Wrestling With Angels: A Study of the Relationship Between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Literature and the New Testament (Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums)

Wrestling with Angels A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGELS AND HUMANS IN ANCIENT JEWISH LITERATURE AND THE NEW TES...

Author: Kevin P. Sullivan

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Wrestling with Angels A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANGELS AND HUMANS IN ANCIENT JEWISH LITERATURE AND THE NEW TESTAMENT

KEVIN P. SULLIVAN

DORE: JACOB AND T H E ANGEL, 19th C. Credit: The Granger Collection, New York

WRESTLING WITH ANGELS

ARBEITEN ZUR GESCHICHTE DES ANTIKEN JUDENTUMS UND DES URCHRISTENTUMS Ancient Judaism, and Early Christianity

h e r a u s g e g e b e n von Martin Hengel (Tübingen), Pieter W. van der Horst (Utrecht), Martin G o o d m a n (Oxford), D a n i e l R . S c h w a r t z ( J e r u s a l e m ) , Cilliers B r e y t e n b a c h (Berlin), Friedrich A v e m a r i e (Marburg), Seth Schwartz (New York)

LV

WRESTLING WITH ANGELS A Study of the Relationship between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Literature and the New 7 estament

BY

K E V I N P.

‫?־‬ <‫׳‬

SULLIVAN

4 '‫׳‬68‫יל‬

A, S

BRILL LEIDEN · BOSTON 2004

Library of C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sullivan, Kevin P. (Kevin Patrick), 1972‫־‬ Wrestling with angels : a study of the relationship between angels and humans in ancient Jewish literature and the New Testament / Kevin P. Sullivan. p. cm. — (Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums, ISSN 0169-734X ; 55) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 90-04-13224-4 1. Angels—History of doctrines—Early church, ca. 30-600. 2. Angels—Biblical teaching. 3. Angels Judaism)—History of doctrines. 4. Judaism History- Post-exilic period, 586 B.C.-210 A.D. I. Title. II. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums ; Bd. 55. BT966.3S85 2003 235'.3'0901—dc22 2003065166

ISSN ISBN

0169-734X 90 04 13224 4

© Copyright 2004 by Koninklijke Brill rw, Laden, The Netherlands All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permissionfromthe publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

To P a u l a n d K a t h y Sullivan and In loving m e m o r y of William ( 1 9 2 0 - 2 0 0 1 ) a n d M a r y (1923-1999) Kuzava

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments Abbreviations 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

xi xiii

I n t r o d u c t i o n : Wrestling with Angels Introduction M e t h o d o l o g y a n d Sources Survey of Previous Scholarship Historical C o n t e x t Outline

1 1 2 3 16 22

PART O N E APPEARANCE Introduction

27

2

37

"Blinded by the Light": Angels as H u m a n Beings

2.1 T h e Book of Genesis 2.2 T h e Book of J o s h u a 2.3 T h e Book of J u d g e s 2.4 T h e Books of Z e c h a r i a h a n d Ezekiel 2.5 T h e Book of D a n i e l 2.6 T h e Book of T o b i t 2.7 T h e Gospels 2.8 T h e Acts of the Apostles 2.9 T h e Apocalypse of J o h n 2.10 J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h 2.11 T h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s 2.12 T h e Apocalypse of A b r a h a m Conclusions

37 55 57 59 61 65 66 71 74 76 79 81 82

3

" Y o u L o o k Positively Angelic": H u m a n Beings as Angels

3.1 A d a m 3.2 Seth(el) 3.3 Enoch 3.4 Noah 3.5 Melchizedek 3.6 Jacob/Israel 3.7 Moses 3.8 David 3.9 T h e Prophets 3.10 J o h n the Baptist 3.11 J e s u s 3.12 S t e p h e n 3.13 Paul 3.14 T a x o 3.15 T h e H i g h Priest in H e c a t e u s of A b d e r a 3.16 T h e D a u g h t e r s of J o b 3.17 O n Being like Angels in H e a v e n Conclusions

85 85 90 91 93 96 98 103 107 109 Ill 114 118 121 125 127 129 131 139

PART T W O INTERACTION

Introduction

145

4

147

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

"Angels in O u r M i d s t " : H u m a n - A n g e l C o m m u n i t i e s T h e Songs of the S a b b a t h Sacrifice ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 7 , 11 Q,17, Maslk) T h e W a r Scroll ( 1 Q M a n d 4 Q 4 9 1 - 4 9 6 ) The Hodayot (1QH) T h e R u l e of the C o m m u n i t y ( 1 Q S , l Q S a , a n d 1 Q S b) Songs of the Sage ( 4 Q 5 1 1 F r a g m e n t 35) T h e Corinthian Community T h e C o m m u n i t y of the R e c h a b i t e s (Hist. Rech)

149 155 161 163 165 167 171

5

" G u e s s W h o ' s C o m i n g to D i n n e r " : Hospitality a n d E a t i n g with Angels

5.1 T h e Book of Genesis 1 8 - 1 9 5.2 T h e Book of J u d g e s 6 a n d 13 5.3 T h e Book of T o b i t 5 - 1 2 5.4 J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h 15 16‫־‬ 5.5 T h e T e s t a m e n t of A b r a h a m 5.6 T h e Gospel of L u k e 5.7 T h e Epistle to the H e b r e w s a n d Christian Hospitality.... Conclusions 6

" T h e y M i g h t Be G i a n t s " : H u m a n - A n g e l H y b r i d Offspring

179 182 184 186 187 189 191 193 194

197

6.1 Genesis 6 : 1 4 ‫ ־‬in the H e b r e w Bible 6.2 1 E n o c h 6 11: T h e Book of W a t c h e r s 6.3 T h e S e p t u a g i n t 6.4 T h e D e a d Sea Scrolls 6.5 T h e Book of J u b i l e e s 6.6 J o s e p h u s a n d Philo 6.7 O t h e r S e c o n d T e m p l e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s 6.8 Early C h r i s t i a n Writings 6.9 L a t e r J e w i s h I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s Conclusions

197 200 205 207 213 215 219 221 223 224

7

227

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

C o n c l u s i o n : L i m p i n g t o w a r d a Better U n d e r s t a n d i n g T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n H u m a n s a n d Angels C o s m o l o g y a n d Angelology Christology a n d Angelology Early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n Mysticism a n d Angelology....

227 229 231 235

Select Bibliography

237

Modern Author Index Subject I n d e x Ancient Literature Index

255 260 265

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h i s book is a modified f o r m of m y doctoral thesis s u b m i t t e d to the Faculty of T h e o l o g y at the University of O x f o r d in M a y of 2002. I c o m p l e t e d t h e m a n u s c r i p t while a Visiting Assistant P r o f e s s o r at Illinois W e s l e y a n University. T h e r e are m a n y people w h o I w o u l d like to take the o p p o r t u n i t y h e r e to t h a n k for their s u p p o r t over m y m a n y years of study on t h r o u g h to the c o m p l e t i o n of this book. First, I w o u l d like to t h a n k m y dissertation supervisors: Professors M a r t i n G o o d m a n a n d C h r i s t o p h e r R o w l a n d . O x f o r d was a n incredible e d u c a t i o n a l experience a n d t h a t was d u e in large p a r t to this d e d i c a t e d a n d l e a r n e d p a i r of m e n t o r s . I w o u l d like to t h a n k C h r i s R o w l a n d f o r suggesting the w o r k i n g title "Wrestling with Angels." T h e title stuck a n d p r o v e d to b e a fitting m e t a p h o r for the entire e n d e a v o u r . I w o u l d like also to t h a n k M a r t i n G o o d m a n for suggesting t h a t I send m y m a n u s c r i p t to Brill. T h e s u p p o r t of m y friends while at O x f o r d was invaluable in m y c o m p l e t i n g the D.Phil. Listing their n a m e s h e r e is a paltry w a y to recognize their respective gifts of time, s u p p o r t a n d c o m p a n i o n s h i p , b u t it is at least a start t o w a r d t h a n k i n g t h e m : G e o r g a G o d w i n , R e v d . J o h n Lewis, R e v d . D r . A n t h o n y D a n c e r , D r . S t u a r t C h e p e y , K i m C h e p e y , J e r e m y a n d T r i s h a Boccabello, H e l e n a n n Francis, Nick Smith, A t s u h i r o A s a n o , D r . P a u l Foster a n d D r . C h e r r y Kingsley. Special t h a n k s to m y dissertation e x a m i n e r s Prof. Alison Salvesen a n d Prof. A n d r e w C h e s t e r . T h e i r t h o u g h t f u l r e a d i n g of m y thesis was a p p r e c i a t e d , a n d their f e e d b a c k p r o v e d m o s t helpful as I c o n v e r t e d f r o m thesis to m o n o g r a p h . I n r e g a r d to p u b l i c a t i o n I w o u l d like to acknowledge gratefully the permission of the G r a n g e r Collection to include the i m a g e of G u s t a v e D o r e ' s ' J a c o b Wrestling the A n g e l . " I w o u l d also like to the t h a n k Ms. Louise S c h o u t e n a n d M s . A n i t a R o o d n a t of Brill Academic Publishers for their p r o m p t a n d professional support throughout the publication process, a n d M s . M a r g a r e t L o u r i e for h e r copyediting skills. A n u m b e r of scholars h a v e b e e n very supportive a t various stages of m y studies. A m e r e m e n t i o n of t h e m does n o t do justice to their respective c o n t r i b u t i o n s , b u t I w o u l d like to m a k e sure t h e y a r e

a c k n o w l e d g e d here: Prof. J a r l Fossum, Prof. C h a r l e s Gieschen, Prof. Brian S c h m i d t , Prof. A n n H a n s o n , Prof. E u g e n e Ulrich, Prof. R e x M a s o n , Prof. T e r r y W i l f o n g , a n d Prof. J a n e S c h a b e r g . M o s t i m p o r tantly, t h o u g h , I w o u l d like to acknowledge the g u i d a n c e a n d s u p p o r t of Prof. April D e C o n i c k . H e r help this past y e a r in p a r t i c u l a r with b o t h t e a c h i n g a n d the publication process has b e e n truly invaluable. M y family a n d friends h a v e always b e e n supportive of m y e d u cational e n d e a v o u r s . I fear t h a t a n y a t t e m p t to n a m e t h e m w o u l d only prove exclusionary, but s o m e n a m e s deserve a m e n t i o n h e r e for h a v i n g been particularly supportive: Virginia Markowski, Kris a n d R e n e ' K u z a v a , C a s e y Sullivan, K e v i n Bragg, M i c h a e l G . C a r p e n t e r , M a r c L a n o u e , K a t i e Littlepage, M i c h e l e M a c o i t T e d Milliner, D a v i d N a t h a n i e l , K e v i n V a n d e r L a a n , a n d H a r v e y Wilson. Ver)‫ ׳‬special t h a n k s go to m y sister, Kelly Sullivan. A loving sister, p a t i e n t p r o o f - r e a d e r , a n d email p a r t n e r , all in one. I w o u l d n o t have m a d e it t h r o u g h all the tough times I faced t h r o u g h o u t m y studies w i t h o u t her. Lastly, this b o o k is d e d i c a t e d to f o u r p e o p l e w i t h o u t w h o m it would n o t h a v e b e e n possible. T o m y g r a n d p a r e n t s , William a n d M a r y K u z a v a , b o t h of w h o m passed a w a y d u r i n g m y t e n u r e in O x f o r d . M a y they rest in p e a c e . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , t h o u g h , to m y p a r e n t s , Paul a n d K a t h y Sullivan. T h e r e is n o w a y to t h a n k t h e m for e v e r y t h i n g they have d o n e t h r o u g h o u t m y life. I h o p e t h a t they rightly take d u e p r i d e in this a c h i e v e m e n t .

ABBREVIATIONS

T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s used in this m o n o g r a p h follow the Society of Biblical Literature Handbook of Style: For Near Eastern, Biblical and Early Christian Studies (ed. Patrick H . A l e x a n d e r , Society of Biblical L i t e r a t u r e , 1997) 5 8 - 1 6 2 with the addition of: Gen. Apoc. f o r the Genesis Apocryphon ( - 1 Q a p G e n a r = 1Q20) HJPAJC for Emil S c h ü r e r , The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Chiist JA f o r Joseph and Aseneth Mss. for m a n u s c r i p t s SSS for the " S o n g s of the S a b b a t h Sacrifice" ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 5 ,

11Q17).

A m o n g the m o s t frequently used a b b r e v i a t i o n s in this b o o k are: ABD CBQ ODD

The Anchor Bible Dictionary Catholic Biblical Quarterly K . v a n d e r T o o r n , B. Becking, a n d P. van d e r H o r s t , eds.,

HTR JBL JJS

Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible Harvard Theological Review Journal of Biblical Literatim Journal, of Jewish Studies

JSJ JSNT JTS LXX NT NTS OTP RQ SBLSP

Journal, for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period Journal for the Study of the New Testament Journal of Theological Studies Septuagint New Testament New Testament Studies J . C h a r l e s w o r t h ed., Old Testament Pseudepigrapha Revue de Qumran Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION: WRESTLING WITH

1.1

ANGELS

Introduction

T h i s m o n o g r a p h investigates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s

and

a n g e l s as discussed in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d (200 B C E - 1 0 0 C E ) . A n g e l s a r e f o u n d in m a n y b o o k s of t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , a n d a significant n u m b e r of t h e e x t a n t extra-Biblical writings. T h e discovery of the D e a d S e a Scrolls s e r v e d t o r e m i n d m o d e r n s c h o l a r s t h a t m a n y , if n o t all, J e w i s h g r o u p s h a d

beliefs

a b o u t angels. Angels, t h e n , w e r e a significant p a r t of late

Second

T e m p l e J e w i s h a n d early C h r i s t i a n c o s m o l o g y . Y e t t h e s t u d y of a n g e l beliefs o n t h e w h o l e h a s n o t b e e n a serious t o p i c in e a r l i e r studies. R e c e n t l y , s c h o l a r s h a v e b e g u n to investigate this significant c o r p u s of m a t e r i a l o n angels, p r i m a r i l y o u t of a n interest in t h e i m p a c t of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y . O n e a s p e c t of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t h a s r e c e i v e d o n l y a t t e n t i o n t h u s f a r is t h e s o m e t i m e s c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p

modest between

h u m a n s a n d angels. W h e n t h e y a p p e a r to h u m a n s , a n g e l s o f t e n take o n t h e f o r m of h u m a n s . H u m a n s a r e s o m e t i m e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

in

angelic c a t e g o r i e s , a n d s o m e h u m a n s a r e e v e n said to t r a n s f o r m i n t o angels. M o r e o v e r , angels i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s in i n t i m a t e ways, s u c h as b y c o e x i s t i n g in specific c o m m u n i t i e s , a p p e a r i n g to p a r t a k e

of

h u m a n hospitality, a n d also, in a t least o n e line of t r a d i t i o n , h a v i n g viable o f f s p r i n g w i t h h u m a n

women.

B e c a u s e of this close a n d c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p , s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t a n c i e n t a u t h o r s e q u a t e d h u m a n s w i t h angels.

The

e x a m i n a t i o n u n d e r t a k e n in this s t u d y a i m s to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n d to w h a t e x t e n t a n c i e n t a u t h o r s m a d e a n y s u c h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. As will b e seen f r o m the survey of s c h o l a r s h i p b e l o w (1.3), t h e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n is itself n o t only i n t e r e s t i n g a n d v a l u a b l e b u t also h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e m e r g e n c e of C h r i s t o l o g y a n d e a r l y J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n

mysticism.

Ultimately, the p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e evidence suggests n o compelling reason to believe t h a t writers f r o m this p e r i o d h a d a n y difficulty distinguishing b e t w e e n the two g r o u p s of beings.

1.2

Methodology and Sources

It is t h e a i m of this study to e x a m i n e all the relevant literary sources f r o m the p e r i o d of c. 200 B G E to c. 100 C E to d e t e r m i n e w h a t they reveal a b o u t the relationship b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s . T h e sources to be assessed are, o n the whole, texts w h e r e the w o r d s ‫ ^ [ ־‬Ο / ά γ γ ε λ ο ς (Latin: angelus) a p p e a r . H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r of t e r m s m a y refer to the beings k n o w n as angels (e.g., spirits, stars, hosts, princes, powers, et al.). Since t e r m s derive t h e i r m e a n i n g f r o m use in context, the selection of evidence has b e e n driven by usage. If it seems p r o b a b l e given the c o n t e x t of a passage t h a t the evidence c a n p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels, t h e n it h a s b e e n included. S u c h a n e x a m i n a t i o n , h o w e v e r , is extensive in scope, since this evidence is f o u n d in a variety of genres a n d c o m e s f r o m a variety of social contexts. T h e p r i m a r y sources are the writings f r o m : the H e b r e w Bible, the L X X , the D e a d Sea Scrolls, r a b b i n i c literature, the T a r g u m i m ; Philo a n d J o s e p h u s , the N e w T e s t a m e n t , the early c h u r c h fathers, a n d the so-called P s e u d e p i g r a p h a . T h e use of each source is discussed as the material a p p e a r s in the course of the e x a m ination. T w o specific g r o u p s of sources deserve s o m e c o m m e n t f r o m the outset, h o w e v e r . T h e evidence f r o m the T a r g u m i m a n d the r a b bis d a t e s in l a r g e p a r t well a f t e r t h e p a r a m e t e r s of this s t u d y . Nevertheless, the traditions therein m a y d a t e b a c k to a m u c h earlier period. T h e r e f o r e , it is i m p o r t a n t at least to c o n s i d e r w h a t this evidence m a y h a v e to say a b o u t h u m a n - a n g e l relationships. T h e P s e u d e p i g r a p h a represents a different p r o b l e m . A m o n g the bodies of literature m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , it is the least c o h e r e n t as a c o r p u s . I n fact, the collections of the O T P s e u d e p i g r a p h a by R . H . C h a r l e s a n d , m o r e recently, J . C h a r l e s w o r t h h a v e to some extent solidified their consideration as a c o r p u s , b u t these writings r e p r e s e n t a vast variety of genres, c o m e f r o m different social contexts, h a v e different transmission histories, a n d d a t e f r o m q u i t e a r a n g e of t i m e periods. T h e r e f o r e , careful attention will be p a i d to contextualizing these docum e n t s in p a r t i c u l a r b e f o r e assessing the evidence they provide.

G i v e n this r a n g e of p r o v e n a n c e , t h e c h a l l e n g e is t o assess this evid e n c e i m p a r t i a l l y a n d p r e s e n t t h e p i c t u r e t h a t e m e r g e s as a c c u r a t e l y as possible. T h e m e t h o d e m p l o y e d h e r e is to i n t e r p r e t e a c h p i e c e of evidence separately. A r g u m e n t s for inclusion a n d dating are m a d e as n e c e s s a r y . T h e i m p a c t of t h e g e n r e of t h e l i t e r a t u r e in w h i c h t h e e v i d e n c e is f o u n d is discussed. I n a s m u c h as it is possible to d e t e r m i n e , t h e social c o n t e x t of t h e e v i d e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d . O n c e t h e evid e n c e is situated as m u c h as possible in its c o n t e x t , it is assessed f o r w h a t it c a n tell us a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. Before examining the evidence, however, there are three prelimi n a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . First, a discussion of t h e p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p a i m s to set this s t u d y w i t h i n t h e w i d e r s c o p e of s c h o l a r s h i p . S e c o n d , a s u r v e y of t h e history a n d v a r i e t y of t h e a n g e l beliefs in this p e r i o d situates t h e l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e t o b e investigated w i t h i n its l a r g e r historical c o n t e x t . T h i r d , t h e p a r t s of t h e b o o k a r e briefly o u t l i n e d to o r i e n t t h e r e a d e r to the a p p r o a c h t a k e n .

1.3

Survey of Previous

Scholarship

T h e following section surveys p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p in o r d e r to d e m o n strate (a) w h a t s c h o l a r s h a v e said a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between

h u m a n s a n d angels, (b) w h e r e c o n f u s i o n h a s arisen, a n d (c) t h a t t h e r e is a n e e d f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h in this a r e a . (a) Early

Studies

P. S c h ä f e r 5 s 1975 s t u d y Rivalität

zwischen

Engeln und Menschen:

Unter-

suchungen z- rabbin. Engelvorstellung collected a n d e x a m i n e d 74 r a b b i n i c texts t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e d a rivalry b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 1 Alt h o u g h his s t u d y l o o k e d a t e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e l a t e r r a b b i n i c p e r i o d , m u c h of w h i c h is difficult t o d a t e , it is n o t e w o r t h y for this discussion, since his b o o k w a s a m o n g t h e first look systematically at a n y a s p e c t of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. G i v e n difficulty of d a t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l s f r o m w h i c h h e d r a w s

the

evidence,

S c h ä f e r p r u d e n t l y c h o s e a t h e m a t i c a r r a n g e m e n t (e.g., Israel,

the

h i g h priest, Moses) f o r t h e text a n d his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2 H i s overall 1

P. Schäfer, Rivalität zwischen Engeln und Meuchen: Untersuchungen z• rabbin. Engelvorstellwig (New York: de Gruyter, 1975). 2 P. Schäfer, Rivalität, pp. 75-218.

c o n c l u s i o n w a s t h a t in t h e r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l a n g e l s o p p o s e h u m a n s b e c a u s e h u m a n n a t u r e is sinful a n d a t o d d s w i t h G o d ' s ( a n d angels') holiness.

the

3

S c h ä f e r briefly s u r v e y e d a s p e c t s of post-Exilic a n g e l beliefs as a p r e c u r s o r to his analysis of t h e r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l to s h o w b o t h c o n tinuity in a n d n e w aspects of a n g e l beliefs in t h e r a b b i n i c writings. 4 Little e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e post-Exilic p e r i o d d e m o n s t r a t e s a n y explicit rivalry b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 5 It s e e m s likely t h a t t h e w i d e v a r i e t y of a n g e l beliefs in this p e r i o d m a y h a v e led t o c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e p l a c e of h u m a n s in t h e celestial h i e r a r c h y , p a r t i c u l a r l y

when

h u m a n s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels. T h e seeds of t h e rivalry in t h e sinfulness of h u m a n s a r e c e r t a i n l y p r e s e n t in t h e G e n 6 m a t e r i a l a n d its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . A. S e g a l ' s Two Powers in Heaven l o o k e d a t t h e " t w o p o w e r s " h e r e s y of r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m — t h a t is, t h e belief t h a t p o w e r in h e a v e n

was

s h a r e d b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n o t h e r p r e e m i n e n t (but c r e a t e d ) b e i n g . 6 Segal sees e l e m e n t s in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y as r e p r e s e n t i n g o n e of t h e earliest f o r m s of this " h e r e s y . " W i t h i n this f r a m e w o r k , h e a r g u e s t h a t the e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s identified s o m e " h u m a n

figures

in h e a v e n

and

angelic m e d i a t o r s " w i t h J e s u s . 7 Segal w a s n o t t h e first, a n d c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e last, s c h o l a r to c o n s i d e r t h e i m p a c t of a n g e l o l o g y o n d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y .

8

the

So, c e r t a i n l y , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c r e a t e s a n a v e n u e f o r discussion in t h e p e r s o n of J e s u s . As will b e seen in t h e c o m m e n t s b e l o w , s t u d y in this a r e a b u r g e o n e d in t h e

1990s.

I n a s h o r t b u t salient 1980 article J . C h a r l e s w o r t h collected seven texts t h a t h e s a w as d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e p o r t r a y a l of r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s 8

P. Schäfer, Rivalität, p. 222. P. Schäfer, Rivalität, pp. 9-40. Although useful for his study and without parallel at the time, this survey is largely superseded by M. Mach's extensive analysis (see discussion of Mach beiow). 5 A notable exception perhaps being the Apoc. Ab. 9-32. 6 A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven: Early Rabbinic Reports about Christianity and Gnosticism (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1977). 7 A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven, p. 208. 8 A comprehensive survey of the history of research in angel Christology can be found in C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997) 7-25; M. Werner (1941) was among the first scholars to make a strong case for angel Christology. lie was rebuked harshly by W. Michaelis (1942), and the subject was not picked up for some time until J. Daniélou (1964) reopened the discussion. This survey of scholarship resumes in the 1980s, when angelology began to be studied more broadly, and not simply with regard to angel Christology. 4

as angels. 9 T h e texts h e p r e s e n t e d p r i m a r i l y c a m e f r o m w o r k s t h a t f o u n d t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e t w o - v o l u m e Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, w h i c h h e w a s e d i t i n g a t t h e s a m e t i m e . H e a r g u e s t h a t this p h e n o m e n o n of a n g e l i c p o r t r a y a l a n d also angelic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of h u m a n s "is c e r t a i n l y a J e w i s h c o n c e p t t h a t a n t e d a t e s the s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E a n d m a y p r e d a t e t h e fall of J e r u s a l e m i n 70." 1 0 Y e t t h e d a t i n g of a n u m b e r of t h e texts t h a t a r e i n c l u d e d , s u c h as 2 E n o c h o r t h e " H i s t o r y of t h e R e c h a b i t e s , " is v e r y m u c h d e b a t e d . A l t h o u g h s p a c e did n o t p e r m i t C h a r l e s w o r t h to m a k e solid, i n d i v i d u a l cases f o r t h e d a t i n g of a n u m b e r of t h e texts, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of his s t u d y w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s significant. His article b r o u g h t to scholarly a t t e n t i o n t h e possibility t h a t h u m a n portrayal in angelic categories a n d also h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a tion i n t o a n g e l s w a s p o t e n t i a l l y a

first-century

will b e seen in c h a p t e r 3 of this s t u d y , t h e

C E p h e n o m e n o n . As figures

often associated

with such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w e r e individuals w h o h a d lived a particularly righteous

life a n d / o r h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d in t h e i r

h u m a n e x i s t e n c e (e.g., A d a m o r J a c o b ) . I n his b o o k , The Open Heaven, a n d in several s u b s e q u e n t articles, C. Rowland

h a s d i s c u s s e d a s p e c t s of a n g e l o l o g y . 1 1 In

particular,

R o w l a n d h a s d r a w n a t t e n t i o n to t h e role t h a t i m a g e r y used to c h a r a c t e r i z e angels h a s p l a y e d in d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e risen C h r i s t . T h i s h a s led h i m to a d v o c a t e u s i n g t h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " 1 2

(based

o n t h e w o r k of J . D a n i é l o u ) in discussions a b o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e of angel traditions o n Christology r a t h e r t h a n "angelic'' since, as R o w l a n d states, " T h i s kind of description [angelomorphic] in n o w a y implies t h a t C h r i s t w a s identified entirely w i t h t h a t c r e a t e d o r d e r [the a n g e l s ] . " 1 3 T h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " h a s p r o v e n i n v a l u a b l e f o r m a k i n g sense of c o m p l e x Christological d e v e l o p m e n t s , w h i c h c e r t a i n l y s e e m to h a v e a p p r o p r i a t e d angelological motifs. As will b e seen b e l o w , h o w e v e r , t h e t e r m h a s also b e e n a p p l i e d t o discussions of h u m a n s m o r e g e n e r a l l y ,

9 J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151. 10 J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous," p. 135. 11 C. Rowland, Hie Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism, and Early Christianity (New York: Crossroad, 1982). Also see his articles, "The Visions of God in Apocalyptic Literature" JSJ 10 (1979) 137-154 and "A Man Clothed in Linen: Daniel 10:6ff. and Jewish Angelology" JSKT 24 (1985) 99-110. 12 The depiction of particular beings in the form (μορφή) of angels. 1S C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen," p. 100.

so t h a t s o m e s c h o l a r s n o w s p e a k of a n " a r i g e l o m o r p h i c " h u m a n i t y . 1 4 T h e m e r i t of t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s of a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d d e e p l y i n f o r m s t h e p r e s e n t study. A r o u n d t h e s a m e t i m e as R o w l a n d a n d Segal, J . F o s s u m was invest i g a t i n g t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a n d t h e N a m e

of

G o d a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n S a m a r i t a n a n d G n o s t i c t h o u g h t . 1 5 H i s study led h i m to c o n c l u d e t h a t the identification of the lieutenant of G o d as the Angel of the Lord made it possible for various groups to detect this figure in their respective heroes of the past—Adam, Enoch, Melchizedek, J a c o b , Moses, Jesus or Simon Magus. Whether 01‫ ׳‬not actual pre-existence was claimed for these men, a part of the tradition which identified the mediator with a h u m a n being seems to have been that the hero ascended to heaven and demonstrated his identity as God's plenipotentiary through heavenly enthronement. 1 6 T h u s , for Fossum the evidence allowed r o o m for particular h u m a n s to b e identified w i t h t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , b u t p r i m a r i l y this w o u l d t a k e p l a c e only w h e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a d a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n . T h e t o p i c of a s c e n t s to h e a v e n in a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s w a s t a k e n u p by M . H i m m e l f a r b several y e a r s later. 1 7 I n p a r t i c u l a r , h e r c h a p t e r o n " T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e R i g h t e o u s D e a d " f o c u s e d o n t h e ability of h u m a n s to i n t e r a c t with angels. S h e u n d e r s t a n d s J e w i s h a n g e l o l o g y as a n a t t e m p t t o b r i d g e t h e g a p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d G o d . S h e c o n e l u d e s , " I n d e e d it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n

human

b e i n g s a n d a n g e l s a r e n o t v e r y c l e a r . ' " 8 S h e sees t w o m a i n s t r a n d s of t r a d i t i o n : o n e in w h i c h g r e a t h e r o e s of t h e p a s t r e p r e s e n t h o w close h u m a n i t y c a n c o m e to the divine, a n d a n o t h e r in w h i c h o r d i n a r y

14 Angelomorphic Christology and angelomorphic humanity are separate phenomena, however. Thinking of the development of Christology (i.e., ways of thinking and talking about the risen Jesus) in angelic terms is not the same as saying there was a widespread belief about humans being understood as angels, as authors such as Fletcher-Louis and Gieschen have suggested—see section (d) below. 15 J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tübingen: J . C. B. Möhr, 1985) and later his Image of the Invisible God: Essays on the Influence ofJewish Mysticism on Early Christianity (Göttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1995). 16 J. Fossum, The Name of God, p. 333. 17 M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). 18 M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, p. 70.

h u m a n s w h o a r e r i g h t e o u s c a n t a k e t h e i r p l a c e in the h e a v e n l y h i e r a r c h y a f t e r d e a t h . T h e s e traditions, t h e n , focus on h u m a n relationships with a n g e l s in t h e h e a v e n s , usually a f t e r t h e i r m o r t a l life h a s e n d e d . (b) Michael Mack's

Entwicklungsstadien

M . M a c h ' s Entwicklungsstadien

des judischen Engelglaubens in

vonabbinischer

Zeit is a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y t r a c i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs t h r o u g h r o u g h l y t h e s a m e p e r i o d as t h e p r e s e n t p r o j e c t (c. 2 0 0 B C E 100 CE). 1 9 H i s b o o k is w i d e in s c o p e , a t t e m p t i n g to t r a c e t h e develo p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e Biblical p e r i o d t h r o u g h to t h e e n d of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . L i m i t a t i o n s of s p a c e a n d f o c u s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of ideas o v e r t i m e m e a n t t h a t h e w a s n o t a b l e t o deal with s o m e t h e m e s r e l a t i n g to his g e n e r a l t o p i c in detail, b u t h e h a s significant sections on h u m a n - a n g e l communities.20 H e

also, like

C h a r l e s w o r t h , h a s a section o n h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . 2 1 T w o of M a c h ' s initial c a v e a t s m e r i t r e i t e r a t i o n h e r e . First, M a c h n o t e s t h a t Biblical " a n g e l o l o g y " is a p r o b l e m a t i c t e r m , since it suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a c o h e r e n t set of a n g e l beliefs f o r t h e e n t i r e H e b r e w Bible. 2 2 I n d e e d , t h e r e is r e a s o n f o r c a u t i o n in t h e use of this t e r m , since it implies a s y s t e m a t i c d o c t r i n e r e g a r d i n g angels.

The

e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a w i d e v a r i e t y of beliefs. N e v e r t h e l e s s , at t i m e s it will be useful t o talk of a specific a u t h o r ' s o r g r o u p ' s " a n g e l o l o g y , " b u t w h e n s p e a k i n g of this p e r i o d as a w h o l e , it is n o t a b l y m o r e p r u d e n t t o s p e a k of " a n g e l o l o g i e s . " S e c o n d , M a c h n o t e s t h a t p r e v i o u s studies of angels a r e oversimplified b e c a u s e t h e y a n a l y z e only t h o s e p a s s a g e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e w o r d " a n g e l ( ‫ ) מ ל א ך‬. " T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y will largely (as M a c h himself d o e s despite

19

M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer ^eit (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992). 20 In his third chapter see especially pp. 159-163; 209-219; 241-255. His chapter 4, "Die Gefahren Der Gemeinschaft," is also relevant. In English, "The Danger of Communion" suggests the central therne is human-angel communities, but actually the discussion focuses more upon the ideological problems of the fusion of what Mach calls "Biblical Angelology" (ideas he discussed in chapter 1) and GraecoJewish Angelology (chapter 2). 21 M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 163-173. 22 So also S. Olyan, who warns that, "The use of the common term 'angelology' by scholars is problematic. It implies a single, systematic doctrine of angels, something that may have existed for some specific groups (perhaps the Qiimran sectarians), but certainly does not exist in rabbinic texts." S. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands Served Him: Exegesis mid the Naming of Angels (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991) 1 η. 1.

his o w n w a r n i n g ) look a t e v i d e n c e w h e r e t h e t e r m " a n g e l " a p p e a r s , b u t it will also c o n s i d e r e v i d e n c e w h e r e divine b e i n g s a p p e a r to b e i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h h u m a n s e v e n if v a r i o u s t e r m s a r e e m p l o y e d . M a c h divides t h e m a t e r i a l i n t o f o u r c h a p t e r s t h a t follow t h e stages of d e v e l o p m e n t . H i s first c h a p t e r looks a t Biblical a n g e l o l o g y .

He

sorts t h e m a n y a n g e l r e f e r e n c e s in t h e H e b r e w Bible a c c o r d i n g t o f u n c t i o n , d i s c e r n i n g t w o m a i n s t r a n d s of t r a d i t i o n — t h e c o u n c i l m o t i f a n d a n g e l s ( ‫ ) מ ל א ך‬as " m e s s e n g e r s " — t h a t f u s e d in texts like t h e L X X of J o b . " T h e G r e c o - R o m a n

heavenly eventually termino-

logy for t h e N e w A n g e l o l o g y " is t h e s u b j e c t of M a c h ' s s e c o n d c h a p ter. H e looks at issues i n v o l v e d in t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of a n g e l t e r m s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible i n t o t h e S e p t u a g i n t . I n t e r e s t i n g l y f o r o u r study, M a c h sees t h e use of άγγελος in t h e L X X as a b l a n k e t t e r m f o r desi g n a t i n g heavenly beings. I n his t h i r d a n d largest c h a p t e r M a c h c o n s i d e r s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs in extra-Biblical writings, s u r v e y i n g t h e b r e a d t h of the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t angels. H i s sections o n c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels (pp.

1 3 2 - 3 3 , 2 0 9 - 1 9 ) a r e r e l e v a n t t o this s t u d y . I n a

somewhat

b r o a d e r sense t h a n is t a k e n in c h a p t e r 4 of this study, M a c h

dis-

cusses c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n g e l s in t h e f o r m s of c o m p a n i o n s in h e a v enly a s c e n t , i n t e r p r e t e r s / m e s s e n g e r s , stars, et al. H e a t t r i b u t e s

the

g r o w t h of a n g e l o l o g y in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d to t h e rise of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m . O n t h e w h o l e t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a g r e e s w i t h this assertion. M a c h also sees t h e f u s i o n of Biblical a n g e l o l o g y w i t h G r e e k m y t h o l o g y in texts like Joseph and Aseneth. I n his final c h a p t e r M a c h looks at w h a t h e calls " t h e d a n g e r s of h u m a n - a n g e l c o m m u n i o n " (Die Gefahren Dei‫ ׳‬Gemeinschaft).

On

those

o c c a s i o n s w h e n a n g e l s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d b u t a r e a b s e n t (e.g., 2 C h r 36:15) o r in p a r t i c u l a r w h e n t h e i r role is d o w n p l a y e d , n a m e l y in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d t h e w r i t i n g s of J o s e p h u s , M a c h suggests this a b s e n c e r e p r e s e n t s a n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e to t h e o t h e r w i s e b u r g e o n i n g a n g e l beliefs of t h e p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g to M a c h , J o s e p h u s c o n s i d e r s a n g e l beliefs d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e of t h e i r i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n to t h e "political-ideological" p r o b l e m of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m . T h a t is, a p o c a l y p t i c writings o f t e n h a d politically d a n g e r o u s t h o u g h t s a n d ideas, s u c h as the o v e r t u r n i n g of t h i s - w o r l d p o w e r s , so t h a t J o s e p h u s — a n d also t h e r a b b i s a f t e r h i m — d o w n p l a y e d b o t h a p o c a l y p t i c i d e a s as well as a n g e l beliefs in t h e i r desire to c o o p e r a t e w i t h R o m a n rule. 2 3 S u c h a c o n n e c 23

M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 300-333.

tion b e t w e e n t h e b u r g e o n i n g of a n g e l beliefs a n d t h e political aspects of a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s is n o t w a r r a n t e d b y t h e e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r . F o r M a c h , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t also reflects a d e l i b e r a t e a n d c o n sistent d o w n p l a y i n g of a n g e l beliefs. T h i s is d u e , h o w e v e r , to t h e theological a n d C h r i s t o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t w e r e c r e a t e d as C h r i s t c a m e to b e u n d e r s t o o d as divine. W h i l e this m a y b e p e r c e p t i b l e as a t r e n d in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs o v e r a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d of t i m e (with t h e b e n e f i t of hindsight), the 78 o c c u r r e n c e s of t h e w o r d άγγελος in t h e N T reflect a v a r i e t y of beliefs. S i n c e t h e d o c u m e n t s of t h e N T c o m e f r o m a v a r i e t y of c o m m u n i t i e s a n d slightly d i f f e r e n t times, it m a y n o t b e p r u d e n t to t h i n k of t r e n d s w i t h i n w h a t is n o w a c o r p u s — t h e N T — a s if it w e r e a single b o d y of literature in t h e past. 2 4 T h u s , M a c h ' s w o r k is v e r y u s e f u l in t h a t it h a s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r a n d s o u g h t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs in t h e p r e - r a b b i n i c p e r i o d . H i s s t u d y t o u c h e d u p o n s o m e of t h e s a m e a r e a s as t h e p r e s e n t investigation, s u c h as t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the righte o u s i n t o a n g e l s a n d t h e c o m m u n i o n of a n g e l s w i t h h u m a n s .

The

r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels, h o w e v e r , still m e r i t s g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n , especially in light of s o m e r e c e n t c o n c l u s i o n s m a d e b y t h o s e studying angelomorphic (c) Other Important

Christology.25

Studies on Angel

Beliefs

T w o a u t h o r s h a v e l o o k e d closely a t a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s in the D e a d S e a Scrolls. 2 6 C . N e w s o m p u b l i s h e d t h e first c o m p l e t e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e l o n g - a w a i t e d Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 5 ) f r o m Q u m r a n in 1985. 2 7 T h e Songs c o n t a i n a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of m a t e r i a l

on

angels (including a w i d e r a n g e of t e r m s for h e a v e n l y beings). N e w s o m ' s p u b l i c a t i o n of the texts, a l o n g w i t h s o m e s u b s e q u e n t analysis in v a r i o u s articles, h a s h e l p e d to m a k e this difficult m a t e r i a l m o r e accèssible to scholars. 2 8 Also, h e r e n t r y 011 " a n g e l s " in t h e A n c h o r Bible 24 For a similar critique of this point, see the review by L. Hurtado in J TS 45 (1994) 636. 25 See section (d) below. 26 More recently, M. Mach has written the entry for "Angels" in the Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 24-27, which contains a helpful summary of the DSS evidence and some useful insights on the relationship of humans and angels in that literature. 27 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition (Atlanta: Harvard Semitic Studies, 1985). 28 C. Newsom and Y. Yadin, "The Masada Fragment of the Qiirnran Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" Israel Exploration Journal 34 (1984) 77-88; C. Newsom,

D i c t i o n a r y is a n excellent s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n y look a t angels. 2 9 E v e n a c u r s o r y g l a n c e at this e n t r y , h o w e v e r , will s h o w t h a t n o t

much

w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e o n t h e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 3 0 M . D a v i d s o n ' s m o n o g r a p h , Angels at Qumran, c o m p a r e d a n g e l t r a d i tions in t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls a n d 1 E n o c h ( c h a p t e r s 1 - 3 6 , 7 2 - 1 0 8 ) . 3 1 D a v i d s o n ' s s t u d y filled a n o t a b l e void b y c o l l e c t i n g a n d

beginning

to a n a l y z e t h e large b o d y of a n g e l i c l i t e r a t u r e f o u n d in t h e w r i t i n g s from the D e a d

S e a Scrolls. H i s analysis, h o w e v e r , d i d n o t

delve

deeply into t h e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. Nevertheless, D a v i d s o n says t h a t t h e a u t h o r s of t h e Q u m r a n

sectarian

writings

a n d t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m 1 E n o c h largely c o n c e i v e of t h e r e a l m s of h u m a n s a n d of angels as t w o distinct r e a l m s . H e a d m i t s t h a t All writers presuppose a separation between the realms of angels and humans, a spatial dualism, but this gap, in various ways, is frequently bridged. Nevertheless, it appears that all our authors would hold to the view that the proper dwelling-place of angels is in heaven, even though m a n y of the angels engage in various activities around the cosmos. 32 So, in D a v i d s o n ' s analysis, t h e g a p is b r i d g e d , b u t n o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is m a d e b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. S o m e o t h e r s c h o l a r s h a v e m a d e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e g e n e r a l discussion of t h e n a t u r e of h u m a n s a n d angels. C . R . A. M o r r a y - J o n e s h a s p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e a t t a i n m e n t of a n g e l i c life m a y b e seen as " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l m y s t i c i s m . " 3 3 T h o u g h h e focuses o n t h e r a b b i n i c a n d H e k h a l o t traditions, h e also looks a t t h e J e w i s h p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l . H e h a s also s e e n this s a m e p h e n o m e n o n in Paul. 3 4 M . B a r k e r ' s The Great Angel c o n s i d e r e d t h e i m p a c t of a n e x a l t e d a n g e l t r a d i t i o n o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y . 3 5 I n l o o k i n g at

"Merkabah Exegesis in the Qumran Sabbath Shirot" JJS 38 (1987) 11 30‫ ;־‬C. Newsom, "He Has Established for Himself Priests" in Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L. Schiffman (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1990) 101-120. 29 C. Newsom, "Angels: O T " in ABD 1:248-253. 30 See her subsection on "Relations between Angels and Humans" in ABD 1:250 for a brief discussion on Gen 6:1-4. 31 M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and the Sectarian Writings from Qumran (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994). 32 M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 291. 33 C. R. A. Morray-Jones, "Transformational Mysticism in the ApocalypticMerkabah Tradition" JJS 43 (1992) 1-31. 34 C. R. A. Morray-Jones, "Paradise Revisited (2 Cor 12:1-12): The Jewish Mystical Background of Paul's Apostalate. Part 1: The Jewish Sources" HTR 86 (1993) 177-217; "Part 2: Paul's Heavenly Ascent and Its Significance," pp. 265-292. 35 M. Barker, The Great Angel: A Study of Israel's Second God (London: SPCK, 1992).

t h e e v i d e n c e of " t h e sons of G o d , " she states, "All t h e texts in t h e H e b r e w Bible distinguish clearly b e t w e e n t h e divine sons of E l o h i m / E l y o n a n d t h o s e h u m a n b e i n g s w h o a r e called sons of Y a h w e h . " 3 6 T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is v a l u a b l e , since " s o n s of G o d " is a t e r m

that

s o m e t i m e s refers to angels. H e r distinction a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h f o r m of t h e divine n a m e is used m a y h a v e a n i m p a c t o n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e t e r m " s o n s of G o d " a n d its r e l a t i o n t o h u m a n s a n d

divine

beings. H e r a s s e r t i o n is b o r n e o u t by t h e e v i d e n c e , in t h a t t h e t e r m " s o n s of E l o h i m " d o e s s e e m r e g u l a r l y t o r e f e r t o angels. 3 7 It is less c l e a r t h a t t h e t e r m " s o n s of Y a h w e h " is exclusive to h u m a n s , since t h e e v i d e n c e is fairly limited. 3 8 W . H o r b u r y ' s r e c e n t b o o k , Jewish

Messianism

and the Cult of Christ,

c o n t a i n s a n insightful section o n t h e " C o - o r d i n a t i o n of angelic a n d [ h u m a n ] m e s s i a n i c deliverers." 3 9 H o r b u r y asks, " C o u l d t h e a n g e l i c figures

w h o w e r e e n v i s a g e d as h e a v e n - s e n t deliverers h a v e

readily

b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a r t h l y l e a d e r s ? " 4 0 T o this h e r e s p o n d s in t h e a f f i r m a t i v e , t h o u g h h e n o t e s t h a t , " d e l i v e r e r s c o n s i d e r e d in c o n t e m p o r a r y discussion of d i v i n e a g e n t s a r e n o t a l w a y s

unambiguously

angelic." 4 1 (d) Angelomorphic

Christology

In t h e 1990s several s c h o l a r s r e f o c u s e d scholarly a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s C h r i s t w i t h t h e f o r m a n d / o r f u n c t i o n of a n a n g e l — t h a t is, a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y . A t t h e f o r e of this series of studies w a s L. H u r t a d o ' s One God, One Lord, w h i c h a p p e a r e d in its first e d i t i o n in 1988. H i s s t u d y s o u g h t to u n d e r s t a n d h o w n a s c e n t C h r i s t i a n i t y c o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m and t h e w o r s h i p of C h r i s t . H i s analysis i n c l u d e d a discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n of a n g e l o logy t o C h r i s t o l o g y . 4 2 H u r t a d o suggests t h a t t h e e a r l y

Christians

believed in a b i f u r c a t i o n of t h e g o d h e a d : G o d a n d C h r i s t . T h i s b i f u r c a t i o n s t e m s f r o m t h e i m p a c t of J e w i s h " d i v i n e a g e n c y " t r a d i t i o n s u p o n t h e early C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t i o n s of C h r i s t ' s role. T h e distinctive

36

M. Barker, The Great Angel, p. 10. E.g., Gen 6:2; Deut 32:8 (LXX); Job 1:6, 38:7; Ps 29:1. 82:1, 6; Dan 3:25. 38 See 1 Chr 28:6; Ps 2:7; Isa 9:6-7. 39 W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ (London: SCM, 1998) 83.86‫־‬ 40 W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism, p. 83. 41 W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism, p. 84. 42 L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Andent Jewish Monotheism, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998). 37

f e a t u r e of t h e C h r i s t i a n " m u t a t i o n " w a s t h a t t h e risen C h r i s t w a s worshipped unlike a n y o t h e r divine a g e n t in t h e w i d e r J e w i s h m a t r i x . H u r t a d o ' s discussion of " d i v i n e a g e n c y " d e a l t w i t h v a r i o u s aspects of angelology f r o m t h e p e r i o d , including a c h a p t e r o n " E x a l t e d P a t r i a r c h s as D i v i n e A g e n t s , " w h i c h a c t e d as a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y G i e s c h e n , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , a n d this a u t h o r .

by

43

L. H u r t a d o ' s w o r k elicited several responses, 4 4 t h e fullest of w h i c h w a s b y L. S t u c k e n b r u c k , w h o looked specifically a t t h e issue of a n g e l v e n e r a t i o n in t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d literature. 4 5 H i s m o n o g r a p h w a s largely a r e s p o n s e t o H u r t a d o ' s c l a i m s t h a t v e n e r a t i o n / w o r s h i p w a s a decisive f a c t o r in C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s

"mutation"

a w a y f r o m J u d a i s m . T h e w o r s h i p of a n g e l s as discussed b y

both

H u r t a d o a n d S t u c k e n b r u c k implies, at least, t h a t t h e r e is a c l e a r dist i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels; t h a t is, if angels w e r e in a n y w a y a n o b j e c t of w o r s h i p by s o m e , t h e n t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d to b e e q u i v a l e n t in n a t u r e t o h u m a n s . W h a t is u n c l e a r , h o w e v e r , is t o w h a t e x t e n t a n g e l v e n e r a t i o n w a s p r a c t i c e d . Y e t in g e n e r a l a n g e l s ' r e f u s a l of w o r s h i p b y h u m a n s s e e m s to b e m o t i v a t e d b y a c o n c e r n n o t for h u m a n - a n g e l e q u a l i t y b u t i n s t e a d f o r f o c u s i n g reverence on God. P. Carrell also investigated angel traditions in the Book of Revelation. H i s a i m w a s to u n d e r s t a n d h o w a n d to w h a t e x t e n t t h o s e t r a d i t i o n s i m p a c t e d t h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y t h e r e i n . 4 6 H i s d e f i n i t i o n of t h e t e r m " a n g e l s " is " h e a v e n l y b e i n g s , distinct f r o m G o d a n d

from

human bangs, w h o exist t o serve G o d as m e s s e n g e r s , as t h e h e a v e n l y c o n g r e g a t i o n a t w o r s h i p , a n d as a g e n t s of t h e divine will fulfilling a variety of o t h e r functions." 4 ' E v e n t h o u g h h e e m p l o y s a tight definition

43 L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, pp. 51-70; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 153-161; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997) 145-164; chapter 3 below. 44 P. Rainbow, "Jewish Monotheism as the Matrix for New Testament Christology: A Review Article" N0vT33 (1991) 78-91; A. Chester, "Jewish Messianic Expectations, Mediatorial Figures and Pauline Christology" in Paulus und das antike Judentums, ed. M. Hengel and U. Heckel (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1991) 17-89; P. Davis, "Divine Agents, Mediators, and New Testament Christology" JTS 45 (1994) 479-503. 45 L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology. A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse of John (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995). w P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels: Angelology and Christology in the Apocalypse of John (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). R. Gundry, "Angelomorphic Christology in the Book of Revelation" SBLSP (1994) 662-678, foresaw the need for a study such as Carrell's. 47 P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, p. 14; italics mine.

of " a n g e l , " h e still i n c l u d e s a s e c t i o n o n e x a l t e d h u m a n s in his " A n g e l o m o r p h i c F i g u r e s " c h a p t e r as a p a r t of the " a n g e l o l o g i c a l c o n text of t h e A p o c a l y p s e ' s C h r i s t o l o g y . " 4 8 F r o m t h e v a r i e t y of e v i d e n c e t h a t h e surveys r e g a r d i n g h u m a n s a n d angels, h e c o n c l u d e s

that,

" W e c a n n o t b e c o n f i d e n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t J o h n [ a u t h o r of the A p o c a lypse, w r i t i n g a t t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y C E ] w o u l d h a v e b e e n familiar with the idea t h a t a h u m a n could b e c o m e an angel."49 D. H a n n a h examined traditions regarding the archangel Michael to see w h e t h e r these i n f o r m t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n angel Christology. 5 0 T h e p r o m i n e n c e of t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l in texts s u c h as D a n i e l , t h e W a r Scroll, a n d t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n l e n d s s u p p o r t to t h e assertion t h a t a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s C h r i s t w i t h t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l is highly plausible. H a n n a h ' s specific f o c u s o n M i c h a e l u n d e r s c o r e s t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n J e w i s h a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s a n d early

Christianity.

In his b o o k a n d in a l a t e r review of C . G i e s c h e n , H a n n a h is c a u tious in his a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t e r m s " a n g e l , " " a n g e l i c , " a n d " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " w i t h r e g a r d to Christology. 5 1 O f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e is his n o t e t h a t " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " s h o u l d r e f e r to visual p o r t r a y a l s of C h r i s t in t h e f o r m (based literally o n μορφή) of a n a n g e l . T h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " in this s t u d y will refer to instances of h u m a n beings a p p e a r i n g in t h e f o r m of angels. T h e visual c o m p o n e n t of a n g e l p o r t r a y a l s will b e discussed in c h a p t e r 2. I n a s h o r t article o n p a t t e r n s of m e d i a t i o n a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n to C h r i s t o l o g y , P. D a v i s h i n t e d a t t h e d i r e c t i o n s c h o l a r s w o u l d

next

explore. H e concludes: O t h e r scholars have already noted a certain fluidity in the distinction between God and his chief agents in some t e x t s . . . . By the same token, when that agent is a h u m a n being, there might be some fluidity in the distinction between the divine and the h u m a n in that particular case. 52 T w o s u b s e q u e n t studies o n C h r i s t o l o g y e x p l o r e d this possibility of fluidity 48

in t h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n a n d divine.

P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, pp. 77-90. P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, p. 90. 50 D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early Christianity (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999). Hannah's work built upon the seminal study by W. Lueken, Michael (Göttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1898). 51 D. Hannah, Michael and Christ, see esp. pp. 12-13; Review of C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997) in JTS 51 (2000) 230-236. 52 P. Davis, "Divine Agents, Mediators, and New Testament Christology" JTS 45 (1994) 499. 49

C . G i e s c h e n is p e r h a p s t h e s t r o n g e s t a d v o c a t e f o r a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y . G i e s c h e n ' s w o r k is a collection of t h e a n t e c e d e n t s t o a n d early e v i d e n c e for a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y t h r o u g h the f o u r t h c e n t u r y C E . 5 3 It is his a i m to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t " a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s . . . h a d a significant i m p a c t o n t h e early e x p r e s s i o n of C h r i s t o l o g y . " 5 4 s u r v e y of t h e a n t e c e d e n t s i n c l u d e d a s e c t i o n o n

His

"angelomorphic

h u m a n s . " 5 5 F r o m his s u r v e y h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t " M a n y of these texts testify t h a t h u m a n s c a n b e , o r b e c o m e , a n g e l o m o r p h i c w h i l e still alive o n e a r t h , " a d d i n g , " h u m a n o n t o l o g y is n o t a q u e s t i o n t h a t t r o u bles t h e w r i t e r s of this l i t e r a t u r e . " 5 6 T h e c l a i m t h a t h u m a n s c o u l d b e in s o m e w a y i d e n t i f i e d as angels in t h e i r e a r t h l y lives p u s h e d f u r tlier t h e b o u n d a r i e s of s c h o l a r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e

relationship

b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s s t u d i e d t h e C h r i s t o l o g y a n d soteriology of L u k e Acts in light of a n g e l o m o r p h i c traditions. 5 ‫ ׳‬Like G i e s c h e n , F l e t c h e r L o u i s ' s b a c k g r o u n d r e s e a r c h i n c l u d e d a significant section (the m o s t t h o r o u g h of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d studies) o n a n g e l o m o r p h i c ity.

58

human-

F l e t c h e r - L o u i s c o n c l u d e s his s u r v e y of this e v i d e n c e by saying

h e h o p e s to h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t " t h e r e w a s a well e s t a b l i s h e d a n d significant t r a d i t i o n , o r e v e n t r a d i t i o n s , in w h i c h h u m a n tity w a s u n d e r s t o o d in a n g e l i c c a t e g o r i e s . "

59

iden-

H e g o e s o n to say:

W e submit that an approach to the data . . . which does not impose a rigid dualism, but rather accepts the openness and fluidity of h u m a n , angelic and Divine categories, allows for simplicity of interpretation, and does most justice to the texts' own worldviews(s). Accordingly our label 'angelomorphic', has proved heuristically invaluable. (Though of course J e w s themselves used m a n y different terms equivalent to angelomorphic, such as holy ones, host, glorious ones, and were not afraid to recognise that an angelomorphic h u m a n could be regarded as equivaient to 'a god'). 60 This approach

does create considerable confusion, however,

F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s c o m e u n d e r s o m e criticism.

53

61

and

J . O ' N e i l l h a s cri-

C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology. C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 6. C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 152-183. 56 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 183. 57 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts. 58 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, "Part Π: Jewish Angelomorphic Traditions," pp. 109-215. 59 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 211. 60 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 211-212. 61 Fletcher-Louis sometimes employs the term αγγελικός βίος (angelic life) to 54 55

t i q u e d F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s c o n c l u s i o n s b e c a u s e " t h e s e c l a i m s to

onto-

logical i d e n t i t y a r e simply m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e , " a d d i n g , " t h e r e is a c l e a r a n d consistently m a i n t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e in kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n g e l s a n d h u m a n b e i n g s . " 6 2 O n e e x a m p l e f r o m a m o n g t h e texts to b e s t u d i e d will b e useful for illustrating t h e q u e s t i o n a t h a n d . I n G a l a t i a n s 4 : 1 4 P a u l writes, " a n d t h o u g h m y c o n d i t i o n w a s a trial to y o u , y o u d i d n o t s c o r n o r despise m e , b u t r e c e i v e d m e as a n a n g e l of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s " (ώς άγγελον θεοΰ έ δ έ ξ α σ θ έ με, ώς Χριστόν Ίησοΰν). M o s t

interpreters

a r g u e t h a t P a u l h a s s o m e sort of c o m p a r i s o n in m i n d — f o r i n s t a n c e , " y o u r e c e i v e d m e (as you) w o u l d receive a m e s s e n g e r / a n a n g e l of G o d , as y o u w o u l d receive C h r i s t J e s u s

[ h i m s e l f ] . " I n his highly

r e g a r d e d c o m m e n t a i ‫ ׳ ) ־‬o n G a l a t i a n s , h o w e v e r , H . B e t z m a k e s this interesting observation a b o u t the relationship between h u m a n s a n d angels in his gloss o n 4:14, " T o b e s u r e , in a n t i q u i t y t h e r e w a s n o t a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two, b e c a u s e o n e c o u l d n e v e r b e sure w h e t h e r o n e was encountering a divine angel or a human messenger."63 B e t z ' s s t u d e n t M . M i t c h e l l says c o n c e r n i n g t h e s a m e verse t h a t " t h e r e is n o t h i n g in t h e p a s s a g e t o suggest t h a t P a u l likens h i m s e l f to t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l e n v o y s , a n g e l s . " 6 4 T h e s e t w o j u x t a p o s e d o p i n i o n s clearly d e m o n s t r a t e the c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n t h a t h a s arisen o v e r t h e m e a n i n g of P a u l ' s p h r a s e , b u t also t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels generally. Recently C. Gieschen has argued for a strong angel C h r i s t o l o g y u n d e r l y i n g this p h r a s e . 6 5 H i s exegesis, h o w e v e r , h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d b y a n u m b e r of scholars. 6 6 T h u s , in c u r r e n t s c h o l a r s h i p t h e r e s e e m s t o b e c o n s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e o v e r the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.

describe his idea that individuals and communities are angelic in "this-life." The use of this terminology confuses the issue further, however, since the term comes from second century CE sources. The employment of it as a technical term implies that the idea was widespread in the literature from an earlier period, but this is not the case. Luke-Acts, pp. 184, 214-215. 62 J. O'Neill, Review of C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts in JTS 50 (1999) 225-230. 63 H. D. Betz, Galatians: A Commentary on Paul's Letter to the Churches in Galatia (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979) 226; italics mine. 64 M. Mitchell, "New Testament Envoys" JBL 111 (1992) 646 n. 17. Contra J. Fitzmyer, "But though the word άγγελος is found in the New Testament in the sense of a human messenger (Lk 7:24; 9:52; Jas 2:25), it is never used thus by Paul." "A Feature of Qumran Angelology and the Angels of 1 Cor 11:10" NTS 4 (1957-58) 55. 65 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 315-325. 66 See two reviews: J. Davila, JSJ 30 (1999) 344-346, and D. Hannah, JTS 51 (2000) 230-236.

(e)

Summary

W h a t p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p h a s said specifically a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d is relatively limited. S c h ä f e r ' s s t u d y largely c o v e r e d m a t e r i a l a f t e r o u r p e r i o d . T h e largest studies of t h e r e l e v a n t literat u r e p e r t a i n i n g to a n g e l s (e.g., M a c h a n d D a v i d s o n ) did n o t c o n s i d e r this t o p i c as its o w n s u b j e c t . S m a l l e r studies, s u c h as C h a r l e s w o r t h a n d H o r b u r y , c o v e r e d specific a s p e c t s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels a r o s e in s o m e of the studies r e s e a r c h i n g a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s a n d G i e s c h e n did m o r e d e t a i l e d w o r k o n t h e s u b j e c t , b u t t h a t w o r k w a s d o n e in t h e c o n t e x t of

finding

evidence

for

a n t e c e d e n t s to a n g e l o m o r p h i c Christology. T h e s t r o n g e m p h a s i s u p o n a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y in r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p o n a n g e l beliefs r e p resents s o m e t h i n g of a bias in s c h o l a r s h i p . It suggests t h a t angels c a n o n l y b e discussed v a l u a b l y as t h e y relate to t h e h u m a n J e s u s

but

t h a t angels a r e n o t t h e m s e l v e s a valid s u b j e c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y in relation to h u m a n s g e n e r a l l y . T h i s s t u d y a i m s t o investigate t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s as a p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n t h e religious p u r v i e w of late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m , of which nascent Christianity was one part, a n d to a n s w e r J. O ' N e i l l ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e r e w a s " a c l e a r a n d consistently m a i n tained difference in kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d angels a n d h u m a n beings." 5 7 L o o k i n g a t this p h e n o m e n o n

o n its o w n , w i t h o u t t h e p u r p o s e of

d e t e c t i n g its i n f l u e n c e o n l a t e r C h r i s t o l o g y , will a l l o w f o r a

more

u n b i a s e d view t h a t d o e s n o t privilege t h e e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g J e s u s . N e x t , a s h o r t discussion of t h e c o n t e x t of s e c o n d T e m p l e

angel

t r a d i t i o n s is r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e a n t e c e d e n t s a n d c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s situation of the e v i d e n c e u p o n w h i c h this study focuses.

1.4

Historical

Context

Angels a r e f o u n d in texts f r o m all p e r i o d s of t h e H e b r e w t r a d i t i o n f r o m t h e pre-Exilic d o w n to t h e B o o k of D a n i e l a n d b e y o n d . 5 8 67

J. O'Neill, JTS 50 (1999) 228. For some good general summaries and surveys of angel traditions, see P. Schäfer, Rivalitat, pp. 940‫ ;־־‬Mach, Etitwicklwigsstadien; C. Newsom, "Angel: OT" in ABD 1:248253; and J . Ashton, "Bridging Ambiguities" in Studying John: Approaches to the Fourth Gospel (Oxford: Clarendon ‫״‬Press, 1994) 71-89. 68

T h e H e b r e w w o r d for a n g e l is

69

.‫מלאך‬

A t t h e m o s t g e n e r a l level

‫ מ ל א ך‬h a s t h e m e a n i n g of " m e s s e n g e r " o r " e n v o y . " T h e s a m e m e a n ings a p p l y for t h e G r e e k άγγελος. 7 0 A m o r e t e c h n i c a l d e f i n i t i o n f o r " a n g e l " is " a h e a v e n l y b e i n g t h a t m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d t h e divine." 7 1 T h e t e r m " a n g e l " in t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k h a d t h e

flexi-

bility t o r e f e r t o e i t h e r h u m a n o r divine m e s s e n g e r s . I n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e a n g e l beliefs of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , it is i m p o r t a n t to b e a w a r e of t h e beliefs t h a t p r e c e d e d t h e m , as well as those t h a t w e r e c o n t e m p o r a r y in t h e w i d e r G r a e c o - R o m a n milieu. 7 2 T h e logical s t a r t i n g p o i n t , t h e n , is a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible. A s M a c h

suggests, beliefs a b o u t a n g e l s f r o m

the

H e b r e w Bible c a n b e g r o u p e d i n t o t w o m a i n c a t e g o r i e s : t h e divine c o u n c i l a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d . As in m a n y a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n c u l t u r e s , t h e H e b r e w

under-

s t a n d i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d w a s of a royal c o u r t w i t h Y a h w e h as king a n d various divine beings at his service (Ps 82; 1 K g 2 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 ; Job

1-2; Dan

7). 73 T h u s , e a r l y c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e h e a v e n l y

realm

e n g a g e d a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c terms. It s h o u l d c o m e as n o surprise, t h e n , to see l a t e r a n g e l beliefs d e m o n s t r a t i n g a similar u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n a n u m b e r of H e b r e w Bible texts G o d ' s visible f o r m to h u m a n s is d e s c r i b e d as t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d (

7 4

. ( ‫י ה ו ה‬

‫מלאך‬

Scholars h

p r i m a r i l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a s a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n (hypostasis) of G o d . 7 5 T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c a r r i e s o u t p a r t i c u l a r tasks o n e a r t h : m e s s e n g e r ( G e n 16, 22; J u d g 6, 13), p r o t e c t o r / w a r r i o r ( N u m 22; Ps 34), a n d e v e n d e s t r o y e r ( E x o d 4 : 2 4 [ L X X ] ) . T h a t

69

For definitions of the term, see "‫ "מלאך‬in TDOT 8:308-325; BDB 521-522. For definitions of the term, see "Αγγελος" in TD.NT 1:74-87; W. Arndt and F. W. Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Writings (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1952) 7-8; Liddell-Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968) 7. The term is applied to some gods as messengers: Hermes (Homer, Odyssey 5:29; Plato, Cratylus 407e), Iris (Homer, Ūliad 2:786, 3:121), and Nemesis (Plato, Laws 4:717d). 71 For definitions of "angel" see: ABD 1:248-255; DDD 81-96; Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 24-27. 72 For a survey of angel traditions in the Old Testament, see G. Heidt, Angelology in the Old Testament (Washington DC: Catholic University, 1949). 78 E. Theodore Mullen, The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Literature (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980). 74 For references to the Angel of the Lord, see Gen 16, 22, 24; Exod 3:2; Num 20, 22; Judg 2, 5, 6, 13; Zech; et al., as well as eleven references in the NT (Matt, Luke, and Acts). 75 On the Angel of the Lord, see J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord, pp. 192-238. 70

G o d ' s a n g e l c a r r i e s o u t tasks o n e a r t h t h a t m i g h t r e g u l a r l y b e p e r f o r m e d b y h u m a n s is i n t e r e s t i n g f o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e relat i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels, since o n c e a g a i n in this c a s e early c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of angels, a n d in p a r t i c u l a r t h e A n g e l of t h e Lord, apparently had an anthropomorphic

character.

A n e x t e n s i o n of t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t c o n c e p t n o t e d a b o v e m a y h a v e led to the i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n of o n e of t h e p r i m a r y d e n i z e n s of t h e j u d i c i a l c o u r t setting: t h e a c c u s e r o r " S a t a n . " T h e H e b r e w

term

" s a t a n " literally m e a n s " a d v e r s a r y " o r " a c c u s e r " in a legal c o n t e x t . 7 6 T h i s f i g u r e a p p e a r s first in die B o o k of J o b in t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t scenes of c h a p t e r s 1 - 2 ; h e a p p e a r s in a similar s c e n e in Z e c h 3. 77 S a t a n r a r e l y a p p e a r s in J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e of t h e S e c o n d

Temple

p e r i o d . 7 8 I n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e N T , S a t a n h a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o

an

evil b e i n g w h o s t a n d s d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d to G o d . T h e n a m e S a t a n o c c u r s s o m e 39 t i m e s in t h e N T . M u c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e figure

of S a t a n t h r o u g h o u t history. 7 9 W e will n o t b e l o o k i n g i n t o

d e m o n o l o g y in o u r discussion; n e v e r t h e l e s s , S a t a n d o e s c o m e to b e u n d e r s t o o d as a t e m p t e r of h u m a n s o n a n i n d i v i d u a l basis a n d m a y e v e n i n v a d e t h e m ( L u k e 22:3, M a r k 8 : 2 7 8 0 . ( 3 3 ‫־‬ T h e p r o p h e t s a r e relatively q u i e t o n t h e s u b j e c t of angels. O n l y the post-Exilic p r o p h e t s Z e c h a r i a h a n d Ezekiel h a v e m u c h to say about them. T h e r e are only two references f r o m the

pre-Exilic

p r o p h e t s : H o s 1 2 : 5 6 ‫ ־‬cf. G e n 3 2 : 2 2 3 0 ‫ ־‬a n d , less directly, t h e m e n t i o n of t h e c h e r u b i m in Isa 6 : I f f . T h e c h e r u b i m a n d s e r a p h i m a r e o f t e n classified as angels. 8 1 S. O l y a n l o o k e d a t angelic " b r i g a d e " des-

76

BDB, p. 1370. Satan also occurs once in 1 Chr 21:1. 78 Other figures mentioned in this literature do seem to fit the same role: Mastema (Jubliees, Dead Sea Scrolls), Diablos (Life of Adam and Eve), Belial, etc. 79 For a succinct survey, see C. Breytenbach and P. L. Day, "Satan" in DDD 1369-1380. Also see V. Hamilton, "Satan" in ABD 5:985989‫־‬. More thorough studies are undertaken by P. Day, An Adversary in Heaven: Satan in the Hebrew Bible (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1988), and E. Pagels, The Origin of Satan (London: Penguin Books, 1997). 80 The development of demonology seems to parallel that of angelology; i.e., there is a proliferation in the Second Temple period and beyond. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has opened up the study of demonology, which was largely centered on the New Testament. For a succinct review and look at the Dead Sea Scrolls' demonology, see P. Alexander, "Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls" in The Dead Sea Scrolls after 50 Years, ed. P. Flint and J . VanderKam (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999) 2:331-353. 81 Cherubim are found in Gen 3:24; Exod 25, 26 (in descriptions of the Ark of the Covenant), 36, 37; Kgs and Chr (in descriptions of the art of the Temple); 77

i g n a t i o n s in d e t a i l in his m o n o g r a p h , A Him?

2

Thousand.

Thousands

Sewed

H u m a n s d o n o t a p p e a r to h a v e a significant i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h

t h e s e g r o u p s of angels, save t h e c h e r u b i m w i t h a fiery s w o r d d r i v i n g A d a m a n d E v e o u t of t h e G a r d e n of E d e n in G e n 3 : 2 4 a n d I s a i a h s e e i n g t h e s e r a p h i m in his vision (Isa 6). O v e r t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e r e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n i n c r e a s i n g s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l elite angels, called a r c h a n g e l s . T h e first m e n t i o n of n a m e d angels a p p e a r s to b e t h e B o o k of D a n i e l ( M i c h a e l 10:13, 21 a n d 12:1; a n d G a b r i e l 8:16, 9:21). 8 3 T h e f o u r m a i n a r c h a n g e l s a r e M i c h a e l , 8 4 G a b r i e l , 8 5 R a p h a e l , 8 6 a n d Uriel, 8 7 a l t h o u g h a n u m b e r of others are n a m e d in various texts. 88 T h e t e r m " a r c h a n g e l " (αρχάγγελος) itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r in t h e L X X . 8 9 T h e w r i t i n g s n o w k n o w n as t h e A p o c r y p h a

p r o v i d e us w i t h t w o l e n g t h y tales t h a t

involve s o m e of t h e s e p r i n c i p a l angels: R a p h a e l a p p e a r s i n t h e B o o k of T o b i t (3:17, 5:4, 7:8, 9:1 a n d 5, 11:2 a n d 7, 12:15) as a c o m p a n i o n to T o b i a s ; a n d U r i e l in 4 E z r a (originally p a r t of 2 Esdras) as a n i n t e r p r e t e r of visions. B o t h t h e c r e a t i o n of a h i e r a r c h y a m o n g t h e a n g e l s as well as t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n of s o m e a n g e l s s e e m to b e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m s t h a t m a y h a v e a l l o w e d f o r a m o r e accessible n a t u r e f o r angels, w h i c h in t u m m a y h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e basis f o r a m o r e d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. T h e a u t h o r s of t h e L X X

m a d e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e decisions as t h e y

w r o t e t h e i r n e w text. O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t to us is h o w the t e r m ‫ מ ל א ך‬is r e n d e r e d in t h e L X X . I n a l a r g e n u m b e r of cases w h e r e ‫ מ ל א ך‬a p p e a r s , t h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s άγγελος. T h e cases t h a t a r e m o s t

Ezek 10; et al. Seraphim are found in Isa 6:2, 6. As noted in DDD "Angel I" (pp. 83-84), these groups were never interpreted as "angels" in any ancient texts. 82 S. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands Sewed Him. 83 According to the rabbis, the names of the angels came from the Babylonian Exile (Gen R. 18:1). On Michael and Gabriel in Daniel, see, "Michael and Gabriel: Angelological Problems in the Book of Daniel" in The Scriptures and the Scrolls, ed. F. Garcia Martinez (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992) 114-124. 84 See "Michael" in DDD 1065-1072; ABD 4:811. See also the aforementioned study by D. Hannah, Michael and Christ. 85 See "Gabriel" in DDD 640-642; ABD 2:863. 86 See "Raphael" in DDD 1299-1300; ABD 5:621. 87 See "Uriel" in DDD 1670-1672; ABD 6:769. 88 See G. Barton. "The Origin of the Names of Angels and Demons in the Extra-Canonical Apocalyptic Literature to 100 AD" JBL 31 (1912) 156-167, and Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962) 237-240. 89 Yet Michael and Gabriel appear in the Book of Daniel, and an analogous figure appears in Josh 5:13-15.

illuminating for the present study are those w h e n the L X X has taken s o m e o t h e r t e r m a n d t r a n s l a t e d it as άγγελος. The L X X of t h e B o o k of J o b is a g o o d e x a m p l e . 9 0 T h e H e b r e w t e x t of J o b c o n t a i n s t h e t e r m ‫ מ ל א ך‬only at 3 3 : 2 3 , b u t t h e L X X h a s 14 a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s to άγγελος, especially w h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e h e a v e n l y c o u n c i l in c h a p t e r l. 9 1 T h i s suggests t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e L X X of J o b e n v i s i o n e d the c o u r t scenes in p a r t i c u l a r as b e i n g p l a y e d o u t by h e a v e n l y actors. J. G a m m i e d o e s n o t see a n y specific c h a n g e s in t h e f u n c t i o n of angels in t h e L X X of J o b o v e r against t h e f u n c t i o n s of angels in t h e H e b r e w Bible. 9 2 H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e r m άγγελος is u s e d so m u c h m o r e o f t e n t h a n ‫ מ ל א ך‬in t h e H e b r e w suggests a n i n c r e a s e d interest o r i n c r e a s e d use of a n g e l l a n g u a g e t o e x p l a i n divine activity. T h e t e r m άγγελος is n o t exclusive to Biblical texts. A n g e l s a r e also f o u n d in i n s c r i p t i o n s a r o u n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n region. 9 3 I t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t h a t a n y of this m a t e r i a l suggests a close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels, h o w e v e r . V i r t u a l l y all the i n v o c a t i o n s s e e m t o b e of deities r e f e r r e d t o w i t h t h e subtitle άγγελος o r p a r t i c u l a r angels. T h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s m a y h a v e f u n c t i o n e d in a s i m i l a r w a y to t h e ritual m a g i c spells, such as p r o t e c t i o n o r curses. T h e p r e s e n c e of inscriptions t h a t use t h e t e r m " a n g e l " suggests t h a t a n g e l beliefs w e r e q u i t e w i d e s p r e a d a n d m a y h a v e s p a n n e d religious g r o u p s (Jewish, C h r i s t i a n , and pagan). M a g i c a l texts ( G r e e k , H e b r e w , a n d C o p t i c ) also m a k e m e n t i o n of angels. 9 4 A l t h o u g h m u c h of this m a t e r i a l is difficult to d a t e ( r a n g i n g a n y w h e r e f r o m t h e first t h r o u g h t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s C E ) , s o m e of the a n g e l beliefs d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e r e m a y d a t e b a c k i n t o o u r p e r i o d . 90 M. Mach discusses it in a separate section, pp. 105-113; J. Gammie, "The Angelology and Demonology in the Septuagint of the Book of Job" HUCA 56 (1985) 1-19. 91 1:6, 14, 16, 17, 18, 2:1, 4:18, 5:1, 20:15, 36:14, 38:7, 40:11, 40:19, and 41:25. 92 J . Gammie, "The Angelology," pp. 11-12. 93 A brief survey of this material is considered in W. Carr, Angels and Principalities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) 40-42. A more thorough exposition of some of the material may be found in A. R. R. Sheppard, "Pagan Cults of Angels in Roman Asia Minor" Talanta 1 2 7 7 - 1 0 1(1980-1981)13‫־‬,and S. Mitchell, Anatolia: Land, Mm, and Gods in Asia Minor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 2:45-46, 106, and 136. See also section in L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology, pp. 181-191. 94 H. D. Betz, The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation: Including the Demotic Spells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); M. Meyer and R. Smith, Ancient Christian Magic: Coptic Texts of Ritual Power (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1994); R. Lesses, "Speaking with Angels: Jewish and Greco-Egyptian Revelatory Adjurations" HTR 89 (1996) 41-60; D. Aune, "The Apocalypse of John and Magic" NTS 33 (1987) 481-501. See also section in L. Stuckenbmck, Angel Veneration, pp. 192-200.

A s u r v e y of these texts s h o w s t h a t a n g e l s a r e o f t e n called u p o n b y t h e spell-caster to p r o v i d e a w i d e v a r i e t y of services. I n p a r t i c u l a r , spells w e r e o f t e n cast for h e a l i n g of p a r t i c u l a r a i l m e n t s o r p r o t e c t i o n f r o m evil forces. T h e r e w e r e also spells f o r sexual p o t e n c y to i n c r e a s e a t t r a c t i o n to t h e o p p o s i t e sex. W h e n a n g e l s a r e i n v o k e d , it is u s u ally by n a m e . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a r c h a n g e l s G a b r i e l a n d M i c h a e l w e r e p o p u l a r , b u t R a p h a e l a n d a w i d e variety of o t h e r t h e o p h o r i c n a m e s of a n g e l s a p p e a r . 9 5 It is n o t c l e a r h o w widely these types of ritual texts w o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d . It d o e s s e e m , h o w e v e r , t h a t f o r t h o s e w h o u s e d these spells, Üiere w a s a n i n h e r e n t belief t h a t a n g e l s h a d p o w e r to h e l p t h e m . M o r e o v e r , a n g e l s (and d e m o n s ) w e r e f u n c t i o n a l p o w e r s in t h e i r w o r l d . If n o t h i n g else, t h e s e texts suggest t h a t specu l a t i o n a b o u t angels c o n t i n u e d well a f t e r o u r p e r i o d of s t u d y in a v a r i e t y of g e n r e s . T h e w i d e s p r e a d n a t u r e of a n g e l beliefs in t h e l i t e r a t u r e suggests t h a t a vast m a j o r i t y of J e w i s h g r o u p s in this p e r i o d held s o m e level of belief in angels a n d also t h a t angels w e r e p a r t of t h e w i d e r G r a e c o R o m a n culture. 9 5 N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e text f r o m t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e of t h e p e r i o d s e e m s to suggest t h a t a J e w i s h g r o u p d e n i e d t h e existence of angels, so w e will a n a l y z e it h e r e to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r it h a s b r o a d e r implications for the p r e s e n t study. D u r i n g Paul's

speech

b e f o r e t h e J e r u s a l e m c o u n c i l , A c t s 2 3 : 8 says, " F o r the S a d d u c e e s say t h a t t h e r e is n o r e s u r r e c t i o n , n o r a n g e l , n o r spirit; b u t t h e P h a r i s e e s a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m all." D . D a u b e h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t of this passage is t h e S a d d u c e a n d e n i a l of r e s u r r e c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e n i a l of t h e belief in angels. 9 7 D a u b e suggests t h a t t h e issue is w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n y r e s u r r e c t i o n in t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l o r a spirit. F o r D a u b e t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n y " t h e s p a n b e t w e e n d e a t h a n d

95

In the Testament of Solomon 22:20 (first-third centuries GE), we find the following reference to Jesus as an angel: "I [Solomon] said to him [Ephippas, a demon], 'By what angel are you thwarted?' He said, 'By the one who is going to be born of from a virgin and be crucified by the Jews.' " 96 For some interesting parallels, see Acts 14:11-12, where the Lycaonians believe Paul and Barnabas to be Hermes and Zeus respectively. From classical literature we have a number of examples where the Greek gods, in the guise of humans, visited mortals: Apollodorus, The Library 2.4.8; Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 1-56; Homer, Odyssey 17.485; Iamblichus, De mysteriis Aegyptus 1.1 (Hermes is θεός ό των λόγων); Plato, Sophist 216B; Silus Italicus 7.176; Ps-Sophocles (in Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 5.14.111), 4—6; Ovid, Metamorpheses 8.611-724·. See Geischen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 318. 97 D. Daube. "On Acts 23: Sadducees and Angels" JBL 109 (1990) 493-497. Cf. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 57-61.

r e s u r r e c t i o n , w h i c h , in w i d e s p r e a d belief, a g o o d p e r s o n s p e n d s in the r e a l m o r m o d e of a n g e l o r spirit." 9 8 T h i s line of a r g u m e n t is s u p p o r t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t L u k e d i s p a r a g e s t h e S a d d u c e e s ' d e n i a l of t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n e l s e w h e r e (cf. L u k e 2 0 : 2 7 ; A c t s 4:1). If D a u b e is c o r r e c t , t h e n t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n i e d t h e existence of angels. If D a u b e is i n c o r r e c t , it still s e e m s h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t since this r e f e r e n c e in Acts is o u r only e x t a n t d e n i a l of t h e belief in t h e e x i s t e n c e of angels b y a J e w i s h g r o u p , it m a y a c t u a l l y a c t as t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t p r o v e s t h e rule. T h a t is, L u k e m a y specifically m e n t i o n it b e c a u s e it is peculiar t h a t t h e S a d d u c e e s d o n o t believe i n angels. It is especially p e c u l i a r given the f a c t t h a t angels figure

p r o m i n e n t l y in t h e P e n t a t e u c h , w h i c h t h e S a d d u c e e s h e l d as

t h e i r scripture. 9 9 T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n o t h e r g r o u p s f r o m w h o m t h e r e is n o e x t a n t r e c o r d w h o did n o t believe in angels, b u t this s t u d y will p r o c e e d with t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e belief in a n g e l s w a s a w i d e s p r e a d , if n o t u b i q u i t o u s , p h e n o m e n o n for J e w i s h g r o u p s a n d t h a t t h o s e beliefs w e r e likely k n o w n a n d s h a r e d w i t h t h e w i d e r G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e . Lastly, a brief discussion of t h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o w a r d t h e evidence is p r o v i d e d to o r i e n t t h e r e a d e r .

1.5

Outline

T h e e v i d e n c e is e x a m i n e d in t w o p a r t s : a p p e a r a n c e a n d i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e s e t w o p a r t s r e p r e s e n t t h e m a i n ways in w h i c h angels a n d h u m a n s h a v e a r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e y c a n physically a p p e a r like o n e

another,

a n d t h e y c a n i n t e r a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r in v a r i o u s ways. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to e a c h of the t w o p a r t s p r o v i d e s t h e l a r g e r c o n text for t h e a n g e l m a t e r i a l to b e discussed. P a r t o n e c o n t a i n s t w o c h a p t e r s , t h e first of w h i c h e x a m i n e s t h e e v i d e n c e in w h i c h angels a p p e a r in t h e f o r m of h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e s e c o n d e x a m i n e s t h e evid e n c e in w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d in angelic categories. T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s is

a d d r e s s e d by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i m p a c t a p p e a r a n c e h a s o n identification. F o r i n s t a n c e , if a n a n g e l a p p e a r s in t h e f o r m of a h u m a n , d o e s it m e a n t h e r e is a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e angel? 98

D. Daube, "On Acts 23," p. 493. E. Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1971) 638; Str-B. 2:767. 99

P a r t two consists of t h r e e chapters. I n c h a p t e r 4 the evidence f o r the p o r t r a y a l of h u m a n s a n d angels living t o g e t h e r in c o m m u n i t i e s is assessed. I n c h a p t e r 5 texts t h a t discuss angels e a t i n g with a n d sharing in h u m a n hospitality are c o n s i d e r e d . I n c h a p t e r 6 the u n i q u e case of h u m a n - a n g e l h y b r i d offspring s t e m m i n g f r o m the G e n 6:1 4‫־‬ a c c o u n t is evaluated. T h e question of differentiation is considered in these instances in w h i c h t h e r e is close c o n t a c t b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. F o r e x a m p l e , does a claim t h a t angels are a m o n g those in a h u m a n c o m m u n i t y suggest t h e r e is a n e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n angels a n d m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y ? Close a n d i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t m a y n o t m e a n t h a t there is a n y identification b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of this m o n o g r a p h is largely t h e m a t i c ; t h a t is to say, m a t e r i a l is g r o u p e d b y t h e m e s such as " h u m a n s a p p e a r i n g as angels." W i t h i n e a c h c h a p t e r the m a t e r i a l is t h e n divided into subsections, w h i c h on the w h o l e discuss o n e text. E a c h c h a p t e r will h a v e a s u m m a r y conclusion section. T h e final c h a p t e r brings those conclusions together, analyzes t h e m , a n d states the implications of those conclusions for c u r r e n t scholarship. T h e necessary g r o u n d w o r k has n o w b e e n laid to p r o c e e d to the e x a m i n a t i o n of the evidence for the relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e period.

PART ONE

APPEARANCE

PART ONE APPEARANCE

Introduction T h e first p a r t of this study e x a m i n e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e i r physical f o r m o r a p p e a r a n c e . " A p p e a r a n c e " in this s t u d y will b e t a k e n to m e a n " t h e o u t w a r d f o r m as perceived ( w h e t h e r correctly o r not), especially visually." 1 Specifically, a n g e l s a p p e a r i n g in h u m a n f o r m (i.e., a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c ) a r e c o n s i d e r e d in c h a p t e r 2 a n d h u m a n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as angels (i.e., a n g e l o m o r p h i c ) in c h a p t e r 3. In attempting to understand the relationship between h u m a n s a n d angels, it is n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c r i t e r i a by w h i c h t h e t w o sets of b e i n g s m i g h t be identified o r distinguished. As a starting p o i n t , w e n o t e t h a t h u m a n s a r e flesh a n d b l o o d , w h i l e divine beings, like angels, a r e i n c o r p o r e a l . It h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d t h a t t h e

terms

‫ מ ל א ך‬a n d άγγελος h a v e t h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e to r e f e r to b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . T e r m s d e r i v e t h e i r m e a n i n g f r o m t h e i r c o n text. W h e t h e r ‫ מ ל א ך‬a n d άγγελος a r e m e a n t to r e f e r to h u m a n m e s sengers o r divine a g e n t s c a n o n l y b e d e t e r m i n e d b y l o o k i n g a t t h e i r use in p a r t i c u l a r cases. E v e n w i t h a n a w a r e n e s s of c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r , S. M e i e r says, " t h e use of t h e t e r m maPāk to i d e n t i f y b o t h

human

a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l m e s s e n g e r s results in s o m e p a s s a g e s w h e r e it is u n c l e a r w h i c h of t h e t w o is i n t e n d e d if n o f u r t h e r details a r e p r o v i d e d . " A s e x a m p l e s h e gives J u d g 2 : 1 - 5 ; 5:23; M a i 3:1; Eccl 5:5. 2 C . N e w s o m n o t e s similarly, " A s t e r m s d e n o t i n g f u n c t i o n s , b o t h aggelos a n d maPāk c a n r e f e r e q u a l l y t o h u m a n o r a n g e l i c beings. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e p a s s a g e s in w h i c h it r e m a i n s d i s p u t e d w h e t h e r t h e r e f e r e n c e is to a h e a v e n l y b e i n g o r a h u m a n o n e (see J u d g 2:1; M a i 3: l)." 3 It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t h a t , a l t h o u g h s o m e

passages

1 The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 59. "Appearance" will be used throughout rather than "form" since, as we will see, angels can appear in a variety of forms. 2 S. Meier, "Angel: I" in DDD, p. 48. 3 C. Newsom, "Angel: O T " in ABD 1:248-249. See also JE 2:957, "As a result

m a y p r e s e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i v e difficulties f o r m o d e r n r e a d e r s , it is n o t c o r r e c t to a s s u m e a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h a t a n y s u c h c o n f u s i o n existed f o r ancient authors a n d audiences. This study considers any

passages

w h e r e s u c h a m b i g u i t y m i g h t exist to see (a) w h e t h e r t h e r e is a n y lack of clarity a n d , if t h e r e is, (b) w h e t h e r this m e a n s a n identification of angels a n d h u m a n s is i n t e n d e d . A n o t h e r c r i t e r i o n s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e used in i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels is i n s t a n c e s w h e r e angels a n d h u m a n s s e e m to s h a r e physical f o r m o r a p p e a r a n c e . A

statement

f r o m C . G i e s c h e n s u m m a r i z e s t h e c o n f u s i o n t h a t c a n arise: Because angels often appear in the form of men, the distinction between what is anthropomorphic and what is angelomorphic is difficult to maintain. W h a t one person may interpret as ananthropomorphism, another could see as a concrete description of an angelomorphic figure.4 C e n t r a l to G i e s c h e n ' s s t a t e m e n t is t h e d e f i n i t i o n of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . " H e defines it as " a n inclusive a d j e c t i v e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s a p h e n o m enon that has the variegated form a n d functions, even though figure

m a y n o t b e explicitly identified as a n a n g e l . "

5

C.

the

Fletcher-

L o u i s d e f i n e s a n g e l o m o r p h i c as " w h e r e v e r t h e r e a r e signs t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l o r c o m m u n i t y possesses specifically angelic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r status, t h o u g h for w h o m i d e n t i t y c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to t h a t of a n a n g e l . " H e a d d s , " I n this c a s e w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r d a n g e l t o b e d e f i n e d b y t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d motifs w h i c h c o m m o n l y o c c u r across a b r o a d s p r e a d of J e w i s h texts f r o m t h e seco n d T e m p l e a n d early r a b b i n i c p e r i o d s . " 6 A m o n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a n g e l i c i d e n t i t y t h a t F l e t c h e r - L o u i s o u t l i n e s a r e : g i g a n t i s m , irid e s c e n c e , w e a r i n g of s y m b o l i c c l o t h i n g , a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

the

a n g e l i c c o m m u n i t y a n d liturgy. T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h e a r g u e s , c a n b e a p p l i e d to h u m a n s in s o m e a n c i e n t texts, t h e r e f o r e a l l o w i n g us t o speak of a n " a n g e l o m o r p h i c

humanity."7

T h e s e t w o d e f i n i t i o n s of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " a r e b r o a d l y inclusive: f o r m , f u n c t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d status. I n s o m e w a y s s u c h b r o a d

of this diversity, there are some passages where it is uncertain whether a human or superhuman messenger is meant." 4 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1997) '28. 5 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 27-28. 6 G. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997) 14-15. 7 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 211-225.

c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s o n l y c l o u d t h e discussion. D . H a n n a h is m o r e exclusive in his use of the t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " with r e g a r d to Christology. H e c o n f i n e s its use to i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e r e a r e "visual p o r t r a y a l s of C h r i s t in t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l . " H e a d d s , " T h i s , m o r e precise use of t h e t e r m t h a n t h a t f o u n d in m a n y r e c e n t studies, c o n f i n e s t h e w o r d to its literal m e a n i n g : C h r i s t in t h e f o r m (μορφή) of a n a n g e l . " 8 H i s m o r e exclusive use of the t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " is p r e f e r a b l e , since it allows f o r a precise r e l a t i o n of t h e t e r m to visual p h e n o m e n a . T h e physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a n angel in h u m a n f o r m (or conversely, a h u m a n d e s c r i b e d in a n g e l i c terms) d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two. T h u s , t h e use of t h e t e r m

"angelo-

m o r p h i c " w i t h r e g a r d to h u m a n i t y s h o u l d b e c o n f i n e d to t h e visual— t h a t is, to d e s c r i b e t h e w a y i n w h i c h s o m e h u m a n s a r e

portrayed

visually. U s i n g t h e t e r m m o r e b r o a d l y f o r all of h u m a n i t y o b f u s c a t e s t h e discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. W h a t is n e e d e d , t h e n , for this s t u d y is to survey the v a r i e t y of w a y s in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r in t h e w r i t i n g s f r o m this p e r i o d so as to o b t a i n a n a c c u r a t e i d e a of w h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m i g h t rightly b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e constitutive of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . " T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e p e r i o d f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels fits i n t o t h r e e categories: (1) cases in w h i c h n o p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a n g e l is given; (2) cases i n w h i c h angels a p p e a r in h u m a n f o r m , o r a n t h r o p o m o r phically. T h i s c a t e g o r y will b e t h e f o c u s of c h a p t e r 2; a n d (3) a n g e l o p h a n i e s — c a s e s in w h i c h t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l is p r e s e n t in t h e text. First, t h e vast m a j o r i t y of i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e t e r m s ‫ מ ל א ך‬/ ά γ γ ε λ ο ς in t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d s e e m to r e f e r to t h e h e a v e n l y o r d e r of c r e a t u r e s o m i t a n y physical d e s c r i p t i o n (e.g., G e n 16; J u d g 2 : 1 4 ‫; ־‬ L u k e 1; Acts 11:13; G a l 3:19; R e v 8 1 6 ‫ ־‬1 0 ,

1 4 ‫; ־‬

to g l e a n m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m m a n y of t h e s e i n s t a n c e s

et al.). It is difficult because

t h e c o n t e x t r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s as to w h e t h e r t h e seer is a w a r e t h a t t h e a n g e l is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n . It is u n c e r t a i n h o w best to i n t e r p r e t this i n f o r m a t i o n . It c o u l d suggest t h a t t h e r e w a s a w i d e l y u n d e r s t o o d o r g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d i d e a

8

D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early Christianity (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 13.

of h o w angels looked, such t h a t o n m o s t occasions n o description would b e necessary. O n the o t h e r h a n d , it m i g h t suggest t h e r e was little interest in such m a t t e r s , the interest instead b e i n g in the f u n c tion of angels, w h a t e v e r their a p p e a r a n c e . T h i s question will h a v e to r e m a i n o p e n , since the evidence simply does n o t provide a n y clues as to h o w to a d j u d i c a t e . W e n o t e h e r e briefly t h a t the second category into w h i c h the evidence of angel a p p e a r a n c e can be organized is instances w h e r e angels a p p e a r in the f o r m of h u m a n beings, a n d in a subset of those, angels are said to a p p e a r as y o u t h f u l males. T h e r e are also cases w h e r e a b e i n g is r e f e r r e d to as a " m a n , " b u t the c o n t e x t suggests t h a t it m a y be a n angel. 111 the third classification f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels t h e r e are specific ( n o n - a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c ) visual c o m p o n e n t s associated with the m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels. T h e m o s t c o m m o n characteristics of this i m a g e r y are: (a) a l u m i n o u s or fiery a p p e a r a n c e a n d (b) an awes o m e / f r i g h t e n i n g a p p e a r a n c e t h a t often leads to falling to die g r o u n d (in fear a n d / o r reverence). (a) Luminous/Fieiy

Appearance

Angels sometimes are k n o w n to a p p e a r with brilliant light. T h e Angel of the L o r d a p p e a r s in the b u r n i n g b u s h (Exod 3:2; cf. Acts 7:30). I n M a t t 28:3 the Angel of the L o r d is said to h a v e a n a p p e a r a n c e t h a t " w a s like lightning, a n d his r a i m e n t white as s n o w . " Also, in Acts 12:7, a n Angel of the L o r d a p p e a r s , " a n d a light s h o n e in the cell." Angels are also s o m e t i m e s described as stars (e.g.. J o b 38:7; R e v 1:20; 1 En. 23; 1 En. 104:2, 4, 6). T h e righteous are even said to be t r a n s f o r m e d into stars after their d e a t h in 2 Bar. 5 1 : 3 - 1 3 . In the D e a d Sea Scrolls, the " P r i n c e of L i g h t " is t h o u g h t by m o s t scholars to be equivalent to the angel M i c h a e l (and also Melchizedek), so this w o u l d indicate a relationship b e t w e e n a n angel a n d light. I n R e v 10:1 the seer describes the angel in his vision: " T h e n I saw a n o t h e r m i g h t y angel c o m i n g d o w n f r o m h e a v e n , w r a p p e d in a cloud, with a r a i n b o w over his h e a d , a n d his face was like the sun, a n d his legs like pillars of fire" (cf. R e v 19:17). Interestingly in 2 C o r 11:14, Paul w a r n s t h a t " e v e n S a t a n m a y a p p e a r as a n angel of light". T h i s suggests t h a t Paul, m u c h like m a n y of his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , believed t h a t otherworldly beings h a v e the

ability to s h a p e - s h i f t (cf. A c t s 14:12). M o r e o v e r , S a t a n c a n d e c e i v e p e o p l e b y t a k i n g o n t h e f o r m of a n " a n g e l of light." T h i s suggests t h a t p e r h a p s o n e s o u r c e f o r t r u e r e v e l a t i o n w a s e x p e c t e d to b e a luminous messenger. I n t h e Apocalyse of Zephaniah

6:11

14 t h e a n g e l E r m i e l is d e s c r i b e d :

T h e n I arose and stood, and I saw a great angel standing before me with his face shining like the rays of the sun in its glory since his face is like that which is perfected in its glory. And he was girded as if a golden girdle were upon his breast. His feet were like bronze which is melted in a fire. And when I saw him, I rejoiced, for I thought that the Lord Almighty h a d come to visit me. I fell u p o n my face a n d worshipped him. T h i s is e v e n seen in writings f r o m die N a g H a m m a d i literature ( C o d e x II, 4). T h e Hypostasis

of the Archons

9 3 : 1 3 - 2 2 describes the

angel

Eleleth: Now as for that angel, I cannot speak of his power: his appearance is like fine gold and his raiment is like snow. No, truly, my mouth cannot bear to speak of his power a n d the appearance of his face. Eleleth, the great angel, spoke to me. "It is I," he said, "who a m understanding. I a m one of the four light-givers, who stand in the presence of the great invisible spirit." 9 T h i s brief s u r v e y of t h e e v i d e n c e across a v a r i e t y of texts ( a n d in several texts to b e c o n s i d e r e d below) i n d i c a t e s t h a t brilliance

and

fiery a p p e a r a n c e s e e m to b e fairly c o m m o n i m a g e r y associated w i t h t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels. H o w e v e r , D . H a n n a h , in a c r i t i q u e of Gieschen, w a m s against overemphasizing imagery: If a figure appears robed in light 01‫ ־‬with feet and legs aflame like molten bronze 01‫ ׳‬with a face shining like the sun and/01‫ ־‬lightning, then Gieschen, among others, automatically assumes we are dealing with an angel or angelomorphic being. T h e fact is that apocalypses describe heavenly beings, be they God, angels, exalted patriarchs, cherub i m / s e r a p h i m , or whatever in broadly similar terms. 10 N e v e r t h e l e s s , i m a g e r y is i m p o r t a n t . N o r a r e t h e a p o c a l y p s e s t h e only g e n r e in w h i c h this type of i m a g e r y c a n b e f o u n d . If c e r t a i n i m a g e r y is r e g u l a r l y associated w i t h angels, t h e n it s e e m s t h a t w e c a n

9

say

Translation from R. Bullard and B. Layton, in 77w Nag Hammadi Library in English, ed. J . Robinson (New York: Harper Collins, 1988) 161-170. 10 D. Hannah, Review of C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christolog}‫׳‬, in JTS 51 (2000)235.

t h a t a being d e m o n s t r a t i n g such characteristics is " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " w i t h o u t saying t h a t the b e i n g is a n angel. T a k e n f r o m the reverse perspective, a n angel m a y b e " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c " w i t h o u t being a h u m a n being. G i v e n this m o r e restricted use of the t e r m "angelom o r p h i c , " h o w e v e r , it will rarely be applicable to h u m a n beings. (b) Fear and. Falling to the Ground A n o t h e r characteristic c o m m o n l y associated with the m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels is fear a n d often falling to the g r o u n d o n the p a r t of the seer. Again, b e g i n n i n g with the Angel of the L o r d , we see in N u m 22:31, " T h e n the L o r d o p e n e d the eyes of B a l a a m , a n d h e saw the angel of the L o r d s t a n d i n g in the way, with his d r a w n sword in his h a n d ; a n d h e b o w e d his h e a d , a n d fell o n his face." T h e r e is n o physical description of the angel, b u t o n c e B a l a a m is able to see the angel, h e is reverent. I n M a t t 2 8 : 4 - 5 the A n g e l of the L o r d o p e n s the t o m b of Jesus, a n d " f o r fear of h i m [the A n g e l of the L o r d ] the g u a r d s t r e m b l e d a n d b e c a m e like d e a d m e n . B u t the angel said to the w o m e n , ' D o n o t be afraid; for I k n o w t h a t y o u seek J e s u s w h o was c r u c i f i e d ' " ; also, Luke 1 : 1 1 - 1 2 has, " A n d t h e r e a p p e a r e d to h i m an angel of the L o r d standing on the right side of the altar of incense. A n d Z e c h a r i a h was t r o u b l e d w h e n h e saw him, a n d fear fell u p o n h i m " (cf. L u k e 1:30). I C h r 21:20 records the a p p e a r a n c e of a n angel t h a t causes fear, " N o w O m a n was t h r e s h i n g w h e a t ; h e t u r n e d a n d saw the angel, a n d his f o u r sons w h o w e r e with h i m hid themselves." Interestingly in D a n 8 : 1 6 1 7 ‫ ־‬the angel G a b r i e l is called a " m a n , " yet his presence causes fear in Daniel, " A n d I h e a r d a m a n ' s voice b e t w e e n the b a n k s of the Ulai, a n d it called, ' G a b r i e l , m a k e this m a n u n d e r s t a n d the vision.' So h e c a m e n e a r w h e r e I stood; a n d w h e n h e c a m e , I was f r i g h t e n e d a n d fell u p o n m y f a c e . " I n Acts 10:3 4‫ ־‬t h e angel w h o a p p e a r s to the c e n t u r i o n , Cornelius, causes t e r r o r in the soldier: About the ninth hour of the day he saw clearly in a vision an angel of God coming in and saying to him, "Cornelius." And he stared at him in terror, and said, "What is it, Lord?" And he said to him, "Your prayers and your alms have ascended as a memorial before God." All these e x a m p l e s suggest t h a t a c o m m o n reaction to the m a n i f e s tation of a n angel to a h u m a n is fear. T h i s seems to imply t h a t in at least the cases m e n t i o n e d , t h e r e is likely n o e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n the

t w o beings. T h e h u m a n s a r e f e a r f u l specifically b e c a u s e t h e a n g e l is a w e s o m e in s o m e respect. A m o n g t h e e v i d e n c e of t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels l e a d i n g t o t h e seer falling to t h e g r o u n d a r e s o m e cases in w h i c h t h e r e a s o n f o r falling to t h e g r o u n d is i n t e n t to w o r s h i p t h e b e i n g . " W h e n J o s h u a is told t h e t r u e i d e n t i t y of t h e b e i n g b e f o r e h i m in J o s h 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 , h e falls to t h e g r o u n d to w o r s h i p (cf. E z e k 1:28; 1 En. Mart.

14:14). In t h e

Ascen. Isa. 7:21 t h e p r o p h e t says, " A n d I fell o n m y f a c e to

w o r s h i p h i m , a n d t h e a n g e l w h o led m e w o u l d n o t let m e , b u t said to m e , ' W o r s h i p n e i t h e r t h r o n e , n o r angel f r o m t h e six h e a v e n s f r o m w h e r e I w a s sent to lead y o u , before I tell y o u in the seventh h e a v e n . ' " Similarly, in R e v 19:10, " T h e n I fell d o w n at his feet to w o r s h i p h i m , b u t h e said to m e , ' Y o u m u s t n o t d o that! I a m a fellow serv a n t w i t h y o u a n d y o u r b r e t h r e n w h o h o l d t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s . W o r s h i p G o d ' " (cf. R e v 22:8). O n c e a g a i n , t h e i d e a t h a t

humans

w o u l d a t t e m p t to w o r s h i p angels implies at least s o m e i n e q u a l i t y of status b e t w e e n

them.

T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of f e a r a n d falling to t h e g r o u n d is n o t limited to a n g e l o p h a n i e s , h o w e v e r . It s e e m s to b e a n a s p e c t of e n c o u n t e r i n g divine b e i n g generally. So in E x o d 3:6 at t h e b u r n i n g b u s h M o s e s h i d e s his face b e c a u s e h e is a f r a i d to look a t G o d . F e a r t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s will die if t h e y see G o d is a r e c u r r i n g t h e m e (cf. E x o d 20:19), a n d in t w o cases in J u d g 6 : 2 3 a n d 13:22 (as well as E x o d 3:2) t h e h u m a n s h a v e a c t u a l l y seen t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a n d f e a r d e a t h as if t h e y h a v e seen G o d . S o t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e l e m e n t s o f t e n s e e m to b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a n a n g e l in t h e e a r t h l y r e a l m . T h e s e cases suggest a t least t h a t t h e angels a r e a p p e a r i n g n o t in h u m a n f o r m b u t in a m o r e a w e s o m e f o r m w i t h b r i g h t light t h a t c a u s e s the s e e r to fall to t h e g r o u n d in f e a r o r w o r s h i p . T h e e v i d e n c e of this c a t e g o r y suggests t h a t , in a t least t h e s e cases, t h e r e c a n b e n o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. T h i s is only a subset of t h e large b o d y of e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r . It is i m p o r t a n t , t h e n , b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e analysis of texts to s u m m a r i z e a n d d e f i n e fairly precisely w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e t e r m " a n g e l " in this investigation. A g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n of a n a n g e l is " a h e a v e n l y /

11

On the issue of angel veneration, see L. Struckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology. A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse of John (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995) for a thorough survey, esp. pp. 81 85.

divine being t h a t m e d i a t e s between the earthly a n d heavenly realms." M o r e specifically, t h o u g h , a n A N G E L is a b e i n g that: (1) H a s as a p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n the delivery of G o d ' s m e s s a g e / p l a n to h u m a n beings (and s o m e t i m e s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h a t message). (2) Typically resides in h e a v e n b u t also travels to e a r t h to p e r f o r m various tasks. (3) Is able to alter its f o r m (e.g., c a n be a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c ) , especially w h e n o n e a r t h . (4) Is n o t b o u n d by limitations of the earthly r e a l m , such as the passage of time, d e a t h , h u n g e r , sexual desire, etc. T o this m o r e specific u n d e r s t a n d i n g , two m o r e pieces of i n f o r m a tion m a y b e a d d e d w h e n a n angel a p p e a r s to h u m a n beings (an angelophany): (1) T h e angel will often h a v e a fiery/luminous a p p e a r a n c e , a n d (2) T h e angel will often cause f e a r / f a l l i n g to the g r o u n d in the seer. T h i s definition of angel c a n b e a u g m e n t e d or s u p p o r t e d by the following definitions. A N G E L O M O R P H I C — r e f e r s t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a n a n g e l . S o m e t h i n g t h a t is " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " looks like an angel (as described above). T h i s t e r m , t h e n , should be e m p l o y e d in parallel with the t e r m " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c . " J u s t as G o d c a n be u n d e r s t o o d in " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c " t e r m s w i t h o u t b e i n g a h u m a n being, so too a h u m a n m a y be c o n s i d e r e d " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " w i t h o u t being a n angel. G O D — t h e c r e a t o r , resides in h e a v e n , is t r a n s c e n d e n t , is u n s e e n a n d u n k n o w a b l e (except t h r o u g h m e d i a t i o n ) to those in the h u m a n r e a l m . G o d is served by a m y r i a d of h e a v e n l y / d i v i n e beings t h a t also reside in h e a v e n , b u t these beings are n o t e q u a l to G o d . H U M A N — t h e species Homo sapiens, c r e a t e d by G o d , b o u n d by physical limitations, especially the passage of time, mortality, h u n g e r , sexual desire, etc. T h e y are u n a b l e to alter their physical f o r m a n d u n a b l e to r e a c h the heavenly r e a l m of their o w n accord. E A R T H L Y — t h i n g s p e r t a i n i n g to the physical world of t h e senses, c r e a t e d by G o d . H E A V E N L Y — t h i n g s p e r t a i n i n g to the spiritual world (could also be referred to as otherworldly). It is the r e a l m of G o d a n d the o t h e r h e a v e n l y / d i v i n e beings. Related to this definition is the t e r m D I V I N E , w h i c h often has the s a m e m e a n i n g as H E A V E N L Y . A possible solu-

tion to s o m e of the l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m s scholars currently face m i g h t be limiting the use of the t e r m " d i v i n e " to G o d , while using " h e a v enly" for the m y r i a d of beings t h a t reside in the h e a v e n s . S u c h a c h a n g e , h o w e v e r , works very m u c h against c o n v e n t i o n a l uses, so for the p u r p o s e s of this study, H E A V E N L Y a n d D I V I N E will b e used interchangeably.

CHAPTER TWO " B L I N D E D BY T H E A N G E L S AS H U M A N

LIGHT": BEINGS

I n this c h a p t e r t h e texts in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r in t h e f o r m of h u m a n b e i n g s as well as a p p a r e n t l y divine b e i n g s t h a t a r e r e f e r r e d to as " m e n " a r e e x a m i n e d . I n a n u m b e r of texts, m a n y f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible, a n g e l s a r e d e s c r i b e d as a p p e a r i n g in t h e f o r m of h u m a n s a n d a r e e v e n i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m h u m a n s until t h e i r t r u e n a t u r e is revealed. I n s o m e o t h e r texts, a n g e l s a r e d e s c r i b e d as y o u n g m e n . T h e evidence indicates that, even with such a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of angels, t h e y r e m a i n e d distinct f r o m h u m a n s .

2.1

The Book of Genesis

I n t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s existed side b y side w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h o s e s a m e s c r i p t u r e s i n t o G r e e k , t h e S e p t u a g i n t ( L X X ) , a n d p e r h a p s also into A r a m a i c , t h e T a r g u m i m . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e w e r e a l t e r n a t i v e versions of t h e P e n t a t e u c h , s u c h as J u b i l e e s , t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , a n d t h e S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h c i r c u l a t i n g . T h e H e b r e w Bible as it is n o w k n o w n c o m e s to us prim a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e m e d i e v a l M a s o r e t e s . 1 T h u s it c a n n o t be g u a r a n t e e d t h a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r passage h a s b e e n a c c u r a t e l y t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m S e c o n d T e m p l e t i m e s t h r o u g h to t h e p r e s e n t , n o r t h a t it w a s t r e a t e d as n o r m a t i v e b y all J e w s a t t h a t time. T h e safest p a t h , t h e n , is t o c o n s i d e r w h a t all v e r s i o n s t h a t w o u l d h a v e (or at least a r e likely to have) existed in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d h a v e to say a b o u t t h e selected passages. (a) Genesis In G e n

18-19

18:1 3‫ ״‬A b r a h a m , w h o is resting in his t e n t f r o m t h e m i d -

d a y h e a t , sees t h r e e m e n ( • ‫ ) ש ל ש ה א נ ש י‬. H e h u r r i e s o u t to g r e e t t h e m a n d o f f e r t h e m hospitality in his t e n t : 1

But the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has provided us with some direct knowledge of the Hebrew Scriptures in the Second Temple period (e.g., the Isaiah scroll).

[1] And the Lord appeared to him [Abraham] by the oaks of M a m r e , as he sat at the door of his tent in the heat of the day. [2] H e lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold, three m e n stood in front of him. W h e n he saw them, he ran from the tent door to meet them, and bowed himself to the earth, [3] and said, " M y lord, if I have found favour in your sight, do not pass by your servant." T h e c l a u s e , " A n d t h e L o r d a p p e a r e d to h i m " acts as a sort of i n t r o d u c t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e setting m a t e r i a l , " a s h e [ A b r a h a m ] sat at the d o o r of his t e n t in t h e h e a t of t h e d a y " (v. 1). It is n o t entirely c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e L o r d a p p e a r s to A b r a h a m s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e t h r e e " m e n , " b u t l a t e r w e find t h a t " t w o " m e n = angels g o o n t o S o d o m ( G e n 19:1a, 5, 8, 12, 16), while A b r a h a m d e b a t e s w i t h t h e L o r d ( G e n 18:22). T h i s suggests t h a t o n e of t h e t h r e e " m e n " is m e a n t to b e t h e L o r d . 2 T h e visitors tell A b r a h a m t h a t , a l t h o u g h b o t h h e a n d his wife S a r a h a r e e x t r e m e l y old, t h e y will n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e a child (v. 10). T h i s p r o n o u n c e m e n t fulfills G o d ' s p r o m i s e of p r o g e n y to A b r a h a m ( G e n 12:2; 17:2 ) a n d is a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e a s o n for d i e visit to A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h , since o n c e t h e n e w s is d e l i v e r e d , t h e " m e n " set o u t f r o m t h e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y A b r a h a m (v. 16). S o t h e b e i n g s c a r r y o u t a n angelic f u n c t i o n : delivery of a d i v i n e m e s s a g e . T h e n t h e L o r d b e g i n s to tell A b r a h a m a b o u t t h e f a t e of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ( w . 1 7 - 2 1 ) . T h e " m e n " t u m a w a y f r o m t h e r e a n d h e a d to S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h (v. 22), l e a v i n g A b r a h a m t o p l e a d w i t h t h e L o r d o n b e h a l f of a n y r i g h t e o u s in S o d o m ( w . 2 2 3 3 ‫ ) ־‬. Chapter

19 b e g i n s b y s e e m i n g l y r e f e r r i n g to t h e t w o m e n

who

h a d left t h e L o r d a n d A b r a h a m (18:22) as " t w o a n g e l s " ( ‫)שני ה מ א ל פ י ם‬. T h e t w o a r r i v e in S o d o m in t h e e v e n i n g (v. 1). L o t g r e e t s t h e visit o r s w i t h a n e n t r e a t y to r e m a i n w i t h h i m t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t . H i s w o r d s e c h o t h o s e of A b r a h a m t o his t h r e e visitors. T h e visitors a g r e e t o stay w i t h L o t a f t e r first saying d i e y w o u l d r e m a i n in t h e street (v. 2). L o t f e e d s t h e m e n (v. 3). B e f o r e t h e visitors a r e a b l e to settie in f o r t h e n i g h t , h o w e v e r , t h e t o w n s m e n s u r r o u n d L o t ' s h o u s e , d e m a n d i n g t h e m e n b e given t o t h e m . T h e visitors a r e o n c e a g a i n r e f e r r e d t o as a n g e l s in v. 15, w h e n t h e y w a r n L o t t o leave t h e city with his f a m i l y o r b e d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h t h e city.

Immediately

2 A. Johnson has noted that there is often an ambiguity between the singular and plural in the Hebrew Bible when referring to the Godhead. This ambiguity is seen particularly when the Angel of the Lord is mentioned (e.g., Judg 6 and 13) but also where angels are present, such as Gen 18 and 32. A. Johnson, The One and the Many in the Israelite Conception of God (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1961).

a f t e r t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o as " a n g e l s " in v. 15, in v. 16 " t h e m e n " seize L o t a n d his f a m i l y a n d e n s u r e t h e y leave t h e city b e f o r e t h e d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t c o m e s in v. 24. N o m o r e is said a b o u t t h e " m e n . " C h a p t e r s 18 a n d 19 s e e m to b e a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e . T h e t w o " m e n " w h o leave G o d a n d A b r a h a m in 18:16 s e e m to b e t h e s a m e t w o b e i n g s d e s c r i b e d as " a n g e l s " in c h a p t e r 19. J . V a n S e t e r s h a s a r g u e d persuasively o n t h e basis of linguistic analysis t h a t t h e t w o c h a p t e r s s e e m to m a k e o n e n a r r a t i v e . 3 E v e n if t h e t w o t r a d i t i o n s o r i g i n a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , t h e y a r e p r e s e r v e d t o g e t h e r f r o m t h e earliest r e c o r d s , so it s e e m s safe to c o n s i d e r t h e m as a u n i f i e d n a r r a t i v e . T o understand how Gen 1 8 1 9

‫־‬

as well as a n y o t h e r H e b r e w Bible

texts w e r e b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , it is necessary to e x a m i n e t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e v a r i o u s e x t a n t sources ( L X X , Q u m r a n , etc.) f r o m t h a t p e r i o d . I n this s u b s e c t i o n , t h e v a r ious s o u r c e s will b e m a r k e d o u t w i t h h e a d i n g s for clarity. T h e s a m e m e t h o d — e x a m i n i n g all t h e e x t a n t late S e c o n d T e m p l e

interpreta-

tions of Biblical texts—will b e e m p l o y e d t h r o u g h o u t this m o n o g r a p h , e v e n if t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s a r e n o t m a r k e d o u t w i t h h e a d i n g s . (i) The

Septuagint

T h e L X X m a i n t a i n s t h e s a m e t e r m s as t h e H e b r e w in t h e M a s o r e t i c text. G e n 18:2 says t h e r e w e r e " t h r e e m e n " (τρεις άνδρες), w h i c h is m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t c h a p t e r 18. C h a p t e r 19 says " t h e t w o a n g e l s " (oi δύο άγγελοι) a r r i v e d in S o d o m . T h e r e a r e n o significant v a r i a n t s . It is difficult, if n o t impossible, t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t t h e old G r e e k o r Hebrew

Vorlage said. T h e L X X , t h e n , is m o s t useful in telling us

w h a t a t least o n e set of J e w i s h i n t e r p r e t e r s f r o m t h e p e r i o d

were

t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e b e i n g in this p a s s a g e . P r e s u m a b l y the author(s) of t h e L X X w o u l d h a v e seen G e n 1 8 - 1 9 m u c h as it w a s told in t h e H e b r e w t r a d i t i o n . T h r e e visitors c a m e to A b r a h a m , t w o a n g e l s a n d t h e L o r d , likely in h u m a n f o r m . T h e angels w e n t o n to S o d o m to see to t h e salvation of L o t a n d his f a m i l y . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e n a r r a t i v e , t h e h u m a n s i n v o l v e d d o n o t s e e m a b l e to d i s c e r n t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e " m e n . " A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e " m e n " s e e m to b e m o r e t h a n m e r e l y h u m a n beings: o n e , explicitly called t h e L o r d , d e b a t e s w i t h A b r a h a m a b o u t t h e f a t e of S o d o m , w h i l e t h e o t h e r t w o , w h o a r e t h e n called angels, see to the salvation of L o t a n d his family.

s J. Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975) 214-216.

(ii) The Dead Sea Scrolls N o n e of t h e e x t a n t Biblical f r a g m e n t s of G e n e s i s f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls c o n t a i n s c h a p t e r s 18—19. H o w e v e r , in a small f r a g m e n t k n o w n as " 4 Q A g e s of C r e a t i o n " ( 4 Q 1 8 0 ) , w h i c h h a s b e e n d a t e d o n p a l e o g r a p h i c g r o u n d s to t h e first c e n t u r y C E , f r a g m e n t s 2 4 ‫ ־‬i n c l u d e a s t a t e m e n t t h a t s e e m s to r e f e r to G e n

18. 4 S i n c e t h e text is f r a g -

m e n t a r y , its g e n r e c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h a n y c o n f i d e n c e . It d o e s s e e m , h o w e v e r , given t h e v a r i o u s allusions t o P e n t a t e u c h a l n a r ratives, as if t h e f r a g m e n t is o n e of a n u m b e r of texts f r o m a m o n g t h e finds a t Q u m r a n t h a t r e p r e s e n t a r e w o r k i n g o r m i d r a s h of t h e Biblical texts. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , f r a g m e n t 1 m a k e s r e f e r e n c e to A z a z e l a n d also t o t h e " a n g e l s " to w h o m a r e b o r n t h e g i a n t s ( p e r h a p s a reference to G e n 6 or 1

En.).

T h e s h o r t r e f e r e n c e in f r a g m e n t 2 says, " [ m e ] n f r o m t h e o a k s of M a m r e a n g e l s [ ‫ ] מ ל א כ י ם‬t h e y [. . .]" 5 T h o u g h f r a g m e n t a r y , t h e statem e n t s e e m s t o r e f e r to G e n 18:1 a n d calls t h e visitors " a n g e l s . " T h i s is n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y s u r p r i s i n g exegesis, since r e a d i n g c h a p t e r s

18

a n d 19 of G e n e s i s as a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e leads to t h e s a m e c o n elusion, b u t 4 Q 1 8 0 p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e t h a t a t least o n e

interpreter

was making the connection. (iii) The Book of Jubilees T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s ( Jub.)

largely tells its tale in t h e first p e r s o n

f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of a n a n g e l of P r e s e n c e , w h o in 1 : 2 7 - 2 8 is told b y G o d t o i n s t r u c t M o s e s a b o u t t h e " c r e a t i o n until m y s a n c t u a r y is built in t h e i r m i d s t f o r e v e r a n d e v e r . " A t 16:1 the G e n

18 n a r r a -

tive is r e c o u n t e d , " A n d o n t h e n e w m o o n of t h e f o u r t h m o n t h , w e a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m a t t h e o a k of M a m r e a n d w e t a l k e d w i t h h i m a n d w e also c a u s e d h i m to k n o w t h a t a son w o u l d b e g i v e n t o h i m b y S a r a h , his w i f e . " T h e

first-person

plural " w e " indicates that the

speaker is identifying himself as o n e of the diree w h o visited A b r a h a m — e i t h e r the L o r d o r his c o m p a n i o n angels. Also a t 18:7, t h e angels record that "we saved Lot because the L o r d r e m e m b e r e d

Abraham

a n d h e b r o u g h t h i m o u t f r o m t h e m i d s t of t h e o v e r t h r o w . " Jub.

4

is a retelling of t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n e s i s t h r o u g h E x o d

12,

See HJPAJC III.i:421-422 and 318-325. Original text by J. Allegro in DJD F (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1968) pp. 77-79, pi. xxvii. 5

w h i c h is n o t unlike a n u m b e r of texts f o u n d a t Q u m r a n , s u c h as t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . T h e p r e s e n c e of c o p i e s of Jub. a t Q u m r a n . as well as a r e f e r e n c e t o Jub.

in t h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t

1 6 : 3 - 4 ) , m e a n s it d a t e s t o n o l a t e r t h a n a r o u n d

(CD

100 B C E . Jib.

is

p r e s e n t e d as a r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s a t Sinai b y a n " a n g e l of t h e P r e s e n c e . " T h e a n g e l o f t e n speaks in t h e first-person

first-person

singular

and

p l u r a l w h e n associating himself w i t h o t h e r angels. T h i s

is u n i q u e in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e p e r i o d . It s e e m s c o r r e c t t o i n f e r h e r e , t h e n , t h a t t h e a u t h o r of Jub.

has

i d e n t i f i e d t h e a n g e l of t h e P r e s e n c e as also h a v i n g a p p e a r e d Abraham

l o n g a g o . Jub.

to

r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e

G e n e s i s story in w h i c h a n a n g e l is t h e visitor to A b r a h a m .

The

angels' p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n is to deliver t h e n e w s of S a r a h ' s p r e g n a n c y b u t also to save L o t . Jub.,

t h e n , r e p r e s e n t s a witness to t h e o n g o i n g

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n e s i s in t h e earliest p e r i o d . It focuses o n angels a n d uses t h e m as n a r r a t o r s in t h e tale of t h e i r visit to A b r a h a m . (iv) Josephus J o s e p h u s ' Antiquities

(Ant.) p r e s e n t s J e w i s h h i s t o r y f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n

t h r o u g h his o w n d a y . I n Ant. 1.196 J o s e p h u s says t h a t A b r a h a m " s a w t h r e e a n g e l s [αγγέλους] a n d t a k i n g t h e m t o b e s t r a n g e r s [ κ α ί ν ο μ ί σ α ς ε ί ν α ι ξ έ ν ο υ ς ] , a r o s e a n d saluted t h e m . " It is n o t entirely c l e a r in J o s e p h u s w h e t h e r A b r a h a m k n e w t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e t h r e e m e n , b u t h e n e v e r t h e l e s s t r e a t e d t h e m as h e w o u l d a n y h u m a n g u e s t to his h o m e . W e l e a r n f r o m J o s e p h u s t h a t t h e angels (άγγελοι) w h o h a d visited A b r a h a m , u p o n arrival in S o d o m , w e r e " y o u n g m e n of r e m a r k a b l y fair a p p e a r a n c e [τους ν ε α ν ί σ κ ο υ ς ε ύ π ρ ε π ε ί α της όψεως]" (200). J o s e p h u s w r o t e in R o m e in t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y C E . H i s w r i t i n g s w e r e i n t e n d e d f o r a G r a e c o - R o m a n a u d i e n c e . It m a k e s sense t h a t h e m i g h t h a v e a d a p t e d a s p e c t s of his w r i t i n g s to fit his c u l t u r a l milieu. J o s e p h u s uses t h e t e r m άγγελος to m e a n b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . 6 H o w e v e r , in s o m e places w h e r e f r o m t h e

6

It seems clear that occurrences of άγγελος in the B.J. and Vita refer to human messengers. However, when we get to the Ant., we see άγγελος being used in places where we would expect the term to mean divine being from the Hebrew Scripture. Two noticeable exceptions are 1:200 and 5:279 (Gen 19 and Judg 13), where the term νεανίοα/νεανίσκοι occurs. It is interesting to note that in the famous passage on the war (3:400), when Josephus recounts his proclamation to Vespasian that he would become Caesar, Josephus says that he came to Vespasian δ' άγγελος.

Biblical texts w e m i g h t e x p e c t angels, J o s e p h u s c h o o s e s o t h e r t e r m s , s u c h as " y o u n g m e n , " to c o n v e y his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e d i v i n e b e i n g s to his a u d i e n c e . (v) Philo I n Ahr. 107 P h i l o says t h a t A b r a h a m ' s visitors in G e n 18 w e r e " t h r e e t r a v e l e r s in t h e f o r m of m e n , w h o s e m o r e divine n a t u r e w a s n o t a p p a r e n t to h i m [ A b r a h a m ] . " 7 H o w e v e r , P h i l o m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e visitors w e r e i n d e e d angels, saying t h e y visited A b r a h a m b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e c e r t a i n of his v i r t u e so t h a t " a n g e l s r e c e i v e d hospitality f r o m m e n " (115). P h i l o J u d a e u s w a s a J e w w h o lived in A l e x a n d r i a , E g y p t , a n d w a s a close c o n t e m p o r a r y of b o t h J e s u s a n d P a u l (c. 30 B C E ‫ ־‬c . 5 0 C E ) . M a n y of his w r i t i n g s a i m e d to s h o w t h e similarities b e t w e e n Jewish beliefs a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y . Philo o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d Biblical i d e a s allegorically. H i s a n g e l o l o g y w a s also a l l e g o r i z e d , m o s t l y

equating

άγγελοι w i t h (divine) λόγοι. 8 A s d i v i n e " w o r d s " o r " t h o u g h t s , " t h e y c a r r i e d o u t specific tasks t h a t G o d h a d willed b u t h a d n o i n d e p e n d e n t p e r s o n a l i t y o r existence of t h e i r o w n . E . G o o d e n o u g h c o n c l u d e s t h a t P h i l o ' s a n g e l o l o g y w a s o n e n o t of a n g e l s w i t h specific n a m e s (e.g., M i c h a e l ) a n d f u n c t i o n s (e.g., p r o t e c t i o n of Israel), b u t i n s t e a d his angels are only δυνάμεις of God, and not of a sort remotely to provoke or admit individual mythological elaboration. H e could not possibly have made room for a literal Gabriel 01‫ ־‬Michael in his thinking, and allegorised away all resemblance of the C h e r u b i m to that Palestinian tradition which seems to have been accepted a n d developed by the Pharisees. 9 Similarly, H . A. W o l f s o n says t h a t " O n t h e w h o l e , P h i l o c o n s i d e r s t h e a n g e l s as m e r e l y a s p e c i a l k i n d of i m m a n e n t p o w e r s in

the

w o r l d . " 1 0 P h i l o , it s e e m s , t h e n , m a i n l y allegorizes t h e a p p e a r a n c e of

7

Similarly, Philo, Abr. 107, "for he [Abraham] in the middle of the day beholding as it were three men travelling (and he did not perceive that they were in reality of a more diving nature), ran up and entreated them with great perseverance not to pass by his tent." 8 E.g., Conf. 27 "The divine and holy thoughts, who are often called angels" (ιερών λόγων συνομοσάμενοί ους καλεΐν εθος αγγέλους). 9 Ε. Goodenough. By Light, Light• The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1969) 79-80. 10 H. Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948) 372.

angels. T h u s , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t in this case, w h e r e J o s e p h u s a n d the L X X

h a v e " a n g e l , " P h i l o calls t h e visitors " m e n , 5 ' as in t h e

H e b r e w , b u t t h e n m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e y w e r e angels. (vi) The Targumim• T a r g u m O n q e l o s (Tg. Onq.) m a i n t a i n s t h e use of " m e n " in c h a p t e r 18 a n d t w o angels in c h a p t e r 19. T a r g u m Neofiti (Tg. Neo.) specifically says t h a t t h r e e a n g e l s a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m ( c h a p t e r 18), as d o e s T a r g u m P s e u d o - J o n a t h a n (Tg. Ps.-J.).

E v e n m o r e interestingly, in Tg.

Neo. w e a r e told t h a t t h r e e angels a r e s e n t b e c a u s e e a c h a n g e l c a n only b e sent to e a r t h for o n e specific task. T h e t h r e e tasks assigned to t h e s e a n g e l s w e r e : (1) a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of a child to A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h , (2) s a v i n g L o t a n d his f a m i l y f r o m d e s t r u c t i o n in S o d o m , a n d (3) c a r r y i n g o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of S o d o m . Also i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e f a c t t h a t in Tg. Ps.-J.

t h e t w o a n g e l s w h o w e r e in S o d o m , a b o u t

w h o m w e h e a r n o t h i n g f u r t h e r in t h e H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s , r e a p p e a r in G e n 2 8 w i t h J a c o b ' s d r e a m of t h e l a d d e r . " T h e T a r g u m i m a r e n o t easily d a t e d . Tg. Onq. is likely t h e oldest, w i t h a d a t e f o r its final r e d a c t i o n a r o u n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E . 1 2 T h e final r e d a c t i o n of Tg. Neo. likely d a t e s to d i e f o u r t h c e n t u r y C E . 1 3 S u g g e s t e d d a t e s f o r Tg. Ps.-J.

v a r y f r o m t h e t i m e of

E z r a d o w n to t h e C r u s a d e s ; it p r o b a b l y c a m e i n t o its final f o r m in t h e s e v e n t h o r e i g h t h c e n t u r y C E . ' 4 T e x t s w i t h s u c h late d a t e s m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y b e q u e s t i o n e d as s o u r c e s of late S e c o n d T e m p l e

angel

belief. H o w e v e r , t h e d i s c o v e r y of A r a m a i c t r a n s l a t i o n s of Biblical texts a t Q u m r a n m u c h like t h e T a r g u m i m suggests t h a t this t y p e of t r a n s l a t i o n m a y d a t e t o a n early p e r i o d . 1 5 M o r e o v e r , b y t h e first c e n t u r y C E , A r a m a i c h a d b e c o m e t h e v e r n a c u l a r of the J e w s in Palestine d i r o u g h to Babylon a n d beyond. 1 6 T h u s , b e a r i n g in m i n d die difficulties

11

See C. Rowland, "John 1:51, Jewish Apocalyptic and Targumic Tradition" NTS 30 (1984) 498-507, esp. p. 503. 15 B. Grossfield, Tie Targum Onqelos to Genesis, p. 32. P. Alexander dates the BabyIonian redaction to the fourth-fifth century CE, "Targum, Targumim" in ABD 6:321. 13 M. McNamara, Targum Neofiti 1: Genesis, p. 45. P. Alexander agrees (p. 323). 14 M. Maher, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Genesis, pp. 11-12. P. Alexander again concurs (p. 322). R. Ilayward, "The Date of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Some Comments" JJS 40 (1989) 7-30, argues that the evidence for such a late date is not compelling and should be reassessed. 15 Qumran targumim: fragments: 4QtgLev (4ÇH56), 4QtgJ0b (4ÇH57), and the more substantial 11QtgJ0b(11ÇH0). Also noteworthy is the Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20), which is an expansion/interpretation of Genesis in Aramaic. 16 M. Meg 2:1 says concerning the recitation of the Scroll of Esther during the

w i t h r e s p e c t to d a t i n g , it is p r u d e n t to c o n s i d e r t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m the T a r g u m i m as p e r h a p s c o n t a i n i n g t r a d i t i o n s t h a t g o b a c k to t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . T h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s to suggest t h a t n e a r t h e first c e n t u r y C E , m a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t o o d t h e t h r e e " m e n " w h o a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m as angels. T h a t t h e y a p p e a r e d as h u m a n s d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e m e a n t t h e y w e r e in a n y w a y t r a n s f o r m e d ; r a t h e r , t h e y

remained

angels, t a k i n g o n a h u m a n f o r m to c a r r y o u t t h e i r specific tasks. (b) Genesis 32 I n G e n 3 2 : 2 2 - 3 1 ( 2 3 - 3 2 ) J a c o b struggles with a " m a n " o n t h e b a n k s of t h e J a b b o k f o r d . 1 ‫ ׳‬T h e tale says: [22] T h e same night he [Jacob] arose a n d took his two wives, his two maids, and his eleven children, a n d crossed the ford of the J a b b o k . [23] H e took them and he m a d e them cross over the wadi, and they crossed with his belongings. [24] J a c o b remained alone, and a m a n [‫ ]איש‬wrestled with him until the break of dawn. [25] A n d he realised that he could not prevail against him, and so he touched his hip joint and dislocated his hip (joint), while J a c o b wrestled with him. [26] A n d he said, "Let me loose for the dawn is breaking." A n d he said. "I will not let you go unless you bless me." [27] And he said to him. " W h a t is your name?" and he said "Jacob." [28] And he said, " N o longer shall your n a m e be called J a c o b , but instead, Israel, since you strove with G o d [‫ ]אלהים‬and with m e n [‫ ]אנשים‬a n d you prevailed." [29] A n d J a c o b requested, "Tell me, please, your n a m e , " a n d he said, " W h y do you ask this, my name?" and he blessed him there. [30] And J a c o b called the n a m e of the place Peniel since, "I have seen G o d [‫]אלהים‬ face to face and my life has been spared." [31] And the sun rose upon him as he crossed over Penu'el and he limped because of his hip. T h e first t w o verses set t h e s c e n e f o r t h e u p c o m i n g e n c o u n t e r w i t h the m y s t e r i o u s a d v e r s a r y . Interestingly the l a r g e r J a c o b n a r r a t i v e leads us to e x p e c t a c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n J a c o b a n d his b r o t h e r

Esau.

J a c o b is fleeing f r o m E s a u , w h o is still a n g r y w i t h J a c o b f o r tricking h i m o u t of his b i r t h r i g h t (25:31) a n d especially for stealing his blessi n g (27:45). J a c o b divides his p e o p l e i n t o t w o g r o u p s (32:7) a n d c a m p s

festival of Purim, "If he read it by heart, or if he read it in Aramaic or in any other language, he has not fulfilled his obligation." See also m. Yad. 4:5. Also, in the Talmud, b. Sabb 115a, there is a story that Garnliel I had a Targum of Job immured during a building project. 17 The following translation is my own. It employs the verse numbers of English translations. The corresponding verses in the Hebrew (BHS) are one number higher.

for t h e e v e n i n g (32:21). H e h a s directly r e q u e s t e d G o d ' s h e l p a g a i n s t E s a u ( 3 2 : 9 - 1 2 ) . T h a t s a m e e v e n i n g , J a c o b m a k e s his i m m e d i a t e f a m ily f o r d t h e river (v. 2 2 2 3 ‫ ) ־‬, w h e r e h e is t h e n left a l o n e (v. 24). 1 8 A n u n k n o w n a d v e r s a r y r e f e r r e d to only as a " m a n " (‫ )איש‬t h e n sets u p o n J a c o b . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s , led b y G u n k e l , h a v e n o t e d

that

this story m a y reflect a v e r y a n c i e n t , folktale t r a d i t i o n of a

river

d e m o n a t t e m p t i n g to p r e v e n t crossing of t h e river d u e to its d a n gers. 1 9 G u n k e l g o e s as f a r as to suggest t h a t this story originally h a d little t o d o w i t h J a c o b . 2 0 T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e origin of this tale is plausible, so it will n o t b e d e b a t e d h e r e . I t is sufficient t o n o t e t h a t , if this e x p l a n a t i o n is c o r r e c t , t h e n the o r i g i n a l f o r m of t h e story a l r e a d y i n c l u d e d a spiritual b e i n g as t h e o p p o n e n t , n o t G o d . J a c o b a n d his a d v e r s a r y wrestle t o a s t a l e m a t e . T h e

mysterious

o p p o n e n t t h e n realizes t h a t h e will n o t p r e v a i l o v e r J a c o b (v. 25), so h e uses e i t h e r a special w r e s t l i n g t e c h n i q u e o r , as v o n R a d h a s called it, " m a g i c a l p o w e r " to dislocate J a c o b ' s h i p j o i n t . 2 1 E v e n this is n o t successful in f r e e i n g h i m f r o m J a c o b ' s h o l d , so h e i m p l o r e s J a c o b to f r e e h i m " b e c a u s e t h e d a w n is b r e a k i n g " (v. 26). W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story, n o r e a s o n is given for t h e c o n c e r n o v e r t h e m o r n i n g ' s arrival. H o w e v e r , this o n c e a g a i n fits w i t h G u n k e l ' s suggestion t h a t t h e story originally r e f e r r e d to a d e m o n a t t a c k , since s u c h a c r e a t u r e w o u l d only b e a b l e to f u n c t i o n a t night. 2 2 J a c o b , n o w obviously holding the u p p e r h a n d , puts a condition o n t h e release of his o p p o n e n t : h e r e q u i r e s a blessing. J a c o b is clearly z e a l o u s to o b t a i n a blessing ( G e n . 27). Blessings a r e a n

important

t h e m e in G e n e s i s ; t h e y c o m e p r i m a r i l y f r o m G o d ( G e n 12, 39) a n d otherwise from venerable

figures

(e.g., t h e p a t r i a r c h s u p o n

their

d e a t h b e d s , G e n 2 7 , 4 8 4 9 ‫ ) ־‬. W i t h w h o m did J a c o b s u p p o s e h e w a s wrestling to m a k e s u c h a d e m a n d ? It d o e s n o t s e e m likely t h a t h e t h o u g h t his o p p o n e n t w a s E s a u . T h i s q u e s t i o n m u s t r e m a i n

unan-

s w e r e d , b u t to s o m e e x t e n t , given t h e c o n t e x t of blessings 111 G e n e s i s ,

18

There is some confusion as to whether Jacob did indeed cross the river himself, v. 22, but regardless, in v. 24 it is made clear that Jacob is alone when he is met. 19 H. Gunkel, 77le Folktale in the Old Testament, trans. John W. Rogerson (Sheffield: Almond Press, 1987) 83-87. 20 H. Gunkel, Folktale, p. 87. 21 G. von Rad, Genesis: A Commentary, trans. J . Marks (London: SCM, 1961) 315. 22 H. Gunkel, Folktale, p. 85. Tg. Neo. says that the morning is the time when the angels praise God, and Sariel, Jacob's opponent, is the leader of the angels. See also Tg. Ps.-J. and Gen. Rab. 78:1.

it s e e m s t h a t J a c o b s u p p o s e d his o p p o n e n t to b e s o m e o n e of g r e a t p o w e r , w h o w a s a b l e to give h i m a n efficacious blessing,

perhaps

even G o d . J a c o b ' s a d v e r s a r y r e s p o n d s to this c o n d i t i o n of a blessing b y requesting J a c o b ' s n a m e (v. 27). T h i s suggests t h a t w h o e v e r w e s u p p o s e t h e o p p o n e n t to b e , h e did n o t k n o w J a c o b , a l t h o u g h this w o u l d w e i g h a g a i n s t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e o p p o n e n t as G o d a n d fit b e t t e r w i t h G u n k e l ' s h y p o t h e s i s of folktale origins. J a c o b d e c l a r e s his n a m e , t h e n t h e o p p o n e n t says, " N o l o n g e r shall y o u r n a m e b e called J a c o b , b u t i n s t e a d , Israel, since y o u strove 2 3 w i t h G o d ( ‫ ) א ל ה י ם‬a n d w i t h

men

(‫ );אנשים‬a n d y o u p r e v a i l e d " (v. 28). 24 H e r e w e a r e g i v e n o u r

main

piece of e v i d e n c e f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e G e n e s i s a d v e r s a r y .

Certainly,

t h a t J a c o b strove with m e n b a r k e n s b a c k first to his t i m e in R e b e c c a ' s w o m b w h e n h e g r a b b e d o n t o E s a u ' s heel at t h e i r b i r t h (25:26), a n d t h e n also to E s a u , L a b a n , a n d this m a n l i k e

figure.

W h e n v. 2 8 says t h a t J a c o b " s t r o v e w i t h G o d , " it is m o s t likely r e f e r r i n g t o t h e p r e s e n t w r e s t l i n g m a t c h , since n o w h e r e else d o e s J a c o b h a v e s u c h a n i n t i m a t e , physical i n t e r a c t i o n with a divine being. T h u s , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t t h e J a b b o k w r e s t l i n g m a t c h is w h e n J a c o b "strove" with G o d a n d prevailed. T h a t J a c o b prevailed over his o p p o n e n t is n o t explicitly s t a t e d , b u t it c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n of a blessing is m e t a n d J a c o b is n o l o n g e r d e t a i n e d . T h e v i c t o r y c o m e s at a price, h o w e v e r , since J a c o b l i m p s d u e to his i n j u r y . T h e i n j u r y is a p a l p a b l e a n d striking c o n s e q u e n c e . J a c o b is physically w o u n d e d a f t e r w r e s t l i n g w i t h a divine o p p o n e n t . T h i s is a v e r y i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e divine. J a c o b t h e n r e s p o n d s by r e q u e s t i n g his o p p o n e n t ' s n a m e . His request g o e s unfulfilled, w i t h t h e a d v e r s a r y saying, " W h y d o y o u ask m e this, m y n a m e [ ‫ " ? ] ל מ ה ז ה ת ש א ל ל ש מ י‬A similar r e q u e s t is p u t to t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in J u d g 13:17; M a n o a h asks, " W h a t is y o u r n a m e , so t h a t w h e n y o u r w o r d s c o m e true, w e m a y h o n o u r you?" T o w h i c h the Angel of t h e L o r d r e s p o n d s (v. 18) in t h e e x a c t s a m e w o r d s as t h e G e n e s i s o p p o n e n t , " W h y d o y o u ask this, m y n a m e [ ‫" ? ] ל מ ה ז ה ת ש א ל ל ש מ י‬ T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d t h e n acids, " I t [his n a m e ] is i n c o m p r e h e n s ible" (v. 18).

23 Note that the exact meaning of the term ‫ טרה‬is unknown. The common translation of "strive" is adopted for this discussion. See BDB, p. 975a. 24 The name change occurs again in Gen 35:10 and is mentioned numerous times; see Gen 46:2; 2 Kgs 17:34; Ps 135:4; et al.

O n c e J a c o b is blessed a n d his o p p o n e n t leaves, h e r e n a m e s t h e p l a c e P e n i e l b e c a u s e h e h a s " s e e n G o d f a c e t o face a n d s u r v i v e d . " S e e i n g G o d is l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g in t h e H e b r e w Bible ( G e n 16:13; E x o d 2 4 : 1 1 , 33:20; J u d g 6 : 2 2 - 2 3 cf. Tripartite Tractate NHC

I, 6 4 : 2 8 - 6 5 : 1 ) .

I n t h e J u d g 13 story, t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d r e t u r n s to M a n o a h a n d his wife. M a n o a h says to his wife, " W e shall surely die, f o r w e h a v e seen God" (13:22). T h i s is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t e q u a t i o n : M a n o a h

and

his wife saw t h e Angel of the Lord (v. 17, 21), b u t e q u a l l y t h e y h a v e seen God (v. 22). J a c o b s e e m s t o h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d s o m e t h i n g v e r y r a r e i n d e e d : h e h a s seen G o d (cf. E z e k 1:26; J o h n 1:18, 4:12). J a c o b ' s p r o c l a m a t i o n , " I h a v e seen G o d f a c e to f a c e , a n d m y life w a s s a v e d , " is i l l u m i n a t e d b y t h e e q u a t i o n m a d e in J u d g e s . J a c o b w r e s t l e d w i t h G o d a n d s a w h i m f a c e to f a c e , b u t a g a i n , a l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r c o u l d see t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d t r a d i t i o n s t h a t e q u a t e it w i t h G o d

and

u n d e r s t a n d J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t to b e a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d . 2 5 T h e p r o p h e t H o s e a is a w a r e of a similar t r a d i t i o n as the G e n e s i s story in c h a p t e r 1 2 : 2 - 5 (3~6). 2 6 H o s e a is t h e o n l y p r e - E x i l i c p r o p h e t to refer to a n a n g e l ( 2 7 . ( ‫מ ל א ך‬

according to his ways, and requite him according to his deeds. [3] In the w o m b he took his brother by the heel, and in his m a n h o o d he strove [‫ ]שרה‬with G o d [ 4 ] .[‫]אלהים‬H e strove with the angel [ ‫ ]וישר א ל ־ מ ל א ך‬and prevailed [‫]ויכל‬, he wept and sought his favor. He met G o d at Bethel, and there G o d spoke with him—[5] the Lord the G o d of hosts, the Lord is his name. T h e close linguistic a n d n a r r a t i v e ties b e t w e e n H o s 12 a n d G e n 32 strongly suggest t h e y a r e related. O n l y h e r e a n d in G e n 32 d o e s t h e v e r b ‫ " ש ר ה‬s t r i v e " a p p e a r . Also, t h e v e r b ‫ " י כ ל‬p r e v a i l " a p p e a r s in b o t h texts. F u r t h e r m o r e , m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s g r a b b i n g of E s a u ' s heel, " s t r i v i n g " w i t h G o d , a n d m e e t i n g w i t h h i m a t B e t h e l all firmly locate t h e origins of this p e r i c o p e in t h e J a c o b Cycle. C h a p t e r 12 of H o s e a h a s b e e n t h e t o p i c of m u c h i n t e r t e x t u a l exegesis. 2 8 T h e 25

importance

See Tg. Onq. and Tg. Ps.-J. Translation mine. As with Genesis, the verse numbers follow English transladons; the corresponding verse numbers in Hebrew (BHS) are one number higher. 27 But Isa 6:26‫ ־‬mentions the Seraphim, and Ezek 10 mentions the Cherubim. 28 See especially L. Esiinger, "Hosea 12:5a and Genesis 32:29: A Study in Inner Biblical Exegesis" JSOT 18 (1980) 91-99; M. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); M. Gertner, "The Masorah and the Levites: An Essay in the History of a Concept" VT 10 (1960) 241-272 with "Appendix: An Attempt at an Interpretation of Hosea 12," pp. 272-284. 26

of H o s 12:4 f o r this s t u d y lies in s h o w i n g t h a t f r o m a n e a r l y p e r i o d a t r a d i t i o n existed in w h i c h J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel. M a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s believe t h a t the w o r d ‫ מ ל א ך‬in v. 4 is a gloss. 29 S e v e r a l r e a s o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y p u t f o r w a r d . T h e t e x t itself still m a k e s sense if o n e r e m o v e s ‫ מ ל א ך‬a n d inserts ‫( א ל‬as f o u n d in v. 1) o r e v e n p e r h a p s ‫( א ל ה י ם‬v. 3) as possible originals. S o m e a n c i e n t r e a d e r s c o u l d c e r t a i n l y c o n s t r u e a verse t h a t r e a d ' J a c o b s t r o v e w i t h G o d a n d h e p r e v a i l e d " as p r o b l e m a t i c . I n light of t h e t r a d i t i o n s e x t a n t in t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s (e.g., m a n , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , et al.), a c h a n g e of ‫ א ל ־ י ם‬t o ‫ מ ל א ך‬w o u l d n o t b e difficult to i m a g i n e . A c h a n g e t o ‫ מ ל א ך‬w o u l d e l i m i n a t e a n y p r o b l e m a t i c r e a d i n g s t h a t m i g h t arise if G o d w e r e p r e s e n t in v. 4. A d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t for this suggestion is p r o v i d e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t H o s e a n o w h e r e else m e n t i o n s ‫מ ל א ך‬

and

that the Genesis passage contains the word • ‫ א ל ה י‬for " G o d , " which e l s e w h e r e in t h e H e b r e w Bible is u n d e r s t o o d as " g o d s " = a n g e l s o r lesser d i v i n e beings. N o n e of these c o m m e n t a t o r s s e e m s to suggest, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e c h a n g e to ‫ מ ל א ך‬o c c u r s f o r a n y r e a s o n o t h e r t h a n t o say t h a t J a c o b w r e s t l e d w i t h a lesser, divine b e i n g . T h a t is, n o n e posits a switch t o ‫ מ ל א ך‬t h a t h a d as its m o t i v a t i o n t h e i d e a of ‫ מ ל א ך‬as h u m a n

"mes-

s e n g e r . " 3 0 T h u s e v e n if t h e " a n g e l " m e n t i o n e d in H o s 12 is a l a t e r gloss to t h e text, t h e r e d a c t o r s e e m s to h a v e h a d in m i n d a divine b u t lesser b e i n g t h a n G o d w i t h w h o m J a c o b w r e s d e d a n d o v e r w h o m J a c o b w a s a b l e t o prevail. M o r e o v e r , t h e L X X , w h i c h r e a d s άγγελος, supports

31

.‫מלאך‬

T h a t t h e L X X u p h o l d s ‫ מ ל א ך‬suggests t h a t if it w a s

a gloss, t h e n it h a p p e n e d fairly early in d i e t r a d i t i o n . H . G i n s b e r g h a s a r g u e d t h a t a b e i n g k n o w n as " E l - b e t h - e l " ‫ ־‬e q u i v a l e n t

to a n

a n g e l — w a s w o r s h i p p e d in a cult t h a t evolved f r o m t h e P e n u e l story. 3 2 If h e is c o r r e c t , this s u p p o r t s t h e i d e a t h a t J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t

was

u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel (or at least divine being) f r o m a n early p e r i o d . A t first g l a n c e , t h e r e s e e m s n o r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t H o s e a , writ29

See especially H. Wolff, Hosea, trans. G. Stanstell (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974) 206-212 and F. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Hosea (New York: Doubleday, 1980) 606-610. 30 The common translation of ‫ ;מלאך‬see BDB 521b. 31 Note that there are no extant fragments of IIos 12 among the Dead Sea Scrolls, nor is it referred to specifically by Philo or Josephus. 32 H. L. Ginsberg, "Hosea's Ephraim, More Fool Than Knave: An Interpretation of Hosea 12:1-14" JBL 80 (1961) 343-347.

i n g in t h e p r e - E x i l i c p e r i o d , c h a n g e d t h e G e n e s i s t r a d i t i o n o r k n e w of a n a l t e r n a t e t r a d i t i o n t h a t h e l d J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s a n a n g e l . H o w e v e r , H o s 12, i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r stating t h a t J a c o b wrestled w i t h t h e a n g e l / G o d a n d p r e v a i l e d , says t h a t J a c o b w e p t in s u p p l i c a t i o n (‫)בכה‬. T h a t J a c o b w e p t is m a i n t a i n e d n o w h e r e else in t h e J a b b o k t r a d i t i o n s , so it c e r t a i n l y a p p e a r s t h a t H o s e a e i t h e r (a) k n e w of a t r a d i t i o n a b o u t J a c o b t h a t varies f r o m t h e o n e r e c o r d e d in G e n e s i s o r (b) a l t e r e d t h e G e n e s i s story. I n e i t h e r case, this l e n d s c r e d e n c e to t h e possibility t h a t ‫ מ ל א ך‬w a s i n d e e d original. C e r t a i n l y , t h e G e n e s i s p a s s a g e w a s v a g u e e n o u g h to allow r o o m f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d it s e e m s t h a t r e g a r d l e s s of w h e n it o c c u r r e d , t h e a u t h o r / r e d a c t o r

of

H o s 12 a l t e r e d t h e G e n e s i s t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d to J a c o b wrestling with an angel. I n Ant. b o o k 1, J o s e p h u s deals directly w i t h t h e G e n 32 story. H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is q u i t e i l l u m i n a t i n g in t h a t h e c h o o s e s a n u m b e r of t e r m s to d e s c r i b e J a c o b ' s m y s t e r i o u s o p p o n e n t . Ant. 1 : 3 3 1 - 3 3 4 states: [331] These preparations going smoothly through the entire day, at night he put his company in motion; when they crossed a ford called J a b a c chos, J a c o b being left behind, encountered a p h a n t o m [φαντάσματι]— the struggle had been begun by it—wrestled and overcame the phantom [φαντάσματος], [332] which now had the faculty of speech and spoke to him; It advised him that he should rejoice in his achievement a n d that it was no minor adversary whom he mastered, but a divine angel [θείον άγγελον] he h a d defeated, and that he should deem this a sign of great blessings to come a n d that his people would never be forsaken, nor that any mortal m a n would suipass him in strength. [333] H e then called u p o n him to take the n a m e of Israel, which according to the Hebrew tongue means "the opponent of an angel of G o d " [τον άντιστάτην άγγέλφ θεοΰ]. This proclamation indeed lie gave at the request of Jacob. For he, perceiving him to be an angel of G o d [αγγελον θεοΰ], 33 besought him to declare what destiny awaited him. T h e phantorn [φάντασματα], having spoken, vanished; [334] a n d J a c o b , delighted with this, named the place Phanuel, which means, "the face of God." 3 4 J o s e p h u s ' s a c c o u n t of t h e J a b b o k struggle follows r o u g h l y t h e s a m e n a r r a t i v e s e q u e n c e as the G e n e s i s story, b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e significant

33 Note Thackery translates this as "a messenger of God," which is appropriate in the context of the opponent delivering the news of Jacob's destiny, but "angel" carries with it the idea of "messenger" and also remains consistent with the previous uses of άγγελος. 34 Greek text from Loeb editions Josephus, Ant. I-IV, trans. H. Thackeray (1961).

differences w i t h respect to t h e o p p o n e n t . J a c o b sends his f a m i l y across t h e J a b b o k , is left a l o n e , a n d wrestles w i t h a n u n k n o w n

opponent.

I t is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e d i f f e r e n t t e r m s e m p l o y e d b y J o s e p h u s t o n a m e J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t . J o s e p h u s is u n i q u e a m o n g e x t a n t s o u r c e s in using " p h a n t a s m " to d e s c r i b e J a c o b ' s a d v e r s a r y , selecting it o n several o c c a s i o n s t o d e n o t e h e a v e n l y beings. 3 5 J o s e p h u s m a y h a v e c h o sen this t e r m to m a i n t a i n t h e m y s t e r i o u s n a t u r e of t h e

adversary.

T h a t J o s e p h u s takes p a i n s to say t h a t this s p e c t e r c o u l d t h e n s p e a k s e e m s t o suggest t h a t , in his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e tale, J a c o b w o u l d n o t h a v e i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d his o p p o n e n t ' s a n g e l i c ( a n d t h u s m e s s e n g e r ) status. P e r h a p s J o s e p h u s saw in this t h e m y t h i c a l r o o t s suggested b y m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s like G u n k e l , for w h o m t h e origirial o p p o n e n t w a s a river d e m o n . 3 6 T h e o p p o n e n t t h e n tells J a c o b t h a t h e h a s w o n a g r e a t v i c t o r y a n d suggests t h e n a m e c h a n g e f r o m J a c o b to Israel ( J o s e p h u s m o v e s m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s i n j u r y to t h e e n d of his retelling). 3 , J a c o b , r e c o g n i z i n g his o p p o n e n t ' s t r u e n a t u r e , presses h i m f o r details of his o w n destiny ( J o s e p h u s d o e s n o t explicitly m e n t i o n r e c e i p t of a blessing). 3 8 Finally, J a c o b n a m e s t h e p l a c e P l i a n u e l , t h e " f a c e of G o d . " 3 9 H o w e v e r , in this s a m e section, J o s e p h u s also calls J a c o b ' s a d v e r sary a " h e a v e n l y a n g e l " a n d a n " a n g e l of G o d , " w h i c h s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t J o s e p h u s , like H o s 12, u n d e r s t o o d " m a n " to m e a n s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a h u m a n o r G o d . F o r J o s e p h u s , it s e e m s t h a t J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s a n a n g e l of G o d , a divine b e i n g , b u t n o t G o d

him-

self. J o s e p h u s ' s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e m e a n i n g of t h e n a m e Israel s u p p o r t s this view, since h e says t h a t Israel m e a n s " t h e o p p o n e n t of a n

35 In Ant. 5.213, Josephus uses φάντασμα to describe the Angel of the Lord in Judg 6:11-24 and in 3.62 to characterize the Angel of the Lord in the burning bush. He uses the term mostly to refer to angels: Ant. 1.325, 331, 333 (Gen 32), 5.213, 277 (Judg 6 and 13), though also for "visions"; see also B.J. 3.353 and 5.381; Ant. 2.82 and 10.272 (Daniel's vision). 36 H. Gunkel, Folktale, pp. 83.87‫־‬ 37 This seems a more logical place to mention the injury, since, as the Genesis account unfolds, the injury has nothing to do with Jacob's eventual yielding but relates to the aetiology in Gen 32:33 of the Jews' prohibition against eating the sinew of the hip. 38 Josephus recounts that the angel tells Jacob "no mortal man will surpass him in strength." In this instance of the foretelling, Josephus seems to demonstrate dependence on the LXX version of the story, which says Jacob will be "μετά θεοΰ καί μετά ανθρώπων δυνατός" (ν. 29). 39 For a discussion of the significance of the name Phanuel, see G. Vermes, "The Archangel Sariel," in Christianity, Judaism, and Other Graeco-Roman Cults, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1975) 3:159-166.

a n g e l of G o d " r a t h e r t h a n " o n e c o n t e n d i n g / s t r i v i n g w i t h G o d . " H i s i n t e r p o l a t i o n clearly s h o w s t h a t t h e G e n e s i s p a s s a g e left o p e n identity of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t a n d t h a t a t least o n e

first-century

the

Jewish

i n t e r p r e t e r t o o k this b e i n g t o b e a n a n g e l of G o d . T h e t e x t k n o w n as t h e L a d d e r of J a c o b [Lad. Jac.)

p r e s e n t s sev-

eral p r o b l e m s to t h e e x e g e t e d u e to its t r a n s m i s s i o n history. 4 0 Jac.

Lad.

survives o n l y in t h e S l a v o n i c v e r s i o n a n d c o n t a i n s m a n y l a t e r

c o r r u p t i o n s , edits, a n d c h a n g e s t o t h e text. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is i n t e r esting to c o n s i d e r s o m e of d i e u n i q u e a s p e c t s of this text. D a t e s f o r Lad. Jac. h a v e b e e n suggested a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y C E , b u t t h e s e a r e b y n o m e a n s certain. 4 1 T h e r e a r e seven c h a p t e r s in Lad. Jac. T h e first six a p p e a r t o b e J e w i s h , w i t h t h e seventh seemingly a C h r i s t i a n e x p a n s i o n of t h e text. 4 2 T h e g e n e r a l s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s in Lad. Jac.

follows t h a t of G e n

2 8 : 1 0 22‫־‬, b u t t h e r e a r e m a n y e x p a n s i o n s , etc. U p o n e a c h of twelve steps (a s y m b o l i c n u m b e r ) a r e said to be t w o faces. M u c h a k i n to t h e l a t e r T a r g u m i c a n d r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l , Lad. Jac. says t h a t at t h e t o p is a n e x c e e d i n g l y a w e s o m e face. A b o v e t h a t f a c e is G o d . Lxid. Jac. 4 : 1 5 ‫ ־‬says: [1] And the angel [Sariel] said to me, " W h a t is your name?" [2] And I said, "Jacob" [3] [He announced], "Your n a m e shall no longer be called J a c o b , but your n a m e shall be similar to my name, Israel." [4] And w h e n I was going from Phandana of Syria to meet Esau my brother, he came to me a n d blessed m e and called me Israel. [5] A n d he would not tell m e his n a m e until I adjured him. A few i n d i c a t o r s in this s h o r t p a s s a g e relate it to t h e J a b b o k e v e n t , p r i m a r i l y the c h a n g e of J a c o b ' s n a m e to Israel. T h e n a m e Israel is said t o b e "like" t h a t of his i n f o r m a n t , Sariel. 4 3 Sariel is also n a m e d as t h e a n g e l a g a i n s t w h o m J a c o b wrestles in Tg. Neo. J a c o b ' s n a m e is "like" t h a t of o n e of t h e n a m e d a r c h a n g e l s ( 1 Q M

new

9:14-15,

Ork 1 E11. 20). T h i s s e e m s to i m p l y , a t least, t h a t J a c o b ' s n a t u r e is to b e c h a n g e d to s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n simply h u m a n , since h e h a s a n a m e like t h a t of a n a r c h a n g e l . F u r t h e r i n d i c a t o r s a r e the specific m e n t i o n of t h e blessing a n d t h a t t h e n a m e of J a c o b ' s angelic visitor 40

Translation by H. Lunt, "The Ladder of Jacob" in OTP 2:408-409. H. Lunt, Ladder, in OTP 2:401-411. 42 J. Charlesworth, "The Ladder of Jacob" in ABD (New York: Doubleday, 1991) 3:609. 43 Note that the names are similar in that (a) they are both theophoric, and (b) ‫ שריאל‬and ‫ ישראל‬are transpositions of the same (unpointed) Hebrew consonants. 41

is n o t given until h e is p r e s s e d (cf. G e n 32:29). A n a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t of c o n t a c t m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l

reference,

P h a n d a n a of Syria, w h i c h likely p o i n t s t o w a r d t h e J a b b o k event. 4 4 F r o m this s h o r t text, w e c a n see y e t a n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h

the

J a b b o k tale w a s i n t e r p r e t e d . H e r e , as in Tg. JVeo., Sariel c o m e s t o J a c o b , c h a n g e s his n a m e , a n d blesses h i m . N o struggle is explicitly m e n t i o n e d , b u t c e r t a i n l y t h e r e is a visit f r o m a n a n g e l . J a c o b ' s n e w n a m e , Israel, is said to b e like t h a t of t h e a r c h a n g e l , w h i c h suggests t h a t f r o m this p o i n t f o r w a r d h e h a s a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e divine via his n e w n a m e . T h i s is akin to w h a t w e h a v e j u s t seen a b o v e in Philo. Israel is a p o w e r f u l n a m e , w h i c h b r i n g s w i t h it a c h a n g e in n a t u r e . T h e r e is o n e s e g m e n t f r o m a G r a e c o - R o m a n a u t h o r o n t h e G e n 32 p a s s a g e . D e m e t r i u s ' s writings, t h o u g h r e c o r d e d in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y G E w r i t i n g s of E u s e b i u s , likely d e r i v e f r o m t h e e n d of t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B C E . 4 5 T h i s f r a g m e n t is c o n t a i n e d in E u s e b i u s , Evangelien

Praeparatio

9.21.1-19:46

While he was on his way to C a n a a n , an angel of G o d [αγγελον του θεοΰ] wrestled [παλαΐσαι] with him and struck the broad part of Jacob's thigh; it became stiff and he limped on it. It is for this reason that the tendon in the thigh of animals is not eaten. And the angel [τον αγγελον] said to him that from then on he would no longer be called J a c o b but Israel. It seems t h a t d i e t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b wrestling a n angel is q u i t e a n c i e n t , so t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e E u s e b i u s o r a n i n t e r m e d i a t e h a n d i n s e r t e d it. T h e r e f o r e , w e h a v e f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t b e i n g i n t e r p r e t e d as a n angel. It w a s m a i n t a i n e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n by E u s e b i u s as well. Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g i s t J u s t i n M a r t y r (c. 1 0 0 - 1 6 5 CE). I n his " d i a l o g u e " with a J e w i s h i n t e r l o c u t o r , T r y p h o , J u s t i n discusses a n u m b e r of p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e H e b r e w

Scriptures

in o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e to T r y p h o t h a t J e s u s w a s p r o p h e s i e d

in

those writings. T h e Dialogue w a s w r i t t e n a r o u n d 135 C E , so it is o n the m a r g i n s of t h e t i m e f r a m e f o r this study, b u t J u s t i n b r i n g s a n 44 H. Lunt, in 0 7 7 2:409 n. 4b, says that Phandana of Syria represents PaddamAram, a key geographical reference from Gen 33:18 (as in Apocalypse of Abraham 2:3), which is also the same location mentioned in the Prayer of Joseph. 45 C. Holladay, FragmentsfromHellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. 1: Historians (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1983) 51-52. 46 See C. Holladay, Fragments, p. 67.

i n t e r e s t i n g p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e q u e s t i o n of J e s u s ' s n a t u r e a n d

these

passages. H e m e n t i o n s t h e G e n 32 a c c o u n t o n t w o occasions. 4 7 A t 125.5, h e writes: 4 8 T h e n a m e Israel, then, means a m a n who overcomes power (δύναμις), for Isra is a " m a n who overcomes" a n d El is "power." T h a t Christ would do this w h e n He became m a n was thus foretold by the mystery of J a c o b ' s wrestling with Him who appeared to him, in that He ministered to the will of the Father, nevertheless, H e is God, because H e is the first-born of all creatures. . . . By touching J a c o b ' s thigh and making it n u m b , Christ showed that he, too, would grow n u m b [i.e., in physical a n d mental suffering], at His crucifixion. But his n a m e from the beginning was Israel—a n a m e which H e conferred u p o n the blessed J a c o b when he blessed him with his own name, proclaiming thereby that all who come to the Father through H i m are part of blessed Israel. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e c h a p t e r J u s t i n tells T r y p h o t h a t h e will discuss " t h e p o w e r (δύναμις) of t h e n a m e I s r a e l " (125:1). J u s t i n states t h a t " I s r a e l " is t h e n a m e given to t h e " f i r s t - b o r n of all c r e a t u r e s " (cf. P h i l o , Conf. 146; C o l 1:15) 49 a n d a t t r i b u t e s t h e n a m e t o C h r i s t . H e links J a c o b a n d J e s u s by e q u a t i n g J a c o b ' s n u m b thigh w i t h Christ's s u f f e r i n g ( n u m b n e s s ) at the C r u c i f i x i o n . W i t h i n t h e Dialogue J u s t i n i n t e r p r e t s a n u m b e r of t h e o p h a n i e s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible as p r o o f t h a t J e s u s as t h e son of G o d

existed

b e f o r e t h e i n c a r n a t i o n . 5 0 C h r i s t c o n f e r s t h e n a m e Israel, his o w n n a m e , u p o n J a c o b w h e n h e blesses h i m at t h e J a b b o k . J u s t i n uses this c o n n e c t i o n to s h o w t h a t C h r i s t m a n i f e s t e d himself in t h e a n c i e n t p a s t a n d p r o v i d e d t h e m e a n s w h e r e b y J e w s c o u l d also c o m e to salv a t i o n , since t h e y a r e actually m e m b e r s in "blessed I s r a e l , " w h i c h in its essence m e a n s p a r t a k i n g in J e s u s t h r o u g h J a c o b .

47 Justin also mentions Gen 32 in his next chapter, 126, but there he simply reiterates the Biblical story. 48 Translation my own with special reference to Gieschen, p. 160; Greek text from Migne, PG vol. 6. 49 See also NHC 11:105, which says, "And a first-bom called 'Israel,' i.e., 'the man who sees god (cf. Philo, PJ),' also having another name, 'Jesus the Christ,' who is like the Saviour." Translation from Hans-Gebhard Bethbe and Orval S. Wintermute in The Nag Hammadi Library in English, ed. J. Robinson (San Francisco: Harper, 1978) 166. 50 The burning bush (59:1), the visitors at Mamre (58:4-13), and the warrior that appeared to Joshus (62:5). See O. Skarsaune, The Proof from Prophecy: A Study in Justin Martyr's Proof Text Tradition: Text-Type, Provenance, Theological Profile (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1987).

Finally, in t h e Dialogue with Trypho 5 8 : 3 J u s t i n says t h e f o l l o w i n g about Jesus: H e is called God, and H e is and shall be God. And when all had agreed on these grounds, I continued: "Moreover, I consider it necessary to repeat to you the words which narrate how H e who is both Angel and G o d and Lord, a n d who appeared as a m a n to A b r a h a m , and who wrestled in h u m a n form with J a c o b , was seen by him when he fled from his brother Esau." J u s t i n d e s c r i b e s J e s u s as t h e o n e " w h o is b o t h a n g e l a n d G o d " a n d locates h i m in t h e a n c i e n t p a s t in b o t h t h e G e n e s i s p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d in this s u b s e c t i o n : as a visitor to A b r a h a m ( G e n 18:Iff.) a n d the o n e w h o w r e s t l e d w i t h J a c o b ( G e n 32:24~32). 5 1 So, for Justin, J e s u s is a divine b e i n g , a n a n g e l a n d G o d , b u t w h o a p p e a r e d as a m a n in t h e a n c i e n t past. C l e a r l y , J u s t i n w o u l d n o t i n t e n d a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of J e s u s s i m p l y b e c a u s e h e a p p e a r e d as a m a n . T h u s , t h e t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h a n u n k n o w n assailant a t t h e J a b b o k is a t t e s t e d in a n u m b e r of sources. G e n 32 itself is a n e n i g m a t i c tale t h a t d o e s n o t clearly d e f i n e t h e o p p o n e n t of J a c o b , t h o u g h by inference it seems t h a t J a c o b struggled widi G o d . S u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s , p e r h a p s h a v i n g difficulties w i t h this i d e a , a l m o s t u n i versally u n d e r s t a n d t h e " m a n " at t h e J a b b o k f o r d to b e a n a n g e l . T h e a u t h o r , o r p e r h a p s a l a t e r r e d a c t o r of H o s e a , likely b e g a n this t r e n d of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a t a fairly early d a t e , as early as H o s e a itself in t h e pre-Exilic p e r i o d . As w e saw, G e n e s i s itself c o n t a i n e d t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h a n i n t e r p r e t e r c o u l d see t h e " m a n " as a n angel. T r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a m e a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d f r o m t h e rest of t h e H e b r e w c a n o n o n l y s u p p o r t this h y p o t h e s i s . T h i s e v i d e n c e all s e e m s t o suggest t h a t it is l e g i t i m a t e to look at t h e G e n 32 p a s s a g e , as i n t e r p r e t e d in a n d a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y C E , as a c a s e of a n g e l i c - h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n . If w e a s s u m e this starting point, then we can further consider the relationship

between

a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e last c e n t u r i e s B C E

and

first C E . T h e J a b b o k n a r r a t i v e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a case in w h i c h a n a n g e l , in t h e f o r m o r at least t h e a p p e a r a n c e of m a n , w r e s t l e d w i t h a h u m a n b e i n g . T h i s is a v e r y i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t w i t h a divine

51 Also Dial. 59:1: "When I further, to show you from the Angel, and God, and Lord, and and Isaac, appeared in a flame

had spoken these words, I continued: 'Permit me, book of Exodus how this same One, who is both man, and who appeared in human form to Abraham of fire from the bush, and conversed with Moses.' "

b e i n g . I n f a c t , Tg. Neo.

the

angel

" e m b r a c e d . " W h a t w a s t h e o u t c o m e of this struggle? J a c o b ' s

actually says t h a t J a c o b a n d

name

w a s c h a n g e d , h e w a s blessed, a n d h e w a s i n j u r e d ! J a c o b ' s h i p i n j u r y is m a i n t a i n e d in a l m o s t all t h e t r a d i t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e it is t h e etiology of t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of e a t i n g of t h e t h i g h . Still, the w o u n d s t a n d s as a striking i n d i c a t o r of t h e kind of i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t J a c o b h a d w i t h t h e divine. It w a s so real t h a t h e w a s i n j u r e d a n d h a d a l i m p ( t h o u g h t h e r e is n o suggestion t h a t t h e w o u n d w a s p e r m a n e n t , a n d t h e M i d r a s h suggests t h a t it w a s not). It is easy to see w h y s o m e l a t e r t h o u g h t t h a t J a c o b , b y v i r t u e of b e i n g involved in s u c h a n i n c r e d i b l e struggle, m i g h t h a v e u n d e r s t o o d himself to b e a n a n g e l (see 3.6 below). H i s n a m e c h a n g e a n d his intim a t e relationship with G o d o r angels elevate h i m a b o v e o t h e r h u m a n s .

2.2

The Book of Joshua

J o s h u a e n c o u n t e r s a " m a n " as h e a n d t h e Israelites a r e

encamped

o u t s i d e of J e r i c h o . 5 2 J o s h 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 states: [13] W h e n J o s h u a was by Jericho, he lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold, a m a n [‫ ]והנה־איש‬stood before him with his drawn sword in his hand; a n d J o s h u a went to him and said to him, "Are you for us, or for our adversaries?" [14] And he said, "No; but as commander of the army of the Lord [‫ ]שר־צבא־יהוה‬I have now come." And Joshua fell on his face to the earth, and worshiped, and said to him, " W h a t does my lord bid his servant?" [15] And the commander of the Lord's army said to J o s h u a , "Put off your shoes from your feet; for the place where you stand is holy." And J o s h u a did so. T h e e n d of the story a p p e a r s to b e missing, since i m m e d i a t e l y foll o w i n g v. 15, in c h a p t e r 6, w e h a v e t h e a c c o u n t of t h e Israelites surr o u n d i n g a n d c a p t u r i n g J e r i c h o . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story, J o s h u a d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a b l e i m m e d i a t e l y to d e t e r m i n e t h e entity b e f o r e h i m is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a h u m a n b e i n g . asks t h e " m a n " f o r w h i c h side h e

fights

(v. 13). T h e " m a n "

that He tells

J o s h u a h e is t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d ( ‫ ) ש ר ״ צ ב א ־ י ה ו ה‬.

52

P. Miller, The Divine Warrior in Ancient Israel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973) 128-131. See also F. Abel, "L'apparition du chef de l'armée de Yahveh à Josué (Jos. V. 13-15)" in Miscellanea Biblica et Orientalia (Rome: Pontificio Istituto Bibtico, 1951) 109-113; R. Nelson, Joshua: A Commentary (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997) 80-83.

T h e r e a r e a f e w f a c t o r s suggesting t h a t t h e " m a n " in this s c e n e m i g h t h a v e b e e n s u b s e q u e n t l y u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l . T h e L X X uses t h e t e r m α ρ χ ι σ τ ρ ά τ η γ ο ς f o r t h e " c o m m a n d e r t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d . " I n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e late S e c o n d

of

Temple

p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d , this t e r m is o f t e n applied to the a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l (7*. Ab.

I:4fE; Jos. Asen.

14:7; 2 En 2 2 : 6 [J] a n d 3 3 : 1 0 [A]; 3

Bar.

11:13:3; Gk. Apoc. Ezra 4 : 2 4 cf. D a n 8:11, 12:1 [ R a p h a e l in Gk. Apoc. Ezra 1:4]). 53 M i c h a e l is said to s t a n d against " p r i n c e s " of o t h e r n a t i o n s in D a n

10:13, 20. H e also h a s a m i l i t a r y role in 1 Q M , R e v

12:7.

T h e r e s e e m s g o o d r e a s o n to s u p p o s e , t h e n , t h a t b y t h e t i m e of t h e L X X this b e i n g c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l , w h i c h h a d at first a p p e a r e d to J o s h u a in the f o r m of a m a n . T h e s c e n e e n d s w i t h J o s h u a b e i n g told h e is o n s a c r e d g r o u n d (v. 15). T h i s is r e m i n i s c e n t of M o s e s ' s t h e o p h a n y / a n g e l o p h a n y 5 4 ( E x o d 3:5, cf. Acts 7:33), suggesting t h a t J o s h u a is in t h e p r e s e n c e of a divine being, p e r h a p s even the angel of the L o r d (cf. E x o d 2 3 : 2 1 5 5 . ( 2 2 S u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s s u c h as P h i l o a n d J o s e p h u s a r e silent, p e r h a p s b e c a u s e of t h e i n c o m p l e t e n a t u r e of t h e narrative. 5 6 T h e T a r g u m u n d e r s t a n d s t h e " m a n " to b e a n a n g e l (T. Joshua

5:13: " a n

angel

sent f r o m before the Lord"). T h e p r e s e n c e of t h e divine c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d i n a u g u r a t e s t h e h o l y w a r t h a t is to t a k e p l a c e ( J o s h 6 2 4 ‫ ) ־‬. T h a t this " m a n " is a d i v i n e l e a d e r of G o d ' s a r m i e s s e e m s

straightforward.

T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e a n y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e b e i n g is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n divine. T h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t d i e s a m e title u s e d f o r t h e b e i n g in t h e L X X w a s l a t e r u n d e r s t o o d to a p p l y to angels, esped a i l y t h e a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l . T h e m o s t t h a t m i g h t b e said f r o m this p a s s a g e is t h a t a divine b e i n g , t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d , c o u l d likely h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as a n a n g e l (at least b y t h e a u t h o r of t h e L X X

and subsequent interpreters

[Tg. Neb.])

who

a p p e a r s as a m a n until h e reveals his t r u e i d e n t i t y t o J o s h u a .

53

See W. Lueken, Michael (Göttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1898) 104, 157-166. It may well be the case that its use in the LXX of Joshua influenced its use in other late Second Temple writings. 54 Exod 3:2 says that the Angel of the Lord (άγγελος κυρίου; ΓΠίΤ ‫ )מלאך‬appeared to Moses in the burning bush. 55 Cf. 1 Chr 21:16 for the Angel of the Lord with a militaristic role. 56 There is also no extant evidence from Qumran.

‫־‬

2.3

The Book of Judges

T h r e e p a s s a g e s f r o m J u d g e s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e . E a c h r e f e r s to t h e " A n g e l of t h e L o r d . " O n e p a s s a g e t h a t h a s c a u s e d s o m e c o n fusion f o r m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s is J u d g 2 : 1 - 2 , w h i c h states: [1] Now the angel of the Lord [‫ ;מלאך־יהוה‬άγγελος κυρίου] went up from Gilgal to Bochim. And he said, "I brought you up from Egypt, and brought you into the land which I swore to give to your fathers. I said, '1 will never break my covenant with you [2] and you shall make no covenant with the inhabitants of this land; you shall break down their altars.' But you have not obeyed my command. W h a t is this you have done?" I n t e r p r e t e r s a r e u n d e c i d e d as to w h e t h e r t h e " a n g e l " h e r e refers to a h u m a n o r d i v i n e m e s s e n g e r . 5 ' T h e difficulty s e e m s t o s t e m f r o m t h e fact t h a t t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d p r o c e e d s f r o m o n e p o i n t o n e a r t h t o a n o t h e r . H e d o e s n o t simply a p p e a r , n o r d o e s h e d e s c e n d f r o m h e a v e n . T h e m e s s e n g e r p e r f o r m s his task of delivering t h e w o r d s of G o d ( w . l b 3 ‫ ) ־‬. T h e n J u d g 2:4 says, " W h e n t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d s p o k e t h e s e w o r d s to all the p e o p l e of Israel, t h e p e o p l e lifted u p t h e i r voices a n d w e p t . " A decisive f a c t o r m i g h t b e v. 5, h o w e v e r , w h i c h states, " A n d t h e y called t h e n a m e of t h a t p l a c e B o c h i m ; a n d t h e y sacrificed t h e r e to the L o r d . " R e n a m i n g , sacrificing, o r c o n s e c r a t i n g a l o c a t i o n a f t e r e n c o u n t e r i n g a divine b e i n g is n o t u n c o m m o n in t h e H e b r e w Bible (e.g., G e n 2 8 : 2 2 , 32:30; J u d g 6:24, 13:23). M o r e o v e r , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d is g e n e r a l l y a m e s s e n g e r f o r G o d , a n d s o m e t i m e s it is a m b i g u o u s w h e t h e r t h e h u m a n r e c i p i e n t is speaking w i t h t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d o r G o d directly; f o r e x a m p l e , in Exorl 3:2 t h e A n g e l of the L o r d a p p e a r s in t h e b u r n i n g b u s h , b u t in t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i a l o g u e , it is c l e a r M o s e s is s p e a k i n g directly w i t h t h e L o r d . 5 8 T h i s suggests t h a t it m a k e s m o s t sense to t a k e t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in this c a s e as a divine m e s s e n g e r . T h i s b e i n g m a y h a v e a p p e a r e d in h u m a n f o r m , b u t t h e story d o e s n o t i n c l u d e a n y detail. W e d o n o t h e a r of this b e i n g a g a i n until J u d g 6:11.

57

R. Baling, Judges (New York: Doubleday, 1975) 61, where Yahweh's envoy is an " a n g ^ c being"; C. Newsom, ABD 1:249 lists Judg 2:1 as an example of a passage where it "remains disputed whether the reference is to a heavenly being or a human one," as does S. A. Meier, DDD, p. 48. 58 See S. Cook, "The Theophanies of Gideon and Manoah" JTS 28 (1927) 368-380; A. lohnson, The One a?1d the Many; also J. Ashton, Studying John (Oxford: University Press, 1994) 71-89.

I n J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 2 4 die Angel of d i e L o r d visits G i d e o n as t h e Israelites h a v e b e e n t a k e n o v e r b y t h e M i d i a n i t e s . J u d g 6:11 says, " N o w t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e a n d sat u n d e r t h e o a k a t O p h r a h , w h i c h b e l o n g e d to J o a s h t h e A b i e z r i t e , as his son G i d e o n w a s b e a t i n g o u t w h e a t in t h e w i n e press, to h i d e it f r o m t h e M i d i a n i t e s . " J o s e p h u s , Ant 5 . 2 1 3 calls t h e visitor " a s p e c t e r [ φ α ν τ ά σ μ α τ ο ς ] in t h e f o r m of a y o u n g m a n [νεανίσκου μορφή]. 5 9 G i d e o n is told t h a t h e is to deliver his p e o p l e o u t of t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n (6:14); so a g a i n t h e p r i m a r y p u r pose of t h e visitation s e e m s t o b e t h e b e a r i n g of news. G i d e o n is u n c e r t a i n t h a t t h e p e r s o n s p e a k i n g to h i m is t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , so h e asks h i m t o r e m a i n as h e p r e p a r e s a gift (v. 18). H e

returns

w i t h a m e a l t h a t e c h o e s t h e s a m e level of hospitality t h a t A b r a h a m s h o w e d his visitors ( G e n 18:1-8). T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d tells G i d e o n to p u t his f o o d o f f e r i n g o n a r o c k , w h i c h h e d o e s (v. 20). T h e a n g e l t o u c h e s t h e o f f e r i n g w i t h his staff; t h e o f f e r i n g is c o n s u m e d by

fire,

a n d a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t t h e a n g e l v a n i s h e s (v. 21). G i d e o n

then

d i s c e r n s t h a t his visitor w a s i n d e e d t h e L o r d a n d f e a r s t h a t h e will die, "Alas, Ο L o r d G o d ! F o r n o w I h a v e seen t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d face to face. B u t t h e L o r d said to h i m , ' P e a c e b e t o y o u ; d o n o t f e a r , y o u shall n o t d i e ' . " G i d e o n , like J a c o b in G e n 2 8 a n d 32, erects a n a l t a r a t t h e site of his t h e o p h a n y . I n J u d g 1 3 : 3 - 2 1 , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s to M a n o a h

and

his wife, a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of his son, S a m s o n . 5 0 T h e a n g e l

first

a p p e a r s o n l y to M a n o a h ' s wife. J u d g 13:6 says, " T h e n t h e w o m a n c a m e a n d told h e r h u s b a n d , Ά

m a n of G o d c a m e to m e , a n d his

c o u n t e n a n c e w a s like the c o u n t e n a n c e of t h e a n g e l of G o d , v e r y terrible; I d i d n o t ask h i m w h e n c e h e w a s , a n d h e did n o t tell m e his n a m e ' . " 6 1 T h e a n g e l ' s a p p e a r a n c e b r i n g s f e a r . W h e n his wife tells h i m of t h e visit, M a n o a h e n t r e a t s t h e L o r d to h a v e t h e " M a n

of

G o d " visit a g a i n so t h a t M a n o a h himself m i g h t l e a r n w h a t h e is t o d o w i t h his foretold son. T h e angel r e a p p e a r s , a g a i n only to M a n o a h ' s wife, b u t this t i m e she r u n s t o tell M a n o a h , w h o l e a r n s t h a t w h a t his wife h a s said is t r u e . H e t h e n asks t h e a n g e l t o r e m a i n w i t h h i m so t h a t h e m i g h t f e e d h i m . O n c e a g a i n , the issue of hospitality c o m e s i n t o play. T h e a n g e l says, " I f y o u d e t a i n m e , I will n o t e a t of y o u r f o o d ; b u t if y o u m a k e r e a d y a b u r n t o f f e r i n g , t h e n o f f e r it t o t h e

59 60 61

The Targum on Judges maintains the "Angel of the Lord" as the visitor. R. Boling, Judges, p. 219. Cf. 1 Kgs 17:18, where Elijah is called "man of God."

L o r d " (v. 16a). W e also l e a r n t h a t " M a n o a h d i d n o t k n o w t h a t h e w a s t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d " (v. 16b). J o s e p h u s , in Ant. 5 . 2 7 7 , says t h a t t h e visitor w a s " a s p e c t e r " (φάντασμα) t h a t " a p p e a r e d to h e r f r o m G o d

[one ms. r e a d s " a n g e l of

G o d " ] in t h e likeness of a c o m e l y a n d tall y o u t h . " A f t e r this o p e n i n g verse, J o s e p h u s refers to t h e visitor as a n " a n g e l " (five times). 6 2 W h e n M a n o a h ' s wife tells h i m of t h e a n g e l , J o s e p h u s says t h a t she extolled " t h e y o u n g m a n ' s c o m e l i n e s s a n d s t a t u r e in s u c h wise t h a t h e in his j e a l o u s y w a s d r i v e n b y t h e s e praises to d i s t r a c t i o n a n d to c o n c e i v e t h e suspicions t h a t s u c h p a s s i o n a r o u s e s " (279). 6 3 T h u s , i n t h e B o o k of J u d g e s t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s o n t h r e e occasions. T h e e v i d e n c e of J u d g 2 is s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s , in t h a t t h e b e i n g is called t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , b u t t h e r e is n o t h i n g else n o t a b l e a b o u t t h e e v e n t . I n c h a p t e r s 6 a n d 13, t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d visits G i d e o n a n d M a n o a h respectively. T h e a n g e l is n o t i m m e diately r e c o g n i z e d b u t is t a k e n to b e a h u m a n visitor a n d o f f e r e d gifts a n d hospitality. 5 4 O n c e the A n g e l of t h e L o r d ' s identity is k n o w n , h o w e v e r , t h e h u m a n seers f e a r f o r t h e i r lives, since t h e y h a v e seen t h e d i v i n e . It s e e m s t h a t t h e a n g e l s a p p e a r e d

as h u m a n

beings.

J o s e p h u s says t h a t t h e visitor in e a c h of these t w o cases w a s a s p e c t e r t h a t a p p e a r e d as a y o u n g m a n .

2.4

The Books of Zechciriah and. Ezekiel

T h e B o o k of Z e c h a r i a h , c o n t r a r y to t h e m a j o r i t y of the p r o p h e t i c writings, c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r of r e f e r e n c e s t o angels. A n a n g e l w h o e x p l a i n s t h e visions of t h e p r o p h e t is o f t e n p r e s e n t (1:9, 14; 2:1 7; 4

:

1

5

‫־‬

5

;

5 : 5 - 1 0 ; 6 : 4 ‫ ) ־‬. I n c h a p t e r 3 t h e r e is a c o u r t

J o b 1 - 2 . J o s h u a , t h e h i g h priest, s t a n d s b e f o r e t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , S a t a n , a n d G o d . O f p a r t i c u l a r interest is t h e " m a n " in t h e v i s i o n a r y m a t e r i a l of Z e c h 1 : 8 - 1 1 w h o s e e m s to h a v e a n g e l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : [8] I saw in the night, and behold, a m a n [‫ ;איש‬άνήρ] riding upon a red horse! He was standing a m o n g the myrtle trees in the glen; and behind him were red, sorrel, and white horses. [9] T h e n I said, " W h a t are these, my lord?" T h e angel who talked with me said to me, "I 62

On Josephus's use of φάντασμα see footnote 35 above. Perhaps this situation as described in Josephus is akin to Gen 6 and also 1 Cor 11:10. 64 This aspect of human-angel interaction is discussed in chapter 5. 63

will show you what they are." [10] So the m a n who was standing a m o n g the myrde trees answered, "These are they w h o m the Lord has sent to patrol the earth." [11] A n d they answered the angel of the Lord [τφ άγγέλψ κυρίου; ΓΠΓΡ ‫ ] מ ל א ך‬who was standing a m o n g the myrde trees, " W e have patrolled the earth, a n d behold, all the earth remains at rest." T h i s e v i d e n c e c o m e s in a vision. T h e b e i n g o n t h e h o r s e is called a m a n in v. 8 b u t s e e m s to b e called a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d in v. 11. T h e r e is n o a p p a r e n t i n d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h a t simply b e c a u s e this b e i n g is r e f e r r e d to as a " m a n , " h e is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n angel. Also in Z e c h 2:1 a n d 2:4, t h e vision of t h e " m a n " w i t h a m e a s u r i n g r o d i n his h a n d m a y r e f e r to a n a n g e l , a l t h o u g h it is difficult to disc e r n m u c h f r o m this e v i d e n c e . T h e visions of t h e p r o p h e t Ezekiel w e r e v e r y influential for r a b b i n i c a n d mystical s p e c u l a t i o n as well as early C h r i s t i a n i t y . 6 5 I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e r e w e r e p r o h i b i t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e s t u d y of E z e k 1 (m. H a g 2:1) b y the r a b b i s , a n d it w a s to b e a v o i d e d as a s c r i p t u r a l r e a d i n g (m. M e g 4:10). E z e k 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 says: [26] A n d above the firmament over their heads there was the likeness of a throne, in appearance like sapphire; and seated above the likeness of a throne was a likeness as it were of a h u m a n form. [27] And upward from what had the appearance of his loins I saw as it were gleaming bronze, like the appearance of fire enclosed round about; and downward f r o m what had the appearance of his loins I saw as it were the appearance of fire, and there was brightness round about him. T h i s figure m a y b e G o d o r m a y b e a n o t h e r divine b e i n g . A m a n like figure a p p e a r s also in 8:2, " T h e n I b e h e l d , a n d , lo, a f o r m t h a t h a d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n ; b e l o w w h a t a p p e a r e d to b e his loins it w a s fire, a n d a b o v e his loins it w a s like t h e a p p e a r a n c e of b r i g h t ness, like g l e a m i n g b r o n z e . " T h i s s a m e b e i n g w o u l d also s e e m t o b e the r e f e r e n t of 40:3: " W h e n h e b r o u g h t m e t h e r e , b e h o l d , t h e r e w a s a m a n , w h o s e a p p e a r a n c e w a s like b r o n z e , w i t h a line of f l a x a n d a m e a s u r i n g r e e d in his h a n d ; a n d h e w a s s t a n d i n g in t h e g a t e w a y . " 6 6 T h e identity of this figure is n o t c e r t a i n . It p r o b a b l y refers to a n a n g e l in t h e sense t h a t angels a r e divine b e i n g s b u t less t h a n G o d . T h i s b e i n g s e e m s t o h a v e a specific, h o n o r e d

role,

being

65 On this see C. Rowland, "The Influence of the First Chapter of Ezekiel on Jewish and Early Christian Literature" (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1974). 66 W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel I & II (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979-1983) 2:348.

e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n . T h i s m a n l i k e figure of Ezekiel, especially c h a p ter 1, likely s e r v e d as t h e basis f o r t h e " o n e like a son of m a n " seen in vision in D a n 7:13, w h i c h in t u r n likely i n f l u e n c e d i d e a s in t h e P a r a b l e s of E n o c h , 4 E z r a , as well as t h e N T . 6 7 T h e d a z z l i n g a p p e a r a n c e of t h e m a n l i k e figure is c e r t a i n l y r e m i niscent of a n g e l o p h a n i e s . O t h e r t h a n this, n o t h i n g identifies this b e i n g w i t h a n a n g e l in t h e c o n t e x t of Ezekiel. E v e n if w e a c c e p t t h a t t h e b e i n g is i n t e n d e d to b e a n a n g e l , it s e e m s unlikely t h a t t h e m a n l i k e figure

is i n t e n d e d to b e h u m a n .

2.5

The Book of Dcmiel

In t h e B o o k of D a n i e l , t h e o n l y b o o k in t h e H e b r e w Bible

that

speaks of t h e a r c h a n g e l s M i c h a e l (10:13, 21; 12:1) a n d G a b r i e l (8:16; 9:21), several p a s s a g e s a r e r e l e v a n t to t h e discussion of a n g e l s p o r t r a y e d as h u m a n s . T h e B o o k of D a n i e l c a n b e easily d i v i d e d i n t o t w o p a r t s : c h a p ters 1 - 6 , w i t h

fictional

tales of D a n i e l ' s life in t h e c o u r t of B a b y l o n ,

a n d c h a p t e r s 7 - 1 2 , w i t h a series of visions b y D a n i e l . T h e first p a r t is told in t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , w h i l e t h e visions a r e in t h e first p e r s o n . M o r e o v e r , a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e of t h e b o o k t h a t is a t t e s t e d as early as t h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s is t h a t c h a p t e r s 2 : 4 b 7 : 2 8

‫־‬

a r e in

A r a m a i c , w h i l e t h e rest of t h e b o o k is in H e b r e w . T h e H e b r e w sections a r e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d to b e later. T h e r e d a c t i o n of t h e text is d a t e d fairly precisely to d i e time of t h e reign of A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s ( 1 6 7 - 1 6 3 BCE).68 M o s t of t h e r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l c o m e s f r o m t h e visions, b u t

one

n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e first p a r t is r e l e v a n t . I n t h e L X X of D a n i e l 3:92 (= D a n 3:25) K i n g N e b u c h a d n e z z a r h a s cast S h a d r a c h ,

Meshach,

a n d A b e d n e g o i n t o a fiery f u r n a c e f o r t h e i r r e f u s a l to w o r s h i p

a

g o l d e n idol. A f t e r t h e y a r e cast i n t o t h e fire, t h e king's c o u n s e l o r looks in, saying, " B u t I see f o u r m e n loose, w a l k i n g in t h e m i d s t of t h e fire, a n d t h e y a r e n o t h u r t ; a n d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e f o u r t h is like a n a n g e l of G o d " (καί ή ο ρ α σ ι ς του τετάρτου ο μ ο ί ω μ α άγγέλου

67 C. Rowland, The Open Heaven. A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity (New York: Crossroad, 1982) 95; A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1977) 192. 68 This date is widely accepted; see HJPAJC 1111:247.

θεοΰ). 69 T h e H e b r e w text h a s t h e c o u n s e l o r say t h e b e i n g is "like a son of G o d . " T h i s r e a d i n g is also f o u n d in T h e o d o t i o n . T h e i n c i d e n t is recalled in t h e Pr Azar

same

1:26, b u t in this case t h e b e i n g is

specifically called a n a n g e l : " B u t t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e d o w n i n t o t h e f u r n a c e t o b e w i t h A z a r i a h a n d his c o m p a n i o n s , a n d d r o v e the fiery flame o u t of t h e f u r n a c e . " I n this i n c i d e n t a n a n g e l h a s a p p a r e n t l y c o m e to p r o t e c t the t h r e e m e n . W h e n t h e k i n g ' s c o u n s e l o r looks in, h e sees f o u r " m e n . " H i s physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n as a m a n d o e s n o t suggest, h o w e v e r , t h a t h e is a h u m a n b e i n g . F a r f r o m it; t h e e x p e c t a t i o n is t h a t t h e t h r e e m e n w o u l d be c o n s u m e d b y t h e fire. S i n c e t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n c o n s u m e d , the p r e s e n c e of t h e f o u r t h m a n = a n g e l s e e m s d i e likely r e a s o n . Still, it is also possible t h a t t h e t h r e e m e n m a y h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t t o h a v e b e c o m e angelic for a b r i e f d u r a t i o n . W i t h i n d i e v i s i o n a r y m a t e r i a l t h e r e a r e several p a s s a g e s of i n t e r est. First, D a n 8 : 1 5 states, " W h e n I, D a n i e l , h a d seen t h e vision, I s o u g h t to u n d e r s t a n d it; a n d b e h o l d , t h e r e s t o o d b e f o r e m e o n e h a v ing t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n

[ ‫ ; כ מ ר א ה ־ ג ב ר‬ώς ο ρ α σ ι ς α ν θ ρ ώ π ο υ ( T h :

ανδρός)]." At 9:21 t h e r e is a clear description of G a b r i e l (the archangel) as a m a n : " W h i l e I w a s s p e a k i n g in p r a y e r , t h e m a n G a b r i e l [ό ά ν ή ρ , ‫ ו ה א י ש‬/ ‫ ] ג ב ר י א‬, w h o m I h a d seen in t h e vision a t t h e first, c a m e t o m e in swift flight a t t h e t i m e of t h e e v e n i n g sacrifice." T h e "first vision" refers b a c k t o D a n 8:15, w h e r e h e is called " o n e h a v i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n . " T h e n a m e G a b r i e l is itself a p l a y 011 w o r d s . T h e H e b r e w ‫ נ ב ר‬m e a n s " m a n . " 7 0 T h u s , G a b r i e l is " m a n of G o d . " T h e vision in D a n 1 0 : 5 6 ‫ ־‬m a y also r e f e r to t h e " m a n " G a b r i e l : ' 1 [5] I lifted up my eyes and looked, and behold, a m a n clothed in linen, whose loins were girded with gold of Uphaz. [6] His body was like beryl, his face like the appearance of lightning, his eyes like flaming torches, his arms and legs like the gleam of burnished bronze, and the sound of his words like the noise of a multitude. T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s e e m s to s h a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of l u m i n o u s a p p e a r a n c e ( a p p e a r a n c e like l i g h t n i n g , eyes like torches) w i t h o t h e r a n g e l o -

69 Theodotion reads και ή ορασις τοΰ τετάρτου ομοία υίώ θεου. Here the Hebrew is "sons of god" (‫)בו אלחין‬, which is also rendered as angels in the LXX of Deut 32:8. 70 BOB, pp. 149-150. 71 Cf. Ezek 8:2, "Then I beheld, and, 10, a form that had the appearance of a man; below what appeared to be his loins it was fire, and above his loins it was like the appearance of brightness, like gleaming bronze."

p h a n i e s as discussed a b o v e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in 10:7 o t h e r s w h o d o n o t see t h e vision a r e still f e a r f u l a n d flee, c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to t h e m a n ifestation of angel. 7 2 T h e i m a g e of t h e " m a n " c l o t h e d in l i n e n will r e c u r in o t h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of angels. It is a l r e a d y s e e n in

Lev

6:10; E z e k 9:2, 3, 11; 10:2, 6, 7; 44:17. T h i s i m a g e of b e i n g " c l o t h e d in l i n e n " o c c u r s o n c e m o r e in D a n

12:6: " A n d I said t o t h e m a n

c l o t h e d in linen, w h o w a s a b o v e t h e w a t e r s of t h e s t r e a m ,

'How

l o n g shall it b e till t h e e n d of t h e s e w o n d e r s ? ' " C . R o w l a n d h a s a r g u e d f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e of D a n 10:6ff. o n s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a t u r e : JA

14, Apoc. Abr., a n d R e v 1:13. 7 3 T h e i n f l u e n c e

of this p a s s a g e o n l a t e r w r i t i n g s suggests t h a t it m a y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d L u k e ' s i d e a s a b o u t a n g e l i c a p p e a r a n c e s . P. C a r r e l l , unlike R o w l a n d , sees D a n 1 0 : 5 - 6 as a d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e " a n g e l " in E z e k 9:2, linking it b y t h e p h r a s e " c l o t h e d in l i n e n . " Y e t E z e k 9:2 is n o t clearly a n a n g e l ; C a r r e l l infers this f r o m the p h r a s e " c l o t h e d in l i n e n . " T w o f u r t h e r p a s s a g e s also s e e m to r e f e r to G a b r i e l . D a n

10:16

r e a d s , " A n d b e h o l d , o n e in t h e likeness of the sons of m e n t o u c h e d m y lips; t h e n I o p e n e d m y m o u t h a n d spoke. I said to h i m w h o stood before me, Ό

m y l o r d , b y r e a s o n of t h e vision p a i n s h a v e

u p o n me, a n d I retain n o strength'." D a n

10:18 h a s " A g a i n

come one

h a v i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n t o u c h e d m e a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d m e . " G a b r i e l a p p e a r s in D a n i e l in t h e f o r m of a h u m a n b e i n g . H e c a r ries o u t t h e role c o m m o n to angels: delivery a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of divine i n f o r m a t i o n to h u m a n s . M i c h a e l ' s physical a p p e a r a n c e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is n o t described. M i c h a e l is called t h e " p r i n c e " (‫ )שר‬in 10:21, 12:1. I n t h e L X X h e is called a n a n g e l a t 10:21; 12:1. I n t h e T h e o d o t i o n r e c e n s i o n , h o w ever, in b o t h cases h e is r e f e r r e d to as "ό ά ρ χ ω ν " 7 4 M i c h a e l ' s p r i n c e l y role s e e m s t o b e as a d e f e n d e r of Israel a g a i n s t its

opponents—

h u m a n a n d p r e s u m a b l y s u p e r h u m a n . H e s e e m s to b e a c o u n t e r p a r t to G a b r i e l (if G a b r i e l is t h e m a n l i k e figure of 10:18). Lastly, it is i m p o r t a n t to c o n s i d e r t h e " o n e like a son of m a n " in D a n 7:13. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this e n i g m a t i c p h r a s e h a s c a u s e d a n e n o r m o u s a m o u n t of scholarly d e b a t e , particularly a m o n g N T scholars i n t e r e s t e d in its r e l e v a n c e for t h e use of t h e title " s o n of m a n " in 72

Cf. Acts 9:7 and 22:9. C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen Daniel 10:6ff. and Jewish Angelology" JSJVT 24 (1985) 99-110. 74 Unfortunately, no relevant sections of Daniel have survived in the Qumran material. 73

the N T . 7 5 T h e r e is n o n e e d to detail these a r g u m e n t s h e r e . I n s t e a d w e focus o n t h e issue of t h e h u m a n - a n g e l r e l a t i o n s h i p . D a n 7:13 says: I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of m a n [‫ ; כ ב ר אנש‬ώςυίος άνθρωπου], and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him. T h e r e a r e p r i m a r i l y t w o c a m p s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n e sees t h e p h r a s e as r e f e r r i n g t o a n i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g , w h e t h e r as a n e x a l t e d

human

m e s s i a h o r as a n a n g e l i c figure (cf. 1 E n o c h 46:3; R e v 1 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 4 E z r a 13:2f.). T h e o t h e r r e a d s t h e p h r a s e in light of D a n 7:18 a n d 27 a n d sees it as a collective t e r m f o r Israel. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a single i n d i v i d u a l d o m i n a t e d m a n y

cen-

turies of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n l y m o r e r e c e n t l y h a s t h e collective i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e e n suggested a n d c h a m p i o n e d . 7 6 J . C o l l i n s c o n c l u d e s : In summary, the traditional interpretations of the "one like a h u m a n being" in the first millennium overwhelmingly favor the understanding of this figure as an individual, not as a collective symbol. T h e most usual identification was the messiah, but in the earliest adaptations of the vision (the Similitudes, 4 Ezra, the Gospels) the figure in question had a distinctly supernatural character. 7 7 C . R o w l a n d h a s m a d e a s t r o n g case for s e e i n g t h e " o n e like a son of m a n " as r e f e r r i n g to a s i n g u l a r b e i n g . H e writes, " I f the S o n of Man

figure

h a d m e r e l y b e e n a s y m b o l of the Saints of t h e

Most

H i g h , w e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d to find t h e s a m e kind of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e S o n of M a n a n d t h e saints w h i c h w e find in r e s p e c t t o t h e b e a s t s a n d kings in v. 18, b u t this is lacking." 7 8 T h e son of m a n h a s also b e e n identified as t h e h i g h priest. 7 9 U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e " o n e like a son of m a n " is i n t e n d e d to refer to a n angel, e v e n die angel Michael. 8 0 75 D. Burkett, The Son of Man Debate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) is an excellent, up-to-date survey of the entire issue. For a concise look at the evidence for the son of man as an angel, see A. Yarbro Co‫ש‬ns, Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish Christian Apocalypticism (Leiden: E. j . Brill, 1996) 172-185. 76 J. Collins, Daniel (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993) 304-310, discusses the "one like a son of man" in Dan 7 in detail in an excursus. 77 J . Comns, Daniel, p. 308. 78 C. Rowland, The Open Heaoen, p. 180. This is also the position of J. Collins, Daniel, pp. 308-310. 79 See C. Fletcher-Louis, "The High Priest as Divine Mediator in the Hebrew Bible: Dan 7:13 as a Test Case" SBLSP (1997) 161-193. 80 Cf. also 1 En. 46:1, where the "the son of man" is said to have "a face like that of a human being, while his countenance was full of grace like that of one among the holy angels."

F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of this investigation it is n o t w o r t h w h i l e t o p e n e t r a t e m u c h f u r t h e r , since (a) t h e r e f e r e n t r e m a i n s d e b a t e d , a n d (b) if it is a c c e p t e d , it c e r t a i n l y s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a n l i k e

figure

is

s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e t h a n h u m a n b u t a p p e a r s only in h u m a n f o r m . T h e B o o k of D a n i e l reflects i n c r e a s e d s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e role of a n g e l s in t h e w o r l d , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r t h e a r c h a n g e l s M i c h a e l a n d G a b r i e l . T h e b e i n g t h a t h e l p s t h e t h r e e m e n in D a n

3 appears

h u m a n b u t possesses s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r to save t h e m e n f r o m t h e fire. G a b r i e l is d e s c r i b e d v e r y m u c h in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t e r m s . H e still c a r r i e s o u t t h e f u n c t i o n of a n a n g e l , h o w e v e r . M i c h a e l is called a " p r i n c e , " b u t h e s e e m s to h a v e s u p e r h u m a n status a n d m a y b e e q u a l to t h e " o n e like a son of m a n . "

2.6

The Book of Tobit

T h e B o o k of T o b i t a p p e a r s in t h e L X X b u t n o t t h e H e b r e w Bible a n d t h e r e f o r e is f o u n d t o d a y in t h e A p o c r y p h a . I t s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t T o b i t w a s w r i t t e n in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B C E , so it is r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h e B o o k of D a n i e l . 8 1 S o m e A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s of T o b i t a r e p r e s e r v e d at Q u m r a n ( 4 Q 1 9 6 4,199‫־‬Q200is in H e b r e w ) , h e l p i n g to verify its a n t i q u i t y . 8 2 T o b i t is s o m e t h i n g of a n historical fiction

w i t h a d i d a c t i c f u n c t i o n . T h e story is set in t h e Assyrian c a p -

ital, N i n e v e h , in t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B C E . T o b i a s is sent o u t b y his f a t h e r , T o b i t , w h o despite m a n y g o o d d e e d s h a s g o n e blind. T o b i a s is t o j o u r n e y to M e d i a to collect m o n e y t h a t T o b i t is o w e d , w h i c h h e will t h e n use to live, since h e c a n n o l o n g e r e a r n a living d u e to his b l i n d n e s s . I n c h a p t e r 5 T o b i a s s e n d s his son to find a travel c o m p a n i o n f o r his j o u r n e y t o M e d i a . T o b i a s m e e t s w i t h t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l , h o w e v e r , w h o a p p e a r s as a m a n : [3] T h e n Tobit gave him the receipt, a n d said to him, "Find a m a n to go with you a n d I will pay him wages as long as I live; and go a n d get the money." [4] So he went to look for a man; and he found Raphael, who was an angel, [5] but Tobias did not know it. Tobias said to him, " C a n you go with me to Rages in Media? Are you acquainted with that region?" [6] T h e angel replied, "I will go with you; I am familiar with the way, and I have stayed with our brother Gabael." 81

HJPAJC Uli :224. These scrolls are very fragmentary, however, and do not provide any relevant evidence for the discussion of angels in this section. 82

T h e Sinaiticus version of T o b i t 5 : 5 calls R a p h a e l a " y o u n g

man"

(νεανίσκος). T o b i a s clearly d o e s n o t d i s c e r n R a p h a e l ' s t r u e identity, so w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e , w e m u s t a s s u m e h e a p p e a r s as a

human

being. T o b i a s b r i n g s R a p h a e l to his f a t h e r , w h o e n q u i r e s of R a p h a e l : [10] " M y brother, to what tribe and family do you belong? Tell m e . " [11] But he answered, "Are you looking for a tribe and a family 01‫־‬ for a m a n whom you will pay to go with your son?" And Tobit said to him, "I should like to know, my brother, your people and your n a m e . " [12] H e replied, "I am Azarias the son of the great Ananias, one of your relatives." R a p h a e l c o n t i n u e s to h i d e his real identity. T o b i a s w o u l d n o t

be

a b l e to see h i m , b u t h e d o e s n o t r e v e a l his i d e n t i t y until c h a p t e r 12. I n T o b 12:15 t h e a r c h a n g e l p r o c l a i m s , " I a m R a p h a e l , o n e of t h e seven h o l y angels w h o p r e s e n t t h e p r a y e r s of t h e saints a n d

enter

i n t o t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e glory of t h e H o l y O n e . " A t this r e v e l a t i o n , those seeing h i m a r e a f r a i d (12:16), b u t R a p h a e l c a l m s t h e m . R a p h a e l t h e n says h e m u s t a s c e n d b a c k to t h e h e a v e n s (12:20). T h i s is o n e of t h e m o s t s u s t a i n e d a n d i n t r i g u i n g tales of a n a n g e l ' s activity o n e a r t h . R a p h a e l k e e p s his i d e n t i t y secret until his task is c o m p l e t e . T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h e is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n a n g e l the e n t i r e t i m e . H e is o n e of t h e s e v e n a r c h a n g e l s w h o a r e in G o d ' s p r e s e n c e . A l t h o u g h R a p h a e l is a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c , h e d o e s n o t s e e m t o u n d e r g o a n y p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of b e i n g b u t simply a n a l t e r a t i o n of his physical f o r m , w h i c h allows h i m t o c a r r y o u t his f u n c t i o n as travel c o m p a n i o n a n d p r o t e c t o r .

2.7

The Gospels

Angels a p p e a r to h u m a n s o n t h r e e o c c a s i o n s in t h e L u k a n i n f a n c y n a r r a t i v e : t o Z e c h a r i a h ( 1 : 1 1 - 2 4 ) , to M a r y ( 1 : 2 6 - 3 8 ) , a n d t o t h e shepherds ( 2 : 9

8 3

. ( 2 1,15‫־‬I n d i e first o c c u r r e n c e a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d

(άγγελος κυρίου) a p p e a r s t o Z e c h a r i a h to a n n o u n c e t h e b i r t h of a son, J o h n t h e Baptist, to his wife, E l i z a b e t h . Z e c h a r i a h a t first is a f r a i d (v. 12), b u t t h e a n g e l tells h i m n o t to f e a r (v. 13). Z e c h a r i a h

ss

In the Matthean infancy narrative the angel of the Lord is said to appear to Joseph (1:20; 2:13, 19) "in a dream" telling hirn God's plan in order to protect the life of Jesus.

is d o u b t f u l , since h e a n d his wife a r e old (v. 18). 84 As a t o k e n of t h e t r u t h of the s t a t e m e n t , t h e a n g e l identifies himself as n o n e o t h e r t h a n G a b r i e l (v. 19). O n c e this is r e v e a l e d to Z e c h a r i a h . h e is m a d e m u t e until t h e b i r t h of his son (v. 20). 8 5 T h e angel G a b r i e l is t h e n sent to M a r y (v. 26) to a n n o u n c e t o h e r t h e m i r a c u l o u s b i r t h of J e s u s ( w . 3 1 - 3 3 ) . B e c a u s e she is u n w e d (v. 34), M a r y is d u b i o u s , b u t t h e angel tells h e r t h a t t h e h o l y spirit will e n t e r h e r , a n d she will c o n c e i v e . T h e a n g e l t h e n n o t e s

that

M a r y ' s c o u s i n , E l i z a b e t h , t h o u g h of a d v a n c e d age, w a s a b l e to c o n ceive, " F o r w i t h G o d n o t h i n g will b e i m p o s s i b l e " (v. 37). I n t h e t h i r d m e n t i o n of a n g e l s in t h e L u k a n i n f a n c y n a r r a t i v e , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s to s h e p h e r d s in t h e fields of t h e r e g i o n (2:9). T h e s h e p h e r d s a r e a f r a i d at first, b u t t h e a n g e l tells t h e m n o t to f e a r , t h e n a n n o u n c e s t h e b i r t h of J e s u s ( w . 1 0 - 1 1 ) . O n c e h e d o e s so, t h e h e a v ens a r e filled w i t h a n g e l s w h o sing p r a i s e ( w .

13-14). 8 6

T h e s e t h r e e o c c u r r e n c e s a r e a m b i g u o u s as t o t h e o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e of t h e a n g e l . T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of t h e a n g e l is to deliver a message. W e are n o t told in w h a t physical f o r m t h e angel a p p e a r e d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a c t i o n of f e a r b y t h e seers suggests t h a t t h e divine n a t u r e of t h e a n g e l w a s a p p a r e n t . All f o u r c a n o n i c a l gospels c o n t a i n t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e e m p t y t o m b of J e s u s . E a c h of t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s m e n t i o n s b e i n g s w h o a r e

either

explicitly called o r s e e m to b e angels. T h e s e b e i n g s a n n o u n c e p e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m e s s a g e of t h e N T , n a m e l y t h a t J e s u s h a s risen f r o m t h e d e a d . All f o u r a c c o u n t s h a v e w o m e n c o m i n g to t h e t o m b to a n o i n t J e s u s . T h e f o u r c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l s d a t e f r o m p e r i o d 70 to 110 C E .

the

87

First, M a r k 16:5 states, " A n d e n t e r i n g t h e t o m b , t h e y [the t h r e e w o m e n ] saw a young m a n

[ ν ε α ν ί σ κ ο ν ] sitting o n t h e r i g h t side,

84 The announcement to Elizabeth is patterned on the announcement to Manoah and his wife in Judg 13. 85 Interpreters have noted some strong similarities between the appearance of Gabriel to Zechariah and the appearance of Gabriel in Dan 9:2021‫־‬, such as its occurrence at a time of prayer, fear of the angel, and the muteness of the visionary after the vision. For a good summary of the secondary evidence, see R. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah (New York: Doubleday, 1993) 270-271. 86 The angelic liturgy is a well-attested motif in Second Temple Judaism, e.g., SSS; Jub. 2, 6, 15, 30-31; Apoc. Ab. 17; T. Levi 3; et al. 87 R. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 163-164; 216-217; 273-274; and 373-376.

d r e s s e d in a w h i t e r o b e [στολήν λ ε υ κ ή ν ] ; a n d t h e y w e r e T h i s y o u n g m a n tells t h e m , [6] " D o H e has But go, Galilee;

amazed."

not be amazed; you seek Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified. risen, he is not here; see the place where they laid him. [7] tell his disciples and Peter that he is going before you to there you will see him, as he told you."

O n t h e s u r f a c e t h e r e is little in this p a s s a g e itself to suggest t h a t M a r k i n t e n d e d t h e b e i n g a t the t o m b to b e a n a n g e l . M a r k uses t h e t e r m άγγελος six t i m e s (1:2, 13; 8:38; 12:25; 13:27; 13:32), so h e c o u l d h a v e e m p l o y e d it h e r e b u t h a s c h o s e n n o t t o d o so.

The

w o m e n ' s a m a z e m e n t , although p e r h a p s associated with the presence of t h e y o u t h f u l m a n , s e e m s to b e p r e d i c a t e d o n J e s u s ' s a b s e n c e . It is possible t h a t t h e w h i t e r o b e is a signal of a n g e l i c status, since this is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a n g e l o p h a n i e s (cf. D a n

10:5 6; A c t s 1:10; R e v

1:14; 6:11); h o w e v e r , it is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e w o m e n t a k e a n y n o t i c e of t h e b e i n g ' s a p p e a r a n c e , o n l y of the a b s e n c e of J e s u s ' s b o d y . Still, t h e m e s s a g e d e l i v e r e d b y t h e y o u n g m a n is a n

important

o n e t h a t s e e m s to b e u n k n o w n t o a n y o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g s in M a r k ' s n a r r a t i v e . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is n o o t h e r p e r s o n w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e w h o w o u l d b e this " y o u n g m a n , " since in t h e o n l y o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e of t h e t e r m ν ε α ν ί σ κ ο ς , a t 1 4 : 5 1 5 2 ‫ ־‬, a y o u n g m a n w h o follows J e s u s w e a r i n g o n l y a l i n e n c l o t h is seized b u t flees n a k e d . C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s suggests t h a t " y o u t h f u l n e s s w a s also a s s u m e d of angels, to t h e p o i n t t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o ' y o u t h ' c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a e u p h e m i s m for a n a n g e l . " 8 8 T h e r e is c e r t a i n l y significant diversity in t h e s o u r c e s t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e angels b e i n g p o r t r a y e d as y o u t h f u l m e n . B e y o n d t h e e m p t y t o m b n a r r a t i v e s , w e see it also in J o s e p h u s , T o b i t , a n d t h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s (see below). B u t , e v e n if this t e r m w a s a e u p h e m i s m , it is n o t c l e a r t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o a y o u t h ful h u m a n m a l e t h a t w a s i n t e n d e d to b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n

angel

w o u l d m e a n a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. It s e e m s , h o w e v e r , t h a t this figure in M a r k is i n t e n d e d to b e a n angel. H e c a r r i e s o u t t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of a n a n g e l b y deliveri n g a divine m e s s a g e . H e also h a s o n e a s p e c t of t h e i m a g e r y assoc i a t e d w i t h a n angel. W h y h e is d e s c r i b e d as a ν ε α ν ί σ κ ο ς is n o t entirely clear. P e r h a p s b y this p e r i o d t h e r e w a s a g r o w i n g t r a d i t i o n

88

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, 131 n. 135. Also M. Mach, Entwicklungstadien, p. 307 η. 81.

in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r e d as y o u t h f u l m a l e s , o r in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e n a r r a t i v e M a r k t h o u g h t t h a t this w o u l d b e a less a l a r m i n g f o r m f o r the messenger. M a t t h e w ' s v e r s i o n of t h e e m p t y t o m b n a r r a t i v e is significantly d i f f e r e n t f r o m M a r k ' s . M a t t 2 8 : 2 7 ‫ ־‬states: [2] And behold, there was a great earthquake; for an angel of the Lord [άγγελος κυρίου] descended from heaven and came and rolled back the stone, and sat upon it. [3] His appearance was like lightning, and his raiment white as snow. [4] A n d for fear of him the guards trembled and became like dead men. [5] But the angel said to the women, " D o not be afraid; for I know that you seek Jesus who was crucified. [6] He is not here; for he has risen, as he said. C o m e , see the place where he lay. [7] T h e n go quickly and tell his disciples that he has risen from the dead, a n d behold, he is going before you to Galilee; there you will see him. Lo, I have told you." T h e M a t t h e a n version of t h e e m p t y t o m b story is q u i t e

dramatic.

A g a i n , w o m e n a p p r o a c h t h e t o m b , b u t as t h e y d o , t h e r e is a n e a r t h q u a k e , a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c o m e s to m o v e t h e s t o n e t h a t blocks t h e e n t r a n c e to t h e t o m b . T h e c o m m a n d s of t h e y o u n g m a n in M a r k a n d of t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in M a t t h e w a r e strikingly similar. A s s u m i n g f o r t h e m o m e n t M a r k a n p r i o r i t y , w e c a n see h o w M a t t h e w has redacted the M a r k a n

narrative.89 T h e

resemblance

b e t w e e n t h e c o m m a n d to see t h e p l a c e w h e r e J e s u s ' s b o d y h a d lain a n d to g o o u t a n d tell t h e disciples t h a t J e s u s h a d risen suggests a literary r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o versions. If such a suggestion is justified, t h e n M a t t h e w h a s significantly c h a n g e d t h e s c e n e , m a k i n g t h e m e s s e n g e r clearly a n angel, w i t h t h e i m a g e r y typically associated with a n a n g e l o p h a n y . T h i s could m e a n that M a t t h e w u n d e r s t o o d M a r k ' s " y o u t h " as a n a n g e l b u t saw it as insufficiently d e s c r i b e d a n d so b o l s t e r e d its a p p e a r a n c e t o m a k e its status o b v i o u s . T h e G o s p e l of L u k e 2 4 : 4 - 5 says, " W h i l e t h e y [the w o m e n ] w e r e p e r p l e x e d a b o u t this, b e h o l d , t w o m e n [άνδρες δύο] s t o o d b y t h e m in d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l [έν έσθήτι άστραπτούση]; 9 0 a n d as t h e y w e r e frighte n e d a n d b o w e d t h e i r faces to t h e g r o u n d , d i e m e n said to t h e m , 89

R. Brown, An Introduction, p. 114, says that Markan priority is "the most common thesis employed to explain the relationship of Matt and Luke to Mark" by NT scholars. Still, it does not explain all the complexities of their relationship, nor is it the only thesis; e.g., the Greisbach hypothesis argues for the priority of Matthew, with Mark and Luke making changes and omissions to this source. 90 Cf. the appearance of Jesus in the Transfiguration narratives in Mark 9:2-10, Matt 17:1-9, and Luke 9:28-36.

' W h y d o y o u seek t h e living a m o n g t h e d e a d ? ' " H e r e t h e r e a r e t w o b e i n g s a t t h e t o m b . T h e y a r e r e f e r r e d to n o t as y o u n g m e n b u t simply as m e n . T h e y d o h a v e d a z z l i n g c l o t h i n g , a n d t h e y a n n o u n c e t o t h e w o m e n t h a t J e s u s is n o t in t h e t o m b b u t h a s g o n e b e f o r e his disciples t o G a l i l e e . Similarly in Acts 1 : 1 0 - 1 1 , L u k e n a r r a t e s , [10] A n d while they were gazing into heaven as he went, behold, two men [άνδρες δύο] stood by them in white robes [έν έσθήσεσι λευκαίς], [11] and said, " M e n of Galilee, why do you stand looking into heaven? This Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you saw him go into heaven." O n c e a g a i n t w o m e n in striking a p p a r e l tell t h e disciples of G o d ' s p l a n . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s e e m s to b e t h a t t h e y a r e s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n human. J o h n 20:12 r e c o r d s t h a t M a r y M a g d a l e n e " s a w t w o angels in w h i t e [δύο αγγέλους έν λ ε υ κ ο ι ς ] , sitting w h e r e t h e b o d y of J e s u s h a d lain, o n e a t t h e h e a d a n d o n e a t t h e f e e t . " T h e s e a n g e l s ask M a r y " W h y a r e y o u w e e p i n g ? " S h e replies, " B e c a u s e t h e y h a v e t a k e n a w a y m y L o r d , a n d I d o n o t k n o w w h e r e t h e y h a v e laid h i m . " T h e

angels

h a v e n o m o r e p a r t in t h e story, since J e s u s t h e n a p p e a r s t o M a r y in v. 14. T h e G o s p e l of P e t e r (Gos. Pet.) is k n o w n in a f r a g m e n t d i s c o v e r e d in 1886 1887 a t A k h m î m . A r e f e r e n c e f r o m E u s e b i u s , HE

(6.12),

tells us t h a t " S e r a p i o n , b i s h o p of A n t i o c h [c. 190], f o u n d a c h u r c h in R h o s s u s using a n u n o r t h o d o x b o o k k n o w n as t h e G o s p e l of P e t e r . " Also in 3.3.2 of t h e HE. E u s e b i u s says, " t h e G o s p e l of P e t e r is n a m e d a m o n g the writings n o t h a n d e d d o w n a m o n g the catholic scriptures." T h e G o s p e l of P e t e r , t h e n , likely d a t e s t o s o m e t i m e in t h e m i d - l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 9 1 Gos. Pet. 3 5 3 7 ‫ ־‬also i n c l u d e s a n a r r a t i v e a b o u t the empty tomb: [35] N o w in the night in which the Lord's day dawned, when the soldiers were keeping guard, two by two in each watch, there was a loud voice in heaven [36] a n d they saw the heavens open and two m e n [δύο άνδρας] come down from there in a great brightness a n d draw near the sepulchre. [37] T h a t stone which had been laid against the entrance to the sepulchre started of itself to roll and move sideways, a n d the sepulchre was opened and both young men [οί νεανίσκοι] entered. 9 2 91

J. Elliott, The Apociyphal New Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) 150. Greek text from M. Mara, Évangile de Pierre: introduction, text critique, traduction, commentaire et index (Paris: Les Editions du Cerf, 1973) 56. 92

" M e n " f r o m h e a v e n a p p e a r i n g with a g r e a t brightness seems to suggest t h a t these beings a r e angels, b u t , as in o t h e r cases, these angels are referred to as " y o u n g m e n . " It is very possible t h a t the a u t h o r of Gos. Pet. k n e w of a n d d r e w u p o n the (canonical) gospel traditions in c r e a t i n g this narrative. It is i m p o r t a n t n o t to synthesize the individual gospel narratives i n t o o n e c o h e r e n t picture. A brief s u m m a r y of the beings p r e s e n t at the e m p t y t o m b follows: M a r k : o n e y o u n g m a n (νεανίσκος) in a white r o b e (στολήν λευκήν) M a t t h e w : a n Angel of the L o r d (άγγελος κυρίου) L u k e : t w o m e n ( ά ν δ ρ ε ς δύο) i n d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l (έν έ σ θ ή τ ι άστραπτούση) J o h n : two angels in white (δύο αγγέλους έν λευκοίς) Gos. Pet.: two m e n f r o m h e a v e n , called y o u n g m e n (νεανίσκοι) T h u s , the gospels p r e s e n t a n interesting picture. It seems t h a t the a n n o u n c e m e n t to the w o m e n at the t o m b w a s p r o f o u n d e n o u g h to h a v e b e e n given b y divine messengers. T h e description of the b e i n g in e a c h of t h e f o u r gospels is different, however. M a t t h e w is the m o s t explicit, saying it is the Angel of the L o r d w h o arrives with typical i m a g e r y of angels. J o h n says t h e r e a r e t w o angels in white. T h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels in white seems to h a v e r e c u r r e d m o r e in the very late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e visions in Ezekiel a n d Daniel. M a r k calls the being a " y o u n g m a n . " R e f e r r i n g to angels as " y o u n g m e n " seems to h a v e b e c o m e c o m m o n p l a c e b y the late S e c o n d T e m p l e period. Luke calls the beings two " m e n , " b u t they also a p p e a r with " d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l , " suggesting they are s o m e t h i n g special. T h e Gos. Pet. seems to h a v e synthesized the c a n o n ical gospels, calling t h e m " t w o m e n " f r o m h e a v e n , w h o are t h e n revealed to b e "angels." N o n e of the texts offers a n y indication t h a t these beings are n o t angels, w h a t e v e r their a p p e a r a n c e . T h e y h a v e specific knowledge of J e s u s ' s w h e r e a b o u t s a n d s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r with i m a g e r y c o m m o n l y associated with angels, even if their physical f o r m is t h a t of h u m a n beings.

2.8

The Acts of the Apostles

O n e passage f r o m the Book of Acts deserves attention in this c h a p ter. T h e Acts of the Apostles is a history of t h e early C h r i s t i a n

c h u r c h . It w a s likely w r i t t e n by t h e evangelist L u k e a n d , if so, d a t e s to a r o u n d t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y C E . Acts 12 r e c o r d s P e t e r ' s a r r e s t b y H e r o d a n d his s u b s e q u e n t e s c a p e w i t h t h e h e l p of a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d (άγγελος κυρίου). 9 3 O n c e f r e e d , P e t e r h e a d s to w h e r e t h e o t h e r s h a v e g a t h e r e d (Acts 12:12). W h e n t h e h o u s e s e r v a n t a n s w e r s , she r u n s to tell t h e o t h e r s t h a t P e t e r h a s r e t u r n e d . T h e y

respond

i n c r e d u l o u s l y , " Y o u a r e m a d . " B u t she insists t h a t it is so. T h e y say, " I t is his a n g e l [ Ό άγγελος έστνν α ύ τ ο ΰ ] ! " B u t P e t e r c o n t i n u e s k n o c k ing; a n d w h e n t h e y o p e n , t h e y see h i m a n d a r e a m a z e d . 9 4 A m a z e m e n t is a c o m m o n r e a c t i o n to m i r a c u l o u s p h e n o m e n a (cf. M a r 5:42; L u k 8:56; 2 4 : 2 2 ; Acts 10:45). P e t e r h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n h e l p e d b y t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in A c t s 5:19. T h e g u a r d i a n a n g e l m o t i f h a s l o n g b e e n r e c o g n i z e d t o lie b e h i n d Acts 12:15. 9 5 T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s p a s s a g e s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e i d e a in J u d a i s m . I n G e n 4 8 : 1 6 J a c o b says, as p a r t of his blessing o v e r J o s e p h , " t h e a n g e l w h o h a s r e d e e m e d m e f r o m all evil." Ps 9 1 : 1 1 says, " H e will give his a n g e l s c h a r g e of y o u t o g u a r d y o u in all y o u r w a y s . " Also r e l a t e d a r e E x o d 2 3 : 2 0 21, w h e n the A n g e l of t h e L o r d p r o t e c t s the Israelites d u r i n g t h e i r d e s e r t w a n d e r i n g , a n d D e u t 3 2 : 8 (LXX): " W h e n the M o s t H i g h gave to the nations their inheritance, w h e n h e s e p a r a t e d t h e s o n s of m e n , h e fixed t h e b o u n d s of t h e p e o pies a c c o r d i n g to t h e n u m b e r of t h e sons of G o d [αγγέλων θεοΰ]." 9 6 T h e s e p a s s a g e s c e r t a i n l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t angels f u n c t i o n e d as p r o t e c t o r s in t h e J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e p r i o r to t h e N T p e r i o d . O t h e r l i t e r a t u r e also evinces t h e g u a r d i a n a n g e l motif. T o b 5 : 2 1 states, " F o r a g o o d angel will g o w i t h h i m ; his j o u r n e y will b e successful, a n d h e will c o m e back safe a n d s o u n d . " In T. Jac. 1:10, " T h e angels w o u l d visit h i m a n d g u a r d h i m a n d s t r e n g t h e n h i m in all t h i n g s . " Also in t h e LAB 59:4, " a n d b e c a u s e h e h a s d e l i v e r e d m e to his angels a n d to his g u a r d i a n s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d g u a r d m e " (cf. 11:12; 15:5).

93 Note that the Greek here does not contain the article, but the LXX rendering of the Angel of the Lord in Gen 16, 22, 24; Exod 3; Judg 6; 2 Kgs 1, 19; Ps 34, 35; Isa 37 do not either. The Balaam story in Num 22, Judg 13, and Zech do employ the article. Thus it seems possible to render Acts 12:7 as "the Angel of the Lord." 94 The D texts add "perhaps" (τυχόν). 95 See J . Moulton, "It Is His Angel" JTS 3 (1902) 514-527; K. Lake and H. Cadbury, The Beginnings of Christianity: Part I The Acts of the Apostles, vol. 4: English Translation and Commentais (London: MacMillan and Co., 1933) 138-139; E. Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1971) 385. 96 The same idea is seen in Dan 10:13 (and 11:5) in the "princes" of the nations, as well as Michael as the "prince" of Israel.

E l s e w h e r e in t h e N T , M a t t 18:10, " S e e t h a t y o u d o n o t despise o n e of t h e s e little ones; f o r I tell y o u t h a t in h e a v e n t h e i r angels always b e h o l d t h e f a c e of m y F a t h e r w h o is in h e a v e n , " is c i t e d in s u p p o r t of this idea. 9 ' T h i s text, t h o u g h i n f o r m a t i v e a b o u t t h e o v e r all belief in angels as intercessors, is n o t of c e r t a i n v a l u e f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Acts 12:15. C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a in his Excerpta cusses M a t t

ex Theodoto 10, 6 - 1 1 , dis-

18:10:

T h e y [the first-created] "always behold the face of the Father" and the face of the Father is the Son, through w h o m the Father is known. Yet that which sees and is seen cannot be formless or incorporeal. But they see not with an eye of sense, but with the eye of the mind, such as the Father provided. When, therefore, the Lord said, "Despise not one of these little ones. Truly, I say to you, their angels always behold the face of the Father," as is the pattern, so will be the elect, when they have received the perfect advance. But "blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see G o d " (Matt 5:8). And how could their face be a shapeless being? C l e m e n t s e e m s t o suggest t h a t t h e elect will also find t h e i r p l a c e in h e a v e n a t t h e t h r o n e w h e n t h e y a r e t a k e n u p . T h i s s e e m s to d e m o n strate a close c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e a r t h l y elect a n d their h e a v e n l y counterparts a n d p e r h a p s even a transformation f r o m one into the other. T h e w i d e s p r e a d n a t u r e of this belief m a k e s it v e r y likely t h a t L u k e h a s p i c k e d u p o n t h e m o t i f h e r e in Acts 12. C e r t a i n l y , t h a t t h e a n g e l c o m e s a n d frees P e t e r f r o m p r i s o n fits w i t h t h e i d e a of a p r o t e c t o r a n g e l (Acts 12:79‫)־‬. W h a t is a little less c l e a r is w h y t h e o t h e r a p o s ties, in h i d i n g , m i g h t say t h a t P e t e r ' s a n g e l h a s c o m e (Acts 12:15). L. J o h n s o n n o t e s t h a t J e s u s ' s p o s t - r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e in L u k e 24:37 is w o r t h y of c o m p a r i s o n h e r e . 9 8 T h i s p a s s a g e says, " B u t t h e y w e r e startled a n d f r i g h t e n e d , a n d s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e y s a w a spirit (πνεύμα)," p e r h a p s suggesting t h a t w e a r e to s u p p o s e t h e o t h e r a p o s ties t h o u g h t P e t e r h a d b e e n killed. 9 9 Still, t h e p a s s a g e is p e c u l i a r in

97

C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic, the Poor, and the Gospel of Matthew" JTS 45 (1994) 511. 98 L. Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992) 213. 99 J. Munck, The Acts of the Apostles (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967) 114, says this passage is "probably an instance of the not uncommon betief that the moment a man dies his guardian angel appears." He does not cite any instances of this phenomenon, however.

t h e sense t h a t t h e apostles h a d e x p e c t e d a n a n g e l . T h e y a r e told t h a t P e t e r is at t h e d o o r , a n d t h e y dismiss t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , s a y i n g it is his angel. S o , t r a d i t i o n a l l y A c t s 12:15 is t a k e n to r e p r e s e n t t h e

guardian

a n g e l m o t i f , a n d this s e e m s to lie b e h i n d t h e p a s s a g e . It s e e m s also, h o w e v e r , t h a t f o r a t least o n e a u t h o r , L u k e , t h e A n g e l - o f - t h e - L o r d t r a d i t i o n s w e r e still f u n c t i o n a l . P a r t i c u l a r l y striking a r e t h e parallels b e t w e e n Acts 12 a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in E x o d u s as p r o t e c t o r , b o t h in f r e e i n g t h e Israelites a n d P e t e r a n d in killing t h o s e w h o o p p r e s s e d t h e m , P h a r a o h ' s son a n d

Herod.

T h e m e a n i n g of "it is his a n g e l " in Acts 12:15 is n o t entirely clear. M o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s suggest t h a t it r e f e r s to a g u a r d i a n a n g e l .

It

c o u l d p e r h a p s also r e f e r t o s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g (within t h e n a r r a tive) t h a t P e t e r h a s r e t u r n e d t o t h e o t h e r disciples in a n afterlife exist e n c e as a n angel (cf. Acts 23:89‫)־‬. T h e G r e e k ( Ό άγγελος έστιν αύτοΰ) h e r e suggests, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e is a distinction b e t w e e n P e t e r a n d this angel; t h a t is, it is his a n g e l , n o t h e is a n a n g e l .

2.9

The Apocalypse of John

T h e r e a r e 6 4 o c c u r r e n c e s of t h e t e r m άγγελος in t h e A p o c a l y p s e of J o h n . T h e vast m a j o r i t y of t h e s e s e e m clearly to r e f e r to h e a v e n l y b e i n g s w h o c a r r y o u t G o d ' s p l a n (e.g., 5:2; 7 : 1 2 , 8 1 0

‫) ־‬

or are part

of t h e h e a v e n l y r e t i n u e (e.g., 5:11; 7:11; 8:2; 15:6). 100 T h r e e p a s s a g e s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t w i t h r e g a r d to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between

h u m a n s a n d angels: 1:20 ( a n d also m o r e loosely t h e e i g h t r e f e r e n c e s to t h e s a m e " a n g e l s " of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h u r c h e s t h a t follow in c h a p ters 2 - 3 ) a n d 19:10, w h i c h is p a r a l l e l e d in 22:9. R e v 1:20 c o n t a i n s the e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " A s f o r t h e m y s t e r y of t h e seven stars w h i c h y o u s a w in m y right h a n d , a n d t h e seven g o l d e n l a m p s t a n d s , the seven stars are the angels of t h e seven c h u r c h e s [01 έπτά αστέρες άγγελοι των επτά εκκλησιών είσιν] a n d the seven l a m p s t a n d s a r e t h e seven c h u r c h e s . " T h i s p a s s a g e , p e r h a p s b e t t e r t h a n a n y o t h e r , highlights t h e p o t e n t i a l difficulty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e relat i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. S c h o l a r s d e b a t e w h a t is m e a n t

100

It is also important to note that only nine of those (and eight refer to the angels of the churches, discussed below) appear in the visions of John (chapters 4-22).

by t h e " a n g e l s of t h e s e v e n c h u r c h e s . ' " 0 1 T h e " a n g e l s " c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as h u m a n (messengers) o r d i v i n e beings. D i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d t o e x p l a i n w h a t is m e a n t in e i t h e r case. If h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s a r e t h e r e f e r e n t , it w o u l d b e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t J o h n is told to w r i t e t o t h e " m e s s e n g e r s " of t h e c h u r c h e s , b u t t h e allegorical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e verse (i.e., t h e seven stars a r e angels a n d t h e seven l a m p s t a n d s a r e t h e seven c h u r c h e s ) suggests t h a t t h e angels a r e n o t simply h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s . It is possible t h a t

some

type of h y b r i d a n g e l - h u m a n ( p e r h a p s s o m e k i n d of a c k n o w l e d g e d c h u r c h leader) is i n t e n d e d , b u t a g a i n t h e issue of t h e allegorical interp r e t a t i o n arises. As f o r a n a n g e l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , it h a s b e e n

sug-

gested t h a t t h e a n g e l s a r e g u a r d i a n angels o r h e a v e n l y d o u b l e s . It is also possible t h a t t h e t e r m is o n l y a literary device o r l i t e r a r y fiction.

U l t i m a t e l y , t h e i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g of " a n g e l s of t h e seven

c h u r c h e s " will likely r e m a i n a m b i g u o u s , b u t it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e it h e r e since it is a t least possible t h a t t h e i n t e n t is s o m e k i n d of a n g e l - h u m a n b e i n g w h o c a n m e d i a t e for the seven c h u r c h e s

in

h e a v e n . M o r e o v e r , this p h r a s e highlights t h e p o t e n t i a l difficulty t h a t c a n arise in i n t e r p r e t i n g a p a s s a g e in w h i c h t h e a u t h o r m a y h a v e b e e n a w a r e of a n d h a v e p l a y e d u p o n t h e r a n g e of m e a n i n g i n h e r e n t in t h e t e r m άγγελος. T h e o t h e r t w o r e l a t e d p a s s a g e s of interest in s t u d y i n g t h e relat i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s in t h e A p o c a l y p s e a r e

19:10

a n d 2 2 : 8 9 ‫ ־‬. I n R e v 19:9 a n a n g e l c o m m a n d s J o h n to w r i t e d o w n t h e w o r d s h e h e a r s . I n v. 10, J o h n writes, " T h e n I fell d o w n a t his feet to w o r s h i p h i m [the a n g e l ] , b u t h e said to m e , ' Y o u m u s t n o t d o that! I a m a fellow s e r v a n t with y o u a n d y o u r b r e t h r e n w h o h o l d t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s . W o r s h i p G o d . ' F o r t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s is t h e spirit of p r o p h e c y . " Similarly, in 2 2 : 8 - 9 , the a u t h o r writes:

101 See discussions in: C. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1986) 3234‫ ;־‬L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology: A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse ofJohn (Tubingen: J . C. B. Möhr, 1995) 234-238; D. Aune, Revelation, 3 vols. (Dallas: Word Books, 1997-1998) 1:106-112; G. Beale, The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999) 216-219; M. Barker, The Revelation of Jesus Christ (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) 102-110. Due to the inherent ambiguity, most commentators list the options and avoid drawing any specific conclusions.

[8] I J o h n a m he who heard and saw these things. And when I heard and saw them, I fell down to worship at the feet of the angel who showed them to me; [9] but he said to me, "You must not do that! I am a fellow servant with you and your brethren the prophets, and with those who keep the words of this book. Worship G o d . " T h e s e t w o a c c o u n t s a r e q u i t e similar. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in b o t h

cases

J o h n falls at t h e feet of t h e a n g e l ; t h e a n g e l tells h i m , " D o n o t d o t h a t , " b e c a u s e h e himself is simply " a fellow s e r v a n t w i t h y o u " ; a n d the a n g e l tells J o h n to " W o r s h i p G o d . " O n l y 19:10, h o w e v e r , says t h a t J o h n fell t o w o r s h i p (προσκυνέω). 1 0 2 A t a g e n e r a l level, t h e p r o h i b i t i o n s e e m s to s t a n d as a w a r n i n g t o C h r i s t i a n s a g a i n s t a n g e l w o r ship a n d p e r h a p s i d o l a t r y in a n y f o r m . 1 0 3 S o m e h a v e suggested t h a t J o h n m a y b e c o n f u s i n g t h e b e i n g b e f o r e h i m in 19:9 a n d w i t h t h e divine b e i n g h e h a s s e e n in 1:13 a n d

10:11.

22:89‫־‬

104

U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e f u s a l of w o r s h i p suggests t h a t in t h e divine o r d e r h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e o n e q u a l footing. 1 0 5 T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this a r e u n c l e a r . Prime facie it d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest t h a t t h e distinct i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o t y p e s of b e i n g s is necessarily b l u r r e d b y this s h a r e d status; h o w e v e r , t h e a n g e l d o e s say t h a t h e is a "fellow serv a n t , " so p e r h a p s , in t h e e s c h a t o n a n d n e w age t h a t J o h n sees in visions, angels a n d h u m a n s a r e n o t as distinct b u t i n s t e a d a r e all e q u a l followers of G o d (cf. Mart. Ascen. Isa. 8 - 9 ) .

2.10 Joseph

and Aseneth

(JA),

Joseph and Aseneth

w h i c h b e l o n g s to t h e g e n r e of G r e e k love

stories, e l a b o r a t e s u p o n t h e n a r r a t i v e in G e n 4 1 : 3 7 - 4 5 , 5 0 - 5 2 , a n d 4 6 : 2 0 , in w h i c h t h e p a t r i a r c h J o s e p h m a r r i e s t h e d a u g h t e r of a n E g y p t i a n priest, A s e n e t h . It is likely to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d in G r e e k ,

102

R. Bauckharn has collected texts from the period that show the motif of the angelic denial of worship was extant. He sees the same motif in Tob 12:16-22, Apoc. Zeph. 6:11-15, JA 15:11-12, Apoc. Paul, Apoc. Gosp. Matt 3:3, Lad. Jac. 3:3-5, 3 En. 16:1-5, and Cairo Genizah Hekhalot A/2 13-18. See R. Bauckharn, "The Worship ofJesus in Apocalyptic Christianity" NTS 37 (1980-1981) 322-341, reprinted in R. Bauckharn, The Climax of Prophecy (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993) 118-149. 105 G. Beale, The Book of Revelation, p. 946. D. Aune, Revelation, p. 1036. The question of whether or not there was a cult of angel worship in Judaism at this period is debated. A good review of scholarship on this appears in L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration, pp. 111-119. 104 G. Beale, The Book of Revelation, pp. 946, 1128. 105 L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration, p. 252.

t h o u g h it m a y derive f r o m earlier o r a l t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t J o s e p h . T h e r e are two m a i n recensions: the longer a n d the shorter form.106 M o s t s c h o l a r s believe t h e l o n g e r f o r m to be closer t o t h e original, b u t this is d e b a t e d . T h e r e r e m a i n s a n e e d for a critical e d i t i o n of t h e text t h a t i n c l u d e s all t h e m a j o r m a n u s c r i p t s . 1 0 7 S c h o l a r s a r e d i v i d e d o n t h e d a t e a n d p r o v e n a n c e of JA. P. Battifol, o n e of t h e first s c h o l a r s to t r a n s l a t e t h e G r e e k text, suggested t h a t it w a s a C h r i s t i a n text a n d s h o u l d b e d a t e d q u i t e late, b e t w e e n t h e f o u r t h a n d sixth c e n t u r y C E . 1 0 8 T h i s d a t i n g h a s b e e n r e j e c t e d b y virtually all scholars, h o w e v e r , o n t h e basis of t h e " J e w i s h " c h a r a c t e r of t h e t e x t (e.g., its e l a b o r a t i o n u p o n a H e b r e w Bible story) a n d its S e p t u a g i n t a l i s m s . F o r s o m e t i m e t h e r e w a s a g r o w i n g scholarly c o n sensus t h a t settled u p o n a n E g y p t i a n p r o v e n a n c e a n d a late c e n t u r y B C E to a

first-century

R e c e n t l y , G . B o h a k h a s b e c o m e m o r e specific a n d l o c a t e d a u t h o r of JA

first-

C E date. 1 0 9 the

in E g y p t a t t h e O n i a s T e m p l e . 1 1 0 H e sees t h e a u t h o r

as h a v i n g a g o o d k n o w l e d g e of G r e e k , s o m e familiarity w i t h E g y p t i a n (Heliopolitan) theology, a n d a deeply eschatological outlook. T h e s e f a c t o r s suggest a d a t e of 160

145 B C E to B o h a k .

A d i s s e n t i n g voice c o m e s f r o m R . K r a e m e r , w h o m a k e s a case for seeing " A s e n e t h " as n o earlier t h a n a b o u t t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y CE. 1 1 1 H e r a r g u m e n t s f o r seeing t h e a n g e l o p h a n y as a d j u r a t i o n m a g i c akin to m a g i c a l m a t e r i a l s of t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s C E a r e i n t e r esting b u t n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r s u a s i v e as a basis for a late d a t i n g . It s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t JA

was written during or a r o u n d the

first

c e n t u r y C E . E v e n if t h e a c t u a l d a t e is s o m e w h a t later, it is still p o s sible t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s t h e r e i n m a y d e r i v e f r o m a n e a r l i e r p e r i o d . T h e p r o v e n a n c e is likely to b e E g y p t i a n . Its g e n r e , t h e love story,

106

There are 16 Greek mss. and a number of versions in other languages; for a list see C. Burchard, OTP 2:178-179. 107 HJPAJC mi:546-552. 108 P. Battifol, Le livre de la prière d'Aseneth in Studia Patristica (Paris, 1889-1890). 109 C. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth: Überlieferung-Ortsbestimmung (Tübingen: JCB Mohr, 1965) and OTP 2:177-201; M. Philonenko, Joseph et Aséneth: introduction, texte critique, traduction et notes (Leiden: E. J . Brill, 1968); R. Chesnutt, '1Joseph and Aseneth" in ABD 3:969-971 and a good summary of the arguments in Chesnutt's recent work, From Death to Life: Conversion in Joseph and Aseneth (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 80-85. 110 G. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth and the Jewish Temple in Heliopolis (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1996) 83-87. 111 R. Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 225-244.

is likely t o c o n t a i n t h e m e s of b e a u t y a n d v i r t u e a n d b e of a n epic character. I n c h a p t e r s 1 4 - 1 7 of JA " a m a n f r o m h e a v e n " a p p e a r s to A s e n e t h . T h e " m a n " is said to b e v e r y similar to J o s e p h in his g a r b , b u t his face a n d e x t r e m i t i e s a r e brilliant. [4] And a m a n came to her from heaven and stood by Aseneth's head. And he called her and said, "Aseneth, A s e n e t h . , 5 ] ‫ ] י‬A n d she said, " W h o is it that calls me, because the door of my chamber is closed, and the tower is high, and how then did he come into my chamber?" [6] And the man called her a second time and said, "Aseneth, Aseneth." [7] A n d she said, "Behold, (here) I (am) Lord. W h o are you, tell me?" [8] And the m a n said, "I am the chief of the house of the Lord and c o m m a n d e r of the whole host of the Most High. Rise and stand 011 your feet and I will tell you what I have to say." [9] And Aseneth raised her head and saw, and behold, (there was) a m a n in every respect similar to Joseph, by the robe and the crown and the royal staff, except that his face was like lightning, and Iiis eyes were like sunshine, and the hairs of his head like a flame of fire of a burning torch, a n d hands and feet like iron shining forth from a fire, a n d sparks shot forth from his hands and feet. [10] And Aseneth saw (it) a n d fell on her face at his feet on the ground (14:4-10). 112 M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t a n d this b e i n g as a n a n g e l , e v e n

though

the text d o e s n o t c o n t a i n the t e r m ά γ γ ε λ ο ς . " 3 T h e r e a r e g o o d r e a sons for this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e b e i n g c o m e s originally as a "star' 5 (14:1). W i t h i n t h e p a s s a g e h e is c a l l e d " a m a n f r o m h e a v e n " (v. 4), w h o i d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f as t h e " c o m m a n d e r

of t h e w h o l e h o s t of

h e a v e n " (v. 7). T h i s title w a s seen in J o s h 5 . 1 3 1 5 ‫ ־‬a n d l a t e r a t t r i b u t e d t o p r i m a r y a n g e l s such as M i c h a e l . T h e i m a g e r y of his brilliant face a n d fiery h a n d s a n d feet (v. 9) is c o m m o n to a n g e l o p h a n i e s . M o r e o v e r , A s e n e d i r e s p o n d s b y falling on die g r o u n d . T h i s is u n d o u b t edly a case in w h i c h a n a n g e l is r e f e r r e d to as a m a n . W h a t is m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g is t h a t t h e a n g e l a p p e a r s in t h e f o r m of a p a r t i c u l a r p e r son, t h e p a t r i a r c h J o s e p h . A d d i t i o n a l l y , w h e n in c h a p t e r 16 t h e b e i n g r e a c h e s o u t his h a n d to A s e n e t h , she is a f r a i d to t a k e it b e c a u s e " s p a r k s shot f o r t h f r o m his h a n d as f r o m b u b b l i n g m e l t e d i r o n . " G . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s a r g u e d t h a t J o s e p h in this scene a n d also A s e n e t h in c h a p t e r 18 a r e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 1 1 4 I n t h e sense t h a t c e r tain i m a g e r y a p p l i e d to e a c h of t h e m is o f t e n a p p l i e d t o angels, this 112

Translation G. Burchard, OTP 2:224-225. See especially G. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth, pp. 2-3; C. Fletcher-Louis, LukeActs, p. 165, et al. 114 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 165-169. 113

s e e m s c o r r e c t . I n t h e c a s e of A s e n e t h , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees t h e b e a u t y a s c r i b e d to h e r in c h a p t e r 18 a n d h e r f a t h e r ' s r e a c t i o n of f e a r a n d falling to t h e g r o u n d (18:11) as signs of h e r a n g e l i c c h a r a c t e r ,

as

well as h e r b e i n g a b l e to p a r t a k e of h e a v e n l y f o o d (16:14). 1 1 3 T h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s s e e m to s h o w t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n A s e n e t h

under-

goes p r e p a r e s her for m a r r i a g e to h e r future h u s b a n d , w h o

has

a n g e l o m o r p h i c qualities. U l t i m a t e l y , h o w e v e r , A s e n e t h is said to c o n ceive a n d b e a r h u m a n

children—Manasseh

and Ephraim

(21:9),

which would seem to reinforce her h u m a n nature. T h e "parallelism" ( F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s t e r m ) b e t w e e n t h e p o r t r a y a l of t h e a n g e l in c h a p t e r 14 a n d J o s e p h g e n e r a l l y is said to s h o w J o s e p h ' s " a n g e l i c c h a r a c t e r . " 1 1 6 T h e parallels i n c l u d e b o t h t h e a n g e l a n d J o s e p h

coming

f r o m the East a n d being seen by Aseneth t h r o u g h h e r window. In 14:9, t h e a n g e l is said to b e " a m a n in e v e r y r e s p e c t similar to J o s e p h . " F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees the c o m m e n t in 6:6 t h a t J o s e p h h a s " a g r e a t light in h i m " as giving f o u n d a t i o n for t h e parallel b e t w e e n h i m a n d t h e fiery c r e a t u r e of c h a p t e r 14, b u t this s e e m s to press t h e evid e n c e q u i t e f a r . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e m a y b e a parallel b e t w e e n J o s e p h a n d his angelic c o u n t e r p a r t . B u t a r e t h e y t h e s a m e b e i n g ? It s e e m s unlikely, given t h a t t h e t w o a r e m e n t i o n e d s e p a r a t e l y . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e d e p i c t i o n s of b o t h J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h in

JA

a r e a n g e l o m o r p h i c , it s e e m s t h e t w o a r e h u m a n b e i n g s .

2.11

The Shepherd of Hermas

T h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s w a s p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n in c e n t r a l Italy o r R o m e itself. Its d a t i n g is u n c e r t a i n , b u t m o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t a d a t e s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y G E a n d t h e

first

half of t h e s e c o n d century. 1 1 7 T h i s m e a n s it is likely to b e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h b o t h t h e gospels a n d J o s e p h u s . H e r m a s is split i n t o t h r e e sections: Visions, Mandates, In the

and

Similitudes.

Visions a n " a n c i e n t w o m a n " is a c c o m p a n i e d

by

m e n . " I t is l a t e r d i s c l o s e d t h a t t h e s e " y o u n g m e n " a r e

"young actually

"angels.""8 Originally, there are four young m e n , "So, w h e n

she

h a d finished r e a d i n g , a n d rose f r o m t h e c h a i r , t h e r e c a m e f o u r y o u n g

115

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 166-167. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 166. 117 C. Osiek, Shepherd of Hermas (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999) 18-20. 118 Greek text from K. Lake, The Apostolic Fathers II (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992). 116

men

[νεανίαι], a n d took u p the chair a n d went away toward

the

E a s t " (Vis. 1.4.1), b u t in Vis. 3 t h e r e a r e six. Vis. 3 . 1 . 6 says, " A n d she [the a n c i e n t lady] c a m e w i t h six y o u n g m e n [ ν ε α ν ί σ κ ω ν ] , w h o m I [ H e r m a s ] h a d seen o n t h e f o r m e r o c c a sion, a n d s t o o d b y m e , a n d listened t o m e p r a y i n g a n d c o n f e s s i n g m y sins t o t h e L o r d . " T h e s e y o u n g m e n a p p e a r a g a i n in 3.1.7 a n d 8. I n 3 . 1 . 8 t h e y a r e told to " G o a n d b u i l d , " w h i c h t h e y d o in 3.2.5: Now the tower was being built four-square by six young men [νεανίσκων] who h a d come with her; but tens of thousands of other men [ανδρών] were bringing stones, some from the deep sea, and some from the land, a n d were giving them to the six young men [νεανίσκοις], and these kept taking them and building. Slightly later, H e r m a s e n q u i r e s as to t h e i d e n t i t y of these m a i n b u i l d ers (Vis. 3.4.1): I answered and said to her: "Lady, great a n d wonderful is this thing. But, Lady, who are the six young men [νεανίσκοι] who are building?" "These are the holy angels of G o d [οί άγιοι άγγελοι του θεοΰ], who were first created, to w h o m the Lord delivered all his creation to make it increase, and to build it up, and to rule the whole creation." T h e six y o u n g m e n a r e last m e n t i o n e d in

Vis. 3 . 1 0 . 1 , w h e n

they

c o m e to c a r r y a w a y t h e a n c i e n t lady. I n h e r recent c o m m e n t a r y , C . Osiek suggests t h a t die six y o u n g m e n (= angels) m a y r e p r e s e n t , a l o n g w i t h t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l ( w h o a p p e a r s in t h e Sim. 8 . 3 . 3 a n d 9.6.1), t h e s e v e n p r i m a r y a r c h a n g e l s (cf. 1 En. 9 0 : 2 1 , T. Levi 8.1). 1 1 9 T h i s is c e r t a i n l y possible, since t h e a r c h a n g e l s a r e s e e n in g r o u p s of seven ( T o b

12:15; 2 En.

19:1), b u t also in

g r o u p s of f o u r , in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e period. 1 2 0 T h e r e is o n e o t h e r e x a m p l e of a n a n g e l b e i n g r e f e r r e d to as a " y o u t h . " I n Sim. 6 . 1 . 5 , H e r m a s is s h o w n a vision of a s h e p h e r d : And after he spoke these things with me, he said to me: into the country, and I will show you the shepherds of "Let us go, sir," said I. And we came into a plain, and me a young shepherd [ποιμένα νεανίσκον], clothed with a ments of yellow color.

119

"Let us go the sheep." he showed suit of gar-

C. Osiek, Shepherd, p. 69. Groupings of four appear in 1QM 9.14-16; 1 En. 9:1, 40:9, 54:6, 71:8; Apoc. Mos. 40:2. 120

T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e s h e p h e r d is t h e n r e v e a l e d in 6.2.1: And he said to me: " D o you see this shepherd?" "Yes, sir," said I, "I see him." "This," said he, "is the angel of luxury and deceit [άγγελος τρυφής καί απάτης]. , ‫ י‬H e wears out the souls of the servants of God, and perverts them from the truth, deceiving them with evil desires in which they perish. It s e e m s t h a t this s h e p h e r d is t h e antithesis of H e r m a s himself. O s i e k calls t h e s h e p h e r d " a d e m o n i c

figure."121

It m a y b e t h a t s o m e c o r -

r e s p o n d e n c e to t h e figure of S a t a n is i n t e n d e d . W h a t e v e r t h e case, this is a n o t h e r text t h a t s e e m s t o r e f e r t o a n a n g e l a p p e a r i n g in a h u m a n f o r m , in this case as a s h e p h e r d . T h i s interesting material shows t h a t at least for the a u t h o r of H e r m a s , angels c o u l d be a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r , as w e saw in J o s e p h u s a n d t h e E m p t y T o m b n a r r a t i v e s , " y o u n g m e n " (νεανίσκοι). All of t h e e v i d e n c e f o r a n g e l s as y o u t h s s e e m s to h a v e a first- to early second-century C E p r o v e n a n c e (Tobit, N T , Josephus, Hermas). T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y p a r t i c u l a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n this c o n c e p t of a n g e l s a n d t h e o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s of angels b e i n g r e g a r d e d as " m e n " f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible.

2.12

The Apocalypse of Abraham

T h e A p o c a l y p s e of A b r a h a m (Apoc. Abr.),

e x t a n t o n l y in

Slavonic

t r a n s l a t i o n , c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o m a i n p a r t s . T h e first, c h a p t e r s 1 —S, r e c o u n t s A b r a h a m ' s c o n v e r s i o n f r o m i d o l a t r y t o m o n o t h e i s m . T h e remaining chapters (931‫ )־‬are an apocalypse based u p o n

Gen

15. T h e a p o c a l y p s e is n o t easily d a t e d f r o m i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e . T h e r e is a n a p p a r e n t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e in c h a p t e r 27. It s e e m s to h a v e b e e n q u o t e d in t h e

Pseudo-Clementine

Recognitions 1.32 (c. s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) . M o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t a d a t e s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y a n d t h e seco n d century CE.122 T h e a n g e l Iaoel (10:3), w h o helps A b r a h a m , is d e s c r i b e d as a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c . Apoc. Abr.

10.4 states, " T h e a n g e l h e sent to m e in t h e

likeness of a m a n c a m e , a n d h e took m e b y m y right h a n d

121

and

C. Osiek, Shepherd, p. 188. R. Rubinkiewicz, "The Apocalypse of Abraham" in OTP 1:683; HJPAJC III.i:290. 122

s t o o d m e o n m y f e e t . " H e h a s t h e "likeness of a m a n " a n d is a b l e to t a k e t h e h a n d of A b r a h a m . H o w e v e r , w h e n A b r a h a m looks u p o n his h e l p e r , h e sees s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t : [11:1] And I stood up and saw him who h a d taken my right h a n d and set m e on my feet. [2] T h e appearance of his body was like sapphire, and the aspect of his face was like chrysolite, and the hair of his head like snow. [3] And a kidaris (was) on his head, its look like that of a rainbow, and the clothing of his garments (was) purple; and a golden staff was in his right hand. T h e c o m p o n e n t s of this a n g e l o p h a n y a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e in

the

a n g e l o p h a n i e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e — i n p a r t i c u l a r , his w h i t e h a i r

and

brilliant (jewel-like) b o d y . O n e d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t his g a r m e n t s a r e a royal p u r p l e r a t h e r t h a n w h i t e . As n o t e d a b o v e , C . R o w l a n d h a s a r g u e d o n t h e basis of t h e strikingly similar i m a g e r y f o u n d in JA,

Apoc. Abr.,

and Rev that

they

reflect d e p e n d e n c e o n a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D a n 10:6 t h a t w a s linked with D a n 7:13 as f o u n d in the L X X . 1 2 3 It s e e m s likely t h a t t h e i m a g e s of t h e m a n l i k e

figure

in t h e p r o p h e t s E z e k i e l a n d D a n i e l

were

influential in s u b s e q u e n t v i s i o n a r y a n d a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e . T h e a p p e a r a n c e of I a o e l as "in the likeness of a m a n " d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h u m a n beings. F a r f r o m it; I a o e l is in t h e h e a v e n s a n d c a r r i e s o u t t h e role of g u i d e a n d i n t e r p r e t e r o f t e n associated w i t h angels.

Conclusions I n this c h a p t e r e v i d e n c e f o r t h e p o r t r a y a l of a n g e l s ( a n d o t h e r divine beings) a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n b e i n g s h a s b e e n investigated t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r it suggests a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h r e e p o i n t s w e r e n o t e d at t h e outset. (1) T h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e of t h e t e r m s for a n g e l

can

c o v e r b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . S u c h a s e m a n t i c r a n g e , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y b l u r r i n g of t h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e t w o types, since c o n t e x t d i c t a t e s t h e m e a n i n g of t h e t e r m . (2) T h e m a j o r i t y of texts t h a t speak a b o u t angels d o n o t i n c l u d e a n y physical d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e m . (3) S o m e c o m m o n

123

characteristics

C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen," pp. 99-110; see also The Open Heaven, p. 101.

of a n g e l o p h a n i e s (luminous a p p e a r a n c e , fear in the seer) c a n b e used to help identify w h a t m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d angelic. Angels d o s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r in the f o r m of h u m a n s ( G e n 1 8 - 1 9 , 32, J o s h , P r o p h e t s T o b ) . I n the c o n t e x t of the n a r r a t i v e they are often indistinguishable f r o m h u m a n beings, at least until they reveal their true identity. F u r t h e r , in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e r e seemed to be a d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d representing angels as y o u t h f u l h u m a n males (the Gospels, Herrn.). T h e evidence indicates t h a t , even w h e n described a n t h r o p o m o r phically, angels r e m a i n e d distinct f r o m h u m a n s . W e t h e r e f o r e ask: W h a t is the significance of the evidence w h e r e there are a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c descriptions of angels? T h e earliest evidence f r o m the H e b r e w Bible suggests t h a t t h e r e m a y n o t h a v e b e e n a n y d e v e l o p m e n t in the c o n c e p t of angels t h a t m a d e it p r o b l e m a t i c to refer to w h a t f r o m the c o n t e x t was clearly a divine being as a " m a n . " As speculation a b o u t angels a n d the heavenly r e a l m increased in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e period, m o r e of a distinction was m a d e ; older texts such as Genesis w e r e reinterpreted a n d angels inserted w h e r e there m a y h a v e b e e n a n y a m b i g u i t y or w h e r e angels w e r e the m o r e logical choice of t e r m s given the t r e n d s of t h a t time. I n visionary literature it seems t h a t divine beings a n d angels could c o n t i n u e to be referred to as m e n , b u t most often with a circumlocution such as " o n e like a son of m a n . " T h i s suggests a distinction was being m a i n t a i n e d , even if the physical f o r m of the b e i n g was h u m a n l i k e . It is n o t difficult to see w h y a h u m a n f o r m w o u l d be c h o s e n for a divine being: the a u t h o r s themselves w e r e obviously h u m a n , a n d G o d c r e a t e d m a n in his o w n i m a g e ( G e n 1:26). It is interesting t h a t angels c a m e to b e r e f e r r e d to as " y o u t h f u l m e n . " H o w this idea developed is n o t entirely clear, b u t by the first c e n t u r y G E , it seems to have b e e n firmly in place, such t h a t it m i g h t h a v e even served as a e u p h e m i s m for angels. Even in the cases w h e r e angels are called " y o u n g m e n , " h o w e v e r , t h e r e does n o t seem to be a n y reason to suppose t h a t this designation e x t e n d s b e y o n d their physical f o r m to their essential n a t u r e . T h u s , the evidence analyzed in this c h a p t e r indicates that, although t h e r e is significant evidence for angels a p p e a r i n g in h u m a n f o r m , a distinction was m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n h u m a n a n d angels. T h e next step in this investigation is to look at cases in w h i c h h u m a n beings seem to take o n the a p p e a r a n c e of angels, w h i c h is the p u r p o s e of c h a p t e r 3.

CHAPTER THREE "YOU L O O K POSITIVELY

ANGELIC":

H U M A N BEINGS AS A N G E L S

I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r t h e e v i d e n c e for angels a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n b e i n g s w a s e x a m i n e d . T h e e v i d e n c e f o r h u m a n b e i n g s a p p e a r i n g as angels will b e c o n s i d e r e d in this c h a p t e r . T h e e v i d e n c e is m a i n l y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n specific i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible, w e r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r r i g h t e o u s n e s s (e.g., N o a h , Moses) o r h a d e n i g m a t i c b a c k g r o u n d (e.g., E n o c h , M e l c h i z e d e k ) .

1

Some

who an

important

individuals f r o m early C h r i s t i a n i t y also m a y h a v e a t t a i n e d s u c h a status (e.g., J e s u s , S t e p h e n , a n d Paul). T h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r is o r g a n i z e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e texts r e l a t i n g t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . T h e final

s u b s e c t i o n c o n s i d e r s texts t h a t speak a b o u t t h e possibility t h a t

h u m a n s w h o w e r e r i g h t e o u s in t h e i r lifetime m a y receive a n angelic life in h e a v e n .

3.1

Adam

A c c o r d i n g to G e n e s i s , A d a m w a s t h e first h u m a n

being

created.

L a t e r s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t his d i v i n e n a t u r e s e e m s to s t e m f r o m G e n 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 , w h i c h states, " T h e n G o d said, ' L e t us m a k e m a n in o u r i m a g e , a f t e r o u r l i k e n e s s . ' . . . S o G o d c r e a t e d m a n in his o w n i m a g e , in t h e i m a g e of G o d h e c r e a t e d h i m ; m a l e a n d f e m a l e h e c r e a t e d t h e m . " 2 T h e c r e a t i o n story itself, a l o n g w i t h t h e story in t h e G a r d e n ( G e n 2 3 ‫ ) ־‬, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e w a s a close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e

1 As is seen in analyses by: J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151; L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998) 51-70; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997) 145-183; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1997) 152-183. 2 Gen Rab 8:3-6 discusses the first-person plural "we" in the creation statement and how God took counsel with the ministering angels in the creation (cf. also Gen 11:7). There is a good survey of the Jewish interpretations of Gen 1:26 i n j . Jervell, Imago Dei: Gen l,26f. im Spätjudentum, in der Gnosis und in den paulischen Briefen (Göttingen: Vanderhoeck and'Ruprecht, 1960) 15-51 and 71-121.

first h u m a n s a n d t h e divine. Interestingly, t h e c a u s e of A d a m ' s e x p u l sion f r o m t h e G a r d e n is t h a t h e h a s " b e c o m e like o n e of us, k n o w i n g g o o d a n d evil" ( G e n 3:22a). M o r e o v e r , if A d a m w e r e to t a k e f r o m t h e T r e e of Life, t h e n h e w o u l d "live f o r e v e r " ( G e n 3:22b). T h u s , it s e e m s t h a t A d a m h a d a kind of divine n a t u r e at t h e c r e a t i o n . N o m o r e distinction is m a d e , o t h e r t h a n t h a t A d a m is "like u s . " 1 E n o c h (or E t h i o p i e E n o c h ) 6 9 c o m e s f r o m a section of 1 E n o c h k n o w n as t h e S i m i l i t u d e s (or P a r a b l e s ) of E n o c h ( c h a p s .

37-71).

1 E n o c h is a c o m p o s i t e w o r k m a d e u p of several sections: T h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (chaps. 136‫ ;)־‬t h e Similitudes; t h e A s t r o n o m i c a l

Book

(chaps. 8 3 - 9 0 ) ; t h e B o o k of A d m o n i t i o n s (chaps. 9 1 - 1 0 5 ) ; a n d t h e B i r t h A c c o u n t of N o a h (chaps. 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ) . T h e d a t e of t h e S i m i l i t u d e s h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t of s o m e d e b a t e , since it is also t h e section w h e r e the " s o n of m a n " s a y i n g is f o u n d (see a b o v e 2.5). A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s f r o m Q u m r a n s h o w t h a t all sections of 1 E n o c h w e r e to b e f o u n d t h e r e e x c e p t the Similitudes. 3 T h i s , a l o n g w i t h t h e affinity of s o m e A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s of a Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s to t h e M a n i c h e a n B o o k of G i a n t s , led t h e p u b l i s h e r of t h e A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s , J . Milik, to suggest t h a t t h e Similitudes d i d n o t exist in p r e - C h r i s t i a n

times

b u t w e r e in f a c t a late C h r i s t i a n a d d i t i o n t o 1 E n o c h (c. 2 7 0 C E ) . 4 T h e s c h o l a r l y c o n s e n s u s t o d a y , h o w e v e r , largely rejects M i l i k ' s assert i o n a n d m a i n t a i n s a d a t e in t h e first half of t h e first c e n t u r y C E . 5 T h e S i m i l i t u d e s a r e f o c u s e d u p o n e v e n t s in t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d . T h e y c u l m i n a t e in t h e a s c e n s i o n of E n o c h to h e a v e n ( c h a p .

71).

1 En. 6 9 n a m e s t h e angels w h o s i n n e d b y disclosing secret k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n s (v. 1). V e r s e

11 suggests t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s

originally

s h a r e d a similar n a t u r e w i t h angels: [11] For m e n were created exacdy like angels, to the intent that they should continue pure and righteous, and death, which destroys everything, could not have taken hold of them, but through this their knowledge they are perishing, and through this power it is consuming me. 6

5 J. Milik in collaboration with M. Black, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumràn Cave 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976); G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2001). 4 J. Milik, The Books of Enoch, pp. 89.96‫־‬ 5 See especially M. Knibb, "The Date of the Parables of Enoch" NTS 25 (1979) 358-359; C. Mearns, "Dating the Similitudes of Enoch" NTS 25 (1979) 369; HJPAJC Hli:257-259. 6 Translation R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913) 2:234.

A l t h o u g h A d a m is n o t explicitly m e n t i o n e d in this text, t h e c o n t e x t is of t h e c r e a t i o n of h u m a n k i n d , w h i c h m u s t u l t i m a t e l y h a r k e n b a c k to A d a m in G e n e s i s . A c c o r d i n g to t h e text, h u m a n s w e r e c r e a t e d to be "like" angels. T h e simile c o m e s in h u m a n s p e r m a n e n t l y

"main-

t a i n i n g p u r e a n d r i g h t e o u s lives." T h i s suggests t h a t t h e

original

h u m a n state w a s to b e p u r e a n d r i g h t e o u s (cf. W i s 2:23).

Human

b e i n g s s e e m i n g l y fell f r o m this state t h r o u g h t h e sin of A d a m ( G e n 2:17, 3:17f.; cf. R o m 5:12), suggestsing t h a t A d a m ' s p r e l a p s a r i a n state c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as angelic. 7 A n o t h e r text f r o m die E n o c h i c writings is m o r e explicit a b o u t A d a m ' s angelic status. 2 E n o c h (Slavonic E n o c h ) e x p a n d s u p o n t h e life of E n o c h ( G e n 5 : 2 1 - 3 2 ) . T w o r e c e n s i o n s exist: t h e s h o r t e r [A] a n d t h e l o n g e r [ J ] , w h i c h a r e d a t e d differently. T h e m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e is q u i t e late ( f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d d a t e s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f r o m t h e first c e n t u r y G E t h r o u g h to t h e M i d d l e Ages. F. A n d e r s e n , in his translation for the OTP, favors a n early d a t e for t h e s h o r t e r r e c e n s i o n , while the l o n g e r is likely to c o m e f r o m a l a t e r d a t e . 8 T h i s e v i d e n c e s h o u l d b e used with c a u t i o n in discussing late S e c o n d T e m p l e beliefs. 9 It s e e m s likely t h a t 2 E n o c h is d e p e n d e n t o n E t h i o p i e E n o c h . T h e g e n r e is a p o c a l y p t i c . C h a p t e r 3 0 c o n t a i n s a d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n of t h e c r e a t i o n n a r r a t i v e . V e r s e 11 [J] m a k e s fairly explicit t h a t A d a m w a s c r e a t e d angelic: [11] And on the earth I assigned him to be a second angel, honored and great and glorious. And I assigned him to be a king, to reign [on] the earth, [and] to have my wisdom. And there was nothing compatable to him on the earth, even among my creatures that exist. T h e r e is n o c l e a r r e f e r e n t f o r a "first" a n g e l . S e v e r a l texts h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d in s u p p o r t of s e e i n g A d a m as t h e p r i m a r y b e i n g of c r e a t i o n a n d e v e n h a v i n g a n e x a l t e d status: Sir 4 9 : 1 6 , W i s 10:1, a n d Philo, Ques Gen 2:56.'° N o n e of t h e s e s u p p o r t s a n a n g e l i c r e a d i n g , h o w e v e r .

7 This is clear in the rabbinic texts; see J . Jervell, Imago Dei, pp. 15-51. See also C. Rowland, "The Influence of the First Chapter of Ezekiel on Jewish and Early Christian Literature" (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1974). 8 F. Andersen, "2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch" in OTP 1:91-213; J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 137, simply assumes a firstcentury CE date. 9 HJPAJC Illii: 748-749. 10 J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tubingen: JCB Möhr, 1985) 273; C. FletcherLouis, Luke-Acts, p. 142; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 154.

So t h e m e a n i n g of t h e title " s e c o n d a n g e l " is n o t self-evident. A d a m ' s status o n e a r t h is clearly e x a l t e d a b o v e all t h e e a r t h l y beings. H e is to b e a k i n g a n d to h a v e w i s d o m (cf. 2 S a m 14:17). G . G i e s c h e n suggests t h a t t h e p a s s a g e m a y b e a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Ps 8, p r e s u m a b l y verse 5, w h i c h states, " Y e t t h o u h a s t m a d e h i m a little less t h a n G o d , a n d dost c r o w n h i m with glory a n d h o n o r . " T h u s , G i e s c h e n sees t h e " s e c o n d a n g e l " as m e a n i n g o n e of G o d ' s p r i n c i p a l angels. 1 1 I n c h a p t e r 31, A d a m is p l a c e d in t h e G a r d e n a n d a l l o w e d to look u p o n t h e a n g e l s in h e a v e n , " A n d I [ G o d ] c r e a t e d for h i m

[Adam]

a n o p e n h e a v e n , so t h a t h e m i g h t look u p o n t h e a n g e l s " (v. 2). T h a t A d a m c a n look u p o n angels in t h e o p e n h e a v e n suggests h e h a s b e e n g i v e n a s u p e r i o r - s e e r status. S i n c e h e h a s b e e n called a n " a n g e l , " his ability to see angels m a y b e r e l a t e d to this status. I n c h a p t e r 3 2 : 1 - 2 , A d a m t r a n s g r e s s e s a n d is expelled t o t h e e a r t h t o live a m o r t a l life. T h e Testament of Abraham

(T. Abr.) exists in t w o f o r m s , t h e l o n g e r

R e c e n s i o n A ( G r e e k m s . s u p p o r t e d by a R o m a n i a n version) a n d t h e shorter Recension Β (Greek ms. supported by Slavonic a n d versions).

12

other

D a t e s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f r o m as early as t h i r d c e n t u r y

B C E t o t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E . Ε. P. S a n d e r s suggests a r a n g e f o r t h e d a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , b u t t h e d a t i n g is n o t clear. 1 3 I n T. Abr.

11:4, t h e p a t r i a r c h is t a k e n i n t o h e a v e n a f t e r his d e a t h

a n d sees a " m a n o n a g o l d e n t h r o n e " w h o is d e s c r i b e d as " t e r r i f y i n g . " W h e n A b r a h a m asks his angelic g u i d e a b o u t t h e i d e n d t y of this f i g u r e , h e is told, " T h i s is t h e

first-formed

A d a m w h o is in s u c h

g l o r y " (11:9). A g a i n , in c h a p t e r 12, a " w o n d r o u s m a n " sits u p o n a t h r o n e . W h e n A b r a h a m asks t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e m a n , t h e a n g e l tells h i m , " S o y o u see, all-pious A b r a h a m , t h e f r i g h t f u l m a n w h o is s e a t e d o n t h e t h r o n e ? T h i s is t h e son of A d a m , the

first-formed,

w h o is

called A b e l , w h o m C a i n t h e w i c k e d killed" (13:2). 14 T h e L a t i n Life of Adam

and Eve (Vita) e x p a n d s u p o n t h e story of

A d a m a n d Eve a f t e r t h e i r e x p u l s i o n f r o m t h e G a r d e n . It c o m e s in 11

C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 153; cf. J . Fossum, The Name of God, p. 273. Such an interpretation is not impossible in light of the description of Jacob as Israel and archangel in Pr. Jos. 7. 12 E. P. Sanders, "Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:871-902. 15 E. P. Sanders, "Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:874-875 and HJPAJC IIIii:764, both note the difficulty of dating the text but see a mid-second-century date as probable. 14 On the Testament of Abraham, see P. Munoa, Four Powers in Heaven: The Interpretaticm of Daniel 7 in the Testament ofAbraham (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999).

G r e e k a n d L a t i n versions. M . J o h n s o n suggests t h a t t h e text derives f r o m t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 100 B C E a n d 2 0 0 C E , w i t h t h e p r o b a b i l ity of a late

first-century

C E date. 1 5 I n c h a p t e r 13, t h e devil e x p l a i n s

w h y h e a n d his c o m p a n i o n s w e r e expelled f r o m h e a v e n . [1] T h e devil replied, " W h a t are you telling me? It is because of you that I have been thrown out of there. [2] W h e n you were created, I was cast out from the presence of G o d a n d was sent out from the fellowship of the angels. [3] W h e n G o d blew into you the breath of life and your countenance and likeness were m a d e in the image of God, Michael brought you and m a d e (us) worship you in the sight of God, and the Lord G o d said, 'Behold Adam! I have m a d e you in our image and likeness.' " Fletcher-Louis a n d Gieschen have both strongly asserted that

the

v e n e r a t i o n of A d a m in this text d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e v e n e r a t i o n of a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c being. 1 6 It is n o t c l e a r f r o m t h e text, h o w e v e r , t h a t A d a m h a s a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c status. As F l e t c h e r - L o u i s himself p o i n t s o u t , " T h i s is a m o s t r e m a r k a b l e s t a t e m e n t of t h e p r o p r i e t y of w o r s h i p p i n g A d a m as t h e i m a g e a n d visible likeness of G o d . " 1 7 issue, t h e n , is A d a m ' s i s o m o r p h i c image.

18

The

A d a m is t o b e w o r s h i p p e d

b e c a u s e h e is c r e a t e d in t h e i m a g e of G o d , n o t s i m p l y b e c a u s e h e is angelic. It is significant t h a t in 13:3 G o d says, " B e h o l d , A d a m ! I h a v e m a d e y o u in o u r i m a g e a n d likeness." P r e s u m a b l y , t h e

first-

p e r s o n p l u r a l refers t o G o d a n d t h e a n g e l i c host. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e inclusive a d j e c t i v e m a y simply b e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p h r a s e o l o g y

of

G e n 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 . A d a m ' s c o u n t e n a n c e a n d likeness a r e in t h e i m a g e of G o d (13: 3); m o r e o v e r , t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e call to w o r s h i p is A d a m ' s divine i m a g e . I n 14:2, M i c h a e l calls o u t to t h e devil a n d his c o m p a n i o n s , " W o r s h i p t h e i m a g e of G o d , Y a h w e h . " I n 16:1 the devil a n d his lot a r e cast o u t f r o m a m o n g t h e o t h e r angels for t h e i r refusal to w o r s h i p A d a m , b u t t h e i r refusal is n o t b a s e d o n A d a m ' s b e i n g c r e a t e d in t h e i m a g e of G o d b u t r a t h e r o n his b e i n g c r e a t e d a f t e r t h e m in t h e c r e a t i o n (14:3). T h e p o t e n t i a l l a t e d a t e a n d lack of specific a n g e l l a n g u a g e in t h e Vita suggest c a u t i o n in u s i n g it as evid e n c e f o r A d a m ' s a n g e l i c status.

15

M. Johnson, "Life of Adam and Eve" in OTP 2:252. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 142; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 154. 17 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 14-2. 18 The Testament of Adam 3:2 and 4 (largely dismissed by Fletcher-Louis and Gieschen due to its late date (c. second to fifth century CE), says that Adam will have his wish fulfilled and be made a "god" after his death. 16

O v e r a l l , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e for t h e angelic n a t u r e of A d a m in lite r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d . Interestingly, h o w e v e r , J . L e v i s o n c o n c l u d e d his s u r v e y of several texts (Wis, Sir, J u b , J o s e p h u s , P h i l o , 4 E z r a , a n d 2 Bar.) o n A d a m in early J u d a i s m b y stating, " T h e r e is r e m a r k a b l y little s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e o r i g i n a l n a t u r e of A d a m in a u t h o r s of early J u d a i s m w h i c h w e e x a m i n e d . ' "

9

the

This seems correct

for the evidence that he e x a m i n e d , b u t o t h e r evidence, such

as

1 E n o c h , suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a line of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d t h e first h u m a n s to h a v e h a d a n a n g e l i c n a t u r e , w h i c h w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y lost in t h e Fall. I n 2 E n o c h A d a m is explicitly called " a s e c o n d a n g e l , " e v e n if this title is s o m e w h a t difficult to u n d e r s t a n d . It m a y i d e n t i f y A d a m as a p r i n c i p a l a n g e l . It c e r t a i n l y locates h i m o n e a r t h w i t h t h e p o w e r to look i n t o t h e h e a v e n s a n d see t h e angels, b u t this status is s u b s e q u e n t l y lost. T h e e v i d e n c e of t h e Vita h i n t s a t divine status f o r A d a m t h a t is n o t clearly d e f i n e d , b u t t h e r a t i o n a l e for w o r s h i p of A d a m s e e m s b a s e d o n his b e i n g in t h e i m a g e of G o d , w h i c h d o e s n o t necessarily relate to his h a v i n g a n a n g e l o morphic nature.

3.2

Seth(el)

T h e f r a g m e n t a r y text n a m e d t h e Apocalypse

of Sethel is p r e s e r v e d in

the C o l o g n e M a n i C o d e x . 2 0 T h e m a n u s c r i p t a p p e a r s to b e f r o m t h e fifth c e n t u r y C E , c o p i e d f r o m a S y r i a c original. 2 1 C h a r l e s w o r t h d e a l t w i t h this p a s s a g e in his 1980 article, n o t i n g t h a t "this p a r t i c u l a r a p o c alypse a p p a r e n t l y p r e d a t e s M a n i ( 2 1 5 2 7 5 ‫ ־‬C E ) a n d in n o w a y s e e m s to reflect p e c u l i a r M a n i c h e a n ideas; it s e e m s v e r y J e w i s h a n d c o n tains n o d i s c e r n i b l e C h r i s t i a n e l e m e n t s . " 2 2 T h i s a s s e s s m e n t is by n o m e a n s definitive, b u t it suggests t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to believe t h a t the i d e a s c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n a r e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h

those

b e i n g e x a m i n e d in this study. A n g e l s a p p e a r in a n u m b e r of places t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o d e x . 2 3 M o s t of t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s m e n t i o n

angels

19 J. Levinson, Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1988) 152. See also J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord, pp. 266-291. 20 R. Cameron and A. Dewey, The Cologne Mani Codex (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1979) esp. 38-41. 21 R. Cameron and A. Dewey, The Cologne Mani Codex, p. 2. 22 J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 139. 25 2.10; 3.3; 12.12; 48:19; 49.4, 16; 50.4; 51:5-6; 52.4; 54.3; 56:12; 58.3, 22; 59.4; 60.10.

in a typical m i n i s t e r i n g role. I n c h a p t e r s 5 0 a n d 5 1 , h o w e v e r , w e find

t h e i n t e r e s t i n g m e n t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d

h u m a n s r e g a r d i n g Seth(el), t h e s o n of A d a m (cf. G e n 4:25). T h e g e n r e of t h e c o d e x is a p o c a l y p t i c , w i t h v a r i o u s visionary m a t e rial a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s r e c o u n t e d . 2 4 C h a p t e r 5 0 . 1 states, " A n d h e b e c a m e m i g h t i e r t h a n all t h e p o w e r s a n d the a n g e l s of c r e a t i o n . " T h e r e f e r e n t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , is n o t c l e a r , b u t it s e e m s to b e A d a m , w h o h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t of t h e p r e c e d i n g discussion. I n 5 1 . 1 S e t h e l , t h e son of A d a m , is said to h a v e " b e c o m e like o n e of t h e g r e a t e s t a n g e l s " (έγενόμην ώς εις των μεγίστων αγγέλων). W i t h this t r a n s f o r m a tion c o m e s a m o v e m e n t f r o m a w o r l d l y e x i s t e n c e t o a n o t h e r w o r l d l y one: " W h e n

t h a t a n g e l p l a c e d his h a n d

on m y right hand,

he

w r e n c h e d m e f r o m the world f r o m which I was b o r n a n d carried m e off to a n o t h e r p l a c e e x c e e d i n g l y g r e a t " ( 5 1 . 6 - 1 5 ) . T h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of the text p r e c l u d e s us f r o m d r a w i n g a n y firm c o n c l u sions a b o u t it, b u t if t h e text itself- - o r a t t h e m i n i m u m t h e t r a d i t i o n s t h e r e i n — d a t e s to o u r p e r i o d , t h e n w e h a v e a p i e c e of e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g a h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n angel a l o n g s i d e a t r a n s portation to a new world. T h i s transformation might profitably be seen in a t r a j e c t o r y w i t h H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s like t h e t a k i n g of E n o c h o r Elijah i n t o h e a v e n w i t h o u t a n a p p a r e n t physical d e a t h .

3.3

Enoch

I n t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , a s i g n i f i c a n t a m o u n t of l i t e r a t u r e d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d t h e figure of E n o c h , w h o is briefly m e n t i o n e d in G e n e s i s ( 5 : 1 8 2 5 . ( 2 4 ‫ ־‬M u c h of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t E n o c h s t e m s f r o m the enigmatic phrase, " E n o c h walked with G o d ; a n d he was not, for G o d t o o k h i m " ( G e n 5:24; cf. Sir 4 4 : 1 6 , 1 Q 2 0 Col. 2, w . 2 0 - 2 1 ) . T h i s c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d as E n o c h n o t h a v i n g a physical d e a t h b u t b e i n g t a k e n i n t o h e a v e n m u c h like E l i j a h (2 K g s 2:11). 2 6

24 M. Himmelfarb, "Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary in the Ascent Apocalypses" in Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies since the Uppsala Colloquim, ed. J. Coffins and J. Charlesworth, JSPS 9 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991) 79-90. 25 There are no extant fragments of Gen 5:24 from Qumran. 26 Interestingly, however, Gen. Rab. 25.1, and the Tg. Onq. and Tg. Neo. on Gen 5:24 stress that Enoch died. This may be in reaction to those who sought to elevate the status of Enoch. T. Ps.-J says that Enoch was called Metatron (cf. Jub. 10:17; 1 En. 12:3-5, 3 En). See C. Rowland, "Enoch" in DDD, pp. 576-581.

J o s e p h u s , Ant.

1.86 says t h a t t h e y did n o t r e c o r d his d e a t h (cf. Philo,

Mut.

17, Pram.

34, Ahr.

16, QG

1:85-86).

T h e r e s e e m s to b e a line of t r a d i t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d E n o c h as a n a n g e l o r a n g e l i c b e i n g . T h e e q u a t i o n b e c o m e s m o r e explicit in later documents. T o begin with the clearest example, 3 E n o c h — a H e k h a l o t t e x t t h a t d a t e s to a m u c h l a t e r p e r i o d ( f i f t h - s i x t h c e n t u r y C E ) — R a b b i I s h m a e l , w h i l e j o u r n e y i n g to t h e h e a v e n s , is told t h a t the angel M e t a t r o n with w h o m h e speaks is E n o c h (4:3). 27 C . FletcherL o u i s lists a n u m b e r of a n g e l i c qualities a t t r i b u t e d to E n o c h in 3 E n o c h (e.g., g i g a n t i c size, brilliance, etc.) in a n a t t e m p t to s t r e n g t h e n t h e c o n n e c t i o n . 2 8 O v e r a l l , this p i e c e of e v i d e n c e c a n n o t a d d to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of late S e c o n d T e m p l e h u m a n - a n g e l

much

relation-

ships d u e t o its late d a t e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is w o r t h w h i l e to m e n t i o n since it s e e m s t o s h o w t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n of E n o c h ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l c o n t i n u e d to d e v e l o p f r o m t r a d i t i o n s t h a t d o d e r i v e f r o m this p e r i o d . E n o c h ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l is also d e s c r i b e d in 2

En.

22:6-10: [6b] T h e Lord said, "Let Enoch come up and stand in front of my face forever!" [7] And the glorious ones did obeisance and said, "Let him come up!" [8] T h e Lord said to Michael, " T a k e Enoch, and extract (him) from the earthly clothing. And anoint him with delightful oil, and put (him) into the clothes of glory." . . . [10] And I gazed at all of myself, and I had become like one of the glorious ones, and there was no observable difference. 29 T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n u n d e r g o n e b y E n o c h is striking. I n

particular,

his " e a r t h l y c l o t h i n g " a n d b e i n g p l a c e d in " c l o t h e s of g l o r y " suggest a permanent transformation. E n o c h ' s a s c e n t to h e a v e n is first m e n t i o n e d in 1 En

12:1:2‫־‬

the children of the people knew by what he was hidden and where he was. [2] And his dwelling place as well as his activities were with the Watchers and holy ones; and (so were) his days. 30

27

On the dating of 3 En., see P. Alexander, "The Historical Setting of the Hebrew Book of Enoch" JJS 28 (1977) 156-167. 28 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 156. 29 Translation F. Andenen, OTP 1:138-139. 30 Translation E. Isaac, OTP 1:19.

T h i s description of E n o c h as living with the angels seems to h a v e its basis in G e n 5:24. It m a k e s clear t h a t he dwells a m o n g divine beings. In Jub. 4 : 2 1 2 3 ‫ ־‬, w h i c h m a y have used 1 E n o c h , we r e a d t h a t after E n o c h sired M e t h u s a l e h , " h e was t h e r e f o r e with angels of G o d six jubilees of y e a r s " (294 years). T h e n h e b o r e witness against the W a t c h e r s a n d was ultimately "taken f r o m a m o n g the children of m e n . " I n a s e p a r a t e section of 1 En. 3 6 - 7 1 (the Similitudes), we r e a d , "I [Enoch] fell o n m y face, m y w h o l e b o d y mollified a n d m y spirit t r a n s f o r m e d " (71:11). I n the s u b s e q u e n t verses, E n o c h is seemingly identified with the " o n e like a son of m a n " ( 7 1 : 1 4 - 1 7 ) , w h o is a divine being. It is n o t explicitly clear t h a t h e is a n angel, b u t such a n identification c a n b e justified. P e r h a p s m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r individual, t h e r e seems to h a v e b e e n a n o n g o i n g line of t h o u g h t t h a t identified E n o c h with a n angel. T h i s identification b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e explicit in later texts; for instance, in 3 E n o c h , E n o c h is the angel M e t a t r o n , w h e r e a s in 1 E n o c h the identification with an angel is m o r e of a c i r c u m l o c u t i o n : E n o c h = " o n e like a son of m a n " = a n angel, so E n o c h = angel.

3.4

Noah

T h e p a t r i a r c h N o a h (Gen 5 : 2 9 9 : 2 8 ‫ ) ־‬w a s k n o w n for his righteousness a n d was said to h a v e "walked with G o d " ( G e n 6:9). N o a h a n d his family w e r e the only h u m a n beings to escape the destruction of the flood t h a t was b r o u g h t a b o u t by h u m a n k i n d ' s wickedness ( G e n 6:5-8). T h e e n d i n g to 1 E n o c h c o n t a i n s a n interesting tradition c o n c e r n i n g the birth of the p a t r i a r c h , N o a h . As m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , all sections of 1 E n o c h , save the Similitudes, are attested in f r a g m e n tan»‫ ׳‬f o r m in the Q u m r a n A r a m a i c fragments; thus we can be confident in d a t i n g this m a t e r i a l within the b o u n d s of this study. 1 En. 1 0 6 : 1 6 ‫־‬ says of the n e w b o r n N o a h : [1] And after some days my son, Methuselah, took a wife for his son Lamech, and she became pregnant by him and bore him a son. [2] And his body was white as snow and red as a rose; the hair of his head as white as wool and his demdema beautiful; and as for his eyes, when he opened them the whole house glowed like the sun - -(rather) the whole house glowed even more exceedingly. [3] And when he arose from the hands of the midwife, he opened his mouth and spoke to the Lord with righteousness. [4] And his father, Lamech, was afraid of him and fled and went to Methuselah his father, [5] and said to

him, "I have begotten a strange son: H e is not like an (ordinary) h u m a n being, but he looks like the children of the angels of heaven to me; his form is different, and he is not like us. His eyes are like the rays of the sun, and his face glorious. [6] It does not seem to me that he is of me, but of angels; and I fear that a wondrous phenomenon may take place upon the earth in his days." 31 N o a h is twice d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g a n a p p e a r a n c e like a n

"angel"

( w . 5 a n d 6). A n u m b e r of o t h e r f a c t o r s suggest t h a t h e is s u p e r human.

His eyes " g l o w like t h e s u n , " a n d his f a c e is " g l o r i o u s . "

S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e b e e n q u i c k to dismiss this p a s s a g e as p r o v i d i n g n o e v i d e n c e f o r N o a h ' s a n g e l o m o r p h i c n a t u r e , since it o n l y c o n t a i n s i m a g e r y a n d n o c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t N o a h w a s angelic. 3 2 M o r e o v e r , despite N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e , h e is n o t t h e p r o d u c t of h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r c o u r s e (v. I). 33 H o w e v e r , it is significant t h a t t h e i m a g e r y h e r e is t w i c e i n t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g a n g e l i c in t h e text of t h e p a s s a g e itself ( w . 5 a n d 6). T h u s , it c a n b e said t h a t in this case, at his birth N o a h w a s angelamorphic in t h a t h e a p p e a r s as a n a n g e l . H o w e v e r , it is n o t c l e a r to w h a t e x t e n t this i m a g e r y is m e a n t t o b e t a k e n literally o r to w h a t e x t e n t N o a h w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c t h r o u g h o u t his e n t i r e life. Interestingly, the tradition a b o u t N o a h ' s w o n d r o u s n a t u r e at birth also s e e m s t o b e r e f l e c t e d in t h e Gen. Apoc.

( 1 Q 2 0 ) col. 2 f r o m

Q u m r a n , w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r twist. [1] Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was (due) to the Watchers [‫ ]עירים‬a n d the Holy O n e s . . . and to the Giants [‫]ולנפילם‬ [2] a n d my heart was troubled within m e because of this child. [3] T h e n I, Lamech, approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste and said to her, [4] [. . . ] by the Most High, the Great Lord, the King of all the universe and Ruler of [5] [ . . .]the Sons of Heaven [‫]בני־שמים‬, until you tell me all things truthfully . . . [6] You will and without lies let me know whether this

51

Translation E. Issac, OTP 1:86. See also the fragment in J. Milik, The Books of Enoch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976) 206-207. 32 D. Hannah, Review of C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology in JTS 51(2000) 235-236. 83 G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2001) 543, writes, "For the characters in the story, Noah's appearance is prima facie evidence of supernatural conception. His father was apparently an angel, at a time when angels were fathering children from human mothers. But, as the reader knows from the beginning, and Lamech and Methusaleh will discover, the appearance is deceiving."

[7] by the King of the all the universe that you are speaking to me frankly a n d without lies [8] T h e n Batenosh, my bride, spoke to me very harshly, she wept [9] saying. " O h my brother, Ο my Lord, remember my pleasure! [10] [. ..] the time of love, the gasping of my breath in my breast. I [. . . ] will tell you everything accurately [11] [ . . . ] a n d then within m e my heart was very upset [12] W h e n Batenosh, my wife, realized that my countenance h a d altered [13] t h e n she supressed her anger, speaking to m e a n d saying to me, " O my lord [14] my pleasure. I swear to you by the Holy Great One, the K i n g of [the heavens] . . . [15] that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is from you. This fruit was planted by you . . . [16] a n d by n o s t r a n g e r or W a t c h e r [‫ ]עירים‬or S o n of H e a v e n [‫ ]ולא מ כ ל בנישמים‬. . . [17] [Why] is your countenance thus changed a n d dismayed, a n d why is your spirit thus distressed . . . [18] I speak to you truthfully." In this text, L a m e c h , t h e f a t h e r of N o a h , r e c o g n i z e s t h a t s o m e t h i n g is d i f f e r e n t a b o u t his son. H e is t r o u b l e d b e c a u s e h e believes t h a t his wife h a s b e c o m e i m p r e g n a t e d b y t h e W a t c h e r s . 3 4 T h o u g h

Noah

is n o t explicitly called a n a n g e l in this text, L a m e c h is c o n c e r n e d t h a t h e w a s sired by a W a t c h e r o r S o n of H e a v e n . 3 5 T h i s p a s s a g e m a y l e n d s o m e s u p p o r t to t h e belief t h a t a t r a d i t i o n existed c o n c e r n i n g N o a h h a v i n g a n a n g e l i c n a t u r e a t his b i r t h . C i t i n g n o t o n l y 1 Q a p G e n a n d 1 En 106, b u t also a p p e a l i n g to e v i d e n c e f r o m P s e u d o E u p o l e m u s a n d r e l a t i n g it all to e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e Gilgamesh n a r r a tive, J . R e e v e s h a s asserted t h a t "it is c l e a r f r o m several e x t r a b i b l i c a l s o u r c e s t h a t t h e r e existed a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h alleged t h e F l o o d - h e r o w a s a ' G i a n t ' . " 3 6 R . H u g g i n s h a s r e s p o n d e d to Reeves. 3 7

Huggins

c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e c a s e f o r N o a h ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as a n a n g e l a t b i r t h h a s m o r e t o d o w i t h his special role in t h e F l o o d n a r r a t i v e a n d his r i g h t e o u s n e s s t h a n his b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a g i a n t . T h u s , t h e Gen. Apoc.

34

Texts concerning the Watchers are examined in chapter 6. 4Q534 also makes reference to the Watchers, and it seems from some details of a physical description (e.g., red hair) that it may be the same type of discussion about Noah's bloodüne as in the Gen. Apoc., but the text is too fragmentary to draw any information. 36 J. Reeves, "Utnapishtirn in the Book of Giants?" JBL 112 (1993) 110. 37 R. Huggins, "Critical Notes: Noah and the Giants: A Response to John C. Reeves" JBL 114 (1995) 103-110. 35

a n d 1 E n o c h c a n n o t b e s h o w n to d e m o n s t r a t e a n y belief in N o a h ' s b e i n g of a n g e l i c origin. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n g o e s a g a i n s t t h e exegesis of Fletcher-Louis, h o w e v e r . 3 8 By c o n n e c t i n g N o a h ' s a n g e l o m o r p h i c / t h e o m o r p h i c characteristics with a priestly motif, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees N o a h as a s t r o n g e x a m p l e of a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n . 3 9 W i t h o u t s u c h a c o n n e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e e v i d e n c e f o r N o a h ' s status is m o r e a m b i g u ous. A t r a d i t i o n seems to h a v e existed t h a t N o a h was n o t a b l y different a t b i r t h . T h e i m a g e r y in t h e stories suggests t h a t N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c , b u t it is n o t c l e a r h o w this c a r r i e d t h r o u g h his life o r w h e t h e r it w a s simply m e a n t to d e n o t e his b e i n g a p a r t i c u larly

righteous

human.

3.5

Melchizedek

Melchizedek, another enigmatic figure f r o m the H e b r e w Scriptures, a p p e a r s in G e n 14:18 as a priest-king to w h o m A b r a h a m pays h o m a g e a n d gives tithe. I n Ps 110:4 his n a m e o c c u r s as t h e a r c h e t y p e f o r a n e t e r n a l p r i e s t h o o d ( ‫ ) ל ע ו ל ם ע ל ־ ד ב ר ת י מ ל כ י ־ צ ד ק‬. T h e Epistle to t h e H e b r e w s clearly s h o w s i n t e r e s t in his (eternal) priestly n a t u r e Ps 1 1 0 : 4 ( H e b 5 7 ‫ ) ־‬. So, a g a i n , w e h a v e a n e n i g m a t i c

via

individual

f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible a b o u t w h o s e status it s e e m s t h e r e w a s s o m e speculation. T h e m a i n text t h a t p e r h a p s d e m o n s t r a t e s M e l c h i z e d e k ' s

angelic

nature comes f r o m Q u m r a n (11Q14).40 T h e thirteen fragments date to a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y B C E . 4 1 M e l c h i z e d e k fills t h e role of t h e final j u d g e a k i n to t h e c o u r t s c e n e of Ps 8 2 , w h i c h is q u o t e d

in

11Q14. T h e genre has been debated, but most scholars seem

to

t h i n k it is a t y p e of p e s h e r o n Lev. 38

42

It states:

C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002) 33-55. 39 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 53. 40 See Y. Yadin, "A Note on Melchizedek and Qumran" LEJ 15 (1965) 152-154; j . Fitzmyer, "Further Light on Melchizedek from Qumran Cave 11 " JBL 86 (1967) 25-41; M. Delcor, "Melchizedek from Genesis to the Qumran Texts and the Epistle to the Hebrews" JSJ 2 (1971) 115-135; M. De Jonge and A. S. Van der Woude. " 11 QMelchizedek and the New Testament" NTS 12 (1972) 301-326. F. L. Horton, The Melchizedek Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); P. Kobelski, Melchizedek and Melchireša (Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association, 1981); J. Davila, "Michael, Melchizedek, and Holy War" SBLSP (1998) 259-272. See also DDD 1047-1053. 41 HJPAJC 1111:449. 42 HJPAJC IIIi:449; A. Aschim, "The Genre of llQMelch" in Qumran between the Old Testament and the New Testaments (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998) 17-31.

[7] A n d the day of atonement is the end of the tenth jubilee [8] in which atonement will be m a d e for all the sons of G o d and for the men of the lot of Melchizedek. And on the heights he will declare in their favor according to their lots; [9] for it is the time of the "year of grace" for Melchizedek, to exalt in the trial of the holy ones of G o d through the rule of judgment, as it is written [10] about him in the songs of David, who said, "Elohim will stand up in the assembly of G o d [‫]אל‬, in the midst of the elohim he judges" [cf. Ps 82:1]. A n d about him he said: "Above it return [11] to the heights, G o d (el) will judge the p e o p l e s . . . . [13] And Melchizedek will carry out the vengeance of God's [‫ ]אל‬judgments [on this day, and they shall be freed from the hands] of Belial and from the hands of all the sp[irits of his lot] [14] T o his aid (shall come) all the gods of [justice] A l t h o u g h this p a s s a g e is o f t e n c i t e d as d e m o n s t r a t i n g M e l c h i z e d e k ' s angelic n a t u r e , t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l ( ‫ ) מ ל א ך‬d o e s n o t a p p e a r .

Elohim

( ‫ ) א ל ה י ם‬is s o m e t i m e s u s e d f o r G o d (sg.) a n d o t h e r t i m e s f o r divine b e i n g s (pl.). M e l c h i z e d e k s e e m s to s h a r e t h e status of e l o h i m .

He

acts b o t h as j u d g e a n d as e x e c u t o r of p u n i s h m e n t (cf. JVHC I X , 1). A n angelic identification for M e l c h i z e d e k h a s also b e e n suggested by t h e likelihood t h a t w i t h i n t h e Q r i m r a n l i t e r a t u r e , M e l c h i z e d e k = t h e P r i n c e of Lights ( 1 Q S 3:20; C D 5:18; 1 Q M 13:10) = the angel M i c h a e l ( 1 Q M 1 7 : 6 7 ‫ ) ־‬b y v i r t u e of t h e i r c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n . 4 3 N e i t h e r of t h e s e p o i n t s explicitly calls M e l c h i z e d e k a n a n g e l , h o w ever. N o r , e x c e p t b y i n f e r e n c e f r o m t h e role of M e l c h i z e d e k as eschatological j u d g e , is h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . H e c e r t a i n l y , h o w e v e r , s e e m s to h a v e a n e x a l t e d status. O n t h e strength of s o m e i m a g e r y in 2 En. 6 9 7 3 ‫ ־‬, C . G i e s c h e n n o t e s t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 4 4 Interestingly, in 2 E n o c h M e l c h i z e d e k ' s m o t h e r , S o p a n i m , is said to h a v e c o n c e i v e d w i t h o u t h a v i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h h e r h u s b a n d , N i r (71:2). H i s m o t h e r is e x t r e m e l y old a n d dies in c h i l d b i r t h , so M e l c h i z e d e k delivers h i m self (71:17) as a d e v e l o p e d child, a g e d t h r e e (71:18). As h e is b o r n , " t h e b a d g e of p r i e s t h o o d w a s o n his chest, a n d it w a s g l o r i o u s in a p p e a r a n c e " (71:19). T h i s s e e m s a n a l o g o u s to t h e n e w b o r n a n g e l o m o r p h i c i m a g e of N o a h (see a b o v e 3.4). N o e q u a t i o n is m a d e in 2 E n o c h b e t w e e n his l u m i n o u s a p p e a r a n c e a n d a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c status. T h e r e f o r e , t h e w e i g h t of this e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s e e m to suggest t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k w a s u n d e r s t o o d specifically as a n angel. T h e a u t h o r

43 HJPAJC 1111:450; J. Davila, "Melchizedek, Michael, and War in Heaven" in SBLSP (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1996) 259-272. 44 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christologr, pp. 172-173.

of t h e Epistle to t h e H e b r e w s w a s c e r t a i n l y i n t e r e s t e d in his b e i n g p a r t of a n e t e r n a l o r d e r of priests (Ps 110). T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s suggest a n e l e v a t e d status f o r h i m . H e m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a n g e l i c if w e e q u a t e t h e roles of M i c h a e l a n d M e l c h i z e d e k , b u t this m e a n s s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e . T h e i m a g e r y f r o m 2 E n o c h suggests t h a t there w a s wider speculation a b o u t the origins of Melchizedek. A g a i n , this interest m a y s t e m f r o m his b e i n g p a r t of a n e t e r n a l o r d e r of priests. U l t i m a t e l y , t h e e v i d e n c e a b o u t M e l c h i z e d e k is u n c l e a r . It d o e s n o t explicitly r e f e r to h i m as a n a n g e l , b u t h e d o e s s e e m t o e n j o y a special status t h a t suggests h e m i g h t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d in s o m e w a y angelic.

3.6

Jacob/Israel

T h r o u g h o u t t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e , J a c o b e n j o y s a special r e l a t i o n ship w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d . G o d s p e a k s to h i m directly t h r o u g h o u t his life (especially in c h a p s . 28, 31, a n d 35). I n G e n 28, J a c o b h a s a d r e a m vision of a p l a c e w h e r e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h m e e t

and

the m e a n s b y w h i c h a n g e l s a s c e n d t o h e a v e n a n d d e s c e n d t o e a r t h . J a c o b a g a i n sees a n g e l s in G e n 3 2 : 1 2 ‫ ־‬. T h e r e is s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t h a t J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s widely u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l ( G e n 32) in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . 4 5 W h a t is e x a m i n e d h e r e is t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t J a c o b himself w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a n g e l . I n his Confusion of Tongues 146, P h i l o writes: But if there be any as yet unworthy to be called a Son of God, let him press to take his place under God's First-born, his W o r d the eldest of the angels, an archangel. H e possesses m a n y names; for he is called, the Beginning, and the N a m e of God, and Logos, and the M a n after his image, a n d "he that sees," that is Israel. I n this brief passage, Philo discusses t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e divine Logos. T h e L o g o s is said to b e G o d ' s w o r d a n d t h e l e a d e r of t h e angels. A n u m b e r of n a m e s a r e also given to t h e L o g o s : t h e N a m e (cf. E x o d u s 23:20f.), the L o g o s (cf. J o h n l:lf.), the " m a n " after his i m a g e (cf. Ezekiel 1:26), a n d i m p o r t a n t l y for o u r discussion, " h e t h a t sees" = " I s r a e l . " T h e e x a c t m e a n i n g of t h e n a m e Israel is u n c e r t a i n , t h o u g h " h e t h a t

45

See section 2.1(b) above.

sees" s e e m s to resolve t h e H e b r e w i n t o t h r e e p a r t s , as 46.‫א י ש ר א ה אל‬ P h i l o says e l s e w h e r e t h a t Israel m e a n s " h e t h a t sees (God)." 4 7 I n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of a discussion r e g a r d i n g m a t u r i t y a n d t h e significance of t h e n u m b e r seventy in Aligration 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 , P h i l o m a k e s a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e t o J a c o b a n d his n a m e . 4 8 H e says t h a t J a c o b is t h e n a m e of o n e wrestling (παλαίοντος). T h e G r e e k w o r d h e r e is t h e s a m e r o o t as t h e L X X w o r d f o r J a c o b wrestling w i t h t h e m a n in G e n 3 2 : 2 5 (παλαίω). P h i l o also m e n t i o n s t h a t J a c o b ' s n a m e refers to o n e " c o v e r e d w i t h d u s t " (κονιομένου). 4 9 A t h i r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g is of o n e " g r a b b i n g at t h e h e e l " (πτερνίζοντος). 5 0 T h e s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of J a c o b ' s n a m e a r e d e e p l y r o o t e d in t h e G e n 32 struggle. P h i l o t h e n says t h a t w h e n J a c o b w a s " d e e m e d c a p a b l e of seeing G o d , " his n a m e w a s c h a n g e d to Israel ( G e n 32:29). 5 1 It is c l e a r t h a t for P h i l o , J a c o b ' s n a m e w a s c h a n g e d b e c a u s e h e w a s d e e m e d c a p a b l e of s e e i n g G o d t h r o u g h his struggle a t t h e J a b b o k f o r d . T h e L o g o s possesses t h e n a m e Israel, w h i c h P h i l o says m e a n s " h e t h a t sees." A d m i t t e d l y t h e c o n n e c t i o n of these t w o p a s s a g e s is s o m e w h a t artificial, b u t if t h e r e is a c o n n e c t i o n via t h e n a m e Israel, t h e n P h i l o m a y h a v e

under-

s t o o d t h e r e to b e a n e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e L o g o s , a n a r c h a n g e l also n a m e d Israel, a n d t h e p o s t - P e n i e l J a c o b , w h o s e n a m e w a s c h a n g e d to Israel. If this is a c o r r e c t r e a d i n g , t h e n w e c o u l d

understand

J a c o b ' s n a m e c h a n g e as a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e event, w h i c h actually b r o u g h t a b o u t a n o n t o l o g i c a l c h a n g e . H o w e v e r , P h i l o himself d o e s n o t m a k e this m o v e , so it m u s t r e m a i n a t best s p e c u l a t i o n . J . Z . S m i t h h a s n o t e d t h a t P h i l o a n d t h e Prayer of Joseph (.Pr. Jos.)

46 From G. Vermes, "The Archangel Sariel" in Christianity, Judaism, and Other Graeco-Roman Cults, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1975) 3:164-165 n. 25. 47 J. Smith notes that Philo uses this phrase 49 times. See OTP 2:701 n. 20 for the list. 48 Greek text taken from F. Colson, Philo IV (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958); translation is mine. 49 This suggests Philo may be aware that the Hebrew root for wrestle (‫ )אבק‬is related to "dust"; BDB, 7b. Note that Colson translates κονιομένου as "preparing for the arena," which is correct but does not capture the nuance from the Hebrew. 50 Colson translates this as "tripping up his adversary," which is also appropriate for Jacob as a trickster but may again miss a nuance of which Philo may have been well aware, i.e., Jacob's grabbing Esau's heel at their birth in Gen 25:26. For Philo's other applications of πτερνίζοντος to Jacob, see Leg. i. 161, ii.89, iii.15, 93; Sacrif. 42.135; SOmn. i. 171; Mutat. 81; Her. 252. 51 Jacob's name change is recorded a second time in Gen 35, but it is unlikely that Philo is referring to this passage, since no rationale for the change is provided there. Only in Gen 32 is it stated that Jacob "strove with God and prevailed."

a r e a m o n g t h e only a n c i e n t sources to r e f e r to Israel as " o n e seeing G o d . " 5 2 S m i t h h a s m a d e a s t r o n g case for first- o r s e c o n d - c e n t u r y G E J e w i s h p r o v e n a n c e of t h e d o c u m e n t b a s e d o n discussion of t h e titles a t t r i b u t e d to J a c o b . C e r t a i n l y Pr. Jos. is n o t l a t e r t h a n O r i g e n ' s c o m m e n t a r y c. 2 3 0 C E , in w h i c h it a p p e a r s . If t h e d a t i n g is c o r rect, this is p e r h a p s o n e of t h e clearest pieces of e v i d e n c e t h a t a h u m a n h a d a t t a i n e d a n g e l i c status. T h e " p r a y e r " states: [ 1] I, J a c o b , who am speaking to you, a m also Israel, an angel of G o d and a ruling spirit. [2] A b r a h a m and Isaac were created before any work. [3] But, I, J a c o b , who men call J a c o b but whose n a m e is Israel am he who G o d called Israel which means, a m a n seeing God, because I am the firstborn of eveiy living thing to w h o m G o d gives life. [4] A n d when I was coming up from Syrian Mesopotamia, Uriel, the angel of God, came forth a n d said that "I | Jacob-Israel] h a d descended to earth and I had tabernacled a m o n g m e n and that I had been called by the n a m e of J a c o b . " [5] H e envied m e and fought m e a n d wrestied with m e saying that his name a n d the name that is before every angel was to be above mine. [6] I told him his n a m e and what rank he held a m o n g the sons of God. [7] "Are you not Uriel, eighth after me? and I, Israel, the archangel of the power of the Lord a n d the chief captain a m o n g the sons of God?" [8] .Am I not Israel, the first minister before the face of God? [9] And I called upon my G o d by the inextinguishable Name. 5 3 Jacob/Israel

states t h a t w h e n h e was c o m i n g u p f r o m

M e s o p o t a m i a , the angel Uriel met him.

54

Syrian-

Notably, the geographical

r e f e r e n c e s e e m s to suggest t h e J a b b o k event. 5 5 Uriel, 5 6 t h e s p e a k e r claims, e n v i e d J a c o b a n d wrestled w i t h h i m . J a c o b sets t h e r e c o r d s t r a i g h t a n d tells U r i e l (an a r c h a n g e l ) his r a n k in t h e celestial h i e r archy: eighth after J a c o b

= Israel, himself an angel. T h e

short

" p r a y e r " of J a c o b m a k e s g r a n d claims. N o t only is t h e s p e a k e r a l r e a d y t h e p a t r i a r c h J a c o b , b u t h e is Israel, a n a n g e l of G o d (cf. P h i l o , Conf. 146). T h e s p e a k e r c l a i m s t h a t his o w n f o r e f a t h e r s , A b r a h a m Isaac, w e r e c r e a t e d b e f o r e all w o r k s b u t t h a t h e himself is the

and

firstborn

52 J . Z. Smith, "The Prayer of Joseph" in Religions in Antiquity: Essays in Memory of Erwin Randall Goodenough, ed. Jacob Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1968) 253-294; reprint in J . Z. Smith, Map Is Not Territory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 24-66; and 07"? 2:699-714. 53 Translation J. Z. Smith in OTP 2:713. 54 Cf. Tg. Neo., on Gen 32, where the opponent is the angel Sariel. 55 Syrian Mesopotamia is the common LXX rendering of Paddan-Aram; J. Smith, OTP 2:713 n. h. 56 Uriel, an archangel, appears in Grk 1 En. 20:2; 4 Ezra 4:1, 10:28; Bar. 4:7, et al.

of all living t h i n g s (Philo, Conf. 146; C o l 1:15; J u s t i n M a r t y r , 125.5; Nag Hammadi

Codex NHC

Dial.

II, 105). S m i t h h a s exhaustively n o t e d

t h e n u m e r o u s parallels b e t w e e n t h e titles of J a c o b in Pr. Jos.

and

t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e L o g o s in P h i l o ' s Conf.57 O n e title in p a r t i c u l a r , " a m a n s e e i n g G o d , " is interesting, since it offers p e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n G e n 32 a n d Pr. Jos. O n e result of t h e wrestling m a t c h in G e n 32 is t h e n a m i n g of t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e e v e n t o c c u r r e d . J a c o b calls t h e p l a c e P e n i e l ( ‫ פ נ י א ל‬literally " t h e f a c e of G o d " ) , b e c a u s e " I [ J a c o b ] h a v e s e e n G o d face t o face, a n d yet m y life is p r e s e r v e d " (v. 30). T h e r e is d a n g e r i n v o l v e d in s e e i n g G o d (e.g., J u d g 6 : 2 2 1 3 : 2 2;23‫)־‬.It is possible, as in P h i l o , t h a t " t h e m a n seeing G o d " u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Israel is b a s e d o n a p a r t i c u l a r r e a d i n g of t h e H e b r e w , b u t it is c e r t a i n l y m u c h m o r e plausible t o see it as a d e v e l o p m e n t o u t of t h e G e n 32 story. J a c o b , o n c e h e possesses t h e n a m e Israel, a p p e a r s to b e u n d e r s t o o d as o n e w h o saw G o d . W i t h i n Pr. Jos.,

h o w e v e r , J a c o b / I s r a e l clearly w r e s -

ties w i t h U r i e l , so it s e e m s c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e to suggest t h a t this s t r u g gle w a s t h e origin of his n a m e c h a n g e t o o n e h a v i n g " s e e n

God."

In this case, J a c o b / I s r a e l is m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n a h u m a n w h o wrestled w i t h a n a n g e l a n d received a n e w n a m e — h e is a n a n g e l , w h o f o r a t i m e w a s i n c a r n a t e in t h e p a t r i a r c h J a c o b . As n o t e d a b o v e , J a c o b h a s a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d a n d angels ( G e n 28, 32, 35). 5 8 J a c o b lasdy c l a i m s to b e " t h e first m i n i s t e r b e f o r e t h e f a c e of G o d . " T h i s is similar to w h a t w e

find

in Tg. Onq. a n d

Tg.

Neo.,

w h e r e t h e angels a r e said to b e " b e f o r e t h e f a c e of G o d . " T h i s o n c e a g a i n suggests t h a t J a c o b / I s r a e l h a s s e e n G o d , since h e

ministers

b e f o r e his c o u n t e n a n c e . Pr. Jos. takes i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e J a b b o k e v e n t t o a n o t h e r level. N o t o n l y is t h e o p p o n e n t of J a c o b a n a m e d a n g e l , U r i e l , b u t J a c o b himself is a n a n g e l , Israel, w h o r a n k s a b o v e all o t h e r angels. I n its u n d e r s t a n d i n g of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t as a n a n g e l , Pr. Jos.

s e e m s to

accord with the trends that were circulating during the same period (cf. J o s e p h u s , Ant.

1:33If.; Lad. Jac. 4 : 1 - 4 ; T a r g u m i m ) . I n its explicit

c l a i m s f o r J a c o b ' s o w n a n g e l i c status, it s t a n d s as n e a r l y

unique

a m o n g the extant evidence.

57

J. Smith, Prayer, pp. 260-272. The tradition of Jacob as the one seeing God is illuminated by considering the midrash on Genesis, which says that Jacob's face is engraved upon the throne of God (Gen. Rab. 68:12, 78:3, and 82:2). So, like Ezekiel, Jacob was/is present in the divine throne room—a special relationship with the Godhead. 58

Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t o c o n s i d e r f r o m Joseph

and Aseneth.59

JA

2 2 : 7 - 8 states: [7] And Aseneth saw him [Jacob] and was amazed at his beauty, because J a c o b was exceedingly beautiful to look at, and his old age (was) like the youth of a handsome (young) man, and his head was all white as snow, a n d the hairs of his head were all exceedingly close and thick like (those) of an Ethiopian, and his b e a r d (was) white reaching down to his breast, a n d his eyes (were) flashing and darting (flashes of) lightning, a n d his sinews and his shoulders and his arms were like (those) of an angel, and his thighs and his calves and his feet like (those) of a giant. And J a c o b was like a m a n who h a d wrestled with God. [8] And Aseneth saw him and was amazed, a n d prostrated herself before him face down to the ground. 6 0 T h r e e f e a t u r e s of this passage a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y w i t h r e g a r d to a n g e l i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . T h e first is t h e m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s p h y s ical f e a t u r e s : b e a u t y (cf. JA

15:9), y o u t h ( M a r k 16:5; 4 Ezra

2:43f.;

2 Mac. 3:26f.), w h i t e h a i r a n d flashing eyes (cf. D a n 10:6, M a t t 28:3, L k 9:29), a n g e l i c u p p e r b o d y , a n d g i g a n t i c l o w e r b o d y (cf. G e n 6). All of t h e s e f e a t u r e s a r e e l s e w h e r e a t t r i b u t e d to d i v i n e beings. 6 1 T h i s suggests t h a t J a c o b possesses a s u p e r h u m a n n a t u r e akin to t h a t of a n angel. T h e s e c o n d f e a t u r e is t h e m e n t i o n t h a t J a c o b w a s "like a

man

w h o h a d w r e s t l e d w i t h G o d . " T h e origins of s u c h a s t a t e m e n t a r e G e n 32 a n d H o s 12, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e author(s) of

understood

t h e J a b b o k assailant t o b e G o d . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of J a c o b , "like a m a n w h o w r e s t l e d w i t h G o d , " follows directly a f t e r t h e m e n t i o n of his n u m e r o u s p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s . O n e c a n i n f e r t h a t p e r h a p s

such

physical a t t r i b u t e s a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e of J a c o b ' s w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d . O n e a d d i t i o n a l n o t e is t h e r e a c t i o n of A s e n e t h u p o n s e e i n g J a c o b . S h e w a s a m a z e d a n d fell to t h e g r o u n d b e f o r e h i m . As n o t e d a b o v e , a m a z e m e n t / f e a r a n d p r o s t r a t i o n a r e c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to angelic o r d i v i n e visitations, r e i n f o r c i n g t h e i d e a of a n angelic n a t u r e f o r J a c o b in

JA. All of this e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t s a c o h e r e n t p i c t u r e : J a c o b , w h o w r e s -

tied w i t h G o d , h a s a u n i q u e c o m b i n a t i o n of h u m a n ,

59

superhuman,

There is good reason to date this text in the late Second Temple period, although there are scholars who see it as much later (e.g., Kraemer). See the fuller discussion above in 2.10. 60 Translation C. Burchard, OTP 2:238. 61 Cf. also Dan 7, Ezek 1.

and angelic features. W h e n Aseneth saw him, she understood

him

to b e s o m e sort of divine b e i n g . I n this c a s e w e h a v e a text t h a t i n t e r p r e t s t h e G e n e s i s e v e n t as J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d ; t h e o u t c o m e is a t r a n s m o g r i f i e d J a c o b w h o possesses h u m a n a n d

angelic

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h i s is n o t f a r f r o m t h e type of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w e see in Pr. Jos.

3.7

Moses

A r g u a b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t individual in the H e b r e w Bible is Moses. F r o m b i r t h h e is p r o t e c t e d b y G o d ( E x o d 1). H e is c h o s e n b y G o d to lead the people of Israel out of b o n d a g e in Egypt (Exod 3). T h r o u g h o u t his life, M o s e s e n j o y s a close r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d , p a r t i c u l a r l y at Sinai a n d t h e giving of t h e L a w ( E x o d 1 8 2 0 ‫ ) ־‬. T h e r e w a s a g r e a t d e a l of discussion a b o u t M o s e s as p r o p h e t a n d his close association w i t h t h e L a w in s u b s e q u e n t a n c i e n t literature. W . M e e k s says, " M o s e s w a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t figure in all Hellenistic J e w i s h a p o l o g e t i c . " 6 2 S o m e a n c i e n t w r i t i n g s b o r d e r o n t h e d i v i n i z a d o n of M o s e s . T h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y d e r i v e f r o m E x o d 3 4 : 2 9 - 3 0 , w h i c h says, [29] W h e n Moses came down from M o u n t Sinai, with the two tables of the testimony in his h a n d as he came down from the mountain, Moses did not know that the skin of his face shone because he h a d been talking with God. [30] A n d when Aaron and all the people of Israel saw Moses, behold, the skin of his face shone, and they were afraid to come near him. M o s e s is actually t r a n s f o r m e d b y s e e i n g G o d . B e c a u s e of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n the Israelites w e r e a f r a i d t o b e n e a r h i m , so t h a t M o s e s h a d to p u t a veil o n his f a c e to s p e a k w i t h t h e m (34:33, 35). A brilliant a p p e a r a n c e is o n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o m e t i m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n angel. T h e f e a r of the Israelites m a y also s t e m f r o m t h e f e a r associated w i t h s e e i n g a divine b e i n g (e.g., J u d g 6 a n d 13). It is n o t c l e a r in t h e c o n t e x t t h a t M o s e s is m e a n t to b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel in a n y w a y . I n t h e B o o k of S i r a c h 4 4 - 4 5 , t h e r e is a list of v e n e r a b l e

figures

f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible (e.g., E n o c h , N o a h , A b r a h a m , etc.) w h o a r e p r a i s e d . Sir 4 5 : 2 says G o d m a d e M o s e s " e q u a l in glory to t h e h o l y

62 W. Meeks, "The Divine Agent and His Counterfeit in Philo and the Fourth Gospel" in Aspects of Religious Propaganda in Judaism and Early Christianity, ed. E. SchüsslerFiorenza (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1976) 45, 43-67.

o n e s [αγίων], a n d m a d e h i m g r e a t in d i e f e a r s of his e n e m i e s . " S o m e h a v e n o t e d t h a t t h e t e r m " h o l y o n e s " h e r e c a n b e t a k e n to m e a n angels. 6 3 M o s e s clearly e n j o y s a n e x a l t e d status, a n d this m a y b e a k i n to t h a t of t h e angels, b u t a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is n o t explicitly m a d e . T h e text k n o w n as Ezekiel the Exagogue o r Ezekiel the Tragedian r e c o u n t s t h e story of t h e E x o d u s f r o m E g y p t in t h e f o r m of a G r e e k d r a m a . G i v e n t h a t it is cited in A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r (first c e n t u r y C E ) , it likely d a t e s f r o m s o m e t i m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . 6 4 O n e section d e s c r i b e s a vision of M o s e s e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n . I n

verses

6 8 8 2 ‫ ־‬, M o s e s says t h a t h e h a d a t h e o p h a n y a n d w a s t h e n invited to sit u p o n t h e t h r o n e in h e a v e n : [68] O n Sinai's peak I saw what seemed a throne [69] so great in size it touched the clouds of heaven. [70] U p o n it sat a m a n of noble mien, [71] becrowned, and with a scepter in one hand [72] while with the other he did beckon me. [73] I made approach and stood before the throne. [74] H e h a n d e d o'er the scepter a n d he bade [75] me mount the throne, and gave to me the crown; [76] then he himself withdrew from off the throne. [77] I gazed u p o n the whole earth round about; [78] things under it, and high above the skies. [79] T h e n at my feet a multitude of stars fell down, and I their n u m b e r reckoned up. [81] T h e y passed by me like armed ranks of men. [82] T h e n I in terror wakened from the dream. 6 5 C e r t a i n l y , t h e e n t h r o n e m e n t of M o s e s is significant a n d speaks to his e x a l t e d status in this text. O n c e o n t h e t h r o n e , h e is p a s s e d by t h e stars ( p e r h a p s angels). U l t i m a t e l y , t h e m a t e r i a l is visionary, a n d M o s e s awakens. P h i l o discusses M o s e s as h a v i n g a divine n a t u r e o n several o c c a sions (Sacrifices 8 1 0

‫; ־‬

Flight 5; Dreams

1:142; QE.

2.29, 40;

7 2 - 7 9 ) , as well as d e v o t i n g a n e n t i r e treatise t o h i m (Moses).

66

Virtues

Only

the texts r e l e v a n t to a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of M o s e s w i t h a n a n g e l a r e examined here. I n QG 4:8 M o s e s is a c t u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " t h e chief p r o p h e t a n d chief m e s s e n g e r

[ό ά ρ χ ι π ρ ο φ ή τ η ς και ό α ρ χ ά γ γ ε λ ο ς ] , w h o d e s i r e d

to

see t h e O n e . " G i v e n t h e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h t h e chief p r o p h e t , it d o e s 6s

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 175, notes that the Geniza text contains ‫אלהים‬, strengthening such a reading; see also C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 163; L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998) 56-57. 64 OTP 2:803-804; HJPAJC IIIi:563.566‫־‬ 65 Translation R. G. Robertson, OTP 2:803-804. 66 Josephus is much more reserved in his descriptions of Moses. Perhaps the most "angelic" description would be caffing Moses a θείον ανδρα in Ant. 3:180.

n o t s e e m t h a t P h i l o i n t e n d s to e q u a t e M o s e s w i t h t h e

archangels

M i c h a e l a n d R a p h a e l et al, b u t such a n identification c a n n o t b e entirely m i e d o u t given P h i l o ' s proclivity t o elevate t h e status of M o s e s . I n Virtues 7 2 7 9 ‫ ־‬, P h i l o r e c o u n t s t h a t b e f o r e his d e a t h M o s e s w e n t to h e a v e n t o w o r s h i p G o d , n o t unlike the angels. P h i l o says t h a t M o s e s b e g a n a h y m n ( D e u t 32:1 43‫ )־‬of final t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r his life. F o r t h a t h y m n , M o s e s g a t h e r e d a divine a s s e m b l y (συναγαγών ά θ ρ ο ι σ μ α θείον). T h e a n g e l s of t h e d i v i n e service (άγγελοι λειτουργιοί) w a t c h o v e r it (74). M o s e s is said to b e a m o n g t h e etiiereal c h o r i s t e r s (αιθέρα χ ο ρ ε υ τ α ΐ ς ) i n 75. O n c e t h e s o n g is c o m p l e t e (76), M o s e s is said to b e g i n p a s s i n g o v e r f r o m his m o r t a l e x i s t e n c e to i m m o r tality (έκ θνητής ζωής εις ά θ ά ν α τ ο ν βίον). H e is n o t called a n

angel

specifically in this text, b u t h e is c e r t a i n l y m u c h like t h e m in his p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a liturgy o v e r w h i c h angels p r e s i d e . H i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d suggests t h a t h e w a s a t t h e

border

b e t w e e n t w o f o r m s of life d u r i n g t h e s o n g itself. Lastly, in Moses 158 a n d Sacrifices 9, Philo calls M o s e s a g o d (θεός). 67 T h e r e is significant s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e o n P h i l o ' s a t t i t u d e

toward

t h e d e i f y i n g of Moses. 6 8 T h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n will n o t

engage

w i t h t h e s e in a n y specific detail, since P h i l o o f t e n allegorizes angels as i m m a n e n t p o w e r s . H i s discussion of M o s e s is m o r e c o n c r e t e , a c t u ally u s i n g t h e t e r m θεός. S e e m i n g l y , if P h i l o u n d e r s t o o d M o s e s as a kind of a n g e l , (a) h e c o u l d h a v e s p o k e n of h i m as s u c h explicitly, a n d (b) it w o u l d a p p e a r to u n d e r m i n e his m o r e e x a l t e d status as o n e like a g o d , e n j o y i n g a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i m . T h e Testament of Moses (also called t h e Assumption

of Moses) exists in

a L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t b u t w a s likely originally w r i t t e n in G r e e k . D a t e s f o r t h e Testament

of Moses v a r y g r e a t l y f r o m t h e M a c c a b e a n

period

67 Some have also noted that Philo's catong Moses one who "stands" by God indicates his angelic status (see especially QE 2:29, 40), since the posture of standing comes to be related to angels in rabbinic literature. On this see J. Fossum, The Name of God, pp. 56-58, 120-129; G. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 166-167; and C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 174-175. While intriguing, the arguments are not outlined here, since Philo makes no such equation, and, as the evidence suggests, did not make much of a case for the angelization of Moses but instead for his deification. 68 For fuller treatments of Moses in Philo, see E. Goodenough, By Light, Light: The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1969) 199-234; W. Meeks, The Prophet-King (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1967) 100-130; and C. Holladay, Thaos Aner in Hellenistic Judaism (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977) 103-198; J. Fossum, The Name of God, pp. 112-143.

t h r o u g h to t h e first h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 6 9 A t 11:17, t h e r e is a r e f e r e n c e t o M o s e s as a " g r e a t m e s s e n g e r 5 ' : If the enemies have, up till now, but a single time, acted impiously against their Lord, there is (now) no advocate for them who will bear messages to the Lord on their behalf in the way that Moses was the great messenger [magnus nu?1tius]. E a r l i e r in t h e w o r k , M o s e s is called t h e " m e d i a t o r of t h e c o v e n a n t " (Latin: arbiter). M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s e q u a t e this w i t h t h e r e f e r e n c e in 11:17 t o a g r e a t m e s s e n g e r ( L a t i n : mmtius).70

T r o m p argues that the

t e r m nuntius is a r e n d e r i n g of t h e G r e e k άγγελος. 7 1 W h i l e this m a y b e t r u e , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e t e r m angehis w a s n o t c h o s e n r a t h e r t h a n mmtius.72

It s e e m s c l e a r t h a t M o s e s is a m e d i a t o r b r i n g i n g t h e

L a w of G o d to h u m a n s . I n t h a t c a p a c i t y h e fulfills t h e role o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h angels. It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e i n t e n t i o n is t o e q u a t e h i m w i t h angels, h o w e v e r . Lastly, C . Fletcher-Louis h a s recently m a d e a case for seeing 4 Q 3 7 4 in t h e light of a n g e l o m o r p h i c traditions. 7 3 T h e i m p o r t a n t lines f r o m f r a g . 2ii a r e 68‫־־‬. w h i c h state: [6] [And] he made him as god [‫ ]לאלוהים‬over the mighty ones [‫]אדירים‬ and a cause of reeling to Pharaoh [. . .] [7] . . . they melted a n d their hearts trembled and their inward parts dissolved. H e had compassion u p o n [. . .] [8] A n d when he caused his face to shine upon them for healing, they strengthened [their] hearts again, and knowledge [. . .]74 T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s to r e c o u n t t h e e v e n t s a t S i n a i ( E x o d 34). T h e text is t o o f r a g m e n t a r y to b e c e r t a i n of t h e c o n t e x t . T h e t e r m • ‫א ל ו ה י‬ in line six c a n b e u s e d to r e f e r to angels. It s e e m s t h a t v. 6 refers to G o d m a k i n g M o s e s like a g o d o v e r t h e " m i g h t y o n e s . " I n v. 8 the r e f e r e n c e s e e m s to b e t o t h e face of M o s e s a f t e r c o m i n g d o w n 69

J. Priest, "The Testament of Moses" in 0 7 7 1:919-934; HJPAJC IIIi:278.287‫־‬ J. Tromp, Assumption of Moses (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993) 230-231; C. FletcherLouis, Luke-Acts, p. 181; L. Hurtado, One God, p. 57. 71 J. Tromp, Assumption of Moses, p. 257. 72 Yet the choice of mmtius is more comprehensible if it was translated by Christians. 73 C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Sinai Tradition: The Deification of Moses and Early Christology" DSD 3 (1996) 236-252. He reiterates many of the same points in C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 136-149. See also the preliminary publication by C. Newsom, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Exodus/Conquest Tradition" in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research, ed. D. Dimant and U. Rappaport (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992)"40-52. 74 Text from DJD XIX, p. 102. 70

f r o m t h e m o u n t a i n . It is possible t h a t the r e f e r e n t s in w . 6 a n d 8 are not the same

figure.

Fletcher-Louis says that, " t h e t h e o p h a n i c effect w h i c h M o s e s ' deified identity h a s o n his fellow Israelites . . . m a k e s g o o d sense in t h e c o n text of k n o w n D S S t r a d i t i o n s in w h i c h a h u m a n b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e s a n g e l o m o r p h i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ( / d e i f i c a t i o n ) . ' " 5 T h i s m a y b e possible, b u t it is n o t at all c l e a r t h a t M o s e s ' s status is a n g e l o m o r p h i c , o t h e r t h a n in his l u m i n o u s a p p e a r a n c e , w h i c h m o r e t h a n likely c o m e s f r o m E x o d u s a n d n o t necessarily a n y i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n

about

Moses's angelic nature. I n s u m , t w o facts s e e m to h o l d w i t h r e g a r d to M o s e s : M o s e s m e d i a t e d b e t w e e n t h e p e o p l e of Israel a n d G o d , a n d M o s e s h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d b y v i r t u e of his role as m e d i a t o r .

Does

his h a v i n g t h e s e t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m e a n t h a t M o s e s w a s c o n c e i v e d of as a n a n g e l ? T h e S e c o n d T e m p l e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a r o u t this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . If a n y t h i n g , t h e e v i d e n c e a p p e a r s to stress M o s e s ' s t h e o m o r p h i c (divine) c h a r a c t e r a f t e r t h e e v e n t s at Sinai. T h e q u e s t i o n t h e n b e c o m e s : D o e s t h e d i v i n i z a t i o n of M o s e s in w o r k s such as P h i l o o r his e n t h r o n e m e n t in Ezek.

Trag, m e a n t h a t M o s e s w a s

u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel? O n l y t h e As. Moses s e e m s to b e explicit in u s i n g t h e t e r m nuntius f o r M o s e s , b u t e v e n t h e r e angelus c o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d r a t h e r t h a n nuntius. T h e p r o b l e m in m o d e m

interpreta-

tion s e e m s to b e t h a t e i t h e r all types of h e a v e n l y b e i n g s a r e seen as a n g e l s o r e a c h t y p e is c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e . T h u s , M o s e s g o e s t o h e a v e n , m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n s , a n d is t h e r e f o r e like a n angel. O r , a l t h o u g h M o s e s g o e s to h e a v e n , h e is n o t explicitly called a n a n g e l , n o r d o e s h e s e e m to b e a n a n g e l ; if a n y t h i n g , h e is a b o v e t h a t status. T h i s m a y b e a p r o b l e m of c a t e g o r i z a t i o n .

3.8

David

D a v i d , a m a j o r figure in the H e b r e w Scriptures, is a s h e p h e r d called to b e a w a r r i o r a n d s e c o n d k i n g of Israel. M a n y of t h e P s a l m s a r e also a t t r i b u t e d to h i m . I n l a t e r J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n literature, the r e s t o r a t i o n of a D a v i d i c m o n a r c h y b e c o m e s p a r t of m e s s i a n i c e x p e c t a t i o n s . 7 6 75

C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374," p. 252. It has also been suggested by some that Isa 9:6 (MT = 9:5 LXX), "For to us a child is born, to us a son is given; and the government will be upon his shoulder, and his name will be called 'Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting 76

O n t h r e e o c c a s i o n s in t h e H e b r e w Bible, D a v i d is c o m p a r e d t o a n angel. 7 7 1 S a m 2 9 : 9 states, " A n d A c h i s h m a d e a n s w e r to D a v i d , '1 k n o w t h a t y o u a r e as b l a m e l e s s in m y sight as a n a n g e l of G o d ( ‫ ; ) כ מ ל א ך א ל ה י ם‬n e v e r t h e l e s s the c o m m a n d e r s of t h e Philistines h a v e said, H e shall n o t g o u p w i t h us to t h e b a t t l e . ' " T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s o n l y to b e m a k i n g a c o m p a r i s o n , u s i n g the ‫ כ‬. D a v i d is like a n a n g e l in his blamelessness, b u t it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s only "I k n o w t h a t y o u a r e g o o d / b l a m e l e s s in m y eyes (οίδα οτι αγαθός σ ύ έν ό φ θ α λ μ ο ί ς μου)." I n 2 S a m 14:17, it is said of D a v i d : [17] And your handmaid thought, " T h e word of my lord the king will set me at rest; for my lord the king is like the angel of God (‫)כמלאך האלהים‬ to discern good and evil. T h e Lord your G o d be with you!". . . [20] "In order to change the course of affairs your servant J o a b did this. But m y lord has wisdom like the wisdom of the angel of G o d to know all things that are on the earth." A g a i n in this c a s e , a c o m p a r i s o n is m a d e . D a v i d is like a n a n g e l in t h a t h e h a s t h e c a p a c i t y to d i s c e r n g o o d a n d evil. T h e L X X

main-

tains this c o m p a r i s o n : καθώς άγγελος θεού οΰτως ό κύριος μου ό β α σ ιλεύς. T h i r d l y , in 2 S a m 19:27, " H e h a s s l a n d e r e d y o u r s e r v a n t t o m y l o r d t h e king. B u t m y lord t h e king is like t h e a n g e l of G o d [‫ ; ] ה מ ל ך כ מ ל א ך האלהים‬do therefore w h a t seems good to you." T h i s c o m p a r i s o n is similar to t h e p r e v i o u s in t h a t D a v i d ' s likeness to a n a n g e l s e e m s to lie in his ability to d i s c e r n t h e right c o u r s e of a c t i o n . O n c e a g a i n t h e L X X h a s a literal t r a n s l a t i o n : 6 κύριος μου 6 β α σ ι λ ε ύ ς ώς άγγελος του θεοΰ. E a c h of these p a s s a g e s is a c o m p a r i s o n , d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t early in t h e t r a d i t i o n s u c h c o m p a r i s o n s w e r e m e a n i n g ful a n d c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y o p e n t h e d o o r f o r l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r s to see a m o r e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n D a v i d a n d t h e divine r e a l m . T h e Biblical

Antiquities

of P s e u d o - P h i l o (also r e f e r r e d to as t h e

L. A. B. f r o m its L a t i n title: Liber Antiquitatum

Biblicarum) gives a n i m a g -

!native retelling of Biblical history f r o m G e n e s i s t h r o u g h to t h e t i m e Father, Prince of Peace,' " where the LXX translates ‫ פלא יועץ‬as μεγάλης βουλής άγγελος, should be seen as an instance where a Davidic messiah is considered angelic. See, e.g., C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 176. It is not clear, however, that in the LXX version it is meant to imply anything more than "messenger." For a more detailed analysis of this passage relating to the concept of messiah, see W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ (London: SCM Press, 1998) 89.92‫־‬ 77 With these three, cf. Add Esth 15:13-15, " Ί saw you, my lord, tike an angel of God, and my heart was shaken with fear at your glory. For you are wonderful, my lord, and your countenance is full of grace.' But as she was speaking, she fell fainting."

of D a v i d a n d S o l o m o n . T h e L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t s s e e m to c o m e f r o m G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e o r i g i n a l H e b r e w , 7 8 likely f r o m t h e first c e n t u r y C E . ' 9 It gives p e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t D a v i d a p p e a r s like a n a n g e l . A f t e r m o r t a l l y w o u n d i n g G o l i a t h , D a v i d s t a n d s o v e r h i m a n d tells h i m t o look u p o n h i m ( 6 1 : 8 - 9 ) : [8] And David said to him, "Before you die, open your eyes and see your slayer, the one that killed you." And the Philistine looked a n d saw an angel and said, "Not you alone have killed me, but also the one who is present with you, he whose appearance is not like the appearance of a m a n . " [9] And then David cut off his head. Now the angel of the Lord had changed David's appearance, a n d no one recognised him. And Saul saw David and asked him who he was, and there was no one who recognised him. I n this t e x t D a v i d ' s a p p e a r a n c e is c h a n g e d , so it is possible to s p e a k of h i m as 2a1gû0m0rphic.

It is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r h e h a s u n d e r g o n e a n y

p e r m a n e n t c h a n g e . T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c h a n g e d D a v i d ' s a p p e a r a n c e a n d w a s p r e s e n t to h e l p h i m in t h e d e f e a t of G o l i a t h , b u t it does n o t seem that D a v i d was an angel. T h u s , t h e e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t D a v i d w a s c o m p a r e d to angels d u e to c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s (blamelessness, d i s c e r n m e n t ) . H e a p p e a r s in a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c f o r m in t h e L. A. B. D a v i d w a s largely c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n f o r a m e s s i a h in l a t e r l i t e r a t u r e . H i s roles as king a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s e e m to b e i m p o r t a n t , b u t it is n o t c l e a r t h a t w e c a n s p e a k of t h e office of k i n g as o n e t h a t w a s readily u n d e r s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 8 0

3.9

The Prophets

T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of angels w h e n o n eartii is to a c t as m e s s e n g e r s for G o d . T h e p r o p h e t s c a n be u n d e r s t o o d to fulfill m u c h the s a m e f u n c t i o n . Prime fade, 78

t h e n , it s e e m s t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s m i g h t r e p r e s e n t

D. Harrington, "Pseudo-Philo" in OTP 2:298-299. D. Harrington, "Pseudo-Philo" in OTP 2:299; F. Murphy, Pseudo-Philo: Rewriting the Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 6; HJPAJC 1111:329. 80 There may be some echo of this in Zech 12:7-9, "And the Lord will give vietory to the tents of Judah first, that the glory of the house of David and the glory of the inhabitants of Jerusalem may not be exalted over that of Judah. On that day the Lord will put a shield about the inhabitants of Jerusalem so that the feeblest among them on that day shall be tike David, and the house of David shall be like God, like the angel of the Lord, at their head. And on that day I will seek to destroy all the nations that come against Jerusalem." 79

the h u m a n g r o u p m o s t likely to a p p e a r similar in f u n c t i o n to angels. 8 1 A p a s s a g e in 2 C h r 3 6 is illustrative: [15] T h e Lord, the G o d of their fathers, sent persistently to them by his messengers, because he had compassion on his people and on his dwelling place; [16] but they kept mocking the messengers of G o d [‫ ] ב מ ל א כ י האלהים‬, despising his words, and scoffing at his prophets [‫]בנבאיו‬, till the wrath of the Lord rose against his people, till there was no remedy. T h i s p a s s a g e a p p e a r s n e a r t h e e n d of t h e B o o k of C h r o n i c l e s . T h e c h r o n i c l e r o f t e n speaks of t h e p r o p h e t s as g o i n g u n h e e d e d (2 C h r 1 2 : 5 - 8 ; 1 5 : 1 - 8 ; 1 9 : 1 - 3 ; 2 1 : 1 2 - 1 5 , et al). T h e s e verses e x p l a i n w h y J u d a h fell to t h e B a b y l o n i a n s , s e e m i n g to set m e s s e n g e r s (angels) of G o d a n d p r o p h e t s in a p p o s i t i o n . T h e L X X

maintains the

terms

a n g e l s / m e s s e n g e r s (τους αγγέλους αύτοΰ) a n d p r o p h e t s (τοις π ρ ο φ ή τ α ι ς αύτοΰ). T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s a r e u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n s , a l t h o u g h t h e y f u n c tion like angels in t h a t t h e y a r e m e s s e n g e r s of G o d . 8 2 A n e v e n m o r e explicit c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r p r o p h e t m a y be i n t e n d e d in H a g

1:12-13:

[12] T h e n Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel, and Joshua the son of Jehozadak, the high priest, with all the remnant of the people, obeyed the voice of the Lord their God, and the words of Haggai the prophet I‫]הנביא‬, as the Lord their G o d h a d sent him; and the people feared before the Lord. [13] T h e n Haggai, the messenger of the Lord [‫ ] מ ל א ך יהוה‬, spoke to the people with the Lord's message, "I am with you," says the Lord. I n t h e p e r s o n of H a g g a i , the offices of p r o p h e t a n d

angel/messen-

g e r of G o d a r e u n i t e d . H a g g a i clearly delivers a divine m e s s a g e . H e is n o t said to a p p e a r in a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n f o r m . H e s e e m s to b e a n effective p r o p h e t / m e s s e n g e r , b u t t h e r e is n o t m u c h r e a s o n to s u p p o s e , a p a r t f r o m t h e use of t h e t e c h n i c a l t e r m f o r a n g e l , t h a t H a g g a i should be u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g o t h e r tiian a h u m a n p r o p h e t . P e r h a p s t h e clearest e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i d e a t h a t a p r o p h e t c o u l d a c t as G o d ' s m e s s e n g e r c o m e s in M a l a c h i . First, t h e n a m e M a l a c h i 81 This is the argument of J. Biihner, Der Gersandte und sàn Weg im 4 Evangelium (Tübingen: J . C. B. Mohr, 1977) 341-373. For criticism of his approach, see C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 129-137. 82 Cf. Isa 44:26 "who confirms the word of his servant, and performs the counsel of his messengers [‫ ;מלאכיו‬αγγέλων]; who says ofJerusalem, 'She shall be inhabited,' and of the cities of Judah, 'They shall be built, and I will raise up their ruins.' "

itself in H e b r e w m e a n s " m y m e s s e n g e r . " M a i 1:1 states, " T h e o r a cle of t h e w o r d of t h e L o r d to Israel b y M a l a c h i . " T h e L X X

ren-

d e r s this as, λ ή μ μ α λόγου κ υ ρ ί ο υ έπί τόν Ι σ ρ α ή λ έν χειρί αγγέλου α ύ τ ο ΰ θ έ σ θ ε δή έπί τ ά ς κ α ρ δ ί α ς υμών. T h e n a m e M a l a c h i is n o t r e n d e r e d in G r e e k b u t is i n s t e a d called αγγέλου αύτου. A t least o n e i n t e r p r e t e r discusses the a p p a r e n t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n M a l a c h i a n d a n g e l i c n a t u r e b e c a u s e of his n a m e ( m e a n i n g angel), his a p p e a r a n c e (beauty), a n d his b e h a v i o r (delivering divine messages). 8 3 The lives of the Prophets (c. first c e n t u r y C E ) 16:1~3 says a b o u t M a l a c h i : [1] This m a n was born in Sopha after the return, and while still a very young m a n he led a virtuous life. [2] And since the whole peopie honored him as holy and gentle, it called him Malachi, which means, "angel"; for he was indeed beautiful to behold. [3] Moreover, whatever he himself said in prophecy, on the same day an angel of G o d appeared a n d repeated (it). H o w e v e r , t h e final s e n t e n c e d o e s suggest t h a t t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t M a l a c h i w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d in a n y w a y a n a n g e l . H i s n a m e m e a n s a n g e l , a n d h e h a d a b e a u t i f u l c o u n t e n a n c e — a trait s o m e t i m e s associated w i t h a n g e l s — b u t , a c c o r d i n g to this s o u r c e , w h a t M a l a c h i said w a s t h e n c o n f i r m e d b y a n a n g e l . T h e a m b i g u i t y in t h e " m e s s e n g e r " role of the p r o p h e t M a l a c h i w a s t a k e n u p in t h e

NT

in t h e p e r s o n of J o h n t h e Baptist.

3.10

John the Baptist

E a c h of t h e s y n o p t i c gospels r e c o r d s a t r a d i t i o n of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t in w h i c h J e s u s is said to q u o t e t h e p r o p h e t M a i 3:1 w i t h r e g a r d to J o h n . M a t t h e w a n d L u k e likely took t h e t r a d i t i o n f r o m M a r k , b u t t h e y e x p a n d u p o n it. 84 M a t t h e w actually says t h a t J o h n is t h e p r o p h e t Elijah r e t u r n e d . M a i 3:1 states, " B e h o l d , I s e n d m y m e s s e n g e r to p r e p a r e t h e w a y b e f o r e m e , a n d t h e L o r d w h o m y o u seek will s u d d e n l y c o m e to his t e m p l e ; t h e m e s s e n g e r of t h e c o v e n a n t in w h o m y o u delight, b e h o l d , h e is c o m i n g , says t h e L o r d of h o s t s . " T h e n M a i 4:5 states, " B e h o l d , I will s e n d y o u E l i j a h t h e p r o p h e t b e f o r e t h e g r e a t a n d t e r r i b l e d a y 83

Cf. also 2 Esd 1:40, "and Malachi, who is called the messenger of the Lord" (qui et angelus Domini vocatus est). 84 This study accepts with the majority of scholars Markan priority; see note 89 in section 2.7 above.

of t h e L o r d c o m e s . " G i e s c h e n h a s suggested t h a t r e a d i n g t h e s e t w o passages t o g e t h e r w i t h 4:5, w h i c h specifies Elijah as t h e m e s s e n g e r ( ‫ ; מ ל א ך‬άγγελος) f o r e t o l d in 3:1, allows us to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e early Christians and other interpreters would have understood

Elijah's

r e t u r n to b e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 8 5 Interestingly, M a r k c o n n e c t s M a i 3:1 a n d Isa 40:3, a t t r i b u t i n g b o t h to t h e p r o p h e t I s a i a h in a p r o n o u n c e m e n t a b o u t t h e role of J o h n the Baptist: [2a] As it is written [γέγραπται] in Isaiah the prophet [Ησα'ίατφ προφήτη], [2b] "Behold, I send my messenger [τον αγγελόν μου] before thy face, who shall prepare thy way; [Mai 3:1] [3] the voice of one ctying in the wilderness: Prepare the way of the Lord, make his paths straight—" [Isa 40:3] [4] J o h n the Baptist appeared in the wilderness, preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. I n s u b s e q u e n t verses, w e a r e told t h a t J o h n b a p t i z e d all t h o s e w h o w e n t o u t to h i m in t h e R i v e r J o r d a n (v. 5). A physical d e s c r i p t i o n of J o h n is given (v. 6). H e is clotiied in c a m e l ' s h a i r w i t h a l e a t h e r girdle, a n d h e eats locusts a n d h o n e y . J o h n a n n o u n c e s t h a t h e is u n f i t to s t o o p a n d u n t i e t h e s a n d a l s of t h e o n e w h o is to

come

(v. 7). J o h n t h e n b a p t i z e s J e s u s (v. 9). T h e h e a v e n s o p e n , a n d a voice a n n o u n c e s t h a t J e s u s is a " b e l o v e d s o n " w h o pleases the F a t h e r (v. 11). J e s u s is t h e n d r i v e n i n t o t h e d e s e r t (v. 13), a n d J o h n is a r r e s t e d (v. 14). N o m o r e is m a d e of J o h n ' s role in M a r k until c h a p t e r 6, w h e n , a f t e r J o h n is b e h e a d e d , s o m e p e o p l e t h i n k t h a t J e s u s is J o h n the B a p t i s t r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e d e a d (6:14). T h e s e p a s s a g e s s u p p l y littie e v i d e n c e t h a t J o h n w a s in a n y w a y u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l . I n fact his physical description seems to g o against a n y such identification, since t h e r e is n o t h i n g m i r a c u l o u s a b o u t his a p p e a r a n c e a n d h e eats h u m a n f o o d . M a t t h e w c o n n e c t s J o h n t h e B a p t i s t w i t h E l i j a h via M a i 3:1, so it is i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r this e v i d e n c e . M a t t 11:7

14 e x p a n d s t h e story r e g a r d i n g J o h n t h e Baptist. 8 6

[7] As they went away, Jesus began to speak to the crowds concerning J o h n : " W h a t did you go out into the wilderness to behold? A reed

85

C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 167-168. See also C.Joynes, "The Return of Elijah: An Exploration of the Character and Context of the Relationship between Elijah, John the Baptist and Jesus in the Gospels" (Oxford: D.Phil, thesis, 1998). 86 The parallel passage in Luke 7:24-35 is very similar to Matthew but does not equate John the Baptist with Elijah.

shaken by the wind? [8] Why then did you go out? To see a man clothed in soft raiment? Behold, those who wear soft raiment are in kings' houses. [9] Why then did you go out? T o see a prophet? Yes, I tell you, and more than a prophet. [10] This is he of whom it is written, 'Behold, I send my messenger (τον αγγελον) before thy face, who shall prepare thy way before thee.' [11] Truly, I say to you, among those born of women there has risen no one greater than J o h n the Baptist; yet he who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he. [12] From the days of J o h n the Baptist until now the kingdom of heaven has suffered violence, and men of violence take it by force. [13] For all the prophets and the law prophesied until J o h n ; [14] and if you are willing to accept it, he is Elijah who is to come." M a t t h e w seems to c o n n e c t M a i 3:1 a n d M a i 4:5 in the person of J o h n . M a i 4:5 states, " B e h o l d , I will send you Elijah the p r o p h e t before the g r e a t a n d terrible d a y of the L o r d c o m e s . " T h e p r o p h e t Elijah was taken u p into h e a v e n by a mystical c h a r i o t a n d did n o t die (2 K g s 2:11). M a l a c h i seems to reflect a n e x p e c t a t i o n of his r e t u r n . M a t t h e w sees the fulfillment of this p r o p h e c y in the p e r s o n of J o h n , w h o is k n o w n as G o d ' s m e s s e n g e r (cf. M a t t 1 7 : 1 0 - 1 3 ; M a r k 6 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; cf. Sir 4 8 : 9 1 0 ‫ ) ־‬. H e r e again t h e r e is n o i n d e p e n d e n t evid e n c e t h a t J o h n was u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel, unless we accept t h a t t h e r e was some implicit u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the figure in M a i 3:1 or the r e t u r n i n g Elijah as angelic. T o the extent t h a t M a t t h e w identifies J o h n with Elijah, we c a n p e r h a p s u n d e r s t a n d J o h n to be a messenger of G o d , but the stress o n his b e i n g " b o m of a w o m a n " (v. 11) a n d his s u b s e q u e n t d e a t h (14:10) seem to suggest his h u m a n i t y . O n e later i n t e r p r e t e r does speak a b o u t J o h n the Baptist as an angel, h o w e v e r . O r i g e n in his Commentary on the Gospel of John q u o t e s f r o m the so-called Prayer of Joseph (2.32) to show h o w J o h n the Baptist m a y b e t h o u g h t of as a n angel. H e q u o t e s M a r k 1:2 (ιδού έγώ έξαποστέλλω τον άγγελόν μου προ προσώπου σου) a n d t h e n says of J o h n the Baptist, " W e call a t t e n t i o n to h i m b e i n g o n e of the holy angels in service sent d o w n as a f o r e r u n n e r of o u r s a v i o u r " (έφίσταμεν μήποτε εις των αγίων αγγέλων τυγχάνων έπί λειτουργία καταπέμπεται του σωτήρος ημών πρόδρομος). T h i s is a s t r o n g identification of J o h n the Baptist as a n a n g e l — n o t only b e c a u s e h e is called a n angel b u t also b e c a u s e h e is said to be in service (έπί λειτουργία), w h i c h m a y indicate o n e of the angels actually in the presence of G o d or particip a t i n g in the heavenly liturgy. It is certainly possible, given the a m b i g u i t y in the text of M a i 3:1, t h a t s o m e early C h r i s t i a n s w e r e t h i n k i n g a b o u t J o h n the Baptist as

a n a n g e l i n s o m u c h as h e c a r r i e d o u t a f u n c t i o n c o m m o n l y a t t r i b u t e d to a n g e l s — t h a t is, delivery of a divine m e s s a g e . M o r e o v e r , t h e t e r m άγγελος is a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d to h i m . A t least o n e l a t e r

interpreter

u n d e r s t o o d J o h n to b e a n angel. T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a s o m e w h a t u n i q u e p i e c e of e v i d e n c e ; it is u n c e r t a i n , a n d a r g u a b l y unlikely,

whether

s u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of J o h n w a s w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g early Christians.

3.11

Jesus

A s n o t e d in c h a p t e r 1, t h e r e h a s b e e n a g r e a t d e a l of r e c e n t schola r s h i p o n J e s u s a n d a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y . W h a t is c l e a r , h o w e v e r , f r o m t h e s e studies is t h a t n o w h e r e in t h e N T is J e s u s s p o k e n of as a n a n g e l , t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s o m e p a s s a g e s t h a t suggest this w a s a n issue for early C h r i s t i a n s (Col 2:18, H e b 1 - 2 ) . J . D u n n

summed

u p this p o i n t in 1980: So far as we can tell then no NT imiter thought of Christ as an angel, whether as a pre-existent divine being who h a d appeared in Israel's history as the angel of the Lord, 01‫ ׳‬as an angel or spirit become m a n or as a m a n who by exaltation after death h a d become an angel. 87 C l e a r l y , t h e r e c e n t s p a t e of w o r k o n a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y suggests t h a t n o t all s c h o l a r s a r e c o n v i n c e d . 8 8 T h e y h a v e , h o w e v e r , h a d to look at a n t e c e d e n t s , l a t e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , a n d especially a n g e l o m o r p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of C h r i s t to d e v e l o p t h e i r a r g u m e n t s . B e c a u s e the p r e s e n t s t u d y focuses o n d i e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s

and

angels, m y a i m h e r e is q u i t e m o d e s t relative to t h e vast l i t e r a t u r e o n a n g e l C h r i s t o l o g y . T h i s section c o n s i d e r s o n l y e v i d e n c e in w h i c h J e s u s s e e m s to b e likened t o a n a n g e l in his e a r t h l y ( h u m a n ) lifetime. O n e c a s e in w h i c h J e s u s m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a n g e l o m o r p h i c is in t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s , 8 9 w h i c h a r e f o u n d in t h e

synoptic

gospels ( M a t t 1 7 : 1 - 9 ; M a r k 9 : 2 - 1 0 ; L u k e 9 : 2 8 3 6 ‫ ) ־‬b u t a b s e n t f r o m t h e f o u r t h gospel. 9 0 T h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n h a s o f t e n b e e n u n d e r s t o o d

87 J . Dunn, Christology in the Making: An Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation (London: SCM, 1980) 158; italics are his. 88 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 3, uses this quote as the starting point of his investigation. 89 On the Transfiguration, see B. Chilton, "Transfiguration" in ABD 6:640-642; Str-B. 1:752-758. A useful and relatively up-to-date survey of scholarship on the Transfiguration can be found in A. D. A. Moses, Matthew's Transfiguration Stoiy and Jewish Christian Controversy (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996) 20-49. 90 There is a reference to the Transfiguration scene in 2 Pet 1:16-18. The ref-

to fit w i t h t h e a s c e n t of t h e M o s e s m o t i f f r o m E x o d 24:16. 9 1 A d d i tionally, it h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a m i s p l a c e d r e s u r r e c t i o n

account,92

while o t h e r s h a v e r e l a t e d it t o h e a v e n l y a s c e n t a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n motifs. 9 3 C . R o w l a n d h a s suggested, " I t w o u l d . . . b e a m i s t a k e t o e x c l u d e the possibility t h a t w e h a v e in this story [the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ] a r e f l e c t i o n of a n e x p e r i e n c e w h e n c e r t a i n disciples, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y P e t e r , m a y h a v e believed t h a t t h e y h a d seen J e s u s in t h e f o r m of a n angelic e n v o y . " 9 4 T h e r e a r e i n d e e d s o m e a s p e c t s of t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t h a t s u p p o r t a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n M a r k , J e s u s is t r a n s f i g u r e d (μετεμορφώθη). 9 5 I n M a t t h e w J e s u s is t r a n s f i g u r e d (μετεμορφώθη), a n d his face shines "like die sun." In Luke his face w a s " c h a n g e d (έτερον)." T h i s l a n g u a g e is fairly explicit t h a t J e s u s h a s u n d e r g o n e a c h a n g e . H i s p h y s ical a p p e a r a n c e is a l t e r e d , a n d e i t h e r his f a c e o r his g a r m e n t s ,

or

b o t h , b e c o m e brilliant. T h i s is c e r t a i n l y a n a s p e c t of a n g e l o p h a n i e s . 9 6

erence seems to be used to legitimate the letter itself by claiming to be Peter, who was present during the event. It states, "For when he received honor and glory from God the Father and the voice was borne to him by the Majestic Glory, 'This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased,' we heard this voice borne from heaven, for we were with him on the holy mountain." There is also a version of the Transfiguration in the Apocalypse of Peter 15-17. 91 On this see for, example, W. D. Davies and D. Allison, A Critical• and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to Saint Matthew, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1988-1997) 2:684-709; A. D. A. Moses, Matthew's Transfiguration Story and Jewish Christian Controversy, pp. 50-84. Interestingly, in Exodus 34:29-35 the result of Moses's seeing God is a glowing face that caused fear in those who saw him. 92 On this position, held by scholars like J . Wellhausen and R. Bultmann, see R. Stein, "Is the Transfiguration (Mark 9:2-8) a Misplaced Resurrection Account?" JBL 95 (1976) 79-96. 93 J. Fossum, "Ascensio, Metamorphosis: The 'Transfiguration' of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels" in The Image of the Invisible God (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1995) 71-94. M. Smith, Clement of Alexandria and a Secret Gospel of Mark (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975) 237-244. 94 C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 368. Bracketed material my own for clarification. See also M. Sabbe, "La rédaction du récit de la transfiguration" in La venue du Messie: Messianisme a eschatologie (Bruges: Desclée de Brouwer, 1962) 65-100; C. FletcherLouis, Luke-Acts, pp. 3951‫־‬. This is also the line of argument taken by P. Nogueira, "Heavenly Journey Elements in the Transfiguration Narrative: Apocalypticism and the Beginning of Christology," paper delivered to the Oxford Millenium Conference (April 2000). 95 For a definition of the term, see J. Behm, "μεταμορφόω" in TDNT 4:755-759. The same verb μεταμορφόω appears on two occasions in Paul's letters (Rom 12:2, 2 Cor 3:18). In 2 Cor 3:18 (cf. also 1 Cor 15:51), Paul writes, "And we all, with unveiled face, beholding the glory of the Lord, are being changed [μεταμορφούμεθα] into his fikeness from one degree of glory to another; for this comes from the Lord who is the Spirit." This seems to suggest an ongoing change of the believer into some type of divine being. 96 As noted in the introduction to part one above.

T w o f u r t h e r p o i n t s s u p p o r t a divine i d e n t i f i c a t i o n f o r J e s u s . M o s e s a n d E j i j a h a p p e a r t o J e s u s a n d talk w i t h h i m . T h e s e t w o v e n e r a b l e figures

of t h e p a s t a r e k n o w n n o t to h a v e d i e d b u t to h a v e

been

t a k e n to h e a v e n (Moses: D e u t 34:5; E l i j a h : 2 K g s 2:11). T h a t J e s u s is seen h e r e w i t h t h e m suggests his e x a l t e d status. Lastly, a voice f r o m t h e c l o u d s p r o c l a i m s t h a t J e s u s "is m y S o n , listen to h i m . " 9 7 It is n o t entirely c l e a r t h a t J e s u s b e c a m e a n a n g e l , since t h e t e r m itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r , n o r is it c l e a r t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t h e u n d e r w e n t was p e r m a n e n t . Nevertheless, the evidence here indicates t h a t at least f o r t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n , J e s u s w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c . M o r e i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s , L o g i o n

13.

Greek

f r a g m e n t s of T h o m a s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d m o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d y e a r s a g o in O x y r h y n c h u s , Egypt. 9 8 I n 1945 a c o m p l e t e C o p t i c m a n u s c r i p t of t h e g o s p e l w a s d i s c o v e r e d a m o n g t h e finds a t N a g T h o m a s ' s impact on N T

Hammadi.99

studies h a s b e e n a m o n g t h e m o s t

pro-

n o u n c e d of all t h e C o p t i c w r i t i n g s u n c o v e r e d t h e r e , since s c h o l a r s i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n to d r a w c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n it a n d t h e h y p o thetical sayings s o u r c e n a m e d Q . M o r e r e c e n t w o r k h a s b e g u n t o look at T h o m a s as its o w n gospel, w i t h a distinct c o m m u n i t y b e h i n d it just like t h e c a n o n i c a l gospels. 1 0 0 T h e d a t e of T h o m a s h a s b e e n d e b a t e d ; t h e suggestions r a n g e f r o m s o m e t i m e b e t w e e n t h e m i d - f i r s t to m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 1 0 1 T h e r a n g e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i d e a s in T h o m a s a r e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h o s e of this study. L o g i o n 13 is r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e confession of P e t e r in t h e gospels. 1 0 2 Significantly, in t h e synoptics, this c o n f e s s i o n i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n a c c o u n t . 1 0 3 J e s u s asks t h e disciples for o p i n i o n s a b o u t his identity. I n t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s , it is T h o m a s

whose

a n s w e r is c o r r e c t , h o w e v e r , n o t P e t e r ' s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , P e t e r ' s r e s p o n s e is telling for o u r p u r p o s e s :

97

This seems to create a link with Jesus's baptism (Mark 1:11, Matt 3:17, Luke 3:22). In particular Matthew's phrasing in 3:17 and 17:5 is identical. 98 P. Oxy. 1:654, 655. 99 NHC II, 2. 100 See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1997). 101 R. Valantasis, The Gospel of Thomas (London and New York: Routledge, 1997) 12-21. 102 Cf. Matt 16:13-20, Mark 8:27-30, Luke 9:18-21, John 6:67-71. 103 Thomas contains no Transfiguration account, but Fletcher-Louis (Luke-Acts, p. 47) suggests Thomas may have been aware of their relative location in the Synoptics.

[Logion 13] Jesus said to his disciples: Make a comparison to me a n d tell me who I a m like. Simon Peter said to him: You are like a righteous angel [δίκαιος άγγελος]. Matthew said to him: You are like a wise m a n of understanding, T h o m a s said to him: Master, my mouth will not at all be capable of saying w h o m you are like. Jesus said, "I am not your master, because you have drunk, you have become intoxicated from the bubbling spring that I have measured out." A n d he took him, he withdrew, he spoke three words to him. W h e n T h o m a s came back to his companions, they asked him, " W h a t did Jesus say to you?" T h o m a s said to them, "If I tell you one of the sayings that he spoke to me, you will pick up stones and throw them at me; a fire will come from the rocks and b u r n you up." T h e c o n t e x t of t h e p a s s a g e suggests t h a t similes o f f e r e d b y S i m o n Peter and Matthew are meaningful and reverent but not altogether satisfactory. T h o m a s ' s r e s p o n s e s e e m s t o elicit s o m e t h i n g of a r e b u k e t e m p e r e d b y a r e c o g n i t i o n of d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g f r o m J e s u s , since h e t h e n takes T h o m a s aside a n d gives h i m t h r e e w o r d s t h a t a p p a r ently p e r m i t m o r e insight i n t o J e s u s ' s t r u e identity. W h e n

Thomas

r e t u r n s t o t h e o t h e r disciples, t h e y ask h i m w h a t J e s u s h a s told h i m . T h o m a s says t h a t if h e w e r e to tell t h e m , t h e y w o u l d w a n t t o s t o n e h i m b u t t h a t t h e stones w o u l d c o n s u m e t h e m . A n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s h a v e suggested t h a t t h e t h r e e w o r d s

are

likely to h a v e b e e n ‫ ( א ה י ה א ש ר א ה י ה‬E x o d 3:14). 1 0 4 T h u s , J e s u s h a s compared

h i m s e l f w i t h t h e divine. If T h o m a s w e r e to s h a r e this

i n f o r m a t i o n , s p e a k i n g t h e i n e f f a b l e n a m e , t h e o t h e r disciples w o u l d b e c o m p e l l e d to s t o n e him. 1 0 5 R . V a l a n t a s i s says t h a t t h e c o m p a r isons of J e s u s w i t h a n a n g e l a n d w i t h a p h i l o s o p h e r " l o c a t e J e s u s w i t h i n t h e s p e c t r u m of u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of divine figures as angelic o r t r a n s c e n d e n t l y philosophical. T h e s e t w o u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of J e s u s o p e r ate w i t h i n t h e s p e c t r u m of c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d religious figures." 1 0 6 U l t i m a t e l y , t h e l i k e n i n g of J e s u s to a n a n g e l i n this logion is j u s t t h a t , a c o m p a r i s o n . J e s u s asks, " M a k e a c o m p a r i s o n a n d tell

me

w h a t I a m like." T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a n y e q u a t i o n is b e i n g m a d e . I n fact, e v e n if o n e w e r e i m p l i e d , t h e c o n t e x t suggests it w o u l d n o t b e a satisfactory u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e r e f o r e , it d o e s n o t s e e m t h a t h e r e w e c a n c o n f i d e n t l y s p e a k of J e s u s as a n angel.

10+

See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him, p. 113 n. 40; J . Fossum, The Name of God, p. 98 n. 59. 105 Stoning was the punishment for blasphemy (Lev 24:16, John 10:30f., m. Sahn 7:4-5). 106 R. Valantasis, Gospel of Thomas, p. 75.

Lastly, t h e r e is a n interesting a c c o u n t of J e s u s b e i n g literally c l o t h e d as L i t h a r g o e l in t h e a p o c r y p h a l w o r k The Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles 9 ( s e c o n d - t h i r d c e n t u r y GE): 1 0 7 He said to Peter, "Peter!" And Peter was frightened, for how did he know that his n a m e was Peter? Peter responded to the Savior, " H o w do you know me, for you called my name?" Lithargoel answered, "I want to ask you who gave the name Peter to you?" H e said to him, "It was Jesus Christ, the son of the living God. H e gave this n a m e to m e . " H e answered and said, "It is I! Recognize me, Peter." H e loosened the garment, which clothed him—the one into which he had changed himself because of us—revealing to us in truth that it was he. \‫׳‬Ve prostrated ourselves on the ground and worshipped him. W e comprised eleven disciples. He stretched forth his h a n d and caused us to stand. W e spoke with him humbly. O u r heads were bowed down in unworthiness as we said, " W h a t you wish we will do. But give us power to do what you wish at all times." 108 T h e r e a c t i o n of P e t e r a n d t h e apostles t o t h e r e v e l a t i o n of J e s u s is o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e p i p h a n i e s . L i t h a r g o e l is a n e n i g m a t i c c h a r a c t e r w h o c h a n g e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e story b u t a p p e a r s to b e s o m e sort of divine b e i n g , q u i t e possibly angelic. It is difficult to k n o w w h a t to m a k e of this t r a d i t i o n . It is s o m e w h a t late b u t suggests t h a t , e v e n if a n g e l christologies w e r e quickly d i s c o u n t e d b y t h e e a r l y c h u r c h , t h e y w e r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y g o n e f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially p e r h a p s in G n o s t i c circles. T h i s s o u r c e clearly w o u l d fit i n t o a n " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " p o r t r a y a l of J e s u s in t h a t h e a p p e a r s as a n a n g e l . T h a t h e is c l o t h e d as a n a n g e l a n d t h e n r e m o v e s t h a t guise suggests n o t a p e r m a n e n t b u t a t e m p o r a r y c h a n g e of physical a p p e a r a n c e .

3.12

Stephen

Acts 6 r e c o r d s t h a t S t e p h e n , c h o s e n t o b e o n e of t h e seven ministers to t h e c o m m u n i t y in J e r u s a l e m , p e r f o r m e d g r e a t signs (Acts 6:8). S o m e in t h e c o m m u n i t y b e c a m e j e a l o u s of h i m a n d b e g a n t o c o n spire a g a i n s t h i m (Acts 6:11). H e is seized a n d b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e

107 A. Molinari, The Acts of Peter and the Twelve: Allegory, Ascent, and Ministry in the Wake of the Decirn Persecution (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 2000) 201-204, suggests that the final redaction of the text dates to the Decian persecution (249-251 CE) and that the genre is largely allegorical, with a mix of realism and surrealism (pp. 53-92). 108 Translation from J. Robinson, ed., The JVag Hammadi Libraiy in English (New York: Harper Collins, 1988) 292-293.

c o u n c i l ( 6 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) . J u s t p r i o r t o S t e p h e n ' s d e f e n s e s p e e c h (Acts 7) c o m e s t h e s o m e w h a t e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " A n d g a z i n g at h i m , all w h o sat in t h e c o u n c i l saw t h a t his face w a s like t h e f a c e of a n a n g e l [ώσεί πρόσωπον α γ γ έ λ ο υ ] " (Acts 6:15). 1 0 9 I t s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t L u k e does n o t simply m e a n a h u m a n

" m e s s e n g e r " f o r άγγελος in this

i n s t a n c e , since t h e t e r m w o u l d t h e n c o n v e y n o special significance. Nevertheless, h e uses t h e qualifier (ώσεί) in speaking a b o u t the a p p e a r a n c e of S t e p h e n ' s face; t h a t is, his face w a s like a n a n g e l ' s face. T o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t s u c h a s t a t e m e n t m e a n t to L u k e a n d his a u d i e n c e , it is n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r w h a t a n t e c e d e n t s a n d s o u r c e s L u k e m a y h a v e b e e n calling u p o n in this r e f e r e n c e . M u n c k suggests, " I n t h e m i d s t of all these falsehoods, S t e p h e n ' s face s h o n e like a n angel." 1 1 0 T h i s is n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t L u k e m i g h t h a v e m e a n t b y this c o m m e n t . I n the H e b r e w Bible, M o s e s h a s a n e p i p h a n y , a n d his c o u n t e n a n c e is a l t e r e d ( E x o d 3 4 : 2 9 - 3 5 ) . T h i s scene m a y also h a v e i n f o r m e d L u k e ' s writing: [29] W h e n Moses came down from M o u n t Sinai, with the two tables of the testimony in his h a n d as he came down from the mountain, Moses did not know that the skin of his face shone because he had been talking with God. [30] A n d when A a r o n and all the people of Israel saw Moses, behold, the skin of his face shone, and they were afraid to come near him. [31] But Moses called to them; and Aaron and all the leaders of the congregation returned to him, and Moses talked with them. [32] And afterward all the people of Israel came near, and he gave them in c o m m a n d m e n t all that the Lord had spoken with him in M o u n t Sinai. [33] And w h e n Moses had finished speaking with them, he put a veil 011 his face; [34] but whenever Moses went in before the Lord to speak with him, he took the veil off, until he came out; a n d when he came out, and told the people of Israel what he was commanded, [35] the people of Israel saw the face of Moses, that the skin of Moses' face shone; and Moses would put the veil upon his face again, until he went in to speak with him.

109

The D text adds "standing in their midst (έστώτος έν μέσφ αυτών)." This suggests that an angel was present with Stephen at that moment or that Stephen himself was transformed into an angel, since this phrase locates the angelomoiphic being in the onlookers' physical space rather than simply leaving it as an appearance or apparition. 110 J. Munck, 77le Acts of the Apostles (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967) 59. Similarly, E. Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971) 272, says, "This transfiguration signifies for Luke that Stephen is filled with the Holy Spirit, and thereby enabled to make the speech which now follows."

T h e i d e a of M o s e s ' s f a c e b e i n g c h a n g e d a t S i n a i s e e m s to

have

i n f l u e n c e d L u k e ' s i m a g e of S t e p h e n in s o m e w a y . O . G l o m b i t z a h a s suggested t h a t t h e giving of t h e L a w b y a n g e l s in Acts 7:53 (cf. D e u t 33:2, G a l 3:19, A c t s 7:38. H e b 2:2) is parallel to t h e t e a c h i n g (givi n g of t h e law) b y t h e angel-like S t e p h e n in 6:15. 1 1 1 R e l a t e d t o this p a s s a g e is a n i n t e r e s t i n g parallel f r o m Q u m r a n , 4 Q 3 7 4 . 1 1 2 T h i s f r a g m e n t s e e m s to talk a b o u t M o s e s a t Sinai, s a y i n g t h a t h e [ M o s e s ] w a s m a d e " a s G o d [ • ‫ " ] ל א ל ו ה י‬a n d t h a t G o d " c a u s e d his face t o shine." 1 1 3 S o m e scholars have suggested that Stephen's angelic a p p e a r a n c e is c o n n e c t e d w i t h his s u b s e q u e n t m a r t y r d o m . 1 1 4 I n t h e early C h r i s t i a n Martyrdom

of Polycarp, w e d o find t h e belief t h a t t h e m a r t y r s a r e t r a n s -

f o r m e d i n t o a n g e l o m o r p h i c b e i n g s i m m e d i a t e l y p r i o r to t h e i r d e a t h . T h e Martyrdom,

of Polycarp 2:3 states, " b u t it [the r e w a r d of

right-

eousness] w a s s h o w n by t h e L o r d to t h e m w h o w e r e n o l o n g e r m e n , b u t a l r e a d y a n g e l s " (cf. Hennas

Vis 2:2:7 a n d Sim 9:25:2).

A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g his d e f e n s e s p e e c h in A c t s 7:55, S t e p h e n is filled with t h e h o l y spirit a n d h a s a vision: " [ H e ] g a z e d i n t o h e a v e n a n d saw t h e glory of G o d , a n d J e s u s s t a n d i n g at t h e right h a n d of G o d ; a n d h e said, ' B e h o l d , I see t h e h e a v e n s o p e n e d , a n d t h e S o n of m a n s t a n d i n g a t t h e r i g h t h a n d of G o d . " ' S o t o o , in t h e Martyrdom

12:1,

P o l y c a r p is "filled w i t h c o u r a g e a n d j o y , a n d his c o u n t e n a n c e w i t h g r a c e [τό πρόσωπον α ύ τ ο υ / χ ά ρ ι τ ο ς έπληροΰτο] so t h a t it n o t only d i d n o t fall w i t h t r o u b l e at t h e t h i n g s said to h i m , b u t t h a t t h e

Pro-

C o n s u l w a s a s t o u n d e d . " T h e c h a n g e in S t e p h e n ' s c o u n t e n a n c e s e e m s to b e e c h o e d in P o l y c a r p . C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s n o t e d s o m e of the difficulties w i t h t h e m a r t y r d o m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 1 1 5 H e rightly p o i n t s o u t t h a t this t y p e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d to d o w n p l a y t h e significance of t h e passage. Besides t h e fact t h a t b e t w e e n S t e p h e n ' s c h a n g e in c o u n t e n a n c e a n d his m a r t y r d o m a r e s o m e 5 3 i n t e r v e n i n g verses, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s also n o t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e n o J e w i s h , p r e - C h r i s t i a n e x a m p l e s of r i g h t e o u s martyrs b e c o m i n g angelic before their death.

111 O. Glombitza, "Zur Charakterisierung des Stephanus in Act 6 und 7" 53 (1962) 238-244. 112 C. Newsom, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Exodus/Conquest Tradition." Also in DJD XIX; C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Sinai Tradition," pp. 236-252. 113 Cf. also Dan 12:3 and Rev 1:16. 114 See H. Conzlemann, Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987) 48; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 96-98. 115 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 97.

U l t i m a t e l y , A c t s 6 : 1 5 s e e m s t o b u i l d u p o n a relatively w i d e s p r e a d J e w i s h (and early C h r i s t i a n ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e physical a p p e a r a n c e of angels. T h a t S t e p h e n h a d " a f a c e like a n a n g e l " suggests t h a t his c o u n t e n a n c e w a s in some way illuminated a n d temporarily t r a n s f o r m e d . T h i s m a y b e r e l a t e d t o t h e i d e a in t h e Martyrdom

of Polycarp

m a r t y r s received a n g e l i c s t a t u s j u s t p r i o r to t h e i r d e a t h ;

that

however,

S t e p h e n ' s angelic status m a y also h a v e b e e n linked to t h e giving of T o r a h / r e v e l a t i o n . T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h e u n d e r w e n t a n y k i n d of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l .

3.13

Paul

P a u l uses t h e t e r m άγγελος t e n t i m e s in his epistles. 1 1 6 I n G a l 4, h e m a k e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g r e f e r e n c e to angels. I n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of t h e discussion P a u l is s t a t i n g his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p u r p o s e of t h e L a w ( c h a p t e r 3) a n d e x h o r t i n g t h e G a l a t i a n s as heirs to t h e p r o m i s e to A b r a h a m to follow C h r i s t (4:111‫)־‬. A t verse 12, h e switches t o r e m i n d t h e G a l a t i a n s of t h e i r t r e a t m e n t of h i m d u r i n g his visit to t h e m . I n G a l 4:14, P a u l says, " a n d t h o u g h m y c o n d i t i o n w a s a trial to y o u , y o u did n o t s c o r n o r despise m e , b u t [ ά λ λ α ] r e c e i v e d m e as a n a n g e l of G o d [ως άγγελον θεοΰ], as C h r i s t J e s u s . " 1 1 ' W h i l e t h e m e a n i n g of 4 : 1 4 is u n c l e a r , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n is n o t o f t e n d i s p u t e d . T h e ά λ λ α s e e m s to h a v e a s t r o n g a d v e r s a t i v e affect. T h e G a l a t i a n s d i d n o t reject P a u l b u t i n s t e a d received h i m as a n a n g e l of G o d ,

as

C h r i s t J e s u s . T h e ώς clauses s e e m t o s t a n d in a p p o s i t i o n , so a n g e l of G o d a n d C h r i s t J e s u s a r e b o t h t h e c o m p a r a t i v e w a y s in w h i c h P a u l w a s received. M a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s see t h e r e f e r e n c e t o " a n g e l " h e r e as m e a n i n g " m e s s e n g e r / e n v o y " in t h e sense of c o m m i s s i o n i n g . 1 1 8 T h e

116

parallel

Taking with the majority of scholars seven letters to be authentically Pauline (Rom, 1 and 2 Cor, Gal, Phil. 1 Thess and Phmn). On this see R. Brown, An IntroAuction to the Mew Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 406, 585-589. The ten occurrences of the term άγγελος are: Rom 8:38; 1 Cor 4:9, 6:3, 11:10, 13:1; 2 Cor 11:14, 12:7; Gal 1:8, 3:19, 4:14 and also in 1 Thess 4:16 αρχαγγέλου. 117 A noteworthy parallel from a fourth-century CE text is Acts of Paul and Thecla 3, "At times he [Paul] looked like a man [άνθρωπος], and at times he had the face of an angel [αγγέλου πρόσωπον είχεν]." This is likely based on Acts 6:15 and may be more loosely based on Gal 4:14, since the Acts themselves use 2 Cor 12:3 as a starting point. On the appearance of Paul, see A. Malherbe, "A Physical Description of Paul" HTR 79 (1986) 170-175. 118 E.g. J. Dunn, Galatians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 235.

clause " a s C h r i s t J e s u s " is t h e n u n d e r s t o o d as o n e of c o m m i s s i o n i n g — t h a t is, t h e m e s s e n g e r c a n a c t w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e o n e

who

sent h i m . I n s o m e sense P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t parallels t h e w o r d s of J e s u s in M a t t 10:40, " H e w h o receives [δεχόμενος] y o u receives [δεχόμενος] m e , a n d h e w h o receives [δεχόμενος] m e receives [δεχόμενος]

him

w h o sent m e " (cf. J o h n 13:20; M a r k 9:37; n e g a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n L u k e 10:16). T h e G a l a t i a n s received P a u l a n d , in so d o i n g , received C h r i s t a n d P a u l ' s g o s p e l m e s s a g e ( a n d implicitly G o d ) . T h i s w o u l d

then

reflect P a u l ' s o w n belief t h a t h e w a s s e n t / c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e

risen

J e s u s h i m s e l f (Gal

1:12). 119 C e r t a i n l y , s o m e a s p e c t of this i d e a

of

c o m m i s s i o n i n g is m e a n t b y P a u l ' s use of άγγελος h e r e , since t h e t e r m itself c o n v e y s this idea. 1 2 0 H o w e v e r , P a u l o f t e n uses t h e t e r m " a p o s tie" to m e a n " m e s s e n g e r " (e.g., Phil 2:25), so w e m a y b e r i g h t in t h i n k i n g t h a t , w h e n h e uses " a n g e l , " h e m a y m e a n s o m e t h i n g m o r e . A. G o d d a r d

a n d S. C u m m i n s offer a n i n t r i g u i n g insight.

They

briefly survey s o m e l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t in J e w i s h w r i t i n g s of the t i m e , t h e r e w a s a n " i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n afflicted saints a n d t h e i r angelic c o u n t e r p a r t s . ' " 2 1 M o r e o v e r , they note t h a t in the early Christian l i t e r a t u r e m a r t y r s a r e s o m e t i m e s identified w i t h angels at t h e m o m e n t of t h e i r d e a t h (Acts 6:15, Mart.

Pol. 2:3). T h i s r e a d i n g , w h i c h t h e y

a d m i t c a n o n l y be t e n t a t i v e l y p l a c e d a l o n g a t r a j e c t o r y of d i s p a r a t e e v i d e n c e , fits well e n o u g h w i t h t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; b u t it w o u l d b e difficult to s u b s t a n t i a t e a n y significant c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n G a l 4 : 1 4 a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h e y cite, since P a u l d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest (even in t h e c o n t e x t of suffering) t h a t h e is n e a r to his o w n d e a t h ( m a r t y r d o m ) — a t least in G a l a t i a n s . 1 2 2 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i n t r i g u i n g a s p e c t of t h e i r suggestion m a y b e t h a t , if P a u l p r e a c h e d a C h r i s t - p a t t e r n e d

119 Paul may be hinting at this idea also in Gal 1:16 when he says that he has Christ "in him [έν έμοί]." He might be suggesting that he has some sort of divine being/power within him (cf. Gal 2:20). 150 A. Goddard and S. Cummins, "111 or Ill-treated? Conflict and Persecution as the Context of Pad's Original Ministry in Galatia (Galatians 4:12-20)" JSNT 52 (1993) 93-136. They note that the LXX use of αγγελον θεοΰ is relevant here, such that the Galatians "gladly recognized Paul's divine commission and authority" (p. 108). 121 A. Goddard and S. Cummins, "111 or Ill-treated?" p. 108. 122 A number of recent works have argued that suffering was an integral part of Paul's mission. See S. Hafemann, "The Role of Suffering in the Mission of Paul" in The Mission of the Early Church to Jews and Gentiles, ed. Jostein Adna and Hans Kvalbein (Tübingen: J. C. B. Möhr, 2000); T. Savage, Power through Weakness: Paul's Understanding of the Christian Ministry in 2 Corinthians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); E. Baasland, "Persecution: A Neglected Feature in the Letter to the Galatians" ST 38 (1984) 135-150.

g o s p e l (i.e., o n e of self-giving), w h i c h h e e m b o d i e d

in

weakness

t h r o u g h p e r s e c u t i o n (4:14 a n d especially 2 C o r 1 1 : 2 3 - 3 3 ) , t h e n w e c a n p e r h a p s see P a u l ' s t e a c h i n g as t h e n a s c e n t seed of t h e ideal of m a r t y r d o m as the u l t i m a t e self-giving in a Christlike p a t t e r n . 1 2 3 R e c e n t l y , C . G i e s c h e n h a s strongly asserted t h a t P a u l is p r e s e n t ing a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c self-understanding. 1 2 4 G i e s c h e n begins his analysis b y n o t i n g t h a t m o s t m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s take t h e p h r a s e " a s a n angel of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s " to b e h y p o t h e t i c a l ; t h a t is to say, t h e G a l a t i a n s r e c e i v e d P a u l as if h e w e r e a n a n g e l o r e v e n J e s u s C h r i s t . G i e s c h e n b r e a k s d o w n his exegesis b y a s k i n g t w o f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s tions: (1) w h a t d o e s P a u l m e a n b y t h e p h r a s e ώς αγγελον θεοΰ, a n d (2) w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e p a r a l l e l ώς clauses? T o t h e first, G i e s c h e n a r g u e s t h a t P a u l m e a n t " a n g e l " in t h e t e c h n i c a l sense, " a s a spirit w h o m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n die heavenly a n d die earthly realms." R e g a r d i n g t h e ώς clauses, G i e s c h e n d r a w s o n e x a m p l e s f r o m P a u l (1 C o r 3:1 a n d 2 C o r 2:17) as well as f r o m P h m

17 a n d D i d a c h e

1 1 : 3 - 4 to

d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e clauses s t a n d in a p p o s i t i o n to e a c h o t h e r : G o d ' s a n g e l is C h r i s t J e s u s . G i e s c h e n t h u s c o n c l u d e s t h a t P a u l in s o m e sense m e a n s t h a t h e is a n angelic b e i n g b e c a u s e h e h a s b e e n u n i t e d t h r o u g h his a p o c a l y p s e w i t h a specific a n g e l of G o d , n a m e l y J e s u s C h r i s t . O n e m a y w a n t to q u e s t i o n G i e s c h e n ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t P a u l ' s revelation (apocalypse) of t h e

risen

C h r i s t m e a n t t h a t h e h a d in s o m e

w a y b e c o m e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . T h e c o m m o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P a u l ' s a c c o u n t of a mystical a s c e n t in 2 C o r 1 2 : 2 - 5 is t h a t Paul is n o t v e r y a f f i r m i n g of its value. 1 2 5 N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o m e of t h e s t r o n g e s t s u p p o r t f o r this c o m e s f r o m P a u l h i m s e l f . I n t h e s a m e p e r i c o p e , 2

Cor

12:1—10, a f t e r t h e m e n t i o n of t h e m a n w h o f o u r t e e n y e a r s e a r l i e r h a d a mystical a s c e n t , P a u l says, " O n b e h a l f of this m a n I will b o a s t , b u t o n m y o w n b e h a l f I will n o t b o a s t , except of my weaknesses [ταΐς ά σ θ ε ν ε ί α ι ς ] . " H e t h e n discusses t h e " t h o r n in t h e flesh [σκόλοψ τη σ α ρ κ ί ] , " t h e " a n g e l of S a t a n " w h o k e p t h i m f r o m b e i n g t o o e l a t e d — p r e s u m a b l y in his r e v e l a t i o n . I n verse 9 h e r e p e a t s , " I will all t h e 128

Paul may have thought of himself as actually embodying Christ. On this see C. Joynes, The Return of Elijah, pp. 202-216. 124 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 315-325. M. Barker also says that Paul equated Jesus with an angel, citing Gal 4:14; The Great Angel (London: SPCK. 1992) 223. 125 R. Price, "Punished in Paradise" JSNT 7 (1980) 33-40, suggests that Paul's thorn in the flesh is an angel of Satan who has come with him from his mystical ascent to keep him from being too prideful. See also P. Gooder, "Only the Third Heaven? 2 Corinthians 12:1-10 and Heavenly Ascent" (Oxford: D.Phil, thesis, 1998).

m o r e gladly b o a s t of m y w e a k n e s s e s , t h a t t h e p o w e r of C h r i s t m a y rest u p o n m e . " I n s u p p o r t of this view, G i e s c h e n n o t e s t h e w o r k of C . M o r r a y J o n e s , w h o h a s t r a c e d the i d e a t h a t t h e mystic is actually t r a n s f o r m e d d u r i n g his vision. 1 2 6 H e also cites 2 En 22:8, in w h i c h E n o c h a s c e n d s to h e a v e n a n d is said to be c h a n g e d to t h e f o r m of t h e g l o r i o u s o n e s of h e a v e n . If i n d e e d P a u l identified w i t h this t r a d i t i o n , t h e n his s t a t e m e n t m a k e s a g r e a t deal m o r e sense. T h e G a l a t i a n s

received

h i m as a n a n g e l of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s , b e c a u s e P a u l himself, via his p e r s o n a l a p o c a l y p s e of t h e risen J e s u s , h a d b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d . G i e s c h e n h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d o n this exegesis, a n d it d o e s p e r h a p s press t h e e v i d e n c e t o o far. 1 2 7 T h e r e f o r e , a n a l t e r n a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of P a u l ' s m e a n i n g is r e q u i r e d . M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s

believe

t h a t P a u l is u s i n g h y p e r b o l e to m a k e his p o i n t a b o u t t h e G a l a t i a n s ' original r e c e p t i o n of h i m a n d his m e s s a g e ; h o w e v e r , if seen in light of t r a d i t i o n s s u c h as G e n 18, P a u l ' s m e a n i n g m a y be susceptible of a better interpretation. It is relatively c e r t a i n t h a t P a u l h a s in m i n d t h e A b r a h a m cycle ( G e n 16~21) in his a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h o s e w h o a r e h e i r s to t h e p r o m i s e , since A b r a h a m

a p p e a r s b y n a m e seven t i m e s in G a l

3.

H o w e v e r , t h e i d e a t h a t P a u l m i g h t h a v e h a d in m i n d t h e G e n

18

visitation of a n g e l s ( a n d G o d ) to A b r a h a m h a s n o t b e e n

explored.

If P a u l d i d h a v e s u c h i d e a s in t h e b a c k of his m i n d , it m i g h t m e a n that h e intends to c o m p l i m e n t the Galatians on having received h i m in a w a y b e f i t t i n g t h e r e c e p t i o n of a divine g u e s t . T h i s is m o r e t h a n p u r e l y a m e t a p h o r , since P a u l w o u l d h a v e in m i n d t h e possibility t h a t divine b e i n g s really d o visit h u m a n It is i m p o r t a n t to recall t h a t G e n

beings.

18 is t h e o c c a s i o n w h e n

God

a n d t h e angels b r o u g h t t h e n e w s t h a t S a r a h w a s t o b e a r A b r a h a m a t r u e h e i r (unlike I s h m a e l in G e n

17, b o r n of t h e slave

Hagar).

A b r a h a m r e c e i v e d his guests w i t h p r o p e r hospitality. It w a s

then

r e v e a l e d to h i m t h a t h e w o u l d

him.

finally

h a v e t h e son p r o m i s e d

T h e p r o m i s e w a s c o n t i n u i n g life t h r o u g h his p r o g e n y . I n R o m 4:17, P a u l n o t e s t h a t this p r o m i s e gave life f r o m d e a t h . P a u l h i n t s a t this v e r y s a m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g in G a l 4 : 2 9 w h e n h e says, " B u t as a t t h a t

126 C. MorrayJones, "Transformational Mysticism in the Apocalyptic-Merkabah Tradition" JJS 43 (1992) 1-31. 127 For some strong reactions to his exegesis of this passage, see reviews by D. Hannah, JTS 51 (2000) and J . Davila, JSJ 30 (1999) 345-346.

t i m e h e w h o w a s b o r n a c c o r d i n g to t h e flesh p e r s e c u t e d h i m w h o w a s b o r n a c c o r d i n g to t h e Spirit, so it is n o w . " T h e o n e b o r n κ α τ ά π ν ε ύ μ α is I s a a c , since h e w a s b o r n to p a r e n t s w h o w e r e b e y o n d t h e age w h e n t h e y c o u l d n o r m a l l y p r o d u c e c h i l d r e n . T h i s a r g u m e n t is s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t A b r a h a m

appears

a g a i n j u s t a f t e r o u r p a s s a g e in the allegory of S a r a h a n d H a g a r (Gal 4 : 2 1 - 3 1 ) . 1 2 8 P a u l e m p l o y s this allegory to s h o w h o w t h o s e w h o a r e h e i r s of t h e p r o m i s e of life to A b r a h a m via S a r a h a r e , like I s a a c , c h i l d r e n of p r o m i s e . P a u l ' s l a n g u a g e of slavery is c o n t i n u e d also, in t h a t H a g a r is a slave a n d h e r o f f s p r i n g r e p r e s e n t t h o s e w h o a r e in t h e w o r l d a n d e n s l a v e d to t h e e l e m e n t a l p o w e r s . W h e t h e r t h e G a l a t i a n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e to h e a r this allusion to G e n 18 a n d A b r a h a m ' s r e c e p t i o n of t h e angels d e p e n d s 011 h o w o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t c o m m u n i t y ' s m a k e u p . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it s e e m s likely t h a t P a u l w o u l d h a v e h a d this p a s s a g e in m i n d as h e w r o t e G a l a t i a n s a n d c o n s t r u c t e d his a r g u m e n t of t h e G a l a t i a n s (Gentiles) as h e i r s to t h e p r o m i s e given t o A b r a h a m , a p r o m i s e t h a t w a s ultim a t e l y fulfilled in t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n

18.

P a u l m a y b e d r a w i n g u p o n a n u m b e r of H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s in w h i c h h u m a n s played host to angels w h e n h e says that the G a l a t i a n s received h i m c o r r e c t l y — t h a t is, s h o w e d h i m hospitality as if h e w e r e a n a n g e l o r e v e n J e s u s himself. N o t only, t h e n , did t h e y receive P a u l correctly in t h a t w a y , b u t P a u l also m e n t i o n s t h a t despite his infirmity (4:14) t h e y did n o t t u r n h i m a w a y . T h e i n f i r m i t y c r e a t e s a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e b y t h e G a l a t i a n s m i g h t h a v e r e j e c t e d P a u l w i t h o u t necessarily b r e a c h i n g hospitality; i n s t e a d t h e y r e c e i v e d h i m graciously.

3.14

Taxo

Like o t h e r writings in t h e g e n r e , t h e T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s p u r p o r t s to b e t h e final w o r d s of M o s e s to his successor J o s h u a . 1 2 9 I n

the

T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s 10:2 w e r e a d , " T h e n will be filled t h e h a n d s of t h e m e s s e n g e r (Latin: nuntius), w h o is in the highest place a p p o i n t e d . Y e a , h e will at o n c e a v e n g e t h e m of t h e i r e n e m i e s . " T h e i d e n t i t y of this m e s s e n g e r h a s b e e n d e b a t e d b y scholars. T h r o u g h a c o m p a r i son of t h e role p l a y e d b y e a c h , this mmtius w a s first i d e n t i f i e d as t h e

128 129

L. Martyn, Galatians (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 431. For arguments on dating see section 3.7 above.

a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l . 1 3 0 T . M a n s o n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t nuntius, w h e n u s e d in t h e V u l g a t e , refers t o h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s , w h i c h o f f e r e d Elijah (citing t h e role of E l i j a h in M a i 3 : I f . a n d Sir 48:10) as a possible c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e nuntius.m

H i s suggestion h a s n o t b e e n t a k e n u p b y

others, however. D. Carlson explored the relationship between T a x o i n c h a p t e r 9 a n d t h e nuntius in c h a p t e r 10 f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of v e n g e a n c e in a p o c a l y p t i c literature. 1 3 2 T h e s t r e n g t h of his analysis w a s to see t h e close c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the s u f f e r i n g of T a x o a n d his sons in c h a p t e r 9 a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t call f o r v e n g e a n c e in 10:2. H i s analysis led h i m to see t h e m e s s e n g e r in 10:2 as a

"priestly"

h e a v e n l y figure. 1 3 3 R e c e n t l y , J . T r o m p h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e nuntius s h o u l d b e e q u a t e d w i t h T a x o f r o m c h a p t e r 9. 1 3 4 T r o m p stresses t h a t t h e nuntius is a h u m a n b e i n g , T a x o . H e states t h a t w h e n w e see T a x o as t h e figure in 10:2, " d i e disturbing a p p e a r a n c e of a superfluous angel is discarded.'" 3 5 T h i s s i t u a t i o n is a g o o d e x a m p l e of t h e a m b i g u i t y t h a t s e e m s t o exist in t h e d e f i n i t i o n of " a n g e l s " in this p e r i o d . T h a t s c h o l a r s c a n see e i t h e r - o r suggests t h a t p e r h a p s t h e best w a y to i n t e r p r e t t h e text is to leave o p e n die possibility that the a u t h o r i n t e n d e d s o m e ambiguity. T h e difficulties t h a t arise in t r y i n g t o d e c i d e b e t w e e n h u m a n

or

angelic m e s s e n g e r a r e alleviated w h e n w e r e c o g n i z e t h e possibility of a fluid u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. If this is t h e c a s e , t h e n in the T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s this

nuntius

a p p e a r s to b e a figure w h o will a v e n g e t h e s u f f e r i n g of T a x o his sons. S u c h a s c e n a r i o w o u l d b e in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e

and

evidence

130 This language is reminiscent of the role of Melchizedek in 11ÇH3. Some have argued for the equation of Michael and Melchizedek in the writings from the Dead Sea, e.g., F. Garcia Martinez, "The Eschatological Figure of 4Q246" in Qumran and Apocalyptic, ed. F. Garcia Martinez (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992) 162-179; J. Davila, "Michael, Melchizedek, and Holy War," pp. 259272‫ ;־‬HJPAJC IIIi:450. 131 T. Manson, "Miscellanea Apocalyptica" JTS 46 (1945) 41-45. 132 D. Carlson, "Vengeance and Angelic Mediation in Testament of Moses 9 and 10 "JBL 101 (1982) 85-95. He sees the theme of vengeance playing out in other apocalypses such as 1 En. 9-10, 47, 91-104, Rev 8:3-5 and also in Tob 12:12-15. 133 His insight may be given added support by J. Tromp, who notes (p. 209 n. 29) that in Flecataeus (in Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XL, 3, 5), the Jews, "call this man the high priest, and believe that he acts as a messenger (αγγελον) to them in God's commandments" (see 3.15). 134 J. Tromp, "Taxo, The Messenger of the Lord" JSJ 21 (1990) 200-209. See also J. Tromp, The Assumption of Moses: A Critical Edition with Commentary (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993) 228-231. 135 J. Tromp, "Taxo," p. 209.

f r o m this section t h a t r i g h t e o u s individuals s e e m e d to h a v e a p a r ticular access t o t h e angelic. T h e r e is n o t a s t r o n g c a s e h e r e f o r seeing T a x o as e i t h e r a n g e l o m o r p h i c o r as a n a n g e l .

3.15

77le High Priest in Hecateus of Abdera

H e c a t e u s of A b d e r a , a n o n - J e w w r i t i n g in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B C E , is r e c o r d e d b y D i o d o r u s Siculus, Bibliotheca

Historien X L , 3, 5 (first

c e n t u r y B C E ) . D i o d o r u s is r e c o r d e d in P h o t i u s ( n i n t h c e n t u r y C E ) , so it is difficult t o k n o w for c e r t a i n h o w m u c h t h e text h a s b e e n c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e a n d to w h a t a u d i e n c e it h a d originally ( a n d later) b e e n d i r e c t e d . V e r s e s 5 - 6 says of t h e h i g h priest: [5] These same m e n he appointed to be judges in all major disputes, and entrusted to them the guardianship of the laws and customs. For this reason the J e w s never have a king, and the authority over the peopie is regularly vested in whichever priest is regarded as superior to his colleagues in wisdom and virtue. T h e y call this man the high priest, and believe that he acts [γίνεσθαι] as a messenger [αγγελον] to them of God's commandments. [6] It is he, we are told, who in their assemblies a n d other gatherings announces what is ordained, a n d the J e w s are so docile in such matters that straightaway they fall to the ground and do reverence to the high priest w h e n he expounds the comm a n d m e n t s to them. 136 Falling to the g r o u n d is o f t e n p a r t of a n a n g e l o p h a n y , b u t it is a l m o s t exclusively t h e case t h a t this o c c u r s o n c e t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e a n g e l h a s b e e n r e v e a l e d to t h e seer. T h e r e is s o m e h i n t in t h e

Hebrew

Bible t h a t t h e priestly role is o n e of m e d i a t i o n t h a t m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d s o m e t h i n g like a n angel. M a i 2:7 says, " F o r t h e lips of a priest [‫ ]כהן‬s h o u l d g u a r d k n o w l e d g e , a n d m e n s h o u l d seek i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m his m o u t h , f o r h e is t h e m e s s e n g e r

[ ‫ ] מ ל א ך‬of t h e L o r d of h o s t s . "

F l e t c h e r - L o u i s stresses t h e w o r s h i p of t h e h i g h p r i e s t as r e p r e s e n t a tive of a n e x a l t e d n a t u r e a n d t h e d o n n i n g of t h e priestly g a r b as integral to t h a t role. 1 3 7 H e writes, " F a l l i n g to t h e g r o u n d in rever-

136

M. Stem, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1974-1984) 1:26-35. 137 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 120-129. He develops more fully the idea of the importance of the high priest's garbs as transformative to an angelic status in C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 222-251. The exegesis is pertinent to the Qiimran group but is not as relevant to a discussion of the high priest more generally, so it is simply noted here.

e n c e / w o r s h i p is obviously a p o s t u r e typical of t h e o p h a n i e s a n d a n g e l o p h a n i e s , a n d this a c t i o n d e m a n d s a n o n t o l o g i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a p u r e l y f u n c t i o n a l sense to t h e priest's i d e n t i t y as ά γ γ ε λ ο ς . ' " 3 8 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s also s e e n t h e h i g h priest in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D a n

7:13. 1 3 9

H o w e v e r , L. S t u c k e n b r u c k , in his s t u d y o n a n g e l v e n e r a t i o n in this p e r i o d , c o n c l u d e s t h a t " r e a c t i o n s to t h e p r e s e n c e of a n a n g e l

or

h u m a n s u p e r i o r [are] f r e q u e n t l y n o t d e e m e d a n a c t w h i c h r u n s at all c o u n t e r to t h e w o r s h i p of o n e G o d . " 1 4 0 T h i s suggests t h a t d u e r e v e r e n c e c o u l d b e given to t h e h i g h priest w i t h o u t d e m a n d i n g a n o n t o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of his identity as m e s s e n g e r (άγγελος), since h e n e e d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d as divine in o r d e r to b e treated reverentially. T h e p r o b l e m in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p a s s a g e f r o m H e c a t e u s lies in k n o w i n g in w h a t sense t h e t e r m άγγελος is u s e d . Is it s i m p l y m e a n t to r e f e r t o t h e h i g h p r i e s t as h u m a n m e s s e n g e r of divine will o r s o m e t h i n g m o r e ? R e v e r e n c e for t h e h i g h priest suggests t h a t it m i g h t b e s o m e t h i n g m o r e , b u t it is n o t c l e a r t h a t H e c a t e u s h a s p a r t i c u l a r l y reliable i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e p r a c t i c e in t h e J e r u s a l e m F. W a t s o n n o t i c e d this p a s s a g e s o m e t i m e ago.

141

cult.

Interestingly, he

concluded, But while words cannot, certainly, be pressed as evidence of Jewish attitudes 01‫ ־‬practices of the late fourth century B.C., it is at least interesting and perhaps significant that he [Hecateus] gives no hint of a doctrine of angels [as present at the giving of the law], and knows of no intermediary between G o d and the Jewish nation other than the m a n to w h o m has fallen the sacred office of High Priest. 142 T h u s , it is difficult to c o m e to a n y firm c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g this p a s s a g e , c o n s i d e r i n g o u r c u r r e n t u n c e r t a i n t i e s a b o u t its d a t e a n d c o n text. T h e n o n - J e w i s h a u t h o r H e c a t a e u s m a y h a v e u s e d t h e

term

άγγελος t o r e l a t e t h e i d e a of t h e h i g h priest's role as i n t e r m e d i a r y a n d i n t e r p r e t e r of divine o r d i n a n c e . T h a t t h e J e w s a r e said to fall to t h e g r o u n d a n d w o r s h i p t h e h i g h priest m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g of a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e h i g h priest's role. T h e use of t h e t e r m

138

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 121. C. Fletcher-Louis, "The High Priest as Divine Mediator in the Hebrew Bible: Dan 7:13 as a Test Case" SBLSP (1997) 161-193. 140 L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology: A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse of John (Tübingen: J. C. B. Möhr, 1995) 83. 141 F. Watson, "The Messenger of God in Hecataeus of Abdera" HTR 48 (1955) 255-257. 142 F. Watson, "The Messenger," p. 257; words in brackets are mine. 139

άγγελος p r o b a b l y d i d n o t c o n j u r e a n y i d e a s of t h e h u m a n h i g h priest as a divine b e i n g o n e a r t h , b u t it c a n n o t b e c e r t a i n t h a t it d i d n o t for s o m e h e a r e r s . Lastly, b e f o r e m o v i n g o n it is n e c e s s a r y to discuss briefly t h e suggestion by F l e t c h e r - L o u i s of t h e p r i e s t h o o d (in g e n e r a l ) b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 1 4 3 T o m a k e his case, h e suggests t h a t t h e p r o p h e t i c role, w i t h its m o r e suggestive s t a t u s b e t w e e n G o d

and

h u m a n i t y , was absorbed into the priesthood. T h e n , with the T e m p l e as focus f o r J e w i s h w o r s h i p a n d a p l a c e w h e r e t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v enly coalesce, t h e p r i e s t h o o d c a n b e seen as a g r o u p t h a t e n j o y e d a n " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " (quasi-divine) status. U l t i m a t e l y , e v e n t h o u g h it is plausible t h a t t h e p r i e s t h o o d c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n c e i v e d of in s u c h a w a y , w e d o n o t see m u c h , if a n y , e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a c t u a l l y w a s so c o n c e i v e d . O n

this p o i n t , I r e m a i n

priesthood

unconvinced,

t h o u g h F l e t c h e r - L o u i s is c o n t i n u i n g w o r k in this vein.

3.16

The Daughters of Job

I n t h e T e s t a m e n t of J o b t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b a r e d e s c r i b e d as u n d e r g o i n g a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . Like o t h e r w r i t i n g s in the t e s t a m e n t g e n r e , t h e w o r k p u r p o r t s t o r e c o r d t h e w o r d s of J o b n e a r t h e e n d of his life. T h e d a t i n g of t h e w o r k is n o t c e r t a i n , b u t m o s t suggest a d a t e a r o u n d the t u r n of t h e era. 1 4 4 T h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b receive g a r m e n t s f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r t h a t s e e m to b r i n g a b o u t a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h a n angelomorphic character: [48:1] Thus, when the one called Hermera arose, she wrapped around her own string just as her father had said. [2] And she took on another heart—no longer minded toward earthly things—but she spoke ecstatically in the angelic dialect [τη αγγελική διαλέκτφ], sending up a hymn to G o d in accord with the hymnic style of the angels [τήν των αγγέλων ΰμνολογίαν]. And as she spoke ecstatically, she allowed, " T h e Spirit" [τό πνεύμα] to be inscribed on her garment. [49:1] T h e Kasia b o u n d hers on and had her heart changed so that she no longer regarded worldly things. [2] And her m o u t h took on the dialect of the archons [των άρχων] and she praised G o d for the creation of the heights. [3] So, if anyone wishes to know " T h e Creation of the Heavens," he will be able to find it in " T h e H y m n s of Kasia."

145 144

C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 5687‫ ־‬and 222-251; Luke-Acts, pp. 118-129. R. Spittler, "Testament of j o b " in OTP 1:833-834.

[50:1] T h e n the other one also, n a m e d Amaltheia's H o r n , b o u n d on her cord. And her mouth spoke ecstatically in the dialect of those on high, [2] since her heart also was changed, keeping aloof from worldly things. For she spoke in the dialect of the cherubim, glorifying the Master of virtues by exhibiting their splendor. [3] And finally whoever wishes to grasp a trace of " T h e Paternal Splendor" will find it written down in " T h e Prayers of Amaltheia's Horn." 1 4 5 T h i s text c e r t a i n l y s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d . O n e of t h e i m p o r t a n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w a s t h e i r i n t e r n a l " c h a n g e of h e a r t . " T h e y n o l o n g e r w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i n g s of this life b u t f o c u s e d m o r e o n t h e w o r s h i p of G o d . T h e i r w o r s h i p t o o k t h e f o r m of s p e a k i n g (ecstatically) in t h e m e l o d i c f o r m of t h e angels (cf. L u k e 2 : 1 3 1;14‫־‬C o r 13:1). 146 V a n d e r H o r s t says, h o w e v e r , t h a t h e sees t h e w o m e n as u n d e r g o i n g " a r a d i c a l a n d lasting c h a n g e ; in fact t h e y b e c o m e virtually h e a v e n l y b e i n g s . ' " 4 7 It is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e i r c h a n g e w a s p e r m a n e n t o r w h e t h e r it w a s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p u t t i n g o n of g a r m e n t s . W h a t is p a r t i c u l a r l y f a s c i n a t i n g a b o u t this p a s s a g e is t h a t it is t h e daughters of J o b w h o b e c o m e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . I n n o o t h e r e x t a n t text a r e w o m e n said to b e c o m e like angels. M o r e o v e r , as s e e n in c h a p t e r 2, angels w e r e o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d as y o u n g m e n . Like all t h e texts in this p e r i o d , t h e d o m i n a n t culture, w h e t h e r it w a s J e w i s h o r G r a e c o R o m a n , was patriarchal. T h i s certainly would flavor a n y portrayals. T h a t m a n y angelic b e i n g s in t h e H e b r e w Bible w e r e first r e f e r r e d to as " m e n " w a s also likely a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r in s u c h a bias. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is n o t entirely c l e a r w h y s u c h a g e n d e r b i a s s h o u l d necessarily exist in t h e discussion of angels. It likely s t e m s f r o m a belief t h a t w o m e n w e r e ritually i m p u r e (Lev 12:18‫ ־־‬a n d

15:25-30,

cf. also m. K e l i m 1:8) a n d t h u s e x c l u d e d f r o m h o l y places s u c h as the i n n e r p a r t s of t h e J e a t s a l e m t e m p l e ; s u c h a belief m a y h a v e b e e n e x t e n d e d b y a n a l o g y to t h e h e a v e n s . H o w e v e r , t h e issue of g e n d e r is n o t c o m p l e t e l y o u t s i d e t h e discussion r e l a t i n g to angels. 1 4 8 145 Translation from OTP 1:865-866. Greek text taken from S. Brock, Testamentum Iobi (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1967) 56-57. 146 On glossolalia see W. Mills, ed., Speaking in Tongues: A Guide to Research on Glossolalia (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1986). 147 P. W. van der Horst, "Images of Women in the Testament of Job" in Studies on the Testament of Job, ed. M. Knibb and P. W. van der Horst (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 104. 148 In 4.6 the issue of the veiling of the Corinthian women is considered, and in chapter 6 the issue of human women mating with angels is examined. There remains much work to be done, however, on issues of gender in relation to angel beliefs, especially, angels' common portrayal as young men and the idea of angelic celibacy.

3.17

On Being like Angels in Heaven

Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t s o m e g r o u p s believed h u m a n s w o u l d b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels in t h e afterlife. S o m e afterlife t r a d i t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t in the H e b r e w Bible. M o s t r e f e r e n c e s a r e to a s h a d o w y e x i s t e n c e in S h e o l (Ps 6:6, 88:4—6, 115:17; Eccl 9 : 4 - 1 0 ; Isa 3 8 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . T h e r e is n o r e f e r e n c e to this e x i s t e n c e b e i n g angelic. T h e c l e a r e s t r e f e r e n c e to a n afterlife in t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s is D a n 12:2—3, 149 w h i c h states, [2] A n d m a n y of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame a n d everlasting contempt. [3] A n d those w h o are wise shall shine like the brightness of the firmament; a n d those who turn m a n y to righteousness, like the stars for ever and ever. T h e p a s s a g e s e e m s to s p e a k of a r e s u r r e c t i o n in w h i c h t h e d e a d will b e j u d g e d . T h o s e f o u n d wise will s h i n e in t h e h e a v e n s , a n d t h o s e w h o t u r n p e o p l e t o r i g h t e o u s n e s s will b e like stars. As a l r e a d y n o t e d , light is s o m e t i m e s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of angelic a p p e a r a n c e . M o r e i m p o r tantly, a n g e l s a r e s o m e t i m e s e q u a t e d w i t h stars in a n c i e n t J e w i s h texts ( J o b 38:7

[LXX];

1 En.

104:2 1 5 0 .(6‫ ־‬T h i s e q u a t i o n is m a d e

explicit in t h e l a t e r w o r k 2 Bar. (early s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) , w h e r e t h e s e e r asks, " I n w h a t s h a p e will t h e living live in y o u r

day?"

(49:2). 151 I n r e s p o n s e , h e is t o l d , " F o r t h e y will live in the h e i g h t s of t h a t w o r l d a n d t h e y will b e like t h e a n g e l s a n d b e e q u a l t o t h e stars. A n d t h e y will b e c h a n g e d i n t o a n y s h a p e w h i c h t h e y w i s h e d , f r o m b e a u t y to loveliness, a n d f r o m light to t h e s p l e n d o u r of g l o r y " (51:10). T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s to b e t h e clearest i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e afterlife f o r h u m a n s c o m e s in t h e f o r m of angels, w h i c h a r e e q u a l to stars. It s e e m s o n e possible s t r a n d of afterlife t r a d i t i o n s f o r e s a w h u m a n s t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s o r stars. T h i s c o n n e c t i o n is at best i n d i r e c t a n d is n o t s e e n in t h e e v i d e n c e . T h a t h u m a n afterlife w a s t h o u g h t to b e specifically a n g e l i c is c l e a r e r in s o m e o t h e r e v i d e n c e .

149

Other allusions are found in Ezek 37; Hos 6:2; and Isa 24-27; cf. 2 Macc 7:14 and 4Q521 fragment 2. See the comprehensive coverage of this topic in G. W. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972). For a useful summary of the evidence, see J. J. Collins, Daniel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987) 394-398. 150 See especially M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 170-173. F. Lelli, "Stars" in DDD, pp. 1530-1540. 151 A. F . J . Klijn, "2 Baruch" in OTP 1:615-652.

P h i l o ' s Sacr. 5 d e s c r i b e s d i e p o s t m o r t e m existence of A b r a h a m as angelic: For also, w h e n A b r a h a m left mortal life, "he was added to the peopie of G o d " [Gen 25:8], having gained immortality [άφθαρσίαν] and having become equal to the angels [ίσος αγγέλους γεγονώς], for angels are the host of God, incorporeal [ασώματοι] and blessed souls. T h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t for this p a s s a g e is a discussion of the v i r t u e of A b e l o v e r C a i n . P h i l o says, " t h e a d d i t i o n of o n e t h i n g is a t a k i n g a w a y of s o m e o t h e r " (Sacr. 1). T h e a d d i t i o n of A b e l m e a n t t h e t a k i n g a w a y of C a i n , so w h e n die v i r t u o u s A b r a h a m died, h e w a s " g a t h e r e d / a d d e d to his p e o p l e " ( L X X G e n 25:8: προσετέθη προς τον λαόν αύτοΰ). I n w . 5 - 6 P h i l o says t h a t b o t h J a c o b a n d I s a a c also left t h e i r c o r p o r e a l b o d i e s to a t t a i n a n e w state (cf. 4 M a c c

7:19, 16:25). All

t h r e e , as r i g h t e o u s m e n f o c u s e d u p o n G o d , a t t a i n e d a h i g h e r n a t u r e , " i m p e r i s h a b l e a n d p e r f e c t " (αφθαρτον κ α ι τελεώτατον, Sacr. 7). P h i l o d e s c r i b e s a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m a c o r p o r e a l to a n i n c o r p o real state. T h e i n c o r p o r e a l state is e q u a l t o t h a t of angels, w h i c h a r e akin to t h e t h o u g h t s (λόγοι, Conf. 27) of G o d . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n c o m e s a t t h e e n d of A b r a h a m ' s m o r t a l existence a n d d o e s n o t a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n in a n y w a y p a r t of his e a r t h l y existence. H e r e , as in t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e person(s) t r a n s f o r m e d into the angelic state w e r e h u m a n s of special c h a r a c t e r in their earthly life. Also, P h i l o m a k e s n o o t h e r m e n t i o n of h u m a n s b e i n g

trans-

f o r m e d i n t o angels. It s e e m s h e r e , t h e n , t h a t P h i l o i n t e n d s to s h o w t h a t A b r a h a m as a r i g h t e o u s m a n t o o k his r i g h t f u l p l a c e a m o n g the p r o p e r divine t h o u g h t s of G o d i n t h e afterlife. T h u s in P h i l o ' s i n t e r pretation, A b r a h a m (and presumably Isaac a n d J a c o b ) were transf o r m e d i n t o angels in t h e afterlife. 1 En. 39, p a r t of t h e Similitudes of E n o c h , d e s c r i b e s a vision b y E n o c h in w h i c h h e sees t h e h e a v e n s . I n c h a p t e r 3 8 the f a t e of sinn e r s is f o r e t o l d — t h e y will b e d e s t r o y e d . I n 3 9 : 4 5 ‫ ־‬E n o c h sees " t h e dwelling places of t h e h o l y o n e s a n d t h e i r resting p l a c e s too.

So,

t h e r e m y eyes s a w t h e i r d w e l l i n g p l a c e s with t h e h o l y a n g e l s a n d t h e i r resting places w i t h t h e h o l y o n e s . " It s e e m s c l e a r t h a t , f o r t h e a u t h o r of t h e Similitudes, the r i g h t e o u s will be in h e a v e n a n d s h a r e in a life like t h e angels. H o w e v e r , t h e d a t i n g of this text is a n issue. 152

152

Most scholars accept a date sometime in the first century CE. See the discussion above in section 3.1.

If t h e text d a t e s to s o m e t i m e a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y C E , as m a n y s c h o l a r s s u p p o s e , t h e n t h e i d e a of r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s b e c o m i n g angels in h e a v e n s e e m s to be e v i n c e d in a t least o n e text. T h e Synoptic Gospels contain a tradition wherein the Sadducees c h a l l e n g e J e s u s o n t h e n a t u r e of t h e afterlife ( M a r k 1 2 : 1 8 - 2 7 , M a t t 2 2 : 2 3 - 3 3 , a n d Luke 20:27-40). T h e M a r k a n a n d L u k a n versions are of p a r t i c u l a r interest. 1 5 3 T h e g e n e r a l setting h a s t h e S a d d u c c e e s pose a h y p o t h e t i c a l q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g m a r r i a g e in t h e afterlife. T h e i r line of q u e s t i o n i n g is m e a n t to expose the a b s u r d i t y of belief in resurrection itself, since t h e S a d d u c e e s t h e m s e l v e s d o n o t believe in r e s u r r e c t i o n ( M a t t 2 2 : 2 3 , M a r k 12:18, L u k e 2 0 : 2 7 , Acts 4 : 1 - 2 ; 2 3 : 8 9 ‫ ־‬, J o s e p h u s BJ 2 . 1 6 5 , Ant

18:16). T h e y ask w h o s e wife a w o m a n w o u l d b e in

t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n if, in k e e p i n g w i t h T o r a h , a series of seven b r o t h ers h a d all w e d t h e s a m e w o m a n b u t d i e d w i t h o u t m a l e issue ( w . 19 1 5 4 .(23‫ ־‬J e s u s ' s t w o f o l d r e s p o n s e to t h e i r q u e s t i o n e x p o s e s b o t h t h e S a d d u c e a n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t u r e of r e s u r r e c t i o n life (v. 25) a n d also t h e i r inability to see p r o o f of t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n in S c r i p t u r e ( w . 2 6 - 2 7 ) . J e s u s says t h a t in t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n n o o n e will m a r r y , b u t all will be "like angels in h e a v e n " (είσίν ώς άγγελοι έν τοις ούρανοΐς). T h i s p e r i c o p e is f o u n d b e t w e e n o t h e r p a s s a g e s f o c u s e d o n c o r r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : t h e q u e s t i o n o n p a y i n g t a x e s to C a e s a r

(12:13-17)

a n d t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e scribes as to w h i c h c o m m a n d m e n t is t h e g r e a t e s t ( 1 2 : 2 8 - 3 4 ) . T h e s e p e r i c o p e s s e e m g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r in o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of J e s u s ' s s c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o t h a t of all o t h e r J e w i s h g r o u p s . The

t h r u s t of J e s u s ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t

seems to p o i n t to

S a d d u c e a n f a i l u r e to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t h u m a n institutions, s u c h

the as

m a r r i a g e , will n o t exist in t h e afterlife; t h e r e f o r e t h e i r q u e s t i o n is m o o t . H u m a n s will b e like a n g e l s (ώς άγγελοι) in t h a t t h e y will h a v e n o n e e d of t h e institution of m a r r i a g e . T h i s d o e s n o t necessarily suggest a n e q u a t i o n of h u m a n s w i t h a n g e l s b u t i n s t e a d a similarity, in t h a t n e i t h e r h a s a n y n e e d of m a r r i a g e . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is o p e n for d e b a t e , h o w e v e r . L u k e s e e m s to h a v e seen t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e M a r k a n f o r m a n d m a d e s o m e significant a l t e r a t i o n s .

153

The Matthean version does not vary from the Markan in any ways significant to the discussion of angelic afteriife. 154 The Sadducean argument is based on the marriage prescription of Deut 25:5-10 (cf. also Gen 38:8, Ruth 4:1-10). The question of marital relations upon the death of one brother is also seen in m. Yebam. 3:9.

I n 2 0 : 3 5 t h e L u k a n J e s u s states, " B u t t h o s e w h o w e r e a c c o u n t e d w o r t h y to a t t a i n t h a t age a n d to t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n f r o m t h e d e a d n e i t h e r m a r r y n o r a r e given in m a r r i a g e , for t h e y c a n n o t die a n y m o r e , for t h e y a r e e q u a l to t h e angels [the hapax legomenon, ίσάγγελοι] a n d a r e s o n s of G o d [υιοί είσιν θεου], b e i n g sons of t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n [της αναστάσεως υιοί δντες]." L u k e ' s t e r m ί σ ά γ γ ε λ ο ι is q u i t e s i m i l a r t o P h i l o ' s 'ίσος α γ γ έ λ ο υ ς γεγονώς a n d m a y reflect t h e s a m e kind of i d e a of e q u a l i t y w i t h angels, r a t h e r t h a n m e r e similarity t o a n g e l s as in M a r k a n d M a t t .

This

t e r m s e e m s to m a k e a s t r o n g e r s t a t e m e n t f o r t h e e q u a l i t y of angels w i t h h u m a n s . Still, t h e q u e s t i o n m a y be raised as to w h e t h e r this is e q u a l i t y of n a t u r e o r m e r e l y of status. A g a i n , it is n o t entirely clear. L u k e also says t h a t " t h e y c a n n o t d i e " (ούδέ γ α ρ ά π ο θ α ν ε ί ν ) , j u s t as P h i l o says t h a t angels a r e i m m o r t a l (αφθαρσία). T h e c o n t e x t , t h e n , s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t J e s u s speaks of t h e a f t e r life as angelic. A few s c h o l a r s h a v e seen in t h e L u k a n f o r m of this p e r i c o p e t h e p r e c u r s o r f o r l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s of C h r i s t i a n s

renounc-

i n g m a r r i a g e as a m e a n s to a this-life a n g e l i c n a t u r e , a n 'Αγγελικός Βίος. 155 T . K a r l s e n - S e i m a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s to see the L u k a n version as c h a n g i n g t h e M a r k a n original t o s u p p o r t t h e c u r r e n t c o m m u n i t y ' s r e j e c t i o n of m a r r i a g e as a m e a n s t o a n a n g e l i c existence. 1 5 6 E v e n if w e a c c e p t t h a t L u k e i n t e n d s for his a u d i e n c e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e a c h i n g of J e s u s as a n o u t l i n e f o r living t h e resurr e c t i o n life, it still r e p r e s e n t s h u m a n a c t i o n m i m i c k i n g t h e life of angels. It d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t h u m a n s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels in t h e i r e a r t h l y lives. L u k e r e c o r d s a n o t h e r t r a d i t i o n r e g a r d i n g a n g e l s a n d t h e afterlife in Acts 2 3 : 6 8 . 1 5 7 ‫ ־‬P a u l h a s b e e n a r r e s t e d in J e r u s a l e m f o r c a u s i n g uprisings (22:22). H e is b r o u g h t b e f o r e a c o u n c i l of t h e J e w s (23:1). As P a u l offers his d e f e n s e , h e m o v e s t h e discussion to t h e t o p i c of res-

155 See S. Frank, ΑΓΓΕΛΙΚΟΣ ΒΙΟΣ. Begnffanalytische und Begriffgeschichteliche Untersuchung zum 1engelgleichen leben' in frühen Mönchtum (Munster, 1964); R. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (London: Penguin, 1986) 336-374, esp. p. 363. 156 T. Karisen Seim, The Double Message: Patterns of Gender in Luke-Acts (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994). See also C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 86-88, and D. Aune, "Luke 20:3436‫־‬A Gnosticized Logion of Jesus?" in Geschichte—Tradition—Reflexion (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1996) 187-202, who sees the Jesus teaching passage as being (1) stripped from its original narrative, (2) reformulated in an encratite baptismal context, and (3) inserted into the Gospel of Luke. 157 Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 59, notes that τίνες των γραμματέων is the same in Luke 20:39 and Acts 23:9, loosely linking these passages.

u r r e c t i o n in o r d e r to d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n f r o m himself a n d c a u s e factional d e b a t e , since t h e P h a r i s e e s a n d S a d d u c e e s a r e split 011 t h e issue: [6] But when Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees a n d the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, "Brethren, I am a Pharisee, a son of Pharisees; with respect to the hope and the resurrection of the dead I a m on trial." [7] And w h e n he had said this, a dissension arose between the Pharisees and the Sadducees; and the assembly was divided. [8] For the Sadducees say that there is no resurrection [άνάστασιν], n o r angel [αγγελον], nor spirit [πνεύμα]; but the Pharisees acknowledge them all [τά άμφότερα]. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of verse 8 h i n g e s u p o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e t e r m τ α άμφότερα. Its u s u a l m e a n i n g is " b o t h , " t h o u g h s o m e h a v e t a k e n it to m e a n "all." It c o u l d m e a n t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n i e d " b o t h " t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d t h e existence of angels. R e c e n t l y , D . D a u b e h a s asserted t h a t t h e passage is b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d as t h e S a d d u c e e s ' denial of r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d of " t h e s p a n b e t w e e n d e a t h a n d

resurrection,

w h i c h , in w i d e s p r e a d belief, a g o o d p e r s o n s p e n d s in t h e r e a l m o r m o d e of a n g e l o r spirit.'" 5 8 It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r this w a s p a r t of " w i d e s p r e a d " belief, b u t t h e e v i d e n c e in this s u b s e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t it w a s in t h e m i n d s of s o m e J e w s in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . As G . N i c k e l s b u r g c o n c l u d e s , " T h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t in t h e i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l p e r i o d t h e r e w a s n o single J e w i s h o r t h o d o x y o n t h e time, m o d e , a n d place of resurrection, i m m o r t a l i t y , a n d eternal life.'" 5 9 B. V i v i a n o h a s t a k e n t h e discussion a s t e p f u r t h e r , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e p a s s a g e is best u n d e r s t o o d as discussing t h e d e n i a l of t h e r e s u r r e c tion. 1 6 0 T h e τ α αμφότερα refers to " b o t h " a n g e l a n d spirit as m o d e s of r e s u r r e c t i o n . T h u s , t h e n o u n s άγγελος a n d π ν ε ύ μ α s t a n d in a p p o sition to ά ν ά σ τ α σ ι ς , s u c h t h a t S a d d u c e e s d e n y t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n

in

" t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l " o r in t h e " f o r m of a spirit." V i v i a n o ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e e m s to p r e s e n t the m o s t likely r e a d i n g of t h e p a s s a g e . T h e r e is s o m e c o r r o b o r a t i n g evidence for t h e claim t h a t the S a d d u c e e s d e n i e d the r e s u r r e c t i o n . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e w h a t s o e v e r t h a t a n y J e w i s h g r o u p — a n d in p a r t i c u l a r o n e t h a t likely t o o k t h e P e n t a t e u c h , w h i c h c o n t a i n s t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t angels, as s a c r e d — d e n i e d t h e exist e n c e of angels. T h e

158

fluidity

in afterlife beliefs s e e n 111 t h e e v i d e n c e

David Daube, "On Acts 23: Sadducees and Angels" JBL 109 (1990) 493-497. G. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life, p. 180. 160 B. Viviano, "Sadducees, Angels, and Resurrection (Acts 23:8-9)" JBL 111 (1992) 496-498. 159

f r o m t h e p e r i o d s h o w s t h e r e w a s r o o m f o r d e b a t e o v e r t h e m o d e of afterlife existence. It s e e m s p l a u s i b l e t h a t τ α αμφότερα refers t o t h e t e r m s " a n g e l " a n d "spirit," in w h i c h case Acts 2 3 serves as a n o t h e r piece of e v i d e n c e t h a t s o m e J e w s believed t h e afterlife m o d e of exist e n c e w a s angelic. I n R e v 6 : 9 - 1 1 , J o h n sees a vision of t h e souls (ψυχή) w h o h a v e died u n d e r a n altar. T h e souls a r e e a c h given a w h i t e r o b e (cf.

Mart.

Asc. Isa. 9 : 2 4 - 2 6 ) a n d told to rest a while l o n g e r until t h e n u m b e r of t h e i r b r o t h e r s is fulfilled. It is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e vision is of angels, b u t D . A u n e says, "It is theologically significant t h a t h e r e d i e d e a d a r e in s o m e w a y p r e s e n t in h e a v e n , " since, as h e a d d s , " f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e O T it is n o t possible for m o r t a l s t o g o to h e a v e n a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h . " 1 6 1 T h e facts t h a t t h e b e i n g s a r e u n d e r t h e a l t a r in h e a v e n a n d also a r e given w h i t e r o b e s b o t h s e e m to p o i n t t o w a r d a special status, w h i c h m a y p e r h a p s b e u n d e r s t o o d as angelic. I n t h e Martyrdom, and Ascension of Isaiah t h e p r o p h e t I s a i a h h a s a visionary ascent d i r o u g h the seven heavens. 1 6 2 D u r i n g his ascent Isaiah is said to b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n angel. As it n o w exists in E t h i o p i e mss., Mart. Ascen. Isa. consists of t w o m a i n p a r t s : t h e story of I s a i a h ' s m a r t y r d o m ( c h a p t e r s 15‫ )־‬a n d a v i s i o n / a s c e n t ( c h a p t e r s 6 1 1 ‫ ) ־‬. T h e Ascension c i r c u l a t e d o n its o w n a n d is e x t a n t in L a t i n a n d

Slavonic

copies. 1 6 3 T h i s s u p p o r t s t h e c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e t w o p a r t s of Mart. Ascen. Isa. s e e m to h a v e b e e n originally s e p a r a t e writings. 1 6 4 T h e r e is a g r o w i n g scholarly c o n s e n s u s t h a t Mart. Ascen. Isa. in its c o m p l e t e f o r m d a t e s to t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 1 6 5 J u s t i n M a r t y r

161

D. Aune, Revelation, 3 vols. (Dallas: Word Books, 1997-1998) 1:403. Cf. the vision to Isa 6:1-13. On the seven heavens, see A. Yarbro Collins, "The Seven Heavens in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses" in Death, Ecstasy and OtherWorldly Journeys, ed. J . Coffins and M. Fishbane (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995) 59-93. 163 M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP 2:145-146. 164 HJPAJC 1111:337; M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP 2:147-150; R. Hall, "Isaiah's Ascent to See the Beloved: An Ancient Jewish Source for the Ascension of Isaiah" JBL 113 (1994) 463-484; J. Knight, The Ascension of Isaiah (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 28-32; and j . Knight, Disciples of the Beloved One: The Christology, Social Setting and Theological Context of the Ascension of Isaiah (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996) 3339‫־‬. V. Burch, "The Literary Unity of the Ascensio Isaiae" JTS 20 (1919) 17-23, asserts its unity and Christian composition, but this fails to acknowledge the Jewish character of the story of Isaiah's martyrdom. 165 HJPAJC IIIi:337-338; M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP 2:149-150; R. Hall, "The Ascension of Isaiah: Community Situation, Date, and Place in Early Christianity" JBL 109 (1990) 300-306; J . Knight, The Ascension of Isaiah, pp. 2123‫־‬. On the basis of the ms. evidence alone R. H. Charles suggested a date in the third to second century CE or even earlier; The Ascension of Isaiah (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1900) xlv. 162

a n d T e r t u l l i a n b o t h m a k e r e f e r e n c e to Isaiah's m a r t y r d o m , specifically his b e i n g s a w e d in half {Mart. Ascen. Isa. 5:11). 1 6 6 T h e r e a r e also indic a t i o n s t h a t 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 2 2 m a y r e f e r t o t h e e m p e r o r N e r o (d. 6 8 C E ) . T h e s e p o i n t s aside, it is n o t entirely c l e a r w h e n the Ascension

itself

w a s c o m p o s e d . Affinities of t h e Ascension w i t h w o r k s like t h e Acts of Peter (c. 1 5 0 - 2 2 0 C E ) a n d t h e Protoevangelium of James

(c. 150 C E )

suggest t h a t it w a s c o m p o s e d in t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y CE. 1 5 7 It is i m p o r t a n t to b e a w a r e t h a t a n early s e c o n d - c e n t u r y d a t e , t h o u g h w i d e l y a c c e p t e d , is n o t c e r t a i n . T h e a c c o u n t of I s a i a h ' s m a r t y r d o m s e e m s t o b e a J e w i s h a n d is o n l y loosely c o n n e c t e d to t h e a s c e n t m a t e r i a l . T h e

work

Ascension

is a C h r i s t i a n w o r k t h a t c u l m i n a t e s in I s a i a h seeing C h r i s t d e s c e n d to e a r t h (disguised as a n angel) a n d o n c e a g a i n a s c e n d t o h e a v e n . 1 6 8 In chapters 6 1 1

‫ ־‬.

w e l e a r n t h e c o n t e n t of t h e vision I s a i a h h a d w h e n

h e w a s p r o p h e s y i n g b e f o r e K i n g H e z e k i a h . As I s a i a h a s c e n d s , h e is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n a n g e l . In t h e t h i r d h e a v e n h e states, " f o r t h e glory of m y f a c e w a s b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d as I w e n t u p f r o m h e a v e n to h e a v e n " (7:25). M o r e explicitly in 8 : 1 5 I s a i a h is told by his a n g e l i c g u i d e t h a t , w h e n h e dies a n d a s c e n d s a n d p u t s o n his h e a v e n l y r o b e , t h e n h e "will b e e q u a l to t h e angels w h o (are) in t h e seventh h e a v e n . " M o r e o v e r , I s a i a h is a b l e t o praise G o d a l o n g s i d e t h e angels, " A n d (strength) w a s given t o m e , a n d I also s a n g praises w i t h t h e m , a n d t h a t a n g e l also, a n d o u r p r a i s e w a s like t h e i r s " ( 8 : 1 6 1 7 ‫ ) ־‬. I n 11:35, w e a r e told t h a t I s a i a h r e t u r n s to n o r m a l a f t e r his vision until h e dies, w h e n h e r e t u r n s to h e a v e n a n d takes o n a n a n g e l i c f o r m . It s e e m s t h a t I s a i a h , w h e n h e dies, will b e a b l e to b e c o m e o n e of t h e d e n i z e n s of t h e s e v e n t h h e a v e n (8:15, 9:39) a n d w o r s h i p G o d as o n e of t h e r i g h t e o u s d e a d (e.g., A b e l a n d Enoch). 1 6 9

166

Dial. Trypho 120:5; De Patientia 14 respectively. M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP 2:149-150. 168 M. Himmelfarb says, "One might argue that Christ's disguise is the opposite side of Isaiah's transformation: while a human being needs to become more like the dwellers in the highest heavens to ascend, Christ needs to become more like the dwellers in the lower heavens to descend." Ascent to Heaven (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 57-58. 169 M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, pp. 56-57, argues that the righteous dead actually enjoy a higher status than the angels in the seventh heaven, but this is not entirely clear. She bases this on the fact that the righteous worship before the angels (9:33-34), and the righteous are said to "gaze intently upon the Glory" of God, unlike the angels who can only look upon the glory (9:37-38). There is some difference in the status, but how much higher the righteous dead are exalted is nominal since both groups are in the seventh heaven worshipping God. Cf. J . Bühner, Der Gesandte, pp. 355-356. 167

T h u s , in h e a v e n Isaiah is a c c o m m o d a t e d by b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n angel. 1 7 0 T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is n o t p e r m a n e n t , h o w e v e r . I n s t e a d , it is a p r e v i e w of w h a t will befall h i m , as o n e of Israel's

righteous,

w h o c a n t a k e u p his r o b e , b e t r a n s f o r m e d , a n d t a k e his p l a c e in t h e s e v e n t h h e a v e n . It d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a privilege t h a t all will e n j o y , however. T w o p a s s a g e s f r o m the H e r m e t i c L i t e r a t u r e (c. 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 C E ) m a y also e v i n c e t h e i d e a of a n angelic afterlife. Vis. 2:2:7 states t h a t t h o s e " w h o work righteousness must r e m a i n steadfast a n d be not doublem i n d e d , " so t h a t t h e i r " p a s s i n g m a y b e w i t h t h e H o l y

Angels"

(ή π ά ρ α δ ο ς μετά των αγγέλων των αγίων). Similarly, H e r r n . Sim. 9:25:2 says of " a p o s t l e s a n d t e a c h e r s , " " T h e p a s s i n g of s u c h is w i t h t h e angels" (ή πάραδος μετά των αγγέλων έστίν). C . Osiek notes drat a l t h o u g h t h e s e p a s s a g e s a r e o f t e n c o m p a r e d w i t h 1 En. a n d Mart.

104:4; 2 Bar.

Pol. 2:3, the sense is m o r e akin to M a t t 22:30.

171

51:5;

In both

cases, t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to b e like angels in t h e afterlife s e e m s restricted to a specific g r o u p , t h o s e w h o a r e v i r t u o u s in life. I t d o e s n o t s e e m available to e v e r y o n e . Lastly, t h e Mart.

Pol. (c. 175 C E ) 2:3 states of t h e C h r i s t i a n s as

t h e y w e r e m a r t y r e d , " b u t it [ ' g o o d t h i n g s w h i c h a r e p r e s e r v e d f o r diose w h o e n d u r e ' ] w a s s h o w n by t h e L o r d to t h e m [the m a r t y r s ] w h o w e r e n o l o n g e r m e n , b u t a l r e a d y a n g e l s " (ο'ι'περ μηκέτι ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ι α λ λ ' ή δ η άγγελοι ήσαν). T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to a n angelic n a t u r e a l r e a d y begins o n e a r t h f o r t h e m a r t y r . 1 7 2 T h u s , n o specific t r a d i t i o n s of h u m a n s t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o a n g e l s in the afterlife s e e m to b e e v i d e n t p r i o r to t h e first c e n t u r y C E . E a r l y t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e afterlife m a y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d h u m a n p a s s i n g as l e a d i n g to a c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e divine as stars (= angels) in t h e h e a v e n s . I n t h e case of P h i l o , A b r a h a m s e e m s t o h a v e

undergone

a n afterlife t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l , b u t f o r Philo, angels w e r e akin to divine t h o u g h t s , a n d it w a s in t h e sense of A b r a h a m as a r i g h t e o u s a n d v i r t u o u s m a n t h a t h e w a s a d d e d to t h e divine. I n t h e gospels, t h e t r a d i t i o n s e e m s to h a v e m e a n t t h a t h u m a n s b e c a m e like 170

In some visionary writings, the seer is accommodated in heaven by becoming an angel (Apoc. Zeph-> 2 En. 22, 3 En), but in some cases, no such transformation occurs (Rev, Apoc. Paul). On this see M. Himmelfarb, "The Experience of the Visionary and Genre in the Ascension of Isaiah 6-11 and the Apocalypse of Paul" Semeia 36 (1986) 97-111. 171 C. Osiek, The Shepherd of Hermas (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999) 55 n. 12. 172 See the discussion on Stephen above (3:12), and cf. 4 Macc. 16:25.

or e q u a l to angels in h e a v e n a n d t h e r e f o r e h a d n o n e e d of t h e h u m a n institution of m a r r i a g e (and copulation). T h e gospel tradition was a p p a r e n t l y e x p a n d e d in the b u r g e o n i n g C h r i s t i a n tradition (martyrs, encratites), w h i c h s e e m e d to indicate the possibility of mimicking the angelic m o d e of existence on e a r t h .

Conclusions T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e d the evidence for angels a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n beings. Eight r e n o w n e d individuals f r o m the H e b r e w Bible, f o u r f r o m the N T , as well as others, w e r e considered. T h e evidence for A d a m , the p r i m o r d i a l m a n , was interesting b u t n o t conclusive. T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n strands of tradition t h a t t h o u g h t of A d a m a n d Eve as h a v i n g h a d a n angelic status b e f o r e the Fall. T h e evidence p e r t a i n ing to Sethel w a s f r o m only o n e text b u t did seem to suggest t h a t he was u n d e r s t o o d to h a v e b e c o m e like a n angel in the afterlife. T h e E n o c h i c literature a p p a r e n t l y b e c a m e m o r e explicit over time about Enoch's angelic transformation a n d even equation with a n a m e d angel, M e t a t r o n (in 3 En.)—seemingly an e x t r a p o l a t i o n u p o n the G e n 5:24 saying t h a t E n o c h was t a k e n to h e a v e n b u t did n o t die. I n two texts, N o a h was described as having a n g e l o m o r p h i c features at his birth, b u t it was n o t clear t h a t h e was ever c o n s i d e r e d a n angel. T h e r e was evidence t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k w a s a n i m p o r t a n t figure in speculations a b o u t the h e a v e n s in S e c o n d T e m p l e writings. H e was certainly t h o u g h t of as a divine figure (‫ )אלהים‬a n d m a y h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as a n angel. I n the case of J a c o b , s o m e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u n d e r s t o o d his n a m e c h a n g e to Israel as d e n o t i n g a c h a n g e in his n a t u r e to a n angel. It is m a d e explicit t h a t h e is t h o u g h t of as a n angel in Pr. Jos. T h i s e q u a tion is significant, but it c a n n o t b e pressed too far either. T h e evidence for M o s e s was s o m e w h a t difficult to assess. Certainly, a u t h o r s like Philo deified Moses, even calling h i m θεός, b u t there is little e x t a n t evidence t h a t h e was t h o u g h t to be a n angel. A few texts c o m p a r e d D a v i d to a n angel, yet only Pseudo-Philo gave any h i n t t h a t D a v i d m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as angelic; even t h e r e the evidence suggested t h a t his a p p e a r a n c e was c h a n g e d b u t n o t his n a t u r e . S o m e evidence f r o m the p r o p h e t s s e e m e d a m b i g u o u s . Certainly, the role of the p r o p h e t as a m o u t h p i e c e f o r G o d suggests t h a t their f u n c t i o n a n d the f u n c t i o n of angels could be u n d e r s t o o d at some

level as similar. 1 7 3 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t a m b i g u o u s e v i d e n c e w a s t h a t f r o m Malachi. T h a t the term "angel" m a y have been taken to m e a n b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r c a n b e seen in its use r e l a t e d t o J o h n t h e B a p t i s t in t h e N T . C l e a r l y , O r i g e n d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t o n e a u t h o r t h o u g h t of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t as a n a n g e l . T h e r e w a s v e r y little e v i d e n c e f o r J e s u s a c t u a l l y b e i n g r e f e r r e d t o as a n angel. T h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t a l k e d a b o u t J e s u s in a n g e l o m o r p h i c t e r m s , h o w e v e r . T h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s s h o w e d t h a t J e s u s c o u l d b e c o m p a r e d to a n a n g e l b u t t h a t s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n w a s C h r i s t o logically insufficient. T h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e o t h e r N T

figures,

Stephen

a n d P a u l , d i d n o t d e m o n s t r a t e t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d angels. T. Moses c o n t a i n e d a t e x t t h a t s o m e h a v e t h o u g h t m i g h t

have

m e a n t t h e figure T a x o w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a n g e l , b u t this identification w a s unlikely. T h e i n t e r e s t i n g case of t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b in T. Job saw t h e m u n d e r g o i n g a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c c h a n g e (speaking like angels) w h e n d o n n i n g girdles f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r . It w a s n o t c l e a r t h e c h a n g e w a s p e r m a n e n t , h o w e v e r . T h i s text w a s u n i q u e in t h a t w o m e n , r a t h e r than men, were angelomorphic. T h e f r a g m e n t f r o m H e c a t e u s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a n g e l i c n a t u r e of t h e h i g h priest w a s interesting, b u t t h e c o n t e x t is n o t clear. S i n c e it c a m e to us t h r o u g h v a r i o u s a u t h o r s , t h e r e is n o w a y to b e c e r t a i n

that

t h e original a u t h o r w a s a t all c l e a r a b o u t t h e realities r e l a t i n g to t h e h i g h priest. Lastly, t h e e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o w h a t h a p p e n s to h u m a n s in h e a v e n was considered. It w a s n o t clear that there was a n y late S e c o n d T e m p l e t r a d i t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d h u m a n s as b e c o m i n g a n g e l s in h e a v e n . J . C h a r l e s w o r t h identified t h e m o t i f of s o m e r i g h t e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s b e i n g p o r t r a y e d as angels. 1 7 4 H i s insight s e e m s c o r r e c t — n a m e l y , t h a t t h e m o t i f is m a i n l y , if n o t exclusively, a p p l i e d to r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s ; m o r e o v e r it is a p p l i e d to specific i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n o t l a r g e r b o d i e s of righteous, a t least n o t in die late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , h a v e seen t h e i d e a e x t e n d i n g b e y o n d select i n d i v i d u a l s to c o r p o r a t e h u m a n i t y . 1 7 5 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s

argued—

against M . M a c h ' s (and others') assertion t h a t representations of h u m a n s t a k i n g o n a n g e l i c existences in this life relate t o a n interest in e s c h a 173

But Isa 6:1-13 seems to show a strong distinction between the seraphim (= angels ?) and the prophet as a "man of unclean lips." 174 J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel," pp. 135-151. 175 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 109-215, and C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 152-186.

tological p o s t m o r t e m e x i s t e n c e — s a y i n g , " I t is j u s t as likely t h a t t h e eschatological, p o s t - m o r t e m angelic life of t h e righteous is a n extension of a belief in, o r s u b l i m a t e d h o p e for, a this-life a n g e l o m o r p h i c i d e n tity.'" 7 6 It m a y b e j u s t as likely, b u t it is n o t c l e a r a n y e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d t r u l y s u p p o r t s s u c h a n assertion. The

e v i d e n c e a n a l y z e d in this c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t ,

although

d i e r e are texts in w h i c h h u m a n beings a r e described in a n g e l o m o r p h i c t e r m s , a distinction a p p e a r s to b e m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. T h e n e x t step in this investigation is t o look a t cases in w h i c h close i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels m i g h t suggest s o m e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h i s is t h e goal of p a r t t w o of this investigation.

176

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 213.

PART T W O

INTERACTION

PART TWO INTERACTION

Introduction T h e second p a r t of diis investigation e x a m i n e s d1‫־‬e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels b y l o o k i n g at p o r t r a y a l s of close o r i n t i m a t e intera c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s of b e i n g s o n e a r t h . Specifically, t h e e v i d e n c e of h u m a n - a n g e l c o m m u n i t i e s ( c h a p t e r 4), t h e possibility of h u m a n s p r o v i d i n g hospitality a n d e a t i n g w i t h angels ( c h a p t e r 5), a n d h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g f r o m h u m a n - a n g e l r e l a t i o n s ( c h a p t e r 6) a r e c o n s i d ered. F o r t h e following discussion " I n t e r a c t i o n " will b e t a k e n to m e a n " r e c i p r o c a l a c t i o n o r i n f l u e n c e . ' " T h e p a r t i c u l a r n u a n c e of this c h o i c e of t e r m is t h a t t h e activity c a n p o t e n t i a l l y h a v e a m u t u a l aspect; it is n o t simply a n g e l s a f f e c t i n g h u m a n s . As w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels in p a r t o n e , it is h e l p f u l b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to survey b r o a d l y t h e v a r i e t y of w a y s in w h i c h angels i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s in t h e w r i t i n g s f r o m this p e r i o d to p r o v i d e t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e m a t e r i a l to b e e x a m i n e d in p a r t two. T h i s survey is n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e a n e x h a u s t i v e list of a n g e l f u n c tions b u t i n s t e a d to situate this p a r t i c u l a r e v i d e n c e a m o n g t h e variety of a n g e l f u n c t i o n s e v i n c e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d . 2 A n g e l s , as t h e y a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d , a r e d e n i z e n s of t h e h e a v e n s . 3 By definition, t h e n , t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h u m a n beings is limited. T h e y a r e m e m b e r s of t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t w o r s h i p p i n g G o d

1

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 709. M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer Zeit (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992) 60-63, provides an exhaustive list of the functions of angels in the Hebrew Bible. In chapter 3, he delineates the additional functions of angels in the extra-Biblical literature, pp. 114-278. 3 Davidson, Maxwell J., Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and the Sectarian WritingsfromQumran, JSPS 11 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1992) p. 291; M. Mach, "Angels" in The Encyclopaedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Lawrence Schiffman and James VanderKam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 1:24; D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early Christianity, WUNT 2:109 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 17; P. Garreil, Jesus and the Angels: Angelology and Christology in the Apocalypse ofJohn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) 14. 2

a n d c a r r y i n g o u t t h e d i v i n e liturgy ( l Q S b 4 : 2 4 4;26‫־‬Q_405f r a g . 20; Luke 2:1314‫ ;״‬H e b

1:6; R e v 4:8; Jub.

3 0 : 1 8 , 3 1 : 1 4 ; T. Le,vi 3:8;

1 En. 6 1 : 1 0 4 . ( 1 2 ‫ ־‬T h e i d e a t h a t angels " s t a n d " b e f o r e G o d is well a t t e s t e d in J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e p e r i o d a n d a f t e r w a r d s . 5 T e x t s s u c h as t h e SSS a n d N T p a s s a g e s like 1 C o r 11:10 a n d C o l 2 : 1 8 suggest t h a t c o m m u n i t i e s s o u g h t to be p a r t of t h e o n g o i n g h e a v e n l y liturgy of angels. I n h e a v e n l y a s c e n t l i t e r a t u r e , angels o f t e n a c t as g u i d e s f o r h u m a n s w h o h a v e c o m e i n t o t h e h e a v e n s ( D a n 7 - 1 2 ; 1 En. 1 7 - 3 6 ; Ap. 1 0 - 1 8 ; 4 Ezra

Abr.

3 - 1 4 ) . Interestingly, h u m a n s o n s u c h a s c e n t s s o m e -

t i m e s p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e a n g e l i c liturgy (3 En. 1:12; Apoc. Ab. 17, Mart. Ascen. Isa. 7:37; 9:31). A m o n g t h e o t h e r roles angels t a k e o n are: g u a r d i a n s a n d h e l p e r s ( G e n 24:7, 4 8 : 1 6 ; E x o d

14:19, 2 3 : 2 0 - 2 3 , et al.; Ps 34:7; Isa 63:9;

D a n 3:28, 6:22; T o b 5:21; A c t s 5:19, 1 2 : 7 - 1 1 ; 2 M a c c 11:6; T. Jac. 1:10; L.A.B.

5 9 : 4 ; H e r r n . Mand.

6.2.2), a n d c a r r y i n g o u t

God's

v e n g e a n c e ( N u m 22; 2 S a m 2 4 : 1 6 - 1 7 ; 1 C h r 2 1 : 1 2 - 3 0 ; 1 Q S 4:12; Acts 12:23; R e v 16; Sir 4 8 : 2 1 ; 1 M a c c 7:41; Sus 1:55, 59). As f u n c t i o n a r i e s of G o d , angels a r e s o m e t i m e s sent to c a r r y o u t specific tasks o n e a r t h . It is m a i n l y in this c a p a c i t y t h a t t h e y i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s . As t h e i r n a m e implies, t h e i r p r i m a r y task w a s t o a c t as messengers (e.g., G e n

16:7£, 2 2 : 1 1 , 15; J u d g 6 a n d

13; Z e c h

1:9£; M a t t 1 - 2 ; L u k e 1 - 2 ; A c t s 8:26; 4 Ezra 4 - 5 ; et al.). C h a p t e r 4 e x a m i n e s w h a t is p e r h a p s t h e closest c o n t a c t b e t w e e n angels

and

h u m a n s , n a m e l y , the presence of angels in specific h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s .

4 Angels are actually called priests (‫ )כוהן‬in the SSS. For a fuller discussion of angels as priests, see M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) esp. 29-46. 5 See Isa 6:3; Matt 18:10; Luke 1:19, 2:15; 1 Clem. 34:5. J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord{ Tübingen: J . C. B. Möhr, 1985) 55, 120-124, 139-141. Cf. Philo, Sacrifices 89‫־‬.

CHAPTER FOUR " A N G E L S IN O U R H U M AN-ANGEL

MIDST":

COMMUNITIES

I n this c h a p t e r , texts d e s c r i b i n g a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s living t o g e t h e r in c o m m u n i t i e s a r e e x a m i n e d . T h e m a j o r i t y of this e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i s c o v e r e d a t Q u m r a n , b u t t w o o t h e r texts t h a t m a y e v i n c e a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s — P a u l ' s epistles to t h e C o r i n t h i a n s a n d t h e so-called H i s t o r y of t h e R e c h a b i t e s — a r e also e x a m ined. A n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m Q u m r a n s e e m s to p r e s e n t a p i c t u r e of a c o m m u n i t y t h a t u n d e r stood itself as h a v i n g angels present, w i t h t h e m o s t r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n c o m i n g f r o m Fletcher-Louis.5 I n his b o o k , All

the Glory of Adam,

F l e t c h e r - L o u i s seeks t o f o r e -

g r o u n d the p h e n o m e n o n of h u m a n - a n g e l interaction b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g t w o " i n t e r l o c k i n g " theses: (1) the theology of ancient J u d a i s m took for granted the belief that in its original, true, redeemed state humanity is divine ( a n d / o r angelic), and that (2) this belief was conceptually a n d experientially inextricable from temple worship in which ordinary space a n d time, and therefore h u m a n ontology, are transcended because the true temple is a model of the universe which offers its entrants a transfer from earth to heaven, from humanity to divinity and from mortality to immortality. 7 T h e s e theses will b e d e a l t w i t h as specific discussion arises a n d also in t h e c o n c l u s i o n section. A t t h e outset, it is a p p r o p r i a t e to o f f e r a g e n e r a l critique of t h e m . R e g a r d i n g his first thesis, it is p e r h a p s m o r e a c c u r a t e to say simply t h a t h u m a n k i n d in its t r u e f o r m w a s " t h e o m o r p h i c " since A d a m w a s m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d . T h i s w o u l d o b v i a t e s o m e of t h e c o n f u s i o n in t h e s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g "angelic" a n d "divine." R e g a r d i n g t h e second diesis, the H o l y of Holies in t h e T e m p l e a n d p e r h a p s t h e liturgical s p a c e of t h e Q u m r a n g r o u p 6 H. Kuhn, Enderwartung und gegenwärtiges Heil (Göttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1966) 66-72; C. Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity (New York: Crossroad, 1982) 113-120; M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 159-161; 209-218; 241-254. C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002). 7 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam, p. xii.

m a y i n d e e d h a v e b e e n places w h e r e s o m e J e w s believed t h a t

the

e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s c o u l d h a v e c o n t a c t , c r e a t i n g a synergy. H o w e v e r , s u c h c o n t a c t did n o t i m p l y a n y p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h a t is t o say, p a r t i c i p a n t s (either t h e h i g h priest o r the Q u m r a n sectarians) m a y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e t h i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t in s u c h a locus w i t h o u t u n d e r g o i n g a p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n f o r this s t u d y is to w h a t e x t e n t living in a specific c o m m u n i t y m e a n t i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e a n g e l s t h a t

were

believed to b e p r e s e n t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e r e t h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s envisioning d i e i r m e m b e r s as b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c c o m m u n i t y ? O r did t h e y simply believe t h a t t h r o u g h a h e i g h t e n e d state of p u r i t y t h e y , as h u m a n s , w e r e c r e a t i n g a s p a c e w h e r e angels c o u l d dwell o n e a r t h ? T h e e v i d e n c e p o i n t s to t h e latter. S i n c e m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r c o m e s f r o m t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls, a p r e l i m i n a r y issue m u s t b e a d d r e s s e d . T h e scrolls a r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Essenes, a J e w i s h s e c t a r i a n g r o u p k n o w n p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e w r i t i n g s of J o s e p h u s a n d Philo. T h e m a n y p a r allels b e t w e e n t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e c a v e s n e a r t h e D e a d Sea a n d t h e a c c o u n t s of t h e Essenes in classical r e p o r t s h a v e b e e n well d o c u m e n t e d . 8 Also, J o s e p h u s [B.J.

2.142) says t h a t t h e E s s e n e

g r o u p w a s " t o p r e s e r v e the b o o k s of t h e sect a n d t h e n a m e s of t h e a n g e l s . " M a n y s c h o l a r s p r o c e e d b y o u t l i n i n g t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s of "sect a r i a n " a n d " n o n s e c t a r i a n " texts, t h e n s p e a k i n g a b o u t

"sectarian"

beliefs. T h i s strategy o f t e n leads to using o n e text to i n t e r p r e t a n o t h e r , e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n s u c h texts is n o t entirely c l e a r , w h i c h c a n u l t i m a t e l y l e a d to a s y n t h e s i z e d a n d artificial p i c t u r e of " s e c t a r i a n " beliefs. S e c t a r i a n p r o v e n a n c e of t h e s e w r i t i n g s d o e s n o t change w h a t information can be gleaned f r o m t h e m about

angel

beliefs. N o r is it c o r r e c t to a s s u m e , e v e n if all t h e texts a r e " s e c t a r i a n , " t h a t all m e m b e r s h e l d t h e s a m e beliefs a t t h e s a m e

time.

E x a m i n i n g texts i n d i v i d u a l l y as e v i d e n c e for w h a t a t least o n e J e w i s h a u t h o r ( a n d likely a u d i e n c e ) f r o m this p e r i o d w a s t h i n k i n g

about

angels is a m o r e s e c u r e f o u n d a t i o n f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F o r t h e foll o w i n g analysis, t h e q u e s t i o n of s e c t a r i a n o r n o n s e c t a r i a n h a s b e e n p u t aside, a n d e a c h p i e c e of e v i d e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d individually. 9 8

See, in particular, T. Beale, Josephus' Description of the Essenes Illustrated by the Dead Sea Scrolls (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), and M. Goodman and G. Vermes, The Essenes According to Classical Sources (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1989). 9 This is the same methodology employed by M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and the Sectarian Writings from Qumran (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994) 138-141.

44

Vie Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice 11Q17, Maslk)

T h e S o n g s of t h e S a b b a t h Sacrifice (SSS),

(4Q400-407,

also s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d

to as " T h e A n g e l i c L i t u r g y , " exists in eight m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d at Q u m r a n in c a v e 4 ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 7 ) , 1 0 o n e f r o m c a v e

11 ( 1 1 Q 1 7 ) ,

a n d o n e f r o m M a s a d a ( M a s l k ) . 1 1 T h e s e f r a g m e n t s s e e m to r e p r e s e n t a liturgical cycle o n a 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r t h a t c o v e r s t h i r t e e n

sab-

b a t h s — t h e first q u a r t e r of t h e y e a r d u r i n g w h i c h h o l o c a u s t sacrifices are offered ( N u m 2 8 : 9 1 0

‫ ־‬,

Ezek 46:4-5). C. N e w s o m p r o d u c e d the

first critical e d i t i o n of all t h e r e l e v a n t f r a g m e n t s in 1985. 1 2 R e c e n t l y , t h e SSS h a v e b e e n c o v e r e d in Discoveries in the Judaean

Desert a n d t h e

Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Series.13 T h e r e is n o i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o d a t e t h e

SSS,

n o r is t h e r e l a t i o n of the SSS to o t h e r s e c t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e a firm crit e r i o n . T h e SSS a r e d a t e d p a l e o g r a p h i c a l l y b e t w e e n 100 B C E

and

6 8 C E , a n d s c h o l a r s w i d e l y a g r e e u p o n this dating. 1 4 E v e n if e a r l i e r o r l a t e r d a t e s w e r e to b e established, t h e SSS a r e still a n i m p o r t a n t text in t h e overall discussion of late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n g e l beliefs. O f all t h e texts f r o m t h e D e a d S e a , n o o t h e r w o r k s e e m s to b e as f o c u s e d u p o n t h e i n n e r w o r k i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y s a n c t u a r y

and

t h e b e i n g s t h e r e i n as t h e SSS. J . S t r u g n e l l believed t h a t t h e SSS w e r e " n o a n g e l i c liturgy, n o v i s i o n a r y w o r k w h e r e a sect h e a r s t h e praise of t h e angels, b u t a Maskil's

c o m p o s i t i o n f o r a n e a r t h l y liturgy in

w h i c h t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e a n g e l s is in a sense i n v o k e d . " 1 5 Still, t h e

10 First critical edition of 4Q403 and 4Q405 by J . Strugnell, "The Angelic Liturgy at Qumran—4Q Serek Shirot Olat Hashshabbat" in Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, Congress Volume, ed. G. Andersen et al. (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1960) 318-345. 11 Prefiminary edition by C. Newsom and Y. Yadin, "The Masada Fragment of the Qumran Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" IEJ 34 (1984) 77-88; see also, Y. Yadin, "The Excavations at Masada" IEJ 15 (1965) 105-108, and E. Puech, "Notes sur les manuscrits des Cantiques du Sacrifice du Sabbat trouvé à Masada" RQ 12/48 (1987) 575-583. 12 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition (Atlanta: Harvard Semitic Studies, 1985). 13 C. Newsom, Discoveries in the Judean Desert XI (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998); J . Charlesworth, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and. Greek Texts with English Translations: Vol. 4B Angelic Liturgy: Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (Tübingen: J. C. B. Möhr [Paul Siebeck], 1999). 14 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 1, notes that "the hand of the oldest manuscript, 4Q400, may be dated to ca. 75-50 BCE." See also, J. Charlesworth, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 4; Stegemann, The library at Qumran, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998) 99. 15 j . Strugnell, "The Angelic Liturgy at Qumran," p. 320.

similarities b e t w e e n t h e SSS a n d l a t e r a s c e n t o r mystical l i t e r a t u r e as e v i n c e d in l a t e r M e r k a v a h a n d H e k h a l o t s o u r c e s h a s b e e n r e g u larly n o t e d , a n d t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h o s e f o r m s of m y s t i c i s m is still b e i n g e x p l o r e d . 1 6 N e w s o m

sug-

gests t h a t t h e SSS a r e a " q u a s i - m y s t i c a l liturgy d e s i g n e d to e v o k e a sense of b e i n g p r e s e n t in t h e h e a v e n l y T e m p l e . ' " ' W h a t is w i d e l y a c c e p t e d is t h a t t h e SSS r e p r e s e n t s o m e kind of liturgical d o c u m e n t . W h a t is less c l e a r is h o w t h a t d o c u m e n t w o u l d h a v e b e e n

used.

N e w s o m believes t h a t e a c h s o n g b e g a n w i t h ‫ " ( ל מ ש כ י ל‬t o / f o r t h e I n s t r u c t o r " ) 1 8 — a t e r m t h a t a p p e a r s in o t h e r f i n d s f r o m a m o n g t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls a n d s e e m s to r e f e r to a h u m a n l e a d e r of t h e sect. 1 9 T h i s t e r m m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e type of d e d i c a t i o n " t o t h e I n s t r u c t o r " ( s o m e t i m e s suggested to b e t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ) , o r it m a y r e p r e s e n t a n o t a t i o n t h a t this is " f o r t h e I n s t r u c t o r . " T h e SSS a r e o f t e n f r u s t r a t i n g l y i n c o m p l e t e , full of suggestive term i n o l o g y w h o s e m e a n i n g is o f t e n difficult, if n o t i m p o s s i b l e , to disc e r n . F e w p a s s a g e s a r e of decisive i n t e r p r e t a t i v e v a l u e . J . D a v i l a says, " t h e overall g e n r e of t h e w o r k r e m a i n s elusive, b u t it d o e s s h a r e a n u m b e r of f e a t u r e s w i t h a p o c a l y p s e s c o n t a i n i n g o t h e r w o r l d l y j o u r neys. . . . E v e n t h e v e r y basic p r o b l e m of w h e t h e r t h e s e songs a r e prose or poetry does not have a clear answer."20 M o r e o v e r , regarding t h e a n g e l o l o g y of t h e SSS, N e w s o m states, " B e c a u s e t h e cycle of the S a b b a t h Shirot is a liturgical d o c u m e n t a n d n o t a treatise

on

a n g e l o l o g y , n o t all t h e q u e s t i o n s o n e w o u l d like t o raise c a n

be

a n s w e r e d . " 2 1 A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as t h e

"angelic

l i t u r g y , " t h e SSS d o n o t a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n a n y of t h e w o r d s of t h o s e

16

J. Baumgarten, "The Qumran Sabbath Shirot and Rabbinic Merkabah Traditions" i?£U3 (1988) 199-213; C. Newsom, "Merkabah Exegesis in the Qumran Sabbath Shirot" JJS 38 (1987) 11-30; L. Schiffman, "Merkavah Speculation at Qumran: The 4 Q Serekh Shirot Olat ha-Shabbat," in Mystics, Philosophers, and Politiaans, ed. J. Reinharz and D. Swetschinski (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1982) 15-47; C. Rowland, "The Visions of God in Apocalyptic Literature" JSJ 10 (1979) 137-154; C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 387, 392-393. 17 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 59. 18 C. Newsom, "He Has Established for Himself Priests" in Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L. Schiffman (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1990) 102. The term is found or can be confidently restored in 4Q401 frag. 1; 4Q403 frag. 1 2:18; 4Q405 frag. 20 2:6; 11Q17 frag. 16-18, line 9. 19 Seen elsewhere in 1QS 3:13, 9:12; lQSb 1:1, 3:22, 5:20; CD 12:21, 13:22; 4Q510 4, 4Q511 2 i 1, 8:4; 1QH 20:11. 20 J. Davila, Liturgical Works (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000) 87-88. 21 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 23.

in w o r s h i p . 2 2 T h u s , it s e e m s safest t o c o n c e d e t h a t t h e g e n r e of t h e SSS is u n c e r t a i n . E x a m i n a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r p a s s a g e s is t h e best w a y to g l e a n i n f o r m a t i o n . I n h e r critical e d i t i o n , N e w s o m p r o v i d e s a t h o r o u g h discussion of the various t e r m s d i a t m a y refer to angels in h e r section o n angelology 2 3 a n d also in h e r c o n c o r d a n c e , 2 4 so t h e r e is n o n e e d to r e p e a t s u c h lists in detail here. 2 5 H o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t N e w s o m ' s p a r a d i g m f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e SSS h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n criticized b y F l e t c h e r - L o u i s . 2 6 H e b e l i e v e s t h a t in h e r initial s t u d y of t h e

SSS

N e w s o m p r o p o u n d e d a dualistic i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p a r a d i g m t h a t

has

p r e v e n t e d a c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Songs. R a t h e r t h a n seeing a d u a l i s m of e a r t h l y w o r s h i p reflecting t h e h e a v e n l y cult (as N e w s o m does), F l e t c h e r - L o u i s believes t h a t t h e songs r e p r e s e n t a crossing of t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a l m s , s u c h t h a t b y p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e songs, t h e s e c t a r i a n s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o divine b e i n g s w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e a c t u a l h e a v e n l y cult. H e o b s e r v e s t h a t " i n g e n eral w e h a v e b e e n a b l e to distinguish t h e s e h e a v e n l y h u m a n s f r o m angels a n d spiritual b e i n g s w h o a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y associated w i t h t h e physical f e a t u r e s of t h e cultic s t r u c t u r e s . " 2 ‫ ׳‬H o w e v e r , h e t h e n a d d s , " A c o n f i d e n t c l a i m to k n o w j u s t h o w m u c h ' d i v i n e ' l a n g u a g e is given to t h e h u m a n w o r s h i p p e r s is n o t possible." 2 8 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s suggests t h a t this w a y of e n v i s i o n i n g t h e liturgy g a v e t h e s e c t a r i a n s a n altern a t i v e to t h e J e r u s a l e m c u l t t o w h i c h t h e y , n o w living in t h e d e s e r t of Q u m r a n , n o l o n g e r h a d access. Suffice it t o state a t this p o i n t t h a t t h e overall a i m of this s t u d y is to clarify o u r t e r m i n o l o g y a n d to m a k e a case for s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y a n d t h e earthly, so t h a t m y findings

largely g o a g a i n s t t h o s e of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s . H o w e v e r , b e f o r e

saying m o r e , w e n e e d t o r e t u r n to o u r e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e texts. In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e SSS, it is n e c e s s a r y to a t t e m p t to clarify t h e m e a n i n g of t h e various terms found therein.

22 D. Allison, "The Silence of .Angels: Reflections on the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" RQ 13 (1988) 189-197. 23 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, pp. 23.28‫־‬ 24 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, pp. 389-466. 25 See also M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, pp. 248-253. 26 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 252-394. 27 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 392. 28 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 392.

First, t h e t e r m ‫ מ ל א ך‬itself is r a r e in t h e SSS,

a n d t h e r e a r e 110

n a m e d a r c h a n g e l s . 2 9 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o m m o n t e r m in t h e SSS t h a t m a y r e f e r t o angels is • ‫ א ל י‬. T h e t e r m • ‫ א ל י‬is r a r e in t h e H e b r e w Bible (Pss 29:1, 89:7; D a n 11:36) b u t is m o r e c o m m o n in t h e litera t u r e f o u n d a t t h e D e a d S e a (especially 1 Q M a n d

1QH).

A n o t h e r c o m m o n t e r m is • ‫ א ל ו ה י‬. I n t h e H e b r e w Bible, this t e r m is o f t e n used f o r t h e H e b r e w G o d (e.g., G e n

13‫ ;)־‬h o w e v e r , it is

p l u r a l in f o r m , so it c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d to r e f e r to m u l t i p l e "gods 5 ' of o t h e r n a t i o n s (e.g., E x o d 12:12, 18:11, 20:3; 1 K g s 14:9) o r p e r h a p s e v e n to a n g e l s (e.g., Ps 8 2 : 1 , 6; 138:1). 3 0 As N e w s o m

notes,

" m a n y o c c u r r e n c e s of • ‫ א ל ו ה י‬in t h e Shirot a r e a m b i g u o u s a n d m i g h t r e f e r e i t h e r to G o d o r to t h e angels." 3 1 S o m e cases s u c h as • ‫כ ו ל א ל ו ה י‬ m o s t likely r e f e r to s o m e k i n d of divine b e i n g s , n o t to G o d . It s e e m s t h a t h e r e in t h e SSS, t h e • ‫ א ל ו ה י‬a r e m e a n t to s t a n d for s o m e t y p e of d i v i n e b e i n g s s u b o r d i n a t e to G o d . It is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r • ‫ א ל י‬a n d • ‫ א ל ו ה י‬a r e m e a n t to b e t h e s a m e o r q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t beings. C e r t a i n l y , t h e t e r m s a r e c o g n a t e , w i t h • ‫ א ל י‬b e i n g t h e p l u r a l of ‫א ל‬ (God) a n d • ‫( א ל ו ה י‬pl. in f o r m : G o d o r gods). T h a t t h e t w o t e r m s a r e s o m e t i m e s used in t h e s a m e section i m p l i e s s o m e type of distinction b e t w e e n t h e m , b u t equally t h e y m i g h t b e used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y for the same being. O t h e r t e r m s , s u c h as " h o l y o n e s " ( • ‫ ) ק ד ו ש י‬a n d "spirits" (‫)רוחות‬, m a y also r e f e r to a n g e l s / d i v i n e beings. O n e of t h e m o r e u n c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e SSS a n g e l o l o g y is t h e discussion of a n g e l s as priests (‫)כוהן‬, t h o u g h this is n o t a n i d e a exclusive t o t h e SSS (cf.

T.

Levi 3:4f.). T h e w i d e a r r a y of t e r m s t h a t m a y r e f e r to a n g e l i c b e i n g s m a k e s a n y investigation i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s

and

a n g e l s q u i t e difficult, since t h e m o r e t e r m s t h a t a r e believed to r e f e r to " a n g e l s , " t h e m o r e c o m p l e x t h e discussion b e c o m e s . It s e e m s best, t h e n , t o look f o r a n y e v i d e n c e t h a t h u m a n s a n d a n y

apparently

divine b e i n g s a r e discussed in t h e s a m e unit. T h e r e a r e v e r y few p a s s a g e s in w h i c h h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e disc u s s e d t o g e t h e r . T h e first six lines of 4 Q 4 0 0 f r a g m e n t 2 o f f e r o n e such instance:

29

C. Newsom suggests that Melchizedek may be named in the 4ÇM01, 11, 3 (See The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 37) and perhaps in 4Q401 22, 3. The reconstructions are by no means certain but are plausible. 30 BDB, pp. 43-44. 81 C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 24·.

[1] to praise your glory wondrously with ‫ א ל י‬of knowledge and the praises of your kingship a m o n g the [Most ] h o ß y ones]. [2] T h e y are honoured in all the camps of the ‫ אלוהים‬and revered by the assembly of h u m a n s [‫ ]ואנשים‬, wondrously . . . [3] than ‫ אלוהים‬or humans [‫ ]ואנםים‬they declare the majesty of his kingship according to their knowledge and they exalt [ . . .] [4] the heavens of his realm. A n d in all the highest heights wondrous psalms according to all [. . .1 [5] glory of the king of ‫ אלוהים‬they declare in the dwellings their station. .. [6] How shall we be accounted [among] them? And how shall our priesthood (be accounted) in their dwellings? T h e p a s s a g e is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e difficulties f a c e d in t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e SSS. A t least t w o w o r d s ( ‫ א ל י ם‬a n d ‫ ) א ל ו ה י ם‬s e e m to r e f e r to divine beings. T h e h u m a n s m e n t i o n e d s e e m to c o n s t i t u t e a s e p a r a t e g r o u p . L i n e 6 suggests, h o w e v e r , t h a t p e r h a p s t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y seeks to b e c o m e p a r t of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r s h i p p i n g c o m m u n i t y . T h i s is e c h o e d in 4 Q 4 0 1 f r a g m e n t 14, c o l u m n 1, line 8, " T h e y a r e h o n o r e d a m o n g all t h e c a m p s of t h e ‫ א ל ו ה י ם‬a n d r [ e v e r e d b y t h e asse]mb1y of h u m a n s [‫]אנשים‬." T h e s e p a s s a g e s d o n o t s e e m to p r e e l u d e t h e possibility t h a t t h e t w o r e a l m s , h u m a n a n d angelic, c a n b e o n e a n d t h e s a m e i n s o m u c h as t h e y exist c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y a n d p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a m e activity, b u t t h e h u m a n s d o n o t necessarily b e c o m e angels. G i v e n t h e lack of specific e v i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e SSS,

discussion of

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s in t h e SSS h a s i n s t e a d f o c u s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e overall f u n c t i o n of t h e text. T h u s , t h a t it is " a q u a s i - m y s t i c a l " liturgical text m i g h t suggest s o m e sort of c o m m u n a l e x p e r i e n c e of t h e divine liturgy. T h e SSS s e e m u n i q u e a m o n g t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e , to t h e e x t e n t t h a t this c a n n o t b e r u l e d

out.

T h i s t y p e of a p p r o a c h t o t h e texts h a s led C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s r e c e n t l y to suggest a " n e w p a r a d i g m " for r e a d i n g t h e SSS. R a t h e r t h a n u n d e r s t a n d all t h e v a r i o u s t e r m i n o l o g y as " a n g e l s , " h e suggests t h a t t h e SSS b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e if o n e applies m a n y of these r e f e r e n c e s to t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y , w h o " n o w h a v e a h e a v e n l y , a n g e l i c a n d divine identity. 3 2 H e calls u p o n his o w n r e c e n t w o r k a n d

52 C. Fletcher-Louis, "Heavenly Ascent or Incarnational Presence? A Revisionist Reading of The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" in SBL 1998 Seminar Papers (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1998) 2:367-399; quote p. 369.

t h a t of C . M o r r a y - J o n e s , w h i c h a r g u e d t h a t in t h e l a t e

Second

T e m p l e p e r i o d r i g h t e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e w i d e l y believed t o b e c o m e a n g e l o m o r p h i c beings. 3 3 T h i s s t u d y c h a l l e n g e s w h e t h e r such a belief w a s a c t u a l l y held. M o r e o v e r , t h e r e a r e b a s i c issues of t h e

applic-

ability of t o p o i f r o m t h e " Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e " as a c o r p u s to t h e SSS—namely,

t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e SSS a n d , for e x a m -

pie, 1 Q H is n o t c l e a r unless o n e a s s u m e s t h e y a r e b o t h w o r k s f r o m t h e s a m e c o m m u n i t y . As i n t e r e s t i n g as his suggestion is, it w o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e o n l y e v i d e n c e f o r a s u s t a i n e d r e f e r e n c e t o h u m a n s as essentially " g o d s " ( ‫ א ל ו ה י ם‬a n d ‫ ) א ל י ם‬. T h a t t h e SSS w o u l d b e u n i q u e a m o n g t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t p r e c l u d e its possibility, b u t it d o e s s e e m to m a k e it less likely. U l t i m a t e l y , s u c h a p a r a d i g m c a n n o t b e p r o v e d a n d c a n n o t e v e n really b e s u s t a i n e d w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i n g t h e SSS

to

o t h e r w o r k s f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls. 3 4 I n s u m m a r y , t h e r e s e e m s little d o u b t t h a t t h e SSS a r e liturgical in s o m e sense. O n e of t h e i r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s is w o r s h i p in t h e h e a v enly t e m p l e , t h e h i e r a r c h y a n d s t r u c t u r e , a n d so o n . C l e a r l y , t h e SSS s h a r e a n affinity w i t h b o t h c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s a p o c a l y p t i c (visionary) w o r k s a n d also w i t h l a t e r mystical writings. W h a t is m u c h less c l e a r is t h e g e n r e of t h e SSS a n d its f u n c t i o n in its c o m m u n i t y . T h e m a i n h i n t t h a t it w a s m e a n t in s o m e f o r m t o b e r e a d a n d u s e d b y a c o m m u n i t y is t h e o p e n i n g of e a c h song, " t o t h e m a s k i l " ( ‫ ) ל מ ש כ י ל‬. B e y o n d t h a t i n d i c a t o r , t h i n g s b e c o m e m u c h less clear. It is c e r t a i n l y possible t h a t t h e i n t e n t of r e a d i n g such a d o c u m e n t w a s to give die c o m m u n i t y t h e sense t h a t t h e y w e r e p a r t a k i n g in t h e h e a v e n l y liturgy, a n d if so s o m e sort of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n i m p l i e d . It is a t least c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e SSS w e r e i n d e e d m e a n t to p r o v o k e a sense of c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels. It m a y b e t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d f o r r e g u l a r liturgical use b u t i n s t e a d f o r use a t a specific t i m e , n a m e l y t h e e s c h a t o n . It c a n n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y itself is t h e r e f e r e n t of t e r m s like ‫ א ל י ם‬a n d ‫ א ל ו ה י ם‬as " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " beings. T h e r e is n o clear i n d i c a t i o n f r o m t h e text itself t h a t angels live a m o n g

33 C. Fletcher-Louis, "Heavenly Ascent," esp. pp. 369-382. See also, J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism: Profiles and Paradigms, ed. J. Collins and J. Charlesworth (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151. 34 Additionally, Newsom (The S0?1gs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 23) says that the term ‫ אלים‬is used frequently within the Qumran corpus to refer to angels. If the SSS is a sectarian document as Retcher-Louis supposes, then this goes against his paradigm as well.

t h e c o m m u n i t y . It is m o r e likely t h a t , if t h e SSS

a r e m e a n t as a

m e a n s by w h i c h t h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d p a r t a k e in t h e h e a v e n l y liturgy, t h e n t h e y w o u l d in s o m e sense a s c e n d to t h e h e a v e n s to d o so, b u t t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , if t h e y did, t h e y u n d e r w e n t a n y k i n d of p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b y d o i n g so. T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e

SSS

is a m b i g u o u s . T h e t e x t d o e s n o t clearly distinguish b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s b u t suggests a u n i q u e c i r c u m s t a n c e in w h i c h h u m a n a n d divine liturgy is in s o m e sense c o m b i n e d o r s h a r e d . It is difficult to d r a w any firm conclusions f r o m the

4.2

SSS.

The War Scroll (1QM

and

4Q491-496)

A m o n g t h e seven l a r g e m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d in c a v e 1 w a s a d o c u m e n t t h a t c o n t a i n e d n i n e t e e n H e b r e w c o l u m n s of w h a t first c a m e to b e k n o w n f r o m Y. Y a d i n ' s s e m i n a l w o r k as t h e Scroll of t h e W a r of t h e S o n s of L i g h t a g a i n s t t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s b u t is n o w m o r e c o m m o n l y k n o w n as t h e W a r Scroll (1Q_M). 35 I n c a v e 4 f r a g m e n t s of a n o t h e r six copies of this w o r k w e r e later discovered ( 4 Q 4 9 1 - 4 9 6 ) . 3 6 A t first g l a n c e , t h e W a r Scroll s e e m s t o b e u n i f i e d in c o n t e n t a n d t h e m e , w h i c h suggests t h a t it c o u l d c o m e f r o m a single

author.

H o w e v e r , closer e x a m i n a t i o n reveals r e p e t i t i o n s (e.g., 1 2 : 8 1 6 ‫־‬

and

19:1^8) a n d o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c i e s in details s u c h as t i m i n g a n d i m p i e m e n t s of w a r , w i t h t h e result t h a t t o d a y it is widely a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e W a r Scroll is a c o m p o s i t e text w i t h v a r i o u s levels of r e d a c t i o n . J . V a n d e r Ploeg first suggested t h a t c o l u m n s 1 a n d 1 5 1 9 ‫ ־‬c o n s t i t u t e d t h e earliest f o r m of t h e text. 3 ' D a v i e s h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e levels of redaction (

2

1

2

‫־‬9, 1 0 ‫ ״ ־‬, and 1 5 1 9

‫ ־‬,

with 1 a n d

1314‫־‬

additions). 3 8 I n m o s t r e c e n t a t t e m p t s to r e c o n s t r u c t t h e literary hist o r y of t h e W a r Scroll, c e r t a i n sections h a v e b e e n r e g u l a r l y r e c o g n i z e d as l i t e r a r y u n i t s : c o l u m n s 2 9,

1 0 - 1 2 (or 14), a n d

15-19.

N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e o r d e r in w h i c h t h e s e w e r e p r o d u c e d o r h o w

35

and

Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). 36 J . VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994). H. Stegeman, The Library of Qumran: The Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus (Grand Rapids, Ml/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1998) 102, finds'10 mss. of the War Scroll. 37 J . van der Ploeg, "La composition littéraire de la Règle de la Guerre de Qumran" in Sacra Pagina IL, ed. J. Coppens, A. Descamps, and E. Massaux (Gembloux: Duculot) 13-19. 38 P. Davies, 1QM: The War Scroll from Qurman (Rome: Biblical Institute, 1977).

w h y t h e y w e r e fitted t o g e t h e r in t h e i r p r e s e n t f o r m , as well as t h e r e l a t i o n of c o l u m n 1 t o t h e o t h e r s , r e m a i n m a t t e r s of d e b a t e . T h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e issues i n v o l v e d h a s c a u s e d s o m e to c o n t i n u e

to

a s s u m e u n i t y w h e n p e r f o r m i n g exegesis. 3 9 T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e a n y specific set of a n g e l beliefs r e l a t e d to a n y o n e level of r e d a c tional activity, so f o r t h e p u r p o s e of t h e f o l l o w i n g discussion,

the

W a r Scroll will be c o n s i d e r e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e final r e d a c tor, w h o b r o u g h t t h e text i n t o its p r e s e n t f o r m . T h e literary d e p e n d e n c e of t h e W a r Scroll u p o n t h e B o o k of D a n i e l (e.g., 1 Q M 1 a n d D a n 1 1 : 4 0 - 1 2 : 3 ) gives us a terminus a quo of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 160 B C E . 4 0 P a l é o g r a p h i e e v i d e n c e d a t e s 1 Q M to t h e s e c o n d half of t h e first c e n t u r y B C E , t h u s a likely terminus ad quem.iX H o w e v e r , given t h a t t h e scroll w a s d i s c o v e r e d a m o n g t h e finds at t h e

Dead

Sea, Y a d i n posits t h a t t h e latest d a t e f o r t h e c o p y i n g of t h e

War

Scroll e x t a n t to us is 70 C E .

42

M o r e precise d a t e s h a v e b e e n sug-

g e s t e d for t h e t e x t o n t h e basis of c o m p a r i s o n s to c o n t e m p o r a r y military m a n u a l s , b u t t h o s e discussions n e e d n o t c o n c e r n us h e r e . T h e W a r Scroll is firmly w i t h i n t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l b o u n d s of o u r s t u d y . D u e to its eschatological c o m p o n e n t s , t h e W a r Scroll a p p e a r s o f t e n i n d i s c u s s i o n s of a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e S e c o n d period.

43

Temple

H o w e v e r , it is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d as a rule b o o k , a n d in t h e

s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e it is s o m e t i m e s e v e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e W a r R u l e . T h e s e " r u l e s " w e r e a p p a r e n t l y a m a p of t h e c o r r e c t c o n d i t i o n s n e e d e d t o c r e a t e a h u m a n - a n g e l a r m y to fight the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l battle. 4 4

39

E.g., M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1992) 213. G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 4th ed. (New York: Penguin, 1995) 124. 41 F. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran, 3rd ed. (New York: Doubleday, 1995) 138. 42 See also, D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature" in Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period, ed. Michael Stone (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984) x; H. Stegeman, The library at Qumran, pp. 102-104. 43 The rubric "apocalyptic" should not be overemphasized with regard to the War Scroll, however, since the War Scroll lacks the definitive mark of an apocalypse, i.e., a revelation. C. Rowland states of the evidence regarding the War Scroll, "All this seems to indicate that we are dealing with a text which is related to the apocalypses, but one which hardly justifies the label 'apocalyptic'." The Open Heaven, p. 42. His point is echoed by J . Cotöns, who, more recently, says the War Scroll is "perhaps the most 'apocalyptic' book in the corpus, although its literary form is that of a rule book and not of a revelation." Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls (London: Routledge, 1997) 10. See also, R. Bauckham, 77;« Climax of Prophecy (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993) 212ff. 44 In some sense, the term "utopian" might be appropriate to this situation, insomuch as the War Scroll seems to describe a synergy between humans and angels as the "Sons of Light." w

T h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n is: H o w d o e s s u c h a set of rules f u n c t i o n ? I n c o l u m n 1 w e a r e told t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t is " F o r t h e M [aster, T h e R u l e of] W a r o n t h e u n l e a s h i n g of t h e a t t a c k of t h e sons of light a g a i n s t t h e s o n s of d a r k n e s s , t h e a r m y of Belial: a g a i n s t t h e t r o o p of E d o m , M o a b , t h e sons of A m m o n . " C o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t c o l u m n s a r e specific d i r e c t i o n s o n t h e a s s i g n m e n t of t r o o p s (col. 2), t h e rule for t h e t r u m p e t s (cols. 2 - 3 ) , rules f o r t h e s t a n d a r d s (cols. 3 - 4 ) , inscriptions, p r a y e r s , a n d so o n . T h e detail is e x t r a o r d i n a r y . T h i s specificity w o u l d s e e m to h a v e a d e f i n i t e p u r p o s e . T h e n u m b e r , a n d p e r h a p s e v e n c o m p u l s i v e n a t u r e , of t h e rules s e e m s to i m p l y a n e c e s s a r y state o r c o n d i t i o n m u s t b e o b t a i n e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l w a r to t a k e p l a c e a n d f o r t h e S o n s of L i g h t to b e successful. C o l u m n

16 r e i t e r a t e s t h a t " T h e y shall a c t a c c o r d i n g t o

this e n t i r e r u l e . " T h e W a r Scroll utilizes a t h e m e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in t h e

Hebrew

Bible: holy w a r — t h e i d e a t h a t a r m e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n o r d a i n e d b y G o d a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o s t a n d ideologically o p p o s e d to t h e c h o s e n p e o p l e of G o d is a n essential c o m p o n e n t in t h e r e o r d e r i n g of history. T h a t angels a r e a n essential c o m p o n e n t of holy w a r f a r e is well attested ( J o s h u a 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 , 1 C h r 2 1 : 1 6 , 2 K g s 19:35, 1 M a c c 7:41 a n d 2 M a c c 15:22fi, N u m 2 2 : 2 2 , 3 M a c c 6 : 1 8 , 4 M a c c 4 : 1 0 S i r a c h 48:21). As B a u c k h a m suggests, " h o l y w a r " t r a d i t i o n s c a n b e d i v i d e d

into

t w o types: (1) t h o s e in w h i c h G o d (alone o r w i t h his h e a v e n l y forces) is v i c t o r i o u s (e.g., E x o d

1 4 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 2 K g s 1 9 : 3 2 - 3 5 ; et al)

a n d (2)

t h o s e in w h i c h h u m a n s assist in t h e w a r f a r e . 4 5 H e n o t e s t h a t

"the

o n e w o r k — n o t p r e s e r v e d b y C h r i s t i a n s — w h i c h d o e s give us d e t a i l e d e v i d e n c e of ideas a b o u t a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l holy w a r in w h i c h Israelite a r m i e s will fight is t h e W a r Scroll f r o m Q u m r a n ( 1 Q M ) . " 4 6 B a u c k h a m h i g h l i g h t s t h e u n i q u e n e s s of t h e W a r Scroll's h u m a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e h o l y w a r to d e m o n s t r a t e c e r t a i n similarities b e t w e e n 1 Q M

and

t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t h e m e of h o l y w a r in t h e H e b r e w Bible, t h e r e is also a t r a d i t i o n of G o d as w a r r i o r . E x o d 15:3 states, " T h e L o r d is a man of war*1

t h e L o r d is his n a m e " (‫ א י ש מ ל צ מ ה י ה ו ה שמו‬ΓΪΙίΤ).

T h e L X X w a s n o t as c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h calling t h e L o r d a " m a n of w a r " a n d i n s t e a d h a s " t h e L o r d is c r u s h i n g w a r s ; the L o r d is his

45 46 47

R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, pp. 21 Off. R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, p. 212. See also Isa 42:13; Hos 12:6, and cf. josh 5:13.

n a m e " (κύριος σ υ ν τ ρ ι β ώ ν π ο λ έ μ ο υ ς κ ύ ρ ι ο ς δνομα αύτφ). Α . Segal h a s s h o w n t h a t in t h e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n s , this p a s s a g e b e c a m e o n e of a n u m b e r of s o u r c e s t h a t led to t h e " t w o p o w e r s " c o n t r o v e r s y , since t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e L o r d as a h u m a n w a r r i o r c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as a n e n t i t y s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e L o r d , especially in light of p a s s a g e s like D a n 7:13. 4 8 F o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion, t h e p a s s a g e is r e l e v a n t i n s o m u c h as a d i v i n e b e i n g is d e s c r i b e d as a

"man."

H o w e v e r , this t h e o p h a n y d o e s n o t tell us m u c h a b o u t a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s . Still, t h e L o r d - a s - w a r r i o r m o t i f likely i n f l u e n c e d p o r t r a y a l s of t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l in 1 Q M a n d R e v e l a t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e . T h e W a r Scroll, t h e n , s e e m s to allow believers to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of G o d ' s o r d e r in history, first t h r o u g h in t h e rules, t h e n a c t u a l l y final

fighting

preparation

side-by‫־‬side w i t h angels in t h e

battle. 4 9

Column

1 states t h a t in t h e final struggle b e t w e e n t h e S o n s of

L i g h t a n d t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s " t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of divine b e i n g s [‫ ]אלים‬a n d t h e a s s e m b l y of m e n [‫ ]אנשים‬, t h e S o n s of L i g h t , a n d t h e lot of d a r k n e s s shall fight e a c h o t h e r " ( w . 10—11). F u r t h e r m o r e , in t h a t b a t t l e t h e r e will b e w a r cries (v. 11) f r o m b o t h t h e ‫א ל י ם‬

and

the ‫( ואנשים‬v. 11). H o w e v e r w e u n d e r s t a n d ‫ א ל י ם‬, it is c l e a r t h a t t h e y a r e s o m e t h i n g qualitatively d i f f e r e n t f r o m ‫ואנשים‬. T h e

"congregation

of divine b e i n g s " ( ‫ ) ע ד ת א ל י ם‬a n d t h e " a s s e m b l y of m e n ‫ו ק ה ל ת א נ ש י ם‬ d o b a t t l e a g a i n s t a single f o r c e , t h e lot of d a r k n e s s (‫)וגורל הושך‬. T h i s lot, called t h e A r m y of Belial in v. 13, also s e e m s to h a v e angels ( ‫ ) מ ל א כ י ם‬a m o n g its f o r c e s (v. 15). S o a distinction is m a d e

between

the t w o g r o u p s of b e i n g s i n v o l v e d , b u t t h e y s e e m to c o n s t i t u t e o n e fighting

force.

C o l u m n 7 : 4 - 6 c o n t a i n s o r d i n a n c e s for p u r i t y specifically b e c a u s e the angels a r e to b e w i t h the host. I t states: [4] . . . Neither lame, nor blind, nor crippled, nor a m a n in whose flesh there is a permanent blemish, nor a m a n stricken by some uncleanliness [5] in the flesh, none of them shall go to battle with them. T h e y shall all be freely enlisted for war, perfect in spirit and in body and prepared for the Day of Vengeance. And [6] no m a n shall go down with them on the day of battle who is impure because of his "fount," for the holy angels [‫ ] מ ל א כ י קודש‬shall be with their hosts [ ‫ ] ע ם צ ב א ו ת ם‬. 48

A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1977) 33-57. My conclusions regarding the nature of the War Scroll are very much like those of C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 395-475. 49

T h e r e s e e m to b e t w o e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r s u c h rules. First, t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p w h o fit t h e s e criteria: b l i n d , d e a f , i n f i r m , a n d so o n ; t h u s t h e c o n c e r n w a s to e x c l u d e s u c h

members

at key m o m e n t s t o e n s u r e t h e possibility of a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e . S e c o n d , t h e r e w e r e n o t necessarily s u c h m e m b e r s , b u t t h e i r h e i g h t e n e d sense of p u r i t y w a s r e l a t e d to p r e p a r i n g for a holy w a r , since t h e s e p r o scriptions a r e v e r y m u c h like t h o s e o u t l i n e d in D e u t 2 3 : 9 1 4

‫־‬

t h o s e e n c a m p e d a g a i n s t t h e i r e n e m i e s . It is n o t possible to k n o w w h i c h of t h e s e is t h e c a s e , o r w h e t h e r it is s o m e of b o t h . Also, t h e a n g e l s a r e s i m p l y said t o b e "with 5 ' (‫ )עם‬t h e host. T h i s d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e i t h e r p a r t y

but

simply a j o i n i n g of forces. A g a i n in 12:8, t h e a n g e l s a r e said to b e a m o n g t h e m e n ,

"For

t h e L o r d is holy, a n d t h e g l o r i o u s king (is) w i t h us, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e h o l y o n e s [‫[ ]קדושים‬. . .] the h o s t of angels [ ‫ ] צ ב א מ ל א כ י ם‬is a m o n g o u r n u m b e r e d m e n [ ‫ ] ב פ ק ח ־ י נ ו‬. " T h e angels a r e w i t h t h e m e n , b u t t h e r e is n o c l e a r sense t h a t t h e m e n a r e t r a n s f o r m e d , o n l y t h a t t h e y h a v e likely a c h i e v e d a n e c e s s a r y level of p u r i t y to allow t h e angels to b e p r e s e n t . T h e c o m m u n i t y d o e s s e e m t o h a v e a special c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e angels. C o l u m n 10:9—11 states: [9] W h o is like your people Israel which you have chosen for yourself from all the peoples of the lands, [10] the people of the saints of the Covenant, instructed in the laws and learned in wisdom, taught in d i s c e r n [ m e n t . . .]hearers of the glorious voice, and seers of [11] holy angels [ ‫ ] מ ל א כ י ק ו ד ש‬, open of ear, and hearers of profound things . . . T h e r e f e r e n c e to " h e a r e r s of t h e g l o r i o u s v o i c e " m a y m e a n n o m o r e than understanding T o rah, but when combined with the reference to s e e i n g angels, it suggests a m o r e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h heavenly realm.

50

the

N o n e of this implies t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , h o w e v e r . T h a t

t h e m e m b e r s m a y b e a b l e t o see angels is n o t e x t r a o r d i n a r y in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e W a r Scroll itself, since n u m e r o u s p a s s a g e s s p e a k of angels being present. Lastly, s o m e o t h e r p a s s a g e s also s e e m to i n d i c a t e t h a t angels a r e believed to b e p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e final battle. T h e a r c h a n g e l s ' n a m e s (Sariel, M i c h a e l , G a b r i e l , a n d R a p h a e l ) a r e i n v o k e d o n shields of t h e 50

C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 116.

for

t o w e r s ( 9 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . Also, M i c h a e l will b e definitive in t h e victory of the S o n s of L i g h t (17:6): H e has sent an everlasting help to the lot w h o m he has redeemed through the might of the majestic angel. (He will set) the authority of Michael in everlasting light. He will cause the covenant of Israel to shine in joy. Peace and blessing to the lot of God. H e will exalt over all the divine beings the authority of Michael and the dominion of Israel over all the flesh. T h e P r i n c e of L i g h t s m a y b e t h e s a m e b e i n g as M i c h a e l a n d is also said to b e e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e r e s c u e of t h e " S o n s of L i g h t " (13:10). T h e W a r Scroll s h o w s us o n e J e w i s h g r o u p ' s i d e a s a b o u t t h e eschatological w a r t h a t w o u l d r e o r d e r history. T h e rules t h e r e i n p r o v i d e t h e c o m m u n i t y w i t h g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a t t l e t h a t is to t a k e p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e f o r c e s of d a r k n e s s . T h a t angels a r e m e a n t to b e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of this b a t d e c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e h u m a n believers t o t h e angels is n o t entirely c l e a r , h o w e v e r . T h e p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e

repre-

sent a v e r y small p e r c e n t a g e of t h e e n t i r e d o c u m e n t , w h i c h is largely c o n c e r n e d with the actions necessary for the h u m a n

community.

T h e r e is a n a p p a r e n t c o n c e r n to m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d sense of p u r i t y to allow the a n g e l s to b e a m o n g m e n . T h e c o m b i n e d h u m a n angelic fighting f o r c e — t h e S o n s of L i g h t — w i l l c a r r y o u t G o d ' s p l a n of d e s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s . T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e h u m a n w a r riors is i n t e n d e d , at least b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g t h e final battle. A Related Fragment:

4Q491

O n e o t h e r f r a g m e n t , a t t r i b u t e d to t h e W a r Scroll f a m i l y of texts, is r e l e v a n t to t h e discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s

and

angels: 4 Q 4 9 1 f r a g m e n t 11, col. 1 w a s originally d e e m e d " T h e S o n g of M i c h a e l a n d t h e J u s t " b y M . Baillet. 5 1 O t h e r r e c e n s i o n s of w h a t is n o w b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e s a m e text (or at least a v e r y similar text) a r e : 4 Q 4 7 1 b ; 4 Q 4 2 7 f r a g m e n t 7, a n d p e r h a p s 1 Q H ‫ ־‬col. 26. 5 2 Baillet w a s likely led to die conclusion t h a t t h e speaker w a s die angel M i c h a e l b e c a u s e t h e s p e a k e r in t h e text m a k e s s o m e b o l d claims:

51

M. Baillet, DJD VII (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) 45-49. E. Schuller, "A Hymn from a Cave Four Hodayaot Manuscript: 4Q427 7 i + ii" JBL 112 (1993) 605-628. 52

[12] . . . a powerful throne in the congregation of divine beings [‫]אלים‬, on which all the kings of the East cannot sit, and their nobles [. . .] stand still [13][. . .] my glory. None is exalted besides me, and none comes to me, for I have sat on [. . .] in the heavens. T h e r e is no [14][. . .]jbwm I reckon myself a m o n g the divine beings [ ‫ ] א ל ה י ם‬, and my place (is) in the holy congregation. V e r s e 18 adds, " F o r I a m r e c k o [ n e d ] a m o n g t h e divine b e i n g s [‫]אלים‬, [ a n d ] m y glory is w i t h the k i n g ' s s o n s . " T h e a t t r i b u t i o n of these w o r d s to t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l h a s b e e n c h a l lenged by M . Smith, w h o thinks that Michael would not c o m p a r e himself to s u c h " s m a l l f r y " as e a r t h l y kings ( A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s ) . 5 3 S m i t h sees this as a c l a i m m a d e b y t h e M a s t e r , p e r h a p s t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , to a h e a v e n l y seat. J . Collins n o t e s t h a t S m i t h ' s position n e e d s s o m e q u a l i f i c a t i o n . S m i t h is c o r r e c t t h a t t h e b e i n g is n o t a n a n g e l , b u t h e is i n c o r r e c t t o say t h a t this text r e p r e s e n t s a n a s c e n t . C o l l i n s suggests t h a t it is c l o s e r t o texts t h a t discuss t h e d e i f i c a t i o n ( e n t h r o n e m e n t ) of M o s e s t h a n m y s t i c a l a s c e n t

texts. 5 4

Collins's q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s e e m t o m a k e m o r e sense of t h e text as it currently stands. H o w e v e r this p a s s a g e is u n d e r s t o o d , it s e e m s c l e a r e n o u g h

that

t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k i n g sees himself to h a v e b e e n e x a l t e d a n d is n o w a m o n g t h e g r o u p called t h e ‫( א ל י ם‬line 14) a n d t h a t this g r o u p c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a class o r type of angels. 5 5

4.3

The Hodayot

(1QH)

T h e Hodayot, o r T h a n k s g i v i n g Scroll, w a s d i s c o v e r e d in c a v e 1, surviving in t w o originally s e p a r a t e m a n u s c r i p t s as well as s o m e sixtyfive f r a g m e n t s . T h e r e a r e e i g h t e e n c o l u m n s w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y thirty h y m n s e x t a n t . T h e h y m n s likely d a t e t o t h e first c e n t u r y B C E . 5 6 A 53 M. Smith, "Two Ascended to Heaven: Jesus and the Author of 4Q491" in Jesus and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J . Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1992) 290-301. 54 J. Collins, "A Throne in the Heavens: Apotheosis in pre-Christian Judaism" in Death, Ecstasy and Other Worldly Journeys, ed. J. Collins and M. Fishbane (New York: SUNY, 1995) 43-58. 55 The terms •‫ אלהי‬and ‫ אלים‬do appear elsewhere in the 4 Q material: 4QM1 frag. 1-3, v. 3; frag. 5 - 6 v. 1; frag. 13 v. 1; 4QM5 frag. 2 v. 4; 4QM6 frag. 2 v. 2; 3 v. 5, but they add comparatively little to our overall understanding due to their limited context. 56 D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature," p. 107.

f e w s c h o l a r s h a v e e v e n a s s e r t e d t h a t s o m e h y m n s in t h e first p e r s o n m a y h a v e b e e n written by the T e a c h e r of Righteousness. 5 7 Nevertheless, their authorship remains uncertain. H . K u h n ' s w o r k w a s a m o n g t h e first t o suggest the m u n i t y i d e a f o r this text.

58

angel-com-

O t h e r s h a v e n o t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of this

w o r k in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s as well. 5 9 T h e h y m n s m a k e k n o w n t h e full p o t e n t i a l of t h e believers. C o l u m n 1 1 : 2 0 - 2 2 says: [20] And I know there is hope [21] for someone you fashioned out of clay to be an everlasting community. T h e corrupt spirit you have purified from the great sin so that he can take his place [22] with the host of the holy ones, a n d can enter in communion with the congregation of the sons of heaven [‫ ]בני שמים‬. H e r e t h e t e r m " a n g e l " d o e s n o t a p p e a r explicitly, b u t t h e situation s e e m s relatively clear. T h o s e " f a s h i o n e d o u t of c l a y , " h u m a n b e i n g s ( G e n 2:7) w i t h a " c o r r u p t spirit" ( h u m a n s in a fallen state), h a v e a c h a n c e to t a k e t h e i r p l a c e w i t h t h e " h o l y o n e s , " e n t e r i n g i n t o c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e " s o n s of h e a v e n . " 6 ° T h i s s e e m s t o suggest a r e t u r n to a p u r e r , p e r h a p s p r e - F a l l state (cf. A d a m in 3.1 above). I n this case, h u m a n s b e g i n as s o m e t h i n g d i s t i n c t — t h a t is, " t h o s e f a s h i o n e d o u t of c l a y " w i t h a " c o r r u p t spirit." T h e

righteous

are purified a n d

e n t e r i n t o c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e angels. M e n a n d angels a r e m e n t i o n e d in 1 Q H c o l u m n

14:12—13:

[12] . . . For you have brought [your truth and your] glory [13] to all the men of your council [ ‫ ]אנשי ע צ ת כ ה‬and in the lot, together with the angels of the face [‫ ] מ ל א כ י פנים‬, without there being an interpreter [‫ ]מליץ‬between y [ 0 u r holy o n e s . . . ] T h e t e r m ‫ מ ל א ך‬a p p e a r s in this p a s s a g e a n d s e e m s j u x t a p o s e d w i t h t h e " m e n " of t h e c o u n c i l . T h e e n d of line 13 is suggestive. It says " w i t h o u t t h e r e b e i n g a ‫ מ ל י ץ‬b e t w e e n . " 6 1 T h e text b r e a k s off a f t e r 57

J. Hyatt, "The View of the Man in the Qumran 'Hodayot'," NTS 2 (1955-1956) 276-284; H. Stegemann, Library, p. 107. 58 H. Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. 66-72. 59 See, C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, pp. 116-118; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 185-188 and All the Glory, pp. 104-112; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 174. 60 H. Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. 91-92, argues that the "holy ones" should be understood as angels, and this seems correct. 61 Interestingly, in Job 33:23 the term ‫ מליץ‬is used in connection with ‫מלאך‬, and the two terms may even stand in apposition.

this p o i n t . T h a t m e n m a y be t o g e t h e r w i t h " a n g e l s of t h e f a c e " is significant. I t m a y reflect a u n i o n w i t h t h e a n g e l s t h a t n e e d s

no

m e d i a t i o n . T h e s o m e w h a t f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of the text is frustrating, since a c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s c a n n o t b e m a d e . In 1 Q H

1 9 : 1 0 - 1 4 t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a c o n c e r n for p u r i t y so t h a t

m e m b e r s c a n a t t a i n a n e l e v a t e d status: [10] For your glory, you have purified m a n f r o m sin, [11] so that he can make himself holy for you from every impure abomination and blameworthy iniquity, to become united with the sons of your truth and the lot of your holy ones, [12] to raise the worms of the dead from the dust, to an [everlasting] community and from a depraved spirit, to your knowledge, [13] so that he can take his place in your presence with the peipetual host and the [everlasting] spirits, to renew him with everything that will exist, [14] and with those who know in a community of jubilation. A n g e l s a r e n o t explicitly m e n t i o n e d , b u t t h e p e r p e t u a l h o s t suggests t h e a n g e l s w h o c o n s t a n t l y w o r s h i p G o d in t h e h e a v e n l y t e m p l e . T h i s p a s s a g e is n o t u n l i k e c o l u m n 11 a b o v e in t h a t it a p p a r e n t l y speaks of a r e s t o r a t i o n to a sinless state. S u c h a p u r i f i e d state s e e m s to allow t h e m e m b e r s t o b e c o m e p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c host. It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r this w o u l d h a p p e n in t h e i r m o r t a l lives o r a f t e r , b u t it is at least plausible t h a t t h e i n t e n t i o n is f o r a this-life e l e v a t e d state. 5 2 T h e T h a n k s g i v i n g H y m n s a r e suggestive. S o m e passages give t h a n k s for a p u r i f i e d state in w h i c h it s e e m s h u m a n s c o u l d b e in c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y host. T h e r e is a c l e a r sense t h a t h u m a n s b e g i n as flesh a n d b l o o d ( f o r m e d o u t of clay) a n d a r e sinful ( a n d in n e e d of purification). O n c e t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m the h u m a n condition,

they

a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d in t h e possibility of b e i n g identified w i t h angels in h e a v e n .

4.4

The Rule of the Community

(1QS,

lQSa,

and

lQSbf

T h e R u l e of the C o m m u n i t y was also discovered in cave 1. C o n t a i n e d o n the s a m e scroll a r e t h r e e w o r k s t h a t a r e n o t c o n t i n u o u s : (1) t h e R u l e of t h e C o m m u n i t y ( 1 Q S ) , (2) t h e R u l e of t h e

Congregation

( l Q S a ) , a n d (3) t h e R u l e of t h e Blessings ( l Q S b ) . All t h r e e w o r k s 62

C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, pp. 117-118. Additionally, there are fragments from cave 4 (4Q255-264) and perhaps cave 5 (5QJ 1) that are part of S. 63

a r e in t h e s a m e h a n d . It is believed to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d s o m e t i m e a r o u n d 1 5 0 - 1 0 0 B C E . 6 4 T h e Serekh c o n t a i n s g u i d e l i n e s f o r c o m m u n a l living. T h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e w o r k s w r i t t e n o n t h e s a m e scroll suggests t h a t t h e r e m a y b e s o m e relation a m o n g t h e m , b u t this s h o u l d not be automatically assumed. 1 Q S 11:7 8 suggests a f u s i n g of t h e e a r t h l y c o m m u n i t y w i t h t h e heavenly: [7] . . . T o those whom G o d has selected he has given them an everlasting possession; until they inherit t h e m in the lot of [8] the holy ones [‫]קדשים‬. H e joins their assembly to the sons of heaven [‫ ]בני שמים‬in order for the counsel of the Community and a foundation of the building of holiness to be an eternal plantation throughout [9] all future ages. . . T h e r e is n o explicit m e n t i o n of angels i n t h e p a s s a g e itself, b u t if t h e " h o l y o n e s " a r e u n d e r s t o o d as r e f e r r i n g t o t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e " s o n s of h e a v e n " to h e a v e n l y beings, t h e n w e c o u l d p e r h a p s i n f e r a c o m b i n i n g of t h e t w o g r o u p s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e p a s s a g e suggests t h a t t h e t w o g r o u p s a r e distinct a n d will o n l y b e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r a t a specific p o i n t in t i m e . T h e i r j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r d o e s h a v e a p e r m a n e n t effect (lines 8 9 ‫ ) ־‬. C . R o w l a n d suggests h e r e t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as " a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d , " a d d i n g , " G o d h a s , as it w e r e , e x t e n d e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s of h e a v e n to i n c l u d e this h a v e n of holiness." 6 5 l Q S a sets o u t r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ( m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h i l d r e n ) . T h e r e a r e o n l y t w o e x t a n t c o l u m n s , b e g i n n i n g , " N o w this is t h e R u l e f o r t h e e n t i r e c o n g r e g a t i o n of Israel, d u r i n g t h e

end

t i m e . " T h e R u l e of die C o n g r e g a t i o n 2 : 5 ~ 9 explicitly m e n t i o n s angels. T h e c o n c e r n h e r e is f o r t h e p u r i t y of t h e m e m b e r s , b e c a u s e

the

angels a r e said to b e " a m o n g t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n . " [5] . . . And everyone who is defiled in his flesh, defiled in his feet or [6] in the hands, lame 01‫ ־‬blind, deaf or d u m b 01‫ ־‬defiled in his flesh with a blemish [7] visible to the eyes, or an old m a n who cannot maintain himself in the congregation; [8] these shall not enter to take their place a m o n g the congregation of the men of name, for angels [8] of holiness are a m o n g their congre [gation] . . . 64 65

D. Dirnant, "Qumran," pp. 497-498; H. Stegemann, Library, p. 107. C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 118.

T h i s text q u i t e clearly states t h a t a n g e l s a r e in t h e m i d s t of d i e c o m m u n i t y (cf. 1 Q M

7:6, 12:8 above). First, it s e e m s t h e r e m a y well

h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p w h o fit t h e s e criteria: b l i n d , d e a f , i n f i r m , etc. If this w e r e t r u e , t h e n c e r t a i n l y n o t all m e m b e r s w o u l d be a b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in a n y c e r e m o n y t h a t m i g h t involve t h e p r è s e n c e of angels. S e c o n d l y , t h a t t h e a n g e l s a r e said to b e p r e s e n t d o e s n o t m e a n m e m b e r s a r e in a n y w a y t r a n s f o r m e d by t h e i r p r e s e n c e . T h e r e is p e r h a p s t h e possibility t h a t t h e p u r e m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y a r e m e a n t to b e in s o m e w a y t r a n s f o r m e d t h r o u g h

their

e x p e r i e n c e , b u t this is b y n o m e a n s necessary. 1 Q S b , T h e R u l e of t h e Blessings, c o l u m n 4 reads: [24] . . . and you [25] like an angel of the face [‫ ] כ מ ל א ך פנים‬in the holy residence for the glory of the G o d of Hosts [.. .] [. . .] you be around, serving in the temple of [26] the kingdom, casting lot with the angels of the face [‫]מלאכי פנים‬ and the Council of the Community . . . T h i s p a s s a g e is e v e n m o r e suggestive of t h e possible angelic status of t h e believers. I n line 2 4 only t h e w o r d ‫ ו א ה ה‬is e x t a n t , b u t m a n y t r a n s l a t o r s suggest r e a d i n g s like " m a y y o u b e like" o r " y o u shall b e like" a n a n g e l of t h e f a c e . T h e s e a r e possible r e a d i n g s , b u t t h e y suggest a p a r t i c u l a r m e a n i n g . 5 6 It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e ‫ כ‬p r e f i x to ‫ מ ל א ך‬. It m a k e s a c o m p a r i s o n (like o r as), n o t a n e q u a t i o n (cf. G a l 4:14). I n line 26, t h e angels of t h e f a c e a r e a g a i n m e n t i o n e d ,

and

t h e s a m e f o r m ‫ ו א ת ה‬r e c u r s n e a r t h e e n d of line 25. I n line 26 w e also get t h e v e r b ‫ ו מ פ י ל‬. It is n o t entirely c l e a r w h a t this p h r a s e m e a n s (cf. Ps 22:19). 6 7

4.5

Songs of the Sage (4Q511

Fragment

35)

T h e S o n g s of t h e S a g e a r e a n u m b e r of f r a g m e n t s t h a t s e e m t o b e h y m n s against d e m o n s a n d evil spirits. T h e y are written in a H e r o d i a n

66

E.g., J. Charlesworth and L. Stuckenbruck, The Rule of the Community and Related Documents (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994) 127-128; F. Garcia-Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994) 433. 67 C. Fletcher-Louis (All the Glory, pp. 150-161) discusses this text in light of "priestly" anthropomorphism. While his exegesis is interesting, his synthetic approach of tying the priesthood to this text is not one that is accepted here.

script a n d d a t e to a r o u n d d i e t u r n of t h e era. 6 8 O n f r a g m e n t 3 5 n i n e lines a r e e x t a n t , t h o u g h o n l y seven c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e . T h e first five lines a r e of t h e m o s t interest. L i n e 4 in p a r t i c u l a r c o u l d b e s e e n as e q u a t i n g priests, t h e r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e , G o d ' s a r m y (or host), his servants, a n d t h e a n g e l s t h a t a r e a b l e t o see the ‫ כ ב ו ד‬. A fairly literal t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e first five lines is o f f e r e d : [1] G o d against all flesh, and a j u d g m e n t of vengeance to destroy wickedness, and through the raging [2] anger of God. Some of those who are refined seven times and the holy ones [ [ ‫ו ב ק ד ו ש י ם‬ ary, and purity a m o n g those purified. And they [4] shall be priests [‫]כוהנים‬, his righteous people [ ‫ ] ע ם צ ר ק ו‬, his host [‫ ]צבאו‬and his servants [‫]ומשרתים‬, the angels of his glory [ [ ‫כ ב ו ד ו‬

T h e " h o l y o n e s " of line 2 a r e usually u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y . 6 9 A s s u m i n g this is d i e case, t h e n t h e r e f e r e n t of t h e v a r ious titles of line 4 c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as t h e h u m a n " h o l y o n e s , " in w h i c h c a s e " a n g e l s of his g l o r y " c o u l d b e o n e of t h o s e titles. M . Baillet b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e " h o l y o n e s " w o u l d b e c o m e

"servants"

of t h e angels. T h e final mem. of ‫ ו מ ש ר ת י ם‬i n d i c a t e s o t h e r w i s e , since a construct form would be expected. M . D a v i d s o n sees a b r e a k at "his s e r v a n t s " a n d b e g i n s a n e w sent e n c e w i t h " t h e angels of his glory will praise h i m . " 7 0 T h i s is a p l a u sible t r a n s l a t i o n , in w h i c h case t h e r e w o u l d b e n o e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. As D a v i d s o n himself says, " N o w h e r e else in t h e c o r p u s [of Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e ] is t h e r e f o u n d a n e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e sectaries will live in h e a v e n , let a l o n e b e c o m e a n g e l s . " 1 ‫׳‬ C . G i e s c h e n s i m p l y n o t e s line 4 as a n e x a m p l e of a n

equation

b e i n g m a d e b e t w e e n priests a n d angels. 7 2 C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s

goes

m u c h f u r t h e r , r e f u t i n g translations t h a t w o u l d n e g a t e equality b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s h e r e . 7 3 H e s u p p o r t s this position b y c o n n e c t i n g 68

M. Baillet, DJB VII (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) 215, 219. Hebrew text taken from pp. 237-238, pl. LXII. 69 M. Baillet, DJD VII, pp. 237-238; M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, pp. 282-285; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 190. 70 M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 284. 71 M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 284. 72 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 174. 73 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 189-193. See also C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 293-296.

‫מלאכי‬

t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e w i t h t h e E s s e n e s a n d suggesting t h a t w i t h i n t h e sect w e r e s o m e w h o r e m a i n e d c e l i b a t e b e c a u s e t h e y

deemed

t h e m s e l v e s t o b e living in a "state of T e m p l e p u r i t y , " w h i c h

they

u n d e r s t o o d as e q u i v a l e n t to a n " a n g e l i c existence." 7 4 J o s e p h u s

(B.J.

2 : 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 , 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 ) does r e c o r d drat t h e r e w e r e two types of Essenes, o n e s t h a t led a c e l i b a t e life a n d o t h e r s t h a t m a r r i e d . T h e

problem

in c o n n e c t i n g t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls as a c o r p u s w i t h w h a t J o s e p h u s says a b o u t t h e Essenes is t h a t t h e link b e t w e e n t h e scrolls a n d t h e Essenes is n o t c e r t a i n . It m a y well b e w a r r a n t e d , b u t a n y conclusions b a s e d o n such a c o n n e c t i o n m u s t r e m a i n tentative. T h i s f r a g m e n t in a n d of itself d o e s n o t p r o v i d e m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. A n u m b e r of t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e possible, s o m e of w h i c h w o u l d m e a n t h a t n o e q u a t i o n is i n t e n d e d b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n "holy o n e s " a n d t h e " a n g e l s of glory." Lastly, t h e r e a r e t w o o t h e r pieces of e v i d e n c e b e y o n d t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls t h a t n e e d to b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r possible c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t e n v i s i o n e d t h e m s e l v e s as living t o g e t h e r w i t h angels.

4.6

The Corinthian

Community

P a u l s e e m s to h a v e h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t y in C o r i n t h , w r i t i n g a n d visiting t h e m o f t e n . A s n o t e d , t h e

term

άγγελος a p p e a r s o n l y t e n times in t h e seven letters c o n s i d e r e d to b e a u t h e n t i c a l l y P a u l i n e (see 3.13). F o u r of t h o s e t e n o c c u r in 1 C o r , a n o t h e r t w o in 2 C o r . T h e m o s t suggestive p a s s a g e in t e r m s of h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r a c t i o n is 1 C o r

11. P a u l ' s d i s c u s s i o n

concerns

p r o p e r w o r s h i p (11:2). I n 11:3 h e says, " t h e h e a d of even,‫ ׳‬m a n is C h r i s t , t h e h e a d of a w o m a n is h e r h u s b a n d , a n d t h e h e a d of C h r i s t is G o d " (11:3). I n 11:10 P a u l m a k e s t h e e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " T h a t is w h y a w o m a n o u g h t t o h a v e [ έ ξ ο υ σ ί α ν (lit. " a u t h o r i t y , " m o s t t r a n s l a t e as " v e i l " as a s y m b o l of a u t h o r i t y ) ] o n h e r b e c a u s e of t h e a n g e l s [δια τους αγγέλους] ."

75

though head,

T w o issues a r e involved

a n d a r e integrally linked f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e passage: t h e m e a n i n g of t h e έ ξ ο υ σ ί α u p o n t h e w o m a n ' s h e a d a n d t h e m e a n i n g of t h e p h r a s e δ ι α τους αγγέλους.

74

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 192-195. The word κάλυμμα "veil" appears in several mss. and Patristic sources (Irenaeus, Jerome). It appears to be a gloss meant to explain the difficult term έξουσίαν. See also Tertullian, Virg. Vet. 7:2. 75

M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s suggest t h a t t h e " a u t h o r i t y " o n h e r h e a d is a m a r k of s u b o r d i n a t i o n in k e e p i n g with P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t in 11:3. O t h e r s h a v e suggested t h a t it is simply a veil t h a t is m e a n t t o m a i n t a i n t h e c o r r e c t social m o r e s in k e e p i n g with 11:5: t h a t is, a w o m a n ' s b a r e h e a d is like a s h o r n h e a d - it is n o t socially a c c e p t a b l e . T h i s d o e s n o t explain w h y P a u l t h e n includes the p h r a s e Ôtà τους αγγέλους, h o w e v e r . It h a s b e e n suggested t h a t the sense m a y b e t h a t w i t h o u t

some

sort of c o v e r i n g f o r t h e i r h e a d s as a p r o p h y l a c t i c , t h e w o m e n of t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o n g r e g a t i o n w e r e v u l n e r a b l e t o evil angels s u c h as t h e "sons of G o d " w h o lusted a f t e r w o m e n ( G e n 6:2). 76 T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s o n t h e w h o l e b e e n d i s r e g a r d e d , since it d o e s n o t m a k e sense in the c o n t e x t of P a u l ' s discussion. P a u l h a s n o t said a n y t h i n g t o suggest these angels a r e p r e s e n t o r w o u l d r e p r e s e n t a n y p r o b l e m . 7 7 O t h e r i n t e r p r e t e r s h a v e suggested t h a t t h e a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e m a y b e " g o o d " angels i n t e r e s t e d in t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e o r d e r of c r e a t i o n

and

p r o p e r w o r s h i p . 7 8 I n s u c h a case, t h e w o m e n m u s t b e veiled b e c a u s e t h e y will l e a d t h e a n g e l s to sin. 7 9 J . F i t z m y e r h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t reflects a n i d e a seen in s o m e of t h e t e x t s f r o m t h e D e a d

Sea c o m m u n i t y

considered

a b o v e — n a m e l y , t h a t angels s e e m to dwell a m o n g t h e a c t u a l h u m a n m e m b e r s of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n at specific times. 8 0 I n this case t h e c o n c e r n of P a u l a n d t h e C o r i n t h i a n s is s o m e t h i n g a k i n to w h a t is seen in t h e W a r Scroll (cf. D e u t 32), w h e r e p u r i t y is a n issue in o r d e r for a n g e l s t o b e p r e s e n t . T h e w o m e n n e e d to h a v e t h e i r

"veils"

b e c a u s e t h e i r u n c o v e r e d h e a d s r e p r e s e n t t h e e q u i v a l e n t of a " b o d i l y d e f e c t . " F i t z m y e r s u m m a r i z e s his insights f r o m the Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e : " W e a r e invited b y t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n to u n d e r s t a n d

that

the u n v e i l e d h e a d of a w o m a n is like a b o d i l y d e f e c t w h i c h s h o u l d be e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e a s s e m b l y , ' b e c a u s e h o l y a n g e l s a r e p r e s e n t in

76 B. Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1946). 77 M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head: An Examination of I Cor XI. 10" NTS 10 (1964) 412; G. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987) 521. 78 Foerster, TDNT 2:573f.; M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," pp. 412-413. 79 Cf. T. Reu. 5. 80 J . Fitzmyer, "A Feature of Qumran Angelology and the Angels of 1 Cor 11:10" in Paul and Qumran, ed. J . Murphy-O'Connor (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1968) 187-204. See also H. Cadbury, "A Qumran Parallel to Paul" Harvard Theological Review 51 (1958) 1-2.

the c o n g r e g a t i o n . 8 "

‫' י‬

T h e evidence f r o m Q u m r a n

demonstrates

c o n c e r n e q u a l l y for i n f i r m a n d i m p u r e m e n as it is d o e s f o r w o m e n . M . H o o k e r h a s o f f e r e d a slightly d i f f e r e n t exegesis. 8 2 S h e suggests t h a t έ ξ ο υ σ ί α b e t a k e n t o m e a n " a u t h o r i t y " in t h e sense t h a t

the

w o m e n in t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y c a n p r a y a n d p r o p h e s y sideby-side w i t h m e n in t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e is n o w a y t o be c e r t a i n of P a u l ' s m e a n i n g h e r e , b u t it is n e c e s s a r y to h a v e a n i d e a of t h e r a n g e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s since t h e s e a r e integrally r e l a t e d to h o w o n e i n t e r p r e t s δ ι ά τους αγγέλους. F i t z m y e r ' s a n d H o o k e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e n o t m u t u a l l y exclusive, h o w e v e r . 8 3 B o t h suggest t h a t t h e angels a r e p r e s e n t in t h e c o m m u n i t y d u e to a c o n c e r n f o r p r o p e r w o r s h i p . P e r h a p s , r a t h e r t h a n s e e i n g t h e u n v e i l e d h e a d as a " b o d i l y d e f e c t " t h a t r e q u i r e s a veil, it is m o r e n a t u r a l t o t a k e έ ξ ο υ σ ί α as " a u t h o r i t y , " as H o o k e r suggests.

The

" a u t h o r i t y " is a sign t h a t in this n e w c o m m u n i t y w o m e n a r e e m p o w e r e d to p r a y a n d p r o p h e s y as m e n . T h e έ ξ ο υ σ ί α is a sign to t h e a n g e l s t h a t this is c o r r e c t a n d p a r t of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t P a u l o u t l i n e d in 11:3. As w a s t h e case w i t h m u c h of t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m Q u m r a n a n d as will b e t h e case in t h e text b e l o w (4.7), t h e c o n c e r n f o r p u r i t y in o r d e r t h a t a n g e l s c a n dwell w i t h h u m a n s s e e m s to b e i m p o r t a n t , b u t t h e έ ξ ο υ σ ί α m a y also b e a sign t h a t t h r o u g h b a p t i s m i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y a n g e l s c o u l d dwell w i t h w o m e n as well as m e n . 1 Cor

11:10 is n o t t h e o n l y p a s s a g e t h a t suggests t h o s e in t h e

C o r i n d n a n c o m m u n i t y believed in t h e p r e s e n c e of angels. I n 1 C o r 4 : 9 P a u l says, " F o r I t h i n k t h a t G o d

has exhibited us

apostles

[αποστόλους] as last of all, like m e n s e n t e n c e d to d e a t h [έπιθανατίους]; because w e h a v e b e c o m e a spectacle [θέατρον] to the world [τωκόσμφ], to angels a n d to m e n [και άγγέλοις καί ά ν θ ρ ώ π ο ι ς ] . " I n this section, P a u l is d e f e n d i n g his a p o s t l e s h i p . H e w a r n s t h e C o r i n t h i a n s a g a i n s t j u d g i n g a n y p e r s o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y " s e r v a n t s " s u c h as himself o r Apollos, w h o h a v e c o m e to h i m to s p r e a d t h e gospel. I t is n o t entirely c l e a r w h y P a u l b r i n g s a n g e l s i n t o this discussion. It m a y simply b e a w a y of talking a b o u t t h e entire cosmos. 8 4 H o w e v e r , t h e i r inclusion suggests

81

J. Fitzmyer, "A Feature of Qumran Angelology," p. 200. M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," pp. 411-416. 83 In discussion at the Graduate NT Seminar (Oxford, UK on 31 January 2002), Prof. Hooker said she did not see a great difference between hers and J. Fitzmyer's interpretation of the passage. 84 G. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdrnans, 1987) 521. 82

a

t h a t P a u l a n d p e r h a p s his a u d i e n c e b e l i e v e d t h a t a n g e l s t o o k

an

interest in t h e affairs of h u m a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e c a r r y i n g o u t G o d ' s work.85 I n 1 C o r 6:3 P a u l asks, " D o y o u n o t k n o w t h a t w e will j u d g e [κρινοΰμεν] 8 6 angels [αγγέλους]? H o w m u c h m o r e [μήτιγε], m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g to this life!" T h e c o n t e x t is P a u l ' s discussion m e m b e r s of the C o r i n t h i a n c h u r c h w h o a r e b r i n g i n g o n e

regarding another

b e f o r e s e c u l a r a u t h o r i t i e s to solve disputes. I n 6:2 P a u l asks,

"Do

y o u n o t k n o w t h a t t h e saints [oi άγιοι] will j u d g e [κρινοΰσιν] d i e w o r l d [τον κ ό σ μ ο ν ] ? " M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s t a k e t h i s v e r s e t o r e f e r t o

the

C o r i n t h i a n s . T h u s , P a u l s e e m s to b e saying t h a t m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e b e e n given a special p o w e r / o b l i g a t i o n to m a k e j u d g m e n t s n o w a b o u t angels. T h i s w o u l d i m p l y a s u p e r i o r i t y of h u m a n s o v e r a n g e l s (cf. H e b 2:5), w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d c e r t a i n l y suggest a s t r o n g distinction b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. Lastly, P a u l m a y h i n t a t a n angelic a t t r i b u t e for himself in 1 C o r 13:1 w h e n h e says t h a t h e c a n " s p e a k in t h e t o n g u e s of a n g e l s a n d m e n " (Εάν τ α ΐ ς γ λ ώ σ σ α ι ς των α ν θ ρ ώ π ω ν λ α λ ώ κ α ι τών αγγέλων). 8 7 It s e e m s n a t u r a l f r o m t h e c o n t e x t to t a k e this to r e f e r to t h e ecstatic p o w e r of s p e a k i n g in t o n g u e s (spiritual gifts [πνευματικών]), b u t p e r h a p s it m e a n s s o m e t h i n g m o r e in t h e sense of a c t u a l l y s p e a k i n g t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e angels. P a u l d o e s n o t say t h a t h e does, only "if h e w e r e t o " s p e a k as a n angel. T h i s w o u l d b e parallel t o P a u l ' s use of the h y p e r b o l e in G a l 1:8, " B u t e v e n if w e , o r a n a n g e l f r o m h e a v e n , s h o u l d p r e a c h to y o u a g o s p e l c o n t r a r y t o t h a t w h i c h w e p r e a c h e d to y o u , let h i m b e a c c u r s e d . " Still, in light of t h e fact t h a t P a u l uses the t e r m o n t h r e e o t h e r o c c a s i o n s in 1 C o r , it is at least c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t h e uses this a n a l o g y b e c a u s e it is f u n c t i o n a l for t h e C o r i n t h i a n s . T h u s , t h e only p a s s a g e t h a t s e e m s explicitly to r e f e r to t h e p r è s e n c e of a n g e l s is 1 C o r 11:10: " b e c a u s e of t h e a n g e l s . " T h e c u m u lative effect of t h e f o u r C o r i n t h i a n p a s s a g e s m i g h t suggest m o r e t h a n a p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t in t h e p r e s e n c e of a n g e l s in t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t t h e r e is n o w a y to b e c e r t a i n . I n 1 C o r 4 : 9 P a u l s e e m s t o say t h a t angels as well as m e n o b s e r v e h u m a n affairs. 1 C o r 11:10 i n d i c a t e s

85

M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," p. 413. That the verb is future indicative suggests that perhaps Paul is referring to an eschatological setting for this judgment scene. 87 Speaking in the angelic dialect was an aspect at least one other text considered above—in the transformation undergone by the daughters of Job in T. Job 48 when they donned special clothing. In that case both their hearts and mouths were transformed, which is not unlike Paul's overall message in 1 Cor 13. 86

s o m e specific c o n c e r n a b o u t a n g e l s ' p r e s e n c e a t liturgy. T h e

enig-

m a t i c s t a t e m e n t in 1 C o r 6 : 3 p l a c e s h u m a n s in j u d g m e n t of angels, a n d lastly in 1 C o r 13:1 P a u l h i n t s a t t h e possibility of s p e a k i n g in a n a n g e l i c dialect, b u t this m a y simply b e s o m e kind of a n a l o g y . T h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y m a y not have been the only early C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y to h a v e h a d s u c h beliefs. C o l 2:18 says, " L e t n o o n e disqualify y o u , insisting o n s e l f - a b a s e m e n t a n d w o r s h i p of a n g e l s [θρησκεία των αγγέλων], t a k i n g his s t a n d o n visions, p u f f e d u p w i t h o u t r e a s o n b y his s e n s u o u s m i n d . " R o w l a n d a r g u e s p e r s u a s i v e l y for t a k i n g των αγγέλων as a subjective genitive. 8 8 T h i s m e a n s t h a t it is n o t t h e c o m m u n i t y w o r s h i p p i n g angels, b u t i n s t e a d t h e c o m m u nity is c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e w o r s h i p of t h e angels in h e a v e n . T w o r e c e n t studies s h o w t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p is m o v i n g in this direction. 8 9 T h e e v i d e n c e h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest a n y

identification

b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , it s e e m s to m a i n t a i n die distinction. 111 1 C o r 11:10 the έξουσία is n e e d e d δ ι α τους αγγέλους. H u m a n f e m a l e s n e e d s o m e type of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m a r k b e c a u s e of t h e angels. P a u l says h e c o u l d speak in t h e t o n g u e of m e n or angels (13:1). A n g e l s and m e n (not necessarily t o g e t h e r ) o b s e r v e t h e a p o s ties, w h o h a v e b e c o m e a spectacle, a n d h u m a n s j u d g e a n g e l s (4:9). E v e n in 6:3, w h e r e P a u l suggests t h a t h u m a n s m a y j u d g e t h e angels, t h e r e b y giving h u m a n s a s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n , t h e r e is still a distinction b e t w e e n t h e classes of beings. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s suggest t h a t P a u l a n d t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y saw t h e liturgical s p a c e as o n e w h e r e h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c o u l d a n d did i n t e r a c t . B u t at t h e s a m e t i m e the n e c e s s a r y s e p a r a t i o n / d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels is m a i n t a i n e d .

4.7

The Community

of the Rechabites (Hist.

Rech.)

T h e text k n o w n as T h e History of die R e c h a b i t e s (also sometimes called t h e A p o c a l y p s e of Z o s i m u s ) is difficult to d a t e . T h e of t h e text suggested t h a t t h e Hist. 88

first

Rech, c a m e f r o m a

translator fifth-century

C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic Visions and the Exaltation of Christ in the Letter to the Colossians" JSNT 19 (1983) 73-83. See also F. Francis, "Humility and Angelic Veneration in Col 2:18" in Conflict at Cotossae, rev. ed., ed. F. Francis and W. Meeks (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1975) 163-195. 89 J. Dunn, The Epistles to the Colossiatis and U> Philemon (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996) 177-185, and C. Marvin Pate, "The Agony of the Ecstasy" in Communities of the Last Days: The Dead Sea Scrolls, the New Testament, and the Story of Israel (Leicester: Apollos, 2000) 179-195 and 271-275.

C E C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c setting. 9 0 M o r e r e c e n t l y , b o t h B. M c N e i l a n d J . C h a r l e s w o r t h h a v e s e e n in it a m o r e a n c i e n t J e w i s h s t r a t u m a n d h a v e a r g u e d f o r its

first-century

C E p r o v e n a n c e . 9 1 T h e p r o b l e m s of

d a t i n g a r e insoluble. S i n c e it is possible t h a t t h e r e is a line of t r a d i t i o n in this text d a t i n g b a c k to t h e p e r i o d of this study, t h e text is e x a m i n e d . T h e R e c h a b i t e s a p p e a r in J e r 35:2, 3, 5, 18. I n J e r e m i a h this relig i o u s g r o u p is said to a b s t a i n f r o m w i n e ; t h e y d o n o t f a r m o r m a k e p e r m a n e n t h o m e s , living in tents. 9 2 T h e Hist. Rech, r e c o u n t s t h e visit of a h o l y m a n n a m e d

Zosimus

to t h e island of t h e p e o p l e k n o w n as " t h e Blessed O n e s . " Z o s i m u s a b s t a i n s f r o m b r e a d a n d w i n e a n d d o e s n o t see o t h e r h u m a n s f o r f o r t y y e a r s . A n a n g e l a p p e a r s to h i m a n d tells h i m t h a t h e will b e g i v e n his wish t o see t h e p e o p l e k n o w n as " t h e Blessed O n e s . " A f t e r a l o n g j o u r n e y , Z o s i m u s arrives o n t h e island, w h e r e

he

m e e t s a n a k e d m a n . H e asks t h e m a n w h y h e is n a k e d , to w h i c h t h e m a n replies t h a t it is Z o s i m u s w h o is a c t u a l l y n a k e d a n d tells h i m t h a t , if h e wishes to see h i m , h e s h o u l d look t o t h e h e a v e n s . As Z o s i m u s d o e s so, h e sees, "his f a c e (to be) like t h e f a c e of a n a n g e l " (cf. S t e p h e n , A c t s 6:15). Z o s i m u s ' s "eyes w e r e d i m m e d f r o m f e a r " a n d h e falls to t h e g r o u n d ( 5 : 4 ) — c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to a n g e l o p h a n i e s . T h e " m a n " discloses t h a t h e is o n e of the "Blessed O n e s " (6:1). Z o s i m u s is told a b o u t t h e p l a c e a n d t h e "Blessed O n e s . " T h e island is like t h e G a r d e n of E d e n , a n d d i e Blessed O n e s a r e like A d a m a n d E v e b e f o r e t h e y s i n n e d (7:2-3). W h e n m a n y of t h e c o m m u n i t y h e a r t h a t Z o s i m u s h a s c o m e

to

t h e m , t h e y wish to cast h i m o u t , [10] And many noble elders and spiritual youths, who were like angels from heaven, assembled, formed an assembly, and said to me, " O man of sin, go, exit from a m o n g us. W e do not know how you prepared yourself so that you were able to come a m o n g us; [10a] perhaps you 90 M. R. James, "On the Story of Zosimus" in Apocrypha Anecdota, Texts and Studies 2:3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1893) 86-108. 91 B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus" JSJ 9 (1978) 68-82, and J . Charlesworth, OTP 2:443-461; J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism, ed.J. Collins and G. Nickelsburg (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980). 92 That the Essenes or Qumran community might be the descendants of the Biblical Rechabites has been suggested by some scholars, among them M. Black. This has on the whole been rejected. See C. H. Knights, "The Rechabites of Jeremiah 35: Forerunners of the Essenes?" JSP 10 (1992) 81-87.

wish to deceive us as the Evil O n e deceived our father A d a m . " [11] However, I, miserable, Zosimus, fell upon my face before them, a n d with mournful tears entreated them earnestly and said, " H a v e mercy upon me, Ο Blessed Ones; And forgive m e my offense, earthly angels." (Hist. Rech. 7:10-11) T h e Blessed O n e s a r e c o n c e r n e d for t h e p u r i t y of t h e i r c o m m u n i t y . I n this case t h e i m p u r i t y is sin, b u t t h e sinful b o d y is like a c o r r u p t e d g a r m e n t (5:3). W h a t is m e a n t b y " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " is n o t entirely clear; it suggests s o m e t y p e of liminal existence. H o w e v e r , t h e c o m m u n i t y is explicit t h a t t h e y a r e m o r t a l s (11:2a). T h e " a n g e l s of G o d " a r e said to c o m e a m o n g t h e c o m m u n i t y c o n t i n u o u s l y (12:6). J . C h a r l e s w o r t h says t h a t t h e Blessed O n e s " a r e in a p o s t - e a r t h l y b u t p r e - r e s u r r e c t i o n f o r m ; t h e y a r e in a p l a c e w a i t i n g to b e t a k e n to h e a v e n b y t h e a n g e l s w h o visit t h e m , " 9 3 w h i l e F l e t c h e r - L o u i s c o n e l u d e s t h a t , " i n this text w e h a v e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a n

angelo-

m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y . . . a c o m m u n i t y w h o s e total lifestyle reflects t h e i r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . " 9 4 I n s o m e sense calling t h e Blessed O n e s

"angelo-

m o r p h i c " is a p p r o p r i a t e , since t h e vision t h a t Z o s i m u s h a s of t h e first m a n he e n c o u n t e r s uses the imagery of angelophanies. Nevertheless, t h e Blessed O n e s a r e m o r t a l (11:2a) a n d a r e clearly d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e h e a v e n l y a n g e l s w h o visit t h e m r e g u l a r l y (12:6). B. M c N e i l h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e Hist. Rech, is a w r i t i n g of t h e J e w i s h ascetic g r o u p k n o w n as t h e T h e r a p u t a e . 9 5 T h e T h e r a p u t a e a r e k n o w n to us only f r o m Philo, w h o discusses t h e m in his treatise, " O n Contemplative Life" (2-3, 1 0 - 4 0 , 64-90).

96

The Theraputae

the

share

a n u m b e r of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h t h e Essenes, w h o , if t h e y a r e t a k e n to b e t h e s a m e g r o u p as t h o s e w h o c o m p o s e d t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls, w o u l d s h a r e a c o m m u n a l lifestyle, etc. 9 ‫ ׳‬P h i l o says t h e y e x e m p l i f y a c o m m u n i t y focused on c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d mystical vision of the divine: [11] T h e T h e r a p u t a e , a people always taught from the first to use their sight, should desire the vision of the Existent and soar above the sun and our senses and never leave their place in this company which carries them on to perfect happiness. . . [12] but carried away by a heaven-sent passion of love, remain rapt and possessed like bacchanals 93 94 95 96 97

J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 143. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 203. B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," pp. 68-82. F. Colson, Philo IX (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941). HJPAJC 11:592-597.

01‫ ־‬corybants until they see the object of their yearning. [13] T h e n such is their longing for the deathless a n d blessed life that thinking their mortal life already ended they abandon their property to their sons and daughters 01‫ ־‬to other kinsfolk, thus voluntarily advancing the time of their inheritance. (11-13) P h i l o e n d s his discussion b y calling t h e T h e r a p u t a e t h o s e w h o h a v e "lived in t h e soul a l o n e , citizens of H e a v e n a n d t h e w o r l d . " (90). T h e r e is n o explicit m e n t i o n of a n g e l s in Contempt. Life. M c N e i l h i m self n o t e s a t the b e g i n n i n g of his a r g u m e n t , "Also significant is t h e lack of a single m e n t i o n of a n g e l s — w e a r e n o t e v e n told t h a t t h e T h e r a p u t a e believe in a n g e l s — w h e r e a s t h e R e c h a b i t e s a r e ' b r e t h r e n of a n g e l s ' . " 9 8 M c N e i l c o n c l u d e s , " B u t if it b e a c c e p t e d t h a t t h a t N a r r a t i o n is a s t a t e m e n t of t h e ideals of a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , t h e n t h e g r o u p w h o s e ideals it fits w i t h m i n i m u m of difficulty is t h e T h e r a p u t a e . " 9 9 T o b e m o r e precise, w h a t M c N e i l s h o u l d say is t h a t it b e s t fits w i t h t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e f r o m a m o n g those g r o u p s a b o u t w h o m m o d e r n schola r s h a v e s o m e k n o w l e d g e . It is equally possible t h a t t h e Hist.

Rech.

r e p r e s e n t s the i d e a s of a g r o u p a b o u t w h i c h w e h a v e n o o t h e r i n f o r mation or perhaps a m u c h later c o m m u n i t y . C . Fletcher-Louis includes the T h e r a p u t a e

in his discussion

of

" A n g e l o m o r p h i c c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n Israel." 1 0 0 N o t h i n g explicit in P h i l o ' s a c c o u n t suggests t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y , o r a n y o n e l o o k i n g at t h e m , t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e living a n angelic o r t r a n s f o r m e d life. P h i l o d o e s say t h a t t h e T h e r a p u t a e s o u g h t to h a v e visions of t h e divine. H e also says t h a t t h e y " h a v e lived in t h e soul a l o n e , citizens of H e a v e n a n d t h e w o r l d . " T h e i r ascetic p r a c t i c e s c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n n e c t e d to s o m e belief in angels living a m o n g t h e m , as w e see in Ilist.

Rech, o r p e r h a p s in s o m e of t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e , b u t t h e r e

is n o w a y to be c e r t a i n of this. T h a t t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r of c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t w e r e c o n c e r n e d f o r p u r i t y a n d lived disciplined, ascetic lifestyles c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d , b a s e d on the Q u m r a n evidence, Philo's description of t h e T h e r a p u t a e , a n d t h e p i c t u r e seen in t h e Hist. Rech., as well as p e r h a p s t h e c o m m u n i t y b e h i n d t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s . 1 0 1 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is n o

98 99 100 101

B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," p. 77. B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," p. 81. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 198-199. See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him: Ascent and Vision Mysticism in the Gospel of

r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t all t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e , n o r t h a t a n y of t h e m specifically believed t h a t b y t h e i r a c t i o n s t h e y w e r e b e c o m i n g angels. T h e r e f o r e , t h e Hist. Rech, m u s t b e u s e d w i t h s o m e c a u t i o n in a n y discussion of late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n g e l beliefs, since its d a t e

and

provenance

the

are by no m e a n s certain. An identification with

T h e r a p u t a e m a y b e c o r r e c t , b u t it is also possible t h a t this g r o u p is t h e best fit f r o m a m o n g t h e g r o u p s a b o u t w h i c h w e h a v e i n f o r m a tion. F u r t h e r , e v e n if this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w e r e c o r r e c t , it a d d s little to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e R e c h a b i t e c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels. Hist.

The

Rech, suggests t h e r e w a s a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h a t believed it

w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e R e c h a b i t e s of J e r 3 5 a n d t h a t h a d angels living a m o n g t h e m . T h i s i d e a of e a r t h l y c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n g e l s is n o t u n l i k e w h a t w a s s e e n in s o m e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d

Sea

Scrolls. T h i s g r o u p s e e m s t o h a v e m a i n t a i n e d a p u r e state so t h a t h e a v e n l y a n g e l s c o u l d b e p r e s e n t . T h e t e r m " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " suggests t h e liminal o r t r a n s f o r m e d state of t h e c o m m u n i t y . U l t i m a t e l y , this m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s .

Conclusions S e v e n u n i t s of e v i d e n c e w e r e e x a m i n e d in this c h a p t e r . T h e a n a l y sis a i m e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n g e l s d w e l l i n g a m o n g a

human

c o m m u n i t y signified o r i m p l i e d a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e

human

c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s into a n angelic status. S o m e of t h e

Qumran

m a t e r i a l clearly s h o w e d a belief t h a t angels w e r e to live a m o n g t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , b u t o f t e n p u r i t y laws w e r e laid o u t t h a t s e e m e d to b e a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e . 1 Q H did suggest t h a t h u m a n s , t h o u g h originally distinct f r o m angels, m i g h t b e c o m e p a r t of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of h e a v e n as angels. R e g a r d i n g the evidence f r o m Q u m r a n generally,

Fletcher-Louis

c o n c l u d e s , "this discussion of Q i i m r a n m a t e r i a l , in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h w h a t else is k n o w n of t h e Essenes [ f r o m J o s e p h u s ] , h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y of a n i d e n t i t y t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m t h a t of n o r m a l m o r t a l i t y to t h e angelic life.'" 0 2 T h e e v i d e n c e o n t h e

Thomas (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996) 86-93, who makes a strong case for seeing the Gos. Thorn, as a mystical—rather than Gnostic—text wherein the community sought communion with the divine through an ascetic lifestyle. 102 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 198; bracketed material is my own.

w h o l e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t s u c h a n assertion. M u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e is a m b i g u o u s , a n d if t h e Q u m r a n m a t e r i a l is n o t first s y n t h e s i z e d a n d t h e n m a t e r i a l f r o m J o s e p h u s ( a b o u t t h e Essenes) a d d e d to t h e discussion, s u c h a n assertion s e e m s e v e n less t e n a b l e . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s r e c e n t l y a r t i c u l a t e d this p o s i t i o n m o r e fully. 1 0 3 H e sees t h e locus of h u m a n to a n g e l (divine) t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as t h e T e m p l e , o r in t h e case of Q u m r a n , t h e c o m m u n a l liturgical space. T h e r e a r e t w o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s w i t h this idea. 1 0 4 O n e is seei n g t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m Q u m r a n as a c o r p u s ; t h e o t h e r is seeing t h e d o c u m e n t s as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i d e a s of t h e c o m m u n i t y a t a n y given t i m e . T h e s e t w o issues d e t r a c t f r o m t h e i m p a c t of a n y exegesis t h a t w o u l d d e r i v e a c o h e r e n t set of beliefs f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y . Still, t h e s e c r i t i q u e s aside, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s p r o v i d e d s c h o l a r s w i t h s o m e useful insights. T h e T e m p l e o r liturgical s p a c e of t h e c o m m u n i t y

may

105

It is

b e u n d e r s t o o d as qualitatively d i f f e r e n t f r o m n o r m a l space.

c e r t a i n l y possible t h a t this specific locus w a s a p l a c e w h e r e a t least s o m e J e w s ( a n d in this case, the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y )

understood

that the earthly and heavenly spheres could have contact a n d some f o r m of t r a n s c e n d e n c e c o u l d o c c u r . T h i s s e e m s to be t h e type of u n d e r s t a n d i n g m a n y J e w s w o u l d h a v e h e l d f o r t h e h i g h priest e n t e r i n g t h e H o l y of H o l i e s o n Y o m K i p p u r . W h e t h e r it e x t e n d e d b e y o n d this locus for m o s t J e w s is u n c l e a r . E v e n if it d i d . h o w e v e r , t h e effect s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t r a n s i e n t . I n s o m u c h as a n y " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as transf o r m a t i v e , it s e e m s this o n e w o u l d h a v e b e e n as well; h o w e v e r , t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t s u c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w e r e o n l y g l i m p s e s — p e r h a p s at m o s t a c c u m u l a t i n g steps in the right d i r e c t i o n — t h a t w o u l d n o t h a v e c a u s e d p a r t i c i p a n t s to see o n e a n o t h e r as angels b u t i n s t e a d as r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s

ultimately

seeking to c o m m u n e w i t h (and p e r h a p s t r a n s f o r m into) angels in t h e afterlife. I n so d o i n g , t h e y w o u l d t h u s fulfill t h e u l t i m a t e goal of t h e mystic: to reside w i t h G o d in t h e t h r o n e r o o m . T h i s , I suggest, w a s n o t s i m p l y a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i d e a / h o p e . T h e belief in t h e possibility of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o n the m o d e l of

righteous

i n d i v i d u a l s of t h e p a s t

w a s a f o c u s of t h e m y s t i c in this life. O n e c o u l d n o t s i m p l y believe, "I will t r a n s f o r m i n t o a n a n g e l w h e n I die, a n d t h u s I will o n e d a y

103 104 105

C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory. See my review of All the Glory in CBQ 65 (2003) 256-258. This seems to be similar to what Paul is suggesting in 1 Cor. See 4.6 above.

be w i t h G o d . " O n e h a d to p r e p a r e oneself in this life a n d b e g i n a p r o c e s s t h a t w o u l d ( a n d could) o n l y b e fully realized in t h e afterlife. S e e n in this light, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s assertions a r e v a l u a b l e . T h e first p a r t of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s thesis f r o m All the Glory is t h a t "in its original, t r u e a n d r e d e e m e d state h u m a n i t y is divine ( a n d / o r angelic)." A d a m is said to b e m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d a n d t h u s h u m a n i t y is as well. T h i s m e a n s t h a t A d a m a n d h u m a n s a r e t h e o m o r p h i c (or p e r h a p s " d i v i n e " ) , b u t to call t h e m

"angelomorphic"

s e e m s to a d d u n n e c e s s a r y c o n f u s i o n to t h e discussion, so I suggest stressing t h e " t h e o m o r p h i c " c h a r a c t e r of h u m a n i t y i n its o r i g i n a l state. T h e thesis m a y o r m a y n o t b e c o r r e c t , b u t it is n o t n e c e s s a r y as l o n g as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n could o c c u r in t h e afterlife. 1 0 6 T h e s e c o n d , interlocking c o m p o n e n t of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s thesis states that: T h e attainment now, for the redeemed, of this true humanity was conceptually and experientially grounded in their 'temple' worship in which ordinary space and time, a n d therefore h u m a n ontology, are trailscended. T h e y take for granted a cultic mythology which means that those who enter the worship of the community experience a transfer from earth to heaven, from humanity to divinity and from mortality to immortality. 107 T h i s s e e m s possible f o r a v e r y specific set of loci (i.e., t h e T e m p l e o r t h e liturgical s p a c e a t Q u m r a n ) , b u t u l t i m a t e l y it is u n c l e a r t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e scrolls s u p p o r t s s u c h a c l a i m , especially o n a c o r p o r a t e level. As s e e n in c h a p t e r 3, " h u m a n o n t o l o g y " w a s t r a n s c e n d e d o n l y for specific, r i g h t e o u s individuals. H u m a n s a n d angels r e m a i n e d s e p a r a t e , a l t h o u g h it d o e s s e e m t h a t s o m e of t h e Q u m r a n texts (as well as p e r h a p s s o m e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n texts), s a w the liturgical s p a c e as a p l a c e w h e r e t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s c o u l d h a v e c o n t a c t a n d h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c o u l d i n t e r a c t . T h i s is d i f f e r e n t f r o m saying t h a t t h e s e c t a r i a n s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o " d i v i n e h u m a n i t y . " A n g e l s m e d i a t e b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n s (i.e., t h e y a r e a b l e to cross t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y a n d t h e earthly) a n d s t a n d b e f o r e G o d in t h e t h r o n e r o o m . S o m e h u m a n s (especially "mystics") s o u g h t to e x p e r i e n c e G o d . S o it s e e m s logical t h a t t h e s e

humans

w o u l d a s p i r e t o angelic status in o r d e r t o b e c o m e closer to G o d . T h e e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e i r p a s t of h u m a n s w h o h a d a c t u a l l y g o n e t o 106 107

C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 476. C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 476.

h e a v e n a n d a t t a i n e d a n a n g e l i c status m e a n t t h a t t h e y believed t h e potential

existed f o r access t o G o d . T h e early J e w i s h a n d

Christian

mystics likely built u p o n this belief, a n d eventually t h e early C h r i s t i a n s d e v e l o p e d it i n t o the i d e a of t h e αγγελικός βίος. 1 0 8 I n t h e case of t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y , it w a s n o t entirely c l e a r w h a t beliefs t h e y h e l d c o n c e r n i n g angels, b u t 1 C o r 11:10 c e r t a i n l y s e e m e d t o suggest t h e r e w a s s o m e belief in t h e p r e s e n c e of angels d u r i n g t h e liturgy. T h e m e a n i n g of έ ξ ο υ σ ί α ν w a s u n c l e a r also, b u t it s e e m s likely, especially in light of e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n ,

that

w h a t e v e r P a u l m e a n s b y t h e t e r m , it s t e m s f r o m a c o n c e r n f o r m a i n t a i n i n g p u r i t y so t h a t a n g e l s c a n b e p r e s e n t . O n t h e w h o l e ,

only

11:10 s e e m e d t o suggest a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e in t h e c o m m u n i t y . T h e Hist. Rech, p r e s e n t e d insights i n t o w h a t o n e

author/commu-

n i t y e n v i s i o n e d as t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e ascetic c o m m u n i t y of J e r 35. T h e difficulties involved in d a t i n g t h e text m a k e a n y c o n c l u s i o n s t e n tative, b u t e v e n t h e r e t h e Blessed O n e s a r e m o r t a l s . E v e n in this case p u r i t y issues a r e i n v o l v e d in m a i n t a i n i n g a state in w h i c h divine angels c o u l d b e p r e s e n t . T h e status of t h e " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " of t h e community was somewhat ambiguous. It is f a s c i n a t i n g to c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t a n g e l s a r e believed to b e p r e s e n t a m o n g v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t e v e n in cases w h e r e a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s live in c o m m u n i t i e s t o g e t h e r , a distinction is m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o classes of beings. T h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e t w o is cast i n t o h i g h relief by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e o f t e n s e e m to b e serious p u r i t y c o n c e r n s involved w h e n a n g e l s a r e m e a n t to b e p r e s e n t ; h u m a n s m u s t m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d state of p u r i t y in o r d e r for t h e possibility of angelic p r e s e n c e e v e n to o c c u r .

108

One step along this path might be seen in a passage like 2 Cor 3:18.

CHAPTER FIVE "GUESS WHO'S C O M I N G T O

DINNER":

HOSPITALITY AND EATING WITH

ANGELS

T h i s c h a p t e r will c o n s i d e r h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r a c t i o n b y

examining

p o r t r a y a l s of h u m a n s o f f e r i n g h o s p i t a l i t y t o a n g e l s o n e a r t h

and

angels a p p e a r i n g to c o n s u m e h u m a n f o o d . T h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t w h e n h u m a n s offer angels hospitality, t h e angels h a v e

almost

always a p p e a r e d in h u m a n f o r m a n d the o n e visited is n o t a w a r e of t h e a n g e l ' s t r u e n a t u r e . I n s o m e i n s t a n c e s angels a p p e a r to eat h u m a n f o o d , b u t late S e c o n d T e m p l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e s e t r a d i tions d e n y t h a t t h e a n g e l ate. F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e discussion in this c h a p t e r , hospitality is u n d e r s t o o d as " t h e f r i e n d l y a n d g e n e r o u s r e c e p t i o n a n d

entertain-

m e n t of guests o r s t r a n g e r s . ' " I n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d t h e t w o m a i n c o m p o n e n t s of this w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n f o o d a n d shelter. E x a m p l e s of t h e practice of hospitality a r e f o u n d in G r a e c o - R o m a n , J e w i s h , a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s f r o m t h e p e r i o d . 2 T h e r e is n o o n e H e b r e w t e r m t h a t directly t r a n s l a t e s as " h o s p i t a l i t y . " I n G r e e k t h e t e r m is φ ι λ ο ξ ε ν ί α . I n t h e J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n A b r a h a m s e e m s to s t a n d as the p a r a d i g m of t h e v i r t u e of hospitality, b a s e d u p o n G e n 18. 3 M o s t of t h e t r a d i tions discussed i n this c h a p t e r a r e b a s e d o n A b r a h a m ' s

encounter

w i t h divine guests (e.g., Gm. Rab. 43:7). E v e n L o t ' s hospitality is likely m o d e l e d o n A b r a h a m ' s . 4 H o s p i t a l i t y is also listed a m o n g t h e virtues of J o b ( J o b 31:32).

1 The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 656. See also J. Koenig, "Hospitality" in ABD 3:299-301. 2 For examples in Graeco-Roman writings, see Ovid, Metamorphoses 628-632, where Zeus and Hermes are guests of the old couple Baucis and Philemon (cf. Acts 14:11-12, Homer, Od. 17:485-487) and the discussion in L. Martin, "Gods or Ambassadors of God? Barnabas and Paul in Lystra" NTS 41 (1995) 152-156. See also G. Stählin, "ξένος" in TDNT 5:1-36, esp.' 17-25; Philo, Mos. 1:58. 3 See JE 8:1030-1033 for a summary of the Jewish evidence regarding hospitality. Cf. T. Zeb. 6:4. 4 T. Desmond Alexander, "Lot's Hospitality: A Clue to His Righteousness" JBL 104 (1985) 289-291.

H o s p i t a l i t y s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t v i r t u e in t h e e a r liest C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s . T h e N T c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r of o t h e r p a s sages t h a t state t h e i m p o r t a n c e of hospitality generally. 5 I n p a r t i c u l a r , J e s u s ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a b o u t t h e k i n g d o m in t h e gospels, t h e G o s p e l of L u k e itself, a n d t h e w r i t i n g s of P a u l s e e m to e v i n c e a c o n c e r n f o r this virtue. 6 T h e s e w r i t i n g s s e e m to h a v e a p r a c t i c a l o r h u m a n i t a r ian basis r a t h e r t h a n overtly suggesting t h a t t h e g u e s t so w e l c o m e d m a y b e a n a n g e l . H e b r e w s 13:2 d o e s s e e m t o suggest t h a t t h e v i r t u e of h o s p i t a l i t y is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e h o s t m a y u n k n o w i n g l y e n t e r t a i n i n g a n g e l s , as s o m e f i g u r e s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible

be had

d o n e . 7 T h e early c h u r c h f a t h e r s c o n t i n u e d to stress t h e i m p o r t a n c e of hospitality, a n d it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t C h r i s t i a n

hospitality

facilitated t h e s p r e a d of t h e gospel. 8 T h e v i r t u e of hospitality w a s i m p o r t a n t across c u l t u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r o u n d t h e t u m of t h e e r a . A n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of hospitality is f o o d . T h e q u e s t i o n of whether or not angels require any sustenance has been considered by D . G o o d m a n . 9 H i s article s u r v e y e d t h e J e w i s h m a t e r i a l o n t h e t o p i c f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible t h r o u g h t h e r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , a s k i n g t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : (1) H o w a r e angels s u s t a i n e d ? (2) Is t h e r e a n y e a t ing o r d r i n k i n g in h e a v e n ? A n d (3) d o angels b e h a v e as m e n w h e n t h e y d e s c e n d to e a r t h ? 1 0 T h e last of his q u e s t i o n s is m o s t r e l e v a n t to t h e p r e s e n t discussion, b u t it is also useful to c o n s i d e r his c o n elusions a b o u t t h e first t w o q u e s t i o n s to give c o n t e x t t o t h e t h i r d . W i t h r e g a r d t o angelic s u s t e n a n c e (1), G o o d m a n b e g i n s his a n a l y sis w i t h Ps 7 8 : 2 3 2 5 ‫ ־‬, w h i c h states, " Y e t h e c o m m a n d e d t h e skies a b o v e , a n d o p e n e d t h e d o o r s of h e a v e n ; a n d h e r a i n e d d o w n

upon

t h e m m a n n a to e a t , a n d g a v e t h e m t h e g r a i n of h e a v e n . M a n

ate

of t h e b r e a d of the m i g h t y [ ‫ ] ל ח ם א ב י ר י ם‬o r as t h e L X X r e a d s , ' b r e a d of t h e a n g e l s '

[αρτον α γ γ έ λ ω ν ] . " 1 1 G o o d m a n

notes that a

certain

5 Rom 12:13; 1 Tim 3:2, 5:10; Tit 1:8; 1 Pet 4:9; Heb 13:2 and cf. Acts 28:7. For more on this idea see C. Pohl, Making Room: Recovering Hospitality as Christian Tradition (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), and A. Malherbe, "Hospitality and Inhospitality in the Church" in Social Aspects of Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983) 92-112. 6 J. Koenig, New Testament Hospitality (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985). 7 Heb 13:2 is discussed in more detail below in section 5.7. 8 D. Riddle, "Early Christian Hospitality: A Factor in the Gospel Transmission" JBL 57 (1938) 141-154. Did. 11-13 suggests that such hospitality could be abused, however. !1 D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" JJS 37 (1986) 160-175. 10 D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 160. 11 See also D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 161 n. 5.

a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d t h e m a n n a is a l r e a d y e v i n c e d in t h e Bible. E x o d

Hebrew

16:15 states, " W h e n t h e p e o p l e of Israel s a w it, t h e y

said t o o n e a n o t h e r , ' W h a t is it?' F o r t h e y did n o t k n o w w h a t it was. A n d M o s e s said to t h e m , 'It is t h e b r e a d w h i c h the L o r d h a s given y o u t o e a t . ' " Little else is said in t h e H e b r e w Bible r e g a r d ing angelic f o o d . G o o d m a n cites b. Torna 7 5 b , in w h i c h R .

Aqiba

says t h e m i n i s t e r i n g a n g e l s e a t t h e h e a v e n l y b r e a d , b u t R . I s h m a e l rejects R . A q i b a o n t h e basis of D e u t 9:18, w h e r e M o s e s o n Sinai states, " I n e i t h e r a t e b r e a d n o r d r a n k w a t e r . " As f o r e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g in h e a v e n (2), G o o d m a n s h o w s t h a t m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e focuses u p o n h o w M o s e s w a s s u s t a i n e d d u r i n g his f o r t y d a y s o n S i n a i ( D e u t 9 : 9 , 18; E x o d

24:912.(11‫־‬

To

G o o d m a n , t h e e v i d e n c e suggests t h a t t h e a n c i e n t a u t h o r s believed t h e r e w a s n o f o o d in h e a v e n . H o w e v e r , h u m a n s in mystical a s c e n t c a n survive b y n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m t h e divine ( E x o d 3 4 : 2 8 9 ‫ ־‬, Abr.

Apoc.

13). S u r v e y i n g t h e r a b b i n i c writings, G o o d m a n finds little dis-

cussion of h o w t h e a n g e l s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e s u s t a i n e d , since d u e to t h e i r i n c o r p o r e a l i t y t h e y a p p a r e n t l y did n o t r e q u i r e s u s t e n a n c e . By t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E a t r a d i t i o n s e e m s to h a v e d e v e l o p e d t h a t t h e a n g e l s w e r e s u s t a i n e d by c o n t a c t w i t h t h e S h e k i n a h . As f o r h o w angels b e h a v e o n e a r t h (3), G o o d m a n s u r v e y e d t h e related literature: J u d g 6 a n d

13, in w h i c h f o o d is o f f e r e d to t h e

Angel of t h e L o r d , w h o refuses, b u t t h e f o o d is nevertheless c o n s u m e d by fire; T o b

12, w h e r e t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l a n n o u n c e s t h a t h e o n l y

a p p e a r e d to e a t a n d d r i n k ; a n d L u k e 24, w h e r e t h e r e s u r r e c t e d J e s u s eats fish in f r o n t of t h e disciples as p r o o f h e is n o t a n

apparition.

T h e m a j o r i t y of G o o d m a n ' s analysis is f o c u s e d u p o n A b r a h a m his h e a v e n l y visitors ( G e n

1819

‫־‬

and

a n d r e l a t e d traditions). I t is w i t h

t h e s e s a m e p a s s a g e s a n d o n e o t h e r t h a t this c h a p t e r is c o n c e r n e d . 1 3 G o o d m a n s u m s u p his c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g angelic

sustenance

by r e l a t i n g t h e m to t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of P. S c h ä f e r o n t h e n e g a t i v e r e p o r t s a b o u t angels in m u c h of t h e r a b b i n i c literature: 1 4

12

D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" pp. 162-163; There is also a late tradition that Moses partook of the food of the angels while on Sinai (based on Exod 34:28) in the Samaritan M. Marq. 4.6 (cf. also Philo, Moses 2.69; Josephus, Ant. 3.99). See W. Meeks, "Moses as God and King" in Religions in Antiquity, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1968) 370 n. 5. 13 To the discussion of angelic sustenance it is illuminating to add the honeycomb in JA, which will be considered below (5.4). 14 P. Schäfer, Rivalität zwischen Engeln und Menschen (New York: de Gruyter, 1975).

T h e earliest stage in the beliefs concerning angelic sustenance seems to be that angels do not eat the same food as m e n but nevertheless partake of some form of nourishment. Subsequent to the mid-second century C E , when negative reports are found about the angels, particularly in the dealings with m a n , interest in the angelic appetite evolves m o r e from a concern for the welfare of m a n when he is in heaven, either during a mystical ascent 01‫ ׳‬at the eschatological time, t h a n from an interest in the angels themselves. 15 T h u s it s e e m s t h a t in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , a n g e l s w e r e believed to h a v e s o m e f o r m of s u s t e n a n c e , b u t it w a s n o t t h e s a m e as t h a t m e a n t f o r h u m a n s (cf. LA.E.

4:2). I n s t e a d , angels in h e a v e n

w e r e s u s t a i n e d b y b e i n g p r e s e n t to G o d . T h e y h a d n o n e e d of sust e n a n c e in t h e s a m e w a y as h u m a n s . G o o d m a n says t h e t r a d i t i o n s based on G e n

1819

angels a n d m e n . ' "

5

‫־‬

suggest "possibly a n equality of status

between

T h i s e q u a l i t y , h o w e v e r , s e e m i n g l y c o m e s in h o w

o n e receives a visitor, b u t it d o e s n o t e x t e n d to t h e r e a l m of i d e n tity. G i v e n t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e G e n 1 8 1 9

‫־‬

story o n s u b s e q u e n t t r a -

ditions a b o u t h o s p i t a l i t y t o a n g e l s , it is a p p r o p r i a t e t o b e g i n

the

e x a m i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e t h e r e .

5.1

The Book of Genesis

18-19

S e c t i o n 2.1 a b o v e lays o u t t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e " m e n " of G e n

18-19

b e i n g i n t e r p r e t e d as a n g e l s in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . F r o m t h a t evidence, it s e e m e d p r o b a b l e t h a t m o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s in t h a t p e r i o d u n d e r s t o o d t h e s e " m e n " to b e angels. T h i s b e i n g t h e case, w h a t will b e c o n s i d e r e d in this section is t h e i n t e r e s t i n g n o t i o n t h a t A b r a h a m a n d L o t o f f e r e d hospitality (food, shelter, rest, etc.) t o t h e i r angelic guests. In G e n

18:2 A b r a h a m sees t h e t h r e e " m e n " a p p r o a c h his t e n t ;

h e h u r r i e s o u t to g r e e t t h e m a n d o f f e r t h e m hospitality.

Abraham

b e g s t h e v i s i t o r s — t h o u g h h e a d d r e s s e s t h e " L o r d " in t h e s i n g u l a r , w h o is said to a p p e a r to h i m (v. 1)—to r e m a i n w i t h h i m (v. 3). First, A b r a h a m o r d e r s w a t e r t o b e b r o u g h t so t h e y c a n w a s h t h e i r feet a n d sees t h a t t h e y rest t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r t h e t r e e (v. 4). H e

then

asks w h e t h e r t h e y will r e m a i n f o r s o m e b r e a d t o r e f r e s h t h e m s e l v e s (v. 5). O n c e t h e y a g r e e , A b r a h a m tells S a r a h to p r e p a r e t h r e e c a k e s

15 16

D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 174. D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" pp. 174-175; italics are mine.

of b r e a d (v. 6). H e n e x t selects a t e n d e r calf a n d gives it to his serv a n t t o p r e p a r e (v. 7). T h e e n t i r e m e a l , w h i c h i n c l u d e s c u r d s a n d milk, is p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e travelers. T h e n A b r a h a m s t a n d s by t h e m u n d e r the t r e e " a n d t h e y a t e " (‫ ;ויאכלו‬καί έφάγοσαν) (v. 8). A b r a h a m ' s hospitality is q u i t e g e n e r o u s . F r o m t h e n a r r a t i v e , A b r a h a m d o e s n o t s e e m to k n o w the visitors o r t h e i r divine n a t u r e . H e r e q u e s t s t h a t t h e y r e m a i n , rest t h e m s e l v e s , a n d eat. T h e m e a l h e p r e p a r e s is m o r e t h a n t h e simple b r e a d h e h a s originally o f f e r e d t h e m . T h e text explicitly states t h a t t h e visitors a t e w h a t w a s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e m . I n c h a p t e r 19, L o t g r e e t s t h e visitors, n o w r e f e r r e d to as angels (19:1, 15; t h e y a r e called " m e n " a g a i n i n 19:16), w i t h a n e n t r e a t y to r e m a i n w i t h h i m t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t . H i s w o r d s e c h o t h o s e of A b r a h a m to his t h r e e visitors. T h e visitors a g r e e t o stay w i t h

Lot

a f t e r first s a y i n g t h e y w o u l d r e m a i n in t h e s t r e e t (v. 2). L o t feeds t h e m (v. 3). B e f o r e t h e visitors a r e a b l e to settle in f o r t h e n i g h t , the t o w n s m e n s u r r o u n d Lot's house, d e m a n d i n g the m e n be given to t h e m . T h e visitors a r e o n c e a g a i n r e f e r r e d to as angels in v. 15, w h e n t h e angels w a r n L o t to leave t h e city w i t h his f a m i l y o r b e d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h t h e city. W h a t is p e r t i n e n t for t h e p r e s e n t discussion is t o c o n s i d e r w h a t s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s did w i t h t h e t r a d i tion of angels eating; t h a t is, did they m a i n t a i n , c h a n g e , o r eliminate it? I n Abr. P h i l o m a k e s s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g c o m m e n t s o n A b r a h a m ' s visitors. 1 7 P h i l o says explicitly t h a t " a n g e l s r e c e i v e d hospitality [ξένιων] f r o m m e n " (115 cf. 167). I n s o m e sense, P h i l o i n t e r p r e t s A b r a h a m ' s v e r y hospitality as t h e r e w a r d (άθλόν) for his v i r t u e b u t a d d s t h a t A b r a h a m ' s hospitality w a s only a " b y - p r o d u c t of his g r e a t e r virtue . . . piety [ α ρ ε τ ή ] " (114). 1 8 P h i l o is c l e a r t h a t t h e guests did n o t p a r t a k e of t h e f o o d o f f e r e d to t h e m , s a y i n g t h a t d i e y f e a s t e d " n o t so m u c h o n t h a t p r e p a r e d f o r t h e m as o n t h e g o o d will of t h e i r h o s t " (110). M o r e explicitly, P h i l o says of A b r a h a m ' s visitors, "It is a m a r v e l i n d e e d t h a t t h o u g h t h e y n e i t h e r a t e n o r d r a n k , t h e y g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of b o t h e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g " (118). So for P h i l o , t h e angels received A b r a h a m ' s h o s p i tality a n d r e s p o n d e d b y a p p e a r i n g t o e a t t h e f o o d p r e p a r e d for t h e m w i t h o u t actually e a t i n g it. 17 Unfortunately, Philo's QG end immediately before where the events of Gen 18-19 would likely have been discussed. 18 This same idea is evident in 1 Clem. 10:7: "Because of his faith [πίστιν] and hospitality [φιλοξενίαν] a son was given him in his old age." Lot is saved for his "hospitality [φιλοξενίαν] and piety [εύσέβειαν]" (11:1). (Cf. also 1 Clem. 12:1; Did. 12).

J o s e p h u s in t h e Ant.

1 . 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 p r e s e n t s a similar analysis of t h e

situation. T h e t h r e e m e n a r e a n g e l s (άγγελοι) t h a t A b r a h a m t a k e s t o b e s t r a n g e r s (ξένοι), w h o m h e asks to p a r t a k e of his hospitality (ξενία). A b r a h a m h a s c a k e s m a d e a n d kills a calf. T h e angels, h o w e v e r , o n l y " g a v e t o h i m t h e a p p e a r a n c e of h a v i n g c o n s u m e d " (oi δε δ ό ξ α ν α ύ τ φ π α ρ έ σ χ ο ν έσθιόντων). J o s e p h u s also stresses t h a t L o t e x t e n d e d h o s p i tality to t h e angels, a lesson l e a r n e d f r o m living w i t h A b r a h a m

(Ant.

1.200). Like P h i l o , J o s e p h u s is c l e a r t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e a n g e l s w h o only g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g . T h e o n l y o t h e r r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e r e c e p t i o n of this p a s s a g e c o m e s f r o m t h e T a r g u m i m . Tg. Onq. is q u i t e similar to t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e as w e h a v e it in t h e M a s o r e t i c t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e L X X . A c c o r d i n g to 18:8, t h e angels did a p p a r e n t l y e a t w h a t A b r a h a m p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m , a n d a g a i n in 19:3 t h e t w o angels w h o visited L o t a p p e a r to h a v e e a t e n t h e m e a l p u t b e f o r e t h e m . Tg. Neo. says t h a t t h e a n g e l s o n l y " g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g . " Tg. Ps-J. also m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e a n g e l s only a p p e a r e d to p a r t a k e of the f o o d p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m , a d d i n g t h a t t h e hosts d i d this " a c c o r d ing t o t h e m a n n e r (and) c u s t o m of h u m a n b e i n g s . ' " 9 T h i s s e e m s t o h i n t at b o t h t h e c u s t o m of hospitality p r a c t i c e d a m o n g h u m a n b e i n g s as well as t h e simple fact t h a t t h e y w e r e g i v e n f o o d t h a t

humans

n e e d but angels d o not. O v e r a l l , t h e t r a d i t i o n is c l e a r t h a t A b r a h a m w a r m l y o f f e r e d h o s pitality to his (angelic) visitors. I n t h e H e b r e w n a r r a t i v e it a p p e a r s a t least t h a t t h e visitors a t e w h a t w a s p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m . By t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d , i n t e r p r e t e r s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y m a k i n g c l e a r t h a t t h e angels did n o t e a t b u t w o u l d give t h e a p p e a r a n c e of d o i n g so in o r d e r t o c o n c e a l t h e i r i d e n t i t y o r a c c e p t t h e i r h o s t s ' hospitality.

5.2

The Book of Judges

6 and

13

T w i c e in t h e B o o k of J u d g e s , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s

to

h u m a n s . I n e a c h of t h e s e a c c o u n t s t h e o n e visited offers hospitality i n c l u d i n g f o o d to t h e a n g e l , b u t in n e i t h e r case d o e s it a p p e a r t h e f o o d is e a t e n ; i n s t e a d it is a c c e p t e d as a t y p e of sacrificial offering.

19

This reading is seen in the fragmentary Targumim (P and V), which say, "And they appeared as though they were eating and as though they were drinking."

J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 2 4 r e c o r d s d i e visit of t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d to G i d e o n at the time w h e n t h e Israelites h a v e b e e n taken over by the Midianites. J u d g 6:11 says, " N o w t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e a n d sat u n d e r t h e o a k at O p h r a h , w h i c h b e l o n g e d to J o a s h the A b i e z r i t e , as his son G i d e o n w a s b e a t i n g o u t w h e a t in t h e w i n e press, to h i d e it f r o m t h e M i d i a n i t e s . " G i d e o n is told t h a t h e is to deliver his p e o p l e o u t of t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n (6:14); t h u s t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of t h e visitation s e e m s to b e t h e r e v e l a t i o n of G o d ' s p l a n for G i d e o n . G i d e o n s e e m s u n a w a r e t h a t d i e p e r s o n s p e a k i n g to h i m is t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a n d asks t h e p e r s o n to r e m a i n as h e p r e p a r e s a gift (v. 18). G i d e o n r e t u r n s w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l m e a l of a p r e p a r e d kid, b r o t h , a n d u n l e a v e n e d cakes. T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d tells G i d e o n t o p u t his f o o d o f f e r i n g o n a rock, w h i c h h e d o e s (v. 20). T h e a n g e l t o u c h e s t h e o f f e r i n g w i t h his staff; t h e o f f e r i n g is c o n s u m e d b y fire, a n d a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t the a n g e l v a n i s h e s (v. 21). G i d e o n t h e n d i s c e r n s t h a t his visitor w a s i n d e e d t h e L o r d a n d f e a r s t h a t h e will die, "Alas, Ο L o r d G o d ! F o r n o w I h a v e seen t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d f a c e to face. B u t t h e L o r d said to h i m , ' P e a c e b e to y o u ; d o n o t f e a r , y o u shall n o t d i e . ' " G i d e o n , like J a c o b in G e n 2 8 a n d 32, t h e n e r e c t s a n a l t a r at t h e site of his e p i p h a n y . J o s e p h u s discusses t h e a n g e l o p h a n y [Ant. 5 . 2 1 3 - 2 1 4 ) b u t is silent o n w h e t h e r o r n o t G i d e o n m a d e a n y o f f e r of f o o d . P h i l o d o e s n o t m e n t i o n e i t h e r a n g e l o p h a n y f r o m Judges. 2 0 T h e T a r g u m o n J u d g 6 likewise r e c o r d s t h a t t h e a n g e l did n o t e a t b u t t h a t t h e f o o d p r e p a r e d for h i m w a s c o n s u m e d b y fire as h e d i s a p p e a r e d . I n P s . - P h i l o the consumption

of t h e f o o d a n d w a t e r o c c u r s in r e s p o n s e to a

r e q u e s t f o r a sign b y G i d e o n . M o r e o v e r , o n l y w a t e r is p o u r e d o v e r a rock. As it is p o u r e d o u t , it d i s a p p e a r s as half b l o o d a n d half fire (LA.B.

35:6).

In J u d g 1 3 : 3 - 2 1 , t h e A n g e l of the L o r d a p p e a r s to M a n o a h a n d his wife, a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of t h e i r son, S a m s o n . M a n o a h asks t h e a n g e l to r e m a i n w i t h h i m so t h a t h e m i g h t f e e d h i m . O n c e a g a i n , t h e issue of h o s p i t a l i t y c o m e s i n t o play. T h e a n g e l says, "If y o u d e t a i n m e , I will n o t eat of y o u r f o o d ; b u t if y o u m a k e r e a d y a b u r n t o f f e r i n g , t h e n o f f e r it t o t h e L o r d " (v. 16a). W e also l e a r n t h a t " M a n o a h did n o t k n o w t h a t h e w a s t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d " (v. 16b).

20

Additionally, 1Q6 fragment 1 contains part of Judg 6:20-22, only retaining one readable letter, ‫מ‬, where ‫ מלאך‬is expected from the Masoretic text (DJD 1:62).

J o s e p h u s , Ant. 5 . 2 8 2 2 8 4 ‫ ־‬, r e c o r d s : [282] . . . and though M a n o a h invited him [the angel] to stay and partake of hospitality [ξενίων], he did not give his consent. However, he was persuaded at his earnest entreaty to remain while some token of hospitality [ξενίων] might be brought to him. [283] So, he killed a kid and bid his wife to cook it. W h e n all was ready, the angel [άγγελος] ordered them to set out the loaves and the meat upon the rock, without the vessels. [284] T h a t done, he touched the meat with the rod which he held and a fire blazing out, it was consumed along with the bread, while the angel [άγγελος], borne on the smoke as on a chariot, was plainly seen by them ascending to heaven. J o s e p h u s v e r y m u c h stresses t h e hospitality of M a n o a h . S i n c e t h e original tale h a s t h e a n g e l r e f u s i n g , J o s e p h u s says t h a t it w a s t h r o u g h M a n o a h ' s p e r s u a s i o n t h a t t h e a n g e l d i d a c c e p t a t o k e n of his h o s pitality, c o n s u m i n g it w i t h fire. I n his retelling of J u d g

14, Ps.-Philo says t h a t M a n o a h a n d his

wife a r e a b l e t o o f f e r b o t h b r e a d a n d gifts to t h e a n g e l , w h o says, "I will n o t e n t e r y o u r h o u s e w i t h y o u , n o r e a t y o u r b r e a d , n o r t a k e y o u r gifts" ( L A . B . 42:8). A f t e r o f f e r i n g v a r i o u s sacrifices o n his n e w l y m a d e altar, M a n o a h puts o u t the m e a t h e h a s cut. T h e angel " r e a c h e d o u t a n d t o u c h e d t h e m w i t h t h e tip of his staff," a n d fire c o m e s f r o m t h e rock a n d c o n s u m e s it. A t t h e e n d of the c h a p t e r w e l e a r n t h a t the a n g e l h a s a n a m e , F a d a h e l . T h e T a r g u m o n J u d g 13 has little expansion b u t m a k e s n o significant c h a n g e s w i t h r e g a r d to t h e a n g e l n o t c o n s u m i n g t h e f o o d . W h i l e t h e offer of hospitality s e e m s to b e t h e c o r r e c t c o u r s e of a c t i o n in b o t h of t h e s e cases in J u d g e s , in n e i t h e r case did t h e o n e visited a p p a r e n t l y k n o w t h a t t h e g u e s t w a s t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d . T h e offer of f o o d is a c c e p t e d , b u t t h e f o o d is n o t e a t e n a n d is i n s t e a d c o n s u m e d b y fire as if a t y p e of sacrificial offering.

5.3

77he Book of Tobit

5-12

I n t h e B o o k of T o b i t , t h e a r c h a n g e l R a p h a e l acts as travel p a n i o n to T o b i a s in c h a p t e r s 5 - 1 2 .

21

R a p h a e l a p p e a r s as a

comman,

a n d n o o n e s e e m s to discern a n y d i f f e r e n c e until, j u s t b e f o r e his d e p a r t u r e , t h e angel p r o c l a i m s , " '1 a m R a p h a e l , o n e of t h e seven 21 For a discussion of the issues regarding the dating and genre of Tobit, see section 2.6 above.

h o l y a n g e l s w h o p r e s e n t t h e p r a y e r s of t h e saints a n d e n t e r i n t o t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e g l o r y of t h e H o l y O n e . ' T h e y w e r e b o t h

alarmed;

a n d t h e y fell u p o n t h e i r faces, for t h e y w e r e a f r a i d " ( 1 2 : 1 5 1 6 ‫ ) ־‬. Interestingly, in T o b 6:5, w h e n R a p h a e l a n d T o b i a s a r e e n c a m p e d o n t h e b a n k s of t h e Tigris, R a p h a e l tells T o b i a s to c a t c h a l a r g e fish, saving t h e g u t s for a h e a l i n g r e m e d y . O n c e h e h a s d o n e this, t h e y " r o a s t e d a n d ate [εφαγον] t h e fish."22 T h i s c u r i o u s p a s s a g e suggests t h a t p e r h a p s R a p h a e l d i d i n d e e d e a t w i t h his h u m a n

companion.

H o w e v e r , a f t e r t h e revelation of his t r u e identity in 1 2 : 1 5 1 6 ‫ ־‬, R a p h a e l t h e n p r o c l a i m s , "All t h e s e d a y s I m e r e l y a p p e a r e d t o y o u a n d d i d n o t e a t o r d r i n k , b u t y o u w e r e s e e i n g a v i s i o n " (12:19). T h i s is a n e a r l y a t t e s t a t i o n of t h e i d e a t h a t angels d o n o t c o n s u m e h u m a n f o o d . T h e parallels of a n a n g e l — h e r e a n a r c h a n g e l — c o m i n g to a h u m a n a n d not being recognized, giving a n i m p o r t a n t revelation,

appear-

i n g to eat, t h e n d e p a r t i n g a r e all i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e of t h e m o t i f in t h e l i t e r a t u r e p r i o r t o t h e first c e n t u r y C E . Hospitality does not

figure

i n t o this c a s e specifically. 2 3 T h e r e is

definitely a n a n g e l , t h e a r c h a n g e l R a p h a e l , w h o s e t r u e n a t u r e is n o t k n o w n until t h e e n d of t h e tale. I n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story, h e a p p e a r s to eat, b u t it is r e v e a l e d l a t e r t h a t h e did n o t .

5.4

Joseph and Aseneth

15~16

I n section 2 . 1 0 a b o v e w e c o n s i d e r e d t h e e v i d e n c e for t h e visitor to A s e n e t h in c h a p t e r s 1 4 - 1 7 of JA

b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l . I n

this s u b s e c t i o n t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a n g e l a c c e p t s A s e n e t h ' s h o s p i tality a n d also r e q u e s t s a specific f o o d (a h o n e y c o m b ) is a n a l y z e d . P a r t of t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n A s e n e t h a n d t h e a n g e l is as follows: [15:14] And the m a n said to her, "Speak (up)." A n d Aseneth stretched out her right h a n d and put it on his knees and said to him, "I beg you, Lord, sit down a little on this bed, because this bed is pure a n d undefiled, and a m a n or a w o m a n never sat on it. And I will set a table before you, and bring you bread and you will eat, a n d bring

22 Similarly, the (S) version of Tobit reads εφαγεν; and 4Q197 (Aramaic copy of Tobit) reads ‫ואכל‬. The fact that both of these are singular in form suggests that only Tobit ate. 23 But in 4:16 Tobit tells his son before his journey to "Give of your bread to the hungry, and of your clothing to the naked. Give all your surplus to charity, and do not let your eye begrudge the gift when you made it.,‫י‬

you from my storeroom old and good wine, the exhalation of which will go up till heaven, and you will drink from it. [15] And after this you will go out (on) your way." And the man said to her, "Hurry and bring (it) quickly." [16:1] And Aseneth hurried and set a new table before him and went to provide bread for him. And the man said to her, "Bring me also a honeycomb." [2] And Aseneth stood still and was distressed, because she did not have a honeycomb in her storeroom. H e r hospitality includes rest, g o o d food, a n d wine, followed by a d e p a r t u r e after having b e e n refreshed. T h e visitor agrees. H e t h e n requests a h o n e y c o m b . Aseneth is distressed because she does n o t h a v e o n e in h e r stores, b u t she tells h i m t h a t she will send a b o y to fetch one. T h e angel assures h e r t h a t t h e r e will be o n e in h e r stores w h e n she checks, a n d i n d e e d this is the case (v. 8). T h e h o n e y c o m b is n o t a typical one. It is said to give h o n e y t h a t is "like d e w f r o m h e a v e n a n d its exhalation like b r e a t h of life" (v. 9). F u r t h e r , the angel says t h a t it is "full of the spirit of life. A n d the bees of paradise of delight have m a d e this f r o m the d e w of the roses of life t h a t are in the p a r adise of G o d " (v. 14). T h e angel t h e n eats s o m e of the h o n e y c o m b : [16:15] And the man stretched out his right hand and broke a small portion of the comb, and he himself ate and what was left he put with his hand into Asenetli's mouth, and said to her, "Eat." And she ate. [16] And the man said to Aseneth, "Behold, you have eaten bread of life, and drunk a cup of immortality, and been anointed with ointment of incorruptibility." It is clear t h a t die h o n e y c o m b is divine. T h e angel is said to eat it. N o m e n t i o n is m a d e of his eating (or not eating) the food that Asenedi p r e p a r e d , b u t p r e s u m a b l y with the e m p h a s i s o n t h e h o n e y c o m b , the o t h e r f o o d is ignored. M o s t interesting is the fact t h a t A s e n e t h is allowed to p a r t a k e of the h o n e y c o m b . By d o i n g so, she h a s " e a t e n b r e a d of life, a n d d r u n k a c u p of immortality, a n d b e e n a n o i n t e d with o i n t m e n t of incorruptibility." It is u n i q u e a m o n g the passages considered in this c h a p t e r t h a t the h u m a n benefits by e a t i n g angelic food a f t e r offering hospitality a n d h u m a n food to h e r guest. Lastly, it is interesting to n o t e t h a t Aseneth indicates to h e r guest t h a t the b e d u p o n w h i c h she has asked h i m to recline is " p u r e a n d u n d e f i l e d , " with n e i t h e r a m a n n o r w o m a n h a v i n g sat u p o n it. T h i s seems to reflect the s a m e type of purity c o n c e r n s seen in m u c h of the evidence analyzed in c h a p t e r 4.

5.5

The Testament of Abraham.

T h e Testament of Abraham tury GE. T h e

(T. Abr.) likely d a t e s to t h e

first-second

t e x t exists t o d a y in t w o m a i n f o r m s : t h e

cen-

longer,

R e c e n s i o n A ( G r e e k ms., s u p p o r t e d b y a R o m a n i a n version), w h i c h is likely closer to its original f o r m ; a n d t h e s h o r t e r , R e c e n s i o n

Β

( G r e e k ms., s u p p o r t e d b y a S l a v o n i c a n d o t h e r versions); h o w e v e r , t h e precise r e l a t i o n of t h e t w o v e r s i o n s is n o t clear. 2 4 It is i n s t r u c tive to look at t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m b o t h

recensions.

Like o t h e r w r i t i n g s in t h e t e s t a m e n t g e n r e , T. Abr. tells of t h e t i m e n e a r t h e p a t r i a r c h ' s d e a t h . H o w e v e r , A b r a h a m r e f u s e s to a c c e p t t h a t t h e t i m e of his d e a t h h a s c o m e . T h i s text is u n u s u a l in t h e testam e n t g e n r e in t h a t it d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a t e s t a m e n t o r m u c h ethical teaching from Abraham. G o d first s e n d s t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l (αρχιστράτηγος) to

Abraham.

M i c h a e l ' s arrival e c h o e s t h e visitation of t h e angels in G e n 18 19, a n d w i t h i n t h e story it is s u b s e q u e n t l y r e v e a l e d t h a t M i c h a e l

was

i n d e e d o n e of t h e t h r e e visitors to h i m in t h e past at t h e o a k of M a m r e . T h e T. Abr. s e e m s t o e x p a n d o n the i d e a of A b r a h a m ' s hospitality b y u s i n g G e n

18 as a m o d e l f o r h o w A b r a h a m greets a n y

guests. I n R e c e n s i o n A , A b r a h a m is said to b e a r i g h t e o u s m a n w h o w a s v e r y h o s p i t a b l e (1:1). A b r a h a m is in his fields w i t h o t h e r w o r k e r s w h e n t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l is said t o a p p e a r t o h i m as a n

"honored

soldier, b r i g h t as t h e sun a n d m o s t h a n d s o m e , m o r e t h a n all t h e sons of m e n " (2:4); M i c h a e l ' s brilliant a p p e a r a n c e s e e m s to signal his angelic n a t u r e . A b r a h a m g r e e t s M i c h a e l a n d asks h i m to t r a v e l w i t h h i m across his fields (2:7). T h e y arrive a t A b r a h a m ' s t e n t . W h e n I s a a c sees t h e f a c e of t h e a n g e l , h e says to S a r a h , " M y l a d y m o t h e r , b e h o l d : t h e m a n w h o is sitting w i t h m y f a t h e r A b r a h a m is n o son of t h e r a c e w h i c h dwells u p o n t h e e a r t h " (3:5). I s a a c t h e n w o r s h i p s M i c h a e l (v. 6). T h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e i r g u e s t a r e extensive, i n c l u d i n g b e a u t i f y i n g t h e g u e s t r o o m w i t h p u r p l e c l o t h a n d silk (4:2). M i c h a e l t h e n m a k e s a discreet exit a n d a s c e n d s to h e a v e n .

There

h e says to G o d t h a t h e c a n n o t a n n o u n c e t o A b r a h a m his d e a t h b e c a u s e " I h a v e n o t seen u p o n t h e e a r t h a m a n like h i m — m e r c i f u l ,

24 E. P. Sanders, "The Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:871; HJPAJC Ill.ii: 761-766.

hospitable, righteous, G o d - f e a r i n g , r e f r a i n i n g f r o m every evil d e e d " (4:6). M i c h a e l is c o m m a n d e d by t h e L o r d , " G o d o w n to m y friend, A b r a h a m , a n d w h a t e v e r h e should say to y o u , this do, a n d w h a t ever he should eat y o u also eat with h i m " (4:7). M i c h a e l clearly finds this c o m m a n d p r o b l e m a t i c , saying in 4:9: Lord, all the heavenly spirits are incorporeal, and they neither eat nor drink. Now he has set before me a table with an abundance of all the good things which are earthly and perishable. And now, Lord, what shall I do? How shall I escape his notice while I am sitting at one table with him? T h e L o r d t h e n says (4:10): Go down to him, and do not be concerned about this. For when you are seated with him I shall send upon you an all-devouring spirit, and, from your hands and through your mouth, it will consume everything which is on the table. Make merry with him in everything. W i t h this c o m m a n d , M i c h a e l r e t u r n s to A b r a h a m . T h e text does n o t say t h a t M i c h a e l ate b u t picks u p the story " a f t e r the s u p p e r was finished" (5:2), so p r e s u m a b l y h e gave the a p p e a r a n c e of eating. S a r a h later recognizes the angel as o n e of the " t h r e e h e a v e n l y m e n w h o stayed as guests in o u r tent beside the oak of M a m r e , " a clear reference to G e n 18 (6:4). It is clear in this recension of the story t h a t M i c h a e l did n o t eat any f o o d p r e p a r e d f o r h i m , b u t instead h e gives the a p p e a r a n c e of eating, while t h e food is c o n s u m e d by a spirit. M i c h a e l does accept A b r a h a m ' s hospitality. T h e r e are s o m e significant differences b e t w e e n recensions A a n d B. I n c h a p t e r 2 of R e c e n s i o n B, w h e n A b r a h a m sees a s t r a n g e r — w h o is actually the angel M i c h a e l , t h o u g h A b r a h a m does n o t k n o w t h i s — h e arises a n d first wishes h i m well on his j o u r n e y . W h e n the angel replies with kind w o r d s , A b r a h a m t h e n offers h i m hospitality (rest a n d food). M i c h a e l asks A b r a h a m his n a m e . W h e n h e learns t h a t h e is A b r a m , r e n a m e d A b r a h a m by the L o r d , M i c h a e l says, " B e a r with m e , m y f a t h e r , m a n w h o h a s b e e n t a k e n t h o u g h t of by G o d , because I a m a stranger, a n d I h e a r d a b o u t y o u w h e n y o u w e n t a p a r t forty stadia a n d took a calf a n d slaughtered it, entertaining angels as guests in y o u r house, so t h a t they m i g h t rest" (v. 10). M i c h a e l returns to h e a v e n to pray. H e tells G o d t h a t he c a n n o t deliver the message of A b r a h a m ' s d e a t h to h i m , saying A b r a h a m is " a righteous m a n , w h o welcomes strangers" (4:10). M i c h a e l is o r d e r e d

to r e t u r n to A b r a h a m , w h e r e h e is to "stay w i t h h i m as a guest. A n d w h a t e v e r y o u see (him) e a t i n g , y o u also e a t . " T h u s , M i c h a e l is to a c c e p t gracefully A b r a h a m ' s hospitality a n d a t least give the a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g . C h a p t e r 5 says t h a t u p o n M i c h a e l ' s r e t u r n ,

"they

ate, d r a n k , a n d m a d e m e r r y " (v. 1). It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r M i c h a e l ate. S i n c e h e is c o m m a n d e d b y G o d to e a t w h a t h e sees A b r a h a m eat, t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is at least t h a t e a t i n g is n o t a n o r m a l activity for h i m , b u t t h e t e x t is n o t as explicit as R e c e n s i o n A in s a y i n g t h a t a spirit c o n s u m e d t h e f o o d f o r h i m . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , a t 6 : 1 0 S a r a h says, " I d e c l a r e a n d say t h a t this is o n e of t h e t h r e e m e n w h o stayed as o u r guests at t h e o a k of M a m r e , " a c l e a r r e f e r e n c e to G e n 18, w h i c h is d i e n q u o t e d (v. 11). A b r a h a m discloses t h a t h e also k n o w s t h e identity of t h e i r visitor ( w .

12-13).

M i c h a e l d o e s n o t b r i n g A b r a h a m to h e a v e n , so D e a t h is s e n t t o h i m . E v e n t h o u g h A b r a h a m fears t h e sight of D e a t h (13:4), h e offers h i m hospitality (13:6). C l e a r l y , A b r a h a m ' s hospitality lies at t h e h e a r t of t h e n a r r a t i v e in this r e c e n s i o n . M i c h a e l is told to eat a n d s e e m s to d o so in 5:1. It is n o t c l e a r , h o w e v e r , since G o d h a s g i v e n h i m leave to e a t , w h e t h e r this is a c a s e of a n a n g e l a c t u a l l y e a t i n g o r simply a p p e a r i n g to eat. The

Gen

1 8 - 1 9 narrative clearly influenced the portrayal

of

A b r a h a m in the T. Abr. T h e angel M i c h a e l , w h o c o m e s to A b r a h a m , is revealed as o n e of t h e angels to h a v e visited h i m a t M a m r e (A-6:4; B-6:10). A b r a h a m is t h e m o d e l of a h o s p i t a b l e h o s t ( A - l : l ; B - 4 : l l ) . T h e angel M i c h a e l is struck by A b r a h a m ' s virtue to t h e e x t e n t t h a t h e c a n n o t c a r r y o u t his d u t y (A-4:6; B-4:12). A f t e r c o n s u l t i n g

God,

M i c h a e l gives t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g so as n o t to o f f e n d A b r a h a m ' s hospitality, b u t t h e f o o d is c o n s u m e d by a spirit, n o t M i c h a e l (A-4:7, 10; B-4:15).

5.6

77le Gospel of Luke

T h e r e a r e s o m e similarities b e t w e e n t h e a n g e l i c visitation in

Gen

1 8 - 1 9 a n d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e of J e s u s o n t h e E m m a u s r o a d in L u k e 24. 2 5 I n b o t h cases, divine b e i n g s a p p e a r as s t r a n g e r s t o

25 The idea of a divine being or angel as travel companion is seen in Tob 512‫־‬. On this see M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 144-148. See also C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 6263‫־‬.

h u m a n s . T h e h u m a n s a r e u n a w a r e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e s t r a n g e r a n d ask h i m to a c c e p t t h e i r hospitality. T h e t w o b r e a k b r e a d w i t h J e s u s (24:30) a n d i m m e d i a t e l y realize w h o h e is. A t t h a t Jesus d i s a p p e a r s (cf. J u d g 6:21 a n d

moment

13:20). T h e t w o disciples w h o

first see J e s u s o n t h e r o a d r e t u r n t o J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e o t h e r discipies (24:33). O n c e t h e r e , t h e y tell t h e o t h e r s w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t o them (24:34-35). T h e n : [36] As they were saying this, Jesus himself stood a m o n g them. [37] But they were startled a n d frightened, and supposed that they saw a spirit, [πνεύμα, D reads φάντασμα] [38] And he said to them, " W h y are you troubled, a n d why do questionings rise in your hearts? [39] See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself; handle me, and see; for a spirit [πνεύμα] has not flesh [σάρκα] and bones [όστέα] as you see that I have." [41] A n d while they still disbelieved for joy, and wondered, he said to them, " H a v e you anything here to eat?" [42] T h e y gave him a piece of broiled fish, [43] and he took it a n d ate [εφαγεν] before them. 2 6 L u k e (or t h e a u t h o r of this r e s u r r e c t i o n a c c o u n t ) p r o b a b l y d r e w o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d , so J e s u s w o u l d t a k e o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s assoc i a t e d with t h e divine visitors. 2 ' H o w e v e r , the text d o e s r e a d π ν ε ύ μ α , n o t άγγελος, t h o u g h it is g r a n t e d t h a t "spirit" is a t e r m

sometimes

m e a n t to r e f e r to a n y i n c o r p o r e a l o r divine s u p e r n a t u r a l (cf. L u k e 4 : 3 3 , 9:39, 13:11). Is J e s u s m e a n t to b e a n angel? J e s u s offers t w o p r o o f s of his identity. O n e is t h e e a t i n g of t h e

fish—he

is flesh a n d

b l o o d — a n d t h e o t h e r is t h e f u l f i l l m e n t of w o r d s h e s p o k e while alive ( w . 4 4 - 4 8 ) ; it is really t h e s a m e J e s u s . T h e use of e a t i n g as a p r o o f of his h u m a n n e s s implies t h a t e a t i n g is g e n e r a l l y a h u m a n activity, n o t o n e in w h i c h i n c o r p o r e a l b e i n g s p a r t a k e . 2 8 T h e p o i n t is t h a t J e s u s is n o t a n a n g e l o r spirit b u t is m e a n t to b e flesh a n d b l o o d .

26 There is an interesting variant at 24:42: και άπό μελισσίου κηρίου ("and from a honeycomb"). B. Metzger says this is an "obvious interpolation," inserted as a justification for honey being used in celebration of the Eucharist and in the baptismal liturgy; A Textual Commmtary on the New Testament (New York: United Bible Societies, 1994) 161. However, it is interesting that in JA 16 the angel requests a honeycomb from Aseneth, and it turns out to be divine food. 27 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 63, says that Jesus's appearance has the "clear contours of an angelophany" but notes that Luke may see this as a weak Christology. 28 D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 168.

5.7

The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian

Hospitality

O n e of t h e clearest allusions to G e n 1 8 - 1 9 in t h e N T c o m e s in H e b 13:2: " D o n o t n e g l e c t t o s h o w hospitality [φιλοξενίας] to s t r a n g e r s , f o r t h e r e b y s o m e h a v e e n t e r t a i n e d angels [αγγέλους] u n a w a r e s . " T h i s r e m i n d e r o c c u r s at t h e e n d of t h e epistle in a section of e x h o r t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s . H . A t t r i d g e n o t e s t h a t t h e " s o m e " (τίνες) in this verse m a y refer to a n u m b e r of persons f r o m H e b r e w Bible stories: A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h ( G e n 18:2-15); L o t ( G e n 19: 1 - 1 4 ) , G i d e o n ( J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 1 8 ) , M a n o a h ( J u d g 1 3 : 2 - 2 2 ) , o r T o b i t ( T o b 1 2 : l - 2 0 ) . 2 9 All of t h e passages a r e possible r e f e r e n t s , since t h e issue of h o s p i t a l i t y is involved, b u t t h e a s p e c t of giving hospitality u n a w a r e s s e e m s t o p o i n t t o w a r d G e n e s i s o r T o b i t . W h i c h e v e r t e x t o r texts it is, t h e c o m m a n d of t h e a u t h o r of H e b r e w s s e e m s clear: y o u (first-century a u d i e n c e ) s h o u l d (in y o u r p r e s e n t c o n t e x t ) n o t neglect hospitality, b e c a u s e s o m e (in o u r history) h a v e e n t e r t a i n e d a n g e l s (in t h e i r o w n time). It is a n e x h o r t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t in t h e p r e s e n t , j u s t i f y i n g w h y C h r i s t i a n s s h o u l d always s h o w hospitality to s t r a n g e r s . H o w seriously o n e is t o take s u c h a c o m m a n d is n o t clear. It m i g h t b e a n e x a g g e r a t i o n

meant

to stress a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t . H o w e v e r , in light of t h e p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e , t h e a u t h o r m a y t a k e seriously t h e possibility of angelic visitation t o h u m a n s (e.g. G a l 4:14). T e r t u l l i a n , w r i t i n g in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , says in c h a p t e r 2 6 of De Oratione, " Y o u will n o t dismiss a b r o t h e r w h o h a s e n t e r e d y o u r h o u s e w i t h o u t p r a y e r . — ' H a v e y o u seen, 5 says S c r i p t u r e , 'a b r o t h e r ? y o u h a v e seen y o u r L o r d ' ; — e s p e c i a l l y ' a s t r a n g e r , ' lest p e r h a p s h e be ' a n a n g e l ' \angelus\."3°

His c o m m e n t is b a s e d o n H e b 13:2, b u t

his e x h o r t a t i o n is t a r g e t e d t o w a r d his p r e s e n t c o m m u n i t y a n d c o u l d reflect a c o n t i n u i n g belief in a n g e l s visiting h u m a n beings. T h e c o n g e n i a l r e c e p t i o n of s t r a n g e r s e m b o d i e s t h e ideal t h a t J e s u s sets o u t in M a t t 2 5 : 3 5 - 3 6 , " F o r I w a s h u n g r y a n d y o u g a v e

me

f o o d , I w a s thirsty a n d y o u g a v e m e d r i n k , I w a s a s t r a n g e r

and

y o u w e l c o m e d m e , 1 w a s n a k e d a n d y o u c l o t h e d m e , I w a s sick a n d y o u visited m e , I w a s in p r i s o n a n d y o u c a m e t o m e . " T h e s e w o r d s of t h e M a t t h e a n J e s u s idealize t h e v i r t u e of hospitality. I n giving

29 H. Attridge, Hebrews: A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989) 386. 30 Translation from the ANF 3:690.

f o o d a n d d r i n k to t h e lowly, d i e r i g h t e o u s a r e a c t u a l l y g i v i n g it t o the S o n of M a n himself. In M a t t

10:40, J e s u s d e c l a r e s , " H e

who

receives y o u receives m e , a n d h e w h o receives m e receives h i m w h o sent m e " (cf. M a t t 18:10). 31 As n o t e d a b o v e , it is c l e a r t h a t h o s p i tality c o n t i n u e s in t h e early c h u r c h a n d m a y e v e n h a v e b e e n a fact o r in t h e s p r e a d of t h e gospel. T h e possibility exists t h a t a least a p a r t i a l f a c t o r in the p u s h for s t r o n g hospitality w a s t h e belief t h a t divine beings, angels, o r e v e n J e s u s m i g h t visit t h e c o m m u n i t y .

Conclusions T h e e x a m i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r s h o w e d t h a t t h e m o t i f of a n g e l s visiting h u m a n s o n e a r t h a n d b e i n g o f f e r e d hospitality w a s p r e s e n t in the l i t e r a t u r e of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . M u c h of it s e e m s to b e b a s e d o n t h e G e n 18 n a r r a t i v e a b o u t A b r a h a m b e i n g h o s p i t a b l e to his t h r e e guests at t h e o a k of M a m r e . T h i s story clearly i n f l u e n c e d t h e p o r t r a y a l of A b r a h a m in t h e T.

Abr.

I n all t h e cases, hospitality w a s o f f e r e d to t h e angels w h i l e t h e h o s t w a s u n a w a r e of t h e a n g e l ' s d i v i n e n a t u r e . N o explicit r e a s o n s w e r e g i v e n — s i m p l y a n u n d e r l y i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t angels did n o t e a t h u m a n f o o d . I n t h e case of JA,

t h e f o o d of t h e a n g e l is a spe-

cial h o n e y c o m b . R e g a r d l e s s of w h e t h e r t h e y a c t u a l l y a t e o r

only

a p p e a r e d t o e a t , t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t hosts s h o u l d d o a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n o f f e r t h e best ( h u m a n ) hospitality to t h e i r guests (angelic o r otherwise), p a r t i c u l a r l y since t h e y c o u l d n o t a l w a y s b e c e r t a i n of their guests' true nature. T h e evidence from the N T showed that G e n

18-19 and

other

H e b r e w Bible passages i n f o r m e d t h e e x h o r t a t i o n in H e b 13:2 b u t also t h e i d e a of C h r i s t i a n hospitality as a w h o l e ; a n g e l s c o u l d visit, so o n e n e e d e d to b e r e a d y to offer t h e m t h e p r o p e r w e l c o m e a t a n y t i m e . E c h o i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of D . G o o d m a n , C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s says t h a t literal r e a d i n g s of texts such as G e n 18 w e r e d e n i e d f r o m early o n , t h u s c o n f i r m i n g " t h a t it w a s a s t a n d a r d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t angels did n o t eat." 3 2 T h i s s e e m s t o b e t h e c a s e f o r t h e S e c o n d

Temple

51 The idea of hospitality may also lie behind the commandment to "Love your neighbor as yourself" in Matt 5:43, 19:19, 22:39; Mark 12:31, 33; Luke 10:27; Rom 13:9; Gal 5:14; Jas 2:8; cf. Rom 13:8, 10. See C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic, the Poor, and the Gospel of Matthew" JTS 45 (1994) 504-518. 82 C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 69.

evidence. Angels did n o t eat h u m a n food, p r e s u m a b l y because eating is a h u m a n activity t h a t is u n n e c e s s a r y for t h e m . I n L u k e 24, J e s u s actually goes a b o u t p r o v i n g his c o r p o r e a l n a t u r e by eating. It seems, then, t h a t o n e factor in distinguishing h u m a n s f r o m angels is w h e t h e r they n e e d to eat. Angels, even w h e n o n e a r t h , h a v e n o n e e d to eat, while h u m a n s do. But angels, w h e n offered food, a i m e d n o t to offend their hosts so gave the a p p e a r a n c e of eating.

" T H E Y M I G H T BE

GIANTS":

HUMAN-ANGEL HYBRID

OFFSPRING

T h i s c h a p t e r investigates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p o r t r a y a l s (deriving f r o m G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) of angels h a v i n g sexual r e l a t i o n s w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . I n a n u m b e r of texts t h e s e r e l a t i o n s r e s u l t e d in viable offspring: a n g e l - h u m a n h y b r i d s t h a t c a m e to b e k n o w n as t h e N e p h i l i m , G i b o r i m , o r giants. T h e " t a k i n g of wives" in t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e a n d s u b s e q u e n t interp r e t a t i o n s w a s u n d e r s t o o d as a e u p h e m i s m for s e x u a l relations t h a t led to hybrid offspring. T h e t e r m " h y b r i d " will be u n d e r s t o o d to m e a n , " t h e o f f s p r i n g of t w o a n i m a l s [or beings] of d i f f e r e n t species o r varieties." 1 T h i s t e r m r e g u l a r l y h a s t h e c o n n o t a t i o n t h a t t h e t w o entities involved a r e i n c o n g r u o u s — t h a t is, d o n o t r e g u l a r l y o r n a t u r a l l y j o i n . T h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t a u n i o n b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d n a t u r a l . T h e y w e r e distinct b e i n g s (or species) f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n o n w a r d . T h e a n g e l s ' d e s c e n t to e a r t h w a s a t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d a significant p r o b l e m . It w a s e v e n c o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e i n t e r p r e t e r s to b e

the

s o u r c e of evil in t h e w o r l d .

6.1

Genesis 6:1-4

in the Hebrew

Bible

P r i o r to t h e s h o r t story of t h e " s o n s of G o d " in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 a r e t h e c r e a t i o n (chaps. 12‫)־‬, t h e story of A d a m a n d E v e a n d t h e i r e x p u l sion f r o m t h e g a r d e n of E d e n (chaps. 3 - 4 ) , a n d t h e n a list of t h e g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r A d a m u p to t h e m e n t i o n of N o a h a n d his t h r e e sons ( c h a p . 5). W i t h s e e m i n g l y n o c o n n e c t i o n to t h e p r e c e d i n g m a t e rial, c h a p t e r 6 a b r u p t l y i n t e r j e c t s this s h o r t tale of t h e " s o n s of G o d " a n d t h e d a u g h t e r s of m e n :

1

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 665. The words in brackets are mine.

[1] W h e n m e n [‫ ]האדם‬began to multiply on the face of the ground, and daughters were b o r n to them, [2] the sons of G o d [‫ ]בני־האלהים‬saw that the daughters of m e n [‫ ]בנות האהם‬were fair; and they took to wife [‫ ]ויקחו ל ה ם נשים‬such of them as they chose. [3] T h e n the Lord said, " M y spirit shall not abide in m a n for ever, for he is flesh, but his days shall be a hundred and twenty years." [4] T h e Nephilim [‫ ]הנפלים‬were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of G o d [‫ ]בני האלהים‬came in to the daughters of men [‫]בנוה האדם‬, a n d they bore children to them, these [‫]המה‬ (were) the mighty men [‫ ]הנכרים‬that were of old, the m e n of renown. I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r this s h o r t a c c o u n t , it is said t h a t t h e L o r d looks u p o n t h e e a r t h , sees t h a t h u m a n s a r e w i c k e d , a n d r e p e n t s of his e r e a t i o n (6:5). T h i s c o n n e c t i o n with t h e evil of t h e a g e a n d t h e

flood

is c e n t r a l in l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e flood n a r r a t i v e s follow, w h e n G o d purifies t h e e a r t h of t h e first, w i c k e d h u m a n s . O n l y t h o s e of N o a h ' s f a m i l y survive (chaps. 6 9 ‫ ) ־‬. So, a l r e a d y in t h e H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n , t h e d e s c e n t to e a r t h a n d t a k i n g of wives b y divine b e i n g s s e e m s to h a v e p r e c i p i t a t e d a j u d g m e n t u p o n t h e e a r t h . A brief o u t l i n e of d i e G e n 6 : 1 - 4 n a r r a t i v e will b e h e l p f u l , since (a) t h e p a s s a g e itself is r a t h e r brief a n d n o t logically well s t r u c t u r e d , a n d (b) s u b s e q u e n t t r a d i t i o n s p i c k u p o n p a r t i c u l a r p a r t s of t h e passage: 1. H u m a n s a r e said to i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r u p o n t h e e a r t h (6:1a). 2. D a u g h t e r s a r e b o r n to t h e h u m a n s (6:1b). T h e " s o n s of G o d " t h e n see t h a t t h e d a u g h t e r s a r e p l e a s i n g to t h e eye (6:2a), a n d t h e y " t a k e w i v e s " f r o m a m o n g t h e h u m a n f e m a l e s (6:2b). 3. T h e n t h e L o r d says t h a t his spirit (‫ )רוח‬will n o t r e m a i n in h u m a n s for l o n g e r t h a n 120 y e a r s (6:3). 2 N o a p p a r e n t r a t i o n a l e is given for t h e s u d d e n l i m i t a t i o n , especially since it is a l r e a d y c l e a r t h a t h u m a n s a r e m o r t a l ( G e n 3:19), n o r f o r t h e specific

maximum

d u r a t i o n of life (120 years). T h i s verse i n t e r r u p t s t h e story, a n d it is s o m e t i m e s o m i t t e d in s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

2

The significance of the term "spirit" here is not entirely clear. It seems to represent the life force (breath) that God gave to humans. However, "spirit" is a term sometimes used to refer to angels, especially in some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. On this see A. Sekki, The Meaning of Ruah at Qumran (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1989) 145-171. If the "sons of God" were to be understood as humans, then this might suggest that God's spirit does not remain in them because of their action. However, virtually all subsequent interpretations seem to suggest that these beings are angels.

4. T h e N e p h i l i m a r e said to exist f r o m this p o i n t in history o n w a r d (6:4a). 3 It is i m p l i e d , b u t n o t explicit, t h a t t h e s e N e p h i l i m a r e t h e offspring of t h e "sons of G o d " a n d t h e d a u g h t e r s of h u m a n s (6:4b). T h e N e p h i l i m a r e also called " t h e m i g h t y m e n of o l d " ( 4 (‫הגברים‬ w h o a r e " m e n of r e n o w n ' 5 (

6

:

4

)(‫ א נ ש יהשם‬c ) .

A t first g l a n c e , G e n 6 : 1 - 4 s e e m s to p r e s e n t t w o distinct aetiologies: m o r t a l i t y (i.e., a finite life s p a n for h u m a n s ) a n d t h e N e p h i l i m ; h o w ever, n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o aetiologies is readily a p p a r ent. G. W e s t e r m a n n

a r g u e s t h a t verses

1-2 and 4 make up

the

original p a s s a g e , while v. 3 is a later, i n t e r p r e t i v e gloss t h a t d i s r u p t s t h e How of t h e original n a r r a t i v e . 0 T h i s w o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e t h r u s t of t h e original n a r r a t i v e w a s t h e origin of t h e N e p h i l i m , w h o w e r e t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e " s o n s of G o d " a n d h u m a n w o m e n . T h i s e x p i a n a t i o n s e e m s plausible, b u t t h e originality of v. 3 d o e s n o t necessarily h a v e a n y i m p a c t o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this p a s s a g e w i t h r e g a r d to t h e a n g e l - h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n v. 4 t h e N e p h i l i m a r e said to b e t h e n u p o n t h e face of t h e e a r t h , a f t e r t h e sons of G o d h a d o f f s p r i n g via h u m a n w o m e n , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e N e p h i l i m

are

t h e s a m e as t h e " m i g h t y m e n of old, t h e m e n of r e n o w n . " As n o t e d , this s h o r t n a r r a t i v e is o f t e n t a k e n b y m o d e m i n t e r p r e t e r s to be s e p a r a t e f r o m the larger n a r r a t i v e s c h e m e of Genesis. R . H e n d e l , h o w e v e r , h a s o f f e r e d a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this p a s s a g e t h a t seeks to u n i t e 6 : 1 - 4 w i t h t h e F l o o d n a r r a t i v e t h a t follows it. 6 H e says, " t h e story of t h e m i n g l i n g of g o d s a n d m o r t a l s a n d t h e p r o c r e a t i o n t h e d e m i g o d s w a s originally c o n n e c t e d to t h e f l o o d n a r r a t i v e

of and

f u n c t i o n e d as its m o t i v a t i o n . " 7 D e m o n s t r a t i n g parallels in o t h e r a n c i e n t c u l t u r e s , H e n d e l suggests t h a t , " T h e P r i m e v a l C y c l e is c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a series of m y t h o l o g i c a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s of b o u n d a r i e s t h a t result in a r a n g e of divine r e s p o n s e s w h i c h slowly b u i l d u p t h e

present

o r d e r of t h e c o s m o s . " T h e t a k i n g of h u m a n wives b y t h e " s o n s of G o d " w a s o n e s u c h t r a n s g r e s s i o n . N o t i n g t h e w o r k of M . D o u g l a s ,

3

Other occurrences of the Nephilim are at Num 13:33 (cf. Deut 2:10-11); Jos 8:25; Judg 20:46; 2 Ki 25:11; Ps 145:14; Jer 39:9; Jer 52:15; Ezek 32:22, 24. See DDD, pp. 1163-1168. 4 The term ‫ הגברים‬appears 20 times in the Hebrew Bible. The beings in Gen 6:1-4 seem to be different from David's fighters in 2 Sam 23:8-39 = 1 Chr 11:10-47. 5 C. Westermann, Genesis (London: SPCK 1985) 363-383. 6 R. Hendel, "Of Demigods and the Deluge: Toward an Interpretation of 6:1-4" JBL 106 (1987) 13-26. 7 R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 16.

h e suggests t h a t s u c h a u n i o n w e n t a g a i n s t t h e " c a t e g o r i e s of e r e a t i o n . " 8 T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e m e a n t t o b e distinct f r o m e a c h o t h e r : h u m a n a n d divine. T h e f u s i o n of t h e t w o c r e a t e d a n

"imbalance

a n d a c o n f u s i o n in t h e c o s m i c o r d e r , " w h i c h h a d to b e r e d r e s s e d . R. Hendel

sees t h e Flood

as " t h e n a t u r a l c o n c l u s i o n

of

Gen

6 : 1 4 ‫ ־‬. . . t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of h u m a n i t y a n d t h e c o n c o m i t a n t a n n i h i l a tion of t h e d i s o r d e r . " 9 E v e n if o n e d o e s n o t a c c e p t his e n t i r e exegesis, H e n d e l ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t c a t e g o r i e s of p u r i t y a n d c r e a t i o n o r d e r a r e d i s r u p t e d b y t h e a c t i o n s of t h e " s o n s of G o d " is i l l u m i n a t i n g , since it c o n n e c t s t h e story w i t h its i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t r a t h e r t h a n seeing it as a d i s j o i n t e d s e g m e n t . It also s h o w s t h a t t h e m i x i n g of divine a n d h u m a n c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as p r o b l e m a t i c f r o m t h e earliest p e r i o d . It a p p a r e n t l y c o n t i n u e d to b e a p r o b l e m for s o m e , s u c h as t h e a u t h o r s of Jub.

a n d T.

Naph.

T h u s , this s h o r t n a r r a t i v e in t h e H e b r e w Bible tells of t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of h u m a n

( d a u g h t e r s of m e n ) a n d d i v i n e (sons of G o d )

b l o o d , w h i c h s e e m s to h a v e led to u n u s u a l offspring. It a p p e a r s t o be s o m e w h a t u n c o n n e c t e d to the s u r r o u n d i n g passages, b u t as H e n d e l suggests, a l r e a d y in this n a r r a t i v e , t h e sin of b o u n d a r y t r a n s g r e s s i o n c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as l e a d i n g to t h e F l o o d . V i r t u a l l y all s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of this p a s s a g e will u n d e r s t a n d t h e "sons of G o d " as angels. T h e earliest of these seems to h a v e b e e n t h e Book of W a t c h e r s .

6.2

1 Enoch 6-11:

The Book of

Watchers

U n t i l t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls, d a t e s f o r 1 E n o c h h a d b e e n p o s i t e d as early as t h e first c e n t u r y B C E to as late as t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E . D i s c o v e r y of A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s of all t h e m a j o r sections of 1 E n o c h — e x c e p t t h e S i m i l i t u d e s ( c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 7 1 ) — h a s led m o s t s c h o l a r s to believe t h a t 1 E n o c h 1 - 3 6 a n d 7 2 - 1 0 8 a r e a t least first c e n t u r y B C E in origin a n d p r o b a b l y as old as t h e t h i r d c e n tury BCE.10 A few scholars h a v e suggested t h a t 1 E n o c h m a y even b e old e n o u g h to h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e B o o k of G e n e s i s itself, b u t this i d e a h a s n o t

8

M. Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966) esp. 53-54; R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 23. « R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 23. 10 G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11" JBL 96 (1977) 389-391. G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2001) 14-15.

w o n m u c h scholarly support. 1 1 T h e n a r r a t i v e in 1 E n o c h is m u c h m o r e e x p a n s i v e t h a n in G e n e s i s a n d clarifies s o m e a m b i g u i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r i o r i t y of t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e will b e a s s u m e d . It will b e seen t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s in 1 E n o c h , h o w e v e r , did i n f l u e n c e m a n y , if n o t all, s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e fallen a n g e l n a r r a t i v e . T h e t e r m " W a t c h e r s " (‫ )עיר‬c a m e to b e a p p l i e d to t h e divine b e i n g s (angels) w h o left t h e i r p l a c e in h e a v e n . 1 2 I n the H e b r e w Bible t h e t e r m only a p p e a r s in t h e B o o k of D a n i e l as r e f e r r i n g t o h e a v e n l y b e i n g s (4:13, 17, 23); it a p p e a r s in Jub. Apoc.,

3:15, 5:1, C D 2:18, t h e Gen.

a n d several o t h e r late S e c o n d T e m p l e writings. T h e t e r m is

n o t exclusive to t h e fallen angels, since 1 En. 20:1 applies it to t h e f o u r a r c h a n g e l s . J . Collins n o t e s t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e W a t c h e r s o v e r l a p s t h a t of t h e angels b u t t h a t t h e W a t c h e r s w e r e likely c o n c e i v e d of as a distinct class of a n g e l i c beings. 1 3 T h e m o s t r e l e v a n t section of t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s is c h a p t e r s 6 ^ 1 5 , w h e r e t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n 6 is discussed a n d e x p a n d e d u p o n . T h e r e s e e m to b e t w o s t r a n d s of t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n t h e passage: t h e S h e m a z i a h a n d t h e Azazel. 1 4 C h a p t e r 6 says: [1] 111 those days, when the children of m a n h a d multiplied, it happened that there were b o r n unto them handsome and beautiful daughters. [2] And the angels, the children of heaven, saw them and desired them; and they said to one another, " C o m e , let us choose wives for ourselves from among the daughters of m a n arid beget us children." [3] And Semyaz, being their leader, said unto them, "I fear that perhaps you will not consent that this deed should be done, and I alone will become (responsible) for this great sin." [4] But they all responded to him, "Let us swear an oath and bind everyone a m o n g us by a curse not to abandon this suggestion but to do the deed." T h e n they all swore together and b o u n d one another by (the curse). 15

11

J. MiUk, The Booh of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976) 31, 124-5. M. Barker, The Last Prophet: The Book of Enoch and Its Influence of Christianity (London: SPCK, 1988), but see M. Barker, The Older Testament(London: SPCK," 1987) 12-16. J . Collins, "Watchers" in DDD, pp. 1681-1685. See also J . Fitzmyer, The Geneàs Apocryphon of Qumran Cave I: A Commentary, 2nd ed., Biblica et Orientalia 18a (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1971) 80-81. 13 J. Collins, "Watchers" p. 1684. 14 D. Dimant, "I Enoch 6-11: A Methodological Perspective" SBLSP (1978) 323-339; G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11," pp. 383-405; HJPAJC IIIi:255. 15 Then the names of these angels are given: "And they were altogether two hundred; and they descended into Ardos, which is the summit of Hermon. And they called the mount Armon, for they swore and bound one another by a curse.

1 En. 6 a p p e a r s to e x p a n d u p o n t h e c o r e n a r r a t i v e f r o m G e n 6. (1) H u m a n s m u l t i p l y o n t h e e a r t h ( G e n 6:1). (2) D i v i n e b e i n g s see t h e b e a u t y of t h e d a u g h t e r s of t h e h u m a n s a n d d e s c e n d to t h e

earth

( G e n 6:2a). A t this p o i n t t h e n a r r a t i v e is e x p a n d e d to i n c l u d e a l o n g discussion b e t w e e n S e m y a z a n d his c o c o n s p i r a t o r s . A s t h e

leader,

S e m y a z d o e s n o t t r u s t t h a t his c o m p a n i o n s will follow t h r o u g h o n t h e i r p l a n to g o to t h e h u m a n w o m e n , b e c a u s e it is a g r e a t sin, so t h e y all s w e a r a n o a t h . W e a r e told t h e n u m b e r of angels, t w o h u n d r e d , a n d w e a r e also told fifteen n a m e s of v a r i o u s l e a d e r s a m o n g t h e angels. O n c e b o u n d b y a n o a t h , t h e y d e s c e n d a n d t a k e wives ( G e n 6:2b). I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e in p a s s i n g t h a t 1 E n o c h d o e s n o t s e e m t o m a k e r e f e r e n c e to G e n 6:3, w h e r e G o d limits t h e life s p a n of h u m a n s . As w a s n o t e d , W e s t e r m a n n

suggested t h a t this verse m a y n o t

be

original. T h a t 1 E n o c h d o e s n o t reflect G e n 6:3 d o e s n o t p r o v e o r e v e n suggest t h a t t h e verse w a s n o t a l r e a d y p r e s e n t , since it possible t h a t t h e a u t h o r of 1 E n o c h h a d p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s f o r o m i t ting r e f e r e n c e to t h e verse. A f t e r t h e n a m e s of t h e l e a d i n g a n g e l s a r e g i v e n ( w . 7 8 ‫ ) ־‬, c h a p ter 7 continues: [1] And they took wives unto themselves, and everyone (respectively) chose one w o m a n for himself, and they began to go unto them. And they taught them magical medicine, incantations, the cutting of roots, and taught t h e m (about) plants. [2] A n d the w o m e n became pregnant and gave birth to great giants whose heights were three hundred cubits. [3] These (giants) consumed the produce of all the people until the people detested feeding them. [4] So the giants turned against (the people) in order to eat them. [5] A n d they began to sin against birds, wild beasts, reptiles, and fish. [6] And their flesh was devoured the one by the other, and they drank blood. And then the earth brought an accusation against the oppressors. 16 T h e angels t h e n t e a c h h u m a n b e i n g s a b o u t m e d i c i n e , h e r b a l i s m , a n d m a g i c . T h e w o m e n b e c o m e p r e g n a n t a n d h a v e offspring. 1 E n o c h is explicit t h a t t h e s e o f f s p r i n g w e r e g i a n t s w h o w e r e 3 0 0 c u b i t s h i g h (cf. G e n 6:4). T h e s e h y b r i d c r e a t u r e s b r i n g sin i n t o t h e w o r l d , esped a i l y c a n n i b a l i s m , a n d t h e e a r t h is said to a c c u s e t h e m .

And their names are as follows: Semyaz, the leader of Arakeb, Ramael, Tamel, Rarnel, Danel, Baraqyal, Asel, Baratel, Ananel, Sasomaspweel, Kestarel, Turel, Yamayol, and Arazyal. These are their chiefs of tens and others with them" (1 En. 6:6-8). 16 Translation of all 1 En. passages taken from E. Isaac, OTP 1:15-16.

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of c h a p t e r 8, Azazel 1 7 is said to t e a c h h u m a n s [1] (the art of) making swords and knives, and shields, and breastplates; and he showed to their chosen ones bracelets, decorations (shadowing of the eye) with antimony, ornamentation, the beautifying of the eyelids, all kinds of precious stones, and all coloring tinctures and alchemy. T h e list c o n t i n u e s , w i t h o t h e r s t e a c h i n g i n c a n t a t i o n s a n d astrology, until t h e p e o p l e c r i e d a n d t h e i r voice r e a c h e d h e a v e n (v. 4). A n g e l s t e a c h i n g h u m a n s m a n y skills, m o s t of w h i c h lead o n l y to d e s t r u c t i o n ( w e a p o n s , a r m o r ) o r d a n g e r o u s arts (seduction, astrology), is a n e l a b o r a t i o n u p o n t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e . It m a y b e a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e i d e a in G e n 6:5, " T h e L o r d saw t h a t the wickedness of m a n w a s g r e a t in t h e e a r t h , a n d t h a t e v e r y i m a g i n a t i o n of the t h o u g h t s of his h e a r t w a s o n l y evil c o n t i n u a l l y . " R o w l a n d p o i n t s o u t t h e i r o n y of t h e angelic r e v e l a t i o n a p p e a r i n g in a n a p o c a l y p t i c text: " O n e c a n o n l y a s s u m e t h a t t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n E n o c h a n d t h e angels is t h e fact t h a t m a n receives t h e h e a v e n l y m y s t e r i e s b y m e a n s of revelation, w h e r e a s angels a r e guilty of e x p o s i n g t h e h e a v e n l y m y s t e r i e s to m a n w i t h o u t G o d ' s p e r m i s s i o n . ' " 8 So, e v e n in die case of t h e angels revealing knowledge, it seems d i a t divine p a r a m e t e r s w e r e transgressed. In chapter 9 the archangels (Michael, Surafel, a n d Gabriel) are o b s e r v i n g t h e e a r t h . T h e y b e s e e c h G o d to d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e evil t h a t is u p o n t h e e a r t h , saying: [6] You see what Azazel has done; how he has taught all (forms o f ) oppression u p o n the earth. A n d they revealed eternal secrets which are performed in heaven (and which) m a n learned. [7] (Moreover) Semyaz, to whom you have given power to rule over his companions, co-operating, they went in unto the daughters of the people of the earth; [8] and they lay together with them—with those w o m e n — a n d defiled themselves, and revealed to them every (kind o f ) sin. [9] As for the women, they gave birth to giants to the degree that the whole earth was filled with blood. G o d d e c i d e s t h a t a d e l u g e will be sent to p u r i f y t h e w o r l d , a n d N o a h is w a r n e d (10:13‫)־‬. G o d t h e n s e n d s R a p h a e l to b i n d A z a z e l a n d cast h i m i n t o d a r k n e s s (10:5). R a p h a e l is said t o m a k e a h o l e i n t h e d e s e r t t h a t w a s in D u d a e l a n d cast h i m t h e r e . T h i s is i n t e r e s t i n g i n light of L e v 16, in w h i c h t h e g o a t t h a t is o f f e r e d f o r A z a z e l is sent o u t 17

For other texts re: Azazel see: Lev 16:8, 10, 26; 1 En. 8:1, 9:6, 10:4-8, 13:1, 54:5-6, 55:4, 69:2; Apoc. Abr. 13:6-14, 14:4-6, 20:6-7. 18 C. Rowland, The Open Heaven (New York: Crossroads, 1982) 93-94.

i n t o t h e d e s e r t o n t h e D a y of A t o n e m e n t . G a b r i e l is sent " t o p r o c e e d a g a i n s t t h e b a s t a r d s a n d r e p r o b a t e s a n d a g a i n s t t h e c h i l d r e n of a d u l t e r y . . . a n d expel t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e W a t c h e r s f r o m a m o n g t h e p e o p l e " (10:9). Lastly, M i c h a e l is sent to " M a k e k n o w n to S e m y a z a a n d the others w h o are with h i m , w h o fornicated with the w o m e n , t h a t t h e y will die t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m in t h e i r d e f i l e m e n t " (10:11). Interestingly, in 1 En. 1 2 - 1 3 , E n o c h is called u p o n by the W a t c h e r s to i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r b e h a l f . T h i s i r o n i c twist h a s a h u m a n in h e a v e n p l e a d i n g o n b e h a l f of angels w h o a r e o n t h e e a r t h . T h e a n g e l s h a v e t r a n s g r e s s e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s a n d left

tiieir

natural position,

while

E n o c h h a s b e e n c h o s e n by G o d a n d b r o u g h t u p i n t o t h e i r a b o d e . A n u m b e r of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f o r t h e

present

state of t h e text. B o t h G . N i c k e l s b u r g a n d P. H a n s o n h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o link t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e fallen W a t c h e r s w i t h Graeco-Roman

myths.19 In particular, Hesiod's

Tlieogony 1 8 5

and

H o m e r ' s Odyssey 7.59 b o t h m e n t i o n t h a t b l o o d f r o m h e a v e n m i n g l e d w i t h t h e e a r t h to c r e a t e giants. T h e s e parallels a r e interesting, b u t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this n a r r a t i v e h a s b e e n p u s h e d f u r t h e r by M . B a r k e r a n d especially D . Suter. 2 0 1). S u t e r locates in 1 E n o c h a c o n c e r n f o r p u r i t y in t h e priestly b l o o d l i n e , w h i c h h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a m y t h a b o u t angels w h o p r o c r e a t e w i t h w o m e n a n d m i x b l o o d . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g f o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion. It is also in k e e p i n g w i t h H e n d e l ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , in w h i c h t h e m i x i n g of t h e t w o t y p e s of b e i n g s w a s a l r e a d y a f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m a n d c a u s e of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n in t h e F l o o d . H e r e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e sin of t h e a n g e l s is t o g o t o e a r t h a n d c o p ulate w i t h h u m a n w o m e n is m o r e explicit. A n a d d i t i o n a l sin is t o t e a c h h u m a n s v a r i o u s types of h i d d e n k n o w l e d g e . T h u s , t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s is a n early t r a d i t i o n , b u t it d o e s still s e e m to d e p e n d u p o n t h e c o r e n a r r a t i v e in G e n 6. V i r t u a l l y all s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e likely h a d s o m e a w a r e -

19

G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11," pp. 383-405; P. Hanson, "Rebellion in Heaven, Azazel, and Euhermeristic Heroes in 1 Enoch 6-11" JBL 96 (1977) 195-233. See also J . Coffins, "Methodological Issues in the Study of I Enoch: Reflections on the Articles of P. Hanson and G. Nickelsburg" SBLSP (1978) 315-322, with responses in the same volume by Hanson (pp. 307-309) and Nickelsburg (pp. 311-314). 20 M. Barker, The Older Testament (London: SPCK, 1987) 8-80; D. Suter, "Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16" HUCA 50 (1979) 115-135.

ness of t h e k i n d s of i d e a s t h a t d e v e l o p e d in 1 E n o c h . I n p a r t i c u l a r , it is m a d e explicit t h a t t h e d i v i n e b e i n g s w h o c a m e t o e a r t h w e r e angels, e v e n n a m e d angels. O n e of t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n s w a s t o h a v e relations w i t h h u m a n w o m e n a n d s p a w n g i a n t h y b r i d offspring, b u t a n o t h e r w a s to t e a c h h u m a n s m a n y secrets. As J . K l a w a n s

points

o u t , " T h e w a t c h e r s e n g a g e in sexually defiling b e h a v i o r w h i c h leads to t h e i r p e r m a n e n t d e g r a d a t i o n a n d t h e i r exile f r o m H e a v e n . " 2 1

6.3

The

Septuagint

It is i m p o r t a n t to see h o w t h e key H e b r e w t e r m s ( ‫; ה נ פ ל י ם ; ב נ י ־ ה א ל ה י ם‬ a n d ‫ ) ה ג ב ר י ם‬of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 w e r e t r a n s l a t e d in t h e L X X to g a i n insight i n t o t h o s e i n t e r p r e t e r s ' i d e a s a b o u t a n g e l s in t h e S e c o n d

Temple

p e r i o d . " S o n s of G o d " ( ‫ ) ב נ י ־ ה א ל ה י ם‬is a r a r e t e r m in t h e

Hebrew

S c r i p t u r e s ; besides its t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in G e n 6, it a p p e a r s only in Job

1:6, 2:1, a n d 38:7 (all t h r e e a r e ‫ ;)בני א ל ה י ם‬Ps 29:1 ( , ( ‫א ל י ם‬

‫כני‬

8 2 : 6 ("gods, a n d sons of t h e M o s t H i g h " ( ‫ ;))וכני ע ל י ו ן א ל ה י ם‬a n d D a n 3:25 ( ‫ ) ל ב ר א ל ה י ן‬. T h e t h r e e cases in J o b a n d o n e in D a n i e l a r e r e n d e r e d w i t h άγγελος, w h i l e t h e o t h e r s a r e r e n d e r e d literally. 111 e a c h c a s e , t h e " s o n s of G o d " s e e m s to r e f e r to divine beings. 2 2 I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in t h e t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in G e n 6:2 a n d 4 t h e text s e e m s to h a v e m a i n t a i n e d this t e r m , using οί υ ι ο ί του θεοΰ to t r a n s l a t e it directly. 2 3 O n e version ( C o d e x A) h a s oi άγγελοι του θεου at v. 2, b u t , as P. A l e x a n d e r p o i n t s o u t , this is n o t likely to h a v e b e e n t h e original r e a d i n g . 2 4 T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this a r e n o t entirely clear. It c o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e translators w e r e n o t a w a r e of the line of tradition, s u c h as in 1 E n o c h , t h a t w a s i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e "sons of G o d " as angels. C o n v e r s e l y , it m a y r e p r e s e n t a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a d o n . T h i r d l y , it m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d t h e question,

21 J. Klawans, Sin and Impurity in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 57. 22 B. Byrne, "Sans of God"—"Seed of Abraham": A Study of the Idea of Sonship of God of All Christians in Paul against the Jewish Background (Rome: Pontifical Institute, 1979) 10-23, provides a good survey of the range of meaning for "son of God" as angelic beings. See also "Son of God" in ABD 6:129, and S. Parker, "Sons of (the) G0d(s)" in DDD, pp. 1499-1510. 23 Symmachus translates "sons of the powerful ones [δύναστευοντων]"; Theodotion "sons of God"; and Aquila "sons of gods [θεών]." 24 P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis of 'Sons of God' in Genesis 6" JJS 23 (1972) 60-71.

so t h a t a literal t r a n s l a t i o n w a s a d o p t e d . T h e q u e s t i o n is likely n o t a n s w e r a b l e , b u t a t least o n e v a r i a n t of t h e L X X d o e s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e r e a d i n g άγγελος, so s u c h a r e a d i n g w a s a t least possible. T h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s b o t h t h e t e r m ‫ ה נ פ ל י ם‬a n d ‫ ה נ כ ר י ם‬as γ ί γ α ν τες, 2 5 d e m o n s t r a t i n g t w o i n t e r p r e t i v e m o v e s . First, t h e N e p h i l i m a n d t h e G i b o r i m a r e e q u a t e d . A l t h o u g h this is t h e likely i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , it is n o t explicit in t h e H e b r e w . S e c o n d , t h e s e b e i n g s w e r e u n d e r s t o o d as " g i a n t s . " N u m

1 3 : 3 2 - 3 3 echoes the same idea

regarding

t h e N e p h i l i m , a g a i n t r a n s l a t i n g t h e i r n a m e s as " g i a n t s " a n d s t a t i n g t h a t t h e y a r e h u m a n s of e n o r m o u s s t a t u r e : [32] So they brought to the people of Israel an evil report of the land which they h a d spied out, saying, " T h e land, through which we have gone, to spy it out, is a land that devours its inhabitants; and all the people that we saw in it are men of great stature. [33] And there we saw the Nephilim [γίγαντας] (the sons of Anak, who come from the Nephilim); a n d we seemed to ourselves like grasshoppers, a n d so we seemed to them." A n o t h e r text hints t h a t gigantic features belong to h y b r i d s . JA

angel-human

2 2 : 7 ~ 8 states of (die h e a v e n l y ) J a c o b :

[7] And Aseneth saw him a n d was amazed at his beauty, because J a c o b was exceedingly beautiful to look at, and his old age (was) like the youth of a handsome (young) man, a n d his head was all white as snow, and the hairs of his head were all exceedingly close and thick like those of an Ethiopian, and his b e a r d (was) white reaching down to his breast, and his eyes (were) flashing and darting (flashes of) lightning, and his sinews and his shoulders a n d his arms were like those of an angel, and his thighs and calves a n d his feet like (those) of a giant. [8] And J a c o b was like a m a n who had wrestled with God. 2 6 T h e parallels h e r e a r e i n t r i g u i n g . B o t h t h e b e i n g s in G e n 6:1 4‫ ־‬a n d J a c o b in this text a r e h y b r i d s , b e i n g b o t h h u m a n a n d divine (in JA explicitly said to b e " a n g e l i c , " a n d in t h e L X X version of G e n

6

this is at least a possible reading). I n b o t h cases, g i g a n t i s m is p a r t of t h e i r h y b r i d n a t u r e . 2 7 25

On the Greek background to this term, see DDD, pp. 649-653. C. Burchard, OTP 2:238. 27 In the Book of Elchasai as recorded in fragments in Hippolytus, Ref. 9.13.2-3 (third century CE), an angel is said to have gigantic features: "It had been communicated by an angel, whose height was 24 schoinoi, which is 96 miles, his breath four schoinoi, and from shoulder to shoulder six schoinoi, and the tracks of his feet in length 3.5 schoinoi, which is 14 miles, and in breadth 1.5 schoinoi, and in height half a schoinos (translation: J. Irmscher in E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha [London: Lutterworth Press, 1965] 747-748). 26

T h u s , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e L X X is u n c l e a r as to w h e t h e r t h e " s o n s of G o d " a r e u n d e r s t o o d specifically as angels in t h e earliest versions. T h e L X X a u t h o r s o p t e d for a literal t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e t e r m . T h e L X X ' s c h o i c e t o m a i n t a i n s o n s of G o d (οί υ ι ο ί του θεου) is i n t e r p r e t a t i v e l y a m b i g u o u s , b u t at least o n e v a r i a n t d o e s s h o w oi άγγελοι του θεοΰ. T h e N e p h i l i m a n d G i b o r i m a r e e q u a t e d b y t h e i r c o m m o n r e n d e r i n g as " g i a n t s " (γίγαντες). T h i s s e e m s t o suggest a n

ongoing

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o f f s p r i n g as g i a n t s (1 En. a n d L X X ) in t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .

6.4

The Dead Sea Scrolls

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e n o f r a g m e n t s of G e n 6:1—4 a m o n g t h e e x t a n t D e a d S e a Scrolls, a n u m b e r of texts t a k e t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e : t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n (Gen. Apoc), t h e B o o k of Giants, and some fragments.28 M o s t scholars date the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n ( 1 Q a p G e n a r =

1Q20)

to t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y B C E o r early first c e n t u r y C E . 2 9 T h e g e n r e of t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n is still a m a t t e r of scholarly debate. 3 0 It s e e m s to b e a r e w r i t t e n version of G e n 5 1 5

‫ ־‬.

T h a t t h e text s e e m s

to k n o w G e n 6 a n d especially 1 E n o c h is clear. T h e first e x t a n t colu m n , c o l u m n 2, c o n t a i n s a discussion b e t w e e n L a m e c h a n d his wife B a t e n o s h (cf. Jub.

4:28). T h e first 18 lines state:

[1] Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was (due) to the Watchers [‫ ]עירים‬a n d the Holy O n e s . . . and to the Giants [‫]ולנפיל‬ [2] and my heart was troubled within m e because of this child. [3] T h e n I, Lamech, approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste a n d said to her, [4] [ . . . ] by the Most High, the Great Lord, the King of all the universe and Ruler of [5] [. . .]the Sons of Heaven [‫]בנישמים‬, until you tell m e all things truthfully . . . [6] You will and without lies let me know whether this

28 4Q252 col. 1:2-3, however, reflects Gen 6:3 closely, stating, "And God said: 'My spirit will not reside in man for ever. Their days shall be fixed at one hundred and twenty years until the end of the waters of the flood.' " The complete form of this text may well have included the whole of the Gen 6:1-4 narrative, though it cannot be known for certain. 29 N. Avigad and Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon (Jerusalem: Magnus Press, 1956) 38. 50 See HJPAJC IIIi:318-25.

[7] by the King of the all the universe that you are speaking to me frankly and without lies [8] T h e n Batenosh, my bride, spoke to me veiy harshly, she wept [9] saying. " O h my brother, Ο my Lord, r e m e m b e r my pleasure! [10] [. . .] the time of love, the gasping of my breath in my breast. I [. . .] will tell you everything accurately [11] [ . . . ] and then within m e my heart was very upset [121 W h e n Batenosh, my wife, realized that my countenance h a d altered [13] then she suppressed her anger, speaking to m e and saying to me, " O my lord [14] my pleasure. I swear to you by the Holy Great O n e , the King of [the heavens] . . . [15] that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is f r o m you. This fruit was planted by you . . . [16] a n d by n o s t r a n g e r or W a t c h e r [‫ ]עירים‬or Son of H e a v e n [‫ ]ולא מ כ ל בנישמים‬. . . [17] [Why] is your countenance thus changed and dismayed, and why is your spirit thus distressed . . . [18] I speak to you truthfully." L a m e c h is c o n c e r n e d t h a t his child ( N o a h ) m a y b e the o f f s p r i n g of t h e W a t c h e r s (‫)עיר‬. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e y a r e j u x t a p o s e d w i t h

"Holy

O n e s " in e a c h o c c u r r e n c e j u s t as in t h e B o o k of D a n i e l (4:10, 14, 20). T w o o t h e r tides u s e d in t h e f r a g m e n t a r e n o t e w o r t h y . " S o n s of H e a v e n 5 ' is a n o t i i e r t h a t seems to refer to t h e s a m e beings as W a t c h e r s a n d H o l y O n e s , a n d c o n n e c t s t h e b e i n g s m o r e closely w i t h t h e divine t h a n t h e h u m a n . T h e N e p h i l i m a r e also m e n t i o n e d (v. 1), a n d t h e r e m a y b e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e e q u i v a l e n t to t h e

Watchers

( H o l y O n e s ) , b u t this is n o t c e r t a i n d u e to t h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of t h e text. T h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g a s p e c t of Gen. Apoc. is t h a t B a t h e n o s h

must

c o n v i n c e h e r h u s b a n d , L a m e c h , t h a t she is p r e g n a n t t h r o u g h

him

a n d n o t a n y s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e story is t h a t s o m e t h i n g a b o u t N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e a t b i r t h h a s led L a m e c h

to

believe h e is a b n o r m a l , p e r h a p s s u p e r h u m a n , a n d to ask w h e t h e r t h e c h i l d is his o w n . T h i s e x p a n s i o n is v e r y m u c h like t h a t seen in 1 En. 106. 3 1 B a t h e n o s h ' s p r o t e s t s a r e explicit, r e m i n d i n g L a m e c h of h e r p l e a s u r e in t h e i r s e x u a l u n i o n . S h e d e n i e s t h a t a n y o n e b u t h i m h a s f a t h e r e d t h e i r s o n , s a y i n g it w a s b y n o " s t r a n g e r , o r W a t c h e r o r son of H e a v e n . "

81

For the discussion of 1 En. 106 on Noah as angebe, see 3.4 above.

Gen. Apoc. i n d i c a t e s t h a t , f o r a t least o n e a u t h o r , a b i r t h t h a t h a d b e e n c o n c e i v e d b y t h e m i x i n g of h u m a n a n d divine stock w a s possible. If Gen. Apoc. picks u p o n t r a d i t i o n s in 1 E n o c h , t h e n w e c a n see t h e t r a d i t i o n r e c o r d e d in m o r e t h a n o n e text. T h e a u t h o r d i d n o t c h o o s e to use t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l ( ‫ ) מ ל א ך‬, as in L X X (A) a n d 1 E n o c h ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e is c e r t a i n l y m e n t i o n of b e i n g s w h o a r e f r o m h e a v e n (of divine origin), w h o s e e m to b e distinct f r o m h u m a n beings b u t w h o a r e still a b l e to a c t b o t h in the h e a v e n s a n d o n e a r t h . T h i s m a y o n l y reflect t h e a u t h o r ' s i d e a s a b o u t e v e n t s in t h e a n t e d i l u v i a n p a s t , b u t it gives us a g l i m p s e i n t o h o w t h e a u t h o r m i g h t h a v e p e r c e i v e d t h e a c t i o n s of h e a v e n l y b e i n g s i n his o w n t i m e . A B o o k of G i a n t s t h a t c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g t h e M a n i c h e a n s ( M a n i , t h i r d c e n t u r y C E ) h a s b e e n k n o w n to s c h o l a r s f o r s o m e time. 3 2 M o r e recendy, a Book of G i a n t s f r o m Q u m r a n h a s b e e n identified ( 1 Q 2 3 - 2 4 , 4 Q 5 3 0 - 5 3 1 , a n d 6 Q 8 , a n d possibly others). 3 3 D a t e s f o r t h e Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s v a r y b u t likely lie s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e late t h i r d a n d m i d d l e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , so it is a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e f o r this p e r i o d . 3 4 T h e Manichean

r e l a t i o n of t h e Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s to t h e

o n e is u n c l e a r , especially b e c a u s e of t h e

fragmentary

n a t u r e of m o s t of t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e . T h e M a n i c h e a n text m a y d e p e n d o n t h e Q u m r a n text in s o m e w a y , b u t t h e r e is n o w a y t o b e c e r t a i n . T h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e is t h u s t a k e n o n its o w n a n d is n o t s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e M a n i c h e a n texts. 3 5 T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s r e p r e s e n t a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 similar t o 1 E n o c h . T h e m e r e f a c t t h a t a n e n t i r e b o o k w a s d e d i c a t e d to s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e g i a n t s i n d i c a t e s t h e i m p a c t t h e G e n 6 p a s s a g e h a d o n a t least o n e a u t h o r a n d

community.

T h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of t h e e x t a n t Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e

makes

a n y a s s e s s m e n t of t h e p u r p o s e o r g e n r e of t h e B o o k of G i a n t s at 32 For the Manichean text, see W. Henning, "The Book of Giants" BSOAS 11 (1943-1946) 52-74. 33 J. Milik, The Book of Enoch, pp. 298-339, first identified 13 fragments as belonging to a Qumran Book of Giants. L. Stuckenbruck has put out a critical edition of all the fragments of the Book of Giants from among the Dead Sea Scrolls: The Book of Giants from Qumran (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997). I have based my translations on the text given in the latter. 34 L. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, p. 31. 35 J. Reeves, Jewish Lore in Manichean Cosmogony: Studies in the Book of Giants Traditions (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1992) 207-209, suggests that Jewish traditions did exert a determinative force on Mani's cosmology. Reeves includes in "Jewish influence" Gen 6, 1 En., and other works. He does not necessarily see any direct influence (contra J. Mlik, Enoch, pp. 298-339).

Q u m r a n difficult, if n o t impossible. T a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h e f r a g m e n t s s h o w a n interest in t h e giants, n a m i n g t h e m (two h a v e B a b y l o n i a n n a m e s ) , a n d in E n o c h as a n i n t e r p r e t e r of d r e a m s , suggesting a story similar to 1 E n o c h b u t o n e t h a t e l a b o r a t e s u p o n the o f f s p r i n g giants. W h a t p u r p o s e s u c h a text w o u l d h a v e s e r v e d r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n . T h r e e f r a g m e n t s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e v a r i o u s

key

w o r d s (e.g., N e p h i l i m , etc.) a p p e a r in t h e text: 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t s 7 a n d 8, a n d 4 Q 5 3 1 f r a g m e n t 5. 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t 7 is s h o r t b u t refers t o A z a z e l , G i b o r i m ,

and

p r o b a b l y t h e W a t c h e r s (which is r e s t o r e d f r o m a n initial ‫ ו ע‬a n d a final

‫ א‬s e e m i n g l y w i t h s p a c e for ( 36 .(‫ירי‬

[6] us [ b u t . . .]h Aza[z]e1 and made h [ i m . . .] [7] the giants [‫ ]גבריא‬and the Wa[tellers]. All [their] c0[mpa11i0ns] will rise up [against. . .] T h i s f r a g m e n t is t o o s h o r t to b e c e r t a i n of its l a r g e r c o n t e x t , b u t the m e n t i o n of A z a z e l , t h e G i b o r i m , a n d the W a t c h e r s s e e m s to situ a t e it w i t h i n t h e s c o p e of G e n 6, 1 E n o c h a n d t h e i r

interpréta-

tions. T h i s m a k e s sense g i v e n t h a t t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of t h e B o o k of G i a n t s is t h e h y b r i d offspring, giants. T h e n e x t f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t 8) is m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l , b u t its e v i d e n c e is still p a r t i a l . It states: [1] [2] [3] [4]

T h e boo[k . . .] vacat A copy of the s[ec0]nd tablet of the 1[etter . . . ] in a writing by the h a n d of Enoch, the scribe of righteousness

[...]

[5] and the Holy O n e to Sheinihazah and to all (his) c o m p a n i o n s . . .] [6] "Let it be known to you t h [ a t . . .]/[. . . ] [7] your deeds a n d those of (your) wives [. . . ] [8] [. . . ] those [. . . ] son[s and] the wives of [. ..] [9] through your fornication on the earth, for it has [. . .] [10] accusing you regarding the deeds of your sons [ . . .] [11] the corruption which you have committed on it [. . .] [12] until the coming of Raphael. Behold d e s t r u c t i o n . . .] [13] those who are in the deserts and those who are in the seas. And the interpretation of [ . . .] [14] evil upon you. So, now, set loose what you hold mh[.. •] [15] and pray. [. . .]

36

L. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, p. 78.

It is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t this p a s s a g e m e n t i o n s E n o c h as a scribe of righteousness, since in 1 En. 12:4, E n o c h is called u p o n b y t h e W a t c h e r s to i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r b e h a l f . T h i s m a y suggest a similar c o n t e x t f o r diis f r a g m e n t . T w o angels a r e n a m e d explicitly in this text, S h e m i h a z a h (1 En.) a n d R a p h a e l ( T o b i t , 1 Q M , 1 En., Apoc. Mos.). T h i s very m u c h e c h o e s 1 En.

9

11, w h e r e t h e a r c h a n g e l s i n t e r c e d e o n b e h a l f of

h u m a n s a n d a r e g i v e n tasks by G o d . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of " f o r n i c a t i o n o n t h e e a r t h " a n d " c o r r u p t i o n " s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t this is t h e case. O n e o t h e r f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q 5 3 1 f r a g m e n t 5) m e n t i o n s t h e giants: .] they defiled themselves [.. .] [1] .] Giants [‫ ]גברין‬and Nephilim []‫ ]ונפלי‬j . . . ] [‫]צ‬ .] they begat. Behold k[. . .]. [3] .] in its blood, and by means of mh[. . . 1 W .] because it was not enough for them and for [. [5] .] and they d e m a n d e d much to eat ml[ · · ] [6] [7] vacat [. . .] [. . .] the Nephilim [‫ ]ונפלץ‬destroyed it [. . .] H e r e t h e N e p h i l i m a r e m e n t i o n e d a l o n g w i t h the G i b o r i m . T h e y s e e m to b e linked w i t h d e f i l e m e n t a n d t h e c o r r u p t i o n of t h e e a r t h , if w e a s s u m e a c o n t e x t similar to t h a t of 1 E n o c h a n d t h e texts a l r e a d y discussed. O v e r a l l , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e B o o k of G i a n t s is q u i t e limited, b u t it d o e s s h o w t h a t a t least o n e c o m m u n i t y w a s greatly e x p a n d ing u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s of G e n 6 a n d

1 Enoch. T h e r e the

term

" a n g e l ( ‫ " ) מ ל א ך‬d o e s n o t explicitly o c c u r , b u t s o m e n a m e d angels a r e m e n t i o n e d . C e r t a i n l y , t h e i d e a of divine b e i n g s a n d h u m a n s c o p u lating was picked u p a n d

expanded.

T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ( C D ) w a s first k n o w n to s c h o l a r s f r o m t h e m a n u s c r i p t s f o u n d in t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h a t t h e e n d of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . M a n y f r a g m e n t s of C D w e r e p r e s e n t a t

Qiimran.

4 Q 2 6 7 f r a g m e n t 2 a n d 4 Q 2 7 0 f r a g m e n t 1 discuss the W a t c h e r s w h o fell f r o m h e a v e n . 3 7 T h e y a r e listed in a section t h a t discusses s i n n e r s a n d r i g h t e o u s figures f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible. T h e W a t c h e r s b e g i n a list of figures f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible w h o s u f f e r e d specifically b e c a u s e t h e y did n o t k e e p t h e p r e c e p t s of G o d . C D says of t h e W a t c h e r s :

37

Both fragments are largely reconstructed from the Genizah manuscripts. Cf. DJB XVIII.

[16] . . . For many [17] have failed due to them; mighty warriors [‫ ]ונבורי ציל‬have stumbled due to them, from the earliest times and until today, walking in the stubbornness [18] of their hearts, the Watchers [‫ ]עירי‬of the heavens fell; on account of it they were caught, for they did not follow the precepts of God. [19] And their sons, whose height was like that of cedars and whose bodies were like mountains when they fell. (4Q267 frag. 2) N o t a b l y , h e r e t h e W a t c h e r s fall b e c a u s e t h e y fail to follow t h e p r e c e p t s of G o d , p r e s u m a b l y to m a i n t a i n t h e i r c o r r e c t p l a c e in t h e cosm o s . Also, t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e W a t c h e r s a r e said t o b e of e n o r m o u s s t a t u r e , tall as c e d a r s a n d w i t h b o d i e s like m o u n t a i n s . F u r t h e r , t h e W a t c h e r s a r e sinful in t h e i r a c t i o n s a g a i n s t G o d . Lastly, f r a g m e n t s 4 Q 1 8 0 a n d 4 Q 1 8 1 , also k n o w n as " T h e A g e s of C r e a t i o n , " d a t e to t h e first c e n t u r y C E . 3 8 T h e y d o n o t p r o v i d e m u c h a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b u t s e e m t o m a k e r e f e r e n c e to

the

1 E n o c h t r a d i t i o n . 4 Q J 8 0 says: [7] [And] the interpretation concerning Azazel [‫ ]עזזאל‬and the angels [‫ ]והמלאכים‬who [8] they bore to them giants [‫]גברים‬. And concerning Azazel [ . . . [10] judgments a n d j u d g m e n t of the congregation . . . A l t h o u g h t h e text is f r a g m e n t a r y , it a d d s to o u r overall collection of e x t a n t texts t h a t s p e c u l a t e a b o u t the e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 . It also m e n t i o n s A z a z e l (discussed a b o v e ) a n d s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t angels a n d h u m a n s h a d viable offspring. S i m i l a r to line 8 of 4 Ç H 8 0 , 4 Q 1 8 1 f r a g m e n t 2 line 2 says, ". . . m a n a n d b o r e to t h e m g i a n t s [‫]נמרים‬. " T o s u m u p , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls is q u i t e v a r ied. Gen. Apoc. is a r e w o r k i n g of G e n e s i s . Its u n i q u e

interpretation

h a s L a m e c h c o n c e r n e d t h a t his son, N o a h , is n o t his o w n b u t t h e son of t h e h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s d u e to his f a n t a s t i c a p p e a r a n c e a t his b i r t h . F r a g m e n t s f r o m w h a t h a s b e e n identified as a Q i i m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s s h o w t h a t t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g w a s a s u b j e c t w o r t h y of its o w n text. T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t a n d o t h e r f r a g m e n t s s h o w t h a t the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 a n d 1 E n o c h w a s a l r e a d y q u i t e p e r v a sive in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m Q u m r a n . All of this suggests t h a t 1 E n o c h

38

J. Allegro, DJD V (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968) 77-79.

[‫עזזאל‬

w a s v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l a t Q i i m r a n , a n d it a d d s to t h e p i c t u r e of h o w w i d e s p r e a d t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e o n t h e f a l l e n W a t c h e r s h a d b e c o m e b y t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .

6.5

The Book of Jubilees

T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s (Jub.) is a t y p e of Biblical m i d r a s h o n t h e B o o k of Genesis. 3 9 I t d a t e s to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E a n d w a s f o u n d a m o n g t h e w o r k s a t Q u m r a n , so it s e e m s likely t h a t t h e a u t h o r of J u b i l e e s w o u l d h a v e k n o w n t r a d i t i o n s s e e n in 1 E n o c h . T h r e e passages a r e of interest. First, Jub.

4 : 1 5 says:

[15] And in the second week of the tenth jubilee, Mahalalel took for himself a wife, Dinah, the daughter of Barakiel, the daughter of his father's brother, as a wife. And she bore a son for him in the third week of the sixth year. And he called him J a r e d because in his days the angels of the Lord, who were called Watchers, came down upon the earth in order to teach the sons of man, a n d perform j u d g m e n t and uprightness upon the earth. 40 T h i s p a s s a g e says t h a t W a t c h e r s a r e " a n g e l s of t h e L o r d . "

The

W a t c h e r s a r e said t o h a v e c o m e to t h e e a r t h to t e a c h m e n a n d to e x e c u t e j u d g m e n t . T h e t e a c h i n g a s p e c t of t h e i r visit to e a r t h p a r a l lels p a r t of t h e t r a d i t i o n in 1 En. 7 - 8 t h a t is n o t in t h e G e n e s i s passage. M o r e o v e r , as in 1 En. 20, t h e a r c h a n g e l s c a n a p p a r e n t l y also b e r e f e r r e d t o as W a t c h e r s , since t h e y also " p e r f o r m j u d g m e n t a n d u p r i g h t n e s s u p o n t h e e a r t h . " I n 4 : 1 6 t h e b i r t h of E n o c h is r e c o u n t e d . Jub.

4 : 2 2 say t h a t E n o c h [22] . . . wrote eveiything, and bore witness to the Watchers, the ones who sinned with the daughters of m e n because they began to mingle themselves with the daughters of men so they might be polluted. And Enoch bore witness against them.

T h i s m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s w i t h h u m a n k i n d is a t r a n s g r e s s i o n (= sin) t h a t l e a d s to pollution. I n this p a s s a g e , it is n o t explicit t h a t this m i n g l i n g n e e d e v e n p r o d u c e offspring, b u t t h a t t h e i r u n i o n d i d i n d e e d p r o v e v i a b l e is m a d e c l e a r

39

For a discussion of the date and genre of Jubilees see 2.1a above; see also HJPAJC 3i:309. 40 Translations by O. Wintermute, OTP 2:62 and 64.

in c h a p t e r 5. J u b i l e e s s e e m s to b e a w a r e of 1 En.

1 2 1 6 ‫ ־‬, in w h i c h

E n o c h , w h o is in the heavens, actually intercedes o n behalf of the fallen o n e s (1 En. Jub.

1 2 - 1 3 ) b u t says t h a t h e " b o r e witness a g a i n s t t h e m . "

5 : 1 - 2 is t h e p o i n t at w h i c h G e n 6 : 1 - 4 is r e c o u n t e d . 4 1

The

p a s s a g e says: [1] And w h e n the children of men began to multiply on the surface of the earth and daughters were born to them, the angels of the Lord saw in a certain year of that jubilee that they were good to look at. And they took wives for themselves from all those w h o m they chose. And they bore children for them; and they were the giants. [2] And injustice increased upon the earth, and all flesh corrupted its way; m a n and cattle and beasts and birds and everything which walks on the earth. And they all corrupted their way and their ordinances, and they began to eat one another. And injustice grew upon the earth and every imagination of the thoughts of all mankind was thus continually evil. Jub. 5 : 1 2 ‫ ־‬c o n t a i n s t h r e e of t h e f o u r m a i n c o m p o n e n t s of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , lacking o n l y t h e m e n t i o n of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e h u m a n life s p a n . E a c h of t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s — h u m a n p r o l i f e r a t i o n , angelic lust,

and

u l t i m a t e l y c o r r u p t i o n — i s p r e s e n t . J u b i l e e s d o e s n o t a p p e a r to e x p a n d u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n , b u t it is explicit t h a t a n g e l s l o o k e d u p o n

the

h u m a n f e m a l e s a n d t o o k t h e m as wives. M o r e o v e r , it m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e divine b e i n g s a n d h u m a n f e m a l e s w e r e giants. A c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n is also m a d e b e t w e e n

the

arrival of t h e g i a n t s o n t h e e a r t h a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of injustice in the w o r l d . I n v. 4 G o d says, " I will w i p e o u t m a n a n d all

flesh

w h i c h I h a v e c r e a t e d f r o m u p o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . " N o a h is s p a r e d (v. 5). V e r s e 6 says of G o d , " A n d a g a i n s t his angels w h o m h e h a d sent to t h e e a r t h h e w a s v e r y a n g r y . " T h e a n g e l t h e n says, " A n d h e told us to b i n d t h e m in t h e d e p t h s of t h e e a r t h , " a n d t h e y a r e b o u n d ( w . 6, 10). T h e o f f s p r i n g , n e v e r r e f e r r e d t o as giants, a r e said to kill o n e a n o t h e r b e c a u s e G o d s e n d s o u t his s w o r d

among

t h e m ( w . 7, 9). G o d t h e n s p e a k s o u t a g a i n s t h u m a n i t y , saying (cf. G e n 6:3) t h a t " M y spirit will n o t a b i d e in m a n f o r e v e r ; f o r t h e y a r e flesh,

a n d t h e i r d a y s will b e o n e h u n d r e d t w e n t y y e a r s " (v. 9).

J . v a n R u i t e n h a s e x a m i n e d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 1 2 in Jub. 5 : 1 - 1 9 in detail. 4 2 H e sees J u b i l e e s as b o t h utilizing G e n

6:1-4

41 Jub. 5:1-2 is also evinced in a small fragment from Qumran (11Q12 fragment 5). The text itself is fragmentary and adds little to the discussion of angels, so it has not been given separate consideration. 42 J . van Ruiten, "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19" in

a n d also a d a p t i n g it as n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e a d a p t a t i o n s , h e says, s e e m " n o t to b e c a u s e d by exegetical p r o b l e m s , b u t b y c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e text." 4 3 H e is q u i t e c o r r e c t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , J u b i l e e s s e e m s to b e well a w a r e of t h e story f r o m t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (1

En.)

a n d uses this m a t e r i a l freely as well as b e i n g b a s e d in t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e , especially r e g a r d i n g t h e i d e a of t h e a n g e l s b e i n g sent by G o d t o the w o r l d to t e a c h m a n b u t t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m G o d . J u b i l e e s is t h e r e f o r e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . First, it was present at Q u m r a n

a n d is r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h

both

1 Enoch and the L X X . Jubilees demonstrates dependence on both G e n 6 a n d 1 E n o c h , w h i l e m a k i n g its o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d a d a p tations. T h e b e i n g s w h o c o m e to e a r t h a r e a n g e l s of G o d , c a l l e d W a t c h e r s . T h e y a c t u a l l y s e e m to h a v e originally b e e n sent b y G o d , b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y , b e c a u s e t h e y c o p u l a t e d w i t h h u m a n females, t u r n e d a w a y f r o m G o d a n d p o l l u t e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e angels a n d h u m a n s a r e r e f e r r e d to as giants. T h e i r p o l l u t i o n l e a d s to t h e i r b e i n g b o u n d a n d cast a w a y to a w a i t final j u d g m e n t . T h e g i a n t s a r e c o m p e l l e d b y G o d to d e s t r o y o n e a n o t h e r , w h i l e h u m a n i t y , e x c e p t for N o a h , is d e s t r o y e d b y t h e F l o o d .

6.6 In book

1 of t h e Antiquities,

Josephus

and. Philo

J o s e p h u s e x p o u n d s t h e G e n e s i s story.

L e a d i n g u p to discussion of N o a h a n d t h e F l o o d , J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s h o w t h e seven g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r S e t h slowly t u r n e d a w a y f r o m G o d . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e is a m i n g l i n g w i t h angels: [73] For m a n y angels of G o d [άγγελοι θεοΰ] consorted with women and sired sons who were licentious [ΰβριστάς] a n d disdainful of every virtue, such confidence had they in their strength; in fact the deeds that tradition ascribes to them resemble the audacious exploits told by the Greeks [Ελλήνων] of the giants [γιγάντων], J o s e p h u s says t h a t t h e beings w h o c o n s o r t e d w i t h w o m e n w e r e angels of G o d . H e s e e m s to reflect a t r a d i t i o n in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e t y p e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in 1 E n o c h a n d s o m e of t h e D e a d S e a Scroll e v i d e n c e , w h e r e t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g of angels a n d h u m a n s w e r e violent a n d

Studies in the Book ofJubilees, ed. M. Albani, J. Frey, and A. Longe (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997) 59-75. 43 J . van Ruiten, "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19," p. 74.

i g n o r a n t of v i r t u e . M o r e o v e r , J o s e p h u s n o t e s t h a t a c c o r d i n g to t r a dition t h e a c t i o n s of t h e s e a n g e l s r e s e m b l e t h o s e of t h e g i a n t s in G r e e k l e g e n d . H e m a k e s this i n t e r p r e t a t i v e m o v e in o r d e r to m a k e the story m o r e accessible to his G r a e c o - R o m a n a u d i e n c e , w h o w e r e likely to b e a w a r e of t h e m y t h s r e g a r d i n g t h e giants. 4 4 J o s e p h u s t h e n j u x t a p o s e s N o a h w i t h t h e ( u n r i g h t e o u s ) h y b r i d sons. N o a h tries t o get t h e m t o c h a n g e t h e i r ways, b u t , realizing h e will b e u n s u c c e s s ful, h e takes his f a m i l y a n d leaves t h e a r e a (74). N o a h a n d his f a m ily a r e s p a r e d f r o m t h e F l o o d , while t h e h y b r i d sons a n d all of w i c k e d h u m a n i t y a r e w i p e d o u t (76). P h i l o h a s m u c h m o r e to say r e g a r d i n g G e n 6. H e d e v o t e s

an

e n t i r e treatise to t h e g i a n t s (Gig.), w h i l e also d e a l i n g w i t h the passage in Questions and Solutions on Genesis (QG Γ). T h e treatise " O n t h e G i a n t s " is a n e x t e n d e d discussion of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 . H o w e v e r , t h e title is s o m e w h a t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of its c o n t e n t . T h e treatise is d i v i d e d by m o d e r n s c h o l a r s i n t o 61 c h a p t e r s . O f these, t h e vast m a j o r i t y ( c h a p t e r s 1 9 - 5 7 ) a r e d e v o t e d t o a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G o d ' s

nature

a n d t h e u n w o r t h i n e s s of flesh. H i s l o n g allegory is a digression f r o m a n y t h i n g really r e l a t e d to t h e giants. I n t h e o t h e r

material—118‫־‬

a n d 5 8 6 1 ‫ — ־‬t h e r e a r e t w o p a s s a g e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r e s e n t discussion. As seen in his o t h e r writings, P h i l o uses allegory to i n t e r p r e t angels. I n c h a p t e r 6 h e says t h a t w h a t M o s e s ( T o r a h ) calls angels, the p h i l o s o p h e r s (Greeks) call d e m o n s . [6] "And w h e n the angels of G o d saw the daughters of m e n that they were fair, they took to themselves wives from all, those whom they chose" (Gen 6:2). It is Moses' custom to give the n a m e angels to those whom other philosophers call demons [δαίμονας], souls that is, which fly a n d hover in the air. T h e discussion goes o n to e x p l a i n t h a t s u c h c r e a t u r e s a r e n o t m y t h (9-11). Ultimately, Philo explains t h a t souls (ψυχαί), d e m o n s (δαίμονες), a n d a n g e l s (άγγελοι) a r e d i f f e r e n t n a m e s f o r t h e s a m e

underlying

p h e n o m e n o n , saying, " S o if y o u realize t h a t souls a n d d e m o n s a n d angels a r e b u t d i f f e r e n t n a m e s for t h e s a m e o n e u n d e r l y i n g o b j e c t , 44 The relationship with the giants of Greek mythology seems to be reflected in Sib. Or. 2:227-232, which says: "Then Uriel, the great angel, will break the gigantic bolts, of unyielding and unbreakable steel, of the gates of Hades, not forged of metal; he will throw them wide open and will lead the mournful forms to judgement, especially those of ancient phantoms, Titans and the Giants and such as the Flood destroyed"' (translation by J. J. Coffins, in OTP 1:350-51). Also, one Greek ms. of 1 En. 9:9 reads τιτάνας where most read γίγαντας.

you will cast f r o m y o u t h a t most grievous b u r d e n , the fear of d e m o n s or superstition" (16). M o r e o v e r , Philo says that: [16] T h e common usage of men is to give the name of demon to bad and good demons alike, and the name of soul to good and bad souls. And so, too, you also will not go wrong if you reckon as angels, not only those who are worthy of the name, who are as ambassadors backward and forwards between man and God and are rendered sacred and inviolate by reason of glorious and blameless ministry, but also those who are unholy and unworthy of the title. T h e t e r m s "angels," " d e m o n s , " a n d "spirits" refer to the s a m e beings for Philo. T h e t e r m "angels" c a n a p p l y to b o t h g o o d a n d evil angels. T h i s interpretative m o v e m a y well stem f r o m the r e a d i n g άγγελος in his source text. T h e n o r m a l lot of angels is to be p u r e , w o r s h i p p i n g God. A f t e r his long exposition o n G o d ' s spirit, Philo e m p h a s i z e s t h a t the m e n t i o n of giants in the T o r a h (by Moses) is n o t m y t h b u t c a n be e x p l a i n e d as a n allegory of die origins of various types of m e n . [58] "Now the giants were on the earth in those days." Some may think that the Lawgiver is alluding to the myths of the poets about the giants, but indeed myth-making is a thing most alien to him, and his mind is set on following in the steps of truth and nothing but truth. . . . So, then, it is no myth at all of giants that he sets before us; rather he wishes to show you that some men are earth-born, some heaven-born, and some G o d - b o r n . . . First, Philo denies t h a t the story is m y t h akin to the G r e e k writers a b o u t the giants. His exegesis of G e n 6:4 is a n allegory explaining t h a t t h e r e are t h r e e types of m e n : earthly, heavenly, a n d Godly. T h e giants are considered earthly—lustful a n d hedonistic. T h e e x e m p l a r of these is N i m r o d (Gen 10:8), whose n a m e is said to m e a n "deserter." A b r a m , t u r n e d A b r a h a m , is said to b e the p a r a d i g m of the heavenly m a n w h o cultivates die m i n d a n d is totally focused on G o d . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h a n allegory, seems to h a r k back to 1 E n o c h , in w h i c h the angels a r e p u n i s h e d for their violence a n d indiscretion. I n the QG 1:92 Philo discusses G e n 6:4 in detail: Why were the giants born from angels and women? T h e poets relate that the giants were earth-born, children of the earth. But he (Moses) uses this name improperly [καταχρηστιής] and frequently when he wishes to indicate excessive size of the body, after the likeness of Haik. And he relates that their creation was a mixture of two things, of angels and of mortal women. But the substance [ουσία] of angels is

spiritual [πνευματική]; however, it often happens that they imitate the forms of m e n a n d for immediate putposes, as in respect of knowing w o m e n for the sake of begetting giants. But if children become zealous emulators of maternal depravity, they will draw away f r o m paternal virtue and depart from it through contempt and arrogance toward the better they are condemned as guilty of wilful wrongdoing. But sometimes he calls the angels "sons of G o d " because they are made incorporeal through no mortal m a n but are spirits without body. But rather does that exhorter, Moses give to good and excellent m e n the n a m e "sons of G o d , " while wicked and evil men, he calls "bodies." 45 Philo is explicit tiiat the giants a r e the offspring of h u m a n s a n d angels. 4 5 H e r e h e says t h a t t h e n a t u r e (ούσία) of angels is spiritual (πνευματική), distinct f r o m e a r t h l y , w h i c h is in k e e p i n g w i t h his u s u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a n g e l s as spiritual b e i n g s a n d e v e n h e a v e n l y λόγοι. P h i l o says t h a t G e n e s i s d e s c r i b e s t h e g i a n t s as t h e o f f s p r i n g of h u m a n f e m a l e s a n d angels, t h o u g h a n g e l s a r e a b l e to t a k e o n v a r i o u s f o r m s as n e c essary (χρεία). H e e q u a t e s d e p r a v i t y w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e a n d

virtue

w i t h t h e m a s c u l i n e . H e d o e s n o t explicitly m e n t i o n t h e g i a n t s as d e p r a v e d , b u t it s e e m s logical to i n f e r t h a t P h i l o is saying t h e g i a n t s , w h o s e only h u m a n c o m p o n e n t w a s f e m a l e , fell into d e p r a v i t y b e c a u s e t h e y i n c l i n e d t o w a r d t h e f e m i n i n e . 4 7 W h a t is c l e a r is t h a t t h e g i a n t s w e r e t h e o f f s p r i n g of h u m a n s (earthly) a n d a n g e l s (spiritual) a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e a s o u r c e of c o r r u p t i o n in t h e w o r l d . P h i l o also n o t e s t h a t M o s e s (the T o r a h ) s o m e t i m e s uses t h e t e r m " s o n s of G o d " to r e f e r to angels. T h u s , P h i l o s e e m s to b e a w a r e of b o t h " s o n s of G o d " a n d " a n g e l s " as t e r m s f o r t h e b e i n g s w h o c a m e d o w n t o e a r t h t o t a k e h u m a n wives. T h e e v i d e n c e of J o s e p h u s a n d P h i l o tells us a n u m b e r of things. First-century Hellenized J e w s were dealing with the G e n 6 passage. I n t h e i r c o n t e x t , it s e e m s t h a t s o m e c o n n e c t i o n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n the g i a n t s of G e n e s i s a n d g i a n t s in G r e e k m y t h s . T h e y b o t h u n d e r stood t h e "sons of G o d " as angels. T h a t angels c o p u l a t e d with w o m e n d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e p r e s e n t e d a n y p r o b l e m . W h e r e t h e r e is m o r e

45 English translation from F. Colson, Philo Supplement I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 1958) 60-61. 46 Philo also says that the beings were angels in Deus 1:1, "'And after this,' says Moses, 'when angels of God [οί άγγελοι τοΰ θεοΰ] went in unto the daughters of men [ανθρώπων] and they bore children to them.' " 47 On the issue of how Philo sees the female gender, see D. Sly, Philo's Perception of Women (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1990) 91-110.

discussion is o v e r t h e n a t u r e of t h e offspring. T h e g i a n t s a r e u n d e r stood f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s as d e p r a v e d a n d c o r r u p t . T h i s t y p e of interp r e t a t i o n d o e s n o t c o m e f r o m G e n e s i s b u t a p p e a r s to d e r i v e f r o m texts like 1 E n o c h .

6.7

Other Second Temple

Interpretations

T h r e e o t h e r texts t h a t likely d a t e t o o r n e a r t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a r e w o r t h y of d i s c u s s i o n : T h e t e s t a m e n t s of R e u b e n Naphtali, and 2 Baruch.

48

and

T h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n likely d a t e s

f r o m s o m e t i m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . 4 9 T h e t e s t a m e n t s p u r p o r t to b e s p e e c h e s b y e a c h of t h e twelve s o n s of J a c o b j u s t b e f o r e t h e i r d e a t h . R e u b e n is t h e eldest son ( G e n 35:23). His s p e e c h largely w a r n s a g a i n s t t h e vices of t h e flesh, b u t in p a r t i c u l a r R e u b e n w a r n s of t h e d a n g e r s of w o m e n , b a s e d u p o n his o w n failing w i t h B i l h a h ( G e n 35:22). R e u b e n w a r n s his kin, " D o n o t d e v o t e y o u r a t t e n t i o n to a w o m a n ' s looks, n o r live w i t h a w o m a n w h o is a l r e a d y m a r r i e d , n o r b e c o m e involved in t h e affairs widi w o m e n . " I n c h a p t e r 5 R e u b e n says, " O r d e r y o u r wives a n d y o u r d a u g h t e r s n o t t o a d o r n t h e i r h e a d s a n d t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e s so as to deceive m e n ' s s o u n d m i n d s . " H e t h e n says in v. 6: [6] For it was thus that they [women] charmed the Watchers, who were there before the Hood. As they continued looking at the women, they were filled with desire for them and perpetrated the act in their minds. They were transformed into h u m a n males, and while the women were cohabiting with their husbands they appeared to them. Since the women's minds were filled with lust for these apparitions, they gave birth to giants. For the W'atchers were disclosed to them as being as high as the heavens. T h i s line of t r a d i t i o n is u n i q u e in suggesting t h e r e w a s n o i n t e r c o u r s e b e t w e e n t h e angels a n d h u m a n s . B l a m e f o r t h e fall of t h e angels is placed squarely on the w o m e n w h o c h a r m e d the Watchers.30

The

48 Pseudo-Philo, L.A.B. 3:1-3 also discusses Gen 6:1-4, though there is very littie variation from the Genesis narrative. 49 II. Kee, "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs" in OTP 1:777. Although there may be some Christian interpolations, it seems that the main body of the text dates from the second century BCE. 50 Some later interpreters share the idea that the women are culpable: Justin Martyr (see below) and Pirqe R. El. 22:15.

angels lusted a f t e r t h e w o m e n a n d so c h a n g e d t h e i r f o r m i n t o h u m a n m a l e s . T h e w o m e n , u p o n s e e i n g t h e m , lusted a f t e r t h e m a n d t h u s g a v e b i r t h to t h e giants. A s h o r t n o t e in T. Naph.

3 : 5 also m e n t i o n s the W a t c h e r s , saying,

"Likewise t h e W a t c h e r s d e p a r t e d f r o m n a t u r e ' s o r d e r ; t h e L o r d p r o n o u n c e d a c u r s e o n t h e m at t h e F l o o d . O n t h e i r a c c o u n t h e o r d e r e d t h a t the e a r t h b e w i t h o u t d w e l l e r o r p r o d u c e . " 5 1 T h i s i n t e r e s t i n g passage r e i n f o r c e s t h e i d e a t h a t t h e fall of t h e angels w a s a t r a n s g r e s sion of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r . L a s d y , 2 B a r u c h , w h i c h exists t o d a y in a S y r i a c c o p y b u t likely c o m e f r o m a G r e e k original, 5 2 is w i d e l y a c c e p t e d , b a s e d

has on

i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e ( 3 2 : 2 4 ‫ ־‬, w h e r e t w o d e s t r u c t i o n s of t h e T e m p l e a r e m e n t i o n e d ) , to b e p o s t - 7 0 C E . T h e w o r k s e e m s to s h a r e a close relat i o n s h i p w i t h 4 E z r a a n d also t h e L.A.B.

of P s e u d o - P h i l o . 2 B a r u c h

m a y possibly b e c i t e d in Ep. Bam. 61:7. T h u s , m o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t a d a t e a r o u n d 100 C E for this a p o c a l y p s e . 5 3 T h e w o r k p r e s e n t s itself as a w r i t i n g b y B a r u c h of his revelations d e a l i n g w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e First J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e (c. 5 8 7 B C E ) , b u t , as n o t e d , t h e a u t h o r is p r o b a b l y in f a c t c o m i n g to grips with t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e . C h a p t e r 5 6 is p a r t of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a vision of d a r k c l o u d s a n d w a t e r s t h a t B a r u c h h a s r e c e i v e d in c h a p t e r 53. H u m a n s a r e fallen a n d a r e a d a n g e r n o t only to themselves, b u t to t h e angels. V e r s e s 1 0 1 5

‫־‬

state:

[10] For he who was a danger to himself [humankind] was also a danger to the angels. [11] For they possessed a freedom in that time in which they were created. [12] And some of them came down a n d mingled themselves with women. [13] At that time they who acted like this were tormented in chains. [14] But the rest of the multitude of angels, who have no number, restrained themselves. [15] A n d those living on earth perished together through the waters of the flood. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is like t h a t of t h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n in t h a t h u m a n s a r e c u l p a b l e f o r t h e a n g e l i c sin. It is also like 1 E n o c h a n d o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s t h a t r e c o r d t h a t t h e angels w h o d i d sin w e r e p u n ished f o r t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t a n y o f f s p r i n g were destroyed in the Flood. By t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e m y t h a b o u t t h e s o n s of

51 52 53

H. Kee, OTP 1:812. A. Klijn, OTP 1:615-616. HJPAJC IIIii:752-753; OTP 1:616-617.

G o d a n d t h e g i a n t s m a i n t a i n e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 h a d b e e n

elaborated

u p o n c o n s i d e r a b l y . T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e " s o n s of G o d " as angels s e e m s to h a v e b e e n widely r e c o g n i z e d . T h a t t h e s e a n g e l s d i d w r o n g

by

t r a n s g r e s s i n g divine b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o p u l a t i n g w i t h w o m e n is also widely a c c e p t e d , as e v i n c e d in t h e s e texts.

6.8

Early

Christian

Writings

In t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e c o n n e c t t h e a n g e l s ' sin (their t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n a n d divine) w i t h evil in t h e w o r l d . O n e r e c e n t article h a s p o s i t e d a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p o r t r a y a l of t h e disciples in t h e G o s p e l of M a r k a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t i n g to t h e W a t c h e r s . 5 4 R . S t r e l a n suggests t h a t " B y d e p i c t i n g t h e disciples in a guise r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e l e g e n d a r y fallen W a t c h e r s , M a r k u r g e s w a t c h f u l n e s s a n d holiness in C h r i s t i a n discipleship." 5 5 H i s assertion d o e s s e e m to p r e s s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s o m e t e r m s in M a r k , s u c h as t h e call to w a t c h f u l n e s s in M a r k 13:37, b u t his i n t r i g u i n g suggestion s h o w s t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e c o u l d h a v e b e e n q u i t e p e r v a s i v e in t h e t h i n k i n g of a n c i e n t a u t h o r s . T h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e is m o r e explicit in t h e Epistle of J u d e . I n J u d e 5 1 0 ‫ ־‬, a n u m b e r of evildoers f r o m the H e b r e w Bible a r e listed. First a m o n g t h e m , t h e a n g e l s (αγγέλους) " t h a t d i d n o t k e e p t h e i r o w n p o s i t i o n b u t left t h e i r p r o p e r d w e l l i n g h a v e b e e n kept by h i m in e t e r n a l c h a i n s in t h e n e t h e r g l o o m until t h e j u d g m e n t of t h e g r e a t d a y " (v. 6). T h e a n g e l s a r e f o l l o w e d in this list by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h , " w h i c h likewise a c t e d i m m o r a l l y a n d i n d u l g e d in u n n a t u r a l lust [τον δμοιον τρόπον τούτοις έκπορνεύσασαι και ά π ε λ θ ο ΰ σ α ι όπίσω σαρκός ετέρας]." T h e link b e t w e e n t h e t w o (angels a n d i n h a b i t a n t s of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ) is t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n sexually i m p r o p e r (= pollution). It s e e m s highly p r o b a b l e , especially given t h e r e f e r e n c e to E n o c h as a s o u r c e in v. 15, t h a t J u d e 6 is d e p e n d e n t o n 1 E n o c h as its s o u r c e f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e a n g e l s w h o left t h e i r p l a c e a n d w e r e t h e n b o u n d until a final judgment.56

54

R. Strelan, "The Fallen Watchers and the Disciples in Mark" JSP 20 (1999) 73-92. 55 R. Strelan, "The Fallen Watchers," p. 92. 56 R. Bauckham, 2 Peter, Jude (Waco, TX: Word, 1983) 43-55.

2 P e t e r 2:4 also m e n t i o n s t h e s a m e t r a d i t i o n . It s e e m s to d e p e n d at least partially o n J u d e . 5 7 2 P e t 2:4 (cf. 1 P e t 3 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) states, " G o d did n o t s p a r e t h e angels w h e n t h e y s i n n e d , b u t cast t h e m i n t o hell a n d c o m m i t t e d t h e m to pits of n e t h e r g l o o m to b e k e p t until t h e j u d g m e n t . " T h i s reflects t h e t r a d i t i o n seen in b o t h 1 E n o c h a n d in J u b i l e e s a b o u t the p u n i s h m e n t of t h e fallen W a t c h e r s . Lastly, o n e of t h e early apologists discusses this t r a d i t i o n . J u s t i n M a r t y r ( s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) discusses G e n 6 o n t w o

occasions. 5 8

J u s t i n a p p e a r s to m a i n t a i n t h e t y p e of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n w e saw in 1 E n o c h , especially i n his r e f e r e n c e to t h e angels b r i n g i n g h i d d e n k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n i t y . I n his s e c o n d A p o l o g y h e writes: [5] But the angels transgressed this appointment, and were captivated by love of women, and bore children who are those that are called demons [δαίμονας]; a n d besides, they aftetwards subdued the h u m a n race to themselves, partly by magical writings, and partly by fears and the punishments they occasioned, a n d partly by teaching them to offer sacrifices, and incense, and libations, of which things they stood in need after they were enslaved by lustful passions; and a m o n g m e n they sowed murders, wars, adulteries, intemperate deeds, and all wickedness. Whence also the poets and mythologists, not knowing that it was the angels a n d those demons who had been begotten by them that did these things to men, a n d women, a n d cities, and nations, which they related, ascribed them to G o d himself, and to those who were accounted to be his very offspring, a n d to the offspring of those who were called his brother, Neptune and Pluto, and to the children again of these their offspring. For whatever n a m e each of the angels h a d given to himself and his children, by that n a m e they called them. J u s t i n places b l a m e u p o n t h e h u m a n f e m a l e s (cf. T. Reu).

H e cer-

tainly m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e lustful b e i n g s w e r e angels, t h a t t h e y w e r e a b l e t o c o p u l a t e w i t h w o m e n , a n d t h a t o n c e t h e y h a d d o n e so, t h e y r e v e a l e d secret k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n s , w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y leads to sin a n d evil in t h e w o r l d (cf. 1 En).

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , J u s t i n d o e s n o t say

explicitly t h a t t h e offspring w e r e giants b u t instead calls t h e m d e m o n s . T h i s m a y reflect a v a l u e j u d g m e n t o n t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g as e x e m plifying t h e sin of t h e a n g e l s w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . J u s t i n s e e m s t o d e p e n d o n a n u m b e r of t r a d i t i o n s , c e r t a i n l y G e n 6 a n d a n d perhaps others.

57 58

R. Bauckharn, 2 Peter, Jude, pp. 245-257. See also First Apology 5.

1 Enoch

J . V a n d e r K a m h a s s u r v e y e d t h e e v i d e n c e f o r C h r i s t i a n use of t h e W a t c h e r s m y t h in C h r i s t i a n i t y t h r o u g h t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y C E . 5 9 H i s survey s h o w s t h a t t h e m y t h , w h e t h e r directly o r indirectly

depen-

d e n t u p o n E n o c h , w a s w i d e s p r e a d in C h r i s t i a n circles: " C o n s e q u e n t l y , o n e m a y say t h a t C h r i s t i a n e m p l o y m e n t of t h e W a t c h e r m y t h is attested t h r o u g h o u t the R o m a n

6.9

world."60

Later Jewish

Interpretations

T h e p r e d o m i n a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e " s o n s of G o d " f r o m G e n 6:2 a n d 4 in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d w a s t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e angels. N o dissenting voice is h e a r d until R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i in Gen. Rah. 2 6 : 5 states, " R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i called t h e m t h e s o n s of t h e j u d g e s [‫ ;]דייניה‬R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i c u r s e d all w h o called t h e m 'sons of G o d ' . " 6 1 T h i s s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t h e first of a n u m b e r of r e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t b o t h t h e literal r e a d i n g of " s o n s of G o d " a n d also a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e m as angels. 6 2 Tg. Onq. a n d

Tg. Ps.-J

call t h e b e i n g s of G e n 6:2 " s o n s of t h e

g r e a t o n e s [ ‫ ] כ י י ר ב ר ב י ה‬. " Tg. Neo. r e f e r s to t h e b e i n g s as " t h e sons of t h e j u d g e s [‫ ] ב נ י דייניה‬, " w h i l e t h e m a r g i n a l n o t e s t o Tg. Neo. h a v e ‫ מ ל א ב י י א‬. Tg. Onq. a n d Tg. Neo. a t G e n 6:4 call t h e b e i n g s G i b o r i m , b u t interestingly, Tg. Ps.J.

m e n t i o n s t h e angels S h a m a h a z i a n d Azazel

(cf. 1 En. 6 1 1 ‫ ) ־‬as h a v i n g fallen f r o m h e a v e n . 6 3 R e g a r d i n g t h e evid e n c e f r o m t h e T a r g u m i m , P. A l e x a n d e r c o n c l u d e s : 0. and JV. represent an exegesis which originated with the rabbis shortly after the Second Jewish W a r — a n exegesis which reflects the general

59 J. VanderKam, "Early Christian Uses of the Enochic Angel Story" in The Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage in Early Christianity, ed. J . VanderKam and W. Adler (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996) 60-88. 60 J. VanderKam, "Early Christian Uses of the Enochic Angel Story," p. 87. 61 Translation from J. Neuesner, Genesis Rabbah: The Judaic Commentary to the Book of Genesis, A New American Translation, Brown Judaic Studies 104-106 (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1985) 1:282. 62 P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis of 'Sons of God' in Genesis 6" JJS 23 (1972) 60-71. See also J. Bowker, The Targums and Rabbinic Literature: An Introduction to Jewish Interpretati0?1s of Scripture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969) 151-160. 63 P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis," p. 70 calls it "rather puzzling." It seems that Ps.J. is at least aware of traditions like those in 1 En. Alexander suggests that Ps.-J. was changed in light of Tg. Onq.

struggle to wean Jews from beliefs out of keeping with the essence of T o r a h Judaism. Ps-J. (in its original form) and Nmg. represent the old Palestinian T a r g u m , current before the Second Jewish W a r , which the 0. tradition was intended to replace. 64 T h i s suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a n o n g o i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e b e i n g s of G e n 6:2 a n d 4 as angels. S o m e of t h e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n

seems

to w o r k to dispel s u c h a r e a d i n g , b u t e v e n so, t h a t t r a d i t i o n Neo. m a r g i n a l n o t e s a n d Tg. Ps.-J.)

(Tg.

reflects a n a n g e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Conclusions T h e story of divine " s o n s of G o d " w h o c o m e to e a r t h to t a k e h u m a n wives in G e n 6 : 1 4 ‫ ־‬is a n e n i g m a t i c tale t h a t w a s f o u n d a t i o n a l f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a t u r e in the S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d . F r o m early o n , e n t i r e w o r k s w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o e x p o u n d i n g this tale. T h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (1 En.

136‫ )־‬seems to

h a v e b e e n a n early i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t m a d e c l e a r t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e a n g e l s a n d t h e i r o f f s p r i n g giants. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w a s a p p a r ently i n f l u e n t i a l t h r o u g h o u t t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d . T h e e v i d e n c e of t h e L X X w a s a m b i g u o u s , b u t at least o n e version contained the term "angel." T h e evidence from Q u m r a n

showed

t h a t t h e story w a s c o m m o n a m o n g t h e e x t a n t texts. T h e f r a g m e n t s of a B o o k of G i a n t s also s h o w t h a t t h e r e w a s significant s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t the h y b r i d offspring. M o r e o v e r , o t h e r f r a g m e n t s m a d e r e f e r e n c e to t h e W a t c h e r s . C o p i e s of b o t h 1 E n o c h a n d J u b i l e e s w e r e f o u n d at Q u m r a n , s h o w i n g t h a t t h e story w a s f o u n d in a w i d e v a r i e t y of texts. J u b i l e e s a p p e a r s to be d e p e n d e n t u p o n G e n 6 as a c o r e n a r r a t i v e b u t w a s likely i n f l u e n c e d b y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s s u c h as in 1 E n o c h . O t h e r w o r k s , s u c h as t h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n a n d 2 B a r u c h , s h o w e d j u s t h o w w i d e s p r e a d die tale w a s in S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m . J o s e p h u s said t h e beings w e r e angels a n d t h a t t h e i r offspring, the giants, w e r e n o t v i r t u o u s a n d e v e n violent. P h i l o h a d m o r e t o say, d e d i c a t i n g a n e n t i r e treatise to t h e giants, a l t h o u g h m u c h of it w a s n o t specifically a b o u t t h e W a t c h e r s ' story. E v i d e n c e f r o m t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d early Christianity showed that the continued

64

to b e w i d e s p r e a d .

Later Jewish

narrative

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in

P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis," p. 71.

the

T a r g u m i m a n d t h e r a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s d o w n p l a y e d t h e role t h e angels p l a y e d , b u t e v i d e n c e of t h e a n g e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n still a p p e a r s . 6 5 F r o m early in t h e t r a d i t i o n , p e r h a p s w i t h i n G e n 6 itself, t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m w i t h t h e " s o n s of G o d " (angels) c o m i n g to e a r t h a n d t a k i n g h u m a n wives is t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r y set at c r e a t i o n . T h e i r u n i o n w i t h h u m a n w o m e n c r e a t e s a h y b r i d , i n t e r p r e t e d as " g i a n t s , " t h a t w e r e n o t m e a n t to exist. 6 6 It s e e m s , t h e n , t h a t h u m a n s a n d angels w e r e distinct beings. P r o b l e m s only a r o s e w h e n angels t r a n s g r e s s e d p r e d e t e r m i n e d b o u n d a r i e s a n d m a t e d w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . 5 ‫ ׳‬M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t o o d this as the v e r y source of evil in t h e w o r l d . V i r t u a l l y all t o o k it as t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e F l o o d a n d r e - c r e a t i o n of t h e w o r l d .

65 This would fit well with M. Mach's suggestion that the rabbis downplayed angel beliefs (Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 330-332). It may also represent one of the precursor's to the rivalry identified between humans and angels in P. Schäfer, Rivalität, pp. 75-218. 66 There is a need for further study of the issues of gender and sexuality in relation to angel betiefs. Much has been made of the idea that angels were celibate (from the passages in the gospels [Matt 22:23-33, Mark 12:18-27, Luke 20:34-40]). However, the gospels are the only texts that mention such an idea in extant Second Temple literature. The large body of literature examined in this chapter suggests that at least one group of angels was not believed to have been celibate. Also, in the vast majority of cases where the physical appearance of angels is described, they appear as men or young males. The only women described as angelomorphic were the daughters of Job in T. Job, and perhaps Aseneth in JA. 67 P. Alexander, "The Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls" in The Dead Sea Scrolls after 50 rears, ed. P. Flint and J . VanderKam (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1999) 2:350.

CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION: LIMPING T O W A R D A BETTER UNDERSTANDING

T h e a i m of this b o o k h a s b e e n to a d d to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e diverse a n g e l beliefs of the late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d b y investigating t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels as d e m o n s t r a t e d in t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s final c h a p t e r seeks to s u m m a r i z e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t c a n b e d r a w n f r o m this investigation a n d to c o n s i d e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s for c u r r e n t s c h o l a r s h i p in t h e a r e a s of c o s m o l o g y , C h r i s t o l o g y , a n d e a r l y J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism. T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s a r e o f f e r e d w i t h full a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s discussed m a y well r e p r e s e n t o n l y a small p o r t i o n of t h e diverse beliefs a b o u t angels f r o m t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , since the beliefs f o r w h i c h w r i t t e n r e c o r d s r e m a i n likely r e p r e s e n t only a f r a c t i o n of all t h e beliefs t h a t existed in t h e J e w i s h a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c o s m o l o g y . F u r t h e r m o r e , in m a k i n g a n y kind of s u m m a r y it is i m p o r t a n t n o t to o v e r s y n t h e s i z e d i s p a r a t e u n i t s of e v i d e n c e . T h e e v i d e n c e c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e c o m e s f r o m a w i d e r a n g e of d a t e s , p r o v e n a n c e s , a n d social situations, so it is h a n d l e d w i t h d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n for its variety.

7.1

The Relationship

between Humans

and Angels

T h r e e m a i n issues a r e i n v o l v e d in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

relationship

b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. First, t h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e of t h e t e r m s for a n g e l ( ά γ γ ε λ ο ς a n d ‫ ) מ ל א ך‬allows f o r r e f e r e n c e t o e i t h e r angelic o r h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s . T h i s r a n g e of m e a n i n g d o e s n o t necessarily imply any

fluidity

between angels and h u m a n s , however.

Terms

d e r i v e m e a n i n g f r o m t h e i r c o n t e x t . T h e r e a r e few, if a n y , o c c a s i o n s w h e n the context does n o t supply a clear m e a n i n g for "angel." A n d , w h e r e t h e r e is c o n f u s i o n , it likely r e p r e s e n t s m o r e of a

modern

h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r o b l e m t h a n a n y u n d e r s t o o d fluidity in t h e c a t e g o r y (e.g., M a i 3:1).

N e x t , as n o t e d a b o v e , the physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a h e a v e n l y entity in h u m a n f o r m does n o t necessarily imply its e q u a t i o n with a h u m a n being. T h e f o r m t h a t angels a s s u m e in their initial a p p e a r a n c e to h u m a n s is often a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c (e.g., G e n 18, J o s h 5, et al), b u t this seems to be for the benefit of the seer, since b r i g h t light, fear, a n d even fear of d e a t h are often associated with angelophanies. By taking on a h u m a n f o r m , angels c a n deliver their news w i t h o u t h i n d r a n c e . O f t e n o n c e they d o so, they again assume a n angelic f o r m a n d r e t u r n to h e a v e n (e.g., J u d g 6 a n d 13). P e r h a p s the most interesting a n d challenging material is the a p p e a r ances of h u m a n s as angels. T h e vast m a j o r i t y of the material involves discussion of righteous individuals. M a n y of the individuals e x a m ined a r e in fact described in a n g e l o m o r p h i c terms; t h a t is, they are described in ways often associated with angels. Nevertheless, t h e r e does n o t s e e m to b e good reason to suppose t h a t they w e r e c o n sidered a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n beings. T h e i r a n g e l o m o r p h i c description is a n a l o g o u s to the w a y in w h i c h G o d c a n be described in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t e r m s w i t h o u t b e i n g h u m a n . E x a m p l e s in this g r o u p include N o a h , S t e p h e n , a n d T a x o . S o m e cases, h o w e v e r , are m o r e a m b i g u o u s , such as Melchizedek, J o h n the Baptist, a n d Paul. T h e s e individuals are p o r t r a y e d in angelom o r p h i c terms, a n d it seems that some type of identification is implied. Ultimately, h o w e v e r , it r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r they w e r e m e a n t to be u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n h u m a n . I n the cases of A d a m a n d Moses, however, their " t h e o m o r p h i c " i m a g e seems to be stressed. F o r the sake of precision in m o d e r n discourse, it m a y b e w o r t h w h i l e to stress this t h e o m o r p h i c c h a r a c t e r over their a n g e l o m o r p h i c c h a r acter. O n l y in the cases of Seth(el), E n o c h , a n d J a c o b / I s r a e l does it seem clear t h a t h u m a n s h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d into angels. Yet in these cases the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is usually u n d e r s t o o d as h a v i n g o c c u r r e d in the heavenly sphere. T h i r d , in those instances w h e n the interaction b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels is particularly close or intimate, t h e r e still does n o t s e e m to be a n y indication t h a t separation b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s is n o t m a i n t a i n e d . T e x t s involving issues of living in c o m m u n i t i e s , eating together, a n d even p r o c r e a t i n g w e r e e x a m i n e d . In a n u m b e r of the cases of a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s , purity issues arose (e.g., W a r Scroll, 1 C o r , Hist. Recli.). If the h u m a n m e m b e r s did n o t m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d level of purity, t h e n angels could n o t be p r e s e n t in the c o m m u n i t y . T h i s suggests that indeed there was a qualitative difference b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.

I n t h e c a s e of hospitality a n d f o o d , h u m a n s o f t e n o f f e r e d h o s p i tality, i n c l u d i n g a m e a l , to a n g e l i c guests (especially G e n 1 8 1 9

‫ ) ״‬,

it w a s r e g u l a r l y t h e case t h a t t h e y w e r e u n a w a r e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e s t r a n g e r s . It s e e m s a c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e

Second

T e m p l e p e r i o d t h a t a n g e l s did n o t e a t h u m a n f o o d . T h i s f a c t s h o w s a n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s w e r e t h o u g h t to differ. T h e issue of h u m a n s a n d angels c o p u l a t i n g offers p e r h a p s t h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g m a t e r i a l . T r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r b y s o m e angels ( G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) w a s s e e n as e x t r e m e l y p r o b l e m a t i c a n d w a s u n d e r s t o o d by a n u m b e r of i n t e r p r e t e r s as d i e v e r y origin of evil i n t h e w o r l d (7 En.). T h e u n i o n of a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s b r o u g h t f o r t h h y b r i d g i a n t s w h o w e r e usually u n d e r s t o o d t o h a v e b e e n d e s t r o y e d in t h e F l o o d . T h a t angels w e r e n o t believed to h a v e sex o r p r o c r e a t e h i g h l i g h t s a significant d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h u m a n s o n e a r t h , w h o m u s t p r o c r e ate f o r survival of t h e species, a n d a n g e l s in h e a v e n , w h o d o n o t . T o s u m u p briefly, m y investigation s h o w s t h a t in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d t h e r e w a s a w i d e r a n g e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t h o w angels l o o k e d a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t e d w i t h h u m a n s . A significant set of t h e s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s f o c u s e d o n a n g e l s l o o k i n g like h u m a n s a n d , w h e n t h e y did, h a v i n g i n t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e m . D e s p i t e this similarity of appearance a n d closeness of interaction, t h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e w a s a n y b l u r r i n g of categories between angels a n d h u m a n s . W h e n there was an a p p a r e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m the h u m a n to t h e angelic ( E n o c h = M e t a t r o n o r J a c o b - I s r a e l ) , it w a s a o n e - t i m e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t

occurred

b e y o n d t h e e a r t h l y s p h e r e . I n s o m e sense, t h e e v i d e n c e f o r h u m a n s a c h i e v i n g a n g e l i c status is t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t p r o v e s t h e rule. O n l y h u m a n s of e x c e p t i o n a l r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d w h o h a d a special relat i o n s h i p w i t h G o d a p p e a r t o h a v e h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to b e c o m e angels; n o o t h e r h u m a n s e n j o y e d s u c h a special status.

7.2

Cosmology and Angelology

T h i s s t u d y in s o m e sense also r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e n e r a l c o s m o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e

and

early C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e a n d , m o r e specifically, t h e p l a c e of angels, a n d to a lesser e x t e n t h u m a n s , in d i a t cosmos. 1 A n g e l s a r e like G o d 1

This is not to suggest that there was a single cosmology (especially across late Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity), but instead these conclusions aim to discuss what can be gleaned broadly from the material.

but

in t h a t t h e y reside in h e a v e n a n d a r e i n c o r p o r e a l , h a v i n g n o n e e d f o r f o o d o r p r o c r e a t i o n . H o w e v e r , a n g e l s a r e like h u m a n s in t h a t t h e y a r e c r e a t e d b y G o d a n d c a n a t t i m e s dwell o n e a r t h , e v e n taki n g o n h u m a n f o r m . A d d i t i o n a l l y , angels travel b e t w e e n t w o s e p a rate s p h e r e s — t h e heavenly a n d the earthly. I n r e s p o n s e to the w o r k of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s o n i d e n t i f y i n g a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y tradition in late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m , J . O ' N e i l l states, " t h e s e c l a i m s t o o n t o l o g i c a l i d e n t i t y a r e s i m p l y

misunder-

s t a n d i n g s of t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e , " a d d i n g , " t h e r e is a c l e a r a n d c o n sistently m a i n t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e in kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n g e l s a n d h u m a n beings."2 M y

findings

strongly support O'Neill's

assertion.

R a t h e r t h a n t h i n k of t h e c a t e g o r i e s as " o p e n a n d fluid" as F l e t c h e r L o u i s does, it is p e r h a p s m o r e v a l u a b l e t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m as fixed b u t n o t absolute. It is n o t a b s o l u t e b e c a u s e w e see t h a t a n g e l s r e g u l a r l y c o m e to e a r t h a n d t a k e o n h u m a n f o r m , a n d o n s o m e v e r y r a r e occasions, h u m a n s c a n a s c e n d t o h e a v e n a n d e v e n b e c o m e like angels. Angels a n d h u m a n s are very different beings, b u t this does n o t m e a n t h a t they n e v e r i n t e r a c t e d — m a n y

texts

d e s c r i b e h o w t h e y did i n t e r a c t . H o w e v e r , in l a r g e p a r t t h e y r e m a i n e d separate from one another. O n t h e n o t i o n of s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n earthly a n d h e a v e n l y denizens, M . H i m m e l f a r b writes: It is not only what G o d reveals to the visionary that is important, but the veiy fact that G o d is willing to bring a h u m a n being near him. U n d e r certain circumstances, according to the apocalypses, h u m a n beings can cross the boundary and join the angels. 3 E l s e w h e r e she w r i t e s r e g a r d i n g !1er analysis of a s c e n t s in v a r i o u s apocalypses, " I n d e e d it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels a r e n o t v e r y clear. O n e g r o u p of a p o c a l y p s e s offers g r e a t h e r o e s of t h e p a s t as e x a m p l e s of h o w close h u m a n b e i n g s c a n c o m e to G o d . " 4 It n e e d n o t b e t h e c a s e t h a t " t h e b o u n d a r i e s 2

between

J. O'Neill, Review of G. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts in JTS 50 (1999) 225-230. M. Himmelfarb, "Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary in the Ascent Apocalypses" in Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies since the Uppsala Colloquium, ed. J . Collins and J. Charlesworth (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991) 90. 4 M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 70. For similar ideas about the importance of key individuals, see J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism. (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151, and J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tübingen: J . C. B. Möhr, 1985) 333. 8

h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e n o t v e r y c l e a r . " It n e e d only b e t h e c a s e (as t h e e v i d e n c e b e a r s out) t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o largely s e p a r a t e r e a l m s (earthly a n d h e a v e n l y ) b e a b l e to b e crossed. D e s p i t e this c r i t i q u e , I v e r y m u c h a g r e e w i t h h e r a s s e s s m e n t t h a t t h e " g r e a t h e r o e s " of t h e p a s t o f f e r e d e x a m p l e s to t h o s e w h o w o u l d seek to c o m m u n e w i t h G o d . S o m e h u m a n s did a c h i e v e a n g e l i c status b u t o n l y in h e a v e n , w h e n t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y n e a r to G o d . H i m m e r l f a r b also sees a n o t h e r s t r e a m of t r a d i t i o n in t h e a p o c a l y p s e s t h a t , "if o r d i nary h u m a n beings are righteous, after death they can take

tiieir

p l a c e in t h e h e a v e n l y h i e r a r c h y . " 5 A g a i n , e v e n if this is p a r t of t h e t r a d i t i o n of a p o c a l y p s e s , h u m a n s a r e n o t a t t a i n i n g a n

"angelomor-

p h i c " life o n e a r t h . S u c h s t a t u s is a t t a i n e d in h e a v e n , w h e n h u m a n s a r e in close p r o x i m i t y t o G o d .

7.3

Christology and Angelology

N e x t , w e c o n s i d e r d i e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s t u d y f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of early C h r i s t o l o g y . C . G i e s c h e n h a s , I believe, o f f e r e d a p e r s u a sive c a s e f o r s e e i n g a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s of late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m as i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of early C h r i s t i a n t y . 6 N e v e r t h e l e s s , I w o u l d o f f e r s o m e c r i t i q u e h e r e of o n e a s p e c t of his case. In his section o n " a n g e l n o m e n c l a t u r e " G i e s c h e n states: Because angels often appear in the form of men, the distinction between what is anthropomorphic and what is angelomorphic is difficult to maintain. W h a t one person may interpret as an anthropomorphism, another could see as a concrete description of an angelomorphic figure.7 W h i l e s o m e texts m a y b e difficult to i n t e r p r e t f o r t h e m o d e r n r e a d e r (e.g., M a i 3:1), a n c i e n t a u t h o r s w e r e n o t a p p a r e n t l y in a n y

way

ambiguous in their presentations or their understandings. Moreover, t h a t l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r s c o u l d exploit t h e a m b i g u i t y in a t e r m d o e s n o t m e a n a n a m b i g u i t y w a s originally i n t e n d e d . R e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e a n g e l t r a d i t i o n a p p e a r s is t h e key to a v o i d i n g s u c h c o n f u s i o n . Gieschen offered categories u n d e r which h u m a n s might be u n d e r stood as " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . " 8 T h e s e categories were: Patriarchs, Prophets, 5

M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, p. 71. C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997). 7 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 28. 8 C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 152-183. 6

Priests, K i n g s , Apostles, a n d Elect O n e s . I n d i v i d u a l s in t h e s e roles o f t e n e n j o y e d a privileged status relative t o G o d a n d in s o m e senses f u n c t i o n e d as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n h u m a n i t y a n d G o d . E v e n t h o u g h w e m a y c a t e g o r i z e t h e m a t e r i a l in this w a y t o d a y , a n c i e n t a u t h o r s did n o t a p p a r e n t l y think in these t e r m s . T h e results of m y r e s e a r c h indicate t h a t t h e r e was n o t a c o h e r e n t idea of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n ity" in late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m . A t best, s u c h ideas m a y h a v e a p p l i e d to a select f e w individuals. G i e s c h e n states t h a t these c a t e g o r i e s " p u s h t h e r e a d e r to a b r o a d e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t a n a n g e l w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e in first c e n tury J u d a i s m a n d Christianity."9 I would argue that without synthesizing t h e m a t e r i a l into these categories, t h e evidence d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e w a s in t h e first c e n t u r y a c o h e r e n t

angelomor-

p h i c h u m a n i t y c o n c e p t t h a t in t u r n c o u l d h a v e b e e n a b u i l d i n g block for early C h r i s t o l o g y . C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s o f f e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g in his s u m m a r y

of

Jewish angelomorphic traditions: W e submit that an approach to the data . . . which does not impose a rigid dualism, but rather accepts the openness and fluidity of h u m a n , angelic and Divine categories, allows for simplicity of interpretation, a n d does most justice to the texts' own worldviews(s). Accordingly our label 'angelomorphic', has proved heuristically invaluable. 10 W h i l e t h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " m a y b e heuristically v a l u a b l e in m a k i n g sense of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t e d to C h r i s t o l o g y , it s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n to i m p l y a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of h u m a n s a n d angels. " A n g e l o m o r p h i c " m u s t b e e m p l o y e d w i t h c a u t i o n to discussions of h u m a n ity in g e n e r a l . A rigid d u a l i s m is n o t b e i n g " i m p o s e d " u p o n

the

e v i d e n c e b u t is p r e s e n t in t h e e v i d e n c e . I n s t e a d of s e e i n g " f l u i d i t y " between categories, we should recognize that the evidence

shows

t h e r e w a s s o m e possibility of c r o s s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n

the

e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e , especially b y a n g e l s a n d o n r a r e o c c a sions by v e r y r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s d r a w n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e rich v a r i e t y of a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e p e r i o d , especially in the

Qiimran

l i t e r a t u r e . I n his m o r e r e c e n t b o o k , All the Glory of Adam,

Fletcher-

L o u i s sees t h e T e m p l e as t h e locus "in w h i c h o r d i n a r y s p a c e a n d 9

G. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 183. C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology, and Soteriology, WUNT 2.94 (Tubingen: J . C. B. Möhr, 1997) 211. 10

time, a n d therefore h u m a n ontology, are transcended," adding that the worshipping c o m m u n i t y would "experience a transfer f r o m earth to h e a v e n , f r o m h u m a n i t y to divinity a n d f r o m m o r t a l i t y to i m m o r a l ity." 1 1 W h i l e it m a y b e t r u e t h a t J e w s u n d e r s t o o d t h e T e m p l e as a special l o c a t i o n , it is n o t c l e a r f r o m F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s analysis w h e t h e r h e envisions s u c h a c h a n g e as t e m p o r a r y o r p e r m a n e n t a n d in w h a t w a y s p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d . T h i s leaves us with t h e q u e s tion of w h e t h e r o r n o t w e s h o u l d see this as a case of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y " o r simply a " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e of t h e T e m p l e o r liturgical s p a c e . I a m i n c l i n e d to t h i n k t h a t t h e T e m p l e w a s a special locus w h e r e

first-century

J e w s believed t h a t t h e y c o u l d c o m m u n e

w i t h G o d , b u t I a m less i n c l i n e d to believe t h a t t h e y

envisioned

t h e m s e l v e s as t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n g e l s (or a n g e l i c h u m a n s ) o n e a r t h d u e to t h e e x p e r i e n c e . T h u s , t h e assertion of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s a n d G i e s c h e n t h a t t h e r e w a s a n identifiable " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y " t r a d i t i o n in late

Second

T e m p l e J u d a i s m is significantly w e a k e n e d , t h o u g h n o t a l t o g e t h e r p r e e l u d e d , b y t h e results of m y investigation. A l t h o u g h m y analysis u n d e r m i n e s t h e case for a n y

"angelomor-

p h i c h u m a n i t y " c o n c e p t b e i n g p r e v a l e n t in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , it d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t a n g e l o m o r p h i c categories did n o t i n f o r m early C h r i s t o l o g i e s — i t s h o u l d b e c l e a r t h a t t h e y did. As C . R o w l a n d h a s persuasively a r g u e d , t h e i m a g e r y o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n g e l o p h a n i e s w a s a p p r o p r i a t e d i n t o early C h r i s t o l o g y . 1 2 I m a g e r y is a m o r e solid f o u n d a t i o n a n d is t h e n likely t h e m o r e fruitful r o u t e f o r f u t u r e studies of t h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c b a c k g r o u n d of e a r l y C h r i s t o l o g i e s . T h e r e c e n t w o r k of R . B a u c k h a r n s e e m s to signal, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e scholarly d e b a t e is f a r f r o m over. I n his b o o k , God Crucified, R . B a u c k h a r n a r g u e s t h a t in t h e cosm o l o g y of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d t h e r e w a s G o d a n d e v e r y t h i n g else. 1 3 H e states, "Jewish m o n o t h e i s m clearly

11 C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: E. J . Brill, 2002) 476. 12 C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen: Daniel 10:6ff. and Jewish Angelology" JÄVT 24 (1985) 99-110. 13 R. Bauckharn, God Crucified: Monothâsm and Christology in the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998). These ideas are also developed in his article, "The Throne of God and the Worship of Jesus" in The Jetvish Roots of Christological Monotheism: Papersfromthe St. Andrews Conference on the Historical Origins of the Worship ofJesus, ed. C. Newman, J. Davila, and G. Lewis (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1999) 43-69.

d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e o n e G o d a n d all o t h e r r e a l i t y . ' " 4 B a u c k h a m stresses t h e i d e a of t h e " d i v i n e i d e n t i t y " o v e r t h e i d e a of " d i v i n e n a t u r e " as the p a r a d i g m t h a t

first-century

J e w s would have used for recogniz-

ing G o d . S o J e w s w o u l d n o t b e c o n c e r n e d so m u c h for w h a t G o d is b u t w h o G o d is. F o l l o w i n g f r o m this, B a u c k h a m a r g u e s t h a t J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e a n y type of s e m i d i v i n e b e i n g , viceroy, subordinate

d e i t y , o r t h e like. I n c o n t r a s t t o

Gieschen,

F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , a n d m o s t n o t a b l y H u r t a d o , B a u c k h a m believes t h a t J e w i s h i n t e r m e d i a r y figures s u c h as p r i n c i p a l angels a n d exalted p a t r i a r c h s t h e r e f o r e did n o t p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t role in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of early C h r i s t o l o g y . 1 5 B a u c k h a m a r g u e s t h a t J e s u s w a s t h e n s u b s u m e d i n t o the u n i q u e divine i d e n t i t y — a m o v e t h a t h e d e s c r i b e s as a " r a d i c a l l y novel develo p m e n t , a l m o s t u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n J e w i s h t h e o l o g y . " 1 6 H e also says t h a t t h e decisive step of i n c l u d i n g J e s u s in t h e divine i d e n t i t y t h r o u g h exegesis of t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s w a s " a s t e p w h i c h , w h e n e v e r it w e r e t a k e n , h a d to b e t a k e n s i m p l y f o r its o w n sake a n d de novo."17 W h a t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r f r o m B a u c k h a m ' s discussion, h o w e v e r , is why the early C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d m a k e s u c h a novel a n d

unprecedented

identification. If G o d w a s truly u n i q u e , t h e n w h y d i d t h e y ever d e c i d e to i n c l u d e J e s u s in t h a t identity? It seems m o r e plausible to m e to suggest t h a t t h e significant a m o u n t of l i t e r a t u r e t h a t talks a b o u t i n t e r m e d i a r i e s w o u l d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d early C h r i s t o l o g y o n s o m e level. T h i s is n o t to say t h a t all C h r i s t i a n s u s e d this line of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r t h a t it w a s m a i n t a i n e d in t h e t r a dition. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it s e e m s t h a t angels, especially in t h e i r f u n c tion as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , c o u l d h a v e

provided

a n d d i d p r o v i d e t h e earliest C h r i s t i a n s w i t h a n e x a m p l e b y w h i c h J e s u s — a h u m a n b e i n g — c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a s u p e r h u m a n

or

heavenly being.

14

R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 4. R. Bauckham, God Crucified, pp. 4-5, 1622‫־‬. Contra C. Fletcher-Louis, LukeActs; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology•, and L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord. This also goes against the work of others such as C. Rowland and J. Fossum. Just prior to completing the edits to my page proofs, I learned of the release of L. Hurtado's new book Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003). I was not able, therefore, to take it into account in this monograph. I am encouraged, though, to see that his discussion on pp. 27-78 has points of contact with my own work. 16 R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 4. 17 R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 28. 15

CONCLUSION: LIMPING T O W A R D A BETTER UNDERSTANDING

235

B a u c k h a m says t h a t a "strict J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m " c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e i n t e r m e d i a r y figures. H o w e v e r , t o say t h a t a strict m o n o t h e ism c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e s u c h i n t e r m e d i a r y figures is ver)‫ ׳‬different f r o m saying that these

figures

did n o t exist in J e w i s h

cosmology;

clearly t h e y d i d . T o i g n o r e this fact is to miss a n i m p o r t a n t p i e c e of t h e overall p i c t u r e . T h e d a n g e r h e r e lies in n o t seeing a develo p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y b a s e d u p o n a c o n f l u e n c e of traditions. It s e e m s u n n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l a u s i b l e to suggest t h a t J e s u s w a s i m m e d i a t e l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e divine i d e n t i t y as p a r t of a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d

move

in J e w i s h t h e o l o g y . W h a t s e e m s m o r e p l a u s i b l e to m e is t h a t a variety of t r a d i t i o n s i n f l u e n c e d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t J e s u s a n d t h a t i n t e r m e d i a r y figures s u c h as angels, w h o e n j o y e d a u n i q u e r e l a t i o n s h i p to b o t h h u m a n s a n d G o d , w e r e a logical s t a r t i n g p o i n t for t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s as t h e y p o n d e r e d t h e significance a n d i d e n tity of J e s u s . T o suggest t h a t angelological s u p p o s i t i o n s h a d n o t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e i r earliest s p e c u l a t i o n s a n d t h a t t h e early

Christian

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s w i t h G o d w a s n o v e l a n d u n p r e c e d e n t e d s e e m s s o m e w h a t d i s i n g e n u o u s . 1 8 S o w e close h e r e w i t h a w o r d of c a u t i o n from C. Rowland: So recognition of the existence of traditions of this kind [Jewish angelological beliefs] should cause us to pause before we suppose that the Christological developments of early Christianity necessarily indicate an inventiveness and unique creativity which cannot be paralleled in early Judaism. 1 9

7.4

Early Jewish

and Christian Mysticism

and Angelology

Lastly, m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s p o t e n t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e s t u d y of early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism. S e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t

traditions

discussed in this s t u d y w o u l d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d these mystics. A l t h o u g h t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y r e a l m s a n d b e i n g s w e r e largely c o n c e i v e d

18 One final note regarding the above critique of Bauckham: his monograph and article are only steps in a direction that he will expound more fully in a forthcoming study, so my comments are only in response to his initial work. Scholars who believe in the importance of angel categories for the development of early Christology will certainly need to engage with his fuller study once it is available. In his article, "The Throne of God" (p. 49), Bauckham notes that his more complete study is provisionally entitled 'Jesus and the Identity of God: Jewish Monotheism and New Testament Christology." 19 C. Rowland, Christian Origins, 2nd ed. (London: SPCK, 2002) 36.

as separate, the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m w a s n o t seen as absolute. T h i s m e a n t t h a t the possibility existed for the mystic to r e a c h b e y o n d the earthly r e a l m to the heavenly. T h e goal of the J e w i s h mystics was to see G o d e n t h r o n e d . T h e only beings regularly able to cross b e t w e e n the two realms a n d also constantly p r e s e n t in the t h r o n e r o o m besides G o d w e r e the angels, so traditions a n d speculation a b o u t t h e m w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n very i m p o r t a n t to a n y o n e trying to get to the t h r o n e r o o m . T h a t s o m e righteous h u m a n s h a d a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n (e.g., E n o c h , Isaiah) m e a n t drat there was a m o d e l for others to follow. Additionally, some h u m a n beings w e r e t h o u g h t to h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d into angels in the afterlife (especially E n o c h ) ; such a c o n v i c t i o n w o u l d h a v e e m b o l d e n e d mystics to believe they m i g h t attain t h e s a m e status. T h e s e n o t a b l e exceptions stood o u t p r o m i n e n t l y as m o d e l s for the early J e w i s h a n d Christian mystics. I n s u m , I find t h a t the evidence s u p p o r t s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the literature of the period t h a t sees the a u t h o r s as envisioning G o d , angels, a n d h u m a n s as beings t h a t for the m o s t p a r t existed in sepa r a t e spheres, the earthly a n d heavenly. Angels m e d i a t e d b e t w e e n these two realms a n d , t h o u g h they often appeared as h u m a n beings a n d regularly interacted with t h e m , they w e r e nevertheless distinct f r o m t h e m . A select few righteous h u m a n s did t r a n s f o r m into angels in h e a v e n . T h e s e exceptional cases acted as a n i m p o r t a n t m o d e l for early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mystics as t h e y sought to c o m m u n e with G o d in the divine t h r o n e r o o m .

SELECT

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MODERN AUTHOR

INDEX

Blackburn, B. 241 Abegg, M. 240 Blanc, C. 237 Ackroyd, P. 240 Adler, W. 223 n. 59 Bohak, G. 77, 77 n. 110; 78 n. 113 Alexander, P. iii, 18 n. 37; 43 Boling, R. 57 n. 57; 58 n. 60; 241 nn. 12-14; 92 n. 27; 179 n. 4; 205, Borgen, P. 239, 241 205 n. 24; 223, 223 nn. 6 2 2 2 4 ;63‫ ־‬Bosker, B. 242 n. 64; 225 n. 67; 237, 240 Bowker, B. 223 n. 62 Alexander, T. 240 Brock, S. 130 n. 145; 237, 242 Allegro, J. 40 n. 5; 212 n. 38; 237 Brooke, G. 242 Allison. D. 115 n. 91; 151 n. 22; 240 Broshi, M. 237 Andersen, D. 48 n. 29; 87, 87 n. 8; 92 Brown, F. 239 Andersen, G. 149 n. 10 Brown, P. 242 Archambault, G. 237 Brown, R. 67 nn. 85, 87; 69 n. 89, Arndt, W. 17 n. 70; 239 121 n. 116, 242 Ashton, J . 16 n. 68; 57 n. 58; 240 Brownlee, W. 242 Atkinson, K. M. T. 240 Brueggeman, W. 242 Attridge. H. 193, 193 n. 29; 237, Bühner, J. 110 n. 81; 137 n. 169 240 Burch, V. 136 n. 164; 242 Burchard, C. 77 nn. 106, 109; 78 Aune, D. 20 n. 94; 75 n. 101; 76 n. 112, 102 n. 60; 109, 206 n. 26, n. 103; 134 n. 156; 136, 136 237 n. 161; 240 Avenary, H. 240 Burkett, D. 64 n. 75 Burney, C. F. 242 Byrne,' B. 205 n. 22; 242 Babcock, W. 240 Bakker, A. 241 Bamberger, B. 241 Cadbuiy, H. 72 n. 95; 168 n. 80; 242 Bamfylde, G. 241 Cameron, R. 90 nn. 20-21; 237 Barker, M. 10, 10 n. 35; 11 n. 36; Carlston, C. 242 75 n. 101; 123 n. 124; 201 n. 11; Carr, W. 20 n. 93; 242 204, 204 n. 20; 241 Carre 11, P. 12, 12 nn. 4 6 1 3 ;47‫־‬ Barrera, J. 241 nn. 48-49; 63, 145 n. 3; 242 Barton, G. 19 n. 88; 241 Charles, R. H. 2, 86 n. 6; 136 Bauckham, R. 76 n. 102; 156 n. 43; n. 165; 237 157, 157 nn. 45-46; 221 n. 56; 222 Charlesworth, J. xiii, 2, 4, 5, 5 n. 57; 233, 233 n. 13; 234, 234 nn. 9-10; 7, 16, 51 n. 42; 85, 85 nn. 14-17; 235, 235 n. 18; 241 n. 1; 90, 90 n. 22; 91 n. 24; 140, Baumgarten, J . 150 n. 16; 241 140 n. 174; 149 nn. 13-14; 154 Bayer, B. 241 n. 33; 161 n. 53; 165 n. 66; 172, Beall, T. 241 172 n. 91; 173, 173 n. 93; 230 Becking, B. xiii nn. 3-4; 237, 239, 242 Beeston, A. 241 Chesnutt, R. 77 n. 9; 242 Benoit, P. 241 Chester, A. xi, 12 n. 44; 242 Coffins, j . 64, 64 nn. 76-78; 91 Betz. H. 15, 15 n. 63; 20 n. 94 n. 24; 131 n. 149; 136 n. 162; Bianchi, U. 241 154 n. 33; 156 n. 43; 161, 161 n. 54; Billerbeck, P. 240 172 n. 91; 201, 201 nn. 12-13; 204 Black, M. 86 n. 3; 136 n. 165; 172 n. 19; 216 n. 44; 230 n. 3; 242 n. 92

Colson, F. 99 nn. 48-50; 173 n. 96; 218 n. 45; 237 Conzelmann, H. 243 Cook, S. 57 n. 58; 242 Cooke, G. 243 Cummins, S. 122, 122 nn. 120-121 Danby, H. 237 Daniélou 4 η. 8; 5, 243 Daube, D. 21, 21 η. 97; 22, 22 η. 98; 135, 135 η. 158; 243 Davidson, M. 10, 10 nn. 31-32; 16, 145 η. 3; 148 η. 9; 151 η. 25; 156 η. 39; 166, 166 ηη. 69-71; 243 Davies, Ρ. 155 η. 38 Davies, W. 115 η. 91; 155 Davila, J . 15 η. 66; 96 η. 40; 97 η. 43; 124 η. 127; 126 η. 130; 150, 150 η. 20; 233 η. 13; 237, 243 Davis. Β. 243 Davis, P. G. 12 η. 44; 13, 13 η. 52; 243 Day, Ρ. 18 η. 79; 243 De Lacey, D. 248 Delco r, M. 96 n. 40; 244 DeConick, A. xii, 116 n. 100; 174 n. 101; 177 n. 104; 243 De Jonge, M. 96 n. 40; 243 Dewey, A. 90 nn. 20-21 Dey, I,. 244 Dimant. D. 106 n. 73; 156 n. 42; 161 n. 56; 164 n. 64; 201 n. 15; 244 Dix, G. 244 Donaldson, J. 238 Douglas, M. 199, 200 n. 8; 244 Duhaime, J . 244 Dunn, J. 114, 114 n. 87; 121 n. 118; 171 n. 89; 244 Dupont-Somrner, A. 244 Elior, R. 244 Elliger, Κ. 237 Elliot, J. 70 η. 91; 237 Emerton, J . 244 Endres, J." 244 Eshel, E. 237 Eshel, H. Eslinger, L. 47 n. 28 Evans, C. 239-240, 244 Falk, D. Fee, 168 Fishbane, 161 n.

244 n. 77; 169 n. 84; 244 M. 47 n. 28; 136 n. 162; 54; 244

Fitzmyer, J . 15 n. 64; 96 n. 40; 168, 168 n. 80; 169, 169 nn. 81, 83; 201 n. 12; 244 Fletcher-Louis, C. 6 n. 14; 12, 12 n. 43; 14, 14 nn. 57-61; 15, 15 n. 62; 16, 21 n. 97; 28, 28 nn. 6;7‫־‬ 64 n. 79; 68, 68 n. 88, 78, 78 nn. 113-114; 79, 79 nn. 115-116; 85 n. 1; 89, 89 nn. 16-18; 92, 92 n. 28; 96, 96 nn. 3 8 1 0 4 ;39‫־‬ n. 63; 105 n. 67; 106, 106 nn. 70, 73; 107, 107 n. 75; 110 n. 81; 115 n. 94; 116 n. 103; 120, 120 nn. 112, 114-115; 127, 127 n. 137; 128, 128 nn. 138-139; 129, 129 n. 143; 134 nn. 156-157; 140, 140 n. 175; 141 n. 176; 147, 147 nn. 6-7; 151, 151 nn. 26-28; 153, 154 nn. 33-34; 158 n. 49; 162 n. 59; 165 n. 67; 166, 166 nn. 69, 73; 167 n. 74; 173, 173 n. 94; 174, 174 n. 100; 175, 175 n. 102; 176, 176 n. 103; 177, 177 nn. 106-107; 191 n. 25; 192 n. 27; 194, 194 n. 32; 230, 230 n. 2; 232, 232 n. 10; 87, 233, 233 n. 11; 234, 234 n. 15; 244 Forsyth, N. 245 Fossum, J. xii, 6, 6 nn. 15-16; 17 n. 75, 87 n. 10; 88 n. 11; 90 n. 19; 105 nn. 67-68; 115 n. 93; 117 n. 104; 146 n. 5; 230 n. 4; 234 n. 15; 245 Francis, F. xi, 171 n. 88; 245 Freedman, H. 48, 48 n. 29; 237 Fuglseth, K. 239 Gammie, J. 20, 20 nn. 90, 92; 245 Garcia Martinez, F. 19 n. 83; 126 n. 130; 165 n. 66; 237, 245 Garrett, S. 245 Gaston, L. 245 Gertner, M. 47 n. 28; 245 Gieschen, C. xii, 4 n. 8; 6 n. 14; 12, 12 n. 43; 13, 13 n. 51; 14, 14 nn. 53-56; 15, 15 n. 65; 16, 28 nn. 4-5; 31 n. 10; 53 n. 48; 85 n. 1; 87 n. 10; 88, 88 n. 11; 89, 89 nn. 16; 18; 94 n. 32; 97, 97 n. 44; 104 n. 63; 105 n. 67; 108, 112, 112 n. 85; 114 n. 88; 123, 123 n. 124; 124, 140 n. 175; 162 n. 59; 166, 166 n. 72; 231, 231 nn. 6-8; 232, 232 n. 9; 233, 234, 234 n. 15; 24-5 Gingrich, F. 17 n. 70

Ginzburg, L. 237, 245 Hurtado, L. 9 n. 24; 11, 11 n. 42, Glasson, T. 245 12, 12 n. 43; 85 n. 1; 104 n. 63; Glornbitza, O. 120, 120 n. 111; 245 106 n. 70; 234, 234 n. 15; 247 Gnuse, R. 245 Hyatt, J. 162 n. 57; 247 Goddard, A. 122, 122 nn. 120-121; 245 Inowlocki, S. 247 Goodenough, E. 42, 42 n. 9; 100 Irvin, D. 247 n. 52; 105 n. 68; 245 Gooder, P. 123 n. 125; 245 Jervell, J. 85 n. 2, 87 n. 7; 247 Goodman, D. 180, 180 nn. 9 , 1 8 1 ;10‫־‬Johnson, A. 38 n. 2; 57 n. 58; 247 181 n. 12; 182, 182 nn. 15-16; 192 Johnson, L. 73, 73 n. 98; 247 n. 28; 194, 246 Joynes, C. 112 n. 85; 123 n. 123 Goodman, M. xi, 148 n. 8 Jung, L. 247 Goodrick, E. 239 Gray, S. 246 Kasher. R. 247 Grossfield, B. 43 n. 12; 237 Keck, D. 247 Gruenwald, I. 246, 248 Kilgallen, J . 247 Guillaumont, A. 237 Kittel, G. 239 Gundry, R. 12 n. 46; 246 Klawans, J . 205, 205 n. 21; 247 Gunkel, H. 45, 45 nn. 19-20, 22; Klein, M. 238 46, 50, 50 n. 36; 246 Knibb, M. 86 n. 5: 130 n. 147; 136 Gunther, J. 246 nn. 163-165; 137 n. 167 Knight, J. 136 nn. 164-165; 247 Haenchen, E. 22 n. 99; 72 n. 95; Kobelski, P. 96 n. 40; 247 119 η. 110; 246 Koenig, J. 179 n. 1; 180 n. 6; 247 Hall, R. 136 nn. 164-165; 246 Koester. C. 247 Halperin, D. 246 Kohlenberger, J. 239 Hamilton, V. 18 n. 79; 246 Kovacs, J . 247 Hanhart, K. 246 Kraeling, E. 247 Hannah, D. 13, 13 nn. 50-51; 15 Kraemer, R. 77, 77 n. I l l ; 102 n. 66; 19 n. 84; 29, 29 n. 8; 31, 31 n. 59, 247 n. 10; 94 n. 32; 124 n. 127; 145 Kuhn, Η. Β. 247 n. 3 Kuhn, H. W. 247 Hanson, P. D. xii, 204, 204 n. 19; 246 Kuhn, H. 147 η. 6; 162, 162 nn. 58; Harrington, D. 109 nn. 78-79; 238 60, 247 Hatch, E. 239 Kuhn, Κ. 239 Hay, D. M. 246 Hayward, R. 43 n. 14; 246 Lake, Κ. 72 η. 95; 79 η. 118; 238 Heidt, W. G. 17 n. 72; 246 Lane Fox, R. 134 η. 155; 248 Hendel, R. 199, 199 nn. 6-7; 200. Lang, J. 248 ;9‫־‬ 200 nn. 8 2 0 4 Langton, Ε. 248 Hennecke, E. 206 n. 27; 237 Larson, Ε. 238 Himmelfarb, M. 6, 6 nn. 17-18; 91 Lesses, R. 20 η. 94; 248 n. 24; 137 nn. 168-169; 138 n. 170; Levene, Α. 238 146 n. 4; 230, 230 n. 3; 231 n. 5 Levenson. J. 248 Holladay, C. 52 nn. 45-46; 105 n. 68; Levey, S.' 238 237, 246 Levinson, J . 90 n. 19; 248 Hooker, M. 168 nn. 77-78; 169, 169 Liddel 17 n. 70 nn. 82-83; 170 n. 85; 246 Lieu, J. 248 Horbury, W. 11, 11 nn. 39-41; 16, Lincoln, A. 248 108 n. 76, 246 Lindars, B. 248 Horst, P. 246 Longenecker, R. 248 Horton, F. 96 n. 40; 246 Lunt, H. 51 nn. 40-41; 52 n. 44; 238 Huggins, R. 95, 95 n. 37; 247 Lust, J. 238

Neusner, J. 50 n. 39; 99 n. 46; 100 MacDonald, J. 238 Mach, M. 4 η. 4; 7, 7 nn. 1 9 , 8 ;21‫ ־‬n. 52; 181 n. 12; 250 Newsom, C. 9, 9 nn. 27-28; 10 8 η. 23; 9, 9 η. 26; 16, 16 η. 68; n. 29; 16 n. 68; 27, 27 n. 3; 57 17, 20 η. 90; 68 η. 88; 131 η. 150; n. 57; 106 n. 73; 120 n. 112; 149, 140, 145 ηη. 2-3; 147 149 nn. 11-14; 150, 150 nn. 16-18, η. 6; 191 η. 25; 225 η. 65; 248 21; 151, 151 nn. 23-24; 152, 152 Maher, Μ. 43 η. 14 n. 31; 154 n. 34; 250 Maier, J. 248 Malherbe, Α. 121 η. 117; 180 η. 5; 248 Nickelsburg, G. 86 η. 3; 94 η. 33; 131 η. 149; 135, 135 η. 159; 172 Mann, C. 248 η. 91; 200 η. 10; 201 η. 14; 204, Manson, T. 126, 126 η. 131; 248 204 η. 19; 250 Mara, M. 70 η. 92 Nitzan, Β. 250 Marcus, J. 248 Nogueira, P. 115 η. 94; 250 Martin, D. 248 NŪ11, S. 250 Martin, L. 248 Nolland, J. 250 Martin, T. 179 n. 2; 248 Martyn, L. 125 n. 128; 248 Mayr-Harting, H. 249 O'Neill 14, 15 η. 62; 16, 16 η. 67; McKenzie, J. 249 230, 230 η. 2; 250 McNamara, M. 43 n. 13; 238 Odeberg, Η. 250 McNeil, B. 172, 172 n. 91; 173, 173 Olyan, S. 7 η. 22; 18, 19 η. 82; 250 n. 95; 174, 174 nn. 98-99; 249 Osborne, Β. 250 Mearns, C. 86 n. 5; 249 Osiek, C. 79 η. 117; 80, 80 η. 119; Meeks, W. 103, 103 n. 62; 105 81, 81 η. 121; 138, 138 η. 171; 250 n. 68; 171 n. 88; 181 n. 12; 249 Otzen, Β. 250 Meier, S. 27, 27 n. 2; 57 n. 57; 249 Owen, Η. 250 Mendels, D. 249 Metzger, Β. 192 η. 26 Pageis, Ε. 18 η. 79; 251 Migne, J. 53 η. 48; 238 Pate, C. 171 η. 89; 251 Milik. J. 86, 86 nn. 3-4; 94 n. 31; Pohl, C. 180 η. 5; 251 201 n. 11; 209 nn. 33, 35; 238 Propp, W. 251 Miller, P. D. 249 Miller, P. J. 55 n. 52; 249 Quimron, Ε. 251 Miller, W. 249 Mitchell, S. 20 n. 93; 249 Rahlts, Α. 238 Molina ri, A. 118 11. 107; 238 Rainbow, P. 12 η. 44; 251 Moore, C. 249 Redpath, Η. 239 Moore, G. 249 Reeves, J. 95, 95 nn. 36-37; 209 Morray-Jones, C. 10, 10 nn. 33-34; n. 35; 251 124, 124 n. 126; 154, 249 Rengstorf, K. 239 Moses, A. 249 Reventlow, H. 251 Moulton, J. 72 n. 95; 249 Riches, J . 251 Moxnes, H. 249 Riddle, D. 180 n. 8; 251 Mullen, E. 17 n. 73; 249 Roberts, A. 238 Munoa, P. 88 n. 14; 249 Robinson, J. 31 n. 9; 53 n. 49; 118 Murphy, F. 109 n. 79; 249 n. 108; 251 Murray, R. 249 Robinson, S. 251 Musurillo, H. 238 Rowland, C. xi, 5, 5 nn. 11, 13; 6, 43 Myers, C. 249 n. 11; 60 n. 65; 61 n. 67; 63, 63 n. 73; 64, 64 n. 78; 73 n. 97; 82, Nanos, M. 250 82 n. 123; 87 n. 7; 91 n. 26; 115, Nebe, G. 250 115 n. 94; 156 n. 43; 164, 164 n. 65; Nelson, R. 55 n. 52; 250 171, 171 n. 88; 203, 234 n. 15; 251

Rudolph, W. 237 Ruiten, J. 214, 214 η. 42; 215 η. 43; 251 Russell, D. 252 Saldarini, Α. 238 Salvesen, A. xi Schäfer, P. 3, 3 nn. 1-2; 4, 4 nn. 3-4; 16 n. 68; 181, 181 n. 14; 225 n. 65; 252 Schams, C. 252 Schiffman, L. 10 n. 28; 145 n. 3; 150 nn. 16; 18, 252 Scholem, G. 252 Schuller, E. 160 n. 52 Schürer, E. xiii, 252 Scott 239 Segal, A. 4, 4 nn. 6 6 1,6;7‫־‬n. 67; 158, 158 n. 48; 252 Segert, S. 252 Seim, T. 134, 134 n. 156; 252 Sekki, A. 198 n. 2; 252 Sheppard, A. 20 n. 93; 252 Shinan, A. 252 Silberman, L. 252 Skarsaune, O. 53 n. 50; 252 Skarsten, R. 239 Sly, D. 218 n. 47; 252 Smith, M. 115 n. 93; 161, 161 n. 53; 252 Smith, J . 99, 100, 100 nn. 52-53, 55; 101, 101 n. 57; 238 Smith, R. 20 n. 94; 253 Stegeman, H. 149 n. 14; 155 11. 36; 156 n. 42; 162 n. 57; 164 n. 64; 253 Stein, R. 115 η. 92; 253 Stem, M. 127 n. 136 Steudel, A. 253 Strack, H. 240 Strelan, R. 221, 221 nn. 54-55; 253 Strugnell, J . 149, 149 nn. 10, 15 Stuckenbruck, L. 12, 12 11. 45; 20 nn. 93-94; 75 n. 101; 76 nn. 103; 105; 128, 128 n. 140; 165 n. 66; 209 nn. 33-34; 210 n. 36; 253 Sullivan, K. v, xii, 253 Suter, D. 204, 204 n. 20; 253

Talbert, C. 253 Thackeray, H. 49 n. 34 Thompson 240 Thrall, M. 253 Topham, M. 253 Trigg, J . 253 Tromp, J . 106, 106 nn. 70-71; 126, 126 nn. 133-135 Ulrich xii, 239 Urbach, Ε. 253 Valantasis, R. 116 η. 101; 117, 117 η. 106; 253 van der Horst, P. xiii, 130, 130 η. 147 van der Toorn, Κ. xiii Van der Woude, A. 96 n. 40; 253 VanderKam. j . 18 n. 80; 145 n. 3; 155 n. 36; 223, 223 nn. 59-60; 225 n. 67; 253 Vermes, G. 50 η. 39; 99 η. 46; 148 η. 8; 156 η. 40; 253 Viviano, Β. 135, 135 η. 160; 254 von Rad, G. 45, 45 η. 21; 254 Walls, Α. 254 Walters, S. 254 Webb, R. 239 Weber, R. 239 Wenham, G. 254 Westermann, C. 199, 199 η. 5; 202, 254 Wevers, J. 239 Whiston, W. 239 Whitaker, G. 237 Wiebe, R. 239 Wolff, H. 48 η. 29; 254 Wolfson, Η. 42, 42 η. 10; 254 Yadin, Y. 9 η. 28; 19 η. 88; 96 η. 40; 149 η. 11; 155, 155 η. 35; 156, 207 η. 29; 254 Yarbro Coffins, Α. 64 η. 75; 136 η. 162; 254 Yoder-Neufeld, Τ. 254 Yonge, C. 239 Zimmerli, W.

60 η. 66; 254

SUBJECT

Abraham 37-39, 39 n. 3; 40-42, 42 n. 7; 43-44, 52 n. 44; 54, 54 n. 51; 58, 81, 81 n. 122; 82, 88, 88 nn. 12-14; 96, 100, 103, 121, 124-125, 132, 138, 179, 181-184, 189, 189 n. 24; 190-191, 193-194, 205 n. 22; 217, 242, 249 Adam 5, 6, 18 n. 78; 19, 8 5 8 9 nn. 15, 18; 90, 90 n. 19; 91, 96 n. 38; 136 n. 165; 139 Afterlife 131-133, 133 n. 153; 134-136, 138-139, 176-177, 236 Angel of God 6, 15, 17-18, 32-33, 46-52, 54, 57-61, 66-67, 74, 100, 108, 108 n. 77; 109, 111, 121, 123, 124, 245 Angel of the Lord 6 n. 15; 17 nn. 74-75; 30, 46, 32, 38 n. 2; 50 n. 35; 56, 56 nn. 54-55; 57, 58, 58 n. 59; 59-60, 62, 66 n. 83; 69, 71-72, 87 n. 10; 72 n. 93; 90 n. 19; 109, 109 n. 80; 114, 181, 184-186, 230 n. 4 Angelology 4, 4 n. 8; 5, 5 n. 11; 6, 7, 7 nn. 20, 22; 8, 12, 12 n. 46; 15 n. 64; 17 n. 72; 18 n. 80; 20 nn. 90, 92; 42, 63 n. 73; 145 n. 3; 150-152, 168 n. 80; 169 n. 81; 229, 231, 233 n. 12; 235, 241-242, 244-247, 251-252 Angelomorphic 4 n. 8; 5 6 ,6‫ ־‬n. 14; 9, 11-12, 12 nn. 43, 46; 13, 13 n. 65; 16, 21 n. 96; 27-28, 28 nn. 4-5; 29, 31, 31 n. 10; 32, 34, 78-79, 85 n. 1; 87, 88 n. 11; 89, 89 n. 16; 90, 94, 94 n. 32; 96-97, 97 n. 44; 104 n. 63; 105 n. 67; 106-107, 108 n. 76; 109, 112, 112 n. 85; 114, 114 n. 88; 115-116, 118, 119 n. 109; 121, 123, 123 n. 124; 124, 127, 129-131, 140, 140 n. 175; 141, 154, 162 n. 59; 166 n. 72; 173-174, 177, 225 n. 66; 228, 230-231, 231 nn. 6;9‫־‬ 232-233, 234 n. 15; 245-246

INDEX

Angelophany 34, 56, 69, 78, 83, 127, 185, 192 n. 27 Angels, minister 85 n. 2; 181 Angelus 2, 106-107, l l l n . 83; 193 Anthropomorphic 17-18, 27-30, 32, 34, 37, 65-66, 81, 83, 228, 231 Angelikos Bios 134 11. 155 ,89‫ ־‬vii, 6 n. 17; 12 nn. Apocalypse 45-46; 13, 20 n. 94; 31, 33, 52 n. 44; 74-75, 75 n. 101; 81, 81 n. 122; 87, 90, 91 n. 24; 115, 123-124, 126 n. 132; 128 n. 140; 136 n. 162; 138 n. 170; 145 n. 3; 146 n. 4; 150, 156 n. 43; 171, 220, 230-231, 242, 246-247, 253 Appearance vii, 22, 25, 27, 27 n. 1; 29-32, 34, 41-42, 54, 58, 60‫־‬62, 62 n. 71; 63, 67, 67 n. 85; 68-69, 69 n. 90; 71, 73, 8 2 9 4,94,83‫־‬ n. 33; 96-97, 103, 107, 109, 111-112, 115, 118-119, 119 n. 109; 120-121, 121 n. 117; 126, 131, 139, 145, 183-184, 189-191, 192 n. 27; 195, 208, 212, 219, 225 n. 66; 228-229, 251 Archangel 13, 19, 21, 50 n. 39; 51-52, 56, 61-62, 65-66, 80, 88 n. 11; 98-99, 99 n. 46; 100, 100 n. 56; 105, 126, 152, 159, 186-187, 201, 203, 211, 213, 244, 253 Azazel 40, 201, 203, 203 n. 17; 204 n. 19; 210, 212, 223 n. Blessed Ones 172-173, 178 Brightness 60, 70-71, 131 Christology ix, 1, 4, 4 n. 8; 5, 6 n. 14; 9-12, 12 nn. 43-46; 13, 13 nn. 50-52; 14, 14 nn. 53-56; 15-16, 20 n. 93; 28 n. 4; 29, 75 n. 101; 85 n. 1; 106 n. 73; 114, 114 n. 87; 115 n. 94; 128 n. 140; 136 n. 164; 145 n. 3; 192 n. 27; 227, 231-232, 232 n. 10; 233, 233 n. 13; 234-235, 241-247, 249-251, 253

Clothing 28, 70, 82, 92, 170 n. 87; 187 n. 23 Communities viii, 1, 7, 9, 15 n. 61; 23, 145-148, 162, 167, 171 n. 89; 174-175, 178, 228, 251 Congregation Í2, 119, 158, 161-164, 168-169, 175, 212, 252 Copulation 139 Corporeal 132, 195 Cosmology ix, 1, 64 n. 75; 209 n. 35; 227, 229, 229 n. 1; 233, 235, 254 Creation 40, 129, 212, 248 Creation 19, 40-41, 80, 85, 85 n. 2; 86-87, 89, 91, 129, 168, 197-200, 212, 217, 225, 248

151, 161, 164, 173, 175-178, 190, 217-218, 229-232, 235-236 Eeating 23, 50 n. 37; 55, 145, 179-181, 183-184, 184 n. 19; 188, 190-192, 195, 228 Elohim 11, 97 Enoch 5-6, 10, 10 n. 31; 61, 64, 85-86, 86 nn. 3-5, 87; 87 n. 8; 90-91, 91 n. 26; 92, 92 n. 27; 93-94, 94 n. 33; 9 6 , 1 2 4,103,98‫־‬ 132, 137, 139, 145, 148 n. 9; 200, 200 n. 10; 201, 201 nn. 11, 14; 202, 203-204, 204 nn. 1 9 , 2 0 5 ;20‫־‬ 207, 209, 209 n. 35; 210-215, 217, 219-224, 228-229, 236-238, 240-241, 243, 246-247, 249-251, 253 Epiphany 119, 185 Eschatology 64 n. 75 Essenes 148, 148 n. 8; 155 n. 36; 167, 172 n. 92; 173, 175-176, 239, 241, 249, 253 Evil spirits 165 Exalted Patriarchs 12, 31, 234

Daughter of Job viii, 129-130, 140, 170 n. 87; 225 n. 66 David xii, 108-109, 109 n. 80; 139, 199 n. 4; 240 Dead Sea Scrolls 1-2, 9, 9 n. 26; 10, 10 n. 28; 17 n. 71; 18 nn. 78, 80; 30, 37, 40, 48 n. 31; 96 n. 38; 106 n. 73; 145 n. 3; 147 n. 6; 148, 148 n. 8; 149, 149 nn. 1 3 1 5 0,150;14‫־‬Fallen Angels 201, 247 n. 18; 154, 155 n. 36; 156 nn. 40, Falling to the Ground 30, 32-34, 79, 43; 161 n. 53; 165 n. 66; 167, 171 127 n. 89; 173, 175, 198 n. 2; 200, 207, Fear xii, 30, 32-34, 5 8 , 6 7 ‫ ־‬5 9 , 209 n. 33; 212, 225 n. 67; 233 67 n. 85; 69, 79, 83, 102-104, 108 n. 11; 237-241, 243-244, 248-254 n. 77; 115 n. 91; 172, 185, Demons xiii, 19 n. 88; 21, 165, 190-191, 201, 217, 222, 228 Fiery Appearance 30 216-217, 222, 240-241, 247 Divine 6, 8-9, 11-12, 12 n. 44; 13, 13 n. 52; 14-15, 17, 17 n. 73; 20, Gabriel 19, 19 nn. 85, 89; 21, 32, 21, 27, 33-35, 37-38, 41, 41 n. 6; 42, 61-63, 65, 67, 159, 203-204, 42, 42 n. 8; 46, 48-50, 52, 54-57, 245, 250 59-60, 63, 64 n. 79; 67-68, 71, Garments 80, 82, 115, 129-130 75-76, 82-83, 85-86, 89-90, 93, Gender 130, 130 n. 148; 134 n. 156; 98, 101 n. 58; 102-103, 103 n. 62; 218 n. 47; 225 n. 66; 252 104-105, 107-108, 110-111, 114, Giants ix, 40, 86, 94, 95 nn. 36;37‫־‬ 115 n. 95; 117-118, 122 nn. 119-120; 197, 202-204, 206-207, 209, 209 124, 128, 128 n. 139; 129, 132, n. 32; 210, 210 n. 36; 211-212, 138-140, 146-147, 151-153, 155, 214-216, 216 n. 44; 217-222, 158, 160-161, 165, 173-174, 175 224-225, 229, 239, 247, 251 n. 101; 176-179, 181, 183, 188, Giborim 197, 206-207, 210-211, 223 191, 191 n. 25; 192, 192 n. 26; God 4 - 6 , 6 nn. 15-16; 10 n. 35; 11, 194, 198-203, 205-206, 208-209, 11 n. 42; 12, 12 n. 43; 13-17, 17 211, 214, 216-217, 221-222, 224, n. 70, 75; 18, 20 n. 93; 21 n. 96; 232, 234-236, 240-241, 243-244, 31-35, 38, 38 n. 2; 39-40, 42, 247-249, 254 44-45, 45 n. 22; 4 6 4 9,49‫־‬n. 33; 50-53, 53 n. 49; 54, 54 n. 51; 55-58, 58 n. 61; 59-62, 62 n. 69; Earthly 11, 14, 33-34, 73, 88, 92, 66, 66 n. 83; 67, 70, 72-76, 80-81, 114, 123, 129, 132, 134, 148-149,

66‫־‬

83, 85, 85 n. 1; 87 n. 10; 88, 88 n. 11; 89, 89 n. 18; 90, 90 n. 19; 91, 93, 97-101, 101 n. 58; 102-103, 104 n. 63; 105, 105 nn. 67-68; 106, 106 n. 70; 107-109, 109 n. 80; 110-111, 113, 115, 115 n. 93; 117 n. 104; 118-124, 126 n. 133; 127-128, 128 n. 141; 129-130, 132, 134, 137, 137 n. 169; 139, 145-146, 146 n. 5; 147, 150, 152, 154, 157, 160, 163-170, 173, 176-179, 181 n. 12; 182, 188-191, 197-200, 202-205, 205 nn. 2 3 , 2 0 6 - 2 0 7 ;24‫־‬ 207 n. 28; 211-212, 214-218, 218 n. 46; 221-223, 223 n. 62; 224-225, 228-230, 230 n. 4; 231-233, 233 n. 13; 234, 234 nn. 14-17; 235, 235 n. 18; 236 God as warrior 157 Guardian angels 75 Guests 124, 179, 179 n. 2; 182-183, 189-191, 194, 229 Heavenly Ascent 8, 10 n. 34; 115, 123 n. 125; 146, 153 n. 32; 154 n. 33; 243-246, 252 Heavenly 6 1 0,9‫־‬n. 34; 12, 17-18, 20. 27. 29. 31, 33-35, 50, 57 n. 57; 73-75, 79, 83, 86, 98, 107, 113, 115, 115 n. 94; 123, 126, 129, 130-131, 137, 145-146, 148-151, 153-155, 157, 159, 161, 163-164, 173, 175-177, 181, 190, 201, 203, 206, 209, 212-213, 217-218, 228, 230-232, 234-236 high priest viii, 3, 59, 64, 64 n. 79; 110, 126 n. 133; 127, 127 n. 137; 128, 128 n. 139; 129, 140, 148, 176, 244 Holy of Holies 176 Holy Ones 14, 92, 94, 97, 104, 132, 152, 159, 162, 162 n. 60; 163-164, 166-167, 207-208 Holy War 242-243 holy war 56, 96 n. 40; 126 n. 130; 157, 159 honeycomb 181 n. 13; 187-188, 192 n. 26; 194 Hospitality 1, 23, 37, 42, 58,59‫־‬ 124-125, 145, 179, 179 nn. 1, 3-4; 180, 180 nn. 5-6, 8; 182-183, 183 n. 18; 184-194, 194 n. 31; 229, 240, 247-248, 251 Hosts 2, 47, 111, 127, 158, 165, 184, 194-195, 241

Humans 1-6, 6 n. 14; 7-9, 9 n. 26; 10, 10 n. 30; 11-20, 21 n. 96; 22-23, 27-29, 33, 37, 39, 44, 54-55, 61, 63, 66, 68, 74-76, 83, 85-87, 90-91, 106-107, 110, 114, 126, 131-134, 138, 140-141, 145-148, 151-155, 156 n. 44; 157-158, 160, 162-163, 166-167, 169-172, 175-179, 181-182, 184, 192-195, 197-198, 198 n. 2, 199, 202-206, 211-212, 215, 218-219, 220, 222, 225, 225 n. 65; 227-233, 235-236 Hybrid offspring 23, 145, 197, 205, 210, 212, 215, 222, 224 Iaoel 81-82 Incorporeal 27, 73, 132, 181, 190, 192, 218, 230 Interaction viii, 19, 22, 46, 54-55, 59 n. 64; 141, 143, 145, 147, 167, 179, 228-229 Intermediary 244 intermediary 128, 234-235 Jabbok 44, 46, 49-54, 99-102, 249 Jacob/Israel 98, 100-101, 228 Jesus xiii, 4, 6, 11, 12 nn. 46-47; 13, 13 nn. 48-49; 15, 16, 21 n. 95; 24 n. 1; 32-33, 42, 52-54, 66 n. 83; 67-69, 69 n. 90; 70-71, 73, 75, 75 n. 101; 76 n. 102; 85, 111-112, 112 n. 85; 114-115, 115 n. 93; 116, 116 n. 97; 117-118, 120-125, 133-134, 134 n. 156; 140, 145 n. 3; 155 n. 36; 161 n. 53; 180-181, 191-192, 192 n. 27; 193-195, 233, 233 n. 13; 234, 234 n. 15; 235, 235 n. 18; 240-242, 244-245, 247-248, 250, 252-253 John the Baptist 66, 111-112, 112 nn. 85-86; 113, 140, 155 n. 36; 228, 247, 253 Judaism 4-5, 5 nn. 9, 11; 12 n. 45; 16, 42 nn. 9-10; 50 n. 39; 61 n. 67; 67 n. 86; 72, 75 n. 101; 76 n. 103; 85, 85 n. 1; 90, 90 n. 19; 99 n. 46; 103 n. 62; 105 n. 68; 127 n. 136; 128 n. 140; 131 n. 149; 147, 147 n. 6; 154 n. 33; 161 n. 54; 172 n. 91; 224, 229 n. 1; 230, 230 n. 4; 231-233, 235, 239, 242-243, 245, 247-254 Judge 47, 57, 57 n. 57; 58 n. 60; 58 n. 159; 59, 96-97, 127, 131, 170, 171, 184-186, 223, 241, 248

Lithargoel 118 Liturgy, angelic 67 η. 86; 146, 149, 149 ηη. 10, 13, 15; 150, 239, 251 Liturgical space Í47, 171, 176-177,233 LXX xiii, 2, 8, 11 η. 37; 17, 19-20, 37, 39, 43, 48, 50 η. 38; 56, 56 η. 53; 61, 62 η. 69; 63, 65, 72, 72 η. 93; 82, 99, 100 η. 55; 107 η. 76; 108, 110-111, 122 η. 120; 131-132, 157, 180, 184, 205-207, 209, 215, 224, 252

Name 6, 6 nn. 15-16; 11, 17 n. 75; 18, 19 n. 88; 44, 87 n. 10; 88 n. 11; 90 n. 19; 98, 100, 105 nn. 67-68; 117 n. 104; 146 n. 5; 230 n. 4; 241, 245 Natural order 169, 197, 220 Nephilim 197-199, 199 n. 3; 206-208, 210-211 Noah 85-86, 93-94, 94 n. 33; 95, 95 nn. 35, 37; 96-97, 103, 139, 197-198, 203, 208, 208 n. 31; 212, 214-216, 228, 247 Nuntius 106, 106 η. 72; 107, 125-126

Mamre 38, 40, 53 η. 50; 189-191, Paul xi, 10, 10 η. 34; 15, 15 194, 249 nn. 63-64; 21, 21 η. 96; 30, 42, 76 Man 5 ηη. 11, 13; 58, 63 η. 73; 64, η. 102; 85, 85 η. 2; 115 η. 95; 121, 64 η. 75; 82 η. 123; 98, 162 η. 57; 121 η. 117; 122, 122 ηη. 119-120, 185, 194, 233 η. 12; 241-242, 245, 122; 123, 123 ηη. 123-125; 247, 249-251 124-125, 134-135, 138 η. 170; 140, Marriage 133, 133 η. 154; 134, 139 147, 149 η. 13; 167-168, 168 η. 80; Martyrdom 120-123, 136, 136 169-170, 170 ηη. 86-87; 171, 176 ηη. 163-165; 137, 137 η. 167 η. 105; 178, 179 η. 2; 180, 200 Melchizedek 6, 30, 85, 96, 96 η. 40; m 8; 205 η. 22; 228 97, 97 η. 43; 98, 126 η. 130; 139, 152 η. 29; 228, 2 4 3 , 2 4 6 - 2 4 7 ,244‫ ־‬φάντασμα 50 η. 35; 59, 59 η. 62; 192 254 Pneuma 170, 218 Messenger 8, 12, 15, 15 η. 64; 17, Post-mortem 141 17 η. 70; 27, 28 η. 3; 41, 41 η. 6; Priesthood 9 6 1 6 5,153,129,97‫־‬ 48, 49 η. 33; 50, 57, 69, 71, 75, 82, 104, 106, 108 η. 76; 109-110, η. 67; 250 110 η. 82; 111, 111 η. 83; 112-113, Prince 2, 30, 56, 63, 65, 72 η. 96; 119, 121-122, 125-126, 126 η. 134; 97, 108 η. 76; 160, 241 127-128, 128 ηη. 141-142; 140, Prophets 18, 76, 82-83, 109-111, 146, 227, 249, 253 113, 139, 231, 238, 247, 252 Metatron 91 η. 26; 92-93, 139, 229 Purity 148, 158-160, 163-164, Michael xii, 4 η. 8; 7, 13, 13 166-169, 173-175, 178, 188, 200, ηη. 50-51; 19, 19 ηη. 83-84, 89; 200 η. 8; 204, 204 η. 20; 205 21, 29, 42, 56, 56 η. 53; 61, 63-65, η. 21; 228, 244, 247, 253 72 η. 96; 78, 80, 89, 92, 96 η. 40; 97, 97 η. 43; 98, 105, 126, 126 Qumran 7, 7 η. 22; 9, 9 η. 28; 10, η. 130; 145 η. 3; 156 η. 42; 10 η. 31; 15 η. 32; 64, 39-41, 43, 158-161, 189-191, 203-204, 238 43 η. 15; 56 η. 56; 61, 63 η. 74; Monotheism 11, 11 η. 42; 12 η. 44; 65, 86, 91 η. 25; 93-94, 96, 96 81, 233, 233 η. 13; 234-235, 235 ηη. 40, 42; 97-98, 120, 126 η. 130; η. 18; 241, 247, 250-251 127 η. 137; 145 η. 3; 147-148, 148 Moses viii, 3, 6, 33, 40-41, 54 η. 51; η. 9; 149, 149 ηη. 10-11; 14-15; 56, 56 η. 54; 57, 103-104, 104 150 η. 16; 151, 154, 154 η. 34; 155 η. 66; 105, 105 ηη. 67-68; 106, 106 ηη. 36-37; 156, 156 ηη. 39, 42; ηη. 69, 70-71, 73; 107, 114 η. 89; 157, 161, 162 η. 57; 164 η. 64; 115, 115 η. 91; 116, 119-120, 166, 166 ηη. 69-71; 167-168, 168 125-126, 126 η. 132; 134; 139-140, η. 80; 169, 169 η. 81; 172 η. 92; 161, 181, 181 η. 12; 216-218, 218 174, 175-178, 198, 198 η. 2; η. 46; 228, 239, 244, 249, 253 209-213, 215, 224 Mysticism ix, 1, 6 η. 15; 10, 10 η. 33; 124 η. 126; 150, 174 η. 101; 227, 235, Raphael 19, 19 η. 86; 21, 56, 65,66‫־‬ 243-246, 248-249, 251-252 105, 159, 181, 186-187, 203, 210-211

Rechabites 5, 147, 171-172, 172 n. 92; 174-175 Resurrection 21-22, 73, 115, 115 n. 92; 131, 131 n. 149; 133-135, 135 nn. 159-160; 173, 191-192, 242, 247, 250, 253-254 Righteous humans as angels 4 - 5 Rivalry 3, 4, 225 n. 65; 252 Sadducees 21, 21 n. 97; 22, 133, 135, 135 nn. 158, 160; 241, 247, 254 Sariel 45 n. 22; 50 n. 39; 51, 52, 99 n. 46; 159, 100 n. 54; 253 Satan 18, 18 nn. 77, 79; 30-31, 59, 81, 123, 123 n. 125; 243, 245, 250-251 Sinai 41, 66, 103-104, 106, 106 n. 73; 107, 119-120, 120 n. 112; 181, 181 n. 12; 244 Son of Man 61, 63-64, 64 nn. 75-76, 80; 65, 83, 86, 93, 120, 194, 241-242, 245, 250 Sons of God 11, 62 n. 69; 72, 97, 100, 134, 168, 197-198, 198 n. 2; 218, 221, 223, 223 n. 62; 224-225, 240, 242 Spirits 2, 152, 163, 165, 168 n. 76; 190, 217-218, 244 Stars 2, 8, 30, 74-75, 104, 131, 131 n. 150, 138 Stephen viii, 85, 118-119, 119 nn. 109-110; 120-121, 138 n. 172; 140, 172, 228, 249-250 sustenance 180-181, 181 n. 13; 82 Taxo 125-126, 126 nn. 134-135; 127, 140, 228, 253 Teacher of Righteousness 150, 161-162, 240 Temple 1, 6 1 8,16-18,8‫־‬nn. 80-81; 19, 23, 28, 37, 37 η. 1; 39, 43-44, 56, 56 n. 53; 67 n. 86; 71, 77, 77 n. 110; 81, 83, 87, 91-92, 98, 102 n. 59; 107, 111, 129-130, 135, 139-141, 147, 149-150, 154, 156, 156 n. 42; 163, 165, 167, 175-177,

179, 182, 184, 194, 201, 205, 207, 213, 219-220, 223-225, 225 η. 66; 227, 229-233, 241, 244, 249, 252-253 Theomorphic 89, 96, 107, 147, 177, 228 Theraputae 173-175 Throne 33, 60, 73, 88, 101 n. 58; 104, 161, 161 n. 54; 176-177, 233, 233 n. 13; 235 n. 18; 236, 241 Transformation 5 1 0,9-10,7‫־‬n. 33; 22, 54, 66, 73, 79, 91, 91 n. 24; 92, 103, 105, 107, 115-116, 121, 124 n. 126; 129-130, 132, 137 n. 168; 138, 138 n. 170; 139, 141, 148, 154-155, 159-160. 170 n. 87; 173, 175-177, 228-229, 230 n. 3; 246, 249 Transfiguration 69 n. 90; 114, 114 n. 89; 115, 115 nn. 91-94; 116, 116 n. 103; 119 n. 110; 140, 242, 249,253 Two Powers 4, 4 nn. 6-7; 61 n. 67; 158, 158 n. 48; 252 Uriel 19, 19 n. 87; 100, 100 n. 56; 101, 216 n. 44 199, Veil 103, 119, 167, 167 n. 75; 168-169 Veneration 12, 12 n. 45; 20 nn. 93-94; 33 n. 11; 75 n. 101; 76 nn. 103, 105; 89, 128, 128 n. 140; 171 n. 88, 253 Watchers 86, 92-95, 95 nn. 34-35; 200-201, 201 nn. 12-13; 204-205, 207-208, 210-213, 215, 219-221, 221 nn. 54-55; 222-224, 253 Worship 11-12,31,33,48,55,61, 75, 76, 76 nn. 102-103; 89,90‫־‬ 105, 127-130, 137, 137 n. 169, 147, 151, 154, 163, 167-169, 171, 177, 189, 233 n. 13; 241, 245, 247, 249-250, 253 young men 37, 41-42, 70-71, 79-81, 83, 130, 130 n. 148 Zosimus 171-172, 172 nn. 90-91; 173, 173 n. 95, 174 nn. 98-99; 249

ANCIENT LITERATURE

INDEX

OLD TESTAMENT Genesis 1:26 1:26-27 2-3 2:7 2:17 3:17f 3:22 a, b 3:24 4:25 5-15 5:18-24 5:21-32 5:24 5:29-9:28 6 6:1 6:1-4

6:1-12 6:2 6:2, 4 6:3 6:4 6:5 6:5-8 6:9 12 12:2 14:18 16 16-21 16:7f 16:13 17:2 18

18-19 83 85, 8'9 85 162 87 87 86 18 n. 81, 19 91 207 91 87 91, 93, 139 93 59 n. 63, 102, 204-205, 216, 218, 221--222 202 10 n. 30, 23, 197-200, 204, 205-207, 207 n. 28, 209, 212, 214, :216, 219 n. 48 ,221, 224, 229 214 11 n. 37, 168, 202 205, 223-224 202, 207 n. 28, 214 202, 217 198 93 93 45 38 96 17 n. 74, 29, 72 n. 93 124 146 47 38 38 n. 2, 124-125, 179, 194, 228

18:1-3 18:2 18:2-15 19:1 19:1-4 19:15-16 22 22:11,15 23:22 24 24:7 25:8 25:26 25:31 27 27:45 28 28:10-22 32 32:1-2 32:7 32:9-12 32:22-31 32:24-32 32:25 32:29 32:30 32:33 35 35:10 38:8 38:18 39 41:37-45 46:2 46:20 48:16 50-52 52:21

37-44, 83, 181-184, 189, 191, 193, 194, 37-38 182-183 193 183 193 183 17 n. 74, 72 n. 93 146 57 17 n. 74, 72 n. 93 146 132 46, 99 n. 50 44 45 44 101 51 38 n. 2, 44-5 83, 99 n. 51, 101, 102 98 44 45 44 54 99 52, 99 57, 101 50 n. 37 99 n. 51, 101 46 n. 24 133 n. 154 52 n. 44 45 76 46 n. 24 76 72, 146 76 45

Exodus 1 3 3:2 3:5 3:6 3:14 4:24 12:12 14:13-14 14:19 15:3 16:15 20:19 18-20 18:11 20:3 23:2f 23:20-21 23:20-23 23:21-22 24:9-11 24:11 24:16 25, 26 33:20 34 34:28-9 34:28 34:29-30 34:29-35 34:33, 35

103 72 n. 93, 103 17 n. 74, 30, 33, 56 n. 54, 57 56 33 117 17 156 157 146 157-8 181 33 103 156 156 98 72 146 56 181 47 115 18 n. 81 47 106 181 181 n . 12 103 115 n . 91, 119 103

Leviticus 6:10 12:1-8 15:25-30 16 16:8, 10, 26 24:16

63 130 130 203 203 117

Numbers 13:32-33 13:33 20 22:31 22

n. n.

17 105

23:22 28:9-10

206 199 n . 3 17 n. 74 32 17, 17 n. 74, 72 n. 93, 146 157 149

Deuteronomy 2:10-11 9:9,18

199 181

n.

3

23:9-14 25:5-10 32 32:1-43 32:8 34:5 33:2 Joshua 5 5:13-15

6-24 8:25 Judges 2:1 2:1-2, 4, 5 2:1-4 2:1-5 5:23 6, 13 6-13 6:11 6:11-18 6:11-24 6:13 6:20-22 6:21 6:22-23 6:23 6:24 13

159 133 n . 154 168 105 11 n. 37, 62 n. 69, 72 116 120

228 19 n. 89, 33, 55-56, 78, 157 n . 47 56 199 n. 3

13:2-22 13:3-21 13:17 13:20 13:22 13:23 14 20:46

27, 57, 57 n. 57 57 29 27 27 17, 103, 146, 228 181, 184-186 57 193 58, 185 38 n. 2 185 n . 20 192 47, 101 33 57 41 n. 6, 67 n. 84, 72 n. 93 193 58, 185 46 192 33, 101 57 186 199 n . 3

Ruth. 4:1-10

133

1 Samuel 24:16-17 29:9

146 108

2 Samuel 14:17 14:17, 20

88 108

n.

154

19:27 23:8-39

108 199 n. 4

1 Kings 14:9 ‫י‬ 14:18 22:19-22

152 58 n. 61 17

2 Kings 1 2:11 17:34 19 19:32-35 19:35 25:11

72 n. 93 91, 113, 116 46 !1. 24 72 n. 93 157 157 199 n. 3

1 Chronicles 11:10-47 21:1 21:12-30 21:16 21:20 21:26 23:6

199 n. 4 18 n. 77 146 157 32 56 n. 55 11 n. 38

2 Chronicles 12:5-8 15:1-8 19:1-3 21:12-15 36:15-16

110 110 110 110 110

Job 1-2 1:6 1:14, 16, 17, 18 2:1 4:18 5:1 20:15 36:14 31:32 33:23 38:7 40:11, 19 41:25 Psalms 6:6 8:5 29:1

17 11 n. 37, 20 n. 91, 205 20 n. 91 20 n. 91, 205 20 n. 91 20 n. 91 20 n. 91 20 n. 91 179 20, 162 11 n. 37, 20 n. 91, 131, 205 20 n. 91 20 n. 91

131 33 11 n. 37, 152, 205

34 34, 35 34:7 78:23-25 82 82:1, 6 82:6 88:4-6 89:7 91:11 110 110:4 115:17 135:4 138:1 145:14

17 72 n. 93 146 180 17, 96 11 n. 37, 152 205 131 152 72 98 96 131 46 n. 24 152 199 n. 3

Ecclesiastes 5:5 9:4-10

27 131

Isaiah 6 6:1-13 6:3 9:6 9:6-7 24-27 37 38:18-19 40:3 42:13 44:26 63:9

19 140 n. 173 146 n. 5 107 n. 76 11 n. 38 131 n. 149 72 n. 93 131 112 157 n. 47 110 n. 82 146

Jeremiah 35 35:2, 3, 5, 18 39:9 52:15

175, 178 172 199 n. 3 199 n. 3

Ezekiel 1 1:26 1:28 1:26-27 8:2, 40:3 8-2 9:2, 3, 11 10 10:2, 6, 7 32:22, 24 37 44:17 46:4-5

102 n. 61 47, 98 33 60 60 62 n. 71 63 19 n. 81 63 199 n. 3 131 n. 149 63 149

268 Daniel 1-6 2:46 3 3:25 3:28 4:10, 14, 20 4:13, 17, 23 6:22 7 7-12 7:13 7:18, 27 7:28 8:15 8:16 8:16-17 8:11, 12:1 9:20-21 9:21 10:5-6 10:6 10:13 10:16, 18 10:20 10:21 11:5 11:36 11:40-12:3

ANCIENT

LITERATURE

61 61 65 11 n. 37, 61, 205 146 208 201 146 17, 102 n. 61 61, 146 61-65, 82, 128, 158 64 61 62 19, 61 32 56 67 n. 85 19, 61-62 62-63, 68 63, 82, 102 19, 56, 61, 72 n. 96 63 56 19, 61, 63 72 n.96 152 156

INDEX

12:1 12:2-3 12:3 12:6

61, 63 131 120 n. 113 63

Hosea 6:2 12 12:6

131 n. 149 102 157 n. 47

Haggai 1:12-13

110

Zechariah 1:8-11 l:9f 1:9, 14 2:1, 4 2:1-7 4:1-5 5:5-10 6:4-5 12:7-9

59-60 146 59 60 59 59 59 59 109 n. 80

Malachi 1:1 2:7 3:1 3: If. 4:5

111 127 27-28, 111-11 227, 231 126 111-113

NEW TESTAMENT Matthew 1-2 1:20 2:13, 19 3:17 5:8 5:43 10:40 11:7-14 16:13-20 17:1-9 17:10-13 18:10 19:1 22:23 22:23-33 22:30 22:39 25:35-36

146 66 n. 83 66 n. 83 116 n. 97 75 194 n. 31 122, 194 112-113 116 n. 102 69 ‫״‬. 90, 114 113 73, 146 n. 5, 194 194 n. 31 133 133, 225 n . 6 138 194 n. 31 193

28:2-7 28:3 28:4-5

69 30, 102 32

Mark 1:1-14 1:2 1:2-4 1:11 1:13 5:42 6:14 6:14-16 8:27-30 8:38 9:2-10 9:37 12:13-17 12:18

112 68, 113 112 116 n. 97 68 72 112 113 116 n. 102 68 69 n . 90, 114 122 133 132

12:18-27 12:25 12:28-34 12:31, 33 13:32 13:37 14:51-52 16:5 16:6-7

132, 225 66 68 133 194 n . 31 68 221 68 67, 102 68

Luke 1 1-2 1:11-12 1:11-24 1:19 1:26-38 2: If 2:9-15, 21 2:13-14 2:15 3:22 4:33 7:24 7:24-35 8:56 9:18-21 9:28-36 9:29 9:39 9:52 10:16 10:27 13:11 20:27 20:27-40 20:34-40 20:35 20:39 24:4-5 24:22 23 24:33-43 24:37 24:42 24:44-48

29 146 32 66 146 n . 5 66 66-67 66 130, 146 146 n . 5 116 192 15 n. 64 112 n . 86 72 116 n . 102 69 n. 90, 114 102 192 15 n. 64 122 191 n . 31 192 22, 133 133 225 n . 66 134 134 n . 157 69 72 191-192, 195 192 73 192 n . 26 192

n.

John 1:14 1:18 4:12 6:67-71 10:304

98 47 47 116 117

n. n.

102 105

13:20 20:12 Acts 1:10 1:10-11 4:1 4:1-2 5:19 6:11 6:12-13 6:15

122 70

7:30 7:33 7:38 7:53 7:55 8:26 9:7 10:3-4 10:34 10:45 11:13 12 12:7 12:7-9 12:7-11 12:12 12:15 12:23 14:11-12 14:12 22:9 22:22 23:1 23:6-8 23:8 23:8-9 23:9 28:7 28:8-9

68 70 22 133 72, 146 118 119 119-122, 121 n. 117, 172 30 56 120 120 120 146 63 32 32 72 29 72f 30 73 146 72 72-74 146 21 n . 96, 179 31 63 134 134 134-136 21-22 133 134 n. 157 180 n. 5 74

Romans 5:12 8:38 12:2 12:13 13:8, 10 13:9

87 121 115 180 194 194

1 Corinthians 3:1 4:9

123 121

n. n.

n.

2

n.

116 95 5 31 31

n.

116, 169-171

n. n.

270

ANCIENT LITERATURE

INDEX

6:2 6:3 170-71

170 1 2 1 n.

11:3

167,

11:5

168 5 9 n. 6 3 , 1 2 1 n. 1 1 6 , 1 4 6 , 1 6 7 ,

1-2 1:6 2:2

114

11:10

169, 1 7 1 , 178 1 7 0 n. 8 7

2:5 5-7

170 96

121 171

n. 1 1 6 ,

13:2

180, 180

95,

1 1 5 n. 9 5

13 13:1 15:51

Philemon 17

116,

168,

169

130,

123

Hebrews 146 120

193,

η

194

James 2 Corinthians 2:17 3:18 11:14

2:8 2:24

123 9 5 , 1 7 8 n.

108

30, 1 2 1

116

n.

31

1 5 η. 64

1 Peter

11:23-33 12:1-10

123 123

12:2-5 12:3 12:7

123 1 2 1 n.

117

2 Peter

121

116

1:16-18 2:4

3:19-20 4:9

n.

1 9 4 η.

222 1 8 0 η. 5

1 1 4 η. 90 222

Galatians 1:8 1:12 1:16, 3-4

29 122 2:20

Jude

1 2 2 n.

3:19

121 29, 120, n. 1 1 6

4:1-11

121

4:14

15, nn.

121

121 116-117,

121-123, 4:21-31 4:29 5:14

5-10 6

119

165,

193 125 124 1 9 4 n. 3 1

Philippians 2:25

122

1:15 2:18

53, 101 1 1 4 , 146,

1 Thessalonians 4:16

121

Revelation 1:13 1:13-14 1:14 1:16 1:20

n.

116

1 Timothy

171

4-22

146 74

5:11 6:9-11

74

6:11

68 74 74 74

8:10 10:1

29 30

14:16

29 74

15:6 16 19:17

1 8 0 n. 5

19:10

1 8 0 n. 5

19:9 22:8 22:8-9

1 8 0 n. 5

136

8:2 8:3-5

3:2

1:8

68

4:8 5:2

5:10

Titus

63 64 1 2 0 η. 1 1 3 30, 74 7 4 11. 1 0 0

7:1-2 7:8-10

Colossians

221 221

22:9

1 2 6 η.

132

146 30 33, 75 33 75 74

74-75

OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA Additions to the Book of Esthtr 15:13-15

Tobit 1 0 8 n.

77

3:17

19 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 , 1 9 1 n. 2 5

5-12

2 Esdras 111

1:40

n.

83

5:3-6 5:4

65 19 66

5:5

1 Maccabees 7:41

146,

157

5:10-12 5:21 6:5 7:8 9:1,

2 Maccabees 3:26f 7:14

102

11:6 15:22f

146 157

131

n.

149

3 Maccabees 157

6:18

4:10

157

7:19

132, 138 n. 1 7 2

16:15

132, 138 n. 1 7 2

Prayer of Azariah 1:26

62

Susanna 1:55,

59

19 19

5

11:2, 7 12

19 181

12:1-20 12:12-15

193 1 2 6 n.

12:15

19, 66, 80 187

12:15-16 12:16-22 12:19

4 Maccabees

146

66 72, 146 187

132

66, 76 n. 187

Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach 44-45 44:16

103 91

45:2 48:9-10

103 113

48:10

126

48:21 49:16

146, 87

157

Wisdom of Solomon 2:23

87

10:1

87

PSEUDEPIGRAPHAL LITERATURE Apocalypse of Abraham 1-8 " 9-31 9-32 10-18 10:3-4 11:1-3 13 13:6-4

Apocalypse of Sethel 9 0 n. 2 3 9 0 n. 2 3 9 0 n. 2 3

81 81 4 n. 5

2:10 " 3:3

146

48:19 49:4, 16

81 82 181

12:12

50-51 50:1 50:4

91 9 0 n. 2 3 91 9 0 n. 2 3

14:4-6 17

2 0 3 n. 1 7 2 0 3 n, 1 7 6 7 n. !86,

51:1 51:5-6

20:6-7

146 2 0 3 n. 1 7

51:6-15 52:4 54:3 56:12

Apocalypse of Moses 40:2 "

8 0 n. 1 2 0

58:3, 59:4 60:10

9 0 n. 2 3 9 0 n. 2 3 91

22

91 90 n. 2 3 90 n. 2 3 9 0 n. 2 3 9 0 n. 2 3 9 0 n. 2 3 9 0 n. 2 3

102

Apocalypse of Zfphaniah 6:11-14 31, 131 6:11-15 76 n. 102 Ascension of Isaiah 1-5 3:13-4:22 5:11 6-11 7:21 7:25 7:37 8-9 8:15 8:16-17 9:24-26 9:31 9:33-34 9:37-38, 39 11:35

136-137 137 137 136-137 33 137 n . 169 146 76 137 137 136 146 137 n . 169 137 n . 169 137 n. 169

2 Baruch 32:2-4 49:2 51:3-13 51:5 51:10 53 56 56:10-15

220 131 30 138 131 220 220 220

3 Baruch 11:6 13:3

56 56

1 Enoch 1-36 6 6-11 6:1-4 6:6-8 6:11 7-8 7:1-6 8:1 9-10 9-11 9:1 9:6 9:6-9 9:9 10:1-3 10:4-8

10, 86 , 200, 224 202 200-205 201 201, 202 n. 15 23 213 202 203, 203 n . 17 126 n . 132 211 80 n. 120 203 n. 17 203 216 n . 44 203 203 n . 17

10:5 10:9 10:11 12-13 12-16 12:1-2 12:3-5 12:4 13:1 14:14 17-36 20 20:1 20:2 23 36-71 39:4-5 40:9 46:1 46:3 54:5-6 54:6 61:10-12 69:2 69:11 71:8 71:11 71:14-17 72-108 83-90 90:21 91-105 104:2-6 104:4 106 106-107 106:1-6

203 204 204 204 214 92 91 n . 26 211 203 n . 17 33 146 213 201 100 n . 56 30 86, 93, 200 132 80 n. 120 64 n. 80 64 203 n . 17 80 n . 120 146 203 n . 17 86 80 n. 120 93 93 10, 200 86 80 86, 126 n . 132 30, 131 138 95, 208 86 93-94

2 Enoch 19:1 22:6 22:6-10 22:8 30:11 31:2 32:1-2 33:10 69-73 71:2 71:17-19

80 56 92 124 87 88 88 56 97 97 97

3 Enoch 1:12 4:3 16:1-5

146 92 76 n. 102

Ezekiel the Tragedian 68-82

104

4 Ezra 2:43f 3-14 4-5 4:1 10:28 13:2f

102 146 146 100 n. 56 100 n. 56 64

Greek Apocalypse of Ezra 1:4 56 4:24 56 History of the Rechabites passim 171-175 5:3 173 5:4 170 6:1 170 7:2-3 170 7:10-11 172-173 11:2 173 12:6 173 Joseph and Aseneth 4:16 6:6 14 14-17 14:4-10 14:7 14:9 15-16 15:9 15:11-12 15:14-16:2 18:11 16 26, 194 16:14 21:9 22:7-8 Jubilees passim 1:27-28 2 3:15 4:15 4:16 4:22 5:1 5:1-2

187 n. 23 79 63 78, 187-188 78 56 79 187-188 102 76 n. 102 187-188 79 188, 192 n.

5:1-19 4:21-23 4:28 6 10:17 15 16:1 18:7 30-31 30:18

214 93 207 67 η 91 η 67 η 40 40 67 η. 146

Ladder of Jacob 4:1-4

101

Life of Adam and Eve Vita 13:1-3 14:2, 3 16:1

89 89 89

Lives of the Prophets 16:1-3

111

Prayer of Joseph passim 1-9

99-101, 113 100

86 26 86 86

Pseudo-Philo, Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum 3:1-3 219 η. 48 4:2 182 11:12 72 15:5 72 35:6 185 42:8 186 59:4 72, 146 109 61:8-9 Sibylline Oracles 2:227-232

79 79 102, 206

Testament of Abraham pasxm

40-41, 213-15 40 67 n. 86 201 213 213 213 201 214, 214 n. 41

1:1 l:4ff. 1:7 3:5 4:2 4:6-10 4:10 5:1 5:2 6:4 6:10-13

216 π. 44

189- 191, 194 189 56 189 189 189 190 190 191 190 190 191

274 11:4, 9 12 13:2 13:4, 6

ANCIENT LITERATURE INDEX

88 88 88 191

Testament of Adam 3:2, 4

89 η. 18

Testament of Jacob 1:10

72

Testament of Job 48 48:1-2 49:1-3 50:1-3

170 π. 87 129 129 130

Testament of Moses passim 9-10

105-106 125-126

10:2 11:17

125 106

Testament of Solomon 22:20

21 n. 95

Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs T. Levi 3 3:8 8:1 T. Reuben 3:5 5 5:6 T. Zfbulrn 6:4

67 n. 86 146 80 220 168 n.79 219 179 n. 3

QUMRAN LITERATURE CD 2:18 5:18 12:21 13:22 16:3-4

201, 211 97 150 η. 19 150 η. 19 41

1QM passim 1 7:4-6 7:6 9:14-15 9:14-16 10:9-11 12:8 12:8-16 13:10 19:1-8

155-160 178 158 165 51 80 η. 120, 160 159 159, 165 157 97, 160 157

1QS passim 3:13 3:20 4:12 9:12 11:7-8 1Q6 passim

163-165 150 η. 19 97 146 150 η. 19 164

185 η. 20

lQSa passim 2:5-9

163-165 164

lQSb passim 1:1 3:22 4:24-26 5:20

163-165 150 η. 1! 150 η. 1! 146, 165 150 η. 1!

1QH passim

161-163

1Q20 passim

2: 20-21

43 n. 15, 207-210 94-95, 207-208 94-95

1Q23-24 passim

209

2:1-18

4Q156-157 passim 4Q180-181 4Q180 2 - 4 4Q180 7-10 4Q181 2:2

43 n. 15 40 212 212

4 0 1 9 6 - 1 9 9 , 200 passim 40197

65 187 n. 22

4O203 7:5-7 8:1-15

210 210

40252 1:2-3

207 n. 28

40255-264 pasàm 40-252 col 1:2-3

163 n. 63 207 n. 28

40267 2

211 146

40374 passim

120 106

2:6-8

40400-407 passim 4:400-405 40400, 2 4 0 4 0 1 , 14 1:8 4Q405 20, 2:6 40427 7 4Q47 l passim

155 160-161 161 160

4Q510-511 4Q511 4Q511 35 4Q511 35:1-5

150 n. 19 165-167 166

4Q521 2

131 n. 149

4Q530-531 passim 4Q531:1-7 4Q531 5

211

40270 1 20

4Q491-496 passim 4Q491 4Q491 1:12-14 4Q491 11:1

149-155 9 152-153 153 150 n. 18

209 211

210

4Q534 passim

95 n. 35

5Q.11 passim

163 n. 63

6Q8 passim

209

11Q.10 43 n. 15 passim

160 b

110,12

214 n. 41

11 Q.14 7-14

97

160 PHILO

On the Life of Abraham 92 107 110-118

115 167

17 42, 42 n. 7 183 42 183

On the Confusion of Tongues 27 ' 42 n. 8, 132 146 53, 98, 100-101

On the Contemplative Life 10-40 11-13 64-90 90 203

173 173-174 173 174 173

On Flight and Finding 5

104

On the Giants If.

216-219

1-18 6 9-11 16 19-57 58 58-61 Who is the Heir 252

216 216 216 217 216 217 216

99 n. 50

Allegorical Interpretation 1.161 99 n. 50 2:89 99 n. 50 3:15, 93 99 n. 50 On the Migration of Abraham 200-201 99 On the Life of Moses 1:58 1: 158 2:69

179 n. 2 105 181 n. 12

On the Change of Names 34 92 81 99 n. 50

Questions and Answers on Exodus 104 Questions and Answers on Genesis 92, 183 n. 17 1:92 2 2:56 3 4:8 On the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel 104 9 42

2:29, 40

1:85-86 217-218 183 n. 17 87 183 n. 17 104

8-10 105 99 n. 50

On Dreams 1:142 1:171

104 99 n. 50

On the Virtues 72-79

104-105

JOSEPHUS Antiquities of the Jews 33f 73 74, 76 86 196 196-197 200 1:325 1:331, 333 2:82 3:62 3:99 3:180

101 215 216 92 41-42 184 41-42, 41 n. 6, 184 50 n. 35 50 n. 35 50 n. 35 50 n. 35 181 n. 12 104 n. 66

3:400 5:213 5:213-214 5:277 5:279 5:282-284 10:272 18:16

41 n. 50 n. 185 50 n. 41 n. 186 50 n. 133

6 35, 58

Jewish War 2:119-121, 160-161 2:142 2:165 3:353, 5:381

167 148 133 50 n. 35

35, 59 6, 59 35

RABBINIC LITERATURE Mishnah Hagigah 2:1 Kelim 1:8

60 130

Megillah 2:1 4:10 Sanhedún 7:4-5

43 n. 16 60 117 η. 105

Tadaim 4:5 Tebam 3:9

44 n. 16

78:1 78:3

181

82:2

19 n. 83 91 n. 26 223 179 101 n. 58 45 n. 22 101 n. 58 101 n. 58

85 n. 2

Pirqe R. Eliezer 22:15

219 n. 50

18:1

44 n. 16 133 n. 154

25:1 26:5 43:7 68:12

Babylonian Talmud Shabat 115a Yoma 75 b Midrash Rabbah 8:3-6

SAMARITAN LITERATURE Memar Marqa 4:6

181 n. 12 TARGUMIM

Targum Neofiti Gen 5:24 Gen 6:2, 4 Gen 18-19 Gen 32 Targum Onqelos Gen 6:2, 4 Gen 18-19 Gen 18:8 Gen 19:3

91 n. 26 223 43-44, 184 54

223 43-44 184• 184

Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Gen 6:2, 4 223 Gen 18-19 43-44, 184 Gen 28 43 Targum of the Prophets Josh 5:13 Judg 6 Judg 13 Fragmentary Targumim passim

56 185 186

184 n. 19

GRAECO-ROMAN LITERATURE Apollodorus, The Library 2.4.8 " 21 n. 96

Iamblichus, De Mysteriis Aegtptus 1.1 21 n. 96

Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 1-56 21 n. 96 Theogony

Plato, Cratylus " 407e' Lams 4:717d Sophist 216B

21 n. 96

Ovid, Metamorpheses 8:611-724 628-632

21 n. 96 179 n. 2

Silus Italicus 7:176

21 n. 96

185 Homer, Odyssey 5:29 " 7:59 17:485 17:485-487 Llliad 2:786, 3:121

204

17 n. 70 204 21 n. 96 179 n. 2 17 n. 70

17 η. 70 17 n. 70

APOSTOLIC FATHERS 1 Clement 10:7 12:1 34:5

183 n. 18 183 n. 18 146 n. 5

Didache 11-13 11:3-4 12

180 n. 8 123 183 n. 18

Epistle of Barnabas 61:7

220

Shepherd of Hermas Visions 1.4.1 2:2:7

80 120, 138

3.1.6-8 3.2.5 3.4.1 3.10.1 6.2.1 Mandates 6.22.2 Similitudes 6.1.5 6.2.1 8.3.3 9.6.1 9:25:2

80 80 80 80 81

80 81 80 80 120, 138

Martyrdom of Polycarp 2:3 ~ 12:1

120, 122: 120

146

NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA (Including Nag Hammadi Codices) Acts of Paul and Thecla 3 121 n. 117

Hypostasis of the Archons 93:13-22 31

Acts of Peter 15-17

Melchizedek 9:1

115 n. 90

Acts of Peter and the Twelve 9 118 Gospel of Peter 35-37 Gospel of Thomas 13

97

On the Origin of the World 105 53 n. 49, 101 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1:654, 655 116 n. 98

70-71 Tripartite Tractate 64:28-65:1

47

116-117 PATRISTIC LITERATURE

Clement of Alexandria Stromata 5.14.111 Excerpta ex Theodoto 10, 6-11 Hippolytus Rejutatio 9.13.2-3

21 n. 96 73

206 n. 27

Tertullian De Oratione 26 Virg. Vel. 7:2

167 n. 75

Justin Martyr Dialogue with Trypho 58:3 ' 59:1

54 54 n. 51

193

120.5 125:5 De Patientin 14 Apology 2:5

137 n. 166 53, 101 137 η. 166 222

Origen Commentary on the Gospel of John passim 113

Eusebius Praeparatio Evangelica 9.21.1-19 Ecclesiastical History 3.3.2 6.12

52 70 70

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