Wild Neighbors: The Humane Approach to Living with Wildlife

Bats

63

also.BCIcanbe reachedat P.O.Box 162603' Austin, TX 78716; (512) 327-972I; (fax) (s12)327-e724.

A Last Word There are dozensof other speciesof wildlife that need to ioin the bat and the wolf as deservingof public respectand understanding.Thken one at a time it might be somewhile beforetheywill all be giventhese butbyusing an ecoqrstemapproach,we may make progressmore rapidly toward accepting the positi'revalue of all wild animals.

Additional Sources Frantz,S. 1986. "BatproofingStructures with Birdnetting Checkvalves."Pro-

andRabies BatHouse Bat housesand batshave smallPossisuchan incrediblY to the bilityof contributing to rabies potential for exPosure that effortsto Passordinances themareentirely prohibiting Notonlydo the unnecessary. speciesof batsthatinhabit housestendnotto be the in batonesthatareimPlicated of the to-humantransmission disease,but the overallrateof rabiesin batsis so lowthat is of Positive theirresidence value-insectcontrol.

consistof netting drapedwu-but \efi Figure 19. Bat checkualues bau' beingusedfo house-dwelling entrance bottnm-an the ot Wn Batswill exit,crawldoumthesideof thehouseandleave,but theywill rwtbe ableta retum.

ceedingsof the 12th VertebratePest Conference,University of California at Davis.260-68. French,T. W., J. E. Cardoza,and G. S. Guideto Jones.1986.A Homeowner's Problems. Bat and Bets Massachusetts Departmentof Fish and Massachusetts Wildlife, 100 CambridgeStreeLBoston, MAO22A2. Kern,W. H., Jr.,J. Belwood,and P.G. Koehler.1993."Batsin Buildings."Fact sheetENY-272.Florida Cooperative ExtensionServiceUniversitY of Florida. Lee,C., and F.R. Henderson.1992. "Bats: Urban Wildlife DamageControl." PublicationL-855. CooPerative ExtensionService,KansasStateUniversity, Manhattan, KS. Tuttle,Merlin D. 1988.America'sNeighborhood Bats.Austin: Llniversitybf Texas Press. Tuttle Merlin D., and Donna L. Hensley. 1993.TheBat HduseBuilder'sHandbook. Bat ConservationIntemational, P.O. Box 162603,Austin,\X 787t6.

Beavers

Distributed completely throughout Canadaandmost of the UnitedStates;absent onlyfromthe most aridregions.

Probtems inyards*nen'ii6bi' arecut down;flooding resulting frombeaverdamsis an issuein someareas. Spendthe entirewinterwith up to eightfamilymembersin a tinyenclosed chamberin the lodg*and withoutany bickering.

thatstandsinthe lGemlin'sRed

Henry Morgan,an Americanlawyerrecognizedasone ofthe founders of the field of cultural anthropology. His seminal work, Ancipnt Society,waspublished in 1877,fully nine yearsafter his natural history studyentitled TheAmqican Beauerappeared.Morgan'sthinking about the evolution of human societywas so highly admipgflby tfg6lMam ,MgS; and Friedrich Engelsthat their praiseof him led to cow. His monograph on beaversproduced no st to be creditedasa major influenceon rhe thinkiffi Ethology, the sciencethat focuseson the study oSS ""1 under natural conditions. Beaversare an example of a speciesnearly driven and making a comeback.At issuein that comebackis beaversand humans are in conflict over who getsto plains. We are only just recognizingthat while it is environmentally appropriatefor the beaverto build in

Beavers tions persistedin the most inaccessibleparts of the farWest, and hencemuch of the romantic lore concerning the "mountain man" becameassociatedwith the continuing pursuit of the species.A good deal of the uade and commerceof the early colonial period wasbasedon beavers-so much so that for a time their pelts were the standard currency.The economicviability of the early colonial period dependedto a large octent not only on beaverfur, but on the rich soils that surfacedwhen beaverdams were broken and agricultural land was created. In a sense,these animals gavebreath Classificationanil funge to early America twice: once through their is the largest lives and again through their land. The beaver(Cator canadensis) Ithas avery NorthAmerica. rodentfound in close relative in the Old World (CastorfiHabitat bu) thatsome taxonomistsregardasessentially the same species.In most of Europe Beaverslive in and around water and conand fuia, this Old World beaveris in criti- stantly modifr streamsby building dams cal trouble and may be closeto following and impounding flows to createponds, albeaverthat was though theywill also live by largeriversand its cousin,a late-Pleistocene extinction' Our lakeswithout building dams at all. Lewis into a bear, about the sizeof beavercanweigh more than 60 pounds,but Henry Morgan visited beaver impoundan averageadult is more likely to weigh ments iust south of LakeSuperior that had about 35 to 40. Including the trademarkflat probably been in placefor hundreds,if not tail usedasa rudder, construction tool and thousands,ofyears.Thebeaversweremostly communication device,the adultsareabout gone,but their lodgesand dams remained 30 incheslong and a foot high. When stand- asarchaeologicalevidence.The dam at Grass ing on its hind legs an adult beavercan Lake that Morgan describeswas 260 feet long over6 feettall and had obviouslybeen reachalmost 3 feet. Beaversare well adaptedto the aquatic the work of generationsof beavers.Still, it habitat that, for the most part, they design would be dwarfed by the dam measuredat and maintain. A beavercan submergefor an astounding2,160feetlong by EnosMills as much as fifteen minutes, during which in what is now Rodry Mountain National time it can carry tree limbs under water in Parkin Colorado. The beaverimpoundment providesa rich itss incisor teeth thanks to a specialflap of being environment for many animal and plant skin designedto prevent water from species.There is a regular cycle in land swallowed. Their densewaterproof fur was so cov- changeshabitat createdby beavers,providetedbythe coloniststhatbeaversin the East ing different valuesat eachstage.Ear$ beaver soon ponds, for example,createconditions attracwere nearly trapped out of e>
is far less so for humans to build or live there. One of the greatchallengesfacing us as a societyin the coming yearswill be to focuson howwe dealwith environmentally unsound decisionsmade in the past and now needingto be fixed.At issueis whether we begin to workwith natureorto continue to employ brute force to "overcome" the natural world. How we deal with humanbeaverconflicts is one chapterin that story.

Natural History

66

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the threatenedblack duck (Anasrubripes),a speciesof specialconcern all along the Atlantic Coast. Later development of beaver wetlands encouragesmany sensitiveplant speciesto proliferatg and eventually many beaverponds are abandoned and revert to rich meadowsthat support abundantplant and animal life.

Diet Beaverare herbiuores, feeding on the inner layerof the bark of woody plants (the cambium),leaves, shootsand aquaticherbssuch as duckweed,water lilies and pond weed. Occasionallythe fmits of terrestrialplants, some herbaceousforest plants and even crops such as soybeansand corn may be eaten.The favoredwoody speciesmay vary from areato area,dependingon what is locally available,but where they are found, aspen,birch, willow cottonwood,poplars, maplq apple and evenoak are preferred.A beaver'spreferred food trees may also include popular ornamentals such as dogwood, hybrid poplar and fruit trees, for which they may travel long distancesfrom the water. Evergreentrees are rarely eaten, and signsofbeaverseatingtreessuchaspine may be an indication that suitablefood is lacking. In the fall, beaverssink large accumulations of branchesinto the mud close by the lodge. Thesefood "caches"provide winter food supplies. Most of the trees used for food or for other constructionactivitiesarefelledwithin 100feet of the main body of waterthe beaversare using. Damageup to 600 feet from water can occur,but usually only in places wherebeavershavebuilt canals,straightwaterwalxsabout 3 to 4 feet wide and equally deepthat provide coverand accessto inland areas.Beaverscan flrt down fairly largetrees (preferring those 2 to 6 inches in diameter, but sometimes working on trees that are

more than 24 inchesin diameter)to eatthe trunks and branches.Often, they partially or completely girdle trees,but leave them still standing.

Reproiluction Beaversproduce one litter per yeat usually between March and lune. After weaning parental duties are shared not only by the femaleand male,but in part by earlieryoung that remain with the family. A typical litter contains three or four kits. Interestingly, unlessthey are harvestedvery heavily,uapping appearsto stimulatethe production of more young than if the animals are not trapped.Beaversbecomesexuallymature at about two years.A beavercolony commonly containssix to eight animals,including an adult pair and the kits from the last tr,lrolitters.The older young usually leavethe area of birth by their secondbirthday, a process referredto as dispersionDispersingbeavers usually travel lessthan 6 miles in searchof new homes, but movementsof up to 150 miles havebeendocumented.

Dens and Lodges Beaverstypically live in lodges built from branches,mud and other debrisor in dens dug into the banks of streamsor lakes. Lodgescan be constructedalong the edge of a canalor pond, or as mounded islands of interwoven branches that stand in the deeperparts of the pond. Both dams and lodgesare packedsolid with mud to make them weatherproof.All residenceswill have at leasttwo openingsand sometimesmore.

Public Health It has long beensuggestedthat beaversmay be responsiblefor outbreaksof giardiasisin humans.Howevet recentstudiesand examination of past outbreakssuggestthat other

Beavers factors,suchasthe contamination of drinking sourceswith human waste,may play a largerrole in the spreadof the diseasethan beaversdo. Even domestic pets have been found to harbor Giardia,and the potential public health threat representedby beavers regardingthis diseasemust be completely reexamined.

67

ticed before it becomescritical but perhaps not before one or more valuable treeshave beenlost. Much more substantialdaims are made by operatorsof commercialforestsin the Southeast,where beaverflooding is said to resultin the lossof $100million oftimber annually.

Solutions Giardia is causedbYthe Giardiasis protozoanGiardia single-cell lamblia,whichcanbe spread of water throughcontamination systemswiththefecalmatterof bothaquaticandterrestrial the beaver. including mammals, wateris the Drinkinguntreated mostcommonwayhumans becomeinfected,

Problems and Their Solutions Problems The two most common problems causedby beaversare the flooding that results from dam-building and the damageor destruction to treesusedasfood and building material. Floodingcansuddenlybecomea crisis ifbeaverdamshavenotbeen monitored and unusually heavyrains inundate an area.Occasionally,bank dens dug by beaverscontribute to erosionor undermining of earthen dams, a problem that also occurs where muskratsare active.Damageto uees in urban and suburbanareasis likely to be no-

ToLsneNcs Recognizingthat beaversplay an important role in establishingand maintaining wetlands that provide critical environmental functions is a key to living with them. Among other things,beaverimpoundments provide a habitat for other animals,provide a refugefor sensitiveplant species,improve water quality by acting as a settling basin and provide flood control by slowingwater movement.To thesevaluescanbe addedthe considerable aesthetic and recreational benefits that we humans derive from the presenceof beaversand the habitatthey create. Clearly the primary influence of these animals, which is to createwetlands, provides a critical function in restoring an important ecologicalProcess. FrooptNc Beaversare superb engineers,but still no competition for humans. This means that no matter what engineeringproblems they cause,humans can counter with solutions of our own that beaverscannot overcome. Where flooding or potential flooding from beaverdams is an issue,it is possibleto install any of a variety of devices,variously calledbeaver"bafflers"or "levelers," that can control water level without the removal or destruction of beavers(seeFigure 2O,page 68). Beaversarethought to be stimulatedby the sound and perhapsfeel of flowing water to quickly repair any breach to their dam. Bafflerswork by dispersingthe flow of water

68

WTIo NEIcnnoRS

(c''

r, I,

I

--

Figure 20. Beauerbafflm are ilanicesthat allowfor watpr-levelregiation in beaverpondsor that let waterflow unobstructedinn culums. Many diffuent designserist,anil newonesarefrequentlybeingdarcloped.

into the devicesso that the beaver is not obliged to plug them. Bafflerscan be constructedwith easilyobtained materials,such as plastic or metal pipe wooden troughs, tree trunks or heavy metal mesh fencing formed into box culverts. Culvertpipesrunning under roadsareoften pluggedbybeavers.This canresultin road flooding. Concentric semicirclesof welded wire plugged into the upstreamend of the culvert have been used to successfullystop beaveractivity in such situations. One such devicehasevenbeenpatentedand is annently

being manufactured in a kit that can be shippedpreassembled and readyto putup at the site (seeToolsand Tactics-Bafflers).Th" designand installationof beaverlevelingdevicesare sufficiently complex that technical assistance from orperiencedprofessionalsis recommended.It is also important to be awareof local, stateand federalregulations when planning to install thesedevices. Organizationsthat can provide information on bafflers include Beaver,Wetlands& Wildlife P.O.Box591,LittleFalls,NY 13365,

Beavers (518) 568-2077;BeaverDefenders,Unexpected Wildlife Refuge,P.O. Box 765, Newfield,Nl 08344, (609) 697-354I and Wildlife 2000, P.O.Box 6428,Denver,CO 80206,(303) 935-499s. Videos illustrating baffler installation can be obtained from Maine Departmentof Inland Fisheriesand wildlife 284 StateStreet Augusta,ME 04333 ("Outwitting Maine's BusY Beavers") $ 19.95,includingPostage "Building a BeaverBafflerand Dam Flume" Alliancefor Animals 122 StateStreet,Room 309 Madison,WI 53703 $10,including Postage Publicationsthat provide information on bafflerdesignand installationsinclude TheBeaverHandbook.lg g5. Availablefrom the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources through Northeast Science& Technology, 60 Wilson Avenue,Timmins, Ontario, Canada,P4N 2S7. How to PreuentBeauerFlooding.Available from Beaver,Wetlands & Wildlife, at the addressgiven above. TheClemsonBeaverPondLeueler.1992.AFW Leaflet. Cooperative Extension Service, ClemsonUniversity. Published by The Fund Liuing with Beauens. for Animals, 850 SligoAvenue,Suite LL2, Silver Spring, MD 20910.$2, including postage. See"BeaverBafflers"in Appendtx2 for additional information.

69

EenrHnx Dnus Beaverare occasionallyresponsiblefor breachingearthen dams. They sometimes extend bank dens far enough back into earthendamsthat the damsbecomeweak. It is generally older structuresthat pose problems.A well-built and properly maintained dam with an impermeablecore of clayor other materialshouldwithstand beaver tunneling. Rockrip-rap usedon the upstreamslopefor erosioncontrol caninhibit both beaversand muskrats from attempting to build bank densin the first place and it's also the most expedientway to protect older structures.Habitat modification (e.g., removing coveror limiting accessto food) is anothermethod of dealingwith this, asis exclusion through the use of simple fencing as describedbelow. Tnen PnorncrloN Eitherhomemadeor commerciallyavailable tree guards can prevent beaver damageto trees,especiallywhere small (2- to 6-inch) ornamental or specimentrees need to be protected.Simple cylinders of galvanized welded (2-inch x 2-inch) wire placed out from the trunk and standing about 3 feet can be usedto cagetrees(seeFigure14 on page38). Cylindersaround largertreesmay require staking, and mulching within the qdindersis a good ideato keepweedsfrom becominga problem. Hardwarecloth (1/ato l/z-inch mesh) or chicken wire will do the job, although they will not hold up as well asheavierweldedwire. In some situations simple corrugatedplastic drainpipes can be usedto protect small trees.The pipe is slit (allowing room for growth) *d placed around the tree.Although beaverscan and sometimes do easily gnaw through this material,they usually won'! thus providing a low-cost and easy-to-doprotection. To

70

wrrn NrrcHsoRS

prevent tree damage, frequently monitor RBpnrrsNrs them and put protective barriers in place Onebitteringagen! Ro-Pelo(see"Repellents" upon the first signs of damage.Largeror in Appendix2) is registeredfor useasa repelmore desirabletrees(especially)should be lent when painted or sprayedonto trees.A protectedbefore damageoccurs. disadvantage to usingrepellentsto deterbeaversis the costof the product and the needto reapplythe repellenteverycoupleof months FsNrcrNc Beaversare not good climbers, and even a during the period when these animals are 3- to 4-foot fencecan be a pennanent deter- most active(late summerto earlyspring). rent. Where trees that need protection are grouped (for example,in an orchard), fencA Last Word ing may be the most practicalway to do this. Often, it is not necessaryto completely en- It is estimatedthat on the arrival of the first circlethe groveto protect it becausethe bea- Europeansettlersthe beaverpopulation of ver mayonlybe approachingfrom the water North America was between 60 and 400 side of the property. million. At the turn of the century during First, the landowner should try fencing the greatestperiod of exploitation, the beaoffthe water side and extendthe fencea bit ver population is unknown, but we know farther if beaverscan find their way around that beaverswere virtually ortirpated from it. It is sometimesrecommendedthat fenc- most parts of the easternUnited Statesand ing be buried about a foot into the ground, greatlydiminished in numbers throughout but if there is a tight fit to the ground, this most of Canada and the western United isn't necessary.A newly installed fence Statesaswell. Today,the United Stateshas should be monitored frequently, espe- between six and twelve million beavers, cially where establishedbeavertrails cross. as populations have begun a comeback. If a beaver does slip under or over the Becausehumans have so dramatically fence,immediately reinforcethat section changed the landscape and destroyed with more fencepostsand stakesholding significant parts of our wetlands,beaver the bottom of the fence down or addi- populations can neverreturn to any semtional piecesof fencing attached to the blance of what they were. Theseanimals fencebottom and buried at least6 inches. will continue, however, to occupy every Alternatively,the lower edgecanbe left uail- niche availableto them, and theywill reach ing at least 18 inchestoward the water (ap- and exceed carrying capacity throughout proach) side. An electrified wire strung many parts of their former rangeby the tum approximately 4 inches off the ground can of the next century. also preventbeaversfrom entering an area. Dispersingyoung as well as adults that This type of fencecan be especiallyeffective haveusedall locally availablefood resources in a small gardenor crop plot and setup to will be forced to move to marginal habitat protect plants for a fewweekswhen they are and be at high risk for any number of mormostvulnerable(and takendown afterward). tality factors.The automobilewill likely be

Beavers 7I the main regulatorof beaverpopulations in many urban and suburban areas'A debate regarding the future of beaverhuman relationships has already begun and will intensify within the next few years. The environmental benefits that come from beaverwetlands are iust being realizedand clearlyneedto be better understood.For a continent that has lost much of its former nontidal wetlands to development or agricultural conversion and that lately hascometo realizethe significant environmental damagedone by

this, the reurn of the beaveris a timely and welcome event.

Additional Sources In M. Novak,J' Novak,M. 1987."Beaver." and B. Malloch Obbard, E. A. Baker,M. (eds.), Witd FurbearerManagementand in NorthAmerica.Ontario: Conseruation 282Resources. Natural Ministry of 3L3. Ryden,H. 19B9.LilYPond.New York: William Monow. 256 PP.

BlackBears

Theblackbearlives throughout mostof Canada andis widelydistributed in the easternandwesternpartsof the UnitedStates. Human-bear encounters usuallyoccurawayfrom residential areas,in parksor otheropenspaces.Around homes,bearsmaypass throughto inspectgardens, compostbins,beehives or outdoorbarbecues.

IN ueNy IARTSoF THE couNTRy bear sightings areincreasing.Partofthe reasonfor this is that the "suburbs" areincreasinglyencompassing wildlife habitat.We infringe ontheir homes and forcethe Thelargestbearsfoundin the ters.Someinward migation alsoocctrrs, UnitedStatescomefrom habitat has retumedto placespreviou Pennsylvania. suitablefor animalsthat the human awarewildlife could (or should) even ln New England,for examplg forests as much of the farmland was abandoned after the co eredthey could reachfar richer soils to the west.Now percentof the land previously clearedand worked for agriculturehas revertedback to forest,some of it mature enoughto supliort'beets. Traditional conflictsbetweenhumans and bearsi depredationand suchtime-honoredscenariosasbear hives. Assaults on garbage cans can now be added,

sional attemptsto establishwinter dens under and miscellaneousrun-ins with domesticpets. Becausethey are largeand powerful animals, bearsmust be taken seriously.While conractsare parA5,*iiltly.hl$te serious,the frequencywith which these actually \ffi".ls remarkably low. Yet it seemslike everyencounterwith b'ffi"receives

BlackBears (by humans) land is availableto them. In the East,deciduouswoodlands arefavored; in the Southwest,chaparral and scrub forestsmay be used. That bears require fairly large areasto sustain themselvesand that they havea generalintolerancetoward one another(outsideofthe mother-cubrelationship) contribute to the low population denClassificationanil Range sities typical of them. The movementsof The black bear (IJrsusamericanus)is the individuals within their rangevary accordmost widespreadand smallestof the three ing to the seasonalityof preferredfoods. bears found in North America, with the larger polar (Thalarctosmaritimus) and brown (IJ. arctosspp.) bears much more Diet restrictedin their distribution. The grizzly Many people assumebearsare exclusively is the best known of a group of closely re- meat-eaterswhile, in fact, plant foods make latedbrown bearsthat areamongthe most up the bulk of their diet. Ripening fruits, formidable camivoresin the world. Fortu- berriesand nuts areeatenheavily,butwhen nately, they tend to shy away from places thesearenot availablethe averageblackbear wherepeopleare,and remain more or less can be found grazingon leaff orherbaceous restricted to remote natural areas,where vegetation(the way a cow would). The anithey rule. Black bears range completely mal material eaten includes insects,occathroughout Canada,the eastemUnited States sional small live prey, such as deer fawns, and throughout the West,ocduding most of and carrion. the Great Plains and Great Basin areas.In general,the rangeof blackbearsfollows the Dens range of the older, more mature forests wherevertheseare,or havebeen restored. Dens are occupied during the winter for hibernation. Evenin the South most bears enter into somesort of period of dormancy, Reproduction although it may not last as long nor be as Bearsare slow breeders.Cubs are born in profound as the winter sleep of bears farlate Ianuary or Februaryand remain with ther north. Rockledges,brush piles,hollow the mother for the first two yearsof life. She treesand occasionalhuman-provideddens, does not breed again until they are old suchasareasunder decksand patiosor culenoughto surviveon their own. Add to this veft pipes,areusedto take refugefrom winthe fact that femalesdo not usually begin ter snows. breeding until they are betweenthree and five years of age,and it is clear that this animal'sreproductivepattemskeepits popu- Public Health lations lower than many other animals. or parasites Thereareno significantdiseases

headline attention in the press.No doubt, more people are bitten, steppedon or injured eachyearby horsesthan by bears,yet theseeventsalmost never make the news.

Natural History

that afflict bearsand can be transmitted to doesoccurin theseanimals humans.Rabies no confirmed e><posures is that so rare but Bears occupy a variety of habitats in areas record. the in humans are of where large enough blocks of undisturbed

Habitat

74

WTTO NPICHBORS

Problems and Their Solutions Problems Fortunately,bearsdo notmakedensin chimneys or attics.They will den occasionally under decksor porches,especiallyin summer houses or residencesthat are used sporadically.Theyraid gardensand getinto trash with a facility that aptly demonstrates their sizeand power.They also occasionally causesignificantdamageto beehives.

Solutions TornneNcn As with all of the animal issuesdiscussedin this booh toleranceand understandinghave a key role to play in how we approach resolving conflicts,even(or maybeespecially) with animals as large and formidable as bears.Largeanimals tend to be potentially more dangerousto peoplethan small ones, admittedly, but they also tend to be less common and tend to need a larger living area,or homerange,to sustain them. Thus, for the individual homeowrer, an encounterwith a bearmight be a once-in-a-lifetime event. The animal might be a youngster moving out of its mother's home range,or dispersingtolook for a suitablehome for itself, or it might be an adult that has come by the houseto investigatea smell or sound that attractedits attention. Once it has figured out that the attraction is relatedto humans,it is likely to headoverthe mountain and not be seenor heardfrom again. ExclusroN Where bearsare a seriousproblem and repeatedlycausedepredationon a specificresource(such as a set of beehives),electric fencingis the recommendedtool for useas a deterrent(seeChapter3). Suchfencingcan

also be used to protect campsites,refuse sitesand other areasthat might attractcurious bears. Henrrer MaNncEMENT Do not placetrashcansoutsideat night. If uash mustbe placedout at night, then an investmentin a "bear-proof" can is the way to go. A useful publication on this subject is Animal Resistnnt GarbageContainers ( 1995, USDAForestServicepublicationgl23 1205SDTDCby LesterSindair),publishedby the U.S. ForestServiceand availablefrom the Superintendentof Documents,Govemment Printing Office. Stockadeenclosuresthat will hold most bearsat bay can also be built. It is importantnot to try to keepan open compostpile in bear country especiallyone in which household refuseis dumped. Enclosedrecycling bins are advisedif refusemust be stored outside a secureoutbuilding. Even ruggedlybuilt bins may be broken into by determined bears, however.Burying compost is not advisedbecausebearswill easily dig it up if motivatedby enticingodors.Keep grills that are on back decksor closeto the housecleanand asfreeof drippingsaspossible. Preferably,move the grill well away from the housewhen it is not being used. MrNrurzrNc CoNTAcr As with other largeand potentially dangerous mammals,therearerulesabout encounters with bearsthat can help to minimize the possibilityof peopleputting themselves in danger.The rulesdescribedhereforblack bearsare,we caution, different from those for dealingwith brown or polar bears.These bearsare extremelydangerousin close encounters,while blackbearsarealwaysmore likely to withdraw than confront humans, even when surprised.Peopleare usually afraid of bears,and sometimesin thinking that they might be attackedor even eaten,

BlackBears will react to encountersin waysthat actually increasethe likelihood of injury. Nwer try to Wroach abear tn driueit off! Shouting bangingobjectstogether,making as much noise as possibleand looking as big aspossible(by spreadingyour anns,or better, coat outward) are all effeaive responses.The keyhereis to let the bearknow you area human. Runningawayfrom a bear is not saidto be dangerous,asit is with cougars,becausethe bear is usually turning in the opposite direction to run itself. Throwing things at the bear and evenhitting it in the rump if you can are orcellent ways to get it to move off. In the rare instancewhere the expertsadvise a black bearbluff charges, standingstill. The bear doesthis only as a waming and invariablyturns and movesoff after the display. EnneNr Bnens Young bears dispersingfrom the area in which they were born and in searchof a suitable home for themselvessometimes find themselvesin suburbiawithout a good idea of how to get out. Frequentlyenough this leadsto a perceivedcrisis,in which the beardimbs a tree,a telephonepole or anything it can reachto get awayfrom people, who only gather in larger crowds as word spreadsofthe curiosity.Confusionand uncertainty,coupled with inexperienceand a misconceptionof the threat such an animal poses,can often lead to fatal consequencesfor the bear.This doesnot haveto happen if a little foresightand planning are applied to make sure that qualified and properly equippedwildlife professionalsor veterinary assistancecan be called upon. L,eavingthe bearalone and giving it the opportunity to move offby itself is alwaysthe preferredsolution. Tranquilization and removal of the trespassingbearcan savea life or it can take one,becausethis procedureis alwayaa high risk for the bear.In forcedsitu-

75

ations, however,removal may be the best solution to protect both humans and the bear.

Repellents The pepper repellent that is marketed for repelling human attackershas also been used to repel bears.Much tested in parks wherepanhandlingbearsarea problem,the sprayhasbeengenerallyprovento work and to be effectiveat chasingbearsfrom campgrounds.The smarterbears,howevet leam the effectiverange (usually about 10 to 12 feet) and stand just beyond that when they encounterhumans whom they suspectof intending to usethe sprayon them.

A Last Word It is possiblethat human-bearencounters will become more frequent in the future. Peopleare increasinglyenteringbear habitat, and bears are returning to placesfrom which they had been previouslydisplaced. As serious as encountersbetween people and bearsmightbe the solution to conflicts will not be to managebear populations through hunting or deliberateactions intended to lower population density.

Additional Sources Kolenosky,G. 8., and S. M. Strathearn. 1987."BlackBear."In M. Novak,J.A. Baker,M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch (eds.),WiId Furbearer Management and Conseruation in North America. Ontario: Ministry of Natural Resources.443-54. Pelton,M. E. 1982."BlackBeaL"In J.A. Chapmanand G. A. Feldhamer(eds.). Wild Mammalsof NorthAmerica. Baltimore:Iohns Hopkins University Press.504-14.

Bobcats

The bobcat rangeswidely

throughout mostof the United StatesintosouthernCanada, but is mostlyreplacedby the lynxfarthernorth. Bobcatsarerarevisitorsto yards,butgenerally shun developed areas.

Trte BoBCATrs sMALLnnthan a cougarand larger than a housecatbut often confusedwith both. Like its cousins,the bobcat exhibitssexualdimorphism. This meansthat one sor (in this casethe male) is largeron averagethan the other. A largemale bobcat can weigh asmuch asa small femalecougar,and a small female bobcat can weigh less than many large house cats (hencethe causefor confusion).With a little orperiencean observercan soon come to know the distinguishingcharacteristics of all of thesecatsand will see that the larger-bonedand more muscularbody structureof the bobcat readily distinguishesit from house cats,and that the short tail tipped with dark fur is quite distinguishablefrom the long sweeping rear appendagecarried about by the cougar. Bobcatscausevery few problems for humans,the worst being their occasionalpredationon small animals.Generally,bobcatsareso retiring and secretivethat people neverevenknow they are there.

Onewildlifephotographer waitingin a blindto geta photograph of a bobcatwas aboutto takea picturewhenthe cat startledand boltedoff (ten minuteslatera hikerpassedon the nearbytrail).

Natural History Classificotionand Range The bobcat (Felisrufus) and its close cousin the lynx (F. lynx) are widely distributed throughout North America,with the lynx tending

Bobcats to havea more northerly distribution and the bobcat,a more southerlyone. Bobcats are distributed widely throughout the United Statesbut are absent from a large part of the Midwest. They are believed to havebeenextirpatedfrom theseareassoon after the first settlersarrived,but there is a debateasto how numerousthey might ever havebeen there.A number of unique anatomical featuresof theseanimals indicate clear$ that the lynx is a cold-climatespecialist, while the bobcat is built around a more generalfeline model that does well under many differentconditions.Malebobcatstend to be about a third largerthan females within the same geographicarea. Usually femalesare lessthan 20 pounds, while males averagearound 25 on a frame that is between30 and 36 inches.Females aslight as 10to 11pounds fall well within the housecat range.

Habitnt Bobcatsare adapted to a wide variety of habitatsasis obvious from their wide geographicdistribution. They do well in even small forestedareasand inhabit open grasslands as well as brushland and semiarid desertas long as some cover is available. canvaryenorTheareausedasahomerange being less from mously in theseanimals, than a squaremile to more than a hundred times that. Like many other mammalian carnivores,female home rangestend to be exclusive and those of males can overlap severalfemalehome rangesand sometimes eventhe rangesof other males.

Diet Bobcats are opportunistic carnivores who will take prey that range in size from just about the smallest animals (shrews) up to

the sizeof adult deer.The generalpreference for prey appearsto fall within size categories ranging from that of the cottontail rabbit (about 2 pounds) up to raccoon(about 10 to 15 pounds). Where an abundanceof rabbits occut,the bestdietaryconditions for bobcatsarebelievedto ocistalso.Largeprey may be partly hidden under leavesor other plant material and visited repeatedlyif it cannot be consumedall at once.

Reproduction Bobcatsare seasonalbreedersand become sexually active sometime in late winter or earlyspring.Male and femalerelationships generallylast only for the brief period of courtship and mating after which they go their separateways.The gestationperiod is

BobcatTracks

78

Wrrp NprcHsoRS

aboutsixtydqrs,roughlythe sameasforthe housecat.Littersizerangesfrom two to four on the average,and there is some speculation that femalesmight havemore than one litter ayear under optimal conditions.The young are usually independent by late fall or early winter.

Solutions

TorsRANce Traditionsdie hard, and in someplacesthe bobcat still carriesaround the imageof being a dangerous"varmint." Bounties on bobcatswereestablishedalmost assoon as land was colonized and remainedin place long after there was an economic concern Dens to protectthem. Clearlya betterunderstandThere is a general agreementthat rocky ing and more tolerant approach to these ledgesarecritical habitat elementsfor these animalsis still needed. animals. Theseprovide cover,shelter and den sitesthat are suitable for birthing and Hanlrer MeNecTMENT rearing young. The hollow trees and logs Feedinghouse cats outdoors should be that are favored by other animals, such as stopped-or never started.Elimination of raccoons,arealsooccasionallyused,but not the coverand food resourcesthat might atwith the great preference given to rock uact rodentsor rabbitscould help eliminate ledges. the attractiveness an areamight haveto bobcats.The typically large home range of a bobcat, however,more often means that Public Health Concerns sightingsand visitsby theseanimalswill be Bobcatsdo not causeany public health or relatively rare events. Only where roclqy safetyproblemsfor humans.Like all warm- ledgesare nearbyand wherethe possibility blooded animals,bobcatsaresusceptibleto of females using these to bear and raise rabies,but the incidenceof this diseaseis young arepermanentattractionslikely to be very low in theseanimals. an issue.

Problems and Their Solutions Problems Bobcatscausevery few problems for humans.As rareascasesof mountain lion predation on livestockare,the casesof bobcats killing sheepor other domestic stock are rarerstill. As opportunistic hunters,bobcats may occasionallytake house pets,this being the one way in which they cancomeinto conflict with people in developedareas.

REppLmNrs Thereareno repellentsregisteredto control bobcats.The varietyof productssold to deter house catsfrom using gardensor flower bedswill undoubtedly havesomeeffecton bobcats.

A Last Word Bobcatscan be an important, perhapseven a critical, part of the balanceof nature,even in areasthat are fairly densely settled by people.Their almostexdusivelycamivorous

Bobcats

79

habits and their preferencefor rabbits and Additional Sources rodents as prey mean that they can help to balancethe populations of theseanimals. McCord,C. M., and J.E. Cardoza.1982. "Bobcatand Lynx."In I.A. ChaPman That processmay be taking place alreadyin and G. A. Feldhamer(eds.),Wild the burgeoningferal cat populationsfound Mammalsof NorthAmerica,Baltimore: in many urban, and even suburban,areas, The JohnsHopkins UniversityPress. The bobcat which is another issueentirely. 728-66. may eventuallyeliminate some of the arguNewYork: mentssunoundingrtntby moving backinto Ryden,H. 1981. BobcatYear. 205 PP. Lyons $ thoseplacesfrom which it hasbeendriven. "Burfo-rd. ,. ,,:t'

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Chimney Swifts

Chimneyswiftsrangein summerthroughout the Midwestandeasternpartsof the UnitedStates,northinto southernCanada.

ONs wHo KNows rHESE BTRDS, with their cigarshaped bodies almost constantly aloft, chattering, sweepinginsectsout of the sky,will wonder why they are mentioned in a work on humane control of aniWillmakenestsin suitable problems.The reasonfor this is not becausethey mal chimneys, meaninguncapped cause any specialproblem for humans, but because clay-lined or mortered we have causeda problem forthem. Simplypul there structures. is a conflict betweenthe practiceof chimney-capping Voracious insect-eaters, these that animal damagespecialistsadvocateand the swifu, birdsarealwaysseenin the needfor roostingand nestingsites.This againreminds air,comingdownto roostonly us that everythingis interconnectedand part of a larger at dusk. picture, our living environment, of which this work addresses but one small part. There are severalspeciesof swifts in the United States,but the chimney swift (Chaeturapelagica) is the most common and widely disuibuted.BeforeEuropeansarrived,these birds nestedin the old giant hollow treesof the forest. Thesetrees were lost when the land was clearedfor agriculture.This might have had a devastatingimpact on swiftsonctreplicasof the nestingtrees.Today,many housesare built without chimneysor come with chimneysthat usesmaller metal flue pipes rather than clay liners. Thesemetal flues are special problems-they can sometimesbe a death trap for animals. Homeowners,increasinglyawarethat exclusionis the best practical method of dealing with unwanted intruders such as raccoons,are also cappingchimneysin largenumbers and thus denying nesting sitesto swifts. chimney swifts migrate betweenNorth America and peru, making a round-trip joumey of 6,000 miles gleryyear to be ableto pursue

ChimneySwifts their insect prey,which they take from the Although you may hearthe noisesof young air in amazing quantities. They are easily birds as they beg for food, these are only recognizedon the wing, with their gray temporary and should be tolerated. If a cigar-shapedbodies, constant wing beats chimney sweephasbeen hired and reports and distinctive vocalizations, but few the birds presentin the chimney, ask that peopleeverseethem at rest.Chimney swifu they come back later in the fall to complete are so specializedin their adaptationto the work. Professionalsweepsshould be clinging on vertical surfacesthat they can- well awarethat swifts are protected under not perch or stand on their legsin the way the Migratory Bird TreatyAct, and that fines that most other birds do. The feet of the and penaltiescould be applied to anyone chimney swift have four grappling hook- who knowingly destroysbirds or neststhat shapedtoeswith clawsthat can hold on a might contain eggsor young. Finally,chimroughened surfaceand partly support the neys lined with metal should always be bird while the stiffened tail featherswith capped,asbirds that enterthesecan easily exposedspiny tips bolster it aswell. These becometrapped. traits have servedto allow swifts to make the adfustmentfrom treesto chimneys. Resources Swifts not only roost in chimneys, but build nestsin them. Thesenestsare small Anyone interested in swifts and seeking cup-shapedstructuresconstructedof small more information about them can contact twigs and glued to the chimney wall with the Driftwood Wildlife Associationat the saliva.They are not a fire hazard,being far addresslisted in Appendix 1. The associatoo small, but should alwaysbe removed tion publishes a newsletter(Chateura)that afterthe birds haveleft in the fall. This also providesuseful information on thesebirds does the swifts a favor, both by removing and howto help conserveand protectthem. bird parasitesas well as the nest structure itself, which might be used by returning A Last Word swifts,but could be unstableenoughto colOne approachto dealingwith diminishing lapseduring the nestingperiod. If swifu are in a chimney during spring nesting habitat for swifts is being underor summerit is almostalwaysa singlebreed- takenby the DrifnrroodWildlife Association The ing pair. Varyrngsomewhat from north to and the U.S.National BiologicalSurvey. south, brooding and raising of the young North AmericanChimney Swift NestSiteRetakesplacebetweenluneandAugust.Asthey searchProject designsand tests alternate prepareto migrate south in the early fall, nestingstructuresfor swifu. The most elaboswifts congregate,sometimesin the hun- rate of these is an extra-largebirdhousedreds,to usea singlechimneyasa roost.The reallyan artificial chimney,12to 20 feethigh nightlyretum of foragingbirdsis impressive, and2x 2 feetin dimension.Monitoring and as they dart into the chimney at dusk with testing effiortsare still under way to perfect an uncanny qmchronization that must be an efficient, inexpensivestructure and to highly organized,evenif it looks confused. determine how best to place and maintain There are a few simple rules regarding them. Plansillustratingthis conceptand furswifts in chimneys.First,delaythe annual ther information on swifts are available deaning until afteryoung haveleft the nest. through the Driftwood Wildlife Association.

Chipmunks

Theoneeasternandmany westernspeciesof chipmunks arefound almostanywhere thereare woodsor evenscrub brushlands. Usually in stonewalls, underwalkwaysor patios or in theflowergarden. Theburrowof one chipmunk thatlivedto a venerable ageof sixwas accessedby at leastthirty different entrances overits lifetime. Psoprs wHo LrvE NEARA woooror of any size arelikelyto havechipmunksasneighbors.More obvious in the woodsthan outsidethem, theselittle ground squiirelsStill occasionallymake homes in yards (so long as they do not haveto dealwith their greatenemy,the housecat).Thesearecompletelyenjoyableanimals,and there'sa lot more to sayabout the pleasurethat comesfrom havingthem around than about any kinds of problems they may pose. A few quiet moments in the woods, sitting and watching,reveals one,closeby,then anothe! farther away,and anotherand sometimes evenmore going about their own business.It is clearthat theseanimals areawareof one another,and a disturbanceor threatthat frightensone spreadsrapidlyto the othersthrough the cascadeof scolding barks used to signal alarm. All become alert and, if the disturbance is real, disappearinto holes that are barely noticeableeven after having watchedthe animals use them. Then they come out,

Chipmunks cautiously,to resumethe seriousbusiness that was intemrpted.

NaturalHistory Classificatiananil Range Chipmunksarea memberof the samefamily of animalsasthe largertreesquirrels(the Sciuridae).There is one speciesof eastern chipmunk (Tamiasstriarus)and more than twenty speciesof western chipmunks (Eutomia.sspp.) spread throughout the United Statesand Canada.The easternchipmunk rangesthroughout New England,the mid-Atlantic regions of the United States and correspondingareasto the north in Canadathrough about the middle of the continent. The western speciestake up where the easternleavesoff and virtually coverthe rest of the continent. Chipmunks are commonlY distinguishedbythe broad stripesalongtheback. The easternchipmunk is largerthan most of the westernspecies,reaching10 inches (with tail) and weighing between 2-4 ounces.

Diet Chipmunksdependprimarily on plantsfor food, concentratingon seedsand berriesas well asacornsand other nuts.They alsoeat occasionalinsects,small amphibians and, in rare instances,birds. Like squirrels,their foraging is most intensein the fall as they gather food to store and use over the winter.Transportingfood to lardersis facilitated into which by the expandablecheekpouches quite a lot of materialcanbe crammed-as anyonewhowatchestheseanimalsforlong find outs. Chipmunks sleepthrough much

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Habitat Chipmunks tend to favor deciduousforests with plenty of beech and oak trees.They may be most common around the edgeof woods where they can also forageout into other habitat to add to their larder.Chipmunks readily adapt to suburbangardens with natural landscapingand often digburrowsaround rock andwoodpiles,retaining walls and fallen logs.Theycan easilyclimb treesbut spend much of their time foraging along the ground. Chipmunks are active by day (diurnal).

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WTLO NPICHBORS

of the winter but awakeperiodicallyto eat stored food and may even appear out and about during warm spells.

Reproduction

Problemsand Their Solutions Problems

Chipmunks do not usually causeproperty damage although they sometimesare said to injure omamental plants as they harvest fruits and nuts. It is easyto attribute squirrel damageto chipmunks and, unless an offender is caught in the act, often impossible to tell which speciesis involved when both are present. Like squirrels,chipmunks occasionallydig up and eat spring flowering bulbs, such as crocus.Somepeople get annoyedwhen chipmunks burrow in flower beds or under Burcows sidewalks and porches, but the burrows almost neverare extensiveenough to cause Chipmunkburrows havebeenexcavated by a number of investigatorsto revealtheir in- structural damage.Chipmunks found in, ternal structure.TWotypes of systemshave doors are there accidentallyand will leave beendiscovered.The first is relativelysimple, as soon as the homeowner providesthem with one or two tunnels leadingto a single with a meansto do so. chamberthat is probably only a temporary home used by young their first winter. The Solutions othersare much more complex,with mul- TornnexcE tiple openingsand tunnels leadingto nest- Most peopleenjoywatchingtheseattractive ing chambers,food storageareasand as animals,thinking the enjoymentoutweighs much asa hundred feetoftunnel. Like many any nuisancethey may cause.We agree,and burrowinganimals,chipmunkswill usetree althoughwe will go on to mention a couple roots, rocks, sidewalksand any other firm of the common methods of excluding or object as support abovetheir er
Chipmunks

85

A Last Word RnprrrnNrs There are no repellents registeredfor use If you havechipmunks in your yard, watch on chipmunks, primarily becausethey and enjoy them. have never been identified as causing significant enough damageto merit the elaborate seriesof tests necessaryfor ap- Additional Source proval. Commercial repellentslabeled to repel squirrelswill undoubtedly also repel Wishner,L. 1982.EasternChipmunks. WashinSon,D.C.:SmithsonianInstituchipmunks where both speciesare implition Press.I44 PP. catedin damage.

Cougars

Foundin thewesternUnited StatesandCanada,witha verysmallremnantpopulation in the FloridaEverglades. Notusually foundwhere peopleare;contactsand

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t.-': encounters areinfrequent and uncommon. Therearemorenamesfor cougarslistedin dictionaries than for anyotheranimalin the world-in NorthAmericaalone therearetwenty-five Native American andfortyEnglish namesfortheseanimals.

TUE coucAR, oR MouNTATNLroN, is the l st wildcat found in North America,exceptwhen once about everyten yearsa jaguar straysonto U.S,tsoil somewherealong our southwesternborder:With Mexico. Cougarswere once distributed througlrout almost all of North and South America but are ""# greatly diminished in number and presence.Their demisefollows the usualpattem:persecutionby humansand lossof habitat. Evenwith bounties and a concertedcommitment to eradicatetheseanimalsas "varmints" they managedto persistlong enough that our changingpolicies about predatorswere enough to buy a slight reprieve.Now that they are protected in many areas,there is hope they might finally be safe. The spreadof human developmentinto cougarhabitat has led to talk of a new threat, however.Increasingcontactsbetweenhumans and cougarshavebeenraisedby someasa portent that attack,iniury and even fatal encounterscan be expected.In fact, such eventsare highly rare.There have been only thirteen fatal encountersby humans with cougarsin the last century.To put this into perspectivq about 300 peoplehavebeenkilled by beestingsand more than 1,000 have died in hunting-related accidentsfor eachfatality from cougars. Many more peopleareattackedand iniured eachyearby goatsthan by

Cougars thesebig cats,yet little mention is evermade ofthe dangersto humansfrom goat attacks' It is, of course,sensibleand appropriate to seekways to lower the risk of attack by cougars.It makesno senseat all, however, that this goal is takenby someto meanthat the entire population, not fust the offending animals, must be controlled. Harkening back to the turn of the century when predators were universally regarded as "bad" animals,the cougaris coming under renewedpressure.We know now that there areno "bad" species:eachservesa purpose in nature'sschemeof things.Nowwe stand readyto make a mistake astragic asthat of our forefathersin persecutingwholepopulations of thesebig catsfor the harm done by a few individual cougars.

Natural History Classificationand Range When Europeansfirst arrived in the New wasprobWorld, the cougar(Felkconcolor) ably the most broadly ranging mammal they encountered,being found from the tip of South America, north into southern Canada.Almost immediately upon settlement, the easternpopulation of theseanimals waspursuedto near extinction' Today only a small remnant population remains Westernpopulain the Florida Everglades. although they better, tions manageda little were locally extirpatedin many places. Cougarsarelargeand formidablepredators. Males are on averagealmost 50 percent largerthan females,averagingbetween 120 and 150 pounds comparedto about 75to 100poundsforfemales.Includingthe tail, males can be more than 6 feet long, while femalesareusuallyabout 5 feetlong' The long tail itself is a key to identifring cougarsbecausethe only animal close in

that might sharethe samehabiappearance tat is the bobcat, who has but a stub to call its own tail.

Habitat Cougarsrangethroughout a wide variety of habitats, but really require fairly large undisturbed areaswith vegetation suitable to supporting deer,their favorite prey. Places where humans have settledor foreststhat have been cut tend to be avoided by these animals.Their ability to movelong distances meansthat cougarsmight apPearin seemingly inappropriate habitat areas,even placesdenselysettledby humans.Suchappearancesare almost alwaysbrief' with the animal moving along quickly in its search for a suitablepermanenthome.

Diet Cougars are exclusively meat-eatets ot carniuores.Although they will eat a wide variety of small- to medium-sized mammals, such as porcupine, raccoon and opossum, they strongly prefer deer and are generally recognized as dietary specialists on these animals. Deer and cougars have probably co-evolved over a long period of time, duringwhich cougars havebecome more adept at preying on deer and deer have become adept at avoiding being made a meal. One story is told of a cougar raised from birth in captivity that was quite tame and used by its o\Mnerto cap natural history talks by making a grand entrance on a leash iust asthe talk was winding to a conclusion. One of these, given at a museum, was never completed because the cougar, waiting outside the lecture hall, was led past a display that included a stuffed white-tailed deer.Instinctively, without any sound or smell to guide it, and without ever having seen a deer, the

88

Wrro NsrcHnoRS

cougarleapt, shatteringthe glassto the dis- and pets. Cougarswill kill even fairly large play and profoundly startling its anendant, animals, including cattle, although like not to mention itself. most predators, they prefer young or smaller prey. Historically,cougardepredaReproduction tions on livestock have been mostly resuicted to the Southwest.Estimatesof the Cougarsbreed year-round, although there impact are debated,with lessthan I percent may be ceftain times, such as the spring, of all lossesgenerallyregardedas an accuwhen breeding is more likely than others. rate average.Individual livestock ranchers Many of the long-rangemovementsmade may be hard hit when a cougar repeatedly by male cougarsoccur during searchesfor preys on their herd, but as alwaysin such sexually receptivefemales.No long-term male-femalebonds appearto occur,how- casesof depredation,it is an individual ever,and the sexesavoid one another after animal that is a problem, not the larger mating has taken place. Gestation takes population. Cougarattackson humans are about three months, with from one to six increasinglyregardedaspotential problems (averagingrwo to three) kittens born in a in some parts of the country, even though litter. The siteschosenfor raising kittens are they are very rare. often quite open and not o
Cougars prey behavior and provoke an attack. Remain standing and try to appearlarger,by raisingyour arms or opening your iacket. An umbrella rapidly opened and closed while facing the animal can be highly intimidatiirg. Otherwise, throwing rocks or sticksand yelling are advised.Do not approach the cougar and ocpect it to be intimidated. In the unlikely eventof an attack, it is recommended that you fight back in any way that you can. Peoplehavesuccessfully intimidated attacking cougarsby hitting them with sticks,their hands,baseball capsand evengardentools. Of course,hiking or iogging with a partner is a practical step when using backcountry trails. With children it is alwaysbest to keep them especially close at hand. The same goesfor companion animals.It is prudent to keep your dog on a leash, and, in many Parks and backcountry areas,it is the rule.

89

a long way toward lowering the possibility of visits from cougars. RBpnLrsNrs Although there are no registeredrepellents for use on cougars,the pepper (capsaicin) sprayssold to deter attacksby dogs and humans should be effective in the extreme unlikelihood of a closeencounterwith one of thesecats.No products are known to repel theseanimalsfromyards or areasaround houses,althoughthe manybrandsof repellents usedto keep domestic catsawayfrom flowerbedsor gardensmay alsodo the same iob with cougars.

A Last Word Like many speciesof witd animalsthatwere persecutedand driven nearly to extinction, the cougaris making a comeback.A lot of the credit for this hasto be given to the animal itself becauseit was only by its hardiness and adaptability that it managed to survivethe time when people were entirely bent on exterminating it. The majority of us no longer want to do that and are willing to question the few that still feel so inclined. The concePtthat cougar populations have to be hunted to keep their numbers low enough so that they do not conflict with humans is a remnant of the philosophy that all cougarsarebad' Both argumentsare groundless-one an earlier misconception that we haveput behind us, the other a current one that still

Henttet MeNecSMENT The possibility of visits by cougarsto residential areascanprobablybe reducedwith a few simple procedures.First, it is recommencedthat wildlife (raccoons,deer and other mammals) not be fed. This activity, which we also discouragefor other reasons statedearlierin this book, can lead to visits by cougarsseekingtheir normal prey.Dense and low-lyingvegetation or thickets can be removedor pruned to allow good visibility and discouragea cougarfrom trying to use them as cover. Good lighting around the housecan be both a deterrentaswell asreassurancethat any animal (especially awaitsretirement. skunks) would be seenbefore one blundered into them. Pets should be kept in- Additional Source side or in a secureoutdoor kennel, and 1992. Cougar.Flagstaff, Aiz.: livestock should be housed in secureout- Hansen, K. Northland Publishing. 129 PP. door buildings. Thesesimple stepscan go

Coyotes

Coyotesarefoundthroughout virtually allof NorthAmerica andareincreasing their presencein urbanareas. Whenseen,whichis rarely, it willbe passingthrough theyardor inspecting the garden. Sincethe 1960s,coyotes havemovedbackto almostallthe eastern states-even NewJersey, the mosturbanized state of themall.

TuEcoyorErst"r *o*ffi secutedanimal in No ,Acmerica. Coyoteshavebeen hunted;i@ped, poisoned,dug out of dens,shot from&

air, gassed, burnedand killed usin$]niii#fi dogs.And theseareonly a fewof the lessbarbaric

methods of destroyingthem. This all has been part of an ongoing strugglebetweenthosewho raiselivestockfor human consumption and coyotethe predator,whose nature it is to hunt. By killing unwary coyoteswe humans have provided this species with only the best geneticmaterial to deal with the technotoe# w" aim at them. New sffategies,newer tools, more extensiw proj*-, and more and more resourcesareaimed at the coyote to lessda*, avail,and the fewvoicesthat suggestlooking at an ecologicailllbasea, solution that acknowledges coyotesasan inevitablep*n or,n" qqqr ral sceneare ignored. In the faceof the most determinedassarrlts, the coyotehasc6rne back to placesfrom where it had been extirpated,op*na*d ie rarre" into placesit has not been known beforeand evenhasbeeun tu .iplore the possibility of settling down with humans in th"eir,rrba' and suburbandevelopments.

Coyotes

Natural History Classificationand Range The coyote (Canis lotrans)is a member of the same family to which foxes, dogs and wolves belong. The word coyoteis derived from the Azteccoyotl,which loosely means "trickster."This animal's sharpenedinstincts,adaptability,intelligenceand hardinesswerewell known to all of the original Americans, in a way that later colonizers seem to have been unable to fathom, respected.Nothing betterillustratesthe adaptability of the coyotethan the fact that it is one of only a few speciesthat are distributed throughout all of North America.Only where their larger cousins,the gray (C. lupus) and red (C. rufus) wolves,have established themselvesare coyoteslikely to be absent.

Habiut Coyoteshaveadaptedto virtually all biomes (areashabitable to wildlife) in North America.They may prefer grasslands,wooded hill counuy or wooded drainages,in part becausetheseareareaswhereprey arecommon, but theY are also found in scrub, deserts,Alpine heights and the subarctic tundra. Foxand coyoteterritoriesmay overlap, but as direct competitors the presence of one speciesusually signalsa lack of the other.Coyotesaretelritorial, with the males marking their boundaries,as many canids do, with urine signposts.The sizeof the territory is directly relatedto the quality of the habitat, and often it can take severalsquare miles to support a coyotefamilY.

Diet Coyotes are opportunistic feeders who make use of an astonishingvariety of plant

and animal foods. In rural settingstheir diet may consistmainly of rabbits(or hares)and rodents,suchasvoles,with occasionalvegetablefoods suchasberriesand acomsand someinsectsto round out the list. In urban settingspet food, pets themselves(primarily cats),human food wastesand garden becomealtemativefood sources. vegetables Coyotesarecapableof inflicting substantial damageon livestock,primarily during the birthing season,and this is the characteristic of the speciesthat most bringsthem into conflict with PeoPle.

Reproiluction Coyotesprobably matefor life, although not as much is known about the phenomenon of pairbondingbetweenmale and female as we would like. Throughout most of their range, coyotes breed during February or March and give birth in April or May' The den may be an enlargedfox burrow a rock ledge caveor a shallow pit under a windblown tree.Litter sizevaries,depending in part, upon environmentalconditions aswell ascoyotepopulation density.Gestationaveragessixty-threedays,with an averagelitter size of six pups in older females'Oneand two-year-old females tend to have smallerfirst litters,averagingthreepups' The femalenursesthe pups forup to two months, but starts offering regurgitated meals as early as three weeks.This form of feeding is widespreadamong canids and representsan economicalway of weaning young from milk to semisolid meals.It is also a convenientway to transport food for animals that do not havepockets.The pups mature quickly and are fully independent at about nine months.The male coyoteprovides protection and food for the mother and offspringuntil the offspringareableto hunt for themselves.

92

WTLO NPICHBORS

Public Health Coyotes,like all warm-blooded animals, may contract rabies.Their close kinship makes coyotessusceptiblewhere there are populationsof unvaccinateddomesticdogs and is the principal reasonthat an outbreak or epizootic, of rabieshas recentlyoccurred in partsof the Southwest.

Problems and Their Solutions Problems

occurred.Then the ofifendingindividual or pair is removed and other coyotesleft un_ molested.This strategyrecognizesthat it is better to leavecoyotesthat do not kill livestock on their territories alone so that they will keep other coyotes,who might be livestock killers, away.Thesamestrategyis also true for suburbia. DoMesrlc Pnrs Individual coyotescan be seriouspredators on catsand small dogs.Coyotesareprima_ rily nocturnal, and owners can minimize risk by not letting their pets out at night. It is most important not to attract coyotesby leaving any pet food, water or food storage areasavailableto them. Good housekeeping and trash sanitation will also conffib_ ute to discouraging coyote activity near residences. In areaswherethereis little natu_ ral tree cover,those who must leave cats outdoors can help protect them by install_ ing "catposts." Thesecanbe anygpe of long climbable wooden post (4 x 4 or corner posts)that stand out of the ground at least 6 to 8 feet. This post givesthe outdoor cat an escapefrom pursuing coyotes.

In the West, the long bitter war fought against the coyote as a depredator of live_ stockis its own issue.Bookshavebeenwritten about it, and little of what it hasmeant should be discussedhere.It is imponant to note how much of the bitternessand mis_ understanding of these animals transfers from range to suburb. In cities and towns where there are suitable habitars,coyotes will kill free-roamingpetsand occasionally do some damageto home gardens.Exactly how much conflict therewill be remainsto be seen.First contactsare only now being made as the coyote, adapting as it goes, Hesrrer MaNecEMENT makesits way into this new environment. Coyotescan only eat refusethat is improp_ erly storedor disposedof. High-qualitygar_ Solutions bage canswith tight-fitting lids will solve TorrnaNcn most problems.If coyotesare able to get at Often, people live with coyotesnearbyand them, the cansshould not be put street-side neverseethem. Occasionalnight choruses until the morning of scheduledpickup. are the only evidencethat they are there. When especiallyattractive food wasteslike Unlessthey causea specificproblem there chicken,fish or leftoverpet food arebagged, is no reasonto worry about coyotes.Even a small amount of ammoniacanbe added in the most intensebattlegroundson west_ to the bag. If it will be severaldays before em rangeland,the perceptionof theseani_ garbagepickup, either temporarily freeze mals and the formerlyimperative,,need',to thesewastesor haul them immediatelyto a control their populations are changing. dumpster or other suitable storageconMany ranchersnow only attempt to capture tainer.As we have said elsewhere and will or kill animals when specificdamagehas repeatedlystress,the feeding of coyotesor

Coyotes

93

Rgpgrl.gr*Irs Thereareno repellentsregisteredforuse on coyotes.The aversiveagentsused for dogs and cats,however,should work to discouragethese animals where both are a problem (seeChapter3).

no good has come of the massiveprograms to suppressthis species-not for humans, their economic interests,for the environment and certainlynot for coyotes.The coyote reboundsagainstour attaclisand retums despite the most intensive efforts to eradicateit. That ability only heightensthe feelings of antipathy some havetoward them' A perpetual cycle of violence is createdin the absenceof anytrue understandingof the possibileharmonyof peopleand coyoteson the land. Likeall cydes,this onewill be broken only by an applied force. Fortunately, reasonis a force, and we still have time to appty it before urban and suburban coyote problemsdevelopa legendof their own'

A Last Word

Additional Sources

otherwild animalswrites a prescription for conflict. BecrYenn ExcrusloN Poultry or hobby livestockcan be well protected from coyotes with fencing (both structuraland electric)and by ensuringthat the animals are properly confined in wellbuilt cagesor Penseachevening.

"Coyote:The Species Our conflicts with coyoteshave opened a Kinkead,E. 1978. Indestructible."lnWildnessls '\ll around window on ourselvesas much as on these Us.New York E. P.Dutton.-47-88' clevercanids.Bruteforce and bitter feelings Defiant' TheCoYote: havebeensomethingof an order of the day Ieydet, F. 1977. San,FrancisFct' West. the of Songdog for so long asto becomeculturally instituChronicleBooks.222 PP,' : tionalized in parts of the country' Clearly,

Crows

Widelydistributed, year-round residents throughout the UnitedStates;alsowidely distributed throughout mostof Canada,buttendto only summerthere. Seenin yards,alongthe streets, especially on trashcollection day andoftenroostin largenumbers in urbanwoodlots.

Cnows oRrcrNALLywEREwHrrE, but the Greek goddessAthene turned them black after one of their Makeat leasttwenty-three kind brought her bad newsconcerningher family. She distinctvocalizations in also forbade them to everland at the Acropolis,but communicating withother we don't know whether or not that sanctionis still in crows. effea. Therearecertainly no suchsanctionsin any city in North America,where thesebirds havefound,sa6 and comfortablehavens.Thereis fairly good evid& to show this uend is quite recent-traditionat rooriirrg areas in tlip country have been abandonedfor those in towns ahi cities. M crows still commute, however,to forage in outlyingtgricultural areas.Human commuterscan seethem acrossthe slqrri aming purposefullyin one direction at dawn and the opposite at dusk.d", or thousandsof thesebirds can occupyurban *otdlotr, raising human anger.overthe noise and commotion they cause,as well as raising concernfor the potential transmissionof diseasethrough the accu_ mulation of their droppings. Too often overlooked is ttre rnaryel of adaptationthat crowsrepresent:hi ghly intelIigenLperceptivd, sOlially skilled and ecologicallyadaptablerepresenratives of the order.'o which they belong.Thereis much more to thesebirds than -..ai the eye and, sadly,far lesshuman attention directedat them than thereshould be in attemp$ to understandwhat their life storv is.

Crows at that time. Nestscanbe anywherein areas with blocks of treesand, although it is rarq evenoccursometimeson the ground.UsuClossificationanil Range ally four to six eggsare laid and incubated The Americancrow (Coruusbrachyrhynchos) over a period of about eighteen days.The is one member of a fairly large group of young are tended in the nest until they are birds that also includes many varieties of ready to fledge at about a month of age. jays,magpiesand birds like the common What happensbeyond that is somewhat raven (Co:us corax),which is more of a speculative,but the close associationof denizenof remoteand mountainousareas crows in groups suggeststhat related birds than its cousinthe crow.TheAmericancrow flockwith one anotherintothewintel when is found acrossmost of the rest of the winter roosting grouPsform. United Statesall year long and Canadain the summer.Its closerelative,the fish crow is found along the east- Public Health (Coruusossifagus) ern seaboard,while the northwesterncrow The most important public health issuein(Corauscaurinus)is found on the other side volving crowscomeswith the accumulation of the continentinWashingtonand Alaska' of fecaldroppingsat roostsand the potenBoth of thesemay be more specializedin tial for histnplasmosis to occur there.The istheir habitat preferencesand selectionthan suesand precautionsassociatedwith this the American crow. One speciesof crow, diseaseare discussedin Chapter2' Coruusimpararus,hasiust begunto make its way north into the United Statesfrom Mexico,and is commonly seenonly at the Problemsand municipal dump in Brownsville,Texas'

Natural History

Their Solutions

Habitat The American crow is tolerant of many different habitats and has a specialaffinity for agricultural or urban settings that often brings it into conflict with humans. Still, thesebirds usealmost any combination of woodland, farmland, orchardor suburban neighborhood, as long as enough shelter and suitable treesfor nesting are available'

Reproiluction Crowsareprobably monogamousand mate for life; we iust don't know for sure.We do know that they start nest-building in early spring and canoften be seencarryingbuilding materialsof bark, branchesand twigs

Problems Crows can causedamageto agricultural or garden crops that rangesfrom pulling up seedlingsto harvestingfruit and attacking grain cropssuch ascorn. Occasionalbullying of other birds occursat feeders,although this is not a serious concern. Crows are predatorson other birds and take a toll of nestlings,which may,in combination with the many other factorsof mortality or nesting failure that afflicts songbirds,havea cumulative negative effect. Crow damageto trash is widespreadand perhapsthe classic way in which they come into conflict with homeowners,although it is often confused with damagecausedby other species.

96

WILO NEICHNORS

Solutions TornnaNcn As anyonewho hasraisedan orphanedcrow or studied this bird to any CI(ent canvouch fot crows have a high degreeof what we would call intelligence-which may mean nothing more than that they are sociable and solveproblemsin waysa human being would. Most of the timeswe encounterthem in yards and around neighborhoodsare timeswhen they arenot really causingprob_ lems.Then, they should be left alone (and appreciated). ExcrusloN Keepingcrows out of trash is easy,as long as intact and relatively secureuash recep_ tacleswith tight-fitting lids areusedconsis_ tently. Trashbagsplacedalongsidethe curb or overfilled bins will invariably artract crows,who easilyopen the bagsto retrieve what theywant. This damageis done by day; scatteredtrash that has been left out over_ night is the work of others-dogs or, per_ haps, raccoons.Usually, daytime offenses can be observed,and the homeownerwill know for sure whether it,s crows or not. If so, securingthe trash is the key to solving theprobl€rl, and the simpledevicesshown in Figure2l arc more than adequate.Usu_ ally, simply putting lids on is enough. Scann Dnvrcps Visual and auditory scaredevicescan be quite effectiveagainstcrowsand can either be homemade,suchasthe pie tins hung out in the garden,or commercialproductssuch as scaretape or balloons (seeChapter 3). Pyrotechnics,auditory alarms and scare_ crowsor effigiescan alsoworh but must be used consistentlyto be effeaive, and often arerestrictedin urban areasbecauseof noise ordinances.

GrowRoosts Althoughmanystatesdo not accordthemprotectedstatus, andthe federallawsregarding migratory birdshavebeen waivedin regardto crows,there shouldbe no effortslaunched againstthemwithouttacit approvalof federaland state authorities. Thisespecially appliesto roosts.Alteringroosts or dispersing birdsfromthem involves tacticsthat require experience andexpertise to successfully implement. Some relatively noninvasive methods of afteringroostinghabitatso that largeaggregations of crows do not occuraroundresidential areascan be employedwith success,providing thatthe timingis correctandthatthe measures usedto dispersethe crowsarecarefully plannedand programmed. Betterstillis the dedication of woodlotspaceto roostingcrowsand the provisionof adequateprotection and securityso thattheydo not conflictwithpeopleand people do notconflictwiththem.

Crows

97

Figure 21.SimPlene' downsor weigh* on gorbagecanscan ffictively exclude manykindsof animak,including crowsand raccoons, from gainingaccess.

their populations expandit would be prudent to begin the researchand long-term studiesof urban crowsthatwill help to head Crowsarecurrentlyenioyinga sort of golden off problems beforethey become critical' era,where the pursuit and destructionthey facedin the pasthaswanedat the sametime that they haveleamedhow to useurban and Additional Source suburbanneiglrborhoodsto their advantage' Crows,Magpiqsand Rauens, Hopefully, peoplewill recognizeand appre- Angell, T. 1978. of W4,$hin$on University /ays.Seattle: ciatethem for their intelligence and adaptPress.112PP. ability and enjoy their antics. However,as

A Last Word

Deer

Two forms,the white-and black-taileddeer,range throughoutmost of North America,

Peopleencounter deerin park andopen-space areas,and aroundtheirhomes,asthese animalsbecomeincreasingly adaptedto suburban andurban environments, Thedeer'shairis hollow, makingit a superbinsulator thatprotectsthe animaleven whenit is brutally cold outside.

DEpn ARE oNE oF THE Mosr easilyrecognized wild animalsin North America,and in many places arethe largesttype ofwildlife peopleencounter.Not long ago, deer were hunted so intensively.they,.!f;.€ft almostcompletelyortirpatedfrom -rny pa.tr or*ti, counrry. Today, thanks to years of effioh to rQstoie, populations, they are thriving. In fact, some arguethat deer oop.,-" lationshaveexpandedbeyondacceptablelimits, surpassins nu*an, tolerance,irreparably damaging natural plant communi-,i", *a, adverselyaffectingtheir own numbersaspopulationsburgeon be_' yond the limit that the animalsthemselvesneedto ,emainlealthy; Even among the experts,however,there is considerabledebate asto what "too many dee{' means.while generationsof researe}r_ ersstroveto understandhow to improve deerhabitats and intreaselu the sizeof deerherds,Iittle attention was focusedon tt i"rg", ir-t' sueof deeras membersof ecologicalcommunities.No " one tiro*., yet whether the so-calleddeer overpopulationis a shortorilorrg_ term phenomenon. No one can saywhether or not des po,puti_., tions will regulatethemselvesbefore doing significantdamag. to the environment,nor under what circumstances regulriilon ilignt, or might not occur.Beyondsuch concemsit is a simple ract that

Deer

99

as much as 30 miles apart. Where winter snowsare significant,deer"yatds" may occurunder evergreencoverwherelargenumdeer Everywhere, bersof animalscongregate. ronges. home are faithful to areas called led to intolerance. Home rangesare believedto be sharedby related femalesthat form matriarchiesand excluderelatedmalesafterthey havereached sexual maturity. Deer can be active at any Classificationond Range time of day or night, but are most comThe term "deef' can apply to severaldiffer- monly seenforagingor moving around sunent kinds of animals in North America,in- setand sunrise.(Thistype of activitypattem duding suchwell-known speciesas moose, is denoted by the term crepuscular.) elk and reindeer.The two smallestand most numerous North Americandeer belong to Mule and black-tailed Diet the genusOdocoilats. restrictedmostly to are (O. hemionus) deer Deerareprimarilyherbivores,althoughthey parts of the continent, the middle to western occasionallyhavebeen observedsampling while white-tailed deer (O. uirginianus)ate such incongruousfoods as deadfish' Their found almost continent-wide exceptfor the feeding habits and preferencescan vary northern tier of Canadaand partsof the far widely from one location to another,but West in the United States. eachlocal population seemsto have "pt"Deer are highly variable in size,ranging ferred" foods that are chosen first, "marfrom the endangeredKey deer of south ginal" foods that are eaten only after the Florida that rarely exceed60 pounds, to a preferred become rare and "starvation" closelyrelatedsubspeciesfarther north that foods that probably have no nutritional reports males averagingmore than 400 value,but areeatenbecauseno other choices pounds. are available. Deer eat an enormous variety of plants Habitat and eat different parts of plants in all sealeavesof growing plants Mule deerappearmore tolerant of semiarid sons.The succulent summer,while fruits and spring grasslandsthan the white-tailed deer,but areeatenin consumed as they become both speciesocctlpy a wide variety of habi- and seedsare buds of woody plants comtats. Deer are traditionally thought of as a available.The of the diet in winter' Hard mainstay woodland species,but are actually ideally prise a as hickory nuts and suitedto exploiting "edge"habitat. Edgesare mast foods, such important compocreatedwhere a natural or human-made acoms,are an octremely diets, when winter early and fall of nent habitatbreakoccurs,asin going from woods need to esanimals, wild to croplandsor pasture,or from woods to deer,like many quite selecbe can marshlands.One area(thewoods)provides tablish fat reserves.Deer and are known to coverand shelterwhilethe other (farmland tive about certain foods In more favor heavily fertilized ornamental and garor marsh)providesfood resources. that have not been northerly latitudesdeermay have"summer" den plants aboveothers and "winter" home range areasthat can be so well fertilized.

many Americans are unfamiliar with deer and unaccustomedto seeingthem,or damagedonebythem, aroundtheirhomes.This lack of familiarity itself seemsoften to have

Natural History

t oo

Wrln NErcHsoRS

Reproduction

difFerentgeographicareas.This period is termed the "rut" and involves dramatic Breeding occurs from October to January physiological aswell asbehavioralchanges with the time of onsetvarylngslightly across in male deer.The necks of males,for example, swell to more than twice their normal diameter during this time, in 0rphanDeer preparationfor the quite seriouscontestsof Everyyearwildlifedepartments strength that usually determine mating rights. Nervous and almost constantly acandwildliferehabilitators receive tivg males during the rut are often oblivicallsabout"orphaned" fawns ous to vehiclesand frequently are so driven thatpeoplehavestumbfed by eventsthat they wander into residential areasand placeswheretheywould neverbe acrossin the woods.Worse, seenotherwise.Gestationis about 200 days, theyareoftenfacedwiththe and from one to three fawns areborn in the spring,the number conceivedbeing in part prospectof a concerned indidependenton the nutritional condition of vidualappearing at theirdoor the doe at the time of mating.

withtheanimalin hand!lt is a perfectlynaturaloccurrence in the springto comeacrossa deerfawnby itselfin the woods. Thefawnis actuallynot alone; its motheris nearbyandcertainlywillbe awareandattentive.Thestrategydeerhave evolvedto dealwiththeirprimarypredators(whichonce werewolfand bear)is to leave theiryounghiddenexceptwhen feedingthem.Theadviceto anyoneencountering a fawnin the woodsis to leaveit alone, withthe assurance thata solicitousandanxiousmotherwillbe nearbyandwiflbe takingcareof it onceyoumoveoff.

Public Health Deer are important hosts of the tic}s that carry Lyme disease,although their role in contributing to the spreadand prevalence of this public health hazardis currentlyde_ bated.The tick most commonly associated with Lyme diseaselives on deer only as an adult and has alternatehosts for this life stage,and decreasingdensitiesof deer do not affectthe production of newticks.Cari_ bou and elk areknown carriersof brucello_ sis,but their role in transmittingthis disease to livestockor humans remainsunclear.

Problems and Their Solutions Problems Deer damage is usually not difficult to de_ termine, as these large herbivores are capable of rapid and widespread impacts, especially to small gardens or landscaped areas.Where deer damage might be confused with that inflicted by rabbits orwoodchucks, look for

Deer

101

Figure22. Deerand rabbit browsecan bedistinPkhed bY of twig the raged aqqearance ileerand the endsbrawsedbY of those neat,cliPPedaryearance browsedbYrabbi*.

a ragged,squared,torn apPearanceat the end of browsedtwigs (seeFigure22). Deer do not have upper incisors and do not neatly clip-browseas do other species.Another fairly obvious sign that deer are at work occurswhere browsing is obvious-3 to 5 feet from the ground (or even higher where snow accumulates).Woodlands in areasheavily populated with deer may exhibit a "browseline" in which the vegetationwill havea neatlytrimmed appearance up to the height they can reach.The forest floor is denudedof vegetationor completely dominated by plants that deer do not eat, such as hay-scentedfern. An identical appearanceoccurs,we should note, where cattle and other domestic livestock have beenpasturedfor any lengh of time' Deer sometimesdamagesmall elm Ueesby stripping their bark for food, but this phenomenon is relatively rare. More frequently, damageto small treesoccurswhen males rub their antlers along trunks, stripping them of bark.These"buckrubs" occurmost frequently in the fall, iust prior to the start of rut.

understandingand a tolerancefortheseanimals and the impactsthey sometimeshave on resourcesthat humans seekto protect' This certainly is not to say that all of the damagethat deermight causehasto be accepted,but onlythat it is inevitablethatsome will occurwhere deerand people shareliving space.Farmersand otherswhoselivelihood dependson agricultureseemto have long understood this and havemuch to say aboutthe ethicsoftoleranceand acceptance of nature'sway to those of us who might fussabout occasionalinconveniences'

Dnnn AND PLANTS Deer damagecan be considerablylessened and in some casespossibly eliminated all togetherby thoughtful landscapedesignthat givescare to both the selection and placement of plants. Some plants (hollies and barberriesaregood examples)will be eaten by deer only when succulentgrowth is appearing,if then. Others (such asthe popular annual plants, impatiens) are almost inesistibleto deer. A few statecooperativeextensionservices and others have begun publishing lists of plants that are tolerant of or actuallyresisSolutions tant to deer browsing. Those we are famil' iar with are listed below and should give ToLBneNcn placeto seekinformation for One of the best ways to addresscurrent somereadersa this, we encourage problems, as well as to look aheadto fu- their own areas.Beyond and with deer,is to encourage homeowners to contact local nursery ture coe>ristence

NrrcHsoRs

ElkandMoose

on what is being eaten andwhendamageis occurring the better. Sometimesthe best sourceof information can be a next-door neighbor.

Elkand moosearethe heavyweightsof the ungulate division. Here are some sourcesof information on Elk(Cervuselaphuslarefound plants susceptibleand resistant to deer browsing: throughout muchof the West. Themoose(Alcesalces)ismore Fargionne,M. I., P.D. Curtis,and M. E.Richmond. 1991."Resistance of Woody Ornanortherly in itsdistribution, but mental Plantsto Deer Damage."Cornell moreevenfydistributed CooperativeExtensionServicepublication No. 147HGFS800.00. throughout available habitat thanthe elk.Mooserangefrom Iensen,B. 199f. "GardeningaroundDeer.,, North Dakota Game and Fish Department NewEngland, norththroughall brochure. of CanadaandintoAlaska.ln Another factor in deer damage assess_ the Westtheyrangeas far ment and planning for landscapingis the southas ldaho.Themoosecan currentleuelof damage.When damage is slight to moderatea wider varietyof plants standup to 6 feettallat the can be grown and a simpler and less in_ volved set of strategiesemployed. Under shoulders andweighl,O0O heavybrowsingconditions the options are poundsor more,whiletheelk, more limited. Then, our recommendation at fessthanhalfthatweight,still is to either (1) enclosethe areasor plants completelyby using deer-prooffencing or remainsa formidably farge (2) limit the plantingsro thosespeciesthat animal. Themostseriousconare the most resistantto deer browsing. To flictswitheitherof theseanimals the extentthat it is possible the more natu_ ral the landscapingand the greaterthe num_ arecollisions withvehicies. As ber of nativeplant speciesthat areused,the dangerous as deer-vehicle better. Naturalized plantings are lesslikely to attract special attention from deer, and collisions are,the greatersizeof native speciesare more likely to have elkandmoosemakesuch evolved mechanismsto deter browsing or encounters tolerateits impact. evenmoreso, landscapingcompaniesfor advice.One fact we know conceming deer is that their feed_ ing habits and preferencesvary enormously evenwithin relatively small geographicar_ eas.Plantsthat arenot touchedin one place may be swerelydamagedby deerin another. Accordingly,the more local the information

HesrrAr MeNecpMENT One keyto predictingdeerproblemsis simply knowing the animals are present and taking stepsto deterthem beforethey cause damage.The tracks left by deer are easily recognizedand tell the homeownerthat the yard or nearby areasare placesused in the

Deer searchfor food or for travel.Tracksseenin or aroundthe gardencanbe a distinctwarning that any young plants set out in the springarelikelyto bevulnerable.It is asplants aresetout and not aftn damagebeginsthat appropriatestepsto protectthem should be taken. Plant covers(seeFigute 12, p. 36) and protectivenetting (seeFigure29,p. 88) on fruit treesaregood waysto provideprotection. Deer may be especiallyattractedto gardensin early spring when the plants there offer choicer and tastier morselsthan the slower-growingnativevegetation.Thus, damage may occur only until the native plant foods becomeavailable.

103

p. 37) or corrugatedplastic sleeves,as describedunder "Exclusion"in Chapter3, can be usedto preventdamage.Simplerprotection (that would not, however,withstand damage from beaversor voles) can be achievedby using 2-inch wooden stakes(see Figure\4,p.38), about4 to 5 feethigh,surroundingthe treeto be protected.Manygarden centerscarrythesetypes of stakes. Rnpnrrpxrs Avariety of products(includingsomehomemade remedies)can be usedto repel deer' Some work direaly by making the plants unpalatableto deer (taste and contact repellents), and otherswork by broadcasting an offensivesmell or a disturbing sight or sound(arearepellents).Thekeyto usingany repellent is to begin using \t immediately upon observingthe first signs of damage' With good reason,deer are extremelywary animalswho will avoidplacesin which they feel threatenedor insecure.If the gardener immediatelylaunchesa concertedeffort to repel these animals when the first signs of their presenceare found (usually tracks)' then best successis likely to be had' Consult the section on "Chemical Repellents" in Chapter 3 for information on specific commerciallyavailabletypesof repellents' Home remedies,suchassoap,hair and garlic, may be effectivein repelling deer from gardensand small orchards.

FnNclNc Wheredeerarea seriousproblem the most effectiveand permanent way to protect resourcessuchascropsor landscapeplants is to install deer-proof fencing. No other method, whether it involveslethal or nonlethal means, is as effectiveover the long term asthis. A varietyof fencedesigns(see Figures7 and 8, pp. 30 and 3t) havebeen developed,rangingfrom high-tensilestrand wiring that may be angled for better effectivenessto standard mesh-wovenwire' chain-link designsor varioustypesof electric wiring. The best type for any given area wilt dependon the situation, and local extensionorwildlife specialistsshould be consulted for their recommendationsbefore any expenseis incurred.Wheredeerdo have other availableforage,quite simple fences can sometimeskeepthem out of yardsand gardens.However,when they are stressed for food they may iump fencesup to 10feet in height. PRoTEcTINGTnnps Problemswith buck rubs occur frequently where small trees(2 to 6 feet) are planted in yards that may be crossedor used frequently by deer.Wrapping (seeFigute 13,

Scenn DnvIcEs Scarecrowsand effigiesmay repel deer unespeciallyif der appropriatecircumstances, go on by moto set Lights they are moving. or at gardens, tion sensorsmay help protect least alert the homeowner to the presence of something outside that should be checked.Scaretapeorballoons may alsobe effectivein frightening deer.The key to using scaringdevicesis to couple them with other strategiesand to vary them, moving

lo4

wrlo NprcHeoRS

scarecrows aroundor changingthe place sonal onset of rut. Deer waming signs at fromwhichthe frighteningstimuluscomes least alert the attentive driver to look for (whenthis canbe done). these animals on stretchesof road where

Educating Drivers Studentstakingdriver'seducationcoursesshoufdbe educatedaboutthe potentialhazardsposedby deer.In-service provided training, to groups suchas lawenforcement officers,shouldalsobe usedto provideinformation about reducingthe riskof deer-vehicle accidents. Not manypeople knowthat deerfrequenfly travel groups in andthatoneanimal seencrossinga roadat night can oftenbe followedby others, so thatit is a definitesignafto slowevenif a deeris seen crossingat a distance.

they might not be expected. Whereparticularlytroublesomestretches of road occur (usually roadwaysthat permit travel at high speedsthrough parks or woodedareas),high deermortalityand,presumably,high risk to driverscan occur.Often, little effort is made by authorities to identift and monitor such "hot spots,"but they usually acquirelocal reputations.Both highway and wildlife administrationscan work with such stretchesof road to try to reduceaccidents.Potential approachesinclude lowering speedlimits, removing vegetation from road edgesso that both driver and deer have better visibility, erectingwoven wire fencesto prevent or reroute deer crossingsor using an "optical" fenceas describedbelow.

HrcHwey RpprncroRs The Strieter-Lite@ highway reflector system (see "Highway Reflectors"in Appendix 2) consistsof a speciallymanufacturedplastic prism that is mounted along roadsideson steelfencepostsand at prescribeddistances that depend on road curvatureand topography. The lights from oncoming vehicles at night reflect acrossthe roadwayinto the areaofwoods orfield wheredeerare(seeFig_ ure 23). The light steersdeer awayfrom the D uen-VEHTcLEAccronNrs Deerareinvolvedin a substantialnumber of road when vehides are passing.The Erutem accidentswith vehicleseveryyeat with some hasbeenextensivelytestedand looks promrecentestimatesrangingashigh asa million isingin applicationswherethe reflectorshave deerdeathsnationwide. Certainly,increasing been maintained in good condition. Instalhuman populations, congestedroadways, lation on public roads, of course,requires drMng habits and the abuseof alcohol by planning and approvalthrough stateand losome who drive are contributory factors as cal Departmentof Transportationoffices. well. Many tools can be employedto address this issue,including public education.public A Last Word announcementsand radio spots during fall months can be used to alert drivers to in- There are some knotty problems ahead of creaseddeer actMty, common with the sea- us in our relationship with deer that will

Deer

105

!iii I

Figure23. AhighwaY reflecnr,or "oPticalfence," systemis cuailablefor useon stretchesof roadwaYwhere deer-uehiclecollisioruare high. Thegecially designedPrisms catchtheheadlightsof apProachingvehicles and refbct it anossthe road at desr preqaringtocross.

DeerWhistles Manypeopleusedeerwarning whistlesthat'canbe mountedon a car'shoodor bumper,and claimto havealerteddeerto oncomingtrafficbYultrasonic existsat signals.No information thetimeof thiswritingto suPPort thatclaim.lt maybe true, though,thatPeopleProneto usethesewhistlesarelikelYto andalertto be moresensitized of deeron roadthe possibility waysand aremoreattentivefor that reason.

, (1

have as much to do with the valuesand attitudes we hold about theseanimals asthe demonstrablefactsabout their interactions with their environment. We must acknowledgethat theseanimals will be a continuing part of our lives.Let'sstart by accepting and appreciatingthem for what they are before seeingthem as a problem-causing crisisthat hasto be "solved."

Additional Sources Curtis,P.D., and M. E. Richmond. "Reducing Deer Damageto Home Gardens and LandscapingPlantings." Cornell University,Department of Natural 22 PP. Resources. Deer. Hall, L. K. (ed.). 1984.Whiw-Thiled Washington,D.C.: StackPoleBooks. 870PP.

Betweenthe two speciesof foxes discussedhere,almost all of NorthAmericais covered. Occasionally makedens underdecks,patiosor outbuildings. Visitgardens and yards,sometimesto hunt,sometimesjust passingthrough.

:

WHar rs THE Mosr sruDrED urban wildlife spe_ ciesin the world? If you guessedthe red fox you areright. Thanksto work that is being done in Europeand GreatBritain therearenumerous researchpapers,rangingfrom population and behavioralstudiesto reviewsof iniury and disease,devotedexclusivelytourban foxes. The researchexpandsupon what anyonewho has observedor read about foxesalreadyknows:thesearefascinatinganimalsthat combine many of the behavioraland ecologicaluaits of ca*with their obvious backgroundas dogs-enoughsothat the red fox is often beencalledthe "catlikecanine." To many peoplq the fox is the leastexpectedof our urban animals,and it's common to hearpeople remarktrrat,theyhad no idea such animals lived in cities.In fact, they are well adaptedto do so, being what most other successfulurban mammals are: generalists who are able to usea wide rangeof habitats,exploit a wide rangeof natural and human-producedfoods and alter their activity schedules, if necessaryto be primarily activeat the times when humans are not. The rewardfor this is a longer life than their rural counter parts and a death that is more likely to come from disease.ror iln

Foxes accident than by predation, hunting or uapping.

Natural History Classificationand Range There are five speciesof foxes found in North America but only two-the red (Vulpesvulpes)and gray (Urocyoncinereoargentus)-aretown or city dwellers. Foxesarecanidsand close relativesof coyotes, wolves and domestic dogs. No fo:L however, interbreeds with these other forms. Furthermore,there areconsiderable differencesamongfox species.For example, the red and gray foxes have characteristics so different and distinct from other speciesthat they're placed in seParate genera,which is the level of classification abovespecies. Gray foxes are known to be native to North America,but whether or not the red foxwas evernativeis still debated.It seems likely that they were,arriving by the same land bridgethat the first humansdid during ihe last Ice Age. Many certainly were brought here from Europe in the 1700s to carry on the hunting traditions started there. Foxesare not large animals, although their relativelylong legs and bodies elongatedby bushy tails make them appearto be.The red fox is the biggerspecies,weighing7 to 15 pounds and reachingabout 3 feet in tength with an CI
IO7

Habitat Both red and grayfoxesprefer diversehabitats that havefields, woods, shrubby cover, farmland or other variety. Gray foxes are more linked to woodlands than red, and are actuallycapableof climbing treeswhen in the mood (or requiredto do so). Both species readily adapt to urban and suburban parklands,golf courses,mixed suburbandevelopmentsand other built-up areas. Foxesare primarily nocturnal in urban areas,but this seemsto be more of an accommodation to avoiding humans than it is a preference.(It doesn't alwaysmean a fox is disturbed or sick if it's out and about by day.) They will be active by day as long asthey feel secureand in or near enough to escapecover.This is when they pursueprey that are also activeby day,such assquirrels.

TheBoldFox redfoxeswillexhibita Sometimes thatis so overtas to brazenness A hikeralonga be disarming. a woodlandtrailmayencounter fox thatdoesnot retreat,but sits andwatchesthe humanaPproach.Likewise, a homeowner hanginglaundrymaywatcha fox walkthroughtheYard,going seerningly aboutits business, to the humannearby. oblivious Whythisoccursis anyone's guess.

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WTro NgIcHgoRS

Diet

of this diseasethat infects different animal species.In some parts of the country foxes Foxes,like many urban adapted species, carrytheechinococcosis tapewormthat can have a wide variety of plant and animal causea seriousand sometimesfatal disease matter in their diet. Although far better in humans. adaptedand more capablehuntersthan, say, raccoons,at some times of the year fruits will be more frequentelementsof the diet. Problems and One of the reasonsthey are describedas Their Solutions catlike is that foxes tend to hunt more by stealth than the pursuit typical of many Problems other canids.A hunting red fox is all ears, Peoplemay be surprisedand sometimes literally,asit seeksthe faint rustling sounds frightenedto discoverthat foxeslive in their made by its prey, stalking it closely and neighborhoods,but thesefearsare almost launching a long graceful,leapingpounce completelygroundless.Foxesare not danat the moment it feelsit hasthe prey'slocagerousto humansin anysense,o(ceptwhen tion marked. they are rabid (which is rare) or have been capturedand arebeing handled.Eventhen, Reproduction it takes a lot of handling for a fox to even Kits,asthe young arecalled,areborn in the defenditself by biting and the natural tenspring usually in March or April. As many dency is for the animal to flee rather than as eight or as few as three are born, with litters averagingfour or five. The kits are FoxTracks weaned by nine weeksand begin to hunt with their parents.Th.y may remain nearby the parentsuntil late summer or earlyfall before dispersingto establishtheir own , territories.

Dens Densare mostly usedasan escapefrom severe winter weather,or when pups are being raised. Even when winter weather is uncomfortable to humans, foxes will use brush pilesor fallen logsto restunder.Both speciesmay dig their own dens,or they may occupythe abandoneddensof woodchuch badgeror other burrowing animal.

Public Health Foxes are a vector species for rabies (see Chapter 2), which means that they are the primary carrier of one of the major strains

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Foxes fight. Red foxeswill occasionallyprey on small house cats or kittens, and certainly will take small animalssuchasrabbitsand guineapigs when they are left outside unprotected.Both red and gray foxeswill eat grapes,raspberries,windfall persimmons, applesand other fruit, but gardenvegetables are usually not bothered. In all, foxes do such little damageand engagein so few conflicts with people that we hesitateto characterizethem asproblem animalsat all.

Solutions TolrnnNcn Sometimesfoxes are blamed for damage they did not cause.The trash can that was knockedoverbythe neighborhooddogsor a visiting raccoon may attract a fox who is observedand then blamed for their nuisance.Foxesmay cut through yards when moving from one hunting areato anothet and the homeowner often becomesconcerned over what they are doing. In fact, they neednot be botheredat all and, if left alone,will probably do the homeowner a serviceby performing free rodent control on their way by. ExcrustoN Outdoor pets such as rabbits and poultry should be protectedbyhousingthem in secure hutchesor pensthat arebuilt to withstand any effort by foxes,raccoonsor dogs to break in. Becauseall theseanimalswill dig under fences,it is important to make sure that an 8-inch or greaterL-shaped footer on this outer perimeteris buried at leasta foot deep.Electricfencescan alsobe effectivein excludingall of the speciesthat might be attractedto poultry or small animals,but thesearebestwhen usedin coniunction with other permanentperimeter fencing.The electricfencecould be single-

109

strand and placed in front of a perimeter fenceto enhancethe effectof repelling as well as excluding any inquisitive predator. RsprrrpNrs No repellentsareregisteredexpresslyfor use in repelling foxes,although the many productssold to repeldomesticdogsfrom yards and gardenswill undoubtedly havea similar effecton a passingfox. Scene DEVIcEs Becausethey are activemostly by night and areverycautiousabout peoplewhen out and about, foxesarerarelyseenby suburbanites. Noise-makingdevices,rangingfrom transistor radios to the motion-sensitivealarms that are on the market (seeChapter3) can be quite effectivein combining repellingand The automaticsprinkler harassingstrategies. 3), can be an effective (see Chapter system deterrentfor lawns or gardens.Evena loud voice or the banging of a pan or dish can frighten these very sensitiveanimals and keepthem out of an areawherethey arenot wanted.Any sound or sight (that is the least threatening)will causetheir retreat. HennssMENT Foxesthat have made dens under porches and decksare one of the most common problems homeowners experiencewith theseanimals.As with all such situations, we recommend toleranceuntil young are old enoughto follow the parentson nightly to keep them from forays, then e>
110

Wrro NEtcHgoRS

DoFoxesEatGats? conPeoplearefrequently cernedabouttheirpetsbeing outdoorswhenfoxesare around.We do not recommend that cats be allowedto roam freely,andsuggestthatthe best wayto avoidencountersbetweenfoxesand cats is to keep the cat indoors.By andlarge, however,foxesseemto pay littleheedto adultcats,recognizingthattheyaredealingwith an animalthatis almosttheir size(often)andcertainly one that hasa well-deserved reputationfor self-defense. Kittens, however,couldbe easypreyfor a fox,as mightsmalladultcats; therefore, cautionis suggested whenever the two mightcome intocontact.

may encouragea move. Start with placing objectsor moving leaves,soil or mulch around to disturb the denning animals. Ammonia-soakedrags placed at the entrance of a burrow or around the place where animals come and go under the porch may encouragetheir leaving.Anything with a human scentwill alarm the foxesaswell,and somehaverecommended

putting smelly sweatsocksor old sneakersaround the areawhere foxescome and go. Recently,some people have claimed successin getting fox families to move by u s i n g s c a r eb a l l o o n s ( s e eC h a p t e r 3 ) mounted about 2 to 3 feet off the ground, just outside the entranceto the den. In all of thesestrategiesthe idea is to make the parents uncomfortable and get them to move the litter-after that, make sure the move has occurredbefore uying to exclude them (seeChapter3). Heurer MeNecsMENT Foodluresfoxesinto suburbanyards.Compost piles should neverreceivemeatscraps, and garbageshould be placedoutsideonly the morning of collection.tfthat is not possible the cansmust be securedfrom access. This canbe done by simply providing tightfitting lids if only foxesareinvolved,or more securefastenersif other, more persistent trash specialistssuch as the raccoon are involved.A cord threadedthrough the handle of the lid and hooked onto the sidesof the can is a simple yet effectivetactic. Dishesof pet food should not be left outside overnight. Foxeswill be attractedto bird feeders and may eveneat spilled sunflowerseedsif hungry enough. Mostly, however,the sight of a fox around a feeder suggeststhat the spillageis being usedby rodents,who have left their scentthere and attractedthe foxto the site.

A Last Word There may alreadybetwo dozengood studiesthat havebeenconductedon urban foxes. But many more have been conducted on foxesin rural areas,and theseareonly a few studieswhen comparedto those that have beendevotedto animalssuchasdeet bears,

Foxes

111

and evenquail. The reasonfor this is that citiesand towns,onewould think that more game animals (those that are hunted and resourceswould focus on issuesthat affect trapped) have alwaysreceived more em- them. phasis in our societythan nongameanimals. A slow changeis occurring, as we Additional Sources have become increasingly aware of the London: importance of all speciesof animals and Harris,S. 1994. UrbanFoxes. pp. 128 Books. Whittet have said of the need,asconservationists repeatedly,to preserveall species.Still, MacDonald,D. 1987.Runningwith the For. New York Factson File. 224 PP. with eight of everyten Americansliving in

House Mice

Mice are foundthroughoutNorth Americaand are intimately associatedwith humansand their developments. Mice preferlivingin buildingsbehindwallsand appliances,in unopeneddrawersor where any tiny nichepresentsitself. In England,mice havebeenfound living1,800feet belowgroundin coal mines;manymousecolonies lMeand grow in warehousesand cold storageareasthat neverget warmerthan 24'F.

Fon eN ANTMALTHAT usually weighslessthan an ounceand eatsabout one-tenthits weight in food each day, the house mouse giveshumans a good deal of grief. Preadaptedto a diet consisting largely of seeds and grain, the agriculturalrevolution that sweptthrough Europeand centralAsia more than ten thousand yearsago also swept mice right up to humanity's front door. so intimate becameour association that today housemice (and their largercousins,the Norway and roof rats) aredescribedusingthe term "commensal,"which literally means "sharingthe table." rtl *:7;

commercialcomplexes.In England,wild housemousepopulatioiTs may be seasonal,going extinctin the winter and rebuil,sw in other months as the overflow from human buildings spreadj'{r&rtiagp tt fields and surrounding woods. Perhapsthe same occursh"ft, but" generallythesehouse mice do not do well in competition with the native speciesthat havehad longer to adapt to circumstanceshere.

House Mice

113

productive life begins for femalesat one and a half to two months of age.With an averageof four to sevenyoung per litter, the Classificationand Range reproductivepotential of these animals is The house mouse (Mus musculus)is iust considerable.Under the right conditions, about what you'd orpect a mouse to bemousepopulations can grow almost explosmall (2 to 3 inches),gray-brown,with an sively (the term for sucheventsis imtptive). almost nakedtail aslong or longerthan its This potential is only partially counterbalbody.Itis, ofcourse,oneof avarietyofani- ancedby the tendencyof mice to be shortmals called "mice" and is often confused lived; oneyearis about the longestanywild with nativespeciessuchaswhite-footedand mouse could expectto survive. spp.) or meadow deer mice (Peromyscus voles (Microtusspp.). Native mice often Public Health causeproblemsthathousemicegetblamed for, although the techniques for ensuring Mice like their larger cousins the Norway that mice do not invade the house apply and roof rats,can cary a wide variety of diseasestransmissibleto humans. Hantavirus equallyto all theseanimals. is an important public health concernthat is presentin both wild and domesticmice. Habitat This diseasehas not emergedas a serious Housemice preferto live inside buildings, concemyet o(cept in the arid southwestern whether these be apartment complexes, part of the country. Salmonellosiscan be single-familyhomes, granaries,barns or transmitted by mice and is an important sheds.The entireareaoccupiedby a mouse concern in food storageand preparation during its lifetime may be lessthan the size areas.The native white-footed mouse is an of an averageroom. Much of its life is spent important host to the tick that causesLyme in securecomfortable nichesbetweenwalls disease. and behind cabinetsand appliances-the only sign of mouse occupancybeing the Problems and evidenceof gnawed foods and droppings Their Solutions on floors, shelvesand countertoPs.

NaturalHistory

Diet

Problems

When mice are presentin large numbers, they can and will consume considerable quantities of stored seedand grains. However,this type of damagewill still be much lessthan that causedby the contamination of food with urine and feces.By gnawing wood, paper,cloth, books and insulation on wiring mice may also causeconsiderable Reproiluction property damage.Direct observationwill House mice breed year-round and can indicate damage as gnawing leavespaired l/s raiseasmany aseight litters annually. Re- tooth marksabout inch wide. Nestsmay

Mice are omnivores and eat a variety of foods, preferring seeds,grains and nuts. They requireonly about 1/roounceof food eachday and, unlike rats, can live without accessto fresh water if the solid food they eat is somewhatmoist.

T14

WIIO

NEICHBORS

be found in hidden places,suchaslittle-used drawers or cabinets, and are made from looseassembliesof papet cloth, twine and other material. Droppings are rod-shaped, about If z to r/a incheslong and one of the best indicatorsof mice.

Solutions TornReNcn Sometimespeople don't even know they have mice and live for years with a selfregulating population. Sometimesthey'll know the mice are there, but be indifferent or tolerant of their presence. And sometimes the discoveryof a mousewill immediately be regardedasa crisisin which the animals haveto be disposedof immediately. On occasion,native mice move into a building during the earlyfall or winrer as a part of normal movementpatterns.Usually a Peromyscus or other woodland mouse species,these animals can be humanely live-trapped and put back where they came from-the great outdoors. House mice would probably nor do well in such evictions,but given the alternative,many homeowners are willing to try. With any mouse problem, it is important to recog_ nize signs of mouse presenceearly,identifiz the source of food that attracts them, removeit and the mice and, after the mice are gone,keep others from gaining entry to the house.

mouseattractantand taken to a placewhere mice areknown to be present.Becausemice like to move along a wall or other barrier pressingagainsttheir side (a tendencylabeledthigmotropfc), trapssetalongwalls are usually more successfulthan thosesetin the open. Preferablyleftalong a travelroute,the basketis tilted on its side, usually with a "ladder" of bricks or books that the mouse must climb to get to the rim. From there it has to iump or slide down the side of the basket(which it will do) and then endsup being unable to climb back up the slippery surface.Set before going to bed, the trap should be checkedearlythenextmoming. If a mouseis caugh! it cansafelybetransported outside.Afterwarda dilute (l:30) solution of bleachdeansthe basketthoroughly.

LmHer Coxrnor The killing of commensalrodents is commonly regardedas a necessarystep in the managementof problems.Usuallythis killingmust be repeatedagainand againasthe rodent population cyclesback. How often this could be avoided through early recognition and responsecannot be said; undoubtedly, it is more often than not. Unfortun ately,lethal control usually occurs without following up with habitat management, sanitation or exclusion to provide long-term,economicallysensibleand environmentally reasonablemanagementpractices.The simple rule is that lethal control Llvn TnepprNc can never be iustified without an effiort to For thosewho wish to live trap and remove apply other controls to prevent the recurmice from the housg there areanumber of renceof problems. commerciallyavail.abledevicesthat let this be done easily.Most groceryor hardware ExcrusloN storescarryone or more brandsof these. Mice can enterbuildings through openings Beforegoing to any expense,however,the no larger than the size of a dime and can homeowner may want to rig an improvised easilydimb interior walls,making exdusion live trap by using a bathroom wastebasket. sometimesvery difficult. Nonetheless,this The basket is baited with bread, sunflower procedure is the bestand only effecive way seed, peanut butter or another proven to permanentlydealwith mouseproblems.

House Mice The key to excluding mice from buildings is to conduct very thorough examinations of possiblepoints of entry around foundations: whereutility pipesand wirespassinto the house,where siding has deteriorated and holes ocqrt cracksin foundations or any other placeswhere an entryway might be suspected.Powder (either baby powder or talc) that is sprinkled along the inside perimetersof walls andthresholdswill show tracks where mice are active and can be instnrmentalin helping decidewhereendusion effortsare needed.The processof orduding mice nicely complementsthe examination and sealingof a housethat would be done for good summer or winter insulation. The two can simply be done hand in hand. Many different tools can be used to enclude mice from buildings. Wire mesh or quick-drying cementcanplug crad<saround drainpipesand small openingswheremice may gain access.Galvanized window screeningcan be balled and stuffed into larger openingsthat are then finished with caulking or cement. The o<panding-foam insulation sold in many hardwarestoresis excellentfor filling small-to medium-sized openings and has the advantageof being availablein commercial kits for larger iobs (seeAppendix2 under "Caulking and Foam Sealants").

115

the tiny amounts of spilled food that makes a meal. Household food items that areaccessible to mice should be storedin metal or plastic containers.Outside protectivecovercan be eliminated by removing weeds and trimperimeterfor at least ming avegetation-free 18 inches out from the foundation of the houseorbuildingto be protected.Thisprocedure allows better recognition of entry points as well. Petsshould be fed indoors and uneatenfood picked up where mice are known to be a problem. LflrnesoNtc DnvlcEs There are such devicescommercially marketed as describedin Chapter3. Thereare no credible scientificstudiesto validate the effectivenessof any such device.

A Last Word Our conflict with mice may be our most ancientengagementwithany animal. Once humanity chosea settled agrarianlifestyle mice moved in to flourish off our goods.If it were only a matter of their eating their shareof our foodstuffs,then we could probably coexistwith many millions of them and not feel any effect.But by contaminating so much more than they eat,and by servingas a sourceor vector for diseasesthat endanger humans, mice are clearly at odds with humanity.The keyto managingour conflicts with them, of course,comesin better habitat management:of ours, to eliminate attraction, and of theirs, to make it less

Heurar MoPIPIcATIoN The removaloffood sourcesthrough proper sanitary techniques is essential.Because mice eat so little attention should be paid to both obviousand not-so-obvioussources of food. A small amount of spillagefrom suitable. birdseed stored in a garageor shed can be more than enough to sustaina mouse.Dry Additional Source pet food left in the garageovemight or next Training to an appliancebehind which there is ac- National ParkService.1993. IPM Rodent WashingManual:Commensal cessfrom thewall is abonanza.Appliances of the Interior. Department D.C.: ton, alsooffer securityfrom which foraginguips pp. 72 into the kitchen can be made to pick up

House Sparrows

Housesparrowsare everywhere, exceptin partsof Antarctica andthefarNorth. Housesparrowslivenear houses,especially older buildings withcrevices in whichtheycan buifdnests. Thehousesparrowis actually not a sparrowat all,but a type of weaverbirdor finch.The firsthousesparrowswere importedintothe United Statesby a dentistanda sea captainto helpcontrolinsects.

HousE spARRowsAREnot nativeto the NewWorld; they areone of the increasingnumbersof non-native, or introduced,speciesthat occurasthe world becomes more connectedby humans. Introduced species, whetherthey be plants or animals,canbe highly controversialif they successfullycolonize an area.once geuing a good sraft, they undergo rapid popuration growth and expansionin placeswhere they haveno effectivepredators, diseasesorenvironmental restraintsto hold them in check.Lateq, theymayintegratethemselvesinto naturalcommunities,but bythen they often havehad a negativeimpact by displacingnativespecies. Thehousesparrowis a prime exampleof an aggressive introduced species,with expansionisttendenciesthat may take a backseatonly to those of our own kind. First imported in about 1g50 to the East coast, house sparrowsquickly filled an "urban" niche thai nativt birds were not fully exploiting. Brought in to deal with insectp ; that were destroyingthe urban streettreesof that time, they apparently did that iob well before revertingto their preferredniche of its kind-that of a seed-eater. From that point on therehavebeenenormous conflictsbetweenpeople and housesparrows:in agriculture, gardenin& among loversof wildlife and in cities alid'towns where somepeople regardthem asnuisances.

HouseSparrows

I17

has to be taken as a relative term, because thesebirds are so numerousthat they continue to be regardedasseriousproblemsin Classificationand Range citiesand towns. Earlymorning commuters is one domesticus) The housespalrow (Passer rarelynotice the small brown birds that dart of the most widespreadvertebratespecies from the road just in front of them. The on this planet.It is found on all continents house sparrowsare up early also, gleaning exceptAntarcticaand may occupyas much the moths and other insectsstruck by cars asa quarterof the 50 million squaremiles the night before. of the earththat is habitableby land-based animals.Itis notfound in fapan,norAlaska Reproiluction (y.t), but completelywild populationslive climateand other Dependingon geography, in the Australian Outback, far from any factorswe do notyet understandfully, house humans. In North America it is found as sparrowbreedingbeginsany time from Febfar north asthe Hudson Bay,where it tolerruary onward,with a courtship so noisy and ateslong and cold winter seasons.In Asia, boisterousthat they are oblivious to anyhousesparrowshavebecomemigratory in thing else.As many asnine eggsarelaid in at least two places,while everywhereelse one clutch, but betweenfour and six is the they seem content to dwell as year-round most common number.Incubationis someresidents. times shared,but the female usually bears most of this duty, with young born about Diet twelve to fourteen days after the eggsare meaning House sparrows are omniuorous' laid. The young will stay in the nest and they eat both plant and animal (insect) are fed by both parentsfor about as long material.Adults tend toward beinggramini- as they took to hatch, and they are fed as uorous,however,meaning having a dietary fledglings for severaldaysafter that. Then preferencefor seeds.The young, however, they are on their own, as the parents get a are mostly fed insects,perhapsbecause brief rest, regroup and preparefor the next these are easierto catch and transport in brood. TWo or three, and sometimesfour, bulk to the nest. Most of the insectseaten broodsareraisedeachyear,usuallybetween are iniurious, and it is probably true that spring and late summer, but occasionally spalrowsnot only servedtheir original pur- later or earlierthan that. posein savingthe urban treesof NewYork from insect infestations,but continue to Health seryea beneficialpurposetoday in remov- Public House sparrowsgenerally have not been ing many insectpestsfrom urban areas. The enormous quantitiesof grain used implicated in the transmissionof any serito feed horsesin the 1800sled to optimal ous diseaseproblems to humans. Potenconditions for thesebirds, and their popu- tially, the accumulation of droppings at lations literally exploded.As gasoline- sparrowroostsor nestingsitescould conpowered vehicles replaced horses, the tribute to the rise of histoplasmosis. once-abundantfood suppliesdwindled to House sparrowscan carry salmonellosis insignificance,and the sparrowpopulation and potentially transmit it to humans or declineddramatically.Of course,"decline" other animals.

Natural History

I 18

Wrrn NplcHsoRS

Nests House sparrowsare both cavity and crevice nestersand occasionallybuild their odd side-entrancenestsin evergreentrees.They fiercely competewith native speciesfor accessto nesting sites and are known to de_ stroy eggs laid by other birds (and sometimeseven harassand beat adults to death). Contrivancessuch as windowmounted air conditionersprovide ideal crev_ ices for nesting and young are frequently raisedamid the nest material stuffed alongside of thesedevices,despitethe noise and vibration there.

Problems and Their Solutions Problems The economic damagehouse sparrowsdo to grain crops has generatedconsiderable negativefeelingsfrom humans.As many as seventyspeciesof native birds have been documentedassubjectsof bullying by house sparrows,and many ornithologists attribute declinesin some of our more popular spe_ cies,such as the bluebird, as coming from competition with sparrows.Housesparrows nesting near windows can createunaccept_ able noise for many peoplq especiallybe_ cause it is likely to begin at first light. Crowding and bullying by sparrowsar win_ ter bird feedersdeniesmany bird enthusiaststhe opportunity to enioy other species.

Solutions ToruneNcE Much of the minor inconvenienceand an_ noyanceof the housesparrowat feedersand around homes can be eliminated very eas_ ily through a little conscientiousattention to the biology and behaviorof thesebirds. By treating sparrowsasnaturalizedcitizens,

which they certainly seemto havebecome, half the battle in consideringwhat to do with them will already have been waged. Once acceptedasa permanentpresence,we canstopwagingwaragainstthebirds themselvesand startfighting the battlesto modiSr the environmentalconditions ua createthat lead to their becomingproblems. ExcrusloN Problems from nesting sparrowson buildings can and should always be solved by excludingthe birds from accessto any crevice or hole they might try to take advantage of. The primarytools in this arenetting and hardwarecloth (seeChapter3). Any of the commerciallyavailablenetting materialthat has an acceptableUV rating (meaning that it will not dereriorateunder sunlight) and is strong enough to repel the sometimes persistent attempts sparrowswill make to breachit will provide the most reasonable cost-effectivemeansof keepingthem out. Where house sparrowsare taking over birdhousesand expellingprefenedspecies (wrens, swallows and bluebirds are good examples),an orduder or baffler may work (seeChapter3). Timing is important becausehouse sparrows start nesting before most other species,and if birdhousesare taken down in the fall and not put backup until late the next sprin& some of the con_ flict that ariseswith these birds can be avoided.

Scenn Dnvrcss Auditory and visual scaredevicesthat might be effectiveon otherbirds typicallyhaveless effecl,if any,on housesparrows.Scaretape and balloons may be effectiveif the homeowner wishes to keep sparrowsaway from specificareas,and apartment dwellersmay usethem on patiosalongwith bird wiresto keeptheseand other problem birds away.

House SParrows

REpprl.eNrs The potybutenerepellentsregisteredforuse on housespaffowsand other birds may be effectivebut have serious drawbacks that argue against their use as described in "Chemical Repellents"in Chapter 3. RoPelo is registeredto protect seedsand bulbs from birds in general,and might be usedwhere housesparrowsare a problem during broadscaleseeding efforts such as new lawns.

119

of seedsthat arelessattractiveto housesparrows,or sell feedersthat deterthem but encourageother,desirablesPecies.

A Last Word Humanity is in the midst of an experiment with introduced animal speciesthat began in some casesover a century ago and will continue to run long into the future. Unlike a well-planned laboratory procedure,the documentationand recordingon this one hasbeena little sloppy.A lot of minor perturbations have effected it also, such as eradication programs that are startedwith much fanfare achieveshort-lived "success" and arethen forgotten-until brilliantly reinvented at a later time as the "new" soluof its tion to a witdlife problem. Regardless run still will experiment the starts, fits and whether us tell its course.Ultimately, it may speciesthat are introduced into ecosystems can actually prevail over those systemsor not. Our money is on the ecosystem,but only time will tell.

Hentrar MeuecnMENT Over the long run, one of the principal meansof "controlling" house sparrowsis habitat management.Specificefforts to el(cludebirds from nestingsiteswill worh but only if sparrow aaivity is monitored and nesting prevented at its earliest stages.By excludingbirds from the few availablenesting locations on the typical house,their activities may be seriouslycurtailed.Feeding is alsoawayto managehousesparrowsbecauseso many of them aresustainedbythe typesof seedsfound in the mixed bird foods people put out in backyardfeeders.By substituting only sunflower or niger thistle, Additional Source which will attract many desirable birds, 'AVery Familiar house sparrows,who do not favor these Kinkead,E. 1978. Wilding." lnWildnessls All aroundUs. seeds,may be practically eliminated. Many NewYork:E.P.Dutton.89-178. wild bird specialtystoresmakeup mixtures

Moles qi

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Primarily foundin theeastern andwesternpartsof the continent; onlyonespecies; the star-nosed rangesvery far intoCanada.

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Lawns,gardensand occasionally cropfieldsarethe domainof the mole. Puttingchewingguminto moletunnelsto eliminate theseanimalsis a goodway to buryusedgumwhereit won't be steppedon (and that'saboutit).

CoNprtcrs

BETwEEN pEopLE AND MoLES would

almost nevertake place if it weren,t for our country,s love affair with the lawn. For reasonsburied deep in our psyches,Americanshavelong demandedour landscapesbe domi_ nated by open expansesof fastidiouslytendedgreenerytrimmed to a level that requiresphenomenal amounts of water, fertilizer and pesticidesto maintain. Literally billions of dollars are spent every yearto sustainlawns.only recentlyhavethe embarrassingenviron_ mental effectsof this obsessioncome to be recognized,including pesticidq herbicideand fertilizer runoff, toxic effectson birds and, of course,the loss of habitat for many specieswhen new lawns are created. one animal that doestolerateand may evenbenefitfrom the lawns people createis the mole. Moles causea visual impact to lawns by tunneling pushing up mounds of earth and (occasionallyand then only temporarily) undermining the root systemsof growing plants. Environmentally,they provide benefitsby turning soil, mixing soil nutrients and improving soil aeration.

Moles The mechanical damagetheY do, however,will simply not be tolerated by many homeowners,and a cottageindustry has sprung up to advocatea vatiety of homemade "remedies"to solvemole problems. The resulthasbeenthe invention of wildly imaginativedevicesto kill offending moles in their tunnels,somewhatreminiscentof medieval weaponry.The world has yet to beat a path to the door of the inventorsof thesefor the simple fact that moles do not actuallycauseall that many problems for humans.In fact,a closeexaminationof the problems that exist between people and that we may havebeenmakmoles suggests ing mountains out of them all along.

Natural History

I2T

the surface.They prefermoist loosesoils of the sort favored by the grubs and earthworms that aretheir main sourceof food.

Diet The dietof molesconsistsalmostexdusively of earthworms and the grubs that are the larvalforms of many insects,suchasbeetles. Where plant damageand mole tunnels are associated,it may be becauseof rodents (mice and voles) using the tunnels, rather than from the mole itself. The townsend mole (5. townsendii)of the far northwestern United Statesis the one specieslikely to eat plant material and sometimes even attack root cropsand tubers.

Reproduction

Breeding occurs in late winter and early spring; litter size usually rangesfrom three misoften Moles are not rodents although to seven.The young are born in a deeper taken as such. Both are small, usually gray burrow than those normally seen on the or brown mammals,but therethe similari- surfaceand become activewithin the burties end. Moles have eyesoften hidden in row runs at about four weeksof age'Moles fur, nakedsnouts,no extemalearsand char- areveryterritorial and will not tolerateother acteristicpaddle-shapedlargeforelegsthat adults in their territory except during the clearly distinguish them from mice' They brief mating season. belong to their own family (Talapidae)and areinsectivores,meaningtheyhavea dietary Public Health preferencefor worms, grubs and other insectsthat can be found beneaththe surface Moles arenot consideredto be a significant of the ground. Seven species occur in sourcefor any infectious diseasethat canbe North America, with eastern (scalopus transmittedto humans. aquaticus)and star-nosed (Condylura cristata)molesthe mostwidely distributed' Problems and Moles do not occurthroughout most of the GreatPlains,GreatBasinand RoclcyMoun- Their Solutions tain areasof the West.

Classificationanil Range

Problems

Habitat Moles spend most of their lives underground-a trait we designateby the term on fossorial-andrarelymakean appearance

Moles areoften blamed for damagecaused by other species.On golf coursesand lawns the evidenceof mole presenceis frequently seen in their excavations,either in small

I22

Wrro NprcHsoRS

mounds of earth(molehills) resultingfrom deep tunneling or shallow surfacetunnels or runs that collapseunderfoot and may resultin deadpatchesin lawns.Damageto lawns can occur when the raised turf over the surfacetunnels is hit with mower blades (but only when the lawn is being clipped very shon).

dealing with mole problems. "Natural" lawnsthat rely on nativegrassor forb plants and do not emphasizethe Bermudaand rye grassesthat require fertilizer, frequent watering and herbicideand pesticideapplications to be maintainedin good healthwould aid tremendously,not only in minimizing conflictswith moles and otherwildlife but as generally sound environmental constructs.For some, the tunneling activity of Solutions moles is welcomebecauseit turns the soil, TorEReNcE increases biological activityand may,in the Becausemoles feed on insectsand earth- long run, improve the quality of a site. worms below ground, it fits to reasonthat part of their diet should consist of grubs, ExcrusroN which canbe harmful to lawns.How much Barrierscan be erectedaround flower or garthey help the homeowner in regardto grub denplots by buryinghardwaredoth (t/+ inch control is not known. When molesareabun_ mesh) in the recommendedL-shapedfooter dant and perceivedto be a problem, harm- configuration(seeChapter3). Concrete edges ful insectsarelikely to be abundantaswell, buried 8 to 12 inchesunderground or simiand the removal of moles may exposethe larbarriersusedin addition to keepingweeds homeowner to an insect problem. In re_ from spreadinginto flower bedsmay repel sponseto insect abundance,mole activity tunneling moles. These approachesare in a given areais also likely to be episodic labor-intensive and costly, however, and or seasonaland often stopsbeforeany con_ would be recommended only for excep_ trol action can be undertaken.Accordingly, tional situations or if the homeowner has we do not advise any direct effons to con_ reasonsother than moles to be usingthem. trol moles or their habitat as necessary ex_ cept in oftreme cases.Then, the techniques REpsrtsNrs of habitat management and exclusion Castorbeanorcastor-oilplant (Ricinuscom_ should be used. munis) and a speciesof spurge(Euphorbia lathris)areoften recommendedmole repel_ HaslrAr MaNacuMENT lents, but need researchto document when Where a problem existswith mole tunnels and to what extent they might be effective. that is the result of mechanicaldamage A recentlyregistered repellentsold underthe causedby a lawnmower hitting raised brand name Mole-Medo (see ,,Chemical moundsof earth,this canbe avoidedbyflar Repellents"in Chapter3) usesan extractof tening the mole runs by foot orwith a lawn the castor bean plant as a spray to repel roller before mowing. Overwateringlawns moles from lawns. Carelesspeople put all can keep eafthworms and other mole prey softs of things down mole tunnels to dis_ near the surfaceand result in increasedsur_ couragethem, ranging from Napthalene to face tunneling. Encouragingnative plant gasoline.This may discouragethe mole from speciesto establishthemselvesin the lawn usingthat tunnel, but not address prob_ the and keepinglawn sizeto a minimum when- lem. We do not recommend any of these everpossibleare also good approachesto sortsof solutionsto problemswith moles.

Moles ScentNc Drvtcss Some successhas been reported by using garden pinwheels that transmit vibrations into the ground and supposedly frighten moles away from an area. Commercial battery-operateddevicesof this sort are availableand claim effectivenessover areas of as much as 3,000 squarefeet.As with all such products and daims, the buyer is encouragedto be skepticaland to seekmoneyback guaranteesif the prod'uct proves ineffective.

123

don our cultural preferencefor lawnsanytime soon. If anything therewill be more acreage for this peculiarhabitat and more resources devotedto its maintenance.No other omamental landscapeelementon this planet receivessuch attention. Undoubtedly, some people will feel it necessaryto battle moles ofthe landscapeuntilour overtheappearance lawn has changed. the attitude toward

Additional Source

1982. Yates,T. L., and R. J.Pedersen. G' A' and "Moles."In J.A. ChaPman Feldhamer(eds.),Wild Mammalsof As goes our national love affair with the NorthAmerica.Baltimore:The Johns lawn, so goesour attitude toward moles' It Hopkins UniversitYPress.37-51' certainly does not seemthat we will aban-

A Last Word

Muskrats

FoundthroughoutCanada and most of the United States;absentfrom drier parts of south-centraland southwesternUnitedStates. Occasionalproblemswhen burrowinginto earthen dams. MUSKRATS AREINoFFENST'Ewater-lovinganimals that have readily taken to the many artificial ponds and other impoundmentscreatedby humans.Often mistaken for their largercousin, the beaver,they have quite different habits and lifestyles.Muskratsare not the engineersthat beaversare,contenting themselves with cruder housesand bank dens and declining to build dams at all. Muskratsare important contri-burors to the healthy funaioning of many hqua,tt,b eco_ systems,most especiallyfreshwatermarshes.Most of theselandswere long ago drained and refilled, first becauseit was believedmarshes bred pestilenceand later becausethe land was coveted for develop_ ment. Now that we are beginningto recognizethe many important functions marshesperform, such as holding and filtering o"rr"i.a water,taking runoffto preventflooding and helping pr.Je-rvg,,j,btag.lt to and animal speciesdiversity,we regretthe loss of so ^*i'M rt"; Muskratsarea keystonespeciesin thesethreatenedecoqlste-, * help in the enormoustaskof their restoration-if we "na allow them to.,

Cfoselyrelatedto the meadow vole,the muskratis adaptedto an aquaticenvironment, while its smallercousinis wholly terrestrial.

Natural History Classificationand Range The muskrat(ondatrazibethecus) is a rodent and the largestmember of the group called the "microtines," to which meadowvoles also

Muskrats belong. Muskrats are widely distributed throughout North America.Theyareabsent, however,from Florida, where a relative known as the round-tailed muskrat (Neofiberalleni) can be found. This rabbitsizedanimal is well adaptedto an aquatic life, with partially webbed hind feet that function aspaddles,awaterproofundercoat and a long nakedtail that is flattenedfrom side to side.The averageweight of an adult muskatis 2 to 3 pounds,with atotal length between16 and 26 inches.The normal coat color is dark brown, but individuals can rangefrom black to almost white.

Habitat Muskrats may be found in almost anY body of water throughout their range including drainageditches,streams,ponds, lakes and both freshwater and brackish marshes.Muskrats are activeall year.They resuicttheir movements,orceptduring dispersal,to home rangesthat may extendno more than 100feetfrom their main dwellings. Young animals will dispersefrom their natal areas,but often not until the spring following their birth. Still, both autumn and spring are times when movements occur, and the animals without establishedterritories(called "runners") often move considerabledistances.Like beavers,muskratscan slow their heart rate and utilize stored o)rygenefficiently enough to remain under water for as long as fifteen minutes. Muskrats are creaturesof habit and repeatedlyfollow the samepaths from their lodges,leaving visible channelsin mud and marsh vegetation.

Loilgesand Shelters Muskrats build a variety of structures,the most common beinga "house"or lodgeof piled vegetationand mud that risesout of

r25

the water.While this resemblesthe living quartersbuilt by beavers,the muskrat lodge is usually made from soft vegetation,such as cattails, rather than the tree limbs and other woody vegetationused by beavers. Muskrat lodgescan be from 3 to almost 9 feetacrossand areusuallybuilt in waterthat is 2 to 4 feet deep.The lodge can have several underwater entrancesthat lead to one or more internal nest chambers.Muskrats alsobuild feedinghutsand evenmore temporary feeding platforms where they can consumecollectedplantswithout havingto go all the way back to the lodge. In frozenorsnow-coveredmarshesmuskrats often build what are called "pushups" by cutting a hole through the ice and pushingvegetation through it to constructa cavity that restson top of the ice.Thesecan be usedto restor eat on during severeweather' Bankdensarealsobuilt by muskrats.These rangefrom superficialshallowtunneling iust below the surfaceof the water to long (45 to 50 feet) complex systemsthat have nest chambers,air ducts and multiple entrances (as many as nine havebeen found), some of which may be plugged with vegetation and difficult to find.

Diet Muskratsareprimarily plant-eatersand prefer to feed on soft aquatic plants such as cattails, bulrushes, arrowhead, reeds and algae.Plant roots and tubers are staplesof their winter diets.Theymay occasionallyeat small aquatic animals such as clams and crayfish.By closinga specialflap of skin in their mouth muskratscancut and carryfeeding material under water.

Reproduction Muskratbreedingvariesfrom one areaof the countryto anothe[,with a tendencyto larger

t26

wlro NrrcHsoRS

litters and resuictedbreedingperiods in the North and smaller litters and unrestricted breedingin the South.Usually,breedingin the northern half of theirrange occursfrom April to August,while in the Deep South it is likelyto be currailedonly duringthe hottest summer months. Gestation is about twenty-five to thirty days, and litters normallyvary from threeto eight.young muskrats grow rapidly and may be able to swim by the end of rhe secondweek after bifth. The mother will swim with young attached to her nipples or belly skin and may even dive underwaterwith them. The young usually reachthe ageof independenceat about four weeks,when the mother is ready to give binh again.Unlike many other mam_ mals theseyoung do not get chasedoff or voluntarily leavethe natal (birth) den, and the mother may simply excavatea new chamberin the lodge to bear her next litter. Sexualmaturity is usually not reached until muskrats are one year old, and three to four yearsis probably the averagelife or_ pectancy.In prime habitat, twenty-five muskrats can live in an acre of marsh, but fifteenanimalsis more typical of the capac_ ity of such an area.

Public Health Muskratsmay becomeinfectedwith tulare_ mia, which may be transmitted to people through blood-to-blood contact or by eat_ ing inadequatelycookedmuskrat meat (see Chapter2).

Problems and Their Solutions Problems Localpopulationsof muskratsoccasionally increaseto such densities that the habitat

becomesovercrowdedand animals denude aquaticvegetation.Suchevents,called "eatouts," are most likely to occur in coastal saltwater marshes.Eat-outs put pressure on the population, resulting in hunger and predation, and are normally followed by sharp declinesin muskratnumbers.To that end, their populations appearto be self-controlling.Muskrat burrows are often cited as threats to the structural integrityof ponds.Muskratsoccasionallyfeedon agricultural crops growing near water, but their limited home rangesusuallyrestrictthe amount of damagethey can do.

Solutions TorEneNcr Muskratsrarely causeproblems for people and add geatly to the biological activity of marshcommunities.Wherethey becomeso numerous that they threaten to ,,eat_out,, aquaticvegetation,this does tell us some_ thing is wrong-but not with the muskrat.

MeNecrNc IupouNDMENTS Becausemuskrats prefer steep slopeswith densecover in which to start burrowing a gently rising incline (about 3 feet of slope for eachfoot of depth in warer) and limita_ tion of densewoody coveralong the banks may deter burrowing. Where breachesoccur,it is often becausefluctuatingwaterlw_ els flood the initial burrow and encourage the muskrat to burrow farther into the dam core.Eventually,a burrow s)xstem may com_ pletelypiercea dam in this manner.Restrict_ ing fluctuations in water levelsto no more than 6 to 8 incheswill help to control bur_ rowing.When the dam itself hasa free-board (the height of the dam above the normal water level) of not lessthan 3 feet,thestruc_ ture will be generallyresistantto any problem arising from muskrat burrowing.

Muskrats In addition to proper construction,dams that areimperiled by borrowing canbe protected by the placement of a continuous layer of riprap (4- to 6-inch coarsestones or gravel) that extendsfrom 2 feet below the normal water level to 2 feet above.A barrier can also be fashioned from welded wire, galvanizedhardware cloth or plastic netting buried along the same atea,with plasticbeing the leastcostly and most durable of thesematerials.The barrier should be placed flat againstthe bank and anchored everyfew feet along the perimeter' In extremecases,a trench can be dug in the middle of the pond berm and filled with concrete.The trench should be dug to a depth of 3 feet below the water level' The resulting concretecorewill block muskrats from digging through the dam. While this method of contrel .is,labor-intensiveand costly,the troublee*d a(pensemay be iustified if flooding posesa substantialrisk to buildings or croPs.

L27

A Last Word Peopleoften askwhat good animals are as if the servicesthey provided to humanswere the measureof their worth. Even animal advocateslapseinto this faultyway of thinking. Batsare important, many say,because they perform mosquito control; snakesare valued becausethey eat rodents. Here'sthe benefit muskratsprovide: They will help us regain the wetlands we have wantonly destroyedand bring us backfrom the brink of the near ecologicaldisasterwe faceby having done this. And for this they will not even charge.

Additional Source Perry,H. R. 1982."Muslcats."In J' A' Chapmanand G. A. Feldhamer(eds'), Wild Mammalsof NorthAmerica' Baltimore:The JohnsHopkins University Press.282-325.

.. i * iiu,i;u

$r,fi +4, .at

* .r,

*tt;,, ,'

Opossums

Foundthroughout muchof the UnitedStatesandnorth intosomepartsof southeastern Canada,but limitedwherewintersare severe. Canmakea homeunder decksor patios,in woodpilesor wherever brushis piledin andaround theyard. Hasmoreteeth-fifty of them-th an anyotherNorth American mammal.

THEopossuMrs rHE oNw ,^*rio;^rl*a

north of Mexico.The marsupialsaredistinsuiished'hy their unique mode of reproductionifi vtfiictrth. ycini are born in an almost embryonic form and mike *ieig *.y irr,o , pouch, or marsupium,where they are nourished forrnfiat i' oth", mammalswould be most of the gestationalperiod. As wffi someof the other mammalian generalistscommon in urban and suburban areas,the opossummay havebenefitedfrom Europeancolonization and extendedits rangebecauseof advantageousaiterations humans havemadeto the landscape.It is alsofairly crearthat a naturar northward expansionof theseanimalswasoccurringat the time that Euro_ peansarrivedbecausetherewasso much comment among the native peoplesthat the first colonistsspokeabout the novelty and strange_ nessof theseanimals. opossumsfigureprominently in the folklore and regionalculture of many pafts of the country.During the presidentialcampaign of 19L2,Americansevenflirted with the possibilityof a ,,possum,, p"rry, led by the redoubtable"Billy possum" (william Howard Taft)-

Opossums r29

Natural History Classificationand Range The opossum(properly,theVirginia Opossum-Di delphisvirginiana) is a mediumsized mammal about the size of a house cat,with long guard hairs that givethe fur a very coarseappearance.It also has naked earsand a long almosthairlesstail. Its coat colorvariesfrom light, almostwhite, to almostblach but most usuallyapPearsan off tail-a tail that is gray.It has a prehensile capableof graspingand holding obiects. While it might support the opossum'sfulI weight briefly, the animal usually holds on with at leastone foot aswell asthe tail when dangling from a limb. Perhapsbecauseof the nakedtail, opossumsareoften mistaken for rats.A large adult male opossum (the males on averageare larger than females) may weight L2 or 13 Pounds. OpossumsSrow throughout their life, but theselives are usually short ones'The averageopossumfemaleprobably only lives through one breedingseason,during which she raisestwo litters. A four-year-old wild opossumis exceptional.When confronted, opossumssometimesopen their mouths to display their teeth and may even hiss' Although this appearsto signal a formidable opponent, these animals are actually shy and inoffensive. Rather than fight, when hard pressedthey will sometimesslip into the death-feigning catatonia that we have come to term "playing possum."This state of apparentdeathcan last a minute or two or upwardsof two hours beforethe "dead" opossum revives,looks around and moves off (if the danger it previously confronted has disappeared).What is happening at a physiological level to the opossum when feigning death is not yet well known' The cautionary tale, however, in dealing with

playing-deadopossumsis to nevertouchan animal without glovesor better protection. The opossum is found throughout the East and midwestern parts of the United States,is absentfrom much of the Westand is found againin the farWestwherehumans have imported it into California, Oregon and Washington.Opossumsoccuron a very limited basisin parts of easternand western Canada,but the length and severityof the winters appearto limit their presence. Temperaturesthat averagelessthan 20"Ffor any extendedperiod of time severelytax these animals, who do not hibernate and either must live off stored fat or count on frequentperiods of mild weatherwhenthey canbecomeactiveand searchfor food. Veteransof hard winters can usually be recognized by the absenceof parts of ears and tails lost to frostbite.

Habitat Opossumsarefound acrossa varietyof habitats but prefer deciduouswoodlands' The opossum lifestyle has been aptly characterized as that of a terrestrialgleaner.This removing fers to their habit of ceaselessly along the ground in searchof food, without following prescribedtrails or travel routes to placesof known food reserves'In

Tracks Opossum

* t*

q q$$

130

Wrro Nr,rcHsoRS

fact,adult male opossumsmaywandercontinuously, while femalesspendtheir lives in more defined areas,but still move around almost randomly.While they may be more sedentaryduring the winter and when reliable food sourcesare available,most opossumsseenin yardsand neighborhoodsare likely to move on without human encour_ agement or intervention if given enough time. Opossumsaremost activeat night and will begin movementsaftersleepingby day in a ground den, brush pile oq, lesscom_ monly, a tree cavity.

remarkableexception to a behavior that is quite widespreadamong mammals.

Dens and Nest-Buililing

Opossumsare capableclimbers and may take shelterby day in tree dens,old squinel nests or nests they have built themselves aboveground. Nestmaterial is accumulated betweenthe legs,and the tail is usedto suppoft it for transport.Ground densareprob_ ably preferredover those in trees,at leastin winter, and old woodchuckburrowsmay be the most ideal from the opossum,spoint of view. Nest material is also transportedinto Diet theseand the openingsare plugged,some_ Opossumsareomnivorousand consumean times quite tightly, with leavesand other amazingvarietyof plant and animal foods. material.Thepreference opossumshavefor They are not abovescavengingcarrion and using dens on the ground can lead them to raidinggarbagethat hasmaturedbeyondthe take up residenceunder decksand in crawl point where other animals would turn it spaces, wherethey areoften consideredun_ down. Invertebrates,including many types wanted guests. of insects,slugs,snailsand earthworms,can comprisea largepart of the diet. Raidsby opossumson poultry housesand gardens Public Health are rarerthan popular folklore insists. Opossumsaresusceptibleto a varietyof dis_ easesof significanceto humans, but their Reproduction role in the transmissionof any is uncertain. Birth is given to young that are little more Rabiesoccursin opossumS,oSit does in all developedthan embryos.Amazingly, these warm-blooded animals,but it is very rare. tiny newborns will crawl instinctively up_ Opossumscan seryeas hosts for the ticks ward into the mother's pouch, where they that transmit Rod
Opossums areundoubtedly more beneficialasscavengersand consumersof undesirableinvertebrates than harmful for any damagethey cause.It is likely that far more complaints about opossumsare generatedout of mere concem for the presenceof theseanimals rather than for any problems they create.

Solutions TolnneNce The primary messageto homeownerswho haveseenan opossumin theiryard and are wondering what, if anythin& they should do is not to worry-the animal will likely be moving on in very short order and will not be a threat or a concern.

131

broom to gently nudge them along to an open door. Opossumsare very slow moving and easyto evict when they have wandered into buildings where they are not wanted.

A Last Word There are many myths and misconceptions surrounding opossums.Perhapsthe most widespreadis that they are more primitive than other animals-so much so asto lead someto describethem as"lMng fossils'"In an evolutionary sense,they do retain an ancient mode of reproduction when comparedto the pattem of most contemporary mammals.Unfortunately,the implication of primitivenessusually goesbeyond that to reflect their conservativebehavioral traits and to the so-called"lower" intelligencethey orhibit. This perception of low intelligence may come from the fact that opossumsdo not do well in problem-solvingsettingsor testsdesignedby humans to measureintelhowever,thebottom line ligence.Regardless, they have survivedfar that is on opottums longerthan most other contemporarymammali and clearlyhavepassednature'stest of time well enoughto be declareda resounding evolutionary success.

Exct usloN Wherean opossumis known to be denning under a porch or patio, the eviction strategy is much the sameasfor skunks' If anything it may be slightly easierbecausethe opossum carriesher young with her, and the probability that helplessyoung would be Ieft behind is of far less concernthan with other species.Exclusionusing one-way doors is effective(seeFigure10,p' 33) and so is simply waiting until the animal has begun its nightly foray (tr,r'ohours after dark is generallya safetime) and loosely closing the opening with netting, straw or other fi- Additional Sources brous material that an animal trapped inGardner,A. L. 1982."VirginiaOpossum'" side can push away,but which one outside In J.A ChaPmanand G. A. Feldhamer will be lesslikely to disturb to get back in' (eds.),WildMammalsof NorthAmwica' The most effectivemethod of discouraging Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins Univervisits by an opossumis to securetrash con3-36. sity Press. tainers with tight-fitting lids and pick up SidensticketI., M. A. O'Connell,and A' I'T' food at night if petshavebeenfed outdoors' " fohnsingh.1987. "VirginiaOpossum' Opossumswill occasionallyfind their In M. Novak,J.A. Baker,M. E' Obbard, way into housesthrough petdoors.The genand B. Malloch (eds.),Wild Furbearer eral rules for encouraging an animal to in North Managementand Conseruation move out of the house,asdescribedfor racAmerica.Ontario: Ministry of Natural coons,applyto opossums,buttheycan also 246-63. Resources. be directly guided out with as little as a

Pigeons

Rangethroughout allof the UnitedStatesand mostof Canada,andarefoundin almostallmetropolitan areas. Inhabitants of cityparksand openspaces;highlytoferant of industrial andheavily developed areas. TheEgyptians sentnewsof thecoronation of Ramseslll in alldirections usinghoming pigeons-morethanthree thousandyearsbeforethe UnitedStateswasfounded.

PTceoNs ARE THE QUINTESSENTIAL URBAN BIRD;

they are the mold from which all of our perceptions and feelingsabout birds in citiesareformed.And those feelingsoften arenot kind. Variouslyreferredto asnqi_ sances,pestsand even ,,featheredrats,,,pigeons doing nothing more than utilizing an environmentprovided to tI for which by chancethey arept".d"pted. origin.l;,h";;-dr;? ten called rochdoues,inhabited clifiFsand ,ock ledges i-qpq$p" Asia,nestingin theseinaccessible ""a placesand foragins below. some still live this way. Imported to this ",f@gr,"""a .oitir,.{i ^ }".a animals and to serveas carriersof messages, some pigeonsescaped captivity to find shelterin the artificial cliffs of the cities.pigeons are simply anotherfine exampleof an animal doing iroo.*a w..hAif#"t, to do: survivein a world whose odds are ser ,g.i;ffi;r-iualThat they live in a human-createdhabitat doesn,tselm to bother them. We accusethem of making nuisancesof ttrq$;e-lves,but increasingly provide more and more habitat opporruni$"'rur them. If problets with pigeonsexist,they are of our own making-not theirs. If we truly want to deal with any inconveniencethesebirds might cause, we must modifr the habitat that wehavemadeso suitable for them.

Pigeons

133

regardedas inveteratepanhandlers by humans, but where they have been studied (and that is not all that many places),the anil Rnnge Classification bulk of the diet is found to come not from city of (Columba liua) pigeon The common foods (bread,leftoversor birdseed) directly spealien and suburb is an introduced ot provided by people but from wastegrain or ciesbrought over by early settlers(as were seedsfrom city flora. other domestic pets). Pigeonshave long been kept and raised in captivity, and an Reproduction astonishingvariety of forms attestto long Pigeonsbreed throughout the year, even human experimentationwith geneticvariduring winter, and can raise four or five ants.This introducedspecieshascloserelabroods annually.The femaleusuallylaystwo tivesin a fewvery locally distributed species eggs (less often one or three and, rarely, of largerbirds like itself that reacha foot or four), sheltering them on a crude and more long and many other smaller memloosely constructedneststructurewithout a bers of the family to which it belongs that lining. The nest of branch and root pieces arecommonly referredto asdoves'The dasand occasionallyleavesis built on a ledge sic appearanceof the urban pigeon is of a such as a building windowsill or a bridge plump-bodiedbird with a smallhead,black girder. Incubation takes about sixteen to barson its innerwings, awhite rump and a nineteen days,and the young are fed crop dark band at the end of its tail' milk for about the first two weeks' (Crop milk is a specially produced secretionthat Habitat both parentsproducefrom the lining of the storagechamber that Pigeonsoccurthroughout the United States' crop, a saclike food bottom of the and most of southemCanada'They proiects outward from the Me>
Natural History

also occur.

Diet Pigeonsappearto be dietarygeneralistsbecausethey do sampleall of the many foods offered them by people in city parks, but they specializein seedsand grains'They are

734

wrro NsrcHeoRS

and efficient way of feeding young. Apparently, this way of feeding young has been acquiredindependentlyin suchdiversebird groupsasflamingos,pigeonsand penguins.

Public Health Pigeonsplay a role in the environmental concernof histoplasmosis,and are known carriersof cryptococcoses and salmonella. HoweveLthere is little evidencelinking pigeonsdirealy to infectionsin humans.

Problems and Their Solutions Problems To some,pigeons are a visual and aesthetic problem. To others,they are only a prob_ lem when presentin greatnumbersorwhen roosting on buildings or under bridges. Their droppingscandisfigurebuildings, and if left to accumulate,can causeseriousdis_ figurement due, probably, to their acidic nature. But usually, pigeons do little if any actual structural damageto buildings.

Solutions Tor,EneNcs To those for whom pigeons are an irritant or eyesore/remember that they are one of the few animals that will tolerate the envi_ ronmental conditions humans impose on the inner city.We think of desertsasbarren places,but they team with life in comparison to the industrial core of some of our cities.The pigeonsthat aretherecan be con_ sidered a vanguard of other speciesthat might comewhen the condition improves. Henlrer MaNecEMENT One of the essentialkrys to controlling ex_ cessnumbers of pigeons around urban

neighborhoodsand parks is to limit the amount of feeding done by humans. Frequently, large numbers of these birds are supportedby well-intentioned individuals who regularlysupplementthem with bread, table scrapsor birdseed.Generally,feeding is incremental.From a modest beginning the individual feederencouragesmore and more birds to appearor stayin the area,thus requiring more feedingand further enhancing bird numbers.Eventually,the situation gets out of control, to the deUiment of all concemed. The golden rule to pigeon feeding is moderation.Feedonly asmuch asbirdswill consumein five to ten minutes and do not feedwith the clockwork regularitythat conditions the birds to appearat the sameplacq sametime, everyday.When excessfeeding situations have occurred, a gradual reduction over a period of severalweeksto a rea_ sonablebaselineamount is recommended. Feedingschedulesand amountscan be ad_ justed for weather or any unusual circum_ stances,provided that the feederis awareof and responsiveto the adverseeffectsof this actMty as much as their positive ones. ExcrusroN Pigeonsprefer to perch on flat surfacesand certainly need theseto nest. Nestsare usu_ ally built under shelter and as much in a cubby as the parents can find. Wood or metal sheathingcan be installedon a ledge at an anglethat deniespigeonsthe oppor_ tunityto usethat surface.An angleof at least 45' is needed,and 60' is requiredto ensure that even the most determined attempt to land will be rebuffed. Bird wires (seeChapter 3) will orcludepigeonsfrom ledges,railings, awnings and rooftops. Any of the types-single-strand, coils or porcupine wire-will be effeaive,but whereproblems aresevereor pigeonsnumerousand persis_ tenf the porcupinewire hasbeenusedmost

Pigeons

135

frequently. Electricitywas once commonly accommodatequickly to any tlpe of scareused to enhancethe effectivenessof wire crow usedagainstthem. barriers, but is now consideredlargely an RgpnllnNrs unnecessaryrefinement. Polybutene repellents are registeredfor of Netting (seeChapter 3) is the tool choice for many conflictswith pigeonsas use on pigeonsand may be effective,but well as other urban birds when large areas involve so much dangerto smaller birds have to be treated.Netting can be used to and createso many other problems that The exclude birds from virtually any type of we do not recommend their use. regisalso is structure,from a detachedhouse to an of- chemical product Avitrolo asa fice building. To evict birds from window teredfor useon pigeonsand classified lethal ledges,the netting is anchoredto the roof, frightening agent. It has, however, (see birds some least at for drapedacrossthe front of the structureand consequences not recommendits then tightly securedto the base and sides Chapter3), and we do of the building. Netting canbe usedunder use. bridgesor inside buildings where pigeons perch on beams, girders, struts and sup- A Last Word ports. The netting can be suspendedbelow we haveso proudly built contain the perchesto createa falseceiling that ex- The cities applicationsof many artificial cliffs and ledgesthat attract cludesthe birds. Large-scale while residentsprovide many ofnetting almost always require the experi- pigeons, the various kinds of foods that enceand tool kit of professionals,of which ferings of Ecologistslooking at urban a growing number provide excellentlong- sustainthem. them as cliff-detritus term solutions to urban bird problems habitats describe in which our sbrscrapersfunc(consultprivatecompanieslisted in Appen- zones-areas tion much as mountain rangesdo to set dix 1). patterns and microcliDoor curtains (seeChapter 3) can also wind circulation themselvesand to capture be used to prevent bird accessinto build- mates about and other organic detriings, such as warehouses,that must be windblown seeds yet studied this habitat in has somewhatopen to accessand daily traffic' tus. No one certainly when aspiring The netting is installedin overlappingsuips any detail, but they will no doubt find a surso asto form a protectivecurtain that parts ecologistsdo, biological diversity, with high to allow the passageof personneland ve- prisingly microorganisms,insects, hiclesand then falls back into placeto seal many speciesof plants and animalsadaptingrapidly to this out pigeons. specialniche providedby humans.At somewhere near the top, and likely to represent Scenn DEvIcPs of all, will be the Effigies and homemade or commercial the greatesttotal biomass scarecrows(seeChapter 3) are often used pigeon. to attemPt to frighten pigeons away from an area,especiallywhere no strong attrac- Additional Source tion suchasa food sourceoccurs.Thesemay 1995.Feral or may not work. The types that move or Johnston,R. F.,and M. Janiga. UniversitY Oxford Pigeons.Oxford: are even motorized stand a better chance Press.320 PP. pigeons often but result, of achievingsome

6

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Pocket Gophers-}#tu '-ri/itr' ,-T€.

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Foundthroughout theU.S. MidwestandWest,northinto Alberta.Alsofoundin partsof the southeastern United States. Mostlya problemin agriculture; restricted to yards andgardensin residential areas.

,,1.,

Lrrp MANv orHER sMALLRoDENTS,undd appro_ priate circumstancespocket gophers cant.utd.rgo By itself,onepocketgopher dramatic population increasesor imqtions. fhe af;, maybringfrom2 to 4 fonsof propriate conditions are often provided by humanr'.u, soilto the surfacein a year's preparing agricultural land. By removing a naturail, time. community ofplants to prepareland for a singlecrop, or monoculture, wecreatesuperabundantfood resources that arebonanzasto animalslike pocketgophers.The population increasesthat logically follow .r, i.rr.rate substantial economicloss-as much as25 percentof a crop. Loss suchasthis is certainto evokesignificantresponses, leadingtL malor effortsto de_ stroythe "pest"in accordancewith the damageit does. If this works at all, it is briefly and almosr alwaysfollowed by adaptationof the problem speciesto the technology directed .t it. Eventhose who havespent much of their lives in this effiortare recogn izingthe inevi_ table circularpath this coursefoilows. Breakingout of that circlebeginswith a betterunderstandingof the placethese animalshold when they are a part of the natural ecosystemsin which they have evolved,. This leadsto understandingtheir role in the new ecosystems imposed by humans.Not all ecosystems arenatural (desertsorwoods or tun_ dra). some areagricultural,and those that are mostly the object of this book areurbanor human-dominatpd.They still function as eco_ qrstemseven where human hands have dramatically altered them.

PocketGophers

L37

penedby their adaptation to different types The control of problemswith wild animals of soils. in any of thesesystemsmust ultimately focuson natural processesthat will work not to destroyspeciesbut to bring them into Diet balancewith other parts of the system. Pocket gophers are herbivores-they live almost entirely on plants. Much of their feeding occursin tunnels, where they conNatural History sume the roots of the plants they encounter.Theywill alsofeedon the surfacein brief Classificationand Range bouts of activity right outside a tunnel exit. a belonging to rodents Pocketgophersare roots of dandelion are an important The thatis onlyfound in the family (Geomyidae) NewWorld. Therearethreegeneraofpocket food for pocketgophers,and the entireplant gophers (Thomomys,Goemvsand Pappo' maybeconsumedwhenit canbe pulled into geomys)in the United Statesand thirteen the tunnel. Grassesandforbs(plants that die species.Pocketgophersarefound through- backin winter) makeup the bulk of the diet, out most of the Midwest and West,aswell but many agriculturalcropsarereadily conas in the southernmostparts of Alabama sumed- especially alfalfa. and Georgiainto Florida.They also range north into partsof CanadathroughAlberta. Reproiluction Like many other rodent groupings,the fam- In the northern part of their range,pocket ily relationships are highly complicated, gophersusually haveone litter eachyearbut and a good deal of diversificationand spe- may givebirth twice in the South.The avercialized adaptationto specificmicrohabi- age litter rangesfrom three to five young, tats has occurred to make the group's taxonomy either a ioy or a curse,dependTracks PocketGoPher ing on how you feel about taxonomtzing. To the homeownerwith pocket gopher problems the taxonomy of the group is probably not a high concern.To anyone who wonders about the variety of life and its adaptationsand diversification,groups such asthis can be highly significant'

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Habitat Although they areburrowing (fossorial)animals, pocket gophersoccupy a surprising rangeof habitats,including some that are fairlyrocky.Exactlywhattypesof soilssupport them in their greatestabundanceremains to be determined, but lighter and more friable types are clearly preferred.In fact, the diversification theseanimals have undergoneis thoughtbysometo havehap-

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138

WTTO NEICHBORS

but as few as one or as many as ten have been found.

Bunows Burrows are sometimes quite close to the ground and sometimesareasmuch as2 feet down. The industry and energy that goes into burrowingand the amount ofearth that is castoffis hard to imagine.Using its teeth and its dawsto tunnel (different speciesvary in the amount to which they useone or the other technique),the pocket gopher loosens soil, then somersaultsin the tun4el to turn around so that it can push the excavated material to the surface.The amount of material a local population of pocket gophers can bring to the surfacehas to be measuredin tons, indicating a significarlt influenceon the soil ecologyof regionalarr ',, easwhen theseanimalsarepresent.

lead to evenmore damage.For thosetrylng to raisecrops this may be true although it doesnot mean that a betterunderstanding of these animals and their ecology is not germaneto dealingwith the problemsthey cause.In fact, it is highly relevantand likely to be the bestway to approachdealing \^rith them. For the homeowner and small-time gardener,pocket gophers may be an occasional nuisance and problem on lawns, ornamentalor gardenbeds,but not a longterm problem or threat.Wherethe animals arenot so numerousasto be causingheavy damage,the homeowner should consider them as neutral.

ExclusroN Fencingor other exclusiontechniquescan be expectedto haveonly a limited applicability in controlling pocketgopherdamage. Individual trees or plant beds that are of specialvalue can be surroundedwith hardPublic Health warecloth or a plasticmeshthat is no more 1/zinch. This must be buried at leasta Pocketgophers are not implicated in the than foot deep, and the effiort required to do this, transmissionof anyseriouszoonoticdisease aswell asthe possibilityof disturbingplant to humans. roots by digging doesnot make this a particularly attractivesolution.

Problems and Their Solutions

Henrrer MeNecsMENT Wherethey areproblems in agriculturalsetProblems tings,success in limitingthe amountof dampocket age gophersdo has come through a Extensiveburrowin& numerousmoundsof variety of habitat managementpractices, excavatedearth and plugging of burrow enranging from planting the of alternatecrops tranceswith earth or grassare indicatorsof to crop roration and flood irrigation.Alt of their presenceand a sourceof concernto anyonetrfing to maintain a lawn with these theselower the suitability of rhe habitat for pocketgopheroccupancy.Somesuccess may animalsin it. be achievedin residentialareasby heavily watering lawns periodically to createan Solutions unsuitablesoil structurefor burrow mainTolnneNce tenance.As with any rodent problem, the Most people would not think to tolerate toleranceand encouragementof natural pocketgopherproblemsbecauseof the logi- predatorsleadsultimately to some of the cal concernthat leavingthem alone would bestsolutions.Artificial perchesfor raptors

Pocket Gophers

139

and toleranceof fox and evencoyotepres- knowledgedin the pastand, evenwhen they ence can go a long way toward creating a have, not taken to heart. The enormous amount of soil they move alone suggests predator-preybalance. they servean important function in directly influencingthesoil and plant communities. Reper,rENrs There are no repellents currently regis- Ratherthan destroy,we should understand. tered for use on pocket gophers, and home remediesthat mightwork on other speciesare less likely to be usable for Additional Source them becauseof the difficulty of reachChasseI. D., W. E. Howard, and I. T. ing animals underground. Roseberry.1982. "PocketGophers."In |. A. Chapmanand G. A. Feldhamer A Last Word (eds.),Wild Mammalsof NorthAmerica. Baltimore:The JohnsHopkins UniverThe positive and beneficial environmental sity Press.239-55. roles of pocket gophershavebeen little ac-

Porcupine

Foundthroughoutmost of Canadaand the westernUnitedStates. Limitedpresencein the easternUnitedStates.

Onlyan occasional visitorto residential areas;morelikelyto be encountered on hikes. Thequillsarepresentfrombirth andfunctional oncedry-all thirtythousandof them.

CoNrnaRy ro popuLAR BELTEF, porcupinescan_ not impale people,or their pets,by shooting their quills through the air. Although rhese specially modified hairsaremarvelsof evolutionaryadaptation, they can only do so much to help this slow-movingand (to be honest) clumsyrodent protectitself.so, you must actuallybe in contact, howeverslight, before the quills can becomedislodgedand attach themselvesto you. Ifyou leavethe porcupinealong then itwill go its way and certainly not interferewith you going yours.

Natural History Classificationand Range The porcupine (Erethizondorsatum)is a large-bodiedslow-moving rodent that would be ill equippedto avoid any sorr of predatorwere it not for the unique defensivesystemnature has provided it with. Porcupinesrangethroughoutmost of Canadaand thewesternunited States,and can be found in the Eastthroughout the New England states,New York and Pennsylvania,and even into parts of northern Maryland.

Porcupines The adultsvary little betweenthe sexes. A fulI-grown porcupine is about 2 to 21f z feetlong and weighsup to 30 pounds.The quills arethe hallmark of theseanimals.A sheathof musclecontrols quill movement so that they canbe raisedin a sign of warning when the porcupine is threatened.As many a dog owner li''ing in porcupine countryhasdiscovered,ignoringthis warning can lead to big problemsfor the overly pet.The end of the inquisitiveor aggressive quilt is madeup of overlappingshinglelike sectionscalled barbulesthat, once imbedded, cannot easily be pulled out. Serious injury,evenfatalities,canoccurtobothwild and domesticanimalsthat havecome into contactwith a porcupine.In fact, one human fatality has even been documented, this coming to an individual who ingested a quill in a porcupinemeat sandwich.

Habitat Porcupinesaremost commonly associated with coniferous or evergreenforests.They also range into deciduousforests,and in parts of the West are felt to causeserious damage,at times, to standsof cottonwood trees.

Diet Porcupinesare herbivores (plant-eaters). They specializeduring the winter on utilizing the woody partsof plants,especiallythe inner bark (the cambium)of treesthat also is so favored by beavers.The barhstripping that occurswhen a porcupine has worked on a tree is fairly obvious and distinctive, being only occasionallyconfusedwith similar damagecausedby squirrels.Virtually all speciesof trees found within the porcupine'srange are eaten.Porcupinesmay have preferencesfor hemlock, Douglas fir and and ponderosapine amongevergreens,

r47

maples,oaks,beech and birch among deciduousorhardwoodtrees.In summer,porcupineswill eat herbaceousplants,but the significanceof thesefood items is probably alwayslessthan the food derived from the woody plants.

Reproiluction Breedingoccursin the autumn and is followed by about a2l}-day gestationperiod. This is unusuallylong for a rodent-almost five times longer than the gestationperiod for the squirrel and about equal in length to that of the white-tailed deer. Much humorous speculationis traditionally associatedwith the actof mating in theseanimals, but from what we know it is not different from most other mammals.It doesaPpear that porcupineshavequite meticulous behavior during the brief period of sexual

Tracks Porcupine

T42

WILO NEICHNORS

activity, but they also are sometimesquite aggressive and combativewith one anothet all done withoutthe useof the most formidableweapon in their arsenal,the quills.

Public Health Porcupinesdo not cary/ any communicable diseasesthat are of concernto humans.The main safetyissueassociated with theseanimals is the possibiliryof being quilled. The reflorive twitching of musclestends to pull quills in deeper,and a quick responseis recommended to minimize this. Petsthat have had a run-in with a porcupine should be ueatedby a veterinarian,both to ensurethat quills are removed correctly,with as little discomfort to the pet as possible,and for evaluationand treatmentwith antibioticsif deemednecessary. Humans who have imbeddedquills should consulra physicianto determine a courseof treatment.

Problemsand Their Solutions Problems

tant issuein commercial forest stands,but this is rare. Damageto individual trees in settled areasdoesn't happen very often and is easilyaddressedby the methodsdescribedbelow.

Solutions ToreRANcE To emphasizea point madeearlier,we note againthe appealingand almostentirelybenevolentdisposition that makesporcupines thoroughlyenjoyableanimalsto be around. The mistakenimpressionof the porcupine is that it is a dangerousor harmful creature that will ultimately causepeople and their .pets harm. The truth is that unlessthere is provocation, no harm is likely to evercome from theseanimals. ExcrusroN Whereindividual ueesneedto be protected, a metal band that is about 24 to 30 inches in height canbe placedaround the trunk of a tree at about 3 feet off the ground. This band will prevenr the tree from being climbed, and becauseporcupines are not good dimbers and rarelycrossfrom one tree to another aboveground, it is likely to be quite effective.We do not recommendleaving thesebands on treesfor any longer period than necessary-insectsmay accumulatq lay eggsor overwinterundemeaththem, and the trunks of sensitivetreescould scaldif the bands were removed and the sun were to fall on the sensitivebark that was exposed. In protecting any fruit tree, it is important that exdusion takeinto accountwinter snow cover and that bands or other excluding devicesbe placed 3 feet abovethe expected maximum level of the snowpack.

Porcupinesoccasionallydamagestructures and implements that are used in outdoor work or recreation,and are sometimes responsiblefor damageto trees.peoplewho spendtime outdoors in porcupine country know that these animals are attracted to tools and implementsthathavesalton them (asfrom sweating).Evenaluminum oarsare occasionallyfound to havebeengnawedto get at.this mineral. The wooden parts of structures that are attacked usually are bonded plywood that contains a layer of gluethat attractsthe porcupine.Cartiresand hosesmay also attract attention becauseof RnprnrNts their mineral content.Treedamage,includ- There is one capsaicin-based hot saucereing bark stripping is occasionallyan impor- pellent (seeAppendix 2) that is registered

Porcupines

743

for use againstporcupine damageto plasA Last Word tic tubing (e.9.,lines and fittings on maple syrup collection equipment). The effective- Keepyour porcupine friends close,but not nessof the product holds out some hope touching. for being equally effectivein protecting car hoses or other devicesthat porcupines might find tasty and may be registeredfor Additional Source such such use in the future. Preservatives, ascoppernapthanateand pentachlorophe- Dodge,W. E. 1982."Porcupine."In J.A. Chapmanand G. A. Feldhamer(eds.), nol, usedin the manufacturing of plywood Wild Mammalsof Nor-thAmerica. alsoappearto havesomerepellingproperBaltimore:The JohnsHopkins Univerties, eventhough they are not registeredas 355-68. siw Press. animal repellents.

24 Prairie Dogs and Ground Squirrels Occurwidelythroughout the westernand midwestern partsof thecontinent, rangingintothe veryfar North. Mostlya concernin andaround largeareasof openspace; occasional to rarein developed areas. Earlysettlersencountered a prairiedog town in theTexasai Panhandle that measured 250 mileslongand100mileswide, andcontainedupwardsof 400 million animals. PRalnrEDocs AND GRouND seurRREr-sarefossorial animals.This does not mean that thry,aie,,extinct and preservedaslittle lumps ofstone but simply thatthey spend a good deal of their time underground.Both build elaboratetunnel or burrow systems,live in fairlylarge to very largeg.o.rprpre #&a.1, ous, have complex social lives and have adaptedto occufytawide rangeof differenthabitats.All tend to look somewhatalike although there areplenty of differenceswhen you look real$ close. Near the end of world war I, california becamethe first stateto officially dedare a "ground squirrel week.,,The p , H6*e,o"r,*a, not to honor theseplucky little rodents,but to beiter organ2e forces for their destruction.schoolsand shopswereencouragedto closeso that both children and adults could be mobilized into a worldorce dedicatedto killing asmany of theseanimalsaspossible.Eventhough the official stateholiday has disappeared,the effort to developbettet more efficientand more deadlytechnologiesto destroytheseanimals hasnot.

PrairieDogsand Ground Squirrels

r45

Prairiedogshavefaredevenworse'Once of the ground squirrelsand distinctivewhite they occupiedmore than 700 million acres or black tips on the tail of the two typesof throughout the Great Plains. Poisoning prairie dogs. campaignsreducedthat rangeto lessthan 2 percent of what it had been. For some Habitat people thathas notbeen enough,andviruBlack-tailedprairie dogs are grasslandspelent attempts to eradicatethese animals cialists,most commonly associatedwith continue. These strategiesare extremely open short-grassprairies. More than the shortsighted, neglecting not only the eviother speciesin its group, the black-tailed dencethat showstheir impacts not to be prairie dog forms largesocial assemblages, that great,aswell as a misunderstanding basedon a unit called the coterieand orgaof the positive and beneficial role these . nized aroundfamily affiliations.Prairiedog animals play as important parts of the "towns" were frequent phenomena of the ecosystem. Old West and still can be found in places today. None, however,will ever again approach the sizeof the town describedat the beginning of this chapter.Ground squirrels Range and Classification are also found in prairie and grasslandaralsoaretolerant of scruband brushPrairie dogs (Cynomysspp') and ground easand One and evenwoodedplaces. deserts spp.) include numer- lands, squirrels(Sperophilus in species many so are reasonsthere ous species,which residewidely through- of the have they this group of animals is that out North America. In the United States adaptedto a wide variety of habitats. they occupy all regions except the midAtlantic and Northeast.All aremembersof the samegroup of animals (the Sciuridae) Diet that includestreesquirrelsand chipmunks' Both prairie dogs and ground squirrelsare Therearefour or five speciesof prairie dogs herbiuores (plant-eaters).Grassesand forbs and more than twenty different speciesof are the mainstayof their diets,but may be ground squirrels. supplementedby insectsor an occasional dogs, prairie of types main two the Of small mammal. Prairie dogs not only eat the white-tailed, the and the black-tailed but clip and maintain them, both grasses, is most for housekeepingpurposesunderground ludouicianus) black-tailed (Cynomys likelyto causeproblemsforpeople.Among where densare lined and for aboveground the ground squirrels,the thirteen-lined (S' housekeepingaswell. By maintaining short beecheri)is the speciesthat is most widely grassaround the burrow entrances,the town distributed and most often comesinto con- sentinels,a duty in which all share,cankeep flict with humans. a better eyeout for approachingpredators' are dogs prairie and Ground squirrels medium-sizedrodents,rangingabout a foot Burrows or more in length and averagingabout 2 to by the 3 pounds.Coatcolor varieswidely but gen- Prairiedog towns are distinguished as a obvious each erally is brownish, with lighter and darker manv burrow entrances, earth that the variantsin both groups,faint spotsin some small mound of excavated

NaturalHistory

146

WtLo NEtcHgoRS

prairie dogssit on to scanfor predatorsor other danger.Belowground the burrow may be anywherefrom 2 to 6 feet deep and 15 feetlong. Ground squirrel burrows aresimilar to the prairie dog's,and both can have several entrancesto allow escapefrom predatorssuch as rattlesnakes.

Solutions

TornneNcE Sometimesthe damagethat we think animalsdo is actuallymuch lessthan believed, and sometimesthe "damage"is actually a benefitthat goesunnoticed.This is the case with prairie dog and ground squinel poPulations. Recentstudiesfocusingon the overall impact and benefitof animalslike these Public Health suggestthat we haveoverlookedthe critical Prairie dogs can play hosts to the ectopara- role they may play in encouragingbiologisites(fleas)that are implicatedin the trans- cal diversity, and have overestimatedthe mission of bubonic plague(seeChapter2). impact they have on out own economic interests.

Problems and Their Solutions

ExcrusroN Fencingis generally not a practical means of excluding any of theseanimals CI(ceptin Problems specialcases.Hardwarecloth (11l'-or llzAgricultural crops, pasture and occasional inch mesh) can be placedto a depth of 18 garden crops are sometimesdamagedby to 20 inches around small plots of indiground squinelsand prairiedogs,and com- vidual ornamental plants and trees,or plaints about burrows and possibleiniury trunla can be wrapped in commercial tree to livestock,people and farm machineryare wrap (seeFigure13,p. 37). One specialized sometimesmade.

PrairieDogsand Ground Squirrels application of fencing in a municipal ballpark involved the horizontal application ofwovenwire meshoveran entireplaying surface,which wasthen coveredby soil. This method illustrates the imaginative thinking that can be applied to conflicts between people and wildlife. Another imaginative and possibly successfulway to limit the presenceand activity of animals such as prairie dogs can be accomplished by erectingvisual barriers-short fencingof the sort used along construction sites to control runoff, for example.Becauseof the strong innate drive to clearvegetation and maintain open visual fields that theseanimals have,fencesthat are placed along the perimeter of colonies and obstructthis can be highly effectivein limiting colony spread or evenforcing oristing coloniesto relocate' Hentrer MnNecnMENT Habitat modification practicesaimed at reducing cover,controlling weedsand limiting available forage may be helpful in limiting conflicts.Sometimesconflictsoccur becausepeople move into habitat occupied by theseanimals and force them to live in and around human settlements'If such areasare maintained with as much of the natural plantcommunities intactaspossible,then conflictswith theseanimalswill be minimized. REprnsNrs Thereareno repellentscurrentlyregisteredfor useon theseanimals.Beingessentiallyonly

147

stighttydifferentmodelsoftree squinels,howevet possiblysomeofthe repellentscommercially manufacttrredforuse on theseanimals would be effectiveaswell on ground squirrelsandprairiedogs,and could at sometime in the future be registeredfor use.

A Last Word As discussedthroughoutthis booh attempts to eradicateanywild animal through the use ofwidespreadpoisoningand trappingcampaignSare simply bad ideas.Not only do they provide only temporary remission of the problem, but they invariably createenvironmental and ecologicalproblems that e>rtenddamage far beyond the benefit of relieving damageto a spdcific resource.As we learn more about the role and function of individual specieliasimernbersof the communitiesof living thinpthat makeup we,lear.nhow interconentire ecosystems, nectedthings areto brreanOtherand to ourselves.Fortunately, many people have alreadynoted fhat wheniwe poison wild animals we are:,alsopoisoning ourselves, both literally und ngutativelY. '1' :: l .

i

t.

- o

Addlttonal

t

Source

Tomich, P: Q,11982."Ground Squirr'els'" J. A. Chapmatt and G. A. Feldhamer (eds.),Witd Mammalsof NorthA@ca runiier. Baltimore:The Iohns Hopkin's sity Press.192-208

Rabbits

Widespread throughout the UnitedStates,but of limited distribution in Canada. Yardsand gardensare rabbit.hangouts Anywhererabbitsaboundis calleda warren-originallythe word meantthose places officiallygrantedby the English king for raisingrabbits.

"TIMID ASA RABBIT"peoplewill sayto characterize otherswho are not given to direct actions.This may not be that good an analogy,howeve[,consideringthat timid people don't haveto worry about being at the bottom of a long food chain. "Circumspectas a rab_ bit" might be more apt, becauserabbitsgo to extremes not to advertisethemselvesas availableto be eaten.Few animals are as content to sit unmoving for as long as rabbits ?r€,as thosewho keepthem aspets know. Thisjsnst,to say that rabbits don't let their guard down once in a while. The observant no#fu* may,if lucky,seerabbits on their lawn in the early morning or evening hours in spirited and spontaneouschasesof other rabbits, a playful nature that is rare in other animals. Rabbitsleadinterestinglives,undoubtedlyonesthat arefull of concern and fear,but sometimes of an apparentioy of living that we can envy.

Natural History

,t,i

, 'ii

,

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Classificationand Range Rabbitsare commonly misunderstoodto be rodents,but actually belong to their own order and properly arecalledlagomorphs. The evolutionarysplit betweenrabbitsand other living mammalsprobably occunedabout thiny million yearsago.Lagomorphs arefound in both the old and New Worlds,with the New World forms distinguishedbetween true rabbits, belonging to the genus Syluilagus, and the haresor jackrabbitsthat belong to the

Rabbits genusLEus.It is the cottontailsthat areprimarilyproblemsinyards and gardens,while the haresand iachabbitsaremore problematic in agricultural and open-rangesettings' The couontails and their close relatives

bits are most activeiust at dusk and dawn' an activity pattern describedby the term crepuscular. RepfOdUCtiOn

',#: lfl.T'r."'"'::ii:*:'Y?Uffi;rilff:iT*L'ffi:i,. T,ff isabout

Gestation norrh rarther ly^Tfl,::.':?,*l.T:Jlil1i1l3f:i,::""1 ::::.' .. o;;::".",1;ffiffi1f",11il,ftff":i*;::::::,1 introduced been have tails young H:'ff;;,:uJ:::.l:*[

beuptoeight) can (ritte,,i,., Hfiliff:-1 vear helplessin a shallow depression

to makethe descriptor"eastern";#;;. misleading. cottontails vary t" ."at it"ffi gay ro brown and havelarge..r;;;

nr,no.ii':ffi;: feetandshortnuf&tails. tail speciesvary in size,.h.y .r.u;tiiuti;t uuo,-,i;';#; " small animals,averaging length and2to 3 poundsin -"ig;,.

Habitat Cottontails are generallyfound in brushy hedgerowsand the edgesof wooded areas with densecover,but they also do very well in suburbs and urban areaswhere lawns, gardensand shrubs meet their habitat requirements.Besidesthe plants essentialto their diet, rabbits need resting and escape cover.The briar patch is a real attraction to them becausethe denseprickly growth of raspberryor other thorny shrubs provides excellentprotection. The type of early successionalhabitat that rabbits favor is often characterizedbythe term oldfield.

X:t-oorn t::o with grassand mothe/s fur' but they rapidly and areweanedwhen lessthan f:,y mav cottontails

ll:'itli::':'-:^l:Iadult' t two yearsin the wild'

but where ll: live seldom they numerous predatorsare morethan oneyear'

Public Health Rabbits can be infected with tularemia, which may be transmitted to people if they eat undercooked, infected meat, handle a sick animal or allow an open cut to contact the infected meat of abutchered rabbit' They may also serve as a host fbr the ticks that transmit Rocky Mountain spotted fever'

Problems and Their Solutions Problems

Cottontail damage is usually the result of feeding activities. Flower and vegetable and summer and Rabbits feed on leafyplants duringthe grow- plants are eaten in spring fruit trees and ornamentals in the fall and ing season and the buds and bark of woody from plants in the winter. Both garden plants and winter. Damage maybe distinguished cleanly the by ornamentals can be damaged, and smaller that causedby other animals 22,p- 101)and trees, including fruit trees, can be dam- cutplant remains (seeFigure pea-sized aged significantly in bad winters or when the presence of nearly spherical area, or the around scattered droppings high numbers of rabbits are present' Rab-

Diet

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Wlro NErcHsoRS

sometimesleft in small piles.Deerscat,al_ though similarly shaped,is quite larger.The easily recognizabletracks of rabbits may alsobefound in softsoil orsnow.Of course, the rabbits themselvesmay be seen;they tend to be active at dusk and dawn.

Solutions ExcrusroN The most effectivepermanentprotectionfor gardenssubiectto rabbit damageis a well_ constructedfence.Chicken wire supported by posts every6 to 8 feet is strong enough to exclude rabbits. Such fencesnormally needto be only about 2 feethigh. It is impoftant to make sure the bottom is either buried 6 to 8 inchesor stakedsecurelyto the ground to prevent rabbits from pushing their way underneathit. Somegardenerspreferto constructmovablefencepanels (seeFigure 24) that can be stored as sections (2 x 8 feet being one recommended size)and setout to protectthe gardenright after first planting, when damageis likely to be most severe.Someyearsthe panels may not be neededat all, giventhe ups and downs that occurwith rabbit populations. When their presenceis only sporadicor occasional,new plantingscanbe protectedby usingcommerciallysoldclochesor l-gallon plastic milk containersthat have the bottom cut out and are placed over the seed_ ling to provideprotection both from rabbits and late frost (seeChapter3). TnnE PnorscrroN Barrierssuchas commercialtreewrap (see Figure13,p. 37) maybe effectivein preventing bark damageby rabbits. Cylinders of hardwarecloth (usuallyself-supporring)or poultrywire (which may requiresomestaking) can also be used. Thesebarriers are placedaround the trunks to a height equal to the expectedsnow depth plus 18 inches.

Young treesand saplingsare more vulnerable than old trees with thicker, tougher bark. Low-hangingbranchesmay also be within reach of rabbits and should be induded inside the barrierif possible.Routine pruning done in the fall will providea decoy food sourcefor the rabbitsif trimmings are left on the ground. Rabbitsfind twigs and buds more desirablethan trunk bark and will concentratetheir feeding on these. REpeLrENrs If fencing is impractical, or damageis so slight that it is not costeffective,small plots and individual planrscanbe protectedwith chemical repellents.A variety of Thirambased repellentsare registeredfor use on inedibleplants,aswell asHindero,Ro-pel@, Shotguno,Rabbit-Scat@, Miller's Hot Sauce@ and Get-Away'"(see"ChemicalRepellents" in Chapter3). Careshould be taken not to use a repellent on plants that will be eaten (unlessit specifieson rhe label that this can be done). Many homemaderepellentsuategieshavebeen tried, with the usual varying resultsthat taunt anyonetrying to makereal senseout of them. Theseinclude soapand hair asrecommendedsometimesfor repelling deer.While we cannot endorseany of theseproceduresenthusiastically, they may be worth trying and certainly are an inexpensiveform of entertainmentif nothing else. Scann DEvrcEs Someclaim empty soda bottles buried up to their necks and placed along a garden perimeterrepelrabbitsby producinga windaidednoisethat scaresthem.What happens when it is not windy is unclear.Under some circumstances scaretape or balloons might frighten rabbits awayfrom an area.The pinwheelssold to repelmoles might provide a visual deterrentto rabbits aswell.

Rabbits

151

ot,n'r"

and placedarounda smalluegenbleor flown Figure24. simpteframedpanelsof chkkenwire or otherfencingmaterialcan be strungngether to sWort thepanels' at interuals in driuen be stakes can wooden If necessary, protection rabbiu. needs giaun that from

HestrAT MopIrtcATIoN with rabbit problems can be Somesuccess achievedthrough habitat management,but consideration must be given to the Potential impact of any suchactionson other desirablewildlife species,such as songbirds. Certainly, removing cover around gardens and orchardscan help reducedamagefrom rabbits.

Predators

A Last Word The English rabbit, cousin to our own cottontail, was introduced to Australia many years ago with the thought that it might make a profitable side industry as a food source.The resultswerea population explosion that resultedin maior changesin native vegetation.We are fortunate that our rabbits are native speciesand that no matter how much we alter our landscapesto favortheir populations increasing,the natural checksand balancesthat have worked for millennia seemto preventthe sorts of things that happenedin Australiafrom occurring.The moral of the story seemsclear: the more carefulwe areto allow natural ecoto worh the more controllogicalprocesses lable potential conflictswith animals will be.This is true even(perhapsespecially)in our cities and towns.

It is important to recognlzethe role that predationplaysin keepingrabbit numbers in balance.Hawksand owls play important roles as avian predators, and foxes, raccoons, skunks and opossumsas mammalian speciesthat prey on rabbits.Domestic cats and dogs take a toll on local rabbit populations aswell. Obviously,the role of predatorsis not to completely control prey populations,but to regulatethem at levels where other techniquescan be more effec- Additional Source tive in deterringthem from causingserious Lockley,R. M. L975.ThePriuateLife of the Rabbit.New York Avon Books.152 pp. damage.

Raccoons

Widespread throughout the United Statesand Canada,where theycontinue to expandtheirrange northward. Canbe foundin attics,chimneys, crawlspaces,outbuildings, yards,gardensandwherever elsehumansprovidesomething to peaktheircuriosity. WtrH THErRBANDTT'sMASKand ringed tail, rac_ coons are recognued by iust about everyone,even if not frequentlyseendue to their nocturnalhabits.Raccoonsareone of a veryfew speciesof wild animal that appearsto haveactuallybenefitedfrom contactwith humans, and they haveshown no troubre adapting to suburban and evenurban environments.such s,ynanthropes (aniirials able or evenpreferring,to live with humans) areusuallygeneralists, toleratingwidely differenthabitatsand eatingmany diffeient fooas. If the few studiesthat havebeenconductedon urban and suburban raccoonsare representative,then the densitiesthey achievein urban areascan be up to twenty times that typical of rural environments. This inevitably leadsto conflictswith humansbecauseraccoonsare smartenoughto defeatany but the most determineddefenseof gar_ bagecansor home gardens.It has also led to many cherishedmoments, as homeowners becameenthralled by a glimpse of these fascinatinganimals.Among those who know them well, there is a strong sentimentthat raccoonscould easilysharehonors with the bald eagleby being declaredour national mammal.

This"solitary" mammalhasbeen foundin winterdenscontaining morethantwentyanimals.

Raccoons

153

Raccoonsareat leastasintelligent ascats or dogs and possessfar greatermanual denNatural History terity. In fact their senseof touch may be as Range anil Classification fully or more developedthan their other name of the raccoon Raccoons (Procyonlotor) are truly New senses.The scientific "washing" behavior, once World animals,with only a debatablerela- refers to the and mandatory in tionship to Asiananimalssuchasthe giant thought to be instinctive truth, raccoonsdo not and red pandas.The fossilevidencesuggests these animals. In eat.They manipulate that essentiallymodern-looking raccoons wash everythingthey it when wateris soaking rangedcoastto coastthroughout the United food, dunking and to be washing it' Statesas much as a million yearsago' To- available,and so appear however,they day they are found in almost everymaior When water is not available in handling motions same the habitat (biome)throughout the forry-eight use much more acprobably contiguousstatesand havemade recentin- food, and the behavior axperiroads into southern Canadaaswell' There curately reflectsa need to tactually them' clean to it does than throughthings ence areseveralspeciesof raccoonfound out the Americas,someof them restrictedto small offshoreislands.Thereare more than Habitat living on the U'S' maintwenty subspecies Although they prefer mature woodlands, land, most being named back in the days there are raccoonsthat thrive along seawhen itwas more fashionableto"discover" shoresor that live in prairie grasslands' The new types of animals than it is today' rangeof this specieshas o<pandedquite reWhether there are real differencesbetween cently into parts of Canada and deep into any of them is somethingthatstill needsto the American Midwest, largely through hube determined. man beneficencein providing barns and The raccoonmay be as long as a small outbuildings as shelterand crops as nourdog (2 to 3 feet from noseto end of tail), ishment. Cities and suburbsprovide both but actually weigh much less.The average natural foods and abundant castoffsfrom adult male may weigh anywhere from 10 human tables. Sheltercan frequently be to 15 pounds and tend to be slightly larger found in unusedchimneys,in attics,under than the femalg who wilt weigh anywhere porchesor in outbuildings along back alinthe northfrom 6to L2pounds.Raccoons leys.Of course,the old standbyhollow tree larger,and be may em pafts of their range will be used if available,even if it is right 60 pounds,aswill animalsthat evene>rceed next to a busy street.All cities provide exhavebeenfed (or overfed)by humans.Coat tensivetravelcorridorsforraccoons,who are color variesfrom dark, almost black, to quite at home using storm sewerswhen sandy or pale. Although sometimesless theseare not too flooded. noticeableon pale animals,the mask and ringed tail are the hallmarks by which we Diet know them best. Raccoonsare probably color blind, although they have excellent The raccoon's diet is so highly varied that it night vision. Their tapetum (the layerof the almost seems easier to describe the foods eye that reflectslight) sometimesreflects they don't eat rather than those they do' Small pieces of tinfoil, newspaper and even tight in a greenishglow.

154

Wlro NrrcHnoRs

an occasionalcigarettebutt in raccoonscats ties,chimneysand attics,and underground testifrto the useof human refuse.The main_ in oldwoodchuckburrows,storm sewersor stays of the diet, however, are fruits, veg_ crawlspacesunderbuildings.When theyfeel etables,higtr-energymast foods, such as secureenough, raccoonsmay simply lie up acorns, and earthworms in early spring in thickets or swamps on open ground. when other foods are scarce.Fish and Unusual day beds range from squirrel leaf aquatic animals, such as crayfish,are eaten neststo log and brushpiles or, on occasion, when availablebut most urban streamsare evenlargebird nestssuch asthose built by no longer of high enough quality to sup_ magpies.Sharingof den sitesmay be com_ port these forms of life. Raccoonswill eat mon in suburban areasamong adult rac_ small animals such as birds, amphibians coons.Evenin rural areas,wintertime dens and mice on an opportunisticbasis,but are with more than twenty animals have been generallynot regardedaseffectiveor efficient found. hunters. Their appetite for foods such as grapes and sweet corn lead to frequent Reproduction conflictswith home gardeners. There is often a pattem to raccoonfeed- Breedingseasonsvary from north to south, ing activiry.In the mid-Atlantic states,for and in the far South breeding may occur example,an early-springdiet of insectsand y€ar-round.If a line were drawn, bisecting earthworms is followed by meals of mul- the United Statesfrom eastto west,raccoons bery', the first of the ripening fruits. Follow- north of it would generallymate from lanuing that, the summerdiet follows the order aryto March.Belowit raccoonswould mate of ripening fruits: blackberries,cherries, latet perhapsMarch through lune. Whengrapesand, last, the persimmonsthat mav ever breeding occurs,births follow about sixty-threedayslater,around the sametime not be availableuntil latefall. Betr,r,reen Sen_ ,, for a cat or dog. Occasionallate litters tember and the end of Decembe,,"..oor, gorgethemselveson whateverfruits remain occurin earlyfall, apparentlyto femalesthat and acorns,which are a dietary staple.fu fave lost a litter or had a failed pregnancy. In the North, theselate binhs placeyoung much as 30 percent to the ,,r*-., bodv weightcanbe addedbeforethe startofwin- raccoonsat a distinct disadvantage because in order to survive the winter, a certain ter,and makeup criticalfat reserves that the animals live on during the coldestperiods amount of weight should be gained.These oftheyear.In severecold orwh.r, deepsnows late-arrivingyoung havetrouble putting on are on the ground, raccoonswill remain in the weight in time. Litter size rangesfrom dens in a stateof generaltorpor for dayson one to seven,with threeto five usual.Young end.Theydo not, howeve4go into a stateof are weaned at about two months and may

true hibemation rike bears andwoodchucks ;,T,x'1,il:i,i}inTH,*:::f ,Hfi:i

of young that are moving out of the areain which they were born are formally known Raccoonsare usually active at night, al- as dispersion. Thesemovementsoften lead though along coastalareasthey will often to conflicts with peoplq as the exploring forego this to be active at low tide. By day, young breakinto garages, occupychimneys, raccoonsretire to denning or resting sites. get into the trash or engagein other behavDens are made above ground in tree cavi- ior that drawshuman attention. DenS Ond Sheltef

Raccoons 155 play themselvesif the ground is damp' On Public Health hard surfacesor in dry weathsr, flour' lime or other suitable powder can be used to Theraccoonis one of fourwild animals(inrecord prints. Raccoonsthat areusing attics cluding the fox, skunk and bat) considered or chimneysusually begin to make noise at to be primary carriersof the rabiesvirus in dusk and iust before dawn, while squirrels the United States,and classifiableas a rawill be active by day and quieter at night biesvectorspecies(RVS).Most of the east(exceptwhenthe lesscommon flying squirern United Statesis where raccoon rabies iels, which are nocturnal, are involved)' occurs.Racoonrabieswasfirst documented Even mice in or near chimneys can make in I977 in WestVirginia andVirginia,where considerableamounts of noise, and it is itwas apparentlyimportedalongwith a shipimportant to make surewhat the sourceof ment of animalsfrom Florida brought in to any unknown scratchingor tapping noises repopulatea hunting area.Raccoonrabies really is. One clue could be found in the hasbeenknown in Florida sinceat leastthe of raccoons,especially noisyvocalexchanges 1950s,and is now enzootic(presentat low are usually not to which family members, levels,but definitelywithin the population) be mistakenfor anYthingelse. there and in many easternstates'Raccoon rabies is spreading northward toward Solutions Canadaand west toward Ohio' involvA seriouspublic health concern TolnReNcn ing raccoonsderivesfrom the roundworm Aswith any human-wildtife conflict the first procyonis)that can infect hu- courseof action is to decidewhat level of (Baylisascaris manswho accidentallyingestor inhale eggs damageis occurring,how long it may be that are passedthrough raccoonfeces'Rac- likely to persist and whether the damage coons are also hosts for the zoonotic dis- requiresan immediate responseor can be easeleptospirosisand giardiasis' dealt with on a non-emergencybasis' Becausethey are generallysecretive,raccoons do not often alarmpeopleby their presence Problems and enough to causethem to seekimmediate control measures.A careful and calm apTheir Solutions proach to encouraginga raccoonto abanProblems don an attic or chimney is by far preferable first response Raccoonscan causeboth real damage,as to the excitedand demanding these discovering upon have when they getinto crops,or simplybe nui- people often the hand, other the On sances,as when they occupy the family animalsarepresent. crops to raccoondamage chimney or panhandle at campgrounds' first observationof demands an immediate corn sweet as such They are often blamed for more damage animal canbe opected the thantheyreallydo, while the neighborhood reactionbecause and to continue attackdogsor crowsthat havescatteredtrash make to revisit the garden ing the croP as long asit is available' off blameless. Short of actually seeing the animals themselves,tracksare one of the best ways ExcrustoN permanentmeansof copto identiffraccoon presence.In gardensthe Theonly long-term, hand and footprints will dis- ing with troublesomeraccoonsis to orclude characteristic

156

Wrro NslcHsoRS

them from areaswhere they are unwanted. Raccoonsare intelligent animals with rou_ tinesthat aredictaredby their needs;if they cannotgeta mealat oneplacetheywill look elsewhere,and they will remember where they can and cannot expectto have their hunger sarisfied.Tragically,unthinking in_ dividualswill feelthe only solution is to put out a live trap, catch the raccoon and de_ stroyor relocateit. Beforetoo long another raccoon moves into the area and the cvcle beginsall over again.

is alwaysthe chancethat one or moreyoung_ stersmay be abandonedin this process. Trappingand movingthe family will almost inevitablylead to separationand the prob_ able deathof the young.And invasivetech_ niques, including the use of smoke or fire to drive animals out of chimneys,can lead to the mothe/s abandonmentof the siteand death of young, who are physicallyunable to climb.

CHruNEys Raccoonswill use uncappedchimneysfor DserrNc wrrH ReccooN youNc denning and to give birth and raiseyoung. Many situationswith raccoonsin chimneys The fireplace flue, becauseit hasa horizon_ and attics involve raccoon families. Rac_ tal smoke shelf just above the damper, is coonsarebom blind and helpless,but noisy, usually preferred. All flues should be and frequentlythe first indication that rac_ checked, monitored and securedpreferably coons are presentis when thesekits begin prior to their everbeingoccupied.The steps to make noise.They are entirely unable to in inspecting and capping a chimney are fend for themselves for a long periodoftime describedin Chapter3. Because raccoonsare after binh and usually do not evenventure nocturnal,the besttime to userepellentsor out of the den until eight or nine weeksof frightening strategies to get them out of a age.For many weeksafter that the mother chimney is right before the animal would is the teacherand protector,and she must normally staft its nightly routine. Driving be allowed to remain with them. Like cats, an animal out of a chimney or attic during mother raccoonswill carrytheir young to a the day should be avoided.During the day, new den if the old is uninhabitable.In vir_ raccoonsaremore easilyconfusedand more tually all habitats,but especiallycitiesand vulnerable than at night, as well as more suburbs,raccoonshave alternateden sites likely to come into contactwith people or to which they will move if disturbed.The their petsshould they be eviaed. mother will moveyoung evenwhen not dis_ turbed; as they become mobile she takes Arrrcs them to new placesas part of their general The attic should be inspected to determine education. where accessis occurring,and the opening When a mother raccoonwith young is should be sealedoncethe raccoon is evicted present,the recommendedcourseof action or leavesthe premises. Whereraccoonshave is to leavethem alonefor the fewweeksthat longbeenin residence and feces(scats)have the young are helpless,monitor them to accumulatedin an attic or crawl space,care determine when they have moved on their must be taken to avoid exposure to the eggs own accordand deal with the issueof se_ of the roundworm described previously. curing or preventingentry and use of the Protectiveclothing and a dust maskshould chimney or attic afterthe family hasleft. In be worn and scatmaterialas little disturbed emergencies, gentle harassmentmay cause as possible until the raccoonshave left. the mother to relocateher young, but there Then,a thorough deanup is recommended,

Raccoons

I57

travigilanceat thesetimes (chasinganimals awayand usinglights or radiosto createdisturbances)-ay drive them off long enough to harvestthe crop. Single-strandelectric Ixstns tHs House can be used effectivelywhere damOccasionally,raccoonswill enter a house fencing and raccoonsare numerous' frequent through a pet door and be unable to find ageis their way out. Becausethey can causeconsiderabledamagewhen they arepanicked' P o t t p s increasingpopularity of ornamenit is advisableupon encounteringsuch a With the pondsin manyyards,problemswith racsituation to keepboth yourself and the rac- tal mounting. Naturally attractedto coon ascalm aspossible.Move slowly,if it coons are raccoonswill catch and eat can be done safely,closedoors providing water,visiting aquaticlife that a hometo otherpartsofthe house,openwin- fish, frogs or other access be trying to raise.They will furdows and doors throughwhich the raccoon owner may plants in searchof food and could orit and wait quietly for the animal ther tear up a messof most small ponds make to make its escape.If for any reasonthe ani- generally discoveredthem' Dependmal doesnot leave,call animal control for once they have pond, fish canbe proThe captureand handling of live ing on the sizeof the assistance. protection by using stacking raccoonsshould be attemptedonly by prop- vided with cinderblocks (the kind with the holes) ne"t erly equippedProfessionals. to one another in groups of three or four, sothatsheltersarecreatedorsinkpilingrock^s Yenos of the ceramictile that is usedto sections Besideseatingplants,tipping over garbage ing fish can take refuge cansand climbing on and around houses, line chimneys so that visits.Pondsshould be at raccoonscanalsodamagelawnsby digging when the raccoon placesin orderfor shelters in searchof earthworms and grubs' The least3 feetdeepat Disturbanceof plantsand most easilydamagedlawns are those that to work efflectively. can be detened in have been recently sodded. Becausenew other unwanted activities single-strandeleclawns have to be well irrigated, lots of extremecasesby erecting pond at anywhere the around worms and grubscollectunderthesod'This tric fencing (seeFigground attractsraccoonsand sometimesskunks' from 4 to 8 inchesoffthe Often they may simply reach under the ure25,page158). stripsand feel around for their meal, pulling out the grubs and worms without any ReccooNs AND disturbanceat all. Occasionally,they tear Dounsrtc ANtuels kill small animals up the sod and causesignificantdamage' On occasionraccoonswill and rabchickens as such outside, On a small area,an application of a hot housed scraps get into sometimes sauce(capsaicin)repellent(see"Chemical bits, and theywill cats as such Repellents"in Chapter3) may be effective. with dogs and even cats. Pets and dogsshouldnotbe let outunsupervised and, preferably,should be kept on a leash GenpnNs racRaccoonsoften causeconsiderabledamage and controlled. Encountersbetween serivery to garden fruits and vegetables,such as coons and pets should be treated grapesand corn. Attacks often occur iust ously, with consultation with the animal's officials before foods are readyto be picked, so ex- veterinarianand local animal control

describedin following the procedures Chapter2.

158

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Figure 25' This homeownerhu installeda single-strandelectric fmce tn deternightty visitsfrom raccoors.once the localraccoonshavebeett exposedtn it a time or nuo,thefenceverylihely can bedeactivatpduntil signs of new visitsiccur. A pite of roclu in the centerof thisponil also providesa refugefor the fish beingheptthere,which k always good a ideal

to ensurethat pets either haveproper pro_ tection or that follow-up proceduresto a potential exposureare adequate. When rabbitsor other small animalsare housed outdoors, proper protection is absolutelynecessary. Heavy-gauge weldedwire (seeChapter3) can be usedto protectrabbit hutches if it is firmly enough attached with metal staples.Finer meshwire should be laid on top of the welded wire wherever a raccooncould reach in. If possiblg pets should be brought into the house or a secure outbuilding at night to avoid any chanceof raccoonattack.

A Last Word The advantageand successwe have indirectly given raccoonsby changingthe landscapein their favorcomesat a costto them. Both rabiesand caninedistempertakea toll on urban raccoon populations. They currentlyhaveno protectionagainstcaninedistemper, other than the gradual processof selectionthat undoubtedly will favor animals that havesome degreeof natural immunity. There is a vaccine that can be deliveredto raccoonsin the form of fish mealbaitsthatwill immunize them against

Raccoons

rabies.It is being tried orperimentallyin a few places,but has not yet been considered for wide-scaleuse.The reason for this is partly economics,partly the sort of "who cares" attitude that exists toward urban wildlife and partlythat our resourcesin the field of public health are urgently needed elsewhereat the current moment. Again, it is likely that some naturally immune raccoons will escaperabies and that their populations will rebuild quickly. Several

159

future scenarioswilt tell where the interaction betweenthis wild animal and the diseasesmight go, but none of thesepredict the demiseof the raccoon.If any animal is here to stay,it is this one.

Additional Source MacClintoclqD. ipsr. A,NaturatHistoryof Raccoons. $py bU, CharlesScribner's Sons.1 a PB; : ,," r,i.: ' t-

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Rats

Widespread throughout North America,but mostprevalent wherehumansandtheirbuildings abound. Foundbothinsideandoutside buildings, at landfills, wastesites andin industrial areas.

Oun coNFLrcTS wrrH RATsare as old as civiliza_ tion itself. No animals have been greaterobjects:of Thesecondmostsuccessful vilification by more human culturespastand pi.r"rrt mammalon theplanetthan rats,and no animal has more successfuiyheld undoubtedly tryingfor first. its own in the face of determined attempts to'eradicateit. Membersof one of the most diverseand successfulmammalianfamilies,ratsarehardy,intelligent and (like humans) accomplishedin adapting ro changing erc"mstances.Unknowing carriersof diseaseand invadersof sior.a'Stji"r, rats do at times present real threats to humanity. Accordingl*, with damageworldwide running into hundredsof millions orao-ii"r, a.r, nually and countlessbillions of dollarsoverthe long term, it isarnaz_ ing that so few resourceshave been invested in the study of environmentally and ecologicallysound waysto deal with these animals. It's disturbing that the usual meansof controlling rat problems involvebrute force:trapping poisoning ot asis done periodicallyin parts of china, mobilizing thousandsinto a workforceto drive rats into the open and club them to death.The usual consequence of such actsis the return, shortly,to the condition that prevailed be_ fore, or one slightly worse.If nothing is done to addressthe root

161 and the tales of Norway rats ecologicalcauseof problemswith rats'then swimmers in toilet bowls afterswimming up wewiil foreverbelockedin a hopelesscycle emerging through plumbing, while rare,appearto be of short-t erm nonsolutions' true. The Norway rat is slightly larger than the black rat, averaging10 to 16 ounces' while its smallercousinruns between8 and Natural History 12 ounces.Blackratsaremore slenderthan Norwayratsand havemore pointed muzzles Classificationand Range and larger eyesrelative to body size' The There are severaltypes of animals people Norway rat'stail is shorterthan its head and commonly call ratsthat arefound in North body combined, while the black rat's is America, including woodrats and packrats longer. (Neotomaspp.) found mostly in the East and West and the cotton rats (sigmodon spp.) of the South.The two that most con- Habitat cem humans arethe Norway or brown (Rat- Norway rats are found almost everywhere andblack or roof (R' rattus) humans arebut aremost common in older fis noruegicus) rats, which were introduced from the Old densersettlementswhere food and shelter World. Both belong to the family Muridae' are abundant. Neither speciesapparently which comprisesfifiy-one species,includ- copeswell with naturalgrassor woodlands' ing seventhat are of economicconcernto where predatorsabound and competition humans. Black rats probably anived in the from native speciesis keen. In cities,NorUnited Statesas stowawayswith the first wav and black rats favor small municipal permanentEuropeansettlers.Norway rats are said to have first arrived in the New World around l775,when they startedtheir RatTracks own revolution by displacingtheir lessaggressivecousins (black rats) whereverthe two met.Today,the Norway rat hasbecome establishedalmost continent-wide while ffp &.f-# "m*&r' the black rat is mostly restrictedto coastal and areasof the southern, southeastern westernUnited States. Physically,rats do not appearmore imposing than many mammals,but they are ffi incredibly hardy and capableof physical f* q S"s -q f&1'P wdP * featsthatwould seembeyondthe ability of Mr' creaturesso small. An opening no larger ffip '%&4'# than a quarter is suffrcientto allow an adult ratto gainentryto abuilding andboth speciesclimb well enoughto usea pipe or conduit within 3 inchesof an outsidewall to S* gain accessat any level.Ratsarecapableof "\3Lf , verticalleapsof asmuch as3 feetand horizontal leaps of 4 feet They are excellent

\&s

,%

162

Wrro NErcHsoRS

parks where humans inadvertently leave food in refusecontainers.Older industrial areas,rail yards and back alleysprovide ex_ cellent habitat. The common Hollywood image of hordesof rats in sewersor aban_ doned warehousesis not realisticunless highly unusual environmental conditions exist, including superabundantfood re_ sourcesprovided by humans through im_ proper trashmanagement.

Diet Ratsare omniuorou.s-theywill eat a wide rangeof plant and animal foods.Adults re_ quire about I ounceof food a dayand need accessto somesupply of water.In the win_ ter,seedspilled from bird feederscan be an important sourceof food, as can pet food left outside. Norway rats tend to eat more animal matter than do black rats,and will consumeinsects,meat refuse,bird eggsand evenpounceon smallmammalssuchasmice.

and may be loosely closedwith soil or lo_ catedin densevegetationto foil easydetec_ tion. Themain entrances areusuallymarked by a well-worn path that leadsup to them. In buildings, Norway rats will live inside walls, under stackedlumber or other con_ struction material and anywhere human clutter is allowedto build up. Blackratsare accomplishedclimbersand arefound in the upper levelsof buildings more often than Norway rats.Theyoften build loosespheri_ cal nestsof shreddedmaterial in trees or vineswell abovethe ground.

Behauior

Ratsare wary of new objects (neophobic) in their environment, which makes them difficult ro trap. We are iust beginning to realue how complex the behavior and so_ cial organization of rats is. Little is known about their home rangepreferencesand the wayrsin which they utilize their habitats,but what we do know is intriguing. Nonrrayand Reproduction black rats utilize areasof about Z5 to 500 feet in diameter as a tFpical home range, Ras breedyear-round,although peakbreed_ although this might vary greatlydepending ing in parts of the country with dramatic on the location and availability of necessary seasonalchangesprobably occursduring the resources such as food. We know that Nor_ spring and fall. Breedingage is reachedat way rats will travel a half mile or more in a two to threemonths, and litter sizeaverages eight to twelvein the Norway rat and five to singlenight to usea reliablesourceof food. six in the black rat. One female can wean Blackratslive more offthe ground than do Norway rats, nesting in trees and other about twenty young ayear. structuresabove ground and using electri_ cal and telephonewires to move about as Dens,Bunows ond Shelter squirrelsdo. Both speciesare largely noc_ Norway rats prefer to live in burrows that turnal, although, as is true for other urban areusuallyaroundl8 inchesdeepand 3 feet species,this may largelybe a conventional long. Burrow systemsmay have multiple adoption of a behavioralroutine to avoid openingsthat, ifpossible areplacedso that humans. Ratsseenduring the day are said the entranceabutsa solid structure-build- to reflect a high population density, and ing foundation, sidewalk edge rock, tree usuallyarejuvenilesthat must takethe risk root or anyother physicallystableplatform. of exposurebecausethey cannot compete Someenffancesserveasescapeor bolt holes with adults.

Rats

Public Health

163

that can be spreadfrom Among the diseases rats to humans are bubonic plague salmonella,leptospirosis,hantavirusandtularemia'

Ratsare implicated as carriersor transmitters of more diseasesof importanceto humans than any other organism, except Problems and possiblythe mosquito. Physicalattacksin Their Solutions the form of rat bites exceedfifteenthousand annually in the United Statesand often in- Problems people' volveveryyoung,old or incapacitated Rats damage human food more through physician' Rat bites should be treated by a contamination with their urine and feces than by consumption, and can causestructural damageand disfigurementin many ways. Burrowing is potentially damaging although usually the problem is more cosmetic than structural becauseburrow systems are instinctively built to remain stable and to not allow water to enter. Gnawing can be a dangerousproblem when electrical wires areattacked.Ratscan and do gnaw 3/l blunt inch rat-average Norway through materials as dense as lead pipe, meaningthat most woods are not impedimentsto them at all.

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eF{p

ldentffing RatSiSns

It is important to recognizethe signs rats make and what the evidenceof their presencesaysabout their possibleabundance' -rr Inside buildings, rats may make their presenceevidentfrom droppings(seeFigure26)' 1IzinchPointed Roofrat-average Gnawed holes in baseboardsor at door frames up to 2 inches wide and smudge marks left from body oils when the rat rubs alongwalls are also signsof their presence' (Ratsarethigmotaxic-they feelsecurewhen .P: pressedagainstsomething and will move about a room pressedto the wall whenever possible.)In hearryinfestations,rats are often heard in walls and attics or observed lz inchblunt mouse-averagel House during daylight hours, and the excitement of a cat or dog can be the first sign of their and micecan helphomeoumers presence. of ra:"s or scats, Figure26. Droppings, Outside burrows arean indicator, nll whichis Present. although thesecould be confusedwith the

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164

Wrro NprcHsoRS

burrows of other animals such as ground squirrelsand chipmunks.Sometimes,,bur_ rows" tum out to be iust holesin the ground put thereby someother source.Looselyfill_ ing any suspectedburrow entrancewith soil orleavesand checkingitwithin a dayortwo to seeif it is reopenedwill determinecur_ rent use.

Solutions The key to managingrat populationslies in reducingthe availability of shelter,food and water.It is problematicwhetherthis can be done without killing animals,but it is be_ yond a certainty that killing should neuer occur without ensuring that the chanceof ratsreturningto be aproblem is minimized and the killing occurshumanely.The prac_ tice of good sanitation,removalof coverand the exclusionof ratsfrom buildings ideally should occur beforethey invade structures or establish a presenceon properq, where they are not wanted. Direct removal by le_ thal meanscomesas the unfortunate con_ sequenceof inattentivenessand letting things go too far.

Ultrasound: Doeslt Work? Ultrasonic devicesarewidely advertised in aggressive presentations thatpurportto relievehomeowners of everythingfrommiceandratsto silverfish. TheHumaneSociety of the UnitedStateswillnot recommend thesedevices untilscientifically validstudies thatdemonstrate theireffectivenessin real-world situationsarepublished.

waddedand stufifedin openingsto deterrat entry.Caulkingorfoam sealantscanbeused to sealopeningsalso,but becausera$ can gnaw through them, they are best when combinedwith screeningor wire mesh.

HesrrAr Moorp,rcATIoN Proper sanitary techniquesconstitute the Excruslow most economic and effectivemethod to lim_ Ratscan accessbuildings through holes as iting rat presence. The following steps little as I inch wide-about the size of a should be followed to minimize attracting quarter.All suchholes and openingsshould or maintaining rat populations: be sealedwith heavy-weightmatenal (11+_ inch hardwarecloth orheaqr-gaugescreen_ Mow grassand clear debris close to ing is recommended).Heatingvents often buildings to reveal burrows as well as are overlooked as points of entry, and they openings that rats might use to get should be checkedto ensurethat access inside. through them by rats is nor possible.Any_ where electricalconduits,utility or air con_ Store food in rat-proof containers. ditioning lines enterabuilding the hole that Remember that birdseed, grassand hasbeenmade needsto be checkedfor gaps otherpotential foods stored in garagesand buildings frequently that will allow enrry'.Wire mesh (seeChap_ ter 3) canbe usedto plug openingsin walls attract these animals. and floors through which rats might gain Store and dispose of garbageproperly entry. Aluminum window screencan be so that rats cannot gain access.

Rats Do not leavepet food outside.If pets arefed outside,leavethe food out for twenty minutes and then removeit' Removeold wood or debrisPilesif ratsarea Problem-these arefrequent havensfor theseanimals.

165

A Last Word

The war between humans and rats will go on for sometime. The discoveryof effective and economicalternativesto the traditional short-termdisplaysof forceusedto control ratswill not occur spontaneously.Only by Where rat infestation has been and cona betterunderstandingof their natural histinues to be a problem around buildings, tory and their dependencyon environments the long-term solution to preventingburcreatedby humans arewe likely to discover rowing alongfoundationscanbe addressed wayrsof minimizing the damagethey do and by creating an L-shapedfooter of either the problemsthey cause. hardwarecloth or concrete.Bury the footer about 12 inchesand extendit from the foundation about artother12 inches(seeFigure Additional Source 11,p. 35).Althoughratsmaybeginto dig at Rafs.NewYork Allison the foundation, they will encounter this Hart, M. 1973. and Busby.712 PP. obstacle,dig down and, frustrated,give up'

Skunks

Foundthroughout almostallof NorthAmerica;absentonly fromthe far North. Conflictsoccurin yards andwhenskunkstake up residence under buildings. Chicagois a term derivingfroma Fox Indianword for "placeof the

skunk,"suggesting, for reasons unknown, thatthese animals wereonceabundant there.

SruNrcs, oF couRSE,AREKNowN to mostpeople asthe producersof an odor so powerful that it brings everything from elephantsto comic book characters to an abrupt and humorous stop. "Don,tmess with me" is the message theseanimalscommunicate.Their primary defenseis a complexchemicalsubstance that includessul_ furic acid and can be "fired."from either one of two independently targetableanal glands.A personor animal hit in the eyeswill experi_ encean intensediscomfort that reminds them long afterthe pain is gone that they have crosseda skunk. The efficiency of this defense meansthat skunksinherently will stand and face a threat rather than try to escapeit. This works when the enemy is another animal that can be dissuadedfrom completing an attack,but is uselessagainst nonrational contrivancessuchasautomobiles.consequently, Lany skunksdie on roadways,and their kind may possibly disappearentirelyfrom areaswith a lot oftraffic. This is unfortunate becauseskunks areplacid and retiring animalsthat uy hard not to get in harm,sway.

Skunks They deservemuch better pressthan they usually get and are beneficial to humans becausethey eat many insectpests'

Natural History Classificationand Range

t67

pear with offspring in tow' Skunks can be activeall year,although they remain in dens through the coldest spells in the northern parts of their range.

Diet

and of the Skunksareprimanly insectiuorous, skunks of fair numa kinds eat, general they There are four many kinds of insects memare mateAll plant found in the United States. ber arepeststo humans.Some termed bers of the grouP of animals rial is eaten,primarilywild fruits, and apples and martens weasels, includes mustelifuthat and corn are occasionaldietary items' In artd putorun) (spilogale badgers.The spotted winter and spring, skunks may consume the are suiped (Mephitis mephitis)skunks small vertebrates,suchasmice,and the eggs most widely distributed and most likely to of ground-nestingbirds. be involved in skunk-humanconflict situations. The hooded (M. macroura)and hog- Reproiluction nosed (Conepatusmesoleucusand C' is known about reproduction skunks are mostly limited to the Not as much lanconotus) speciesas is the striped skunk other in the southwestemstatesoffuizona, New Mexico skunh but apparenttyall skunksarecapable and Texas.Thereare,asfor many mammaof delayedimplantation, meaning that aflian groups,ongoing debatesabout taxoter matin& the female can store the male's nomic relationships.The spotted skunks sperm and delay initiating pregnancyfor may parseinto easternand western(S' Srasomeweeks.Breedingusuallyoccursin late cilis) species,and some who have studied winter or early spring (probably between skunksfeel the hog-nosedand spottedare Februaryand March for stripedand between essentiallythe same animal' Whateverthe MarchandApril forspotted).Gestationalso case,all skunksareabout cat-sizeor smaller variesin lengh, but averagesabout sixty to andhavelongfur, longbushytailsandblack days,meaning that young usuand white coloration that tells the viewer seventy-five are born in May or June.Secondlitters that this animal is, indeed, to be treated ally and late births do occur, and the western with respect. spottedskunk appearsto breed in fall and earlywinter but not give birth until the folHabitat lowing spring. Littersrangefrom three to as to is thought skunk In the East,the spotted many asten youn& who remain in the burhavea preferencefor agriculturallandscapes row or nest for about two months, after and spendsmuch of its life in or nearfarm- which they begin to follow their mother as yards, but the other speciesare adaptable she forages. to avarietyof open, scrub,wooded and developedhabitats.Normally, skunksdo not Densand Shelter engagein long movementsand havehome seemable to dig their own burrangesthat encompassa few hundred acres All skunl<s but when some other animal or huat most. Skunksale primarily nocturnal and rows, done the work for them, they usually solitary exceptwhen mothers ap- mans have

168

Wlrp NprcHsoRS

appearcontent with what is at hand. Favor_ ite den and restingsitesinclude abandoned Problemsand groundhogburrows,hollow logs,wood or Their Solutions rock piles, under buildings, stone walls, hay or brushpiles and (occasionally)trees Problems or stumps. A den may be used only for Skunks are usually announced more by brief periodsbeforethe skunk switchesto smell than sight,althoughifneitherofthese another. cuesgivesthem away,sometimestheir scat does.Thesearemoreor lessindiscriminately Public Health depositedand usually show high concen_ trations of insect parts that impart a dark Skunks can carry rabies,and one of the shiny appearance. Musk odor may lingerfor main strainsof this diseasein skunksoc_ daysin the areawherea skunk hassprayed. cursthroughout the statesof the Midwest. Persistent, faint musk smellsassociatedwith Skunks have also been known ro carry a 4- to 6-inchdiameterhole under a build_ leptospirosis. ing or woodpile indicatesthat a skunk may havetakenup residence. While foragingfor grubs,skunksmay dig many shallow holes in the lawn, similar to thosemade by both gray squirrelsand raccoons.Long black or white hairs or a faint skunlqyodor will sug_ gest skunks but not confirm them. Long_ haired cats can leavelong black or white hairs, and foxeshavea musky odor. Skunks occasionallyraid chickenhousesfor eggsor young chickensand all too frequentlyare encounteredwhen they becomeuapped in window wells.

Skunks

Solutions TolnnaNcn It may be hard for peopleto tolerateskunks onceit hasbeenfound that they are,indeed' living under the deckor piled in a communal den underneaththe old shedout back' But this is exactlywhat skunks have to do when they aremostvulnerable(during the winter and when raisingyoung)' The noctumal habits of skunks,their nonaggressive and retiring waysand the generallybeneficial role they play in consuming harmful insectsall givethem enoughcreditsto make itworth leavingthemaloneuntil theyhave moved on their own accord (which they readily do) or can safelybe harassedaway from an areawhere they are not wanted'

169

Doors 0ne-WaY doorin Do notinstalla one-waY Mayor Junewhentheremay be babiesleftbehindin the den' Thebabieswillstarveand theirspray discharge possiblY to this beforesuccumbing fate.Instead,either unpleasant to waitforthe skunkfamilY to moveor usemildharassment that Process. try to accelerate Themotherskunkwill,under carry the rightcircumstances' herbabiesto a newden.Do sealthe oPennot permanently undisinguntilthePlugremains nights. turbedfor several

Heurer MootPtcATIoN Occasionalskunk sightingsin a neighborhood neednot be causefor alarm' Preventive measures,such asremoving attractants from the vicinity of houses,will decrease the likelihood of an unpleasantencounter' Attractantsinclude garbageand petfood left out at night and convenientdenning sites suchaswoodand rockpiles,elevatedsheds' door sysopeningsunder concreteslabsand porches ment or eviction using a one-way tem is recommended. and accessto crawl spacesunder houses' Excrustol.t Discoveryof a den suspectedto harbor a skunk should first be checkedto determine if the occupancyis current. This may be done by looselyfilling the hole (or holes) with soil, leavesor material such as straw' If a skunk is present,it will easily push its way out that night and reopenthe hole' If the plug remains undisturbed for two or threenights (and it is not winter), it is safe to assumethat the hole is unoccupiedand can be permanentlyclosed.If a skunk (or any other animal) is present,either harass-

HenessMENT When it is safeto displaceskunks,mild harassmentcanbe very effective.This can consist of an approachas simple as repacking the hole it is using with the leavesor straw or other materialto seeif the skunk getsthe orusingmild and moveselsewhere, message repellents,such as ammonia-soakedrags, placednearor insidethe burrow to one side so that the skunk has to passthem in getting out. In all casessuchasthis, makesure the skunk is not closeby beforeplacingthe disturbing stimulus.

170

WrLn NsrcHsoRS

EvrcrroN SxuNx rN A WlNnow Wnrr A skunk may be evictedfrom an activeden If a skunk becomes trapped in a window by installing a one-waydoor over the en_ well (the basement window area),the best tranceto allow it to leavebut prevent reen_ method of freeing it is to provide it with a try (seeFigure 10, page33). Caremust be meansof escape.In the well, placea rough takento ensurethat the door canopen with_ board (or one with cleats)that is long out hitting an obstruction. Leavethe door enoughto act asa ramp to the top (seeFig_ in place for nvo or three nights to be sure ure 27). The board should lean no steeper that the skunk has left. Be surethat no new than a 45"angle.Theboard should be slowly holes appearnearby.Removethe door and and carefullyplacedby approachingthe well closethe opening as describedunder ,,Ex_ low enoughto be out of sight of the skunk. clusion"on page169. If possible,a secondpersonwith a vanrage Exclusionis also the only long-term so_ point high enoughto see the skunkcanwam lution to skunk predation on chickensor of any signsof its becoming agitated,indieggs.In this caseskunks must be excluded catedby the skunk raising its tail or stampfrom the chicken house,and the chickens ing its front feet. If this happens, an must be securelyenclosedin the coop at immediateretreatand reanalysis ofthe situnight. All openingsmust be repaired,and ation is recommended.Another method of fencingaround the coop should be ortended placing the board is to tie it to the end of a 6 to B inchesundergroundto preventskunks long pole and lower it by holding the opfrom diggingunderneath. posite end of the pole. Once the board is

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Figure 27. A ramp can help a trapped shunk out of a window well. lt's a good idea rlot tn let the family dog get involved in this procedure!

Skunks

WhatSmell? Skunkodoron Petsmaybe withliberalamounts neutralized of vinegaror tomatojuice.This willmakethe odortolerableit.A onlytimewilleliminate reporteddeodorantreciPefor skunkspraythatcan be used andclothesis on animals 1 quartof 3o/ohYdrogen peroxide 1/+cupbakingsoda 1 teaspoonliquidsoap (laundry or soaP) dishwashing

placed,keeppeople and petsawayfrom the areauntil nightfall, when the skunk should leaveon its own. To prevent this situation from reoccurring placeexit ramps or tightfitting coversat eachwindow well.

A LastWord

I7I

bleach,ammonia Chlorine products or commercial alPha neutroleum containing maybe usedon inanimate objects(donot usethison anylivingthing).Carbolic soapandwateraresafeto useon skin.Liberalflushing withcoldwaterwilleasethe discomfortof skunksPraYin the eyes.And at leasttwo productsare commercial (see"OdorControl" available in Appendix2).

someone'safraid of being sprayedis not known but is surelya largenumber. Hopefully, we will becomebetter educatedand more tolerant of theseanimalsin the futurg and recognizetheir role and placeaspart of the natural scene,evenin the town and city.

Additional Source

Peoplerememberencounterswith skunks, whether or not they are sprayed.It is com- Rosatte,R. C. 1987."Striped,Spotted, Hoodedand Hog-nosedSkunk."In M. mon knowledge among those who work Novah J.A. Baker,M. E. Obbard,and B. closelywith theseanimals that it actually Malloch (eds.),WiM FurbearuManagetakes a lot to get sprayed,although those in Nuth America. mentand Conseruation no sort of who do undoubtedly considerit Resources. Natural of Ontario: Ministrv honor. How many skunks are killed each 599-613. year in the United Statesjust because

Snaka

Snakesarewidely distributed throughout NorthAmericaandarefound in almosteveryhabitatexcept theArctictundra. Usually encountered in yards; occasionally enterbuildingsin searchof miceor insects. SNarss TNSTTLL sucH DEEp-RoorEDFEARin so people many that it may be the feeling is instinctive. In fact,manywild animalsclearlyrecognizesnakesas threatening,and some birds and monkeysevenhave specialvocalizationsfor soundingalarmwhen a snake is sighted.Smallmammalshavereasonto fearsnakes, and all but the very largestanimalswould do well to be cautious around the few snakesthat are poisonous.But the persecutionof theseanimalsand the acts ofviolence often committedwhen eventhe most innocuousofthem is sightedhavea lot more to do with societaland cultural prejudices than anything else.Learningto acceptsnakesmay take a while but learning to tolerate an occasionalcrossingof paths and to use the simple and expedientmethodsavailableto deal with any problems theseanimalsmight poseis currentlywithin our grasp.

Rattlesnakes willmovemore thana milein thefallto traditional hibernation dens sharedyearafteryearwith dozens,sometimes hundreds, of otherrattlesnakes.

Natural History Classificationand Range snakesare reptilesand belong to the group of animalsthat do not produce heat internally as mammals do but must rely on outside (ambient) temperaturesto reacha certainminimum beforethey can be very active.Thereare about 250 speciesand subspecies of snakes

Snakes in the United States,eachwith its own distinct markings, life history and habitat requirements. Snakesalways try to avoid contact with people. Of those that share human habitats, the vast maiority are harmless. TherearefourtFpesof poisonoussnakes in the United States:the copperhead,the coral snake,the rattlesnakeand the water arelikely to be moccasin.Only rattlesnakes of much concern in urban and suburban areas,and then only in parts of the West and Southwest.Reptilefield guidesand local nature centerscan tell you which poisonousand common nonpoisonoussnakes occurin your areaand how to identifi them.

Senses Snakescannot hear airborne sounds,but they are very sensitive to substratevibrations. They havewhat amounts to an auxiliary senseof smell by which they usetheir tongueand specialwedorgansin the mouth to detectchemicalchanges'Somepoisonous snakeshavespecialheat receptorsthat help them locate warm-blooded prey.Vision is poor in somespecieswhile good in others. All snakesare carnivores,eating small mammalssuchasmice,insects,small birds or evenother snakes.

Habitat Eachspeciesof snakehas a unique natural history and set of habitat requirements. Snakesmust haveaccessto cover,and many speciesprefertobe doseto standingand runningwater.Wood andbrushpiles,stonewalls and unmowed fields all provide snakehabitht. Becausefood draws most snakesinto contact with humans, placeswhere mice and insectsabound are most likely to be where human-snakeencountersoccur.

t73

Public Health Snakesare not known to transmit any diseaseto humans.Nonpoisonoussnakebites that break the skin should be treated like any puncture wound with a potential for infection, preferablywith the consultation of a physician.Victims of poisonousbites should stay calm and inactive if possible, and should seeka doctor immediately.Physiciansnow urge people not to administer first aid for a snakebite-proceduressuch as cutting open the bite sitesand bleeding the wound can do more harm than good. Snakebitesfrom poisonoussnakesarerarely fatal, and if transportto a hospital can occur quickly aftera bite is received,this is now consideredthe best responsepossible.

Problems and Their Solutions Problems Snakesdo not causedamageto structures or other property,nor do they eat any plant or crop foods that humans raise.On occasion, someof the largerspeciescauseproblemsaroundpoultryhousesand mighttake chicks or eggs,but, exceptfor the poisonous varieties, human pets are invariably more of a threat to snakesthan snakesare to them.

Solutions TornReNce Most encounterswith snakesare fleeting; people who enioy seeingsnakesare often denied for yearsthe satisfactionof this actually happening.The first rule for dealing with any encounterwith a snakeis to leave it alone,identiff it by speciesand then continue to leaveit alone as long as it is not

174

WTIO NEICHEORS

poisonousand isn't insidea houseorbuilding where not wanted.Virtually all outdoor encounterswith nonpoisonous snakes should be resolvedby letting the animal go its ownway.The chancesthatthe snakewill everbe seenagainare fairly small, and if it doesreappearthis only meansthat the mice or insectsthat attractit are still present,and it is doing the homeownera service.Poisonous snakes,on the other hand, should not be left in residentialyards.Encounterswith thesespeciesshould be takenseriouslyand the snakesremovedto ensurethat children, pets or even adults do not come to harm. Thisdoesnot meanthe snakehasto behilled. In many places,animal and pest control operators,and sometimesevenpoliceorfire departments,will removeand relocatepoisonoussnakesto placeswhere they are not likely to come into contactwith humans. ExcrusroN Exclusionof snakesusually refersto keeping snakesout of buildings. There are designspublishedfor snake"fences"that can be used to surround yards, gardensor any other outside area,but the need for such structuresis questionable.Snakesin houses fall into two categories:those that entered accidentallyand will be attempting ro escape becausethey find the habitat unsuitable and thosethat haveenteredto find prey or shelterand would takeup permanentresidenceif allowed.The former includesmost of the very small snakesthat may be considereduappedand will likely die from lack of food or moisture if not capturedand removed. Snakesthat may becomeresidents include rat, king and black snakesthat often follow mouseuails into buildings.Some snakesmay hibernatein older houseswith leakycellarsor crawl spaceswith dirt floors. The presenceof shedskin usually indicates that a snakehas been living in the house for sometime.

When a snakeis discoveredin a house, remain calm and avoid any act that might disturb it and drive it into hiding. It may be possibleto carefullyopena nearbydoor and use a broom to gently, but quickly, herd it out. O[, it maybe possibleto placean empty pail or wastebasketslowly over a small or coiled snakeand then put a weight on it to trap the snakeuntil an experiencedhandler can come to removeit (which should be as soon as possible,both for the snake'sbenefit and for the homeowner's peace of mind). If the snakecan be confined in a room or comerwith barrierssuchasboards or boxes,it will be availableto be captured when the expertarrives. Once the snakehas been captured,the homeownercanproceedto snake-proofthe property. Snakesusually enter a house or other building at ground level,the smallest individuals perhapsthrough a tiny crackor hole no more than l/s inch wide. An intensive inspection of the foundation for unsealedwire or pipe conduits or basement windows or doors that do not seal tightly will usually revealthe snakeentrance.All such openingsshould be sealedimmediately.The techniquesused to deter snakes from entering housesare exactlythe same usedto deterrodentsfrom entering. Residentsnakesmay be exremely difficult to locate and capture, even by an orpert, becausethey are capableof retreating for long periods (weeks)inside walls or in other inaccessible locationsin the building. Also, there may be more than one snakeinhabiting the samehouse.After the discovery of a snakein a house,the entirehouseshould be inspectedinside and outside to evaluate the situation.The interior inspectionshould be concentratedon the basementand first floor, butwithout neglectingthe attic (larger snakeswill often climb insidethe walls and emergein an unfinishedattic).The purpose of the inspection is not only to look for

Snakes snakesbut alsofor potential openingsthat allow snakesto enter into rooms. Next, inspectthe orterior of the house for possibleentrances,particularlyat or near ground level. Keepin mind the size of the snakethat was discoveredand look for any opening largeenough for the snake'shead to passthrough.Many snakesarealsogood climbers, so check for plantings that may give accessto the roof. A fieldstone wall or chimney may alsobe dimbed by a snake.If such accessis present,check for openings aroundthe eavesand roof.Anothercommon placeof entry is behind concreteporchesor stepsor where decls attachto the house. Once the entire exterior has been inspectedand one or more openings have been discovered,decidewhich opening is likely to be the main snakeentrance.To determine the snake'sroute oftravel, consider the size of the openings,easeof accessby the snakeand clearpenetrationinto the area of the house where the snakewas discovered. Sealall the openings arcept the suspected main entrance.On that opening, install a one-way door for snakesthat is made from a piece of aluminum window screenrolled into a cylinder about 10inches long and with a slightly largerdiameterthan the entrancehole. With the outlet end of the tube suspendedoff the ground, the returning snakewill not be able to find the opening and will be forcedto find another hiding place.It may be left in place for a month or longerto allow time for the snake to leave.If it is fall when the tube is installed, leaveit in placeuntil well into the following spring.After removing the tube peffnanently sealthe opening. Heurer MeNecnMENT Homeownerscan minimize the chanceof a snaketaking up residencein the yard by

175

making the area less attractiveto it. This meansremovingpotential hiding placesfor snakesand their prey,suchaspiles of rocks, wood or other debris,tall grassand undergrowth, cracksaround concreteporchesand sidewalksand storageshedswith spaceunder the floor. Petfoods and householdgarbage left outside overnight attract rodents, and, in tum, the presenceof rats or mice may attract snakes. RrpnLreNrs There is currently one commercially marketed repellent for snakes(Snake-A-Waf) (see "Chemical Repellents"in Chapter 3) and a long list of home repellents,ranging from sisalrope to sulfur,havebeenclaimed to be effective. To our knowledge, no scientific studies havebeen conductedto prove the efifectiveness of any product to humanely repel snakes.

A Last Word In addition to the persecutionthey experienceroutinely at human hands,snakeshave sufferedgreatlyfrom the habitat alterations we havecreated.Theyand their amphibian cousinsfare poorlywhen we breakup natural lands for urban and suburbandevelopment and isolateanimalsthat cannoteasily move acrossinhospitable terrain. Many speciesare either alreadygone or are rapidly disappearingfrom urban and suburban environments, and the issue of human-snake conflicts has essentiallybecome moot in many places.Whethersome speciesadapt to the changing conditions wrought by humans remains to be seen. Certainlythey will not do so aslong asour irrational fearsabout them dominate us so unmercifully.

Starlings

Widespread throughout allof NorthAmerica; commonin cities. Yardsandhouses;frequently buildnestswherepeopledon't want them. Starlingsong is quitecomplex, includinga seriesof whistling notes,chatterand a clearwolf whistlethat is somewhat scandalous.

sraRrrNcs wERETNTRoDUCED rNTo Nonrn AueRrcR in 1890, when an enterprisingNew Yorker named Eugeneschieffelin had about a hundred of thesebirds brought over from England to be releasedinto central Park.[t seemsMr. Schieffelinand a small group of like-minded friendshad a passionateinteresrin introducing into this countryall ofthe animalsmentionedin theworksof Shakespeare. Theystartedwith birds,but attemptswith typessuchasthe lark ended in failure. Not so with the starling.From the initial hundred, their population numbersare in the hundredsof millions now. Starlings join with native gracklesand blackbirdsat certaintimes of the year to form huge flocksthat can be seriousproblemsto agriculture.It is the built environmentsof citiesand towns that seemto be the ideal habitat for thesebirds, however.Therethey outcompetemany native birds and alter the balanceof natureso much that we reallv haveno ideawhat it might be like without them.

177

Starlings

Natural History Classificationanil Range The European starling (Sternusvulgaris)is about 8 to 8 1/zinchesin length,with a relatively short tail and a bold orange-yellow beak. Starlingsare membersof avery large (song) birds and diversegtoup of passerine found throughout the Otd World. The famity, which includesthe vocal mimics known as m)ma birds, has some strikingly beautiful members. In facr, a close look at starlings in their best winter plumage reveals them to be fairly attractivebirds (oncethe viewer getspast the learnedprejudicesthat dictate that all starlings are ugly). |uveniles are a uniform mousy brown color, but the adult plumage is a glossygteen and purple with white tips on eachfeather.During the winter, these tips wear away'rwealing the iridescent plumage below. The beak is brown in winter but tums brillant yellow with the coming of spring. Femalesand malesarequite similar,with the only good distinguishingmarkbeinga spotatthe base of the bill that is reddish in femalesand bluish in males.

Habitat Starlingsare adept at orploiting urban and suburban environments but also do quite well in agricultural settings.Their original habitat is lesswell known than someof the other introduced bird speciessuch as the house sparrowand pigeon. Currently,they are one of only a few birds that tolerate areasof high human densityand disturbance. Starlingsarefound in otherwisebarren human landscapesaround industrial areasand heavilysettledcommercialzones. Most of the spring and summer is spent by pairedbirds in nestingand raisingyoung. The iuvenile birds may collect in small

flocks soon after they fly from the nest (ftedge).Winter flocks of starlings create noisy roosts sometimesnumbering more than a million birds.

Diet Starlingshavewide-rangingfood tolerances, typical of most urban generalists'They are than housesparprobably more insectiuororu look at the bill close as a rows and pigeons, suggests.Spring flocks of starlingsoften descendon lawns,much to the dismayof homeownerswho feel they are doing damage. The truth is that they areprobably doing the homeowner a favor by consuming insect pests.They can do damage however,by eating fruits people are trying to raise,such as grapes,cherriesand raspberries.It is common to see starlingsaround dumps and landfills, and many seem to specializein

Tracks Starling

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picking through the open dumpsterscommon aroundapartments,grocerystoresand restaurants. Householdtrashplacedunpro_ tected at the curb is iust a snack compared to thesesteadysourcesof food, but can attract starlingswho think nothing of tearing bagsopen with their srrongbladelikebills. Starlingswill visit bird feeders,depending on their hunger and motivation, and will even consumesunflower seedswhen millet, suet or other preferred foods are not available.

Reproduction Starlingscourt and mate in the earlyspring and can evenbe heard in songat this time. Surely,most people do not find this somewhat strident and monotonously repetitious vocalizingto be true son& but to the staflFg it undoubtedly is. Anywhere from three to eight eggsare laid in each clutch, and a successfulpair of adultscan nestthree times in a year.The young fledgeat between two and three weeks of age,but it is not known whether they breed the first year or not.

Public Health The infectiousdiseases associated with starlings are much the sameas those found in pigeons and house sparrowsand include histoplasmosis, chlamydiosisand salmonellosis.As for the other urban species,thereis little directevidencelinking starlingsto diseaseproblems in humans, but the potential for this should not be dismissed.

Problemsand Their Solutions Problems

Outsideof the problemsthey causein agricultural settings,probably the biggestissue with starlingsin urban and suburbanareas hasto do with their nestinghabits.The potential problem with vents has been mentioned, but starling nests built into any house cavity can accumulatematerial that is unsightly and could representa firehazard. The nestsbuilt by thesebirds can be accumulativein that they do not remove material previously brought in but keep addingyearafteryearto what is there.StarNesfs lings also causecomplaintsby getting into Starlingsare cavitynestersand will exploit the trash,competingwith desirablebirds at any hole into a suitablysizedinterior cavity feedersand getting stuck in chimneys and to transpoft nesting material and set up metal flues.Largerenvironmentalproblems shop.An ideal nestingsitefor starlings,and occurwith flocks,which can involvetensof an important problem for peoplq aredryer, thousandsof birds. rangeand bathroom vents.Evenwhen protected by a metal flap, many starlingshave Solutions leamedhow to approachand hoveror perch while raising coversto these areasto gain TorERaNcE accessto the interior. The nesting material Much of the time, starlingscan be tolerated they packinto suchcavitiesnot only impairs by understandingthat their transgressions the function of the vent but could presenta are only temporary or that perrnanentsolutions can be carriedout once the timing firehazard aswell.

Starlings

179

Figure 28. Dryer vents or exhaust ventsfrom kitchen hoods are often inuaded by surlings who build nests in interior cavities. Screening may be one way to prevent this. Here, a rigid, heauy-gauge fi la inch) harilware cloth has been fitud around a dryer uent, leauing the botum open (about a 112-inch slot) so that lint can escape.Screening used around a vent should be checkedpniodically to make sure it is notbhckcd.

is right. One example of when starlings should be tolerated comes in the spring, when visiting flockswork over lawns,probing for grubs and cleaningup any insects found among the new growth. They undoubtedly perform a beneficial serviceto

the homeo\,vner.Nestingstarlingsshould be tolerated until the young havefledged.The nest site can then be cleanedand sealedto preventreuse.I^argewinter flod<sthat repeatedly reusean areato roost may not be tolerated but should not be dispersedwithout

180

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using coordinated intervention strategies widely promoted as a frightening or flock under the guidanceof bird control orperts. dispersalagent,but is not recommendedfor the reasonsexplainedunder "Toxicants"in ExcrusroN Chapter3. As always,exdusion is the method of choice. Starlings that are discoveredearly in the HesrrAr MouprcATroN nestingprocess,beforeeggsarelaid, can be The availability of food and nesting cover evicted and the openings they were using are elementsthat can be modified directly sealedwith hardware cloth or metal flash- in placeswherestarlingsarea problem and, ing to keep them from being reoccupied. ultimately, are essentialapproachesto try Lighter material,such as plastic netting or to limit the numbersof thesebirds. Places windowscreening is rarelyeffectivein keep- whereroostingis occurringand found to be ing determinedstarlingsout of a cavity.With intolerable can also be addressedby practheir strongbill, they cansimply rearlighter ticesthat modiff the siteto make it lessacmaterialopen. Neststhat contain young can cessibleand/or acceptableto the birds. often be located by the sound of begging Refusecan be an important sourceof food nestlings or the characteristicfan-shaped for a local population of starlings,and both trail of smeareddroppingsthat spot a wall homeownersand businessesshould share below a corner joint or other siteswhere a in the obligation to control accessto cavity is present.Dryer and rangevents can dumpstersand household trash to prevent be screenedwith hardwarecloth as illus- thesebirds from gaining easyaccess.Maktrated in Figure28 on page179. ing sure that dumpsters are covered after trashis placedin them and arenot routinely ScenE DEvrcEs overfilled is a greatstepto limiting accessto Both visual and auditory frightening tactics food, and householdtrash in coveredconofferviableapproachesto solvingproblems tainers rather than in plastic bags placed with starlings.There are a variety of noise- along the roadway goesa long way toward making devicesas well as taped-recorded limiting starlingaccess. alarm callssold to frighten theseand other birds (see"Bird DisuessCalls" and "Acous- Roosrs tical Alarms" in Chapter3). Visualstimuli Liberaltrimming (removing at least ll3 of such as mirrors, pie tins, revolving lights, all interior branches)of treesat siteswhere colored flags,scaretapes and balloons starlingshave establishedroosts can help (see Chapter 3) can also be effectivein dispersebirds and may be especiallyeffecfrightening starlings awayfrom resources tive in conjunction with the useof frightento be protected. ing tactics and other strategies.Generally, largeroostsshould be controlled by orperiRnpnrrnNrs encedprofessionalsto ensurethat birds are Polybutenesare registeredfor use on star- effectively dispersedand remain that way. lings,but not recommendedbecauseof the Problems with starling roosts can be very dangerto birds from accumulatingthe ma- difficult (if evenpossible)to solveusing a terial on their feet and feathersto a point single method of control applied over a where it can incapacitatethem. Avitrolo is short period of time.

Starlings

A Last Word

181

spring,the adultbirds canbe seendiligently bringing food to nestlings,and at times, the clamor of theyoung can evenbe heardover traffic. No predator would everhave access to these nests.The great risk must come when theyoung arereadyto fledgeand take that first flight into the void. How many sunzivethis and how many fall into traffrc below is unknown, but enough survive to ensurethat starlingsappearunder no threat of diminishing in numbers.

Consider starlings for their enteftainment value.Many of us spend more of our lives than is good for us stopped at traffrc lights. The next time you are at a maior intersection, look around at the poles, transformers,lights and otherstructuresand seeifyou canfind the starlingsusingthem. Therethey are,sitting on the wires, flying from pole to pole and occasionallydisappearingaltogether after they land. Look closely and there are small Ports or accesshatchesthat Additional Source were left ajar or never closed in the first place,and which now make an ideal nest- Welty,I. E. 1975.TheLife of Birds.Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.623 PP. ing site for thesecavity-lovingbirds. In the

Tree Squirrels

Foundthroughout most of the UnitedStates, excepting the treeless GreatPlainsandGreat Basinareasandinto southern Canada. Commonly associated yards with and homes;will get intoatticsif giventhe chance. Squirrels willnotburyacorns withinsectparasites in themtheirsenseof smellis so keen thattheyrecognize theseas spoiledandrejectthem.

WHpng

pUBLIC opINroN

HAS BEEN poLLED re-

gardingsuburbanand urban wildlife, squirrelsgenerally rank first as problem makers.Where the;$on't hold this statusit is usuallybeenbecausethpieidrdno squirrels in that part of the country. Eventhen, itielmost seemsthat their reputation is good enough to putr{iidffi ut leasta fewvotes.Interestingly,squinelsalmostalwaysrankfir*tahong preferredurban/suburbanwildlife speciesaswell. Suchis the paradox they present:we want them and we don't want them, depending on what they are doing at any given moment. treelsduffis are certainly one of the most successfulmammals in aecommo$atingto :'' human-alteredenvironments. .,i,1;, Tree squirrels owe their successto a variety .thingp,not all of "f which makegood objectivesense.Because they havcbushytails and largeeyesrelativeto the sizeof their heads,squirrelspresentan image,or gestalt,that someanimal behavioristsliken to that presented by young animals,including humans.Put simply, they all look like babies,puppies,etc.The relativeneonatalappearance of squirrelsmay

TreeSquirrels unconsciouslywarmpeopleto them. Their close relative-the Norway rat-has a naked tail and small, beady eyesthat help evokea strong negativereaction in people. Of coursg there is more to it than that, and squinels havemany engagingand fascinating behavioral traits that help endearthem to us. Squirrelwatching can be an educational and enrichingexperience,and thanks to the fact that these animals are activeby day,an easything to do.

183

gestof all, and canbe asmuch as 15 inches with a tail almost as long and weigh up to 3 pounds.The coloration of fox squirrelsis as varied as that of the graysbut predominantly a rusty yellowish color with a pale yellow or orange'belty.In the Eastsome fox squirrels are astriking pure steelgray color.

Habitat

Both fox and gray squirrels traditionally depend on trees, especially oak trees, as placesto bear and raiseyoung, take shelter from the weather,find food and escapefrom predators.As part of their adaptation to human-wrought changesto the landscapa Classificotion and Range almost anything that looks like a tree can Thereare an astonishingnumber of squir- now be used,including the pilings around rels worldwide, and many are strikingly at- marinas,nest boxesset out for woodpeckuactiveanimals.In North Americathereare ers or kestrelsand many placeson and in severalspeciesthat are regardedas "tree" houses.Squirrelshavefluidly adaptedto the squirrels,in contrastto an evengreaterva- planted and landscaped"forest" of urban riety of "ground" squirrels.The fox squirrel and suburban parks and can usually main(Sciurusniger) and eastern(S. carolinensis) tain themselvesquite well there.They also and western (S. Srkcus)gray squirrels usu- do well in both urban and suburbanneighally arethe speciesinvolved in homeowner borhoods, although wherever they are conflicts. Northern and southern flying found, they rarelytum down handoutsfrom uolansand G. sabrinus) squirrels(Glaucomys people. near wooded in buildings may also nest sitesand canoccasionallybeproblems,but Diet not so frequentlyastheir largercousins.The easterngraysquirrel is about 8 to 10inches The diet of squirrelsvarieswith the seasons long and has a bushy tail that's almost the and the availabilityof the plant materialthat samelength. Frequently,squirrelssit with almostentirelymakesup their larder.Acoms the tail archedover the back allowing the and other nuts are both eaten and stored viewer to seethat it providesalmost com- underground in the fall and early winter, plete cover for the body. The gray squirrel with the undergroundstoragemaking up a can actually be highly varied in coloration substantialportion of thewinter diet. In the and rangefrom a rufous tint to almost pure spring the flowersand growingbudson the white, or even an all black or melanistic terminal ends of branchesare eaten,and it form. The western gray squirrel is a little is common to seesquirrelsbusily working and heavierthan the east- high in yet leaflesstreesat this time of the longeron average, ern gray,weighing almost I 314 pounds, year.In summer, fruits such as mulberry while the eastem form rarely weighs that raspberryand wild cherriesareeaten.Some much. The fox squirrel, though, is the big- feel that this is actuallythe hardesttime of

Natural History

184

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the yearfor squirrels,more than springwhen buds are a mainstay and fall and winter when mast is collected and consumed. Squirrelsdo occasionallytake bird eggsor nestlingsand may evenpounceon and kill small birds at feeders,much to the dismay of human witnesseswho might have assumed they were passivevegetarians.

REroiluction The easterngray and fox squirrels usually have two litters a year. The first breeding period usuallybeginsin Decemberor early |anuary with young born between February and April after a gestation period of a little more than forty days.A secondbreeding period beginsin earlysummer,with that litter born in Augustor September. Thewestern gray squirrel has only one breedingseason a year, and young are born between Februaryand Iune. Courtship is characterized by frantic chases,often with several males pursuing one female. After matin& the female drivesthe malesawayand raises the two to five young by herself.The babies areborn nakedand helplessand do notventure oqt of the nest for about sevenor eight weeks. They are weaned at ten to twelve weeks.The spring litter is usually driven away by the mother shortly after weaning and as the next breedingrycle begins.The fall litter may staywith the mother in the nest through the winter until well after the wintercourtshipseason.Flytngsquirrelsare suictly nocturnal, may sharea den with up to twenty other adults (particularlyin winter) and breedtwice ayearin a patternsimilar to that of the gray squirrel.

Densand Shelter Squirrels use two basic types of natural dens-tree cavitiesand leaf nests-and take liberal advantageof shelter provided by

humans in atticsand crawl spacesalongthe upper floor of buildings. Leafnests,called dreysin England,need constant repair and do not provide as much protection from weatherextremesas do tree cavities.

SeasonalActivity Both fox and gray squirrels are active during the day (diurnal). Fox squirrels may spend more time on the ground than grays and have been found to use larger home rangeareas(2 to 30 acres),while graysgenerallyusea much smallerhome range(less than 4 acres),but thereis a lot ofvariability to this. Squirrelsbecomeactiveat first light and usually rest in the middle of the day before becoming active again later in the afternoon. These patterns vary, however, dependingon weatherconditions and other factors.The most remarkable yearly event for graysquirrelsfrom a human perspective is the "fall reshuffle" during which the seasonally frenetic activity of collecting,eating and burying nuts is accentuatedby the dispersalof both adultsand juveniles,perhaps in searchof that "perfect"homesite.Automobiles kill many squirrelsat this time of the year.

Public Health Squirrelscan carry diseaseorganismsof potential consequence to humansbut rarely, if ever, are documented as transmitting these.Rabiescanoccurin squinels,asin any mammal, but squirrel-to-humantransmission of the diseaseis not documented.If anything, the value of squirrelsin regardto pubic health may be positive becausethey havebeenshown to be "indicators" of environmental quality in some studies,telling us when and perhapswhere harmful concentrationsof industrial by-products and

TreeSquinels

185

to espesticidesmay lurk in urban and suburban tent scratchingnoisesasthey attempt unsucare they if dying eventually and cape environments. cessful.Unpleasantodors and fly problems may ensue. Problems and Squinelsoften becomenuisancesatbird feeders,where they consume large quantiTheir Solutions ties of birdseedor gnaw feedersinto unusProblems able shardsof plastic. Squirrelscan also plants or fruit and nut Squinelscausedamageby nestingin build- damageornamental buds and fruits. ings, digging in lawns, eating ornamental trees by feeding on bark, and crocus, plants and bulbs and stealingfood from Spring bulbs, especiallytulips the plants or consumed and up dug be may bird feeders.The most serious problems flower. startto they as with squirrels probably involve adult fe- clipped and eateniust outdoor furmalesenteringa building to establishnests. Squinelsoccasionallygnawon trim on They will explore any likely looking open- niture, wooden decks and wood us, but to unknown reasons for ingwhile searchingfor a den siteand often buildings squirrels. enterchimnep or atticsthrough unscreened probably clearto the vents or openings left by loose or rotten boards. Squinels invariably enter a build- Solutions ing somewherehigh on the stntcture and TornneNce oploit an oristing hole, though they may Sometimesit is easyfor people to accept, enlarge the hole by gnawing. A home- tolerateand enioy squirrels,and sometimes owner's first sign of the squirrel'spresence it is not. No one is expectedto be pleased is usually the sound of scamperingin the when one of theseanimalsis loosein their attic or abovethe firePlace. house,and continuous visits to bird feeders Squirrels entering chimneys are often can likewise go beyond what normal paunable to climb back out and, if possible tience and endurancepermit. It is impormay emergefrom a fireplaceor follow a tant to remember, however, that these stovepipe to the furnace and get loose in animals are only doing what is natural to the basement.A squirrel found inside the them-seeking releasefrom enuapmentand living areaof a house probably enteredin looking for a meal at a time of the yearwhen this way and will characteristicallyseekwin- shortagesare critical and death is always dows to escape.Frustrated,trapped squir- imminent. The first approach to dealing relscan do a surprisingamount of damage with squirrelsis to establishlimits of tolto windowsills and furniture. erance,acceptthem for what they are and Squirrels nesting in attics will usually be patient enough so that if they need to gather insulation into a nest near the enbe excluded from an attic or prevented trance and may gnaw on adiacent boards from stealingbird food, this is done in a and electricalwires. Typically, people hear way that does them and their young no the squirrel during daylight hours as it harm. comesand goeson foragingtrips. Juvenile squirrels,and occasionallyadults,roaming ExclustoN-Arrtcs around the attic may fall into wall cavities Thoroughly inspect inside the attic to find and be unableto climb out, making persis- the opening(s), where the nest is and to

186

Wrro NElcHnoRs

determine whether there are any babies present.concentrate the searchin the area where noiseswere heard. If there is no accessto the attic, inspectthe outside of the eaves,vents and roof until the opening is located. If the nest can be seenand there are no immature squirrels,attempt to frighten the squinel outside by banging on the rafters insidethe attic,or wait until you aresureall squirrelshaveleft asthey usually do during the day.Then sealup the openingwith 1/aor rf z-inch mesh hardware cloth or sheet metal flashing securelyfastened.Extendthe metalpatchat least6 inchesbeyondthe hole in all directionsto preventthe squirrel from gnawing around the patch. Sealany other weak spots or potential entrancesin the sameway. Listen carefully for the next day or so to be sureno squirrelis uapped inside or has regainedentry. Watch closely to see if the squirrel is persistent in attempts to regain entry. Mothers will go to extreme lengthsto reunitewith theiryoung and can causeextensivedamage to houses when doing so. If, for anyreason,it cannotbe determined if the squirrelsare outside,do nat sealthe sntrance.Instead, install a one-waydoor(see Chapter 3) and leave it in place until no more soundsare heard inside the attic for severaldays.The door canthen be removed and the openingpatchedasdescribedabove. If the nest is inaccessibleor out of sight and there is the likelihood of babies (the squirrelhasbeenin the housefor more than a coupleof daysand it is Marchthrough May or August through October), wait until the young are grown enough to come out on their own. At that poin! a one-waydoor may be installed over the opening and left in place until no more sounds are heard inside the attic for severaldays.The door can then be removedand the opening patched.

In all cases,once the squirrelsareknown to be gone, the opening should be permanently sealedbywhatevercarpentryworkis necessary. This is simply good housekeeping and not only preventssquirrels from regaining entry at a future date but keeps weather and insectsout to help maintain an orderly house. ExcrusloNCHruNEy wrrH a FrnnpLAcE It can be assumedthat the squirrel heard scramblingin a chimney is trappedunless thereis dear evidenceit is ableto dimb out on its own. Do not try to smokea squirel out of a chimney-a uapped squirel or babies may be killed. If the squirrelis not uapped, proceedthe sameaswith a nestin the attic as describedabove. If the squirrel is above,or has accessto, the flue damper, a meansof escapemay be provided by hanging a 3l+-inchor thicker rope down the chimney. Be sure to tie one end of the rope to the top of the chimney before lowering the other end, and make certainthat it reachesthe damperor smoke shelf. If a rope is unavailable,a seriesof boards or sticks may be securelyattached end-to-end to sufficient length. Be careful not to lower anything into the chimney that cannot be easilyretrieved.The squirrelwill climb up the rope and escapeusuallywithin a few (daylight) hours.After it is certainthat the squirrel has escaped,removethe rope and screenthe chimney, preferably with a commercially made chimney cap (see "ChimneyCaps"in Appendix2). If a squirrel is down in the fireplace(presumably behind the fireplacedoors or screen),trytapping on the door and scaring it back up abovethe damper.If successful, closethe damper and proceedas above.If the squirrel cannot or will not leavethe fireplace,the next best option is to obtain a

TreeSquirrels suitable live trap, bait it with peanut butter and setitvery carefullyinsidethe fireplace' Normally,the squinel will retreatto a back corner of the fireplace as the doors are openedand staythere if the trap is placed, slowly and quietly, just inside the doors' Closethe doors and leavethe room to wait for the squinel to enter the trap. As a precaution, before opening the doors of the fireplace to set the trap, dose any interior doors in the room and open an exterior door or window in line of sight from the fireplace.In the eventthat the squirrel gets out of the fireplace do not chaseiU iust sit quietly, and itwill instinctivelyhead forthe light of the open door and go outside.After the squinel has been removed, screen the chimney as describedabove.

187

got in the houseand preventit from happening again. Look for tracks in soot or dust around the fireplaceor furnacethat may indicate that it came down the chimney, and checkthe attic for evidenceof a nest or entrancehole that may needattention. Hnntrer MINacEMENTBtnp Fsnpnns The agility of squinels makesit difficult to prevent them from reachingbird feeders. Varioustypesof specializedfeedersareavailable from witd bird supply centersor catalog salesthat keep olmostallsquinels at bay. Severaldesignsrespondto the greaterweight of squirrelsand largebirds by closinga metal cover over the birdseed when they climb onto the feeder.Thesefeedersare usually very effective,but costmore than uaditional feeders. One stepup in the battle is to keepsquirrels away from the beginning, when the feeder is first put oul Once a squirrel becomesaccustomedto finding food, it will persistently try to overcome any obstacles that are placed in its way. Feederson a pole can be riggedwith a baffler (seeChapter 3) that preventsthem from climbing. As long asthey cannotleapfrom a nearbytreeonto the feedeq,they generally have to content themselveswith whateverthe birds spill. Squirrels will have difficulty raiding a feeder hung from a tree branch on a wire that is more than 10 feet long. The feeder should be positioned at least 8 feet away from any limbs or structuresfrom which the animals might leap. If a squirrel doesslide down the support wire, a plastic or metal commercialor homemade umbrella-shaped baffle can be mounted over the feeder.

SeutnnEt, LoosE IN Housn Asquirrel thathasentereda househasdone so by accident and does not want to be there. If its exactlocation is known, close interior doors to limit its movement and open a window or exterior door in the room. The squirrelwill find the opening if it is left alone and itwill evenreadilyiump from a second'storywindow onto a lawn (not onto concrete)without harming itself. If for somereasonit is not possibleto give the squirrel an orit, set a baited live traP on the floor nearthesquirreland leaveit alone for a few hours.Squinelscanbe capturedin a blanket if trapping is not an option Approachthe squirrelwith the blanketcovering your body, so that it doesnot seea human form but rather a largeand indistinct mass' Drop the blanket on the squirreland roll it up, taking carenot to put too much weight or pressureon the animal. Then, take the blanket and squirrel immediately outside and unfurl it, letting the animal escape. Dnuece ro PreNrs Once the squinel has escapedor has been Squirrels rarely do significant damageto captured,it is important to discoverhow it plantings.So,when damageis observed,the

188

Wlro NErcHeoRs

Figure 29. Dwarf fruit treescan becoueredwith netting to preuentaccessto squinelsand birds while fruit is ipming. Localgarden centersand plant nursniesoftm carry thk netting, or it can beordereddirectlyfrom suppliers(see 'Netting" in Appendix2) .

first stepis to makesureit's not being caused by another animal. Squinels are only active during the day,so it should be possibleto obseryethe damage happening. Once a squirrel has been implicated, considerthe possibility of preventing accessto the affectedplant. Forinstance,one orseveralfruit treesthat areisolatedfrom surrounding trees maybe protectedbywrappinga 2-footband of sheetmetal around the trunk about 6 feet off the ground. Branchesgrowing below 6 feetalso may haveto be trimmed. Squirrels show a preferencefor ceftain varietiesof ornamentalplantsand leaveothersalone.Small fruit and nut trees can be protected by netting the entiretreefor the short period of time

when squinel (or other animal) damageis most likely to occur (seeFigure29). Rnpsrr,ENrs Thereareseveralcommercialrepellents(see Table2, pages48 and 49) that areregistered for use with squirrels. Some, such as the products with Thiram, can be used to soak bulbs before planting. Other are intended to be sprayedon ornamental plants squirrels are attacking.We have encounteredat least one product that usescapsaicin,with the recommendationthat birdseed be dustedwith it to repelsquirrelsbut not birds. The concept is that birds do not have the samesensoryreceptionof this chemicalas

TreeSquirrels

189

is to take mammalsdo-a questionableassumption' pletely frustrated by the struggle enemy. We do not recommendthis method of pro- another,closerlook at the animals to fascinating are Squirrels tectingbirdseedfrom squirrels. They make study. and photograph watch, themselvesavailablefor observation in a A Last Word way that few other animals do and have a of beThere are volumes written about squirrels, rich and comple:<enough repertoire exand novice someof which havefocusedentirely on the haviors to award both the squirrel-human warfare conducted every pertwith the challengeof decipheringwhat yearin our neighborhoods.In the spaceal- it is they really are about. For thosewilling located here, we can only suggestthe ex- to be patient, to learn and to watch, squirtent of some of the battles that have raged rels havea lot to offer. acrossthe American landscape,and we recommend that readersconsult advanced Additional Sources texts for details of the more complex maneuvers.The battleswill go on into the fore- Gurnell, l. 1987.TheNatural Historyof Squinels,New York: Factson File. 201 seeablefuture with humanity continuing PP. to win the minor skirmishes, while the AWildlifeHand' K. 1995.Squinels: Long the on sights their have to seem squinels Books. Colo.: Boulder, booh. Johnson All we victory. strategic,rather than tactical, pp. 181 can recommend for those who feel com-

Voles

Volesoccupyvirtually allof NorthAmerica.

/2

--

--

e*5tGG_

"\\

==T<-_--- /--

Theyliveoutsidein yardsand gardensbut by far preferopen grassyfields.

ArtHoucn RARELvsEEN,voles are surprisingly common in many cities.In downtown Washington, D.C., theselittle mouselikecreatureshave made a name for themselvesby presentingvexing problems Neverweighing morethan2 in someyearswhen they attackthe largeplanted beds ounces,theselittleanimalsare of ground cover.The White Houseevenhas a resident nevertheless a criticalpartof population ofvoles that periodicallymaketheir presthefoodchainwheretheyare encefelt in the largeeuonymusbedsout back somefound. times leavinglargebrown areasof deadvegetationby girdling stems.Volesarefar more likelyto be a serious concern to commercial agriculture than to home_ owners,and most of the strategiesthat havebeen developedto deal with them reflectthat. Perhapsthey are a latent urban wildlife issue, waiting for the more highly visible issuesinvolving geese,raccoons, deeq,beavers,pigeons and other speciesto die down some before claiming their place.If so, they may be in for a long wait.

Natural History Classificotionand Range voles,alsoknown asmeadowmice,aremembersof a largeand complo< group of rodents called arvicolids.Thereare around trventyspeciesin the genusMicrotusalone,dependingon the latestconsensus of the experts,but only somesix or sevenaregenerallyconsideredto problems for humans.All are mouse-sized(6 to g u causensignificant 'r inc-},lss) animalsthatweigh about 4 to 5 ouncesand havestodrycom'. b,odies.Their earsand eyesare small relativeto other mouselike ,ppft r*.f1hnalscommonly seen.The physical featurethat is most distin,, , i I guistr*Fgis a short tail, which is lessthan 3 incheslong. Both house

Voles

191

spp') Volesforageon grasses,flowers,vegetables, (Mus musculus)and deer (Peromyscus they will mice with which voles are often confused, fruits, bulbs and roots, although such matter animal havetails that are at least as long as their occasionallyconsume make voles as insectsand snails.In winter, bodies. tunnels beneath the snow, under the prodamage The voles that most often cause bark from in different regions of the country are the tection of which they gnaw the food horde also will They meadow treesand shrubs. prairie vole (Microrusochrogaster), gala as pine or wood- in undergroundcachesof asmuch vole(Microtuspmnsyluanicus), (Thesewere land vole (Microwspinenrum),montane or lon of storednuts and berries. to suppleIndians byAmerican mountain vole (Micron$montnnus),Oregon often raided vole (Mir;'lon$oresoni)and Califomia vole ment their own winter diet.) (Microruscalifornicus).Meadow and prairie voles causesurfacedamage while woodland voles causedamagebeneaththe soil. The pine and Oregon voles, for example, spend almost all their time underground. Becausecontrol methods would be different basedon such considerationsand becausethere is extensiverange overlap of some species,e>ractspeciesidentifications in situations where damageis occurring is important.

Habitat

Reproduction Like many small rodents, voles are shortlived but prolific breeders.In the wild, there can be four or five litters eachsummet and even more in warm climates where breeding canoccuryear-round.Dependingon the speciesand geographicregion, the average litter size varies from two to five young. Within three weeks of birth, females may beginbreeding with gestationa shorttwenty to twenty-threedays.Withthis kind of reproductive potential, populations rapidly expand. Populationsin commercialand home orchards can attain higtr concentrationsbecauseoptimal vole habitat is inadvertently createdby landscaping practicessuch as mowing (which leavesa protective layer of thatch) and by fertilization, which results in denseground cover.Vole populations are cyclical. During spansof about three to six years,vole populations experiencedramatic fluctuations.Yearsin which populationsgrow rapidly aresometimescalled "mouseyears."

With so many different tFpesof voles disuibuted throughout North America it can hardly be surprisingto find them in a wide varietyof habitats.Evenwithin a givenhabitat, different speciesof voles may overlap, avoidingdirect competition through separation into specialued niches.Severalspecies are maior agricultural pests, having moved into commercial fruit orchards, plantedcrop fieldsand Pasturesin easytransition from traditional habitats.The affinity of some voles for forest edgeswith moist loose soil high in organic matter easily Nests and Runutays brings them into residential areas and While all speciesof volesdo someburrowconflicts with homeowners. ing, certainspecialistssuch asthe pine and Oregon vole are almost entirely subterraDiet nean. Others,including the meadow vole, (plant-eaters) constructobvious runwayson the surfaceof Volesareprima rJ,\yherbivores and are not to be confused with moles. the ground, clipping and mowing in their

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own fashionto maintain a network of maintained trails partly coveredby overlapping vegetation.Nestsare usually well built and provide refuge from environmental extremes, as well as places to rest and raise young. Voles may spend the bulk of their day in these,coming out to feed for short periodsduring both day and night.

Public Health

Voleswill usemole tunnels to reachplant roots and bulbs and often causedamagefor which moles erroneouslyare blamed. Homeownersmay experiencedamagesimilar to agriculturalistsbut on a lesserscale.Fruit treesorshrubs suchasblackberriesand raspberries and occasionalgarden vegetables may be badly damagedor ruined. plants in growing frames and greenhousesmay be badly damaged,asmight certainshrubsand bulbs in the ornamentalgarden.

Volesare not consideredto be a significant sourcefor any infectiousdiseasethat canbe Solutions transmittedto humans,companion animals or livestock. They are known, however,to Hnntrer MoprrrcATroN be the hostsfor suchcommunicablediseases The control of damageby volesshould foastularemiaand bubonic plague. cus on the managementof the habitat to make conditions less favorable for these animals. Populations can be reduced Problems and through soil cultivation, a tactic that desuop Their Solutions burrows and reducesground cover. Frequent,closemowingwill reduceboth cover Problems and carying capacityfortheseanimalsand The worst damagedone by voles is associ- is an important part of an integratedapated with agricultural crops,and the opera- proach to population management.Ortors of largeorchardsaremost likelyto suffer chardsshould be mowed four times ayear: damage.Debarkingof fruit treesoccursun- after trees bloom, just before cropping der the coverof snow and can be fatal when limbs, prior to harvestand in late fall. treesarecompletelygirdled.Volesalsofeed Clearing vegetativedebris from grassy on the roots of fruit trees,primarily during areasadjacentto gardensand cropsis a usethe winter. This spurt in damagemay be a ful prevention measure.Clearingvegetation result of the diminished food supply dur- from a 3-foot radius around the baseof a ing this dormant season.Apple tree roots tree or shrub can force voles to relocate. contain more sugar and starch during the Howeve[,becausewoodland voles remain winter than any other season,possiblymak- below ground,this tacticmay not affecttheir ing them more attractiveto voles.Moreover, activities. In northern dimates snow may in winter voles spend more time close to provide cover for voles at the time of year their nests to avoid cold temperaturesand when plants are most likely to incur dampredators.Becausethe nestsare frequently age.Clearing snow away from the base of located near tree trunks, roots are a conve- treesmay be helpful when just a few need nient sourceof food. Typicalvole damage to be protected.Deepbedsof mulch alsoenoccurs within the first decadeafter an or- couragevolesby facilitatingtheir movement chard has been planted becauseas trees through tunnels createdbetweenthe mulch mature they are better able to sustain and and the ground. Reducingthe layerof mulch fend off damage. to 1 to 2 inchesmay discouragevoles.

Voles

KillThemAll? of anYanimal Theeradication is rarelY fromthe landscape possible,and in the few cases it is at besta it is achieved, Using remission. temporary propermethodsof wildlife damagecontrol,a ProPertY beownercancurbProblem havioror reducethe Problemto

193

Rnpu,rBNrs Volescancauseseriousdamageto ornamental flower beds by destroying the bulbs of plants such as lilies and tulips. Soaking bulbs before planting in one of the many commercialty available bittering agents containing Thiram (see "Chemical Repellents" in Chapter3) canbe effectivein limiting damageto new Plantings'

a tolerablelevel. Individual plants or flower beds can be partially protectedwith a subterraneanbarrier composedof hardwaredoth (l/+-inch mesh or less)buried 6 to 8 inchesinto the soil. By sinking the barrier to a depth of at least 6 inches,the property owner will assurethat animals do not burrow under the obstade.This tactic may offer the best permanent solution to problems with voles in the residential yard. A barrier of gravelon paths also discouragesvoles from moving around yards becausethey prefer to excavate soft soil. Tulips and hostas are favorite foods of volesand mayoccasionallysustainhigh damage.Homeownerswhose plants are repeatedly assaultedby voles should consider substituteplants,suchasdaffodil, which are lesspalatable.Crown imperial (Fritwrlaria spp.) is anothershowyplant that hasa reputation for repellingvoles.Plastic,metal or cloth barriers (see"TreeProtectors"in Appendix 2) may be wraPPedaround the trunks of individual treesto prevent voles from gnawing on their bark. Tar paper also is usedfor this purPose.

PREoeroRs Voles are an important component in the diet of many predatory speciesincluding foxes, bobcats, snakesand hawks' One of the best waysto ensurethat other forms of control work well is to encouragenatural predation. Predatorsdo not, of course, eliminate prey species.Natural predation, howevet canhelp keepnumbersof animals, such asvoles,down to a point where other managementstrategiesbecomefar more effective.Raptorscanbe particularly effective, and nestingboxesforbarn owls and kesuels can encouragetheir presence.It is alsopossible to atuact hawks and owls by erecting perchesconstructedof wood or metal and shapedinto a "T" thatwill serveasobservation poststo scanfields for volesand other small mammals.

A Last Word The averagehomeowner is unlikely to encounter problemswith voles of the sort that commercial orchardistsand agriculturalists do. On the rareoccasionsthey do, it is likely that the damagecomesasa resultof one of those cyclical periods when vole numbers are peaking.Certainly,protection of valued plants is merited at those times, but lethal control of vole populations is unlikely to yield any significant results, becausethe natural population cyclewill lead to reduction in vole numbers regardlessof the attemptsto eradicateanimals.

Waterfiowl

Foundthroughout allof NorthAmerica; increasingly commonin urbanareas. Mostconflictsarerestricted to openspaceandparklands, including corporate landsand golfcourses. Occasional problemsin privateyards. ,

ilw,nfi,l{!"(

t, ) Thesubspecies of Canadagooseso It commonnowin many citieswasthoughtto have beenextinctas recentlyas the 1960s. Fon es LoNG AS spRrNc has come forpeople it has I

liirfi I

been heralded by geesecalling overhead on their way north to breeding grounds. The opposite tum of season is signaled by their return voyage, which also in-

troducesthe newly arrivedmembersof the flock to the tradition of the group'sflight path. what the first humans on this continent saw werealreadyancientpatterns.What laterarrivalssawweredwindling numbersoverheadas more and more land wastakenthat oncdsupported an enormousvarietyof species. ,,i i.,, l Not so long ago it looked as if the sky migfurilot beroccupibdby migrantsat all. Strictlyenforcedlawsand, final$,some e{fortto conseryediminishing wetlandshelped bring them baikfqom *he btittk, but still the outcomefor m,.?ny speciesremainscriticai.in,the faceof the changeswe,i,mpolqdon them, somespeciesof waterfowlbegan to adapt in rernarkablewap. "Resident"ducks and geesehave becomenoticeabld,.only recently,and alreadyareone of the most controversialwildlifeissuesin rhanypartsofthe country.Booksmaybewritten about the human-watef,fowlc.piiflictsof thesetimes,the reasonsfor it

Waterfowl and the deepirony of what has happened' Thesebirds, so heavilyhunted for so long have not been driven to hide in some reTheyhaveliterally embraced mote vastness. humanity and settled underfoot in cities and towns throughout the country. Ironically, by only tryrng to adjust to the situation people have imposed on them, they havebeen declareda "Problem."

195

they conjure a mental image of a swan'The American coot(Fulicaamericata),or mudhen, is a small aquaticbird that is disuibuted almost nationwide. Many different speciesof ducks use urban and suburban ponds as stopoverswhen migrating. The mallard is by far the most com(Anasplatyrhynchos) is presentyear-round that mon and the one in many urban ponds.The brown femaleis drab in comparison to the male,who has a greenhead,white neckband and rustychest. The muscovyduck (Cairina moschata)is an introduced speciesthat is found in many Classificationand Range towns and cities as a result of intentional "Waterfowl" is a genericterm that applies It is a large bullcybird rangingfrom releases. to dozens of different types of birds. The blackish to all white; males are charactermain speciesthat are of concem in urban izedby the pronounced knob at the end of areas,and which areaddressedhere,include the bitl. Confusingthe issueof what duck is geese,ducks, coots and swans.Although what duck is the frequenthybridization of there are severalspeciesof goosein North mallardswith domesticspecies,so that a America, it is the Canada goose (Branta sometimes perplexing combination of that causesby far the maiority canadensis) wild and domestic ducks appearson our of problems in urban and suburbanareas. ponds. The large size,black head and prominent white cheekpatchofthis bird make identification easyfor most urbanites,asthe only Habitat other large bird commonly found on ur- Although traditionally associatedwith lakes ban ponds is the swan.At leastten subspe- and ponds, most waterfowl spend time on cies or racesof Canada geesehave been land and evennest some distancefrom waidentified, with the "giant" form (8. c. ter if the siteseemssafe.Artificial ponds and maxima)beingthe one that hassettledmost lakes,storm water impoundments and, escomfortably on a year-round residency pecially, the vast expansesof good gtazing among people.Theselarge birds (about surfacestypical of municipal parks, co{po12 pounds on average)were actually con- rate developments,golf coursesand other sidered extinct in the 1950s,only to be human-built environmentsare ideal habiin 1965.Sincethen,theirpopu- tat for geese,swansand ducks.This is the rediscovered steadilY. risen lations have main reasonthey havesettledin year-round The mute swan (Cygnusolor) is an Old residencyand have grown in numbers in World speciesthat hasbeenintroducedinto municipal areas. North America.Theseswansare common in many municipal parksin the East,always Diet standingout becauseof their greatsizeand the gracefulnessof the curve of the neck, Geesederive more food from terrestrial which is what most people think of when sourcesthan their more aquaticrelatives,the

Natural History

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ducksand swans,although all seemto benefit from agricultural practices.Wastecorn and other agriculturalcrops are especially important for migrating flocks,which can be seen foraging in fields as migration progresses. Geeseare predisposedto use short grasslands,and thesehavebecomea major sourceof food that remainsavailable throughoutthe springand summerbecause we humans cut, water and fertilize vast areasof this sort.The human love affair with the lawn is, doubtless,the key element in sustaininggoosepopulations in cities and towns. Ducks can satisfythemselveswith a more aquaticfare,eatingsubmergedvegetation and aquatic insects,but, of course,are alwayswilling to take advantageof human handouts.

Reproduction Geesearesuonglymonogamousand do not usually pair until a rather advancedage(for birds) of about three years.Strong family attachmentscomplementthe pair-bonding ofthe adults;avigorousdefenseofboth nest and chicksis one characteristicofthesebirds leadingto conflictswith people.This defense is also characteristicof swans.Most waterfowl will make new nestsif a clutch is lost and the seasonis still early.Removalof eggs stimulatescontinuedlaying.Molting occurs in earlysummer(usuallybetweenlate Iune and mid-luly), and it may take up to a month to regain the ability to fly. Mallardsarerenownedfor their tendency to build nests in strangeplaces.Flower boxes,building alcovesand other areasfar from water are all used.Sprayingof the national Christmastree that standson the ellipse acrossfrom the White House is periodicallydelayedbecausea mallard is discoverednesting underneath it. Whether prompted by competition for favorablesites or just a natural inclination to testdifferent

sites,the hatchlings areusually led to water immediately,provoking many of the sorts of scenesimmortalized in Make Woy for Ducklings,a favorite childhood storybook.

Public Health Waterfowlarenot implicatedin anyserious public health threat to humans, although their droppings are increasingly cited as a causefor concernin controlling waterquality in municipal lakes and ponds. Some waterfowl speciesare primary carriers of chlamydiosis.Botulismoutbreaksin waterfowl involve a strain that is not uansmitted to humans.

Problems and Their Solutions Problems The primary conflict betweenwaterfowl and humans occursover maintained lawns (or lawnscapes)and is an aesthetic,cosmetic, convenienceand (somesay)sanitaryissue. The actual grazing done by geeseis seldom an issue becausethey do not disturb or physicallydamageturf. Most often, it is the fecaldepositsand the aggregationof numbers of birds that produce conflict. Droppings can accumulateat considerablerates, and on lawnsthat peopleusefrequently,this can be regardedas a nuisance.On a large corporate headquarterswith its acresof mown but unused lawn surface,geesemay not be a problem at all. Occasionalproblems occur with geeseguarding their nests. Protectiveresponsesare strong in these birds, and they are known to sometimes confront and even physically challenge peoplewho cometoo close.As rareasthese occurrencesare, they usually make news when they do occur.

Waterfowl

Goots Mostpeoplethinkof cootsas grumpyold men,but another sortof coot is a smalland memberof the bird retiring railsand familythatincludes cranes.Likeducksandgeese, cootsinhabitpondsaround andrecrehumanresidences ationalareasandcomeashore to forage.Cootscan be more thangeesewhen destructive grazingon lawnsbecausetheY alsoforagefor insectsand turfwiththe worms,damaging strongclawsof theirhindfeet. wherethesebirds ln California havelongbeenregardedas pests,manyare agricultural becausePeoPle shotannually to worktoward areunwilling solutions. nonlethal

r97

buttons. Geeseare intelligent birds who learn quickty and remember what they leam.With a little consistencyin ourbehavior, there is every reasonto assumethat if we impose "rules" on them, they will follow them. As with other urban wildlife species,compatibility and mutual benefitsare more the norm than the orception.It seems alwaysthe o
Solutions TolrneNcn The adaptation of geeseto a nonmigratory way of life is of such recent origin that we can certainly say that more time is needed for people to get used to lMng with geese, and geese to become used to living with people, before anyone pushes any panic

HesrrAT MoptplcATIoN The useof habitat modification strategiesto exclude geesefrom areaswhere they are viewedasproblems,or (betteryet)to maintain them at acceptablelevels is clearly the most farsightedand reasonableapproachwe currently haveto solving conflicts between

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theseanimals and humans.It is foolish to them by humans, at great CI(penseand farclaim that the formulae for such solutions reachingenvironmental consequences. Anyhavealreadybeenworked out, with a pack- where that a lawn canbe turned to meadow agedremedyreadytoapplyto all situarions. will servea host of environmentally benefiEvenwhen they are known, it is often diffi- cial purposes,including the removal preof cult to get people to acceptchanging the ferred grazingareasfrom accessto geese. appearanceor managementof a landscape they havegrown used to. This is an issue ExclusroN for the future; for now we clearly have to Fencingactslike an artificial vegetation barcontinue to experimentwith the changes rier, and while it lacks many of the other themselves. desirablecharacteristics, it can be put out The most important tool in managing and takenup oncenestinghasbegun (elsehabitat to detergeeseand, to a lesserexrent, where) and a site is not so attractiveto geese. ducks involves vegetation management To be effective, fences or natural barriers around the edge or berm of any body of needonly be 18 inchestall. Chickenwire is water that they are using. Geesenot only sufficient,but not asdurableor practicalas prefer to walk betweenwater and land, but othertypesof fencing.Nylon orplasticfenchaveto walk when molting or escortinggos- ing works best.The solid nylon silt fences lings. They dislike and will avoid walking used in construction to prevent or channel through tall (1S inchesand up) vegeration runoff is an excellentmaterial, as are other becausethis both impedestheir movement types of construction fencing, which are and can hide predators.Natural vegetation moderatelypriced,reusableand easyto inthat is allowed to grow along ponds is not stall.Thesebarriersshould notbeptup aftur only a deterrentto geese(and to a lesser nesting has begun-they will deprivegosCI(ent ducks) but also lessensthe amount lings of the accessback and forth from waof mowing necessaryfilters the runoff of ter to land that they will need to survive. fertilizer and herbicidesfrom lawn surfaces, They could be installedto only allow geese increaseshabitat for other wildlife species accessto certain areaswhere they would be such as songbirdsand has an aestheticap- tolerated,while keeping them away from peal to many that is more satisfring than placesthat receivea lot of useby people. the homogenousand neatlytrimmed lawn Anothertacticthat maybe effectiveis the that runs down to water's edge.Where ac- useof stoneriprap alongshorelines.Riprap cessis necessarydesirablewalkwayscan be is coarse(4 inchesand up) stonethat is laid designedor small areasof lawn setasidefor around the perimeterof ponds and along humans.If geeseusetheseto movebackand stream channels to help control erosion. forth to lawns,simple fencingas described Geeseare often hesitantto crossthis matein the following sectioncan block thesear- rial, and it has the added benefit where easoffas well. muskratsmight be a problem of deterring Vegetationmanagementalso ortendsto their burrowing into banks.Actualer
Waterfowl

199

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in somesettingsto detergeesefrom areasof openlaum.Lihe any Figure 30. A simple plasticflag systzmhasbeenusedveryet'fectiuely scaringor frighuning stratzgy,thisworhsbestif combinedwrth other techniques.

not recommendedbecauseunder usual light conditions,the birds do not seeit in time to avoid collisions.Any heavy-gauge durable metal or darkerline material can be used,but the obvious initial expense and maintenancecosts of such barriers make their useproblematic in all but unusual settings. Netting is sometimesused over ponds orsmall impoundments,but is fairlyexpensiveand difficult to maintain. Hollow plastic bird balls (seeAppendix 2) have been tried in someindusuial wastepond settings to keep waterfowl awayfrom water that is contaminatedwith toxic material. Dozens,

or hundreds,of theseballs are floated on the surfaceof the pond to prevent accessto waterfiowl.While notyettried in manyother settings,it might be possibleto float enough of theseon the surfaceof small ponds to harassgeeseor ducks awayat certain times when they are not wanted there. HenessMENT A variety of techniques can be used to harassor scaregeeseand otherwaterfowl away from areaswhere they are causingdamage with the greatesteffectivenessusually achievedwhen a combination of these techniqueswith other strategiesis used.

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Wlro NplcneoRs

€,-

Scarecrowsand effigieswork well and are most effectivewhen designedto moveor are relocatedfrequently (seeChapter3). Homemade plastic flagscan be highly effectivein keeping birds, especiallyducks, geeseand other waterfowl,off fields and open lawns. Originally developedand testedby the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,the flagsare constructedfrom a 2 x 3-foot wide sheetof 3mm plasticthat is attachedto a 4-foot lath orpost (seeFigure30,p. 199).Usually,black plasticis used,but anysolid color is believed to be effective.The 3-foot side is wrapped and fastenedto the lath, which is then sunk in the ground (usually one to five per acre is the recommendation).Sometimesa Vshaped notch is cut in the free end to enhance its movement in slight winds. This systemis easilymadefrom locally obtained materialsand may be one of the least expensiveand most efficientwaysof deterring unwanted waterfiowl.Like any other system intended to producenegativeconditioning it is somethingbirds will getusedto, so it is best when altered frequently (by moving flags around) and combined with other strategies.

Radio-conuolledmodel boatshavebeen usedwith somesuccess to harassgeeseand other waterfiowl from ponds and may be ideal for occasionalproblemswith the misguidedbird thatwanted to usea swimming pool. Beachballsand eyespotballoonshave beenusedto frightengeeseawayfrom shoreline property as well as from fields. Geese apparently dislike walking under objects, and a largehelium-filledballoon (30 inches in diameter) tetheredon a 4O-to 50-foot monofilamentline of at leasta 50-pound test can be effectivein keeping them off a field or lawn of 1 to 2 acres.Mylar tape in rows can be highly effectiveagainstwaterfowl butdoes havea high maintenancecomponent and preventsfree accessand use of the protectedarea.Probablythe bestapplication of this product would be in lieu of line strung over small impoundments to keepwaterfiowlout. HezrNc Hazing can be an effectivetactic when applied at the right time, practicedconsistently and usedin combination with other procedures,such as repellents.Hazing should

Waterfrowl 2or occur early in the season,prior to nesting. Techniquesrange from having a human simply approach and shoo geeseaway wheneverthey are seenout of water to intense and full-time disruptive harassment usingpyrotechnicsand evenspecialhumandog teamsof breedssuchasborder collies, whose natural herding instinct can keep geesecontinually in thewater and frusuate them so much thatthey abandona site.This kind of harassmentcan be particularly effectiveon facilities such as golf courses. ReperLgNrs The recentapprovalof the repellent methyl anthranilate(see"ChemicalRepellents"in Chapter3) offerspromiseof an important and useful chemical deterrentfor waterfowl that hasapplicationin a varietyof situations. Madefrom the ortractthatflavorsgrapesoda and candy, methyl anthranilate can be sprayedon lawns or introduced directly into bodiesofwater (cunently,thosewithout fish; the product is in line for approvalin fish-bearirritation in any ingwaters)to causee>rtreme bird that comesinto contact with it. Alone or (evenbetter) in combination with other suategies,this product hasgreatpromise as a useful gooserepellent.

sult in the female simply laying another clutch. Destruction of older eggsmeansthe destruction of developedembryos and is consideredinhumane. Consultation with FWSand USDA APHIS-ADCstaff (seeAppendix 1) should occur prior to adopting any eggaddling program. A permitfrom the U.S.Ffshand Wildlife Satticemustbeobtained to addleeggs.

A Last Word The recentincreasein residentgoosepopulations is yet anotherindication of how decisions humans make regarding the managementof land caninadvertentlylead to changein other areas.Geeseare not to blame for occupyingthe optimal habitswe havebuilt for them-they aresimply following a natural pattern that their coursehad dictated long before humans were even present.Like all problems,there are many waysthat it can be settled.It will saymuch about not only our relationshipto geeseand otherwildlife butto the land itselfasto how solutions are craftedaswell as imposed.

Additional Sources

fohnsgard,P.A. 1975. Waterfowlof Norrtr America.Bloomington: Indiana UniverDnsrnoYING Eccs sity Press.575 pp. A more drastic,short-termand problematic .. Nielsen, S. 1992.Mallards.Stillwater, , .' is population the goose control to solution Minn.: VoyageurPress.143,pp. j processof shaking eggsto render them VermilA. 1978. WiW|,Ceesd M. tri unhatchable,known asaddling. Removing Ogilvie, S. Dak.: Buteopooks. 3$Qpp ,u.' eggsbefore they are two weeksold will re,,1?.*, '

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Woodchucks

The woodchuckis distributedthroughout the easternand mid- r westernparts of the . 7UnitedStatesand

mostof Canada.

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residence underoutbuildings, I patiosor decks. I Recentresearch suggeststhat I wouldnotchuck theseanimals I anywoodevenif theycould bythename I uo*t pEopLEKNow wooDCHUCKS chuck wood'

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"gro.rrrdhog,"and the two termsseemto be usedwith about equal frequency."Whistlepig" is also usedbut lessheard.It is, in fact,betterdescriptiveof theseanimalswho will apparentlyneverchuckwood and rarely

hog ground, but will issue a shrill whistling signal when taken by surprise. "Chuck" is another convenient name to use that doesn't take as long to say as the others. All of these animals are guaranteed to make the news at least once ayear on Groundhog Day. February 2 has been recognized as the day on which a representative of this species, resident of a small town in Pennsylvania, Punxsutawney, traditionally captures the attention of the country by prognosticating on the duration of the winter. Punxsutawney Phil, as the chosen chuck is known, is expected to emerge from hibernation to check whether or not "his" shadow is visible. If it is, we have six more weeks of winter; if not spring is on its way. Modem sciencecannot explain the reason for this event to be predictive of climate, reminding us that

-

Woodchucks there arestill many mysterieson this planet remaining to be solved.Aswith many other speciesof wild animals that enter into conflictwith humans,the woodchuckis one that has greatly benefited from human alteration of the landscape.In this caseit has been agricultural lands that provided benefits for this species,but where farmlands areconvertedto subdMsions, woodchucks have often made the transition from rural to suburbanaswell.

Natural History Classificationand Range Thewoodchuck(Marmotamonax)is a large bullcyrodent,weighing5 to 10pounds and measuring16 to 20 inches,with a short tail of 4 to 8 inches.Coatcolor rangesfrom light to dark brown. The severalrecognizedsubspeciesrange from New England, south through parts of Georgiaand Alabama and into the Midwest. Woodchucksare for the most part absent from stateswest of the Great Plains,but the speciesdoes range norththroughoutmuch of Canadaand into Alaska.Their rather odd distribution finds the speciesabsentfrom westernpartsof the United States,but presentin many colder climates.The close relative of the woodchuck, the yellow-bellied marmot (M. flauiuennts),rangesthroughout much of the areafrom which its largercousin is absent, and it is likely that a comparisonof the adaptationsof the two would revealwhythey occupy mostly separateranges.

Habitat Woodchucks are traditionally associated with agricultural areas where open fields and croplands provide food, woodlots and hedgerows needed cover. Suburban and even urban habitats are colonized when

203

open fields suitablefor their needscan be found in coniunction with areasof cover. Woodchucksoften establishtheir burrows along the grassysuips of land paralleling highwaysand can be seen grazingright up to the road'sedge.

Diet Woodchucks are herbivores and primarily eat grassesand forbs. (A forb is any plant, other than a grass,with growth that dies back after flowering and seedsset [usually

Tracks Woodchuck

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wrrn NsrcHsoRS

over winterl to emergewith new aboveground growth when the next reproductive cyclebegins[usually in the springl.) Common forbs that are eaten by woodchucks include clover and dandelion. Although numerous types of vegetableshave been catalogedasfoods utilized bywoodchucks, there is a surprisingscarcityof studiesthat documentwhich nonagriculturalplantsare eaten.It is the tastefor vegetablesand fruits grown in home gardensthat leads to the battlesbetweenwoodchuclc and humansof which gardeninglegendis made.

multiple chambersoff of them. Complexity probably dependson the length of occupancy and the number of chucks in residence.The entrancesareoften structured around a largerock, tree root, wall or other structurethat providessupport and may discouragepredators from trying to dig their way in. Someburrow systemswill be inhabited for decadesby successivegenerations of woodchucks and may be occupied by many other speciesof wildlife both during and between periods of occupancyby chucks.

Reproduction

Public Health

Woodchucksbreedin Marchand April, and the usuallitter of four to sixyoung areborn about a month after mating. The young mature rapidly and areusually on their own by midsummer.Woodchucksaretrue hibernators and will sleepfor up to five months after the onset of cold weather.

Dens and Butrows The burrows that woodchucksexcavateare almost as good a sign of their presenceas seeingtheanimal itself.One main entrance is generallyusedwith the greatestfrequenqr and can be told by its open and well-kept appearanceand the fan of o