGrafx, 477 IIOP (Internet Interoperability ORB Protocol), 299, 569 illustration software, 476–483 drawing, 477 paint, 480–481 Illustrator, 476 iMac, 210 image editing software, 470–476 imagesetters, 469 Imaging for Windows Pro, 540 IMS, 266 IMSI, 471, 483, 487, 488, 533,
534, 540 Index
Inbox, 163 indexes in databases, 427–428 Informix, 266 Informix Universal Server, 266 infoUSA, 537, 538 inheritance, 561–562 Inprise Corporation, 555 Insight, 329 Intel, 71, 93, 244, 281, 283 IntelliCAD, 483 Interleaf, 491 Internet, 275–307 AltaVista, 279 Ask Jeeves, 279 Back button, 281–283 backbone, 293 Bookmarks, 284–286 organizing, 285–286 Comcast @Home, 278 details, 290–300 DirectHit, 279 DNS (Domain Name System), 245, 290–292 domain names, 292–293 e-commerce, 275, 297–298 e-mail, 275, 286–289 using, 286–289 Excite, 279 FAQ (frequently-asked questions), 289 Favorites, 284–286 organizing, 285–286 Forward button, 281–283 Go menu, 283 Google, 279 HotBot, 279 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), 276, 290 hyperlinks, 281, 283 iAtlas, 279 ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), 290–292
663
Index
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), 276, 290, 299,
J Index
Internet Explorer, 276–277, 280,
Internet Explorer, 276–277, 280,
282, 299 Java run-time environment, 276 IP address (Internet Protocol address), 291–292,
295–296 ISP (Internet service provider), 292, 294–
295, 296, 296–297 Java, 275 LAN (local area network), 275 Lycos, 279 Mosaic, 276 name servers, 295–296 local, 295–296 root, 295–296 NC (network computer), 275 Netscape Navigator, 276–277,
282, 299 Java run-time environment, 276 Internet2, 300 InTouch/DateView, 530 Intranets, 301 Intuit, 526, 528 Iomega, 63 Iona, 257 IP address (Internet Protocol address), 291–292, 295–
296 IRIX, 205 IRQ (interrupt request line), 53 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), 236 ISO Charter, 488 ISP (Internet service provider), 53,
287, 292, 294–295, 296, 296–297, 299, 306–307
278, 284, 285, 299 Java run-time environment, 276 Network Solutions, 290–292 Whois database, 291 PC (personal computer), 275 research, 275 search engines, 277–279 surfing, 275, 277–279 terms, 299 37.com-37 Search Engines, 279 URL (Uniform Resource Locator), 276, 281,
292–293, 295–296 using, 276–289 WAN (wide area network), 275 Web browsers, 276–277 Web hosting, 296–297 Web page, 281 creating, 290 Web servers, 276, 296–297 Web site, 281 WebCrawler, 279, 280 Yahoo!, 279 664
J Janna Contact Personal, 530 Janna Systems, 530 Jasmine, 266 Java, 195, 196–197, 275, 299,
499, 545, 555–559 applets, 196, 557–559 just-in-time (JIT) compiler, 557 run-time environment, 196, 276,
555–557 virtual machine (VM), 555 Web, 557 Jian Tools for Sales, 534, 535, 536 Jobs, Steve, 209
Jurassic Park, 202 justified text, 346–348 just-in-time (JIT) compiler, 557
K Kai’s Power Show, 500
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
M Linux, 15, 205 LISP, 18, 545, 551 List Match, 537 lists, word processing, 362–368 bulleted, 366–367 numbered, 366–367 paragraph, 367–368 sorting, 367 long file names, 142–143 lookup fields, 432 losing files, 46–47 lossless compression, 517–518 lossy compression, 517–518 Lost & Found, 511, 514 Lotus 1-2-3, 2, 322, 379–419 Lotus Development Corporation, 424, 471,
L
Lotus 1-2-3, 2 Lotus Notes, 274 Lotus Organizer, 322, 530 Lotus SmartSuite, 322 Lotus Word Pro, 331–332 Louvre Web site, 281, 282 low-level languages, 543–544 Lycos, 279
Index
Phil Katz, 517 KB (kilobyte), 580 Kensington, 530 Kerberos, 247 Kermit, 523 kerning, 351 Key Day Planner, 530 key punch, 221 punch cards, 221 keyboard, 6, 53 keys, 428–429 kilobyte (KB), 9 Kiplinger TaxCut, 528 Kiplinger Washington Editors, 528 KnowledgePoint Software, 534 Kodak, 474 Korn shell, 204
500, 530 L&H Voice Xpress, 520 LabelPro, 537 Labels Unlimited, 537, 538 LAN (local area network), 225, 275 architecture, 226–230 LANDesk Management Suite, 244 Language Force, 540 LanOptics, 249 LANtastic, 252 LapLink Professional, 524 LaserWriter, 209 LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol), 245 Learning Company, 517, 521, 530,
533, 537, 538, 541 left-aligned text, 346–348 Lernout and Hauspie, 520 Lexmark, 469 Library of Congress Web site, 281,
282 licenses, 323–324 linked objects, 112 Links Toolbar, 171
Index
M Mac OS, 15, 210, 210–214, 554 applications, 214 compatibility with Windows and DOS, 212 Internet, 211 Java, 212–213 Sherlock, 212 using, 210 Mac OS X, 210, 214–216 multitasking, 215 PC market incentives, 215–216 SMP (symmetric multiprocessing), 215 stability, 216
665
Index
M threads and multithreads, 215 Yellow Box, 215–216 machine language, 15, 543, 571 MacIn Tax, 528 Macintosh computer, 72, 118, 209 Macromedia, 477, 497 MacWarehouse, 329 Mail Order Manager, 535 Mailer’s +4, 537 Mailer’s Software, 537 mailing software, 536–538 Mainstay, 424 Mainstay Phyla, 424 Maintenance wizard, 175–176 ManageWise, 244 margins, 342–345 Marketing Builder Interactive, 534 marketing plan software, 533 Marketing Plus, 534 marquees, 499 MAU (multistation access unit), 228 maximize, 106–107 MB (megabyte), 9, 580 McAfee Associates, 244 menu bar, 99 merge, 375–377 MetaCreations, 477, 481, 500 MGI Software, 471 Microcom, 524 Micrografx, 471, 477, 488 Micrografx Designer, 126, 128, 129,
149 Micrografx Picture Publisher, 471 microprocessor (See central processing unit) Microsoft Access, 105, 323, 423–
425, 430, 433, 439–459 Microsoft Corporation, 74, 93, 95,
183, 193, 244, 249, 253, 257, 266, 274, 297, 424, 425, 471, 491, 497, 500, 525, 530, 533, 541, 555
666
Microsoft Excel, 99, 322, 379–419 Microsoft Exchange, 274 Microsoft FrontPage, 323, 497,
498–500 Microsoft Money Suite, 525 Microsoft Network, 295, 303, 308 Microsoft Office, 147, 322–323 Microsoft Outlook, 322, 530 Microsoft PhotoDraw, 323, 471 Microsoft Picture It!, 471 Microsoft PowerPoint, 322, 500–
503 Microsoft Project, 533 Microsoft Proxy Server, 249 Microsoft Publisher, 323, 494 Microsoft Schedule+, 530 Microsoft Word, 2, 269, 322, 331–
332, 335–378 MicroWarehouse, 329 middleware, 238, 568–570 Mijenix, 517 MiniCAD, 483 minimize, 106–107 Minolta, 474 modem, 53, 236 MOM (message-oriented middleware), 240 monitor, 6, 53 multiple monitors, 178–180 monospaced type, 351 Mosaic, 276 motherboard, 12 Motorola Corporation, 209 mouse, 7, 53 operation and commands, 8 moving objects and windows, 104 MS-DOS, 74, 93 multitasking, 97, 116, 140–142,
215 My Computer, 148, 149, 152–153,
154, 159 MYOB Accounting, 525
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
N name servers, 295–296 local, 295–296 root, 295–296 National Museums and Galleries of Wales Web site, 285 NC (network computer), 275 NCR Corporation, 205 NEC Technologies, 249 .net, 293 Net Nanny, 517 NetBEUI, 235 Netscape, 297 Netscape Navigator, 276–277, 278,
284, 285, 299 Java run-time environment, 276 NetView, 244 Netware, 252 Network Associates, 509, 512, 515,
516 Network General Corporation, 243–
244 network operating system (NOS), 188 Network Solutions, 290–292 Whois database, 291 networks, 219–307 acronyms, 224 ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line), 236 agents, 242 application services, 239 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), 236 bridge, 235 bus topology, 230 cable modem, 237 calendar and scheduling, 272–273 client/server, 225–226, 275 components, 256–257 conferencing, 273
Index
CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture), 257 CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detect), 231–232 data mining, 261–262 data warehouses, 260–261 database servers, 222 database standards, 263–265 DCE (Distributed Computing Environment), 250 DCOM (Distributed Common Object Model), 257 definition, 223 directory services, 245 DNS (Domain Name System), 245 LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol), 245 X.500, 245 disk servers, 222 distributed computing, 223 DME OMF (Distributed Management Environment’s Object Management Framework), 241–242 DMI (Desktop Management Interface), 241–242 document management, 267–270 EIS/DSS (executive information systems and decision support), 263 e-mail, 222, 266–267 enterprise, 225 Ethernet, 231, 232 10 Base, 232 100 Base, 232 Fast Ethernet, 232 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface), 228–229 file servers, 222
667
Index
N
N Index
Frame Relay, 236 gateway, 235 groupware suites, 273–274 hardware, 225–237 HDSL (High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line), 236 history, 221–222 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), 240 IEEE 802, 232–233 introduction, 219 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), 236 LAN (local area network), 225 architecture, 226–230 MAU (multistation access unit), 228 middleware, 238 modem, 236 MOM (message-oriented middleware), 240 NOS (network operating system), 250–255 desktop OS, 253–255 server OS, 250–253 objects, 256–257 ODBC (Open Database Connectivity), 240,
264–265 OLAP (online analytical processing), 262–263 ORBs (Object Request Brokers), 240, 257 ORDBMS (object relational database management system), 258–260 peer-to-peer, 226 print servers, 222 protocols, 230 RDBMS (relational database management system), 258–260
668
ring topology, 226–228 router, 235 RPC (remote procedure call), 240 security services, 245–249 C2, 247–248 firewalls, 248–249 Kerberos, 247 middleware, 247 viruses, 246 servers, 255–274 database, 257–265 groupware, 265–274 object, 256–257 transaction, 255–256 smart terminals, 223 Sniffer, 243–244 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), 241–242 software, 238–274 SONET (Synchronous Optical Network), 229 SQL (Structured Query Language), 240, 264 standards, 230–233 star topology, 230 system management software, 239–
244 distributed, 241 enterprise, 241 functions, 242–243 protocols, 241–242 system operations services, 244–
249 T1/T3, 236 Token Ring, 231 TP monitor (transaction processing monitor), 240, 256 transport protocols, 233 AppleTalk, 233 DECnet, 233 NetBEUI, 233, 235 NetBIOS, 233
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
O
O object servers, 256–257 object technology, 560–570 components, 563–570 ActiveX, 566–567 COM (Component Object Model), 566 CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture), 568, 570
Index
DCOM (Distributed Common Object Model), 569–570 distributed, 567 IIOP (Internet Interoperability ORB Protocol), 569 interoperability, 564 middleware, 568–570 OLE 2.0, 566 OpenDoc, 565 ORBs (Object Request Brokers), 569 plug-and-play, 564 standards, 565–567 objects, 256–257, 560–563 classes, 561–562 encapsulation, 562 inheritance, 561–562 polymorphism, 563 ObjectBroker, 257 objects, 256–257, 560–563 OCR (optical character recognition) software, 268–270, 538–
539 ODBC (Open Database Connectivity), 240, 264–
265 Office Assistant, 458 office suites, 53, 321–323 Corel WordPerfect Office, 322 Lotus SmartSuite, 322 Microsoft Office, 322–323 offset lithographic printing, 469 OLAP (online analytical processing), 262–263 OLE, 97, 111–113, 143, 189, 197 OLE 2.0, 566 Olympus, 474 OmniForm, 540 OmniForm Filler, 540 OmniPage Pro, 269, 540 On Guard, 249
669
Index
SPX/IPX, 233 TCP/IP (Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), 233 WAN (wide area network), 225 connecting, 235–237 hardware, 234–237 workflow management, 270–272 nibble, 577 Nico Mak Computing, 517 Nikon, 474 Norton Administrator for Networks, 244 Norton AntiVirus, 509, 510 Norton CrashGuard, 515 Norton DiskLock, 516 Norton System Works, 511 Norton Uninstall, 512 Norton Utilities, 512, 514 Norton Your Eyes Only, 270, 516 NOS (network operating system), 250–255 DCE (Distributed Computing Environment), 250 desktop OS, 253–255 server OS, 250–253 Notepad, 130 NovaBackup, 519 NovaStor, 519 Novell, 244, 252, 274, 297 Nuts & Bolts, 515
Index
O On Target, 533 On Technologies, 249 One Write Plus, 526 OnLine Dynamic Server, 266 OnLine Extended Parallel Server, 266 online information services, 303–308 AOL (America Online), 303,
306–308 chat rooms, 306 adult controls, 306 choosing, 307–308 CompuServe, 303–308 forums, 305–306 information content, 303–305 ISP (Internet service provider), 306–307 Microsoft Network, 303, 308 Prodigy, 303, 308 OnLine Workgroup Server, 266 OnNow, 177 OOP (object-oriented programming), 554, 554–
555 OOUI (object-oriented user interface), 195, 195–196 OpenDoc, 189, 195, 197–198, 565 OpenIngres, 266 OpenView, 244 operating environment, 71, 119 operating systems, 14, 15–16, 53,
71–217 choosing, 72 for home use, 317 spare set of files on hard drive, 65–
66 Optima!, 488 Oracle 7 Workgroup Server, 266 Oracle 8, 266, 425 Oracle Software, 261, 266, 425 Orbix, 257 ORBs (Object Request Brokers), 240,
ORDBMS (object relational database management system), 258–
260 .org, 293 Org Plus, 488, 534 organization operations software, 535–536 OS/2, 15, 71, 95, 183, 193–200,
202, 203, 519, 554 32-bit, 193 applications, 199 At A Glance, 200 CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture), 195,
197–198 hardware requirements, 199 Java, 195, 196–197 network support, 198 OOUI (object-oriented user interface), 195, 195–
196 OpenDoc, 195, 197–198 preemptive multitasking, 142,
195, 196 SMP (symmetric multiprocessing), 195,
198 stability, 199 Tivoli, 198 versions, 194 virtual machine (VM), 134 voice-recognition technology, 195,
197 VoiceType, 197 Warp Client, 194 Warp Server, 194, 198 IBM, 252 Warp Server Advanced SMP, 194,
198 outline font, 351
257, 569
670
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
P packet screening firewalls, 248–249 packet size, 523 page layout software, 490–495 design-intensive documents, 494–
495 long documents, 490–494 page numbers, 371 PageKeeper, 540 PageMaker, 333, 491, 494 PageMill, 497 Pagis Pro, 270, 540 Paint, 113, 482 paint software, 480–481 Paintbrush, 113, 130 Painter, 477, 481 Palm computers, 531 Palo Alto Software, 534 PaperPort Deluxe, 270, 540 PaperPort Scanner Suite, 540 Paradox, 322, 423–425, 437, 438,
439–459 paragraphs double indented, 368 format, 344–346 hanging indented, 368 indented, 368 lists, 367–368 styles, 370 parallel port, 15 PartitionMagic, 174, 512 Pascal, 18, 545, 552 pasting, 110, 339–341 PATH command, 81 path names, 41 PC (personal computer), 275 PC Connection, 329 PC DOS, 74, 93 PC Magazine, 72, 329 PC World, 72 pcANYWHERE32, 524
Index
PCL (Printer Control Language), 467–469 PDA (personal digital assitant), 531 PDF (Portable Document Format), 505 Peachtree Complete Accounting, 526 Peachtree Software, 526 peer-to-peer networks, 226 People Manager, 534 Performance Now!, 534 personal finance software, 525–528 personal information manager (PIM) software, 530–531 PGP Disk, 516 Phone Search USA, 537 Photo CDs, 474 photo editing software (See image editing software) PhotoDeluxe, 471, 472 PhotoDraw, 323 Photo-Paint, 471, 472 Photoshop, 471, 472 PhotoSuite, 471 pica, 351 Picture Publisher, 471 PILOT, 18, 545, 553 piracy, 323–325 pitch, 351 PKWARE, 517 PKZIP, 517 Planix Home Designer, 487 plate, 469 point, 351 Policies Now!, 534 polymorphism, 563 port, 11 POSIX, 206 PostScript, 467–469 PostScript Type 1 fonts, 352 Power Macintosh, 210 power management, 168, 177 Powerfinder Pro, 538 PowerPC, 209, 554
671
Index
P
Index
P PowerPoint, 322, 500–503 PowerQuest, 511, 512, 514, 519 Prairie, 530 preemptive multitasking, 141–142,
186–187, 195, 196 preloaded software, 321 presentation graphics software, 500–
503 Presentations, 500 primary keys, 428–429 Primavera Systems, 533 PRINT command, 546 print house software, 503 print servers, 222 printer, 6, 15, 53 printer cable, 15 printer languages, 467–469 printers for photos, 475–476 resolution, 467–469 Prism Solutions, 261 Private File, 516 PrivateNet Secure Firewall Server, 249 ProcommPlus, 521, 522 Prodigy, 267, 295, 303, 308 program (See software) Program Manager, 121, 122, 123,
131 programming languages, 18, 543–
570 Ada, 18, 545, 552 APL, 545, 551–552 assembler, 544 assembly, 15, 543–544 BASIC, 545, 548–550, 552 program example, 545–548 C, 18, 545, 552, 554 C++, 18, 545, 552, 554, 555 COBOL, 18, 545 compiler, 545 components, 563–570 ActiveX, 566–567
672
COM (Component Object Model), 566 CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture), 568, 570 DCOM (Distributed Common Object Model), 569–570 distributed, 567 IIOP (Internet Interoperability ORB Protocol), 569 interoperability, 564 middleware, 568–570 OLE 2.0, 566 OpenDoc, 565 ORBs (Object Request Brokers), 569 plug-and-play, 564 standards, 565–567 expert system, 553 FORTRAN, 18, 545, 550, 551 high-level, 15, 545–559 HyperCard, 553 HyperTalk, 553 Java, 545, 555–559 applets, 557–559 just-in-time (JIT) compiler, 557 run-time environment, 555–
557 virtual machine (VM), 555 Web, 557 LISP, 18, 545, 551 low-level, 543–544 machine, 15, 543 object technology, 560–570 classes, 561–562 encapsulation, 562 inheritance, 561–562 objects, 256–257, 560–
563 polymorphism, 563
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
S
555 Pascal, 18, 545, 552 PILOT, 18, 545, 553 PROLOG, 18, 545, 553 VBXs (Visual Basic extensions), 549–550 Visual Basic, 549–550, 555 project management software, 531–
533 Project Manager Pro, 533 PROLOG, 18, 545, 553 prompt, 39 ProOCR100, 540 proportionally-spaced type, 351 proxy firewalls, 248–249 PSINet, 295 Publicity Builder, 536 Publisher, 323, 491, 494, 495, 496 publishing software, 490–506 electronic, 503–506 pull-down menus, 99 punch cards, 221
Q Quark, 491 QuarkXPress, 333, 491, 494 Quarterdeck Office Systems, 517 Quattro Pro, 2, 73, 77, 322, 379–
419 queries, 436–437, 449–452 crosstab, 436 Quick Launch, 170–171 QuickBooks Pro, 526, 527 Quicken Deluxe, 526
R ragged right text, 346–348 RAM (random-access memory), 9–
10, 13–14 Index
Raptor Systems, Inc., 249 RDBMS (relational database management system), 258–
260 records, 426 Recycle Bin, 58, 160, 161, 514–515 reference CDs, 541 referential integrity, 429–430 registry, 27, 143–144 relational database, 427 REM command, 82, 546 remote computing software, 523–524 reports in databases, 434, 455–456 resizing objects and windows, 101–
104 restore, 106–107 Retail Edge, 536 Reveal Codes, 377–378 right-aligned text, 346–348 ring networks, 226–228 RISC (reduced instruction set computer), 202–203 ROM (read-only memory), 10, 12 root directory, 36 router, 235 RPC (remote procedure call), 240 Run, 151 run-time environment, 555–557
S Safety Plan Builder, 536 sans-serif type, 351 SAS Institute, 261, 266 Save As dialog box, 30, 31 Windows 3.x, 32 Windows 95/98, 33 scalability, 203 scalable font, 351 Scan Disk, 512–514 scanners, 269, 473–474 SCO (Santa Cruz Operation), 204,
205 673
Index
OOP (object-oriented programming), 554–
Index
S SCO OpenServer, 205 SCO UnixWare, 15, 205 screen saver software, 520–521 problems created by, 59 ScreenCam, 322, 471 scroll bars, 100–101 SCSI (Small Computer System Interface), 180 Seagate Software, 519 Search, 46, 58 search engines, 277–279 AltaVista, 279 Ask Jeeves, 279 DirectHit, 279 Excite, 279 Google, 279 HotBot, 279 iAtlas, 279 Lycos, 279 37.com-37 Search Engines, 279 WebCrawler, 279 Yahoo!, 279 Seattle Software, 249 Secure Computing, 249 security services, 245–249 C2, 247–248 firewalls, 248–249 Kerberos, 247 middleware, 247 viruses, 246 Security Software Systems, 517 Select Phone, 536–537, 538 Sentinel LockDown, 517 serif type, 351 servers, 255–274 database, 257–265 groupware, 265–274 calendar and scheduling, 272–273 conferencing, 273 document management, 267–270 e-mail, 266–267
674
suites, 273–274 workflow management, 270–272 object, 256–257 transaction, 255–256 SET command, 80, 131 Settings menu, 162 SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language), 492 Sherlock, 212 shortcut keys, 108–110 shortcuts, 147 creating, 153–155 shutting down Windows, 69–70 Windows 95/98, 166–167 Windows3.x, 131 SIC (Standard Industrial Classification) code, 536 Sierra CompleteHome, 487 Sierra Home, 487 Silicon Graphics Computer Systems, 205 slot, 11 SMP (symmetric multiprocessing), 187, 195,
198, 215 Sniffer, 243–244 sniffers, 246 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), 241–242 Softkey (See Learning Company) software basic setup, 53 buying, 318–330 where to buy, 328–330 discounts, 329–330 evolution, 1–3 installing, 69, 82–83 Windows 95/98, 162 licenses, 323–324 piracy, 323–325 preloaded, 321
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
S
Index
sorting, 416 entries, 386–387 ERR entries, 402, 405 fixing coordinates, 390, 407 formatting, 395–398 cell size, 398 fonts, 395–399 hiding/deleting columns and rows, 398, 412 lines, 395–399 shading, 395–399 formulas, 388–389 copying, 389–390 functions, 392–395 graphing data, 411–412 grouping sheets, 403–404 hover help, 382–383 importing data, 387 layout, 383–385 leading programs, 379–380 linking files, 408–410 maintaining links, 409–410 updating links, 409 linking sheets, 400–408 creating template sheets, 402–406 naming sheets, 401 notebooks, 379 ranges, 392 referencing sheets, 407 sheets, 379, 385–386 starting a spreadsheet, 383–385 using, 381–419 workbooks, 379 worksheets, 379 Spring Cleaning, 511 SPSS, 488 SQL (Structured Query Language), 240, 264 SQL Anywhere, 266, 425 SQL Server, 266 SQL Server 11, 266 SQL Server Pro, 266
675
Index
reviews, 328 storing, 65 technical support, 325–326 uninstalling, 69 upgrades, 324–325 user groups, 327–328 versions, 17 Software Architects, 519 Software Publishing Corp., 500 SoftwareStreet.com, 329 Solaris, 15, 203, 205, 252 CDE (Common Desktop Environment), 204 SOM (System Object Model), 257 SONET (Synchronous Optical Network), 229 Sony, 474 Spectrum, 244 spell check, 340–343 spreadsheet software, 379–419 3-D, 379 copying and pasting cells, 407 creating template sheets, 402–406 grouping sheets, 403–404 linking sheets, 400–408 naming sheets, 401 referencing sheets, 407 setting up, 401–402 addresses, 385–386 ranges, 392 @functions, 392–395 automatic fill, 401 cells, 385–386 entries, 386–387 copying and pasting cells, 407 creating template sheets, 402–406 database function, 413–419 querying, 416–419 reports, 416–419 rules, 414–416 setting up, 414–416
Index
T star networks, 230 Start button, 146 starting applications Windows 3.x, 126–127 Windows 95/98, 148–152 Documents menu, 150 Run, 151 start-up disk, 61–63 stock photos, 475 Sun Microsystems, 204, 205, 244,
252, 555 SunNet Manager, 244 SunOS, 205 SureTrak, 533 surfing the Net, 275, 277–279 surge suppressors, 60 Sybase, 261, 266, 425 Symantec Corporation, 244, 270,
509, 511, 512, 515, 516, 522, 524, 530, 536 syntax, 548 System Information, 176 system management software, 239– 244 distributed, 241 enterprise, 241 functions, 242–243 protocols, 241–242 system operations services, 244–249 System Properties, 164–165 System View, 244 SYSTEM.DAT, 27 SYSTEM.INI, 27 Systems Management Server, 244
T T1/T3, 236 tables in databases, 426, 456–458 restructuring, 456–458 tables in word processing software, 355–360
676
Tagged Information File Format (.TIF), 29, 126 TalkWorks Pro, 536 tape drive, 10 taskbar, 146–148 Auto hide, 148 Properties, 148 repositioning, 148 toolbars, 170–171 Address, 171 Desktop, 171 Links, 171 Quick Launch, 170–171 tax preparation software, 528–529 TB (terabyte), 580 TCP/IP (Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), 233, 299 technical support, 55, 56, 325–326 telephone dialing/receiving software, 523 telephone number software, 536–538 text alignment, 346–348 TextBridge Pro, 269, 540 thesaurus, 340–343 37.com-37 Search Engines, 279 This Old House Kitchen and Home Architect, 487 Thomas Register, 304 threads and multithreads, 141, 186–
187, 215 3Com, 531 3D Home Architect, 486, 487 TigerDirect, 329 tile, 104 Timeslips, 535 Timeslips Corporation, 535 title bar, 98 Tivoli, 198, 244 TME, 244 Token Ring network, 231 toolbars, 336–338 Touchstone Software, 515
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
U
U UAE (unrecoverable application error), 132–133
Index
Undelete, 512, 514 Unicenter, 244 UNICOS, 205 Uninstaller Deluxe, 512 Universal OCR, 540 Unix, 15, 201–208, 554 Adobe Illustrator, 207 AIX, 205 API (application program interface), 206 applications, 206 At A Glance, 208 Berkeley shell, 204 Bourne shell, 204 BSD/OS, 205 CDE, 206 cost, 206–207 derivatives, 204 DG/UX, 205 Digital Unix, 204, 205 FrameMaker, 207 GUI (graphical user interface), 204 hardware, 206–207 history, 201 HP/UX, 205 IRIX, 205 Korn shell, 204 Linux, 205 multitasking, 203 performance, 202–203 POSIX, 206 RISC (reduced instruction set computer), 202–203 scalability, 203 SCO OpenServer, 205 SCO UnixWare, 205 security, 202 Solaris, 203, 205 CDE, 204 stability, 202 SunOS, 205 True64 UNIX, 205 UNICOS, 205
677
Index
TP monitor (transaction processing monitor), 240, 256 transaction servers, 255–256 transistors and binary numbers, 571, 577 transport protocols, 233 AppleTalk, 233 DECnet, 233 NetBEUI, 233 NetBIOS, 233 SPX/IPX, 233 TCP/IP (Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), 233 Traveling Software, 524 Trojan horses, 246 True64 UNIX, 205 TrueType fonts, 352 TSR (terminate-and-stayresident), 134, 521 Turbo Project, 533 Turbo Tax, 528–529 TurboCAD, 483 TWAIN, 473–474 type font, 351 kerning, 351 monospaced, 351 pica, 351 pitch, 351 points, 351 proportionally-spaced, 351 sans-serif, 351 serif, 351 style, 350 typeface, 351 typeface, 350–351 typesetting terms, 350–351
Index
V UNIX SVR4 MP-RAS, 205 using, 204 X Window System, 204, 206 X/Open, 206 UNIX SVR4 MP-RAS, 205 upgrades, 324–325 UPS (uninterruptible power supply), 34 URL (Uniform Resource Locator), 276, 281, 292–
293, 295–296 .us, 293 USB (Universal Serial Bus), 168,
180–181 user groups, 327–328 USER.DAT, 27 utilities, 16, 508–524 UUNet Technologies, 295
V validity checks, 432 VBXs (Visual Basic extensions), 549–
550 vector images, 466–467 Ventura, 491, 495 Veritel, 520 versions of software, 17 Viagrafix, 483 ViaVoice Executive, 520 Vines, 252 Virex, 509 virtual machine (VM), 134, 185–
186, 555 viruses, 53, 54, 246 VirusScan, 509 VisiBroker, 257 Visigenic, 257 Visio, 488, 489 Visio Corporation, 483, 488 Visioneer, 540 Visioneer Corporation, 270 Visual Basic, 549–550, 555
678
Visual Fox Pro, 425 voice recognition software, 195, 197,
519–520 Voicecrypt, 520 VoiceType, 197, 519 VPNs (virtual private networks), 301–
302
W WAN (wide area network), 225, 275 connecting, 235–237 hardware, 234–237 Watch Guard, 249 Web browsers, 53, 276–277 Back button, 281–283 Bookmarks, 284–286 organizing, 285–286 Favorites, 284–286 organizing, 285–286 Forward button, 281–283 Go menu, 283 Internet Explorer, 276–277 Netscape Navigator, 276–277 Web hosting, 296–297 e-commerce, 298 Web page, 281 creating, 290 Web servers, 276, 296–297 Web site, 281 Web site blocking software, 516 Web site design software, 497–500 banner ads, 499 hover buttons, 499 hyperlinks, 499 marquees, 499 WebCrawler, 279, 280 Whois database, 291 wild cards, 47, 88 WIN.INI, 27 Windows, 2, 72, 73, 93, 95–191,
554
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
W
104 restore, 106–107 scroll bars, 100–101 shortcut keys, 108–110 shutting down, 69–70 tile, 104 title bar, 98 using, 97–117 windows, 97 WYSIWYG, 97, 116 Windows 2000, 183, 190
Index
Windows 3.x, 73, 74, 95–96, 118–
135 (See also Windows) .INI files, 143 Accessories, 127, 130 applications, 96 At A Glance, 135 AUTOEXEC.BAT, 143 Clipboard Viewer, 113 Clock, 130 CONFIG.SYS, 143 control-menu box, 121–124 closing applications and files, 121–124 cooperative multitasking, 140–
141 crashing, 133–134 exiting, 131 File Manager, 123, 125, 126,
131, 157 getting lost, 124 GPF (general protection fault), 132–133 group icons, 121, 122, 123 group windows, 121, 123 hardware requirements, 118–119,
120 icons, 125–126 file, 125–126 loading software, 50 memory management, 119–120 multitasking, 119–120 Notepad, 130 operating environment, 119 Paintbrush, 113, 130 Program Manager, 121, 122,
123, 131 program-item icons, 121, 123 saving settings, 131–132 shutting down, 131 starting applications, 126–127 temporary files, 131
679
Index
(See also Windows 3.x and Windows 95/98) Accessories, 113 Calculator, 113, 114–115 cascade, 104 Character Map, 113–114 Clipboard, 110–111, 113 close, 106–107 copying, 110 cutting, 110 dialog boxes, 99 embedded objects, 112 exiting, 69–70 graphical interface, 2 GUI, 97 handles, 101–104 Help, 116 hot key, 107 icon bars, 115–116 icons, 97–98 linked objects, 112 maximize, 106–107 menu bar, 99 minimize, 106–107 moving objects and windows, 104 multitasking, 97, 116 navigating with keystrokes, 107 OLE, 97, 111–113 pasting, 110 popularity, 96 pull-down menus, 99 resizing objects and windows, 101–
Index
W UAE (unrecoverable application error), 132–133 using, 121–135 (See also Windows, using) Windows 3.0, 95 Windows 3.11, 95 Windows for Workgroups, 95 ClipBook Viewer, 113 Write, 130 Y2K, 119 Windows 95/98, 15, 73, 95–96,
136–182, 482 (See also Windows) 32-bit, 136, 138–139 Add/Remove Programs, 69, 512–
514 API (application program interface), 136 applications, 96 At A Glance, 182 ClipBook Viewer, 113 close, 148, 149 Control Panel, 162, 163 crashes, 136, 138 DCOM (Distributed Common Object Model), 143 desktop, 145 Display Properties, 145–146 Documents menu, 150 exiting, 166–167 Explorer, 157–159, 160 features, 136 files copying, 155–157 drag and drop, 156–157 managing, 152–161 Find, 161 folders copying, 155–157 creating, 155 drag and drop, 156–157 managing, 152–161 formatting disks, 159
680
hardware requirements, 182 Help, 165–166, 171 Inbox, 163 installing software, 162 long file names, 142–143 maximize, 148, 149 minimize, 148, 149 multitasking, 140–142 My Computer, 148, 149, 152–
153, 154, 159 network support, 136, 137 OLE, 143 online support, 182 Paint, 113 Plug and Play, 136, 137 preemptive multitasking, 136,
141–142 Recycle Bin, 58, 160, 161, 514–
515 registry, 27, 143–144 Run, 151 screen savers, 520 Settings menu, 162 shortcuts, 147 creating, 153–155 shutting down, 166–167 speed, 139–140 Start button, 146, 148–150 starting applications, 148–152 Documents menu, 150 Run, 151 System Properties, 164–165 taskbar, 146–148 Auto hide, 148 Properties, 148 repositioning, 148 threads and multithreads, 141 using, 145–181 (See also Windows, using) utilities, 136 Windows 95, 136–167 Windows 98, 136, 168–182
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
W 171–172 Channel Bar, 168–170 Disk Cleanup, 512–514 Disk Defragmenter, 512– 514 Drive Converter, 175 DriveSpace 3, 175, 176 FAT32, 173–175 Favorites folder, 168 IEEE 1394 (FireWire), 168, 180–181 Maintenance wizard, 175– 176 multiple monitors, 178– 180 power management, 168, 177 Scan Disk, 512–514 Start menu, 168 System Information, 176 taskbar, 170–171 USB (Universal Serial Bus), 168, 180–181 WordPad, 113 Windows Bitmap (.BMP), 29 Windows Metafile (.WMF), 29, 126 Windows NT, 15, 95, 95–96, 183–
191, 202, 203 32-bit, 185 At A Glance, 191 compared with Windows 95/98, 183–184 DCOM (Distributed Common Object Model), 189,
197 development, 183 network operating system (NOS), 188 network support, 187–189 OLE, 189, 197 preemptive multitasking, 142,
186–187 Index
security, 188–189 Server, 184, 188, 194, 253,
297 SMP (symmetric multiprocessing), 187 stability, 185–186 threads and multithreads, 186–
187 using, 190 virtual machine (VM), 134, 185–
186 Windows 2000, 183, 190 Workstation, 184, 194 WinFax Pro, 521, 522 Wintel, 209 WinWay Corporation, 535 WinWay Resume, 535 WinZip, 517 Word, 2, 269, 322, 331–332, 335–
378 word, 577 Word Pro, 322, 331–332 word processing software, 2, 331–
378 blocking text, 340 columns, 360–361 cursor, 335 cutting, copying, and pasting, 339–
341 editing text, 338–340 endnotes, 373 features, 333–334 find and replace, 373–374 fonts, 350–355 buying, installing, removing, 352 using, 353–355 footers, 372 footnotes, 373 graphics, 374–375 headers, 372 hyphenation, 348–349 indent, 344
681
Index
Accessibility wizard, 168,
X Index
inserting characters, 374–375 graphics, 374–375 objects, 374–375 leading programs, 331–332 line spacing, 344 lists, 362–368 bulleted, 366–367 numbered, 366–367 paragraph, 367–368 sorting, 367 margins, 342–345 merge, 375–377 page numbers, 371 paragraphs double indented, 368 format, 344–346 hanging indented, 368 indented, 368 styles, 370 PostScript Type 1 fonts, 352 spell check, 340–343 starting to work, 335–336 tables, 355–360 text alignment, 346–348 thesaurus, 340–343 toolbars, 336–338 TrueType fonts, 352 typefaces, 350–351 typesetting terms, 350–351 using, 335–378 word wrap, 338 WordPerfect’s Reveal Codes, 377–
378 zoom, 369 word wrap, 338
682
WordPad, 113 WordPerfect, 2, 73, 76, 93, 99, 126,
269, 322, 331–332, 335– 378 Reveal Codes, 377–378 workflow management, 270–272 Works, 320 worms, 246 Wozniak, Steve, 209 Write Windows 3.x Write, 113 WYSIWYG, 93, 97, 116
X X Window System, 204, 206 X.500, 245 X/Open, 206 Xerox, 269, 270, 540 XML (Extensible Markup Language), 503–505 XMODEM, 523
Y Yahoo!, 279 Yellow Box, 215–216 YMODEM, 523
Z Zip-It, 517 ZipMagic, 517 ZMODEM, 523 zoom, 369
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
Notes
Notes
Notes
Notes
Notes
Waterfields Guide to Computer Software
A
t last, one book covers the dizzying array of software in use on computers today. Operating systems, networks, utilities, applications, managing files—this book gives you a comprehensive source of information that you will refer to often to quickly get the information you need. Whether you are new to computers or an experienced user, you likely will find a lot of helpful information in this book: ❐ Waterfields Guide to Computer Software gives a solid understanding of how to use most word processing, spreadsheet, and database programs as well as Windows and the Internet. ❐ Nearly all types of software are discussed—from illustration programs to anti-virus utilities—and tables list many programs on the market with approximate prices. ❐ Advanced concepts—such as networks and programming technology—are covered in clear, concise language. This gives you information to help you stay abreast of developments in the computer field. ❐ This book is designed to enable you to find and absorb information quickly without reading a lot of background material. The format and comprehensiveness make it an excellent reference.
With over 200 illustrations, 60 tables, an extensive glossary with more than 400 terms, and explanations of 124 acronyms, you will love the convenience this authoritative volume offers. It is edited by Dr. Arthur L. Delcher, who has published numerous journal articles and book chapters in professional computer publications. Critics had only good things to say about a previous Waterfields Press book he edited, Waterfields Guide to Computer Terms: “This is the most helpful little reference I’ve seen in this difficult area.” —Verne Clemence, The StarPhoenix “[Waterfields Guide to Computer Terms is] one of the handiest dictionaries to keep around the office.”—The Book Reader “It is the perfect book to consult before purchasing a computer.…” —Choice
