WORK-RELATED LEARNING
Work-Related Learning Edited by
JAN N. STREUMER University of Rotterdam, The Netherlands
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN-10 ISBN-13 ISBN-10 ISBN-13
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Contents
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW J.N. Streumer
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PART 1: FOUNDATIONS OF WORK-RELATED LEARNING 1. THE WORLD OF WORK-RELATED LEARNING J.N. Streumer & M. Kho 2. INFORMAL STRATEGIC LEARNING IN THE WORKPLACE V. Marsick
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3. LEARNING AT THE WORKPLACE REVIEWED: THEORY CONFRONTED WITH EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
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R.F. Poell & F.J. van der Krogt 4. DEVELOPING A MODEL OF FACTORS INFLUENCING WORK-RELATED LEARNING: FINDINGS FROM TWO RESEARCH PROJECTS S. Sambrook
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PART 2: CONFIGURATIONS OF WORK-RELATED LEARNING 5. WORK COMMUNITIES IN POLICE ORGANISATIONS STUDIED AS EMERGING ACTIVITY SYSTEMS
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M.F. de Laat, S.F. Akkerman & A. Puonti 6. ORGANIZING LEARNING PROJECTS WHILST IMPROVING WORK: STRATEGIES OF EMPLOYEES, MANAGERS, AND HRD PROFESSIONALS 151 R.F. Poell 7. COMBINATION OF FORMAL LEARNING AND LEARNING BY EXPERIENCE IN INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES
P. Dehnbostel & G. Molzberger
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Contents
8.
WORKPLACE ORIENTED COLLABORATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING AS A TOOL FOR ACTIVE KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
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A. Kluge 9.
CHANGING ORGANISATIONS: KNOWLEDGDE MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
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S.J. van Zolingen, J.N. Streumer & M. Stooker 10. LEARNING PROCESSES AND OUTCOMES AT THE WORKPLACE: A 243
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STUDY
A.J. Doornbos & A.J.A. Krak 11. LEARNING IN THE WORKPLACE: NEW THEORY AND PRACTICE IN 263
TEACHER EDUCATION
S. Bolhuis
PART 3: CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND WORK-RELATED LEARNING 12. CRITICALLY REFLECTIVE WORKING BEHAVIOUR: A SURVEY 285
RESEARCH
M. van Woerkom 13. PSYCHOLOGICAL CAREER CONTRACT, HRD AND SELF309
MANAGEMENT OF MANAGERS
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 14. THE CAREER STORIES OF HR DEVELOPERS T. Hytönen
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PART 4: EFFECTIVENESS OF WORK-RELATED LEARNING 15. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF OJT IN THE CONTEXT OF HRD M.R. van der Klink & J.N. Streumer
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CONTRIBUTORS
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Introduction and overview J.N. Streumer
Statement of aims The idea for this book followed from an international conference 'Learning at the Workplace' which was co-chaired by Jan Streumer at the University of Twente in 2001. The conference was sponsored by the University Forum for Human Resource Development and the Academy of Human Resource Development. Key papers from the conference were chosen for the book, and as well as being refereed for the conference, they have since undergone additional peer review and have been rewritten and edited, to offer an international collection of leading-edge research around this topic. This book should not be typified as a 'conference book', since a not inconsiderable number of other contributions have been added to the original selection of contributions to the conference. These are contributions especially written for this volume. The book brings together contributors from various parts of Europe and the USA and includes examples of good practice and recent research on work-related learning (WRL). Work-related learning is a topic of considerable interest currently and can be broadly seen to be concerned with all forms of training and learning closely related to the daily work of employees. WRL is increasingly playing a central role in the lives of individuals, groups or teams and the agendas of organizations (see Marsick & Volpe, 1999), and its applicability to several disciplines and sub-disciplines (primarily Adult Education, Organizational Development and Human Resource Development and Management) is obvious. However, as this area of study becomes more prominent, debates have opened about the nature of the field, as well as about its configurations and effects. For example, some authors define WRL as a process of individual learning; others emphasize organizational learning. Some
Introduction and overview
authors prefer to use the concept of WRL for structured, formal training processes as well as informal learning, while others use the concept of WRL exclusively for informal learning processes. It soon becomes clear when you study the literature on WRL that there is a complete absence of any unambiguous definition of the term. One additional reason why there is still little coherence in this field has to do with the fact that the roots of work-related learning are spread across a range of disciplines, and authors tend to publish their work in their root discipline. The underlying theoretical line of this book is a combination of the systems approach and the human capital theory. The human capital theory makes an appearance in a number of chapters, but it would be going much too far to assert that the book is exclusively indebted to this line of reasoning. From the perspective of the systems theory the development and training function of labour organizations is regarded as a sub-system within the organization. This sub-system develops in interaction with its surroundings. Changes at organizational level impact on the work processes in the organization, and consequently provoke reactions in teams or individual employees. This is a continual process of mutual adaptation that works both top-down and bottom-up. Training and learning are thus not by definition a result of changes in the strategic policy of the organisation or the redesign of work and jobs, but may also occur on the shop floor on the initiative of employees.
Structure and organisation of the book 'Work-Related Learning' is organized into four sections and this introduction. The first section concerns the foundations of workrelated learning: the conceptions and theories of work-related learning are examined. The second sections covers configurations of workrelated learning (work communities, learning projects, learning bays etcetera). How are these designed, developed and implemented, and what can be learned from research that has been carried out into these configurations? The third section explores the relation between career
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development, employability and work-related learning. The final section is dedicated to the difficulties of measuring the effects of work-related learning.
Foundations of work-related learning Part 1 consists of four contributions. In the first chapter 'The World of Work-Related Learning', Streumer and Kho describe the revival of work-based learning since the beginning of the 1990s. They report that researchers from a diversity of disciplines (e.g. sociology, organisation theory, economics, human resource development) together with educators are engaged on this topic. They indicate, like Engeström and Middleton (1998), that there is also a growing concern within anthropology, psychology and cognitive science for redefining the themes and methods that constitute the study of work, and - closely related to this - learning. This great interest can be explained by the massive changes in the nature of work and the consequences that these will have for the workers of the twenty-first century. The broad interest in the topic has led to numerous theoretical ways of looking at the process of learning at work. Detailed attention is devoted to this in the introduction. Then a number of dominant themes are raised around workplace learning. These themes cannot be dissociated from the diverse theoretical views of the participants from the various disciplines. In the contribution by Streumer and Kho, furthermore, three questions play a central role: How is learning taking place? What kinds of factors affect the amount and direction of learning at the workplace? and What is being learnt at work? The contribution concludes with a critical discussion. In Chapter 2, Marsick provides a research-and-theory-based definition of informal learning and a framework for understanding how informal learning can be enhanced and supported, with the aim of facilitating knowledge creation in organizations. In Chapter 3, Poell and Van der Krogt confront a number of prevailing theories and ideas about learning in organisations with empirical research in the field of learning at the workplace. Four central topics are addressed: tuning learning programmes to the work and to the organization, work and learning in groups, learning programmes in different working contexts and, finally, the views and ix
Introduction and overview
perceptions of actors concerning organisational change and learning processes. They conclude that the ideas behind these topics are very diverse, that there is still a large gap between theory and practice, and that a great many matters are merely receiving lip service, that it is not immediately clear what is the most desirable configuration in a particular context. Research into these four topics is the only way to shed light on these matters. In Chapter 4, Sambrook examines factors inhibiting and enhancing learning in work, specifically in large, learning-oriented organisations. These factors are categorised at organisational, functional and individual levels. It is argued that identifying such factors is an important step to enable managers and HRD practitioners to recognize how learning might be hindered or helped within the organisational context. The contribution includes a model of factors influencing learning in work.
Configurations of work-related learning Part 2 consists of seven contributions. It was quite difficult to order these contributions, since together they form a wide range of configurations of work-related learning. In some contributions the issue of the participation of the learner in work-related learning is discussed. If learning is no longer exclusively 'owned' by the organization and focused on the improvement of organizational performance, the degree of freedom that employees enjoy to organize their own learning processes becomes much more critical. Connected to this is the emphasis on learning in contexts. The point of departure of learning processes should be sought in the problems and opportunities that employees experience in carrying out their job. This touches upon the issue of (social) constructivism, emphasizing that learning is an active construction of knowledge, building on previously acquired knowledge, skills and experiences. Some contributions also stress that learning is to an increasing extent a group concern: team learning, communities of practice. In the following three chapters work-related learning takes the form of communities of practice, learning projects and learning bays. In Chapter 5, De Laat, Akkerman and Puonti present two studies (in the Netherlands and Finland) of the process of collaboration in two x
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different police organizations. Attempts are made within and between the organisations to develop shared expertise and a common understanding around work-related problems. This takes the form of work communities, in which negotiation and discourse take place. Analysis of the discourses indicates certain boundaries and conceptual confusion within the communities, yet members are working towards a shared understanding. In Chapter 6, Poell argues that the most important tenet of all learning projects is that employees learn something new by solving workrelated problems. Work improvement and employee development, in Poell's view, go hand in hand in a learning project. Data from five separate studies on learning projects are presented. The main focus is on the strategies used by employees, managers and HRD professionals to organise work-related learning projects and how work and learning are related in these projects. In Chapter 7, Dehnbostel and Molzberger discuss new forms and concepts of combining work and learning. After a thorough analytical description of different forms of learning and their respective characteristics, two new forms of initial and further education in the German vocational training system are discussed: 'learning bays' and 'work and learning tasks'. Chapters 8 and 9 relate to knowledge productivity, -sharing and – management. In Chapter 8, Kluge presents a study concerning the privatisation of a division of Deutsche Telekom and the related need for the personnel to start to compete internationally, to work in a customer-oriented way and to raise the level of service. This turnaround requires that employees start to work in a team and project-oriented way, in which knowledge productivity and sharing would play an important function, and that they quickly learn to adapt to changes in the market. A training programme focused on overcoming bureaucratic thinking and behaviour was developed for this purpose. In this programme, experiential learning techniques were combined with techniques derived from situated learning approaches. The development procedure is outlined and the results of the formative evaluation presented. In Chapter 9, besides a case study on knowledge productivity processes in a knowledge-intensive company, van Zolingen, Streumer
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Introduction and overview
and Stooker also present a thorough literature overview of knowledge productivity and management. The case study demonstrates the problems encountered with knowledge management and their consequences for HRM. The company studied was recommended a so-called 'soft model' of HRM. On the one hand, this means that HRM should focus on the close integration of human resources policies, systems and activities with business strategy, by mentoring on a regular basis, starting from its core competencies and its strategy, what essential knowledge their employees are lacking and encouraging them to acquire this. On the other hand, HRM should help to create a 'learning-oriented culture', in which the social capital of the company is valued more and in which knowledge exchange is encouraged, by stimulating the emergence of networks and communities of practice. In the next two chapters, the focus is very much on learning processes. According to Doornbos and Krak (Chapter 10), directing and controlling learning processes in the workplace and the relevance of learning outcomes are central elements in a workplace learning framework. The purpose of such a framework is to integrate learning and work by indicating what people learn in relation to how they learn in work situations. If this is really understood, workplace learning can be optimised. The framework presented by Doornbos and Krak is derived from a literature study and interviews with police officers working in teams. In Chapter 11, Bolhuis deals with the professional learning of prospective teachers. She argues that teaching for competence stands out as the most important goal of professional education nowadays and that professional learning is increasingly considered as learning at the workplace. The most obvious reason for this is the recognition that people acquire most of their professional competence in practice and continue to learn throughout their career. Examples of new practices in teacher education are discussed and a definition of professional learning is presented.
Career development and work-related learning Part 3 covers a number of contributions which consider the question of how employees (managers) in interaction with their working environment can further develop and grow. The following chapters xii
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(12, 13 and 14) deal with critical reflective working behaviour, processes related to the career development of employees in organizations: and career self-management, the development of expertise. Van Woerkom in Chapter 12 operationalizes the concept of 'critically reflective working behaviour' by presenting the nine dimensions of this concept: reflection, learning from mistakes, vision sharing, challenging groupthink, asking for feedback, experimentation, sharing knowledge and, finally, awareness of employability. In a survey (n=742), these dimensions, as well as the influencing factors (e.g. self-efficacy, experienced difficulty with change) were validated. Lankhuijzen, Stavenga de Jong & Thijssen in Chapter 13 examine the relationship between managers' views on career development and their human resource development patterns (from very formal to informal interventions). In modern views of careers, employees themselves, rather than the organization, take control of their own careers. For this reason, career self-management by employees, and in particular by managers, has become an important topic in the world of HRD. The question addressed in this chapter is to what extent managers actually feel committed to self-manage their own careers. It was found that managers who are committed to self-manage their careers have richer HRD patterns than managers with more traditional notions of career self-management. The purpose of the study presented by Hytönen (Chapter 14) is to explore the development of expertise in the field of human resource development through the examination of the careers of twenty human resource developers with long experience, employed in various organizations. Hytönen has chosen an interpretive and narrative approach in reconstructing the career stories and within this the way in which expertise has developed. This approach, in which story telling is an important technique, proved to be powerful for increasing personal understanding of one's career and expertise development, and thus the underlying experiential framework for one's actions as an HR developer.
Effectiveness of work-related learning Part 5 deals with the difficulties of measuring work-related learning. In Chapter 15, Van der Klink and Streumer discuss the effectiveness of xiii
Introduction and overview
on-the-job training and learning (OJT). The current attention to OJT and the different configurations of OJT are discussed. After a review of previous research into on-the-job training, it is concluded that, although this type of training and learning is enjoying a great degree of interest, the effectiveness of OJT has not yet been investigated on a large scale. The authors continue their contribution by presenting two case studies, determining their effectiveness and describing the factors contributing to this effectiveness.
Readership of the book 'Work-Related Learning' is mainly written for researchers and as a secondary text. There has been a major increase in post-graduate courses that might use 'Work-Related Learning' as a subsidiary text, including management and adult education provision, as well as HRD and HRM courses. This is particularly the case in the US, the UK and Europe, and is now affecting Asia and Australia. There is also a market for 'Work-Related Learning' in non-university outlets, such as institutions for higher vocational education on the European continent, and senior practitioners and managers in charge of HR in their organizations, as well as those who are preparing for a job in HRM and HRD. Indeed, 'Work-Related Learning' could be seen as essential reading for practitioners, researchers, teachers and students in the HRM and HRD field. 'Work-Related Learning' has an international appeal. The contributors are from different countries across the world and address an international debate.
Acknowledgements The editor wishes to acknowledge the following people, without whose contribution the production of this volume would have been impossible. Martin Kho of Edutec, Education and Training Consultants, provided enormous editorial help. Additionally, a debt is owed to Sandra Schele for the layout of the manuscript. Thanks should also be extended to the students of the HRD Master of Science
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programme, University of Twente, The Netherlands, for commenting on the draft versions of the contributions during the HRD Capita Selecta course.
References Engeström, Y. & D. Middleton (1998). Introduction: Studying work as mindful practices. In: Engeström, Y. & D. Middleton (Ed.) Cognition and Communication at Work Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Marsick, V.J. & Volpe, F.M. (1999). Informal Learning on the Job. Advances in Developing Human Resources No. 3. San Francisco: Academy of HRD and Berrett-Koehler.
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PART 1 Foundations of Work-Related Learning
1 The World of Work-Related Learning J.N. Streumer & M. Kho
1.1 Introduction Since the beginning of the 1990s, work-related learning has (again) been receiving a great deal of interest from trainers and a large number of researchers from various disciplines. Fenwick (2002), for example, remarks that sociologists, organisation theorists, economists and cultural researchers are joining educators and are increasingly engaged on this subject. At the same time there is ‘(…) a growing concern within anthropology, psychology, communications (…), and cognitive science for redefining the methods and topics that constitute the study of work’ (Engeström & Middleton, 1998). The main reason for this broadly-based interest is, in Fenwick’s opinion, the ‘massive changes in the nature of work and its meaning for twenty-first century workers’, which have led to ‘significant challenges to traditional models of learning and the role of the educator’1. This widespread interest, according to Heikkila and Makinen (2001), is also reflected in the ‘numerous theoretical views of looking at the process of learning at work’. In a number of these theoretical views, learning processes occupy a central role, while 1
Some quotations are taken from articles found on the Internet. In some of these articles page numbers are missing, which prevents the authors to make adequate references.
3 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 3-49. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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in other views, work processes receive greater attention. In the first group of approaches, the emphasis is sometimes placed on the development of the organisation and sometimes on that of individual learning processes (see, for example, Russ-Eft, 2001). In the second group, the focus is sometimes directed at society and sometimes at the actual work processes. Common to virtually all these approaches, however, is the conviction that processes of learning and working are intertwined and that the context of learning is important. The large number of diverse theoretical ideas, which have, moreover, been developed from various disciplines, have led to various terms which denote the relationship between learning and work. Some authors speak of workplace learning, others of work-based learning and still others of work-related learning. The differences (and any similarities) between the terms are not entirely clear. In publications on work-related learning, usually none of the other terms are used. Heikkila & Makinen (2001) make clear that ‘Work-related learning can be divided into two categories: a) informal learning at a workplace and b) a period of working as a part of formal education’. This term includes learning that was initiated by regular education, regular vocational education (placements) and by ‘forces’ in and at work. Work-based learning and workplace learning are used by several authors (for example, Fenwick, 2002; McIntyre, 2000; Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2001) side by side or interchangeably. Sadler-Smith & Smith (2001), like Raelin (in Sadler Smith & Smith), see work-based learning as ‘a broad term that encompasses many conceptualisations of learning and may be defined in terms of learning for work at work and through work’. McIntyre (2000) appears to put a restriction on this by stating that: ‘Work-based learning, as distinct from workplace learning in general, refers to the formalisation of learning at work’. He thus regards the first term as a sub-category of the second. This probably also explains why authors (Streumer & van der Klink, 2004; Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2001) speak of an umbrella term,
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5
which includes many forms of learning. The problem of definition outlined here is further substantively elaborated in Section 1.3.
1.2 History of workplace learning The theme of the workplace as a learning environment has a long history. Possibly the best-known example in history is the medieval guild. Through a system of ‘practice makes perfect’, under the supervision of a master, an apprentice was able to achieve the status of journeyman. The journeyman could later acquire the position of master by submitting a ‘masterpiece’. This system functioned well in Europe for centuries, but the eighteenth century saw the beginning of the decline of the guilds. In the nineteenth century, in a number of mainly northern European countries (for example, the Netherlands), workplace learning became less and less important. Learning for work was increasingly taking place outside the work situation, in schools for vocational education and training set up for the purpose (Jongkind, 1994). In the twentieth century, the separation between learning and working continued. After the Second World War, a comprehensive system of vocational education and training came into being in the Netherlands. In Germany and Austria, after the abolition of the guild system, work-based learning continued to exist as an educational concept, in the form of the so-called dual system. ‘Traditional dual vocational training refers to the professional training of young employees, after finishing secondary school, especially young employees who do not have access to higher education’ (Göhringer, 2002). Trainees have to enter into a contract of employment with a company in order to be admitted to specific vocational
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education and training. They then work as apprentices an average of four days a week in a company, and go to school for one day for vocational education and training, during which they gain practical and theoretical experience. The present dual system in Germany is laid down in the Berufsbildungsgesetz of 14 August 1969. The Berufsbildungsgesetz states that vocational education and training has to be based on one of some 380 training curricula issued (Breuer 2001). The German vocational system, especially the initial apprenticeship training, is moulded around the inputs of the social partners. The dual system is generally viewed as successful both in terms of pedagogy (the combination of formal and experiential learning) and capacity (high proportions of the age groups covered). One disadvantage of the system is that it is particularly strongly oriented to initial training, and seems only partly able to extend its functions to continuing vocational training. A solid system for dual vocational education and training (VET), like in Germany, does not exist in the UK (and Ireland). The influence of the UK-government on VET is ambivalent, according to Keep (1993), and has to be understood from the VET-system underlying vocational education and training. Like in the rest of the Anglo-Saxion world workforce development is the responsibility of the employers. Ashton (2004) characterises the UK VET-model as a ‘free market model’. In contrast, southern and central European countries follow a corporatist model with a profound involvement of the state. In the UK, there is a modular system for VET. At the beginning of the 1980s, the idea occurred to politicians to transform the existing framework for vocational education and training into a competence-based model. An important motive for this was ‘to rationalise the existing system of vocational qualifications, and to ensure that so-called new National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) were based on ‘standards of occupational competence’ (Eraut, 1994, p. 182). The UK VET-system implies that the responsibility for directing, implementing and financing a major
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part of vocational education and training (both initial and postinitial) lies with trade and industry. In line with this, the socalled employer-led ‘lead bodies’ were made responsible for: overseeing the technical process of defining and elucidating competence-based standards; z incorporating into this process (a) consultation with a representative sample of users (employers) and (b) pilot assessment using these standards; and z marketing the standards as a focus for education and training and seeking their incorporation into NVQs (Debling in Eraut, 1994). Continuing on from this, steps were taken towards achieving better coordination between the academic and vocational segments of the educational system (Oates, 1998). In addition to NVQs, a system of general NVQs (GNVQs) was operated: ‘an unprecedented rationalisation of the vocationally-oriented general education segment of the system’. ‘The GNVQ model not only presents a way of ensuring that qualification units available from different awarding bodies are stated in the same form, but demands also that different awarding bodies deliver exactly the same set of mandatory units, with a capacity to differentiate each award through optional units’ (Oates, 1998, p. 108). This improved coordination aims to largely remove the overlap between the two segments, but more importantly, to improve the horizontal and vertical transfer possibilities of learners. The contours of the new organisation of the system are slowly but surely becoming visible. ‘Schools, colleges and higher education institutions increasingly are adopting approaches to timetabling, programme design and management which enable effective exploitation of the flexibility offered by modular/unit-based awards’ (Oates, 1998, p. 112). The whole approach in the UK can be designated an outputoriented, performance-based model of VET. One advantage of this approach is that learning outside formal education and training is being accepted as a valid and important pathway to z
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the acquisition of competences. Finally in sharp contrast to the optimistic notes of Oates, besides concerning the performancebased approach in the UK, Ragatt & Williams (1988) and Ashton (2004), among others, mention the reluctance of players in the field to adopt the ideas and products of the performance-based movement. Vocational education in the United States is seen as an enterprise. Its management and maintenance fall under the shared responsibility of the federal state, the individual states and local authorities. This has resulted in a system that is ‘pluralistic and diversified in structure and governance and constitutes a multiplicity of different systems which have key characteristics in common’ (Copa, 1998, p. 79). Post-secondary vocational education is part of post-secondary education, and provided largely in public vocational technical institutions, and private two and four-year institutions. By far the largest provider of post-secondary vocational education is the two-year community college, followed by private proprietary schools. The system of vocational education and training is made up of a general and a function-specific part. The general part consists, for instance, of: 1. ‘Consumer/homemaking programs, focused on improving family life through developing skills in decision making, interpersonal relations, and technical competence. 2. Pre-vocation programs, designed to introduce broad vocational areas in terms of tools, materials, and processes. 3. Pre-vocational basic skills programs, designed to provide basic skills in mathematics and communications for entry to occupationally specific programs. 4. Related instruction, focused on providing a combination of occupation content and science, mathematics, and communications. 5. Employability skills programs, designed to teach job seeking and coping skills including on-the-job discipline and interpersonal skills’ (Copa, 1998, p. 84).
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The function-specific part is focused on the content and skills that are necessary for working in a certain job or cluster of jobs.
Under the influence of the development of cooperative education, an awareness of work-integrated learning emerged in the United States. In these programs, companies and local and federal government bear joint responsibility for the training of future employees. Such partnerships extend into all imaginable disciplines (science, engineering, leisure studies, hospitality, sports). From the above description, one may conclude that the roots of workplace training are to be found in the medieval guild system. In a number of northern and central European countries, the basic principles of training in the guild system have never been entirely abandoned and have evolved into a dual training system (apprenticeship). To be sure, a theory component – which may be limited – has been added to the practical component, but the essential characteristic of training in the guild system – learning from an expert in practice – has remained entirely intact. In a number of other European countries, VET has been formalised (sometimes highly so) and almost entirely incorporated into vocational schools. A combination of apprenticeship and ‘off-thejob-VET’ in schools is also practiced in a corporatist framework. In Anglo-Saxion countries vocational education was for a long time a non-existent system and was left entirely to trade and industry, where it could take the form of a formal education and training programme or have the character of an incidental and non-formal learning path. Federal programmes (USA), government programmes (UK) were predominantly aimed at ‘marginal’ groups, e.g. those at risk in the labour market. In the past few years, an increasing call for dualisation or further dualisation can be observed, thus greatly emphasising the
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importance of learning in practice at work. An additional advantage of this development is that, as a consequence, problems linked to the school-to-work transition will also be tackled. But it is not only the importance of dualising VET systems that is being strongly encouraged, human resource development in corporate settings is also susceptible to major innovations. In the 1970s, researchers like Baldwin & Ford (1988) argued that many classical vocational education and training programmes either did not alter or altered only slightly the behaviour of employees in the desired direction. There was also an increasing need for flexible organisations that were able to respond rapidly to fluctuations in market conditions. This flexibilisation was revealed not only in revised opinions about employment contracts – a job for life was becoming increasingly rare – but also in the nature of the work. In a working environment in which permanent change is the only constant, routine and experience acquired an entirely different meaning. The work was continuously changing and required employees to be permanently learning. It was obvious that learning would no longer be outsourced to external agencies. Furthermore, this was not always possible, because the development of knowledge in the work situation was advancing so rapidly and was so specific that courses could not provide this. The only possibility was to locate learning at the workplace itself. Within vocational education and training, workplace learning was initially closely associated with on-the-job training. Expressed in a somewhat exaggerated way, on-the-job training had the aim of applying training logic to the work situation. The work situation was, however, not a school setting and, despite every effort to optimise training, it gradually became clear that on-the-job training could only partially succeed. Influenced in part by this, the idea occurred of integrating learning and the workplace. At the same time, the transfer of knowledge – as it occurred in on-the-job training – gave way to facilitating processes of knowledge sharing and knowledge development.
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The transfer of knowledge remained important; however, the success of labour organisations came increasingly to depend on their ability to develop, spread and apply knowledge rapidly. One-off interventions, such as on-the-job training, were replaced by a learning culture in which the development of knowledge could flourish. This was not only about explicit knowledge, but, conversely, also about the development of implicit knowledge, also designated tacit knowledge and the question of how to transform implicit knowledge into something that is broadly accessible to members of the organisation (Von Krogh, 2001).
1.3 Workplace learning: a critical overview In this section, a number of points for consideration are examined that relate to workplace learning. These points each emphasise a different aspect of workplace learning, such as the importance of the context in which learning takes place and the extent to which self-direction can be applied by the learner. Furthermore, a number of dominant themes are raised that are related to workplace learning, with a great deal of attention being paid to the questions: ‘How is learning taking place?’, ‘What kind of factors affects the amount and direction of learning in the workplace?’ and, finally, ‘What is being learnt at work?’
Definitions of workplace learning Garavan, Morley, Gunnigle & McGuire (2002) describe a number of points for consideration that are related to workplace learning and reveal several important characteristics of workplace learning. 1.
Workplace learning represents a set of processes which occur within specific organisational contexts and focus on acquiring and assimilating an integrated cluster of knowledge, skills, values and feelings that result in
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2.
3.
4.
5.
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individuals and teams refocusing and fundamentally changing their behaviour. Workplace learning incorporates within its boundaries the issues of individual and organisational learning as both an academic discipline and as sets of practices that occur both formally and informally within organisations. The literature makes distinctions within the broad term ‘workplace learning’ between learning activities in terms of their locus of control. Formal learning activities are conceptualised as organisationally mediated and involve significantly less self direction when compared to informal and incidental activities which are considered to be highly self-directed and where control is generally within the sphere of individual learning (Eraut, 2000). The workplace learning discourse highlights the complex and context-specific nature of learning. Distinctions are made between formal, informal and incidental learning. Some debate exists as to what these terms mean; however, generally accepted definitions are as follows: formal learning refers generally to intentionally constructed learning activities within the domain of HRD; informal learning refers to unplanned unintentional or interdependent learning that derives from experience. Incidental learning is generally considered a subset of informal leaning and is often described as learning derived from trial and error processes (Marsick & Watkins, 1990). The notion of learning as a concept has evolved significantly in terms of meaning. In its traditional form, it tends to be conceptualised as concerned with the acquisition of skills or competencies that are enhanced through work experience. More contemporary conceptions tend to focus less on information or skill-based acquisitions and place greater focus on the development of new or novel cognitive processes in conjunction with skill acquisition. Kim (1993), for example, posits that people need to learn to think differently about workplace issues.
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These five points for consideration each emphasise a different aspect of workplace learning. It is clear that (1) the context – in the narrow sense – within which learning takes shape is important, (2) learning occurs at different levels (individual and organisational; often the level of groups or teams is also differentiated), (3) the degree of self-direction plays a role, (4) learning occurs in different forms (incidental, informal, formal) and (5) the emphasis is increasingly being placed on the development of the ability to learn. To these five aspects of workplace learning Heikila and Makinen (2001) add ‘some ideas about the history of job design’, which refer to the way in which jobs in organisations are shaped and developments therein (see also Van der Krogt, 1998 and Poell, Chivers, Van der Krogt & Wildemeersch, 2000). In addition, a number of authors (Watkins & Marsick, 1993; Caley, 2000; McIntyre, 2000) point to the importance of the national and global community – the context in the broad sense. In the course of time, ‘many stories’ have been told about workplace learning, which makes it difficult to gain a clear picture of this (Garrick, 1998). In the next section, an attempt will therefore be made to produce some clarity, by listing a number of dominant themes (Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2001). The emphasis here is on learning.
Dominant themes A description of dominant themes around workplace learning cannot be divorced from the theoretical views to which Heikkila and Makinen (2001) refer. The representative of these different views can roughly be divided into ‘learning’ and ‘organisational theorists’. The first group is mainly interested in the question of how learning itself comes about. They often base their reasoning on ‘psychological insights’. Their attention is chiefly focused on learning units – individuals, groups and organisations; context takes second place. Organisational theorists, on the other hand, approach workplace learning from the standpoint of context. This
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leads to a search for factors that affect learning or to descriptions of processes that occur around them and that lead to them. Learning itself receives less attention or none at all from these theoreticians. The two groups are, however, growing ever closer, so that the differences between them are slowly but surely becoming blurred. Engeström and Middleton (1998) confirm this by pointing out that: ‘They investigate work activity in ways that do not reduce it to a ‘psychology’ of individual cognition or a ‘sociology’ of communication (whether ‘micro’ or ‘macro’) and social structures’ (p. 1). In this study, as well as in many others (see e.g. Collin, 2000), questions such as the following are of central importance: z ‘How is learning taking place?’ z ‘What kind of factors affects the amount and direction of learning in the workplace?’ z ‘What is being learnt at work?’
How is learning taking place? One central theme within the debate on workplace learning is its informal character. (Watkins & Marsick, 1993; Eraut, 1994; Hager, 1998; Dale & Bell, 1999; Gerber, 2000; Collin, 2000; Heikkila & Makinen, 2001; Candy, 2002). The phenomenon of informal learning is regarded as a consequence of experience and is barely disputed by either organisational or learning theorists. Eraut (1994) believes that the attention focused on experimental learning or informal learning can be explained in various ways: ‘One is the strong anti-intellectualisation of the 1980s exacerbated by the exaggerated claims of the immediate post-war era. Another is the failure to properly recognise theory in use, a point strongly emphasised by Argyris and Schön (1974). A third, I could argue, is the failure to recognise how theory gets used in practice, that it rarely gets just taken off the shelf and applied without undergoing some transformation.’ (p. 157). But dissatisfaction too about more traditional HRD views is often seen as a significant explanation. Only a few individuals
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will risk calling into question the issue of informal learning. Shipton et al. (2002), for example, conclude on the basis of the results of research into situated learning that: ‘Key players need to be more proactive in managing the learning environment. For example, because informal learning is taking place does not necessarily mean that individuals are sharing their insights with others in a consistent way. Nor does it imply that the new insights acquired and new behaviours generated are necessarily helpful or positive for the individual or the organisation’ (p. 56). Smith (1999) is not against ‘exploring and deepening ‘learning beyond the classroom’, [but] there is some doubt as to whether the notion of informal learning is the most useful way forward.’ He is convinced that: ‘We need to put education back in the equation’, which will lead to informal education. He has the following reasons. ‘Part of the reason for this [the notion of ‘informal learning’ quickly fades] has been the eagerness of policymakers, academics and practitioners to substitute the learning for education (lifelong learning rather than lifelong education; adult learning rather than adult education and so on). A focus on learning is important, but when it is at a cost of thinking about education (and the values it carries), then a grievous disservice is done to all involved. Learning is a process that is happening all the time; education involves intention and commitment. Education is a moral enterprise that needs to be judged as to whether it elevates and furthers well-being’. The question is whether these arguments will suffice to change the minds of the large group of adherents who have embraced the term ‘learning’. Learning is found attractive precisely because of its continuous nature. ‘In fact, there is evidence to suggest that, in terms both of duration and impact, informal learning far outstrips the other two [formal and nonformal learning] types. It occurs more or less continuously and is coterminous with life’ (Candy, 2002). In addition, it turns out that approximately 83% of the time and money goes on informal and incidental learning, whereas only 17% is spent on formal learning (Marsick & Watkins, 1990). Besides experience, Gerber (2000) also sees a role
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reserved for common sense and expertise within workplace learning. Employees who approach their work with common sense ‘(…) make fewer errors in their decisions; can think through issues rationally and logically; rarely panic in testing workplace situations; are even-handed in judgments of people and their behaviours; can make decisions easily and fluently; act in a confident manner; are respected by their colleagues; and are excellent mentors in a training situation’ (p. 89). Experts are ‘people who possess special knowledge and who can perform their work in distinctive ways. In other words, these workers possess advantages over their colleagues that are both recognised and encouraged’ (p. 89). However, Gerber adds: ‘it is not (…) desirable to single out experience, common sense or expertise as the dominating element in the workplace learning activities or events. In a relational way, all three play different roles in making the workplace learning experience as rewarding as possible and the improvement of the organisation’s culture and performance fully owned by the whole workforce’ (p. 94). In this way, he expands the meaning of workplace learning. Marsick (2001) too makes a comparable expansion: ‘informal learning is valuable and motivating for individuals, or they would not pursue it, whether or not what they learn is clearly useful to the organisation as a whole’. It is therefore incorrect to characterise informal learning alone as merely a psychological process. The prevailing idea is that formal and informal learning is not possible without reflection, because ‘without reflection we would simply continue to repeat our mistakes’ (Dunn, 2002). Kolb (1984) and Schön (1983) are regarded as the spiritual fathers of reflection. According to Reynolds (1998), there are two reasons for this: ‘(…) their focus is readily applicable to learning in and from work experience, whether in developing skills or broader notions of competence; and second, whether implicitly (Kolb), or explicitly (Schön), less importance is attached to the more abstract theorizing associated with formal learning’. Reflection
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can be viewed from two perspectives, according to Harris (2000): ‘a psychological variant and an interactionist variant. Within the psychological variant, learners are seen as actively constructing meanings and understandings of the world through reflection on their experiences and through interpretative and hermeneutic processes involving surface and deep (metacognitive) learning’. The interactionist variant has its effect in ‘a situated view of the mind’, in which ‘a situated approach focuses explicitly on the varied contexts in which learning processes occur. The importance of reflection is emphasised by Watkins & Marsick (1993) by pointing out that: ‘They learn more effectively through a process of questioning, reflection, and feedback from others that permits deeper understanding to emerge from these otherwise everyday activities’ (p. 26). Fenwick (2002), however, notes that: ‘Theories of working knowledge are re-examining the link between experience, reflection and knowing. (…) assumptions of experiential learning have recently been closely questioned. Critics have maintained that the importance placed on reflection is simplistic and reductionist. (…) The learning process of ‘reflection’ ignores the possibility that experience and knowledge are mutually determined, and denigrates bodily and intuitive workplace experience in favour of rational thought’ (p. 6). Reynolds (1998) further adds that: ‘Reflection focuses on the immediate, presenting details of a task or problem [whereby] analyses of the context will often be self-referenced, rarely involving an analysis of social and political processes, current or historical’ (p. 189). The idea of critical reflection might be an alternative, but here too there are either disadvantages attached or it can be subjected to criticism. In this way, critical theory – the basis of critical reflection – is criticised for its elitist character. Even its implementation can produce complications. ‘Taken-forgranted are functional, and questioning them can bring about a sense of generalised uncertainty, a sense of lost innocence, of things being complicated to a degree which makes personal or collective decision-making more difficult.’ (p. 197) Of an entirely different order is the criticism that reflection, and particularly
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critical reflection, will not even develop in a work situation. Sadler-Smith & Smith (2001) remark on this that: ‘One of the limitations of informal work-based learning is the potential for lack of reflection’. The opportunities to reflect critically and to exchange ideas with employees from other organisations (cross-fertilisation) are regarded as significant advantages of formal learning. This is very understandable, since ‘organisations do continue to exert powerful influences over employee subjectivity’ (Garrick & Usher, 2000). Furthermore, what is also a benefit of formal learning is that some occupations demand a very solid theoretical basis, which can only be created through formal study. Formal learning, Eraut (1994) believes, leads to propositional knowledge. Under this ‘building block’ come: ‘discipline-based theories and concepts, derived from bodies of coherent, systematic knowledge (Wissenschaft); generalisations and practical principles in the applied field of professional action; and specific propositions about particular cases, decisions and actions’ (p. 103). Marsick et al., quoted by Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2001) too have not – as yet – declared formal learning dead when they argue that: ‘Informal learning is not a substitute for structured training or education’. Educational practice does not, however, seem to be waiting to eagerly embrace workplace learning. On the basis of nine differences between workplace learning and formal learning, Hager (1998, p. 525-526) shows why: 1. ‘Teachers/trainers are in control in both formal learning in education institutions and in on-the-job training, whereas the learner is in control (if anyone is) in workplace learning. That is, formal learning is intentional, but workplace learning is often unintentional. 2. Learning in formal education and in on-the-job training is prescribed by formal curriculum, competency standards,
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4.
5.
6.
7.
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learning outcomes, etc. Workplace learning has no formal curriculum or prescribed outcomes. In both educational institutions and on-the-job training, learning outcomes are largely predictable. Workplace learning outcomes are much less predictable. In both educational institutions and on-the-job training, learning is largely explicit (the learner is expected to be able to articulate what has been learnt, e.g. in a written examination or in answer to teacher questioning; trainees are required to perform appropriate activities as a result of their training). Workplace learning is often implicit or tacit (learners are commonly unaware of the extent of their learning). In formal classrooms and in on-the-job training the emphasis is on teaching/training and on the content and structure of what is taught/trained (largely as a consequence of 1–4). In workplace learning, the emphasis is on the experiences of the learner-as-worker: not a concept to be taken lightly, given the power of self-directed learning in making sense of one’s workplace as well as one’s own life at work. Formal classroom learning and on-the-job training usually focus on individual learning. Workplace learning is more often collaborative and/or collegial, despite the current policy and rhetorical emphasis on self-direction and individual experience, noted in point 5. This sociality occurs because workplaces are by definition socio-culturally located, and their consequently shared and site-specific experiences collectively available for educative purposes. Thus, workers invest much of their personal identities in work, and find these defined and re-defined by the local culture – by ‘the way we do things here’. Learning in formal classrooms is uncontextualised, i.e. it emphasises general principles rather than their specific applications. While on-the-job training is typically somewhat contextualised, even here the general is emphasised, e.g. training for general industry standards.
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8.
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However, workplace learning is by its nature highly contextualised, as outlined in point 6, and must include emotive, cognitive and social dimensions of workers’ experiences in advancing their learning. Learning in formal education and in on-the-job training is seen typically in terms of theory (or knowledge) and practice (application of theory and knowledge). Workplace learning, though, seems to be appropriately viewed as seamless know-how, in the Aristotelian sense of ‘phronesis’ or practical wisdom. In educational institutions and in on-the-job training, learning knowledge typically is viewed as more difficult than learning skills (thus, e.g. more teaching effort is invested usually in the first as against the second). Workplace learning, as the development of competence or capability via a suitably structured sequence of experience, does not operate with the knowledge/skills distinction.
Of these nine differences, workplace learning appears to show scarcely any similarities to formal learning and on-the-job training. These last two, conversely, display suspiciously many similarities. ‘No wonder, then, that for many involved in education the idea of workplace learning as genuine education is beyond the pale’ is Hager’s view. In order to turn the tide in the world of education, he offers ‘a way of viewing workplace learning as a significant kind of knowledge’. Its characteristics are: z ‘capacity to make successful judgements’ as a unitary way of conceptualising knowledge and learning gained by experience; z rejection of the traditional Greek hierarchy [of theoretical knowledge/ practical knowledge/productive knowledge]; z allowance for the complexity of contextual factors and variables, while focusing on what is core to the phenomenon. The essence of this proposal is expressed in the term judgements: ‘a central activity of people learning in the
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workplace’. In this context, Hager feels that judgement should be understood in relation to logic, which points the way to solving the problem of ‘(…) how practice is connected to theory’. One important premise in logic is that people behave rationally. This means for the theory-practice problem that two people in identical circumstances judge the connection between the two in the same way. In many decisions, research has, however, shown that the premise of rationality is usually untenable. Another point of criticism is that judgement can be regarded as a property of people, which conflicts with the now accepted negotiated character of the phenomenon of workplace learning. As an alternative, Collin (2000) proposes ‘the concept of meaning’. He quotes Jarvis (1992, p. 3) in order to indicate what he understands by this: ‘Learning is about the continuing process of making sense of everyday experience – and experience happens at the intersection of conscious human life with time, space, society and relationship. Learning is, therefore, a process of giving meaning to, or seeking to understand, life experience’. The process of ‘making meaning’ can be characterised as follows: 1. Experience in and of itself does not have meaning. The person must assign meaning to the experience. 2. Individuals bring to their experiences an accumulation of past experience and knowledge; therefore, individuals’ meaning of the same event can be dramatically different. 3. Meanings are socially constructed and context-dependent, and 4. Our need to make meaning of our experience is fundamentally human. These ideas fit closely what various authors (Garrick & Usher, 2000; Fenwick, 2002; Collin, 2000) designate ‘identity’. ‘Construction of the identity is a process in which we negotiate together meanings of the experiences from participation of
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communities of practice’ (Collin, 2000, p. 3). The attempts to ‘reduce’ workplace learning to a particular supposed essence – either judgement or meaning – betray a clear vision of the role of the individual. With the individual, a pro-active, intentional attitude is presumed in both main features. This comes close to what is called self-direction or self-directed learning. Self-direction occupies a prominent place within workplace learning. Here the learner is virtually entirely in control and is wholly responsible for his or her learning. Learners are constantly in search of new challenges by ‘setting goals, selecting learning resources and managing time’, during which they adopt an extremely critical attitude: ‘individuals reflect, assess, and evaluate rather then uncritically accept and internalise information’ (Confessore & Kops, 1998). The idea of self-direction or self-directed learning does not go entirely unchallenged. According to Smith (1999), Eraut rejects the idea of self-directed learning, ‘because it can refer to what he [Eraut] has defined as formal and non-formal situations’. Thus, selfdirection is no longer characteristic of workplace learning. Engeström & Middleton (1998) warn of Cartesian and ‘cognitivist’ notions of rational planning and goal-orientated action. ‘Cognition’ is analyzable as distributed between individuals and between humans and artefacts’ (p. 4), in the opinion of Engeström & Middleton. Furthermore, doubt is expressed as to whether all learners wish to be responsible for their own learning, which is a necessary prerequisite for selfdirection (Candy in Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2001). Research in the United Kingdom and Australia reveals additionally that learners are far less open to flexible forms of learning than to more traditional methods. Sennett (1998) too has his reservations. In his book ‘The Corrosion of Character’, he poses the questions of whether ‘this attitude to life [based on flexibility] does not come into conflict with a much more fundamental need of human nature, namely the need for stability, dependability and continuity’. This conflict may lead to
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people coming adrift. Sadler-Smith & Smith also see that selfdirection does not just fall into one’s lap; it has to be developed. ‘Developing individuals’ awareness of their own learning preferences and learning styles and the development of learning strategies are important elements of a meta-cognitive strategy (…)’ (Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2001, p. 84). ‘Meta-cognitive strategy’ or ‘metaprocesses’ is understood to mean: ‘the thinking involved in directing one’s own behaviour [where] controlling one’s own behaviour involves the evaluation of what one is doing and thinking, the continuing redefinition of priorities, and the critical adjustment of cognitive frameworks and assumptions. Its central features are self-knowledge and selfmanagement (…)’ (Eraut, 1994, p. 115). Attention to the self is especially important in order to be able to understand how an individual him or herself contributes or may contribute to his or her development, how he or she behaves or which attitude he or she adopts. In the most extreme case, this may lead to what Garrick & Usher (2000) call ‘enterprising selves’, in which the individual possesses all the capacities to get involved in the ‘demands from the organisational environment’ (Sambrook, 1999). And yet, many authors (Engeström & Middleton, 1998; Caley, 2000; Harris, 2000) are convinced that learning is not – nor can it be – a purely individual affair. This explains the widespread interest in ‘the collaborative nature of much learning’ – the context in the narrow sense. McIntyre (2000) therefore concludes: ‘Thus learning has to be understood as organised and enacted through work relationships …’ Learning is not an individual matter, but an enterprise under the responsibility of the collective. The collective character of workplace learning stems from ‘a situated approach [that] focuses explicitly on the varied contexts in which learning processes occur. Human knowledge and interaction are viewed as inseparable from the world – situated. (…) Intersubjectivity, the understandings that develop between individuals/sub-communities as a result of interaction, become
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central’ (Harris, 2000). In the opinion of Caley (2000), this means that: ‘We learn by sharing, by building on our experiences and those of others, by setting problems as well as solving them’. The interest shown in collectivity also has to do with the idea that learning can mean something not only for the individual, but that also groups within the organisation, the organisation itself and possibly the entire community should benefit from it. Learning then acquires meaning through ‘collective action and negotiation and construction of meanings’ (Collin, 2000). ‘Taking the social constructivist perspective as the point of departure, learning is making the world in which we are living and making meanings and participating in every day social action, meaningfully’, according to Collin (p. 3). However, to be able to act and negotiate, an individual will have to have knowledge that is interesting to others; the individual must have ‘something’ to offer others. Simons & Ruijters (2001) therefore attempt to make a connection between individual (professional) learning and collective learning. They propose a three-stage process model, in which learning is integrated at two levels. This model consists of: 1. Elaborating on work competences by learning from and in practice (elaboration); 2. Expanding on theoretical knowledge and insight by learning explicitly from and in research (expansion); 3. Externalizing innovations, building on practical and theoretical insights, and contributing to the development of organisation and the profession (externalisation). The model can be used to make learning explicit at individual and collective level. As an alternative, Marsick (2001) quotes the work of Nonaka & Takeuchi who propose a framework that can be used for knowledge creation. In an iterative process, implicit knowledge in individuals is converted by others into explicit knowledge, which again is converted into implicit knowledge in the individual. Although most authors are still mainly occupied with the learning of individuals, collective learning is becoming
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increasingly important, Simons & Ruijters believe. Under the influence of constant changes in society, more and more work is being carried out in teams of various compositions (interdisciplinary and monodisplinary). Simons and Ruijters are therefore of the opinion that workplace learning in the future will have to be expanded to include ‘collective learning’, two forms of which can be distinguished: organisation-related collective learning and profession-related collective learning. Poell & van der Krogt (2001), however, on the basis of empirical research, reach the conclusion that: ‘There is little evidence to suggest that learning and working in groups is actually on the rise’. If it were up to Sennett (1998), the idea of collective learning would not really get a chance. He does not have much faith in teamwork. Teamwork in his view is ‘humiliating superficiality in groups’. This humiliating superficiality is, among other things, the result of the disruption of time. Time no longer has any value in an economy that is constantly reorganizing everything, hates routine and is focused on the short term. The consequence is that companies are continually having to adapt to withstand the cutthroat competition with other companies in their sector and to pull out all the stops in order to survive. Companies appear to see this as their principal aims (Chen, 2002). The aims of the organisation and of the individual are the most important motives; it is from these that learning at the workplace arises and direction is given (Chen, 2002). Hence, the better the aims of the organisation and its members coincide, the greater the chance that the learning outcomes will produce a surplus value for both parties. ‘It is a win-win situation to companies and employees.’ This means, in the opinion of Garrick & Usher (2000) that: ‘Employees are, at the same time, both active learners and self-regulating subjects, [who] reconceptualise not only their tasks and roles, but also themselves’. (capacity-building) Capacity-building ensures that: ‘The integration of learning into all aspects of the organisation’s business is almost complete’. ‘Almost’ because ‘membership
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need not be all-embracing. Individuals can be members of different organisations (and are often encouraged by their workplaces to ‘network’ in this way). They can even be members of contradictory organisations at the same time such as belonging to a large-scale mining or construction company and at the same time an environmental protection group’. Marsick (2001, p. 3) too points out a similar tendency. ‘(…) many individuals do not want to work for one company for most of their lives [and] individuals seek to work when and how they please’. She is referring here to the so-called free agent workers, who can be characterised by: z ‘decline of corporate loyalty’; z ‘new scepticism toward the company’s argument that it serves some purpose higher than itself’; z recognition that ‘the boss is no longer the boss’; z ‘collapse of the guild mentality’; z a ‘new spirit of nonconformity’. Sennett (1998) sees in these sorts of developments the germ of a potential danger. The lack of durability of modern organisations hampers the development of informal trust, in Sennett’s view. As a result of the transience of modern organisations, the employee is thrown upon his or her resources, and is no longer expected to commit him or herself to a single institutional labour organisation. The world will soon be populated by people who behave in conformity with the model of enterprising selves. The Learning network theory (Van der Krogt, 1998; Poell, Chivers, Van der Krogt & Wildemeersch, 2000) appears to anticipate this development. In theory, the boundaries of traditional organisations are breached. ‘This means that any organisation is conceived of as a network of actors who interact and shape the structure [and that] network structures come about as the result of actors’ actions’ (Van der Krogt, 1998, p. 163). This view is in line with that of ‘microsociological approaches’, in which ‘contexts and structures of work are regarded as outcomes of local interactions and negotiations’ (Engeström & Middleton, 1998, p. 2). The idea
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behind the learning network theory is that: ‘learning systems should be both work-relevant and humane. To be workrelevant, the systems must be organised in such a way that organisation members can develop the competencies that enable them to function at their optimum in the work organisation. To be humane, the systems should be organised in such a way that individuals are enabled to learn in accordance with their capacities and views; learning systems should be geared to the changing qualities and views of people’ (Van der Krogt, 1998, p. 168-169). The real individualists will raise their eyebrows as they observe that the influence of institutional organisations within the theory is not wholly rejected, but is largely being embraced. In the ‘Three-Dimensional Space for the analysis of work and learning Networks’, ideas can be clearly discerned from the existing organisation types, and, indeed, they even form part of it. By recognizing a tension between humanity and work relevance – ‘work and learning networks will rarely if ever completely overlap’ – a certain distance is still maintained between the individual and the organisation. A much greater danger especially for the less powerful individualists is that: ‘powerful work actors will attempt to influence both the work and the learning network’. But where can powerful work actors derive their power in a virtual world, in which ‘[potentially ‘powerful’ actors] don’t know any of them [software developers] in real life, i.e. haven’t met anyone personally’ and who do not see themselves as a ‘binding person’, but say they merely have a role in organizing and distributing work? Particularly in smaller projects, such as software development, power plays a subordinate role and the work itself forms the binding factor. In larger projects within the same world, things are different. Here structures emerge which closely resemble those of the more traditional methods of organizing. The global virtual world then appears to be an almost exact copy of the world that everyone knows, with the same power struggles and cultural clashes. The above reveals a large number of facets of workplace learning. Initially, the debate concentrated on the learning
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individual from a so-called ‘psychological’ approach. Very rapidly, however, it was realised that the psychological idea was untenable. The context proved to be a factor of considerable influence. Under the influence of the situated idea, the discussion then shifted to collective responsibility. Learning was no longer an individual affair, but groups and organisations too proved to be able to learn. How the future will look when there are ever more individuals who no longer wish to conform to the familiar organisational patterns remains to be seen. What will always hold good is that it will never again be possible to view workplace learning divorced from its context.
'What kind of factors affects the amount and direction of learning in the workplace?' The context is inextricably bound up with workplace learning. All the experts – regardless of their discipline – are agreed on this. The phenomenon of culture – values, beliefs and assumptions – is seen as one of the most important factors influencing work-related learning. This factor is used in both the narrow and the broad sense. Farrier (2002, p. 10) shows neatly how the distinction between culture in the narrow and the broad sense can be understood. ‘The first objective for the learning organisation must be to achieve a culture for learning within its environment. This demands a radical rethink not only on the position of learning within the organisation, but also on its prominence within the strategic development of the organisation and the extended community in which the organisation exists regionally, nationally, transnationally and, where applicable, internationally’. Hong & Easterby-Smith (2002) examined the question of ‘whether these patterns of socially complex, situated and culture-specific learning practices can be transferred and reproduced across national boundaries.’ They reach the conclusion that: ‘A successful implementation of the organisational learning practices involves a dynamic interaction between the possessed knowledge and knowing in
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action, but the success of it is strongly mediated by the enterprise context’. Apart from culture, a large number of authors (Ellström, 2001; Caley, 2000; Shipton, Dawson, West & Patterson, 2002; McIntyre, 2000; Sambrook, 1999; Dale & Bell, 1999) have also studied the influence of other factors. Two examples of this are elaborated below. Ellström (2001) goes in search of the influence of a number of structural characteristics of organisations and the division of work on learning. He attempts to discover the conditions in which the integration of learning and work can be effected. For this purpose, he distinguishes five groups of factors that can promote or impede this integration, namely: z ‘The Learning Potential of the Task’. In this, both objective factors – such as complexity of the task, variation in the task and control over the task – and subjective factors, summarised in the concept of learning readiness, play a role. As regards this learning readiness, Ellström considers that there is a paradoxical situation: ‘one must develop a readiness for learning in order to be able to learn’. z ‘Opportunities for Feedback, Evaluation, and Reflection on the Outcomes of Work Actions’. Feedback is generally seen as a necessary condition for learning to take place, where it is assumed that feedback fulfils a cognitive and a motivational function, and where negative feedback – in the form of mistakes – appears mainly to promote learning. Essential to feedback is a linking with clearly formulated objectives. There is, however, a serious problem here. Objectives are usually vague and not very consistently formulated, but they also appear to change under the influence of experiences during work. In the view of de Jong, (in press) feedback is less suitable if there are sound guidelines for the behaviour of practitioners. Feedback appears to fulfil a paradoxical function in relation to learning: in situations in which innovative forms of learning are necessary, for example, to develop new activities and solutions, the results will usually
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be uncertain and be further away in the future. Consequently, direct feedback can scarcely be achieved. z ‘The Formalisation of Work Processes’. Formalisation and standardisation have both advocates and opponents. Advocates argue that formalisation is an important condition for achieving quality improvement and organisational learning, while opponents are of the opinion that formalisation, on the contrary, hampers organisational learning. Once more, Ellström is faced with a paradox. To extricate himself from this, he recommends ‘finding an adequate balance between standardisation by formalisation and other models of coordination (for example, models based on mutual adjustment between actors, learning, and competence development, see Mintzberg, 1979’. z ‘Employee Participation in Handling Problems and Developing Work Processes’. The idea is that learning is promoted if the employees of an organisation have access to and may participate in the solving of problems and development activities, both formally and informally. In practice, this access and participation turns out to have more the character of ‘officially invited’ by the powers that be than to be ‘on a continuous basis and in close cooperation’ at shop-floor level. z ‘Learning Resources’. This includes the time to learn, subjective factors such as knowledge of the task and the work processes and the above-mentioned learning readiness. There are, however, two problems here. Firstly, knowledge of the task and the work processes assumes explicit knowledge that has to be gained through experiences. But, as various authors have shown, experiences lead only to implicit knowledge. Secondly, learning is at odds with production: time spent on the one cannot be spent on the other. In many organisations, this problem is settled in favour of production, which ‘may be devastating for organisational effectiveness in the long run’. Many of these factors are directly or indirectly related to the formal or informal division of labour and thus with the design
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of the work organisation, Ellström believes. But, ‘of course, the division of labour and other structural aspects are not the only aspects of the work organisation that are important from a learning perspective’ (p. 432). Shipton, Daws, West & Patterson (2002) are interested in factors that can predict the effectiveness of organisational learning (OL). Organisational learning appears at first sight much more comprehensive than workplace learning. But the difference proves to be much smaller and is, according to Shipton et al., more a question of schools of thought. ‘The first school emphasises the notion that people within organisations are learning all the time. Learning happens as a result of informal practices in the workplace and is shaped by people’s everyday interactions with one another’ (p. 56). The factors that they connect with OL may therefore also be considered of influence on workplace learning. Shipton et al., examined the influence of five factors – in italics – by testing five hypotheses: z ‘Environmental uncertainty at one point in time will positively predict the subsequent existence of managerial practices designed to promote OL’; z ‘An organisation’s profitability at one point in time will positively predict the subsequent existence of managerial practices designed to promote OL’; z ‘The degree of organisational centralisation [organisational structure] at one point in time will negatively predict the subsequent existence of managerial practices designed to promote OL’; z ‘The existence of effective and sophisticated HRM practices [approach to HRM] at one point in time will predict (positively) the subsequent existence of managerial practices designed to promote OL’; z ‘The existence of extensive quality management practices [quality orientation] at one time will positively predict the subsequent existence of managerial practices designed to promote OL’ (p. 59-61).
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The conclusion is that: ‘It is clear that two variables – approaches to HRM and quality orientation – are associated with whether or not learning mechanisms are established in order to manage OL’. (p. 68) The importance of approaches to HRD seems to be confirmed by Hill & Stewart (in Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2001) and Caley (2000). ‘Resource constraints within smaller firms may mean that workplace learning is the only viable approach available to many organisations, but these same constraints may give rise to a lack of the appropriate HRD expertise to implement workplace learning effectively’ (Hill & Stewart in Sadler-Smith & Smith, 2001, p. 84). But does this mean that small organisations cannot develop any effective learning strategies and processes? Fortunately for these organisations, Shipton et al. indicate that there are still many unanswered questions. The second example might be called a success story. From research, it appears that two factors have a positive influence on workplace learning. The first study, on the contrary, leaves the reader above all with a number of paradoxes. The influence of the factors studied on workplace learning is far from clear. Sambrook (1999), however, has found an explanation for this. ‘One finding of particular interest and potential significance is that the same factors could have both supportive and inhibiting influence.’ So small organisations do not need to give up hope just yet!
'What is being learnt at work?' The above shows that workplace learning is mainly associated with informal learning and is influenced by a large number of factors – of which culture appears to be the most important. But where is all this leading? This question refers to the effects of workplace learning – some of which have been assumed. Here a distinction can be made between the so-called ‘direct’ effects – the outcomes of workplace learning that are closely related to performance assessment or transformational change – and the ‘indirect’ effect. These are the influences on related areas of interest, such as the career development of an individual or the
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changing role of HRD. The first types of effects are examined more closely below. Sarangi (2001) answers the question in the title of this section by summarizing four types of learning: 1. ‘Pragmatic development: refers to the skills, knowledge and technical facility required to execute one’s job successfully on an everyday basis; 2. Intrapersonal development: refers to the ability of employees to think critically, solve problems, and exercise creativity in the execution of their daily job; 3. Interpersonal development: represents the ability of employees to expand and develop communication and pedagogical skills; 4. Cultural orientation: and adaptability describes the capacity of the employees to understand and adjust to both formal workplace culture and informal social norms and mores of work environment – and to integrate both of these in relation to their own personal goals, expectations and values’ (p. 20). These four types of learning can also be regarded as outcomes of learning. One disadvantage of this enumeration is the specific linking with the individual. Higher levels – teams and the organisation – do not show up well in this. This problem can be avoided by highlighting only the basic elements – knowledge, skills and attitudes – on which the four types are based. This also connects with the way in which other authors (for example, Eraut, 1994; Caley, 2000; Smith, 1999; Farrier, 2002; McIntyre, 2000; Simons & Ruijters, 2001) approach the outcomes of learning at the workplace. Incidentally, these authors put the emphasis particularly on the knowledge element. Opinions are divided in the discussion about what knowledge is – whether it can be characterised more as a product of learning or as a process that might possibly be compared with learning. McIntyre (2000) makes it clear that he sees knowledge emphatically as a product of workplace learning, in the form of
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‘the idea of the ‘production’ of knowledge’ but also in the question: ‘What new knowledge-codes are required by the different conditions of learning in the workplace?’ Cally (2000) too appears to be on this wavelength. She states: ‘What we recognise as knowledge, and how it is produced, is changing. (…) It is built on a base of collaborative endeavour, and is highly reliant on the context within which it is generated’ (p. …). For Eraut (1994), the difference of opinion comes mainly from the distinction between ‘knowing that’ and ‘knowing how’. ‘(…) process knowledge can be defined as knowing how to conduct the various processes that contribute to professional action’ [italics js/mk]. He adds to this that: ‘Knowing how’ cannot be reduced to ‘knowing that’ (p. 107). Adherents (for example, Ratcheva & Binks, 2002; Marsick, 2001; Balasubramanian, 1995) of the knowledge creation idea show that they mainly have an eye for the ‘process-like’ character of knowledge. A ‘knowledge process’ consists mainly of a number of steps or stages that are gone through time and again, giving rise to a sort of creation cycle. Balasubramanian (1995) shows, for example, that ‘Knowledge-bases are created by acquiring, storing, interpreting, and manipulating information (…)’. After all, it is also conceivable that knowledge incorporates both characteristics, as Suryani (2002) demonstrates. Initially, she speaks of knowledge processes, consisting of: z ‘identifying, gathering and interpreting information, z using this information to develop new knowledge, z applying this new knowledge to improve and innovate’ (p. 10). She then goes on to argue in her definition that knowledge will be defined as a product/result of construction of meaning, which the owner believes to be true and which offers the potential to act on this belief. The term knowledge alone does not offer most authors enough to hold on to in order to be able to propagate their message. Prefixes like ‘occupational’ or ‘working’ are used to show the
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sort of knowledge that is meant and in which situation this occurs. The connection between knowledge and work causes McIntyre (2000) some anxiety. ‘If knowledge is being ‘produced’ through learning at work, how is this to be observed and understood if learning is part and parcel of the ordinary texture of work activity?’ (p. 4). A far-reaching integration of work and learning is a neat idea, but is it then still possible to determine what its effects are? Hager (1998) is faced with a similar problem with the notion of tacit knowledge: ‘The mere mention of tacit knowledge seems to suffice to close off further enquiry. (‘Tacit knowledge’ literally means knowledge (cognitio) that cannot be put into words). However (…) ‘tacit knowledge’ is multiply ambiguous. Among other things, it can mean: z Knowledge that cannot be put into words; z Knowledge that can be explicated only with difficulty; z Craft secrets; z Intuition (intuitive knowledge); z Bodily ‘knowledge’ (Hager, 1998, p. 531). Despite these various meanings, Hager advocates ‘that much of the tacit knowledge can be and should be made explicit for learners’. ‘Explicit knowledge is easy to communicate and express as it resides in symbols, technical documentation etc’ (Ratcheva & Binks, 2002). Smith (1999) is in complete agreement with Hager when he indicates a potential risk of tacit knowledge. ‘Tacit knowledge provides much of the basis for the way we interact with people and situations. We have a ‘takenfor-granted’ understanding of others. Because this is not explored in any coherent way, such knowledge can be selfperpetuating and lead to behaviour that is inappropriate, or not the most productive. This is a compelling argument for the exploration of implicit learning (and attempting to make tacit knowledge more explicit)’, according to Smith. Suryani (2002) adds that: ‘Tacit knowledge, while it remains closely held as a personal know-how, is of limited value to the organisation unless it is made explicit’ (p. 13).
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The main reason to make tacit knowledge explicit is ‘…developing collective knowledge which is not held by any individual member. (…) It [collective knowledge] emerges as highly complex, dynamic and fuzzy, embracing different languages, experiences, working cultures, processes, interactions, interpretations, routines and information’ (Ratcheva & Binks, 2002). Social and personal interactions play a central role in making implicit knowledge explicit. These processes lead to a situation where ‘new knowledge is embedded in the team members’ experiences and know-how and as such, it resides, or is stored in patterns of connections, routines, norms and procedures, or the interrelationships of individuals’ actions’ (Weick and Roberts, quoted by Ratcheva and Binks, 2002). Balasubramanian (1995) in this connection speaks of Organisational Memory: ‘Organisational Memory refers to the repository where knowledge is stored for future use’. It may also possibly be compared with what Eraut (1994) understands by the knowledge base of professionals. New knowledge acquired at the workplace is in most cases deployed again to carry out tasks in this or another workplace. But what proves that the tasks are carried out any better or more successfully with the new knowledge? Suryani (2002, p. 12) reaches the conclusion that: ‘Competence is the connection between the task and knowledge’. A neat conclusion, or maybe not? Ellström (1998, p. 40) notes that: ‘The concepts of competence and qualification are often poorly defined in the literature. In fact, there seems to be a general lack of consensus concerning the meaning of these concepts. (…) According to one view competence is considered as an attribute of the employee, that is, as a kind of human capital or a human resource that can be translated into productivity. According to another main view competence is defined in terms of the requirements of a certain class of work tasks (a job)’. Ellström is, however, undaunted by this lack of consensus. ‘(…) the term competence will be used to refer to the potential capacity of an individual (or a collective) to
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successfully (according to certain formal or informal criteria, set by oneself or by somebody else) handle certain situations or complete a certain task or job’ (p. 40). Nijhof (1998, p. 34-35) attempts to get to grips with the term competence or qualification, by outlining ‘a valid and sound set of assessable qualifications as the basis for schooling and employability in the twenty-first century’. After a long journey through various countries, to gather insights ‘to prepare people of all ages for personal development, work and culture’, he finally reaches the following conclusions: 1. ‘(…) we need to start as early as possible with important instrumental and basic skills which give entrance and elaboration potential to all kinds of information; 2. we need core skills to educate and prepare people for getting a job, taking part in culture and citisenship and skills for further study; 3. we need to prepare for conditions and powerful learning situations for lifelong learning and employability’. Nijhof concludes his search with the qualification that: ‘Besides the occupational skills, we hope that the concepts of individual and social development as expressed by our ancestors will not be forgotten. How important work might be, life is more’ (p. 35). ‘Conditions and powerful learning situations’ places the phenomenon of workplace learning once again squarely in the limelight. This type of learning is also praised for its almost optimal transfer. McDermott, Göl & Nafalski (2002, p. 71) demonstrate the implication that this has: ‘Learning from experience is transferable, so that it is possible to learn to ride a motorcycle or a unicycle [after learning to ride a bicycle], by adding extra experience to the fundamental ones of balancing and manoeuvring’. Here the ‘authentic tasks’ (balancing and manoeuvring ) in a meaningful context – bicycle, motorcycle or unicycle – ensure the transfer. Nowadays, transfer ‘not only refers to the application of what was learned earlier (‘near’ and ‘far’ transfer)’ – ‘the bicycle’ example – but there is also ‘mention of the
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constantly and ever-changing new contexts that bring knowledge and skills to a higher plane and the development of the related attitudes: learning and competency-development as a process of continuous progressive recontextualisation’ (Sanden, van der, Streumer, Doornekamp & Teurlings, 2001). Conventional methods are considered inadequate to measure the transfer of workplace learning (see, for example, Marsick & Watkins in Garrick & Usher, 2000; Straetmans, 1998; Sanden, van der, et al., 2001). In this way, cost-benefit analyses have for a long time been called into question as a method of measuring the cost effectiveness of development and training. If management attaches a lot of importance to determining the cost effectiveness of workplace learning, this will require the necessary expertise and creativity from training experts. Maybe it is impossible, without ingenious methods and techniques, to provide a conclusive answer to the question of cost effectiveness; and it may well be that the costs incurred in providing a valid and reliable answer to the question of whether the investment in learning was sound do not compensate for this. In addition, there still remains the issue of whether it is possible to determine scientifically the effects of workplace learning (in terms of learning outcome). This is probably only possible by forsaking the classical testing culture. The testing culture is characterised by objectivity, standardisation, the testing of simple skills and emphasis on the use of knowledge tests (including multiple choice), which pose a threat to the success of the desired innovation due to the highly controlling effect inherent in tests. The testing culture is considered unsuitable for measuring the learning effects acquired during workplace learning. Other methods of measuring appear to be a good alternative to the traditional methods. These alternative methods have been summarised under the term ‘the assessment culture’. Instead of the term ‘alternative assessment’, ‘authentic assessment’ is also employed. (Straetmans, 1998) Both are container terms. In ‘assessment’ literature, ‘authentic assessment’ is generally understood to mean that the assignments relating to effectiveness measuring are carried out by learners as a part of
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their work. In regular education, the assignments are also preferably carried out in the world of work, and, if it is not possible in any other way, under conditions that imitate as closely as possible the practical situation in which work will eventually have to be carried out. As a result, in vocational education and training too, the boundary between learning and assessment is becoming blurred (or even disappearing). In the European context, the term ‘performance assessment’ is predominantly employed in this connection: ‘(…) a systematic attempt to measure a learner’s ability to use previously acquired knowledge in solving novel problems or completing specific tasks’ (Stiggins & Bridgeford, in Straetmans, 1998, p. 6). If performance assessment takes place under standardised conditions, this is designated performance testing. However, if the achievement of the learner is determined by an achievement standard fixed by a competent authority, it is called competency testing. Thus far, we have exclusively studied transfer and the measuring of this in learning individuals. For groups and organisations, things are considerably more complicated. Gerber & Oaklief (2000, p. 184) even warn that: ‘It is quite dangerous to propose any set of workplace practices that should be implemented (…) through transfer of learning. (…) What is quite dangerous is to take such [work] skills and [work] processes out of the context in which they are developed, used and transferred and to believe that they are easily transferred from one work context to another, even in somewhat similar work environments’. This problem can be tackled by taking any one of several paths. One way to approach this challenge is to follow Mansfield and Mitchell (quoted by Gerber & Oaklief, 2000) in identifying occupational standards and then considering how transferability impacts on each of these areas. Mansfield and Mitchell distinguish five key areas: z ‘The strategic area, i.e. standards that describe the strategic decision making processes including organisational planning, setting targets and mission statements. (…) the
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concept of strategic outcomes is common across occupational sectors, but the extent to which they can be transferred from one sector to another has not been tested. The operational and technical area, i.e. standards that operationalise the mission and strategic planning statement or the organisation. (…) the standards are specific to a particular industry or organisation (…) The capacity for transfer of learning is quite modest in this area of standards. Operational management, i.e. standards that enable the operational statements to be distributed and delivered effectively. (…) may be divided into those that can be transferred, e.g. the ability to recruit and to manage a design team, and a considerable number are sector-specific, e.g. outcomes, methods and processes. Organisational management, i.e. standards that describe the contributions of individuals to the management and effectiveness of the organisation. (…) are generally transferable across occupational sectors. The value base, i.e. standards that represent the core values, ethics and behaviours that underpin good practice in an organisation. (…) the value base incorporates the ethical, moral and value context in which the work takes place. While similar methods and processes may be identified in different occupational areas, the purpose of these activities may differ. The promotion of equity amongst workers may mean different things in different industries’ (Gerber & Oaklief, 2000, p. 185-186).
Another way of getting to grips with the problem of transfer is, in Gerber & Oaklief’s view, to regard the transference of learning from an activity basis, thus bringing the transfer back to the individual. Gerber & Oaklief do not venture to give any guarantee for the success of transfer at group or organisational level. ‘The most effective examples occur when workers are able to act individually or collectively in order to advance their work
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performance and, hopefully, their company’s productivity, by making leaps in their practices by engaging in vertical forms of transfer of learning’ (p. 191). Here, ‘vertical forms of transfer’ refers to ‘performed at a higher level of complexity than that at which it was learned’. An alternative way of looking at transfer at levels higher than that of the individual is what various authors call knowledge creation or the development of a knowledge-base (Eraut, 1994; Balasubramanian, 1995). The development of knowledge is necessary for: adaptability, flexibility, increasing competitive advantage, innovativeness and effectiveness (Garrick & Usher, 2000; Balasubramanian, 1995; Marsick, 2001). All these sorts of changes are considered necessary to cope with the developments that occur in the context. ‘As capital becomes more globalised and national economies increasingly integrated on a global basis, flexibility becomes a key goal in, and a means of, maintaining and increasing economic competitiveness’ (Garrick & Usher, 2000). The transfer problem is thus reduced to an outcomes problem, which, to a significant extent, is determined by external circumstances. It is the context that ‘measures’ whether an organisation has validity.
1.4 Conclusions and discussion The company that is involved in the debates on work-related learning is extremely varied in form. Participants often also seem to bring along their own ‘language’. Besides this, workrelated learning is a very complex phenomenon. Consequently, the terminology that has grown up around work-related learning in the course of time is extremely elaborate and far from unambiguous. There has been a proliferation of different terminology to refer to the same basic concepts, and the term WRL itself has different meanings, depending on the ideological and organisational perspective of the researcher or practitioner
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(Candy & Matthews, in Collin, 2000). A consequence of this is that, according to the same authors, the study of work-related learning is also lacking systematic, sensibly conceptualised and comprehensive theorisation. Hager (1998, p. 529) recognises that the situation as regards research into WRL is threatening to get out of hand. This is happening, he believes, because ‘(…) there are ‘far too many variables’ for researchers wanting to investigate workplace learning’. What he feels is necessary ‘is some way of conceptualising workplace learning that draws attention to main features of the phenomenon, while at the same time being sensitive to the potential contributions of the many variables that have been shown to influence workplace learning’. The question is, however, whether work-related learning can be reduced to an unequivocal system of variables, which is incorporated into an all-embracing theory. One perhaps even more important question linked to this is whether such an aim is desirable. Authors with diverse backgrounds currently provide contributions from their own disciplinary approach. They do this because they believe that only in this way can they provide a meaningful and expert contribution to the research into WRL. After all, this is the only way they can build on the knowledge they have acquired within their area of expertise. The moment they have to use a ‘language’ that is not their own, there is a chance that they will withdraw from the debate, which would mean that valuable knowledge would no longer be developed or would remain unused. Consider further that scientists have not as yet succeeded in developing an all-embracing theory for their relevant disciplines; many of them even regard this as a Utopian situation. It seems improbable that social scientists, on the other hand, do know how to achieve a similar ideal. In addition to this, work-related learning is indeed a global phenomenon, but the configurations of WRL are partly determined by cultural and societal factors, which differ from country to country and continent to continent. Farrier (2002) has
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shown that a certain common basis between different countries can be exchanged, but work-related learning will still always have a local colour. Work-related learning occurs at different levels: individual, collective and organisational. By far the most attention is focused on the individual level. This is understandable and perhaps also justified, because the learning of individuals can be regarded as an absolute prerequisite for learning at ‘higher’ levels. Winterton (2002, p. 9) says about this: ‘Once individuals have achieved basic occupational competence, team learning can be developed to meet the immediate needs of the organisation, drawing on the synergies of individual learning and focusing on developing team competence.’ There are a number of presumptions often not made explicit at the basis of collaborative and organisational learning. In this way, Caley (2000) points to a number of issues concerning collaboration. First, ‘it is difficult to understand why people find it acceptable to work together in some form of team configuration, while at the same time reserving learning for the isolation of a training room’. Second, ‘LPP [Legitimate peripheral participation] requires a degree of trust and empathy on the part of participants; but we do not choose our companions at work, and therefore may find ourselves out of sympathy with them’. Third, ‘…one person’s ideal is another person’s dictator’. And what about the learning of organisations? Balasubramanian (1995) is of the opinion – and he is not alone in this – that ‘organisations want to be more adaptable to change. (…) Learning is a conscious attempt on the part of organisations to retain and improve competitiveness, productiveness, and innovativeness in uncertain technological and market circumstances’. Not everyone subscribes to this view. Caley (2000), for example, proves rather sceptical when she argues that ‘economic evidence does not support this view’. Moreover, she has doubts about the sincerity of the management of organisations: ‘Issues of power and hierarchy remain latent. Who owns the curriculum, and what shall be learned are fudged. (…) whose interests might be served?’. This doubt is shared by Garrick & Usher (2000) and Fenwick (2002). This last author
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illustrates this by asserting that: ‘Workers are constantly vulnerable to skill obsolescence as no one is certain what skills will be most valued in the immediate or long-term future of an organisation whose positioning and strategy is determined by management’. Critics wonder whether the promotion of WRL, in whatever form or at whatever level, should not actually be regarded as a ‘sop’ to the ‘naive workfolk’, but one which enables an optimal financial result to be achieved for the stockholders. A comment from Swanson in an interview with Streumer (2002) is illustrative of this: ‘Companies are not there to train their employees or to allow them to learn’, and he finds it disconcerting that still so many human resource development professionals can speak only in economic terms about their profession. This demonstrates that the thinking about training and learning in labour organisations, if it is left to the political field of influence there, is decided in favour of those who see training and learning as a tool of management to realise the economic goals, formulated in the strategic policy of the organisation. Or is this too pessimistic a picture, and are more and more managers realizing the importance of WRL as a means of keeping employees motivated and sharp, as well as developing knowledge to realise the innovation of products, services and processes. In this context, knowledge is regarded as an asset valuable in itself!
1.5 References Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1974). Theory and practice: increasing personal effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ashton, D.N. (2004) The political economy of workplace learning. In H. Rainbird, A. Fuller & A. Munzo (Eds.), Workplace learning in context. London: Routledge. Balasubramanian, V. (1995). Organizational Learning and Information Systems. http://www.e-papyrus.com/personal/orglrn.html Baldwin, T.T., & Ford, J.K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41, 63-105. Breuer, K. (2001). Authentic Assessment in Vocational Examinations: Approaches within the German Dual System. In L.F.M. Nieuwenhuis, & W.J. Nijhof (Eds.). The Dynamics of VET and HRD Systems. Enschede: Twente University Press.
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Caley, L. (2000). Fostering Effective Work-Related Learning. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Conference, Cardiff University 710 September 2000. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001580.htm Candy, P.C. (2002). Information Literacy and Lifelong Learning. White paper prepared for UNESCO, the U.S. National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, and the National Forum on Information Literacy, for use at the Information Literacy Meeting of Experts, Prague, The Czech Republic. http://www.nclis.gov/libinter/infolitconf&meet/candy-paper.html Chen, Y.C. (2002). Towards a knowledge-based economy. The learning and training strategy among the SMEs of high-tech industry in Taiwan. Enschede: University of Twente. Collin, K. (2000). Searching for the meaning of learning at work: cases of Product Planners (First Draft). Working paper presented at the ECER2000 European Conference on Education Research, 22.9.2000, Edinburgh. http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/ero/ColKa01.rtf Confessore, S.J., & Kops, W.J. (1998). Self-Directed Learning and the Learning Organization Between the Individual and the Learning Environment. Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol. 12, no.4, 365-375. Copa, G. (1998). The Demarcation Line in Funding for School-Based Vocational Education and Training in the United States. In W.J. Nijhof, & J.N. Streumer (Eds.). Key Qualifications in Work and Education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dale, M., & Bell, J. (1999). Informal Learning in the Workplace. Research Brief No 134. Http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RB134.doc Dunn, L. (2002). Theories of Learning. Learning and Teaching Briefing Papers Series, Oxford Brookes University. http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/theories.html Ellström, P.E. (1998). The Meaning of Occupational Competence and Qualification. In W.J. Nijhof, & J.N. Streumer (Eds.). Key Qualifications in Work and Education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Ellström, P.E. (2001). Integrating Learning and Work: Problems and Prospects. Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol. 12, no.4, 421-435. Engeström, Y., & Middleton, D. (1998). Introduction: Studying work as mindful practices. In Y. Engeström, & D. Middleton (Eds.), Cognition and Communication at Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eraut, M. (1994). Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence. London: Falmer Press. Eraut, M. (2000). Non-formal learning, implicit learning and tacit knowledge in professional work. In F. Coffield (Ed.), The Necessity of Informal Learning. Bristol: The Policy Press.
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Farrier, S. (2002). The Learning Age: Employing loyalty in the 21st Century. International Conference on Medium Enterprise Development focusing on the ‘missing’ middle. 14th to 16th July 2002, Northumbria University. http://www.missingmiddle.com/pdf/paper29.pdf Fenwick, T.J. (2002). New Understandings of Learning in Work: Implications for Education and Training. A report submitted at the conclusion of a CouttsClarke Research Fellowship. http://www.ualberta.ca/~tfenwick/ext/coutts-clark.htm Garavan, T.N., Morley, M., Gunnigle, P., & McGuire, D. (2002). Human Resource Development and Workplace Learning: Emerging Theoretical Perspectives and Organisational Practices. Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 26, No. 2/3/4, 60-71. Garrick, J. (1998). Informal Learning in the Workplace: unmasking human resource development. London: Routledge. Garrick, J., & Usher, R. (2000). Flexible Learning, Contemporary Work And Enterprising Selves. Electronic Journal of Sociology: 5,1. [iuicode:http://www.icaap.org/iuicode?100.5.1.3] Gerber, R. (2000). Experience, common sense and expertise in workplace learning. In: R. Gerber, & C. Lankshear (Eds.), Training for a Smart Workforce. London: Routledge. Gerber, R., & Oaklief, C. (2000). Transfer of learning to strengthen workplace training. In: R. Gerber, & C. Lankshear (Eds.), Training for a Smart Workforce. London: Routledge. Göhringer, A. (2002). University of Cooperative Education – Karlsruhe: The Dual System of Higher Education in Germany. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 3(2), 53-58. Hager, P. (1998). Recognition of Informal Learning: challenges and issues. Journal of Vocational Education and Training. Vol. 50, No. 4, 512-533. Harris, J. (2000). Re-visioning the boundaries of learning theory in the assessment of prior experiential learning (APEL). Paper presented at SCUTREA, 30th Annual Conference, 3-5 July 2000. University of Nottingham. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001448.htm Heikkila, K., & Makinen, K. (2001). Different Ways of Learning at Work. 2nd International Conference on Researching Work and Learning, July 26-28, 2001, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. http://www.uta.fi/laitokset/kasvlait/tutkimus/calgary_paper.pdf Hong, J.F.L., & Easterby-Smith, M. (2002). Transfer of Organizational Learning Practices. Paper submitted to Third European Conference on Organizational Knowledge, Learning and Capabilities, The Athens Laboratory of Business Administration, 5-6 April, Astir Palace, Athens. http://www.alba.edu.gr/OKLC2002/Proceedings/pdf_files/ID306.pdf Jarvis, P. (1992) Paradoxes of Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Jong, J.A. de (2004). De praktijk is totaal anders’: principes en varianten van het gebruik van werkervaring in opleidingen [Practice is very different: principles and variants of the application of work experience in education and training]. In J.N. Streumer, & M.R. van der Klink (Eds.), Leren op de werkplek [Learning at the workplace]. ‘s-Gravenhage: Reed Business Information. Jongkind, J. (1994). Arbeid op school. Industrieschoolpedagogiek in Nederland rond 1800 [Work at school. Industry School Pedagogy in the Netherlands in 1800]. Comenius, 14(3), 262-284. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Keep, E. (1993). National Targets, Training Markets and Demand for Skills. Paper presented to the ‘Towards the Skills Revolution Conference’. Huddersfield University, 8-9th July, 1993. Krogt, F. van der (1998). Learning Network Theory: The Tension Between Learning Systems and Work Systems in Organizations. Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol. 9, No.2, 157-177. Marsick, V.J. & Watkins K. (1990). Informal and Incidental Learning in the Workplace. Londen/New York: Routledge. Marsick, V.J. (2001). Informal Strategic Learning in the Workplace. In J.N. Streumer (Ed.), Perspectives on Learning at the Workplace. Supplement. Proceedings Second Conference on HRD Research and Practice Across Europe 2001. Enschede: University of Twente. McDermott, K.J., Göl, Ö., & Nafalski, A. (2002). Considerations on Experiencebased Learning. Global Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 6, No. 1, 71-78. http://www.eng.monash.edu.au/uicee/gjee/vol6no1/McDermott.pdf McIntyre, J. (2000). Working knowledge and work-based learning: research implications. Working Paper 00.16 UTS Research Centre for Vocational Education and Training. http://www.uts.edu.au/fac/edu/rcvet/working%20papers/0016McIntyre WorkKnow.pdf Oates, T. (1998). A Converging System? Explaining Difference in the Academic and Vocational Tracks in England. In W.J. Nijhof, & J.N. Streumer (Eds.), Key Qualifications in Work and Education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Poell, R.F., Chivers, G.E., Krogt, van der, F.J., & Wildemeersch, D.A. (2000). Learning-network Theory, Organizing the Dynamic Relationships Between Learning and Work. Management Learning, Vol. 31(1), 25-49. Poell, R.F., & Krogt, van der, F. (2001). Learning at the Workplace Reviewed: Theory Confronted with Empirical Research. In J.N. Streumer (Ed.), Perspectives on Learning at the Workplace. Supplement. Proceedings second Conference on HRD Research and Practice Across Europe 2001. Enschede: University of Twente.
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Ragatt, P. & Williams, S. (1988). Government, Markets and Vocational Qualifications: An Anatomy of Policy. London: Routledge. Ratcheva, V., & Binks, M. (2002). Knowledge Creation Dynamics in Multidisciplinary Virtual. Teams. Institute for Enterprise and Innovation, The University of Nottingham Business School. http://www.sses.com/public/events/euram/complete_tracks/knowledge based_firm/binks_ratcheva.pdf Reynolds, M. (1998). Reflection and Critical Reflection in Management Learning. Management Learning, Vol. 29(2), 183-200. Russ-Eft, D. (2001). Improving Learning and Performance: Theory and Methods. In J.N. Streumer (Ed.), Perspectives on Learning at the Workplace. Proceedings Second Conference on HRD Research and Practice Across Europe 2001. Enschede: University of Twente. Sambrook, S. (1999). Influencing Factors on Lifelong Learning and HRD Practices: Comparison of Seven European Countries. Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, Lahti, Finland 22-25 September 1999. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000001160.htm Sanden, J.J.M. van der, Streumer, J.N., Doornekamp, B.G., & Teurlings, C.C.J. (2001). Bouwstenen voor vernieuwend Voorbereidend Middelbaar Beroepsonderwijs [Building blocks for the innovation of pre vocational education]. Utrecht: Algemeen Pedagogisch Studiecentrum. Sadler-Smith, E., & Smith, P.J. (2001). Work-Based Learning: some perspectives from Australia & the UK. In J.N. Streumer (Ed.). Perspectives on Learning at the Workplace. Supplement. Proceedings Second Conference on HRD Research and Practice Across Europe 2001. Enschede: University of Twente. Sarangi, M. (2001). Creation of Knowledge in Organisations … from decision-making to decision-making & back. Doctoral thesis Enschede: University of Twente. Sennett, R. (1998). The Corrosion of Character. New York: Norton [Dutch Translation: De flexibele mens, psychogram van de moderne mens]. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Byblos, 2000. Shipton, H., Dawson, J., West, M., & Patterson M. (2002). Learning in manufacturing organizations: what factors predict effectiveness? Human Resource Development International, Vol. 5:1, 55-72. Schön, D. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books. Simons, P.R.J., & Ruijters, M.C.P. (2001). Work-related learning: elaborate, expand and externalize. In L.F.M. Nieuwenhuis, & W.J. Nijhof (Eds.), The Dynamics of VET and HRD Systems. Enschede: Twente University Press. Smith, M.K. (1999). Informal Learning. http://www.infed.org/biblio/inf-lrn.htm Straetmans, G.J.J.M. (1998.). Toetsing van competenties (Assessing Competencies). Arnhem Citogroep.
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Streumer, J.N., & Klink, M.R. van der (2004). De werkplek als leersituatie [The workplace as learning situation]. In: J.N. Streumer, & M.R. van der Klink (Eds.), Leren op de werkplek [Learning at the workplace]. ‘s-Gravenhage: Reed Business Information. Streumer, J.N. & M.R. van der Klink (2004). Leren op de werkplek [Learning at the workplace]. ‘s-Gravenhage: Reed Business Information. Streumer. J.N. (2002). Bedrijven zijn er niet om mensen op te leiden [Companies do not exist to train people]. HRD Magazine, Vol. 2, Nos. 1/2, January/February, 2002, p. 24-28. Suryani, D. (2002). Brewing Knowledge Productivity in different setting. A comparative study on how can Heineken brews its knowledge productivity in the Netherlands and Indonesia. Doctoral thesis Enschede: University of Twente. Watkins, K.E., & Marsick V.J. (1993). Sculping the Learning Organisation: Lessons in the Art and Science of systematic change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Winterton, J. (2002). Integrating Work and Learning in Organizations. Paper presented at the meeting of the Network of Vocational Education and Training Research, University of Lisbon, 11-14 September, 2002. http://www2.trainingvillage.gr/download/ero/WinJo01.doc
2 Informal Strategic Learning in the Workplace V. Marsick
2.1 Introduction Changes in the workplace and in society have spurred renewed interest in informal learning in the workplace. This chapter provides a research-and-theory-based definition of informal learning and a framework for understanding how informal learning can be enhanced and supported to facilitate knowledge creation in organisations. All informal learning is not strategic in nature. Strategic informal learning is defined and illustrated based on the informal learning framework described in this chapter and on learning organisation theory.
2.2 Renew ed intere st in informal learning in the workplace Changes in the workplace and in society have spurred renewed interest in informal learning in the workplace. Global competition has prompted organisations to restructure, right size, adopt justin-time production methods, globalise production and sales, outsource, decentralise, and flatten hierarchies. In short, in order to respond to rapidly shifting environments, and enabled by technology and global communication, organisations seek to be nimble, adaptive responders to their environment. 51 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 51-69. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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Such changes affect organisations and individuals alike. Oldeconomy organisations, for example, no longer offer most employees the security of lifetime employment, if they ever did. New-economy organisations never even made this promise. Many organisations have traded the lure of security for the lure of a knowledge-rich environment through which employees can improve their employability. Companies that eagerly shed lifetime employment policies now compete to retain their best talent. Companies today also prize and build intellectual capital, which is enhanced when their employees continue to learn and to use that knowledge to enhance the company’s products and services (Edvinsson and Malone, 1997; Stewart, 1997; Sveiby, 1997). Scholars estimate that, in the developed world, 80% of the workforce does not actually make anything. Their primary role is to move things, to process or generate information, or to provide services (Van Buren and Woodwell, 2000). Some employee development comes through education and training, but studies in the last decade estimate that 60-80% of learning in today’s workplace occurs informally (Callahan, Watkins and Marsick, 2000). As Wenger (1998) demonstrates, much of this learning takes place in organisations through organic or facilitated communities of practice, that is, groups of people who pursue common job or life-related interests across departmental, organisational, lifestyle, and geographic boundaries. Such learning is enhanced through the Internet, which provides abundant information and the advantage of speed. Looked at through the lens of individuals, there is as much or more incentive for employees to develop themselves, whether or not the organisation prompts them to do so. Lifelong learning, long a term in the educator’s lexicon, has become a daily reality as individuals acquire knowledge and skills to meet rapidly changing demands of family life, parenting, leisure activities, and work. Fast Company, a magazine that reports on new economy issues in organisations, coined the term ‘free agent worker’ to describe the fact that many individuals do not want
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to work for one company for most of their lives. Referencing this phenomenon, Lewis (2000) identifies characteristics of free agent workers: z “decline of corporate loyalty” (p. 46); z “new scepticism toward the company’s argument that it serves some purpose higher than itself” (p. 47); z recognition that “the boss is no longer the boss” (p. 48); z “collapse of the guild mentality” (p. 48); z a “new spirit of nonconformity” (p. 48). Individuals seek to work when and how they please. About 10% of U.S. workers telecommunicate, a number that seems to be rising, and companies increasingly offer flexible work arrangements (Van Buren and Woodwell, 2000). People build their resumes early and use job changes to develop their careers. Professionals find security in credentials earned as they change jobs even though companies now often develop people through internal corporate universities. Unions and other agencies seek to build portable portfolios of assets for less highly educated employees to demonstrate their competencies as they move from job to job. Continuous learning, once a slogan advocated by educators and employers whether or not employees liked it, has become commonplace. As a result, there is renewed interest in informal learning from experience, outside the classroom, some of which is increasingly enabled by technology, the Internet, and elearning. What do we know about the nature of such informal learning?
Research-and-theory-based definition and framework for informal learning Marsick and Watkins (1990) defined informal and incidental learning by their very contrast with formal learning counterparts: Formal learning is typically institutionally-sponsored, classroom-based, and highly structured. Informal learning, a
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category that includes incidental learning, may occur in institutions, but it is not typically classroom-based or highly structured, and control of learning rests primarily in the hands of the learner. Incidental learning … is defined by Watkins as a by-product of some other activity, such as task accomplishment, interpersonal interaction, sensing the organisational culture, trial-and-error experimentation, or even formal learning. Informal learning can be deliberately encouraged by an organisation or it can take place despite an environment not highly conducive to learning. Incidental learning, on the other hand, almost always takes place although people are not always conscious of it (p. 12). This model is based on the action science perspective of Argyris and Schön (1974, 1978), which has roots in John Dewey’s (1938) theories of learning from experience and in Kurt Lewin’s understanding of the interaction of individuals and their environment. The theory also draws on work by Mezirow (1990) on transformative learning. Marsick and Watkins are interested in individual learning within the context of organisational learning and change. They argue that workplace learning grows from a social contract among people who work together to achieve higher-order collective goals, ranging from immediate work groups to complex, even boundary-spanning, work organisations. Learning at these different levels is all the more apparent in informal and incidental modes because learning is not subject to design and control by trainers whose function is to simplify the context so that skills can be more easily taught. In her 1998 dissertation literature review, Cseh found 143 dissertations between 1980 and 1998 that discussed aspects of informal learning, including over twenty built on the informal and incidental learning model that Marsick and Watkins, separately and together, developed and modified over time. Some of these studies were reviewed in Cseh, Watkins, and Marsick (1999), in which the authors re-conceptualised the informal learning model (Figure 2.1), based on Cseh’s work. Marsick and Volpe (1999) summarised themes from informal
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learning research, reporting that it is: z z z z z z
Integrated with work and daily routines. Triggered by an internal or external jolt. Not highly conscious. Often haphazard and influenced by chance. An inductive process of reflection and action, and Linked to the learning of others.
CONTEXT
Framing the business context
Triggers
Interpreting experience
Lessons learned
Work
Examine alternative solutions
Assess intended and unintended consequences
Produce the proposed solutions
Learning strategies
Source: M. Cseh, K. E. Watkins and V. J. Marsick, "Informal and Incidental Learning in the Workplace," 1998.
Figure 2.1 Re-conceptualised informal and incidental learning model (1999)
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Marsick and Gephart have been studying organisational learning and capacity building in a demonstration project, launched by the Columbia Alcohol and Substance Abuse agency (CASA) at 11 sites across the United States. These sites are experimenting with a new model of integrated service delivery and partner collaboration in order to provide effective assistance to women who are recovering from alcohol and substance abuse. The goal is to recognise the complex, systemic, societal factors that make it hard for women to get and keep jobs so that the agencies do not simply get them off the welfare rolls, but also enable them to fundamentally change their lives. They observed that informal learning is at the heart of staff development and capacity building, both at the service delivery level and among those who manage the project and collaborate with professionals in various agencies to support integrated service delivery. In many ways, such learning is not a surprise. Many of the people employed in this project are professionals or paraprofessionals: from health services, mental health, domestic violence, employment and training, and other social services. Donald Schön’s (1983) analysis of how many professionals learn through reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action is highly relevant to this context. Marsick and Gephart could see that staff, managers, and partners across agencies learned best when they worked together to jointly solve problems, and to prevent problems from reoccurring by changing the way they addressed the challenge, modifying agency rules and practices, working differently with employers or communities, or advocating for changes in policies with legislators. Their informal learning seemed more effective when they found mechanisms to talk together across boundaries, get different views on the table and use them to address challenges, and anticipate challenges. Informal learning was made easier because of the professional’s natural inclination to access, use, and increase one’s own knowledge. Staff also drew frequently for work and learning on
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broad social and professional networks. Informal learning was hampered by certain resource, structural and cultural barriers. The pace of work was so fast that it was difficult to find time to learn as well as solve problems. When agency and professional group became caught up in its own view of what the problem was and what the solution should be, it was hard to truly open up to the views of others.
Building a knowledge/learning intensive organisation Informal learning is a naturally occurring phenomenon, and as such, may not produce the same results when organisations try to structure and tame it. In the United States, for example, high expectations were set for mentoring programs when they were first introduced in organisations. But although such programs were at times beneficial, they never met their full potential. Assigned mentors did not always have the same interest, capability, or support in working with mentees as was the case when successful mentoring occurred naturally. Informal learning takes place within the context of naturally occurring challenges. Within organisations, informal learning is integrated with work rather than divorced or abstracted from the job. Nonetheless, people who learn informally may also find themselves not fully understanding what they learned from an experience, or making mistakes because they did not take the time to fully analyse what they might be learning. Informal learning may suffer from its very strength, that is, that it takes place almost unconsciously as people meet demands that require the acquisition of new mental models, knowledge, and skills. The emerging field of knowledge creation and management provides a framework for understanding how informal learning might be enhanced without divorcing the phenomenon of learning from the work itself. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) have proposed a framework for knowledge creation that is built on the distinction between tacit and explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is articulated and codified; tacit knowledge is implicit, that is, knowledge that
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people have but may not know they have. Nonaka and Takeuchi propose a knowledge creation cycle that moves back and forth between tacit and explicit knowing. In the first phase of the cycle, people create knowledge tacitly in and through action. In the second phase, knowledge is explicitly drawn out and tested. In the third phase, explicit rules and models are shared, analysed and recombined by others in the organisation for different purposes. And in the final stage, explicit knowledge again becomes tacit as people adopt and adapt new strategies for working in their normal work routines. This leads to a new iteration of the cycle. This cycle is not always as neatly sequential as described by the model. An example that Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) use to illustrate the knowledge creation cycle is Matsushita Electric Industrial Company’s breakthrough learning about “how to mechanise the dough-kneading process, which is essentially tacit knowledge possessed by master bakers.” Matsushita’s head of software development, Ikuko Tanaka and several engineers apprenticed themselves to the master baker of a hotel known for its especially tasty bread. Tanaka “noticed that the baker was not only stretching but also ‘twisting’ the dough, which turned out to be the secret for making tasty bread.” (pp. 63-64). Once understood, Tanaka engaged engineers in finding a way for the bread-making machine to incorporate a “twisting stretch” (p. 104). They developed and tested various models for mechanizing dough making. Their successful identification of their codified, explicit knowledge was then shared with others in their company. This led to other developments that “eventually triggered changes in other parts of the company and strongly affected corporate strategy” (p. 96). Using Nonaka and Takeuchi’s framework, it is possible to identify ways in which informal learning, which is largely tacit, can be supported and enhanced. In the first phase of the cycle, it is critical to make time and space available so that people can learn while they work. The press of meeting task demands often precludes the opportunity to learn while working. Some
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companies have tried to change this. For example, Arthur Andersen & Co. SC experimented with a strategy through which they incorporated learning into their work engagements. At the beginning of a work assignment, teams took time to plan for learning as well as work. Team members determined what knowledge and skills they might need that they did not already have, established learning objectives along with work objectives, developed and discussed a plan to acquire needed knowledge, and set out pre-work tasks. As the team worked, they found time for coaching, reflection and feedback. They built facilitated reflection into the process, and thought about evaluation and rewards for learning. In the second phase of the cycle, people need mechanisms and skills for drawing out lessons learned and formulating these into useful, testable strategies for improving work. In knowledge creation, strategies are used to make tacit knowledge visible. Corporations are using many strategies to more effectively draw out tacit knowledge in and among employees. Dixon (2000), for example, describes the way a manager at Ford Motor Company asked linesmen at different plants to visit other plants, “walk the line,” and identify “pretty good practices” that they could bring home and use. He reasoned that these linesmen could socialise with other employees, and would ask very different kinds of questions about their work because they shared the same background. Strong marketing-oriented companies, such as L.L. Bean, literally live in the shoes of their customers to find out how customers use products so that they can tap into tacit knowledge about customers’ needs of which they may be unaware. Many companies have adopted storytelling as a way to engage employees in sharing what they know because a story conveys a different kind of energy and experience than does an abstracted list of principles. And finally, companies have become captivated by the notion that some experiences are better explained and understood through non-cognitive, non-rational means such as music, art, poetry and metaphor.
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At the third stage of the cycle, people need opportunities to find out what others are doing that they might draw upon for improving their own work, and they need opportunities to experiment with possible solutions to problems. Benchmarking – within and outside one’s company – is a way of meeting this need, but in addition, organisations need to encourage and reward experimentation. It is often much easier to try out lessons learned that can be explicitly tied to profitability and productivity than those that relate to the ‘soft’ side of implementation. Finally, at the fourth stage of the cycle, the same conditions pertain as for the first phase of the cycle. People may benefit from understanding what they should adopt and adapt to their own work routines, but they need strategies that will help them observe those who are successful at these practices, and get coaching, mentoring, and feedback so that they can better understand what they do that makes them successful. At this stage of the cycle, organisations can encourage alignment of the behaviours and practices that people adopt with those that are needed through clear and frequent discussions of the organisation’s vision and its mesh with that of individuals and work units.
2.3 Selected lessons from practice and research Organisations can facilitate and support the links between informal learning and knowledge creation. Lessons drawn from research and practice about how this can be done include the following: z Join ‘earning’ with learning. z Make it worthwhile to learn and share. The first of these relate to ways in which organisations can reap financial and productivity gains through learning activities. Two examples stand out in this category: Action Learning and After Action Reviews. Action Learning is a favoured executive
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development strategy that builds a learning laboratory around work activities (Boshyk, 2000; Mumford, 1997; Pedler, 1997; Yorks, O’Neil and Marsick, 1999). Development initiatives begin with challenging work tasks. Peer groups of four to six people form around these tasks. Sometimes, people work on individual challenges, and use their peers to help them gain new insight into the problem and solutions they are addressing. Sometimes, the entire group works on the same challenge. In both designs, the process is driven by questions and experimentation. While designs vary in time and structure, they commonly provide a way in which people try out new behaviours and strategies, collect feedback about their success, and meet to confer with their peers about these results so that they can reflect on their action and create a next round of experimentation to address the problem. After Action Reviews (AARs) (Sullivan and Harper, 1996) are a second way of integrating work and learning. AARs reflect the same questions asked in the informal learning cycle, but they are phrased somewhat differently. Four key questions are asked and answered by a group of people engaged in a work task with respect to the outcomes of a phase of their work: What were our objectives? What actually happened? Why did this happen? What lessons can we use to change the way we work in the future? After Action Reviews usually involve all key stakeholders, and are often facilitated so that people use directly observable data to ground their thinking and so that they do not fall in to a cycle of blame rather than one of learning. The second set of lessons pertains to the culture and reward system around learning: make it worthwhile to learn and share. Marsick and Watkins (1999) have developed a diagnostic instrument with organisations that wish to better understand their strengths and weaknesses around organisational learning. A striking finding in many organisations is the degree to which they ask their employees to learn, but do not support or reward them in doing so. Many organisations punish people who take calculated risks and make mistakes rather than providing a safe environment in which people can innovate and try out new
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behaviours. The reward system frequently does not allow for anything less than excellent outcomes, yet it is not likely that new initiatives will be fully successful. The culture and reward system can be subtle and informal, or more structured. One of the examples that Marsick and Watkins (1999) showcase is Johnsonville Foods, a small sausage company that has several times reinvented itself in the pursuit of a true learning environment. A tool they use to promote both learning and work productivity is the Great Performance Share (GPS). The GPS charts work goals, but it is also the standard against which rewards are provided to both individuals and the team. “This system rewards people for work they do above and beyond the day-to-day operating performance. It requires individuals ... to be constantly learning” (p. 113). Linda Honold, who has worked with Johnsonville Foods, describes it as follows: Each month, individual and work teams ... create contracts for performance which are targeted at one of the company’s strategic initiatives. The contract is posted on the electronic bulletin board for everyone in the company to see. ... On a weekly basis, progress towards the goal is posted on the electronic bulletin board and to the impacted individuals via e-mail. The monthly questionnaire sent to those impacted by the contract provides information on which to make financial distributions (p. 113).
Focal points for enhancing strategic informal workplace learning Informal learning is valuable and motivating for individuals, or they would not pursue it, whether or not what they learn can is clearly useful to the organisation as a whole. As Alan Mumford (1996) points out one can think about organisational learning as a pyramid that rests on individual learning, and moves from there to one-to-one learning, group learning, and organisational learning. Organisational learning will not necessarily take place if individuals learn, but it cannot take place unless they do.
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Drawing on learning organisation theory (e.g. Gephart, Marsick, Van Buren, and Shapiro, 1996; Nevis and DiBella, 1998; Watkins and Marsick, 1993), Gephart and Marsick have been teasing out the dimensions of strategic learning. Individual learning is strategic when it helps organisations respond to their changing environment and often to proactively shape those environments. Strategic learning is recognised and utilised to move the organisation toward its objectives, but to also reassess goals and strategies in light of emerging insights. Some of the characteristics of informal strategic learning include the following: z Individual learning is driven by a vision that is clearly linked to the vision of the larger group/organisation. z The larger group/organisation supports, welcomes, and ‘uses’ the learning of its members. z Individuals can openly experiment with new ideas. z Leaders model learning habits. z Knowledge/expertise is created and shared in the context of meeting real challenges. z Structure, processes, and systems facilitate learning. In thinking about a framework that can be used to identify focal points for enhancing strategic learning, a link can be made to the informal learning model described earlier in this chapter that rests on a modified version of the work of Chris Argyris and Don Schön (1974, 1978). A version of their depiction of single and double-loop learning, with an added emphasis on the role of context, can be found in Figure 2.2. In this model, we see that individuals are guided in their intentions by their assumptions, values and beliefs that frame the way they see the world. In double-loop learning, people revisit these assumptions, values and beliefs as they make sense of a situation and make decisions about their intentions and objectives. Their intentions guide the actions they take (their strategies), but often, there is a gap between what they wish to do (their espoused theoriesof- action) and what they actually do (their theories-in-use). The
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actions they take produce outcomes. A check on whether the outcomes match their intentions, or whether there is a mismatch, leads a person to be satisfied or dissatisfied with the situation. When there is a mismatch, they want to learn what to do to achieve their intentions. They might modify their actions to better achieve a match with their intentions. If modifying actions does not achieve this objective, they may have to revisit their assumptions, values and beliefs – and the way in which these shape intentions and action strategies – in order to learn how to reach their goal. To do so they may need to learn how to differently interpret the context, set intentions, decide on or implement actions, and evaluate intentional and unintentional consequences. Assumptions, Values, Beliefs
Context
Match
Intentions
Outcomes
Actions
Mismatch
Single-Loop Learning
Double-Loop Learning
Figure 2.2 Model for informal learning
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An example might illustrate this model, which is taken from the research that Gephart and Marsick1 have been doing on organisational learning and capacity building in welfare-to-work programs. Professionals in the program are guided by their own, and programmatic, beliefs and assumptions about what women should be able to do as a result of their involvement in the program. A key intention is to help women find work that meets their needs. A question that staff grapple with is what kinds of jobs are appropriate for these women, who often have entry-level skills, but who need to move into career paths that will ultimately help them earn more money and move up the career ladder. A single loop learning approach to getting women job involves learning about which jobs meet current strengths and interests, for example, entry-level positions in hospitality, food, and service industries. Staffs engage in double-loop learning conversations when they question whether these jobs will enable women to support their families, get out of stereotyped work, and find career paths that can improve their self-esteem. Strategic learning can be single-loop or double-loop in nature, but it is differentiated because the learning of individuals is aligned with that of others in the organisation and with the organisation’s goals/vision/strategy. Figure 2.3 captures focal points for enhancing strategic, informal workplace learning. Typically, strategic learning is iterative rather than a one-time event. It involves ongoing goal-setting, experimentation, learning, assessment, and alignment on the part of individuals, work groups, and the organisation.
1
Gephart and Marsick direct the J.M. Huber Institute for Learning in Organisations. The Huber Institute is a new research-based institute at Teachers College, Columbia University. It originated with Peter Francis, President and C.E.O. of the J.M. Huber Corporation. Huber is a familyowned business that produces engineered materials, natural resources, and technology-based services.
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4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Informal Strategic Learning in the Workplace Identify, value and negotiate differences in assumptions, values, and beliefs Be aware of context Be aware of alignment a) within / across individuals b) with the external environment c) within the culture Make intentions clear / discuss with others Reflect before, during, and after action Agree on outcomes Discuss match or mismatch with intentions Seek and use feedback to re-design next steps
Figure 2.3 Focal points for enhancing strategic informal workplace learning
The top three focal points pervade the entire, ongoing learning process: 1) identification, valuing, and negotiation of differences, 2) awareness of context, and 3) awareness of alignment. Much of the learning in these three steps is tacit, although learning can be made explicit, especially when decision points in a work/learning process are reached that can be identified and talked about. People can find ways to attend to their context and to the differences brought to the task by the many stakeholders involved. If people are aware of context and differences, then they can address these factors and use them to re-think intentions and action strategies. When they act, they will pay attention to outcomes with these three focal points in mind as well. The last four focal points in Figure 2.3 speak to the more conscious steps in the learning process: clarification of intentions, conscious use of reflection and action for learning, attention to outcomes and their match or mismatch with intentions, and the use of feedback to redesign nest steps. Strategic learning can be illustrated by revisiting the way in which staff or managers learn about how to help women in their programs to get and keep jobs. For example, a project director might open a discussion with key stakeholders in the room about the kinds of jobs in which women were being placed. Individuals in the room could surface their own, and others’, views about the kind of work that they thought women should do. This could
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lead to probing about assumptions as to gendered occupations, and the question of whether women were themselves ready to step outside of stereotyped positions in which they were placed. It might be argued that women felt confident about taking these positions, given their histories. But a counter-argument is that these jobs (such as housecleaning, table waiting) do not lead to career tracks. In strategic learning, the staff would collaboratively think through steps they would have to take, and information they would need to gather, in order to find ways to open up new job paths for their graduates. Staff would also use their knowledge to think proactively about the program as a whole, their relationships with employers, and the way in which the program might think about creating jobs for women in concert with employers rather than simply working with whatever jobs became available. Strategic learning cannot be engaged unless there is a culture that supports inquiry, communication, risk-taking, and learning from one another. In some organisations, which have been characterised by control from the top, this shift is difficult. Organisations that want to encourage strategic learning must be open to the creation of knowledge by people throughout the organisation. This requires a paradoxical balance between convergence and divergence, between control and flexibility. Guidance must come from the top through a clear, motivating vision that enables people to buy in to the organisation’s directions, and that provides employees with the encouragement and support that they need to experiment with new ways to carry out that vision.
2.4 References Argyris, C., & Schon, D. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
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Boshyk, Y. (Ed.). (2000). Business driven action learning: Global best practices. Macmillan Business and St. Martin’s Press. Callahan, M.W., Watkins, K.E., & Marsick, V.J. (2001). Every-time, Every-place Learning: A 21st Century Imperative, unpublished manuscript under review. Cseh, M., Watkins, K.E., & Marsick, V.J. (1998). Informal and Incidental Learning in the Workplace. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Academy of Human Resource Development. Baton Rouge, LA: Lousiana State University. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. Dixon, N.M. (2000). Common knowledge: How companies thrive by sharing what they know. Boston: Harvard University Press. Edvinsson, L., & Malone, M. (1997). Intellectual capital: Realizing your company’s true value by finding its hidden roots. New York: Harper Collins. Gephart, M.A., Marsick, V.J., Van Buren, M.E., & Spiro, M.S. (1996). Learning Organizations Come Alive, Training & Development, pp. 35-45. Lewis, M. (2000). The Artist in the Gray Flannel Pajamas: Who the New American Workers Think They Are. The New York Times Magazine, pp. 45-48. Marsick, V.J., & Volpe, F.M. (1999). Informal learning on the job. Advances in Developing Human Resources, no. 3, San Francisco: Academy of Human Resources Development and Berrett-Koehler. Marsick, V.J., & Watkins, K. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. London: Routledge. Marsick, V.J., & Watkins, K.E. (1999). Facilitating the Learning Organization: Making Learning Count. London: Gower. Mezirow, J. (1990). Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A Guide to transformative learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mumford, A. (1996). Building a learning pyramid. In K.E. Watkins and V.J. Marsick (Eds.), In action: Creating the learning organization. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development. Mumford, A. (Ed.). (1997). Action learning at work. Aldershot, UK: Gower, 1997. Nevis, E.C., & DiBella, A.S. (1998). How organizations learn. San Francisco: JosseyBass. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company. New York: Oxford University Press. Pedler, M. (Ed.). (1997). Action learning in practice, 3rd ed. Adlershot, UK: Gower. Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books. Stewart, T. (1997). Intellectual capital: The new wealth of organizations. New York: Double Day Currency. Sullivan, G.R., & Harper, M.V. (1996). Hope is not a method: What business leaders can learn from America’s army. New York: Broadway Books.
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Sveiby, K.E. (1997). The new organizational wealth. San Francisco: BerrettKoehler. Van Buren, M., & Woodwell, W., Jr. (2000). The 2000 ASTD trends report: Staying ahead of the winds of change. Alexandria, VA: The American Society for Training & Development. Watkins, K.E., & Marsick, V.J. (1993). Sculpting the learning organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Yorks, L., O’Neil, J., & Marsick, V.J. (Eds.). (1990). Action learning: Successful strategies for individual, team, and organizational development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, No. 2. San Francisco: Academy of Human Resources Development and Berrett-Koehler.
3 Learning at the Workplace Reviewed: Theory Confronted with Empirical Research R.F. Poell and F.J. van der Krogt
3.1 Introduction This contribution aims to confront a number of prevailing theories and ideas about learning in organisations with the growing body of empirical research in that field. The review will centre on four topics: 1) Tuning learning programs to the work and to the organisation; 2) Work and learning in groups; 3) Learning programs in different work contexts; 4) Views and perceptions of actors. A considerable discrepancy is found between theory in these areas on the one hand, and views and actual developments in organisations on the other hand. Implications for theory and research are discussed. An abundance of ideas is launched about learning and training of workers in organisations. There appears to be a large discrepancy, however, between the ’stubborn’ reality in HRD practice and current theories about learning, training, and organizing. Descriptive and explorative research into HRD practice more than once concludes that training and intentional learning occur rather infrequently. Learning and development processes happen less systematically and less consciously than assumed. There is also evidence that learning opportunities are divided rather unequally across the workforce, with managers enjoying 71 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 71-94. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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relatively privileged positions. Newer ideas about learning in the workplace are not as widespread as some theorists would like. Dankbaar's (2000) research into the characteristics of organisations and their human-capital policies provides telling illustrations of these discrepancies. He investigated a number of working hypotheses, which were based on a thorough examination of theory and literature. His conclusion, however, is that empirical research cannot confirm most of these theoretical expectations. The discrepancy between HRD theory and practice is manifest in a large number of issues. This review study aims to confront some of the prevailing theories and ideas about learning in organisations with the growing body of empirical research in that field. The review centres on topics that are relevant to the relationship between work and learning programs.
3.2 Issues around work and learning programs Theorists, policy makers, and HRD professionals pay increasing attention to workplace learning. Managers and workers in organisations, however, do not seem to have great interest in that topic. To them, learning often equals course-based training. Moreover, it is quite difficult to explain the exact relevance of learning to important organisational issues (e.g., quality, innovation, motivation, stress). Not only does training receive more attention in organisations than workplace learning does, the systematic integration of work and learning programs is not more than a remote perspective to many companies. Theory places high demands on learning. It is not just about changes in knowledge and skills, but should also comprise reflection on underlying norms and values (Wenger, 1998; Wildemeersch, 1998). Organisational actors hold many different views on learning, most of which are far less profound (Bolhuis, 2000). This large variety is hardly reflected in the literature, however.
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A third topic that is discussed extensively is the urge to increasingly organise work and learning in groups (e.g., Senge, 1990; Watkins and Marsick, 1993; Wenger and Snyder, 2000). Although these ideas are usually supported verbally, not many organisations are actually living up to them (Dankbaar, 2000). Moreover, many companies experience contrary tendencies. For instance, the commercial services sector is increasingly characterised by individualisation, while the health care sector rather seems prone to standardisation. Developments in work, organisation, and learning are more varied than expressed in the HRD literature. The last issue concerns the different views and interests that actors hold in organisational change and learning processes. This multiplicity is often considered to cause these processes to run less successfully. Subsequent interventions are aimed at bringing all actors in line. The question is justified, however, whether this is a realistic option in view of organisational complexity. Would it not be more worthwhile to look for strategies that take into account the actual multiplicity? We refrain from arguing here that the advocated developments are not worth striving for. We do observe that these theoretical ideas are far from organisational reality, which makes their realisation considerably more difficult. Of course there will always be a gap between theoretical ideas and practical realisation, but currently the gap is definitely too wide. This review explores the available empirical research into the relationship between work and learning programs. The paper finishes by presenting a brief outline of an actor-network approach and four crucial research themes, based on the idea of multiple learning programs.
3.3 Empirical research into work and learning programs Recent years have seen an increasing amount of empirical
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research into corporate learning. We should like to bring forward four central topics from this research: 1. Tuning learning programs to the work and to the organisation. 2. Work and learning in groups. 3. Learning programs in different work contexts. 4. Views and perceptions of actors.
Tuning learning programs to the work and to the organisation The literature about the design of learning programs focuses strongly on procedures to tune the curriculum to problems and developments in the organisation (Kessels, 1993; Bergenhenegouwen, Mooijman, and Tillema, 1998). Especially studies into the effectiveness of training in organisations pay a lot of attention to optimising design instruments. For example, they emphasise conducting needs and task analyses, specifying learning goals, instructing trainers and coaches, and constructing evaluation instruments. Applying these instruments leads to a well-structured and logically consistent design approach (Kessels, 1993). Many studies aim to further develop these methods and the underlying theories. Empirical research shows that these methods are not used frequently in practice (Wognum, 1999). This is hardly surprising, since a great deal of implementation research has repeatedly indicated vast discrepancies between plans and practice as well. Moreover, the application of these methods does not contribute much to explaining training effectiveness (Kessels, 1993; Wognum, 1999; Van der Klink, 1999). Empirical research can find only modest support for the supposed impact of applying procedures and methods on the realisation of learning effects.
Work and learning in groups Groups and work teams have always been considered as contexts for employee development in literature on organisational development (French and Bell, 1995; Van der Zee,
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1997; Brown and Keep, 1999). Over the last decade this topic has also become an object of concern in literature on the learning organisation. Work is increasingly expected to be organised in teams. Furthermore, groups and work teams are increasingly considered to be strong learning environments (Watkins and Marsick, 1993; Tjepkema, Kessels, and Smit, 1999). However, groups and teams as organisational forms turn out to be less prevalent in practice then predicted (Benders, 1999; Dankbaar, 2000). Moreover, empirical research provides little evidence for the high expectations concerning their performance, opportunities for participation, member satisfaction and motivation (Boot and Reynolds, 1997; Poutsma, 1998; Russ-Eft, Preskill, and Sleezer, 1997). Primary production teams have not yet been well researched empirically (Hendry, 1996). There is more research about management teams (e.g., Burgoyne and Reynolds, 1997), interdisciplinary teams (e.g., Cooley, 1994), and temporary project groups or task forces. So far, however, empirical results sustaining the alleged learning potential of group work are scarce (Van Klaveren and Tom, 1995; Hoogerwerf, 1998; Van der Krogt, Vermulst, and Kerkhof, 1997; Willis and Boverie, 1998).
Learning programs in different work contexts Two research traditions can be distinguished that deal with learning in different work contexts. The first one originates from a critique of the tayloristic organisation. Other ways to organise work are sought, based on socio-technical design and semiautonomous work teams. An important consideration is the limited learning potential of tayloristic organisations. Teamwork with relative autonomy is thought to offer considerably more learning opportunities. The second research tradition is concerned with knowledge work and knowledge-intensive organisations. The discussion here focuses on learning by well-educated workers, usually referred to as professionals. The core question is how to encourage these professionals to learn and make better use of their knowledge in organisational processes (e.g., Weggeman, 1997; Brugman, 1999). Interestingly, these two
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research traditions remain almost completely separated, so there are no direct comparisons available. This is probably because one focuses mainly on Tayloristic organisations, whereas the other deals with knowledge-intensive enterprises, which are the domain of different groups of researchers. It is still possible, however, to conclude from an indirect comparison that learning programs differ from one work context to the other. Few studies compare learning in different work contexts directly. Poell (1998) and Van der Krogt and Warmerdam (1997) found different learning practices to be related to different work contexts. Some research comparing tayloristic work vs. task groups shows different learning processes are associated with different work types (Davidson and Svedin, 1999; Onstenk, 1997; Agnew, Forrester, Hassard, and Procter, 1997). Comparing a range of single studies about learning programs in various occupations allows for the conclusion that they can be different (Warmerdam and Van den Berg, 1992; Feijen, 1993; Warmerdam, 1993; Verdonck, 1993; Osterman, 1995; Liebeskind, Oliver, Zucker, and Brewer, 1996; Dhondt, 1996; Onstenk, 1997; Filius and De Jong, 1998; Eraut, Alderton, Cole, and Senker, 1998; Grünewald, Moraal, Draus, Weiss, and Gnahs, 1998; Brugman, 1999; Kwakman, 1999; Whitfield, 2000).
Views and perceptions of actors Recent empirical research tends to attach more importance to actor perceptions as an explanation for learning program effectiveness (Straka, 1999; Kwakman, 1999). Wognum (1999) conducted an empirical study of 44 learning programs. She concluded that people's judgement about organisational alignment of an HRD intervention affected learning program effectiveness more profoundly than the actual alignment. Perceived alignment and perceived effectiveness were related, but actual alignment had little impact on effectiveness judgements. Van der Klink (1999) studied the effectiveness of workplace training empirically. He found that training effectiveness is
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influenced much more by trainee characteristics than by the training itself. Trainee aptitude, experience, and motivation had the biggest impact on training effectiveness. Organisational characteristics, such as the behaviour of managers and colleagues, were less influential. The characteristics of the training itself were found to have the least impact on effectiveness. Kwakman (1999) drew similar conclusions. In his study of curriculum design strategies, Kessels (1993) pays a lot of attention to involving the various participants in the design and implementation of learning programs. He emphasises the importance of realizing external curriculum consistency in order for learning programs to be effective. In other words, a learning program is more effective if managers, program designers, trainers and trainees share common opinions about its goals, strategies, and implementation.
Conclusions from empirical research This review of empirical research shows a clear tendency. The methods applied by training professionals do not contribute much to tuning learning programs to work, nor do they explain much of the variance in training effectiveness. Although most of the research in this domain focuses on the training professional, their actual impact turns out to be modest (certainly compared to the influence workers can exert in learning processes). An approach assuming that learning programs are organised by a network of actors, including training professionals and other actors, seems fruitful (Kessels, 1993; Van der Krogt, 1998). For a second conclusion, there is little evidence to suggest that learning and working in groups is actually on the rise. The idea is supported, however, that social aspects of work are relevant to learning-program creation. There turns out to be a wide variety of social relations in organizing work and learning processes. Learning and working with others occurs frequently, but group work seems to be a highly demanding organisational form that is hard to realise for many companies (cf. Poutsma, 1998). The diversity of relations among people in work configurations deserves more attention, also in connection with
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learning-program creation. Thirdly, and in the same vein, the organisation of work shows great diversity. One of the tendencies is increasing collaboration of workers, but developments towards individualisation and standardisation are also discernible (Den Boer and Hövels, 1999; Dankbaar, 2000). It could be worthwhile as well to look into the significance of professions and craftsmanship in organizing work and production processes (Geurts and Hövels, 1994). The fourth conclusion is about the relationship between work and learning programs. Although there seem to be different learning programs in different work contexts, the relationship between work type and learning programs is ambiguous. Other factors also explain which learning programs are organised in different work types, for instance, the views and perceptions of actors. In short, the relationship is a highly ambiguous and complex one (Di Bella, Nevis, and Gould, 1996; Davidson and Svedin, 1999). Finally, and more generally, there is a wide variety of ideas and developments in the field of corporate learning, which should be allowed for in theory. Not all organisations experience the same tendencies (e.g., of integration and differentiation between work and learning) to the same degree (Dankbaar, 2000). Methodological and theoretical comments can certainly be made, but the results of this review lead us to a number of critical questions. Should the predominantly functionalist and instrumental approaches (Davidson and Svedin, 1999; Dankbaar, 2000) not be under more discussion? Why not look at new directions for theory and research into learning in organisations? (cf. Kessels, 1996; Brown and Keep, 1999; Ellström, 1999; Koot and Verweel, 1999). An actor-network approach can offer interesting possibilities in this area. The remainder of this paper will briefly outline some core ideas of this approach and the topics its suggests for further research. A more elaborate account of the actor-network approach is provided in Poell and Van der Krogt (2001).
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3.4 Implications for theory The confrontation between theory and empirical research has yielded the following 'demands' for a theoretical framework to study workplace learning: 1. It should work from the assumption that learning programs are organised by a network of actors, including HRD professionals, workers, managers, and other actors. The focus should be on their interactions in creating learning programs. 2. It should allow for a wide variety of social relations among these actors in organizing work and learning processes. Diversity of relations among people in work configurations, in connection with learning-program creation, should be a key feature. 3. It should centre on the relationship between work and learning programs, whilst recognizing that factors such as views and perceptions of actors make this a highly ambiguous and complex relationship. Figure 3.1 contains a conceptual model based on the learningnetwork theory (Van der Krogt, 1998; Poell, Chivers, Van der Krogt, and Wildemeersch, 2000), which focuses on networks of actors, who create learning groups and learning programs with each other. Relevant actors are workers, managers, HRD professionals, trade unions, workers' associations, external training providers, and so forth. These actors can organise learning-program creation in very different ways. It is a process that takes place in the context of the organisation. Over the course of time, various worker training and learning activities have been conducted, thus gradually developing into a learning structure. Every organisation can be characterised by a content and organisational structure, material learning conditions, and a learning climate. This learning structure provides the starting point for actors to undertake new learning activities. They form a learning group together and carry out activities to create a learning program.
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Context - learning structure - work
Learning at the Workplace Reviewed… Actors - in a learning group - HRD professionals, managers, workers, colleagues - learning-action theories - work-action theories
learning-action strategies
Learning-program creation
Figure 3.1 Learning-program creation by a learning group of actors in a context
The complicated nature of the relationship between work and learning programs can be expressed in the basic assumption that learning programs in organisations have a multiple character. Learning programs are a reflection both of the context (including the work) and of the learning group (the specific set of actors). Furthermore, learning programs are partly a reflection of each of the actors, who have made their own specific contribution to creating the learning program. To summarise, three factors influence the content and organisation of learning programs: 1. The context of work and learning structure, and their perception and interpretation by the actors. 2. The creation process by the learning group, producing the specific character of the actor configuration. 3. The views, opinions, and interests of the separate actors. It is our belief that the conceptual model underlying empirical studies of learning programs in relation to work should include these elements, so as to make those studies better attuned to actual practices in organisations.
3.5 Topics for further research into multiple learning programs Further research into work and learning programs from an actor-network approach should emphasise the following four topics:
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Actors: research into the diversity of learning-action theories and learning-action strategies of various actors. Learning programs: comparative research into the content and organisation of learning programs. Contexts of learning programs: research into learning programs in different contexts of work and learning structure. Research strategies: action research and field experiments.
Learning-action theories and strategies of actors Actors and the learning groups they create are at the core of the learning-network approach. They constitute an important factor in explaining the diversity of learning programs in organisations. How actors collaborate in a learning group is largely determined by their views, by the degree of similarity among these, and by the extent to which these change during the interaction process. Recently, theory and practice have started paying more attention to managing diversity among actors in organisations (Glastra, 1999; Van der Zee, 1999; De Dreu, 1999). The idea is that variety is inevitable and can even be considered positive. The question is how to deal with this diversity, which is also relevant to learning-program creation. The actor-network approach and the concept of multiple learning programs offer more room to observe inconsistency, tension, and conflict arising from learning-program creation. They also anticipate a large variety of possible learning programs. Of course there will also be consensus, but learning programs in organisations are not usually the object of complete agreement among actors. The learning-network theory approaches actor views on the organisation of learning programs as a type of action theory (cf. Van der Krogt and Vermulst, 2000). In the case of learning activities, these views are referred to as a learning-action theory. Research should focus on the differences and similarities among actors in terms of their learning-action theories, their perceptions
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of learning structures, and their learning-action strategies. This comprises describing the differences and similarities as well as analysing their determinants and effects. Learning-action theories and perceptions of learning structure The first question would be in what ways actors perceive the learning structure of their organisation and what dimensions they distinguish in the learning structure. Besides looking at the perception of the formal learning structure, it would be worthwhile to analyse the images that actors have of their learning opportunities in the workplace (Verdonck, 1993; Onstenk, 1997). Research has shown clearly that managers and workers perceive the learning structure in the same organisation differently (Den Boer and Hövels, 1999; Van der Krogt and Vermulst, 2000). In this connection the perceptions of HRD professionals are equally interesting, as well as how they differ from other actors' perceptions. A related question is to what extent actor views and opinions on learning (that is, their learning-action theories) are related to their learning perceptions. It should be taken into account that managers and workers hardly think about training, let alone about learning. Nor can it be ruled out that they may be quite sceptical about the relevance of learning programs to their work. Learning-action strategies What do the various actors do in the process of learningprogram creation? What differences and similarities are there between the learning activities of the various actors? How systematically do actors undertake these learning activities? To what extent can patterns be discerned in their actions, so that their activities can be regarded as learning-action strategies? (Tijmensen, in preparation). It is entirely possible that learning activities of managers and workers show little coherence or system. HRD professionals and trainers are more likely to act according to systematic patterns when creating learning programs (Van der Krogt, Vermulst, and
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Ter Woerds, 1993). Furthermore, research conducted by Poell (1998) and Tijmensen (in preparation) shows that learningaction strategies of HRD professionals, managers, and workers do not usually correspond with each other. Views and strategies of actors in learning groups Actors form temporary collaborations (so-called learning groups) to create a learning program. An important question deals with the extent to which views and strategies of actors in the same learning group correspond. How do actors experience such differences and how do they react to these? Do they try to point out the differences and discuss them? How do differences and similarities between actors (especially their perceptions and strategies) influence the process and outcomes of learningprogram creation? Another issue is to what degree actors change their learningaction strategies over time. Do actors adjust their strategies to other actors in the learning group? Especially relevant are the changes in the strategy of the HRD professional in reaction to the strategy of workers (cf. Poell and Chivers, 1999). Is there formative evaluation during learning-program creation? Does this evaluation have an impact on the differences and similarities between the actors? Do actors adjust their perceptions and strategies on the basis of formative evaluation? Learning-action theories in relation to work-action theories Workers learn about their work. This learning an be understood as the development of work-action theories. An interesting question, then, is whether the work-action theories of actors are related to their learning-action theories and strategies. Do actors look upon the organisation of work in the same way as they look upon learning-program creation, or are these subject to different principles?
Organisation and content profile of learning programs An important assumption of the learning-network theory is that learning programs can differ strongly from each other in terms
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of their organisation and content profile. Four ideal types of learning program have been distinguished, which can be presented graphically as four corners of a three-dimensional space. Figure 3.2 makes it plausible, however, that many other (hybrid) types of learning program can be organised. Regulated, task oriented
Contractual, individually oriented
Organic, problem oriented
Innovative, methodically oriented
Figure 3.2 Various types of learning program in a three-dimensional space
Learning programs differ along three dimensions The core question here is to what extent learning programs are similar to the ideal types. In other words, where in the threedimensional space can a specific learning program be situated? For example, is it vertical rather than liberal? What elements of the different ideal types feature most strikingly in this particular learning program? A second question concerns the relationships between the organisation of learning programs and their content profile. For instance, do learning programs that deal with different themes also have a different organisational structure? Or can a particular content profile be connected to various types of learning group?
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Learning programs in phases Three phases can be distinguished in learning-program creation: orientation, learning, continuation (Poell and Van der Krogt, 2000b). An interesting question is how actors phase different learning programs. Do all phases actually occur? To which phase do the participants pay the most attention? Individual learning paths and joint learning programs Learning programs are created by learning groups of separate actors. The learning paths of individual participants are expected to gain momentum from participating in a joint learning program. The question, then, is to what extent joint learning programs influence individual learning paths. Also, how exactly do different types of learning program have an impact on these individual learning paths?
Learning programs in different contexts Learning programs can reflect the existing context or they can add to them. Learning programs can show similarities and discrepancies to the context in which actors create them. The matrix in Fig. 4.1 presents the possible relationships between contexts and learning programs. The core questions here deal with the relationship between work and learning programs and with the relationship between the existing learning structure and learning programs. Learning programs in different and changing organisations Research in this area should tackle learning programs and learning groups in different types of occupation, including, for instance, skilled workers and professionals (Den Boer and Hövels, 1999; Kwakman, 1999; Tijmensen, in preparation). Learning-program creation supporting organisational changes is an equally interesting area of research (cf. Hoogerwerf, 1998). Especially topical are the ongoing attempts to organise work in groups, both from a socio-technical perspective and in more professional occupations (e.g., teachers, IT consultants,
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accountants, HRD professionals). This research could build on earlier work done on the organisation of work-related learning projects (Poell, 1998). Learning programs in relation to existing learning structures This research topic is concerned with the relationship between learning programs and the existing learning structure of an organisation. Some work has been done to study the learning climate of an organisation (Van Moorsel and Wildemeersch, 1998) or the learning potential of work (Onstenk, 1997). An interesting question could be whether, for example, centrally organised learning groups always create a controlling learning climate. And, for instance, does work with a high learning potential necessarily produce horizontal learning groups, or can it yield various types?
Action research and field experiments All topics that were mentioned can be analysed using descriptive and explanatory research, both quantitatively and qualitatively. In order to develop strategies and methods for the various actors, field experiments and action research offer interesting opportunities (cf. Van der Krogt, 1997). The concept of multiple learning programs contains several dimensions that actors can explore to improve their learning strategies, paths, and programs. It brings ideas about adjusting learning programs both to the work context and to the specific learning group. It challenges all actors in a learning group to find a way for each of them to participate according to their own views and capabilities. Various theoretically and empirically validated models have been developed for actor strategies in learning-program creation (Poell, Van der Krogt, and Wildemeersch, 1999; Poell and Van der Krogt, 1999; Poell and Van der Krogt, 2000b). Different actors, especially HRD professionals, learning workers, and managers, can use these models to gain insight into the learning strategy they tend to employ in practice. Working with the models also offers the opportunity to come to terms with the fact that various
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actors employ different learning strategies. Using the models as a frame of reference helps to facilitate a dialogue among learning-program participants. Furthermore, actors can use the models to think through different alternatives that are available in creating a learning program. During the course of a learning program, the models can also be used as a formative evaluation instrument. It can help actors in the learning group to figure out which options are available for the remainder of the learning program, both in terms of organizing the learning group and in determining the content profile. Action research into this kind of field experiment enables organisations to organise their learning programs more systematically and to make their learning-action theories more explicit. At the same time, researchers (in a consulting or counselling role) can use these experiments to test the models, to further refine them, and to make them more concretely applicable. Testing is possible because actors use the theoretical models to develop better learning-action theories for themselves. Thus they develop new notions about learningprogram creation and they are better able to tailor-make their own learning programs. Especially action research seems suitable to get a grip on the phenomenon of learning-program creation, which is difficult to grasp and strongly depends on perceptions and interpretations of those concerned. At the same time, doing action research is crucial preliminary work to developing more structured and standardised diagnostic instruments and methodical support for learning-program creation. This can be done by refining the theoretical models on the basis of data collected in empirical case studies. The question remains, however, to what extent theoretical models should be made into standardised instruments (Poell, Van der Krogt and Wildemeersch, 2001). If this exercise were taken too far, there could be a danger of losing sight of the crucial relationships between learningprogram creation, the actors in the learning group, and the context of work and learning structure.
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3.6 Conclusion This study started with the observation of considerable discrepancy between theory on the one hand, and views and developments in organisations on the other hand. The review of empirical research into workplace learning programs sustains that observation. Theories and concepts are quite remote from actual developments in companies and from the views and needs of managers and workers. It is our belief that research can contribute to reducing the distance between theory and practice. However, multiplicity of learning programs should be the starting point. Research should provide indications about the ways in which actors can deal with the diversity of views and interests in organizing learning programs. This should inspire them to make their own views and learning strategies more explicit and more attuned. Specific developments (e.g., towards group work or team learning) are not a priori more (or less) desirable than other possible lines of change. To conclude, multiple research strategies including action research and field experiments should be applied to produce more practically relevant knowledge.
3.7 References Agnew, A., Forrester, P., Hassard, J., & Procter, S. (1997). Deskilling and reskilling within the labour process: The case of computer integrated manufacturing. International Journal of Production Economics, 52, 3: 317-324. Benders, J.G.J.M. (1999). Useful but unused: Groupwork in Europe. Dublin: European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Bergenhenegouwen, G.J., Mooijman, E.A.M., & Tillema, H.H. (1998). Strategisch opleiden en leren in organisaties [Strategic training and learning in organizations]. Deventer: Kluwer. Boer, P.A.M. den, & Hövels, B.W.M. (1999). Contextontwikkelingen en competenties [Context developments and competencies]. Den Haag: OSA. Bolhuis, S.M. (2000). Naar zelfstandig leren: Wat doen en denken docenten? [Towards self-directed learning: What do teachers do and think?]. Leuven: Garant.
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4 Developing a Model of Factors Influencing Work-Related Learning: Findings from Two Research Projects S. Sambrook
4.1 Introduction This chapter has three aims. First, to briefly review the concepts of lifelong learning, work-related learning and electronic learning. Second, to further explore findings from two research projects – one British, the other European – both previously reported at ECER conferences (Sambrook & Stewart, 1999; Sambrook, 2000). And, third, to present a model of factors influencing work-related learning. The model synthesises findings from two research studies that investigated workrelated learning from two different perspectives. The European project investigated the role of HRD practitioners in learning-oriented organisations, and particularly how they supported opportunities for lifelong learning. Findings from this project suggest a continuing shift from training to learning, where the role of HRD practitioners is changing, where managers are increasingly responsible for developing their employees, and where employees themselves have more responsibility for their own development (Tjepkema et al., 2001). 95 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 95-125. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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This paper further develops one aspect of that project – factors inhibiting and enhancing learning in learning-oriented organisations. However, a review of recent literature suggests learning in the work context can be conceptualised in, at least, two ways: learning that occurs at the place of work, and learning that is embedded in work processes. Thus, the term workrelated learning encompasses all forms of learning in the work context. An emerging element of work-related learning is the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the form of computer based learning. The UK project focused on computer based learning in the context of small and medium sized organisations (SMEs), and this paper further examines learners' perceptions of factors influencing their experiences of this newer form of work-related learning. Drawing upon the two research studies, the paper identifies the various factors influencing learning in and at work, at organisational, functional (HRD) and individual levels, and then focuses upon three levels of factors influencing computer based learning. It is argued that identifying these, often contradictory and subjective, factors is an important step enabling managers and HRD practitioners to recognise how work related learning might be hindered or helped within the organisational, and particularly ICT, context. Before presenting the findings from these two projects, it is useful to briefly review the concepts of lifelong, work-related and electronic learning.
4.2 Learning – lifelong, work-related and electronic 'Learning' – whether lifelong, work-based, or computer-based – is attracting much attention. Exploring learning in its broadest sense, whether within or without work, the 'Declaration on Learning' (Learning Declaration Group, 1998; 2000) attempts to raise awareness of the various purposes, processes and problems
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associated with this complex phenomenon. At the European level, we have witnessed the official ‘year of lifelong learning,’ (OECD, 1996; Gass, 1996) and more recently, the publication of a ‘memorandum of lifelong learning’ (EU 2001). ‘Lifelong learning’ is defined by Brandsma (1997, p. 10) as a continuous process of personal development for everyone, whether in work or not, encompassing formal and informal activities, and making demands upon the social structures in which learning takes place. However, the OECD (1996, p. 15) suggests lifelong learning has broader objectives, including strengthening democratic values, cultivating community life, maintaining social cohesion, and promoting innovation, productivity and economic growth, and these are re-iterated in the latest EU Memorandum. At a national level, the UK government has encouraged lifelong learning (DfEE, 1998), for similar reasons as cited above, and has, for example, created Individual Learning Accounts and restructured the provision of post-compulsory training, education and learning opportunities under the Learning and Skills Council (DfEE, 2001). Similarly, the focus of educational policy in other European countries, such as Finland, is to prepare young people for more learning-intensive work and promote more efficient workplace learning (Lasonen, 1999). However, such conceptions of lifelong learning tend to focus on formal opportunities and associated structural provision of resources. Yet, ‘implicit learning’ (Chao, 1997), ‘incidental learning’ (Marsick & Watkins, 1997) and 'informal/accidental learning’ (Mumford, 1997) can be significant processes within the work context. Work organisations are important partners in providing not only formal opportunities for training but also more informal opportunities for lifelong learning. At the organisational level, there is an increasing emphasis on individual and collective learning to enhance competitive advantage (Moingeon & Edmondson, 1996), to achieve innovation, productivity and growth. This can involve constructing ‘learning environments,’ which offer new
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opportunities for learning, focus on real-life problems, use feedback, encourage employees, and share learning (Lasonen, 1999). However, this tends to occur in large organisations, which are able to provide opportunities for learning through significant work-redesign and team-working, for example, supported by sophisticated internal HRD infrastructures and knowledge management processes. The European Commission recognises that many (rural and peripheral) areas rely on SMEs for employment and learning opportunities (EC, 1998). This increasing pressure to enhance learning to achieve competitive advantage is particularly problematic in small organisations. Although SMEs could be described as ‘ideal’ learning organisations, learning in small organisations tends to focus on external, formal training provision, given the lack of internal HRD infrastructure (Hill & Stewart, 2000; Hyland & Matlay, 1997). There may also be limited opportunities to swap jobs or work on other projects, activities associated with informal learning. At all levels, there are pressures to find new ways of providing learning opportunities within the work context. It is useful to consider the various opportunities for learning in terms of where they occur – outside work, at the place of work and embedded within work processes, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. Learning 'outside' work
e.g. Work-based learning Programmes Apprenticeships NVQs MBAs Professional programmes Vocational degrees Short courses
Learning 'at' work Formal provision e.g. Induction Health & safety In-house courses
Learning 'in' work e.g. project work, multidisciplinary teams, coaching secondments
Figure 4.1 Defining work-related learning – learning at and in work
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Opportunities provided outside of the workplace tend to occur at universities, technical colleges and private training centres. These include academic programmes such as undergraduate vocational degrees, postgraduate Masters and MBAs, and professional programmes, technical apprenticeships and National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs), and commercially-run short courses. However, there is some degree of overlap between learning outside and at work. For example, although the academic 'content' of apprenticeships and NVQs is traditionally delivered outside the place of work, much of the (experiential) learning occurs at the workplace. Related to this is the notion of workbased learning – a concept used in the United Kingdom to refer to college-based vocational education and training (VET) programmes, targeted at school leavers and young persons entering the labour market. Work-based learning can be defined as an attempt to relate the 'academic' curriculum to the 'real' work context and include experiential or 'hands on' learning through practical work placements. It is designed to prepare young people for the world of work. However, using the term in the British sense, work-based learning does not include learning relevant to existing employees who require continuing development – whether to meet professional standards or respond to the changing work context. Thus, another term is required to help investigate and theorise learning that occurs within the work context. Work-related learning can be defined as both learning at and in work. It is interesting to note the subtle differences between conceptions of learning at work and learning in work (Sambrook & Betts, 2001). At the Second UFHRD Conference on Human Resource Development Research and Practice across Europe, the sub-title was 'perspectives on learning at the workplace,' (http://www.ufhrd.com). Several papers focused on (more formal) learning activities conducted at the place of work (rather than off-site). Others explored how (more informal) learning could be integrated with the actual process of working, thus
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helping to remove the barrier of workplace learning being viewed as solely 'going on courses' and helping to recognise the value of 'finding things out on-the-job.' With the emergence of information and communication technologies (ICTs) providing new opportunities for learning (and working), the ICT context provides another research area in which to investigate workrelated learning, that is learning in and at work. As with other forms of learning, electronic learning can occur simply at work or become actually embedded in work processes. For example, employees might be 'sent' to an open learning centre to complete an electronic course on health and safety, or they might sit at their own desk-top terminals and be involved in computer mediated conversations about some problematic aspect of their work. The emergence of information and communication technologies (ICTs) provides new opportunities for learning and training. Indeed, there appears to have been a shift to e-learning, rather than e-training (Honey, 2000). Currently, the bulk of computer based learning focuses on IT training (Training Zone, 2000a). However, the increasing use of e-learning has widespread effects. For example, it appears that e-learning is used in larger organisations to provide individualised training, although a recent survey suggested that whilst 43% of employers stated they provided tailored learning, only 7% of employees stated they received tailored training (Honey, 2000). This highlights how perceptions of learning vary. However, 90% of users claimed e-learning was useful, and 81% of providers and 66% of employers agreed it would bring huge advances in their organisation's capacity to learn (Honey, 2000). In addition, elearning transforms the trainer's role, a factor both feared and embraced by HRD professionals (Training Zone, 2000a). The growing supply of computer based learning materials might provide accessible, flexible and affordable solutions, addressing organisational, functional and individual factors that appear to inhibit learning. Thus, it is important for managers, HRD practitioners and learners to be able to judge the quality of ICT
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based learning resources to assure effective learning. Yet, this is often a difficult task (Carr, 1999) and a potential barrier to the use of computer based learning. However, the main barrier to elearning seems to be cost, and such an investment requires significant senior management support (Training Zone, 2000a), but the results of another survey suggest that is isn't clear whether e-learning is more cost-effective than other forms of learning (Training Zone, 2000b). Following this brief review of lifelong, work-related and electronic learning, the next section focuses on the two research projects.
4.3 The research question Having briefly introduced the two distinct research projects, with broad and varied aims, it is possible to synthesis these and identify one common theme. This provides the specific research question for this paper: 'What are the factors influencing workrelated learning?' The European project provides some answers to this question, examining (i) sociological aspects such as the organisation of work and changing functional (HRD and managerial) roles, and (ii) psychological issues concerned with motivation to learn, fear and confidence. The British project provides some answers to the question in the specific context of computer based learning. In exploring learning in the ICT context, the project focused more on pedagogical issues related to the quality of computer based learning, investigating such concepts as instructional design, accessibility, learner-centeredness and transfer of learning, but also captured psychological aspects such as motivation and confidence to learn.
4.4 European project: factors influencing learning– in learning-oriented organisations The European Union-funded research has been reported elsewhere (Sambrook & Stewart, 2000), thus only a short
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overview will be provided here. This two-year project (19981999) investigated: reasons for seeking to become learning oriented organisations; how practitioners envisioned the role of HRD in stimulating and supporting employee learning; the nature of HRD strategies to enact this vision; and how practitioners cope with the factors inhibiting and facilitating the realisation of these strategies.
Research design The research was conducted in two stages. The first stage employed qualitative methods to explore these questions in 28 case studies, with four organisations chosen from each of the seven European participating countries. During this stage, researchers analysed internal documents and conducted semistructured interviews with senior managers, managers, HRD professionals, and other employees (learners). The second stage, 'testing' the findings from the case studies, involved a questionnaire survey of 165 organisations across Europe, targeted at senior HRD professionals.
Analysis Researchers explored learning within the organisational context, and identified key factors at three levels: organisational, functional and personal. These included the organisation of work, the culture of the organisation, resources available for HRD activities, and the skills, attitudes and motivations of managers and learners. It is on this last point – at the personal level – that there are further similarities between the two projects. The UK project identified factors such as learners' IT skills, confidence, fear and motivation as important issues influencing computer based learning specifically. These factors were also evident when interviewing learners across 28 European organisations about learning in and at work generally. The key factors identified in all twenty-eight case studies can be categorised into four main themes: motivation, HRD, culture
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and pragmatics. Each of these themes had factors which both inhibited and enhanced learning. These factors are summarised in Figure 4.2. 1. Motivation The first category of inhibiting factors was the lack of motivation for learning. A distinction can be made between a lack of motivation on the part of managers for supporting employee learning, and a lack of motivation for learning or sense of responsibility for their own development from employees. This lack of motivation can be partly explained by various organisational, functional and personal factors, such as: • the lack of time (due to the organisation of work and work pressures), • the lack of reward for learning (at the organisational and HR functional level), • the lack of enthusiasm in the concept of the learning organisation or training and development in general, and • the lack of confidence to learn and/or take responsibility for learning (at a personal level). Inhibiting
Enhancing
Lack of motivation
(1) Motivation
Extra work, unclear role
Managers & Employees
Lack of self-confidence
Motivation, enthusiasm, involvement Clarity and understanding of own role Increased responsibility
Role ambiguity Perceived as support function
(2) HRD
Role clarity Perceived as strategic partner
Insufficient learning culture Difficult to change existing situation
(3) Culture
Develop learning culture Senior manager support
Lack of time
(4) Pragmatics
Organisation restructure, job redesign Investment in HRD & learning environment
Lack of resources
Figure 4.2 Factors influencing learning in learning oriented organisations (Sambrook & Stewart, 2000)
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The limited involvement of managers and employees in learning issues was linked to their lack of motivation for learning. Lack of self-confidence was also a factor. Findings from the case studies suggest that motivation on the part of managers was balanced. Around a half of the comments suggested managers were supportive of and actively involved in learning. The other half suggested negative attitudes towards learning, perhaps caused by the perceived extra work involved and unclear roles. At the employee level, comments were more negative, with the lack of employee motivation as an inhibiting factor mentioned four times as often as the supportive factors, such as the active participation of employees in their own development and their enthusiasm to learn. 2. HRD The second category of inhibiting factors concerns HRD, at organisational, functional and personal levels. A key factor was the clarity (or lack of clarity) concerning both the new/changing role of HRD professionals, and new approaches to learning and working. One reason is the limited understanding of HRD's role. In some organisations, participants talked about the lack of understanding regarding HRD goals, tasks, responsibilities and objectives, and even the distance between managers and the HRD function. Another reason is the lack of practical information regarding the need for learning, on learning processes and on learning opportunities. These two factors might contribute to the lack of motivation of both managers and employees, described earlier, if they are unsure of what is expected of them and what support HRD professionals will provide. However, HRD role clarity was also mentioned as a supporting factor. Other factors were clear communication, clear training systems, procedures or policy and a widely shared understanding of the importance of learning and personal development. 3. Learning Culture The third category relates to culture, an organisational factor that influences the activities of (and attitudes towards) the HRD
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function and individual attitudes to learning. In many cases, the lack of a learning culture was cited as an inhibiting factor. Participants talked about the difficulty in developing a learning culture and insufficient knowledge sharing. This would suggest that it is very difficult to motivate employees to share knowledge or engage in learning processes if they are not used to this, or perhaps even reluctant to do so. This is supported by Jones and Hendry (1992) who found that a learning-oriented culture enhances successful learning, whereas it is very difficult to create learning situations in companies with cultures characterised by bureaucracy and inter-functional rivalries and politics. Several cases reported the difficulty in changing existing cultures, with fear of and resistance to change as a barrier to developing a learning orientation. Other factors included inappropriate organisational structures, work pressures and an emphasis on meeting targets, and entrenched attitudes to training. However, if an organisation has a culture open to learning, this makes it easier to change HRD practices, such as devolving responsibility to managers and employees, and creating opportunities for learning within work activities. Yet, there were fewer positive references to a learning culture than negative comments. Related to culture is organisational structure. Changes in organisational structure, or in job design, can also support the development of a learning culture. New structures can provide employees with more opportunities for learning within work activities, allowing HRD professionals to support work-related learning. Another conducive factor is a flexible organisational structure, which enables jobs to be designed (and re-designed) to facilitate work-based learning and allow time for sharing and reflection upon learning. 4. Pragmatics The fourth category encompasses pragmatic factors that inhibit learning. These occur at organisational, functional and personal levels. Of these, the most frequently cited issue was the lack of
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time for learning on the part of employees. Work pressure is so great that it is difficult for employees to find time for learning in their daily work routine. In addition, other opportunities for learning at work (such as courses) are cancelled/postponed to ensure the workload is completed. This compounds the problem of lack of motivation to learn and impedes the development of a learning culture. Other practical problems include a lack of HRD resources, and a lack of time to develop new HRD initiatives. The lack of HRD resources refers both to financial and human resources – that is money in the form of investment in the central HRD function and departmental budgets, and an adequate number of HRD professionals. However, there was no significant relationship between the organisations that mentioned a lack of HRD resources and the size of the HRD department. Whilst the lack of time and resources were mentioned as inhibiting learning, similar issues, such as sufficient HRD resources (both financial and human), were mentioned as supporting learning in many cases. Another factor that helped to stimulate a change in HRD practices was the identification and communication of positive results of new HRD initiatives. The increasing use of ICTs might also help address the problems associated with lack of time and HRD expertise. Computer based learning can help overcome problems of access to learning associated with shift work, for example, and off-the-shelf learning resources can help overcome a lack of internal subject expertise. However, investing in computer based learning requires substantial financial resources and the ability to select appropriate hardware and software (This latter issue is addressed in the British project, discussed in 4.5).
Discussion These findings suggest that lifelong learning in and at work is influenced by many factors, and the same factors can be
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expressed in both a positive and negative manner. Significant similarities were found between the twenty-eight case studies selected from seven European countries. Factors influencing learning were categorised at organisational, functional and individual levels. These included the organisation of work, resources for learning and motivation to learn. Figure 4.3, below, identifies the three levels of factors and the four main categories of influencing factors – motivation, HRD, culture and pragmatics.
Organisational
Functional
Culture, structure, senior manager support, organisation of work, work pressures, targets, task vs. learning orientation
pragmatics e.g. attitudes to training
HRD role clarity, understanding of HRD tasks & new initiatives, number of staff, expertise, amount of information use of ICTs, strategic
Work-related learning pragmatics e.g. managerial skills, lack of time & reward
pragmatics e.g. lack of time & resources
Individual Managers
Employees
Responsibility for learning, motivation to learn, time, IT skills, confidence
Figure 4.3 Summary of factors influencing work-related learning
Significant inhibiting factors were talked about as: insufficient HRD resources; a traditional culture and entrenched attitudes towards training; business pressures; and poor managerial skills. Key supporting factors included: sufficient HRD resources (human resources such as facilitation skills, learning expertise and flexible solutions, as well as financial resources); management support for
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learning; and the increasing willingness to learn on the part of employees. These factors impact on the various stakeholders in learning (managers, employees and HRD professionals), and impact on organisational culture, the structure of work, and resources. A key finding is the changing role of the stakeholders, the attempt to develop a (new) learning culture, and the restructuring of work. However, despite being able to identify positive and negative factors, it is possible that some of the supporting factors are necessary but insufficient conditions for organisations to become learning oriented. For example, despite increasing HRD resources and senior management commitment, until workload pressures and the organisation of work are addressed, and work time is devoted to learning issues, employees will continue to see learning as extra to their daily work practices, perhaps even unnecessary and worthless. The need to meet targets and a task orientation impedes the development of a learning environment. Conversely, inhibiting factors might not necessarily preclude the achievement of becoming learning oriented. For example, in the Royal Mail and Rolls-Royce, despite shift work and daily targets, time is being found to enable learning events to be scheduled in work time and in the work environment. It is useful to summarise the European research findings in a figure, presented below, that later contributes to the development of a model of factors influencing learning in and at work. Having identified some of the factors influencing learning in and at work, the next section presents the findings from the British project, focusing on factors influencing computer based learning.
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4.5 British project: factors influencing learningin computer-based learning The British research project, funded by the National Assembly for Wales and conducted during 1999-2000, has also been reported elsewhere (Sambrook, 2000). In summary, the overall aim was to develop a quality assurance system for computer based learning materials, relevant to the SME context. Two key objectives were to: • investigate and compare the quality judgements of computer based learning materials made by trainers and learners, and • investigate the relationship between quality judgements and learning outcomes, the hypothesis being that high correlations would enhance the predictive nature of the evaluation tools. Thus, the research design incorporated both quantitative and qualitative methods. The research included a critical review of literature on pedagogical and quality issues associated with computer based learning, and three empirical studies.
Research design The aim of the third study was to further test evaluation tools developed from previous studies, examine the perceptions of learners regarding their quality judgements of a range of computer based learning materials and compare these with their measured learning outcomes. The study involved 159 participants, recruited from the North Wales area, with a wide spread of age and experience, including employees of SMEs, recent graduates engaged in work experience within SMEs and those not in work but engaged in vocational training. Participants selected one from five different computer based learning materials, which offered a range of subjects and IT skill levels. Afterworking on the material in their own time, they were then asked to complete the Learner Evaluation Tool (online or
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paper version). In addition to a series of 91 statements against which participants were asked to rate specific aspects of the learning material, learners were also asked to comment upon both positive and negative features of the learning material. This paper focuses on these comments.
Analysis Content analysis was used to categorise and count the qualitative responses. This quantitative approach provides an overview of the emerging factors influencing learners' judgements of quality. Further analysis examined the rich detail provided in learners' comments and explored potential links between the various themes (Sambrook, 2000). Overall, from the 762 comments, 33 different factors were identified. However, it is useful to consolidate the factors into more coherent categories. The consolidated categories mirror Bryman's (1988) model of the stages associated with getting in, getting on and getting out of research sites. This has been adapted to identify and capture key issues associated with computer based learning. How to get into, and about, electronic learning sites includes access issues such as hardware and software specifications, IT skills, confidence, userfriendliness, and navigation. How to get on at these sites includes both content issues such as presentation, information, level, and language, and process issues such as interest, type of learning and opportunities to practise. The final stage, getting out, focuses on what to get out of electronic sites, that is learning outcomes, such as increased confidence, increased understanding, and relevant (or transferable) knowledge and skills, for example. The 33 distinct factors are represented in these new categories, as illustrated in Figure 4.4. These aggregated comments identify the various factors at each of the key stages of (computer based) learning. They are presented in descending order of importance, according to frequency of mention. Some factors appear more than once. For example, confidence is a significant factor in terms of access, influencing how (or whether) a learner engages with computer based learning in the first place.
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Figure 4.4 Getting in and about, getting on and getting out of computer based learning materials
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Once engaged in the course, confidence will influence how the learner progresses through the material, for example, whether they feel able to experiment, interact and navigate to new sites. Finally, increased confidence could be an outcome of computer based learning, in that the experience helps to reduce any initial fears of ICTs. Other factors categorised more than once include enjoyment and feedback, again appearing both in process issues (getting on) and outcomes (getting out). These aggregated comments identify the various factors at each of the key stages of (computer based) learning. They are presented in descending order of importance, according to frequency of mention. Some factors appear more than once. For example, confidence is a significant factor in terms of access, influencing how (or whether) a learner engages with computer based learning in the first place. Once engaged in the course, confidence will influence how the learner progresses through the material, for example, whether they feel able to experiment, interact and navigate to new sites. Finally, increased confidence could be an outcome of computer based learning, in that the experience helps to reduce any initial fears of ICTs. Other factors categorised more than once include enjoyment and feedback, again appearing both in process issues (getting on) and outcomes (getting out). Overall, the most significant factor was the extent to which the computer based learning material was perceived as being userfriendly and this was reported as a positive factor in 93% of these comments. It is interesting to note that the top eleven factors (which are indicated by the shaded boxes in the figure) account for two thirds (66%) of the total number of comments. This would suggest that the most important factors influencing learners' judgements of quality are: • Userfriendly – the extent to which the material is easy to use, with clear instructions,
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• Presentation – clear and accurate, with no mistakes such as spelling errors, • Graphics – the number and quality of pictures and diagrams, • Interest – whether the material generates interest or is found to be boring, • Information – the amount and quality of the content, whether there is too little or overload, • Knowledge – the extent to which new knowledge is gained, • Understanding – whether the material is easy or difficult to understand, • Level – whether the material is considered too basic or too deep for the learner's current knowledge and skills, • Type of learning – for example, whether deep learning or rote learning, memorising facts, • Language – whether the language was difficult to read, using jargons or lacking definitions, • Text – the amount of text and the balance with graphics. However, this is not to suggest that these factors are exclusive to learners using computer based learning materials relevant to the SME context. For example, similar findings were found in recent action research conducted with business and management undergraduate students (Sambrook, 2001).
Discussion It is important that managers and HRD professionals responsible for selecting computer based learning materials are aware of factors influencing learners' perceptions of the quality of the resources. Findings from the British project are similar to the European project in that the same factors influencing learning can be perceived by different learners as being positive or negative. The UK study also confirms results from the earlier European project that factors influencing learning are both complex and subjective. However, it is possible to construct findings from the British research into three hierarchical themes. These are (i) learning, (ii) learning materials, and (iii) computer
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based learning materials, illustrated in Figure 4.5 below. At each level, the factors are presented according to the previouslysuggested stages of learning – getting in and about, getting on and getting out. Factors identified at the overarching (or generic) level – learning – implicitly influence the two lower (or more specific) levels. Similarly, factors specific to learning materials in general also influence computer based learning materials in particular. At the lowest, or most specific, level the factors are those more significant to ICT forms of learning. Learning Getting in Getting on Getting out
Confidence Level, Interest, Type of learning, Practice, Pace, Enjoyment, Learner control Knowledge, Understanding, Usefulness, Progression
Learning materials Getting in & about Getting on Getting out
Userfriendly Presentation, Information, Language, Length, Structure Explanation, Examples Assessment
Computer based learning materials Getting in & about Getting on Getting out
Userfriendly, Navigation, IT skills, Hardware specifications, Links, Scrolling, Interface, Help Graphics, Text, Interaction, Feedback, Colour Increased confidence
Figure 4.5 Factors influencing learning: hierarchical themes
As with earlier attempts to classify factors influencing learning, it is problematic assigning certain factors to a particular category. For example, at the generic level of learning, this category includes factors relevant to all forms of learning, and this may not necessarily include formal courses. Therefore, assessment has not been included at this top level, but at the level of learning materials, suggestive of more formalised learning, which is, in turn, more likely to incorporate assessment. Another problem is the changing significance of
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factors between the different types of learning. Distinct aspects of some of the factors become more significant depending on the method of learning. For example, learning materials used through face-to-face contact may not require the same degree of userfriendliness (when a trainer can explain details) as those designed to support distance learning, where the learner could be alone and isolated. In addition, userfriendliness takes on further significance in the context of ICT based learning materials, where the potentially isolated learner is faced with the added complexity of new technologies. Thus, whilst all forms of learning are ideally userfriendly, this factor becomes most significant at the level of computer based learning. Similarly, issues of the balance between text and graphics, and the use of colour, are important in paper-based learning materials, but take on an additional significance in the ICT context. Developing this further, and acknowledging the problems identified above, the three themes can form an onion-type model, where generic factors represent the outer skin, or the broadest factors influencing all types of learning. Then as the outer layer is un-peeled, more specific factors are uncovered, first at the level of learning materials, and then focusing in on computer based learning materials. This is illustrated in Figure 4.6. Drawing upon learners' own comments, figures four and five provide useful tools to raise awareness of the whole range of factors learners consider when evaluating the quality of ICT resources. They may provide practical assistance to managers, HRD practitioners and material producers during their decision making processes – whether designing, evaluating or selecting computer based learning materials. They highlight that when learners were asked to judge the quality of the learning materials, they did not only focus on specific features of ICT resources. Instead, they made reference to the much broader issues related to learning in general. However, neither of these figures suggests that learners first consider learning in general,
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and move down the hierarchy to the specific learning materials themselves. Empirical evidence suggests that the most significant factor influencing learning and the quality of online learning materials was userfriendliness. Access
Learning Confidence, level, interest, type of learning, practise, pace, enjoyment, learner control, progression, knowledge, understanding, usefulness (relevance/transferability) Learning materials Presentation, information (content), language, length, structure, explanation, examples, assessment
ICT learning materials Userfriendly, graphics, text, navigation, interaction, IT skills, colour, links, hardware specifications, scrolling, interface, help facilities feedback
Figure 4.6 A model of factors influencing different layers of learning
4.6 A holistic model of factors influencing workrelated learning The analysis so far has concentrated on identifying: • organisational, functional and individual factors influencing learning in and at work, as stated by HRD practitioners, managers and learners, and • factors influencing (the quality of) computer based learning, as identified by learners. However, it is useful to synthesise these findings into a holistic model of factors influencing work-related learning. The model, presented in Figure 4.7, provides a systematic way of raising
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awareness of, and thus being able to cope with, the many factors influencing learning in and at work. The utility of the model is to assist HRD professionals, managers and learners analyse factors both inhibiting and enhancing learning – to help them address the problems and promote the successes. The model is not intended to represent a hierarchy, and does not position organisational and functional factors above individual factors. The model is intended to illustrate some of factors at organisational, functional and individual levels that can inhibit or enhance learning. One is no more important than another, although organisational factors can, and do, influence other factors such as HRD resources and individual time for learning. Similarly, although they are distinct factors, one can interact with another, as illustrated by the interrelationships. Whilst organisational factors can influence how work is scheduled and monitored, causing a lack of time and facilities for learning, individuals, managers and HRD practitioners could act to influence the culture of the organisation, and thus shift the focus from a task to a learning orientation. There are also connections between the top half of the model, illustrating factors inherent in the work context, and the bottom half, featuring factors influencing learning. For example, an individual's motivation to learn will influence whether they decide to engage in any form of work-related learning, whether traditional class-room, and trainer based or electronic. The European research study found that learning could occur at the workplace, in formal classrooms, or in dedicated (quiet and clean) learning rooms located just off the shop-floor. Learning could also occur in work processes, through secondments, projects, coaching and mentoring, for example. Pressures of work, lack of time or difficulties due to shift patterns may all inhibit (or dissuade) an individual from engaging in learning. Yet, the availability of ICT learning materials, perhaps in Open Learning Centres, might help overcome some of these
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organisational problems. An example from the European research was the use of an electronic induction program for postal workers in isolated locations in the United Kingdom. Conversely, computer based learning can cause other problems, such as isolation (paradoxically) for the learner when sat at a lonely terminal rather than in a training room full of colleagues. An increasingly significant problem is mistrust of the learner by the manager who fails to appreciate the possibility and value of learning by sitting at a personal computer. SME owner/managers who participated in the UK study expressed their concern over employees merely surfing the internet for personal reasons rather than work-related learning. Managers in SMEs also identified the difficulty in assessing the cost of such learning, noting the apparent ease of calculating how much it costs to send an employee off to college for a day. Yet, problems of how to transfer knowledge and skills from traditional, off-the-job learning to the workplace could be addressed by using electronic learning embedded in work processes. The model synthesises the findings from particular aspects of two different research projects, and illustrates how factors influencing work-based and computer-based learning can be linked. For example, focusing on the individual level, motivation to learn on the part of managers and other employees was mentioned as both an inhibiting and enhancing factor in the European research. In the UK project, motivation was mentioned in terms of individuals' confidence to engage in learning (particularly computer based), whether learning materials were interesting, whether the type of learning was appropriate (memorising facts versus discussions), the perceived utility of the learning experience and the degree of learner control. In the European research, at the organisational level, the way work was organised, including shift patterns, performance targets and sheer work load, created barriers to learning and developing learning environments.
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Organisational
Functional
Culture, structure, senior manager support, organisation of work, work pressures, targets, task vs. learning orientation
pragmatics e.g. attitudes to training
HRD role clarity, understanding of HRD tasks & new initiatives, number of staff, expertise, amount of information use of ICTs, strategic
Work-related learning pragmatics e.g. managerial skills, lack of time & reward
pragmatics e.g. lack of time & resources
Individual Managers
Employees
Responsibility for learning, motivation to learn, time, IT skills, confidence
Learning Confidence, level, interest, type of learning, practise, pace, enjoyment, learner control, progression, knowledge, understanding, usefulness (relevance/transferability) Learning materials Presentation, information (content), language, length, structure, explanation, examples, assessment
ICT learning materials Userfriendly, graphics, text, navigation, interaction, IT skills, colour, links, hardware specifications, scrolling, interface, help facilities feedback
Figure 4.7 A holistic model of factors influencing work-related learning
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Yet, many aspects of computer based learning, and identified in the UK project, such as accessibility and flexibility, could help overcome such inhibiting factors and help create virtual learning environments. At a functional level, findings from the European project suggest a changing role for HRD practitioners, where specialists become internal consultants, advisers to managers and learners, and facilitators of learning rather than trainers. With the increase in ICT forms of learning, the role of the HRD practitioner might become ICT instructional designer, or purchaser, broker, adviser and facilitator of electronic learning.
4.7 Some conclusions and implications Lifelong learning is an important concept if national and European governments are to achieve learning societies that are inclusive, cohesive, innovative and economically productive (EU 2001). Across the European Community, organisations are important partners in encouraging learning through the development of human resources. Learning, and re-engaging employees as learners, is a significant element in achieving competitive advantage. Learning in and at work are important issues in small and large organisations. Empirical evidence from 200 large organisations across seven European countries suggests that lifelong and work-related learning can be greatly enhanced by developing organisations as learning cultures, by increasing motivation to learn, by clarifying responsibilities for learning and providing resources, and by the re-organisation of work. However, as Oxtoby (2001) reveals, 'to create a learning culture requires much more than fine words.' For example, it requires significant commitment from the senior management team, in the form of championing the concept of learning and approving investment (Training Zone, 2000a). Learning can also be enhanced by information and communication technologies (ICT), including new educational
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and training technologies. A recent survey of employers highlighted the generally positive attitudes to electronic learning as it was convenient and manageable (Training Zone, 2000b). Benefits include greater access, reduced contact time between trainer and learner, and reduced time spent off the job (as learning occurs outside working hours). Findings from the British project highlight that, from the learners' perspective, the most significant factor influencing attitudes to electronic learning is userfriendliness. This is especially important with the increase in self-managed learning, where the learner could be alone and isolated. However, negative aspects of electronic learning include the impersonality, frustration and loneliness, as well as problems associated with computers crashing and how easy it is to waste time (perhaps confirming what SME managers expressed during the UK study). Within the elearning context, there is also the assumption that learners know how to learn effectively (Honey, 2000). Recent research highlights the need to have learner support for those participating in electronic learning to enhance learning rather than deal with technological problems (Training Zone, 2000b). Motivation to learn was a factor identified in both research projects. However, motivation, confidence and learning skills are particularly problematic in the ICT context (Honey, 2000). It would seem that factors influencing work-related electronic learning vary greatly according to who is learning what, where, how and why. Research findings presented here suggest that the same factors could be both positive and negative features, highlighting the complexity and subjectivity of investigating learners' perceptions of computer based learning. Thus, it is important for managers and HRD practitioners to be able to judge the quality of ICT based learning resources – taking into account learners' perceptions – to assure effective learning. This is particularly pertinent in SMEs where – despite the lack of formal HRD infrastructure – computer based learning can offer accessible and flexible learning opportunities. An awareness of
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these factors is also useful for producers to enable them to design learner-centred materials, by taking into account learners' perceptions of quality. For example, a recent survey highlighted some of the negative aspects of electronic learning, including the difficulty in finding learning programmes and software, and materials that were poor in quality, too gimmicky, and not sufficiently developed (Training Zone, 2000b). It is argued that identifying influencing factors is an important step enabling managers and HRD practitioners to recognise how learning might be hindered or helped within work – whether in traditional classroom-based training or through ICT-based learning resources. Whilst e-learning can be as effective as other methods, the future of learning does not lie solely through electronic means. However, having the ability to accurately evaluate the quality of e-learning resources could enhance the credibility of HRD practitioners, particularly as their role becomes more uncertain. Many of the factors identified in this paper would seem intuitively obvious. However, the empirical findings of two separate research studies would suggest that these factors are indeed evidence-based. Thus, it is both possible and useful to present this evidence in a model, highlighting for HRD practitioners, managers and learners the range of contextual (organisational), material (HRD and ICT resources) and personal factors influencing work related learning. It is only by raising awareness of these factors that it is then possible to deal with them, to encourage and harness all forms of learning in the context of work. Highlighting key issues raised by learners enables managers and HRD practitioners to first acknowledge, understand and then address such factors. This is especially important as responsibilities for training and work-related learning shift. HRD practitioners are increasingly taking the role of internal consultant, facilitating learning rather than providing training (Garavan, 1991; Tjepkema & Wognum, 1996; Watkins &
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Ellinger, 1998). Managers are increasingly assuming the role of role model and developer (Ellinger, 1997; Sambrook & Stewart, 2000; Tjepkema et al., 2001). As work becomes more learning intensive, learners and facilitators of learning need to understand factors influencing all forms of learning in and at work.
4.8 References Brandsma, J. (1997). Een leven lang leren: (on)mogelijkheden en perspectieven [Lifelong learning]. Enschede: University of Twente. Bryman, A. (Ed.). (1988). Doing Research in Organisations. London: Routledge. Carr, J. (1999). The role of higher education in the effective delivery of multimedia management training to small and medium enterprises. http: // ifets. gmd.de/
periodical/vol_2_99/james.carr.html Chao, G.T. (1997). Organisation socialisation in multinational corporations: the role of implicit learning. In C.L. Cooper, & S.E. Jackson (Eds.), Creating Tomorrow's Organisations. John Wiley, Chichester. Commission of the European Community (1998). Developing European SMEs: A study of European SMEs adopting the internet. ESPRIT/TBP project no. 22336. DfEE (1998). The Learning Age: a renaissance for Britain. London: HMSO. DfEE (2000). Labour Market Quarterly Report, Sheffield: Department for Education and Employment, Skills and Enterprise Network. August, ISSN 0952-2506. Ellinger, A.M. (1997). Managers as facilitators of learning in learning organisations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Athens: University of Georgia. EU (2001). Memorandum of Lifelong Learning. (http://www.europa.eu.int/comm /
ed uca tio n /life /m e m oe n.pdf) Garavan, T. (1991). Strategic Human Resource Development. Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol 15. (1), pp. 17-31.
Gass, R. (1996). The goals, architecture and means of lifelong learning. Background paper, European Commission. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Hill, R., & Stewart, J. (2000). Human resource development in small organisations. Journal of European Industrial Training, 24 (2/3/4), pp. 105-117. Honey, P. (2000). E-learning – could do better! http://www.peterhoney.com/ articles/Article.63 Hyland, T., & Matlay, H. (1997). Small Businesses, Training Needs and VET Provision. Journal of Education and Work, 10(2) pp. 129-139.
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Jones, A.M., & Hendry, C. (1992). The Learning Organisation: A Review of Literature and Practice. London: HRD Partnership. Lasonen, J. (1999). Bridging Education and Work in the Finnish Vocational Institutions. Annual European Conference on Educational Research (ECER), Lahti, Finland 22-25 September. Learning Declaration Group (1998). A Declaration on Learning. Learning Declaration, Pearn Kandola. Learning Declaration Group (2000). A Declaration on Learning: A call to Action. Learning Declaration, Pearn Kandola. Marsick V.J., & Watkins, K.E. (1997). Lessons from informal and incidental learning. In J. Burgoyne, & M. Reynolds (Eds.), Management Learning: Integrating Perspectives in Theory and Practice. London: Sage Publications. Moingeon, B., & Edmondson, A. (Eds.). (1996). Organisational learning and competitive advantage. London: Sage. Mumford, A. (1997). Management Development: Strategies for Action (3rd Ed.). London: IPD. Nonaka, I. (1991). The Knowledge-Creating Company. Harvard Business Review 69 (6), pp. 96-104. OECD (1996). Lifelong Learning For All. Paris: OECD. Oxtoby, B. (2001). Learning in Rover. http://www.learningbuzz.com/bo004.cfm
Sambrook, S. (2000). Factors influencing learners' perceptions of the quality of computer based learning materials. Annual European Conference on Educational Research (ECER), University of Edinburgh, 20-23 September. Sambrook, S. (2001). Teaching and Learning management at university: three small innovations. BEST conference, Windermere, April (BEST is the Business Education Support Team, the Learning and Teaching Support Network for Business, Management and Accounting). Sambrook, S., & Betts, J. (2001). UFHRD Conference Report, Second Conference on HRD Research and Practice Across Europe 2001: Perspectives on Learning at the Workplace: Theoretical Positions, Organizational Factors, Learning Processes and Effects. University of Twente, the Netherlands. Sambrook, S., & Stewart, J. (1999). Influencing factors on Lifelong Learning and HRD Practices: Comparisons of seven European countries. Annual European Conference on Educational Research (ECER), Lahti, Finland 22-25 September. Sambrook, S., & Stewart, J. (2000). Factors influencing learning in European learning oriented organisations: issues for management. Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (2/3/4), pp. 209-219. Tjepkema, S., & Wognum, A.A.M. (1996). From trainer to consultant? Roles and tasks of HRD professionals in learning orientated organisations. ECLO Conference, Copenhagen.
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Tjepkema, S., Stewart, J., Sambrook, S., Horst, H., Mulder, M., & Scheerens, J. (2001) (forthcoming). The role of human resource development practitioners in learning oriented organisations. HRD Research Monograph Series, Routledge. Training Zone (2000a). Xebec-McGraw-Hill's survey results: has the e-learning bubble burst?dated16October,http://www.trainingzone.co.uk/cgi-bin/item.cgi?id=
Training Zone (2000b). Survey 2000 – attitudes to electronic learning, dated 6 November, h ttp ://www. trai ni n g zo n e .co .uk/ cgi-b in /it em.cg i? id=
University Forum for Human Resource Development(2001) h ttp ://www.uf h rd .co m Watkins, K.E., & Ellinger, A.D. (1998). Building Learning Organization: New Roles for Managers and Human Resource Developers. Professors' Forum, IFTDO Conference, Dublin.
PART 2 Configurations of Work-Related Learning
5 Work Communities in Police Organisations Studied as Emerging Activity Systems M.F. de Laat, S.F. Akkerman & A. Puonti
5.1 Introduction In this chapter two studies on the process of collaboration in two different police organisations will be presented. Within and between organisations attempts are made to construct understanding and expertise around work related problems. This can take form in work communities organised around these interests. The way a work community emerges through negotiation in the discourse of its members can be studied as a collective activity. For this purpose the model of activity systems is used to describe certain aspects of the activity. The first study, carried out in the Netherlands, concerns a work community that was formed around a work related problem within the field of criminal investigation. The second study, performed in Finland, focuses on the collaboration between the police organisation and the tax authority. The changing working environment has led to a need to develop the capacity of organisations to foster learning practices. The aim is to support continuous learning to develop knowledge in the organisation in order to respond flexibly to changes that occur in the market (Bolhuis & Simons, 1999). There is a 129 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 129-149. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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tendency to organise this learning as close to the workplace as possible instead of sending people to courses given outside the workplace (Van der Krogt, 1995; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1997; Simons, Van der Linden & Duffy, 2000). Within and between organisations attempts are made to construct shared understanding and expertise around certain interests and problems. Sometimes people of loosely coupled groups or departments meet each other in the need to act together on the same interest. This can take form in work communities organised around this interest. The way in which participants of work communities collaborate is reflected in the negotiation processes during the discourse. Differences can be expected to exist if both actors come from a different subculture. Being part of the same culture (e.g. of an organisation or a group formed by their history) helps understanding each other. As Lotman argues, the cultural traditions of a collective are revealed to particular members of this collective (1990). But standing on the boundary of two different (sub-) cultures, creates a space for conceptual negotiation. The concept of linguistic hybridity illustrates how such a creative space is emerging between linguistically, culturally and academically heterogeneous people and groups (Gutierrez, Baquedano-Lopez, Alvarez, & Chiu, 1999). Linguistic hybridity refers to the creation of new words or concepts, by using different existing words or different languages. In a related study (Gutierrez, Baquedano-Lopez, & Tejeda, 1999) the concept of hybridity was used as a lens to make sense of diversity in learning contexts. The authors proposed not only to accept but also to make use of diversity (referring to cultural and linguistic differences within activities) in order to construct new understanding. Ruptures in discourse seem to provide issues for negotiation. Their study of student interactions showed how negotiations could lead to shared understanding. The ‘creativeness’ deriving from linguistic hybridity can be seen on a more general level of differences between cultures.
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Engeström, Engeström & Kärkkäinen (1995) argued that crossing boundaries entails stepping into unfamiliar domains and this seems to be quite demanding; it calls for the formation of new conceptual resources. An important notion here is that boundary crossing doesn’t have to result in shared understanding and agreement, but can also lead to awareness of differences. Learning challenges can be expected for the participants as well as for the organisation if the members of a working community have different orientations. It derives attention to follow the processes of negotiation especially in the beginning of the activity. That is when the first level of understanding is constructed. Engeström et al. (1995) have studied historically constructed, constantly changing, dynamic activity systems in organisational settings. The cultural-historical activity theory offers a theoretical framework to study the community’s social structure and processes of collaboration. Collective activity is driven by a communal interest. This communal interest forms the object of the activity. The object in turn is to be understood as a project under construction, moving from potential ‘raw material’ to a meaningful shape and to a result or an outcome (Engeström, 1999). During this process, expansive learning may occur. Expansive learning is a dialectical process by which contradictions are manifested as tensions in the activity system and enable transformation. Contradictions act as starting points and energy sources for development. Expansive learning begins with individual subjects questioning the accepted practice, and it gradually expands into a collective movement (Engeström, 1999). The activity system model developed by Engeström (1987) provides a way to describe the actions that take place within the community. The model provides a holistic picture of a collaborative knowledge construction process and its interdependencies, and can help to organise thorough description of such systems (Hansen, et al., 1999, p. 187). Human activity can
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be described as an interdependent system of several components namely: subject, object, tools, rules, community and division of labour. The model of the activity system is shown in figure 5.1. TOOLS
SUBJECT
RULES
OBJECT
COMMUNITY
OUTCOME
DIVISION OF LABOUR
Figure 5.1 Activity system model (Engeström, 1987)
Activity system is a model that can be used to describe collaboration between participants from several different agencies and the tensions that can derive between them. The two studies presented in this chapter, concern expert learning in the field of criminal investigation in two different police organisations. In this chapter the focus is on the starting process of a work community, where the members try to develop a shared understanding. The activity system model will be used as a tool to describe and get an understanding of the ongoing activity. In this paper we will not analyse the contradictions within and between the nodes of activity. The first study, carried out in the Netherlands, focuses on learning through an organisational network. A community of police officers is organised around a work related problem, based on the shared interest of the different members to solve the problem. The negotiation at the start of this potential activity system is studied. The second study, which is performed in Finland, focuses on the collaboration between two activity systems, namely the police and the tax authority during tax crime investigation. The study
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focuses on the fading boundaries between these two activity systems and the possibility for an emerging, shared activity system between police officers and tax inspectors. Both studies include participants from several organisations or police departments. The process of collaboration at the start will be analysed using the model of activity system (Engeström, 1987). The start of collaboration in the first study refers to the negotiation of the meaning of the object, whereas in the second study this refers to the attempt to fade boundaries between the two activity systems by constructing the shared object. Negotiation can be recognised in discussing concepts, meaning, tools and practices and in possible boundaries between people that impose constraints to a shared understanding.
5.2 The Dutch study Object The Dutch study, concerned the collaboration of a work community, initiated by the centre of expertise for criminal investigation (ABRIO). The participants responded to a letter that was sent by the ABRIO to several police departments explaining the problem that has to be discussed. The work related problem was about how to identify and describe general work-processes used in the field of criminal investigation. There is a need for this because lack of general procedures resulted in a variety of working procedures used by different criminal investigators throughout the country. These varying procedures were not comparable anymore, which in turn might lead to significant different treatments. Also the presence of general working procedures facilitates the justification of their work.
Subject In this study the focus is not on the individual within the work community as the subject of the activity system, but on the work community as a whole. Mutual understanding within the
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community is aimed at by discussion and negotiation between the members. We therefore focus on the discourse from a group perspective. The work community consisted of eight participants who voluntarily joined this community. Participants of this community are from several departments within the police organisation dealing with criminal investigation. They treated each other as colleagues although they never worked together before. It is the interest for the work related problem that brought them together. As a whole the participants formed a heterogeneous group. The participants have different functions and as such have different work orientations regarding the field of criminal investigation. Two of them are involved with practical work of criminal investigation. Two members are supervisors or unit controllers within a certain region, and responsible for investigation processes and policy issues. One of them is a policy maker, also responsible for a certain region. One is reckoned as an expert on working procedures within the Dutch police and two members are from the centre of expertise.
Tools To be able to study the present working procedures and find ways to describe and generalise them, the work community discussed and evaluated some instruments that guide these working processes. Two main instruments were used. The first instrument is called NKP (translated it means Dutch Quality Price). This tool is designed to evaluate and innovate the quality of business and working processes. Besides this tool a second tool was discovered: an approach for standardizing criminal investigations methods called the SADT-method. During a period of two months they worked together studying this problem, using a groupware program called WebKnowledge Forum. This is a web-based discussion program designed to form a learning community over the Internet. It’s a product of the Computer Supported Intentional Learning
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Environments (CSILE) family, developed at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) to support the collaborative construction of knowledge (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1992). Web-Knowledge Forum played a central role in supporting the discourse because all the written contributions are stored as notes in a shared database available to all the participants. The discourse was divided into certain subjects called ‘views’ in which the participants contributed a note or made a comment on a note they have read, by writing a build-on note.
The activity system The collaboration between the members in this work community as such is seen as part of the activity system as shown in figure 5.2. TOOLS NKP-model; SADT method; Documents; Reference books; Knowledge Forum
SUBJECT Members of the work community
RULES Police Laws Working procedures during criminal investigation
OBJECT Work procedures in criminal Investigation
COMMUNITY Criminal investigators within the Dutch police force
OUTCOME
DIVISION OF LABOUR Everyone contributes using own expertise
Figure 5.2 The work community as part of the activity system
Before they started to collaborate in the working community a one day meeting was organised. This day was divided in two parts, in the morning one member of the centre of expertise gave detailed clarification of the reasons why they thought this work related problem needs to be studied. This resulted in a short
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discussion in which agreement was achieved on the focus of the problem. They decided to mainly focus on the usefulness and utilisation of developing these general working procedures. During the second part of that day, they received an introduction and training in Web-Knowledge Forum. Only one person of the group had never used Internet before, and needed some extra general information about the basic principles behind the Internet (how to get online, browsing, hyperlinks, etc). There was much uncertainty about 1) how to identify working procedures and about 2) the new way of working together concerning Web-Knowledge Forum. They agreed to openly discuss this topic, everybody tried to provide insight in the work related problem from their own background and expertise. Also they agreed on some etiquette about how to treat each other while working; this resulted in basic rules like: z focusing on the content of the written notes and not so much about the way it is written, z being nice to each other, be supportive and no hesitation to ask questions. This training was about one hour and afterwards they spend two hours to start up their discourse about their defined problem (also to gain experience in working with Web-Knowledge Forum). After that day they continued this discourse in WebKnowledge Forum without face-to-face contact. They agreed that near the end of this period they would write a critical summary on what has been discussed together, in groups of two or three persons. One summary should be about the utilisation of working procedures and one about working together with Web Knowledge Forum. During the study we provided some technical assistance (logging on to WKF, checking passwords, etc), procedural assistance to coordinate the discourse was provided by the ABRIO. The data consists of the written contributions in the Knowledge Forum database. At the end we gave the participants a questionnaire to gain information about their experiences to participate in the work community.
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Within the activity system: negotiation In this section the results will be discussed using excerpts to illustrate the arguments. General information about how the participants collaborated together in a work community was withdrawn from the questionnaire. Most participants agreed that they were collaboratively creating new knowledge about ‘work-processes’, but at the same time they pointed out that they need to elaborate more on the ideas of the other members. Also they mentioned that there was a lot of confusion about the concepts being used and that they need to clarify the goal of their study, to give more direction to the discourse. The participants notified to have enough information to be able to take part in the discourse. Answers to the question what they do if they lack certain information, are: searching for relevant information, consulting colleagues at work, and trying to stimulate the other participants (of the community) to explain certain issues. In general the quality of the notes is experienced as good, although they indicated a lack of structure during the discourse. “There is too little structure to guide our discussion, the notes contain valuable information but what does it bring to us?” They argue that a more goal-directed approach will help them to achieve agreement and build on to that. The fact that the participants belong to the same organisation (Dutch police force) is shown by a common language. The abbreviations that are not explained to each other are examples of this. However there still seems to be a need for discussion about certain concepts being used, as is noted by one member: “A precondition, however, is that we as a professional group know what we are talking about. I don’t have the feeling that we share a mutual understanding or insight with regard to the process-approach. Therefore I
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suggest answering together the NKP-questions of process-management for the process-level (2nd phase).” The goal of the work community is to sort out the relevance to describe work procedures and to discuss ways in which work procedures could be described. By vividly asking questions and posing ideas the relevance and different ways are given body by the members. The members seem to express their (sometimes) differing opinions quite openly: “Hillary writes that describing work processes, putting that down and sharing that with others (for example through the Knowledge-net) is one of the useful aspects. That I share.” “Mind you, by describing work processes, in reality nothing is improved! One side effect, and maybe in this phase this is especially the issue, is that describing work processes brings us step by step closer to trajectories that need improvement.” “A discussion about what de real ‘illness’ is of the Dutch police and THUS what’s the best medicine, I like to pursue. That is not the lack of process descriptions, thus process descriptions are not the best ‘medicine’. Process descriptions deserve an appropriate, but modest place in a much more fundamental approach.” Although the discussion is following a certain direction, the members note that they feel the need to clarify the goal of their study more. A more structured or goal directed approach is necessary, since, as they argue, that will help them to achieve agreement (understanding) and build on to that. Because of the different opinions the participants may not experience the discussion as so constructive. It was also mentioned that a lot of confusion existed about the concepts being used during the interaction. This can be seen
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quite often, by questions and remarks members make concerning certain concepts. “This word I come upon often. What is management actually? I suppose that with this word different things could be meant? In line with this I pose the question what ‘uniform’ management is.” “The notes about the utilisation [of work processes] are different to such an extent that it is unfeasible to make one shared story without making the mistake to make it your own story.” “An umpteenth attempt to add my opinion to the whole [discourse]; now with the newest indications.” “Semantics. After reading all the notes I got a sneaking feeling that it could be useful to split up some concepts and to focus the discussion on these concepts. The concepts as I see them now are: - problems/reasons - activities: in relation to the pipeline discussion - product - process - instruments (knowledge net, instructions, checklists) - target groups - steering - requirements (product and process bounded requirements) - results Anyhow, it seems that working with processes produces a new language, whereby it is a matter of importance to agree on the meaning of the used concepts. Besides this it seems that the discussion also concerns the process that is improved and the process with which this improvement is realised. We defined the
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first process as the ‘investigation’; the second is the ‘changing organisation’. The above-mentioned concepts could, in my point of view, differ in both fields of interest or could be interpreted differently. Maybe it offers advantages to distinguish these two main groups.” Remarks about interpretations are not only made referring to concepts, but also on a deeper level referring to understanding or misunderstanding. Positive and negative remarks could reflect fading or existing boundaries between the different members. “Thank you for keeping an eye on this case. I feel good about collaboration between three partners.” Bill: “I do not understand it! How do you mean that time orderlessness is released?.” Al: “I am not an expert, but I think to understand the following, also from the reactions of George and Bill.” Bill: “Al exactly expressed what I meant.” Al: “I think you are busy with other things than the people you are mentioning. Apparently you are searching for a tool to describe [work procedures], while a lot of confusion arose in the phase of criminal investigation.” Bill: “Referring that one is thus “ busy with something else”, I take quite seriously. Too bad.” Bill to Al: “THAT’s to my idea the bottle neck, where I can’t follow totally the others.” In these remarks it is illustrated how there is a constant negotiation between people to reach an understanding and how a possible boundary can fade or reinforce. Besides these personal interpretations of each other’s words, boundaries can also be seen in the use of personal pronouns like ‘we and they’. For example in the following note a member uses ‘we’ referring
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to a regional group, he is participating in. With this reference to the own region, regional boundaries are implicated. “Within our region we have not yet really experimented with the SADT-method. Besides this, we also don’t have experience with other methods.” Very clearly illustrated in the following quote, the boundary between two historical phases of the police organisation is highlighted. “As an Abrian [being a member of the ABRIO] I have trouble fathoming the Accasionists [Accacia is a centre of expertise within the field of criminal investigation]. Is there language difference? I do not totally follow their language, but we live in the same country. Is there a difference in culture? How can I stay myself in a country of others whom are also different? Do I have to change? And why so? Do the Accasionists have a leader? And then who is the Abriot by excellence?”
Conclusions and discussion The vivid interactions represent how the members are searching for an understanding during and through their actions. The fact that they react on each other and try to present their own ideas shows the participants are trying to achieve a common goal and as such become members of the work community. On the other hand, the goal is still not clear to all. The members expressed they had trouble clarifying the direction of the discussion. The main concern was lack of coordination during the discussion. In an unstructured process of negotiation nobody feels direct responsibility to organise and structure the content of the problem studied. The lack of the learning ability in the sense of regulating the content and community processes seems to be crucial for people to become used to share knowledge, deepening their own and common understanding and creating further insights. To compensate this lack one can
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structure the negotiation of meaning by making a learning agenda. The division of labour seems to stay unclear for the participants. A coordinator could be helpful in dividing certain tasks, and dividing responsibilities during the process (e.g. coordinator of the content, someone who keeps the community together, invites new participants when needed, and provides technical assistance). The members also noted that there was quite a lot of confusion about the concepts used by the participants. This conceptual confusion, however, is openly and constructively discussed, in order to come closer to a shared language and understanding. Through the interactions and conceptual negotiation, boundaries between the participants can fade or be re-enforced. Negotiation, as noted in the introduction, does not have to result in shared understanding and agreement, but can also lead to awareness of differences. Important is to establish an ongoing discussion that helps people to reflect on ideas.
5.3 The Finnish study The research conducted in Finland concerned the collaboration between police officers and tax inspectors working together solving a tax crime case. The study presented in this paper concentrates on one network interface at a crucial point of the investigation when the police try to ‘sell’ the case to tax inspectors. The contribution of the tax inspectors is essential to the proceeding of the investigation. The main data is the crucial meeting where the police officers introduce the case to the tax inspectors. The participants were also interviewed after the meeting. The data analysed for this paper consist of the audiotaped meeting and interviews of the six participants. The transcribed discourse data from the meeting as well as the transcribed interviews have been analysed in detail (Puonti, 2002). In the meeting, the tensions deriving from the different orientations and tasks of these two authorities emerged as
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disagreements and boundary consolidations. However, also attempts to bring the viewpoints closer as well as attempts to cross the organisational boundary were found. The participants were constructing common understanding of the suspected crime and planning the next phases of investigation through disagreements and through the attempts to bring the viewpoints closer to each other. Most of the attempts did not seem to work, and the investigation did not proceed as agreed in the meeting.
Object The object of the activity the police officers and tax inspectors are engaged in is the economic crime under investigation. The economic crime, in general, is a very obscure and complex concept that has not been clearly defined (Friedrichs, 1995, pp. 57; Geis, Meier & Salinger, 1995, pp. 13-15). In this case, the police was investigating an ongoing crime, which restricted the methods of gathering information about the crime, as the suspect was not to know about the investigation yet. The crime entity included several real and dummy companies that had been operating for several years. Part of the criminal activity was normal business activity, and the evidence of crime was distributed along a long period of time and at several different locations. Another thing that makes the object of economic crime demanding is that the legislation considering economic crime is open in a way that it allows different interpretations. This may, at worst, lead to situation in which different authorities see the crime in different ways, according to their own orientations and tasks and the information they have access to. The complexity of the object is the major driving force for collaboration between authorities.
Subject At first, two police officers were appointed to the case in addition to the officer in charge. Furthermore, a criminal inspector was appointed to the case to represent accounting expertise. The police had investigated the case for several months when they
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came to the point where the expertise of tax inspectors was needed. At that point, three tax inspectors were appointed to the case, and the group consisted of seven people involved in a mutual case. Six of them were present in the analysed meeting. This group forms the potential subjects. Any one of them, or any group gathered of them, can be seen as the subject. Defining who is the subject, who a member of the community, depends on the task at hand or the activity analysed.
The activity systems The Finnish study draws on cultural-historical activity theory and its methodological application, developmental work research. Collaboration between police officers and tax inspectors is viewed as an encounter between two activity systems (Engeström, 1987). In the following figure 5.3, the activity systems are illustrated as two communities working on a common suspected crime. The different basic orientations are reflected by the rules both communities apply. The mentioned tools, communities, rules etc. are only examples to illustrate the activity systems of the police and the tax authority, and the hypothetical tension in the joint object of collaborative work. The police officers investigate the case by using for example intelligence, coercive means, interrogations, police registers and graphic models as their tools. Their rules derive from police legislation, the main rule being to find out what has happened, and if a crime is suspected, find the evidence that speaks for and against the suspicion that a crime has been committed. In many economic crime cases, the community is formed of the tax inspectors, enforcement officer, prosecutor, customs officers and other possible collaborators. The object of work is the suspected crime, and the outcome can be seen, for example, in the evidence found to speak for or against a crime.
M.F. de Laat, S.F. Akkerman & A. Puonti Tools: Intelligence Coercive means Police registers Graphic depictions
Subject: Main investigator
Rules: Police laws: 'Search for evidence'
Community: Other police officers Officer in charge
Division of Labour
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Object
S U S P E C T E D C R I M E
Evidence
Tools: Tax inspection procedures Tax databases
Subject: Tax inspector
Avoided taxes to be debited
Division of Labour
Community: Other tax inspectors
Rules: e.g. Tax laws: "debit the avoided taxes'
Figure 5.3 The twofold object of the activity of the crime investigators and tax inspectors
The tax authority, on its behalf, relies on the rules derived from tax legislation, the main rule being the collecting of taxes and controlling debiting them. In this particular case, the task is specified in the working order of the tax inspection unit as realtime tax inspection collaboratively with other authorities. The tools of the tax inspectors include such as tax databases and the procedure of tax inspection. The police are one of the central collaborative communities of the tax inspectors. The suspected crime under investigation is the one and the same, but it is viewed from two different angles deriving from the different orientations and tasks. The desired outcome of the investigation for the police is the evidence, the tax inspectors are aiming at a suggestion of the avoided taxes to be debited.
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Between the activity systems: fading boundaries The traditional model of collaboration between authorities has been based on letters of request and it has resembled a relay: the next actor starts when the previous one has finished his part. The model applied today in many cases is a model of parallel collaboration, all participants are engaged in the case from the beginning to the end, more or less actively. In the analysed case, the collaboration had taken huge steps towards the parallel model. The expressions of disagreement that were prevalent in the analysed meeting must not be seen as a sign of collaboration that does not work. On the contrary, disagreements can mark a working collaboration (Schiffrin, 1990). However, the disagreements were not explicitly solved or concluded during the meeting. The attempts to bring the viewpoints closer to each other failed. They seemed to be meta-level attempts, without connection to the substance of the case. The discursive tools to solve the disagreements in the meeting included such as the emphasizing the common goal, explaining the working models of each authority, and making individual remarks that crossed the organisational boundary. In the interviews made afterwards, the participants did not seem to recognise any severe disagreements between the participants. It seemed that an imaginary fading of boundaries had occurred, everybody was left with an impression that his point of view was the one that was commonly accepted in the meeting. However, the agreed schedules did not hold, and the following phases of investigation had to be postponed. The discursive tools applied were not strong enough to solve the disagreements at this phase of the investigation process. The working communities of the police officers on the one hand, and tax inspectors in the other hand, remained separate. Although no real fading of boundaries could be documented, the imaginary fading may be a step towards real fading. However, it still remains in the zone of proximal development to form a working community were these two authorities could be considered as one, shared activity system. The constraints for
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this merger are strong, for example due to the strong official liability, responsibility of an official for the legality of his actions that both authorities hold. This is very important for example in the exchange of information: Officials have to be very careful in what information they are allowed to pass in collaboration. This may constrain close collaboration. Also the roles of the police and tax authority must be kept clearly separate in order to ensure the legal protection of the litigants.
Conclusion and discussion Recognizing the different orientations and explicating the expectations may help to find a common understanding in daily encounters, like meetings. In this case, the attempts to bring the viewpoints close failed. What remains to be developed is connecting these attempts to the case under investigation, connecting the attempt to the substance. This may sometimes be complicated, because an investigation process always proceeds without a total picture of the entity of the crime. The complexity of the crime may require more powerful tools than the discursive ones used in the meeting. At later phases of investigation, material tools were used to formulate the object of work more clearly. The obscurity of the crime may reflect upon the collaboration and work done in the individual case. What is interesting here is that thus, lacking a clear-cut crime and clear-cut investigation process, every investigation process can be seen as a field of learning. Today, people often have to learn something that is not stable, defined or understood ahead of time (Engeström, 1999) Things are being learned as they are being created in each investigation process.
5.4 Summary and conclusions of the two studies In these studies two different approaches to study collaboration were introduced. The Dutch study focuses on learning through
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a network, the Finnish study on learning to network, collaborate in a network consisting of participants from different agencies. In both studies, the model of activity system is applied. The formation of an activity system is connected to the emergence of a mutual object within work. In the Dutch study, the object of the participants did not seem to be clear. In the Finnish study, both the police officers and the tax inspectors, had joint objects of work inside their own working communities, but a mutual object of work for both professional groups was not formed during the studied period. It seems that in both cases, the formation of a real activity system remained in the zone of proximal development of these groups. Moving from the traditional, individual based working models towards intensive real-time collaboration is a challenge, but first steps have already been taken in both cases presented here. As is described in the introduction the object of activity is something to be constructed during the starting processes of activity, as became clear in the Dutch study. The Finnish study showed how the construction of shared objects can be even harder if boundaries of two activity systems from different organisations need to be crossed. Both systems have already their own objects where that may or may not be expanded to a new, shared object with the other activity system. The discourse concerning the object shows the need for negotiation about concepts and the aim to solve disagreements. Coming to an awareness of disagreements, on the other hand may also be valuable. To understand success of collaboration, it seems valuable to study the construction process at the beginning of collective activity. However, this process may take much longer, than what we in this study regarded as ‘starting processes’. Boundaries within and between activity systems may fade, but may re-appear in different forms. At the same time the construction of the object may not be a phase as such, but may coincide with the whole process of activity itself, in the same way as the negotiation of meaning is an ongoing process.
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Therefore further research to study this construction process in the broader context of the socio-historical time in which the activity system evolves is needed.
5.5 References Bolhuis, S.M., & Simons, P.R.J. (1999). Leren en werken: opleiden en leren [Learning and working]. Deventer: Kluwer. Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by Expanding. An Activity-Theoretical Approach to Developmental research, Orienta-Konsultit: Helsinki. Engeström, Y. (1999). Expansive learning at work: toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Paper presented at the CLWR’97, Queensland. Engeström, Y., Engeström, R., & Kärkkäinen, M. (1995). Polycontextuality and boundary crossing in expert cognition: learning and problem solving in complex work activities. Learning and Instruction, 5: 319-336. Gutierrez, K.D., Baquedano-Lopez, P., Alvarez, H.H., & Chiu, M.M. (1999). Building a Culture of Collaboration through Hybrid Language Practices. Theory into Practice, 38: 87-94. Gutierrez, K.D., Baquedano-Lopez, P., & Tejeda, C. (1999). Rethinking Diversity: Hybridity and Hybrid, Language Practices in the Third Space. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 6: 286-303. Hansen, T., Dirckinck-Holmfeld, L., Lewis, R., & Rugelj, J. (1999). Using telematics for collaborative knowledge construction. In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.), Collaborative learning: cognitive and computational approaches, pp. 169-196. Amsterdam: Pergamon. Lotman, Y.M. (1990). Universe of the Mind. A Semiotic Theory of Culture, (A. Shukman, Trans.). Bloomington etc.: Indiana University Press. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1997). De kenniscreërende onderneming: hoe Japanse bedrijven innovatieprocessen in gang zetten [The knowledge creating company] (Tromp, Th.H.J., Trans.). Schiedam: Scriptum. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1992). An architecture for collaborative knowledge building. In E. De Corte (Ed.), Computer-based learning environments and problem solving, Vol. 84, pp. 41-66. Berlijn: Springer-Verlag. Simons, P.R.J., Van der Linden, J., & Duffy, T. (2000). New Learning: three ways to learn in a new balance. In P.R.J. Simons, J. Van der Linden, & T. Duffy (Eds.), New Learning. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Van der Krogt, F.J. (1995). Leren in Netwerken: veelzijdig organiseren van leernetwerken met het oog op humaniteit en arbeidsrelevantie [Learning in networks]. Utrecht: Lemma.
6 Organizing Learning Projects whilst Improving Work: Strategies of Employees, Managers, and HRD Professionals R.F. Poell
6.1 Introduction The most important tenet of a learning project is that employees learn something new by solving work-related problems. Work improvement and employee development thus go hand in hand in a learning project. This chapter uses data from five separate studies to investigate two main questions from a network approach: 1) Which strategies do employees, managers and HRD professionals use to organise work-related learning projects? 2) How are learning and work related in learning projects? To answer these questions, a total of 135 participants in 14 different organisations were interviewed, thus constituting 24 case studies of learning projects. Results indicate that employees prefer other strategies than managers do, who themselves use different strategies than HRD professionals are likely to. Furthermore, learning-project type is related to the type of work in which it is conducted, but there is no one-on-one relationship between the two. Implications for further research are discussed.
151 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 151-180. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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A work-related learning project is organised by a group of employees who participate in a coherent set of activities centred on a work-related theme or problem, with a specific intention to learn and to improve work at the same time (Poell, 1998a). The activities can include various kinds of learning situations, both on and off the job, self-organised and facilitator-directed, actionbased and reflection-based, group-focused and individualoriented, externally and internally inspired, highly prestructured and more open-ended. The activities are bound together by the fact that they all focus on the core theme or problem. Some examples of possible problems or themes for learning projects include increasing client-centeredness, operating Windows 2000, improving the work climate, investigating a new treatment, introducing team-based work. Although learning projects can be found at every level of an organisation, the focus in this study is on the operating core at the shop floor (Mintzberg, 1979). These employees perform the key role in the learning project, but usually managers, HRD professionals, and other (external) actors participate in the learning project as well. To learn something new by investigating a work-related problem should be the most important goal in a learning project. Secondary goals of the actors could be to develop a new product, to increase employee motivation or job satisfaction, to change the organisation structure, to develop an innovative culture, and so forth. How can employees organise learning projects in order to learn and improve work at the same time? In this paper it is assumed that employees, managers, HRD professionals, and other actors have several ways of organizing learning projects that are relevant for both work performance and employee development. Two research questions are investigated. First, which strategies do actors actually use in organizing work-related learning projects? Second, how are learning and work related in learning projects?
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6.2 Theoretical framework: the Learning-Network Theory (LNT) It has been argued (Poell, Chivers, Van der Krogt, and Wildemeersch, 2000) that many theoretical frameworks in the realm of corporate learning ignore the key role of employees, fail to incorporate the diversity in learning and work arrangements, and focus too much on adapting people to the organisation. Hence, in this paper organizing work-related learning is viewed from a network perspective (Van der Krogt, 1998). The learningnetwork theory (LNT) acknowledges employees as central actors who co-organise learning on the basis of their ideas and interests, instead of reducing their participation to being at the receiving end of a training course. It regards multiple ways of organizing work-related learning not only as a didactic principle, but as an expression of the various organizing strategies used by employees and other actors in order to learn. It recognises the immanent tensions between learning and work, between employee development and work performance, instead of viewing learning simply as functional for work. It focuses on enabling people to adjust work to their qualifications as well as adapt their competencies to work innovations.
A network perspective on organizing work-related learning projects A learning project can be viewed as a small temporary learning network of employees within an organisation, a group of people who organise learning activities together. A learning project is focused on one central theme or problem that has relevance for work and for those who organise it. Learning activities can occur in various places, on and off-the-job. They can take place in a formalised training setting organised by HRD professionals, but learning is also brought about informally by the employees themselves in their everyday work situation.
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Organizing is not regarded in the LNT perspective as designing and implementing structural learning arrangements by the management. A broader concept of organizing is used, which refers to systematizing action. Organizing is explicitly viewed as the ensemble of strategies of the different actors with respect to learning and work. Strategies are action patterns influenced by the action theories and interests of the actors. Since actors are expected to use different strategies, their interactions are crucial in organizing the learning project. Employees, managers, HRD professionals, and other actors develop a policy and execute a program within the learning project. Gradually, their interactions become part of certain structural arrangements with regard to content, organisation and climate. These learning structures in turn influence the strategies that actors use, but they do not necessarily determine them. This is the basic organisation of a learning project viewed as a network, as Figure 6.1 summarises (see Poell, 1998a, for a more detailed account). ACTORS with action theories LEARNING PROJECT LEARNING PROCESSES * Developing a learning policy * Developing a learning program * Executing the learning program
LEARNING STRUCTURES * Content structure * Organisational structure * Learning climate
Figure 6.1 Organizing a learning project viewed from a network perspective
6.3 Five separate studies This paper discusses the contribution of five separate studies, conducted over a period of three years, to answering the two main research questions: 1) Which strategies do actors actually use in organizing work-related learning projects? 2) How are learning and work related in learning projects? Empirical data were collected from a total of 135 participants (employees, managers, HRD professionals) who carried out 24 learning projects within various work types, in order to answer these questions. Organisations involved included four probation
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institutions, four educational consultancy firms, and six companies and institutions. An overview of these cases is provided in Table 6.1. Table 6.1 Overview of all learning-project cases that were investigated Number of learning projects 4 cases 4 cases 16 cases 24 cases
Organisational context of the cases 4 probation institutions 4 educational consultancies 6 companies and institutions 14 organisations
Number of participants interviewed n=24 n=15 n=96 N=135
After discussing the general conclusions of the five studies, the final part of the chapter will provide some critical notes on the network perspective that was used and list the implications for further research into organizing work-related learning.
First study The first study (Poell and Van der Krogt, 1997) provided an overview of the literature on work-related learning projects. It concluded that most authors focus strictly on developing employee competencies, whereas the importance of simultaneous work improvement is rather neglected in literature. Learning projects are mainly viewed as functional for work, with employees taking part in learning activities in order to adapt their competencies to the work structures that have changed. The study argued that employees should be regarded within learning projects as (co-) organisers of work processes that offer certain learning possibilities. Four theoretical learning-project types were identified that can be organised in order to have actors solve their work-related problems. First, a liberal learning project, in which individual employees organise learning activities they deem necessary to deal with their own work-related problems. They team up with people who experience similar problems to learn from each other for their individual benefit. Second, a vertical learning project, in which HRD professionals and managers organise learning activities and accompanying work measures for
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employees. The latter take part in delivery but contribute only moderately to learning policy and program development. Third, a horizontal learning project, in which employees as a group systematically tackle work-related problems and reflect on their experiments in order to learn. Fourth, an external learning project, in which professionals acquire new working methods by participating in continuing professional development to keep abreast of recent insights developed within professional bodies. They adapt their work to incorporate these new methods. These four learning-project types are summarised in Table 6.2. Table 6.2 Four theoretical types of learning project Liberal Individual learners
Vertical Horizontal External HRD profes- Learners as Professional sionals and a group associations managers
Organisation of learning activities
Isolated activities
Linear planning
Organic
Resulting content structure (profile)
Unstructured
Task or function oriented
Problem or Profession organisation oriented oriented
Resulting organisation structure
Loosely coupled
Centralised
Egalitarian
Dominant actor
Externally Coordinated
Externally inspired
Second study The second study (Poell, Van der Krogt, and Warmerdam, 1998) presented a method of organizing project-based learning, consisting of a diagnostic phase, a data-feedback phase, and a learning-project phase. The method involves making a diagnosis of the current learning network, the present organisation of work, actors' momentary action theories, and of the changes likely to occur in this respect. The results from the diagnosis are then fed back to the participants in order to reach mutual
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understanding about the situation and the changes needed. Finally, learning projects building on the results of the diagnostic and feedback activities are conducted, taking into account the action theories of the actors and the existing situation regarding the organisation of work and learning. Practical experiments using this project-based learning method in four probation institutions showed that, even if diagnosis and data feedback were conducted similarly, four quite different learning projects emerged in different settings. One case was referred to as a horizontal-external learning project, one was labelled external, one was termed an external-horizontal hybrid, and one was found to be a vertical learning project. Despite these differences, however, the projects were deemed effective by the actors, probably because each project was geared to the participants' interests and the organisations' possibilities by thorough diagnosis and feedback. Although the focus of this particular study was not on the relationship between learning projects and work characteristics, it did highlight the importance of taking into account the existing learning potential of work when organizing projects.
Third study The third study (Poell, Van der Krogt, and Wildemeersch, 1998) investigated four learning-project cases in educational consultancy firms. The cases were found to differ with respect to the action theories of the actors, the learning processes in which they participated, and the structural arrangements that they created. Two types of learning projects appeared: a liberal-vertical one in which individual employees themselves created their own particular program of learning and training activities, and an external-horizontal one in which group reflection and the development of professional norms were stressed. Although this particular study investigated only the differences among learning projects, some evidence came up for a relationship between learning-project type and work type. Because the same actors who organised the work also shaped the learning projects, they
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may have tried to bring the course of the learning projects in line with their ideas about the organisation of work.
Fourth study The fourth study (Poell, Van der Krogt, and Wildemeersch, 1999) was based on sixteen learning-project cases in six organisations, investigating specifically the relationship between learning projects and work. Its focus was on the organizing strategies employed by the various participants. Four theoretical models of learning-project strategies were distinguished and elaborated. Rather than focus on the structural component of the four learning-project types, these models referred to the action strategies that actors employ in organizing different learning projects. In an individual negotiation (liberal) strategy, individual employees come together to enrich their own work improvement and learning programs with group reflection on their experiences. All group members thus create their own individual learning project. In a direct representation (vertical) strategy, management decide on new work policies, workpreparation staff translates these into work programs, and HRD professionals design a learning program in which the learning group takes part. In a continuous adaptation (horizontal) strategy, the learning group sets out to solve complex work problems by reflecting on experiences, developing joint action theories, and bringing these into practice in an investigative manner. In a professional innovation (external) strategy, the learning group is inspired by action theories developed outside their organisation (e.g., by new work methods developed by professional associations). The employees in the learning group adjust their work to the new externally acquired action theories. Analysing empirical data of sixteen cases revealed three hybrid strategy configurations being employed in learning projects: 1. In extended training learning projects, managers and HRD professionals involved the employees in policy and program planning, ensuring there were possibilities for them to apply individually in their daily work what they had been taught
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on or off the job. So managers and HRD professionals were dominant in the policy and program development stages, whereas employees had more individual autonomy in executing the learning program. Policy development, program development, and program execution took place in this fixed order. The learning activities undertaken by the employees were quite isolated from each other and largely separated from daily work activities. This learning-project strategy approached the traditional training concept, extended with transfer-enhancing measures (Robinson and Robinson, 1989). In directed reflection learning projects, employee activities were problem focused but closely supervised by managers and HRD professionals. Difficult and deliberately illstructured work problems were tackled by the employees with a continuous openness to adaptation, be it under rather strict management guidance. Usually, managers were the ones who initiated the learning project, which the employees as a group were to follow through under the process guidance of HRD professionals. Because none of the participants knew the best way to solve the problem on beforehand, planning and execution of learning activities were alternated by investigating possible solutions and learning from these experiences. This learning-project strategy showed similarities with the concept of actionlearning projects (Marsick and Watkins, 1990). In reflective innovation learning projects, employees transferred professional innovations to their daily work in an investigative manner, through reflection on their current practice and experiments with new ways of working. These learning projects were profession rather than management driven (e.g., aimed at introducing an innovative work method). HRD professionals and managers did not play key roles, whereas employee reflection on their current practice constituted a major part of the learning project (cf. Schön, 1983). Policy development, program development, and
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program execution were organically integrated and externally coordinated activities, in that the learning group of employees was inspired by ideas developed outside their organisation (but inside their profession), which they investigated openly but methodically. Work-related learning projects were found to differ with respect to the strategies that the actors used. Although employees, managers, and HRD professionals employed different strategies in general, in some learning projects the same strategy was used by all actors. This common strategy either reinforced the current work relations or proved to be an attempt by all involved to change some aspect of work. In most learning projects, however, the actors more or less disagreed about the best strategy. In those cases, the work relations among the actors had an impact on the learning-project type that resulted. So, differences among learning projects were related to work type to a certain extent. In professional work, employees dominated learning projects using a strategy of professional innovation. In task-based work, managers imposed a strategy of direct representation on the employees, mixed with either individual negotiation or continuous adaptation. HRD professionals had only limited power in learning projects, which was maximised if they adhered to the managers' direct representation strategy. The study also demonstrated that a certain type of learning project is likely to be organised in a certain type of work. This is evident from Table 6.3, which numerically relates the three learning-project types to three work types (task-based, entrepreneurial and professional work). Nevertheless, also other types of learning projects occur in a particular work type. And also other types of work are associated with a particular type of learning project. This, however, does not imply that 'anything goes'. Not all types of learning projects occurred in all work types. The extended-training type of learning project was not found in professional work. Task work did not feature the reflective
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innovation type of learning project. One explanation for this finding may lie in the limited number of cases investigated (n=16). The learning project/work combinations that were not found in this sample may turn up as the number of cases is increased. It might be possible to find reflective innovation in task work and extended training in professional work, but it seems unlikely that these combinations should occur frequently. Table 6.3 The relationship between learning-project type and work type
Learning-project type
'Extended training' 'Directed reflection' 'Reflective innovation' N
Task work 2 3
Work type EntrepreProfessional neurial work work 4 0 1 1
0 5
2 7
3 4
n 6 5
5 N =16
Note: Chi-square = 8.274, df = 4, sig.=.082.
Fifth study The fifth study (Poell, Van der Krogt, and Wildemeersch, 2001) presented a methodological account of the entire three-year research process toward establishing an empirically validated learning-project typology. Seven stages were distinguished in the research process during which a shift occurred in the practical goal of the research project, the underlying theoretical propositions, and the research methods that were used. From one best way for HRD professionals to design a learning project, the focus shifted to employees and other actors organizing learning projects in various ways. Learning projects were no longer considered to be a management tool, but rather an 'arena' (Burgoyne and Jackson, 1997) for all actors to accomplish both employee development and work improvement. In the process of operationalising the concept of learning projects, inductive and deductive methodical procedures were alternated, continuously going from theoretical models in progress to practical experiments and back. This study yielded a
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Employees
Liberal type Create individual arrangements to learn and solve work problems: - Monitor coherence in activities - Agree individual program with manager - Undertake activities individually
Vertical type Enrol in a fixed learning program after consultation: - Suggest ideas - Provide information - Enrol in program
Horizontal type Solve work problems and reflect upon the approach being used: - Find common approach - Create program by doing - Reflect together on practice
External type Experiment with new work methods developed outside the organisation: - Appropriate new work method - Experiment with new method - Adapt work to new method
Managers
Agree with individual workers to establish a self-directed learning route: - Set boundaries of selfdirected learning - Monitor progress of individual activities - Help workers practice on the job
Determine the course of the program based on workers' info: - Determine approach - Make list of activities - Coach learners
Support group discussion and problem redefinition: - Support joint approach - Co-organise improvement activities - Support reflection by learners
Provide conditions for professional development of workers: - Determine conditions at a distance - Encourage professional consultation - Provide facilities
HRD Staff
Table 6.4 Strategies of employees, managers, and HRD staff in four types of learning project Actor
Help workers create a coherent self-directed learning program: - Help learners conceive of program - Mediate for learners, give advice - Counsel learners through self-study and problem solving
Design a didactically sound learning program: - Translate views of managers - Make learning program - Provide training and support
Counsel reflection sessions and group learning process: - Help learners determine approach - Help learners reflect on approach - Counsel learners reflecting on practice
Help workers adapt work to newly developed methods: - Suggest approaches to expertise development - Help learners adapt work - Compare learner experiences to external model
Individual Negotiation
Direct Representation
Continuous Adaptation
Professional Innovation
LearningProject Strategy
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typology of learning projects that is theoretically based, empirically validated, and of practical use to actors. A summarised version of this typology is presented in Table 6.4.
6.4 Conclusions and discussion Strategies in organizing learning projects 1. The first conclusion springs from the actor perspective that was used throughout the studies. Employees are clearly (co-) organisers of learning projects. Not only do they take part in the delivery of the learning program, they create those learning programs and develop learning policies within the project themselves as well. The activities that HRD professionals and managers undertake in learning projects are important too, but secondary to employee-driven learning activities. Employees have various opportunities to (co-)organise work-related learning projects according to their own ideas and interests with respect to learning. Their activities are not just reactions to the strategies employed by managers and HRD professionals, which are emphasised in most of the literature (e.g., McLagan, 1989; Van Ginkel, Mulder, and Nijhof, 1994), but deliberate and selfdirected actions. The added value of using a network perspective on learning projects is that the many learning activities conducted by employees themselves become visible and systematisable, both to themselves and to others. 2. The strategies employed in organizing work-related learning projects tend to differ from one actor to another. Employees seem to prefer other strategies than managers do, who themselves use different strategies than HRD professionals are likely to. Nevertheless, it is not uncommon for learning projects to feature one organizing strategy supported by all actors involved. This may happen if everyone agrees it is in their best interest to implement changes in a particular direction, or if less powerful actors decide to cooperate within the dominant strategy to avoid worsening their
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situation. Frequently, however, employees used a strategy of professional innovation, whereas managers (and HRD professionals as their sparring partners) mainly employed a strategy of direct representation. Employees want to acquire qualifications that are useful within a professional discipline (rather than within one organisation only) and adjust their work accordingly. The importance of this external/professional orientation is rarely recognised in the literature. Managers assisted by HRD professionals, on the other hand, prefer to have (representatives of ) the employees provide the necessary information to design good learning programs preparing the employees for changes in their work. Their orientation is usually more vertical, and well elaborated in the literature. The fact that employees express their own ideas about what and how to learn and organise activities to accomplish it themselves, should not be confused with a resistance to change (cf. Hoff and McCaffrey, 1996). All actors act according to their own views on why and how to change, be it within their capabilities and the possibilities of their position (cf. Van der Krogt, Vermulst, and Kerkhof, 1995; Bennebroek Gravenhorst, 1996). 3. When actors employ different strategies in learning projects, the power relations among them determine whose strategy will dominate. The interesting element to this point is that powerful work actors are not necessarily powerful learning actors, and vice versa. But in learning projects the twain meet. Employees are generally the most powerful learning actors, which is why it is so important to start from their activities. Employees are also quite powerful work actors, but in many organisations managers are more powerful in organizing work. HRD professionals play no significant role in the organisation of work and it should be concluded from the studies that an important role for them is limited to only some types of learning projects. When all these actors participate in a learning project, employees as the most powerful learning actors should be expected to dominate it. This did not turn out to be the case in
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all-learning projects that were investigated. Managers were found to be dominant actors in quite a few learning projects. There may be two explanations for this finding. One explanation is that learning projects are about learning as well as about work improvement. Managers are likely to play a more important role regarding work improvement activities. Another explanation is that employees are not always in a position to impose their learning-project strategy upon the other actors. In other words, powerful work actors can sometimes overrule powerful learning actors in learning projects. This point will be further elaborated below, because it touches on the question of the relationship between learning-project types and work types. The power dimension, however, proves to be crucial for an understanding of work-related learning (cf. Pettigrew, Ferlie, and McKee, 1992; Cervero and Wilson, 1996; Reynolds, 1997; Dovey, 1997), even if others assert it plays no significant role in organisation (Donaldson, 1996). 4. Actors involved in organizing learning projects can choose from a variety of strategies to inspire them. Four theoretical models of learning-project strategies and three empirical hybrid strategy configurations were described in the fourth study. Obviously, although some actors may be more inclined to use certain strategies that they consider relevant, and although the present context of the learning network and the work characteristics may limit some practical possibilities, actors do have many choices to organise learning projects. The theoretical models, the empirical configurations, and some practical case descriptions can be used by those involved in learning projects as multiple frames of reference (Bolman and Deal, 1991). These can inspire the actions and reflections undertaken within learning projects (Marsick and Watkins, 1991). They can also provide an image of the interactions that are likely to take place when actors use a certain strategy, or if actors employ different strategies that produce opposing forces (Mintzberg, 1989). In short, the models and configurations constitute a number of action theories for
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actors to adopt in organizing a learning project (cf. Bouwen, De Visch, and Steyaert, 1992). All actors can furthermore apply a method of project-based learning in order to use the various models more systematically. This method and some practical experiences have been described briefly in the second study. 5. HRD professionals will have to come up with new well-elaborated action theories in order to professionalise their discipline. The studies bring to the fore an image of HRD professionals positioning themselves mainly as tools of management, which is certainly in line with most of the literature (e.g., Robinson and Robinson, 1989; Carnevale, Gainer, and Villet, 1990; Bergenhenegouwen, Mooijman, and Tillema, 1992; and so forth). Further research into the learning-project strategies of HRD professionals is intended to test this image and to develop best practice action theories (Poell and Chivers, in press). If HRD professionals want to become more influential actors within modern organisations, they will have to act more independently from the management's strategies in the long run. A crucial first step in this direction would be to stop focusing only on the how?questions with respect to learning and start linking them to the appropriate what?-questions. In other words, HRD professionals should position themselves as actors within the organisation of learning AND the organisation of work. They should acknowledge that learning is always related to its (work) context in one way or another, as the next paragraph intends to show.
The relationship between learning and work in learning projects 1. The first conclusion to be drawn in this respect is that within a learning project participants are able to combine the development of their competencies with the improvement of work. Learning and work are related at this very level of the activities undertaken by the learning group. The learning activities are centred on a
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theme or problem relevant for work. Work activities within a learning project become a context for participants to investigate problems, to develop shared images of possible solutions, to experiment, to gain sheer new experiences, to reflect upon these together. Participation in such learning activities broadens the work action repertoire of those involved. Important to note is that work activities are not regarded primarily as appropriate didactic tools for participants to learn within a facilitatordirected program, as in action learning sets (McGill and Beaty, 1991). The learning-project concept focuses on the various strategies of actors in organizing work-related learning activities, and on their interactions in creating problem-based policies, programs, and practices as a learning group. The studies demonstrate that there is learning potential inherent in daily work (cf. Kraayvanger and Van Onna, 1985), and that employees actively use their own organizing strategies to learn both HOW and WHAT they consider relevant. 2. Learning pro jects pro vid e several different strategies for actors to combine learning with work improvement according to their views and interests. Four theoretical models and three empirical configurations were distinguished that demonstrate how actors can do justice to employee development and at the same time take into account the work performance. All these different possibilities in organizing learning projects demonstrate that there is more to HRD than enabling employees to adjust to work and organisational changes as efficiently as possible by designing the appropriate learning programs. Nevertheless, this perspective on corporate education remains the dominant one in the literature (Swanson, 1994; Jacobs and Jones, 1995; Erlicher, Moerkamp, and Sommerlad, 1995; Onstenk, 1997). The studies show that work and organisations can also be adapted in order to fit with employees' current or newly acquired competencies. Many learning projects, however, were shown to feature both approaches at the same time, for one thing because they were based on learning by solving work-related problems, but also
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because the actors usually brought both competing strategies into their learning projects. In this sense, the studies contribute to enabling actors to bring about alternative and multi-faceted learning arrangements. 3. Learning-project type is related to the type of work in which it is conducted. But, as expected, no one-on-one relationship was found (cf. Table 6.3). The learning-network theory (LNT) explanation for the 'fuzzy' relationship between learning-project type and work type springs from the actor perspective employed. Dominant actors in the labour network (often the management) are powerful enough to impose their organizing strategy upon other actors in the learning project. Nevertheless, because the domains of learning and work are characterised by different power dynamics, the dominant learning-project actors (usually the employees) have a choice. They can either adapt to the dominant actor's strategy or try to impose their competing strategy. In the latter case, all kinds of variation in interactions begin to occur. But this line of thought assumes that the dominant actor wants a learning-project type to fit with the current work type, and that the other actors do not. Now let us suppose that all actors agree about the necessity of organizing a learning-project type that does not exactly match with the work type. For instance, both the management and the employees in a task-work setting are convinced that, in order to make work more team based, a horizontal type of learning project is required. Even if the actors could agree about this, it is unlikely that such a combination should occur. The reason for this lies in the structural learning arrangements associated with task work, which influence the action theories of the learning-project actors to such an extent that their possibilities are severely limited. In other words, the work hardly provides the infrastructure for a horizontal learning project to emerge. The actors are not in a position to use the learning-project strategy they prefer. The existing work content, work relations, and work climate prevent a completely new learning content, learning relations, and learning climate from coming suddenly into being.
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The actors cannot be expected to be capable all at once of organizing activities that were inconceivable within existing work and learning networks (Hoogerwerf, 1998). This might explain why so many efforts to implement team-based work in machine bureaucracies have failed (Dankbaar, 2000). What a learning project could do, is introduce some new (in this case, horizontal) elements into existing work and learning networks, so that the actors can experiment with new ways of organizing work-related learning (Poell, Tijmensen, and Van der Krogt, 1997). By broadening their action repertoire to include new ways of thinking and doing, employees are enabled to gradually improve both the work and their competencies. From the new situation thus created, actors could proceed by investigating new types of learning projects. In this perspective, learning projects can bring about incremental changes in order for actors to overcome the strong impact of existing structural conditions on their action repertoire.
Strengths and limitations of the network perspective The LNT perspective that was employed throughout all studies has proven to be a useful frame of reference to describe and explain how work-related learning projects are organised. The main strengths of the network perspective as an alternative view, in short, include the following. First, it focuses on people. Employees are at the heart of organizing work-related learning, as core actors with their own relevant ideas and interests. Employees turn out to be active organisers of their own sets of learning activities, quite often independently from the strategies of HRD professionals and managers. In the network perspective, actors always have various options for action, but these are constrained by the context that they have (re-)created themselves. Organisational systems and structures are not viewed as abstract entities beyond the influence of people, but as dynamic creations that do have an impact on people's choices but can be (gradually) changed by them as well. Second, it emphasises a multi-faceted approach. The different
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strategies that actors use reflect diverse ways in which learning can be organised, for instance, along vertical, horizontal, and external dimensions. Although the LNT stressed the importance of focusing on the various actor strategies associated with moving along these dimensions, the exact content of the strategies remained to be clarified. A major contribution of these studies has been to provide a deeper insight into the content of these strategies as used by actors in learning projects. Finally, the network perspective avoids outright functionalism. The ever-present tensions between learning and work, and the ways in which actors deal with them, are thematised instead. It demonstrates that work can also be adjusted to be more in line with people's competencies. If this approach is taken seriously, it can contribute to preventing a learning elite from growing stronger. Notwithstanding the above-mentioned strengths, there are also limitations to the network perspective on learning projects. First, as a result of employees being right at the centre, the focus is on organizing work-related learning at the shop floor level only. Unlike much of the literature, the network perspective is not primarily concerned with issues such as management development and organisational learning. Perhaps it can provide some helpful insights in these domains as well, but they are not the main focus of attention. Learning projects can probably be organised at every level of organisational life, but the conclusions that have been put forward in this paper apply to learning projects in the operating core of an organisation only. Second, 'learning' has been conceptualised as the participation of people in activities, leading to changes in their action theories. As a consequence, the focus is not on how mental learning processes operate within individual people, but rather on the social processes occurring among people as they organise learning activities. A learning project is a construct allowing people to think of a broad range of diverse work-related learning activities that they organise as a meaningful whole. It is assumed (and has been investigated in our various studies) that
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people extend their action repertoire by engaging in these activities. Whether 'learning' in the psychological sense has occurred was no object of study in these studies. It would be interesting for further research to supplement our socialorganisational learning perspective with a more psychological (e.g., constructivist; cf. Bouwen and Fry, 1996) perspective, in order to find out which particular learning outcomes are associated with participation in different learning projects. Third, the network perspective assumes that people are selfconscious actors, who act and reflect explicitly on the basis of their theories and interests. This is probably the case only to a certain extent. During the process of data collection, many respondents only became fully aware of their (different) views and interests because the interview questions evoked responses around these topics. They may not play such an explicit role in everyday learning activities. But implicit theories are known to be quite relevant as well in guiding people's actions (Argyris and Schön, 1978). The network perspective makes it possible for actors, including researchers, to make their theories explicit and sensitive to change. This seems to be a more fruitful approach than labelling people's actions as irrational or dysfunctional simply because they differ from the dominant (usually management or expert) point of view. Finally, the network perspective does not provide absolute norms as to what way of organizing learning projects is better or more effective. Its nature is less normative than it is descriptive, explanatory, and action-oriented. It is left to the actors to decide on issues of effectiveness or other output criteria. The network perspective stipulates that it is in the interactions among the actors that these norms are formed and altered. What it offers is a wide variety of possibilities to link learning to work, and an insight into strategies for actors to deal with immanent tensions in this area. As such, it provides a frame of reference to guide people's actions and reflections in organizing work-related learning projects.
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6.5 Implications for further research This final section deals with the implications for further research that can be inferred from the studies presented. A distinction is made between the implications for the methodology of research into organizing work-related learning, and for the content areas of this research.
Research methodology In view of the limited number of learning-project cases (n=24) involved in the studies described, it is recommendable to investigate more cases in order to make the conclusions more plausible and more generalisable. Now that the concept of learning projects has been operationalised to such an extent that it can be made visible in organisational reality, it is possible to systematically study learning projects in other types of organisations with other work types. The question, then, is how to proceed methodologically with this research. At the outset of this research project, before the first study, one of the intentions was to design a standardised instrument to determine learning-project types (in terms of structures). As described briefly in the fifth study, the introduction and consequent application of the network perspective gradually led to a different research objective (more focused on bringing actor strategies to the surface). In the words of Guba and Lincoln (1994), a move occurred from a more (post-)positivist to a more critical but mainly constructivist research paradigm. It was recognised that organisational actors would benefit less from specific guidelines for action derived from some 'grand' theory, than from 'local' frames of reference (action theories) to confront their own views. Local theories, however, are by definition hard to measure using standardised instruments. Indeed, the four theoretical models of actors' learning-project strategies described in the fifth study could be further operationalised into a questionnaire to be administered to learning-project participants. But would this be a sensible approach?
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Probably not. Actor strategies are very context dependent. Developing a standardised questionnaire in order to measure them would result in either an instrument that can be used in certain work contexts only, or one using such contextindependent items that participants would not know how to relate them to their specific set of learning-project activities. It seems more worthwhile to develop protocols for actors to use learning-project models in order to make sense of their own learning activities. The methodological approach known as action research can be useful in this respect (Toulmin and Gustavsen, 1996; Hendry, 1996; Easterby-Smith, 1997). It implies that the researcher sets out to gradually develop local concepts in cooperation with the field of practice. This means an iterative research process in which practical experiments are conducted and constantly alternated with the further elaboration of local theoretical models. Both the participants and the researcher learn during such processes as they try and make sense out of their situation and progress. Actors can frame their own actions within a number of learning-project models, discuss the differences between them, engage in further action and reflection, adapt their current theories, try out new ways of learning and working, adjust their frames of reference accordingly, and so forth. In context-dependent counselling of such processes lays a potential new role for HRD professionals operating as action researchers. The LNT perspective can be applied as a descriptive framework in order to ensure the comparability of the various learning-project cases and thus improve the generalisability of the conclusions that e drawn.
Areas of further research A first set of topics for further (action) research has already been mentioned above. The operation of the project-based learning method should be investigated in more different work contexts. The studies have focused upon a relatively well-educated population of employees. It should be clarified whether the concept of work-related learning projects can also be applied for
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the sake of less-educated workers. To take this point even further, only employed people who engaged in learning projects were studied. In order to prevent a learning and working elite from gaining further momentum, the possibilities of the learning-project concept for the benefit of unemployed people should be investigated. It is our conviction that the learningproject concept can be successfully applied for the benefit of other groups of people as well. Both the content of the actor strategies, the impact of the power relations among the actors, and the context in which they operate will differ from the learning projects in these studies. These elements, however, form the main objects of investigation in this area. Another area of further research that has already been referred to earlier is the (new) roles of HRD professionals in work-related learning projects. Which learning-project strategies could they develop in order to make their mark on organisational life? This question should not be narrowed down to investigating didactic teaching strategies, as so often happens (Foucher, 1996; Phelan, 1996). In our view, it has more to do with contributing to a learning climate that is right for the context at hand and with assisting people to link various work and learning activities together to form learning projects. Especially the learningproject strategies of HRD staff in professional work require extra attention, since these strategies were found to be less fully elaborated in the learning projects studied. Is this because HRD professionals are not used to operating within an externally oriented learning group? Maybe their strategies at present just do not converge with those of the more powerful actors, the professional employees. From our cases emerged a similar lack of elaboration in connection with the learning-project strategies of HRD professionals in entrepreneurial work. Even though the situation is less pressing with respect to task-based and adhocratic group work, the actual and possible learning-project strategies of HRD professionals make for another area of research to be pursued (Poell and Chivers, in press).
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A third possible field of study lies in the relationship between learning projects, on the one hand, and the existing work and learning networks of an organisation, on the other hand. How do they influence each other? These studies have focused on the relationships between learning and work within learning projects. Another interesting option for study is how actors in learning projects make use of the possibilities offered by the existing work and learning networks, what they add to those networks, and to what changes in the work and learning networks this leads. For instance, a learning project in professional work will probably be characterised mostly by activities taking place within the present professional work and external learning network. If actors choose to engage in learning-project activities that are normally associated with taskbased work and a vertical learning network, does this result in the networks changing along the vertical dimension? Or do such learning projects simply not work? Or do they work, but not in the 'desired' direction? These questions are highly relevant for the field of organisational change and deserve to be investigated in the near future. When framed in 'learning' terms, this specific area of research may be rephrased as the possibilities that the concept of learning projects offers for 'single-loop' or 'double-loop' learning efforts (Argyris, 1982). Poell, Tijmensen, and Van der Krogt (1997) concluded that in order for learning projects to enable double loop learning they should be characterised not only by joint learning and an awareness of learning, but also by multi-faceted learning and learning linked to work improvement. These elements can be viewed as necessary preconditions, but are they sufficient for learning-project participants to accomplish double-loop learning? Some cases in the present studies suggest this to be the case, but it remains to be clarified how 'double-loop learning projects' can be systematically encouraged. This would make a well-suited research topic to supplement our social-
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organisational learning perspective with a more psychological perspective, as mentioned above, because the topic focuses on the relationship between social changes in organisations and mental models in people. Finally, an area of research still open for study lies in the effectiveness of various learning-project types and the way in which effectiveness can be established. The second and third studies included some reference to this question. It was concluded that there is no one most effective way to organise learning projects. Actors can deem different learning projects effective, that is, relevant for work improvement and for competence development. It seems quite important to take into account which actor is evaluating the effectiveness of a learning project. In an analysis of data from the sixteen learning-project cases described in the fourth study, Poell (1998b) concluded that the effectiveness of work-related learning projects is judged differently by employees, managers, and HRD professionals. Effectiveness was established in terms of the relevance of each learning project for employee development and for work improvement, as judged by each actor. Some learning projects were found to be more effective than others. Comparing three learning-project types, however, not one type turned out to be more effective than the others. Similarly, learning projects were not found to be more effective in either one of three work types in which they were conducted. Finally, learning projects fitting closely with work did not emerge as more effective than learning projects differing strongly from the work type in which they were carried out. It was found, however, that actors evaluate learning projects in which they are dominant organisers as more effective than learning projects not characterised mainly by their own strategy. It was concluded, therefore, that evaluation outcomes on learning-project effectiveness depend largely on the actor charged with the evaluation. An action research approach seems well suited to systematically incorporate this phenomenon as a relevant topic for further investigation.
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6.6 References Argyris, C. (1982). How learning and reasoning processes affect organizational change. In P.S. Goodman (Ed.), Change in organizations: New perspectives on theory, research, and practice (pp. 47-86). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Argyris, C., & Schön, D.A. (1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Bennebroek Gravenhorst, K.M. (1996). Invloedstactieken in veranderingsprocessen: Groepsverschillen in machtsgebruik [Influence tactics in change processes: Group differences in the use of power], Paper presented at the WESWA conference. Utrecht, The Netherlands. Bergenhenegouwen, G.J., Mooijman, E.A.M., & Tillema, H. (1992). Strategisch opleiden in organisaties [Strategic training in organizations]. Deventer: Kluwer. Bolman, L.G., & Deal, T.E. (1991). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bouwen, R., & Fry, R. (1996). Facilitating group development: Interventions for a relational and contextual construction. In M.A. West (Ed.), Handbook of work group psychology (pp. 531-552). Chichester: Wiley. Bouwen, R., Visch, J. de, & Steyaert, C. (1992). Innovation projects in organizations: Complementing the dominant logic by organizational learning. In D.M. Hosking, & N. Anderson (Eds.), Organizational change and innovation: Psychological perspectives and practices in Europe (pp. 123-148). London: Routledge. Burgoyne, J., & Jackson, B. (1997). The arena thesis: Management development as a pluralistic meeting point. In J. Burgoyne, & M. Reynolds (Eds.), Management learning: Integrating perspectives in theory and practice (pp. 5470). London: Sage. Carnevale, A.P., Gainer, L.J., & Villet, J. (1990). Training in America: The organization and strategic role of training. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cervero, R.M., & Wilson, A.L. (1996). What really matters in adult education program planning: Lessons in negotiating power and interests. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Dankbaar, B. (2000). Arbeidsorganisatie en menselijk kapitaal [Work organization and human capital]. Tilburg: OSA. Donaldson, L. (1996). For positivist organization theory: Proving the hard core. London: Sage. Dovey, K. (1997). The learning organization and the organization of learning: Power, transformation and the search for form in learning organizations. Management Learning, 28, 3, 331-349. Easterby-Smith, M. (1997). Disciplines of organizational learning: Contributions and critiques. Human Relations, 50, 9: 1085-1113. Erlicher, L., Moerkamp, T., & Sommerlad, E. (1995). Learning linked to work: The place of transfer and transferable skills in work-based learning. Amsterdam: SCO.
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Foucher, R. (1996). Enhancing self-directed learning in the workplace: A model and a research agenda. In H.B. Long (Ed.), Current developments in selfdirected learning (pp. 23-35). Norman, OK: College of Education, University of Oklahoma. Ginkel, K. van, Mulder, M., & Nijhof, W.J. (1994). HRD-Profielen in Nederland. Enschede: Universiteit Twente. Guba, E.G., & Lincoln, Y.S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105-117), London: Sage. Hendry, C. (1996). Understanding and creating whole organizational change through learning theory. Human Relations, 49, 5: 621-641. Hoff, T.J., & McCaffrey, D.P. (1996). Adapting, resisting, and negotiating: How physicians cope with organizational and economic change. Work and Occupations, 23, 2: 165-189. Hoogerwerf, E.C. (1998). Opnieuw leren organiseren: Sociotechniek in actietheoretisch perspectief [Organizing learning anew: Sociotechnical design from a theory of action perspective]. PhD thesis, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Utrecht: Lemma. Jacobs, R.L., & Jones, M.J. (1995). Structured on-the-job training: Unleashing employee expertise in the workplace. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Kraayvanger, G., & Onna, B. van (Eds.). (1985). Arbeid en leren: Bijdragen tot de volwasseneneducatie [Work and learning: Contributions to adult education]. Baarn: Nelissen. Marsick, V.J., & Watkins, K.E. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. London: Routledge. McGill, I., & Beaty, L. (1992). Action learning: A practitioner's guide. London: Kogan Page. McLagan, P.A. (1989). Models for HRD practice. Alexandria, VA: ASTD. Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). London: Sage. Mintzberg, H. (1979). The structuring of organisations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Mintzberg, H. (1989). Mintzberg on management: Inside our strange world of organizations (pp. 253-300). New York: Free Press. Onstenk, J.H.A.M. (1997). Lerend leren werken: Brede vakbekwaamheid en de integratie van leren, werken en innoveren [Learning to work by learning: Broad professional skills and the integration of learning, work, and innovation]. PhD thesis, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Delft: Eburon. Pettigrew, A., Ferlie, E., & McKee, L. (1992). Shaping strategic change: Making change in large organizations: The case of the National Health Service. London: Sage. Phelan, T.D. (1996). Interests of corporate trainers in application of self-directed learning techniques in training. In H.B. Long (Ed.), Current developments in self-directed learning (pp. 51-64). Norman, OK: College of Education, University of Oklahoma.
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Poell, R.F. (1998a). Organizing work-related learning projects: A network approach. PhD thesis, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Poell, R.F. (1998b). The effectiveness of work-related learning projects: An empirical analysis of sixteen cases. In R.F. Poell, & G.E. Chivers (Eds.), Continuing professional development in Europe: Theoretical views, fields of application, and national policies (pp. 65-71). Sheffield: University of Sheffield. Poell, R.F., & Chivers, G.E. (in press). New roles of HRD consultants in different organisational types. In P. Cressey, M. Kelleher, & R.F. Poell (Eds.), Learning in learning organisations: European perspectives. Luxemburg: CEDEFOP. Poell, R.F., Chivers, G.E., Van der Krogt, F.J., & Wildemeersch, D.A. (2000). Learning-network theory: Organizing the dynamic relationships between learning and work. Management Learning, 31, 1: 25-49. Poell, R.F., & Van der Krogt, F.J. (1997). Organising work-related learning projects. International Journal of Training and Development, 1, 3: 181-190. Poell, R.F., Van der Krogt, F.J., & Warmerdam, J.H.M. (1998). Project-based learning in professional organizations. Adult Education Quarterly, 49, 1: 28-42. Poell, R.F., Van der Krogt, F.J., & Wildemeersch, D.A. (1998). Solving workrelated problems through learning projects. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 17, 5: 341-351. Poell, R.F., Van der Krogt, F.J., & Wildemeersch, D.A. (1999). Strategies in organizing work-related learning projects. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10, 1: 43-61. Poell, R.F., Van der Krogt, F.J., & Wildemeersch, D.A. (2001). Constructing a research methodology to develop models for work-related learning: Social science in action. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 14, 1: 55-70. Poell, R.F., Tijmensen, E.C.M., & Van der Krogt, F.J. (1997). Can learning projects help to develop a learning organisation? Lifelong Learning in Europe, 2, 2: 67-75. Reynolds, M. (1997). Towards a critical management pedagogy. In J. Burgoyne, & M. Reynolds (Eds.), Management learning: Integrating perspectives in theory and practice (pp. 312-328). London: Sage. Robinson, D.G., & Robinson, J.C. (1989). Training for impact. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schön, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith. Swanson, R.A. (1994). Human resource development: Performance is the key. Paper presented at the third conference of the International Research Network on Education, Training, and Development (IRNETD). Milan, Italy.
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Swanson, R.A., & Arnold, D.E. (1996). The purpose of human resource development is to improve organizational performance. In R.W. Rowden (Ed.), Workplace learning: Debating five critical questions of theory and practice (New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no. 72, pp. 13-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Toulmin, S.E., & Gustavsen, B. (Eds.). (1996). Beyond theory: Changing organizations through participation. Philadelphia, PA: Benjamins. Van der Krogt, F.J. (1998). Learning network theory: The tension between learning systems and work systems in organizations. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9, 2: 157-177. Van der Krogt, F.J., Vermulst, A., & Kerkhof, H. (1997). Opleiden als instrument: Strategieën van leidinggevenden en uitvoerenden bij het reduceren van functioneringsproblemen in arbeid [Training as an instrument: Strategies of managers and employees in reducing work performance problems]. Gedrag en Organisatie, 10, 1: 17-30.
7 Combination of Formal Learning and Learning by Experience in Industrial Enterprises P. Dehnbostel & G. Molzberger
7.1 Introduction In this chapter new forms and concepts of combining work and learning will be discussed. Firstly some general changes currently taking place in enterprises of modern economies will be described. The following part is devoted to an analytical description of different forms of learning and their respective characteristics. The third part will discuss two examples of new forms of vocational training, which have been developed in several model projects for initial, as well as, further education in the German vocational training system. The examples of ‘learning bays’ and ‘work and learning tasks’ show innovations that have taken place and also illustrate organisational and didactical impacts of new forms of learning and working. The paper concludes with an outline of further aspects and future research needs.
7.2 Social and economic context of new developments in vocational training The vocational training in the Federal Republic of Germany has to contend with macroeconomic and microeconomic changes similar to those taking place in other industrialised countries. 181 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 181-194. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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There are three major topics to be mentioned (Dehnbostel 1998): z Firstly, international competition associated with a shift from a seller’s market to a buyer’s market is getting harder and is therefore exerting pressure on companies to rationalise their operations and to make them more flexible. z Secondly, as a result of the spread of modern information and communication technologies and with the introduction of new organisational concepts, skill requirements change rapidly and qualification needs become almost unpredictable. z Thirdly, subjective demands regarding one’s own working life are changing in conjunction with an overall change in social values. Concepts such as those designated by the catchwords ‘lean production’, ‘fractal factory’ and ‘learning organisation’ characterise the upheavals currently taking place in our traditional industrial system. Even if computer-integrated and holistic work processes are becoming more and more important, tayloristic and fordist labour structures are still predominating (Springer 1999; Kern and Schuman 1996; Nomura and Jürgens 1995). In the framework of new work and organisation concepts, not only are work tasks and structures changing but also the ways of learning. The relationship between formal learning and learning by experience changes. The quest for forward-looking vocational training therefore has to pursue new issues within a fundamentally changing world of work. In consequence of the demands of new work and organisational concepts key qualifications have become a necessity in modern work processes. The importance of informal learning is increasing. First analysis of new working and learning forms on the shop floor show that a new type of learning arrangement has emerged in modern work structures: a learning form, which combines learning and working systematically (Dybowski et al., 1999). This structural new type of learning appears in different forms and seems to be successful in fulfilling new requirements and demands. In the German ‘dual system’ these new forms of
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learning are part of different venue combinations, especially those of enterprises and vocational schools. The new type of learning is applicable for initial and for further vocational training. However, in further education these new forms are usually limited to the work process. The following part explains how the different types of learning can be characterised.
7.3 Different learning forms and types of knowledge Research in the field of combining learning and working has shown that learning in principle has to be differentiated between informal learning and formal or intentional learning. Formal learning is aimed at fixed contents and objectives whereas informal learning is uncertain and it produces learning results without planning these. This does not mean that in the process of informal learning there is no intention, just that this intention is related to the tasks and the enterprise’s developments and not to learning subjects. Furthermore, informal learning can be analytically distinguished between learning by experience and implicit learning. Whereas the latter usually occurs without reflection and subconsciously the learning by experience is mainly due to the reflective assimilation of experience. Obviously both kinds of learning are overlapping in the world of work and life. Figure 7.1 shows the differentiation of learning in enterprises networked with the main kinds of knowledge: Formal learning
Theoretical knowledge
Action knowledge
Learning in enterprise
Informal learning
Learning by experience
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Experiential knowledge
Figure 7.1 Kinds of learning and knowledge in enterprises
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The figure shows that experiential knowledge results mainly from informal learning respective of learning by experience and implicit learning. There is also a weak link from formal learning to experiential knowledge because in every formal learning situation experience is gained. On the other hand formal learning leads mainly to theoretical knowledge with informal learning also contributing to a small extent. Both, the theoretical knowledge and the experiential knowledge lead to action knowledge. To gain a broad action knowledge and acquire a more comprehensive action competence is the central objective of today’s initial and further vocational training. Informal learning and the combination of informal and formal learning play a decisive role in achieving this. The following presents two examples of an organisational and didactical approach designed to meet these objectives – ‘learning bays’ and ‘work and learning tasks’.
7.4 New organisational forms of training in the German vocational training system The main feature of ‘learning bays’ and ‘work and learning tasks’ is the integration of learning and working. New work and learning structures have been developed in the programme ‘decentralised learning’ in the nineties (Dehnbostel, 1998; Dybowski et al., 1999). This programme was initiated by several enterprises like Mercedes Benz - today Daimler Chrysler – VW and middle-sized industrial companies in connection with the Federal Institute of Vocational Training and Education (BIBB). Twelve model projects including initial and further education took place either in enterprises or in other vocational training places. All model projects were connected mainly with the field of skilled work on the shop floor. The main objectives of the programme were to decentralise vocational training and to create different learning forms to integrate working and learning. Decentralizing learning is comparable with the decentralisation in new organisational systems and leads to more independence, selforganisation and responsibility for the employees.
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Learning bays in middle-sized and large companies Currently learning bays can be seen in operation in more than fifty industrial middle-sized and large companies in Germany. They were first developed in the above mentioned programme ‘decentralised learning’, especially in the model project ‘decentralised learning in teamwork’ in two Daimler plants localised in Baden-Württemberg. One of these plants is a truck and the other a car assembly plant. Shortly after the beginning of the model project the learning bay model was transferred to several mainly medium sized enterprises. There are two central innovations of this project to be mentioned: the implementation of learning bays in the middle of the work process and furthermore the development of group work and group learning. Learning bays are supplied with a double infrastructure: that of a normal workplace and that of a learning place. Thus, learning bays include work resources, machines and typical work tasks as well as learning facilities like for instance notice-boards, multimedia and time for using it. Work-bound learning in learning bays integrates informal and formal learning. The learning infrastructure is the basis for formal learning whereas the work infrastructure is the basis for informal learning. Figure 7.2 illustrates the double infrastructure in learning bays: Learning bay
Learning infrastructure
Work infrastructure z z z z
Work resources, machines Process organization and hierarchy Work tasks and work structure Qualification demands
z z z z
INFORMAL LEARNING
–
Learning possibilities like learning facilities and time Work and learning tasks Fixed objectives and contents of learning cooperative work-learning-groups
FORMAL LEARNING
Figure 7.2 Double infrastructure of learning bays
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During initial training learning bays have been set up for producing shifts, for axle assembly, maintenance and customer/after-sales service. Usually a group of four to six apprentices spends about six weeks at a time in one learning bay. The complete apprenticeship lasts three-and-a-half-years and the apprentices spend only the last one-and-a-half-years of their apprenticeship in learning bays. Before doing real work with high demands and responsibilities, apprentices have the opportunity to acquire knowledge and skills by first-hand experience. The apprentices do the same work as the skilled workers in the surrounding workplaces. They are accompanied by a skilled worker who has the ability to train, he or she is the learning bay trainer. Each apprentice performs all the different tasks in a kind of job rotation including the role of the group speaker and leader. The combination of formal and informal learning mostly takes place in form of group learning. The planning, carrying out and checking of assignments is done by the group collectively. The work and learning content are continuously discussed by the group, as well as the personal attitudes of each group member and the group leader. Technical, social and methodical skills are learned by experience and theoretical instruction. The apprentices coordinate their tasks by themselves, they have to learn how to conduct consultations and write protocols. They also learn how to use presentation and visualisation techniques. The learning bay trainer designs the necessary methods for this purpose. Self-organised learning of the apprentices calls for changes in mentality and in patterns of behaviour for the accompanying skilled workers respective the trainers. The structure and the objectives of communication receive a different function than in the overcome forms of training. Communication does not take on the character of instruction but that of advice given in problem situations. The trainer does not leave the apprentices completely to themselves, but sets the framework in which they acquire the desired skills by selfmanaged learning and working steps.
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Summarizing, learning bays can be characterised in the following way: z Learning bays are workplaces on the shop floor which are enlarged by learning facilities and where trainees – young people and adults - accomplish work tasks mostly on their own. z The trainees work in a team. The teamwork is arranged in a manner similar to the model of half-autonomous group work. z Learning bay trainers fulfil primarily the role of an attendant or advisor. She or he always is a skilled worker of the respective department. z The work tasks are holistic and contain potentials of learning and shaping. z Sometimes learning bays are sites for innovation in work processes, especially in the field of new work organisation and new work arrangement. In the apprenticeship of Daimler Chrysler in BadenWürttemberg four different types of venues are combined: the vocational school, the training centre, the traditional workplace for learning by doing and the new learning bays. These venue combinations - called learning network - are supposed to maximise the advantages of the different learning places. In learning bays especially key qualifications like team-ability and self-directed learning are acquired. Figure 7.3 shows the growing importance of key qualifications in the development of the learning track. Additionally it shows the different venues of the apprenticeship including the differentiation in the first two years of apprenticeship in the training centre of Daimler Chrysler. It is important that the department, where the learning bay is situated, is responsible for the costs. In this way learning bays become more integrated in the work process. The department has an interest in the learning processes and it is linked to other learning places and modern training concepts.
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Combination of Formal Learning and Learning by Experience… young skilled worker
year of apprenticeship
3½
3
learning bays
work reality
- learning bays - learning by doing
- real projects - workshops of application
2
1
- training projects - courses
school
technical qualifications
key qualifications
Figure 7.3 Learning bays and venue combinations
The learning bay receives its assignments either directly from the computer-controlled order and planning systems or from the master or from other departments. For further vocational training the learning bays have, in principle, the same structure. However, one important difference is the duration: further
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education in learning bays usually lasts only from two to five days as opposed to about six weeks during initial education. Another difference is the actual content. At present, learning bays for further education are mostly used for adjustment purposes. Thus, technical skills dominate. This means as well that knowledge acquired by work experience is important for the training process and in new work processes for the combination of formal and informal learning. If holistic work processes proceed self-organised methods, social objectives and formal learning will receive more attention in work orientated further education in the future.
‘Work and learning tasks’ in small enterprises In the programme ‘decentralised learning’ another way of combining learning and working was founded (Dehnbostel et al., 1996). Specifically for small enterprises, a work and learning task system for vocational training was developed and tested. In a model project ‘Decentralised learning for small and medium enterprises’ training was decentralised insofar as it was split up and distributed to several companies which specialised in that respective part of the training. This resulted in a broader training basis and more autonomy for the individual company training venues. A network of all participating small and medium sized companies came into being. Some of the training competences and tasks which previously had been concentrated in a single company were delegated elsewhere. The concept was developed and tested for various training sequences, mainly in the second year of apprenticeship. The work and learning task system was flexibly applied in the companies concerned. As can be seen from the figure 7.4, the work and learning tasks were tackled in different venue sequences within a company or within the inter-company network. As the venue sequences show, the trainees in the first example were familiarised with all the processing steps involved in manufacturing a product in one single company. In a second
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form of network all the processing steps are covered in different companies, thus the same sequences can take place twice in one particular company. A third possibility is that only one work sequence of central importance for the occupation concerned is tackled in various companies. Process organisation Development/ planning Design Company 1
Company 2
Company 3
z
z
{
{
Work preparation z
Production Manuplanning facture z
z
Assembly
Sale
z
z
{
{
| {
{
{ |
{
{ |
Figure 7.4 Possible learning venue sequences in cooperating small and medium enterprises
In the model project, workplaces were transformed into learning venues on the basis of a selective approach towards the work carried out there and it’s potential to yield suitable work and learning tasks. The small and medium sized enterprises participating in the model project all had holistic tasks, transparent organisational structures and recognisable interrelational linkages. Demarcations between different functional areas, e.g. management, administration, work preparation, manufacturing, final inspection and accounting, were usually either non-existent or less pronounced than in larger companies. The task profiles and the associated skill requirements were accordingly coherent and holistic. These quality characteristics, which in turn were found to result in
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strong social ties, and the integrated presence of skills and expertise in the process, were targeted for their particular merits to produce the work and learning tasks. In principle, they extend over the entire work process illustrated in the figure 7.5. In order to understand the work situation in the participating companies, a multi-step procedure was carried out involving each company using skill analysis as well as analysis of typical work tasks. In the case of the work tasks, the aim was to identify ‘typical’ tasks on the basis of two criteria: on the one hand the tasks were to be tasks regularly handled within the company and to which the work structures and work media geared towards, on the other hand they were to be significant for the apprentices’ occupation and also highly transferable.
Customer enquiry
Work preparation
Manufacture
Assembly
Final inspection
Accounting
Procedures involved in processing a customer’s order
Figure 7.5 Complete work process
The findings of these investigations were fed into the process of selecting workplaces for vocational training purposes. The work and learning tasks were real-life job orders enriched with training elements. In the analysis of work tasks typical of a given company, e.g. the manufacture of a shaft or a swivel part was identified as having relevance for the learning process. In order to have a didactic impact, the task was analysed and broken down into individual work steps – from order placement and work preparation via manufacture and quality control to completion of the order. The analysis focused on the skills needed for individual action and the entire complex of actions and additionally on the enrichments to be added for educational reasons. Manuals drawn up for the training staff and the trainees set out the work and learning tasks in curricular form.
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The shaft task was adopted in a way that, as an element of the swivel part, it could be applied to numerous production variants and used in many different companies. The following work and learning tasks were developed and tested on numerous occasions: turn parts, assembly as teamwork, cutting tools, shaping technology, crafting of wooden parts. Except from the last-mentioned task, which is intended in the training for qualification as a wood mechanic or joiner, the tasks are intended for use in training regulations in the metalworking technology field. The work and learning assignments are structured and deployed in a manner which allows the following criteria to be met: z Work and learning tasks involving holistic work and learning processes during which technical, social and interdisciplinary skills are acquired. z They are tackled to an increasing extent in self-organised teamwork with each team member bearing a high degree of responsibility. z The learning processes are driven by action and experience, the learners thereby acquire experiential knowledge. z Issues relating to the design and organisation of the work are considered in depth and associated with a continuous process of improvement. z The selection and enrichment of the tasks are geared to the profile of the training regulations and directives.
7.5 Final remarks Within the context of initial and further vocational training, the notion of learning about work and the combination of learning and working has become more and more important. However, unlike formal learning, informal learning and the combination with formal learning in vocational training has hardly been documented, analysed and certified in Germany (Bjørnåvold 1999). Neither in vocational training concepts nor in
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examination and appraisal procedures it is regarded as a learning dimension in its own right. If this situation is to change, there is a need to identify and evaluate the competences which are developed through informal learning and the new learning type of combining formal and informal learning. Also in need of documentation and analysis are the vast differences which exist in terms of registering and processing the experiences gained by individuals or teams when planning, executing and monitoring a work task. The internal and external experience acquired depends on various factors such as pre-existing knowledge, instruction value and routine. At a higher level, reflection on such experience is likewise dependent on various factors. More generally, there is a need to ascertain the extent to which informal learning contributes towards improving experiential knowledge and enhancing action competence. In modern vocational training concepts learners are seen as experts of their working field, but their learning should not be restricted to the work processes. To solve problems and challenges of work employees need time and room partially free of the constraints of the production process. Learning by experience and implicit learning cannot replace formal learning processes procuring abstract or theoretical knowledge as well as controversial discussions. Innovations depend on ‘free spirits’ of experienced workers. Restrictions to any special kind of learning, be it exclusive formal learning or be it exclusive informal learning will neither meet the needs of modern companies nor the demands of employees. Finally it is to draw attention to the fact that the concept of ‘learning bays’ and the concept of ‘work and learning tasks’ include the selecting and designing of workplaces for training purposes. The selection process here entails analysing the workplace for its merits as a learning venue. It should also be taken into account from the viewpoints of vocational educators and learning psychologists. The design process should be aimed at full use of all structures which are conductive to learning and also of all manpower and material resources available locally.
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7.6 References Bjørnåvold, J. (1999). ‘Identification, assessment and recognition of non-formal learning: European tendencies’. In P. Dehnbostel, W. Markert, & H. Novak (Ed.), Erfahrungslernen in der beruflichen Bildung – Beiträge zu einem kontroversen Konzept. Neusaess: Kieser Verlag, pp. 254-280. Dehnbostel, P., Holz, H., & Novak, H. (1996). (Ed.). Neue Lernorte und Lernortkombinationen – Erfahrungen und Erkenntnisse aus dezentralen Berufsbildungskonzepten [New learning places, and combinations of learning places – Experiences and knowledge for decentralized training concepts]. Bielefeld: Bertelsmann. Dehnbostel, P. (1998). ‘Lernorte, Lernprozesse und Lernkonzepte im lernenden Unternehmen aus berufspädagogischer Sicht’. In P. Dehnbostel, H.-H. Erbe, & H. Novak (Ed.), Berufliche Bildung im lernenden Unternehmen. Zum Zusammenhang von Betrieblicher Reorganisation, neuen Lernkonzepten und Persönlichkeitsentwicklung [Vocational education and training in learning organizations. Interrelations between company reorganization, new learning concepts and personal development]. Berlin: Edition Sigma, pp. 175-194. Dybowski, G., Dehnbostel, P., Kling, J., & Töpfer, A. (1999). Betriebliche Innovations– und Lernstrategien, Implikationen für berufliche Bildungs– und betriebliche Personalentwicklungsprozesse [Innovations and learning strategies in companies, implications for VET and personal development]. Bielefeld: Bertelsmann. Kern, H., & Schumann, M. (1996). ‘Vorwärts in die Vergangenheit? Zustand der Arbeit – Zukunft der Arbeit’, in Gewerkschaftliche Monatshefte 11-12, pp. 715-724. Nomura, M., & Jürgens, U. (1995) Binnenstrukturen des japanischen Produktivitätserfolges, Arbeitsbeziehungen und Leistungsregulierung in zwei japanischen Automobilunternehmen [Internal structures of succesful productivity in Japanese motor-car industry]. Berlin: Edition Sigma. Springer, R. (1999). Rückkehr zum Taylorismus? Arbeitspolitik in der Automobilindustrie am Scheideweg [Return to taylorism?]. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag.
8 Workplace Oriented Collaborative Problem Solving as a Tool for Active Knowledge Management A. Kluge
8.1 Introduction How can HRD–techniques help to “kill two birds with one stone”? How can a single training design cover teamdevelopment, knowledge management, and competence in project management? These questions were asked by a company (DeTeImmobilien, a subsidiary/spin-off of Deutsche Telekom specialised on Facility Management) facing the problem that employees’ attitudes, values and norms seem to be stable since they entered the organisation as it once was a public service organisation for telecommunications. Employees were socialised and used to values like stability and security in slowly and subtly changing markets. After privatisation in 1996 and increased national and international competition in telecommunication markets, employees were faced with expectations of high service standards and client orientation. Fixed and determined rules and responsibilities, procedures and operating instructions usual for traditional bureaucracy-models of organisation as well as schoolings as predominant training-forms were part of the organisation’s culture. Now employees have to think and behave interdisciplinary, team- and project-oriented in addition to their 195 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 195-216. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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usual working routines because market requirements are rapidly changing and competition is increasing. This chapter aims at presenting a developed training program and its evaluation that focused on overcoming bureaucratic thinking and behaviour. The training design combines experiential learning techniques with techniques derived from situated learning approaches. It should foster knowledge sharing to serve the need, to gain self-esteem in resolving project tasks, grounded in successful cooperation between different departments. Training focused on the learning process with the expectation to increase intrinsic motivation for life-long learning. The structure of this chapter follows the Instructional Design process starting with the needs analysis. It is followed by deriving learning objectives, defining evaluation criteria, selecting training methods, carrying out the training program and summarizing evaluation results (Dipboye, 1997). Since this kind of training was the first one with workplace orientation in the company, evaluation characteristics were more exploratory than in a traditional quasi-experimental fashion. Proceeding this way aimed at quickly getting a first impression on possible positive outcomes.
8.2 Needs analysis for workplace oriented learning and knowledge management From job and task analysis to learning objectives The needs analysis provides us with clues on how to ensure that already learned material will be used on the job and how to choose the criteria that will be used for the evaluation of the training program’s effectiveness (Dipboye, 1997). The most critical objective of needs analysis is to precisely identify the job concerned (Goldstein, 1993). Watching the management topics like changes in workforce, downsizing, organisational attachment, job and technology changes as well as changing political climate and market conditions (Thayer, 1997) one starts
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to notice the difficulty to define exact task requirement in a rapidly changing workplace. Training in a rapidly changing workplace encounters the difficulty, that domain and subject specific knowledge will be replaced and needs to be renewed in an increased speed of time, because “old knowledge” becomes obsolete. A rough primary requirement analysis resulted in the need to build adaptive expertise in project management techniques and inter-departmental cooperation along businessprocesses. Adaptive expertise contains inventing new procedures based on one’s knowledge (Holyoak, 1991). The key to the ability of adapting to novel problems is a deeper conceptual understanding of the target domain. In addition to procedural knowledge (knowing how), employees have to learn why procedures are appropriate for certain task conditions. To understand the job in the context of the organisation (organisational analysis and transfer climate, job analysis, person analysis, KSA, Goldstein, 1993), the learning objectives and demands were specified by using document analysis concerning business processes relating to project management as well as qualitative analysis of interviews conducted. These interviews have been carried out with experts of subunits involved (e.g. accounting, controlling and finance, technical engineering for facility management and real estate management, law and personnel management as well as marketing and sales). The target group for training consisted of selected participants belonging to middle management with technical background in telecommunication and civil engineering. After interviewing stakeholders from the top management, middle management and potential participants it became obvious, that future workplace conditions require different knowledge, skills and abilities. This involves coping with an increasing number of project-oriented tasks, with alternating team constellations and persons having diverse subunit-specific background, chosen for the project because of their function
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concerning organisational processes in regard to core competencies. Two groups were identified to be trained. They differed in respect to the knowledge required to work on the project’s content. The required knowledge to reach high quality project results included: For the first training for example this included knowledge about market potential of maintenance service and expansion status of antenna masts for mobile communication, comparison of costs, calculation of earning power, personnel costs, determination of working minutes, using existing procedures and business processes. The second training’s needs analysis required knowledge in building laws, asset portfolio management, judgement of economic potential to rent or sell rebuilt technical buildings to use as offices, knowledge about business processes and organisational standards in writing guidelines to be published. The goal in regard to knowledge acquisition was to make use of organisational knowledge available in the firm and held by experts in leading positions. The learning objectives concerning skills and abilities focused on taking initiative to diagnose team dynamics and using project management techniques to formulate working goals, identifying human and material resources for working, choosing and implementing appropriate working strategies and evaluating working outcomes in spite of adaptive expertise. Important requisites were individual attitudes, which we defined as intrinsic motivation (Blumenstein, 2000) willingness to cooperate, openness to new experiences as well as self-efficacy. Self-efficacy operates as a key factor in a generative system of human competence (Bandura, 1997). Effective work in a project requires both skills and the efficacy belief to use them well, which calls for continuous improvisation of multiple sub-skills to manage ever-changing situations, most of which contain ambiguous, unpredictable, and often stress-full elements. “Perceived self-efficacy is not a measure of skills one has but a belief about what one can do under different sets of conditions
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with what ever skills one possesses” (Bandura, 1997; S. 37). Selfefficacy here functions as a moderator between learning and performance. It explains why people with the same skills perform poorly, adequately or extraordinary depending on whether their self-beliefs of efficacy enhance or impair their motivation and problem solving efforts (Wood & Bandura, 1989).
Analyzing the transfer climate For the purpose of a high level of positive transfer, transferclimate factors have been analysed to estimate how much support and preparation as well as relapse prevention training would be needed. Rouillier and Goldstein (1993) refer to transfer- climate to explain, why trainees being trained identically have varied and diverse positive or zero transfer outcomes. They found out that a more positive transfer-climate in terms of influencing trainees to use what they have learned (situational cues, e.g. “equipment used in training is similar to the equipment found on the job”) and rewarding trainees for doing so (consequences: “trainees who successfully use their training are likely to receive a salary increase”) enhances the use of trained skills. In addition to that Houlton, Bates, Seyler and Carvalho (1997) suggest the following transfer constructs: supervisor support, opportunity to use, peer support, supervisors’ sanctions, positive and negative personal outcomes, resistance (e.g. group norms) as well as content validity (e.g. “Does the training accurately reflect job requirements and transfer design?”). Using transfer-climate analysis it became obvious, that content validity, situational cues, and the opportunity to use training contents could be best assured through workplace orientation based on identical elements theory (see below).
Defining evaluation indicators In respect to the need of gaining self-esteem in resolving project tasks, as a result of successful cooperation between different
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departments to use knowledge available in the company, training focused on the learning process with the expectation to foster intrinsic motivation for life-long learning. The following evaluation indicators were derived: Participants were expected to construct an elaborated cognitive schema on project management including knowing project management techniques combined with techniques to regulate group dynamics. In addition we were interested to know, whether discussion with experts led to a broader perspective and whether there was a willingness to co-operate with different departments in case of new projects. We therefore interviewed participants after the training was realised (see information box 1) to get an impression of lessons learned. Information box 1
Interview-questions
In respect to lessons learned in project-oriented work: Please describe necessary steps in project-oriented work. Which rules did you discover that need to be obeyed? What critical phases and problems did you encounter? In respect to lessons learned in knowledge management: How far did discussing with experts broaden your perspectives? How did you use the experts’ knowledge afterwards? In respect to lessons learned in team-development: What did you learn about team-development? How far are you satisfied with the group’s results? How far are you committed to the results? In respect to lessons learned personally: What did you achieve personally? What result did the team achieve?
In addition participants should increase their openness to new experiences: While dealing with the project tasks and handling their team dynamics, participants were asked to continuously adapt to new situations, to monitor their own results, and in the meantime make use of the knowledge and expertise already available in the company. Item example: “I do opt for something only if I know, that it will not harm me” (Wardanjan, 1997). Intrinsic motivation: Valuing and being interested in working on project tasks and to appreciate working as a positive stimulus
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and reinforcement itself. Item example: “I do learn, because I am enjoying it” (Wardanjan, 1997). Co-operation: Ability to work in groups, active helpfulness and collegiality. Scales are taken from SBK (SBK= Self-assessment of vocational competencies, Sonntag & Schaefer-Rauser, 1993). Item example: “I think it makes sense to support each other at work”. Self-efficacy: Efficacy beliefs involve different types of capabilities such as management of thought, affect, action, and motivation. The item content must represent beliefs about personal abilities to reproduce specified levels of performance (Bandura, 1997). Item example: “I do achieve job related targets, I set my self” (Schyns, 1999).
8.3 Instructional design for workplace oriented learning and knowledge management The next phase of the training cycle concerns the production and implementation of the instructional program. The material, media, and procedures should be chosen because they are effective in facilitating learning and transfer. Among the instructional events that psychological research has shown to improve learning (practice, over learning, spacing of material, advance organisers, active participation of learners and refresher training) there are no universal principles of learning. The best advice is (following Dipboye, 1997) to chose instructional events that are most appropriate to the capability that is the target of the training (Gagne, 1984). The adaptive expertise approach requires systematic development in training of meaningful structures for organizing knowledge and selfregulatory skills that enhance the capacity for learning from onthe-job experience (Smith et al., 1997).
Learning principles Learning principles that are most appropriate for adaptive expertise suggested by Smith et al. (1997) are guided discovery
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learning and error-based learning. These principles are helpful in that they allow individual latitude to explore the training content and develop one’s own understanding, which leads to higher quality knowledge structures. Discovery learning and error-based learning can be converted into a training setting using approaches of situated learning, e.g. authentic situations that are “social & complex” (Anderson et al. 1996). “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38). The central idea here is that learning, and therefore knowing, requires both a grasp of figurative representation of experience and some transformation of that representation. Experiential learning sensu Kolb (1984) can be described as an iterative process including: (1) concrete experience followed by (2) reflective observation, which should be followed by (3) abstract conceptualisation, that may guide (4) active experimentation and concrete experience. Guided discovery and error-based learning are based on experiential learning theory. It leads to formulation and reformulation of hypotheses, because observations may violate expectations, which might force us to assimilate or accommodate existing schemas. Therefore guided discovery facilitates knowledge acquisition.
Social embeddedness, knowledge management and communities-of-practice Social embeddedness and complexity requires working on a real live project task to organise and regulate one’s own team building process. A group e.g. profits from the social comparisons and the questioning of assumptions by social agents (Brown & Palincsar, 1989) and develops into a “knowledge building community” (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1992). Therefore, the interaction with “relevant others” has to initiate reflection processes which help them to recognise the variety of perspectives and make them abandon an ego central point of view (Brown & Palincsar, 1989). The foundation for this
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argumentation is the concept of the zone of proximal development as the difference between the individual ability, the level of the independent problem solver and the level of potential problem solving performance (Vygotsky, 1978), which can be achieved by interaction with peers or experts. The mutual shared knowledge elements in communities-of-practice consist of the elements of narration, collaboration and social construction (Brown & Duguid, 1991). Information box 2
Design strategies to build adaptive expertise (Smith et al., 1997)
Advance organisers → provide an initial organizing structure or framework. Analogies → involve the learner in actively processing the meaning of the analogy for the transfer of the analogy to a different problem (Advance organiser and analogies lead individuals to learn and retain knowledge in a more abstract form). Guided discovery → provides e.g. leading questions or hints to learners, provides prompts without giving solutions, allows the learner to use hypothesis testing and problem-solving, which require more conscious attention for their application. Error-based training → contains error management strategies like coping and recovering from error situations that may contain negative motivational consequences. Metacognitive instruction → encourage and prompt the learner to identify goals, generate new ideas, elaborate on existing ideas, and strive for better understanding, e.g. instruction planning strategy, including monitoring and evaluation components. Learner control → e.g. choice over content, sequence and pace of learning. Mastery-oriented learning → includes the belief that effort leads to improved outcomes, and that ability is malleable.
Learners do not receive or even construct abstract, “objective” individual knowledge. Rather they learn to function in a community. They ought to acquire that particular community’s subjective point of view and learn to speak its language, which means to be enculturated (Information box 3). Learners acquire the embodied ability to behave as community members, e.g. to
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tell and appreciate narratives. Information box 3
community-appropriate
stories
and
Communities-of-practice
Learning takes place in communities-of-practice through legitimate, peripheral participation (LPP: Lave & Wenger, 1991): “The central issue in learning is becoming a practitioner not learning about practice” (Brown & Duguid, 1991, p. 48). Learning from the point of view LPP involves becoming an “insider”. This notion is based on Orr’s observations (1987 & 1990) of the work of service technicians, whose narration about disturbance removal supports their diagnostic performance and allows insight into their causal structure, which explains the “hows” and “whys” of the action. However, the narration provides a storage compartment for the accumulated knowledge and wisdom and protection from “down skilling”.
The communities-of-practice approach uses techniques like cognitive - apprenticeship. Characteristics of cognitive apprenticeship are: z By beginning with a task embedded in a familiar activity it shows the legitimacy of the learner’s implicit knowledge and its availability as scaffolding, in apparently unfamiliar tasks. z By pointing out different decompositions, it stresses that heuristics are not absolute, but assess with respect to a particular task. z By allowing learners to generate their own solution paths, it helps them to develop to conscious, creative members of a culture of problem solving experts. By enculturating through this activity, they acquire the culture’s tools – a shared vocabulary and the means to discuss, reflect upon, evaluate, and validate community procedures in a collaborative process (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989).
Workplace-orientation An authentic real work life project task and a follow up-transfer project of implementing project results were chosen to use identical elements aiming at fostering situational cues and content validity for a supporting transfer-climate especially to make use of expertise available in the firm.
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Identical elements theory (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901) and transfer through-principles theory predict that transfer would occur as long as there were identical elements in learning and target situation. These identical elements include aims, methods, and approaches that can be defined in terms of stimuli and responses as well as general principles necessary to learn to solve problems in the transfer task (Goldstein, 1993). The fact that participants are expected to work team- and projectoriented on transfer tasks has guided the development of the discovery learning-instructional approach on real life tasks. It allows participants to spend and invest time on reflection processes. Reflective observation leads to abstract conceptualisation and thus to knowledge acquisition. This point outlines the difference between on the job learning and workplace orientation. While on-the-job learning equals task performance, workplace orientation demands an intentionally developed instructional design close to the workplace with opportunities to reflect on learning results (Sonntag, 1998). With workplace orientation we also covered transfer-climate needs in so far, that supervisors support the opportunity to use “lessons learned”, positive outcomes and content validity could be ensured. We tried to foster supervisors’ support by letting them formulate project objectives in the role of the orderer and principal. Opportunities to use lessons learned were opened up by embedding the implementation of project outcomes into the training concepts as a follow-up concept. Positive outcomes developed through perceived personal profit and benefit from presenting in front of the director’s board and the anticipation, that project results will be implemented and of use for one’s own work. Content validity was ensured using real-life project tasks that needed to be worked out because of legal restraint. In summary, the aim was to create learning spaces in which employees are reinforced by successfully self-organised collaborative and individual learning outcomes supported by experts if needed. That means that learners should encounter skills to end up with successful projects and to reach project goals (Basic principles: behaviour probability will increase through
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direct and indirect reinforcement.). “Successful” means to work on project-related topics and contents with the goal to reach an high quality result as well as being aware of group dynamics and interaction processes in spite of personal satisfaction and individual needs of being heard and accepted. The social and complex guided discovery scenario is shown in figure 8.1:
Figure 8.1 Experiential learning in a self-organised collaborative nearthe job setting
The social and complex guided discovery learning process should be realised in practical situations most appropriate by problem based learning principles (PBL). Along the PBL-approach (Koshmann, Myers, Feltovich & Barrows, 1994) a small team of 10 learners together with a PBL coach/trainer, collaborated to reach a common project target. The project case took the form of an illstructured problem, requiring learners to develop the case from minimal presenting information (see table 8.1). The coaching used in PBL replicates the reasoning process used by experts as they work up a case within a group. Data were gathered, hypotheses generated and tested, and conclusions drawn in an interactive, recursive manner. Throughout the process participants generated issues - areas of knowledge in which members of the group felt that they are not sufficiently prepared for understanding the problem under study.
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At the end of the project team-members were asked to articulate the knowledge they gained (abstracting stage) in form of a presentation in front of the board of managing directors. In the reflecting stages in every training session, the group discussed their own approach to the problem itself using video feedback. Project meetings held during training were video taped and used to evaluate group project related discussion to step forward to the targets. In this stages, the team reflected on and criticises its own learning process to identify areas for future improvement. PBL realises the principle of workplace orientation in the following manner: Participants were confronted with illstructured cases in that they may include missing or erroneous data, unusual presentation, etc. The process of inquiry is also authentic: Initially only a small amount of information is provided to a project team. They had to inquire for all remaining information, as they would have to do in a real project. Third, the stages of PBL process recapitulate the sequence of actual project management techniques of problem solving. In that respect participants had to “pull” information, had to ask and to interview invited experts of specialised sub-units to define the project’s goal, to expand the problem space and to acquire knowledge to use domain specific operators and heuristics. Knowledge available in special business units was transferred using cognitive-apprenticeship approach and legitimate peripheral participation (LPP, Brown & Duguid, 1991) in a nearthe job training design. Knowledge-owner from different project-relevant units shared their expertise (e.g. accounting, controlling and finance, technical engineering for facility management and real estate management, law and personnel management as well as marketing and sales) using narratives. The knowledge owner invited had been chosen before in respect to his or her valued expertise by the group. Goal of the first project was to develop a business process for the maintenance and repair of antenna masts. The second project included the development of a business process to reconstruct technical areas into multipurpose rooms and offices.
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Table 8.1 Schedule and sequencing of workplace oriented training Knowledge Group related management level Project-related level level Invited experts 1. Training Defining project goals Get to know each The managing session Members define other director of Facility near the working packages, Teambuilding Management job redefinition and forming phase department answers specification of Team members question on project success criteria and discuss about the goals, evaluation evaluation criteria for required knowcriteria and success the project ledge background and decide to on inviting experts and new members Video feedback of the project meeting Team learns to ask open-questions Participants work out topics of to-do-lists to prepare the next training on the job 2. Training Discussion about the Teambuilding Marketing experts session revised written brain-storming answer question on near the project-order phase/outdoor (the) market potential job Data collection and training elements combination Video feedback of the project meeting to monitor the progress made of achieving the target Participants work out topics of to-do-lists to prepare the next training on the job 3. Training First solutions are Teambuilding Experts from the session generated, discus-sed, norming phase controlling and near the rejected and Video feedback of personnel departjob disapproved. the project ment give feed-back Team recognises, meeting to the worked out that further inforideas and give advice mation is needed. concerning to their domain-specific issues Participants work out topics of to-do-lists to prepare the next training on the job
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Table 8.1 Continued 4. Training session near the job
Different solutions are Teambuilding Experts from finance combined and comperforming phase department support pared with the project Video feedback of team members to target the project meeting calculate the earning Solutions are formulapower and the ted and presented in needed profit the training session to discuss their advantages Participants work out topics of to-do-lists to prepare the next training on the job 5. Training The solution is put Teambuilding Experts from the desession into an organisational performing phase partment of organisationear the standard format Video feedback of nal infrastructure give job Potential users are the project meeting advice concerning the asked to give Team takes over use of different stanfeedback concerning the selfdards e.g. in writing the usability of regulation of the guidelines or designing generated solution team meeting procedures and processes working instructions for implementation Participants work out topics of to-do-lists to prepare the next training on the job 6. Training Preparation of Teambuilding Board of directors give session presentation formats performing phase advice regarding near the Team uses rehearsal Video feedback of presentation standards job of presentation project meeting used in the Team takes over organisation the self- regulation of team meeting processes 7. Presen- Team presents the Feedback from board tation of generated solution in of directors and project a regular manageorderer results on ment meeting of the the job directors board 8. Project Team discusses Reflection with reflection lessons learned support of the PBLand lessons Team adjourning coach learned phase 9. Transfer Board of directors give phase permission to implement the worked out solution Team constitutes a new team for the implementation phase
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8.4 Implementation and results Since this kind of training was the first one with workplace orientation in the company, evaluation characteristics were more exploratory than in a traditional quasi-experimental fashion with the purpose to get a first impression on possible positive outcomes. In two training programmes 8 and 10 participants worked on the project about 12 days (6x2 days) during about 4-6 month. 735 out of 1150 seminar-hours participants worked directly on the project tasks (gathering ideas, collecting information, developing solutions, discussing with experts). 415 hours were spent on reflecting team dynamics using video feedback. This sequences were videotaped in project-related team meetings held during the seminar. Interview results were analysed by 4 raters using qualitative content analysis. Both training groups showed a gain in interrelated and linked cognitive schemas of traditional project management tools with concepts of team development. Both groups felt highly committed to project results and stated a high emotional involvement. Participant agreed highly on topics listed below (categories presented, on which at least 50% of participants agreed on): In respect to lessons learned in project-oriented work: As necessary steps in project-oriented work participants described clarifying project objectives, defining project frame (“It is very important to define the project order precisely”) as well as assuring an organisational network (“To get the project organisations network going”) as the most important learning experiences. As important rules were discovered being explicitly aware of the groups process (“It is important to talk co-operation aspects over with the team”) as well as paying attention and cautiously respect to the fact that team members do have different up-todate information (“You have to wait until each participant understood what’s being discussed”). Critical phases can be identified as losing sight of the target (“Don’t lose the target of
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sight”) as well as pressurizing the group because it’s running out of time (“To put the screws on the group because one is afraid to be late”). In respect to lessons learned in knowledge management: Experts seem to be perceived as sympathetic personalities, encouraging team members to stay in contact even after the training’s end (“ If I had a problem in law, I would contact him”, “He is a practitioner”). Participants argued as well, that new insights were gained in work with several different departments (“I became appreciative of different departments and their problems”). In respect to lessons learned in team-development: Participants claimed that team development became possible because of a mutual understanding, personal acceptance and appreciation of each single member (“Each idea, perspective or opinion had been discussed, every one had been asked to state his or her point of view to agree in and feel convinced by the groups final solution”). A second important factor was perceived as the common interest and intrinsic motivation to work on the project task (“We were all interested and willing to work hard/strive to reach a good solution”). In addition team-members answered to the question, what made them feel contended and pleased that they felt a high identification and commitment to the groups’ results (“I do identify myself with the result, because I was definitively involved and I am convinced by our worked out solution”). Participant was also pleased that project presentation was honoured by the board of directors (“I was pleased that the we got a very positive feedback on our presentation”). Another reason for satisfaction was named as the fact that single personal needs were valued and taken into consideration (“Everyone was asked to state his or her opinion in regard to every point of discussion”). This was also a reason for dissatisfaction, namely that sometimes the team worked not efficiently. That was the case if team members failed and neglected to work out and prepare topics from the to-to-list.
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In respect to lessons learned personally: Concerning what they have gained personally participants mentioned, that they made the “experience how teamwork really works” as well as single outcomes how to use project management techniques. Learning seemed to be supported by a co-operative atmosphere within the group, a hindering factor seemed to be a time consuming reconciliation and time spent on the project in addition to daily tasks of the primary job. The questionnaire to measure openness to new experiences (OE), intrinsic motivation (IM), co-operation (COOP) and selfefficacy (SE) had a 6-point scale (1= completely true, 6 = not true at all). Pre-and post-test results on a scale-level of OE, IM, COOP and SE were compared using t-test (α = .05). Results of preposttest-evaluation design showed a significant gain in COOP , SE, OE and IM (table 8.2). Unfortunately we could use only 7 sets of data for statistical analysis, which means that results have to been interpreted cautiously in respect to generalisations. Table 8.2 Mean, standard deviation (sd), and level of significance (sign.)
COOP1 COOP2 IM1 IM2 OE1 OE2 SE1 SE2
Mean 21,25 16,88 17,29 15,43 23,71 20,86 24,85 22,29
sd 2,12 7,43 2,69 1,39 3,35 3,67 3,62 2,43
Sign. .048
.051 .031 .006
In summary both training programmes showed that the workplace-oriented learning fosters high intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy and openness to new experiences in a collaborative setting. Besides changed attitudes the knowledge gain uncovered highly interrelated schemas that mean a systemic
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view on project task, teambuilding and self-monitoring as relevant/crucial for project steering.
8.5 Discussion Modern learning theories and their techniques combine advantages of authentic work-oriented learning environments and collaborative learning principles using enculturation, aiming at acquiring skills in self-regulation and domain specific knowledge in parallel. Workplace-oriented learning requires intentionally designed learning tasks closely related to the primary work tasks of adult learners (Sonntag, 1998). The initial question in that respect was, whether HRD techniques can help to “kill two bird with one stone” –namely to cover team development, knowledge management, and competence in project management. The question can be answered by analysis of exploratory evaluation results. Participants stated that positive and valued project results became possible because of using team members’ diverse expertise and knowledge. To make use of these diverse backgrounds experiences participants learned to pay attention and to respect different opinions and learned to be aware of mutual understanding such as making up an organisational network, having targets defined precisely to regulate team processes in regard to reach high quality project goals. In addition supportive attitudes for life-long-learning in a rapidly changing workplace could be enhanced concerning selfefficacy, openness to new experiences, intrinsic motivation or co-operation. Because there was no control-group available in this two-stage measure of change (Campbell, 1963), sources of invalidity e.g. history, maturation, testing or instrumentation may account for weaknesses in evaluation. The target of training activities should be the trainees post training performance in the real-world setting. The problem has to be faced that trainees performance during training is an unreliable indicator of post-training performance (Godsian,
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Bjork & Benjamin, 1997). Manipulations that enhance performance during training can yield poor long-term posttraining performance, and other manipulations that seem to create difficulties and slow the rate of learning can be optimal in terms of long-term performance. In addition trainees own subjective evaluations of their knowledge and capabilities can be misguided, leading them to prefer non-optimal training regimens. Although positive results were found, further research is needed to prove these results as reliable in regard to transfer validity, as well as in regard to inter- and intraorganisational transfer validity and post-training performance (Goldstein, 1993).
8.6 References Anderson, J.R., Reeder, L.M., & Simon, H.A. (1996). Situated learning and cognition. In Educational Researcher, Vol 25, 4: 5-11. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy. The exercise of control. New York: Freeman & Company. Barrows, H.S., & Tamblyn, R.M. (1980). Problem-Based Learning. An Approach to Medical Education. New York: Springer. Blumenstein, C. (2000). Konzeption für Instrumente zur Erfassung der lernerseitigen Voraussetzungen für selbstgesteuertes Lernen Erwachsener [Concepts of instruments or describing learning assumptions for self-directed learning of adults]. Unveröffentlichte Diplomarbeit am Institut für Psychologie der RWTH Aachen, Aachen. Brown, A.L., & Palincsar, A.S. (1989). Guided, Cooperative Learning and Individual Knowledge Acquisition. In L.B. Resnik (Ed.), Knowing, Learning and Instruction. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 393-453. Brown, J.S., & Duguid, P. (1991). Organisational Learning and communities-ofpractice: toward a unified view of working, learning, and innovation. Organization Science, 2, 1: 40-57. Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the Culture of Learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 1: 32-42. Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1996). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. In H. McLellan (Ed.), Situated learning perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 19-47.
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Campbell, D.T. (1963). From Description to Experimentation: Interpreting Trends as Quasi_experiments. In C.W. Harris (Ed.), Problems in Measuring Change, (212-245). Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. Dipboye, R.L. (1997). Organizational barriers to implementing a rational model of training. In M.A. Quinones, & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training for a rapidly changing workplace. Application of psychological research. Washington, D.C.: APA, 31-61. Ghodsian, D., Bjork, R.A., & Benjamin, A.S. (1997). Evaluating Training During Training: Ostacles and Opportunities. In M.A. Quinones & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training for a rapidly changing workplace. Application of psychological research. Washington, D.C.: APA, 63-89. Goldstein, I.L. (1993). Training in Organizations: Needs Assessment, Development, and Evaluation. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publ. Comp. Haccoun, R.R. (1997). Transfer and Retention: Let’s do both and avoid Dilemmas. Applied Psychology: an international Review, 46, 4: 340-344. Holton, E.F., Bates, R.A., Seyler, D.L., & Carvalho, M.B. (1997). Toward construct validation of a transfer climate instrument. Human Resource Development Quaterly, 8, 2: 95-113. Holyoak, K.J. (1991). Symbolic connectionism: Toward third-generation theories of expertise. In K.A. Ericson, & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise (pp. 301-336). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning, Experience as the source of learning an development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Koschmann, T.D., Myers, A.C., Feltovich, P.J., & Barrows, H.S. (1994). Using technology to assist in realizing effective learning and instruction: a principle approach to the use of computers in collaborative learning. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 1994, 3, 3: 227-264. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Orr, J. (1987). Narratives at work: Story telling as corporate diagnostic activity. Field Science Manager, June, 47-60. Orr, J. (1990). Sharing knowledge, celebrating Identity: War stories and Community memory in a service Culture. In: D.S. Middleton, & D. Edwards (eds.), Collective remembering: Memory in Society. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Schyns, B. (1999). Entwicklung einer Skala zur beruflichen Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung [Development of a scale for expectations concerning self-activity]. Präsentation auf der 1. Tagung der Fachgruppe Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie der DGPs in Marburg, 15-17.09.1999.
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Smith, E.M., Ford, J.K., & Kozlowski, W.J. (1997). Building adaptive expertise: implications for training design strategies. In M.A. Quinones & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training for a rapidly changing workplace, Application of psychological research. Washington, D.C.: APA, 89-119. Sonntag, Kh., & Schäfer-Rauser, U. (1993). Selbsteinschätzung beruflicher Kompetenzen bei der Evaluation von Bildungsmaßnahmen [Self estimation of professional competencies at the evaluation of training interventions]. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, 37, 4: 163-171. Sonntag. Kh. (1998). Personalentwicklung “on the job”. In M. Kleinmann, & B. Strauß (Hrsg.), Potentialfeststellung und Personalentwicklung [Human resources development on the job]. Göttingen: Verlag für angewandte Psychologie, 175199. Thayer, P.W. (1997). A rapidly changing world: some implications for training systems in the year 2001 and beyond. In M.A. Quinones, & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training for a rapidly changing workplace. Application of psychological research. Washington, D.C.: APA, 15-31. Thorndike, E.L., & Woodworth, R.S. (1901). (1) The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions (11) The estimation of magnitudes, (111) Functions involving attention, observation, and discrimination. Psychological Review, 8: 247-261, 384-395, 553-564. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scriber, & E. Souberman (Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wardanjan, B. (1997). Der modifizierte Einfluss von ausgewählten Personenmerkmalen auf den Zusammenhang zwischen Merkmale der Arbeitsbiograhpie und dem Lernen in der Arbeit – Ergebnis einer Pilotstudie [The modified influence of selected personal characteristics in connection with characteristics of work biography and learning on the job], in Beiträge des Instituts für Allgemeine Psychologie und Methoden der Psychologie, Teil IV, Projekt: Grundlagenuntersuchungen zur Kompetenzentwicklung in organisationen – Individuelle Kompetenzentwicklung durch Lernen im Prozess der Arbeit. Technische Universität Dresden. Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). A social cognitive theory of organizational management. Academy of Management Review, 14, 3: 361-384.
9 Changing Organizations: Knowledge Management and Human Resource Management S.J. van Zolingen, J.N. Streumer & M. Stooker
9.1 Introduction In a case study in a knowledge-intensive company, Comp Ltd, problems with knowledge management and consequences for HRM are demonstrated. For this company the ‘soft model’ of HRM is recommended. On the one hand HRM should focus on the close integration of human resources policies, systems and activities with business strategy by monitoring on a regular basis, starting from its core competencies and its strategy, what essential knowledge their employees are lacking and encourage them to acquire it. On the other hand HRM should help to create a ‘learning oriented culture’ in which the ‘social capital’ of Comp Ltd is valued more and in which knowledge exchange is encouraged, by stimulating the emergence of networks and communities of practice. It is a culture in which mistakes are seen as opportunities, trust is visible, and employees have time and are rewarded for codifying their knowledge. Nowadays we live in a “knowledge society” in which knowledge is the most important means of production and not capital, raw materials or labour (Drucker, 1993). Growth of the 217 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 217-242. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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service sector, automation, the development of new (information) technology, changes in structures and work processes of companies and globalisation and as a consequence growing competition are a few causes for this development (Van Zolingen, 1995). In a society based on knowledge, Drucker says, the knowledge worker is the single greatest asset. Within HRM nowadays also the worker is valued much more as ‘human capital’ (Pfeffer, 1994). But survival and innovation of companies is not only dependent on the knowledge people have but on the ability to generate new strategically valuable knowledge (Harrison, 2000) and creativity with which people apply knowledge upon knowledge (Weggeman, 1997). Knowledge can provide a sustainable advantage. According to Davenport & Prusak (1998): “Eventually competitors can almost always match the quality and price of a market leaders’ current product or service. By the time that happens though, the knowledge rich, knowledge-managing company will have moved on to a new level of quality, creativity, or efficiency. The knowledge advantage is sustainable because it generates increasing returns and continuing advantages. Unlike material assets, which decrease as they are used, knowledge assets increase with use: ideas breed new ideas and shared knowledge stays with the giver while it enriches the receiver. The potential of new ideas arising from the stock of knowledge in any firm is practically limitless – particularly if the people in the firm are given opportunities to think, to learn, and to talk with another” (1998: p. 17). This is why knowledge management has become very important for companies. There are different views on knowledge management and how to handle it. People like Nonaka (Nonaka & Nishiguchi, 2001; Von Krogh, Ichijo & Nonaka, 2000) and Marsick & Watkins (1999) stress the
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importance of knowledge creation in a supportive context. They make the knowledge workers themselves more responsible for having adequate knowledge. They speak of knowledge enabling1 and of knowledge space of ba2. Here the growing interest in knowledge management is closely related to companies’ efforts to become learning organizations, in which managers strive to create a culture and a system for creating new knowledge and disseminate existing knowledge (Watkins & Marsick, 1993). Others like Davenport & Prusak (1998) stress the aspect of the direct responsibility of the management more. They make management responsible for adequate knowledge in the right place at the right time within the organization. In their opinion knowledge management should aim to make knowledge explicit, to codify knowledge and experiences and to develop knowledge that is essential for the realisation of the core competencies of a company. Both views are expressed in this article. But the definition of knowledge management of Davenport en Prusak will be taken as point of departure. Developments concerning knowledge management effect HRM. Within HRM two models are distinguished. On the one hand ‘the hard model’ that stresses that HRM should focus on the strategic objectives of the organization (Fombrun, Tichy and Devanna, 1984). This means that personnel policies, systems and practices are logically consistent with and supportive of business objectives by their coherence. On the other hand the ‘soft model’ (Beer et al., 1984) which while still emphasising the importance of integrating HR policies with business objectives, sees this as involving treating employees as valued assets, a 1
2
The overall set of organizational activities that positively affect knowledge creation. It includes facilitating relationships and conversations as well as sharing local knowledge across an organization. At a deeper level however, it relies on a new sense of emotional knowledge and care in the organization, one that highlights how people treat each other and encourages creativity – even playfulness (Von Krogh, Ichijo, & Nonaka, 2000: 4). An enabling context, knowledge space or ba is a shared space (physical, virtual or mental) that fosters emergent relationships (Von Krogh, Ichijo, & Nonaka, 2000: 7).
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source of competitive advantage through their commitment, adaptability and high quality. Employees are proactive rather than passive inputs into the productive processes; they are capable of development, worthy of trust and collaboration, to be achieved through participation and informed choice. Generating commitment via communication is stressed. If employee commitment will yield better economic performance it is also sought as a route to greater human development. In the ‘soft model’ the focus is on HR policies to deliver ‘resourceful’ humans (Legge, 1995). The development of knowledge management means new responsibilities for HRM and the development of new HRM instruments. In the knowledge intensive organization it is essential that existing and new HRM instruments are being used proactive to support knowledge management. In this chapter we ask questions such as: what is knowledge?, who uses it?, where is it found?, how do organizations create it?, how do organizations store it?, what is knowledge management?, what problems do organizations have with knowledge management?, and what consequences has knowledge management for HRM?
9.2 Theoretical background Data, information, knowledge When one talks about knowledge, the question arises how the difference between knowledge, information and data can be interpreted. Davenport & Prusak (1998) say: ‘data is a set of discrete, objective facts about events’ (ibid: p. 2) and Peter Drucker (cited in Davenport & Prusak, 1998) once said that information is ‘data endowed with relevance and purpose’. Information comes into being when somebody attributes meaning to data. When that person communicates that meaning, from his point of view information is being transmitted.
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Davenport & Prusak (1998) state, ‘data becomes information when its creator adds meaning’ (ibid: p. 4). One talks about knowledge when information has acquired a place in the reference framework of the user and the user connects this with his own actions. According to Davenport & Prusak (1998): “Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the mind of those who know. In organizations, it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices and norms” (ibid: p. 5). They describe knowledge as a socially constructed reality, influenced by personal beliefs and values, forged in the rhythms of daily work, and visible in a company’s products and services. Knowledge is complex because it is personalised. This makes it difficult to standardise and to share it effectively with others. Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995) describe organizational knowledge creation as a continuous and dynamic interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is personal, contextspecific and therefore difficult to formalise and communicate. Explicit knowledge is transmittable in formal, systematic language. Explicit knowledge may be equated with knowing about; whereas tacit knowledge is equated with knowing how. Nonaka & Takeuchi distinguish four modes of knowledge conversion: (1) socialisation, from tacit to tacit knowledge; (2) externalisation, from tacit to explicit knowledge; (3) a combination of explicit bodies of knowledge; (4) internalisation from explicit to tacit knowledge. The process of socialisation can be found in apprenticeships in which apprentices acquire tacit knowledge by observation, imitation and practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The primary mechanism for tacit knowledge sharing is to connect people in a dialogue – getting people talking face-to-face, or at least through
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videoconferencing or other interactive media. During dialogue, experiences, mental models and skills are shared, and a collective intelligence is created – people together arrive at a shared understanding of a problem and a collective solution that combines the ideas of many people (Isaacs, 1999). Formal and informal opportunities to elict dialogue are talk rooms, knowledge fairs, conferences, chats by the water cooler, and coffee breaks (Davenport & Prusak, 1998). Another approach to tacit knowledge management is to get people to share learning histories, which are designed to discover the history of how critical decisions were made and problems were solved (or not solved) so that knowledge is transferred to others (Kleiner, & Roth, 1997). Communities of practice are another opportunity to stimulate the process of socialisation (Wenger, 1998, Wenger & Snyder, 2000). Communities of practice are made up of individuals who are informally bound to one another through exposure to a similar set of problems and a common pursuit of solutions, for example technicians that repair photocopiers. These people have mutual interests. In practice, individuals socially construct knowledge. They share views, and in so doing create a common understanding which can be shared in ‘war stories’ (Orr, 1996). This may help new workers to ‘learn the ropes’ and others to share views and knowledge about technical and social problems and exchange solutions or create new solutions. According to Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995), the process of externalisation holds the key to knowledge creation because it creates new, explicit concepts from tacit knowledge by using metaphors and analogy in a dialogue or collective reflection between experts. ‘Metaphors create novel interpretation of experience by asking the listener to see one thing in terms of something else’ and create new ways of experiencing reality’ (ibid: p. 67) and this makes them an important tool in creating a network of new concepts. The process of combining different bodies of explicit knowledge can lead to new knowledge. Information technology such as
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internet, EDI, intranet, MID, DSS, ERP and mechanisms such as data warehousing, data mining, knowledge mapping, electronic libraries can be useful in combining and exchanging explicit knowledge (Sprague, & Watson, 1996). The process of internalisation embodies explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. It is closely related to ‘learning by doing’. ‘For explicit knowledge to become tacit it helps if the knowledge is verbalised or diagrammed into documents, manuals or oral stories. Documentation helps individuals internalise what they experienced, thus enriching their tacit knowledge’, according to Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995: p. 69).
Knowledge management as process Various possibilities exist to describe the phases within the knowledge management process (Sprenger, 1995; Weggeman, 1997, Diepstraten, 1996; Van der Spek & Spijkervet, 1996). In this study knowledge management is being characterised as a cyclical process consisting of five phases: acquiring knowledge; codifying knowledge; disseminating knowledge; developing knowledge and applying knowledge. Acquiring knowledge means incorporating new knowledge in the organization. For this only the strategic knowledge is important because it contributes to the execution of core activities and the development of the core competencies of the organization. Codifying knowledge means making knowledge explicit and accessible so that, if desired, other persons can acquire this knowledge any time anywhere. The third phase of the knowledge management process is made up of the dissemination of knowledge to those who need it in the execution of their tasks. In the fourth phase, knowledge is being developed by means of existing knowledge. By combining elements of existing knowledge, new insights can be formed and thus new knowledge can be developed. The fifth phase of the knowledge-management process is the application of (newly developed) knowledge. This means that knowledge is being used on behalf of the organization.
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Organizational factors influencing the knowledge management process At least four organization characteristics such as structure, culture, and strategy, as well as (electronic) knowledge systems, influence the progress of the knowledge management. In this paper attention will be focussed mostly on culture and strategy, because these characteristics can be influenced or supported by HRM measures. To facilitate knowledge exchange and learning, Watkins & Marsick (1993) mention the importance of ‘a (organizational) culture that is learning oriented, with beliefs, values, and policies that support learning; for example, tolerance for mistakes as opportunities for learning and problem solving; and policies that reward knowledge and the sharing of knowledge as well as rewards for performance’ (ibid: p. 166). Davenport & Prusak (1998) are of the opinion that these policies underline the value attached to sharing knowledge in the organization and that this motivates employees to share knowledge. Cohen & Prusak (2001) emphasize the importance for knowledge sharing of ‘social capital’: the stock of active connections among people: the trust, mutual understanding, and shared values and behaviours that bind the members of human networks and communities and make cooperative action possible’ (ibid: p. 4). In their view social talk, storytelling and information exchange in networks and communities of practice are essential for the exchange of social (tacit) knowledge such as how to relate to a customer, deal with a stressful situation or handle leadership. The trust employees have in their organization is also essential for knowledge sharing. Davenport & Prusak (1998) say that trust must be visible (see people get credit for knowledge sharing) and trustworthiness must start at the top (if the top managers are trustworthy, trust will seep
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through and come to characterise the whole firm). Nonaka & Nishiguchi (2001) see trust as a part of ‘care’. In their view ‘care’ is essential for the development of knowledge in organizations. Von Krogh et al. say: ‘to care for others is to help them learn; to increase their awareness of important events and consequences; to nurture their personal knowledge while sharing their insights’ (2001: p. 47) and ‘a caring manager requires wisdom; he or she must understand the needs of the other as well as the needs of the group, the company, and society. He or she must integrate these needs in such a way that individuals can contribute to the creation of social knowledge while also learning and experimenting on their own’ (2001: p. 47). Van Krogh et al. think of the enabling context or ba as a place where knowledge is shared, created and used. It combines elements of physical space, virtual space, and mental space. It is a network of interactions, determined by the care and trust of participants (2001: p. 49). Weber & Berthoin Antal (2001) point out the importance of time needed for knowledge exchange and learning. For example time pressure generated by internal or external forces limits possibilities of exchange of knowledge between individuals. After a certain organization structure and culture a “knowledge strategy” based on a clear and detailed knowledge policy and aimed at innovation and learning (Watkins & Marsick, 1993) is essential for an organization to survive. Customer-orientation, product leadership or cost leadership, all three require a well running knowledge management process. Versatile and actual knowledge about the customer and his needs, good service and training when the products have been delivered and lasting contacts with the customer require that an organization must become a part of its environment. That environment consists mainly of the customers and suppliers of the organization. Bertrams (1999) terms this a transition from internal to external orientation of organizations. In this process the manager as knowledge broker or knowledge activist can have a central role. A knowledge activist is ‘a manager with broad social and
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intellectual vision as well as experience in nitty-gritty business operations, someone who connects external and internal knowledge initiatives and mobilizes workers throughout the organization to use knowledge more effectively (Von Krogh, Ichijo & Nonaka, 2001: p. 4). Furthermore, the accessibility, the content and the feedback possibilities of the (electronic) knowledge systems of an organization influence the process of knowledge management (Stewart, 1997). Marsick & Watson (1999) mention a few decisions that have to be made in creating a knowledge management system: (1) what is the vision that guides choices about what to include or exclude?; (2) once selected for inclusion, how should information be updated?; (3) who should do the selection and inputting of information?; (4) how should knowledge be organized so it is easily understood and easily found?; (5) how can the system be designed so that people can easily add or access information?; (6) how should people be rewarded for adding their knowledge to a knowledge base so that others can access it?; (7) how should people be rewarded for using the system? (ibid: p. 89).
9.3 Method Research question At present the process of knowledge management receives much attention, but there has been very little solid research into it. This is important because organizations, despite much good will, do not really know what they must do with knowledge management in real terms. Therefore, in this article the following research theme is being explored: Knowledgeintensive organizations experience difficulties in handling knowledge management. With which problems in the field of knowledge management are these organizations being confronted? How do these organizations handle these problems? What consequences has knowledge management for HRM? And what
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recommendations can be made to prevent and solve problems in the field of knowledge management?
Selection case and respondents It was decided to perform the study in knowledge-intensive organizations employing employees, because the acquiring, codifying, dissemination, development and application of knowledge is of vital importance for these organizations. For these organizations handling knowledge management adequately is essential to their survival. At the same time, employees are the ones who find it hardest to share their knowledge. For they derive their value from the knowledge they ‘possess’. Three organizations from a list of customers of a consultancy firm were approached. All three organizations participated in the research project. The three participating organizations can be typified as customer oriented knowledge intensive organizations, also labelled as ‘heavy knowledge intensive organizations’. Within these organizations the dominant influence on the functioning of the organizations is being exerted by the employees and the – direct – output is in the form of software, reports, drawings, formulas, programs and the like (Weggeman, 1997). In this article only the results of the organization with a prominent position in the field of automation are included because this organization is in a stable phase and has reasonable experience in the field of knowledge management. In the second company the process of knowledge management was upset because this company was merging with another company and the third company was still in a starting-up phase and consequently did not pay structured attention to knowledge management. In the case four respondents were involved, with the following jobs: the executive manager, the service line manager consultant (a specialist in the field of documentation); the knowledge manager and an employee of the communication department. This organization will be referred to in this article as Comp Ltd.
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Procedure and instruments The data collection was undertaken by a questionnaire followed by half-structured interviews, going deeper into the subjects most relevant for this organization. The aim of the questionnaire was to get a quick scan what is taking place in the organization in the field of knowledge management. The questionnaire also served as preparation for the interviews. The questionnaire was filled in by four persons with various functions. The questionnaire totalled 59 items. The literature directed the selection of the research variables to be studied and the operationalisation of the items. Each item represented a bottleneck in the field of knowledge management distinguished in the literature. The items were formulated in the form of propositions and were measured on a 6-point scale with answer categories ranging from complete agreement to complete disagreement. The items were classified on the basis of the phases of the knowledge management process: acquiring knowledge, codifying knowledge, dissemination of knowledge, development of knowledge and applying knowledge. Questions were asked about the structure, the culture, the strategy and the knowledge systems of the organization. After the written questionnaire half structured interviews were being used. The aim of these interviews was to further examine the most relevant bottlenecks the organization experiences in the field of knowledge management. At the same time the interviews attempted to examine which activities are undertaken in the organization to optimalise the process of knowledge management. The subjects in the half-structured interview had been formulated beforehand in a topic list.
Results: the knowledge management process at Comp Ltd ICT International is one of the biggest ICT companies in the Netherlands. The company has ten subsidiaries with their own expertise in their own domains and markets. Comp Ltd is one of
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the subsidiaries of ICT International and is an information technology service provider from the very beginning. With its 600 employees it services the field of public government. Its orders mostly deal with income processing, benefits, pensions, subsidies, finances, and document management. In the beginning of this year Comp Ltd has started the project ‘Knowledge management Comp Ltd’, because it realized that knowledge is the most important determinant of the organization. In this section the results are structured on the basis of the various phases of the process of knowledge management: acquiring knowledge, codifying knowledge, dissemination of knowledge, development of knowledge and applying knowledge, and subsequently on the basis of the factors of the organization influencing the process of knowledge management: structure, culture, strategy and knowledge systems. Acquiring knowledge All four respondents experience it as a problem that Comp Ltd has not established which specific knowledge and skills its employees have at their disposal. At the moment much time is being lost searching for the right people with the right qualities. ‘You really have to know people to find somebody’, according to one of the respondents. The fact that Comp Ltd is a big organization with different branches does not make it any easier. Each respondent takes the view that Comp Ltd is actively gathering knowledge about the wishes and needs of its clients. This is being done in the form of so-called rather informal ‘fire place sessions’. However nothing is being done on the organizational level with the results of these meetings. As to human resource development employees themselves have to indicate whether they want to follow a certain course or want to attend a seminar. One of the respondents says about this: ‘The management never tells you that it might be good to follow a training in this or that field. You really have to explain what purpose it serves for Comp Ltd’. Thus training and seminars
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take place on one’s own initiative and usually ad hoc. One service line has been given time to assemble the whole department for one day per month. During this meeting experiences are shared. Sometimes another service line or another subsidiary is being invited to tell about their activities. Codifying knowledge All respondents except one do not know how they can get access to knowledge about activities in the past. Anyway, the accessibility of information is very bad, not only the accessibility of knowledge from the past, but also the accessibility of current knowledge. The infrastructure of the Intranet that was very modern in the past, is now outdated and not at all well tended. Two respondents are of the opinion that the management supports them sufficiently to record their knowledge. The other two respondents, one of them the head, say that the management ought to encourage them more to record subject content knowledge. They are of the opinion that recording knowledge and skills must be enforced by means of a procedure or rule, because some people do not take that responsibility themselves. It is even being suggested to make the recording of knowledge and skills part of the assessment. All agree that colleagues hardly pay attention whatever method one uses. This is particularly because of the culture of Comp Ltd. There is a very friendly atmosphere, this makes it very difficult to tell each other what could have been done better. Disseminating knowledge With regards to the dissemination of knowledge the respondents experience only few bottlenecks. Much knowledge is spread by means of the informal circuit. This is experienced as pleasant, but the corridors also cause much ‘noise on the line’. According to the respondents the informal circuit has advantages over the formal circuit. It is accessible, ‘safe’, easy and quick. A disadvantage is that it is more difficult to supervise, to control and to survey than the formal circuit.
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Nearly all respondents see it as a problem that within Comp Ltd much knowledge is inside the heads of the employees, because much personal knowledge is lost when employees leave the organization and Comp Ltd has a high staff turnover at the moment. According to the director the implicit knowledge and the experience of the employee who leaves the organization is also being reflected in advice reports and products. According to him there is in this ‘an implicit knowledge transfer in the way in which the work has been done. Others can learn from this’. Three of the four respondents take the view that sharing knowledge with colleagues strengthens their position in the organization. ‘For when you share your own knowledge, you are more likely to get knowledge back from others’. The fact that employees never change jobs is being considered as a bottleneck in the field of the dissemination of knowledge. Job changes are rather difficult because the roles and tasks of the different employees diverge too much. However, there are many different projects demanding various skills of the employees. Apart from the exchanges in the projects, within Comp Ltd one works almost always with interdisciplinary teams. The respondents find this very worthwhile, because in this way much knowledge is being disseminated and new knowledge is being developed since you learn from each other. Only the director takes the view that the employees of Comp Ltd provide each other with too little information about their work experiences, courses they have taken and/or projects. Good methods within a project are not explicitly registered and disseminated. Sometimes this knowledge is being disseminated in an informal way, for instance in the corridors. One is reasonably open about problems and mistakes. Developing knowledge The head of the department covering knowledge management and also an employee of that department take the view that it happens within the company that the same knowledge is being developed at two different places in the organization.
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Comp Ltd has reasonable to good contacts with research institutions. Students frequently do an internship at Comp Ltd. Both parties profit from this. In this way both the student and Comp Ltd acquire and develop knowledge. The respondents all take the view that Comp Ltd offers them enough room to experiment with, for instance, new working methods. The development of new knowledge is even one of the items of the evaluation. The employee of the department covering knowledge management is of the opinion that within the company the work is primarily done by routine. But according to him this working by routine does not hinder the knowledge management process. ‘Certain activities have to be executed by means of certain fixed steps’. Applying knowledge According to the respondents new knowledge and/or methods are well applied. Knowledge is being applied with the work for clients, the writing of articles and internal consultation. In the execution of assignments knowledge acquired earlier is always used to arrive at new understandings. The respondents do not experience any difficulty with the application of knowledge of colleagues. There is no fear that knowledge of colleagues is of insufficient quality. Everybody takes the view that the application of new knowledge is important. According to the respondents, the employees for whom new developed methods are intended are sufficiently involved in this development.
9.4 Organizational factors influencing the knowledge management process Culture of the organization Three respondents take the view that within Comp Ltd one can openly talk about mistakes and insecurities. On the question whether the management of Comp Ltd gives a good example with regards to knowledge management, opinions are divided.
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The director and the head of the department covering knowledge management take the view that the management not only promotes knowledge management but that it also applies knowledge management reasonably well. The other two respondents are of the opinion that more support of the management is necessary. Knowledge management does take priority but one does not make time for it. The degree of stimulation by the management does also differ per service line. Knowledge management is everybody’s responsibility is the motto of three of the four respondents. The head of the department covering knowledge management disagrees with this proposition. He takes the view that the management bears the responsibility for knowledge management. They have to make time to lay down knowledge and to disseminate it; they must encourage and direct the employees. Employees do not document developed methods, checklists etc. of their own accord. The respondent says: ‘when employees get a free rein to only do the things they are good at, it is logical that employees do not lay down things of their own accord’. Comp Ltd is concerned about the personal ambitions and preferences of its employees. However, the director is of the opinion that this still can be improved.
Strategy of the organization All respondents agree, to a greater or lesser degree, that knowledge management is a part of the strategic policy of the company. The respondents experience this as being important. In this way employees get the feeling that knowledge management takes priority. The employee of the department covering knowledge management indicates that strategy is something very nice but it has to be converted into decisiveness. It not infrequently happens that Comp Ltd is lacking in decisiveness. There is much talk, much is being written down, all kinds of plans are being made, but subsequently nothing is done with it. Employees
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themselves no longer expect that the plans will be put into action. The decision-making is very slow as a result of the reigning hierarchy. Almost all decisions are being made by the general manager. As project manager you hardly have any elbow room.
Knowledge systems of the organization Different service lines have their own knowledge system, mainly in the form of an Intranet, but the cohesion and the integral accessibility leave something to be desired. In most cases only employees of the different service lines have access to the knowledge system of their own service line. Comp Ltd has an intranet exceeding the organization. Two of the four respondents, one of them the employee of the department covering knowledge management, take the view that this Intranet is not up-to-date and access is difficult. The respondents are all under the impression that within Comp Ltd much information is already laid down in the form of emails, letters, faxes, documents and the like. But this information is left lying around the whole organization. ‘When this information is being stored and opened up in a structured way, this would offer a considerable headway for Comp Ltd in easily retrieving important information’, according to the head of the department covering knowledge management. The respondents have different opinions about the encouragement by the management. Feedback of information takes a lot of time, because of this it often does not take place. One of the respondents describes the state of the Intranet as follows: ‘nothing at all happens on that Intranet, nobody looks at it, and if you do take the trouble to have a look at it you find dead links and references to people who no longer work for us, and in a few cases to someone who has already died’. An outdated version of Microsoft Office is being used. This makes the exchange of data difficult: not only with customers but also with sister companies, because the sister companies do not use the same standards.
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Too often one thinks that a knowledge system is the solution for many problems. So for each problem a new system is being bought. One often forgets that knowledge management is more than an Intranet. The human factor, for example in the form of a knowledge broker is often forgotten. The head of the department covering knowledge management says about this: ‘when I have a problem in the issues of the day, my first thought is “who can help me with this” and then I make one or two phone calls. Only when I do not succeed I’ll start looking in systems’. Within Comp Ltd mail facilities are being used a lot. Thus internet certainly is valuable.
9.5 Conclusion and discussion Phases of knowledge management Concerning the phase of knowledge acquisition three employees are of the opinion that they do not have enough time for knowledge acquisition and sharing. This result is in line with the opinion of Weber & Berthoin Antal (2001) who say that for knowledge sharing and codifying time is needed. The management team of Comp Ltd does not make time for the evaluation of projects, for knowledge exchange meetings, for writing short reports or giving short presentations about a course attended. Yet the director takes the view that he does encourage his employees in regards to these points. It seems advisable to create more time for above-mentioned activities. There is no good insight into where knowledge is located in Comp Ltd. Nothing has been recorded about which specific knowledge and skills the different employees have at their disposal. Because of this, it takes a lot of time to find the right employee with the right qualities. Both Bertrams (1999) and Davenport & Prusak (1998) mention this problem. According to them knowledge mapping (documents and/or people résumés) can help to improve the matching of knowledge with people.
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The respondents mention as solution Purple Pages in which is being recorded which competencies each employee has at its disposal, in which projects he or she has participated and at which projects he or she is working now. Comp Ltd does codify what the market asks. All the time and in different ways (formally and informally) knowledge about the needs of the clients is actively being gathered. It is remarkable that the respondents take the view that no active knowledge policy based on these data is being pursued. Respondents are of the opinion that the management does not provide enough support for attending courses or a seminar. They do remark that during projects much is being learned. It seems that these employees do not know what they must learn. This problem is mentioned by Bertrams (1999) and he takes the view that there is a danger that because of this, the motivation to learn decreases. Bertrams offers a solution: goal-oriented career planning and learning based on a good picture of the knowledge an employee ought to have at his disposal according to Comp Ltd in order to be able to rise to a desired position and an intended competence level. There is dissatisfaction about the phase of codification. Three employees say that they have not enough time to codify knowledge. Moreover, access to knowledge and information is difficult at Comp Ltd and to the extent knowledge is being recorded, it is not being kept up-to-date. Furthermore, employees are not being stimulated to lay down knowledge. It seems advisable that Comp Ltd in the near future critically revises its use of information technology systems (see Marsick & Watson, 1999) and decides which systems such as internet, EDI, intranet, MID, DSS, ERP and mechanisms such as data warehousing, data mining, knowledge mapping, electronic libraries, are most useful in the exchange of knowledge in Comp Ltd and who will be responsible for keeping them up-to-date and running (Sprague & Watson, 1996). Dissatisfaction does exist about knowledge dissemination. Because explicit and tacit knowledge has not been adequately
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codified in a knowledge system, the informal circuit plays an important role in the dissemination of knowledge. The respondents say about the informal circuit that it is easily accessible, flexible, easy and quick. The importance of the informal circuit for the dissemination of knowledge is being endorsed by several authors (Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995) in particular for the exchange of tacit knowledge for which dialogue, face-to-face contact is essential. However much knowledge stays inside the heads of the employees and because this it is not being recorded or exchanged with colleagues, it disappears as a result of a frequent considerable staff turnover. Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995) and Davenport & Prusak (1998) mention approaches such as apprenticeships and mentoring and a method such as videotaping as solutions to exchange this tacit knowledge in a systematic way. Bertrams recommends passing on new knowledge during the development of knowledge. Other methods to learn from experiences in projects are the creation of learning histories (Kleiner & Roth, 1997) and creating a favourable culture to stimulate communities of practice in which these experiences can be exchanged in a more informal way on a day-to-day basis (Wenger & Snyder, 2000). Finally there is dissatisfaction about knowledge development/ creation. Within Comp Ltd it happens that the same knowledge is being developed at two places. The employees particularly experience the loss of time because of this as a problem. In the literature this problem has already been mentioned by Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995). A knowledge system with a good overview of where and with whom knowledge can be found within the organization and what each employee is doing at this moment could offer a solution. Although all respondents take the view that there is enough room to experiment and that the development of knowledge is even a part of the assessment at Comp Ltd, the knowledge manager says that there is relatively
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too little attention for the development of new knowledge. This problem has already been mentioned by Bertrams (1999). The employees of Comp Ltd experience no problems with the application of new knowledge. Barriers for the use of new knowledge mentioned by Bertrams, such as aversion to risk, fear for problems with colleagues who want to go on using older knowledge and insufficient support are not being mentioned by the respondents of Comp Ltd.
Organizational factors influencing the knowledge management process Of the learning oriented culture mentioned by Watkins & Marsick (1993) with beliefs, values, and policies that support learning; for example, tolerance for mistakes as opportunities for learning and problem solving, and policies that reward knowledge and the sharing of knowledge as well as rewards for performance, only a few traces can be found at Comp Ltd. Although much is being learned during the working in projects, no efforts are being undertaken to systematically lay down this knowledge or to share it systematically with others, and there is no aspiration to systematically gear the competencies of the individual employees to the (future) strategy of the company by means of courses or otherwise. Furthermore, the respondents have different opinions about being able to talk openly about mistakes and doubts. And Comp Ltd does not have policies that reward knowledge and the sharing of knowledge or performance. The respondents also differ in opinion about the question whether the management sets a good example with regards to knowledge management. Trust is not visible in this organization. Of the essential variables from the organizational culture mentioned by Bertrams (1999), such as: feedback (what happens with my knowledge), the variety of skills (do I get the chance to use what I am learning?), the recognisibility of the task (does what I am learning add a surplus value to my ambition?), the significance of the task (do I help the organization with my behaviour?) and autonomy (do I get enough freedom to learn?),
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the respondents only mention variety and autonomy. Comp Ltd has included knowledge management in its strategic policy, but the strategy is insufficiently converted into decisions. Within Comp Ltd there is no aspiration to systematically gear the competencies of the individual employees to the (future) strategy of the company by means of career planning, competence management, policies that support learning (on the job) or otherwise. Further the knowledge manager of Comp Ltd does not have the typical characteristics of a knowledge broker or activist. He does not have a thorough knowledge of the ‘work floor’ of Comp Ltd and his communication with the professionals is one sided.
Consequences for HRM Comp Ltd has several problems that can be positively influenced by HRM measures. First it is not known what knowledge the employees need. Second knowledge exchange between the employees is insufficient, particularly exchange of tacit knowledge. Third there is a high turnover of employees. The last points mean that the knowledge conversion process of ‘socialisation’ should get more support and the ‘social capital’ of Comp Ltd should be further developed. To develop and support an adequate system of knowledge management the ‘soft model’ of HRM is recommended. In the first place the HRM instruments of Comp Ltd such as recruitment/selection, appraisal, training and development, and career planning are not clearly aligned with strategy. Because of this, for example, it is not known what knowledge the employees of Comp Ltd should have. It is recommended that the company monitors on a regular basis, starting from its core competencies and its strategy, what essential knowledge their employees are lacking and encourage them to acquire it. This means development and application of a competence management system that is carefully aligned with the strategy
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of Comp Ltd by means of a continuous dialogue between top management, the department of training and development and the personnel department. It also means that Comp Ltd should try to define one or more knowledge activists among its employees who can be an intermediate between external and internal knowledge. The second and third problem, insufficient knowledge exchange between the employees and the problem of a high staff turnover point to a need for better horizontal integration of different HRM instruments such as recruitment/selection, appraisal training and development, career planning surfaces to ‘nurse’ the social capital of Comp Ltd. The high turnover of the employees may be lowered with more attention for a career planning that is related to competence management. Attention should be focussed on knowledge exchange between juniors and seniors by means of a mentoring or coaching system and dialogue, different career ladders, and the creation of different steps on these career ladders. Recruitment/selection should be aligned with the system of competence management and attention should be given to the fact that new employees have or can develop by training, or on the job by means of coaching, the competences that are needed by Comp Ltd now and in the future. Further new HRM instruments are needed to create and support an ‘enabling context’ or ‘ba’ or a ‘learning oriented culture’ in which knowledge exchange on the job is encouraged, mistakes are allowed and trust is visible and the sharing of knowledge and performance are rewarded. The informal exchange of knowledge can be improved by stimulating dialogue and social talk (by means of talk rooms, coffee breaks, etc.), and by encouraging the development of communities of practice. The formal exchange of knowledge can be improved by working in different teams, by coupling junior with senior employees, by the systematic creation of learning histories and by intensive communications with one or more knowledge activists. Knowledge exchange with the environment of Comp Ltd can be
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stimulated by encouraging the participation of the employees in a variety of networks. Besides Comp Ltd should ensure that adequate information systems are used and kept up to date by the employees for example by means of a reward system, staff appraisal and by valuing reputation.
9.6 References Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P.R., Mills, D.Q., & Walton, R.E. (1984). Managing Human Assets. The Free Press, New York. Bertrams, J. (1999). De Kennisdelende Organisatie [The Knowledge Sharing Organization]. Scriptum, Schiedam. Cohen, D., & Prusak, L. (2001). In Good Company. How Social Capital Makes Organizations Work. Harvard Business School Press, Boston. Davenport, T.H., & Prusak, L. (1998). Working Knowledge. Harvard Business School Press, Boston. Diepstraten, J. (1996). Kennis in Bedrijf [Knowledge in Action]. Triam, Dordrecht. Drucker, P.F. (1993). Post Capitalist Society. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Fombrun, C., Tichy, N.M., & Devanna, M.A. (Eds.). (1984). Strategic Human Resource Management. Wiley, New York. Harrison, R. (2000). Learning, knowledge productivity and strategic progress. International Journal of Training and Development, Vol 4, No 4, pp. 244-258. Isaacs, W. (1999). Dialogue and the Art of Thinking Together. Doubleday, New York. Kleiner, A., & Roth, G. (1997). How to make experience your company’s best teacher. Harvard Business Review, Sept/Oct, pp. 172-177. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Legge, K. (1995). Human Resource Management. Rhetorics and Realities. Palgrave, Houndmills, Basingstroke. Marsick, V.J., & Watkins, K.E. (1999). Facilitating Learning Organizations. Making Learning Count. Gower, Aldershot. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The Knowledge-creating Company. How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation. Oxford University Press, New York. Nonaka, I., & Nishiguchi, T. (Eds.). (2001). Knowledge Emergence. Social, Technical, and Evolutionary Dimensions of Knowledge Creation. Oxford University Press, New York.
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Orr, J. (1996). Talking about Machines: An Ethnography of a Modern Job. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. Pfeffer, J. (1994). Competitive Advantage through People. Harvard Business School, Boston. Schein, E.H. (1991). Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey Bass, San Francisco. Senge, P.M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline. The Art & Practice of the Learning Organization, Doubleday, New York. Sprague, R.S., & Watson, H.J. (1996), Decision Support for Management. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Sprenger, C.C. (red.). (1995). Vier Competenties van de Lerende Organisatie [Four Competences of the Learning Organization]. DELWEL’s, Gravenhage. Stewart, T.A. (1997). Intellectual Capital. The New Wealth of Organizations. Bantam, Doubleday, Dell Publishing Group, New York. Van der Spek, R., & Spijkervet, A. (1995). Kennismanagement: Intelligent Omgaan met Kennis [Knowledge Management: Handling Knowledge with Intelligence]. Handboek Effectief Opleiden, Vol 9, No. 13.9-2, 1-32. Van Zolingen, S.J. (1995). Gevraagd Sleutelkwalificaties [Wanted: Qualifications] (diss.). UDN, Katholic University Nijmegen, Nijmegen.
Key
Von Krogh, G., Ichijo, K., & Nonaka, I. (2000). Enabling Knowledge Creation. Oxford University Press, New York. Watkins, K., & Marsick, V.J. (1993). Sculpting the Learning Organization, Jossey Bass, San Francisco. Weber, C., & Berthoin Antal, A. (2001). The role of time in organizational learning. In M. Dierkes, A. Berthoin Anatal, J. Child, & I. Nonaka (Eds.), Handbook of Organizational Learning & Knowledge. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 351-369. Weggeman, M. (1997). Kennismanagement [Knowledge Management]. Scriptum, Schiedam. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice. Learning, Meaning and Identity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Wenger, E., & Snyder, W.M. (2000). Communities of practice: the organizational frontier. Harvard Business Review, Jan-Feb., pp. 139-145.
10 Learning Processes and Outcomes at the Workplace: a Qualitative Research Study A.J. Doornbos & A.J.A. Krak
10.1 Introduction Directing and controlling learning processes in the workplace and relevance of the learning outcomes are central themes to the described workplace-learning framework. Purpose of the framework is to integrate learning and working by indicating what people learn in relation to how they learn in work situations. This gives a starting point for ways to optimise workplace learning. The framework derived from the literature and a qualitative study. Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted with operational and managerial police officers who worked in three different police teams. Learning processes were analysed by relating the learning initiative and the learning activities that were carried out in workplace situations. Learning outcomes were analysed in terms of relevance for the employee and for the organisation. The cautious conclusion we draw, is that the interviewed police officers feel that they partially direct and control their workplace learning processes. Directed learning, reflection on action and non-directed learning are ways of workplace learning interviewed police officers usually follow. Learning outcomes that police officers perceive to develop that are relevant for the learner and/or the organisation are mostly technical-occupational, learning competencies and socialcommunicative competencies. 243 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 243-262. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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People are and have always been learning. In fact, they never stop learning (Simons, 1999). In thinking and theorising on workplace learning, this idea is fundamental with regard to designing powerful working-learning environments. In this paper we look at learning from a working perspective. The working environment is seen as a learning environment: Work related activities are seen as learning activities, but some are more intended to learn from than others. We will report on a study about ways of employees learning in the workplace following a framework that puts central the direction or control over learning processes and the relevance of learning outcomes. Direction of learning is based on two dimensions: learner control over the learning initiative and learner control over the learning activities: is it more self-directed, guided or not directed at all? Relevance of the learning outcomes is based on two dimensions: learning results more relevant to the organisation and/or more to the employee or to no relevance at all.
10.2 The context of the problem Knowledge building becomes a great part of employee's work to respond to changes that occur in the market and in the society. Therefore organisations stimulate the ability to learn individually, in groups and to learn as a whole in order to respond flexible to changes that occur in their environment. The currency in the knowledge age is learning and not the knowledge itself. Knowledge is the result of learning and is ephemeral, constantly needing to be revised and updated. Therefore employees need to learn continuously. Enhancing continuous learning by combining and developing knowledge in the organisation can be done by organising this learning close to the workplace instead of sending people to courses outside the workplace.
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A fundamental condition for workplace learning is, that the working environment meets characteristics of a (powerful) learning environment. As a consequence of the fact that the Tayloristic work system is not able to meet the rapid changing demands of the environment, many companies are abandoning traditional Taylorist models of work organisation in favour of more humanistic, flexible and integrated work systems. What is needed is a new type of work system that has the capacity tot create favourable conditions for work-based (life long) learning, so that more people will learn more things intentionally and learn how to learn and organise the learning. A basic tenet behind this movement is to increase productivity and quality through competence development and a better utilisation of workers’ abilities, knowledge and personal potential at work (Ellström, 1999). An example of employees who are experiencing changing work demands are police officers. Diverse correlated developments in society, such as 24-hours economy, the multicultural society, globalisation of criminality, have great impact on present and future police functioning, because they make police work more varied and complex. Also developments internally, new ideas of good police work influence the day-to-day practices of police officers, such as community policing and zero tolerance. Looking at police work as an outsider, the role of a police officer and police work do not seem to have changed that much over the years. But a lot of processes are based on a lot more and complex knowledge then ever before. For example, procedures of arresting a criminal are based on a lot of new knowledge like new laws, new criminal research strategies or changing knowledge about global networks of criminal organisations. As a direct result of that, some corps require higher education as a starting level while it used to be middle level education. The police organisation as well as the police officers themselves are learning and need to learn to keep up with changing demands.
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The Dutch Police Education and Knowledge Centre (LSOP) and different police corps believe that to offer police officers powerful learning environments, the workplace needs to get more attention instead of focussing on off the job courses and education. New police officers and already employed police officers will learn in more authentic learning environments. The aim is to optimise workplace learning. To do this, first current learning processes and outcomes will be researched. Workplace learning has been researched relatively little compared to learning in educational settings. Recently, one is looking at how workplace learning and workplace education can be geared to one another. Also much has been published about optimising learning processes (in the classroom) to better fit the workplace. The aim of the research described in this paper is to explore the range of learning modes in workplace learning and the kinds of learning outcomes as a result of the learning. First, we centralise workplace-learning processes and describe them typologically in terms of learner control over the learning initiative and the learning activities. Second, we look at workplace learning outcomes and describe them in terms of relevance for the organisation and/or the employees themselves. Working and learning are seen as constructive activities in which the working or learning person actively acts in his or her environment. Workplace learning is described as an activity in which the learner solves practically relevant problems and in which new knowledge and skills are acquired.
10.3 Theoretical framework Views of learning as a simple interaction of learner’s knowledge with the to-be-learned content are being replaced by perspectives depicting a complex interplay of learners’ knowledge, motives, strategies and the learning environment and social context.
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This important trend in psychology literature is called (social) constructivism. It started in social psychology (Gergen, 1985; Rijsman, 1991; Simons, 2000). It draws on the work of Kurt Lewin (1935) who hypothesised that behaviour is a function of the interactions between a person and his or her environment. The fundamental concept of (social) constructivism is, that people construct their (social) reality by interacting with other people. People continually construct and reconstruct their own interpretations of reality. Instead of the so-called objective reality, it is the individual perceived situation that determines a person’s behaviour. Simons (2000) describes the basics of (social) constructivistic ideas: The learner has an active role. The learner’s personal and subjective experiences are viewed. There is no objective reality regarding the subject matters, the profession vision and learning conceptions: knowledge building instead of knowledge construction. Understanding comes gradually. Learning happens best when learners interact with each other (including the trainer). Learners are tested in a way that fits to their learning process. In a learning vision that is founded in (social) constructivism, there is much space for the interaction between organisational interests and the internal resources and personal wishes of employees. Learning can be described in terms of changed behaviour of the learner or when the learner says he has learned something. Thus a person has learned something when he is changed, either he is acting differently or he is able to act differently.
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10.4 Workplace learning In this section an introduction will be given on approaches of ways of workplace learning that are characterised by the important role of the learner. In the literature on workplace learning, it is widely acknowledged that exercising a profession in a competent way not only requires a professional education but also involves learning during the career. Eraut (2000) differentiates formal and non-formal learning at the workplace. In the formal paradigm learning is defined as a selfconscious, deliberate, goal-driven process which is planned and organised by providers to yield outcomes that are easily described and measured. This paradigm fails to capture much of the learning that occurs in the workplace or elsewhere. The concept of self-directed learning is the main alternative offered by the education and training community. Self directed learning is not pre-organised and pre-planned by a trainer or teacher. It is self-organised and self-planned. A selfdirected learner is able and ready to execute the learning functions preparing, executing and closing independently. Selfdirected learning is on the one hand connected with the learners’ opportunities to decide about aspects of the learning process and on the other hand it refers to the mental activity that is asked from the learner. (Social) constructivism requires active learners who are active in the task execution or the learning process as a whole (Simons, 2000). Vail (1996) makes a difference between two aspects of selfdirected learning. In the first place there is the idea about the learner who explicitly defines his own learning goals and strategies. The second idea contains a vision about the learning attitude of the learner. For example searching for help takes place from a conscious and self-directed attitude. Straka (1997) stresses the importance self-directedness of workplace learning. Also puts the active and explicit role for the learner central. In action learning the learner himself determines
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the goals of learning according to needs arising in his actions (at work or elsewhere). This idea of an active attitude of the learner and mental activity corresponds with the view, that learners are not only active (self-directed) in the construction of meaning, but they can be intentional. Also Simons (2000) describes ways of learning based on the role of the learner who more or less controls the activity, namely guided learning and action learning. In guided learning (Simons, 2000), a trainer, teacher, mentor, colleague or manager (further referred to as ‘guide’) takes all the relevant decisions and the learner can and should follow him. The guide decides about the goals of learning, the learning strategies, the way to measure learning outcomes and he takes care of feedback, judgement and rewards. The learner commits himself to the decisions made and follows the guide. The role of the learner is still active in the sense that he has to follow the guide actively to learn. Many times in the situation of guided learning there is a division of tasks between the learner and his guide. The learner has control over some of the learning functions and he has to fulfil the learning activities. The learner executes these tasks in an active way. In action learning, Simons follows Revans (1982). There is a much more active and explicit role for learners and learning goals than in guided learning (Simons, Linden van der et al., 2000). Learners explicitly define their own learning goals according to the needs arising in their actions at work or elsewhere. Learning is selforganised and self-planned. Learners determine their own strategies and testing. Their intention to learn and capability of managing the learning process is emphasised. Much of the learning that happens in the workplace is less explicit and intended or self-directed than described above. The focus of the activity is not to learn but to ‘work and do the job’. Employees are regulating their actions, problem solving or working, but not their learning. Learning occurs unconsciously and is regulated by the environment (the work itself, the work context).
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Experiential learning is the third way of learning based on the role of the learner who more or less controls the activity Simons (2000) describes besides guided learning and action learning. In experiential learning it is not so much a guide or even a predetermined goal that controls the learning. Rather circumstances, other people, innovations, discoveries, experiments determine how and what one learns. There is not even an explicit set of learning goals. Instead learning is a side effect of the work-related activities one undertakes (Marsick & Watkins, 1990). In this chapter we will use the idea of describing ways of learning in the workplace based on the role of the learner who more or less directs the learning process namely guided, action and experiential learning.
10.5 Qualitative study Research questions In this study, the ways in which employees learn in the workplace and the learning outcomes will be explored. 1. To what degree do employees perceive they direct and control their learning process at the workplace? 2. What learning outcomes do employees perceive they develop as a result of learning in the workplace?
Data collection To gather data on ways of learning in the workplace, nine employees were interviewed in depth about their experienced learning processes in the workplace and the entailed outcomes. Because of the exploratory nature of the researched topics we followed a small scale, qualitative research design (Creswell, 1998). To give a detailed view of the learning processes in the workplace and the learning outcomes, a qualitative design is appropriate.
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Interviews were transcribed and analysed using the qualitative analysis program, Atlas-ti. This analysis yielded a quotation list of about 200 fragments of workplace learning activities related to a learning outcome, which were clustered into guided, action and experiential learning. Two researchers did the clustering until both researchers fully agreed on the clustering of the quotations. The results were put into a summarised personal learning profile. Interviewees were asked to clarify or add to their transcribed interview and reflect on their individual learning profile in writing. Since learning on the job occurs more implicitly than explicitly and it is difficult to make learning explicit (Kwakman, 1999), it is difficult to subject workplace learning to research. To take this into account, an open interview strategy was developed in which the topic of learning was brought up indirectly. We asked about ‘things’ employees do differently now compared to earlier times. These things/changes were put central when we asked about how they were developed. What work-related activities did the interviewee perform in relation to the entailed changes? In analysing the interviews, these work-related activities and changes were put central and interpreted as respectively workplace learning processes and workplace learning outcomes. In a pilot setting four employees were interviewed to test the interview strategy. The researchers checked the results concerning the way questions were asked and the way in which the answers could be interpreted in terms of guided, action and experiential learning. Fundamental was that in the interview we did not want to bring up the topic of three ways of directing learning, since the employees would think to much of learning in educational settings. What we wanted to capture was the experiences and lived meanings of the interviewees’ world.
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Participants Officers of the Dutch police force were asked to participate in the study by their chief inspectors, who volunteered to open up their police teams for research in workplace learning. The sample consisted of six operational officers and three first line managerial police officers from three different police teams (in one rural and two more urban areas). Interviewees have police working experience ranging from one to 30 years. There were one women and eight men involved between the ages of 28 to 49 years. Two interviewers conducted the interviews which took between 1½ to two hours per interview.
Results In this paragraph results of the interviews will be presented in the form of a framework for direction of workplace learning processes and relevance of workplace learning outcomes. Direction of workplace learning processes Results of the research show that the three ways of directing learning processes were found: guided learning, action learning and experiential learning. The number of different quotations for clustering ranged from 13 to 33 per interviewee with an average of 25. Of all quotations reflecting direction of learning processes 46% was assigned to more than one cluster, which means that in practice combinations of ways of directing learning processes can be found. For example learning goals are set explicitly by the learner (self-directed), but the learning strategy is not (experiential). Especially combinations of experiential and action learning where found. A closer look at these double clustered quotations revealed the fact that the combinations of direction of learning processes could be attributed to the learning initiative and the learning activities. Police officers tend to experience something in their
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working life from which they learn (experiential learning initiative) but also decide actively to set learning goals and carry out learning activities to learn more about it (self-directed learning activity) and visa versa. For example as an operational police officer tells about how he learns about investigating the casino by talking informally to his team colleagues, he decides to learn more about it by actively following all the actions of his colleagues that are working on that case. He also plans on joining the team on a following investigation in the casino, so he can learn more about it and get first hand experiences. The learning process starts when this police officer informally talks to his colleagues. This starting point for following learning activities is not directed so it was clustered as experiential learning initiative. As he decides to want to learn more about these specific investigations, the police officer actively follows the actions of his colleagues and he will be alert to possibilities that give him the opportunity to join a team that investigates the casino. Following actions of colleagues in the computer in this case is a self-directed learning activity. The plan to join the next team is in this case a self-directed learning initiative. Because of the fact that almost half of the quotations was assigned to more than one cluster, we decided to split the direction of workplace learning processes into direction of the learning initiative and direction of the learning activities. We refine the idea of describing ways of learning in terms of guided, action and experiential learning into a framework with two dimensions, namely direction of the learning initiative and direction of the learning activities. In Figure 10.1 the direction of learning initiative and learning activities are put into a framework for workplace learning processes.
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Directed activities Directed Learning
Reflection on Action
Directed initiative
Not directed iniviative
Reflection before action
Non directed learning
Not directed activities
Figure 10.1
Direction of workplace learning processes Two dimensions: the learning initiative and the learning activities (work-related activities)
In directed workplace learning the emphasis is on the role of the learner and his abilities to direct and initiate the process and critically reflect on what was learned. The learner (and/or a guide) takes the initiative to (work-related) learning activities. This means that the learner (and/or a guide) deliberately sets explicit learning goals and plans and caries out learning activities. The learner intentionally learns from work-related activities. For example on personal initiative drawing a report for somebody that is an expert in writing reports and presenting the result for feedback. Another example is thinking in advance about expected problems that may happen and looking up some answers beforehand. In reflection on action the emphasis is on the learner who intentionally reflects on experiences and activities that happened in the course of working. The learning goals were not explicitly set before the learning activities. In other words there was no intention to learn, but by reviewing the actions and experiences afterwards the learner becomes aware of learning results. For example thinking about strong and weak things that happened during the day while driving home and taking this into account the next time. In reflection before action the emphasis is on the learner (and/or a guide) setting learning goals, but not planning explicit learning strategies. These activities are completely integrated in working and neither the learner and/or the guide take responsibility for
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the actual learning process. For example gaining experience in management tasks to get higher up. In non-directed learning the emphasis is on working. The learner is not intentionally willing to learn from work-related activities but aware that he did. This can be compared to implicit learning with the difference that learning outcomes are at some time afterwards explicit. For example working over hours and almost suffering from overstrain and gradually starting to realise that with a little support you can let others do the job too. According to Reber (1993, in Eraut, 1998) implicit learning is ‘the acquisition of knowledge independently of conscious attempts to learn and in the absence of explicit knowledge about what was learned: there is no intention to learn and no awareness of learning at the time it takes place.’ In this framework for workplace learning processes there is no distinction between self-directed learning and guided learning. The reason is that in guided learning within this research context the learner has a very active role. He discusses together with the guide what and how to learn and decides in the end himself. Besides the fact that the learner is very active in guided learning the guide is more often fills the role of a ‘ buddy ’ and not a trainer. Therefore the guide is more comparable to a coach than a traditional trainer and ‘puller ’ of the learning process. Relevance of workplace learning outcomes Learning outcomes entailed by workplace learning that were mentioned in the interviews are categorised as follows (Onstenk, 1997): 1. Technological-occupational and methodological competencies: these are the core skills of a profession. These concern the facts, procedures, concepts and principles of preparing, executing and controlling police tasks. In this case also social competencies are considered as technicaloccupational.
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3.
4.
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Organisational competencies: these skills refer to functioning within the regulation system of the organisation. These skills can be the core of ones job, for example in an executive function, but are basically in every job present. Social-communicative competencies: these skills refer to functioning in the working environment with regard to teamwork and cooperative aspects of work. Cultural normative competencies: these skills are closely related to social-cooperative competencies. They are more specific in the organisation or working environment and refer to general received norms and values. Learning competencies: these skills help you to learn in relation to competence development, career development and during organisational changes. They make it easier to learn new competencies and learn from experiences (Simons, 1997).
Of the 120 different quotations referring to learning outcomes 100 referred to competence development and 20 were not. Table 10.1 gives an overview of the 100 categorised quotations. Table 10.1 Competence development Competence development Technical-occupational and methodological competencies (40%)
Organisational competencies (4%)
Examples Asking the right questions when pulling over a truck Dealing with victim emotions Submit complete reports to public prosecutor Personalised way of talking and asking questions Empathising with different kinds of citizens
Motivating people in the team (executive) Empathise with colleagues and have them accept you (executive)
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Social-communicative competencies (20%)
Dealing with reactions and character traits of colleagues Working together with semi-colleagues (e.g. when solving problems in the neighbourhood) Adjust leadership style to team (executive) Taking decisions and justifying them (executive)
Cultural-normative competencies (6%)
Being upright Being honest to people, also on a ‘difficult ’ level Adjusting language to police culture
Learning competencies (30%)
Understanding your personal (non-) preferred way of learning Knowing which question where to ask Asking for feedback from colleagues Evaluate a ‘big action’ in the team
Results show that 40% of the categorised quotations refer to technical-occupational and methodological competencies, 30% refer to learning competencies and 20% refer to socialcommunicative competencies. Very few skills regarding organisational competencies and normative cultural competencies were mentioned. The other 20 quotations did not fit into the above-described categorisation. They referred to non-learning. Non-learning outcomes are rejections to learning opportunities or ‘miss’ learning experiences. Dewey (1938, in Jarvis, 1987) comparatively talks in educational settings about miss educative experiences. To give these miss learning experiences a place in our framework, we decided to put the relevance of learning outcomes central. In Figure 10.2 the relevance of learning outcomes to the organisation and to learner is put into a framework for workplace learning outcomes.
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Learner relevance Alignment
Personal growth
Organisational relevance
Organisational irrelevance
Organisational growth
Non-usable outcomes Learner irrelevance
Figure 10.2
Relevance of workplace learning outcomes with two dimensions: relevance to the learner and relevance to the organisation
In alignment the learning outcomes are relevant and important to the learner as well as to the organisation. This means that they follow the learner’s personal interest (according to his current or his desired job) and that they are in line of the organisational policy. For example becoming socially minded or dealing with problems calmly. In organisational growth the learning outcomes do not appeal to the learner's interest and motivation. Police officers may participate in learning activities and learned, but only because ‘the boss told him so’. For example being versatile or using ICT. In personal growth the learning outcomes are of relevance to the learner only and not to the organisation. They don’t necessarily have anything to do with the learner’s job and therefore may contradict to the organisational policy. For example not taking enforced courses because they do not fit to personal learning needs or specialise in a defined subject (instead of being versatile). In non-usable outcomes neither the learner nor the organisation benefits from the learning outcomes. They may even inhibit further learning. For example non-learning responses to learning opportunities like not learning how to write minutes even though a colleague explains it to you. Also ‘bad’ learning outcomes belong to non-usable outcomes, like the feeling that the challenge is over when you start doing routine jobs or discourage when a project proposal is repeatedly rejected.
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Conclusions The cautious conclusion we draw is that, the interviewed police officers feel that they partially direct and control their workplace learning processes. Most personal learning profiles are characterised by directed learning, reflection on action and nondirected learning. Reflection before action is not a way of workplace learning interviewed police officers usually follow. The officers that do so often have career steps in mind. Learning outcomes that police officers perceive to develop that are relevant to the learner and/or the organisation are mostly technical-occupational, learning competencies and socialcommunicative competencies. Irrelevant learning outcomes for the learner and the organisation are also found as a result from workplace learning.
10.6 Discussion A few discussion points will be made regarding the framework of workplace learning processes and the learning outcomes, the interview strategy and remaining questions that need to be further researched.
In comparing the individual learning profiles deriving from the framework of workplace learning processes similar learning activities were clustered to different segments of the framework. For example observing colleagues dealing with emotional people during an interrogation. This learning activity can be directed by the learner himself when he intentionally wants to learn about this. But this learning activity can also be nondirected learning when the learner finds out after the interrogation that he learned about dealing with people’s emotions. At forehand and during the activity he was not aware of learning goals and strategies. This implies that learning
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activities always have to be seen in the learner's context and with regard to his intentions. In the framework for workplace learning processes there is no distinction between self-directed learning and guided learning. All learning activities that are either directed by the learner solely or with the help of a guide are clustered into the segment of directed learning. This may overestimate the conclusion that police officers direct their workplace learning processes themselves. The framework for workplace learning outcomes can be defined more strongly in terms of the function of the outcomes and the impact on future learning. Non-usable learning outcomes for example may have very strong impact on the learner is faced with emotional difficulties. In other words, what is the relation between non-usable learning outcomes and future learning? With the open interview strategy we used, we did not get information about all aspects of a learning process starting at goal setting, choosing learning strategies, ways to measure learning outcomes, feedback, judgement and rewards. We are therefore not able to draw conclusions about these aspects although they are important to workplace learning. In relation the previous discussion point, another can be made. In the interview we only asked about past learning processes and outcomes. The question is, whether we will come to the same conclusions for directed forms of learning if we ask people in advance about their learning plans and strategies and follow them around in their workplace learning activities. Another question remaining to be answered is about the correlation between workplace learning processes and the learning outcomes. What kind of learning processes lead to what kind of learning outcomes? To what extent are (self )directed learning processes related to relevance of learning outcomes? This study gives insufficient information to draw conclusions. In the next research step we will collect new information to empirically test the framework on workplace learning processes and outcomes.
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10.7 References Bolhuis, S.M., & Simons, P.R.J. (1999). Leren en werken [Learning and working]. Deventer: Kluwer. Candy, P.C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. A comprehensive guide to theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Cresswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design. Thousand Oaks: London, Sage. , d Hondt, E.M., v. Gend, S.J.A.M. et al. (1998). Visie van de politie [Police vision]. Den Haag: NPI. Dixon, N. (1994). The organizational learning cycle: how we can learn collectively. London: McGraw-Hill. Ellstrom, P.E. (1999). Integrating learning and work: problems and prospects. EARLI: Gothenburg. Engeström, Y. (1994). Training for change: new approach to instruction and learning in working life. Geneva: International labour office. Eraut, M. (2000). "Non-formal learning and tacit knowledge in professional work". British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70: 113-136. Eraut, M.R. (1998). Development of knowledge and skills in employment. Brighton: University of Sussex Institute of Education, Education Development Building. Jarvis, P. (1987). Adult learning in the social context. New York: Croom Helm. Korthagen, F.A.J. (1999). "Realistisch opleiden" [Realistic instruction]. Opleiding & Ontwikkeling, 3: 17-21. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kwakman, C.H.E. (1999). Leren van docenten tijdens de beroeploopbaan [Teacher learning during the career]. Nijmegen. Long, H.B., & Morris, S. (1995). New dimensions in self-directed learning. Marsick, V.J., & Watkins, K.E. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. London: Routledge. Muhr, T. (1997). Atlas.ti (Version 4.1) Qualitative Data Analysis Management and Model Building. Berlin: Scientific Software Development. Onstenk, J.H.A.M. (1997). Lerend leren werken, Brede vakbekwaamheid en de integratie van leren, werken en innoveren [Learning to learn to work. Broad professional skill and the integration of learning, working and innovation]. Sociale Wetenschappen, Amsterdam: Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen: 395. Revans, R. (1982). Action learning. Bromley: Chartwell-Bratt.
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Simons, P.R.J. (1993). Constructive learning: the role of the learner. In T.M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D.H. Jonassen, Designing environments for constructive learning. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 105: 291-313. Simons, P.R.J. (1997). "Ontwikkeling van leercompetenties" [Development of learning competencies]. Opleiding en Ontwikkeling, 10, 6: 17-20. Simons, P.R.J. (1999). "Various kinds of life long learning." Simons, P.R.J. (2000). Towards a constructivistic theory of self-directed learning. In G. Straka, Conceptions of self-directed learning: theoretical and conceptional considerations. Munster: Waxmann. Simons, P.R.J., Linden, J. van der, et al. (2000). New learning: three ways to learn in a new balance. In P.R.J. Simons, J. Linden van der, & T. Duffy, New Learning. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers: 1-20. Sinatra, G.M. (2000). From passive to active to intentional: changing conceptions of the learner. AERA: New Orleans. Straka, G.A. (1997). European views of self-directed learning. Bremen. Straka, G.A., & C. Schaefer (2000). Conditions promoting self-directed learning at the workplace. Vail, P. (1996). Learning as a way of being. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. van Hout-Wolters, B., Simons, P.R.J., et al. (2000). Active learning: self-directed learning and independent work. New Learning, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
11 Learning in the Workplace: New Theory and Practice in Teacher Education S. Bolhuis
11.1 Introduction Teacher education is in a state of change. There is a new focus on professional competence, including the competence for further development and learning, conceived of as workplace learning. Teacher shortages put pressure on the development of alternative routes to teaching. The arrival of prospective teachers with experience and qualifications in other areas than education requires adaptive programmes, with a greater emphasis on professional learning in school. It is argued that promoting professional workplace learning asks for a conceptual clarification, based on new theory of learning and concepts of professionalism. A definition of professional learning is proposed. Some examples of new practice in teacher education are discussed.
11.2 Developments in the teaching profession Different forces exert pressure on the teaching profession and teacher education. First, educational innovations pose new professional demands, especially concerning teaching for active learning of students, stimulating self-directed learning, 263 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 263-282. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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collaborative learning, and generally preparing students for lifelong learning (Bolhuis, 2000). These innovations are required in different types and levels of education, from primary school to higher education, from general to professional education. Consequently, teachers in all types of education are required to reconceptualise their role, and teacher education is required to change contents and methods in order to prepare student teachers for these new demands. Second, new concepts of professionalism are intruding the teaching profession as well as other professions. The question whether teaching can fully be considered a profession in the traditional sense has been long debated. We are not going into this debate here. Shifts in concepts of professionalism will change the debate. From the point of view of what is desirable, education should certainly strive to be professional in the new sense. Traditionally, professions are characterised (sociologically) by individual autonomy. Often professionals were supposed to be trustworthy by virtue of having the appropriate education, belonging to the profession, and being a member of professional associations. Today, professional activity is demanding much more teamwork. Accountability and chain responsibility are serious claims. And professionals are required to renew their professional expertise much more profoundly and continually than ever before. These new trends can be noted in several professional fields, e.g. law, medicine (Wilkerson & Irby, 1998) as well as in teaching. These changes in professionalism imply a third point, namely new ideas about professional learning, in the context of a (professional) learning organisation. The demand of lifelong learning does not only require innovations in education but also applies to the teaching profession itself. There is a new focus on professional competence in the teaching profession, including the competence for further development and learning. In the Netherlands an official document on the competences required of beginning teachers is accepted as directive in teacher education
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and (re)training (Ministry of Education, 1999b). The competence for lifelong learning however, is not restricted to study skills, but explicitly connected to collegial learning and teamwork. Professional competence is not primarily regarded as mastering academic knowledge. The criterion of competence is in the professional activity. The learning theory on which the new concepts of professional learning and the learning organisation are based is discussed below. Fourth, shortages in the labour market force the educational field and the government to look for unconventional solutions. The shortages in teacher supply are growing, and will be getting worse in the coming years. The Dutch government, in accordance with the trade unions and employers in education, is supporting several measures to stimulate the (re-)entry in teaching (Ministry of Education, 1999a, 2000). In the context of this article we will focus on some of these measures in secondary education. The ‘re-entry’ measure is directed at attracting men and women who at some time completed teacher education, and who have perhaps been teaching, but are not in the teaching profession now. So-called refresher courses are offered to help them into teaching again, or perhaps for the first time. Another measure is directed at attracting men and women who completed higher education in a field which corresponds to a school subject, who may have worked in the field, and now want to change to teaching. Alternative teacher education routes are being developed to accommodate their so-called ‘side-entry’. A special side-entry experiment was started with artisans (metal and electro) who have an intermediate professional level, but no higher education, and who will be teaching their craft in lower secondary vocational education. Finally, organisational developments in higher education play a part as well. Traditionally the Netherlands knows two different institutes of teacher education. The university-related institutes prepare first level teachers in a post academic one year’s mastercourse in education, on the condition that students a) have completed a master in some field that matches a school subject,
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and b) completed a two or three months teacher orientation program during their master. The other type is the teacher college within an institute of higher professional education. These colleges prepare second level teachers in a four-year program in which the school subject and teacher preparation are combined. Both of these teacher education institutes also offer all kinds of training and support for schools on a commercial basis, often in a (semi-) independent institute. In recent years both types of teacher education institutes are developing forms of cooperation, and sometimes present themselves as one institute.
11.3 New theory of professional learning in the workplace Competence-based learning Teaching for competence is standing out as the most important goal of professional education. In the 'Entry-competences for teachers in secondary education' (Ministry of Education, 1999b) competence is mostly defined in terms of professional activities and related to teaching contexts. Also, the competence for professional, collegial learning is explicitly included. The entry competence is the basis for further professional development. Nowadays this is generally considered characteristic of education for competence. Education for competence is education in which the trade knowledge is integrated with trade skills, and which is showing similarities with the future professional practice. It is education that focuses more on application and integration of the trade knowledge and stimulates the learning competence (Mulder, 2000). The proof of competence is to be found in the professional activity in the authentic environment. This implies the need for a different way of teaching in professional education and also for a different way of assessing learning results (Shlusmans, Slotman, Nagtegaal, & Kinkhorst, 1999). In alternative routes to teaching this need is even more urgent, because the assessment should include competencies that were
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acquired elsewhere (Klarus, 1998). The arrival of teachers-to-be with experience and qualifications in other areas than education asks for new ways of assessment and learning, with a greater emphasis on workplace learning.
Spontaneous learning in the workplace Professional learning is increasingly considered as learning in the workplace. The most obvious reason for this is the recognition that people acquire much of their professional competence in practice, and keep learning through their professional activities. This is why professional education is trying to find ways to incorporate learning in practice. This trend sometimes looks much like a new appreciation of the importance of learning skills in practice. There is more to the concept of workplace learning however. Important elements are the recognition of spontaneous learning and the influence of the school culture as such. The important point is that spontaneous learning and the school culture do not necessarily result in the best professional practice. Spontaneous learning includes learning by experience and by social interaction as naturally occurring ways of learning. Teachers learn by their day-to-day experience with their students, parents, colleagues, they learn by the way colleagues, management, parents and others talk about students, teaching and other school matters. They learn continuously, also when they are not aware of their own learning. Their professional activities, their practice in teaching, their way of communicating with students, etcetera, are shaped continually by this learning. Practices that are rewarding are continued, other practices that are frustrated or rejected fade. Much professional education today is embracing experiential learning. It appears however that the focus is really on learning by reflection on experience. This is often inspired by Kolb and Schön (Fenwick, 2000; Kolb, 1984; Schön, 1987). This may be a valuable goal to pursue, but when experiential learning is treated as if experience by nature includes reflection one may misperceive and underestimate the results of experiential
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learning. Learning by direct experience happens implicitly by being immersed and participating in the social-material environment and thus experiencing what kind of world this is, atmosphere and habits in the organisation, etcetera. There is also a more active form of learning by doing: trial and error, experimentation, problem-solving, hands-on learning. Then there is the (seemingly) more passive form of immersion and exposure, experiencing what the environment is like. This kind of learning can be quite overwhelming and pervasive, especially when we want or need to be part of our environment. Social learning includes all kinds of daily interactions and communications as they go on daily in every human context, everyday informal conversations as well as organised way of collaborating. When learning by participating in social interaction is to be used on purpose, one may want to differentiate several forms of social interaction and their purpose: learning by observing models (observational learning); asking questions: getting more information; discussion: getting clear, evaluate and/or defend differences in opinion; dialogue: trying to find (better) solutions together; brainstorm: trying to generate as many approaches to a problem; acting together, doing a job together to reach a shared goal. Socialisation comprises experiential learning (immersion and learning by doing), as well as social learning. Who serves as a positive model depends on identification with 'important others’: those who are attractive, powerful, and trustworthy. But, you may also learn by negative models: the ones you don't want to follow. In secondary socialisation, as is the case when first entering a professional context, learners usually have acquired ideas about the profession already. These mental models or beliefs influence the appreciation of the professional context and models they encounter. Spontaneous learning in professional practice is important because a) it happens anyway, whether it is wanted or not, b) it
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is effecting practice directly and pervasively, and c) people are not very aware of the process and effects of spontaneous learning, which results in inflexible learning results. Spontaneous learning may lead to greater expertise, but also to negative habits in teaching. The environment heavily influences the effects of spontaneous learning. School organisations make up the environment for learning, not only for students, but also for teachers, staff and management. When thinking of staff development and training one should include the school’s subculture as a starting point.
Deliberate learning in the workplace The recognition of the power and nature of spontaneous learning is a starting point for learning in a more conscious and deliberate way. Learning by experience and social interaction may be organised in better ways so as to learn in desirable ways (Bolhuis & Simons, 1999). This asks for reflection on the learning context, processes and results. The essential activity in learning by reflective, critical thinking is asking questions. This may concern questions to evaluate what was learned – or could be learned more – by experiences (observation and action), by social interaction, or by processing theory, questions evaluating what led to the learning effects, the context, the sources of information, the sources, and relations to other information. Reflective questions may be asked to relate new information to prior knowledge: critical examination of one’s own frame of reference, one's own assumptions, mental models, ideas, ways of thinking, habits, emotions, attitudes. Also questions may pertain to what hinders or motivates learning. Asking these kinds of questions requires personal involvement and commitment. They are related to cognition as well as to emotions that have to do with becoming a professional. Academic education is traditionally dominated by learning by theory, by processing abstract, generalised and preferably scientific information. This model is often still influential in professional training. The problems in learning by theory are
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well documented. Learning from theory is susceptible to misunderstanding; misconceptions are easily acquired. The learner may not connect the information to ‘the real world’, to the context where theoretical knowledge should get meaning. There is no transfer, and only inert knowledge is acquired. There is no automatic relation between conceptual knowledge (understanding) and the practical situation. Theoretical knowledge is selected, structured and organised. Using theoretical knowledge requires that the learner can do the selecting, structuring and organizing procedure in many different situations. Too much learning from theory kills motivation, especially when a student’s source of motivation is the professional practice. To compensate for these problems and still profit from theory learning it is recommended to combine and integrate theory and spontaneous learning in a critical reflective way.
Toward a standard of professional learning Promoting professional learning asks for a conceptual clarification, discerning spontaneous learning (by experience and social interaction) from more deliberate ways of learning (by processing theory and by reflective thinking), and focusing on individual as well as collaborative learning. Just like much other professional work nowadays teaching is done in teams or other forms of collaboration. The goal should be improvement of the professional practice of the individual as well as groups (teams, organisations), based on accountability. Professional learning can be described as a desired way of combining and integrating the spontaneous learning and theoretical learning in a critical reflective way. The following definition is proposed (Bolhuis & Doornbos, 2000): Professional learning is: individually and collaboratively consciously and critically thinking about, organizing and integrating
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experiential and social ways of learning as well as theory learning, directed toward the improvement of professional practice and the context of practice. Recognition of the school’s subculture, as an important influence on teachers ’ learning, also implies that the school’s culture is an important issue of teacher’s and management’s professional responsibility in the school. The concept of the school as a learning organisation should include the school's subculture.
11.4 New practice in teacher education Most institutes already knew part-time versions of the regular program. The part-time routes give the opportunity to follow a teacher education while fulfilling other responsibilities in work and/or family. It is based on the regular program though dispensations may be granted. In response to the teacher shortage and new ideas about professional learning teacher education institutes are organizing several alternative routes to teaching. Side-entry routes are organised for men and women who completed higher education in a field which corresponds to a school subject, may have worked in the field, and now want to change to teaching. There are two variants of side-entry. Part of this group applies for a teaching job directly. When a ‘suitability investigation’, concerning prior education and (work and other) experience results in a positive advice, the applicant is submitted to an assessment procedure by a teacher education institute. This procedure has to point out whether the candidate a) is already sufficiently competent to start teaching right away, b) needs to follow teacher education first, perhaps with some dispensations, or c) does not seem suitable for entering the teaching profession. The assessment has to result in demands for an additional teacher education program for those who are appointed as a teacher right away. They are supposed to be able to complete this program in two years, while teaching as well.
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This new entry in the teaching profession is regulated in the interim law on side-entry to teaching. Beside this ‘side-entry to teaching’ there is the ‘side-entry in teacher education’ for those who need or choose to follow teacher education first. Current research on this side-entry route will be reported elsewhere. Below, the special experiment of ‘side-entry to teaching’ for artisans who have started teaching in preparatory vocational schools is discussed. Next the ‘re-entry route’ is discussed, based on research done in 2000. This route aims at those who are formally qualified to teach but for whatever reason left or never got into a teaching job. The refresher course should help them to feel confident and motivated to start teaching (again), giving the opportunity to renew their knowledge and skills where necessary. The main questions in discussing these examples of new practice in teacher education concern: the entry of new student groups with characteristics that are different from regular students, adoptions of the program, and in particular the role of workplace learning.
Side-entry of artisans as teachers in preparatory vocational schools Vocational (technical) schools suffer from severe teacher shortages, especially in the vocational subjects. The Federation of Trade Unions, the Employers’ Federation as well as the Trade Unions in the Metal and Electro branch, the Organisation of Small and Medium sized Enterprises, and the Ministry of Education cooperated to start a side-entry experiment for artisans in the metal branch who could be interested in a parttime career change toward teaching. They kept working parttime in their former job, and started teaching while following the side-entry teacher education in the rest of the week. More side-entry routes in other vocational branches are planned following the experiment in the metal field. The Ministry of Education asked researchers for advice on workplace learning as
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the central focus in this type of alternative teacher education program (Bolhuis & Doornbos, 2000). Some innovations are going on in preparatory vocational education. First, this type of education is merged with general secondary education, with the intent to focus more on the preparatory nature. This is rather problematic. The schools have a student population with higher percentages of ethnic minority and lower ses students than other schools. Second, changes in the vocational field result in changes in the demands for the final examinations. This asks for educational innovations in the vocational subjects, in content and in the approach to learning. Students also have to learn to work more independently. The new practical classrooms are rather large and students work on tasks much on their own, while two or more teachers are around to guide the process. Some schools are ahead of others in realizing innovations. The first phase of the side-entry route had already started when the researchers were called in. Two researchers attended several meetings of the teacher educators and the student-teachers (in which they discussed basic principles of teaching, use of the portfolio, practiced micro-teaching, etcetera), and visited some of the training schools (where they attended practical lessons, and talked with teacher coaches as well as school management). Also they had discussions with the teacher educators about the consequences of workplace learning and their student's special needs. The general differences between the traditional model of teacher education and the side-entry routes and are summarised in Figure 11.1. However, the side-entry of artisans asks for adaptations. The assessment that was developed for candidates with a higher education qualification in a field that corresponds with a general school subject was not adequate for this group. Their competencies as artisans are less verbal in nature. They are less familiar with the type of language and verbal expressiveness
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that is assumed when assessment candidates are asked to fill their portfolio. Workplace learning model in sideentry routes
Traditional model of teacher education
1. 2. 3.
1. 2. 3.
4.
5. 6. 7.
8.
Entry on the basis of assessment Tailored learning route Learning while working, school practice and educational theory intertwined Already acquired competencies and work experience lead to learning questions Teacher coaches have a central role Side-entry teachers have teaching responsibilities from the beginning Side-entry teachers bring field experience and contacts with enterprises in the field Teacher certificate based on assessment (with a focus on practice)
Figure 11.1
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Entry on the basis of a school diploma Full curriculum for all students From educational theory to (application in) school practice Teacher education institute organises learning (contents, tasks, etc.) Teacher educators have a central role Students are supervised, gradually getting more responsibilities Out-dated field expertise and a lack of contact with enterprises in the field Teacher certificate on the basis of traditional examinations
General differences between the traditional model of teacher education and the side-entry routes
The solution so far was to take a two months orientation period for the candidates to get acquainted with their prospective job and for working on a portfolio that could serve as a start. The question what teacher competences should be the criterion presents another problem in the assessment. The official document on teacher competences focuses on general aspects of teaching but does not include the special requirements of particular school subjects. The competences are not very specific about the coaching role that teachers in practical subjects have in the preparatory vocational schools. Moreover the examination programmes of the practical subjects were changed recently. These side-entry teachers are very motivated. They regard this opportunity as an important career step. Some have experience in coaching trainees and/or new colleagues in their job or in training young people in sport associations. Others have no such experience and need more time to learn their new role. They all have to get to know the kind of students they meet in the
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preparatory vocational schools. The side-entry teachers have an important advantage in their recent vocational experience. The teacher coaches have an opportunity to learn from their new colleagues. This was e.g. exploited by asking the side-entry teachers to organise an excursion for students and/or colleagues to their enterprise. More contacts in the field may also make it easier for preparatory vocational schools to organise the trainee periods for their students. After the orientation period another two months were spent on building the portfolio, practicing professional skills (educational and vocational), organizing the excursion, and progress discussions with teacher educators. The structure of the rest of the two year (maximum) program is: one day per week to workand-learn in the school, one day per fortnight in the institute to work on common themes, one day per fortnight either in school or in the institute to work on self-chosen themes. A help desk and individual training possibilities are available in the institute. Based on the portfolio students are encouraged to think about their personal learning needs and keep track of how to fulfil these needs. Several instruments were devised to help the student teachers in professional learning. Since workplace learning is central to the program, the teacher coaches in the school have an important role. They are used to young trainees, but not to new colleagues, who have vocational expertise, are adult, and need to acquire educational expertise. Therefore training for coaches was started to help them get acquainted with their new role.
The re-entry-route The re-entry-route consists of three phases: a) the acquisition and selection, b) the refresher course, c) mediation and placement (getting a job). The National Educational Employment Service asked (the commercial part of) the teacher education institutes to develop refresher courses. The regional employment agencies, teacher education institutes and
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secondary schools in a region need to cooperate to realise this re-entry-route. When the research project started, these re-entryroutes were carried out in four regions; two more regions were preparing to do so.
Method We asked for the relevant documents in all regions, from 1) the employment agencies that were responsible for acquisition and selection of candidates as well as for mediation, and 2) teacher education institutes that were involved with refresher-courses. One of the four regions had already started some research on their own project. We received the preliminary results. All documents were analysed; the information was also used to prepare the interviews. Semi-structured interviews were held in three regions of the country, with employment consultants (3), students in refresher courses (11), teacher educators (4), teacher-coaches (5) and schoolmanagers (3). The interviewees, with the exception of the students, received the questions beforehand. The interviews were held by telephone, and recorded for analysis.
Results The procedure of acquisition and selection posed several problems. The employment agencies select candidates on formal criteria in the first place: candidates have to be unemployed, and in the possession a teacher qualification in a school subject that was looked for because of a teacher shortage, sometimes also being out of teaching for at least some years. These criteria are not always as clear as they seem. There is little contact between schools and the employment agency about the question what teachers are needed in the region. When schools offer a job to a reentry teacher, can they still follow the re-entry course? Second, the employment agency also applies more subjective criteria like motivation, and social skills, in estimating the candidate’s chances to succeed as a teacher. Next teacher education institutes
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have an intake meeting with candidates, also estimating chances of success and what kind of assistance in the refresher course candidates will need. The institutes however do not have the time (money) and/or the experience to do a more elaborate assessment-procedure. What are student characteristics? As was expected, the students are a very heterogeneous group, which means that the kind of problems and uncertainties they bring with them are also very diverse. The number of years since they were teaching or completed their teacher education varies from a couple of years to more than twenty years. Some have an elaborate experience in teaching (more than ten years), some have only a few years, and a growing number had no teaching experience at all. At the time they left teacher education teaching jobs were scarce, so they looked for other possibilities. Their experience in work is very diverse, e.g. carpentry, volunteer work, computer consultant, freelance editor, student counsellor. A majority of students are women, who often want to combine care for their children with teaching. They tend to regard their experience with children as an advantage for going into teaching (again). Teacher educators and coaches also mentioned this experience as advantageous to reenter teaching. The teacher coaches who are able to compare the students to regular student teachers are very appreciative. They mention that these adult students have more life experience, they may need an update on today’s education and students, but they are more independent, pose more adequate questions, and are faster in taking up their role as a teacher in class as well as in the school organisation. What about the structure and content of the refresher courses? The content of the courses is variable, but generally focuses on main changes in education and teaching, e.g. the shifting focus toward learning to learn, use of ict, a multicultural student population, new requirements for final examinations in secondary education, changes in the exams or didactic approaches regarding specific school subjects, professional learning in the school. Most courses
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take about three to four months. This time is divided in rather diverse ways between time spent in the teacher education institute, independent study or lesson preparation, and the practical training in school. Most courses make practical training the dominant part, taking at least twice or three times as much time as the time spent in teacher education, and organised parallel, so that workplace experience can be central in the course at the institute. One may conclude that so far courses are different in their contents as well as their structure, but usually workplace learning is the main focus. How adaptive are refresher courses to the diversity of students? The teacher education institutes receive some information about the candidates from the employment agency, and they have their own intake conversation with all candidates. This information is not (yet) used systematically to adapt the course to student needs. The institutes do employ several adaptive strategies in the refresher courses however. Students are asked to compose their own personal learning program, based on an analysis of their strong and weak points. Personal logs or diaries are used to structure reflection on experiences in school. In portfolios students keep track of their learning progress. Students are offered a choice of several elements in the teacher education program (e.g. extra ict) and in counselling or advice. An extra reason for offering different choices is the fact that teaching in secondary education concerns different school subjects in which re-entering teachers may need to refresh their knowledge. Small group (and sometimes individual) coaching is another strategy that is used to stimulate learning from personal experience, adapted to personal needs. Coaching is also considered to prepare for professional learning: supervision as well as intervision in collaborative, collegial learning. Are refresher courses based on and preparing for professional workplace learning? If workplace learning is central in a refresher course, one might expect that the teacher education institute and the teacher coach are collaborating. In some cases however students and teacher coaches had complaints about the lack of
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communication. Also students were dissatisfied with the discrepancy between what was learned in the teacher education institute and their school activities. They would appreciate more practice-related topics, meaning related to their own practice in school. Some students were disappointed that schools were much less innovative then they had expected based on new insights gained during the meetings at the teacher education institute. Teacher educators also mentioned the problem of training schools that were rather conservative, and in fact below their standards of teaching, not to speak of standards concerning a professional learning environment. We found that students in refresher courses get a school for training in different ways. Some teacher education institutes take care of training schools by contacting the same schools they use in regular teacher education. An advantage is that these schools have prepared teacher coaches. A disadvantage is that these schools usually do not have vacancies, so they do not offer a job to the re-entering teacher. Sometimes students (have to) find their own school, and sometimes the employment agency is in contact with schools that want to have students from these courses. Here the advantage and disadvantage are just the other way around. Most schools spend little time and attention to beginning teachers and/or team learning. One school manager said to prefer appointing a teacher after a refresher course Abecause in that case the school did not have the trouble of showing the ropes. In focusing on workplace learning teacher educators have to deal with schools that differ in realizing their new role (that is providing for professional learning in the workplace). A majority of the students indicate that they hope for and would appreciate support from colleagues and management when they start teaching again.
11.5 Conclusions and discussion New theory and new practice are developing in interaction. This state of change brings along challenges as well as dilemmas.
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The co-ordination and new roles of the schools and the teacher education institutes are developing (partly) but are not yet well established. Teacher education institutes are sometimes ahead of schools and sometimes schools are ahead of teacher education in providing a stimulating professional learning environment. When workplace learning becomes the central focus schools have to learn this new role, and teacher education institutes have to experiment with their new role in supporting professional learning in the school environment. A general conclusion is that “The workplace as a place to learn requires a lot more attention than it is getting now.” (Beijaard, Verloop, Wubbels, & Feiman-Nemser, 2000). The teacher shortage brings other partners in the field that teacher education institutes have to deal with. These organisations (such as employment agencies) have a different approach to the problem and consequent expectations of teacher education. The current state of affairs seems to cause many problems of confusion, misunderstanding and resulting irritation. On the other hand very promising new partnerships of different organisations are successfully supporting alternative routes to teaching. Teacher education institutes are experimenting with new programmes and instruments to adapt to new student-groups. The development of new approaches and instruments needs time and evaluative research, but also more attention for teacher educators who have to invent their new role. It is remarkable that Athe professionalisation of teacher educators is hardly ever discussed (Korthagen, Klaassens, & Russell, 2000). The teacher shortage as a labour market problem is getting worse. Since the labour market is beginning to offer many more vacancies, those who look for a job have more choice. Schools with vacancies need to be intent of the attractiveness of the workplace they are offering professionals. This is even more urgent because the problem of teacher shortage is two-sided. Not only the entry-numbers count, but also the numbers of teachers who decide to leave their job. Schools that suffer from vacancies
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will often also suffer from time pressure, because the remaining teachers try to make up for the shortage. This may lead to less time for creating a collaborative and supportive environment, while one cluster of reasons for leaving may be the lack of support in schools that do not succeed in offering the support and collegiality that make up a professional learning environment for teachers.
11.6 References Beijaard, D., Verloop, N., Wubbels, T., & Feiman-Nemser, S. (2000). The professional development of teachers. In R.P.J. Simons, J. van der Linden, & T. Duffy (Eds.), New Learning (pp. 261-274). Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Bolhuis, S. (2000). Naar zelfstandig leren, Wat doen en denken docenten? [Toward selfdirected learning, What do teachers do and think?]. University of Nijmegen, Nijmegen. Bolhuis, S., & Doornbos, A. (2000). Leren op de werkplek [Learning in the workplace]. Nijmegen: Sectie Onderwijs en Educatie KUN [University of Nijmegen]. Bolhuis, S., & Simons, R.P.J. (1999). Leren en werken [Learning and work] (1st ed.). Deventer: Kluwer. Fenwick, T.J. (2000). Expanding Conceptions of Experiential Learning: A Review of the Five Contemporary Perspectives on Cognition. Adult Education Quarterly, 50, 4: 243-272. Klarus, R. (1998). Bekwaamheden erkennen. Een studie naar modellen en procedures voor leerwegonafhankelijke beoordeling van beroepsbekwaamheden [Recognition of competencies]. Nijmegen. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Korthagen, F., Klaassens, C., & Russell, T. (2000). New learning in teacher education. Iin R.P.J. Simons, J. van der Linden, & T. Duffy (Eds.), New Learning (pp. 243-259). Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Ministry of Education, Culture & Science (1999a). Maatwerk voor morgen: het perspectief van een open onderwijsarbeidsmarkt [Custom-made: the perspective of an open-education–labour-market]. Zoetermeer. Ministry of Education, Culture & Science (1999b). Startbekwaamheden leraar secundair onderwijs [Entry competencies for secondary education teachers]. Zoetermeer.
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Ministry of Education, Culture & Science (2000). Maatwerk 2 Vervolgnota over een open onderwijsarbeidsmarkt [Custom-made 2: The open-education-labourmarket continued]. Zoetermeer. Mulder, M. (2000). Competentieontwikkeling in bedrijf en onderwijs. Inaugurele rede. Wageningen: Wageningen Universiteit. Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: JosseyBass. Shlusmans, K., Slotman, R., Nagtegaal, C., and Kinkhorst, G. (Eds.). (1999). Competentiegerichte leeromgevingen [Competency-based learning environment]. Utrecht: Lemma. Wilkerson, L., & Irby, D.M. (1998). Strategies for improving teaching practices: A comprehensive approach to faculty development. Academic Medicine, 73, 4: 387-396.
PART 3 Career Development and Work-Related Learning
12 Critically Reflective Working Behaviour: a Survey Research M. van Woerkom
12.1 Introduction In this chapter critically reflective working behaviour will be operationalised. Second, the question will be raised which factors have impact on critically reflective working behaviour. The following dimensions of critically reflective working emerged: reflection, learning from mistakes, vision sharing, challenging groupthink, asking for feedback, knowledge sharing, experimentation and awareness of employability. In a survey under 742 respondents these dimensions were validated. Important influencing factors seem to be self-efficacy (positive), participation (positive) and experienced difficulty with change (negative). Good employees could be characterised as critically reflective employees. This conclusion was drawn from an explorative case study research in seven organisations: two banks, three factories (a cheese factory, a packaging factory, and a textile-printing factory), a call centre, and the Post Office (organisation). These case studies were a preliminary investigation for the main research, and were aimed at describing informal on-the-job learning and competence. In the preliminary study respondents representing different levels in the organisation gave answer to 285 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 285-308. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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the question “What is your definition of a ‘good employee?’ Many respondents, especially in the packaging factory, the cheese factory and one of the banks, in answering this question stressed aspects having to do with critical reflection (Van Woerkom et al., 2000). Respondents mentioned the importance of thinking critically about the whys and wherefores, asking questions like “Why are things organised like this? Can the work be done more efficiently? Why do I work like this?” A personnel manager at a bank underlined the fact that, instead of working harder and harder to meet the increased work pressure, people should in particular learn to work differently. Employees should be able to step back occasionally from their daily routine and devote more attention to self- and time management. A production manager at the cheese factory observed that real craftsmen are not monkeys who can perform tricks but people who contribute ideas towards the process, who reflect on the whys and wherefores, and who can think ahead. A plant manager at the packaging factory commented that real craftsmen can raise work processes and work problems to a higher level and are the employees who like to discuss their knowledge with others. At the organisational level too critical reflection is important. When managers were asked for their definition of ‘the learning organisation’ they often mention the importance of learning from mistakes. The plant manager of the packaging factory felt that this should not be limited to mistakes inside the company only; complaints from customers should also be handled very carefully. In a textile printing company, stimulating critical reflection (in the form of a session in which mechanics were invited to criticise their organisation and to find possible solutions to these problems) was a means of stimulating the performance of both the individual mechanics and the technical service. Main conclusion of the preliminary study was that critical reflection is both an important form of informal on-the-job learning and an important aspect of competence. The next step now is to make critical reflection operational and to look for factors that influence critical
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reflection. This chapter discusses this next phase in the study. The following research questions will be answered: What is critical reflection and how can we measure it? What factors influence critical reflection?
12.2 Theoretical framework After having identified critical reflection as an important aspect of successful working behaviour, the concept of critical reflection needed to be defined. What exactly is critical reflection and how can we describe critically reflective individuals in work organisations? As Brooks (1999) rightly remarks, because the concept of critical reflection has been developed within the context of theory or practice, rather than research, (Freire, 1972, Mezirow, 1981, Brookfield, 1987 in Brooks, 1999) it has not been developed operationally and no instrument exists to identify individuals capable of critical reflection. Furthermore, scholars don't seem to agree on terminology and definitions. Some speak about critical reflection, while others speak of reflection, critical thinking, double loop learning, model II behaviour, transformative learning etc.
Towards a unifying definition? As said before, many concepts are related to critical reflection, and many definitions exist of what critical reflection is. Let’s try to find an operational definition that can help us to measure critically reflective working behaviour. According to Marsick & Watkins (1990) critical reflection relates to understanding one’s own standards, goals, and interests, and learning about backgrounds, assumptions and performance objectives, aimed at improvement. The research of Marsick & Watkins (1990) showed that critical reflection enabled people to challenge norms and to examine the assumptions behind their reasoning and actions. They noticed that “people learned best when they were able to ask questions about why they saw the world as
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they did, whether their thinking was correct, or how they came to believe a perceived truth that they held sacred” (p. 220). According to Brooks (1999) the ability to ask (critical) questions is fundamental to ‘informal critically reflective learning’. “Making inquiries stands as the only method we have to break us out of the worldviews we take for granted.” According to Brooks, critical reflection is useful for improving work practices, addressing moral and ethical dilemmas, and evaluating organisational goals and strategies. A practical means of assessing the value of critical reflection is to measure whether it improves work practices. The concept of double-loop learning that Argyris & Schön (1996) distinguished is closely related to critical reflection. Double-loop learning enables workers to identify, question and change the assumptions underlying workplace organisation and patterns of interaction. Workers publicly challenge workplace assumptions and learn to change underlying values. By confronting the basic assumptions behind prevailing organisational norms, values, myths, hierarchies and expectations, workers help prevent stagnation and dysfunctional habits. Furthermore, Argyris & Schön describe so called model II behaviour. This is behaviour related to critical reflection and necessary for double loop learning. This behaviour can be characterised by asking (critical) questions, expressing one’s (sincere) opinion and inviting others to give feedback or to confront visions, perspective taking and experimenting with new behaviour and work methods. Nondefensive behaviour is also part of model II behaviour. Brookfield (1987) defined the process of critical thinking as the process by which we detect and analyse the assumptions that underlie the actions, decisions and judgements in our lives. Essentially it has three stages: firstly, becoming aware that these assumptions exist, secondly, making them explicit, and thirdly, assessing their accuracy and validity. Bolhuis & Simons (1999) define critical learning as learning that is consciously initiated by the learner out of dissatisfaction with earlier learning. What has been learned before (frame of reference) has to be unlearned to
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make place for new knowledge, skills and attitudes. Critical learning can be seen as breaking down and building up. This small sample proof different characteristics of definitions and functions. Questioning assumptions seems to be a central aspect of most of the definitions but is not being made concrete in an organisational context. Assessing the usefulness for the purpose of this research, a few problems emerged: 1. Most of these definitions are indeed not very operational. 2. Most of these definitions characterise a process instead of a visible behaviour. 3. Most of these definitions are rather focused on learning or thinking than on working in an organisation. The model II behaviour (Argyris & Schön, 1996) seems to comply most with the purpose of our research. For this research it is important to make critical reflection operational in terms of observable examples of critically reflective behaviour in work organisations. Therefore the following definition of critically reflective working behaviour was made: Critically reflective working behaviour is a set of connected, individual activities, aimed at analysing, optimising or innovating work practices on individual, team, or organisational level.
Dimensions of critically reflective behaviour After having found the theoretical notions on critical reflection, again an analysis of the case-study material was made, aimed at looking for identifiable, concrete, practical examples of these theories. The combination of literature review and the analysis of the case-studies (these were carried out in a parallel process, returning from one to the other) lead to the operationalisation of critically reflective working behaviour in nine dimensions, which were being chosen because they are recognisable both in theory and in practice. The dimensions will be explained below, with examples of theory and the case-study material.
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Reflection on oneself in relation to the job All fore mentioned authors have an element of reflection in their definition. Reflection is a mental activity, aimed at examining one’s own behaviour in a certain situation (Van Bolhuis-Poortvliet & Snoek, 1996). The importance of reflection was demonstrated by statements from respondents like “reflecting on the whys and wherefores” “Why are things organised like this? Can the work be done more efficiently? Why do I work like this?” “Employees should be able to step back occasionally from their daily routine and devote more attention to self- and time management”. Learning from mistakes Reflection leads to consciousness of undesirable matters (for example work routines, communication deficiencies, mistakes, problems, lack of motivation). Instead of denying these undesired matters, they are interpreted as something positive, namely as source for improvement or learning. As Senge (1990) states “failure is, simply, a shortfall, evidence of the gap between vision and current reality. Failure is an opportunity for learning-about inaccurate pictures of current reality, about strategies that didn’t work as expected, about the clarity of the vision. Failures are not about our unworthiness or powerlessness”. Many respondents from the case studies stressed the importance of not being afraid to make mistakes or showing one’s vulnerability. When managers were asked for their definition of ‘the learning organisation’ they often mention the importance of learning from mistakes. Vision sharing Vision sharing is one of the observable activities caused by reflection. One expresses the result of reflection by expressing ones vision, asking (critical) questions or suggesting improvements. Making your vision publicly is one of the two central aspects of the model II behaviour (Argyris & Schön, 1996). The respondents in the case studies stressed the importance of contributing ideas and discussing this with
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others. “Good critical workers are not just being negative but do suggestions for a different way of working”. Challenging groupthink However critical thinking cannot always be perceived as being positive. In Brooks (1999) case study of a ‘Baby Bell’ telephone company, two images were used by many individuals to describe critically reflective participants. “The first was that they “can see the emperor is wearing no clothes”, the second is that they “are troublemakers”. Although being called a “troublemaker” does not appear to be regarded as bad, informal critical reflection is not always met with a welcoming embrace. It can be rejected, leaving an employee isolated.” Brookfield (1987) defines critical thinkers as people who challenge groupthink, that is, ideas that a group has accepted as sacrosanct. This also means that critical thinkers are alert to premature ultimates, invocations to higher values. Some respondents in the case studies mentioned ‘challenging group-think’. “The guy is a trouble-maker, but he sharpens us.” Asking for feedback The essence of model II behaviour of Argyris & Schön (1996) is the balance between advocating and inviting others for feedback and vision sharing. Social dimension of critically reflective working behaviour. The importance of this dimension is demonstrated by statements of respondents referring to a social dimension of critically reflective working behaviour. On the one hand is social interaction an important source of information for reflection. On the other hand is “being critical on your own” often not perceived as constructive and effective. Employees operate in a social context and will have to get support for their ideas to make things happen.
Experimentation Schön distinguishes between reflection-on-action en reflectionin-action. Reflection-in-action is a kind of experimenting. “When someone reflects in action he becomes a researcher in the practice
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context. He is not dependent on the categories of established theory and technique but constructs a new theory of the unique case.” Experimenting is often mentioned as the last step in a reflection cycle (for example Dewey (1933), Korthagen (1985), Van Bolhuis-Poortvliet & Snoek (1997)). Brookfield (1987) perceives “exploring and imagining alternatives” as one of the two central activities of critical thinking. (The first is identifying en-challenging assumptions). Although the term experimentation was not mentioned by respondents (it has a connotation of experimenting without any obligations) what they did mention was the importance of putting ideas into practice. “Good teams don’t need a suggestion box; they immediately turn ideas into improvements”. Sharing knowledge Sharing knowledge can be seen as a dimension of non-defensive behaviour (Argyris & Schön, 1996). Sharing knowledge means that people are not only motivated by protecting their own position but want to be part of something that is bigger than themselves (Senge, 1990). It also can be seen as a social aspect of critical reflection in the context of an organisation. As long as knowledge, insights, and visions are not being shared, the organisation won’t benefit from it, and the individual will be frustrated in his attempts to change work practices and Senge states that people don’t only act out of self-interest, but Although critical reflection seems to be an individual activity, the effect of it is not to be defined apart from the social context. The result of critical reflection (insights, visions, suggestions for improvements) cannot be made effective if this is not shared with others. “Good workers like to share knowledge with their colleagues, without being afraid for competition.” A training manager at a bank noticed that competitiveness amongst colleagues has a negative effect on knowledge sharing. More and more attention is paid to this problem.
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Awareness of employability Awareness of employability career can be seen as a logical consequence of reflection on one self in relation to the job. As a result of reflection about oneself in relation to work, people become aware of their motives and the extent to which work satisfies their motives. If necessary one will orient on other possibilities. This quality was stressed by many respondents. The case study material showed that both organisations and the people who work in them do benefit from employable employees who ask themselves if they really want to follow the changes in their job or if they would not prefer to look for another job. The ability to take responsibility for one’s own career if one does not like the changes that are taking place in the job, and to continue this career with another employer is not only in the interests of the employee but also in those of the employer, if, for example, jobs change or disappear and employees cannot be dismissed because they are protected by law.
12.3 Factors influencing critically reflective working behaviour The second research question is related to factors having impact on critically reflective working behaviour. In this paragraph an analysis is made of two clusters of factors: individual factors and factors related to work and organisation.
Individual factors Motivation The theory of self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Deci & Flaste, 1995) expects three factors in workplace conditions to have a distinct impact on motivation for working and learning, namely experience of social integration, experience of autonomy and experience of competence. People feel socially integrated if they believe that their work is acknowledged by their colleagues and superiors and if they feel integrated in the community of work. People experience autonomy when they have the feeling
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that they have the scope to act independently and to carry out their work according to their own planning and insights. People feel competent if they believe that they can carry out their work successfully and effectively. Another motivational component is the balance between insecurity and challenge in a situation (Maddi, 1970). A hypothesis in this research is that these four motivational components all have a positive effect on critically reflective working behaviour. However, the effect of social integration is still ambiguous. On the one hand feeling socially integrated will make it easier to be open, vulnerable and critical. On the other hand social integration can make it more difficult to resist social pressure and to come up with new ideas, ask (critical) questions etc. Self-efficacy Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organise and execute the sources of action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacy also depends on selfevaluation and how people view their capability. For they may perceive an ability needed for some aspects of their current or anticipated future work either as an acquirable skill or as an inherent, possibly inherited aptitude. The former is highly conducive to skills development as people judge themselves in terms of performance improvement and regard errors a natural part of the learning process. The latter constrains learning, especially when people compare themselves unfavourably with others. Research from Van der Klink (1999), Gielen (1995), Gist, Stevens & Bavetta (1991), Hastings, Sheckley & Nichols (1995), Matieu, Martineau & Tannenbaum (1993) show the significance of self-efficacy for motivation for training and commitment with organisation. A hypothesis in this research is that self-efficacy has a positive effect on the dimensions of critically reflective working behaviour. Many of these dimensions require courage (daring to be vulnerable, to be open, to resist social pressure). People will have this courage if they have high efficacy. Eraut c.s. (1998) point out that confidence
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was frequently cited by respondents as both the major outcome of a significant learning experience in the workplace and a critical determinant of good performance at work. Sometimes it derived from the achievement of a good result or the solution of a problem, sometimes from the recognition that others were no less fallible than themselves. Confidence encouraged more ambitious goal setting and more risk-taking, both leading to further learning. Usually it was fairly specific, relating to ability to execute a task or successfully perform a role, what Bandura calls self-efficacy. Experience concentration Experience concentration refers to the diversity of experience in ones career (Thijssen, 1996). In general, with the increasing of age, the multitude of experience increases and the diversity of experience decreases. The hypothesis is, that experience concentration has a negative effect on critically reflective working behaviour. The more experience one has in one context, the less one will put up for debate this particular context.
Job and organisational characteristics influencing critically reflective working behaviour Because critically reflective working behaviour is a type of informal on-the-job learning, we sought for theories about the effect that job characteristics have on on-the-job learning. Karasek ‘s job demand control model is a model in which stress as well as learning are considered as dependent variables and task characteristics as independent variables (Karasek & Theorell, 1990). This model supposes a combination of high task demands and much control to lead to learning and to motivation for competence development. Task demands can be both quantitatively (work pace and workload) and qualitatively (for example alternation). High task demands are necessary for learning. To prevent stress, one needs control. Control (or decision latitude) is defined as the potential control of an employee over his tasks and his behaviour/performance during
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his working day. Control can refer to autonomy and participation. In a later version of this model, social support was added to this model (Kwakman, 1999). Another theory is that of the learning potential of jobs (Onstenk, 1997) based on the work of Baitsch & Frei (1980). The learning potential refers to the likelihood of learning processes occurring in a particular job situation. This depends on a specific combination of worker characteristics and job characteristics. Learning opportunities are determined by job characteristics (like breadth and variety of tasks, the degree of innovation and problem solving and the degree of control and autonomy), the information environment and the social environment (task group, co-operation, guidance and feedback by supervisors and colleagues. Job characteristics Workpace and workload Alternation Autonomy Task obscurity Information Participation Co operation Communication Coaching Organisational climate for learning
Motivation Experience of social integration Experience of autonomy Experience of competence Balance between security and challenge Self efficacy Variance of experience
Figure 12.1
Critically reflective behavior at work Reflection Vision sharing Asking for feedback Challenging group think Learning from mistakes Argumentation Sharing knowledge Experimentation Awareness of Employability
Conceptual model of factors reflective behaviour at work
influencing
critically
From these theories, the following job characteristics were selected because of their supposed impact on critically reflective working behaviour: work pace and workload, alternation, autonomy, task obscurity, information, participation in innovation and decision-making, co operation, communication
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(top down), coaching, and organisational learning climate. The hypothesis was that work pace and workload and task obscurity will have a negative effect, while the remaining variables will have a positive effect on critically reflective working behaviour.
12.4 Methodology Based upon the conceptual model a survey research was carried out in order to validate the nine variables of critically reflective working behaviour and the various predictor variables and to examine the relationships as specified in the conceptual model. The variables were operationalised in a questionnaire for ‘selfreport’ with on average six to eight items per variable on fourpoint and six-point scales. The items referring to workplaceconditions could be scored on a four-point scale (1 = hardly ever, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, 4 = (almost) always). The items referring to critically reflective working behaviour could be scored on a six-point scale, which only describes the extremes (1= totally wrong … 6 = totally right). It is evident that measuring a concept such as critically reflective working behaviour in a survey is a complex matter, and can only lead to a faint glimpse of the ‘truth’. However, after a first phase of research that was qualitative, a need for a more quantitative foundation of concepts and relationships was felt. The results of this extensive research will then again be examined in depth in the third phase of the research. Of course there are many problems involved with a questionnaire for selfreport. Firstly, what a person says, is often not more than an indication of what he or she does. Secondly, persons are aware of the fact that the researcher is looking for something and thirdly, questions can evoke something that otherwise would have remained latently (van der Hoogstraten, c.s. 1985). The following attempts were taken to (partly) overcome these problems. Firstly, items were formulated as much as possible in terms of concrete behaviour instead of feelings or thoughts.
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Secondly, a pilot of the questionnaire was tested on 20 people in various jobs. And thirdly, twelve respondents (scoring low, average and high on the instrument) were interviewed afterwards on the same indicators as in the questionnaire to check the consistency of their answers (results not available yet). Participants were obtained from a data bank with school leavers of secondary and tertiary agriculture education and selected on the following criteria: Did have a paid job in 1998. Working in an organisation of at least 20 employees. In a job which requires working together with colleagues. Although the respondents have the same educational background, their work experience varies largely (production, financial services, education and consultancy, etc.). The questionnaires were sent in June 2000. Reminders were sent after two weeks. From the 1670 questionnaires that were sent, 742 valid questionnaires were returned (response rate of 46%). 67,8% of these respondents are men, 32,2% are women. The average age is 29,8 years old (SD = 4,6). 33,5% of the respondents has a diploma of a secondary vocational education, the rest has a diploma of tertiary vocational education. In order to answer the first research question (Is it possible to measure critically reflection?) factor analysis, reliability analysis were carried out and correlations between the sub scales were computed. In order to answer research question 3 (What influences critically reflective working behaviour?) multiple regression analyses were carried out.
12.5 Results and findings Reliability of the instrument To determine whether the nine dimensions of critically reflective working behaviour really exist, a factor analysis (with principal components method and vari-max rotation) with nine factors to
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be extracted was carried out. This lead to the conclusion that the items belonging to reflection, argumentation and learning from mistakes spread among the other concepts. For the sub-scales reflection and learning from mistakes, this can be explained by their ‘basic’ character. These sub scales are in a way part of all the other sub-scales. For the sub scale argumentation this can be explained by the low reliability of the initial scale. Only after deleting three items, the scale reliability was acceptable (α = .66). However, when in a next factor analysis items belonging to these three sub scales were removed, the rest of the six concepts came to the fore unambiguously in six factors with Eigen-values higher than 1. After deletion of items loading less then .35 on any of the factors, these six factors explain 48,2% of the variance. Although this is not much, this solution leads to considerable data reduction. Next, reliability analysis was carried out on the remaining factors, and after the deletion of some items, variables were being constructed by computing mean scores. To find out if the sub-scales indeed load on one underlying construct, namely critically reflective working behaviour, again a factor-analysis (with principal components method and no rotation) is carried out on the nine variables without indicating a number of factors to be extracted. This lead to a two factor solution, with values higher than 1 (Table 12.1). Table 12.1 Two factor solution sub scales Sub scales CRWB Reflecting Critical vision sharing Asking for feedback Challenging group-think Awareness of employability Experimenting Dealing with mistakes Justify Sharing knowledge
Factor 1 .676 .760 .760 .705 .680 .598 .554 .005 . 319
Factor 2 -.487 -.240 .301 .313 -.112 -.003 .592 .821 .364
It turned out that learning from mistakes, argumentation and sharing knowledge belong to another factor than the other sub
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scales. Because the most and the most important scales belong to the first factor, it was decided to eliminate the three sub scales that load on factor 2. For the variables loading on the first factor, a factor score was computed which represents the concept of critically reflective working behaviour as a whole. This lead to the scales as described in Table 12.2. As we can see reliability of both the construct critically reflective working behaviour, and the underlying dimensions are fairly reasonable to high. Also the reliabilities for the predictor variables are quite high. Table 12.2 Descriptive statistics for sub scales
Critically reflective working behaviour Reflecting Critical vision sharing Asking for feedback Challenging group-think Awareness of employability Experimenting Job characteristics and organisational climate Work pace and work load Alternation Autonomy Task obscurity Information Participation Co operation Communication Coaching Organisational learning climate Individual features Social integration colleagues Social integration manager Experience of competence Experienced difficulties with change Self efficacy
M -.003
Cronbach’s SD alpha 1.00 .76
Number of items 6
4,35 4,11 3,98 4,40 3,97 3,83
Range -3.282.92 2,00-6,00 ,68 1,29-6,00 ,87 1,60-6,00 ,77 1,20-6,00 ,88 1,00-6,00 1,25 1,17-6,00 ,84
.68 .83 .83 .74 .80 .75
8 7 10 5 4 6
2,57 3,07 3,02 3,09 2,74 2,63 2,83 2,65 2,63 2,46
1,00-383 1,00-4,00 1,17-4,00 1,20-4,00 1,17-4,00 1,00-4,00 1,25-4,00 1,00-4,00 1,00-4,00 1,10-4,00
,50 ,49 ,61 ,53 ,55 ,65 ,58 ,67 ,71 ,51
.81 .79 .85 .80 .81 .91 .70 .87 .86 .84
6 6 6 5 6 10 4 4 4 10
2,60 2,96 2,92 1,51
1,00-4,00 1,00-4,00 1,40-4,00 1,00-4,00
,68 ,65 ,46 ,50
.85 .91 .77 .72
5 7 5 3
4,94
1,50-6,00
,85
.80
2
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Effects on critically reflective working behaviour A stepwise regression was used to discern the relationship between (the sub scales of) critically reflective working behaviour and workplace and organisational characteristics and individual characteristics. The results are shown in Table 12.3 (only significant effects are shown).
Workplace characteristics Management Workpace and workload Alternation Autonomy Information Participation Co operation Coaching Organisational learning climate Function level Number of employees Top-down communication Individual features Social integration colleague's Social integration manager Experience of competence Difficulty with change Self-efficacy
Factor score CRWB
Reflecting
Experiment
Challenging group-think
Awareness of employab.
Asking for feedback
Critical vision sharing
Table 12.3 Regression analysis, the effect of workplace and organisational characteristics and individual characteristics on the sub scales of 'critically reflective working behaviour'
.09 .14
.35
-.08 .17
.43
.12
.13
.22
.20
.23
.08
.13
.09
.12
.08
.32
.23
.09
.12
.55
-.11 .26
.28
.56
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Function experience Work experience Gender Experience concentration Level of education Age Explained variance (R-square)
-.11 .11
-.11
-.14
.07
-.11
.41
.30
-.21
.10
.14
.38
.17
-.10
-.08
.19
.51
A large part of the variance on the factor score of critically reflective working behaviour is explained by the independent variables (51%). The most important predictors are self-efficacy and participation. Also the explained percentage of variance in the sub scales critical vision sharing, challenging groupthink and asking for feedback is fairly high (respectively 41%, 38% and 30%). The most important predictors for critical vision sharing seem to be self-efficacy, and participation and function level. That means that employees with high self-efficacy, who feel invited to participate in policy and decision-making, and employees who work in functions that require a high level of education are relatively more engaged in critical vision sharing. The most important predictor for ‘challenging group-think’ is self-efficacy. The most important predictors for asking for feedback seem to be self-efficacy and coaching. That means that employees with high self-efficacy and employees who feel properly coached in their function relatively ask for more feedback from their manager and colleagues. A relatively low percentage of the variance in the sub scales awareness of employability, experimentation and reflection is explained by the independent variables (respectively 14%, 17% and 19%). Self-efficacy and age seem to be the most important predictors for awareness of employability. That means that employees with high self-efficacy and employees who are young are most considered with career planning. Most important predictors for experimentation are self-efficacy and participation. For reflection the most important predictor is selfefficacy.
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Again a stepwise regression was used to discern the relationship between workplace and organisational characteristics and individual characteristics. The results are shown in Table 12.4 (only significant effects are shown). Because of the importance of self-efficacy for critically reflective working behaviour, the most interesting thing is to discern which factors have impact on self-efficacy. As can be seen, only a small percentage of the variance in self-efficacy can be explained by the predictor variables. The most important predictor for self-efficacy seems to be participation.
Workplace characteristics Management Workpace and workload Variety Autonomy Task obscurity Information Participation Co operation Communication Coaching Organisational learning climate Function level Number of employees in organisation Number of employees in division Variance of experience Level of education Job experience Sex (man=1 woman=2) Age Explained variance (r square)
Difficulties with change Experience of competence Experience of social integra-tion with manager Experience of social integra-tion with colleagues
Self-efficacy
Table 12.4 Regression analysis. The effect of workplace and organisational characteristics on individual characteristics
-.09 .11
.14 -.11
.13
-.12
-.07 .21 .18 .20
.11
.24
.95 .11
-.09
.11
.10 .63 .14
.08
.14
-.05
-.03
.05
-.04 .11 -.08 -.09 .31
.05
.68
.86
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12.6 Conclusions and recommendations With regards to the (operational) definition of critical reflection and the adequacy of the instrument for measuring critically reflective working behaviour the following can be concluded. Critically reflective working behaviour seems to be a construct consisting of six dimensions, namely reflection on oneself in relation to the job, critical vision sharing, challenging groupthink, asking for feedback, experimentation and awareness of employability. Both the sub-dimensions and the construct as a whole seem to be reliable concepts. Reflection
Vision sharing
Asking for feedback
Participation Critically reflective working behaviour
Self efficacy
Challenging group think
Experimentation
Awareness of employability
Figure 12.2
Revised model of factors influencing critically reflective working behaviour
With regards to the effects of the predictor variables the most striking result seems to be the effect of self-efficacy on all the different sub-scales of critically reflective working behaviour. This can be explained by the fact that all the sub scales of critically reflective working behaviour imply a certain way of risk taking behaviour. One has to have courage to withstand
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social pressure and be critical, to take a vulnerable position and ask for feedback, to take a close look at ones performance and ones future career, to experiment in stead of walk the beaten track. People who feel confident will sooner be prepared to take such ‘risks’. Second important result seems that that workplace and organisation characteristics (except for participation in innovation and decision making) are not very significant for critically reflective working behaviour. Workplace characteristics that were being selected based upon the theories about the learning potential of jobs from Karasek (1990), Onstenk (1997) and Baitsch & Frei (1980) probably refer more to forms of single-loop learning than to forms of double loop learning. This means that if critically reflective working behaviour indeed is an indicator for double loop learning, it is quite hard for organisations to stimulate it. If organisations do want to stimulate double-loop learning this has to be achieved via stimulating employees’ self-efficacy. The problem with selfefficacy however is that this is both an outcome of a significant learning experience in the workplace and a critical determinant of good performance at work (Eraut, 1999). A way to break this vicious circle could be to gradually build up the uncertainty employees have to deal with in their job. In other words, people should start to operate in a safe environment where they can develop their competence, and develop their own vision on the job. After this they should be challenged to push back frontiers and be invited to think about policy and decision-making and innovation in the organisation. The fact that the scale ‘selfefficacy’ is so much more significant than ‘experience of competence’ seems to indicate that self-confidence indeed is fairly specific and related to the ability to perform a specific task. In a way one could also argue that an experience of incompetence (conscious incompetence) though combined with self-confidence is the best catalyst for learning. As Lee (2000) states in her discussion of the ‘learning ladder’ (which goes from unconscious incompetence via conscious incompetence and conscious competence to unconscious competence) “It is very
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easy to become so immured to the struggle and the need for achievement that one becomes unconsciously competent at ‘doing the job’. So much that one no longer takes time to be ‘conscious’ or aware of why the job is being done in the first place”. This can be illustrated by an interview with a software engineer who scored high on the dimensions of critically reflective working behaviour and who stated in a confident way that he was insecure. “Being insecure for me is part of the job, you make many choices under time pressure when you are still not sure about the best solution. I know some colleagues who are never insecure and who sometimes fervently advocate a solution while I can think of ten reasons why to choose for another option”.
12.7 References Argyris, Ch., & Schön, D.A. (1996). Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice. Reading Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing company. Baitsch, C., & Frei, F. (1980). Qualifizierung in der Arbeitstätigkeit [Qualification during work]. Bern: Verlag Hans Huber. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood-Cliffs, NY: Prentice Hall. Bolhuis, S.M., & Simons, P.R.J. (1999). Leren en werken [Learning and working]. Deventer: Kluwer. Brookfield, S.D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Brooks, A.K. (1999). Critical reflection as a response to organizational disruption: Advances in Developing Human Resources, nr. 3, pp. 67-97. Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press. Deci, E.L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Wiley. Deci, E.L., & Flaste (1995). Why we do what we do. The dynamics of personal autonomy. New York: Grosset/Putnam. Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: Heath & Co. Eraut, M. Alderton, J., Cole, G., & Senker, P. (1998). Development of knowledge and skills in employment. East Sussex: University of Sussex.
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Gielen, E.W.M. (1995). Transfer of training in a corporate setting (dissertation). Enschede: University of Twente. Gist, M.E., Stevens, C.K., & Bavetta , A.G. (1991). Effects of self-efficacy and posttraining intervention on the acquisition and maintenance of complex interpersonal skills. Personnel Psychology, 44: 837-861. Hastings, S.L., Sheckley, B.G., & Nichols, A.B. (1995). Transfer of training: the impact of supervisory involvement, situational constraints, and self-efficacy on the application of technical skills training. In E.F. Holton, III (Ed.), Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Academy of Human Resource Development. St. Louis. Karasek, R., & Theorell, R. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. New York: Basic Books. Kleinmann, M., & Straka, G.A. (1996). Selbstlernbereitschaft und erlebte Arbeitsplatzbedingungen von Beschäfitgten in kaufmännisch-verwaltenden Berufen, Ergebnisse einer empirischen Pilotstudie [Agreements on selflearning and experienced context characteristics of business employees]. In P. Sloane, Tagungsband zur Herbsttagung 1996 der Kommission Berufs- und Wirtschaftspädagogik der DGfE in Kassel. Korthagen (1985). Reflective teaching and pre-service teacher education in the Netherlands. Journal of Teacher Education, 36, 5: 11-15. Kwakman, K. (1999). Leren van docenten tijdens de beroepsloopbaan, Studies naar professionaliteit op de werkplek in het voortgezet onderwijs [Teacher learning during their career] (dissertation). Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen. Lee, M. (2000). HRDI: The catalyst. Human Resource Development International, Vol.3, no. 1, March 2000, pp. 1-8. Maddi, S.R. (1970). The search of meaning. In W.J. Arnold, & M.M. Page (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska. Marsick, V. (1987). Learning in the workplace: Theory and practice. London: Croom helm. Marsick, V.J. and Watkins, K.E. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace, London: Routledge. Mathieu, J.E., Marineau, J.W., & Tannenbaum, S.I. (1993). Individual and situational influences on the development of self-efficacy: implications for training effectiveness. Personnel Psychology, 46: 125-145. Onstenk, J.H.A.M. (1997). Lerend leren werken. PhD dissertation. Delft: Eburon. Senge, P.M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. Doubleday, London. Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco. Thijssen J.G.L. (1996). Leren, leeftijd en loopbaanperspectief [Learning, age and career prospect] dissertation. Katholieke Universiteit Brabant.
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Van Bolhuis-Poortvliet, & Snoek (1996). Reflecteren op stage-ervaringen [Reflection on internship experiences]. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (dissertation). Van der Hoogstraten, J. de Meijer, E., & Sprangers, M. (1985). Het begrip ‘response-shift’en retrospectieve zelfbeoordeling [The concept of response shift and rerospective assessment], Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de psychologie 40: 488-502. Van der Klink, M.R. (1999). Effectiviteit van werkplek-opleidingen [Effectivity of onthe-job training] (dissertation). Enschede: University of Twente. Van Woerkom, M., Nijhof, W.J., & Nieuwenhuis, L. (2000). Critical reflection on the shop-Floor. In K.P. Kuchinke (Ed.), Proceedings of the annual conference of the academy of human resource development. Raleigh-Durham.
13 Psychological Career Contract, HRD and Self-Management of Managers E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen
13.1 Introduction The central issue in this paper is the relationship between managers’ views on career-development, as part of the psychological career contract, and their HRD-patterns. In modern views of careers employees themselves, rather than the organisation, take control over their own careers. Therefore, career self-management by employees, and in particular by managers, has become an important theme in the field of HRD. The question is to what extent managers actually feel committed to self-manage their careers. Can they be characterised as so called protean managers? And, how does commitment to career self-management relate to the nature of managers’ learningactivities (= HRD-patterns)? The conclusion is that managers who are highly committed to self-manage their careers, have richer HRD-patterns than managers with more traditional views on career selfmanagement.
309 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 309-331. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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13.2 Problem statement In modern views of careers it is the employee himself, rather than the organisation, who takes control over his own career. Self-management skills of employees are emphasised, especially with regard to career-development. Whereas career-management used to be a task for the organisation, now the responsibility lies in the hands of employees themselves. According to the literature, career self-management by employees results in organizational flexibility and adaptability. At the same time it provides employees more security for future employment. These altered assumptions on who should be taking responsibility for career-development are part of the new psychological contract. Rousseau (1995, p. 9) defines a psychological contract as ‘individual beliefs, shaped by the organisation, regarding terms of an exchange agreement between individuals and their organisation’. The beliefs (or expectations) within the contract may concern all kinds of labour-related aspects and more specifically elements of career-development. In the recent past quite a lot of research into the nature of psychological contracts has been done. In several of these studies attention was paid to aspects of Human Resource Management (e.g. remuneration, training & development, etc.), however, research specifically focusing on career-expectations is scarce. Because our main interest is learning-behaviour of managers, it is relevant to focus on expectations with regard to (career) self-development as an aspect of the psychological contract. The term ‘psychological career contract’ will be used whenever we talk about career-related aspects of the psychological contract. The psychological career contract can be measured from different perspectives: the organisation, the employee, or from
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both perspectives (Rousseau & Tijoriwala, 1998, p. 685). In this study we are especially interested in the manager’s individual perspective on specific career-related expectations or obligations, which is called ‘commitment to career selfmanagement’. We assume that learning-behaviour and mobility depend on individual expectations that managers have about career development. Managers who are eager to take ownership of their career development, are expected to learn in another way than managers with more traditional views of their career. To illustrate, in traditional labour-relations, one could survive by learning new tasks, coincidentally met on-the-job. Then, being passive and leaving initiatives up to the organisation was not problematic. In contrast, nowadays merely specific development and unplanned HRD-strategies are not sufficient. Assuming modern careers prevail, the question arises whether employees of today are indeed pro-actively engaged in careerdevelopment. Or does reality show us a different picture? To study this, we focus upon a specific group of employees: those in a management position. We expect managers to be relatively free to direct both their career and their HRDactivities. The relationship between views on career self-management and the nature of HRD-activities is yet unexplored. The objective of our study is to get further insight into this relationship. Our central research-question is: What is the relationship between managers’ commitment to career self-management and their HRD-patterns?
13.3 Theoretical background Theories from different fields are used in this study. First, using career-theories, we will address the shift towards modern careers and the term psychological career contract will be introduced. Secondly, four domains of career development are described. The third theoretical issue concerns managers’
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learning-behaviour. The new meaning of HRD-activities within modern careers and its relationship with expectations about careers will be addressed.
Modern careers and self-management Views on careers strongly changed. A broad base of theory has been evolving for nearly a century (Carnevale et al., 1990, p. 260). A career was once viewed mainly as a synonym for initial job choice; it is now widely accepted as a central feature in employment arrangements (Arthur et al., 1989, p. 7). Early theorists (Parsons, 1909 in Carnevale et al., 1990) approached the career as a point-in-time event, new theories broadened the perspective and view career development and career choices as the result of a process. Others claimed a match between individual characteristics and career choice. Moreover, models were developed identifying a series of phases through which a person progresses over a lifetime. An example of this latter approach is the ‘hierarchy of career adjustment’ developed by the National Alliance of Business (1986, in Carnevale et al., 1990). This represents the (employability-progression, or) career development progression as a series of stages or levels through which a person moves to reach self-actualization. The four stages are: career acquisition, career maintenance, career advancement and career enhancement. Whereas traditionally the first two stages were seen as the central elements of a career, nowadays adult career development is mainly concerned with the upper two stages: career-advancement and -enhancement. Career-progress is valued more than loyalty to a certain job or organisation. A key idea in recent career-theories is the necessity of a match between organizational expectations and individual employees’ expectations. The clearer both parties are about their expectations, the greater the satisfaction will be on both sides (Carnevale et al., 1990, p. 263). Gutteridge & Otte (1983, p. 6-7) emphasise the dual perspective on careers as well. They describe organizational career development as an outcome of individual
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career planning and institutional career management. It refers to the results occurring through dual career processes and focuses on the joint relationships between individuals and their work environment. One of the sub-processes of individual career planning is career self-development, in addition to other sub-processes concerning choices with regard to occupation, job and assignment. In modern career theories especially this sub-process (career selfdevelopment) is emphasized. In sum, career self-development includes two major assumptions: Development is thé central element of a career; The primary responsibility for development is with the ‘self’, the employee. These two assumptions will be further addressed below. Ad 1. Development as the central element of modern careers Hall (1996, p. 1) is one of the major authors who assign a central position to learning in his definition of a career. ‘It is a series of lifelong work-related experiences and personal learning’. Clearly a career is not only a series of steps taken, but encompasses more. Hall’s definition of a career is now widely used in the field of careers and HRD. Moreover, Hall stresses the importance of flexibility that can be reached by learning (or development). Therefore, he introduced the term protean career. Protean stands for flexibility and has been derived from the name of the Greek sea god Proteus, who could transform himself at anytime into any creature he wished (Gerritsen van der Hoop & Thijssen, 1999, p. 190), pointing at the strongly needed flexibility for organisations and individuals. Flexibility of the workforce enables organisations to deal with fluctuating demand and supply. From the employee’s perspective it provides a better career prospect. Ad 2. Modern careers and the employee’s responsibility for career development Versloot et al. (1999) describe a historical development with regard to employability of the workforce. A change towards more
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emphasis on the responsibility of the individual in the 90’s has taken place, which they characterize as the years of ‘flexibility of workers’. Like them, more authors stress the central role of the individual in career development (e.g. Hall, 1996; Lankhuijzen, 2000; Megginson, 1996; Sullivan, 1999; Van Tiem & West, 1997). Sullivan (1999) sees the shift of responsibility for careermanagement from the organisation to the individual as the most important change. In the last decade, (Megginson 1996, p. 413) detected ‘a progressive move in the locus of responsibility for careers’: from the HRD-department, via the line-manager and the mentor, towards the learners (or employees) themselves. Moreover, Hall (1996) states that the protean career is a process that the person, not the organization, is managing. If the old contract was with the organization, the protean contract is with the self and one’s work (Hall & Moss, 1998). Of course, more aspects of the labour-relation have changed when going from traditional to boundaryless careers. While the traditional career is characterised by loyalty of the employee in exchange for job-security offered by the employer, the new career is characterised by an exchange of performance and flexibility for continuing development-opportunities and ‘marketability’ (Sullivan, 1999, p. 458). In Figure 13.1 major changes in careers are summarized. The term boundaryless, like protean, is used to indicate the modern character of careers. Arthur & Rousseau (1996, p. 6) introduced the boundaryless career and define it as the opposite of the ‘organizational career’ - a career conceived to unfold in a single employment setting. They view the boundaryless career as the new employment principle for a new organisational era. With Sullivan (1999, p. 477) we agree that when examining new career patterns, it makes more sense to use the term ‘protean’ career to emphasize the individual’s adaptability and selfdirection. The term ‘boundaryless’ can better be used when examining careers from an organizational perspective.
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Employment relationship Boundaries Skills Success measured by Responsibility for Career management Training
Milestones
Traditional Job security for loyalty One or two firms Firm specific Pay, promotion, status Organization
Formal programs Age-related
Boundaryless/modern (=protean) Employability for performance and flexibility Multiple firms Transferable Psychologically meaningful work Individual
On-the-job Learning-related
Figure 13.1 Traditional and boundaryless careers (Sullivan, 1999, p. 458)
Four domains of career self-management Ball (1997) developed a model of career self-management competences derived from the individual perspective (Figure 13.2). It is relevant to those with boundaryless careers as well as to those with organizational careers. According to Ball (1997, p. 76) such a model is required when people are to take greater ownership of their career development. Seeing self-management as an essential issue, these four competences are important because they can be used for carrying out four important career development activities. In this study, we see a positive attitude towards self-management with regard to these four domains of career development activities, as the concrete form of a modern psychological career contract, or ‘commitment to career self-management’. Optimizing the situation: The propensity of individuals to improve their lot, to find work which has greater interest, is better paid or more in accord with their personal values. The question is how individuals can create the right set of circumstances to further their careers in the absence of career
316 Psychological Career Contract, HRD and Self-Management…
ladders and opportunities for upward career progression. Using career planning skills: The process of career review and decision making – a cyclical, iterative process that we visit at frequent stages in our lives rather than a long-range plan. Career planning should help individuals to take ownership and management of their own career development.
Optimizing your situation
Using your career planning skills
Engaging in personal development
Balancing work and non-work
Figure 13.2 Four overlapping career competences (Ball, 1997, p. 76) Below a short description of the four distinguished domains of career development activities is given.
Engaging in personal development: Many ways exist to work on one’s personal development, ranging from on-the-job training, external secondments in a client company to participation in mentoring and coaching, resulting in greater job satisfaction and marketability for the internal and external labour market. Balancing work and non-work: A new activity that gets a lot of attention lately. The ultimate goal is not only to balance personal and professional life, but to integrate individual needs, family and career. It includes reflection upon current position and job satisfaction in the light of personal values. Across these four domains of career development commitment of managers may vary. Individuals with rather traditional views on careers will have another approach to these activities, than
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 317
individuals who see their career through eyes of a so-called postmodern nomad (van der Zee, 1994). In this chapter we are interested to what extent managers actually feel committed to these career development activities. Can we describe managers participating in this study as modern, so-called, protean managers? Or is their view on careers more traditionally? Managers participating in this study are highly educated professionals, employed in knowledge-intensive organisations. We assume those business-environments to represent modern career environments and new psychological career contracts to prevail. Research question 1: To what extent do managers feel committed to self-manage (domains of) their career-development? Hypothesis 1: Managers’ commitment to career self-management is high.
The psychological career contract and HRD-patterns Psychological contracts are mutual, specific and clearly linked to consequences for employees’ motivation and behaviour (Schalk, et al., 1995, p. 307). Mutual because it is about (implicit) expectations and obligations from different parties: the organisation (represented by managers) and employees. Expectations within the new psychological career contract have consequences for learning-behaviour particularly. The use of various HRD-activities constitutes learningbehaviour. HRD-activities are all kinds of ways to acquire new qualifications, both on-the-job and off-the-job (Thijssen, 1996, p. 11). HRD-activities contribute to better performance in the current job and/or employability for the future. These activities may vary from typically formal (structured and organised by a pedagogical authority) to typically informal (unstructured, unorganised and mainly self-directed).
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Along this dimension we distinguish the following three categories of HRD-activities: 1. Courses, training, education, etc. (formal) 2. Gathering information (non-formal) 3. Learning-by-doing (informal) These HRD-activities are regarded to cover all kinds of possible activities that managers use to enlarge their current competence and employability. Although our categorisation is constructed along the formality dimension, HRD-activities may vary as well along other dimensions like transferability and consciousness. Because of the emphasis recently put on employability, certain (dimensions of) HRD-activities are valued more than others. In Figure 13.1 we already saw that, going from traditional to boundaryless careers, the character of training and necessary skills have changed. To illustrate, in traditional labour-relations, one could survive by learning new tasks, coincidentally met on-the-job. Specific learning-activities were sufficient. In contrast, nowadays, when things change rapidly, an unplanned strategy like this will not be sufficient. Generic HRD-activities contributing to transferable skills and knowledge are crucial because it brings forth the so needed flexibility of the workforce. Moreover, modern employees will not wait for the organisation to manage their careers and therefore they will plan their HRDactivities. Our assumption is that particularly the combination of frequency and generic value makes the difference for future employability. This combination is called ‘HRD-pattern’. We assume that HRDpatterns in modern times are rich, that is consisting of continuous (frequent) and generic HRD-activities. On the opposite, few and specific HRD-activities, make up a poor HRD-pattern. The workplace is more and more seen as a rich and powerful learning-environment. Especially managers learn informally onthe-job (McCall, 1988). For example by discussing, experimenting, networking, consulting experts, mentoring, etc. Informal HRDactivities are valued more under the new contract.
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 319
Research question 2: How can managers’ HRD-patterns be characterised? (by frequency, generic value and planning). Hypothesis 2a: Managers use informal HRD-activities more frequently than formal HRD-activities. About the relationship between formal and informal HRDactivities, the belief exists that people who usually learn informally on-the-job, for example by asking advise from colleagues, do not need to follow formal HRD-activities like a course or training. In other words, one type of HRD-activity can compensate another. This is the so-called compensationhypothesis. From earlier research, however, a lack of clarity exists about this hypothesis (Thijssen, 1996, p. 63) and will therefore be tested in this study. Hypothesis 2b: The less managers use formal HRD-activities, the more they will use informal HRD-activities (compensation-hypothesis). We assume a link between commitment to career selfmanagement and HRD-patterns of managers. This relationship is addressed in the following research-question and hypothesis. Research question 3: What is the relationship between managers’ commitment to (several domains of ) career self-management and dimensions of HRD-patterns? Hypothesis 3: Managers who are highly committed to career selfmanagement will have rich HRD-patterns.
13.4 Methods This study is part of a broader research-project on the relationship between HRD-pattern, psychological career contract and mobility-perspective of managers. The study presented here, focuses on part of the conceptual research model.
Subjects and procedure A written questionnaire was sent by post or e-mail to 654 managers employed in six large Dutch companies in Banking & Insurance and to a temporary employment agency.
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Managers on all hierarchical levels were selected, at least half a year employed in the current company and responsible over at least two subordinates. Since questions were asked about the behaviour of direct supervisors, top-managers were excluded from this study. In total 260 questionnaires were filled out and returned (39.8%). After a check on the earlier mentioned criteria and on the quality of the filled-out questionnaires, 242 questionnaires were judged useful for analysis (93%). The group managers consists of 68.5 per cent male and 31.5 per cent female managers. Their average age is 38.12 years (sd= 7.64) and their managerial experience is approximately 7.5 years. Our research concentrated on managers with relatively high levels of education; 65.7 per cent finished university or obtained bachelors degrees in higher vocational education.
Instruments A questionnaire was developed and tested in a pilot-study, of which two components were used: Commitment to career self-management is measured as a dimension of the psychological career contract. An example of a commitment-item: I think that I should … ‘build networks of persons on all levels within and outside the organisation, who can be conducive to my career development’; HRD-activities in the previous twelve months of employment: frequency, generic value and planning. Examples are: To what extent did you gather information in the previous twelve months (frequency)? To what extent was gathering information valuable for possible future jobs (generic value)? I set goals for my own learning (planning). Questions were asked on five-point Likert-scales, ranging from 1 (= to a very low extent) to 5 (= to a very high extent). Scores beneath 2.5 are considered ‘low’, scores between 2.5 en 3.5 are ‘medium’ and scores higher than 3.5 are ‘high’. Accordingly, for product-scores (e.g. HRD-pattern) ranging from 1 to 25, scores beneath 10 are ‘low’, between 10 and 16 are ‘medium’, and above 16 are ‘high’.
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 321
Reliability In this section we address the reliability of scales and the development of the HRD-pattern indices. First we will describe commitment to career self-management, secondly HRD-pattern and thirdly planning of HRD-activities. The scale ‘commitment’ consists of 16 items and is reliable (Cronbach’s alpha .8385). Commitment-subscales, developed according to Ball’s four domains of career development, each consists of 4 items. The alpha-coefficients are: 1) Optimizing (.73), 2) Career planning (.74), 3) Personal development (.62), 4) Balancing (.77). The HRD-pattern is the product of frequency and generic value of three different types of HRD-activities in the past. Remarks about the construction of the HRD-pattern index are made in 13.3. We measured ‘planning’ as an extra indicator of the character of HRD-activities, but it is not part of the HRD-pattern. We used five items of Megginson’s Learning strategies questionnaire (Megginson, 1996, p. 428). Cronbach’s alpha is .68.
13.5 Results In this section we describe the results of the analyses, following the sequence of research-questions.
Commitment to career self-management The central question (1) here is: To what extent do managers feel committed to self-manage (domains of ) their careerdevelopment? Table 13.1 shows means and standard deviations of commitment with regard to the four domains of career-development. Moreover, the results of analysis of variance are reported.
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Table 13.1
Commitment to (four management (N = 242)
Commitment to: 1. Optimizing 2. Career planning 3. Personal development 4. Balancing work and non-work Total commitment
domains
M 3.91 3.69 3.88 4.29 3.94
Sd .65 .75 .60 .68 .49
of)
career F 34.46
selfp .000
Managers are highly committed to career self-management; this is the case for all domains. Especially, balancing work and nonwork seems to be an activity that managers hold themselves highly responsible for. Career planning is the activity that managers feel least committed to. To compare means of the four domains of career development, we performed an analysis of variance. The F-value is significant (p = .000), which indicates that one or more differences exist. Post-hoc analysis (Tamhane’s) reveals that ‘optimizing’ and ‘personal development’ do not differ. All other pairs differ significantly. The first hypothesis about commitment of managers to career self-management being high, is supported.
HRD-patterns of managers In this section research-question 2 will be answered: How can managers’ HRD-patterns be characterised? Before calculating the total frequency and generic value of HRDactivities, we need to have more insight into the relationship between frequency of different types of HRD-activities. And, into the relationship between generic value of different types of HRD-activities as well. No significant correlations were found between frequency of different types of HRD-activities. Whereas we expected compensation, and therefore negative correlations, it seems that types of HRD-activities are used independently; hypothesis 2b is not supported. Approaching frequency of types of HRDactivities as a scale is not appropriate. Development of an index is an alternative.
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 323
We did find significant correlations with regard to the generic value scores of the three different types of HRD-activities (2-tailed). The correlation between the first pair, formal and nonformal HRD-activities, is .322 (p = .000), the second pair, formal and informal, correlates .299 (p = .000) and the final pair, nonformal and informal HRD-activities, shows a correlation of .515 (p = .000). Even though generic value of types of HRD-activities does correlate, we decided to develop three indices: the HRDfrequency index (Fid), the HRD-generic value index (Gid) and the HRD-pattern index (HRDPid). Fid and Gid correlate significantly (r = .493; p = .000). In formula f = frequency; g = generic value: Fid = {(f HRD-type 1/N items) + (f HRD-type 2 / N items) + (f HRD-type 3 / N items) } / N HRD-types Gid = {(g HRD-type 1/N items) + (g HRD-type 2 / N items) + (g HRD-type 3 / N items) } / N HRD-types HRDPid = Fid * Gid In Table 13.2 we present means and standard deviations of frequency and generic value of HRD-activities. Table 13.2
HRD-activities of managers: frequency and generic value (N = 242)
HRD-activity 1. Courses, training, etc. 2. Information gathering 3. Learning-bydoing Indices
Formal
Nonformal Informal
Frequency Mean Sd 3.24 1.24
Generic value Mean Sd 3.46 1.15
3.72
.77
3.31
.97
3.60
.67
3.29
.84
Fid = 3.52 (high)
.54
Gid = 3.35 (medium)
.75
From Table 13.2 we see that on average managers have a high HRD-frequency index (Fid). Scores on frequency of HRDactivities vary from medium to high along the three types.
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In order to test our hypothesis that managers use more informal than formal HRD-activities, we performed t-tests for paired samples (1-tailed). It seems that managers indeed do learn more frequently by using informal HRD-activities than by following formal courses and training (T = -5.166; p = .000). Moreover, non-formal HRD-activities are used more often than formal HRD-activities (T = -3.806; p = .000). Hypothesis 2a is supported by the data. The generic-value index (Gid) has a medium score. Apparently, the several HRD-activities in which managers engaged, all are considered to have intermediate value for future employment. Taking a closer look at the HRD-activity-indices (product scores) in Table 13.3, not much variance can be observed between the three types of HRD-activities. Table 13.3
HRD-pattern indices and percentages of low and high scores (N=242)
Pattern-scores
HRD-activity indices 1. Courses, training, etc. 2. Information gathering 3. Learning-bydoing HRD-pattern index
Formal Nonformal Informal
Low scores (<10) per cent
High scores (> = 16) per cent
M 12.03
Sd 7.04
41.7
36.8
12.64
5.14
28.5
29.8
12.15
4.48
29.3
18.6
12.02 (medium)
3.82
29.8
13.6
However, when we judge the indices according to our classboundaries, as specified in the methods-section, we conclude that overall 13.6% of the managers have a rich HRD-pattern (> = 16), whereas 29.8% of the managers have a poor HRD-pattern (< =10). The majority (56.6%) of the managers have a medium-rich HRD-pattern.
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 325
More specifically we see that going from formal to informal HRD-activities, on formal HRD-activities relatively most managers have a rich pattern, informal HRD-activities the least.
Planning of HRD-activities Furthermore, we analysed planning of HRD-activities. This construct was not measured activity-specific, but is a general indication of the extent to which managers are consciously planning their HRD-activities. The average score is 3.44, this is a medium score and means that managers do not plan their HRDactivities to a high extent. Neither can we say that their learningbehaviour is incidental; they do not leave their HRD-activities to chance.
Relationship between career self-management and HRD-pattern Our third research-question, which we will address in this section, is: What is the relationship between managers’ commitment to (several elements of) career self-management and dimensions of HRD-patterns? We tested hypothesis 3 by carrying out correlation-analysis. We expect that a modern view on career self-management will lead to a rich HRD-pattern Table 13.4 shows that managers’ commitment to career selfmanagement is positively related to their HRD-pattern (r = .351). In other words, managers with higher levels of commitment to career self-management, have richer HRD-patterns than managers with lower levels of commitment. Accordingly, frequency and generic value of HRD-activities both have a positive relationship with commitment to career selfmanagement.
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Table 13.4
Correlations between career self-management and HRDpattern (N = 242; 1-tailed)
Commitment to: Career selfmanagement (total) Optimizing Career Planning Personal Development Balancing
HRDfrequen cy index (Fid)
HRDgeneric value index (Gid)
HRDpattern index (HRDPid)
Planning of HRDactivities
.317** .208** .240**
.306** .233** .293**
.351** .253** .298**
.278** .106* .296**
.350** .144*
.304** .072
.361** .128*
.319** .095
Note: ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.
The hypothesized relationship in general, exists for each of the four domains of career development as well. With regard to the fourth domain ‘balancing’, we see that relationships with (dimensions of) HRD-pattern are weaker, compared to the other three domains of career development. Apparently, balancing is an activity with another character than the other three career development-activities. Hypothesis 3 is confirmed. Moreover, we see that high levels of commitment go together with high levels of planning of HRD-activities. Managers who feel highly responsible to take control over their careers, are more likely to plan their HRD-activities than managers with low levels of commitment to career self-management. Planning seems not to be related to balancing. Again, we see the unique character of this fourth domain. Additionally, we performed a t-test on HRD-pattern by managers in the first quartile and the fourth quartile on commitment. In accordance with our hypothesis, we expect those groups to differ significantly on richness of HRD-pattern.
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 327 Table 13.5
T-test (independent samples) on HRD-pattern between st th 1 and 4 quartile commitment (N = 242) HRD-pattern index (HRDPid)
Groups
N
M
Sd
T
p. (1-tailed)
Commitment 1st quartile 25% lowest scores) (< = 3.63) th Commitment 4 quartile (25% highest scores) (> = 4.25)
65
10.32
3.50
-5.57
.000
64
13.84
3.67
From Table 13.5 we conclude that the low-commitment group has poorer HRD-patterns than the high-commitment group. However, both scores are classified as medium-scores. The mean-scores on the HRD-pattern index do not vary much, but the above analysis sheds more light on the difference in HRDpatterns of managers with different levels of commitment.
13.6 Conclusion Managers involved in this study are highly committed to career self-management. Although the commitment varies across the four domains of career development, the overall attitude is one of high responsibility. Interestingly, on the domain ‘balancing work and non-work’, managers score highest. Finding a state of balance between family- or non-working life and professional careers seems to have high priority. Commitment to ‘career planning’ scores relatively lowest, which means that managers judge themselves less responsible compared to the other domains. Whereas ‘balancing’ is perceived of as a typical private matter, with regard to career planning a certain responsibility could well be taken by the organisation. In sum, our hypothesis that managers are highly committed career-developers, is supported.
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Generally speaking, managers participating in this study do not have rich or poor HRD-patterns. 56.6 per cent have medium-rich patterns. The frequency of HRD-activities is high and generic value of HRD-activities is medium. It seems that managers use more informal than formal HRD-activities. Our second hypothesis (2a) is supported. Moreover, frequencies of the three types of HRD-activities do not correlate. Various HRD-activities seem to be used independently. No support was found for the compensationhypothesis (2b). Furthermore, a positive relationship was found between HRDpattern and level of commitment to career self-management. Both correlation analysis and testing on mean-differences of HRD-pattern between low- and high-commitment groups, show that ‘low-commitment managers’ have poorer HRD-patterns than ‘high-commitment managers’. Hypothesis 3 is supported by the data. In sum, managers who feel highly committed to self-manage their careers, are using a lot of HRD-activities not only valuable for their current jobs, but essentially for job-security in the future. They keep their destiny in their own hands, taking ownership of their career development.
13.7 Discussion In this study, managers of six different organisations participated. The analyses were carried out for the group as a whole. As a consequence, differences between organisations are not reported here. However, based on variation in for example HRD-policies, size and organisational culture across companies, views on career development and HRD-practices of managers are expected to vary as well along those different companies. Research into the relationship between organisational characteristics on the one hand and HRD-patterns and career self-management on the other hand, is recommended.
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 329
Moreover, additional qualitative research into the motives behind choices in HRD-patterns could benefit this research-field. Moreover, managers participating in this research are highly educated and employed in knowledge-intensive organisations in which continuous learning is necessary for keeping up with the competition. Generalising the results of this study to managers with lower educational levels and working in other business-contexts cannot be done without carrying out further research. We studied four domains of career development. One of the domains, balancing work and non-work, seems to have a unique character. It relates differently to HRD-pattern than the other three domains. Balancing, unlike the other domains, is less directly HRD-related than the other three domains. It is an activity that matches with a modern view on careers. Viewing balancing as a precondition, rather than a factor that directly influences one’s career prospects, may explain this activity’s special position. Contrary to our expectations, generic value of different types of HRD-activities appears to correlate. As we assume, this can be explained by a manager’s underlying career orientation. Managers whose focus is mainly on long-term career development, will choose HRD-activities that contribute to transferable knowledge and skills for future jobs. Whether it is a formal or an informal type of HRD-activity does not matter. Making choices for HRD-activities, managers will consequently judge its value for improving career-prospects. Of course, the opposite can happen as well. Short-term career oriented managers will be inclined to choose specific HRD-activities with relative low value for future jobs. This study may contribute to HRD-practitioners’ and policymakers’ awareness of the link between employees’ perceptions with regard to career self-management and their learningbehaviour. Organisations operating in competitive businessenvironments, should determine their position with regard to HRD-topics like personnel mobility and desired learning-
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behaviour (contributing to specific expert knowledge or to broader knowledge and employability). Involving employees and making explicit their perceptions of career selfmanagement, may guide organisations in future HRD-policies and HRD-practices.
13.8 References Arthur, M.B., Hall, D.T., & Lawrence, B.S. (Eds.). (1989). Handbook of career theory. Cambridge: University Press. Arthur, M.B., & Rousseau, D.M. (Eds.). (1996). The boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new organizational era. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ball, B. (1997). Career management competences – the individual perspective. Career Development International, 2(2), 74-79. Carnevale, A.P., Gainer, L.J., & Meltzer, A.S. (1990). Workplace Basics: the essential skills employers want. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Gerritsen van der Hoop, W., & Thijssen, J. (1999). Proteus op de arbeidsmarkt? Employability en de betekenis van scholing [Proteus at the labour market]. In J.G.L.C. Lodewijks, & J.M.M. van der Sanden (Eds.), Op de student gericht: een bundel opstellen over leren en studeren, opgedragen aan Prof. Dr. Len. F.W. de Klerk (pp. 189-204). Tilburg: University Press. Gutteridge, T.G., & Otte, F.L. (1983). Organizational career development. Washington DC: ASTD Press. Hall, D.T. et al (Eds.). (1996). The career is dead - long live the career: a relational approach to careers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hall, D.T., & Moss, J.E. (1998). The new protean career contract: helping organizations and employees adapt. Organizational dynamics, 26(3), 22-37. Lankhuijzen, E.S.K. (2000). HRD-pattern, psychological career contract and mobility perspective of managers. Paper presented at the 1st conference on HRD research and practice across Europe, Kingston, UK, 15th January. McCall, M.W., Lombardo, M.M., & Morrison, A.M. (1988). The lessons of experience: how successful executives develop on the job. New York: Lexington Books. Megginson, D. (1996). Planned and emergent learning. Management learning, 27(4), 411-428. Mirvis, P.H., & Hall, D.T. (1994). Psychological succes and the boundaryless career. Journal of organizational behavior, 15, 365-380.
E.S.K. Lankhuijzen, J.A. Stavenga de Jong & J.G.L. Thijssen 331 Rousseau, D.M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organizations: understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks/London: Sage. Rousseau, D.M., & Tijoriwala, S.A. (1998). Assessing psychological contracts: Issues, alternatives and measures. Journal of organizational behavior, 19, 679-695. Schalk, R., Freese, C., & Bosch, J. Van den (1995). Het psychologisch contract van part-timers en full-timers [The psychological contract of part-time and fulltime employees]. Gedrag en Organisatie, 8(5), 307-317. Sullivan, S.E. (1999). The changing nature of careers: a review and research agenda. Journal of management, 25(3), 457-484. Thijssen, J.G.L. (1996). Leren, leeftijd en loopbaanperspectief: Opleidingsdeelname door oudere personeelsleden als component van Human Resource Development. [Learning, age and career perspective]. Tilburg: Katholieke Universiteit Brabant. Dissertatie. Van der Zee, H.J.M. (1994). De postmoderne nomade. Het managen van de eigen loopbaan. Opleiding & Ontwikkeling, 7(12), 23-26. Van Tiem, D., & West, A.C. (1997). Career self-management: employability for the new millennium. Performance improvement, 36(7), 9-13. Versloot, A.M., Glaudé, M.Th., & Thijssen, J.G.L. (1999). Employability: een pluriform arbeidsmarkt-fenomeen [Employability: a pluriform labour market phenomena]. Amsterdam: Max Goote Kenniscentrum.
14 The Career Stories of HR Developers T. Hytönen
14.1 Introduction The present contribution explores the construction of professional expertise in HRD work through the examination of the careers of individual HR developers who are employed as full-time inhouse HRD personnel in various organisations. The study focuses on HRD as an organisational activity which takes place through, for instance, training, developmental projects, cooperation and job design in order to promote learning and development, and especially informal learning at work. The careers of experienced practitioners are of particular interest since it is assumed that for HR developers as well learning in the workplace is an important element in the construction of their professional expertise. Furthermore, given the complexity of identifying HRD as an established field of professional expertise or organisational activity (see e.g. Garavan, Heraty & Barnicle, 1999; Watkins, 1991), study of the processes through which experienced practitioners in the field have pursued their careers will contribute to our overall understanding of the field. In addition, HRD has mainly been analysed from the perspectives of employers and employees, leaving little or no space for the voices of HRD practitioners themselves. Studies focussing on HRD as a legitimate field of professional expertise, and applying interpretive approaches to the processes of being or becoming a HR developer have been rare until now (see however recent 333 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 333-366. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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reports by Filander, 2000; Garrick, 1998; Sambrook, 2000; Valkeavaara, 1999). The present study is conducted in the cultural context of Finland, but recent European discussion and comparative research projects on HRD suggest that the results may have implications that go beyond the borders of Finland. According to Bereiter & Scardamalia (1993, p. 6), expertise in a professional field of activity is easiest to identify and to reward when it differs most dramatically from what ordinary people can do, for instance in problem-solving in well-defined fields of physics or medicine. However, it has been more difficult to identify the contents of professional expertise in HRD. For instance, the recruitment policies of HRD practitioners or the delegation of HRD issues to line managers in companies seem to imply the belief that everyone can and does train or enhance human development in some fashion. Nevertheless, analysis of the competencies used and needed in HRD in the previous phase of the present study (Valkeavaara, 1998) showed that the knowledge and skills that distinguish the practice of HRD are related to promoting organisational changes and training and coaching individuals and groups as well as to interpersonal relations, communication and the use of knowledge. This result implies the adoption of disciplines such as work and organisational psychology and business and management, as well as theories of learning and adult education. Furthermore, recent studies have shown that HRD can be regarded as a highly contextualized, practical and locally determined field of professional expertise (Garrick, 1998; Valkeavaara, 1999). However, the processes through which knowledge and skills are acquired in everyday work and what they reveal about HRD as a specific field of professional expertise remain unanswered questions. Models describing the stage development from novice to expert have given a relatively linear and well-defined picture of the development of professional expertise (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986). However, such models do not necessarily apply in complex and human-centered fields of professional activity, such as HRD. So
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far, most models of stage development have been applied to structured and well-defined professional fields, based on traditional disciplines and the construction of expertise in formal training institutions. For instance, studies have focussed on teaching, medical diagnostics and nursing (e.g. Berliner, 1988; Patel & Groen, 1991; Benner, 1989.) In addition, stage models have been adopted to explain the development of skills in games like chess or bridge, where the rules are clear, context-free and have remained relatively unchanged over time (Feltovich, Spiro & Coulson, 1997). In the case of well-defined and structured professional tasks the disciplinary basis, formal training and practical tools have been shaped by a long history of trial and error and the individual and collective interpretations which reside in the practitioner community (Hoffman, Feltovich & Ford, 1997). For ‘younger’ and unstructured fields of professional activity, like HRD, the formal training has, so far, been located in various institutions within many disciplines. Accordingly, it can be suggested that HR developers as individuals as well as a community of practitioners are still in the process of constructing their professional history, including conceptions and interpretations of their professional expertise. The primary source for construction is thus work experience and interpretations of it in numerous organisational contexts involving a variety of business-oriented and individual requirements.
14.2 Construction of professional expertise in HRD as seen through career stories The construction of professional expertise in the field of HRD is viewed here through the career stories of HR developers. Professional expertise refers to nature and contents of experienced performance in a specified field without attempting to distinguish between the expert and non-expert practitioner (Tynjälä, Nuutinen, Eteläpelto, Kirjonen & Remes, 1997). The core characterizations which can be given to expertise in any
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professional field include an understanding of the processes behind the activity, a profound understanding of the ways in which the problems and complexity of the work are addressed and the materials used, and continuous development (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993). Thus, professional expertise is seen as consisting of the specific knowledge and skills needed in professional practice as well as the ways in which they are applied, developed and transformed. In this respect, an increase in experience is assumed to have a positive impact on the processes of application, development and transformation. Thus, understanding the nature of practical experience also becomes an important question in understanding the construction of professional expertise. The emphasis in this study, then, is on the construction of professional expertise in the practice of HRD as a collection of experiential processes in a specified field. These processes can be described as a personal construing, one which takes place in the context of a variety of everyday situations at work as well as in other fields of life (Agnew, Ford & Hayes, 1998; Edwards & Usher, 1996). Thus, professional expertise can be understood as an experiential relationship between the practitioner and the job at hand (cf. Eraut, 1994; Sandberg, 1994). As a methodological strategy the narrative approach is applied here in an in-depth search for the components of HRD expertise by analysing developers’ career stories. The narrative approach to development means a retrospective focus on and analysis of the explanations which humans construct around their experiences, thus in the personal as well as professional sense, both revealing and creating their identity (Nicholson & West, 1989; cf. Kelchtermans, 1993; Rossiter, 1999). Hence, the narrative approach can be used as a methodological tool in recognizing the places and processes of learning which occur in the course of everyday professional work. Another starting point in understanding the construction of professional expertise in this study is that the locus of professional expertise resides in socially constructed careers rather than in
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individual human minds. However, to say that expertise does not reside in the individual does not mean to deny the role of the individual construction of expertise. Rather it implies that professional expertise is more than the knowledge which has accumulated in an expert’s head. Both expertise and careers are constructed in processes which involve the individual, other people and the cultural context. These processes include, for instance, initial and further training schemes, experiences in occupational and other fields of life, solving practical problems, using different conceptual and concrete tools and interaction and identification with larger groups (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Eraut et al., 1998; Goldscmidt, 1990; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Lähteenmäki, 1995). Taking a constructivistic framework as the point of departure implies that the construction of professional expertise is perceived as learning through experience and through narratives about those lived situations where, within the occupational framework, selves and worlds are simultaneously and interactively created, maintained and transformed (e.g. Jarvis, 1995; Edwards & Usher, 1996; Widdershoven, 1993). Several studies have shown that neither experience nor formal qualifications alone are necessarily equivalent to professional expertise (Eteläpelto, 1994; Tynjälä et al., 1997). However, there is also evidence to suggest that increase in the amount of experience makes an important contribution to the construction of personal styles and flexibility as regards an expert’s performance (Rambow & Bromme, 1995). According to Robinson and Hawpe (1986) it is reflecting on experience that creates the opportunity for developmental change and it is by that process of reflection we construct our stories. Accordingly, narrative is a natural and central form for organizing and recording our social and personal experience. In our stories we attempt to explain and understand experience retrospectively. However, such stories are not replicates or literal recreations of experience. They can be seen as personal building materials for our personal as well as occupational identity. Presumably, there
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will also be considerable variation, especially in their approaches to applying and developing knowledge, between two practitioners who are trained and experienced in seemingly similar ways (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993). In the case of HR developers this raises many interesting issues regarding the nature of their expertise, since wide variation in both training and experience is found among them (Valkeavaara, 1997). Since we cannot define expertise in HRD from the standpoint of any single discipline or training scheme, viewing it from the standpoint of a career built through learning from everyday work and life situations can be expected to contribute to our understanding of this professional field. (cf. Eraut et al., 1998; Gerber, Lankshear, Larsson & Svensson, 1995; Marsick & Watkins, 1990: pp. 176-199.) In career theory and research, the main debating dimensions have been internal vs. external, subjective vs. objective, individual vs. organisational as well as stable vs. dynamic. Careers can be analysed for instance, in terms of stages, transitions, continuities and discontinuities, developmental tasks, motives and visions (e.g. Arthur, Hall & Lawrence, 1989; Hall and Ass., 1996; Lähteenmäki, 1995; Schein, 1978). One dilemma encountered in the adoption of career approach to the development of professional expertise is that both expertise and career have traditionally been defined as a string of successes from novice level to expert level, even though the concept of success implies that its opposite, failure or problems, are always alternative outcomes and sources of further development (Bailyn, 1989; Goldscmidt, 1991: pp. 108109). Accordingly, it is successes and continuity that are focussed on in the formal documents (for instance, the curriculum vitae) which describe the career development of a practitioner, whereas studies of learning at work stress the importance of challenges and solving problematic situations in everyday work (Eraut et al., 1998; Gerber et al., 1995). Taking the view on expertise expressed earlier in this article implies that a career is more than a definable, linear and largely hierarchical continuum of workplaces or work tasks in which the individual
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moves smoothly from one occupational task to another task or from one level to another level. In addition, formal documents do not tell us about the nature of the different paths along which a practitioner has come to end up where she/he is, or about the ways in which a practitioner makes personal interpretations of the events along those paths. In the case of HRD practitioners, it can be assumed that entry into HRD is not necessarily unambiguous or located in the early stages of the career and followed by linear development (Ellinger, 1996). Furthermore, the nature of HRD as an organisational activity dealing with organisational and individual needs involves inevitable contradictions, which constitute challenges and problems for HRD practitioners to resolve. Hence, this study adopts a subjective approach, in which a career is seen as a relatively even progression punctuated by occasional crises through which an individual either reinforces or transforms the ways in which (s)he acts as, for instance, a HR developer. A career is seen as a continuous learning process by an individual in a professional context that can be understood through personal interpretations (Lähteenmäki, 1995; Nicholson & West, 1989).
14.3 Aims of the study The aim of the study was to analyse the career stories of HR developers in order to describe and understand the processes behind developing as HRD practitioner. A professional biography or career story is constructed within the framework of interpretation of social, personal and organisational expectations, resources and outcomes (Nicholson & West, 1989; Heinz, Kelle, Witzel & Zinn, 1998). In this process individuals use different means, such as story telling in order to give explanations for their experience which in turn shape their career story. This approach has been widely used for instance in studies of the professional development and identity formation
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of experienced teachers (Acker, 1997; Feuerverger, 1997) and young adults entering occupational contexts (Heinz et. al., 1998) as well as in career counselling (see e.g. Krumboltz, Blando, Kin & Reikowski, 1994). The research interest in this study resides in the unique ways in which individuals have structured their experience during their working lives, and thus in the complexity of human motives, thoughts and feelings which lie behind experience and which emerge in their stories. Career stories complement the formal documentation of individuals’ work histories and help us to understand the series of choices and resolutions, in a professional context, through which an individual constructs her or his professional expertise, for instance, as a HR developer. (Cortazzi, 1993: 39; Kelchtermans, 1993; Nicholson & West, 1989; Pentland, 1999; Polkinghorne, 1995; Singer, 1996.) Accordingly, the specific research questions which guided the analysis were: 1. How do these HR developers explain their becoming involved in HRD work? 2. How do they interpret their interest in HRD? and 3. What kind of personal efforts and other events do they see as having influenced their remaining in the field of HRD?
14.4 Participants and data collection The study data consist of interviews with twenty full-time, experienced HR developers working in large companies and public sector organisations in Finland. The participants were selected from among the respondents to a HRD practitioner survey (N = 164) conducted in the first phase of the study before the interviews (Valkeavaara, 1997; 1998; see also 1999). Initially selected were all the in-house HR developers who reported spending half or more than half of their time in HRD work. This yielded fifty-seven cases from which twenty interviewees were further selected. The aim was to secure a sample representative of education from different disciplines (all except one of the
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interviewees had academic education), further professional education in the field of HRD, and more than ten years of work experience in general, and particularly in HRD. Furthermore, the interviewees were chosen to represent the four different work role groups (change agent, HRD manager, trainer, program designer) identified in the survey, genders, and publicsector organisations as well as private enterprises. The selected HR developers were informed that the purpose of the interview was to supplement the survey conducted earlier and to find out about their experiences and conceptions in order to explore the quality and development of professional expertise in HRD work. The first contact was made by letter, and included a summary of the initial survey results. The telephone contact made after the letter generally motivated the HR developers positively towards the interview, and as a researcher I was warmly welcomed. All those contacted who fulfilled the criteria for selection agreed to participate in the interview. All the participants were interviewed by the author. According to a study of public-sector practitioners involved in development work (Filander, 1998), developers seldom have the opportunity to stop and think about their work or their expertise they have constructed in it. Thus, acceptance of this invitation to participate in an interview may have been motivated by the need for space and time for reflection. The semi-structured interview consisted of several thematic areas. This article deals with those areas where the interviewees were asked to talk about their work and educational careers. The individual interviews lasted for approximately one and a half to two hours and the majority of them took place in the interviewee’s personal office or in a separate negotiating room. One interview was conducted at interviewee’s home and one at the university. The age of the participants ranged from the late 30s to late 50s, the average age being in the late 40s. The interviews revealed that all the participants had started their working lives in their early twenties during or after their formal education and had thus acquired work experience of different kinds during the
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interviewing across thirteen to forty years. Analysis of their work histories revealed four different types of HRD career among the participants: 1) HRD selected as original occupation and employed by the same organisation (n = 3), 2) HRD selected as original occupation and employed by several organisations (n=3), 3) employed by the same organisation and later transferring to HRD work (n = 7), and 4) employed by several organisations and later transferring to HRD work (n = 7). Thus, out of twenty participants six were practitioners for whom HRD had been their permanent job focus. These practitioners had been involved in HRD tasks from the beginning of their working career. They all had an educational background in the field of education, economics or administration. Fourteen practitioners had typical HRD careers, that is, they had initially worked in jobs related to their original educational background and gradually transferred to HRD work. The participants had worked for their present employer from three to thirty-two years, average 17 years. Their experience of HRD work ranged from nine to thirty years, average 18 years.
14.5 Data analysis For the analysis the audio-recorded interview tapes were transcribed verbatim in their entirety. This process resulted in approximately five hundred pages of transcription. The first step in the analysis was to read through all the transcripts in order to get an overview of the twenty cases under study. After that the career stories were analysed. The analysis followed the principles governing the narrative analysis of qualitative data (Polkinghorne, 1995). The analysis focussed on identifying certain thematic lines and the nature of narrative construction (McAdams, 1993, cited in Singer, 1996) running through each story and summarising the contents of the story. Thematic lines have previously been used in the analysis of life stories in the study of adult development. McAdams proposes two major
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motivational themes in the life stories of adult development, that is, desire for independence, autonomy and mastery, and the desire to enter into relationships with others. These can exist as either complementary or in conflict. Thematic lines are connected with the nature of the construction of the narrative, which can be predictable and uncomplicated for some, and ambiguous and complicated for others. In the present analysis attention was paid to the motivational themes and the nature of narrative construction in the HR developers’ stories of events or turning points during their careers. Differences and distinctive features were of particular interest as they revealed the richness and diversity of experience among the twenty participants. In this light differences and distinctions may also suggest the name for each story or group of stories (Polkinghorne, 1995). The next step in the analysis was to identify and separate off those segments of the transcribed texts which contained participants’ descriptions of their careers. These parts were then repeatedly reread as a whole text in order to obtain an overview of the stories. Following this the texts were analysed as career stories and rewritten by the author who drew the descriptions of events and turning points in the course of each participant’s career into an organized career story. The focus of the writing process was on the participant’s explanations and interpretations as to their involvement in HRD work, interest in HRD and remaining in the field of HRD. Finally, these career stories were repeatedly re-read in order to characterize each story or a group of stories. In the reading process attention was paid to differences in the thematic lines of the stories in order to distinguish the variety of individual orientations in a career, and also to such similarities as might be found in some or all of the stories. The outcome of analysis was the identification of four groups of thematic lines running through the twenty participant’s stories. The names for these groups emerged from that process. The entire analytical process was carried out by the author alone except for the transcription work, which was done by the research assistants1.
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14.6 The career stories Below, the four groups discerned in the career stories among the twenty practitioners are introduced and explained. Passages in italics are extracts from the transcripts cited to illustrate particular points of interest. Words in brackets are additions by the author to increase intelligibility. To preserve anonymity participants are referred to by pseudonyms and their fields and places of work are not mentioned. The summary of the four groups of career stories and the related organisational and individual characteristics are presented in Table 14.1. Table 14.1
Career story working for and with people: 'humanists' working for the organisation: 'company guys'
search for professional challenges: ‘careerists’
The summary of the career stories, work histories and organisational and individual characteristics Work 1 history / Pseudonym 1 ‘Kalle’ 2 ‘Vesa’ 3 ‘Timo’ 4 ‘Anne’ 4 ‘Jukka’
3 ‘Paavo’ 3 ‘Tapani’ 3 ‘Minna’ 4 ‘Pekka’ 4 ‘Hannu’ 1 ‘Tuula’ 1 ‘Pentti’
2 ‘Pirkko’ 4 ‘Pirjo’ 4 ‘Paula’ 4 ‘Matti’
Educational background education education electrical engineering education politics vocational education natural science voc.educ.+adult educ. administration economics administration politics education voc.educ.+adm inistrat. voc.educ.+adult educ. international politics
Sector of organisation’s activity public private public public private
Gender/role selected in the self2 evaluation M/hrd manager M/prog. designer M/trainer F/prog. designer M/hrd manager
private private public public public public public
M/trainer M/trainer F/prog. designer M/change agent M/hrd manager F/prog.designer M/change agent
public public public private
F/change agent F/trainer F/prog.designer M/hrd manager
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Work history1/ Pseudonym 3 ‘Tiina’ 3 ‘Maija’ 3 ‘Tarja’ 2 ‘Teija’
Career story versatile career building: ‘holistic’
Notes:
Continued
Educational background business economics business economics humanities business economics
Sector of organisation’s activity public private private private
Gender/role selected in the self2 evaluation F/hrd manager F/change agent F/prog.designer F/change agent
1
1 = HRD selected as original occupation and employed by the same organisation, 2 = HRD selected as original occupation and employed by several organisations, 3 = employed by the same organisation and later transferring to HRD work, 4 = employed by several organisations 2 and later transferring to HRD work; A role selected from a list of alternatives in the self-evaluative analysis of work in the survey phase of the study. For more information about selecting a role, see Valkeavaara, 1997.
14.7 Working for and with people: ‘humanists’ One thematic line that emerged from the career stories was centred on interest in people within HRD work. A distinct desire to work for and with the people was the major thematic line in the career stories of five out of the twenty HRD practitioners. This motivational theme, which was repeatedly given as an explanation for both entering and staying in HRD can be read as a desire to enter into relationships with others. However, it does not mean the giving up of the self to the community but rather a sense of self-fulfilment that comes with working for and within a community of people (cf. Hall & Mirvis, 1996). For these developers, their career is constructed on the premises which are in the centre of HRD, namely people (Webb, 1996, 53). Thus, this group was labelled ‘humanists’. There was no coherence in the work histories of this group. However, three of them shared a study background in education, while one had studied engineering and one political science. Two
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of the educationalists reported that they knew from the beginning of their university studies that they were not interested in a career teaching in a school and working with children but in working with adults and using training and development as tools in organisational environments. As Anne, a female trainer in the civil service administration tells about her studies in education and training and the search for HRD work: “Apparently it was at the stage when I noticed that the field of education and training is like that (working with training and development). I knew that you are dealing with people in it. That is the way to pass on history or tradition...I thought that it was an enormous power. Not that I exercise an influence on something, but that I make things possible”. These five HRD practitioners had deliberately applied for their jobs or they had been actively, but part-time involved in HRD issues and then offered to work in or applied for a full-time HRD job within their existing organisation. Among these five practitioners both their entry to HRD work on a permanent basis and their shift towards HRD tasks is explained by an interest in people, in human learning, in the possibilities of working with human factors and contributing to human development in work organisations. Vesa, a male HRD manager in a private enterprise explains: “Perhaps it is this orientation in my personality, human issues are really very interesting and learning and change as phenomena interest me so much more than business or engineering”. Furthermore, contacts with people, for instance in the form of feedback from both managerial and shop floor levels in the organisation has been an important incentive and has motivated these five individuals during their career in HRD. Social contacts are also seen as important in personal further development in the field. This is well illustrated through the story told by Kalle, who is a male training manager working in the public sector. During Kalle’s long work history in the same organisation, he has visited also other public sector organisations as a trainer. He says: “He (Kall’ s superior) was very delighted about it. He said that it is good for you to go off and get new ideas... It was an opportunity for me to see other organisations and to meet other
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trainers. It was both educational and fun”. These visits have been important in a sense that during them Kalle made contacts with other trainers and organisations and was thus brought into the network of trainers in the public sector. In making these visits his superior played an important role by encouraging him to continue them. In addition, he was encouraged to participate in specific further training programmes designed and tailored to the needs of the public sector around the end of 1970s and early 1980s. “It truly had a great impact on the ways in which I have done this HRD work and how it has gone”. The experience of the importance of being a member of the trainer community in the public sector is shared by another public sector HRD practitioner in this group. In addition, the career stories revealed that having a long history in an organisation has contributed to the development of personal relationships between the different interest groups in the organisation. It seems in particular that relationships with management have been the corner stones in many careers. For instance, Kalle says that his long history in the same organisation and the fact that when he worked as a management trainer he trained most of the present managers have meant that his relations with the management are informal and characterized by mutual respect. This support from management has enabled the implementation of many HRD interventions. Similarly, Vesa explains that he has been involved quite extensively in the strategic development of the enterprise and thus, his face is familiar at the managerial level. Timo, a male training manager in the public sector speaks about his relationship with the management in a somewhat different tone: “Sometimes I am like a thorn in their side but until now my work has been supported”. Similarly, Anne brings a critical tone to bear on relationships within the organisation. She says that she is the person who asks the so-called stupid questions and suggests things that others would not dare to do. However, this kind of challenge to the conventional line of thinking has been beneficial also for her HRD work.
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An optimistic approach to learning, which has developed either out of basic education or on the basis of personal interest has become an important tool in these career stories. Kalle says that what makes him a HR developer is optimism, a believe in human learning and development. In both Kalle’s and Anne’s views they do not have to be experts in any specific branch of their organisations’ activities per se, but their duty is to be an expert in understanding the processes of learning. Kalle says: “First of all, the idea and concept of learning is something which has to be defended now and again”. Consequently, he has to be prepared to argue for the learning process on both the theoretical and practical levels. As a result, his own personal conceptions of learning have been continuously reflected on and developed. Anne and Vesa talk about the centrality of understanding people and the possibility of change. Vesa also talks about his experience of the impossibility of human change and the attendant risk of becoming a cynical HRD practitioner. Anne, instead, says that what makes her a HR developer is that “I believe in the individual and in the need of change. And in change which is possible on the micro level, that is, which is possible in the individual”. A lot is said about courage, taking a critical approach and involvement in relation to the centrality of interaction with people in the construction of a HRD career, as when Kalle concludes that being a HR developer means being with people, using your personality as a working tool and testing yourself in social interaction: “In this work duties contact with people is more profound and takes place on a more conceptual level (than for instance in selling). One thing is that as a trainer you have to be ready to put yourself at risk. A lot of this job gets done on the basis of your personal character”.
14.8 Working for the organisation: ‘company guys’ Another distinctive thematic line in the career stories centres on working for the organisation itself. Here the emphasis is on both the organisational and contextual settings for one’s work. These
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HRD practitioners termed ‘company guys’ explain their career in HRD primarily from the point of view of the employing organisation, through expressions of loyalty and understanding towards managerial and organisational interests (cf. Heinz et al., 1998). They can also be interpreted as seeking for community but their actions are dependent on the aspirations of the organisation and the needs expressed at managerial level. For seven out of the twenty participants, this seemed to be the main motivational theme in their career stories. Thus, their career stories seem to be more organisationally than individually defined (Hall & Mirvis, 1996). Among these seven HRD practitioners, five had gradually moved towards HRD tasks in the course of their careers, while for two practitioners it had been a choice from the outset. As far as educational background is concerned none of them had studied education, except for one who had acquired a second university degree in adult education. Their career stories illustrate a fairly durable and traditional view of HRD as an activity serving managerial needs and of a HR developer as a maintainer of the organisation (cf. Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982; Sambrook, 2000). Taking into account that the majority of these practitioners had worked in the same organisation throughout their career, such a development seems only natural. Working between management and staff they seem to see themselves as ‘company’s guys’ who act as ‘mouth piece’ for the organisation, as one representative of the group metaphorically puts it. Nevertheless, the importance of understanding adult learning and professional further development in the field of adult education were also clearly addressed in the stories. For the practitioners in the public sector, the importance of specific training programmes was brought up with same intensity as in the previous group. A major starting point for a career in HRD among these practitioners is first knowing the organisation and its function, and only then carrying out HRD work. Thus, it is interest in supporting and improving the organisation’s activity, according
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to the organisation’s needs, which lies at the centre of involvement in HRD work. For many practitioners, it was the ‘company’ or the ‘organisation’ which first suggested new HRDtype duties and tasks, such as acting as a trainer with respect to a some new technical innovation. Following that, the current situation or future prospects in the organisation motivated taking the next steps towards more permanent HRD work. For instance, Paavo, a male training manager in a private company explains that in-house training was in the ascendant when he got involved in HRD at the end of the seventies and because of the new technology, a lot of staff training courses were being set up. First he trained others to use the new technology. Then the personnel manager offered him a job in the personnel and training department which he decided to accept because he enjoyed the independence the job gave him and the current training programme was almost finished. Alternatively, it may have been prospective changes in the organisation which acted as the trigger for personal further studies followed by a shift into HRD work. This is illustrated in the story told by Minna, who is a female training manager in the public sector. She totally changed her professional orientation by taking up studies in adult education in order to secure her position in the organisation. Studying and working simultaneously she created a new HRD position for both the organisation and herself in the organisation. On the other hand the transition to HRD is explained by the opportunity of combining one’s educational background and current job in the organisation with training and development issues. For instance, Hannu, a male training manager in the public sector says that he switched from financial management to training and development because he found the work more interesting and versatile and because he was still able to keep up with financial issues. Now, he says “Yes, I see myself (as a HR developer) as someone with a very multifaceted experience of how organisations function”. In addition, for those who have an educational background in administration and management
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studies, HRD tasks have been shown as just one, incidental example of administrative work. In this group of career stories, this aspect is especially clear in the stories told by those in the public sector, where a typical and traditional relationship between education and work has been the continuum from the study of administration to a job in governmental or municipal administration. Knowledge of both the organisation and administration have been the starting points for a career, and involvement in HRD has grown gradually, as illustrated by the story told by Tuula, who is a female civil servant working in HRD. “In the beginning my education gave me a background in the formalities of public sector administration and I knew how to work in it, but developmental issues have gradually become more important in the course of the years”. What comes out of these stories is that personal development and involvement in HRD has grown simultaneously with the development of a strategic role for HRD in the organisation. Hence, career in HRD is closely connected with general trends toward developing HRD, based on managerial initiatives in the organisation.
14.9 Searching for ‘careerists’
professional
challenges:
Describing one’s career and involvement in HRD as a search for new professional challenges turns out to be the third thematic line in the career stories. The distinctive feature in these career stories is the emphasis on optimising personal opportunities for developing one’s knowledge and skills as well as the nature and contents of the job. Practitioners with this kind of orientation need and look for continuously professional challenges in order to be satisfied in their jobs. In this group of four practitioners three had a work history characterised by working in several organisations and ending up in HRD. One female practitioner working in the public sector administration had made HRD her permanent choice of occupation but also found it important to
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look for professional challenges from several organisations. This kind of thematic line shows an emphasis on personal achievement and mastery as a way of achieving self-fulfilment and explaining career moves. These career stories also seem to fit the profile of a career changer, in which career changes or moves from one company to another can be explained by lack of intrinsic work rewards and low involvement and commitment in the job (cf. Kanchier & Unruh, 1988). One illustration of this is the story of Matti, a male manager in a private company. He tells how he wanted to work as a consultant because he saw it as an interesting chance to gain experience of business life and consultancy. Matti worked as a consultant for a few years and then, he says, got fed up with it because it no longer offered a challenge. Between different jobs as an in-house HR developer he was also offered the chance to work as a consultant again, but he preferred to continue working as an internal HR developer, because “at that time in the organisation a very advanced approach to HRD was being taken and I found it interesting and I saw it as a qualitative challenge for me...I suppose that theoretical and philosophical approaches to learning were at their most advanced there”. The search for new professional challenges is also combined with an active involvement in continuous training. Participation in formal education seems to play an important role for these practitioners. Two individuals with vocational qualifications had also completed university studies alongside their jobs. During their studies or with their graduation their work was supplemented with or wholly supplemented by HRD issues. For instance, for Pirjo, a female training manager in local government, her studies had been a broadening experience. She noticed in very concrete ways the benefits of studying for her conceptual and thinking skills, and this experience reinforced her interest in people and developmental work. For Paula, a female training manager in governmental administration, a good life means the need and ability to learn continuously. She herself has tried to live a very goal-oriented life and work according to her beliefs.
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The importance of formal education is also illustrated in relation to acquiring the theoretical tools necessary for understanding HRD work. This theoretician-like approach seems to have its roots in studies in (adult) education, which have been an important investment in learning alongside the job. For instance, in Matti’s experience adult education has given him both concrete tools for use at work and theoretical models to reflect on what he has already accomplished: “It was a very positive experience to notice how much I was able to use my knowledge in order to reflect on what I have done”. He also believes that companies which have well developed HRD strategies also have strong expertise in adult education. Nevertheless, it is also brought up that professional challenges and a lot of learning come from one's everyday work. These HRD practitioners describe their job as moving on from one challenge to another, and that the manysided experience gained thereby is also an important learning resource. Even though there is an emphasis on formal knowledge, being able to learn by doing and reflect on what one has done is the path to becoming a HR developer. “...how you can apply knowledge is more important than how much of it you have, I strongly believe that the ways in which you are able to transform knowledge to suit the needs of every situations are important”.
14.10 Versatile career building: ‘holistic’ A fourth group consists of career stories in which both people, the organisation and personal professional challenges emerge as the sources and elements explaining careers. The thematic line running through the career stories in this group differs from that of other groups in that it gives a rather balanced and manysided picture of the elements which can influence the choices made during one's career, elements which were separately singled out in the other groups. For instance, speaking about selling and marketing within the organisation is combined with attention towards people, learning and one's personal career.
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Consequently, the thematic line was titled ‘holistic’. This thematic line implies a broad vision of both learning and the workplace, which is, for instance, seen as a requirement for HR developers by Marsick & Watkins (1992). A many-sided picture of this kind also suggests a fairly integrated vision regarding HRD in the companies in question. The ‘holistic’ group is exclusively female. All the women except one have a long history in the same organisation characterised by a gradual move towards HRD work. The exception is Teija, a HRD manager in a private company, for whom HRD has been a deliberate choice in the several organisations she has worked for. ‘Holistic’ developers speak, on the one hand, about having a clear vision of a career in HRD and a desire to work with people. As Teija, who majored in business economics says, “However, all the time I had the feeling that the job which I would be doing, would have to have something to do with people...after graduation I had a clear vision of what I wanted to do”. On the other hand, three other practitioners moved into to HRD work from jobs more closely combined with the organisation’s line of business. This is illustrated by the career story of Maija, a HRD manager in a company. In her first position she worked for five years in marketing and exports for the company she still works for. When she returned from her first maternity leave in the early 1970s, she found that the company had followed the contemporary trend in staff training as a result of which the newly appointed manager of the newly established training department in the company offered her a job in that department. The reasons which Maija gives for her choice of working in the training department were that she was interested in learning and training – even her childhood dream job included teaching – and she felt that training was a personally important project for her. She says: “Perhaps the reason why I stayed in HRD was that people interest me so much more compared to other things ...it could equally have been marketing where you also have to work with people, but it (HRD) was so rewarding and I have had continuous opportunities to develop myself and learn new things”. Thus, the situation in the organisation was
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a trigger, an opportunity to fulfil career aspirations which had previously been left to one side. The conditions in the organisation and the importance of challenges for personal development as other cornerstones for a career are also evident in Maija’s example. The active construction of a HRD career within an organisation’s framework also is visible in Teija’s story. It was important for Teija that she works as a developer in a company, “ I was offered a few positions as a consultant and I thought is this something what I want to do, be an external consultant or work internally in a company, and the decision was extremely clear, I wanted to work as close as possible to a company’ s business activity”. Furthermore, Teija applied for her present job because it offered the challenge of building an HRD domain for the company: “Nobody defined the job for me, I built it myself and then sold it. My superior for instance, had not thought at all about what might belong to this area, he just said do it sensibly”. Tiina, a governmental officer in HRD tasks, also tells how she sees herself as a supporter, as one who looks for different approaches to and ideas about developmental activities and tries to market them to the management. She has enjoyed her job because she can work with people, has received positive feedback and has been able to use her abilities. Beside the integrated impression which is conveyed rather well in this group of career stories and characterises the thematic line, there are a few other distinctive features which are also found in the other groups and deserve to be mentioned here. Interestingly, none of this latter group had original background in education and training. However, understanding learning and training has been important to them. For instance, Tiina says that basic studies in adult education and trainer training have given her both theoretical and practical tools for understanding adult learning in her job. Maija says about her studies in education that “I got the feeling that if training duties are to be done, then it would be good to gain more knowledge about training and development”. At the time of the interview Maija’s interpretation of her occupational identity emphasised being an educationalist more than an economist.
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However, she admitted that business studies had given her a language and a basic understanding which had made communication with management easy. This had resulted in the growth of a feeling of pride: “At the moment I am proud of my expertise, I have something to give”. In Teija’s story she discontinued her studies in education but she sees experience as the most important learning resource, believing that one learns to be a HR developer through experience. She relates her praxis-oriented conception to all learning in the workplace. She says that she cannot provide statistics on the training days given in the company because her policy is that all training and development is done through learning, which is connected to everyday work and its daily challenges. Another feature which emerges among ‘holistic’ group is the courage and the aspiration to make a difference as a HR developer. These practitioners emphasise the importance of breaking up routines, challenging existing ways of thinking, being persistent, and being able to react when needed as well as proactively create new paths for development. For instance, Teija says that one of the most important qualities of a HR developer is to have the courage to look after people’s interests, to be aware of the outside world and ”to be continuously few steps ahead of the times in the sense that one needs to be able to sense what kinds of new things are in the wind, even though they are not necessarily going to be introduced into the company”. Despite the positive stance which is implied in the stories, it is clear that a career in HRD is a risky business and requires courage, which Teija describes in this way: “You have to have a humble approach and you can not hide behind roles or hierarchical positions... perhaps my strength has come with age and it is as a person that I am ready to put myself at risk in our organisation”.
14.11 Discussion The four thematic lines for the career stories found in this study do not try to distinguish between right or wrong ways of constructing a career, but to offer a complementary framework
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for understanding the different processes through which individuals become HR developers and thus, the construction of professional expertise in HRD. The existence of the different thematic lines in the career stories suggests the existence of many relevant and parallel dimensions. These dimensions include at least the conditions in the organisation, other people and individual aspirations. Furthermore, the variety of thematic lines indicates that there are no fixed patterns, but that a career as well as professional expertise in HRD may be moulded by experience, and by the interaction of personal motivation and context, leading to, at least seemingly, similar jobs and positions within the complex field which characterizes HRD. Since the participants of the study were deliberately chosen from amongst experienced practitioners, the richness of individual experience and a long-term perspective on HRD in organisations in general was captured in the career stories. As previously assumed, entry to HRD work was a permanent choice from the early stages of their careers onwards for only six practitioners in the study. However, given that all the participants appeared to be well established in their careers at the time of the interviews, HRD had generally grown to be a strong area of employment. In the present stage of their careers, many of the participants seemed to emphasise the role of chance and incidental factors in the turns their careers had taken. However, when the question of entering HRD was further considered, distinctive motivational themes emerged in the stories. When compared to the current theory and practice of career development, majority of the HRD practitioners’ stories reflect a protean career, led more by intentional personal choices in the organisational context than by organisational requirements and circumstances. However, organisationally defined careers also existed among the participants (Hall & Mirvis 1996). For instance, from a historical perspective, changing organisational circumstances shaping the individual’s HRD career were discerned, especially among ‘company guys’ and ‘holistic’ groups.
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One feature which appeared to be shared in the career stories, is that they show these HRD practitioners as active builders of their careers. In many cases the participants were involved in promoting the establishment of HRD or in building a new HRD department for their company or public-sector organisation. Simultaneously they built a role for themselves as experts in HRD. What is notable is the interplay between proactivity and reactivity in the career-building process. On the one hand, becoming a HR developer involves seeking out challenges and visions for the organisation. On the other hand, the process involves being able to react and utilize one’s knowledge and experience when situations arise rather than to actively stimulate those situations. These career stories suggest that proactivity is accentuated among ‘humanists’ and ‘holistic’ developers, whereas reactivity characterizes better the ‘company guys’ and ‘careerists’. In particular, HRD practitioners working for and with people and those with a holistic approach seem to have a way of working which is in accordance with relational practice and the relational approach in building a career (Fletcher, 1996; Kram, 1996). This is illustrated in a willingness for interaction and interdependence in work. Interestingly, while Fletcher (1996) in her study of female design engineers found four types of relational practice, all four types, i.e. keeping projects connected with people, enabling achievement, using relational skills and enhancing a sense of collaboration, were found in the present stories by the ‘humanists’ and ‘holistic’ developers, the majority of whom are also female. The emphasis on interaction and interdependence also substantiates the role these features have as the core components of HRD. Furthermore, it suggests that HRD practitioners who have this kind of thematic line in their career stories may be the ‘gel’ in building interdependence between HRD and the organization, which reinforces an idea of the HRD’s role as the organisation’s learning-related core competence (Sambrook, 2000).
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Compared to Marsick and Watkins (1990, 193-194), who did not identify a view of training as learning in their study of trainers, the present career stories suggest that HR developers rather unanimously view HRD as a learning-based activity. However, the career stories indicate that conceptions of learning behind this view range from behaviourism to experiential learning, with the emphasis on different applications of the latter. The practitioners’ conceptions are not necessarily explicitly referred to and most of the time they are applied in a very flexible way. The career stories suggest that the importance of learning has its origins in the academic study of education and various forms of professional training on the one hand, and in practical experience on the other. The role of the study of education is twofold. First, it provides the foundation for basic education, and second, it offers new knowledge and understanding of the kind needed in HRD work. The stories of those with a background in education demonstrate that the role of the theory and practice of adult education in the Finnish universities was rather weak in the 1970s: this affected the search for a job oriented towards adult education. The career stories appear to underline the significant contribution made by adult education and learning theories to Finnish HRD practice, particularly in the work and professional further training programmes of the public sector. This has been a specific feature of HRD in Finland, despite the fact that the primary determinants for an increase in HRD have come from the requirements of production, competition and efficiency. Furthermore, since the end of the 1970s HR developers have increasingly been identified as a specific group of adult educators in working life, at least in the literature and in public-sector organisations. This is where social interaction and interdependence as features in the construction of professional expertise surface once again. What is notable is that among the HRD practitioners from the publicsector active participation in both the network of trainers and the specific training programme for trainers in the 1980s provided a community of practitioners within HRD and participation in both
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formal and informal ‘institutes’ in which expertise in HRD could be interpreted and constructed (e.g. Eräsaari, 1997). This kind of community was lacking in the stories concerning private companies. Given that half of the participants had a long work history in the same organisation and also the others had worked for a relatively long time for their present employers, professional expertise had developed along organisation-specific and locally functional lines (Agnew, Ford & Hayes, 1997; Garrick, 1998: 155; Valkeavaara, 1999). Long experience had involved long personal relationships with different groups among the organisation’s staff and an understanding of the organisation’s history. This was seen as having a positive effect on one's career especially among the ‘company guys’ and ‘holistic’ developers. It also suggests that integrating HRD requires a long time-frame in which practitioners can gain a thorough knowledge of the organisation. This is a notion also worth considering also when deciding on the use of external consultants. Utilising the narrative approach to development implies reliance on the subject’s own report of her or his life, that is, on her or his interpretation of life as lived. Experience has to be lived before it can be told. Hence the career stories are rooted in actual events which have taken place in persons’ lives. (Clausen, 1995; Widdershoven, 1993.) In this study, the focus of the study was on individual HRD practitioner’s constructions of those events, and the researcher’s task was to build a more informed picture of the phenomenon under study. The different thematic lines which the career stories revealed can be seen as different dimensions by which connections between the events experienced in the course of the career and its construction as well as the nature of expertise in HRD can be understood. In addition, the overlapping issues which emerged in the career stories supplement each other in the description of HRD expertise. The extent to which they help in analysing and making sense of previous and future personal experiences would perhaps be the best way to evaluate the viability of the analysis.
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By focussing on these stories, especially on the ways in which careers have been pursued, the study implicitly spotlighted transitions or turning points during the career, such as from study to work and from one job to another. It was thus assumed that the career stories would include mention of certain salient turning points. These are the events that stand out in the memory and are later recalled as salient, even if they are not necessarily ascribed that meaning when they occur (Clausen, 1996; Polkinghorne, 1995). Potential turning points were described in the career stories in a very positive light. If the contradictions in the rhetoric embedded in HRD are taken into account, this kind of favourable reflection may even be seen as suspicious. Nevertheless, problems were also brought up, but these experiences of, e.g. redundancy, manipulation and uncertainty were explained as learning challenges. Contrary to the kind of critique which sees HR developers as traders in management rhetoric (e.g. Garrick, 1994), the career stories of the ‘humanists’ and ‘holistic’ developers in particular, also included the idea of having the courage to speak up for learning and development, to break into business-oriented discourse and on occasion put oneself at risk. To sum up, the four different thematic lines can be seen as elements or a framework through which professional expertise in HRD can be described and understood and its development be supported. Aside from the thematic lines, the interplay between the individual and the organisation, the centrality of understanding learning, interdependence, the role of the professional community and length of experience are issues which need to be taken into account. However, the question remains as to the extent to which the thematic lines can be generalized. The career stories include a variety of work histories and they feature a wide range of workplaces both in public-sector organisations and private companies, which would support the wider applicability of the findings. A topic for further study and analysis would be to investigate the applicability of this framework to understanding the careers and
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expertise of other HR developers in Finland and also across cultures. Another topic for further study would be to select newcomers to the field and compare their career stories to those of experienced practitioners. Alternatively, the practitioners of this study could be interviewed again on their retirement in order to capture possible revisions of their career stories. Furthermore, the career stories as well as the experienced HRD practitioners themselves could serve as mentors for the novices, if such forums where practitioners could meet on a regular basis were created. This might also stimulate debate on the different ways of building a HRD career and, related to this, on professional ethics as a part of professional expertise in HRD. Accordingly, story telling and the narrative approach could be used as a methodological strategy in the initial and further training of HR developers in order to increase personal understanding of one’s career and expertise, and thus the critical reflection on experiential framework of values and beliefs underlying one’s actions as a HR developer. This would be a topic for another, a more action-oriented further study. 1 Prior to analysis of the twenty stories, a preliminary analysis of four cases selected to illustrate the different types of work histories was done. This preliminary analysis of the four cases is presented in Valkeavaara, 2001.
14.12 References Acker, S. (1997). Becoming a teacher educator: voices of women academics in Canadian faculties of education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13(1), 65-74. Agnew, N., Ford, K., & Hayes, P. (1997). Expertise in context: Personally constructed, socially selected, and reality-relevant? In P. Feltovich, K. Ford, & R. Hoffman (Eds.), Expertise in context. Menlo Park: AAAI Press/The MIT Press, pp. 219-244. Arthur, M., Hall, D., & Lawrence, B. (Eds.). (1989). Handbook of career theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bailyn, L. (1989). Understanding individual experience at work: comments on the theory and practice of careers. In M. Arthur, D. Hall, & B. Lawrence (Eds.), Handbook of career theory. Cambridge: University Press, pp. 477- 489.
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Benner, P. (1989). Aloittelijasta asiantuntijaksi, trans. [From novice to expert, excellence and power in clinical nursing practice]. Juva: WSOY. Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1993). Surpassing ourselves. An inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise. Chicago, Il: Open Court. Berliner, D. (1988). The development of expertise in pedagogy. New Orleans: American Association of Colleges for Teachers. Clausen, J. (1995). Gender, contexts, and turning points in adults’ lives. In P. Moen, G. Elder, & K. Lüscher (Eds.), Examining lives in context. Washington: APA, pp. 365-389. Cortazzi, M. (1993). Narrative analysis. London: Falmer Press. Darkenwald, G., & Merriam, S. (1982). Adult education: foundations of practice. New York: Harper & Row. Dreyfus, H., & Dreyfus, S. (1986). Mind over machine. The power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Edwards, R., & Usher, R. (1996). What stories do I tell now? New times and new narratives for the adult educator. International Journal for Lifelong Education, 15(3), 216-229. Ellinger, A. (1996). Human resource development practitioners should strive for certification. In R.W. Rowden (Ed.), Workplace learning: debating five critical questions of theory and practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 72. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 75-85. Eraut, M. (1994). Developing professional knowledge and competence. London: Falmer Press. Eraut, M., Alderton, J., Cole, G., & Senker, P. (1998). Development of knowledge and skills in employment. (Research Rep. No. 5). Brighton, East Sussex: University of Sussex, Institute of Education. Eräsaari, R. (1997). Mistä asiantuntijuus on kotoisin? [Where does expertise come from?]. In J. Kirjonen, P. Remes, & A. Eteläpelto (Eds.), Muuttuva asiantuntijuus [Changing expertise]. University of Jyväskylä: Institute for Educational Research, pp. 62-72. Eteläpelto, A. (1994). Work experience and the development of expertise. In W. Nijhof, & J. Streumer (Eds.). Flexibility in training and vocational education. Utrecht: Uitgeverij Lemma BV, pp. 319-341. Feltovich, P., Spiro, R., & Coulson, R. (1997). Issues of expert flexibility in contexts characterized by complexity and change. In P. Feltovich, K. Ford, & R. Hoffman (Eds.), Expertise in context. Menlo Park: AAAI Press/The MIT Press, pp. 125-141. Feuerverger, G. (1997). “On the edges of the map”: A study of heritage language teachers in Toronto. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13(1), 39-53. Filander, K. (1998). Metaphors as a way of examining silent expertise. In P. Alheit, H.S. Olesen, & S. Papaioannou (Eds.), Education, modernization and peripheral community. Anogia workbooks. Volume 3. Roskilde: RUC, pp. 87-101.
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Filander, K. (2000). Kehittämistyö murroksessa [Development work in transition]. University of Tampere. Faculty of Education. Acta Universitatis Tamprensis 777. Fletcher, J. (1996). A relational approach to the protean worker. In D. Hall, & Ass., The career is dead - long live career. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, pp. 105-131. Garavan, T., Heraty, N., & Barnicle, B. (1999). Human resource development literature: current issues, priorities and dilemmas. Journal of European Industrial Training, 23(4-5), 169-179. Garrick, J. (1994). Postmodern doubts and ‘truths’ about training. Studies in Continuing Education, 16(2), 127-142. Garrick, J. (1998). Informal learning in the workplace. Unmasking human resource development. London: Routledge. Gerber, R., Lankshear, C., Larsson, S., & Svensson, L. (1995). Self-directed learning in a work context. Education+Training, 37(8), 26-32. Goldschmidt, W. (1990). The human career. The self in the symbolic world. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Hall, D., and Associates (1996). The career is dead – long live career. A relational approach to careers. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Hall, D., & Mirvis, P. (1996). The new protean career: psychological success and the path with a heart. In D. Hall, & Ass., The career is dead San Francisco: Jossey Bass, pp.15-45.
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Heinz, W., Kelle, U., Witzel, A., & Zinn, J. (1998). Vocational training and career development in Germany: Results from a longitudinal study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22(22), 77-101. Hoffman, R., Feltovich, P., & Ford, K. (1997). A general conceptual framework for conceiving of expertise and expert systems. In P. Feltovich, K. Ford, & R. Hoffman (Eds.), Expertise in context. Menlo Park: AAAI Press/The MIT Press, pp. 543-580. Jarvis, P. (1995, 2nd Ed.). Adult & Continuing education. Theory and practice. London: Routledge. Kanchier, C., & Unruh, W. (1988). The career cycle meets the life cycle. The Career Development Quarterly 37 (December), 127-137. Kelchtermans, G. (1993). Getting the story, understanding the lives from career stories to teacher’s professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 9(5/6), 443-456. Kram, K. (1996). A relational approach to career development. In D. Hall, & Ass., The career is dead – long live career. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, pp. 131-157. Krumboltz, J., Blando, J., Kim, H., & Reikowski, D. (1994). Embedding work values in stories. Journal of Counselling and Development 73, September/October: 57-62.
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Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning. Legitimate peripheral participation. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lähteenmäki, S. (1995). “Mitä kuuluu - kuka käskee?” Yksilöllinen urakäyttäytyminen ja sitä ohjaavat tekijät suomalaisessa liiketoimintaympäristössä — vaihemallin mukainen tarkastelu [“Can you manage your career?” A descriptive study of career behaviour and its anteceents for key Finnish company personnel and implications for HRM]. Doctoral dissertation. Publications of the Turku School of Economics and Business Administration, Series A-1:1995. Marsick, V., & Watkins, K. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. New York: Routledge. McAdams, D. (1993). Stories we live by; personal myths and the making of the self. New York: William Morrow. Nicholson, N., & West, M. (1989). Transitions, work histories and careers. In M. Arthur, D. Hall, & B. Lawrence (Eds.), Handbook of career theory. Cambridge: University Press, pp. 181-201. Patel, V., & Groen, G. (1991). The general and specific nature of medical expertise: a critical look. In K. Ericsson, & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise. Cambridge: University Press, pp. 93-125. Pentland, B. (1999). Building process theory with narrative: from description to explanation. Academy of Management Review, 24(4), 711-724. Polkinghorne, D.E. (1995). Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis. In J.A. Hatch, & R. Wisniewski (Eds.), Life history and narrative. London: Falmer Press, pp. 5-23. Rambow, R., & Bromme, R. (1995). Implicit psychological concepts in architects' knowledge 337-355.
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Robinson, J., & Hawpe, L. (1986). Narrative thinking as a heuristic process. In T. Sarbin (Ed.), Narrative psychology. The storied nature of human conduct. New York: Praeger, pp. 111-232. Rossiter, M. (1999). A narrative approach to development: implications for adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 50(1), 56-71. Sambrook, S. (2000). Talking of HRD. Human Resource Development International, 3(2), 159-178. Sandberg, J. (1994). Human competence at work. An interpretative approach. Göteborg: BAS. Schein, E. (1978). Career dynamics: matching individual and organizational needs. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. Singer, J. (1996). The story of your life. A process perspective on narrative and emotion in adult development. In C. Magai, & S. McFadden (Eds.), Handbook of emotion, adult development, and aging. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 443-463.
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Tynjälä, P., Nuutinen, A., Eteläpelto, A., Kirjonen, J., & Remes, P. (1997). The acquisition of professional expertise – a challenge for educational research. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 41, 475-494. Valkeavaara, T. (1997). HRD practitioners analysing their work: what does it tell about their present role in working life? In P. Remes, S. Tøsse, P. Falkenkrone, & B. Bergstedt (Eds.), Social change and adult education research. Adult education research in Nordic countries 1996. University of Jyväskylä: Institute for Educational Research, pp. 14-40. Valkeavaara, T. (1998). Exploring the nature of human resource developers’ expertise. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 7(4), 533-547. Valkeavaara, T. (1999). “Sailing in calm waters doesn’t teach”: Constructing expertise through problems in work – the case of Finnish human resource developers. Studies in Continuing Education, 21(2), 177-196. Valkeavaara, T. (2001). Constructing expertise in careers: the career stories of human resource developers. In J. Streumer (Ed.). Perspectives on learning at the workplace. Proceedings Second Conference on HRD Research and Practice Across Europe 2001. University of Twente. Faculty of Educational Science and Technology, pp. 337-354. Watkins, K. (1991). Many voices: Defining human resource development from different disciplines. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(2), 241-255. Watkins, K., & Marsick, V. (1992). Building the learning organisation: a new role for human resource developers. Studies in Continuing Education, 14(2), 115-129. Widdershoven, G. (1993). The story of life. Hermeneutic perspectives on the relationship between narrative and life history. In R. Josselson, & A. Lieblich (Eds.), The narrative study of lives. Newbury Park: Sage, pp. 1-20. Webb, G. (1996). Understanding staff development. Buckingham: Open University Press.
PART 4 Effectiveness of Work-Related Learning
15 The Effectiveness of OJT in the Context of HRD M.R. van der Klink & J.N. Streumer
15.1 Introduction On-the-Job Training (OJT) is probably the training method with the longest history. Even in the times of Hamurabi this training method was already put into practice to educate craftsmen. In our days it is still used on a large scale to train employees, and in particular it is applied for training frontline employees. This chapter deals with the topic of the effectiveness of OJT in the context of Human Resource Development (HRD). So far this topic has not been investigated into detail in HRD research. This chapter commences with raising explanations for the current popularity of OJT. Then attention is paid to the issue of defining OJT as a concept. Additionally, the various forms in which OJT occurs in practice are pictured briefly. After a short introduction of the research findings in the area of OJT two case studies are presented. In both studies the emphasis was on determining the effectiveness of OJT and on exploring the factors contributing to its effectiveness. The final section of this chapter is devoted to the conclusions and will raise some points for discussion.
15.2 The current attention for OJT There are several motives that contribute to the popularity of OJT. Without claiming completeness the following reasons are 369 J. N. Streumer (ed.), Work-Related Learning, 369-392. © 2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands.
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mentioned frequently to justify the increased application of OJT. Here the main reasons are only highlighted without detailed discussion. First and most important is the financial aspect of OJT. Compared to classroom training OJT saves costs for travelling, lodging and training facilities. A second important reason is the need to increase the flexibility of learning programs in the workplace. OJT meets the need for just-in-time learning events at moments when work allows learning. Also trainees are still available during learning so they could interrupt their learning to perform other (productive) tasks. A third argument for the application of OJT stems from the discussion on the transfer of classroom-based learning. Theorists as Baldwin and Ford (1988) pointed at the rather disappointing transfer from the classroom to the workplace. OJT holds the promise that it will reduce the problem of transfer, since work site and learning site are identical. Another reason to advocate the application of OJT could be derived from learning theory in the field of adult education. Jarvis (1987), for example, stresses the need to use more practical, active ways of learning. Münch (1990) assumes that the concrete character of learning on-the-job appeals especially to workers that encounter difficulties with more theoretical ways of learning. Also the changing nature of work provides more possibilities for the integration of learning and working. The Tayloristic notion on organising work, with its emphasis on standardisation and routine work seems to be replaced by management models that provide higher levels of flexibility. Current business success depends heavily on fast and permanent development of new knowledge to increase the value of products and services (Keursten & Van der Klink, in press). Innovation is no longer an exclusive responsibility of R&D departments but it seems to become a responsibility for all workers. Organisational contexts
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wherein innovation is a key word provide various learning opportunities in the execution and/or improvement of work and it is likely that OJT is implemented more often in such organisational contexts. Additionally, recent research provides indications for the importance of tacit knowledge that only could be acquired by active participation in the workplace itself. Workers can obtain this knowledge by being around, observing experts performing their work and listening to how they communicate about the work (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Stamps, 1997). Tacit knowledge is not documented, not stored into databases and at the same time it is crucial for effective and efficient work performance (Von Krogh et al., 2001). OJT provides possibilities to become a member of the community of workers and therefore enhances the acquisition of this important type of knowledge.
15.3 Organising learning in the workplace This section discusses OJT as one of the appearances of learning in the workplace. As literature shows there are many ways to organise intentional learning in the work site. Figure 15.1 provides some examples. In educational literature there is a tendency to equate learning in the workplace to OJT and this is not quite correct. Onstenk (1997) argues for example that there is still limited attention for the application of adjustments in the work itself to improve workers’ learning possibilities. And until some ten years ago the idea that workers actually learn without explicit guidance of managers or trainers did not receive a lot of attention in HRD theories. In general there are three ways to promote learning in the workplace. A first way of organising is by redesign of work. This is mostly not done exclusively for educational purposes. In most cases there is a need to increase the organisation’s flexibility, to improve the quality of work, or to create attractive possibilities
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for the high potentials within the organisation (Rothwell, Kazanas & Haines, 1991). Nature of structuring learning (re)design of work
educational interventions the worker
Figure 15.1
Appearances in practice project groups, self-directed teams, job rotation, job enrichment job aids, EPSS, mentoring, OJT learning projects
Organising learning in the workplace
Nevertheless as a result of organisational redesign there may occur more and various learning possibilities. But this is of course not a necessary outcome of organisational redesign. It might be that the learning potential of jobs even reduces as a result of organisational redesign. A second way wherein learning in the workplace is promoted is by the application of educational interventions. Job aids and Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) have in common that the worker himself is highly responsible for the actual use, while mentoring and OJT are examples of practices wherein the learning is more directed and restricted. A third way is the learning that is undertaken by the worker himself. Very well known are the examples Tough (1979) described. Self-directed learning is probably the most common way of learning in the workplace (Eraut et al., 1998). However, this learning cannot always be defined as intentional learning. Watkins & Marsick (1993) argue that in most cases self-directed learning does not encompass the selection and definition of explicit learning goals. The majority of self-directed learning experiences in the workplace are the result of a combination of personal and organisational conditions. Self-directed learning occurs more often when the work environment comprises learning potential and allows learning processes and when on the other hand workers recognise these learning possibilities and actually make use of the available learning possibilities (see for example the work of Baitch & Frei, 1980).
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The purpose of Figure 15.1 is to define briefly the various ways of learning in the workplace. The mentioned appearances in practice function as examples and do not cover the rich variety that are used in organisations. Further, in organisations combined approaches are frequently used. For example, educational interventions (e.g. mentoring, on-the-job training) are linked frequently with redesign of work (e.g. job rotation).
15.4 Exploring the concept of OJT OJT as a concept is rather fuzzy. Various definitions are in use (De Jong, 1991; Jacobs & Jones, 1995; Rothwell & Kazanas, 1994; Wexley & Latham, 1991). Therefore it is necessary to define more precisely OJT in the context of HRD. The following criteria are proposed: it is legitimate for employees to carry out learning activities; the tasks to be learned correspond to the employee’s tasks and duties in the actual work situation; the responsibility for the OJT rests with the employer; OJT involves intentional learning: a training arrangement is required. This arrangement includes: there is a starting point and an end: a certain amount of time is preserved for training purposes; the presence of training objectives; the presence of learning sources to support the trainee to achieve the training objectives (for example a trainer, electronic/written manuals and job aids, list of assignments/Leittexten); the evaluation of the OJT to determine the achievement of training goals. This definition excludes types of OJT that are unplanned and unstructured and that are well known as for example ‘follow Joe training’, or ‘learning the ropes’. This exclusion was only done for practical reasons. The goal of the research project was to examine structured types of OJT.
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Workplace practice Characterisation Learning by doing
Theoretical roots Trainee activities
Informal learning Observing and imitating
Instruction
Hardly any
Planning
Work determines the training scheme Training content Routine tasks that are observable
Figure 15.2
Workplace instruction Learning by planned instruction Behaviorism
Workplace study Learning by assignments and coaching Cognitivism
Following instructor’s directions Step by step until no faults occur. Frequent feedback on performance Task analysis determines the training scheme Routine tasks
Carrying out assignments Reflection on task performance and on learning strategy Task analysis determines the training scheme Performance of tasks vary due to changing conditions that need to take into account
The many forms of OJT
In practice there are several types of OJT that meet, more or less, the above-mentioned criteria. Here we follow mainly the distinction made by De Jong (1991). Typical for workplace practice is that the educational structure of the learning is rather limited. In most cases an experienced worker functions as the trainee’s adviser and sometimes a sequence is suggested for the mastery of the tasks (e.g. from simple to more complex tasks) but there is no detailed plan available for organising the learning and evaluation of learning experiences does not take place. Especially when there is enough time for the trainee to observe and to practice this training could be effective. Research indicates that this type of OJT could be
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ineffective because trainees only acquire a superficial insight in the task performance and are not confronted during the training with extraordinary circumstances, such as handling interruptions (Scribner & Sachs, 1990). Characteristic for workplace instruction is that it is based on a detailed training design as suggested by instructional design theory (Rothwell, 1992). Training goals are set, tasks analysis takes place, learning materials are developed, and a trainer guides the trainee through the learning experiences. It is in fact a classroom approach that is transferred to the workplace. This type of OJT became highly popular during the Second World War when large numbers of employees needed task-related training for their work in the war industries. This type of training still is promoted to overcome the problems that are attached to workplace practice (Rothwell & Kazanas, 1994; Jacobs & Jones, 1995). Characteristic for workplace study is that it appeals to the trainee’s independence. An instructor does not direct the learning process as is common in workplace instruction but assignments and coaching are used to guide the trainee. It is the trainee, and not the trainer, that needs to take the initiative. An example of this type of training is the Leittext method that was developed in the German Industry. The Leittext method was developed as a response to the lack of responsibility trainees experienced for their own learning process in workplace instruction types of OJT. There is not much empirical evidence for the appearance of these three types of OJT in organisations. There are, however, indications to assume that workplace practice is most common (Jacobs & Jones, 1995). A complicating factor Glaudé (1997) discovered is that attempts to structure the learning process of OJT (as in workplace instruction) are not implemented in practice due to a variety of circumstances. So in the end what is left is more comparable to workplace practice.
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15.5 Review of previous research into on-the-job training (OJT) This section summarises briefly the main findings of various research projects conducted in the area of OJT in the context of HRD. So far, research studies into OJT have been focussing on three themes. A first theme is the relationship between the organisational characteristics and the design of OJT. Onstenk (1997) concluded that patterns between organisational features and characteristics of learning at the work floor were absent. Glaudé (1997) carried out six case studies and she argued that organisational characteristics did not predict the design of OJT in any of the six cases. More recently Versloot, De Jong & Thijssen (2001) analysed seven case studies to examine configurations of organisational characteristics with features of OJT. The authors did come up with some evidence for a match between organisational structure and type of OJT, but the evidence was not convincing enough to assume a strong relationship. A second theme concerns the design and delivery of OJT. Research revealed two major problems attached to OJT: Instruction/coaching of trainees: selecting and training experience employees to become instructor and/or coach is a process in itself. This process, however, does not receive sufficient attention in organisations and affects negatively the quality of the training delivery. Most organisations have no policy for educating workers to become OJT instructors (Black, Zenne & Ezzel, 1996; Furst-Bowe & Gates, 1998; Rothwell & Kazanas, 1990; Semb, Ellis, Fitch, Parchman & Irick, 1995; Zolingen, Streumer, De Jong & Van der Klink, 2001). Constrains in the job setting (lack of time and/or management support, work pressure) inhibit the intended delivery of OJT with negative consequences for the achievement of the training objectives (Bastiaens, 1997; Black, Zenner & Ezzel, 1996; De Jong, 1993; Furst-Bowe & Gates, 1998; Garrick, 1998).
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The investigation of the effectiveness of OJT is a third theme that gained some attention. Especially professor Jacobs has carried out substantial work in this area (Jacobs & Jones, 1995). This author is particularly interested in the cost-effectiveness of this type of training. So far, the results reported by Jacobs do not allow clear conclusions. One study reported that OJT resulted into favourable outcomes. The structured OJT, compared to the usual unstructured OJT, reduced the time that was necessary to learn to perform the tasks adequately (Jacobs & McGiffin, 1987). A more recent study showed that application of structured OJT decreased the necessary training time. A calculation of the financial costs and benefits, however, revealed that the expenses attached to the design and delivery of the structured OJT exceeded the savings in training time (Jacobs & Hruby, 1996). Further, Jacobs conducted a study into forecasting the costs and benefits of structured OJT and unstructured OJT (Jacobs, Jones & Neil, 1992). This study indicated that the application of structured OJT in that particular job context would reduce the training expenses. Characteristic for Jacob’s research is the involvement of little numbers of respondents in his studies (employees attending OJT). This is not on purpose, but typical for OJT is that in most cases only small numbers of employees are involved in the training. Kovach & Cohen (1992) conducted a survey to explore the relationship between type of training and effects. Employees who attended OJT, compared to those who did not attend OJT, had significantly lower scores on two of the five effect measures: salary and length of tenure. It is questionable, however, to attribute these effects to attending OJT. More likely it is to assume that especially newly hired front line employees attend this type of training. Following this assumption, the attributed effects serve then in fact as predictors that predict the possibility to become involved in OJT. Finally, Wexley (1988) conducted a survey to investigate the effects of trainees’ characteristics and training characteristics on the job performance. He reported an effect of job involvement
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on job performance, and further he mentioned that the trainer’s behaviour had a significant effect on the trainee’s perception of the quality of the training delivery.
15.6 Investigating the effectiveness of OJT There has been much critique on studies that investigated training effects as an isolated phenomenon (Kessels, 1995). Organisations are in fact complex systems wherein various factors are related to the outcomes and outputs of training. Thus it would be rather naive to point at the training as the only factor responsible for the training effects (McLinden, 1995). This line of reasoning is present in the work of Baldwin & Ford (1988). They developed a model that distinguished three categories of variables: the training, the work environment, and the trainee. Holton (2000) recently suggested a more advanced model but in this latter model too the bottom line of reasoning remains that various variables, stemming from the three formerly mentioned categories, are linked with the training effects. Gielen (1995) applied the Baldwin & Ford Model in her research into the effectiveness of a training in a banking organisation. Gielen’s findings supported the underlying rationale of the Baldwin and Ford Model. Not all the variables in the model were related to the trainee’s performance. But Gielen’s study did confirm that variables stemming from the training, the work environment and the trainee explain the training effects. A subject of ongoing debate is the concept of effectiveness. For a long time Kirkpatrick’s model served as the indisputable standard for the evaluation of training effectiveness (Kirkpatrick, 1994). This model consists of four levels: 1) learner reactions, 2) learning results, 3) behaviour in the work setting 4) contribution to organisational goals. Recently, several authors criticised this model. Holton (1996) questioned the suggested hierarchical nature of the model. The model implies that effects on a lower level are conditional for effects on a higher level but,
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according to Holton, there is no overwhelming empirical evidence to support the claim of causal relationships. Therefore the model could only be labelled as an (incomplete) taxonomy. Philips (1996a, 1996b) and Kaufman, Keller & Watkins (1995) argued that the model did not encompass all areas of training effectiveness and they advocated the addition of a fifth level of training evaluation (return on investment, and contribution to societal needs respectively). Notwithstanding this recent discussion, Kirkpatrick’s work still remains valuable for evaluation purposes. The discussion on the status of the model is in itself valuable but it remains a rather academic discussion and did not result into a proposal for an alternative framework. Further, the suggestions to expand the number of levels recognise in fact the value of this model.
15.7 Investigating OJT: two case studies Although previous research provided indications for the effectiveness of OJT, and the problems attached to this type of training, the findings do not allow conclusive answers with regard to this issue. So far, investigating the effectiveness of OJT has not been put into practice on a large scale. This is in fact remarkable because OJT is the most frequent applied type of training in the Netherlands and in many other countries too (CBS, 1995; Van der Klink & Mulder, 1995). This was the underlying reason prompting the necessity of a research project wherein two questions were addressed: 1. Is OJT an effective type of training? 2. Which characteristics of the trainee, the workplace and the training explain the effectiveness of OJT? This section discusses the design and findings of two case studies that were carried out in the Netherlands to examine the effectiveness of OJT.
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Settings The first case study was conducted in call centres of a large company. Telephone sales staff working in these call centres was individually trained by trainers, who listened along with employees and then provided feedback on how they had handled the call. The aim of the training was to improve the quality of the telephone sales call, with the underlying objective of increasing sales. The second one was held in privately-owned post offices. New desk clerks were familiarised with desk work by a mentor, who was an experienced clerk. In addition they studied a self-study package that provided them with knowledge of the products and services that were sold at the desk. The aim of the training was to teach new clerks the behaviour and knowledge to function independently at the post office desk.
Design and instrumentation Table 15.1 presents an overview of the design and methods that were used in both studies. In both settings it was decided to opt for a one group pre- test post test design. In the perspective of Cook & Campbell (1979) this may not be the most powerful research design. However, it turned out to be the only design that was workable in these particular research settings. Two post-tests were scheduled: one at the completion of the training and again ten to fifteen weeks later. Written questionnaires were used to collect data. Also sales data from the organisation’s management information system were used to determine the increase in sales in the study into the callcentres. A test to measure the trainee’s knowledge of products and procedures was used in the study into the post offices. This test was scheduled at the second post-test.
M. van der Klink & J.N. Streumer Table 15.1
design
Design of the studies Training for telephone staff one group pre-test post-test design O1 at start training O2 at completion of training O3 15 weeks after completion training
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Training for desk clerks
one group pre-test posttest design O1 at start training O2 at completion of training O3 10 weeks after completion training
respondents O1 trainees and their trainers O2 trainees and their trainers O3 trainees and their managers
O1 trainees O2 trainees and their mentors O3 trainees and trainers from the training department
data collection
written questionnaires and management information system of the organisation to determine the increase in sales
written questionnaires and a test (at O#) to determine trainee's knowledge of products
dependent variables
progression in sales behaviour (O2-score minus O1-score) transfer of sales behaviour (O3-score minus O2-score) increase in sales
behaviour at counter at end of the training transfer of behaviour at counter (O3-score minus O2-score) trainee's knowledge of products and procedures
For the dependent variables scales were developed in cooperation with the training staff of both organisations. When possible existing scales were used for the measurement of the independent variables (characteristics of the training, the trainee, and the workplace). Sometimes items were changed, excluded or added to the scales in order to adjust them for the purpose in this particular research project. In general the reliability of the scales was satisfactory (Cronbach’s alpha .70 or higher). Further single items were added to the questionnaires, for example for the measurement of various trainee characteristics (such as previous training in sales, age).
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In the studies 36 trainees from call-centres participated and 45 new clerks were involved. In both studies the co-operation of trainers was not quite satisfactory and only a limited use was made of the data of this group of respondents. The same counts for the participation of trainees’ managers in the study into the call-centres.
Results First attention will be paid to the data with regard to the effectiveness of the training programs and then the focus will be on the factors that explained the effectiveness. Findings will be discussed on an aggregated level, for more details the reader is advised to consult the final report (see Van der Klink, 1999).
The effects of the training program in the call-centres Observation of training deliveries and the inspection of the means of variables showed that what trainees learned in the callcentres was highly influenced by the questions and requests of the customers. Further the trainers used a classical straightforward behaviourist training approach and did not spend any time on discussing questions about why certain sales behaviour was important. They were only focussed on the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ of sales performance. Trainees evaluated their sales behaviour at the start of the training as satisfactory and therefore it was not rather surprising that they did not regard the training as an important opportunity for improving their behaviour. More over, they saw relatively few opportunities for applying what they have learned in their everyday work. This was caused apparently by the fact that the approach trainers taught them was more time consuming and would cause more customers ‘on hold’. Notwithstanding these unfavourable conditions, the data showed that the trainees in the call-centres did improve their sales behaviour. The increase in behaviour between the start and the completion of the training was modest but proved to be
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statistical significant. There was found no statistical significant difference between the scores for sales behaviour at O2 and O3. This indicated that transfer of sales behaviour occurred. With regard of the sales it proved to be difficult to establish whether the training had resulted in an increase of sales, which was the ultimate goal of this training. The five call-centres were the training had taken place realised a more rapid growth in sales in percentage terms during the quarter in which training was carried out than did the 26 call-centres where this training had not been carried out. In the following quarter too the relative increase in sales was higher in the call-centres where the training had taken place. There were, however, great differences in sales performance within the group of call-centres where training had been carried out. Not all the five call-centres where the training had taken place established an increase in sales.
The effects of the training program in the post offices Observation of training deliverance and the inspection of the means of the variables showed that what trainees learned was to a large extend determined by the questions of customers at the post office desk. Further there was significantly less time devoted to self-study than expected. It appeared that employers interrupted the trainees’ self-study hours by asking them to perform additional tasks that had nothing to do with the work at the post office desk. Additionally, trainees’ mentors showed no interest in the self-study. The reason for this lack of interest lies probably in the fact that mentors were not involved in the development of the approach of how to integrate self-study in the post office context. The central HRD staff of Post Offices Inc mainly developed the approach. An additional reason could be that mentors were not trained sufficiently in guiding trainees through the self-study materials. Therefore it is likely that trainees regarded the self-study as not quite important and spend less time to it than is in fact necessary to acquire the knowledge and procedures for the work in the post office.
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The research data revealed that at the end of the training the trainees showed satisfactory levels of behaviour at the desk. The scores for behaviour at the end of the training and ten weeks later respectively did not differ significantly and this indicated that near transfer had occurred. Further a test was scheduled at O3 to measure trainee’s knowledge of products and procedures. The results revealed that on average trainees had answered only 53% of test items correctly.
The explanation of the call-centres training program effects For the investigation of the variables that explained the effects of the training correlation levels were determined and consequently regression analyses were computed. For the statistical information regarding the correlation levels and regression analysis the reader is advised to consult the final report (see Van der Klink, 1999). In total, three variables functioned as predictors for the progress in sales behaviour (progress between the start and completion of the training). These were (with the beta-weights between brackets): trainees’ perception of the support of their manager (.53), trainees’ experience as sales employee (.36) and the trainees’ perception of their sales behaviour at the start of the training (- . 38). The transfer of the sales behaviour was predicted by the trainees’ self-efficacy at the completion of the training (.36). The training variables included in this research project, ‘quality of the training deliverance’ and ‘training time’ respectively, did not had any impact on the progress in sales behaviour nor on the transfer of sales behaviour.
The explanation of the post-offices training program effects For the investigation of the variables that explained the effects of the training correlation levels were determined and consequently regression analyses were computed. For the
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statistical information regarding the correlation levels and regression analysis the reader is advised to consult the final report (see Van der Klink, 1999). For the measurement of the behaviour at the post office desk three scales were used that evaluated communication skills, technical skills (handling procedures) and generic skills, respectively. For the communication skills at the completion of the training only one predictor was found: trainees’ perception of work load during training (-.48). This variable functioned also as the only predictor for the generic skills at the completion of the training (-.61). Two predictors explained the technical skills at the end of the training: trainees’ self-efficacy (.65) and the availability of a quiet place for self-study during the training (.36). The transfer of the behaviour at the post-office desk was explained by the behaviour at the end of the training. So the transfer of the technical skills was explained by the O2-score for technical skills (-.57) and the transfer of the generic skills was explained by the O2-score for generic skills (-.47). No predictors were observed for the transfer of the communication skills. There was only one variable that correlated with the knowledge test trainees filled in: the pressure of workload trainees experienced after the completion of the training (r 2 .34, p < .05; two-tailed). Therefore, no regression analysis with the test score as dependent variable was carried out, since that would not provide any additional information.
Conclusions The purpose of this project was to examine the effects of OJT, and to explore the relationships between the effects and various characteristics of the trainee, the training and the workplace respectively. First attention will be paid to answering the research questions, followed by suggestions for future research and issues for discussion. The data show that in both settings there seem to occur a strong tension between production goals (serving clients) and the
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establishing of learning possibilities. The content of the training is highly determined by the clients’ questions. These questions function in fact as the trainees’ learning opportunities. Additionally, the possibilities to learn that are allowed in the workplace do not seem to be utilised fully. Examples are the modest attention mentors exhibit for the trainees’ self-study, and the fact that the trainees in the call-centres did not perceive the training as necessary, nor did they view substantial possibilities to apply the training content to their daily job. We conclude this topic with the recognition that in both settings the training delivery seems to be less than optimal (from a training design perspective). It is therefore not surprising that both OJT programs did not achieve fully the intended training goals. The sales behaviour of the telephone sales staff did improve but a real significant improvement in sales behaviour was not observed. The clerks learned the behaviour that is necessary for the post office desk but their knowledge of products and procedures was less than sufficient, which will have an impact on the quality of the service they provide. To conclude: the assumption that OJT is an effective type of training cannot be confirmed by the collected data. The exploration of the factors that contribute to the training effects showed that training variables were not related to the established training effects. There are two possible explanations for this little surprising research result. First, above-mentioned conclusions concerning the training delivery in both setting stated that training deliveries were not satisfactory. And from a not optimal training delivery one could not expect this would have a major impact on the training effectiveness. Besides this rather pessimistic explanation it is possible to explain the lack of relationship by pointing at previous research in a comparable area. Previous projects in the field of dual training schemes and into internships as part of vocational training programs revealed that the training design did not matter. No relationships
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between training design variables and training effects were observed (De Jong, 1988; Nieuwenhuis, 1991, Frietman, 1990). Effects were mainly explained by organisational conditions. The variables that did correlate with training effects stemmed from the workplace or the trainee. Workplace variables influencing the training effects were for example ‘supervisory support’ and ‘workload’. Previous research into the transfer of training already emphasised the significant effect of supervisory behaviour on trainee’s performance (Gielen, 1995; Xiao, 1996; Van der Klink, Gielen & Nauta, 2001). That workload was a major predictor for training effectiveness is in fact somewhat surprising since in both settings trainees did not rate the workload as high. In fact they assessed workload as rather modest. Further, trainee characteristics seem to have a major impact on training effects. The transfer of behaviour was mainly explained by the levels of behaviour at the completion of the training, which was also the conclusion of Den Ouden’s transfer study (1992). Also trainee’s self-efficacy played a significant role. This outcome is in line with the findings of psychological studies into training effects (Gist, Stevens & Bavetta, 1991; Mathieu, Martineau & Tannenbaum, 1993). To conclude: the exploration of variables that are linked to training effects show a high level of similarity compared to previous studies in the domain of transfer of training.
15.8 Final conclusions At the start of this chapter some motives were described that are frequently mentioned for justifying the application of forms of OJT in the context of HRD. It seems however that these motives are in fact insufficient. It is true that OJT reduces the training costs, but when the effects of OJT are modest it is quite questionable to define that as a great advantage of OJT. Certainly, the training delivery is flexible but this flexibility may
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have a negative impact on the training effects. Inherent to OJT is that the learning possibilities are mainly determined by the presence of work task to perform in combination with workload. And both workplace characteristics are not easy to alter for training purposes. Managers are primarily responsible for production targets and they will prioritise this higher than organising favourable training conditions (Garrick, 1998). This is especially the case when line managers have no responsibility for the HRD-policy and this is exclusively allocated at the HRD staff. Finally, it is true that near transfer occurs but when the training effects are modest one could not claim that this is a major advantage of OJT. The final conclusion of this project is that OJT is only partial effective. It is however difficult to generalise the findings and it should not be deduced from this project that OJT is by definition an ineffective form of training. Nevertheless the outcomes point at the significant role of workplace conditions. To improve the quality of training delivery additional attention for workplace conditions seems to be advisable. But it is necessary to realise that these workplace circumstances are not always easy to change and strong alignment between trainers and managers is therefore a condition sine qua non. Although the study of the effectiveness of OJT is fairly labour intensive, and makes great demands on co-operation from labour organisations, a case is put forward for intensifying the research, in view of the frequent application of this form of training. Especially it seems advisable to conduct research in other sectors than the service industry and to investigate other job positions than entry-level jobs. The following points should be taken into account with regard to research. First, it is important to involve large numbers of trainees in the research projects. If this is not the case, the investigation of links between the training effects and independent variables encounters serious problems. Large numbers of subjects have the advantage
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that causal modelling becomes an option, which could be appropriate for the examination of direct and indirect links between the prominent variables. Second, it is advisable not to focus exclusively on the training effects (e.g. the studies of Jacobs and co-authors) but to take a more comprehensive perspective by being aware of the various variables that probably have an impact on the achievement of training effects. And consequently to look for possibilities to include these variables into the data collection process.
15.9 Discussion In this final section some discussion topics are briefly lined out. A first point of discussion is the attention for the design and delivery of OJT. The research findings indicate that these have no link with the established training effects. This does not indicate, however, that attention for this does not matter at all. To phrase it negatively: it is likely that poor training design only increases the barriers to learn in the workplace effectively. On the other hand a well-designed training does not automatically imply that the training goals will be achieved. A second topic for discussion is the attention for measuring the training outputs in terms of organisational benefits. There is a tendency in training practice that training agents are under increasing tension to forecast the financial benefits of their training interventions. In itself it is valuable that more attention is paid to the possible impact of training on organisation performance. On the other hand however there are many circumstances that possibly impact training effects that have nothing to do with the quality of the training in itself. It will always be difficult to establish whether effects are caused by training or by other conditions. A third topic of discussion is the contribution of OJT to employee’s employability. Does OJT, with its focus on the immediate job context, not have a negative impact on the
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acquisition of broad transferable skills, which are needed to enhance the workers’ possibilities to fulfil other jobs in or outside their own organisation? The contemporary strong focus on just-in-time training and context-related learning needs to be examined carefully in this respect.
15.10 References Baldwin, T.T., & Ford, J.K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel Psychology , 41: 63-105. Bishop, J.H. (1991). On-the-job training of new hires. In D. Stern, & J.M.M. Ritzen (Eds.), Market failure in training, 61-98. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Black, J.A., Zenner, F.J., & Ezzel E. (1996). A case study of the development and implementation of a structured on-the-job (SOJT) training program in the coil processing industry. In E.F. Holton III (Ed.), Proceedings of the annual conference of the academy of human resource development. Minneapolis. Frietman, J.E.M. (1990). De kwaliteit van de praktijkcomponent in het leerlingwezen (dissertation) [The quality of the OJT in the apprenticeship system]. Nijmegen: Instituut voor Toegepaste Sociale Wetenschappen. Furst-Bowe, J., & Gates, D. (1998). Assessing the effectiveness of OJT: a case study approach. In R.J. Torraco (Ed.), Proceedings of the annual conference of the academy of human resource development. Oak Brook. Garrick, J. (1998). Informal learning in the workplace. Unmasking human resource development. London/New York: Routledge. Gielen, E.W.M. (1995). Transfer of training in a corporate setting (dissertation). Enschede: Universiteit Twente. Glaudé, M.Th. (1997). Werkplek-opleiden als innovatie (dissertation), [OJT as innovation]. Utrecht: Universiteit Utrecht. Holton, E.F. III. (1996). The flawed four-level evaluation model. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 7, 1: 5-12. Holton, E.F. III. (2000). What ’s really wrong: Diagnosis for learning transfer system change. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 8: 7-22. Huizingh, E. (1989). Inleiding SPSS/PC+ en Data Entry [Introduction SPSS/PC+ and Data Entry]. Amsterdam: Addison Wesley. Jacobs, R.L., & McGiffin, T.D. (1987). A human performance system using a structured on-the-job training approach. Performance & Instruction, 25, 7: 8-11. Jacobs, R.L., Jones, M.J., & Neil, S. (1992). A case study in forecasting the financial benefits of unstructured and structured on-the-job training. Human Resource Development Quaterly, 2, 2: 307-317.
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Contributors
AKKERMAN, SANNE F. Utrecht University IVLOS Institute of Education Heidelberglaan 8 P.O. Box 80127 3508 TC Utrecht The Netherlands Tel: + 31 30 2531712 Fax: + 31 30 2534262 Email:
[email protected] BOLHUIS, DR. SANNEKE Radboud University Nijmegen Department of Education P.O. Box 9104 6500 HE Nijmegen The Netherlands Tel: +31 24 361 2094 Fax: +31 24 361 5978 Email:
[email protected] DEHNBOSTEL, DR. PETER Helmut-Schmidt-University Department of Vocational Training P.O. Box 700822 22008 Hamburg Germany Tel: + 49 40 65412801 Fax: + 49 40 65413748 Email:
[email protected]
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Contributors
DOORNBOS, ANJA J. Radboud University Department of Educational Sciences P.O. Box 9104 6500 HE Nijmegen The Netherlands Tel: +31 24 361 2512 Fax: +31 24 361 5978 Email:
[email protected] HYTÖNEN, DR. TUIJA University of Helsinki Palmenia Centre for Continuing Education, Vantaa Lummetie 2b A 01300 Vantaa Finland Tel: +358 919129042 Fax: +358 919129000 Email:
[email protected] KHO, MARTIN EDUTEC P.O. Box 54 5 7500 AM Enschede The Netherlands Tel: +31 53 4836515 Email:
[email protected] KLINK, DR. MARCEL R., VAN DER Open University of the Netherlands Ruud de Moor Centre P.O. Box 2960 6401 DL Heerlen The Netherlands Tel: +31 45 576 2865 Fax: +31 45 576 2802 Email:
[email protected]
Contributors
KLUGE, DR. ANNETTE University of St. Gallen Dept. of Organisation Psychology Varnbüelstraße 19 CH- 9000 St. Gallen Switzerland Tel: +41 712 242652 Fax: +41 712 242659 Email:
[email protected] KRAK, ANDRÉ J.A. Zilvermeeuw 122 4872 RT Etten-Leur The Netherlands Tel: +31 76 5033860 Email:
[email protected] KROGT, DR. FERD J., VAN DER Radbout University Nijmegen Department of Educational Sciences P.O. Box 9104 6500 HE Nijmegen The Netherlands Tel: +31 24 3612145 Fax: +31 24 3615978 Email:
[email protected] LAAT, MAARTEN F., DE University of Southampton e-Learning Research Centre Highfield Campus Southampton SO17 1BJ United Kingdom Tel: + 44 23 8059 2127 Fax: + 44 23 8059 3556 Email:
[email protected]
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Contributors
LANKHUIJZEN, DR. ELINE S.K. Utrecht University CLU P.O. Box 80140 3508 TC Utrecht The Netherlands Tel: +31 30 2533496 Fax: +31 30 2535760 Email:
[email protected] MARSICK, DR. VICTORIA Columbia University Dept. of Organisation & Leadership 501 East 79# 14c New York, NY 10021 United States of America Tel: +1 212 6783745 Fax: +1 212 7446460 Email:
[email protected] MOLZBERGER, GABRIELE Helmut-Schmidt-University Department of Vocational Training P.O. Box 700822 22008 Hamburg Germany Tel: +49 40 65412604 Fax: +49 40 65413748 Email:
[email protected]
Contributors
POELL, DR. ROB F. Tilburg University Department of Human Resource Studies P.O. Box 90153 5000 LE Tilburg The Netherlands Tel: +31 13 4662527 Fax: +31 13 4663002 Email:
[email protected] PUONTI, ANNE University of Helsinki Centre for Activity and Developmental Work Research P.O. Box 285 01301 Vantaa Finland Tel: + 358 9 8388 6505 Fax: + 358 9 191 4844 Email:
[email protected] SAMBROOK, DR. SALLY University of Wales, Bangor School of Nursing, Midwifery & Health Studies Faculty of Health Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2DG United Kingdom Tel: +44 1248 383147 Fax: +44 1248 383114 Email:
[email protected]
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Contributors
STAVENGA DE JONG, DR. JAN A. Utrecht University Department of Educational Sciences P.O. Box 80140 3508 TC Utrecht The Netherlands Tel: +31 30 2534803 Fax: +31 30 2532352 Email:
[email protected] STOOKER, MAAIKE F-fectis P.O. Box 168 1230 AD Loosdrecht The Netherlands Tel: +31 35 6283020 Fax: +31 35 6283022 Email:
[email protected] STREUMER, DR. JAN N. Rotterdam University P.O. Box 2680 3000 CR ROTTERDAM The Netherlands Tel: +31 10 241 46 2 4 Fax: +31 10 241 47 31 Email:
[email protected] THIJSSEN, DR. JO G.L. Utrecht University Utrecht School of Governance (USG) Bijlhouwerstraat 6 3511 ZC Utrecht The Netherlands Tel: +31 30 2538101 Email:
[email protected]
Contributors
WOERKOM, DR. MARIANNE, VAN Tilburg University Department of Human Resource Studies P.O. Box 90153 5000 LE Tilburg The Netherlands Tel: +31 13 4662165 Fax: +31 13 4663002 Email:
[email protected] ZOLINGEN, DR. SIMONE J., VAN Radboud University Nijmegen Nijmegen School of Management Department of Business Administration P.O. Box 9108 6500 HK Nijmegen The Netherlands Tel: +31 24 3616252 Fax: +31 24 3611933 Email:
[email protected]
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